,a ,,class ,,room ,,logic ,,d$uctive ,,& ,,inductive ,,) ,,special ,,application ,,to ,,! ,,sci5ce ,,& ,,art ,,( ,,tea*+ ,,by ,,george ,,ha/+s ,mc,n,a,i,r1 ,,ph4 ,d4 ,,head ,,( ,,dep>tm5t ,,( ,,logic ,,& ,,ma!matics1 ,,city ,,tra9+ ,,s*ool ,,= ,,tea*]s4 ,,jamaica4 ,,new ,,york ,,city ,,! ,,e?las ,,press ,,five ,,nor? ,,broadway4 ,,nyack4 ,,new ,,york ,,copyright1 #aiad1 ,,by ,,george ,,ha/+s ,mc,n,a,i,r ,to ,,my ,,wife4 ,transcrib]'s ,notes ,punctuation has be5 /&>diz$4 ,*>act]s 9 small caps h be5 replac$ by all caps4 ,non-pr9table *>act]i/ics h be5 giv5 ! foll[+ translit]ation3 ,italic text3 -- text bold text3 -- text4 ,?is book 0 writt5 9 a p]iod :5 _m words _h n become /&>diz$ 9 _! spell+4 ,words may h multiple spell+ v>iations or inconsi/5t hyph5ation 9 ! text4 ,^! h be5 left un*ang$ unless indicat$ ) a ,transcrib]'s ,note4 ,! symbol #8' indicates ! description 9 p>5!sis has be5 add$ to an illu/ration4 ,?is may be ne$$ if !re is no caption or if ! caption does n describe ! image adequately4 ,index ref]5ces h n be5 *eck$ = accuracy4 ,footnotes are id5tifi$ 9 ! text ) a numb] 9 brackets #b & h be5 accumulat$ 9 a s+le section at ! end ( ! text4 ,transcrib]'s ,notes are us$ :5 mak+ corrections to ! text or to provide additional in=mation = ! mod]n read]4 ,^! notes are n id5tifi$ 9 ! text1 b h be5 accumulat$ 9 a s+le section at ! end ( ! book4 ,,preface4 ,?is treatise is an outgr[? ( our class room "w 9 logic4 ,x has be5 publi%$ 9 ! hope ( remov+ "s ( ! difficulties :i* h&icap ! av]age /ud5t4 ,we tru/ t ! language is simple & def9ite & t ! illu/rative ex]cises & diagrams may be helpful 9 mak+ cle> "s ( ! m ab/ruse topics4 ,if a spe$y review = exam9ation is necess>y1 x is recomm5d$ t ! brief] c\rse z outl9$ on page #dic be foll[$ & t ! summ>ies clos+ ea* *apt] be c>efully read4 ,only ! fundam5tals ( d$uctive & inductive logic h receiv$ att5tion4 ,moreov] emphasis has be5 giv5 to ^? phases :i* appe> to comm5d !mselves because ( _! practical value4 ,fur!r ?an ?is we tru/ t ! book may fulfill 9 "s small way ! l>g] mission ( inspir+ bett] ?9k+ &1 9 consequ5ce1 ( lead+ to a m s]viceable citiz5%ip4 ,surely z civilization advances x is ) ! expectation ( giv+ great] significance to ! assumption 8t man is a rational animal40 ,i am indebt$ to a numb] ( writ]s on logic1 notably to ,mill1 ,lotze1 ,keynes1 ,hibb51 ,f[l]1 ,aik9s1 ,hyslop1 ,creighton & ,jevons4 ,i am likewise "u obligation to t l>ge body ( /ud5ts :o1 by frankly reveal+ _! difficulties1 h giv5 me a diff]5t po9t ( view4 ,= con/ructive criticism & def9ite enc\ragem5t ,i owe a p]sonal debt ( gratitude to ,pr(4 ,*>les ,gray ,%aw ( ,new ,york ,univ]sity1 to ,pr(4 ,frank ,d4 ,blodgett ( ! ,oneonta ,normal ,s*ool & to ,pr94 ,a4 ,c4 ,mac,lachlan ( ! ,jamaica ,tra9+ ,s*ool = ,tea*]s4 ,g4 ,h4 ,mc,n4 ,city ,tra9+ ,s*ool = ,tea*]s1 ,jamaica1 ,n4 ,y4 ,city4 ,octob] #c1 #aiad4 ,,table ,,( ,,cont5ts ,,*apt] #a4,,! ,,scope ,,& ,,nature ,,( ,,logic4 #a4 ,! ,m9d4 #b4 ,logic ,relat$ to ,o!r ,subjects4 #c4 ,logic ,def9$4 #d4 ,! ,value ( ,logic to ! ,/ud5t4 #e4 ,outl9e4 #f4 ,summ>y4 #g4 ,review ,que/ions4 #h4 ,que/ions = ,orig9al ,?\ght & ,inve/igation4 ,,*apt] #b4,,?\ght ,,& ,,its ,,op]ation4 #a4 ,! ,kn[+ ,m9d ,comp>$ ) ! ,?9k+ ,m9d4 #b4 ,kn[+ by ,intuition4 #c4 ,! ,?9k+ ,process4 #d4 ,notions1 ,individual & ,g5]al4 #e4 ,k & ,idea z ,relat$ to ! ,notion4 #f4 ,! ,logic ( ! ,psy*ological ,t]ms ,involv$ 9 ! ,notion4 #g4 ,?\ght 9 ! ,s5sation & ,p]cept4 #h4 ,evolution & ! ,?9k+ ,m9d4 #i4 ,! ,concept z a ,?\ght ,product4 #aj4 ,! ,judgm5t z a ,?\ght ,product4 #aa4 ,inf]5ce z a ,?\ght ,product4 #ab4 ,?9k+ & ,appreh5sion4 #ac4 ,/ages 9 ,?9k+4 #ad4 ,outl9e4 #ae4 ,summ>y4 #af4 ,review ,que/ions4 #ag4 ,que/ions = ,orig9al ,?\ght & ,inve/igation4 ,,*apt] #c4,,! ,,prim>y ,,laws ,,( ,,?\ght4 #a4 ,two ,fundam5tal ,laws4 #b4 ,! ,law ( ,id5tity4 #c4 ,! ,law ( ,contradiction4 #d4 ,! ,law ( ,exclud$ ,middle4 #e4 ,! ,law ( ,suffici5t ,reason4 #f4 ,unity ( ,prim>y ,laws ( ,?\ght4 #g4 ,outl9e4 #h4 ,summ>y4 #i4 ,illu/rative ,ex]cises4 #aj4 ,review ,que/ions4 #aa4 ,que/ions = ,orig9al ,?\ght & ,inve/igation4 ,,*apt] #d4,,logical ,,t]ms4 #a4 ,logical ,?\ght & ,language ,insep>able4 #b4 ,mean+ ( ,t]m4 #c4 ,categorematic & ,syncategorematic ,words4 #d4 ,s+ul> ,t]ms4 #e4 ,g5]al ,t]ms4 #f4 ,collective & ,di/ributive ,t]ms4 #g4 ,concrete & ,ab/ract ,t]ms4 #h4 ,connotative & ,non-connotative ,t]ms4 #i4 ,positive & ,negative ,t]ms4 #aj4 ,contradictory & ,opposite ,t]ms4 #aa4 ,privative & ,nego-positive ,t]ms4 #ab4 ,absolute & ,relative ,t]ms4 #ac4 ,outl9e4 #ad4 ,summ>y4 #ae4 ,illu/rative ,ex]cises4 #af4 ,review ,que/ions4 #ag4 ,que/ions = ,orig9al ,?\ght & ,inve/igation4 ,,*apt] #e4,,! ,,ext5sion ,,& ,,int5sion ,,( ,,t]ms4 #a4 ,two-fold ,function ( ,connotative ,t]ms4 #b4 ,ext5sion & ,int5sion ,def9$4 #c4 ,ext5d$ ,comp>ison ( ,ext5sion & ,int5sion4 #d4 ,a ,li/ ( ,connotative ,t]ms ,us$ 9 ,ext5sion & ,int5sion4 #e4 ,o!r ,=ms ( ,expression = ,ext5sion & ,int5sion4 #f4 ,law ( ,v>iation 9 ,ext5sion & ,int5sion4 #f;a4 ,important ,facts 9 ,law ( ,v>iation4 #f;b4 ,law ( ,v>iation ,diagrammatically ,illu/rat$4 #g4 ,outl9e4 #h4 ,summ>y4 #i4 ,illu/rative ,ex]cises4 #aj4 ,review ,que/ions4 #aa4 ,que/ions = ,orig9al ,?\ght & ,inve/igation4 ,,*apt] #f4;,,def9ition4 #a4 ,importance4 #b4 ,! ,pr$icables4 #c4 ,! ,nature ( a ,def9ition4 #d4 ,def9ition & ,division ,comp>$4 #e4 ,! ,k9ds ( ,def9itions4 #f4 ,:5 ! ,?ree ,k9ds ( ,def9itions are ,s]viceable4 #g4 ,! ,rules ( ,logical ,def9ition4 #h4 ,t]ms ,:i* ,_c be ,def9$ ,logically4 #i4 ,def9itions ( ,common ,educational ,t]ms4 #aj4 ,outl9e4 #aa4 ,summ>y4 #ab4 ,illu/rative ,ex]cises4 #ac4 ,review ,que/ions4 #ad4 ,que/ions = ,orig9al ,?\ght & ,inve/igation4 ,,*apt] #g4,,logical ,,division ,,& ,,classification4 #a4 ,nature ( ,logical ,division4 #b4 ,logical ,division ,di/+ui%$ f ,enum]ation4 #c4 ,logical ,division z ,p>tition4 #d4 ,f\r ,rules ( ,logical ,division4 #e4 ,di*otomy4 #f4 ,classification ,comp>$ ) ,division4 #g4 ,k9ds ( ,classification4 #h4 ,two ,rules ( ,classification4 #i4 ,use ( ,division & ,classification4 #aj4 ,outl9e4 #aa4 ,summ>y4 #ab4 ,review ,que/ions4 #ac4 ,que/ions = ,orig9al ,?\ght & ,inve/igation4 ,,*apt] #h4,,logical ,,propositions4 #a4 ,! ,nature ( ,logical ,propositions4 #b4 ,k9ds ( ,logical ,propositions4 #c4 ,! ,f\r ,elem5ts ( a ,categorical ,proposition4 #d4 ,logical & ,grammatical ,subject & ,pr$icate ,di/+ui%$4 #e4 ,! ,f\r ,k9ds ( ,categorical ,propositions4 #f4 ,propositions :i* d n ,con=m to ,logical ,type4 #g4 ,propositions n ,necess>ily ,illogical4 #h4 ,! ,relation betwe5 ,subject & ,pr$icate4 #i4 ,outl9e4 #aj4 ,summ>y4 #aa4 ,illu/rative ,ex]cises4 #ab4 ,review ,que/ions4 #ac4 ,que/ions = ,orig9al ,?\ght & ,inve/igation4 ,,*apt] #i4;,,imm$iate ,,inf]5ce,,opposition4 #a4 ,! ,nature ( ,inf]5ce4 #b4 ,imm$iate & ,m$iate ,inf]5ce4 #c4 ,! ,=ms ( ,imm$iate ,inf]5ce4 7#a7 ,opposition4 ,,*apt] #aj4;,,imm$iate ,,inf]5ce 7,cont9u$74 7#b7 ,imm$iate ,inf]5ce by ,obv]sion4 7#c7 ,imm$iate ,inf]5ce by ,conv]sion4 7#d7 ,imm$iate ,inf]5ce by ,contrav]sion4 #d4 ,epitome ( ! ,f\r ,processes ( ,imm$iate ,inf]5ce4 ,inf]5ce by ,inv]sion4 #e4 ,outl9e4 #f4 ,summ>y4 #g4 ,illu/rative ,ex]cises4 #h4 ,review ,que/ions4 #i4 ,problems = ,orig9al ,?\ght & ,inve/igation4 ,,*apt] #aa4,,m$iate ,,inf]5ce,,! ,,syllogism4 #a4 ,inf]5ce & ,reason+4 #b4 ,! ,syllogism4 #c4 ,! ,rules ( ! ,syllogism4 #d4 ,rules ( ,syllogism ,expla9$4 #e4 ,ari/otle's ,dictum4 #f4 ,canons ( ! ,syllogism4 #g4 ,ma!matical ,axioms4 #h4 ,outl9e4 #i4 ,summ>y4 #aj4 ,illu/rative ,ex]cises4 #aa4 ,review ,que/ions4 #ab4 ,que/ions = ,orig9al ,?\ght & ,inve/igation4 ,,*apt] #ab4;,,figures ,,& ,,moods ,,( ,,! ,,syllogism4 #a4 ,! ,f\r ,figures ( ! ,syllogism4 #b4 ,! ,moods ( ! ,syllogism4 #c4 ,te/+ ! ,validity ( ! ,moods4 #d4 ,special ,canons ( ! ,f\r ,figures4 #e4 ,special ,canons ,relat$4 #f4 ,mnemonic ,l9es4 #g4 ,relative ,value ( ! ,f\r ,figures4 #h4 ,outl9e4 #i4 ,summ>y4 #aj4 ,illu/rative ,ex]cises4 #aa4 ,review ,que/ions4 #ab4 ,que/ions = ,orig9al ,?\ght & ,inve/igation4 ,,*apt] #ac4;,,incomplete ,,syllogisms ,,& ,,irregul> ,,argum5ts4 #a4 ,en?ymeme4 #b4 ,epi*eirema4 #c4 ,polysyllogisms4 ,prosyllogism,episyllogism4 #d4 ,sorites4 #e4 ,irregul> ,argum5ts4 #f4 ,outl9e4 #g4 ,summ>y4 #h4 ,review ,que/ions4 #i4 ,que/ions = ,orig9al ,?\ght & ,inve/igation4 ,,*apt] #ad4;,,categorical ,,argum5ts ,,te/$ ,,accord+ ,,to ,,=m4 #a4 ,argum5ts ( ,=m & ,matt]4 #b4 ,ord] ( ,proc$ure 9 a ,=mal ,te/+ ( ,argum5ts4 #c4 ,illu/rative ,ex]cise 9 ,te/+ ,argum5ts :i* are ,complete & ^: ,premises are ,logical4 #d4 ,illu/rative ,ex]cise 9 ,te/+ ,complet$ ,argum5ts1 "o or bo? ( ^: ,premises are ,illogical4 #e4 ,incomplete & ,irregul> ,argum5ts4 #f4 ,common ,mi/akes ( ! ,/ud5t4 #g4 ,outl9e4 #h4 ,summ>y4 #i4 ,review ,que/ions4 #aj4 ,que/ions = ,orig9al ,?\ght & ,inve/igation4 ,,*apt] #ae4;,,hypo!tical ,,& ,,disjunctive ,,argum5ts ,,includ+ ,,! ,,dilemma4 #a4 ,?ree ,k9ds ( ,argum5ts4 #b4 ,hypo!tical ,argum5ts4 #c4 ,antec$5t & ,consequ5t4 #d4 ,two ,k9ds ( ,hypo!tical ,argum5ts4 #e4 ,rule & ,two ,fallacies ( ,hypo!tical ,argum5t4 #f4 ,hypo!tical ,argum5ts ,r$uc$ to ,categorical ,=m4 #g4 ,illu/rative ,ex]cises ,te/+ ,hypo!tical ,argum5ts ( ,all ,k9ds4 #h4 ,disjunctive ,argum5ts4 #i4 ,two ,k9ds ( ,disjunctive ,argum5ts4 #aj4 ,fir/ ,disjunctive ,rule4 #aa4 ,second ,disjunctive ,rule4 #ab4 ,r$uction ( ,disjunctive ,argum5t4 #ac4 ,! ,dilemma4 #ad4 ,f\r ,=ms ( ,dilemmatic ,argum5ts4 #ae4 ,! ,rule ( ,dilemma4 #af4 ,illu/rative ,ex]cises ,te/+ ,disjunctive & ,dilemmatic ,argum5t4 #ag4 ,ord9>y ,exp]i5ces ,relat$ to ,disjunctive ,proposition & ,hypo!tical ,argum5t4 #ah4 ,outl9e4 #ai4 ,summ>y4 #bj4 ,review ,que/ions4 #ba4 ,que/ions = ,orig9al ,?\ght & ,inve/igation4 ,,*apt] #af4,,! ,,logical ,,fallacies ,,( ,,d$uctive ,,reason+4 #a4 ,a ,negative ,aspect4 #b4 ,p>alogism & ,sophism4 #c4 ,a ,division ( ! ,d$uctive ,fallacies4 #d4 ,g5]al ,divisions ,expla9$4 #e4 ,fallacies ( ,imm$iate ,inf]5ce4 #f4 ,fallacies 9 ,language 7,equivocation74 #g4 ,fallacies 9 ,?\ght 7,assumption74 #h4 ,outl9e4 #i4 ,summ>y4 #aj4 ,illu/rative ,ex]cises 9 ,te/+ ,argum5ts 9 ,bo? ,=m & ,mean+4 #aa4 ,review ,que/ions4 #ab4 ,que/ions = ,orig9al ,?\ght & ,inve/igation4 ,,*apt] #ag4;,,inductive ,,reason+4 #a4 ,inductive & ,d$uctive ,reason+ ,di/+ui%$4 #b4 ,! 8,inductive ,haz>d40 #c4 ,complexity ( ! ,problem ( ,induction4 #d4 ,v>i\s ,conceptions ( ,induction4 #e4 ,induction & ,d$uction ,contigu\s ,processes4 #f4 ,induction an ,assumption4 #g4 ,univ]sal ,causation4 #h4 ,uni=mity ( ,nature4 #i4 ,inductive ,assumptions ,ju/ifi$4 #aj4 ,?ree ,=ms ( ,inductive ,rese>*4 #aa4 ,induction by ,simple ,enum]ation4 #ab4 ,induction by ,analogy4 #ac4 ,induction by ,analysis4 #ad4 ,p]fect ,induction4 #ae4 ,traduction4 #af4 ,outl9e4 #ag4 ,summ>y4 #ah4 ,review ,que/ions4 #ai4 ,que/ions = ,orig9al ,?\ght & ,inve/igation4 ,,*apt] #ah4,,mill',s ,,five ,,special ,,me?ods ,,( ,,obs]vation ,,& ,,exp]im5t4 #a4 ,aim ( ,five ,me?ods4 #b4 ,me?od ( ,agreem5t4 #c4 ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce4 #d4 ,! ,jo9t ,me?od ( ,agreem5t & ,diff]5ce4 #e4 ,! ,me?od ( ,concomitant ,v>iations4 #f4 ,! ,me?od ( ,residues4 #g4 ,g5]al ,purpose & ,unity ( ,five ,me?ods4 #h4 ,outl9e4 #i4 ,summ>y4 #aj4 ,review ,que/ions4 #aa4 ,que/ions = ,orig9al ,?\ght & ,inve/igation4 ,,*apt] #ai4;,,auxili>y ,,elem5ts ,,9 ,,induction4 ,,obs]vation,,exp]im5t,,hypo!sis4 #a4 ,f\ndation ( ,inductive ,g5]alizations4 #b4 ,obs]vation4 #c4 ,exp]im5t4 #d4 ,rules = ,logical ,obs]vation & ,exp]im5t4 #e4 ,common ,errors ( ,obs]vation & ,exp]im5t4 #f4 ,! ,hypo!sis4 #g4 ,induction & ,hypo!sis ,di/+ui%$4 #h4 ,hypo!sis & ,!ory ,di/+ui%$4 #i4 ,! ,requirem5ts ( a ,p]missible ,hypo!sis4 #aj4 ,uses ( ,hypo!sis4 #aa4 ,*>act]i/ics ,ne$$ by ,sci5tific ,inve/igators4 #ab4 ,outl9e4 #ac4 ,summ>y4 #ad4 ,review ,que/ions4 #ae4 ,que/ions = ,orig9al ,?\ght & ,inve/igation4 ,,*apt] #bj4,,logic ,,9 ,,! ,,class ,,room4 #a4 ,?\ght is ,k+4 #b4 ,special ,functions ( ,induction & ,d$uction4 #c4 ,two ,types ( ,m9ds4 #d4 ,cons]vatism 9 ,s*ool4 #e4 ,! ,me?od ( ! ,discov]]4 #f4 ,real ,inductive ,me?od n 9 ,vogue 9 ,class ,room ,"w4 #g4 ,z a ,me?od ( ,in/ruction1 ,d$uction ,sup]ior4 #h4 ,conque/1 n ,k1 ! ,desid]atum4 #i4 ,motivation z ,relat$ to ,_s ( ,discov]y4 #aj4 ,discov]]'s ,me?od ,adapt$ to ,class ,room ,"w4 #aa4 ,"q & ,answ] ,me?od n ,necess>ily ,"o ( ,discov]y4 #ab4 ,outl9e4 #ac4 ,summ>y4 #ad4 ,review ,que/ions4 #ae4 ,que/ions = ,orig9al ,?\ght & ,inve/igation4 ,,*apt] #ba4,,logic ,,& ,,life4 #a4 ,logic ,giv5 a ,place 9 a ,second>y ,c\rse4 #b4 ,man's ,supremacy ,due to ,p[] ( ,?\ght4 #c4 ,importance ( ,progressive ,?9k+4 #d4 ,necessity ( ,"r ,?9k+4 #e4 ,indiff]5t & ,c>eless ,?\ght4 #f4 ,! ,rationalization ( ! ,_w ( ,*ance4 #g4 ,! ,rationalization ( ,bus9ess & ,political ,sophi/ries4 #h4 ,! ,rationalization ( ! ,_s ( ,progress4 #i4 ,a ,rationalization ( ! ,attitude ,t[>d ,"w4 #aj4 ,! ,logic ( ,success4 #aa4 ,outl9e4 #ab4 ,summ>y4 #ac4 ,review ,que/ions4 #ad4 ,que/ions = ,orig9al ,?\ght & ,inve/igation4 ,,g5]al ,,ex]cises ,,9 ,,te/+ ,,categorical ,,argum5ts4 ,,g5]al ,,ex]cises ,,9 ,,te/+ ,,hypo!tical1 ,,disjunctive ,,& ,,dilemmatic ,,argum5ts4 ,,exam9ation ,,que/ions ,,= ,,tra9+ ,,s*ools ,,& ,,colleges4 ,,bibliography4 ,,outl9e ,,( ,,brief] ,,c\rse4 ,,index4 ,,*apt] #a4 ,,! ,,scope ,,& ,,nature ,,( ,,logic4 #a4 ,,! ,,m9d4 ,z to ! true conception ( matt] ! _w is ignorant4 ,yet :5 ask$1 8,:at does matt] d80 ! reply is1 8,matt] moves1 matt] vibrates40 ,moreov]1 relative to ! exact nature ( m9d1 ! _w is likewise ignorant4 ,b to ! "q1 8,:at does m9d d80 ! response comes1 8,! ,m9d kn[s1 ! m9d feels1 ! m9d wills40 ,! m9d has ev] manife/$ itself 9 ^! ?ree ways4 ,because ( ?is ?ree-fold function x is easy to ?9k ( ! m9d z be+ sep>at$ into di/9ct comp>tm5ts1 ea* con/itut+ an indep5d5t activity4 ,?is is errone\s4 ,! m9d is a liv+ unit hav+ ?ree sides b nev] act+ "o side at a "t4 ,:5 ! m9d kn[s x also feels 9 "s way & wills to "s ext5t4 ,to illu/rate3 ,music is he>d & "o kn[s x to be ,rub9/e9's ,melody 9 ,f4 ,! execution be+ good "o feels pleasure4 ,t ! pleasurable /ate may be augm5t$ "o wills a li/5+ attitude4 ,= analytical purposes ! psy*ologi/s h a way ( nam+ ! /ate ( m9d f ! pr$om9at+ manife/ation4 #b4 ,,logic ,,relat$ ,,to ,,o!r ,,subjects4 ,:at ! m9d is may 9 "t be answ]$ satisfactorily by philosophy2 :at ! m9d does is describ$ by psy*ology2 :at ! m9d kn[s is treat$ by logic4 ,aga93 ! m9d z a :ole furni%es ! subject matt] = psy*ology1 :]eas logic is conc]n$ ) ! m9d kn[+1 ae/hetics ) ! m9d feel+1 & e?ics ) ! m9d will+4 ,e?ics attempts to answ] ! "q1 8,:at is "r80 ae/hetics1 8,:at is beautiful80 & logic1 8,:at is true80 ,?\gh bo? psy*ology & logic treat ( ! kn[+ aspect ( ! m9d1 yet ! fields are n id5tical4 ,! =m] deals ) ! process ( ! kn[+ m9d z a :ole1 :ile ! latt] is conc]n$ ma9ly ) ! product ( ! kn[+ m9d :5 x ?9ks4 ,to be specific3 ,! m9d kn[s :5 x becomes aw>e ( any?+1 moreov]1 ?is condition ( aw>5ess appe>s 9 two ways3 fir/1 imm$iately or by intuition2 second1 aft] delib]ation or by ?9k+4 ,= example1 "o may "k imm$iately or by intuition t ! object 9 ! h& is a lead p5cil1 b :5 reque/$ to /ate ! l5g? ( ! p5cil !re is delib]ation involv+ a comp>ison ( ! unkn[n l5g? ) a def9ite measure4 ,x may n[ f9ally be ass]t$ t ! p5cil is six in*es long4 ,:5 we "k )\t hesitation ! process involv$ is intuition1 :]eas :5 ! k comes aft] "s sort ( comp>ison ! m5tal act is call$ ?9k+4 ,x1 !re=e1 becomes ! bus9ess ( psy*ology to deal ) bo? intuition & ?9k+ :ile logic devotes its att5tion to ?9k+ only1 & ev5 9 ?is field ! "w ( logic is m or less indirect4 ,! specific scope ( logic is ! product ( ?9k+ or ?\ght4#a ,:at are ! =ms ( ?\ght8 ,:at are ! laws ( ?\ght8 ,are ! sev]al ?\ghts true8 ,^! are ! que/ions :i* logic is suppos$ to answ]4 ,= ! logician ?\ght has two s\rces1 8 own m9d & ! m9d ( o!rs4 ,9 ! latt] case ?\ght becomes accessible ?r\gh ! m$ium ( language4 ,!re is 9 consequ5ce a close connection betwe5 logic1 ! sci5ce ( ?\ght1 & gramm>1 ! sci5ce ( language4 ,because ( ?is ne> relation logic is sometimes call$ ! 8gramm> ( ?\ght40 ,to /udy any sci5ce prop]ly "o mu/ h ?\ghts & s9ce logic is ! sci5ce ( all ?\ght ! subject may be reg>d$ z ! sci5ce ( sci5ces4 #c4 ,,logic ,,def9$4 8,logic is ! sci5ce ( ?\ght40 ,?is def9ition commonly giv5 is too brief to be helpful4 ,%\ld n a def9ition ( any subject repres5t a work+ basis ^u :i* "o may build ) "s k ( :at ! /ructure is to be8 ,! foll[+1 a little out ( ! ord9>y1 seems to supply ?is condition3 ,logic z a sci5ce makes kn[n ! laws & =ms ( ?\ght & z an art sugge/s conditions :i* mu/ be fulfill$ to ?9k rightly4 ,9 ju/ification ( ! latt] def9ition x may be argu$ t x cov]s ! topics usually treat$ by logicians4 ,x is said t a sci5ce tea*es u to "k :ile an art tea*es u to d4 ,z a sci5ce logic tea*es u to "k c]ta9 laws :i* und]lie "r ?9k+4 ,= example1 ! law ( id5tity :i* makes possible all affirmative judgm5ts1 su* z 8,"s m5 are wise10 8,all metals are elem5ts10 etc4 ,likewise z a sci5ce logic acqua9ts u ) c]ta9 univ]sal =ms to :i* ?\ght %apes itself1 su* z def9itions1 classifications1 inductions1 d$uctions4 ,fur!r1 logic lays d[n def9ite rules :i* lead to "r ?9k+4 ,to wit3 ,because x is true ( a "p ( a class x %\ld n be assum$ t x is true ( ! :ole ( t class3 or1 9 %ort1 d n di/ribute an undi/ribut$ t]m4 ,a possible pr(it to ! /ud5t may result f a /udy ( c]ta9 au!ntic def9itions h]e) subjo9$3 7#a7 8,logic is ! sci5ce ( ! laws ( ?\ght40 ,jevons4 7#b7 8,logic is ! sci5ce :i* inve/igates ! process ( ?9k+40 ,creighton4 7#c7 8,logic z a sci5ce aims to asc]ta9 :at are ! laws ( ?\ght2 z an art x aims to apply ^! laws to ! detection ( fallacies or = ! det]m9ation ( correct reason+40 ,hyslop4 7#d7 8,logic is ! art ( ?9k+40 ,watts4 7#e7 8,logic is ! sci5ce & also ! art ( ?9k+40 ,:ateley4 7#f7 8,logic is ! sci5ce ( ! =mal & necess>y laws ( ?\ght40 ,hamilton4 7#g7 8,logic is ! sci5ce ( ! regulative laws ( ! human und]/&+40 ,ueb]weg4 7#h7 8,logic treats ( ! nature & ( ! laws ( ?\ght40 ,hibb54 7#i7 8,logic may be def9$ z ! sci5ce ( ! conditions on :i* correct ?\ghts dep5d1 & ! art ( atta9+ to correct & avoid+ incorrect ?\ghts40 ,f[l]4 7#aj7 8,logic is ! sci5ce ( ! op]ations ( ! und]/&+ :i* are subs]vi5t to ! e/imation ( evid5ce40 ,mill4 7#aa7 8,logic may be briefly describ$ z a body ( doctr9es & rules hav+ ref]5ce to tru?40 ,ba94 ,x w\ld seem z if !re 7 z _m diff]5t def9itions z !re are books on ! subject4 ,?is is due p>tly to ! disposition ( ! old] logicians to ignore ! art ( logic & p>tly to ! difficulty ( giv+ 9 a few words a satisfactory description ( a broad subject4 ,9 ! fundam5tals ( logical doctr9e pres5t-day au?orities virtually agree4 #d4 ,,! ,,value ,,( ,,logic ,,to ,,! ,,/ud5t4 ,logic is rapidly com+ into favor z a major subject 9 in/itutions devot$ to educational !ory4 ,"s ( ! reasons = ?is *ange ( attitude are h]e) subjo9$3 7#a7 ,logic %\ld /imulate ! ?\ght p[]s4 ,?is is ! age ( ! survival ( ! ?9k]4 ,! fact t ! man :o ?9ks be/ is ! man :o ?9ks mu* & c>efully w be accept$ by ^? :o believe t practice makes p]fect4 8,"o ne$s only to obs]ve ! av]age commut] to conclude t a l>ge p]c5t4 ( our bus9ess m5 read too mu* & ?9k too little40 8,mu* readee & no ?9kee0 0 ! reply ( a ,*9aman :5 ask$ 8 op9ion ( ! do+s ( ! av]age ,am]ican4 8,we z a p are newspap] mad1 read+ = ent]ta9m5t1 seldom = m5tal improvem5t40 7#b7 ,logic aims to secure correct ?\ght4 ,are n _m ( ! s9s & mo/ ( ! failures 9 ?is _w due to incorrect ?9k+8 7#c7 ,logic %\ld tra9 to cle> ?9k+4 ,x w\ld be difficult to e/imate ! loss ( en]gy to ! bra9 work] because he has n ! p[] to ?9k cle>ly4 ,maximum effici5cy is impossible ) a befogg$ bra94 ,h[ disc\rag+ x is to ! /ud5t to attempt to get f ! p>agraph ! ?\ght ( ! au?or1 :o 9 try+ to be pr(\nd succe$s 9 be+ pr(\ndly ab/ruse4 ,!re is a probable ne$ = broad1 deep ?\ghts1 b ^! :5 plac$ 9 a text book %\ld be %>p5$ to a po9t4 7#d7 ,logic %\ld aid "o to e/imate aright ! /atem5ts & argum5ts ( o!rs4 ,?is is ( especial value to ! tea*] :o is con/ra9$ to tea* l>gely f text books4 ,because x is f\nd 9 a book is n pro( positive t x is true4 ,:y %\ld we assume t ! book is infallible :5 we "k t ! man beh9d ! book is fallible8 7#e7 ,logic insi/s on def9ite1 sy/ematic proc$ure4 ,to be logical is to be bus9esslike4 ,a /udy ( logic w\ld1 no d\bt1 b5efit our *ur*es & p>liam5t>y ord]s z well z our s*ools4 7#f7 ,logic dem&s lucid1 po9t$1 accurate expression4 ,h[ we w\ld increase our work+ effici5cy c\ld we b express our ?\ghts 9 an attractive & int]e/+ mann]4 ,to li/5 to ! spee*es ( "s ( our great & good m5 :o are conc]n$ 9 direct+ ! 8%ip ( /ate0 is suffici5t argum5t t ! ,am]ican s*ools ne$ m logic4 7#g7 ,logic is especially adapt$ to a g5]al m5tal tra9+4 ,despite ! sw+ ( ! p5dulum ( public op9ion t[>d ! bread-&-butt] side ( life1 !re are _m ( high repute :o claim t = ! sake ( t m5tal acum5 :i* di/+ui%$ ! ,greek f 8 contempor>ies we _c af=d to sacrifice ev]y?+ on ! alt> ( comm]cialism4 7#h7 ,logic wor%ips at ! %r9e ( tru? & adds to our /ore ( k4 ,:at has aid$ ! _w m 9 its m>* onw>d ?an ?is deep-seat$ passion = tru? & :at has imp$$ x m ?an t va9 & wanton indiff]5ce to tru? :i* br\ght to ! _w its d>ke/ age8 #e4 ,,outl9e ,,! ,,scope ,,& ,,nature ,,( ,,logic4 7#a7 ,! ,m9d4 ,?ree aspects4 ,unity (4 7#b7 ,logic ,relat$ to ,o!r ,subjects4 ,m5tal philosophy1 psy*ology1 logic4 ,psy*ology1 logic1 ae/hetics1 e?ics4 ,two ways ( kn[+4 ,special prov9ce ( logic4 ,logic & language4 ,a sci5ce ( sci5ces4 7#c7 ,logic ,def9$4 ,a g5]al def9ition4 ,a m satisfactory def9ition4 ,a li/ ( au!ntic def9itions4 7#d7 ,! ,value ( ,logic to ! ,/ud5t4 ,eight reasons = its /udy4 #f4 ,,summ>y4 7#a7 ,! aspects ( ! m9d are kn[+1 feel+ & will+4 ,! m9d is a liv+ unit & nev] kn[s )\t feel+ 9 "s way & will+ to "s ext5t4 7#b7 ,:at ! m9d is mu/ be answ]$ by philosophy2 :at ! m9d does by psy*ology & :at ! m9d kn[s by logic4 ,psy*ology treats ( ! m9d z a :ole1 logic ( ! m9d kn[+1 ae/hetics ( ! m9d feel+ & e?ics ( ! m9d will+4 ,e?ics answ]s ! "q1 ,:at is "r8 ,ae/hetics1 ,:at is beautiful8 ,logic1 ,:at is true8 ,! /&po9t ( logic is n id5tical ) any p>ticul> portion ( psy*ology4 ,! m9d kn[s 9 two ways3 7a7 by intuition1 7b7 by ?9k+4 ,?9k+ is a process?\ght a product4 ,logic deals indirectly ) ! =m] & directly ) ! latt]4 ,g5]ally speak+1 logic is a sy/ematic /udy ( ?\ght4 ,= ! logician ?\ght has two s\rces3 7a7 8 own m9d & 7b7 spok5 or writt5 language4 ,because ( ! ambiguity ( language logic has mu* to d ) x z a faulty vehicle ( ?\ght4 7#c7 ,logic z a sci5ce makes kn[n ! laws & =ms ( ?\ght & z an art sugge/s conditions :i* mu/ be fulfill$ to ?9k rightly4 ,au?or4 8,logic may be def9$ z ! sci5ce ( ! conditions on :i* correct ?\ghts dep5d1 & ! art ( atta9+ to correct & avoid+ incorrect ?\ghts40 ,f[l]4 ,9 ! fundam5tals ( logical doctr9e pres5t day logicians virtually agree4 7#d7 ,logic %\ld /imulate ! ?\ght p[]s2 secure correct & cle> ?9k+2 aid 9 ! e/imation ( argum5ts2 inspire def9ite1 sy/ematic proc$ure2 dem& lucid1 po9t$1 accurate expression & be especially adapt$ to g5]al m5tal discipl9e4 ,logic adds to our /ore ( k & develops a passion = ! tru?4 #g4 ,,review ,,que/ions4 7#a7 ,expla9 & illu/rate ! ?ree ways 9 :i* ! m9d may manife/ itself4 7#b7 ,illu/rate ! fact t ! m9d acts 9 unity4 7#c7 ,%[ briefly h[ logic is relat$ to m5tal philosophy1 psy*ology1 ae/hetics1 e?ics & gramm>4 7#d7 ,illu/rate ! two ways ( kn[+4 7#e7 ,di/+ui% betwe5 ?9k+ & ?\ght4 7#f7 ,give a g5]al def9ition ( logic4 ,:y is ?is def9ition unsatisfactory8 7#g7 ,:at are ! two s\rces ( ?\ght8 7#h7 ,:y are logic & language s closely relat$8 7#i7 ,give t def9ition ( logic :i* be/ satisfies y4 7#aj7 ,summ>ize ! b5efits :i* y hope to d]ive f y\r /udy ( logic4 7#aa7 ,:y %\ld tea*]s be cle> ?9k]s8 7#ab7 ,:y %\ld tea*]s be especially on gu>d aga9/ incorrect /atem5ts ( all k9ds8 7#ac7 ,%[ h[ logic might be ( assi/ance to ! bus9ess man4 #h4 ,,que/ions ,,= ,,orig9al ,,?\ght ,,& ,,inve/igation4 7#a7 ,prove t !re is no?+ real 9 ! _w save ! m9d itself4 7#b7 8,logic is conc]n$ prim>ily ) h[ we ought to ?9k & only 9 a second>y way ) h[ we actually ?9k40 ,expla9 ?is quotation4 7#c7 ,prove t !re is no su* ?+ z intuitive kn[+4 7#d7 ,is !re any diff]5ce betwe5 k & ?\ghts8 ,illu/rate4 7#e7 ,%[ by illu/rations t ! ,engli% language is ambigu\s4 7#f7 ,prove by concrete illu/ration t ?is is ! age ( ! survival ( ! ?9k]4 7#g7 ,:i* is ! m h>mful3 falsehood mix$ ) tru? or unadult]at$ falsehood8 ,give reasons4 7#h7 ,give a concrete example ( incorrect ?9k+4 7#i7 ,%[ t wrong ?9k+ leads to wrong do+4 7#aj7 ,to be wor? :ile mu/ e subject h a practical value8 7#aa7 8,! #bj? c5tury virtue is a passion = tru?40 ,prove ! tru? ( ?is4 ,,*apt] #b4 ,,?\ght ,,& ,,its ,,op]ation4 #a4 ,,! ,,kn[+ ,,m9d ,,comp>$ ,,) ,,! ,,?9k+ ,,m9d4 ,9 ! prec$+ *apt] we 7 told t ! m9d may "k 9 two ways 7#a7 by intuition & 7#b7 by ?9k+4 ,x is ?us impli$ t ! kn[+ m9d includes ! ?9k+ m9d plus intuition4 ,?9k+ always involves kn[+1 b kn[+ ne$ n involve ?9k+1 & :5 "s logicians ma9ta9 t to "k a ?+ "o mu/ ?9k x1 !re is dang] ( be+ misl$4 ,!y mean by ?is t 9 ord] to "k any?+ 9 a p]man5t & highly s]viceable way "o mu/ ?9k x4 ,all animals "k1 ev5 su* a /upid "o z ! oy/]1 & yet "o w\ld h>dly give an oy/] cr$it = ?9k+4 ,only ! high] ord]s ( animal life ?9k4 ,"s argue t ! p[] is conf9$ exclusively to ! human family4 ,?is op9ion is debatable4 ,if ! claimant means by ?9k+1 reason+ !n 8 gr\nd is well tak54 ,b if he is will+ to give to ?9k+ a broad] cont5t1 !n he has little def5se = 8 /&4 ,h[ev]1 atta* z broad a mean+ to ?9k+ z ! d]ivation ( ! ^w w p]mit & ev5 !n x is a n>r[] t]m ?an kn[+4 ,?9k+ plus intuition equals kn[+1 & 9 intuition !re is probably no ?9k+4 #b4 ,,kn[+ ,,by ,,intuition4 ,x has be5 affirm$ t intuition is ! process involv$ :5 ! m9d kn[s in/antly4#b ,,illu/rations3 7#a7 ,z ,i raise my eyes a figure comes to view4 ,my m9d kn[s in/antly t x is ! figure ?ree4 7#b7 ,! e> cat*es imm$iately a tune :i* is be+ sung 9 ! room bel[4 ,)\t delib]ation ! m9d recognizes ! tune z ,am]ica4 ,! m9d may ?us "k by intuition ?r\gh any "o ( ! five s5ses4 ,^! are ! wires ( connection betwe5 ! out] _w & ! m9d )9 & transmission ov] ^! wires may be in/antane\s or intuitive4 ,?is is n all4 7#c7 ,my m9d may c5t] its att5tion on itself & may recognize !re a m5tal picture or image ( a pet dog4 ,s9ce ?is activity is )\t any app>5t delib]ation ! process mu/ be intuitive4 ,to def9e intuitive k z t :i* comes to ! m9d ?r\gh ! s5ses only is incorrect1 z x leaves out altoge!r ! k ! m9d may obta9 ( its own activity z 9 illu/ration 87#c740 ,k is any?+ kn[n4 ,intuitive k is k :i* comes to ! m9d imm$iately by direct obs]vation4 ,! field = intuitive k may be ! ext]nal _w or ! int]nal _w ?\gh1 ( c\rse1 ! =m] is ! m common gr\nd4 ,x is "h t ! m9d by intuition secures ! mo/ ( its raw mat]ial :i*1 ?r\gh ! process ( ?9k+1 is work$ ov] into a connect$1 unifi$ sy/em ( la/+ value4 ,! intuitions are ! beg9n+ & ! basis ( all k1 & k ga9$ by intuition is ! basis ( all ?9k+4 #c4 ,,! ,,?9k+ ,,process4 ,x is claim$ t ?9k comes f ! same root z ?ick4 ,f ?is "o w\ld conclude t ! process ( ?9k+ is virtually a process ( ?ick5+4 ,surely z "o ?9ks he enri*es or ?ick5s 8 k4 ,z "o ?9ks p]cepts into concepts & concepts into judgm5ts he makes ri*] 9 mean+ ! v>i\s notions conc]n$4 ,?9k+ is l>gely a matt] ( press+ _m into "o3 ( l9k+ toge!r ! disconnect$ fragm5ts ( ! consci\s field4 ,,def9ition3 ,?9k+ is ! delib]ative process ( affirm+ or d5y+ connections4 ,! same idea may be express$ 9 a v>iety ( ways z ! foll[+ indicate4 7#a7 8,?9k+ is ! consci\s adju/m5t ( a means to an end 9 problematic situations40 ,mill]4 7#b7 8,to ?9k is to designate an object ?r\gh a m>k or attribute or :at is ! same ?+1 to det]m9e a subject ?r\gh a pr$icate40 ,b[54 7#c7 8,?\ght is ! compreh5sion ( a ?+ "u a g5]al notion or attribute40 ,wm4 ,hamilton4 7#d7 8,to ?9k is to make cle> ?r\gh concepts ! p]ceiv$ objects40 ,dressl]4 ,9 ! =ego+ def9itions x is impli$ t ?9k+ is a connect+ or ?ick5+ process4 ,9 all =ms ( ?9k+ f ! simple/ to ! mo/ complex ! kn[+ m9d hunts = "s basis ( connection & hav+ f\nd x ?9ks ! relation%ip into a unifi$ :ole4 ,! ?9k+ process is ! dige/ive process ( ! m9d4 ,mu* z ! dige/ive organs assimilate ! food /uff ( ! physical _w1 s ! ?9k+ organ assimilates ! food /uff ( ! m5tal _w4 ,,illu/rations ,,( ,,! ,,?9k+ ,,process3 7#a7 ,! *ild is unable to expla9 ! mean+ ( 8hocus-pocus0 z x occurs 9 ! "q1 8,:at hocus-pocus is ?is80 ,! *ild m9d is unable to e/abli% any connection betwe5 ! ^w & its real mean+4 ,9 %ort1 is unable to ?9k into x a mean+2 x !re=e becomes necess>y = ! tea*] to e/abli% "s basis ( connection & ?is he does by sugge/+ nons5se z a synonym4 7#b7 ,! tea*] holds be=e ! class an ,egyptian h\se god & asks1 8,:at is x80 ,aft] a mom5t ( hesitation "s *ild :o has se5 pictures ( 88 satanic maje/y0 av]s t ! object is a 8little devil40 ,?us has a connection be5 e/abli%$ betwe5 ! idol & pictures ( satan4 7#c7 ,john is unable to solve ! foll[+ problem z he c disc]n no connection betwe5 ! data giv5 & ! data requir$4 ,problem4 #c_/d ( my sal>y is #ijj1 :at is my sal>y8 ,data4 ,giv53 #c_/d ( sal>y #ijj4 ,requir$3 #d_/d ( sal>y 8 ,9 ord] t ,john may ?9k a solution ! tea*] mu/ lead him to see "s connection betwe5 #c_/d & #d_/d4 ,) ?is 9 m9d ! =m ( ! data is *ang$ to ,giv53 #c-;f\r?s #ijj ,requir$3 #d-;f\r?s 8 or ,giv53 #c p>ts #ijj ,requir$3 #d p>ts 8 ,john n[ notes t #d p>ts is #d_/c times #c p>ts & consequ5tly writes #d_/c ( #ijj1 :i* is #a1bjj z ! answ]4 ,or he may f9d ! value ( #a "p & !n ( #d p>ts4 #d4 ,,notions1 ,,individual ,,& ,,g5]al4 ,a notion is any product ( ! kn[+ m9dany?+ :i* ! m9d notes or becomes aw>e (4 ,b ! m9d kn[s 9 two ways1 by intuition & by ?9k+4 ,9 consequ5ce ! m9d has two k9ds ( notions1 ^? :i* are intuitive or individual notions & ^? :i* orig9ally result f ?9k+ or g5]al notions4 ,an individual notion is a notion ( "o ?+4 ,a g5]al notion is a notion ( a class ( ?+s4 ,note4 ,"h x is necess>y to di/+ui% betwe5 a ?+ & an object4 ,an object is a ?+ :i* occupies space su* z a p5cil or a book4 8,?+0 is1 !re=e1 a broad] t]m ?an 8object40 8,a ?+ is t :i* has individual exi/5ce40 ,f ! viewpo9t ( logic 8?+0 includes objects1 qualities1 relations1 spiritual entities4 ,gravitation is a ?+ b n an object4 ,a tree is bo? an object & a ?+4 ,,illu/rations ,,( ,,notions4 ,my notion ( ! p5cil ) :i* ,i am writ+ is an individual notion1 b my notion ( p5cil z a class "n is g5]al4 ,my yell[ dog1 ! hone/y ( ,l9coln1 ,alb]t ,:ite1 ,new ,york ,city1 are individual notions1 :ile dog1 hone/y1 man1 city1 are g5]al notions4 ,a sure way to det]m9e :e!r ! notion is individual or g5]al is to attempt to divide x into its k9ds4 ,only g5]al notions may be subdivid$4 #e4 ,,k ,,& ,,idea ,,z ,,relat$ ,,to ,,! ,,notion4 ,k is any?+ kn[n1 :ile any?+ ( :i* ! m9d becomes aw>e is a notion4 ,notions are always bits ( k1 b k is n always a notion4 ,notions are m5tal products belong+ to ! m9d :i* ?9ks !m1 :ile k1 ?\gh x mu/ fir/ be a m5tal product ( someone's m9d1 may n necess>ily be a product ( y\rs or m9e4 ,notions are always f\nd 9 ! m9d1 :ile k may be f\nd 9 books1 b n necess>ily 9 "s individual m9d4 ,k /&s = ev]y?+ kn[n1 ! notion1 = ev]y?+ not$4 ,! ,egyptians may h possess$ mu* k ( :i* we may nev] become aw>e4 ,mu* ( _! k may nev] become notions ( ! ,am]ican p4 ,a notion is an exi/+ /ate ( consci\sness4 ,said notion may be committ$ to pap]1 & !n x may give way to ano!r notion4 ,x n[ ceases to be y\r notion1 b rema9s on ! pr9t$ page1 z a bit ( k4 8,idea10 because ( its ambiguity1 really has no place 9 logic4 ,! t]m is frequ5tly re/rict$ to a reproduc$ p]cept4 ,to illu/rate3 ,:5 ! p5cil is be=e me ! m5tal product is a p]cept1 b :5 ! p5cil is )drawn & ,i try to ?9k ( x1 !n h ,i an idea ( 8p5cil40 ,probably idea is mo/ commonly associat$ ) mean+ & belief4 ,to illu/rate3 ,:at is y\r idea z to ! mean+ ( homog5y8 or ,:at are y\r ideas on ! t>iff8 #f4 ,,! ,,logic ,,( ,,! ,,psy*ological ,,t]ms ,,involv$ ,,9 ,,! ,,notion4 ,conc]n+ ! kn[+ m9d ! psy*ologi/ classifies its activities & _! products z foll[s3 ,activity ,product 7#a7 ,pres5tative 7#a7 ,s5sation ,s5sation 7#b7 ,p]ception ,p]cept 7#b7 ,repres5tative 7#a7 ,imag9ation ,image 7#b7 ,memory 7#c7 ,?9k+ 7#a7 ,conception ,concept 7#b7 ,judg+ ,judgm5t 7#c7 ,reason+ ,inf]5ce ,! notion z any product ( ! kn[+ m9d includes ! six products z indicat$ by ! psy*ologi/4 ,! individual notion :i* is intuitive includes ! s5sation1 p]cept & image2 ! g5]al notion :i* is a ?\ght product /&s = ! concept1 judgm5t & inf]5ce4 ,to put x ma!matically s5sation ,individual notion p]cept intuitive products image notion concept ,g5]al notion judgm5t ?\ght products inf]5ce ,z we %all h occasion frequ5tly to ref] to ^! psy*ological t]ms x may be well to def9e !m4 ,psy*ological ,def9ition4 ,logical ,def9ition4 ,a s5sation is ! fir/ & ,a s5sation is a vague1 simple/ m5tal result ( ! unlocaliz$ m5tal product ( /imulation ( an inc>ry+ ! kn[+ m9d4 n]ve4 ,a p]cept is a m5tal ,a p]cept is a consci\sly product :i* results f a localiz$ gr\p ( s5sations4 consci\sness ( p>ticul> mat]ial ?+s pres5t to ! s5se4 ,an image is a m5tal product ,an image is a reproduc$ :i* results f p>ticul> p]cept4 mat]ial ?+s n pres5t to ! s5se4 ,a concept is a repres5tation ,a concept is a m5tal product 9 our m9ds answ]+ to a aris+ f ?9k+ _m g5]al "n4 notions into "o class4 ,a judgm5t is ! result ( ,a judgm5t is ! m5tal ass]t+ an agreem5t or product aris+ f conjo9+ disagreem5t betwe5 two ideas4 or disjo9+ notions4 ,an inf]5ce is a judgm5t ,an inf]5ce is a judgm5t d]iv$ f p]ceiv+ d]iv$ f antec$5t relations betwe5 o!r judgm5ts4 judgm5ts4 ,x is se5 t ! s5sations furni% ! raw mat]ial4 ,ignor+ ! few exceptions we may !n say t a p]cept is a made-ov] gr\p ( s5sations2 a concept a ?\ght-made gr\p ( p]cepts2 a judgm5t a ?\ght-made gr\p ( concepts2 an inf]5ce a judgm5t d]iv$ f o!r judgm5ts4 ,develop$ ?9k+ is fir/ f\nd 9 ! concept1 & z we /udy ! ?\ght products1 8concept10 8judgm5t0 & 8inf]5ce10 ! tru? is =c$ ^u u t ?9k+ z a process aims to gr\p ! _m into "o4 ,f _m p]cepts is built ! "o concept1 f two concepts is built ! "o judgm5t & f two judgm5ts is built ! "o inf]5ce4#c ,speak+ figuratively1 ?9k+ is a matt] ( pick+ up ! fragm5ts along ! %ore ( consci\sness & ty+ !m into bundles4 #g4 ,,?\ght ,,9 ,,! ,,s5sation ,,& ,,p]cept4 ,s f> 9 ?is discussion x has be5 assum$ t !re is no ?9k+ involv$ 9 ! s5sation or ! p]cept4 ,!re are good au?orities1 h[ev]1 :o insi/ on dignify+ ! s5sation1 ev5 ) a crude =m ( ?9k+4 ,to illu/rate3 ,"o may be read+ an int]e/+ novel4 ,! m9d is be+ ent]ta9$ & ignores ! activities ( ! objective _w1 yet we _c say t ! m9d is dead to ! _w outside4 ,!re is a dim consci\sness ( c]ta9 noises )\t4 ,^! unlocaliz$ s\nds are s5sations2 b h[ is ! m9d able to recognize !m z s\nds or noises8 ,to int]pret ! noises is x n necess>y = ! m9d to affirm a connection betwe5 !m & "s pa/ m5tal exp]i5ce8 ,is x possible = ! m9d to "k any?+ )\t e/abli%+ "s k9d ( connection betwe5 ! outside occurr5ce & an inn] situation8 ,if ?is is grant$ !n 9 s5sation !re mu/ be implicit ?9k+4 ,z ! p]cept is a localiz$ gr\p ( s5sations !n !re mu/ be involv$ 9 p]ception a m complex =m ( ?9k+1 s9ce 9 gr\p+ s5sations !re is a recognition ( connections4 ,if !re is ?9k+ 9 ! s5sation :i* is ! simple/ & l[e/ =m ( ! kn[+-m9d !n ?9k+ conditions all k & really is ! basic elem5tal cell ( all kn[+4 ,on ! o!r h& !re are ^? :o ma9ta9 t ! s5sation & p]cept are m]e reflections ( consci\sness2 ! s5sation be+ a reflect$ quality & ! p]cept a reflect$ object4 ,^! m5tal situations come into be+ in/antly!re is no "t = ?\ght & we all "k t ?\ght requires "t4 78,z quick z ?\ght0 is mislead+1 s9ce light travels m rapidly by _m times ?an ! ag5cies ( ?\ght47 ,x w probably nev] be settl$ to ! satisfaction ( all j :5 ?9k+ comm5ces4 ,! "q is z difficult z "s o!rs :i* h nev] be5 solv$4 ,= example3 ,:]e does life comm5ce8 ,:5 does ! plant m]ge into ! animal8 ,:i* 0 fir/ ! egg or ! h58 ,does ! objective _w really exi/ or is x only a m5tal int]pretation ( vibrations8 etc4 ,logically consid]$ ! "q is immat]ial4 ,all w agree t develop$ ?\ght is involv$ 9 ! concept1 judgm5t & inf]5ce1 :ile1 if x appe>s at all 9 ! p]cept & s5sation1 x is m or less undevelop$ & consequ5tly lies q )\t ! prov9ce ( ! logical field4 #h4 ,,evolution ,,& ,,! ,,?9k+ ,,m9d4 ,speak+ 9 g5]al t]ms evolution is a developm5t f a l[] to a high] /ate4 ,?us h come ! v>i\s species ( ! vegetable & animal _w4 ,! l[] ord]s ( life are simple 9 /ructure & function4 ,9 ! "o-cell$ animate =m a s+le organ p]=ms all ( ! "w ne$$ to ma9ta9 life & p]petuate ! species4 ,if ^! simple life-=ms are cut 9 two1 life cont9ues 9 ! two p>ts z if no?+ _h happ5$4 ,aside f _! simplicity !re is little ( int]dep5d5ce ( function & little ( co-ord9ation ( organs 9 ! l[e/ life-=ms4 ,9 %ort !re is no division ( labor2 8ea* cell is a _w unto itself40 ,an analog\s developm5t is se5 9 ! ?9k+ m9d4 ,! little *ild ?9ks 9 lumps1 & ^! lumps are only faultily l9k$ toge!r1 b ! adult ?9ks 9 t]ms ( ! gra9s ( ! lump1 ea* gra9 hav+ its place1 :i* x mu/ occupy = ! sake ( all ! o!r gra9s z well z ! entire lump4 ,! *ild's ?9k+ is vague1 g5]al & inaccurate1 :ile ! adult's ?9k+ %\ld be def9ite1 specializ$ & accurate4 ,?9k+ 9 ! lump means little discrim9ation & v faulty integration or unity1 :ile ?9k+ 9 t]ms ( ! gra9s means detail$ discrim9ation & p]fect integration4 ,to illu/rate3 ,! *ild sees a dog trott+ along ! side walk :i*1 accord+ to ! sugge/ion ( 8 "m1 he le>ns to call 8b[-w[40 ,lat] he obs]ves a cat & at once says 8b[-w[10 because all t ! *ild notes is t some?+ ) legs1 e>s & a tail is trott+ along ! side walk4 ,any?+ :i* fits ^! g5]al m>ks is a 8b[-w[40 ,simil>ly :5 a *ild fir/ obs]ves a rob9 p]*$ on a gate po/ he fails to di/+ui% betwe5 ! twox is all bird f ! top ( ! rob9's head to ! bottom ( ! gate po/4 ,progress 9 ?9k+ is measur$ by progress 9 discrim9ation4 ,! skill$ ?9k] divides ! l>ge unit into v small units1 comp>es ^! ) ea* o!r & !n reunites !m into a m p]fect & unifi$ :ole4 ,fir/ !re is an analysis & !n a syn!sis4 ,l a %uttle ! p[] ( ?\ght works 9 & out2 x goes 9 to sep>ate1 x comes out to unify4 ,!re is ano!r aspect 9 ! analogy betwe5 ! life ( ! physical & m5tal worlds4 ,some:]e 9 ! ord] ( progress !re is a connect+ l9k betwe5 ! m9]al & vegetable k+doms1 likewise betwe5 ! vegetable & animal k+doms4 ,! s5sation is z mu* a /ate ( feel+ z an act ( kn[+ & consequ5tly is ! connect+ l9k betwe5 ! feel+ m9d & ! kn[+ m9d4 ,if ! p]cept is ! result ( ?9k+ z well z intuition !n x may /& = ! divid+ l9e betwe5 ! kn[+#d m9d & ! ?9k+ m9d4 #i4 ,,! ,,concept ,,z ,a ,,?\ght ,,product4 ,conception is ! process ( ?9k+ _m notions into "o class4 ,! product ( su* a process is call$ a concept4 7#a7 ,! concept may /& = a gr\p ( concrete g5]al notionsz ! concept man1 :i* /&s = ! five g5]al notions3 ,caucasian1 ,mongolian1 ,e?iopian1 ,malay & ,am]ican ,indian4 7#b7 ,! concept may /& = a gr\p ( concrete individual notions4 ,= example1 ! same concept man repres5ts all ( ! individual m5 ( ! _w4 7#c7 ,! concept may /& = a gr\p ( ab/ract g5]al notions4 ,to wit3 ,virtue repres5ts su* g5]al notions z hone/y1 ju/ice1 indu/ry1 purity1 etc4 7,^! are g5]al notions because !y admit ( a subdivision into k9ds4 ,indu/ry1 = in/ance1 may be divid$ into two k9ds3 m5tal indu/ry & physical indu/ry47 7#d7 ,! concept may /& = a gr\p ( ab/ract individual notions4 ,to illu/rate3 ,blu5ess /&s = ! v>i\s %ades ( blue1 z sky blue1 bird's egg blue1 navy blue1 etc4 ,?us does ! concept /& = a gr\p ( all k9ds ( notions1 individual & g5]al1 ab/ract & concrete4 ,,! ,,process ,,( ,,conception ,,illu/rat$4 ,i see = ! fir/ "t 9 my life a p5cil4 ,9 o!r words ,i become consci\s ( a localiz$ gr\p ( s5sations?is is a p]cept4 ,i am told t ! "n ( t :i* ,i see is p5cil4 ,i note t ?is p>ticul> p5cil has a ?read ( black lead encas$ 9 a cyl9drical /rip ( wood :i* is br[n 9 color4 ,a second object is pres5t$ :i* ,i recognize z a p5cil ?\gh ! %ape is prismatic r ?an cyl9drical & ! color gre5 r ?an br[n4 ,b ,i call x a p5cil because x has a ?read ( black lead encas$ 9 a /rip ( wood4 ,! notion :i* ,i n[ h 9 m9d /&s = two p5cils & is !re=e repres5t$ by a class "n4 ,z ,i obs]ve o!r p5cils ( v>i\s %apes1 made ( wood & pap] ) ?reads ( diff]5t color$ lead1 my notion ( p5cil broad5s till f9ally x /&s = all p5cils4 ,?is is ! process ( conception accord+ to ! def9ition1 namely3 8,! process ( ?9k+ _m notions into "o class40 ,9 ?is case ! notions are individual4 ,an exam9ation ( conception makes evid5t two di/9ct *>act]i/ics4 ,fir/1 ,i may be able to recognize ea* individual p5cil because ( ! two common qualities1 a ?read ( lead & an encasem5t ( "s k9d4 ,?is process ( ! kn[+ m9d :]eby x recognizes & affirms connections is call$ ?9k+ z we h already le>n$4 ,"h is ! ?9k+ aspect ( conception4 ,second1 z ! in/ances ( ! obs]v$ objects are multipli$1 my notion ( p5cil is broad5$4 ,x is a build+ process :]e _m are cem5t$ into "o2 l ! blocks ( a cem5t wall4 ,"h we f9d ! *>act]i/ic :i* enables u to call ! process conception4 ,?is is ! m>k :i* di/+ui%es conception f all ! o!r ?\ght processes4 #aj4 ,,! ,,judgm5t ,,z ,a ,,?\ght ,,product4 ,judg+ is ! process ( conjo9+ & disjo9+ notions4 ,! product ( judg+ is ! judgm5t & all judgm5ts are express$ by means ( propositions4 ,a proposition consi/s ( "o subject & "o pr$icate connect$ by "s =m ( ! v]b be or its equival5t4 7#a7 ,a judgm5t may conjo9 or disjo9 two individual notions4 ,to wit3 ,conjo9$,?is p5cil belongs to ,alb]t ,:ite4 ,disjo9$,?is p5cil does n belong to ,m>y ,smi?4 7#b7 ,a judgm5t may conjo9 or disjo9 two g5]al notions4 ,conjo9$,"s m5 are virtu\s4 ,disjo9$,"s m5 are n virtu\s4 7#c7 ,a judgm5t may conjo9 or disjo9 a g5]al & an individual notion4 ,conjo9$,abraham ,l9coln 0 virtu\s4 ,disjo9$,edg> ,all5 ,poe 0 n temp]ate4 ,9 ord] t ! kn[+ m9d may conjo9 notions x mu/ recognize "s m>k ( simil>ity or connection4 ,?is is ! ?9k+ aspect ( ! judgm5t4 ,x is likewise to a c]ta9 degree ! judg+ aspect z ! latt] is simply a matt] ( affirm+ or d5y+ connections betwe5 notions4 ,b ?9k+ is a broad] t]m ?an judg+4 ,!re may be connections e/abli%$ betwe5 a "n & a notion4 ,= example 9 ! case ( ! dog :i* ! *ild sees trott+ along ! sidewalk & :i* ! "m ref]s to z a 8b[-w[02 ! t]m 8b[-w[0 is n a p]cept & has no mean+ indep5d5t ( its association ) ! dog1 h5ce x is n a notion1 yet "s connection has be5 made 9 ! *ild's m9d betwe5 8b[-w[0 & 8 notion ( dog4 ,?is is a simple =m ( ?9k+1 b n ( judg+1 z ! latt] affirms or d5ies connections betwe5 notions only4 ,! fact t judg+ & ?9k+ s closely resemble ea* o!r has giv5 j cause = "s logicians to designate judg+ z ! mo/ fundam5tal elem5t 9 all ?9k+4 8,! simple/ =m ( ?9k+10 says ,creighton1 8is judg+40 ,9 ord] to ?9k _m notions into "o class x is necess>y to conjo9 notions4 ,to illu/rate3 ,! *ild :o has a g5]al notion ( man sees = ! fir/ "t a negro4 ,if he recognizes ! negro z a color$ man he mu/ conjo9 8 g5]al notion ( man ) ?is individual notion4 ,9 %ort1 a concept is built by means ( a s]ies ( judgm5ts4 ,x may be said fur!r t an inf]5ce is simply a made-ov] judgm5t4 ,x is ?us evid5t t judg+ appe>s 9 bo? ! ?\ght processes ( conception & inf]5ce &1 !re=e1 z a f9al conclusion x may be affirm$ t judg+1 ?\gh p]haps n ! simple/ =m ( ?9k+1 is ! basic elem5t ( develop$ ?\ght4 #aa4 ,,inf]5ce ,,z ,a ,,?\ght ,,product4 ,reason+ is ! process ( d]iv+ a new judgm5t f a consid]ation ( o!r judgm5ts4 ,! product ( any reason+ process may be call$ an inf]5ce1 al?\gh1 z w appe> 9 a lat] *apt]1 inf]5ce is commonly us$ z indicat+ ! process z well z ! product4 ,(t5 reason+ may assume a syllogi/ic =m ) ! inf]5ce z its conclusion4 ,a syllogism is an arrangem5t ( ?ree propositions us+ ?ree diff]5t t]ms4 ,! foll[+ are syllogisms3 7#a7 ,all *ildr5 %\ld play4 ,m>y is a *ild4 ,h5ce1 ,m>y %\ld play4 7#b7 ,no tea*] %\ld judge ha/ily4 ,y are a tea*]4 ,h5ce1 y %\ld n judge ha/ily4 ,9 ! second syllogism ! inf]5ce1 8y %\ld n judge ha/ily10 is d]iv$ f ! o!r two judgm5ts by m]ely elim9at+ ! common t]m tea*] & disjo9+ ! rema9+ two t]ms4 ,! inf]5ce is consequ5tly a new judgm5t4 ,!re=e1 reason+ is only a matt] ( judg+ c>ri$ to a m complex /age4 ,to summ>izeconception is l>gely a matt] ( conjo9+ a g5]al notion ) an individual notion1 judg+ ( conjo9+ & disjo9+ all k9ds ( notions & inf]5ce ( conjo9+ & disjo9+ judgm5ts4 ,all ?ree processes g to =m ! l>g] process ( ?9k+4 ,! concept1 ! judgm5t & ! inf]5ce are products aris+ f conjo9+ & disjo9+ notions4 #ab4 ,,?9k+ ,,& ,,appreh5sion4 ,says ,jevons3 8,simple appreh5sion is ! act ( ! m9d by :i* we m]ely become aw>e ( some?+1 or h an idea or impression ( x br\ght into ! m9d20 :ile ,hyslop /ates t 8,! process ( k :i* gives u p]cepts is appreh5sion40 ,x is obvi\s t ! idea ( ! latt] is t appreh5sion yields individual notions only1 :ile ,jevons1 9 cit+ ! t]m iron z an illu/ration ( 8 def9ition1 w\ld inf] t ! g5]al notion is ! product ( appreh5sion4 ,! t]m is /rik+ly ambigu\s & w n be ref]r$ to (t5 9 ?is treatise4 ,if ! /ud5t desires a def9ition ?is w cov] ! conc5sus ( op9ion on ! mean+ ( appreh5sion4 ,appreh5sion is t process ( ! kn[+ m9d :i* yields ! p]cept & concept4 ,"s logicians give to ! ?9k+ m9d ! ?ree aspects ( appreh5sion1 judg+ & reason+4 #ac4 ,,/ages ,,9 ,,?9k+4 ,9 all ?9k+ !re are ?ree /eps or /ages :i* may be t]m$ discrim9ation1 comp>ison1 integration4 ,9 ! case ( ! two p5cils held 9 ! h&1 x is not$ t "o is long] ?an ! o!r4 ,let u analyze ! process :i* made possible ?is conclusion4 ,/ep "o,att5tion is giv5 fir/ to "o p5cil & !n to ! o!r4 ,9 ea* case ! p5cils are di/+ui%$ f ! h& & ! o!r surr\nd+ objects4 ,?is is discrim9ation4 ,/ep two,! p5cils are comp>$ 9 l5g?4 ,/ep ?ree,! two notions are unit$ 9 ! judgm5t1 8,p5cil numb] "o is long] ?an p5cil numb] two40 ,?is is integration4 ,ano!r illu/ration4 ,! *ild is reque/$ to solve ?is problem3 ,if #h tons ( hay co/ #afe1 :at w #af tons co/8 ,/atem5t3 ,giv53 #h tons co/ #afe4 ,requir$3 #af tons co/8 ,discrim9ation4 ,! *ild notes t #h tons co/ #afe & at ?is rate he is requir$ to f9d ! co/ ( #af tons4 ,comp>ison4 ,! *ild p]ceives t #af tons is twice #h tons4 ,integration4 ,! *ild concludes t ! co/ ( #af tons w be twice ! co/ ( #h tons or #ccj4 ,:5 we ?9k1 we fir/ te> to pieces t we may become acqua9t$ ) e "p4 ,?is may be call$ analysis4 ,!n we put ! relat$ pieces toge!r aga94 ,?is may be call$ syn!sis4 ,be=e1 h[ev]1 ! p>ts are re-unit$ a c]ta9 am\nt ( comp>ison is necess>y4 ,! ?ree /ages ( ?\ght might ?us be d5om9at$3 7#a7 analysis1 7#b7 comp>ison1 7#c7 syn!sis4 ,aft] ! syn!sis or integration x is necess>y to "n ! result1 consequ5tly a f\r? /ep is sometimes giv51 namely d5om9ation4 #ad4 ,,outl9e4 ,,?\ght ,,& ,,its ,,op]ation4 7#a7 ,! ,kn[+ ,m9d ,comp>$ ) ! ,?9k+ ,m9d4 7#b7 ,kn[+ by ,intuition4 7#c7 ,! ,?9k+ ,process4 ,def9$4 ,o!r def9itions4 7#d7 ,notions4 ,individual4 ,g5]al4 ,?+ & object di/+ui%$4 7#e7 ,k & ,idea z ,relat$ to ! ,notion4 7#f7 ,! ,logic ( ,psy*ological ,t]ms ,involv$ 9 ! ,notion4 ,! s5sation ,! p]cept ,individual notions4 ,! image ,! concept ,! judgm5t ,g5]al notions4 ,! inf]5ce ,t]ms def9$4 7#g7 ,?\ght & ! ,s5sation & ,p]cept4 7#h7 ,evolution & ! ,?9k+ ,m9d4 7#i7 ,! ,concept z a ,?\ght ,product4 7#aj7 ,! ,judgm5t z a ,?\ght ,product4 ,! simple/ =m ( ?9k+4 7#aa7 ,inf]5ce z a ,?\ght ,product4 7#ab7 ,?9k+ & ,appreh5sion4 7#ac7 ,/ages 9 ,?9k+4 ,discrim9ation4 ,comp>ison4 ,integration4 7,d5om9ation47 #ae4 ,,summ>y4 7#a7 ,kn[+ is a broad] t]m ?an ?9k+ z ! =m] equals ! latt] plus intuition4 7#b7 ,intuitive k is t :i* comes to ! m9d imm$iately by direct obs]vation4 ,al?\gh intuitive k comes to ! m9d )\t ?\ght1 yet su* k is ess5tial to all ?9k+4 ,intuitive k is ! f\ndation ^u :i* ! ?9k+ m9d builds4 7#c7 ,?9k+ is ! delib]ative process ( affirm+ & d5y+ connections4 ,?9k+ is a 8?ick5+ process10 ! small] units be+ press$ toge!r to make a l>g]4 ,?9k+ is *iefly a matt] ( r$uc+ plurality to unity4 7#d7 ,a notion is any product ( ! kn[+ m9d4 ,an individual notion is ! notion ( "o ?+4 ,a g5]al notion is a notion ( a class ( ?+s4 ,a ?+ includes objects1 qualities1 relations or any exi/+ entity4 ,a ?+ is t :i* has individual exi/5ce4 7#e7 ,a bit ( k mu/ h be5 a notion ( "s "o's m9d1 b may n necess>ily be a notion ( y\r m9d4 ,k may be f\nd 9 books1 b a notion is a m5tal product f\nd only 9 ! m9d4 ,idea is ambigu\s1 ?\gh its mean+ is usually re/rict$ to an image1 a mean+ or a belief4 7#f7 ,! products ( ! kn[+ m9d are ! s5sation1 ! image1 p]cept1 concept1 judgm5t1 inf]5ce4 ,! s5sation1 image & p]cept are individual notions1 :ile ! concept1 judgm5t & inf]5ce are g5]al notions4 ,a s5sation is a vague1 unlocaliz$ product ( ! kn[+ m9d4 ,a p]cept is a consci\sly localiz$ gr\p ( s5sations4 ,an image is a reproduc$ p]cept4 ,a concept is a m5tal product aris+ f ?9k+ _m notions into "o class4 ,a judgm5t is a m5tal product aris+ f conjo9+ & disjo9+ notions4 ,an inf]5ce is a judgm5t d]iv$ f antec$5t judgm5ts4 ,! develop$ ?\ght processes are ! concept1 ! judgm5t & ! inf]5ce4 7#g7 ,j :]e ! simple/ =m ( ?9k+ appe>s 9 ! v>i\s activities ( ! kn[+ m9d is /ill an undecid$ "q4 ,x is agre$ t ?9k+ 9 its develop$ & m complex =m is f\nd 9 conception1 judg+ & reason+4 7#h7 ,?9k+ evolves f ! simple to ! m complex1 j z life has evolv$4 ,! *ild ?9ks 9 vague1 indef9ite :oles1 :ile ! adult ?9ks 9 cle>1 def9ite p>ts4 ,! *ild discrim9ates v imp]fectly :ile ! adult discrim9ates accurately4 ,! s5sation seems to be ! connect+ l9k betwe5 ! feel+ m9d & ! kn[+ m9d1 :ile ! p]cept l9ks toge!r ! kn[+ m9d & ! ?9k+ m9d4 7#i7 ,conception is ! process ( ?9k+ _m notions into "o class4 ,! product ( su* a process is a concept4 ,! concept /&s = gr\ps ( all k9ds ( objects4 ,conception has ! two aspects ( affirm+ connections & ( build+ _m into "o4 ,! fir/ is ! ?9k+ side ( ! process & ! second is ! m>k :i* di/+ui%es conception f ! o!r ?\ght processes4 7#aj7 ,judg+ is ! process ( conjo9+ or disjo9+ notions4 ,judgm5t is ! product ( judg+4 ,judgm5ts conjo9 & disjo9 all k9ds ( notions4 ,judg+ & ?9k+1 ?\gh !y closely resemble ea* o!r1 are n synonom\s t]ms4 ,?9k+ is a broad] t]m 9 t connections may be e/abli%$ betwe5 a notion & a "n = t notion4 ,judg+ is ! mo/ fundam5tal ( all ?9k+1 z ! concept is built f a s]ies ( judgm5ts & an inf]5ce is simply a made-ov] judgm5t4 7#aa7 ,inf]5ce4 ,reason+ is ! process ( d]iv+ a new judgm5t f a consid]ation ( antec$5t judgm5ts4 ,?is d]iv$ judgm5t may be call$ an inf]5ce4 ,sometimes ! t]m inf]5ce d5otes ! process ( reason+ z well z ! product4 ,reason+ (t5 takes ! =m ( a syllogism4 ,! concept1 ! judgm5t & ! inf]5ce are products aris+ f conjo9+ & disjo9+ notions4 7#ab7 ,"s give to ! ?9k+ m9d ! ?ree aspects1 appreh5sion1 judg+ & reason+4 ,appreh5sion is ano!r ^w = ! two processes1 p]ception & conception4 7#ac7 ,! ?ree important /ages 9 ?9k+ are discrim9ation1 comp>ison1 integration2 or analysis1 comp>ison & syn!sis4 #af4 ,,review ,,que/ions4 7#a7 ,%[ ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! kn[+ m9d & ! ?9k+ m9d4 7#b7 ,describe ! process kn[n z intuition4 7#c7 ,:at is intuitive k8 7#d7 ,is ! assumption t ?9k comes f ! same root z ?ick a feasible "o8 ,expla94 7#e7 ,def9e ?9k+ 9 at lea/ two ways4 7#f7 8,inability to ?9k is due to inability to note connections40 ,%[ ?is by mak+ use ( "s problem 9 ari?metic4 7#g7 ,di/+ui% betwe5 individual & g5]al notions4 7#h7 ,:i* is ! broad] t]m1 object or ?+8 ,expla94 7#i7 ,:at k9d ( notions only admit ( subdivisions8 ,illu/rate4 7#aj7 ,:at is ! diff]5ce betwe5 k & notions8 ,expla94 7#aa7 ,expla9 & illu/rate ! mean+ ( idea4 7#ab7 ,classify ! v>i\s activities ( ! kn[+ m9d & def9e ea*4 7#ac7 ,expla9 by def9ition & illu/ration ! products ( ! kn[+ m9d4 7#ad7 ,relate ! g5]al notion to ! psy*ological products ( ! kn[+ m9d4 7#ae7 8,! ?9k+ m9d is a unit40 ,expla9 fully4 7#af7 ,trace ! analogy betwe5 ! evolution ( ! physical _w & ! evolution ( ?\ght4 7#ag7 ,%[ t ! s5sation & ! p]cept may be reg>d$ z connect+ l9ks betwe5 l[] & high] /ates4 7#ah7 ,def9e & illu/rate conception4 7#ai7 ,%[ t ! concept /&s = all k9ds ( notions4 7#bj7 ,po9t out ! ?9k+ aspect ( conception z di/+ui%$ f ! activity :i* gives ! process its "n4 7#ba7 ,def9e ! judgm5t4 ,illu/rate two k9ds4 7#bb7 ,%[ t ! concept is built by means ( a s]ies ( judgm5ts4 7#bc7 ,%[ t judg+ is ! fundam5tal elem5t 9 ! ?\ght products4 7#bd7 ,def9e & illu/rate reason+4 7#be7 ,describe ! syllogism4 7#bf7 ,expla9 ! use ( appreh5sion4 7#bg7 ,:at are ! /ages 9 ?9k+8 ,illu/rate fully4 7#bh7 ,%[ t ?9k+ is a matt] ( analysis & syn!sis4 #ag4 ,,que/ions ,,= ,,orig9al ,,?\ght ,,& ,,inve/igation4 7#a7 ,give y\r argum5t 9 favor ( ! /atem5t1 8,dogs ?9k1 b d n reason40 7#b7 ,%[ by illu/ration t ?9k+ w\ld be impossible )\t intuition4 7#c7 8,?9k+ is ! consci\s adju/m5t ( a means to an end 9 problematic situations40 ,illu/rate ?is4 7#d7 ,! class is unable to solve ! foll[+ problem3 8,i sell my h\se = #ab1jjj1 :i* is a ga9 ( #be on ! co/4 ,f9d ! co/40 ,:at is ! tr\ble8 ,/ate ! problem s t "s connection is app>5t4 7#e7 8,two-?irds ( my sal>y is #b1djj4 ,:at is my sal>y80 ,a *ild solves ?is by divid+ #b1djj by two & multiply+ ?is result by ?ree4 ,illu/rate a plan = e/abli%+ "r connections4 7#f7 ,may a judgm5t express a g5]al notion8 ,illu/rate4 7#g7 ,is a ?\ght a ?+8 ,illu/rate4 7#h7 ,%[ ! illogic ( divid+ notions into individual1 g5]al & ab/ract4 7#i7 ,%[ t goodness is a g5]al notion4 7#aj7 ,is ! concept an idea8 ,expla94 7#aa7 ,prove t a m5tal image is always an individual notion4 7#ab7 8,9 s5sation is !re implicit ?9k+80 ,argue bo? sides ( ! "q4 7#ac7 ,%[ t ! concept1 ! judgm5t & ! inf]5ce are products ( ! ?9k+ m9d4 7#ad7 ,%[ by illu/ration :]e p]ception ceases & conception beg9s4 7#ae7 ,is !re actually any diff]5ce betwe5 ?9k+ & judg+8 ,illu/rate4 7#af7 8,reason+ is controll$ ?\ght40 ,expla94 7#ag7 ,( ! ?ree /ages 9 ?9k+ :i* "o mo/ conc]ns ! tea*]8 ,illu/rate4 ,,*apt] #c4 ,,! ,,prim>y ,,laws ,,( ,,?\ght4 #a4 ,,two ,,fundam5tal ,,laws4 ,! elem5tal =m ( evolv$ ?\ght is ! judgm5t4 ,! laws or axioms ( ?\ght may1 !re=e1 be discov]$ by /udy+ ! judgm5t4 ,judg+ is ! process ( conjo9+ & disjo9+ notions4 ,:5 ^! notions are conjo9$ ! judgm5t is affirmative2 :5 disjo9$ ! judgm5t is negative4 ,to illu/rate3 8,"s m5 are wise10 is an affirmative judgm5t1 :ile 8,"s m5 are n wise10 is a negative judgm5t4 ,all judgm5ts are ei!r affirmative or negative & ?is sugge/s t !re may be b two fundam5tal laws or axioms und]ly+ judg+ or all =ms ( develop$ ?9k+4 ,"o law w\ld condition ! affirmative judgm5t2 ! o!r ! negative4 ,su* is actually ! case4 ,! law :i* p]mits ! affirmative judgm5t is call$ ! law ( id5tity1 :ile ! law :i* all[s a negative judgm5t is kn[n z ! law ( contradiction4 ,!re is a ?ird law t]m$ ! law ( exclud$ middle1 :i* is 9 reality a comb9ation ( ! o!r two4 #b4 ,,! ,,law ,,( ,,id5tity4 ,9 g5]al ! law ( id5tity implies a c]ta9 p]man5cy ?r\gh\t ! mat]ial _w4 ,t door is a door & always w be a door till ! conditions *ange4 ,if x 7 n = ?is law1 t ev]y?+ is p]man5tly id5tical ) itself1 x w\ld be impossible to ?9k at all4 ,= example3 ,take away ! notion ( p]man5cy f ! door & ?\ght becomes at once ridicul\s4 ,suppose t :ile we are ass]t+ t ! object is a door1 x *anges to a tree1 & :ile we insi/ t ! object is n[ a tree1 x *anges to a c[1 etc4 ,we c readily see t x w\ld h>dly be wor? :ile to ?9k at all4 ,! law ( id5tity may be /at$ 9 ?ree ways3 7#a7 ,:atev] is1 is2 7#b7 ,ev]y?+ rema9s id5tical ) itself2 7#c7 ,! same is ! same4 ,,absolute ,,id5tity,,complete ,,& ,,incomplete4 ,apply+ ! law ( id5tity to ! affirmative judgm5t express$ 9 ! =m ( a proposition1 we f9d two k9ds ( id5tity1 absolute & relative4 ,9 ! propositions1 8,socrates is ,socrates10 8dogs are dogs10 8hone/y is hone/y10 ! subject is absolutely id5tical ) ! pr$icate! same 9 =m & mean+4 ,if we 7 to illu/rate ! subject & pr$icate by two circles !y w\ld be ( ! same size & %ape1 ! "o co9cid+ ) ! o!r po9t to po9t4 ,?is k9d ( absolute id5tity :i* makes possible all truisms we may t]m1 = want ( a bett] "n1 complete absolute id5tity4 ,?is w\ld imply t !re is an incomplete absolute id5tity & su* seems to be ! case4 ,exam9+ ! def9ition1 8,a man is a rational animal10 we obs]ve t ! notion man has ! same cont5t or mean+ z ! notion rational animal4 ,9 mean+1 !n1 ! two notions are absolutely id5tical4 ,! "o includes j z _m objects or qualities z ! o!r1 & if we 7 to draw two circles repres5t+ !m1 !y w\ld be ( ! same size4 ,9 =m1 9 mode ( expression1 h[ev]1 ! notions diff] & ! circles1 ?\gh co9cid+1 w\ld ne$ to diff] 9 =m1 ! b\nd>y ( "o might be a solid l9e1 ! o!r a dott$4 ,?is we may call incomplete absolute id5tity4 ,all logical def9itions illu/rate id5tities ( ?is k9d4 ,,relative ,,id5tity4 ,relative id5tity is be/ und]/ood by ?9k+ ( x z p>tial id5tity1 j z we may ?9k ( absolute id5tity z total id5tity4 ,9 relative id5tity ! :ole ( "o notion may be affirm$ ( a "p ( ano!r notion2 or a "p ( "o notion may be affirm$ ( a "p ( ano!r notion4 ,to illu/rate3 7#a7 ,all m5 are mortal2 7#b7 ,"s m5 are wise4 ,^! & _! l are made possible because ( ! law ( relative id5tity4 ,9 ! fir/ proposition all ( ! 8m50 class is id5tical ) a "p ( ! 8mortal0 class4 ,if we 7 to repres5t ?is relation by circles1 ! 8m50 circle w\ld be made small] ?an ! 8mortal0 circle & plac$ inside x1 z 9 ,fig4 #a4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #a4 ,be x rememb]$ t circles are surfaces1 & 9 ,fig4 #a ! m5 circle is id5tical ) t portion ( ! mortal circle :i* is imm$iately und]nea? x4 ,! same relation may be indicat$ by a small pad be+ plac$ on top ( a l>g] pad4 ,!n ! :ole ( ! small] pad c\ld be ?\ght ( z be+ id5tical ) t "p ( ! l>g] pad :i* is imm$iately und]nea?4 ,9 ! case ( ! second proposition a "p ( ! 8m50 class is id5tical ) a portion ( ! 8wise0 class4 ,! two circles indicat+ ?is relation mu/ int]sect ea* o!r s t a portion ( ea* may be common gr\nd1 z 9 ,fig4 #b :]e ! %ad$ "p repres5ts ! id5tity4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #b4 ,?us we see t ! law ( id5tity und]lies all affirmative propositions4 ,absolute id5tity mak+ possible ! truism & def9ition1 & relative id5tity condition+ all ! univ]sal & p>ticul> affirmative propositions :i* are nei!r truisms nor def9itions4 ,! ?ree =ms may be symboliz$ z foll[s3 7#a7 ,a is ,a,absolute complete 7#b7 ,a is ,a,absolute incomplete 7#c7 ,a is ,b,relative4 ,! /ud5t w note t ! 8,a's0 ( absolute incomplete diff] 9 =m4 #c4 ,,law ,,( ,,contradiction4 ,! law ( contradiction und]lies all negative propositions4 ,x is ! mission ( ?is law to te> d[n or to be de/ructive 9 nature2 :ile ! law ( id5tity builds up or is con/ructive 9 nature4 ,! law ( contradiction may be /at$ 9 ?is way3 ,x is impossible = ! same ?+ to be & n to be at ! same "t & 9 ! same place4 ,or bett]1 x is impossible = ! same ?+ to be itself & its contradictory at ! same "t4 ,br++ out a fur!r aspect1 no ?+ c h & n h ! same attributes at ! same "t4 ,! little ^w n bisects ! univ]se4 ,all ! p 9 ! _w are ei!r hone/ or n hone/1 virtu\s or n virtu\s4 ,^! are contradictory /atem5ts & :at is compreh5d$ by ! "o _c be compreh5d$ by ! o!r at ! same "t1 any m ?an a man c %ake 8 head & nod 8 head at ! same "t4 ,if we ass]t ! id5tity betwe5 two notions !n we _c 9 ! same brea? d5y _! id5tity4 ,,illu/rations3 7#a7 ,a r$ fl[] _c be a r$ fl[] & n a r$ fl[] at ! same "t4 7#b7 ,no man c be guilty & n guilty at ! same "t4 7#c7 ,a boy _c be work+ & n work+ at ! same "t4 ,if ,i ass]t t ! fl[] is r$1 !n ,i _c affirm 9 ! same brea? t ! fl[] is n r$4 ,,two ,,uses ,,( ,,n4 ,! ^w n :5 us$ ) ! copula ( a giv5 proposition makes t proposition negative1 z 7#a7 8,"s m5 are n wise40 ,b :5 n is atta*$ to ! pr$icate by a hyph51 ! pr$icate is made negative1 n ! proposition1 z 7#b7 8,"s m5 are n-wise40 ,"h ! pr$icate n-wise is negative1 b ! proposition 9 :i* x appe>s is affirmative4 ,x is obvi\s t ! proposition 8,"s m5 are n wise0 illu/rates ! law ( contradiction1 s9ce ! "s m5 ref]r$ to are contradict$ ( all :i* is wise4 ,:]eas ! proposition 8,"s m5 are n-wise0 illu/rates relative id5tity1 s9ce ! subject 8"s m50 is affirm$ ( a "p ( ! pr$icate 8n-wise40 ,! /ud5t may be l$ to see ^! relations by draw+ circles1 ! "o to repres5t ! subject1 ! o!r ! pr$icate4 7,see page #ada47 ,,fur!r ,,illu/rations3 ,"s tea*]s are wise ,"s tea*]s are n-wise ,illu/rate ! law ( id5tity4 ,"s tea*]s are unwise ,"s tea*]s are n wise ,"s tea*]s are n n-wise ,illu/rate ! law ( contradiction4 ,"s tea*]s are n unwise ,! /ud5t mu/ und]/& t a t]m & its contradictory de/roy ea* o!r4 ,if we affirm some?+ ( ! "o1 !n we mu/ d5y x ( ! o!r1 or we und]m9e ! integrity ( bo?4 ,if x is affirm$ ( tea*]s ,a1 ,b & ,c t !y are wise1 !n x mu/ be d5i$ t !y are n-wise4 ,,illu/rations3 ,a1 ,b & ,c are wise4 ,^! are mutually ,a1 ,b & ,c are n-wise4 de/ructive4 ,a1 ,b & ,c are wise4 ,^! are n mutually de/ructive1 ,a1 ,b & ,c are n n-wise4 b virtually mean ! same ?+4 ,,symbolization ,,( ,,! ,,law ,,( ,,contradiction4 ,a is n n-,a4 ,a is n ,b4 7,z ,a is always ,a x w\ld or or be absurd to say t ,a is ,a is n n-,b4 n ,a47 ,,contradictory ,,& ,,opposite ,,t]ms4 ,x is easy to use opposite t]ms 9 a contradictory s5se4 ,?is leads to s]i\s error4 8,n-guilty0 is ! contradictory ( 8guilty10 :ile 8innoc5t0 is ! opposite ( 8guilty40 ,we c\ld h>dly say t ! wat] mu/ ei!r be cold or hot1 z x might be w>m4 8,n-hot0 is ! only t]m :i* contradicts 8hot40 ,! law ( contradiction has no?+ to d ) opposites4 ,fur!r1 x is dang]\s to reg>d words ) ! negative prefix z be+ contradictory ( ! affirmative =m4 ,= example3 ,valuable & invaluable are n contradictory4 ,!re is likewise "s d\bt z to ! contradictory nature ( su* words z agreeable & disagreeable1 ?\gh we are sure t agreeable & n-agreeable contradict ea* o!r4 ,to use ! 8n0 ) a hyph5 is saf] ?an to dep5d ^u "s prefix :i* is suppos$ to mean 8n40 ,,illu/rations ,,( ,,contradictory ,,& ,,opposite ,,t]ms4 ,opposite4 ,contradictory4 bad good bad n-bad s(t h>d s(t n-s(t cold hot cold n-cold r\gh smoo? r\gh n-r\gh good evil good n-good w>m cool w>m n-w>m weak /rong weak n-weak #d4 ,,! ,,law ,,( ,,exclud$ ,,middle4 ,! law ( exclud$ middle may be consid]$ z a comb9ation ( id5tity & contradiction4 ,id5tity gives ! proposition1 8,john ,doe is hone/40 ,contradiction1 8,john ,doe is n hone/40 ,comb9e ! two us+ ei!r & or & we h ! exclud$ middle proposition1 8,ei!r ,john ,doe is hone/ or he is n hone/40 ,exclud$ middle expla9s itself4 ,( ! two contradictory notions x mu/ be ei!r ! "o or ! o!r4 ,!re is no 8g-betwe50 notion4 ,! law may be /at$ 9 _m ways1 z w be se5 by ! foll[+3 7#a7 ,ev]y?+ mu/ ei!r be or n be4 7#b7 ,ei!r a giv5 judgm5t is true or its contradictory is true2 !re is no middle gr\nd4 7#c7 ,( two contradictory judgm5ts "o mu/ be true4 7#d7 ,e pr$icate may be affirm$ or d5i$ ( e subject4 ,,illu/rations3 7#a7 ,a man is ei!r mortal or he is n mortal4 7#b7 ,john ,doe is ei!r hone/ or n-hone/4 7#c7 ,ei!r y are go+ or y are n go+4 ,,symbolization ,,( ,,exclud$ ,,middle4 ,a is ei!r ,a or n-,a or ,a is ei!r ,b or n-,b4 #e4 ,,! ,,law ,,( ,,suffici5t ,,reason4 ,! law may be /at$ 9 ?is wise4 ,e ph5om5on1 ev5t or relation mu/ h a suffici5t reason = be+ :at x is4 ,to illu/rate3 7#a7 ,if ,v5us is ! ev5+ />1 !re mu/ be a suffici5t reason4 7#b7 ,if ! gr\nd is wet1 !re mu/ be a cause4 ,_m logicians argue t ?is law has no place 9 logic1 its field be+ t ( ! physical sci5ces4 ,! laws ( id5tity1 contradiction & exclud$ middle are1 h[ev]1 univ]sally reg>d$ z ! ,prim>y ,laws ( ?\ght4 #f4 ,,unity ,,( ,,prim>y ,,laws ,,( ,,?\ght ,,illu/rat$ ,,by ,,symbols4 7#a7 ,absolute ,symbols ,relative ,symbols4 ,exclud$ middle4 ,a is ei!r ,a or n-,a4 ,a is ei!r ,b or n-,b4 ,contradiction4 ,a is n n-,a4 ,a is n ,b or ,a is n n-,b4 ,id5tity4 ,a is ,a4 ,a is n-,b or ,a is ,b4 7#b7 ,propositions made to fit symbols4 ,exclud$ middle4 ,a man is ei!r a man or ,a man is ei!r hone/ or a n-man4 n-hone/4 ,contradiction4 ,a man is n a n-man4 ,a man is n hone/1 or a man is n n-hone/4 ,id5tity4 ,a man is a man4 ,a man is n-hone/1 or a man is hone/4 ,! 8exclud$ middle0 propositions ( ! =ego+ express alt]natives :i* are mutually contradictory4 ,!re is no middle gr\nd4 ,! 8contradictory propositions0 contradict ! id5tity ( ! subject ) "o alt]native1 :ile ! 8id5tity0 propositions affirm ! id5tity ( ! subject ) ! o!r alt]native4 ,?is is made possible because ( ! pr9ciple1 8,( two mutually contradictory t]ms1 if "o is true ! o!r mu/ be false40 ,! =ego+ s*eme %[s h[ closely 8contradictory0 & 8id5tity0 propositions are relat$ to 8exclud$ middle0 propositions4 ,express$ ma!matically3 exclud$ middle contradiction id5tity4 #g4 ,,outl9e4 ,,prim>y ,,laws ,,( ,,?\ght4 7#a7 ,two fundam5tal laws4 ,id5tity1 contradiction4 7#b7 ,law ( id5tity4 ,absolutecomplete1 incomplete4 ,relative4 7#c7 ,law ( contradiction4 ,two uses ( n4 ,contradictory & opposite t]ms4 7#d7 ,law ( exclud$ middle4 7#e7 ,law ( suffici5t reason4 7#f7 ,unity ( prim>y laws ( ?\ght4 #h4 ,,summ>y4 7#a7 ,! elem5tal =ms ( evolv$ ?\ght are ! affirmative & negative judgm5ts4 ,?is sugge/s two fundam5tal laws ( ?\ght1 ! law ( id5tity & ! law ( contradiction4 ,! =m] conditions ! affirmative judgm5t1 ! latt] ! negative4 7#b7 ,! law ( id5tity implies a p]man5cy ( be+4 8,ev]y?+ rema9s id5tical ) itself10 is a /atem5t ( id5tity4 ,absolute id5tity may be divid$ into complete & incomplete id5tity4 ,9 complete absolute id5tity ! subject is ! same z ! pr$icate 9 bo? =m & mean+4 ,truisms illu/rate ?is4 ,9 incomplete absolute id5tity ! subject is id5tical ) ! pr$icate 9 mean+ only4 ,illu/rat$ by def9itions4 ,9 relative id5tity ! :ole ( ! subject may be affirm$ ( a "p ( ! pr$icate or a "p ( ! subject may be affirm$ ( a "p ( ! pr$icate4 7#c7 8,x is impossible = ! same ?+ to be itself & its contradictory at ! same "t10 is a /atem5t ( ! law ( contradiction4 ,id5tity is con/ructive :ile contradiction is de/ructive 9 nature4 ,to make ! proposition negative ! ^w n mu/ be us$ ) ! copula4 8,n0 atta*$ to ! pr$icate ) a hyph5 makes ! pr$icate negative1 b n ! proposition4 ,to use opposite t]ms 9 a contradictory s5se leads to s]i\s error4 ,! safe/ way ( mak+ a positive t]m a contradictory negative t]m is to prefix 8n0 ) a hyph5 or use 8non40 7#d7 ,! law ( exclud$ middle is virtually a comb9ation ( id5tity & contradiction4 ,x may be /at$ z foll[s3 8,a ?+ mu/ ei!r be itself or its contradictory40 7#e7 8,e condition mu/ h a suffici5t reason = its exi/5ce10 is ! law ( suffici5t reason4 ,its di/9ct prov9ce is physical sci5ce r ?an logic4 7#f7 ,! laws may be express$ ma!matically3 exclud$ middle id5tity contradiction4 ,,s*ematic ,,/atem5t ,,( ,,prim>y ,,laws4 ,"n ,/at$ ,symboliz$ ,illu/rat$ ,absolute ,:atev] is1 is ,a is ,a ,"w is "w id5tity ,relative ,! :ole is ,all ,a is ,b ,"w is a bless+ id5tity id5tical ) ,"s ,a is ,b ,"s play is a a "p or a "p bless+ is id5tical ) a "p ,contra- ,no?+ c bo? ,a is n n-,a ,"w is n diction be & n be at or n-"w ! same "t ,a is n ,b ,john is n hone/ or ,alb]t is n ,a is n n-,b n-hone/ ,exclud$ ,ev]y?+ mu/ ,a is ei!r ,a ,fair play is middle ei!r be or n or n-,a ei!r fair play be or or n-fair play ,a is ei!r ,b ,?is man is ei!r or n-,b educat$ or n-educat$ #i4 ,,illu/rative ,,ex]cises4 7#a;a7 ,ea* ( ! foll[+ propositions is made possible because ( ! exi/5ce ( :i* law ( ?\ght8 ,9 answ]+ ?is "q ,i summ>ize 9 my m9d ! mean+ ( ea* law ( ?\ght4 ,viz43 7#a7 ,9 complete absolute id5tity ! subject & pr$icate are ! same 9 =m & mean+4 7#b7 ,9 incomplete absolute id5tity ! subject & pr$icate are ! same 9 mean+1 b n 9 =m4 7#c7 ,9 relative id5tity ei!r ! :ole or a "p ( ! subject is id5tical ) a "p ( ! pr$icate4 7#d7 ,! law ( contradiction always d5ies ! id5tity betwe5 subject & pr$icate4 7#e7 ,exclud$ middle conditions all alt]native expressions4 ,,! ,,propositions4 7#a7 8,a ?ief is a ?ief40 ,complete absolute id5tity4 7#b7 8,?9k+ is ! process ( affirm+ or d5y+ connections40 ,incomplete absolute id5tity4 7#c7 8,all good m5 are wise40 ,relative id5tity4 7#d7 8,no triangle has int]ior angles ^: sum is great] ?an two "r angles40 ,contradiction4 7#e7 8,a /it* 9 "t saves n9e40 ,relative id5tity4 7#f7 8,judg+ is ! process ( conjo9+ & disjo9+ notions40 ,incomplete absolute id5tity4 7#g7 8,y are ei!r a vot] 9 ?is di/rict or y are n a vot] 9 ?is di/rict40 ,exclud$ middle4 7#h7 8,"s p d n "k h[ to live40 ,contradiction4 7#i7 8,all is well t ends well40 ,incomplete absolute id5tity4 7#aj7 8,"s m5 tea* s*ool40 ,relative id5tity4 7#aa7 8,none ( ! planets are z l>ge z ! sun40 ,contradictory4 7#ab7 8,all ! trees 9 ?is grove are maple40 ,relative id5tity4 7#a;b7 ,indicate ! law :i* conditions ea* ( ! foll[+ propositions3 7#a7 8,he :o laughs la/ laughs be/40 7#b7 8,p]fect is p]fect40 7#c7 8,he is a wolf 9 %eep's clo?+40 7#d7 8,ei!r y\r memory is poor or y are tell+ a delib]ate falsehood40 7#e7 8,"s ( our greate/ tea*]s ?\ght !y 7 failures40 7#f7 8,no man ( s5se w\ld ev] try to get some?+ = no?+40 7#g7 8,failure is n to try40 7#h7 8,success is ! "r man 9 ! "r place do+ 8 be/40 7#i7 8,e man is insane on "s topic40 7#aj7 8,"s pupils are n indu/ri\s40 7#aa7 8,y are ei!r a g5ius or a successful fakir40 7#ab7 8,hone/y is ! be/ policy40 #aj4 ,,review ,,que/ions4 7#a7 ,h[ _m k9ds ( judgm5ts are !re8 ,illu/rate4 7#b7 ,"n ! fundam5tal laws ( ?\ght & expla9 h[ !y are relat$ to ! k9ds ( judgm5ts4 7#c7 ,%[ t x w\ld be impossible to ?9k at all 7 x n = ! law ( id5tity4 7#d7 ,/ate ! law ( id5tity 9 ?ree ways4 7#e7 ,expla9 ! k9ds ( absolute id5tity4 ,illu/rate by propositions & by circles4 7#f7 ,expla9 by ^w & by diagrammatical illu/ration relative id5tity4 7#g7 ,symbolize ! ?ree =ms ( id5tity4 ,fit words to ^! symbols4 7#h7 ,/ate 9 ?ree ways ! law ( contradiction4 7#i7 ,%[ by illu/ration t n bisects ! _w4 7#aj7 ,expla9 ! uses ( n4 7#aa7 ,prove t 8,john ,doe is n-hone/10 illu/rates id5tity & n contradiction4 7#ab7 ,symbolize 9 ?ree ways contradiction4 ,fit words to ^! symbols4 7#ac7 ,illu/rate contradictory & opposite t]ms4 7#ad7 ,%[ t words ) negative prefixes are n necess>ily ! contradictory ( ! correspond+ affirmative =ms4 7#ae7 ,/ate & expla9 ! law ( exclud$ middle4 7#af7 ,symbolize ! law ( exclud$ middle4 7#ag7 ,/ate ! law ( suffici5t reason4 ,illu/rate4 7#ah7 ,illu/rate ! unity ( ! ?ree prim>y laws ( ?\ght4 #aa4 ,,que/ions ,,= ,,orig9al ,,?\ght ,,& ,,inve/igation4 7#a7 ,prove t ! judgm5t is ! elem5tal =m ( evolv$ ?\ght4 7#b7 ,:at is meant by evolv$ ?\ght8 7#c7 ,%[ t 8,:atev] is1 is0 is a /atem5t ( complete absolute id5tity only4 7#d7 ,/ate incomplete absolute id5tity4 7#e7 ,by means ( "o proposition /ate relative id5tity4 7#f7 ,%[ t incomplete absolute id5tity is a t]m m or less illogical4 7#g7 ,%[ t ^! /atem5ts are exact expressions ( relative id5tity3 ,all m5 are "s wise4 ,"s m5 are "s wise4 7#h7 ,:y is ! law ( contradiction s nam$8 7#i7 ,%[ t space may be bisect$ by draw+ a circle ^u ! black bo>d4 7#aj7 ,%[ t !re is a diff]5ce 9 mean+ betwe5 8,y are n hone/0 & 8,y are n-hone/40 7#aa7 ,is !re any diff]5ce 9 mean+ betwe5 disagreeable & n agreeable8 7#ab7 ,:i* is ! /rong] t]m n-j or unju/8 ,:y8 7#ac7 ,give a li/ ( words 9 :i* ! contradictory =ms are express$ by ! ord9>y prefixes4 7#ad7 ,illu/rate by circles ! law ( exclud$ middle4 7#ae7 ,illu/rate by a l9e-diagram ! diff]5ce betwe5 contradictory & opposite t]ms4 7#af7 ,%[ t ! prov9ce ( ! law ( suffici5t reason is physical sci5ce4 ,,*apt] #d4 ,,logical ,,t]ms4 #a4 ,,logical ,,?\ght ,,& ,,language ,,insep>able4 ,any impression ^u ! m9d t5ds to manife/ itself 9 "s =m ( expression4 ,impression :i* ar\ses ?\ght t5ds to expression 9 ! =m ( symbols4 ,?\ght & symbol g h& 9 h&4 ,expression1 tak+ ! =m ( ^w-symbols1 con/itutes a ^w-language4 ,x is commonly suppos$ t language is s]viceable ma9ly 9 communicat+ "o's ?\ghts to o!rs1 b language does s]vice 9 ano!r way :i* is q z important4 ,x t5ds to cl>ify & make def9ite all ?\ght4 ,)\t a ^w-language ?9k+ w\ld lack cont9uity2 w\ld be vague1 loose1 illogical4 ,! "r use ( a ^w-language1 !re=e1 is a necess>y adjunct to logical ?\ght4 ,! basic elem5t ( a ^w-language is ! logical t]m4 #b4 ,,mean+ ,,( ,,logical ,,t]m4 ,a notion has be5 ref]r$ to z any product ( ! kn[+ m9d4 ,:5 we express ^! notions 9 words su* expressions may be call$ logical t]ms4 ,def9ition4 ,a logical t]m is a ^w or a gr\p ( words d5ot+ a def9ite notion4 ,illu/rations3 ,hone/y1 ,*icago1 tree1 walk+1 ! man :o 0 ill1 beautiful roses4 ,?is is a li/ ( logical t]ms1 because ea* ^w or gr\p ( words d5otes a notion ( "s k9d4 ,x is n[ evid5t t any subject or pr$icate ) its modifi]s con/itutes a logical t]m4 ,9 ! proposition1 8,! beautiful r$ h\se on ! hill1 own$ by ,mr4 ,jones1 has burn$10 ! t]m us$ z ! subject consi/s ( elev5 words4 ,! read] mu/ n confuse logical t]ms ) grammatical p>ts ( spee*4 8,(0 is a preposition b n a logical t]m1 z no def9ite notion is indicat$4 #c4 ,,categorematic ,,& ,,syncategorematic ,,words4 ,!re are "s words :i*1 :5 us$ alone1 d5ote def9ite notions1 su* z man1 tree1 dog1 ju/ice4 ,on ! o!r h& !re are o!r words :i*1 :5 us$ alone1 d n /& = a def9ite notion1 su* z up1 beautifully1 a1 &4 ,words l ^? 9 ! fir/ li/ are call$ categorematic words1 :ile ^? 9 ! second li/ illu/rate syncategorematic words4 ,,def9ition4 ,a categorematic ^w is "o :i* =ms a logical t]m unaid$ by o!r words4 ,a syncategorematic ^w is "o :i* mu/ be us$ ) o!r words to =m a logical t]m4 ,any ^w or gr\p ( words :i* c be us$ z ei!r subject or pr$icate ( a proposition is a logical t]m4 ,if ! "o ^w 9 "q c be us$ z ei!r subject or pr$icate ( a proposition !n x mu/ be a categorematic ^w4 ,if x is impossible to use ! "o ^w z ei!r subject or pr$icate ( a proposition !n ?is is a sure indication t su* a ^w is syncategorematic4 ,= example1 !re is no s5se 9 ! expressions1 8,& is hone/10 8,( is n true02 h5ce & & ( are syncategorematic4 ,we may conclude f ?is t n\ns1 descriptive adjectives & v]bs may be categorematic words1 :ile adv]bs1 prepositions & conjunctions are syncategorematic words4 #d4 ,,s+ul> ,,t]ms4 ,a s+ul> t]m is a t]m :i* d5otes "o object or "o attribute4 ,prop] n\ns1 :5 !y /& = individuals1 are s+ul> t]ms1 su* z ,john ,adams1 ,mississippi ,riv]1 ,socrates4 ,"s prop] names /& = a class ( objects1 z ! ,caes>s1 ! ,mephi/opheles1 ! ,napoleons4 ,b :5 ?us us$ !y lose _! "* z prop] names4 ,su* names1 !re=e1 are g5]al t]ms1 n s+ul>4 ,common n\ns may be made s+ul> by "s modify+ ^w1 z ! fir/ man1 ! pole />1 ! highe/ good1 my pet dog1 etc4 ,c]ta9 attributes :i* imply a on5ess or a di/9ct individuality are s+ul>1 su* z absolute ju/ice1 birds-egg blue1 p]fect happ9ess1 etc4 ,"s claim t t]ms l wat]1 air1 salt1 etc41 are s+ul>1 z !y /& = "o ?+4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 _c be if su* t]ms admit ! possibility ( classification z3 h>d wat]1 s(t wat]1 m9]al wat]4 #e4 ,,g5]al ,,t]ms4 ,a g5]al t]m is "o :i* d5otes an indef9ite numb] ( objects or attributes4 ,class-names are g5]al t]ms1 su* z m51 *air1 tree1 army1 nation4 ,words l r$ness1 sweetness1 ju/ice1 are probably g5]al 9 t !y d5ote a comb9ation ( qualities or may be subdivid$ into k9ds4 ,! way ! t]m is employ$ 9 ! proposition %\ld det]m9e its s+ul> or g5]al nature4 #f4 ,,collective ,,& ,,di/ributive ,,t]ms4 ,a collective t]m is a g5]al t]m :i* indicates an indef9ite numb] ( objects z "o :ole4 ,su* words z class1 cr[d1 army1 =e/1 nation1 are collective4 ,a di/ributive t]m is a g5]al t]m :i* indicates an indef9ite numb] ( objects z a :ole1 & also may be us$ to ref] to ea* "o ( ! gr\p sep>ately4 ,su* z man1 pupil1 tree1 book4 ,x is easy to di/+ui% collective f di/ributive t]ms :5 we attempt to use !m 9 ! designation ( individuals4 ,po9t+ to a body ( troops1 "o may rem>k1 8,!re is ! regim5t40 ,b :5 po9t+ to "o man 9 ! regim5t1 he c\ld h>dly say1 8,!re is ! regim5t40 8,regim5t0 is !re=e collective because x may be us$ ) ref]5ce to ! :ole body ( troops b _c be us$ 9 connection ) any individual ( t body4 ,on ! o!r h& 9 ! s5t5ce1 8,man is mortal10 8man0 ref]s to ! :ole family ( m54 ,x also indicates any "o ( !m4 ,z1 8,?is man1 ,john ,doe1 is mortal40 ,?us 8man0 is di/ributive4 ,! di/ributive t]m1 !re=e1 c be us$ 9 a two-fold s5se2 namely1 to d5ote ! :ole or to d5ote ea*4 ,x mu/ be not$ t1 view$ f a diff]5t /&po9t1 "s collective t]ms become di/ributive 9 nature4 ,z = example 9 ! proposition1 8,! army ( ! _w is compos$ ( able bodi$ m510 army is us$ ) ref]5ce to all armies4 ,:ile x may be us$ to designate "s p>ticul> army1 z ,! ,am]ican army4 ,collective t]ms h be5 classifi$ z g5]al t]ms4 ,x mu/ be borne 9 m9d1 h[ev]1 t su* may be made s+ul> by "s modify+ ^w4 ,= example1 p is a g5]al t]m1 b ,am]ican p is a s+ul> t]m 9 t x ref]s to "o p1 be+ ?us limit$ by ! ^w ,am]ican4 #g4 ,,concrete ,,& ,,ab/ract ,,t]ms4 ,a concrete t]m is a t]m :i* d5otes a ?