,transcriber's note3 ,text enclosed by underscores is in italics 7italics74 99 99 99 99 99 ,frontispiece to ,vol4 ,,ii4 ,illustration ,,useful ,,knowledge3 ,,or ,a ,,familiar ,,account ,,of ,,the ,,various ,,productions ,,of ,nature1 ,,mineral1 ,,vegetable1 ,,and ,,animal1 ,,which ,,are ,,chiefly ,,employed ,,for ,,the ,,use ,,of ,,man4 ,illustrated with numerous ,figures1 and intended as a ,work both of ,instruction and ,reference4 ---- ,,by ,,the ,,rev4 ,,william ,,bingley1 ,,am4 ,,fls4 ,,late ,,of ,,peterhouse1 ,,cambridge1 ,,and ,,author ,,of ,,animal ,,biography4 ,illustration ,,in ,,three ,,volumes4 ,,vol4 ,,ii4 ,,vegetables4 ---- ,,fourth ,,edition4 ---- ,,london3 ,,printed ,,for ,,baldwin1 ,,cradock1 ,,and ,,joy2 ,,harvey ,,and ,,darton2 ,,and ,c4 ,,and ,j4 ,,rivington4 ---- #ahbe4 ,,explanation ,,of ,,the ,,plates ,,of ,,the ,,second ,,volume4 ---- ,,frontispiece3 ,,plate ,i4 ,fig4 #a4 ,olive4 #b4 ,ginger plant4 #c4 ,black pepper4 #d4 ,cardamom plant4 #e4 ,sugar cane4 #f4 ,saffron4 #g4 ,scammony plant4 #h4 ,jalap plant4 #i4 ,coffee-tree4 #aj4 ,peruvian bark tree4 #aa4 ,tobacco plant4 #ab4 ,annual capsicum4 ,,plate ,,ii4 #ac4 ,wheat4 #ad4 ,oats4 #ae4 ,barley4 #af4 ,rye4 #ag4 ,vernal grass4 #ah4 ,cotton grass4 #ai4 ,bull-rush4 #bj4 ,meadow fox-tail grass4 #ba4 ,cat's-tail grass4 #bb4 ,fiorin1 or ,orcheston long grass4 #bc4 ,canary grass4 #bd4 ,purple melic grass4 ,,plate ,,iii4 #be4 ,meadow soft grass4 #bf4 ,reed meadow grass4 #bg4 ,smooth-stalked meadow grass4 #bh4 ,annual meadow grass4 #bi4 ,crested dog's-tail grass4 #cj4 ,hard fescue grass4 #ca4 ,flote fescue grass4 #cb4 ,sheep's fescue grass4 #cc4 ,common reed4 #cd4 ,sea matweed4 #ce4 ,rye1 or ,ray grass4 #cf4 ,couch1 or ,squitch grass4 ,,plate ,,iv4 ,fig4 #cg4 ,flax4 #ch4 ,socotrine ,aloe4 #ci4 ,rice4 #dj4 ,cinnamon-tree4 #da4 ,camphor-tree4 #db4 ,cashew ,nut tree4 #dc4 ,logwood-tree4 #dd4 ,mahogany-tree4 #de4 ,all-spice1 or ,pimento-tree4 #df4 ,almond-tree4 #dg4 ,pomegranate4 #dh4 ,caper plant4 ,,plate ,v4 #di4 ,tea-tree4 #ej4 ,clove-tree4 #ea4 ,tamarind-tree4 #eb4 ,cotton plant4 #ec4 ,cowhage plant4 #ed4 ,chocolate-tree4 #ee4 ,orange-tree4 #ef4 ,lemon-tree4 #eg4 ,bread-fruit-tree4 #eh4 ,maize1 or ,indian corn4 #ei4 ,cucumber4 #fj4 ,indian rubber tree4 ,,plate ,,vi4 #fa4 ,common elm4 #fb4 ,broad-leaved elm4 #fc4 ,alder4 #fd4 ,beech-tree4 #fe4 ,sweet chesnut4 #ff4 ,horse chesnut4 #fg4 ,hazel4 #fh4 ,oak4 #fi4 ,walnut-tree4 #gj4 ,sycamore4 #ga4 ,plane-tree4 #gb4 ,mulberry-tree4 ,,plate ,,vii4 #gc4 ,hornbeam4 #gd4 ,white poplar4 #ge4 ,black poplar4 #gf4 ,flowering ash4 #gg4 ,lignum-vit tree4 #gh4 ,quassia-tree4 #gi4 ,ash-tree4 #hj4 ,nutmeg-tree4 #ha4 ,hop plant4 #hb4 ,hemp4 #hc4 ,fig-tree4 #hd4 ,morell4 ,pl4 #b4 ,illustration ,pl4 #c4 ,illustration ,pl4 #d4 ,illustration ,pl4 #e4 ,illustration ,pl4 #f4 ,illustration ,pl4 #g4 ,illustration ,,useful ,,knowledge4 ---- ,,vegetable ,,productions4 ---- ,,introduction4 #a4 ,,vegetables or ,,plants are natural bodies endowed with organization and life1 but destitute of voluntary motion and sense2 and ,,botany is that branch of natural science which treats of their structure and functions1 the systematical arrangement and denomination of their several kinds1 and their peculiar properties and uses4 #b4 ,the principal parts of plants are the root2 the herb or plant itself2 and the fructification1 or flower and fruit4 #c4 ,as it is the sole object of this introduction to describe1 in a concise manner1 the ,linnan arrangement of plants1 for the purpose of explaining the classification adopted in the present volume1 the parts of fructification only will be mentioned4 ,these are the calyx1 corolla1 stamens1 pistil1 seed-vessel1 seeds1 and receptacle4 #d4 ,the ,,calyx1 or flower cup1 is the green part which is situated immediately beneath the blossom4 ,in some plants this consists of one1 in others of several leaves2 and it is frequently tubular1 as in the polyanthus1 and cowslip4 #e4 ,the ,,corolla1 or blossom1 is that coloured part of every flower on which its beauty principally depends4 ,the leaves that compose it are denominated petals4 ,some flowers1 as the convolvolus and campanula1 have only a single petal2 and others1 as the rose and peony1 have several petals4 #f4 ,in the centre of the flower there are two kinds of organs on which the fructification and re-production of the species more particularly depend4 ,these are the stamens1 and the pistil4 ,the ,,stamens are slender1 thread-like1 substances1 which surround the pistil4 ,they each consist of a filament or thread1 and an anther or summit3 the latter contains1 when ripe1 a fine dust or powder called pollen4 ,this1 though1 to the naked eye1 it appears a fine powder1 is so curiously formed1 and is so various in different plants1 as to be an interesting object for the microscope4 ,each grain of it is1 commonly1 a membranous bag1 round or angular1 rough or smooth1 which remains entire till it meets with any moisture2 it then bursts and discharges a most subtile vapour4 #g4 ,the ,,pistil is a prominent part1 immediately in the centre of each flower1 which adheres to the fruit1 and is destined for the reception of the pollen4 ,some flowers have only one pistil2 others have two1 three1 four1 c4 and others more than can be easily counted4 #h4 ,at the foot of the pistil is situated the germen4 ,this1 when grown to maturity1 has the name of pericarp or ,,seed-,,vessel1 and is that part of the fructification which contains the seeds3 whether it be a capsule as in the poppy1 a nut as the filbert1 a drupe as the plum1 a berry as the gooseberry1 a pome as the apple1 a pod as in the pea1 or a cone as of the fir-tree4 #i4 ,that part of every vegetable1 which1 at a certain state of maturity1 is separated from it1 and contains the rudiments of a new plant1 is called the ,,seed4 #aj4 ,the ,,receptacle is the base which connects all the parts of fructification together1 and on which they are seated4 ,in some plants this is very conspicuous2 and in none more so than the artichoke1 of which it forms the eatable part1 called the bottom4 #aa4 ,the ,linnan system of classification of plants is founded upon a supposition that the stamens represent the male1 and the pistils the female parts of fructification4 ,the whole vegetable creation has been distributed1 by ,linnus1 into twenty-four classes4 ,these are divided into orders1 which are subdivided into genera or tribes2 and these genera are further divided into species or individuals4 #ab4 ,of the ,,classes the discriminating characters are taken from the number1 connexion1 length1 or situation of the stamens4 ,in each of the first twenty classes there are stamens and pistils in the same flower2 in the twenty-first class1 the stamens and pistils are in distinct flowers on the same plant2 in the twenty-second1 in distinct flowers on different plants2 in the twenty-third1 in the same flower and also in distinct flowers2 and in the twenty-fourth class they are not at all discernible4 ,thus3 ,the stamens considered according to their3 ,classes4 ,one #a4 ,monandria4 ,,classes4 ,two #b4 ,diandria4 ,three #c4 ,triandria4 ,four #d4 ,tetrandria4 ,five #e4 ,pentandria4 ,number ,number only ,six #f4 ,hexandria4 ,seven #g4 ,heptandria4 ,eight #h4 ,octandria4 ,nine #i4 ,enneandria4 ,ten #aj4 ,decandria4 ,about twelve #aa4 ,dodecandria4 and their ,insertion ,on the calyx3 more than nineteen #ab4 ,icosandria4 ,not on the calyx3 more than nineteen #ac4 ,polyandria4 ,proportion ,four3 two long andtwo unequal short #ad4 ,didynamia4 ,six3 four long andtwo short #ae4 ,tetradynamia4 ,connexion by ,filaments ,in one set #af4 ,monadelphia4 united ,in two sets #ag4 ,diadelphia4 ,in three or more sets #ah4 ,polyadelphia4 ,anthers united #ai4 ,syngenesia4 ,stamens upon the pistil #bj4 ,gynandria4 ,separation of ,on the same plant #ba4 ,monoecia4 ,pistils ,on two plants #bb4 ,dioecia4 ,with flowers of both sexes #bc4 ,polygamia4 ,not being discernible #bd4 ,cryptogamia4 #ac4 ,the characters of the ,,orders are most commonly taken from the number of the pistils2 but sometimes from circumstances relative to the stamens1 pistils1 or seed4 ,those of the first thirteen classes are taken from the number of pistils1 thus3 ,monogynia #a pistil4 ,digynia #b pistils4 ,trigynia #c pistils4 ,tetragynia #d pistils4 ,pentagynia #e pistils4 ,hexagynia #f pistils4 ,heptagynia #g pistils4 ,octagynia #h pistils4 ,enneagynia #i pistils4 ,decagynia #aj pistils4 ,dodecagynia about #ab pistils4 ,polygynia many pistils4 ,the orders of the fourteenth class1 ,didynamia1 are taken from the situation of the seeds2 and are ,gymnospermia naked seeds4 ,angiospermia seeds in a capsule4 ,the orders of the fifteenth class1 ,tetradynamia1 are formed from a difference in the shape of the seed-vessel3 ,siliculosa a broad pod4 ,siliquosa a long pod4 ,in the classes ,monadelphia1 ,diadelphia1 ,polyadelphia1 and ,gynandria1 the orders are taken from the number of stamens3 ,pentandria #e stamens4 ,hexandria1 c4 #f stamens1 c4 ,in the nineteenth class1 ,syngenesia1 the orders are taken from the structure of the flower3 ,polygamia qualis1--all the florets alike4 ,polygamia superflua1--the florets of the centre perfect or united2 those of the margin with pistils only1 but all producing perfect seeds4 ,polygamia frustranea1--the florets of the centre perfect or united2 those of the margin1 in general1 without either stamens or pistils4 ,polygamia necessaria1--the florets of the centre with stamens only2 those of the margin with pistils only4 ,the classes ,monoecia and ,dicoecia take their orders from the number and other peculiarities of the stamens3 ,monandria #a stamen4 ,diandria1 c4 #b stamens1 c4 ,polyandria #g stamens4 ,monadelphia stamens united into one set4 ,polyadelphia stamens united into several sets4 ,gynandria stamens upon the pistil4 ,in the class ,polygamia there are three orders3 ,monoecia4 ,dioecia4 ,trioecia4 ,the twenty-fourth class1 ,cryptogamia1 has five orders3 #a4 ,ferns4 #b4 ,mosses4 #c4 ,liverworts4 #d4 ,flags4 #e4 ,mushrooms4 ,the ,linnan system is professedly artificial4 ,its sole aim 7observes ,sir ,j4 ,e4 ,smith7 is to help any one to learn the name and history of an unknown plant in the most easy and certain manner4 ,this is done by first determining its class and order2 after which its genus is to be made out1 by comparing the parts of fructification with all the generic characters of that order2 and1 finally1 its species1 by examining all the specific definitions of the genus4 ---- ,,class ,i4--,,monandria4 ---- ,,monogynia4 #ad4 ,,ginger is the dried root of a somewhat reed-like plant 7,amomum zingiber1 ,pl4 #a4 ,fig4 #b47 which grows wild in several parts of ,asia2 and is much cultivated both in the ,east and ,west ,indies4 ,the flowers of the ginger plant issue from stalks distinct from those which support the leaves1 and form a kind of ear or spike1 of beautiful colours and very fragrant smell4 ,the cultivation of ginger is nearly similar to that of potatoes4 ,the land is first well cleansed from weeds3 it is then dug into trenches similar to those which our gardeners make for celery2 and the plants are set in these trenches in ,march or ,april4 ,they flower about ,september2 and1 in ,january or ,february1 when the stalks are withered1 the roots are in a proper state to be dug up4 ,these are prepared for use in two ways4 ,when intended for what is called white ginger they are picked1 scraped1 separately washed1 and afterwards dried with great care1 by exposure to the sun4 ,for black ginger they are picked1 cleansed1 immersed in boiling water1 and dried4 ,this process is much less laborious and expensive than the last1 consequently the price of the article is not so great4 ,by boiling1 the ginger loses a portion of its essential oil2 and its black colour is owing to this4 ,the uses of ginger1 both in medicine1 and as a spice1 are numerous and well known4 ,in the ,west ,indies this root is frequently eaten fresh in salads1 and with other food3 and the roots when dug up young1 namely1 at the end of three or four months after they have been planted1 are preserved in syrup1 and exported as a sweet-meat to nearly all parts of the world4 ,the ginger which is brought into this country from the ,east ,indies is much stronger than any we have from ,jamaica4 #ae4 ,,cardamoms are the seeds of an ,east ,indian plant#a 7,fig4 #d71 which has shining reed-like stalks and spear-shaped glossy leaves4 ,they are brought into ,europe in their pods1 which are small1 oblong1 triangular1 and each divided into three cells4 ,the roots are thick1 fleshy1 and knotted4 ,the stalks grow from seven to twelve feet high2 and the flowers are of irregular shape1 and1 in colour1 are green1 pink1 and white4 ,in those woody parts of ,india where cardamom plants spontaneously grow1 the inhabitants form plantations of them by a very simple process4 ,they clear1 from particular spots1 the greater number of the trees2 and1 towards the close of the fourth rainy season afterwards1 they look for the first crop of cardamoms 7raised from the scattered seeds which have lain dormant in the ground71 and they are seldom disappointed4 ,the cardamom harvest usually commences in ,october1 and lasts till ,december4 ,women or children pluck the fruit-stalks from the roots1 carry them into the houses1 and there spread them upon mats to dry4 ,the pods are then separated from the stalks by stripping them with the fingers3 they undergo some further processes of drying2 after which they are packed for exportation1 in large chests1 which are well pitched at the joints and seams1 to prevent them from being injured by moisture4 ,it is estimated that about #ae1jjj pounds weight of these seeds are annually vended at the ,east ,india ,company's sales4 ,cardamoms have a pleasant aromatic smell2 and1 when chewed1 impart to the mouth a warmth and pungency1 which1 to most persons1 are extremely grateful4 ,the ,indians use them1 in considerable quantity1 in their food2 and also mix them with betel 7#bb71 and chew them1 under a belief that they tend to facilitate digestion4 ,they are sometimes used with us in medicine1 but more frequently for the purpose of concealing the nauseous taste of other medicines4 #af4 ,,turmeric is a thick1 fleshy1 and solid ,east ,indian root1 which is usually seen in pieces from half an inch to two inches and upwards in length2 has a yellowish and rugged surface1 and is of a shining saffron brown colour within4 ,the flowers of the turmeric plant 7,curcuma longa7 are white1 and form an ear or spike1 which issues immediately from the root4 ,the leaves are spear-shaped1 and each eight or nine inches long4 ,this root1 which has an aromatic smell somewhat resembling that of ginger1 is much cultivated in the ,east ,indies1 where it is in common use as a seasoning for ragouts and other dishes4 ,it constitutes a principal ingredient in curry powder2 and1 under this form1 is used1 in great quantities1 both in ,india and ,europe4 ,some years ago it had considerable repute as a medicine for the removal of jaundice1 diseases of the liver1 and other complaints3 but the chief purpose for which it is now esteemed is its imparting a rich yellow dye to silks1 linen1 or woollen2 and for heightening and rendering brighter the red colours dyed with cochineal and vermilion4 ,it is in much request by glovers1 for dyeing yellow gloves4 ,some of the ,indian tribes use it in painting their bodies4 #ag4 ,,arrow ,,root1 in the state that we see it1 is a kind of starch1 manufactured from the root of a plant which is cultivated both in the ,east and ,west ,indies4 ,this plant 7,maranta arundinacea7 is about two feet high1 has broad1 pointed1 and somewhat hairy leaves2 small white flowers in clusters1 and a nearly globular fruit about the size of a currant4 ,the arrow-root plant has its name from the ,indians using its juice as a remedy for wounds inflicted by poisoned arrows4 ,they likewise consider it efficacious against the stings of those venomous insects with which the countries of nearly all hot climates abound4 ,the starch or powder of arrow-root is obtained by the following process4 ,the roots1 when a year old1 are dug up1 washed1 and beaten to a milky pulp1 in deep wooden mortars4 ,this pulp is afterwards well washed in clean water1 and the fibrous parts1 that are found amongst it1 are carefully separated and thrown away4 ,it is next passed through a sieve1 or coarse cloth1 and suffered to stand for some time to settle4 ,the water that remains is subsequently drawn off1 and the white mass at the bottom is again washed4 ,after this the water is entirely cleared away1 and the pulp1 when dried in the sun1 is an extremely pure kind of starch2 which requires only to be reduced to powder to attain the state in which we import it4 ,there is no ,european vegetable1 if we except the salep or orchis root 7#bai71 which yields so large a proportion of nutritive mucilage as this4 ,consequently1 as an article of diet for children1 and persons recovering from illness1 it has of late years been found extremely valuable4 ,care1 however1 should be taken to obtain it genuine1 as the high price for which it is sold is frequently the cause of its being adulterated4 ,it is even said that the article usually sold in ,london under the name of arrow-root1 consists chiefly of starch made from potatoes4 ---- ,,class ,,ii4--,,diandria4 ---- ,,monogynia4 #ah4 ,the ,,olive 7,olea ,europea7 is a low evergreen tree1 which1 in its general form and appearance1 somewhat resembles a willow4 ,it is cultivated in several parts of the continent1 and has spear-shaped leaves1 and clusters of small white flowers1 that arise at the junction of the leaves and branches 7,fig4 #a47 ,the fruit of this tree has the name of olives4 ,these are usually about the size of a damson plum1 and each contains a hard1 rough stone4 ,when first gathered they have an acrid1 bitter1 and unpleasant taste2 and it is not until they have been steeped1 for several days1 in a ley of wood ashes1 and then pickled in salt and water1 that they are in the state to be introduced at table after dinner1 in desserts4 ,lucca olives1 being smaller than any others1 have the weakest taste4 ,the larger ones are imported from ,spain1 and are the strongest2 but those most esteemed are the olives of ,provence1 which are of middle size4 ,if olives be eaten by persons of delicate habits1 especially after a solid or heavy dinner1 they are considered injurious1 on account of the great quantity of oil they contain4 ,it is to this fruit that we are indebted for the salad or olive oil1 which is so much in use throughout every part of ,europe4 ,the preparation of it is as follows3--,the olives1 when sufficiently ripe1 are carefully picked1 by hand1 off the trees1 and those that are bad are taken out and thrown aside4 ,after having been left a little while to wither1 they are first bruised1 and then more completely crushed1 by an upright millstone rolling upon an horizontal plane4 ,the paste thus formed is submitted to the operation of the press4 ,the finest oil flows first3 when no more is found to flow1 the pulp is moistened with boiling water1 and the mass is again pressed4 ,this done1 the remaining oil is drawn from the surface of the water1 but it contains some impurities from which it cannot1 without difficulty1 be cleared4 ,what remains of the pulp is squeezed into lumps or balls1 and dried for fuel4 ,if the olives be indiscriminately gathered and heaped together1 sound and unsound1 without selection1 the oil is always bad4 ,the wild trees yield a very small kind of fruit1 which furnishes1 though in less quantity1 a peculiarly excellent oil4 ,the olive tree has ever been considered the symbol of peace2 and the ancient poets have asserted that ,minerva well merited the honour of giving her name to the city of ,athens for having planted it in ,attica4 ,as a wood1 this tree is in considerable request by cabinet makers1 from its being beautifully veined1 and taking an excellent polish4 ,in some parts of ,spain1 ornamental boxes are made of the roots of the olive tree4 ,olive oil is employed in various branches of culinary and domestic economy4 ,when united with soda1 it is manufactured into soap4 ,it is likewise used in medicine2 is adopted as a softening ingredient in almost all kinds of ointments and plasters1 and is supposed to be efficacious as a remedy against the poison of the viper4 ,persons copiously anointed with oil are said to have escaped the infection of the plague and yellow fever4 ,,trigynia4 #ai4 ,,the ,,common ,,jasmine 7,jasminum officinale7 is a well known shrub1 with white1 salver-shaped flowers1 and opposite1 winged leaves1 the leaflets somewhat pointed2 and is a native of ,malabar and other parts of the ,east4 ,as an ornamental shrub1 jasmine has long been cultivated in ,europe4 ,it is chiefly trained against walls and trellis-work1 and is interesting1 not only from the elegance of its foliage1 but also from the number of beautiful white flowers with which it is adorned throughout the summer and autumn4 ,these exhale a sweet and penetrating odour1 particularly after rain1 and in the night4 ,the ,italians1 by a very simple operation1 prepare from the flowers of jasmine a grateful perfume4 ,they soak cotton-wool in some kind of scentless vegetable oil1 and then place1 in glass vessels1 alternate layers of this and of the flowers4 ,after having been left in this state some days1 the flowers are found to have given the whole of their fragrance to the oil in the cotton3 they are then separated1 and the oil is pressed out and removed into small glass bottles for use4 #bj4 ,,black ,,pepper is the dried berry of a climbing or trailing plant 7,piper nigrum1 ,fig4 #c7 which grows in the ,east ,indies1 and in most of the islands of the ,indian ,sea4 ,its stem has numerous joints1 and throws out roots at every joint4 ,the leaves1 which are somewhat egg-shaped1 and pointed1 are of a brownish colour1 and have each seven very strong nerves4 ,the flowers are small and white4 ,in the cultivation of pepper it is customary to mark out the grounds into regular squares of about six feet each1 which is the usual distance allowed for the plants4 ,and1 as these have not sufficient strength to support themselves in an upright growth1 they are generally placed near a thorny kind of shrub1 among the branches of which they creep like ivy4 ,when they have run to a considerable height1 the twigs1 on which the berries hang1 bend down1 and the fruit appears in long slender clusters1 of from twenty to fifty grains1 somewhat resembling1 but much more compact than1 bunches of currants4 ,the berries are green when young1 but change to a bright red colour when ripe4 ,as soon as they begin to redden1 they are in a fit state to be gathered4 ,when gathered1 they are spread upon mats in the sun1 where they are suffered to remain till they become dry1 black1 and shrivelled1 as we see them4 ,in this state they have the denomination of black pepper4 ,white pepper is nothing more than the best and soundest of the berries1 gathered when they are fully ripe1 and stripped of their external coat or skin4 ,to effect this they are steeped1 for about a week1 in salt water1 by the end of which time the skins burst4 ,they are then dried in the sun1 rubbed between the hands1 and winnowed4 ,thus cleared from their skins they are rendered smaller and more smooth than black pepper4 ,as the acridity of pepper lies principally in the skin1 this kind becomes1 of course1 much less pungent than the other2 but it has one recommendation1 that it can be made only of the best and soundest grains1 taken at their most perfect state of maturity4 ,pepper is an article of considerable traffic betwixt this country and the ,east ,indies4 ,that which is imported from ,malabar is considered better than any other4 ,the quantity of pepper vended at the ,east ,india ,company's sales has1 in some years1 exceeded six millions of pounds' weight1 of which seven or eight hundred thousand pounds have been retained for home consumption4 ,both black and white pepper are in daily use1 not only as a spice1 but also in cookery4 ,when coarsely ground1 pepper is eaten with peas1 cabbages1 cucumbers1 and other flatulent and cold vegetables2 and occasionally also with fish4 ,it is sometimes employed in medicine as a stimulant4 ,a singular imposition respecting pepper is occasionally practised in retail shops in ,london3 artificial pepper-corns1 both black and white1 are mixed and sold with real pepper4 ,the detection of this fraudulent mixture1 however1 is easy4 ,if a handful of the suspected pepper be thrown into water1 the artificial corns will fall to powder1 or be partially dissolved1 while the true pepper-corns will remain whole4 ,the fraudulent grains are said to be made of peas-meal4 #ba4 ,,long ,,pepper is the fruit of a slender climbing shrub 7,piper longum7 which grows in the ,east ,indies4 ,it is of cylindrical shape1 about an inch and half in length1 and a quarter of an inch in thickness2 and is formed by the union of a great number of small rounded grains4 ,the shrub that produces it has dark green and heart-shaped leaves1 each with seven strong nerves4 ,a considerable quantity of long pepper is annually imported in this country from ,bengal and other parts of the ,east1 for use1 both in domestic economy and in medicine4 ,the inhabitants of ,india drink water in which long pepper has been infused1 and esteem it a valuable remedy for some disorders of the stomach4 ,they also distil an ardent spirit from it2 and they pickle this fruit in vinegar1 for use at table4 ,the fruit that is collected for exportation is gathered before it is quite ripe4 #bb4 ,,betel is the leaf of a climbing ,east ,indian plant 7,piper betel7 which belongs to the same tribe as pepper2 and1 in shape and appearance1 is not much unlike that of ivy1 but is more tender1 and full of juice4 ,there is an almost incredible consumption of betel over the whole continent of ,india4 ,the inhabitants chew it almost incessantly1 and in such quantity that their lips become quite red1 and their teeth black1 a colour greatly preferred by them to the whiteness which ,europeans so much affect4 ,they carry it1 in little white boxes1 about their persons1 and present it to each other1 by way of compliment and civility1 in the same manner as the ,europeans do snuff4 ,this is done by women as well as by men3 and it would be considered an offence if those to whom it was offered should refuse to accept of1 and chew it4 ,the leaves are sometimes used alone1 but much more commonly covered with a kind of lime made of sea shells1 and wrapped round slices of the areca nut 7#bde74 ---- ,,class ,,iii4--,,triandria4 ---- ,,monogynia4 #bc4 ,,saffron is the orange-coloured pistil1 or centre part1 of a purple species of crocus 7,crocus sativus7 which flowers in the autumn1 and is chiefly distinguished by having the three extremities of the pistil so long as to hang out of the flower 7,fig4 #f47 ,in ,cambridgeshire there is a town called ,saffron ,walden1 that has its name from the quantity of saffron which is annually produced in its neighbourhood4 ,the roots of the saffron crocuses are planted at the distance of about five inches from each other1 and two inches deep in the ground4 ,as soon as the flowers appear1 they are gathered by hand every morning1 just before they open2 and1 as they continue to open in succession for several weeks1 the saffron harvest of course continues so long4 ,when the flowers are gathered1 they are spread on a table3 the upper part of the pistil only is picked out1 and the rest of the flower is thrown away4 ,as soon as a sufficient quantity of the pistils have been collected1 they are dried in a kind of portable kiln2 over this a hair cloth is stretched1 and upon it a few sheets of white paper4 ,the saffron is scattered upon these to the thickness of two or three inches1 and is then covered with several sheets of paper1 over which is laid a coarse blanket five or six times doubled1 or a canvas bag filled with straw4 ,as soon as the fire has heated the kiln1 a board1 on which a weight is put1 is placed upon the blanket to press the saffron into a cake4 ,by the end of the first hour1 a strong fire being employed1 the cake is formed4 ,this is then turned1 and1 for another hour1 is subjected to an equal degree of heat4 ,it is then turned a second time1 and a more gentle heat is employed1 till the cake becomes dry1 during which time it is turned every half hour4 ,a field of saffron will continue in perfection for three or four years1 yielding progressively1 during this period1 more numerous and larger flowers1 as well as an increase of the bulbous roots2 after which the offsets may be advantageously transplanted to other situations4 ,the saffron which is grown in ,england is considered superior to any that is imported from other countries4 ,the best saffron may be known by the breadth of the blades4 ,it ought not to be of too deep a red or orange colour1 and should be fresh and tough1 and have a strong but pleasant aromatic odour4 ,saffron should not be kept more than twelve months4 ,saffron was much used by the ancients as a perfume1 but1 in this respect1 their taste was very different from ours4 ,not only were the halls1 theatres1 and courts1 through which they wished to diffuse an agreeable smell1 strewed with this substance1 but it was used by them for a scent1 in vinous extracts4 ,from saffron1 with the addition of wax1 the ,greeks1 as well as the ,romans1 prepared scented salves4 ,in our own country it was formerly much used in medicine2 having been esteemed an excellent remedy in hysterical and other complaints4 ,when taken in small doses1 it tends to exhilarate the spirits2 but it ought to be used with great moderation4 ,it is sometimes used by bakers1 to colour and flavour different kinds of cakes and biscuits4 ,with water or spirits it gives out a beautiful yellow colour2 but this is not useful as a dye1 as1 on exposure to the air1 it soon fades2 and no means have hitherto been discovered by which it can be fixed and rendered permanent4 #bd4 ,,orris ,,root is the root of a white flowered kind of iris1 called ,florentine ,iris 7,iris ,florentina71 which is a native of ,italy1 and is distinguished by having two flowers on each stalk1 the petals bearded1 and the leaves sword-shaped4 ,in a dried state this root is well known on account of its grateful odour1 which somewhat approaches that of the violet4 ,it is consequently much used in the manufacture of hair-powder1 and other articles for which an agreeable scent is required4 ,it is sometimes employed in medicine as a pectoral or expectorant1 and sometimes in dropsies4 ,in a recent state the root is extremely acrid2 and1 when chewed1 it excites in the mouth a pungent taste1 which continues for several hours2 but this acrimony is almost wholly dissipated by drying4 ,orris-root is chiefly imported from ,leghorn4 #be4 ,the ,,yellow ,,water-,,flag1 or ,,common ,,iris 7,iris pseudacorus7 is a very conspicuous plant in most of our marshes4 ,it has sword-shaped leaves1 and1 about the middle of ,july1 bears large and beautiful yellow flowers4 ,the roots of this plant possess qualities which render them capable of being applied to many useful purposes4 ,their astringency is such that it is supposed they might be employed with great advantage in the tanning of leather4 ,in the island of ,jura1 one of the ,hebrides1 they are used for dyeing a black colour2 and the inhabitants of some parts of ,scotland adopt them instead of galls in the making of ink4 ,for this purpose they are cut into thin slices1 and boiled1 or infused in water1 till the liquid is deeply tinged with blue4 ,this is poured clear off1 and the blade of a knife1 or some other piece of iron1 is put into it1 and rubbed hard with a rough white pebble1 by which process1 after a little while1 the liquor becomes perfectly black4 ,a slice of the fresh root1 if held between the teeth1 will1 it is said1 almost instantly remove the sensibility1 and thus alleviate the pain1 of tooth-ache4 ,the leaves of this plant are considered poisonous to all cattle except sheep4 #bf4 ,the ,,papyrus is a sedge-like plant 7,cyperus papyrus71 which grows in watery places in ,egypt1 ,syria1 ,sicily1 and ,madagascar4 ,it has a three-sided stem1 many feet in height1 which is terminated by a bushy head1 consisting of a large and compound clustre of flowers4 ,from this plant the ancients made their paper2 and the process of manufacturing it is described by ,pliny1 the ,roman naturalist1 to have been very simple4 ,the inner rind of the stem was merely cut into strips1 and laid in parallel and transverse rows2 and these1 on being heavily pressed with weights1 adhered together4 ,the substance thus formed1 though of rude texture1 was capable of being written upon2 and there are many manuscripts still extant on paper of this description4 ,the ancients also sometimes employed the sword-shaped leaves of this plant for writing upon4 ,with the former a kind of ink was used2 but on the latter the letters were formed by a metallic1 pointed instrument1 called by the ,romans a stylus4 ,but the papyrus plant was not merely useful for writing upon4 ,the inhabitants of the countries where it is found manufacture it1 even to this day1 into sail-cloth1 mattresses1 ropes1 and sometimes even into wearing apparel4 ,when the stems are compactly woven together1 and plastered1 externally1 with a kind of resinous substance1 so as to prevent the admission of water1 they are made into boats4 ,these1 though they resemble great baskets in appearance1 are of considerable use to the inhabitants4 ,the ark of bulrushes daubed with slime and pitch1 in which the infant ,moses was placed1 is supposed1 by the best commentators1 to have been a boat made of this plant4 ,the floral thyrsus which was used to adorn the temples and statues of the gods1 was a representation of the tuft of the papyrus4 ,,digynia4 #bg4 ,,sugar is the concrete or crystallized juice of the sugar cane 7,saccharum officinarum1 ,fig4 #e71 a plant1 much cultivated both in the ,east and ,west ,indies1 which has a jointed stem eight or nine feet high1 long and flat leaves of greenish yellow colour1 and flowers in bunches4 ,the cultivation of the sugar-cane is pursued to great extent in the islands of the ,west ,indies1 where1 about three centuries ago1 it was first introduced from ,china1 or some other parts of the ,east1 and where it flourishes with great luxuriance1 particularly in moist and rich ground4 ,the season for planting it commences about the beginning of ,august4 ,this operation is performed by laying the canes in rows1 in trenches formed for the purpose4 ,roots issue from each joint2 and1 in the course of nine or ten months1 the stems which rise from these respective roots1 and constitute the sugar crop1 attain their perfect state4 ,the saccharine juice is contained in a spongy pith with which the interior of the plant is filled4 ,when cut down1 the leaves are thrown aside as of no use in the manufacture of sugar1 and the stems or canes are divided into pieces1 each about a yard in length4 ,these are tied together in bundles1 and conveyed to the sugar-mill2 where they are bruised betwixt three upright wooden rollers covered with iron4 ,the juice1 which flows from them1 is conducted1 by canals1 into a large vessel formed for receiving it4 ,the quantity of juice prepared by some of these mills is upwards of ten thousand gallons in a day4 ,the next operation is called clarifying4 ,for this purpose the juice is conducted1 along a wooden gutter lined with lead1 to a place called the boiling house1 where it is received into copper pans1 or caldrons1 each placed over a separate fire4 ,a certain proportion of powdered lime is now added to it1 for the purpose of taking up any acid which the juice may happen to contain4 ,the heat is then increased until the liquor is nearly in a boiling state4 ,by this process the greatest part of the impurities that were contained in the juice rise to the surface in a scum4 ,the purified liquor is then carefully drawn off1 either by a syphon or a cock1 leaving the scum at the bottom of the pan4 ,from these pans it is conveyed1 by another gutter1 or channel1 to the grand copper1 or evaporating boiler1 where the scum1 which rises to the surface1 is skimmed off as the liquor boils4 ,after undergoing a similar process in smaller boilers1 with a farther mixture of lime1 until it has attained a certain degree of thickness1 it is transferred into a large shallow wooden vessel1 where1 as it cools1 it granulates or runs into an imperfect crystallization1 by which it is in some degree separated from the molasses or treacle1 an impure part of the juice1 which is incapable of being crystallized1 and which1 in large casks1 is exported1 for various useful purposes1 to the different countries of ,europe4 ,from the cooler the sugar is removed to the curing-house4 ,this is a large1 airy building1 furnished with a capacious cistern1 for the reception of the molasses4 ,over the cistern is an open frame of strong joist-work2 upon which are placed several empty hogsheads1 each open at the head1 and having a few holes at the bottom1 closed by stalks of the plantain tree thrust through them4 ,the mass of saccharine matter is now put into these hogsheads2 the molasses are separated from the sugar1 by draining1 into the cistern1 through the spongy stalks of the plantain2 and the remainder1 thus entirely crystallized1 has the name of muscovado or raw sugar4 ,the article denominated clayed sugar undergoes a process somewhat different4 ,for the preparation of this1 the sugar1 when taken from the coolers1 is put into conical vessels of earthen-ware1 each having1 at its bottom1 a hole1 about half an inch in diameter1 which1 at the commencement of the process1 is stopped with a plug4 ,this plug1 after the sugar has become perfectly cool1 is removed1 and the molasses drain through the hole4 ,when these have ceased to run1 the surface of the sugar1 in the vessel1 is covered with fine clay1 to a certain thickness1 and water is poured upon the clay4 ,this1 oozing through it1 pervades the whole mass of sugar1 re-dissolves the molasses still remaining in it1 with some parts of the sugar itself1 carries these off through the hole at the bottom1 and renders the sugar1 that is left1 much purer than that which is made the other way4 ,the further refining of sugar1 or forming it into the white conical loaves which are so much used in this country1 is the business of the ,european sugar-bakers4 ,this is done by dissolving the raw sugar in water1 boiling the solution in lime water2 and then clarifying it with bullock's blood1 or the white of eggs1 and straining it through woollen bags4 ,after due evaporation it is suffered to cool to a certain degree4 ,it is then poured into conical moulds of unglazed earthen-ware1 the summits of which are perforated4 ,here it concretes into a hard white mass1 leaving that part of the syrup1 which will not crystallize1 to run off through the hole in the point of the cone4 ,the broad end of the cone is then covered with moist clay1 the water from which penetrates into the sugar1 and displaces and carries off the impurities which1 otherwise1 would be retained in and discolour it4 ,it is then carefully dried1 and receives the name of loaf1 or lump sugar4 ,sugar-candy is formed by boiling down a solution of sugar till it becomes thick2 and then removing it into a very hot room1 to crystallize upon sticks or strings1 placed across small tubs1 or other vessels4 ,it is denominated brown or white sugar-candy1 according to the quality of the sugar of which it is made4 ,barley sugar is sugar boiled in barley water1 but now more frequently in common water1 till it is brittle4 ,it is then rolled on a stone anointed with oil of sweet almonds1 and formed into twisted sticks4 ,to give it a colour1 a small quantity of saffron is sometimes mixed with it4 ,when sugar was first introduced into this country1 it was employed only as a medicine2 but it has now become an essential article both of luxury and use4 ,it is the basis of syrups2 and is used in cooking1 and in confections1 preserves1 sweetmeats1 and liqueurs of every description4 ,sugar is also sometimes employed in medicine4 ,the juice of the sugar-cane is so palatable1 and at the same time so nutritive1 that1 during the sugar harvest1 every creature which partakes freely of it1 whether man or animal1 appears to derive health and vigour from its use4 ,the meagre and sickly negroes exhibit1 at this season1 a surprising alteration2 they now become fat and healthy4 ,the labouring horses1 oxen1 and mules1 being allowed1 almost without restraint1 to eat of the refuse plants1 and of the scummings from the boiling-house1 improve now infinitely more than they do at any other season of the year4 ,rum is a spirituous liquor distilled from molasses1 scummings of the hot cane juice from the boiling house1 or raw cane liquor from canes expressed for that purpose1 lees 7or1 as it is called in ,jamaica1 dunder71 and water4 ,the dunder answers the purpose of yeast for the fermentation4 ,sugar-canes1 as large and juicy as those of the ,west ,indies1 are cultivated in several parts of ,spain1 but particularly in the country betwixt ,malaga and ,gibraltar4 ,they were originally introduced1 by the ,moors1 several centuries ago2 and the sugar made from them is of excellent quality4 ,there are sugar mills1 in more than twelve different places1 on the coast of ,grenada1 all of which are fully employed3 in one village there are four1 which cost at least #e1jjjl4 sterling each4 #bh4 ,,oats are the seeds or grain of an annual plant 7,avena sativa1 ,fig4 #ad71 too well known1 and too much cultivated throughout every part of ,europe1 to need any description4 ,the country from which they were originally imported is not known4 ,the principal use of oats in this country is for the feeding of horses4 ,in the northern parts of ,england1 and in ,scotland1 they are applied also to the nutriment of man4 ,when simply freed from their husks they are called groats or grits2 and1 in this state1 are much used in broths1 and other kinds of nutriment for sick and infirm persons4 ,more frequently1 however1 they are ground into oatmeal1 which is made into cakes1 biscuits1 c4 ,the husks1 infused in water1 and allowed to remain till the water becomes somewhat acid1 are boiled to a jelly called sowins4 ,a grateful and nutritive kind of jelly1 which has the name of flummery1 is also made of oatmeal1 boiled with water1 and flavoured with a little orange-flower water1 and sugar4 ,oats will thrive in almost any soil1 but they are chiefly productive on land that has been newly broken up4 ,they are usually sown in ,february or ,march1 and the harvest commences about ,august4 ,several kinds or varieties are cultivated in different parts of ,england1 such as white oats1 black oats1 brown or red oats1 ,tartarian or reed oats1 ,friezeland oats1 ,poland oats1 and some others1 but1 of these1 the first are considered the most valuable4 #bi4 ,,wheat is a well known kind of corn 7,triticum hybernum1 ,fig4 #ac7 which is cultivated in most of the civilized countries of the world1 and is supposed to have been originally introduced into ,europe1 from some part of ,asia4 ,no grain is so valuable to the inhabitants of nearly all climates as this2 and1 by a wonderful ordination of ,providence1 it is rendered capable of sustaining1 without injury1 almost the two extremes of heat and cold4 ,not only does it ripen in ,egypt and ,barbary1 but it ripens equally well in ,scotland1 ,denmark1 and ,sweden4 ,it constitutes the chief food of the ,british nation2 and its abundance or scarcity regulates1 in a great degree1 the welfare and prosperity of the inhabitants4 ,the whole annual consumption of grain1 in this island1 amounts to nearly #be1jjj1jjj quarters2 and in ,london alone1 to more than #a1afb1ajj quarters4 ,of this by far the greatest proportion is wheat4 ,for the cultivation of this important grain the best lands are rich clays and heavy loam2 and1 although light soils will produce wheat of excellent quality1 yet the crops on the other soils are by far the most abundant4 ,the best season for committing the seed to the ground is ,september1 and the earlier in the month the better4 ,some farmers consider it necessary to steep the seed in brine or other pickle before it is used1 to prevent it from being devoured by vermin1 and render the corn less liable to disease than it would be without this process4 ,in a good season the wheat harvest commences in ,august1 and is finished in the course of the ensuing month4 ,this species of corn is usually cut with instruments called reaping-hooks1 but in some parts it is mown with scythes4 ,the different kinds or varieties of wheat that are cultivated in this country are too numerous to be particularized4 ,wheat is liable to injury1 not only from the attack of insects1 but from several kinds of disease1 the principal of which are blight1 mildew1 and smut4 ,in the former the fibres and leaves of the plants are contracted and enfeebled1 and the grain is ultimately deprived of sufficient nourishment3 by mildew the straw and ear are affected3 and by smut the grains1 instead of containing their proper substance1 become filled with a black or dark brown powder4 ,wheat flour consists of four distinct principles1 gluten1 starch1 albumen1 and a sweet kind of mucilage4 ,and it is a remarkable circumstance1 that the gluten1 if not similar1 has a very near alliance to animal substances4 ,to enumerate the various ways in which preparations from wheat serve for nutriment would be unnecessary1 as they are known to every one4 ,starch is a substance frequently prepared from wheat1 and is obtained by the following process4 ,the wheat is put into tubs of water1 and exposed1 for some days1 to the heat of the sun1 in order to bring on a proper degree of fermentation1 the water being changed twice a day4 ,having now become sufficiently soft1 it is poured into large canvass bags1 which are worked or beaten1 on a board over an empty vessel1 to extract the farinaceous particles4 ,fresh water is put to it1 and after being considerably agitated1 it is allowed to subside4 ,as the sediment increases1 the water is gradually drained off1 and1 at length1 the starch is formed into small pieces1 and dried for use4 ,during the late war1 when the intercourse betwixt ,france and the ,west ,indian islands was entirely cut off1 several attempts were made in that country to obtain sugar from starch4 ,the process was a long and intricate one2 and the success with which it was attended was not such as to render it either practically or permanently useful4 ,bran is the husk of wheat1 separated in grinding4 ,infusions of bran are1 not unfrequently1 employed both externally and internally in medicine4 ,they are also sometimes used to cleanse the hands instead of soap4 ,and1 in times of scarcity1 bran has been advantageously employed in the making of household bread4 ,wheat straw1 when chopped or cut small1 forms a wholesome provender for horses and oxen1 especially when mixed with green food4 ,it is also used as litter for horses1 and is employed as thatch for cottages1 houses1 and barns4 ,when cut into certain lengths1 bleached by means of sulphur1 and split1 it is plaited1 and formed into hats and bonnets4 ,a nutritive substance called ,semolina is formed from wheat flour1 granulated by a particular process4 ,a patent was granted in the year #aghj to ,mr4 ,jacob ,levy1 for a method of making it4 ,previously to this1 semolina had been imported from ,poland1 under the name of ,cracow groats4 ,it constitutes a light and wholesome food for invalids1 being considered1 in this respect1 preferable to sago2 it may also be made into excellent puddings4 ,macaroni is a preparation from the finest wheat flour1 mixed with eggs1 or other glutinous substance4 ,it is chiefly imported from ,italy1 ,sicily1 and ,germany4 ,its name implies cut paste1 and it is eaten in various ways2 on the continent with milk1 and with us in soups and puddings1 or served up in a dish with grated cheese1 milk1 and other ingredients4 ,vermicelli is made by a mixture of flour1 cheese1 the yolks of eggs1 sugar and saffron4 ,this1 being reduced to a proper consistency1 is formed into long slender pieces or threads1 like worms1 by being forced1 with a piston1 through a number of little holes1 in the end of a pipe made for the purpose4 ,vermicelli was first brought from ,italy1 and it is chiefly used in soups and other culinary preparations4 #cj4 ,,barley is a well known kind of corn 7,hordeum distichon1 ,fig4 #ae47 which grows wild in the island of ,sicily1 and some other parts of the south of ,europe4 ,next to wheat1 this is1 in ,europe1 the most valuable of all the species of grain1 especially for growth on light and sharp soils4 ,the seed-time for barley usually commences about the end of ,march or the beginning of ,april1 and sometimes lasts until the first week in ,june2 and1 for the produce1 four quarters per acre are considered a fair average crop1 and eight quarters a very extraordinary one4 ,few instances of fecundity in corn are more remarkable than what has been related of two grains of ,,six-,,rowed ,,barley 7,hordeum hexastichon7 which were planted in a garden3 they produced #aac stalks1 nearly all of which yielded ears2 and these contained1 in the whole1 more than #b1ejj grains4 ,the principal use to which barley is applied in this country is for the making of malt1 from which beer and ale are brewed4 ,for this purpose it is first steeped in water for three or four days4 ,it is then taken out1 and suffered to lie1 until it begins to sprout or germinate4 ,as soon as the germination has approached a certain state its further progress is prevented by drying the barley in a kiln1 heated with coke1 charcoal1 or straw4 ,the grain has now become mellow and sweet2 and1 after having been crushed in a kind of mill contrived for the purpose1 its saccharine qualities are easily extracted by the boiling water1 in brewing4 ,the liquor that is thus produced has the name of wort2 and this1 after having undergone the process of fermentation1 and having received a bitter flavour by a mixture of hops1 becomes ale or beer4 ,hence has originated the general appellation of malt liquor4 ,what remains of the malt after brewing is called grains4 ,these1 in ,london1 are employed for the feeding of horses1 cows1 and swine4 ,besides the use of barley in brewing1 there is in some countries1 especially in ,scotland and ,germany1 a great consumption of this grain1 for broths1 soups1 and other food4 ,for this purpose it is freed from its husks and formed into round granules1 about the size of small shot1 and of a pearly whiteness1 which thence have the name of pearl-barley4 ,all except the heart or best part of the grain is thus taken away4 ,the barley1 in this state1 when boiled1 forms a nutritive food2 and a decoction of it1 properly flavoured with acid1 is said to be one of the best beverages that can be adopted in acute diseases4 ,the making of pearl barley is a ,german invention4 ,in ,scotland the lower classes make it by means of hand-mills2 and many persons are satisfied with merely ridding the grain of its husks by stamping it in mortars4 ,barley-meal is occasionally made into bread by the poor2 and it is likewise used for the fattening of poultry and swine4 ,from barley-straw a yellowish coloured paper has been manufactured2 the making of which was1 some years ago1 attempted in this country upon a large scale1 but without success4 #ca4 ,,rye 7,secale cereale1 ,fig4 #af47 is a kind of grain supposed to have been first introduced into the northern parts of ,europe from the island of ,crete4 ,as bread corn1 sometimes alone1 but more commonly mixed with wheat1 rye was formerly in great request1 particularly in the northern counties of ,england4 ,this mixture1 which is denominated blend-corn1 or maslin1 is at present partially used1 in certain districts1 not only from motives of economy1 but also because the rye is supposed to render the bread more moist and palatable than it would otherwise be4 ,in some part of the country1 rye is much used by ginger-bread bakers1 for the dark colour of its flour is not perceptible1 when mixed with treacle4 ,this species of grain is frequently used for the distillation of spirits4 ,it has been remarked1 in some districts of ,france1 that rye1 from bad seasons1 or from other causes1 has proved noxious and even poisonous4 ,the grains of the corn1 thus degenerated1 are black on the outside and tolerably white within2 and1 when dry1 are harder and closer than good grain4 ,bread that is made of rye which contains even a great quantity of this bad corn1 is not distinguishable by the taste1 from other rye bread2 and it seldom produces its ill effects till some time after it has been eaten1 it is then said to occasion gangrenes in the legs and other parts of the body1 and dangerous fevers4 ,the poorer people1 however1 are those chiefly who are subject to these diseases1 as many of them have little other substantial food to subsist upon than bread made of this species of corn4 ,in several parts of ,england rye is sown either by itself1 or mixed with tares to be cut whilst green1 for the feeding of sheep1 cows1 and horses4 ,rye straw is used by brick-makers1 and collar-manufacturers2 and is considered an excellent material for the thatching of cottages and barns4 #cb4 ,,grasses4--,by grasses we are to understand such plants as have a round1 jointed1 and hollow stem1 surrounded at each joint with a single leaf1 long1 narrow1 and pointed2 and the flowers of which are a kind of chaffy husk4 ,according to this definition1 wheat1 barley1 oats1 and rye1 properly belong to the grasses1 although they are known by the peculiar appellation of corn or grain4#b ,to the grasses it is that the face of nature is indebted for a great portion of its cheerful appearance1 and its beauty4 ,they constitute the general herbage of every country1 covering to an immense extent the whole surface of the ground4 ,they are very various in their kinds1 the ,british species alone being nearly a hundred and twenty in number4 ,to many species of animals their leaves afford an indispensable article of sustenance2 and their seed supply food to birds4 #cc4 ,,sweet-,,scented ,,vernal ,,grass 7,anthoxanthum odoratum1 ,fig4 #ag74c--,this species is usually considered 7though it perhaps ought not exclusively to be so7 as that to which the hay fields are indebted for their well-known and delightful fragrance4 ,when partially dried it is very odorous2 and1 if chewed1 in a recent state1 its stalks are highly aromatic1 tasting not unlike those of fresh lavender4 ,the root has an odour somewhat resembling that of musk4 ,a distilled water1 which serves as a vehicle for some perfumes1 is occasionally prepared from the leaves and flowers of the vernal grass4 ,the dried flowers are employed in some parts of the ,continent for imparting an agreeable flavour to snuff and tobacco4 ,the vernal grass is not very productive1 and by some farmers it is considered not palatable for cattle4 ,others1 however1 esteem it an useful addition in their meadows2 and1 from its being generally found in great abundance on such pastures as sheep are fond of1 and afford excellent mutton1 it is at least thought to be a good grass for them4 #cd4 ,,cotton ,,grass 7,eriophorum angustifolium1 ,fig4 #ah74--,the seeds of this grass are encompassed with long cottony or wool-like hairs2 and so abundant are the plants in many tracts of marshy land1 particularly in the northern parts of ,england1 that the ground appears almost as if covered with snow4 ,poor people sometimes stuff their pillows with the down of the cotton grass2 but there is a prevailing opinion that it is not wholesome to sleep on4 ,this down is probably too brittle to be manufactured by itself into thread1 yet1 in combination either with wool or cotton1 it may be spun into a strong and uniform yarn1 from which gloves1 stockings1 and cloth1 in small quantity1 have been made4 ,its brittleness has been much corrected by a simple chemical process4 ,wicks for candles have sometimes been made of it4 #ce4 ,,bull-,,rush 7,scirpus lacustris1 ,fig4 #ai74--,of the stems of this plant the rush bottoms of chairs are made4 ,being of soft and pliant texture1 totally destitute of roughness1 the bull-rush is also sometimes used for the stuffing of pack saddles1 making of mats1 and thatching of cottages4 #cf4 ,,meadow ,,fox-,,tail ,,grass 7,alopecurus pratensis1 ,fig4 #bj7 is a very common but valuable kind1 which grows freely in moist and fertile pastures and meadows4 ,it possesses1 in a superior degree to any other grass1 the three great requisites of quantity1 quality1 and early growth4 ,the best hay which is brought to ,london is said to be from meadows where this grass abounds2 and1 in many parts adjacent to the metropolis1 it is extremely abundant4 #cg4 ,,timothy ,,grass1 or ,,meadow ,,cats-,,tail 7,phleum pratense1 ,fig4 #ba71 is a grass much cultivated in several parts of ,north ,america1 and particularly in wet1 loamy grounds1 where1 though coarse and hard1 it is found extremely productive and useful4 ,such has been the celebrity of ,timothy grass1 that a gentleman 7,william ,strickland1 ,esq47 was requested by the ,board of ,agriculture to make inquiries concerning it2 and1 from his remarks1 it appears that this grass is the chief support of cattle wherever the meadows of it abound4 ,he saw extraordinary crops of ,timothy grass growing1 as thickly as it could stand upon the ground1 three or four feet high1 and1 in some instances1 as coarse as wheat straw4 ,it is cut before it arrives at maturity2 and horses are said to prefer the hay that is made of it to every other kind1 and to thrive peculiarly well upon it4 ,though a native and very common grass in our own country1 it is doubtful whether our climate be sufficiently warm to bring it to the same perfection in which it is found in ,america4 ,it has1 however1 been cultivated in ,england with considerable success2 and1 when used for green food1 for which it is particularly calculated1 it may be cut two or three times in one season2 but1 when intended for hay1 it should be cut at least a week before it flowers4 #ch4 ,,fiorin1 or ,,orcheston ,,long ,,grass 7,agrostis stolonifera1 ,fig4 #bb71 is known as a troublesome weed in moist meadows and pastures1 and also in cold and stiff arable land1 by name of ,black ,squitch or ,bent-grass4 ,it grows with such luxuriance1 lying upon the ground1 and taking root at the different joints1 that the stems are sometimes several feet in length2 and1 when cultivated as a crop1 it has been known to produce1 at two cuttings1 betwixt seven and eight tons per acre4 ,this grass was first brought into notice as a grass for hay1 by a small tract of meadow ground1 in which it was cultivated several years ago1 at a village called ,orcheston1 in ,wiltshire4 ,horses1 sheep1 and cattle are said to be extremely partial to it1 and to prefer the hay which is made from it to any other4 ,to be in perfection1 it requires a moist climate1 or a wet soil2 and it will grow on cold clays1 that are unfitted for other grasses4 ,in ,ireland it is called fiorin grass1 and1 under this appellation1 it was first introduced to the public notice in that country1 in the year #ahaj1 by the ,rev4 ,dr4 ,richardson1 of ,clonfecle1 in the county of ,antrim4 #ci4 ,the ,,meadow ,,soft ,,grass1 or ,,yorkshire ,,white ,,grass 7,holcus lanatus1 ,fig4 #be71 though it vegetates late in the season1 produces an abundant crop1 and flourishes well in any moist situation4 ,both its foliage and flowers are soft and woolly4 ,it is chiefly calculated for the feeding of sheep1 and has answered extremely well1 when close fed4 ,the hay that is made from it is said to be very injurious to horses1 and it is not much relished by cattle4 #dj4 ,,canary ,,grass 7,phalaris ,canariensis1 ,fig4 #bc74--,this grass grows wild in ,worcestershire1 and some other parts of ,england4 ,it is1 however1 often cultivated for the sake of its seeds1 which are extensively used as food for small birds4 #da4 ,,purple ,,melic ,,grass 7,melica crulea1 ,fig4 #bd7 is found in great luxuriance on the turf moors1 near ,glastonbury1 in ,somersetshire4 ,the people of that neighbourhood make of its stalks a neat kind of besoms1 which are used as a cheap and tolerably good substitute for hair brooms4 ,this grass occurs in the most barren1 sandy1 and boggy situations2 but1 more especially1 about pools upon mountainous heaths4 #db4 ,,reed ,,meadow ,,grass 7,poa aquatica1 ,fig4 #bf7 is one of the most useful of the ,british grasses1 particularly if grown in wet meadows1 or upon the banks of rivers or brooks4 ,in the fenny lands of ,cambridgeshire and ,lincolnshire it not only affords a rich pasturage for cattle in summer1 but forms also the chief part of their winter sustenance4 ,in situations favourable to its growth it sometimes attains the height of five or six feet1 ,when cut for hay1 it is first dried1 then bound up into sheaves1 and formed into ricks1 in which it undergoes a slight fermentation that much improves it4 ,cows and sheep are both partial to this grass4 ,as hay1 it is a valuable food for cattle1 and particularly for milch cows4 #dc4 ,,smooth-,,stalked ,,meadow ,,grass 7,poa pratensis1 ,fig4 #bg7 is a favourite grass for cattle2 and flourishes even on the driest soils1 growing wild in meadows1 on dry banks1 and even on walls4 ,in rich meadows of ,somersetshire it forms a considerable part of the herbage2 and1 in those that have been flooded during the winter1 it flourishes with such luxuriance as nearly to exclude every other grass4 ,notwithstanding this1 it possesses the valuable property of resisting excessive drought1 and is frequently green in high gravelly pastures1 after almost every other grass has been withered4 ,it flowers early1 and makes an extremely valuable hay4 #dd4 ,,annual ,,meadow ,,grass 7,poa annua1 ,fig4 #bh74--,no grass is more common than this1 and none makes a finer turf4 ,it occurs in almost every situation1 by the sides of roads1 on open and extensive commons2 and in many parts of ,england there are whole meadows of it1 without any mixture of other grasses4 ,in those districts of ,suffolk which produce the best butter1 the annual meadow grass is found in great abundance4 ,it is a remarkable circumstance respecting this grass1 that it does not suffer injury1 but that1 on the contrary1 it is improved by persons frequently walking over it4 ,mr4 ,stillingfleet states that1 on the hill near ,malvern1 in ,worcestershire1 a walk which had been made for the convenience of the water drinkers1 was1 in less than a year1 nearly covered with it1 though no plant of it could be found about any part of the hill4 ,this was attributed1 in a great measure1 to the constant treading upon it1 by persons passing to and from the well4 #de4 ,,crested ,,dog',s-,,tail ,,grass 7,cynosurus cristatus1 ,fig4 #bi7 is extremely common in meadows and pastures1 and constitutes a principal part of the turf1 on high gravelly or chalky soils1 in parks1 lawns1 and sheep walks3 and1 from the close and thick turf which it makes1 it affords good nourishment to cattle and deer4 ,parks that are famous for excellent venison contain a great proportion of this grass4 ,in the summer time its seeds afford sustenance to pigeons and small birds4 #df4 ,,sheep',s ,,fescue ,,grass 7,festuca ovina1 ,fig4 #cb7 has great celebrity as food for horses and cattle1 and1 in particular1 for sheep1 which are said to prefer it to all other grasses1 and to become fat upon it sooner than upon any other4 ,though of short growth1 its leaves are numerous and succulent4 ,the ,tartars are said generally to fix their habitations1 during the summer1 in places where there is the greatest plenty of this grass1 from its yielding an abundant supply of excellent food for their cattle4 ,and it has been remarked that the sepulchral monuments of the ancient ,tartars are chiefly observed in situations where ,sheep's ,fescue ,grass abounds2 this has been considered a test of the great value which that people set upon it4 #dg4 ,,hard ,,fescue ,,grass 7,festuca duruscula1 ,fig4 #cj7 is common in pastures1 meadows1 and waste grounds4 ,it springs early1 affords excellent food for all kinds of cattle2 and1 in good ground1 yields a plentiful crop4 #dh4 ,,flote ,,fescue ,,grass 7,festuca fluitans1 ,fig4 #ca74--,this plant1 which grows almost exclusively in wet ditches1 and in ponds1 is so favourite a food of horses and swine1 that they will sometimes even endanger their lives to obtain it4 ,a farmer1 who resided some years ago at ,ruscomb1 in ,berkshire1 assured ,mr4 ,stillingfleet that he had known a field of four acres 7which was nearly always covered with water7 afford sufficient nutriment to maintain five farm horses1 in good condition1 from ,april to the end of harvest1 without any other food2 and that it yielded even more than they could eat4 ,the ,cottenham and ,chedder cheeses are said1 in a great measure1 to derive their celebrity from the cows feeding on this grass4 ,its seeds are small1 and are remarkable for their sweet flavour and nutritious qualities4 ,they are annually collected in ,poland1 and are exported thence1 into ,germany1 and other parts of the continent1 under the name of manna seeds4 ,these are used in soups1 gruel1 and puddings1 even by persons of the first rank and consequence4 ,when ground into flour1 they are convertible into bread1 which is little inferior to that made of wheat4 ,the bran of these seeds is stated by ,linnus to be useful as a medicine for horses that are troubled with worms4 ,geese are fond of the seeds1 and well know where to find them4 ,it is remarkable that these seeds have hitherto been entirely neglected in ,england2 though without difficulty they might be obtained in sufficient quantity to prove beneficial4 #di4 ,the ,,common ,,reed 7,arundo phragmites1 ,fig4 #cc7 grows in ditches1 ponds1 and by the sides of rivers1 attaining the height of six or seven feet1 and flowering about the month of ,july4 ,reeds are frequently made into screens or fences for gardens1 and they are considered particularly eligible for sheltering tender plants from injury by cold1 or blighting winds4 ,they likewise make excellent weavers' combs2 and1 when nailed across a frame of wood-work1 are frequently employed as a foundation for plaster floors4 ,they are sometimes made into chair bottoms2 and into thatch for cottages and out-buildings4 ,from the flowers of the reed the country people of ,sweden extract a green dye1 which they occasionally use for woollen cloth2 and we are informed that1 from the dried roots1 a flour may be made1 which is capable of being converted into a wholesome and nutritive bread4 #ej4 ,,sea ,,matweed 7,arundo arenaria1 ,fig4 #cd7 is an useful and common plant on most of our sandy sea shores4 ,its cultivation has1 at various times1 been much encouraged1 and even acts of parliament have been passed for its preservation1 in consequence of its spreading roots giving stability to the loose1 blowing sand1 and thus raising a bulwark against the encroachments of the waves4 ,the ,dutch are said to have availed themselves of the advantage of these plants in securing and rendering firm several parts of their coasts1 which would otherwise have suffered much injury4 ,at ,newborough1 a town on the south coast of the island of ,anglesea1 the inhabitants manufacture this plant into mats and ropes2 and the ,danes employ the fibrous roots for making whisk brushes4 ,the common people of ,iceland collect the seeds of the sea matweed for making bread4 #ea4 ,,rye ,,grass1 or ,,ray ,,grass 7,lolium perenne1 ,fig4 #ce71 has1 of late years1 been cultivated in some countries1 to considerable extent1 as fodder for cattle4 ,its agricultural merits were first discovered in ,norfolk1 and1 thence1 the seeds have been distributed through the greater part of the kingdom2 those who purchase them little suspecting that the plant was a weed in their own fields4 ,in dry pastures1 and by road sides1 this kind of grass is extremely common4 ,when sown in high or sandy lands1 either alone or mixed with clover1 it yields an earlier crop than most other grasses2 and thus affords food at a season when it is sometimes difficult otherwise to be obtained4 ,the ray grass that grows wild is stated to be much superior to that which is obtained by cultivation2 and we are informed that1 if sown in a rich and fertile soil1 it will dwindle in a few years to a poor and insignificant grass4 #eb4 ,,couch1 or ,,squitch ,,grass 7,triticum repens1 ,fig #cf71 is1 in general1 considered a troublesome and pernicious weed4 ,the roots strike so deeply into the ground1 and extend so widely1 that the eradicating of them is frequently attended with difficulty4 ,as the plant lies upon the ground it strikes out fibres from every joint2 and so luxuriant is it sometimes seen1 that a single joint1 when transplanted1 has1 in the course of twelve months1 covered a square yard of land4 ,the roots of couch grass are collected in large quantities at ,naples1 and sold in the market as food for horses4 ,they have a sweetish taste1 somewhat resembling that of liquorice2 and1 in times of scarcity1 when dried and ground into meal1 they have been converted into bread4 ,a decoction of the roots is sometimes used in medicine4 ---- ,,class ,,iv4--,,tetrandria4 ---- ,,monogynia4 #ec4 ,,teasel 7,dipsacus fullonem7 is a plant1 with a somewhat egg-shaped head of flowers1 and hard reflected scales1 which is cultivated in several parts of ,england1 to be used in the carding of woollen cloth4 ,the ,fullers ,teasel is distinguished from other plants of the same tribe by having its leaves connected at the base1 the flower scales hooked1 and the general calyx reflected