,useful ,knowledge3 #dth ed4 ,minerals4 ,vol #a of #c ,illustration3 ,frontispiece to ,vol4 ,i4 see ,page #bch1 #bci4 ,comparative ,height of ,mountains1 ,cities and ,lakes ,british ,islands -- ,continent of ,europe -- ,islands not ,british -- ,asia -- ,america ,j4 ,shury sculp4 ,,useful ,,knowledge3 ,,or ,a ,,familiar ,,account ,,of ,,the ,,various ,,productions ,,of ,nature1 ,,mineral1 ,,vegetable1 ,,and ,,animal1 ,,which ,,are ,,chiefly ,,employed ,,for ,,the ,,use ,,of ,,man4 ,illustrated with numerous ,figures1 and intended as a ,work both of ,instruction and ,reference4 ,,by ,,the ,,rev4 ,,william ,,bingley1 ,,am4 ,,fls4 ,,late ,,of ,,peterhouse1 ,,cambridge1 ,,and ,,author ,,of ,,animal ,,biography4 ,illustration3 ,publisher's ,logo ,,in ,,three ,,volumes4 ,,vol4 ,i4 ,,minerals4 ,,fourth ,,edition4 ,,london3 ,,printed ,,for ,,baldwin1 ,,cradock1 ,,and ,,joy2 ,,harvey ,,and ,,darton2 ,,and ,c4 ,,and ,j4 ,,rivington4 #ahbe4 ,c4 ,baldwin1 ,printer1 ,new ,bridgestreet1 ,london4 ,,preface4 ,,the mode in which instruction has hitherto been conveyed1 on the peculiar subjects of the present work1 has chiefly been by small books1 in question and answer1 denominated catechisms4 ,but such1 however respectable in themselves1 or however advantageous for children1 are wholly insufficient for persons who are in search of extended knowledge1 and desirous of furnishing their minds with useful information4 ,on these subjects there has not hitherto been published any work in which they are collectively to be found2 nor could a knowledge of them be obtained but by the consultation of many and expensive writings4 ,that they are generally important to be known will not probably be denied4 ,it has consequently been the object of the author to compress all the interesting information that could be obtained respecting them1 within as narrow a compass1 and at the same time to render this information as entertaining1 and as devoid of technical words and phrases1 as possible4 ,the scheme of the work will1 it is hoped1 be found sufficiently simple4 ,the passage in smaller characters at the head of each article1 is in general so arranged as to reply to the questions1 8,what is80 8,what are80 or 8,how do you know80 ,for instance3 8,what is flint80 7,see ,vol4 ,i4 p4 #ec47 ,the answer will be found thus3 8,flint is a peculiarly hard and compact kind of stone1 generally of smokegrey colour1 passing into greyish white1 reddish1 or brown4 ,it is nearly thrice as heavy as water1 and1 when broken1 will split in every direction1 into pieces which have a smooth surface40 ,the author is aware that1 in many instances1 the definitions are defective3 but this has1 in general1 arisen from a necessity of rendering them short1 and at the same time of using such terms as would be likely to convey information to the minds of persons who have had no previous knowledge of the systems of natural history4 ,after the definition1 a further illustration sometimes follows2 and in the large characters will be found a brief detail of the history and uses of the object described4 ,the articles are numbered1 for the greater convenience both of reference and explanation1 but particularly the latter4 ,thus1 under the explanation of ,,carbon1 it is stated that 8in combination with oxygen 7#ba7 it forms carbonic acid 7#bf71 and that it is the chief component part of pitcoal 7#bag71 petroleum 7#bac71 and other bituminous substances40 ,by a reference to the numbers inserted1 each of the words1 against which they stand1 will be explained3 whilst at least three of them would otherwise have been incomprehensible by the generality of unscientific readers4 ,it must be remarked that the reader will not here find an account of every production of nature1 which is employed for the use of man1 nor even all the uses of such objects as are described4 ,the most important of the productions1 and the principal of the uses1 are all that he trusts can reasonably be required in a work of the present extent4 ,on this ground it is that a great number of animals1 which are in request only for food1 have been wholly omitted4 ,the figures that are inserted have been drawn upon as small and economical a scale as was compatible with a sufficiently accurate representation of the objects to which they relate4 ,if the reader be desirous of reference to further illustration1 he will derive much satisfaction from the invaluable figures of ,mr4 ,sowerby in his ,british and ,exotic ,mineralogy1 and ,english ,botany1 and ,woodville's ,medical ,botany2 as well as from those in ,dr4 ,shaw's ,general ,zoology1 and ,bewick's ,histories of ,quadrupeds and ,british ,birds4 ,there are also many figures of useful animals in the author's own work1 entitled 8,memoirs of ,british ,quadrupeds40 ,,advertisement ,,to ,,the ,,third ,,edition4 ,since this work was first printed1 the author has made in it considerable improvements4 ,the first volume1 particularly1 contains many additional articles1 and more than half of it has been rewritten4 ,the plates also have been reengraved4 ,for the plate of the mountains a new drawing has been made1 that the scale might be extended1 and many particulars might be introduced which before were omitted4 ,for the plates of vegetables every drawing has been corrected2 and1 in place of such figures as were most defective1 new ones have been inserted4 ,charlottestreet1 ,bloomsbury1 ,london1 #ast ,march1 #ahba4 ,,explanation ,,of ,,the ,,plates ,,of ,,the ,,first ,,volume4 ,,frontispiece4 ,this is explained in pages #bcf1 #bcg4 ,,plate ,i4 ,fig4 ,,mineral ,,deposits4 #a4 ,horizontal beds or strata4 a4 ,veins or dykes4 #b4 ,bending strata4 #c4 ,minerals in detached masses4 #d4 ,disjoined strata4 b4 ,a fault4 ,,plate ,,ii4 ,,crystals1 c4 #e4 ,octohedron4 #f4 ,rough diamond4 #g4 ,profile of a brilliantcut stone4 #h4 ,profile of a rosecut stone4 #i4 ,plane of a tablecut stone4 #aj4 ,plane and profile of the ,pitt diamond4 #aa4 ,dodecahedron4 #ab4 ,rough garnet4 #ac4 ,sixsided pyramids1 joined base to base4 #ad ,regular foursided prism4 #ae4 ,sixsided prism4 #af4 ,cube4 #ag4 ,foursided pyramid having a rhomb for its base4 ,,plate ,,iii4 ,,section ,,of ,,rocks4 ,i4 ,primitive ,rocks4 ,fig4 #a4 ,granite4 #b4 ,gneiss4 #c4 ,micaslate4 #d4 ,clayslate4 a4 ,limestone4 b4 ,quartz4 #e4 ,primitive limestone4 ,,ii4 ,secondary ,rocks4 #a4 ,transition ,rocks4 #f4 ,greywacka4 #g4 ,transition limestone4 #b4 ,floetz ,rocks4 #h4 ,old red sandstone4 #i4 ,alternating strata of limestone and sandstone4 ,,iii4 ,alluvial ,deposits4 #aj4 ,alluvial strata of clay1 gravel1 c41 c4 ,the ,,binder is desired to insert all the ,plates1 except the ,frontispieces1 immediately after the ,explanations in the respective ,volumes4 ,illustration3 ,pl4 #a4 ,vol4 ,i4 ,sections of ,strata c4 ,j4 ,shury4 sculp4 ,illustration3 ,pl4 #b4 ,vol4 ,i4 ,,crystals c4 ,illustration3 ,pl4 #c4 ,vol4 ,i4 ,section of ,rocks4 ,j ,shury sculp4 ,,useful ,,knowledge4 ,,minerals4 ,,introduction4 #a4 ,,minerals are natural bodies destitute of organization and life3 and ,,mineralogy is that branch of natural science which treats of the properties and relations of such bodies4 ,,mineral ,,deposits4 #b4 ,if we penetrate beneath the surface of the earth1 we observe there a very remarkable arrangement4 ,instead of a generally uniform appearance1 as we see on the surface1 we pass through divers substances1 as clay1 gravel1 sand1 and numerous others1 deposited in beds or strata of various thickness1 from a few inches to a great many feet 7,pl4 ,i4 ,fig4 #a74 ,these lie1 for the most part1 nearly horizontal3 but in some instances1 particularly in mountainous countries1 they take different degrees of inclination2 and1 in places where the country consists of gently sloping hills and vales1 the beds have a waving or bending form 7,pl4 #a1 ,fig4 #c74 ,the strata of which the earth is composed1 as deep as the curiosity or the necessities of mankind have induced them to explore1 satisfactorily demonstrate the wisdom which has been displayed in the arrangement of materials requisite for the use of men and animals4 ,the first layer is frequently a rich1 black mould1 formed almost wholly of animal and vegetable remains4 ,this yields sustenance to the vegetable productions2 and thereby becomes the actual1 though not the immediate1 support of the whole animal creation4--,beneath this is often found a thick bed of clay1 that furnishes to man a substance of which to make bricks1 tiles1 various kinds of pottery1 and innumerable other articles for the comfort of social life4--,next are deposited vast beds of gravel1 that are of use in numerous points of view4--,underneath this are the infinitely varying strata of sandstone1 limestone1 c4 which not only serve for the construction of buildings1 and for other important purposes1 but also frequently surround mines which contain the valuable metals4--,beneath a slaty stratum are usually discovered those immense beds of coal so requisite for the comfort1 and1 in some situations1 even for the existence of man4 ,these strata1 it is true1 are not always found together1 nor are they always discovered in the same order2 but the statement will suffice to show the general nature of their arrangement4 #c4 ,minerals are sometimes observed in detached masses of various size1 and situated at various depths in the earth 7,pl4 ,i1 ,fig4 #a74 #d4 ,they are also found in a kind of natural clefts which cross the regular mineral beds or strata in different directions 7,pl4 ,i1 ,fig4 #a1 a1 ,pl4 ,i1 ,fig4 #d1 b74 ,when these contain metallic ores1 they are styled veins2 but when they contain only stony or earthy matters1 the miners call them dykes4 ,they vary much both in magnitude and length4 ,six thousand feet are considered an unusual length for veins1 though1 in some instances1 veins have been traced upwards of four miles4 ,few veins extend more than #abjj feet below the surface of the mountains in which they are situated4 ,they are usually much inclined2 but they sometimes descend in a direction parallel with the beds of rock in which they occur4 #e4 ,at the places where dykes or veins pass through the earth1 they occasionally disjoint the strata in a very singular manner 7,pl4 ,i1 ,fig4 #d74 ,some of the coal strata1 for instance1 are thrown down or raised on one side of a dyke upwards of a hundred yards2 and the miner1 after penetrating through this dyke1 instead of finding the same coal again1 meets1 on the opposite side1 with beds of stone or clay4 ,hence he is frequently at a loss how to proceed in searching for the coal of which he is in pursuit2 and hence it is that to such dykes the peculiar name of faults has sometimes been given4 #f4 ,in ,england the metallic ores are generally found in veins1 that form a considerable angle with the regular strata4 ,this in ,cornwall is uniformly the case4 ,and it is remarkable1 concerning the veins of tin and copper of that county1 that they run in a direction nearly east and west2 whilst the dykes1 or veins of other substances1 run for the most part north and south4 #g4 ,the thickness of veins1 and the quantity and quality of the ores they contain1 differ in every mine4 ,some are only a few inches wide1 whilst others extend to the width of several feet4 ,the vein at ,dalcooth mine1 in ,cornwall1 varies from two or three to forty feet and upwards2 and1 in some parts1 it contracts so as to be little more than six inches across4 #h4 ,in ,cornwall the first traces of tin and copper are usually found at the surface of the ground1 and thence to the depth of #hj or #ajj feet beneath2 and it is said that no miner has ever yet seen the bottom of a vein1 although several have been wrought to the depth of more than #ajjj feet4 ,the veins of these metals have1 in some instances1 been worked to the length of three or four miles4 #i4 ,it is frequently observed that metallic veins are separated1 from the substances they intersect1 by a thin wall1 or lining1 of minerals different from these substances1 and also by a layer of clay on each side of the vein4 ,it is also remarked that the same substance which forms the outer coat of the vein is often intermixed with the ore1 or forms layers alternately with it4 ,this has usually the denomination of matrix or gangue4 #aj4 ,there are few mines of any considerable depth that would not be flooded with water from internal springs were not means adopted for drawing off this fluid4 ,the steam engines that are employed for this purpose in some of the ,cornish mines are so powerful as to discharge incessantly1 both by night and day1 a quantity of water1 equal to at least #ajjj gallons1 or near twenty hogsheads1 every minute4 ,,systematic ,,arrangement ,,of ,,minerals4 #aa4 ,to a superficial observer1 perhaps nothing would appear more easy than to describe a mineral4 ,this1 however1 is by no means the case4 ,the same general appearance sometimes prevails in substances that are very different from each other2 and the same stone1 in its different states1 is often extremely varied in its appearance4 ,to these difficulties it must be added1 that the combinations of mineral substances are multiplied to a great extent4 ,a little application1 however1 particularly if the student be possessed of a collection of arranged and named specimens1 which he will have no difficulty in procuring at a reasonable price1 will enable him to overcome all the obstacles that otherwise might impede his progress in beginning to acquire a knowledge of this interesting science4#a #ab4 ,the most simple and natural division of minerals is into four classes1 of1 #a4 ,,stones2 #b4 ,,salts2 #c4 ,,combustibles2 and1 #d4 ,,metals2 and the following table1 which has chiefly been arranged from the system of ,werner1 the wellknown ,german mineralogist1 will exhibit a tolerably correct outline of the classification of these substances4 ,to reduce the whole within the compass of a single page1 many of the families1 however1 have necessarily been omitted4 ,footnote #a3 ,such collections are supplied by ,mr4 ,mawe1 ,no4 #adi1 ,strand1 ,london4 ,his terms1 for collections containing from #ajj to #bjj specimens1 are #e guineas2 from #bjj to #cjj specimens1 #aj guineas2 and from #cjj to #djj specimens1 #ae guineas4 ,for collections containing from #cej to #djj specimens1 more select1 and comprising a better suite of precious stones1 he charges from #bj to #cj guineas2 and for larger collections1 from #ej to #ajj guineas4 ,at the particular request of the author1 ,mr4 ,mawe has arranged a few collections of minerals1 and numbered them in such manner as to correspond with1 and illustrate the present volume4 ,,principal ,,species4 ,diamond4 ,diamond4 ,zircon4 ,jargoon4 ,oriental sapphire4 ,ruby4 ,oriental ruby4 ,scratch ,emery4 glass4 ,schorl4 ,topaz4 ,emerald4 ,garnet4 ,precious garnet4 ,crystal4 ,quartz4 ,flint4 ,i4 ,,earthy4 ,agate4 ,opal4 ,clay4 ,pure clay4 ,clay slate4 ,roofing slate4 ,will not ,mica4 ,muscovy glass4 scratch ,soapstone4 ,fuller's earth4 ,i4 ,,stones glass4 ,talc4 ,talc4 ,asbestos4 ,limestone4 ,lime4 ,phosphat of lime4 ,fluor spar4 ,,ii4 ,,saline4 ,alabaster4 ,barytes4 ,strontian4 ,alumine4 ,alum4 ,magnesia4 ,epsom salt4 ,,ii4 ,,salts4 ,soda4 ,common salt4 ,borax4 ,potash4 ,nitre4 ,ammonia4 ,salammoniac4 ,sulphur4 ,sulphur4 ,naphtha4 ,,iii4 ,,combustibles ,bitumen4 ,coal4 ,jet4 ,graphite4 ,blacklead4 ,resin4 ,amber4 ,platina4 ,platina4 ,gold4 ,gold4 ,mercury4 ,mercury4 ,silver4 ,silver4 ,i4 ,,malleable4 ,copper4 ,copper4 ,iron4 ,iron4 ,tin4 ,tin4 ,lead4 ,lead4 ,,iv4 ,,metals4 ,nickel4 ,nickel4 ,zinc4 ,zinc4 ,arsenic4 ,arsenic4 ,bismuth4 ,bismuth4 ,,ii4 ,,brittle4 ,cobalt4 ,cobalt4 ,manganese4 ,manganese4 c4 c4 #ac4,to complete a general view of the different productions of the mineral kingdom1 it is requisite to subjoin a tabular arrangement of the various kinds of rocks4 ,,species4 #a4 ,granite4 #b4 ,gneiss4 #c4 ,mica slate4 #d4 ,clay slate4 #e4 ,primitive limestone4 #f4 ,primitive trap4 #g4 ,serpentine4 ,i4 ,,primitive4 #h4 ,porphyry4 #i4 ,sienite4 #aj4 ,topaz rock4 #aa4 ,quartz rock4 #ab4 ,primitive flinty slate4 #ac4 ,primitive gypsum4 #ad4 ,white stone4 #a4 ,transition limestone4 ,i4 ,,transition #b4 ,transition trap4 ,,rocks4 #c4 ,grey wacke4 #d4 ,transition flinty slate4 #e4 ,transition gypsum4 ,,ii4 ,,secondary4 #a4 ,old red sandstone4 #b4 ,floetz limestone4 #c4 ,floetz gypsum4 #d4 ,second1 or variegated sandstone4 #e4 ,second floetz gypsum4 ,,ii4 ,,floetz #f4 ,shell limestone4 ,,rocks4 #g4 ,third sandstone4 #h4 ,rock salt4 #i4 ,chalk4 #aj4 ,floetz trap4 #aa4 ,coal4 #ab4 ,newest floetz trap4 #a4 ,peat4 #b4 ,sand and gravel4 ,,iii4 ,,alluvial4 #c4 ,loam4 #d4 ,bog iron ore4 #e4 ,calcareous tufa1 c4 #a4 ,burnt clay4 ,i4 ,,pseudo ,,volcanic #b4 ,porcelain jasper4 ,,rocks4 #c4 ,earth slag4 #d4 ,columnar clay ironstone4 ,,iv4 ,,volcanic4 #e4 ,polishing slate4 ,,ii4 ,,true ,,volcanic #a4 ,stones and ashes4 ,,rocks4 #b4 ,lava4 #c4 ,matter of muddy eruptions4 #ad4 ,for the purpose of ascertaining the names and characters of minerals1 attention must be paid to their form1 surface1 lustre1 fracture1 or the appearance of their internal surface when broken2 structure1 transparence1 streak1 or the mark left when scratched by any hard body2 stain1 or trace left when rubbed upon paper2 cohesion1 whether solid1 friable1 or fluid3 hardness1 or the resistance which they oppose when scratched2 tenacity1 or the resistance which they oppose to the stroke of a hammer2 flexibility1 or their property of bending without breaking2 feel1 or the sensation communicated by their surfaces when handled2 smell1 taste1 adherence to the tongue1 sound1 specific gravity1 or weight in comparison with that of water2 colour and electricity4 #ae4 ,to ascertain the chemical properties of minerals1 one of the most important instruments is the blowpipe4 ,this is a tube which terminates in a cavity as fine as a small wire1 and through which the air is forced1 and made to play upon the flame of a candle4 ,the flame is thus concentrated1 and directed against small particles of the mineral to be examined1 which is placed upon a bit of charcoal in a spoon of platina or silver4 ,the air is forced into the blowpipe by the mouth of the person using it1 or by bellows attached to it for that purpose4 ,under this operation we have an opportunity of trying the action of other bodies upon minerals at a very high temperature2 and the properties which these experiments bring into view enable us1 in many cases1 to ascertain1 not only the nature1 but even the component parts1 of minerals4 ,,simple ,,mineral ,,substances4 #af4 ,as a necessary introduction to the study of minerals1 it is requisite to describe1 in a brief manner1 such simple substances as form their constituent parts4 ,few of these1 it is true1 are to be found in a separate1 uncombined state2 yet that they do exist1 and that they are to be obtained from the minerals with which they are united1 we have the proof of every day's experience4 ,,unconfinable ,,fluids4 #ag4 ,there are some kinds of unconfinable fluids1 the existence even of which is manifested only by their contact with other bodies1 or becoming separated from them4 ,they are of a nature too subtile to be collected or confined in our vessels for the purpose of examination1 and the investigation of their properties has consequently been attended with peculiar difficulty4 ,those at present known are caloric1 light1 electricity1 and magnetism2 but of these the first only is immediately connected with the subjects of our present investigation4 #ah4 ,caloric4--,every one is acquainted with the different sensations of heat and cold4 ,that matter which produces on our bodies the sensation of heat has the name of ,caloric2 heat being only an effect1 of which caloric is the cause4 ,this is extended in a greater or less degree through the whole extent of space1 and penetrates into the interior of even the most solid bodies3 in so doing it expands the particles of which they are composed1 augments their bulk1 and diminishes their solidity4 ,the sun is the principal fountain from which the earth is supplied with this fluid2 and it passes thence to us at the rate of #ab1jjj1jjj of miles per minute4 ,the defect of caloric in any substance occasions the sensation called cold4 ,were the world deprived of caloric1 every species of organized being would1 from that moment1 cease to exist4 ,it is the cause of all fluidity3 to it every production of the earth has been most essentially indebted1 even for its form and structure2 and in no respect do the power and goodness of the ,almighty appear more conspicuous than in