+2 e4 g41 ?is man1 t tree1 ,john ,doe1 d5ote 9 ea* case a ?+4 ,man & tree1 d5ote _m ?+s4 ,all are concrete4 ,an ab/ract t]m is a t]m :i* d5otes an attribute ( a ?+2 e4 g41 :it5ess1 pati5ce1 squ>5ess1 are ab/ract t]ms4 ,su* words z r$1 hone/1 j1 are concrete2 :ile r$ness1 hone/y1 ju/ice1 are ab/ract4 ,on fir/ ?\ght x might be inf]r$ t 8r$0 is ! "n ( an attribute j z mu* z 8r$ness40 ,?is is a mi/ak5 ?\ght1 h[ev]1 z :5 we use ! ^w r$ we mean r$ some?+an object :i* is r$ 9 color1 n ! color itself4 ,= example1 9 say+ ! h\se is r$1 we ref] to ! ?+ t is r$1 n to ! color r$ness4 ,descriptive adjectives1 because !y describe ?+s1 are concrete4 ,!y d n alone "n qualities ( ?+s1 h5ce !y are n ab/ract4 #h4 ,,connotative ,,& ,,non-,,connotative ,,t]ms4 ,a connotative t]m is "o :i* d5otes a subject & at ! same "t implies an attribute4 7,a subject is any?+ :i* possesses attributes47 ,all concrete g5]al t]ms are connotative because !y d5ote subjects & at ! same "t /& = c]ta9 attributes2 e4 g41 8man0 d5otes _m subjects2 9 fact1 x /&s = all ! m5 9 ! _w2 x also implies rationality1 ! p[] ( spee*1 p[] ( locomotion1 etc4 8,triangle0 /&s = all plane figures ( ?ree sides2 x likewise /&s = ! qualities1 ?ree-sid$1 ?ree-corn]$1 etc4 ,bo? 8man0 & 8triangle0 are connotative4 ,a non-connotative t]m is "o :i* d5otes a subject only1 or implies an attribute only4 ,su* words z ,bo/on1 ,columbus1 ,! ,elizabe? ,:ite1 d5ote a subject only4 8,blu5ess10 8ju/ice10 8wid?10 imply an attribute only4 ,all ^! t]ms are non-connotative4 ,! words blue1 j1 wide1 are connotative4 8,blue10 = example1 d5otes all blue ?+s1 z ! blue sky1 ! blue sea2 at ! same "t 8blue0 implies t some?+ possesses ! quality1 blu5ess4 ,g5]ally speak+1 prop] & ab/ract n\ns are non-connotative2 ?\gh su* prop] n\ns z ,m\nt ,wa%+ton1 ,mississippi ,riv]1 are1 no d\bt1 connotative1 z !y d5ote an object & imply at lea/ "o attribute4 ,9 ! case ( ,m\nt ,wa%+ton an object is surely d5ot$1 & ! attribute m\nta9\s is impli$4 ,any prop] n\n :i* conveys def9ite in=mation is connotative4 ,x may be claim$ t all prop] n\ns give in=mation4 ,= example1 to _m ,bo/on indicates n only an object1 b ! qualities common to a city4 ,9 reply x may be said t 8,bo/on0 might indicate a boat1 or a dog1 or almo/ any individual object4 #i4 ,,positive ,,& ,,negative ,,t]ms4 ,a positive t]m is "o :i* signifies ! possession ( c]ta9 attributes2 e4 g41 metal1 man1 tea*]1 happy1 hone/4 ,a negative t]m is "o :i* signifies ! abs5ce ( c]ta9 attributes2 e4 g41 inorganic1 unhappy1 non-metallic4 ,t]ms :i* h ! prefix n1 non1 un1 91 dis1 etc41 or ! affix less1 are usually consid]$ negative4 ,! fact t !re are "s exceptions to ?is mu/ n be ov]look$4 ,= example1 unloos$1 invaluable1 are positive t]ms4 ,9 !ory e positive t]m has its correspond+ negative2 z pure1 impure2 organic1 inorganic2 metal1 non-metal2 good1 n-good4 ,9 "s in/ances ! language does n supply ! ^w ) ! negative prefix because no ne$ ( x has be5 felt4 ,! only way to express ! negative ( su* words z good1 table1 etc41 is to prefix 8n0 or 8non40 #aj4 ,,contradictory ,,& ,,opposite ,,t]ms4 7,see page #ch74 ,positive t]ms ) _! negatives h contradictory mean+s & !re=e are ref]r$ to z contradictory t]ms4 ,= example1 hone/ & n-hone/1 metallic & non-metallic1 p]fect & imp]fect1 are contradictory t]ms4 ,su* t]ms are mutually de/ructive4 ,:5 we ass]t ! tru? ( "o we also imply ! falsity ( ! o!r4 ,if1 = example1 we ass]t t ,abraham ,l9coln 0 hone/1 we c>ry ) ?is ass]tion ! implication t ,l9coln 0 n n-hone/1 or t any /atem5t to ! effect t he 0 n hone/ is false4 ,contradictory t]ms1 :5 us$ 9 a s5t5ce1 illu/rate ! law ( exclud$ middle1 z 9 ! /atem5ts3 8,john's recitation is ei!r p]fect or imp]fect40 8,?is tea*] is ei!r j or n-j40 ,!re is no middle gr\nd 9 su* propositions4 ,:5 contradictory t]ms are us$ 9 classification ! :ole is divid$ into b two classes2 e4 g43 hone/ n-hone/ agreeable n-agreeable metallic non-metallic p]fect imp]fect pure impure organic inorganic ,all ! m5 9 ! _w are ei!r hone/ or n-hone/4 ,all ! sub/ances 9 exi/5ce are ei!r organic or inorganic1 etc4 ,x w also be se5 f ?is li/ t ! contradictory ( ! positive =m is n always indicat$ by us+ ! prefix4 ,hone/ & di%one/1 or agreeable & disagreeable1 are n contradictory t]ms4 ,9 ! case ( agreeable & disagreeable1 !re seems to be ! middle gr\nd ( absolute indiff]5ce4 ,= example3 ! music ( ! or*e/ra is agreeable :ile ! humm+ ( ! en?usia/ back ( me is decid$ly disagreeable2 b z to ! noise ^u ! /reet1 x is nei!r agreeable nor disagreeable z long practice has made me indiff]5t to x4 ,:5 !re is any d\bt z to ! t]ms be+ contradictory1 ! safe/ plan is to prefix 8n0 or 8non0 to ! positive =m4 ,t]ms :i* oppose ea* o!r b d n contradict are said to be opposite or contr>y t]ms4 ,! foll[+ li/ illu/rate opposite t]ms3 hot cold cool w>m less great] wise fooli% bitt] sweet s(t h>d tall %ort agreeable disagreeable ,all ^! t]ms admit ( a m$ium4 ,9 ! case ( hot or cold1 = example1 a sub/ance ne$ n necess>ily be ei!r4 ,x may be w>m or cool4 ,t]ms seem to be contradictory :5 x is a matt] ( quality1 b opposite :5 x is a "q ( quantity or degree4 #aa4 ,,privative ,,& ,,nego-,,positive ,,t]ms4 ,a privative t]m is "o :i* is positive 9 =m b negative 9 mean+4 ,su* words z bl9d1 deaf1 dumb1 dead1 maim$1 orphan$1 are privative t]ms1 9 t !re is no negative prefix or suffix & yet !y d5ote ! abs5ce ( c]ta9 qualities4 8,bl9d10 = example1 is positive 9 =m1 b d5otes abs5ce ( sight4 ,a nego-positive t]m is "o :i* is negative 9 =m b positive 9 mean+4 ,su* t]ms z invaluable1 unloos$1 immoral1 indwell1 are nego-positive because1 ?\gh !y h negative prefixes1 yet !y possess a c]ta9 positive mean+4 8,invaluable10 = in/ance1 does n mean n-valuable1 b v valuable4 #ab4 ,,absolute ,,& ,,relative ,,t]ms4 ,an absolute t]m is "o ^: mean+ becomes intelligible )\t ref]5ce to o!r t]ms4 ,automobile1 wat]1 tree1 h\se1 book1 are absolute t]ms4 ,any ( !m may be made cle> to a *ild or a =eign] )\t special ref]5ce to o!r t]ms4 ,= example1 ! *ild w recognize f c]ta9 common m>ks ! automobile e "t he sees x4 ,! m>ks ( tree1 h\se1 fl[]1 are app>5t to e "o4 ,a relative t]m is "o :i* d]ives its mean+ f its relation to "s o!r t]m4 ,p>5t1 tea*]1 %eph]d1 mon>*1 elde/1 cause1 comm&]1 are relative t]ms4 ,= example1 9 expla9+ ! mean+ ( 8p>5t0 to a =eign]1 ref]5ce mu/ be made to 8*ild40 ,! pairs ( t]ms ?us associat$ are spok5 ( z correlatives4 ,p>5t & *ild1 tea*] & pupil1 %eph]d & flock1 mon>* & subject1 elde/ & y\nge/1 cause & effect1 comm&] & army1 are correlative t]ms4 ,ei!r "o ( ea* pair is ! correlate to ! o!r1 & e relative t]m ne$s its correlate to make its mean+ cle>4 ,to say t a relative t]m d5otes an object :i* _c be ?\ght ( )\t ref]5ce to "s o!r object1 is confus+1 z x is q impossible to ?9k ( any object )\t call+ to m9d "s o!r object or notion4 ,fire calls to m9d wat]2 tree sugge/s %ade1 etc4 #ac4 ,,outl9e4 ,,logical ,,t]ms4 7#a7 ,mean+ ( t]m4 7#b7 ,categorematic & syncategorematic words4 7#c7 ,k9ds ( t]ms4 ,s+ul> t]ms4 ,g5]al t]ms4 7a7 ,collective t]ms4 7b7 ,di/ributive t]ms4 ,concrete & ab/ract t]ms4 ,connotative & non-connotative t]ms4 ,positive & negative t]ms4 ,contradictory & opposite t]ms4 ,privative & nego-positive t]ms4 ,absolute & relative t]ms4 #ad4 ,,summ>y4 ,a logical t]m is a ^w or gr\p ( words d5ot+ a def9ite notion4 ,a s+ul> t]m is a t]m :i* d5otes "o object or "o attribute4 ,a g5]al t]m is a t]m :i* d5otes an indef9ite numb] ( objects or attributes4 ,g5]al t]ms are collective or di/ributive4 ,a collective t]m is a g5]al t]m :i* indicates an indef9ite numb] ( objects consid]$ z "o :ole4 ,a di/ributive t]m is a g5]al t]m :i* indicates an indef9ite numb] ( objects z a :ole & also may be us$ to ref] to ea* "o ( ! gr\p sep>ately4 ,a concrete t]m is a t]m :i* d5otes a ?+4 ,an ab/ract t]m is a t]m :i* d5otes ! attribute ( a ?+4 ,a connotative t]m is "o :i* d5otes a subject & at ! same "t implies an attribute4 ,a non-connotative t]m is "o :i* d5otes a subject only or implies an attribute only4 ,a positive t]m is "o :i* signifies ! possession ( c]ta9 attributes4 ,a negative t]m is "o :i* signifies ! abs5ce ( c]ta9 attributes4 ,9 !ory e positive t]m has its negative4 ,z relat$ to ea* o!r positive & negative t]ms are said to be contradictory4 ,if "o d5otes a true notion !n ! o!r d5otes a false notion4 ,"s t]ms oppose ea* o!r b d n flatly contradict4 ,z relat$ to ea* o!r su* t]ms are said to be opposite4 ,a privative t]m is "o :i* is positive 9 =m b negative 9 mean+4 ,a nego-positive t]m is "o :i* is negative 9 =m b positive 9 mean+4 ,an absolute t]m is "o ^: mean+ becomes intelligible )\t ref]5ce to o!r t]ms4 ,a relative t]m is "o :i* d]ives its mean+ f its relation to "s o!r t]m4 #ae4 ,,illu/rative ,,ex]cises4 7#a;a7 ,! words 9 italics are categorematic4 7#a7 8,hone/y is ! be/ policy40 7#b7 8,a wise tea*] nev] scolds40 7#c7 8,! woodcock has a long bill & eyes high up on ! head40 ,,note,if !re is any d\bt z to su* words z nev]1 on1 etc41 be+ syncategorematic1 attempt to use !m z subject or pr$icate ( a proposition2 e4 g41 ,john is nev]4 7#a;b7 ,und]score ! categorematic words 9 ! foll[+3 7#a7 8,socrates 0 ! greate/ tea*] ( pagan times40 7#b7 8,play is nature's way ( tea*+ a *ild h[ to "w40 7#c7 8,a man may be :at he *ooses if he is will+ to pay ! price40 7#b;a7 ,9 ! foll[+1 words enclos$ 9 p>5!ses are logical t]ms3 7#a7 78,all m57 are 7mortal407 7#b7 78,! law ( id5tity7 is 7"o ( ! prim>y laws ( ?\ght407 7#c7 78,judg+7 is 7! process ( conjo9+ & disjo9+ notions407 7#b;b7 ,indicate ! logical t]ms 9 ! s5t5ces "u #a;b4 7#c;a7 ,! logical *>act]i/ics ( ! t]m tea*] are 7#a7 g5]al t]m1 7#b7 di/ributive t]m1 7#c7 concrete t]m1 7#d7 connotative t]m1 7#e7 positive t]m1 7#f7 relative t]m4 7#c;b7 ,! logical *>act]i/ics ( o!r t]ms are z foll[s3 7#a7 ,goodnessg5]al1 ab/ract1 non-connotative1 positive1 ab/ract4 7#b7 ,s(tg5]al1 concrete1 non-connotative1 positive1 8h>d0 is its opposite1 8n-s(t0 is its contradictory1 absolute4 7#c7 ,disagreeableg5]al1 concrete1 non-connotative1 8agreeable0 is its opposite1 8n-disagreeable0 is its contradictory1 nego-positive1 absolute4 7#d7 ,ari/otles+ul>1 concrete1 non-connotative1 positive1 absolute4 7#e7 ,classg5]al1 collective1 concrete1 connotative1 positive1 relative4 7#c;c7 ,give ! logical *>act]i/ics ( ! foll[+ t]ms3 ju/ice1 ,abraham ,l9coln1 tree1 libr>y1 ,am]ica1 presid5t1 pr9ciple1 sympa?y1 dumb1 nation4 #af4 ,,review ,,que/ions4 7#a7 ,:at is ! connection betwe5 logical ?9k+ & language8 7#b7 ,:y is man a categorematic ^w8 7#c7 ,:y is beautifully syncategorematic8 7#d7 ,di/+ui% betwe5 s+ul> & g5]al t]ms4 7#e7 ,%[ h[ a collective t]m may be us$ 9 a di/ributive s5se4 7#f7 ,:y are ! words tree & book di/ributive8 7#g7 ,di/+ui% betwe5 concrete & ab/ract t]ms4 7#h7 ,def9e & illu/rate a non-connotative t]m4 7#i7 ,:y are concrete g5]al t]ms connotative8 7#aj7 ,di/+ui% betwe5 positive & privative t]ms4 7#aa7 ,:y is n ! ^w immoral negative8 7#ab7 ,give ! opposite ( 8hot40 ,:at is ! contradictory ( 8hot08 7#ac7 ,di/+ui% by def9ition & illu/ration betwe5 relative & absolute t]ms4 7#ad7 ,:at is ! correlate ( ! ^w effect8 #ag4 ,,que/ions ,,= ,,orig9al ,,?\ght ,,& ,,inve/igation4 7#a7 ,is x possible to ?9k indep5d5t ( language8 7#b7 ,may words be spok5 or writt5 )\t ?\ght8 ,illu/rate4 7#c7 ,are categorematic words always logical t]ms8 7#d7 ,mu/ all ! words ( a logical t]m be categorematic8 7#e7 ,are pron\ns & auxili>y v]bs categorematic8 7#f7 ,indicate ! logical connection betwe5 ! t]ms ( a proposition & ! t]m9i ( a railroad4 7#g7 ,%[ t attribute is a broad] t]m ?an quality4 7#h7 ,is ! ^w ,wa%+ton g5]al or s+ul>8 ,give reasons4 7#i7 ,make ! ^w dog a s+ul> t]m4 7#aj7 ,give an illu/ration :]e ! ^w class w\ld n be collective4 7#aa7 8,all ! memb]s ( ! baseball team are /> play]s40 ,h[ has ! t]m /> play]s be5 us$1 collectively or di/ributively8 7#ab7 ,:y may ! t]m ,new ,york ,city be connotative to a ,new ,york] & non-connotative to a ,patagonian8 7#ac7 ,s f> z y\r pres5t k ( ! m>tyr$ presid5t ,abraham ,l9coln is conc]n$1 is ! t]m ,abraham ,l9coln connotative or non-connotative8 7#ad7 ,are non-connotative t]ms always s+ul>8 ,illu/rate4 7#ae7 ,are s+ul> t]ms always non-connotative8 7#af7 ,:at is ! diff]5ce 9 mean+ betwe5 immoral & unmoral1 disagreeable & n-agreeable8 7#ag7 ,:y is immoral a nego-positive t]m :ile unmoral is negative8 7#ah7 ,:at is ! contradictory ( ! opposite ( wise8 7#ai7 ,%[ t !re is "s gr\nd = believ+ all t]ms to be relative4 7#bj7 ,is army a relative t]m8 ,if 8army0 7 us$ s z to be di/ributive 9 nature w\ld x !n be g5]al or collective8 7#ba7 ,:y %\ld ! pron\n be ignor$ by ! logician8 7#bb7 ,%[ ! diff]5ce betwe5 ?+ & subject4 7#bc7 ,argue to ! effect t no t]m c be non-connotative4 ,,*apt] #e4 ,,! ,,ext5sion ,,& ,,int5sion ,,( ,,t]ms4 #a4 ,,two-,,fold ,,function ,,( ,,connotative ,,t]ms4 7,see page #eb47 ,x has be5 indicat$ t a connotative t]m is "o :i* possesses ! d\ble function ( signify+ a subject z well z an attribute4 ,x may be obs]v$ "h t an attribute ( a notion is any m>k1 prop]ty or *>act]i/ic ( t notion4 ,attribute1 !n1 repres5ts quality1 relation or quantity4 ,by a subject is meant any?+ :i* possesses attributes4 ,mo/ subjects /& = objects & mo/ attributes are qualities2 consequ5tly1 = ! sake ( simplicity1 we may use subject & object int]*angeably2 likewise1 attribute & quality4 ,a connotative t]m1 !re=e1 d5otes an object at ! same "t x implies a quality4 ,to illu/rate3 ,! symbol man /&s = ! v>i\s individual m5 ( ! _w1 su* z ,l9coln1 ,wa%+ton1 ,alfr$ ! ,great1 etc41 or = c]ta9 qualities l rationality1 p[] ( spee* & p[] ( locomotion4 ,! connotative t]m tea*] may be us$ to d5ote ,socrates1 ,pe/alozzi1 ,?omas ,arnold1 or connote su* qualities z ability to in/ruct1 sympa?y1 & s*ol>%ip4 ,! t]m planet /&s = su* objects z ,v5us1 ,e>?1 & ,m>s1 & = su* qualities z rotation ^u axis1 revolution ab\t sun1 & opaque or semi-opaque bodies4 ,9 ea* ( ! ?ree illu/rations ! t]m is employ$ 9 ! two-fold s5se ( d5ot+ objects & ( imply+ qualities4 #b4 ,,ext5sion ,,& ,,int5sion ,,def9$4 ,?is d\ble function ( connotative t]ms furni%es an important topic = ! /ud5t ( logic! ,ext5sion & ,int5sion ( ,t]ms4 ,9 %ort1 "s au?orities claim t to ma/] ! ext5sion & int5sion ( t]ms is virtually to ma/] ! entire subject ( logic4 ,?\gh ?is position may be an exagg]at$ "o1 yet x t5ds to emphasize ! importance ( ! topic4 ,a t]m is us$ 9 ext5sion :5 x is employ$ ) ref]5ce to ! objects = :i* ! t]m /&s4 ,:5 ! t]m triangle is us$ to ref] to ! objects isosceles triangle1 scal5e triangle1 "r triangle1 x is employ$ 9 ext5sion4 ,a t]m is us$ 9 int5sion :5 x is employ$ ) ref]5ce to ! attributes = :i* ! t]m /&s4 ,! t]m triangle is employ$ 9 int5sion :5 we use x to ref] to ! qualities1 ?ree sid$ & ?ree angl$4 #c4 ,,ext5d$ ,,comp>ison ,,( ,,ext5sion ,,& ,,int5sion4 ,a connotative t]m seems to be two dim5sionalx has ext5t or l5g? & int5t or dep?4 8,ext5sion consi/s ( ! ?+s to :i* ! t]m applies10 :ile 8int5sion consi/s ( ! prop]ties :i* ! t]m implies40 ,ext5sion is quantitative1 :ile int5sion is qualitative4 ,an ext5sional use means to po9t out or numb] objects1 :ile an int5sional use means to describe by nam+ qualities4 ,to "n is to use a t]m 9 ext5sionto describe is to use a t]m 9 int5sion4 ,to divide a t]m into its k9ds we mu/ reg>d x 9 an ext5sional s5se2 e4 g41 ! t]m man may be divid$ into ,caucasian1 ,mongolian1 ,malay1 ,e?iopian1 ,am]ican ,indian4 ,to def9e a t]m we mu/ reg>d x 9 an int5sional s5se2 e4 g41 man is a rational animal4 ,etymologically consid]$ ext5sion means to /ret* out1 int5sion1 to /ret* )94 ,to use a t]m ext5sionally "o mu/ look out4 ,to use a t]m int5sionally "o mu/ look 94 ,9 attempt+ to use a t]m 9 ext5sion we may ask ourselves ! "q1 8,:at are ! k9ds80 or 8,to :at objects may ! t]m be appli$80 ,:ile if we w\ld use a t]m 9 int5sion ! "q %\ld be1 8,:at does x mean80 or 8,:at are ! qualities80 ,let u1 = example1 use ! t]m metal 9 ! two s5ses1 fir/ 9 ext5sion1 second 9 int5sion4 ,"q3 ,to :at objects may ! t]m metal be appli$8 ,answ]3 ,metal may be appli$ to ! objects silv]1 gold & iron4 ,?us has metal be5 employ$ 9 ext5sion4 ,"q3 ,:at are ! qualities ( metal8 ,answ]3 ,! qualities are elem5t1 metallic lu/re1 good conductor ( heat & electricity4 ,?us has metal be5 us$ 9 int5sion4 ,,note4 ,s9ce an attribute is any?+ :i* belongs to a subject1 !n ! p>ts ( a subject mu/ be class$ z attributes4 ,h5ce1 a t]m is us$ int5sionally :5 ref]5ce is made to its p>ts4 #d4 ,a ,,li/ ,,( ,,connotative ,,t]ms ,,us$ ,,9 ,,ext5sion ,,& ,,int5sion4 ,! ,t]m4 ,ext5sional ,use4 ,int5sional ,use4 roots1 bran*es1 trunk4 tree4 maple1 oak1 bee*4 or woody-fib]1 sap1 b>k4 h\se4 /one1 brick1 cem5t4 f\ndation1 frame-"w1 ro(4 dog4 %eph]d1 fox t]ri]1 c>nivor\s1 quadrup$1 bull4 prop5sity to b>k4 book4 textbook1 diction>y1 cov]1 leaves1 b9d+4 encyclopa$ia4 quadrilat]al4 trapezium1 trapezoid1 f\r sides1 f\r angles1 p>allelogram4 limit$ plane4 logic4 !oretical logic1 sci5ce ( ?9k+1 art ( appli$ logic1 "r ?9k+1 treats ( educational logic4 laws ( ?\ght4 />4 ,sirius1 ,arcturus1 ,vega4 heav5ly body1 gives light & heat1 tw9kles4 =ce4 gravitation1 molecul>1 produces motion atomic4 *anges motion de/roys motion4 t]m4 g5]al1 s+ul>1 ^w or gr\p ( words1 non-connotative4 def9ite idea4 gov]nm5t4 mon>*y1 ari/ocracy1 body ( p1 democracy4 e/abli%$ =m ( law1 b&$ toge!r = mutual protection4 bird4 cr[1 rob91 pigeon4 bip$1 fea!r$1 w+$4 #e4 ,,o!r ,,=ms ,,( ,,expression ,,= ,,ext5sion ,,& ,,int5sion4 ,ext5sion4 ,int5sion4 compreh5sion cont5t ext5t int5t bread? dep? d5otation connotation application implication ,=m]ly ! words ext5sion & int5sion 7 appli$ to concepts :ile d5otation & connotation 7 appli$ to t]ms repres5t+ ! concepts1 b n[ ! words are int]*angeable4 ,d5otation1 ! n\n1 & d5ote1 ! v]b1 signify1 etymologically1 a m>k+ (f4 ,to d5ote is to m>k (f or indicate ! objects or classes ( objects = :i* ! t]m /&s4 ,connotation1 ! n\n1 & connote1 ! v]b1 signify to m>k along )4 ,to connote is to m>k along ) ! object1 its attributes4 ,! t]ms :i* %\ld be rememb]$ are ext5sion int5sion or & or d5otation connotation #f4 ,,law ,,( ,,v>iation ,,9 ,,ext5sion ,,& ,,int5sion4 ,x has be5 not$ t ! int5sion ( a t]m has ref]5ce to its qualities :ile ext5sion consid]s its application to v>i\s objects4 ,x may be wise to exp]im5t ) ! ext5sion & ! int5sion ( c]ta9 t]ms z types ) a view ( asc]ta9+ h[ ! two ideas are relat$ to ea* o!r4 ,= ! sake ( def9it5ess let u make use ( ! foll[+ s*eme3 ,i4 ,int5sional ,ext5sional 7#a7 f\r sides 7#b7 p>allel sides common qualities ( 7#a7 squ>es 7#c7 equal sides 7#d7 "r angles 7#a7 f\r sides 7#b7 p>allel sides common qualities ( 7#a7 squ>es 7#c7 equal sides 7#b7 rhombs 7#a7 squ>es 7#a7 f\r sides common qualities ( 7#b7 rhombs 7#b7 p>allel sides 7#c7 rectangles 7#d7 rhomboids 7#a7 squ>es 7#b7 rhombs 7#a7 f\r sides common qualities ( 7#c7 rectangles 7#d7 rhomboids 7#e7 trapezoids 7#f7 trapeziums ,,ii4 7#a7 nebulae 7#b7 fix$ />s 7#a7 heav5ly body common qualities ( 7#c7 sun 7#d7 comets 7#e7 meteors 7#f7 moon 7#a7 nebulae 7#a7 heav5ly body common qualities ( 7#b7 fix$ />s 7#b7 self-lum9\s 7#c7 sun 7#d7 comets 7#a7 heav5ly body 7#a7 nebulae 7#b7 self-lum9\s common qualities ( 7#b7 fix$ />s 7#c7 fix$ 7#c7 sun 7#a7 heav5ly body 7#b7 self-lum9\s common qualities ( 7#a7 nebulae 7#c7 fix$ 7#b7 fix$ />s 7#d7 tw9kle 7#a7 heav5ly body 7#b7 self-lum9\s 7#c7 fix$ common qualities ( 7#a7 nebulae 7#d7 tw9kle 7#e7 foggy ,9 consid]+ ! fir/ illu/ration we obs]ve t z ! numb] ( qualities is decreas$1 ! numb] ( objects increases4 ,:ile 9 ! second example z ! qualities are increas$1 ! numb] ( objects decreases4 ,x w\ld appe> f ?is t ! int5sion & ext5sion ( a t]m are inv]sely relat$ to ea* o!r4 ,z ! "o increases ! o!r decreases & vice v]sa4 ,x is cu/om>y to /ate ?is relation 9 ! =m ( a law kn[n z ! law ( v>iation4 8,z ! int5sion ( a t]m is increas$ its ext5sion is decreas$ & vice v]sa10 or ! ext5sion & int5sion ( a t]m v>y 9 an inv]se ratio to ea* o!r4 ,to fur!r illu/rate3 ?is book ref]s to a l>ge numb] ( objects2 add to ! qualities ( book ^? ( text book & ! application is mu* r$uc$4 ,9 o!r words z we increase ! int5sion1 ! ext5sion is dim9i%$4 ,increase ! int5sion fur!r by add+ ! quality ,engli% text book & ! ext5sion becomes /ill less4 #f;a4 ,,two ,,important ,,facts ,,9 ,,! ,,law ,,( ,,v>iation4 ,9 /udy+ ! law ( v>iation two facts are especially evid5t4 7#a7 ,! law applies only to a s]ies ( t]ms repres5t+ notions ( ! same family4 ,! ext5sion & int5sion ( 8text book10 = example1 c\ld n be comp>$ ) ! ext5sion & int5sion ( 8h\se0 z !y belong to a diff]5t class ( words1 ! g5us ( text book be+ book1 :ile ! g5us ( h\se is build+4 ,to illu/rate ! law ( v>iation1 det]m9e ^u any class "n1 !n ?9k ( its proximate g5us 7! next high]-up class to :i* x belongs74 ,cont9ue ?is till ! s]ies is suffici5tly complete to illu/rate ! law4 ,or proce$ 9 ! opposite direction4 ,t is1 aft] select+ ! class "n ?9k ( ! next l[] t]m 9 ! class & ?us cont9ue till s]ies is complete4 ,illu/ration3 ,! class "n man is det]m9$ ^u2 ! proximate g5us ( man is bip$1 ! proximate g5us ( bip$ is animal1 & s on4 ,or ?9k+ d[nw>d3 a proximate species ( man is :ite man1 ( :ite man4 ,european1 etc4 ,?us ! s]ies3 animal bip$ man :ite man ,european 7#b7 ,z a second fact3 ! increase & decrease is n a ma!matical "o4 ,t is1 by d\bl+ ! ext5sion ! int5sion is n halv$4 ,or if ! int5sion is decreas$ by "o quality ! ext5sion is n necess>ily increas$ by "o object4 ,?us 8man0 /&s = "o billion sev5 hundr$ million be+s or objects4 ,decrease ! int5sion ( 8man0 by ! "o quality ( rationality & ! ext5sion w\ld include all bip$s_m billion objects4 #f;b4 ,,! ,,law ,,( ,,v>iation ,,diagrammatically ,,illu/rat$4 ,9 a g5]al way l9es may be us$ to repres5t ! v>iation 9 ext5sion & int5sion4 ,= example3 we may let a l9e an in* long repres5t ! ext5sion ( man1 "o two in*es long repres5t ! ext5sion ( bip$1 ?ree in*es long repres5t ! ext5sion ( animal1 etc4 ,:ile on ! o!r h&1 if a l9e an in* long repres5ts ! int5sion ( man1 a l9e "o-half in* long may be us$ to repres5t ! int5sion ( bip$1 "o a qu>t] ( an in* long to repres5t ! int5sion ( animal1 etc4 ,! foll[+ illu/rates ?is s*eme 9 connection ) ano!r s]ies ( words3 ,ext5sion ,int5sion b>n build+ /ructure object ,9 ! =ego+ s*eme build+ ref]s to a great] numb] ( objects ?an b>n1 h5ce ! l9e "u ext5sion repres5t+ build+ %\ld be long] ?an ! l9e = b>n4 ,likewise /ructure1 ref]r+ to a great] numb] ( objects ?an build+1 is repres5t$ by a long] l9e4 ,?us :5 ! s]ies is view$ f top to bottom a gradual increase 9 ext5sion is not$4 ,giv+ att5tion to ! int5sional use ( ! s]ies we note t build+ has few] qualities ?an b>n1 /ructure few] ?an build+ & object few] ?an /ructure4 ,!re=e1 f top to bottom1 ! int5sion ( ! t]ms gradually decreases4 ,! v>iation may be made /ill m app>5t if triangles are us$1 "o triangle be+ plac$ ^u ! o!r1 v]tex to base1 l ! foll[+3 ,illu/ration3 7 ,int5sion & ,ext5sion 7 8,bip$0 is writt5 ne> ! base or 9 ! broade/ "p ( ! ext5sion triangle because x d5otes ! greate/ numb] ( objects1 & is1 !re=e1 broade/ 9 ext5sion4 8,man0 occupies a n>r[] "p ( ! ext5sion triangle because x ref]s to few] objects or is n>r[] 9 ext5sion ?an 8bip$40 8,arnold0 occupies ! n>r[e/ "p ( ! ext5sion triangle because x is ! n>r[e/ 9 ext5sion4 ,on ! o!r h& 8,arnold0 occupies ! broade/ "p ( ! int5sion triangle because int5sionally x possesses m qualities ?an ! o!rs1 :ile 8bip$10 hav+ ! lea/ dep? 9 int5sion or possess+ ! fewe/ qualities1 occupies ! n>r[e/ portion ( ! int5sion triangle4 #g4 ,,outl9e4 ,,! ,,ext5sion ,,& ,,int5sion ,,( ,,t]ms4 #a4 ,two-fold ,function ( ,connotative ,t]ms4 #b4 ,ext5sion & ,int5sion ,def9$4 #c4 ,ext5d$ ,comp>ison ( ,ext5sion & ,int5sion4 #d4 ,a ,li/ ( ,connotative ,t]ms us$ 9 ,ext5sion & ,int5sion4 #e4 ,o!r ,=ms ( ,expression = ,ext5sion & ,int5sion4 #f4 ,law ( ,v>iation 9 ,ext5sion & ,int5sion4 #f;a4 ,two ,important ,facts 9 ! ,law ( ,v>iation4 #f;b4 ,! ,law ( ,v>iation ,diagrammatically ,illu/rat$4 #h4 ,,summ>y4 #a4 ,connotative t]ms are us$ 9 a two-fold s5se3 fir/1 to d5ote objects2 second1 to imply qualities4 #b4 ,a t]m is us$ 9 ext5sion :5 x is employ$ ) ref]5ce to ! objects = :i* ! t]m /&s4 ,a t]m is us$ 9 int5sion :5 x is employ$ ) ref]5ce to ! qualities = :i* ! t]m /&s4 #c4 ,! answ] to ei!r ( ! foll[+ que/ions w lead "o to use any t]m 9 ext5sion3 ,fir/1 :at are ! k9ds8 or second1 to :at objects may ! t]m be appli$8 ,! answ] to ei!r ( ! foll[+ que/ions w lead to ! use ( any t]m 9 int5sion3 ,fir/1 :at does x mean8 or second1 :at are ! qualities8 #d4 ,to illu/rate ext5sion & int5sion x is be/ to use ! class-names 9 e day spee*4 #e4 ,! ^w d5otation is commonly us$ = ext5sion & connotation = int5sion4 #f4 8,z ! int5sion ( a t]m is increas$ its ext5sion is decreas$ & vice v]sa10 is a /atem5t ( ! ,law ( ,v>iation 9 ! ext5sion & int5sion ( t]ms4 #f;a4 ,! law ( v>iation applies only to a s]ies ( t]ms repres5t+ notions ( ! same class or family1 ! words be+ arrang$ 9 a species-g5us ord]4 ,! increase & decrease ( ! ext5sion & int5sion ( a s]ies is n proportional4 #f;b4 ,! law ( v>iation is be/ expla9$ by us+ two triangles1 "o sup]-impos$ ^u ! o!r v]tex to base & base to v]tex4 #i4 ,,illu/rative ,,ex]cises4 #a;a4 ,employ ! foll[+ t]ms 9 ext5sion,european1 fl[]1 t]m1 tru?4 ,russian ,european ,engli%man ,scot*man lily fl[] rose pansy s+ul> t]m di/ributive collective ,tru? has no ext5sion4 tru? ,s9ce x ref]s to a quality only1 x is non-connotative4 #a;b4 ,employ ! foll[+ 9 ext5siongra91 rock1 soil1 preci\s /one4 #b;a4 ,use int5sionally bird1 quadrup$1 lett]1 ,john4 two feet bird ability to fly fea!rs f\r feet quadrup$ back bone hairy cov]+ head+ lett] body complim5t>y close ,john has no int5sion4 ,john ,s9ce x ref]s to an object only1 x is non-connotative4 #b;b4 ,use ! foll[+ 9 int5sion^w1 table1 purity1 gov]nm5t4 #c;a4 ,! use ( a t]m 9 ext5sion foll[s :5 attempt+ to answ] two que/ions3 ,fir/1 :at are ! k9ds8 ,second1 to :at objects may ! t]m be appli$8 ,make application ( ?is ) ref]5ce to ! t]m man4 #a4 ,:at are ! k9ds ( m58 ,caucasian1 ,malay1 ,mongolian1 ,e?iopian1 ,r$man4 #b4 ,to :at objects does ! t]m man ref]8 ,george ,wa%+ton1 ,*as4 ,hughes1 ,john ,smi?4 ,9 bo? #a & #b ! ^w man is us$ to d5ote objects1 h5ce x is employ$ 9 ext5sion4 #c;b4 ,use ! t]m vegetable 9 ext5sion by answ]+ ! two que/ions 9 #c;a4 #d;a4 ,decrease "o by "o ! qualities ( "s common object ) a view ( not+ h[ :5 ! int5sion is decreas$ ! ext5sion is increas$4 ,int5sion ,ext5sion b9d+ leaves cov] s*ool ari?metic pr9t$ matt] design$ = in/ruction in/ruction 9 ari?metic b9d+ leaves s*ool ari?metic cov] s*ool gramm> pr9t$ matt] s*ool spell]1 etc4 design$ = in/ruction b9d+ s*ool ari?metic leaves s*ool gramm> cov] s*ool spell]1 etc4 pr9t$ matt] encyclopa$ia novel s*ool ari?metic b9d+ s*ool gramm> leaves s*ool spell]1 etc4 cov] encyclopa$ia novel note book #d;b4 ,) a view ( not+ h[ :5 ! int5sion is decreas$ ! ext5sion is increas$1 decrease "o by "o ! common qualities ( pea* tree4 #e;a4 ,9 ! foll[+ s]ies :at ^w c\ld be sub/itut$ = 8mammal0 & :y8 ,be+1 organiz$ be+1 animal1 v]tebrate1 mammal4 ,answ]3 ,fi%1 reptile1 or bird2 because !re are at lea/ sev5 classes ( animals :i* belong to ! v]tebrate family1 any "o ( :i* c\ld be us$ to complete ! s]ies4 #e;b4 ,=m a s]ies ( :i* 8,baldw9 apple0 has ! n>r[e/ ext5sion4 ,:at t]ms may be sub/itut$ = 8,baldw9 apple80 #f;a4 ,9 a s]ies ( :i* 8pupil0 is a memb] %[ t ! increase & decrease is n proportional4 ,! s]ies3 logic pupil1 pupil1 y\?1 human be+1 be+4 ,9 decreas+ ! int5sion ( 8logic pupil0 by dropp+ ! "o quality1 logic1 ! ext5sion is made l>g] by _m m ?an "o1 z 8pupil0 repres5ts _m m objects ?an 8logic pupil40 ,!re=e1 ! increase is n 9 proportion to ! decrease4 #f;b4 ,9 a s]ies 9 :i* 8rul]0 appe>s1 %[ t ! increase & decrease is n proportional4 #g4 ,f ! foll[+ li/ select ! prop] words ( ! s]ies2 arrange !m2 draw & "n ! triangles3 ,caes>1 brute1 man1 ,roman1 ,am]ican1 bip$1 s5su\s be+1 animal1 individual4 #aj4 ,,review ,,que/ions4 #a4 ,:at is a connotative t]m8 ,illu/rate4 #b4 ,:i* is ! broad] t]m1 quality or attribute8 ,:y8 #c4 ,:5 is a t]m us$ 9 ext5sion8 #d4 ,use ! t]m triangle 9 int5sion4 #e4 ,z an aid to us+ a t]m 9 ext5sion or int5sion :at que/ions may "o ask himself8 #f4 ,by ask+ ^! que/ions use ! t]m clock 9 bo? ext5sion & int5sion4 #g4 ,by exp]im5t+ ) ! qualities ( a rectangle %[ t z ! int5sion is decreas$ ! ext5sion is increas$4 #h4 ,write a li/ ( five connotative t]ms4 ,prove t !y are connotative by illu/rat+ _! ext5sion & int5sion4 #i4 ,! t]m metal d5otes su* qualities z elem5t1 metallic connotes lu/re1 conductor ( heat & electricity4 ,9 ! =ego+ :i* ( ! two words foll[+ ! brace %\ld be us$8 ,give reasons4 #aj4 ,/ate ! law ( v>iation 9 two ways4 #aa4 ,z "o /udies ! law ( v>iation :at two facts are especially evid5t8 ,expla9 fully4 #ab4 ,= ! purpose ( illu/rat+ ! law ( v>iation =m a s]ies ( :i* desk is a memb]4 ,draw & "n ! triangles4 #aa4 ,,que/ions ,,= ,,orig9al ,,?\ght ,,& ,,inve/igation4 #a4 ,:i* is ! broad] t]m1 subject or object8 ,prove x4 #b4 ,if a t]m l ,caes> is giv5 ext5sion does x become a g5]al t]m8 ,:y8 #c4 ,us+ 8man0 z a memb] ( ea*1 arrange at lea/ ?ree diff]5t s]ies4 #d4 ,:y may x be said t a connotative t]m is two dim5sional8 #e4 ,is !re a ^w :i* has a broad] ext5sion ?an 8be+08 ,:y8 #f4 ,prove t y\? has less int5sion ?an human be+4 #g4 ,devise a s]ies ( words 9 :i* ! v>iation is proportional4 #h4 ,advance argum5ts support+ ! hypo!sis t ! t]m ,john has nei!r ext5sion nor int5sion4 #i4 ,sugge/ argum5ts to prove t 8,george ,wa%+ton0 has bo? ext5sion & int5sion4 ,,*apt] #f4 ,,def9ition4 #a4 ,,importance4 ,to be cle>1 cog5t1 concise & consi/5t is to be logical4 ,ref]5ce has be5 made to a /rik+ t5d5cy on ! "p ( writ]s & speak]s to use words loosely4 ,x is a noticeable fact t s*ol>s g5]ally aim to be pr(\nd r ?an cle>1 philosophical r ?an po9t$4 ,9 ! use ( text books m or less p$agogical ^! are ! common compla9ts3 8,i don't und]/& :at he means0 or 8,y h to read s mu* to get s little40 ,?is condition gives to ! topic ( def9ition a prom95ce :i* _c be ov]look$ by ^? :o are seek+ ! tru?2 because ! def9ition is ! cle>e/1 briefe/ & altoge!r ! mo/ satisfactory way ( describ+ an idea4 ,likewise ! habit ( def9+ any d\btful t]m r$uces to a m9imum ! possibility ( misund]/&+4 ,! subject mu/ appeal /rongly to ! in/ructor1 z he1 above all o!rs1 %\ld make 8 "w /& = cle>ness1 po9t$ness & cont9uity4 #b4 ,,! ,,pr$icables4 ,a pr$icable is a t]m :i* c be affirm$ or pr$icat$ ( any subject4 ,9 ! proposition1 8,a man is a rational animal10 ! t]m 8rational animal0 is a pr$icable1 because x c be affirm$ ( ! subject man4 ,to ga9 a cle> k ( ! def9ition x is q necess>y to und]/& ! five pr$icables :i* we %all consid] 9 ! foll[+ ord]3 #a4 ,g5us4 #b4 ,species4 #c4 ,diff]5tia 7diff]5ce74 #d4 ,prop]ty4 #e4 ,accid5t4 7#a7 ,g5us & 7#b7 ,species4 ,g5us & species are relative t]ms & c be/ be def9$ toge!r4 ,a g5us is a t]m :i* /&s = two or m subord9ate classes4 ,a species is a t]m :i* repres5ts "o ( ! subord9ate classes4 ,! g5us may be subdivid$ into species2 ! species toge!r =m ! g5us4 ,to illu/rate3 ,! t]m man /&s = five subord9ate classes or species1 z :ite1 black1 br[n1 yell[ & r$4 8,man0 is1 !re=e1 a g5us1 :ile 8:ite man0 & 8black man10 etc41 are species4 ,! t]m 8polygon0 is a g5us ) ref]5ce to 8trigon10 8tetragon10 8p5tagon10 etc41 :ile 8trigon0 is a species ( 8polygon40 ,any giv5 g5us may be a species ( "s high] class4 ,t is1 8man10 :i* is a g5us ) ref]5ce to ! k9ds ( m51 is a species ( ! high] class 8bip$10 :ile 8bip$0 is a species ( 8animal10 8animal0 a species ( 8organiz$ be+10 8organiz$ be+0 ( 8mat]ial be+10 8mat]ial be+0 ( 8be+40 ,b "h we /op1 z !re is no high] grade to :i* 8be+0 c be ref]r$4 ,?is highe/ g5us takes ! "n ( summum g5us4 ,simil>ly any giv5 species may be a g5us ( "s l[] class4 8,:ite man10 = example1 :i* is a species ( 8man10 is a g5us ( 8,am]ican10 8,engli%man10 8,g]man10 8,fr5*man10 etc4 8,am]ican0 is a g5us ( 8,new ,york]10 8,cali=nian10 etc41 :ile 8,new ,york]0 is a g5us ( 8,smi? ( ,jamaica40 ,?is la/ t]m is an individual & _c be subdivid$4 ,x repres5ts ! l[e/ possible species & is ref]r$ to 9 logic z infima species4 ,x is obvi\s t ! highe/ g5us _c become a species1 nei!r c ! l[e/ species become a g5us4 ,,proximate ,,g5us4 ,! proximate g5us is ! next class above4 ,to illu/rate3 8,animal0 is a g5us ( 8man10 b 8bip$0 is ! proximate g5us ( 8man40 8,quadrilat]al0 is ! g5us ( 8squ>e10 b 8rectangle0 is ! proximate g5us4 ,! next class above 8trigon0 is polygon n figure4 ,h5ce 8polygon0 is ! proximate g5us ( 8trigon40 ,,g5us ,,& ,,species ,,( ,,natural ,,hi/ory4 ,9 natural hi/ory ! foll[+ t]ms are us$ to d5ote ! v>i\s grades ( k9%ip 9 any s*eme ( classification3 7#a7 k+dom1 7#b7 class1 7#c7 ord]1 7#d7 family1 7#e7 g5us1 7#f7 species1 7#g7 v>iety1 7#h7 ! individual ?+4 ,"h 8g5us0 & 8species0 are absolute n relative & occupy a fix$ place 9 ! s*eme1 :ile f a logical viewpo9t any ( ! grades indicat$ betwe5 ! l[e/ & highe/ w\ld be ! species ( ! next high] grade or a g5us ( ! next l[]2 e4 g41 ord] is a species ( 8class10 :ile x is ! g5us ( 8family40 ,,g5us1 ,a ,,d\ble ,,mean+4 ,we recall t any class "n or g5us has a d\ble use1 ext5sional & int5sional4 ,:5 consid]$ f ! /&po9t ( its ext5sion1 a g5us repres5ts a gr\p ( objects or is ma!matical 9 its application1 b :5 us$ 9 an int5sional s5se x repres5ts a gr\p ( qualities or is logical 9 its application4 ,consid]$ ext5sionally ! g5us ref]s to a l>g] numb] ( objects ?an ! species4 ,b :5 view$ int5sionally ! species ref]s to m qualities ?an ! g5us4 ,?is 0 made cle> :5 discuss+ ! law ( v>iation 9 ! ext5sion & int5sion ( t]ms4 7#c7 ,diff]5tia4 ,! diff]5tia ( a t]m is t attribute :i* di/+ui%es a giv5 species f all ! o!r species ( ! g5us4 ,x has be5 obs]v$ t ! species ref]s to m qualities ?an ! g5us4 ,9 fact1 x repres5ts all ! attributes ( ! g5us plus ^? :i* di/+ui% ! p>ticul> species f ! o!r species ( ! g5us4 ,^! additional qualities are ! diff]5ti ( ! p>ticul> species4 ,,to ,,illu/rate3 ,! attribute :i* di/+ui%es man f ! o!r bip$s ( ! _w is 8 rationality4 ,t :i* di/+ui%es ! rectangle f ! o!r p>allelograms is its f\r "r angles4 ,! attributes rationality & "r angles are diff]5tiae4 7#d7 ,prop]ty4 ,a prop]ty ( a t]m is any attribute :i* helps to make ! t]m :at x is4 ,?us 8consci\sness0 is a prop]ty ( man1 8b9d+0 a prop]ty ( book1 8angles0 a prop]ty ( triangle4 ,deprive ! t]ms ( ^! attributes & _! true nature is alt]$4 ,a diff]5tia is a prop]ty accord+ to ! =ego+ def9ition4 ,h[ev]1 ,jevons def9es 8prop]ty0 z 8,any quality :i* is common to ! :ole ( a class1 b is n necess>y to m>k out ! class f o!r classes40 ,?is viewpo9t excludes 8diff]5tia0 f ! notion ( prop]ty4 ,! diff]5ce 9 op9ion is ( slight importance4 7#e7 ,accid5t4 ,an accid5t ( a t]m is any attribute :i* does n help to make ! t]m :at x is4 ,x may indiff]5tly belong or n belong to ! t]m4 ,deprive a t]m ( an accid5t & ! nature ( ! t]m rema9s un*ang$4 ,?us1 a tea*]'s position1 a man's wat*1 ! fact t ! angle is "o ( #hj are all accid5ts4 ,x is obvi\s t a prop]ty is a con/ant attribute :ile an accid5t is v>iable4 ,?is gives to ! =m] a univ]sal validity :ile ! latt] is m or less %ift+ & unc]ta94 ,all triangles mu/ h ?ree angles 7prop]ty7 :ile ! value ( ea* angle 9 degrees 7accid5t7 admits ( unlimit$ v>iation4 ,"s logicians divide accid5ts into sep>able & insep>able4 ,a man's hat w\ld be a sep>able accid5t :ile 8 bir?place w\ld be an insep>able accid5t4 ,,five ,,pr$icables ,,illu/rat$4 ,9 ! foll[+ brief descriptions ! five pr$icables are designat$3 7species7 7g5us7 7diff]5tia7 7#a7 ,?is is a ) rectangle p>allelogram f\r "r angles 7accid5t7 its long] sides be+ 4 t5 in*es 7species7 7diff]5tia7 7prox4 g5us7 7#b7 ,?is is a ) ! man rational bip$ 7prop]ty7 7accid5t7 & a 4 p[] ( locomotion ruddy complexion 7species7 7g5us7 7diff]5tia7 7prop]ty7 7#c7 ,a is a ( & 1 trigon polygon ?ree sides ?ree angles 7accid5t7 4 ! sum ( ! angles be+ equal to two "r angles #c4 ,,! ,,nature ,,( ,a ,,def9ition4 ,x w be rememb]$ t an individual notion is a notion ( a s+le ?+ or attribute1 :ile a g5]al notion is a notion ( a class ( ?+s or a gr\p ( attributes4 ,a t]m :i* repres5ts an individual notion is kn[n z a s+ul> t]m1 :ile a t]m :i* /&s = a g5]al notion is ref]r$ to z a g5]al t]m4 ,"o may expla9 ! mean+ ( a s+ul> t]m :i* /&s = "o ?+ by enum]at+ its v>i\s attributes4 ,= example1 su* attributes z a pi]c+ b>k1 a yell[ color1 intellig5t1 companionable1 a /rong lik+ = sweetmeats1 expla9 ! mean+ ( ! s+ul> t]m 8,fido40 ,likewise we may expla9 ! mean+ ( a g5]al t]m by enum]at+ its attributes4 ,to illu/rate3 p[] ( spee*1 rationality1 ability to laugh1 etc41 expla9 ! mean+ ( ! g5]al t]m man4 ,! explanation ( ! s+ul> t]m fits only ,fido4 ,!re is probably no o!r dog 9 ! _w j l ,fido4 ,b ! explanation ( ! g5]al t]m man may be appli$ to all m54 ,a brief enum]ation ( attributes :i* may be appli$ to a class ( ?+s (t5 takes ! =m ( a def9ition4 ,! ^w def9ition comes f ! ^w def9ire1 mean+ to limit or fix ! b\nds (4 ,a def9ition1 !n1 consi/s ( ! enum]ation ( su* attributes z di/+ui% a t]m f all o!r t]ms4 ,9 ?is s5se x w\ld seem t ! s+ul> t]m ,fido1 z well z ! g5]al t]m man1 admits ( def9ition1 b x is usual = logicians to conf9e def9ition to ! g5]al t]m4 ,s+ul> t]ms may be describ$2 g5]al t]ms1 def9$4 ,a ,,def9ition ,,( ,,def9ition4 ,a def9ition ( a t]m is a /atem5t ( its mean+ by enum]at+ its *>act]i/ic attributes4 ,t ! enum]ation mu/ be 9 t]ms ( its di/+ui%+ or *>act]i/ic attributes is impli$ 9 ! d]ivation ( ! t]m def9ition4 ,! attributes mu/ e/abli% limits or b\nds1 j z a l9e f5ce limits a l& own]'s possessions4 ,to indicate t man is a creature possess+ ! p[] ( locomotion1 s5se ( sight & ability to eat1 is surely n a def9ition1 z ! m>ks are n *>act]i/ic ( m5 only4 ,^! attributes set no b\nd>y betwe5 man & horse1 consequ5tly ! /atem5t is a faulty description ( man1 n a def9ition4 ,b :5 ! enum]ation includes su* attributes z p[] ( spee*1 rationality & ability to laugh1 !n does ! description become a def9ition4 ,to put x diff]5tly3 ,a def9ition is a description ( a t]m by means ( its di/+ui%+ attributes4 ,?is /atem5t may be consid]$ a def9ition ( man1 ?\gh some:at faulty3 8,a man is a creature :o is rational & :o possesses ! p[] ( spee* & ability to laugh40 #d4 ,,def9ition ,,& ,,division ,,comp>$4 ,we h le>n$ t g5]al t]ms :5 connotative may be us$ ext5sionally or int5sionally4 ,a def9ition indicates ! int5sional nature ( a t]m1 :ile a /atem5t :i* po9ts out ! ext5sional nature ( a t]m is kn[n z logical division4 ,m briefly3 ,a def9ition is an int5sional /atem5t ( ! nature ( ! t]m1 :ile logical division is an ext5sional /atem5t ( ! nature ( ! t]m4 ,to illu/rate3 ,! foll[+ /atem5ts are def9itions3 7#a7 ,a dog is a dome/icat$ quadrup$ ( ! g5us canis & giv5 to b>k+4 7#b7 ,a quadrilat]al is a rectil9e> figure ( f\r sides4 7#c7 ,soil is a sub/ance compos$ ( pulv]iz$ rock & decay$ vegetable matt] 9 :i* plants w gr[4 ,! foll[+ repres5t ,logical ,division3 7#a7 ,dogs are divid$ into h\nds1 t]ri]s1 bull1 etc4 7#b7 ,! k9ds ( quadrilat]als are trapeziums1 trapezoids & p>allelograms4 7#c7 ,! v>i\s soils are loam1 s&1 clay1 muck1 etc4 #e4 ,,! ,,k9ds ,,( ,,def9itions4 ,g5]ally speak+ !re are ?ree k9ds ( def9itions1 namely1 7#a7 ,etymological1 7#b7 ,descriptive1 7#c7 ,logical4#e 7#a7 ,an etymological def9ition is "o bas$ ^u ! d]ivation ( ! t]m4 ,?is k9d ( a def9ition1 :i* gives m]ely ! mean+ ( ! symbol1 is sometimes call$ a nom9al or v]bal def9ition2 :ile a real def9ition is reg>d$ z "o :i* gives ! mean+ ( ! notion = :i* ! symbol /&s4 ,! mod]n logician is incl9$ to ignore ?is classification on ! argum5t t to make a di/9ction betwe5 a symbol & ! notion x symbolizes is simply to misund]/& ! relation :i* exi/s betwe5 !m4 ,if ! def9ition does n agree ) ! ?+ !n x _c correctly expla9 ! t]m :i* repres5ts ! ?+4 ,def9e correctly ! t]m & "o has def9$ correctly ! notion signifi$ by ! t]m4 ,! attributes ( a t]m may be sep>at$ into ?ree classes3 diff]5tia1 prop]ty & accid5t4 ,x w\ld appe> possible1 !re=e1 to def9e a t]m by enum]at+ ! accid5ts only or by enum]at+ ! prop]ties1 or1 f9ally1 by /at+ ! diff]5tiae4 ,b if ! enum]ation is conf9$ to accid5ts ! *ances are t ! /atem5t w be a description1 n a def9ition1 z accid5ts are seldom suffici5tly *>act]i/ic to det]m9e ! b\nd>ies ( a t]m4 ,?is leaves op5 two di/9ct ways ( def9+ a t]m3 ,fir/1 by nam+ ! prop]ties or prop]ties & accid5ts only2 second1 by /at+ ! diff]5ti only4 ,! =m] k9d is ! s-call$ descriptive def9ition1 :ile ! latt] is ! logical4 7#b7 ,a descriptive def9ition ( a t]m is a description ( its nature by means ( its prop]ties & accid5ts4 7#c7 ,a logical def9ition ( a t]m is a description ( its nature by means ( its diff]5ti4 ,,! ,,?ree ,,k9ds ,,( ,,def9itions ,,illu/rat$ ,,& ,,comp>$4 ,etymological ,def9ition ( ,trigon4 ,a trigon is a figure ( ?ree corn]s4 ,descriptive3 ,a trigon is a figure :i* has ?ree sides & ?ree angles1 ! sum ( ! latt] be+ equal to two "r angles4 ,logical3 ,a trigon is a polygon ( ?ree angles4 ,x is se5 t an etymological def9ition is simply a root-^w analysis4 ,9 ! case ( trigon1 ! prefix comes f ! ,greek1 mean+ ?ree1 :ile ! root-^w comes f ! ,greek mean+ corn]4 ,! descriptive def9ition ( trigon names ! prop]ties1 8?ree sides & ?ree angles0 7diff]5ti7 & ! accid5t1 8! sum ( ! angles ( :i* equals two "r angles40 ,! logical def9ition ( trigon simply /ates ! proximate g5us1 8polygon10 & ! diff]5tia1 8?ree angles40 #f4 ,,:5 ,,! ,,?ree ,,k9ds ,,( ,,def9itions ,,are ,,s]viceable4 ,! etymological def9ition is helpful 9 furni%+ a cue = rememb]+ ! descriptive & logical def9itions4 ,x also leads to precision ( expression! "r ^w 9 ! "r place4 ,"h is :]e ! k ( a =eign language1 p>ticul>ly ,lat91 is helpful4 ,! descriptive def9ition is be/ adapt$ to ! *ild-m9d4 ,*ildr5 ?9k 9 ! l>ge2 are n giv5 to hair-splitt+ discrim9ations1 &1 !re=e1 _m *>act]i/ic m>ks mu/ be m5tion$ 9 ord] to insure a ma/]y ( ! cont5t4 ,) *ildr5 ! logical def9ition is (t5 too brief to be cle>4 ,= example1 x is easy to see :i* ( ! foll[+ def9itions w\ld be bett] adapt$ to ! *ild-m9d4 ,logical3 ,a squ>e is an equilat]al rectangle4 ,descriptive3 ,a squ>e is a figure ( f\r equal sides & f\r "r angles4 ,! logical def9ition may be introduc$ to ! /ud5t ( ! second>y s*ool4 ,few ex]cises are bett] adapt$ to ! developm5t ( p[]s ( discrim9ation & precision ?an practice 9 def9+ logically ! common t]ms ( e-day life4 ,= example3 8,a book is a pack ( pap]-%eets b\nd toge!r40 8,a *air is a piece ( furniture ) back & seat1 design$ = ! seat+ ( "o p]son40 8,a lead p5cil is a cyl9drical writ+ implem5t ) lead ?r\gh ! c5t]40 8,a door is an ob/acle design$ to sw+ 9 & out to op5 & close an entrance40 8,an eras] is an implem5t made to rub out writt5 or pr9t$ *>act]s40 ,^! def9itions1 com+ f tra9+ s*ool /ud5ts1 are n above criticism1 yet !y illu/rate ! po9t 9 h&4 #g4 ,,! ,,rules ,,( ,,logical ,,def9ition4 ,five rules summ>ize ! requirem5ts to :i* a logical def9ition mu/ con=m4 ,,fir/ ,,rule4 ,a logical def9ition %\ld /ate ! ess5tial attributes ( ! species def9$4 ,?is means t a logical def9ition %\ld conta9 ! species1 ! proximate g5us & ! diff]5tia4 ,z ! t]ms species1 g5us & diff]5tia h be5 expla9$1 x w be suffici5t to briefly illu/rate ?is rule4 ,logical ,accord+ to ! ,fir/ ,rule4 species g5us diff]5tia 7#a7 ,a is a ) 4 bird bip$ fea!rs species g5us diff]5tia 7#b7 ,a is a 4 mascot p]son suppos$ to br+ good luck species g5us diff]5tia 7#c7 is a ( 4 ,religion sy/em fai? & wor%ip species g5us diff]5tia 7#d7 ,a is a 4 moonbeam ray ( light f ! moon ,illogical ,accord+ to ! ,fir/ ,rule4 7#a7 ,a man is a rational animal4 78,bip$0 is ! proximate g5us1 n 8animal407 7#b7 ,a ,connotative t]m always d5otes bo? an object & an attribute4 7,no g5us47 7#c7 ,a trigon is a polygon4 7,no diff]5tia47 7#d7 ,x is a t]m :i* d5otes an indef9ite numb] ( objects or attributes4 7,no species47 ,! ,=ego+ ,illogical ,def9itions ,made ,logical4 7#a7 ,a man is a rational bip$4 7#b7 ,a ,connotative t]m is a t]m :i* d5otes bo? an object & an attribute4 7#c7 ,a trigon is a polygon ( ?ree angles4 7#d7 ,a g5]al t]m is a t]m :i* d5otes an indef9ite numb] ( objects or attributes4 ,,second ,,rule4 ,a logical def9ition %\ld be exactly equival5t to ! species def9$4 ,?is means t ! species mu/ equal ! g5us plus ! diff]5tia or ! subject & pr$icate ( ! def9ition mu/ be co-ext5sive( ! same bigness4 ,! subject mu/ ref] to ! same numb] ( objects z ! pr$icate4 ,a man ^u ! witness /& makes ! decl>ation t he w te/ify to ! tru?1 ! :ole tru? & no?+ b ! tru?4 ,a logical def9ition mu/ conta9 ! species1 ! :ole species & no?+ b ! species4 ,if ! def9ition does n include all ! species1 x is too n>r[2 :ile on ! o!r h&1 if x includes o!r species ( ! g5us x is too broad4 ,an excell5t te/ ( ?is second requirem5t is to int]*ange subject & pr$icate4 ,if ! int]*ang$ proposition means ! same z ! orig9al !n ! conditions h be5 met4 ,to illu/rate3 ,orig9al,a trigon is a polygon ( ?ree angles4 ,int]*ang$,a polygon ( ?ree angles is a trigon4 ,! v be/ way ( mak+ ! def9ition con=m to ?is rule is to put to oneself ^! ?ree que/ions3 #a4 ,does x include all ( ! species8 #b4 ,does x exclude all o!r species ( ! g5us8 #c4 ,has x any unnecess>y m>ks8 ,to exemplify3 ,let u ask ! ?ree que/ions relative to ! foll[+ logical def9itions3 7#a7 ,a p>allelogram is a quadrilat]al ^: opposite sides are p>allel4 7#b7 ,a bird is a bip$ ) fea!rs4 ,que/ions3 7#a7 ,does ! def9ition include all ! p>allelograms8 ,yes4 ,does x exclude all o!r quadrilat]als8 ,yes4 ,are !re any unnecess>y m>ks8 ,no4 7#b7 ,does x include all birds8 ,yes4 ,does x exclude all o!r bip$s8 ,yes4 ,any unnecess>y m>ks8 ,no4 ,illogical ,accord+ to ! ,second ,rule4 7#a7 ,a man is a v]tebrate animal4 7,too broad4 ,does n exclude o!r species ( ! g5us1 su* z horses1 dogs1 etc47 7#b7 ,a b>n is a build+ :]e horses are kept4 7,too n>r[4 ,does n include all ( ! species1 su* z c[ b>n47 7#c7 ,an equilat]al triangle is a triangle all ( ^: sides & angles are equal4 7,equal angles is an unnecess>y m>k47 ,! ,=ego+ ,def9itions ,made ,logical4 7#a7 ,a man is a rational bip$4 7,proximate g5us47 7#b7 ,a b>n is a build+ :]e horses & cattle are kept & hay & gra9 are /or$4 7#c7 ,an equilat]al triangle is a triangle all ( ^: sides are equal4 ,,?ird ,,rule4 ,a def9ition mu/ n repeat ! "n to be def9$ nor conta9 any synonym ( x4 ,a violation ( ?is rule is kn[n z 8a circle 9 def9+0 7circulus 9 def9i5do74 ,!re are "s exceptions to ?is rule1 z 9 ! case ( comp\nd words & a species :i* takes its "n f its proximate g5us4 ,to say t a hobby-horse is a horse1 or t an equilat]al triangle is a triangle1 is n only all[able b necess>y1 t ! proximate g5us may be us$4 ,! foll[+ def9itions are illogical accord+ to ! ?ird rule3 7#a7 ,a tea*] is "o :o tea*es4 7#b7 ,life is ! sum ( ! vital functions4 7#c7 ,a s5sation is t :i* comes to ! m9d ?r\gh ! s5ses4 ,,f\r? ,,rule4 ,a def9ition mu/ n be express$ 9 obscure1 figurative or ambigu\s language4 ,a violation ( ?is rule is ref]r$ to 9 logic z 8def9+ ! unkn[n by ! /ill m unkn[n0 7ignotum p] ignotius74 ,x is kn[n t ! purpose ( def9ition is to make cle> "s obscure t]m1 consequ5tly unless e ^w us$ is und]/ood ! *ief aim ( ! def9ition has be5 defeat$4 ,f ?is x mu/ n be inf]r$ t all def9itions %\ld be free f te*nical t]ms4 ,su* a re/riction w\ld make ! def9+ ( _m t]ms unsatisfactory & 9 a few cases practically impossible4 ,to ! /ud5t ( evolution ! foll[+ def9ition by ,sp5c] is intelligible :ile to ! un9itiat$ x w\ld appe> obscure3 8,evolution is a cont9u\s *ange f an indef9ite1 incoh]5t homog5eity to a def9ite coh]5t het]og5eity ?r\gh successive diff]5tiations & integrations40 ,?is rule insi/s ^u simple language :5 x is possible to use su* 9 giv+ an accurate & compreh5sive mean+ to ! t]m def9$4 ,illogical ,def9itions ,accord+ to ! ,f\r? ,rule4 7#a7 8,a net is some?+ :i* is reticulat$ & decussat$1 ) int]/ices betwe5 ! int]sections40 ,dr4 ,johnson4 7#b7 8,?\ght is only a cognition ( ! necess>y relations ( our concepts40 7#c7 8,! s\l is ! entele*y1 or fir/ =m ( an organiz$ body :i* has pot5tial life40 ,ari/otle4 ,,fif? ,,rule4 ,:5 possible ! def9ition mu/ be affirmative r ?an negative4 ,! fact t !re are a consid]able numb] ( t]ms :i* admit ( a negative def9ition only1 takes f ! =ce ( ?is rule4 ,su* t]ms z deafness1 inexpressible1 infidel & ! l c be/ be def9$ negatively4 ,x likewise happ5s t :5 words are us$ 9 pairs x is exp$i5t to def9e "o affirmatively & ! o!r negatively4 ,recall1 = example1 ! def9itions ( relative & absolute t]ms3 8,a relative t]m is "o :i* ne$s ano!r t]m to make its mean+ cle>40 8,an absolute t]m is "o :i* does n ne$ ano!r t]m to make its mean+ cle>40 ,illogical ,def9itions ,accord+ to ! ,fif? ,rule4 7#a7 ,a g5tleman is a man :o is n rude4 7#b7 ,an elem5t is a sub/ance :i* is n a comp\nd4 7#c7 ,an univocal t]m is a t]m :i* does n h m ?an "o mean+4 #h4 ,,t]ms ,,:i* ,,_c ,,be ,,def9$ ,,logically4 ,a logical def9ition insi/s ^u a proximate g5us & diff]5tia4 ,b z !re is no g5us high] ?an ! highe/ g5us 7summum g5us7 !n surely su* _c be def9$ logically4 ,! words be+ & ?+ illu/rate t]ms ( ?is class4 ,moreov]1 x is impossible to give a satisfactory def9ition ( an individual 7infima species7 z no attributes c be m5tion$ :i* w di/+ui% def9itely & p]man5tly ! individual f o!rs ( ! class4 ,we may p]ceive ! attributes b n ^? t are possess$ solely by ! individual4 ,to say t ,abraham ,l9coln 0 a man :o 0 simple & hone/ is n a def9ition1 z o!r m5 h _h ! same *>act]i/ics4 ,aga9 !re are a few t]ms su* z life1 dea?1 "t & space :i* _c be def9$ satisfactorily4 ,^! t]ms seem to be 9 a class by !mselves or ( _! own g5us 7sui g5]is74 ,s9ce a def9ition ( a t]m is a brief explanation ( x by means ( its attributes1 x foll[s t collective t]ms & t]ms /&+ = a s+le attribute are incapable ( def9ition4 ,su* t]ms z gr\p1 pa91 attribute1 belong to ?is class4 ,we may say1 !n1 t !re are "s t]ms too high1 "s too l[ & "s too peculi> to come )9 ! prov9ce ( logical def9ition4 ,9 %ort1 8summum g5us10 8infima species0 & 8sui g5]is0 are incapable ( def9ition4 #i4 ,,def9itions ,,( ,,common ,,educational ,,t]ms4 7#a7 ,developm5t is ! process :]eby ! lat5t possibilities ( an individual are unfold$ or ! invisible conditions ( a situation are made app>5t4 ,developm5t means expansion accord+ to pr9ciple1 :ile unfold+ may or may n involve a pr9ciple4 7#b7 ,education is ! process employ$ 9 develop+ sy/ematically1 symmetrically & progressively all ( ! capabilities ( a s+le life2 or 7#c7 ,education is ! process ( modify+ exp]i5ce 9 ord] to make ! life z valuable z x ought to be4 7#d7 ,tea*+ is ! art ( occasion+ ^? activities :i* result 9 k1 p[] & skill4 ,x is ! duty ( ! true tea*] to inspire ! *ild to activity along "r l9es4 ,?r\gh 8 own activity ! *ild %apes 8 inn] _w :i* is sometimes t]m$ "*4 ,k is any?+ kn[n1 p[] is ability to act1 skill is a read9ess ( action4 7#e7 ,in/ruction is ! art ( occasion+ ^? activities :i* result 9 k4 ,in/ruction develops ! und]/&+2 tea*+ develops "*4 7#f7 ,tra9+ is ! occasion+ ( ^? activities :i*1 by means ( direct$ ex]cise1 result 9 p[] & skill4 ,tra9+ & education are n int]*angeable4 ,tra9+ implies an outside au?ority1 :ile education1 :i* involves inn] developm5t1 may proce$ )\t sup]vision4 7#g7 ,k is any?+ acquir$ by ! act ( kn[+4 7#h7 ,le>n+ is ! act ( acquir+ k or skill4 7#i7 ,in/ruction1 tra9+1 tea*+1 le>n+ & education all involve activity4 ,in/ruction ar\ses activity :i* results 9 k2 tra9+ directs activity :i* produces p[] & skill2 tea*+ includes bo? in/ruction & tra9+4 ,le>n+ is an activity :i* results 9 k & skill1 :ile education is a develop+ process :i* involves all ! o!rs4 7#aj7 ,a sci5ce is k classifi$ = ! purpose ( discov]+ g5]al tru?s4 7#aa7 ,an art is a skillful application ( k & p[] to practice4 8,a sci5ce tea*es u to "k1 an art to d40 7#ab7 ,a fact is a s+le1 individual1 p>ticul> ?+ made or done4 ,a tru? is g5]al k :i* exactly con=ms to ! facts4 ,a tru? may be a def9ition1 rule1 law1 or pr9ciple4 7#ac7 ,a fact z oppos$ to hypo!sis is an occurr5ce :i* is true beyond d\bt4 ,an hypo!sis is a supposition advanc$ to expla9 an occurr5ce or a gr\p ( occurr5ces4 ,a !ory is a g5]al hypo!sis :i* has be5 p>tly v]ifi$4 7#ad7 ,!ory z oppos$ to practice means g5]al k1 :ile practice involves ! putt+ into op]ation "o's !ories4 7#ae7 ,a fact z oppos$ to ph5om5on is some?+ accompli%$4 ,a ph5om5on is some?+ %[n4 7#af7 ,a me?od-:ole is any subdivision ( ! matt] = in/ruction :i* leads to a g5]alization4 7#ag7 ,me?od is an ord]ly proc$ure accord+ to a recogniz$ sy/em ( rules & pr9ciples4 ,z ! t]m is commonly us$ x includes n only ! arrangem5t ( ! subject matt] = in/ruction b ! mode ( pres5t+ ! same to ! m9d4 7#ah7 ,induction is ! process ( proce$+ f ! less g5]al to ! m g5]al4 ,d$uction is ! process ( proce$+ f ! m g5]al to ! less g5]al4 7#ai7 ,! t]ms induction & d$uction may h ref]5ce to =ms ( reason+ or to me?ods ( tea*+4 ,! inductive me?od is ! me?od ( d]iv+ a g5]al tru? f individual in/ances4 ,! d$uctive me?od is ! me?od ( apply+ a g5]al tru? to individual in/ances4 ,! inductive me?od is objective1 :ile ! d$uctive me?od is subjective4 ,induction is ! me?od ( discov]y2 d$uction is ! me?od ( in/ruction4 7#bj7 ,analysis is ! process ( sep>at+ a :ole into its relat$ p>ts4 ,syn!sis is ! process ( unit+ ! relat$ p>ts to =m ! :ole4 7#ba7 ,! analytic me?od is ! me?od ( proce$+ f ! :ole to ! relat$ p>ts4 ,! syn!tic me?od is ! me?od ( proce$+ f ! relat$ p>ts to ! complet$ :ole4 7#bb7 ,analysis & syn!sis deal ) s+le ?+s1 :ile induction & d$uction are conc]n$ ) classes ( ?+s4 7#bc7 ,! complete me?od consi/s ( ?ree elem5ts3 7#a7 induction1 7#b7 d$uction1 7#c7 v]ification or pro(4 ,:5 ! emphasis is plac$ on ! inductive phase1 ! complete me?od is sometimes t]m$ ! developm5t me?od4 #aj4 ,,outl9e4 ,,def9ition4 7#a7 ,importance4 7#b7 ,! ,pr$icables4 ,g5usspeciessummum g5usinfima species4 ,proximate ,g5us4 ,g5us & ,species ( ,natural ,hi/ory4 ,g5us1 ,d\ble mean+ ( ,diff]5tia4 ,prop]ty4 ,accid5t4 ,sep>able1 ,insep>able4 7#c7 ,nature ( ,def9ition4 7#d7 ,def9ition & ,division ,comp>$4 7#e7 ,! ,k9ds ( ,def9itions4 7#a7 ,etymological4 7#b7 ,descriptive4 7#c7 ,logical4 ,,?ree ,,k9ds ,,illu/rat$ ,,& ,,comp>$4 7#f7 ,:5 ! ,?ree ,k9ds are ,s]viceable4 7#g7 ,! ,rules ( ,logical ,def9ition4 7#a7 ,ess5tials4 7#b7 ,same size4 7#c7 ,d n repeat4 7#d7 ,unambigu\s4 7#e7 ,language affirmative4 7#h7 ,t]ms ,:i* ,_c be ,def9$ ,logically4 ,summum g5us4 ,infima species4 ,sui g5]is4 ,collective t]ms4 ,a s+le attribute4 #aa4 ,,summ>y4 7#a7 ,to be logical "o mu/ acquire ! habit ( accurate def9ition4 ,?is topic ought to appeal /rongly to ! s*ool tea*]1 :o %\ld above all o!rs make 8 "w /& = cle>ness1 po9t$ness & cont9uity4 7#b7 ,a pr$icable is a t]m :i* c be affirm$ or pr$icat$ ( any subject4 ,! five pr$icables are ,g5us1 ,species1 ,diff]5tia1 ,prop]ty & ,accid5t4 7#a7 ,a ,g5us is a t]m :i* /&s = two or m subord9ate classes4 7#b7 ,a ,species is a t]m :i* repres5ts "o ( ! subord9ate classes4 ,! proximate g5us ( a species is ! next class above ! species1 :ile ! summum g5us is ! highe/ possible class 9 any grad$ s]ies ( t]ms4 ,! l[e/ class is ! infima species ( t s]ies4 ,! l[e/ class may be individual4 ,9 natural hi/ory g5us & species are n relative t]ms1 b absolute1 hav+ a fix$ place 9 ! s]ies ( gradations4 ,! t]m g5us possesses a d\ble mean+3 x may be us$ to repres5t objects 7ext5sionally7 or qualities 7int5sionally74 7#c7 ,! diff]5tia is t attribute :i* di/+ui%es a giv5 species f all ! o!r species ( ! g5us4 7#d7 ,a prop]ty ( a t]m is any attribute :i* helps to make t t]m :at x is4 ,diff]5tia is a prop]ty accord+ to def9ition4 ,"s logicians w\ld n include ! diff]5tia 9 ! cont5t ( ! t]m prop]ty4 7#e7 ,an accid5t ( a t]m is any attribute :i* does n help to make x :at x is4 ,"s au?orities divide accid5ts into sep>able & insep>able4 7#c7 ,a def9ition ( a t]m is a /atem5t ( its mean+ by enum]at+ its *>act]i/ic attributes4 7#d7 ,def9itions expla9 a t]m int5sionally1 :ile logical division expla9s a t]m ext5sionally4 7#e7 ,!re are ?ree k9ds ( def9itions3 7#a7 etymological1 7#b7 descriptive1 7#c7 logical4 ,an etymological def9ition is bas$ ^u ! d]ivation ( ! t]m2 a descriptive def9ition /ates ! *>act]i/ic prop]ties & accid5ts ( a t]m1 :ile a logical def9ition is simply a /atem5t ( ! diff]5tia ( a t]m4 7#f7 ,! etymological def9ition leads to precision ( expression1 ! descriptive def9ition is be/ adapt$ to ! *ild-m9d1 :ile ! logical def9ition belongs to ! realm ( second>y education4 7#g7 ,five rules summ>ize ! requirem5ts to :i* a logical def9ition mu/ con=m4 ,9 a ^w or two ^! five rules are3 ,e logical def9ition mu/ 7#a7 /ate ! g5us & diff]5tia1 7#b7 be equival5t to ! species def9$1 7#c7 n repeat ! "n to be def9$1 7#d7 n be express$ 9 obscure language1 7#e7 commonly be affirmative4 7#h7 ,"s t]ms are too high 7summum g5us71 "s too l[ 7infima species71 "s too peculi> 7sui g5]is7 to come )9 ! prov9ce ( logical def9ition4 #ab4 ,,illu/rative ,,ex]cises4 #a;a4 ,! italiciz$ words 9 ! foll[+ propositions are pr$icables because !y are affirm$ ( ! subject3 7#a7 8,?is man weighs "o hundr$ fifty p\nds40 7#b7 8,a bird is a fea!r$ bip$40 7#c7 8,! e>ne/ tea*] is an indefatigable work]40 7#d7 8,walk+ is ! mo/ b5eficial outdoor ex]cise40 #a;b4 ,und]score ! pr$icables 9 ! foll[+3 7#a7 8,all m5 are rational40 7#b7 8,tea*]s mu/ be j40 7#c7 8,e =m ( unhapp9ess spr+s f a wrong condition ( ! m9d40 7#d7 8,calmness ( m9d is "o ( ! beautiful jewels ( wisdom40 #b;a4 ,to cl>ify our ideas x is an excell5t plan to select a gr\p ( words belong+ to ! same g5us ) a view ( def9+ !m z simply & exp$iti\sly z possible4 ,z an illu/ration build+ may be select$ z a g5us4 ,! ^w k9d w sugge/ to u ! species1 su* z dwell+1 *ur*1 !atre1 s*ool1 b>n1 bird-h\se1 gran>y & smoke-h\se4 ,next x is necess>y to discov] ! basis ( di/9ction4 ,?is seems to be ! use to :i* ! build+ is put4 ,n[ we are ready = ! def9itions3 ,species ,g5us ,diff]5tia ,a dwell+ is a build+ :]e p live4 ,a *ur* is a build+ :]e p wor%ip4 ,a !atre is a build+ :]e p act4 ,a s*ool is a build+ :]e *ildr5 are taught4 ,a b>n is a build+ :]e dome/ic animals1 hay & gra9 are kept4 ,a bird-h\se is a build+ design$ = birds4 ,a gran>y is a build+ :]e gra9 is /or$4 ,a smoke-h\se is a build+ :]e meat is smok$4 #b;b4 ,by select+ man z ! g5us1 def9e ! t]ms ,caucasian1 ,mongolian1 ,e?iopian1 ,malay & ,am]ican ,indian4 ,treat ! t]m *air 9 ! same mann]4 #c;a4 ,"o may easily di/+ui% a prop]ty f an accid5t by ask+ himself ! "q1 8,w\ld subtract+ ! attribute f ! t]m alt] its id5tity08 ,= example 9 ! foll[+1 ,i f9d t ! words italiciz$ are prop]ties because subtract+ ea* f ! t]m *anges its id5tity3 ,t]m ,attributes man age1 rationality1 possessions4 book b9d+1 leaves1 size1 color1 cont5ts4 radium emits int5se light & heat1 co/s a million doll>s a p\nd4 snail air-brea?+ mollusk1 moves sl[ly4 slu% s(t mud & sn[1 six in*es deep4 #c;b4 ,indicate ! common attributes ( ! foll[+ t]ms1 und]scor+ ! prop]ties3 ,tree1 tea*]1 g>d51 h\se1 riv]4 #d4 ,! rules summ>ize well ! ess5tials ( ! subject matt] ( ! logical def9ition4 ,!re=e1 x is highly important = ! /ud5t to h ^! rules at ! 8tip ( ! tongue40 ,) ?is 9 view a device ( ?is nature may be helpful4 ,make ea* lett] ( ! ^w rules /& = ! initial lett] ( a sugge/ive ^w 9 ea* ( ! five rules4 ,= example3 r 7repeat71 u 7unambigu\s71 l 7language affirmative71 e 7ess5tial71 s 7same size74 ,) a little /udy 8r & repeat10 8u & unambigu\s10 8l & language affirmative10 8e & ess5tial10 8s & same size0 may be firmly l9k$ toge!r 9 ! memory4 ,repeat sugge/s ! ?ird rule1 d n repeat ! "n1 etc42 unambigu\s1 ! f\r? rule1 n ambigu\s language1 etc42 language affirmative1 ! fif? rule2 ess5tials1 ! fir/ rule2 same size1 ! second rule1 subject & pr$icate mu/ be ( same size4 ,! fact t ! rules are n recall$ 9 ord] ( treatm5t is inconsequ5tial4 ,x is ! writ]'s exp]i5ce t fifte5 m9utes ( conc5trat$ /udy ^u ?is device or "o simil> to x w indelibly /amp ^u ! m9d ^! tr\blesome rules4 ,! /ud5t may be able to devise a m helpful keyword4 #ac4 ,,review ,,que/ions4 7#a7 ,:y %\ld ! subject ( def9ition appeal /rongly to ! s*ool tea*]8 7#b7 ,def9e a pr$icable4 7#c7 ,"n 9 ord] ! five pr$icables4 7#d7 ,def9e & illu/rate ! t]ms g5us & species4 7#e7 ,expla9 ! t]ms summum g5us1 infima species1 sui g5]is4 7#f7 ,illu/rate proximate g5us4 7#g7 ,expla9 ! t]ms g5us & species z us$ 9 natural hi/ory4 7#h7 ,exemplify ! d\ble mean+ ( ! g5us man4 7#i7 ,def9e & illu/rate diff]5tia4 7#aj7 ,9 :at s5se is ! species a ri*] t]m ?an ! g5us8 7#aa7 ,di/+ui% betwe5 prop]ty & accid5t4 7#ab7 ,illu/rate sep>able & insep>able accid5ts4 7#ac7 ,give descriptive def9itions ( ! foll[+1 indicat+ ! five pr$icables3 logic1 g5]al t]m1 non-connotative t]m1 obv]sion4 7#ad7 ,def9e def9ition2 illu/rate4 7#ae7 ,di/+ui% betwe5 def9ition & division4 7#af7 ,"n1 def9e & illu/rate ! ?ree k9ds ( def9itions4 7#ag7 ,di/+ui% betwe5 real & v]bal def9itions4 7#ah7 ,def9e 9 ?ree ways ! foll[+3 k+1 gov]nm5t1 city1 metal4 7#ai7 ,/ate ! rules ( logical def9ition4 7#bj7 ,:at words may be us$ z cues to aid 9 recall+ ! rules = logical def9ition8 7#ba7 ,"u :at circum/ances w ! wise tea*] make use ( ea* ( ?ree k9ds ( def9itions8 7#bb7 ,relative to ! second rule = logical def9ition :at are ! ?ree que/ions t "o %\ld ask himself8 7#bc7 ,expla9 ! exceptions to ! ?ird rule4 7#bd7 ,9 connection ) ! f\r? rule :at may be said z to ! use ( te*nical t]ms8 7#be7 ,:at facts take f ! =ce ( ! fif? rule8 7#bf7 ,:at classes ( words d n admit ( logical def9ition8 ,illu/rate4 7#bg7 ,def9e education1 tea*+1 in/ruction1 tra9+4 7#bh7 ,di/+ui% by illu/ration betwe5 induction & syn!sis2 d$uction & analysis4 #ad4 ,,que/ions ,,= ,,orig9al ,,?\ght ,,& ,,inve/igation4 7#a7 ,:y %\ld ! s*ol> be tempt$ to speak & write illogically8 7#b7 ,"n ! p>ts ( spee* t may be class$ z pr$icables4 7#c7 ,expla9 ! t5 categories z giv5 by ,ari/otle4 7#d7 ,%[ t g5us & species are relative t]ms4 7#e7 ,:y %\ld ! def9ition be ne$$ mo/ 9 ! ab/ract sci5ces1 su* z !ology1 e?ics1 political economy1 juris-prud5ce & psy*ology8 7#f7 ,def9e s91 life1 wrong1 p]sonality1 habit1 "*4 7#g7 ,f ! viewpo9t ( natural hi/ory f9d ! species 9 ! s]ies ( t]ms ( :i* polygon is a memb]4 7#h7 ,:at is ! plural ( diff]5tia8 7#i7 ,:y %\ld logic insi/ ^u ! proximate g5us8 7#aj7 7a7 ,man is a rational animal4 7b7 ,man is a rational bip$ 7proximate g5us74 ,9 ! case ( ! immature m9d ! fir/ def9ition w\ld be cle>]4 ,:y8 7#aa7 8,a prop]ty ( a t]m is any m>k or *>act]i/ic :i* belongs to t t]m40 ,is ?is def9ition logical8 ,give reasons4 7#ab7 ,:at is ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! logical & ! popul> conception ( prop]ty8 7#ac7 ,is !re any diff]5ce betwe5 ! logical & popul> conception ( accid5ts8 7#ad7 8,! t]m conf]5tia might be us$ to /& = ! ess5ce ( ! g5us1 z ! t]m diff]5tia repres5ts ! ess5ce ( ! species40#f ,expla9 ?is4 7#ae7 ,john ,/u>t ,mill affirms t !re is no su* ?+ z a real def9ition4 ,discuss ?is4 7#af7 ,9 y\r op9ion1 ( ! five rules ( logical def9ition :at "o is violat$ mo/ by ! av]age tea*]8 ,give reasons4 7#ag7 ,di/+ui% betwe5 symbol & cont5t4 7#ah7 ,:y are descriptive def9itions be/ = "y *ildr58 ,:at educational pr9ciple is involv$8 7#ai7 ,f ! /&po9t ( ! five rules = logical def9ition criticise ! foll[+3 7#a7 ,a man is a reasonable v]tebrate4 7#b7 ,a g5tleman is a man ) no visible means ( support4 7#c7 ,a man is an organiz$ entity ^: cognitive p[]s function rationally4 7#d7 ,a metal is an elem5t ) a metallic lu/]4 7#e7 ,a triangle is a figure ( ?ree sides4 7#f7 ,a tea*] is "o :o imp>ts k4 7#g7 ,education is ! process ( draw+ out all t is beautiful 9 ! body & noble 9 ! s\l4 7#h7 ,a democrat is a man :o believes 9 free trade4 7#i7 ,a gov]nm5t is a commonweal? controll$ by direct vote ( ! p4 7#bj7 ,write ! =ego+ def9itions 9 logical =m4 7#ba7 ,s9ce man is ! only animal giv5 to laught]1 :y is n ! foll[+ a logical def9ition3 8,man is a laugh+ animal40 7#bb7 8,a logical def9ition %\ld conta9 ! species1 ! g5us & ! appropriate diff]5tia40 ,is !re any reason = us+ ! t]m appropriate8 7#bc7 ,9 connection ) g5us & species expla9 subalt]n4 7#bd7 ,is laught] a prop]ty ( human be+ or an accid5t8 7#be7 ,%[ h[ a p$agogue may be an in/ructor b n a tea*]4 7#bf7 ,illu/rate ! complete me?od4 7#bg7 ,%[ t induction may consi/ ( a s]ies ( analyses2 also a s]ies ( syn!ses4 ,,*apt] #g4 ,,logical ,,division ,,& ,,classification4 #a4 ,,nature ,,( ,,logical ,,division4 ,! t]m g5us is us$ = any class "n :i* /&s = two or m subord9ate classes :ile ! t]m species is made to /& = any "o ( ! subord9ate classes4 ,! proximate g5us ( any species is ! next class above4 ,= example ! proximate g5us ( man is bip$1 n animal4 ,logical division is ! process ( sep>at+ a proximate g5us into its co-ord9ate species4 ,,illu/rations3 ,g5us ,species ,fix$ />s ,planets 7#a7 ,heav5ly bodies ,satellites ,comets ,meteors ,nebulae ,leptoc>dians ,fi%es 7#b7 ,v]tebrates ,amphibians ,reptiles ,birds ,mammals ,caucasian ,mongolian 7#c7 ,man ,malay ,e?iopian ,am]ican ,indian ,mon>*y 7#d7 ,gov]nm5t ,ari/ocracy ,democracy #b4 ,,logical ,,division ,,di/+ui%$ ,,f ,,enum]ation4 ,:5 ! g5us is sep>at$ at once into individual objects ! process is n logical division1 b simple enum]ation4 ,logical division implies a sep>at+ into small] class t]ms1 ea* t]m be+ a g5us ( /ill small] subdivisions4 ,?is process may be cont9u$ till ! la/ division gives individuals z species4 ,enum]ation takes place :5 ! fir/ subdivision results 9 a li/ ( individuals4 ,to illu/rate3 ,logical ,division4 ,sci5ce tea*] ,tea*] ,ma!matics tea*] ,engli% tea*] ,mod]n language tea*] ,enum]ation4 ,john ,j4 ,br[n ,tea*] ,h4 ,g4 ,:ite ,m>y ,jones ,alice ,smi? #c4 ,,logical ,,division ,,z ,,p>tition4 ,p>tition is ! process ( sep>at+ an individual ?+ into its p>ts4 ,! p>tition is quantitative or ma!matical :5 ! sep>ation is 9 t]ms ( space or "t1 b :5 o!rwise ! p>tition becomes qualitative or logical4 ,or to put x 9 ano!r way1 ! p>tition is ma!matical :5 ! sep>ation gives p>ts & logical :5 ! sep>ation gives +r$i5ts4 ,to illu/rate3 bran*es quantitative leaves or roots 7ma!matical7 trunk 7#a7 ,tree qualitative woody fibre or capill>y attraction 7logical7 sap *lorophyll quantitative ro( or frame-"w 7ma!matical7 f\ndation 7#b7 ,h\se qualitative wood or iron 7logical7 /one pla/] ,an easy way to det]m9e t ! sep>ation involves logical division prop] & n p>tition is to affirm ! connection betwe5 a class & a sub-class4 ,to wit3 ,a man is a bip$2 a squ>e is a rectangle2 a ,caucasian is a man1 etc4 ,if su* an affirmation _c be made !n ! sep>ation involv$ is n prop]ly logical division b probably p>tition4 ,= example x _c be said t a ro( is a h\se1 or t sap is a tree4 ,x is se51 !n1 t a logical division ( any g5us may be summ>iz$ 9 ! =m ( a s]ies ( judgm5ts ( :i* a species is ! subject & ! g5us is ! pr$icate4 ,= example1 by a logical division quadrilat]als may be divid$ into trapeziums1 trapezoids & p>allelograms2 ?is process may !n be summ>iz$ 9 a s]ies ( ?ree judgm5ts3 7#a7 ,a trapezium is a quadrilat]al2 7#b7 ,a trapezoid is a quadrilat]al2 7#c7 ,a p>allelogram is a quadrilat]al4 #d4 ,,rules ,,( ,,logical ,,division4 ,:5 ! logical division ( a g5us is "u consid]ation !re are f\r rules :i* %\ld be obs]v$4 ,,fir/ ,,rule4 ,!re mu/ be b "o pr9ciple ( division 7fundam5tum divisionis74 ,to divide mank9d into :ite man1 ,au/ralian1 yell[ man1 ,african & r$ man is a violation ( ?is rule z ! two pr9ciples ( color & geographical location are involv$4 ,a division 9 :i* m ?an "o pr9ciple is us$ is sometimes ref]r$ to z cross division because ! v>i\s species cross ea* o!r4 ,= example 9 ! =ego+ !re are _m :ite m5 :o are ,au/ralians4 ,?is rule applies only to "o division4 ,:]e !re is a s]ies ( divisions a new pr9ciple may be employ$ 9 ea* division4 ,= example1 9 divid+ triangles into scal5e1 isosceles & equilat]al1 ! equality ( sides is ! pr9ciple involv$1 b1 9 subdivid+ isosceles triangles into "r angl$ & oblique angl$1 ! pr9ciple employ$ conc]ns ! nature ( ! angle4 ,,second ,,rule4 ,! co-ord9ate species mu/ be mutually exclusive4 ,!re mu/ be no ov]lapp+4 ,! illu/ration giv5 9 ! fir/ rule is likewise a violation ( ?is rule4 ,ano!r example 9 :i* ?is second rule is n obey$ may be f\nd 9 mo/ geometries :]e triangles are divid$ into scal5e1 isosceles & equilat]al4 ,"h ! second & ?ird classes are n mutually exclusive s9ce all equilat]al triangles are isosceles accord+ to ! usual def9ition1 8,an isosceles triangle is a triangle hav+ two equal sides40 ,all equilat]al triangles h two equal sides4 ,,?ird ,,rule4 ,! division mu/ be exhau/ive4 ,t is1 ! species tak5 toge!r mu/ equal ! :ole g5us4 ,! sum ( ! species mu/ be co-ext5sive ) ! g5us4 ,divid+ man into ,caucasian1 ,e?iopian & ,mongolian w\ld be a violation ( ?is rule1 z !re are at lea/ two o!r species ( man1 ,malay & ,am]ican ,indian4 ,a di/9ction %\ld be made betwe5 an exhau/ive division & a complete division z ! latt] is n a logical requirem5t4 ,to divide gov]nm5t into mon>*y1 ari/ocracy & democracy is exhau/ive b incomplete4 ,exhau/ive because !re is no o!r k9d ( gov]nm5t1 all ! species are includ$2 b incomplete 9 t mon>*y may be divid$ into absolute & limit$2 democracy into pure & repres5tative4 ,,f\r? ,,rule4 ,! division mu/ proce$ f ! proximate g5us to ! imm$iate species4 ,!re %\ld be no sudd5 jumps f a high g5us to a l[ species4 ,! division mu/ be gradual & cont9u\s2 /ep by /ep4 ,to divide gov]nm5t into limit$ mon>*y1 absolute mon>*y1 pure democracy & repres5tative democracy w\ld be a violation ( ?is rule1 z gov]nm5t is ! proximate g5us ( mon>*y1 n ( limit$ mon>*y1 !re=e "o /ep has be5 omitt$4 ,su* an omission involves a /ep f gr&fa!r to gr&*ild1 s to speak1 ! g5]ation ( fa!r hav+ be5 left out4 ,a violation ( ?is rule is mo/ insidi\s :5 "s ( ! species ( a subdivision are imm$iate :ile o!rs are n4 ,to wit3 divid+ gov]nm5t into mon>*y1 ari/ocracy1 pure democracy & republic1 or divid+ quadrilat]als into trapeziums1 trapezoids1 rectangles1 squ>es1 rhomboids & rhombs4 #e4 ,,di*otomy4 ,di*otomy comes f ! ,greek1 mean+ to cut 9 two4 ,di*otomy is a cont9ual division ( a g5us into two species :i* are contradictory 9 nature4 ,contradictory t]ms are su* z admit ( no middle gr\nd4 ,!y divide ! :ole univ]se ( ?\ght into two classes4 ,= example1 hone/ & n-hone/1 pure & impure1 p]fect & imp]fect1 are contradictory t]ms4 ,di*otomy ?us af=ds an easy opportunity = an exhau/ive division z 9 ! use ( contradictories no?+ 9 ! univ]se ne$ be omitt$4 ,an hi/orical illu/ration ( di*otomy is ! 8,tree ( ,porphyry0 nam$ aft] ,porphyrius1 a ,neo-,platonic philosoph] ( ! ?ird c5tury4 ,tree ( ,porphyry4 ,sub/ance4 _/ _/ ,corporeal ,incorporeal ,body _/ _/ ,animate ,inanimate ,liv+ ,be+ _/ _/ ,s5sible ,ins5sible ,animal _/ _/ ,rational ,irrational ,man _/ _/ _/ ,socrates ,plato ,o!r ,m5 ,?is k9d ( division is n altoge!r satisfactory z ! negative side is too indef9ite4 ,on ! o!r h&1 if bo? subdivisions are made positive !n !re is dang] ( mak+ ! oppos+ t]ms contr>y r ?an contradictory4 ,?is1 ( c\rse1 w\ld be a s]i\s logical fallacy1 z contr>y t]ms admit ( middle gr\nd :ile contradictory t]ms give no *oice1 x is ei!r ! "o or ! o!r4 ,! use ( di*otomy becomes evid5t 9 situations :]e new & unexpect$ discov]ies may be made4 ,)\t di/urb+ ! classification ! new species may be app5d$ to ! negative side ( ! division4 ,! foll[+ illu/rates3 ,v]tebrates ,leptoc>dians ,n-leptoc>dians ,fi% ,n-fi% ,amphibians ,n-amphibians ,reptiles ,n-reptiles ,birds ,n-birds ,mammals ,n-mammals ,! ,new ,species #f4 ,,classification,,comp>$ ,,) ,,division4 ,classification is ! process ( gr\p+ notions accord+ to _! resemblances or connections4 ,s f> z results are conc]n$ !re is no diff]5ce betwe5 logical division & classification4 ,bo? processes may give u ! same ord]ly s*eme ( heads & subheads4 ,! diff]5ce lies 9 ! process itself4 ,division is d$uctive 9 nature z x proce$s f ! m g5]al g5us to ! less g5]al species4 ,:ile classification is inductive z x gr\ps ! less g5]al species "u ! m g5]al g5us4 ,division diff]5tiates unity into multiplicity1 :ile classification r$uces multiplicity to unity4 ,x foll[s t ! "o is ! inv]se ( ! o!r4 ,! diff]5ce 9 ! mode ( proc$ure may be illu/rat$ by us+ ! common classification or division ( triangles4 ,= example3 ,)\t any k ( ! k9ds ( triangles ! /ud5t discov]s by exam9+ ! v>i\s %apes ( _m triangles t !re is a gr\p 9 :i* none ( ! sides are equal4 ,= ! lack ( a bett] "n he t]ms ^! non-equilat]al 7scal5e74 ,fur!r obs]vation discloses ano!r gr\p 9 :i* two ( ! sides are equal4 ,^! he names bi-equilat]al 7isosceles74 ,f9ally a ?ird gr\p is designat$ z tri-equilat]al 7equilat]al74 ,?is process is classification4 ,division w\ld consi/ 9 sep>at+ ! g5us triangle into ! ?ree k9dsscal5e1 isosceles1 equilat]al4 #g4 ,,k9ds ,,( ,,classification,,artificial ,,& ,,natural4 ,an artificial classification is "o 9 :i* ! gr\p+ is made on ! basis ( "s arbitr>y connection4 ,catalogu+ alphabetically ! books 9 a libr>y illu/rates ?is k9d ( classification4 ,likewise ! arrangem5t ( ! names 9 a directory or a telephone book4 ,! connect+ m>k be+ ! initial lett] ( ! title or "n4 ,! reason :y ,mills & ,mey]s are put 9 ! same gr\p is t bo? names happ5 to comm5ce ) ! lett] ,m4 ,artificial classifications are resort$ to = "s special purpose1 design$ by man1 n by nature4 ,consequ5tly artificial classifications are sometimes call$ special or work+ classifications4 ,a natural classification is "o 9 :i* ! gr\p+ is made on ! basis ( "s inh]5t m>k ( resemblance4 ,classifications 9 animal & plant life are ! be/ illu/rations ( ?is k9d4 ,su* classifications are sugge/$ by nature & n by man1 & may1 !re=e1 be call$ g5]al or sci5tific4 ,! ma9 aim ( natural classification is to d]ive g5]al tru?s & arrange k s t x may be easily rememb]$4 #h4 ,,two ,,rules ,,( ,,classification4 ,! rules ( logical division are applicable 9 ! mak+ ( a logical classification4 ,9 addition to ^! an artificial classification %\ld be made to con=m to ! "o rule3 ,! classification mu/ be appropriate to ! purpose 9 h&4 ,likewise a natural classification %\ld be made to con=m to ! rule3 ,e classification %\ld af=d opportunity = ! greate/ possible numb] ( g5]al ass]tions4 #i4 ,,use ,,( ,,division ,,& ,,classification ,,9 ,,! ,,s*ool ,,room4 ,x has be5 /at$ t classification & division aim at ! same result4 ,classification r$uces multiplicity to unity :ile division diff]5tiates unity into multiplicity4 ,9 %ort1 division is d$uctive :ile classification is inductive 9 mode ( proc$ure4 ,!re=e1 classification %\ld be us$ 9 ^? situations :i* call = induction & division 9 cases :]e d$uction is ! bett] me?od4 ,speak+ g5]ally1 classification %\ld be us$ ) small *ildr5 :5 ! ess5tial ?+ is to pres5t ! concrete facts ) a view ( lead+ ! *ildr5 to discov] = !mselves ! tru?s conta9$ !re94 ,) old] pupils division may be us$1 if ! purpose is to set 9 ord] facts :i* are already kn[n4 #aj4 ,,topical ,,outl9e4 ,,logical ,,division ,,& ,,classification4 7#a7 ,nature ( ,logical ,division4 ,g5usspecies4 ,illu/rations4 7#b7 ,logical ,division ,di/+ui%$ f ,enum]ation4 ,illu/rations4 7#c7 ,logical ,division & ,p>tition4 ,quantitativequalitative4 ,h[ summ>iz$4 7#d7 ,f\r ,rules ( ,logical ,division4 7#a7 ,"o pr9ciplecross division4 7#b7 ,mutually exclusive4 7#c7 ,exhau/ivecomplete4 7#d7 ,imm$iate species4 7#e7 ,di*otomy4 ,contradictory t]ms4 ,tree ( ,porphyry4 ,use illu/rat$4 7#f7 ,classification ,comp>$ ) ,division4 7#g7 ,k9ds4 ,artificial,natural4 7#h7 ,two ,rules ( ,classification4 7#a7 ,appropriate4 7#b7 ,af=d _m ,ass]tions4 7#i7 ,use ( ,division & ,classification4 #aa4 ,,summ>y4 7#a7 ,logical division is ! process ( sep>at+ a proximate g5us into its co-ord9ate species4 7#b7 ,! fir/ subdivision 9 a logical division gives class t]ms1 :ile ! fir/ subdivision 9 an enum]ation gives individual objects4 7#c7 ,p>tition is ! process ( sep>at+ an individual ?