or bent back4 ,the seeds of this plant are usually sown in strong rich land1 about the commencement of spring4 ,the flowers appear in ,july1 and the blossoms begin to decay in the following month4 ,shortly after this the heads are cut off1 and exposed daily to the sun until they are perfectly dried4 ,in the clothing counties of ,england the fuller's teasel is an article of considerable importance4 ,the crooked scales accompanying the flowers are so hard and rough that the heads are employed for raising the nap of woollen cloths4 ,for this purpose they are either set into flat boards like cards1 or are fixed round the circumference of a large and broad wheel4 ,the former are used with the hand2 and the latter is turned round whilst the cloth is held against it4 #ed4 ,,madder 7,rubia tinctorum7 is a rough1 trailing plant1 that grows wild in several parts of the ,south of ,europe1 and is much cultivated in ,england and ,holland on account of its roots1 which are used by dyers and calico-printers4 ,the land best adapted for the cultivation of madder is a soft1 sandy loam4 ,when the roots have attained sufficient growth1 they are taken up1 carefully peeled1 and dried in an airy shed4 ,after this they are conveyed to a kiln1 where they undergo a kind of management somewhat similar to that adopted in the drying of hops 7#bfj74 ,the next process is to pulverize them1 which is done by pounding or grinding2 a secret that was long exclusively possessed by the ,dutch4 ,madder is extensively used in dyeing1 not only on account of its yielding a fine red colour1 but also as forming a first tint for several other shades4 ,the madder used for dyeing cottons in the ,east ,indies1 is1 in some respects1 different from that cultivated in ,europe4 ,and1 in the neighbourhood of ,smyrna1 and in the island of ,cyprus1 a kind of madder is grown which affords a peculiarly bright and beautiful colour4 ,this root is sometimes employed in medicine1 in obstructions of the bowels1 rickets1 and a few other complaints4 ,it tinges water a dull red colour1 and spirit of wine a deep bright red4 ,when eaten by animals1 it stains even their most solid bones4 ,cows are remarkably fond of the madder plant2 and when they freely eat of it their milk becomes red1 yet the cream which it affords makes a yellow butter1 #ee4 ,,sandal ,,wood1 or ,,yellow ,,saunders1 is a yellowish1 odoriferous wood1 which is imported from the ,east ,indies in logs or short pieces1 chiefly as a perfume1 or for the manufacture of ornamental articles4 ,the tree that produces it 7,santalum album7 grows principally on the coast of ,malabar1 and in the island of ,timor4 ,it has somewhat the appearance of a large myrtle1 with stiff branches1 and smooth1 shining1 spear-shaped leaves1 each about two inches long4 ,the flowers grow in clusters1 small and red1 and are succeeded by berries about the size of peas4 ,when the sandal wood trees are cut down they are stripped of their bark2 after which the wood is usually chopped into billets or small pieces1 and buried in a dry place for about two months4 ,during this time the ants eat the outer part of it1 without penetrating to the heart1 which is the sandal4 ,the billets are then taken up1 smoothed1 and sorted2 and the deeper the colour the higher is found the perfume4 ,in ,china this elegant wood1 when cut into large planks1 is sometimes made into coffins for the principal persons2 and such coffins are said to resist the effects of air and moisture for many years4 ,the ,chinese also reduce the wood to powder1 and1 with the addition of water1 convert it into a paste1 which they apply to their bodies1 their furniture1 and about their houses1 as a perfume4 ,the powder of sandal wood is likewise employed as an incense in their idolatrous temples4 ,hence it is that a considerable trade in this wood exists between the ,east ,indies and ,china4 ,besides the logs1 the chips and cuttings of the roots of sandal wood are an article of commerce4 ,from these chips1 and from the waste wood1 an odoriferous oil is sometimes prepared1 which is considered nearly equal in fragrance to oil of roses4 ,sandal wood is at present seldom used in medicine2 though1 from its powerful qualities1 it might probably be applied to many medicinal purposes with success4 ,it has a bitterish aromatic taste1 accompanied by a degree of pungency which is by no means unpleasant1 ,,tetragynia4 #ef4 ,,holly 7,ilex aquifolium7 is a small evergreen tree1 with shining1 irregular1 and spinous leaves1 and white flowers which grow in clusters round the branches1 and are succeeded by small red berries4 ,in those parts of the country where hollies are very abundant they afford a cheerfulness to the scenery in winter which is extremely pleasing4 ,it is on this account principally that they are planted in gardens and shrubberies4 ,the barbarous taste of our ancestors was such that they frequently clipped them into the shape of birds1 quadrupeds1 and other fantastic representations of nature4 ,as a fence1 holly is eminently serviceable4 ,when formed into hedges1 it admits of being cropped1 and retains its verdure and beauty1 without injury1 even through the severest winters4 ,its growth is slow1 and its duration longer than that of most other trees4 ,the wood1 which is hard and close-grained1 is much used in veneering1 and is frequently stained black1 to imitate ebony4 ,it is likewise advantageously used in making handles for knives1 cogs for mill-wheels1 and other articles4 ,the leaves in winter afford a grateful food to sheep and deer2 and the berries yield a subsistence1 during this inclement season1 to the feathered tribes4 ,in some places1 particularly in the island of ,corsica1 the inhabitants employ the seeds of holly for making a beverage somewhat similar1 but much inferior1 to coffee4 ,the bark of the holly is smooth1 and replete with a strong mucilaginous substance1 from which the article called bird-lime is made4 ,for this purpose it is boiled ten or twelve hours2 and1 when the green rind is separated1 it is covered up in a moist place1 to stand for a fortnight4 ,it is afterwards reduced to a tough paste1 and washed in a running stream until no impurities are left4 ,the next part of the process is to suffer it to ferment for four or five days2 after which it is mixed1 over the fire1 with a third part of nut-oil 7#bda71 or some other oily fluid1 and is thus rendered fit for use4 ,bird-lime has a remarkably adhesive quality1 particularly to feathers and other dry substances4 ,it is1 on this account1 employed for the smearing of twigs to ensnare birds4 ,in its elasticity and inflammable nature it has much resemblance to ,indian rubber2 and1 if any means could be adopted to harden it1 there is little doubt but it might be substituted for that article4 ,holly deserves to be much more extensively cultivated than it is4 ,some years ago a person who purchased a holly wood in ,yorkshire1 sold the bird-lime prepared from the bark to a ,dutch merchant1 for nearly the whole sum of his original purchase4 ,among the ancient ,romans it was customary to send branches of holly1 to their friends1 with new years' gifts1 as emblematical of good wishes4 ,we decorate our houses and churches with it at ,christmas1 to give1 as it has been observed1 an air of spring in the depth of winter4 ---- ,,class ,v4--,,pentandria4 ---- ,,monogynia4 #eg4 ,,alkanet is a dyeing drug1 the bark of a root which produces a rough plant 7,anchusa tinctoria71 with downy and spear-shaped leaves1 and clusters of small purple or reddish flowers1 the stamens of which are shorter than the corolla4 ,though this plant is sometimes cultivated in ,england1 by far the greater portion of the alkanet which we use is imported either from the ,levant1 or from the neighbourhood of ,montpelier in ,france4 ,alkanet imparts a fine deep red colour to all unctuous substances1 and to spirits of wine2 but it tinges water with a dull1 brownish hue4 ,its chief use is for the colouring of oils1 plasters1 lip-salve1 and other similar articles4 ,it is likewise employed in compositions for rubbing1 and giving colour to mahogany furniture4 ,wax tinged with alkanet1 and applied to the surface of warm marble1 stains it flesh colour1 and sinks deep into the stone4 #eh4 ,the ,,cowslip is a plant 7,primula veris7 which grows in most meadows and pastures1 and is too well known to require any description4 ,the flowers of the cowslip1 when picked and dried1 are sometimes used as a balsamic tea4 ,when boiled1 with a certain proportion of water and sugar1 and afterwards properly fermented1 they may be made into a peculiarly pleasant wine4 ,the roots have a fine odour2 and1 when immersed in ale or beer1 are said to add considerably to the strength of the liquor4 ,the leaves are sometimes eaten as a pot-herb1 and in salads2 and both the leaves and flowers are an excellent food for silk-worms4 #ei4 ,,buck-,,bean1 or ,,bog-,,bean 7,menyanthes trifoliata71 is a common plant in shallow ponds2 and is distinguishable by its leaves growing in threes1 and its pink and white flowers being shaggy on their inner surface4 ,there is no ,british plant the flowers of which are more beautiful than those of buck-bean2 and nothing but the difficulty of propagating it in dry ground could prevent its having a place in every garden4 ,the leaves are intensely bitter1 and are occasionally used in the ,highlands of ,scotland as a tea1 to strengthen the stomach4 ,the inhabitants of some parts of ,sweden employ them in place of hops1 to impart a bitter taste to ale2 two ounces of them being considered equal in strength to a pound of hops4 ,by some persons the leaves of buck-bean are smoked instead of tobacco2 and different preparations of this plant have been found efficacious as a remedy against agues1 and in scorbutic and scrofulous diseases1 rheumatisms1 and dropsy4 ,there is an opinion that sheep1 when compelled to eat of buck-bean1 are cured of the rot4 ,in ,lapland it is said that the pounded roots1 though very unpalatable1 are sometimes converted into bread4 #fj4 ,,scammony is a concrete or dried juice obtained from the roots of a climbing plant of the convolvulus tribe 7,convolvulus scammonia1 ,fig4 #g17 which is cultivated in ,asiatic ,turkey1 ,syria1 and ,persia4 ,this plant is known by having arrow-shaped leaves1 notched in a particular manner at the base1 and each flower-stalk bearing two or three large and somewhat purplish white flowers4 ,the roots of the scammony plant are thick1 black on the surface1 white within1 and full of an acrid milky juice1 which1 in a concrete state1 is frequently used in medicine4 ,to obtain it1 the earth1 at a certain season of the year1 is removed from the upper part of the roots whilst they are growing1 and the tops are cut obliquely4 ,the juice flows from the wound into a small vessel sunk into the earth1 at the lower end of the gash1 to receive it4 ,but1 as each root furnishes only a very small quantity1 the produce of several roots is usually mixed together for the greater convenience of being exposed to the sun and dried4 ,still1 however1 the quantity1 thus obtained1 is sometimes insufficient to supply the demand4 ,in this case an addition is made to it by the pressure of juice from the leaves and stalks4 ,the best scammony is imported from ,aleppo1 in light1 spongy1 friable pieces1 of shining blackish grey colour1 which have a faint1 unpleasant smell1 and a bitterish1 pungent taste4 ,it is sometimes adulterated with flour1 and sometimes even with sand or earth4 ,in its medical effects1 scammony1 when administered alone1 is an efficacious1 though violent purgative4 ,but if triturated or ground down with sugar1 almonds1 or gum-arabic1 its operation becomes sufficiently mild and safe4 #fa4 ,,jalap is a dark-coloured root1 which is usually imported1 in transverse slices1 from ,south ,america4 ,the plant that produces it 7,convolvulus jalapa1 ,fig4 #h7 belongs to the convolvulus tribe1 and has generally somewhat heart-shaped leaves1 and flowers that are reddish on the outside1 and dark purple or yellowish within4 ,the name of jalap is derived from ,xalapa1 a town in ,south ,america1 situated betwixt ,vera ,cruz and ,mexico1 where the plant1 of which it is the root1 was originally discovered1 and whence it has been imported1 in great quantities1 into ,europe4 ,the jalap plant is now cultivated in the botanical garden at ,charlestown1 and in several other parts of ,america4 ,when recent1 the root is large1 whitish1 and full of juice2 but1 when dried1 the best pieces are compact1 hard1 weighty1 and of dark colour1 with black circular marks4 ,both in smell and taste it is very nauseous4 ,it is frequently mixed with slices of bryony root2 but these are easily distinguished by their paler colour and porous texture4 ,the only mode in which this root is of use is as a medicine2 and it is administered in substance1 in a tincture1 and an extract4 ,it has been advantageously employed in several disorders2 but1 as it is very powerful in its effects1 great caution is necessary in the use of it1 particularly with children4 #fb4 ,,peruvian ,,bark is the produce of a tree which grows in ,south ,america1 and chiefly in ,peru1 whence its name has been derived4 ,this tree 7,cinchona officinalis71 in size and general appearance1 somewhat resembles our cherry-tree4 ,its leaves are in pairs1 oval1 pointed1 nerved1 and smooth on the upper side2 and the flowers hang in loose clusters1 are fringed at the edges1 and red in the inside 7,fig4 #aj47 ,formerly this valuable medicine had the name of ,jesuit's bark1 from its having been first introduced into ,europe by some persons of the religious order called ,jesuits1 that were settled in ,south ,america4 ,they had been instructed in the use of it by the inhabitants of ,peru1 to whom it had long been known2 and it continued1 for many years1 to be a lucrative article of commerce to them4 ,for its officinal name of cinchona it was indebted to the lady of a ,spanish ,viceroy1 the ,countess del ,cinchon1 who1 about #agj years ago1 derived great benefit from taking it4 ,the tree from which it is obtained grows spontaneously1 and in great abundance1 in several of the mountainous forests of ,quito and ,peru4 ,the proper time for cutting it is from ,september to ,november1 the only season during which there is any considerable intermission from rain4 ,the ,indians1 as soon as they have discovered a spot where the trees are in sufficient number1 build a few huts for themselves1 and one large hut for containing the bark1 to preserve it from wet4 ,they then go forth1 each furnished with a large knife1 and a bag which will hold about fifty pounds' weight of bark4 ,each tree occupies two men4 ,they first cut or slice down the bark as far from the ground as they can reach4 ,they then tie to the tree several sticks a little distance apart1 and each about half a yard in length1 to serve as a ladder by which they can ascend to the upper part1 always slicing off the bark as far as they can reach1 before they fix a new step4 ,in this manner one of the two mounts to the top1 whilst the man below collects what his companion cuts4 ,to relieve each other1 they ascend the different trees by turns2 and they are generally able to fill their bags once in the course of the day4 ,when they return to their huts1 they spread out the bark to dry1 and they are very careful to preserve it from wet1 which would greatly injure it4 ,there are three sorts of bark in use3 the pale1 the red1 and the yellow4 ,of these the two last have recently been discovered4 ,the red is now very scarce1 and is seldom brought into ,europe4 ,the pale bark is imported1 from the ,spanish ,main1 in large bundles1 closely packed in goat or other skins4 ,the yellow is in much larger pieces1 and flatter and thicker than those of the pale bark4 ,we are informed1 by some writers1 that the ,peruvians first learned the use of this bark from observing certain animals1 affected with intermittent fevers1 instinctively led to it4 ,others say that one of the inhabitants of ,peru1 having an ague1 was cured by drinking the water of a pool into which some trees of this kind had accidentally fallen4 ,on its first introduction into ,europe1 its use was opposed by many eminent physicians2 and1 for a long time afterwards1 it was believed to be a very dangerous remedy4 ,its character1 however1 in process of time1 became perfectly established1 and it is now considered one of the most valuable medicines we possess4 ,peruvian bark is used as a remedy in intermittent fevers or agues2 and1 by some persons1 is prescribed in other kinds of fevers1 in confluent small-pox1 in gangrenous sore throat1 and indeed in every species of gangrene4 ,it is given in powder1 as an extract1 a spirituous tincture1 and a decoction2 but the most efficacious form is that of powder4 ,in taste it is bitter and astringent1 leaving an impression upon the palate which continues for some time afterwards2 but its smell is rather agreeable than otherwise4 #fc4 ,,coffee is the seed of an evergreen shrub which is cultivated in hot climates1 and is chiefly imported from ,arabia and the ,east and ,west ,indies4 ,this shrub 7,coffea ,arabica1 ,fig4 #i7 is from fifteen to twenty feet in height4 ,the leaves are four or five inches long1 and two inches broad1 smooth1 green1 and glossy on the upper surface2 and the flowers1 which grow in bunches at the base of the leaves1 are white and sweet-scented4 ,the berries or fruit are of a somewhat oval shape1 about the size of a cherry1 and of dark red colour1 when ripe4 ,each of these contains two cells1 and each cell has a single seed1 which is the coffee as we see it before it undergoes the process of roasting4 ,coffee is an article of only late introduction4 ,to the ,greeks and ,romans it was wholly unknown4 ,its use appears to have originated in ,ethiopia2 and1 in #aeed1 it is stated to have been first introduced into ,constantinople1 whence it was gradually adopted in the western parts of ,europe4 ,in #afeb ,mr4 ,daniel ,edwards1 a ,turkey merchant1 brought with him to ,england a ,greek servant1 whose name was ,pasqua1 and who understood the methods of roasting coffee1 and making it into a beverage4 ,this man was the first who publicly sold coffee in this country2 and he kept a house for that purpose in ,george ,yard1 ,lombard ,street4 ,at ,paris1 coffee was nearly unknown until the arrival of the ,turkish ambassador1 ,solomon ,aga1 in #affi2 about three years after which the first coffee-house is said to have been established in that city4 ,the coffee shrub was originally planted in ,jamaica in #agcb4 ,great attention is paid to the culture of coffee in ,arabia4 ,the trees are raised from seed sown in nurseries1 and afterwards planted out1 in moist and shady situations1 on sloping grounds1 or at the foot of mountains4 ,care is taken to conduct little rills of water to the roots of the trees1 which at certain seasons require to be constantly surrounded with moisture4 ,as soon as the fruit is nearly ripe1 the water is turned off1 lest the fruit should be rendered too succulent4 ,in places much exposed to the south1 the trees are planted in rows1 and are shaded from the otherwise too intense heat of the sun1 by a branching kind of poplar tree4 ,when the fruit has attained its maturity1 cloths are placed under the trees1 and1 upon these1 the labourers shake it down4 ,they afterwards spread the berries on mats1 and expose them to the sun to dry4 ,the husk is then broken off by large and heavy rollers of wood or iron4 ,when the coffee has been thus cleared of its husk1 it is again dried in the sun1 and lastly winnowed with a large fan1 for the purpose of clearing it from the pieces of husks with which it is intermingled4 ,a pound of coffee is generally more than the produce of one tree2 but a tree in great vigour will produce three or four pounds4 ,the best coffee is imported from ,mocha1 a town on the eastern bank of the ,red ,sea4 ,this1 which in ,europe is called ,mocha and ,turkey coffee1 bears a higher price than any which our colonists are able to raise2 owing1 as it is supposed1 to the difference of climate and soil in which it is grown4 ,it is packed in large bales1 each containing a number of smaller bales2 and1 when good1 it appears fresh1 and of a greenish olive colour4 ,the coffee next in esteem to this is grown in ,java and the ,east ,indies1 and that of lowest price in the ,west ,indies4 ,when stowed in ships with rum1 pepper1 or other articles1 it is said that coffee contracts a rank and unpleasant flavour1 and this has been assigned as a reason of the inferiority of such as is imported from our own plantations4 ,the quantity of coffee annually supplied by ,arabia is supposed to be upwards of fourteen millions of pounds4 ,before the commencement of the ,french ,revolution the island of ,st4 ,domingo alone exported more than seventy millions of pounds per annum4 ,almost all the ,mahometans drink coffee at least twice a day1 very hot1 and without sugar4 ,the excellence of coffee depends1 in a great measure1 on the skill and attention that are exercised in the roasting of it4 ,if it be too little roasted1 it is devoid of flavour2 and if too much1 it becomes acrid1 and has a disagreeable burnt taste4 ,in ,england the operation of roasting is usually performed in a cylindrical tin box1 perforated with numerous holes1 and fixed upon a spit which runs lengthwise through the centre1 and is turned by a jack4 ,in a medical view1 coffee is said to be of use in assisting digestion1 promoting the natural secretions1 and preventing or removing a disposition to drowsiness4 ,it has been found highly beneficial in relieving some cases of severe head-ach4 ,the outer pulpy part of the berry1 and the inner membrane1 which immediately invests the seeds1 are used by the ,arabians1 and of these the former is much esteemed1 and constitutes what is called coffee la sultane4 #fd4 ,,stramonium1 or ,,thorn-,,apple 7,datura stramonium71 is an annual plant1 with thick round stalks1 somewhat triangular leaves1 jagged or toothed at the edges1 large white and funnel-shaped flowers1 and seed vessels large and beset with spines4 ,although originally a native of ,america1 stramonium is now a frequent weed on dunghills1 and in cultivated ground of our own country2 and1 when once introduced into a garden1 it is difficult to be eradicated4 ,its smell is exceedingly unpleasant1 and its qualities are so pernicious1 when taken internally1 as to occasion giddiness1 torpor1 and sometimes even death4 ,the seeds are particularly injurious4 ,notwithstanding this1 the inspissated or dried juice of the leaves has been considered a valuable remedy in epileptic and other convulsive disorders4 ,an ointment prepared from them affords relief in external inflammations2 and smoking the dried leaves has lately been recommended in asthmatic complaints4 ,the soporiferous and intoxicating qualities of stramonium are well known in eastern countries1 and have often occasioned the plant to be employed for very improper uses4 #fe4 ,,tobacco1 in the state that we see it1 is a narcotic drug formed from the dried leaves of an annual plant 7,nicotiana tabacum1 ,fig4 #aa7 that is principally cultivated in ,north ,america1 ,the stalk of the tobacco plant is erect1 strong1 round1 and hardy4 ,the leaves are large1 oblong1 pointed1 clammy1 and of pale green colour4 ,the flowers1 which terminate the stem and branches in loose clusters1 are of reddish colour1 and funnel shaped1 with a long hairy tube2 and the seed vessel is oval1 and divided into two cells1 that contain many rounded seeds4 ,the cultivation of tobacco is carried on to great extent in several parts of ,north ,america4 ,the seed1 mixed with ashes on account of its smallness1 is sown a little before the beginning of the rainy season2 and1 in order the better to cover it1 the beds are raked over or trampled upon4 ,in about a fortnight the young plants begin to appear1 and1 as soon as they have four leaves1 they are drawn up and transplanted in lines1 and about three feet asunder1 into the tobacco field4 ,here they are kept clear of weeds2 and1 as soon as they have eight or nine leaves each1 the tops are nipped off to make the leaves grow thicker and longer4 ,when the plants are full grown1 and the leaves are become somewhat brittle1 they are cut with a knife close to the ground4 ,they are suffered to lie upon the ground for a little while1 after which they are carried to the drying shed1 where they are hung by pairs upon lines or ropes4 ,when perfectly dry1 the leaves are stripped from the stalks1 and made into small bundles tied round with another leaf4 ,these bundles are laid in heaps1 and covered with blankets for about seven days to heat2 after which they are closely stowed in casks for exportation4 ,the name of tobacco was given to this article from its having been originally brought into ,europe from ,tobago1 or ,tabago1 an island in the ,bay of ,panama1 near the coast of ,america4 ,to the ,american ,indians the use of tobacco has been known for many centuries2 and the practice of smoking it is common to almost all the tribes4 ,tobacco forms a part of every entertainment2 and1 in the intervals of hunting1 sleeping1 and eating1 it occupies no small portion of their time4 ,in many of their religious ceremonies tobacco is used2 and instances have occurred in which they have taken it in such quantity that death has ensued4 ,the custom of smoking is understood to have been first introduced into ,england1 by ,sir ,walter ,raleigh1 during the reign of ,queen ,elizabeth1 and a ludicrous story has often been told respecting it3 that ,sir ,walter having directed a servant to bring him a jug of water1 the man1 at his return into the room1 found him smoking1 and1 alarmed at seeing his master apparently on fire1 threw the whole contents of the jug into his face to quench it4 ,so extensive has this nauseous practice now become1 especially in ,holland and ,germany1 that it constitutes a daily luxury with nearly all the peasantry of those countries1 as well as with the more indolent and wealthy classes of the inhabitants4 ,to many constitutions it is very injurious4 ,when first begun1 it occasions vomiting1 intoxication1 and other unpleasant effects4 ,these however1 by repetition1 are discontinued1 though its stupifying qualities are never entirely overcome4 ,another form under which tobacco is used1 is that of snuff4 ,the basis of snuff is tobacco powdered2 but many other matters are added1 to give it a peculiar smell1 or to impart pungency to it4 ,when first applied to the nose1 snuff excites sneezing1 but1 by repetition1 this entirely ceases4 ,the practice of taking snuff has1 in some instances1 been found injurious to the smell and the voice2 it has been attended with loss of memory1 and by symptoms of a weakened or debilitated state of the nervous system4 ,but there is no mode of using tobacco so disgusting1 to persons unaccustomed to it1 as chewing4 ,by the labouring classes1 and particularly by mariners1 this practice is chiefly followed1 from a notion1 though apparently a very erroneous one1 that it will prevent the return of hunger1 and1 in some degree1 supply a lack of food4 ,though all these are disgusting as practices1 there is no doubt1 but1 medicinally1 they may be attended with good effects4 ,by smoking and chewing1 tooth-ach has often been relieved2 and some persons consider the former a means of guarding against contagion4 ,the occasional and moderate use of snuff has1 in several cases1 been found beneficial1 particularly in head-achs1 and in diseases of the eyes and ears4 ,infusions of tobacco are sometimes administered in medicine1 but this drug is principally given in the form of a vinous or watery infusion4 ,tobacco is a powerful medicine1 and requires to be used with great caution4 ,the smoke of this herb1 when blown against noxious insects1 destroys them1 and is the means which gardeners adopt for ridding hot-houses and green-houses of such as infest their plants4 ,the tobacco plant is sufficiently hardy to sustain the rigour of an ,european climate1 and is cultivated in several parts of ,spain and ,portugal4 ,as however1 on importation1 it pays a heavy tax to government1 the culture of it in this country is restricted1 by the legislature1 to half a rod of ground in physic gardens2 and if this be exceeded the cultivator is liable to a penalty of ten pounds for every rod4 ,the different kinds of tobacco and snuff are attributable rather to the difference of climate and soil in which the plants have been grown1 and to the different modes of management and manufacture1 than to any essential distinction in the plants from which they are manufactured4 #ff4 ,,deadly ,,nightshade 7,atropa belladonna7 is an extremely poisonous plant1 which grows in hedges and waste grounds1 in several parts of ,england1 and has somewhat oval leaves of dull green colour1 purple bell-shaped flowers1 and shining black berries1 each about the size of a small cherry4 ,there is no ,british plant so injurious in its effects on the human frame as this2 and the alluring appearance and sweetish taste of the berries have1 in many instances1 particularly with children1 been succeeded by the most fatal consequences4 ,it is true that some persons have been known to eat three or four of them without injury2 but in others a single berry1 and even the half of one1 has occasioned death4 ,the leaves are more powerful than the berries4 ,the usual symptoms of this poison are a deep and deadly stupor1 giddiness1 delirium1 great thirst1 retching1 and convulsions4 ,a draught of vinegar1 and keeping the patient constantly in motion1 are said to be the best means of cure4 ,some writers have supposed it was the deadly nightshade which produced those strange and dreadful effects that are described by ,plutarch to have been experienced by the ,roman soldiers1 under the command of ,antony1 during their retreat from the ,parthians3--,their distress for provisions was so great that they were compelled to eat of plants unknown to them4 ,among others1 they found an herb of which many ate2 these1 shortly afterwards1 lost their memory and their senses1 and wholly employed themselves in turning over all the stones they could find2 then1 being seized with vomiting1 they fell down dead4 ,the leaves of the deadly nightshade have sometimes been used externally1 and with good effect1 in cases of cancer2 and in ulcers and tumours of different kinds4 ,they are likewise given1 internally1 in infusion2 but the sufferings of the patient1 however small the dose may be1 are so dreadful that few practitioners like to resort to them4 #fg4 ,,potatoe 7,solanum tuberosum7 is a well known edible root1 which was originally imported into this country from ,america4 ,no root with which we are acquainted is so valuable to mankind in temperate climates1 as the potatoe4 ,in some countries1 particularly in ,ireland1 it forms a most important article of food to the lower classes of inhabitants4 ,by the ,english peasantry the potatoe is by no means esteemed as it deserves4 ,in addition to its value for culinary uses1 it might1 in a very essential degree1 be made to serve as a substitute for bread4 ,if duly prepared1 and mixed with a nearly equal portion of wheat flour1 it may even be made into loaves4 ,a kind of cheese may be made1 by reducing potatoes to the consistence of paste1 adding an equal quantity of the curd from which cheese is made1 with a little salt and some other ingredients1 mixing the whole together1 and forming them in moulds4 ,the ,germans prepare a favourite dish by slicing boiled potatoes and pouring over them the same kind of sauce which is used for salads1 and mixing anchovies with them4 ,these roots afford an excellent food for horses and cattle2 and it is said that bullocks will fatten on them more speedily than on cabbages or turnips4 ,potatoes are likewise serviceable for the fattening of hogs2 but1 for a little while before these are killed1 it is requisite to use barley meal in addition1 as otherwise the fat of the bacon is liable to boil away in the cooking4 ,in the use of potatoes as food1 it is requisite to prepare them in some manner by heat1 as otherwise they are both unpalatable and poisonous4 ,a kind of brandy was formerly distilled from potatoes2 but this has been forbidden by the legislature4 ,starch may be made from potatoes1 by the simple process of scraping them in water1 and well washing the pulp3 the starch settles to the bottom of the vessel1 in a heavy and closely connected sediment4 ,this starch is of use for the same purposes as starch prepared from wheat3 it is also valuable as a size2 which1 unlike the size produced from animal substances1 does not easily putrefy1 and has no disagreeable smell4 ,bakers in ,germany1 by the addition of calcined oyster shells and burnt hartshorn1 convert the pulp of potatoes into yeast4 ,the stalks or haulm of potatoes are capable of being made into paper4 ,they are also of considerable utility as manure4 ,the apples1 or seed-vessels1 may be usefully employed as a pickle3 and1 if properly prepared1 they are said to be even more palatable than cucumbers4 ,there are numerous varieties of the potatoe4 ,of these the most remarkable are the different kinds of kidney potatoes1 the ,aylesbury white1 and ,altringham early white1 which are chiefly grown for the table2 the ox noble1 ,irish purple1 and red potatoes1 which are adapted for fodder4 ,this valuable root was originally imported from ,america1 about the beginning of the seventeenth century4 ,the inhabitants of ,ireland assert that it was first introduced into that country1 by the accidental wreck1 upon their coast1 of a vessel which was laden with potatoes and freighted for ,england4 ,the usual mode of planting potatoes is by cutting the roots into pieces1 reserving one eye or bud to each division1 and setting these in the earth4 ,they will succeed in any tolerable soil2 but they flourish most luxuriantly in light sandy loams4 ,the proper time for digging them up is during dry weather in autumn1 when the leaves and stems begin to decay4 ,when cultivated on a small scale1 they are usually dug with a three pronged fork2 but when raised in fields1 where this process would be too tedious1 they are turned up by a plough4 #fh4 ,,capsicums are ,south ,american and ,indian plants easily known by their hollow pods1 of shining red or yellow colour1 which contain many small1 flat1 and kidney-shaped seeds4 ,the principal species are1 ,heart or ,bell pepper 7,capsicum grossum71 ,guinea pepper 7,capsicum annuum1 ,fig4 #ab71 and ,bird pepper 7,capsicum baccatum74 ,all the species of capsicum possess the same general qualities4 ,in hot climates1 but particularly in the ,east and ,west ,indies1 and some parts of ,spanish ,america1 the fruit of these plants is much used for culinary purposes4 ,it is eaten in large quantities1 both with animal and vegetable food2 and is mixed1 in greater or less proportion1 with almost all kinds of sauces4 ,cayenne pepper is made from the fruit of different species of capsicum4 ,this fruit1 when ripe1 is gathered1 dried in the sun1 and then pounded2 and the powder is mixed with a certain portion of salt1 and kept1 for use1 in closely stopped bottles4 ,of late years ,cayenne pepper has been introduced into most of the countries of ,europe2 and it is now very generally used as a poignant ingredient in soups and highly seasoned dishes4 ,its taste is extremely acrid1 and it leaves a durable sensation of heat on the palate1 which is best removed by butter or oil4 ,when taken in small quantity1 cayenne pepper is a grateful stimulant2 and1 in medicine it is used1 both externally and internally1 to promote the action of the bodily organs when languid or torpid2 and it is said to be found efficacious in many gouty and paralytic cases4 #fi4 ,the ,,guinea ,,pepper1 or ,,annual ,,capsicum 7,fig4 #ab71 is a slender herbaceous plant1 with smooth leaves1 white flowers1 single flower stalks1 and smooth1 shining fruit of oblong shape1 and usually of red and yellow colour4 ,this plant is a native both of the ,east and ,west ,indies1 and is considered the most hardy of the whole tribe of capsicum4 ,in many parts of the ,south of ,europe1 its fruit is eaten green by the peasants at their breakfasts1 and is preferred by them to onions or garlic4 ,the fruit of all the species may be rendered useful in domestic economy1 either as a pickle1 or as cayenne pepper4 ,for the latter1 it may be dried before a fire1 and ground to powder in a common pepper-mill4 #gj4 ,the ,,buck-,,thorn 7,rhamnus catharticus7 is a spinous shrub1 which grows in thickets and hedges1 and has clusters of small green flowers1 globular black berries1 and somewhat oval leaves1 serrated at the edge4 ,about the month of ,september the berries of the buck-thorn begin to ripen2 and1 if these are bruised when perfectly ripe1 they yield a green tint4 ,they are made into the sap-green which is used by painters in water-colours1 by evaporating their juice to the consistence of a gum4 ,from the juice of the unripe berries1 mixed with alum1 a yellow dye is obtained1 which is employed by dyers1 and also for staining maps or paper4 ,if the fruit be gathered late in the autumn the juice is purple4 ,the syrup of buck-thorn berries is sometimes used in dropsies and other complaints1 though there are objections to it from its occasioning sickness and griping4 ,the berries have a faint disagreeable smell1 and a nauseous bitter taste4 ,it is not unusual to mix with1 or substitute for them1 the fruit of the berry-bearing alder1 and of the dog-berry tree4 ,the fraud is1 however1 easily detected on examination2 for the buck-thorn berries have each four seeds1 which the others have not4 ,the inner bark of the buck-thorn is said to yield a medicine preferable to that afforded by the berries1 but it is an extremely powerful one4 #ga4 ,,nux ,,vomica1 or ,,vomic ,,nut1 is a round1 flat seed1 about an inch in diameter1 of greyish brown colour1 and horny consistence1 the produce of a tree 7,strychnos nux vomica7 which grows in the ,east ,indies4 ,the tree is of large size1 and has somewhat oval leaves1 in pairs1 each marked with three or five strong ribs4 ,the young branches have swelled joints4 ,the flowers are in a kind of umbels at the extremity of the branches4 ,the fruit which produces the vomic nut is a species of berry1 about the size of a small apple1 and covered with a hard substance somewhat resembling that of the pomegranate 7#aed71 and of beautiful orange colour when ripe4 ,this fruit is filled with a pulp which contains the seeds4 ,there is so great a consumption of nux vomica1 that the quantity vended at the ,east ,india ,company's sales1 in #ahjh1 was about five tons' weight1 and its price about nineteen shillings per hundred weight1 exclusive of the duty4 ,it is imagined that public brewers sometimes use this drug in the adulteration of ale and porter1 for the purpose of rendering it more intoxicating than it otherwise would be4 ,it is employed for the destruction of vermin2 and is said to be quickly fatal to dogs1 foxes1 wolves1 and most other quadrupeds4 ,when pounded and mixed with oatmeal1 it is used for the killing of rats4 ,yet deleterious as this drug is1 it has lately been employed on the ,continent1 as a medicine of great efficacy1 in spasmodic affections of the bowels1 and some other complaints2 but its administration ought only to be attempted by medical men4 ,an extract of nux vomica has lately been imported from ,india2 but it is not generally known for what purpose4 #gb4 ,the ,,teak-,,tree 7,tectonia grandis7 is a valuable species of timber1 which grows in the forests of the ,east ,indies4 ,this tree attains the height of fifty feet and upwards4 ,its leaves are somewhat oval1 slightly scalloped1 rough on the upper side1 and clad with a white down beneath2 and its flowers are in bunches1 small1 white1 and fragrant4 ,for the building of ships1 teak-wood is esteemed superior to every kind of timber except oak4 ,it is said to be almost incorruptible in water2 and its bitterness preserves it from the attack of worms4 ,for all the purposes of carpentry1 teak is the most useful timber that is produced in ,asia4 ,it is easily wrought1 and is peculiarly strong and durable4 ,that which grows on the coast of ,malabar is considered the best2 but the greatest quantity is obtained from ,pegu4 ,the former is nearly all hill timber1 whereas the latter is the produce of a low and flat country4 ,in ,india much of the furniture is made of teak wood4 ,the attention of government has of late been called to the cultivation of this timber2 and great encouragement is now given to an extensive propagation of it4 ,in the present scarcity of oak timber in ,england1 the increase of teak in the ,east is become an object of importance to the prosperity of our navy4 ,its culture has also been recommended in our ,west ,indian islands1 the climate and soil of which are considered nearly similar to those of its native country4 #gc4 ,,mangos1 as they are imported into this country1 are the unripe fruit of an ,east ,indian tree 7,mangifera ,indica7 pickled in vinegar4 ,the mango tree grows to a great size1 and has spear-shaped leaves1 each eight or nine inches long1 and two inches wide4 ,the flowers spring1 in a loose kind of bunch1 from the extremity of the stems4 ,the fruit of this tree1 when ripe1 is as large as a goose's egg1 and is much esteemed in ,india1 on account of its invigorating odour2 which1 it is imagined1 will restore health to persons in a declining state4 ,beneath its rough shell there is a kernel1 similar to that of the almond1 which may be eaten either fresh or preserved4 ,from the expressed juice of this fruit the ,indians prepare a kind of wine4 ,when intended for pickling1 the fruit is gathered in an unripe state4 ,an imitation of mangos is made in our own country with a particular sort of melon4 ,a small square piece is cut from the side of the melon1 through which the seeds are taken out4 ,it is then filled with mustard seeds and shred garlic1 and afterwards pickled with vinegar and spices4 ,large cucumbers are sometimes prepared as mangos4 #gd4 ,,red ,,currants are the fruit of a well known shrub 7,ribes rubum71 which is cultivated1 in gardens2 and which also grows wild in woods or thickets of some of the northern parts of ,england4 ,its bunches are smooth and pendant2 and its flowers are flattish4 ,the utility of this fruit in domestic economy has long been established4 ,its juice1 if boiled with an equal weight of loaf sugar1 forms an agreeable substance1 called currant jelly1 which is much employed in sauces and for other culinary purposes2 and also in the cure of sore throats and colds4 ,the ,french frequently mix currant jelly with sugar and water1 as a beverage2 and1 by many persons1 this mixture is preferred to orgeat or lemonade4 ,the juice of currants is a valuable remedy in obstructions of the bowels2 and1 in febrile complaints1 it is useful on account of its readily quenching thirst1 and for its cooling effect on the stomach4 ,this juice1 fermented with a proper quantity of sugar1 becomes a palatable wine1 which is much improved by keeping2 and which1 with care1 may be kept for twenty years and upwards4 ,modes of making this1 as well as other ,british wines1 are to be found in all the domestic receipt books4 ,the inner bark1 boiled with water1 is a popular remedy in jaundice2 and1 by some medical men1 it has been administered in dropsical complaints4 ,white and flesh-coloured currants have1 in every respect1 the same qualities as the red species4 #ge4 ,,black ,,currants are the fruit of a garden shrub 7,ribes nigrum7 which is distinguished by having its bunches hairy and its flowers oblong4 ,the berries of the black currant shrub are larger than those of the red2 and1 in some parts of ,siberia1 are said to attain the size of a hazel nut4 ,they are occasionally made into wine1 jelly1 and rob or syrup4 ,the two latter are frequently employed in the cure of sore throats2 and1 from the great use of black currants in quinsies1 they have sometimes been denominated squinancy or quincy berries4 ,the leaves are fragrant1 and have been recommended for their medicinal virtues4 ,an infusion of them1 in the manner of tea1 is very grateful1 and1 by many persons1 is preferred to tea4 ,the tender leaves tinge common spirits so as to resemble brandy2 and an infusion of the young roots is useful in fevers of the eruptive kind4 ,black currant trees grow wild in wet hedges1 and near the banks of rivers1 in several parts of ,norfolk4 ,the dried currants of the shops do not belong to this family1 but are a small kind of grape 7#gi74 #gf4 ,,gooseberries are the fruit of a prickly shrub 7,ribes grossularia7 which grows wild in ,cheshire1 ,lancashire1 and several parts of ,yorkshire4 ,few of the garden fruits are more esteemed for the table than gooseberries4 ,for culinary purposes1 gooseberries are generally employed before they are ripe2 but this is founded on erroneous notions of their chemical properties1 since1 either for sauces or wine1 though they are more cool and refreshing1 they do not possess the delicate flavour and rich saccharine qualities which are inherent in the ripe fruit4 ,wine made of gooseberries has great resemblance to ,champaigne4 ,in the making of wine1 after the juice has been expressed1 it is customary to throw away the skins of the fruit4 ,these1 however1 may with advantage be employed in distillation1 as they afford an agreeable spirit somewhat resembling brandy4 ,when kept a few months1 this spirit is said to be little inferior1 either in strength or flavour1 to the best ,cogniac brandy4 ,vinegar may be made from gooseberries4 ,some of the kinds are bottled while green1 and kept for winter use2 and others are1 for the same purpose1 preserved with sugar4 ,gooseberries vary much in colour1 size1 and quality4 ,some are smooth1 and others hairy4 ,some are red1 others green1 and others yellow or amber coloured4 ,wild gooseberries are greatly inferior1 in size1 to those which are cultivated in gardens4 #gg4 ,,ipecacuanha 7,viola ipecacuanha7 is a medicinal root1 small1 wrinkled1 bent1 and contorted into a great variety of shapes2 which is imported from the ,west ,indies and ,south ,america1 and is given as an emetic4 ,there are three kinds of ipecacuanha3 ash-coloured or grey1 brown1 and white4 ,of these1 the ash-coloured is usually preferred for medicinal use1 from its being more efficacious than the white1 and less violent than the brown4 ,ipecacuanha was first brought into ,europe towards the middle of the seventeenth century2 but it was not admitted into general use until about the year #afhf1 when it was introduced into practice under the patronage of ,louis the ,fourteenth of ,france4 ,its taste is bitterish and somewhat acrid2 and it seems to cover the tongue with a kind of mucilage4 ,it is one of the mildest and safest emetics with which we are acquainted2 and is administered in powder1 as a wine1 and as a tincture4 ,it has this peculiar advantage1 that1 if it do not operate as an emetic1 it passes off without injury by the skin or bowels4 ,in very small doses it is efficacious in obstinate coughs1 and in several other complaints4 ,the roots of a kind of dogsbane 7,apocynum7 are not unfrequently substituted for those of ipecacuanha2 but1 in some instances1 this substitution has been attended with fatal consequences4 #gh4 ,,vines are a very important tribe of shrubs1 to the fruit of which we are indebted for all our foreign wines1 for raisins of every description1 and for the dried currants of the shops4 ,several species of vine are cultivated2 but by far the most important of the whole is the common vine 7,vitis vinifera of ,linnus74 ,the earliest introduction of the vine into the western parts of ,europe is stated to have been about the year #bhj1 under the sanction of ,probus1 the ,roman ,emperor1 who1 throughout his whole dominions1 was a zealous encourager of agricultural pursuits4 ,there can be no doubt that vines were anciently propagated in our own island for the purpose of wine1 and that there were vineyards of considerable extent in ,gloucestershire1 ,hampshire1 and some other counties2 but1 as vines are principally found to flourish in inland countries1 lying betwixt the thirtieth and fifty-first degrees of latitude1 it is evident that there can be no part of ,great ,britain sufficiently adapted to their successful cultivation4 ,any person who has seen a hop garden1 may easily form an idea of the appearance of a vineyard4 ,vines are usually propagated by slips1 cuttings1 or offsets from the roots4 ,these1 when they have obtained a sufficiency of roots1 are transplanted from the nursery-ground into the vineyard1 the soil of which ought to be light and rich4 ,they are placed1 in this ground1 in rows1 and at regular intervals1 leaving space sufficient for the vine-dressers and the reapers to pass betwixt them2 and as soon as the rooted plants are three years old1 they begin to bear fruit4 ,the season for pruning and dressing them is the early part of the year1 before the sap begins to rise2 and about the time when the flowers appear1 the plants are fastened to poles1 for the purposes of supporting them1 of preventing them from growing entangled with each other1 admitting a free circulation of air amongst them1 and affording greater convenience for gathering the fruit4 ,the vintage1 which is a season of mirth and delight to the whole country1 commences in the early part of autumn4 ,the villagers assemble in the respective vineyards under the direction of overseers4 ,the reaping of the grapes is1 in general1 performed in three distinct gatherings4 ,the first of these comprehends all the finest and ripest bunches1 carefully clearing away from them every grape that appears green or decayed3 the second is confined to the large and thick clusters which are not so ripe as the others2 and those which are nearly green1 withered1 or decayed1 are gathered last4 ,to obtain the juice from the grapes1 they are subjected to the operation of large presses of somewhat similar construction to the cyder presses of our own country 7the separate gatherings being still kept apart71 and the juice is received into vessels fixed for that purpose4 ,afterwards it undergoes the necessary fermentation to convert it into wine4 ,by the ancients the juice was obtained by treading the grapes4 ,this practice is alluded to in various parts of ,scripture1 but perhaps in none are the characteristics of the ancient vintage expressed more strongly than in the predictions of ,isaiah concerning ,moab3 ,and gladness is taken away1 and joy out of the plentiful field2 and in the vineyards there shall be no singing1 neither shall there be any shouting3 the treaders shall tread out no wine in their presses2 ,i have made their vintage-shouting to cease4 ,the treading of grapes is still practised in several parts of the world4 ,the ancients frequently kept their wine in skins1 or leathern bags1 well secured at the seams2 hence the passage in the gospels2 neither do men put new wine into old bottles2 else the bottles break1 and the wine runneth out1 and the bottles perish3 but they put new wine into new bottles1 and both are preserved4 ,the kinds of wine are extremely various4 ,the difference which exists betwixt them is not1 however1 so much owing to a distinction in the species of grapes1 as in the quality of the fruit1 produced by the varieties of soil1 cultivation1 and climate to which they are subject4 ,this difference likewise depends1 in some instances1 on the peculiar mode of fermentation1 and the state of the grapes from which the wine is produced4 7a7 ,,portuguese ,,wines4--,of all the kinds of wine that are consumed in ,england1 none are so much in request as red port4 ,this has its name from the city of ,oporto1 in the neighbourhood of which the vines that produce it are chiefly cultivated4 ,a great proportion1 however1 of the port that is consumed in ,england1 is said to be mixed with a ,spanish red wine of inferior quality1 or to be otherwise adulterated4 ,red port is brought over in casks called pipes1 which measure #ach gallons each1 and ought to fill fifty-two dozen bottles of legal measure4 ,the difference in colour betwixt red wines and white does not so much depend upon the quality of the grape1 as upon the mode in which the wines are prepared4 ,the juice of red grapes1 if carefully pressed1 and fermented separately from the skins1 forms a white wine4 ,if the skins be pressed so as to discharge the colouring matter they contain1 or1 if they be allowed to remain in the juice during the fermentation1 the wine assumes a red tinge4 ,white port1 and ,lisbon1 are two kinds of white wine which we receive from ,portugal4 ,of these1 the former was much in demand some years ago1 but it is now seldom called for2 the latter is still in use4 7b7 ,,french ,,wines4--,many excellent wines are produced in ,france4 ,that usually considered the best is ,burgundy1 a red wine of very delicate flavour1 which has its name from the province where it is made4 ,the wines of the neighbourhood of ,orleans1 however1 after having been matured by age1 are much like ,burgundy4 ,claret is the only ,french red wine for which there is any great demand in ,england4 ,it is thin and highly flavoured1 and is chiefly supplied from the neighbourhood of ,bourdeaux4 ,some of the red wines of ,champaigne are highly prized for their excellence and delicacy1 though they1 occasionally1 have a pungent and sourish taste4 ,hermitage is produced from vineyards1 at a place so called1 near the village of ,thein1 on the eastern bank of the ,rhone2 and ,cte ,rotie from vineyards on the opposite side of the river4 ,no ,french white wine has so much celebrity as ,champaigne4 ,this is of two kinds2 one of which1 called still or quiet ,champaigne1 has gone through the whole process of fermentation2 the other1 which has the name of sparkling ,champaigne1 has been bottled before the fermentation was complete3 this1 consequently1 proceeds slowly in the bottle1 and causes the wine1 on the drawing of the cork1 to sparkle in the glass4 ,vin de ,grave is produced in the vicinity of ,bourdeaux1 and the lower parts of ,gascoigne3 ,pontac is made in ,guienne2 and ,frontignac and ,muscadel are white wines1 the delicious productions of ,languedoc4 7c7 ,,spanish ,,wines4--,the country about ,xeres1 in ,andalusia1 is celebrated for a grape which produces an excellent wine called ,sherry4 ,there are several ,french and ,english houses at ,xeres and ,seville which trade1 to great extent1 in this wine4 ,it is very strong1 and full-bodied1 owing1 in a great degree1 to the quantity of brandy with which it is mixed4 ,in the province of ,valencia1 some of the proprietors have wines of different kinds1 sixty1 eighty1 and even a hundred years old1 the prices of which differ according to their age4 ,rota1 in ,seville1 produces a rich and sweet white wine2 and the country around ,malaga1 near ,gibraltar1 is celebrated for white wine which is known by that name2 and so assiduously is the cultivation of the vine there pursued1 that the export of the produce of the vineyards yields to the inhabitants an annual revenue of more than #bjj1jjjl4 sterling per annum4 ,we import from ,spain a harsh and inferior kind of red wine1 which1 duty free1 sells for only #ajl4 or #ael4 per pipe of #abf gallons2 but the territory of ,alicant produces a very rich and excellent kind of red wine4 ,the sweet red wine which we call ,tent is a ,spanish production2 chiefly imported from ,cadiz1 and in hogsheads of about sixty gallons each4 ,it is made from the juice of a particular kind of grapes1 which are not used for this purpose until some time after they have been perfectly ripe4 7d7 ,,italian ,,wines4--,notwithstanding the ancient celebrity of many of the wines of ,italy1 by far the greater part of what are now manufactured in that country are thin and bad4 ,certain vineyards on mount ,vesuvius1 however1 still have great celebrity for a luscious red wine called ,lachryma ,christi4 7e7 ,,german ,,wines4--,germany produces many excellent wines1 of which ,tokay1 ,hock1 ,rhenish1 and ,moselle1 are the most celebrated4 ,tokay has its name from a town in ,hungary1 near which it is chiefly made4 ,the quantity of this wine is so small that1 even on the spot where it is manufactured1 it is sold at a very high price4 ,it is made by mixing with the common grapes a portion of luscious1 half-dried1 and shrivelled grapes2 the latter being absolutely necessary to constitute the peculiar quality of the wine4 ,the two kinds of grapes are pressed separately1 and the juice is afterwards mixed1 fermented1 and strained through a cloth or sieve into the barrels in which it is to continue4 ,the best ,tokay does not long remain in the place where it is made1 a great portion of it being sent into the cellars of the nobility in other parts of ,hungary4 ,tokay is certainly a fine wine1 but is no way adequate to the price for which it is sold4 ,several years ago it could not be purchased1 even in ,hungary1 for much less than half a guinea of ,english money per bottle2 and yet there are few ,englishmen1 who1 except on account of its scarceness1 would prefer it to good ,claret or ,burgundy4 ,of all the ,german wines1 that which is in greatest demand in ,england is ,hock4 ,this has its name from the town of ,hochstadt in ,suabia1 celebrated for a great battle which was fought in its neighbourhood by the ,french and the allies in #agjd4 ,rhenish and ,moselle are produced chiefly on the banks of the rivers ,rhine and ,moselle1 and have a cool1 sharp taste1 and considerable strength4 ,anterior to the late wars in ,germany1 there were wines in the cellars of many of the noble and wealthy inhabitants of that country which were more than a hundred years old1 and of such body as to be uninjured even by so great an age4 7f7 ,,madeira and ,,teneriffe ,,wines4--,to the ,madeira and ,canary islands we are indebted for some excellent white wines4 ,of these ,madeira wine is considered by far the most valuable1 particularly after it has been ripened by conveyance into a hot climate4 ,the number of pipes of ,madeira annually made is about #cj1jjj4 ,the grapes1 when gathered1 are put into wooden vessels1 and the juice is extracted by persons treading upon them4 ,the ,canary ,islands gave name to a rich white wine1 which was formerly in great esteem under the name of ,canary sack1 and is now usually called ,malmsey ,madeira4 ,the genuine ,malmsey wine1 which is of sweet and luscious flavour1 and rich golden yellow colour1 is the produce of ,malvesia1 one of the ,greek islands1 and thence had originally its name1 the ,french merchants denominating it ,vin de ,malvesia3 but so little is now made that few persons can possess it4 ,teneriffe wine1 when two or three years old1 has much the flavour of ,madeira1 but1 after this age1 it becomes so sweet and mellow1 as somewhat to resemble ,malaga4 7g7 ,,cape ,,wines4--,there are produced1 at the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 two kinds of peculiarly rich1 sweet1 and delicate wine1 called red and white ,constantia4 ,the farm from which they have their name is situated about eight miles from ,cape ,town4 ,the grapes of this farm1 owing1 as it is supposed1 to some peculiarity in the soil1 are superior to any other in the whole country4 ,the vintage commences about ,march or ,april2 and great care is taken in the manufacture of the wine1 no fruit being used but such as is fully ripe and in the highest perfection4 ,the annual produce is considered to be about sixty pipes of the red1 and #ajj pipes of the white wine4 ,constantia is in perfection when about two years old2 but1 when kept six or seven years1 it sparkles in the glass somewhat like wine which has not undergone a perfect fermentation4 ,what is denominated ,cape ,madeira is a light kind of white wine1 the produce of the ,cape of ,good ,hope4 ,considerable quantities of this wine are now consumed in ,england1 in consequence of the lowness of its price4 ,this is owing to its paying to government only one-third part of the duty which is imposed on most other wines4 ,the juice of unripe grapes has a harsh1 sour1 and rough taste4 ,this1 under the name of verjuice1 was formerly much esteemed for culinary and other purposes4 ,the young twigs of the vine1 when dried1 cut into small pieces1 and moistened with water1 afford a wholesome food for cattle and horses4 ,the leaves and tendrils have an astringent taste1 which it is probable they would impart to ,british made wines1 and thus render them somewhat similar to foreign wines4 ,the wood of the vine1 reduced to charcoal1 is used by painters for drawing outlines2 and1 from the seeds or stones1 a kind of oil is sometimes made1 which can scarcely be distinguished from olive oil4 ,these stones1 when purified1 moderately roasted1 and ground to a coarse powder1 form a tolerable substitute for chocolate4 ,brandy is a spirituous liquor1 produced by the distillation of wine2 and prepared in most of the wine countries of ,europe4 ,the principal manufactories of this spirit are in ,france1 particularly in ,languedoc1 and ,anjou1 whence comes the well-known ,cognac brandy4 ,the distilleries of brandy in ,catalonia1 in ,spain1 are so extensive as to yield more than #ce1jjj pipes per annum4 ,when brandy first issues from the still1 it is colourless as water2 and the colour1 which is given to it by the merchants1 is produced partly by the oaken casks in which it is kept1 but chiefly by the addition of red saunders wood1 burnt sugar1 and other colouring matters4 ,these1 however1 do not in the least affect the quality of the spirit4 ,in addition to the preceding uses of the vine1 we have to add those of its fruit in a recent state1 called grapes1 as a delicious addition to our desserts2 and of this fruit1 in a dried state1 under the appellation of raisins and currants4 ,raisins are grapes which have been suffered to remain on the trees until they are perfectly ripe1 and have been dried4 ,they are occasionally dried in ovens4 ,sometimes the clusters1 being tied several together1 are dipped in a ley of the ashes of rosemary and vine branches1 with a certain portion of slaked lime1 and are then dried by exposure to the sun4 ,the best fruit of this description are the sun1 and jar raisins2 both of which are dried in the sun1 without any preparation4 ,these are imported from the southern countries of ,europe2 and also from the ,asiatic provinces of ,turkey4 ,they are principally used for desserts1 whilst ,malaga raisins1 and some other kinds1 are employed for culinary purposes and the making of wine4 #gi4 ,the ,,currants of commerce are a small kind of raisins1 or dried grapes1 which are produced in the ,grecian ,archipelago1 and particularly in the islands of ,zante and ,cephalonia4 ,the chief plantation of these grapes was anciently in the isthmus of ,corinth1 whence they obtained the name of ,corinths1 since corrupted to currants1 ,few1 however1 are now produced there1 the vineyards having been neglected in consequence of the jealousy of the ,turks not allowing large vessels to enter the gulf for their exportation4 ,these grapes have no stones1 are usually either of a red or black colour1 and when recently gathered1 are an extremely delicious fruit4 ,the harvest commences in the month of ,august1 and as soon as the grapes are plucked from the trees1 they are spread to dry1 upon a floor prepared for the purpose by stamping the earth quite hard4 ,this floor is formed with a gentle rising in the middle1 that the rain1 in case any should fall1 may run off1 and not injure the fruit4 ,when sufficiently dry1 the currants are cleaned1 and laid up in magazines1 being poured into them through a hole1 and stowed so closely that it is necessary to dig them out with an iron instrument4 ,they are packed for exportation in large casks1 and by persons who have their feet greased in order to tread them close4 ,the principal consumption of currants is in ,england2 but the inhabitants of the islands whence they are brought know little of the use we make of them4 ,they imagine that we employ them only in the dyeing of cloth1 and are entirely ignorant of our luxury of ,christmas pies1 and plum puddings4 ,a small but inferior kind of currants are grown in some parts of ,spain4 ,,digynia4 #hj4 ,,beet 7,beta vulgaris7 is a well known fleshy or succulent root1 which is cultivated in our kitchen gardens1 and grows wild in several countries of the south of ,europe4 ,there are two principal varieties of beet1 one of which is of deep red or purple colour1 and the other is white1 crossed with bands of red4 ,red beet is principally used at table boiled and cut in slices3 it is1 however1 sometimes pickled1 and sometimes stewed with onions2 but1 if eaten in great quantity1 it is said to be injurious to the stomach4 ,the roots may be taken out of the ground for use about the end of ,august1 but they do not attain their full size and perfection till the month of ,october4 ,when good they are large1 and of deep red colour2 and1 when boiled1 they are tender1 sweet1 and palatable4 ,it has lately been ascertained that beet roots may be substituted for malt1 if deprived of the greater part of their juice by pressure1 then dried1 and treated in the same manner as the grain intended for brewing4 ,the beer1 made from beet1 has been found perfectly wholesome and palatable1 and little inferior to that prepared from malt4 ,from white beet the ,french1 during the late war1 endeavoured to prepare sugar2 that article1 as a ,british colonial produce1 having been prohibited in ,france4 ,for this purpose1 the roots were boiled as soon as possible after they were taken from the earth4 ,when cold1 they were sliced1 and afterwards the juice was pressed out1 and evaporated to the consistence of syrup4 ,the sugar was obtained1 from this syrup1 by crystallization4 ,from #aaj pounds' weight of the roots1 #da pounds of juice were obtained1 which1 on further evaporation1 yielded somewhat more than #d pounds of brown sugar2 and these1 by a subsequent operation1 produced four pounds of well grained white powder sugar4 ,the residuum1 together with the syrup or molasses which remained1 produced after distillation1 #c quarts of rectified spirit1 somewhat similar to rum4 #ha4 ,,mangel ,,wurzel or ,,root ,,of ,,scarcity1 is a plant of the beet tribe 7a variety of ,beta cicla7 with large and red veined leaves2 those arising from the root being on footstalks1 and those of the stem being without stalks1 and the flowers growing in threes4 ,the farmers1 in some parts of ,germany1 cultivate this plant as food for cattle1 and they are said to prefer it1 for that use1 to potatoes1 turnips1 carrots1 and indeed to most other vegetables4 ,it was introduced to the public notice in ,england1 by the late ,dr4 ,lettsom2 and it has been strongly recommended1 not only for the feeding of cattle1 but also for the use of man4 ,both the leaves and root grow to very large size2 and the former1 which may be eaten as spinach1 continue in season long after that plant is withered4 ,the root is insipid and unpalatable2 but the stalks1 and the stronger middle part of the leaves1 may be stewed1 or eaten plain-boiled1 as asparagus4 #hb4 ,,barilla is the ,spanish name of a plant 7,salsola soda7 from the ashes of which is produced the salt called kali or soda4 ,soda is also procured from the ashes of ,,prickly ,,saltwort 7,salsola kali71 ,,shrubby ,,saltwort 7,salsola fructicosa71 and numerous plants of other tribes4 ,on the shores of the ,mediterranean1 where the preparation of soda is pursued to considerable extent1 the seeds of the plants from which it is obtained are regularly sown in places near the sea4 ,when at a sufficient state of maturity1 the plants are pulled up by the roots1 dried1 and afterwards tied in bundles to be burnt4 ,in some places1 this is done in ovens constructed for the purpose2 and in others1 in trenches dug near the sea4 ,the ashes1 whilst they are hot1 are continually stirred with long poles1 and the saline matter they contain forms1 when cold1 a solid mass1 almost as hard as stone4 ,this mass is afterwards broken into pieces of convenient size for exportation4 ,the best sort of ,spanish soda is in dark-coloured masses of bluish tinge1 very heavy1 sonorous1 dry to the touch1 and it externally abounds in small cavities4 ,its taste is sharp1 corrosive1 and strongly saline4 ,soda is chiefly employed in glass and soap manufactories4 ,see the uses of minerals1 ,vol4 i4 ,no4 #bjj4 #hc4 ,,elms are forest-trees well known in almost every part of ,england4 ,there are several species1 of which1 however1 only three1 the ,,common ,,elm 7,ulmus campestris1 ,fig4 #fa17 ,,wych ,,hazel1 or ,,broad-,,leaved ,,elm 7,ulmus montana1 ,fig4 #fb17 and ,,dutch ,,elm 7,ulmus suberosa71 grow in this country without cultivation4 ,they are easily distinguishable from most other forest-trees1 by their leaves being rough1 and doubly serrated at the edge4 ,of these trees the flowers of the first are four-cleft1 and have each four stamens1 and the fruit is oblong3 those of the second are five or six cleft1 and have each five or six stamens1 the fruit is roundish1 and the leaves are broad2 those of the third are four-cleft1 and have four stamens1 and the bark of the branches has a corky appearance4 ,the ,dutch elm is grown in most parts of ,england4 ,the common elm1 though plentiful in ,worcestershire1 ,middlesex1 and some other southern counties1 is said to be rare further north than ,grantham or ,stamford4 ,the wych hazel is common in woods and hedges throughout the whole of ,south ,britain4 ,the use of the elm as timber is chiefly confined to rough and inferior work4 ,implements of husbandry are almost wholly made of it2 and it is employed for waggons1 carts1 mill-wheels1 water-pipes1 low-priced chairs1 