the creation1 dispersion1 and continuance1 of this most subtile and astonishing fluid4 #ai4 ,all the various substances with which we are acquainted must be considered either as solid or fluid4 ,every substance is defined to be a solid in which the parts are so united or connected that it requires an external force to separate them4 ,a fluid1 on the contrary1 is a body the parts of which are so loosely connected that they not only yield easily to any force impressed upon them1 but also move freely amongst each other2 and every fluid is a combination of caloric with some other substance4 #bj4 ,fluids are of two kinds3 one of these1 called liquids1 have1 when at rest1 a smooth and distinct surface1 and are distinguishable both by the sight and touch2 the other1 denominated gas1 or gaseous fluids1 have the appearance of air1 and are not perceptible either to the sight or touch1 except under certain circumstances4 ,the latter are principally oxygen 7#ba71 azote or nitrogen1 and hydrogen 7#de74 ,we shall at present have occasion to speak only of the first4 ,,gaseous ,,fluids4 #ba4 ,oxygen1 like caloric1 is a fluid never found in an uncombined state4 ,it forms one of the component parts of the air that we breathe1 and of the water we drink2 but it approaches nearest to a state of purity in combination with caloric 7#ah71 when it has the name of oxygen gas4 ,it was formerly called vital air1 because no breathing animal can live for a moment in any air or gas which has not in it a mixture of oxygen2 every kind of combustible burns with great splendour in it1 and without it ceases to burn4 ,it unites with a great number of substances1 and changes both their appearance and properties in a very remarkable manner4 ,of the metals it entirely destroys the metallic lustre1 and gives them an earthy form and texture4 ,substances in this state have the name of oxides4 ,lead1 for instance1 combined with oxygen becomes the wellknown red and heavy substance used by painters1 under the name of minium or red lead 7#bci74 ,this1 if deprived of its oxygen1 loses its red colour1 and returns to its former metallic state4 ,some of the metals are oxidized by merely being exposed to moisture4 ,thus the rust which is so readily contracted by iron is an oxide of that metal1 produced by its attracting oxygen from the air or from water4 ,,acids4 #bb4 ,it is one of the most remarkable properties of oxygen to impart to most of those bodies called acids their peculiar character of acidity4 ,oxygen does not itself possess the properties of an acid1 nor is it an essential ingredient in all acids1 though it is the acidifying principle in the greater number of them4 #bc4 ,acid is a word originally synonymous with sour4 ,it has1 however1 been gradually extended in its signification1 and now comprehends all substances possessed of the properties of exciting upon the tongue the sensation called sour2 of changing the blue colours of vegetables to red2 of uniting with water in almost any proportion2 of combining with alkalies 7#db71 metallic oxides1 and earths1 and of forming with them certain compounds called salts4 #bd4 ,sulphuric ,acid1 or ,spirit of ,vitriol1 as it is commonly called1 is a liquid of a somewhat oily consistence1 transparent and colourless as water1 formed by a combination of oxygen 7#ba7 with sulphur 7#df74 ,like other acids1 it never occurs in nature in a pure state1 for it can no sooner be formed than it unites with earths 7#ca71 alkalies 7#db71 or metals1 and forms1 with them1 several wellknown salts1 which have the name of sulphats4 ,thus alabaster 7#aib7 and ,epsom salts 7#aii7 are respectively formed by an union of sulphuric acid with lime and magnesia1 and are denominated by chemists sulphat of lime and sulphat of magnesia4 ,in like manner1 blue vitriol 7#bji7 is sulphat of copper2 green vitriol 7#bjh71 sulphat of iron2 and white vitriol 7#baj71 sulphat of zinc4 #be4 ,phosphoric ,acid is produced by a combination of oxygen 7#ba7 with phosphorus 7#dg72 and1 when obtained in a state of purity1 is not a fluid1 but a white and flaky substance4 ,this acid1 when combined with mineral productions1 forms those salts which have the name of phosphats4 ,it is very soluble in water2 and1 in dissolving1 makes a hissing noise1 similar to that produced by plunging hot iron into water4 #bf4 ,carbonic ,acid is a compound of oxygen 7#ba7 and carbon1 or pure charcoal 7#dh73 and in a state of gas 7#bj7 it forms a constituent part of the atmospheric air4 ,it is also emitted in great abundance from wine1 beer1 and other liquors1 in a state of fermentation1 and is sometimes found in the lowest parts of mines1 where it is known to the miners by the name of choke damp1 from the circumstance of its immediately extinguishing flame1 and suffocating all animals that are immersed in it4 ,this gas1 which was formerly called by chemists fixed air1 is about twice the weight of common air4 ,in combination with lime it forms chalk1 marble1 and limestone2 and it constitutes part of several other mineral substances1 which are thence denominated carbonats4 #bg4 ,fluoric ,acid is a gas of very singular nature1 which is held in combination with lime1 in the ,derbyshire or fluor spar 7#aid72 and may be separated from it by pouring sulphuric acid1 or spirit of vitriol 7#bd71 upon powdered spar1 in a leaden vessel called a retort1 and applying to it a gentle heat4 ,the salts formed by fluoric acid have the name of fluats4 #bh4 ,the ,boracic is a peculiar kind of acid1 which1 in combination with soda 7#bjj71 forms the substance that we import from the ,east ,indies under the name of borax 7#bjd74 ,when extracted from borax this acid does not assume the form of a fluid1 but appears in thin sixsided scales or flakes1 of white colour1 which adhere slightly together1 and feel somewhat greasy in handling4 ,to the taste it is at first sour1 then bitterish2 and at last it leaves an agreeable sweetness on the palate4 #bi4 ,muriatic ,acid is a gas formed by the combination of oxygen 7#ba7 with some base that is not yet known4 ,it is an invisible and elastic fluid1 which1 in mechanical properties1 resembles common air1 and has a pungent and very peculiar smell4 ,this gas unites with alkalies 7#db71 earths 7#ca71 and the oxides 7#ba7 of metals2 and with them forms the compounds called muriats1 of which common salt1 or muriat of soda 7#bjb71 is one of the principal4 ,the liquid muriatic acid1 or muriatic acid gas combined with water1 is frequently denominated spirit of salt 7#bjb74 #cj4 ,nitric ,acid is a compound of oxygen and azote1 or nitrogen1 in the proportion of twentyfive parts1 by weight1 of the latter to seventyfive of the former4 ,it is one of the constituent parts of nitre1 or saltpetre 7#bjf72 and1 in a pure state1 is transparent and colourless1 like water4 ,by the action of light1 however1 it soon becomes yellow2 and1 if exposed to the air1 it emits yellow fumes1 which even tinge the air of the same colour4 ,to the taste it is extremely acid4 ,it dyes the skin a yellow colour1 which is very difficult to be removed2 and it is so corrosive as to destroy almost every substance into which it penetrates4 ,if poured upon oils1 it sets them on fire4 ,with various bases it forms compounds called nitrats4 ,this acid1 which hitherto has never otherwise been obtained than mixed with water1 is chiefly known in commerce by the name of aqua fortis 7#bjf74 ,,earths4 #ca4 ,the solid contents of the globe are composed of several elementary substances1 amongst which have been enumerated no fewer than nine different kinds of earth3 #a4 ,silex4 #b4 ,alumine4 #c4 ,zircon4 #d4 ,glucine4 #e4 ,yttria4 #f4 ,barytes4 #g4 ,strontian4 #h4 ,lime4 #i4 ,magnesia4 ,these1 when freed from foreign admixture1 are1 for the most part1 of white colour1 not soluble in water1 not combustible1 and do not exceed four times the weight of water4 #cb4 ,the whole of these earths have1 till lately1 been considered simple and uncombined substances2 but1 by the discoveries of ,sir ,humphrey ,davy1 it has been ascertained that four of them have a metallic basis1 and are in fact metallic oxides1 or compounds consisting of a metal united with oxygen 7#ba74 ,these1 which have the same affinity with their respective bases as rust has to iron1 are silex1 lime1 barytes1 and alumine4 ,until1 however1 some further light be thrown upon their nature and constitution1 they must continue to hold their former situation of simple earths4 #cc4 ,silex1 or ,siliceous ,earth1 is the basis of all substances known by the name of quartz and silex 7#gf74 ,in a state of nature it has never been found pure2 but1 in combination with other substances1 it abounds in almost every country of the globe4 ,common flint 7#ij7 contains ninetyseven parts in a hundred of silex3 it consequently has given its name to this earth1 silex being the ,latin word for flint4 ,when purified it is a white powder1 the particles of which are harsh to the touch1 as if they consisted of very minute grains of sand4 ,it is not quite three times as heavy as water1 and has neither taste nor smell4 ,water will not dissolve it1 nor any kind of acid1 except fluoric4 ,sir ,h4 ,davy has discovered it to have a metallic basis1 to which he has given the name of silicium4 #cd4 ,alumine is a kind of earth1 so called from its forming the basis of alum 7#aig74 ,it is soft1 compact1 and tenacious2 about twice the weight of water1 and1 when breathed upon1 has a smell which is peculiar to all clayey productions4 ,in the fire it shrinks1 and becomes so hard as even to yield sparks when struck against steel4 ,it readily absorbs water1 and is dissolved by most acids4 ,some writers state that pure alumine has been discovered in a native state near ,halle1 in ,germany4 ,it is found in a crystallized form1 and nearly in a state of purity1 in the ,oriental ruby and sapphire4 ,the name of argil1 or clay1 has sometimes been applied to it2 but1 in mineralogy1 this name has usually been given to a mixture of alum1 quartz1 and other substances4 ,sir ,h4 ,davy has obtained from alumine a metallic basis1 called aluminum4 #ce4 ,zircon1 when freed from those substances with which it is combined1 is a white and somewhat rough powder1 insipid to the taste1 insoluble in water1 and about four times as heavy as that fluid4 ,it is found in the two kinds of precious stones called jargoon and hyacinth1 and has not hitherto been applied to any useful purpose4 #cf4 ,glucine is a kind of earth of peculiar nature1 which is found in the emerald and beryl1 and1 when purified1 forms a soft and white powder1 without smell1 and of sweetish taste4 ,to the last of these qualities it is indebted for its name1 which is derived from a ,greek word signifying sweet4 ,it is somewhat unctuous to the touch1 and about three times as heavy as water4 ,the uses of this earth1 whatever they may be1 are not known4 #cg4 ,yttria is an earth which1 among other particulars1 differs from glucine by its weight1 as it is nearly five times heavier than water4 ,in a natural state it occurs as the basis of a black ,swedish mineral1 called gadolinite4 ,when cleansed1 by chemical process1 from all its impurities1 it is a fine1 white1 and inodorous powder4 #ch4 ,barytes is a white1 porous1 and very heavy earth1 which can only be obtained pure by chemical process4 ,it is easily reduced to powder1 and is soluble in all kinds of acids4 ,to the taste it is harsh and caustic2 and1 if taken into the stomach1 proves an extremely virulent poison4 ,in some respects it agrees with the alkalies 7#db71 particularly in its property of changing blue vegetable colours to green1 and in corroding1 like them1 though with less energy1 all kinds of animal substances4 ,from these circumstances it has sometimes been denominated an alkaline earth4 ,saturated with sulphuric 7#bd7 and carbonic acid 7#bf71 it constitutes the minerals denominated sulphat and carbonat of barytes 7#aif74 ,it has been discovered to have a metallic base1 which is called barium4 #ci4 ,strontian is an earth which1 like barytes1 is not found otherwise than in combination with sulphuric and carbonic acids4 ,it occurs in various parts of the world1 and1 when purified1 forms a porous mass of greyish white colour1 acrid taste1 and somewhat alkaline nature4 ,this earth converts vegetable blue colours to green1 but does not act so strongly on animal bodies as barytes1 nor is it poisonous1 like that substance4 #dj4 ,lime1 the basis of all those substances which are denominated calcareous1 is only to be obtained in a state of purity by artificial process4 ,combined with carbonic acid 7#bf7 it forms limestone 7#adj71 chalk1 and marble2 all of which are capable of being converted into lime by burning4 ,lime may also be obtained from oyster and other sea shells4 ,when pure1 it is of white colour1 and moderately hard substance1 though it is easily reducible to powder4 ,its taste is burning and acrid2 and1 like the alkalies1 it changes vegetable blue colours to green4 ,it has likewise the property of corroding and destroying animal substances4 ,lime1 when pure1 absorbs water rapidly1 becomes hot1 and falls into powder4 ,even if exposed to the open air it gradually attracts moisture1 and assumes a powdery form2 soon after which it becomes saturated with carbonic acid 7#bf7 from the atmosphere1 and is thereby again converted into carbonat of lime 7#adj74 ,it occurs abundantly in almost every country1 but always in combination with some acid1 carbonic 7#bf71 sulphuric 7#bd71 boracic 7#bh71 fluoric 7#bg71 or phosphoric 7#be74 ,this substance has a metallic basis1 which has been denominated calcium4 #da4 ,magnesia is a light and perfectly white kind of earth1 of soft powdery appearance1 without taste or smell1 and somewhat more than twice as heavy as water4 ,it is not found in this pure state in nature1 but may be prepared from ,epsom salt1 which consists of magnesia in union with sulphuric acid 7#bd74 ,the slightly acrid taste that is perceptible in the magnesia used in medicine arises from a portion of lime which it contains4 ,this substance does not dissolve in water1 but is soluble in every kind of acid4 ,it has the property of changing delicate blue colours to green4 ,,alkalies4 #db4 ,alkalies are substances which enter into the composition of several kinds of minerals1 and are known by their property of changing the colour of blue vegetable juices to green1 and by a peculiarly acrid1 caustic1 and nauseous taste1 which it is impossible to describe1 but which1 after it has been once experienced1 will easily be recollected4 ,alkalies corrode and dissolve animal substances1 and unite with oil and fat in such manner as to form the well known compound called soap4 ,they readily dissolve in water2 and1 when mixed with acids1 form what have been denominated neutral salts4 #dc4 ,the alkalies at present known are three in number2 potash 7#bje71 soda 7#bjj71 and ammonia 7#bjg74 ,of these the two former1 although till lately they have been considered simple substances1 have been shown by ,sir ,h4 ,davy to have metallic bases4 ,,simple ,,combustibles4 #dd4 ,by this term we are to understand all those mineral substances1 capable of combustion1 which have not been discovered to consist of more than a single component part4 ,they are four in number2 hydrogen1 sulphur1 phosphorus1 and carbon4 #de4 ,hydrogen1 as its name imports1 is a principal constituent part of water2 for1 singular as it may appear1 that wellknown fluid is formed by a combination of two species of air or gas1 called hydrogen and oxygen 7#ba71 and in the proportion of about fifteen parts of the former and eightyfive parts of the latter4 ,this gas had formerly the denomination of inflammable air1 and has long been known in mines under the name of firedamp4 ,it is about twelve times lighter than atmospheric air4 ,when pure it soon destroys such animals1 and extinguishes all such flaming substances1 as are immersed in it4 ,mixed with atmospheric air1 it explodes with great violence on the application of any ignited body4 #df4 ,sulphur is a simple combustible substance1 of yellow colour1 which is found pure1 or native1 in several parts of the world1 and is sufficiently familiar to us under the name of brimstone 7#baa74 ,it strongly attracts oxygen 7#ba71 and is thereby converted into sulphuric acid 7#bd74 ,it frequently occurs in combination with mineral substances1 such as arsenic1 antimony1 copper1 and other metallic ores4 #dg4 ,phosphorus is a combustible substance which1 when pure1 somewhat resembles bees'wax both in colour and consistence2 and1 when exposed to the air under the usual temperature of our atmosphere1 is luminous in the dark1 and has a smell somewhat resembling that of garlic4 ,it is so combustible that1 when melted1 it should be kept under water1 as it cannot be exposed to the air during this process without great risk of catching fire4 ,this substance is not known in a native state2 and the whole of what is used in philosophy and commerce is obtained by different artificial processes4 ,in union with oxygen 7#ba7 it becomes converted into an acid1 called phosphoric acid 7#be71 and1 under this form1 in conjunction with lime1 it constitutes the bones of men and animals4 ,the greater part of the phosphorus of the shops is obtained from bones4 #dh4 ,carbon is a name given to the pure inflammable part of charcoal4 ,it is abundantly diffused throughout nature1 for it enters into the composition of several minerals1 and of all vegetable and animal bodies4 ,the purest form under which carbon is known to exist is in the diamond 7#ej74 ,it may1 however1 be obtained sufficiently pure1 for all common purposes1 by burning a piece of wood1 covered with sand1 in a vessel called a crucible4 ,in combination with oxygen 7#ba7 it forms carbonic acid 7#bf74 ,carbon is a chief component part of pitcoal 7#bag71 petroleum 7#bac71 and other bituminous substances4 ,,class ,i4--,,stones4 ,,order ,i4--,,earthy ,,stones4 ,i4 ,,hard3 those which scratch ,glass4 #di4 ,,of ,,gems ,,in ,,general4 ,gems1 or precious stones1 as they are frequently called1 are1 for the most part1 transparent1 and have a vitreous or glassy appearance4 ,their different colours are occasioned by metallic oxides 7#ba7 of various kinds1 with which they are impregnated4 ,some writers have classed them by their colours1 but this is a very uncertain mode1 as different gems have not unfrequently the same colour2 and1 in many cases1 the same gems are of different colours4 ,the usual distinction of gems into ,oriental and ,occidental is also liable to error1 as the best gems1 from whatever part of the world they are brought1 are always called ,oriental4 ,the most estimable of all the kinds are the diamond 7#ej71 ruby 7#ed71 emerald 7#fg71 and sapphire 7#ec72 and stones a grain in weight1 and equal in quality1 are valued in the following proportions1 at #hl4 per carat for diamonds1 #dl4 for rubies1 and #cl4 for each of the others4 ,the amethyst 7#gi71 topaz 7#fa71 and aquamarine 7#fa71 are considered of nearly equal value with each other2 and the garnet 7#gj7 is the cheapest of precious stones4 ,the ancients engraved upon several kinds of gems2 but they appear to have been ignorant of the art of cutting the diamond1 the ruby1 and the sapphire1 which were too hard for them to operate upon4 ,the emerald and the noble opal 7#ajb7 were too highly esteemed as precious stones to have often found their way into the hands of engravers4 ,it has been asserted that the ancients did not use the topaz for engraving2 but there is extant a beautiful intaglio1 representing an ,indian ,bacchus1 which is said to be a topaz4 ,the garnet was often engraved upon3 and there are many masterpieces of the art in calcedony 7#ia7 and carnelian 7#ic47 ,onyx and sardonyx 7#ib7 were employed for that species of engraving in relief called cameos2 and1 in many instances1 it is pleasing to observe with what dexterity the ancient artists availed themselves of the different colours in the alternate zones to express the different parts and shades of their figures4 ,most of the gems may be imitated by artificial preparations of glass1 coloured by different metallic substances2 and it is not easy1 by mere inspection1 to distinguish the better kinds of factitious stones from real gems4 ,they are1 however1 discoverable by a deficiency of lustre1 and being so soft as1 even in the most perfect kinds1 to yield to the point of a steel instrument4 ,the cutting and polishing of gems is the work of the lapidary1 and is in general thus performed3--,the shape most proper to be given to any particular gem being determined on1 