+ into its p>ts4 ,^! p>ts may be ei!r quantitative or qualitative4 ,a logical division ( any g5us may be summ>iz$ 9 a s]ies ( judgm5ts ( :i* a species is ! subject & ! g5us is ! pr$icate4 7#d7 ,! f\r rules ( logical division are3 ! division mu/ 7#a7 be bas$ on "o pr9ciple1 7#b7 h species mutually exclusive1 7#c7 be exhau/ive & 7#d7 proce$ f proximate g5us to imm$iate species4 ,a violation ( ! fir/ rule gives a cross division4 ,exhau/ive division is easily confus$ ) a complete or f9i%$ division4 7#e7 ,di*otomy is a cont9ual division ( a g5us into two species :i* are contradictory 9 nature4 ,an hi/orical illu/ration ( di*otomy is ! ,tree ( ,porphyry4 ,di*otomy is ( s]vice 9 ! field ( new & unexpect$ discov]ies4 7#f7 ,classification is ! process ( gr\p+ notions accord+ to _! resemblances or connections4 ,classification is inductive 9 nature1 division d$uctive4 ,classification unifies1 division diff]5tiates4 7#g7 ,an artificial classification is made on ! basis ( "s arbitr>y connection2 a natural classification1 on "s inh]5t m>k ( resemblance4 7#h7 ,! rules ( logical division are applicable 9 any classification4 ,9 addition to ^! a classification %\ld 7#a7 be appropriate & 7#b7 af=d opportunity = ! greate/ possible numb] ( ass]tions4 7#i7 ,classification %\ld be ! mode ( proc$ure 9 ! l[] grades1 division 9 ! high] grades4 #ab4 ,,review ,,que/ions4 7#a7 ,def9e & illu/rate logical division4 7#b7 ,:at is ! mean+ ( proximate g5us8 7#c7 ,h[ does logical division diff] f enum]ation8 ,illu/rate4 7#d7 ,di/+ui% betwe5 logical division1 & physical division or p>tition4 7#e7 ,illu/rate a quantitative p>tition2 a qualitative p>tition4 7#f7 ,illu/rate h[ a logical division may be summ>iz$ 9 ! =m ( a s]ies ( judgm5ts4 7#g7 ,/ate & expla9 ! rules ( logical division4 7#h7 ,/ate ! rules violat$ 9 ! foll[+ divisions1 expla9+ 9 full3 ,prim>y ,second>y 7#a7 ,education ,collegiate ,te*nical ,sci5tific ,pr(essional ,infancy 7#b7 ,life ,*ildhood ,y\? ,old age ,caucasian ,e?iopian 7#c7 ,man ,malay ,mongolian ,am]ican ,cem5t ,frame 7#d7 ,build+s ,/one ,dwell+s ,b>ns ,*ur*es 7#i7 ,%[ ! diff]5ce betwe5 contradictory & opposite t]ms4 7#aj7 ,def9e di*otomy4 7#aa7 ,illu/rate ! ,tree ( ,porphyry & indicate its use to sci5ti/s4 7#ab7 ,illu/rate ! diff]5ce betwe5 classification & division4 7#ac7 ,:y %\ld classification be ! mode ( proc$ure :5 deal+ ) immature m9ds8 7#ad7 ,illu/rate ! diff]5ce betwe5 an artificial & a natural classification4 7#ae7 ,/ate & expla9 ! two rules ( classification4 7#af7 ,%[ :i* ( ! foll[+ divisions are logical & :i* are n3 7#a7 ,! manife/ations ( ! m9d into kn[+1 ?9k+ & feel+4 7#b7 ,books into ma!matical & non-ma!matical4 7#c7 ,/ud5ts into ^? :o are indu/ri\s1 a?letic & %iftless4 7#d7 ,fl[]s into roses1 c>nations & lilies4 7#e7 ,planets into ^? :i* are l>g] ?an ! e>? & ^? :i* are small]4 #ac4 ,,que/ions ,,= ,,orig9al ,,?\ght ,,& ,,inve/igation4 7#a7 ,analyze by ma!matical p>tition ! t]ms _w1 plant1 book4 7#b7 ,analyze by logical p>tition ! t]ms granite1 wat]1 air4 7#c7 ,:at rule is violat$ if ! logical division is appli$ to ! g5us r ?an ! proximate g5us8 7#d7 ,divide logically ! foll[+ t]ms3 s*ool1 religion1 book1 vegetable1 life4 7#e7 8,ea* new subdivision may adopt a new pr9ciple ( division40 ,illu/rate ?is4 7#f7 ,expla9 & illu/rate ! mean+ ( ! t]ms sup]-ord9ate1 sub-ord9ate & co-ord9ate4 7#g7 ,def9e & illu/rate metaphysical division & v]bal division4 7#h7 ,give a def9ition ( an isosceles triangle :i* w make logical ! division ( triangles into scal5e1 isosceles & equilat]al4 7#i7 8,! evolution ( all tru? develops progressively ?r\gh ?ree /ages40 8,! fir/ is ! !sis2 ! second is ! anti!sis2 ! ?ird is ! syn!sis40 ,expla9 ?is 9 t]ms ( tri*otomy4 7#aj7 ,illu/rate ! diff]5ce betwe5 a complete division & an exhau/ive division4 7#aa7 ,%[ 9 :at ways1 if any1 ! foll[+ divisions violate ! rules ( logical division4 #a ,memory 7,hi/ory7 ,human ,le>n+ #b ,imag9ation 7,poetry7 7by ,bacon7 #c ,reason 7,philosophy7 or 7! ,sci5ces7 #a ,ma!matics #b ,a/ronomy ,sci5ces #c ,physics 7by ,comte7 #d ,*emi/ry #e ,biology #f ,sociology #g ,morals ,,*apt] #h4 ,,logical ,,propositions #a4 ,,! ,,nature ,,( ,,logical ,,propositions4 ,judg+ has be5 def9$ z ! process ( conjo9+ or disjo9+ notions4 ,?is may be put 9 ano!r way3 8,judg+ is ! process ( ass]t+ or d5y+ ! agreem5t betwe5 two notions40 ,! product ( ! act ( judg+ is a judgm5t & :5 judgm5ts are put 9 ^w-=m su* expressions are call$ logical propositions4 ,def9ition3 ,a logical proposition is a judgm5t express$ 9 words4 ,j z p]cept & concept notions are express$ by means ( logical t]ms s judgm5t notions may be express$ by logical propositions4 ,to illu/rate3 ,! t]ms ! squirrel & crack+ a nut express two notions1 & :5 an agreem5t betwe5 !m is ass]t$ & ! product is express$ 9 ^w =m1 !n su* an expression becomes ! logical proposition1 8,! squirrel is crack+ a nut40 ,! foll[+ be+ express$ judgm5ts are logical propositions3 7#a7 ,all m5 are mortal4 7#b7 ,"s m5 are wise4 7#c7 ,no m5 are immortal4 7#d7 ,"s m5 are n wise4 7#e7 ,no sane p]son is a lov] ( vice4 7#f7 ,"s good orators are n good /atesm54 7#g7 ,e man is fallible4 7#h7 ,if x ra9s1 ,i %all n g4 7#i7 ,he is ei!r sane or insane4 #b4 ,,k9ds ,,( ,,logical ,,propositions4 ,!re are ?ree k9ds ( logical propositions2 namely1 categorical1 hypo!tical & disjunctive4 ,a categorical proposition is "o 9 :i* ! ass]tion is made unconditionally4 ,an hypo!tical proposition is "o 9 :i* ! ass]tion dep5ds ^u a condition4 ,a disjunctive proposition is "o :i* ass]ts an alt]native4 ,,! ,,?ree ,,k9ds ,,illu/rat$3 7#a7 8,e dog has 8 day40 ,categorical4 7#b7 8,if y d y\r be/1 success w rew>d y40 ,hypo!tical4 7#c7 8,he is ei!r /upid or indol5t40 ,disjunctive4 7#d7 8,all vices are repreh5sible40 ,categorical4 7#e7 8,ei!r y are v tal5t$ or v indu/ri\s40 ,disjunctive4 7#f7 8,if capital puni%m5t does n aid society1 x %\ld be aboli%$40 ,hypo!tical4 7#g7 8,y may g provid$ y\r tea*] is will+40 ,hypo!tical4 7#h7 8,no intellig5t man c ignore ! practice ( temp]ance40 ,categorical4 ,by /udy+ ! illu/rations x w be obs]v$ t ! categorical propositions are direct1 bold1 ass]tive /atem5ts1 :]eas ! hypo!tical are limit$ by conditions :i* make !m less =ceful4 ,9 ! second proposition1 = example1 8success w rew>d y10 is limit$ by ! condition1 8,if y d y\r be/40 ,! disjunctive may be reg>d$ z categorical 9 =m1 b hypo!tical 9 mean+1 because 9 su* a proposition z1 8,he is ei!r1 /upid or indol5t10 a direct ass]tion is made :i* sugge/s ! categorical1 & yet x may be impli$ t1 if he is /upid !n he is n indol5t2 ?is is indicative ( ! hypo!tical4 ,"s logicians classify propositions z categorical & conditional1 ! conditional be+ subdivid$ into hypo!tical & disjunctive4 ,! fir/ classification seems pref]able1 h[ev]1 z x con=ms to ! ?ree modes ( reason+4 ,! common ^w-signs ( ! categorical proposition are all1 e1 ea*1 any1 no & "s1 :ile ^? ( ! hypo!tical are if1 ev5 if1 unless1 al?\gh1 ?\gh1 provid$ t1 :51 or any ^w or gr\p ( words d5ot+ a condition4 ,! disjunctive symbols are ei!ror4 #c4 ,,! ,,f\r ,,elem5ts ,,( ,a ,,categorical ,,proposition4 ,e categorical proposition %\ld h f\r elem5ts2 namely1 ! quantity sign1 ! logical subject1 ! copula & ! logical pr$icate4 ,9 ! =ego+ categorical propositions ! quantity signs are respectively1 e1 all & no4 ,9 any case ! quantity sign is always atta*$ to ! subject & indicates its bread? or ext5sion4 ,= example1 9 ! two propositions1 8,all m5 are mortal0 & 8,"s m5 are wise10 ! quantity sign all makes ! t]m man mu* broad] ?an does ! quantity sign "s4 ,! logical subject ( a categorical proposition is ! t]m ( :i* some?+ is affirm$ or d5i$1 :]eas ! logical pr$icate ( a categorical proposition is ! t]m :i* is affirm$ or d5i$ ( ! subject4 ,9 ! two propositions1 8,all m5 are mortal0 & 8,no m5 are immortal10 ! t]m ab\t :i* some?+ is affirm$ or d5i$ is m51 :ile ! t]ms :i* are affirm$ & d5i$ ( ! subject are respectively mortal & immortal4 8,m50 is1 !re=e1 ! logical subject ( ea* proposition1 :ile 8mortal0 is ! logical pr$icate ( ! fir/ & 8immortal0 ! logical pr$icate ( ! second4 ,! copula is ! connect+ ^w betwe5 ! logical subject & pr$icate & d5otes :e!r or n ! latt] is affirm$ or d5i$ ( ! =m]4 ,! copula is always "s =m ( 8to be0 or its equival5t4 ,:5 ! pr$icate is d5i$ ( ! subject1 8n0 may be us$ ) ! copula & consid]$ a "p ( x4 ,to illu/rate3 9 ! logical proposition1 8,"s m5 are n wise10 8are n0 may be reg>d$ z ! copula4 ,! f\r elem5ts are indicat$ 9 ! foll[+ categorical propositions3 ,quantity sign ,logical subject ,copula ,logical pr$icate ,all fix$ />s are self-lum9\s ,no wise man is go+ to /eal ,"s quadrup$s are dome/ic animals ,"s glitt]+ ?+s are n gold ,"s boys are n discreet ,a few m5 are multi-millionaires ,e citiz5 is duty-b\nd to vote ,! /ud5t mu/ ev] keep 9 m9d ! fact t to be absolutely logical all categorical propositions mu/ be express$ 9 t]ms ( ! f\r elem5ts4 ,h[ev]1 life is too %ort & man is too busy to speak always 9 t]ms ( ! f\r elem5ts4 ,moreov]1 to be logical may (t5 compel an awkw>dness ( expression & a lack ( euphony :i* c\ld h>dly be tol]at$4 ,= ^! reasons ! utt]ances 9 ord9>y conv]sation are frequ5tly illogical s f> z ! f\r elem5ts are conc]n$1 ?\gh n necess>ily illogical 9 mean+4 ,:5 x is desir$ to te/ ! validity ( any s]ies ( /atem5ts lead+ up to "s g5]alization1 x may become necess>y to express ! /atem5t 9 t]ms ( ! f\r elem5ts4 ,! /ud5t %\ld ga9 "s facility 9 ?is1 o!rwise he may be readily l$ into fallaci\s reason+4 ,! foll[+ /atem5ts tak5 at r&om f newspap]s are giv5 9 ! orig9al & !n express$ 9 t]ms ( ! f\r elem5ts3 ,! ,orig9al ,9 ,t]ms ( ! ,f\r ,elem5ts 7#a7 ,y came too late4 7#a7 ,! p]son is "o :o came too late4 7#b7 ,i saw ! swell turn\t 7#b7 ,! man 0 "o :o saw ! swell com+ along4 turn\t com+ along4 7#c7 ,all ( ! m5 walk$4 7#c7 ,all ( ! m5 7 ^? :o walk$4 7#d7 ,! robb]s cut a hole 7#d7 ,all ! robb]s 7 ! ones :o 9 ?is floor4 cut a hole 9 ?is floor4 7#e7 ,"s ( ^! flew away4 7#e7 ,"s birds 7 ^? :i* flew away4 7#f7 ,! ra9 int]f]$ ) 7#f7 ,! ra9 0 t :i* int]f]$ ! att5dance4 ) ! att5dance4 7#g7 ,our habits make or 7#g7 ,all our habits are =ces :i* unmake u4 make or unmake u4 7#h7 ,we all _h a f9e "t4 7#h7 ,all ! p>ty 7 ^? :o _h a f9e "t4 ,9 argum5tative disc\rse x is (t5 suffici5t to 8?9k ! proposition0 9 t]ms ( ! f\r elem5ts )\t tak+ ! "t to actually express x4 #d4 ,,logical ,,& ,,grammatical ,,subject ,,& ,,pr$icate ,,di/+ui%$4 ,! grammatical subject is "o ^w :ile ! logical subject is ! grammatical subject ) all its modifi]s except ! quantity sign4 ,= example3 9 ! proposition1 8,all :ite m5 are ,caucasians10 m5 is ! grammatical subject1 :ile :ite m5 is ! logical subject4 ,all be+ ! quantity sign simply indicates ! ext5sion ( m5 & is n a "p ( ! logical subject4 ,! grammatical pr$icate is ! v]b-=m toge!r ) any pr$icate n\n or adjective1 :ile ! logical pr$icate is ! pr$icate ^w or words & all its modifi]s4 ,! grammatical pr$icate includes ! copula1 b ! logical pr$icate nev] includes ! copula4 ,! grammatical pr$icate does n include ! object1 :ile ! logical pr$icate always includes :at is equival5t to ! object & all its modifi]s4 ,to illu/rate3 9 ! proposition1 8,"s m5 are wise10 are wise is ! grammatical pr$icate1 :ile wise is ! logical pr$icate4 ,& 9 ! proposition1 8,he burn$ ! r$ h\se on ! hill10 burn$ is ! grammatical pr$icate1 :ile ! "o :o burn$ ! r$ h\se on ! hill is ! logical pr$icate4 #e4 ,,! ,,f\r ,,k9ds ,,( ,,categorical ,,propositions4 ,categorical propositions are divid$ accord+ to _! quantity into ,univ]sal & ,p>ticul> & accord+ to _! quality into ,affirmative & ,negative4 ,a univ]sal proposition is "o 9 :i* ! pr$icate ref]s to ! :ole ( ! logical subject4 ,,illu/rations3 7#a7 ,all m5 are mortal4 7#b7 ,all civiliz$ m5 cook _! food4 7#c7 ,no dogs are immortal4 7#d7 ,e man 0 once a boy4 ,consid]+ ! fir/ proposition1 8mortal10 ! logical pr$icate1 ref]s to ! :ole ( ! logical subject 8m540 ,simil>ly 8cook _! food0 ref]s to ! :ole ( ! t]m 8civiliz$ m502 8immortal0 to ! :ole ( ! t]m 8dogs10 & 8once a boy0 to ! :ole ( ! t]m 8man40 ,9 consid]+ ! def9ition ( a univ]sal proposition x is necess>y to keep 9 m9d ! di/9ction betwe5 a logical & a grammatical subject1 z 9 ! second proposition ! logical pr$icate1 8cook _! food10 ref]s to only a "p ( ! grammatical subject1 m51 &1 !re=e1 ! proposition might fallaci\sly be t]m$ a p>ticul> proposition r ?an a univ]sal4 ,a p>ticul> proposition is "o 9 :i* ! pr$icate ref]s to only a "p ( ! logical subject4 ,,illu/rations3 7#a7 ,"s m5 are wise4 7#b7 ,"s animals are n quadrup$s4 7#c7 ,mo/ elem5ts are metals4 7#d7 ,_m *ildr5 are mis*iev\s4 ,9 ! =ego+ propositions "s1 mo/ & _m are quantity signs &1 !re=e1 mu/ n be consid]$ z a "p ( ! logical subjects4 ,consid]+ ! logical subjects & pr$icates 9 ord]1 ! t]m wise ref]s to only a "p ( ! m5 9 ! _w1 quadrup$s to only a "p ( ! animals1 metals to only a "p ( ! elem5ts & mis*iev\s to only a "p ( ! *ildr54 ,an affirmative proposition is "o :i* expresses an agreem5t betwe5 subject & pr$icate4 ,a negative proposition is "o :i* expresses a disagreem5t betwe5 subject & pr$icate4 ,affirmative propositions conjo9 t]ms1 negative propositions disjo9 t]ms4 ,9 ! fir/ ! agreem5t is affirm$2 9 ! second ! agreem5t is d5i$4 ,,illu/rations3 ,none ( ! captives escap$4 ,negative4 ,"s tea*]s are j4 ,affirmative4 ,all trees gr[ t[>ds heav54 ,affirmative4 ,"s p are n companionable4 ,negative4 ,no p]son is above criticism4 ,negative4 ,divid+ bo? univ]sal & p>ticul> propositions z to quality1 gives f\r k9ds2 namely1 univ]sal affirmative1 univ]sal negative1 p>ticul> affirmative & p>ticul> negative4 ,no topic 9 logic dem&s great] famili>ity ?an ^! f\r types1 z e proposition mu/ be r$uc$ to "o ( ! f\r be=e x c be us$ z a basis ( reason+4 ,= ! sake ( brevity ! symbols ,a1 ,e1 ,i & ,o are us$ to designate respectively ! univ]sal affirmative1 ! univ]sal negative1 ! p>ticul> affirmative & ! p>ticul> negative4 ,a & ,i1 symboliz+ ! affirmative propositions1 are ! fir/ & second v[els 9 ,affirmo1 :ile ,e & ,o1 symboliz+ ! negatives1 are ! v[els 9 ,nego4 ,! common sign ( ! univ]sal affirmative1 or ! ,a proposition is all2 ( ! univ]sal negative1 or ,e proposition no2 ( ! p>ticul> affirmative1 or ,i proposition "s2 ( ! p>ticul> negative1 or ,o proposition "s ) n z a "p ( ! copula4 ,! accompany+ classification summ>izes ^! facts1 ,s & ,p be+ us$ to symbolize ! t]ms 8subject0 & 8pr$icate40 ,illu/rations ,affirmative-,a ,all ,s is ,p ,categorical ,univ]sal ,negative-,e ,no ,s is ,p ,propositions ,affirmative-,i ,"s ,s is ,p ,p>ticul> ,negative-,o ,"s ,s is n ,p ,h5ce=? ! symbols ,a1 ,e1 ,i1 ,o w be us$ to designate ! f\r k9ds ( categorical propositions4 ,! propositions h o!r quantity signs aside f ! ones us$ above4 ,^! may be summ>iz$3 ,aall1 e1 ea*1 any1 :ole4 ,eno1 none1 all-n4 ,quantity signs ( ,i"s1 c]ta91 mo/1 a few1 _m1 ! greate/ "p1 any numb]4 ,o"s - - n1 few4 #f4 ,,propositions ,,:i* ,,d ,,n ,,con=m ,,to ,,! ,,logical ,,type4 ,x has be5 obs]v$ t all express$ judgm5ts mu/ be r$uc$ to "o ( ! f\r logical types ,a1 ,e1 ,i or ,o1 be=e !y c be us$ argum5tatively4 ,logic insi/s ^u def9it5ess & cle>ness!re mu/ be no ambiguity1 no opportunity = a wrong int]pretation4 ,f ?is viewpo9t ! f\r types fulfill e requirem5t4 ,_! mean+ _c be misund]/ood4 ,to any "o ) normal intellig5ce _! significance may be made p]fectly cle>4 ,any argum5t :5 once put 9 t]ms ( ! f\r types may be spell$ out ) ma!matical precision4 ,9 consequ5ce x is ( prime importance t ! f\r types n only be well und]/ood1 b t a c]ta9 facility be ga9$ 9 r$uc+ ord9>y conv]sation to "s "o ( ^! types4 7#a7 ,indef9ite & ,elliptical ,propositions4 ,x is kn[n t e logical proposition mu/ be express$ 9 t]ms ( ! f\r elem5tsquantity sign1 logical subject1 copula & logical pr$icate1 consequ5tly ! f\r types ,a1 ,e1 ,i & ,o :i* epitomize e =m ( logical proposition1 are express$ 9 t]ms ( ^! f\r elem5ts4 ,b 9 common conv]sation (t5 ! quantity sign1 z well z ! copula1 is omitt$4 ,see section #c4 ,propositions )\t ! quantity sign are call$ indef9ite1 :ile ^? ) ! suppress$ copula may be t]m$ elliptical propositions4 ,bo? may be made logical z ! att5d+ illu/rations w indicate3 ,illogical ,logical ,indef9ite ,m5 are fight+ animals4 ,all m5 are fight+ animals4 7,a7 ,lilies are n roses4 ,no lilies are roses4 7,e7 ,good is ! object ( moral ,all good is ! object ( moral approbation4 approbation4 7,a7 ,p]fect happ9ess is ,9 all cases p]fect happ9ess impossible4 is impossible4 7,a7 ,elliptical ,fa%ion rules ! _w4 ,all fa%ions are rul+ ! _w4 7,a7 ,trees gr[4 ,all trees are plants :i* gr[4 7,a7 ,*ildr5 play4 ,all *ildr5 are playful4 7,a7 ,"s m5 *eat4 ,"s m5 are p]sons :o *eat4 7,i7 ,"h x is not$ t ! logical =m ( "s propositions is n always ! mo/ =ceful4 ,(t5 ! logical =m gives an awkw>d con/ruction & %\ld be resort$ to only = purposes ( logical argum5t4 ,! r$uction ( ei!r k9d to ! logical =m mu/ be det]m9$ by ! mean+ ( ! proposition4 ,z a usual ?+ ! indef9ite is univ]sal 7ei!r an ,a or an ,e7 9 mean+1 :ile ! problem ( ! elliptical is to give x 9 t]ms ( ! copula1 express$ ) z little awkw>dness z possible4 ,g5]al tru?s1 because att5d$ ) no quantity sign1 might be class$ z indef9ite propositions1 ?\gh _! univ]sality is s app>5t t !y may be unhesitat+ly class$ z univ]sals4 ,,illu/rations3 8,?+s equal to ! same ?+ are equal to ea* o!r40 8,trees gr[ 9 direct opposition to gravity40 8,hone/y is ! be/ policy40 8,a /it* 9 "t saves n9e40 ,because ! indef9ite proposition is s frequ5tly ( a g5]al nature1 x is sometimes class$ z g5]al r ?an indef9ite4 ,sir ,william ,hamilton w\ld class ! indef9ite z an indesignate proposition4 7#b7 ,grammatical ,s5t5ces4 ,! gramm>ian divides s5t5ces into five k9ds2 namely1 decl>ative1 int]rogative1 imp]ative1 optative1 exclamatory4 ,b logic recognizes only ! decl>ative1 z x has already be5 se5 t ! f\r logical types are decl>ative 9 nature4 ,a logical proposition1 !n1 is always a s5t5ce1 b all s5t5ces are n logical propositions4 ,! f\r k9ds ( s5t5ces :i* are n logical propositions may be usually r$uc$ to "o ( ! f\r types z ! att5d+ illu/rations w indicate3 ,illogical ,logical ,int]rogative4 ,d m5 h ,! "q is ask$1 ,d m5 h ! p[] ( reason8 ! p[] ( reason8#g 7,a7 ,imp]ative4 8,?\ %alt n ,all m5 are comm&$ n to /eal40 /eal1 or y are "o :o %\ld n /eal4 7,e7 ,optative4 8,i w\ld ,i _h a ,i am "o :o desires a million million40 doll>s4 7,a7 ,exclamatory4 8,oh1 h[ y ,y are "o :o fright5$ me4 7,a7 fright5$ me60 7#c7 ,individual ,propositions4 ,an individual proposition is "o :i* has a s+ul> subject2 e4 g41 ,abraham ,l9coln 0 an hone/ man4 ,pet] ! ,great 0 ,russia's greate/ rul]4 ,! maple tree 9 my y>d is dy+ ( old age4 ,^! propositions1 hav+ a s+ul> t]m z subject1 are individual or s+ul> 9 nature4 ,z ! pr$icate ref]s to ! :ole ( ! logical subject1 individual propositions are class$ z univ]sal4 7#d7 ,plurative ,propositions4 ,plurative propositions are ^? introduc$ by 8mo/10 8few10 8a few10 or equival5t quantity signs4 ,= example1 8,mo/ birds are useful to man02 8,few m5 "k h[ to live02 8,a few ( ! prison]s escap$10 are plurative propositions4 8,mo/0 means m ?an half1 :ile 8few0 & 8a few0 mean less ?an half4 ,9 ei!r case ! proposition is p>ticul>4 ,/at$ logically1 ! illu/rative propositions w\ld take ! =m ( 8,"s birds are useful to man02 8,"s m5 d n "k h[ to live02 8,"s ( ! prison]s escap$40 ,! read] w obs]ve ! diff]5ce 9 significance betwe5 few & a few4 ,! =m] is negative 9 "* & :5 introduc+ a proposition makes x a p>ticul> negative 7,o74 ,! latt] always introduces a p>ticul> affirmative 7,i74 7#e7 ,p>titive ,propositions4 ,p>titive propositions are p>ticul>s :i* imply a complem5t>y opposite4 ,^! arise ?r\gh ! ambigu\s use ( all-n1 "s & few4 ,all-n may sometimes be int]pret$ z n all & sometimes z no4 ,to illu/rate3 ,! proposition1 8,all m5 are n mortal10 is di/9ctly a univ]sal negative or an ,e1 :ile ! proposition1 8,all t glitt]s is n gold10 is a p>ticul> negative or an ,o4 ,! logical =m ( ! fir/ is1 8,no m5 are mortal10 & ( ! second1 8,"s glitt]+ ?+s are n gold40 ,:5 us$ 9 ! 8n-all0 s5se1 ! proposition is p>titive because if ! ,o-mean+ is int5d$ ! ,i is impli$4 ,= example1 8,all t glitt]s is n gold10 is p>titive because ! /atem5t implies t "s glitt]+ ?+s are gold 7,i7 z well z ! complem5t1 8,"s glitt]+ ?+s are n gold0 7,o74 ,a k ( bo? ! affirmative & negative aspects is tak5 = grant$ 9 ! /atem5t ( ei!r ! "o or ! o!r4 8,all-n10 !n1 is negative 9 any case1 b univ]sal :5 x means no & p>ticul> :5 x means n all4 ,any proposition is p>titive 9 nature :5 ! quantity sign is n all1 or all-n int]pret$ z ! equival5t ( n all4 ,x may be obs]v$ "h t all has two di/9ct uses4 ,fir/1 x may be us$ 9 a collective s5se2 second1 9 a di/ributive s5se4 ,= example3 ,all is us$ 9 ! collective s5se 9 su* propositions z1 8,all ! memb]s ( ! football team weigh$ exactly "o ton10 or 8,all ! angles ( ! triangle are equal to two "r angles40 ,us+ all 9 ! di/ributive s5se w\ld make true ^!3 8,all ! memb]s ( ! football team weigh m ?an #adj p\nds02 8,all ! angles ( a triangle are less ?an two "r angles40 ,all is us$ collectively :5 ref]5ce is made to an aggregate1 b di/ributively :5 ref]5ce is made to ea*4 ,! quantity sign "s is likewise ambigu\s1 z x may mean 7#a7 "s only"s1 b n all1 or 7#b7 "s at lea/"s1 x may be all or n all4 ,:5 8"s0 is us$ z ! quantity sign ( any p>ticul> proposition :i* has be5 accept$ z logical1 ! second mean+1 8"s at lea/10 is always impli$4 ,?is int]pretation ( 8"s0 w be expla9$ m 9 detail 9 a succe$+ section4 ,:5 "s is us$ 9 ! s5se ( "s only1 ! p>titive nature ( ! proposition is app>5t1 z bo? ,i & ,o are impli$4 ,= example1 ) ref]5ce to ! human family1 to say t 8"s only are wise0 necessitates an inve/igation1 :i* leads to ! discov]y t "s are wise1 :ile o!rs are n wise4 ,if ! proposition be an ,i1 !n its complem5t>y ,o is impli$1 or if x be an ,o1 ! ,i is impli$4 ,few giv5 z a sign ( a plurative proposition also s]ves z a sign ( ! p>titive4 ,! plurative aspect is prom95t :5 x is said t 8,few m5 c be millionaires0 & emphasis is plac$ ^u ! mean+ t 8,mo/ m5 _c be millionaires40 ,b :5 emphasis is giv5 to 8few10 z mean+ few only r ?an ! mo/ are n1 !n ! ,i & ! ,o are bo? impli$2 e4 g41 ,"s m5 become millionaires1 b ! mo/ d n4 ,to put x 9 a ^w1 8all-n10 8"s0 & 8few0 introduce p>titive propositions :5 ! mean+ implies bo? an ,i & an ,o4 ,:5 treat+ su* 9 logic ! mean+ :i* seems to be giv5 ! great] prom95ce mu/ be accept$4 ,surely 9 ! /atem5t1 8,all t glitt]s is n gold10 ! ,o-int]pretation is ! "o int5d$2 namely1 8,"s ?+s :i* glitt] are n gold40 ,,illu/rations3 7#a7 8,all m5 are n hone/40 7#b7 8,few m5 live to be a hundr$40 7#c7 8,"s m5 are consi/5t40 ,! fir/ proposition ) ! emphasis plac$ ^u all sugge/+ t "s m5 are n hone/1 is ! int5d$ proposition :ile "s m5 are hone/ is ! impli$4 ,9 r$uc+ x to ! logical =m ! int5d$ proposition is ! "o :i* %\ld be us$4 ,) ! emphasis ^u few & "s1 ! second & ?ird propositions may be int]pret$ z foll[s3 7#b7 ,int5d$ proposition1 ,"s m5 d n live to be a hundr$4 ,impli$ proposition1 ,"s m5 d live to be a hundr$4 7#c7 ,int5d$ proposition1 ,"s m5 are consi/5t4 ,impli$ proposition1 ,"s m5 are n consi/5t4 7#f7 ,exceptive ,propositions4 ,^! are introduc$ by su* signs z all except1 all b1 all save4 ,to wit3 7#a7 8,all except ,james & ,john may be excus$02 7#b7 8,all b a few ( ! culprits h be5 arre/$02 7#c7 8,all birds save ! ,engli% sp>r[ are s]viceable to man0 are exceptive propositions4 ,exceptive propositions are univ]sal :5 ! exceptions are m5tion$4 ,univ]sal propositions necessitate a subject m or less def9ite1 z ! pr$icate ( su* mu/ ref] to ! :ole ( a def9ite subject4 ,x foll[s t 9 exceptive /atem5ts def9it5ess is secur$ :5 ! exceptions are m5tion$1 !re=e x becomes cle> h[ all su* propositions mu/ be univ]sal4 ,( ! illu/rations1 ! fir/ & ?ird propositions are univ]sal4 ,any exceptive proposition is p>ticul> :5 ! exceptions are ref]r$ to 9 g5]al t]ms or :5 ! subject is foll[$ by et cet]a4 ,! second illu/rative proposition is p>ticul>4 7#g7 ,exclusive ,propositions4 ,( all propositions :i* v>y f ! logical =m ! exclusive is ! mo/ mislead+4 ,exclusives are accompani$ by su* words z 8only10 8alone10 8none b10 & 8except40 ,_! peculi>ity re/s 9 ! fact t ref]5ce is made to ! :ole ( ! pr$icate1 b only to a "p ( ! subject4 ,= example1 9 ! exclusive proposition1 8,only elem5ts are metals10 metals is ref]r$ to z a :ole :ile elem5ts is consid]$ only 9 "p4 ,! true mean+ is 8,"s elem5ts are all metals10 or to put x 9 logical =m1 8,all metals are elem5ts40 ,! easie/ way to deal ) an exclusive is to int]*ange subject & pr$icate 7conv]t simply7 & call ! proposition an ,a4 ,,process ,,illu/rat$3 ,exclusive ,proposition ,r$uc$ to ,logical ,=m #a4 ,none b high s*ool ,all :o ent] ,tra9+ ,s*ool graduates may ent] mu/ be high s*ool graduates4 ,tra9+ ,s*ool4 #b4 ,only fir/-class ,all p>lor c>s are = pass5g]s are all[$ 9 fir/-class pass5g]s4 p>lor c>s4 #c4 ,resid5ts alone are ,all :o are lic5s$ to tea* are lic5s$ to tea*4 resid5ts4 #d4 ,no admittance except on ,all :o h bus9ess may be bus9ess4 admitt$4 #e4 ,only bad m5 are n-wise4 ,all :o are n-wise are bad m54 #f4 ,only "s m5 are wise4 ,all :o are wise are m54 ,x is claim$ by good au?ority t ! real nature ( ! exclusive is be/ express$ by negat+ ! subject & call+ ! proposition an ,e2 e4 g41 exclusive3 8,only elem5ts are metals02 logical =m3 8,no n-elem5ts are metals0 7,e74 ,9 a succe$+ *apt] x is expla9$ h[ an ,e admits ( fir/ simple conv]sion & !n obv]sion4 ,! foll[+ illu/rate ^! two processes3 ,orig9al ,e3 8,no n-elem5ts are metals40 ,simple conv]sion3 8,no metals are n-elem5ts40 ,obv]sion3 8,all metals are elem5ts40 ,f ?is x may be se5 t ! /atem5t1 8,! easie/ way to deal ) an exclusive is to int]*ange subject & pr$icate & call ! proposition an ,a10 is sub/antially correct4 7#h7 ,inv]t$ ,propositions4 ,! poet (t5 employs ! inv]t$ proposition1 illu/rat$ by ! foll[+3 8,bless$ are ! m]ciful20 8,great is ?is man ( w>40 ,an int]*ang+ ( subject & pr$icate makes ^! poetical con/ructions logical2 e4 g41 8,all ! m]ciful are bless$20 8,?is man ( w> is great40 ,,note4,! /ud5t %\ld n be misl$ by ! relative clause4 ,(t5 x may be int]pret$ z a "p ( ! pr$icate r ?an ! subject4 ,to wit3 8,no man is a fri5d :o betrays a confid5ce02 cle>ly ! logical subject is no man :o betrays a confid5ce4 #g4 ,,propositions ,,:i* ,,are ,,n ,,necess>ily ,,illogical4 7#a7 ,analytic & ,syn!tic ,propositions4 ,an analytic proposition is "o 9 :i* ! pr$icate gives in=mation already impli$ 9 ! subject4 ,?us1 8,fire burns10 8,wat] is wet10 8,a triangle has ?ree angles0 are analytic propositions because ! pr$icates d n give add$ in=mation to "o :o has any conception ( ! subjects4 ,because ! attribute m5tion$ by ! pr$icate is an ess5tial "o1 analytic propositions are sometimes t]m$ ess5tial propositions4 ,o!r names = ! same k9d ( proposition are v]bal & explicative4 ,a syn!tic proposition is "o 9 :i* ! pr$icate gives in=mation n necess>ily impli$ 9 ! subject4 8,fire protects m5 f ! wild animal40 8,a cubic foot ( wat] weighs #fb lbs40 8,! sum ( ! int]ior angles ( a triangle is equal to two "r angles40 ,^! are syn!tic because a common conception ( ! mean+ ( ! subject w\ld n ne$ to include ! in=mation giv5 by ! pr$icate4 ,o!r names = syn!tic propositions are accid5tal1 real & ampliative4 ,! di/9ction betwe5 analytic & syn!tic propositions is n s cle> z w\ld on fir/ ?\ght appe>4 8,fire burns0 might give add$ in=mation to ! *ild or savage :o kn[s only ( ! light emitt$ by fire4 ,to !m1 !n1 ! proposition w\ld be syn!tic4 ,! di/9ction mu/ be bas$ ^u ! assumption t ! same words mean ab\t ! same ?+ to p 9 g5]al4 ,?is analytic-syn!tic division ( propositions f9ds a significance 9 ! doma9 ( philosophy4 ,to ! logician ! di/9ction is ( slight importance save 9 ! s-call$ v]bal disputes1 viz43 disputes :i* turn on ! mean+ ( words4 7#b7 ,modal & ,pure ,propositions4 ,a modal proposition /ates ! mode or mann] 9 :i* ! pr$icate belongs to ! subject4 ,! signs ( modal propositions are ! adv]bs ( "t1 place1 degree1 mann]4 ,illu/rations3 8,james is walk+ rapidly40 8,hone/y is always ! be/ policy40 8,ari/otle 0 probably ! greate/ ?9k] ( anci5t times40 ,a pure proposition simply /ates t ! pr$icate belongs1 or does n belong1 to ! subject4 ,illu/rations3 8,james is walk+40 8,hone/y is ! be/ policy40 8,ari/otle 0 ! greate/ ?9k] ( anci5t times40 ,"s logicians ref] to modal propositions z be+ su* z indicate degrees ( belief4 ,su* words z 8probably10 8c]ta9ly10 etc41 w\ld indicate _! modality4 ,z logic has to d ) ! pure proposition & n ! modal1 ! diff]5ce ( op9ion is ( little import4 7#c7 ,trui/ic ,propositions4 ,a trui/ic proposition is "o 9 :i* ! pr$icate repeats ! words & ! mean+ ( ! subject4 ,illu/rations3 8,a man is a man10 8,a bea/ is a bea/10 8,a traitor is a traitor10 8,:at ,i h done ,i h done40 ,! trui/ic proposition is ( little importance except 9 cases :]e ! subject is us$ ext5sionally :ile ! pr$icate is us$ int5sionally4 ,9 ! illu/ration1 8,a man is a man10 ! subject m]ely /&s = a memb] ( ! man family1 :ile ! pr$icate may indicate c]ta9 manly qualities4 ,aga9/ su* ambiguities ! logician mu/ be on gu>d4 #h4 ,,! ,,relation ,,betwe5 ,,subject ,,& ,,pr$icate4 ,9 ,*apt] #e ! ext5sion & int5sion ( t]ms 0 expla9$4 ,! /ud5t recalls1 = in/ance1 t ! t]m 8man0 may be us$ to d5ote objects1 z 8:ite man10 8black man10 8r$ man10 etc4 ,9 ?is s5se ! t]m 8man0 is us$ ext5sionally4 ,b :5 made to /& = ! attributes 8rationality10 8p[] ( spee*10 etc41 ! t]m 8man0 is us$ int5sionally4 ,9 consid]+ ! relation betwe5 subject & pr$icate x is cu/om>y to employ ! t]ms 9 an ext5sional s5se only1 s9ce su* a re/riction s]ves ! purpose ( syllogi/ic reason+ & conv]sion4 ,let u1 !n1 give att5tion to ! ext5sion ( ! subject & pr$icate ( ! categorical propositions ,a1 ,e1 ,i1 ,o4 7#a7 ,! ,univ]sal ,affirmative or ,a ,proposition4 ,all ,s is ,p symbolizes ! ,a proposition4 ,?is may be int]pret$ z mean+ t all ( ! subject belongs to a "p ( ! pr$icate1 or t all ( ! subject belongs to all ( ! pr$icate4 ,! fir/ int]pretation is ! usual "o & may be illu/rat$ by ! foll[+ propositions3 #a4 8,all m5 are mortal40 #b4 8,all trees gr[40 #c4 8,all metals are elem5ts40 ,x is obvi\s t ! subjects ( ^! propositions include e specim5 ( ! p>ticul> class m5tion$4 ,= example3 ,! subject all m5 includes e specim5 ( ! human family2 all trees includes e object ( t class2 all metals cov]s ev]y?+ :i* ! sci5ti/ classes z su*4 ,9 ! ?ree propositions1 !n1 ref]5ce is made to ! :ole subject b to only a "p ( ! pr$icate1 z o!r be+s beside m51 su* z ! horse1 are mortal2 & o!r plants aside f trees1 su* z ! sun fl[]1 gr[2 o!r sub/ances1 namely oxyg51 are elem5ts4 ,= ! sake ( mak+ ! logical mean+ ( ! f\r propositions cle>]1 rec\rse may be made to ,eul]'s diagrams1 s nam$ because ! ,swiss ma!matician & logician1 ,leonh>d ,eul]1 fir/ us$ !m4 ,! fir/ illu/ration ( ! ,a proposition1 8,all m5 are mortal10 may be repres5t$ by two circles1 a l>g] circle /&+ = ! pr$icate1 mortal1 & a small] circle entirely inside ! l>g] repres5t+ ! subject1 m54 ,?us3 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #a4 ,x is evid5t t all ( ! small] circle belongs to ! l>g]4 ,?is diagram w !n fit any proposition :]e x may be said t all ( ! subject belongs to a "p ( ! pr$icate1 or :i* may be symboliz$ z 8,all ,s is "s ,p40 7,all ! subject is "s ( ! pr$icate47 ,! /ud5t kn[s t circles are plane surfaces & :5 su* a /atem5t z 8,all m5 are mortal0 is giv51 ref]5ce is made to only t "p ( ! 8mortal0 circle :i* is directly und]nea? ! 8m50 circle4 ,no?+ has be5 said relative to ! rema9+ "p ( ! 8mortal0 circle4 8,a0 propositions :i* may be int]pret$ z mean+ 8,all ,s is all ,p0 are call$ co-ext5sive ,a's because ! subject & pr$icate are exactly equal 9 ext5sion4 ,su* propositions are be/ illu/rat$ by def9itions2 e4 g43 #a4 8,a man is a rational bip$40 #b4 8,a trigon is a polygon ( ?ree sides40 #c4 8,tea*+ is ! art ( occasion+ ^? activities :i* result 9 k1 p[] & skill40 ,to repres5t ! mean+ ( ! co-ext5sive ,a by ! ,eul] diagram1 two circles ( ! same size may be drawn1 "o co9cid+ at e po9t ) ! o!r4 ,if ! fir/ circle is drawn heavily 9 black & ! second dott$ 9 r$1 x w make cle> to ! eye t !re are two circles4 7#b7 ,! ,univ]sal ,negative or ,e ,proposition4 8,no ,s is ,p0 be/ symbolizes ! ,e proposition1 ?\gh sometimes ! univ]sal negative is writt5 8,all ,s is n ,p40 ,?is latt] =m1 z has be5 expla9$1 is ambigu\s & !re=e illogical4 8,no ,s is ,p0 surely means t no "p ( ! subject belongs to any "p ( ! pr$icate & no "p ( ! pr$icate belongs to any "p ( ! subject4 ,! subject & pr$icate are mutually exclusive4 ,! foll[+ illu/rate ! ,e proposition3 #a4 8,no man is immortal40 #b4 8,no true tea*] works = money40 #c4 8,no ?or\gh /ud5t c rema9 unwise40 ,! ,e proposition may be repres5t$ by two circles1 ! "o entirely )\t ! o!r z 9 ,fig4 #b3 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #b4 7#c7 ,! ,p>ticul> ,affirmative or ,i ,proposition4 ,?is may be symboliz$ z 8,"s ,s is ,p10 & consid]$ z mean+ t a "p ( ! subject belongs to a "p ( ! pr$icate4 ,x has already be5 not$ t 8"s0 is ambigu\s & t its logical signification is 8"s at lea/40 7,x may be all or x may n be all47 ,= example1 ! only logical int]pretation :i* c be plac$ on 8,"s m5 are wise0 is1 t ! inve/igation has result$ 9 f9d+ only a "p ( ! man family wise4 ,:e!r or n all are wise is unkn[n z ! entire field has n receiv$ att5tion4 ,9 no case c x be assum$ t all ! o!rs are n wise4 ,! ,i proposition illu/rat$3 #a4 8,"s m5 are wise40 #b4 8,"s animals are v]tebrates40 #c4 8,"s tea*]s are inspir+40 ,! mean+ ( ! ,i proposition may be repres5t$ by two circles int]sect+ ea* o!r3 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #c4 ,! significant feature ( ! diagram is ! %ad$ "p :i* repres5ts a "p ( ! 8m50 circle z belong+ to a "p ( ! 8wise0 circle4 ,! un%ad$ "p ( ea* circle is ! unkn[n field4 7#d7 ,! ,p>ticul> ,negative or ,o ,proposition4 ,! common symbolization ( ! ,o is 8,"s ,s is n ,p40 ,put 9 /atem5t =m3 ,"s ( ! subject is exclud$ f ! :ole ( ! pr$icate4 ,"h1 z 9 ! ,i1 ! same logical import mu/ be giv5 to "s2 e4 g41 9 ! proposition1 8,"s m5 are n wise10 our k is conf9$ to ! gr\p :o are n wise4 ,:e!r or n ! o!rs are wise or n-wise is unkn[n4 ,illu/rations ( ! ,o proposition3 #a4 8,"s m5 are n wise40 #b4 8,"s laws are n j40 #c4 8,"s novels are n helpful40 ,! significance ( ! ,o proposition may be %[n by two int]sect+ circles z 9 ,fig4 #d3 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #d4 ,a simil> diagram repres5ts ! ,i proposition1 ! only diff]5ce be+ 9 ! "p %ad$4 ,9 ! ,o proposition ! inve/igat$ field is all ( ! 8m50 circle outside ( ! 8wise0 circle1 :ile 9 ! ,i proposition ! kn[n field is t "p ( ! 8m50 circle inside ! 8wise0 circle4 ,9 comp>+ ! f\r diagrams ! /ud5t w note t ! affirmative propositions are inclusive1 :ile ! negative propositions are exclusive4 7#e7 ,! ,di/ribution ( ,subject & ,pr$icate4 ,a t]m is said to be di/ribut$ :5 x is ref]r$ to z a def9ite :ole4 ,9 ! proposition1 8,all m5 are mortal10 ! subject all m5 is consid]$ z a :ole4 8,all m50 /&s = e specim5 ( ! human race2 n a s+le "o has be5 left out4 ,aga91 ! :ole is def9ite2 any "o1 if he 7 giv5 ! "t & opportunity1 c\ld asc]ta9 by actual c\nt j h[ _m 8all m50 repres5t$4 ,x %\ld be obs]v$ t if ! ^w def9ite is n incorporat$ 9 ! def9ition ( a di/ribut$ t]m1 !re is af=d$ an opportunity = error4 ,! att5d+ illu/rations w make ?is cle>3 #a4 8,all ! /ud5ts except ,john & ,james are dismiss$40 #b4 8,all ! /ud5ts except ,john1 ,james1 etc41 are dismiss$40 ,! subject ( ! fir/ proposition is di/ribut$1 :ile ! subject ( ! second is undi/ribut$4 ,reasons3 ,! fir/ subject1 8,all ! /ud5ts except ,john & ,james10 is ref]r$ to z a :ole & t :ole is def9ite1 !re=e1 x is di/ribut$2 ! second subject1 8,all ! /ud5ts except ,john1 ,james1 etc410 is ref]r$ to z a :ole1 b z ! :ole is n def9ite1 ! t]m is n di/ribut$4 ,because all is ! quantity sign ( ! second subject ! casual obs]v] might easily be misl$ 9 designat+ x z a di/ribut$ t]m4 ,"h x may be well to expla9 t :5 ref]5ce is made to subject or pr$icate ! logical subject or pr$icate is meant4 ,unless ?is is con/antly kept 9 m9d error results2 e4 g41 9 ! proposition1 8,all :ite m5 are ,caucasians10 ! logical subject is 8:ite m510 n 8m540 ,if ! subject 7 8m510 x w\ld be undi/ribut$1 z ! :ole ( ! man family is n consid]$1 b ! actual subject1 be+ 8:ite m510 is di/ribut$ because ! pr$icate ref]s to all :ite m54 ,recurr+ to ! illu/ration1 8,all m5 are mortal10 we h conclud$ t ! subject 8all m50 is di/ribut$4 ,! pr$icate1 8mortal10 h[ev]1 is undi/ribut$1 z ref]5ce is made to x only 9 "p2 i4 e41 !re are o!r be+s aside f m5 t are mortal1 su* z 8trees10 8horses10 8dogs10 etc4 ,9 all ,a propositions ( ! type ( 8all m5 are mortal10 ! subject is di/ribut$ :ile ! pr$icate is undi/ribut$4 ,?is relation is cle>ly %[n by ! diagrammatical illu/ration1 ,fig4 #a4 ,"h all ( ! 8m50 circle is id5tical ) only a "p ( ! 8mortal0 circle4 ,9 o!r words1 ! :ole ( ! 8m50 circle is consid]$1 :ile ref]5ce is made to only a "p ( ! 8mortal0 circle4 ,9 ! case ( ! co-ext5sive ,a bo? subject & pr$icate are di/ribut$4 ,relative to ! co-ext5sive 8,all m5 are rational animals10 x c\ld likewise be said t 8all rational animals are m510 or t 8all m5 are all ( ! rational animals40 ,ref]5ce is ?us made to all ( ! def9ite pr$icate z well z to all ( ! def9ite subject4 ,9 ! ,e propositions1 su* z 8,no m5 are immortal10 ! :ole ( ! subject is exclud$ f ! :ole ( ! pr$icate4 ,?is makes evid5t ! fact t bo? t]ms are di/ribut$4 ,see ,fig4 #b4 ,! ,i proposition1 su* z 8,"s m5 are wise10 conc]ns itself ) only a "p ( ! subject & only a "p ( ! pr$icate1 consequ5tly nei!r subject nor pr$icate is di/ribut$4 ,?is relation is v]ifi$ by ! repres5tation1 ,fig4 #c4 ,9 ! ,o proposition ! subject is undi/ribut$1 :ile ! pr$icate is di/ribut$4 ,= example1 9 ! proposition1 8,"s m5 are n wise10 8"s m50 w\ld indicate t only a "p ( ! logical subject is "u consid]ation4 ,b ! pr$icate is di/ribut$ because 8"s m50 is d5i$ ( ! :ole ( ! pr$icate1 8wise40 ,?is may become cle> by /udy+ ,fig4 #d4 ,"h all ( ! %ad$ "p :i* /&s = ! subject1 8"s m510 is exclud$ f ! :ole ( ! 8wise0 circle4 ,b all ( ! %ad$ "p is only a "p ( ! entire 8m50 circle1 consequ5tly ! subject :i* ! %ad$ "p repres5ts 7"s m57 is undi/ribut$4 ,! pr$icate1 8wise10 h[ev]1 is di/ribut$1 z ! subject is exclud$ f e "p ( x4 ,x is well to rememb] t n1 :5 us$ ) ! copula1 di/ributes ! pr$icate :i* foll[s x4 ,if ! /ud5t is to succe$ 9 te/+ ! value ( argum5ts1 he mu/ ev] h 8at ! tip ( 8 tongue0 8 k ( ! di/ribution ( ! t]ms ( ! f\r logical propositions4 ,) ?is 9 view ! foll[+ s*emes are (f]$3 ,i4 ,subject ,pr$icate ,a di/ribut$ undi/ribut$ ,e di/ribut$ di/ribut$ ,i undi/ribut$ undi/ribut$ ,o undi/ribut$ di/ribut$ ,,ii4 ,a di/ribut$ undi/ribut$ ,o undi/ribut$ di/ribut$ ,e di/ribut$ di/ribut$ ,i undi/ribut$ undi/ribut$ ,,iii4 ,a ,all ,s is ,p ,e ,no ,s is ,p ,i ,"s ,s is ,p ,o ,"s ,s is n ,p ,ref]r+ to s*eme ,,ii x may be obs]v$ t ,a & ,o contradict ea* o!r2 i4 e41 :]e ,a is di/ribut$ ,o is undi/ribut$ & vice v]sa4 ,a simil> relation exi/s betwe5 ,e & ,i4 ,9 s*eme ,,iii ! bracket "u ! symbol indicates ! t]m :i* is di/ribut$4 ,,iv4 ,z a f\r? s*eme a 8key ^w0 might be adopt$4 ,any ( ^! ?ree might be us$3 7#a7 saepeo1 or 7#b7 aseb9op1 or 7#c7 uaesneop4 ,! significance ( 8saepeo0 is ?is3 8s0 /&s = subject di/ribut$1 8p0 = pr$icate di/ribut$1 8a0 8e0 8o0 = ! logical propositions :]e any di/ribution occurs4 ,putt+ ! lett]s toge!r gives ?is3 subject di/ribut$ ( propositions ,a & ,e1 pr$icate di/ribut$ ( propositions ,e & ,o4 ,simil>ly1 8aseb9op0 /&s = ?is3 8z10 a di/ributes its subject2 8eb0 e di/ributes bo?2 8910 i di/ributes nei!r2 8op10 o di/ributes ! pr$icate4 ,9 ! co9$ ^w 8uaesneop0 appe> six lett]s :i* compose 8saepeo10 & ! lett]s h ! same significance4 ,! two additional lett]s1 u & n1 /& = univ]sal & negative4 ,! int]pretation ( ! entire ^w1 !re=e1 is ?is3 8uaes10 ! univ]sals a & e di/ribute _! subjects2 neop1 ! negatives e & o di/ribute _! p r$icates4 ,x seems to me t ! la/ ^w is ! mo/ helpful z x emphasizes ! two facts :i* are ! mo/ us$2 namely1 7#a7 ,only ! univ]sals di/ribute _! subjects2 7#b7 ,only ! negatives di/ribute _! pr$icates4 ,if ! /ud5t w visualize 8uaesneop0 s ?or\ghly z nev] to =get x1 he w n exp]i5ce difficulty 9 det]m9+ ! di/ribution ( ! t]ms ( ! f\r logical propositions4 #i4 ,,outl9e4 ,,logical ,,propositions4 7#a7 ,! nature ( logical propositions4 7#b7 ,k9ds ( logical propositions4 ,categorical ,hypo!tical ,disjunctive 7#c7 ,! f\r elem5ts ( a categorical proposition4 7#d7 ,logical & grammatical subject & pr$icate di/+ui%$4 7#e7 ,! f\r k9ds ( categorical propositions4 ,univ]sal affirmative ,a ,univ]sal negative ,e ,p>ticul> affirmative ,i ,p>ticul> negative ,o 7#f7 ,propositions :i* d n con=m to ! logical type4 ,indef9ite & elliptical ,grammatical s5t5ces ,individual ,plurative ,p>titive ,exceptive ,exclusive ,inv]t$ 7#g7 ,propositions n necess>ily illogical4 ,analytic & syn!tic ,modal & pure ,trui/ic 7#h7 ,! relation betwe5 subject & pr$icate ( ! f\r logical propositions4 ,eul]'s diagrams ,di/ribution ( subject & pr$icate ,uaesneop ,aseb9op ,saepeo #aj4 ,,summ>y4 7#a7 ,a logical proposition is a judgm5t express$ 9 words4 7#b7 ,! ?ree k9ds ( logical propositions are categorical1 hypo!tical1 disjunctive4 ,a categorical proposition is "o 9 :i* ! ass]tion is made unconditionally4 ,a hypo!tical proposition is "o 9 :i* ! ass]tion dep5ds ^u a condition4 ,a disjunctive proposition is "o :i* ass]ts an alt]native4 ,! mo/ common ^w-signs ( ! categorical proposition are 8all10 8no10 8"s0 & 8"s-n10 ( ! hypo!tical1 8if0 & ( ! disjunctive1 8ei!r-or40 7#c7 ,e logical categorical proposition has ! f\r elem5ts3 quantity sign1 subject1 copula & pr$icate4 ,! quantity sign indicates ! ext5sion ( ! proposition2 ! logical subject is t ( :i* some?+ is affirm$ or d5i$2 ! logical pr$icate is ! t]m :i* is affirm$ or d5i$ ( ! subject2 ! copula is always "s =m ( 8to be0 & is us$ to connect subject & pr$icate4 8,n0 is sometimes us$ ) ! copula4 ,! /atem5ts ( ord9>y conv]sation are usually n express$ 9 t]ms ( ! f\r elem5ts1 b mu/ be1 be=e !y c be us$ 9 te/+ argum5ts4 7#d7 ,"o ^w usually con/itutes ! grammatical subject :ile a ^w ) all its modifi]s goes to make up ! logical subject4 ,! v]b ) any pr$icate ^w is ! grammatical pr$icate4 ,! logical pr$icate is all :i* foll[s ! copulax may include ! pr$icate-^w & all its modifi]s z well z ! modifi$ object4 7#e7 ,categorical propositions are divid$ into f\r k9ds2 univ]sal affirmative 7,a71 univ]sal negative 7,e71 p>ticul> affirmative 7,i71 p>ticul> negative 7,o74 ,= ! sake ( brevity ^! f\r are respectively d5ot$ by ! v[els ,a1 ,e1 ,i1 ,o4 ,an ,a proposition is "o 9 :i* ! pr$icate affirms some?+ ( all ( ! logical subject4 ,an ,e proposition is "o 9 :i* ! pr$icate d5ies some?+ ( all ( ! logical subject4 ,an ,i proposition is "o 9 :i* ! pr$icate affirms some?+ ( a "p ( ! logical subject4 ,an ,o proposition is "o 9 :i* ! pr$icate d5ies some?+ ( a "p ( ! logical subject4 ,e proposition mu/ be r$uc$ to "o ( ! f\r types be=e x c be us$ z a basis ( argum5tation4 ,x is incumb5t on ! /ud5t to recognize ^! f\r types ) precision & accuracy4 7#f7 ,!re are a few proposition types :i* are recogniz$ z be+ illogical 9 =m4 ,^! may be def9$ z foll[s3 7#a7 ,an indef9ite proposition is "o )\t ! quantity sign4 ,x usually may be class$ z univ]sal4 7#b7 ,an elliptical proposition is "o 9 :i* ! copula is suppress$4 7#c7 ,an individual proposition is "o :i* has a s+ul> subject4 ,x is univ]sal 9 cont5t4 7#d7 ,plurative propositions are ^? introduc$ by 8mo/10 8a few0 or "s equival5t quantity sign4 ,^! are p>ticul> 9 mean+4 7#e7 ,p>titive propositions are p>ticul>s :i* imply a complem5t>y opposite4 ,^! arise ?r\gh ! ambigu\s use ( 8all-n10 8"s0 & 8few40 8,all-n0 sometimes means 8no10 :ile at o!r times x may mean 8n-all40 ,if ! quantity sign means ! latt]1 !n x introduces a p>titive proposition4 8,"s0 may mean 8"s only10 or 8"s at lea/40 ,! latt] is ! logical mean+4 ,! =m] int]pretation makes ! proposition p>titive4 ,:5 8few0 means 8few only10 x is p>titive 9 nature4 7#f7 ,exceptive propositions are ^? introduc$ by su* signs z 8all except10 8all b10 8all save10 etc4 ,!y are univ]sal only :5 ! exceptions are m5tion$4 7#g7 ,exclusive propositions are ^? introduc$ by su* words z 8only10 8alone10 8none b0 & 8except40 ,9 an exclusive ! pr$icate & n ! subject is di/ribut$4 ,consequ5tly ! easie/ way to make an exclusive logical is to int]*ange subject & pr$icate & call x an ,a4 7#h7 ,an inv]t$ proposition is "o :]e ! pr$icate prec$es ! subject4 ,int]*ang+ !m gives ! logical =m4 ,( ! grammatical s5t5ces only ! decl>ative is logical4 ,! relative clause1 ?\gh out ( place1 mu/ be us$ ) ! ^w x modifies4 7#g7 ,!re are o!r propositions1 ?\gh n illogical1 to :i* ! logician usually gives "s att5tion4 ,^! may be def9$ z foll[s3 7#a7 ,an analytical proposition is "o 9 :i* ! pr$icate gives in=mation already impli$ 9 ! subject4 7#b7 ,a syn!tic proposition is "o 9 :i* ! pr$icate gives in=mation n impli$ 9 ! subject4 7#c7 ,a modal proposition is "o :i* /ates ! mann] 9 :i* ! pr$icate belongs to ! subject4 ,! adv]bs ( "t1 place1 degree & mann] are ! signs ( ! modal proposition4 7#d7 ,a pure proposition simply /ates t ! pr$icate belongs or does n belong to ! subject4 7#e7 ,a trui/ic or tautolog\s proposition is "o 9 :i* ! pr$icate repeats ! words & mean+ ( ! subject4 7#h7 ,9 consid]+ ! relation :i* may exi/ betwe5 subject & pr$icate1 ! two t]ms are employ$ 9 ext5sion only1 z ?is use be/ s]ves ! int]e/s ( inf]5ce4 ,! ext5sional relation betwe5 subject & pr$icate ( ! f\r logical propositions may be /at$ z foll[s3 ,ord9>y ,a,all ( ! subject belongs to a "p ( ! pr$icate4 ,co-ext5sive ,a,all ( ! subject belongs to all ( ! pr$icate4 ,e,none ( ! subject belongs to any "p ( ! pr$icate4 ,i,"s ( ! subject belongs to "s ( ! pr$icate4 ,o,"s ( ! subject is exclud$ f ! :ole ( ! pr$icate4 ,9 g5]al x may be said t ! affirmative propositions are 9clusive :ile ! negatives are exclusive4 ,a t]m is said to be di/ribut$ :5 x is ref]r$ to z a def9ite :ole4 8,a0 di/ributes ! logical subject only1 8,e0 bo? logical subject & logical pr$icate1 8,i0 nei!r logical subject nor logical pr$icate1 8,o0 ! logical pr$icate only4 ,! co-ext5sive 8,a0 di/ributes bo? subject & pr$icate4 ,x is ess5tial t ! /ud5t "k by he>t ! di/ribution ( ! t]ms ( ! logical propositions4 ,"s keyword l uaesneop may be us$ z an aid to ! memory4 ,?is means ! univ]sals ,a & ,e di/ribute _! subjects1 :ile ! negatives ,e & ,o di/ribute _! pr$icates4 #aa4 ,,illu/rative ,,ex]cises4 7#a;a7 ,exam9e ! foll[+ li/ ( propositions ) a view to classify+ !m z 8,a's10 8,e's10 8,i's0 or 8,o's40 ,e #a4 8,none ( ! inmates vot$40 ,a #b4 8,b5j4 ,frankl9 0 ! be/ educat$ ,am]ican40 ,i #c4 8,"s doctors deem x "r to lie to _! pati5ts40 ,a #d4 8,all e>ne/ tea*]s ne$ to obs]ve ! tea*+ ( o!rs40 ,i #e4 8,"s politicians are hone/40 ,a #f4 8,fools ru% 9 :]e angels fe> to tread40 ,o #g4 8,"s prov]bs are n true to life40 ,e #h4 8,no man %\ld infr+e ^u ! rights ( o!rs40 ,i recall t an affirmative proposition 9 :i* ! pr$icate ref]s to ! :ole ( ! subject is an ,a1 :ile "o :]e ! pr$icate ref]s to only a "p ( ! subject is an ,i4 ,fur!r1 a negative proposition :]e ! pr$icate ref]s to ! :ole ( ! subject is an ,e1 :ile "o 9 :i* ! pr$icate ref]s to only a "p ( ! subject is an ,o4 ,) ^! facts 9 m9d1 ,i classify ! propositions z indicat$4 7#a;b7 ,9 a simil> mann] classify z to quantity & quality ! foll[+3 7#a7 8,all wor?y work]s gr[ to look l _! "w40 7#b7 8,e dog has 8 day40 7#c7 8,"s ( ! presid5ts 7 n popul>40 7#d7 8,no unskill$ labor] c af=d to own an automobile40 7#e7 8,"s ( ! #8election prophets' 7 sadly mi/ak540 7#b;a7 ,classify ! foll[+ propositions & make ! illogical1 logical3 7#a7 8,only fir/-class pass5g]s may ride 9 p>lor c>s40 7#b7 8,ha/e makes wa/e40 7#c7 8,few m5 "k h[ to act "u /ress40 7#d7 8,all :i* seems to r+ true is n true40 7#e7 8,memb]s alone are admitt$40 7#f7 8,none b m5 ( integrity ne$ apply40 7#g7 8,horses trot40 7#h7 8,bless$ are !y :i* are p]secut$ = righte\sness sake40 ,! fir/ proposition is an exclusive & may be made logical by conv]t+ & call+ x an ,a1 viz43 8,all :o ride 9 p>lor c>s are fir/-class pass5g]s40 7,a7 ,! second is indef9ite & elliptical & is made logical by prefix+ ! univ]sal quantity sign & express+ 9 t]ms ( ! f\r elem5ts4 ,! logical =m is1 8,all :o make ha/e are ^? :o are wa/eful40 7,a7 ,! ?ird is plurative 9 nature & means1 8,mo/ m5 d n "k h[ to act "u /ress40 ,x w\ld be class$ z an ,o4 ,! f\r? is p>titive 9 nature because ( ! ambigu\s use ( 8alln40 ,x means1 8,"s :o seem to r+ true are n true40 7,o7 ,! fif? is an exclusive4 ,by conv]t+ & *ang+ to an ,a ! proposition takes ! logical =m1 8,all :o are admitt$ are memb]s40 ,! six? is likewise an exclusive1 ! logical =m be+1 8,all :o apply mu/ be m5 ( integrity40 ,! sev5? is an elliptical proposition4 ,logical =m3 8,all horses are trott+ animals40 ,! eigh? is an inv]t$ or poetical proposition4 ,x is made logical by int]*ang+ subject & pr$icate4 ,logical =m3 8,^? :o are p]secut$ = righte\sness sake are bless$40 7#b;b7 ,classify ! att5d+ propositions & *ange to ! logical =m1 if necess>y3 7#a7 8,only tru?ful m5 are hone/40 7#b7 8,! /ok]s alone 7 sav$40 7#c7 8,all :o run d n ?9k40 7#d7 8,hone/y is ! be/ policy40 7#e7 8,!y laugh t w940 7#f7 8,! good alone are happy40 7#g7 8,k is p[]40 7#h7 8,only ! actions ( ! j smell sweet & blossom 9 ! du/40 #ab4 ,,review ,,que/ions4 7#a7 ,def9e & illu/rate logical propositions4 7#b7 ,def9e & exemplify ! ?ree k9ds ( logical propositions4 7#c7 ,:at are ! usual quantity signs ( ! f\r k9ds ( propositions8 7#d7 ,"n & def9e ! f\r elem5ts ( a logical proposition4 7#e7 ,select f ! pr9t$ page five propositions :i* are n express$ 9 t]ms ( ! f\r elem5ts1 & s express !m4 7#f7 ,di/+ui% betwe5 logical & grammatical subject2 likewise betwe5 logical & grammatical pr$icate4 7#g7 ,def9e & illu/rate ! f\r k9ds ( categorical propositions4 7#h7 ,:at makes an und]/&+ ( ! f\r logical propositions s important8 7#i7 ,give ! unusual quantity signs ( ! logical propositions4 7#aj7 ,:at %\ld guide "o 9 mak+ an indef9ite proposition logical8 7#aa7 ,h[ are g5]al tru?s usually classifi$8 7#ab7 ,*ange birds fly to ! logical =m4 7#ac7 ,h[ _m & :at k9ds ( grammatical s5t5ces are logical8 7#ad7 ,h[ w\ld ! logician deal ) int]rogative s5t5ces8 7#ae7 ,give illu/rations ( individual propositions4 ,h[ are !y usually classifi$8 7#af7 ,expla9 ! logical mode ( deal+ ) ! plurative proposition4 7#ag7 ,exemplify ! ambiguity ( 8all-n10 8"s0 & 8few40 7#ah7 ,:y are propositions introduc$ by 8all-n10 8"s0 & 8few0 call$ p>titive8 7#ai7 ,use 8all0 9 bo? a p>titive & collective s5se4 ,:i* signification has logic adopt$8 7#bj7 ,:5 are exceptive propositions univ]sal & :5 p>ticul>8 7#ba7 ,:at is an exclusive proposition8 7#bb7 ,expla9 by circles ! exclusive4 7#bc7 ,tell 9 full h[ to *ange an exclusive to logical =m4 7#bd7 ,tell h[ ! logician w\ld deal ) su* poetical expressions z 8,bless$ are ! pure 9 he>t10 8,tell me n 9 m\rnful numb]s10 8,/r5u\s is ! man ( /ate40 7#be7 ,:at di/9ction does ! logician make betwe5 analytic & syn!tic propositions8 7#bf7 ,illu/rate ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! s-call$ modal & pure propositions4 7#bg7 ,expla9 & illu/rate ! trui/ic proposition4 7#bh7 ,%[ by circles ! relation exi/+ betwe5 ! subject & pr$icate ( all ! logical propositions4 7#bi7 ,/ate 9 good ,engli% ! relation betwe5 ! subject & pr$icate ( all ! logical propositions4 7#cj7 ,relative to ! di/ribution ( t]ms apply ! words 8uaesneop0 & 8aseb9op40 ,:i* "o is ! m s]viceable8 7#ca7 ,di/+ui% betwe5 ! grammatical & logical subject4 7#cb7 ,expla9 by circles ! di/ribution ( ! t]ms ( ! f\r logical propositions4 7#cc7 ,! /atem5t1 8,a "p ( ! subject is exclud$ f ! :ole ( ! pr$icate10 describes :i* proposition8 ,expla9 h[ x indicates t ! pr$icate is di/ribut$4 #ac4 ,,que/ions ,,= ,,orig9al ,,?\ght ,,& ,,inve/igation4 7#a7 ,%[ t a judgm5t may be an individual notion z well z a g5]al notion4 7#b7 ,_m logicians classify logical propositions 9 ?is wise3 ,categorical ,proposition ,conditional ,hypo!tical ,disjunctive ,give argum5ts = & aga9/ su* a classification4 7#c7 8,all m5 are bip$s0 is a judgm5t ( ext5sion1 :ile 8,man is wise0 is a judgm5t ( int5sion4 ,expla94 7#d7 8,to be logical is to be p$antic40 ,discuss ?is4 7#e7 ,:y is ! proposition1 8,he runs10 illogical8 ,make x logical4 7#f7 ,po9t out ! reasons = call+1 8,:ite m5 are ,caucasians10 a p>ticul> proposition4 7#g7 ,:at makes x necess>y to *ange ! propositions ( ord9>y conv]sation to ^? ( ! f\r logical types8 7#h7 ,"s w\ld call ! individual proposition p>ticul>4 ,argue ! "q4 7#i7 ,make a li/ ( five propositions 9 common spee* & %[ h[ _! p>titive implication may mislead4 7#aj7 ,expla9 by circles "s only & "s at lea/4 7#aa7 ,expla9 h[ 8et cet]a0 may *ange a univ]sal to a p>ticul> proposition4 7#ab7 8,! real nature ( an exclusive is be/ %[n by negat+ ! subject & call+ ! proposition an ,e40 ,give argum5ts = & aga9/ ?is /atem5t4 7#ac7 ,%[ t ) ! immature m9d all propositions mu/ be syn!tical4 7#ad7 ,expla9 h[ a proposition may be trui/ic 9 =m b n 9 mean+4 7#ae7 ,%[ by ! ,eul] diagram h[ easy x is = ! c>eless /ud5t to ?9k t an 8,o0 does n di/ribute its pr$icate4 7#af7 ,expla9 by ! use ( two pads 7a small yell[ "o & a l>ge :ite "o7 ! di/ribution ( t]ms4 7#ag7 ,:5 ! logician makes ref]5ce to ! subject ( a proposition1 %[ t he %\ld ex]cise c>e 9 designat+ x z ! logical subject4 ,,*apt] #i4 ,,imm$iate ,,inf]5ce,,opposition4 #a4 ,,! ,,nature ,,( ,,inf]5ce4 ,inf]5ce is ! ?\ght process ( d]iv+ a judgm5t f "o or two antec$5t judgm5ts4 ,! process is simply a matt] ( express+ explicitly 9 a f9al judgm5t1 a tru? t 0 impli$ 9 "o or two previ\s judgm5ts4 ,to exemplify3 ,f ! antec$5t tru?1 t 8,all tea*]s %\ld be fair m9d$10 "o may d]ive a consequ5t tru? t 8,?is tea*]1 ,alb]t ,:ite1 %\ld be fair m9d$40 ,or f ! /atem5t1 8,all m5 are mortal10 "o may d]ive ! judgm5t1 8,no m5 are immortal40 ,because ! gr\nd is wet we conclude t x has ra9$4 ,if all dogs are quadrup$s !n surely "s dogs are quadrup$s4 ,f9ally f ! two propositions1 8,all tra9+ s*ool /ud5ts are high s*ool graduates10 & 8,m>y ,jones is a tra9+ s*ool /ud5t10 we are l$ to conclude t 8,m>y ,jones is a high s*ool graduate40 #b4 ,,imm$iate ,,& ,,m$iate ,,inf]5ce4 ,x has be5 not$ t a tru? may be d]iv$ f a consid]ation ( "o or two antec$5t judgm5ts4 ,to illu/rate fur!r3 ,f ! judgm5t1 8,all m5 are fallible10 we may d]ive ! conclusion t 8,no m5 are infallible02 or1 f ! two judgm5ts1 8,all m5 are fallible10 & 8,socrates 0 a man10 we may readily inf] t 8,socrates 0 fallible40 ,^! two modes ( inf]5ce take ! names ( imm$iate inf]5ce & m$iate inf]5ce4 ,let u express ^! two k9ds 9 equation =m3 ,i4 ,equation ,=m1 ,ord9>y ,=m4 ,us+ ,initial ,lett]s4 ,antec$5t judgm5t3 ,all m5 are fallible4 ,all m are f ,conclusion3 ,no m5 are infallible4 ,no m are i ,,ii4 ,fir/ antec$5t judgm5t3 ,all m5 are fallible4 ,all m are f ,second antec$5t judgm5t3 ,socrates 0 a man4 ,s 0 m ,conclusion3 ,socrates 0 fallible4 ,s 0 f ,giv+ att5tion to ! antec$5t judgm5ts ( ! second argum5t x is not$ t ! t]ms 8f0 & 8,s0 are ref]r$ to ! common t]m 8m40 ,9 logic ?is common t]m is kn[n z ! middle t]m4 ,z !re is b "o antec$5t judgm5t 9 ! fir/ argum5t !re c be no common or middle t]m4 ,! fir/ argum5t is an illu/ration ( imm$iate inf]5ce2 ! second ( m$iate inf]5ce4 ,?is sugge/s ! def9itions3 ,imm$iate inf]5ce is inf]5ce )\t ! use ( a middle t]m4 ,m$iate inf]5ce is inf]5ce by means ( a middle t]m4 #c4 ,,! ,,=ms ,,( ,,imm$iate ,,inf]5ce4 ,_m logicians recognize f\r =ms ( imm$iate inf]5ce4 ,^! f\r =ms are 7#a7 opposition1 7#b7 obv]sion1 7#c7 conv]sion1 7#d7 contrav]sion4#h 7#a7 ,,imm$iate ,,inf]5ce ,,by ,,opposition4 ,we h le>n$ t to be logical all categorical ass]tions mu/ be r$uc$ to "s "o ( ! f\r propositions1 ,a1 ,e1 ,i1 ,o4 ,if ^! f\r logical propositions be giv5 ! same subject & pr$icate1 c]ta9 def9ite relations w become evid5t2 !re=e1 ,opposition is said to exi/ betwe5 propositions :i* are giv5 ! same subject & pr$icate1 b diff] 9 quality1 or 9 quantity1 or 9 bo?4 ,! foll[+ illu/rative outl9e w make ?is cle>3 #a4 ,orig9al ,proposition4 ,i4 ,all m5 are mortal4 7,a7 ,,ii4 ,no m5 are immortal4 7,e7 ,,iii4 ,"s m5 are wise4 7,i7 ,,iv4 ,"s m5 are mortal4 7,i7 ,v4 ,"s m5 are n wise4 7,o7 ,,vi4 ,"s m5 are n immortal4 7,o7 #b4 ,opposite 9 ,quantity4 ,i4 ,"s m5 are mortal4 7,i7 ,,ii4 ,"s m5 are n immortal4 7,o7 ,,iii4 ,all m5 are wise4 7,a7 ,,iv4 ,all m5 are mortal4 7,a7 ,v4 ,no m5 are wise4 7,e7 ,,vi4 ,no m5 are immortal4 7,e7 #c4 ,opposite 9 ,quality4 ,i4 ,no m5 are mortal4 7,e7 ,,ii4 ,all m5 are immortal4 7,a7 ,,iii4 ,"s m5 are n wise4 7,o7 ,,iv4 ,"s m5 are n mortal4 7,o7 ,v4 ,"s m5 are wise4 7,i7 ,,vi4 ,"s m5 are immortal4 7,i7 #d4 ,opposite 9 ,bo?4 ,i4 ,"s m5 are n mortal4 7,o7 ,,ii4 ,"s m5 are immortal4 7,i7 ,,iii4 ,no m5 are wise4 7,e7 ,,iv4 ,no m5 are mortal4 7,e7 ,v4 ,all m5 are wise4 7,a7 ,,vi4 ,all m5 are immortal4 7,a7 ,grant+ ! tru? ( ! propositions 9 ! fir/ column1 x foll[s t ^? 9 ! second column diff] 9 quantity4 ,t is1 9 8,"s m5 are mortal0 a small] numb] ( m5 is ref]r$ to ?an 9 8,all m5 are mortal40 ,a simil> v>iation 9 quantity obta9s ) ! o!r propositions 9 ! second column4 ,moreov]1 ! propositions 9 ! ?ird column are ! negative ( ! correspond+ ones 9 ! fir/2 :ile ! f\r? column propositions diff] f ! fir/ 9 bo? quantity & quality4 ,?us opposition exi/s to a great] or less degree betwe5 all4 ,we may n[ ask ourselves ! "q1 8,:5 ! propositions are relat$ to ea* o!r 9 opposition :i* ones are true & :i* ones are false80 ,giv+ att5tion to ! propositions 9 r[ 8,i10 we note t if ! univ]sal affirmative1 8,all m5 are mortal10 is true1 !n ! p>ticul> affirmative1 8,"s m5 are mortal10 is likewise true2 because ( ! pr9ciple1 8,:at is true ( ! :ole ( ! class is true ( a "p ( t class40 ,b ! univ]sal negative1 8,no m5 are mortal10 & ! p>ticul> negative1 8,"s m5 are n mortal10 are bo? false4 ,briefly /at$3 ,if ,a is true1 !n ,i is true1 b1 bo? ,e & ,o are false4 ,reg>d+ r[ 8,,ii0 we may conclude t if ,e is true1 !n ,o is likewise true1 b bo? ,a & ,i are false4 ,z to r[s 8,,iii0 & 8,,iv10 grant+ ! tru? ( ! ,i propositions1 8,"s m5 are wise0 & 8,"s m5 are mortal10 we are able to ass]t t ( ! two ,a propositions1 8,all m5 are wise10 & 8,all m5 are mortal10 ! fir/ is false :ile ! second is true4 ,a is1 !re=e1 indet]m9ate1 or d\btful4 ,( ! ,o propositions1 8,"s m5 are n wise10 is true :ile1 8,"s m5 are n mortal10 is false4 ,!re=e1 ,o is d\btful4 ,bo? ( ! ,e propositions are false4 ,h5ce1 ! conclusion relative to r[s 8,,iii0 & 8,,iv0 is3 ,if ,i is true1 ,a & ,o are d\btful1 :ile ,e is false4 ,conc]n+ r[s 8,v0 & 8,,vi0 x w be se5 )\t fur!r explanation t if ,o is true1 !n ,e & ,i are d\btful & ,a is false4 ,,! ,,s*eme ,,( ,,opposition4 ,! conditions ( opposition are easily compreh5d$ & rememb]$ :5 rec\rse is made to ! foll[+ s*eme3 ,a ,e ,i ,o ,if ,a be true true false true false ,if ,e be true false true false true ,if ,i be true d\bt false true d\bt ,if ,o be true false d\bt d\bt true ,to use ! above s*eme1 read horizontally f left to "r4 ,= example3 ,if ,a be true1 !n all 9 ! r[ opposite obta9s2 t is1 ,a is true1 ,e is false1 ,i is true1 & ,o is false4 7,we take x = grant$ t ! /ud5t w see t ! fir/ column belongs to ,a1 ! second to ,e1 ! ?ird to ,i1 & ! f\r? to ,o47 ,if ,e be true1 !n ,a is false1 ,e is true1 ,i is false1 ,o is true1 etc4 ,! :ole ( opposition is compreh5d$ 9 two facts :i* are bas$ ^u "o pr9ciple4 ,?is is ! pr9ciple3 ,:atev] may be said ( ! entire class may be said ( a "p ( t class4 ,to put x 9 ano!r way3 ,:atev] is affirm$ ( all may be affirm$ ( "s1 or1 ,:atev] is d5i$ ( all may be d5i$ ( "s4 ,to illu/rate3 ,accept$ tru?3 ,all planets rotate4 7,a7 ,accept$ inf]5ce3 ,"s planets rotate4 7,i7 or ,accept$ tru?3 ,no planet is a sun4 7,e7 ,accept$ inf]5ce3 ,"s planets are n suns4 7,o7 ,^! are ! two facts3 ,fir/1 a p>ticul> affirmative may be d]iv$ f a univ]sal affirmative4 ,second1 a p>ticul> negative may be d]iv$ f a univ]sal negative4 ,or1 m briefly3 ,an ,i may be d]iv$ f an ,a1 & an ,o f an ,e4 ,,squ>e ,,( ,,opposition4 ,illu/ration3 7 ,squ>e ( ,opposition7 ,ari/otle repres5t$ ! relations ( ! f\r logical propositions by :at is t]m$ ! squ>e ( opposition4 ,view$ f ! /&po9t ( ! squ>e1 ! relations may be summ$ up z foll[s3 #a4 ,contr>y ,propositions4 ,:y s nam$4 ,z relat$ to ea* o!r1 ,a & ,e are said to be contr>y because !y seem to express contr>iety to ! greate/ degree4 ,relation /at$4 ,if "o is true1 ! o!r mu/ be false1 b bo? may be false4 ,illu/rations4 7#a7 ,if "o is true1 ! o!r mu/ be false2 e4 g41 if ,a is true1 z 8,all metals are elem5ts10 !n ,e is false1 z 8,no metals are elem5ts40 ,or1 if ,e is true1 z 8,no birds are quadrup$s10 !n ,a is false1 z 8,all birds are quadrup$s40 7#b7 ,bo? may be false4 ,if ,a is false1 z 8,all m5 are wise10 !n ,e may be false1 z 8,no m5 are wise40 #b4 ,subcontr>y ,propositions4 ,:y s nam$4 ,propositions ,i & ,o are said to be relat$ to ea* o!r 9 a subcontr>y mann] because !y are contr>y z to ea* o!r & 8"u0 _! univ]sals ,a & ,e4 ,relation /at$4 ,if "o is false1 ! o!r mu/ be true1 or1 bo? may be true4 ,illu/rations4 7#a7 ,if "o is false1 ! o!r mu/ be true4 ,if ,i is false1 z 8,"s metals are comp\nds10 !n1 ,o is true1 z 8,"s metals 7at lea/7 are n comp\nds40 ,or1 if ,o is false1 z 8,"s metals are n elem5ts10 !n ,i is true1 z 8,"s metals are elem5ts40 7#b7 ,bo? may be true4 ,if ,i is true1 z 8,"s m5 are wise10 !n ,o also may be true1 z 8,"s m5 are n wise40 #c4 ,subalt]ns4 ,:y s nam$4 ,etymologically consid]$ subalt]n means "u ! "o1 ?us proposition ,i is "u ,a1 & ,o is "u ,e4 ,relation /at$4 ,fir/ ,relation4 ,subalt]ns are relat$ to ea* o!r z are ! univ]sals & p>ticul>s2 h5ce1 7#a7 ,if ! univ]sal is true1 ! p>ticul> "u x is also true2 :ile if ! p>ticul> is true1 ! correspond+ univ]sal may1 or1 may n1 be true4 ,illu/rations4 7a7 ,if ! univ]sal is true1 ! p>ticul> "u x is true4 ,if ,a is true1 z 8,all metals are elem5ts10 !n ,i is true1 z 8,"s metals are elem5ts40 ,or1 if ,e is true1 z 8,no metals are comp\nds10 !n1 ,o is also true1 z 8,"s metals 7at lea/7 are n comp\nds40 7b7 ,if ! p>ticul> is true1 ! correspond+ univ]sal may1 or1 may n1 be true4 ,if ,i is true1 z 8,"s m5 are wise10 or1 8,"s m5 are mortal10 !n ,a may be false1 z 8,all m5 are wise10 or1 ,a may be true1 z 8,all m5 are mortal40 ,or1 if ,o is true1 z 8,"s m5 are n wise10 or1 8,"s m5 are n immortal10 !n ,e may be false1 z 8,no m5 are wise02 or1 true1 z 8,no m5 are immortal40 ,second ,relation4 7#b7 ,if ! univ]sal is false1 ! p>ticul> "u x may or may n be true1 b1 if ! p>ticul> is false1 ! univ]sal above x mu/ be false4 ,illu/rations4 7a7 ,if ! univ]sal is false1 ! p>ticul> "u x may or may n be true4 ,if ,a is false1 z 8,all metals are comp\nds10 or 8,all m5 are wise10 !n ,i may be false1 z 8,"s metals are comp\nds10 or1 ,i may be true1 z 8,"s m5 are wise40 ,or1 if ,e is false1 z 8,no m5 are mortal10 or1 8,no m5 are wise10 !n ,o may be false1 z 8,"s m5 are n mortal10 or1 ,o may be true1 z 8,"s m5 are n wise40 7b7 ,if ! p>ticul> is false1 ! univ]sal above x mu/ be false4 ,if ,i is false1 z 8,"s m5 are trees10 !n ,a is false1 z 8,all m5 are trees40 ,or1 if ,o is false1 z 8,"s m5 are n bip$s10 !n ,e is also false1 z 8,no m5 are bip$s40 #d4 ,contradictory ,propositions4 ,:y s nam$4 ,! propositions ,a & ,o1 likewise ,e & ,i1 are call$ contradictory propositions because !y oppose ea* o!r 9 bo? quantity & quality4 ,!y are mutually oppos$ to ea* o!r or absolutely contradictory4 ,relation /at$4 ,if "o is true ! o!r mu/ be false4 ,illu/rations4 7#a7 ,a & ,o comp>$4 ,if ,a is true1 z 8,all metals are elem5ts10 !n1 ,o is false1 z 8,"s metals are n elem5ts40 ,or1 if ,o is true1 z 8,"s metals are n comp\nds10 !n ,a is false1 z 8,all metals are comp\nds40 7#b7 ,e & ,i comp>$4 ,if ,e is true1 z 8,no birds are quadrup$s10 !n ,i is false1 z 8,"s birds are quadrup$s40 ,or1 if ,i is true1 z 8,"s birds are bip$s10 !n ,e is false1 z 8,no birds are bip$s40 ,! *ief value ( ! squ>e ( opposition spr+s f ! contradictory propositions4 ,! squ>e %[s conclusively t any univ]sal affirmative ass]tion 7an ,a7 may be/ be contradict$ by prov+ a p>ticul> negative 7an ,o74 ,= example3 ,to satisfactorily refute ! /atem5t t1 9 ?is section1 all birds migrate to ! s\? 9 w9t]1 x w\ld be suffici5t to prove t ! ,engli% sp>r[ & />l+ d n migrate to ! s\?4 ,! squ>e likewise makes evid5t t any univ]sal negative 7an ,e7 may be conclusively d5i$ by e/abli%+ ! tru? ( a p>ticul> affirmative 7an ,i74 ,to illu/rate3 ,! easie/ way to prove ! falsity ( 8,no tru/s are hone/0 is to pres5t facts %[+ t at lea/ tru/s ,a & ,b are hone/4 ,! ,individual ,proposition4 ,an individual proposition is "o ) an individual subject su* z 8,ari/otle 0 wise40 ,9 logic1 ! individual proposition is class$ z a univ]sal4 ,?is seems to be a bit irregul>1 z ) ! individual proposition !re is no p>ticul>1 :ile1 ! /rictly logical univ]sal always implies a p>ticul>4 ,because ( ?is v>iation f ! true logical =m ! relations1 z indicat$ by ! squ>e ( opposition1 d n apply to ! individual proposition4 ,= example3 ,accord+ to ! squ>e ,a & ,e are contr>y1 b1 :5 individual1 ,a & ,e contradict ea* o!r1 z 8,ari/otle 0 wise0 7,a78,ari/otle 0 n wise0 7,e74 ,,*apt] #aj4 ,,imm$iate ,,inf]5ce 7,,cont9u$7,,obv]sion1 ,,conv]sion1 ,,contrav]sion ,,& ,,inv]sion4 7#b7 ,,imm$iate ,,inf]5ce ,,by ,,obv]sion4 ,obv]sion is ! process ( *ang+ a proposition f ! affirmative =m to its equival5t negative or f ! negative =m to its equival5t affirmative4 ,"s au?orities ref] to ?is process z 8,inf]5ce by ,privitive ,conception10 b ,obv]sion seems to be a bett] t]m4 ,obv]sion is bas$ ^u ! pr9ciple t two negatives are equival5t to "o affirmative4 ,) ?is d\ble negative pr9ciple 9 m9d let u exp]im5t ) ! f\r logical propositions1 ,a1 ,e1 ,i1 ,o4 ,! ,a ,proposition4 ,example3 8,all ?\ghtful m5 are wise40 ,ins]t ! d\ble negative & ! proposition reads3 8,all ?\ghtful m5 are n n-wise40 ,*ang$ to ! logical =m ?is becomes3 8,no ?\ghtful m5 are n-wise40 ,simplifi$ & we h1 f9ally3 8,no ?\ghtful m5 are unwise40 ,?us by ! process ( obv]sion we h pass$ f ! orig9al proposition1 8,all ?\ghtful m5 are wise10 to 8,no ?\ghtful m5 are unwise40 ,9 ! fir/ proposition ! subject 8?\ghtful m50 is d5i$ ( ! pr$icate 8unwise40 ,assum+ t 8unwise0 is ! contradictory ( 8wise10 !n3 8,:at is affirm$ ( a pr$icate may be d5i$ ( its contradictory40 ,rec\rse to circles w make ?is cle>]4 ,9 ! previ\s *apt] x has be5 sugge/$ t n bisects ! _w4 ,= example3 ,:at c n be includ$ 9 ! wise class may be plac$ "u ! n-wise or unwise class4 ,likewise a circle bisects space!re is ! space inside ! circle & ! space outside ! circle4 ,let ! space inside ! circle repres5t all wise be+s1 !n ! space outside ! circle w\ld repres5t all n-wise or unwise be+s2 e4 g41 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #e4 ,n[ repres5t+ ?\ghtful m5 by a small] circle & plac+ x inside ! l>g] we h1 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #f4 ,ref]r+ to ,fig4 #f we note t all ( ! small] circle belongs to ! l>g] or t none ( ! small] circle belongs to ! space outside ( ! l>g]4 ,h5ce ! two propositions3 8,all ?\ghtful m5 are wise0 7,a71 & 8,no ?\ghtful m5 are unwise0 7,e7 h virtually ! same mean+ ?\gh ! same subject is relat$ to diff]5t pr$icates4 ,! use ( ! positive or negative =m dep5ds ^u circum/ances4 ,(t5 ! negative puts ! ?\ght 9 a m =ceful way4 ,9 pass+ f1 8,all ?\ghtful m5 are wise10 to 8,no ?\ghtful m5 are unwise10 x 0 necess>y to prefix n to ! pr$icate wise & sub/itute = n its equival5t un4 ,if ! orig9al pr$icate 7 unwise or n-wise1 !n ! rev]se ord] ( dropp+ ! un or n c\ld be foll[$4 ,?is process ( prefix+ ! n to an affirmative pr$icate or ( dropp+ ! n f a negative pr$icate is ref]r$ to z negat+ ! pr$icate4 ,be=e sub/itut+ 91 im1 un1 etc41 = n1 "o mu/ make sure t ! sub/itution really gives ! contradictory2 !re are "s logicians :o claim t unwise1 = in/ance1 is n ! contradictory ( wise4 ,9 comp>+ ! fir/ proposition ) ! second x is obs]v$ t ! fir/ is an ,a1 :ile ! second is an ,e1 also t ! pr$icate ( ! fir/ 0 negat$ to =m ! pr$icate ( ! second4 ,?us ! rule3 ,negate ! pr$icate & *ange ,a to ,e4 ,to sum up3 ,! obv]sion ( an ,a proposition4 #a4 ,pr9ciple3 ,two negatives are equival5t to "o affirmative4 #b4 ,rule3 ,negate ! pr$icate & *ange ! ,a to an ,e by us+ ! sign no in/ead ( all4 #c4 ,process illu/rat$4 ,! ,orig9al ,proposition 7,a7 ,! ,obv]se 7,e7 ,all m5 are mortal4 ,no m5 are immortal4 ,all maples are trees4 ,no maples are n-trees4 ,all tea*]s %\ld be ,no tea*] %\ld be sympa!tic4 un-sympa!tic4 ,all pa9 is unpleasant4 ,no pa9 is pleasant4 ,all m5 are imp]fect4 ,no m5 are p]fect4 ,all birds are fea!r$ ,no birds are non-fea!r$ animals4 animals4 ,all m5 are n-trees4 ,no m5 are trees4 ,all scal5e triangles are ,no scal5e triangles are non-equilat]al4 equilat]al4 ,! ,e ,proposition4 ,x is obvi\s t ! process ( obv]t+ an ,e is simply ! rev]se ( obv]t+ an ,a4 ,consequ5tly1 ! same pr9ciple obta9s2 :]eas ! process may be illu/rat$ by read+ ! =ego+ illu/rations rev]sely4 ,! rule = obv]t+ ,e is3 ,negate ! pr$icate & *ange ! ,e to an ,a by *ang+ ! sign no to all4 ,! ,i ,proposition4 ,let u note ! result :5 ! d\ble negative pr9ciple is appli$ to ! ,i proposition4 ,orig9al3 8,"s m5 are wise40 ,add+ two negatives3 8,"s m5 are n n-wise40 ,! =ego+ simplifi$3 8,"s m5 are n unwise40 ,9 comp>+ ! fir/ proposition ) ! la/ x is obs]v$ t ! fir/ is an ,i :ile ! la/ is an ,o2 x is also obs]v$ t ! pr$icate ( ! fir/ 0 negat$ 9 ord] to =m ! pr$icate ( ! la/4 ,?us ! rule3 8,negate ! pr$icate & *ange ! ,i to an ,o40 ,! use ( circles may make ?is cle>]3 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #g4 ,! significant "p ( ,fig4 #g is t :i* is ink$4 ,"h we h repres5t$ ! "p ( ! 8m50 circle :i* is common to ! 8wise0 circle4 ,?us ! ink$ "p repres5ts 8,"s m5 are wise40 ,if ! ink$ "p is entirely inside ( ! 8wise0 circle1 no "p ( x c belong to ! 8unwise0 space )\t4 ,?us ! obv]se1 8,"s m5 are n unwise40 ,summ>y4 ,! obv]sion ( an ,i proposition4 #a4 ,pr9ciple3 ,same z ) ,a4 #b4 ,rule3 ,negate ! pr$icate & *ange ! ,i to an ,o4 #c4 ,process illu/rat$4 ,! ,orig9al ,proposition 7,i7 ,! ,obv]se 7,o7 ,"s wat] is pure4 ,"s wat] is n impure4 ,"s curves are p]fect4 ,"s curves are n imp]fect4 ,"s fri5ds are loyal4 ,"s fri5ds are n disloyal4 ,"s m5 are true4 ,"s m5 are n n-true4 ,"s preci\s /ones are ,"s preci\s /ones are n imp]fect4 p]fect4 ,"s plants are n-trees4 ,"s plants are n trees4 ,"s boys are n-hone/4 ,"s boys are n hone/4 ,x mu/ be borne 9 m9d t :5 8n0 is us$ )\t ! hyph5 x makes ! proposition negative1 because :5 8unhyph5$10 8n0 mu/ be ?\ght ( 9 connection ) ! copula & n 9 connection ) ! pr$icate2 :ile 8n0 atta*$ to ! pr$icate ) a hyph5 simply makes ! pr$icate negative )\t affect+ ! quality ( ! proposition2 e4 g41 8,"s plants are n trees0 is a negative proposition1 :ile 8,"s plants are n-trees0 is an affirmative proposition ) a negative pr$icate4 ,x may n be cle>ly se5 h[ x is possible1 by foll[+ ! rule giv51 to pass f su* a proposition z 8,"s plants are n-trees10 to 8,"s plants are n trees40 ,let u illu/rate ! /eps3 #a4 ,! orig9al3 8,"s plants are n-trees40 #b4 ,negat+ pr$icate3 8,"s plants are trees40 #c4 ,*ang+ to an ,o3 8,"s plants are n trees40 ,dropp+ ! n f 8#a0 & !n add+ x aga9 to 8#b0 is simply putt+ into op]ation ! d\ble negative idea1 s t !re is no violation ( ! pr9ciple4 ,! ,o ,proposition4 ,o be>s ! same relation to ,i t ,e be>s to ,a4 ,! pr9ciple involv$ is ! same4 ,! process is illu/rat$ by read+ rev]sely ! s*eme ( illu/rations "u ,i4 ,! rule is z foll[s3 ,to obv]t an ,o negate ! pr$icate & *ange ! ,o to an ,i by elim9at+ ! n4 ,summ>y ( ,obv]t+ ! ,f\r ,logical ,propositions4 #a4 ,pr9ciple3 ,two negatives are equival5t to "o affirmative4 #b4 ,rules3 7#a7 ,a to ,e ,negate ! pr$icate 7#b7 ,e to ,a & *ange 7#c7 ,i to ,o 7#d7 ,o to ,i 7#c7 ,,imm$iate ,,inf]5ce ,,by ,,conv]sion4 ,conv]sion is ! process ( inf]r+ f a giv5 proposition ano!r :i* has1 z its subject1 ! pr$icate ( ! giv5 proposition1 &1 z its pr$icate1 ! subject ( ! giv5 proposition4 ,x is simply a matt] ( transpos+ subject & pr$icate4 ,! orig9al proposition is call$ ! conv]t5d :ile ! d]iv$ proposition is nam$ ! conv]se4 ,! process ( conv]sion is limit$ by two rules4 ,fir/ rule4 ,no t]m mu/ be di/ribut$ 9 ! conv]se :i* is n di/ribut$ 9 ! conv]t5d4 ,second rule4 ,! quality ( ! conv]se mu/ be ! same z t ( ! conv]t5d4 ,m briefly3 7#a7 ,d n di/ribute an undi/ribut$ t]m4 7#b7 ,d n *ange ! quality4 ,we recall t a t]m is di/ribut$ :5 x is ref]r$ to z a def9ite :ole4 ,an undi/ribut$ t]m is ref]r$ to only 9 "p4 ,! pr9ciple und]ly+ rule 8#a10 !re=e1 is ! "o :i* =ms ! basis ( inf]5ce by opposition2 namely1 8,:atev] may be said ( ! entire class may be said ( a "p ( t class40 ,! conv]se ( ?is is n true1 t is1 8,:at is said ( "p ( a class _c be said ( ! :ole ( t class40 ,:5 we di/ribute an undi/ribut$ t]m we are say+ ( ! :ole class :at 0 said only ( a "p ( t class4 ,?is is fallaci\s4 ,on ! o!r h&1 we may say ( a "p :at 0 said ( ! :ole1 or 8undi/ribute0 a di/ribut$ t]m4 ,we recall t ! conclusion ( ! :ole matt] ( inf]5ce by opposition 01 t only an ,i c\ld be inf]r$ f an ,a & only an ,o f an ,e1 or to put x 9 ano!r way3 ,only an affirmative f an affirmative & only a negative f a negative4 ,?is e/abli%es ! tru? ( ! second rule 9 conv]sion3 8,d n *ange ! quality40 ,let u apply ! two rules to ! f\r logical propositions4 ,conv]t+ an ,a proposition4 ,take z a type1 8,all horses are quadrup$s40 ,"h ! subject 8horses0 is di/ribut$1 b ! pr$icate 8quadrup$s0 is undi/ribut$4 ,9 transpos+ subject & pr$icate we _c di/ribute ! t]m 8quadrup$s10 accord+ to ! rule :i* says1 8,d n di/ribute an undi/ribut$ t]m40 ,h5ce 9 int]*ang+ subject & pr$icate we _c say1 8,all quadrup$s are horses10 b mu/ limit ! ass]tion to1 8,"s quadrup$s are horses40 ,logicians call ?is process ,conv]sion by ,limitation4 ,conv]sion by ,limitation ,exemplifi$ ,fur!r4 ,conv]t5d4 ,conv]se4 ,all metals are elem5ts4 ,"s elem5ts are metals4 ,all bees buzz4 ,"s buzz+ insects are bees4 ,all m5 are fallible4 ,"s fallible be+s are m54 ,all good tea*]s are ,"s sympa!tic p]sons are good sympa!tic4 tea*]s4 ,! conclusions f ! =ego+ are ^!3 ,fir/1 ! usual mode ( conv]t+ an ,a is to int]*ange subject & pr$icate1 limit+ ! latt] by ! ^w 8"s0 or a ^w ( simil> significance4 ,second1 ?is mode is call$ conv]sion by limitation4 ,?ird1 ! conv]se ( an ,a is an ,i4 ,! ,co-ext5sive ,a4 ,9 ! conv]sion ( ,a propositions !re is ! "o exception ( 8co-ext5sive ,a's10 su* z truisms & def9itions4 ,x w be rememb]$ t ) ^! bo? subject & pr$icate are di/ribut$2 h5ce1 !y may be int]*ang$ )\t limit+ ! pr$icate by 8"s40 ,to illu/rate3 ,! conv]se ( ! truism1 8,a man is a man40 is 8,a man is a man10 :ile ! conv]se ( ! def9ition1 8,a man is a rational animal10 is 8,a rational animal is a man40 ,?is mode ( int]*ang+ subject & pr$icate )\t limit+ ! latt] is call$ ,simple ,conv]sion4 ,! ord9>y ,a proposition is ?us conv]t$ by limitation1 :ile ! co-ext5sive ,a is conv]t$ simply4 ,conv]t+ an ,e proposition4 ,z bo? t]ms ( ! ,e proposition are di/ribut$ x is n possible to violate ! rule ( di/ribution4 ,x is to be rememb]$ t no fallacy is committ$ by 8undi/ribut+0 a t]m :i* is already di/ribut$4 ,illu/rations4 ,conv]t5d4 ,conv]se4 ,no m5 are immortal4 ,no immortals are m54 ,simply4 ,no birds are quadrup$s4 ,no quadrup$s are birds4 ,simply4 ,no metals are comp\nds4 ,no comp\nds are metals4 ,simply4 ,no m5 are immortal4 ,"s immortals 7at lea/7 are n m54 ,limitation4 ,no birds are quadrup$s4 ,"s quadrup$s are n birds4 ,limitation4 ,no metals are comp\nds4 ,"s comp\nds are n metals4 ,limitation4 ,?ree facts are evid5t relative to ! conv]t+ ( an ,e4 ,fir/3 ,an ,e proposition may be conv]t$ ei!r simply or by limitation4 ,second3 ,e may be conv]t$ into ei!r ,e or ,o4 ,?ird3 ,if ! conv]se is an ,o !n is ! inf]5ce a weak5$ "o1 be+ p>ticul> :5 x c\ld j z well be univ]sal4 ,conv]t+ an ,i proposition4 ,) an ,i proposition nei!r t]m is di/ribut$4 ,?us c>e mu/ be us$ le/ an undi/ribut$ t]m 9 ! conv]t5d be di/ribut$ 9 ! conv]se4 ,illu/rations3 ,conv]t5d4 ,conv]se4 ,"s m5 are wise4 ,"s wise be+s are m54 ,"s tea*]s scold4 ,"s :o scold are tea*]s4 ,"s high s*ool graduates ,"s :o ent] college are high ent] college4 s*ool graduates4 ,"s ,am]icans live simply4 ,"s :o live simply are ,am]icans4 ,f ! =ego+ we conclude fir/1 t ,i is conv]t$ simply2 second1 t ,i is conv]t$ into ,i4 ,! ,o ,proposition4 ,) an ,o proposition ! subject is undi/ribut$ :ile ! pr$icate is di/ribut$4 ,?is condition pres5ts a peculi> difficulty4 ,consid]1 = example1 ! ,o proposition1 8,"s m5 are n wise40 ,conv]t ?is into1 8,"s wise be+s are n m510 & ! undi/ribut$ subject ( ! conv]t5d1 :i* is 8m510 becomes ! di/ribut$ pr$icate ( ! conv]se4 ,?us ! ,o proposition _c be conv]t$ )\t violat+ ! rule = di/ribution4 ,a ,summ>y ( ,h[ ! ,f\r ,logical ,propositions ,may be ,conv]t$4 #a4 ,a4 ,! ord9>y ,a proposition may be conv]t$ by limitation only4 ,! co-ext5sive ,a may be conv]t$ simply4 #b4 ,e4 ,! ,e proposition is conv]t$ simply4 ,! ,e may also be conv]t$ by limitation1 b ! inf]5ce ?us obta9$ is weak5$4 #c4 ,i4 ,! ,i proposition may be conv]t$ simply only4 #d4 ,o4 ,! ,o proposition _c be conv]t$4 7#d7 ,,inf]5ce ,,by ,,contrav]sion4 7,contraposition74 ,?is mode ( inf]5ce is usually ref]r$ to z inf]5ce by contraposition1 b contrav]sion1 indicat+ m def9itely ! nature ( ! process1 is a bett] t]m4 ,contrav]sion involves two /eps3 ,fir/1 obv]sion2 second1 conv]sion4 ,! same pr9ciples & rules evid5t 9 ^! two processes obta9 9 inf]5ce by contrav]sion4 ,! foll[+ s*eme1 !re=e1 ought to be suffici5t to make ! matt] cle>3 ,inf]5ce by ,contrav]sion4 #a4 ,! ,giv5 ,proposition4 #b4 ,obv]t$4 ,a4 ,all m5 are mortal4 ,no m5 are immortal4 ,all trees are plants4 ,no trees are n-plants4 ,e4 ,no m5 are infallible4 ,all m5 are fallible4 ,no m5 are trees4 ,all m5 are n-trees4 ,i4 ,"s m5 are wise4 ,"s m5 are n n-wise4 ,o4 ,"s wat] is n pure4 ,"s wat] is impure4 ,"s h\ses are n :ite4 ,"s h\ses are n-:ite4 #c4 ,conv]t$2 giv+ ! contrav]se ( ! orig9al proposition4 ,no immortals are m54 ,no n-plants are trees4 ,"s fallible be+s are m54 ,"s n-trees are m54 ,an ,o _c be conv]t$1 consequ5tly ! contrav]sion ( an ,i is impossible4 ,"s impure liquids are wat]4 ,"s n-:ite build+s are h\ses4 ,x is indicat$ 9 ! =ego+ s*eme t 8,i0 _c be contrav]t$4 ,?is is due to ! fact t ! obv]se ( an ,i is an ,o1 & x w be rememb]$ t 8,o0 _c be conv]t$4 ,all ! o!r propositions admit ( contrav]sion4 #d4 ,,epitome ,,( ,,! ,,f\r ,,processes ,,( ,,imm$iate ,,inf]5ce ,,9 ,,connection ,,) ,,! ,,f\r ,,logical ,,propositions4 99,proposition,"n ( ,inf]5ce ,pr9ciple symboliz$ ,process symboliz$ involv$ ,a ,all ,s is ,opposition ,"s ,s is ,:at is said ( all may ,p ,p 7,i7 be said ( "s4 ,obv]sion ,no ,s is ,two negatives are n-,p 7,e7 equival5t to "o affirmative4 ,conv]sion by,"s ,p is ,an undi/ribut$ t]m ,limitation ,s 7,i7 _c be di/ribut$4 ,contrav]sion,no n-,p ,same pr9ciples :i* is ,s 7,e7 obta9 9 obv]t+ ,a & conv]t+ ,e4 ,e ,no ,s is ,p ,opposition ,"s ,s is ,:at is said ( all may n ,p 7,o7 be said ( "s4 ,obv]sion ,all ,s is ,two negatives are n-,p 7,a7 equival5t to "o affirmative4 ,simple ,no ,p is ,s ,di/ribution n ,conv]sion 7,e7 affect$4 ,contrav]sion,"s n-,p ,an undi/ribut$ t]m is ,s 7,i7 _c be di/ribut$4 ,i ,"s ,s is ,p,opposition ,d\btful ,none4 ,obv]sion ,"s ,s ,two negatives are is n equival5t to "o n-,p 7,o7 affirmative4 ,conv]sion ,"s ,p is ,di/ribution n ,s 7,i7 affect$4 ,contrav]sion,impossible ,none4 ,o ,"s ,s is ,opposition ,d\btful ,none4 n ,p ,obv]sion ,"s ,s is ,two negatives are n-,p 7,i7 equival5t to "o affirmative4 ,conv]sion ,impossible ,none4 ,contrav]sion,"s n-,p ,same z 9 obv]sion ( is ,s 7,i7 ,o & conv]sion ( ,i4 99 - ,"n ( proposition - 8,s0 repres5ts any subject & 8,p0 any pr$icate4 ,,inf]5ce ,,by ,,inv]sion4 ,"s logicians treat ( a =m ( imm$iate inf]5ce kn[n z inv]sion ?