blocks for hat-makers1 and various other purposes2 and among the lower and middling classes1 almost exclusively1 for coffins4 ,the preference which it has obtained for the latter purpose1 is supposed to have originated in its peculiar durability in moist situations4 ,some of the northern writers state that1 from the inner bark of the elm1 if stripped off in the spring1 and boiled in water1 a very palatable kind of beer may be brewed2 and that this bark1 dried and ground to powder1 has1 in times of scarcity1 been mixed with meal to make bread4 ,it is occasionally administered as a decoction for obstinate cutaneous complaints2 and it has been proposed for use in rheumatism1 dropsy1 and other diseases4 ,the young leaves may be used for the feeding of silk-worms4 ,few trees are better adapted than the elm for planting in hedge rows1 along the sides of roads1 and along shady walks2 but in the latter case the numerous suckers which grow up from its roots give much trouble to keep the ground clear4 #hd4 ,,gentian is a bitter drug1 the dried root of a plant 7,gentiana lutea7 which grows wild amongst the ,alps1 and in other mountainous parts of the ,continent4 ,the flower-stem of the gentian is two or three feet high1 strong1 smooth1 and erect4 ,the leaves which grow upon its lower part are spear-shaped and ribbed1 and those on the upper part are concave1 smooth1 and egg-shaped4 ,the flowers1 which are large and yellow1 grow round the upper part of the stem on strong footstalks1 and are divided at the edge into five or more segments4 ,the calyx is a kind of sheath4 ,gentian is one of the principal bitters that are now used in medicine2 and is of considerable service in fevers1 and in such complaints as arise from weakness of the stomach4 ,it is externally of a brown colour1 and internally yellowish or bright red4 ,its taste is at first sweetish1 but immediately afterwards bitter and pungent4 ,as a simple bitter1 it is rendered more grateful to the stomach by the addition of some warm aromatic2 and1 for this purpose1 orange-peel is commonly employed4 ,an extract of gentian root1 boiled with water till it has nearly the consistence of honey1 is kept in the shops4 #he4 ,,garden ,,carrot 7,daucus carota7 is a plant too well known to need any description4 ,in few vegetable productions are the effects of cultivation more conspicuous than in the carrot4 ,the wild plants1 which are common in most parts of ,england1 have a root so small and woody1 that no one could suppose they had any alliance whatever to the large and succulent root of the garden carrot4 ,the various uses of the carrot in cookery are well known4 ,but1 although it contains much nutriment1 this root is difficult of digestion2 particularly if eaten raw1 or imperfectly boiled4 ,carrots are an excellent fodder for cattle and horses1 either alone or mixed with hay2 and1 if given to cows1 in winter or the early part of spring1 they are said to cause a great increase of milk4 ,if carrots be boiled with their wash1 hogs will thrive well upon them4 ,in some parts of ,england this vegetable has been cultivated as a winter food for deer2 and the leaves have sometimes been made into hay4 ,carrots contain a large proportion of saccharine matter1 and various but unsuccessful experiments have been made to extract sugar from them4 ,they have1 however1 been more advantageously employed in distillation4 ,ten pounds' weight of carrots will yield about half a pint of very strong1 ardent spirit3 and the carrots 7twenty tons in weight7 produced by an acre of ground1 have been known to produce #bdj gallons of spirit4 ,a syrup made of these roots1 and clarified with the white of eggs1 has been found useful for many purposes4 ,an infusion of the seeds and the expressed juice of the roots1 are said to afford relief in fits of the gravel4 ,a marmalade of carrots has been used with success in sea-scurvy1 and a poultice prepared from them is sometimes employed in cancerous ulcers4 ,crickets are so fond of these roots that they may easily be destroyed by making a paste of flour1 powdered arsenic1 and scraped carrots1 and placing this near their habitations4 #hf4 ,,rock ,,samphire 7,crithmum maritimum7 is an umbelliferous plant1 with fleshy1 spear-shaped leaflets1 and small but regular-shaped white flowers4 ,the cliffs of ,dover have long been celebrated for the production of this vegetable1 which has received an additional interest from the notice that ,shakspeare has taken of the gathering of it3 ,half-way down ,hangs one that gathers samphire2 dreadful trade6 ,it is also found on cliffs of other parts of the south of ,england1 as well as in ,italy1 ,france1 and ,spain2 and generally in inaccessible situations4 ,in some parts of ,england the leaves of samphire pickled in vinegar are in use for the table3 they are also used in salads1 and for other culinary purposes4 ,but their place is frequently supplied by a much more common plant1 which grows in salt marshes1 and has the name of marsh samphire 7,salicornia74 ,this1 however1 is a very inferior substitute1 and entirely destitute of the fine aromatic flavour of the former species4 #hg4 ,,asafoetida is a resinous gum1 procured from the root of a large umbelliferous plant 7,ferula asafoetida7 which grows in the mountains of some parts of ,persia4 ,the leaves of this plant are nearly two feet long1 doubly winged1 and have the leaflets alternate4 ,the flowers are small1 and the seeds oval1 flat1 and each marked with three longitudinal lines4 ,no one who has ever smelt the peculiarly powerful1 and garlic-like odour of asafoetida1 can well forget it4 ,if exposed to the air1 but particularly when heated1 it will pervade every apartment of a house4 ,notwithstanding this1 it constitutes a favourite seasoning1 for food1 with the inhabitants of many of the eastern countries of the world4 ,the ,banian ,indians1 who never eat animal food1 use it in almost all their dishes2 and1 before their meals1 they even rub their mouths with it1 to stimulate their appetite4 ,it is sometimes used by our own cooks1 but in very small quantity1 in place of garlic4 ,in many parts of ,arabia and ,persia1 asafoetida is much esteemed as a remedy for internal diseases1 and even as an external application to wounds2 and1 with us1 it is considered a powerful medicine in several disorders4 ,it has been applied with success1 in the cure of hooping-cough and worms2 and in flatulent colics1 it has1 in many cases1 afforded great relief4 ,it is imported in masses of various sizes and form1 and of yellow1 brown1 or bluish colour1 sometimes interspersed with roundish white pieces4 ,the plant from the root of which asafoetida is produced grows in the mountains which surround the small town of ,disgnun1 in ,persia2 and1 at the season when it is collected1 the whole place smells of it4 ,the upper part of the roots1 which are sometimes as thick as a man's leg1 rises somewhat above the surface of the ground4 ,the harvest commences when the leaves begin to decay2 and the whole gathering is performed by the inhabitants of the place1 in four different journeys to the mountains4 ,the demand for the article in foreign countries being first ascertained to be sufficient for the trouble of collecting1 the persons employed proceed to the mountains in companies of four or five each4 ,the juice is obtained by cutting the roots across1 at the same time sheltering them by the leaves 7which have been previously twisted off7 from the intense heat of the sun4 ,each party takes into its care about #bjjj plants4 ,after the first incision has been made1 the roots are suffered to remain untouched for about a month1 when they are again visited1 and the gum which has exuded is taken off4 ,this operation is repeated three times1 a few days betwixt each2 after which the plants are exhausted and left to die4 ,at the respective gatherings each party generally brings away about fifty pounds' weight of asafoetida4 ,it is stated that a single ship is exclusively devoted to transporting the bulk of this commodity to the ports in the ,persian ,gulf2 and that1 when smaller parcels are carried1 it is usual to tie them to the top of the mast4 ,in the year #aghd1 the asafoetida plant was introduced into the ,botanic garden at ,edinburgh1 from seeds which had been sent by ,dr4 ,guthrie of ,petersburgh to ,dr4 ,hope4 ,the ferula tribe consists of nine or ten known species of plants1 and it is supposed that asafoetida is yielded by several of them4 ,in some parts of the ,levant the sailors are said to use the stalks of a species of ferula to transport fire from one island to another4 ,this custom is of great antiquity1 and explains a passage of ,hesiod1 who1 speaking of the fire stolen from heaven by ,prometheus1 says that he carried it in a ferula4 ,the foundation of this fable is undoubtedly owing to what ,diodorus ,siculus informs us of ,prometheus1 that he was the inventor of the steel with which fire is struck from flint2 and in all probability that prince made use of the pith of the ferula instead of tinder1 to convey it from one place to another4 #hh4 ,,coriander is a small globular seed1 produced by an annual umbelliferous plant 7,coriandrum sativum71 with leaves in slender segments1 and small whitish flowers1 that grows wild in ,suffolk and ,essex1 and is cultivated in several parts of ,england4 ,in several farms in ,essex and ,kent the cultivation of coriander is pursued to considerable extent4 ,this is done solely for the seed1 which is used by distillers1 druggists1 and confectioners4 ,in some parts of the ,north of ,europe it is ground and mixed with dough1 to give an aromatic flavour to bread4 ,coriander is usually grown with teasel 7#ec7 and caraway 7#ia72 but1 as neither of the latter come to perfection until the second year after they have been sown1 the coriander is harvested without interfering with the other crops4 ,in this labour1 which usually commences about the beginning of ,july1 women and children are principally employed3 and1 to prevent the seeds of the largest and best plants from being shed and lost1 each stem is cut separately4 ,the stems are then carried into some convenient part of the field1 and threshed all together upon a sail cloth4 ,so luxuriantly1 and1 at the same time1 so abundantly does this plant grow in a wild state1 in some of the southern parts of ,europe1 as almost to choke the growth of wheat and other grain4 ,every part of it1 except the seed1 has a fetid and disagreeable smell4 ,the seeds1 when taken in large quantities1 have been considered injurious2 but ,dr4 ,withering states1 that he has known six drams of them taken without any remarkable effect4 #hi4 ,,parsnip is the root of an umbelliferous plant 7,pastinaca sativa71 with winged and serrated leaves1 and small yellow flowers1 which is cultivated in kitchen gardens1 and which also grows wild on the borders of ploughed fields in several parts of ,england4 ,the wild and cultivated parsnips differ much from each other1 but particularly in the roots of the latter being large and succulent1 and those of the former being slender and woody4 ,parsnips are propagated by seed sown in ,february or ,march1 and the roots are in perfection about ,october4 ,these1 besides their use as a vegetable for the table1 are of great value for the feeding of cattle1 horses1 sheep1 and hogs4 ,land in ,guernsey1 which lets for #gl4 an acre1 is sown with parsnips to feed cattle2 and the milk of the cows so fed is not only richer than it would otherwise be1 but yields butter of fine saffron colour and excellent taste4 ,if parsnips be washed clean1 and sliced among bran1 horses will eat them4 ,they will fatten sheep and oxen in a short time2 and for the feeding of hogs they are at least equal if not superior to carrots4 ,as food for mankind they are considered extremely nutritive2 and may1 with great advantage1 be kept on board ships that are destined for long voyages4 ,it is1 however1 said that they should not be dug up for use in the spring1 because1 at that season1 the nutritive juices rising upward to produce the seed1 they are then unwholesome4 ,parsnips abound in saccharine juice2 and various experiments have1 in vain1 been made with a view to extract sugar from them4 ,in several parts of ,ireland they are used instead of malt in brewing2 and1 when properly fermented1 they afford an agreeable beverage4 ,the seeds are considered by some practitioners as an efficacious remedy in intermittent fevers4 #ij4 ,,fennel 7,anethum foeniculum7 is a well known plant1 which is cultivated in gardens1 and grows wild in several parts of ,england4 ,the leaves of fennel1 both boiled and raw1 are used in sauce for several kinds of fish4 ,the tender buds are eaten in salads2 and1 in ,italy1 the stalks are sometimes blanched as winter salad4 ,a distilled water1 prepared from the seeds1 is occasionally administered as a medicine2 and there was formerly a notion that the roots were peculiarly valuable1 as a remedy in several diseases1 but they are now almost wholly disregarded4 #ia4 ,,caraway is a small well known seed1 produced by an umbelliferous plant 7,carum carui71 with smooth and double winged leaves1 narrow leaflets1 and small white1 or pale flesh-coloured flowers1 of which the petals are bent inward1 so as to become heart-shaped4 ,the seeds of caraway have a pleasant spicy smell1 and a warm aromatic taste4 ,they are much used by pastry-cooks and confectioners in cakes1 and for other purposes4 ,incrusted with sugar1 they are called caraway comfits4 ,they are also distilled with spirituous liquors1 to improve their flavour2 and are recommended as a medicine in several disorders4 ,an essential oil and a spirit are also prepared from them4 ,in the spring of the year the leaves are sometimes used in soups1 or boiled with pot-herbs4 ,the roots may be converted into an agreeable pickle2 and1 if simply boiled1 they are said by ,parkinson to be better than parsnips4 ,this plant grows wild in several parts of ,england1 but particularly in meadows and pastures near ,bury ,st4 ,edmunds1 in ,suffolk4 ,it is much cultivated in ,essex and ,kent1 sometimes alone1 and sometimes mixed with teasel 7#ec7 and coriander 7#hh74 ,the season for cutting it is about the beginning of ,july2 and it is threshed in the field on a cloth1 in the same manner as rape-seed 7#ahg74 #ib4 ,,anise-,,seeds are the production of an umbelliferous annual plant 7,pimpinella anisum71 which grows wild in ,egypt1 ,syria1 and other ,eastern countries4 ,they are roundish and striated1 flatted on one side1 and pointed at one end2 and of pale colour1 inclining to green4 ,attempts were made more than two hundred years ago to cultivate anise in this country1 but the summers of our climate are seldom warm enough to bring the plant to perfection4 ,it has consequently been found necessary to import the seed from ,malta and ,spain1 where it is cultivated to considerable extent4 ,anise-seeds have an aromatic smell1 and a pleasant warm taste1 accompanied with some degree of sweetness4 ,they have long been employed in medicine1 and have been considered useful in diseases of the lungs and complaints of the stomach4 ,they give out all their virtue to rectified spirit2 and a spirituous water prepared from a mixture of equal parts of anise-seed and angelica1 is kept in the shops as a cordial4 #ic4 ,,parsley 7,apium petroselinum7 is an annual umbelliferous plant too common to need any description4 ,the uses of parsley1 in our kitchens1 both for sauce and garnish1 are numerous and well known4 ,it is1 however1 poisonous to several kinds of birds2 and1 although so commonly used at table1 facts have been adduced from which it would appear that1 with some persons1 it occasions epilepsy1 or at least aggravates the fits in those who are subject to that disease4 ,inflammation in the eyes has also been attributed to the use of it4 ,parsley is eaten with great avidity by sheep1 and has been recommended for use in several diseases of those animals1 as well as in some diseases of horses4 ,both the roots and seed are employed in medicine4 ,the former have a sweetish taste1 accompanied with a slight warmth1 and a flavour somewhat resembling that of the carrot3 the latter are warm and aromatic4 ,parsley is a native of ,sardinia1 and propagated by seed1 which is usually sown about the month of ,march4 #id4 ,,celery 7,apium graveolens7 is a well known plant belonging to the same tribe as parsley4 ,in a wild state celery is found in ditches and marshes of several parts of ,england1 and is a small1 acrid1 and noxious plant1 called smallage3 but1 when cultivated1 it entirely loses these properties4 ,it is grown in trenches1 and is earthed up for the purpose of blanching or whitening the lower parts4 ,the seeds are sown in spring1 and the plants may be taken out for use towards the end of the autumn4 ,celery is eaten raw in salads1 boiled in soup1 or stewed4 ,the seeds are used1 particularly at sea1 for the flavouring of soup1 to which they give the same taste as the plant itself4 #ie4 ,,copal is a somewhat resinous substance1 obtained from a tree 7,rhus copallinum7 the produce of ,america1 which has winged and very entire leaves1 the foot-stalks membranaceous and jointed4 ,we annually import considerable quantities of copal from the ,spanish colonies in ,america1 in irregular masses1 some of which are transparent1 of yellowish or brown colour1 and others are whitish and semi-transparent4 ,when copal is dissolved in any volatile liquid1 and thinly spread upon wood1 metal1 or any other firm substance1 so that the liquid may evaporate1 the copal remains perfectly transparent2 and forms one of the most beautiful and perfect varnishes that can be imagined4 ,the varnish thus formed has the name of copal varnish1 and is said to have been first discovered in ,france4 ,one mode of preparing it is by melting the copal with an equal quantity of linseed oil 7#ig72 another1 by mixture with oil of turpentine2 and a third1 by mixture with alcohol or spirit of wine4 ,the particular processes are described in the fourth volume of ,dr4 ,thomson's ,system of ,chemistry1 fifth edition2 but they are too long and intricate for insertion here4 ,copal is the varnish which is chiefly used in the japanning of snuff-boxes1 tea-boards1 and other similar articles4 ,,trigynia4 #if4 ,the ,,common ,,elder 7,sambucus nigra7 is a wild ,english shrub1 distinguishable by its winged leaves1 with serrated and somewhat oval leaflets1 its clusters of small white flowers divided into five principal branches1 and the small black or purple berries by which these are succeeded4 ,the uses of the elder are more numerous than those of most other shrubs4 ,there is scarcely any part of this shrub which has not been advantageously employed in some way or other4 ,the wood is yellow1 and1 in old trees1 becomes so hard that it will take a polish almost as bright as that of box 7#bcb72 and1 indeed1 it is often used as a substitute for box-wood4 ,its toughness also is such that it is made into skewers for butchers1 tops for fishing rods1 and needles for the weaving of nets4 ,it is likewise employed by turners4 ,sir ,j4 ,e4 ,smith has remarked that this tree is1 as it were1 a whole magazine of physic to rustic practitioners1 and that it is not quite neglected even by professional men4 ,ointments have been made of the green inner bark1 and of the leaves4 ,the dried flowers1 infused in water1 are used in fomentations1 or as tea3 and1 mixed with butter-milk1 they are sometimes employed as a wash for the face2 and the clusters of flowers1 before they open1 may be made into a delicious pickle1 to eat with boiled mutton4 ,the berries are boiled into a rob1 which is useful in sore throats1 colds1 and hoarsenesses4 ,in addition to their medicinal services1 the leaves are sometimes thrown into the subterraneous paths of moles1 under an impression that their smell will drive away those noxious animals4 ,if turnips1 cabbages1 fruit trees1 or corn1 all of which are subject to blight from various kinds of insects1 be strongly whipped with the green leaves and branches of elder1 insects will not attack them2 and an infusion of the leaves is sometimes sprinkled by gardeners over the buds of such flowers as they wish to preserve from the devastation of caterpillars4 ,elder flowers have an agreeable flavour1 which they impart1 in distillation1 to water3 they are likewise used to give a flavour to vinegar4 ,the berries are poisonous to poultry1 but their juice1 properly fermented1 makes a pleasant and wholesome wine2 and1 in ,germany1 a very pure and strong spirit is distilled from them4 ,the juice of elder berries is sometimes employed to give a red colour to raisin or other sweet wine4 ,the young shoots of this shrub are filled with an exceedingly light pith1 which is cut into balls for electrical experiments2 and is also made into toys for the amusement of children4 ,the elder will grow and thrive in almost any soil and situation2 but1 as every part of this shrub has an unpleasant narcotic smell1 people ought to be cautious not to sleep under its shade1 as1 in such case1 it might prove of serious injury to them4 ,,tetragynia4 #ig4 ,,flax is the produce of an annual plant 7,linum usitatissimum1 ,fig4 #cg71 with spear-shaped leaves1 and blue flowers1 which is cultivated in several parts of ,great ,britain1 and grows wild in corn-fields and sandy pastures of some of the southern counties4 ,the stems of these plants rise to the height of about two feet4 ,the seed vessels and leaves of the calyx are sharp pointed1 and the flowers have each five scolloped petals4 ,it is supposed that we were originally indebted for this plant to those parts of ,egypt which are annually inundated by the ,nile2 but the time of its introduction into this country is unknown4 ,its utility is incalculable4 ,to it we are indebted for the linen we wear1 for our sheets1 table-cloths1 and numerous other indispensable articles of clothing and domestic economy2 and although cotton might1 in some degree1 supply its place1 those persons who have been accustomed to the comforts of linen would be little desirous of the exchange4 ,the cultivation of flax is pursued to considerable extent in some parts of the ,british dominions4 ,the seed imported from ,riga and ,holland is generally1 though perhaps erroneously1 esteemed the best4 ,it is sown in ,march or ,april2 and the plants1 when nearly ripe1 are pulled up by the roots4 ,these1 if flax and not seed be the object of the crop1 are either placed in small parcels upon the surface of the land1 for exposure to the sun1 to dry2 or they are immediately conveyed to the place where they are to undergo the process called watering4 ,for this purpose they are loosely tied in small bundles1 placed in pools or ponds of soft and stagnant water1 and allowed to continue there several days4 ,by the fermentation which takes place1 the bark or flaxy substance becomes separated4 ,they are then taken out1 and thinly spread upon the grass1 in regular rows4 ,here they are occasionally turned until they have become so brittle1 that1 on being rubbed between the hands1 the flax easily and freely separates from the stalks4 ,they are taken up1 and bound in sheaves1 to be either sent to a mill1 or to be broken and scuttled1 as it is called1 by a machine contrived for that purpose4 ,the flax1 by the above process1 having been separated from the stalks1 it subsequently undergoes various dressings1 according to the purposes for which it is to be used4 ,when the plants have been grown for seed1 they are pulled as before1 and then laid together by handfuls upon the ground1 with the seed ends towards the south1 that they may be the better exposed to the sun4 ,the next operation is to force off the seed vessels4 ,for this purpose a large cloth is usually spread on some adjacent and convenient spot of ground1 and an instrument1 called a ripple1 is placed in the middle of it4 ,this is a sort of comb1 consisting of six1 eight1 or ten1 long1 triangular1 upright teeth4 ,the seed ends of the flax are pulled repeatedly through the teeth of the comb1 by which the parts containing the seed are removed from the stalks4 ,after this the pods and seeds1 which have the name of line-seeds1 are spread upon a cloth in the sun to dry1 and subsequently are threshed1 sifted1 winnowed1 and cleansed4 ,the best seed is generally preserved for sowing1 and the second sort yields considerable profit in the oil which is obtained from it by pressure4 ,this1 which is called linseed oil1 is equally useful in the arts and in medicine4 ,it is occasionally employed for making the soap called green soap4 ,if heat be applied during the pressure of the seeds1 the oil attains a yellowish colour and a peculiar smell1 and1 in this state1 it is used by painters and varnishers4 ,an infusion of the seed1 in the manner of tea1 is recommended in coughs2 and from the seed is also made an useful kind of poultice for external inflammations4 ,after the oil has been expressed1 the remaining farinaceous part of the seeds is squeezed together into large masses1 called oil-cake which is given as food to oxen4 ,it must be remarked that the water in which flax has been macerated becomes thereby poisonous to cattle2 and1 on this account1 the practice of steeping it in any running stream or common pond was prohibited by an act of ,parliament1 passed in the reign of ,henry the ,eighth4 ---- ,,class ,,vi4--,,hexandria4 ---- ,,monogynia4 #ih4 ,the ,,pine 7,bromelia ananas7 is a rich and highly fragrant fruit1 of large size1 and yellow colour1 with protuberances on its surface2 and crowned by a tuft of strong and pointed leaves1 edged with sharp spines4 ,this1 the best and finest flavoured of all known fruits1 was originally imported into ,england from ,south ,america1 about the year #afij4 ,in that country and the ,west ,indies it has long been cultivated in the open ground2 and1 from free access to a congenial atmosphere1 it attains there a much finer flavour than is possible in a forced state1 in the hot-houses of ,great ,britain4 ,pines are planted in earth2 and the pots which contain them are immersed in beds of bark1 after it has been used by the tanners4 ,about the month of ,april the young fruit begins to advance1 but the usual season for ripening does not commence till ,july1 and the fruit is in greatest perfection from the middle of ,august to the end of ,september4 ,the ripening of pines is discoverable by the fragrant odour which they emit1 and by their protuberances yielding to pressure with the hand2 and their flavour speedily dissipates if left uncut longer than three or four days after they are fully ripe4 ,when brought to table1 their leafy crowns should be reserved for planting4 ,these1 if placed in pots1 and plunged in the bark-bed1 or in a hot-bed1 and covered1 for some time1 with glass1 will in two years bear fruit4 ,there are several varieties of pine1 of which the following are among the principal4 7a7 ,white ,pine4--,this has a whitish and fibrous flesh1 and the rind as yellow as that of an orange4 ,its smell is highly fragrant1 and it excels most other kinds in size and beauty1 although its flavour is inferior to that of many4 ,its juice edges the teeth1 and sometimes makes the lips smart4 7b7 ,the yellow pine edges the teeth less2 but both this and the preceding variety are exceeded by 7c7 ,the sugar-loaf pine2 which is distinguished by the purple stripes on the outside of the leaves1 and by its straw-coloured fruit4 7d7 ,the ,montserrat pine is now rare in ,europe1 though in ,america it is esteemed in preference to most others4 ,it is principally known by the protuberances of the fruit being longer and flatter than those of the common sort4 ,in the ,west ,indies an excellent liquid sweetmeat or confection is made from pines4 ,this fruit also is sometimes preserved whole1 and1 when taken out of the syrup1 is iced over with sugar4 ,sweetmeats of this kind were formerly sent into ,europe1 in great quantity1 from the ,antilles4 ,wine made from pines is almost equal to ,malmsey3 at the end of about three weeks it becomes somewhat acid1 but it recovers by longer keeping4 ,pines1 in the ,west ,indies1 are frequently put into rum to communicate to that liquor their peculiar aromatic flavour4 #ii4 ,,garlic 7,allium sativum7 is a plant with bulbous root1 of irregular form1 composed of many smaller bulbs1 called cloves1 which are all included within a white skin4 ,the stem leaves are flat and narrow2 the upper part of the stem bears small bulbs1 and the stamens are three pointed4 ,in warm climates1 where garlic is produced having considerably less acrimony than in this country1 it is much used1 both as a seasoning and as food4 ,the lower classes of ,french1 ,spaniards1 and ,portuguese1 consume great quantities of it4 ,the ,jews also eat of it to excess4 ,with us it is in considerable estimation for culinary and other domestic purposes4 ,it has an acrid taste1 and an highly offensive smell2 and it differs from the onion only by being more powerful in its effects4 ,when bruised and applied to the skin1 it causes inflammation1 and raises blisters4 ,the medical properties of garlic are various4 ,in dropsical complaints1 asthmas1 and agues1 it is said to have been successfully used4 ,some instances have occurred1 in deafness1 of the beneficial effects of wrapping a clove of garlic in muslin and putting it into the ear4 ,as a medicine internally taken1 garlic is administered as a bolus1 or made into pills4 ,its smell is considered an infallible remedy against vapours1 and to be useful in nearly all the nervous disorders to which females are subject4 ,an oil is sometimes prepared from garlic1 which is so heavy as to sink in water4 ,but the virtues of this pungent vegetable are more perfectly and more readily extracted by spirit of wine than in any other way4 ,a syrup is also made from it4 ,the juice of garlic is said to be the best and strongest cement that can be adopted for broken glass and china1 leaving little or no mark1 if used with care4 ,snails1 worms1 and the grubs1 or larv of insects1 as well as moles1 and other vermin1 may all be driven away by placing preparations of garlic in or near their haunts4 ,this plant grows wild in the island of ,sicily4 #ajj4 ,,leeks 7,allium porrum7 belong to the onion or garlic tribe1 and are known by their leaves growing out on each side1 somewhat in the shape of a fan4 ,in some countries leeks are much esteemed for culinary uses1 in soups1 broth1 and for boiling as greens with meat4 ,they are considered the badge of the ,welsh nation1 and representations of them are frequently worn by persons of that country on the day of their patron saint1 ,st4 ,david4 ,the origin of this custom was an occurrence1 during the ,welsh wars1 in which a party of ,welshmen1 wanting a mark of distinction1 and shortly afterwards passing through a field or garden of leeks1 seized and stuck the plants in their caps1 and under this signal were victorious4 ,leeks are natives of ,switzerland4 #aja4 ,,shalot 7,allium ascalonicum7 is a kind of garlic1 the bulbs or roots of which are oblong1 irregular1 and seldom of large size4 ,the stem is naked and round2 the leaves are somewhat awl-shaped2 the head of flowers is globular2 and the stamens are three-pointed4 ,the uses of shalot1 or echalotte1 as it is denominated by the ,french1 are almost wholly confined to cookery4 ,it has a strong1 but rather pleasant smell1 on which account it is generally preferred to onions4 ,it is employed for the seasoning of soups1 gravy1 hashes1 pickles1 and for numerous other purposes4 ,this plant grows wild in several parts of the ,continent4 #ajb4 ,the ,,canadian or ,,tree ,,onion 7,allium ,canadense7 is remarkable for producing a bulb or onion at the top of the stalk4 ,the stem is naked and round2 and the leaves are flat and narrow4 ,these onions are well deserving of attention both as objects of curiosity1 from producing their bulb at the upper extremity of the stalk1 and also for their use4 ,when pickled1 they are generally thought superior in flavour to the common onion4 ,they were originally imported from ,canada2 are perennial1 and are propagated by planting the bulbs in the spring or autumn4 ,either the bulbs of the root or those on the stalk will grow4 #ajc4 ,,chives 7,allium schoenoprasum7 are the smallest of the garlic tribe1 seldom rising more than a few inches above the ground1 and the bulbs not being larger than peas4 ,the stem is naked1 as long as the leaves2 and the leaves are round and somewhat awl-shaped4 ,chives are natives of ,italy1 ,switzerland1 and several other parts of ,europe2 and are so hardy1 and at the same time so useful1 that they merit a place in every garden3 yet1 in the northern counties of ,england and in ,scotland1 they are very rarely to be seen4 ,the leaves1 which are small and are the principal parts that are used1 appear early in the spring4 ,they are employed in salads1 and for numerous culinary purposes2 and often at a season when other plants of the same tribe cannot be procured4 #ajd4 ,the ,,common ,,onion 7,allium cepa7 is known by its round and hollow leaves1 and its swelling pipy stalk1 which is considerably thicker in the middle than either at the top or bottom4 ,the name of onion is derived from the ,latin word unio1 which1 properly1 signifies a bulb that does not throw out offsets4 ,onions are propagated by seed which are sown in spring2 and the bulbs or roots arrive at perfection in the autumn4 ,the whole plant1 when young1 is eaten as salad4 ,onions generally cease to grow towards the middle of ,august1 the stalks and leaves at that time shrinking and turning brown4 ,shortly after this they must be drawn out of the earth2 the tops and blades must be cut off2 and the roots dried1 either in a warm place1 or by exposure to the sun4 ,spanish onions are of large size1 and flattened shape2 and ,portugal onions are large1 handsome bulbs1 of roundish form4 ,by the common people onions are frequently eaten raw with their food4 ,this has particularly been the case1 and from time immemorial1 with the inhabitants of ,egypt4 ,by stimulating the stomach1 they are supposed to favour digestion4 ,some persons have imagined that they possess a large portion of alimentary matter2 but others say that they afford little or no nourishment1 and that1 when eaten freely1 they produce flatulencies1 occasion thirst1 head-achs1 and turbulent dreams4 ,onions have so much acrimony as generally to affect the breath for many hours3 but when boiled or roasted1 this is1 in a great measure1 dissipated1 and they then exhibit some sweetness1 with a considerable portion of mucilaginous matter4 ,onions are of great use in several culinary preparations1 but particularly in soup and pickles4 ,they are employed in medicine chiefly as poultices for swellings2 and have been recommended by some persons1 to be rubbed on bald parts of the head1 to promote the growth of the hair4 #aje4 ,,asparagus 7,asparagus officinalis71 is a well known plant1 the young shoots of which are a favourite culinary vegetable4 ,few circumstances in the phenomena of vegetation are more remarkable than the gradual enlargement of size1 and improvement of quality1 which have taken place in the cultivation of asparagus4 ,it grows wild on the pebbly beach near ,weymouth1 and in the island of ,anglesea3 but its stem1 in these situations1 is not usually thicker than a goose's quill1 and its whole height does not exceed a few inches2 whereas in gardens its stem is sometimes near three quarters of an inch thick1 and its height1 when at maturity1 is four or five feet4 ,asparagus is one of the greatest delicacies which our kitchen gardens afford1 and it is particularly estimable from the early season at which it is produced4 ,even in the open ground1 it is in perfection for the table about the end of ,april2 and when forced1 by being planted in hot-beds under glass1 it may be cut much earlier4 ,asparagus continues in season till about the end of ,june4 ,it is usually raised from seed1 in beds formed for the purpose3 and the plants should remain three years in the ground before they are cut3 after which1 for several years1 they will continue to afford a regular annual supply4 ,during the winter1 they are secured from the effects of frost by the beds being covered some inches thick with straw or litter4 ,in the cutting of asparagus1 the knife is passed three or four inches beneath the ground4 ,the plants are cut by sloping the blade upward2 and the white part that we see1 is that which had not previously been exposed to the air4 ,the smallest plants are suffered to grow for the purpose of producing berries to re-stock the beds1 and keep them continually in a state of supply4 #ajf4 ,,aloes are an extensive tribe of plants1 some of which are not more than a few inches1 whilst others are thirty feet and upwards1 in height4 ,all the leaves are fleshy1 thick1 and more or less spinous at the edges or extremity4 ,these plants1 which are chiefly inhabitants of hot climates1 have flowers of a single petal1 the mouth expanded1 the base nectariferous1 and the filaments of the stamens inserted into the receptacle4 ,some of the larger kinds of aloes are of great importance to the inhabitants of countries in which they grow4 ,beset as the leaves are with strong spines1 they form an impenetrable fence4 ,the negroes of the western coast of ,africa make ropes and weave nets of the fibrous part of these leaves4 ,the ,hottentots hollow out the stems of one of the kinds into quivers for their arrows4 ,in ,jamaica1 there is a species of aloe which supplies the inhabitants with bow-strings1 fishing lines1 and materials from which they are able to weave stockings and hammocks4 ,an aloe which grows in the kingdom of ,mexico is applied by the inhabitants to almost every purpose of life4 ,it serves as hedges for enclosures3 its trunk supplies the place of timber for the roofs of houses1 and its leaves the place of tiles4 ,from this plant the ,mexicans make thread1 needles1 and various articles of clothing and cordage3 whilst from its juices they manufacture wine1 sugar1 and vinegar4 ,some parts of it they eat1 and others they apply in medicine4 ,the juice of aloes was formerly used in ,eastern countries in embalming1 to preserve dead bodies from putrefaction2 and1 as the resinous part of this juice is not soluble in water1 it is sometimes adopted in hot climates as a preservative to ships' bottoms against the attack of marine worms4 ,one ounce of it mixed with turpentine1 tallow1 and white lead1 is considered to be sufficient for covering about two superficial feet of plank2 and about twelve pounds are sufficient for a vessel of fifty tons' burthen4 ,in proof of the efficacy of this method1 two planks of equal thickness1 and cut from the same tree1 were placed under water1 one of them in its natural state1 and the other smeared with the composition above described4 ,they were suffered to continue in the water eight months1 and when1 at the end of that time1 they were taken out1 the former was perforated in every part1 and in a state of absolute decay2 whilst the latter was as perfect as at first4 ,in the ,east ,indies1 the juice of these plants is used as a varnish1 to preserve wood from the attacks of destructive insects3 and skins1 and even living animals1 are sometimes smeared with it for the same purpose4 ,there is a tract of mountains1 about fifty miles north of the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 which is wholly covered with aloes4 ,among the ,mahometans1 and particularly in ,egypt1 the aloe is a kind of symbolic plant3 it is dedicated to the offices of religion2 and pilgrims1 on their return from ,mecca1 suspend it over their doors1 as a declaration that they have performed that holy journey4 #ajg4 ,,socotrine ,,aloes are the dried juice of a large species of aloe 7,aloe perfoliata1 ,fig4 #ch7 which grows in great abundance in the island of ,socotra1 near the mouth of the ,red ,sea4 ,the leaves are sword-shaped1 fleshy1 smooth1 full of juice1 of bluish-green colour2 and beset at the edges with strong spines4 ,the flower-stems rise to the height of three or four feet1 are smooth1 erect1 and have at the top a spike of flowers of purple or reddish colour1 the stamens of which have oblong orange-coloured anthers4 ,the true ,socotrine aloes are imported into this country wrapped in skins2 and when pure have a bright surface1 and are in some degree pellucid4 ,in the lump they have a yellowish red colour1 with a purplish cast2 and1 when reduced to powder1 are of a golden yellow4 ,their taste is bitter and disagreeable1 but somewhat aromatic2 and their smell is not unpleasant4 ,barbadoes aloes1 common aloes1 or hepatic aloes1 are the dried juice of a variety of the ,socotrine aloes1 which is cultivated in ,barbadoes and ,jamaica4 ,of this we import three kinds3 one in gourd shells2 an inferior kind1 in pots2 and another1 still worse1 in casks4 ,in the cultivation of aloes it is requisite that the plants should grow for two or three years before the juice is procured from them4 ,the operation of collecting the juice is performed in different ways4 ,dr4 ,browne tells us that labourers go into the field with knives and tubs2 and that cutting off the largest and most succulent leaves close to the stalk1 they immediately put them into the tubs in an upright position1 that the liquor may drain from the wounds4 ,when this is nearly all discharged1 they take the leaves out singly1 and clear them of any juice that may adhere to them2 and the liquor is then put into shallow flat-bottomed vessels1 and dried gradually in the sun1 until it acquires a proper thickness to be poured out or ladled into the gourd shells which are to contain it4 ,what is thus obtained is called ,socotrine aloes1 and is the clearest and most valuable of any4 ,an additional quantity of juice is obtained by pressing the leaves4 ,in some places the plants are pulled up by the roots1 and1 after having been carefully cleansed from earth or other impurities1 they are sliced and cut in pieces1 into small hand-baskets or nets4 ,in these the pieces are boiled1 for a little while1 in water1 by which the juice is extracted2 and successive basketfuls are boiled in the same liquor1 until it becomes thick and of dark colour4 ,the fluid part is subsequently evaporated1 and what remains is put into gourd shells for sale4 ,other methods of inspissating or drying the juice are to pour it into bladders left open at the top1 and suspended in the sun2 or to place it in broad shallow trays of wood1 pewter or tin1 exposed to the sun every dry day1 until the fluid parts are exhaled1 and a perfect resin is formed1 which is then packed up for sale4 ,there is a kind called ,caballine or horse aloes1 which has a rank and unpleasant smell1 but in taste is not much more disagreeable than either of the others4 ,in its properties it agrees nearly with hepatic aloes1 but it is chiefly employed by farriers in horse medicines4 ,the medical properties of aloes have long been known and established3 and their extensive application in medicine is1 perhaps1 the best proof that can be adduced of their utility4 ,in the arts aloes are1 in several respects1 useful4 ,but1 particularly1 the leaves of the ,socotrine aloes afford a beautiful violet colour which does not require the aid of any mordant to fix it2 the same also is capable of being formed into a fine transparent colour for painting in miniature4 #ajh4 ,the ,,great1 or ,,american ,,aloe 7,agave ,americana71 is a large plant1 the leaves of which are thick1 fleshy1 and spinous at the edge1 and the stem branched and of great height4 ,the flowers of this plant are distinguished by having the tube of the corolla narrowed in the middle1 the stamens longer than the corolla1 and the style longer than the stamens4 ,this magnificent native of ,north ,america is by no means an uncommon plant in our gardens1 but1 with us1 it is seldom seen in flower4 ,there is indeed a notion1 but it is an erroneous one1 that the ,american aloe does not bloom until it is a hundred years old4 ,the fact is1 that the flowering depends almost wholly on its growth4 ,in hot countries it will flower in a few years2 but in colder climates1 the growth being slower1 it is necessarily longer in arriving at maturity4 ,the stem which bears the blossoms rises from the centre of the leaves1 and1 when the plant is in a vigorous state1 it frequently exceeds the height of twenty feet4 ,an ,american aloe in the garden of the king of ,prussia was forty feet high4 ,branches issue from every side1 and in such manner as to form a kind of pyramid1 composed of greenish yellow flowers1 which stand erect1 and are seen in thick clusters at every joint4 ,when in full flower1 the appearance of this aloe is extremely splendid2 and if the season be favourable1 and the plant be sheltered from the cold in autumn1 a succession of blossoms will sometimes be produced for near three months4 ,in the warmer parts of ,europe1 ,american aloes are cultivated as objects of considerable utility4 ,they are frequently grown in rows1 as fences1 for enclosures1 particularly in ,spain1 ,portugal1 and ,italy4 ,in ,algarvia the leaves are employed for scouring pewter and other kitchen utensils1 and floors2 and1 cut into slices1 are used for the feeding of cattle4 ,by a certain preparation1 the juice of the leaves is made into cakes1 which are employed for washing1 and which will lather with salt water as well as with fresh4 ,the fibres of the leaves1 when properly prepared1 may be separated into threads that are useful in various ways4 ,this separation is sometimes effected by bruising and steeping them in water1 and afterwards beating them4 ,the process1 in some parts of ,portugal1 is1 after plucking the largest and best leaves1 to place them on a square board1 which a person presses obliquely between his breast and the ground1 and then scrapes with a square iron bar held in both hands4 ,by this operation all the juices are pressed out1 and only the fibres and some of the membranous parts of the leaves remain1 which are then easily detached4 ,the fibres are employed for all the purposes to which thread can be applied1 but they are neither strong nor durable2 and if exposed to moisture1 they soon decay4 #aji4 ,the ,,fan ,,palm is a very remarkable tree 7,corypha umbraculifera7 that grows in the ,east ,indies1 but particularly in ,malabar1 and the island of ,ceylon2 its leaves1 eight or ten in number1 rise out of the summit of the trunk1 are winged and somewhat fan-shaped1 and have their segments connected by a thread or fibre4 ,the stem of the fan palm is straight1 cylindrical1 smooth1 and as tall as a ship's mast4 ,its leaves are upwards of six yards in length1 and four yards wide2 and form altogether a head of twelve or thirteen yards in diameter4 ,these leaves1 which1 when dry1 fold up somewhat like a fan1 are used for the covering of huts and cottages2 and not unfrequently by soldiers1 instead of canvas1 for the construction of tents4 ,one of them is sufficiently large to shelter twenty persons from the rays of the sun4 ,they are also a kind of natural paper on which the inhabitants write1 by means of a sharp-pointed iron instrument1 which leaves indelible marks upon them4 ,many of the books which are shown in ,europe for those of ,egyptian papyrus 7#bf7 are said to be formed of parts of these leaves4--,the pith of the trunk1 beaten into a kind of paste and mixed with water1 is formed into cakes1 and constitutes a species of bread1 very serviceable to the inhabitants in times of scarcity4 ,the juice of some parts of the tree is used as an emetic4 ,the fan palms are said not to bear fruit until they are near forty years old2 but after this period1 when in perfection1 they produce annually more than twenty thousand berries each4 ,these are each about #a inch diameter1 of globular shape1 smooth1 green1 and fleshy2 but are not known to be of any use4 #aaj4 ,the ,,rotang or ,,dragon',s ,,blood ,,tree1 is a species of cane 7,calamus rotang7 which grows to the length of more than a hundred feet1 is about as thick as a man's arm1 and is closely beset with erect prickles4 ,this cane has at the top a tuft of leaves which are several feet in length1 and alternately winged1 and of which the leaflets are sword-shaped1 and armed with sharp spines4 ,in consequence of its great length and slender form1 the rotang tree 7which is usually found in woods near rivers1 and in morassy places7 does not grow entirely upright2 but1 after having attained the height of five or six yards1 it depends1 for support1 upon other trees1 which it sometimes overruns1 in nearly an horizontal direction to the extent of sixty or eighty feet4 ,the flowers are produced in upright spikes that separate into long spreading branches1 and are succeeded by a red and somewhat egg-shaped fruit1 which to the taste is pleasantly acid4 ,the drug called ,dragon's ,blood#d is obtained from this fruit1 in ,japan1 and several other countries of the ,east4 ,the ,japanese expose the fruit of the ,rotang tree to the steam of boiling water1 by which the external shell is softened1 and a resinous fluid is forced out1 that is afterwards enclosed in leaves and suspended in the air to dry4 ,in ,sumatra the external surface of the fruit is observed to be covered with the resin3 this is rubbed off1 melted in the sun1 and formed into grains or globules1 which are folded in leaves1 and are considered the purest kind of dragon's blood4 ,in some countries the fruit is boiled in water1 and the resin1 which floats upon the surface1 is skimmed off and subsequently purified1 and formed into the requisite shape for sale4 ,an inferior kind of dragon's blood is made up into large masses1 which contain the membranous parts of the fruit and other impurities4 ,when this substance is tolerably pure1 it breaks smooth1 and appears internally of a dark red colour2 melts readily1 and easily catches fire4 ,its principal use is in medicine4 ,the stem of the rotang furnishes the inhabitants of the countries where it grows with shafts for pikes or spears2 and the inner part of the young shoots is boiled or roasted for food4 #aaa4 ,the ,,common ,,walking ,,canes 7,calamus scipionum7 have a smooth and glossy stem1 usually marked with dark spots3 and the knots or joints are sometimes three or four feet asunder4 ,these canes grow1 very abundantly1 in ,sumatra and other ,eastern islands1 as well as on the continent of ,india1 whence they appear to have been originally exported to ,europe by the ,dutch4 ,there is a considerable trade in them to ,china4 ,the long spaces between the knots1 their shining surface1 and lightness1 have rendered them preferable to most other articles for walking canes4 #aab4 ,the ,,rattan or ,,true ,,cane 7,calamus verus71 is remarkable for growing to the great length of a hundred feet1 and upwards1 and1 at the same time1 not being thicker than a man's finger4 ,a trade in rattans to considerable extent is carried on from several of the islands of the east to ,china1 which is the principal market for them4 ,these canes are extremely tough and flexible1 of yellowish brown colour1 and1 when cut into thongs1 are sometimes used to make cables and other ropes4 ,our cane-bottomed chairs are made of split rattans1 the outer or smooth surface of which is always kept uppermost4 ,for this work the canes are chosen by their great length1 pale yellow colour1 and bright gloss4 ,they are purchased in bundles1 each of which contains a hundred canes1 neatly tied in the middle1 and the ends bent together4 ,when perfectly dry1 they are so hard as to yield sparks of fire when struck against each other4 ,the word rattan1 in the ,malay language1 signifies a staff or walking stick4 #aac4 ,the ,,bamboo ,,cane 7,bambusa arundinacea7 has a hollow1 round1 straight1 and shining stem2 and sometimes grows to the length of forty feet and upwards3 it has knots at the distance of ten or twelve inches from each other1 with thick1 rough1 and hairy sheaths1 alternate branches1 and small1 entire1 and spear-shaped leaves4 ,there is scarcely any plant so common in hot climates as this1 and few are more extensively useful4 ,it occurs within the tropical regions both of the eastern and western hemispheres1 throughout the ,east ,indies and the greater part of ,china1 in the ,west ,indies1 and ,america4 ,in ,england1 it can only be cultivated in a hot-house2 and its growth is so rapid1 even there1 that a strong shoot has been known to spring from the ground and attain the height of twenty feet in six weeks4 ,the inhabitants of many parts of ,india build their houses almost wholly of bamboo2 and make nearly every description of furniture with it1 in a very ingenious manner4 ,they likewise form with it several kinds of utensils1 for their kitchens and tables2 and1 from two pieces of bamboo rubbed hard together1 they produce fire4 ,the masts of boats1 boxes1 baskets1 and innumerable other articles1 are made of bamboo4 ,after having been bruised1 steeped in water1 and formed into a pulp1 the sheaths and leaves may be manufactured into paper4 ,the stems are frequently bored1 and used as pipes for conveying water2 and the strongest stems serve to make the poles with which the slaves or servants carry those kind of litters so common in the ,east1 called palanquins4 ,the stems of the bamboo serve also as the usual fence for gardens and other enclosures3 and the leaves are generally put round the tea which is sent in chests from ,china to ,europe4 ,the ,chinese make1 of the external bark of the bamboo1 a kind of cordage1 which has the advantage of united lightness and durability4 ,for this purpose the bark is cleft in strips several feet in length2 and these are twisted together according to the thickness that is required4 ,for the tow lines of their vessels1 eight or nine bands or strips are sufficient2 but1 for cables1 a much greater number is requisite4 ,some of the ,malays preserve the small and tender shoots of bamboo in vinegar and pepper to be eaten with their food4 ,many of the walking canes which we see in ,europe are formed of the young shoots of this plant4 ,the ,chinese make a kind of frame-work of bamboo1 by which they are enabled to float in water2 and the ,chinese merchants1 when going on a voyage1 always provide themselves with this simple apparatus to save their lives in case of shipwreck4 ,it is formed by placing four bamboos horizontally across each other1 so as to leave1 in the middle1 a square place for the body2 and1 when used1 this frame is slipped over the head1 and secured by being tied to the waist4 #aad4 ,the ,,common ,,rush 7,juncus effusus7 is known by its green1 smooth1 stiff1 upright1 leafless and pointed stem2 having a loose bunch of small flowers at the side1 and the seed-vessels blunt at the extremity4 ,although the rush is generally considered by farmers a noxious weed in wet meadows and pastures1 it is applicable to a variety of useful purposes2 but particularly for making the wicks of rushlights4 ,for this purpose it is usually cut a little after ,midsummer2 and is immediately afterwards thrown into water1 and kept there1 that it may not become dry1 and that it may be the more easily peeled4 ,at first a person would find it no easy matter to divest a rush of its rind1 so as to leave on each side1 from top to bottom1 one regular1 narrow1 and even rib1 that may support the pith4 ,but this1 by practice1 soon becomes familiar even to children4 ,when rushes are thus far prepared1 they are spread on the grass to be bleached2 and1 afterwards1 they are dried in the sun for use4 ,if only one rib of peel be left1 instead of two1 rushes will supply the place of cotton wicks for candles4 ,in some parts of ,hampshire the labouring people form wicks of this description2 they dip them into scalding fat or grease1 and use them in place of candles4 ,rushes are sometimes manufactured into a slight kind of baskets4 ,in the vicinity of ,farnham1 in ,surrey1 they are cut about ,midsummer1 and dried in the same manner as hay4 ,after this they are formed into a kind of rick1 and sheltered till the succeeding spring4 ,they are then usefully employed1 for bands or ties1 in fastening hop-binds to the poles4 ,in a fresh state they are sometimes made into brooms or besoms for blacksmiths1 and other artisans working in metals4 #aae4 ,,barberries are a beautiful red and oblong-shaped fruit1 produced1 in small bunches1 by a shrub 7,berberris vulgaris7 which grows wild in many parts of ,england4 ,this shrub has somewhat oval1 serrated1 and pointed leaves2 thorns growing three together upon the branches2 and pendent clusters of yellow flowers4 ,so great is the acidity of this beautiful fruit that even birds refuse to eat it4 ,in this respect it nearly approaches the tamarind4 ,when boiled with sugar1 however1 it makes an agreeable preserve1 rob1 or jelly1 according to the different modes of preparing it4 ,barberries are also used as a dry sweetmeat1 and in sugarplums or comfits2 are pickled with vinegar1 and are used for the garnishing of dishes4 ,they are likewise well calculated to allay heat and thirst in persons afflicted with fevers4 ,the bark of this barberry shrub is said to have been administered with effect in cases of jaundice1 and in some other complaints2 and the inner bark1 with the assistance of alum1 dyes linen a fine yellow colour4 ,the roots1 but particularly their bark1 are employed1 in ,poland1 in the dyeing of leather4 ,a very singular circumstance has been stated respecting the barberry shrub2 that corn1 sown near it1 proves abortive1 the ears being in general destitute of grain2 and that this influence is sometimes extended to a distance of three or four hundred yards across a field4 ,a similar opinion1 on this subject1 prevails in ,france1 as well as in ,england1 but there is reason to suppose it is without foundation4 ,,digynia4 #aaf4 ,,rice 7,oryza sativa1 ,fig4 #ci7 is a well-known kind of grain1 which is much cultivated in the ,east ,indies1 ,america1 and some parts of ,spain2 and which1 previously to its being sold for use1 is freed from a brownish husk that covers it4 ,the rice plant has an erect1 simple1 round1 and jointed stem4 ,its leaves are narrow and pointed2 and its flowers appear in a kind of bunch1 at the extremity1 somewhat resembling1 but more compact than1 an ear of oats4 ,we are1 at present1 chiefly supplied with rice from ,america2 and it is said that the ,americans were indebted for this grain to a small bag of it which was formerly given as a present from a ,mr4 ,dubois1 treasurer of the ,east ,india ,company1 to a ,carolina merchant4 ,a wet and morassy soil1 appears in general necessary to the cultivation of rice4 ,the parts of the farms or plantations in which it is grown are usually so situated as to admit of being flooded2 and1 in many places1 reservoirs of water are formed for this purpose4 ,these reservoirs have sluices1 by which the rice fields may be inundated at pleasure4 ,in reaping the crop1 the labourers generally work knee deep in water and mud4 ,as the rice is cut1 the sheaves are put on drays1 and carried out to be spread on dry ground4 ,the rice thus produced has the name of marsh rice1 and is that which is chiefly imported into ,europe4 ,in some of the mountainous parts of the ,east ,indies rice is cultivated on the sides of hills1 where it can only be watered by rain4 ,it is sown1 however1 at the beginning of the rainy1 and reaped in the beginning of the dry season2 so that1 in fact1 it has nearly all the advantages of being watered1 which the marsh rice possesses4 ,the general appellation of rice1 in the ,east ,indies1 is paddy2 but the kind just mentioned is denominated paddy gunung1 or mountain rice1 and is little known in ,europe1 though of late years it has been cultivated with success in ,tuscany4 ,its grains are whiter1 finer1 and more palatable than those of the marsh rice4 ,after the harvesting of rice1 the next process is to free the grains from the husk in which they are enveloped4 ,there are several ways of doing this4 ,in some places they are pounded in large mortars1 and afterwards winnowed4 ,in others large cylindrical pestles are lifted by a wheel worked by oxen2 and between these one person sits and pushes forward the rice to be beaten1 whilst another carries it off to be winnowed1 and supplies fresh parcels4 ,the inhabitants of several parts of the ,east throw it into hot water1 by which the grains are slightly swelled1 and thus burst through the husk4 ,in the island of ,ceylon1 and in some parts of ,america1 a hollow place1 about a foot in depth1 and nine or ten yards in diameter1 is dug in the ground4 ,this is filled with corn1 which is trodden by oxen driven round it until the grain is cleared4 ,the ,sacred and other writings inform us that this was the mode which the ancients adopted with other species of grain4 ,in ,spain1 when the rice is ripe1 it is gathered into sheaves1 and put into a mill1 where the lower grinding stone is covered with cork2 and1 by this means1 the grain is separated from the husk1 without being bruised4 ,rice is said to have been lately cultivated1 with success1 in some parts of ,scotland2 and it is not improbable1 that1 by degrees1 this species of grain may be naturalized to our climate4 ,no kind of grain is so generally adopted for food in hot climates as this4 ,the inhabitants of many parts of the ,east subsist almost wholly upon it2 and large quantities are annually imported into ,europe1 where it is highly esteemed for puddings and numerous culinary preparations4 ,it is considered very nutritive1 but it should not be eaten in too large quantities by languid or debilitated persons4 ,in a scarcity of other grain1 rice may be used with considerable advantage as an ingredient in bread4 ,indeed1 on account of its excellence and its cheapness1 it claims attention as a general article of sustenance for the poorer classes of society2 as it is well known that a quarter of a pound of rice1 slowly boiled1 will yield more than a pound of solid and nutritive food4 ,for the fattening of poultry1 boiled rice has been adopted with success1 and it would be more generally adopted than it is1 were it not for an unfounded and very extraordinary notion that it tends to make them blind4 ,the inhabitants of the ,east obtain from rice a vinous liquor1 which is more intoxicating than the strongest wine2 and an ardent spirit1 called arrack1 is also partly made from it4 ,the latter is chiefly manufactured at ,batavia1 and at ,goa on the coast of ,malabar2 and is said to be distilled from a mixture of the wort or infusion of rice1 and of toddy1 or the juice of the cocoa-nut tree 7#bcc71 to which other ingredients1 and particularly spices1 are added4 ,there is only one species of rice2 but the varieties of it1 according to the soil1 climate1 and culture1 are very numerous4 ---- ,,class ,,vii4--,,heptandria4 ---- ,,monogynia4 #aag4 ,the ,,horse-,,chesnut 7sculus hippocastanum1 ,fig4 #ff7 is a very common tree in parks and pleasure grounds1 bearing leaves each composed of seven large lobes2 and having large and elegant clusters of light-coloured flowers4 ,each flower consists of five petals of white colour1 irregularly spotted with red and yellow2 and roundish1 but undulated or waved at the edges4 ,the fruit1 which is of bitter and unpleasant taste1 is enclosed in a roundish capsule or seed vessel1 beset with spines1 and divided into three cells4 ,there is no tree of ,british growth more admired1 or more deserving of admiration on account of its brilliant appearance at a very early season of the year than the chesnut4 ,its beautiful flowers1 in upright conical spikes1 terminate the branches on all sides1 in such manner that sometimes almost the whole tree appears as if it were covered by them4 ,the fruit of the horse-chesnut has been found of considerable use in the fattening of cattle1 the tallow of which it is said to render peculiarly firm4 ,for this purpose1 however1 as well as for the feeding of sheep1 it has been considered advantageous to macerate the nuts in lime water1 or in caustic alkali1 to deprive them of their bitterness2 and1 afterwards1 to wash them in water1 and boil them into a paste4 ,goats and deer are partial to these nuts2 but they are said to be unwholesome for swine4 ,in ,turkey they are ground and mixed with provender for horses2 and1 if they could be wholly divested of their bitterness and acrimony1 it is supposed they might be converted into bread4 ,a patent was granted1 in the year #agif1 to ,lord ,w4 ,murray for his discovery of a method of extracting starch from horse-chesnuts2 and a paste or size has been made from them1 which is preferred by book-binders1 shoe-makers1 and paper-hangers1 to that made from wheaten flower4 ,they contain a soapy quality1 and are used1 in some parts of ,france and ,switzerland1 for cleaning woollens1 and for the washing and bleaching of linen2 and1 if ground and made into cakes or balls1 it is supposed they might answer the purpose of soap1 both in washing and fulling4 ,if a small portion of horse-chesnut1 in a state of powder1 be snuffed up the nostrils1 it excites sneezing2 and even an infusion or decoction of it has been said to produce a similar effect4 ,these have consequently been administered in some complaints of the head and eyes1 and have been productive of considerable benefit4 ,the prickly husks may be advantageously employed in the tanning of leather4 ,the wood of the horse-chesnut tree is white1 soft1 and of little value4 ,it however serves occasionally for water-pipes1 for mill-timber1 and turners' ware4 ,and if it be dipped into scalding oil1 and well pitched1 it becomes extremely durable4 ,in some parts of the ,continent the bark of this tree is used in the cure of intermittent and other fevers2 and some writers have been of opinion that it might1 with advantage1 be substituted in several complaints for ,peruvian bark4 ,this tree was first brought into ,europe1 from the northern parts of ,asia1 about the year #aeej2 and its growth is so rapid1 that trees1 raised from nuts1 have1 in twelve or fourteen years1 attained nearly their full dimensions4 ,it is further remarkable1 in the growth of the horse-chesnut tree1 that the whole of the spring shoots are said to be completed in little more than three weeks from the first opening of the buds4 ---- ,,class ,,viii4--,,octandria4 ---- ,,monogynia4 #aah4 ,,balsam1 or ,,balm ,,of ,,gilead1 is the dried juice of a low tree or shrub 7,amyris gileadensis71 which grows in several parts of ,abyssinia and ,syria4 ,this tree has spreading crooked branches1 small bright green leaves1 growing in threes1 and small white flowers on separate footstalks4 ,the petals are four in number1 and the fruit is a small egg-shaped berry1 containing a smooth nut4 ,by the inhabitants of ,syria and ,egypt1 this balsam1 as it appears from the authority of the ,scriptures1 was in great esteem in the highest periods of antiquity4 ,we are informed by ,josephus1 the ,jewish historian1 that the balsam of ,gilead was one of the trees which was given by the ,queen of ,saba to ,king ,solomon4 ,those ,ishmaelitish merchants1 who were the purchasers of ,joseph1 are said to have been travelling from ,gilead1 on the eastern side of ,canaan1 to ,egypt1 having their camels laden with spicery1 balm1 and myrrh4 ,it was then1 and it still is1 considered one of the most valuable medicines that the inhabitants of those countries possessed4 ,the virtues1 however1 which have been ascribed to it1 exceed all rational bounds of credibility4 ,the mode in which it is obtained is described by ,mr4 ,bruce4 ,he says that the bark of the trees is cut1 for this purpose1 with an axe1 at a time when the juices are in their strongest circulation4 ,these1 as they ooze through the wound1 are received into small earthen bottles2 and every day's produce is gathered1 and poured into a larger bottle1 which is closely corked4 ,when the juice first issues from the wound1 it is of light yellow colour1 and somewhat turbid appearance2 but1 as it settles1 it becomes clear1 has the colour of honey1 and appears more fixed and heavy than at first4 ,its smell1 when fresh1 is exquisitely fragrant1 and strongly pungent1 not much unlike that of volatile salts2 but1 if the bottle be left uncorked1 it soon loses this quality4 ,its taste is bitter1 acrid1 aromatic1 and astringent4 ,the quantity of balsam yielded by one tree never exceeds sixty drops in a day4 ,hence its scarcity is such that the genuine balsam is seldom exported as an article of commerce4 ,even at ,constantinople1 the centre of trade of those countries1 it cannot1 without great difficulty1 be procured4 ,in ,turkey it is in high esteem as a medicine1 an odoriferous unguent1 and a cosmetic4 ,but its stimulating properties upon the skin are such that the face of a person unaccustomed to use it becomes red and swollen1 and continues so for some days afterward4 ,the ,turks also take it in small quantities1 in water1 to fortify the stomach1 and excite the animal faculties4 #aai4 ,,rose-,,wood 7,amyris balsamifera7 is an odoriferous tree1 with smooth oval leaves1 which grows in the ,island of ,jamaica4 ,the wood of this tree is much used by cabinet-makers in this country for the covering or veneering of tables and other furniture4 ,its grain is of dark colour1 and very beautiful4 ,this tree yields an odoriferous balsam1 which is much esteemed1 both as an external application for the cure of wounds1 and an internal medicine in various diseases4 #abj4 ,the ,,common ,,maple 7,acer campestre7 is a low kind of tree1 common in woods and hedges1 which has its leaves in lobes1 blunt1 and notched1 and green flowers in upright clusters4 ,by the ,romans1 the maple wood1 when knotty and veined1 was often highly prized for furniture4 ,the poet ,virgil speaks of ,evander sitting on a maple throne4 ,the knots of this wood were considered to resemble the figure of birds1 