the stone is cemented to the end of a stick1 and the different facets are formed by a mill contrived for the purpose4 ,this mill is a plate of copper1 or an alloy of lead and tin1 to which an horizontal motion is given by very simple machinery1 and the surface of which is charged either with diamond powder and oil1 or with fine emery and water4 ,a thick peg of wood called a gauge1 pierced with small holes in all directions1 is set upright on the lapidary's bench1 close to the mill1 and the process of shaping the facets thus takes place4 ,the stone is placed on the surface of the mill1 the opposite end of the stick to which it is cemented being inserted in one of the holes of the gauge4 ,in this position it is kept steady by the workman1 with his right hand1 whilst1 with the other1 he puts the mill in motion4 ,the skill of the lapidary depends on regulating the velocity of the mill1 and pressing with more or less force on the stick1 with an almost imperceptible tendency to one or other direction in different stages of the work1 examining each facet at very short intervals1 in order to give as great precision as possible to its size and form4 ,this part of the business being completed1 the cutting mill is taken out1 and replaced by one of brass1 on which the polishing is performed by means of fine emery 7#eh71 tripoli1 and rotten stone 7#aai71 exactly in the same manner as is practised in the first stage of the process for setting the facets4 ,,diamond4 #ej4 ,the ,,diamond1 or ,,adamant of the ancients1 is the most valuable of gems1 and the hardest of all known bodies2 when pure1 it is perfectly transparent4 ,in a rough state1 diamonds have usually either the form of rounded pebbles1 with a shining surface1 or they are crystallized in the shape of octohedrons1 or double foursided pyramids4 7,pl4 ,,ii1 ,fig4 #e1 #f47 ,though for the most part colourless1 they are sometimes yellow1 green1 blue1 blackish1 or rosecoloured4 ,the best diamonds are brought from the ,east ,indies4 ,the principal mines are those of ,raolconda and ,coulour1 in the province of ,golconda2 and that of ,soumelpour1 or ,goual1 in ,bengal4 ,at ,raolconda they are found in the deep crevices of rocks4 ,persons1 by means of long iron rods1 with hooks at the end1 draw out from these crevices the loose contents1 and afterwards wash them in tubs1 for the purpose of discovering the diamonds4 ,the first discovery of diamonds at ,coulour was about two centuries ago1 by a countryman1 who1 on digging his ground to sow millet1 accidentally found one of these stones of large size4 ,from that period the whole adjacent plain began to be searched to the depth of from ten to fourteen feet2 and the work was1 at one time1 so extensively pursued1 that nearly #f1jjj persons were employed in it4 ,at ,soumelpour the diamonds are found amongst the sand and gravel of the river4 ,diamonds are likewise found in the island of ,borneo1 and in several parts of ,south ,america4 ,the mode by which they are obtained from one of the rivers of ,brazil has been described by ,mr4 ,mawe4 ,the current is turned1 and part of the bed of the river being laid dry1 the mud is taken up and washed1 by negroes1 in places prepared for the purpose1 through which a portion only of the stream is allowed to flow4 ,as soon as all the earthy particles have been washed away1 the gravellike matter that remains is raked together1 the stones are thrown out1 and what diamonds happen to be present are found amongst the refuse that is left4 ,to ascertain whether a stone1 that has been found1 be really a diamond1 the workmen have a mode of placing it upon a hard substance1 and striking it with a hammer4 ,if it either resists the blow or separate into leaves1 it must be a diamond2 but1 in the latter case1 the discovery is sometimes made at an immense expense1 as1 by thus diminishing the size1 its value must also1 of course1 be greatly diminished4 ,diamonds are generally exported from ,madras in a rough state2 and in small parcels neatly sewed in muslin1 and sealed by the merchants who send them4 ,these1 we are informed by ,mr4 ,milburne in his valuable work on oriental commerce1 are1 for the most part1 sold in ,europe by the invoice1 as it is called2 that is1 without being opened3 and he says that they are always found to contain the value for which they were sold in ,india4 ,of all transparent substances1 none for brilliancy can be compared with the diamond4 ,its hardness is such1 that no steel instrument whatever can make any impression upon it4 ,notwithstanding this1 at a temperature not so high as that which is required for the melting of silver1 it gradually dissipates and burns4 ,diamonds have been shown to consist principally of carbon or charcoal in a pure and crystallized state4 ,the ancients1 ignorant of the art of cutting diamonds1 were contented to set them in a native state2 and for this purpose they preferred such stones as had naturally a crystallized form4 ,the four large diamonds which ornament the clasp of the ,imperial mantle of ,charlemagne1 and which are still preserved in ,paris1 are uncut stones of this description4 ,the extreme hardness of the diamond baffled all attempts to polish it in such manner as to exhibit its peculiar beauty1 until the year #adef1 when a young man of ,bruges1 whose name was ,berquin1 endeavoured to polish two diamonds by rubbing them against each other4 ,having succeeded in this1 he next constructed a wheel1 on which1 by means of diamond powder1 he was enabled to cut and polish these gems in a manner beyond his greatest expectation4 ,since this period the art of polishing them has been greatly improved both by the ,dutch and ,british jewellers4 ,in the choosing and valuing of diamonds in a rough state1 attention is paid to their colour1 their being free from extraneous matter1 and their shape4 ,those that are most perfect are crystalline1 and resemble a drop of clear spring water1 in the middle of which is to be perceived a strong light1 that plays with great spirit on moving them about4 ,when they have a yellowish or greenish tinge they are considered to be bad4 ,many diamonds have a kind of confused structure1 which lapidaries compare to knots formed in wood4 ,these are rejected1 from the impossibility of polishing them properly4 ,mr4 ,mawe remarks that diamonds1 when rubbed together1 have a peculiarly and scarcely to be described grating sound1 which is one of their most remarkable characteristics4 ,by this alone rough diamonds may be accurately and expeditiously distinguished from every other gem4 ,it is usual to cut diamonds into three principal forms1 called brilliant 7,pl4 ,,ii1 ,fig4 #g71 rose 7,fig4 #h71 and table diamonds 7,fig4 #i74 ,brilliants are1 for the most part1 cut from such of the stones as have naturally a crystallized shape1 and rose diamonds from the flat varieties4 ,the former are so called from their great lustre1 in consequence of the facets on both sides being cut4 ,these are always set upon a black ground1 whilst rose diamonds1 which are much thinner1 are set upon a white foil speckled with black1 for the purpose of adding to their lustre4 ,rosecut diamonds are of course much less estimable than brilliants2 so much so indeed1 that of late many of them1 brought from ,holland1 have been recut into brilliants1 notwithstanding the additional expense1 and the loss of size necessarily attendant on this operation4 ,the table diamond is the least beautiful of any4 ,this mode of cutting is only adopted for such stones1 or rather fragments1 as1 with a considerable breadth1 have only a very trifling depth4 ,the diamondcutters of ,england are considered to be the best in ,europe1 but their number is so small as to occasion many stones to be sent to ,holland to be cut4 ,the value of diamonds is ascertained by their weight in carats2 and this value increases1 in a very high ratio1 according to their magnitude4 ,for instance1 a diamond weighing one carat will be worth about #ajl4 whilst another of five carats will be worth #aejl4 and of ten carats #hjjl4#b ,this rule1 however1 can only be taken for diamonds of twenty carats and under4 ,the larger ones1 in consequence of the scarcity of purchasers1 are generally disposed of at prices greatly inferior to their estimated worth4 ,the value of some diamonds that are peculiarly perfect exceeds the above ratio2 whilst1 for a stone that is cloudy1 foul1 or of bad colour1 even three quarters of the estimated value will perhaps be deducted4 ,footnote #b3 ,a ,carat is equal to four jeweller's grains1 seven grains of which are equal to six grains troy4 ,to ascertain the value of wrought diamonds the weight must be doubled1 about half being supposed to be lost in the working4 ,this sum must be multiplied into itself1 and the product by two4 ,thus to find the value of a diamond of twenty carats #bj #b #dj #dj #afjj #b #c1bjjl4 ,no diamonds are so valuable as those that are perfectly transparent1 and of snowwhite colour4 ,the green and yellow varieties are1 however1 much esteemed3 the blue kinds were formerly more valued than at present2 and the least valuable are those that have a grey or brownish tint4 ,black diamonds are much prized by collectors4 ,the principal use of the diamond is in jewellery4 ,it is also used by lapidaries1 for slitting hard stones1 and for cutting and engraving upon other gems2 by clockmakers in the finer kinds of clockwork2 in the glasstrade for squaring large pieces or plates of glass1 and among glaziers for cutting their glass4 ,the largest diamond ever known 7if it be such1 and not a white topaz1 as some people have imagined7 is in the possession of the ,queen of ,portugal1 and weighs #a1fhj carats1 or more than eleven ounces4 ,it was found in ,brazil1 and sent to ,lisbon in the year #agdf4 ,it is still uncut1 and has been valued at #e1fdd1hjjl4 ,the ,rajah of ,mattan1 in the island of ,borneo1 possesses a large diamond1 shaped like an egg1 with an indented hollow near the smaller end4 ,it was found in that island about eighty years ago1 is said to be of the finest water1 and to weigh #cfg carats1 or more than two ounces and a quarter4 ,several years ago the ,governor of ,batavia1 desirous of purchasing this gem1 sent a ,mr4 ,stuvart to the ,rajah1 authorizing him to offer for it #aej1jjj dollars1 two large brigs of war1 with their guns and ammunition1 together with a certain number of great guns1 and a quantity of powder and shot4 ,the ,rajah1 however1 refused to deprive his family of so valuable an hereditary possession2 for the ,malays not only attach to it the miraculous power of curing all diseases by means of water in which it is dipped1 but also believe that the fortune of the family is sustained by its continuing in their possession4 ,tavernier1 the ,french ,traveller1 saw in the possession of the ,great ,mogul a diamond which weighed near #bhj carats4 ,in form and size it resembled half a hen's egg4 ,this diamond had been obtained from the mine of ,coulour1 about the year #aeej2 and was valued at more than #gjj1jjjl4 sterling4 ,the sceptre of the ,emperor of ,russia is adorned with an oriental diamond about the size of a pigeon's egg1 which weighs #aie carats4 ,this diamond is said to have once been placed as the eye of an idol in ,seringham1 in the ,carnatic4 ,a grenadier1 who had deserted from the ,french service in ,india1 contrived to become one of the priests of the idol1 in the hope of being able to steal this eye4 ,he at length effected his purpose1 and escaped with the diamond to ,madras1 where he sold it to the captain of a ship for a sum equal to #b1ejjl4 of ,british money4 ,it was afterwards transferred to a ,jew for #ah1jjjl4 ,coming into the hands of a ,greek merchant1 he offered it for sale at ,amsterdam1 in #agff2 and the ,russian ,prince ,orloff bought it for the ,empress ,catharine for about #ij1jjjl4 sterling1 and an annuity of #d1jjjl4 during the life of the person who sold it4 ,the ,pitt1 or ,regent diamond 7,pl4 ,,ii1 ,fig4 #aj71 which lately was set in the handle of the sword of state of ,buonaparte1 and is now possessed by the king of ,france1 is a brilliant of the most beautiful kind1 and weighs #acf carats4 ,it was brought from ,india by ,thomas ,pitt1 ,esq4 ,governor of ,fort ,george4 ,mr4 ,pitt has himself stated1 respecting it1 that1 in ,december1 #agja1 whilst resident in ,madras1 several valuable stones1 in a rough state1 were brought to him for sale by an eminent diamond merchant4 ,one of these1 the diamond here spoken of1 was so large that the merchant asked for it the sum of #he1jjjl4 ,after much bargaining1 ,mr4 ,pitt purchased it for #bj1djjl4 ,he afterwards sold it for #ace1jjjl4 to the ,regent ,duke of ,orleans2 and by him it was placed among the crown jewels of ,france4 ,the ,pigot diamond weighs fortyseven and a half carats4 ,this1 which is an extremely fine stone1 was disposed of by lottery1 in #ahjj1 for #bb1jjjl42 and is now in the possession of ,messrs4 ,rundell and ,bridge1 jewellers in ,london4 ,a large star1 cross1 and chain1 worn on grand gala days by the ,prince of ,brazil1 as ,sovereign of the different ,portuguese orders of knighthood1 are each ornamented with a great number of magnificent diamonds1 set in gold4 ,the centre diamond of the star is alone valued at #hjj1jjjl4 ,when the diamond is rubbed it will attract bits of straw1 feathers1 hairs1 and other small objects2 and if exposed to the rays of the sun1 and immediately taken into a dark place1 some diamonds will appear luminous4 ,,zircon ,,family4 #ea4 ,,jargoon is a gem usually of smoky yellow or brownish colour1 and sometimes limpid3 if placed upon any object1 it exhibits of it a very distinct double image4 ,the primitive form of its crystal is an octohedron 7,pl4 ,,ii1 ,fig4 #e71 but it is frequently crystallized in rightangled prisms1 terminated by foursided pyramids4 ,in hardness this stone does not much exceed that of the emerald4 ,the greyish white and yellowish white varieties of jargoon are valuable chiefly on account of their resemblance to the diamond4 ,the darkercoloured varieties can be deprived of their colour by heat2 and1 in this state1 though in lustre they are infinitely inferior to them1 they are sometimes substituted for diamonds4 ,jargoons are now seldom used except for the jewelling of watches and timepieces4 ,about a century ago1 they were much used in mourning ornaments1 for which the dark tone of their colour1 and their almost adamantine lustre1 were supposed to be peculiarly appropriate4 ,the jargoon is principally brought from the island of ,ceylon2 but it is occasionally found in ,france1 and ,spain1 and in granite rocks near ,cuffel1 in ,dumfrieshire1 ,scotland4 #eb4 ,the ,,hyacinth1 or ,,jacinth1 is a dark orangered variety of jargoon4 ,it is also chiefly imported from ,ceylon1 where it is generally found in the sand of rivers1 in irregularly round pieces1 but seldom of large size without flaws4 ,this stone is indebted for its name to a supposed resemblance in colour to that flower1 which1 according to the ,pagan mythology1 ,apollo raised from the blood of his favourite youth1 ,hyacinthus4 ,when bright1 and free from flaws1 the hyacinth is a superb ring stone2 but it is not of usual occurrence in modern jewellery4 ,,ruby ,,family4 #ec4 ,the ,,oriental ,,sapphire is a gem of blue colour1 the shades of which vary from a full and deep tint to a nearly colourless appearance1 and sometimes it is partycoloured4 ,it is found crystallized in sixsided pyramids much lengthened and joined base to base 7,pl4 ,,ii1 ,fig4 #ac72 and also in rounded or pebbleshaped fragments4 ,it has a foliated texture1 is extremely hard1 and about four times as heavy as water4 ,we are chiefly indebted for the sapphire to the ,east ,indies and the ,island of ,ceylon1 where it is found amongst the sand of the rivers4 ,when brought into ,europe1 it is cut by means of diamond powder1 and polished with emery4 ,it is now usually set with a foil of its own colour2 but it was formerly the practice1 instead of foil1 to place under this stone the blue part of a peacock's feather4 ,in hardness the sapphire ranks next to the ruby 7#ed72 and in value it is about equal to the emerald 7#fg74 ,a good sapphire of ten carats' weight is worth about fifty guineas4 ,in the ,museum of ,natural ,history at ,paris there is a sapphire which weighs upwards of sixtysix carats3 it was placed there from the wardrobe of the crown4 ,we are informed by ,m4 ,hauy that sapphires are found in ,bohemia and ,france1 particularly in one part of the ,ville du ,puy1 among the sand of a rivulet near ,expailly4 ,in the summertime1 when the rivulet is nearly dry1 they are collected by persons1 each of whom is furnished with a small tray and a linen bag4 ,whereever there are small depressions in which the water has been stationary1 these persons enter them1 and fill their trays with the sand4 ,this they wash in water in such manner that the lighter particles are carried away2 whilst the heavier ones of gravel1 sapphire1 and other articles1 remain at the bottom4 ,some sapphires exhibit a kind of opalescence1 or whitish floating light in their interior4 ,sapphires lose all their colour in the fire2 and1 after having been subjected to heat1 they are so hard and transparent as sometimes to be sold for diamonds4 #ed4 ,,oriental ,,ruby is a precious stone of intense and bright red colour1 occasionally varied with blue1 and sometimes partycoloured4 ,in the general form of its crystals it much resembles the sapphire 7#ec74 ,the ruby is imported into this country from the ,east ,indies1 though seldom in a rough state1 as the stones are almost always first cut by the ,indians for the purpose of ascertaining their value4 ,they are said to be found in the sand of certain streams near the town of ,sirian1 the capital of ,pegu2 and with sapphires in the sand of rivers in ,ceylon4 ,but they are so seldom seen of large size1 that a ruby above thirtyone carats' weight1 of perfect colour1 and without flaws1 is even more estimable than a diamond of equal weight4 ,the ruby is usually set with a foil2 but1 if peculiarly fine1 it is sometimes set without bottom1 that the stone may be seen through4 ,tavernier1 the ,eastern traveller1 states that1 in the throne of the ,great ,mogul1 he saw #ajh rubies1 which1 on an average1 weighed from #ajj to #bjj carats each4 ,among the jewels of the ,king of ,candy1 that were sold by auction in ,london1 on the #acth of ,june1 #ahbj1 was a ruby which measured two inches in length1 and one inch in breadth4 ,it was1 however1 interesting only as a specimen for a cabinet1 for it had1 in various directions1 a great number of small hairlike tubes running through it4 ,the hardness of this stone is such that the ancients do not appear to have possessed the art of cutting it2 and1 in the improvements which of late have been made by ,mr4 ,earnshaw in the construction of timekeepers1 no stones have been found sufficiently hard for jewelling the holes1 except the ruby and the diamond4 ,there are several modes of counterfeiting rubies2 and some persons have succeeded so well in imitating these stones1 that even the most able lapidaries1 till they try the hardness1 may be deceived4 #ee4 ,the ,,oriental ,,amethyst is an extremely rare gem1 usually of purple colour1 apparently formed by an union of the colouring matter of the sapphire and the ruby4 ,this stone1 if heated1 loses its colour1 and becomes transparent4 ,after this process its brilliancy is such that it is scarcely distinguishable from the diamond2 and1 in jeweller's work1 it is occasionally substituted for that gem4 ,the common amethyst 7#gi71 or that which is chiefly seen1 is nothing more than a violetcoloured rock crystal 7#gh74 #ef4 ,the ,,oriental ,,topaz and ,,emerald are each varieties of the oriental ruby1 the former strawcoloured and the latter green4 ,this kind of emerald is imported from ,pegu1 and some other parts of the ,east ,indies1 and is an extremely rare gem4 #eg4 ,the ,,spinel and ,,balais ,,ruby are two kinds of precious stones1 which differ from each other principally in colour1 the former being of a carmine1 and the latter a cochineal red4 ,they vary from the oriental ruby 7#ed7 in being less hard2 in the primitive form of their crystals being regular octohedrons 7,pl4 ,,ii1 ,fig4 #e71 and in their not being much more than #c times heavier than water4 ,although these two kinds of rubies are inferior1 both in lustre and colour1 to the oriental ruby2 yet1 when they exceed a certain size1 they are much esteemed4 ,a spinel that weighs more than four carats is valued at half as much as a diamond of the same