\gh x is ( small importance & ( little practical value4 ,! process c be appli$ only to propositions ,a & ,e4 ,9 ! "o case ! contradictory subject is limit$ by 8"s0 & !n d5i$ ( ! pr$icate1 :]eas1 9 ! o!r case1 ! contradictory subject is m]ely affirm$ ( ! pr$icate4 ,illu/rations4 ,! ,giv5 ,proposition4 ,! ,inv]se4 ,i4 ,all ,s is ,p4 7,a7 ,"s n-,s is n ,p4 7,o7 ,all planets rotate4 ,"s n-planets d n rotate4 ,,ii4 ,no ,s is ,p4 7,e7 ,"s n-,s is ,p4 7,i7 ,no m5 are immortal4 ,"s n-m5 are immortal4 ,f ! =ego+ we are able to conclude t ! inv]se ( 8,a0 is f\nd by negat+ ! subject & *ang+ to an 8,o02 :ile ! inv]se ( 8,e0 is f\nd by negat+ ! subject & *ang+ to an 8,i40 #e4 ,,outl9e4 ,,imm$iate ,,inf]5ce,,opposition,,obv]sion1 ,,conv]sion1 ,,contrav]sion ,,& ,,inv]sion4 #a4 ,! ,nature ( ,inf]5ce4 #b4 ,imm$iate & ,m$iate ,inf]5ce4 #c4 ,! ,=ms ( ,imm$iate ,inf]5ce4 7#a7 ,opposition4 7a7 ,s*eme ( ,opposition4 7b7 ,squ>e ( ,opposition4 7#b7 ,obv]sion4 7#c7 ,conv]sion4 7a7 ,simply4 7b7 ,by ,limitation4 7#d7 ,contrav]sion4 ,inv]sion4 #f4 ,,summ>y4 #a4 ,inf]5ce is ! ?\ght process ( d]iv+ a judgm5t f "o or two antec$5t judgm5ts4 #b4 ,imm$iate inf]5ce is inf]5ce )\t ! use ( a middle t]m4 ,m$iate inf]5ce is inf]5ce by means ( a middle t]m4 #c4 ,! f\r common =ms ( imm$iate inf]5ce are 7#a7 opposition1 7#b7 obv]sion1 7#c7 conv]sion1 7#d7 contrav]sion4 7#a7 ,! "n opposition /&s = c]ta9 def9ite relations :i* exi/ betwe5 ! logical propositions :5 !y are giv5 ! same subject & pr$icate4 ,! "o pr9ciple und]ly+ opposition is3 ,:atev] is said ( ! entire class may be said ( a "p ( t class4 ,! two /atem5ts :i* sum up opposition are fir/1 an ,i may be d]iv$ f an ,a2 & second1 an ,o may be d]iv$ f an ,e4 ,! crucial fact made obvi\s by ! squ>e ( opposition is t ,a & ,o are mutually contradictory2 likewise ,e & ,i4 7#b7 ,obv]sion is ! process ( pass+ f an affirmative to its equival5t negative or f a negative to its equival5t affirmative4 8,two negatives are equival5t to "o affirmative10 is ! basic pr9ciple ( obv]sion4 ,! proposition ,a may be obv]t$ by negat+ ! pr$icate & *ang+ to an ,e4 8,e0 is obv]t$ by negat+ ! pr$icate & *ang+ to an ,a4 8,i0 is obv]t$ by negat+ ! pr$icate & *ang+ to an ,o4 8,o0 is obv]t$ by negat+ ! pr$icate & *ang+ to an ,i4 7#c7 ,conv]sion is ! process ( inf]r+ f a giv5 proposition ano!r :i* has z its subject ! pr$icate ( ! giv5 proposition & z its pr$icate ! subject ( ! giv5 proposition4 ,conv]sion is limit$ by ! two rules1 7#a7 d n di/ribute an undi/ribut$ t]m2 7#b7 d n *ange ! quality4 ,to conv]t an ,a int]*ange subject & pr$icate1 limit+ ! latt] by "s1 or a ^w ( l significance4 ,?is is call$ conv]sion by limitation4 ,! co-ext5sive ,a may be conv]t$ )\t limit+ ! pr$icate4 ,?is is call$ simple conv]sion4 ,an ,e proposition may be conv]t$ ei!r simply or by limitation4 ,:5 conv]t$ by limitation ! inf]5ce is a weak5$ "o4 ,an ,i proposition is conv]t$ simply only4 ,! ,o proposition does n admit ( conv]sion4 7#d7 ,imm$iate inf]5ce by contrav]sion is a process involv+ fir/ obv]sion & !n conv]sion4 8,a10 8,e0 & 8,o0 may be contrav]t$2 8,i0 _c be contrav]t$4 #g4 ,,illu/rative ,,ex]cises4 7#a;a7 ,f ! antec$5t judgm5t1 8,all we$s are plants10 ,i am able to d]ive by imm$iate inf]5ce ^! judgm5ts3 7#a7 8,all we$s are n n-plants10 or 8,no we$s are n plants40 7#b7 8,no n-plants are we$s40 7#c7 8,"s plants are we$s40 7#d7 8,"s we$s are plants40 7#a;b7 8,all v]tebrates h a backbone40 ,f ! =ego+ judgm5t d]ive imm$iately five diff]5t conclusions4 7#b;a7 8,all good citiz5s try to vote10 8,alb]t ,:ite is a good citiz510 ,h5ce1 8,alb]t ,:ite w try to vote40 ,i "k t ! above is an example ( m$iate inf]5ce because ! two antec$5t judgm5ts make use ( ! middle t]m1 8good citiz540 7#b;b7 ,:y is ! foll[+ illu/rative ( m$iate inf]5ce8 8,all wise m5 are close obs]v]s10 8,all wise m5 are ?\ghtful10 ,h5ce1 8,"s ?\ghtful m5 are close obs]v]s40 7#c;a7 ,d]ive imm$iate inf]5ces by opposition f ! foll[+3 7#a7 8,good m5 are wise40 7#b7 8,no tea*] c af=d to be unju/40 7#c7 8,all birds fly40 7#d7 8,none ( ! inn] planets are z l>ge z ! e>?40 ,i fir/ det]m9e t 8#a0 & 8#c0 are ,a propositions1 :ile 8#b0 & 8#d0 are ,e's4 ,!n ,i recall t by opposition an ,i may be d]iv$ f an ,a & an ,o f an ,e4 ,h5ce1 ! inf]5ces are3 7#a7 8,"s good m5 are wise40 7#b7 8,"s tea*]s _c af=d to be unju/40 7#c7 8,"s birds fly40 7#d7 8,"s ( ! inn] planets are n s l>ge z ! e>?40 7#c;b7 ,d]ive by opposition inf]5ces f ! foll[+3 7#a7 8,no true woman w neglect h] home = society40 7#b7 8,all patriotic m5 love ! flag40 7#c7 8,fools ru% 9 :]e angels fe> to tread40 7#d;a7 ,obv]t ! foll[+3 7#a7 8,all e>ne/ tea*]s are dilig5t /ud5ts40 7#b7 8,no self-respect+ man c af=d to be c>eless 9 8 p]sonal appe>ance40 7#c7 8,"s ( ! great tea*]s ( ! pa/ did n practice :at !y prea*$40 7#d7 8,"s we$s are beautiful40 ,i det]m9e fir/ ! logical "* ( ea* proposition1 f9d+ ! fir/ to be an ,a1 ! second an ,e1 ! ?ird an ,o & ! f\r? an ,i4 ,!n ,i recall t 9 obv]sion ! pr$icate mu/ always be negat$ & an ,a mu/ be *ang$ to an ,e or an ,e to an ,a2 also an ,i mu/ be *ang$ to an ,o or an ,o to an ,i4 ,h5ce1 ! obv]se ( ea* proposition is3 7#a7 8,no e>ne/ tea*] is a n-dilig5t /ud5t40 7#b7 8,all self-respect+ m5 c af=d to be n-c>eless 7c>eful7 9 _! p]sonal appe>ance40 7#c7 8,"s ( ! great tea*]s ( ! pa/ did n-practice 7fail$ to practice7 :at !y prea*$40 7#d7 8,"s we$s are n n-beautiful40 7#d;b7 ,inf] by obv]sion f ! foll[+3 7#a7 8,all roses are beautiful40 7#b7 8,none ( ! memb]s ( ! /ock ex*ange are di%one/40 7#c7 8,"s pupils are n indu/ri\s40 7#d7 8,"s tea*]s are tactful40 7#e;a7 ,conv]t ! foll[+3 7#a7 8,all t glitt]s is n gold40 7#b7 8,all good m5 are wise40 7#c7 8,"s books are to be *ew$ & dige/$40 7#d7 8,no man is p]fectly happy40 ,x is fir/ necess>y to det]m9e ! logical "* ( ea* proposition4 ,c>elessness might lead "o to call ! fir/ proposition an ,a because x is introduc$ by ! quantity sign 8all40 ,b on second ?\ght we note t ! mean+ is to ! effect t "s glitt]+ ?+s are n gold2 ?is is an ,o4 ,x is cle> t ! second is an ,a1 ! ?ird an ,i & ! f\r? an ,e4 ,x is n[ exp$i5t to recall ! rules reg>d+ conv]sion4 ,^! are1 7#a7 d n di/ribute an undi/ribut$ t]m2 7#b7 d n *ange ! quality4 ,we may n[ attempt to int]*ange ! subject & pr$icate ( ea* proposition1 ) ! foll[+ results3 7#a7 ,conv]sion impossible4 7#b7 8,"s wise m5 are good m540 7#c7 8,"s ?+s to be *ew$ & dige/$ are books40 7#d7 8,no p]fectly happy be+ is a man40 ,:5 attempt+ to conv]t proposition 7#a71 ,i f9d t ! subject :i* is undi/ribut$ becomes di/ribut$1 h5ce ! rule p]ta9+ to di/ribution is violat$4 ,?is conclusion is v]ifi$ by recall+ ! fact t an ,o proposition _c be conv]t$4 ,! second proposition1 be+ an ,a1 is conv]t$ by limitation2 :ile ! ?ird & f\r? are conv]t$ simply1 z is ! natural proc$ure ) all ,i's & ,e's4 7#e;b7 ,conv]t ^! propositions3 7#a7 8,bless$ are ! meek40 7,all ! meek are bless$47 7#b7 8,none b mat]ial bodies gravitate40 7,all gravitat+ bodies are mat]ial47 7#c7 8,gold is n a comp\nd sub/ance40 7#d7 8,usually cruel m5 are c[>ds40 ,,note4,! fir/ proposition is poetical :ile ! second is an exclusive4 7#f;a7 ,contrav]t ! foll[+ propositions3 7#a7 8,all virtue is praisewor?y40 7#b7 8,"s tea*]s are n tactful40 7#c7 8,a man :o lies is n to be tru/$40 ,contrav]sion consi/s 9 obv]t+ fir/1 & !n conv]t+2 consequ5tly1 ! contrav]se ( ! ?ree propositions is z foll[s3 7#a7 8,no unpraisewor?y de$ is virtue40 7#b7 8,"s n-tactful p]sons are tea*]s40 7#c7 8,"s untru/wor?y m5 are ^? :o lie40 7#f;b7 ,write ! contrav]se ( ! foll[+3 7#a7 8,all hone/ m5 pay _! debts40 7#b7 8,all m5 are rational40 7#c7 8,ne>ly all ! troops h left ! t[n40 7#d7 8,"s tea*]s are n pati5t40 7#g;a7 ,! att5d+ s*eme indicates ! logical process & rule involv$ 9 pass+ f "o proposition to ano!r3 ,a4 8,all m5 are imp]fect40 ,process3 ,obv]sion4 ,rule3 ,negate pr$icate & *ange to ,e4 ,e4 8,no m5 are p]fect40 ,process3 ,simple ,conv]sion4 ,rule3 ,int]*ange subject & pr$icate4 ,e4 8,no p]fect be+s are m540 ,process3 ,contrav]sion4 ,rule3 ,obv]t & !n conv]t4 ,i4 8,"s n-m5 are p]fect be+s40 7#g;b7 ,treat 9 a mann] simil> to ! above ! proposition1 8,all horses are quadrup$s40 #h4 ,,review ,,que/ions4 7#a7 ,:at is inf]5ce8 7#b7 ,:at is ! mean+ ( antec$5t8 7#c7 ,def9e 7#a7 judg+1 7#b7 a judgm5t4 7#d7 ,all roses are beautiful1 ,?is fl[] is a rose1 ,?is fl[] is beautiful4 ,write ?is example ( m$iate inf]5ce 9 equation =m4 ,"n ! middle t]m4 7#e7 ,def9e imm$iate inf]5ce4 ,illu/rate4 7#f7 ,def9e m$iate inf]5ce4 ,illu/rate4 7#g7 ,"n ! five =ms ( imm$iate inf]5ce4 7#h7 ,:at pr9ciple is involv$ 9 inf]5ce by opposition8 7#i7 ,draw ! s*eme ( opposition4 7#aj7 ,make use ( ?is s*eme 9 d]iv+ inf]5ces f ! foll[+ propositions3 7a7 8,good m5 are wise40 7b7 8,no k+ is infallible40 7c7 8,cattle are rum9ants40 7d7 8,all :o *eat ! railroads are n hone/40 7#aa7 ,:at are contradictory propositions8 ,illu/rate4 7#ab7 ,:at w\ld be ! simple/ way ( disprov+ ! /atem5t t 8,no great religi\s tea*] has be5 consi/5t80 7#ac7 ,:y are ,a & ,e said to be contr>y propositions8 7#ad7 ,def9e obv]sion4 7#ae7 ,by :at o!r "n is obv]sion kn[n8 7#af7 ,/ate ! basic pr9ciple ( obv]sion4 7#ag7 ,illu/rate ! process kn[n z negat+ ! pr$icate4 7#ah7 ,/ate ! rule = obv]t+ an ,a proposition4 7#ai7 ,obv]t ! foll[+3 7#a7 8,all ! boys 9 my room are indu/ri\s40 7#b7 8,hone/y is ! be/ policy40 7#c7 8,only ! indu/ri\s are truly successful40 7#bj7 ,fir/ /ate ! rule & !n obv]t ! foll[+3 7#a7 8,"s plants are bi5nial40 7#b7 8,planets are n suns40 7#c7 8,bless$ are ! m]ciful40 7#d7 8,^! samples are n p]fect40 7#ba7 ,def9e conv]sion4 7#bb7 ,/ate & illu/rate ! rules :i* condition ! process ( conv]sion4 7#bc7 ,conv]t1 if possible1 ! foll[+3 7#a7 8,"s m5 practice sophi/ry40 7#b7 8,few m5 "k h[ to live40 7#c7 8,"s ( ! inhabitants are n civiliz$40 7#d7 8,all ! _w is a /age40 7#e7 8,none ( my pupils fail$40 7#f7 8,exp]i5ce is a h>d taskma/]40 7#bd7 ,:y may co-ext5sive propositions be conv]t$ simply8 7#be7 ,describe ! process ( inf]5ce by contrav]sion4 #i4 ,,problems ,,= ,,orig9al ,,?\ght ,,& ,,inve/igation4 7#a7 ,:at gr\nd is !re = ! belief t imm$iate inf]5ce1 s call$1 is m]ely a matt] ( ! int]pretation ( propositions8 7#b7 ,is !re any diff]5ce betwe5 reason+ & inf]5ce8 7#c7 ,:5 ! conclusion is rea*$ t two rooms are ( ! same wid?1 because ea* is five y>ds wide1 :at is ! middle t]m8 7#d7 ,put 9 equation =m3 ,all tea*]s in/ruct1 ,john ,jones is a tea*]1 ,john ,jones in/ructs4 ,%[ t ! equations are n absolutely true4 7#e7 ,indicate ! true relation betwe5 ! subjects & pr$icates ( ! =ego+ by us+ ! algebraic signs & 4 7#f7 ,:y _c an ,a be d]iv$ f an ,i8 7#g7 ,:y _c an ,o be d]iv$ f an ,a8 7#h7 ,! basic pr9ciple ( obv]sion is 8,two negatives are equival5t to "o affirmative40 ,%[ by means ( circles t ?is is n absolutely true2 take z an illu/rative proposition1 8,no m5 are n mortal40 7#i7 ,%[ t agreeable & disagreeable are n contradictory t]ms4 7#aj7 ,:y %\ld ! logician class individual propositions z univ]sal8 7#aa7 ,%[ by circles t !re is a diff]5ce 9 signification betwe51 8,"s m5 are n wise0 & 8,"s m5 are n-wise40 7#ab7 ,%[ by circles t ! ,o proposition _c be conv]t$4 7#ac7 8,! ,i proposition _c be contrav]t$40 ,make ?is cle>4 7#ad7 ,is !re any diff]5ce 9 mean+ betwe51 8,all illogical "w is uns*ol>ly0 & 8,no illogical "w is s*ol>ly80 ,expla9 by circles4 7#ae7 ,/ate ! logical process involv$ 9 pass+ f ea* proposition to its succe$+ "o3 7#a7 8,all m5 are imp]fect40 7#b7 8,no m5 are p]fect40 7#c7 8,no p]fect be+s are m540 7#d7 8,"s n-m5 are p]fect be+s40 7#e7 8,"s p]fect be+s are n-m540 7#f7 8,"s p]fect be+s are n m540 7#af7 ,x is sometimes said t 9 sub-contr>ies !re is really no opposition4 ,d y agree8 ,give argum5ts4 ,,*apt] #aa4 ,,m$iate ,,inf]5ce4 ,,! ,,syllogism4 #a4 ,,inf]5ce ,,& ,,reason+4 ,inf]5ce has be5 def9$ z bo? a product & a process4 ,:5 us$ to indicate a process ! t]m inf]5ce becomes synonom\s ) reason+4 ,if logicians c\ld agree to conf9e inf]5ce to ! product & reason+ to ! process1 x w\ld remove an ambiguity :i* is m or less mislead+4 ,b s9ce ?is has n become ! cu/om1 we %all use inf]5ce z indicat+ ! process z well z ! product4 ,def9itions,middle ,t]m ,expla9$4 ,inf]5ce is ! ?\ght process ( d]iv+ a judgm5t f "o or two antec$5t judgm5ts4 ,m$iate inf]5ce is inf]5ce by means ( a middle t]m4 ,reason+ ( ?is nature involves ?ree t]ms1 two ( :i* are comp>$ ) a ?ird or middle t]m1 & !n relat$ to ea* o!r to =m a new judgm5t4 ,! middle t]m is ! common unit1 or ! /&>d by :i* ! o!r t]ms are measur$4 ,to illu/rate3 ,if ,john & ,james are ea* six feet tall1 !n pla9ly1 !y are ( ! same height4 ,! /&>d1 or middle t]m1 is 8six feet tall40 #b4 ,,! ,,syllogism4 ,j z ! judgm5t is express$ by means ( ! proposition1 s m$iate inf]5ce is be/ express$ by means ( ! syllogism4#i ,! foll[+ are syllogisms3 7#a7 ,james is six feet tall1 ,john is six feet tall1 ,h5ce ,james is z tall z ,john4 7#b7 ,all true tea*]s are j1 ,y are a true tea*]1 ,h5ce y are j4 7#c7 ,all m5 are mortal1 ,y are a man1 ,h5ce y are mortal4 #c4 ,,! ,,rules ,,( ,,! ,,syllogism4 ,all syllogi/ic reason+ is condition$ by ! foll[+ eight rules3 7#a7 ,a syllogism mu/ h ?ree1 & only ?ree1 diff]5t t]ms4 7#b7 ,a syllogism mu/ h ?ree1 & only ?ree1 propositions4 7#c7 ,! middle t]m mu/ be di/ribut$ at lea/ once4 7#d7 ,no t]m mu/ be di/ribut$ 9 ! conclusion :i* is n also di/ribut$ 9 a premise4 7#e7 ,no conclusion c be drawn f two negative premises4 7#f7 ,if "o premise be negative1 ! conclusion mu/ be negative2 & conv]sely1 to prove a negative conclusion1 "o ( ! premises mu/ be negative4 7#g7 ,no conclusion c be drawn f two p>ticul> premises4 7#h7 ,if "o premise be p>ticul>1 ! conclusion mu/ be p>ticul>4 ,^! rules are exce$+ly important1 z _! obs]vance is necess>y 9 all m$iate reason+4 ,! /ud5t ne$s1 n only to und]/& ! mean+ ( ^! rules1 b he ne$s to commit !m to memory s ?or\ghly t !y may be recall$ )\t hesitation or mi/ake4 ,to aid ! memory1 ! eight rules may be divid$ into ^! f\r gr\ps3 ,i4 ,rules "o & two relate to ! composition ( ! syllogism4 ,,ii4 ,rules ?ree & f\r p]ta9 to ! di/ribution ( t]ms4 ,,iii4 ,rules five & six h ref]5ce to negative premises4 ,,iv4 ,rules sev5 & eight conc]n p>ticul> premises4 #d4 ,,rules ,,( ,,! ,,syllogism ,,expla9$4 7#a7 ,a syllogism mu/ h ?ree & only ?ree t]ms4 ,x is common to repres5t ! v>i\s syllogi/ic =ms by symbols1 ! same symbols always /&+ = ! same t]ms4 ,9 ?is treatm5t we %all let capital ,g /& = ! major t]m1 z 8major0 means great]2 capital ,s = ! m9or t]m1 z 8m9or0 means small]1 & capital ,m = ! middle t]m4 ,g1 ,s & ,m1 ! initial lett]s ( great] 7major71 small] 7m9or7 & middle1 w be ! con/ant symbols = ^! t]ms2 j z ,a1 ,e1 ,i & ,o are us$ z ! con/ant symbols = ! f\r logical propositions4 ,illu/ration4 ,syllogism writt5 9 full3 ,all m5 are mortal1 ,socrates is a man1 7,!re=e7 ,socrates is mortal4 ,syllogism symboliz$3 ,all ,m is ,g ,s is ,m ,s is ,g ,! major t]m is always ! pr$icate & ! m9or t]m ! subject ( ! conclusion4 ,! conclusion ( ! =ego+ syllogism is1 8,socrates is mortal40 ,s9ce ,g /&s = ! pr$icate ( e conclusion1 !n x /&s = 8mortal10 ! pr$icate ( ! above conclusion4 ,= a simil> reason1 ,s /&s = ! subject1 namely1 8,socrates02 :ile ,m repres5ts ! middle t]m1 8man40 ,s9ce e syllogism mu/ h ?ree propositions1 & s9ce x takes two t]ms to =m a proposition1 !n x foll[s t e syllogism mu/ conta9 six t]ms4 ,b1 z no syllogism c h m ?an ?ree diff]5t t]ms1 we conclude t ea* t]m ( ! syllogism mu/ be us$ twice4 ,9 ! =ego+ example1 ,g ?us appe>s1 n only 9 ! la/ proposition1 or conclusion1 b 9 ! fir/ proposition also4 ,simil>ly1 bo? ,s & ,m occur twice4 ,e logical syllogism1 !n1 conta9s fir/1 a major t]m1 :i* is always ! pr$icate ( ! conclusion & appe>s once 9 ! premises2 second1 a m9or t]m1 :i* is always ! subject ( ! conclusion & appe>s once 9 ! premises2 & ?ird1 a middle t]m to :i* ! o!r two t]ms are ref]r$4 ,!re are two ways ( locat+ ! middle t]m2 fir/1 x is ! t]m :i* is us$ 9 bo? ! premises2 second1 x is ! t]m :i* nev] appe>s 9 ! conclusion4 ,likewise1 !re are two ways ( locat+ ! major & m9or t]ms2 fir/1 ! major t]m is always ! pr$icate & ! m9or t]m ! subject ( ! conclusion2 second1 ! major t]m is usually ! broad] & ! m9or t]m ! n>r[] ( ! two4 ,if ! major & m9or t]ms seem to be ( ab\t ! same ext5sion or bread?1 !n ! t]m 9 ! fir/ proposition1 :i* is n ! middle t]m1 is ! major4 ,9 ! att5d+ syllogisms ! ?ree t]ms are designat$3 7middle7 7major7 7#a7 ,all true tea*]s are sympa!tic1 7m9or7 7middle7 ,y are a true tea*]1 7m9or7 7major7 ,y are sympa!tic4 7major7 7middle7 7#b7 ,no %ell fi% are v]tebrates1 7m9or7 7middle7 ,all tr\t are v]tebrates1 7m9or7 7major7 ,no tr\t are %ell fi%4 ,! necessity ( hav+ b ?ree diff]5t t]ms 9 any syllogism may be und]/ood by suppos+ t !re are f\r diff]5t t]ms2 !n x w\ld foll[ t !re c\ld be no /&>d or common l9k4 ,9 ! axiom1 8,?+s equal to ! same ?+ are equal to ea* o!r10 ! same ?+ is ! common /&>d or l9k4 ,two ?+s :i* equal two diff]5t ?+s are n equal to ea* o!r4 ,! impossibility ( reason+ f f\r t]ms may be %[n by circles4 ,all m5 are mortal4 ,all trees gr[4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #h4 ,^! circles %[ t no connection c be e/abli%$ betwe5 ei!r gr\p4 ,us+ f\r t]ms 9 any syllogism is kn[n z ! fallacy ( f\r t]ms4 7#b7 ,a syllogism mu/ h ?ree & only ?ree propositions4 ,! proposition conta9+ ! major t]m is call$ ! major premise1 :ile ! "o conta9+ ! m9or t]m is call$ ! m9or premise4 ,9 a /rictly logical syllogism ! major premise is writt5 fir/1 ! m9or premise second & ! conclusion ?ird4 ,9 common p>lance1 h[ev]1 ! m9or premise or ev5 ! conclusion may appe> fir/4 ,! conclusion ( a syllogism is always prec$$ by !re=e1 or its equival5t1 :i* may be writt5 or und]/ood4 ,! premises always answ] ! "q1 ,:y is ! conclusion true8 ,! premises are (t5 prec$$ by su* words z = & because4 ,! att5d+ irregul> syllogisms are arrang$ logically & ! premises & conclusions indicat$3 7#a;a7 ,illogical4 8,y mu/ take an exam9ation because all :o ent] ! s*ool are exam9$ & y1 z ,i und]/& x1 are plann+ to ent]40 7#b;a7 8,"s ( ^! books are n well b\nd1 = !y are go+ to pieces z no well b\nd book w\ld d40 7#a;b7 ,logical4 ,all :o ent] ?is s*ool are exam9$1 ,major premise4 ,y are plann+ to ent] ?is s*ool1 ,m9or premise4 ,y mu/ be exam9$4 ,conclusion4 7#b;b7 ,no well b\nd book goes to pieces1 ,major premise4 ,"s ( ^! books are go+ to pieces1 ,m9or premise4 ,"s ( ^! books are n well b\nd4 ,conclusion4 ,! fact t all syllogisms mu/ h ?ree & only ?ree premises foll[s f rule 8#a40 ,"o premise mu/ comp>e ! middle t]m ) ! 8major02 ano!r premise mu/ comp>e ! middle t]m ) ! 8m9or02 :ile ! conclusion l9ks toge!r ! 8major0 & ! 8m9or40 7#c7 ,! middle t]m mu/ be di/ribut$ at lea/ once4 ,! rule is usually giv5 9 ?is way1 8,! middle t]m mu/ be di/ribut$ once at lea/1 & mu/ n be ambigu\s40 ,9 ?is treatm5t ! la/ "p ( ! rule has be5 omitt$ because x mu/ be app>5t to ! /ud5t t a middle t]m us$ 9 two s5ses is virtually equival5t to two diff]5t t]ms2 su* an 8ambigu\s middle0 w\ld1 9 consequ5ce1 give a syllogism ( f\r t]ms4 ,rules #c & #d are ( great] importance ?an ! o!rs because !y are m frequ5tly violat$4 ,if ! middle t]m is n di/ribut$ at lea/ once1 ! fallacy is ref]r$ to z 8undi/ribut$ middle40 ,if ! di/ribut$ major t]m ( ! conclusion is n di/ribut$ 9 ! major premise1 !n ! fallacy is call$1 8illicit process ( ! major t]m02 & f9ally1 if ! di/ribut$ m9or t]m ( ! conclusion is n di/ribut$ 9 ! m9or premise ! fallacy is d5om9at$ an 8illicit process ( ! m9or t]m40 ,^! two illicit processes may be abbreviat$ to illicit major & illicit m9or4 ,recall t any t]m is di/ribut$ :5 x is ref]r$ to z a def9ite :ole4 ,unless ! :ole ( ! middle t]m is consid]$ x fails to become a common /&>d ( comp>ison4 ,?is becomes cle> :5 rec\rse is made to ! circles4 ,illu/ration4 ,syllogism 9 :i* ! middle t]m is n di/ribut$3 ,all m5 are mortal1 ,all trees are mortal1 ,all trees are m54 ,all ! propositions are ,a's & consequ5tly ! pr$icates ( ea* are undi/ribut$1 z ,a di/ributes ! subject only4 ,!re=e ! middle t]m1 8mortal10 is n di/ribut$ 9 ei!r ( ! premises & ?us ! fallacy4 ,fallacy %[n by circles3 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #i4 ,^! circles indicate ! correct mean+ ( ! two premises4 ,by !m x is se5 t all ( ! 8m50 circle belongs to ! 8mortal0 circle & all ( ! 8tree0 circle belongs to ! 8mortal0 circle1 b 9 ?is case !re is no connection betwe5 ! 8m50 & 8tree0 circles4 ,?us1 to say t 8,all trees are m510 is fallaci\s4 ,we h no "r to ei!r affirm or d5y ! connection betwe5 m5 & trees4 ,if 8mortal0 7 di/ribut$ we w\ld h ?is "r z ! foll[+ w make cle>3 ,all m5 are mortal1 ,no /ones are mortal1 ,no /ones are m54 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aj4 ,"h ! middle t]m mortal is di/ribut$ 9 ! second premise z 9 x ! subject 8/ones0 is exclud$ f ! entire mortal t]ritory4 ,?is conclusion is v]ifi$ by ! =mal /atem5t t 8,e0 di/ributes bo? subject & pr$icate4 ,s9ce all ( ! 8m50 circle belongs to ! 8mortal0 circle & none ( ! 8/ones0 circle belongs to ! 8mortal0 circle !n none ( ! 8/ones0 circle c belong to ! 8m50 circle4 7#d7 ,no t]m mu/ be di/ribut$ 9 ! conclusion :i* is n also di/ribut$ 9 its premise4 ,x has be5 affirm$ t a t]m is di/ribut$ :5 x is ref]r$ to z a def9ite :ole4 ,to put x 9 ano!r way1 a t]m is di/ribut$ :5 x is employ$ 9 its fulle/ s5se4 ,x is obvi\s t we %\ld n employ a t]m 9 its fulle/ s5se 9 ! conclusion :5 x has be5 us$ only 9 a p>tial s5se 9 its premise4 ,:at is said ( ! "p _c necess>ily be said ( ! :ole4 ,= example3 ,because "s m5 are hone/ x does n foll[ t all m5 are hone/4 ,( c\rse ! conv]se ( ?is is true1 namely1 if x c\ld be prov$ t all m5 are hone/ !n surely x w\ld foll[ t "s ( ! m5 are hone/4 ,to put x briefly3 ,:at is true ( all is true ( "s b :at is true ( "s is n necess>ily true ( all4 ,to di/ribute a t]m 9 ! conclusion :5 x is n di/ribut$ 9 ! premise :]e x occurs is equival5t to say+1 8:at is true ( "s is true ( all40 ,?is error :i* violates rule 8#d0 leads to ! two fallacies ( illicit process ( ! major & m9or t]ms4 ,! foll[+ illu/rate ! two fallacies4 ,syllogism illu/rat+ illicit major3 ,all trees gr[1 ,no m5 are trees1 ,no m5 gr[4 ,! fir/ premise is an ,a & consequ5tly its subject is di/ribut$4 ,! second premise & conclusion be+ ,e's h bo? subject & pr$icate di/ribut$4 ,?us gr[1 z us$ 9 ! conclusion1 is di/ribut$1 b1 z us$ 9 ! major premise1 x is n di/ribut$4 ,fallacy %[n by circles3 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aa4 ,"h all ( ! 8tree0 circle belongs to ! 8gr[0 circle & none ( ! 8m50 circle belongs to ! 8tree0 circle1 h5ce ! diagram correctly repres5ts ! mean+ ( ! two premises & %[s ! fallacy ( conclud+ t no m5 gr[4 ,! 8m50 circle1 be+ entirely )9 ! 8gr[0 circle1 indicates t all m5 gr[4 ,syllogism illu/rat+ illicit m9or3 ,all true tea*]s are j1 ,all true tea*]s are sympa!tic1 ,all ! sympa!tic are j4 ,ea* proposition be+ an ,a di/ributes its subject4 ,b ! subject ( ! conclusion :i* is 8! sympa!tic0 is n di/ribut$ 9 ! m9or premise1 z an ,a proposition di/ributes its subject only4 ,h5ce ! fallacy ( illicit m9or4 ,fallacy %[n by circles3 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ab4 ,! diagram correctly repres5ts ! two premises s9ce all ( ! 8true tea*]0 circle belongs to bo? ! 8j0 & 8sympa!tic0 circles4 ,b all ( ! 8sympa!tic0 circle does n belong to ! 8j0 circle4 ,h5ce ! fallacy4 7#e7 ,no conclusion c be drawn f two negative premises4 ,:5 two t]ms are bo? d5i$ ( a ?ird t]m1 x is q impossible to draw any conclusion relative to ! two t]ms1 z ! absolute exclusion ( ! ?ird t]m elim9ates any possibility ( a common l9k or /&>d4 ,! circles w make ?is app>5t3 ,no m5 are immortal1 ,no trees are immortal1 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ac4 8,no trees are m50 is ! conclusion repres5t$ by ,fig4 #ac4 ,o!r possible conclusions are1 8,all trees are m510 8,all m5 are trees0 & 8,"s m5 are trees40 ,x is ?us se5 t no def9ite conclusion c be drawn4 ,x may n[ be said t :5 ! major & m9or t]ms are us$ 9 two negative premises ! connection betwe5 !m is indet]m9ate4 ,?is violation ( rule 8#e0 may be t]m$ ! fallacy ( two negatives4 7#f7 ,if "o premise be negative ! conclusion mu/ be negative2 & conv]sely1 to prove a negative conclusion "o ( ! premises mu/ be negative4 ,ref]r+ to ! fir/ "p ( ?is rule1 x may be said ( two t]ms t if "o is affirm$ & ! o!r d5i$ ( a ?ird t]m1 !n ! two t]ms mu/ be d5i$ ( ea* o!r4 ,! att5d+ syllogism & its 8circl$0 repres5tation w ?r[ light ^u ?is3 ,no m5 are immortal1 ,all ,am]icans are m51 ,no ,am]icans are immortal4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ad4 ,s9ce none ( ! 8m50 circle belongs to ! 8immortal0 circle & all ( ! 8,am]ican0 circle is inside ! 8m50 circle1 x is evid5t t none ( ! 8,am]ican0 circle c belong to any "p ( ! 8immortal0 circle4 ,?us x is manife/ t an affirmative conclusion l1 8,all ,am]icans are immortal10 is invalid4 ,! conv]se ( rule #f1 8,to prove a negative conclusion1 "o ( ! premises mu/ be negative10 may be expla9$ by ! g5]al pr9ciple 9 logic t :5 two t]ms are kn[n to disagree1 "o mu/ agree ) a ?ird t]m :ile ! o!r mu/ disagree4 ,if bo? agre$ ) a ?ird1 !n ! conclusion w\ld ( necessity be affirmative4 ,if bo? disagre$ no conclusion c\ld be drawn4 ,a violation ( rule #f may be call$ ! fallacy ( negative conclusion4 7#g7 ,no conclusion c be drawn f two p>ticul> premises4 ,pro(3 7#a7 ,all ! possible comb9ations ( ! two p>ticul> premises ,i & ,o are1 7#a7 ,,io1 7#b7 ,,oi1 7#c7 ,,ii1 7#d7 ,,oo4 8,,io0 consid]$4 7#b7 ,s9ce ,o is a negative premise ! conclusion w\ld h to be negative accord+ to rule #f4 7,if "o premise is negative1 ! conclusion mu/ be negative47 7#c7 ,if ! conclusion is negative1 !n its pr$icate1 :i* is ! major t]m1 mu/ be di/ribut$4 7,all negative propositions di/ribute _! pr$icates47 7#d7 ,if ! major t]m is di/ribut$ 9 ! conclusion1 x mu/ be di/ribut$ 9 ! major premise1 rule #d4 7,no t]m mu/ be di/ribut$ 9 ! conclusion1 :i* is n also di/ribut$ 9 "o ( ! premises47 7#e7 ,h5ce two t]ms mu/ be di/ribut$ 9 ! premises1 ! major t]m accord+ to 7#d7 & ! middle t]m accord+ to rule #c4 7#f7 ,b ,i di/ributes nei!r t]m & ,o di/ributes its pr$icate only2 ,i & ,o toge!r1 !n1 di/ribute b "o t]m4 7#g7 ,to draw a negative conclusion ! premises mu/ di/ribute two t]ms1 ! middle & ! major1 accord+ to ! =ego+4 7#h7 ,h5ce a conclusion f ,i & ,o is unt5able4 ,! same may be said ( 8,,oi40 8,,ii0 consid]$4 7#a7 ,! ,i proposition di/ributes nei!r subject nor pr$icate1 h5ce ! premises 8,,ii0 w\ld di/ribute no t]m4 7#b7 ,b ! middle t]m mu/ be di/ribut$ at lea/ once accord+ to rule #c4 7#c7 ,!re=e no conclusion c be drawn f 8,,ii40 ,a valid conclusion f 8,,oo0 is impossible accord+ to rule #e4 7#h7 ,if "o premise be p>ticul> ! conclusion mu/ be p>ticul>4 ,pro(3 ,! possible comb9ations condition$ by rule #h are ,,ai1 ,,ao1 ,,ei1 ,,eo1 ,,io1 ,,ii1 ,,oo4 8,,ai0 consid]$4 7#a7 ,proposition ,a di/ributes its subject1 proposition ,i nei!r2 h5ce 8,,ai0 toge!r di/ribute b "o t]m4 7#b7 ,accord+ to rule #c ?is "o t]m mu/ be ! middle t]m4 7#c7 ,! m9or t]m mu/1 !re=e1 be undi/ribut$ 9 ! m9or premise1 & 9 consequ5ce undi/ribut$ 9 ! conclusion4 7#d7 ,b ?is undi/ribut$ m9or t]m is ! subject ( ! conclusion2 h5ce said conclusion mu/ be p>ticul>1 z only p>ticul>s h an undi/ribut$ subject4 8,,ao0 & 8,,ei0 consid]$4 ,pro(3 7#a7 8,,ao0 di/ribute two t]ms2 s d 8,,ei40 7#b7 ,bo? 8,,ao0 & 8,,ei0 mu/ h negative conclusions accord+ to rule #f4 7#c7 ,a negative conclusion di/ributes its pr$icate :i* is ! major t]m4 7#d7 ,! major t]m & ! middle t]m mu/ be di/ribut$ 9 ! premises4 ,rules #d & #c4 7#e7 ,?us ! ?ird t]m1 :i* is ! m9or1 _c be di/ribut$ 9 ! m9or premise &1 consequ5tly1 ! m9or _c be di/ribut$ 9 ! conclusion4 7#f7 ,?is necessitates a p>ticul> conclusion4 ,premises ,,eo & ,,oo1 be+ negative1 _c yield a conclusion accord+ to rule #e2 simil>ly1 nei!r c ! p>ticul>s ,,io & ,,ii because ( rule #g4 #e4 ,,! ,,dictum ,,( ,,ari/otle4 ,ari/otle gives an axiom on :i* all syllogi/ic inf]5ce is bas$4 ,inde$ f ?is fundam5tal pr9ciple ! significant rules ( ! syllogism c\ld be d]iv$4 ,! dictum is /at$ 9 ?is wise3 8,:atev] is pr$icat$1 :e!r affirmatively or negatively1 ( a t]m di/ribut$ may be pr$icat$ 9 ! mann] ( ev]y?+ conta9$ "u x40 ,! foll[+ /atem5ts repres5t v>i\s ways ( expla9+ ?is dictum3 7#a7 ,:atev] is said ( a t]m us$ 9 its fulle/ s5se may likewise be said ( t t]m :5 us$ only 9 a p>tial s5se4 7#b7 ,:at is true ( ! :ole is true ( ! "p4 7#c7 8,:at p]ta9s to ! high] class p]ta9s also to ! l[]40 ,s9ce ?is dictum is ! basic pr9ciple und]ly+ ! important rules ( ! syllogism1 x is unnecess>y to dwell long] ^u x2 because an explanation ( ! rules is1 virtually1 an explanation ( ! dictum4 #f4 ,,canons ,,( ,,! ,,syllogism4 ,! dictum ( ,ari/otle is o/5sibly a self-evid5t tru?1 & "s logicians h put ?is tru? 9 ! =m ( ?ree axiomatic /atem5ts :i* are kn[n z ! canons ( ! syllogism4 ,^! are z foll[s3 7#a7 8,two t]ms agree+ ) "o & ! same ?ird t]m agree ) ea* o!r40 7#b7 8,two t]ms ( :i* "o agrees & ! o!r does n agree ) "o & ! same ?ird t]m1 d n agree ) ea* o!r40 7#c7 8,two t]ms bo? disagree+ ) "o & ! same ?ird t]m may or may n agree ) ea* o!r40 ,mak+ use ( ! symbols z expla9$ on a previ\s page ( ?is *apt]1 x w be se5 t ! fir/ canon con=ms to ?is syllogi/ic type3 ,all ,m is ,g ,all ,s is ,m ,all ,s is ,g ,! two t]ms are ,s & ,g1 :ile ,m is ! ?ird t]m4 ,! att5d+ symbolizations illu/rate1 respectively1 ! second & ?ird canons3 ,no ,m is ,g ,all ,s is ,m ,no ,s is ,g ,no ,m is ,g ,no ,s is ,m ,conclusion indet]m9ate4 #g4 ,,?ree ,,ma!matical ,,axioms4 ,analog\s to ! ?ree canons treat$ 9 8#f10 !re are c]ta9 ma!matical axioms :i* are "h /at$3 7#a7 8,?+s equal to ! same ?+ are equal to ea* o!r40 7#b7 8,"o ?+ equal to & ! o!r ?+ n equal to ! same ?ird ?+ are n equal to ea* o!r40 7#c7 8,?+s n equal to ! same ?+ may or may n equal ea* o!r40 ,illu/rations ( ! ?ree axioms3 7#a7 ,if x equals #e1 & y equals #e1 !n x equals y4 7#b7 ,if x equals #e1 & y does n equal #e1 !n x does n equal y4 7#c7 ,if x does n equal #e1 & y does n equal #e1 !n x may or may n equal y4 #h4 ,,outl9e4 ,,m$iate ,,inf]5ce4 7#a7 ,inf]5ce & reason+4 ,def9itions4 ,middle t]m expla9$4 7#b7 ,! analogy betwe5 ! judgm5t & ! syllogism4 7#c7 ,rules ( ! syllogism giv54 ,eight 9 numb]4 7#d7 ,rules ( ! syllogism expla9$3 ,rule #a4 ,syllogi/ic symbols4 ,major1 m9or1 & middle t]ms2 h[ f\nd4 ,fallacy ( f\r t]ms4 ,rule #b4 ,major & m9or premises & conclusion1 h[ det]m9$4 ,logical arrangem5t4 ,reason = ?ree propositions4 ,rule #c4 ,reason = omitt+ 8ambigu\s middle0 f rule4 ,undi/ribut$ & di/ribut$ middle expla9$4 ,rule #d4 ,illicit major & m9or expla9$ & illu/rat$4 ,rule #e4 ,fallacy ( two negatives4 ,rule #f4 ,fallacy ( negative conclusion4 ,rule #g4 ,fallacy ( two p>ticul>s4 ,rule #h4 ,fallacy ( p>ticul> conclusion4 7#e7 ,ari/otle's dictum4 7#f7 ,canons ( ! syllogism4 7#g7 ,ma!matical axioms4 #i4 ,,summ>y4 7#a7 ,inf]5ce is a t]m us$ to d5ote a process z well z a product4 ,z a process reason+ & inf]5ce are 9 reality synonom\s t]ms4 ,inf]5ce is a ?\ght process ( d]iv+ a judgm5t f "o or two antec$5t judgm5ts4 ,m$iate inf]5ce is inf]5ce by means ( a middle t]m4 ,m$iate inf]5ce makes use ( ?ree t]ms1 two ( :i* are comp>$ ) a ?ird t]m z a /&>d4 ,?is ?ird t]m is call$ ! middle t]m4 7#b7 ,! syllogism is ! common mode ( expression = m$iate inf]5ce4 7#c7 ,valid syllogi/ic reason+ is condition$ by eight rules4 ,! fir/ & second relate to ! composition ( ! syllogism2 ! ?ird & f\r? to ! di/ribution ( t]ms2 ! fif? & six? to negative premises2 ! sev5? & eigh? to p>ticul> premises4 7#d7 ,all syllogisms mu/ h ?ree t]ms3 ! major1 ! m9or1 & ! middle4 ,! middle t]m occurs twice 9 ! premises b nev] appe>s 9 ! conclusion4 ,! m9or t]m is always ! subject1 & ! major t]m ! pr$icate ( ! conclusion4 ,! major t]m is usually broad] ?an ! m9or4 ,no conclusion c be drawn f f\r t]ms4 ,to attempt ?is gives rise to ! fallacy ( f\r t]ms4 ,all syllogisms mu/ h ?ree propositions1 ! major & ! m9or premises1 & ! conclusion4 ,! major premise fir/ & ! m9or second is ! m logical arrangem5t1 al?\gh ! common conv]sational =m is to use ! m9or premise fir/4 ,ambigu\s middle am\nts to ! fallacy ( f\r t]ms4 ,unless ! middle t]m is di/ribut$ at lea/ once 9 ! syllogism1 x fails to become a common /&>d4 ,di/ribut+ a t]m 9 ! conclusion1 )\t its be+ di/ribut$ 9 its premise1 is equival5t to ass]t+ t1 8,:at is true ( a "p is true ( ! :ole40 ,?is error results 9 ! fallacies ( illicit major & m9or4 ,a conclusion f two negatives is impossible1 because ( ! total exclusion ( ! middle t]m4 ,( two t]ms1 if "o is affirm$ & ! o!r d5i$ ( a ?ird t]m1 !n !y mu/ be d5i$ ( ea* o!r2 &1 conv]sely1 if two t]ms are to be d5i$ ( ea* o!r1 "o mu/ be affirm$ & ! o!r d5i$ ( a giv5 ?ird t]m4 ,?is fundam5tal pr9ciple necessitates d]iv+ a negative conclusion f two premises :5 "o is negative4 ,x1 likewise1 compels ! conv]se ( ?is4 ,a valid conclusion f two p>ticul>s is unt5able because ( ! two negative fallacies1 or "s fallacy relative to ! di/ribution ( t]ms4 ,"o p>ticul> premise =ces a p>ticul> conclusion because ( ! fallacies ( two negatives1 two p>ticul>s1 & illicit m9or4 7#e7 ,ari/otle's dictum simplifi$ means1 8,:at is true ( ! :ole is true ( ! "p40 7#f7 ,! canons ( ! syllogism1 ?ree 9 numb]1 are3 7#a7 8,two t]ms agree+ ) "o & ! same ?ird t]m agree ) ea* o!r40 7#b7 8,two t]ms ( :i* "o agrees & ! o!r does n agree ) "o & ! same ?ird t]m d n agree ) ea* o!r40 7#c7 8,two t]ms bo? disagree+ ) "o & ! same ?ird t]m may or may n agree ) ea* o!r40 7#g7 ,! =ego+ canons may be /at$ z ma!matical axioms4 #aj4 ,,illu/rative ,,ex]cises4 7#a;a7 ,make use ( ! prop] symbols & indicate ! ?ree t]ms ( ea* ( ! att5d+ syllogisms3 7#a7 ,all fix$ />s tw9kle1 ,vega is a fix$ />1 ,vega tw9kles4 7#b7 ,all m5 are rational be+s1 ,no tree is a rational be+1 ,no trees are m54 7#c7 ,all good citiz5s are law abid+1 ,all good citiz5s vote1 ,"s :o vote are law abid+4 ,i recall t ! ?ree t]ms are ! middle1 ! major & ! m9or1 & t ! 8middle0 does n occur 9 ! conclusion1 :]eas ! 8major0 is always ! pr$icate & ! 8m9or0 ! subject ( ! conclusion4 ,! symbols ,m1 ,g & ,s be+ ! initial lett]s ( middle1 great] & small]1 ,i make use ( ^! 9 designat+ ! ?ree t]ms1 z ! foll[+ w illu/rate3 ,m ,g 7#a7 ,all fix$ />s tw9kle1 ,s ,m ,vega is a fix$ />1 ,s ,g ,vega tw9kles4 8,tw9kles0 be+ ! pr$icate ( ! conclusion is designat$ z be+ ! major t]m by putt+ ! lett] ,g above x4 ,!n 8,g0 is plac$ above ! t]m 8tw9kle0 9 ! fir/ premise4 8,s0 is plac$ above ! subject ( ! conclusion to indicate t x is ! m9or t]m4 8,s0 is also plac$ above 8,vega10 ! m9or t]m1 z f\nd 9 ! second premise4 ,! rema9+ t]m1 8fix$ />s10 mu/ be ! middle t]m1 !re=e ,i place 8,m0 above x4 ,! fact t 8fix$ />0 does n occur 9 ! conclusion v]ifies ?is4 ,us+ only ! symbols1 ! syllogism takes ?is =m3 ,all ,m is ,g ,s is ,m ,s is ,g ,us+ ! symbols to repres5t ! o!r syllogisms1 we h 7#b7 ,all ,g is ,m ,no ,s is ,m ,no ,s is ,g 7#c7 ,all ,m is ,g ,all ,m is ,s ,"s ,s is ,g 7#a;b7 ,indicate by symbols ! ?ree t]ms ( ! foll[+ syllogisms3 7#a7 ,no trees are m51 ,all rational be+s are m51 ,no rational be+ is a tree4 7#b7 ,all m5 h ! p[] ( spee*1 ,y are a man1 ,y h ! p[] ( spee*4 7#c7 ,"s m5 are wise1 ,all m5 are rational1 ,"s rational be+s are wise4 7#b;a7 ,illu/rate by syllogism ! fallacy ( undi/ribut$ middle4 ,an easy way is to use ! middle t]m z ! pr$icate ( two ,a premises4 ,?is yields ! fallacy because an ,a proposition does n di/ribute ! pr$icate4 ,! illu/ration3 di/ribut$ t]ms und]scor$4 ,all true tea*]s are /ud5ts1 ,all s*ol>s are /ud5ts1 ,all s*ol>s are true tea*]s4 7#b;b7 ,give two illu/rations ( undi/ribut$ middle4 7#c;a7 ,give syllogi/ic illu/rations ( ! fallacies ( illicit major & m9or4 ,illicit ,major4 ,use ! middle t]m z ! subject ( an ,a proposition1 & !n z ! pr$icate ( an ,e proposition4 ,?is w\ld necessitate a negative conclusion 9 :i* ! major t]m is di/ribut$4 ,b ! major t]m is n di/ribut$ 9 ! major premise1 h5ce ! fallacy4 ,illu/ration 9 :i* ! di/ribut$ t]ms are und]scor$3 ,all m5 are mortal1 ,no trees are m51 ,no trees are mortal4 ,illicit ,m9or4 ,to illu/rate ?is fallacy "o may use ! middle t]m z ! subject ( two ,a premises4 ,?is w\ld give an ,a conclusion 9 :i* ! subject is di/ribut$4 ,b ?is same t]m is n di/ribut$ 9 its premise because "h x is us$ z ! pr$icate ( an ,a4 ,illu/ration3 ,all e>ne/ /ud5ts /udy1 ,all e>ne/ /ud5ts desire to succe$1 ,all :o desire to succe$ /udy4 #aa4 ,,review ,,que/ions4 7#a7 ,di/+ui% betwe5 inf]5ce & reason+4 7#b7 ,def9e inf]5ce4 ,m$iate inf]5ce4 7#c7 ,illu/rate ! diff]5ce betwe5 m$iate & imm$iate inf]5ce4 7#d7 ,expla9 by illu/ration ! use ( ! middle t]m4 7#e7 ,exemplify ! syllogism4 7#f7 ,/ate ! rules ( ! syllogism4 7#g7 ,f ! att5d+ syllogisms select ! ?ree t]ms3 7#a7 ,all patriotic citiz5s vote1 ,y are a patriotic citiz51 ,y %\ld vote4 7#b7 ,no hone/ man w\ld misrepres5t1 7b7 ,john ,smi? did misrepres5t1 ,john ,smi? is n hone/4 7#h7 ,symbolize ! =ego+ syllogisms4 7#i7 ,illu/rate by syllogisms ! fallacy ( f\r t]ms4 7#aj7 ,indicate by circles t a valid conclusion _c be drawn f f\r t]ms4 7#aa7 ,:y mu/ a syllogism h ?ree & only ?ree propositions8 7#ab7 ,indicate h[ ! ?ree propositions ( an argum5t may be designat$4 ,:at is ! logical arrangem5t8 7#ac7 ,%[ t an ambigu\s middle am\nts to a fallacy ( f\r t]ms4 7#ad7 ,expla9 & illu/rate undi/ribut$ middle1 illicit major1 illicit m9or4 7#ae7 ,exemplify ! fallacies ( "q 8#ad0 by us+ circles4 7#af7 ,expla9 by circles :y a conclusion _c be drawn f two negatives4 7#ag7 ,make cle> t a negative conclusion mu/ foll[1 if "o premise be negative4 7#ah7 ,/ate & expla9 ! pr9ciple :i* und]lies ! rule1 8,if ! conclusion is negative "o premise mu/ be negative40 7#ai7 ,prove by ! process ( elim9ation t no conclusion c be drawn f two p>ticul>s4 7#bj7 ,9 a way simil> to t ( "q 8#ai0 %[ t if "o premise be p>ticul> ! conclusion mu/ be p>ticul>4 7#ba7 ,/ate & expla9 ,ari/otle's dictum4 7#bb7 ,/ate ! canons ( ! syllogism4 7#bc7 ,symbolize & expla9 by circles ! ?ree canons4 7#bd7 ,illu/rate ! ?ree ma!matical axioms :i* ! canons sugge/4 #ab4 ,,que/ions ,,= ,,orig9al ,,?\ght ,,& ,,inve/igation4 7#a7 ,give an illu/ration ( a valid conclusion be+ drawn f f\r t]ms4 7#b7 ,expla9 by circles ! =ego+4 7#c7 ,f ?ree diff]5t bus9ess transactions1 select ! middle t]m ( comp>ison4 7#d7 ,:y %\ld n ^? :o are giv5 to mu* :i* is argum5tative1 speak 9 syllogi/ic t]ms8 7#e7 8,he is a man ( high ideals1 & y "k him to be /rictly hone/1 !re=e y h no excuse = n vot+ = him40 ,reca/ ?is quotation ) a view ( mak+ a logical syllogism4 7#f7 ,%[ by circles t !re may be a vital diff]5ce betwe5 a syllogism ( ?ree t]ms & an equation ( ?ree t]ms4 7#g7 ,indicate by illu/ration t 9 conv]sational argum5tation ! m9or premise naturally comes fir/4 7#h7 ,%[ by circles ! mean+ ( 8indet]m9ate conclusion40 7#i7 ,rule five /ates t no conclusion c be drawn f two negatives4 ,def5d ?is rule 9 connection ) ! foll[+ syllogism1 :i* seems to conta9 a valid conclusion3 ,any /atem5t :i* is n true _c be accept$1 ,?is /atem5t is n true1 ,x _c be accept$4 7#aj7 ,if ! conclusion is p>ticul>1 mu/ "o premise be p>ticul>8 ,expla94 ,,*apt] #ab4 ,,figures ,,& ,,moods ,,( ,,! ,,syllogism4 #a4 ,,! ,,f\r ,,figures ,,( ,,! ,,syllogism4 ,by a figure ( a syllogism is meant "s p>ticul> arrangem5t ( ! ?ree t]ms 9 ! two premises4 ,! conclusion is elim9at$ f ?is discussion1 because 9 x ! arrangem5t ( ! t]ms is con/ant1 ! major t]m always be+ us$ z ! pr$icate ( ! conclusion & ! m9or z ! subject4 ,us+ ! symbols ,m1 ,g & ,s1 we f9d t !re are f\r possible arrangem5ts &1 !re=e1 b f\r figures4 ,^! may be repres5t$ z foll[s3 ,fir/ ,second ,?ird ,f\r? figure figure figure figure ,m ,g ,g ,m ,m ,g ,g ,m ,s ,m ,s ,m ,m ,s ,m ,s ,s ,g ,s ,g ,s ,g ,s ,g ,no matt] :at ! syllogism1 if x is to be prov$ 8logical10 x %\ld be made to fit "o ( ! f\r figure-types4 ,to be sure1 x may fit ! figure )\t be+ logical1 b x _c be /rictly logical )\t fitt+ ! figure4 ,! foll[+ valid syllogisms con=m to ! f\r figures z w be se5 by ! symboliz$ t]ms3 ,m ,g ,fir/ figure3 ,all m5 are mortal1 ,s ,m ,socrates is a man1 ,s ,g ,socrates is mortal4 ,m ,g ,s ,m ,s ,g ,g ,m ,second figure3 ,all good citiz5s love _! c\ntry1 ,s ,m ,no crim9al loves 8 c\ntry1 ,s ,g ,no crim9al is a good citiz54 ,g ,m ,s ,m ,s ,g ,m ,g ,?ird figure3 ,all good citiz5s are law abid+1 ,m ,s ,all good citiz5s vote1 ,s ,g ,"s :o vote are law abid+4 ,m ,g ,m ,s ,s ,g ,g ,m ,f\r? figure3 ,"s tea*]s are fair m9d$1 ,m ,s ,all :o are fair m9d$ are j1 ,s ,g ,"s j p]sons are tea*]s4 ,g ,m ,m ,s ,s ,g ,"h1 !n1 are ! types t repres5t all ! syllogisms :i* m$iate inf]5ce may use4 ,logic recognizes no o!r4 ,s9ce e successful /ud5t ( logic mu/ be famili> ) ! f\r figures1 ! foll[+ may be us$ z a sugge/ive aid to reproduc+ ! figures at w3 ,fir/4 ,x is easy = any "o to rememb] ?is syllogism3 ,all m5 are mortal1 ,socrates is a man1 ,socrates is mortal4 ,9 fact1 x comes d[n to u f ! "t ( ,ari/otle1 & is !re=e a patriot ( _m g5]ations to :om ! fai?ful %\ld t\* _! hats4 ,let u1 !n1 be ready to reproduce ?is syllogism ) automatic precision1 s9ce x w enable u to "k at once ! position ( ! t]ms 9 ! fir/ figure4 ,second4 ,conv]t+ ! t]ms ( ! major premise ( ! fir/ figure gives ! second figure1 z1 e4 g43 ,fir/ figure4 ,second figure4 ,m ,g 7,conv]t7 ,g ,m ,s ,m ,s ,m ,s ,g ,s ,g ,?ird4 ,conv]t+ ! t]ms ( ! m9or premise ( ! fir/ figure gives ! ?ird figure1 z1 e4 g43 ,fir/ figure4 ,?ird figure4 ,m ,g ,m ,g ,s ,m 7,conv]t7 ,m ,s ,s ,g ,s ,m ,f\r?4 ,conv]t+ ! t]ms ( bo? ! major & m9or premises ( ! fir/ figure gives ! f\r?1 z1 e4 g43 ,fir/ figure4 ,f\r? figure4 ,m ,g 7,conv]t7 ,g ,m ,s ,m 7,conv]t7 ,m ,s ,s ,g ,s ,g ,to summ>ize3 ,! second1 ?ird & f\r? figures may be d]iv$ f ! fir/4 ,conv]t+ ! major premise ( ! fir/ figure gives ! second figure2 conv]t+ ! m9or premise gives ! ?ird figure2 & conv]t+ bo? premises gives ! f\r? figure4 #b4 ,,! ,,moods ,,( ,,! ,,syllogism4 ,by ! mood ( a syllogism is meant "s p>ticul> arrangem5t ( ! propositions :i* compose ! syllogisms4 8,mood0 /&s = an arrangem5t ( ! propositions1 :ile 8figure0 repres5ts an arrangem5t ( ! t]ms 9 any syllogism4 ,comb9+ any ?ree ( ! f\r logical propositions gives a mood1 z1 e4 g41 7#a7 ,e 7#b7 ,a 7#c7 ,e ,a ,i ,i ,e ,i ,o are moods4 ,! fir/ "o has an ,e proposition = ! major premise1 an ,a = ! m9or & an ,e = ! conclusion4 ,?is syllogism repres5ts ! fir/ mood giv5 above3 ,e ,no m5 are trees1 ,a ,all ,am]icans are m51 ,e ,no ,am]icans are trees4 ,x w\ld n be difficult to det]m9e by actual exp]im5t1 j h[ _m moods c\ld be =m$1 & ( ^!1 h[ _m w\ld admit ( valid conclusions4 ,x may be se5 t !re are sixty-f\r p]mutations ( ! f\r logical propositions1 tak5 ?ree at a "t4 ,^! are 9 "p3 7#a7 7#b7 7#c7 7#d7 7#e7 7#f7 7#g7 7#h7 ,a ,a ,a ,a ,a ,a ,a ,a ,a ,a ,a ,a ,e ,e ,e ,e ,a ,e ,i ,o ,a ,e ,i ,o 7#i7 7#aj7 7#aa7 7#ab7 7#ac7 7#ad7 7#ae7 7#af7 ,a ,a ,a ,a ,a ,a ,a ,a ,i ,i ,i ,i ,o ,o ,o ,o ,a ,e ,i ,o ,a ,e ,i ,o ,& s ! p]mutations c\ld be cont9u$4 ,sub/itut+ ,e = ! major premise ( ! above gr\p w\ld give ano!r gr\p ( sixte51 :ile a l sub/itution ( ,i & ,o w\ld result 9 two m gr\ps1 sixte5 9 ea*4 ,?is gives sixty-f\r 9 all4#aj #c4 ,,te/+ ,,! ,,validity ,,( ,,! ,,moods4 ,9 ord] to put ! moods to good use1 x is necess>y to asc]ta9 :i* ones yield a valid conclusion 9 any figure4 ,if ea* 7 valid 9 all ( ! f\r figures1 !re w\ld be #bef4 ,b x is obvi\s t su* is n ! case4 ,ref]r+ to ! sixte5 p]mutations giv5 above1 we f9d t ! 8negative-conclusion0 rule makes invalid #b1 #d1 #e1 #g1 #aj1 #ab1 #ac & #ae2 :]eas ! rule = p>ticul>s ?r[s out #i & #ad4 ,?is leaves ! foll[+ z ! probable valid moods 9 "o or m ( ! figures3 #a1 #c1 #f1 #h1 #aa1 #af4 ,b to be c]ta9 ( ?is ! inve/igation mu/ be ,a cont9u$4 ,! mood ,a has /ood ! te/ ( ! rules = negative & ,a p>ticul> conclusions2 n[ let u te/ ?is mood f ! /&po9t ( ! di/ribution ( t]ms1 us+ x 9 all f\r figures3 ,fir/ ,second ,?ird ,f\r? ,a ,m ,g ,g ,m ,m ,g ,g ,m ,a ,s ,m ,s ,m ,m ,s ,m ,s ,a ,s ,g ,s ,g ,s ,g ,s ,g ,z an ,a proposition di/ributes its subject only1 we und]score ! subject ( ea* proposition 9 all ! figures4 7,?is und]scor+ is a simple way to indicate di/ribution47 ,we n[ f9d t ! mood is valid 9 ! fir/ figure1 because ! middle t]m is di/ribut$ at lea/ once2 namely1 9 ! major premise1 & !re is no t]m di/ribut$ 9 ! conclusion :i* is n already di/ribut$ 9 ! premise :]e x occurs4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! mood ,a ,a is invalid 9 ! second1 because ( 8undi/ribut$ middle10 & ,a invalid 9 ! ?ird & f\r?1 because ,s is di/ribut$ 9 ! conclusion b n di/ribut$ 9 ! premise :]e x occurs 7illicit m9or74 ,let u try ,,aii 9 ! f\r figures3 ,a ,m ,g ,g ,m ,m ,g ,g ,m ,i ,s ,m ,s ,m ,m ,s ,m ,s ,i ,s ,g ,s ,g ,s ,g ,s ,g ,we und]score ! subject ( ! ,a proposition 9 ea* ( ! f\r figures4 ,z ,i di/ributes nei!r subject nor pr$icate1 no o!r t]m ,a %\ld be und]scor$4 ,x is n[ evid5t t ,i is n valid 9 figures ,i two & f\r1 because 9 bo? figures ! middle t]m is undi/ribut$ 7undi/ribut$ middle74 ,9 a l mann] all ! o!r moods might be te/$4 ,logicians1 :o h done ?is1 h f\nd #bd to be valid4 ,five ( ^! h weak5$ conclusions2 i4 e41 a p>ticul> conclusion :5 x c\ld j z well ,a be univ]sal4 ,e illu/rates ?is z ! conclusion c\ld be ,e4 ,?is ,o syllogism exemplifies ! weak5$ conclusion3 ,a ,all trees gr[1 ,e ,no /icks are trees1 ,o ,"s /icks d n gr[4 ,?is conclusion is true1 s9ce 8"s0 means 8"s at lea/40 ,yet ! conclusion is weak1 because !re is no?+ to int]f]e ) ! broad] & /rong] conclusion t1 8,no /icks gr[40 ,!re are1 !re=e1 only #ai valid & s]viceable moods4 ,^! are z foll[s3 7#a7 7#b7 7#c7 7#d7 7#e7 7#f7 ,a ,e ,a ,e ,fir/ figure ,a ,a ,i ,i #d ,a ,e ,i ,o ,e ,a ,a ,e ,second figure ,a ,e ,o ,i #h ,e ,e ,o ,o ,a ,i ,a ,e ,o ,e ,?ird figure ,a ,a ,i ,a ,a ,i #ad ,i ,i ,i ,o ,o ,o ,a ,a ,i ,e ,e ,f\r? figure ,a ,e ,a ,a ,i #ai ,i ,e ,i ,o ,o ,a ,( ^! n9ete5 moods x is n mu* ( a tax to rememb] t ,a is ,a ,e valid only 9 ! fir/ figure2 :]eas ,a is valid 9 ! fir/ & ,e ,a ,e second figures2 ,i 9 ! fir/ & ?ird2 :ile ,i is valid 9 all4 ,?is ,i ,o k1 h[ev]1 %\ld be us$ only z "o w\ld employ ! answ]s 9 ari?metic4 ,te/+ ! validity ( a mood 9 ! f\r figures is an exce$+ly valuable ?\ght-ex]cise1 :i* a k ( ! f9al result might easily vitiate4 ,x is1 no d\bt1 be/ to te/ ! value ( any mood )\t su* k1 & !n comp>e ! result by ref]r+ to ! =ego+ li/ ( valid moods4 ,x is n always wise to "w ) ! answ] 9 m9d1 yet x is mo/ satisfy+ to "k ( a c]ta9ty t "o's reason+ has l$ to a tru? :i* o!rs h v]ifi$4 #d4 ,,special ,,canons ,,( ,,! ,,f\r ,,figures4 ,z a d$uctive ex]cise 9 cle>1 logical ?\ght1 ! indirect pro( involv$ 9 e/abli%+ c]ta9 pr9ciples und]ly+ ! f\r figures1 is ( imm5se value4 ,on no acc\nt %\ld ?is section be omitt$4 ,! m]e fact t x appe>s to be a difficult section is pro( positive t ! /ud5t is 9 ne$ ( j su* ex]cises4 ,canons ( ! fir/ figure4 7#a7 ,! m9or premise mu/ be affirmative4 7#b7 ,! major premise mu/ be univ]sal4 ,problem3 ,! m9or premise mu/ be affirmative4 ,data3 ,giv5 ! =m ( ! fir/ figure1 :i* is1 ,m ,g ,s ,m ,s ,g ,pro(3 7#a7 ,if ! m9or premise is n affirmative !n x mu/ be negative2 because affirmative & negative propositions1 be+ contradictory 9 nature1 admit ( no middle gr\nd4 7#b7 ,if ! m9or premise is negative1 ! conclusion mu/ be negative2 = ! reason t a negative premise necessitates a negative conclusion4 7#c7 ,if ! conclusion is negative !n its pr$icate1 ,g1 mu/ be di/ribut$2 s9ce all negatives di/ribute _! pr$icates4 7#d7 ,if ! pr$icate ( ! conclusion1 :i* is ! major t]m1 is di/ribut$1 !n x mu/ be di/ribut$ 9 ! premise :]e x occurs1 :i* is ! major premise2 = any t]m :i* is di/ribut$ 9 ! conclusion mu/ be di/ribut$ 9 ! premise :]e x occurs4 7#e7 ,if ! major t]m1 :i* is ! pr$icate ( ! major premise1 is di/ribut$1 !n ! major premise mu/ be negative2 because only negatives di/ribute _! pr$icates4 7#f7 ,! result ( ?is argum5t1 !n1 gives two negative premises1 & we "k f rule #c t a conclusion f two negatives is unt5able4 7#g7 ,s9ce ! m9or premise _c be negative1 x mu/ be affirmative4 ,problem3 ,to prove t ! major premise mu/ be univ]sal4 ,data3 ,giv5 ! =m ( ! fir/ figure3 ,m ,g ,s ,m ,s ,g ,pro(3 7#a7 ,! pr$icate ( ! m9or premise1 ,m1 :i* is ! middle t]m1 is undi/ribut$2 because no affirmative proposition di/ributes its pr$icate4 7#b7 ,! middle t]m mu/ be di/ribut$ 9 ! major premise2 s9ce 9 any syllogism ! middle t]m mu/ be di/ribut$ at lea/ once4 7#c7 ,z ! middle t]m1 ,m1 us$ z ! subject ( ! major premise1 mu/ be di/ribut$1 !n ! major premise mu/ be univ]sal2 because only univ]sals di/ribute _! subjects4 ,epitome4 ,9 ! fir/ figure1 ! m9or premise mu/ be affirmative1 s9ce mak+ x negative necessitates mak+ ! major premise negative also2 ! major premise mu/ be univ]sal 9 ord] to di/ribute ! middle t]m at lea/ once4 ,special canons ( ! second figure4 7#a7 ,"o premise mu/ be negative4 7#b7 ,! major premise mu/ be univ]sal4 ,problem3 ,to prove t "o premise mu/ be negative4 ,data3 ,giv5 ! =m ( ! second figure3 ,g ,m ,s ,m ,s ,g ,pro(3 7#a7 ,! middle t]m1 ,m1 is ! pr$icate ( bo? premises4 7#b7 ,! middle t]m mu/ be di/ribut$ at lea/ once1 accord+ to rule #c4 7#c7 ,h5ce "o premise mu/ be negative2 s9ce only negatives di/ribute _! pr$icates4 ,problem3 ,to prove t ! major premise mu/ be univ]sal4 ,data3 ,giv5 ! =m ( ! second figure3 ,g ,m ,s ,m ,s ,g ,pro(3 7#a7 ,z "o premise mu/ be negative1 x foll[s t ! conclusion mu/ be negative accord+ to rule #f4 7#b7 ,if ! conclusion is negative1 !n its pr$icate1 ,g1 ! major t]m1 mu/ be di/ribut$2 s9ce all negatives di/ribute _! pr$icates4 7#c7 ,:5 di/ribut$ 9 ! conclusion1 ! major t]m1 ,g1 mu/ also be di/ribut$ 9 ! major premise1 :]e x is us$ z ! subject4 ,see rule #d4 7#d7 ,h5ce ! major premise mu/ be univ]sal2 = only univ]sals di/ribute _! subjects4 ,epitome4 ,9 ! second figure "o premise mu/ be negative 9 ord] to di/ribute ! middle t]m at lea/ once2 & ! major premise mu/ be univ]sal t ! major t]m1 :i* is di/ribut$ 9 ! conclusion1 may be di/ribut$ 9 ! premise :]e x occurs4 ,canons ( ! ?ird figure4 7#a7 ,! m9or premise mu/ be affirmative4 7#b7 ,! conclusion mu/ be p>ticul>4 ,problem3 ,to prove t ! m9or premise mu/ be affirmative4 ,data3 ,giv5 ! =m ( ! ?ird figure1 :i* is1 ,m ,g ,m ,s ,s ,g ,pro(3 7#a7 ,suppose ! m9or premise 7 negative1 !n ! conclusion w\ld h to be negative1 & ?is w\ld di/ribute ! pr$icate ,g4 7#b7 ,a di/ribut$ pr$icate w\ld necessitate its be+ di/ribut$ 9 ! major premise4 7#c7 ,b ,g1 be+ ! conclusion ( ! major premise1 c\ld be di/ribut$ only by a negative proposition4 7#d7 ,?is w\ld result 9 two negatives2 !re=e no conclusion c\ld be drawn1 if ! m9or premise 7 negative4 ,problem3 ,to prove t ! conclusion mu/ be p>ticul>4 ,data3 ,giv5 ! =m ( ! ?ird figure3 ,m ,g ,m ,s ,s ,g ,pro(3 7#a7 ,! m9or t]m1 :i* is ! pr$icate ( ! affirmative m9or premise1 is undi/ribut$2 because no affirmative di/ributes its pr$icate4 7#b7 ,if undi/ribut$ 9 ! premise1 !n ! m9or t]m mu/ rema9 undi/ribut$ 9 ! conclusion1 :]e x is us$ z ! subject4 7#c7 ,! conclusion mu/1 !n1 be p>ticul>2 s9ce all univ]sals di/ribute _! subjects4 ,epitome4 ,9 ! ?ird figure1 unless ! m9or premise be affirmative1 !re c be no conclusion2 s9ce a negative m9or w\ld necessitate a negative major4 ,an affirmative m9or compels a p>ticul> conclusion1 9 ord] t ! m9or t]m1 9 ! conclusion1 may rema9 undi/ribut$4 ,canons ( ! f\r? figure4 7#a7 ,if ! major premise is affirmative1 ! m9or premise mu/ be univ]sal4 7#b7 ,if ! m9or premise is affirmative1 ! conclusion mu/ be p>ticul>4 7#c7 ,if ei!r premise is negative1 ! major mu/ be univ]sal4 ,problem3 ,to prove t if ! major is affirmative1 ! m9or mu/ be univ]sal4 ,data3 ,giv5 ! =m ( ! f\r? figure3 ,g ,m ,m ,s ,s ,g ,pro(3 7#a7 ,if ! major premise is affirmative1 !n its pr$icate :i* is ! middle t]m1 ,m1 is undi/ribut$2 = no affirmative di/ributes its pr$icate4 7#b7 ,! middle t]m mu/ !n be di/ribut$ 9 ! 8m9or0 accord+ to rule #c4 7#c7 ,!n ! 8m9or0 mu/ be univ]sal2 s9ce only univ]sals di/ribute _! subjects4 ,problem3 ,to prove t if ! m9or is affirmative1 ! conclusion mu/ be p>ticul>4 ,data3 ,giv5 ! =m ( ! f\r? figure3 ,g ,m ,m ,s ,s ,g ,pro(3 7#a7 ,if ! m9or premise be affirmative1 !n ,s1 its pr$icate1 mu/ be undi/ribut$2 because no affirmative di/ributes its pr$icate4 7#b7 ,s9ce ,s is undi/ribut$ 9 ! m9or premise1 x mu/ rema9 undi/ribut$ 9 ! conclusion :]e x is us$ z ! subject4 ,problem3 ,to prove t if ei!r premise is negative1 ! major mu/ be univ]sal4 ,data3 ,giv5 ! =m ( ! f\r? figure3 ,g ,m ,m ,s ,s ,g ,pro(3 7#a7 ,if "o ( ! premises is negative1 !n ! conclusion mu/ be negative accord+ to rule #f4 7#b7 ,if ! conclusion is negative1 !n ! pr$icate1 ,g1 mu/ be di/ribut$4 7#c7 ,if ,g is di/ribut$ 9 ! conclusion1 x mu/ be di/ribut$ 9 ! major premise4 7#d7 ,! major premise mu/ be univ]sal2 z ,g is us$ z its subject1 & only univ]sals di/ribute _! subjects4 ,epitome4 ,9 ! f\r? figure1 if ! 8major0 is affirmative1 ! 8m9or0 mu/ be univ]sal 9 ord] to di/ribute ! middle t]m4 ,if ! m9or is affirmative1 ! conclusion mu/ be p>ticul>2 o!rwise ! fallacy ( illicit m9or w\ld result4 ,if ei!r premise is negative1 ! major mu/ be univ]sal to avoid ! fallacy ( illicit major4 #e4 ,,special ,,canons ,,relat$4 ,aft] a p>ticul> mood has be5 te/$ 9 ! regul> way1 x has be5 intimat$ t ! /ud5t may ref] to ! tabulat$ li/ ( valid moods to asc]ta91 ) a c]ta9ty1 ! validity ( 8 reason+4 ,?is is equival5t to ref]r+ to ! answ]s 9 ari?metic2 = if ! /ud5t is unable to f9d ! mood 9 ! figure 9 :i* he has prov$ x valid1 !n he kn[s t he has made "s mi/ake 9 8 reason+4 ,a second *eck1 ?\gh n absolute1 is to recall ! special canons ( section f\r4 ,if1 = example1 our reason+ has l$ ,a u to believe t ,e is valid 9 ! fir/ figure1 we may recall t ,e ! m9or premise ( ! fir/ figure mu/ be affirmative & !re=e ,,aee _c be valid4 ,a few sugge/ions relative to memoriz+ ! special canons may n be out ( place4 ,! two canons ( ! fir/ figure mu/ be committ$1 & !n x may be rememb]$ t ! second figure is ! negative figure ( logic4 ,o!r figures may yield a negative conclusion1 b ! second mu/ yield a negative conclusion4 ,s9ce a negative conclusion necessitates a negative premise1 x foll[s t ! second figure mu/ always appe> ) "o premise negative4 ,! o!r canon :i* p]ta9s to ! major premise is ! same z ! 8major premise0 canon ( ! fir/ figure4 ,! ?ird figure is ! p>ticul> figure ( logic4 ,o!r figures may yield p>ticul> conclusions1 b ! ?ird mu/ d s4 ,?is helps u to rememb] ! canon t ! conclusion ( ! ?ird figure mu/ be p>ticul>4 ,! o!r canon :i* relates to ! m9or premise is ! same z ! 8m9or premise0 canon ( ! fir/ figure4 ,! canons ( ! f\r? figure are 9 reality a summ>y ( ! canons ( ! o!r ?ree figures4 #f4 ,,mnemonic ,,l9es4 ,z a device = rememb]+ ! #ai valid moods1 ! logicians ( an e>li] day orig9at$ a comb9ation ( co9$ words :i*1 ?\gh r unsci5tific1 may be easily committ$ to memory4 ,s9ce1 h[ev]1 x is ( mu* m value to te/ ! moods by means ( ! g5]al rules ( ! syllogism ?an x is to try to rememb] ^! moods1 ! mnemonic l9es are ( slight value4 ,!y are treat$ "h m]ely z an item ( hi/orical int]e/4 7#a7 ,b>b>a1 ,cel>5t1 ,d>ii1 ,f]ioque prioris2 7#b7 ,ces>e1 ,came/res1 ,fe/9o1 ,b>oko1 secund2 7#c7 ,t]tia1 ,d>apti1 ,disamis1 ,datisi1 ,felapton1 ,bok>do1 ,f]ison1 habet2 ,qu>ta insup] addit 7#d7 ,bramantip1 ,cam5es1 ,dim>is1 ,fesapo1 ,fresison4 ,! only lett]s 9 ^! l9es :i* mean no?+ are l1 n1 r1 t & small b & d2 all ! o!rs h a signification4 ,= example1 ! v[els ( ! italiciz$ words signify ! v>i\s valid moods1 z e4 g41 ! fir/ l9e indicates ! moods ,,aaa1 ,,eae1 ,,aii1 ,,eio4 ,! ,lat9 words1 pr9t$ 9 ord9>y type1 are int5d$ to make evid5t t ! moods indicat$ by ! artificial italiciz$ words ( ! fir/ l9e1 belong to ! fir/ figure2 t ! moods ( ! next f\r words1 belong to ! second figure2 :ile ! ?ird figure includes ! next six1 & ! f\r? figure ! la/ five4 ,x is n[ se5 t ,fe/9o1 = example1 /&s = t mood ( ! second figure :i* has an ,e = its major premise1 an ,i = its m9or premise1 & an ,o = its conclusion4 ,! fir/ figure 0 call$ by ,ari/otle ! p]fect figure1 :]eas ! second & ?ird 7 ! imp]fect figures4 ,! f\r? figure 0 giv5 no place 9 ! works ( ,ari/otle2 its discov]y is cr$it$ to ,gal51 a celebrat$ tea*] ( m$ic9e ( ! second c5tury4 ,accord+ to ,ari/otle1 ! fir/ figure is ! mo/ s]viceable & ! mo/ conv9c+ &1 !re=e1 z a f9al te/ ( _! validity1 ! moods ( ! o!r figures %\ld be *ang$ to ! fir/4 ,?is process 9 logic is t]m$ ,r$uction4 ,9 ?is r$uction ( ! imp]fect figures to ! p]fect1 ! capital lett]s ( ! artificial words1 toge!r ) s1 p1 m1 & k1 h a def9ite mean+4 ,! capital lett]s indicate t c]ta9 moods ( ! imp]fect figures c be r$uc$ to ! correspond+ moods ( ! fir/ figure2 e4 g41 ,fe/9o 7eio7 ( ! second figure1 ,felapton 7eao7 ( ! ?ird figure1 & ,fesapo 7eao7 ( ! f\r? figure may all be r$uc$ to ,f]io 7eio7 ( ! fir/ figure4 ,?is is kn[n because ,f is ! initial lett] ( ea* ^w4 s signifies t ! proposition d5ot$ by ! prec$+ v[el is to be conv]t$ simply4 ,to illu/rate3 s ,e 9 ,fesapo means t ! major premise ,e ( ! mood ,a ( ! f\r? ,o figure mu/ be conv]t$ simply 9 ord] to *ange ! mood to ,f]io ( ! fir/ figure4 p indicates t ! proposition repres5t$ by ! v[el :i* prec$es p mu/ be conv]t$ by limitation 7p] accid5s74 m 7mut>e7 makes evid5t t ! premises are to be int]*ang$1 ! major ( ! old becom+ ! m9or ( ! new1 & ! m9or ( ! old becom+ ! major ( ! new4 k d5otes t ! mood1 su* z ,b>oko1 mu/ be r$uc$ by a special process kn[n z indirect r$uction4 ,^! directions may n[ be foll[$ z illu/rative ( ! process ( r$uction4 ,a 7#a7 ,giv53 ,a syllogism 9 ,d>apti ,a ,i ,m ,g ,a ,all true tea*]s are j1 ,m ,s ,a ,all true tea*]s are sympa!tic1 ,s ,g ,i ,"s sympa!tic p]sons are j4 ,a ,! symbols indicate t ! mood is ,a or is 9 ,d>apti & t ?is ,i mood is us$ 9 ! ?ird figure4 ,a ,problem3 ,to r$uce ,a ( ! ?ird figure to "s mood ( ! fir/ ,i figure4 ,process3 ,d1 be+ ! initial lett] ( ,d>apti1 sugge/s t its mood mu/ be r$uc$ to "o indicat$ by a ^w ( ! fir/ figure ,a ^: initial lett] is ,d4 ,?is mood is 9 ,d>ii1 or is ,i4 ,i ,! p 9 ,d>apti indicates t ! proposition repres5t$ by ! prec$+ v[el mu/ be conv]t$ by limitation4 ,?is proposition is ! m9or premise2 conv]t+ x by limitation gives3 8,"s sympa!tic p]sons are true tea*]s40 ,z !re are no o!r significant lett]s ! r$uction is complete & we h ?is3 ,m ,g ,a ,all true tea*]s are j1 ,s ,m ,i ,"s sympa!tic p]sons are true tea*]s1 ,s ,g ,i ,"s sympa!tic p]sons are j4 ,a ,! symbolization indicates t ! mood is ,i ( ! fir/ figure1 or ,i is 9 ,d>ii4 ,a 7#b7 ,giv53 ,a syllogism 9 ,came/res ,e ,e ,g ,m ,a ,all true tea*]s are j1 ,s ,m ,e ,no "o :o %[s p>tiality is j1 ,s ,g ,e ,no "o :o %[s p>tiality is a true tea*]4 ,! symbols %[ t ! mood is ,,aee ( ! second figure or 9 ,came/res4 ,judg+ f ! initial lett] ,c1 ! mood 9 ,came/res ,e mu/ be r$uc$ to ! mood 9 ,cel>5t ,a4 ,e ,! lett] m betwe5 a & e indicates t ! major & m9or premises ( ! giv5 syllogism mu/ be int]*ang$4 ,! lett]s foll[+ bo? e's sugge/ t ! m9or premise & ! conclusion ( ! syllogism mu/ be conv]t$ simply4 ,?is is ! result+ syllogism3 ,m ,g ,e ,no j p]son %[s p>tiality1 ,s ,m ,a ,all true tea*]s are j p]sons1 ,s ,g ,e ,no true tea*] %[s p>tiality4 ,e ,"h1 !n1 is ! ,a ( ! fir/ figure or ! mood 9 ,cel>5t4 ,e ,accord+ to ! anci5t !ory1 r$uction is necess>y z a matt] ( f9al & absolute pro( t ! conclusion foll[s f ! giv5 premises4 ,b1 z ?is claim has be5 satisfactorily refut$ by mod]n logicians1 we ne$ n give m space to ! process4 ,! mean+ ( k1 z relat$ to 8indirect r$uction10 is expla9$ 9 mo/ ( ! e>li] works on logic4 ,see ,hyslop1 page #aic4 #g4 ,,relative ,,value ,,( ,,! ,,f\r ,,figures4 ,! fir/ figure4 ,! fir/ figure is kn[n z ! p]fect figure2 because x is ! only "o :i* proves all ( ! f\r logical propositions4 ,recall+ ! moods ( ! fir/ figure makes ?is evid5t3 ,a ,e ,a ,e ,a ,a ,i ,i ,a ,e ,i ,o ,x is likewise ! m natural figure2 because x is ! only "o :i* uses bo? ! subject & pr$icate ( ! conclusion 9 ! same relative places z !y appe> 9 ! premises4 ,symboliz+ ! figure makes ?is app>5t3 ,m ,g ,s ,m ,s ,g ,! fir/ figure1 be+ ! only figure :i* proves a 8univ]sal affirmation0 7,a71 is us$ mo/ by ! sci5ti/2 z ! object ( sci5ce is to e/abli% univ]sal affirmative tru?s4 ,! second figure4 ,z ! second figure conditions negative conclusions only1 x is call$ ! figure ( dispro(1 or ! exclusive figure4 ,x is easy to see h[ negative conclusions may be us$ to n>r[ ! inquiry d[n to "o def9ite !ory4 ,= example1 suppose x is desir$ to asc]ta9 :i* boy ( ! five broke ! w9d[2 by a s]ies ( d$uctions ! tea*] may be able to prove t ! culprit is n ,a1 n ,b1 n ,c & n ,d2 h5ce ! guilty "o mu/ be ,e4 ,?is figure is virtually ! "o us$ 9 diagnos+ mo/ diseases4 ,! ?ird figure4 ,! ?ird figure admits ( p>ticul> conclusions only1 & 9 consequ5ce is ( little value to ! sci5ti/4 ,s9ce1 h[ev]1 ! easie/ way to contradict a univ]sal affirmative 7,a7 or a univ]sal negative 7,e71 is to prove ! tru?1 respectively1 ( a p>ticul> negative 7,o7 & a p>ticul> affirmative 7,i71 x foll[s t ! ?ird figure s]ves a purpose4 ,! f\r? figure4 ,?is figure is s ne>ly l ! fir/ t x is ( little value2 9 fact1 x may be *ang$ to ! fir/ by simply int]*ang+ ! major & m9or premises4 ,"s au?orities refuse to recognize ! f\r? figure4 #h4 ,,outl9e4 ,,figures ,,& ,,moods ,,( ,,! ,,syllogism4 7#a7 ,! f\r figures ( ! syllogism4 ,def9itionsymbolization4 ,illu/rationsdevice = rememb]+4 7#b7 ,! moods ( ! syllogism4 ,tw5ty-f\r valid4 7#c7 ,te/+ ! validity ( ! moods4 ,application ( ! g5]al rules ( ! syllogism4 ,weak5$ conclusionfive4 ,n9ete5 useful moods4 ,a ?\ght ex]cise4 7#d7 ,special canons ( ! f\r figures4 ,pro( ( ! two canons ( ! fir/ figure4 ,pro( ( ! two canons ( ! second figure4 ,pro( ( ! two canons ( ! ?ird figure4 ,pro( ( ! ?ree canons ( ! f\r? figure4 7#e7 ,special canons relat$4 ,us$ z *ecks4 7#f7 ,mnemonic l9es4 ,_! use expla9$4 ,r$uction4 7#g7 ,relative value ( ! f\r figures4 #i4 ,,summ>y4 7#a7 ,by a syllogi/ic figure is meant "s p>ticul> arrangem5t ( ! ?ree t]ms 9 ! two premises4 ,?is arrangem5t yields f\r figures :i* are designat$ by ! position ( ! middle t]m4 ,to be logical1 any syllogism mu/ con=m to "o ( ! f\r figures4 ,! fir/ figure is sugge/$ by ! position ( ! t]ms ( ! 8,socrates is mortal0 syllogism4 ,! second is d]iv$ by conv]t+ ! major premise ( ! fir/2 :ile ! ?ird figure results f conv]t+ ! m9or premise ( ! fir/1 & ! f\r? by conv]t+ bo? major & m9or ( ! fir/4 7#b7 ,by a mood ( a syllogism is meant "s p>ticul> arrangem5t ( ! propositions :i* compose x4 ,!re are #fd moods b only #bd are valid4 7#c7 ,! validity ( ! v>i\s moods may be te/$ by apply+ to !m ! rules ( ! syllogism4 ,no mood is valid if x violates any "o ( ! eight rules4 ,a 8weak5$ conclusion0 is a p>ticul> conclusion :i* c\ld j z well be univ]sal4 ,( ! #bd valid moods five h weak5$ conclusions4 ,?is leaves b #ai useful moods4 ,te/+ ! validity ( ! v>i\s moods 9 ! f\r figures is a mo/ valuable ?\ght ex]cise4 7#d7 ,! d$uctive ex]cise involv$ 9 e/abli%+ c]ta9 special canons ( ! f\r figures is ( imm5se value & %\ld n be omitt$4 ,9 ! fir/ figure x may be prov$ 7#a7 t ! m9or premise mu/ be affirmative2 s9ce mak+ x negative necessitates mak+ ! major premise negative1 & no conclusion c be drawn f two negatives2 7#b7 t ! major premise mu/ be univ]sal 9 ord] to di/ribute ! middle t]m at lea/ once4 ,9 ! second figure x may be prov$ 7#a7 t "o premise mu/ be negative 9 ord] to di/ribute ! middle t]m2 7#b7 t ! major premise mu/ be univ]sal 9 ord] to di/ribute its subject1 :i* is di/ribut$ 9 ! negative conclusion :]e x appe>s z ! pr$icate4 ,9 ! ?ird figure x may be prov$ 7#a7 t ! m9or premise mu/ be affirmative 9 ord] to prev5t ! 8two negative0 fallacy2 7#b7 t an affirmative m9or necessitates a p>ticul> conclusion1 because ! m9or t]m 9 ! conclusion mu/ rema9 undi/ribut$4 ,9 ! f\r? figure x may be prov$ 7#a7 t if ! major is affirmative1 ! m9or mu/ be univ]sal 9 ord] to di/ribute ! middle t]m2 7#b7 t if ! m9or is affirmative1 ! conclusion mu/ be p>ticul> 9 ord] to avoid committ+ ! fallacy ( illicit m9or2 7#c7 t if ei!r premise is negative1 ! major mu/ be univ]sal to avoid ! fallacy ( illicit major4 7#e7 ,a k ( ! special canons is helpful 9 t x may be us$ to *eck fallaci\s reason+4 7#f7 ,c]ta9 mnemonic l9es 7 us$ by ! ,s*oolm5 z an aid 9 recall+ ! n9ete5 valid moods1 & also z a sugge/ive device to aid 9 ! process kn[n z ,r$uction4 ,! process ( r$uction is m]ely a matt] ( *ang+ to ! fir/ figure ! moods ( ! o!r figures4 ,?is process is no long] ?\ght to be necess>y4 7#g7 ,! fir/ figure1 call$ ! p]fect figure1 is ! "o us$ mo/ by sci5ti/s1 z x is ! only figure :i* proves a univ]sal affirmative tru?4 ,! second figure is ! negative1 or figure ( dispro(1 & is us$ ma9ly = ! purpose ( elim9at+ all ! conditions ( ! inquiry save "o4 ,! ?ird figure s]ves a purpose 9 af=d+ an easy way to contradict a univ]sal ass]tion2 ?is is ! figure ( p>ticul>s4 ,! f\r? figure1 because x s closely resembles ! fir/1 is ( little value4 #aj4 ,,illu/rative ,,ex]cises4 ,"q #a;a4 ,by mak+ use ( ! rules = negatives & p>ticul>s1 ,o ,a ,a te/ ! validity ( ! foll[+ moods3 ,i ,i ,a ,a ,a ,i ,answ]3 ,! fir/ mood has ! negative ,o z its major premise1 & ! affirmative ,a z its conclusion2 ! mood is ?us invalid2 because a negative premise necessitates a negative conclusion accord+ to rule #f4 ,! second mood conta9s ! p>ticul> proposition ,i z its m9or premise1 & ?us %\ld h a p>ticul> conclusion accord+ to rule #h4 ,b ! conclusion ,a is univ]sal &1 !re=e1 ! mood is invalid4 ,! premises ( ! ?ird mood are univ]sal & ! conclusion p>ticul>4 ,! mood1 h[ev]1 is valid1 because rule #h does n "w bo? ways1 z does rule #f4 ,:5 a univ]sal c j z well be drawn1 !n ! p>ticul> becomes a weak5$ conclusion4 7#a;b7 ,us+ ! rules = negatives & p>ticul>s1 te/ ! validity ,a ,e ,e ( ! foll[+3 ,a ,o ,a ,e ,o ,o 7#b;a7 ,pay+ no reg>d to 8figure10 d]ive z _m conclusions z possible f ! foll[+ sets ( premises3 ,e ,a ,i ,e ,answ]3 ,e4 ,! major premise ( ?is mood1 be+ negative1 ,i necessitates a negative conclusion1 accord+ to rule #f1 & ! m9or premise1 be+ p>ticul>1 compels a p>ticul> conclusion1 accord+ to rule #h4 ,s9ce ! conclusion mu/ be negative & p>ticul>1 !n ,e ,o is ! only "o :i* c be drawn4 ,! complet$ mood is ,i4 ,o ,a4 ,?is mood mu/ h a negative conclusion1 because ! m9or ,e premise is negative2 ?is w\ld necessitate ei!r ,e or ,o2 b ,o z a conclusion w\ld be1 9 ?is case1 a weak5$ "o2 s9ce ,e di/ribut+ bo? t]ms w\ld necess>ily di/ribute ! m9or2 :i* fact w\ld p]mit ! m9or to be di/ribut$ 9 ! conclusion4 ,?us ! conclusion c\ld j z well be univ]sal z p>ticul>4 ,! ,a complet$ mood is ,e4 ,e 7#b;b7 ,f ! foll[+ sets ( premises d]ive z _m conclusions z possible pay+ no att5tion to figure3 ,e ,a ,o ,a ,a ,a 7#c;a7 ,mak+ use ( all ! g5]al rules ( ! syllogism1 te/ ! ,a validity ( ! foll[+ mood 9 all ! figures3 ,a4 ,i ,answ]3 #a #b #c #d ,a ,m ,g ,g ,m ,m ,g ,g ,m ,a ,s ,m ,s ,m ,m ,s ,m ,s ,i ,s ,g ,s ,g ,s ,g ,s ,g ,an und]scor$ symbol indicates a di/ribut$ t]m4 ,s9ce ,a di/ributes its subject1 ! subjects ( bo? premises are und]scor$ 9 all ! figures4 ,no t]m is und]scor$ 9 ! conclusions2 s9ce ,i di/ributes nei!r t]m4 ,9 ! fir/ figure ! middle t]m is di/ribut$ 9 ! major premise1 & no t]m is di/ribut$ 9 ! conclusion4 ,s9ce bo? premises are affirmative1 ! rules = negatives are n applicable2 & z a p>ticul> may be drawn f two univ]sals1 if !re is no violation ( ! rules = di/ribution1 ?is mood seems to be valid 9 ! fir/ figure4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 a weak5$ conclusion2 s9ce an ,a c\ld j z well be drawn4 ,! mood is invalid 9 ! second figure because ( undi/ribut$ middle1 b valid 9 bo? ! ?ird & f\r?2 s9ce 9 bo? cases ! middle t]m is di/ribut$ at lea/ once4 7#c;b7 ,det]m9e ! validity ( ! att5d+ moods 9 all ! figures ,i ,a ,e giv+ reasons3 ,a ,o ,a4 ,i ,o ,o #aa4 ,,review ,,que/ions4 7#a7 ,def9e a logical figure & illu/rate by means ( "s ord9>y syllogi/ic argum5t4 7#b7 ,symbolize ! f\r figures & give sugge/ions = rememb]+ !m4 7#c7 ,write syllogisms :i* illu/rate ea* ( ! f\r figures4 7#d7 ,def9e mood z x is us$ 9 logic4 ,illu/rate4 7#e7 ,h[ _m moods are valid8 7#f7 ,expla9 by illu/ration a 8weak5$ conclusion40 ,a ,e 7#g7 ,te/ ! validity ( ,e 9 ! ?ird figure2 ( ,i 9 ! ?ird4 ,e ,o 7#h7 ,indep5d5t ( all helps1 prove ! tru? ( ! canons ( ! fir/ figure4 7#i7 ,9 a simil> way prove ! canons ( ! second1 ?ird & f\r? figures4 7#aj7 ,s f> z te/+ argum5ts is conc]n$1 :at use may be made ( ! special canons ( ! syllogism8 7#aa7 ,(f] a few sugge/ions = rememb]+ ! special canons4 7#ab7 ,:y did ,ari/otle atta* s mu* importance to r$uction 9 logic8 7#ac7 ,ju/ify call+ ! fir/ figure ! 8p]fect figure10 & ! o!rs ! 8imp]fect figures40 7#ad7 ,treat ( ! relative value ( ! f\r figures4 7#ae7 ,%[ by illu/ration t ! second figure is ! exclusive figure4 ,e ,o ,i 7#af7 ,te/ ! foll[+ moods 9 all ! figures3 ,i ,a ,a ,a ,o ,i ,a ,e ,e ,a ,a ,e ,a ,a ,a ,e ,i ,a ,e ,i ,e ,o ,a ,i4 ,o ,o ,o ,o ,e ,i ,i ,i ,i #ab4 ,,que/ions ,,= ,,orig9al ,,?\ght ,,& ,,inve/igation4 7#a7 ,give an illu/ration ( a syllogism 9 ! f\r? figure :i* might j z well be writt5 9 ! fir/ figure4 7#b7 ,may a syllogism1 :i* is invalid 9 ! f\r? figure1 be made valid by writ+ x 9 ! =m ( ! fir/ figure8 ,prove x4 7#c7 ,%[ :y x is impossible to apply all ! rules ( ! 999999 7#d7 ,%[ ! diff]5ce betwe5 a direct & an indirect pro(4 ,a 7#e7 ,%[ t ,a is valid 9 ! fir/ figure :5 ! major premise ,o 7,a7 is co-ext5sive4 7#f7 ,! ?ird figure is kn[n z ! figure ( p>ticul> conclusions4 ,:y %\ld n ! second canon ( t figure be1 8,"o premise mu/ be p>ticul>0 r ?an 8,! conclusion mu/ be p>ticul>80 7#g7 ,%[ t !re is "s gr\nd = ?9k+ t1 z a f9al te/1 moods 9 ! o!r figures %\ld be r$uc$ to ! fir/4 7#h7 ,illu/rate ! fact t ! second figure is ! figure ( dispro(2 :]eas ! ?ird is ! figure ( contradictions4 7#i7 8,to be logical a syllogism mu/ con=m to "o ( ! f\r figures1 b ?is does n mean1 necess>ily1 t all argum5ts mu/ con=m to "s figure40 ,expla9 ?is4 ,,*apt] #ac4 ,,incomplete ,,syllogisms ,,& ,,irregul> ,,argum5ts4 #a4 ,,en?ymeme4 ,an en?ymeme is a syllogism 9 :i* "o ( ! ?ree propositions is omitt$4 ,suppress+ ! major premise gives an en?ymeme ( ! fir/ ord]2 :]eas if ! m9or premise be suppress$1 ! en?ymeme becomes "o ( ! second ord]2 :ile omitt+ ! conclusions gives an en?ymeme ( ! ?ird ord]4 ,illu/rations3 ,complete syllogism4 ,all true tea*]s are j1 ,y are a true tea*]1 7,h5ce7 ,y are j4 ,en?ymeme ( fir/ ord]2 major premise omitt$4 44444444444444444444444444 ,y are a true tea*]1 7,h5ce7 ,y are j4 ,en?ymeme ( second ord]2 m9or premise omitt$4 ,all true tea*]s are j1 44444444444444444444444444 7,h5ce7 ,y are j4 ,en?ymeme ( ! ?ird ord]2 conclusion omitt$4 ,all true tea*]s are j1 7,&7 ,y are a true tea*]1 44444444444444444444444444 ,to argue 9 t]ms ( ! complete syllogism is ! unusual1 n ! usual me?od4 ,we h a way ( abbreviat+ our rem>ks2 express+ only ! necess>y & leav+ ! obvi\s to be tak5 = grant$4 ,?us ! en?ymeme becomes ! natural =m ( expression4 ,b ! m]e fact t a "p ( ! argum5t is omitt$1 makes x m ess5tial = ! /ud5t to ?9k cle>ly & ) c>eful cont9uity1 t no error may intrude itself4 ,probably ! mo/ common en?ymemes are ^? ( ! fir/ ord]4 ,?is may be expla9$ by ! fact t ! major premise is usually ! mo/ univ]sal ( ! ?ree propositions1 &1 9 consequ5ce1 ! "o :i* w\ld be ! mo/ g5]ally und]/ood4 ,! foll[+ repres5t en?ymemes ( ?is ord]1 glean$ f ! ord9>y conv]sation ( ord9>y p3 7#a7 8,y\r beets won't gr[1 because y are plant+ !m 9 ! wrong "t ( ! moon40 7#b7 8,y1 be+ a memb] ( ! ,sunday ,s*ool1 %\ld be a%am$ ( su* language40 7#c7 8,be+ ! son ( y\r fa!r1 y ought to h "s pride 9 ?is matt]40 7#d7 8,we are go+ to h an op5 w9t]1 because ,i h obs]v$ t ! hornets' ne/s are ne> ! gr\nd40 7#e7 8,y _h bett] put 9 lots ( coal1 = ,i h notic$ t ! squirrels h ga!r$ 9 m nuts ?an usual40 ,judg+ f ^! en?ymemes1 x w\ld seem to be m natural to ass]t ! conclusion & foll[ ?is by a reason 9 ! =m ( a m9or premise1 leav+ ! major to ! intellig5ce ( ! auditor4 ,! en?ymeme ( ! second ord] occurs only infrequ5tly1 s9ce x seems to be an unnatural mode ( expression1 ?