beasts1 and other animals3 and when boards1 large enough for tables1 were found of this curious part of it1 the extravagance of purchasers is said to have been incredible4 ,indeed its value1 in that madly luxurious age1 is stated to have been such1 that1 when1 at any time1 the ,romans reproached their wives for their extravagance in pearls1 jewels1 or other rich trifles1 the latter were accustomed to retort1 and turn the tables upon their husbands4 ,hence our expression of turning the tables upon any person is said to have been derived4 ,with us the maple tree is used by turners1 particularly for making cups1 which may be rendered so thin as to be almost transparent4 ,this wood1 where it is devoid of knots1 is remarkably white1 and is sometimes used for domestic furniture4 ,on account of its lightness it is frequently employed for musical instruments1 and particularly for those of the violin kind4 #aba4 ,,sugar ,,maple 7,acer saccharinum7 is a ,north-,american tree1 which grows to the height of fifty or sixty feet1 and has somewhat hand-shaped leaves1 in five divisions1 notched at the edges1 and downy underneath4 ,this large and beautiful tree is much cultivated in ,america on account chiefly of the juice which it yields1 and which is made into sugar4 ,the process of obtaining the juice is1 in the spring of the year1 to bore holes about two inches deep into the tree1 and to put into each of these holes a projecting spout1 by which it may be conveyed into troughs placed to receive it4 ,each tree will afford from twenty to thirty gallons of juice1 from which may be obtained five or six pounds of sugar4 ,the juice is clear1 of pleasant flavour2 and1 in its simple state1 is sometimes drunk as a remedy against the scurvy4 ,the sugar1 which is obtained from it by evaporation1 is clean to the eye1 and very sweet1 but it has a peculiar1 though not unpleasant taste4 ,it may be clarified and refined in the same manner as the common sugars4 ,the juice of the maple furnishes also a pleasant wine1 and a very excellent vinegar4 ,the wood of this tree is valuable as timber1 and is also well adapted for turnery and cabinet ware1 more particularly as it is said not to be liable to suffer by the depredations of insects4 ,possessing these properties1 and being sufficiently hardy to sustain the rigours even of a cold climate1 its culture1 in our own country1 would be attended with great advantage1 and cannot be too strongly recommended4 #abb4 ,the ,,sycamore 7,acer pseudoplatanus1 ,fig4 #gj7 is a handsome tree of ,british growth1 which has leaves in five lobes unequally serrated2 and green flowers in pendant clusters4 ,it is peculiarly deserving of remark concerning this tree1 that it grows better near the sea than in any other situation1 and that plantations of sycamores may be so made as even to defend the herbage of the adjacent country from the spray1 and consequently from the injurious effects of the sea4 ,its growth is quick1 yet it will increase in size until it is two hundred years old4 ,the soil in which it best flourishes is a loose black earth4 ,the only inconveniences attending it in plantations is the early shedding of its leaves4 ,in the spring of the year the inhabitants of some parts of ,scotland bore holes through the bark of the sycamore1 at the distance of about twelve inches from the root1 and suffer the juice to drain into vessels1 to the amount of eight or nine quarts a day from each tree4 ,this liquor they convert into a kind of wine2 and1 if the watery part were evaporated1 a useful sugar might be obtained from it4 ,the wood of the sycamore is soft and white1 and was formerly much in request by turners1 for making trenchers1 dishes1 bowls1 and other articles2 but1 since the general introduction of earthen-ware for all these purposes1 its value has greatly decreased4 #abc4 ,,cranberries are a small red fruit with purple dots1 produced by a slender wiry plant 7,vaccinium oxycoccos71 which grows in the peaty bogs of several parts of the north of ,england1 and also in ,norfolk1 ,lincolnshire1 and ,cambridgeshire4 ,the leaves are small1 somewhat oval1 and rolled back at the edges1 and the stem is thread-shaped and trailing4 ,the blossoms are small1 but beautiful1 each consisting of four distinct petals rolled back to the base1 and of deep flesh colour4 ,the collecting of cranberries is a tiresome and disagreeable employment1 as each berry1 which seldom exceeds the size of a pea1 grows on a separate stalk1 and the morasses in which they grow are frequently very deep4 ,cranberries are much used in the northern counties1 and great quantities of them are bottled and sent to ,london4 ,so considerable a traffic in this fruit is carried on1 that1 at ,longtown in ,cumberland1 the amount of a market day's sale1 during the season for gathering it1 is stated by ,dr4 ,withering to be from #bjl4 to #cjl4 ,cranberries begin to ripen about the month of ,august1 and continue in perfection for some weeks4 ,they are much used in confectionary1 but particularly in tarts2 their rich flavour being very generally esteemed4 ,the usual mode of preserving them is in dry bottles1 corked so closely as to exclude all access of the external air3 some persons1 however1 fill up the bottles with spring water4 ,others prepare this fruit with sugar4 ,from the juice of cranberries1 mixed with a certain portion of sugar1 and properly fermented1 a grateful and wholesome wine may be made4 ,the inhabitants of ,sweden use this fruit only for the cleaning of silver plate4 ,a considerable quantity of cranberries is annually imported1 into this country1 from ,north ,america and ,russia4 ,these are larger than our own1 of a different species1 and by no means of so pleasant flavour4 #abd4 ,there are three other species of fruit belonging to the cranberry tribe1 which grow wild in this country1 on heaths or in woods4 ,these are ,,bilberries1 or ,,blea-,,berries 7,vaccinium myrtillus71 which are occasionally eaten in milk1 and in tarts1 and which afford a violet-coloured dye3 ,,great ,,bilberries 7,v4 uliginosum71 which1 in ,france1 are sometimes employed to tinge white wines red3 and ,,red ,,whortle-,,berries 7,v4 vitis ida71 which1 though not of very grateful flavour1 are occasionally used in tarts1 rob1 and jelly4 #abe4 ,the ,,common ,,heath1 or ,,ling 7,erica vulgaris71 is a well-known plant1 with numerous small rose-coloured flowers1 which grows wild on heaths and mountainous wastes1 in nearly every part of ,england4 ,the principal use to which the heath is applied is for making brooms or besoms4 ,it is likewise bound into fagots1 and employed as fuel1 particularly for ovens2 and is1 not unfrequently1 employed in the filling up of drains1 and the morassy parts of roads1 previously to their being covered with earth1 stones1 and other durable materials4 ,in the ,highlands of ,scotland1 the poorer inhabitants make walls1 for their cottages1 with alternate layers of heath and a kind of mortar made of black earth and straw3 they likewise thatch their cabins with it1 and make their beds of it4 ,the inhabitants of ,islay1 one of the western islands of ,scotland1 are said to brew a wholesome kind of beer from one part of malt1 and two parts of the young tops of heath4 ,the stalks and tops may be rendered of considerable service in the tanning of leather2 and in dyeing woollen cloth an orange colour4 ,bees are partial to the flowers2 but the honey which they form1 after having fed upon these flowers1 acquires a reddish tint4 ,the leaves and seeds of heath afford a grateful food to grouse1 and other animals4 ,,trigynia4 #abf4 ,,buckwheat1 or ,,brank1 is a black and triangular grain1 produced by a plant of the persicaria tribe 7,polygonum fagopyrum71 with somewhat arrow-shaped leaves1 and purplish white flowers4 ,although buckwheat may now be considered as in some degree naturalized in this country1 and as growing wild near our fields and dunghills1 it was originally introduced from the northern parts of ,asia1 and was first cultivated here about the year #afjj4 ,the flowers appear about ,july1 and the seeds ripen in ,october2 and so tender are the plants1 that a single night's sharp frost will destroy a whole crop4 ,as a grain1 buckwheat has been principally cultivated for oxen1 swine1 and poultry2 and although some farmers state that a single bushel of it is equal in quality to two bushels of oats1 others assert that it is a very unprofitable food4 ,mixed with bran1 chaff1 or grains1 it is sometimes given to horses4 ,the flower of buckwheat is occasionally used for bread1 but more frequently for the thin cakes called crumpets4 ,in ,germany it serves as an ingredient in pottage1 puddings1 and other food4 ,beer may be brewed from it2 and1 by distillation1 it yields an excellent spirit4 ,the best mode of harvesting this grain is said to be by pulling it out of the ground like flax1 stripping off the seeds by the hand1 and collecting these into aprons1 or cloths tied round the waist4 ,buckwheat is much cultivated in the domains of noblemen and gentlemen possessed of landed property1 as a food for pheasants4 ,with some farmers it is the practice to sow buckwheat for the purpose only of ploughing it into the ground1 as a manure for the land4 ,whilst green1 it serves as food for sheep and oxen2 and1 mixed with other provender1 it may also be given1 with advantage to horses4 ,the blossoms may be used for dyeing a brown colour4 ,the principal advantage of buckwheat is1 that it is capable of being cultivated upon land which will produce scarcely any thing else1 and that its culture1 comparatively with that of other grain1 is attended with little expense4 ---- ,,class ,,ix4--,,enneandria4 ---- ,,monogynia4 #abg4 ,,cinnamon is the under bark of the branches of a tree of the bay tribe 7,laurus cinnamomum1 ,fig4 #dj17 which is chiefly found in the island of ,ceylon1 but which also grows in ,malabar and other parts of the ,east ,indies4 ,this tree attains the height of twenty or thirty feet4 ,its leaves are oval1 each from four to six inches long1 and marked with three principal nerves4 ,the flowers stand on slender footstalks1 and are of pale yellow colour2 and the fruit is somewhat shaped like an acorn4 ,there are two principal seasons of the year in which the ,ceylonese enter their woods for the purpose of barking the cinnamon trees4 ,the first of these commences in ,april1 and the last in ,november3 but the former is that in which the great crop is obtained4 ,in this operation the branches of three years' growth are cut down1 and the outside pellicle of the bark is scraped away4 ,the twigs are then ripped up lengthways with a knife1 and the bark is gradually loosened till it can be entirely taken off4 ,it is then cut into slices1 which1 on being exposed to the sun1 curl up in drying4 ,the smaller pieces or quills1 as they are called1 are inserted into the larger ones1 and the whole are afterwards tied into bundles4 ,cinnamon is examined and arranged1 according to its quality1 by persons who1 for this purpose1 are obliged to taste and chew it4 ,this is a very troublesome and disagreeable work2 and few persons are able to continue it more than two or three days successively1 as the cinnamon deprives the tongue and lips of all the mucus with which they are covered4 ,after this examination1 the bundles are made up to the length of about four feet1 and weight of eighty-eight pounds each4 ,from the roots of the trees numerous offsets shoot up4 ,these1 when they have attained the height of about ten feet1 are cut down and barked1 being then about the thickness of a common walking-stick4 ,the cinnamon which they yield is much finer than any other4 ,a ,french ship1 bound in #aghb1 from the island of ,bourbon1 to ,cape ,franois in ,st4 ,domingo1 and having on board various oriental productions1 the cinnamon tree among the rest1 was taken by the late ,admiral ,rodney1 who presented the trees to the assembly of ,jamaica2 and1 from this parent stock1 different parts of that island were afterwards supplied4 ,in ,ceylon the cinnamon trees are said to be so common as to be used for fuel and other domestic purposes4 ,the smell of cinnamon1 particularly of the thinnest pieces1 is delightfully fragrant2 and its taste is pungent and aromatic1 with considerable sweetness and astringency4 ,if infused in boiling water in a covered vessel1 it gives out much of its grateful flavour1 and forms an agreeable liquid4 ,an oil is extracted from cinnamon1 which is heavier than water4 ,this is prepared in ,ceylon1 and almost wholly from the small and broken pieces4 ,it is1 however1 obtained in such small quantity that the oil of cassia 7#abh7 is generally substituted for it4 ,indeed the cassia bark is often substituted for cinnamon1 to which it has considerable resemblance1 although1 in its qualities1 it is much weaker1 and although it is immediately distinguishable by its slimy taste4 ,the virtues of cinnamon are not confined to the bark4 ,the leaves1 the fruit1 and the root all yield oil of considerable value4 ,that from the fruit is highly fragrant1 of thick consistence1 and1 in ,ceylon1 was formerly made into candles for the exclusive use of the king4 #abh4 ,,wild ,,cinnamon1 or ,,cassia1 is the bark of a tree of the bay tribe 7,laurus cassia71 which grows in the ,east ,indies and ,china1 and is distinguished by having spear-shaped leaves1 each with three nerves4 ,this bark was well known to the ancients1 and highly esteemed by them3 but1 since the use of cinnamon has been generally adopted1 the cassia bark has fallen into disrepute on account of its inferiority4 ,it is thicker and more coarse than cinnamon1 of weaker quality1 and abounds more with a viscid mucilaginous matter4 ,for many purposes1 however1 cassia1 as being much less expensive1 is substituted for cinnamon1 but more particularly for the preparation of what is called oil of cinnamon3 and nearly the whole of what is at present sold under the name either of simple or spirituous cinnamon water is prepared from cassia4 ,the buds1 as well as the bark1 of this tree are used in culinary preparations1 and for several other purposes4 ,they are chiefly imported from ,china4 #abi4 ,,camphor is a white resinous production of peculiar and powerful smell1 which is extracted from two or three kinds of trees of the bay tribe that grow in the islands of the ,east ,indies1 and in ,china4 ,of these the principal is ,laurus camphora 7,fig4 #da74 ,it is of considerable height1 much branched1 and has spear-shaped leaves1 with nerves1 of pale yellowish green colour on the upper side1 and bluish green beneath4 ,the flowers are small and white1 and stand on stalks which issue from the junction of the leaves and branches4 ,camphor is found in every part of the trees2 in the interstices of the perpendicular fibres1 and in veins of the wood2 in the crevices and knots1 in the pith1 and in the roots4 ,the modes by which it is extracted differ in different countries4 ,in ,borneo and ,sumatra1 the largest pieces are picked out with sharp instruments2 and the smaller ones are procured by rasps1 to which1 along with bits of wood and other impurities1 they adhere4 ,the ,chinese cut off the branches1 chop them very small1 and place them in spring water for some days4 ,they then put them into a kettle1 and boil them for a certain time1 during which they keep constantly stirring them with a stick4 ,as soon as the camphor1 in a white and frosted appearance1 is observed to adhere to the stick1 the whole is strained4 ,the liquor is subsequently poured into a basin1 and1 after some hours1 the camphor coagulates into a solid mass4 ,in ,japan it is usual to obtain camphor by cutting the roots and extremities of the branches into chips1 and exposing them to the steam of water in close vessels4 ,in other countries the roots1 wood1 and leaves1 are all boiled in large iron pots1 having a kind of tubular apparatus1 which is stuffed with straw1 and leads to certain large vessels called receivers4 ,in this operation most of the camphor becomes condensed in a solid form amongst the straw2 and the remainder passes with the water into the receiver4 ,in a crude state camphor is formed into irregular lumps of yellowish grey colour1 somewhat resembling nitre1 or saltpetre4 ,it is imported into ,europe in canisters2 and the refining of it was long kept a secret by the ,venetians4 ,the ,dutch have since performed this work2 and large quantities of camphor are now also refined by some of the ,english chemists4 ,the best camphor is imported from ,sumatra4 ,the principal use of this drug is in medicine2 and it was formerly in high repute4 ,dr4 ,cullen says that it has been employed with advantage in fevers of almost all kinds3 but1 since the free use of opium has been introduced1 camphor has been little employed in this country1 though its utility has been fully established by some of the most eminent practitioners of the ,continent4 ,it has often been found to relieve tooth-ache and rheumatism4 ,several preparations of camphor1 in combination with other substances1 are used in medicine1 of which1 perhaps1 the most common is that with spirit of wine4 ,to insects the effluvium of camphor is so disagreeable that they quickly avoid it4 ,hence it is customary to place pieces of it in collections of natural history1 to prevent their destruction by these voracious little creatures4 ,for carpenters' work the wood of the camphor tree is much in request4 ,it is light and durable2 and1 in consequence of long retaining its aromatic smell1 is not liable to be injured by insects4 ,plants of the camphor and cinnamon trees were captured1 from the ,french1 in #aghb1 by ,admiral ,rodney1 and afterwards conveyed to ,jamaica1 and propagated there4 ,several shrubs and plants of our own country contain camphor in considerable quantity4 ,the principal of these are rosemary1 sage1 lavender1 and marjoram4 #acj4 ,the ,,common ,,sweet ,,bay 7,laurus nobilis7 is an evergreen shrub1 which grows in ,italy and other southern parts of ,europe1 and is principally celebrated as that which was anciently used to form the crown of victory among poets4 ,its leaves are of shining green colour1 somewhat spear-shaped1 and often waved towards the edge4 ,the flowers appear in ,april and ,may1 in clusters of three or four together on short footstalks4 ,the corolla is in four segments of yellowish white colour1 and is succeeded by an oval berry covered with a dark green rind4 ,this handsome shrub is common in our gardens and shrubberies4 ,its leaves afford1 by distillation1 an useful oil1 which is occasionally employed in medicine4 ,they are also employed1 in cookery1 to flavour custards1 puddings1 stews1 and pickles2 and ,dr4 ,woodville assures us that they may thus be used not only with safety1 but even with advantage1 as assisting digestion4 ,the berries or fruit of the bay tree1 which have an aromatic smell1 and a warm1 bitterish1 and pungent taste1 were much used by the ancient ,romans for culinary purposes4 ,we import them chiefly from the coasts of the ,mediterranean4 ,from the berries1 in a recent state1 the people of ,spain and ,italy obtain1 by pressure1 a green aromatic oil1 which is employed in medicine1 externally1 as a stimulant in nervous1 paralytic1 and other disorders4 #aca4 ,the ,,alligator ,,pear is a pear-shaped fruit1 produced by a species of bay tree 7,laurus persea71 that is much cultivated in the ,west ,indies4 ,this tree1 which is an evergreen1 has a straight stem1 and grows to a considerable height4 ,its leaves are somewhat oval1 leathery1 transversely veined1 and of beautiful green colour2 and the flowers grow in bunches4 ,to the inhabitants of the ,west ,indian islands1 particularly the negroes1 this fruit1 which ripens in the months of ,august and ,september1 is an agreeable1 and1 in some respects1 an important article of diet4 ,when ripe the pulp is of yellow colour1 of consistence somewhat harder than that of butter1 and1 in taste1 not much unlike marrow4 ,the negroes frequently make their meals of these pears1 a little salt1 and plantains2 and they are occasionally served up at the tables of the white people as fruit4 ,their exterior surface is covered with a green skin2 and in the centre there is a large round seed or stone1 extremely hard and woody1 with an uneven surface4 ,this stone is used for the marking of linen4 ,the cloth is held or tied over the stone2 and the letters are pricked by a needle1 through the cloth1 into the outer covering of the stone4 ,by this means it is stained of an indelible reddish brown colour1 in the direction along which the needle has passed4 ,the leaves are used by the negroes medicinally4 #acb4 ,,sassafras is the wood of a ,north ,american tree of the bay tribe 7,lauras sassafras71 and is imported into ,europe in long straight pieces1 which are of light and porous texture1 and covered with a rough fungous bark4 ,this tree is sometimes twenty or thirty feet high4 ,the branches are crooked1 and the leaves various1 both in form and size1 some of them being oval and entire1 and others having two or three lobes4 ,they are pale green1 and downy beneath4 ,the flowers1 which are of a dingy yellow colour1 appear in pendant spikes4 ,this wood has a fragrant smell1 and an aromatic and somewhat acrid1 though sweetish taste1 that are also observable in the bark1 the smaller twigs1 and the roots1 all of which are imported into this country as well as the wood4 ,infusions and decoctions of sassafras are frequently taken as a medicine for improving the tone of the stomach and bowels1 in persons whose humours are in a vitiated state4 ,soon after its introduction into ,europe1 in the year #aefj1 this medicine was in such high repute as to be sold1 on the ,continent1 at the rate of fifty livres per pound2 and its virtues were extolled in numerous publications that were written on the subject4 ,it is1 however1 now considered of little importance2 and sassafras is seldom employed but in conjunction with other medicines1 which1 in their nature1 are more powerful4 ,infusions of sassafras are sold in the streets of ,london1 under the name of saloop4 ,we are informed that1 in many parts of ,america1 where the sassafras trees not only grow in great numbers in the woods1 but are planted along the fences of enclosures1 it is not unusual to make bed-posts of the wood1 for the purpose of expelling bugs4 ,its powerful scent drives away these disagreeable insects2 and some persons put chips of sassafras into their wardrobes and chests1 to prevent the attack of moths4 ,this wood serves for the posts of enclosures1 to which1 by its lasting nature in the ground1 it is peculiarly adapted4 ,the bark of the sassafras tree is used by the ,american women for dyeing worsted1 which it does of a permanent and beautiful orange colour4 #acc4 ,the ,,cashew ,,nut is a small kidney-formed nut1 which grows at the extremity of a somewhat pear-shaped ,indian fruit4 ,the tree which produces it 7,anacardium occidentale1 ,fig4 #db7 somewhat resembles a walnut tree in shape1 as well as in the smell of its leaves1 which are leathery1 somewhat oval and shining4 ,the flowers are red1 and sweet-scented4 ,the size of this fruit is nearly that of a large pear1 and the colour of its pulp is sometimes yellow and sometimes red4 ,the singularity of its form1 with a nut or stone at the extremity1 instead of the centre1 generally excites the surprise of persons when they first see it4 ,in a ripe state the fruit is sometimes roasted1 cut in slices1 and used as an agreeable acid in punch4 ,its juice1 when fermented1 is made into wine2 and1 on distillation1 yields a spirit which some persons prefer even to rum4 ,the nuts are each enclosed in two shells1 connected together by a cellular substance1 which contains a thick1 inflammable1 and very caustic oil4 ,the kernels of these nuts have a peculiarly sweet and pleasant flavour1 and are eaten either raw or roasted1 and sometimes even pickled4 ,it is said that the negroes of ,brazil1 who eat of these nuts as part of their sustenance1 find them peculiarly wholesome1 and that they are relieved1 by the use of them1 from various disorders of the stomach4 ,they are also used in medicine1 as almonds2 and1 when ground with the chocolate nut1 they greatly improve its flavour4 ,cashew nuts may be kept1 without any great alteration of their quality1 for many years4 ,if the shells be broken1 and the nuts be laid for a little while on the fire1 they open of themselves2 and the kernels being taken out1 the thin brown skin which covers them must be removed previously to their being eaten4 ,it is necessary to be cautious1 respecting the oil1 that it do not come in contact with the mouth or lips2 as1 in such case1 it would inflame and excoriate them4 ,the oil of the cashew nut is sometimes applied1 by the inhabitants of the ,west ,indies 7though much caution is requisite in the use of it7 as a means of corroding cancerous ulcers1 corns1 and ring-worms2 and some of the ,west ,indian ladies1 when they imagine themselves too much tanned by the scorching rays of the sun1 cut off the outer shell of the nut1 and rub the oil upon their faces as a cosmetic4 ,the immediate consequences of this extraordinary operation are swelling and blackness of the parts2 and1 in five or six days1 the whole skin peels off1 leaving the face so sore and tender1 that it is impossible for the person using it to appear abroad in less than a fortnight2 by which time the new skin is sufficiently hardened1 and is as fair as that of a newly-born infant4 ,there are1 however1 few ,british females who would consent to be thus flayed alive for the sake of rendering themselves fair4 ,this oil tinges linen a permanent rusty iron colour4 ,from the ,cashew nut tree a milky juice is obtained1 by tapping or incision1 which stains1 of a deep black colour1 whatever it touches4 ,the fine black varnish so much used in ,china and ,japan is the resinous juice of a tree called fsi-chu1 which is conjectured to be the cashew nut tree4 ,,trigynia4 #acd4 ,the ,,true or ,,officinal ,,rhubarb 7,rheum palmatum7 is a medicinal root which grows wild in various parts of ,asia4 ,the leaves which issue from this root are large1 and deeply cut into lobes2 and the whole plant has a general resemblance to what in our country are called docks4 ,the stem is erect and six or seven feet high4 ,the leaves stand on footstalks1 that are somewhat grooved above1 and rounded at the edge4 ,those which proceed from the stalk supply at the joints a kind of membraneous sheaths4 ,the flowers terminate the branches in clusters4 ,the importance and the properties of this root in medicine are universally known4 ,rhubarb is usually imported from ,turkey1 but it is occasionally also brought from ,russia1 ,china1 and the ,east ,indies4 ,dr4 ,woodville states that the ,turkey rhubarb is brought over in oblong pieces1 flattish on one side1 and rounded on the other2 and that it is compact1 hard1 heavy1 and internally of a dull colour1 variegated with yellow and white4 ,the ,chinese rhubarb is in roundish pieces1 each with a large hole through the centre4 ,it is softer than the former1 and exhibits1 when broken1 many streaks of bright red colour4 ,in some of the mountains of ,tartary1 rhubarb plants are found in great abundance4 ,the roots1 when first dug out of the ground1 are thick1 fleshy1 externally of yellowish brown colour1 and internally of bright yellow streaked with red veins4 ,when they have attained sufficient size1 they are dug up and cleansed2 and the small fibres and the rind being cut off1 they are divided into pieces of proper size4 ,each piece is then perforated in the middle1 and they are strung on cords in such manner as not to touch each other1 and are suspended to dry1 either upon adjacent trees1 or in the tents4 ,the sum expended for the importation of this drug is said to exceed #bjj1jjjl4 per annum1 a great proportion of which1 it is presumed1 might be saved to the country by cultivation of the plants in ,great ,britain4 ,this was first attempted1 about sixty years ago1 by ,dr4 ,hope1 in the botanic garden at ,edinburgh1 and with such success as to prove that the climate even of ,scotland would be no obstacle to its increase4 ,in #agia1 ,sir ,william ,fordyce received from the ,society for ,encouragement of ,arts1 ,manufactures1 and ,commerce1 a gold medal1 for having raised more than #cjj plants of the true rhubarb from seed4 ,and1 in #aghc1 ,mr4 ,davis1 of ,minehead1 in ,somersetshire1 brought to perfection as many plants as yielded three hundred pounds' weight of dried rhubarb4 ,since this period1 rhubarb has been grown1 in different parts of ,england1 to great extent2 and has so far flourished1 that some of the roots have weighed seventy pounds and upwards4 ,the principal difficulty has attended the curing of it2 but this1 after numerous experiments1 has at length been performed in such manner1 that the ,english drug has been found equal1 or nearly equal1 to that which is imported from ,turkey and ,china4 ,the bark of rhubarb has been used for tinctures1 and found1 in every respect1 as efficacious as the best part of the roots3 and the seeds possess nearly the same qualities4 ,the leaves impart an agreeable acidity1 somewhat similar to that of sorrel2 and a marmalade1 which may1 with advantage1 be adopted for children1 is made from the fresh stalks1 by stripping off the bark1 and boiling the pulp with an equal quantity of sugar4 #ace4 ,the ,,common ,,rhubarb 7,rheum rhaponticum71 is a plant which is cultivated in kitchen gardens1 and has large1 blunt and smooth leaves1 and the leaf-stalks furrowed on the upper side1 and rounded at the edge4 ,this species of rhubarb grows wild on the mountains of ,rhodope1 in ,thrace1 whence it was first propagated in other parts of ,europe1 about the year #afcj4 ,it is chiefly in request for the footstalks of the leaves1 which are used1 7in the early part of the year1 when there is little fruit7 for pies and tarts4 ,the root has some of the qualities of the true rhubarb1 and has occasionally been imposed upon purchasers for that drug4 ---- ,,class ,x4--,,decandria4 ---- ,,monogynia4 #acf4 ,,senna is a drug1 the dried leaves of an annual plant 7,cassia senna7 which grows in various parts of ,africa and ,asia4 ,the stems of this plant are woody1 and not unlike those of a shrub4 ,the leaves are winged1 and the leaflets oval1 smooth1 and pointed4 ,the flowers1 which grow in lengthened clusters1 and are of pale yellow colour1 are succeeded by oblong1 compressed1 and kidney-shaped pods4 ,the cultivation of senna is carried on to considerable extent in ,ethiopia1 ,arabia1 ,persia1 and ,upper ,egypt1 from several of which countries it has1 from time immemorial1 been brought by the caravans to ,alexandria1 as the most convenient port whence it could be shipped or sold into ,europe4 ,from this circumstance1 it is sometimes denominated ,alexandrian senna4 ,the process of stripping and drying the leaves is perfectly simple4 ,when dried1 they are of a yellowish green colour1 have a faint1 though not unpleasant smell1 and a somewhat acrid1 bitterish1 and nauseous taste4 ,these leaves have long been in use in ,eastern countries as a medicine2 and their repute1 though not so great as in the ,east1 is very considerable in ,europe4 ,they are administered in various ways2 and the pods have the same effect as the leaves4 ,a kind of senna has of late been cultivated1 with success1 in ,italy and some of the southern parts of ,france4 #acg4 ,the ,,officinal ,,cassia is a somewhat cylindrical pod1 about an inch in diameter1 and a foot or more in length1 the fruit of a tree 7,cassia fistula7 which is cultivated in ,egypt1 the ,east and ,west ,indies1 and ,south ,america4 ,this tree is forty or fifty feet high1 and much branched4 ,its leaves are winged1 with five pair of leaflets1 somewhat oval1 pointed1 smooth1 and of pale green colour4 ,the flowers are large1 yellow1 and grow in oblong clusters4 ,the pods are divided1 by transverse partitions1 into numerous cells1 each containing one seed4 ,these pods are in request on account of the black1 sweetish1 but somewhat acid pulp1 which is contained in their cells1 and which is used1 in many cases1 as a mild opening medicine4 ,it is customary in ,egypt to pluck the pods before they are quite ripe1 and to place them in a house1 from which the external air is1 as much as possible1 excluded4 ,they are then laid in beds about six inches deep1 having palm leaves interposed betwixt them4 ,on the two following days the whole are sprinkled with water2 and1 in the course of about six weeks1 they are in a fit state to be packed for sale4 ,the ,east ,indian and ,west ,indian cassia somewhat differ1 both in appearance and qualities4 ,of the former the pods are smoother1 smaller1 and have a thinner rind2 and the pulp is of a deeper shining black colour1 sweeter1 and more agreeable to the taste4 ,in choosing cassia1 those pods should be selected which are the heaviest1 and in which the seeds do not rattle on being shaken4 #ach4 ,,lignum ,,vit and ,,guiacum are the wood and resin of a large ,west ,indian tree 7,guiacum officinale1 ,fig4 #gg7 which has winged leaves in two sets upon one footstalk1 and regular flowers of five petals4 ,the usual height of this tree is between thirty and forty feet4 ,the leaves consist of two1 three1 and sometimes four pairs of leaflets1 which are somewhat oval1 and of shining dark green colour4 ,the flowers spring1 in clusters1 from the division of the smaller branches2 the petals are of a rich blue colour1 and the stamens are crowned with yellowish anthers4 ,the wood1 resin1 bark1 and even the flowers of this tree1 are all of use either in the mechanical arts or in medicine4 ,the former1 which is yellow towards the outside1 of deep blackish brown colour in the centre1 and so compact and heavy as to sink1 when immersed in water1 is chiefly employed in the ,west ,indies for the wheels and cogs of sugar mills4 ,it is also formed into mortars1 bowls1 and domestic utensils of various kinds1 for which1 on account of its hardness1 and not being liable to warp1 it is peculiarly valuable4 ,lignum vitae is chiefly imported into this country from ,jamaica1 in logs or pieces of four or five hundred pounds' weight each1 and is in great request for school-boys' rulers1 and numerous articles of turnery ware4 ,a decoction of the wood1 when rasped1 is occasionally administered as a medicine in rheumatic and gouty affections4 ,the resin of this tree is sometimes obtained by wounding the bark in different parts4 ,it exudes through the wounds2 and1 when sufficiently hardened by exposure to the sun1 is taken off1 and packed in small kegs for exportation4 ,sometimes it is obtained by sawing the wood into billets1 each about three feet in length1 which are then bored with an augur longitudinally1 and laid upon a fire1 in such position that the melted resin1 which flows through the hole as the wood burns1 may be received into a vessel placed for the purpose of containing it4 ,this resin1 which is frequently called gum guiacum1 is of a greenish colour1 but has sometimes a reddish hue4 ,its taste is pungent and acrid4 ,from the bark of the tree there is frequently a spontaneous exudation3 this has the name of native gum1 and is imported in small1 irregular1 bright pieces1 which are much more pure than the gum obtained in any other way4 ,guiacum is used as a strengthening medicine1 and a warm aromatic2 it is employed as a remedy against rheumatic and other pains1 and as an ingredient in many officinal preparations4 ,on its first introduction1 which was soon after the discovery of ,america1 it was in such repute as to have been sold for seven crowns a pound4 ,in the ,west ,indies1 the bark1 flowers1 and fruit1 are each employed in medicine2 and of these the former is frequently used instead of soap for washing1 in which process it gives a good lather4 #aci4 ,,balsam ,,of ,,tolu is a reddish yellow1 thick1 and pellucid substance1 of fragrant odour1 which is obtained from a tree 7,toluifera balsamum7 which grows in ,south ,america4 ,this tree is of considerable height2 and has somewhat oval leaves1 each on a short foot-stalk4 ,the flowers are numerous1 and in lateral branches2 and the fruit is a round berry4 ,the name of this balsam has been obtained from its being chiefly procured from the province of ,tolu1 on the north coast of ,south ,america1 near the isthmus of ,panama4 ,incisions are made in the bark of the trees1 at a particular season of the year1 and a resinous fluid of yellowish white colour oozes out4 ,this is collected in small gourd shells4 ,at first it is about the consistence of treacle1 but it thickens by being kept2 and by age it becomes hard and brittle4 ,its smell is peculiarly grateful1 somewhat resembling that of lemons2 and its taste is warm and sweetish4 ,on being chewed1 it adheres to the teeth4 ,this balsam is used in medicine both in the form of a tincture1 and a syrup2 and1 in its medicinal virtues1 it agrees with most other balsams4 ,the syrup of ,tolu is used in several medicines2 and is also made into lozenges1 which may be procured of almost any chemist1 and which are considered serviceable in appeasing the irritation occasioned by severe coughing4 #adj4 ,,benzoin or ,,gum ,,benjamin1 is a concrete or solid and fragrant balsamic substance1 the produce of a tree 7,styrax benzoe7 which grows chiefly in the island of ,sumatra4 ,this tree has oblong leaves which taper to a pointy and are smooth on the upper surface1 and downy beneath4 ,the flowers are in loose bunches2 they usually hang all on the same side2 and are generally closed1 which gives them the appearance of buds4 ,in some of the northern parts of ,sumatra1 particularly near the sea coast1 there are several extensive plantations of ,benzoin trees4 ,the seeds or nuts are sown in the rice fields1 and they afterwards require no other attention than that the surrounding shrubs should be cleared away from about the young plants4 ,when the trees have attained the age of six or seven years1 incisions are made into the bark2 and from these the balsam exudes1 in the form of a thick1 whitish1 resinous juice4 ,by exposure to the air1 this juice soon hardens2 it is then pared from the bark with a knife or chisel4 ,for the first three years the trees yield the purest resins3 this is of a white colour inclining to yellow1 is soft and fragrant4 ,afterwards1 for the next seven or eight years1 an inferior sort is yielded2 this is of reddish yellow colour1 degenerating to brown4 ,at length the trees1 unable to bear a repetition of the process1 are cut down1 and split into pieces4 ,from these is procured by scraping1 a still worse sort of benzoin1 which is dark-coloured1 hard1 and mixed1 more or less1 with parings of the wood and other impurities4 ,the inferior sorts of benzoin are exported to ,arabia1 ,persia1 and some parts of ,india1 where they are burned1 to perfume1 with their smoke1 the temples and the houses of the inhabitants2 to expel troublesome insects1 and obviate the pernicious effects of unwholesome air or noxious exhalations4 ,benzoin is brought for sale to the mercantile parts of ,sumatra1 in large cakes1 covered with mats4 ,in order to pack it in chests1 it is necessary to break these cakes1 and to expose it to the heat of the sun4 ,the greater part of the benzoin which is brought to ,england is re-exported to countries where the ,roman ,catholic and ,mahometan religions prevail2 to be there burned as incense in the churches and temples4 ,the annual exportation of benzoin from ,london to ,mogadore only has been estimated at #cj1jjj pounds' weight per annum4 ,that which is consumed in ,england is chiefly employed in medicine1 in perfumes1 and as cosmetics4 ,it constitutes the basis of what are called ,turlington's or ,friar's balsam1 and ,jesuit's drops2 the salutary effects of which1 particularly in healing recent wounds1 is well known4 ,this balsam is composed of benzoin1 balsam of ,tolu 7#aci71 ,socotrine aloes 7#ajg71 and rectified spirit of wine4 ,benzoin is also used in the preparation of what is called ladies' court plaster2 but in this it is supposed to be unnecessary if not prejudicial2 not only as it renders the plaster more difficult to be moistened1 previously to its application1 but as the irritating quality of the benzoin may in some instances dispose a fresh wound to fester4 ,the mode of making court plaster is very simple4 ,five ounces of isinglass are dissolved in a pint of water4 ,a quantity of thin black sarsnet being then stretched on a frame1 a warm solution of the isinglass is applied with a brush equally over the surface2 and1 when dry1 this is repeated a second or third time4 ,it is finally brushed over with a weak solution of benzoin in spirits of wine1 which communicates to it a pleasant aromatic smell4 ,if powdered benzoin be put into an earthen vessel over a slow fire1 and the fumes of it be made to sublime into a paper cone fixed to the top of the pot1 the substance thus formed is the flowers of benzoin of the shops1 or ,benzoic acid1 as it is termed1 by chemists4 #ada4 ,,storax is a fragrant1 concrete1 or solid balsam1 that is obtained from a tree 7,styrax officinalis7 which grows in the ,levant1 and in some parts of ,italy4 ,this tree grows to the height of twenty feet and upwards3 it is much branched1 and has broad1 alternate1 oval leaves1 somewhat pointed1 smooth above1 and downy beneath4 ,the flowers are large1 white1 in clusters on short footstalks1 and terminate the branches4 ,the best storax is obtained from ,asiatic ,turkey1 in small transparent masses1 of pale red or yellowish colour1 and generally abounding in whitish tears1 resembling those of benzoin4 ,the drug1 however1 which is commonly sold in the shops as storax1 consists of large1 light pieces1 very impure1 from the saw-dust with which it is mixed4 ,the mode of obtaining this balsam is similar to that employed for benzoin 7#adj73 incisions are made in the trees1 and1 on its oozing from the wound1 it is scraped off1 and collected together to be packed for sale4 ,it was formerly customary to enclose it in reeds4 ,storax is one of the most fragrant of the balsams1 and is much used in some countries in perfumes1 and for fumigation4 ,it is also compounded in various ways with other substances1 for medicinal use4 #adb4 ,,log-,,wood is a dark red wood1 chiefly used in dyeing2 and imported from ,honduras1 and some of the islands of the ,west ,indies4 ,the log-wood tree 7,hmatoxylon campechianum1 ,fig4 #dc7 is from sixteen to twenty-four feet high1 and1 both in the trunk and branches1 is extremely crooked4 ,the branches are spinous1 and the leaves winged1 with1 in general1 four or five pair of leaflets1 which are somewhat heart-shaped4 ,the flowers are if a reddish yellow colour1 small1 and numerous4 ,the district of ,honduras in ,north ,america has long been celebrated for the production of log-wood1 which grows wild chiefly in forests where the soil is moist1 or near the banks of rivers and lakes4 ,the cutting of it occupies a great number of hands1 and is an unpleasant and very unhealthy pursuit4 ,in the year #agae some seeds of the log-wood tree were introduced into the island of ,jamaica2 and this wood is now chiefly employed in that island as a fence against cattle4 ,as an article of commercial export1 it does not appear to answer so fully as could have been wished2 yet1 in morassy parts of the island1 it grows in considerable luxuriance4 ,few kinds of wood are of more solid texture than this4 ,hence arises its weight1 which is so great that it will sink in water4 ,its predominant colour is red1 tinged with orange and black2 and its hardness such that it is capable of being polished1 and is scarcely susceptible of decay4 ,for exportation to ,europe1 it is cut into billets or logs1 each about three feet in length4 ,the chief use of log-wood in this country is for dyeing green1 purple1 blue1 and black colours1 according to the different ingredients with which it is employed4 ,it gives a purplish tinge to watery and spirituous infusions2 but all the colours which can be prepared from it are fugitive1 and cannot1 by any art1 be rendered so durable as those prepared from other materials4 ,independently of its use as a dyeing drug1 log-wood possesses considerable utility as an astringent medicine1 chiefly under the form of a decoction1 or of an extract boiled down to a proper consistence4 ,the price of logwood at ,honduras is so low as not usually to exceed #abl4 or #adl4 ,jamaica currency per ton4 #adc4 ,,mahogany is the wood of a well-known tree 7,swietenia mahagoni1 ,fig4 #dd7 of large dimensions1 with winged leaves1 and small white flowers1 which grows in ,jamaica and ,honduras4 ,the branches of this tree are numerous and spreading4 ,its leaves are alternate and winged1 with four or five pair of leaflets1 which are somewhat spear-shaped4 ,the flowers are numerous1 small1 white1 and in spikes or clusters1 which arise at the junction of the leaves with the branches4 ,the cutting of mahogany constitutes a principal occupation of the ,british settlers in the vicinity of ,honduras4 ,the gangs of negroes employed in this work consist of from ten to fifty each1 one of whom is styled the huntsman4 ,he is generally selected from the most intelligent of his companions1 and his chief employment is to search for these trees in the woods1 the principal of which lie adjacent to the river ,balize4 ,about the beginning of ,august1 the huntsman is despatched into the woods1 and he cuts his way through the thickest parts1 to the highest spots he can find4 ,here he climbs the loftiest tree1 and thence attentively surveys the surrounding forest4 ,at this season the leaves of the mahogany trees are of a yellow reddish hue1 and an eye accustomed to them can discover1 at a great distance1 the places where they are most abundant4 ,he now descends1 and to such places directs his steps2 and1 having well marked the way1 returns to his companions1 to point out the places to them4 ,here they assemble1 and erect1 against each tree to be felled1 a stage so high as to allow of the tree being cut down at the height of about twelve feet from the ground4 ,the last day of felling the trees is appropriated to festivity2 and these people have then a short interval of leisure for comforts in which they seldom can indulge at any other time4 ,after the branches are lopped1 and the useless parts of the wood are cut off1 the operation commences of conveying the trees1 by cattle and trucks1 to the water's side1 a task of infinite and laborious difficulty4 ,a sufficient number of pieces to form a raft being here collected1 they are shoved from the bank into the water1 and suffered to float singly upon the current to large cables which are placed across the river at some distance below4 ,as numerous gangs of mahogany cutters are usually employed near the banks of the same river1 their trees also float to the same spot4 ,here therefore the whole are collected1 amounting sometimes to more than a thousand immense logs2 and1 each party claiming his own1 the trees are formed into separate rafts for their final destinations4 ,in some instances the profit of cutting mahogany at this settlement has been very great4 ,a single tree has occasionally been known to contain #ab1jjj superficial feet1 and to have produced upwards of #ajjjl4 sterling4 ,the body of the tree is of course the most valuable2 but1 for ornamental purposes1 the limbs or large branches1 are generally preferred1 their grain being much closer1 and their veins being more rich and variegated than those of the other parts4 ,the ,honduras mahogany is considered inferior to that produced in ,jamaica4 ,in this island mahogany was formerly much more abundant1 and consequently much less expensive than it is now1 because the low lands have gradually been thinned of such trees as could readily be carried to market1 or conveyed on board vessels for exportation4 ,the date of the introduction of mahogany wood into ,england is #agbd4 ,since this period it has been in very general request for making the more valuable kinds of household furniture4 ,it admits of a high polish1 and is excellently adapted for tables1 chairs1 desks1 and other similar articles4 ,in ,jamaica1 mahogany is employed as a strong and durable timber for beams1 joists1 planks1 boards1 c4 ,many attempts have been made to stain other kinds of wood so as to resemble it1 but none of these have been attended with success4 ,it has been lately discovered that the bark of the mahogany tree may be advantageously employed in medicine1 as a substitute for ,peruvian bark 7#fb74 #add4 ,,quassia is a drug1 the root of a tree 7,quassia amara1 ,fig4 #gh7 which grows in the ,west ,indies and ,south ,america1 but particularly in the colony of ,surinam4 ,the leaves of the quassia tree are winged1 with two pair of oval and somewhat pointed leaflets1 and an odd one at the end3 these are smooth1 deep green above and pale below2 and the common footstalk is edged on each side with a leafy membrane4 ,the flowers are bright red1 and terminate the branches in long clusters4 ,this drug was first brought into use in ,surinam1 by a negro whose name was ,quassia1 and who employed it with great success in the cure of intermittent and other malignant fevers1 which prevail in that flat and marshy country4 ,the offer of a valuable consideration induced him to reveal the secret to ,daniel ,rolander1 a ,swede1 who carried specimens of the wood1 together with a branch of the tree1 the flower1 and fruit1 to ,stockholm1 in #agef4 ,since this period the drug has been generally employed in ,europe2 and its efficacy in the removal of many diseases has been perfectly ascertained4 ,dr4 ,cullen1 however1 observes1 that though it is an excellent bitter1 and that it will do all that any pure or simple bitter can do1 yet his experience of it had not led him to think it would do more4 ,quassia is said to possess antiseptic properties1 and consequently to have considerable influence in retarding a tendency to putrefaction4 ,it is also sometimes used instead of hops in the brewing of malt liquor4 ,the root1 wood1 and bark of the quassia tree are all occasionally employed in medicine1 and the bark is said to be more intensely bitter than either of the other two4 ---- ,,class ,,xi4--,,dodecandria4 ---- ,,monogynia4 #ade4 ,,gamboge is a yellow resinous gum obtained from a tree 7,garcinia cambogia7 which grows in several parts of ,camboga or ,camboya in the empire of ,tunkin4 ,the leaves of this tree are oval1 but acute4 ,the flowers have each five petals1 and fifteen stamens3 they are solitary1 terminate the branches1 and have scarcely any stalks4 ,the fruit is a berry about the size of an orange4 ,the name of this gum has been derived from that of the country whence it is brought4 ,the mode of obtaining it is by puncturing or cutting the branches of the trees4 ,it issues from the wounds in a fluid state1 but soon becomes hardened by the heat of the sun4 ,after this it is formed into large cakes or rolls1 in which state we receive it4 ,gamboge is chiefly used as a pigment4 ,when good1 it is of a fine orange colour2 and on being softened with water1 is bright yellow1 requiring no preparation previously to being used4 ,it is also given as a medicine2 but its operations being very violent1 it should be administered with great caution4 ,the dried fruit of the gamboge tree is not unfrequently sent to our colonies in the ,east ,indies1 where it is used in sauces1 and with several kinds of food4 #adf4 ,,weld 7,reseda luteola7 is a plant of the mignionette tribe1 used in dyeing3 it grows wild1 in barren and uncultivated places1 particularly on coal-pit banks1 in several parts of ,england4 ,the leaves are spear-shaped1 and entire1 with a tooth-like process on each side of the base4 ,the flowers are yellow1 and in long spikes2 and the calyx is divided into four segments4 ,in some parts of ,england1 particularly in the clothing counties1 weld is cultivated to great extent2 and it flourishes in sandy soils that could be turned to little advantage in any other way4 ,when the plants are ripe1 they are pulled up by the roots1 dried1 and tied into bundles for use4 ,the tinging quality of weld resides both in the stems and roots4 ,this imparts to wool1 cotton1 mohair1 and silk1 a very bright and beautiful yellow colour2 and blue cloths1 dipped in a decoction of it1 become green4 ,the yellow colour of the paint called ,dutch pink is obtained from this plant4 ---- ,,class ,,xii4--,,icosandria4 ---- ,,monogynia4 #adg4 ,the ,,guava1 or ,,bay ,,plum1 is a ,west ,indian fruit1 of which there are two kinds1 one white and round1 and the other red and pear-shaped4 ,the former is produced by a tree 7,psidium pomiferum7 which has sharp-pointed and highly ribbed leaves1 and flowers three on each stalk2 and the latter by a tree 7,psidium pyriferum7 with oval leaves and single-stalked flowers4 ,equally delicious and wholesome1 these fruits are in the highest estimation in the countries where they are produced4 ,the rind or skin is lined with an apple-like substance1 which is used for tarts and other sweet preparations4 ,it is also stewed and eaten with milk2 and1 in this form1 is generally thought better than any other stewed fruit2 from the same part a marmalade is made4 ,this rind encloses an agreeable pulp1 mixed with innumerable small seeds4 ,the whole fruit is eaten raw1 or prepared as a sweetmeat in various ways2 the most common form in which we see it is that of a jelly4 ,the wood is used for fuel1 and also makes excellent charcoal4 #adh4 ,the ,,common ,,myrtle 7,myrtus communis7 is a well-known ornamental evergreen shrub1 which is cultivated chiefly in greenhouses in this country1 but grows wild in the countries of the ,south of ,europe4 ,although this shrub is cultivated with us chiefly for ornament1 it is of considerable utility to the inhabitants of the ,south of ,europe4 ,its young shoots are used for tanning leather2 and both its leaves and berries are employed in medicine4 ,from the former a distilled water is obtained1 which is sometimes used in gargles4 ,the berries are likewise distilled2 and an oil prepared from them has considerable repute as a means of thickening the hair4 #adi4 ,,all-,,spice1 or ,,pimento1 is the dried berry of a ,west ,indian species of myrtle 7,myrtus pimenta1 ,fig4 #de47 ,this tree grows to the height of twenty feet and upwards1 and has somewhat oval leaves about four inches long1 of deep shining green colour1 and numerous bunches of white flowers1 each with four small petals4 ,in the whole vegetable creation there is scarcely any tree more beautiful or more fragrant than a young pimento about the month of ,july4 ,branched on all sides1 richly clad with deep green leaves1 which are relieved by an exuberance of white and strongly aromatic flowers1 it attracts the notice of all who approach it4 ,pimento trees grow spontaneously1 and in great abundance1 in many parts of ,jamaica2 but they cannot be propagated without great difficulty4 ,the usual method of making a new pimento walk1 or plantation1 is to appropriate for this purpose a piece of woody ground in the neighbourhood of an already existing walk1 or in a part of the country where the scattered trees are found in a native state4 ,the other trees are cut down2 and1 in a year or two1 young pimento plants are found to spring up in all parts1 supposed to have been produced from berries scattered there by birds1 which eagerly devour them4 ,about the month of ,september1 and not long after the blossoms have fallen1 the berries are in a fit state to be gathered4 ,at this time1 though not quite ripe1 they are full grown1 and about the size of pepper-corns4 ,they are gathered by the hand2 and one labourer on a tree will strip them off so quickly as to employ three below in picking them up2 and an industrious picker will fill a bag of seventy pounds' weight in a day4 ,the berries are then spread on a terrace1 in the sun1 for about seven days1 to be dried2 but this is an operation which requires great care1 from the necessity of keeping them perfectly free from moisture4 ,by the drying they lose their green colour1 and become reddish brown2 and the process is known to be completed by their colour1 and by the rattling of the seeds within the berries4 ,they are then packed into bags or hogsheads for the market4 ,when the berries are quite ripe1 they are of a dark purple colour1 and filled with a sweet pulp4 ,pimento is thought to resemble in flavour a mixture of cinnamon1 nutmegs1 and cloves1 whence it has obtained the name of all-spice4 ,it is much employed in cookery2 and is chiefly used in whole grains4 ,it is also employed in medicine1 as an agreeable aromatic2 and forms the basis of a distilled water1 a spirit1 and an essential oil4 ,the leaves of the pimento trees yield in distillation an odoriferous oil1 which is not unfrequently used in medicinal preparations1 instead of oil of cloves4 #aej4 ,the ,,peach is a large1 downy1 and well-known garden fruit 7,amygdalus ,persica71 which is supposed to have been originally introduced into ,europe from ,persia1 and was first brought into ,england about the year #aefb4 ,this rich and delicious fruit is highly and deservedly esteemed at table1 as an article in our desserts2 and1 when ripe and fresh1 is grateful and wholesome1 seldom disagreeing with the stomach1 unless this organ be not in an healthy state1 or the fruit be eaten to excess4 ,when preserved in wine1 brandy1 or sugar1 it loses its good properties4 ,the kernels yield a salubrious bitter4 ,the flowers1 which are very beautiful1 and appear early in the spring1 emit an agreeable odour1 have a bitterish taste1 and are used for medical purposes4 ,the leaves are occasionally employed in cookery1 but they ought not to be used without great caution1 on account of their injurious properties4 ,there are many varieties of the peach1 some of which are much more esteemed than others4 ,the mode in which the trees are usually propagated is by a process termed budding1 or grafting upon the stock of some other tree 7see p4 #adg72 and1 by this process1 those of any favourite kind may be exactly obtained4 #aea4 ,the ,,nectarine is a smooth-skinned variety of the peach1 but of richer and more delicious flavour4 ,the culture and management of the two kinds are exactly the same2 and in all the circumstances of their growth1 wood1 leaves1 and flowers1 they precisely resemble each other4 #aeb4 ,the ,,common or ,,sweet ,,almond is a soft and pleasant-flavoured kernel1 contained in a nut which is of flattish shape1 and has a tender shell with numerous small holes on the outside4 ,the almond tree 7,amygdalus communis1 ,fig4 #df7 is usually twelve or fourteen feet high4 ,its beautiful pink flowers of five petals grow in pairs1 and appear early in the spring4 ,the leaves are somewhat oval1 pointed1 and delicately serrated at the edges4 ,our shrubberies contain no tree the flowers of which are more beautiful than those of the almond2 and these flowers appear in ,march and ,april1 a season when few other parts of the vegetable creation have recovered from their wintry state4 ,though known to the ancients from the most remote periods of antiquity1 the almond tree has only been cultivated in ,england since the year #aefb1 and this almost wholly on account of the elegant appearance of its flowers2 as the climate of ,great ,britain is not sufficiently warm for the fruit to be perfected with us4 ,the almonds that are consumed in this country are imported1 sometimes in the shell1 but much more commonly without1 from ,france1 ,spain1 ,italy1 and the ,levant2 and they are packed in casks1 boxes1 and bales4 ,the province of ,valencia had formerly great celebrity for its almonds2 but the cultivation of the trees in that part of ,spain has for several years been much neglected4 ,the chief uses of sweet almonds are in confectionary and cooking4 ,they are also eaten with raisins in desserts after dinner2 but they should be well chewed1 as every piece that is swallowed entire is indigestible4 ,by pressure1 they yield a considerable proportion1 sometimes nearly half their weight1 of oil4 ,indeed this is so plentiful that it may even be squeezed out of the kernel with the fingers4 ,some preparations of almonds are used in medicine1 particularly that called milk of almonds1 which is formed of pounded almonds1 loaf-sugar1 and water1 well mixed together4 ,in some parts of the ,east ,indies1 it is said that almonds supply the place of small money4 #aec4 ,,bitter ,,almonds are in no respect different from sweet almonds1 either as to the appearance of the kernels themselves1 or the trees which produce them1 except somewhat in the size of the flowers and fruit4 ,like sweet almonds1 they yield a large portion of oil4 ,this has no bitterness2 but the substance which remains after the pressure is intensely bitter4 ,if these almonds be eaten freely1 they occasion sickness and vomiting2 and1 to many quadrupeds and birds1 they are a fatal poison4 ,there was formerly a notion1 but it is an erroneous one1 that the eating of them would prevent the intoxicating effects of wine4 ,they are frequently used1 instead of apricot kernels1 in ratafia1 and sometimes are employed in making a counterfeit cherry-brandy4 ,the oil and emulsions of bitter almonds are used in medicine3 and a powder and paste1 for washing the hands is made both from them and from sweet almonds4 ,by confectioners they are much in request for flavouring biscuits and other articles4 #aed4 ,the ,,pomegranate is an apple-shaped fruit with thick rind1 and crowned with the leaves or teeth of the calyx4 ,it is the produce of an evergreen shrub 7,punica granatum1 ,fig4 #dg7 which grows wild in the southern parts of ,europe4 ,this shrub is usually from fifteen to twenty feet high4 ,the branches are armed with spines2 and the leaves are oblong1 pointed1 and dark green4 ,the flowers1 which are of a rich scarlet colour1 have five rounded petals4 ,by the ,greeks and ,romans almost every part of the pomegranate tree 7the root1 leaves1 flowers1 and fruit7 was considered to possess medical properties of a very remarkable and even marvellous description2 and the country then chiefly celebrated for the production of it was that adjacent to the city of ,carthage4 ,the pomegranate is now1 however1 in little esteem1 except on account of its fruit2 the pulp or juice of which is pleasant to the palate1 and1 in common with other summer fruits1 allays heat and mitigates thirst1 but has a slightly astringent flavour4 ,this pulp is red1 is contained in transparent membranes1 and included in nine distinct cells4 ,the tough rind of the fruit1 which is of a bitter and astringent nature1 was employed by the ancients in the dressing of leather2 and it is still used in some parts of ,germany1 together with the bark of the tree1 in the preparation and dyeing of red leather in imitation of what is called ,morocco leather4 ,pomegranates were first cultivated in ,england about the year #aeif2 but the fruit grown in this country seldom attains a delicacy of flavour equal to that which is imported from ,spain1 ,italy1 and other warm climates4 #aee4 ,the ,,cherry is a fruit of the prune or plum tribe1 the original stock of which is the wild cherry 7,prunus cerasus7 of our woods4 ,the gradual effects of cultivation1 as they regard the cherry1 have been the production of several kinds1 which1 both in size and flavour1 infinitely exceed the fruit of the parent stock1 or wild cherry of the woods4 ,the kinds that are best known are the ,may ,duke1 ,early ,kentish ,cherry1 ,white ,heart1 and ,black ,heart ,cherries4 ,the trees are propagated by grafting 7see p4 #adg7 them usually upon the stocks of wild black and red cherry trees1 which are reared for that purpose4 ,this agreeable fruit is eaten either fresh or dried4 ,it is sometimes preserved with sugar as a sweetmeat2 is made into jam2 used in preparations of the liqueur called cherry-brandy3 and made into wine4 ,from wild black cherries the ,swiss distil an ardent spirit1 by the sale of which to the ,french and ,germans they derive considerable profit4 ,the wood of the cherry-tree1 which is hard and tough1 is much used1 particularly by turners and cabinet-makers on the ,continent1 for the manufacture of chairs and other furniture4 ,the gum that exudes from the bark is1 in many respects1 equal to gum arabic 7#bgc72 and is considered very nutritive4 ,hasselquist informs us that1 during a siege1 more than #ajj men were kept alive for nearly two months1 without any other sustenance than a little of this gum1 which they occasionally took into their mouths and suffered gradually to dissolve4 #aef4 ,the ,,apricot 7,prunus ,armeniaca7 is a fruit of the plum tribe1 which grows wild in several parts of ,armenia and was first introduced into this country about the middle of the sixteenth century4 ,some persons are inclined to consider the apricot as the most delicate of all our hardy fruits4 ,for pastry certainly none is more excellent4 ,it is used for tarts1 both green and when ripe2 it is also preserved with sugar in both these states1 and is sometimes dried as a sweetmeat4 ,care1 however1 should be taken to gather it before it becomes soft and mealy4 ,the kernels of apricots have a pleasantly bitter flavour1 and answer much better for several purposes in confectionary than bitter almonds1 which are usually applied4 ,they likewise contain a sweet oil1 which1 like that of almonds1 was formerly used in emulsions4 ,the gum that issues from the apricot tree is nearly similar to that of the cherry 7#aeb74 ,the wood is coarse-grained and soft1 and consequently is seldom used in carpentry4 ,apricot trees are chiefly grown against walls1 and are propagated by grafting upon plum-tree stocks4 #aeg4 ,the ,,common or ,,domestic ,,plum1 in all its varieties1 has been derived from a wild species of plum-tree 7,prunus domestica71 which grows in hedge-rows and thickets in several parts of ,england2 and is distinguished by its branches being without thorns1 and its fruit-stalks being single4 ,were it not a well-established fact1 few persons would suppose that the magnum bonum1 or egg plum1 the green gage1 and several others1 which are now common in our gardens1 are indebted1 for their parent stock1 to the wild plum above-mentioned4 ,these are all used at table2 and1 when sufficiently ripe1 and eaten in moderate quantity1 are pleasant and wholesome fruits1 but1 in an immature state1 they are very unwholesome4 ,prunes and ,french plums are the dried fruit of different kinds of plum-trees4 ,they are usually packed in boxes1 and are imported from the ,continent1 but particularly from the neighbourhood of ,marseilles4--,brignolles1 a town of ,provence1 about thirty miles from ,marseilles1 is one of the most famous places in ,france for dried prunes4 ,prunes or ,st4 ,catherine's plums1 constitute a lucrative branch of traffic1 which is almost exclusively carried on in ,tours and ,chatelherault4 ,prunes are sometimes employed in medicine1 but ,french plums are chiefly used at table4 ,the wood of the plum-tree is of little value2 but the bark is in occasional request as affording a yellow dye4 #aeh4 ,the ,,bullace ,,plum is a small violet-coloured fruit of globular shape1 produced by a shrub 7,prunus insititia7 which grows wild in our hedges1 and is known by its branches being thorny1 and its fruit-stalks in pairs4 ,the plum has a rough1 but not unpleasantly acid taste1 especially after it has been mellowed by the frost4 ,a conserve1 called bullace cheese1 is sometimes prepared by mixture of the pulp of the bullace with about thrice its weight of sugar4 ,in several parts of ,germany this fruit is preserved in vinegar and spice2 and is occasionally used1 in the manner of cherries1 for the flavouring of brandy4 ,an infusion of the flowers1 sweetened with sugar1 is sometimes used medicinally for children4 ,the wood is pleasingly veined1 and is much valued by turners4 #aei4 ,the ,,sloe is a small1 round1 and nearly black kind of plum 7,prunus spinosa71 of extremely austere taste1 which is common in thickets and hedges throughout nearly every part of ,england4 ,the shrub that produces it has thorny branches1 and the fruit-stalks are single4 ,the harshness and austerity of the sloe are proverbial4 ,its juice1 if mixed with ,british made wines1 communicates to them a red colour1 and an astringent flavour1 somewhat resembling that of port wine2 a fact too well known to some of the dealers in that favourite liquor4 ,the juice of unripe sloes1 dried over a gentle fire1 so nearly resembles the ,egyptian acacia 7#bgc71 that it has in many instances been substituted for that substance2 it is1 however1 harder1 heavier1 of darker colour1 and somewhat sharper taste than the genuine kind4 ,a conserve of this fruit1 made with three times its weight of double-refined sugar1 has been used with success as a gargle for sore throats4 ,an infusion of the flowers in water1 or the flowers boiled in milk1 are sometimes employed medicinally2 and the bark1 reduced to powder1 has been efficaciously administered in agues4 ,if boiled in ley1 the bark yields a red dye4 ,the young and tender leaves of the sloe afford a substitute for tea1 but some persons consider them unwholesome4 ,the juice of the fruit1 mixed with green vitriol1 becomes an indelible black fluid1 either for dyeing linen1 or as writing-ink4 ,the wood1 being extremely tough1 is converted into walking-sticks1 and made into the teeth of rakes2 it is also sometimes used by turners4 ,dr4 ,withering has remarked1 that1 from certain effects which he observed to follow the prick of the thorns of the sloe1 he was inclined to consider they had some poisonous quality1 especially in autumn4 ,,pentagynia4 #afj4 ,the ,,medlar 7,mespilus germanica7 is usually considered a native ,english fruit1 having been remarked1 more than a century ago1 to grow wild in hedges about ,minshull in ,cheshire4 ,it is distinguished by being depressed and concave at the top1 the leaves of the calyx continuing upon it2 and by its containing several hard1 compressed1 and angular nuts4 ,it is the property of the medlar1 which is cultivated in most large gardens1 to be hard1 and remarkably austere and disagreeable to the taste1 until it has1 in part1 undergone the putrefactive fermentation1 when it becomes a soft1 mellow1 and1 to many palates1 a pleasant fruit4 ,medlars are usually gathered from the trees about the end of ,october1 or beginning of ,november4 ,to facilitate their becoming fit for the table1 they may be placed in moist bran2 but such as require to be kept for subsequent use should be deposited on dry straw4 ,in a fortnight or three weeks those in the bran will be eatable1 and the others will more gradually ripen4 ,after they are perfectly ripe1 they1 however1 soon become mouldy and decay4 ,the wood of the medlar-tree somewhat resembles that of the pear-tree1 but is of no great value4 #afa4 ,the ,,common ,,pear is a well-known garden fruit1 derived from an ,english stock1 the wild pear-tree 7,pyrus communis71 which grows in hedges and thickets in ,somersetshire and ,sussex4 ,it would be an endless task to describe the different known varieties of the cultivated pear4 ,some of these are very large1 and others extremely small2 some have a rich and luscious flavour1 and others1 as the iron pear1 are so hard and disagreeable to the taste1 as to be absolutely unfit to eat4 ,pears are chiefly used in desserts2 and one or two of the kinds are stewed with sugar1 baked1 or preserved in syrup4 ,the fermented juice of pears is called perry1 and is prepared nearly in the same manner as that of apples 7#afb7 is for cider4 ,the greatest quantities of perry are made in ,worcestershire and ,herefordshire4 ,the ,squash1 the ,oldfield1 and the ,barland perry are esteemed the best4 ,many of the dealers in ,champaigne wine are said to use perry in the adulteration of it2 and1 indeed1 really good perry is little inferior1 either in flavour or quality1 to ,champaigne4 ,of the wood of the pear-tree1 which is light1 smooth1 compact1 and of yellowish colour1 carpenters' and joiners' tools are usually made1 as well as the common kinds of flat rulers1 and measuring scales4 ,it is also used for picture frames that are to be stained black4 ,the leaves impart a yellow dye1 and are sometimes employed to communicate a green colour to blue cloth4 #afb4 ,the ,,apple1 in all its numerous varieties1 has been derived from the ,crab-tree 7,pyrus malus71 which grows wild in almost every thicket1 and in hedges of all parts of the kingdom4 ,the uses of apples are very extensive1 and even the crab-tree is not without its use4 ,the fruit is indeed small1 and bad to the taste2 but its fermented juice1 which is called verjuice1 is sometimes employed in cookery1 occasionally in medicine1 and frequently by wax-chandlers1 for the purifying of wax4 ,dr4 ,withering conceives that1 with a proper addition of sugar1 a grateful liquor might be made from the juice of crabs1 little inferior to hock4 ,hogs and deer are particularly partial to this fruit4 ,the wood is tolerably hard1 and1 when made into the cogs of wheels1 acquires a polish1 and is very durable4 ,apple-trees are all produced in an artificial manner1 by a process termed grafting4 ,this is performed by inserting young shoots of such trees as bear valuable fruit1 on stocks that have been raised from the seeds of crabs4 ,thus the shoot of an apple-tree1 inserted into a crab stock1 occasions the crab-tree1 from that time1 to produce apples of nearly the same kind and quality with those of the tree from which the shoot was taken4 ,other stocks might be used1 but those of the crab are considered the best4 ,the same process is adopted in the propagation of nearly every kind of fruit-tree2 since1 by experience1 it has been ascertained that such as are produced from seed all partake of the nature of wild fruits1 and have little resemblance to the fruit from which they spring4 ,there are several kinds of apples1 and the varieties are every day increasing1 through the attention that is paid1 by different individuals1 to the culture of this valuable fruit4 ,those best known as eating apples are the ,american apple called ,newtown pippin1 the non-pareil1 golden pippin1 ribstone pippin1 golden rennet1 and lemon pippin2 for the kitchen1 the codlin and russet2 and for cider1 the golden pippin1 coccagee1 and red streak4 ,of these the non-pareil and golden pippin1 from some unaccountable causes1 are beginning to fail2 the trees of late production not affording fruit of excellence equal to what has formerly been produced in this country4 ,it would be impossible in this place to enumerate all the uses of apples4 ,they are employed in culinary preparations of several kinds1 particularly in puddings and pies3 they are a constant article in desserts2 and are dried1 baked1 and made into jelly and marmalade4 ,but by far the most important application of them is for the making of cider4 ,the mode in which this is done in ,herefordshire is very simple4 ,after the apples have been gathered1 they are sorted according to their different degrees of ripeness1 and laid together1 for a little while1 to heat1 by which those which are not perfectly ripe are greatly improved in flavour4 ,the fruit is then ground in a mill1 till even the kernels and rind are well bruised4 ,it is allowed to stand1 for a day or two1 exposed in a large open vessel2 after which it is pressed between several hair cloths4 ,the liquor that issues from it is received into a vat1 to be fermented2 it is subsequently removed into casks till it becomes fine2 it is then racked off into other vessels1 leaving the lees behind4 ,as soon as the fermentation has ceased1 the casks are filled up with other cider1 and the bung-holes are closed4 ,cider is a more acid liquor than perry1 and1 generally speaking1 is a wholesome and pleasant drink during the heats of summer2 but the harsher kinds1 or those which are prepared in leaden vessels1 if freely drunk1 are the cause of colics and other painful complaints4 ,by distillation from cider an ardent spirit may be obtained4 ,this has an unpleasant flavour1 of which1 however1 it may be deprived by a certain process with charcoal4 ,by boiling the fresh juice of apples1 and afterwards fermenting it1 a wine may be made1 which1 when three or four years old1 is said to acquire both the colour and flavour of ,rhenish wine4 #afc4 ,the ,,quince is a somewhat pear-shaped fruit1 which is supposed to have been originally imported into this country from the island of ,crete4 ,the quince-tree 7,pyrus cydonia71 is low and bushy4 ,its leaves are oval1 entire1 and whitish beneath4 ,the flowers are large1 of pale red or white colour1 and do not grow in bunches1 but each on a separate stalk4 ,though quinces have an austere taste1 and are not eatable when raw1 they lose a considerable portion of their harshness if prepared in any manner by heat2 and1 when mixed with other fruit in cookery1 they communicate a very pleasant flavour4 ,hence it is that they are often mixed with apples in pies4 ,quinces are also boiled and eaten with sugar2 made into marmalade1 and preserved in syrup either whole or in halves4 ,the juice of quinces1 boiled with sugar1 was formerly used as a medicine1 but of late years it has been nearly discontinued4 ,a proportion of one quart of the juice1 mixed with a pound of sugar1 and fermented1 yields a delicious wine4 ,on the ,continent1 a celebrated liqueur is prepared from this juice1 in combination with sugar and brandy4 ,a mucilage of the seeds is kept by apothecaries1 and used in medicine1 as more pleasant1 but it is not so efficacious1 as that of the simple gums4 ,quince-trees grow wild on the banks of the ,danube1 but1 with much less luxuriance than in a state of cultivation4 ,,polygynia4 #afd4 ,the ,,hundred ,,leaved1 or ,,common ,,garden ,,rose 7,rosa centifolia71 is a shrub too well known to need any description4 ,this1 the queen of flowers1 is one of the most elegant and fragrant of the vegetable productions4 ,its petals yield1 on distillation1 a small portion of aromatic oil1 together with a water which possesses both the odour and taste of the flowers4 ,this oil congeals in the common temperature of our atmosphere1 and in that state is of white colour2 but1 when liquefied by heat1 it appears yellow4 ,so small1 however1 is the quantity that can be obtained1 that an hundred pounds' weight of the flowers will scarcely yield half an ounce of oil4 ,it is in much request as a perfume1 under the name of ottar or essence of roses2 and1 though chiefly manufactured in the ,east ,indies1 is seldom imported from thence for sale1 but considerable quantities of it are brought from ,turkey1 at the price of from three to four pounds per ounce1 exclusive of the duty4 ,that from the ,east ,indies1 when genuine1 has been sold at a much more exorbitant rate than this2 but it is not unfrequently adulterated with oil of sandal-wood 7#ee74 ,the fraud1 however1 is easily detected by those who are accustomed to the smell of the latter1 and also by the fluidity of the compound4 ,the true ottar of roses is undoubtedly the most elegant perfume that is known4 ,from the petals of this rose are also prepared a conserve and syrup1 which are used in medicine4 ,the simple distilled rose-water has little to recommend it beyond its fragrance3 it is occasionally used to impart an agreeable flavour to culinary preparations1 and also to some kinds of cordials4 ,it should be remarked that1 although1 from their fragrance1 roses are much used for nosegays1 their odour has sometimes produced very alarming symptoms in persons sitting or sleeping with such nosegays in confined apartments4 #afe4 ,the ,,wild ,,brier1 or ,,hep-,,rose 7,rosa canina71 is a common wild flower in hedges1 and is distinguished by having a somewhat egg-shaped fruit1 smooth flower-stalks1 the prickles of the stem hooked1 and the leaves oval1 pointed1 smooth1 and shining4 ,we possess no wild shrub more ornamental to the country1 in its flowers1 its foliage1 or its fruit1 than this2 and its sweet and delicate scent1 though less powerful1 is perhaps as grateful as that of any rose that is known4 ,the flowers1 when distilled1 afford a pleasant perfumed water4 ,the fruit1 or heps1 contain an acid yet sweetish pulp1 with a rough prickly matter enclosing the seeds4 ,of the pulp1 when carefully separated from this substance1 and mixed with sugar1 is prepared the conserve of heps of the shops1 which1 though of little medicinal virtue itself1 is used to give form to more active medicines4 ,in the north of ,europe1 the fruit of the rose1 with the addition of sugar1 is sometimes employed in the preparation of domestic wines2 and the pulp1 in a dried state1 affords a grateful ingredient in sauces3 but it is supposed that a still greater advantage might be derived from the fruit by distillation4 ,the leaves of this1 and indeed of every kind of rose1 have been recommended as a substitute for tea4 ,on the ,continent they are employed in currying the finer kinds of leather4 ,on the branches of this tree a singular moss-like and prickly excrescence is frequently found4 ,this1 which is caused by an insect 7,cynips ros71 and forms the habitation of its offspring1 was formerly in great medicinal repute2 but it is now seldom used4 #aff4 ,the ,,red ,,officinal ,,rose 7,rosa gallica7 differs from the hundred-leaved rose in having the leaf-stalks more rough and prickly4 ,the petals are of deep crimson colour1 large1 spreading1 and not numerous4 ,in the period of its flowering1 this rose1 which is a native of the south of ,europe1 succeeds the common garden rose4 ,it is used in several medicinal preparations4 ,of its petals1 in conjunction with sugar1 a conserve is made1 an infusion1 and a syrup2 and the dried buds1 with water and honey1 are made into what is called honey of roses4 #afg4 ,the ,,raspberry 7,rubus idus7 is a well-known garden fruit1 which grows wild in woods and thickets of several parts of ,england4 ,to most persons the flavour of the raspberry is peculiarly grateful2 and its perfume very delightful4 ,raspberries are much used in cookery and confectionary1 as well as to eat in desserts4 ,with sugar they are made into jam and jelly1 and also into cakes4 ,the juice1 mixed with a certain portion of sugar and of brandy1 constitutes the liqueur called raspberry-brandy4 ,this juice is much in request for ice-creams1 and is sometimes manufactured into wine4 ,a grateful syrup is obtained from raspberries1 which is occasionally used in medicine4 ,the leaves are said to be a grateful food to kids4 ,white raspberries are sweeter than the red ones4 #afh4 ,our wild hedge fruit1 called ,,blackberries 7,rubus fruticosus71 belong to the same tribe as the raspberry4 ,these are much eaten by children1 and sometimes1 when taken in too great quantities1 produce very violent effects1 and have caused fever1 delirium1 and other unpleasant symptoms4 ,in ,provence blackberries are employed for the colouring of wine4 ,a syrup and jelly1 and sometimes also wine1 are prepared from them4 ,the twigs are sometimes used in dyeing a black colour4 ,silkworms are occasionally fed upon the leaves of the blackberry4 #afi4 ,the ,,strawberry 7,fragaria vesca7 is a ,british wood fruit which has been long cultivated in gardens4 ,by cultivation the strawberry has been greatly increased in size1 but its flavour continues much the same as that of the wild fruit4 ,the varieties of the strawberry are very numerous4 ,none of our fruits are more wholesome than these1 and1 even when eaten in large quantities1 they seldom disagree with the stomach4 ,they abound in juice1 have a grateful1 cooling1 somewhat acid taste1 and a peculiarly fragrant smell2 and are either eaten alone1 or with sugar1 milk1 or wine4 ,a palatable jam1 wine1 and vinegar1 are prepared from strawberries4 ,this fruit is sometimes preserved whole in syrup1 and sometimes in wine4 ---- ,,class ,,xiii4--,,polyandria4 ---- ,,monogynia4 #agj4 ,,capers are the unopened flower-buds of a low shrub 7,capparis spinosa1 ,fig4 #dh71 which grows from the crevices of rocks and walls1 and among rubbish1 in the southern parts of ,france1 in ,italy1 and the ,levant4 ,the stems of the caper bush are trailing1 and two or three feet in length4 ,the leaves are alternate1 of somewhat oval shape1 veined1 and of bright green colour3 and the flowers are large and beautiful1 with four petals1 and white with a tinge of red4 ,in the south of ,france1 the caper bush is as common as the bramble is with us4 ,it grows wild upon the walls of ,rome1 ,sienna1 and ,florence2 and when trained against a wall1 it flourishes even in the neighbourhood of ,paris3 notwithstanding which it is almost unknown in ,english gardens1 where it cannot be made to flower without the aid of artificial heat4 ,this shrub is cultivated on a large scale1 between ,marseilles and ,toulon1 and in many parts of ,italy4 ,in the early part of the summer it begins to flower1 and the flowers continue successively to appear till the commencement of winter4 ,the buds are picked1 every morning1 before the petals are expanded3 and1 as they are gathered1 they are put into vinegar and salt4 ,when a sufficient quantity is collected1 they are distributed1 according to their size1 into different vessels1 again put into vinegar1 and then packed up for sale and exportation4 ,this pickle is much used in sauce for boiled mutton4 ,to persons unaccustomed to it1 the taste of capers is unpleasant2 but1 after a little while1 the palate becomes reconciled to it4 ,the bark of the root cut into slices1 and dried in small rolls or quills like cinnamon1 is sometimes used in medicine in cases of obstruction of the liver4 ,the flower-buds of the marsh marygold 7,caltha palustris71 and of nasturtiums1 are frequently pickled and eaten as a substitute for capers4 #aga4 ,the ,,white ,,poppy 7,papaver somniferum7 is a naturalized ,english plant1 with smooth calyx and seed-vessels1 and with leaves embracing the stem1 which grows wild in neglected gardens1 and some corn-fields1 and to which we are indebted for two important medicines1 opium and laudanum4 ,although the white poppy has long been naturalized in this country1 it is supposed that we were originally indebted for it to some of the northern parts of ,asia4 ,throughout nearly the whole of that quarter of the world it is cultivated with great attention1 on account of the opium which is obtained from it4 ,opium is the dried juice of the seed-vessels1 and is thus procured3--,after the petals have fallen off1 and the seed-vessels are about half grown1 the latter are wounded on one side1 with an instrument having four or five teeth1 the gashes being made about an inch in length4 ,a glutinous1 milky fluid exudes from the wounds3 this is carefully scraped off1 on the ensuing day1 by a person who1 in similar manner1 wounds the opposite side of the head2 the juice issuing from which is afterwards similarly collected4 ,the whole is then put into earthen vessels1 where it is worked by the hand1 in the open sunshine1 until it attains sufficient consistence to be formed into balls1 cakes1 or loaves2 after which it is covered over with poppy or tobacco leaves1 and further dried1 till it is in a proper state for exportation4 ,opium is of reddish brown colour1 inclining to black2 and has a strong and very peculiar smell4 ,it is adulterated in various ways2 by an extract of the plant1 obtained by boiling2 by a powder of the dried leaves and stalks1 mixed with some kind of gum2 by rice flour1 and by other substances not quite so agreeable as these4 ,the cultivation of opium is so extensively pursued in the ,east ,indies that nearly #fjj1jjj pounds' weight of it are annually exported from the ,ganges4 ,but there is no necessity for us to import1 at a great expense from abroad1 that which might be advantageously prepared in our own country4 ,it is true that the seed-vessels of the white poppy do not attain so large size in this as in warmer climates2 but the opium procured from it is of sufficiently excellent quality4 ,from the seed-vessels of a single plant more than forty grains of this drug have been obtained2 and1 under very disadvantageous circumstances of weather1 upwards of twenty-one pounds' weight have been procured from plants grown upon five acres of land4 ,it has been calculated that1 in favourable seasons1 the produce of a single acre ought to be near fifty pounds4 ,it is recommended that the seed be sown in autumn rather than in spring4 ,when the seed-vessels have attained a sufficient state of maturity1 they may be wounded1 and the opium may be collected by children from eight to twelve years of age4 ,the only proper time for collecting it is in the morning1 and seven children and two men have been able to collect #a pound in one morning1 betwixt five and nine o'clock4 ,the best mode of reducing the opium to a proper consistence appears to be to spread it thinly in shallow dishes1 and expose it1 under glasses1 to the rays of the sun4 ,we possess few medicines so valuable as this4 ,it is used as a powerful antidote1 but chiefly as a remedy for procuring sleep and mitigating pain1 which it does in a very remarkable manner4 ,in the latter respects1 however1 it is too often abused2 and1 if taken in large doses1 it proves a deadly poison4 ,but so much are the effects of opium diminished by the habit of taking it1 that1 although four grains have1 in some instances1 proved fatal to grown persons1 fifty times that quantity have been taken daily by others4 ,the bad effects of too great a dose are best counteracted by making the patient drink freely of acids and coffee1 and not permitting him to yield to the desire of sleeping1 with which he is oppressed4 ,the habitual use of opium1 which is much indulged in by the ,asiatics1 is attended with the same bad effects as the habit of drinking ardent spirits3 it brings on tremors1 palsy1 stupidity1 and general emaciation2 and1 when once acquired1 it can scarcely ever be relinquished4 ,possessing the above properties1 it is remarkable that opium1 combined in a certain proportion with vegetable acids1 instead of inducing1 will prevent sleep4 ,in consequence of which it has often1 though injuriously1 been used by persons who are obliged to devote their nights to sedentary or active pursuits4 ,it is likewise deserving of remark1 that the seeds of the poppy have none of the narcotic qualities of the opium4 ,they are mild1 sweet1 and nutritive2 and yield1 by pressure1 an oil little inferior to that of almonds4 ,so numerous are these seeds that more than #cj1jjj have been counted from a single seed-vessel4 ,laudanum is a liquid preparation from opium and spirit of wine2 and is used for most of the same purposes to which opium is applied4 ,its effects1 as a poison1 may be counteracted in the same manner as those of opium4 #agb4 ,,arnatto1 or ,,annotta1 is a red dyeing drug1 generally imported in lumps wrapped up in leaves1 and produced from the pulp of the seed-vessels of a shrub 7,bixa orellana7 which grows spontaneously in the ,east and ,west ,indies4 ,this shrub is usually seven or eight feet high1 and has heart-shaped and pointed leaves4 ,the flowers1 which have each ten large peach-coloured petals1 appear in loose clusters at the ends of the branches1 and produce oblong and somewhat hairy pods4 ,the seed-vessels of the arnatto shrub are1 in appearance1 somewhat like those of the chesnut 7#bce74 ,they each contain from thirty to forty seeds1 enveloped in a kind of pulp 7of red colour and unpleasant smell71 which is not much unlike the paint called red lead1 when mixed with oil4 ,in the ,west ,indies the method of extracting the pulp1 and preparing it for sale1 is to boil it1 and the seeds which are mixed with it1 in clear water1 until the latter are perfectly extricated4 ,they are then taken out1 and the pulp is allowed to subside to the bottom of the water2 this is drawn off1 and the sediment is distributed into shallow vessels1 and gradually dried in the shade until it is sufficiently hard to be worked into lumps or masses for sale4 ,arnatto1 though made in the ,west ,indies1 is an object of no great commercial importance2 the demand for it not being sufficient to give much encouragement to its culture4 ,it is now chiefly prepared by the ,spaniards in ,south ,america1 and for the purpose principally of mixing with chocolate1 to which1 in their opinion1 it gives a pleasing colour and great medicinal virtue1 as well as an improved flavour4 ,the chief consumption of arnatto in ,england depends upon painters and dyers2 and it is supposed that ,scott's nankeen dye is nothing but arnatto dissolved in alkaline ley4 ,this drug is sometimes used by the ,dutch farmers to give a rich colour to butter2 and the double ,gloucester and several other kinds of cheese are coloured with it4 ,poor people occasionally use it instead of saffron4 ,in countries where the arnatto shrubs are found1 the roots are employed by the inhabitants in broth2 and they answer all the purposes of the pulp1 though in an inferior degree4 ,the bark is occasionally manufactured into ropes2 and pieces of the wood are used by the ,indians to procure fire by friction4 #agc4 ,the ,,lime or ,,linden-,,tree is a ,british forest tree 7,tilia europa71 distinguished by its heart-shaped and serrated leaves of bright green colour1 and by its berries or seed-vessels1 having each four cells and one bud4 ,the blossoms are whitish1 in small clusters1 and have a yellowish green floral leaf nearly as long as the fruit-stalk1 and attached to it for about half its length4 ,no one can have passed a grove of lime-trees1 in the month of ,july1 without having been charmed with the perfume which1 at this season1 is emitted by the flowers4 ,they are a great resort of bees1 and supply those insects with materials for their best honey4 ,whether fresh or dried1 they easily ferment1 and a fine flavoured spirit may be distilled from them4 ,the wood is close-grained1 though soft1 light1 and smooth4 ,it is much used by carvers and turners2 and is in great request for the boards of leather-cutters4 ,when properly burnt it makes an excellent charcoal for gunpowder1 and for painters4 ,if the bark be softened in water1 the fibrous inner part may be separated3 of this the ,russians manufacture fishing-nets1 mats1 shoes1 and rustic garments2 and ropes and other cordage1 made from it1 are stated to be so remarkably strong and elastic1 that1 in this respect1 they are superior to iron chains4 ,in some countries the leaves are dried as a winter food for sheep and goats2 and1 from these and the bark1 a smooth but coarse brown paper may be manufactured4 ,an inferior kind of sugar may be made from the sap2 and the seeds1 by pressure1 yield a sweet and pleasant oil4 ,the lime is an eligible tree to form shady walks and clipped hedges3 but its leaves fall very early in the autumn4 ,in rich soils it attains a prodigious size2 and instances have been mentioned of these trees having existed during more than six centuries4 #agd4 ,,tea1 both black and green1 consists of the dried leaves of an evergreen shrub 7,thea bohea and ,thea viridis1 of ,linneus1 ,fig4 #di71 with indented and somewhat spear-shaped leaves and white flowers with six petals or more1 which is much cultivated in ,china4 ,the tea shrub attains the height of five or six feet1 and is much branched4 ,the leaves1 when full grown1 are about #a inch long1 narrow1 tapering1 and of dark glossy green colour1 and firm texture4 ,the flowers are not much unlike those of the white wild rose1 but smaller2 and they are succeeded by a fruit about the size of a sloe1 which contains two or three seeds4 ,the tea-tree flourishes1 with great luxuriance1 in valleys1 on the sloping sides of mountains1 and on the banks of rivers1 in a southern exposure1 betwixt the thirtieth and forty-fifth degrees of north latitude4 ,it is chiefly cultivated near ,pekin1 and around ,canton1 but it attains the greatest perfection in the mild and temperate climate of ,nankin4 ,the collecting of the leaves is conducted with great care3 they are picked singly1 and1 for the most part1 at three different times of the year2 about the end of ,february1 the beginning of ,april1 and the end of ,may4 ,the drying and preparation of them1 for use1 are processes too long to admit of minute detail respecting them in this place4 ,it may1 however1 be observed1 that for these purposes buildings are erected1 which contain from five to ten1 and some of them even twenty1 small furnaces1 each having1 at the top1 a large iron pan4 ,there is also a long table covered with mats1 on which the leaves are laid1 and rolled by persons who sit round it4 ,the iron pan being heated by a fire in the furnace beneath1 a few pounds of the leaves are put upon it1 and frequently turned and shifted4 ,they are then thrown upon the mats to be rolled betwixt the palms of the hands3 after which they are cooled as speedily as possible4 ,that the moisture of the leaves may be completely dissipated1 and their twisted form be better preserved1 the above process is repeated several times with the same leaves1 but with less heat than at first4 ,the tea1 thus manufactured1 is afterwards sorted1 according to its kind or goodness4 ,some of the young and tender leaves are never rolled1 but are merely immersed in hot water1 and dried4 ,how long the use of tea has been known to the ,chinese we are entirely ignorant2 but we are informed that an infusion of the dried leaves of the tea shrub is now their common drink4 ,they pour boiling water over them1 and leave them to infuse1 as we do in ,europe2 but they drink the tea thus made without either milk or sugar4 ,the inhabitants of ,japan reduce the leaves to a fine powder1 which they dilute with water1 until it acquires nearly the consistence of soup4 ,the tea equipage is placed before the company1 together with a box in which the powdered tea is contained3 the cups are filled with warm water1 and then as much of the powder is thrown into each cup as the point of a knife can contain1 and it is stirred about until the liquor begins to foam1 in which state it is presented to the company4 ,it was formerly imagined that black and green tea were the production of different species of shrubs2 but the ,chinese all assert1 that both are produced from the same species1 and that the sole difference which exists betwixt them arises from the seasons when the leaves are gathered1 and the modes of curing them4 ,the teas principally consumed in ,europe are four kinds of black1 and three of green4 ,black ,teas4 7a7 ,bohea1 or ,voo-yee1 so called from the country in which it is produced1 is sometimes collected at four gatherings4 ,as the leaves are picked1 they are put into flat baskets1 which are placed on shelves or planks1 in the air or sun1 from morning till night2 after which they are thrown1 by small quantities at a time1 into a flat cast-iron pan1 which is made very hot4 ,they are twice stirred quick with the hand3 then taken out1 again put into the baskets1 and rubbed between men's hands to roll them4 ,after this they undergo another roasting in larger quantities1 over a slower fire3 and are then sometimes put into baskets over a charcoal fire4 ,when the tea is1 at last1 sufficiently dried1 it is spread on a table2 and the leaves that are too large1 and those that are unrolled1 yellow1 broken1 or otherwise defective1 are picked out1 and the remainder is laid aside to be packed4 ,the best bohea tea is a small blackish leaf1 is dusty1 smells somewhat like burnt hay1 and has a rough and somewhat harsh taste4 ,the average annual importation of bohea into this country1 in the ten years from #agia to #ahjj1 was #c1caj1ace pounds4 7b7 ,congo1 or ,cong-foo1 derived from a word which implies much care or trouble1 is a superior kind of bohea1 less dusty1 and with larger leaves4 ,these are gathered with peculiar care1 and there is some little difference in the preparation of congo and bohea4 ,the leaves of the latter1 of souchong1 hyson1 and the fine single teas1 are said to be beaten1 with flat sticks or bamboos1 after they have been withered by exposure to the sun or air1 and have acquired toughness enough to keep them from breaking4 ,of congo the annual average quantity imported in the above years amounted to #i1efd1bjb pounds4 7c7 ,souchong1 from a ,chinese word which signifies small good thing1 is made from the leaves of trees three years old2 and1 where the soil is good1 even of the leaves of older trees4 ,of true souchong very little is produced2 what is sold to ,europeans for this is only the finest kind of congo1 and the congo usually purchased by them is but the best sort of bohea4 ,such is the delicacy of this tea that1 upon a hill planted with tea-trees1 there may only be a single tree1 the leaves of which are good enough to be called souchong1 and even of these1 only the best and youngest are taken4 ,the others make congos of different kinds1 and bohea4 7d7 ,pekoe is distinguished by having the small white flowers of the tree intermixed with it4 ,this1 which is chiefly consumed in ,sweden and ,denmark1 is usually made from the tenderest leaves of trees three years old1 gathered just after they have been in bloom1 when the small leaves that grow between the first two that have appeared1 and which altogether make a sprig1 are white1 and resemble young hair or down4 ,green ,teas4 ,it has been asserted that green teas are indebted for their qualities and colour to a process of drying them upon plates of copper4 ,this is certainly incorrect4 ,the leaves for green tea are gathered1 and immediately roasted1 or tached1 as it is called1 upon cast-iron plates1 and then are very much rubbed betwixt men's hands1 to roll them4 ,they are afterwards spread out and separated1 as the leaves in rolling are apt to adhere to each other3 and are again placed over the fire1 and made very dry4 ,after this they are picked1 cleansed from dust1 several times tached or roasted1 and finally put hot into the chests in which they are to be packed4 ,the principal kinds of green tea are singlo1 hyson1 and gunpowder4 7a7 ,singlo1 or ,song-lo1 is so named from the place where it is chiefly cultivated4 ,of this tea there are three or more sorts2 but the leaves of the best are large1 fine1 flat1 and clean4 ,it is gathered at two seasons1 the first in ,april1 and the second in ,june4 ,as we see it1 the leaf is flattish1 and yields1 on infusion1 a pale amber-coloured liquor4 7b7 ,hyson1 or ,hee-chun1 has its name from that of an ,indian merchant who first sold this tea to the ,europeans4 ,there are two gatherings of hyson4 ,it should have a fine blooming appearance1 be of a full-sized grain1 very dry1 and so crisp that1 with slight pressure1 it will crumble to dust4 ,when infused in water the leaf should appear open1 clear1 and smooth1 and should tinge the water a light green colour2 the infusion ought to have an aromatic smell1 and a strong pungent taste4 7c7 ,gunpowder tea is a superior kind of hyson1 gathered and dried with peculiar care4 ,this tea should be chosen in round grains1 somewhat resembling small shot1 with a beautiful bloom upon it which will not bear the breath3 it should have a greenish hue1 and a fragrant pungent taste4 ,gunpowder tea is sometimes adulterated2 an inferior kind being dyed and glazed in such manner as to resemble it2 but1 on infusion1 this is found in every respect very inferior4 ,tea1 both black and green1 is sometimes imported in balls from the weight of two ounces to the size of peas4 ,the dried leaves of the tea plant are a commodity which1 a century and a half ago1 were scarcely known as an article of trade4 ,the earliest importation of tea into ,europe is said to have been by a ,dutch merchant in #afaj2 but the time of its first introduction into ,england has not been correctly ascertained4 ,so scarce an article was it1 for many years after the above period1 that1 in #afff1 twenty-two pounds and three quarters of tea1 estimated at fifty shillings a pound1 were presented1 as a valuable gift1 to ,king ,charles the ,second4 ,the first importation of tea by the ,east ,india ,company was in #affi1 and this consisted only of two canisters1 weighing #adclb4 #hoz4 ,so rapidly1 however1 has the consumption of this article since increased1 that1 notwithstanding the immense distance from which it is brought1 it now amounts to more than twenty millions of pounds' weight per annum4 ,such is1 at present1 the extent of the tea trade1 that it affords constant employment for at least #ej1jjj tons of shipping1 and #f1jjj seamen2 and its importance to us is the greater since it has been the means of opening1 in ,china1 a market for the sale of woollen goods1 one of the most essential articles of our manufacture1 to the amount of more than one million of pounds sterling per annum4 ,if good tea be taken in moderate quantity it is considered by medical men to be beneficial1 by exhilarating the spirits and invigorating the system2 but1 when taken too copiously1 it is apt to occasion weakness1 tremor1 and other bad symptoms4 ,the tea plant may be propagated in the temperate climates of ,europe1 as well as in the ,indies2 under the shelter of a south wall it will even flourish in our own gardens4 ,it is1 however1 somewhat remarkable that the fresh leaves1 if used for tea1 produce giddiness and stupefaction2 but these noxious properties are capable of being dissipated by the process of roasting4 ,in some of the southern parts of ,england there are smugglers who have reduced to a regular process the management of the leaves of the ash1 the sloe1 and some other trees1 for the adulteration of tea4 ,the article thus prepared has the name of smouch1 and is sometimes mixed in the proportion of about one-third1 with the ordinary teas4 ,the preparation of it1 however1 if discovered1 is subject to very heavy penalties4 #age4 ,,cloves are the unexpanded flower-buds of an ,east ,indian tree 7,caryophyllus aromaticus1 ,fig4 #ej71 somewhat resembling the laurel in its height1 and in the shape of its leaves4 ,the leaves are in pairs1 oblong1 large1 spear-shaped1 and of bright green colour4 ,the flowers grow in clusters1 which terminate the branches1 and have the calyx divided into four small and pointed segments4 ,the petals are small1 rounded1 and of bluish colour2 and the seed is an oval berry4 ,in the ,molucca islands1 where the preparation of different spices was formerly carried on by the ,dutch colonists to great extent1 the culture of the clove-tree was a very important pursuit4 ,it has even been asserted that1 in order to secure a lucrative branch of commerce in this article to themselves1 they destroyed all the trees growing in other islands1 and confined the propagation of them to that of ,ternate only4 ,but it appears that1 in #aggj and #aggb1 both clove and nutmeg trees were transplanted from the ,moluccas into the islands of ,france and ,bourbon2 and1 subsequently1 into some of the colonies of ,south ,america1 where they have since been cultivated with great success4 ,at a certain season of the year the clove-tree produces a vast profusion of flowers4 ,when these have attained the length of about half an inch1 the four points of the calyx being prominent1 and having in the middle of them the leaves of the petals folded over each other1 and forming a small head about the size of a pea1 they are in a fit state to be gathered4 ,this operation is performed betwixt the months of ,october and ,february1 partly by the hand1 partly by hooks1 and partly by beating the trees with bamboos4 ,the cloves are either received on cloths spread beneath the trees1 or are suffered to fall on the ground1 the herbage having previously been cut and swept for that purpose4 ,they are subsequently dried by exposure for a while to the smoke of wood fires1 and afterwards to the rays of the sun4 ,when first gathered they are of reddish colour1 but1 by drying1 they assume a deep brown cast4 ,this spice yields a very fragrant odour1 and a bitterish1 pungent1 and warm taste4 ,it is sometimes employed as a hot and stimulating medicine1 but is more frequently used in culinary preparations4 ,when fresh gathered1 cloves will yield on pressure a fragrant1 thick1 and reddish oil2 and1 by distillation1 a limpid essential oil4 ,the latter is imported into ,europe1 but is frequently adulterated1 and sometimes even to the amount of nearly half its weight4 ,oil of cloves is used by many persons1 though very improperly1 for curing the tooth-ache1 since1 from its pungent quality1 it is apt to corrode the gums1 and injure the adjacent teeth4 ,when the tooth is carious1 and will admit of it1 a bruised clove is much to be preferred4 #agf4 ,,ladanum1 or ,,labdanum1 is a resinous drug which exudes1 and is collected1 from the leaves and branches of a beautiful species of cistus 7,cistus ,creticus71 which grows in ,syria and the ,grecian islands4 ,the height of this shrub seldom exceeds three or four feet4 ,its leaves1 which stand in pairs on short foot-stalks1 are oblong1 wrinkled1 rough1 and clammy4 ,the flowers appear in ,june and ,july1 and consist of five large rounded petals of light purplish colour1 each marked with a dark spot at the base4 ,the ancient mode of collecting ladanum1 if the accounts which have been stated respecting it may be credited1 was not a little curious4 ,goats1 which delight in grazing upon the leaves and young branches of the shrubs that produce it1 were turned loose into the plantation1 and the resin that adhered to the long hair of their beards and thighs was afterwards detached by combing them4 ,the present method is different1 and is a laborious and troublesome employment4 ,tournefort informs us that he saw seven or eight country fellows1 in their shirts and drawers1 and in the hottest part of the day1 drawing over the shrubs a kind of whip1 or rake1 with numerous long straps or thongs of leather4 ,from these they collected the resin1 by scraping it off with a kind of knife2 after which it was made into cakes of different sizes for sale4 ,as loose sand generally adheres1 in considerable quantity1 to the viscous leaves of the shrub1 it is not unusual for dealers in this drug to adulterate it with sand4 ,we import ladanum principally from the ,levant and the ,persian ,gulf2 and it comes to us in cakes or masses of different size1 dark colour1 and about the consistence of soft plaster2 and also in rolls1 lighter-coloured and much harder1 which are twisted up so as somewhat to resemble the rolls of wax tapers4 ,the smell of ladanum is strong1 but not disagreeable2 and its taste is warm1 aromatic1 and somewhat unpleasant4 ,this drug was formerly much used as an internal medicine2 but it is now employed only externally1 as an ingredient in plasters4 #agg4 ,the ,,tulip-,,tree 7,liriodendron tulipifera7 is an ,american production which yields a very beautiful and valuable kind of wood4 ,it sometimes grows to the height of sixty or seventy feet2 and has lobed leaves1 and tulip-shaped flowers4 ,while young1 the wood of the tulip-tree is white2 but at an advanced age1 it assumes a fine yellow colour1 or a streaked appearance of different shades of red4 ,this wood is equally useful in ornamental furniture1 and as a timber for building4 ,it is occasionally employed in the construction of light vessels2 and the trunks of tulip-trees are frequently hollowed by the ,indians into canoes4 ,when they have been grown in a favourable soil and climate1 one of them is sufficiently large to be made into a canoe capable of containing several people4 ,on account of its quick growth and easy culture1 this noble tree well deserves the attention of planters in our own country4 ---- ,,class ,,xiv4--,,didynamia4 ---- ,,gymnospermia4 #agh4 ,,lavender is a well-known perennial garden plant 7,lavandula spica7 which grows wild in the south of ,europe1 and the flowers of which yield a grateful perfume4 ,such is the fragrance of this delightful flower1 and so easy is its culture1 that we can now scarcely enter a garden in which it is not found4 ,it will grow in almost any soil1 but it flourishes most luxuriantly in clayey ground2 and in situations whence1 without inconvenience1 it can be conveyed to the metropolis1 it is a very valuable crop4 ,when cultivated to any extent1 lavender should be planted in rows two or three feet apart1 and the sets should be about two feet from each other4 ,it is usually propagated from slips4 ,during dry weather1 in the month of ,july1 the flowers should be gathered1 by cutting off the heads close to the stem2 after which they must be tied in bundles to be distilled4 ,when distilled with water1 the flowers of lavender1 if in a mature state1 yield an essential oil2 generally in the proportion of about one ounce of oil to sixty ounces of flowers4 ,this oil is of a bright yellow colour1 and possesses the perfect fragrance of the lavender4 ,but1 if distilled with rectified spirit1 the virtues are more completely extracted4 ,from the leaves a very small proportion of oil can be obtained4 ,the preparations of this plant that are used in medicine are1 the essential oil1 a simple spirit1 and a compound tincture4 ,lavender1 however1 is much more frequently and more extensively employed as a perfume than medicinally4 ,the flowers are deposited in chests and wardrobes among linen1 not only on account of their fragrant smell1 but also from an opinion that their odour will prevent the depredations of moths and other insects4 ,the perfume called lavender water may be prepared by mixing three drachms of oil of lavender1 and one drachm of essence of ambergris1 with one pint of spirit of wine4 ,lavender is supposed to have been first cultivated in ,england about the year #aeeh4 #agi4 ,,common or ,,spear-,,mint 7,mentha viridis71 one of our most frequent garden herbs1 is a native ,british plant1 and grows wild in watery places1 and near the banks of rivers1 in several parts of ,england4 ,the ancients ascribed many virtues to different kinds of mint1 but it is not now possible to ascertain correctly the respective species1 though there can be little doubt that spear-mint was one of the most important of them4 ,its flavour is to many persons peculiarly agreeable1 and1 on this account1 it is employed for several culinary purposes1 both in a green and dried state4 ,the leaves are used in spring salads1 are boiled with peas1 and put into soup4 ,in conjunction with vinegar and sugar they form a sauce for lamb2 and prepared with sugar1 they are made into a grateful conserve4 ,spear-mint is occasionally used in medicine1 and the officinal preparations of it are the conserve1 an essential oil1 a simple distilled water1 a spirit1 and a tincture1 or extract4 ,in drying1 the leaves lose about three-fourths of their weight1 but without suffering much either in taste or smell4 #ahj4 ,,pepper ,,mint 7,mentha piperita7 is a ,british plant1 which grows in watery places1 and is cultivated chiefly on account of an oil and distilled water which are prepared from it4 ,this is the strongest and most aromatic of all the mints2 and1 on this account1 is more used in medicine than any other species4 ,when distilled with water it yields a considerable quantity of essential oil1 of pale greenish yellow colour4 ,the well-known liquor called pepper mint water1 prepared from this plant1 is an excellent stomachic3 but is too often used in cases of impaired appetite1 and for the relief of various imaginary complaints4 ,,angiospermia4 #aha4 ,the ,,fox-,,glove 7,digitalis purpurea7 is a stately ,british plant1 with long1 erect spikes of large1 purple1 and somewhat bell-shaped flowers1 marked internally with dark spots in whitish rings1 and containing four stamens1 with large yellow anthers4 ,the calyx1 or flower-cup1 has five pointed divisions4 ,the extremity of the blossom is divided into five segments2 and the seed-vessel is egg-shaped1 and contains many seeds4 ,the leaves are large1 wrinkled1 and somewhat downy beneath4 ,the gravelly or sandy hedge-banks or hills of all the midland counties of ,england are adorned1 in the later months of summer1 with this1 one of the most beautiful1 most dangerous1 and yet1 if properly applied1 one of the most useful of all our wild plants4 ,for its medicinal virtues it has long been esteemed4 ,the ,italians have an adage which implies that the fox-glove heals all sores3 hence it is said1 that they apply the bruised leaves1 and the juice of the leaves1 in the healing of different kinds of wounds1 and particularly for the removal of scrophulous swellings4 ,the juice of this plant has a bitter and nauseous taste2 and1 when taken internally1 acts violently on the stomach and bowels1 and brings on stupor and drowsiness2 notwithstanding which1 in careful hands1 it may be rendered a valuable medicine in dropsy1 consumption1 and epilepsy4 ,it is given in powder1 tincture1 and infusion of the dried leaves2 and such is its strength1 that ,dr4 ,woodville states1 the dose of the dried leaves1 in powder1 should not exceed from one to three grains per day4 #ahb4 ,the ,,calabash-,,tree 7,crescentia cujeta7 is a production of the ,west ,indies and ,america1 about the height and dimensions if an apple-tree1 with crooked horizontal branches1 wedge-shaped leaves1 pale white flowers on the trunk and branches1 and a roundish fruit1 from two inches to a foot in diameter4 ,the uses to which the fruit of the calabash tree is applied are very numerous4 ,being covered with a greenish yellow skin1 which encloses a thin1 hard1 and almost woody shell1 it is employed for various kinds of domestic vessels1 such as water cans1 goblets1 and cups of almost every shape and description4 ,so hard and close-grained is the calabash1 that1 when it contains any kind of fluid1 it may even be put on the fire without injury4 ,when intended for ornamental purposes1 the vessels that are made of the shell of this fruit are sometimes highly polished1 and have figures engraven upon them1 which are variously tinged with indigo and other colours4 ,the ,indians make musical instruments with the calabash4 ,the calabash contains a pale1 yellow1 juicy pulp1 of unpleasant taste1 which is esteemed a valuable remedy in several disorders1 both external and internal4 ---- ,,class ,,xv4--,,tetradynamia4 ---- ,,siliculosa4 #ahc4 ,,sea ,,kale 7,crambe maritima7 is a well-known plant in our kitchen-gardens1 the early shoots of which are blanched1 and eaten in the same manner as asparagus4 ,this plant grows wild on sandy sea-coasts in various parts of ,england2 and has been transplanted thence into the gardens4 ,the mode of management is1 in the autumn1 to place large inverted garden-pots over the plants1 and to cover the whole bed and the pots with dung and litter4 ,the heat of the fermenting dung causes the plants to shoot early in the spring2 and the pots protect them and keep them clear of the litter4 ,by this means also1 as they have no access to the light1 they become blanched1 tender1 and of extremely sweet and delicate flavour4 ,sea kale is ready for use some time before asparagus appears2 and1 for the table1 it is preferred by most persons to that favourite vegetable4 ,if the leaves of sea kale be eaten when full grown1 they are said to occasion giddiness2 but horses1 cows1 swine1 and other animals1 feed upon them without injury4 #ahd4 ,,woad is a dyeing drug1 produced by a ,british plant 7,isatis tinctoria71 with arrow-shaped leaves on the stem1 yellow cruciform flowers1 and oblong seed-vessels1 each containing one seed4 ,this plant is believed to have been the same that was adopted by the ancient ,britons for staining1 or painting their bodies a blue colour1 to render them1 in appearance1 at least1 more terrible to their enemies4 ,it grows wild on the borders of corn-fields1 in some parts of ,cambridgeshire1 ,somersetshire1 and ,durham3 and is cultivated in several of the clothing districts of ,england4 ,as soon as the plants are in a sufficient state of maturity1 they are gathered4 ,the leaves are picked off1 and submitted to the action of mills1 somewhat similar to the mills that are used for the grinding of oak-bark4 ,in these they are reduced to a pulp4 ,the woad is then laid in small heaps1 which are closely and smoothly pressed down4 ,after continuing about a fortnight in this state1 the heaps are broken up1 and their substance is formed into balls1 which are exposed to the sun to be dried4 ,when the balls are perfectly dry1 they are ready for use2 and are employed1 not only in dyeing blue1 but also as the basis of several other colours4 #ahe4 ,,horse-,,radish 7,cochlearia armoracia7 is a well-known kitchen-garden plant1 which grows wild by the sides of ditches and the banks of rivers1 in several parts of the north of ,england4 ,the root of horse-radish is much used for culinary purposes4 ,it is remarkable for great pungency both of smell and taste4 ,when scraped1 it is mixed with pickles to heighten their flavour1 and is eaten with roast beef1 fish1 and several other kinds of food4 ,whenever more of the roots are dug out of the earth at once than are immediately wanted1 they may be preserved for some time1 in a juicy state1 by putting them into dry sand4 ,horse-radish is also in considerable repute as a medicine1 and is a powerful stimulant1 whether externally or internally applied4 ,notwithstanding this1 we are informed by ,dr4 ,withering1 that an infusion of horseradish in cold milk is one of the best and safest cosmetics that are known4 ,,siliquosa4 #ahf4 ,,common ,,mustard is made from the powdered seeds of a plant 7,sinapis nigra71 which grows wild in corn-fields and by road sides1 in most parts of ,england1 and is known by its yellow cruciform flowers1 with expanding calyx1 and its pods being smooth1 square1 and close to the stem4 ,in light and otherwise barren lands mustard is cultivated to great advantage4 ,that which is produced in the county of ,durham has much celebrity2 though the powdered seeds of charlock have1 in many instances1 been substituted1 and sold in place of it4 ,mustard is in daily use at our tables1 and the seeds1 whole or bruised1 are employed in pickles1 and for numerous other culinary purposes4 ,these seeds yield1 on pressure1 a considerable quantity of oil1 which is soft and insipid to the taste1 and partakes but little of the acrimony of the plant4 ,different preparations of mustard are sometimes used in medicine4 ,the seeds1 taken internally1 are serviceable in asthma1 rheumatism1 and palsy4 ,cataplasms of mustard are employed1 on account of its stimulating properties1 on benumbed or paralytic limbs4 ,an infusion of the powdered seeds1 taken in considerable quantity1 operates as an emetic1 and1 in smaller quantity1 is an useful aperient and diuretic4 #ahg4 ,,rape and ,,cole ,,seed 7,brassica napus7 are different varieties of a plant with yellow cruciform flowers and1 spindle-shaped root1 which grows wild upon ditch banks1 and amongst corn4 ,this plant is distinguished from others of the same tribe by its roots being a regular continuation of the stem4 ,in several parts of ,england rape and cole seed are sown intermixed1 the plants being distinguishable in their growth by the cole exceeding the rape in height1 being more soft and tender1 and less branched and bushy4 ,when sown separately the cole is usually1 though not always1 consumed as food for sheep and cattle2 and the rape is allowed to stand for seed4 ,for the cultivation of rape the soil ought to be rich and deep4 ,the harvest commences about the month of ,august2 and as the seed1 when in a state of maturity1 is easily shed1 it is customary1 in some places1 to thresh the plants on a large cloth in the field4 ,rape-cloths are sometimes so large as to measure twenty yards square1 and to weigh more than half a ton4 ,the threshing is almost always considered a sort of festival1 at which a great portion of the neighbours attend1 in order to expedite the work2 and they are repaid by the good cheer of their brother farmer4 ,in other places the rape is carried on a cloth1 in a low kind of waggon1 to be threshed out of the field4 ,oil is obtained from rape-seed by pressure4 ,this is used1 in large quantities1 by clothiers and others4 ,it is also used in medicine2 and for making the soap called green soap4 ,it is likewise useful for various purposes in domestic life1 and particularly for burning in lamps2 but it is apt to become rancid1 though there are means of purifying it4 ,after the oil has been extracted1 the refuse is called oil-cake1 and is employed for the fattening of oxen2 and1 in ,norfolk1 is sometimes broken to pieces1 and strewed upon the land as manure4 ,the roots of rape plants may be eaten like turnips1 but they have a stronger taste4 ,the stalks1 or haulm1 if strong1 may be advantageously employed in the formation of the enclosing fences of farm-yards4 ,they are1 however1 generally burnt2 and in some parts of the country1 the ashes1 which are equal in quality to the best pot-ashes1 are collected together and sold4 #ahh4 ,the ,,turnip 7,brassica rapa7 is a well-known edible root1 which is cultivated to great extent in almost every part of ,england4 ,to the farmer turnips are1 in various particulars1 a most valuable crop4 ,they afford a profitable intervening crop with corn4 ,both the tops and roots are eaten by sheep4 ,horses and cattle may be advantageously fed upon the roots during winter2 but the milk of cows receives an unpleasant flavour from them4 ,this flavour is also communicated to the butter2 but it may be taken off by dissolving a little nitre in spring water1 and putting a small tea-cupful of it into about eight gallons of milk1 when warm from the cow4 ,turnips also serve as food for mankind1 either boiled or roasted4 ,in the years #afbi1 #afcf1 and #afic1 during the pressure of a severe famine1 bread is stated to have been made of turnips in several parts of ,england1 particularly in the county of ,essex4 ,the process was to put the turnips into a kettle over a slow fire1 till they became soft2 they were then taken out1 squeezed as dry as possible1 mixed with an equal quantity of flour1 and1 after having been kneaded with yeast1 salt1 and a little warm water1 were made into loaves and baked4 ,in bread thus made the peculiar taste of the turnip is said to be scarcely perceptible4 ,these roots have been much recommended as sea store1 from the possibility1 with care1 of preserving them for a great length of time uninjured1 and from their furnishing an agreeable and wholesome food for sailors1 on long voyages4 ,the young and tender tops of turnips1 when boiled1 afford an agreeable substitute for greens4 ,for the cultivation of turnips a light soil1 particularly such as consists of a mixture of sand and loam1 is found preferable to rich and heavy land4 ,turnips are raised from seed1 which it has long been the established custom to sow in the month of ,june4 ,as soon as the young plants have attained a tolerable size1 they are hoed1 for the purpose of thinning them4 ,in their growth they suffer much by the attacks of slugs1 caterpillars1 and insects of different kinds1 particularly of a small1 dark beetle with two longitudinal yellowish stripes 7,chrysomela nemorum71 which is called by farmers the turnip-fly4 ,for the destruction of this insect many plans have1 at different times1 been devised4 ,turnips are either eaten on the land by cattle1 or are drawn out and stacked1 or preserved under ground for winter use2 and1 in this state1 they may be kept sound till ,april4 ,there are several kinds of turnips2 but of these the common white1 or ,norfolk turnips1 and the ,ruta-baga1 or ,swedish turnips1 are the principal4 ,the latter1 which indeed constitute a distinct species1 are generally of a yellowish colour1 and are so hardy as to suffer no injury even from the most intense cold2 but their substance is so compact as sometimes to break the teeth of sheep which feed upon them4 #ahi4 ,the ,,common ,,cabbage 7,brassica oleracea7 is a well-known plant1 the original stock of which grows on cliffs by the seaside1 in ,kent1 ,cornwall1 ,yorkshire1 and ,wales4 ,this wild plant is likewise the original of the various kinds of colewort1 borecole1 cauliflower1 and brocoli4 ,the effects of cultivation on the cabbage are very remarkable4 ,in the wild plants the leaves are extended3 but in the common garden cabbage they are set so close together as to lie upon each other1 almost like the scales of a bulb1 and1 increasing in compactness as they increase in size3 those in the interior being excluded from the effects of the light1 do not assume a green1 but are of yellow colour4 ,other plants of this species form their stalks into a head1 as the cauliflower and brocoli2 and others grow1 in a natural way1 without forming either their leaves or stalks into heads1 as the coleworts1 or ,dorsetshire kale1 the borcoles1 turnip-rooted cabbage1 and others4 ,in some parts of ,england1 cabbages of different kinds are much cultivated as food for cattle1 and they succeed well in rich and finely prepared land4 ,the seed is sown in ,february or ,march4 ,in ,april or ,may the young plants are taken out1 and set in rows1 at a little distance from each other2 and1 in the ensuing autumn and winter1 the cabbages afford a valuable stock of food4 ,all the kinds of cabbage are useful for domestic purposes2 and some of them afford a peculiarly sweet and delicate food4 ,an agreeable pickle is made of them1 and the ,germans1 and people of other northern countries of the ,continent1 prepare from them a favourite food called sour-crout4 ,these plants were known to1 and much used by1 the ancient ,greeks and ,romans4 ,cabbages are biennial plants1 or are sown one year1 produce seed in the ensuing year1 and then die4 ---- ,,class ,,xvi4--,,monadelphia4 ---- ,,triandria4 #aij4 ,,tamarinds are the pulp and needs produced by the pods of a large tree with winged leaves 7,tamarindus ,indica1 ,fig4 #ea71 which grows in the ,east and ,west ,indies1 ,america1 and several parts of ,asia4 ,this tree is from thirty to forty feet in height2 and its leaves consist usually of fourteen pairs of leaflets4 ,the flowers are formed in clusters1 from the sides of the branches1 and have each three yellowish petals1 beautifully marked with red veins4 ,the fruit of the tamarind-tree is a roundish but somewhat compressed pod1 four or five inches in length1 the external part of which is very brittle4 ,each pod contains three or four hard seeds1 enveloped in tough skins1 surrounded by a dark-coloured1 acid pulp1 and connected together by numerous tough and woody fibres4 ,previously to the exportation of tamarinds1 the pulp1 with the seeds and fibres1 are freed from their shell3 and those which we receive from the ,west ,indies are usually preserved in syrup4 ,in ,jamaica the fruit is gathered about the month of ,july4 ,when fully ripe1 and after the pods are cleared away1 the remainder is placed in layers1 in small casks3 and boiling syrup1 just before it begins to granulate1 is poured upon them until the casks are filled1 after which the heads are put in and fastened up for exportation4 ,the ,east ,indian tamarinds are generally packed without any admixture4 ,they are more esteemed than the others2 and1 when in the pods1 are easily distinguished from them by their being longer1 and containing six or seven seeds2 the pulp also is drier and of darker colour4 ,it is said that we are indebted to the ,arabians for a knowledge of the use of tamarinds4 ,in hot climates they are a most refreshing and delicious fruit2 and1 dissolved in water1 are much used as a cooling and agreeable beverage1 particularly by persons suffering under fever4 ,they also give great relief in sore throats1 and other complaints4 ,,polyandria4 #aia4 ,the ,,sour-,,gourd1 ,,boabab1 or ,,african ,,calabash-,,tree 7,adansonia digitata7 is probably the largest of all vegetable productions4 ,the trunk1 although not usually more than twelve or fifteen feet high1 is frequently from sixty to eighty feet in girth4 ,the lowest branches extend almost horizontally2 and1 as they are sometimes near sixty feet in length1 they bend1 by their own weight1 to the ground2 and thus the whole tree forms an hemispherical mass of verdure1 which measures from #abj to #acj feet in diameter4 ,the fruit is oblong1 about ten inches in length1 pointed at both ends1 and covered with a greenish down1 under which there is a blackish and woody rind4 ,its interior consists of a whitish1 spongy1 and juicy substance1 with several brown seeds4 ,this tree is a native of ,senegal and other parts of ,africa4 ,the virtues and uses of the sour-gourd tree and its fruit are numerous and of great importance to the inhabitants of the countries in which it is found4 ,the bark and leaves are dried1 powdered1 and preserved in bags1 to be employed as a seasoning for food4 ,two or three pinches of this powder are put1 by the negroes1 into their messes1 under an impression that it promotes perspiration and moderates the heat of the blood4 ,the pulp of the fruit has an agreeably acid flavour4 ,this is not only eaten when fresh1 but is dried and powdered for medicinal uses2 a kind of soap is also prepared from it4 ,in ,senegal1 when the trees are decayed1 the trunks are hollowed1 by the negroes1 into burying-places for their poets1 musicians1 and buffoons4 ,these persons are much esteemed whilst they live1 although they are supposed to derive their superior talents from sorcery or an alliance with demons4 ,when dead1 however1 their bodies are regarded with horror1 and are not allowed the usual burial1 under a notion that the earth would1 in such case1 refuse to produce its accustomed fruits4 ,the bodies inclosed in these trees are said to become perfectly dry without decaying1 and thus to form a kind of mummies1 without the process of embalming4 #aib4 ,,cotton is a soft vegetable down1 which is contained in the seed vessels1 and envelopes the seeds of the cotton-plant 7,gosypium herbaceum1 ,fig4 #eb71 which is cultivated in the ,east and ,west ,indies1 and numerous other countries of hot climates44 ,this1 though an annual plant1 grows to a considerable heights ,it has leaves of bright green colour1 marked with brownish veins1 and each divided into five lobes4 ,the flowers have only one petal1 in five segments1 with a short tube1 and are of pale yellow colour1 with five red spots at the bottom4 ,the cotton pods are of somewhat triangular shape1 and have each three cells4 ,these1 when ripe1 burst1 and disclose their snow-white or yellowish contents1 in the midst of which are contained small black seeds1 in shape somewhat resembling those of grapes4 ,we are informed1 by ,mr4 ,edwards1 that the plants are raised from seed1 the land requiring no other preparation for them than to be cleared of its native incumbrances4 ,the seeds are usually sown in rows six or eight feet asunder1 and the holes in which they are put are about four feet apart4 ,at the end of five months the plants begin to flower1 and in two months more the pods are formed4 ,after the cotton is gathered1 it is freed from the seeds to which it is attached1 by a very simple machine1 consisting of two small rollers that are close and parallel to each other1 and move in opposite directions4 ,the cotton is next hand-picked1 to free it from decayed leaves1 broken seeds1 and other impurities2 after which it is packed1 for sale1 in bags of about two hundred pounds each4 ,though the cotton plant flourishes best in tropical climates1 it is capable of cultivation in such as are not so hot2 and it is now an object of attention in several of the southern parts of ,europe4 ,we receive great quantities of cotton from ,america1 and the ,east and ,west ,indies4 ,the whole quantity imported into this country1 in the year #ahjb1 exceeded #fj1jjj1jjj pounds' weight2 whilst the average annual importation1 anterior to #aghj1 did not amount to one tenth part of this2 so rapid has been the increase and prosperity of our cotton manufactories4 ,calicoes and muslins of all kinds are made of cotton2 fustians1 corderoys1 and innumerable other articles4 ,nankeens1 which are manufactured in ,india1 are made of a kind of cotton which is naturally of a reddish buff colour4 ,after the cotton is imported into ,england1 the first process which it goes through is that of carding4 ,some years ago1 this was performed by the hand1 upon the knee1 with a single pair of cards2 but it is now performed with cylindrical cards1 worked by machinery4 ,the next and most important improvements in the manufacture of cotton1 were made at ,cromford1 in the county of ,derby1 by the late ,sir ,richard ,arkwright2 who1 in #agfh1 first introduced the method of spinning cotton by machinery4 ,by this contrivance cotton was carded1 roved1 and spun1 with the utmost expedition1 correctness1 and equality4 ,other machines have1 at different subsequent periods1 been invented by various mechanics and manufacturers1 particularly that called a jenny1 by which one person is able to spin a hundred hanks of cotton yarn a-day1 containing1 in the whole1 near a million of yards4 ,the concluding operation is that of weaving1 which is performed with a machine called a loom1 in the same manner as flax 7#ig7 and hemp 7#bei74 ,cotton is capable of being manufactured into paper1 which is little inferior to that made from linen rags4 ---- ,,class ,,xvii4--,,diadelphia4 ---- ,,decandria4 #aic4 ,the ,,common ,,broom 7,spartium scoparium7 is a shrub common on sandy pastures and heaths in nearly all the southern parts of ,england2 and is distinguished by having large1 yellow1 butterfly-shaped flowers1 leaves in threes1 and single1 and the branches angular4 ,few of our wild plants are applicable to more numerous purposes of domestic utility than this4 ,its twigs are tied in bundles1 and formed into brooms4 ,some persons roast the seeds1 and make them into a kind of coffee4 ,the fibrous and elastic parts of the bark1 after having been separated by soaking in water1 may be manufactured into cordage1 matting1 and even into a coarse kind of cloth4 ,the twigs and young branches have been successfully employed as a substitute for oak bark1 in the tanning of leather4 ,they may also be rendered serviceable as thatch for houses1 and corn ricks2 and some persons mix them with hops in brewing2 but it is doubtful whether1 in this respect1 they are wholesome4 ,the flower buds1 when pickled1 have occasionally been used as a substitute for capers4 ,the wood1 where the dimensions are sufficient for the purpose1 is employed by cabinet-makers for veneering2 and it is stated by ,dr4 ,mead1 that a decoction of the green tops1 in conjunction with mustard1 has been found efficacious in the cure of dropsy4 #aid4 ,,spanish ,,broom1 or ,,spart 7,spartium junceum71 is a well-known ornamental flowering shrub in our gardens1 which has opposite1 round branches1 that flower at the top1 and spear-shaped leaves4 ,in the province of ,valencia1 and other parts of ,spain1 great attention is paid to this manufacture of various articles from the twigs and bark of this shrub4 ,they are plaited into mats1 carpets1 coverings for plants1 baskets1 ropes1 and even shoes4 ,a great portion of these twigs was formerly exported to different ,french ports in the ,mediterranean1 particularly to ,marseilles2 but1 in #aghc1 on account of the employment of which it deprived the ,spanish people in working them1 their exportation was prohibited by the government4 #aie4 ,,furze1 ,,gorze1 or ,,whin 7,ulex ,europus71 is a well-known thorny shrub1 which is common on heaths and waste ground in almost every part of ,england4 ,the chief use to which furze is applied1 is for the heating of ovens2 and1 in this respect1 it is valuable1 from its burning rapidly1 and emitting a great degree of heat4 ,its ashes are used for a ley1 which is of considerable service in the washing of linen4 ,in some parts of the country1 