weight1 and is not unfrequently imposed upon ignorant purchasers for the oriental species4 ,it is easily wrought1 takes a high polish1 and is certainly a beautiful gem4 ,being too expensive for necklaces1 it is usually set in rings and brooches1 surrounded by brilliants4 ,the spinel ruby is found amongst sand1 in one of the rivers of ,ceylon1 which flows from the high mountains1 towards the middle of the island4 ,it is also found in ,brazil2 and in ,hungary1 ,bohemia1 and ,silesia4 ,the ,balais ruby is so named from ,balacchan1 the ,indian appellation of ,pegu1 from which country it is chiefly imported4 #eh4 ,,emery is a very hard opaque mineral1 of blackish or bluish grey colour1 which is chiefly found in shapeless masses1 and mixed with other minerals4 ,it is about four times as heavy as water4 ,the best emery is brought from the ,levant1 and chiefly from ,naxos1 and other islands of the ,grecian ,archipelago1 where it occurs abundantly1 in large1 loose masses1 at the foot of primitive mountains4 ,it is also found in some parts of ,spain2 and is obtained from a few of the iron mines in our own country4 ,in hardness it is nearly equal to adamantine spar2 and this property has rendered it an object of great request in various arts4 ,it is employed by lapidaries in the cutting and polishing of precious stones2 by opticians1 in smoothing the surface of the finer kinds of glass1 preparatory to their being polished2 by cutlers1 and other manufacturers of iron and steel instruments2 by masons1 in the polishing of marble3 and1 in their respective businesses1 by locksmiths1 glaziers1 and numerous other artisans4 ,for all these purposes it is pulverized in large iron mortars1 or in steel mills2 and is afterwards separated1 according to the several degrees of fineness that are required1 by washing it in water1 and suffering the grosser particles to deposit themselves4 ,by this operation the finer particles1 which remain suspended in the water1 and which are obtained by decanting the water off1 and suffering it to stand for a considerable time1 are separated4 ,the particles first deposited are again ground1 and again agitated in the water1 to separate the finest4 ,by these successive operations the emery is reduced to a powder so fine that1 when rubbed between the fingers1 it communicates no sensation whatever of grittiness4 ,in general those particles only of the emery which remain suspended in the water1 after it has stood about half an hour1 are used to polish metals4 #ei4 ,,adamantine ,,spar1 or ,,imperfect ,,corundum1 is a very hard and nearly opaque stone1 which varies much in colour1 but is chiefly grey1 with a greenish1 brown1 or bluish tint4 ,it is usually found in the form of sixsided prisms1 but it sometimes occurs in shapeless masses1 has a foliated texture1 and is about four times as heavy as water4 ,the name of adamantine spar was given1 by the ,british lapidaries1 to this substance from its hardness being nearly equal to that of the diamond4 ,it was originally discovered among the granite rocks of ,china2 but it has since been found1 and in greater purity1 in ,bengal and ,ceylon4 ,in a powdered state this substance has long been used by the artists of ,india and ,china for the cutting and polishing of precious stones1 and even of the diamond2 but1 though it will in some degree operate upon that gem1 it is not sufficiently hard to bring out the peculiar beauty of it in a degree at all comparable to that which is effected by the ,european lapidaries with diamond powder4 ,the ,chinese also use adamantine spar for polishing steel1 and in the composition of the finer kinds of porcelain or earthenware4 ,for the cutting of seals and precious stones ,european workmen consider it preferable to emery2 but1 for minute engraving1 it is much inferior to diamond powder4 #fj4 ,,chrysoberyl is a gem of yellowish or brownish green colour1 harder than quartz 7#gf71 and sometimes transparent2 but often only semitransparent1 in which case it exhibits a bluish light1 floating in the interior of the stone4 ,it is usually found in rounded pieces1 but is sometimes crystallized in compressed sixsided prisms1 and in double sixsided pyramids4 ,so little is this gem in request in ,europe1 that it is seldom to be found in the possession of jewellers2 but in ,brazil it is considered inferior only to the diamond4 ,it is usually procured from ,south ,america2 yet it occurs in ,saxony2 and1 with the ruby and sapphire1 amongst sand in the rivers of ,ceylon4 ,such is the hardness of the chrysoberyl1 that1 when properly polished1 which is a difficult operation1 it is capable of receiving a lustre nearly equal to that of the diamond4 ,we are informed that1 a few years ago1 a considerable number of these gems were imported into this country from ,brazil1 but that the greater part of them were entirely spoiled by inferior workmen1 and that the rest were so illcut that they remained unnoticed1 and without value4 ,the smaller stones are said to appear to most advantage in circular eardrops2 and the larger specimens form necklaces and ring stones of great beauty4 ,the variety which exhibits an opalescent appearance1 or presents a bluish light1 undulating as it were in the interior of the stone1 and changing its situation according to the position of the observer1 is chiefly valuable as an article of curiosity3 the transparent kind is always preferred by the jeweller4 ,,schorl ,,family4 #fa4 ,the ,,topaz is a gem usually of a wineyellow colour1 but sometimes orange1 pink1 blue1 and even colourless1 like rock crystal2 of a lamellar or foliated structure1 harder than quartz1 but not so hard as ruby4 ,it varies considerably in its crystallization2 is #c times heavier than water2 and1 when placed upon any object1 shows a double image of it4 ,the name of topaz is derived from an island in the ,red ,sea1 where the ancients found a stone1 but very different from ours1 which they denominated topaz4 ,the best topazes are of a deep colour1 and are imported from ,brazil2 the most brilliant ones are supposed to be those of ,saxony2 but the latter are generally of very pale colour4 ,this species of gem is found in many parts of ,europe1 but defective in transparency1 and sometimes even opaque4 ,it occurs in large crystals1 and rolled masses1 in an alluvial soil 7#bfi71 in the upper parts of ,aberdeenshire1 ,scotland2 and in veins1 along with tinstone1 at ,st4 ,anne's1 in ,cornwall4 ,topazes1 more than a pound in weight1 have been found in ,scotland4 ,mr4 ,mawe speaks of a topaz mine at ,capon1 near ,villa ,rica1 in ,brazil4 ,in two breaks or slips of the rocks1 he says1 there were little soft places where the negroes found the topazes by scraping in them with pieces of iron4 ,he himself observed at least a cartload of inferior topazes1 any number of which he might have taken away2 but all that he saw were defective and full of flaws4 ,these stones vary much in size2 some1 particularly those of ,siberia1 being extremely small1 and others being upwards of an inch in thickness4 ,in the ,collection of ,natural ,history at ,paris there is a ,brazilian topaz which weighs four ounces and a quarter4 ,these stones are not sufficiently scarce to be1 in general1 much valued by the jeweller or lapidary4 ,the deep yellow variety is preferred to the pale sort1 although the latter is often superior to it both in size and hardness4 ,figures have sometimes been engraved on the topaz2 and these1 when well executed1 are of great value4 ,in the ,national ,museum at ,paris there is a superb ,indian ,bacchus engraven on a topaz4 ,the cabinet of the ,emperor of ,russia contains several fine topazes of this description4 ,some of the coarse kinds of topaz are broken down1 pounded1 and used instead of emery for the cutting of hard minerals2 and powdered topaz was formerly kept in apothecaries' shops1 and sold as an antidote against madness4 ,it is a somewhat singular circumstance1 that1 if the ,saxon topaz be gradually exposed to a strong heat in a crucible1 it will become white and1 on the contrary1 that ,brazilian topazes by the same process become red or pink4 ,by exposure to a still stronger heat1 the ,brazilian topaz changes its colour to a violetblue4 ,jewellers usually divide topazes into the following kinds3 #fb4 ,,brazilian and ,,saxon1 already mentioned4 #fc4 ,,bohemian4--,these are found chiefly in the tin mines of ,bohemia1 are of small size1 deficient in transparency1 have only grey or muddy white colours1 and are of little value4 #fd4 ,,blue ,,topaz4--,this is a large ,brazilian gem1 which varies in size from one or two carats to two or three ounces4 ,a fine blue topaz1 without flaw1 and which weighed an ounce and a quarter1 was sold for #bjj guineas4 ,it is sometimes difficult to distinguish a blue topaz from an aqua marine 7#fh74 #fe4 ,,pink ,,topaz4--,some beautiful rosecoloured varieties of topaz have been brought from ,asia ,minor1 and others are found in ,south ,america2 but the pink topazes in the jewellers' shops are chiefly stones of the yellow ,brazilian kind1 which have had their colour changed by heat4 #ff4 ,the ,,white1 or ,,nova ,,mina ,,topaz1 is a perfectly colourless and transparent variety4 ,it generally occurs of small size1 and is in considerable estimation in ,brazil for earrings1 or for being set round yellow topazes4 ,small stones of this description have recently been found at ,st4 ,michael's ,mount1 in ,cornwall4 ,there is imported from ,brazil a yellow kind of crystal 7#hc71 which is so similar1 in its appearance1 to the yellow topaz as sometimes to be imposed upon purchasers for that stone4 #fg4 ,the ,,emerald is a wellknown gem1 of pure green colour1 and somewhat harder than quartz4 ,its natural form is a short sixsided prism2 but it is sometimes found massive1 and rounded like a pebble4 ,by the ancients the emerald was a gem much in request1 and particularly for engraving upon4 ,they denominated it smaragdus1 and are said to have procured it from ,ethiopia and ,egypt2 but1 besides the true emerald1 ,pliny1 under this title1 includes green jasper 7#if71 malachite 7#bca71 fluor spar 7#aid71 and some other green minerals4 ,the pillars of emerald in the temple of ,hercules at ,tyre1 mentioned by ,herodotus1 and the large emeralds described by ,pliny as having been cut into columns and statues1 cannot be referred to the true emerald4 ,the deepest coloured and most valuable emeralds that we are acquainted with are brought from ,peru4 ,they are found in clefts and veins of granite1 and other primitive rocks2 sometimes grouped with the crystals of quartz 7#gf71 felspar 7#aaj71 and mica 7#abc72 and1 not unfrequently1 loose in the sand of rivers4 ,the most ancient emerald mine is that of ,manta1 in ,peru1 but it has been some time exhausted2 and most of the emeralds that are now brought to ,europe are obtained from a mine situated in the valley of ,tunca1 between the mountains of ,new ,grenada and ,popayan4 ,the emerald is one of the softest of the precious stones2 and is almost exclusively indebted for its value to its charming colour4 ,the brilliant purple of the ruby1 the golden yellow of the topaz1 the celestial blue of the sapphire1 are all pleasing tints2 but the green of the emerald is so lovely1 that the eye1 after glancing over all the others1 finds delight in resting upon this4 ,in value it is rated next to the ruby2 and1 when of good colour1 is set without foil and upon a black ground1 like a brilliant diamond4 ,emeralds of inferior lustre are generally set upon a green gold foil4 ,these gems appear to greatest advantage when table cut 7,pl4 ,,ii1 ,fig4 #i71 and surrounded by brilliants1 the lustre of which forms an agreeable contrast with the quiet hue of the emerald4 ,they are sometimes formed into pearshaped eardrops2 but the most valuable stones are generally set in rings4 ,a favourite mode of setting emeralds among the opulent inhabitants of ,south ,america is to make them up into clusters of artificial flowers on gold stems4 ,the largest emerald that has been mentioned is one said to have been possessed by the inhabitants of the valley of ,manta1 in ,peru1 at the time when the ,spaniards first arrived there4 ,it is recorded to have been as big as an ostrich's egg1 and to have been worshipped by the ,peruvians1 under the name of the ,goddess1 or ,mother of ,emeralds4 ,they brought smaller ones as offerings to it1 which the priests distinguished by the appellation of daughters4 ,many fine emeralds are stated to have formerly been bequeathed to different monasteries on the ,continent2 but most of them are said to have been sold by the monks1 and to have had their place supplied by coloured glass imitations4 ,these stones are seldom seen of large size1 and at the same time entirely free from flaws4 ,the emerald1 if heated to a certain degree1 assumes a blue colour2 but it recovers its proper tint when cold4 ,when the heat is carried much beyond this1 it melts into an opaque coloured mass4 ,the precious stone called oriental emerald 7#ef7 is a green and very scarce variety of the oriental ruby4 #fh4 ,the ,,beryl1 or ,,aqua ,,marine1 is a light or mountain green variety of the emerald1 sometimes strawcoloured1 bluish1 yellow1 or even white4 ,these stones are of such frequent occurrence1 even in large pieces perfectly clear and free from flaws1 they are in general so soft1 and have so little the brilliancy of other gems1 that they are usually considered of inferior value4 ,the most beautiful kinds are brought from ,dauria1 on the frontiers of ,china1 from ,siberia1 and from ,brazil4 ,they are also found in ,saxony and the ,south of ,france1 and are very common at ,baltimore1 in ,north ,america4 ,specimens of aqua marine have been obtained from the upper parts of ,aberdeenshire1 ,scotland1 where they sometimes occur in alluvial soil1 along with rock crystal and topaz4 ,these stones have also been found1 embedded in granite1 near ,lough ,bray1 and ,cronebane1 in the ,county of ,wicklow1 ,ireland2 and also in mountain rock1 in some parts of ,devonshire4 ,they are cut by means of emery 7#eh71 and polished with tripoli 7#aai74 ,the darkest green specimens are set upon a somewhat steelcoloured foil2 and the pale ones are either placed1 like the diamond1 on a black ground1 or upon a silvery foil4 ,the aqua marine is usually made into necklaces2 but it is likewise employed for brooches1 and not unfrequently for steel stones and intaglios4 ,the larger ones are in much esteem among the ,turks for the handles of stilettos4 #fi4 ,the ,,tourmaline is a stone belonging to the same family as the emerald1 and generally of a smoky blackish colour3 sometimes1 however1 it is green1 red1 blue1 or brown2 and1 when not very thick1 it is transparent4 ,it is occasionally found in shapeless masses1 but more frequently crystallized in three1 six1 or ninesided prisms1 variously truncated or terminated2 and its weight is somewhat more than three times that of water4 ,this stone was first made known in ,europe1 about the beginning of the last century1 by the ,dutch merchants1 who brought it from the island of ,ceylon1 where it is principally found4 ,when strongly heated it becomes electric2 one of the summits of the crystal negatively1 and the other positively4 ,an early writer1 by whom it is mentioned1 says1 that 8it has the property not only of attracting ashes from the warm or burning coals1 but that it also repels them again1 which is very amusing3 for as soon as a small quantity of ashes leaps upon it1 and appears as if endeavouring to writhe themselves by force into the stone1 they in a little time spring from it again1 as if about to make a new attempt4 ,it was on this account that the ,dutch called it the ashes drawer40 ,since the above period1 tourmaline has been found in ,brazil2 and in ,norway1 ,germany1 ,france1 and several other parts of ,europe4 ,it generally occurs embedded in different kinds of mountain rock2 and1 in these1 is rather confined to single beds or strata1 than disseminated through the whole mass of the mountain4 ,a piece of tourmaline1 of cylindrical form1 and brownish grey colour1 was some time ago discovered in the neighbourhood of ,kitthill1 near ,callington1 ,cornwall4 ,black tourmaline1 both in large and small crystals1 is found in granite rock1 in the vicinity of the ,logan1 or ,rockingstones1 near ,treryn1 in the same county4 ,when laid on a table1 the tourmaline appears a dark and opaque stone2 but1 when held against the light1 it has generally a pale brownish hue4 ,it is sometimes cut1 polished1 and worn as a gem2 but1 on account of the muddiness of its colours1 it is not in general much esteemed4 ,those persons who wear tourmalines set in rings consider them more as objects of curiosity than of elegance3 they show them as small electrical instruments1 which1 after being heated a little while by the fire1 will attract and repel light bodies4 ,in the superb collection of minerals of the ,british ,museum1 there is a magnificent specimen of red tourmaline1 or rubellite1 which has been valued at #ajjjl4 sterling4 ,it was presented by the ,king of ,ava to the late ,colonel ,symes1 when on an embassy to that country1 and was afterwards deposited by the latter in ,mr4 ,greville's collection2 with that collection it became the property of the ,british ,museum4 ,,garnet ,,family4 #gj4 ,the ,,precious1 or ,,noble ,,garnet1 is a gem of crimson colour1 which1 when crystallized1 has the form of a twelvesided solid 7,pl ,,ii1 ,fig4 #aa1 #ab74 ,it is sufficiently hard to scratch quartz1 and is about four times as heavy as water4 ,this stone is found abundantly in many mountains 7particularly of primitive rock71 in different parts of the world4 ,but garnets of the hardest and best quality are brought from ,bohemia1 where there are regular mines of them2 and a great number of persons are there employed in collecting1 cutting1 and boring them4 ,the boring is performed by an instrument having a diamond at its extremity1 which is rapidly turned by a bow4 ,the work is so expeditiously performed1 that an expert artist can bore #aej garnets1 or he can cut and polish thirty1 in a day4 ,in ,suabia there are two towns in which upwards of #adj persons are employed in these operations4 ,in general garnets are stones of inferior value4 ,when compared with the ruby1 those even of finest quality have a very sombre appearance4 ,the kinds most esteemed are such as have a clear and intense red colour1 or a rich violet or purplish tinge4 ,the best garnets are cut in the manner of other precious stones1 and are usually set upon a foil of the same colour4 ,to heighten the colour and transparency of certain garnets1 jewellers either form them into what are called doublets1 by attaching to the lower part of the stone a thin plate of silver1 or they hollow them underneath4 ,crystals of garnet sometimes occur three or four inches in diameter4 ,these are cut into small vases2 which1 if of good colour1 and free from defects1 are highly valued4 ,many fine engravings have been executed on garnet4 ,one of the most beautiful that is known is a figure of the dog ,sirius1 in the possession of ,lord ,duncannon4 ,the coarser kinds of garnet are used as emery for the polishing of other minerals2 and are thus prepared4 ,they are made redhot1 then quenched in water1 reduced to powder in an iron mortar1 and lastly diffused through water1 poured into other vessels1 and allowed to settle1 in order to obtain an uniform powder4 ,this powder is known to artists by the name of red emery4 ,it has been conjectured that our garnet was the same kind of stone which1 on account of its colour1 the ancients denominated carbuncle4 #ga4 ,,common ,,garnet4--,a very inferior variety of garnet1 of brown or greenish brown colour1 is found in our own country1 and particularly amongst rocks near ,huntley1 in ,aberdeenshire1 ,scotland4 ,these garnets1 however1 are1 in general1 so soft as to be of little value to the lapidary2 and consequently are seldom cut or polished for ornamental purposes4 ,but being easily fused1 and abounding in iron1 they are occasionally employed as a flux in the smelting of rich iron ores3 and as an addition to poor ones4 #gb4 ,,syrian ,,garnets are distinguished by their violet or purplish tinge4 ,some writers state that they have their name from the word ,soranus1 which signifies a red stone2 and others from ,sirian1 a town in ,pegu1 where they are said to be found in great beauty4 #gc4 ,,pyrop ,,garnets are of a dark bloodred colour1 which1 when the stones are held between the eye and the light1 falls strongly into yellow3 they are chiefly brought