\gh sometimes x appe>s to l5d emphasis to ! conclusion2 e4 g41 8,all untru/wor?y boys come to a bad end1 & ,i pr$ict t y w come to a bad end40 ,en?ymemes ( ! ?ird ord] are commonly us$ = ! sake ( emphasis1 z ! foll[+ make evid5t3 7#a7 8,no bus9ess man wants an indol5t boy1 & y are indol5t40 7#b7 8,all successful tea*]s are int]e/$ 9 _! "w1 & y plan to be a successful tea*]40 7#c7 8,humility is a sign ( greatness1 & ,l9coln possess$ ?is quality40 #b4 ,,epi*eirema4 ,an epi*eirema is a syllogism 9 :i* "o or bo? ( ! premises is an en?ymeme4 ,to put x 9 ano!r way3 ,an epi*eirema is a syllogism 9 :i* "o or bo? ( ! premises is support$ by a reason4 ,:5 "o premise is an en?ymeme ! syllogism is t]m$ a s+le epi*eirema2 :]eas :5 bo? premises are en?ymemes x becomes a d\ble epi*eirema4 ,s+le epi*eirema4 ,all m5 are mortal1 because all m5 die1 ,socrates 0 a man1 ,socrates 0 mortal4 ,d\ble epi*eirema4 ,all m5 are mortal1 because all m5 die1 ,socrates 0 a man1 because he 0 a rational animal1 ,socrates 0 mortal4 ,x is obvi\s t support+ ea* premise ) a reason l5ds /r5g? to ! argum5t4 ,?is ju/ifies ! use ( ! epi*eirema4 #c4 ,,polysyllogism4 ,a polysyllogism is a s]ies ( syllogisms 9 :i* ! conclusion ( a prec$+ syllogism becomes a premise ( a succe$+ "o4 ,! syllogism 9 ! s]ies ^: conclusion becomes a premise ( ! succe$+ syllogism is t]m$ a prosyllogism2 :ile ! syllogism :i* uses z "o ( its premises ! conclusion ( ! prec$+ syllogism is call$ an episyllogism4 ,illu/rations4 ,a quadrup$ is an animal1 ,a dog is a quadrup$1 ,prosyllogism ,polysyllogism ,a dog is an animal4 ,fido is a dog1 ,episyllogism ,fido is an animal4 ,all :o libel an associate are unpr(essional1 ,?is tea*] has libell$ ,prosyllogism h] associate1 ,polysyllogism ,?is tea*] is unpr(essional4 ,all :o are unpr(essional ,episyllogism %\ld be discipl9$1 ,?is tea*] %\ld be discipl9$4 #d4 ,,sorites4 ,a sorites is a s]ies ( syllogisms 9 :i* all ( ! conclusions are omitt$ except ! la/ "o4 ,j z ! epi*eirema is a comb9ation ( en?ymemes ( ! fir/ & second ord]s1 s ! sorites is a comb9ation ( en?ymemes ( ! ?ird ord]4 ,if ea* conclusion 7 writt51 ! sorites w\ld take ! =m ( prosyllogisms & episyllogisms4 ,two =ms ( ! sorites are recogniz$ by logicians4 ,^! are ! progressive or ,ari/otelian1 & ! regressive or ,gocl5ian4 ,illu/rations4 ,progressive ,symboliz$4 ,put 9 ,^w ,=m4 ,all ,a is ,b ,?omas ,arnold 0 a tea*]1 ,all ,b is ,c ,a tea*] is a man1 ,all ,c is ,d ,a man is a bip$1 ,all ,d is ,e ,a bip$ is an animal1 ,h5ce all ,a is ,e ,h5ce ,?omas ,arnold 0 an animal4 ,regressive ,all ,a is ,b ,a bip$ is an animal1 ,all ,c is ,a ,a man is a bip$1 ,all ,d is ,c ,a tea*] is a man1 ,all ,e is ,d ,?omas ,arnold 0 a tea*]1 ,h5ce all ,e is ,b ,h5ce ,?omas ,arnold 0 an animal4 ,:5 reg>d$ f ! viewpo9t ( ext5sion1 ! progressive sorites proce$s f ! small] to ! l>g] :ile ! regressive is ! conv]se ( ?is4 ,! po9t may be illu/rat$ by circles3 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ae4 ,circle #a /&s = ,?omas ,arnold4 ,circle #b /&s = tea*]4 ,circle #c /&s = man4 ,circle #d /&s = bip$4 ,circle #e /&s = animal4 ,! progressive sorites proce$s f ! small] circle to ! l>g]1 ?us3 ,all ( circle #a belongs to #b ,all ( circle #b belongs to #c ,all ( circle #c belongs to #d ,all ( circle #d belongs to #e ,h5ce1 ,all ( circle #a belongs to #e ,! regressive sorites proce$s f ! l>g] to ! small]2 i4 e43 ,all ( circle #d belongs to #e ,all ( circle #c belongs to #d ,all ( circle #b belongs to #c ,all ( circle #a belongs to #b ,h5ce1 ,all ( circle #a belongs to #e ,o!r diff]5ces become app>5t :5 ! omitt$ conclusions are express$4 ,progressive ,symboliz$ ,^w ,=m ,all ,a is ,b ,t4 ,arnold 0 a tea*]1 7,a7 ,all ,b is ,c ,a tea*] is a man1 7,a7 ,all ,a is ,c ,t4 ,arnold 0 a man4 7,a7 ,all ,c is ,d ,a man is a bip$1 7,a7 ,all ,a is ,d ,t4 ,arnold 0 a bip$4 7,a7 ,all ,d is ,e ,a bip$ is an animal1 7,a7 ,all ,a is ,e ,t4 ,arnold 0 an animal4 7,a7 ,9 ! ?ree complet$ syllogisms x becomes evid5t t ! progressive sorites uses ! m9or z its fir/ premise & 9 consequ5ce takes ! =m ( ! f\r? figure1 ?\gh ! reason+ is accord+ to ! fir/ figure4 ,! progressive sorites mu/ con=m to ! foll[+ rules3 7#a7 ,! fir/ premise may be univ]sal or p>ticul>1 all ! o!rs mu/ be univ]sal4 7#b7 ,! la/ premise may be affirmative or negative2 all ! o!rs mu/ be affirmative4 ,a violation ( ! fir/ rule w\ld result 9 undi/ribut$ middle2 :]eas a violation ( ! second rule w\ld give illicit major4 ,^! rules may be illu/rat$ by giv+ att5tion to ! symbols ( ! =ego+ complet$ syllogisms4 ,! fir/ complet$ syllogism ( ! sorites is3 ,all ,a is ,b ,all ,b is ,c ,all ,a is ,c ,secur+ a logical arrangem5t by int]*ang+ ! major & m9or premises gives3 7,m7 7,g7 7,a7 ,all ,b is ,c 7,fir/ premise univ]sal7 7,s7 7,m7 7,a7 ,all ,a is ,b 7,s7 7,g7 7,a7 ,all ,a is ,c ,apply+ ! rules we f9d ?is syllogism valid1 or we may recall t ,a ,a is valid 9 ! fir/ figure4 ,a ,let u n[ make ! fir/ premise ( ! sorites p>ticul> & te/4 ,"s ,a is ,b ,all ,b is ,c ,"s ,a is ,c ,arrang$ logically3 7,m7 7,g7 7,a7 ,all ,b is ,c 7,s7 7,m7 7,i7 ,"s ,a is ,b 7,s7 7,g7 7,i7 ,"s ,a is ,c ,pro(3 ,s9ce "o premise is p>ticul> ! conclusion mu/ be p>ticul>4 7,rule #g7 ,z !re are no negatives 9 ! argum5t1 only "o conclusion is possible2 namely1 a p>ticul> affirmative 7,i74 ,?us1 in/ead ( ! conclusion1 8,all ,a is ,c10 :i* is an 7,a71 x mu/ be1 8,"s ,a is ,c10 or an 7,i74 ,und]scor+ ! di/ribut$ t]m1 x is se5 t ! middle t]m is di/ribut$ 9 ! major premise & t no t]m is di/ribut$ 9 ! conclusion4 ,?us ! mood is valid4 ,?is is 8*eck$0 :5 we recall t ,,aii is always valid 9 ! fir/ figure4 ,we h n[ %[n t ! fir/ premise ( a progressive sorites may be univ]sal or p>ticul>4 ,let u fur!r proce$ to prove t all ! o!r premises mu/ be univ]sal4 ,data3 ,giv5 ! fir/ complet$ syllogism ( ! sorites3 ,all ,a is ,b ,all ,b is ,c ,all ,a is ,c ,pro(3 ,let any o!r premise1 su* z ! second1 be p>ticul>2 ?is gives ! foll[+3 ,all ,a is ,b ,"s ,b is ,c ,"s ,a is ,c ,arrang$ logically3 ,mood1 figure1 & di/ribution indicat$4 7,m7 7,g7 7,i7 ,"s ,b is ,c 7,s7 7,m7 7,a7 ,all ,a is ,b 7,s7 7,g7 7,i7 ,"s ,a is ,c ,we note at once t ! middle t]m is undi/ribut$1 h5ce ! ,i mood ,a is invalid 9 ! fir/ figure2 ref]5ce to ! valid moods 9 ,i figure "o 8*ecks0 ?is conclusion4 ,s9ce no premise1 o!r ?an ! fir/1 c be p>ticul>1 !n all save ! fir/ mu/ be univ]sal4 ,! tru? ( ! fir/ rule has be5 demon/rat$1 & n[ we may foll[ a simil> plan to prove ! tru? ( ! second rule4 ,problem3 ,to prove t ! la/ premise may be negative4#aa ,data3 ,giv5 ! la/ complet$ syllogism3 ,all ,a is ,d ,all ,d is ,e ,all ,a is ,e ,let u make ! la/ premise negative 7,e7 & te/ ! result4 7,z all b ! fir/ mu/ be univ]sal we _c use an ,o47 ,all ,a is ,d ,no ,d is ,e ,no ,a is ,e ,arrang$ logically & symboliz$3 7,m7 7,g7 7,e7 ,no ,d is ,e 7,s7 7,m7 7,a7 ,all ,a is ,d 7,s7 7,g7 7,e7 ,no ,a is ,e ,pro(3 ,negative premise2 negative conclusion4 ,no p>ticul>s4 ,middle t]m di/ribut$ 9 major premise4 ,no t]m di/ribut$ 9 conclusion :i* is n di/ribut$ 9 premise :]e x occurs4 ,syllogism valid4 ,we mu/ n[ prove t all ! o!r premises mu/ be affirmative4 ,problem3 ,to prove t no o!r premise c be negative1 or t all o!rs mu/ be affirmative4 ,data3 ,giv5 la/ syllogism ( sorites ) ! fir/ premise negative4 7,any o!r may be tak547 ,no ,a is ,d ,all ,d is ,e ,no ,a is ,e ,arrang$ logically & symboliz$3 7,m7 7,g7 7,a7 ,all ,d is ,e 7,s7 7,m7 7,e7 ,no ,a is ,d 7,s7 7,g7 7,e7 ,no ,a is ,e ,pro(3 8,g0 is di/ribut$ 9 ! conclusion b n 9 ! major premise4 ,fallacy ( illicit major4 ,h5ce no o!r premise c be negative4 ,we may n[ consid] ! complet$ syllogisms ( ! regressive sorites4 ,all ,a is ,b ,all ,c is ,a ,all ,c is ,b ,all ,d is ,c ,all ,d is ,b ,all ,e is ,d ,all ,e is ,b ,by exam9+ ! =ego+ x becomes app>5t t ! regressive sorites1 bo? 9 =m & 9 ! reason+1 adapts itself to ! fir/ figure4 ,! rules ( ! regressive sorites are j ! rev]se ( ! progressive4 ,^! are3 7#a7 ,! fir/ premise may be negative2 all ! o!rs mu/ be affirmative4 7#b7 ,! la/ premise may be p>ticul>2 all ! o!rs mu/ be univ]sal4 ,x w\ld be a valuable ex]cise = ! /ud5t to te/ ^! rules accord+ to ! plan pursu$ 9 treat+ ! progressive sorites4 #e4 ,,irregul> ,,argum5ts4 ,x has be5 intimat$ t a syllogi/ic argum5t1 9 ord] to be logical1 %\ld be made to con=m to ! rules ( ! syllogism4 ,x mu/ n be inf]r$ f ?is1 h[ev]1 t all d$uctive reason+ is includ$ by ! logical =ms "h treat$4 ,!re seem to be argum5ts :i* yield valid conclusions1 & yet :i* are n logical 9 ! /rict s5se ( ! ^w4 ,! foll[+ illu/rate "s ( ^! =ms3 7#a7 ,quantitative ,argum5ts4 ,john is tall] ?an ,james1 ,alb]t is tall] ?an ,john1 ,alb]t is tall] ?an ,james4 ,"h1 app>5tly1 is a fallacy ( f\r t]ms3 ^! f\r t]ms are 7#a7 ,john1 7#b7 tall] ?an ,james1 7#c7 ,alb]t1 7#d7 tall] ?an ,john4 ,yet we "k t ! argum5t is valid4 ,!re is n a p>ticle ( d\bt 9 ! m9d relative to ! tru? ( ! conclusion t 8,alb]t is tall] ?an ,james40 ,we are consequ5tly =c$ to ! inf]5ce t su* quantitative argum5ts lie outside ! field ( syllogi/ic reason+4 ,! argum5t involves ?is new pr9ciple1 8,:atev] is great] ?an a second ?+ :i* is great] ?an a ?ird ?+ is itself great] ?an a ?ird ?+40 ,!re are _m o!r argum5ts simil> to ?is :i* are n syllogi/ic 9 nature4 ,to wit3 ,a equals ,b1 ,b equals ,c1 ,c equals ,d2 ,a equals ,d4 ,a is a bro!r ( ,b1 ,b is a bro!r ( ,c1 ,c is a bro!r ( ,d2 ,a is a bro!r ( ,d4 ,a is we/ ( ,b1 ,b is we/ ( ,c1 ,c is we/ ( ,d2 ,a is we/ ( ,d4 7#b7 ,plurative ,argum5ts4 ,^! are argum5ts 9 :i* ! propositions are introduc$ by m or mo/2 e4 g43 ,mo/ 7m ?an half7 ( ! team are s5iors1 ,mo/ 7at lea/ half7 ( ! team are "u tw5ty1 ,"s /ud5ts "u tw5ty are s5iors4 ,i ,"h we h an ,i :i* is evid5tly valid4 ,no t]m di/ribut$ & yet ,i ! conclusion is unque/ionably true4 ,?is is due to ! fact t ! propositions are s word$ z to =ce an ov]lapp+ ( ! major & m9or t]ms4 ,! /ud5t may illu/rate ?is relation by circles4 #f4 ,,outl9e4 ,,incomplete ,,syllogisms ,,& ,,irregul> ,,argum5ts4 7#a7 ,en?ymeme4 ,fir/1 second & ?ird ord]s4 ,natural =m4 7#b7 ,epi*eirema4 ,s+le1 d\ble4 7#c7 ,polysyllogism4 ,prosyllogism1 episyllogism4 7#d7 ,sorites4 ,progressive1 regressive4 ,two rules ( ea*4 7#e7 ,irregul> ,argum5ts4 ,quantitative1 plurative4 #g4 ,,summ>y4 7#a7 ,an en?ymeme is a syllogism 9 :i* "o ( ! ?ree propositions is omitt$4 ,suppress+ ! major premise gives an en?ymeme ( ! fir/ ord]2 omitt+ ! m9or gives "o ( ! second ord]2 :ile omitt+ ! conclusion gives "o ( ! ?ird ord]4 ,! en?ymeme is really ! natural =m ( expression4 ,en?ymemes ( ! fir/ ord] are ! mo/ common :ile ^? ( ! ?ird ord] are ! mo/ emphatic4 7#b7 ,an epi*eirema is a syllogism 9 :i* "o or m ( ! premises is an en?ymeme4 ,an epi*eirema is said to be s+le :5 b "o premise is an en?ymeme1 & d\ble :5 bo? premises are en?ymemes4 7#c7 ,a polysyllogism is a s]ies ( syllogisms 9 :i* ! conclusion ( ! prec$+ syllogism becomes a premise ( ! succe$+ "o4 ,! "o ( ! s]ies ^: conclusion becomes a premise is t]m$ a prosyllogism2 :ile ! "o :i* uses ! conclusion z a premise is call$ an episyllogism4 7#d7 ,a sorites is a s]ies ( syllogisms 9 :i* all ! conclusions are omitt$ except ! la/ "o4 ,! two k9ds ( sorites are ! progressive & regressive4 ,! progressive uses ! 8m9or0 z its fir/ premise & adopts ! =m ( ! f\r? figure1 :]eas ! regressive uses ! 8major0 z its fir/ premise & adopts ! =m ( ! fir/ figure4 ,! two rules ( ! progressive sorites are1 7#a7 8,! fir/ premise may be p>ticul>1 all ! o!rs mu/ be univ]sal02 7#b7 8,! la/ premise may be negative1 all ! o!rs mu/ be affirmative40 ,! two rules ( ! regressive are1 7#a7 8,! fir/ premise may be negative1 all ! o!rs mu/ be affirmative02 7#b7 8,! la/ premise may be p>ticul>1 all ! o!rs mu/ be univ]sal04 7#e7 ,irregul> argum5ts are su* z yield valid conclusions & yet d n con=m to ! syllogi/ic rules4 ,! quantitative argum5t expresses quantity & conta9s f\r t]ms4 ,?is argum5t is bas$ on ! pr9ciple1 8,:at ev] is great] ?an a second ?+ :i* is great] ?an a ?ird ?+ is itself great] ?an a ?ird ?+40 ,plurative argum5ts are introduc$ by 8m0 or 8mo/0 & give 9 consequ5ce a valid conclusion f two p>ticul>s4 ,?is is due to ! ov]lapp+ ( ! major & m9or t]ms4 #h4 ,,review ,,que/ions4 7#a7 ,def9e & illu/rate an en?ymeme4 7#b7 ,illu/rate ! en?ymemes ( ! ?ree ord]s & po9t out _! di/9ct uses4 7#c7 ,:y %\ld ! en?ymeme dem& clos] ?\ght ?an ! ord9>y syllogism8 7#d7 ,def9e & illu/rate ! epi*eirema4 7#e7 ,( :at use is ! epi*eirema8 ,illu/rate4 7#f7 ,def9e & illu/rate a prosyllogism & an episyllogism4 7#g7 ,:y are polysyllogisms s call$8 7#h7 ,def9e & illu/rate ! sorites4 7#i7 ,relate ! sorites & ! epi*eirema to ! en?ymeme4 7#aj7 ,illu/rate ! two =ms ( sorites4 7#aa7 ,expla9 ! two =ms ( sorites by means ( a diagram4 7#ab7 ,prove ! tru? ( ! two rules ( ! progressive sorites4 7#ac7 ,illu/rate two k9ds ( irregul> argum5ts & %[ t !y are valid4 7#ad7 ,complete ! five en?ymemes ( page #bdh & indicate _! mood & figure4 #i4 ,,que/ions ,,= ,,orig9al ,,?\ght ,,& ,,inve/igation4 7#a7 ,:y %\ld en?ymemes ( ! second ord] be less common ?an ^? ( ! fir/8 7#b7 ,y desire to make x evid5t to a *ild t a small beg9n+ (t5 leads to a mom5t\s end+2 d s 9 t]ms ( ! en?ymeme ( ! fir/ ord]4 7#c7 ,%[ t prosyllogism & episyllogism are relative t]ms4 7#d7 ,:5 ! common premise ( ! 8pro0 & 8epi0 syllogism is omitt$ :at abbreviat$ =m results8 7#e7 ,f ! viewpo9t ( y\r def9ition criticise ?is3 8,a sorites is a s]ies ( prosyllogisms & episyllogisms 9 :i* all ( ! conclusions are suppress$ except ! la/40 7#f7 ,prove ! tru? ( ! two rules ( ! regressive sorites4 7#g7 ,%[ t ! prosyllogism & ! episyllogism may be progressive or regressive4 7#h7 8,reason+ f cause to effect0is su* progressive or regressive8 ,expla94 7#i7 ,:i* is inductive 9 nature1 ! progressive =m ( reason+ or ! regressive8 ,expla94 7#aj7 ,te/ ! validity ( ! en?ymemes on pages #bdh & #bdi4 7#aa7 8,a sorites is at lea/ z imm$iately conv9c+ z ! *a9 ( syllogisms into :i* x c be decompos$40 ,discuss ?is4 ,,*apt] #ad4 ,,categorical ,,argum5ts ,,te/$ ,,accord+ ,,to ,,=m4 #a4 ,,argum5ts ,,( ,,=m ,,& ,,matt]4 ,! matt] relative to ! syllogism treat$ 9 *apt]s #aa1 #ab & #ac is giv5 prim>ily to enable ! read] to te/ ! validity ( categorical argum5ts4 ,su* argum5ts mu/ be view$ f ! two /&po9ts ( =m & matt]1 s9ce x is "o ( ! *ief purposes ( logic to enable ! /ud5t to detect fallaci\s reason+1 no matt] h[ subtly x may be conceal$4 ,!re=e1 t "o may ga9 m>k$ facility 9 ?is k9d ( "w1 x becomes necess>y to proce$ ) ?or\ghness & confid5ce4 ,! mean+ ( argum5ts & ! v>i\s mat]ial fallacies may be treat$ lat]2 b we are n[ equipp$ ) suffici5t k & exp]i5ce to te/ ! validity ( argum5ts f ! viewpo9t ( =m4 #b4 ,,ord] ,,( ,,proc$ure ,,9 ,,! ,,=mal ,,te/+ ,,( ,,argum5ts4 ,9 te/+ categorical argum5ts ?ree ?+s are ess5tial2 fir/1 to foll[ a def9ite plan2 second1 to give reasons2 ?ird1 to give ! au?or ! b5efit ( ! d\bt4 ,9 view ( ^! ess5tials1 we sugge/ ?is outl9e :i* may be helpful to ! inexp]i5c$3 7#a7 ,arrange logically & complete ! syllogism4 7#b7 ,det]m9e ! figure & mood by us+ symbols4 7#c7 ,apply ! rules = negatives & p>ticul>s4 7#d7 ,indicate ! di/ribution by und]scor+ ! t]ms di/ribut$4 7#e7 ,apply ! rules = di/ribution4 7#f7 ,"n fallacies1 if any1 giv+ reasons4 ,we recall t to be /rictly logical any categorical argum5t mu/ take ?is =m3 fir/1 major premise2 second1 m9or premise2 ?ird1 conclusion4 ,(t5 9 common conv]sation ei!r ! m9or premise or conclusion is giv5 fir/4 ,illu/rations ( ?is3 7#a7 8,he _c be a g5tleman 7conclusion72 = no g5tleman w\ld d su* a ?+ 7major premise71 & !re is no d\bt b t he did x0 7m9or premise74 7#b7 8,he has ! mak+ ( a good tea*] 7conclusion72 because he n only kn[s1 b he kn[s h[ to imp>t :at he kn[s 7m9or premise71 & ?is is a sure sign ( a good tea*]0 7major premise74 ,:5 ! argum5t appe>s 9 ?is illogical =m1 ! fir/ duty ( ! /ud5t is to arrange x logically4 ,to d ?is he mu/ be able to recognize readily ! premises & ! conclusion4 ,to ?is end ^! facts may be ( assi/ance3 7#a7 ,a premise always answ]s ! "q 8,:y01 & is (t5 introduc$ by su* words z 8=10 8because10 8s9ce10 & ! l4 7#b7 ,! conclusion is usually introduc$ by 8!re=e10 8h5ce10 8x foll[s10 etc4 7#c7 ,:5 !re are no ^w-signs ^? m5tion$ 9 ! =ego+ may be ins]t$ ) a view ( det]m9+ :i* is ! conclusion1 & :i* are ! premises4 ,sugge/ions relative to complet+ abbreviat$ argum5ts3 7#a7 ,if ! conclusion is to be suppli$1 select ! t]m us$ twice 9 ! premises2 ?is1 ! middle t]m1 mu/ n appe> 9 ! conclusion4 ,! o!r two t]ms may n[ be connect$ 7copulat$7 to =m ! conclusion1 ! n>r[] t]m 7m9or7 be+ us$ z ! subject1 unless x occurs 9 :at cle>ly seems to be ! major premise4 7#b7 ,if ei!r premise is to be suppli$1 unite ! middle t]m ) ! subject ( ! conclusion = ! m9or premise1 & ) ! pr$icate ( ! conclusion = ! major premise4 7#c7 ,9 supply+ any miss+ proposition1 c>e %\ld be tak5 to make ! argum5t valid1 if ?is c be done 9 con=mity ) good ,engli%1 good s5se1 & ! rules ( logic4 ,z reg>ds ! det]m9ation ( ! figure x is well to locate ! middle t]m fir/1 plac+ above x ! symbol ,m4 ,!n 8,g0 7great]7 may be plac$ above ! major t]m & 8,s0 7small]7 above ! m9or4 #c4 ,,illu/rative ,,ex]cises ,,9 ,,te/+ ,,argum5ts ,,:i* ,,are ,,already ,,complete1 ,,regul>1 ,,& ,,logically ,,arrang$4 ,m ,g 7#a7 ,a ,all dogs are quadrup$s1 ,s ,m ,a ,all greyh\nds are dogs1 ,s ,g ,a ,all greyh\nds are quadrup$s4 ,a ,?is argum5t is 9 ! fir/ figure1 ! mood be+ ,a4 ,all ,a ! propositions are affirmative & univ]sal1 consequ5tly ! rules p]ta9+ to negatives & p>ticul>s are inapplicable4 8,a0 di/ributes ! subject only1 h5ce all ! subjects are und]scor$4 ,! middle t]m 8dog0 is di/ribut$ 9 ! major premise1 & ! m9or t]m 8greyh\nd10 :i* is di/ribut$ 9 ! conclusion1 is likewise di/ribut$ 9 ! m9or premise4 ,! argum5t is1 !re=e1 valid 9 =m4 ,?is may be v]ifi$ by ref]r+ to a li/ ( valid moods 9 ! fir/ figure4 ,g ,m 7#b7 ,e ,no prejudic$ p]son is op5 to conviction1 ,s ,m ,a ,all fair m9d$ p]sons are op5 to conviction1 ,s ,g ,e ,no fair m9d$ p]son is prejudic$4 ,e ,! argum5t is 9 ! second figure2 mood ,a4 ,!re is "o ,e negative premise & ! conclusion is negative2 no p>ticul>s4 8,e0 di/ributes bo? t]ms1 8,a0 ! subject only4 ,! middle t]m is di/ribut$ 9 ! major premise4 ,bo? major & m9or t]ms are di/ribut$ 9 ! conclusion1 b !y are likewise di/ribut$ 9 ! premises :]e !y are us$4 ,! argum5t is1 !re=e1 valid4 ,ref]5ce to ! valid moods ( ! second figure confirms ?is conclusion4 ,m ,g 7#c7 ,a ,all good citiz5s vote1 ,m ,s ,a ,all good citiz5s obey ! law1 ,s ,g ,a ,all :o obey ! law vote4 ,a ,! mood is ,a us$ 9 ! ?ird figure4 ,all ! propositions are ,a ,a's1 h5ce ! negative & p>ticul> rules are inapplicable4 8,a0 di/ributes its subject4 ,! middle t]m is di/ribut$ 9 bo? premises4 8,all :o obey ! law0 is di/ribut$ 9 ! conclusion b n 9 ! premise :]e x is us$4 ,!re=e ! argum5t is invalid4 ,a ,! fallacy be+ illicit m9or4 ,a is n f\nd 9 ! ?ird ,a figure's li/ ( valid moods4 ,m ,g 7#d7 ,a ,all good citiz5s vote1 ,s ,m ,e ,no crim9al is a good citiz51 ,s ,g ,e ,no crim9al votes4 ,a ,! mood ( ?is argum5t is ,e us$ 9 ! fir/ figure4 ,"o premise ,e negative2 conclusion negative2 no p>ticul>s4 8,a0 di/ributes ! subject only2 8,e0 bo? subject & pr$icate4 ,! middle t]m1 8good citiz5s10 is di/ribut$ 9 bo? premises4 ,! major t]m1 8votes10 is di/ribut$ 9 ! conclusion b n 9 ! premise :]e x is us$4 ,a ,! argum5t is invalid1 ! fallacy be+ illicit major4 ,e is n ,e f\nd 9 ! fir/ figure's li/ ( valid moods4 ,g ,m 7#e7 ,a ,all true tea*]s are sympa!tic1 ,s ,m ,a ,all lov]s ( *ildr5 are sympa!tic1 ,s ,g ,a ,all lov]s ( *ildr5 are true tea*]s4 ,a ,! mood ( ?is argum5t is ,a us$ 9 ! second figure4 ,!re are ,a no negatives & no p>ticul>s4 8,a0 di/ributes its subject only4 ,! middle t]m1 8sympa!tic10 is di/ribut$ 9 nei!r premise1 h5ce ! argum5t is invalid4 ,fallacy ( undi/ribut$ middle4 ,ref]r+ ,a to ! li/ ( valid moods1 we d n f9d ,a 9 ! second figure4 ,a ,m ,g 7#f7 ,a ,all ?\ghtful m5 are humane1 ,s ,m ,a ,all good citiz5s are ?\ghtful m51 ,s ,g ,i ,"s good citiz5s are humane4 ,a ,! mood is ,a 9 ! fir/ figure4 ,no negatives2 no p>ticul>s4 8,a0 ,i di/ributes its subject only2 8,i0 di/ributes nei!r t]m4 ,middle t]m1 di/ribut$ 9 ! major premise2 no t]m di/ribut$ 9 ! conclusion4 ,! argum5t is1 !re=e1 valid4 ,! conclusion is weak5$ z x ,a c\ld j z well be an ,a4 ,! mood ,a 9 ! fir/ figure is valid1 ,i b ( little value because ( ! weak5$ conclusion4 #d4 ,,illu/rative ,,ex]cise ,,9 ,,te/+ ,,complet$ ,,argum5ts1 ,,"o ,,or ,,bo? ,,premises ,,be+ ,,illogical4 ,argum5ts conta9+ exclusive propositions4 7#a7 ,only fir/ class pass5g]s may ride 9 ! p>lor c>1 ,all ^! are fir/ class pass5g]s1 ,!y may ride 9 ! p>lor c>4 ,propositions introduc$ by su* words z only1 none b1 alone & _! equival5ts are exclusive propositions4 ,s9ce ^! di/ribute _! pr$icates1 b d n di/ribute _! subjects1 ! mo/ conv5i5t way ( deal+ ) !m is to int]*ange subject & pr$icate & !n reg>d !m z 8,a0 propositions4 ,z ! fir/ proposition ( ! argum5t is an exclusive1 we mu/ deal ) x accord+ly4 ,int]*ang+ subject & pr$icate & introduc+ x ) all places ! argum5t 9 ?is =m3 ,g ,m ,a 7,all7 ,! p>lor c> is res]v$ = fir/ class pass5g]s1 ,s ,m ,a ,all ^! are fir/ class pass5g]s1 ,s ,g ,a ,all ^! may ride 9 ! p>lor c>4 ,a ,! mood ( ?is argum5t is ,a 9 ! second figure4 ,no negatives2 ,a no p>ticul>s4 8,a0 di/ributes its subject only2 ! middle t]m is ?us undi/ribut$4 ,! argum5t is invalid1 ! fallacy be+ t ( undi/ribut$ middle4 7#b7 8,no "o b a ?ief w\ld take ^! books )\t ask+ = !m1 & x has be5 prov$ t y took ! books2 t is ! reason ,i h call$ y a ?ief40 ,x is cle> t 8no "o b0 is equival5t to 8only40 ,?us ! fir/ proposition ( ! argum5t is an exclusive1 & may be made logical by int]*ang+ subject & pr$icate & call+ x an 8,a40 ,z a result ( ?is ! argum5t takes ! foll[+ =m3 ,m ,g ,a 7,all7 ,^! books 7 tak5 by a ?ief1 ,s ,m ,a ,y took ^! books1 ,s ,g ,a ,y are a ?ief4 ,we h n[ _h suffici5t exp]i5ce to recognize ! validity ( mood ,,aaa 9 ! fir/ figure4 7#c7 8,none b ! brave des]ve ! fair1 ,& y are n fair40 ,mak+ ! exclusive logical & complet+ gives3 ,m ,g ,a 7,all7 ,! fair des]ve ! brave1 ,s ,m ,e ,y are n fair1 ,s ,g ,e ,y d n des]ve ! brave4 ,a ,! mood ( ?is argum5t is ,e us$ 9 ! fir/ figure4 ,!re ,e is a negative premise1 also a negative conclusion2 no p>ticul>s4 ,! middle t]m is di/ribut$ twice4 ,! major t]m 8brave0 is di/ribut$ 9 ! conclusion b n 9 ! major premise2 h5ce ! argum5t is invalid1 ! fallacy be+ illicit major4 ,,note4,!re may be "s d\bt 9 ! /ud5t's m9d z to ! proposition 8,none b ! brave des]ve ! fair10 really mean+ 8,all ! fair des]ve ! brave40 ,?is d\bt may be bett] satisfi$ by treat+ ! exclusive 9 ! second way z indicat$ on page #acg1 to wit3 ,negate ! subject ( ! exclusive1 !n give x ! =m ( ! regul> 8,e40 ,?is results 9 8,no n-brave p]sons des]ve ! fair10 :i*1 aft] fir/ conv]t+ & !n obv]t+ becomes1 8,all ! fair des]ve ! brave40 ,argum5ts ,conta9+ ,individual ,propositions4 7#d7 8,george ,wa%+ton nev] told a lie1 b y1 :5 tempt$1 yield$ ) no qualms ( consci5ce40 ,complet+1 & arrang+ logically gives3 ,e ,george ,wa%+ton nev] told a lie1 ,a ,y did tell a lie1 ,e ,y 79 ?is respect7 are n l ,george ,wa%+ton4 ,treat$ prop]ly ?is argum5t proves to be valid2 ! /ud5t1 h[ev]1 is apt to deal ) su* 9 ?is wise3 ,o ,george ,wa%+ton nev] told a lie1 ,i ,y did tell a lie1 ,o ,y 79 ?is respect7 are n l ,george ,wa%+ton4 ,:5 plac$ 9 ?is mood ! argum5t is invalid2 s9ce ! major t]m1 :i* is di/ribut$ 9 ! conclusion1 is n di/ribut$ 9 ! premise :]e x occurs 7illicit major74 ,x is ! t5d5cy on ! "p ( /ud5ts to classify z p>ticul>1 a proposition :i* has z its subject a s+ul> t]m4 ,su* propositions we h le>n$ to call individual4 ,! cause ( ?is t5d5cy is easily expla9$3 ,consid] ! propositions1 7#a7 8,?is man is mortal02 7#b7 8,"s m5 are mortal02 7#c7 8,all m5 are mortal40 ,9 ! fir/ in/ance 8mortal0 ref]s to ! subject 8man0 :i* is n>r[] 9 significance ?an 8"s m50 to :i* 8mortal0 ( ! second proposition ref]s4 ,9 consequ5ce1 x is v natural to inf] t if1 8,"s m5 are mortal10 is p>ticul>1 !n1 8,?is man is mortal10 is likewise p>ticul>4 ,! error spr+s f a wrong conception ( p>ticul> z us$ 9 logic2 ! cont5t ( ! t]m has little to d ) ext5sion1 b is *iefly conc]n$ ) indef9it5ess4 ,a p>ticul> proposition is "o 9 :i* ! pr$icate ref]s to only a "p ( an indef9ite subject4 ,if ! subject is ref]r$ to z a :ole1 & ?is :ole is m or less def9ite1 !n ! proposition is univ]sal4 ,s9ce 8mortal0 ref]s to ! :ole ( ! def9ite t]m 8?is man10 z positively z x ref]s to ! :ole ( 8all m510 !re is z mu* ju/ification 9 call+ ! fir/ proposition univ]sal z !re is 9 call+ ! ?ird univ]sal4 ,x may be rememb]$1 !n1 t logicians class z univ]sal all individual propositions4 ,argum5ts ,conta9+ ,p>titive ,propositions4 7#e7 ,all t glitt]s is n gold1 ,t9sel glitt]s1 ,t9sel is n gold4 ,! quantity sign 8all0 :5 us$ ) 8n0 is ambigu\s2 x may mean 8no0 or 8"s-n40 ,! only way to det]m9e :i* mean+ is int5d$ is to try bo? ^! quantity signs1 select+ ! "o :i* seems to fit be/ ! au?or's mean+4 ,:5 8all-n0 means 8"s-n0 ! proposition :i* x introduces is call$ a p>titive proposition2 s9ce su* always sugge/s a complem5t>y proposition4 7,see page #acc47 ,= example1 8,"s glitt]+ ?+s are n gold10 sugge/s its complem5t1 8,"s glitt]+ ?+s are gold40 ,9 te/+ ! =ego+ argum5t x is cle> t 8,all t glitt]s is n gold0 does n mean 8,no glitt]+ ?+ is gold10 s mu* z x implies 8,"s glitt]+ ?+s are n gold40 ,?us ! argum5t takes ?is =m3 ,m ,g ,o ,"s glitt]+ ?+s are n gold1 ,s ,m ,a ,t9sel glitt]s1 ,s ,g ,e ,t9sel is n gold4 ,o ,! mood is ,a 9 ! fir/ figure4 ,!re is "o negative premise ,e 7,o71 & ! conclusion is negative4 ,!re is "o p>ticul> premise 7,o71 b ! conclusion is n p>ticul>4 ,?is makes ! argum5t invalid accord+ to rule #h2 viz43 8,a p>ticul> premise necessitates a p>ticul> conclusion40 ,c>ry+ ! te/ /ill fur!r x w be se5 t !re is likewise ! fallacy ( undi/ribut$ middle4 ,o!r argum5ts :]e "o ( ! premises is p>titive4 8,all s*ol>s are n wise &1 !re=e1 ,ari/otle 0 n wise40 8,all democrats are n free-trad]s1 b mo/ ( ! m5 ( ?is p>ticul> club are democrats1 & h5ce !y are ( a diff]5t fai? 7n free-trad]s740 8,all ! memb]s ( ! club are n good play]s1 & ,james belongs to ! club40 8,all educat$ m5 d n write good ,engli%2 !re=e1 y ought n to express surprise :5 in=m$ t ,x1 ?\gh an educat$ man1 uses poor ,engli%40 ,! major premise 9 ea* ( ! =ego+ is p>titive 9 nature & %\ld be *ang$ to ! foll[+ =m be=e ! argum5t is te/$2 tak+ ^! 9 ord] we h3 8,"s s*ol>s are n wise02 8,"s democrats are n free-trad]s02 8,"s ( ! memb]s ( ! club are n good play]s02 8,"s educat$ m5 d n write good ,engli%40 ,let u te/ ! validity ( ! la/ "o3 7#f7 ,o ,"s educat$ m5 d n write good ,engli%1 ------------------------------------ ,a ,x is an educat$ man1 -- ,e ,x does n write good ,engli% 7uses poor ,engli%74 -- ------------------------------------ ,l ! fir/ "o ( ! li/1 ?is is invalid inasmu* z a p>ticul> premise %\ld yield a p>ticul> conclusion1 n "o :i* is univ]sal4 ,! argum5t also conta9s ! fallacy ( undi/ribut$ middle4 ,argum5ts ,conta9+ ,inv]t$ ,propositions4 7#g7 8,bless$ are ! m]ciful3 = !y %all obta9 m]cy40 ,! fir/ proposition1 be+ poetical 9 con/ruction1 is typical ( ! inv]t$ =m4 ,^! are usually made logical by simple conv]sion4 ,s9ce premises usually foll[ 8=10 or equival5t ^w-signs1 x is easy to see t 8= !y %all obta9 m]cy0 is "o ( ! premises2 :ile ! o!r1 ! broad] ( ! two1 is und]/ood4 ,arrang$ logically ! argum5t assumes ?is =m3 ,m ,g ,a ,^? :o obta9 m]cy are bless$1 ------------------------ ,s ,m ,a ,! m]ciful %all obta9 m]cy1 ---------------- ,s ,g ,a ,! m]ciful are bless$4 ---------------- ,a ,"h we h ! mood ,a 9 ! fir/ figure1 :i* we "k to be ,a valid4 ,o!r argum5ts :]e "o ( ! propositions is inv]t$4 8,bless$ are ! pure 9 he>t3 = !y %all see ,god40 8,to ?9e own self be true1 & x mu/ foll[1 z ! night ! day1 ?\ can/ n !n be false to any man40 8,a k+ ?\ art &1 !re=e1 ?y comm&s %all be1 yea1 mu/ be obey$40 ,tak+ ! inv]t$ propositions 9 ord] & mak+ ea* logical1 ! foll[+ is ! result3 8,! pure 9 he>t are bless$02 8,y be true to y\rself1 &444402 8,y are a k+1 !re=e44440 #e4 ,,argum5ts ,,:i* ,,are ,,incomplete ,,& ,,m ,,or ,,less ,,irregul>4 7#a7 8,he mu/ be a /> play]2 = he play$ fullback on ! team :i* won ! *ampion%ip40 7#b7 8,! man is n to be tru/$2 because he s]v$ a t]m ( #ij days 9 jail40 7#c7 8,only mat]ial bodies gravitate1 & e!r does n gravitate40 7#d7 8,if only fools despise k1 ?is man _c be a fool40 7#e7 8,a *>itable man has no m]it 9 reliev+ di/ress2 because he m]ely does :at is pleas+ to himself40 7#f7 8,x is evid5t t all :o get ju/ice buy x2 s9ce only ! ri* get x40 ,! above argum5ts ?r[n into logical =m & validity or invalidity /at$3 7,! /ud5t %\ld te/ ^! 9 detail47 ,m 7#a7 ,a ,all belong+ to ! team :i* won ! *ampion%ip 7 ,g /> play]s1 ,s ,m ,a ,he play$ ) ! team :i* won ! *ampion%ip1 ,s ,g ,a ,he is a /> play]4 ,valid 9 =m4 ,m ,g 7#b7 ,e ,"o :o s]ves a t]m ( #ij days 9 jail is n to be tru/$1 ,s ,m ,a ,?is man s]v$ a t]m ( #ij days 9 jail1 ,s ,g ,e ,?is man is n to be tru/$4 ,valid 9 =m4 ,m ,g 7#c7 ,a ,all gravitat+ bodies are mat]ial1 ,s ,m ,e ,e!r does n gravitate1 ,s ,g ,e ,e!r is n mat]ial4 ,illicit major4 ,m ,g 7#d7 ,a ,all :o despise k are fools1 ,s ,m ,e ,?is man does n despise k1 ,s ,g ,e ,?is man is n a fool4 ,illicit major4 ,m 7#e7 ,e ,no "o :o m]ely does :at is pleas+ to himself has ,g m]it 9 reliev+ di/ress1 ,s ,m ,a ,a *>itable man m]ely does :at is pleas+ to himself1 ,s ,g ,e ,no *>itable man has m]it 9 reliev+ di/ress4 ,valid 9 =m4 ,m ,g 7#f7 ,a ,all ! ri* buy ju/ice1 ,s ,m ,a ,all :o get ju/ice are ri*1 ,s ,g ,a ,all :o get ju/ice buy x4 ,valid 9 =m4 ,9 supply+ suppress$ premises ! critic is duty b\nd to give ! au?or ! b5efit ( ! d\bt1 if by s do+ no pr9ciple 9 logic is violat$ & ! proposition con=ms to good ,engli% & good s5se4 ,(t5 x is n easy to p]ceive 9 ! abbreviat$ argum5t ! mean+ int5d$2 9 su* in/ances all legitimate ef=t %\ld be direct$ to mak+ ! argum5t valid4 ,to illu/rate3 ,9 supply+ ! major premise ( argum5t 8#f0 x w\ld be easy to make x1 8,all ju/ice is b\ght by ! ri*02 9 consequ5ce ! critic c\ld pron\nce ! argum5t invalid z ! middle t]m w\ld be undi/ribut$4 ,be=e ass]t+ t an argum5t is fallaci\s because x has f\r t]ms r ?an ?ree1 ! /ud5t mu/ make sure t !re are no synonyms or equival5ts us$4 ,9 argum5t 8#d10 = in/ance1 !re are app>5tly ! f\r t]ms3 7#a7 8fooli%10 7#b7 8despise k10 7#c7 8man10 7#d7 8fool02 b to reg>d 8fooli%0 & 8fool0 z synonyms does n seem l undue lib]ty4 ,! foll[+ argum5ts fur!r illu/rate ?is ne$ ( recogniz+ synonyms3 8,human be+s are acc\ntable = _! conduct2 brutes1 n be+ human1 are !re=e free f responsibility40 7,n acc\ntable = _! conduct47 8,n all educat$ m5 spell correctly2 because "o (t5 f9ds mi/akes 9 ! writ+s ( college graduates40 7,educat$ m547 8,mod]n education is n popul> 9 ?is /ate2 = x increases ! tax rate1 & ! popul>ity ( ev]y?+1 :i* t\*es ! pocket ( ^! frugal ,yankees1 7increases ! tax rate7 is v %ort liv$40 7,n popul>47 ,9 common p>lance ! use ( synonyms is s preval5t t ready ability to sub/itute equival5ts 9 ^w1 phrase1 & clause =m is ne$$ by him :o w\ld be skillful 9 te/+ all k9ds ( argum5ts4 ,x has already become app>5t to ! /ud5t t ! numb] ( ! n\n or ! t5se ( ! v]b is ( small logical consequ5ce4 ,a v l>ge proportion ( ! =mal fallacies 9 argum5tation conc]n ! rules ( di/ribution :i* are summ>iz$ 9 ! dictum 8,:at may be said ( ! :ole may be said ( "p ( t :ole40 #f4 ,,common ,,mi/akes ,,( ,,/ud5ts ,,9 ,,te/+ ,,argum5ts4 ,! mo/ common mi/akes made by ! /ud5t :5 te/+ argum5ts are z foll[s3 7#a7 ,us+ ! exclusive z an 8,a0 )\t int]*ang+ subject & pr$icate2 e4 g41 int]pret+ ! proposition1 8,only high s*ool graduates may ent] ! tra9+ s*ool10 z mean+ 8,all high s*ool graduates may ent] ! tra9+ s*ool40 7#b7 ,call+ individual propositions p>ticul>2 e4 g41 int]pret+ 8,socrates is mortal0 z an 8,i0 r ?an an 8,a40 7#c7 ,signify+ t p>titive propositions are 8,a's0 r ?an 8,o's02 e4 g41 8,all t glitt]s is n gold0 int]pret$ z mean+ t 8,all glitt]+ ?+s are gold10 r ?an 8,"s glitt]+ ?+s are n gold40 7,a74 7#d7 ,conclud+ t a fallacy ( f\r t]ms has be5 committ$ :5 two t]ms are synonom\s4 7#e7 ,fail+ to int]*ange ! subject & pr$icate ( inv]t$ propositions4 #g4 ,,outl9e4 ,,categorical ,,argum5ts ,,te/$ ,,accord+ ,,to ,,=m4 7#a7 ,argum5ts ( =m & matt]4 7#b7 ,ord] ( proc$ure 9 ! =mal te/+ ( argum5ts4 ,! outl9e4 ,det]m9+ premises & conclusion4 ,complet+ abbreviat$ argum5ts4 7#c7 ,illu/rative ex]cises 9 te/+ argum5ts :i* are complete & ^: premises are logical4 7#d7 ,illu/rative ex]cises 9 te/+ complet$ argum5ts1 "o or bo? ( ^: premises are illogical4 ,exclusive premises1 individual premises1 p>titive premises1 inv]t$ premises4 7#e7 ,incomplete & irregul> argum5ts4 7#f7 ,common mi/akes ( ! /ud5t4 #h4 ,,summ>y4 7#a7 ,9 det]m9+ _! validity1 argum5ts mu/ be te/$ f ! two viewpo9ts ( =m & matt]4 7#b7 ,9 te/+ categorical argum5ts x is q necess>y to be def9ite1 to give reasons1 & to give ! au?or ! b5efit ( ! d\bt4 ,) ?is 9 view ! att5d+ outl9e is sugge/ive3 #a4 ,arrange logically & complete4 #b4 ,det]m9e ! figure & mood4 #c4 ,apply rules = negatives & p>ticul>s4 #d4 ,indicate di/ribution4 #e4 ,apply rules = di/ribution4 #f4 ,"n fallacies1 if any1 giv+ reasons4 ,! logical arrangem5t ( syllogi/ic argum5ts is #a4 ,major premise4 #b4 ,m9or premise4 #c4 ,conclusion4 ,any proposition 9 a syllogism :i* answ]s ! "q 8,:y80 is a premise1 :]eas ! conclusion foll[s 8!re=e01 or its equival5t ei!r writt5 or und]/ood4 ,if a conclusion is to be suppli$1 unite ! two t]ms :i* are us$ b once 9 ! premises1 us+ ! 8m9or premise t]m0 z ! subject4 ,if a premise is to be suppli$1 unite ! middle t]m ) ! 8m9or0 to =m ! m9or premise & ) ! 8major0 to =m ! major premise4 7#c7 ,argum5ts :i* are regul>1 complete1 & logically arrang$1 may be te/$ by symboliz+ ! mood & figure1 und]scor+ ! di/ribut$ t]ms1 & !n apply+ ! g5]al rules ( ! syllogism4 7#d7 ,argum5ts ) illogical premises may n be te/$ ) impunity till ! faulty premises are made logical4 ,! exclusive1 an illogical proposition introduc$ by only1 alone1 none b1 & ! l1 may be made logical by int]*ang+ subject & pr$icate & call+ ! proposition an ,a4 ,! individual proposition is "o ) a s+ul> subject4 ,9 te/+1 individual propositions are class$ z univ]sal4 ,propositions introduc$ by 8all-n0 are usually giv5 ! significance ( 8"s-n04 ,^! are call$ p>titive propositions1 :i* 9 ! te/+1 %\ld be d5om9at$ 8,o's04 ,inv]t$ propositions :5 subject$ to ! te/ = validity mu/ be conv]t$ simply & !n classifi$4 7,usually z ,a's47 7#e7 ,9 supply+ propositions :i* are tak5 = grant$1 ! aim %\ld be to make ! argum5t valid1 provid$ ?is c be done )\t violat+ ! rules ( logic1 ,engli%1 & common s5se4 ,ability to sub/itute equival5t words1 phrases1 or clauses is dem&$ ( ! /ud5t ( logic1 inasmu* z su* sub/itution is frequ5tly ne$$ 9 ! te/+ ( argum5ts4 ,numb] & t5se h little significance 9 deal+ ) argum5ts4 7#f7 ,! common mi/akes ( /ud5ts made 9 te/+ argum5ts conc]n exclusive1 p>titive & inv]t$ propositions1 & an inability to recognize expressions equival5t 9 mean+4 #i4 ,,review ,,que/ions4 7#a7 ,"n & expla9 ! two /&po9ts f :i* all argum5ts mu/ be view$4 7#b7 ,give an outl9e ( proc$ure :i* may be s]viceable 9 ! te/+ ( categorical argum5ts4 7#c7 ,give illu/rations %[+ t ! logical ord] ( categorical argum5ts is n ! usual mode ( proc$ure 9 common p>lance4 7#d7 ,(f] sugge/ions :i* may aid 9 designat+ a premise2 a conclusion4 7#e7 ,h[ w\ld y proce$ 9 =m+ any "o ( ! ?ree propositions ( a syllogism :5 ! o!r two are giv58 7#f7 ,designate ! premises & ! conclusion 9 ! foll[+1 supply+ any proposition :i* may be omitt$1 also arrange logically & te/ ! validity4 7#a7 8,! p ( ?is c\ntry are suff]+ f an ov]dose ( prosp]ity2 consequ5tly a p]iod ( h>d times w be a valuable lesson40 7,! conclusion %\ld be reca/ s z to read1 8,a p]iod ( h>d times w cure ! p ( ?is c\ntry40 ,! m9or premise is1 8,^? :o suff] f an ov]dose ( prosp]ity may be cur$ by a p]iod ( h>d times407 7#b7 8,i am a tea*]2 y are n :at ,i am2 h5ce y are n a tea*]40 7#c7 8,to kill a man is murd]1 !re=e w> is murd]40 7#d7 8,y h n adopt$ ! be/ policy s9ce hone/y has always be5 & w always be ! be/ policy40 7#e7 8,s9ce ! road is crim9ally mismanag$1 :y %\ld n ! au?orities be indict$ z crim9als80 7#f7 8,e>ly to b$ & e>ly to rise makes a man heal?y1 weal?y & wise4 ,i am none ( ^!2 h5ce my sleep+ h\rs h be5 wrong40 7#g7 ,illu/rate a weak5$ conclusion4 7#h7 ,expla9 ! exclusive proposition & indicate h[ ! logician %\ld treat x4 7#i7 ,arrange logically & te/ ! foll[+3 7#a7 ,only weak m5 become intemp]ate1 & ,edg> ,all5 ,poe 0 surely intemp]ate4 7#b7 ,no admittance except on bus9ess2 h5ce y _c be admitt$4 7#c7 ,virtu\s acts are praisewor?y1 & indiscrim9ate giv+ is n a virtu\s act4 7#aj7 ,expla9 :y individual propositions are class$ z univ]sal4 7#aa7 ,write an argum5t ^: major premise is a p>titive proposition2 arrange logically & te/ validity4 7#ab7 ,arrange & te/ ?is argum5t3 8,bless$ are ! poor 9 _s3 = !irs is ! k+dom ( heav540 7#ac7 ,complete1 arrange & te/4 7#a7 8,! object ( w> is to settle disputes2 h5ce soldi]s are ! be/ peacemak]s40 7#b7 8,! v>i\s species ( brutes be+ creat$ to prey ^u "o ano!r proves t man is int5d$ to prey ^u !m40 7#c7 8,! end ( ev]y?+ is its p]fection2 dea? be+ ! end ( life is its p]fection40 7#d7 8,all ! trees ( ! y>d make a ?ick %ade & ?is is "o ( !m40 7#e7 8,m9ds ( mod]ate calib] ord9>ily condemn ev]y?+ :i* is beyond _! range1 & 8 is su* a m9d40 7#f7 8,! be/ ( all m$ic9es are fre% air & sleep1 & y are sorely 9 ne$ ( bo?40 7#g7 8,e h5 comes f an egg2 e egg comes f a h52 !re=e e egg comes f an egg40 7#h7 8,he _c h be5 !reo!rwise ,i %\ld h se5 him40 7#ad7 8,x is fair to give ! au?or ! b5efit ( ! d\bt :5 we set ourselves up z c5sors wor?y ( ! "n40 ,expla9 ?is4 7#ae7 ,illu/rate by cit+ argum5ts ! ne$ ( detect+ t]ms :i* are equival5ts 9 signification4 7#af7 ,h[ does ! logician look ^u numb] & t5se z treat$ 9 gramm>8 7#ag7 ,illu/rate & te/ an argum5t 9 :i* "o ( ! premises is elliptical4 7#ah7 ,summ>ize ! mo/ common mi/akes made by /ud5ts 9 ! te/+ ( categorical argum5ts2 illu/rate ^! mi/akes & !n write 9 logical =m4 #aj4 ,,que/ions ,,= ,,orig9al ,,?\ght ,,& ,,inve/igation4 7#a7 ,give illu/rations ( argum5ts :i* are valid 9 =m b invalid 9 mean+4 ,expla94 7#b7 ,may an argum5t be valid 9 mean+ b invalid 9 =m8 ,exemplify4 7#c7 ,put a simple problem 9 ari?metic 9 syllogi/ic =m & %[ t ! m9or premise naturally comes fir/4 7#d7 ,9 ! practice ( law is !re any cu/om analog\s to giv+ ! au?or ! b5efit ( ! d\bt 9 logical argum5tation8 7#e7 ,te/ 9 detail ! foll[+ argum5ts3 7#a7 8,all wise presid5ts /rive to give he$ to ! dem&s ( ! p1 b ?is presid5t has n done s40 7#b7 8,! exi/5ce ( ,god is n univ]sally believ$1 h5ce x _c be true40 7#c7 8,! in/itution has prosp]$ "u ! pres5t rgime !re=e :y *ange x80 7#d7 8,! man is guilty because sev5 out ( ! n9e witnesses s te/ifi$40 7#e7 8,i "k ?ree m5 :o cle>$ n less ?an t5 ?\s& doll>s 9 ?is bus9ess2 & :y _c ,i d z mu*80 7#f7 8,only memb]s may vote &1 s9ce y are n a memb]1 y w n be all[$ to vote40 ,*ange ! exclusive 9 ?is argum5t 9 ! two ways sugge/$ 9 ,*apt] #h1 page #abf4 ,te/ ! argum5t 9 bo? cases4 7#g7 ,%[ by illu/ration t ! quantity sign 8all0 :5 us$ ) 8n0 may 9 "s cases mean 8no0 & 9 o!rs 8"s-n04 7#h7 ,make two selections f "s poet ( au?ority repres5t+ argum5ts ) an inv]t$ premise4 7#i7 ,select f news pap]s ?ree argum5ts :i* seem to illu/rate ! fallacy ( f\r t]ms b :i* 9 reality d n4 ,expla94 7#aj7 ,:]e9 c\ld ! elliptical proposition lead to error8 7#aa7 ,put ! foll[+ 9 syllogi/ic =m & te/3 7#a7 8,t p]sons may reason )\t language is prov5 by ! circum/ances t infants reason & yet h no language40 7#b7 8,! scriptures _c come f ,god because !y conta9 "s ?+s :i* _c be compreh5d$ by man40 7#c7 8,:5 ,columbus 0 sail+ ! ocean 9 se>* ( a new _w1 he fell 9 ) a flock ( l& birds & conclud$ t he c\ld n be f> f l&40 7#d7 8,bol+broke 9 argu+ aga9/ ! tru? ( ! ,*ri/ian religion %[s t ! ,*ri/ian religion has br$ cont5tions40 8,burke answ]$ him by %[+ t civil gov]nm5t _h br$ cont5tions40 ,,*apt] #ae4 ,,hypo!tical ,,argum5ts1 ,,& ,,disjunctive ,,argum5ts ,,includ+ ,,! ,,dilemma4 #a4 ,,?ree ,,k9ds ,,( ,,argum5ts4 ,! proposition1 con/itut+ ! basic unit ( ! argum5t1 w\ld ( necessity be indicative ( ! nature ( said argum5t2 !re=e ! ?ree g5]al k9ds ( propositions1 categorical1 hypo!tical & disjunctive1 sugge/ ! ?ree k9ds ( argum5ts :i* are 9 turn categorical1 hypo!tical & disjunctive4 ,categorical argum5ts are ^? 9 :i* all ( ! propositions are categorical4 ,s9ce ?is k9d has be5 treat$1 x rema9s = u to consid] ! o!r two4 #b4 ,,hypo!tical ,,argum5ts4 ,we h obs]v$ t a hypo!tical proposition is "o 9 :i* ! ass]tion dep5ds on a condition2 = example1 9 ! proposition1 8,if x is pleasant1 ,i w call on y to-morr[10 ! call+ dep5ds on ! /ate ( ! wea!r4 8,i w call on y to-morr[10 is ! ass]tion :i* is limit$ by ! condition1 8,if ! wea!r is pleasant40 ,def9ition3 ,! hypo!tical argum5t or syllogism is "o 9 :i* ! major premise is hypo!tical & ! m9or premise categorical4 ,,illu/ration3 ,if ! p are "r m ?an half ( ! "t1 ! _w w progress2 ,& ! p are "r m ?an half ( ! "t1 ,h5ce ! _w w progress4 ,9 contradi/9ction to disjunctives1 hypo!tical propositions & hypo!tical syllogisms are frequ5tly ref]r$ to z 8conjunctive40 #c4 ,,! ,,antec$5t ,,& ,,consequ5t4 ,facility 9 detect+ ! antec$5t & consequ5t ( hypo!ticals is requir$ 9 ord] to deal intellig5tly ) ! argum5t4 ,! hypo!tical proposition has be5 def9$ z "o 9 :i* ! ass]tion is limit$ by a condition4 ,! consequ5t is ! ass]tion & usually foll[s 7?\gh n always7 ! antec$5t :i* is ! limit+ condition4 ,fir/ ! antec$5t & !n ! consequ5t is ! logical ord] z ! d]ivative mean+ ( ! words antec$5t & consequ5t w\ld indicate4 ,! antec$5t is introduc$ by su* words z 8if10 8?\gh10 8unless10 8suppose10 8grant$ t10 8:510 etc4 ,,illu/rations3 ,antec$5t4 ,consequ5t4 #a4 ,if y /udy1 y w pass4 #b4 ,if x ra9s1 x is cl\dy4 #c4 ,if two is add$ to ?ree1 ! result is five4 #d4 ,if y are temp]ate1 y w live to a ripe old age4 ,consequ5t4 ,antec$5t4 #e4 ,i w g1 unless y wire me to ! contr>y4 #f4 ,i w pay y1 :5 y pres5t y\r bill4 #g4 ,i %all make ! trip 9 grant$ t ,i h no accid5ts4 t5 h\rs1 #h4 ,my ov]coat w\ld n h if ! door _h be5 lock$4 be5 /ol51 #d4 ,,two ,,k9ds ,,( ,,hypo!tical ,,argum5ts4 ,! two k9ds ( hypo!tical syllogisms are ! con/ructive & de/ructive4 ,a con/ructive hypo!tical syllogism is "o 9 :i* ! m9or premise affirms ! antec$5t4 ,a de/ructive hypo!tical syllogism is "o 9 :i* ! m9or premise d5ies ! consequ5t4 ,! con/ructive hypo!tical is sometimes ref]r$ to z ! 8modus pon5s02 :]eas ! de/ructive hypo!tical is call$ ! 8modus toll5s40 ,,illu/rations3 ,con/ructive ,hypo!tical ,syllogisms4 ,symbols4 ,words4 ,if ,a is ,b1 ,c is ,d ,if y are dilig5t1 y w succe$2 ,a is ,b ,& y are dilig5t1 ,c is ,d ,!re=e y w succe$4 ,de/ructive ,hypo!tical ,syllogisms4 ,if ,a is ,b1 ,c is ,d ,if y _h be5 dilig5t1 y w\ld h succe$$2 ,c is n ,d ,b y did n succe$1 ,a is n ,b ,!re=e y 7 n dilig5t4 #e4 ,,! ,,rule ,,& ,,two ,,fallacies ,,( ,,! ,,hypo!tical ,,argum5t4 ,f a giv5 hypo!tical proposition x is possible to con/ruct f\r diff]5t hypo!tical syllogisms1 z ! att5d+ illu/rations make evid5t3 ,consid] ! hypo!tical proposition 8,if x has ra9$1 ! gr\nd is damp40 7#a7 ,m9or premise affirms antec$5t4 ,if x has ra9$1 ! gr\nd is damp2 ,x has ra9$1 ,!re=e ! gr\nd is damp4 7#b7 ,m9or premise d5ies antec$5t4 ,if x has ra9$1 ! gr\nd is damp2 ,x has n ra9$1 ,!re=e ! gr\nd is n damp4 7#c7 ,m9or premise affirms consequ5t4 ,if x has ra9$1 ! gr\nd is damp2 ,! gr\nd is damp1 ,!re=e x has ra9$4 7#d7 ,m9or premise d5ies ! consequ5t4 ,if x has ra9$1 ! gr\nd is damp2 ,! gr\nd is n damp1 ,!re=e x has n ra9$4 ,)\t any k ( ! rules ( ! hypo!tical syllogism let u /rive to det]m9e h[ _m ( ! =ego+ are valid4 ,relative to ! fir/1 x w\ld be impossible = any ra9 to fall )\t mak+ ! gr\nd some:at damp2 a few drops w\ld be suffici5t4 ,9 %ort1 if ! antec$5t happ5s1 ! consequ5t mu/ foll[4 ,x seems1 !re=e1 t ! fir/ argum5t is valid4 ,consid]+ ! second3 ra9 is n ! only cause = ! dampness ( ! gr\nd1 z x might result f ! fall+ ( dew1 or f a d5se fog2 no ra9 does n necess>ily mean no dampness4 ,x is cle> t if ! antec$5t does n happ51 ! consequ5t may or may n foll[4 ,?us x appe>s t ! second argum5t is invalid4 ,att5tion to ! ?ird makes evid5t a condition simil> to ! second3 ! gr\nd may be made damp by ag5cies o!r ?an ra91 su* z fog & dew4 ,?us ! ?ird argum5t is likewise invalid4 ,b 9 ! f\r? argum5t x is obvi\s t if ! gr\nd is n damp1 !n !re c\ld h be5 nei!r ra91 nor fog1 nor dew4 ,no dampness %uts out all ( ! conditions1 includ+ ! ra94 ,!re=e ! f\r? argum5t is valid4 ,?is inve/igation sugge/s a rule = hypo!tical argum5ts4 ,s9ce only ! fir/ & f\r? argum5ts are valid1 ?is is ! rule :i* mu/ obta93 ,! m9or premise %\ld ei!r affirm ! antec$5t or d5y ! consequ5t4 ,any violation ( ?is rule w\ld result 9 ! fallacies ( d5y+ ! antec$5t or affirm+ ! consequ5t4 ,!re is "o exception to ?is rule :i* mu/ n be ov]look$2 viz43 ,if ! antec$5t & consequ5t ( ! hypo!tical proposition are co-ext5sive !n bo? may be ei!r affirm$ or d5i$4 ,,illu/rations3 7#a7 ,if ! rectangle is equilat]al1 !n x is a squ>e2 ,! rectangle is equilat]al1 ,x is a squ>e4 7#b7 ,if ! rectangle is equilat]al1 !n x is a squ>e2 ,! rectangle is n equilat]al1 ,! rectangle is n a squ>e4 7#c7 ,if ! rectangle is equilat]al1 !n x is a squ>e2 ,x is a squ>e1 ,! rectangle is equilat]al4 7#d7 ,if ! rectangle is equilat]al1 !n x is a squ>e2 ,x is n a squ>e1 ,! rectangle is n equilat]al4 #f4 ,,hypo!tical ,,argum5ts ,,r$uc$ ,,to ,,! ,,categorical ,,=m4 ,! hypo!tical syllogism s closely resembles ! categorical t x may be *ang$ to x by a slight alt]ation 9 ! word+4 ,aft] te/+ ! hypo!tical by its own rule1 x may be exp$i5t to r$uce ! argum5t to ! categorical =m1 & subject x to a second te/ 9 :i* ! categorical rules are appli$4 ,?is r$uction usually necessitates two /eps2 fir/1 *ange ! propositions :i* repres5t ! antec$5t & consequ5t to a subject t]m & a pr$icate t]m respectively & !n unite !m to =m ! major premise2 second1 supply a new m9or t]m1 if necess>y4 ,illu/rations ( ,r$uction2 & ,comp>ison ( ,hypo!tical & ,categorical ,fallacies3 ,hypo!tical ,=m3 7#a7 ,if x has ra9$1 ! gr\nd is damp2 ,x has ra9$1 ,! gr\nd is damp4 ,categorical ,=m3 ,m ,g ,a ,! fall+ ra9 makes ! gr\nd damp1 ,s ,m ,a ,9 ?is case ra9 has fall51 ,s ,g ,a ,9 ?is case ! gr\nd is damp gr\nd4 ,x is se5 t ! argum5t 9 ! hypo!tical =m is valid z ! m9or premise affirms ! antec$5t4 ,r$uc+ to ! categorical gives ,a to ! argum5t ! mode ,a 9 ! fir/ figure :i* we "k to be ,a valid4 ,hypo!tical3 7#b7 ,if "o 7 wise1 he w\ld /udy2 ,b y w n /udy1 ,y are n wise4 ,categorical3 ,g ,m ,a ,a wise p]son w\ld /udy1 ,s ,m ,e ,y w n /udy1 ,s ,g ,e ,y are n wise4 ,9 ! hypo!tical =m ! argum5t is valid s9ce ! m9or premise ,a d5ies ! consequ5t4 ,r$uc+ to ! categorical gives mood ,e 9 ,e ! second figure4 ,?is is valid4 ,hypo!tical3 7#c7 ,if ! w9d bl[s f ! s\?1 x w ra92 ,b ! w9d is n bl[+ f ! s\?1 ,h5ce x is n go+ to ra94 ,categorical3 ,m ,g ,a ,s\? w9d br+s ra91 ,s ,m ,e ,?is w9d is n a s\? w9d1 ,s ,g ,e ,?is w9d w n br+ ra94 ,hypo!tically consid]$1 ! m9or premise d5ies ! antec$5t & consequ5tly ! argum5t is invalid4 ,r$uc+ to ! categorical =m1 x is f\nd t ! major t]m is di/ribut$ 9 ! conclusion1 b is n di/ribut$ 9 ! major premise2 h5ce ! fallacy ( illicit major is committ$4 ,hypo!tical3 7#d7 ,if a man is j1 he w obey ! gold5 rule2 ,?is judge has obey$ ! gold5 rule1 ,h5ce he is j4 ,categorical3 ,g ,m ,a ,a j man w obey ! gold5 rule1 ,s ,m ,a ,?is judge has obey$ ! gold5 rule1 ,s ,g ,a ,?is judge is a j man4 ,hypo!tically consid]$1 ! m9or premise affirms ! consequ5t & ?us ! argum5t is fallaci\s2 :5 *ang$ to ! categorical we f9d ! fallacy ( undi/ribut$ middle4 ,if o!r examples 7 tak51 x c\ld be prov$ t ! hypo!tical fallacy ( d5y+ ! antec$5t is usually equival5t to ! categorical fallacy ( illicit major2 :]eas ! hypo!tical fallacy ( affirm+ ! consequ5t am\nts to undi/ribut$ middle4 ,9 r$uc+ "s hypo!ticals x is necess>y to make use ( su* expressions z1 8! case (0 or 8! circum/ances t40 ,! att5d+ argum5t w illu/rate ?is3 ,if ,jeff]son 0 "r1 man 0 creat$ free & equal2 7b7 ,man 0 n creat$ free & equal1 ,jeff]son 0 n "r4 ,r$uc$ to ! categorical3 ,g ,! case ( ,jeff]son be+ "r is ! case ( man be+ creat$ ,m free & equal2 ,s ,m ,man 0 n creat$ free & equal1 ,s ,g ,jeff]son 7?is man7 0 n "r4 ,! argum5t is valid 9 bo? cases4 #g4 ,,illu/rative ,,ex]cise ,,te/+ ,,hypo!tical ,,argum5ts ,,( ,,all ,,k9ds4 ,! foll[+ brief outl9e may be foll[$ 9 te/+ hypo!tical argum5ts3 #a4 ,arrange logically4 #b4 ,det]m9e antec$5t & consequ5t4 #c4 ,apply ! hypo!tical rule2 "n fallacies giv+ reasons4 #d4 ,r$uce to categorical =m4 #e4 ,apply ! categorical rules1 giv+ fallacies ) reasons4 7#a7 ,if a man is prop]ly educat$1 he w n despise manual labor2 !re=e ,i conclude t y h n be5 prop]ly educat$1 s9ce y dislike to "w ) y\r h&s4 ,arrang$ logically & antec$5t & consequ5t indicat$3 ,if a man is prop]ly educat$ 7antec$5t71 he w n despise manual labor 7consequ5t72 ,y despise manual labor 7dislike to "w ) y\r h&s71 ,y h n be5 prop]ly educat$4 ,! m9or premise d5ies ! consequ5t1 h5ce ! argum5t is valid accord+ to ! rule1 8,! m9or premise mu/ affirm ! antec$5t or d5y ! consequ5t40 ,! /ud5t %\ld note t ! consequ5t is negative & !re=e its d5ial mu/ be an affirmative proposition4 ,r$uc$ to ! categorical3 ,g ,m ,e ,a prop]ly educat$ man w n despise manual labor2 ,s ,m ,a ,y despise manual labor1 ,s ,g ,e ,y h n be5 prop]ly educat$4 ,reg>d$ categorically ?is is valid4 ,:y8 7#b7 8,if "o believes 9 ! t5ets ( ! democratic p>ty1 !n he %\ld vote = its c&idates2 & s9ce ,a does believe 9 !m ,i h ask$ him to vote = me40 ,arrang$1 & antec$5t & consequ5t indicat$4 ,if "o believes 9 ! t5ets ( ! democratic p>ty 7antec$5t71 !n he %\ld vote = its c&idates 7consequ5t72 ,& ,a does believe 9 ^! t5ets1 ,he %\ld vote = its c&idates 7,i h ask$ him to vote = me74 ,! m9or premise affirms ! antec$5t & ?us ! argum5t is valid accord+ to rule4 ,r$uc$ to ! categorical3 ,m ,a ,"o :o believes 9 ! t5ets ( ! democratic p>ty %\ld ,g vote = its c&idates1 ,s ,m ,a ,a believes 9 ^! t5ets1 ,s ,g ,a ,a %\ld vote = its c&idates4 ,a ,r$uc$ to ! categorical gives mood ,a 9 ! fir/ figure & ?is ,a we "k to be valid4 7#c7 8,if ! wea!r _h n be5 pleasant1 ,i c\ld n h come2 b z ! wea!r is pleasant1 "h ,i am40 ,arrang$ & antec$5t & consequ5t indicat$3 ,if ! wea!r _h n be5 pleasant 7antec$5t71 ,i c\ld n h come 7consequ5t72 ,! wea!r is pleasant1 ,i h come 7"h ,i am74 ,! m9or premise d5ies ! antec$5t & consequ5tly ! argum5t is invalid accord+ to ! rule4 7,an affirmative m9or premise d5ies a negative antec$5t47 ,r$uc$ to ! categorical3 ,e ,unpleasant wea!r w\ld n p]mit me to come1 ,e ,?is wea!r is n unpleasant1 ,a ,?is wea!r enabl$ me to come4 ,fallacy ( two negative premises4 7#d7 8,if "o pays 8 debts1 he w n be #8black-li/$'2 b s9ce y are #8black-li/$1' ,i conclude t y h n paid y\r debts40 ,arrang$ logically & antec$5t & consequ5t indicat$3 ,if "o pays 8 debts 7antec$5t71 he w n be 8black-li/$0 7consequ5t72 ,y are 8black-li/$10 ,y h n paid y\r debts4 ,! m9or premise d5ies ! consequ5t h5ce ! argum5t is valid4 ,r$uc$ to categorical =m3 ,g ,m ,e ,no "o :o pays 8 debts is black li/$1 ,s ,m ,a ,y are black li/$1 ,s ,g ,e ,y h n paid y\r debts4 ,e ,! mood ,a 9 ! second figure is valid4 ,e 7#e7 8,m5 w\ld d "r = ! sake ( !mselves1 if !y appreciat$ ! law ( retribution2 b !y nev] ?9k ( t40 ,arrang$1 complet$1 & te/$3 ,if !y appreciat$ ! law ( retribution 7antec$5t71 m5 w\ld d "r = ! sake ( !mselves 7consequ5t72 ,b !y d n appreciate ! law ( retribution 7nev] ?9k ( t71 ,h5ce !y d n d "r = ! sake ( !mselves4 ,fallacy ( d5y+ ! antec$5t4 ,r$uc$ to ! categorical3 ,m ,a ,! case ( m5 appreciat+ ! law ( retribution1 is ! case ,g ( m5 do+ "r = ! sake ( !mselves2 ,s ,m ,e ,b m5 d n appreciate ! law ( retribution1 ,s ,g ,e ,m5 d n d "r = ! sake ( !mselves4 ,fallacy ( illicit major4 7#f7 8,if an animal is a v]tebrate1 !n x mu/ h a backbone2 b ! books say t ?is animal is n a v]tebrate1 h5ce x _c h a backbone40 ,s9ce ! m9or premise d5ies ! antec$5t x w\ld appe> t ! argum5t is invalid2 yet common k & common s5se dictate t ! conclusion is true4 ,surely no inv]tebrate c h a backbone4 ,z a matt] ( fact ! antec$5t & consequ5t are co-ext5sive & !re=e ! hypo!tical rule is n applicable4 ,r$uc$ to ! categorical3 ,m ,g ,a ,v]tebrates mu/ h a backbone 7,co-ext5sive71 ,s ,m ,e ,?is animal is n a v]tebrate1 ,e ,?is animal _c h a backbone4 ,z co-ext5sive ,a's di/ribute _! pr$icates ! possibility ( !re be+ a fallacy ( illicit major is =e/all$4 ,categorically consid]$ ! argum5t is likewise valid4 #h4 ,,disjunctive ,,argum5ts4 ,x has be5 obs]v$ t a disjunctive proposition is "o :i* expresses an alt]native4 ,a disjunctive syllogism is "o 9 :i* ! major premise is a disjunctive proposition4 ,,illu/ration3 ,! boy is ei!r hone/ or di%one/1 ,he is hone/1 ,he is n di%one/4 #i4 ,,! ,,two ,,k9ds ,,( ,,disjunctive ,,argum5ts4 ,! two =ms ( disjunctive argum5ts are ! "o :i* by affirm+ d5ies & ! "o :i* by d5y+ affirms4 ,! =m] is kn[n by ! ,lat9 words 8modus pon5do toll5s02 :ile ! latt] is t]m$ ! 8modus toll5do pon5s40 ,,illu/rations3 7#a7 ,by affirm+ d5ies4 ,! def5dant is ei!r guilty or innoc5t1 ,he is guilty1 ,he is n innoc5t4 or ,! def5dant is ei!r guilty or innoc5t1 ,he is innoc5t1 ,he is n guilty4 7#b7 ,by d5y+ affirms4 ,! def5dant is ei!r guilty or innoc5t1 ,he is n guilty1 ,he is innoc5t4 or ,! def5dant is ei!r guilty or innoc5t1 ,he is n innoc5t1 ,he is guilty4 #aj4 ,,! ,,fir/ ,,rule ,,( ,,disjunctive ,,argum5ts4 ,x may be said t disjunctive argum5ts dep5d on two rules4 ,?is is ! fir/3 ,! major premise mu/ ass]t a logical disjunction4 ,a logical disjunction involves two requisites2 fir/1 ! alt]natives mu/ be mutually exclusive2 second1 ! enum]ation mu/ be complete4 ,illu/rations ( illogical major premise4 ,t]ms n mutually exclusive3 ,?is boy is ei!r inatt5tive or indol5t1 ,he is n inatt5tive1 ,he is indol5t4 ,x is obvi\s t ! boy might be bo? inatt5tive & indol5t4 ,exp]i5ce tea*es t ! qualities are usually concurr5t1 & to assume t ! boy mu/ be ei!r "o or ! o!r is a cle> case ( 8begg+ ! "q40 ,"s logicians ma9ta9 t 8ei!ror0 signify t bo? alt]natives _c be false1 b t bo? may be true4 ,if ?is viewpo9t 7 adopt$1 ! major premise ( ! illu/ration w\ld n be a case ( begg+ ! "q4 ,x is unnecess>y to argue ! po9t1 if x is made p]fectly cle> :i* view is to obta9 9 ?is discussion4 ,briefly /at$ ! two po9ts are ^!4 ,fir/ op9ion3 8,ei!ror0 :5 us$ logically1 mean t if ! fir/ alt]native is false ! second mu/ be true1 or if ! fir/ alt]native is true ! second mu/ be false4 ,second op9ion3 8,ei!ror0 :5 us$ logically mean t if ! fir/ alt]native is false1 ! second mu/ be true2 b if ! fir/ alt]native is true1 ! o!r may or may n be true4 ,?is treatise adopts ! fir/ op9ion4 ,) u all alt]native argum5ts to be logical mu/ be mutually contradictory2 i4 e41 :5 "o is false1 ! o!r mu/ be true & :5 "o is true ! o!r mu/ be false2 bo? _c be false1 nei!r c bo? be true4 ,:5 x is int5d$ t ?is implication %\ld n obta91 !n ! express$ alt]native w take ?is =m1 8,! boy is ei!r inatt5tive or indol5t or bo?40 ,o!r examples :]e ! t]ms ( ! disjunctive may n be mutually exclusive3 7#a7 8,"l ,bacon 0 ei!r exce$+ly /udi\s or ph5om5ally bright40 7,und\bt$ly he 0 bo?47 7#b7 8,?is tea*] is a graduate ei!r ( ,h>v>d or ( ,yale40 7,p]haps bo?47 7#c7 8,! def5dant is ei!r a li> or a ?ief40 7,! "o (t5 leads to ! o!r47 7#d7 8,to succe$ "o mu/ ei!r seize ! opportunity z x passes or make 8 own40 7,! be/ success results f do+ bo?47 ,incomplete enum]ation3 ,! cause ( ! disease 0 ei!r ! wat] or ! milk1 ,x 0 n ! milk1 ,x 0 ! wat]4 ,:5 su* an argum5t z ?is is advanc$1 x mu/ be ) ! k t e o!r alt]native has receiv$ satisfactory inve/igation4 ,)\t ?is assurance "o c\ld ju/ly claim t ! disease might h be5 caus$ by ! meat or fi% supply4 ,complete enum]ation means t ! inve/igation has n>r[$ ! facts to ! b\nd>y ( ! field cov]$ by ! alt]natives4 ,! fallacy ( incomplete enum]ation is also "o ( 8begg+ ! "q40 ,o!r examples ( a possible incomplete enum]ation3 7#a7 8,jones lives ei!r 9 ,bo/on or ,new ,york40 7#b7 8,m>y is /udy+ ei!r algebra or geometry40 7#c7 8,he ei!r committ$ suicide or 0 lyn*$40 7#d7 8,ei!r ! ,giants or ! ,bo/on ,am]icans w w9 ! p5nant40 #aa4 ,,second ,,rule ,,( ,,disjunctive ,,argum5ts4 ,! second rule is made s self evid5t by ! fir/ t !re is little ne$ ( a detail$ discussion conc]n+ x4 ,! rule is ?is3 ,:5 ! m9or premise affirms or d5ies "o ( ! alt]natives ( a logical disjunction1 ! conclusion mu/1 9 ord]1 d5y or affirm all ( ! o!rs4 ,to put x diff]5tly3 ,:5 ! 8m9or0 affirms1 ! conclusion mu/ d5y e o!r alt]native1 & vice v]sa4 ,:5 !re are b two alt]natives ref]5ce to any ( ! =ego+ disjunctive argum5ts w make ! rule cle>4 ,!re may be1 h[ev]1 m ?an two alt]natives4 ,9 su* a case1 if ! fir/ rule is obs]v$ !n ! second becomes applicable4 ,,illu/rations3 7#a7 ,john ,doe lives ei!r 9 ,bo/on1 ,albany1 or ,new ,york2 ,he lives 9 ,new ,york1 ,he does n live 9 ei!r ,bo/on or ,albany4 or ,he does n live 9 ,new ,york1 ,he lives 9 ei!r ,bo/on or ,albany4 7#b7 ,! season mu/ h be5 ei!r summ]1 or autumn1 or w9t]1 or spr+2 ,x 0 nei!r autumn1 nor w9t]1 nor spr+1 ,x mu/ h be5 summ]4 or ,x 0 ei!r autumn1 or w9t]1 or spr+1 ,x c\ld n h be5 summ]4 #ab4 ,,r$uction ,,( ,,! ,,disjunctive ,,argum5t ,,to ,,! ,,hypo!tical ,,& ,,!n ,,to ,,! ,,categorical4 ,x w\ld seem t ! laws ( ! disjunctive contradict ^? ( ! categorical syllogism2 = we app>5tly d]ive f two affirmatives a negative conclusion1 & we also d]ive an affirmative conclusion :5 "o premise is negative4 ,?is objection is se5 to be nugatory :5 ! disjunctive is r$uc$ to ! categorical =m4 ,! r$uction involves ! two /eps ( fir/ *ang+ ! disjunctive to ! hypo!tical =m & !n to ! categorical =m4 ,! foll[+ illu/rations w suffice to make ! matt] cle>3 7#a7 ,disjunctive4 ,a is ei!r ,b or ,c ,a is ,b ,a is n ,c ,hypo!tical4 ,if ,a is ,b1 !n ,a is n ,c ,a is ,b ,a is n ,c ,categorical4 ,! case ( ,a be+ ,b is ! case ( ,a n be+ ,c ,9 ?is case ,a is ,b ,a is n ,c 7#b7 ,disjunctive4 ,! def5dant is ei!r guilty or innoc5t2 ,he is n innoc5t1 ,he is guilty4 ,hypo!tical4 ,if ! def5dant is guilty1 !n he is n innoc5t2 ,b he is guilty1 ,he is n innoc5t4 ,categorical4 ,! case ( ! def5dant be+ guilty is ! case ( ! def5dant n be+ innoc5t1 ,9 ?is case ! def5dant is guilty1 ,9 ?is case ! def5dant is n innoc5t4 #ac4 ,,! ,,dilemma4 ,! majority ( u are acqua9t$ ) ! dilemma z relat$ to ! activities ( life4 ,"o is 9 a dilemma :5 !re are two c\rses op5 to him b nei!r is p>ticul>ly entic+4 ,"o is plac$ 9 a dilemma :5 he is =c$ to *oose ! less] ( two evils4 ,= example1 "o may1 )\t ! prop] equipm5t1 be ov]tak5 by a heavy ra9 /orm2 he seeks ! %elt] ( a wayside %$2 ! ra9 cont9ues s t he is =c$ ei!r to miss 8 tra91 or to endure ! discom=t ( a dr5*+4 ,?us ! logical dilemma limits "o to a *oice betwe5 alt]natives1 ei!r "o ( :i* might well be avoid$4 ,def9ition4 ,! dilemma is a syllogism 9 :i* ! major premise consi/s ( two or m hypo!tical propositions1 :ile ! m9or premise is a disjunctive proposition4 ,x be+ a comb9ation ( hypo!tical & disjunctive propositions ! dilemma is sometimes appropriately ref]r$ to z ! 8hypo!tico-disjunctive0 argum5t4 ,! ord] ( ! premises is indiff]5t1 yet x seems to be m natural to use ! hypo!tical fir/2 ?us ! def9ition4 #ad4 ,,f\r ,,=ms4 ,! f\r =ms ( ! dilemma are ! simple con/ructive1 ! simple de/ructive1 ! complex con/ructive1 & ! complex de/ructive4 ,! foll[+ symbolizations illu/rate ^! f\r k9ds3 ,simple ,con/ructive ,dilemma4 ,if ,a is ,b1 ,w is ,x2 & if ,c is ,d1 ,w is ,x1 ,b ei!r ,a is ,b or ,c is ,d1 ,h5ce ,w is ,x4 ,?is is t]m$ a simple dilemma because !re is b "o consequ5t2 namely1 ,w is ,x4 ,! conclusion be+ affirmative makes x con/ructive4 ,simple ,de/ructive ,dilemma4 ,if ,a is ,b1 ,w is ,x2 & if ,a is ,b1 ,y is ,z1 ,b ei!r ,w is n ,x or ,y is n ,z1 ,h5ce ,a is n ,b4 ,?is is simple because !re is b "o antec$5t1 ,a is ,b1 & de/ructive because ! conclusion is negative4 ,complex ,con/ructive ,dilemma4 ,if ,a is ,b1 ,w is ,x2 & if ,c is ,d1 ,y is ,z1 ,b ei!r ,a is ,b or ,c is ,d1 ,h5ce ei!r ,w is ,x or ,y is ,z4 ,?is is complex because !re are two antec$5ts & two consequ5ts2 con/ructive1 inasmu* z ! conclusion is affirmative4 ,complex ,de/ructive ,dilemma4 ,if ,a is ,b1 ,w is ,x2 & if ,c is ,d1 ,y is ,z1 ,b ei!r ,w is n ,x or ,y is n ,z1 ,h5ce ei!r ,a is n ,b or ,c is n ,d4 ,?is is complex because !re are two antec$5ts z well z two consequ5ts1 & de/ructive because ! conclusion is negative4 ,briefly3 7#a7 ,a simple dilemma is "o :]e ei!r ! antec$5t or consequ5t is repeat$2 :]eas if nei!r is repeat$ ! dilemma is complex4 7#b7 ,a con/ructive dilemma conta9s an affirmative conclusion2 :ile a de/ructive dilemma uses a negative conclusion4 7#c7 ,a simple dilemma has z its conclusion a categorical proposition2 :]eas ! conclusion ( a complex dilemma is always disjunctive4 ,if ! numb] ( antec$5ts & consequ5ts be increas$1 a trilemma1 tetralemma1 etc41 may result4 ,,illu/ration,trilemma4 ,if ,a is ,b1 ,w is ,x2 & if ,c is ,d1 ,y is ,z2 & if ,e is ,f1 ,u is ,v1 ,b ei!r ,a is ,b1 or ,c is ,d1 or ,e is ,f1 ,h5ce ei!r ,w is ,x1 or ,y is ,z1 or ,u is ,v4 ,"s au?orities def9e a dilemma z a syllogism 9 :i* ! 8major-hypo!tical0 has m ?an "o antec$5t :ile ! 8m9or0 mu/ be disjunctive4 ,?is viewpo9t necess>ily excludes ! second =m or ! simple de/ructive dilemma4 ,! weight ( au?ority1 h[ev]1 appe>s to favor ! classification "h recomm5d$4 #ae4 ,,! ,,"o ,,rule ,,involv$ ,,9 ,,dilemmatic ,,argum5ts4 ,s9ce ! major premise ( ! dilemma is hypo!tical1 ! rule = te/+ su* w\ld ( necessity be ! hypo!tical rule2 namely1 8,! m9or premise mu/ ei!r affirm ! antec$5t or d5y ! consequ5t40 ,z ?is rule & ! fallacies incid5t to x h be5 treat$ 9 detail1 fur!r discussion is unnecess>y4 #af4 ,,illu/rative ,,ex]cise ,,te/+ ,,disjunctive ,,& ,,dilemmatic ,,argum5ts4 7#a7 ,if ! ari?metic conta9s useful facts1 x w help to good citiz5%ip2 & if x tra9s ! p[]s ( reason1 x w help to good citiz5%ip1 ,b ! ari?metic ei!r conta9s useful facts or tra9s ! p[]s ( reason1 ,h5ce x w help to good citiz5%ip4 ,?is is a simple con/ructive dilemma 9 :i* ! m9or premise affirms ! antec$5ts4 ,! argum5t is1 !re=e1 valid s9ce x con=ms to ! rules ( ! hypo!tical syllogism4 ,! fact t ! m9or premise may n be a p]fect disjunctive does n invalidate ! conclusion1 inasmu* z x is p]fectly obvi\s t if ! ari?metic fulfill$ bo? ! requirem5ts ( ! antec$5ts1 ! conclusion w\ld /ill obta94 ,x may1 !re=e1 be inf]r$ t if ! dilemma con=ms to ! rules ( ! hypo!tical argum5t1 x is valid1 ?\gh ! disjunctive proposition :i* x conta9s may n be /rictly logical4 7#b7 ,a man is ei!r temp]ate or intemp]ate2 &1 z ,i h se5 y drunk sev]al times1 ,i conclude t y are intemp]ate4 ,arrang$ logically4 ,a man is ei!r temp]ate or intemp]ate1 ,y are n temp]ate1 ,y are intemp]ate4 ,x w\ld seem t ! major premise is a logical disjunctive1 s9ce temp]ate & intemp]ate indicate t ! alt]natives are mutually exclusive & ! enum]ation complete4 ,& s9ce ! m9or premise d5ies "o alt]native :ile ! conclusion affirms ! o!r1 we may inf] t ! argum5t is valid4 7#c7 ,if a man is hone/1 he w ei!r pay 8 debts or expla92 b ?is fell[ paid no he$ to ! repeat$ notifications4 ,arrang$ logically4 ,if a man is hone/1 he w pay 8 debts2 & if he is hone/1 he w expla9 9 case he _c pay1 ,?is man nei!r paid 8 debt1 nor expla9$1 ,?is man is n hone/4 ,?is is a simple de/ructive dilemma1 & s9ce ! m9or premise d5ies ! consequ5ts x is valid4 7#d7 ,a vot] mu/ ei!r favor protection or free trade2 & s9ce y d n favor protection1 y mu/ be a free trad]4 ,! disjunctive is n logical z "o might believe 9 univ]sal reciprocity4 ,! argum5t is1 !re=e1 invalid4 ,:y8 7#e7 ,if a man 7 loyal1 he w\ld n be unduly critical2 & if he 7 wise1 he w\ld n be too loquaci\s2 b ,i f9d ?is cl]k has be5 bo? unduly critical & too loquaci\s2 h5ce ,i consid] t he has be5 n only unwise b /rik+ly disloyal4 ,?is complex dilemma is valid s9ce ! m9or premise d5ies ! two consequ5ts4 #ag4 ,,ord9>y ,,exp]i5ces ,,relat$ ,,to ,,! ,,disjunctive ,,proposition ,,& ,,hypo!tical ,,argum5t4 7#a7 ,"o desires to take a c]ta9 trip :i* involves v>i\s r\tes2 in=mation f "t tables reveals ! fact t !re are ?ree r\tes ,a1 ,b1 & ,c4 ,conc]n+ ! conditions ( ! j\rney ! mo/ important factor is ! matt] ( com=t4 ,fur!r inve/igation makes evid5t t r\te ,b w be ! mo/ com=table "o1 & consequ5tly is ! r\te select$4 ,putt+ ?is ord9>y exp]i5ce 9 argum5tative =m gives ! foll[+3 ,! r\te is to be ei!r ,a1 or ,b1 or ,c2 ,i w take r\te ,a2 if x is ! mo/ com=table2 7co-ext5sive7 ,a is n ! mo/ com=table r\te1 ,h5ce ,i w n take r\te ,a4 ,if ,b is ! mo/ com=table r\te1 ,i w take x2 ,b is ! mo/ com=table r\te1 ,h5ce ,i w take r\te ,b4 7#b7 ,! symptoms sugge/ ei!r mal>ial or typhoid fev]2 ! physician is undecid$ till a blood te/ makes evid5t t x is n typhoid4 ,consid]$ argum5tatively4 ,?is disease is ei!r mal>ial or typhoid fev]2 ,if x is typhoid1 ! blood w reveal c]ta9 evid5ces2 ,b ! blood does n reveal ^! evid5ces1 ,h5ce ! disease is n typhoid4 7#c7 ,! natural b5t ( ! y\? sugge/s ! pr(ession ( ei!r ! m9i/ry or tea*+4 ,he f9ally decides to foll[ ! "o 9 :i* he c be/ s]ve 8 fell[s4 ,?is1 aft] mature delib]ation1 appe>s to him to be ! "w ( ! tea*]4 ,?r[n into ! =m ( an argum5t ! foll[+ results3 ,i am be/ fitt$ = ei!r ! pulpit or ! s*oolroom2 ,if ! s*oolroom furni%es ! ri*e/ field = help+ my fell[s1 ,i w *oose t "w2 ,! s*oolroom does appe> to furni% su* a field1 ,h5ce ,i w *oose ! "w ( ! tea*]4 ,x w\ld appe> f ^! ord9>y exp]i5ces t frequ5tly we are br\ght face to face ) a *oice ( alt]natives :i* are n unattractive1 z 9 ! case ( ! dilemma4 ,moreov]1 "s condition sugge/s itself :i*1 if prov$ or disprov$1 w lead to a *oice ( "o ( ^! alt]natives4 ,su* circum/ances :5 ?r[n into ! =m ( an argum5t pres5t a disjunctive proposition foll[$ by a hypo!tical argum5t4 ,to put x diff]5tly3 ,(t5 9 our daily affairs a mo/ prom95t limit+ condition induces u to select "o out ( sev]al alt]natives4 ,^! alt]natives are n dilemmatic 9 nature4 #ah4 ,,outl9e4 ,,hypo!tical ,,argum5ts1 ,,& ,,disjunctive ,,argum5ts ,,includ+ ,,! ,,dilemma4 7#a7 ,?ree k9ds ( argum5ts ,categorical1 hypo!tical1 disjunctive4 7#b7 ,hypo!tical argum5ts ,def9$1 illu/rat$4 7#c7 ,antec$5t & consequ5t4 ,h[ det]m9$1 illu/rations4 7#d7 ,two k9ds ( hypo!tical argum5ts ,con/ructive1 de/ructive1 illu/rations4 7#e7 ,rule & two fallacies ( ! hypo!tical argum5t4 ,illu/rations & application ( rules4 ,fallacy ( d5y+ antec$5t4 ,fallacy ( affirm+ consequ5t4 ,co-ext5sive hypo!ticals4 7#f7 ,hypo!tical argum5ts r$uc$ to ! categorical =m4 ,rule1 illu/rations4 ,hypo!tical & categorical argum5ts comp>$4 7#g7 ,illu/rative ex]cises te/+ hypo!tical argum5ts ( all k9ds4 7#h7 ,disjunctive argum5ts4 ,def9$1 illu/rat$4 7#i7 ,two k9ds ( disjunctive argum5ts4 ,by 8affirm+ d5ies10 by 8d5y+ affirms40 ,illu/ration4 7#aj7 ,fir/ rule4 ,/at$1 illu/rat$4 7#aa7 ,second rule ,/at$1 illu/rat$4 7#ab7 ,r$uction ( disjunctive argum5t ,two /eps4 7#ac7 ,! dilemma ,def9ition4 7#ad7 ,f\r =ms ( dilemmatic argum5ts ,simple con/ructive1 simple de/ructive1 ,complex con/ructive1 complex de/ructive4 ,illu/rations4 7#ae7 ,! rule4 7#af7 ,illu/rative ex]cises te/+ disjunctive & dilemmatic argum5ts4 7#ag7 ,ord9>y exp]i5ces relat$ to ! disjunctive proposition & hypo!tical argum5t4 #ai4 ,,summ>y4 7#a7 ,j z !re are ?ree k9ds ( propositions s !re are ?ree k9ds ( argum5ts2 namely1 categorical1 hypo!tical1 disjunctive4 7#b7 ,categorical syllogi/ic argum5ts are ^? 9 :i* all ( ! propositions are categorical4 ,hypo!tical syllogi/ic argum5ts are ^? 9 :i* ! major premise is hypo!tical4 ,9 contradi/9ction to disjunctives1 hypo!tical argum5ts may be ref]r$ to z 8conjunctive04 7#c7 ,! hypo!tical proposition is compos$ ( antec$5t & consequ5t2 ! =m] be+ ! limit+ condition2 :ile ! latt] is ! direct ass]tion4 ,z ! words indicate ! antec$5t usually prec$es ! consequ5t4 ,! signs ( ! antec$5t are 8if10 8?\gh10 8unless10 8suppose10 8grant$ t10 8:510 etc4 7#d7 ,! two k9ds ( hypo!tical syllogisms are ! con/ructive & de/ructive2 ! =m] is involv$ :5 ! m9or premise affirms ! antec$5t2 ! latt] :5 ! m9or premise d5ies ! consequ5t4 ,^! two k9ds are sometimes ref]r$ to z 8modus pon5s0 & 8modus toll5s0 respectively4 7#e7 ,out ( ! f\r possible hypo!tical syllogisms only two are valid z inve/igation proves ?is rule3 ,! m9or premise mu/ affirm ! antec$5t or d5y ! consequ5t4 ,9 ! case ( ! hypo!tical proposition be+ co-ext5sive1 ! rule does n apply4 7#f7 ,hypo!tical argum5ts may be r$uc$ to ! categorical by contract+ ! antec$5t ( ! hypo!tical proposition to =m ! subject-t]m1 & by contract+ ! consequ5t ( ! hypo!tical proposition to =m ! pr$icate-t]m ( ! major premise ( ! categorical syllogism4 ,if x is necess>y1 supply a new m9or t]m4 ,d5y+ ! antec$5t is a matt] ( illicit major2 :]eas affirm+ ! consequ5t is equival5t to undi/ribut$ middle4 7#g7 ,hypo!tical argum5ts may be te/$ by foll[+ ?is outl9e3 7#a7 ,arrange logically4 7#b7 ,det]m9e antec$5t & consequ5t4 7#c7 ,apply hypo!tical rule4 7#d7 ,r$uce to categorical =m4 7#e7 ,apply categorical rules4 7#h7 ,a disjunctive syllogism is "o 9 :i* ! major premise is a disjunctive proposition4 7#i7 ,! two k9ds ( disjunctives are ^? :i* 8by affirm+ d5y0 & ^? :i* 8by d5y+ affirm40 7#aj7 ,9 te/+ disjunctive argum5ts !re are two rules involv$3 ,fir/1 8,! major premise mu/ ass]t a logical disjunction40 ,?is necessitates ! two requisites 8! alt]natives mu/ be mutually exclusive0 & ! 8enum]ation mu/ be complete40 ,! two op9ions relative to ! nature ( an alt]native ass]tion are1 fir/1 if "o is false1 ! o!r mu/ be true & vice v]sa2 & second1 if "o is false1 ! o!r mu/ be true1 b bo? may be true4 ,! fir/ is adopt$ 9 ?is discussion4 ,second4 ,! second rule involv$ is 8,:5 ! m9or premise affirms or d5ies "o ( ! alt]natives ( a logical disjunctive ! conclusion mu/ d5y or affirm all ( ! o!rs40 7#aa7 ,subject+ ! disjunctive argum5ts to ! categorical te/ gives evid5ce to ! close relation exi/+ betwe5 ! two =ms4 ,a logical disjunctive proves to be logical :5 r$uc$ to ! categorical4 ,! r$uction entails ! two /eps1 fir/1 r$uce to ! hypo!tical2 second1 r$uce to ! categorical4 7#ab7 ,! logical mean+ ( ! dilemma is sugge/$ by ! popul> conception4 ,"o is said to be 9 a dilemma :5 two c\rses are op5 to him1 nei!r ( :i* is specially attractive4 ,a logical dilemma pres5ts two alt]natives ei!r "o ( :i* might well be avoid$4 ,! major premise ( ! dilemma is hypo!tical2 :ile ! m9or is disjunctive4 7#ac7 ,! f\r =ms ( ! dilemma are ! simple con/ructive1 ! simple de/ructive1 ! complex con/ructive & ! complex de/ructive4 7#ad7 ,! dilemma is subject to ! hypo!tical rule :i* is1 8,! m9or premise mu/ ei!r affirm ! antec$5t or d5y ! consequ5t40 7#ae7 ,! m9or premise ne$ n be a logical disjunctive provid$ ! major con=ms to ! hypo!tical rule4 7#af7 ,frequ5tly :5 ord9>y exp]i5ces are r$uc$ to augm5tative =m !y pres5t a disjunctive proposition foll[$ by a hypo!tical argum5t4 #bj4 ,,review ,,que/ions4 7#a7 ,relate ! ?ree k9ds ( argum5ts to ! ?ree g5]al k9ds ( propositions4 7#b7 ,def9e & illu/rate ! hypo!tical argum5t4 7#c7 ,expla9 ! t]m conjunctive ) ref]5ce to hypo!tical argum5ts4 7#d7 ,expla9 & illu/rate antec$5t & consequ5t 9 hypo!tical argum5ts4 7#e7 ,select f ! foll[+ ! antec$5t & consequ5t3 7#a7 8,i usually succe$ :5 ,i try40 7#b7 8,i w n und]take x unless y gu>antee half ( ! sum ne$$40 7#c7 8,?\gh ,i speak ) ! tongues ( m5 & ( angels1 & h n *>ity1 ,i am become z s\nd+ brass or a t9kl+ cymbal40 7#f7 ,illu/rate ! two k9ds ( hypo!tical syllogisms :i* are valid4 7#g7 ,/ate & expla9 ! rule to :i* hypo!tical argum5ts mu/ con=m4 7#h7 ,/ate & exemplify ! "o exception to ! hypo!tical rule4 7#i7 ,expla9 h[ hypo!tical argum5ts may be r$uc$ to ! categorical =m4 ,illu/rate4 7#aj7 ,%[ by illu/ration t d5y+ ! antec$5t is equival5t to illicit major1 :ile affirm+ ! consequ5t is equival5t to undi/ribut$ middle4 7#aa7 ,r$uce to ! categorical =m & te/3 8,if ,napoleon _h possess$ m ( ! _s ( ,wa%+ton1 he w\ld h be5 less fam\s b a bett] man ?an he 02 b he did n possess ! _s ( ! #8,fa!r ( ,8 ,c\ntry4'0 7#ab7 ,te/ accord+ to outl9e ! foll[+ hypo!tical argum5ts3 7#a7 8,if x be a good ?+ to h fai?1 !n c]ta9ly he :o believes 9 ! bible ( a pagan has fai? & mu/ h a good ?+40 7#b7 8,if a #aj-;in* *>ge bur/ inside ( a tank1 !re w\ld be no?+ left ( ! tank4 ,x w\ld be bl[n into small pieces40 7#c7 8,if ! plate f\nd _h be5 orig9ally on ! outside ( ! %ip1 ,i %\ld h judg$ t !re mu/ be gre5 pa9t on x1 b ,i c\ld n f9d gre5 pa9t on t "p ( ! %ip40 7#d7 8,if ,i mi/ake n1 y are ! man :o did n pay me = t pair ( %oes4 ,i am sure t y are ! man z ,i nev] =get a face40 7#e7 8,if ! maxim #8,e>ly to b$ & e>ly to rise makes "o heal?y1 weal?y & wise' 7 true1 ,i w\ld h be5 a millionaire long ago40 7#ac7 ,def9e & illu/rate a disjunctive argum5t4 7#ad7 ,exemplify ! two k9ds ( disjunctive argum5ts4 7#ae7 ,:at is meant by a logical disjunction8 7#af7 8,! alt]natives mu/ be mutually exclusive40 ,expla9 ?is1 illu/rat+ fully4 7#ag7 ,cite cases :]e ! enum]ation is n complete4 7#ah7 ,/ate 9 complete =m bo? ( ! rules to :i* all disjunctive argum5ts mu/ con=m4 7#ai7 ,%[ by illu/ration h[ ! disjunctive syllogism may be r$uc$ to ! categorical4 7#bj7 ,def9e & illu/rate ! dilemma4 7#ba7 ,give examples1 us+ symbols1 ( ! f\r dilemmatic =ms4 ,expla9 :y ^! =ms are s nam$4 7#bb7 ,:y does ! hypo!tical rule apply to ! dilemmatic syllogism8 7#bc7 ,te/ ! validity ( ! foll[+3 ,give reasons4 7#a7 8,if a sub/ance is solid x possesses ela/icity & s also x does if x be a liquid or gase\s2 b all sub/ances are ei!r solid1 liquid or gase\s2 !re=e1 all sub/ances possess ela/icity40 7#b7 8,if m5 7 prud5t1 !y w\ld act morally = _! own good2 if b5evol5t1 = ! good ( o!rs4 ,b _m m5 w n act morally1 ei!r = _! own good or t ( o!rs2 su* m51 !re=e1 are n prud5t or b5evol5t40 7#c7 8,if ! majority ( ^? :o use public h\ses are prep>$ to close !m1 legislation is unnecess>y2 b if !y are n prep>$ = su* a measure1 !n to =ce x ^u !m by outside pressure is bo? dang]\s & unju/40 7#d7 8,! man is ei!r a li> or a fool & 9 ei!r case he is b5ea? my att5tion40 7#e7 8,ei!r he is s9c]e or else he is ! mo/ a/ute impo/or ! _w has ev] produc$2 = me ,i pref] to ?9k him s9c]e40 7#bd7 ,expla9 ! relation t _m exp]i5ces appe> to be> t[>d an argum5t introduc$ by a disjunctive proposition & foll[$ by a hypo!tical syllogism4 ,illu/rate4 #ba4 ,,que/ions ,,= ,,orig9al ,,?\ght ,,& ,,inve/igation4 7#a7 ,may bo? premises ( a hypo!tical argum5t be hypo!tical propositions8 ,expla94 ,see ,f[l] p4 #aae4 7#b7 ,:i* ( ! two is valid8 ,expla94 7#a7 ,if ,a is ,b1 ,c is ,d ,if ,a is ,b1 ,e is ,f ,if ,c is ,d1 ,e is ,f 7#b7 ,if ,a is ,b1 ,c is ,d ,if ,c is ,d1 ,e is ,f ,if ,a is ,b1 ,e is ,f 7#c7 ,%[ by circles t two ( ! possible f\r hypo!tical argum5ts are invalid4 7#d7 ,:at categorical rules does ! hypo!tical argum5t seem to violate8 ,expla94 7#e7 ,orig9ate a hypo!tical syllogism ^: antec$5t & consequ5t are bo? negative4 ,te/ its validity4 7#f7 ,orig9ate a co-ext5sive hypo!tical argum5t & %[ t f\r valid syllogisms may be d]iv$ f x4 7#g7 ,expla9 by ^w & illu/ration ! two mean+s :i* may be atta*$ to 8ei!r-or40 7#h7 ,if we accept$ ! op9ion t bo? alt]nates ( a disjunctive may be true1 :i* k9d ( disjunctive argum5t w\ld x invalidate8 7#i7 ,9 a logical disjunction :at law ( ?\ght is involv$8 ,expla94 7#aj7 ,:y d ! laws ( ! disjunctive seem to contradict ! categorical rules8 ,expla9 fully4 7#aa7 ,%[ by draw+ on common exp]i5ce t a logical dilemma is closely relat$ to ! popul> conception ( dilemma4 7#ab7 ,illu/rate by symbols & !n place 9 good ,engli% a p5talemma4 7#ac7 ,/ate a def9ition ( a dilemma :i* excludes ! simple de/ructive =m4 7#ad7 ,give a common exp]i5ce :i*1 :5 ?r[n into argum5tative =m1 results 9 a disjunctive proposition foll[$ by a hypo!tical syllogism4 ,co9 a "n = su* a comb9ation4 ,,*apt] #af4 ,,! ,,logical ,,fallacies ,,( ,,d$uctive ,,reason+4 #a4 ,a ,,negative ,,aspect4 ,x has be5 rem>k$ t 8,logic z a sci5ce makes kn[n ! laws & =ms ( ?\ght & z an art sugge/s conditions :i* mu/ be fulfill$ to ?9k rightly40 ,9 rec5t *apt]s we h discuss$ ! second aspect ( ! def9ition2 9 ^! we h attempt$ to answ] ! "q1 8,:at rules mu/ be foll[$ 9 ord] to reason correctly80 ,we are n[ ready to treat ! same aspect f a negative po9t ( view namely1 :at errors mu/ be avoid$ 9 ord] to reason correctly8 ,:at are ! fallacies :i* we mu/ /rive to avoid 9 our own ?9k+1 & attempt to correct 9 ! ?9k+ ( o!rs8 #b4 ,,p>alogism ,,& ,,sophism4 8,fallacy0 comes f ! ,lat9 fallacia1 mean+ deceptive or errone\s1 & !re=e a fallacy 9 logic is any error 9 reason+ :i* has an appe>ance ( correctness4 ,if ! writ] or speak] is himself deceiv$ by ! fallacy1 !n su* is call$ a ,p>alogism2 b if ! fallacy is committ$ by him = ! express$ purpose ( deceiv+ o!rs1 !n su* becomes a ,sophism4 ,dur+ ! "t ( ! ,s*oolm5 ! ,sophism 0 9 su* high repute t x requir$ ev5 a ,socrates to puncture ?is ignom9i\s bubble ( va9 trick]y4 ,9 fact1 ,socrates1 ! greate/ ( all pagan educators1 l$ ! crusade :i* has relegat$ to ! 