furze is sown on banks1 round fields1 for the purpose of a fence2 and it will flourish even close to the sea side1 where the spray of the sea destroys almost every other shrub4 ,but it will not bear severe cold1 and it is often destroyed by intense frost4 ,furze does not often occur in the northern parts of our island4 ,horses1 sheep1 and cattle may be fed on this shrub2 and1 in several places1 the seeds of it are sown1 either by themselves1 or with barley1 oats1 or buck-wheat 7#abf74 ,the plants are mown a year afterwards4 ,they will grow for several years1 and produce from ten to fifteen tons per acre of food1 which is equal1 in quality and excellence1 to the same quantity of hay4 ,they are bruised before they are eaten1 either in a machine1 or by heavy mallets on blocks of wood4 ,this operation is requisite1 in order to break the prickles1 and prevent these from being injurious to the mouths of the animals that eat them4 #aif4 ,,cowhage1 or ,,cow-,,itch1 is a sharp and barbed kind of down or hair1 which thickly clothes the pods of a bean-like climbing plant 7,dolichos pruriens1 ,fig4 #ec71 that grows in the ,west ,indies1 and other countries of warm climates4 ,this is an herbaceous plant1 which entwines round the adjacent trees or shrubs1 and often rises to a considerable height4 ,the leaves grow in threes upon long foot-stalks2 and the flowers are large1 butter-fly shaped1 of purplish colour1 and form long and pendant spikes1 which have a very beautiful appearance4 ,it is the property of cowhage1 when rubbed upon the skin1 immediately to penetrate it1 and to cause an intolerable itching4 ,hence it is sometimes wantonly employed for mischievous purposes2 and hence also it is found very troublesome to cattle and domestic animals1 in places where the plants grow4 ,notwithstanding this1 it may be swallowed in safety1 and1 if taken into the stomach and intestines1 is said to be an useful remedy for the destruction of worms4 ,as a medicine1 it is mixed with syrup or treacle into the form of an electuary4 #aig4 ,,soy is a dark-coloured sauce1 which is prepared from the seeds of a ,chinese plant 7,dolichos soja71 that has an erect and hairy stem1 erect branches of flowers1 and pendulous bristly pods1 each containing about two seeds4 ,there is a joke amongst seamen1 that soy is made from beetles or cockroaches4 ,this probably originates in the seeds of the plant from which the sauce is manufactured having some fancied resemblance1 in shape and colour1 to a beetle4 ,these seeds are used in ,china and ,japan as food4 ,they are made into a kind of jelly or curd1 which is esteemed very nutritious1 and which is rendered palatable by seasoning of different kinds4 ,the liquid which we know by the name of soy is thus prepared3--,after the seeds have been boiled until they become soft1 they are mixed with an equal weight of wheat or barley meal1 coarsely ground4 ,this mixture is fermented2 and a certain proportion of salt and water being added1 the whole is allowed to stand for two or three months1 care being taken to stir it every day2 and1 by the end of that time1 it is ready for use4 ,soy is chiefly prepared in ,china and ,japan2 but that imported from ,japan is considered preferable to any other4 ,the quantity annually vended at the ,east ,india ,company's sales is from eight hundred to two thousand gallons1 at an average price of sixteen or eighteen shillings per gallon4 #aih4 ,,beans 7,vicia faba7 are well-known seeds1 originally introduced from ,persia1 of which there are several kinds or varieties2 some of these are cultivated in fields1 and others in gardens4 ,field1 or horse-beans1 as they are frequently called1 are small and somewhat round4 ,the cultivation of them is pursued to a considerable extent4 ,they are esteemed1 in many respects1 an advantageous crop to the farmer1 and will thrive on any land where the soil is sufficiently stiff4 ,they are usually sown in the month of ,february2 sometimes in the autumn2 but1 in case of severe frost1 all the plants that are not well and deeply covered with snow will perish4 ,there is also much uncertainty in the crop1 owing to the state of the weather in the spring and summer2 and particularly to the ravages of small black insects1 myriads of which are frequently seen to crowd the tender tops of the plants4 ,the bean-harvest is seldom completed till nearly the end of ,september1 owing to the bulk and succulence of the plants2 and the produce is from two and a half to five quarters per acre4 ,there are several varieties of field-beans2 but the fine and very small ones usually bear the highest price4 ,bean flour is not only thought more nutritive1 but is found to be more abundant than that of oats4 ,beans are chiefly applied to the feeding of horses1 hogs1 and other domestic animals2 and it is supposed that meal-men often grind them amongst wheat1 the flour of which is to be made into bread4 ,by some persons they are roasted1 and adopted as a substitute for coffee4 ,with the ,roman ladies bean-flour was in much repute as a cosmetic4 ,garden-beans are almost wholly confined to culinary uses4 ,what are called ,french-beans1 and ,kidney-beans1 belong to a different tribe from the present4 ,bean stalks1 if subjected to a certain process1 are capable of being converted into paper4 #aii4 ,,vetches are a small species of beans 7,vicia sativa7 which grow wild in dry meadows1 pastures1 and cornfields1 and are also cultivated in most parts of ,england4 ,the pods are generally in pairs2 and the leaves winged1 having each about six pairs of leaflets1 with a branched tendril at the extremity4 ,at the bases of each of the leaves there is a small stipule1 marked with a dark spot4 ,the principal use of vetches is as provender for horses and cattle4 ,they are grown so early as to allow of being fed off1 or cut for this purpose1 in sufficient time for turnips to be sown the same year4 ,when the land is to be prepared for a wheat crop it is sometimes customary to plough in the vetches as manure4 ,the seeds afford a grateful food for pigeons4 #bjj4 ,,peas 7,pisum sativum7 are a kind of seeds too well known to need any description4 ,there are several kinds of peas1 some of which are cultivated in gardens1 and others in fields4 ,the former are principally used for culinary purposes4 ,in the early part of the year1 gardeners in the neighbourhood of ,london raise them on hot-beds4 ,the kind they select for this purpose are the dwarf peas4 ,these are sown about the middle of ,october in warm borders2 and afterwards1 towards the end of ,january1 they are removed into the hot-beds4 ,the inducement1 of course1 is the enormous prices that are paid for the earliest peas brought into the market4 ,the podding or picking of green peas for the ,london market is also a valuable branch of the business of some farms within a few miles of the metropolis4 ,many attempts have been made to preserve green peas for use in winter2 one of these is by bottling them1 and another by drying them in an oven1 and afterwards keeping them in paper bags2 but none of the modes have been attended with complete success4 ,field peas are sown about ,march or ,april1 and succeed best in light1 rich soils4 ,they are generally considered an uncertain crop2 but this is owing1 in a great degree1 to want of due attention to their culture4 ,in common with most other seeds of this class1 peas yield a nutritive food to persons of strong stomachs4 ,when boiled in a fresh or green state1 they are both wholesome and agreeable2 and1 when ripe and ground into meal1 they are peculiarly serviceable for the fattening of swine4 ,the flour of peas is not unfrequently mixed by bakers amongst that of wheat for bread2 but bread made of this flour alone is heavy and unwholesome4 ,three parts of rye-flour and one of ground peas are said to yield a palatable and nourishing bread4 ,peas that are freed from their husks1 and split in mills constructed for the purpose1 are used for soup4 ,the haulm or straw of field peas1 if saved in favourable seasons1 affords not only an excellent fodder for working horses1 but is also an useful food for horses1 cattle1 and sheep4 ,it has been presumed that the everlasting pea1 which is commonly grown as an ornamental flower in our gardens1 would be an advantageous green food for horses and cattle4 #bja4 ,,liquorice is the root of a perennial plant 7,glycyrrhiza glabra71 with winged leaves1 and purplish butterfly-shaped flowers1 which grows wild in the south of ,europe1 and is cultivated near ,pontefract in ,yorkshire1 ,worksop in ,nottinghamshire1 and ,godalming in ,surrey1 and by many gardeners in the vicinity of ,london4 ,the stalks of the liquorice-plant are usually four or five feet high4 ,the leaves are winged1 and the leaflets egg-shaped1 with an odd one at the extremity4 ,the flowers grow in long spikes from the junction of the leaves and branches4 ,the roots are long1 round1 tough1 of brown colour externally1 and yellow within4 ,the principal use of liquorice is in medicine4 ,it contains much saccharine matter1 joined with some portion of mucilage2 and is one of the few sweet substances which tend to allay thirst4 ,liquorice is an excellent medicine in coughs and hoarsenesses4 ,when boiled in a little water1 it gives out nearly all its sweetness2 and this1 when the moisture is evaporated1 produces1 by different processes1 what are called ,spanish liquorice1 liquorice cakes1 liquorice lozenges1 and ,pontefract cakes4 ,the former of these is used to great extent in the brewing of porter4 ,it is said that more than two hundred tons' weight of it are annually manufactured in ,spain1 a considerable portion of which is sold to the ,london brewers for this purpose4 ,liquorice powder1 which is used in medicine1 is often adulterated with flour1 and probably also with less wholesome articles4 ,the root itself may be employed as stopples for beer or wine bottles4 ,the soil in which liquorice is cultivated should be deep1 light1 and sandy2 and the roots1 which strike deeply into the ground1 should be planted in rows1 at the distance of a foot and half or two feet from each other4 ,three years elapse1 after the roots are planted1 before the liquorice is in perfection4 #bjb4 ,,saint-,,foin 7,hedysarum onobrychis7 is a ,british perennial plant with winged leaves1 somewhat pyramidal bunches of butterfly-shaped flowers1 marked with red1 white1 and purple2 and oblong1 hairy pods1 each containing a single seed4 ,this plant is cultivated in several of the farming districts of ,england1 as food for horses and cattle2 and it succeeds best on dry and chalky lands1 in high and exposed situations4 ,the seed should be sown in ,february or ,march1 and1 during the first year1 the plants should remain untouched4 ,in the ensuing summer a crop of hay may be obtained from them2 and after this the saint-foin may regularly be mown twice every year1 for ten or fifteen years4 ,when intended for hay1 saint-foin should not be cut before it is in full bloom1 about the beginning of ,july1 as otherwise the quality of the hay would be much injured4 ,some farmers assert that saint-foin1 when cows are fed with it1 both increases the quantity and improves the quality of their milk2 but1 in the opinion of others1 the quality is rather injured than improved by it4 ,no pasture is considered more excellent for sheep than this4 ,saint-foin is also sometimes sown with clover1 and sometimes with barley4 #bjc4 ,,common ,,red or ,,broad ,,clover 7,trifolium pratense7 is a well-known field plant1 much cultivated in this country4 ,clover is chiefly grown in firm and good soils1 either as green food for horses and cattle1 or to be cut for hay4 ,on grass farms it is sometimes sown in conjunction with spring corn1 and sometimes with ray-grass 7#ea72 and its utility in the fattening of cattle is well known4 ,this species of clover grows wild1 in meadows and pastures of most parts of ,europe2 and1 in some countries1 during a scarcity of provisions1 the flowers have been made into a kind of bread4 ,in ,sweden the heads are used as a green dye4 #bjd4 ,,lucern 7,medicago sativa7 is a perennial plant with small purple butterfly-shaped flowers1 twisted pods1 the stem erect and smooth1 and the leaves in threes4 ,although a wild plant in nearly every country of the temperate parts of ,europe1 this useful vegetable has only of late years been introduced into cultivation4 ,it flourishes most luxuriantly in deep1 rich1 and friable loams1 and cannot be too strongly recommended as food for cattle4 ,the value of lucern may be considerably increased by sowing it with oats2 and1 though an expensive crop1 it yields great profit4 #bje4 ,,indigo is a blue dye prepared from a plant 7,indigofera tinctoria7 with a shrubby stem1 oblong1 smooth1 and winged leaves1 bunches of flowers shorter than the leaves1 and cylindrical pods slightly curved1 which grows in ,america and the ,west ,indies4 ,the culture of indigo is an object of considerable importance in the ,west ,indian islands1 and in some parts of ,america4 ,the grounds appropriated to it are sown about the middle of ,march1 in rows fifteen inches asunder4 ,the plants come into flower about three months afterwards1 and are in a state to be cut about the month of ,august4 ,they are cut with a kind of reaping hook1 a few inches above the root4 ,the plants are then laid in strata1 in a vat or cistern constructed of strong mason-work1 and so much water is poured in as will cover them4 ,in this state they are left to ferment1 and the fluid or pulp1 which is first green1 afterwards becomes of deep blue colour4 ,it is now drawn off into another vat1 where it is strongly and incessantly beaten and agitated1 until the colouring matter is united into a body4 ,the water is then let off by cocks in the sides of the vat2 and the indigo1 after undergoing some further preparations1 is cast1 in boxes or moulds1 into small pieces1 each about an inch square1 and packed up for sale4 ,the vapour which issues from the fermented liquor is extremely injurious to the negroes who attend the process2 and as peculiar attention is requisite both to this and the granulating of the pulp1 many indigo-planters have failed in the manufacture of this article4 ,indigo is employed by dyers1 calico-printers1 and paper-stainers1 to an extent so great that nearly #ejj1jjj pounds' weight of it are annually imported into this kingdom4 ,the stone-blue used by laundresses1 and the colours called ,saxon-blue1 and green1 are made from indigo4 ,painters use it as a water-colour4 ,this article is frequently adulterated with earth1 ashes1 and pounded slate4 ,the genuine drug ought to be of rich1 dark blue colour1 approaching to black2 and1 when broken1 should display the lustre of copper4 ,it ought not to sink in water1 nor to leave any sediment when dissolved4 ---- ,,class ,,xviii4--,,polyadelphia4 ---- ,,decandria4 #bjf4 ,,chocolate is a kind of cake or hard paste1 sometimes made of different ingredients1 but the basis of which is the pulp of the cacao or chocolate nut1 a produce of the ,west ,indies and ,america4 ,the chocolate tree 7,theobroma cacao1 ,fig4 #ed17 both in size and shape1 somewhat resembles a young cherry tree1 but it separates near the ground into four or five stems4 ,the leaves are each about four inches in length1 smooth but not glossy1 and of dull green colour4 ,the flowers are saffron-coloured1 and very beautiful4 ,the fruit of the chocolate-tree somewhat resembles a cucumber in shape1 but is furrowed deeper on the sides4 ,its colour1 while growing1 is green2 but1 as it ripens1 this changes to a fine bluish red1 almost purple1 with pink veins2 or1 in some of the varieties1 to a delicate yellow or lemon colour4 ,each of the pods contains from twenty to thirty nuts or kernels1 which in shape are not much unlike almonds4 ,these are arranged in rows1 surrounded by a sweet pulpy substance1 and are called cacao or chocolate-nuts4 ,plantations of chocolate trees are numerous on the banks of the river ,magdelana1 in ,south ,america1 and in the ,caraccas2 but1 at present1 there are very few in our own colonies4 ,they are usually formed in morassy situations2 and are sheltered from the intense heat of the sun by larger trees which are planted among them4 ,there are two principal crops of chocolate-nuts in the year2 the first in ,june1 and the second in ,december4 ,as soon as the fruit is ripe1 it is gathered1 and cut into slices2 and the nuts1 which at this time are in a pulpy state1 are taken out with the hand2 for the thinness of their husk precludes the possibility of using a machine4 ,they are then laid in skins1 or on leaves1 to be dried in the sun4 ,they have now a sweetish acid taste1 and may be eaten like any other fruit4 ,when perfectly dry they are put into bags1 each containing about a hundred weight2 and1 thus packed1 are exported to foreign countries4 ,previously to the preparation of these nuts into the substance which we call chocolate1 they are gently roasted1 or parched over the fire1 in an iron vessel1 after which process their thin external covering is easily separated4 ,the kernel is then pounded in a mortar1 and subsequently ground on a smooth warm stone4 ,sometimes a little arnatto 7#agc7 is added2 and1 with the aid of water1 the whole is formed into a paste4 ,this1 whilst hot1 is put into tin moulds1 where in a short time it congeals2 and in this state it is the chocolate of the shops4 ,in ,south ,america and ,spain other modes are adopted2 the chocolate is mixed with sugar1 long pepper 7#ba71 vanilla1 cinnamon1 cloves1 almonds1 and other ingredients1 according to the taste of the respective inhabitants4 ,mr4 ,edwards was of opinion1 that the cakes of chocolate used in ,england were made of about one half genuine chocolate1 and the remainder of flour1 or ,castile soap4 ,chocolate was first introduced into ,europe by the ,spaniards1 and that from the ,caraccas is considered the best4 ,it should be used whilst new1 as neither the seeds nor the cakes will keep well more than two years4 ,the chocolate used in this country must be manufactured in ,england1 for1 by an ,act of the legislature1 the importation of chocolate paste is prohibited1 under heavy penalties4 ,the mode in which this substance is immediately prepared for use is well known4 ,by the natives of ,south ,america chocolate nuts are used for food1 and also as a circulating medium instead of coin3 about #abjj of them being considered equal in value to a dollar4 ,a white oily matter1 about the consistence of suet1 is obtained by bruising these nuts1 and boiling the pulp4 ,the oil is by this means liquefied1 and rises to the surface1 where it is left to cool and congeal1 that it may the more easily be separated4 ,this1 which is called butter of cacao1 is without smell1 and1 when fresh1 has a very mild taste4 ,its principal use is as an ingredient in pomatums4 ,from the nuts1 when slightly roasted1 an oil is sometimes obtained by pressure1 which is occasionally used in medicine4 ,,icosandria4 #bjg4 ,the ,,citron1 ,,lime1 and ,,lemon1 are different varieties of the fruit of a small evergreen shrub1 the original or parent stock of which 7,citrus medica7 was imported from ,asia into the southern parts of ,europe4 ,the citron is oblong1 with a very thick rind2 the lemon is oblong with a small lump or protuberance at the end2 and the lime has no protuberance1 has a very thin rind1 and is about the size of a small egg4 ,these are the principal marks of discrimination betwixt these fruits1 but they are not quite constant4 ,the lemon shrub 7,fig4 #ef7 has large and slightly indented shining leaves1 of somewhat oval shape1 but pointed2 and on the footstalks of the leaves there is no remarkable appendage4 ,the flowers are large and white1 but purplish on the outside of the petals4 ,it is generally supposed that the citron-tree was first introduced from ,assyria and ,media into ,greece1 and thence into the ,southern parts of ,europe1 where it is now cultivated to considerable extent4 ,it is also grown in the islands of the ,west ,indies4 ,the fruit1 partaking of the same quality as the lemon1 with the exception of being somewhat less acid1 is seldom eaten raw2 but1 preserved in sugar as a sweetmeat1 it is much used by confectioners and others4 ,the principal consumption of citron is on the ,continent1 where it is also occasionally employed in medicine4 ,the lemon-tree is a native of ,upper ,asia1 whence1 like the citron1 it was brought into ,greece1 and afterwards transplanted into ,italy4 ,the juice1 which is one of the sharpest and most agreeable of all acids1 is used in cookery1 confectionary1 medicine1 and in various other ways4 ,by calico-printers it is very extensively employed1 as a discharger of colour1 to produce1 with more clearness and effect1 the white figured parts of coloured patterns that are dyed with colours formed from iron4 ,its juice is procured by simply squeezing the fruit1 and straining it through linen or any loose filter2 and in ,sicily1 and other parts of the ,mediterranean1 it forms an important article of commerce4 ,being one of the most valuable remedies for the scurvy1 with which we are acquainted1 it generally constitutes part of the sea store of ships that are destined for long voyages4 ,several modes have been recommended for preserving lemon juice4 ,one of these is to put it into bottles1 with a small quantity of oil1 which1 floating on the surface1 prevents the immediate contact of the air1 and retards the decomposition of the acid2 though1 in this case1 the original fresh taste soon gives place to one which is less grateful4 ,in the ,east ,indies lemon juice is sometimes evaporated1 by a gentle heat1 to the consistence of a thick extract4 ,sometimes it is crystallized into a white and acid salt2 but what is sold in the shops1 under the name of essential salt of lemons1 for taking out ink-stains and iron-mould spots from linen1 is only a preparation from the juice of sorrel4 ,the external part of the rind has a grateful aromatic and bitter taste1 which renders it useful in cookery4 ,when dried it is considered a good stomachic1 promotes the appetite1 and is otherwise serviceable as a medicine4 ,it is often candied and made into a sweetmeat1 under the name of lemon chips4 ,when distilled it yields a light and almost colourless oil1 which1 in smell1 is nearly as agreeable as the fresh peel1 and is frequently employed as a perfume4 ,lemons are sometimes preserved in syrup4 ,small ones with thick rinds are converted into a grateful pickle2 and a marmalade and syrup are also made of them4 ,for the purpose of keeping the fruit1 it is recommended that a fine packthread about a quarter of a yard long1 should be run through the protuberance at the end of the lemons3 the ends of the string are to be tied together1 and suspended on a hook in an airy situation1 and in such manner that each lemon may hang perfectly free and detached4 ,the cultivation of the lime is much attended to in several parts of ,north ,america and the ,west ,indies4 ,its juice affords a more grateful acid than that of the lemon1 which is there in little repute1 and is1 comparatively1 but seldom seen4 ,a plate of limes is said to be a constant dish at entertainments in the ,west ,indies2 and the juice is used for all the same purposes as that of lemons is with us4 #bjh4 ,,orange 7,citrus aurantium1 ,fig4 #ee74 ,the difference betwixt orange and lemon-trees is immediately known by the former having a kind of winged appendage on the leafstalks1 of which the latter are destitute4 ,we are informed that the first orange-tree introduced into ,europe was sent as a present1 from some part of ,asia1 to the ,conde ,mellor1 prime minister of the ,king of ,portugal4 ,it was the only one of a great number which were contained in the same chest that survived2 and it became the parent stock of multitudes of subsequent trees4 ,the delightful perfume of an orange grove is such as to scent the air for miles1 and the flowers appear in succession during the whole summer2 and flowers and ripe fruit are found on the same tree4 ,orange flowers are valued as a perfume1 and yield their flavour to rectified spirits2 and1 in distillation1 both to spirits and water4 ,in ,portugal and ,italy a fragrant red-coloured oil is obtained from them1 which1 by some persons1 is considered of more delicate and agreeable perfume than even ottar of roses4 ,the juice of the orange1 when ripe and of good kind1 is extremely sweet1 grateful1 and wholesome4 ,in fevers1 and other complaints1 it is of considerable use for allaying heat and quenching thirst2 and1 in scurvy1 it has been found a very valuable remedy4 ,the rind1 which yields a grateful aromatic bitter1 is sometimes used in medicine1 and1 in particular1 has obtained notice for the cure of intermittent fevers or agues4 ,it is frequently preserved in syrup1 and also in sugar1 under the name of preserved orange-peel1 and orange-chips2 and is much esteemed in desserts4 ,in cookery and by confectioners1 oranges are used in numerous ways2 for marmalade1 in biscuits1 cheesecakes1 jelly1 puddings1 and tarts2 and an agreeable wine is prepared from oranges1 with water1 sugar1 and some other ingredients4 ,seville1 or bitter oranges are a large1 dark-coloured1 and rough-skinned variety of the common species4 ,these are much used in medicine and cookery4 ,bergamot is a well-known perfume1 obtained from the rind of a variety of orange much cultivated near the town of ,bergamo in ,italy1 whence it has obtained its name4 ,the rind is cut into small pieces1 and the oil is pressed out into glass vessels4 ,sometimes a fragrant water is distilled from the peel4 #bji4 ,the ,,shaddock 7,citrus decumana7 is a yellowish green fruit1 of the orange kind1 as large as the head of a child1 with twelve or more cells1 and contains a red or whitish pulp4 ,it is very common in many parts both of the ,east and ,west ,indies4 ,in hot climates the shaddock is much esteemed on account of its agreeable flavour1 which is a pleasant mixture of sweet and acid4 ,it is safely eaten1 even in considerable quantities1 and is esteemed very salubrious4 ,the rind is thick1 and has a disagreeable bitterish taste4 ,this fruit is indebted1 for its name1 to a ,captain ,shaddock1 who is said to have first brought it from ,china1 or1 as some say1 from ,guinea1 and transplanted it into one of the ,west ,indian islands4 #baj4 ,,cajeput is a greenish coloured oil produced from the fruit of a tree 7,melaleuca leucodendron7 which grows in the ,east ,indies4 ,this tree has a long flexible trunk2 with linear spear-shaped1 alternate leaves1 which are smooth1 ash-coloured1 and each with five nerves4 ,the flowers are white1 and in long1 terminal spikes4 ,the leaves of the cajeput tree have an aromatic odour1 somewhat resembling that of cardamom seed 7#ae72 and they yield1 by distillation1 an essential oil1 which manifests this aromatic principle still more strongly4 ,among the ,malays cajeput oil is a medicine in great repute2 but its uses are so little known in this country that it is rarely kept even in the shops of the metropolis4 ,in acute rheumatism and gout1 however1 it has been known to afford immediate relief by being rubbed on the part affected2 but it ought not to be applied without great care1 as it is very powerful in its effects4 ,cajeput oil is one of the most valuable remedies which have hitherto been discovered for the toothache4 ,from whatever cause this affection of the face may proceed1 whether from a carious or hollow tooth1 rheumatic acrimony1 or cold1 this oil has generally been found efficacious in removing it4 ,it is best applied by being dropped on lint1 and placed in the cavity of the tooth1 or round the gum4 ,hence it deserves a place in the medicine chest of every private family4 ,if taken internally1 in a dose of five or six drops1 it heats and stimulates the whole system2 and it is said to have had a beneficial effect in dropsies and intermittent fevers4 ,in ,india it is used1 both internally and externally1 in palsies1 deafness1 gout1 rheumatism1 and several other complaints4 ,its odour is remarkably destructive to insects4 ,a few drops of it1 in a cabinet or drawer in which animal or vegetable specimens of natural history are kept1 in a dried state1 have1 on this account1 been found useful4 ,cajeput oil is chiefly prepared in the island of ,bouro1 one of the ,moluccas2 and it is imported into ,europe from the ,east ,indies4 ,but1 from its high price1 it is so frequently adulterated1 that it is seldom to be had genuine in ,europe4 ---- ,,class ,,xix4--,,syngenesia4 ---- ,,qualis4 #baa4 ,the ,,artichoke 7,cynara scolymus7 is a well-known plant which is grown chiefly for culinary purposes1 and was originally imported into this country from the south of ,europe4 ,this plant was cultivated with us as early as the year #aehj4 ,the parts that are eaten are the receptacle of the flower1 which is called the bottom1 and a fleshy substance on each of the scales of the calyx4 ,the choke consists of the unopened florets1 and the bristles that separate them from each other3 these stand upon the receptacle1 and must be cleared away before the bottom can be eaten4 ,its name has doubtless been obtained from a notion that any one unlucky enough to get it into his throat must certainly be choked4 ,with us artichokes are generally plain boiled1 and eaten with melted butter and pepper2 and they are considered both wholesome and nutritious4 ,the bottoms are sometimes stewed1 boiled in milk1 or added to ragouts1 ,french pies1 and other highly-seasoned dishes4 ,for winter use they may be slowly dried in an oven1 and kept in paper bags in a dry place4 ,on the ,continent artichokes are frequently eaten raw1 with salt and pepper4 ,by the country people of ,france the flowers of the artichoke are sometimes used to coagulate milk1 for the purpose of making cheese4 ,the leaves and stalks contain a bitter juice1 which1 mixed with an equal portion of white wine1 has been successfully employed in the cure of dropsy1 when other remedies have failed4 ,the juice1 prepared with bismuth1 imparts a permanent golden yellow colour to wool4 #bab4 ,the ,,cardoon 7,cynara cardunculus7 is a species of artichoke which grows wild in the south of ,france1 and has smaller flowers than the common artichoke1 and the scales of the calyx terminated by long1 sharp spines4 ,the stems rise to the height of four or five feet1 and are upright1 thick1 and cottony4 ,the leaves are large and winged1 and the flowers of blue colour4 ,the parts of the cardoon that are eaten are not those belonging immediately to the flower1 as of the artichoke1 but the roots1 stalks1 and middle ribs of the leaves2 and chiefly the latter1 which are thick and crisp4 ,but1 as all these are naturally very bitter1 the plants1 previously to being used1 are blanched1 by being tied up like lettuces1 about the month of ,september1 and having earth thrown upon their lower parts1 to the depth of eighteen inches or two feet4 ,cardoons come into season for the table about the end of ,november2 and are either eaten alone1 or as a sauce to animal food1 particularly to roasted meat2 or are introduced as a dish in the second course4 ,they are1 however1 not so much used in ,england as on the ,continent2 and this in consequence chiefly of the trouble attending their cultivation1 and their preparation for the table1 so as to render them palatable4 #bac4 ,,lettuce 7,lactuca sativa7 is an esculent vegetable1 that is cultivated in nearly every kitchen garden in the kingdom4 ,the different kinds or varieties of lettuce are extremely numerous3 but those best known are the cos lettuce1 and cabbage lettuce1 the former having upright leaves1 and the latter having its leaves folded over each other like those of a cabbage4 ,their culture is very simple4 ,the seeds are sown at various seasons of the year1 that the plants may be ready1 in succession1 for the table4 ,after a while1 they are planted out from the seed-bed into another part of the garden1 at a certain distance from each other1 to allow of room for their expansion and growth4 ,when the cos lettuces have attained a sufficient size1 their leaves are tied together with strings of matting1 to blanch them for use4 ,from seeds that are sown towards the end of summer1 lettuces may1 with care1 be obtained in perfection during the ensuing winter and spring4 ,lettuces have an odour somewhat resembling that of opium2 and they also possess somewhat similar narcotic properties1 which reside in the milky juice4 ,the properties of this vegetable as a salad1 if eaten without oil1 are considered to be emollient1 cooling1 and wholesome4 #bad4 ,,endive 7,cichorium endivia7 is a common vegetable in kitchen gardens1 having curled or crisped leaves4 ,we are supposed to have been originally indebted to the ,east ,indies for this useful winter salad4 ,it is chiefly cultivated in the south of ,england2 being sown generally about ,june or ,july1 and afterwards planted out1 like lettuce4 ,the chief excellence of endive consists in the whiteness of its inner leaves4 ,it is1 therefore1 adviseable1 either to cover the plants with flower-pots1 or1 when full grown1 to tie them loosely together1 for two or three weeks4 ,by so doing1 they will become perfectly blanched2 and1 in winter1 they may be preserved1 either by covering them with straw and mats1 or by putting them in sand in a dry cellar4 ,the ,french consume a great quantity of endive at their tables4 ,they either eat it raw in salads1 boiled in ragouts1 fried with roast meat1 or as a pickle4 ,it is a wholesome vegetable which seldom disagrees with the stomach4 ,,superflua4 #bae4 ,,camomile 7,anthemis nobilis7 is a well-known plant1 the dried daisy-like flowers of which are frequently used in medicine4 ,the principal use to which camomile flowers are applied is to excite vomiting1 and promote the operation of emetics4 ,they have likewise occasionally been substituted for ,peruvian bark1 in the case of intermittent fevers or agues1 particularly on the ,continent1 but not with much success2 and are used as a valuable stomachic4 ,both the leaves and flowers are employed in fomentations and poultices4 ,they each1 but particularly the flowers1 have a powerful1 though not an unpleasant smell1 and a bitter taste4 ,they are administered in substance1 as a powder or electuary1 in infusion as tea1 in decoction or extract1 or in the form of an essential oil obtained by distillation4 ,so fragrant is the camomile plant1 that the places where it grows wild1 on open gravelly commons1 may easily be discovered by the somewhat strawberry-like perfume which is emitted by treading on them4 ,this quality alone has sometimes induced the cultivation of camomile for a green walk in gardens4 #baf4 ,,tarragon 7,artemisia dracunculus7 is a hardy plant of the wormwood tribe1 which grows wild in ,india and the southern parts of ,europe1 and is cultivated with us in gardens for culinary uses4 ,it has a somewhat shrubby stem2 smooth1 spear-shaped1 leaves tapering at each end2 and flowers roundish1 erect1 and on footstalks4 ,this is a hot and bitter vegetable1 which is sometimes eaten with lettuces1 or other salad herbs3 and sometimes used as an ingredient in soup4 ,its seeds are pungent2 and may be advantageously substituted for the more costly spices obtained from the ,indies4 ,the ,indians frequently eat the leaves of the tarragon plant with bread4 ,the sauce called tarragon vinegar is made by infusing for fourteen days1 one pound of the leaves of tarragon1 gathered a short time before the flowers appear1 in one gallon of the best vinegar3 straining this through a flannel bag1 and fining it by means of a little isinglass4 ,a distilled water is sometimes prepared from the leaves of tarragon4 ,,frustranea4 #bag4 ,the ,,jerusalem ,,artichoke is a somewhat potatoe-shaped root1 produced by a species of sunflower 7,helianthus tuberosus7 which grows wild in several parts of ,south ,america4 ,this plant bears single stalks1 which are frequently eight or nine feet high1 and yellow flowers1 much smaller than those of the common sunflower4 ,so extremely productive are these valuable roots1 that betwixt seventy and eighty tons' weight of them are said to have been obtained1 in one season1 from a single acre of ground4 ,they succeed in almost any soil2 and1 when once planted1 will continue to flourish in the same place1 without requiring either much manure1 or much attention to the culture4 ,the season in which they are dug up for use is from about the middle of ,september till ,november2 when they are in greatest perfection4 ,after that they may be preserved in sand1 or under cover1 for the winter4 ,the roots are generally eaten plain boiled2 but they are sometimes served to table with white fricassee-sauce1 and in other ways4 ,their flavour is so nearly like that of the common artichoke1 that it is difficult to distinguish them from each other4 ,we are informed that ,jerusalem artichokes are a valuable food for hogs and store pigs2 and that if washed1 cut1 and ground in a mill1 similar to an apple-mill1 they may also be given to horses4 #bah4 ,the ,,common or ,,annual ,,sunflower 7,helianthus annuus7 is a ,peruvian plant1 with large yellow flowers1 that is well known in our gardens4 ,the uses to which this plant may be applied are such as to render it well deserving of attention in rural economy4 ,its stalks contain a white1 shining1 fibrous substance1 which might be advantageously employed in the manufacture of paper2 and the woody part of them makes excellent fuel4 ,its ripe seeds1 when subjected to pressure1 yield a great proportion of sweet and palatable oil4 ,these seeds may also be used for the feeding of poultry4 ,the receptacles of the flowers1 it is said1 may be boiled and eaten like artichokes4 ---- ,,class ,,xx4--,,gynandria4 ---- ,,diandria4 #bai4 ,,salep is the powder of the dried roots of several well-known field-plants of the orchis tribe 7,orchis morio1 ,o4 mascula1 c47 ,as an article of diet1 salep is supposed to contain the largest portion of nutriment1 in an equal compass1 of any known vegetable production3 even arrow root 7#ag7 is1 in this respect1 inferior to it4 ,the orchises from which it is manufactured flourish in great abundance in meadows and pastures of several parts of ,england1 flowering about the months of ,may and ,june4 ,as soon as the flower-stalks begin to decay1 the roots should be dug up1 and the newly-formed bulbs1 which have then attained their perfect state1 should be separated4 ,when several roots are collected1 they should be washed in water1 and have their external skin removed by a small brush1 or by dipping them in hot water1 and rubbing them with a coarse linen cloth4 ,the next process is to place them on a tin plate1 and put them into an oven for about ten minutes1 by which time they will have lost the milky whiteness which they before possessed1 and will have acquired a transparency like horn4 ,they are then to be spread in a room1 where1 in a few days1 they will become dry and hard4 ,although salep might be procured in great abundance in our own country1 we import nearly the whole of what we use from the ,levant1 and generally in oval pieces of yellowish white colour1 somewhat clear and pellucid1 and of almost horny substance4 ,when these1 or the powder prepared from them1 are put into boiling water1 they dissolve into a thick mucilage4 ,with the ,turks1 salep has great celebrity1 on account of the restorative qualities which it is supposed to possess4 ,it is much recommended as nutritive food for persons recovering from illness2 and1 in particular1 as a part of the stores of every ship about to sail into distant climates4 ,it not only possesses the property of yielding an invaluable nutriment1 and1 in a great measure1 of concealing the saline taste of sea-water1 but is likewise of essential service against the sea-scurvy4 ,when it is stated that one ounce of this powder and an ounce of portable soup1 dissolved in two quarts of boiling water1 will form a jelly capable of affording sustenance to one man for a day1 the utility of salep will be further seen as a means of preventing famine at sea for an infinitely longer time than any other food of equal bulk4 ---- ,,class ,,xxi4--,,monoecia4 ---- ,,monandria4 #bbj4 ,the ,,bread ,,fruit is a large globular berry of pale green colour1 about the size of a child's head1 marked on the surface with irregular six-sided depressions1 and containing a white and somewhat fibrous pulp1 which1 when ripe1 becomes juicy and yellow4 ,the tree that produces it 7,artocarpus incisa1 ,fig4 #eg7 grows wild in ,otaheite and other islands of the ,south ,seas1 is about forty feet high1 has large and spreading branches1 and large bright green leaves1 each deeply divided into seven or nine spear-shaped lobes4 ,we are informed1 in ,captain ,cook's first voyage round the world1 that the edible part of this fruit lies between the skin and the core2 and that it is white as snow1 and somewhat of the consistence of new bread4 ,it is generally used immediately when gathered2 if it be kept more than twenty-four hours it becomes hard and chokey4 ,the inhabitants of the ,south ,sea ,islands prepare it as food1 by dividing the fruit into three or four parts1 and roasting it in hot embers4 ,its taste is insipid1 with a slight tartness1 and somewhat resembles that of the crumb of wheaten bread mixed with ,jerusalem artichoke 7#bag74 ,of this fruit the ,otaheitans make various messes1 by putting to it either water or the milk of the cocoa-nut 7#bcc71 then beating it to a paste with a stone pestle1 and afterwards mixing it with ripe plantains 7#bgj71 bananas 7#bga71 or a sour paste1 made from the bread fruit itself1 called mahi4 ,it continues in season eight months of the year2 and so great is its utility in the island of ,otaheite1 that 7observes ,captain ,cook71 if1 in those parts where it is not spontaneously produced1 a man plant but ten trees in his whole life-time1 he will as completely fulfil his duty to his own and to future generations1 as the natives of our less temperate climate can do by ploughing in the winter's cold1 and reaping in the summer's heat1 as often as these seasons return2 even if1 after he has procured bread for his present household1 he should convert the surplus into money1 and lay it up for his children4 ,not only does this tree supply food1 but clothing1 and numerous other conveniences of life4 ,the inner bark1 which is white1 and composed of a net-like series of fibres1 is formed into a kind of cloth4 ,the wood is soft1 smooth1 and of yellowish colour2 and is used for the building of boats and houses4 ,in whatever part the tree is wounded1 a glutinous milky juice issues1 which1 when boiled with cocoa-nut oil 7#bcc71 is employed for making bird-lime1 and as a cement for filling up cracks in such vessels as are intended for holding water4 ,some parts of the flowers serve as tinder in the lighting of fire2 and the leaves are used for wrapping up food1 and for other purposes4 ,as the climate of the ,south ,sea ,islands is considered not much to differ from that of the ,west ,indies1 it was 7about thirty years ago7 thought desirable that some of the trees should be transferred1 in a growing state1 to our islands there4 ,consequently1 his ,majesty's ship the ,bounty1 in #aghg1 sailed for this purpose to the ,south ,seas1 under the command of ,lieutenant1 afterwards ,admiral ,bligh4 ,but a fatal mutiny of the ship's crew prevented the accomplishment of this benevolent design4 ,the commander of the vessel1 however1 returned in safety to his country2 and a second expedition under the same person1 and for the same purpose1 was fitted out in the year #agia4 ,captain ,bligh arrived in safety at ,otaheite1 and1 after an absence from ,england of about eighteen months1 landed in ,jamaica with #ceb bread fruit-trees1 in a living state1 having left many others at different places in his passage thither4 ,from ,jamaica these trees were transferred to other islands2 but the negroes1 having a general and long established predilection for the plantain 7#bgj71 the bread fruit is not much relished by them4 ,where1 however1 it has not been generally introduced as an article of food1 it is used as a delicacy2 and whether employed as bread1 or in the form of pudding1 it is considered highly palatable by the ,european inhabitants4 #bba4 ,the ,,jack ,,fruit is a species of bread fruit that is grown in ,malabar and other parts of the ,east ,indies4 ,the tree which produces this fruit 7,artocarpus integrifolia7 differs from the common bread fruit-tree1 in having the leaves entire1 each about a span in length1 oblong1 blunt1 serrated at the edges1 bright green1 and very smooth on the upper surface1 paler beneath1 and clad with stiff hairs4 ,few of the fruits even of eastern climates are so large as this4 ,its weight is sometimes upwards of thirty pounds2 and it generally contains betwixt two and three hundred nuts or seeds4 ,these are each about three times as large as an almond1 of somewhat oval shape1 blunt at one end1 sharp at the other1 and a little flatted on the sides4 ,some varieties of the fruit1 however1 contain no nuts4 ,the season in which the jack fruit is in perfection is about the month of ,december4 ,though esteemed by many persons1 it is so difficult of digestion1 that great caution is requisite in eating it4 ,the unripe fruit is sometimes pickled2 it is sometimes cut into slices1 and boiled as a vegetable for the table2 and sometimes fried in palm-oil4 ,the nuts are eaten roasted1 and the wood serves for building materials4 ,,triandria4 #bbb4 ,,maize1 or ,,indian ,,corn 7,zea mays1 ,fig4 #eh71 is a species of grain much cultivated in ,america and other climates3 the grains are of yellow colour1 somewhat shaped like flattened peas1 and grow closely set round the upper part of high perpendicular stalks4 ,to the inhabitants of many countries of warm climates the cultivation of maize is a very important pursuit4 ,these plants are propagated by sowing the seed in rows1 in ,march1 ,april1 or ,may3 they generally produce two crops in the year1 and yield1 according to the soil1 from fifteen to forty bushels per acre4 ,as soon as they are ripe1 the ears are gathered4 ,they are shortly afterwards threshed1 and the grain1 when separated1 is spread out to dry in the sun2 for1 if it were heaped together in this state1 it would ferment1 and sprout or grow4 ,the ,american ,indians parch this kind of corn over a fire1 in such manner as not to burn it4 ,afterwards they pound it1 sift the meal and preserve it for their chief food4 ,they make it into puddings and cakes1 or bread1 the quality of which is extremely nutritive4 ,maize is useful for poultry and cattle of every kind2 and1 if converted into malt1 a wholesome beverage may be brewed from it4 ,of the leafy husk which surrounds the ear of the maize a beautiful kind of writing paper is manufactured at a paper-mill near ,rimini in ,italy2 and a greyish paper may be manufactured from the whole plant4 ,the stalks are said to afford an excellent winter food for cattle4 ,when the young ears are beginning to form1 they have a sweet and agreeable taste4 ,if1 in this state1 the leaves be stripped off1 and the ears be subjected to pressure1 a pleasant and palatable milky juice may be obtained from them4 ,it is supposed that maize might1 with advantage1 be cultivated in ,england4 #bbc4 ,the ,,common ,,cucumber 7,cucumis sativus1 ,fig4 #ei47 is an oblong1 rough1 and cooling fruit1 which is cultivated in our kitchen gardens1 and is supposed to have been originally imported into this country from some part of the ,levant4 ,cucumbers are always eaten before they are ripe1 and usually with vinegar1 oil1 pepper1 and salt4 ,they are sometimes stewed2 and when young 7under the name of gerkins71 are pickled with vinegar and spices1 or preserved in syrup as a sweetmeat4 ,as the cucumber plants are too tender to sustain the coldness of our climate exposed to the open air1 it is necessary to sow the seed in hot-beds1 or under hand-glasses2 though1 in the beginning of summer1 the glasses may1 without danger1 be removed4 ,the fruit is much improved by putting a piece of slate or a tile under each1 instead of allowing it to lie upon the naked ground4 #bbd4 ,the ,,common ,,melon1 or ,,musk ,,melon1 is a species of cucumber1 produced by a creeping herbaceous plant 7,cucumis melo71 which has leaves with rounded angles1 and grows wild in ,tartary4 ,in hot climates this fruit attains great perfection and a peculiarly fine flavour2 and even in ,england1 where it is cultivated in hot-beds1 and sheltered by glass frames1 it is one of the coolest and most delicious summer fruits that we possess4 ,its size and form vary beyond description4 ,sometimes it is smooth1 and only three or four inches in length3 sometimes its whole surface is rugged1 or netted1 and is many pounds in weight4 ,melons are1 in colour1 grey1 yellowish1 or green1 externally2 whilst their flesh is white1 yellow1 reddish1 or green4 ,they are usually eaten with sugar2 sometimes with pepper or ginger1 and salt2 and sometimes alone4 ,in ,france1 they are often eaten as a sauce to boiled beef4 ,the smaller kinds are pickled2 and one particular sort of melons are filled with mustard seeds and shred garlic1 and pickled under the name of mangos 7#gc74 ,the propagation of melons is by seed1 sown in ,february or ,march2 and the cultivation is somewhat similar to that of the cucumber1 but is attended with considerably more trouble and expense4 #bbe4 ,the ,,pumpkin1 or ,,pompion1 is a species of gourd which grows to an enormous size1 contains several cells1 and numerous seeds with tumid margins1 and is produced by a creeping plant1 with lobed leaves 7,cucurbita pepo74 ,the shape of the pumpkin is generally globular1 or flatted at top and bottom1 and ribbed4 ,the rind is glossy1 and of yellow or green colour4 ,the flesh is firm1 but melting1 and the whole weight is sometimes more than thirty pounds4 ,the ,germans cultivate this plant in extensive fields1 for various economical purposes1 but particularly for the feeding of swine1 and other animals4 ,they cut it into pieces1 and throw it into fish-ponds1 as food for carp4 ,little trouble is required in its culture2 and it will flourish on any tolerable soil1 in a warm and sheltered situation4 ,the pulp is served at table in various forms1 but particularly in pies1 and as an ingredient in puddings and pancakes4 ,the ,americans frequently gather pumpkins when half grown1 and eat them boiled as a sauce to meat4 ,if the seeds be subjected to pressure1 they will yield a proportion of oil so great as nearly to amount to their own weight2 and1 when ground with water1 they afford a cooling and nutritious kind of milk4 #bbf4 ,the ,,bottle ,,gourd is an ,american fruit with woody rind1 and of very various shape1 belonging to the same tribe as the pumpkin1 and produced by a creeping plant 7,cucurbita lagenaria7 with somewhat angular and downy leaves1 each having two glands at the base underneath4 ,this fruit is at first green1 but when ripe1 it assumes a dull yellow colour2 and the flesh is spongy and very white4 ,its size and shape are so varied1 that it would be impossible to describe them2 sometimes it has a long slender part next the stalk1 like the neck of a bottle2 sometimes it is swollen1 and sometimes of great length1 and of form so curved as to be shaped almost like a bugle horn1 or the musical instrument called a serpent4 ,so hard and strong is the rind of the bottle-gourd1 that this1 when freed from the pulp1 is frequently converted by the ,americans1 as well as the inhabitants of the ,west ,indies1 into drinking cups1 flagons1 bottles1 and other domestic utensils2 but1 on being first used1 it communicates a disagreeable taste to the juices contained in it4 ,the pulp1 boiled with vinegar1 is sometimes eaten4 #bbg4 ,the ,,water ,,melon 7,cucurbita citrullus7 is a roundish or oblong species of gourd1 with thin smooth rind1 marked with star-like spots1 the leaves deeply divided into lobes1 and the flowers somewhat resembling those of the cucumber4 ,persons who have visited hot climates know well how to appreciate the grateful coolness and delicious flavour of the water melon1 the flesh of which is so succulent that it melts in the mouth2 and the central pulp of which is fluid1 like that of the cocoa-nut1 and may be sucked1 or poured out through a hole in the rind1 and thus made to afford a most refreshing beverage4 ,to the inhabitants of ,egypt1 ,china1 the ,east ,indies1 and other countries1 where they are cultivated to a great extent1 water melons are extremely valuable1 both as food and physic4 ,they are allowed to be eaten in fevers1 and other inflammatory complaints4 ,their flesh or pulp is1 in general1 of reddish colour2 one kind1 however1 called by the ,french pastque1 has a whitish green pulp4 ,the latter are frequently pickled in vinegar1 like gerkins2 and are eaten in fricassees1 or baked in sweet wine4 ,both these varieties may be grown in our gardens1 under hot-bed frames1 in the same manner as cucumbers4 ,,tetrandria4 #bbh4 ,the ,,birch 7,betula alba7 is a forest-tree1 easily known by the smooth appearance and silvery colour of its bark1 by its leaves being somewhat triangular1 but acute1 their smallness in comparison with those of other timber trees1 and by the small branches being slender and flexible4 ,although the birch is by no means considered a valuable timber tree1 yet its wood is used for numerous purposes4 ,being of white colour1 and firm and tough in texture1 it is variously employed by hoop-benders and wheel-wrights4 ,turners use it for trenchers1 bowls1 ladles1 and other wooden ware4 ,ox yokes1 small screws1 women's shoe-heels1 pattens1 and1 in ,france1 wooden shoes are made of it4 ,the ,north ,american ,indians use the wood of the birch-tree for canoes1 boxes1 buckets1 baskets1 kettles1 and dishes1 curiously joining it together with threads made of roots of the cedar-tree4 ,birch-trees are not unfrequently planted with hazels1 for the purpose of the wood being converted into charcoal for forges4 ,this charcoal is much esteemed2 and the soot which is formed on burning the wood constitutes a good black substance for printers' ink4 ,nearly all the other parts of the birch-tree are applicable to useful purposes4 ,the inhabitants of ,sweden employ the bark in the tanning of leather2 and1 after burning it to a certain degree1 they also use it as a cement for broken china and earthen ware4 ,the navigators of the river ,volga construct of it portable boats1 cradles1 c4 ,it is serviceable in dyeing a yellow colour4 ,in ,norway it is dried1 ground1 mixed with meal1 and boiled with other food for swine4 ,houses or huts1 in many parts of the north of ,europe1 are covered with the outward and thicker part of the bark1 instead of slates1 or tiles4 ,it is spun into a coarse kind of rope1 woven into shoes and hats2 and1 in ,kamschatka1 even made into drinking cups4 ,the ,laplanders fasten together large pieces of it as outer garments to keep off the rain4 ,abounding with much resinous matter1 slices of the bark are sometimes twisted together to make torches4 ,during a scarcity of corn the bark of the birch-tree has1 in several instances1 been ground with bread corn1 and successfully used as food by mankind4 ,in most parts of ,england the twigs of this tree are made into besoms4 ,they are also made into the tops of fishing rods2 and1 when smeared with bird-lime 7#ef71 are used by bird-catchers4 ,the ,norwegians frequently employ them as fodder for their horses4 ,the leaves afford a yellow dye4 ,a wholesome wine is made from the sap or juice of the birch-tree4 ,the juice is obtained by boring holes in the trunks of the trees1 about the beginning of ,march1 before the leaves appear4 ,into each of these holes a piece of elder stick1 hollowed through the middle1 by clearing out the pith1 is placed4 ,this conducts the juice1 as it flows from the wound1 into a vessel put to receive it4 ,if a tree be large1 it may be tapped in four or five places at once2 and1 from several trees1 many gallons of juice may be obtained in a day4 ,the juice thus procured is to be boiled with sugar1 in the proportion of four pounds to a gallon1 and treated in the same manner as other made wines4 ,a good spirit might no doubt be obtained from the juice of the birch-tree by distillation4 #bbi4 ,the ,,alder1 or ,,owler 7,betula alnus1 ,fig4 #fc71 is a tree which grows in wet situations1 and is distinguished by its flower-stalks being branched1 and its leaves being roundish1 waved1 serrated1 and downy at the branching of the veins beneath4 ,there are few means of better employing swampy and morassy grounds than by planting them with alders2 for although the growth of these trees is not rapid1 the uses to which they are applicable are such as amply to repay the loss of time requisite before they come to perfection4 ,the wood of the alder1 which is in great demand for machinery1 is frequently wrought into cogs for mill-wheels1 and is peculiarly adapted for all kinds of work which are to be constantly kept in water4 ,it is consequently used for pumps1 sluices1 pipes1 drains1 and conduits of different description1 and for the foundation of buildings situated in swamps4 ,the water pipes which are laid under the streets of many of our large towns are made of alder2 and1 for its utility in the formation of sluices1 it is much cultivated in ,holland4 ,it is commonly used for bobbins2 and women's shoe-heels1 ploughmen's clogs1 and numerous articles of turnery ware1 are formed of it4 ,this wood serves also for many domestic and rural uses1 for spinning-wheels1 troughs1 the handles of tools1 ladders1 cart-wheels2 and1 as coppice wood1 it is planted to be cut down every ninth or tenth year1 for poles4 ,the roots and knots furnish a beautifully veined wood1 nearly of the colour of mahogany2 and well adapted for cabinet work and furniture4 ,the bark may be advantageously used in the operations of tanning and leather-dressing2 and by fishermen1 for staining their nets4 ,this1 and the young twigs1 are sometimes employed in dyeing1 and yield different shades of yellow and red4 ,the ,laplanders chew the bark of the alder1 and dye their leather garments red with the saliva thus produced4 ,with the addition of copperas1 it yields a black dye1 which the dyers of cotton use to considerable extent2 and1 for this purpose1 it is purchaseable in some countries1 at the rate of seven pence or eight pence per stone4 ,in the highlands of ,scotland1 we are informed that young branches of the alder1 cut down in the summer1 spread over the fields1 and left during the winter to decay1 are found to answer the purpose of manure4 ,the fresh gathered leaves1 being covered with a glutinous moisture1 are said to be sometimes strewed upon floors to destroy fleas1 which become entangled in it1 as birds are with bird-lime4 ,but these agile and troublesome insects must be numerous indeed to render the setting of traps for them of any avail towards their destruction4 #bcj4 ,the ,,common ,,nettle4 ,there are two kinds of nettle common in ,england1 one of which 7,urtica dioica7 has heart-shaped leaves1 and the other 7,urtica urens7 has oval leaves4 ,although generally considered a noxious weed1 the nettle is a plant of extensive utility4 ,by the country people the young and tender leaves and tops are boiled for food1 and are eaten as a substitute for greens and other pot-herbs4 ,asses eagerly devour the leaves of nettles2 and if these be boiled1 and mixed with other food for poultry1 they are said to promote their laying of eggs4 ,a kind of rennet is made in the ,highlands of ,scotland1 by adding a quart of salt to three pints of a liquor produced by the boiling of nettles4 ,a tablespoonful of this is said to be sufficient to coagulate a bowl of milk4 ,from the fibrous stalks of the nettle1 dressed in the manner of flax or hemp1 cloth and paper may be made4 ,the manufacture of these has been pursued with success in some parts of the ,continent2 and in our own country a coarse kind of canvass has been produced from them4 ,the roots1 when boiled1 communicate a yellow colour to woollen cloth1 linen1 and cotton4 ,it must be remarked that the stings of nettles1 when examined by a microscope1 are shown to be extremely curious objects4 ,they consist of a slender1 tapering1 sharp1 and hollow substance1 with a minute hole at the point1 and a bag at the base4 ,when the sting is pressed1 it perforates the skin1 and the same pressure forces up from the bag1 into the wound1 a corrosive liquor1 which forms there a blister1 and excites a burning and painful inflammation4 ,if the nettle be suddenly and strongly grasped1 the stings are bent or broken1 and1 in this case1 occasion no pain4 ,in consequence of their stinging quality1 nettles have been employed1 with advantage1 in restoring sensation to paralytic limbs1 by whipping them with these plants4 ,they were formerly much used as a styptic2 and are said to have been found useful in jaundice1 scurvy1 gout1 and other complaints2 but most of the accounts that have been given of their great medicinal virtues have now little credit4 ,the flowers and seeds are said to have been tried in ,italy1 and found an efficacious substitute for ,peruvian bark 7#fb7 in agues and other complaints4 ,a leaf of the nettle put upon the tongue1 and then pressed against the roof of the mouth1 is stated to be a remedy for bleeding at the nose4 #bca4 ,the ,,mulberry-,,tree 7,morus nigra1 ,fig4 #gb7 is a native of ,italy1 and is known by its heart-shaped and rough leaves1 and its large juicy berries1 each consisting of several smaller ones4 ,the flowers of the mulberry appear in ,june1 and the fruit becomes ripe in ,september1 the berries continuing to ripen in succession for about two months4 ,these1 if eaten before they are ripe1 are astringent2 but1 when ripe1 are pleasantly acid1 though of very peculiar flavour4 ,an agreeable syrup1 made from the juice of the ripe fruit1 is kept in apothecaries' shops for medicinal uses4 ,the juice itself is employed to impart a dark tinge to liquors and confections2 and1 when properly fermented1 it becomes a pleasant wine4 ,in cider counties it is not unusual to mix mulberries with the apples destined for cider1 by which is made a delicious beverage called mulberry cider4 ,mulberries stain the fingers1 as well as linen1 cotton1 or woollen1 of a red colour1 which is difficult to be extracted2 but which may be removed by verjuice1 or the acid of lemons4 ,in ,italy1 and other countries where silkworms are bred1 the leaves of the mulberry-tree1 but particularly those of the ,,white ,,mulberry1 which is distinguished by its having obliquely heart-shaped and smooth leaves1 are requisite for the feeding of these insects2 and they are very extensively cultivated for this purpose4 ,the wood is hard and of yellow colour2 and is applied to numerous uses in carving and turnery4 ,the bark is so fibrous that it may be manufactured into cordage1 ropes1 and coarse paper2 and that of the root has an acrid and bitter taste1 is powerful in its effects1 and has been successfully used as a remedy against worms1 particularly the tape-worm4 ,mulberry-trees flourish best in a light and rich soil1 and in open situations4 #bcb4 ,the ,,box-,,tree 7,buxus sempervirens7 is a shrubby evergreen tree1 twelve or fifteen feet high1 which has small1 oval1 and opposite leaves1 and grows wild in several parts of ,britain4 ,it has been remarked that this tree was formerly so common in some parts of ,england1 as to have given name to several places1 particularly to ,box-hill in ,surrey1 and ,boxley in ,kent2 and1 in #ahae1 there were cut down at ,box-hill as many of these trees as were sold for upwards of #aj1jjjl41 a circumstance perhaps unparalleled in their history4 ,the box-tree was much admired by the ancient ,romans1 and also by our own ancestors1 on account of its being easily clipped into the form of animals1 and other fantastic shapes4 ,in the ,south of ,europe it is cultivated in gardens1 and kept in flower-pots1 with as much attention as we bestow upon myrtles4 ,the wood is of yellowish colour1 close-grained1 very hard and heavy1 and admits of a beautiful polish4 ,on these accounts it is much used by turners1 by engravers on wood1 carvers1 and mathematical instrument makers4 ,flutes and other wind instruments are formed of it2 and furniture made of box-wood would be valuable were it not too heavy1 as it would not only be very beautiful1 but its bitter quality would secure it from the attacks of insects4 ,in ,france it is much in demand for combs1 knife-handles1 and button-moulds2 and it has been stated that the quantity of box-wood annually sent from ,spain to ,paris is alone estimated at the value of more than #aj1jjj livres4 ,an oil distilled from the shavings of box-wood has been found to relieve the tooth-ache1 and to be useful in other complaints2 and the powdered leaves destroy worms4 ,,hexandria4 #bcc4 ,the ,,cocoa-,,nut is a woody fruit1 produced in nearly all the countries of hot climates2 of oval shape1 from three or four1 to six or eight inches in length1 covered with a fibrous husk1 and lined internally with a white1 firm1 and fleshy kernel4 ,the tree 7,cocos nucifera7 which produces the cocoa-nut is a kind of palm1 from forty to sixty feet high4 ,it has1 on its summit only1 a kind of leaves1 which appear almost like immense feathers1 each fourteen or fifteen feet long1 three feet broad1 and winged4 ,of these the upper ones are erect1 the middle ones horizontal1 and the lower ones drooping4 ,the trunk is straight1 naked1 and marked with the scars of the fallen leaves4 ,the nuts hang down from the summit of the tree1 in clusters of a dozen or more together4 ,the external rind of the cocoa-nut has a smooth surface1 and is of somewhat triangular shape4 ,this encloses an extremely fibrous substance of considerable thickness1 which immediately surrounds the nut4 ,the latter has a thick and hard shell1 with three holes at the base1 each closed by a black membrane4 ,the kernel lines the shell2 and is sometimes nearly an inch in thickness1 and encloses a considerable quantity of watery liquid1 of whitish colour1 which has the name of milk4 ,food1 clothing1 and the means of shelter and protection1 are all afforded by the cocoa-nut-tree4 ,the kernels of the nuts1 which somewhat resemble the filbert in taste1 but are of much firmer consistence1 are used as food in various modes of dressing1 and sometimes are cut into pieces and dried4 ,when pressed in a mill1 they yield an oil1 which1 in some countries1 is the only oil used at table2 and which1 when fresh1 is equal in quality to that of almonds4 ,it1 however1 soon becomes rancid1 and1 in this state1 is principally used by painters4 ,the ,indians prepare an oil from cocoa-nuts1 by steeping the kernels in water till they putrefy1 and then boiling the pulp4 ,in this operation the oil rises to the surface1 and is skimmed off4 ,this oil is used for anointing the hair1 in cookery1 for burning in lamps1 and for various other purposes4 ,the milk1 or fluid1 contained in the nuts1 is an exceedingly cool and agreeable beverage1 which1 when good1 somewhat resembles the kernel in flavour4 ,cocoa-nut-trees flourish best in a sandy soil1 and first produce fruit when six or seven years old2 after which each tree yields from fifty to a hundred nuts annually4 ,the fibrous coats or husks which envelope the cocoa-nuts1 after they have been soaked for some time in water1 become soft4 ,they are then beaten1 to free them from the other substances with which they are intermixed1 and which fall away like saw-dust1 the stringy part only being left4 ,this is spun into long yarns1 woven into sail-cloth1 and twisted into ropes and cables1 even for large vessels4 ,the cordage thus manufactured is valuable in several respects1 but particularly for the advantages that are derived from its floating in water4 ,the woody shells of the nut are so hard as to be capable of receiving a high polish2 and they are formed into drinking cups1 and other domestic utensils1 which are sometimes expensively mounted in silver4 ,on the summit of the cocoa-nut-tree the tender leaves1 at their first springing up1 are folded over each other1 so as somewhat to resemble a cabbage4 ,these are occasionally eaten in place of culinary greens1 and are a very delicious food2 but1 as they can only be obtained by the destruction of the tree that produces them1 and which dies in consequence of their being removed1 they are considered too expensive a treat for frequent use4 ,the larger leaves are employed for the thatching of buildings1 and are wrought into baskets1 brooms1 mats1 sacks1 hammocks1 and many other useful articles4 ,the trunks are made into boats1 and sometimes constitute timber for the construction of houses2 and1 when their central pith is cleared away1 they form excellent gutters for the conveyance of water4 ,if1 whilst growing1 the body of the tree be bored1 a white and sweetish liquor exudes from the wound1 which has the name of toddy4 ,this is collected in vessels of earthen-ware1 and is a favourite beverage in many countries where the trees grow4 ,when fresh it is very sweet2 in a few hours it becomes somewhat acid1 and1 in this state1 is peculiarly agreeable2 but in the space of twenty-four hours it is complete vinegar4 ,by distillation this liquor yields an ardent spirit1 which is sometimes called rack1 or arrack2 and is more esteemed than that obtained by distillation from rice or sugar1 and merely fermented and flavoured with the cocoa-nut juice4 ,if boiled with quick-lime1 it thickens into a syrup1 which is used by confectioners in the ,east ,indies1 though it is much inferior to syrup produced from the sugarcane4 ,,polyandria4 #bcd4 ,the ,,common ,,arum1 ,,cuckoo ,,pint1 or ,,lords ,,and ,,ladies 7,arum maculatum71 is a well-known plant1 which grows in shady