from ,bohemia3 are employed in almost every kind of jewellery1 and generally set with a gold foil4 ,at ,waldkirch1 in ,suabia1 there are twentyfour mills for the cutting and polishing of pyrop garnets3 and #adj masters are occupied in manufacturing these stones4 #gd4 ,,vesuvian is a liverbrown kind of garnet1 that was originally found among rocks ejected from ,mount ,vesuvius2 and in the vicinity of which mountain it still occurs in considerable abundance4 ,at ,naples it is cut into stones for rings and other ornaments4 ,vesuvian has of late years been found in other parts of ,europe2 and even at ,kilranelagh1 and ,donegal1 in ,ireland4 #ge4 ,,cinnamon ,,stone is a kind of garnet of hyacinthred colour1 which is found in angular and roundish pieces among the sand of rivers in the island of ,ceylon4 ,it is cut as a precious stone2 and1 when of good colour1 and free from flaws1 is of considerable value4 ,,quartz ,,family4 #gf4 ,,common ,,quartz is a hard and foliated substance1 usually of white or grey colour1 and more or less transparent4 ,it is generally found in shapeless masses1 which are nearly thrice as heavy as water1 and the fracture of which is glassy4 ,when crystallized1 it most commonly has the form of a sixsided prism1 terminated by a pyramid of six sides4 ,this kind of stone forms a constituent part of many mountains1 and is very common in our own1 as well as in most other countries4 ,it is sufficiently hard to scratch iron and steel2 and it has the property1 after having been several times successively made redhot1 and dipped into water1 of communicating to that fluid a certain degree of acidity4 ,quartz is employed1 in place of sand1 for making the finer kinds of glass2 and also in the manufacture of porcelain4 ,for the latter purpose great quantities are collected from the mountains of ,wales1 ground into powder1 and in that state shipped to ,liverpool1 and other parts4 ,after having been burnt and reduced to powder1 it is sometimes mixed with clay1 and formed into bricks for the construction of glass furnaces3 these are capable of resisting the intense heat which is requisite in the fusion of glass4 #gg4 ,,burrstone is a vesicular and corroded variety of quartz1 which forms a most excellent and valuable kind of millstone4 ,it is chiefly found in ,france2 but is so much esteemed by the ,english millers1 that the ,society of ,arts1 in ,london1 for many successive years1 offered a considerable reward for its discovery in ,great ,britain4 ,at length a vein of burrstone was discovered in the ,moel y ,golfa hills1 ,north ,wales1 by a ,mr4 ,evans1 who1 in consequence received a premium from the ,society4 ,about the same time another vein was opened near ,conway2 and the same ,society1 in #ahjj1 gave a premium of #ajjl4 to the widow and orphan children of the discoverer4 ,both these quarries were sufficiently convenient for water carriage2 yet the demand for the ,cambrian burr did not answer the expectation1 and millstones of ,french production were still preferred to them4 ,the mode of splitting these stones1 as it is practised in some parts of ,france1 is singular1 and affords a proof of the extraordinary power of capillary attraction4 ,the blocks are first cut into the form of cylinders1 sometimes many feet in height4 ,to split these horizontally into millstones1 circular indentations are made round them1 at proper distances1 according to the thickness that is to be given to the stones2 wedges of willow1 that have been dried in an oven1 are then driven into the indentations with a mallet4 ,when these have been sunk to a proper depth1 they are moistened with water2 and1 after a few hours1 the several stones that have been marked out are found to be perfectly separated4 #gh4 ,,rock ,,crystal is an extremely beautiful kind of quartz1 sometimes perfectly transparent1 and sometimes shaded with grey1 yellow1 green1 brown1 or red4 ,it occurs in the form of crystals with six sides1 each terminated by a sixsided prism4 ,the name of this substance was considered by the ancients to signify ice1 or water crystallized2 and they imagined that crystal was produced from a congelation of water4 ,its uses are numerous4 ,it is cut into vases1 lustres1 and snuffboxes2 and many kinds of toys of extremely beautiful appearance are made of it4 ,when pure and perfectly transparent1 it is much in request by opticians1 who make of it those glasses for spectacles which are called pebbles1 and who use it for various kinds of optical instruments4 ,the best crystal is imported from ,brazil and ,madagascar1 in blocks1 not unfrequently from fifty to a hundred pounds in weight4 ,this stone is wrought into the different shapes that are required1 by sawing1 splitting1 and grinding4 ,the sawing is effected by an extended copper wire fixed to a bow3 the wire is coated with a mixture of oil and emery1 and is drawn backward and forward until the operation is performed4 ,but1 as this process is a tedious one1 particularly when the mass is large1 a more expeditious1 although less certain1 method is sometimes adopted4 ,the crystal is heated red hot1 and a wet cord is drawn across1 in the direction that the workman intends to split it4 ,by the rapid cooling thus effected1 in the direction of the cord1 the stone easily splits by a single blow of the hammer1 and generally in the direction required4 ,the grinding is performed by means of emery3 and the polishing effected by tin ashes and tripoli4 ,the ancients held vases that were made of this stone in great estimation1 particularly when they were of large size4 ,of two cups which the tyrant ,nero broke into pieces in a fit of despair1 when informed of the revolt that caused his destruction1 one was estimated to be worth more than #fjjl4 of our money4 ,the most valuable kind of crystal that was known to the ancients was obtained from the island of ,cyprus2 but it was often faulty in particular parts1 having flaws1 cracks1 and blemishes4 ,when the crystal was used for the engraving of intaglios and cameos1 the artist could sometimes conceal these defects amongst the strokes of his work2 but1 when it was to be formed into cups or vases1 this could not be done1 and for the latter purpose the purest pieces only could be employed4 ,in the counties of ,cornwall and ,derby1 in the neighbourhood of ,bristol1 and amongst the mountains of ,north ,wales1 small crystals of this kind are frequently found3 these are respectively called ,cornish1 ,buxton1 ,bristol1 and ,snowdon diamonds4 ,we are informed that the crevices of some parts of ,mont ,blanc and the ,alps contain rock crystal in such abundance as to be perfectly bristled with it4 ,some crystals contain in their substance drops of water1 or other kind of fluid2 and these1 as curiosities1 are usually sold at a rate considerably higher than others4 ,there are in the ,british ,museum specimens of crystal which enclose many kinds of foreign substances1 such as ironstone1 needle antimony1 and asbestos 7#acf74 ,various means have been devised for communicating colours to rock crystal4 ,if it be heated and plunged into a solution of indigo1 or copper1 it acquires a blue colour2 or if into a decoction of cochineal1 a red colour4 ,a clovebrown colour may be given by exposing it to the vapour of burning wood4 ,artists sometimes communicate beautiful colours to rock crystals1 by forming them into what are called doublets4 ,two modes of doing this are adopted4 ,in one1 a stone that is brilliantcut at the top is hollowed underneath1 filled with the colour that the stone is intended to exhibit1 and then closed at the bottom by a plate of glass4 ,if this kind of doublet be dexterously executed1 the deception is not easily discovered2 for the whole mass will appear of an uniform tint4 ,the second kind of doublet is formed by cementing a coloured plate of glass on the base of a rose or brilliantcut crystal3 by this the whole stone acquires the colour of the plate4 ,there are found in nature1 many coloured kinds of crystal4 ,these are often confounded with precious stones2 and1 as such1 are made into female ornaments of different kinds4 ,the following are the principal of them4 #gi4 ,,common ,,amethyst4--,this is a violetcoloured crystal1 which acquires considerable brilliancy in polishing1 and is sometimes of sufficient size to be formed into columns more than a foot in height1 and several inches in diameter4 ,when the colour is good1 and uniformly diffused1 amethysts are cut into necklaces1 bracelets1 earrings1 and seals2 and1 when less pure1 they are manufactured into snuffboxes4 ,they are valued in proportion to the depth of their colour1 and to their perfect transparency4 ,the most favourite form in which they are made up is in necklaces2 and as it is not easy to find a number of perfect stones with precisely the same tint of colour1 necklaces of this description are very valuable4 ,the finest that is known was in the possession of her late ,majesty4 ,when the colour is not uniformly diffused1 jewellers sometimes expose amethysts1 for a little while1 in a mixture of sand and ironfilings1 to a moderate heat2 and1 by this process1 their appearance is rendered more uniform4 ,the amethyst being almost the only coloured stone that can be worn with mourning1 it derives1 from this circumstance1 a considerable addition of value4 ,this species of gem was well known to the ancient ,greeks and ,romans1 and was held by them in great esteem4 ,its name is derived from the ,greek language1 and implies a power of preventing intoxication2 which 7originating no doubt in the resemblance of its colour to that of wine1 and the absurd doctrine of sympathies7 it was believed by the ancients to possess4 ,they ascribed to it many other virtues1 equally surprising and equally absurd2 particularly that the wearing of it would expel melancholy1 procure the confidence and friendship of princes1 render people happy1 and even dispel storms of wind and hail4 ,the ancients frequently engraved upon amethyst2 and their favourite subject was the representation of ,bacchus and his followers4 ,the most valuable amethysts are imported into ,europe from ,india and ,ceylon4 ,these1 although they are with truth denominated oriental1 must be carefully distinguished from the true oriental amethyst 7#ee71 which is a much more valuable gem4 ,the amethysts next in esteem are found in ,brazil1 and are procured in the mining districts of that country4 ,siberia1 and various countries in ,europe1 especially ,germany and ,spain1 also furnish very beautiful amethysts2 and inferior stones of this description are even found in the mountainous districts of some parts both of ,scotland and ,ireland4 #hj4 ,,false ,,ruby is a crystal of red colour1 and found in ,bohemia1 ,silesia1 and ,barbary4 #ha4 ,,false1 or ,,water ,,sapphire is a blue crystal1 which does not differ much in appearance from the true sapphire1 but is considerably less hard4 ,this kind is found in ,bohemia1 ,silesia1 and some parts of ,switzerland1 but it is not so valuable as the last4 #hb4 ,,false ,,emerald is a green variety of crystal1 the scarcest and most valuable of all the coloured kinds4 ,it is chiefly found in ,saxony and ,dauphiny4 #hc4 ,,yellow1 or ,,topazine ,,crystal is a stone of wineyellow colour4 ,it is found in ,brazil and ,bohemia1 but has no other alliance with the true topaz than its colour4 #hd4 ,,cairn ,,gorum ,,crystals are obtained in various parts of ,scotland1 but particularly from a mountain of that name in the county of ,aberdeen4 ,they are usually of smoky yellow or brown colour1 and are1 at this time1 so much in request for ornamental articles of dress1 that several lapidaries have been induced to settle in ,aberdeen1 who are constantly employed in cutting them for seals1 rings1 necklaces1 brooches1 and other trinkets4 ,when these crystals are of deep and good colour1 they are nearly as estimable as topazes2 and1 if clear and large1 they are sold at a high rate4 ,the price of inferior sealstones varies from ten shillings to three or four pounds each2 but those of superior beauty will produce from five to ten guineas4 ,such specimens as have a pure and full yellow colour are often sold for topazes4 ,when they are muddy1 the lapidaries have the art of entirely dissipating the colour1 and giving them a transparent lustre4 ,this is done by means of heat1 which will dissipate the colour of every species of crystal4 #he4 ,,avanturine is a quartz1 generally of reddish colour1 sprinkled with yellowish shining points of mica 7#abc71 which are dispersed through its whole substance4 ,a ,french artist1 some years ago1 having by accident1 or 8par aventure10 suffered a quantity of brass filings to fall into a vessel of melted glass1 afterwards found that it was admirably calculated for vases and different kinds of ornamental work4 ,hence he denominated it avanturine1 a name which mineralogists have since applied to those natural objects of which this production of art was an apparent imitation4 ,avanturine is found in some of the countries bordering upon the ,white ,sea1 in ,spain1 and some parts of ,france4 ,in the late ,leverian ,museum there was a piece which weighed near five pounds1 and was unique both for beauty and magnitude4 ,it had been discovered in #aghh1 amongst the ruins of the triumphal arch of ,julius ,csar in the valley of ,suse1 in ,piedmont2 and was purchased of the person who found it for #bjj guineas4 ,avanturine is cut into various ornamental articles1 which are sometimes sold at a very high price4 ,imitations of it are very common1 and are formed by the simple operation of throwing brass or copper filings into coloured glass in a state of fusion4 #hf4 ,,cats,,eye is a stone of brownish grey colour1 tinged with green1 yellow1 white1 or red2 semitransparent1 and reflecting from its interior a splendid white line or speck1 which varies according to the direction in which the stone is held to the light4 ,it is found in pieces that are rounded1 massive1 or bluntedged4 ,these stones are considered by some writers as varieties of quartz 7#gf71 and by others as a kind of opal 7#ajb74 ,they are sometimes found in ,hanover1 but are chiefly brought from the island of ,ceylon4 ,it is usual to cut them before they are exported1 and generally in a convex and oblong form1 without facets1 and in such manner as to bring the streak which intersects them into the centre4 ,among the king of ,candy's jewels1 which were sold by auction in ,london1 in ,june #ahbj1 was a cat'seye of extraordinary magnitude and beauty4 ,it was two inches in diameter1 of dark colour1 and nearly hemispherical4 ,this stone was set in gold1 with small rubies round it1 and was sold for more than #djjl4 ,cat'seyes are chiefly used for setting in rings4 ,their size seldom exceeds that of a hazel nut2 but there was one in the cabinet of the ,dukes of ,tuscany1 which was nearly an inch in diameter4 ,those that are the most highly esteemed are of an olivegreen1 or red colour4 #hg4 ,,woodstone is a very hard mineral substance1 supposed to have been wood petrified with a siliceous mineral called hornstone4 ,it is of various colours2 and has not only the external appearance1 but the internal organization of wood4 ,this extraordinary mineral is found embedded in sandy loam1 in alluvial soil 7#bfi71 and occurs in various parts both of ,europe and ,asia4 ,it has been found in ferruginous sand1 near ,woburn1 in ,bedfordshire1 and near ,nutfield1 in ,surrey4 ,immense pieces of it are discovered in some places in the original shape of the trees2 trunks1 branches1 and roots4 ,in the year #ageb the whole under part of the trunk of a tree1 with its branches and roots1 was found1 in a state of woodstone1 near ,chemnitz1 in ,saxony2 and1 in the ,electoral ,cabinet at ,dresden1 there is part of the trunk of a tree1 from the same place1 which measures five feet in length and as many in thickness4 ,woodstone is in considerable request by lapidaries4 ,it takes a good polish1 and is made into beads for necklaces1 and other female ornaments4 ,in the ,east ,indies it is generally called ,petrified ,tamarind ,tree4 #hh4 ,,common ,,sand is a granulated kind of quartz2 or consists of rounded grains of small size1 which have a vitreous or glassy surface4 ,it is usually of white or yellowish colour2 but is sometimes blue1 violet1 or black4 ,in the torrid regions of ,africa and ,asia there are immense tracts of desert covered only with sand1 so dry and light as to be moveable before the wind1 and to be formed into vast hills and boundless plains4 ,these are incessantly changing their place1 and frequently overwhelm and destroy the travellers whose necessities require them to enter these dreary realms4 ,sand has numerous uses4 ,when mixed in due proportion with lime1 it forms that hard and valuable cement called mortar4 ,melted with soda 7#bjj7 and potash 7#bje7 it is formed into glass2 white sand being used for the finer kinds1 and coarse and more impure sand for bottle glass4 ,a very pure kind of sand which is found in ,alum ,bay1 on the west side of the ,isle of ,wight1 and on some parts of the coasts of ,norfolk1 is in great request by glassmakers4 ,sand is also employed in the manufacture of earthenware2 and its utility in various branches of domestic economy1 but particularly for the scouring and cleaning of kitchen utensils1 is well known4 ,in agriculture sand is used by way of manure1 to all soils of clayey lands3 as it renders the soil more loose and open than it would otherwise be4 ,the best sand for this purpose is that which is washed by rains from roads or hills1 or that which is taken from the beds of rivers4 ,there is a kind of sand which is naturally mixed with clay1 and has the name of ,founder's ,sand1 from its being chiefly employed in the formation of moulds to cast metals in4 ,at ,neuilly1 in ,france1 there is a bed of perfectly transparent and crystalline sand4 ,each grain1 when examined with a magnifying glass1 is seen to consist of a perfect sixsided prism1 terminated by two sixsided pyramids4 ,the uses of the different kinds of ,sandstone will be enumerated in the account of the rocks 7#bfg1 #bfh74 #hi4 ,,lydian ,,stone is a kind of flintyslate1 of greyish or velvetblack colour1 not quite so hard as flint1 opaque1 and about twice and a half as heavy as water4 ,it is usually massive1 and1 internally1 has a glimmering appearance4 ,this mineral occurs in beds in primitive clayslate 7#beg72 and is found in ,bohemia and ,saxony1 and also in the ,pentland hills near ,edinburgh4 ,it was first noticed in ,lydia1 whence it derived its name4 ,it is sometimes used as a touchstone to ascertain the purity of gold and silver4 ,this was its use among the ancients4 ,the metal to be examined is drawn along the stone so as to leave a mark1 and its purity is judged by the colour of the metallic streak4 ,a good touchstone should be harder than the metals1 or metallic compounds to be examined2 if softer1 the powder of the stone mixes with the trace of the metal and obscures it4 ,a certain degree of roughness on the surface of the best stone is also requisite1 that the metal to be tried may leave a trace or streak sufficiently distinct4 ,it must not1 however1 be too rough1 otherwise the particles of the metal will be hid amongst its inequalities1 and no distinct trace will be formed4 ,the touchstone should also be of black colour1 as this tint shows the colour of the streak better than any other4 #ij4 ,,flint is a peculiarly hard and compact kind of stone1 generally of smokegrey colour1 passing into greyish white1 reddish1 or brown4 ,it is nearly thrice as heavy as water1 and when broken will split1 in every direction1 into pieces which have a smooth surface4 ,it is very common in several parts of ,england1 generally among chalk1 arranged in a kind of strata or beds1 and in pieces that are for the most part either rounded or tubercular4 ,the property which flint possesses of yielding sparks1 when struck against steel1 has rendered it an article of indispensable utility in the system of modern warfare4 ,to this substance the sportsman also is indebted for a means of obtaining his game4 ,the art of cutting1 or rather of breaking1 this stone into gunflints is of modern date1 and was for a long time kept secret4 ,the most absurd and contradictory accounts have been given of it by various writers2 and it is only of late that the true mode has been rendered public4 ,it consists in striking the stone repeatedly with a kind of mallet1 and bringing off at each stroke a splinter which is sharp at one end and thick at the other4 ,these splinters are afterwards shaped1 by