8logical du/ b90 ! notion t skill 9 ! art ( fram+ sophisms is a s*ol>ly accompli%m5t4 ,_m believe mod]n sophi/ry to be ! *ief social & comm]cial evil ( ! day1 & to ,socrates mu/ be giv5 ! cr$it = tea*+ u to look ^u ^? :o w\ld practice sophism ) righte\s indignation & pron\nc$ disgu/4 ,h[ev]1 p>alogism & n sophism is ! m legitimate field = ! /ud5t ( logic2 8 problem be+1 8,:at are ! common errors :i* ,i1 z a writ] & speak]1 mu/ /rive to avoid80 #c4 ,a ,,division ,,( ,,! ,,d$uctive ,,fallacies4 ,! mi/akes ( induction w occupy our att5tion 9 a lat] *apt]4 ,we are n[ conc]n$ ) ! fallacies ( d$uction4 ,any classification or division ( ! d$uctive fallacies mu/ ( necessity be faulty4 ,ev5 ! labors ( ,ari/otle 9 ?is reg>d are n[ pron\nc$ crude & unsatisfactory4 ,?is is due to ! div]g5ce ( op9ion z to ! signification ( "s ( ! fallacies1 z well z to ! fact t no division is free f ! fault ( an ov]lapp+ ( ! species4 ,z a result ( ?is lack ( unanimity 9 def9ition & lack ( ability 9 mak+ ! species mutually exclusive1 any division ( ! d$uctive fallacies mu/ be m or less illogical4 ,ari/otle divides ! fallacies ( d$uction into two gr\ps3 7#a7 ,fallacies 9 dictione1 or =mal fallacies4 7#b7 ,fallacies extra dictionem1 or mat]ial fallacies4 ,?is division has receiv$ univ]sal approval & ?\gh _m di/9ctions made by him h be5 ab&on$1 yet mo/ logicians reta9 8 phraseology4 ,s9ce _m ( ! te*nical t]ms :i* ,ari/otle us$ h liv$ ?r\gh ! g5]ations "u ! conv5tional mean+ :i* he assign$ to !m1 x becomes less confus+ to adh]e z closely z possible to ^! t]ms4 ,!re=e1 9 ! att5d+ division only ^? *anges h be5 made :i* progress & exp]i5ce h =c$ ^u u4 ,:at rema9s ( ?is *apt] w be devot$ to expla9+ ^! fallacies z !y appe> 9 ?is division4 ,= ! sake ( cle>ness & def9it5ess x is /rongly recomm5d$ t ! /ud5t /udy ! outl9e ext5sively en\gh to be able to reproduce x4 ,fallacies4 ,=mal 7,9 dictione7 #a4 ,opposition #a4 ,imm$iate #b4 ,obv]sion inf]5ce #c4 ,conv]sion #d4 ,contrav]sion #e4 ,f\r t]ms #f4 ,undi/ribut$ middle #b4 ,categorical #g4 ,illicit major argum5ts #h4 ,illicit m9or #i4 ,negative premises #aj4 ,p>ticul> premises #c4 ,hypo!tical #aa4 ,d5y+ ! antec$5t argum5ts #ab4 ,affirm+ ! consequ5t #d4 ,disjunctive #ac4 ,illogical disjunction argum5ts ,mat]ial 7,9 dictionem7 #a4 ,ambigu\s middle #b4 ,amphibology #a4 ,9 ,language #c4 ,acc5t ,equivocation #d4 ,composition #e4 ,division #f4 ,figure ( spee* #a4 ,accid5t #b4 ,conv]se accid5t #b4 ,9 ,?\ght #c4 ,irrelevant conclusion ,assumption #d4 ,non sequitur #e4 ,false cause #f4 ,complex "q #g4 ,begg+ ! "q #d4 ,,g5]al ,,divisions ,,expla9$4 ,! =mal fallacies are ^? :i* conc]n ! =m ( ! argum5t r ?an ! mean+4 ,^! fallacies arise f an improp] use ( words z arbitr>y signs ( ?\ght1 n f any inconsi/5cy 9 ! ?\ght itself4 ,to commit a =mal fallacy we mu/ violate "o ( ! specific rules ( logic4 ,= ?is reason ! =mal fallacies are easi] ( compreh5sion4 ,moreov]1 because ( ?is def9it5ess logicians are bett] able to come to "s agreem5t z to _! cont5t & import4 ,class+ ! fallacies ( imm$iate inf]5ce z =mal is some:at ( an innovation2 b s9ce !y occur because ( ! break+ ( c]ta9 def9ite rules1 & s9ce imm$iate inf]5ce is a matt] ( *ang+ ! =m )\t alt]+ ! mean+1 we believe !re is "s ju/ification = ?is position4 ,"s w\ld class 8imm$iate inf]5ce0 fallacies ) ! mat]ial fallacies ( language4 ,! mat]ial fallacies are fallacies ( mean+ & n ( =m4 ,!y are ^? aris+ f inconsi/5cy 9 ?\ght1 & f imp]fect ways ( int]pret+ ?is ?\ght z x appe>s 9 language4 ,no v specific rules ( logic are violat$ by !m & = ?is reason !re are ^? :o w\ld entirely elim9ate ! mat]ial fallacies f ! field ( logic4 ,b s9ce ?\ght is ev5 m subtle ?an =m 9 its deceitful ma*9ations1 we believe t ! mat]ial fallacy calls = special att5tion on ! "p ( ! logician4 ,mat]ial fallacies are divid$ into two k9ds4 ,fir/1 ^? :i* h ref]5ce to wrong ?9k+1 or fallacies 9 ?\ght2 &1 second1 ^? :i* are due ma9ly to an incorrect int]pretation ( words1 or fallacies 9 language4 ,! =m] result f inconsi/5cy & unreasonabl5ess 9 ?\ght1 :]eas ! latt] come f lack ( precision 9 expression4 #e4 ,,fallacies ,,( ,,imm$iate ,,inf]5ce4 ,fallacies ( imm$iate inf]5ce arise f "s violation ( ! rules :i* ?is topic enunciates4 7#a7 ,opposition4 ,among o!r /atem5ts opposition posits ^! two3 7#a7 ,:5 ! p>ticul> is true its oppos+ univ]sal is indet]m9ate2 7#b7 ,a univ]sal negative does n necess>ily contradict a univ]sal affirmative4 ,^! signify t nei!r an ,a nor an ,e mu/ be assum$ to be true :5 ! correspond+ ,i or ,o is true1 & t ,e may n always contradict ,a1 nor ,o contradict ,i4 ,,illu/rations ,,( ,,fallacies ,,( ,,opposition4 7#a7 ,s9ce "s m5 are wise1 !n ,i may conclude t all m5 are wise4 7#b7 ,i h contradict$ 8 /atem5t 8all m5 are hone/0 by prov+ t no m5 are hone/4 ,!re is little diff]5ce betwe5 fallacies l 7#a7 & fallacies ( conv]se accid5t4 ,conc]n+ illu/ration 7#b71 bo? /atem5ts are false2 b to contradict we "k t if "o is false1 ! o!r mu/ be true4 7#b7 ,obv]sion4 8,two negatives are equival5t to "o affirmative10 is ! pr9ciple und]ly+ obv]sion4 ,! mo/ common fallacy 9 obv]sion spr+s f us+ "o negative in/ead ( two4 ,,illu/rations ,,( ,,fallaci\s ,,obv]sion4 7a7 ,orig9al3 ,"s m5 are n wise4 ,obv]se3 7incorrect7 ,"s m5 are wise4 7b7 ,orig9al3 ,all true tea*]s are j4 ,obv]se3 7incorrect7 ,all true tea*]s are n j4 7#c7 ,conv]sion4 ,conv]sion involves ! int]*ang+ ( ! subject & pr$icate ( a proposition )\t affect+ ! di/ribution2 9 consequ5ce ! usual fallacy incid5t to ?is int]*ange is di/ribut+ an undi/ribut$ t]m4 ,,illu/rations ,,( ,,fallacy ,,( ,,conv]sion4 7a7 ,orig9al3 ,all fix$ />s are heav5ly bodies4 ,conv]t$3 7incorrectly7 ,all heav5ly bodies are fix$ />s4 7b7 ,orig9al3 ,"s m5 are n wise4 ,conv]t$3 7incorrectly7 ,"s wise be+s are n m54 7#d7 ,contrav]sion4 ,z ?is process involves ! two /eps ( obv]sion & conv]sion1 fallacies app]ta9+ to contrav]sion w\ld relate to ^! two /eps4 ,,illu/rations ,,( ,,fallacies ,,( ,,contrav]sion4 7a7 ,orig9al3 ,no hone/ man fails to pay 8 debts4 ,contrav]t$3 7incorrectly7 ,"s :o d n pay _! debts are hone/ m54 7b7 ,orig9al3 ,"s animals are quadrup$s4 ,contrav]t$3 7incorrectly7 ,"s n-quadrup$s are n animals4 ,! =mal fallacies ( categorical1 hypo!tical1 & disjunctive argum5ts h receiv$ detail$ treatm5t 9 *apt]s #aa1 #ad & #ae2 we may1 !re=e1 devote our att5tion to ! mat]ial fallacies )\t fur!r delay4 #f4 ,,fallacies ,,( ,,language4 7,equivocation47 ,^! are ! fallacies ( d\ble mean+4 ,x is kn[n t an equivocal t]m is "o :i* p]mits two or m int]pretations2 simil>ly a proposition :i* admits ( two or m int]pretations may be d5om9at$ equivocal4 ,?us ! t]m equivocation has come to /& = all errors 9 language result+ f a possibility ( m ?an "o int]pretation4 ,?is ju/ifies ! position ( ref]r+ to all ( ! six fallacies 9 language z fallacies also ( equivocation4 7#a7 ,ambigu\s middle4 ,ambigu\s middle expla9s itself4 ,x is ! fallacy ( giv+ to ! middle t]m a d\ble mean+4 ,9 =m ! argum5t may conta9 b ?ree t]ms1 yet 9 mean+ !re are 9 reality f\r t]ms4 ,= ?is reason ambigu\s middle & ! fallacy ( f\r t]ms appe> to be ab\t "o & ! same ?+2 b 9 ?is treatm5t we %all reg>d !m z mutually exclusive1 & ?is is ! di/9ction3 ,invalid argum5ts ( 8ambigu\s middle0 h only ?ree t]ms 9 =m b f\r t]ms 9 mean+4 ,?is signifies t ! middle t]m ?\gh id5tical 9 =m is giv5 a d\ble mean+4 ,invalid argum5ts ( 8f\r t]ms0 always h f\r t]ms 9 bo? =m & mean+2 !y are 8logical quadrup$s0 9 e s5se ( ! ^w4 ,,illu/rations4 ,ambigu\s middle4 7a7 8,necessity is ! "m ( inv5tion10 ,bread is a necessity1 ,bread is ! "m ( inv5tion4 7b7 8,no?+ is bett] ?an wisdom10 ,dry bread is bett] ?an no?+1 ,dry bread is bett] ?an wisdom4 7c7 ,a *ur* is a =ce = good 9 any community1 ,a slate ro( is good = a *ur*1 ,a slate ro( is a =ce = good 9 any community4 ,fallacies ( f\r t]ms4 7a7 ,all true tea*]s are j1 ,john ,doe is an educator1 ,john ,doe is j4 7b7 ,milk is n\ri%+1 ,?is sub/ance is a :ite fluid1 ,?is sub/ance is n\ri%+4 7c7 ,?ieves %\ld be imprison$1 ,?is man has tak5 :at does n belong to him1 ,?is man %\ld be imprison$4 ,9 ! 8f\r-t]m0 fallacies1 obs]ve t ! f\r t]ms occur 9 ! premises4 ,:5 a f\r? t]m is introduc$ 9 ! conclusion1 ! mat]ial fallacy ( non sequitur has be5 committ$4 7#b7 ,amphibology 7or amphiboly74 ,amphibology is a fallacy result+ f an ambigu\s proposition r ?an f ! ambiguity ( any p>ticul> t]m4 ,! fallacy ( amphibology is committ$ :5 ! spok5 or writt5 proposition conveys m ?an "o mean+4 ,! anci5t oracles indulg$ 9 ?is sort ( fallacy1 ! reason = su* indulg5ce be+ obvi\s2 ! oracles 7 n too positive z to ! outcome ( _! progno/ications1 & !re=e 7 especially c>eful to cov] e em]g5cy4 ,a c>eless use ( relative clauses & prepositional phrases (t5 results 9 ! fallacy ( amphibology4 ,,illu/rations ,,( ,,! ,,fallacy ,,( ,,amphibology4 7a7 8,y ! enemy w slay40 7b7 8,! ,duke yet lives t ,h5ry %all depose40 7c7 8,want$ a piano by a "y lady made ( mahogany40 7d7 8,y y\r fa!r w puni%40 7#c7 ,acc5t4 ,?is fallacy spr+s f plac+ undue emphasis on "s ^w or gr\p ( words4 ,naturally su* acc5tuation may convey a mean+ entirely =eign to ! au?or's int5t4 ,newspap]s are guilty ( ?is fallacy :5 !y select a few words f a spee* & use !m z headl9es )\t fur!r explanation4 ,a politician may quote a s5t5ce utt]$ by an oppon5t & fail to relate x to :at prec$$ or foll[$4 ,a c>tooni/ may ar\se ! prejudice ( public op9ion by giv+ ridicul\s emphasis to "s idiosyncracy possess$ by ! subject ( 8 attack4 ,,illu/rations ,,( ,,fallacies ,,( ,,acc5t4 7a7 8,?\ %alt n be> false witness aga9/ ?y neighbor40 ,by giv+ undue emphasis to neighbor1 ! notion is cle>ly convey$ t "o may be> false witness aga9/ all :o are n neighbors4 7b7 8,y mu/ n crib :5 tak+ my exam9ations40 7c7 ,:at ! 8,spellb9d]0 said4 8,i may say1 z a side rem>k1 t ! labor unions are guilty ( develop+ a nation ( %irks1 :5 !y prohibit a ph5om5ally effici5t workman f do+ 8 be/40 8,i d n wi% to be misund]/ood 9 ?is40 8,i believe 9 labor unions b 9 ?is p>ticul> !y are dead wrong40 ,:at ! newspap] report$4 7,headl9e7 8,! ,labor ,union ,scor$ z a ,tra9+ ,s*ool = ,%irks40 8 said 9 8 spee* 9 ,hall t ! ,union 0 responsible = ! developm5t ( a nation ( %irks40 8,a good man10 said he1 8is n p]mitt$ to d 8 be/ "w40 7#d7 ,composition4 ,! fallacy ( composition is committ$ :5 x is assum$ t :at is true di/ributively is likewise true collectively4 ,a t]m is us$ 9 a di/ributive s5se :5 x is appli$ to ea* individual ( ! class2 :]eas a t]m is us$ 9 a collective s5se :5 x is appli$ to ! class consid]$ z "o :ole4 8,all0 mean+ ea* "o consid]$ sep>ately & 8all0 mean+ ! :ole furni%es a frequ5t pitfall = ?is fallacy4 ,,illu/rations ,,( ,,! ,,fallacy ,,( ,,composition4 7a7 8,e memb] ( ! team is a /> play]2 h5ce ,i expect t ! entire aggregation w be a w9n]40 7b7 8,all ! m5 ( ! jury are fair m9d$2 !re=e we h good reason = suppos+ t ! jury's v]dict w be 9 accord ) ! rules ( ju/ice40 7c7 8,?irte5 & tw5ty-?ree are odd numb]s2 ?irty-six is equal to ?irte5 & tw5ty-?ree2 h5ce ?irty-six is an odd numb]40 7d7 8,all ! angles ( a triangle are less ?an two "r angles2 h5ce ! angles ,x1 ,y & ,z are less ?an two "r angles40 7e7 ,9 gov]nm5tal affairs ! assumption1 t a law :i* b5efits "o section w b5efit all1 is a fallacy ( composition4 7#e7 ,division4 ,! fallacy ( division is committ$ :5 x is assum$ t :at is true collectively is true di/ributively4 ,division is ! conv]se ( composition4 ,composition is a fallaci\s proc$ure f a di/ributive to a collective use2 :ile division is a fallaci\s proc$ure f a collective to a di/ributive use4 ,! fallacy ( division may be illu/rat$ by giv+ ! conv]se ( ! illu/rations "u composition3 7a7 8,! team is a /> play+ team2 & s9ce ,smi? is ! #8fir/ baseman' ( ! team1 he mu/ be a /> play]40 7b7 8,! jury r5d]$ a j decision2 h5ce ! =eman is a fair m9d$ man40 7c7 ,?irty-sev5 is an odd numb]1 ,n9e & tw5ty-eight are ?irty-sev51 ,n9e & tw5ty-eight are odd numb]s4 7d7 ,all ! angles ( a triangle are equal to two "r angles1 ,a is an angle ( a triangle1 ,a is equal to two "r angles4 7#f7 ,figure ( ,spee*4 ,?is fallacy results f assum+ t words ( ! same root h ! same mean+4 ,s9ce ! same root-^w may be us$ z a n\n1 v]b1 adjective1 etc41 x does n foll[ t 9 ^! v>i\s =ms x reta9s a common mean+4 8,address0 z a n\n & 8address0 z a v]b convey two di/9ct mean+s4 ,! foll[+ are examples ( ?is fallacy3 7a7 ,no design+ p]son %\ld be tru/$1 ,?is ar*itect is a design]1 ,?is ar*itect %\ld n be tru/$4 7b7 ,ju/ifiable inve/igation is wise1 ,?is man is a j inve/igator1 ,?is man is wise4 ,^! fallacies are n class$ z ^? ( 8f\r t]ms0 because two t]ms s closely resemble ea* o!r 9 =m1 & yet !y are n fallacies ( ambigu\s middle2 s9ce ! middle t]ms are n id5tical 9 =m4 #g4 ,,fallacies ,,9 ,,?\ght4 ,! fallacies 9 ?\ght arise ?r\gh a t5d5cy to assume z true t :i* dem&s fur!r pro(4 ,any "o :o is m anxi\s to be "r ?an to w9 w make sure t no?+ has be5 tak5 = grant$ :i* %\ld receive fur!r inve/igation1 or t no tru? has be5 giv5 a presumptu\s twi/ 9 ord] to make x fit ! p>ticul> case "u discussion4 ,because ^! errors 9 ?\ght may be attribut$ *iefly to undue assumptions1 we may d5om9ate !m z ! fallacies ( assumption4 7#a7 ,accid5t4 ,! fallacy ( accid5t occurs :5 "o reasons f a g5]al tru? to an accid5tal case4 ,doctr9aires & !oretic en?usia/s are p>tial to ?is fallacy4 ,x is s easy to lay d[n a g5]al =mula or rem$y & !n attempt to apply x to e accid5tal circum/ance4 ,gr&mo!r ) h] catnip tea & mu/>d pla/]1 h[ev] we may *]i% ! memory ( ! de> old s\l1 0 nev]!less guilty ( ! fallacy ( accid5t4 ,apply+ maxims & prov]bs to p>ticul> in/ances is /ill ano!r way ( committ+ ! fallacy4 ,,examples ,,( ,,fallacies ,,( ,,accid5t4 7a7 8,hone/y is ! be/ policy10 ?9ks ! physician z he reveals ! cold1 h>d tru? to 8 pati5t & ?us %ort5s ! pati5t's life4 7b7 ,spiritu\s liquor 9 excess acts z a poison1 & !re=e %\ld n be us$ to resuscitate an extreme case4 7c7 8,:at is b\ght 9 ! m>ket is eat52 raw meat is b\ght 9 ! m>ket2 !re=e x is eat540 7d7 8,e>ly to b$ & e>ly to rise makes "o heal?y1 weal?y & wise40 ,i %all practice ?is = t5 ye>s & by t "t hope to be heal?y1 weal?y & wise4 7e7 ,john has e>n$ ! enviable 787 reputation ( be+ ! 8wor/ boy 9 s*ool10 h5ce he is go+ to be ! wor/ boy 9 8my grade40 7f7 ,m>y is an invet]ate :isp]]2 & s9ce ,i "k t "s "o is :isp]+1 ,i am sure t t "s "o is ,m>y4 7g7 ,be+ a convict1 he is n to be tru/$4 7#b7 ,conv]se ,accid5t4 ,z ! title implies ?is is ! fallacy ( reason+ f an accid5tal case to a g5]al tru?4 ,illu/rations3 7a7 8,john has be5 a bad boy to-day2 & h5ce he is go+ to make tr\ble dur+ ! entire t]m40 7b7 8,?is food is good = h5s2 & h5ce x is good = all dome/ic f[ls40 7c7 8,i "k ( sev]al m5 :o h be5 ph5om5ally s]viceable to mank9d1 & none ( ^! m5 7 college tra9$2 h5ce ,i conclude t college education is n ess5tial to ! atta9m5t ( ! highe/ /ate ( effici5cy40 ,relative to bo? accid5t & conv]se accid5t1 x may be said t !y obta9 because all g5]al tru?s1 su* z rules1 pr9ciples1 def9itions1 maxims1 etc41 h _! exceptions2 & x is ?r\gh ^! exceptions t ! two fallacies are made possible4 ,accid5t & ,conv]se ,accid5t ,di/+ui%$ f ,division & ,composition4 ,! fallacy ( accid5t1 we h le>n$1 occurs :5 "o reasons f a g5]al tru? to an accid5tal case2 :]eas ! fallacy ( division obta9s :5 "o reasons f a collective use ( a t]m to a di/ributive use2 9 bo? cases ! proc$ure is f a l>g] unit to a small] unit4 ,moreov]1 ) conv]se accid5t & composition1 ! movem5t is f ! small] unit to ! l>g]4 ,because ( ?is simil>ity !re is dang] ( confus+ ! two k9ds ( fallacies4 ,z a matt] ( di/9ction betwe5 ! fallacies ( accid5t1 & composition & division ! att5d+ comp>ative rsum may be ( value3 7#a7 ,division is simil> 9 movem5t to accid5t1 :ile composition resembles conv]se accid5t4 7#b7 ,a valuable cue = rememb]+ :i* way division & accid5t move1 is to recall t division 9 ari?metic is a proc$ure f ! l>g] unit to ! small]1 & !re=e t division 9 logic w\ld h ! same signification4 7#c7 ,division & composition p]ta9 to ma!matical :oles2 :ile accid5t & conv]se accid5t relate to logical :oles4 7#d7 ,! aggregates ( division & composition may be c\nt$ or enum]at$ easily2 :ile ! accid5t & conv]se accid5t aggregates 7or g5]als7 are n easily enum]at$4 7#e7 ,division & composition relate to logical t]ms1 :]eas accid5t & conv]se accid5t relate to g5]al tru?s4 7#f7 ,division & composition use a t]m 9 a collective s5se & !n 9 a sep>ate or di/ributive s5se1 or vice v]sa2 accid5t & conv]se accid5t use a ?\ght 9 a g5]al & !n 9 an accid5tal s5se1 or vice v]sa4 ,irrelevant ,conclusion 7,ignoratio ,el5*i74 ,! fallacy ( irrelevant conclusion results :5 ! argum5t does n squ>ely meet ! po9t at issue4 ,x is ! fallacy ( argu+ to ! wrong po9t ei!r purposely or ?r\gh ignorance4 ,"o 9 def5se1 :o has a weak case1 may be tempt$ to div]t att5tion f ! po9t 9 h&1 realiz+ t a close analysis ( ! matt] 9 dispute w t5d to 8 undo+4 ,9 su* in/ances 7#a7 ! lawy] w abuse ! pla9tiff1 7#b7 ! demagogue w tell humor\s /ories1 7#c7 ! tea*] w take advantage ( ! ignorance ( ! pupil1 7#d7 ! s*ol> w ref] to au?ority & 7#e7 ! magnate w fall back ^u ! p[] ( position & weal?4 ,^! =ms ( 8rhetorical ?9k+0 are z h>mful z !y are popul>1 & furni% "o ( ! *ief reasons = giv+ to ! common p a bett] und]/&+ ( 8h[ to ?9k0 z well z 8h[ n to ?9k40 ,def9ite names h be5 giv5 to ! v>i\s =ms ( irrelevant conclusion :i* may be summ>iz$ z foll[s3 ,argum5tum ad populum4 ,?is is ! fallacy ( appeal+ to ! feel+s1 passions & prejudices ( an audi5ce r ?an to _! good s5se & p[]s ( reason4 ,x is probably ! mo/ common ( ! gr\p4 ,to excite sympa?y1 ! lawy] = ! def5se may speak feel+ly ( ! suff]+ t an unfavorable v]dict w br+ to ! wife & *ildr5 ( ! accus$4 ,argum5tum ad hom9em4 ,"h ! "* ( ! oppon5t is defam$ ) a view ( discr$it+ him ) ! c\rt or audi5ce4 8,mud ?r[+0 9 times ( political agitation is a good example ( ?is fallacy4 ,argum5tum ad ignorantiam4 ,?is fallacy comes f tak+ advantage ( ! ignorance ( ! oppon5t2 ! fallacy assumes t ! orig9al supposition has be5 prov$ if "o is unable to prove ! contradictory ( ! orig9al4 ,illu/ration3 ,m>s is inhabit$ because no "o is able to prove t ,m>s is n inhabit$4 ,argum5tum ad baculum4 ,9 ?is all argum5tation is made to give way to ! =ces ( p]sonal opposition & to ! p[] ( money4 ,illu/ration3 ,a political committee seat+ ^? delegates only1 :o w vote _! way2 &1 do+ ?is1 n f ! m]its ( ! case1 b because said committee happ5 to h a suffici5t numb] ( votes to 8put ! ?+ ?r\gh40 ,argum5tum ad v]ecundiam4 ,?is fallacy comes f suppos+ t ! :ole ?+ may be settl$ by cit+ "s not$ au?ority :o app>5tly sub/antiates ! argum5t advanc$4 ,epitome ( five =ms ( ,irrelevant ,conclusion3 7#a7 ,appeal+ to ! audi5ce4 7#b7 ,defam+ ! "* ( ! oppon5t4 7#c7 ,inability to prove ! contradictory4 7#d7 ,ga9+ ! po9t by =ce4 7#e7 ,cit+ au?ority4 ,non ,sequitur 7,false ,consequ5t74 ,?is is ! fallacy ( d]iv+ a conclusion :i* does n foll[ f ! premises4 ,! fallacy obta9s :5ev] mat]ial appe>s 9 ! conclusion1 :i* has no be>+ on ! case "u discussion4 8,irrelevant conclusion0 p]ta9s to ! e/abli%m5t ( ! premises :ile 8non sequitur0 is conc]n$ ) ! conclusion only4 ,we "k t a logical ?9k] con/ructs ! conclusion f mat]ial already pres5t$ by ! premises2 8,non sequitur0 uses mat]ial 9 ! conclusion :i* is f\nd 9 nei!r premise4 8,non sequitur0 diff]s f ! fallacy ( f\r t]ms 9 t ! latt] uses ! f\r? t]m 9 ! premises :ile ! =m] introduces ! f\r? t]m 9 ! conclusion1 & 9 a =m s well obscur$ t x sometimes escapes notice4 ,illu/ration3 ,all m5 are ?9k+ animals1 ,socrates 0 a man1 ,socrates 0 a s*ol>4 ,x does n foll[ t because a man is a ?9k+ animal t he w become s*ol>ly4 ,false ,cause4 ,?is is ! fallacy ( assum+ t because two happ5+s h occurr$ toge!r sev]al times1 ! "o is ! cause ( ! o!r4 ,?is v common fallacy is due to lack ( discrim9ation1 & to ! exagg]ations incid5t to fe> & sup]/ition4 ,illu/rations3 7a7 ,plant+ vegetables :i* gr[ d[n1 su* z ! beet1 dur+ ! la/ two days ( ! wax+ moon 9 ord] to h a l>g] yield4 ,s f> z we "k ! moon has no influ5ce ov] gr[+ vegetables4 7b7 ,?irte5 seat$ at a table is an indication t "o ( ! numb] w die dur+ ! ye>4 ,?is is "o ( ! mo/ absurd fallacies t has ev] be5 visit$ ^u an intellig5t p4 ,x is se5 t 8,false ,cause0 is closely relat$ to 8,non ,sequitur40 ,complex ,"q 7,d\ble ,"q74 ,?is fallacy obta9s :5 an assumption is put 9 ! =m ( a "q4 ,,illu/rations3 7a7 ,a wise fa!r :o did n want to tempt beyond ! yield+ po9t 8 ?ree-ye>-old son1 ask$1 po9t+ to ! scrat*es on ! new mahogany piano1 8,fr$die1 did y d t la/ night or ?is morn+80 7b7 ,:at caus$ y to desi/ f sl&]+ y\r neighbors2 ,new ,ye>'s resolutions or ! prea*+ ( ,dom9ie ,x8 7c7 ,a daily pap] anecdote3 8,*>les ,bradlaugh1 ! not$ ,engli% free-?9k]1 once engag$ 9 a discussion ) a diss5t+ m9i/]4 ,he insi/$ t ! m9i/] %\ld answ] que/ions by a simple yes or no1 ass]t+ t e "q %\ld be repli$ to 9 t mann]40 ,! rev]5d g5tleman arose & said1 8,mr4 ,bradlaugh1 w y all[ me to ask y a "q on ^! t]ms80 8,c]ta9ly10 said ,mr4 ,bradlaugh4 8,!n1 may ,i ask1 h y giv5 up beat+ y\r wife80 ,begg+ ! ,"q 7,petitio ,pr9cipii74 ,?is is a fallacy ( d]iv+ a conclusion f notions :i* 9 !mselves dem& pro(4 ,! fallacy is n committ$ :5 ! ass]tion is self-evid5t4 ,x is easy to claim t our oppon5t is begg+ ! "q z soon z we see t he is gett+ ! bett] ( u4 ,"o may himself beg ! "q by be+ too ready to *>ge o!rs ) begg+ ! "q4 ,:5 ! oppon5t adopts premises :i* are commonly accept$1 he does n beg ! "q4 ,"o commits ! fallacy :5 he seems to prove ! conclusion m satisfactorily ?an he really does4 ,?is he may accompli% by cov]tly tak+ = grant$ ! tru? ( notions :i* h n ! /amp ( univ]sal approval4 ,! fallacy ( begg+ ! "q assumes ?ree =ms3 7#a7 ,! assumption ( an unprov$ premise 7assumptio non probata74 ,9 ?is ei!r ! major or ! m9or premise1 or bo? may dem& m sub/antial pro(4 ,x mu/ be borne 9 m9d1 h[ev]1 t ! disputant mu/ n ask = fur!r pro( aft] he has once accept$ ! premises1 or aft] ! oppon5t has met 8 dem&s to ! satisfaction ( commonly accept$ au?ority4 ,examples ( begg+ ! "q by assum+ unprov$ premises3 7a7 ,all patriotic citiz5s are hone/ at he>t1 ,?is man *>g$ ) graft is a patriotic citiz51 ,?is man *>g$ ) graft is hone/ at he>t4 8,all patriotic citiz5s are hone/ at he>t10 is n an accept$ tru? & ?us dem&s pro(4 7b7 ,a fam\s sophism ( ! ,greek philosoph] by :i* he prov$ t motion 0 impossible1 is an excell5t illu/ration ( an assum$ premise3 8,if motion is possible1 a body mu/ move ei!r 9 ! place :]e x is1 or 9 ! place :]e x is n2 ,b a body _c move 9 ! place :]e x is2 & ( c\rse x _c move :]e x is n1 ,!re=e1 motion is impossible40 ,ref]r+ to ?is1 ,de ,morgan claims 8,movem5t is *ange1 & s a body requires two places 9 ord] to move40 ,a body _c move 9 ! place :]e x is1 b mu/ be mov$ f place to place4 ,! major premise be+ assum$1 ?is sophism illu/rates ! fallacy ( begg+ ! "q4 7c7 ,! mo/ subtle =m ( begg+ ! "q is an en?ymeme :]e ! suppress$ premise is ! "o assum$2 e4 g41 8,y1 be+ a tea*]1 %\ld n d z o!r p d40 ,complet$ & arrang$ ! argum5t becomes3 ,no tea*] %\ld d z o!r p d1 ,y are a tea*]1 ,y %\ld n d z o!r p d4 ,surely ! major premise dem&s pro(4 7#b7 ,reason+ 9 a ,circle 7,circulus 9 prob&o74 ,?is =m ( begg+ ! "q occurs1 8,:5 a conclusion is bas$ ^u a premise :i* 9 an e>li] /age ( ! argum5t 0 itself bas$ ^u ?is v conclusion40 ,to put x 9 ano!r way3 ,reason+ 9 a circle involves prov+ ! tru? ( a conclusion by us+ a p>ticul> premise1 & !n prov+ ! tru? ( ! p>ticul> premise by us+ ! conclusion4 ,f premise to conclusion & f conclusion to premise completes ! circle4 ,examples ( begg+ ! "q by reason+ 9 a circle3 7a7 ,x is wrong because my consci5ce pricks me1 & my consci5ce pricks me because x is wrong4 7b7 8,! effem9ate walk %[s a lack ( =ce2 because no =ceful man walks t way40 7c7 ,says ,hamilton1 8,plato1 9 8 ,pho$o1 demon/rates ! immortality ( ! s\l f its simplicity2 & 9 ! ,republic1 he demon/rates its simplicity f its immortality40 7#c7 ,"q ,begg+ ,epi!ts & ,appellations4 ,?is is ! fallacy ( assum+ ! po9t at issue by means ( a c>efully select$ epi!t4 ,sci5ti/s sometimes assume to cl>ify an inexplicable ph5om5on by giv+ x a te*nical "n4 ,politicians are exce$+ly free ) _! epi!ts & appellations1 & ! records ( religi\s disputes prove t ! !ologian (t5 resort$ to ?is device4 ,examples ( begg+ ! "q by us+ epi!ts & appellations3 7a7 ,we mu/ attribute ! disease to h]$ity4 7b7 ,! c&idate = gov]nor is an animat$ fea!r du/]4 7c7 ,!y call him ,blue ,*>lie4 7d7 ,x is ! policy ( ! big /ick4 7e7 ,! muck-rak] seldom makes an effici5t s]vant ( ! p4 ,x is se5 t ! use ( ^! epi!ts & appellations is simply a rhetorical device = ! purpose ( creat+ ei!r a favorable or unfavorable impression4 #h4 ,,outl9e4 ,,! ,,logical ,,fallacies ,,( ,,d$uctive ,,reason+4 7#a7 ,a negative aspect ( def9ition ( logic4 7#b7 ,p>alogism & sophism4 ,di/+ui%$4 ,mission ( ,socrates4 7#c7 ,a division ( ! d$uctive fallacies4 ,m or less faulty4 ,ari/otle's phraseology reta9$4 ,division giv54 7#d7 ,g5]al divisions expla9$4 ,=mal & mat]ial4 ,mat]ial fallacies 9 language & 9 ?\ght4 7#e7 ,fallacies ( imm$iate inf]5ce4 ,opposition1 obv]sion1 conv]sion1 contrav]sion4 7#f7 ,fallacies 9 language 7also fallacies ( equivocation74 ,ambigu\s middledi/+ui%$ f f\r t]ms4 ,amphibology4 ,acc5t4 ,composition8all0 a pitfall4 ,division4 ,figure ( spee*4 7#g7 ,fallacies 9 ?\ght7also fallacies ( assumption74 ,accid5t4 ,conv]se accid5t4 ,made possible by exceptions4 ,accid5t & conv]se accid5t di/+ui%$ f composition & division4 ,comp>ative rsum4 ,irrelevant conclusion 7ignoratio el5*i74 ,argum5tum ad populum4 ,argum5tum ad hom9em4 ,argum5tum ad ignorantiam4 ,argum5tum ad baculum4 ,argum5tum ad v]ecundiam4 ,non sequitur 7false consequ5t74 ,false cause4 ,complex "q4 ,begg+ ! "q 7petitio pr9cipii74 ,assumption ( premise4 ,reason+ 9 a circle4 ,"q begg+ epi!ts & appellations4 #i4 ,,summ>y4 7#a7 ,logic z a sci5ce makes kn[n ! laws & =ms ( ?\ght & z an art sugge/s conditions :i* mu/ be fulfill$ 9 ord] to ?9k rightly4 ,a discussion ( ! second phase ( ! def9ition w\ld be incomplete )\t a consid]ation ( ! negative aspect z well z ! positive4 ,su* a viewpo9t makes evid5t ! "q 8,:at errors mu/ be avoid$ 9 ord] to reason correctly80 ,an answ] to ?is "q is giv5 "u ! caption ( ,logical ,fallacies4 7#b7 ,a logical fallacy is any error 9 reason+ :i* has ! appe>ance ( correctness4 ,a fallacy :i* deceives ! writ] or speak] himself is t]m$ a p>alogism1 :]eas a fallacy =m$ = ! express purpose ( deceiv+ ano!r is d5om9at$ a sophism4 ,x 0 ! pagan tea*] ,socrates :o taught mod]n ?\ght to fr[n ^u all =ms ( sophism2 ^! exi/ to-day mu* z !y did 9 ! old5 "t4 7#c7 ,because ( disagreem5t z to def9ition1 & because ( inability to prev5t an ov]lapp+ ( species1 any logical division ( ! d$uctive fallacies mu/ be faulty4 ,9 ! division ( ! d$uctive fallacies1 ?is treatise reta9s ! phraseology & =m work$ out by ,ari/otle1 s f> z su* ret5tion is consi/5t ) ! *anges incid5t to ! advances ( "t4 7#d7 ,=mal fallacies occur because ( c>eless & improp] use ( words z arbitr>y signs4 ,=mal fallacies are def9ite & easy ( compreh5sion4 ,! mat]ial fallacies are due to c]ta9 inconsi/5cies 9 ?\ght & to imp]fect ways ( int]pret+ language4 ,!y are m subtle & ?us m difficult ( compreh5sion ?an ! =mal fallacies4 ,!re are mat]ial fallacies 9 ?\ght & mat]ial fallacies 9 language2 ! =m] are due to loos5ess 9 ?9k+ & ! latt] to lack ( precision 9 expression4 7#e7 ,fallacies ( opposition result mo/ frequ5tly f d]iv+ univ]sals f _! correspond+ p>ticul>s1 & f assum+ to contradict affirmative univ]sals by negative univ]sals & affirmative p>ticul>s by negative p>ticul>s4 ,! common fallacy 9 ! process ( obv]sion consi/s 9 us+ "o negative in/ead ( two1 :]eas ! ord9>y error ( conv]sion is a matt] ( di/ribut+ an undi/ribut$ t]m4 ,fallacies ( contrav]sion mu/ involve ei!r ^? ( obv]sion or conv]sion s9ce ! process is a comb9ation ( ! two4 7#f7 ,fallacies 9 language1 because !y result f p]mitt+ m ?an "o int]pretation1 may be also d5om9at$ fallacies ( equivocation4 7#a7 ,ambigu\s middle is ! fallacy ( giv+ to ! middle t]m a d\ble mean+4 ,! fallacy ( f\r t]ms1 z ! "n signifies1 exi/s :5 ! argum5t has f\r t]ms 9 bo? =m & mean+4 ,ambigu\s middle is a matt] ( f\r t]ms 9 mean+ b only ?ree 9 =m4 7#b7 ,! fallacy ( amphibology is committ$ :5 ! giv5 proposition conveys m ?an "o mean+4 ,9 ord] to ma9ta9 _! pre/ige ! anci5t oracles made use ( ?is fallacy4 7#c7 ,! fallacy ( acc5t spr+s f plac+ undue emphasis on "s ^w or gr\p ( words4 ,newspap] & demagogues are prone to ?is error1 t !y may ?us create an unfavorable impression t[>ds ^? :om !y oppose4 7#d7 ,! fallacy ( composition is committ$ :5 x is assum$ t :at is true di/ributively is likewise true collectively4 8,all0 mean+ ea* "o & 8all0 mean+ ! :ole class (t5 leads to ! fallacy ( composition4 7#e7 ,! fallacy ( division is committ$ :5 x is assum$ t :at is true collectively is true di/ributively4 ,division is ! conv]se ( composition4 7#f7 ,! fallacy ( figure ( spee* is occasion$ by assum+ t words ( ! same root h ! same mean+4 7#g7 ,fallacies 9 ?\ght are likewise call$ fallacies ( assumption1 because ( ! t5d5cy to assume z true some?+ :i* dem&s fur!r pro(4 7#a7 ,! fallacy ( accid5t occurs :5 "o reasons f a g5]al tru? to an accid5t case4 ,x is ! favor$ fallacy ( ! doctr9aire1 ! re=m] & ! v5d] ( 8cure-alls40 7#b7 ,! fallacy ( conv]se accid5t occurs :5 "o reasons f an accid5tal case to a g5]al tru?4 ,bo? accid5t & conv]se accid5t are made possible because rules1 def9itions1 maxims1 etc41 h exceptions4 ,x is easy to confuse division & composition ) ! fallacies ( accid5t4 ,division & composition are conc]n$ ) ! collective & di/ributive use ( t]ms1 :]eas ! fallacies ( accid5t involve ! use ( notions 9 a g5]al & accid5tal s5se4 ,! =m] repres5t notions :i* may be c\nt$ or enum]at$ :ile ! latt] conc]n notions :i* are logical r ?an num]ical4 ,composition & division involve 8numb] (10 accid5t1 8mean+ (40 7#c7 ,! fallacy ( irrelevant conclusion results :5 ! argum5t does n squ>ely meet ! po9t at issue4 ,x is ! fallacy ( argu+ to ! wrong po9t ei!r purposely or ignorantly4 ,?is may be accompli%$ by 7#a7 appeal+ to sympa?y ( audi5ce1 7#b7 defam+ "* ( oppon5t1 7#c7 assum+ t ! fact is true because ( inability to prove ! contradictory1 7#d7 ga9+ po9t by =ce1 7#e7 cit+ au?ority4 7#d7 8,non sequitur0 is ! fallacy ( d]iv+ a conclusion :i* does n foll[ f ! premises4 ,x involves introduc+ new mat]ial 9 ! conclusion4 7#e7 8,false cause0 is ! fallacy ( assum+ t because two happ5+s h occurr$ toge!r sev]al times ! "o is ! cause ( ! o!r4 ,! fallacy is due l>gely to ! exagg]ations ( fe> & sup]/ition4 7#f7 ,! fallacy ( complex "q consi/s 9 putt+ an assumption 9 ! =m ( a "q4 7#g7 ,begg+ ! "q is ! fallacy ( d]iv+ a conclusion f notions :i* 9 !mselves dem& pro(4 ,?is fallacy takes ! ?ree =ms ( 7#a7 ! assumption ( an unprov$ premise1 7#b7 reason+ 9 a circle1 7#c7 "q begg+ epi!ts & appellations4 #aj4 ,,illu/rative ,,ex]cises ,,9 ,,! ,,te/+ ,,( ,,argum5ts ,,9 ,,bo? ,,=m ,,& ,,mean+4 7#a;a7 ,he :o wilfully takes ! life ( ano!r %\ld be electrocut$1 ,?is %>p %oot] has wilfully tak5 ! life ( ano!r1 ,h5ce he %\ld be electrocut$4 ,a ,9 =m we "k ?is argum5t to be valid s9ce x is 9 mood ,a ( ,a ! fir/ figure4 ,b z ! conclusion does n meet ) our approval1 we are =c$ to ! belief t !re mu/ be a mat]ial fallacy4 ,su* proves to be ! case4 ,9 ! fir/ in/ance1 8,wilfully takes ! life ( ano!r0 is us$ 9 a p]sonal1 individual1 selfi% s5se1 :]eas 9 ! second in/ance ! expression is us$ 9 a g5]al1 8s]vant-(-!-gov]nm5t0 signification4 ,! argum5t is1 !re=e1 invalid1 ! fallacy be+ ambigu\s middle4 7#a;b7 ,f ! viewpo9t ( bo? =m & mean+ te/ ! foll[+3 8,ev5ts :i* are n probable happ5 almo/ e day2 b :at happ5s e day are v probable ev5ts2 !re=e ev5ts :i* are n probable are v probable40 7#b;a7 ,! planets h ^? attributes ne$$ 9 ! support ( life1 ,m>s is a planet1 ,h5ce ,m>s has ^? attributes ne$$ 9 ! support ( life4 ,a ,?is is valid 9 =m ,a 9 ! fir/ figure4 ,! major premise posits ,a a fact :i* has n be5 prov$2 ! argum5t is !re=e invalid 9 mean+1 ! fallacy be+ t ( begg+ ! "q4 7#b;b7 8,! end ( a ?+ is its p]fection2 dea? is ! end ( life1 !re=e dea? is ! p]fection ( life40 ,indicate ! fallacy 9 ! =ego+1 giv+ reasons4 7#c;a7 ,! c\ntries ( ,europe ab\nd 9 begg>s1 ,france is a c\ntry 9 ,europe1 ,france ab\nds 9 begg>s4 8,! c\ntries ( ,europe0 9 ! major premise is us$ 9 a collective s5se1 :ile ! same expression 9 ! m9or premise is us$ 9 a di/ributive s5se4 ,! argum5t is1 !re=e1 invalid 9 mean+2 fallacy ( division4 7#c;b7 ,/ate & expla9 ! mat]ial fallacy 9 ! foll[+3 ,! /ates believe 9 ! income tax pr9ciple2 h5ce ,v]mont's vote w be favorable to ?is4 7#d;a7 8,on g5]al pr9ciples ,i believe t "o is bett] (f :5 he ab/a9s f bo? tea & c(fee2 & ?is is ! reason :y ,i (f] y a cup ( hot wat]40 ,! individual to :om ! hot wat] 0 (f]$ might h be5 9 great ne$ ( a mild /imulant4 ,"h1 !n1 is an exception to ! g5]al pr9ciple & ! fallacy committ$ is cle>ly t ( accid5t4 7#d;b7 8,books are a s\rce bo? ( in/ruction & amusem5t2 a table ( log>i?ms is a book2 !re=e x is a s\rce bo? ( in/ruction & amusem5t40 ,jevons4 ,designate ) explanations ! fallacy 9 ! above argum5t4 7#e7 8,twice h ,i />t$ out on ,friday & bo? times ,i _h tire tr\ble40 ,fallacy ( false cause4 7#f7 8,:]e d y sp5d y\r vacation1 9 ,pale/9e or ,rome80 ,fallacy ( complex "q4 7#g7 8,( all ! m5 ( t dep>tm5t he seem$ to be ! mo/ tru/wor?y1 & ,i pride myself on my ability to judge m5 9 ?is reg>d2 b n[ ev5 ! police _c f9d him40 ,! fact t ! police _c f9d him has no?+ to d ) ! argum5t4 ,! fallacy is t ( non sequitur4 7#h7 8,y mu/ n :isp] 9 my classes40 ,fallacy ( acc5t4 7#i7 8,i am a ,progressive because ,i believe 9 progress40 ,fallacy ( figure ( spee*4 7#aj7 8,i "k x is true because ,i f\nd x 9 our text book40 ,fallacy ( irrelevant conclusion4 #aa4 ,,review ,,que/ions4 7#a7 ,give ! negative aspect ( ! second "p ( ! def9ition ( logic4 7#b7 ,def9e & illu/rate ! t]m fallacy z x is us$ 9 logic4 7#c7 ,di/+ui% betwe5 a p>alogism & a sophism4 7#d7 ,tell ( ! mission ( ,socrates4 7#e7 ,:at reasons may be giv5 = su* a div]g5ce ( op9ion on a prop] classification ( ! fallacies ( d$uction8 7#f7 ,give a complete outl9e1 )\t explanation1 ( ! d$uctive fallacies4 7#g7 ,di/+ui% betwe5 =mal & mat]ial fallacies4 7#h7 ,expla9 ! two k9ds ( mat]ial fallacies4 7#i7 ,illu/rate ! fallacies ( imm$iate inf]5ce4 7#aj7 ,:y %\ld ! fallacies 9 language be likewise t]m$ fallacies ( equivocation8 7#aa7 ,expla9 & illu/rate ambigu\s middle4 7#ab7 ,illu/rate ! fallacy ( amphibology4 7#ac7 ,expla9 by illu/ration ! fallacy ( acc5t4 7#ad7 ,expla9 & exemplify ! fallacies ( composition & division4 7#ae7 ,illu/rate ! fallacy ( figure ( spee*4 7#af7 ,give reasons = d5om9at+ ! fallacies 9 ?\ght z fallacies also ( assumption4 7#ag7 ,def9e & illu/rate ! fallacies ( accid5t & conv]se accid5t4 7#ah7 ,di/+ui% betwe5 ! fallacies ( composition & division & ! two fallacies ( accid5t4 7#ai7 8,e rule has its exception10 :at has ?is to d ) ! fallacies ( accid5t8 7#bj7 ,expla9 & illu/rate ! fallacy ( irrelevant conclusion4 7#ba7 ,"n ! v>i\s ways 9 :i* irrelevant conclusion may be committ$4 7#bb7 ,illu/rate ! fallacy ( non sequitur4 7#bc7 ,expla9 ! fallacy ( false cause4 7#bd7 ,give examples ( ! complex "q4 7#be7 ,h[ may ! tea*] use ! complex "q to advantage8 7#bf7 ,expla9 ! fallacy ( begg+ ! "q4 7#bg7 ,illu/rate ! ?ree =ms ( begg+ ! "q4 7#bh7 ,f ! viewpo9t ( =m & mean+1 te/ ! validity ( ! foll[+3 7#a7 8,no soldi]s %\ld be br\ght into ! field :o are n well qualifi$ to p]=m _! "p2 none b vet]ans are well qualifi$ to p]=m _! "p1 !re=e1 none b vet]ans %\ld be br\ght into ! field40 ,:ately4 7#b7 8,= ! prov]b is true1 #8,t light ga9s make heavy purses2' = light ga9s come ?ick1 :]eas great ga9s come b n[ & !n40 ,bacon4 7#c7 8,:atev] is giv5 on ! evid5ce ( s5se may be tak5 z a fact2 ! exi/5ce ( ,god1 !re=e1 is n a fact1 = x is n evid5t to s5se40 ,/4 ,&rew4 #ahif4 7#d7 8,all ! trees 9 ! p>k make a ?ick %ade2 ?is is "o ( !m1 !re=e ?is tree makes a ?ick %ade40 ,jevons4 7#e7 8,:at we eat grew 9 ! field2 loaves ( bread are :at we eat2 !re=e loaves ( bread grew 9 ! fields40 ,jevons4 7#f7 8,:o is mo/ hungry eats mo/2 :o eats lea/ is mo/ hungry2 !re=e :o eats lea/ eats mo/40 ,jevons4 7#g7 8,great talk]s %\ld be cropp$1 = !y h no ne$ ( e>s40 ,frankl94 7#h7 8,love y\r enemies1 = !y tell y y\r faults40 ,frankl94 7#i7 8,all ! works ( ,%akespe>e _c be read 9 a day2 !re=e ! play ( ,hamlet1 be+ "o ( ! works ( ,%akespe>e1 _c be read 9 a day40 ,jevons4 7#aj7 8,logic z x 0 cultivat$ by ! s*oolm5 prov$ a fruitless /udy2 !re=e logic z x is cultivat$ at ! pres5t day mu/ be a fruitless /udy likewise40 ,jevons4 #ab4 ,,que/ions ,,= ,,orig9al ,,?\ght ,,& ,,inve/igation4 7#a7 ,is !re any diff]5ce 9 cont5t betwe5 error & fallacy8 ,illu/rate4 7#b7 ,9 :at ways d tru/s indulge 9 sophisms8 7#c7 ,may ! sophism be us$ consci5ti\sly by ! c\ntry doctor8 ,expla94 7#d7 ,give 9 sub/ance ,ari/otle's classification ( fallacies4 7#e7 ,select ! fallacies :i* c\ld ) ju/ice be call$ fallacies ( int]pretation4 ,see ,creighton4 7#f7 ,expla9 9 full ! popul> conception ( equivocation4 7#g7 ,indicate ! m>ks :i* di/+ui% ! foll[+3 ,ambigu\s middle1 fallacy ( f\r t]ms1 non sequitur1 figure ( spee*4 7#h7 8,:y %\ld ,j]emy ,b5?am employ a p]son to read to him :o habitually read 9 a monoton\s tone ( voice80 ,jevons,hill4 7#i7 ,orig9ate a s5t5ce ( ab\t t5 words & ?r\gh ! fallacy ( acc5t secure z _m diff]5t mean+s z possible4 7#aj7 ,%[ t ! fallacy ( figure ( spee* might be class$ z a fallacy ( f\r t]ms4 7#aa7 ,to :at fallacies1 9 y\r op9ion1 are tea*]s especially giv58 7#ab7 ,%[ t ! fallacy ( accid5t c\ld be class$ z "o ( ambigu\s middle4 7#ac7 8,:5 ! ,puritan settl]s 9 ,new ,engl& pass$ _! ?ree fam\s resolutions,resolv$1 fir/1 t ! e>? is ! ,"l's & ! fullness !re(2 secondly1 t he ha? giv5 x to 8 ,sa9ts2 ?irdly1 t we are 8 ,sa9ts4 ,:at fallacy did ! ,puritan ,fa!rs commit80 ,ryl&4 7#ad7 ,a ,dut*man afflict$ ) pneumonia arises at midnight & eats a l>ge quantity ( sau]kraut4 ,! ,dut*man gets well1 :]eat 8 physician writes 9 8 little book on rem$ies1 8,sau]kraut sure cure = pneumonia40 ,! physician 0 guilty ( :at fallacy8 ,:y8 7#ae7 ,de ,morgan quotes f ,boccaccio ?is3 8,a s]vant :o 0 roa/+ a /ork = 8 ma/] 0 prevail$ ^u by 8 swee!>t to cut (f a leg = h] to eat4 ,:5 ! bird came ^u ! table ! ma/] desir$ to "k :at _h become ( ! o!r leg4 ,! man answ]$ t /orks nev] _h m ?an "o leg4 ,! ma/]1 v angry1 b det]m9$ to /rike 8 s]vant dumb be=e he puni%$ him1 took him next day into ! fields :]e !y saw /orks1 /&+ ea* on "o leg1 z /orks d4 ,! s]vant turn$ triumphantly to 8 ma/]2 on :i* ! latt] %\t$1 & ! birds put d[n _! o!r legs & flew away4 ,ah1 sir1 said ! s]vant1 y did n %\t to ! /ork at d9n] ye/]day2 if y _h done s he w\ld h %[n 8 o!r leg40 ,:at fallacy does ?is quotation f ,boccaccio illu/rate8 7#af7 ,:y %\ld begg+ ! "q & irrelevant conclusion be class$ z fallacies ( ! 8=gott5 issue80 7#ag7 ,f ! /&po9t ( bo? =m & mean+ te/ ! validity ( ! foll[+3 7#a7 8,virtue is ! *ild ( k & vice ( ignorance2 !re=e education1 p]iodical lit]ature1 travel+1 v5tilation1 dra9age & ! arts ( life1 :5 fully c>ri$ out1 s]ve to make a population moral & happy40 ,hibb54 7#b7 8,! civil p[] has ! "r ( ecclesia/ical jurisdiction & adm9i/ration1 !re=e p>liam5t may impose articles ( fai? on ! *ur* or suppress dioceses40 ,hibb54 7#c7 8,see+ t abundance ( "w is a sure sign ( indu/rial prosp]ity1 x foll[s t fire & hurricane b5efit indu/ry1 because !y und\bt$ly create "w40 ,/4 ,&rews#ahie4 7#d7 8,ri*es are = sp5d+1 & sp5d+ = honor & good action2 !re=e1 extraord9>y exp5se mu/ be limit$ by ! wor? ( ! occasion40 ,bacon4 7#e7 8,& let a man bew>e h[ he keepe? company ) *ol]ic & qu>relsome p]sons2 = !y w engage him into _! own qu>rels40 ,bacon4 7#f7 8,he t re/e? ^u ga9s c]ta91 %all h>dly gr[ to great ri*es2 & he t puts all ^u adv5tures1 do? (t5times break & come to pov]ty4 ,x is good1 !re=e1 to gu>d adv5tures ) c]ta9ties t !y may uphold losses40 ,bacon4 ,,*apt] #ag4 ,,inductive ,,reason+4 #a4 ,,inductive ,,& ,,d$uctive ,,reason+ ,,di/+ui%$4 ,x has be5 rem>k$ t inf]5ce is ! process ( d]iv+ a judgm5t f "o or two antec$5t judgm5ts1 & t m$iate inf]5ce is inf]5ce by means ( a middle t]m4 ,b to reason by means ( a middle t]m necessitates two judgm5ts2 h5ce m$iate inf]5ce might be def9$ z ! process ( d]iv+ a judgm5t f two antec$5t judgm5ts4 ,9 ?is treatm5t m$iate inf]5ce & reason+ h be5 us$ int]*angeably4 ,?is1 !n1 becomes our def9ition = reason+3 ,reason+ is ! process ( d]iv+ a judgm5t f two antec$5t judgm5ts4 ,! syllogism results :5 ! process ( reason+ is =mally clo!d 9 words4 ,moreov]1 ! conclusion ( ! syllogism may be m g5]al ?an ! premises or less g5]al4 ,?is sugge/s ! two important k9ds ( reason+2 namely1 inductive & d$uctive4 ,inductive reason+ is reason+ f less g5]al premises to a m g5]al conclusion4 ,d$uctive reason+ is reason+ f m g5]al premises to a less g5]al conclusion4 ,,illu/ration3 ,inductive ,syllogism4 ,d$uctive ,syllogism4 ,! rob91 cr[1 sp>r[1 ,all birds h w+s1 etc4 h w+s1 ,! rob91 cr[1 sp>r[1 ,! rob91 cr[1 sp>r[1 etc4 are birds1 etc4 are birds1 ,! rob91 cr[1 sp>r[1 ,all birds h w+s4 etc4 h w+s4 ,iron1 silv]1 gold1 etc4 are ,all metals are elem5ts1 elem5ts1 ,iron1 silv]1 gold1 etc4 are ,iron1 silv]1 gold1 etc4 are metals1 metals1 ,iron1 silv]1 gold1 etc4 are ,all metals are elem5ts4 elem5ts4 ,bo/on1 ,new ,york1 ,*icago1 ,all l>ge cities h f9e etc4 h f9e h>bors1 h>bors4 ,bo/on1 ,new ,york1 ,*icago1 ,bo/on1 ,new ,york1 ,*icago1 etc4 etc4 are l>ge cities1 are l>ge cities1 ,all l>ge cities h f9e ,bo/on1 ,new ,york1 ,*icago1 etc4 h>bors1 h f9e h>bors4 ,! /ud5t :o is suffici5tly famili> ) ! canons ( ! d$uctive syllogism w at once detect ! fallacy ( illicit m9or 9 ! =ego+ inductive syllogisms2 i4 e41 8birds0 :5 us$ z ! pr$icate ( ! m9or premise ( ! fir/ syllogism is undi/ribut$1 b z ! subject ( ! conclusion 8birds0 is di/ribut$4 ,! same might be said conc]n+ ! t]ms 8metals0 & 8l>ge cities40 ,a portion ( ?is *apt] w be devot$ to answ]+ ?is criticism4 ,at ?is po9t x may be /at$ t ! inductive syllogism is n suppos$ to con=m p]fectly to ! canons ( ! d$uctive syllogism4 #b4 ,,! ,,inductive ,,haz>d4 ,ref]r+ to ! fir/ inductive syllogism ( section "o1 x is assum$ t ! rob91 cr[ & sp>r[ are repres5tative birds1 & t we are ?us ju/ifi$ 9 conclud+ t if ^! type birds h w+s1 !n all birds mu/ h w+s4 ,( c\rse ?is is m or less ( a conjecture or 8a haz>d02 s9ce birds )\t w+s may exi/ 9 "s undiscov]$ corn] ( ! globe4 ,h[ev]1 inasmu* z ! g5]alization conc]ns a repres5tative quality1 we deem ! assumption fairly well f\nd$4 ,! logical "r to take ?is 8leap into ! unkn[n0 w be discuss$ lat]4 ,x w pr(it u at ?is "t to realize m fully h[ ess5tial ! 8inductive haz>d0 is to ! progress ( ! _w4 ,:5 ! ,s*oolm5 ( m$ival "t refus$ to v5ture1 !y fail$ to progress1 & ?us came ! d>k days4 ,:5ev] man has ignor$ ?is ,god giv5 in/9ct :i* leads to discov]y1 ! _w has /ood /ill4 ,?is will+ness to 8take a leap into ! d>k0 ) ! hope ( f9d+1 9 ! %ad[1 tru? :i* w\ld enhance man's p[] & increase 8 s]viceabl5ess1 has giv5 to ! _w ab\t all t is wor? :ile4 ,x 0 ! _s ( ! haz>d :i* pu%$ ,columbus to ! discov]y ( a new _w2 :i* gave ,newton ! secrets ( ! motions ( ! univ]se2 :i* enabl$ ,edison to h>ness a multitude ( lurk+ =ces2 & ,morse & ,bell to r$uce di/ance to its l[e/ t]ms4 ,9 ord9>y affairs ) ord9>y m5 ^? succe$ be/ :o manife/ mo/ a safe1 /eady1 p]si/5t _s ( discov]y4 ,"h1 !n1 9 ! 8inductive haz>d0 h we a mo/ important phase ( s*ool life :i*1 9 ?is day ( mak+ ! "w easy1 is be+ sadly neglect$4 ,on ! o!r h&1 an unregulat$ & insane _s ( v5ture may result 9 a great wa/e ( en]gy1 & 9 ! developm5t ( l[ ideals ( recklessness & inaccuracy4 ,! 8inductive haz>d0 mu/ be cultivat$2 yet x mu/ be regulat$ z well1 &1 z ! read] already realizes1 logic ne$s to conc]n itself ma9ly ) ?is regulative aspect4 #c4 ,,! ,,complexity ,,( ,,! ,,problem ,,( ,,induction4 ,! problem ( induction is mu* m complex ?an t ( d$uction because ( ^! reasons3 ,fir/4 ,d$uction z a process ( reason+ 0 ! only k9d discuss$ by ! logicians = two ?\s& ye>s4 ,ari/otle is call$ ! fa!r ( d$uctive logic & ?is ,intellectual ,giant1 ! greate/ ( anci5t "t & possibly ( all "t1 s p]fect$ ! =m ( d$uctive reason+ t1 up to ! "t ( ,francis ,bacon1 no s*ol> possess$ ! tem]ity to ga9say its supremacy 9 ! field ( logical reason+4 ,= tw5ty c5turies ,ari/otle's ,d$uctive ,logic 0 ! ,logicians' ,bible4 ,on ! o!r h&1 inductive reason+1 ?\gh x 0 briefly discuss$ by ,ari/otle1 receiv$ little att5tion till ! v]satile ,francis ,bacon plac$ x ^u ! /age ( ! ?9k+ _w4 ,?is makes d$uction ne>ly two ?\s& ye>s old] ?an induction4 ,"t1 by elim9at+ ! p]sonal equation & expos+ 9 v>i\s ways fallaci\s ?9k+1 t5ds to unify & univ]salize tru?4 ,h5ce1 logicians are agre$ s f> z ! fundam5tals ( d$uctive logic are conc]n$1 b are /ill at odds ov] ! true conception & use ( inductive logic4 ,a second reason = ?is confus$ /atus 9 ! field ( inductive logic is ! fact ( its be+ m closely relat$ to ! ev5ts ( e day liv+4 ,induction is ! natural me?od ( *ildhood2 ! popul> me?od ( ! s*ool room2 & ! mo/ us$ me?od ( common life4 ,9 consequ5ce its ramifications are s v>i$ & multitud9\s1 t x w take c5turies ( ?9k+ to r$uce ! doctr9e ( induction to t uni=mity & def9it5ess :i* s di/+ui%es d$uction4 #d4 ,,! ,,v>i\s ,,conceptions ,,( ,,induction4 ,! att5d+ quotations w give ! /ud5t a fair idea ( ! lead+ conceptions conc]n+ induction3 7#a7 8,induction is ! process by :i* we conclude t :at is true ( c]ta9 individuals ( a class is true ( ! :ole class1 or t :at is true at c]ta9 times w be true "u simil> circum/ances at all times40 8,induction1 z above def9$1 is a process ( inf]5ce2 x proce$s f ! kn[n to ! unkn[n40 8,any process 9 :i* :at seems ! conclusion is no wid] ?an ! premises f :i* x is drawn1 does n fall )9 ! mean+ ( ! t]m40,j4 ,s4 ,mill1 ,a ,sy/em ( ,logic1 #ahib1 p4 #age4 7#b7 8,an induction is a g5]alization or an inf]5ce bas$ ^u propositions t /ate obs]v$ facts40 8,! tru? inf]r$ may be g5]al or p>ticul>1 b x mu/ be "o :i* we _c p]ceive 9 a s+le act ( obs]vation40,ball5t9e's ,inductive ,logic1 #ahif1 p4 #ad4 7#c7 8,induction is ! process ( inf]5ce by :i* we get at g5]al tru?s f p>ticul> facts or cases40,ryl&'s ,logic1 #aijj1 p4 #adh4 7#d7 8,induction may be def9$ z ! legitimate inf]5ce ( ! g5]al f ! p>ticul>1 or1 ( ! m g5]al f ! less g5]al40,f[l]1 #aije1 p4 #aj1 ,vol4 #b4 7#e7 8,! t]m induction has be5 us$ by logicians to d5ote ?is leap ( ! m9d f ! limitations ( its positive k to belief 9 univ]sal laws40 8,9 p$agogy1 h[ev]1 ! t]m is appli$ to ! :ole process ( arriv+ at g5]al tru?s or pr9ciples40,salisbury's ,!ory ( ,tea*+1 p4 #aef4 #e4 ,,induction ,,& ,,d$uction ,,contigu\s ,,processes4 ,if !re is "o ?+ above ano!r :i* mod]n logic is emphasiz+ x is ! unity ( ! m9d & ! contiguity ( ?9k+4 ,induction & d$uction are dove-tail$ processes :i* *>act]ize all ?9k+ wor?y ( ! "n4 ,:]e induction ceases1 d$uction comm5ces1 & vice v]sa4 ,x becomes ! function ( inductive ?9k+ to e/abli% a connection betwe5 :at has be5 exp]i5c$ & :at has n be5 exp]i5c$4 ,!re=e1 ! conclusion ( an induction mu/ always conta9 m ?an is impli$ 9 ! premises4 ,! premises d5ote facts :i* h be5 obs]v$2 :]eas ! conclusion d5otes ! obs]v$ facts ( ! premises plus analog\s facts :i* h n be5 obs]v$4 ,inductive ?\ght v5tures into ! unkn[n1 & attempts to e/abli% a bond ( connection betwe5 x & some?+ already kn[n4 ,induction seeks new k1 & does s by tak+ t 8leap into ! d>k0 already ref]r$ to z ! 8inductive haz>d40 ,z soon z ! m9d rea*es a univ]sal tru?1 x sets to "w to cl>ify ?is tru?4 ,su* is accompli%$ by ref]5ce to o!r facts :i* ! univ]sal is suppos$ to include2 & ?is application ( ! g5]al to ! p>ticul> is d$uction4 ,induction discov]s ! new k :ile d$uction cl>ifies x4 #f4 ,,induction ,,an ,,assumption4 ,9 ?is treatm5t induction z a g5]al process has be5 subdivid$ into induction z a mode ( inf]5ce & induction z a me?od4 ,induction z a mode ( inf]5ce is ! process ( reason+ f less g5]al premises to a m g5]al conclusion2 :]eas induction z a me?od is a proc$ure f ! obs]vation ( individual facts to a realization ( a univ]sal tru?4 ,9 ei!r case ! conclusion ( an inductive process always implies m ?an is conta9$ 9 ! premises4 ,?is gives to ! conclusion an unc]ta9ty4 ,no induction is absolutely free f d\bt except ! s-call$ p]fect induction1 :i* =m w receive att5tion 9 a lat] section4 #g4 ,,univ]sal ,,causation4 ,all inductive assumptions are made possible because ( two lawsuniv]sal causation & uni=mity ( nature4 ,! law ( univ]sal causation may be /at$ 9 ?is wise3 ,no?+ c occur )\t a cause & e cause has its effect4 8,x is a univ]sal tru?1 t e fact :i* has a beg9n+ has a cause40,mill4 ,,simple ,,illu/rations ,,( ,,univ]sal ,,causation4 ,! sun rises 9 ! ea/4 ,! boy ?r[s a /one ?r\gh ! w9d[4 ,a democratic wave sweeps ! c\ntry4 ,prices ( food /uff are high4 ,! bullet1 %ot out into space1 f9ally falls to ! e>?4 ,ea* "o ( ^! occurr5ces has a cause4#ab ,t univ]sal causation is a fundam5tal condition ( all induction may be fur!r illu/rat$4 ,! a/ronom] notes t ! />s 9 ! vic9ity ( ,vega seem to be mov+ outw>d f a common c5t]2 :]eas 9 ! opposite "p ( ! sky ! />s seem to be mov+ inw>d t[>d a common c5t]4 ,hav+ obs]v$ ?is ph5om5on1 ! a/ronom] at once looks = a cause4 ,f9ally he decides t ! ph5om5on is due to ! fact t ! sun1 ) 8 att5d+ family1 is mov+ t[>ds ,vega4 ,arrang$1 ! argum5t may take ?is =m3 ,! />s 9 ! vic9ity ( ,vega seem to be mov+ outw>d f a common c5t]1 :]eas 9 ! opposite "p ( ! sky ! />s seem to be mov+ inw>d1 ,:5 desc5d+ a m\nta9 ! trees at ! foot seem to move outw>d f1 & ^? at ! top inw>d t[>d1 a common c5t]1 ,:5 rid+ on ! tra9 ! ties 9 front seem to move outw>d :ile ^? 9 ! re> seem to move inw>d4 ,f ?is we conclude t ! sun ) ! ,e>? & o!r planets is mov+ t[>d a spot 9 ! sky ne> ,vega4 ,7 x n = ! assumption t ! ph5om5on relative to ! />s _h a cause !re c\ld h be5 no induction4 ,moreov]1 any inve/igation conc]n+ 8democratic waves10 8prices ( food /uffs10 etc41 mu/ assume z a />t+ po9t t ^! ph5om5a h causes4 ,x w\ld appe> t ! m9d is n satisfi$ ) a m]e passive obs]vation ( ! occurr5ces ( ! _w b is incl9$ to rea* out = ! 8:ys & :]e=es40 ,due p>tly to ?is reason1 8univ]sal causation0 is (t5 ref]r$ to z an a priori law2 mean+ t x is a law :i* _c be prov$1 b mu/ be assum$ 9 all ?9k+4 #h4 ,,! ,,law ,,( ,,! ,,uni=mity ,,( ,,nature4 ,law /at$3 ,! same antec$5ts are inv>iably foll[$ by ! same consequ5ts4 8,t ! c\rse ( nature is uni=m is ! fundam5tal pr9ciple ( induction40,mill4 8,x is n en\gh to feel assur$ t no?+ c happ5 )\t a cause 7causation72 ,i mu/ also feel assur$ t ! same cause w inv>iably be foll[$ by ! same effect40,f[l]4 ,ref]r+ to ! obs]v$ ph5om5on ( ! outw>d movem5t ( ! />s ab\t ,vega1 ! a/ronom] might advance z an hypo!sis ! fact ( ! sol> sy/em's movem5t t[>d ,vega4 ,hav+ done ?is he c\ld !n exp]im5t ) a view ( v]ify+ ?is hypo!sis4 ,9 ?is exp]im5t he w\ld attempt to introduce ! same cause surr\nd$ by simil> circum/ances1 & !n wat* = ! same effect4 ,to make x concrete3 suppose ! a/ronom] pa9ts ! side ( a b>n d>k blue & b$ecks ?is ) />s ( :ite4 ,!n tak+ a position z f> remov$ f ! blue surface z 8 eyesight w p]mit1 he runs t[>d ! b>n wat*+ ! app>5t movem5t ( ! artificial />s4 ,a simil> exp]im5t c\ld be p]=m$ by sub/itut+ = ! />r$ b>n1 ! /umps on a side hill4 ,9 bo? exp]im5ts he assumes t l conditions w be foll[$ by con/ant results4 ,t is1 9 ^! p>ticul> cases1 advanc+ t[>d a gr\p ( objects is always foll[$ by an app>5t sep>ation ( said objects4 ,?is law ( uni=mity ( nature n only und]lies inductive ?9k+ b x really conditions all ?9k+4 ,x implies t ! univ]se is a rational sy/em function+ 9 a uni=m mann]4 ,moreov]1 x sugge/s t ! int]pretations ( ! m9d are likewise uni=m & :5ev] ! m9d proves a fact to be a univ]sal tru?1 ?is tru? w always rema9 a tru? unless ! conditions *ange4 ,9 fact 7 x n = ! uni=mity ( nature1 all activity :atsoev] w\ld be r5d]$ nugatory4 ,because ( ?is law we h a "r to assume t gr9d+ a knife "u "r conditions w always t5d to %>p5 x2 t surr\nd+ a live se$ ) a prop] environm5t w result 9 gr[?2 t wat] at ! same altitude w boil at a con/ant temp]ature1 etc41 etc4 ,! /ud5t w disc]n ! close connection betwe5 ^! two laws & ! laws ( ?\ght4 ,!re is really no di/9ctive m>k betwe5 ! law ( causation & ! law ( suffici5t reason1 :ile 8uni=mity ( nature0 includes id5tity z "o ( its di/9ctive features4 ,! laws diff]1 h[ev]1 9 _! application1 8causation0 & 8uni=mity ( nature0 condition+ inductive ?9k+1 :ile ! o!rs are conc]n$ ) d$uctive ?9k+4 ,because 8uni=mity ( nature0 expresses facts ( exp]i5ce1 x is reg>d$ z an empirical law1 z contra/$ ) ! law ( causation1 :i* is suppos$ to be bas$ ^u an innate m5tal conception or is an a priori law4 #i4 ,,inductive ,,assumption ,,ju/ifi$4 ,! function ( induction seems to be to univ]salize p>ticul>s4 ,! m9d ( man has ev] be5 engag$ 9 e/abli%+ connections among ! concrete exp]i5ces ( daily life4 ,?is ability ( 8 to g5]alize 8 individual exp]i5ces has be5 "o ( ! *ief ag5cies 9 elevat+ him to ! position ( 8,k+ ( ! animal _w40 ,9 ?is disposition to g5]alize man has tak5 x = grant$ t nature is hone/2 t :at %e tells him "u giv5 conditions1 %e w tell him aga9 "u id5tical conditions4 ,to put x 9 logical t]ms man c dep5d ^u ! inv>iability ( nature's activities1 or ^u ! uni=mity ( nature4 ,"h1 !n1 is "o ( ! mo/ fundam5tal laws n only ( induction b ( all activity4 ,b ?is law implies a second q z fundam5tal4 ,if e cause is inv>iably foll[$ by ! same effect "u l conditions1 !n x is !reby impli$ t e cause has an affect & e ev5t is due to "s cause4 ,?is1 too1 is inv>iable4 ,9 consequ5ce ( ^! facts man is ju/ifi$ 9 ?9k+ t nature is n only hone/ & !re=e 8%e gives me confid5ce1 b h] e activity means some?+ & !re=e %e ar\ses my curiosity40 8,uni=mity ( nature0 eng5d]s confid5ce1 8univ]sal causation0 inspires ! _s ( discov]y & ) ^! two weapons man is will+ to v5ture into ! jungle ( ! unkn[n4 ,:y is man eag] to und]take ! 8inductive haz>d80 ,because1 ?r\gh ! laws ( univ]sal causation & uni=mity ( nature1 8 curiosity is ar\s$1 & he is giv5 confid5ce 9 nature's activities4 #aj4 ,,?ree ,,=ms ,,( ,,inductive ,,rese>*4 ,induction is a matt] ( univ]saliz+ less univ]sal exp]i5ces4 ,9 ?is ! process may assume any "o ( ?ree =ms1 namely3 7#a7 ,induction by simple enum]ation2 7inductio p] enum]ationem72 7#b7 ,induction by analogy2 7#c7 ,induction by analysis4 ,,?ree ,,=ms ,,illu/rat$3 7#a7 ,simple enum]ation4 ,hav+ obs]v$ a few in/ances ! g5]alization is1 8,all birds h w+s40 ,! c]titude ( ?is may n[ be /r5g!n$ by obs]v+ m birds & f9d+ )\t exception t ea* has w+s4 7#b7 ,analogy4 ,by not+ on ,m>s geometric m>k+s :i* resemble canals1 ! g5]alization is v\*saf$ t ,m>s is inhabit$ by human be+s4 ,o!r simil>ities 9 atmosph]ic conditions1 exi/5ce ( l& & wat]1 etc41 t5d to make ?is g5]alization m plausible4 7#c7 ,analysis4 ,by analyz+ wat] tak5 f a c]ta9 spr+1 x is f\nd to conta9 hydrog5 & oxyg5 9 ! proportion ( #a to #h2 9 consequ5ce a g5]alization to ?is effect is posit$4 ,analyses ( specim5s f o!r s\rces yield simil> results & ?us ! g5]alization is giv5 great] c]titude4 ,z a usual ?+ ! p>ticul> =m :i* ! induction assumes dep5ds on ! nature ( ! topic "u inve/igation & also on ! m5tal make-up ( ! inve/igator4 ,! g5]al /atem5t t all birds h w+s c\ld h>dly be d]iv$ by means ( analogy or analysis1 b is a matt] ( a casual obs]vation ( _m in/ances4 ,moreov]1 t m9d giv5 to accurate obs]vation1 b n incl9$ to note resemblances or to c>ry on exp]im5ts1 w\ld naturally foll[ ! fir/ inductive type4 ,on ! o!r h&1 simple enum]ation w\ld be impossible 9 que/ions l ! habitability ( ,m>s1 & w\ld yield no results 9 cases requir+ def9ite sci5tific exp]im5tation l electrolysis4 ,x is wor?y ( note t "s topics l5d !mselves to all ?ree modes ( proc$ure4 ,to wit3 7#a7 ,enum]ation4 ,)\t be+ taught ! rule ! *ild is giv5 a li/ ( examples involv+ ! divid+ ( a decimal by a decimal & is ask$ to solve !m4 ,by comp>+ 8 answ]s ) ^? 9 ! book1 he some:at accid5tally discov]s :at seems to be ! correct rule = po9t+ (f 9 ! quoti5t4 ,by foll[+ ?is rule & ea* "t comp>+ answ]s he e/abli%es ! tru?4 7#b7 ,analogy4 ,if 4#bd 4#f is ! fir/ example1 ! *ild may resort to ! well kn[n process ( divid+ a common fraction by a 7 #bd #fj #bd #d 7 common fraction1 7 1 7 !n1 because ( _! close 7 #ajj #ajj #fj #aj 7 resemblance1 he may reason t decimal fractions %\ld yield ! same result4 7#c7 ,analysis4 ,"h ! *ild reasons t s9ce division ( decimals is ! inv]se ( multiplication ( decimals1 ! rule = po9t+ (f might be ! inv]se ( ! multiplication rule4 ,by try+ ?is out & prov+ 8 answ] 9 ea* example1 he becomes conv9c$ ( ! correctness ( 8 reason+4 #aa4 ,,induction ,,by ,,simple ,,enum]ation4 ,z its "n implies ?is type ( inductive rese>* consi/s 9 obs]v+ _m in/ances :i* may exemplify ! p>ticul> uni=mity "u consid]ation4 ,! process is quantitative r ?an qualitative1 ! c]titude ( ! g5]alization dep5d+ on ! mass ( facts collect$ r ?an on any /rik+ resemblance or any detail$ analysis4 ,! aim is to obs]ve1 accurately if n sci5tifically1 in/ance aft] in/ance until all d\bt is remov$4 ,! outcome ( su* obs]vation may be ?ree fold4 7#a7 ,! enum]ation may be complete4 ,?is gives ! s-call$ 8p]fect induction0 :i* w receive att5tion lat]4 7#b7 ,! enum]ation may be incomplete & )\t exceptions2 g5]aliz+ 9 ?is way f uncontradict$ exp]i5ce gives :at are t]m$ 8empirical0 tru?s4 7#c7 ,! enum]ation may be incomplete ) exceptions4 ,x is obvi\s t ?is type ( induction c\ld give no valid g5]alization2 b ! result may be put 9 ! =m ( a ratio betwe5 ! uni=mities & ! exceptions4 ,su* a proc$ure is a m]e 8calculation ( *ances0 & ! result simply an express$ probability4 ,,! ,,?ree ,,k9ds ,,( ,,simple ,,enum]ation ,,illu/rat$4 ,! subject to receive inve/igation is a s*ool exam9ation4 7#a7 ,complete enum]ation4 ,e pap] is read & m>k$2 ?is leads to ! g5]alization1 8,all ! class h pass$40 7#b7 ,incomplete enum]ation ) no exceptions4 ,repres5tative pap]s are read & m>k$ 9 :i* no failures are f\nd4 ,g5]alization1 8,probably all ( ! class h pass$40 7#c7 ,incomplete enum]ation ) exceptions4 ,repres5tative pap]s are read & m>k$ 9 :i* !re are #bj failures out ( ! hundr$ pap]s exam9$4 ,g5]alization1 8,probably ab\t #hj ( ! class h pass$40 ,briefly1 simple enum]ation may take ! =m ( 7#a7 a p]fect induction1 7#b7 a probable induction1 7#c7 a m]e calculation ( *ances4 ,! fir/ necessitates complet$ exp]i5ce1 ! second uncontradict$ exp]i5ce & ! ?ird contradict$ exp]i5ce4 #ab4 ,,induction ,,by ,,analogy4 ,induction by analogy assumes t if two 7or m7 ?+s resemble ea* o!r 9 c]ta9 respects1 !y belong to ! same type1 &1 !re=e1 any fact kn[n ( ! "o may be affirm$ ( ! o!r4 ,,! ,,type4 ,z ! def9ition implies1 analogy involves an ext5sive use ( types2 let u1 !re=e1 become bett] acqua9t$ ) !m z in/rum5ts 9 analogical inductions4 ,a type is "o ( a gr\p :i* embodies ! ess5tial *>act]i/ics ( t gr\p4 ,h[ easy & natural x is to dismiss a complex topic ) ! cit+ ( an example :i* may be reg>d$ z a type2 h[ common is ! use ( examples 9 ! s*ool room6 ,on second ?\ght x becomes app>5t t analogical induction by example or type is ! mo/ common ( all =ms ( induction ei!r z a me?od or a mode ( inf]5ce4 ,analogy by example 7or type7 assumes t if two or m ?+s are ( ! same type1 !y resemble ea* o!r 9 e ess5tial prop]ty4 ,illu/rations ( analogical inductions by example or type4 7#a7 ,ma!matics4 ,example3 a b a b a ab ab b a #b;ab b ,inductive ,inf]5ce3 ,! squ>e ( ! sum ( two quantities is equal to ! squ>e ( ! fir/1 plus twice ! fir/ by ! second1 plus ! squ>e ( ! second4 7#b7 ,nature4 ,?is corn s5t me z a sample produc$ heavy1 full e>s1 & _m ( !m2 h5ce 7inductive inf]5ce71 if ,i plant corn l ?is sample "u l conditions1 ,i w receive 9 return heavy1 full e>s1 & _m ( !m4 7#c7 ,geography4 ,cities l ,new ,york1 locat$ on ! coa/1 possess a l>g] =eign elem5t ?an ! inl& cities l ,philadelphia4 7#d7 ,gramm>4 ,a n\n is ! "n ( any?+1 z ! examples1 8,george ,wa%+ton0 & 8h\se0 w\ld indicate4 ,9 d]iv+ a g5]alization f "o or two examples ! prime ess5tial is to select types :i* are truly repres5tative4 ,(t5 ! example us$ is a special type & 9 consequ5ce does n exemplify all ( ! ess5tial *>act]i/ics ( ! gr\p4 ,to tea* ! nature ( a p>allelogram by us+ a rectangle only1 is an easy way to commit ?is error2 or "o may affirm t ! class c easily cov] ! "w1 :5 ! judgm5t is bas$ entirely on k conc]n+ ! brighte/ "o ( ! grade4 ,type "w :5 judicially us$ is a positive "t sav] & a v pres5t help 9 times ( p]plexity4 ,let ! skillful tea*] use types & examples ext5sively yet cauti\sly4 ,,! ,,m>k ,,( ,,simil>ity4 ,z oppos$ to analogy by type !re is a second =m2 namely1 analogy by "o or m simil> m>ks or qualities4 ,?is =m is be/ describ$ by ! def9ition3 ,:5 two ?+s resemble ea* o!r 9 a few m>ks or qualities !y resemble ea* o!r 9 o!r m>ks or qualities4 ,illu/rations ( analogy by m>ks4 7#a7 ,not+ t two /ud5ts h ! same surname1 ,i inf] t !y are bro!rs4 7#b7 ,a man ) a book "u 8 arm r+s ! door bell & asks to see 8! lady ( ! h\se40 ,at once ! conclusion is drawn t ! call] is a book ag5t4 7#c7 ,two automobiles1 resembl+ ea* o!r 9 %ape ( body1 =ce "o to ! conclusion t ! ma*9es are ( ! same make4 ,,! ,,errors ,,( ,,analogy ,,by ,,m>ks ,,( ,,simil>ity4 ,x foll[s t analogy by example gives g5]alizations ( mu* great] c]titude ?an analogy by "o or two m>ks ( resemblance4 ,"h is a field bespatt]$ f b\nd>y to b\nd>y ) errone\s ?9k+4 ,! pr9ciple ( resemblance be+ an innate t5d5cy1 ?is =m ( error is mo/ common ) ! immature4 ,! *ild reasons by analogy :5 he inve/s ! poodle ) ! despis$ cognom5 ( 8kitty02 or honors e man :o we>s glasses ) 8papa40 ,9 ! *ildhood ( ! race natural ev5ts 7 int]pret$ by means ( analogy4 ,! w9d bl[+ ?r\gh ! trees made s\nds mu* l ! human voice2 h5ce ^! noises 7 attribut$ to spirits4 ,primeval man 0 l$ to believe by analogy t ev]y?+ :i* mov$ 0 alive4 ,we may1 !re=e1 ?9k ( our rev]$ =be> z engag$ 9 ! undignifi$ task ( runn+ aft] 8 %ad[1 or *as+ a leaf ar\nd a /ump4 ,,! ,,value ,,( ,,analogy4 ,analogy be+ ri* 9 its sugge/ions is ! favor$ process ( ! sci5ti/ & inv5tor4 ,newton reason$ by analogy :5 he t5tatively affirm$ ( ! moon :at he positively knew ( ! apple4 ,frankl9's reason+ 0 analogical :5 he discov]$ ! id5tity ( ! electric sp>k & lightn+4 ,because ?is =m ( induction s (t5 leads to error & at be/ involves a degree ( probability f> bel[ induction by analysis1 "s logicians are incl9$ to ignore its g5]alizations altoge!r4 ,o!rs deem ?is a mi/ake because ( ^! reasons3 ,fir/4 ,analogy is s]viceable to a high degree 9 sugge/+ hypo!ses :i* may be advanc$ ei!r = ! purpose ( explanation or v]ification4 ,x has already be5 indicat$ t analogy is ! common in/rum5t us$ by ! inv5tor & discov]]4 ,second4 ,! pr9ciple ( analogy1 9 reality1 lies at ! basis ( classification2 because 9 ?is1 ?+s are gr\p$ accord+ to _! resemblances4 ,?ird4 ,analogical induction af=ds valuable tra9+ 9 orig9ality & initiative4 ,a m9d :i* easily & naturally disc]ns analogies is 8f]tile 9 new ideas40 ,,requirem5ts ,,( ,a ,,true ,,analogy4 ,x has be5 rem>k$ t ! c]titude ( an induction by simple enum]ation dep5ds ^u ! numb] ( uncontradict$ in/ances4 ,9 analogy ! case is diff]5t z ! process emphasizes ! weight ( ! po9ts ( resemblance r ?an ! numb]4 ,9 sub/ance ! requirem5ts ( a logical analogy are ?ree4 ,fir/4 ,! po9ts ( resemblance mu/ be repres5tative & n exceptional4 ,= example3 ,! argum5t t ,m>s is inhabit$ because x has two moons is ( little wor?1 s9ce we h no pro( t moon%9e is ess5tial to life2 ?is po9t ( resemblance is n repres5tative4 ,on ! o!r h&1 if ! basis ( argum5t is ! fact t ,m>s has an atmosph]e1 ! conclusion c>ries "s weight2 z air seems to be ess5tial to life4 ,second4 ,! po9ts ( resemblance mu/ outweigh ! po9ts ( diff]5ce4 ,t is1 ! ratio ( probability mu/ always be 9 favor ( ! resembl+ in/ances4 ,s9ce x is n a matt] ( numb]s b ( weight1 a num]ical proportion l ?is w\ld be mislead+3 ,resemblances3 ,diff]5ces #aj3f4 ,x is obvi\s t ! six diff]5ces might m ?an outweigh ! t5 resemblances4 ,! saf] way1 if x 7 possible1 w\ld be to atta* a value to ea* po9t ( resemblance or diff]5ce1 & !n express ! proportion 9 t]ms ( ! sums ( ^! values4 ,?ird4 ,!re mu/ be no diff]5ce :i* is absolutely incompatible ) ! affirmation :i* we wi% to prove4 ,= example1 ! fact t ! moon has no atmosph]e r5d]s nugatory any attempt to prove ! habitability ( ! moon4 #ac4 ,,induction ,,by ,,analysis4 ,?is1 ! ?ird =m ( inductive rese>*1 is by f> ! mo/ important4 ,simple enum]ation1 because x dep5ds ^u ! numb] ( obs]v$ in/ances1 consumes mu* "t2 :ile we h already not$ h[ easy x is = analogy to lead to error4 ,at ! be/1 ! conclusion ( ^! me?ods mu/ be subject$ to analytic inve/igation1 if we are seek+ univ]sal validity4 ,induction by analysis is sup]ior to ! o!r =ms because x secures a high] degree ( probability & is a positive "t sav]4 ,def9$4 ,we h le>n$ t analysis is ! process ( sep>at+ a :ole into its relat$ p>ts4 ,we ?us def9e induction by analysis z ! process ( sep>at+ a :ole into its p>ts ) a view ( d]iv+ a g5]alization relative to ! nature & causal connection ( ^! p>ts4 ,,illu/rations3 7#a7 ,conc]n+ ! g5]alization t 8all birds h w+s10 x becomes possible to obs]ve 9 detail ! nature ( ! w+s & advance ! hypo!sis t ^! w+s are design$ = arial navigation4 ,?is hypo!sis may !n be /r5g!n$ by obs]v+ t ! entire /ructure ( ! bird is adapt$ to fly+4 7#b7 ,if x 7 possible to analyze ! atmosph]e1 wat]1 & soil ( ,m>s1 & %\ld su* analysis reveal a composition simil> to t ( ! e>?1 x w\ld illu/rate well n only ! me?od ( analysis b also its sup]iority ov] ! o!r me?ods ( inve/igation4 7#c7 ,! physician1 9 diagnos+ a 8case10 obs]ves t ! symptoms resemble ^? ( typhoid2 b to be positive ( ! tru? ( 8 diagnosis1 he takes a blood te/4 ,not+ ! resemblances is induction by analogy2 b ! blood te/ involves induction by analysis4 ,induction by analysis conc]ns hypo!sis1 obs]vation1 & exp]im5t1 includ+ ,mill's exp]im5tal me?ods4 ,^! topics w receive due att5tion 9 ! *apt]s :i* foll[4 ,x w be suffici5t to close ?is discussion ) a brief treatm5t ( p]fect induction1 & traduction4 #ad4 ,,p]fect ,,induction4 ,z has be5 indicat$ "u simple enum]ation1 a p]fect induction is "o 9 :i* ! premises enum]ate all ! in/ances d5ot$ by ! conclusion4 ,,illu/rations3 7#a7 ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 ,d1 & ,e are all ,reaction>ies1 7,all7 ,! memb]s ( ! committee are ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 ,d1 & ,e1 7,all7 ,! memb]s ( ! committee are ,reaction>ies4 7#b7 ,john1 ,james1 ,alb]t1 & ,pet] all h p]fect eyesight1 ,john1 ,james1 ,alb]t1 & ,pet] are all ! boys ( my family1 ,all ! boys ( my family h p]fect eyesight4 7#c7 ,! fir/1 second1 & ?ird gr\ps are up to grade1 ,! fir/1 second1 & ?ird gr\ps include all ( ! *ildr5 9 my room1 ,h5ce all ! *ildr5 9 my room are up to grade4 ,because ! conclusion ( a p]fect induction gives no?+ newno?+ b :at is f\nd 9 ! premises1 "s claim t ! process is practically valueless4 ,f ! viewpo9t ( ! discov]] ?is position is well tak52 yet to univ]salize p>ticul> obs]vations puts ! k 9 compact1 usable =m1 & saves "o ! tr\ble ( return+ ea* "t to ! consid]ation ( ea* p>ticul>4 ,?us z a process :i* leads to v]ifi$ univ]sals1 p]fect induction is a "t sav]4 ,9 ! second place x 0 ! me?od us$ by ,socrates :5 he desir$ to lead up to a def9ition or "s o!r g5]al tru?4 ,! ,sophi/s 7 giv5 to a c>eless use ( ! 8inductive haz>d02 !y 7 prone to g5]alize f "o or two p>ticul>s1 or :at is worse1 to e/abli% a g5]alization & !n attempt to fit ! p>ticul> in/ances to x4 ,?is l$ to a sup]ficiality :i* ! ,great ,pagan ,educator abhorr$4 ,! fact t p]fect induction 0 ! me?od us$ by ,socrates to c\nt]act ! tea*+s ( ! ,sophi/s1 is suffici5t v9dication = its use 9 disc\rag+ ! indef5sible assumptions ( to-day1 & 9 inspir+ w>rantable g5]alizations bas$ on accurate obs]vation4 ,9 ! s*ool room ) classes addict$ to c>eless1 inaccurate "w1 to accept no?+ b a p]fectly induc$ g5]alization1 :5 ?is is feasible1 is a mo/ valuable lesson4 ,= example1 ! tea*] may n accept ! g5]alization t all ( ! 8fir/ class0 cities ( ! ,u4 ,s4 are locat$ on navigable wat]ways1 until ! pupils h inve/igat$ ! wat]way conditions ( e city belong+ to ! class4 ,on ! o!r h&1 !re may be individual cases ( 8cocksur5ess0 :i* ne$ att5tion4 ,! tea*] c d little = ! 8"k-x-all y\ng/]0 until he pricks ! bubble ( conceit4 ,?is may be accompli%$ by all[+ ! y\? to draw a g5]alization1 :i* seems to meet all ! requirem5ts ( tru? arriv$ at by means ( an imp]fect induction2 !n )\t w>n+ let ! tea*] give an in/ance :i* w %[ ! g5]alization to be false4 ,?is involves :at ,socrates t]m$ ! 8torp$o's %ock40 ,to illu/rate3 ,consid] ! 8prime numb]0 =mula giv5 by ,jevons4 ,9 d]iv+ ?is1 direct ! class to add #b to its squ>e1 & to ?is sum add #da4 ,give simil> directions relative to numb]s #c1 #d1 #g & #aj4 ,indicat+ ! "w z direct$1 w\ld give ! foll[+3 7#a7 #b #b #da #dg 7#b7 #c #c #da #ec 7#c7 #d #d #da #fa 7#d7 #g #g #da #ig 7#e7 #aj #aj #da #aea ,a "q or two w make app>5t ! fact t all ! results are prime numb]s1 & !n ! g5]alization may be drawn2 namely1 ,x ,x #da prime numb]4 ,n[ )\t w>n+1 b "u ! assumption t y desire to te/ d$uctively ! g5]al =mula1 let ,x #dj4 ,?is gives 7#dj #dj #da7 #afha1 :i* is ! squ>e ( #da & is1 !re=e1 n a prime numb]4 #ae4 ,,traduction4 ,x may h be5 not$ by ! /ud5t t 8p]fect induction0 is n induction at all accord+ to ! def9ition2 viz43 ,inductive reason+ is reason+ f less g5]al premises to a m g5]al conclusion4 ,ref]r+ to ! fir/ illu/ration ( ! previ\s section x is app>5t t ! conclusion is no broad] ?an ! premises4 ,o/5sibly1 ! conclusion is a m]e summ>y1 or a g5]alization ( ! facts m5tion$ 9 ! premises4 ,moreov] p]fect induction does n readily con=m to ! def9ition ( d$uctive reason+1 z 9 ?is ! movem5t mu/ be f ! m g5]al to ! less4 ,we are ?us =c$ to ! conclusion t p]fect induction is a =m ( a ?ird type ( reason+ :i* is kn[n "u ! cognom5 ( traduction4 ,?is is f ! ,lat9 trans1 & duc]e mean+ to lead across4 ,def9ition3 ,traductive reason+ is reason+ to a conclusion :i* is nei!r less g5]al nor m g5]al ?an ! premises4 ,aside f ! case ( p]fect induction !re are o!r types :i* well illu/rate traduction4 ,^! are3 ,fir/4 ,reason+ f p>ticul> 7or individuals7 to p>ticul> 7or individuals74 ,,illu/ration3 ,highl& ,/reet is ! longe/ /reet 9 ,jamaica1 ,highl& ,/reet is n s long z ,broadway ( ,new ,york ,city1 ,! longe/ /reet ( ,jamaica is n s long z ,broadway ( ,new ,york ,city4 ,second4 ,reason+ f g5]al to g5]al4 ,,illu/ration3 ,all gr[+ ?+s die1 ,all liv+ ?+s are gr[+ ?+s1 ,all liv+ ?+s die4 ,x may be obs]v$ t all ( ! propositions 9 traduction are co-ext5sive 8,a's0 or 8,e's02 h5ce all ! t]ms are di/ribut$4 ,?is elim9ates any possibility ( committ+ fallacies ( di/ribution4 ,fur!r1 ! propositions may be int]*ang$ at w1 )\t invalidat+ ! p>ticul> conclusion select$4 ,to illu/rate we may *ange ! la/ argum5t to ?is3 ,all gr[+ ?+s are liv+ ?+s1 ,all ?+s t die are gr[+ ?+s1 ,all ?+s t die are liv+ ?+s4 ,f ! viewpo9t ( au!nticity traduction is ! mo/1 & induction ! lea/ dep5dable2 :]eas ! c]titude ( d$uctive reason+ lies some:]e betwe5 ! two4 ,on ! o!r h&1 :5 look$ at f ! gr\nd ( s]viceabl5ess ! ord] is rev]s$1 induction be+ ! mo/ useful =m ( inf]5ce & traduction ! lea/4 #af4 ,,outl9e4 ,,inductive ,,reason+4 7#a7 ,inductive & ,d$uctive ,reason+ ,di/+ui%$4 7#b7 ,! 8,inductive ,haz>d40 ,ess5tial 9 _w's progress4 ,cultivat$ & regulat$ 9 s*ool4 7#c7 ,complexity ( ! ,problem ( ,induction4 7#d7 ,v>i\s ,conceptions ( ,induction4 ,quotations f prom95t au?orities4 7#e7 ,induction & ,d$uction ,contigu\s ,processes4 7#f7 ,induction an ,assumption4 ,a mode ( inf]5ce2 ,a me?od4 7#g7 ,univ]sal ,causation4 ,law /at$ & illu/rat$4 ,conditions all induction4 7#h7 ,uni=mity ( ,nature4 ,def9$ & illu/rat$4 ,conditions all induction4 ,empirical4 7#i7 ,inductive ,assumptions ,ju/ifi$4 7#aj7 ,?ree ,=ms ( ,inductive ,rese>*4 7#a7 ,enum]ation 7#b7 ,analogy 7#c7 ,analysis4 ,illu/rat$4 ,conditions det]m9e =m foll[$4 7#aa7 ,induction by ,simple ,enum]ation4 ,def9$ & illu/rat$4 ,outcome ?reefold^! illu/rat$4 7#ab7 ,induction by ,analogy4 ,two conceptions4 ,analogy by type or example4 ,illu/rations repres5tative4 ,error ( analogy4 ,sugge/iv5ess ( analogy4 ,value ( analogy4 ,requirem5ts ( a true analogy4 ,?ree4 7#ac7 ,induction by ,analysis4 ,importance4 ,def9$ & illu/rat$4 7#ad7 ,p]fect ,induction4 ,def9$ & illu/rat$4 ,its use4 ,me?od ( ,socrates4 7#ae7 ,traduction4 ,def9$ & illu/rat$4 ,?ree me?ods comp>$4 #ag4 ,,summ>y4 7#a7 ,reason+ is ! process ( d]iv+ a judgm5t f two antec$5t judgm5ts4 ,! syllogism is a common =m ( express+ ! process ( reason+4 ,inductive reason+ is reason+ f less g5]al premises to a m g5]al conclusion4 ,d$uctive reason+ is reason+ f m g5]al premises to a less g5]al conclusion4 ,! inductive syllogism is n suppos$ to con=m to ! canons ( ! d$uctive syllogism4 7#b7 ,posit+ 9 ! conclusion m ?an is indicat$ 9 ! premises involves :at is kn[n z ! 8inductive haz>d40 ,! inductive haz>d :i* is ano!r expression = ! _s ( discov]y1 %\ld be fo/]$ 9 ! s*ool room s9ce x has be5 "o ( ! great =ces 9 human progress2 b ?is v5turesome _s mu/ be regulat$ by rules1 pr9ciples1 & sy/ematic proc$ure1 or l[ ideals ( recklessness & inaccuracy w result4 7#c7 ,! problem ( induction is m complex ?an t ( d$uction2 because ! =m] is a comp>atively new subject1 & also is m closely relat$ to ! activities ( life4 7#d7 ,! op9ion relative to ! exact nature ( induction1 ?\gh v>i$1 may be summ$ up 9 ! ?\ght ( its be+ ! process :i* leads to g5]al tru?s1 d]iv$ f ! obs]vation ( individual facts4 7#e7 ,induction & d$uction are contigu\s processes :i* g to make up ! m g5]al process ( ?9k+4 ,:]e induction ceases1 d$uction naturally comm5ces2 induction discov]s new k1 d$uction cl>ifies x4 7#f7 ,induction z a g5]al process may be treat$ z a mode ( inf]5ce or z a me?od4 ,9 ei!r case ! conclusion compreh5ds m ?an is conta9$ 9 ! premises4 ,s9ce no imp]fect induction is absolutely free f d\bt1 on :at gr\nd are we ju/ifi$ 9 mak+ any inductive assumptions8 ,! answ] foll[s3 7#g & #h7 8,no?+ c occur )\t a cause & e cause has its effect10 is ! law ( univ]sal causation2 :ile ! law ( ! uni=mity ( nature is 8! same antec$5ts are univ]sally foll[$ by ! same consequ5ts40 ,^! two laws ju/ify inductive assumptions1 &1 9 a s5se1 condition all ?9k+4 7#i7 ,uni=mity ( nature gives man confid5ce1 :ile univ]sal causation ar\ses 8 curiosity4 ,) ^! two weapons he is will+ to 8m>* into ! unkn[n40 7#aj7 ,z ! process ( univ]saliz+ individual exp]i5ces1 induction assumes ! ?ree =ms ( simple enum]ation1 analogy & analysis4 ,! =m adopt$ is n always elective b is controll$ l>gely by ! exig5cy ( ! case4 ,"s topics l5d !mselves to all ?ree modes4 7#aa7 ,induction by simple enum]ation consi/s 9 obs]v+ _m in/ances :i* exemplify ! uni=mity "u consid]ation4 ,complete enum]ation gives ! s call$ p]fect inductive inf]5ce2 incomplete b uncontradict$ enum]ation leads to empirical tru?s2 :ile incomplete & contradictive enum]ation involves a m]e calculation ( *ances4 7#ab7 ,induction by analogy assumes t if two 7or m7 ?+s resemble ea* o!r 9 c]ta9 respects1 !y belong to ! same type1 &1 !re=e1 any fact kn[n ( ! "o1 may be affirm$ ( ! o!r4 ,a mo/ common =m ( analogy is reason+ by type or example4 ,9 ?is x is assum$ t if two or m ?+s are ( ! same type1 !y resemble ea* 9 e ess5tial prop]ty4 ,! type mu/ be truly repres5tative4 ,a second =m ( analogy is reason+ by m>ks ( resemblance4 ,?is second =m (t5 leads to egregi\s error4 ,analogy is especially valuable 9 sugge/+ hypo!ses & 9 giv+ tra9+ 9 orig9ality & initiative4 ,a true analogy dem&s t ! po9ts ( resemblance be repres5tative2 t !y outweigh ! po9ts ( diff]5ce1 & t no disagreem5t be incompatible4 7#ac7 ,induction by analysis is ! process ( divid+ a :ole into its p>ts ) a view ( d]iv+ a g5]alization relative to ! nature & causal connection ( ^! p>ts4 ,induction by analysis makes use ( ! hypo!sis1 ( obs]vation & exp]im5t1 includ+ ,mill's five me?ods4 7#ad7 ,a p]fect induction is "o 9 :i* ! premises enum]ate all ( ! in/ances d5ot$ by ! conclusion4 ,x is s]viceable 9 inspir+ c>e & accuracy 9 ! e/abli%m5t ( g5]alizations4 7#ae7 ,traduction is ! process ( reason+ to a conclusion :i* is nei!r less g5]al nor m g5]al ?an ! premises4 ,traduction includes reason+ f p>ticul> to p>ticul> or f g5]al to g5]al4 ,p]fect induction is 9 reality a =m ( traduction4 ,induction1 ?