hedge bottoms2 and has1 about the month of ,may1 a club-shaped spike1 frequently of purple colour at the top1 issuing from a green sheath with which it is enveloped4 ,the acridity of every part of this common plant1 whilst in a recent state1 is such that1 if tasted1 there is left upon the tongue an intolerably disagreeable burning and pricking sensation1 which continues for a long time afterwards2 and which no one1 who has once tasted it1 will be inclined to experience a second time4 ,if bruised and applied to the skin1 a blister will shortly afterwards be raised4 ,it was from this property that the roots1 which are whitish1 and each about the size of a nutmeg1 were formerly used internally in medicine1 as a powerful stimulant1 and externally for blisters4 ,in some parts of ,france they are employed in bleaching1 from an opinion that1 by their corrosive quality1 they render the linen white4 ,their acrimony is wholly dissipated by drying2 and1 in a dried state1 they afford an almost tasteless farinaceous powder1 which may even be made into bread4 ,the powdered roots of the common arum are converted1 by the ,french1 into an harmless cosmetic1 which is sold at a high price under the name of ,cyprus powder4 ,in consequence of a premium which was offered by the ,society for ,encouragement of ,arts1 ,manufactures1 and ,commerce1 for discovering a method of preparing starch from materials not used as food for man1 an experiment was made1 by ,mrs4 ,jane ,gibbs1 of ,portland1 in ,dorsetshire1 upon the roots of the common arum4 ,a peck of the roots was found to produce about four pounds' weight of starch2 and she prepared1 in the whole1 about two hundred weight4 ,the process was to clean the roots1 and pound them in a mortar with water3 the pulp thus formed was strained1 and after being allowed to settle1 the water was poured off1 and the starch remained at the bottom4 ,whilst speaking of the arum1 it may be stated that the flowers of some of the foreign species 7,arum crinitum and ,a4 dracunculus7 have so strong a smell1 like carrion1 that even flesh-flies are attracted to deposit their eggs in them3 and that the structure of the flowers is such that1 when the insects attempt to retreat1 they are prevented by the reversed hairs which are there found1 and are destroyed4 ,some of the species are considered wholesome food2 one 7,arum esculentum7 is much cultivated for this purpose in the ,west ,indies and ,south ,america4 ,the leaves of this plant1 when boiled1 are much esteemed as potherbs1 and the roots are eaten either baked or boiled4 #bce4 ,the ,,sweet ,,chesnut 7,fagus castanea1 ,fig4 #fe7 is a stately tree1 which grows wild in some of the southern and western parts of ,england1 and is distinguished by having spear-shaped and pointed leaves1 with tapering serratures at the edge4 ,the flowers appear in long hanging spikes or clusters1 about the month of ,may2 and the fruit1 which is ripe in ,september1 is enveloped in a husk defended by a great number of complicated prickles4 ,notwithstanding the known durability of the oak1 there does not appear any well-authenticated instance of the age of an oak being equal to that of the celebrated chesnut-tree1 at ,tortworth1 in ,gloucestershire1 which was known as a boundary mark in the reign of ,king ,john4 ,this tree is supposed to have then been more than #ejj years old1 making its age at this time to exceed #aajj years4 ,the diameter of its trunk is fifteen feet1 and it still continues to bear fruit4 ,few of our forest trees are more beautiful than the chesnut4 ,it is true that the generality of painters prefer the oak for its picturesque form2 but in the landscapes of ,salvator ,rosa1 and other celebrated masters1 chesnut-trees are very conspicuous4 ,the timber of this tree was formerly much in use4 ,the beams and rafters of many of our most ancient churches are formed of it2 and its appearance so nearly resembles that of the oak1 that it requires the eye of a good judge to distinguish them from each other4 ,for the heads and staves of casks1 the wood of the chesnut is considered peculiarly excellent2 and pipes1 made of it for the conveyance of water under ground1 are said to be more durable than those either of elm or oak4 ,for furniture it may be stained so as somewhat to resemble mahogany4 ,hop-poles1 and poles for espaliers and dead fences1 made of young chesnut-trees1 are preferred to most others4 ,much of the fruit of the chesnut is consumed as food by the poorer classes of people on the ,continent1 but particularly by those of ,spain and ,italy2 and1 when dried and powdered1 it is no mean substitute for flour1 in bread and puddings4 ,chesnuts are imported into this country in considerable quantities1 both from ,france and ,spain1 and are roasted and eaten in desserts3 those which are grown here being much smaller than what we receive from abroad4 ,on the ,continent they are sometimes used for making starch1 and in the bleaching of linen4 #bcf4 ,the ,,beech 7,fagus sylvatica1 ,fig4 #fd7 is a forest tree known by its waved and somewhat oval leaves1 and its triangular fruit1 consisting of three cells1 and enclosed1 by pairs1 in a husk which is covered with simple prickles4 ,there are beech woods in many parts of ,england1 but the trees flourish best in rich1 calcareous soils4 ,these woods1 it has been observed1 are peculiarly dry and pleasant to walk in2 and1 under their shade1 afford to the botanist many interesting plants1 such as the bird's nest 7monotropa71 winter green 7pyrola71 and some rare orchide4 ,beech-trees bear lopping well1 and may be trained so as to form lofty hedges1 which are the more valuable for shelter1 as the leaves1 though faded1 remain through the winter1 and the twisted branches may be formed into a very strong fence4 ,the wood is hard and brittle1 and1 if exposed to the air1 is liable soon to decay4 ,it is1 however1 peculiarly useful to cabinet-makers and turners4 ,carpenters' planes1 tool-handles1 and mallets1 are made of it4 ,when split into thin layers1 it is used to make scabbards for swords4 ,chairs1 bedsteads1 and other furniture1 are occasionally formed of beech4 ,the fruit of this tree1 which has the name of beech-mast1 and is ripe in ,september1 is palatable to the taste2 but1 if eaten in great quantity1 it occasions giddiness and head-aches4 ,when1 however1 it is dried and powdered1 it may be made into a wholesome bread4 ,the inhabitants of ,scio1 one of the ,ionian ,islands1 were once enabled to endure a memorable siege by the beech-mast which their island supplied4 ,this fruit has1 occasionally1 been roasted and used as a substitute for coffee4 ,when subjected to pressure1 it yields a sweet and palatable oil1 which1 if properly made1 is equal1 in quality1 to the best olive-oil1 and has the advantage of continuing longer than that without becoming rancid4 ,beech-oil is manufactured in several parts of ,france2 and is used by the lower classes of ,silesia instead of butter4 ,the cakes which remain after the oil is extracted are a wholesome food1 and may also be advantageously employed for the fattening of swine1 poultry1 and oxen4 ,in some countries the leaves of the beech-tree are collected in the autumn1 before they have been injured1 by the frosts1 and are used instead of feathers for beds2 and mattresses formed of them are said to be preferable to those either of straw or chaff4 #bcg4 ,the ,,oak 7,quercus robur1 ,fig4 #fh7 is a well-known timber tree1 of native growth in this country1 as well as other countries in northern temperate climates4 ,it is to this valuable tree that our navy is indebted for its existence2 and without it this invincible barrier of the country could not be supported4 ,oak timber being hard1 tough1 tolerably flexible1 and not very liable to splinter1 is1 in ,europe1 preferred to every other kind for the construction of ships of war4 ,it is also well adapted to every purpose of rural and domestic economy1 particularly for staves1 laths1 and the spokes of wheels4 ,until the introduction of mahogany1 it was very generally used for furniture2 and1 in large mansions1 it was customary even to line the walls of rooms with wainscot1 or panelling of oak4 ,this tree is remarkable for the slowness of its growth1 for its great longevity1 and the dimensions to which it attains4 ,it has1 however1 been remarked that the trunk of the oak seldom increases to a greater proportionate diameter than about fourteen inches in eighty years4 ,as to its dimensions1 it is stated that an oak belonging to ,lord ,powis1 and growing1 in #agfd1 in ,bromfield ,wood1 near ,ludlow1 measured sixty-eight feet in girth and twenty-three feet in height1 and contained in the whole #adee feet of timber4 ,before oak timber is in a state to be used it is requisite that the trees should be barked1 and suffered to stand uncut for three or four years1 that they may become perfectly dry4 ,the bark thus obtained is extensively used in the tanning of leather2 and afterwards it serves as fuel1 and for making hot-beds for the growth of pines1 and some other plants4 ,the astringent properties of oak-bark render it of use for medical purposes4 ,the saw-dust of this tree1 and even the leaves1 though much inferior to the bark1 have been found useful in tanning4 ,the former of these is the principal vegetable production of this country1 which is used in the dyeing of fustian4 ,on the leaves and buds of the oak certain excrescences are formed1 in consequence of the puncture of insects1 as the lodgment for their eggs and a habitation for their future young4 ,these are termed galls1 and if1 when arrived at a certain state1 they are infused in a weak solution of vitriol1 they impart to it a purple or violet tinge2 and1 after the whole colouring matter is extracted1 this becomes perfectly black4 ,considerable quantities of galls are used in dyeing1 and for other purposes4 ,acorns1 or the seeds of the oak1 possess an astringent quality1 and have a bitter taste1 both of which may be extracted by steeping them1 for some time1 in cold water1 or by boiling them4 ,after this simple process1 they are not an unpalatable fruit4 ,with the ancient ,britons they were an article in great request1 and even constituted an important part of their food2 and there can be little doubt that1 carefully prepared1 dried1 and reduced to powder1 they might1 in times of scarcity1 be adopted as a substitute for bread-corn4 ,by pressure an oil is obtained from them which may be used for lamps2 and a kind of coffee is prepared from them in some parts of the ,continent4 ,the branches of the oak1 as well as those of several other kinds of trees1 are burned for the formation of charcoal2 and it is a remarkable circumstance that the properties of charcoal1 from whatever wood it may be made1 are nearly the same4 ,one of the most remarkable of these is1 that it is not liable to decay by age4 ,hence it was customary1 with the ancients1 to char or burn the outside of stakes1 or other wood1 which were to be driven into the ground1 or placed in water4 ,charcoal may be preserved without injury for an almost indefinite length of time2 and1 in the ancient tombs of the inhabitants of northern nations1 entire pieces of charcoal are at this day frequently discovered4 ,besides the great use of charcoal in the composition of gunpowder1 and to artists and manufacturers of different kinds1 it has lately been employed1 with considerable success1 in correcting the rancid and disagreeable smell of train oil1 so as to render it fit to be burned in chamber lamps2 and several manufactories of this oil have been established in the neighbourhood of ,london4 ,newly-made charcoal1 if rolled up in clothes which have contracted a disagreeable odour1 will effectually destroy it2 and if boiled with meat beginning to putrefy will take away the taint4 ,this substance is used by artists in the polishing of brass and copper-plates1 for the drawing of outlines1 and numerous other purposes4 ,when purified1 it forms perhaps the best tooth-powder that is known4 ,the mode of purifying it is to reduce it to powder1 wash it repeatedly with water1 and then dry it by means of a strong heat in close vessels4 ,this heat expels the foreign contents with which it is impregnated2 but however intense1 if the vessels are closed1 it in no respects alters the quality of the charcoal4 ,the vapour of burning charcoal is extremely pernicious2 and persons exposed to it in confined rooms are liable to be suffocated in a very short time4 ,the best remedy is immediately to take them into the strongest draught of cold air that can be obtained1 to loosen all their garments1 and apply volatile spirits to their nostrils4 #bch4 ,,cork is the external bark of a species of oak 7,quercus suber7 which grows in ,spain1 ,portugal1 and other southern parts of ,europe1 and is distinguished by the fungous texture of its bark2 and by its leaves being evergreen1 oblong1 somewhat oval1 downy underneath1 and waved4 ,the principal supply of the cork that is consumed in ,europe1 is obtained from ,catalonia in ,spain2 and the culture and the preparation of it yield to the inhabitants of that province near #bej1jjjl4 per annum4 ,in the collecting of cork1 it is customary to slit it with a knife1 at certain distances1 in a perpendicular direction from the top of the trees to the bottom2 and to make two incisions across1 one near the top and the other near the bottom of the trunk4 ,for the purpose of stripping off the bark1 a curved knife with a handle at each end is used4 ,sometimes it is stripped in pieces the whole length1 and sometimes in shorter pieces1 cross cuts being made at certain intervals4 ,in some instances the perpendicular and transverse incisions are made1 and the cork is left upon the trees until1 by the growth of the new bark beneath1 it becomes sufficiently loose to be removed by the hand4 ,after the pieces are detached they are soaked in water2 and1 when nearly dry1 are placed over a fire of coals1 which blackens their external surface4 ,by the latter operation they are rendered smooth1 and all the smaller blemishes are thereby concealed3 the larger holes and cracks are filled up by the artful introduction of soot and dirt4 ,the pieces are next loaded with weights to make them even2 and lastly they are dried1 stacked1 or packed in bales for exportation4 ,many of the uses of cork were well known to the ancients4 ,its elasticity renders it peculiarly serviceable for the stopping of vessels of different kinds2 and thus preventing either the liquids therein contained from running out1 or the external air from passing in4 ,the use of cork for stopping glass bottles is generally considered to have been introduced about the fifteenth century4 ,the practice of employing this substance for jackets to assist in swimming is very ancient2 and it has lately been applied in various ways towards the preservation of life1 when endangered by shipwreck4 ,the floats of nets used for fishing are frequently made of cork3 pieces fastened together make buoys1 which1 by floating on the surface of the water1 afford direction for vessels in harbours1 rivers1 and other places4 ,in some parts of ,spain it is customary to line the walls of houses with cork1 which not only renders them warm1 but prevents the admission of moisture4 ,the ancient ,egyptians sometimes made coffins of it4 ,on account of its lightness1 cork is used for false legs2 and1 from its being impervious by water1 it is sometimes placed betwixt the soles of shoes to keep out moisture4 ,when burned1 it constitutes that light black substance known by the name of ,spanish black4 ,in the cutting of corks for use1 the only tool employed is a broad1 thin1 and sharp knife2 and1 as the cork tends very much to blunt this1 it is sharpened upon a board by one whet1 or stroke on each side1 after every cut2 and1 now and then1 upon a common whet-stone4 ,the corks for bottles are cut in the length way of the bark1 and consequently the pores lie across4 ,bungs1 and corks of large size1 are cut in a contrary direction3 the pores in these are therefore downward1 a circumstance which renders them much more defective in stopping out the air than the others4 ,the parings of cork are sold to the makers of ,spanish black4 #bci4 ,the ,,walnut is a well-known shell fruit1 produced by a tree 7,juglans regia1 ,fig4 #fi71 which grows wild in the northern parts of ,china and ,persia1 and has winged leaves2 the leaflets1 about nine in number1 large1 oblong1 smooth1 thick2 and the end one with a stalk4 ,although greatly admired1 both for the beauty of its foliage1 and for the excellence of its fruit1 the cultivation of the walnut-tree in ,england is by no means attended to so much as it was formerly1 when its wood was considered the most ornamental timber produced in our island4 ,it is pleasingly veined1 and admits of a fine polish1 but its colour is much less rich than that of mahogany2 and consequently1 except for the making of gunstocks1 it has1 of late1 been wholly superseded by that more favourite wood4 ,on the ,continent1 however1 the walnut-tree is still in request for furniture of various kinds4 ,the fruit of the walnut-tree is covered externally with a thick and smooth green husk1 the juice of which stains the fingers black4 ,in an unripe state1 before the shells are formed1 the whole fruit may be made into a pickle1 and also into ketchup4 ,in medicine the unripe fruit is considered of use for the destruction of worms1 and is usually administered in the form of an extract4 ,walnuts become ripe about the beginning of ,october2 and1 as they grow in clusters1 generally at the ends of the branches1 it is customary to beat them down with long poles4 ,the kernel1 which is covered with a tough1 yellow1 and bitter skin1 is more esteemed than that either of the hazel-nut or filbert4 ,it yields1 on pressure1 a sweet kind of oil1 which1 in quantity1 amounts to about half the weight of the kernel4 ,there are several varieties of walnut1 which are well known to the cultivators of that tree4 #bdj4 ,the ,,hickory-,,nut 7,juglans alba7 is a ,north ,american species of walnut1 the shell of which is very hard1 does not split asunder like that of the walnut1 and is of smoother and lighter colour than that4 ,its kernel is sweet and well tasted1 and affords a considerable portion of oil4 #bda4 ,the ,,hazel-,,nut and ,,filbert are well-known fruits1 the former of a shrub 7,corylus avellana1 ,fig4 #fg7 which grows in hedges and thickets2 and the latter of a somewhat similar shrub1 which is cultivated in orchards and kitchen gardens4 ,each of these kinds of nuts is much esteemed1 but particularly the latter2 the flavour of its kernels being very delicious4 ,they are1 however1 difficult of digestion1 and1 when eaten in considerable quantity1 sometimes produce very unpleasant effects4 ,the oil which is obtained from hazel-nuts by pressure is little inferior in flavour to that of almonds1 and1 under the name of nut-oil1 is often used by painters4 ,chemists employ it as the basis of fragrant oils artificially prepared1 because it easily combines with and retains odours4 ,this oil is found serviceable in obstinate coughs4 ,if nuts be put into earthen pots and well closed1 and afterwards buried eighteen inches or two feet deep in the earth1 they may be kept sound through the winter4 ,in many parts of the country hazels are planted in coppices and hedge-rows for several useful purposes2 but particularly to be cut down1 periodically1 for charcoal1 for poles1 fishing-rods1 c4 ,being extremely tough and flexible1 the branches of the hazel are used for making hurdles1 crates1 withs or bands1 and springles to fasten down thatch4 ,they are formed into spars1 handles for implements of husbandry2 and1 when split1 are bent into hoops for casks4 ,charcoal made from hazel is much in request for forges2 and1 when prepared in a particular manner1 is used by painters and engravers to draw their outlines4 ,in countries where yeast is scarce1 it is not unusual to twist loosely together the slender branches of this shrub1 and to steep them in ale-yeast during its fermentation4 ,they are then hung up to dry2 and1 at the next brewing1 are put into the wort instead of yeast4 ,the roots are used by cabinet makers for veneering3 and1 in ,italy1 the chips of hazel are sometimes put into turbid wine for the purpose of fining it4 #bdb4 ,the ,,hornbeam 7,carpinus betulus1 ,fig4 #gc7 is a forest tree which grows to the height of sixty or seventy feet1 yet seldom exceeds fifteen or eighteen inches in diameter1 has smooth white bark1 marked with grey spots1 and leaves about three inches long and two broad1 oval1 pointed1 and serrated4 ,as a timber-tree the hornbeam is more esteemed on the ,continent than in this country4 ,it grows readily in stiff soils1 particularly on the sides of hills2 and is easily transplanted4 ,the wood1 which is white1 hard1 and tough1 is used by turners2 and is wrought into cogs for mill-wheels1 screw-presses1 the heads of beetles1 handles of working tools1 and other instruments and machinery in which great strength is required4 ,as fuel it is preferred1 on account of its readier inflammability1 to most other kinds of wood4 ,the inner bark is used1 in some countries1 for dyeing yellow4 ,from the foliage of the hornbeam being luxuriant1 and admitting of being clipped1 without injury1 into any of those forms which the old ,french garden style required1 this tree was formerly much more planted in ,england than it is at present4 ,it preserves a great portion of its withered leaves through the winter2 and1 if properly planted as a hedge1 it forms an excellent fence4 ,the ,german husbandman1 when he erects a fence of hornbeam1 throws up a parapet of earth1 with a ditch on each side1 and plants his sets 7which he raises from layers7 in such a manner that every two plants may be brought to intersect each other1 in the form of a ,st4 ,andrew's cross4 ,in that part where the plants cross1 he scrapes off the bark1 and bends them closely together with straw4 ,in consequence of this operation the two plants consolidate into a sort of indissoluble knot1 and push1 from the place of junction1 horizontal slanting shoots1 which form a living palisado or chevaux de frise2 so that such a protection may be called a rural fortification4 ,these hedges1 being annually and carefully pruned1 will1 in a few years1 become impenetrable in every part4 ,it is not uncommon in ,germany1 to see the high roads thus guarded for many miles together2 and great advantage might be derived from adopting the same plan in many parts of our own kingdom4 #bdc4 ,the ,,plane-,,tree 7,platanus orientalis1 ,fig4 #ga7 is distinguished by having broad leaves1 each with about five principal divisions1 and these subdivided into smaller ones4 ,by the ancient ,greeks and ,romans the plane-tree was highly valued1 on account of its grateful shade2 and the latter were much delighted by training it in such manner as to admit of their sitting beneath its branches4 ,wherever they built their magnificent colleges for the exercise of youth1 in the gymnastic arts1 as riding1 wrestling1 running1 leaping1 throwing the discus1 c4 and where also the gravest philosophers met to converse together and improve their studies1 they planted avenues and walks of plane trees for refreshment and shade4 ,though now frequently planted in parks and pleasure grounds1 the sycamore 7#abb7 is1 in many instances1 preferred to it4 ,the plane1 though a native of ,asia and the southern parts of ,europe1 is very hardy1 grows rapidly1 and will flourish in any common soil1 and in any aspect4 ,its wood1 at a certain age1 becomes much veined2 and1 consequently1 is valuable for many kinds of domestic furniture1 but particularly for tables4 #bdd4 ,the ,,cabbage-,,tree 7,areca oleracea7 is an ,american species of palm1 which grows to the height of a hundred feet and upwards1 and is destitute of leaves until within a few feet of the summit4 ,the leaves1 sometimes near twenty feet long1 are winged1 and the leaflets are entire4 ,such is the general elegance of this tree that it is frequently denominated the queen of woods4 ,its fruit1 which grows in bunches from the top1 is an oblong and obtuse kind of berry1 of bluish purple colour1 and about the size of an olive4 ,the sheaths of the flowers1 and the floral leaves1 when first developed1 are folded round each other1 enclosed in a thin1 green1 and spongy bark1 eight or nine inches in circumference1 and constitute the part which is denominated the cabbage4 ,this is white1 and1 when boiled1 is esteemed a great luxury4 ,it is also eaten raw as a salad1 and fried with butter2 and its taste is said to resemble that of an artichoke4 ,this part is likewise frequently made into a pickle with vinegar and spices4 ,we are informed that the cabbage-tree was first introduced into ,jamaica by ,admiral ,knowles1 when governor of that island2 and that it has since been cultivated there with great attention4 ,but it is chiefly planted for its beauty1 being considered too valuable to be often cut down for the small portion of food which it thus affords1 however delicious that may be4 ,in the leaves of this tree there is a thread-like substance1 which is sometimes spun1 like hemp1 and made into different kinds of cordage4 ,the sockets or grooves formed by the broad part of the footstalks of the leaves are used by the negroes as cradles for their children2 and on the inner sides of the very young footstalks there are tender pellicles1 which1 when dried1 may be converted into paper4 ,the trunks1 when cleared of the pith1 serve as water pipes and gutters4 ,of the pith a kind of sago is made2 and in this pith1 after the trees are felled1 there is bred a large species of caterpillar which the inhabitants of some of the ,west ,indian islands eat as a great delicacy4 #bde4 ,the ,,catechu1 ,,areca1 or ,,betel-,,nut-,,tree 7,areca catechu71 is a species of palm which grows in the ,east ,indies4 ,it is generally from thirty to forty feet high1 and its trunk is six or eight inches in diameter4 ,the leaves1 which grow on the summit1 are winged1 having the leaflets folded back2 and the fruit is a pulpy berry with thin skin1 containing a nut about an inch in length1 and of a rounded conical form4 ,the kernel of the areca-nut1 which is covered by a thin1 smooth1 and yellowish shell1 is somewhat like a nutmeg1 but contains1 in the centre1 a white1 soft1 greyish1 and almost liquid substance1 which becomes hard as the nut ripens4 ,this fruit is in general use by the ,indians1 who cut it into slices1 mix it with other substances1 wrap it in the leaves of betel 7#bb71 and chew it much in the same manner as the common people of our country chew tobacco4 ,the consumption of these nuts in ,india is almost beyond calculation4 ,they are an article of considerable trade1 from port to port2 and also from ,india to ,china1 but they are seldom brought into ,england1 though they might be of use in some of our manufactures4 ,the drug called catechu1 and formerly terra japonica1 was supposed to be an extract prepared from the above nuts2 but it is now ascertained to be made from the wood of a species of mimosa4 ,,monadelphia4 #bdf4 ,the ,,scots ,,fir 7,pinus sylvestris71 which has its name from growing wild in different parts of ,scotland1 is known from other trees of the same tribe by having its slender and somewhat needle-shaped leaves in pairs2 its cones or seed-vessels somewhat egg-shaped1 mostly in pairs1 as long as the leaves1 and the scales blunt4 ,this useful tree flourishes with greatest luxuriance on the north and north-east sides of hills1 in a poor and sandy soil1 especially where this is mixed with loam4 ,if planted among rocks1 or in bogs1 it seldom attains a large size2 in black soil it becomes diseased2 and in chalky land it frequently pines away and dies4 ,its timber1 under the name of deal1 is employed as the wood-work of houses2 for rafters1 flooring1 doors1 the frames of windows1 tables1 boxes1 and other purposes1 infinitely too various to be enumerated4 ,frigates1 and other ships of large size1 have sometimes been constructed of deal but these are by no means so durable as vessels that are built of oak4 ,much of the deal which we use is imported from ,norway1 and other northern parts of ,europe4 ,that from ,christiana1 which is called yellow deal1 or red deal1 is frequently brought over in planks1 but more commonly in boards1 each about ten inches and half in width4 ,the wood of such trees as are raised in ,england is equal to the foreign wood in weight and durability1 but its grain is generally coarser4 ,the outer bark of the fir-tree may be used in the tanning of leather2 and it is said that1 in the northern parts of ,europe1 the soft1 white1 and fibrous inner bark is1 in times of scarcity1 made into a kind of bread4 ,for this purpose it is dried over a fire1 reduced to powder1 kneaded with water1 and a small portion of corn-flour1 into cakes1 and baked in an oven4 ,children in ,norway are very fond of the fresh bark1 in the spring of the year1 either shaved off with a knife1 or grated with a rasp4 ,common ,turpentine is the resinous juice chiefly of the ,scots fir1 obtained by boring holes into the trunks of the trees1 early in spring1 and placing vessels beneath for its reception4 ,it is of brown colour2 and has a strong odour1 and disagreeable taste4 ,in the distillation of turpentine an essential oil is produced1 called oil of turpentine1 which is extremely pungent4 ,when the distillation is continued to dryness1 the substance which remains is known by the name of common resin or rosin2 but1 if water be mixed with it1 while yet fluid1 and incorporated by violent agitation1 a substance is formed called yellow resin4 ,common turpentine is mostly employed as an ingredient in the plasters used by farriers4 ,the oil is occasionally used in medicine2 and1 lately1 it has been considered efficacious in cases of worms4 ,it is much employed by painters for rendering their colours more fluid2 as well as in the composition of different kinds of varnish used in floor-cloth1 umbrella1 and other manufactures4 ,the noxious spirit called gin was formerly flavoured with juniper berries2 but as these are now too expensive1 oil of turpentine1 the taste of which in a slight degree resembles that of juniper1 is applied to the same purpose2 and considerable quantities of turpentine are thus consumed4 ,the common resin is used in plasters1 for which its great adhesiveness renders it peculiarly applicable4 ,it is also of considerable importance in the arts2 and musicians rub the bows and strings of violins with it1 to take off the greasy particles which are there collected1 as well as to counteract the effects of moisture4 ,yellow resin is used in plasters1 and for other purposes in medicine4 ,tar is obtained from the roots and refuse parts of the fir-tree1 by cutting them into billets1 piling these1 in a proper manner1 in pits or ovens formed for the purpose1 covering them partly over1 and setting them on fire4 ,during the burning1 a black and thick matter1 which is the tar1 falls to the bottom1 and is conducted thence into vessels which are placed to receive it1 and from which it is afterwards poured into barrels for sale4 ,tar is an article of great utility in manufactures1 and for various economical purposes4 ,it is much employed for smearing the rigging1 and other external parts of ships1 to prevent their receiving injury from moisture4 ,it has been used in medicine both internally and externally2 and particularly tar-water1 or water impregnated with tar1 was1 some years ago1 a popular remedy in various disorders1 but its virtues have been too much extolled4 ,although considerable quantities of tar are prepared in this country1 these are insufficient to supply the demand2 consequently we1 every year1 import great quantities of it from ,russia1 ,sweden1 ,america1 and other countries4 ,pitch is usually made by melting together coarse hard resin and an equal quantity of tar2 or1 as some writers state1 by boiling tar with a certain portion of water1 until it becomes so thick that1 on cooling1 it forms a hard black mass4 ,by the ancients pitch was much employed for giving flavour and fragrance to their wines4 ,with us it is of extensive use to mechanics1 and in numerous manufactures2 but the principal demand for it is in ship-building1 to secure the joints and crevices of the planks and timbers1 and for other purposes4 ,when mixed with a certain quantity of oil and suet1 it is made into shoe-makers' wax2 and1 in conjunction with whale fat1 forms carriage-grease1 or the substance with which the wheels of carriages are smeared4 ,the best pitch is imported from ,sweden and ,norway3 and1 is of a glossy black colour1 perfectly dry1 and very brittle4 ,lamp-black is a soot formed by burning the dregs and coarser parts of tar in furnaces constructed for that purpose4 ,the smoke is conveyed through tubes into boxes1 each covered with linen1 in the form of a cone4 ,upon this linen the soot is deposited3 and it is1 from time to time1 beaten off into the boxes1 and afterwards packed in barrels for sale4 ,this substance is employed in printing and dyeing2 and has its name from the practice that was formerly adopted of making it by means of lamps4 #bdg4 ,the ,,weymouth ,,pine is chiefly distinguished by its leaves growing in fives1 and its cones being smooth1 cylindrical1 and longer than the leaves4 ,this species of fir-tree grows wild in ,north ,america1 and succeeds well in strong land in ,england4 ,its timber is white1 of more open grain than ,scots fir1 and not so heavy as that4 ,in ,america it is principally used for the masts of ships1 for which1 by its toughness1 it is peculiarly calculated4 #bdh4 ,the ,,spruce ,,fir 7,pinus abies71 a native of ,norway1 and other ,northern parts of ,europe1 is known by its short1 and four-sided leaves growing singly1 and surrounding the branches2 its cones being cylindrical1 the scales somewhat square1 flattened1 and notched at the top ,the wood of the spruce fir is what the ,english carpenters usually denominate white deal4 ,it is considered next in value to that obtained from the ,scots fir2 and is remarkable for having few knots4 ,on account of its lightness it is peculiarly adapted for packing-cases and musical instruments4 ,from incisions made into the trunk of the spruce fir-tree1 a fine and clear turpentine oozes1 which1 after being boiled in water1 and strained through a linen cloth1 acquires a somewhat solid consistence1 and reddish brown colour2 and is called ,burgundy pitch4 ,this is employed as an ingredient in several kinds of ointments and plasters3 and is principally manufactured in ,saxony4 ,the article called essence of spruce1 which is used in making spruce beer1 is prepared from the branches of this tree1 and from those of a species nearly allied to it which grows in ,america4 #bdi4 ,the ,,larch 7,pinus laryx71 a native of the ,alps1 and the mountains of ,germany1 is a species of fir1 which has its leaves in tufts1 and its cones oblong1 and of somewhat oval shape1 the margins of the scales bent back1 and jagged4 ,the cultivation of larch-trees has of late been much recommended for adoption in this country1 on account of the value of their timber1 which for strength and durability1 is equal to most kinds of deal4 ,it is well calculated for masts1 and the framework of vessels1 being capable of sustaining much greater pressure even than oak4 ,for wood-work constantly immersed in water1 it is peculiarly calculated1 as1 in such situations1 it is asserted to become almost as hard as stone4 ,in ,petersburg larch timber is applied to no other use than that of ship-building4 ,line-of-battle ships are constructed of it in ,archangel1 and these generally last about fifteen years2 though1 in milder climates1 it is imagined that they would last much longer4 ,for gates1 pales1 and similar work1 exposed to the vicissitudes of weather1 they are admirably serviceable2 and for flooring and other internal purposes are at least equally durable4 ,buildings constructed of larch timber are said to have continued sound for #bjj years2 and1 in some of the old palaces in ,venice1 there are beams of larch yet existing that are as sound as when they were first placed4 ,but the very combustible nature of this wood renders it objectionable for such uses4 ,no wood with which we are acquainted affords more durable staves for casks than larch2 and1 in the opinion of many persons1 it is further valuable by improving the flavour of the wine contained in them4 ,the wood is of delicate colour1 not unlike the cedar used for black-lead pencils1 but is knotty almost throughout4 ,from the inner bark of the larch the ,russians manufacture a soft and fine kind of white gloves4 ,the trunk1 if tapped betwixt the months of ,march and ,september1 yields an extremely pure turpentine1 which has the name of ,venice turpentine2 and is of considerable use in medicine4 ,it is usually thinner than any other kind of turpentine1 and of clear1 whitish1 or yellowish colour4 ,the drug of this name1 which is generally met with in the shops1 is now imported from ,new ,england1 but was formerly brought from ,venice4 ,a brown gummy substance1 known in ,russia by the name of ,orenburgh gum1 is obtained by a curious process from the sap of the tree4 ,on the large branches of the larch are produced small1 sweetish grains1 somewhat resembling sugar2 which are frequently substituted for the drug called manna 7#bge74 ,the cultivation of the larch was first introduced into ,britain towards the conclusion of the seventeenth century4 ,the trees will grow in almost any soil2 and the proper season for felling them is the month of ,july4 ,they1 however1 seldom attain any large size in this country2 and they are said to decay and become covered with moss1 when about forty years old4 #bej4 ,the ,,cypress-,,tree 7,cupressus sempervirens7 is a dark-coloured evergreen1 a native of the ,levant1 the leaves of which are extremely small1 and entirely cover all the slender branches1 lying close upon them so as to give them a somewhat quadrangular shape4 ,in some of the trees the branches diminish gradually in length from the bottom to the top1 in such manner as to form a nearly pyramidal shape4 ,in many of the old gardens in this country cypress-trees are still to be found1 but their generally sombre and gloomy appearance has caused them1 of late years1 to be much neglected4 ,they are1 however1 very valuable on account of their wood1 which is hard1 compact1 and durable1 of pale or reddish colour1 with deep veins1 and pleasant smell4 ,we are informed by ,pliny that the doors of the famous temple of ,diana1 at ,ephesus1 were of cypress wood1 and that1 although they were #djj years old at the time when he wrote1 they appeared to be nearly as fresh as new4 ,indeed this wood was so much esteemed by the ancients1 that the image of ,jupiter in the capitol was made of it4 ,the gates of ,st4 ,peter's church at ,rome are stated to have been of cypress1 and to have lasted more than #ajjj years1 from the time of the ,emperor ,constantine until that of ,pope ,eugenius the ,fourth1 when gates of brass were erected in their stead4 ,as this wood1 in addition to its other qualities1 takes a fine polish1 and is not liable to suffer from the attacks of insects1 it was formerly much esteemed for cabinet furniture4 ,by the ,greeks1 in the time of ,thucydides1 it was used for the coffins of eminent warriors2 and many of the chests which enclose ,egyptian mummies are made of it4 ,the latter afford very decisive proof of its almost incorruptible nature4 ,the name of this tree is derived from the island of ,cyprus1 in the ,mediterranean1 where it still grows in great luxuriance4 ,its gloomy hue caused it to be consecrated by the ancients to ,pluto1 and to be used at the funerals of people of eminence4 ,pliny states that1 in his time1 it was customary to place branches of the cypress-tree before the houses in which persons lay dead4 #bea4 ,the ,,cassava1 or ,,cassada 7,jatropha manihot7 is a ,south ,american shrub1 about three feet in height1 with broad1 shining1 and somewhat hand-shaped leaves1 and beautiful white and rose-coloured flowers4 ,it is a very remarkable circumstance1 that the roots of the cassava1 if eaten raw1 are a fatal poison both to man and beast1 and that1 when prepared by heat1 they yield a safe and valuable food2 on which1 indeed1 many both of the ,indian and ,european inhabitants of ,south ,america almost wholly subsist4 ,the roots are the only edible parts of the plant4 ,these1 which are white1 soft1 and farinaceous1 from one to two feet in length1 and five or six inches in circumference1 are dug out of the earth1 at a certain season of the year1 washed1 stripped of their rind1 and ground to a pulp4 ,the juice1 or poisonous part1 is pressed out1 and carefully thrown away2 as cattle1 and other animals1 which have accidentally drunk of it1 have almost instantly died4 ,the flour that remains1 after pressure1 is formed into thin round cakes and baked4 ,to an ,european1 accustomed to other bread1 these1 though sweetish1 and not unpalatable1 have an insipid taste4 ,if placed in close vessels1 and preserved from the attacks of insects1 cassava bread may be kept for several months without injury4 ,with the natives of ,south ,america1 it is not unusual to throw a great number of cakes of cassava together to heat1 after which they soak them in water1 which causes a rapid fermentation to take place2 and from the liquor thus obtained1 they make a very sharp and disagreeable1 but intoxicating beverage1 which will not keep longer than twenty-four hours without spoiling4 ,from the pure flour of cassava is formed the substance called tapioca1 which is frequently imported into this country1 and is used for jelly1 puddings1 and other culinary purposes4 ,it is prepared from the fibrous part of the roots by taking a small quantity of the pulp1 after the juice is extracted1 and working it in the hand till a thick white cream appears on the surface4 ,this1 being separated1 and washed in water1 gradually subsides to the bottom4 ,after the water is poured off1 the remaining moisture is dissipated by a slow fire1 the substance being constantly stirred1 until at length it is formed into grains about the size of sago 7#bff74 ,these become hard by keeping1 and are the purest and most wholesome part of the cassava4 ,the roots of another species of this shrub1 called sweet cassava1 are usually eaten with butter1 and merely after being roasted in hot ashes4 ,they have much the flavour of chesnuts1 and are an agreeable and nutritive food4 #beb4 ,the ,,tallow ,,tree 7,croton sebiferum7 is a native of ,china1 and in habit somewhat resembles a cherry-tree1 but has shining egg-shaped1 and pointed leaves1 that form tufts at the extremity of the branches4 ,the fruit of this tree1 from which the ,chinese obtain a kind of tallow for the manufacture of candles1 is enclosed in a husk1 not much unlike that of the chesnut1 and consists of three round white kernels4 ,all the preparation that is requisite is to melt these kernels1 adding a little oil1 to render them softer and more pliant than they would otherwise be4 ,the candles made from this substance are very white1 but are sometimes coloured by adding a little vermilion4 ,they are more firm than those of tallow1 but not equal in quality to candles either of wax or spermaceti4 ,the wicks that are used are not1 like ours1 made of cotton1 but consist of little rods of light1 dry wood1 with the pith of a rush entwined round them4 #bec4 ,,indian ,,rubber1 or ,,caoutchouc1 is the dried juice of a large and much branched tree 7,siphonia elastica1 ,fig4 #fj71 which grows in ,guiana1 and other parts of ,south ,america4 ,this tree has somewhat oval leaves1 entire1 veined1 and smooth1 arranged in threes1 and on long foot-stalks4 ,the flowers are small1 in bunches1 near the ends of the branches1 and the fruit is triangular4 ,it was not until about the year #agcf1 that this very extraordinary natural production was made known in ,europe4 ,it is obtained by making incisions through the bark of the tree1 chiefly in wet weather4 ,from the wounds thus formed the juice flows abundantly4 ,it is of milky-white colour1 and is conducted by a tube or leaf1 supported by clay1 into a vessel placed to receive it4 ,some writers assert that1 on mere exposure to the air1 it gradually hardens2 and others that1 for this purpose1 it goes through a certain process1 which the ,indians keep a profound secret4 ,it is usually brought to ,europe in the shape of pear-shaped bottles1 which are formed by spreading the juice over a mould of clay4 ,these are exposed to a dense smoke1 or to a fire1 till they become so dry as not to stick to the fingers2 and then1 by certain instruments of iron or wood1 they are ornamented on the outside with various figures4 ,this done1 the clay in the inside is moistened with water and picked out4 ,indian rubber is remarkable for the flexibility and elasticity which it acquires on attaining a solid state2 and also for the numerous useful purposes to which it is capable of being applied4 ,by the ,indians it is sometimes formed into boots1 which are impenetrable by water1 and which1 when smoked1 have the appearance of leather4 ,bottles are made of it1 to whose necks are fastened hollow reeds1 through which the liquor contained in them can be squirted at pleasure4 ,one of these1 filled with water1 is always presented to each of the guests at their entertainments4 ,flambeaux are likewise formed of this substance1 which give a very brilliant light2 and it is said that a torch of ,indian rubber1 an inch and a half in diameter1 and two feet long1 will burn twelve hours4 ,the inhabitants of ,quito prepare a species of oil-cloth with the hardened juice of this tree4 ,the principal uses to which ,indian rubber is applied by us are1 for the effacing of black-lead marks2 for flexible syringes1 tubes1 and other instruments used by surgeons and chemists2 and for the formation1 by means of turpentine or linseed oil1 of a varnish for air-balloons4 ,various experiments have been made to dissolve this substance1 so that it may assume its naturally elastic state1 under any figure that may be required4 ,this has been effected by means of ether1 but the process is too expensive for common use4 ,a simple method of forming tubes of it is to split a piece of cane and to put between the pieces a slip of whalebone4 ,if the ,indian rubber be cut into slips1 and twisted closely round the cane1 and the heat of boiling water be applied1 the whole will become united into one piece or tube1 from which the whalebone first1 and afterwards the cane1 may easily be separated4 ,it has been proved that cloth of all kinds may be made impenetrable by water1 if impregnated with the fresh juice of the ,indian rubber tree2 and that boots1 gloves1 and other articles1 made of cloth thus prepared1 may be joined without sewing1 and only by moistening the edges with the juice4 ,these are not only more durable1 but retain their shape better than such as are made of the juice without any connecting substance4 ,it has lately been ascertained that1 in ,prince of ,wales's ,island1 and also in ,sumatra1 there are trees of a class and order totally different from that above described1 which yield a juice similar to this1 and applicable to all the same purposes4 #bed4 ,the ,,castor-,,oil ,,plant 7,ricinus palma christi7 is a native both of the ,east and ,west ,indies1 and has a stem from five to fifteen or sixteen feet in height1 and large bluish-green leaves1 divided into seven lobes1 serrated and pointed1 the footstalks long1 and inserted into the disk4 ,the flowers are produced in a terminating spike1 and the seed-vessels are covered with spines1 and contain each three flattish oblong seeds4 ,it is to the seeds of this plant that we are indebted for the drug called castor-oil4 ,this is sometimes obtained by pressing the seeds1 in the same way as is practised with respect to oil of almonds 7#aeb74 ,but the mode chiefly adopted in the ,west ,indies1 whence we principally import it1 is first to strip the seeds of their husks or pods1 and then to bruise them in a mortar2 afterwards they are tied in linen bags1 and boiled in water until the oil which they contain rises to the surface2 this is carefully skimmed off1 strained to free it from any accidental impurities1 and bottled for use4 ,the oil which is obtained by boiling is considered more mild than that obtained by pressure1 but it sooner becomes rancid4 ,the mildest and finest of the ,jamaica castor-oil is limpid1 nearly colourless1 and has scarcely more taste or smell than good olive-oil4 ,the uses of castor-oil in medicine are well known4 ,the plant is sufficiently hardy to grow and ripen its seeds in the open ground of gardens1 in the south of ,england4 ---- ,,class ,,xxii4--,,dioecia4 ---- ,,diandria4 #bee4 ,,willow1 ,,osier1 or ,,withy4--,of this very extensive tribe nearly fifty distinct species have been discovered in our own island4 ,the slender branches of many of these are applied to useful purposes1 but particularly for making baskets1 bird-cages1 and what is called wicker-work2 springles for fastening down thatch1 wheels or traps for catching lobsters and eels2 hoops and crates4 ,the wood is useful for the handles of hatchets1 prongs1 spades1 and other rural implements2 and also furnishes shoemakers with cutting and whetting boards1 on which they cut leather and sharpen the edges of their knives4 ,as willows generally flourish in wet situations1 some of the species are planted with a view to prevent the banks of rivers and brooks from being washed away by floods4 ,the bark of some kinds of willow has been applied1 with effect1 as a substitute for ,peruvian bark1 in the cure of intermittent fevers4 ,it has also been esteemed useful in the tanning of leather2 and1 in combination with alder1 for striking a deep black colour1 in the dyeing of linen4 ,the bark of other species may be manufactured into paper4 ,in the year #aghh1 ,mr4 ,greaves of ,milbank1 near ,warrington1 ,lancashire1 made fifteen reams of coarse paper from the bark of withen twigs1 intermixed with a few nettles4 ,the latter1 however1 he afterwards discovered1 would better have been left out1 as there was in them a woody substance1 which does not well incorporate with other vegetables4 ,the paper he made was considerably cheaper than paper of equal size and thickness made from ropes2 and it was found that pasteboard1 for book covers1 made of withen bark1 would be much cheaper than similar pasteboard manufactured from ropes4 ,the process by which this paper and pasteboard were manufactured was as follows2 the bark was stripped from the twigs in ,september1 the time at which they are usually cut for making white baskets2 it was then hackled1 like flax or hemp1 and dried in the sun1 which gave it somewhat the appearance of brown hemp3 but this having been attended with considerable trouble1 other parts of the bark were dried with the leaves1 as they were stripped off from the twigs1 and were then submitted to the operation of the paper-mill4 ,the flowering branches of one species1 the common sallow 7,salix cineria71 are called palms1 and are gathered by children1 in many parts of ,england1 on ,palm ,sunday4 ,,triandria4 #bef4 ,,nutmegs are the kernels of a fruit produced in several islands of the ,east ,indies4 ,they are each surrounded by the spice called mace1 and1 externally1 by a husk about half an inch in thickness1 which has somewhat the appearance of a small peach 7,fig4 #hj74 ,the nutmeg-tree 7,myristica aromatica7 is not unlike our cherry-tree1 both in growth and size4 ,its leaves are nearly oval1 but pointed1 waved1 obliquely nerved1 of bright green colour above1 and whitish beneath4 ,the flowers are small1 and hang upon slender stalks4 ,when this fruit is nearly ripe the husk opens at the end1 and exposes a net-work of scarlet mace4 ,underneath the mace is a black shell1 about as thick as that of a filbert1 and very hard2 and in this is contained the nutmeg4 ,the gathering of nutmegs is performed by persons who ascend the trees for that purpose1 and pull the branches to them with long hooks4 ,the husks are stripped off in the woods1 and the remaining part of the fruit1 with its surrounding mace1 is taken home4 ,after the mace has been carefully stripped off1 with a small knife1 the nuts1 which are still covered with their woody shell1 are dried1 first in the sun1 and then upon a frame of split bamboos placed over a slow fire1 until1 when shaken1 the kernels are heard to rattle within the shells4 ,these now easily fly to pieces when beaten with small sticks2 and the nutmegs1 being taken out1 are soaked in sea-water and lime1 and are then thrown in great numbers together to heat1 by which their vegetating principle is destroyed4 ,the nutmegs are finally sorted into parcels1 according to their quality1 and packed in bags for sale and exportation4 ,the nutmegs vended at the ,east ,india ,company's sales in #ahjd1 amounted in weight to #aag1icf pounds1 and produced #ed1gccl4 exclusive of the duties4 ,this kind of spice has long been employed both for culinary and medicinal purposes4 ,distilled with water1 nutmegs afford a large portion of essential oil1 which resembles1 in flavour1 the spice itself4 ,when heated and pressed they yield a considerable quantity of limpid yellow oil4 ,in the shops a thick and fragrant kind is sold1 which1 though called oil of mace1 is1 in reality1 expressed from the nutmeg4 ,the best oil of this description is imported from the ,east ,indies1 in stone jars4 ,oil of nutmegs is chiefly made from the imperfect fruit1 and such as would be unfit for the ,european market4 ,mace1 or the covering of the nutmeg1 that lies betwixt the outer coat and the shell1 is an unctuous membrane1 first of a light red1 and afterwards1 when dried1 and as we see it1 of yellowish colour4 ,after it is taken from the shell it is exposed to the sun1 then moistened with sea-water1 and finally so far dried as to allow of its being packed in bales for exportation4 ,in these it is pressed closely down1 by which its fragrance and peculiar qualities are preserved4 ,mace is liable to seizure if imported in packages of less than #cjj pounds' weight4 ,we usually see it in flakes each about an inch in length1 and presenting a great variety of ramifications4 ,this spice has a very fragrant and agreeable odour1 and1 to most persons1 a pleasant1 though somewhat acrid1 taste4 ,it possesses nearly all the virtues of the nutmeg1 but with less astringency2 and1 like that1 is employed in numerous ways1 both in culinary preparations and medicine4 ,in the island of ,banda it is sometimes customary to boil the entire fruit of the nutmeg-tree1 and afterwards to preserve it in syrup1 and also to pickle it in spiced vinegar1 in nearly the same manner as we pickle walnuts4 ,in several parts of the ,east the inhabitants preserve the outer husk of the nutmeg as a sweetmeat1 or eat it stewed with other food4 #beg4 ,the ,,date is a fruit shaped somewhat like a large acorn1 and covered externally with a yellowish membrane or skin1 which contains a fine1 soft1 and sweetish pulp1 and1 in the centre1 an oblong1 hard stone4 ,the trees 7,phoenix dactylifera7 which produce this fruit1 grow chiefly on the shores of the ,mediterranean1 are forty feet and upwards in height1 have an upright stem1 marked through their whole length with protuberances1 and terminated at the summit with a cluster of winged leaves or branches1 each eight or nine feet in length4 ,the cultivation of the date is attentively pursued on the ,african coast of the ,mediterranean2 in several parts of ,persia1 ,arabia1 and even in ,spain4 ,the latter country1 however1 is not sufficiently warm to ripen the fruit in perfection1 without the constant labour of the cultivator4 ,he is obliged to ascend the trees1 from time to time1 to examine the flowers and turn them towards the sun4 ,this is chiefly done in the spring of the year2 and1 during the month of ,august1 another and much more dangerous operation is requisite1 namely1 to tie all the branches into one bundle1 and cover them over with broom4 ,to make this bundle1 the person employed is obliged to leap1 as it were1 over the flexible branches1 for the purpose of surrounding and uniting them with a cord4 ,this operation over1 he places a ladder at the bottom of the tree1 on which he stands to make a second band2 he then places his ladder on this second band1 ascends and ties the top with a third cord4 ,his bundle being formed1 he throws down his instruments1 replaces his ladder by a gradation contrary to the former1 and descends1 from band to band1 to the stem of the tree1 down which he slides to the bottom4 ,among the ,africans and ,egyptians the date constitutes a principal article of food1 and1 as such1 it is considered both wholesome and nutritive4 ,its name is a word1 formed of dacte or dactylus1 implying a finger1 from an imaginary resemblance which this fruit has to the end of the finger4 ,although dates1 in general1 are of yellowish colour1 some are black1 some white1 and others brown3 some also are sweet1 and others bitter4 ,the best are called royal dates1 and are imported into this country from ,tunis4 ,each tree produces ten or twelve bunches of fruit1 which1 when gathered1 are hung up in a dry place1 until so much of their moisture is evaporated as to allow of their being packed in boxes for exportation4 ,nearly all the parts of the date-tree are useful4 ,the wood1 though of spongy texture1 is employed for the beams and rafters of houses1 and for implements of husbandry1 which are said to be very durable4 ,the pith of the young trees is eaten1 as well as the young and tender leaves4 ,from the old leaves and their stalks the women and children of ,valencia make mats1 baskets1 and other utensils2 and from other filamentous parts1 ropes and different kinds of cordage are manufactured4 ,a considerable traffic is carried on in these leaves1 which1 under the name of palms1 are sent to ,italy1 to be used in the grand religious ceremonies of ,palm ,sunday4 ,in ,persia an ardent spirit is distilled from the fruit2 and1 in many places1 the stones are ground to make oil1 and the paste that is left is given as food to cattle and sheep4 ,,pentandria4 #beh4 ,,mastic is a resinous substance1 obtained from a low tree or shrub 7,pistacia lentiscus7 which grows in the ,levant4 ,it has alternate winged leaves1 consisting of several pairs of spear-shaped leaflets1 and spikes of very small flowers1 which issue from the junction of the leaves with the branches4 ,the mode in which this resin is obtained is by making incisions across the tree in different parts4 ,from these the juice exudes in drops1 that are suffered to run upon the ground1 and there to remain until they are sufficiently hard to be collected for use4 ,the season for this process commences in the dry weather at the beginning of ,august1 and lasts until the end of ,september4 ,the best mastic is that imported from the island of ,scio4 ,we receive it in semi-transparent grains of yellowish colour4 ,these emit an agreeable smell when heated2 and1 when chewed1 they first crumble1 and afterwards stick together1 and become soft and white like wax4 ,with the ,turkish women it is customary to chew this resin for the purpose of rendering their breath agreeable1 and under a notion also that it tends to make their teeth white1 and to strengthen the gums4 ,they also mix it in fragrant waters1 and burn it with other odoriferous substances1 by way of perfume4 ,it was formerly much used in medicine1 as a remedy against pain in the teeth and gums2 and1 dissolved in spirit of wine1 as a relief in obstinate and long continued coughs3 but it is now almost wholly disused for these purposes2 and is chiefly employed in the composition of varnish1 and by dentists1 for filling up the cavities of decayed teeth4 ,the wood of the mastic-tree is imported in thick knotty pieces1 covered externally with an ash-coloured bark4 ,this wood is accounted a mild1 balsamic astringent2 and a preparation of it1 under the name of aurum potabile1 is strongly recommended1 by some of the ,german writers1 in coughs1 nausea1 and weakness of the stomach4 #bei4 ,,hemp is the fibrous part of the stalks of a plant 7,cannabis sativa1 ,fig4 #hb7 which grows wild in the ,east ,indies1 and is much cultivated in different parts of ,europe4 ,it has the lower leaves in slender finger-like divisions2 the male flowers in small loose spikes1 at the end of the stem and branches2 and the female flowers single1 at the junction of the leaves and stem4 ,the principal country for hemp1 as an article of commerce1 is ,russia1 few other countries of ,europe growing a quantity sufficient for their own consumption4 ,it is cultivated in some parts of ,britain1 but particularly in the counties of ,suffolk and ,norfolk4 ,the soil best adapted to it is a moist but loose sandy loam1 or the black mould of low lands near water4 ,the seed is sown in ,april or ,may2 and the plants1 which attain the height of five or six feet1 are in a state to be pulled up in three or four months2 the male plant1 or fimble hemp1 as it is called1 being ready some time before the female plants1 which have the name of karle or seed-hemp4 ,as soon as the hemp is pulled1 it is tied in bundles and set up to dry2 and1 at the end of about ten days1 the bundles are loosened at the top1 and the heads are held upon a hurdle by one person1 whilst another1 with a small threshing-flail1 beats out the seed4 ,in the preparation of hemp for the manufacturer two modes are pursued4 ,one of these is to spread it out on stubble or pasture ground1 that the fibrous parts may be rendered separable by the gradual operation of the weather2 the other is to immerse the bundles1 for some days1 in stagnant water4 ,the next process consists in separating the bark1 or hemp1 from the stalks3 this is effected either by pulling out the stalk with the hand1 or by machinery similar to that adopted in the preparation of flax 7#ig74 ,after some other operations the hemp is beaten in mills1 and then combed or dressed by drawing it through instruments called hackles1 which are somewhat similar to the combs of wool-manufacturers4 ,thus prepared1 the hemp is spun into thread1 which is made into twine1 ropes1 and cordage of every description2 and woven into canvas1 and strong cloth of various kinds4 ,indeed so great is the importance of this production1 particularly for the cordage1 cables1 and the rigging of ships1 that1 to encourage its growth1 an act of parliament was passed in #aghc1 directing a bounty of three pence per stone to be paid on all hemp raised in ,great ,britain2 and imposing heavy duties on hemp imported from foreign countries4 ,from hemp-seed a valuable kind of oil is procured1 by pressure1 which is peculiarly adapted for burning1 as it is perfectly limpid and without smell3 it is also used for making the soap called green soap4 ,the seeds themselves are sometimes employed in the feeding of poultry1 from a notion that they cause the hens to lay a greater number of eggs than they otherwise would do4 ,they are also given as food to singing birds2 but1 if in great quantity1 they are supposed to injure the plumage4 ,the stalks1 after the hemp is taken from them1 afford an excellent fuel4 ,the water in which hemp has been soaked is in a high degree poisonous4 #bfj4 ,,hops are the dried flower-buds of a climbing ,british plant 7,humulus lupulus1 ,fig4 #ha71 with a rough and angular stem1 and leaves generally in three or five lobes or divisions1 and serrated4 ,although hops grow wild1 in great abundance1 on hedges in several parts of the south of ,england1 there is reason to suppose that their use was first made known from the ,continent in the reign of ,henry the ,eighth4 ,a hop plantation requires the growth of some years before it is in perfection4 ,the plants begin to push up their young stems about the month of ,april4 ,when these are three or four inches above the ground1 poles about twenty feet high are driven in to support them during their growth4 ,the season for picking hops usually commences about the middle of ,september4 ,this work is performed by men1 women1 and children4 ,proper baskets1 bins1 or cribs being in readiness1 the plants are cut off close to the ground1 and the poles are drawn up4 ,these are placed upon the bins1 with the plants upon them1 and three or more persons on each side1 pick off the hops4 ,after this they are dried in a kiln1 and1 when dry1 are carried into1 and kept1 for five or six days1 in an apartment called the stowage-room1 until they are in a state to be put into bags4 ,this is done through a round hole1 or trap1 cut in the floor of the stowage-room1 exactly equal in dimensions to the mouth of the bag1 and immediately under which this mouth is fastened4 ,in each of the lower corners of the bag a small handful of hops is tied2 and a person1 called the packer1 places himself in it1 and1 by a heavy leaden weight1 which he constantly moves round in the places where he is not treading1 presses and forces the hops down1 in a very close manner1 into the bag1 as fast as they are thrown to him by another labourer4 ,the work thus proceeds till the bag is quite full1 when each of the upper corners has a few hops tied in it1 in the same manner as those at the bottom4 ,these serve as handles for moving the bags4 ,the bag is then taken away1 and its mouth is properly sewed up and secured4 ,the hops of finest colour and best sample are put into bags of finer manufacture than the others1 under the denomination of pockets2 and the inferior sorts are packed in canvas of coarser kind1 called bags4 ,when the hop-picking is completed1 the poles are cleared from the binds or plants which adhered to them1 and are stacked or piled together4 ,the binds1 when perfectly dried1 are either stacked or placed in sheds1 to be used as fuel in ovens1 or otherwise4 ,sometimes they are burnt upon the land1 for the ashes to serve as manure1 trodden in the farm-yard1 or allowed to be taken away by the labourers for their own use4 ,as the hop-plants are liable to be injured in various ways during their growth1 they are considered a very precarious crop4 ,they suffer from the attacks of insects1 from honey-dew1 from blight1 from hot sunny weather after rain1 and by winds and storms4 ,the principal use of hops1 in brewing1 is for the preservation of malt liquor1 and to communicate to it an agreeably aromatic bitter flavour4 ,the best hops are used for ale and the finer kinds of malt liquor1 and inferior kinds are used for porter4 ,the odour of hops hung over a bed1 or a pillow stuffed with hops1 has been said to promote sleep1 after the application of opium has failed4 ,the young shoots and tops are often gathered from the hedges1 by poor people1 and boiled and eaten in the manner of asparagus4 ,of the woody part of the hop-binds1 after having been steeped in water1 and worked into a pulp1 a coarse kind of paper may be made4 ,,hexandria4 #bfa4 ,,yams are an ,american and ,west ,indian root of very irregular shape1 which possess properties somewhat similar to those of the potatoe1 but they are less mealy1 and1 in a raw state1 are very viscous4 ,the plants 7,dioscorea bulbifera7 which produce these roots have heart-shaped leaves1 and a stem that creeps along the ground like ivy4 ,in some of the rich lands of ,south ,america1 yams are said to grow to the weight of fifty or sixty pounds each2 and are so productive that an acre of ground planted with them has been known to produce roots to the weight of from #bj1jjj to #cj1jjj pounds4 ,yams are propagated by setting the eyes1 in the same manner as we plant potatoes2 and1 in six or eight months1 they arrive at maturity4 ,when they are dug out of the ground1 they are1 for a little while1 exposed to the sun to dry2 and if1 after this1 they be packed in casks full of dry sand1 they may be preserved1 without injury1 for many months4 ,they are consequently often used as sea-store for vessels about to sail on long voyages1 and are frequently brought into ,england4 ,several attempts have been made to cultivate yams in this island2 and these have been attended with a certain degree of success in the counties of ,mid-,lothian1 ,perth1 and ,stirling in ,scotland1 where they are used for the feeding of cattle4 ,there are two kinds1 one red1 and the other white4 ,the former of these contain a more nutritive food than the latter1 though their flavour is much less excellent4 ,with the negroes1 in the ,west ,indian islands1 the yam is a very important article of food4 ,when roasted1 it is so wholesome and nutritive that it is preferred by them even to bread4 ,like potatoes1 yams may be converted into bread1 by mixture with a portion of wheat or barley flour4 ,they are sometimes made into soup1 puddings1 and other useful dishes4 ,,octandria4 #bfb4 ,the ,,abele1 or ,,great ,,white ,,poplar-,,tree 7,populus alba1 ,fig4 #gd71 is a ,british tree which grows in hedges and woods1 near brooks1 and is known by its leaves being nearly triangular1 irregularly jagged at the edges1 and cottony underneath4 ,the quickness of growth of this tree is so great that it will sometimes make shoots from eighteen to twenty feet in length in one year2 and the trees attain their full growth in the course of twenty years4 ,the wood is white and soft1 but tough and of close grain1 and not subject to warp or shrink4 ,hence it has been found useful for the flooring of rooms1 and for making laths and packing boxes4 ,for turnery ware it is preferred to most other kinds of wood1 on account of its peculiar whiteness1 and the ease with which it is worked in the lathe4 ,of this wood1 says ,evelyn1 people also made shields of defence1 in sword and buckler days4 ,the bark of the abele-tree is said to be serviceable as a remedy in