placing them upon a sharp iron instrument1 and then giving them repeatedly small blows with a mallet4 ,during the whole operation the workman holds the stone in his hand1 or merely supports it on his knee3 and the operation is so simple1 that a good workman has no difficulty in making #aejj flints in a day4 ,the manufacture of gunflints is chiefly confined to ,england1 and two or three departments in ,france4 ,in ,prussia an attempt was once made to substitute a kind of earthenware or porcelain for flint2 and such was1 for some time1 used by the ,prussian soldiers4 ,all the kinds of flint are not equally adapted for guns3 the best are the yellowish grey2 the dark smoke and ashgrey varieties are also used1 but they are neither so easy to be split1 nor do they afford such thin fragments as the other2 and1 owing to their greater hardness1 they wear the lock sooner4 ,flint is employed in the manufacture of porcelain and glass4 ,for this purpose it is heated red hot1 and1 in that state1 is thrown into cold water4 ,it is then of a white colour1 and capable1 without difficulty1 of being reduced to powder1 either in a mortar or by a mill4 ,after this powder has been passed through fine sieves1 some aqua fortis is poured upon it1 to dissolve any particles of iron which it may have acquired in the grinding4 ,the powder is then several times washed in hot water1 and afterwards dried for use4 ,the glass that is manufactured from this substance is perfectly transparent and faultless4 ,glass is made by mixing sand1 or prepared flint1 with a certain proportion of soda 7#bjj7 or potash 7#bje72 and exposing these substances1 in a furnace1 to a violent heat4 ,when they are in a perfectly fluid state1 part of the melted matter is taken out at the end of a long hollow tube4 ,this is done by dipping the tube into it1 and turning it about until a sufficient quantity is taken up2 the workman1 at each turn1 rolling it gently upon a piece of iron1 to unite it more intimately4 ,he then blows through the tube till the melted mass1 at the extremity1 swells like a bubble2 after which he rolls it again on a smooth surface to polish it1 and repeats the blowing until the glass is brought as nearly to the size and form of the vessel required1 as he thinks necessary4 ,if he be forming a common bottle1 the melted matter at the end of the tube is put into a mould of the exact size and shape of the body of a bottle2 and the neck is formed by drawing out the ductile glass at the upper extremity4 ,if he be making a vessel with a large or wide orifice1 the glass1 in its melted state1 is opened and widened with an iron tool2 after which1 being again heated1 it is whirled about with a circular motion1 and1 by the centrifugal force thus produced1 is extended to the size required4 ,should a handle1 foot1 or any thing of similar kind be required1 that is made separately1 and stuck on in its melted state4 ,window glass is made in a similar manner1 except that the mass at the end of a tube is formed into a cylindrical shape4 ,this being cut longitudinally by scissars or shears1 is gradually bent back until it becomes a flat plate4 ,large plate glass for lookingglasses is made by suffering the mass1 in a state of complete fusion1 to flow upon a casting table1 with iron ledges4 ,these confine the melted matter1 and1 as it cools1 a metallic roller is passed over it1 to reduce it to an uniform thickness4 ,glass utensils1 unless very small and thin1 require to be gradually cooled in an oven4 ,this operation is called annealing1 and is necessary in order to prevent them from cracking by change of temperature1 wiping1 or slight accidental scratches4 ,it appears that the manufacture of glass was known very early2 but glass perfectly transparent was esteemed of extremely high value4 ,it is stated that the ,emperor ,nero purchased two glass cups with handles for a sum which was equivalent to #ej1jjjl4 of our money4 ,the windows of some of the houses of the ancient city of ,pompeii1 which was buried by an eruption of ,mount ,vesuvius1 in the year #gi1 were glazed1 but the glass was thick1 and not transparent4 ,by many persons flint is used as a test for ascertaining the purity of silver coins4 ,this is done by rubbing them upon the flint2 and if the mark which they leave be not perfectly white1 they are rejected as counterfeit4 #ia4 ,,calcedony is a species of quartz1 generally of whitish1 bluish1 or smokegrey colour2 and1 when broken1 it appears internally dull1 and somewhat splintery4 ,it is generally found in a massive state1 is harder than flint1 generally semitransparent1 and #b times heavier than water4 ,the name of this stone is derived from ,chalcedon1 in ,upper ,asia1 whence it appears to have been originally obtained1 and where it is still found in considerable abundance4 ,several superb specimens of calcedony have been found in ,britain1 and particularly in some of the tin and copper mines of ,cornwall4 ,it occurs in several parts of ,scotland2 and in many of the countries of the ,continent4 ,in the ,leverian ,museum there was a specimen of calcedony1 which weighed more than #bjj pounds4 ,its whole surface appeared such that1 at first sight1 one might imagine it to have formerly been in a liquid state3 it had much the appearance that thick oil has while boiling4 ,few stones are susceptible of a higher or more beautiful polish than calcedony4 ,hence the different varieties of it are cut into ring and seal stones1 necklaces1 earpendants1 small vases1 cups1 and snuffboxes4 #ib4 ,,onyx is a kind of calcedony1 generally marked alternately with stripes of white and black1 or white and brown4 ,its name is derived from the ,greek language1 and has been given on account of its resemblance in colour to the whitish band at the base of the human nail4 ,the distinction which appears to be made betwixt onyx and sardonyx1 arises from the colours of the former being arranged either concentrically1 or in a somewhat confused manner1 and those of the latter in regular stripes or bands4 ,both these kinds are highly esteemed by lapidaries1 for the formation of vases1 snuff boxes1 and trinkets of various kinds4 ,of sardonyx the ancients made those beautiful cameos1 many of which still ornament our cabinets4 ,the ingenuity they have shown1 in the accommodation of the natural veins and marks of the stone to the figures engraven upon them1 is such as to excite1 in many instances1 the greatest admiration4 ,it is said that we are entirely ignorant of the country whence the ancient artists obtained the large specimens of sardonyx which are now found in some cabinets4 ,onyx is imported from the ,east ,indies1 ,siberia1 ,germany1 and ,portugal4 #ic4 ,,carnelian is another kind of calcedony usually of a red or flesh colour1 though sometimes white1 orange1 or yellow4 ,on several of the ,british shores carnelians are found with other pebbles3 but the most beautiful and valuable kinds are imported from the ,east ,indies4 ,these are sometimes so large as to measure nearly three inches in diameter4 ,the kinds principally in request are those of pure white1 and bright red colour2 and jewellers have the art of changing the colour of the yellow varieties to red1 by heat4 ,no stone is so much in request for seals as carnelian4 ,it is likewise cut into beads for necklaces1 and stones for earrings2 into crosses1 bracelets1 and other trinkets1 which1 in ,india1 form a considerable branch of traffic4 ,the amount of the sale value of different kinds of carnelian goods vended by the ,east ,india ,company in #ahjg1 was #aa1ahgl43 but1 in other years1 it has not usually been so much as half that sum4 ,formerly carnelians were exported from ,japan to ,holland2 and thence were carried to ,oberstein1 in ,france1 to be exchanged for the agates of that country1 which were exported to ,china4 ,the carnelian was much esteemed by the ancients2 and many fine engraved carnelians are preserved in different collections4 #id4 ,,chrysoprase1 an extremely hard kind of stone1 of clear and delicate applegreen colour1 is considered to be a kind of calcedony4 ,this beautiful mineral has hitherto been found only in the vicinity of ,kosemitz1 and in a few other parts of ,lower ,silesia4 ,it is susceptible of a high polish1 and is much prized by jewellers when its colour is deep and pure4 ,its colour1 however1 is so fugitive1 that1 if kept in a warm and dry situation1 it loses the greatest part of it2 and if exposed to moisture it becomes much altered4 ,lapidaries assert1 that great care ought to be taken in the polishing of it2--pretending that if1 from want of sufficient moisture1 or by the too rapid motion of the wheel1 it be overheated1 it will become whitish or turbid4 ,chrysoprase is generally cut into a convex form1 or what jewellers call en cabochon2 and is set with green taffeta beneath it1 as foil4 ,it is used for ring stones1 brooches1 and other ornaments2 and is found to harmonize well with diamonds and pearls4 ,the larger and more impure masses are cut into snuffboxes1 seal stones1 and similar articles4 ,some of the finest specimens of chrysoprase that are known1 are to be seen in the cathedral church of ,prague1 where a small closet is inlaid with them4 ,imitations of chrysoprase are sometimes imposed upon the public2 but these are easily known by persons who are acquainted with the nature of precious stones4 #ie4 ,,bloodstone1 or ,,heliotrope1 is an opaque stone of the quartz family1 generally of dark green colour1 with a somewhat bluish cast1 and marked with bloodred spots or stripes4 ,it usually occurs in masses of irregular form2 and1 when cut thin1 is sometimes translucent at the edges4 ,the most valuable kinds of bloodstone are imported from the ,east4 ,they are not so opaque as those which are found in ,germany1 and are marked with more vivid spots4 ,as bloodstone is capable of a high polish1 and is even better calculated for engraving upon than carnelian 7#ic71 it is in great request for seal stones1 for the tops and bottoms of snuffboxes1 and other articles on which costly gold mountings are frequently bestowed4 ,its dark colour and opaque appearance prevent its being much used for beads4 ,great quantities of it are consumed in ,china as ornaments to the girdle clasps of the superior ranks of people4 ,absurd as it may appear1 many persons entertain a notion that this stone worn in the dress will prevent bleeding at the nose4 ,good bloodstone and carnelian are considered to be about the same value4 ,there are many cameos and intaglios1 both by ancients and moderns1 executed in bloodstone4 ,in the ,national ,library at ,paris1 there is a fine engraved stone of this kind1 representing the head of ,christ whilst undergoing the punishment of scourging1 and so cut that the red spots are made to represent drops of blood4 ,the ancients procured bloodstones chiefly from ,ethiopia2 but1 at present1 the most highly esteemed varieties are brought from ,bucharia1 ,great ,tartary1 and ,siberia4 ,a kind of mineral nearly resembling this is found in ,rum1 one of the western isles of ,scotland4 ,the spots in bloodstone are particles of red jasper4 #if4 ,,jasper is a species of quartz1 and one of the hardest stones with which we are acquainted4 ,it varies much in colour1 being red1 green1 yellow1 blue1 olive1 violet1 black1 and often variegated1 spotted1 or veined with several other colours4 ,it is usually opaque1 but is capable of receiving a beautiful polish4 ,this stone is found in large and shapeless masses1 and constitutes an ingredient in mountains of various parts of the world4 ,such is the hardness of jasper1 that the savages of ,canada avail themselves of it for the fabrication of the heads of javelins1 and sometimes also of arrows4 ,it is used by artists for the formation of vases1 snuffboxes1 seals1 and trinkets of various kinds2 and formerly cups and saucers were sometimes made of it4 ,many beautiful antique engravings have been made upon jasper4 ,in the province of ,andalusia1 in ,spain1 there are four fine quarries of jasper4 ,one of these is celebrated for a bloodred stone1 streaked with white1 exceedingly hard and very handsome1 of which the beautiful columns of the tabernacle in the ,escurial are made4 ,this quarry is in the territory of ,cogullus1 in the archbishopric of ,seville1 and was purchased by the ,crown in #aeha2 but was afterwards so far neglected that even the place where it lay was not remembered4 ,it was1 however1 again discovered about the end of the reign of ,charles the ,third1 after a very expensive search made by order of the government4 ,jasper occurs in the ,pentland hills1 near ,edinburgh1 and in several other parts of ,scotland2 in the ,shetland ,islands1 and ,hebrides4 ,it has been observed in most of the countries of the ,continent2 and is found1 in great abundance1 in ,siberia4 #ig4 ,,red ,,jasper is an opaque red stone which is found embedded in red clayironstone in ,baden2 and is cut and polished for various ornamental purposes4 ,there are extant many fine antique engravings on red jasper4 #ih4 ,,egyptian ,,pebble is a kind of jasper1 that is found in globular or rounded pieces1 and is distinguishable when cut or broken1 by its numerous colours1 arranged in concentric stripes or layers4 ,it is chiefly brought from ,egypt2 and1 as it is capable of receiving a fine polish1 and when polished is very beautiful1 it is manufactured into several kinds of ornamental articles4 ,from the great abundance in which it is supplied1 it is1 however1 much less valuable than carnelian 7#ic74 ,the colours of the ,egyptian pebble frequently assume very singular forms4 ,there was one in the ,leverian ,museum which exhibited1 in the centre1 the resemblance of a pantaloon1 or a man wearing a fool's cap4 #ii4 ,,striped1 or ,,ribbon ,,jasper1 is marked with alternate stripes of different colours2 and is found in ,siberia1 ,saxony1 and even in the ,pentland hills1 near ,edinburgh4 ,it receives an excellent polish1 and is frequently cut into the tops and bottoms of snuffboxes4 ,the red and green layers of jasper1 being well defined and regular1 this kind is used for several purposes of ornament1 particularly for cameos4 #ajj4 ,,agate1 or ,,agate ,,jasper1 as some mineralogists denominate it1 is a semitransparent stone of the quartz family1 which is capable of receiving a high and very beautiful polish4 ,these stones are always found in a shapeless or massive form1 and nearly of all colours1 except bright red and green4 ,the name of agate is derived from the river ,achates1 in ,sicily1 in the vicinity of which these stones were obtained by the ancients in great abundance4 ,they are now found in several parts of ,scotland2 in ,iceland1 ,saxony1 and ,hungary2 and they are occasionally brought into ,europe from ,china and the ,east ,indies4 ,agates are used in several kinds of ornamental work1 and particularly for necklaces and seals4 ,they are occasionally made into cups1 the handles of knives and forks1 hilts of swords and hangers1 and the tops and bottoms of snuffboxes4 ,the less ornamental kinds are manufactured into small mortars1 which are employed by enamellers and others1 for pounding such substances as are too hard to be reduced in any other way4 ,they are also made into instruments for grinding colours1 and into polishers for the glazing of linen4 ,in the ,electoral ,cabinet at ,dresden1 and the ,ducal ,cabinet in ,brunswick1 there are several elegant vases formed of agate4 ,the most beautiful agates which our island produces are known by the name of ,scots ,pebbles4 ,these are found in various parts of ,scotland1 but principally on the seashore1 in the neighbourhood of ,dunbar4 ,agate pebbles are found on several of the ,english shores1 as those of ,suffolk1 ,dorset1 ,scotland1 ,wales1 and ,ireland2 and sometimes even in gravel pits4 ,many of them will bear cutting and polishing as well as the best agates of foreign countries4 ,agates are occasionally seen to be figured in very singular manner2 but this1 in some instances at least1 is suspected to be the work of art4 ,one is mentioned in the church of ,st4 ,mark1 at ,venice1 which had the representation of a king's head surmounted by a diadem4 ,on another1 was represented a man in the attitude of running4 ,but the most remarkable of all seems to have been one which contained a representation of the nine ,muses1 with ,apollo in the midst of them6 ,it must be remarked that agate is not1 as some mineralogists imagine1 a simple mineral1 but that it is composed of various species of the quartz family1 intimately blended together4 ,it consists chiefly of calcedony 7#ia71 with flint1 hornstone1 carnelian 7#ic71 jasper 7#if71 cacholong 7#aje71 amethyst 7#gi71 and quartz 7#gf74 ,of these minerals sometimes only two1 and sometimes three or more1 occur in the same agate4 ,its varieties1 consequently1 are extremely numerous4 #aja4 ,,mochoa ,,stone is a kind of agate1 which has on its surface the resemblance of moss2 and this so nearly approaching a natural appearance1 that some persons have actually supposed it to be occasioned by a condensation of moss into stone4 ,its name is derived from mocks1 the ,german word for moss4 ,these stones are used for several ornamental purposes2 and are not unfrequently imitated1 by spreading a solution of copper in nitric acid or aqua fortis 7#cj7 over the surface of a plain agate1 and then setting a small iron nail on its head in the middle4 ,the acid unites with the iron1 and deposits the copper in beautiful ramifications from the centre4 ,the nail must then be removed1 and the surface carefully washed by dipping the stone into warm water4 ,afterwards1 on the application of a moderate heat1 the copper becomes black4 ,as1 however1 the deposition is merely superficial1 it requires to be covered with glass1 to preserve it from injury4 #ajb4 ,,opals are a semitransparent kind of stones1 which have a milky cast1 and1 when held betwixt the eye and the light1 exhibit a changeable appearance of colour4 ,they are always found in a shapeless or massive state1 are brittle1 and considerably less hard than most other precious stones4 ,the only opal mines in the world are those of ,hungary4 ,about four centuries ago1 opals were obtained1 in such abundance1 from these mines1 that upwards of three hundred persons were employed in them4 ,they still produce opals1 some of which are so valuable as to pass1 in commerce1 under the appellation of oriental opals1 whilst others are so poor as to be of no value whatever to the jeweller4 ,opals are also found in other parts of ,europe2 and in the island of ,sumatra and several parts of the ,east ,indies4 ,few precious stones are more beautiful than opals4 ,their elegant play of colours1 brilliant blue1 green1 red1 and yellow1 variously modified1 has procured for them a distinguished rank among gems4 ,notwithstanding this1 they are but ill suited to the purposes of jewellery1 on account of their softness1 their great frangibility1 and their sometimes splitting on a sudden change of temperature4 ,they are usually set without bottoms2 but sometimes with a black bottom1 and sometimes with a foil of red1 blue1 or gold colour4 ,their value is such that a fine oriental opal is considered worth about twice as much as an oriental sapphire of the same size4 ,by the ,turks they are so peculiarly esteemed1 that a fine opal of moderate size has sometimes been sold at the price of a diamond4 ,the esteem in which they were held among the ancient ,romans was such1 that ,nonius1 the ,roman senator1 is stated to have preferred banishment to parting with a favourite opal which ,mark ,antony was anxious to possess4 ,in the abbey of ,st4 ,denys1 near ,paris1 there was formerly a curious ancient opal which was green on the outside1 and1 when viewed against the light1 exhibited a fine ruby colour3 and in the ,imperial ,cabinet at ,vienna1 there are two pieces of opal1 from the mines in ,hungary1 one of which is about five inches long1 and #b inches broad2 and the other the size and shape of a hen's egg4 ,both these stones exhibit a very rich and splendid play of colours4 ,in the purchasing of opals great caution is requisite1 as fine glass pastes have not unfrequently been substituted for them1 and sold at enormous prices4 #ajc4 ,,hydrophanous ,,opal1 or ,,oculus ,,mundi1 is a kind of opal1 the distinguishing characteristic of which is1 that it gradually becomes transparent1 and exhibits a beautiful play of colour after being immersed in water4 ,it is either of a whitish brown1 yellowish green1 milky grey1 or yellow colour1 and opaque2 and1 when touched by the tongue1 adheres to it4 ,the