\gh ! mo/ useful =m ( inf]5ce1 is ! mo/ untru/wor?y2 :]eas traduction is j ! rev]se ( ?is4 #ah4 ,,review ,,que/ions4 7#a7 ,def9e & illu/rate reason+4 7#b7 ,di/+ui% by def9ition & illu/ration betwe5 inductive & d$uctive reason+4 7#c7 ,expla9 ! 8inductive haz>d0 & %[ its use to man4 7#d7 8,= tw5ty c5turies ,ari/otle's ,d$uctive ,logic 0 ! logician's bible40 ,expla9 ?is4 7#e7 ,%[ t induction & d$uction are contigu\s processes4 7#f7 ,di/+ui% betwe5 induction z a mode ( inf]5ce & induction z a me?od4 7#g7 ,/ate & expla9 ! law ( univ]sal causation4 ,illu/rate fully4 7#h7 ,make evid5t t a cause may involve _m antec$5ts4 7#i7 ,/ate & expla9 by illu/ration ! law ( uni=mity ( nature4 7#aj7 ,v]ify by illu/ration ! notion t ! 8fact ( causation0 conditions all induction4 7#aa7 ,:i* ( ! two laws is empirical1 8causation0 or 8uni=mity08 ,:y8 7#ab7 ,%[ t induction is a =m ( ?9k+4 7#ac7 ,:y %\ld ! law ( uni=mity ( nature conv9ce man t nature is hone/8 ,illu/rate4 7#ad7 ,%[ t ! law ( univ]sal causation /irs ! _s ( discov]y4 7#ae7 ,"n & illu/rate ! ?ree =ms ( induction4 7#af7 ,:y is x t ! t5d5cies ( ! inve/igator (t5 det]m9e ! inductive =m :i* he adopts8 7#ag7 ,expla9 by illu/ration ! ?ree-fold outcome ( induction by simple enum]ation4 7#ah7 ,select+ "s class room exp]i5ce1 illu/rate analogy by example or type4 7#ai7 ,def9e & exemplify types z us$ 9 logic4 7#bj7 ,rem>k ^u ! errors incid5t to analogy4 7#ba7 ,summ>ize ! advantages :i* induction by analogy (f]s4 7#bb7 ,/ate & exemplify ! requirem5ts ( true analogies4 7#bc7 ,indicate ! sup]iority ( induction by analysis ov] ! o!r two =ms4 ,illu/rate4 7#bd7 ,def9e & illu/rate p]fect induction4 7#be7 ,"u :at circum/ances is p]fect induction ju/ifi$8 7#bf7 ,def9e & illu/rate traduction4 7#bg7 ,indicate ! v>i\s =ms ( traduction4 #ai4 ,,que/ions ,,= ,,orig9al ,,?\ght ,,& ,,inve/igation4 7#a7 ,%[ ! connection betwe5 illicit m9or & ! 8inductive haz>d40 7#b7 ,%[ by illu/ration t "t t5ds to univ]salize tru?4 7#c7 8,induction & n d$uction is ! natural me?od ( ! *ild m9d40 ,prove ! correctness ( ?is /atem5t4 7#d7 8,induction is ! process ( inf]5ce by :i* we get at g5]al tru?s f p>ticul> facts or cases40 ,prove t ?is is n /rictly correct accord+ to def9ition4 7#e7 ,z relat$ to e/abli%+ g5]al tru?s1 :at are ! special functions ( induction & d$uction8 7#f7 ,%[ t an inductive inf]5ce mu/ ( necessity be m or less unc]ta94 7#g7 ,is !re any di/9ction betwe5 ! laws ( univ]sal causation & suffici5t reason8 ,hyslop's ,elem5ts ( ,logic1 page #cbi4 7#h7 ,%[ t univ]sal causation & uni=mity ( nature are complem5t>y laws4 ,hyslop1 p4 #ccj4 7#i7 ,relate ! 8fact ( causation0 to ! laws ( ?\ght4 7#aj7 ,di/+ui% betwe5 empirical & 8a priori0 laws4 7#aa7 ,:5 ,h>vey discov]$ ! circulation ( ! blood1 :at =m ( induction did he use8 7#ab7 ,:at =m ( reason+ did ,columbus foll[ 9 prov+ t ! e>? is sph]ical8 7#ac7 8,x is said t ! greatness ( ,d>w9 0 due l>gely to 8 habit ( nev] ignor+ an exception40 ,ju/ify by illu/ration ! tru? ( ?is ass]tion4 7#ad7 ,9 analogical reason+ by example1 "u :at conditions w\ld "o illu/ration be z conv9c+ z _m8 7#ae7 8,consid]+ ! simil>ities & diff]5ces1 ! weight ( ! argum5t favors ,m>s' habitability40 ,suppose ! proportion ( probability 7 some?+ l ?is,resemblances3 ,diff]5ces #h3g2 :]e9 might ! conclusion be errone\s8 7#af7 ,m5tion a m>k or *>act]i/ic :i* w\ld make ! habitability ( ,m>s incompatible8 7#ag7 ,select a topic = inve/igation :i* is peculi>ly adapt$ to enum]ation2 to analogy2 to analysis4 7#ah7 8,! uni=mities we expect to f9d 9 ! _w take two ma9 aspects1 "o ( :i* is indicat$ by ! t]m ?+ & ! o!r by ! t]m circum/ance40 ,aik9's ,pr9ciples ( ,logic1 #aije2 p4 #bcc4 ,9 ! light ( ! two fundam5tal laws ( univ]sal causation & uni=mity ( nature expla9 & illu/rate ! quotation4 7#ai7 ,expla9 ! pr9ciple ( teleology z relat$ to analogy4 ,hibb51 #aijh2 p4 #cag4 ,,*apt] #ah4 ,,! ,,five ,,special ,,me?ods ,,( ,,obs]vation ,,& ,,exp]im5t4#ac #a4 ,,! ,,aim ,,( ,,! ,,five ,,me?ods4 ,! prim>y =ms ( induction h be5 divid$ into simple enum]ation1 analogy & analysis 4 ,condition+ ^! =ms are ! two laws1 uni=mity ( nature & univ]sal causation4 ,s9ce ^! laws are always conc]n$ ) causes1 we may ref] to !m z toge!r express+ ! fundam5tal 8fact ( causation40 ,:]ev] !re is a causal connection1 no matt] h[ slight1 ^! laws obta94 ,?\gh 8! fact ( causation0 probably conditions all =ms ( induction1 x is mo/ conspicu\s 9 ! ?ird =m2 namely1 ,analysis4 ,"h ! ma9 aim is to e/abli% a causal connection ( "s k9d2 an aim :i* may be accompli%$ ?r\gh ! m$ium ( obs]vation & exp]im5t4 ,incid5t to ?is notion1 ,john ,/ew>t ,mill =mulat$ five exp]im5tal me?ods ( induction4 ,^! are kn[n accord+ to ! foll[+ di/9ctive titles3 #a4 ,! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t4 #b4 ,! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce4 #c4 ,! ,jo9t ,me?od ( ,agreem5t & ,diff]5ce4 #d4 ,! ,me?od ( ,concomitant ,v>iations4 #e4 ,! ,me?od ( ,residues4 #b4 ,,me?od ,,( ,,agreem5t4 7#a7 ,pr9ciple /at$4 ,z /at$ by ,mill ! pr9ciple ( ! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t is ?is3 8,if two or m in/ances ( ! ph5om5on "u inve/igation h only "o circum/ance 9 common1 ! circum/ances 9 :i* alone all ! in/ances agree is ! cause 7or effect7 ( ! giv5 ph5om5on40 ,?is notion is giv5 9 cle>] t]ms by ,jevons & ,creighton4 ,viz43 8,! sole inv>iable antec$5t ( a ph5om5on is probably its cause02 & 8,! sole inv>iable consequ5t ( a ph5om5on is probably its effect40 ,x is kn[n t an antec$5t is any?+ :i* prec$es2 :ile a consequ5t is any?+ :i* foll[s4 ,to be reg>d$ z a cause1 an antec$5t mu/ be inv>iable1 & to be reg>d$ z an effect1 a consequ5t mu/ likewise be inv>iable4 ,antec$5ts & consequ5ts :i* are 9 no way con/ant c\ld h>dly h any causal connection4 7#b7 ,me?od symboliz$4 ,let ,p1 ,p1 ,p1 ,p1 etc41 repres5t ! ph5om5on z x may appe> ! fir/1 second1 ?ird1 f\r?1 etc41 times1 & let ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 etc41 /& = ! v>i\s antec$5ts1 or ! v>i\s consequ5ts z ! case may dem&4 ,^! two =ms may n[ be us$ to illu/rate ! two /atem5ts :i* summ>ize ,agreem5t3 ,fir/ /atem5t4 ,antec$5ts4 ,consequ5ts4 ,a ,b ,c ,d ,p ,a ,d ,e ,f ,p ,a ,l ,m ,n ,p ,a ,o ,p ,q ,p ,second /atem5t4 ,p ,a ,b ,c ,d ,p ,a ,d ,e ,f ,p ,a ,l ,m ,n ,p ,a ,o ,p ,q ,9 ! fir/ case1 ! sole inv>iable antec$5t is ,a1 &1 !re=e1 we inf] t ,a is probably ! cause ( ,p4 ,9 ! second case1 ! inv>iable consequ5t be+ ,a1 is probably ! effect ( ,p4 7#c7 ,concrete examples illu/rat+ fir/ /atem5t4 ,! ,problem3 ,cause ( ,john's t>d9ess4 ,on inve/igation ! v>i\s antec$5ts are ^!3 7#a7 ,john has 8 breakfa/ at sev52 7#b7 aft] breakfa/ he c>ries 8 fa!r's d9n] to him & 7#c7 fe$s ! h5s2 & !n 7#d7 goes to s*ool by ! pa? ?r\gh ! woods & ar\nd ! mill pond4 ,ph5om5on z a consequ5t4 ,john is t>dy4 ,det]m9+ to d away ) ! t>d9ess1 ! tea*] br+s ab\t a v>iation 9 ! antec$5ts1 v>y+ "o at a "t tak5 9 ! ord] indicat$ above4 ,to wit3 7#a7 ,v>y+ ! fir/ antec$5t4 ,john breakfa/s at #f3cj2 ,o!r antec$5ts ! same2 7,ph5om5on7 ,b ,john is t>dy4 7#b7 ,v>y+ ! second antec$5t4 ,! y\ng] bro!r c>ries ! d9n]2 ,o!r antec$5ts ! same2 7,ph5om5on7 ,john is t>dy4 7#c7 ,v>y+ ! ?ird antec$5t4 ,ano!r bro!r c>es = ! h5s2 ,o!r antec$5ts ! same2 7,ph5om5on7 ,john is /ill t>dy4 ,! tea*] is n[ q c]ta9 t ! t>d9ess is due to ! r\te ?r\gh ! woods & ar\nd ! pond4 ,us+1 z symbols1 ! initial lett]s ( ! italiciz$ 8key-words0 ( ! antec$5ts z /at$ above1 ! case ( t>d9ess may be symboliz$ z foll[s3 ,key words ,symbols sev5 s d9n] d h5s h woods w t>dy t1 t1 t ,antec$5ts ,ph5om5on s d h w t e d h w t s b h w t s d a w t 8w0 /&+ = r\te ?r\gh ! woods1 is se5 to be ! inv>iable antec$5t4 7#d7 ,concrete example illu/rat+ ! second /atem5t4 ,! ,problem3 ,to det]m9e ! effect ( direct prim>ies4 ,fir/ trial4 ,antec$5t ,consequ5ts #a4 ,great] exp5se to c&idate1 ,direct #b4 ,great] int]e/ %[n1 prim>y #c4 ,bett] m5 nom9at$1 #d4 8,bump]0 crops4 ,second trial4 #a4 ,great] exp5se to c&idate1 ,direct #b4 ,great] int]e/ %[n1 prim>y #c4 ,bett] m5 nom9at$1 #d4 ,crops bel[ av]age4 ,?ird trial4 #a4 ,no great] exp5se1 ,direct #b4 ,great] int]e/ %[n1 prim>y #c4 ,bett] m5 nom9at$1 #d4 ,crops av]age4 ,f\r? trial4 #a4 ,no great] exp5se1 ,direct #b4 ,no great] int]e/1 prim>y #c4 ,bett] m5 nom9at$1 #d4 ,crops av]age4 ,x is se5 t ! inv>iable consequ5t is1 8,bett] m5 nom9at$40 ,we may1 !re=e1 conclude t ?is is a probable effect ( 8,direct prim>ies40 7#e7 ,di/+ui%+ features ( me?od ( agreem5t4 ,! ess5tial *>act]i/ics ( ! me?od ( agreem5t are ?ree3 ,fir/1 ,! ph5om5on always occurs4 ,second1 ,!re is at lea/ "o inv>iable antec$5t4 ,?ird1 ,! o!r antec$5ts v>y4 ,giv+ att5tion to ! att5d+ symboliz$ illu/rations x may be not$ t 8,p10 ! ph5om5on1 always happ5s2 :ile 9 ! case ( ! fir/ symbolization1 8,d0 is ! inv>iable antec$5t & 8,a1 ,b1 ,c1 ,e1 ,g1 ,l1 ,m1 ,f1 ,i0 are ! v>iable antec$5ts4 8,k0 is ! inv>iable antec$5t ( ! second & 8,h1 ,i1 ,l1 ,t1 ,m1 ,w1 ,x1 ,y1 ,z1 ,s0 are ! v>iable antec$5ts4 ,antec$5ts ,consequ5ts #a4 ,a ,b ,c ,d ,e ,p ,a ,b ,c ,d ,g ,p ,l ,b ,c ,d ,m ,p ,a ,f ,g ,d ,m ,p ,l ,b ,c ,d ,i ,p #b4 ,h ,i ,k ,l ,t ,p ,k ,l ,m ,t ,w ,p ,m ,t ,l ,k ,w ,p ,x ,h ,k ,y ,z ,p ,t ,w ,l ,k ,s ,p 7#f7 ,a ,matt] ( ,obs]vation & ,exp]im5t4 ,on /udy+ ! problem relative to ! t>d9ess ( ,john1 x appe>s t 9 obta9+ ! v>i\s antec$5ts ! "w w\ld be l>gely a matt] ( obs]vation4 ,c>ry+ ! fa!r's d9n]1 ! r\te ?r\gh ! woods1 etc41 are facts :i* obs]vation w\ld make evid5t4 ,h[ev]1 :5 x becomes necess>y to v>y ^! antec$5ts ) a view to f9d+ ! inv>iable "o1 ! proc$ure is exp]im5tal z well z a matt] ( casual obs]vation4 ,moreov]1 9 connection ) ! direct prim>y problem ! "q w\ld be l>gely a matt] ( exp]im5t2 ?\gh obs]vation w\ld obta9 z a subsidi>y condition4 ,we may conclude f ?is t ! me?od ( agreem5t involves bo? obs]vation & exp]im5t2 & s9ce ! /ud5t w discov] t ! o!r me?ods impose simil> dem&s1 we are ju/ifi$ 9 designat+ ^! five special me?ods ( induction z ^? ( obs]vation z well z ( exp]im5t4 7#g7 ,advantages & ,disadvantages ( ! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t4 ,! concrete cases giv5 to illu/rate ! me?od ( agreem5t pres5t a simple comb9ation ( antec$5ts & consequ5ts4 ,9 life1 h[ev]1 su* simplicity does n usually obta9 & 9 consequ5ce ! me?od ( agreem5t gives rise to a few s]i\s difficulties4 ,^! may be summ>iz$ z 7a7 ,plurality ( causes2 7b7 ,immat]ial antec$5ts2 7c7 ,complexity ( ph5om5a2 7d7 ,unc]ta9ty ( conclusion4 7a7 ,plurality ( causes is m5tion$ by ,mill z con/itut+ ! 8*>act]i/ic imp]fection0 ( ! me?od ( agreem5t4 ,z ! t]m signifies1 plurality ( causes repres5ts a condition :]e a giv5 ph5om5on has m ?an "o cause1 or :]e diff]5t causes produce ! same effect4 ,= example1 8,a poor crop0 may be due to dr\ght1 neglect1 pe/s1 etc42 heat may be caus$ by friction1 electricity1 combu/ion4 ,unfavorable home conditions2 ill heal?2 dislike = tea*]any "o ( ^! might be foll[$ by irregul> att5dance4 7b7 ,immat]ial antec$5ts are ^? :i* prec$e a giv5 ph5om5on & yet1 "u ! mo/ favorable situations1 h no causal connection ) said ph5om5on4 ,= example1 ! v>i\s antec$5ts ( ! heavy ra9 may h be5 a s\? w9d1 =gett+ to take an umbrella1 miss+ ! c> & hav+ to walk1 etc4 ,cle>ly ^! antec$5ts1 ) ! exception ( ! fir/1 are immat]ial4 7c7 ,! law ( agreem5t dem&s t all ! mat]ial antec$5ts receive consid]ation1 b (t5 ! situation is too complex to make ?is possible2 a fair illu/ration ( su* w\ld be an attempt to asc]ta9 all ( ! antec$5ts ( 8! high co/ ( liv+40 7d7 ,! law ( agreem5t nev] precludes ! possibility ( error2 z x is q impossible to c>ry ! analysis to ! po9t ( absolute c]ta9ty4 ,( all ! me?ods1 8agreem5t0 is ! lea/ reliable4 ,despite ! =ego+ objections1 h[ev]1 ! me?od is ( positive value because ( its sugge/iv5ess2 op5+ ! door to plausible hypo!ses x gives ! inve/igators a work+ basis4 #c4 ,,me?od ,,( ,,diff]5ce4 7#a7 ,pr9ciple /at$4 ,says ,mill1 8,if an in/ance 9 :i* ! ph5om5on "u inve/igation occurs1 & an in/ance 9 :i* x does n occur1 h e circum/ance 9 common save "o1 t "o occurr+ only 9 ! =m]2 ! circum/ance 9 :i* alone ! two in/ances diff] is ! effect or ! cause ( an indisp5sable "p ( ! cause1 ( ! ph5om5on40 ,to put ?is 9 simple t]ms3 ,:atev] is inv>iably pres5t :5 ! ph5om5on occurs & inv>iably abs5t :5 ! ph5om5on does n occur1 o!r circum/ances rema9+ ! same1 is probably ! cause or ! effect ( ! ph5om5on4 7#b7 ,me?od symboliz$4 ,us+ ! same symbols z 7 us$ 9 8,agreem5t40 ,antec$5ts ,consequ5ts ,a ,b ,c ,d ,p ,b ,c ,d or ,p ,a ,b ,c ,d ,b ,c ,d ,9 ! fir/ in/ance ,a is probably ! cause ( ! ph5om5on1 s9ce x is pres5t :5 ! ph5om5on occurs & abs5t :5 x does n occur4 ,= a simil> reason1 ,a is ! effect 9 ! second case4 7#c7 ,concrete illu/rations4 7,a7 ,a wise tea*] 9 asc]ta9+ ! cause ( ,john's t>d9ess w\ld h sugge/$ at once a *ange ( r\te4 ,us+ z symbols ! initial lett]s ( ! key-words ( ! antec$5ts 9 ! case1 ! foll[+ results3 s d h w t s d h 7,b7 ,fir/ trial4 ,problem3 ,unprep>$ home "w4 ,antec$5ts ,consequ5ts #a4 ,l5g? ( lesson1 #b4 ,def9it5ess ( lesson1 ,"w n prop]ly #c4 ,am\nt ( int]e/ %[n1 prep>$4 #d4 ,physical condition ! same4 ,second trial4 #a4 ,l5g? ( lesson ! same1 #b4 ,lesson made m def9ite1 ,"w prop]ly prep>$4 #c4 ,int]e/ ! same1 #d4 ,physical condition ! same4 ,! =ego+ symboliz$3 ,l ,d ,i ,c ,w ,l ,i ,c ,x is se5 t indef9it5ess ( lesson assignm5t is ! cause ( ! unprep>$ home "w4 7#d7 ,advantages & disadvantages ( ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce4 ,! ma9 difficulty att5d+ ! use ( ! me?od ( diff]5ce is ! complexity ( ph5om5on4 ,! v nature ( ! me?od insi/s z an ess5tial requirem5t t only "o mat]ial antec$5t %all be v>i$ at a "t4 ,9 life ! v>iations are m or less confus$1 & x is (t5 n only impossible to obs]ve cases ( a s+le v>iation1 b frequ5tly error comes ?r\gh ov]look+ antec$5ts :i* are mat]ial to ! case "u inve/igation4 ,= ^! reasons ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce is m a me?od ( exp]im5t ?an x is a me?od ( obs]vation4 ,by controll+ ! circum/ances x becomes possible to v>y b "o antec$5t at a "t1 & also to br+ into prom95ce all ( ! mat]ial antec$5ts4 ,bacon claims t all 8crucial in/ances0 are m]ely applications ( ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce4 ,by crucial in/ance he means any fact :i* w enable u to det]m9e at once :i* supposition is ! correct "o4 ,= example1 ! physician may n "k :e!r x is mal>ia or typhoid fev] till he takes a blood te/2 su* a te/ typifies 8crucial in/ances40 ,! v>i\s te/s 9 *emi/ry are likewise cases ( crucial in/ances1 &1 9 consequ5ce1 ?is sci5ce makes use ( 8,diff]5ce0 m ?an any o!r me?od4 7#e7 ,*>act]i/ic features ( ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce4 ,!re are ?ree di/+ui%+ m>ks ( ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce3 ^! are1 7#a7 ,! ph5om5on does n always happ52 7#b7 ,"o antec$5t is v>iable2 7#c7 ,! o!r antec$5ts are m or less inv>iable4 ,! foll[+ symbolizations w make ^! ?ree *>act]i/ics evid5t3 ,antec$5ts ,consequ5ts 7#a7 ,a ,b ,c ,p ,a ,c 7#b7 ,b ,c ,x ,b ,c ,p 7#c7 ,l ,m ,t ,k ,p ,l ,m ,k ,,agreem5t ,,& ,,diff]5ce ,,comp>$4 7a7 ,! me?ods ( ,agreem5t & ,diff]5ce are complem5t>y z may be disc]n$ by comp>+ _! *>act]i/ic features3 ,9 ,agreem5t ! ph5om5on always occurs2 9 ,diff]5ce ! ph5om5on does n always occur3 ,9 ,agreem5t !re is "o inv>iable antec$5t2 :]eas 9 ,diff]5ce !re is "o v>iable antec$5t3 ,9 ,agreem5t ! o!r antec$5ts are m or less v>iable2 b 9 ,diff]5ce ! o!r antec$5ts are m or less inv>iable4 7b7 ,accord+ to ,mill ! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t insi/s t :at c be elim9at$ is n connect$2 :]eas ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce implies t :at _c be elim9at$ is connect$4 7c7 ,! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t is m a me?od ( obs]vation1 s9ce x is *iefly conc]n$ ) ! discov]y ( causes4 ,! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce is di/9ctly a me?od ( exp]im5t1 because its usual aim is to discov] effects4 7d7 ,! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t is s call$ because ! object is to comp>e sev]al in/ances to det]m9e 9 :at respect !y agree2 b 9 ! case ( ,diff]5ce in/ances are comp>$ to det]m9e 9 :at respects !y diff]4 7e7 ,! conclusions ( ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce involve great] c]ta9ty ?an ^? ( ,agreem5t &1 !re=e1 ! =m] me?od %\ld be adopt$ :5 !re is a *oice4 #d4 ,,! ,,jo9t ,,me?od ,,( ,,agreem5t ,,& ,,diff]5ce4 7#a7 ,pr9ciple /at$4 ,! unc]ta9ty ( ! conclusions ( ,agreem5t & ! impossibility at times ( employ+ directly ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce1 give rise to ! use ( ! comb9ation ( ,agreem5t & ,diff]5ce kn[n z ! ,jo9t ,me?od4 ,z /at$ by ,mill1 ! pr9ciple condition+ ! ,jo9t ,me?od is ?is3 8,if two or m in/ances 9 :i* ! ph5om5on occurs h only "o circum/ance 9 common1 :ile two or m in/ances 9 :i* x does n occur h no?+ 9 common save ! abs5ce ( t circum/ance1 ! circum/ance 9 :i* alone ! two sets ( in/ances diff] is ! effect or ! cause or an indisp5sable "p ( ! cause1 ( ! ph5om5on40 ,m briefly ! notion may be /at$ 9 ?is wise3 ,among _m in/ances1 if "o circum/ance is inv>iably pres5t :5 ! ph5om5on occurs1 & inv>iably abs5t :5 ! ph5om5on does n occur ?is circum/ance is probably ! cause or ! effect ( ! ph5om5on4 ,?is pr9ciple diff]s f ! "o und]ly+ ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce 9 t ! in/ances consid]$ are m v>i$ & m num]\s4 ,! pr9ciple ( ,diff]5ce requires b two sets ( in/ances1 :ile ! ,jo9t ,me?od dem&s at lea/ ?ree2 two :5 ! ph5om5on occurs & "o :5 x does n occur4 ,a /udy ( ! symbolizations & illu/rations w cl>ify ?is di/9ction4 7#b7 ,jo9t ,me?od symboliz$4 ,if we use circum/ances & ph5om5on 9 place ( antec$5ts & consequ5t1 !n "o symbolization may be made to /& = asc]ta9+ ei!r ! inv>iable antec$5t1 or ! inv>iable consequ5t4 ,circum/ances ,ph5om5on #a4 ,a ,b ,c ,d ,p #b4 ,a ,d ,e ,f ,p #c4 ,a ,l ,m ,n ,p #d4 ,a ,o ,p ,q ,p #e4 ,o ,p ,q #f4 ,l ,m ,n #g4 ,d ,e ,f #h4 ,b ,c ,d ,x is obvi\s t ! fir/1 second1 ?ird & f\r? gr\ps ( in/ances illu/rate ! pr9ciple ( ,agreem5t2 :]eas ! fir/ & eigh?1 ! second & sev5?1 ! ?ird & six?1 & ! f\r? & fif? illu/rate 9 ea* case1 ! pr9ciple ( ,diff]5ce4 7#c7 ,concrete ,examples illu/rat+ ,jo9t ,me?od4 ,! problem3 ,too mu* :isp]+4 ,antec$5ts ,consequ5t #a4 ,insuffici5t "w1 ,lack ( int]e/1 ,mu* :isp]+4 ,seat$ ne> a fri5d4 #b4 ,m "w1 ,lack ( int]e/1 ,mu* :isp]+4 ,seat$ ne> a fri5d4 #c4 ,m "w1 ,m int]e/1 ,mu* :isp]+4 ,seat$ ne> a fri5d4 #d4 ,m "w1 ,m int]e/1 ,n mu* :isp]+4 ,n seat$ ne> a fri5d4 #e4 ,m "w1 ,lack ( int]e/1 ,n mu* :isp]+4 ,n seat$ ne> a fri5d4 #f4 ,insuffici5t "w1 ,lack ( int]e/1 ,n mu* :isp]+4 ,n seat$ ne> a fri5d4 ,f ?is x may be conclud$ t ! undue am\nt ( :isp]+ is caus$ by seat+ p>ticul> fri5ds ne> ea* o!r4 ,! problem3 ,poor recitations4 ,antec$5ts ,consequ5t #a4 ,long lesson1 ,faulty assignm5t ( lesson1 ,poor recitation4 ,fe> ( tea*]4 #b4 ,lesson made %ort]1 ,faulty assignm5t ( lesson1 ,poor recitation4 ,fe> ( tea*]4 #c4 ,lesson made %ort]1 ,a m c>eful assignm5t1 ,poor recitation4 ,fe> ( tea*]4 #d4 ,lesson made %ort]1 ,a m c>eful assignm5t1 ,good recitation4 ,removal ( fe> ( tea*]4 #e4 ,lesson made %ort]1 ,faulty assignm5t1 ,good recitation4 ,no fe> ( tea*]4 #f4 ,lesson long1 ,faulty assignm5t1 ,good recitation4 ,no fe> ( tea*]4 ,fe> ( tea*] is ! cause ( ! poor recitation4 7#d7 ,di/+ui%+ features4 ,be+ a comb9ation ( ,agreem5t & ,diff]5ce ! ,jo9t ,me?od possesses ! *>act]i/ics ( ea*1 ?\gh m or less modifi$4 ,! di/+ui%+ m>ks may be summ>iz$ z foll[s3 7#a7 ,( ! fir/ gr\p ( in/ances3 7#a7 ,! ph5om5on mu/ always occur1 7#b7 ,"o antec$5t mu/ be inv>iable1 7#c7 ,! o!r antec$5ts mu/ be m or less v>iable4 7#b7 ,( ! second gr\p ( in/ances3 7#a7 ,! ph5om5on mu/ nev] occur1 7#b7 ,"o antec$5t mu/ be v>iable1 7#c7 ,! o!r antec$5ts mu/ be m or less inv>iable4 ,briefly1 ! "o pr9ciple conc]n$ is ?is3 ,!re mu/ be an inv>iable conjunction betwe5 ! ph5om5on involv$ & ! antec$5t suspect$ ( be+ ! cause4 7#e7 ,advantages & ,disadvantages ( ! ,jo9t ,me?od4 ,s9ce ! ,jo9t ,me?od p]mits a consid]ation ( ! negative aspect ( ! "q z well z ! affirmative1 ! opportunities = te/+ ! _m in/ances conc]n$ are d\bl$4 ,9 consequ5ce1 ! conclusions ( ! ,jo9t ,me?od are m positive ?an ^? ( ! o!r me?ods4 ,x foll[s t ?is same opportunity to multiply ! in/ances w\ld t5d to less5 ! o!r objections rais$ aga9/ ! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t2 viz41 plurality ( causes1 immat]ial antec$5ts1 complexity ( ph5om5on4 ,! /ud5t mu/ reg>d ! giv5 illu/rative symbolizations & concrete examples z be+ ( ! simple/ =m2 9 life su* are ! exceptions r ?an ! rule4 ,:5 inve/igat+ que/ions1 l ! cause ( ! high co/ ( liv+1 ! effect ( high t>iff1 ! reason = ! typhoid epidemic1 etc41 !re is (t5 a confusion ( circum/ances :i* makes ! ,jo9t ,me?od unsatisfactory1 ev5 ?\gh x furni%es a l>g] opportunity = ! multiplication ( in/ances4 ,! /ronge/ case :i* ! ,jo9t ,me?od is able to pres5t is :5 ! negative in/ances repeat ! positive 9 e detail1 ) ! "o exception ( ! v>iable antec$5t4 ,to wit3 ,/rong ,argum5t3 ,circum/ances ,ph5om5on ,a ,b ,c ,p ,a ,l ,m ,p ,l ,m ,b ,c ,weak ,argum5t3 ,a ,b ,c ,p ,a ,l ,m ,p ,r ,s ,t ,k ,despite ! disadvantages1 ! conditions ( ! ,jo9t ,me?od are m or less ideal2 s9ce ! positive bran* ( ! argum5t sugge/s ! hypo!sis1 :ile ! negative bran* proves ! accuracy or inaccuracy ( su*4 #e4 ,,me?od ,,( ,,concomitant ,,v>iations4 7#a7 ,pr9ciple /at$4 ,mill's /atem5t is ?is3 8,:atev] ph5om5on v>ies 9 any mann] :5ev] ano!r ph5om5on v>ies 9 a p>ticul> mann]1 is ei!r a cause or an effect ( t ph5om5on1 or is connect$ ) x ?r\gh "s fact ( causation40 ,to put x diff]5tly3 ,if :5 "o ph5om5on v>ies alone1 ano!r also v>ies alone1 ! "o is ei!r ! cause or ! effect ( ! o!r4 7#b7 ,concomitant ,v>iations symboliz$4 ,circum/ances ,ph5om5on ,a ,p ,a a ,p p 7,a a7 a 7,p p7 p ,x is evid5t f ?is t little 8a0 is ! cause or ! effect ( little 8p40 ,to put x 9 concrete =m3 ,let ,a ,x numb] ( calories ( heat1 ,& ,p #fh ,f41 ! orig9al temp]ature ( room1 ,& a c&le burn+ 9 room = h\r1 ,& p #b ,f4 ,!n ,antec$5ts ,consequ5t ,x no4 ( cal4 ( heat 9 room #fh ,f4 temp4 ( room ,x no4 ( cal4 ( heat burn+ c&le #fh #b #gj ,x 7no4 ( cal4 ( heat burn+ c&le7 7#fh #b7 #b #fh burn+ c&le ,z l>ge 8,a0 is increas$ & decreas$ by little 8a0 s l>ge 8,p0 appe>s to be increas$ & decreas$ by little 8p40 ,?is /rongly sugge/s a causal connection betwe5 little 8a0 & little 8p40 7#c7 ,o!r concrete illu/rations4 ,problem3 ,to asc]ta9 nature ( s\nd4 ,antec$5t ,consequ5t ,bell rung :5 )9 a glass j> fill$ ,l\d s\nd4 ) air1 ,"s ( ! air pump$ out ( ! j>1 ,s\nd n s l\d4 ,m air pump$ into j> aga91 ,s\nd l\d] aga94 ,! conclusion mu/ be t air has some?+ to d ) ! production ( s\nd4 ,problem3 ,to f9d be/ fe$ = egg production4 #ajj lbs4 beef scraps1 #ajj lbs4 :eat1 #cj doz4 eggs4 #ajj lbs4 oats1 #ajj lbs4 corn1 #ej lbs4 beef scraps1 #ajj lbs4 :eat1 #bg doz4 eggs4 #ajj lbs4 oats1 #ajj lbs4 corn1 #ij lbs4 beef scraps1 #ajj lbs4 :eat1 #bh doz4 eggs4 #ajj lbs4 oats1 #ajj lbs4 corn1 ,s9ce ! v>iation 9 ! am\nt ( beef scraps is accompani$ by a l v>iation 9 ! numb] ( eggs produc$1 x may be assum$ t beef scraps are ess5tial to l>ge egg production4 7#d7 ,di/+ui%+ features4 ,! ph5om5on always occurs b 9 v>y+ degrees2 ,"o antec$5t v>ies 9 degree2 ,! o!r antec$5ts are inv>iable4 7#e7 ,advantages & disadvantages4 ,concomitant ,v>iations is applicable 9 cases :5 x is impossible to use ,diff]5ce4 ,rec\rse is made to ! latt] :5 ! ph5om5on c be made to appe> or disappe> at w1 b !re are times :5 x is impossible to cause ! ph5om5on to disappe> altoge!r4 ,= example1 9 ! case ( ! v>y+ degrees ( heat 9 ! room x w\ld be sci5tifically impossible to take all ( ! heat out ( ! room2 or 9 exp]im5t+ ) gravitation1 to d away ) its influ5ce entirely1 is beyond ! p[] ( man4 ,x is ?us evid5t t ,concomitant ,v>iations may be us$ 9 cases :]e ! conditions =bid do+ away entirely ) ! ph5om5on4 ,! special function ( ,concomitant ,v>iations seems to be to e/abli% ! exact quantitative relation betwe5 ! v>y+ cause & ! v>y+ effect4 ,to illu/rate3 ,z a g5]al law x is kn[n t bodies attract ea* o!r 9 v>y+ degrees accord+ to _! di/ances ap>t & accord+ to _! relative sizes2 by ,concomitant ,v>iations ?is law has be5 giv5 def9ite quantitative value & reads l ?is3 8,bodies attract ea* o!r directly z ! product ( _! masses1 & inv]sely z ! squ>e ( ! di/ance betwe5 !m40 ,?is illu/ration sugge/s t ! v>iation betwe5 antec$5t & consequ5t may be direct or inv]se4 ,! error mo/ common 9 ?is me?od is ! assumption t ! quantitative relation betwe5 two v>y+ ph5om5a w always be accord+ to a con/ant ratio4 ,= example1 :5 be+ r$uc$ f a high temp]ature to #ci ,f41 wat] /eadily contracts2 b at #ci ,f4 x comm5ces to exp& until x becomes ice4 ,?us ! ratio ( contraction ( wat] is con/ant only )9 c]ta9 limits4 ,9 any ev5t ! e/abli%$ ratio ( v>iation c ) absolute safety be appli$ only to ! in/ances inve/igat$4 ,ano!r disadvantage incid5t to ?is me?od1 is ! situation ( two elem5ts v>y+ toge!r con/antly1 & yet hav+ no causal connection :atev]4 #f4 ,,! ,,me?od ,,( ,,residues4 7#a7 ,pr9ciple /at$4 ,z /at$ by ,mill ! pr9ciple ( residue is ?is3 8,subtract f any ph5om5on su* "p z is kn[n by previ\s inductions to be ! effect ( c]ta9 antec$5ts1 & ! residue ( ! ph5om5on is ! effect ( ! rema9+ antec$5ts40 ,9 simpl] =m ! notion is ?is3 ,subtract f any ph5om5on ^? p>ts ( x :i* are kn[n to be ! effect ( c]ta9 antec$5ts1 & :at is left ( ! ph5om5on is ! effect ( ! rema9+ antec$5ts4 7#b7 ,pr9ciple symboliz$4 ,antec$5t ,consequ5t ,a x ,b y ,c z ,! total cause ( ! ph5om5on xyz is ,,abc4 ,b x is kn[n t ! cause ( x is ! antec$5t ,a2 :]eas ! cause ( y is ! antec$5t ,b2 h5ce x is conclud$ t ! cause ( z is ! antec$5t ,c4 7#c7 ,concrete illu/rations4 ,problem3 ,to f9d ! weight ( coal4 ,antec$5ts ,consequ5ts ,weight ( driv]1 ,weight ( wagon1 #dbjj lbs4 ,weight ( coal4 ,weight ( driv]1 #bjj lbs4 #bbjj lbs4 ,weight ( wagon1 #bjjj lbs4 ,h5ce we may conclude t ! weight ( coal is #dbjj lbs4 #bbjj lbs41 or #bjjj lbs4 ,p]haps ! mo/ not$ in/ance 9 hi/ory ( ! application ( ?is me?od1 0 ! "o :i* result$ 9 ! discov]y ( ,neptune4 ,9 calculat+ ! orbit ( ,uranus1 x 0 f\nd t ! comb9$ attractions ( ! sun & ! kn[n planets did n acc\nt = ! pa? :i* ,uranus took4 ,!re 0 "s unkn[n influ5ce at "w4 ,assum+ t ?is unacc\ntable attraction 0 due to ! pres5ce ( ano!r planet beyond ! orbit ( ,uranus1 an ,engli%man by ! "n ( ,adams1 & lat] ! ,fr5*man ,lev]ri]1 7 able to indicate by ! pr9ciple ( ,residues1 ! spot :]e ?is planet %\ld be4 ,by direct+ ! telescope t[>d ?is po9t1 ,neptune 0 discov]$4 7#d7 ,di/+ui%+ features3 ,! ph5om5on always occurs1 ,! antec$5ts are usually inv>iable1 ,"s ( ! antec$5ts are kn[n to be ! cause ( a "p ( ! ph5om5on4 7#e7 ,advantages & disadvantages4 ,! ,me?od ( ,residues gives ?ree di/9ct results3 ,fir/1 x tells :at is left ov] aft] all ! o!r p>ts ( ! ph5om5on h be5 expla9$4 ,second1 x tells h[ mu* is left ov]1 & ?ird1 x calls att5tion to ! unexpla9$ p>ts ( ! ph5om5on4 ,= example1 9 ! fir/ concrete illu/ration1 by subtract+ ! kn[n quantities f ! total quantity1 :at is left ov] is f\nd to be coal2 n only s b we are able to calculate ! exact am\nt ( coal4 ,?is illu/rates ! fir/ & second results ( ! ,me?od ( ,residues4 7,l concomitant v>iations x is se5 t residues is s]viceable 9 giv5 def9ite quantitative values47 ,! discov]y ( ,neptune illu/rates well ! ?ird result ( ?is me?od2 i4 e41 aft] acc\nt+ = e o!r =ce1 x 0 f\nd t !re 0 yet a =ce at "w :i* _h nev] be5 expla9$4 ,x is ?is ?ird feature ( unexpla9$ residues :i* has plac$ 8,sci5ce 9 its pres5t advanc$ /ate40 8,mo/ ( ! ph5om5a :i* nature pres5ts are complicat$2 & :5 ! effects ( all kn[n causes are e/imat$ ) exactness1 & subduct$1 ! residual facts are con/antly appe>+ 9 ! =m ( ph5om5a altoge!r new1 & lead+ to ! mo/ important conclusions40 ,s says ,john ,h]s*el4 ,almo/ all ( ! discov]ies 9 a/ronomy h come ab\t 9 ?is way4 ,if a heav5ly body does n behave z x %\ld accord+ to ! e/abli%$ !ory1 !n ei!r ! !ory is wrong or !re is "s residual ph5om5on :i* ne$s to be expla9$4 ,its sugge/iv5ess is1 !re=e1 ! mo/ important function ( ?is me?od1 ?\gh ?is v feature is ! "o :i* makes evid5t its greate/ disadvantage4 ,! unexpla9$ residual ph5om5on may be v complex &1 !re=e1 a c>eless obs]v] is apt to ov]look a lurk+ elem5t :i* 9 reality is ! true cause4 #g4 ,,! ,,g5]al ,,purpose ,,& ,,unity ,,( ,,! ,,five ,,me?ods4 ,?9k+ has be5 def9$ z ! delib]ative process ( affirm+ & d5y+ connections4 ,x is obvi\s t ^! five me?ods are a matt] ( affirm+ & d5y+ connections betwe5 antec$5ts & consequ5ts4 ,z soon z ! look$ = connections are e/abli%$1 ! antec$5ts & consequ5ts are kn[n to be relat$ to ea* o!r z causes & effects4 ,9 ?is attempt to f9d & prove connections ! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t is *iefly valuable 9 sugge/+ workable hypo!ses1 & ! me?od ( diff]5ce 9 v]ify+1 ?r\gh exp]im5t1 ! correctness or incorrectness ( ^! hypo!ses4 ,9 sub/ance ! pr9ciple condition+ bo? me?ods is ?is3 8,if a s+le antec$5t is inv>iably pres5t :5 ! ph5om5on is pres5t & inv>iably abs5t :5 ! ph5om5on is abs5t !n ?is antec$5t is ! cause ( ! ph5om5on40 ,to put x /ill m briefly3 ,betwe5 two ph5om5a !re is a causal connection1 if ! conjunction betwe5 ! two is inv>iable4 ,x is ! bus9ess ( ,agreem5t to s+le out ! "o antec$5t & ( ,diff]5ce to %[1 by pres5t+ ! negative z well z ! affirmative side ( ! case1 t ! conjunction ( ! "o antec$5t & ! p>ticul> ph5om5on is inv>iable4 ,! ,jo9t ,me?od is m]ely a comb9ation ( ,agreem5t & ,diff]5ce c>ri$ into m v>i$ & complex situations4 ,! me?ods ( ,concomitant ,v>iations & ,residues are m]ely modifications ( ,diff]5ce2 ! =m] be+ us$ :5 ! *ief feature is ! fluctuation ( ! ph5om5on1 & ! latt] :5 x is desir$ to f9d :at is left ov]4 ,agreem5t sugge/s ! hypo!sis1 8diff]5ce0 proves x2 ! jo9t me?od is 8diff]5ce0 m or less complicat$1 concomitant v>iations is 8diff]5ce0 appli$ to fluctuat+ ph5om5a1 residues is 8diff]5ce0 us$ to f9d :at & h[ mu* is left ov]4 ,agreem5t is ! me?od ( obs]vation & belongs to ! physician & nature /ud5t4 ,diff]5ce & ! ,jo9t ,me?od are exp]im5tal devices :i* are us$ by ! physici/ & *emi/4 ,concomitant ,v>iations is ! me?od ( un/able ph5om5a & naturally atta*es itself to ! economi/ & /ati/ician4 ,residues is ! me?od ( 8lurk+ exceptions0 & is favor$ by ! a/ronom] & ma!matician4 ,residues1 be+ ! me?od ( 8:at is left ov]10 is ! mo/ common 9 daily affairs4#ad ,all ! five me?ods are =ms ( inductive ?9k+ :i* lead to ! e/abli%m5t ( causal connections by means ( ! pr9ciple ( ! inv>iable conjunction ( ph5om5a4 #h4 ,,outl9e4 ,,! ,,five ,,special ,,me?ods ,,( ,,obs]vation ,,& ,,exp]im5t4 7#a7 ,aim ( ,five ,me?ods4 ,fundam5tal fact ( causation4 ,aim ( analysis4 agreem5t diff]5ce ,me?ods ( jo9t concomitant v>iations residues 7#b7 ,me?od ( ,agreem5t4 ,pr9ciple /at$ ,me?od symboliz$ ,me?od illu/rat$ ,di/+ui%+ features ( me?od ,a matt] ( obs]vation & exp]im5t ,advantages & disadvantages 7#c7 ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce4 ,pr9ciple /at$ ,me?od symboliz$ ,me?od illu/rat$ ,advantages & disadvantages ,*>act]i/ic features ,agreem5t & ,diff]5ce comp>$ 7#d7 ,! ,jo9t ,me?od ( ,agreem5t & ,diff]5ce ,pr9ciple /at$ ,me?od symboliz$ ,concrete illu/rations ,di/+ui%+ features ,advantages & disadvantages 7#e7 ,me?od ( ,concomitant ,v>iations ,pr9ciple /at$ ,me?od symboliz$ ,concrete illu/rations ,di/+ui%+ features ,advantages & disadvantages 7#f7 ,! ,me?od ( ,residues ,pr9ciple /at$ ,me?od symboliz$ ,concrete illu/rations ,di/+ui%+ features ,advantages & disadvantages 7#g7 ,g5]al ,purpose & ,unity ( ,five ,me?ods ,"o fundam5tal pr9ciple #i4 ,,summ>y4 7#a7 ,! fundam5tal fact ( causation und]lies ! ?ree =ms ( induction1 b is mo/ conspicu\s 9 ! me?od ( analysis & may be asc]ta9$ by rec\rse to "o ( ! exp]im5tal me?ods4 7#b7 ,! pr9ciple ( ! me?od ( agreem5t may be summ$ up 9 ! two /atem5ts3 ,! sole inv>iable antec$5t ( a ph5om5on is probably its cause & ! sole inv>iable consequ5t ( a ph5om5on is probably its effect4 ,^! two /atem5ts may be symboliz$ & illu/rat$4 ,! ess5tial *>act]i/ics ( ! me?od ( agreem5t are ! ph5om5on always occurs2 !re is at lea/ "o inv>iable antec$5t2 ! o!r antec$5ts v>y4 ,! me?od ( agreem5t toge!r ) ! o!r f\r me?ods may ju/ly be t]m$ me?ods ( exp]im5t z well z me?ods ( obs]vation4 ,! difficulties ( ! me?od ( agreem5t are 9 ! ma9 plurality ( causes1 immat]ial antec$5ts1 complexity ( ph5om5on & unc]ta9ty ( conclusion4 ,^! difficulties may be summ>iz$ z involv+ a ph5om5on :i* may h sev]al causes2 may be prec$$ by conditions ( no causal consequ5ce2 may be s involv$ z to prev5t exhau/ive exam9ation2 & may give unreliable conclusions4 ,agreem5t is valuable *iefly 9 furni%+ to ! inve/igator plausible hypo!ses4 7#c7 ,! pr9ciple ( diff]5ce is ?is3 8,:atev] is inv>iably pres5t :5 ! ph5om5on occurs & inv>iably abs5t :5 ! ph5om5on does n occur1 o!r circum/ances rema9+ ! same1 is probably ! cause or ! effect ( ! ph5om5on40 ,l agreem5t1 diff]5ce admits ( symbolization & illu/ration by concrete examples4 ,! *ief difficulties att5d+ diff]5ce are3 9 nature v>y+ "o antec$5t at a "t is infrequ5t1 & x is easy to ov]look antec$5ts :i* are closely relat$ to ! case "u inve/igation4 ,diff]5ce is ! mo/ common me?od ( ! exp]im5tal sci5ces4 ,! *>act]i/ic features ( diff]5ce are1 ! ph5om5on does n always occur1 "o antec$5t is v>iable1 :ile ! o!rs are inv>iable4 ,! me?ods ( agreem5t & diff]5ce are complem5t>y processes4 ,agreem5t attempts to elim9ate all ! antec$5ts b "o1 :ile diff]5ce aims to elim9ate "o only4 ,agreem5t is a me?od ( obs]vation1 :ile diff]5ce is a me?od ( exp]im5t4 ,! conclusion ( ! me?od ( diff]5ce gives great] c]ta9ty ?an t ( ! me?od ( agreem5t4 7#d7 ,! jo9t me?od may be /at$ 9 ?is way3 ,among _m in/ances if "o circum/ance is inv>iably pres5t :5 ! ph5om5on occurs & inv>iably abs5t :5 ! ph5om5on does n occur1 ?is circum/ance is probably ! cause or ! effect ( ! ph5om5on4 ,! in/ances ( ! jo9t me?od are m num]\s & m v>i$ ?an ^? ( ei!r agreem5t or diff]5ce4 ,! jo9t me?od has ! di/+ui%+ *>act]i/ics ( bo? agreem5t & diff]5ce4 ,because x furni%es great] opportunities = multiply+ & v>y+ ! in/ances involv$1 ! jo9t me?od pres5ts few] objections ?an ei!r ( ! two sep>ate me?ods4 ,! positive bran* ( ! jo9t me?od sugge/s ! hypo!sis1 :ile ! negative bran* proves x4 ,?is makes ! me?od some:at ideal4 7#e7 ,! pr9ciple ( concomitant v>iations may be /at$ z foll[s3 ,if :5 "o ph5om5on v>ies alone1 & ano!r also v>ies alone1 ! "o is ei!r ! cause or ! effect ( ! o!r4 ,?is is ! me?od ( fluctuation1 & is us$ :5 x is impossible to make ! ph5om5on disappe> altoge!r1 z 9 ! case ( diff]5ce4 ,! *ief function ( concomitant v>iations is to e/abli% exact quantitative relations betwe5 cause & effect4 7#f7 ,! pr9ciple ( residues is ?is3 ,subtract f any ph5om5on ^? p>ts ( x :i* are kn[n to be ! effect ( c]ta9 antec$5ts1 & :at is left ( ! ph5om5on is ! effect ( ! rema9+ antec$5t4 ,! mo/ valuable feature ( residues is its sugge/iv5ess2 an attempt to expla9 ! 8residual ph5om5on0 has l$ to _m important sci5tific discov]ies4 7#g7 ,! five me?ods are conc]n$ ) ! e/abli%m5t ( causal connections betwe5 ph5om5a4 ,agreem5t sugge/s ! connection :ile diff]5ce proves x4 ,! o!r me?ods are modifi$ applications ( diff]5ce1 necessitat$ by "s peculi> =m :i* ! ph5om5on may take4 ,a /atem5t ( ! "o pr9ciple involv$ is3 8,if ! conjunction betwe5 two ph5om5a is inv>iable !n !re is a causal connection40 ,all ( ! me?ods are =ms ( inductive ?9k+4 #aj4 ,,review ,,que/ions4 7#a7 ,expla9 8! fundam5tal fact ( causation40 7#b7 ,%[ t ! fact ( causation is mo/ conspicu\s 9 induction by analysis4 7#c7 ,"n ! five special inductive me?ods ( obs]vation & exp]im5t4 7#d7 ,/ate1 symbolize1 & illu/rate ! me?od ( agreem5t4 7#e7 ,give examples ( antec$5ts :i* d n function z causes4 7#f7 ,%[ t ! 8special me?ods0 are a matt] ( bo? obs]vation & exp]im5t4 7#g7 ,give ! di/+ui%+ features ( ! me?od ( agreem5t2 illu/rate by ref]5ce to ! symbols4 7#h7 ,exemplify ! plurality ( causes2 immat]ial antec$5ts2 complexity ( ph5om5on4 7#i7 ,%[ t ! conclusions ( agreem5t are l>gely hypo!tical4 7#aj7 ,/ate1 symbolize1 & illu/rate ! me?od ( diff]5ce4 7#aa7 ,%[ by illu/ration t1 9 ! me?od ( diff]5ce1 only "o antec$5t %\ld be v>i$ at a "t4 7#ab7 ,%[ t diff]5ce is naturally a me?od ( exp]im5t4 7#ac7 ,expla9 ,bacon's use ( ! t]m 8crucial in/ances40 7#ad7 ,"n & expla9 ! *>act]i/ic features ( ! me?od ( diff]5ce4 7#ae7 ,%[ t agreem5t & diff]5ce are complem5t>y4 7#af7 ,expla9 & illu/rate ! jo9t me?od4 7#ag7 ,:at inf]5ce may be drawn f ! foll[+ in/ances3 ,antec$5ts ,consequ5ts ,a ,l ,m ,t p q r g ,b ,l ,m ,e z q r x ,b ,c ,m ,e r z x y ,a ,m ,t ,h p q g o 7#ah7 8,mr4 ,d>w91 9 8 exp]im5t on cross & self f]tilization 9 ! vegetable k+dom1 plac$ a net ab\t "o hundr$ fl[] heads1 ?us protect+ !m f ! bees4 ,he at ! same "t plac$ "o hundr$ o!r fl[] heads ( ! same v>iety ( plant :]e !y w\ld be expos$ to ! bees4 ,he obta9$ ! foll[+ result3 ,! protect$ fl[]s fail$ to yield a s+le se$4 ,! o!rs yield$ ab\t #b1gbj se$s4 ,?us cross-f]tilization 0 prov$40 7,hibb574 ,:at me?od did ,d>w9 employ8 ,symbolize ! exp]im5t4 7#ai7 ,summ>ize ! di/+ui%+ m>ks ( ! jo9t me?od4 7#bj7 ,%[ t ! jo9t me?od is m ideal ?an ei!r agreem5t or diff]5ce4 7#ba7 ,/ate & give concrete illu/rations ( ! law ( concomitant v>iations4 7#bb7 ,:at is ! *ief function ( concomitant v>iations8 ,illu/rate4 7#bc7 ,give in/ances :]e x w\ld be impossible to use diff]5ce1 b easy to use concomitant v>iations4 7#bd7 ,expla9 ?is3 8,! quantitative v>iation betwe5 antec$5t & consequ5t may be ei!r direct or inv]se40 7#be7 ,/ate & expla9 by illu/ration ! me?od ( residues4 7#bf7 ,:at are ! advantages & disadvantages ( ! pr9ciple ( residues8 7#bg7 ,/ate ! pr9ciple :i* virtually sums up ! five me?ods4 7#bh7 ,write briefly on ! practical applications ( ! five me?ods to ! ord9>y walks ( life4 #aa4 ,,que/ions ,,= ,,orig9al ,,?\ght ,,& ,,inve/igation4 7#a7 ,trace ! connection betwe5 ! me?od ( agreem5t & induction by simple enum]ation4 7#b7 ,%[ t ,mill's me?ods may prop]ly be t]m$ 8,inductive ,me?ods ( ,sci5tific ,inve/igation40 7#c7 ,h[ may x be %[n by 8agreem5t0 t ! high co/ ( liv+ is due to ! t5d5cy to sp5d m ?an we e>n8 7#d7 ,assume t y are a memb] ( ! ,bo>d ( ,heal?1 & t y desire to asc]ta9 ! cause ( ! diph!ria epidemic by means ( ! pr9ciple ( agreem5t4 7#e7 ,:at is ! error involv$ 9 com+ to ! conclusion t to sit at table :]e !re are ?irte51 may mean ! dea? ( "o ( ! ?irte5 be=e ! end ( ! ye>4 7#f7 ,indicate h[ x c\ld be %[n1 by ! me?od ( diff]5ce1 t ! mosquito is responsible = ! propagation ( yell[ fev]4 7#g7 8,ano!r exp]im5t simil> to ?is 0 tri$ by ,plateau1 :o put "s food ( :i* cockroa*es are fond on a table & surr\nd$ x ) a l[ circul> wall ( c>dbo>d4 ,he !n put "s cockroa*es on ! table2 !y evid5tly sc5t$ ! food1 & made /raight = x4 ,he !n remov$ _! ant5nae40 7,hibb574 ,complete & give ) explanations ! me?od us$4 7#h7 8,9 "s cases x is impossible to remove an elem5t :i* is suppos$ to be ! cause ( an effect "u inve/igation40 ,expla9 & illu/rate4 7#i7 8,extreme c>e mu/ be tak5 t1 9 ! )draw+ ( any elem5t1 no o!r elem5t is inadv]t5tly introduc$40 ,tyndale suppos$ he _h prov$ spontane\s g5]ation1 :51 aft] seal+ 9 a j> ( boil$ wat] a wisp ( bak$ hay1 he f\nd1 aft] _m days1 indications ( life )9 ! bottle4 ,9 transf]r+ ! hay to ! bottle1 he c>ri$ ! =m] across ! room4 ,:at elem5t 0 inadv]t5tly introduc$8 7#aj7 8,! attempt to det]m9e ! num]ical relations accord+ to :i* two ph5om5a v>y1 requires ! utmo/ caution z soon z our inf]5ce out/eps ! limits ( our obs]vations40 7,f[l]74 ,expla9 ?is 9 connection ) ! law ( concomitant v>iations4 7#aa7 8,:5 ! effects ( all kn[n causes are e/imat$ ) exactness & subduct$1 ! residual facts are con/antly appe>+ 9 ! =m ( ph5om5a altoge!r new1 & lead+ to ! mo/ important conclusions40 ,make cle> by illu/ration ?is quotation :i* has ref]5ce to ! pr9ciple ( residues4 7#ab7 ,expla9 8inv>iable conjunction ( ph5om5a40 7#ac7 ,inve/igate by means ( "o ( ! five me?ods ! foll[+ problems3 7#a7 8,all vegetables :i* gr[ to root %\ld be plant$ dur+ ! la/ two days ( ! wax+ moon40 7#b7 8,9 ?is section ! s\? w9d is ! /orm w9d40 7#c7 8,mis*ief is ! outcome ( misdirect$ en]gy40 7#d7 8,bad boys usually receive unju/ treatm5t40 7#e7 8,an ounce ( prev5tion is wor? a p\nd ( cure40 ,,*apt] #ai4 ,,! ,,auxili>y ,,elem5ts ,,( ,,induction4 ,,obs]vation,,exp]im5t,,hypo!sis4 #a4 ,,! ,,f\ndation ,,( ,,inductive ,,g5]alizations4 ,induction is ! process ( univ]saliz+ p>ticul> facts4 ,! />t+ po9t is ! fact4 ,?r\gh obs]vation ! inve/igator ga!rs facts1 & !n works !m ov] ) a view ( f9d+ uni=mities4 ,! m9d _c build inductive g5]alizations )\t facts any m ?an a mason c build a brick wall )\t ! bricks4 ,a fact is any p>ticul> ?+ made or done or is t :i* may be acquir$ by means ( ! pres5tative 7p]ception & imag9ation7 p[]s ( ! m9d4 ,! /ate ( aw>5ess :i* results f ! obs]vation ( facts is an individual notion4 ,?is pres5ts ano!r aspect ( ! inductive process2 namely1 8,x is a matt] ( build+ g5]al notions f individual notions1 acquir$ by ! obs]vation ( facts40 ,to illu/rate3 ,i note t ,a1 ,b1 ,c & ,d are hone/ 9 _! deal+s ) me1 h5ce ,i come to ! conclusion t "s m5 are hone/4 ,a fact is some?+ done1 consequ5tly ! actual do+ ( ! hone/ ?+s by ,a1 ,b1 ,c & ,d are facts4 ,ea* /ate ( aw>5ess ( ea* fact is an individual notion4 ,! m9d n[ disc]ns a uni=mity 9 ^! facts & d]ives ! g5]al notion t 8"s m5 are hone/40 #b4 ,,obs]vation4 ,facts are acquir$ by means ( obs]vation4 ,:5 ! m9d fixes ! att5tion ^u any ph5om5on x obs]ves x4 ,! t]m obs]vation means 8to wat* =0 & may be def9$ z ! act ( wat*+ = ph5om5a z !y may occur4 ,! obs]vation may be only casual1 or x may be will$ or rational4 ,x is ! latt] aspect :i* mo/ conc]ns ! logician4 ,9 ?is s5se obs]vation means c>eful1 pa9/ak+1 sy/ematic p]ception4 ,x involves ! conc5tration ( consci\sness ^u ! case 9 h&1 or ! actual giv+ ( att5tion4 ,! ?+ obs]v$ may be ext]nal1 :5 ! obs]vation takes ! =m ( s5se-p]ception2 or x may be int]nal1 :5 ! obs]vation becomes a matt] ( introspection4 #c4 ,,exp]im5t4 ,9 obs]vation we simply wat* ! ph5om5on2 9 exp]im5t we make x4 ,9 exp]im5t we n only obs]ve1 b we manipulate ! circum/ances s z to pres5t ! ph5om5on "u ! mo/ favorable conditions = obs]vation4 8,9 obs]vation10 says ,mill1 8we f9d an in/ance 9 nature suit$ to our purposes02 :il/ 9 exp]im5t1 by an artificial arrangem5t ( circum/ances1 we make an in/ance suit$ to our purpose4 ,9 obs]vation we wat* = causes2 9 exp]im5t we "w = effects4 ,we may ?us def9e exp]im5t z ! act ( mak+ ph5om5a occur = ! purpose ( wat*+ = effects4 ,9 exp]im5t !re is mu* :i* is m]ely obs]vation4 ,9 fact exp]im5t is obs]vation 9 :i* ! ph5om5on is artificially produc$4 ,= ! sake ( def9it5ess1 h[ev]1 any obs]vation :i* involves a manipulation ( circum/ances1 may be designat$ z exp]im5tal4 #d4 ,,rules ,,= ,,logical ,,obs]vation ,,& ,,exp]im5t4 ,to ! un9itiat$1 ! matt] ( obs]vation seems an easy task1 & yet :5 "o he>s two hone/ m5 swe> to diametrically opposite facts :i* h come to !m f obs]v+ ! same ph5om5on1 8 fai? is %ak54 8,eyes h !y b see n0 is a logical tru? z well z a moral "o4 ,only ! obs]vation ( ! tra9$ c be dep5d$ ^u2 & yet ?is %\ld n disc\rage ! layman1 = ev5 he1 by a little consci5ti\s ef=t t[>ds c>eful obs]vation1 may greatly increase 8 /ore ( accurate k & add to ! joy ( liv+4 ,! att5d+ rules are usually he$$ by ! tra9$ sci5ti/ 9 matt]s ( obs]vation & exp]im5t3 ,fir/ ,rule4 ,! obs]vations %\ld be precise4 ,! "t1 ! place1 ! surr\nd+ conditions mu/ be accurately not$4 ,_m artificial contrivances h be5 devis$ because ( ! desire ( ! sci5ti/ to be precise4 ,in/rum5ts l ! balance1 ! !rmomet]1 ! microscope1 etc41 has he inv5t$1 & v>i\s devices & me?ods has he adopt$ = ! sake ( precision4 ,a common me?od is to take an av]age ( obs]vations4 ,= example1 to e/imate ju/ly ! class "w ( a /ud5t1 ! tea*] %\ld n be cont5t ) ! rat+s ( "o or two recitations1 b mu/ av]age ! rat+s ( _m recitations4 ,aga91 a *ild may be l$ to discov] approximately ! value ( ! sum ( ! int]ior angles ( a triangle by measur+ ! angles ( _m triangles & !n /rik+ an av]age2 assume t ! foll[+ results are obta9$ by su* a proc$ure3 7#a7 #agh1 7#b7 #aha1 7#c7 #agi1 7#d7 #ahj1 7#e7 #ahb2 add+ ^! & divid+ by #e gives #ahj4 ,second ,rule4 ,! obs]vations %\ld conc]n only ! mat]ial circum/ances ( ! case 9 h&4 ,all ! non ess5tials may be ignor$1 z !y s]ve only to di/ract att5tion4 ,= example1 7#a7 9 ord] to get ! 8"r c\nt0 all o!r s\nds mu/ be ignor$ save t ( ! fire gong2 7#b7 9 f9d+ ! dep? ( ! wat] = ! build+ ( a dam1 s\nd+s t5 miles away f ! objective po9t c\ld be ( little value4 ,on ! o!r h&1 x is easy to ov]look c]ta9 lurk+ ess5tials4 ,to obs]ve su*1 x is necess>y to resort to :at ! psy*ologi/ t]ms a 8preadju/m5t ( att5tion40 ,we mu/ "k ) exactness :at we are look+ =4 ,we mu/ h a m5tal image ( :at we wi% to see4 ,! a/ronom] 9 ! discov]y ( a new planet mu/ "k ! exact spot :]e x ought to be1 & h a cle> m5tal image ( its appe>ance4 ,?is expectant att5tion is a necessity 9 ! case ( ! physician :o is anxi\s to make no mi/akes 9 8 diagnosis4 ,if he is look+ = pneumonia1 he mu/ h a v di/9ct auditory image ( ! s\nd ( an affect$ lung4 ,x %\ld be rem>k$1 h[ev]1 t ?is v preadju/m5t ( att5tion1 ) ! untra9$1 frequ5tly leads to illusion4 ,we are s anxi\s to see :at we are look+ = t n9e-t5?s ( :at we believe we see is only inf]5ce4 ,h[ easy x is to read into a ph5om5on some?+ t is entirely =eign to x2 to read betwe5 ! l9es2 to see only ! reflection ( our own ideas4 8,v]ily ! m5tal picture ( :at we wi% to see becomes s vivid t we are positive ( ! ?+ be+ ext]nal40 ,?us ! drunk>d sees snakes & ! sup]/iti\s see gho/s4 ,read+ into ! ext]nal :at is only vividly int]nal is probably ! mo/ common error ) ! untra9$ obs]v]4 ,?ird ,rule4 ,! obs]v$ circum/ances %\ld be v>i$ z mu* z possible4 ,to obs]ve a fact f a diff]5t viewpo9t may n only broad5 ! orig9al notion1 b x may *ange x entirely4 ,9 ord] to ga9 a true notion ( ! effect ( a p>ticul> no/rum on ! human organism1 x becomes necess>y to exp]im5t ) p]sons ( diff]5t ages1 liv+ "u diff]5t environm5ts1 & inh]it+ diff]5t con/itutions4 ,^? :o are not$ = pron\nc+ broad1 safe & sane judgm5ts ^u mom5t\s que/ions are ^? :o are 8all-angl$ obs]v]s40 ,f\r? ,rule4 ,! obs]v$ ph5om5on %\ld1 if possible1 be isolat$ f all int]f]+ ph5om5a4 ,9 /udy+ ! action ( a drug or a food1 all o!r drugs or foods mu/ be elim9at$4 ,! effect ( gravitation on a body _c be record$ accurately unless ! exp]im5ts are made 9 a vacuum4 ,:5 /udy+ ! deflections ( ! compass1 all magnetic sub/ances mu/ be remov$ f ! field4 #e4 ,,common ,,errors ,,( ,,obs]vation ,,& ,,exp]im5t4 ,! rules = sci5tific obs]vation h sugge/$ c]ta9 common errors :i* may n[ be consid]$4 7#a7 ,preconceiv$ ideas4 ,!re is n an unholy belief nor an un:olesome !ory :i* _c be bol/]$ up by means ( app>5t facts4 ,= example1 t mon/rosity ( ,puritan ?\ght kn[n z 8,salem ,wit*craft0 0 sub/antiat$ by facts hone/ly obs]v$4 ,aga91 hav+ made up 8 m9d t x is go+ to be 8s & s10 ! /ati/ician goes out into ! highways & byways & ga!rs ! facts :i* v9dicate 8 judgm5t4 ,fur!r1 ! democrat f9ds t ! majority ( ! vot]s are democrats2 :ile ! republican is confid5t t two-?irds ( ! vot]s are = republicanism4 ,"h aga9 is ! fallacy spr++ f a preadju/m5t ( att5tion4 ,we see :at we want to see4 ,only ! highly tra9$ obs]v] is able1 ) impunity1 to make use ( preadju/$ att5tion1 & ev5 ) him1 x is n easy to remove f ! situation belief & prejudice4 ,! true obs]v] und]takes 8 "w ) 8 m9d op5 to any?+ :i* ! eye may br+ him1 ?\gh x may topple into ! du/ 8 de>e/ !ory & mo/ *]i%$ belief2 he proce$s! m9d a 8clean :ite page40 7#b7 ,! 8obs]v$0 & ! 8inf]r$0 confus$4 ,?is error has already receiv$ "s att5tion4 ,x may be rem>k$ fur!r1 h[ev]1 t1 psy*ologically consid]$1 obs]vation is a matt] ( int]pret+ ! new by means ( ! old4 ,( necessity ! int]pretation1 :atev] x may be1 w assume ! complexion ( ! p>ticul> 8old k0 :i* ! m9d is able to use4 ,9 %ort1 a man w see :at 8 previ\s environm5t has tra9$ him to see2 ! consci5ti\s g>d5] sees ! we$s1 :il/ ! arti/ may see no?+ b ! fl[]s4 ,x foll[s1 !re=e1 t all obs]vation mu/ be l>gely a matt] ( inf]5ce bas$ on exp]i5ce4 ,9 look+ at ! moon1 = example1 all ,i actually see is a pat* ( color2 ! =m & di/ant location ( ! moon be+ a matt] ( exp]i5ce4 ,! inf]5ce ref]r$ to 9 ?is head+ is n t :i* is necess>y = p]ception1 b t :i* is sugge/$ by p]ception4 ,to illu/rate3 ,x is icy2 ?ree m5 are runn+ = a c>2 ,smi? raises 8 arm2 ,jones slips to ! gr\nd2 & ,br[n te/ifies1 t 8,smi? knock$ ,jones d[n40 ,br[n obs]v$1 t ,smi? assum$ ! prop] attitude & t ,jones conv5i5tly w5t d[n at ! "r "t2 & !n inf]r$ ! re/4 7#c7 ,ignor+ ! exceptions4 ,?is comes ?r\gh an ov] anxiety to prove our !ory4 ,) ?is m5tal attitude1 ! obs]vations :i* are corroborative w s completely fill ! m5tal field1 t ! exceptions are made to seem ( no consequ5ce4 ,?is acc\nts = ! sup]/ition atta*$ to ?irte54 ,z a co9cid5ce "s "o at "s "t di$ :o _h previ\sly eat5 at a table :]e !re 7 ?irte54 ,p]haps dur+ ! life ( ! sup]/iti\s "o ?is happ5$ on two or ?ree occasions1 b ! fact s impresses ! subject t he ignores ! doz5 times :5 dea? did n foll[4 ,o!r g5]alizations belong+ to ?is class are 7#a7 p nev] die at flood tide2 7#b7 !re mu/ be ?ree accid5ts 9 succession2 7#c7 ! fir/ sight ( ! new moon ov] ! "r %\ld] is a good om52 7#d7 se$s :i* gr[ to root d be/ :5 plant$ dur+ ! la/ days ( ! wax+ moon2 7#e7 horse *e/nut 9 pocket gu>ds aga9/ sore ?roat1 etc4 7#d7 ,sympa?y & undue int]e/4 ,! influ5ce ( ! he>t ov] ! bra9 is well kn[n4 ,a physician is liable to ?is error :5 he attempts to prescribe = "o ( 8 own family4 ,sympa?y n only w>ps ! judgm5t b x may actually int]f]e ) ! accuracy ( an hone/ obs]v]'s p]ceptive p[]s4 7#e7 ,inatt5tion & a fallible memory4 ,^! %ort com+s are too app>5t to dem& discussion4 #f4 ,,! ,,hypo!sis4 ,hav+ obs]v$ ! facts1 ! m9d naturally seeks = explanation ( ! same4 ,h5ce tak+ ! facts z a cue & br++ into play a con/ructive imag9ation1 a plausible supposition is advanc$1 :i* is !n prov$ or disprov$4 ,su* a supposition is kn[n z an hypo!sis4 ,def9ition4 ,an hypo!sis is a supposition advanc$ = purposes ( explanation & pro(4 ,fir/ illu/ration4 ,! facts are kn[n t light travels f ! sun to ! e>?1 & at ! rate ( #ahf ?\s& miles p] second4 ,^! facts sugge/ ! problems3 7#a7 ,h[ does ! light rea* ! e>?8 7#b7 ,:y ?is rate ( spe$2 :y s mu* fa/] ?an ! rate at :i* s\nd travels8 ,to solve ^! problems1 or to expla9 ! facts1 ! 8e!r0 hypo!sis is advanc$3 viz41 8,a r>e m$ium call$ e!r p]vades space & transmits ! light & heat ( ! sun40 ,?is hypo!sis has nev] be5 conclusively prov$4 ,second illu/ration4 ,fact3 ,! *ild leans =w>d & squ9ts 8 eyes1 :5 attempt+ to read "w :i* has be5 plac$ on ! black bo>d2 hypo!sis3 ,! *ild is ne> sight$4 #g4 ,,induction ,,& ,,hypo!sis ,,di/+ui%$4 ,induction is a matt] ( realiz+ g5]alizations f ! obs]vation ( facts4 ,! product ( su* is an induction1 b we "k t an hypo!sis is likewise a g5]alization bas$ ^u facts4 ,:at is ! diff]5ce8 ,an induction1 z su*1 is a broad] t]m ?an hypo!sis4 ,z soon z ! hypo!sis is prov$ or disprov$1 x ceases to be an hypo!sis1 b /ill rema9s an induction4 ,an hypo!sis1 be+ advanc$ = purposes ( explanation ceases to be an hypo!sis :51 9 ! la/ analysis1 x fails to expla94 ,moreov]1 z soon z ! hypo!sis is %[n to be an und\bt$ tru?1 x also loses its di/9ctive hypo!tic m>ks4 ,an hypo!sis is m]ely a t5tative induction4 ,,illu/rations3 7#a7 ,! hypo!sis is advanc$ t ! fire />t$ f ! coal range 9 ! kit*54 ,aft] ! inc5di>y is caught1 ?is supposition ceases to be an hypo!sis4 7#b7 ,x is suspect$1 t my insomnia is due to ! ?ree cups ( /rong c(fee indulg$ 9 at ! ev5+ meal4 ,z soon z ?is supposition is prov$ by exp]im5tal means 7law ( diff]5ce71 x ceases to be an hypo!sis & becomes an unpopul> inductive tru?4 #h4 ,,hypo!sis ,,& ,,!ory4 ,9 common p>lance hypo!sis & !ory are us$ int]*angeably4 ,we ref] to ! 8nebul> hypo!sis0 or ! 8nebul> !ory02 to ! 8hypo!sis ( ! sun's heat0 or 8! !ory ( ! sun's heat40 ,on ! o!r h&1 we say 8! !ory ( gravitation10 8! !ory ( evolution10 etc41 ) c]ta9 uni=mity4 ,f ^! obs]vations we may inf] t hypo!sis & !ory may be us$ int]*angeably :5 ! facts are ( a l[ probability2 b :5 ! facts h und]gone cog5t v]ification1 x is m correct to use !ory 9 _! designation r ?an hypo!sis4 8,a !ory is a p>tially v]ifi$ hypo!sis40 ,x has be5 rem>k$ t !ory has a second signification ( be+ a t]m :i* /&s = 8any body ( acquir$ tru?40 ,x is un=tunate t its use c\ld n be conf9$ to ?is latt] conception4 #i4 ,,! ,,requirem5ts ,,( ,a ,,p]missible ,,hypo!sis4 ,any hypo!sis %\ld be made to con=m to ! foll[+ requisites3 7#a7 ,! hypo!sis mu/ be conceivable4 ,! hypo!tic g5]alizations ( primeval days 7 m]e fancy4 ,= example1 ! l\d noise f ! cl\ds on d>k days 0 ! angry voice ( ! ,god ( ! skies4 ,ev5 9 ?is day :5 a complex situation _c be expla9$ !re comes ! temptation to draw entirely ^u ! imag9ation1 & advance an hypo!sis :i* is absurd 9 e s5se ( ! ^w4 ,! p]missible hypo!sis dem&s t !re be "s gr\nd = ! conjecture4 ,a fact or two at lea/ mu/ be us$ z ! f\ndation = :atev] ! con/ructive imag9ation may build4 ,on ! o!r h& ! pa/ has taught u t we _c af=d to be too exact+ 9 ! en=cem5t ( ?is rule4 ,! ideas ( ,cop]nicus1 ,newton1 ,h>vey1 ,d>w91 & _m ano!r ( ! _w's be/ ?9k]s1 7 look$ ^u at fir/ z be+ ridicul\s4 ,!re is always a b>e possibility ( a 8lurk+ tru?0 9 ! conjecture1 & no broad m9d$ & sanely educat$ man c af=d to sc(f bl9dly at some?+ :i* may seem to him m]e fancy4 ,prejudice & a willful bl9dness to tru?1 h ev] be5 imm95t /umbl+ blocks 9 ! pa? ( progress4 7#b7 ,! hypo!sis mu/ be capable ( pro( or dispro(4 ,?is means1 t :]e x is possible ! hypo!sis %\ld t\*1 9 "o =m or ano!r1 our exp]i5ce4 ,if ! hypo!sis is :olly unlike any exp]i5ce we may h _h1 x becomes impossible to asc]ta91 :e!r x agrees or disagrees ) ! facts1 :i* x is suppos$ to expla94 ,a legitimate hypo!sis mu/ furni% "s opportunity = secur+ facts to prove or disprove x4 ,= example1 to advance an hypo!sis relative to ! conditions ( ! next _w is h>dly p]missible1 z 8_s-facts0 are entirely )\t our field ( exp]i5ce4 ,surely1 "o return+ f ,heav5 c\ld give u no conception ( x2 because !re is no?+ 9 ! c>nal m9d t may be us$ to int]pret ! exp]i5ces t mu/ function 9 ! ,cele/ial ,city4 7#c7 ,! hypo!sis mu/ be adequate4 ,x %\ld take into consid]ation all ! kn[n facts4 ,x /&s to reason t1 if "o kn[n fact is ignor$1 ! entire proc$ure is ?us vitiat$4 ,x w\ld be absurd to suppose ! moon to be inhabit$ )\t giv+ he$ to ! fact ( its hav+ no atmosph]e4 7#d7 ,! hypo!sis mu/ be z simple z possible4 ,we mu/1 ( c\rse1 recognize situations :i* 9 !mselves are too complex to admit ( simple conjectures4 ,! purport ( ! f\r? rule is1 t ! hypo!sis %\ld n be made unnecess>ily complex4 7#e7 ,! hypo!sis %\ld n contradict any v]ifi$ tru?4 ,any conjecture :i* oppos$ ! law ( gravitation w\ld be out ( place4 ,( c\rse x is possible to h only app>5t conflicts betwe5 ! new hypo!sis & ! old law4 ,fur!r obs]vation %\ld %[ t no su* cla% exi/s4 #aj4 ,,! ,,uses ,,( ,,hypo!ses4 ,! hypo!sis is s]viceable ma9ly 9 ^! p>ticul>s3 7#a7 ,z a work+ basis4 ,:5 "o is confront$ ) a huge mass ( facts x becomes necess>y to />t some:]e1 & ) z little wa/e ( "t & en]gy z possible4 ,almo/ any?+ is bett] ?an a haphaz>d fl\nd]+ :i* rea*es 8n[h]e40 ,s ! inve/igator haz>ds a t5tative !ory1 :i* he at once proce$s to v]ify4 ,if v]ification fails1 !n he may disc>d ?is fir/ hypo!sis = a bett] "o4 7#b7 ,z a guide to ultimate tru?4 ,mu* might be said relative to ! use ( reject$ hypo!ses4 ,by means ( ^!1 sci5ce has advanc$ /ep by /ep t[>ds ! full light ( p]fect k4 ,z has be5 rem>k$1 no true sci5ti/ c>es to ov]look ! opportunity = sugge/ive inspiration :i* "s =sak5 hypo!sis may af=d him4 ,j z ! individual atta9s ! be/ success by us+ 8 failures z /epp+ /ones1 s ! true sci5tific discov]] climbs up to ! light on ! /airway ( disc>d$ hypo!ses4 ,by te/+ & reject+ ! false hypo!ses1 ! situation becomes m def9ite & ! problem m accurately def9$4 8,kepl] himself tri$ no less ?an n9ete5 diff]5t hypo!ses be=e he hit ^u ! "r "o1 & 8 ultimate success 0 d\btless 9 no slight degree due to 8 unsuccessful ef=ts40 7#c7 ,z a discov]] ( imm$iate tru?4 ,(t51 moreov]1 ! hypo!sis leads directly to positive v]ification4 ,! supposition advanc$ may hit ! tru? squ>ely2 & may be ( su* peculi> nature z to lead easily to cle> & conclusive pro(4 7#d7 ,z af=d+ a probable explanation ( a problem :i* w n l5d itself to an entirely satisfactory solution4 ,! !ory ( evolution may illu/rate ?is f\r? use2 :ile ! hi/ory ( ! discov]y ( ,neptune illu/rates ! ?ird4 #aa4 ,,*>act]i/ics ,,ne$$ ,,by ,,sci5tific ,,inve/igators4 ,! hypo!sis is ref]r$ to 8z ! great in/rum5t ( sci5ce40 ,! greate/ ?9k]s ( "t h possess$ ! c\rage & ! consci5ce to /ep f ! kn[n to ! unkn[n2 to haz>d a guess z to ! mean+ ( :at !y saw1 & !n subject _! guess to a rigor\s te/4 ,?is proc$ure involves ?ree elem5ts on ! "p ( ! inve/igator3 7#a7 ,p[] ( accurate obs]vation4 7#b7 ,con/ructive imag9ation4 7#c7 ,a passion = tru?4 7#a7 ,an hypo!sis =m$ )\t an accurate k ( facts is n only useless1 b (t5 x may "w positive h>m4 ,to advance s]viceable suppositions :i* are n gr\nd$ on fact1 is z impossible1 z x is to build a h\se )\t a f\ndation4 ,! hypo!sis is an image ( ! con/ructive imag9ation1 b ! p$e/al ( ?is image mu/ re/ on ! gr\nd ( fact4 ,! inve/igator :o w\ld be sci5tific mu/ ex]cise scrupul\s c>e 9 secur+ 8 facts ?r\gh obs]vation & exp]im5t4 ,! rules & errors involv$ 9 su* a proc$ure h receiv$ suffici5t att5tion4 7#b7 ,aft] ! inve/igator has 8 facts to build ^u2 & ^! may be few or _msometimes ev5 a s+le fact is suffici5t!n may he !orize z to a possible explanation ( !m4 ,"h is :]e ! real "w ( ! born g5ius tells4 ,to "s ! facts are no?+ b words1 to o!rs !y mean univ]sal laws & great inv5tions4 ,:o b a ,newton c\ld h se5 ! law ( gravitation 9 ! fall+ apple8 ,:o b an ,edison c\ld h se5 ! phonograph 9 ! s\nd wave & wax8 ,x mu/ be recogniz$ t ?is rem>kable imag9ative insight is inborn 9 "s cases2 & yet ?is does n preclude ! necessity = cultivat+ ?is p[]1 ?\gh x may be only 9 a rudim5t>y /ate4 ,"h is ano!r opportunity = ! s*ool tea*]2 namely1 to tra9 9 e legitimate way ! con/ructive imag9ation4 7#c7 ,hav+ once con/ruct$ ! hypo!sis1 ! hone/ sci5tific inve/igator at once proce$s to subject x to a s]ies ( mo/ rigor\s te/s4 ,x is well to see big ?+s 9 a little fact2 to h a m9d z f]tile 9 new ideas z a wat]$ g>d5?is is g5ius6 ,b is x n m incumb5t to h a consci5ce s ke51 t no?+ w be all[$ to pass = tru? :i* has n receiv$ ample v]ification8 ,intellectual di%one/y is q z common z moral di%one/y4 ,moreov]1 "o mu/ ma9ta9 an op5 m9d1 absolute c&or1 & a will+ness to ab&on ! mo/ *]i%$ !ory4 ,(t5 x is mu* easi] to expla9 away contradictory facts ?an x is to =sake a pet !ory4 #ab4 ,,outl9e4 ,,! ,,auxili>y ,,elem5ts ,,9 ,,induction,,obs]vation,,exp]im5t ,,hypo!sis4 7#a7 ,! ,f\ndation ( ,inductive ,g5]alizations4 7#b7 ,obs]vation4 ,def9$4 7#c7 ,exp]im5t4 ,def9$4 ,comp>$ ) ,obs]vation4 7#d7 ,rules = ,logical ,obs]vation & ,exp]im5t4 ,_! ne$4 ,fir/ ,rule4 ,second ,rule4 ,?ird ,rule4 ,f\r? ,rule4 7#e7 ,common ,errors ( ,obs]vation & ,exp]im5t4 7#a7 ,preconceiv$ ,ideas4 7#b7 ,confus+ ! ,obs]v$ ) ! ,inf]r$4 7#c7 ,ignor+ ! ,exceptions4 7#d7 ,sympa?y & ,undue ,int]e/4 7#e7 ,inatt5tion & a ,fallible ,memory4 7#f7 ,! ,hypo!sis4 ,def9$ & ,illu/rat$4 7#g7 ,induction & ,hypo!sis ,di/+ui%$4 7#h7 ,hypo!sis & ,!ory ,di/+ui%$4 7#i7 ,! ,requirem5ts ( a ,p]missible ,hypo!sis4 7#a7 ,conceivable1 7#b7 ,capable ( pro( or dispro(1 7#c7 ,adequate1 7#d7 ,simple1 7#e7 ,n contradictory4 7#aj7 ,uses ( ,hypo!sis4 7#a7 ,a work+ basis1 7#b7 ,guide to ultimate tru?1 7#c7 ,discov]] ( imm$iate tru?1 7#d7 ,probable explanation4 7#aa7 ,*>act]i/ics ,requir$ by ,sci5tific ,inve/igators4 7#a7 ,accurate obs]v]1 7#b7 ,con/ructive imag9ation1 7#c7 ,passion = tru?4 #ac4 ,,summ>y4 7#a7 ,facts are ! f\ndation ( all inductive g5]alizations4 ,induction is l>gely a matt] ( build+ g5]al notions f individual notions d]iv$ f ! obs]vation ( facts4 7#b7 ,obs]vation is ! act ( wat*+ ! ph5om5a z !y may occur4 ,x involves ! volunt>y conc5tration ( consci\sness on ! case 9 h&4 7#c7 ,exp]im5t is ! act ( mak+ ph5om5a occur = ! purpose ( wat*+ = effects4 ,x is 9 reality a =m ( obs]vation :i* necessitates a manipulation ( circum/ances4 7#d7 ,! av]age man is n giv5 to c>eful obs]vation4 ,! rules adopt$ by sci5tific obs]v]s are3 7#a7 ,! obs]vation %\ld be precise2 7#b7 %\ld conc]n only ! mat]ial circum/ances2 7#c7 %\ld be v>i$2 7#d7 %\ld be isolat$4 ,= ! sake ( precision _m in/rum5ts h be5 inv5t$ & me?ods devis$2 notably in/rum5ts = accurate measurem5ts1 su* z ! balance & !rmomet]1 & me?ods l ! me?od ( av]ages4 ,frequ5tly a situation may be s complicat$ z to dem& a 8preadju/m5t ( att5tion40 ,) ! untra9$ ?is v preadju/m5t may lead to s]i\s error4 ,an 8all-angl$ obs]v]0 is ! mo/ tru/wor?y4 7#e7 ,errors 9 obs]vation come f preconceiv$ ideas2 confus+ p]ception ) inf]5ce2 ignor+ ! exceptions2 sympa?y2 inatt5tion2 & a fallible memory4 7#f7 ,an hypo!sis is a supposition advanc$ = purposes ( explanation & pro(4 7#g7 ,an hypo!sis is a t5tative induction4 ,z soon z x is depriv$ ( its t5tative nature x ceases to be an hypo!sis4 7#h7 ,hypo!sis & !ory are (t5 us$ int]*angeably :5 ref]5ce is made to ph5om5a ( l[ probability4 ,!ory %\ld be us$ only 9 in/ances ( high probability4 7#i7 ,a p]missible hypo!sis mu/ be 7#a7 conceivable2 7#b7 capable ( pro( or dispro(2 7#c7 adequate2 7#d7 simple2 7#e7 mu/ n contradict any v]ifi$ tru?4 7#aj7 ,! hypo!sis is especially s]viceable 9 ^! f\r p>ticul>s3 7#a7 z a work+ basis2 7#b7 z a guide to ultimate tru?2 7#c7 z a discov]] ( imm$iate tru?2 7#d7 z af=d+ probable explanations4 7#aa7 ,!re are c]ta9 *>act]i/ics :i* an hone/ & c\rage\s inve/igator ne$s to possess4 ,^! are3 7#a7 und\bt$ ability z an accurate obs]v] ( facts1 7#b7 a con/ructive imag9ation1 7#c7 a passion = tru?4 ,to build an acceptable hypo!sis )\t fact is z impossible z x is to build a h\se )\t a f\ndation4 ,! g5ius1 because ( 8 imag9ative insight1 trans=ms ! simple fact into a complex inv5tion or law4 ,a prevail+ 8intellectual di%one/y0 sugge/s ! ne$ ( 8a great] passion = tru?40 #ad4 ,,review ,,que/ions4 7#a7 ,%[ t facts are ! raw mat]ial ( induction4 7#b7 ,def9e & illu/rate a fact4 7#c7 ,def9e induction 9 t]ms ( ! notion4 7#d7 ,def9e & illu/rate obs]vation4 7#e7 ,def9e & illu/rate exp]im5t4 7#f7 ,%[ ! diff]5ce betwe5 obs]vation & exp]im5t4 7#g7 ,/ate & exemplify ! rules = logical obs]vation & exp]im5t4 7#h7 ,illu/rate ! me?od ( av]ag+ obs]vations4 7#i7 ,expla9 8preadju/m5t ( att5tion40 7#aj7 ,:at is ! mo/ common error ) ! untra9$ obs]v]8 ,expla9 & illu/rate4 7#aa7 ,expla9 ! expression 8all-angl$ obs]v]40 7#ab7 ,/ate & exemplify ! errors ( obs]vation & exp]im5t4 7#ac7 ,to :at error 9 obs]vation are sup]/itions g5]ally due8 7#ad7 ,def9e & illu/rate hypo!sis4 7#ae7 ,indicate ! diff]5ce betwe5 an hypo!sis & an ord9>y induction4 7#af7 ,:5 may !ory & hypo!sis be us$ int]*angeably8 ,illu/rate4 7#ag7 ,%[ by illu/ration t ! t]m !ory is ambigu\s4 7#ah7 ,summ>ize ! requirem5ts ( a p]missible hypo!sis4 ,illu/rate4 7#ai7 ,select "s s*ool room exp]i5ce ) a view ( mak+ x con=m to ! requirem5ts ( a p]missible hypo!sis4 7#bj7 ,expla9 & illu/rate ! uses ( hypo!sis4 7#ba7 8,! sci5tific discov]] climbs up to ! light on ! /airway ( disc>d$ hypo!ses40 ,expla94 7#bb7 ,write a %ort !me on 8,*>act]i/ics ,requir$ by ,sci5tific ,inve/igators40 #ae4 ,,que/ions ,,= ,,orig9al ,,?\ght ,,& ,,inve/igation4 7#a7 8,l& & sea breezes are due to a diff]5ce 9 temp]ature40 ,is ?is a fact or a law8 ,expla9 y\r position4 7#b7 ,give ?ree diff]5t def9itions ( induction4 ,:i* "o h y adopt$8 ,def5d y\r position4 7#c7 ,def9e & illu/rate obs]vation4 7#d7 ,di/+ui% betwe5 obs]vation & att5tion4 7#e7 8,9 obs]vation we f9d1 9 exp]im5t we make40 ,:at is meant by ?is8 7#f7 ,give illu/rations ( falsehood due to c>eless obs]vation4 7#g7 ,argue = & aga9/ ! use ( 8expectant att5tion0 9 obs]vation4 7#h7 8,n9e-t5?s ( :at we see comes f )940 ,d y believe ?is8 ,labor ! "q4 7#i7 ,(f] sugge/ions :i*1 if foll[$1 %\ld lead to sci5tific obs]vation4 7#aj7 8,"o mu/ be j be=e he is sympa!tic40 ,relate ?is to ! f9e art ( accurate obs]vation4 7#aa7 ,is an hypo!sis a g5]alization8 ,expla94 7#ab7 ,give s*ool room examples ( hypo!ses :i* lead to inju/ice4 7#ac7 8,an hypo!sis is m]ely a t5tative induction40 ,make cle> ?is ass]tion4 7#ad7 ,illu/rate inconceivable hypo!ses by draw+ on y\r k ( anci5t hi/ory4 7#ae7 8,prejudice & willful bl9dness to tru? h ev] be5 imm95t /umbl+ blocks 9 ! pa? ( progress40 ,expatiate ^u ?is4 7#af7 ,are ! hypo!ses advanc$ conc]n+ communications f ! spiritual _w capable ( pro( or dispro(8 ,give reasons4 7#ag7 ,%[ by hi/orical examples ! use ( disc>d$ hypo!ses4 7#ah7 8,g5ius is ano!r "n = h>d "w40 ,d y agree8 ,def5d y\r position4 7#ai7 8,! man to :om no?+ ev] occurs is unlikely to make any important discov]ies40 ,discuss ?is4 ,,*apt] #bj4 ,,logic ,,9 ,,! ,,class ,,room4 #a4 ,,?\ght ,,is ,,k+4 8,our habits make or unmake u40 8,9 a ?\ghtless h\r a groove is imb$d$ 9 ! n]ve sub/ance1 & !reaft]1 n9e-t5?s ( ! life fl[s ?r\gh t groove40 ,habit is1 inde$1 a mo/ p[]ful & a mo/ tyrannical ma/]2 & yet x has come )9 ! obs]vation & ev5 ! exp]i5ce ( _m1 t ?\ght is ev5 m ma/]ful ?an habit4 ,appe>+ at ! psy*ological mom5t & 9 a p$agogical way1 a ?\ght may be made to possess ! m9d ) =ce suffici5t to break almo/ any habit4 ,f an e?ical po9t ( view1 ! exceptions to ?is are due to an inability to ar\se ?\ght ( suffici5t /r5g?4 ,moreov]1 m5tal reactions :i* result 9 habit are orig9ally br\ght ab\t ?r\gh "s ?\ght process4 ,speak+ 9 g5]al t]ms1 x may be affirm$ t ?\ght makes habit & if suffici5tly /rong breaks habit4 ,t our habits make or unmake u may be true1 b is x n likewise true t our ?\ghts make or unmake our habits8 ,?\ght is k+2 ?\ght has made man k+ ( ! animal k+dom1 & if ?\ght has figur$ s l>gely 9 ! evolution ( ! human animal 9 pa/ ages1 may we n assume t x w sway ! future ages 9 l mann]8 ,?\ght is a product ( ! class room4 ,"h ?\ghts :i* make habits1 & ?\ghts :i* break habits h full sway4 ,z ! *ildr5 ( ! ,am]ican s*ools ?9k to-day1 s w ! m5 ( ,am]ican life ?9k on ! morr[2 & z ,am]ica ?9ks s w %e ultimately d4 ,?is l5ds vital import to any object :i* may ei!r inspire or regulate ?\ght4 #b4 ,,special ,,function ,,( ,,induction ,,& ,,d$uction4 ,z commonly treat$ logic is a regulative subject4 ,?is implies ! two aspects ( direction & correction4 ,logic directs by means ( ! laws & =ms ( ?\ght1 & corrects by means ( ! rules ( "r ?9k+4 ,to a c]ta9 degree bo? dep>tm5ts ( logic are directive z well z corrective2 b x is wor?y ( rem>k t inductive logic emphasizes ! =m]1 :ile d$uctive logic lays /ress ^u ! latt]4 ,x is inductive logic :i* %[s h[ man has acquir$ new k2 inductive logic expla9s ! mode ( proc$ure adopt$ by ! discov]] & ! inv5tor4 ,on ! o!r h&1 d$uctive logic is di/9ctly a sci5ce ( criticism4 ,induction directs to new tru?2 d$uction aims to modify & correct new tru?4 #c4 ,,two ,,types ,,( ,,m9d4 ,?\gh !re are _m special =ms ( ?\ght1 yet !re are b two g5]al =ms2 namely1 induction & d$uction4 ,inductive ?\ght seeks ! new2 d$uctive ?\ght corrects ! old4 ,simil>ly1 !re are two types ( m9d3 ! inductive type & ! d$uctive type4 ,! =m] rea*es out = new ?+s1 ! latt] is satisfi$ ) ord]+ ! old4 ,9 politics ! man ) ! inductive type ( m9d becomes a 8,lib]al0 or a 8,progressive02 :ile ! man ) ! d$uctive type ( m9d becomes a 8,cons]vative0 or a 8,/&patt]40 ,x mu/ be conc$$ t bo? are ne$$ 9 ! developm5t ( ! be/ =m ( ,democracy4 ,we ne$ an unfett]$ fre$om z advocat$ by ,jeff]son2 b we also ne$ an ord]$ fre$om z taught by ,hamilton4 #d4 ,,too ,,mu* ,,cons]vatism ,,9 ,,s*ool ,,room4 ,s9ce ! beg9n+ ^! two m5tal types h be5 9 evid5ce! lib]al :o wants to d ?+s1 & ! cons]vative :o wants to weigh ?+s4 ,) ! lib]al1 x is fight :e!r or no2 ) ! cons]vative1 x is fight provid$ ! enemy is n too =midable4 ,! "o d>es2 ! o!r cautions3 bo? are ne$$ to balance ! _w4 ,lib]alism & cons]vatism may be fo/]$ 9 ! s*ool room1 & to ma9ta9 a true balance ea* mu/ receive its %>e ( att5tion4 ,is su* ! case8 ,! pass+ ( 8di/rict-s*ool-individualism0 & ! com+ ( 8grad$-s*ool-collectism0 has transf]r$ ! emphasis f lib]alism to cons]vatismf ! inductive type to ! d$uctive type4 ,9 ?is day x seems to be m important to h ! *ild's "w ord]ly1 ?an to h x orig9al4 ,9 ! ma91 exam9ation pap]s call = correct k & n = ?\ght2 9 ! ma91 promotions are bas$ on accuracy1 n on initiative4 ,! cons]vative type be+ 9 control1 ! s*ools are s5d+ out too _m 8,d$uctives10 n en\gh 8,inductives40 ,! _w ne$s m ,columbuses & ,edisons4 #e4 ,,! ,,me?od ,,( ,,! ,,discov]]4 ,a *ange mu/ come4 ,! me?ods ( in/ruction are too didactic & n suffici5tly inspirational4 ,great] att5tion mu/ be giv5 to ! _s ( discov]y & less to ! _s ( correction4 ,! tea*] mu/ lead less & foll[ m2 mu/ correct less & sugge/ m2 mu/ tell less & direct m4 ,if we are to give great] att5tion to ! tra9+ ( discov]]s1 logic may aid 9 ?is crusade by call+ att5tion to ! common mode ( proc$ure :i* ! discov]]s ( ! pa/ h adopt$4 ,?is is a legitimate topic = ! logician1 s9ce induction1 d$uction1 hypo!sis1 & pro( h ev] be5 common tools 9 ! discov]]'s work%op4 ,) a view to becom+ bett] acqua9t$ ) ! common mode ( proc$ure ( ! man :o seeks = new tru?1 let u /udy two typical in/ances3 7#a7 ,! ,discov]y ( ,neptune4 ,! discov]y ( ,neptune 0 a d\ble "o4 ,e>ly 9 ! pres5t c5tury x 0 f\nd t ,uranus 0 /ray+ widely f 8 !oretic positions1 & ! cause ( ?is deviation 0 = a long "t unsuspect$4 ,two a/ronom]s1 ,adams 9 ,engl& & ,lev]ri] 9 ,france1 ! =m] 9 #ahdc & ! latt] 9 #ahde1 und]took to f9d out ! cause ( ?is p]turbation1 on ! supposition ( an undiscov]$ planet beyond ,uranus4 ,adams rea*$ 8 result fir/1 & ! ,engli% a/ronom]s began to se>* = ! suspect$ planet ) _! telescopes1 by fir/ mak+ a c>eful map ( all ! />s 9 t "p ( ! sky4 ,b ,lev]ri]1 on rea*+ ! conclusion ( 8 se>*1 s5t 8 result to ! ,b]l9 obs]vatory1 :]e x *anc$ t an accurate map _h j be5 =m$ ( all ! />s 9 ! suspect$ region4 ,on comp>+ ?is ) ! sky1 ! new planet1 aft]w>d call$ ,neptune1 0 at once discov]$1 #bc;d ,septemb]1 #ahdf4 7#b7 ,bees are guid$ 9 _! flight by a k ( _! surr\nd+s1 n by a g5]al s5se ( direction4 8,m4 ,romanes took a score ( bees 9 a box out to sea1 :]e !re c\ld be no l&m>ks to guide ! insects home4 ,none ( !m return$ home4 ,!n he lib]at$ a second lot ( bees on ! sea%ore & none ( ^! return+1 he lib]at$ ano!r lot on ! lawn betwe5 ! %ore & ! h\se4 ,none ( ^! return$1 al?\gh ! di/ance f ! lawn to ! hive 0 n m ?an two hundr$ y>ds4 ,la/ly he lib]at$ bees 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ! fl[] g>d5 on ei!r side ( ! h\se1 & ^! at once return$ to ! hive40 7,hibb547 ,a multiplication ( in/ances w\ld only give /rong] evid5ce to ! fact t ! mode ( proc$ure adopt$ by ! discov]] & inv5tor con=ms to ^! ?ree g5]al /eps3 7#a7 antec$5t facts1 7#b7 =m+ an hypo!sis1 7#c7 v]ification4 ,x w be to our advantage to /udy some:at 9 detail ^! ?ree /eps4 7#a7 ,antec$5t facts4 ,9 ! discov]y ( ,neptune ! decisive or crucial fact 0 ! k t ,uranus deviat$ f 8 true pa? ab\t ! sun4 ,?is k 0 obta9$ ?r\gh obs]vation & ma!matical calculation4 ,b ! hypo!sis ( ! exi/5ce ( ano!r planet c\ld n h be5 =m$ _h x n be5 = ! m fundam5tal facts ( in]tia1 gravitation1 fall+ bodies1 etc4 ,= ! sake ( def9it5ess antec$5t facts may ?us be divid$ into f\ndation facts & crucial or decisive facts4 ,! latt] are an outgr[? ( ! =m]4 ,! f\ndation fact ( ! second illu/ration is ,romanes' k ( animal in/9ct2 :ile ! crucial fact is1 no d\bt1 ! obs]vation t bees fly 9 a circle be=e />t+ = home4 ,9 ! case ( ,newton's discov]y ( ! law ( gravitation1 ! fall+ ( ! apple 0 ! crucial fact2 :ile 8 k ( t]re/rial gravity prov$ to be ! vital f\ndation fact4 ,a crucial fact is "o :i* leads imm$iately to ! =mation ( a reasonable hypo!sis4 ,x is n to be inf]r$ f ?is t ! same fact becomes a crucial "o to all alike4 ,! fall+ ( ! apple 0 only crucial to a g5ius l ,newton4 ,) ! av]age only extraord9>y facts become crucial2 b ) ! g5ius any ord9>y fact may become crucial4 ,bo? ! s*ol> & ! g5ius may h ! f\ndation facts1 b only ! latt] may be able to read into a dry fact or ev5t1 a new _w ( tru?4 7#b7 ,=m+ an ,hypo!sis4 ,f ! viewpo9t ( logical correctness1 ! matt] ( hypo!sis has receiv$ due att5tion 9 an antec$5t *apt]2 we ne$ n[ to look at ! subject ?r\gh ! eyes ( ! discov]]1 n ! logician4 ,! crucial fact at fir/ creates an intellectual p]plexity :i* is accompani$ ) an uneasy1 dissatisfi$ /ate ( m9d4 ,?is unsatisfi$ feel+ drives ! intellect to protract$ ?\ght4 ,z a f9al result "s hypo!sis is con/ruct$ :i* seems to expla9 ! crucial fact4 ,"h is :]e analogy functions 9 a mo/ vital mann]4 ,no hypo!sis is =?com+ unless x resembles ! crucial fact4 ,x has be5 rem>k$ else:]e t analogy is ! basic elem5t 9 ! =m+ ( hypo!ses4 ,s x transpires1 t ! protract$ ?\ght ref]r$ to1 is virtually a m5tal ef=t to detect significant resemblances betwe5 ! well kn[n crucial fact1 & "s hypo!tical fact :i* ! imag9ation may picture4 ,to put x diff]5tly3 ,! crucial fact ar\ses a m5tal /ate ( unre/ :i* 9 turn drives ! m9d to a 8/ill hunt0 = relations4 ,! e/abli%m5t ( ! hypo!sis is simply a make%ift1 design$ to satisfy ?is 8m5tal urge40 ,9 ! discov]y ( ,neptune ! crucial fact1 ! deviation ( ,uranus1 produc$ a /ate ( uneas9ess 9 ! m9ds ( ! a/ronom]s4 ,surely some?+ 0 wrong4 ,?is urg$ !m to fur!r m$itation1 :i* f9ally result$ 9 ! hypo!sis t !re mu/ be an unkn[n planet beyond ! orbit ( ,uranus4 ,!y assum$1 ( c\rse1 t ! relation betwe5 ?is suppos$ planet & ,uranus 0 analog\s to ! relation betwe5 any two ( ! kn[n planets4 ,9 ! case ( ,newton ! fall+ apple /irr$ 8 a/ute m9d to ! assumption t ! same =ce :i* pull$ ! apple1 likewise pull$ ! moon t[>ds ! e>?4 ,"h we h aga9 7#a7 ! crucial fact1 7#b7 ! m5tal urge1 7#c7 ! analog\s hypo!sis4 7#c7 ,v]ification4 ,=m+ an hypo!sis only p>tly fulfills ! dem&s ( an unsatisfi$ intellect4 ,! true discov]]1 be+ possess$ ) a passion = tru?1 seeks = 8! tru?1 ! :ole tru?1 & no?+ b ! tru?40 ,9 consequ5ce ! hypo!sis is subject$ to te/s :i* may lead to its confirmation1 its rejection1 or its modification4 ,! two possible modes ( v]ification are rec\rse to exp]i5ce & appeal to reason2 or empirical pro(s & rational pro(s4 ,9 ! =m] ! hypo!sis is comp>$ ) facts by means ( fur!r obs]vation & exp]im5t4 ,m4 ,romanes' exp]i5ce ) ! bees is a fair illu/ration ( ?is =m4 ,possibly ! /ud5t has already not$ t ,romanes' mode ( proc$ure con=ms to ! 8jo9t me?od ( agreem5t & diff]5ce40 ,9 ! case ( rational pro(s ! hypo!sis is subject$ to d$uctive demon/ration1 ei!r ( ! =m ( syllogi/ic argum5t or ma!matical calculation4 ,a fair sample ( ?is k9d ( v]ification is ,newton's discov]y ( univ]sal gravitation4 ,:5 he decid$ t ! moon & ! apple might be controll$ by ! same univ]sal =ce1 he und]took to e/abli% 8 hypo!sis by ma!matical calculation4 ,at fir/ 8 figures seem$ to disprove 8 !ory1 b aft] a wait ( t5 ye>s1 new data relative to ! diamet] ( ! e>?1 remov$ ! app>5t discrepancy4 ,9 ! case ( ! discov]y ( ,neptune1 ! v]ification 0 bo? rational & empirical4 ,ma!matical 7rational7 calculation l$ to ! assumption t ! new planet mu/ be at su* a po9t4 ,) ?is k ! obs]v] 0 enabl$ to turn 8 telescope to ! spot indicat$ & !re1 true to ! calculations1 0 ,neptune 7empirical74 ,to summ>ize3 ,! me?od ( ! discov]] involves a k ( c]ta9 fundam5tal facts2 ! obs]vation ( crucial facts2 a m5tal unre/2 ! con/ruct+ ( an hypo!sis ?r\gh analogy2 & f9ally v]ification by ei!r appeal to exp]i5ce1 or ma!matical demon/ration4 #f4 ,,! ,,real ,,inductive ,,me?od ,,or ,,discov]]',s ,,me?od ,,n ,,9 ,,vogue ,,9 ,,class ,,room ,,"w4 ,x has be5 rem>k$ else:]e t !re are two g5]al m9d types1 ! lib]al & ! cons]vative4 ,also t ! natural me?od ( ?\ght animat+ ! =m] is inductive2 :ile ! natural me?od ( ?\ght ( ! latt] is d$uctive4 ,! 8lib]al0 is ! apo/le ( new tru?2 ! 