intermittent fevers2 and ,dioscorides informs us that if it be chopped small and sowed in rills1 well and richly manured1 it will yield a plentiful crop of mushrooms4 #bfc4 ,the ,,aspen1 or ,,trembling ,,poplar 7,populus tremula71 is a tree which grows in moist woods2 has nearly circular leaves1 toothed and angular at the edges1 smooth on both sides1 and attached to footstalks so long and slender as to be shaken by the slightest wind4 ,there is scarcely any situation in which the aspen will not flourish1 but it succeeds best where the soil is moist and gravelly4 ,its wood is light1 porous1 soft1 and of white colour2 and1 though inferior in excellence to that of the white poplar1 is applicable to many useful purposes1 particularly for field-gates1 the frames of pack-saddles1 for milk-pails1 clogs1 and the wood-work of patterns4 ,it is improper for bedsteads1 as it is liable to be infested by bugs4 ,in some countries the bark of the young trees is made into torches4 #bfd4 ,the ,,black ,,poplar 7,populus nigra1 ,fig4 #ge7 is a native tree of this country1 known by its somewhat trowel-shaped leaves1 which taper to a point1 and are serrated1 and smooth on both sides4 ,this tree grows rapidly1 and attains a considerable size4 ,its wood is soft and light1 and in some respects useful to engravers2 and is occasionally sawed into boards1 though these are not in general much esteemed4 ,the bark is so thick and light that it is not unfrequently used by fishermen as buoys or floats to support their nets4 ,the inhabitants of ,kamtschatka dry and pulverise the inner rind of the black poplar-tree1 and use it as an ingredient in bread4 ,the buds1 when they first appear1 are covered with and contain a viscous and fragrant juice1 which may be advantageously used in plasters4 #bfe4 ,the ,,lombardy or ,,italian ,,poplar 7,populus dilatata7 grows wild in ,lombardy and the northern parts of ,italy1 and is distinguished by its somewhat trowel-shaped and serrated leaves1 being smooth on both sides1 and wider than they are long4 ,from its slender and perpendicular growth the ,lombardy poplar is found useful for hop-poles1 and may be formed into masts for small vessels4 ,the wood1 which is soft and free from knots1 is employed by joiners1 carpenters1 and cartwrights4 ,it is recommended as peculiarly valuable for the floors of granaries1 some persons believing it so obnoxious to insects that weevils will not continue in such granaries4 ,it may be wrought into very flexible shafts for carriages1 or felloes for wheels2 and1 not being liable to split1 is peculiarly adapted for packing cases4 ,the growth of this tree is so rapid1 and the space of ground which it occupies is so small1 that it is in almost universal request as an ornamental tree1 in places that are not sufficiently spacious to admit of trees of more spreading form4 ,,polyandria4 #bff4 ,,sago is a granulated preparation from the pith of a species of palm-tree 7,cycas circinalis7 which grows in ,india and ,africa4 ,this tree attains the height of thirty or forty feet2 has a straight and somewhat slender stem1 and winged leaves at the summit1 each seven or eight feet long1 with the leaflets long and narrow4 ,the preparation of sago1 under different forms1 constitutes a principal source of employment to the inhabitants of many parts of the coast of ,malabar1 as well as those of several of the islands of the ,east ,indies4 ,the trunk of the sago-tree contains a farinaceous pith1 to obtain which it is sawn into pieces4 ,after the pith is taken out1 it is beaten in mortars1 and1 water being poured upon the mass1 this is allowed to stand for some hours to settle2 after which it is strained through a coarse cloth1 and1 the finest particles running through with the water1 the grosser ones are left behind and thrown away1 or washed over a hair sieve through which only the edible parts can pass4 ,these are allowed to subside4 ,the water is then poured off1 and the flour1 being properly dried1 is made into cakes and baked for use1 or is granulated in a manner somewhat similar to that adopted in the preparation of tapioca 7#bea74 ,it is in the latter state that sago is imported into ,europe1 where it is much used as a nourishing and agreeable diet for sick persons1 in puddings and other culinary preparations4 #bfg4 ,the ,,common ,,juniper 7,juniperus communis7 is an evergreen shrub1 with slender and pointed leaves1 that grows on heaths in several parts of the south of ,england4 ,the leaves grow in threes2 each is tipped with a spine1 and is longer than the ripe fruit1 which is a blackish purple berry4 ,juniper berries are at first green2 and they continue upon the trees two years before they become ripe and assume their purple colour4 ,when ripe they have a sweetish aromatic taste4 ,the ,swedes prepare1 from these berries1 a beverage which they consider useful as a medicine2 and in some parts of the ,continent juniper berries are roasted1 ground1 and adopted as a substitute for coffee4 ,in ,sweden they are eaten at breakfast1 in the form of a conserve2 and1 in ,germany1 they are frequently used as a culinary spice1 and especially for imparting their peculiar flavour to sour crout4 ,spirits impregnated with an essential oil distilled from them have the name of juniper water or gin4 ,but it is a common practice to adopt spirit of turpentine 7#bdf7 instead of this4 ,juniper-berries are imported into this country from ,holland and ,italy4 ,their smell is strong1 but not disagreeable2 and their flavour is warm1 pungent1 and sweetish1 leaving a bitter taste in the mouth4 ,the essential oil of these berries1 if mixed with nut-oil 7#bda71 makes an excellent varnish for pictures1 woodwork1 and iron4 ,the wood of the juniper-tree is of reddish colour1 very hard1 and so durable that it will last more than a hundred years without decay4 ,it is employed in veneering1 for making cabinets1 and for ornamental furniture4 ,charcoal formed from it affords a heat so lasting1 that live embers are said to have been found in the ashes of juniper-trees after they have been covered up for more than twelve months4 ,such is the fibrous nature of the bark that it may be manufactured into ropes and other cordage4 ,from the crevices of the bark1 or through perforations made in it by insects1 a resinous gum exudes1 which has the name of gum sandarach4 ,this1 which is of pale yellowish colour1 very brittle1 and inflammable1 possesses a pungent aromatic taste1 and emits a fragrant odour when burnt4 ,it is imported from the ,continent1 in small pieces or tears1 about the size of peas4 ,when powdered and passed through a fine sieve1 this is the substance called pounce1 which is used for rubbing upon writing paper1 in places where it has been scratched4 ,considerable quantities of this gum are consumed in the preparation of varnish1 and particularly of one kind1 used by cabinet-makers and painters1 called vernis4 #bfh4 ,the ,,red or ,,common ,,cedar is a species of juniper 7,juniperus virginiana7 which grows in ,north ,america and the ,west ,indies4 ,it is distinguished by its leaves growing in threes1 and being fixed by their base1 the younger ones lying upon each other1 and the older ones spreading4 ,the wood of this tree is in much request for the outsides of black lead pencils4 ,it is soft and incapable of high polish1 but1 on account of its powerful fragrance1 and consequently resisting the attacks of insects1 it not unfrequently used for the bottoms of drawers1 and the inside of cabinets4 ,some years ago it was in much request for wainscotting and cabinet work2 but1 since the introduction of mahogany1 it has been in great measure neglected for these purposes4 #bfi4 ,the ,,yew is a well-known evergreen tree 7,taxus baccata71 which has dark1 narrow1 pointed1 and prickly leaves1 and red berries1 in the hollow part of the extremity of which a green seed appears4 ,the cultivation of the yew was formerly very extensive throughout nearly the whole of the ,british dominions1 since of the wood of this tree1 which is peculiarly hard1 smooth1 and tough1 our ancestors manufactured their bows4 ,hence1 as well as on account of its gloomy and funereal aspect1 it was usually planted in churchyards4 ,but1 when the introduction of fire-arms began to supersede the use of the bow1 the yew was no longer cultivated than as an ornamental tree in parks and pleasure grounds4 ,in the formal style of gardening which was anciently prevalent1 few trees were more the subject of admiration than this1 from its bearing to be clipped1 without injury1 into almost any form4 ,yews were cut into the shape of men1 quadrupeds1 birds1 ships1 and other vegetable monsters1 but such absurd fancies have of late years almost wholly disappeared4 ,these trees are at present advantageously planted in hedges1 as a fence for orchards and shrubberies1 which nothing can injure4 ,the wood of the yew-tree is hard1 beautifully veined1 and susceptible of high polish4 ,hence it is valuable as a wood for veneering1 and is much used for card boxes1 small cabinets1 and other articles4 ,it is frequently used by turners and cabinet-makers2 and might perhaps be advantageously substituted for box 7#bcb7 by engravers and other artists in that wood4 ,from its hardness and durability1 it may be made into cogs for mill-wheels1 into axle-trees1 and flood-gates for fish-ponds1 which are scarcely susceptible of decay4 ,the berries are sweet and clammy1 and are often eaten by children without inconvenience2 though when eaten to excess1 and particularly if the stones be swallowed1 they are injurious4 ,an ardent spirit might no doubt be obtained from them by distillation4 ,the leaves of the yew-tree are extremely poisonous both to the human species and to cattle4 ---- ,,class ,,xxiii4--,,polygamia4 ---- ,,monoecia4 #bgj4 ,the ,,plantain-,,tree 7,musa paradisiaca71 which is much cultivated in the ,west ,indies and ,south ,america1 has a soft stem1 fifteen or twenty feel high1 with several leaves on the summit2 and bears a fruit of pale yellow colour1 somewhat shaped like a cucumber1 about a foot in length1 and two inches thick4 ,the leaves are frequently eight feet long1 and more than two feet broad1 and are so thin and tender that they are often torn by the wind4 ,the fruit is produced in bunches so large as each to weigh forty pounds and upwards4 ,to the negroes of the ,west ,indian islands the plantain is an invaluable fruit1 and1 like bread to the ,europeans1 is with them denominated the staff of life4 ,in ,jamaica alone many thousand acres are planted with these trees4 ,this fruit is usually gathered before it is ripe1 and1 after the skin has been peeled off1 is roasted for a little while in a clear fire2 it is then scraped and eaten as bread1 for which it is an excellent substitute4 ,plantains are sometimes boiled1 and eaten with salt meat2 they are also cut into slices and fried1 pounded1 and made into puddings1 and used in various other ways4 ,horses1 cattle1 swine1 and other domestic animals1 are fattened with them4 ,when ripe they may be eaten raw1 and1 in this state1 they have somewhat the taste of a ripe pear4 ,the leaves of the plantain-tree1 being soft and smooth1 are sometimes employed as dressings after blisters2 and1 when green1 are used as food for hogs4 ,the vegetation of this tree is so rapid that if a line or thread be drawn across1 and on a level with the top of one of the leaves1 when it begins to expand1 it will be seen1 in the course of an hour1 to have grown nearly an inch4 #bga4 ,the ,,banana is a valuable plant 7,musa sapientum7 which grows in the ,west ,indies and other tropical countries1 and has leaves about six feet in length1 and a foot broad in the middle2 and fruit four or five inches long1 and about the shape of a cucumber4 ,when ripe1 the banana is an agreeable fruit1 with a soft and luscious pulp2 and is frequently introduced in desserts in the ,west ,indies4 ,the ,spaniards have a superstitious dislike to cut this fruit across2 they always slice it from end to end1 because1 in the former case1 the section presents an imaginary resemblance to the instruments of our ,saviour's crucifixion4 ,the banana is sometimes fried in slices as fritters4 ,if the pulp of this fruit be squeezed through a fine sieve1 it may be formed into small loaves1 which1 after having been properly dried1 may be kept for a great length of time4 #bgb4 ,,millet is a small yellowish seed of a grassy plant 7,holcus sorghum71 with large and compact stalks which rise to the height of seven or eight feet1 and is much cultivated in several parts of ,india and ,africa4 ,in some countries millet seed is ground into flour and converted into bread2 but this is brown and heavy4 ,it is1 however1 useful in other respects as food1 and is an excellent seed for the fattening of poultry4 ,a good vinegar has been made from it1 by fermentation2 and1 on distillation1 it yields a strong spirit4 ,millet seed is imported into this country from the ,east ,indies1 for the purpose chiefly of puddings2 and1 by many persons1 it is preferred to rice4 ,the stalks of the millet plant1 if subjected to the same process that is adopted with the sugar-cane1 yield a sweet juice1 from which an excellent kind of sugar may be made4 #bgc4 ,,gum ,,arabic is a well-known drug1 obtained from a tree 7,mimosa nilotica7 which grows in ,egypt4 ,this tree has leaves doubly winged1 with spines at the base1 and small flowers1 of globular shape1 growing four or five together on slender footstalks4 ,the principal supply of gum arabic in this country is obtained from ,barbary1 ,turkey1 and the ,persian ,gulf4 ,the average quantity imported from the ,persian ,gulf1 betwixt #ahjd and #ahjh1 was about #gejj hundred weight per annum1 and the price for which it was vended at the ,east ,india ,company's sales was about #cl4 per hundred weight4 ,it used formerly to be packed in skins1 but it is now brought in large casks4 ,the trees which yield it grow abundantly in numerous parts of ,africa and ,asia1 but the gum does not freely exude from them except in tropical regions4 ,it issues from clefts in the bark1 in the same manner as the gum of the cherry and plum trees of our orchards and gardens3 and1 by exposure to the air1 it soon becomes hard and solid4 ,we are informed that1 in some parts of ,egypt1 the inhabitants procure this gum1 by boiling pieces of the roots of the trees1 and afterwards separating it from the water4 ,we receive gum arabic in small irregular masses1 or rough pieces1 of pale yellowish colour1 and roundish shape4 ,it is1 however1 to be remarked1 that1 by far the greatest part of the gum which is sold in the shops under this name is not such1 but is the production of another species of tree 7,mimosa ,senegal71 and is properly called gum ,senegal1 ,the latter is imported from ,senegal1 ,guinea1 and other parts of ,africa4 ,it is generally seen in large rough pieces1 of roundish figure1 and brownish hue1 more or less pure2 possesses similar properties to the other1 and is much cheaper4 ,on account of their mucilaginous qualities1 these two kinds of gum1 under the name of gum arabic1 were formerly used for several purposes in medicine2 and1 in coughs and hoarsenesses1 were considered of great service4 ,they are now principally in request by the manufacturers of water-colours2 by dyers1 and artificers of different kinds4 ,in ,africa the latter constitutes a principal ingredient in the food of the inhabitants4 ,they sometimes dissolve it in milk3 and this solution of it is esteemed a favourite repast by some of the tribes4 ,the dried juice of the unripe fruit of ,egyptian mimosa is called acacia1 and is to this day much used in medicine by the ,egyptians4 ,it is sometimes imported into this country in roundish masses1 wrapped in thin bladders2 and is externally of deep brown colour1 and of a yellowish or reddish brown within4 #bgd4 ,,myrrh is a gummy1 resinous substance1 obtained from a tree which grows in ,abyssinia1 ,arabia1 and other countries of the ,east1 but respecting which we are hitherto possessed of no certain account4 ,mr4 ,bruce1 however1 imagined it to be a species of mimosa4 ,this drug is generally imported in a kind of grains1 of irregular form2 of brownish or reddish yellow colour1 and somewhat transparent4 ,its smell is aromatic2 and its taste is pungent and bitter4 ,in its medicinal effects1 myrrh1 when taken into the stomach1 is supposed to warm and strengthen it1 and also to strengthen the other viscera4 ,it is believed to resist putrefaction in all parts of the body2 and1 hence1 has been recommended as a medicine in malignant1 putrid1 and pestilential fevers2 and in small-pox4 ,at the ,east ,india ,company's sales this drug is sold at the rate of about twenty pounds per hundred weight4 ,it is1 however1 liable to great abuses4 ,the larger masses1 in particular1 are frequently an artificial composition1 skilfully incrusted with a coat of myrrh4 ,,dioecia4 #bge4 ,,manna is a concrete or dried juice1 procured from several species of ash-tree1 but particularly from the ,,flowering ,,ash 7,fraxinus ornus1 ,fig4 #gf71 which is much cultivated in ,calabria and ,sicily4 ,this tree somewhat resembles the common ash4 ,it has winged leaves1 with an odd one at the end1 the leaflets oblong1 pointed1 serrated1 and veined1 standing on footstalks1 and of bright green colour4 ,the flowers are whitish1 and appear in close bunches1 about the month of ,may or ,june4 ,the trees that are cultivated for the production of manna are chiefly planted on the eastern sides of hills4 ,this substance exudes spontaneously from them2 but as the supply thus obtained would be insufficient for the demand1 incisions are made in the bark to obtain it more copiously4 ,these incisions are formed1 in the summer time1 lengthwise in the tree1 and each about a span long4 ,they are begun at the lower part of the trunk1 and repeated upward1 at a little distance from each other1 as high as the branches4 ,one side of the tree is first cut2 the other side being reserved until the ensuing year1 when it undergoes a similar treatment4 ,from the wounds thus made a thick whitish juice immediately begins to flow1 which gradually hardens on the bark1 and in the course of a few days acquires a sufficient consistence to be taken off4 ,it is collected in baskets1 and afterwards packed in chests or boxes4 ,sometimes the manna flows in such abundance that it runs upon the ground1 and thus becomes mixed with various impurities1 unless it be prevented1 as is sometimes the case1 by placing for its reception large leaves1 stones1 chips of wood1 or straw4 ,the collecting of manna generally terminates about the end of ,september4 ,this substance is known by druggists under different names1 according to its purity1 rather than from any essential difference in the article itself4 ,the best ,calabrian manna is imported in oblong1 light1 and crumbly flakes or pieces of whitish or pale yellow colour1 and somewhat transparent appearance4 ,the inferior sorts are moist1 unctuous1 and of darker colour4 ,manna is a mild and agreeable laxative medicine1 particularly with the addition of a little cinnamon water1 or other warm aromatic3 and it is useful in asthmatic complaints1 as well as in inflammatory affections of the breast4 ,it is sometimes counterfeited by a composition of sugar and honey1 mixed with a small portion of scammony4 ,the miraculous substance mentioned in the ,old ,testament by the name of manna1 cannot1 of course1 be considered to have any alliance whatever with the manna thus produced4 ,this remark would not have been made1 did not young persons sometimes inconsiderately confound the two substances4 #bgf4 ,the ,,ash-,,tree 7,fraxinus excelsior1 ,fig4 #gi7 is a well-known ,british tree1 with winged leaves2 the leaflets in four or five pairs1 with an odd one1 serrated1 and without footstalks2 and the flowers without petals4 ,of late years this valuable tree has been much planted in several parts of ,england4 ,it is of hardy nature1 and thrives even in barren soils4 ,if planted in moist situations1 the roots1 spreading wide in every direction near the surface1 have a tendency to render the ground dry and firm4 ,the timber1 which has the rare advantage of being nearly as good when young as when old1 is white1 and so hard and tough as generally to be esteemed next in value to oak4 ,it is much used by coach-makers1 wheel-wrights1 and cart-wrights2 and is made into ploughs1 axle-trees1 felloes of wheels1 harrows1 ladders1 and other implements of husbandry4 ,it is likewise used by ship-builders for various purposes1 and by coopers for the hoops of tubs and barrels4 ,where1 by frequent cutting1 the wood has become knotty1 irregular1 and veined1 it is in much request for cabinet-work by mechanics on the ,continent4 ,the best season for felling ash-trees is from ,november to ,february4 ,as fuel1 this tree burns better whilst wet and green than other wood4 ,we are informed that1 in the northern parts of ,lancashire1 when grass is scarce1 the small farmers frequently cut off the tops of ash-trees to feed their cows with the leaves and tender branches2 but these are said to spoil the taste of the milk4 ,mr4 ,pennant states that1 in the reign of ,queen ,elizabeth1 the inhabitants of ,colton and ,hawkshead-,fells remonstrated against the number of forges then lately erected in that part of the country1 because they consumed the loppings of the trees1 which formed the sole winter food for their cattle4 ,the leaves of ash-trees were formerly much used in the adulteration of tea1 under the name of smouch2 but this practice has of late been prohibited by act of parliament4 ,the bark of the ash-tree is employed in the tanning of calf-skins1 and sometimes in dyeing black and other colours4 ,the inner bark has been proposed as a substitute for ,peruvian bark1 in the cure of intermittent fevers4 #bgg4 ,,ebony is the wood of a species of palm-tree 7,diospiros ebenum71 which grows in the island of ,ceylon1 and has smooth1 leathery1 oblong1 and pointed leaves1 and rough-haired buds4 ,the black and valuable substance known to us by the name of ebony1 is the centre part only of the trees4 ,the outside wood is white and soft1 and either decays soon1 or is destroyed by insects1 which leave the black part untouched4 ,ebony is imported into this country from the ,east ,indies4 ,it is exceedingly hard and heavy1 admits of being highly polished1 and is principally used by cabinet-makers and inlayers for the veneering of cabinets and other ornamental work4 ,the wood of the pear-tree1 stained black1 is frequently substituted for ebony4 ,the ripe fruit of the ebony tree is eaten by the natives of ,ceylon2 but it is astringent1 and not very palatable4 ,linnus was of opinion that ebony was the wood of a shrub 7ebenus cretica7 which grows in the island of ,crete1 and has silky leaves and rose-coloured flowers4 #bgh4 ,the ,,pawpaw is a fruit about the size of a small melon1 but of very various shape1 the production of a species of palm-tree 7carica papaya71 which grows in tropical climates1 both of the eastern and western parts of the world4 ,the tree is twenty feet and upwards in height2 naked almost to the summit2 and marked1 through its whole length1 with the scars of fallen leaves4 ,its leaves are on foot-stalks two feet in length1 and deeply divided into seven1 nine1 or eleven large lobes4 ,the flowers are axillary1 white1 and sweet scented4 ,in shape the fruit of the pawpaw-tree is sometimes angular1 and flattened at both ends2 sometimes oval or round2 and sometimes pyramidal4 ,when ripe it is of yellow colour2 and contains a yellow succulent pulp1 of sweetish taste1 and aromatic smell1 with many black or brown and furrowed seeds4 ,this fruit is seldom eaten raw1 but when boiled it is esteemed a wholesome sauce for fresh meat4 ,the inhabitants of the countries where it is found sometimes preserve it in sugar1 with oranges1 and small citrons4 ,thus prepared1 it may be kept a long time2 and1 in this state1 it is not unfrequently brought into ,europe4 ,when about half grown1 the pawpaw is sometimes pickled in vinegar with spices4 ,the fruit of the trifid-fruited custard apple 7annona triloba7 is called pawpaw in some parts of ,america4 ,the bark of the pawpaw-tree is manufactured by the ,indians into cordage4 ,the leaves are used in place of soap2 and water-pipes are sometimes made of the stem of the tree4 ,,trioecia4 #bgi4 ,the ,,fig is the pulpy fruit of a shrub1 or low tree 7,ficus carica1 ,fig4 #hc71 which is a native of the ,south of ,europe1 and some parts of ,asia4 ,fig-trees are branched from the bottom1 and the leaves are large1 smooth1 and irregularly divided into from three to five deep and rounded lobes4 ,the fruit grows on short and thick stalks1 of purplish colour1 and contains a soft1 sweet1 and fragrant pulp1 intermixed with numerous small seeds4 ,it appears from history1 both sacred and profane1 that the fig-tree was an object of attention in the earliest times4 ,this fruit was one of the most common and favourite aliments of the ancient ,greeks1 and constituted a very valuable food with the peasants of some parts of ,italy4 ,fig-trees are now much cultivated in ,turkey1 ,italy1 and the ,levant1 as well as in ,spain and some of the southern parts of ,france4 ,all the islands of the ,archipelago yield figs in abundance1 but these are in general of very inferior quality4 ,the trees are propagated either by suckers1 by layers1 or by cuttings2 and the process of increasing and ripening the fruit is an art which requires much attention4 ,this1 as it is practised in the ,levant1 is called caprification1 and is performed by wounding the buds of the figs1 with a straw or feather dipped in sweet oil at a certain period of their growth4 ,figs are dried either by a furnace or in the sun1 after having been dipped in a scalding ley made of the ashes of the fig-tree4 ,in this state they are used both in medicine1 and as food2 and are considered more wholesome and more easy of digestion than when fresh4 ,they form a considerable branch of commerce1 and are exported1 in boxes of different size and shape1 to nearly all the northern parts of ,europe4 ,when we receive them1 their surface is usually covered with a saccharine matter which has exuded from the fruit4 ,a small and cheap kind of fig is imported in small frails or baskets from ,faro4 ,there are numerous varieties of the fig1 but the common purple kind is the hardiest of the whole4 ,this is frequently cultivated in our gardens2 and1 if screened from the north-east winds1 it ripens1 even3 with us1 in tolerable perfection4 ,the wood of the fig-tree is of spongy texture1 and1 when charged with oil and emery1 is much used on the ,continent by locksmiths1 gun-smiths1 and other artificers in iron and steel1 to polish their work4 ,it is almost indestructible1 and on this account was formerly employed in eastern countries as coffins for embalmed bodies4 ---- ,,class ,,xxiv4--,,cryptogamia4 ---- #bhj4 ,,fern1 or ,,brake 7,pteris aquilina71 is a well-known cryptogamous plant1 which grows wild on heaths1 in woods1 and in barren places4 ,though this plant is an extremely troublesome weed to the farmer1 from the roots penetrating deep into the ground1 it is applied to various uses in rural oeconomy4 ,when cut and properly dried1 it serves as litter for horses and cattle2 and it supplies the place of thatch for covering the roofs of cottages and stacks4 ,where coal is scarce1 it is used for the heating of ovens and burning of lime-stone4 ,the ashes of fern1 from their yielding a tolerably pure alkali1 are frequently used by manufacturers of glass1 particularly in ,france4 ,and1 in some parts of our own country1 the poor people mix these ashes with water1 and form them into round masses which they call fern balls4 ,these are afterwards heated in a fire1 and then1 with water1 are made into a ley for the scouring of linen4 ,they thus furnish a cheap substitute for soap4 ,swine are fond of the roots of fern1 and will feed freely upon them4 ,we are even informed that1 with the inhabitants of ,palma1 one of the ,canary islands1 they are sometimes made to supply the place of bread4 ,it is deserving of remark that1 when the root of the fern is cut obliquely across1 it presents a kind of figure of the ,imperial or ,russian eagle2 from which circumstance ,linnus was induced to name it ,pteris aquilina1 or ,eagle brake4 #bha4 ,the ,,lichens constitute a very numerous family of plants1 which grow on the bark of trees1 on rocks1 stones1 and other substances2 and have an indistinct fructification1 in scattered wart-like tubercles1 or excrescences1 and smooth saucers or shields1 in which the seeds are imbedded4 ,some of them have a powdery appearance1 and others are crustaceous1 leaf-like1 shrub-like1 herbaceous1 or gelatinous4 #bhb4 ,the ,,calcareous ,,lichen 7,lichen calcareus7 consists of a white crust with black tubercles4 ,this plant1 which is found on lime-stone rocks in ,wales1 and the north of ,england1 is used in dyeing woollen and other cloths a scarlet colour4 #bhc4 ,,crab',s-,,eye ,,lichen 7,lichen parellus7 is a crustaceous1 whitish1 and granulated vegetable substance1 with cups of the same colour1 which have a thick and blunt border4 ,from this lichen1 which is found on rocks and stones in mountainous countries1 and sometimes on stones near the sea-shore1 is prepared the bluish pigment called litmus4 ,it is chiefly collected from rocks in the north of ,england1 packed in casks1 and sent to ,london for sale4 #bhd4 ,,tartareous ,,lichen 7,lichen tartareus7 is a whitish1 crustaceous1 vegetable production1 with yellow cups or shields1 which have a whitish border4 ,the inhabitants of the ,highlands of ,scotland gather this species of lichen from the rocks1 and1 after cleaning1 and some further preparation1 which is kept a secret by the manufacturers1 they form it into cakes4 ,these1 when dried1 are pulverized1 and sold to dyers by the name of cudbear1 which is a corruption of ,cuthbert1 the name of its inventor4 ,in conjunction with alum1 the powder of the tartareous lichen is used in dyeing scarlet1 and also for striking a purple dye2 but the colour produced by it is not very permanent4 #bhe4 ,,archell1 or ,,purple ,,rock ,,lichen 7,lichen omphalodes71 is a vegetable production1 of somewhat crustaceous consistence1 and leaf-like form2 the segments with many lobes1 and of dark purplish brown colour1 with dull purple saucers4 ,this kind of lichen grows upon rocks on the high stony moors of several parts of ,england1 ,wales1 and ,scotland4 ,when properly prepared1 it imparts to woollen cloth a reddish brown colour1 or a dull but durable crimson4 ,if wool that has been dyed with it be dipped into a blue vat1 it will acquire a beautiful purple tinge4 ,it is sometimes used as a styptic2 and was formerly applied as a remedy in inflammatory fevers and other complaints2 but1 in the latter respect1 it is now entirely neglected4 #bhf4 ,,orchall1 or ,,dyer',s ,,lichen 7,lichen rocella71 is a somewhat crustaceous and shrub-like vegetable production1 of nearly cylindrical form1 solid1 without leaves1 but little branched1 and with blackish brown alternate tubercles4 ,in the ,canary and ,cape de ,verd ,islands1 as well as in the ,grecian ,archipelago1 orchall is found in great abundance4 ,it likewise grows in ,guernsey and in some parts of ,england1 and is employed by dyers chiefly for giving a bloom to other colours4 ,this is effected by passing the dyed cloth or silk through hot water slightly impregnated with it2 but the bloom thus communicated soon decays after it has been exposed to the air4 ,when prepared in a peculiar manner1 orchall yields a rich purple tincture1 fugitive indeed1 but very beautiful4 ,mixed with a solution of tin it is said to dye a permanent scarlet4 ,orchall is the substance generally adopted for colouring the spirits of thermometers4 ,and it is a remarkable circumstance that1 as exposure to the air destroys its colour upon cloth1 so the exclusion of the air produces1 in a few years1 a like effect upon the fluid in those tubes2 but on breaking the tubes the colour is restored4 #bhg4 ,,iceland ,,lichen 7,lichen islandicus7 is a leafy1 membranous1 vegetable production1 of brownish green colour1 jagged at the edges1 and fringed1 having large and purplish brown saucers or shields4 ,the name of this lichen is derived from that of the island in which it chiefly grows4 ,it is1 however1 also found in the ,highlands of ,scotland1 and in some of the northern parts both of ,england and ,wales4 ,it abounds with nutritious mucilage2 and1 after having been steeped in water to extract its bitter and laxative qualities1 it is sometimes used as medicine in coughs and consumptions4 ,one ounce of ,iceland lichen1 boiled in a pint of water1 yields about seven ounces of mucilage4 ,the inhabitants of ,iceland prepare from it a kind of gruel1 which they mix with milk4 ,they also boil it in several waters1 and then dry and make it into bread4 ,in ,germany a durable brown dye is made by means of it2 and1 under another mode of preparation1 it imparts an excellent black tinge to white woollen yarn4 #bhh4 ,,bladder ,,fucus 7,fucus vesiculosus7 is a species of sea-weed1 of flat shape1 with a middle rib1 the edges entire1 forked1 and sometimes tumid at the ends1 and furnished with several air bladders imbedded in the substance of the plant4 ,by far the most important application of this1 one of the commonest of all our marine plants1 is for the making of kelp1 which1 in ,scotland1 affords employment to many industrious families4 ,so lucrative and so highly esteemed is the bladder fucus1 and some other plants nearly allied to it1 that the natives of several parts of the ,western ,islands have rolled large masses of stone into the sea1 with a view to promote and extend their growth4 ,for the preparation of kelp these plants are dried1 by exposure for some time to the sun and air4 ,they are then burnt by degrees in a kelp furnace1 which is generally a round hole dug in the earth4 ,when the furnace is nearly filled with the remains of the burnt sea-weeds1 the whole is briskly agitated with a rake or hook1 till it is compacted1 or becomes of a shining glutinous consistence1 in appearance not unlike melted iron4 ,it is then allowed to cool1 and is afterwards placed in storehouses for exportation4 ,in this state it is an impure kind of carbonat of soda4 ,in the ,orkney ,islands every consideration is sacrificed to the making of kelp1 nearly #c1jjj tons of which are annually sent to market and sold at ,leith1 ,newcastle1 and other places1 at the rate of from seven to ten pounds per ton of twenty-one hundred weight4 ,the inhabitants of ,gothland boil this plant with coarse meal1 as food for swine2 and the poorer classes of ,scania thatch their cottages with it1 and also employ it as fuel4 ,in the ,hebrides it is customary to dry cheese1 without using any salt1 by covering it with the ashes of the bladder fucus1 which abound in saline particles4 ,this and other sea-weeds serve as a winter food for cattle1 which regularly frequent the shores for them at the ebb of the tide3 they are also used as manure for land4 ,a soapy liquor which is found in the bladders of this plant is sometimes externally applied as a medicine for dispersing scrofulous and scorbutic swellings1 by simply bruising them in the hand and rubbing them on the parts affected4 ,when this plant is calcined or burnt in the open air1 a black and saline powder is produced1 which1 under the name of vegetable thiops1 has been recommended as a dentrifice1 and for other uses4 #bhi4 ,,eatable ,,winged ,,fucus1 or ,,bladderlocks 7,fucus esculentus71 is a simple1 undivided1 and sword-shaped sea-weed1 which is olive-coloured1 and sometime several yards in length4 ,its stem is four-cornered1 runs through the whole length of the leaf1 and is winged at the base4 ,this plant1 which is very common on some of the shores of ,scotland1 and also on those of ,cornwall1 and several parts of ,north ,wales1 is a grateful food to cattle2 and its stalk1 when boiled1 constitutes a very favourite dish in ,scotland4 ,the proper season for gathering it is the month of ,september1 when it is in higher perfection than at any other time of the year4 #bij4 ,,sweet ,,fucus 7,fucus saccharinus7 is a simple1 undivided1 and sword-shaped sea-weed1 without any rib1 of leathery consistence1 and tawny green colour2 and frequently five or six feet in length4 ,its stalk is round and hard4 ,this plant abounds on all our sea-shores3 and1 if slightly washed from the sea-water1 and dried in the air1 it becomes covered with a sweet powdery efflorescence4 ,it is edible either in a raw state1 or boiled as a pot-herb4 ,sometimes it is hung up to serve the purpose of an hygrometer1 which it does in some degree by becoming flaccid during a moist state of the atmosphere1 and hard in dry weather4 #bia4 ,,dulse1 or ,,red ,,palmate ,,fucus 7,fucus palmatus71 is a flat1 membranous1 and hand-shaped1 sea-weed1 of brownish crimson colour1 smooth on both sides1 and without any mid-rib4 ,in the markets of ,edinburgh1 and other parts of ,scotland1 this plant1 which is common on most of the ,british shores1 is exposed for sale as an article of food4 ,after having been washed in fresh water1 it is eaten raw1 by itself1 in salad1 or by poor people with other provisions4 ,sometimes it is boiled and used as a pot-herb4 ,if gradually dried1 it gives out a whitish powdery substance1 which covers the whole plant1 and has a sweet and agreeable taste1 somewhat resembling that of violets4 ,in this state it is frequently packed in casks for exportation4 ,some persons chew it as tobacco4 ,in ,scotland it is occasionally used as a medicine1 and it is supposed to sweeten the breath and destroy worms4 #bib4 ,,green or ,,edible ,,laver 7,ulva lactuca7 is a thin1 membranous1 pellucid1 and green vegetable substance1 which is found on rocks1 stones1 and shells1 in the sea and salt-water ditches in nearly all parts of ,great ,britain4 ,of late years this plant1 stewed with lemon juice1 has been introduced to the tables of the luxurious1 as a sauce to be eaten with roast meat4 ,though in a recent state it has a salt and bitterish flavour1 and even when thus prepared is not always relished at first1 yet by habit most persons become partial to it4 ,the laver which is consumed in ,london is chiefly prepared in the west of ,england1 and packed in pots in a state ready for the table4 ,some persons use laver medicinally1 and it is esteemed wholesome for scrofulous habits2 but it can scarcely be taken in sufficient quantity to do much good1 without having too strong an effect on the bowels4 #bic4 ,the ,,morell 7,phallus esculentus1 ,fig4 #hd7 is a kind of fungus with a naked and wrinkled stem1 and an egg-shaped head1 full of cells on its external surface4 ,as an ingredient for thickening and heightening the flavour of sauces and soups1 morells1 which are chiefly found in woods and hedges in a loamy soil1 are in great esteem4 ,for this purpose1 after they are gathered1 they are strung upon pack-thread to be dried2 and1 when dry1 they may be kept without injury for many months4 ,in ,germany1 the persons employed in gathering morells found that they always grew most abundantly in woods that had been burnt3 and1 with a view of promoting their increase1 they were accustomed to set fire to the woods1 until this practice was prohibited by the ,government4 ,useful and palatable as these plants are1 it has been ascertained that1 if gathered after having been exposed for some days to wet weather1 they are extremely pernicious4 #bid4 ,the ,,truffle 7,tuber cibarium7 is a globular1 solid1 and warty fungus1 without root1 which grows at the depth of four or five inches beneath the surface of the earth1 and is from the size of a pea to that of a potatoe4 ,this1 one of the best of the edible funguses1 is chiefly found in hilly woods and pastures1 which have a sandy or clayey bottom2 and occurs on the downs of ,wiltshire1 ,hampshire1 and ,kent4 ,truffles are generally discovered by means of dogs1 which are taught to hunt for them by scent2 and wherever they smell one of them1 they bark1 and scratch it up4 ,in ,italy they are hunted1 in somewhat similar manner1 by pigs4 ,truffles are either served at table roasted in a fresh state like potatoes1 or they are cut into slices and dried1 as an ingredient for sauces and soups4 ,those that are most delicious are internally of white colour1 and have somewhat the odour of garlic4 ,in ,england truffles seldom exceed the weight of four or five ounces2 whilst on the ,continent they are known to weigh as much as fifteen or sixteen ounces each4 #bie4 ,the ,,puff-,,ball 7,lycoperdon bovista7 is a round kind of fungus1 which is filled with a soft whitish flesh when young1 and a fine brown powder when ripe4 ,the powder of the puff-ball is sometimes used as a styptic1 to prevent the bleeding of recent wounds4 ,this powder is extremely subtile1 and is very injurious to the eyes4 ,instances have occurred of persons who1 having had it blown into their face1 have thereby been deprived of their sight for a considerable time2 and have also been affected with violent pain and inflammation4 ,there is a curious experiment of taking a shilling from the bottom of a vessel of water1 without wetting the hand4 ,this is said to be effected by strewing a small quantity of the dust of the puff-ball on the surface2 it so strongly repels the fluid as to form a covering for the fingers1 and defend them from the contact of the water4 ,the fumes of the puff-ball1 when burnt1 have a powerfully narcotic quality2 and1 on this account1 they are sometimes used to take the combs from hives without destroying the bees4 #bif4 ,the ,,common ,,mushroom 7,agaricus campestris7 is a fungus consisting of a white cylindrical stalk and a convex cover of white or brownish colour1 which has beneath an irregular arrangement of gills1 pinky when young1 but afterwards of dark liver colour4 ,when it first appears above ground the mushroom is smooth and nearly globular1 and in this state it is called a button4 ,in ,england mushrooms are in great demand for the table4 ,they are found wild in parks1 and other pastures where the turf has not been ploughed for many years2 and the best time for gathering them is in the months of ,august and ,september4 ,they are eaten fresh1 either stewed or broiled2 and are preserved for use either by drying1 by being pickled1 or in powder4 ,they are also employed in making the well-known sauce called mushroom ketchup4 ,as an article of food1 however1 mushrooms are by no means wholesome1 being so tough1 and having so great a resemblance to soft leather1 as to be almost indigestible4 ,this is particularly the case when they are of large size4 ,mushrooms may be raised artificially on beds constructed for the purpose1 even in cellars2 for if they have only warmth and moisture1 the plants will vegetate without light2 but the most proper situations for them are under sheds in the open air4 ,the plants thus grown1 however1 have more toughness than such as grow wild in the fields2 and1 in other respects1 are much inferior to them4 #big4 ,there is a kind of mushroom 7,agaricus georgii7 which is yellowish1 with yellowish white gills1 and when full grown is sometimes so large as to measure eighteen inches across4 ,this is occasionally eaten1 but1 in many instances1 the use of it has been attended with injurious consequences4 #bih4 ,in ,covent ,garden market a tall and spongy kind of mushroom 7,agaricus procerus71 with white gills1 and a large horizontal ring round the stem1 is frequently exposed for sale about the month of ,september4 #bii4 ,on hedge-banks1 in pastures1 and in what are called fairy-rings1 there is a species of mushroom 7,agaricus orcades71 with brownish or watery white gills1 two or four in a set1 a pale brown1 convex1 and irregular cover1 and a whitish stem4 ,these are considered by many persons to be the champignons of the ,french cooks4 ,they have a much higher flavour than the common mushroom3 but from their leathery nature are indigestible1 except in the form of powder1 with sauces1 or in ketchup1 in all of which they are very admirable4 ,with respect to the plants of the mushroom tribe1 it ought to be observed that1 though several of them are edible1 many are extremely poisonous4 ,instances of the fatal effects arising from an indiscriminate adoption of them are innumerable4 ,great caution1 therefore1 is requisite that such only shall be used as are ascertained to be wholesome1 particularly as1 in many instances1 the poisonous species can scarcely be distinguished by the eye from such as are innoxious4 ,in cases of injury arising from poisonous funguses1 the best remedy that can be administered is an emetic4 #cjj4 ,,spunk1 or ,,touchwood 7,boletus igniarius71 is a fungus somewhat shaped like a horse's hoof1 with pores on the under side1 and the upper part very hard and smooth1 but marked with circular bands or ridges of different colours4 ,it grows horizontally on the trunks and large branches of several kinds of trees1 when old and decayed4 ,in ,germany1 and in some parts of ,england1 this fungus is used as tinder1 for which1 on account of its readily catching fire1 it is well adapted4 ,it is prepared by being boiled in a strong ley1 dried1 and again boiled in a solution of salt-petre4 ,in ,franconia pieces of the inner substance of the spunk are beaten so as to resemble leather1 and are sewed together for making garments4 ,the inhabitants of ,lapland frequently burn it about their cottages1 to keep off a species of gad-fly which is peculiarly injurious to the young rein-deer4 ,this fungus is often employed as a styptic for the stopping of blood4 ,when intended for this use1 the exterior hard substance is pared off1 and the coat underneath is separated from the porous part1 and well beaten with a hammer1 until it becomes pliable4 ,thus prepared it is kept dry1 in slices of convenient size1 for use2 and1 although it is not so much esteemed in this country as it was some years ago1 many of the continental surgeons have a very high opinion of its efficacy4 ,,index ,,to ,,the ,,second ,,volume4 ---- ,abele4 ,see ,poplar1 great white4 ,acacia1 #bfb ,acorns1 uses of1 #bbc ,alder1 wood1 bark1 branches1 and leaves1 uses of1 #baa ,alkanet1 description1 properties1 and uses of1 #db ,alligator pear1 description and uses of1 #abj ,all-spice4 ,see ,pimento4 ,almond1 common or sweet1 description of1 #adj ----1 whence obtained1 how imported1 and uses of1 #adj ----1 oil and milk of1 how prepared1 #ada ----1 bitter1 description and uses of1 #ada ,aloe1 ,american1 description1 culture1 and uses of1 #if1 #ig ,aloes1 description of several kinds1 #ic1 #id ----1 leaves1 stems1 and juice1 uses of1 #ic1 #id ----1 ,socotrine1 description1 culture1 preparation1 and uses of1 #id ----1 ,barbadoes1 common1 or hepatic1 #ie ----1 ,caballine1 or horse1 #if ,anise-seeds1 description and uses of1 #ha ,apple1 fruit and wood1 uses of1 #adg1 #adh ,apricot1 fruit1 kernels1 gum1 and wood1 uses of1 #adc ,archell1 description and use of1 #bgj ,areca1 description and uses of1 #bca1 #bcb ,arnatto1 or annotta1 description of1 how prepared1 and uses of1 #aeg ,arrack1 from what prepared1 #ajf1 #bah ,arrow-root1 what it is1 how prepared1 and uses of1 #i1 #aj ----1 how adulterated1 #aj ,artichoke1 flowers1 leaves1 and stalks1 uses of1 #aig ----1 ,jerusalem1 description1 culture1 and uses of1 #bja ,arum1 common1 description and uses of1 #bah1 #bai ,asafoetida1 description and uses of1 #gg ----1 how obtained and exported1 #gg1 #gh ,ash-tree1 wood1 leaves1 and bark1 uses of1 #bfd ,asparagus1 description1 cultivation1 and uses of1 #ib1 #ic ,aspen4 ,see ,poplar1 trembling4 ,b4 ,balsam1 ,friar's1 or ,turlington's1 from what made1 #acj ,bamboo canes1 description and uses of1 #ajj1 #aja ,banana1 description and uses of1 #bfi ,barberry1 fruit1 bark1 and roots1 uses of1 #ajj ,barilla1 description of1 and how prepared for use1 #gc ,barley1 cultivation and uses of1 #bg ----1 pearl1 how made1 and uses of1 #bh ----1 sugar1 how made1 #bb ,bay1 common sweet1 description and uses of1 #aai1 #abj ,bay plum4 ,see ,guava4 ,beans1 culture and uses of1 #ahd ,beech-tree1 wood1 fruit1 and leaves1 uses of1 #bbj ,beet1 description and uses of1 #ga1 #gb ,benjamin1 gum4 ,see ,benzoin4 ,bent-grass1 #cb ,benzoin1 description of1 how prepared1 and uses of1 #abi1 #aca ,bergamot1 how prepared1 #aie ,betel1 what it is1 and use of1 #ae ,betel-nut4 ,see ,areca4 ,bilberries1 uses of1 #aac ,birch-tree1 wood1 bark1 twigs1 leaves1 and sap1 uses of1 #baj ,bird-lime1 how made1 uses and properties of1 #da ,blackberries1 uses of1 #aeb ,bleaberries4 ,see ,bilberries4 ,blend-corn1 #bh ,boabab4 ,see ,sour gourd4 ,bore cole1 #agf ,bottle gourd1 description and uses of1 #bji ,box-tree1 value and uses of1 #bae ,brake1 description and uses of1 #bfh ,bran1 uses of1 #bf ,brandy1 whence obtained1 and how made1 #fi ----1 distilled from potatoes and carrots1 #ee1 #ge ,brank4 ,see ,buck wheat4 ,bread1 prepared from turnips1 arum roots1 acorns1 cassava1 and sago1 #age1 #bai1 #bbd1 #bci1 #bef ,bread-fruit1 description and uses of1 #bjc1 #bjd ----1 tree1 bark1 juice1 and flowers1 uses of1 #bjd1 #bje ,brocoli1 #agf ,broom1 common1 twigs1 seeds1 bark1 c41 uses of1 #aha ----1 ,spanish1 description and uses of1 #aha ,buck-bean1 or bog-bean1 description and uses of1 #dc ,buck-thorn1 syrup1 and bark1 uses of1 #ef ,buck-wheat1 description1 cultivation1 and uses of1 #aad ,bullace plums1 description and uses of1 #add ---- cheese1 from what prepared1 #add ,bull-rush1 uses of1 #ca ,burgundy wine1 #fd ,burgundy pitch1 of what made1 and uses of1 #bcf ,c4 ,cabbage1 common1 culture and uses of1 #agf ---- tree1 description and uses of1 #bcj ,cacao4 ,see ,chocolate4 ----1 butter of1 #aib ,cajeput oil1 what it is1 and uses of1 #aie1 #aif ,calabash tree1 description and uses of1 #agj ----1 ,african4 ,see ,sour gourd4 ,calyx1 or flower-cup1 #a ,camomile1 description and uses of1 #aii1 #bjj ,camphor1 description1 how obtained1 and uses of1 #aag-aai ,canary wine1 #fh ---- grass1 #cc ,canes1 walking1 description of1 and whence obtained1 #ajj ----1 rattan1 description and uses1 #ajj ----1 bamboo1 description and uses1 #ajj-ajb ,caoutchouc4 ,see ,indian rubber4 ,cape madeira wine1 #fh ,capers1 description of1 how prepared1 and uses of1 #aec ----1 substitutes for1 #aed1 #aha ,capsicum1 different kinds and uses of1 #ef ,carraway1 how cultivated1 and uses of1 #ha ,cardamoms1 description1 culture1 and uses of1 #h1 #i ,cardoon1 description and uses of1 #aih ,carriage grease1 of what made1 #bce ,carrot1 cultivation and uses of1 #gd1 #ge ,cashew-nut-tree and fruit1 description and uses of1 #aba-abc ,cassava1 or cassada1 description and uses of1 #bch ,cassia1 and cassia buds1 description and uses of1 #aag ----1 officinal1 description and uses of1 #abf1 #abg ,castor-oil1 how prepared1 and uses of1 #bdb ,catechu4 ,see ,areca4 ,cauliflower1 #agf ,cayenne pepper1 how made1 and uses of1 #ef1 #eg ,cedar1 red or common1 description and uses of1 #beg ,celery1 uses of1 #hb ,champaigne wine1 #ff ,champignons1 description and use of1 #bgg ,charcoal1 durability and uses of1 #bbd ----1 vapour of1 in what respect pernicious1 #bbe ,cherry-tree1 fruit1 wood1 and gum1 uses of1 #adb ---- brandy1 how made1 #adb ,chesnut1 horse1 fruit1 husks1 wood1 and bark1 uses of1 #ajf ----1 sweet1 wood and fruit1 properties and uses of1 #bbj ,china1 broken1 how to cement1 #hi ,chives1 description and uses of1 #ia ,chocolate1 description1 cultivation1 preparation1 and use of1 #aij1 #aia ,cider1 and cider wine1 how made1 #adh ,cinnamon1 description1 preparation1 and uses of1 #aae1 #aag ----1 oil of1 #aaf ----1 wild4 ,see ,cassia4 ,citron1 description and uses of1 #aib ,claret1 #ff ,clover1 cultivation and use of1 #ahg ,cloves1 description1 culture1 preparation1 and uses of1 #afd ----1 oil of1 #afe ,cocoa-nut-tree and fruit1 kernels1 milk1 husks1 shells1 c1 uses of1 #baf ,coffee-tree1 description of1 and how cultivated1 #dg ----1 history of the use of1 #dh1 #di ----1 ,mocha1 ,west ,india1 and ,java1 #di ----1 how roasted1 and use of1 #di ----1 substitutes for1 #aha1 #ahd ,cole-seed4 ,see ,rape-seed4 ,colewort1 #agf ,constantia wine1 #fh ,copal1 description1 preparation1 and use of1 #hc ----1 varnish1 how made1 #hc ,coriander1 cultivation and uses of1 #gi ,corinths4 ,see ,currants4 ,cork1 how collected and prepared for use1 and uses of1 #bbe ,cork cutting1 how performed1 #bbf ,corolla or blossom1 #b ,cte rotie wine1 #ff ,cotton1 description1 culture1 and preparation of1 #agi ----1 uses of1 and trade in1 #ahj ,court plaster1 how made1 #acj ,cowage1 or cow-itch1 description and uses of1 #ahb1 #ahc ,cowslip1 use of1 flowers1 roots1 and leaves1 #dc ,crab-tree fruit1 uses of1 #adg ,cracow groats1 #bf ,cranberries1 description and uses of1 #aab ,cuckoo fruit4 ,see ,arum4 ,cucumber1 common1 culture and uses of1 #bjg ,currants1 dried1 what they are1 and whence obtained1 #gj ----1 how cultivated and prepared for use1 #ga ----1 red1 juice1 and inner bark1 uses of1 #fj1 #fa ,currants1 black1 leaves and berries1 uses of1 #fa ,curry powder1 of what made1 #i ,cypress powder1 of what made1 #bai ,cypress-tree1 description and uses of1 #bcg ,d4 ,date-tree1 description1 cultivation1 and management of1 #bdf1 #bdg ----1 fruit1 wood1 pith1 and leaves1 uses of1 #bdg1 #bdh ,deals1 yellow and red1 #bcc ,dragon's-blood-tree1 description and uses of1 #ih1 #ii ,dulse1 description1 preparation1 and use of1 #bgc ,dutch pink1 from what prepared1 #acf ,e4 ,ebony1 description and uses of1 #bfe ,eschalote4 ,see ,shallot4 ,elder1 common1 wood1 bark1 leaves1 flowers1 berries1 c4 uses of1 #hc ,elm-trees1 timber1 bark1 and leaves1 uses of1 #gc ,endive1 culture and uses of1 #aii ,f4 ,fan-palm1 description and uses of1 #ih ,fennel leaves1 stalks1 seeds1 and roots1 uses of1 #hj ,fern1 description and uses of1 #bfh ,ferula1 stalks of1 how anciently used1 #gh ,fig-trees and figs1 description1 cultivation1 and uses of1 #bfg ,filbert1 #bbh ,fir1 ,scots1 description of1 timber and bark1 uses of1 #bcb1 #bcc ----1 turpentine1 resin1 tar and pitch1 how obtained from1 #bcb1 #bcc ----1 spruce1 description and uses of1 #bce ,flax1 description of1 cultivation1 preparation1 and uses of1 #he ----1 ,oil made from the seeds of1 #hf ,flummery1 what it is1 and how made1 #bc ,fox-glove1 description and uses of1 #afi ,frontignac wine1 #ff ,fructification of vegetables1 #a ,fucus1 bladder1 description and use of1 #bga ----1 eatable1 winged1 #bgb ----1 sweet1 and red palmate1 #bgc ,furze1 uses of1 #ahb ,g4 ,galls1 use of1 #bbc ,gamboge1 description of1 how obtained1 and uses of1 #ace ,garlic1 description and uses of1 #hi ,gentian1 description and uses of1 #gd1 #ge ,gerkins1 #bjg ,gilead1 balm or balsam of1 how obtained1 and uses of1 #ajh ,gin1 with what flavoured1 #beg ,ginger1 description1 cultivation1 preparation1 and uses of1 #g ,glass1 broken1 how to cement1 #hi ,gooseberries1 uses of1 #fa ,gorze1 uses of1 #ahb ,grafting of fruit-trees1 how performed1 and use of1 #adg ,grapes1 uses of1 #fi1 #gj ,grass1 sweet-scented vernal1 uses of1 #cj ----1 cotton1 meadow1 fox-tail1 and ,timothy or meadow cat's tail1 #ca ----1 ,fiorin or ,orcheston long1 #cb ----1 meadow soft1 or ,yorkshire white canary1 purple melic1 and reed meadow1 #cc ----1 smooth-stalked meadow1 and annual meadow1 #cd ----1 crested dog's tail1 sheep's fescue1 hard fescue1 and flote fescue1 #ce ----1 rye or ray1 #cg ----1 couch or squitch1 #ch ,grits or groats1 what they are1 #bc ,guava1 description and uses of1 #acg ,guiacum1 gum1 how obtained1 and uses of1 #abg ,gum arabic1 how and whence obtained1 and uses of1 #bfa ----1 ,senegal1 #bfb ----1 ,sandarach1 #beg ,h4 ,hazel nut tree and fruit1 uses of1 #bbh ,heath1 common1 stalks1 tops1 flowers1 leaves1 and seeds1 uses of1 #aac ,hemp1 description of1 how cultivated and prepared for use1 #bdi ----1 fimble1 karle1 or seed1 #bdi ----1 seed and stalks1 uses of1 #bdi ,heps1 conserve of1 #aea ,hermitage wine1 #ff ,hickory nut1 #bbg ,hock wine1 #fh ,holly-tree1 wood1 leaves1 berries1 and bark1 uses of1 #ad ,hops1 description and mode of culture of1 #bej1 #bea ----1 how picked1 dried1 and prepared for use1 and uses of1 #bea ----1 substitutes for1 in brewing1 #dc1 #ace ,hornbeam1 description and uses of1 #bbi ,horse-radish1 description and uses of1 #agb ,i4 ,j4 ,iceland lichen1 description1 preparation1 and use of1 #bga ,indian corn4 ,see ,maize4 ,indian rubber-tree1 description of1 #bdj ----1 how obtained and prepared for use1 and uses of1 #bda ,indigo1 description1 cultivation1 preparation1 and uses of1 #ahh1 #ahi ,ipecacuanha1 description1 history1 and use of1 #fb1 #fc ,iris1 common1 description and uses of1 #ah ,jack-fruit1 description and uses of1 #bje1 #bjf ,jalap1 description of1 whence obtained1 and uses of1 #dc ,jasmine1 oil of1 how prepared1 #ab ,jesuit's bark4 ,see ,peruvian bark4 ,jesuit's drops1 from what made1 #acj ,juniper1 berries1 wood1 bark1 and gum1 uses of1 #bef ,k4 ,kale1 ,dorsetshire1 #agf ----1 ,sea1 description1 cultivation1 and uses of1 #aga ,kelp1 preparation1 value1 and uses of1 #bga ,l4 ,lachryma ,christi wine1 #fg ,ladanum1 or ,labdanum1 how collected1 and uses of1 #aff ,lamp black1 how made1 and uses of1 #bce ,larch1 wood1 bark1 and sap1 uses of1 #bcf ,laudanum1 how prepared1 and uses of1 #aef ,lavender1 description and culture of1 #afg ----1 flowers1 oil1 and spirit of1 #afh ----1 water1 how prepared1 #afh ,laver1 green or edible1 description1 preparation1 and use of1 #bgd ,leeks1 description and uses of1 #hi ,lemon1 description and uses of1 #aib ----1 essential salt of1 from what prepared1 #aic ,lettuce1 culture and uses of1 #aih ,lichen1 calcareous1 description and uses of1 #bfi ----1 crab's eye1 and tartareous1 #bfi ----1 purple rock1 and dyer's1 #bgj ----1 ,iceland1 #bga ,lignum vit1 wood1 resin1 bark1 and flowers1 use of1 #abg ,lime1 a species of lemon1 description and uses of1 #aid ,lime1 or ,linden-tree1 flowers1 wood1 juice1 leaves1 and seed1 uses of1 #aeh ,line-seeds1 what they are1 and uses of1 #hf ,linseed oil1 how prepared1 and use of1 #hf ,ling4 ,see ,heath4 ,liquorice1 description1 cultivation1 and uses of1 #ahf1 #ahg ----1 ,spanish1 how made1 and uses of1 #ahg ,lisbon wine1 #fe ,logwood1 description of1 how obtained1 and uses of1 #aca1 #acb ,lords and ,ladies4 ,see ,arum4 ,lucern1 description1 cultivation1 and uses of1 #ahh ,m4 ,macaroni1 of what made1 and uses of1 #bf ,mace1 what it is1 how prepared for use1 and uses of1 #bdf ,madder1 description1 preparation1 property1 and uses of1 #ci ,madeira wine1 #fh ,mahogany1 description of1 and how obtained1 #acb ----1 ,honduras and ,jamaica1 #acc ----1 when first introduced1 and uses of1 #acd ,maize1 description and culture of1 #bjf ----1 seed1 husks1 stalks1 c4 uses of1 #bjf1 #bjg ,malaga wine1 #ff ,malmsey ,madeira1 #ff ,malt1 how made1 and used1 #bg ,mangel wurzel1 description and uses of1 #gb ,mangoes1 description and use of1 #ei ----1 imitations of1 #ei1 #bjg ,manna1 description of1 how obtained1 and uses of1 #bfc ----1 seeds1 what they are1 and uses of1 #cf ,maple1 common1 description and uses of1 #aaj ----1 sugar1 description of1 #aaj ---- ----1 juice and wood1 uses of1 #aaa ,maslin1 what it is1 #bh ,mastic1 description of1 mode of obtaining1 and uses of1 #bdh ----1 wood and varnish1 #bdi ,matweed1 sea1 uses of1 #cg ,medlar1 description and uses of1 #adf ,melon1 common or musk1 description1 culture1 and uses of1 #bjg ----1 water1 description and uses of1 #bji ,millet1 description and use of1 #bfj ,mint1 common or spear1 description and uses of1 #afh ----1 pepper1 description and uses of1 #afi ,molasses1 how made1 #ba ,morell1 description and use of1 #bgd ,moselle wine1 #fg ,mulberry-tree1 fruit1 juice1 leaves1 and bark1 uses of1 #bad ----1 cider1 how made1 #bad ----1 white1 #bae ,muscadel wine1 #ff ,mushroom1 common1 description of1 how grown1 and use of1 #bgf ----1 description and uses of various kinds1 #bgf1 #bgg ,mustard1 description and uses of1 and how adulterated1 #agb ,myrrh1 what it is1 whence obtained1 and uses of1 #bfb ,myrtle common1 description and use of1 #acg ,n4 ,nankeen dye 7,scot's71 of what made1 #aeg ,nectarine1 #adj ,nettle1 common1 leaves1 tops1 stalks1 roots1 flowers1 and seed1 uses of1 #bac1 #bad ,nettle stings1 description of1 #bad ,nightshade1 deadly1 description1 injurious effects1 and uses of1 #ec1 #ed ,nutmeg tree1 description of1 #bdd ,nutmegs1 how gathered and prepared for use1 and uses of1 #bde ,nut-oil1 from what prepared1 #bbh ,nux vomica1 description and uses of1 #eh ,o4 ,oak tree1 wood1 bark1 saw-dust1 and acorns1 uses of1 #bbb-bbe ,oatmeal1 uses of1 #bd ,oats1 mode of cultivation and uses of1 #bd ,oil-cake1 of what made1 and uses of1 #hg1 #agd ,olive tree1 description and uses of1 #aa1 #ab ---- oil1 how prepared and uses of1 #aa ,olives1 how prepared for use1 and uses of1 #aa ,onion1 ,canadian or tree1 description and uses of1 #ij ----1 common1 description and uses of1 #ia ----1 ,portugal and ,spanish1 #ia ,opium1 how obtained1 properties and uses of1 #aed1 #aee ----1 how cultivated in ,england1 #aee ----1 how adulterated1 #aed ,orange1 flowers1 juice and peel1 uses of1 #aid1 #aie ----1 ,seville or bitter1 #aie ,orchall1 description1 preparation1 and use of1 #bgj ,orders of plants1 #d ,orenberg gum1 of what made1 #bcg ,orris root1 description and uses of1 #ag ,osier1 wood and bark1 uses of1 #bdc ,ottar of roses1 from what made and how adulterated1 #aej ,owler4 ,see ,alder4 ,p4 ,paddy4 ,see ,rice4 ,paper made from vegetable productions of different kinds1 #ah1 #bh1 #aja1 #ahe1 #bae1 #bdc ,papyrus1 description1 preparation1 and uses of1 #ah1 #ai ,parsley1 leaves1 roots1 and seed1 uses of1 #hb ,parsnips1 how cultivated1 and uses of1 #gi ,pawpaw1 description and uses of1 fruit1 bark1 leaves1 and stem1 #bff ,peach1 fruit1 kernels1 flowers1 and leaves1 uses of1 #aci ,pear1 fruit1 wood1 and leaves1 uses of1 #adf ,pearl barley1 how made1 and uses of1 #bh ,peas1 cultivation and uses of1 #ahe1 #ahf ----1 everlasting1 use of1 #ahf ,pepper1 black1 how cultivated and prepared for use1 #ac ----1 white1 what it is1 and how prepared1 #ac ----1 uses of1 and how adulterated1 #ad ----1 long1 description and uses of1 #ad1 #ae ----1 ,guinea1 description and uses of1 #eg ,perry1 of what made1 #adg ,peruvian bark1 whence obtained1 how prepared for1 use1 and uses of1 #de ,petals1 #b ,pimento1 description and cultivation of1 #ach1 #aci ----1 how collected and prepared for use1 and uses of1 #ach ,pine1 ,weymouth1 description and uses of1 #bce ,pines1 fruit1 description1 history1 cultivation1 and uses of1 #hg ,pistil1 #b ,pitch1 how prepared1 and uses of1 #bcd1 #bce ,plane tree1 description and uses of1 #bcj ,plantain tree1 description and uses of1 #bei ,plum1 common1 description and uses of1 #adc ----1 ,french1 #dd ----1 bullace1 fruit1 flowers1 and wood1 uses of1 #add ,pomegranate1 description and uses of1 #ada1 #adb ,pontac wine1 #ff ,pontefract cakes1 how made1 and uses of1 #ahg ,poplar1 great white1 description and uses of1 #bec1 #bed ----1 trembling1 #bed ----1 black1 #bed ----1 ,lombardy or ,italian1 #bee ,poppy1 white1 description1 cultivation1 and uses of1 #aed1 #aee ,port-wine1 #fe ,potatoe1 roots1 stalks1 and apples1 uses of1 #ed-ef ,pounce1 from what prepared1 #beg ,prunes1 #add ,puff-ball1 description and use of1 #bge ,pumpkin or pompion1 description and uses of1 #bjh ,q4 ,quassia1 description1 history1 and uses of1 #acd1 #ace ,quince1 description and uses of1 #adi1 #aej ,quincy berries4 ,see ,currants1 black4 ,r4 ,rack or arrack1 from what prepared1 #bah ,raisins1 how prepared1 and uses of1 #gj ,rape1 culture and uses of1 #gj ,raspberry1 uses of1 #aeb ----1 brandy1 how made1 #aeb ,rattan1 description and uses of1 #ajj ,receptacle1 #c ,reed1 common1 uses of1 #cf ,resin1 common and yellow1 how prepared1 and uses of1 #bcc ,rhenish wine1 #fg ,rhubarb1 officinal or ,turkey1 how obtained1 and uses of1 #abc ----1 how cultivated in ,england1 #abd ,rhubarb1 common1 description and uses of1 #abe ,rice1 description1 culture1 and preparation of1 #ajd-ajf ----1 uses of1 #aje ,rush1 common1 description1 preparation1 and uses of1 #ajb ,root of ,scarcity4 ,see ,mangel ,wurzel4 ,rose1 common garden1 uses of1 #aej ----1 hep or wild briar1 flowers1 fruit1 and leaves1 #aea ----1 red officinal1 uses of1 #aeb ,roses1 ottar or oil of1 how made1 #aej ----1 conserve and syrup of1 #aej ----1 honey of1 #aeb ,rose wood1 description and uses of1 #aaj ,rosin4 ,see ,resin4 ,rotang4 ,see ,dragon's ,blood-tree4 ,rota wine1 #ff ,rum1 how prepared1 #bc ,rye1 uses of1 #bh ,s4 ,saffron1 description1 culture1 preparation1 and uses of1 #af1 #ag ,sago1 description1 preparation1 and uses of1 #bee ,saint-foin1 description1 cultivation1 and uses of1 #ahg ,salad oil4 ,see ,olive oil4 ,salep1 what it is1 how prepared1 and uses of1 #bjb ,sallow1 common1 #bdd ,saloop1 what it is1 #aba ,samphire1 rock1 how obtained and uses of1 #gf ----1 marsh1 #gf ,sandal wood1 description and use of1 #dj ,sap-green1 of what made1 #eg ,sassafras1 description and uses of1 #aba ,saunders1 yellow1 description and use of1 #dj ,saxon1 blue and green1 what made from1 #ahi ,scammony1 what1 how obtained1 and uses of1 #dd ,sea ,kale1 description1 mode of culture1 and uses of1 #aga ,seed vessel1 #b ,semolina1 of what made1 and use of1 #bf ,senna1 description and uses of1 #abe ,shaddock1 description and uses of1 #aie ,shalot1 description and uses of1 #ij ,sherry wine1 #ff ,shoe-maker's wax1 of what made1 #bce ,sloe1 fruit1 flowers1 bark1 leaves1 and wood1 uses of1 #ade ,smouch1 what it is1 #afd ,snuff1 how made1 #eb ,soda4 ,see ,barilla4 ,sour-crout1 of what made1 #agf ,sour-gourd1 description and uses of1 #agh ,sowins1 #bd ,soy1 description1 preparation1 and use of1 #acc ,spanish black1 of what made1 #bbf ,spart4 ,see ,broom4 ,spruce1 essence of1 from what prepared1 and uses of1 #bcf ,spunk or ,touchwood1 description and use of1 #bgg ,squinancy berries4 ,see ,currants1 black4 ,stamens1 #b ,starch1 prepared from different vegetable productions1 #be1 #ee1 #ajg1 #bai1 #bba ,stone blue1 what made from1 #ahi ,storax1 description1 mode of obtaining1 and use of1 #aca ,stramonium1 description1 properties1 and uses of1 #ej ,strawberries1 uses of1 #aec ,sugar1 how manufactured1 #ai1 #bj ----1 muscovado or raw1 and clayed1 #ba ----1 how refined1 #ba ----1 loaf or lump1 #bb ----1 candy1 how made1 #bb ----1 uses of1 #bb ----1 cane1 description and cultivation of1 #ai ----1 mode of obtaining sugar from1 #bj ,sunflowers1 description and uses of1 #bja ,sycamore tree1 description and uses of1 #aaa1 #aab ,t4 ,tallow tree1 description and uses of1 #bdj ,tamarinds1 description1 preparation1 and use of1 #agg ,tapioca1 description1 preparation1 and use of1 #bci ,tar1 how prepared1 and uses of1 #bcd ----1 water1 #bcd ,tarragon1 description and use of1 #bjj ----1 vinegar1 how prepared1 #bjj ,tea1 tree1 description and culture of1 #aei1 #afj ----1 how collected1 dried1 and packed1 #aei ----1 how used by the ,chinese and ,japanese1 #afj ----1 difference between black and green1 #afj ----1 green1 how prepared1 #afb ----1 bohea1 why so called1 and how prepared1 #afj ----1 congo1 souchong1 and ,pekoe1 #afa1 #afb ----1 ,singlo1 hyson1 and gunpowder1 #afb1 #afc ----1 history of the use of in ,europe1 #afc ----1 trade and uses of1 #afc ----1 how adulterated1 #afd ,teak tree1 description and uses of1 #ei ,teasel1 description and uses of1 #ch ,teneriffe wine1 #fh ,tent wine1 #fg ,tobacco1 description1 culture1 preparation1 and uses of1 #ej ,toddy1 from what prepared1 #bah ,tokay wine1 how made1 #fg ,tolu1 balsam1 how obtained1 and uses of1 #abh ,touchwood1 description and use of1 #bgg ,treacle1 how made1 #ba ,truffles1 description of1 how procured1 and use of1 #bge ,tulip tree1 description and uses of1 #afg ,turmeric1 description and use of1 #i ,turnips1 cultivation and uses of1 #agd1 #age ,turpentine1 common1 how obtained1 and uses of1 #bcc ----1 oil of1 #bcc ----1 ,venice1 of what prepared1 and use of1 #bcg ,v4 ,varnish1 black1 of ,china1 what1 #abc ----1 copal1 how prepared and use of1 #hc ,vegetables1 #a ,verjuice1 from what prepared1 and uses1 #fi1 #adg ,vermicelli1 how made1 and use of1 #bg ,vermix1 #bef ,vetches1 description1 culture1 and uses of1 #ahe ,vin de ,grave1 #ff ,vine1 twigs1 leaves1 tendrils1 and wood1 uses of1 #fi ,vines and vineyards1 account of1 #fc1 #fd ,vomic nut4 ,see ,nux vomica4 ,w4 ,walnut-tree1 wood and fruit1 uses of1 #bbg ,water-flag1 yellow1 description and uses of1 #ah ,weld1 description and uses of1 #acf ,wheat1 cultivation and uses of1 #bd ----1 starch and sugar prepared from1 #be ----1 bran and straw1 uses of1 #bf ----1 macaroni and semolina prepared from1 #bf ,willow4 ,see ,osier4 ,wine1 how made1 #fd ----1 ,portuguese1 #fe ----1 ,french and ,spanish1 #fe ----1 ,italian and ,german1 #fg ----1 ,madeira and ,teneriffe1 #fh ----1 ,cape1 #fi ,withy4 ,see ,osier4 ,woad1 description1 culture1 preparation1 and use of1 #aga ,wortleberries1 use of1 #aac ,y4 ,yams1 description and uses of1 #beb ----1 cultivated in ,scotland1 #bec ,yeast1 how to preserve for use1 #bbh ,yew tree1 description1 uses1 and poisonous qualities of1 #beg ,,end ,,of ,,vol4 ,,ii4 ,c4 ,baldwin1 ,printer1 ,new ,bridge-street1 ,london4 ,notes #a ,ammomum cardamomum1 ,linn4--,eletteria cardamomum1 ,maton in ,linn4 ,tran4 x4 p4 #bed4 #b ,the grasses are so numerous1 and the describing of them in such manner as to be understood by an inexperienced person would be attended with so much difficulty1 that it has been considered more advantageous to the reader1 to admit1 in this place1 only some of the most important kinds2 and merely to speak of their uses1 referring to the figures for their further illustration4 #c ,this grass has only two stamens1 and consequently belongs to the class ,diandria1 but it is placed here for the sake of general uniformity4 #d ,several other trees besides this produce the red kind of resin called ,dragon's ,blood4