name of oculus mundi has been given to these stones from an internal luminous spot1 which changes its position according to the direction in which they are held to the light4 ,the countries in which they are chiefly found are ,hungary and ,iceland4 ,they are sometimes set in rings2 and the prices at which they were formerly valued were1 in the highest degree1 unaccountable and absurd4 ,at present their value is considerably lower1 though they are still in great request as objects of curiosity4 ,the phenomenon of their becoming transparent in water is supposed to be occasioned by that fluid soaking through their whole substance1 in the same manner as the transparency of paper is occasioned by immersing it in oil4 ,an hydrophanous opal weighing #bg grains was kept four minutes in water1 and1 on being taken out1 weighed #cb grains1 having received in this short period an augmentation of five grains1 or more than one sixth part of its whole weight4 ,when taken from the water1 these stones as they dry become again opaque4 ,to preserve them in beauty and perfection1 care should be taken not to immerse them in any but pure water1 and to take them out as soon as they have acquired their full transparency4 ,if these precautions be neglected1 the pores will soon become filled with earthy particles3 the stones will cease to exhibit their peculiar property1 and will ever afterwards continue opaque4 #ajd4 ,,common ,,opal is a semitransparent kind of opal1 which does not exhibit any changeable refraction of colour4 ,it is found in ,germany1 ,france1 ,italy1 and other countries of the ,continent1 and is employed for brooches and other ornaments4 ,a greencoloured ,saxon variety is sometimes cut into ringstones4 #aje4 ,,mother,,of,,pearl ,,opal1 or ,,cacholong1 is a milkwhite1 yellowish1 or greyishwhite kind of opal1 which occurs in ,iceland1 ,greenland1 ,spain1 and the island of ,elba4 ,it is sometimes cut into a concave form1 for brooches1 and other female ornaments4 ,italian artists also use it for mosaic work4 #ajf4 ,,wood ,,opal appears to be wood that1 by some extraordinary operation of nature1 has been converted into opal4 ,some specimens exhibit1 very beautifully1 the ligneous texture4 ,this kind of opal is chiefly cut into plates for the tops and bottoms of snuffboxes4 ,it is found in alluvial land in some parts of ,germany and ,hungary4 ,several years ago the trunk of a tree1 penetrated with opal1 and so heavy that eight oxen were requisite to draw it1 was found in ,hungary4 ,,pitchstone ,,family4 #ajg4 ,,obsidian is a kind of glass1 generally of blackish colour1 formed in volcanoes1 from which it issues in thick streams4 ,this substance has been used for various purposes4 ,it is possible to cut and polish it2 but its brittleness and frangibility are so great1 that1 without much care1 it will fly into pieces during the working4 ,the reflectors of telescopes are sometimes formed of it4 ,in ,mexico and ,peru obsidian is cut into mirrors2 and the inhabitants of those countries used formerly to manufacture it into knives and other cutting instruments4 ,hernandez says that he saw more than a hundred of these knives made in an hour4 ,cortez1 in a letter to the ,emperor ,charles the ,fifth1 relates that he saw razors that had been formed of obsidian4 ,the natives of ,easter and ,ascension ,islands use this substance for cutting instruments2 and also for pointing their lances and spears1 and1 in place of flint1 for striking fire with4 ,according to the account that has been given by ,pliny1 the ancients sometimes formed obsidian into mirrors1 and ornamental articles of different kinds4 ,the ,danish lapidaries1 who obtain considerable quantities of it from ,iceland1 cut it into snuffboxes1 ringstones1 and earpendants4 ,obsidian is found near ,mount ,hecla1 and in other parts of ,iceland4 ,sir ,george ,mackenzie1 during his journey through that island1 observed an immense mass of this substance1 which appeared to him to have been part of a stream that had flowed from a volcano4 ,it is also found in ,sicily1 and several other islands of the ,mediterranean2 and in nearly all parts of the world where there are volcanoes4 #ajh4 ,,pumice is an extremely light and porous mineral1 of somewhat fibrous texture1 and of white1 grey1 reddish1 brown1 or black colour4 ,from the texture of this mineral1 which is chiefly brought from the neighbourhood of volcanoes1 some persons have imagined it to be asbestos decomposed by the action of fire4 ,its lightness is such that1 placed in water1 it will float4 ,to mechanics and other artists pumice stone is a very useful mineral4 ,it is employed for cleansing and smoothing the surface of wood1 leather1 metal1 stones1 glass1 and other substances2 and it is used by parchmentmakers1 curriers1 and hatmakers4 ,hence it forms a considerable article of trade3 and is exported from the ,lipari ,islands1 in great quantities1 to the different countries of ,europe4 ,sailors in the ,mediterranean rub their beards off with pumice1 instead of shaving4 ,on account of its porosity1 it is used in ,teneriffe as a filtering stone4 ,it forms a pernicious ingredient in some kinds of tooth powder2 and in ,italy is ground and used instead of sand1 in the making of mortar4 ,pumice occurs in ,ireland1 along with obsidian 7#ajg72 and it abounds in several islands of the ,grecian ,archipelago4 ,,azure ,,stone ,,family4 #aji4 ,,lapis ,,lazuli1 ,,azure ,,stone1 or ,,lazulite1 is a mineral of azureblue colour in various shades1 and generally accompanied with white or clouded spots1 and also with pyrites 7#bcf71 which have the appearance of golden veins or spots4 ,its texture is earthy1 and fracture uneven4 ,it is opaque1 or nearly so1 and1 in some parts1 is sufficiently hard to strike fire with steel4 ,we are not informed that lapis lazuli is otherwise found than in shapeless masses or lumps4 ,about fifty years ago this stone was an article much in fashion for various ornamental parts of dress4 ,being capable of very high polish1 it was cut into beads1 stones for rings1 bracelets1 and necklaces4 ,it was also cut into ornamental vases1 small statues1 and the tops and bottoms of snuffboxes2 but of late it has been almost wholly out of use for these purposes4 ,before the ,french ,revolution it was imported1 to considerable extent1 into that country from the ,persian ,gulf for the inlaying of richlydecorated altars2 and its value was appreciated according to the proportion of its yellow spots or veins3 these1 by many persons1 were erroneously considered to be of gold4 ,the most important purpose to which lapis lazuli is now applied is in the manufacturing of the beautiful and brilliant blue colour so much esteemed by painters1 called ultramarine4 ,for the making of this1 such pieces are selected as contain the greatest proportion of blue substance1 and consequently the least yellow or white4 ,these are burned or calcined1 reduced to a fine powder1 made into a paste with wax1 linseed oil1 and resinous matters of different kinds1 and afterwards separated by washing4 ,the powder that is left in this operation1 which requires much time and great attention to perform1 is ultramarine4 ,there are few colours so little susceptible of change from the effects of time as ultramarine3 the consequence of this has been that1 as several of the ancient painters introduced it for the representation of blue drapery1 their pictures1 in many instances1 are now devoid of harmony1 as this colour alone has stood1 whilst all the others have changed4 ,lapis lazuli is principally brought from ,persia1 ,natolia1 and ,china2 but it is also found in ,siberia and ,tartary4 ,in ,europe it has been discovered only in ,germany1 and among the ruins of ,rome4 ,a coarse imitation of it is sometimes made by throwing copper filings into blue enamel whilst in a melted state4 ,,felspar ,,family4 #aaj4 ,,common ,,felspar is a hard kind of stone which varies much in colour1 being fleshred1 bluish grey1 yellowish white1 milkwhite1 or brownish yellow4 ,it is found in a massive state1 disseminated or crystallized in four1 six1 and tensided prisms2 will strike fire with steel1 and is sometimes opaque and coloured1 sometimes transparent and whitish4 ,the name of felspar is derived from the ,german language1 and signifies spar of the fields4 ,it is a very common substance1 and constitutes a principal part of many of the highest mountains of the world4 ,when exposed to weather1 it gradually acquires an earthy appearance1 and at length passes into porcelain clay 7#aah74 ,felspar is of great use in the manufacture of the finer kinds of earthenware4 ,of the two substances which chiefly compose the porcelain of ,china1 one called petunz is a whitish laminar kind of felspar4 ,this mineral is used in the celebrated porcelain that is manufactured at ,sevres1 near ,paris1 for the purpose of giving to it a white and transparent appearance4 ,previously to being used1 it is pulverized1 made into a paste1 and suffered to dry4 ,it is sometimes applied to the surface of ornamental vases in the form of enamel4 #aaa4 ,,amazon ,,stone is a green variety of felspar1 which is found in small rolled pieces on the bank of the river of ,amazons1 in ,south ,america1 whence it has its name4 ,it is susceptible of a beautiful polish1 and is often cut into ringstones1 brooches1 and the tops of snuffboxes4 ,lapidaries consider it to be most estimable when accompanied by mica1 which gives it a kind of speckled perlaceous appearance4 #aab4 ,,labrador ,,felspar is a very beautiful stone1 of smoky grey colour1 intermingled with veins and shades of blue1 green1 and golden yellow1 exhibiting a brilliant play of colours1 according to the position with respect to the light in which it is held4 ,the original discovery of this singular mineral was by the ,moravian missionaries1 on the island of ,st4 ,paul1 near the coast of ,labrador2 but it has since been found in various parts of ,norway and ,siberia4 ,persons who have passed in boats along the rivers of ,labrador1 have described the extremely brilliant and beautiful appearance which the rocks of this substance frequently exhibit in shallow places1 at the bottom of the water4 ,the visitors of the late ,leverian ,museum will1 no doubt1 recollect a remarkably fine mass of ,labrador felspar1 the surface of which was polished1 and exhibited some of the most splendid and beautiful colours that can be imagined4 ,it was considered to have been the most capital specimen that was ever brought to ,england4 ,this mineral1 on account of its hardness1 its brilliancy1 and its capability of receiving a high polish1 is in considerable estimation among lapidaries for different kinds of ornamental work1 particularly for the tops and bottoms of snuffboxes1 for brooches1 and necklaces4 #aac4 ,,moonstone1 or ,,adularia1 is the purest kind of felspar that is known2 and is considered to have the same relation to common felspar that rock crystal has to common quartz4 ,its colour is white1 sometimes with a shade of yellow1 red1 or green4 ,the translucent varieties of this stone1 when viewed in a certain direction1 sometimes exhibit a pearly and silvery play of colour4 ,these are valued by jewellers1 who cut them into a semiglobular form1 and sell them under the name of moonstone4 ,those specimens are considered most estimable which1 when cut in a very low oval1 present the silvery spot in the centre of the stone4 ,they are generally used for rings and brooches2 and when set round with diamonds1 their pearly lustre exhibits a striking and agreeable contrast with the brilliancy of that gem4 ,adularia is said to have been first discovered by an ,italian mineralogist1 near ,mount ,st4 ,gothard1 in ,switzerland4 ,he named it ,adularia felspar1 in the belief that the mountain on which he had found it was named ,adula4 ,this1 however1 was not the case2 for ,mount ,adula is at some distance from ,st4 ,gothard1 in the ,grisons4 ,this mineral has since been found in the granite of the island of ,arran1 in ,france1 and ,germany4 ,the finest specimens are brought from ,ceylon4 ,,order ,,ii4-,,soft ,,stones4 7,those which will not scratch ,glass47 ,,clay ,,family4 #aad4 ,clay is a mixture of alumine 7#cc7 and silex 7#ch71 and is too well known to require much description4 ,it is opaque1 has an earthy texture1 is about twice as heavy as water1 when moistened is very ductile1 adheres slightly to the tongue2 and with its peculiar smell 7called clayey7 every one is acquainted4 #aae4 ,,common ,,clay1 or ,,potter's ,,clay1 which is found in nearly every country of the world1 is sometimes white1 has a blue or yellowish tinge1 or is brown or reddish4 ,it is the peculiar quality of this substance to become so hard by heat that it will even strike fire with steel4 ,the ductility of clay1 and its property of thus hardening in the fire1 have rendered it an article of indispensable utility to mankind in all civilized countries4 ,it is formed into eating vessels of almost every description2 plates1 dishes1 cups1 basins1 bowls1 and pans for keeping provisions in4 ,for these almost any kind of clay may be advantageously used2 but it is necessary to mix it with sand1 for the purpose of rendering the vessels that are made of it more firm and strong4 ,those that are applied to culinary1 and other uses in which it is requisite for them not to be penetrable by water1 are covered with a glazing4 ,this glazing1 for coarse ware1 is sometimes made with lead1 and sometimes by throwing a certain portion of salt into the furnace4 ,in the formation of the better kinds of earthenware1 the clay is made into a paste with water1 moulded into the requisite shape upon an horizontal wheel1 the inside being formed by one hand of the potter1 and the outside by the other1 as the wheel turns round4 ,when the pieces have been baked1 they are dipped into a glazing mixture1 consisting of white lead1 ground flints1 and water1 and are exposed a second time to the fire4 ,the different colours of earthenware are obtained by means of various kinds of metallic oxides 7#ba74 ,the coarser kinds of clay are manufactured into bricks for the building of houses1 and tiles for the covering and paving of them4 ,these are formed in moulds of the requisite shape1 afterwards dried for some time in the sun1 and finally piled in kilns1 and there baked to a proper degree of hardness4 ,the earth for bricks ought to be sufficiently fine1 free from pebbles1 and not too sandy1 which would render them heavy and brittle2 nor ought it to be entirely free from sand1 as this would make them crack in drying4 ,clay is a substance of inestimable value for forming the bottoms of ponds1 and the bottoms and sides of canals and reservoirs1 to prevent the water from draining away4 ,it also composes1 in a great measure1 those tenacious earths called arable soils4 ,what is peculiarly denominated clay land is known by its holding water1 and not soon drying when wetted4 ,such land requires much labour from the husbandman1 before it can be sufficiently pulverized1 or brought to a fit state for being productive of corn or grass4 #aaf4 ,,pipe ,,clay is a fine and yellowish white variety of common clay4 ,it is very plastic1 adheres strongly to the tongue2 and1 in a strong heat1 is hardened1 and rendered perfectly white4 ,it is of this clay that tobacco pipes are made1 by the simple process of casting them in moulds1 forming a hole through the stems by means of a wire1 generally dipping the small end into some glazing material1 and then baking them4 ,pipe clay is also formed into oblong pieces1 dried1 and employed for cleaning white woollen cloths1 and for various purposes of domestic utility4 ,it is likewise the basis of the yellow1 of what is called ,queen's ware pottery4 ,this is glazed in a manner somewhat different from that of common pottery4 ,the glazing mixture consists of a certain proportion of carbonat of lead 7#bci71 ground flint1 and flint glass1 worked with water to the thickness of cream4 ,the ware1 before it is glazed1 is baked1 and thus acquires the property of strongly imbibing moisture4 ,it is then dipped into the above composition2 exposed a second time to the fire1 by which the glaze it has imbibed is melted4 ,a thin glossy coat is thus formed upon its surface1 which is more or less yellow1 according to the greater or less proportion of lead that has been used4 #aag4 ,,loam is a yellowish or brownish kind of clay2 sometimes containing a considerable proportion of sand4 ,it occurs in immense beds1 and is found in almost every part of the world4 ,this substance1 when mixed with straw or hair1 to prevent it from cracking1 is extensively used for the building of what are called mud cottages or houses4 ,these are generally reared on a foundation of stone1 or brickwork1 to secure them from injury by the moisture of the earth4 ,it is said to be the most advantageous practice to form the loam into bricks1 and to dry these in the shade1 and afterwards in the sun4 ,the use of such bricks is of great antiquity4 ,we are informed that the ancient city of ,damascus1 and even the walls of ,babylon1 were constructed of bricks made of loam4 #aah4 ,,porcelain ,,clay is generally of white or reddish white colour1 sometimes inclining to yellowish or grey4 ,when dry1 it absorbs moisture rapidly2 and it becomes very tenacious when kneaded4 ,it is known from the other clays by the fineness of its particles1 its soiling the fingers much when handled1 and its fine but meagre feel4 ,the usual distinction betwixt earthen ware and porcelain is1 that the former is opaque1 and the latter semitransparent4 ,in the manufacture of porcelain the clay is sometimes used alone1 and sometimes intermixed with other earths1 or with felspar 7#aaj74 ,the earliest manufacture of porcelain is supposed to have been that in ,china and ,japan4 ,the quantity produced in ,china must formerly have been extremely great2 as not only a considerable portion of the eastern parts of the world1 but almost the whole of ,europe1 was supplied with it4 ,in a single province it is said that nearly a million of persons were at one time employed in this manufacture4 ,the manufactory at ,sevres1 in ,france1 has long been celebrated both for the excellence and elegance of its porcelain4 ,there are wellknown manufactories of porcelain at ,meissen in ,saxony1 at ,berlin1 and in ,austria2 but none of these are at present superior to our own1 in ,worcestershire and ,staffordshire4 ,porcelain clay occurs chiefly in countries which abound with granite 7#bea7 and gneiss 7#bee74 ,it is found in small quantity in ,cornwall1 and other granite districts of ,england1 as well as in those of ,scotland and ,ireland4 ,but the most valuable kinds of this clay are found in ,china and ,japan4 ,the mineral is not used in the state in which it is found in the earth2 but is previously washed several times to free it from impurities4 ,after the process of washing1 only about fifteen parts of pure clay remain3 this is the kaolin of the ,chinese4 ,to form the composition of the porcelain1 this clay is mixed1 in certain proportions1 with quartz 7#gf71 flint1 gypsum 7#aib71 steatite 7#abd71 or other substances2 and the mixture is sifted several times through hair sieves4 ,it is afterwards moistened with rain water1 and1 in the form of a paste1 is put into covered casks4 ,here a fermentation soon takes place1 which changes its smell1 colour1 and consistence4 ,its colour passes from white into dark grey2 and the matter becomes both tougher and more soft than before4 ,the peculiar mode of preparing this mixture1 and the art of rightly managing it1 are secrets in most porcelain manufactories4 ,the next operation consists in giving to the paste thus formed the requisite shape of the vessels4 ,this is done first by kneading it with the hands2 and then by taking up certain portions of it1 and turning it on a lathe1 in the manner of common pottery 7#aae71 but with more care4 ,the third operation is the baking or firing4 ,this is done in furnaces of a particular construction1 and generally lasts from thirtysix to fortyeight hours4 ,the state of the baking is shown by proof pieces1 as they are called1 which are placed in convenient situations1 and can be drawn out1 from time to time1 for examination4 ,the porcelain in this state1 is named biscuit porcelain2 and figures1 and such other porcelain articles as are neither to be painted nor exposed to water are in the state of biscuit4 ,a fourth operation is covering the surface of the biscuit with a varnish or enamel4 ,this is composed of pure white quartz 7#gf71 white porcelain1 and calcined crystals