8cons]vative0 an apo/le ( safe tru?4 ,bo? types are ne$$2 ! "o to balance ! o!r4 ,9 consequ5ce bo? me?ods are ( s]vice 9 ! class room2 "h ea* %\ld be giv5 its proportionate place4 ,t ?is condition does n obta9 may n be app>5t1 s9ce mu* att5tion is be+ giv5 to c]ta9 inductive =ms1 su* z 8proce$+ f ! concrete to ! ab/ract10 8f ! p>ticul> to ! g5]al10 8f ! kn[n to ! relat$ unkn[n10 etc4 ,likewise ! c\rses ( /udy & ! v>i\s text books1 claim to advocate ! use ( ! inductive process4 ,seem+ly ^! facts po9t t[>d a v g5]al obs]vance ( ! inductive t5ets4 ,?is is true ) "o vital exception3 ,induction is ! natural me?od ( ! discov]]4 ,) x he acquires k2 b 9 ! class room induction is us$ to imp>t k4 ,9 life ! discov]] takes ! initiative1 ?9ks 8 own ?\ghts fir/ h&2 b 9 ! s*ool room1 above ! k9d]g>t51 ! *ild is n all[$ to take ! initiative1 n ev5 9 8 play4 ,all is plann$ = him1 all dol$ out1 n 9 ! raw1 b p>tially made ov]4 ,! tea*] mu/ imp>t a c]ta9 am\nt ( k 9 a giv5 "t1 & consequ5tly %e mu/ 8set ! pace0 9 ?is race = second h& facts4 ,to all[ ! *ild to lead2 to give him ! b5efit ( 8 own individuality2 to p]mit him to use ! ,god giv5 _s ( discov]y :i* clamors = recognition2 w\ld be suicidal accord+ to our pres5t /&>ds4 ,if ! plan ( ! discov]] 7 foll[$1 ! c\rse ( /udy c\ld n be cov]$2 *ildr5 w\ld fail ( promotion2 & criticism w\ld be =?com+ f bo? pr9cipal & p>5t4 ,9 ! av]age class room ( ! day ! inductive ,,=m prevails b ! ,,_s is n 9 evid5ce4 ,l a wolf 9 %eep's clo?+ induction has ent]$ ! class room to dev\r t primal =ce 9 ! *ild's make-up1 :i* has rais$ 8 race above 8 simian ance/ors4 ,our class room me?ods1 be+ inductive 9 =m b d$uctive 9 _s1 may tra9 ! y\ng/] to be a camp foll[] b nev] a lead] 9 ?\ght & action4 ,! call ( ! day is = m initiative2 = m orig9ality2 = m individuality2 = m en?usiasm4 ,!re is too mu* =m )\t ! _s2 s mu* t bespeaks sy/em & ref9em5t )\t ^? native impulses & native abilities :i* m>k "o *ild f ano!r4 ,l ! books ( a libr>y our *ildr5 are classifi$ & label$1 & :5 m come 9 ! o!rs are du/$ & plac$ on ! next high] %elf4 ,h[ _m m c5turies mu/ we wait be=e ! s*ools w adopt1 9 _s z well z 9 =m1 ! p$agogical pr9ciples ( life8 ,w ! "t ev] come :5 x may be said t all our lead]s 9 ?\ght & action are college graduates8 #g4 ,,z ,a ,,me?od ,,( ,,in/ruction ,,d$uction ,,is ,,sup]ior ,,to ,,induction4 ,! inductive me?od is pre-em95tly ! me?od ( ! discov]] only :5 x involves bo? ! =m1 :i* he foll[s1 & ! _s1 :i* he ev9ces4 ,! s-call$ me?od ( ! s*ool room is inductive 9 =m1 z ! proc$ure is f p>ticul> facts to g5]al tru?s2 b d$uctive 9 _s1 z x is us$ to imp>t k4 ,if x 7 inductive 9 _s1 ! *ild w\ld be all[$ to acquire k entirely ?r\gh 8 own initiative4 ,d$uction is ! me?od ( in/ruction1 :]eas induction is ! me?od ( discov]y4 ,t ! *ild ( ! s*ool is in/ruct$ or bett] 8d$uct$0 & n g5]ally all[$ to discov]1 is a situation s app>5t t we ne$ n labor ! po9t fur!r4 ,because ! inductive process has be5 made a me?od ( in/ruction1 x has be5 robb$ ( its *ief advantage ov] d$uction4 ,inde$1 z a me?od ( in/ruction1 d$uction is really ! sup]ior me?od4 ,x requires less "t1 dem&s great] conc5tration1 (t5 ar\ses m int]e/1 & creates situations :i* are less involv$4 #h4 ,,conque/ ,,n ,,k ,,! ,,desid]atum4 ,9 all great inv5tions1 man has tak5 8 cue f nature4 ,9 inv5t+ ! telescope1 8 model 0 ! eye2 9 build+ 8 h\se1 8 inspiration 0 ! cave4 ,9 reality man has accept$ nature's sugge/ions1 & !n attempt$ to improve ^u !m4 ,9 ?is he has met ) success4 ,f ! crab apple tree1 he has develop$ ! nor!rn spy2 f ! wild h5 :i* laid #be eggs a ye>1 he has evolv$ ! mod]n h5 :i* produces #bbe eggs a ye>4 ,moreov]1 man has atta9$ 8 greate/ successes by enl>g+ ^u ! ?\ghts ( nature & n by unmix$ sub/itutions4 ,burbank1 ?r\gh a long process ( ye>s1 has *ang$ ! color ( a fl[]1 b 9 accompli%+ ?is did he n use "s hidd5 t5d5cy ( nature8 ,burbank1 ) all 8 wisdom1 _c give a fl[] color unaid$ by 8,dame ,nature40 ,:5 man comm5c$ to /udy nature's mode ( education1 he saw t fe>ful sacrifices 7 entail$1 bo? 9 "t & 9 en]gy z well z 9 life itself2 & s he evolv$ a m economical way ( lead+ ! *ild ?r\gh ! exp]i5ces ( ! race4 ,9 consequ5ce1 he has develop$ ! pres5t spl5did sy/em ( education4 ,9 ! evolution ( all great in/itutions1 !re are 9 evid5ce crucial weaknesses1 & 9 ! evolution ( man's educational sy/em x appe>s t he has err$ 9 adopt+ nature's =m ( education )\t h] _s ( education4 ,9 8 anxiety to h ! "y acquire z mu* z possible1 man has ov]%ot nature's true purpose4 ,= example1 ! big ^w 9 man's educational sy/em is k2 b ! big ^w 9 nature's educational sy/em is conque/4 ,nature gives man k simply to rew>d him = 8 ef=t2 b man w\ld give to 8 fell[ ! rew>d )\t ! ef=t4 ,accord+ to nature1 ! /ronge/ m5 are ^? :o ov]come mo/2 accord+ to man1 ! /ronge/ m5 are ^? :o "k mo/4 ,! common educational pr9ciples1 su* z1 8,f ! concrete to ! ab/ract & f ! kn[n to ! relat$ unkn[n10 etc41 are int]pret$ by man f ! viewpo9t ( k2 :]eas nature w\ld tea* t ^! are a feasible way to develop p[]to gr[ manhood4 ,x is se5 t nature uses k only z a means to an end1 & !re=e :5 man uses k z an end only1 he is try+ to sub/itute a plan ( 8 own = nature's plan4 ,! be/ results c be secur$ only :5 man co-op]ates ) nature 9 develop+1 & at ! same "t regulat+1 ! _s ( conque/4 #i4 ,,motivation ,,z ,,relat$ ,,to ,,! ,,_s ,,( ,,discov]y4 ,x has be5 rem>k$ 9 ?is *apt]1 t ! 8crucial fact0 s]ves to /ir ! m9d ( ! natural born discov]] to an activity rais$ to ! n? p[] ( effectiv5ess4 ,naturally1 ! int5t ( su* activity is to solve ! my/]ies :i* ! crucial fact may sugge/4 ,?is passion ( ! m9d to 8"k m ab\t x0 is appropriately t]m$ 8! m5tal urge40 ,f ! viewpo9t ( ! p$agogue1 ! 8m5tal urge0 is simply an intr9sic int]e/ 9 ! situation at h&2 an int]e/ born ( an innate or acquir$ passion to "k ! tru?4 ,) ! av]age *ild1 ! 8m5tal urge0 is /rong only :5 ! situations appeal to "s imm$iate ne$ or vital exp]i5ce4 ,! attempt to make ! s*ool "w concrete & vital2 to make x answ] ! *ild's natural curiosities & real necessities1 is dignifi$ ) ! "n 8motivation40 ,x is obvi\s t ?is is a new t]m = an old condition4 ,to motivate ! "w1 means to give to x an attractiv5ess :i* any situation might h = ! true born discov]] & inv5tor4 ,if we w\ld use ! discov]]'s me?od successfully1 we mu/ le>n ! art ( motivat+ ! "w4 ,?is may be accompli%$ by appeal+ to ! play in/9cts1 to ! bus9ess in/9cts1 & to ! vital int]e/s ( e day life4 #aj4 ,,discov]]',s ,,me?od ,,or ,,! ,,real ,,inductive ,,me?od ,,adapt$ ,,to ,,class ,,room ,,"w4 ,a revolt has already set 9 aga9/ ?is insatiate desire to tea* k1 r ?an to tea* ! *ild4 ,_m s*ools are p]mitt+ a /udy ( ^? topics :i* vitally conc]n e day life4 ,less att5tion is be+ giv5 to =mal discipl9e1 & m att5tion to self activity4 ,gradually w ! s*eme ( education be direct$ t[>d fitt+ ! s*ool "w to ! *ild1 r ?an fitt+ ! *ild to ! s*ool "w4 ,:5 ?is new ?\ght 9 education is fully ^u u1 !n w e device & me?od be direct$ t[>d giv+ full scope to ! _s ( inquiry1 :i* s completely possesses e normal *ild4 ,x n[ rema9s = u to indicate ways 9 :i* ! _s ( inquiry1 or ! 8discov]]'s me?od10 may be adapt$ to s*ool room "w4 ,9 ! fir/ illu/ration1 we %all outl9e ! topic z x is g5]ally giv5 9 ! av]age s*ool :]e att5tion is paid to developm5t "w4 ,?is w !n be foll[$ by a second outl9e :i* may be sugge/ive ( ! discov]]'s mode ( proc$ure4 ,fir/ illu/ration4 ,s*ool ,room ,me?od4 ,i4 ,aim3 ,to tea* addition ( bus9ess fractions4 ,,ii4 ,prep>ation3 7,only type examples giv574 7#a7 7#b7 7#c7 #c bu%els #c p>ts ,rule3 ,only l numb]s #e bu%els #e p>ts c be add$4 #h bu%els #h p>ts ,,iii4 ,pres5tation3 7#a7 7#b7 7#c7 7#d7 #c n9?s #c_/i #b_/c #d_/f #b_/c #h_/ab #e n9?s #e_/i #a_/f #a_/f #c_/d #i_/ab #h n9?s #h_/i #e_/f #ag_/ab ,,iv4 ,summ>y3 7#a7 ,only l fractions c be add$4 7#b7 ,*ange unlike fractions to l fractions4 7#c7 ,add ! num]ators1 plac+ ! sum ov] ! common d5om9ator4 ,v4 ,application3 ,examples & problems involv+ simil> & dissimil> fractions4 ,be=e und]tak+ to illu/rate ! discov]]'s me?od1 x may be well to designate 9 ord] ! evid5t /eps z !y w\ld appe> to ! p$agogue3 7#a7 ,motivate ! topic to be pres5t$4 7#b7 ,br+ to m9d appropriate 8f\ndation facts40 7#c7 ,make evid5t ! 8crucial fact40 7#d7 ,lead to ! =m+ ( an hypo!sis ?r\gh analogy4 7#e7 ,af=d ample opportunity to prove ! hypo!sis4 ,discov]]'s ,me?od ,adapt$4 ,lesson ,plan4 ,i4 ,aim3 7#a7 ,by play+ ^u ! curiosity or by expos+ a vital ne$1 create a /rong desire to "k h[ to add bus9ess fractions4 7,motivate ! topic47 ,curiosity3 8,we all "k :at a fraction is & we "k1 too1 h[ to *ange fractions to high] or l[] t]ms40 8,n[ ,i wond] h[ _m "k h[ to add fractions1 su* z #b_/e & #a_/e80 8,don't y tell any "o1 ,m>y1 b j write y\r answ] on a piece ( pap] & %[ x to me40 7,m>y's answ] %[s t %e has ?\ght correctly1 b figur$ incorrectly4 ,john1 aft] hav+ rais$ 8 h&1 %[s 8 answ] to ! tea*]47 8,john has ! "r answ]40 8,t's f9e1 b let u keep ! secret1 ,john40 8,i wond] h[ _m o!rs !re are 9 ?is class :o w f9d ! "r way80 etc41 or ,vital ne$3 ,discuss ) ! class ! v>i\s occupations ( life & secure expressions ( pref]5ce4 ,"s may plan to be real e/ate ag5ts1 o!rs contractors or book keep]s1 etc4 8,george1 y plan to be a book keep]40 8,let u suppose t ,i h giv5 y ! job ( book keep] 9 my factory40 8,%[ t y are wor? y\r wages by add+ ^! numb]s3 #abd1 #fdg40 8,:at6 c't d x80 8,!n ,i don't want y60 etc4 ,,ii4 ,prep>ation3 7#b7 ,br+ to ! =egr\nd ! necess>y f\ndational k4 ,sugge/ions3 #d bu%els #h p>ts #c bu%els #b p>ts #g bu%els #aj p>ts ,,iii4 ,pres5tation3 7#c7 ,make evid5t ! crucial fact4 ,sugge/ions3 ,add #b fif?s #c eigh?s #c_/h #a fif? #a eigh? #a_/h #c fif?s #d eigh?s 7#d7 ,)\t fur!r sugge/ion1 give ! "y discov]] suitable opportunity = f9d+ ! sum ( #c_/h & #a_/h4 ,9 ! act ( discov]+1 an implicit hypo!sis takes =m 9 ! m9d ?r\gh analog\s reason+4 ,?is po9t m>ks ! climax ( ! lesson! supreme mom5t1 :5 ! skill & tact ( ! tea*] is assess$ to ! limit4 ,j "h ! *ild mu/ h a com=table environm5t :]e p]fect conc5tration is possible4 ,no?+ mu/ be =c$2 & !re %\ld be no?+ sugge/ive ( disgrace or %ame1 if ! y\?ful ,columbus is unsuccessful4 ,! fir/ attempt %\ld be )\t books4 ,if m help is ne$$1 access to books may be giv54 ,if ! inve/igation is /ill )\t def9ite result1 !n z a la/ resort ! tea*] may1 9 ! pres5ce ( ! *ild1 add fractions1 solv+ ) delib]ation example aft] example1 until ! *ild believes he has discov]$ ! process4 7#e7 ,/imulate a desire to v]ify ! facts discov]$4 ,sugge/ions lead+ to v]ification3 ,af=d opportunity = ma!matical demon/ration4 ,illu/rations3 ,! fractions #a_/d & #c_/h h be5 add$ 9 ?is way #a_/d #b_/h #c_/h #c_/h #e_/h ,use is n[ made ( ! crucial fact1 :5 ! example assumes ?is =m #b eigh?s #c eigh?s #e eigh?s ,or if ! class has be5 tra9$ 9 ! use ( ! diagram ! foll[+ may be ! =m ( pro(3 #a_/d #c_/h ,explanation f diagram4 ,i see t #a_/d equals #b p>ts & #c_/h equals #c p>ts2 ! sum ( #c p>ts & #b p>ts are #e p>ts4 ,b ! "n ( ! "p is eigh?s2 h5ce ! answ] #e p>ts may be writt5 #e eigh?s1 or #e_/h4 ,?us ! f9al =m is #b p>ts #c p>ts #e p>ts #e_/h ,give opportunity to consult answ]s 9 text books z fur!r v]ification4 ,! summ>y & application ( add+ fractions accord+ to ! 8discov]]'s me?od10 are virtually ! same z ! correspond+ /eps 9 ! 8s*ool room me?od40 ,second ,illu/ration ( ,discov]]'s ,me?od4 ,david ,p4 ,page 9 8 ,!ory & ,practice ( ,tea*+ well illu/rates ! discov]]'s me?od 9 conduct+ a g5]al ex]cise 9 nature /udy4 ,we _c d bett] ?an to quote f him3 8,x is ! purpose ( ! foll[+ rem>ks to give a specim5 ( ! mann] ( conduct+ ex]cises ) ref]5ce to wak+ up ! m9d 9 ! s*ool & also 9 ! di/rict4 ,let u suppose t ! tea*] has promis$ t on ! next day1 at t5 m9utes pa/ t5 o'clock1 he %all reque/ ! :ole s*ool to give _! att5tion five m9utes to some?+ t he may h to %[ !m4 ,?is v ann\ncem5t w excite an int]e/ bo? 9 s*ool & at home 7play+ ^u ! curiosity72 & :5 ! *ildr5 come 9 ! morn+ !y w be m wakeful ?an usual till ! fix$ "t arrives4 ,at ! precise "t1 ! tea*] gives ! signal agre$ ^u1 & all ! pupils drop _! /udies & sit erect4 ,:5 !re is p]fect sil5ce & /rict att5tion by all1 he takes f 8 pocket an e> ( corn & 9 sil5ce holds x up be=e ! s*ool4 ,! *ildr5 smile1 = x is a famili> object 7f\ndational k already 9 h&72 & !y probably did n suspect !y 7 to be f$ ) corn40 ,tea*]4 8,n[1 *ildr510 address+ himself to ! y\nge/1 8,i am go+ to ask y only "o "q ab\t ?is e> ( corn4 ,if y c answ] x1 ,i %all be v glad4 ,z soon z ,i ask ! "q1 ^? :o are "u sev5 ye>s old1 & ?9k !y c give an answ]1 may raise _! h&4 ,:at is ?is e> ( corn =80 ,sev]al ( ! *ildr5 raise _! h&s1 & ! tea*] po9ts to "o aft] ano!r 9 ord]1 & !y rise & give _! answ]s4 ,m>y4 ,x is to fe$ ! geese )4 ,john4 ,yes1 & ! h5s1 too1 & ! pigs4 ,s>ah4 ,my fa!r gives corn to ! c[s4 ,laura4 ,x is good to eat4 ,!y %ell x f ! cobs & s5d x to ! mill1 & x is gr\nd into meal4 ,!y make bread ( ! meal & we eat x4 8,i am sorry to tell y t none ( y h m5tion$ ! use ,i 0 ?9k+ (1 ?\gh1 ,i confess1 ,i expect$ x e m9ute4 ,i %all n[ put ! e> ( corn 9 my desk1 & no "o ( y mu/ speak to me ab\t x till to-morr[4 ,y may n[ take y\r /udies40 ,! consequ5ce ( ?is w\ld be t v>i\s families1 fa!r1 "m & old] bro!rs & si/]s1 w\ld resolve !mselves into a committee ( ! :ole on ! e> ( corn3 & by ! next morn+ sev]al *ildr5 w\ld h some?+ fur!r to communicate on ! subject4 ,! h\r w\ld ?is day be await$ ) great int]e/ & ! fir/ signal w\ld produce p]fect sil5ce4 ,! tea*] n[ takes ! e> ( corn f ! desk & displays x be=e ! s*ool2 & q a numb] ( h&s are in/antly rais$ z if eag] to be ! fir/ to tell :at o!r use !y h discov]$ = x4 ,! tea*] n[ says pleasantly1 8,! use ,i am ?9k+ ( y h all obs]v$1 ,i h no d\bt2 x is a v important use1 inde$2 b z x is a little out ( ! common c\rse 7crucial facts7 ,i %all n be surpris$ if y _c give x4 ,h[ev]1 y may try40 8,x is good to boil10 says little ,susan1 almo/ spr++ f ! floor z %e speaks4 8,& x is = squirrels to eat10 says little ,samuel4 8,i saw "o c>ry away a :ole m\?ful ye/]day f ! cornfield40 ,o!rs /ill m5tion o!r uses4 ,p]haps1 h[ev]1 none w "n ! "o ! tea*] has 9 8 own m9d2 he %\ld cordially welcome ! answ] if p]*ance x is giv54 7,suppos+ t x has n be5 giv547 8,i h told y t ! answ] ,i 0 ?9k+ ( 0 a v simple "o2 x is some?+ y h all obs]v$ & y may be a little disappo9t$ :5 ,i tell y4 ,! use ,i h be5 ?9k+ ( = ! e> ( corn is ?is3 ,x is to plant4 ,x is = se$1 to propagate t species ( plant call$ corn40 7,v]ification47 ,"h ! *ildr5 may look disappo9t$ z mu* z to say1 ,we knew t be=e4 ,! tea*] cont9ues3 8,& ?is is a v important use = ! corn2 = if = "o ye> none %\ld be plant$1 & all ! e>s t grew ! ye> be=e %\ld be consum$1 we %\ld h no m corn4 ,! o!r uses y h nam$ 7 m]ely second>y4 ,b ,i mean to make some?+ m ( my e> ( corn4 ,my next "q is3 ,d o!r plants h se$80 ,"h is a new field ( inquiry1 etc41 etc4 ,f ! /&po9t ( 8! greate/ am\nt ( k 9 ! %orte/ possible "t10 ?is mode ( pres5tation consumes an inexcusable am\nt ( "t & is1 !re=e1 8impracticable40 ,b :5 view$ f ! gr\nd ( int]e/1 orig9ality1 initiative1 & conque/! wat*words ( ! 8new ?\ght 9 education02 !re is no real wa/e 9 ei!r "t or en]gy4 ,! _s & me?od ( ! discov]] w no d\bt be ! educational slogan ( ! future age4 ,epitome ( ,discov]]'s ,me?od1 adapt$ to ! class room3 7#a7 ,motivate ! topic to be pres5t$4 7#b7 ,br+ to m9d1 if necess>y1 ! 8f\ndational facts40 7#c7 ,make evid5t ! 8crucial fact40 7#d7 ,furni% e opportunity = a fir/-h& discov]y ( ! 8lesson-po9t0 7e/abli%+ hypo!sis ?r\gh analogy74 7#e7 ,let ! hypo!sis be v]ifi$4 ,! entire situation mu/ be "o ( fre$om1 zeal1 orig9ality1 & initiative4 #aa4 ,,! ,,"q ,,& ,,answ] ,,me?od ,,n ,,necess>ily ,,"o ,,( ,,discov]y4 ,no "o mode ( pres5tation is m univ]sally us$ ?an ! 8"q & answ]40 ,! advantages ( ?is mode are _m & ! tea*] :o is an adept 9 ! art ( que/ion+1 f ! /&po9t ( k1 is g5]ally effici5t4 ,! common error1 h[ev]1 incid5t to mu* que/ion+1 is t ( ask+ 8tell+ que/ions40 ,by ! use ( su*1 ! class is =c$ along ! desir$ *annel ( ?\ght s rigor\sly z to h a condition :]e ! _s ( inquiry is entirely want+4 ,x is possible to con=m to ! rules ( good que/ion+1 & yet rob ! class ( all orig9ality & initiative4 ,f ! tea*]'s viewpo9t1 ! discov]]'s me?od dem&s few que/ions2 x is ! me?od ( sugge/ion r ?an "o ( que/ions4 ,av[$ly 9 ?is me?od1 ! *ildr5 %\ld ask & answ] _! own que/ions4 ,view$ f ! gr\nd ( discov]y !re are ?ree modes ( pres5tation :i* may repres5t a progressive s]ies4 ,^! are 7#a7 ! lecture mode1 7#b7 ! "q & answ] mode1 7#c7 ! mode by sugge/ion4 ,9 ! fir/ !re is little ( ! _s ( ! discov]]2 9 ! second !re is a trifle m ( ! _s ( ! discov]]2 :ile 9 ! ?ird !re is mu* ( ?is _s4 ,! /ud5t is advis$ to select "s class room topic ) a view to illu/rat+ ^! ?ree modes ( pres5tation4 #ab4 ,,outl9e4 ,,logic ,,9 ,,! ,,class ,,room4 7#a7 ,?\ght is k+4 7#b7 ,special functions ( induction & d$uction4 7#c7 ,two types ( m9d4 ,inductive or lib]al4 ,d$uctive or cons]vative4 7#d7 ,too mu* cons]vatism 9 s*ool4 7#e7 ,! me?od ( ! discov]]4 ,?ree /eps #a4 ,antec$5t #a4 ,f\ndational facts #b4 ,crucial #b4 ,=m+ #a4 8,m5tal urge0 hypo!sis #b4 ,analogy #c4 ,v]ification #a4 ,empirical #b4 ,rational 7#f7 ,! real inductive me?od or ,discov]]'s ,me?od n 9 vogue 9 class room "w4 7#g7 ,z a me?od ( in/ruction1 d$uction is sup]ior to induction4 7#h7 ,conque/1 n k1 ! desid]atum4 7#i7 ,motivation z relat$ to ! _s ( discov]y4 7#aj7 ,discov]]'s me?od or ! real inductive me?od adapt$ to class room "w4 ,s*ool room me?od4 ,discov]]'s me?od4 ,epitome4 7#aa7 ,"q & answ] me?od n necess>ily "o ( discov]y4 #ac4 ,,summ>y4 7#a7 ,?\ght is k+ 9 t x is ! rul+ factor 9 ! mak+ & break+ ( habit4 ,?is l5ds import to logic1 :i* is ! sci5ce ( ?\ght4 7#b7 ,! *ief function ( induction is to discov] new tru?2 :]eas d$uction aims at cl>ify+ & correct+ new tru?4 ,inductive logic makes kn[n ! special =ms ( ?\ght :i* ! discov]] uses2 :ile d$uctive logic t5ds to %[ h[ he v]ifies ! tru? ?us obta9$4 7#c7 ,j z !re are two g5]al =ms ( ?9k+1 inductive & d$uctive2 s !re are two g5]al types ( m9d1 ! inductive & ! d$uctive2 ! =m] leads to lib]alism1 ! latt] to cons]vatism4 ,bo? types are ne$$ to ma9ta9 a safe balance4 7#d7 ,! s*ools ( ! day are emphasiz+ ! d$uctive phase ( "w to ! sacrifice ( ! inductive4 ,!y are neglect+ ! ,columbuses & ! ,edisons ( ! class4 ,! c\rse ( /udy makes = a cons]vatism1 :i* 8nips 9 ! bud0 any m>k$ t5d5cy to discov] & inv5t4 7#e7 ,logic may aid 9 ! crusade aga9/ ! ultra cons]vative t5d5cy ( class me?od1 by giv+ emphasis to ! me?od ( ! discov]] & inv5tor4 ,an analysis ( ?is me?od reveals ^! ?ree /eps3 antec$5t facts1 =m+ an hypo!sis & v]ification4 ,antec$5t facts may be divid$ into f\ndational & crucial4 ,a crucial fact leads imm$iately to ! =mation ( ! hypo!sis2 :]eas ! f\ndational facts repres5t t body ( k :i* makes x possible to int]pret ! crucial fact4 ,! crucial fact creates an unsatisfi$ /ate ( m9d1 :i*1 9 turn1 urges ! discov]] to con/ruct "s satisfactory hypo!sis4 ,inf]5ce by analogy is ! process us$ 9 su* a con/ruction4 ,! two modes ( v]ification are rec\rse to exp]i5ce1 or empirical2 & appeal to reason1 or rational4 7#f7 ,9 ! class room1 induction is us$ 9 =m1 n 9 _s2 9 consequ5ce we are neglect+ ! g5]als = ! camp foll[]s4 7#g7 ,! inductive me?od is logically ! me?od ( discov]y1 :ile ! d$uctive me?od is ! me?od ( in/ruction4 ,9 ! class room1 bo? me?ods h be5 devot$ to ! matt] ( in/ruction4 ,because ( ?is1 induction has be5 robb$ ( its *ief advantage ov] d$uction4 7#h7 ,man has atta9$ 8 greate/ success by enl>g+ ^u ! ?\ghts ( nature & n by an absolute sub/itution4 ,9 enl>g+ ^u nature's way ( educat+ ! *ild1 man has adopt$ h] =m ( proc$ure1 b has lo/ h] _s ( "w4 ,9 8 s*eme ( education1 man's wat*word is k1 :ile nature's is conque/4 ,to seek k )\t inspir+ ! _s ( conque/ is man's way2 :]eas nature's way is to enc\rage ! _s ( conque/ by us+ k z a rew>d4 ,man mu/ co-op]ate ) nature1 if ! be/ results are to be secur$4 7#i7 ,9 ! case ( ! true discov]]1 x is n necess>y to end[ ! object ( 8 ?\ght ) add$ attractiv5ess2 b ) ! *ild en?usiasm may ne$ to be /imulat$ by 8motivat+0 ! subject 9 h&4 ,?is may be accompli%$ by appeal+ directly to ! vital ne$s1 worldly necessities1 & innate crav+s ( ! *ild m9d4 7#aj7 ,a revolt is 9 evid5ce aga9/ t insatiate desire to tea* k1 :i* has be5 s m>k$ 9 ! pa/4 ,already s*ools are introduc+ dep>tm5ts ( "w :i* look t[>d conque/ r ?an k4 ,:5 adapt$ to ! s*ool room ! discov]]'s me?od naturally resolves itself into ^! five /eps3 7#a7 8,motivate0 ! topic = pres5tation4 7#b7 ,br+ to m9d 8f\ndational facts40 7#c7 ,vividly make evid5t ! 8crucial fact40 7#d7 ,lead to discov]y ( 8lesson-po9t40 7#e7 ,af=d opportunity = v]ification4 7#aa7 ,! "q & answ] me?od ( pres5t+ "w1 does n necess>ily give full scope to ! _s ( inquiry z emulat$ by ! true born discov]]4 ,z a matt] ( af=d+ opportunity = ! developm5t ( ! _s ( discov]y1 !re are ?ree modes ( pres5tation :i* may be arrang$ 9 a progressive s]ies3 7#a7 ,! lecture mode 9 :i* !re is little opportunity = discov]y4 7#b7 ,! "q & answ] mode :i* p]mits "s opportunity = discov]y4 7#c7 ,! mode by sugge/ion :i* p]mits ample opportunity = discov]y4 #ad4 ,,review ,,que/ions4 7#a7 ,%[ t ?\ght may be made to make & break habit4 7#b7 8,induction directs to new tru?1 d$uction aims to modify & correct new tru?40 ,expla9 & illu/rate ?is4 7#c7 ,relate radicalism & cons]vatism to induction & d$uction4 7#d7 ,%[ t 9 ! pres5t day s*ool situations1 ! _s ( d$uction prevails4 7#e7 ,describe a discov]y :i* is a typical illu/ration ( ! discov]]'s me?od4 7#f7 ,indicate ) explanation ! g5]al /eps 9 ! discov]]'s me?od4 7#g7 ,%[ by illu/ration ! diff]5ce betwe5 8f\ndational facts0 & 8crucial facts40 7#h7 ,expla9 h[ ! 8crucial fact0 leads to ! con/ruction ( an hypo!sis4 7#i7 ,expla9 & illu/rate ! two ways ( v]ification4 7#aj7 ,di/+ui% betwe5 ! inductive me?od z x is us$ 9 ! class room1 & ! inductive me?od z us$ by ! discov]]4 7#aa7 ,%[ t 9 8 inv5tions1 man enl>ges ^u ! ?\ghts ( nature4 7#ab7 ,expla9 8motivation0 & %[ t x is a new "n = an old situation4 7#ac7 ,9 adapt+ ! discov]]'s me?od to class "w1 :at are ! successive /eps to be foll[$8 7#ad7 ,%[ by illu/ration t ! "q & answ] me?od is n necess>ily "o :i* enc\rages ! _s ( discov]y4 #ae4 ,,que/ions ,,= ,,orig9al ,,?\ght ,,& ,,inve/igation4 7#a7 8,our pet ?\ghts control u40 ,discuss ?is4 7#b7 ,select "s class room exp]i5ce = ! purpose ( %[+ t induction is especially directive 9 nature1 :]eas d$uction is m or less corrective 9 nature4 7#c7 8,!re are j two k9ds ( p 9 ! _w1 ! ,inductives & ! ,d$uctives40 ,expla94 7#d7 ,are ! s*ools s5d+ out too _m ,d$uctives8 ,argue ! "q4 7#e7 8,x is ! bus9ess ( ! tea*] to tea* himself out ( ! bus9ess40 ,expla94 7#f7 ,look up ! discov]y ( ! laws ( ! p5dulum1 ) a view ( %[+ t ! ev5t well illu/rates ! fact ( ! ?ree g5]al /eps 9 ! discov]]'s me?od4 7#g7 8,) ! av]age1 only extraord9>y facts become crucial2 b ) ! g5ius any ord9>y fact may become crucial40 ,make ?is cle>4 7#h7 ,expla9 8m5tal urge40 ,illu/rate4 7#i7 ,illu/rate 8empirical pro(10 also 8rational pro(40 7#aj7 ,%[ by illu/ration t ! inductive me?od z us$ 9 ! class room1 falls f> %ort ( be+ ! me?od ( ! discov]]4 7#aa7 ,indicate by cit+ hi/orical examples1 t conque/ r ?an k makes = manhood4 7#ab7 ,%[ h[ y w\ld motivate a topic 9 geography4 7#ac7 ,outl9e a plan = tea*+ "s topic 9 nature accord+ to ! discov]]'s me?od4 7#ad7 ,select a topic 9 ari?metic1 = ! purpose ( giv+ a comp>ative illu/ration ( ! 8"q & answ] mode0 ( pres5tation1 & ! 8mode by sugge/ion40 ,,*apt] #ba4 ,,logic ,,& ,,life4 #a4 ,,logic ,,giv5 ,a ,,place ,,9 ,a ,,second>y ,,c\rse4 8,to prep>e = complete liv+0 seems to be ! ultimate aim ( education1 & any s*ool subject :i* does n aid to ?is end mu/ be elim9at$ f ! c\rses ( /udy4 8,k = ! sake ( k0 w n d 9 ?is age ( practical effici5cy4 ,a subject 9 ord] to survive mu/ %[ indications ( do+ its %>e 9 ?is l>g] bus9ess ( man build+4 ,if x c be made evid5t t logic l5ds itself 9 no undecid$ t]ms to su* an aim1 !n may its incorporation 9 a second>y c\rse ( /udy be n only ju/ifi$ b m highly appreciat$4 #b4 ,,man',s ,,supremacy ,,due ,,to ,,p[] ,,( ,,?\ght4 ,t man is ! supreme ag5t ( intellig5t progress is due to ?ree factors3 ,fir/1 to ! exi/5ce ( ! natural _w2 second1 to ! exi/5ce ( man himself2 ?ird1 to man's ability to ?9k4 ,giv5 life & ! _w z a place to evolve t life1 & x is b>ely possible t man might h surviv$1 b )\t ?\ght he c\ld nev] h become supreme4 ,man is k+ ( ! animal k+dom because ( 8 p[] ( ?\ght4 ,let u illu/rate3 ,ages ago :5 ,engl& 0 a "p ( ! ma9 l&2 :5 !re 0 no ,nor? ,sea nor ,engli% ,*annel2 we are told t !re liv$ 9 ! =e/ tracts !re ab\t _m l>ge & f]oci\s animals2 su* z ! elephant1 ! lion1 & ! tig]4 ,!re liv$ also 9 ! region a small] & app>5tly a weak] animal4 ,?is creature _h no tusks to hook )1 no great jaws to crun* )1 & no claws to te> )2 & an eye witness w\ld h said 8,su* a weakl+ has no possible *ance aga9/ ^! enemies ( 82 he & 8 desc5dants w succumb & ! species w become ext9ct40 ,! region 0 tropical2 b1 ( a sudd51 a cataclysmic twi/ *ang$ ! temp]ature f a torrid to a frigid /ate4 ,:at happ5$8 ,! l>ge & f]oci\s animals ei!r migrat$ to ! s\? or froze to dea?2 b ?is weakl+ put on furs1 built fires1 & rema9$ 9 ! jungle z its k+4 ,8 "n 0 man1 & ?\gh he _h no horns to hook )1 he possess$ a bra9 to ?9k )2 ?is gave him supremacy ov] ! =ces ( nature4 ,f ! beg9n+ ! adaptation ( ! l[] animals has be5 physical2 :]eas man's has be5 m or less intellectual4 ,by means ( delib]ative ?\ght man made ! b[ & arr[ :i* c\ld kill at a di/ance ( #bjj y>ds2 !n he inv5t$ ! repeat+ rifle :i* may kill a mile away4 ,?\ght has taught man to h>ness ! =ces ( nature 9 ! =m ( all k9ds ( inv5tion4 ,?\ght has giv5 man ! p[] to build bridges & palaces1 to pa9t pictures1 to *isel angels4 ,?\ght has pi]c$ ! fog ( ignorance & br\ght light to ! d>k spots ( ! globe4 ,?\ght has build nations & e/abli%$ ! _s ( good w on e>?4 ,?r\gh ! long ye>s1 ?\ght has be5 ! "o tool ( conque/ :i* has enabl$ man to build = himself1 out ( ! furni%+s ( nature1 a heav5 on e>?4 ,c y recall a dep>tm5t ( life :i* ?\ght has n embelli%$8 ,c y recall a s+le factor t has be5 rais$ to ! n? p[] ( effici5cy )\t ?\ght8 ,/eam & electricity plus ?\ght lights ! _w1 unites ! _w1 fe$s & clo!s ! _w4 ,to-day1 z 9 ! old5 "t1 m5 :o ?9k are ev] at a premium4 ,?is holds true f ! ,%opkeep] to ! ,magnate ( ,wall ,/reet2 f ,basil1 ! ,blacksmi?1 to ,edison1 ! ,k+ ,inv5tor2 f ,reub51 ! ,f>m]1 to ,burbank1 ! ,wiz>d4 #c4 ,,importance ,,( ,,progressive ,,?\ght4 ,man n only ?9ks b he ?9ks progressively4 ,! av]age horse ( to-day1 = example1 is probably no m intellig5t ?an 0 ! av]age equ9e ( ! "t ( ,alex&] ! ,great1 ^: w> horse1 ,bucephalus1 atta9$ hi/orical fame4 ,yet1 intellectually1 ! av]age man ( to-day is f> above ! av]age man ( ,alex&]'s "t4 8,horse-k0 is m or less /ation>y4 ,?r\gh in/9ct ea* g5]ation makes use ( ! k ( its ance/ors )\t any noticeable accretions4 ,b 8man-k0 is a gr[+ product ( progressive ?\ght4 ,man appropriates all ! k ( 8 =be>s1 & !n adds to ?is a bit ( 8 own4 ,by be+ able to ?9k progressively1 man is enabl$ to /& ^u ! %\ld]s ( 8 ance/ors & ?us to take advantage ( a broad] vision4 ,we are n[ l$ to ! conclusion t man's supremacy is due n only to 8 ability to ?9k1 b to 8 p[] ( progressive ?\ght4 #d4 ,,necessity ,,( ,,"r ,,?9k+4 ,9 ! ma91 man's ?9k+ has be5 = 8 good1 t is1 9 ! long run1 x has contribut$ to 8 g5]al progress4 ,if ?is _h n be5 s1 long s9ce w\ld he h dropp$ back to ! level ( ! non-?9k+ animals4 ,?9k+ has be5 def9$ z ! process ( affirm+ or d5y+ connections4 ,"r ?9k+ is1 !re=e1 a matt] ( affirm+ ! "r connections or d5y+ ! wrong connections4 ,to put x diff]5tly3 "r ?9k+ is ! process ( adju/+ ! be/ means to a "r end2 :]eas wrong ?9k+ is a matt] ( ov]look+ ! be/ means1 or direct+ improp] means to a wrong end4 ,"r ?9k+ involves prop] adju/m5t2 wrong ?9k+ improp] adju/m5t4 ,9 ! intellectual _w z 9 ! physical1 improp] adju/m5t means ext9ction4 ,illu/rations ( ?is3 7#a7 ,a contractor und]takes to build a skyscrap]4 ,9 ! excavation an old wall is discov]$4 ,! ?\ght ( ! contractor is1 8,i mu/ make a pot ( money out ( ?is job1 & s9ce ?is old wall is 9 ! "r spot ,i w build on x1 & ?us save me #8five hundr$'40 ,9 ! c\rse ( t5 ye>s1 )\t w>n+1 ! build+ topples ov] & fifty wom5 & *ildr5 are kill$4 ,! contractor is convict$ & s5t to prison = life4 ,if ! build] _h ?\ght ! "r ?\ght2 namely1 8,i want to put up a build+ t w /& = g5]ations10 he w\ld h surviv$ ! competition ( 8 fell[s & ent]$ 8 long home ) success et*$ ^u 8 s\l4 7#b7 ,two s*ool tea*]s1 ,a & ,b1 are work+ 9 ! same sy/em4 ,a's ambition is to be promot$ & %e uses 8pull0 z ! means4 ,= a "t %e succe$s 9 pull+ ! wires1 & likewise 9 pull+ ! 8wool0 ov] ! eyes ( ! ,bo>d ( ,education4 ,b aspires to pr(essional gr[?1 us+ z ! means e opportunity = g5u9e improvem5t4 ,9 "t bo? are kn[n z !y really are1 n z !y seem to be4 ,a is d5om9at$ a 8%irk10 a politician1 a m]e s*ool keep]2 :]eas ,b is look$ up to z ! be/ equipp$ work] 9 ! build+1 a real s*ool tea*]4 ,!re may seem to be _m exceptions to ?is po9t ( view1 & yet 9 ! la/ analysis we f9d t ^! exceptions are only app>5t4 ,:5 we ma9ta9 t "r ?9k+ means survival & wrong ?9k+ ext9ction1 we assume t ! /&>d adopt$ is g5u9e effici5cy & n a c]ta9 money basis4 ,high positions may be secur$ ?r\gh wrong ?9k+1 b ^! _c be fill$ cr$itably )\t ! prepond]ance ( "r ?9k+4 #e4 ,,indiff]5t ,,& ,,c>eless ,,?\ght4 ,x may be advanc$ z a plausible hypo!sis t man1 especially if he is an ,am]ican1 f9ds mu* tr\ble = himself1 & makes mu* tr\ble = ! _w because ( 8 indiff]5ce to ?\ght4 ,to leap fir/ & look aft]w>ds is ! _s ( y\?1 & ,am]ica is "y4 ,?9k twice be=e y look & look twice be=e y leap is s\nd logical doctr9e4 ,a logically m9d$ man rationalizes e new proposition be=e he adopts x4 ,he m>%als be=e ! m9d ! favorable po9ts & !n bomb>ds !m ) e conceivable objection4 ,) ! /eady eye ( an hone/1 e>ne/1 op5 m9d$ critic1 he weighs ! unfavorable aga9/ ! favorable & !n accepts ! indications ( ! balance unequivocally4 ,if logic did no?+ else save to inspire "y p to ?us rationalize e d\btful und]tak+1 x w\ld d its %>e t[>d _w bett]m5t4 #f4 ,,! ,,rationalization ,,( ,,! ,,_w ,,( ,,*ance4 ,man seems to be a natural born gambl]4 ,he loves to 8take a *ance0 & h]e9 lies mu* ( 8 unhapp9ess4 ,)\t discuss+ ! evils ( ! /ock ex*ange1 ! horrors ( ! gambl+ d51 & ! unbus9ess l proc$ure ( ! race track1 we may m]ely attempt "h to %[ h[ ! rationalization ( ! conception ( *ance may be in/rum5tal 9 dimm+ ! gl>e ( gambl+ to ! av]age y\?4 7#a7 ,! mean+ ( ! t]m *ance4 ,! t]m *ance implies an inability to f9d a cause = any p>ticul> ev5t4 ,:5ev] we tru/ to luck1 we d s ?r\gh ignorance4 ,9 reality e ?+ 9 ?is _w is ord]$ accord+ to law1 & if we possess$ inf9ite k conc]n+ ^! laws1 !n1 = u1 ! ^w 8*ance0 w\ld h no mean+4 ,"o accompli%m5t ( k has be5 to rationalize sup]/ition & *ance4 8,n a gra9 ( s& lies ^u ! bea*1 b inf9ite k w\ld acc\nt = its ly+ !re2 & ! cause ( e fall+ leaf is guid$ by ! same pr9ciples ( me*anics z rule ! motions ( ! heav5ly bodies40,jevon's ,pr94 ( ,sci5ce1 vol4 ,i1 p4 #bbe4 ,t *ance is a lit]al confession ( ignorance1 is a :olesome tru? = all to be> 9 m9d4 ,if we 7 n s ignorant ( atmosph]ic conditions1 we w\ld nev] be caught 9 ! ra9 )\t an umbrella2 if we knew p]fectly ! laws ( me*anics1 we w\ld n spe$ our c> & tru/ to luck t ! c> w\ld hold toge!r4 7#b7 ,*ance ma!matically consid]$4 ,! pr9ciple ( ! 8calculation ( *ances0 has be5 discuss$ else:]e4 ,x w be suffici5t "h to illu/rate ! pr9ciple f a ma!matical po9t ( view4 ,suppose t a jewell] desires to dispose ( a t5-doll> wat* by a raffle4 ,he may place a hundr$ numb]s 9 a box1 "o ( :i* corresponds to ! numb] on ! wat*4 ,my *ance ( draw+ ! "r numb] is "o out ( a hundr$ & may be express$ by ! fraction #a_/ajj4 ,! fact t ,i may draw ! "r numb] on ! fir/ trial or on ! la/ trial is immat]ial4 ,! real mean+ ( ! ratio 8"o out ( a hundr$0 is1 t 9 ! long run1 ,i %all lose #ii times :]e ,i ga9 b once4 ,?is implies1 t if ,i pay #be c5ts = ea* draw1 ,i %all 9 ! end pay #ii times #be c5ts = ! wat*1 or ,i w h paid #bd4ge = a t5 doll> wat*4 7#c7 ,*ance & gambl+4 ,9 all =ms ( gambl+ no weal? is produc$4 ,:at "o man ga9s ! o!r man loses4 ,9 addition to ?is ! in/itution :i* projects ! gambl+ s*eme mu/ be support$4 ,9 consequ5ce1 m money mu/ be lo/ ?an c possibly be ga9$4 ,?is leads to ! conclusion t on ! basis ( av]ages he :o w\ld gamble mu/ t]m9ate 8 c>e] 8beh9d ! game40 ,/ati/ics v]ify ?is conclusion4 7#d7 ,*ance & inve/m5ts4 ,int]e/1 :i* is money paid = ! use ( money1 is high :5 ! dem& = money exce$s ! supply & l[ :5 ! supply equals or exce$s ! dem&4 ,! fact t ! supply is %ort is l>gely due to ! lack ( confid5ce on ! "p ( ! inve/or4 ,?is means t he is unwill+ to take ! risk4 ,?us ! pr9ciple3 8,high rate ( int]e/1 great risk2 l[ rate ( int]e/1 little risk40 #g4 ,,! ,,rationalization ,,( ,,political ,,& ,,bus9ess ,,sophi/ries4 8,w9 "r or wrong0 is a nut %ell /atem5t ( mod]n sophi/ry4 ,coroll>ies to ?is are su* aphorisms z 8,( two evils *oose ! less]02 8,d evil t good may come10 etc4 ,arm$ ) ^! platitudes ! mod]n bus9ess & political octopus w play ! bully & squeeze ! life out ( ! little fell[ 9 ! "n ( economy2 w pay = editorials to elect ! 8"r man02 w evade bad laws s-call$2 in/itute lobbies2 buy votes2 & p]petrate a ?\s& o!r immoral de$s 9 ! "n ( 8good bus9ess0 or ( 8p>ty loyalty40 ,half tru?s are ! mo/ atroci\s ( all k9ds ( fallacies 9 t !y are ! mo/ mislead+4 8,d evil t good may come0 is b half ( ! :ole tru? 8,d evil t good may come1 provid$ !re is no o!r way op540 ,aga91 8,( two evils *oose ! less]1 if a complete enum]ation has %[n t !re is n a ?ird c\rse40 ,a developm5t ( a f9] ability ( disc]nm5t "u "r influ5ce %\ld lead ! common citiz5 to see ?r\gh ^! v>i\s sophi/ries practic$ by corporate gre$1 & %\ld enable him by means ( ! ballot to 8blaze a bett] way40 ,! 8public is a blund]buss0 because ! av]age man ei!r _c1 or w n1 ?9k 8 own ?\ghts4 ,by develop+ great] skill & ar\s+ great] int]e/ 9 ! ?9k+ process1 ! cr[d ( camp foll[]s w be r$uc$2 selfi% bossism w die2 & a tru] & m effici5t democracy w reign supreme4 #h4 ,,! ,,rationalization ,,( ,,! ,,_s ,,( ,,progress4 ,g5u9e progress comes ?r\gh a happy comb9ation ( ! old ) ! new4 ,a love = ! old only1 means ultra cons]vatism2 :]eas a love = ! new only1 means ultra radicalism2 a love = bo? means rational lib]alism4 ,t p love ! old way may be attribut$ to two =ces :i* w receive att5tion "h4 7#a7 ,race in/9ct4 ,x may be said t 8life is a brief space betwe5 two et]nitiesa pa? betwe5 inf9ity & inf9itude40 8,man is a p$e/rian :o p]ambulates along ! way40 ,! et]nities conc]n him n s mu* z ! pa? :i* /ret*es betwe5 !m4 ,9 a =m] day1 "o ( ! /rik+ *>act]i/ics ( ! we/]n pla9 0 ! beat5 pa? /ret*+ out along ! table-l& l an elongat$1 du/ color$ s]p5t2 & (t5 foll[+ ?is pa? w\ld be a h]d ( buffalo w9d+ its way 9 s+le file ar\nd b\ld] & ant hill till %ut f view by ! di/ant horizon4 ,?us has man travell$ along ! beat5 pa?1 foll[+ ! 8foot pr9ts ( ! ages40 ,"h & !re & ev]y:]e d we see signs ( ^? :o h gone on be=e2 fa!r1 gr&fa!r1 great gr&fa!r2 yes1 ev5 to ! toe m>ks ( ^? primeval ance/ors ( ours :o %ambl$ along ! way1 nobody kn[s h[ _m ye>s ago4 ,f ! d>k recesses ( ! cave1 h our =be>s ?r[n a lasso ( blood ab\t our necks1 & x seems z if we mu/ foll[ ! old1 old way4 8,be+ acorns ( ! ance/ral oak10 we gr[ simil> oak tree t5d5cies1 liv+ ov] aga9 ! life ( our prog5itors4 8,!re lies 9 e s\l ! hi/ory ( ! univ]se40 7#b7 ,imitation4 ,b !re is ano!r reason = ?is ultra cons]vative _s & x is t nature's *ief mode ( in/ruction is by means ( imitation4 ,to e liv+ ?+ ( wood or field nature seems to say1 8,y\r p>5ts are always "r1 d z !y d = ?is is ! be/ way to le>n ! lessons ( life40 ,a man ?9ks1 feels & wills 8 way ?r\gh life 9 a c]ta9 mann] l>gely because 8 fa!r did likewise4 ,moreov]1 we n only imitate ^? :o h gone on be=e1 b we c\nt]feit ea* o!r2 fa%ion is ano!r "n = _w wide mimicry4 ,we imitate our fri5ds & ^? :om we admire2 we talk l !m1 we walk l !m1 we live l !m4 ,x n[ appe>s t we are held to ! pa? ( ! pa/ by means ( race in/9ct & ! p[] ( imitation1 & we are ?us prone to believe t ! old way is good en\gh4 ,x is evid5t t to get out ( ! beat5 pa? is dang]\s4 ,! wild animal t des]ts ! habits ( ! race dies a premature dea?1 & ! man :o possesses ! tem]ity to /ruggle ?r\gh ! ?icket ( new ?+s mu/1 ( necessity1 %ort5 8 span ( life4 ,to foll[ ! 8same old rut0 is easie/ = ! tea*]2 to be loyal to ! 8gr& old p>ty0 is safe/ = ! politician4 ,b to ! contr>y1 if e man ( e g5]ation _h foll[$ ! beat5 pa? bl9dly)\t deviation1 ! human race w\ld n[ be a horde ( simians4 ,because man has possess$ ! p[] ( progressive ?\ght1 he has develop$ ! _s ( radicalism & has !reby made himself supreme4 8,! old way anyway! old way "r or wrong0 has be5 ! _w's bigge/ /umbl+ block4 ,e innovation mu/ fight = its life4 ,e good ?+ has to be condemn$ 9 its day & g5]ation4 ,x is ,huxley :o sugge/s ?ree /ages = ! c\rse ( a new idea3 ,fir/1 x is revolution>y2 second1 x w make little diff]5ce2 ?ird1 ,i h always believ$ 9 x4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! new way anyway2 8we mu/ h a *ange :e!r or no02 8we mu/ h some?+ diff]5t despite ! co/10 h ev] be5 ! slogans ( wa/e & de/itution4 ,! w>s :i* h n result$ f ! prejudice ( ultra cons]vatism h be5 br\ght ab\t ?r\gh ! ?\ghtlessness ( ultra radicalism4 ,! revolutioni/1 ! freak & ! an>*i/1 products ( impulse & ! _s ( discont5t1 spr+ f an unwise love ( *ange4 ,! _w ne$s cons]vatism & radicalism n s mu* z x ne$s rationalism4 ,x ne$s m5 :o c hold to ! good ( ! old & adopt ! be/ ( ! new2 m5 :o nei!r 8ru/ out0 nor 8wa/e out02 b we> out4 ,t rational progress may obta91 !re mu/ be a p]fect dovetail+ ( ! old ) ! new4 ,man mu/ leave ! beat5 pa? n altoge!r1 b at times4 ,he ne$s to blaze out a new way n s mu* z he ne$s to /raight5 ! b5ds1 tunnel ?r\gh ! m\nta9s1 & fill 9 ! swamps ( ! old way4 ,a rational 8lib]alism0 implies a will+ness to foll[ ! old pa? ) a view to improv+ ! imp]fections !re(4 #i4 ,a ,,rationalization ,,( ,,! ,,attitude ,,t[>d ,,"w4 ,on ! assumption t true happ9ess is ! ultimate aim ( life1 we may conclude t any?+ :i* does n contribute to ?is end functions z a curse & n z a bless+4 ,happ9ess involves physical com=t & m5tal joy4 ,to h com=t ( ! body implies mod]ate means4 ,! poor _c be happy because ( bodily want4 ,:5 8physical-man0 is n giv5 prop] n\ri%m5t = heal?y gr[?1 !n does he goad 8spiritual-man0 ) ! pricks ( appetite & pa9 till 8 wants are appeas$4 ,?is is a law ( nature4 ,on ! o!r h& happ9ess is n atta9$ ?r\gh acquisition2 nei!r ! millionaires1 nor ! s*ol>s1 nor ! fam\s are ! happie/4 ,?is is a fact app>5t to all4 ,ov] worry & ov] excitem5t foll[ closely ! heels ( mu* money & high position4 ,too little br+s unhapp9ess ?r\gh want2 too mu* br+s unhapp9ess ?r\gh worry4 ,!re=e man is curs$ by 8 "w :5 ! remun]ation is n en\gh = com=t ( body1 or :5 ! income is too mu* = poise ( m9d4 ,unless ! organs ( ! body are us$ !y atrophy4 ,e cell ( ! physical makeup dem&s ex]cise4 ,"w :i* is n drudg]y2 "w :i* causes ! organs ( ! body & ! p[]s ( ! m9d to function normally2 "w :i* gives com=t )\t luxury2 "w :i* =ces "o to ! highe/ actualization ( 8 physical & spiritual p[]s is man's greate/ bless+4 ,9 & ?r\gh su* "w w man atta9 8 highe/ /ate ( happ9ess4 #aj4 ,,! ,,logic ,,( ,,success4 ,we may n[ hope to %[ t mat]ial aggr&izem5t1 ! adopt$ /&>d ( success1 is "o ( ! illogical factors ( mod]n life4 ,! tree ( ! =e/ always gr[s t[>d ! light4 ,x pu%es its way ?r\gh ! d>kness ( ! soil into ! %ad[ ( ! und]bru% & f9ally out into ! unob/ruct$ light ( ! sun4 ,?is p>allels ! progress ( ! race4 ,f ! d>kness ( savag]y into ! %ad[ ( b>b>ism1 & f9ally out into ! full light ( civilization4 ,?us has man gr[n /eadily & cont9ually t[>d bett] ?+s4 ,b 8bett] ?+s0 is a relative t]m & has *ang$ ) ! developm5t ( ! race4 8,a good heal?y idea may n live long] ?an tw5ty ye>s40 ,9 consequ5ce gr[? t[>d ! light has be5 9 accordance ) man's conception ( a high] & a bett] life2 :i* conception is ev] *ang+4 ,moreov]1 gr[? t[>d ! be/ is always rew>d$ by real happ9ess4 ,x !re=e foll[s t ! "r road to real happ9ess ext5ds along ! way ( bett] ?+s z conceiv$ by ! travell]1 man4 ,any =ce :i* t5ds to lift ! _w up t[>d m light is a bless+1 & any p]sonality :i* contributes to ?is end is a success4 ,:5 "o drops a p9 x falls d[n t[>d ! e>?1 at ! same "t ! e>? comes up to meet ! p94 ,?is is accord+ to ! univ]sal law ( gravitation4 ,x is true t ! e>? moves ! p9 ?r\gh a mu* great] space ?an ! p9 moves ! e>?1 & yet ! fact rema9s t ! p9 does move ! e>?4 ,! ext5t to :i* ! small] body is able to move ! l>g]1 dep5ds on ! two factors ( weight & relative position4 ,if ! p9 7 light] or f>!r away x w\ld influ5ce ! e>? s mu* ! less4 ,9 l mann] does ! 8p9-man0 influ5ce ! 8human-_w40 ,! ext5t ( ?is influ5ce is controll$ by man's weight1 or 8 8lift+ p[]10 & ! position :i* he occupies2 j z ! attraction ( ! p9 = ! e>? is controll$ by weight & position4 ,! facts ( hi/ory h prov$ t man's p[] to lift dep5ds n s mu* ^u :at he has z ^u :at he is4 ,9 %ort1 lift+ p[] is directly 9 proportion to p]sonal wor?4 ,moreov]1 man's ability to draw humanity up may be increas$ or decreas$ by ! position :i* he occupies4 ,su* a position mu/ function = ! be/ good ( ! _w1 & at ! same "t mu/ elicit ! highe/ developm5t ( ! man4 ,,to ,,summ>ize3 ,individual success involves ^! ?ree elem5ts3 ,fir/,a man ( p]sonal wor?4 ,second,a position :i* draws out ! be/ 9 ! man4 ,?ird,a "w :i* def9itely contributes to ! uplift ( ! _w4 ,a def9ition is n[ 9 ord]3 ,success is ! "r man 9 ! "r place do+ 8 be/ = ! highe/ good ( ! _w4 #aa4 ,,outl9e4 ,,logic ,,& ,,life4 7#a7 ,logic giv5 a place 9 a second>y c\rse4 7#b7 ,man's supremacy due to p[] ( ?\ght4 7#c7 ,importance ( progressive ?9k+4 7#d7 ,necessity ( "r ?9k+4 7#e7 ,indiff]5t & c>eless ?\ght4 7#f7 ,! rationalization ( ! _w ( *ance4 7#a7 ,mean+ ( ! t]m *ance4 7#b7 ,*ance ma!matically consid]$4 7#c7 ,*ance & gambl+4 7#d7 ,*ance & inve/m5ts4 7#g7 ,! rationalization ( bus9ess & political sophi/ries4 7#h7 ,! rationalization ( ! _s ( progress4 7#i7 ,a rationalization ( ! attitude t[>d "w4 7#aj7 ,! logic ( success4 #ab4 ,,summ>y4 7#a7 ,to ju/ify its hav+ a place 9 any c\rse ( /udy1 logic mu/ l5d itself to "* build+4 7#b7 ,man is k+ ( ! animal k+dom because ( 8 p[] ( ?\ght4 ,f ! beg9n+ 8 adaption has be5 m or less intellectual & 8 *ief weapon ( conque/ has ev] be5 8 ?9k+ bra94 7#c7 ,man's supremacy has be5 due n only to 8 ability to ?9k1 b also to 8 p[] ( progressive ?\ght4 7#d7 ,"r ?9k+ is ! process ( adju/+ ! be/ means to a "r end4 ,wrong ?9k+ involves improp] adju/m5t1 :i* 9 turn results 9 ext9ction4 7#e7 ,a 8logically-m9d$0 man rationalizes e new proposition be=e he adopts x4 ,t is1 he analyzes ) ! utmo/ c>e & ) unprejudic$ frankness all ! favorable & unfavorable situations2 he !n ?r[s !m into ! balance ( hone/ judgm5t & adopts ! indications ( said balance1 unequivocally4 7#f7 ,*ance is a confession ( ignorance4 ,if man possess$ inf9ite k1 ! t]m *ance w\ld h no place 9 8 vocabul>y4 ,! games ( *ance are money mak+ s*emes support$ by ! gambl+ frat]nity4 ,on ! basis ( av]ages1 ! gambl]1 9 ! long run1 mu/ t]m9ate 8 c>e] 8beh9d ! game40 ,high rate ( int]e/ implies great risk2 l[ rate ( int]e/ little risk4 7#g7 8,w9 "r or wrong0 epitomizes ! tea*+s ( mod]n sophi/ry4 ,) ! com+ ( bett] ?9k+1 a m effici5t democracy w obta94 7#h7 ,rational progress comb9es ! be/ ( ! old ) :at seems to be ! be/ ( ! new4 ,bl9d love = ! old1 or ultra cons]vatism1 is due to ! two =ces ( race in/9ct & p[] ( imitation4 ,an adh]5ce to ! 8old way anyway0 may mean retrogression2 :]eas foll[+ ! new way1 simply because ( its newness1 may involve unnecess>y wa/e4 7#i7 ,"w :i* is n drudg]y2 "w :i* causes ! organs ( ! body & ! p[]s ( ! m9d to function normally2 "w :i* gives com=t )\t luxury2 "w :i* =ces "o to ! highe/ actualization ( 8 physical & spiritual p[]s is man's greate/ bless+4 7#aj7 ,logically consid]$ p]sonal aggr&izem5t is n a true /&>d ( success4 ,success involves p]sonal wor? r ?an p]sonal hold+4 ,success is measur$ by man's ability to help ! _w on t[>d bett] ?+s4 ,success is ! "r man 9 ! "r place do+ 8 be/ = ! highe/ good ( ! _w4 #ac4 ,,review ,,que/ions4 7#a7 ,:at is ! ultimate aim ( education8 ,%[ t logic contributes to ?is end4 7#b7 ,prove t man's p[] ( ?\ght has ev] be5 8 be/ weapon ( conque/4 7#c7 ,exemplify ! di/9ction betwe5 non-progressive & progressive ?9k+4 7#d7 ,def9e "r ?9k+4 ,illu/rate4 7#e7 8,a logically-m9d$ man rationalizes e new project be=e und]tak+ x40 ,give a concrete in/ance 9 explanation ( ?is4 7#f7 8,*ance is a lit]al confession ( ignorance40 ,demon/rate ?is4 7#g7 ,give a ma!matical illu/ration prov+ t s*emes ( *ance are simply money mak+ devices = ! b5efit ( ^? :o project !m4 7#h7 ,! av]age gambl] mu/ t]m9ate 8 c>e] beh9d ! game4 ,prove ?is4 7#i7 ,:y %\ld high rate ( int]e/ imply great risk8 7#aj7 ,%[ t a half tru? is a mo/ mislead+ fallacy4 7#aa7 ,illu/rate a bus9ess sophi/ry4 ,expla94 7#ab7 ,write a brief !me on 8,! ,rationalization ( ! ,_s ( ,progress40 7#ac7 ,"u :at conditions may "w become man's greate/ bless+8 7#ad7 ,def9e success4 ,illu/rate4 7#ae7 ,9 ! light ( y\r def9ition ( success discuss ! foll[+3 8,! only failure is n to try40 #ad4 ,,que/ions ,,= ,,orig9al ,,?\ght ,,& ,,inve/igation4 7#a7 8,to prep>e = complete liv+0 is ! end ( education4 ,int]pret & discuss ?is quotation f ,sp5c]4 7#b7 ,m5tion "s discov]y or inv5tion :i* repres5ts ! p[] ( progressive ?\ght4 7#c7 8,man's adaptation has be5 l>gely intellectual :ile ! adaptation ( ! camel has be5 physical40 ,expla94 7#d7 ,int]pret ! expression1 8,! son /&s ^u ! %\ld]s ( ! fa!r40 7#e7 ,illu/rate in/ances :]e man's ?9k+ has n be5 = 8 be/ int]e/s4 7#f7 ,indicate h[ wrong ?9k+ l$ to ! ,civil ,w>4 7#g7 ,di/+ui% betwe5 legitimate speculation & gambl+4 7#h7 ,"n & expla9 ! logical elem5ts involv$ 9 a l[ rate ( int]e/4 7#i7 ,h[ may tra9+ 9 "r ?9k+ lead to m effici5t citiz5%ip8 7#aj7 8,!re lies 9 e s\l a hi/ory ( ! univ]se40 ,%[ ! tru? ( ?is4 7#aa7 ,%[ by illu/ration t imitation is "o ( nature's *ief modes ( in/ruction4 7#ab7 ,expla9 ! mean+ ( drudg]y4 7#ac7 ,m5tion in/ances :]e "w is a curse4 7#ad7 ,is success possible :5 ! "r man is f\nd do+ 8 be/ 9 ! wrong place8 7#ae7 ,:om d y consid] ! mo/ successful ,am]ican8 ,give reasons4 ,,g5]al ,,ex]cises ,,9 ,,te/+ ,,! ,,validity ,,( ,,categorical ,,argum5ts4 ,let ! /ud5t give att5tion to ! fallacies 9 mean+ z well z to ! fallacies 9 =m4 #a4 ,none b ^? :o are cont5t$ ) _! lot 9 life c ju/ly be consid]$ happy4 ,b ! truly wise man w always make himself cont5t$ ) 8 lot 9 life1 &1 !re=e he may ju/ly be consid]$ happy4 ,keynes4 #b4 ,suff]+ is a title to an excell5t inh]itance2 = ,god *a/5s e son :om he receives4 ,keynes4 #c4 ,no "y man is wise2 = only exp]i5ce c give wisdom1 & exp]i5ce comes only ) age4 ,keynes4 #d4 ,dr4 ,johnson rem>k$ t 8a man :o sold a p5knife 0 n necess>ily an iron-mong]40 ,aga9/ :at logical fallacy 0 ?is rem>k direct$8 ,expla94 ,keynes4 #e4 ,?is pamphlet conta9s s$iti\s doctr9es1 ! spread ( :i* may be dang]\s to ! /ate2 h5ce ! pamphlet mu/ be suppress$4 ,keynes4 #f4 ,good workm5 d n compla9 ( _! tools3 my pupils d n compla9 ( _! tools2 !re=e1 my pupils are probably good workm54 ,keynes4 #g4 ,k gives p[]2 consequ5tly1 s9ce p[] is desirable1 k is desirable4 ,keynes4 #h4 ,"s :o are truly wise are n le>n$2 b ! virtu\s alone are truly wise2 ! le>n$1 !re=e1 are n always virtu\s4 ,keynes4 #i4 ,! spread ( education among ! l[] ord]s w make !m unfit = _! "w2 = x has always _h t effect on ^? among !m :o happ5 to h acquir$ x 9 previ\s times4 ,keynes4 #aj4 ,slav]y is a natural in/itution & !re=e ought n to be aboli%$4 ,russell4 #aa4 ,! y>d/ick ( success is ! doll>1 & y h made y\r millions4 #ab4 8,all :o talk well are n necess>ily intellig5t1 & ,a is c]ta9ly a spell-b9d]40 #ac4 ,gold & silv] are ! weal? ( a c\ntry2 consequ5tly1 ! dim9ution ( gold & silv] by exportation mu/ mean ! dim9ution ( ! weal? ( a c\ntry4 ,russell4 #ad4 ,a miracle is unbelievable1 because x fails to con=m to kn[n laws ( nature4 #ae4 ,improbable ev5ts happ5 e day2 n[1 :at happ5s e day is a probable ev5t2 !re=e1 improbable ev5ts are probable ev5ts4 #af4 ,:at fallacy did ,columbus commit :5 he made ! egg /& on end by break+ "o end8 #ag4 ,"s hold] ( a ticket is sure to draw ! prize2 &1 z ,i am a ticket hold]1 ,i am sure to draw ! prize4 ,russell4 #ah4 ,all ! memb]s ( ! jury are j m51 h5ce y may tru/ ! =eman4 #ai4 ,select ! /> play]s ( ! c\ntry & y w h a team :i* _c be beat54 #bj4 ,all ! h\ses on ?is /reet pres5t a pretty picture2 ?is h\se1 !re=e1 :i* is on ?is /reet1 w make a f9e picture4 #ba4 ,:at is ! good ( all y\r tea*+1 = e day we he> ( wrong do+ made possible by education4 #bb4 ,y are n :at ,i am2 ,i am a tea*]2 h5ce y are n a tea*]4 #bc4 ,! /ud5t ( hi/ory is compell$ to admit ! law ( progress1 = he f9ds t society has nev] /ood /ill4 ,russell4 #bd4 ,?is bill mu/ h be5 design$ to ble$ ! p because x is support$ by ! graft]s ( ! /ate4 #be4 8,to close ! saloons on ,sunday is contr>y to ! wi%es ( ! p ( ! city2 h5ce ^? #8f>m] legislators' %\ld keep h&s (f40 #bf4 ,success is ! "r man 9 ! "r place do+ 8 be/1 & y are work+ to ! limit4 #bg4 ,e>ly to b$ & e>ly to rise1 makes "o heal?y1 weal?y & wise4 ,x is1 !re=e1 easy en\gh to get ri*4 #bh4 ,hone/y be+ ! be/ policy1 ,i mu/ tell ! tru? to my pati5t1 ?\gh to tell him t he _c live w %ort5 8 life _m days4 #bi4 ,a /it* 9 times saves n9e1 h5ce an ounce ( prev5tion is wor? a p\nd ( cure4 #cj4 ,! ri*e/ man ,i "k us$ to sweep 8 (fice e morn+1 h5ce x pays to comm5ce at ! bottom4 #ca4 ,cramm+ is an injuri\s habit1 s9ce x makes ! build+ ( logical memories practically impossible4 #cb4 ,a /rong w means a tra9$ w2 /ruggle is an indication ( weakness4 #cc4 ,!re is no su* ?+ z a national or /ate consci5ce2 !re=e1 no judgm5ts c fall ^u a s9ful nation4 ,hibb54 #cd4 ,! pr9ciples ( ju/ice are v>iable2 ! appo9tm5ts ( nature are inv>iable2 !re=e1 ! pr9ciples ( ju/ice are no appo9tm5t ( nature4 ,ari/otle4 #ce4 ,intellig5ce & n sex %\ld be ! /&>d2 !re=e1 let ! wom5 h _! way4 #cf4 8,w> by kill+ (f ! m5 ( ! c\ntry gives ! liv+ a bett] opportunity to succe$ because ( r$uc$ competition40 #cg4 ,s9ce y deem y\rself a misfit1 9 ! "n ( common s5se1 :y d y n *ange y\r occupation8 #ch4 ,! conque/ ( ,am]ica by ,europeans has be5 a good ?+ = ! _w2 s9ce no em95t hi/orian d\bts x4 ,,g5]al ,,ex]cises ,,9 ,,te/+ ,,! ,,validity ,,( ,,hypo!tical1 ,,disjunctive ,,& ,,dilemmatic ,,argum5ts4 ,! /ud5t mu/ rememb] to give att5tion to ! fallacies 9 mean+ z well z to ! fallacies 9 =m4 #a4 ,if ,i speak at l5g?1 he is bor$2 if ,i speak briefly1 he is (f5d$2 !re=e ,i w n speak at all4 #b4 ,if virtue is involunt>y1 vice is also involunt>y2 b vice is volunt>y1 h5ce virtue is also4 #c4 ,if a man _c make progress t[>d p]fection1 he mu/ ei!r be a brute or a div9ity2 b no man is ei!r2 !re=e e man is capable ( su* progress4 ,f[l]4 #d4 ,if education is popul>1 compulsion is unnecess>y2 if unpopul>1 compulsion w n be tol]at$4 ,f[l]4 #e4 ,if y are to recov] f ?is illness1 !n y w4 ,if y are n to recov]1 !n y w n1 h5ce :at is ! use ( call+ 9 a physician8 #f4 ,if y\r act 0 "r1 y\r consci5ce w approve x2 if wrong1 y\r consci5ce w prick y4 ,ei!r y\r act 0 "r or wrong1 s y c dep5d ^u y\r consci5ce4 #g4 ,if he is intoxicat$ !n he is n responsible1 b he acts l a sob] man4 #h4 ,if ! ,elixir ( ,life is ( any value1 ^? :o take x w improve 9 heal?2 n[ my fri5d :o has be5 tak+ x has improv$ 9 heal?1 & !re=e ! elixir is ( value z a curative ag5t4 ,hyslop4 #i4 ,if y w settle d[n to bus9ess1 y may /ill w9 out1 because ,i am confid5t x is n too late = h>d "w to be effective4 #aj4 ,if ! end ju/ifies ! means !n money us$ = any object ( *>ity may be secur$ 9 any way4 #aa4 ,if might is "r !n money talks1 b ,i f9d t occasionally money proves ineffective4 #ab4 ,if ! majority ( ^? :o use public h\ses are prep>$ to close !m1 legislation is unnecess>y1 b if !y are n prep>$ = su* a measure1 !n to =ce x on !m by outside pressure is bo? dang]\s & unju/4 ,hyslop4 #ac4 ,if ! consci5ce is infallible 9 matt]s ( "r & wrong1 !n s9 is j "o ?+2 namely1 do+ t :i* is contr>y to "o's consci5ce4 ,we believe t an educat$ consci5ce is infallible4 #ad4 ,if ! e>? 7 ( equal d5sity ?r\gh\t1 x w\ld be ab\t #b times z d5se z wat]2 b x is ab\t #e times z d5se2 !re=e ! e>? mu/ be ( unequal d5sity4 ,hyslop4 #ae4 ,! end ( human life is ei!r p]fection or happ9ess2 dea? is ! end ( human life1 !re=e dea? is ei!r p]fection or happ9ess4 ,creighton4 #af4 ,t *auffeur ei!r lo/ 8 head or 0 drunk because no sane man w\ld delib]ately run d[n an innoc5t *ild4 #ag4 ,if y argue on a subject :i* y d n und]/&1 y w prove y\rself a fool2 = ?is is a mi/ake :i* fools always make4 ,keynes4 #ah4 ,if y are a man ( y\r ^w1 y w live up to y\r agreem5t1 or if y h any self respect1 y w d ! manly ?+4 ,n[ y\r neighbors tell me t y are a man 9 ! habit ( mak+ good y\r promises4 ,,sets ,,( ,,exam9ation ,,que/ions ,,= ,,tra9+ ,,s*ools ,,& ,,colleges4 ,answ] t5 que/ions4 ,"t1 #b h\rs4 ,set ,i4 #a4 ,def9e & illu/rate obv]sion & /ate ! pr9ciple :i* conditions ! process4 #b4 ,give directions = mak+ ! foll[+ propositions logical3 7#a7 ,only fir/ class pass5g]s may ride 9 p>lor c>s4 7#b7 ,all :o claim to be pi\s are n pi\s4 7#c7 8,bless$ are ! m]ciful40 #c4 ,write a !me ( #bjj words on 8,logic & ,life40 #d4 ,put into syllogi/ic =m & te/ ! validity ( ?is argum5t4 8,we are go+ to h an op5 w9t] because ! hornets' ne/s are ne> ! gr\nd40 #e4 ,ju/ify ! tea*+ ( logic 9 an in/itution :i* (f]s c\rses 9 ,educational ,!ory4 #f4 ,correct ! foll[+ def9itions1 /at+ ! rules violat$3 7#a7 ,a man is an organiz$ entity ^: cognitive p[]s function rationally4 7#b7 ,a bird is an animal t flies4 7#c7 ,a s*ol> is an educat$ man ) s*ol>ly atta9m5ts4 #g4 ,prove t 9 ! fir/ figure ! m9or premise mu/ be affirmative4 #h4 ,inve/igate a case ( habitual t>d9ess by mak+ use ( ! canon ( diff]5ce4 #i4 ,describe ) illu/rations ! v>i\s ways ( begg+ ! "q4 #aj4 ,:y %\ld classification r ?an logical division be ! mode ( proc$ure 9 ! case ( small *ildr58 ,illu/rate4 #aa4 ,illu/rate ! foll[+3 7#a7 non connotative t]m1 7#b7 undi/ribut$ middle1 7#c7 fallacy ( accid5t4 ,set ,,ii4 ,answ] t5 que/ions4 ,"t1 #b h\rs4 ,?r[ ! foll[+ into ! =m ( a syllogism & criticise1 giv+ reasons3 #a4 8,i d n "k h[ to tea* s*ool z ,i h _h no exp]i5ce40 #b4 8,only ! hone/ %\ld be 9 bus9ess & y are n hone/40 #c4 ,:y %\ld all tea*]s /udy logic8 ,give argum5ts 9 full4 #d4 ,describe ,mill's me?ods ( induction & illu/rate "o4 #e4 ,give & expla9 ! rules ( logical def9ition4 #f4 ,expla9 ! di/ribution ( t]ms & illu/rate by circles ! mean+ ( ! f\r logical propositions4 #g4 ,def9e ! foll[+3 7#a7 tea*+1 7#b7 ext5sion ( t]ms1 7#c7 obv]sion1 7#d7 hypo!sis1 7#e7 relative t]m4 #h4 ,give a class room illu/ration ( ! ,complete ,me?od4 #i4 ,di/+ui% betwe5 7#a7 di/ributive & collective t]ms1 7#b7 analysis & d$uction1 7#c7 logical division & classification4 #aj4 ,illu/rate ! foll[+3 7#a7 contradictory proposition1 7#b7 analogy1 7#c7 law ( id5tity1 7#d7 s+ul> t]m1 7#e7 univocal t]m4 #aa4 ,conv]t1 if possible1 ! foll[+3 7#a7 ,"s m5 are hone/4 7#b7 ,all t glitt]s is n gold4 7#c7 ,all k+s are fallible4 ,set ,,iii4 ,answ] t5 que/ions4 ,"t1 #b h\rs4 #a4 ,inve/igate by ! ,jo9t ,me?od ( ,induction ?is "q3 8,:y is ,john abs5t s (t580 #b4 ,expla9 & illu/rate3 7#a7 contradictory propositions1 7#b7 illicit middle1 7#c7 obv]sion1 7#d7 contrav]sion1 7#e7 syn!sis4 #c4 ,/ate & exemplify ! rules ( logical division4 #d4 ,write a !me ( at lea/ #aej words on "o ( ! foll[+3 7#a7 ,induction z ! ,discov]]'s ,me?od4 7#b7 ,a ,rational ,view ( ,success4 #e4 ,def9e logically3 7#a7 tea*+1 7#b7 d$uction1 7#c7 education1 7#d7 analysis1 7#e7 money4 #f4 ,di/+ui% betwe5 ! ext5sion & int5sion ( t]ms4 #g4 ,exemplify3 7#a7 an absolute t]m1 7#b7 ! complete me?od1 7#c7 non connotative t]ms1 7#d7 fallacy ( accid5t1 7#e7 hypo!sis4 #h4 8,educat$ among savages1 he c\ld n be expect$ to "k ! cu/oms ( polite society40 ,is ?is valid8 ,reasons4 #i4 8,! signs indicate t y are ei!r /upid or unprep>$2 b ! pa/ proves t y are n ! =m]40 ,te/ ! validity4 #aj4 ,discuss compreh5sively "o ( ! foll[+ topics3 7#a7 ,! ,fallacies4 7#b7 ,?9k+4 7#c7 ,abbreviat$ ,argum5ts4 ,set ,,iv4 ,answ] t5 que/ions4 ,"t1 #b h\rs4 #a4 ,exemplify3 7#a7 ! law ( v>iation 9 ! ext5sion & int5sion ( t]ms1 7#b7 a di/ribut$ pr$icate4 #b4 ,indicate ) explanation ! logical errors3 7#a7 ,a tea*] assumes t ! 8bad boy ( ! s*ool0 is go+ to cause tr\ble 9 h] room4 7#b7 ,all ! m5 ( ! ,commission are fair m9d$ m51 h5ce !y w r5d] a fair decision4 #c4 ,:at exp]im5tal me?od ( induction is ! mo/ positive 9 its conclusion8 ,illu/rate ?is me?od4 #d4 ,/ate & illu/rate ! rules ( logical def9ition4 #e4 ,obv]t ea* ( ! f\r logical propositions4 ,expla9 ! pr9ciple involv$4 ,te/ ! validity ( ! foll[+ argum5ts3 #f4 8,horses1 n be+ human1 _c reason40 #g4 8,only ! indu/ri\s des]ve to succe$ & y h nev] done a h>d day's "w 9 y\r life40 #h4 8,if y _h be5 wise1 y w\ld h refus$ to /oop to ! me?ods ( ! firm1 b y 7 n wise40 #i4 ,f ?is premise con/ruct a valid syllogism3 8,all l>ge cities owe _! size to "s comm]cial advantage40 #aj4 ,def9e & illu/rate ! foll[+3 analogy1 hypo!sis1 ?9k+1 connotative t]m1 relative t]m4 #aa4 ,di/+ui% betwe53 7#a7 ,analysis & d$uction4 7#b7 ,logical division & classification4 7#c7 ,relative & absolute id5tity4 ,set ,v4 ,answ] t5 que/ions4 ,"t1 #b h\rs4 ,te/ ! validity1 giv+ reasons3 #a4 ,all successful tea*]s are indu/ri\s1 b y are n indu/ri\s because y are n successful4 #b4 ,john 0 a tr\blesome boy 9 ! fir/ & second grades1 !re=e he is go+ to make tr\ble = ! ?ird grade tea*]4 #c4 ,tea*+ is ! art ( imp>t+ k4 ,criticise1 giv+ reasons4 ,def9e correctly1 po9t+ out ! ess5tials4 #d4 ,expla9 ! ext5sional & int5sional use ( t]ms & illu/rate ! law ( v>iation4 #e4 ,describe ,mill's exp]im5tal me?ods ( induction4 ,symbolize ! jo9t me?od4 #f4 ,def9e ! foll[+3 analysis1 law ( id5tity1 obv]sion4 #g4 ,illu/rate ! laws ( ?\ght4 #h4 ,write on "o ( ! foll[+ topics3 7#a7 ,complete ,me?od1 7#b7 ,"r ,?9k+4 #i4 8,! sci5ce ( logic nev] made a man reason rightly40 ,discuss ?is "q4 #aj4 ,expla9 & illu/rate ! en?ymeme4 ,set ,,vi4 ,answ] t5 que/ions4 ,"t1 #b h\rs4 #a4 ,exemplify ! foll[+3 7#a7 illicit m9or1 7#b7 begg+ ! "q1 7#c7 law ( exclud$ middle1 7#d7 inductive me?od4 #b4 ,write a %ort !me on "o ( ^! topics3 7#a7 ,?9k+4 7#b7 ,logical ,t]ms4 ,te/ ! validity ( ! att5d+ argum5ts1 giv+ reasons3 #c4 8,he :o talks mu* usually says little & y are c]ta9ly a great talk]40 #d4 8,y mu/ be indu/ri\s1 s9ce only su* truly succe$40 #e4 ,illu/rate & give ! *>act]i/ic m>ks ( ! jo9t me?od ( induction4 #f4 ,summ>ize ! b5efits to be d]iv$ f a /udy ( logic4 #g4 ,/ate & illu/rate ! rules ( logical def9ition4 #h4 ,di/+ui% betwe5 7#a7 ext5sion & int5sion1 7#b7 opposite & contradictory t]ms1 7#c7 analysis & syn!sis4 #i4 ,def9e & illu/rate hypo!sis1 obv]sion1 sorites1 hypo!tical argum5t4 #aj4 ,expla9 & illu/rate ! ?ree =ms ( induction4 #aa4 ,di/+ui% logically betwe5 a tea*] & an in/ructor4 ,,bibliography4 ,aik9s4 ,! ,pr9ciples ( ,logic4 ,h5ry ,holt & ,co41 ,new ,york4 #aije4 ,ba94 ,logic1 ,inductive & ,d$uctive4 ,longmans1 ,gre5 & ,co4 #aijb4 ,bosanquet4 ,! ,ess5tials ( ,logic4 ,! ,mac,millan ,co41 ,london4 #aiaj4 ,bradley4 ,! ,pr9ciples ( ,logic4 ,london4 #ahhf4 ,creighton4 ,introductory ,logic4 ,! ,mac,millan ,co41 ,new ,york4 #aije4 ,dewey4 ,/udies 9 ,logical ,!ory4 ,! ,univ]sity ( ,*icago ,press4 #aijc4 ,f[l]4 ,! ,elem5ts ( ,d$uctive & ,inductive ,logic4 ,ox=d4 #aije4 ,hibb54 ,logic1 ,d$uctive & ,inductive4 ,*as4 ,scribn]'s ,sons1 ,new ,york4 #aijf4 ,hyslop4 ,elem5ts ( ,logic4 ,*as4 ,scribn]'s ,sons1 ,new ,york4 #aije4 ,jevons-,hill4 ,elem5ts ( ,logic4 ,am]ican ,book ,co41 ,new ,york4 #ahhc4 ,keynes4 ,=mal ,logic4 ,! ,mac,millan ,co41 ,london4 #aijf4 ,lotze4 ,logic4 ,translat$ by ,b4 ,bosanquet1 #b vols4 ,ox=d4 #ahhh4 ,mc,cosh4 ,laws ( ,discursive ,?\ght4 ,*as4 ,scribn]'s ,sons4 #aijf4 ,mill4 ,a ,sy/em ( ,logic1 #b vols4 ,longmans1 ,gre5 & ,co41 ,london4 #aijd4 ,russell4 ,elem5t>y ,logic4 ,! ,mac,millan ,co41 ,new ,york4 #aijh4 ,ryl&4 ,logic4 ,george ,bell & ,sons1 ,london4 #aijj4 ,sigw>t4 ,logic4 ,translat$ by ,hel5 ,d5dy1 #b vols4 ,! ,mac,millan ,co4 #ahie4 ,sw9burne4 ,picture ,logic4 ,longmans1 ,gre5 & ,co41 ,london4 #aijd4 ,taylor4 ,elem5t>y ,logic4 ,*as4 ,scribn]'s ,sons1 ,new ,york4 #aiaa4 ,v5n4 ,! ,logic ( ,*ance4 ,! ,mac,millan ,co41 ,new ,york4 ,,outl9e ,,( ,,brief] ,,c\rse4 ,subject ,i4 ,,?\ght ,,& ,,its ,,laws ,logic ,def9$ ,! ,?9k+ ,process4 ,/ages 9 ,?9k+ ,! ,law ( ,id5tity ,! ,law ( ,contradiction ,! ,law ( ,exclud$ ,middle ,,ii4 ,,logical ,,t]ms ,all ( ,*apt] #d ,,iii4 ,,ext5tsion ,,& ,,int5sion ,,( ,,t]ms ,all ( ,*apt] #e ,,iv4 ,,def9ition ,all ( ,*apt] #f ,v4 ,,logical ,,division ,,& ,,classification ,all ( ,*apt] #g ,,vi4 ,,logical ,,propositions ,all ( ,*apt] #h ,except ,section #g ,,vii4 ,,imm$iate ,,inf]5ce ,all ( ,*apt] #aj ,,viii4 ,,m$iate ,,inf]5ce ,all ( ,*apt] #aa ,except ,section #h ,,ix4 ,,figures ,,& ,,moods ,! ,f\r ,figures ( ! ,syllogism ,! ,moods ( ! ,syllogism ,te/+ ! ,validity ( ! ,moods ,x4 ,,incomplete ,,syllogisms ,en?ymeme ,polysyllogisms ,sorites ,,xi4 ,,categorical ,,argum5ts ,,te/$ ,all ( ,*apt] #ad ,,xii4 ,,hypo!tical ,,& ,,disjunctive ,,argum5ts ,all ( ,*apt] #ae except ,sections #ac1ad1 #ae & #ag ,,xiii4 ,,logical ,,fallacies ,all ( ,*apt] #af ,,xiv4 ,,inductive ,,reason+ ,all ( ,*apt] #ag ,except ,sections #c1 #d1 #g1 #h & #i ,,xv4 ,,mill',s ,,me?ods ,,( ,,obs]vation ,,& ,,exp]im5t ,all ( ,*apt] #ah ,,xvi4 ,,obs]vation1 ,,exp]im5t ,,& ,,hypo!sis ,all ( ,*apt] #ai ,,index ,a ,absolute ,t]ms1 #ef4 ,ab/ract ,t]ms1 #ea4 ,acc5t1 ,fallacy (1 #ccj4 ,accid5t1 #ha2 ,fallacy (1 #ccd4 ,affirmative ,proposition1 #abg4 ,agreem5t1 ,me?od (1 #chg4 ,alln1 ,"s1 ,few1 ,logical ,significance (1 #acc4 ,ambigu\s ,middle1 #cbh4 ,amphibology1 #cbi4 ,analogy1 #cfh4 ,analysis1 ,def9ition (1 #ig2 ,z a ,me?od1 #ig2 ,induction by1 #cgc4 ,analytic ,propositions1 #ach2 ,me?od1 #ig4 ,antec$5t1 #bhi4 ,appreh5sion & ,?9k+1 #bd4 ,argum5ts1 ,irregul>1 #beh2 ,te/+ ( ,categorical1 #bfc2 ,incomplete1 #bdg2 ,g5]al ,ex]cises1 #dha2 ,mi/akes ( ,/ud5ts 9 ,connection )1 #bha2 ,hypo!tical1 #bhh2 ,disjunctive1 #cjb2 ,dilemmatic1 #cjh4 ,argum5tum ad populum1 #cch2 ad hom9em1 #cch2 ad ignorantiam1 #cch2 ad baculum1 #cch2 ad v]ecundiam1 #cci4 ,ari/otle's ,dictum1 #bjh4 ,art1 ,def9ition (1 #if4 ,auxili>y ,elem5ts ( ,induction1 #dah4 ,b ,ba9 ,quot$1 #ab4 ,ball5t9e ,quot$1 #cei4 ,b>b>a1 ,cel>5t1 etc41 #bcd4 ,begg+ ! ,"q1 #cda4 ,bibliography1 #dib4 ,b[5 ,quot$1 #ab4 ,brief] ,c\rse1 ,outl9e (1 #dic4 ,c ,canons ( ,syllogism1 #bji2 ( ,f\r ,figures1 #bbf4 ,categorematic ,words1 #dh4 ,categorical ,argum5ts1 #bfc2 ,te/$1 #bfc2 ,g5]al ,ex]cises1 #dha4 ,categorical ,propositions ,def9$1 #aba2 ,f\r ,elem5ts1 #abb2 ,f\r ,k9ds1 #abf2 ,classification (1 #abh4 ,cause1 ,fallacy ( ,false1 #cdj4 ,*ance1 ,rationalization (1 #dfh4 ,*ild1 ,?9k+ (1 #bj4 ,circulus 9 ,prob&o1 #cdc4 ,classification ,comp>$ ) ,division1 #aab2 ,k9ds1 #aac2 ,rules (1 #aad2 ,use1 #aad4 ,co-ext5sive ,propositions1 #adb4 ,collective ,t]ms1 #ej4 ,comp>ison1 ,/ages 9 ,?9k+1 #be4 ,complete ,me?od1 ,?ree ,elem5ts1 #ig4 ,composition1 ,fallacy (1 #cca4 ,concept1 ,def9ition (1 #ag2 a ,?\ght ,product1 #ba4 ,concomitant ,v>iations1 #djb4 ,concrete ,t]ms1 #ea4 ,connotative ,t]ms1 ,two-fold ,function (1 #fb2 ,def9ition (1 #eb2 a ,li/ (1 #fe4 ,conque/ ! ,desid]atum1 #ddg4 ,consequ5t1 #bhi2 ,fallacy ( ,false1 #cci4 ,contradiction1 ,law (1 #ce4 ,contradictory ,t]ms1 #ec2 ,propositions1 #afg4 ,contr>y ,propositions1 #afe4 ,contrav]sion1 #aha2 ,fallacies (1 #cbg4 ,conv]se ,accid5t1 ,fallacy (1 #cce4 ,conv]sion1 #agf2 by ,limitation1 #agh2 ,simply1 #agi2 ,fallacies (1 #cbg4 ,copula1 #abc4 ,creighton ,quot$1 #d1 #chg1 #dhe4 ,d ,d$uction1 ,def9$1 #if2 z a ,me?od1 #ig2 ,special ,function (1 #dch4 ,def9ition1 ,importance (1 #gg2 ! ,pr$icables1 #gg2 ,nature (1 #hb2 ,def9ition (1 #hc2 ,comp>$ ) ,division1 #hd2 ,k9ds (1 #he2 ,:5 ,s]viceable1 #hg2 ,rules (1 #hh2 ,t]ms :i* ,_c be ,def9$1 #ic2 ( ,common ,educational ,t]ms1 #id4 ,d5om9ation1 ,/ages 9 ,?\ght1 #bf4 ,d5otation & ,connotation ( ,t]ms1 #ff4 ,descriptive ,def9ition1 #hf4 ,developm5t1 ,def9ition (1 #id4 ,di*otomy1 #aaj4 ,diff]5ce1 ,me?od (1 #cic4 ,diff]5tia1 #hj4 ,dilemma1 #cjh4 ,discov]]'s ,me?od1 #ddj4 ,disjunctive ,argum5ts1 #cjb2 ,rules (1 #cjc2 ,logical ,disjunction1 #cjc2 ,r$uction (1 #cjg4 ,di/ribution ( ,subject & ,pr$icate ( ,propositions1 #ade2 ,s*emes = ,rememb]+1 #adh4 ,division1 ,def9ition ( ,logical1 #aje2 ,z ,p>tition1 #ajg2 ,comp>$ ) ,def9ition1 #hd2 ,di/+ui%$ f ,enum]ation1 #ajf2 ,rules (1 #ajh2 ,comp>$ ) ,classification1 #aab2 ,use (1 #aad2 ,fallacy (1 #ccb4 ,dressl] ,quot$1 #ab4 ,e ,education1 ,def9$1 #id2 ,comp>$ ) ,in/ruction1 #ie4 ,educational ,t]ms ,def9$1 #id4 ,elem5ts ( ! ,logical ,proposition1 #abc4 ,elliptical ,propositions1 #abi4 ,en?ymeme1 #bdg4 ,epi*eirema1 #bdi4 ,episyllogism1 #bej4 ,epi!ts1 ,"q ,begg+1 #cdc4 ,ess5tial ,attributes ( ,def9ition1 #hh4 ,etymological ,def9ition1 #he4 ,eul]'s ,diagrams1 #ada4 ,evolution & ! ,?9k+ ,m9d1 #ai4 ,exam9ation ,que/ions1 #dhf4 ,exceptive ,propositions1 #ace4 ,exclud$ ,middle1 ,law (1 #ci4 ,exclusive ,propositions1 #acf4 ,ex]cises1 ,te/+ ,argum5ts1 #dha4 ,exp]im5t z an ,elem5t 9 ,induction1 #dai4 ,ext5sion & ,int5sion ( ,t]ms1 ,def9$1 #fc2 ,comp>$1 #fc2 ,us$ 9 ,comp>ison1 #fe2 ,o!r ,=ms ( ,expression =1 #ff2 ,law ( ,v>iation 91 #ff4 ,f ,fact1 ,def9$1 #if4 ,fallacies1 ( ,d$uctive ,reason+1 #cbb2 ,p>alogism & ,sophism1 #cbb2 ,division (1 #cbc2 ( ,imm$iate ,inf]5ce1 #cbf2 9 ,=m1 #aid1 #aii2 ,hypo!tical1 #bia2 ,disjunctive1 #cjc2 ( ,language1 #cbh2 9 ,?\ght1 #ccd4 ,false ,cause1 #cdj4 ,false ,consequ5t1 ,fallacy (1 #cci4 ,figure ( ,spee*1 ,fallacy (1 #ccc4 ,figures ( ,syllogism1 #bah2 ,special ,canons (1 #bbf2 ,p]fect & ,imp]fect1 #bce2 ,r$uction1 #bce2 ,relative ,value (1 #bci4 ,=mal ,fallacies1 #aig1 #cbd4 ,f\r ,t]ms1 ,fallacy (1 #cbi4 ,f[l] ,quot$1 #d1 #cfj4 ,fundam5tum ,divisionis1 #ajh4 ,g ,g5]al ,ex]cises 9 ,te/+ ,argum5ts1 #dha4 ,g5]al ,t]ms1 #di4 ,g5us & ,species1 #gh4 ,grammatical ,subject & ,pr$icate1 #abe4 ,grammatical ,s5t5ces1 #aca4 ,h ,hamilton ,quot$1 #d1 #ab1 #aca4 ,hibb5 ,quot$1 #d1 #dda4 ,huxley ,quot$1 #dgc4 ,hypo!tical ,argum5ts1 #bhh2 ,k9ds1 #bij2 ,rules & ,fallacies1 #bia2 ,r$uc$ to ,categorical1 #bic2 ,illu/rative ,ex]cise 9 ,te/+1 #big2 ,g5]al ,ex]cises1 #dhd4 ,hypo!sis1 ,def9$1 #if1 #dbe2 & ,!ory1 #dbg2 ,requirem5ts (1 #dbg2 ,uses (1 #dbi4 ,i ,id5tity1 ,law (1 #cb2 ,absolute1 #cc2 ,complete & ,incomplete1 #cc2 ,relative1 #cd4 ,illicit ,major & ,m9or1 #aii2 ,illu/ration (1 #bae4 ,image1 ,def9ition (1 #ag4 ,imm$iate ,inf]5ce1 #aei2 by ,obv]sion1 #agj2 by ,opposition1 #afa2 by ,conv]sion1 #agf2 by ,contrav]sion1 #aha2 ,epitome ( ,f\r ,processes1 #ahb2 by ,inv]sion1 #ahc2 ,fallacies (1 #cbf4 ,imp]fect ,induction1 #cfa4 ,indef9ite ,propositions1 #abi4 ,individual ,proposition1 ,nature (1 #acb2 9 ,opposition1 #afh4 ,induction1 ,def9$1 #if2 z a ,me?od1 #ig2 ,reason+1 #cee2 & ! ,haz>d1 #cef2 ! ,?ree ,=ms (1 #cfe2 ,p]fect1 #cge2 ,special ,function (1 #dch4 ,inf]5ce1 ,def9ition (1 #ah2 a ,?\ght ,product1 #bd2 ,imm$iate1 #aei2 ,m$iate1 #aib4 ,infima ,species1 #gi4 ,in/ruction ,def9$1 #ie4 ,int5sion ( ,t]ms1 #fc4 ,integration1 a ,/age 9 ,?\ght1 #bf4 ,inv]sion1 #ahc4 ,inv]t$ ,proposition1 #acg4 ,irregul> ,argum5ts1 #beh4 ,irrelevant ,conclusion1 #ccg4 ,j ,jevons ,quot$1 #d1 #be1 #chg1 #dfh4 ,jo9t ,me?od ( ,agreem5t & ,diff]5ce1 #cig4 ,judgm5t1 ,def9ition (1 #ag2 a ,?\ght ,product1 #bb2 ,mo/ ,fundam5tal ,elem5t 9 ,?9k+1 #bc4 ,k ,keynes ,quot$1 #dha1 #dhe4 ,k9ds ( ,def9itions1 #he4 ,kn[+1 by ,intuition & by ,?9k+1 #b2 ,kn[+ & ,?9k+ ,comp>$1 #aj2 by ,intuition1 #aa2 ,habitual1 #aa4 ,k1 ,def9$1 #ie2 ,intuitive1 #aa4 ,l ,language & ,?\ght ,insep>able1 #dg4 ,law ( ,v>iation 9 ,ext5sion & ,int5sion1 ,/at$1 #ff2 ,two ,important ,facts 91 #fi2 ,diagrammatically ,illu/rat$1 #gj1 #ga4 ,laws ( ,suffici5t ,reason1 #dj2 ( ,univ]sal ,causation1 #cfa2 ( ,uni=mity ( ,nature1 #cfb4 ,laws ( ,?\ght1 #cb2 ,unity (1 #dj2 ,s*ematic ,/atem5t (1 #dc4 ,le>n+1 ,def9$1 #ie4 ,logic1 ,def9$1 #c2 ,au!ntic ,def9itions (1 #d2 ,gramm> ( ,?\ght1 #c2 ,sci5ce ( ,sci5ces1 #c2 ! ,value ( to ! ,/ud5t1 #e2 ,relat$ to ,o!r ,subjects1 #a2 ,specific ,scope1 #b4 ,logic 9 ! ,class ,room1 #dcg4 ,logic & ,life1 #dfc4 ,logic ( ,success1 #dge4 ,logical ,def9ition1 #he1 #hh4 ,logical ,disjunction1 #cjc4 ,logical ,subject & ,pr$icate1 #abe4 ,m ,major ,t]m1 #aif4 ,mat]ial ,fallacies1 #cbc1 #cbd1 #cbe1 #cbh4 ,m$iate ,inf]5ce1 #aib2 ! ,syllogism1 #aib2 ,rules ( ,syllogism1 #aic4 ,me?od ,def9$1 #if2 ,inductive & ,d$uctive1 #ig2 ,complete1 #ig4 ,me?od-,:ole ,def9$1 #if4 ,middle ,t]m1 #aib1 #aic1 #aif4 ,mill ,quot$1 #e1 #cei1 #cfa1 #chg1 #cic1 #cig1 #djb1 #djf4 ,mill's ,exp]im5tal ,me?ods1 #chf4 ,mill] ,quot$1 #ab4 ,m9d1 ! ,unity (1 #a2 ,kn[+ & ,?9k+ ,comp>$1 #aj4 ,m9or ,t]m1 #aif4 ,mnemonic ,l9es1 #bcd4 ,modal ,proposition1 #aci4 ,modus ,pon5do ,toll5s1 etc41 #cjb4 ,moods ( ,syllogism1 #bba2 ,te/+ ,validity (1 #bbc4 ,motivation z ,relat$ to ,_s ( ,discov]y1 #ddi4 ,n ,negative ,proposition1 #abg4 ,negative ,t]ms1 #ec4 ,nego-positive ,t]ms1 #ee4 ,non-connotative ,t]ms1 #eb4 ,non ,sequitur1 ,fallacy (1 #cci4 ,n1 ,bisects ! ,_w1 #cf2 ,two ,uses (1 #cf4 ,notion1 ,def9ition1 #ad2 ,individual1 #ad2 ,g5]al1 #ad2 ,di/+ui%$ f ,k1 #ae2 ,di/+ui%$ f ,idea1 #af2 ,psy*ological ,t]ms ,involv$ 91 #af4 ,o ,obs]vation1 #dai2 ,rules (1 #dbj2 ,errors (1 #dbc4 ,obv]sion1 ,def9ition (1 #agj2 ,fallacies (1 #cbf4 ,opposite ,t]ms1 #ec4 ,opposition1 ,nature (1 #afa2 ,s*eme (1 #afc2 ,squ>e (1 #afd4 ,outl9e ( ,brief] ,c\rse1 #dic4 ,p ,page ,quot$1 #dec4 ,p>ticul> ,propositions1 #abf2 ,affirmative1 #adc2 ,negative1 #add4 ,p>tition1 #ajg4 ,p>titive ,propositions1 #acc4 ,p]cept1 ,def9ition (1 #ag2 ,relat$ to ,?\ght1 #ah4 ,p]fect ,induction1 #cge4 ,petitio ,pr9cipii1 #cda4 ,plurative ,propositions1 #acb4 ,polysyllogism1 #bej4 ,porphyry1 ,tree (1 #aaa4 ,positive ,t]ms1 #ec4 ,pr$icables4 ,def9$1 #gg2 ,nam$1 #gh2 ,illu/rat$1 #hb4 ,pr$icate1 ,grammatical & ,logical1 #abe2 ,di/ribution (1 #ade4 ,prim>y ,laws ( ,?\ght1 #cb4 ,privative ,t]ms1 #ee4 ,progressive ,?\ght1 #dfe4 ,prop]ty1 #ha4 ,propositions1 ,def9ition ( ,logical1 #abj4 ,prosyllogism1 #bej4 ,proximate ,g5us1 #gi4 ,pure ,proposition1 #aci4 ,q ,quantity ,signs1 #abc4 ,quantity & ,quality ( ,propositions1 #abf4 ,"q & ,answ]1 n a ,me?od ( ,discov]y1 #deg4 ,"q ,begg+ ,epi!ts1 #cdc4 ,"q1 ,complex1 #cdj4 ,r ,rationalization1 ( ,*ance1 #dfh2 ( ,political & ,bus9ess ,sophi/ries1 #dgj2 ( ! ,_s ( ,progress1 #dga2 ( ! ,attitude t[>d ,"w1 #dgd4 ,reason+1 ,def9$1 #bd1 #cee2 ,inductive1 #cee2 ,d$uctive1 #cee4 ,r$uction ( ,figures1 #bce4 ,relation betwe5 ,subject & ,pr$icate1 #adj4 ,relative ,t]ms1 #ef4 ,residues1 ,me?od (1 #djf4 ,"r ,?9k+1 #dff4 ,rules1 ( ,logical ,def9ition1 #hh2 ( ,logical ,division1 #ajh2 ( ,classification1 #aad2 ( ! ,syllogism1 #aic2 ( ! ,hypo!tical ,argum5t1 #bia2 ( ! ,disjunctive1 #cjc4 ,russell ,quot$1 #dha1 #dhb4 ,ryl& ,quot$1 #dha1 #dhb4 ,s ,salisbury ,quot$1 #cfj4 ,sci5ce1 ,def9$1 #ie4 ,s5sation1 ,def9$1 #ag2 ,relat$ to ,?\ght1 #ah4 ,simple ,conv]sion1 #agi4 ,simple ,enum]ation1 #cfg4 ,s+ul> ,t]ms1 #di4 ,socrates1 #cbb4 ,sorites1 #bea4 ,species1 #gh4 ,squ>e ( ,opposition1 #afd4 ,subalt]n ,propositions1 #afd4 ,subcontr>y ,propositions1 #afd4 ,subject1 ,logical1 #abc2 ,grammatical & ,logical ,di/+ui%$1 #abe2 ,di/ribution (1 #ade4 ,success1 ,logic (1 #dge4 ,suffici5t ,reason1 ,law (1 #dj4 ,summum ,g5us1 #gi4 ,syllogism1 a ,product ( ,inf]5ce1 #bd2 ,nature (1 #aib2 ,rules (1 #aic2 ,undi/ribut$ ,middle1 #aii2 ,illicit ,major1 #aii2 ,illicit ,m9or1 #aii2 ,ari/otle's ,dictum1 #bjh2 ,canons (1 #bji2 ,ma!matical ,axioms (1 #baj2 ,f\r ,figures (1 #bah2 ,moods (1 #bba2 ,incomplete1 #bdg4 ,syncategorematic ,words1 #dh4 ,syn!sis1 ,def9$1 #ig2 z a ,me?od1 #ig4 ,syn!tic ,proposition1 #ach4 ,t ,tea*+1 ,def9$1 #id2 ,comp>$ ) ,in/ruction & ,education1 #ie4 ,t]ms1 ,ext5sion & ,int5sion (1 #fc2 ,us$ 9 ,ext5sion & ,int5sion1 #fe2 :i* ,_c be ,def9$1 #ic2 ,contradictory & ,opposite1 #ch2 ,logical1 #dg2 ,s+ul> & ,g5]al1 #di2 ,collective & ,di/ributive1 #ej2 ,concrete & ,ab/ract1 #ea2 ,connotative & ,non-connotative1 #eb2 ,positive & ,negative1 #ec2 ,contradictory & ,opposite1 #ec2 ,privative & ,nego-positive1 #ee2 ,absolute & ,relative1 #ef4 ,!ory ,def9$1 #if4 ,?9k+1 ,def9ition (1 #ab2 ,illu/ration ( ,process1 #ac2 ,comp>$ ) ,kn[+1 #aj2 ,comp>$ ) ,intuition1 #b2 ! ,process1 #ab2 ,gr\ps ,_m ,into ,"o1 #ah2 9 ! ,s5sation & ,p]cept1 #ah2 ,evolution & ,?9k+ ,m9d1 #ai2 ( ! ,*ild1 #bj2 ( ! ,adult1 #bj2 & ! ,concept1 #ba2 & ! ,judgm5t1 #bb2 & ,appreh5sion1 #bd2 ,/ages 91 #be2 9 ! ,inf]5ce1 #bd2 ,laws (1 #cb2 ,unity ( ,laws1 #dj2 ,progressive1 #dfe2 ,"r1 ,necessity (1 #dff2 ,indiff]5t & ,c>eless1 #dfg4 ,?\ght & ,language1 #dg4 ,?\ght is ,k+1 #dcg4 ,traduction1 #cgg4 ,tra9+1 ,def9ition (1 #ie4 ,tree ( ,porphyry1 #aaa4 ,trui/ic ,proposition1 #aci4 ,tru? ,def9$1 #if4 ,u ,ub]weg ,quot$1 #d4 ,undi/ribut$ ,middle1 #aii2 ,illu/ration (1 #bad4 ,uni=mity ( ,nature1 #cfb4 ,univ]sal ,affirmative ,proposition1 #adj4 ,univ]sal ,causation1 #cfa4 ,univ]sal ,negative ,proposition1 #adb4 ,univ]sal ,propositions1 #abf4 ,v ,v>iations1 ,me?od ( ,concomitant1 #djb4 ,w ,watts ,quot$1 #d4 ,weak5$ ,conclusion1 #bbd4 ,:ately ,quot$1 #d4 ,^w-signs ( ,categorical ,propositions1 #abb4 ,footnotes4 #a - ,,note4 ,sometimes ?9k+ & ?\ght are us$ int]*angeably4 ,?is is confus+4 ,prop]ly1 8?9k+0 is always a process ( ! kn[+ m9d :ile 8?\ght0 is ! product ( ?is process1 j z ! fl\r ( ! gri/mill is ! product ( ! gr9d+ process4 #b - ,intuitive kn[+ might be t]m$ habitual kn[+4 #c - ,m$iate ,inf]5ce4 #d - ,intuitive ,kn[+4 #e - ,hyslop's ,elem5ts ( ,logic 7#aija71 page #ajj4 #f - ,hyslop4 #g - ,m5 d h ! p[] ( reason4 #h - ,sometimes call$ contraposition4 #i - ,f ! ,greek mean+ to reason )4 #aj - ,! /ud5t may be suffici5tly int]e/$ to complete ! li/4 #aa - ,! /ud5t %\ld prove t ! la/ premise may be affirmative4 #ab - ,?is cause1 h[ev]1 ne$ n be a s+le antec$5t1 9 fact x seldom is4 8,?is cause1 philosophically speak+1 is ! sum total ( ! conditions1 positive & negative1 tak5 toge!r40,mill4 ,! cause ( ! price ( food /uff be+ high1 involves _m conditions1 or antec$5ts1 s int]wov5 t x is impossible to designate any "o z be+ ! *ief factor conc]n$4 #ac - ,^? might be nam$ ! ,five ,special ,me?ods ( ,induction by ,analysis4 #ad - ,all cases ( f9d+ ! net proce$s are examples ( ! law ( residue4 ,transcrib]'s ,notes4 ,! foll[+ corrections h be5 made 9 ! text3 ,page #bb3 ,s5t5ce />t+3 ,fir/1 ,i may be4444 - #8recignize' replac$ ) #8recognize' 7able to recognize ea*7 ,page #fa1 ,"q #af3 ,s5t5ce />t+3 ,:at is ! diff]5ce4444 - #8diff]5ece' replac$ ) #8diff]5ce' 7! diff]5ce 9 mean+7 ,page #fa1 ,"q #bc3 ,s5t5ce />t+3 ,argue to ! effect4444 - #8non-contotative' replac$ ) #8non-connotative' 7c be non-connotative47 ,page #hf3 ,s5t5ce />t+3 ,a logical def9ition4444 - #8dig]5ti' replac$ ) #8diff]5ti' 7by means ( its diff]5ti47 ,page #add3 ,s5t5ce />t+3 ,"h1 z 9 ! ,i1444 - #8comf9$' replac$ ) #8conf9$' 7k is conf9$ to7 ,page #bjd3 ,s5t5ce />t+3 7#f7 ,if "o premise4444 - #8nagtive' replac$ ) #8negative' 7"o premise be negative7 ,page #bdj3 ,s5t5ce />t+3 ,s9ce1 h[ev]1 ! easie/4444 - #8affirmavite' replac$ ) #8affirmative' 7& a p>ticul> affirmative7 ,page #bdf3 ,s5t5ce />t+3 7#c7 ,%[ :y x is4444 - ,pr9t] error3 lo/ end ( po9t 7#c7 & duplicat$ "p ( po9t 7#d7 ,page #bgf3 ,s5t5ce />t+3 ,o!r argum5ts :]e4444 - #8agrum5ts' replac$ ) #8argum5ts' 7,o!r argum5ts :]e7 ,page #bhf3 ,s5t5ce />t+3 7#d7 ,9 ! practice4444 - #8analag\s' replac$ ) #8analog\s' 7cu/om analog\s to giv+7 ,page #bhf3 ,s5t5ce />t+3 7#d7 8,! man is guilty4444 - #87#d7' miss+ f text 77#d7 8,! man is guilty7 ,page #cbe3 ,s5t5ce />t+3 ,^! fallacies arise f4444 - #8abitr>y' replac$ ) #8arbitr>y' 7words z arbitr>y signs7 ,page #cbf3 ,s5t5ce />t+3 ,!re is little diff]5ce4444 - #8fallicies' replac$ ) #8fallacies' 7& fallacies ( conv]se7 ,page #cga3 ,s5t5ce />t+3 7#a7 ,not+ t two4444 - #8sirname' replac$ ) #8surname' 7h ! same surname17 ,page #cgf3 ,s5t5ce />t+3 ,9 ! s*ool room4444 - #8g5]alziation' replac$ ) #8g5]alization' 7p]fectly induc$ g5]alization17 ,page #chb3 ,s5t5ce />t+3 ,complete enum]ation gives4444 - #8uncontradic$' replac$ ) #8uncontradict$' 7incomplete b uncontradict$7 ,page #dje3 ,s5t5ce />t+3 ,x is ?us evid5t t4444 - #8pr5om5on' replac$ ) #8ph5om5on' 7entirely ) ! ph5om5on47 ,page #dbb3 ,s5t5ce />t+3 ,read+ into ! ext]nal4444 - #8vivdly' replac$ ) #8vividly' 7:at is only vividly int]nal7