of gypsum 7#aib72 and sometimes principally of felspar 7#aaj74 ,these substances are carefully ground1 then diffused through water1 and formed into a paste4 ,when used1 the paste is diluted in water1 so as to give it considerable fluidity2 and the pieces of biscuit porcelain are separately plunged into it1 in such manner as to cover their whole surface4 ,these are then exposed to a heat sufficient to melt the enamel or covering3 and in this state they constitute white porcelain4 ,if the porcelain is to be painted1 it must again be exposed to heat in the furnace4 ,the colours used for the painting of it are all derived from metals2 and many of them1 though dull when applied1 acquire considerable lustre by the action of the fire4 ,the colours are always mixed with some kind of flux1 such as a mixture of glass 7#bjd71 borax 7#bjh71 and nitre1 melted together1 and afterwards ground4 ,gum or oil of lavender is used for mixing up the colours4 ,when the painting is finished1 the pieces are exposed to a heat sufficient to melt the flux1 and thus fix the colour4 #aai4 ,,tripoli is a kind of clay of yellowish grey1 brown1 or white colour1 sometimes striped or spotted1 and of an earthy texture4 ,it feels harsh and dry to the touch2 is soft1 scarcely adheres to the tongue1 and will not take a polish from the nail4 ,this substance obtained its name from having formerly been imported into ,europe from ,tripoli1 on the north coast of ,africa4 ,it is1 however1 now found in several parts of ,germany2 and a granulated kind has been discovered in ,england4 ,tripoli is used for the polishing of metals and stones4 ,for this purpose1 it is mixed with sulphur1 in the proportion of two parts of tripoli to one of sulphur4 ,these are well rubbed together on a marble slab1 and are applied to the stone or metal with a piece of leather4 ,when tripoli is combined with red ironstone1 it is used for the polishing of optical glasses4 ,it is sometimes made into moulds1 in which small metallic or glass figures and1 medallions are cast2 and a kind of tripoli is found near ,burgos1 in ,spain1 which is used as an ingredient in the manufacture of porcelain4 ,in ,derbyshire11 and several parts of ,staffordshire1 is dug a kind of tripoli which has the name of rotten stone4 ,this is considered to be a produce of limestone shale1 which has undergone a decomposition by exposure to the air and moisture4 ,it is used for most of the same purposes as tripoli4 ,,clay ,,slate ,,family4 #abj4 ,,clay ,,slate1 or ,,roofing ,,slate1 is a kind of stone of foliated texture1 and greyish1 black1 brown1 green1 or bluish colour4 ,it breaks into splinters1 does not adhere to the tongue1 yields generally a clear sound when struck1 and is nearly thrice as heavy as water4 ,vast and extensive beds of slate occur in different parts of the world2 and this mineral sometimes constitutes even a principal portion of mountains4 ,in our own country there are many important quarries of it1 particularly in ,westmoreland1 ,yorkshire1 ,wales1 and ,derbyshire4 ,the uses of slate are numerous and important2 but its principal use is for the roofing of houses4 ,for this purpose it is split into thin plates or lamin4 ,these are fastened to the rafters by pegs driven through them2 and are made to lap over each other at the edges1 in such manner as to exclude the rain and other moisture4 ,the kinds which are preferred for this purpose are such as have the smoothest surface1 and split into the thinnest plates4 ,it is requisite that slates should be damp when they are split1 otherwise this cannot be done without difficulty4 ,hence it is generally customary to split the masses as soon as possible after they have been separated from the rock4 ,slate should not be porous4 ,if it be so1 rain and snow water will pass through it1 and destroy the woodwork of the house on which it is placed4 ,porous slate is also liable to have moss and lichens grow upon and cover it4 ,these plants retain moisture long1 and keep the surface1 and even the interior of the slate1 moist2 so that1 during the winter season1 by the freezing of the moisture1 the slate is apt to split and fall into pieces4 ,to ascertain whether the slate be of requisite compactness1 it should be completely dried1 then weighed1 and afterwards soaked for some time in water4 ,when taken out it is to be wiped with a cloth1 and again weighed4 ,if it have not acquired any considerable increase of weight1 it is a proof of its being sufficiently compact4 ,if1 on the contrary1 it have absorbed much of the water1 and have become considerably heavier by the immersion1 it is shown to be of a porous texture4 ,slates that are brittle are bad4 ,if they emit a tolerably clear sound1 when struck with a hammer1 it is considered a proof that they are not too brittle3 if1 on the contrary1 the sound be dull1 they are soft and shattery4 ,a good slate ought also to resist the action of a considerable degree of heat4 ,the slates that are principally used in ,london are brought from ,north ,wales1 from quarries that are worked near ,bangor4 ,there are also extensive slate quarries near ,kendal1 in ,westmoreland2 and the ,kendal slates1 which are of a bluish green colour1 are more highly esteemed than those from ,wales4 ,they are not of large size1 but they possess great durability1 and give a peculiarly neat appearance to the roofs on which they are placed4 ,the slate quarries near ,easdale1 in ,scotland1 are so extensive as to furnish annually more than #e1jjj1jjj in number1 and to give employment to upwards of #cjj men4 ,french slates were much used in ,london about seventy years ago2 but they have been found too small1 thin1 and light1 to resist the winds and storms of this changeable climate4 ,darkcoloured1 compact1 and solid slates are manufactured into writing slates1 or table slates1 as they are sometimes called4 ,in the preparation of these1 the slate1 after it is split of proper thickness1 is smoothed with an iron instrument4 ,it is then ground with sandstone1 and slightly polished with tripoli 7#aai71 and1 lastly1 rubbed with charcoal powder4 ,it is cut into the requisite shape1 set in a wooden frame1 and is then ready for use4 ,for writing on these slates1 pencils are used which are also made of slate4 ,these1 which are called slate pencils1 are made of a particular kind of slate1 that1 on splitting1 falls into long splintery fragments4 ,it is necessary that the pencils should be considerably softer than the slate to be written upon1 so that they may leave a whitish streak on its surface1 without scratching it4 ,such is the shivery nature of the slate of which they are made1 that1 if it be exposed for some time to the action of the sun or frost1 it is rendered useless4 ,hence1 workmen are careful to cover it up and sprinkle it with water1 as soon as it is taken from the quarry1 and to preserve it in damp cellars4 ,the pieces are afterwards split by a particular instrument1 and then wrought into the requisite shape4 ,in some of the quarries in ,derbyshire and ,wales the slate is so thick as to admit of being split into large and tabular pieces4 ,these are used for gravestones1 and for slabs for dairies and cellars4 ,paving stones and milestones are also formed of them2 and vessels for the salting of meat1 and setting of milk in dairies4 ,for the latter use slate is peculiarly well adapted1 on account of its resistance of greasy or oily substances4 ,but this property renders it unfit for any purpose for which it is requisite to be painted2 as1 the oil not entering the stone1 the paint soon peels off1 and leaves the stone as black as it was at first4 ,cut into narrow strips1 slate has also been applied1 in the neighbourhood of ,bangor1 ,north ,wales1 for the formation of fences4 ,when sufficiently solid for the purpose1 slate is cut into inkstands1 and turned into vases1 and fancy articles of various kinds4 ,and a singular circumstance has been remarked1 that1 if a window or door be suddenly opened1 in an apartment where the workmen are turning these1 they will sometimes fly in pieces2 though1 after the work is finished1 they may be exposed to the usual changes of temperature without injury4 ,pounded slate is advantageously used for cleaning iron and other works in metal4 ,when well ground1 and mixed with a certain proportion of loam1 slate is made into moulds for the casting of metals in2 and1 when burned and coarsely ground1 is used instead of sand in the making of a solid and impermeable mortar or cement1 for the parts of buildings that are covered with water4 #aba4 ,,black ,,chalk1 or ,,drawing ,,slate1 is an earthy substance1 of slaty texture2 generally of a greyish1 sometimes a bluish black colour4 ,it is soft and smooth to the touch1 and1 in handling1 stains the fingers4 ,to crayon painters1 and other artists1 black chalk is a very useful article4 ,considerable quantities of it are imported from ,france1 ,spain1 and ,italy4 ,the best is brought from ,italy4 ,this is more free from gritty particles1 more firm and compact in its texture1 and in its touch much smoother than the chalk of any other country4 ,it contains somewhat more than onetenth part of its weight of charcoal4 ,when prepared for use1 it is cut into square pieces1 which are sometimes enclosed in wooden cases1 like black lead pencils4 ,these pencils are said to become dry1 hard1 and unfit for use1 by long keeping4 ,to preserve them in greatest perfection1 they should be kept in a moist place4 ,some artists prefer pencils that are made of the chalk finely ground1 mixed with a certain proportion of gum water1 and cast in moulds4 ,care should be taken not to put too much gum1 as the pencils will not1 in such case1 leave any mark on the paper4 ,drawing slate is sometimes used as a black colour for painting4 ,for this purpose it is pounded or ground1 and then mixed with oil or size1 according to the kind of work for which it is required4 ,when black chalk is strongly heated1 it loses its colour1 and assumes that of a reddish grey4 #abb4 ,,hone1 or ,,whet ,,slate1 is a wellknown kind of stone1 of somewhat slaty texture1 and generally of dull white1 or greenish grey colour4 ,its surface is smooth1 and feels unctuous to the touch4 ,these stones1 when properly cut and smoothed1 are of indispensable utility to carpenters1 cutlers1 and others1 for sharpening their cutting instruments upon4 ,those of the finest grain are used for lancets1 penknives1 and razors4 ,for this purpose their surface1 when used1 is covered with a small quantity of oil2 by which1 after a while1 they are rendered considerably harder than they were at first4 ,they ought to be kept in damp and cool places2 for1 if much exposed to the sun1 they become too hard and dry for many purposes to which they are applied4 ,there is a vulgar and erroneous notion that hones are holly wood1 which by lying in petrifying water1 have been thereby converted into stone4 ,the greater number of them have a fine and a coarse side4 ,from the circumstance of their having been originally brought into this country from ,turkey and the ,levant1 they are sometimes called ,turkey stones4 ,they are now found in ,saxony and ,bohemia1 in ,north ,wales1 and near ,drogheda1 in ,ireland4 ,the powder of whet slate is sometimes used1 instead of emery1 for the cutting and polishing of metals4 ,,mica ,,family4 #abc4 ,,common ,,mica1 ,,glimmer1 or ,,muscovy ,,glass1 is a mineral substance of foliated texture1 which is capable of being divided into extremely thin leaves that have a sensible elasticity1 and are transparent4 ,the colour of mica is greenish1 sometimes nearly black1 reddish1 brown1 yellow1 or silvery white1 with1 occasionally1 a metallic lustre on the surface4 ,mica is so soft as easily to be scratched2 and1 when divided across the plates1 seems rather to tear than break4 ,this is one of the most abundant mineral substances that is known4 ,it not only occurs in a massive and crystallized state1 but it enters into the composition of many rocks2 is found filling up their fissures1 or crystallized in the cavities of the veins which traverse them4 ,in some countries1 as in ,siberia1 it is an article of commerce1 and is obtained from mines like other minerals4 ,from these it is extracted by hammers and chisels4 ,it is then washed1 to free it from the impurities which adhere to it2 split into thin leaves or pieces2 and assorted into different kinds1 according to their goodness1 purity1 and size4 ,we are informed by the ,abb ,hay1 that plates of mica a yard or more in width have been obtained from the mines in some parts of ,russia4 ,thin plates of mica are adopted1 in many parts of ,siberia and ,muscovy1 to supply the place of glass for windows4 ,in the shipping of ,russia it is considered preferable to glass1 as the concussion produced by the firing of the guns does not shatter it4 ,it is employed instead of window glass in ,peru and ,new ,spain2 and also in ,pennsylvania4 ,mica may be advantageously substituted for horn in lanterns1 as it is not only more transparent1 but is not susceptible of injury from the flame of the candle4 ,it has1 however1 the inconvenience of soon becoming dirty2 and of having its transparency destroyed by long exposure to the air4 ,mica is used for enclosing objects that are intended to be viewed by microscopes4 ,so plentiful is this substance in ,bengal1 that1 for the value of five shillings1 as much of it may be purchased as will yield a dozen panes1 each measuring about twelve inches in length and nine in breadth1 and so clear as to allow of ordinary objects being seen through them at the distance of twenty or thirty yards4 ,mica1 when powdered1 is sold by stationers on the ,continent1 in place of sand1 for absorbing ink in writing1 but it does not dry sufficiently quick to be of much use in this respect4 ,in ,russia it is employed in different kinds of inlaid work4 ,it is sometimes powdered1 and intermixed with the glaze in particular kinds of earthen ware4 ,the heat which melts the glaze has no effect on the mica3 hence it appears1 dispersed throughout the glaze1 like plates or scales of silver or gold4 ,some artists use it in making artificial avanturines 7#he74 ,it must be observed that the best mica is of a pure pearl colour2 and1 when split into leaves1 presents a smooth surface4 ,,soapstone ,,family4 #abd4 ,,steatite1 or ,,soapstone1 is a soft and unctuous substance1 which has much the appearance of soap2 and is generally of a white or grey colour1 intermixed with greenish or yellowish shades4 ,it is somewhat more than twice as heavy as water2 and is distinguished from indurated talc 7#ace7 by not splitting1 like that substance1 into slaty fragments4 ,in the counties of ,devon and ,cornwall1 and the islands in the vicinity of the ,lizard ,point1 this mineral is found in considerable abundance4 ,it possesses many of the same properties as fullers' earth1 and is1 like that substance1 employed in the scouring of woollen cloths4 ,when mixed with water it may be formed into a paste2 and1 in this state1 it is easily worked1 like clay1 for the manufacture of earthen ware4 ,in the porcelain manufactory at ,worcester considerable quantities of steatite are employed4 ,according to ,dr4 ,shaw1 the ,arabs use it in their baths1 instead of soap1 to soften the skin4 ,as it becomes hard in the fire1 and does not alter its shape1 this substance has been successfully adopted for imitations of engraved gems4 ,the subjects are engraved upon it with great ease in its natural state2 it is then exposed to a strong heat2 afterwards polished1 and then coloured by means of certain metallic solutions4 ,we are informed by travellers1 that some of the savage tribes eat steatite1 either alone1 or mixed with their food1 to deceive hunger4 ,the inhabitants of ,new ,caledonia eat considerable quantities of it4 ,humboldt1 the ,south ,american traveller1 assures us that the ,otomacks1 a savage race of people1 who live on the banks of the ,orinoco1 are almost wholly supported1 during three months of the year1 by eating species of steatite1 or potter's clay1 which they first slightly bake1 and then moisten with water4 ,m4 ,golberry says that the negroes near the mouth of the ,senegal mix their rice with a white kind of steatite1 and eat it without inconvenience4 ,in some parts of ,spain a variety of steatite is found1 which is used by artists under the name of ,spanish chalk4 ,when slightly burned1 this mineral is sometimes used as the basis of rouge4 #abe4 ,,figure ,,stone is a kind of steatite1 which has1 internally1 a glimmering and resinous lustre1 and a slaty or splintery fracture4 ,from its softness1 and yet solidity of texture1 this mineral can easily be fashioned into various shapes1 even with a knife4 ,hence in ,china1 where it frequently occurs1 it is cut into grotesque figures of various kinds1 which the ,french call magots de la ,chine1 into cups1 vases1 pagodas1 snuffboxes1 and other articles4 #abf4 ,,meerschaum1 or ,,sea,,froth1 is a singular kind of mineral1 of yellowish or greyish white colour1 sometimes so light as to float in water3 when fresh dug it has nearly the consistence of wax4 ,if exposed to a strong heat1 it becomes so hard as to yield sparks with steel4 ,the principal use to which meerschaum is applied is in the formation of the bowls or heads of tobaccopipes used by the ,turks1 and the quantity consumed for this purpose is very great4 ,it is found in a fissure of grey1 calcareous earth1 about six feet wide1 near ,konie1 in ,natolia1 where upwards of six hundred men are employed in the digging and preparation of it2 and the sale of it supports a monastery of dervises established at that place4 ,the workmen assert that it grows again in the fissure1 and puffs itself up like froth4 ,it is prepared for use by being first agitated with water in great reservoirs1 then allowed to remain at rest for some time4 ,the mixture soon passes into a kind of fermentation1 and a disagreeable odour1 resembling that of rotten eggs1 is exhaled4 ,as soon as this smell ceases1 the mass is further diluted with water1 which1 after a while1 is poured off4 ,fresh water is repeatedly added1 until the mass is sufficiently washed and purified4 ,the meerschaum1 in this state1 is dried to a certain degree4 ,it is then pressed into a brass mould1 and1 some days afterwards1 is hollowed out so as to form the head of the pipe4 ,it is subsequently dried in the shade1 and lastly is baked4 ,in this state the pipe heads are brought to ,constantinople1 where they are subjected to further processes4 ,they are first bailed in milk1 and next in linseed oil and wax2 and1 when perfectly cool1 are polished with rushes and leather4 ,the boiling in oil and wax renders them capable of receiving a higher polish than could otherwise be given4 ,when thus impregnated1 they also acquire1 by use1 various shades of red and brown1 which are thought to add considerably to their beauty4 ,in ,turkey1 and even in ,germany1 meerschaum pipes that have been much used are more valued than those newly made1 and this solely on account of the colouring they possess4 ,indeed there are people in those countries whose only employment consists in smoking tobacco pipes1 until they acquire the favourite tints of colour4 ,by long use1 the heads become black3 but if boiled in milk and soap1 they are soon rendered white again4 ,it is asserted that the ,turks spread meerschaum on bread1 and eat it as a medicine2 and that they cover with it the heads and eyes of dead bodies1 previously to interment4 ,as it lathers with water like soap1 it is used by the ,turkish women for washing their hair2 and1 as it absorbs oily matters1 it is occasionally used1 as fuller's earth is with us1 for the cleansing and scouring of cloth4 ,we are informed by ,pliny1 that a kind of bricks were made by the ancients1 so light that1 when dried1 they would float in water4 ,he describes them to have been formed of a spongy kind of earth1 and to have had some resemblance to pumice stone1 which he says might perhaps be applied to the same purposes as these bricks1 if it could be obtained and wrought in sufficient quantity4 ,bricks of similar description have lately been made of a mineral substance found near ,sienna1 in ,italy1 and which is supposed to be meerschaum4 ,a kind of meerschaum has lately been discovered1 in veins1 in the serpentine 7#acb7 of ,cornwall4 #abg4 ,,bole is an earthy mineral1 of yellowish or reddish brown colour1 soft1 and somewhat unctuous to the touch1 and generally found in a massive state4 ,it exhibits internally a glimmering lustre2 and1 when put into water1 immediately absorbs it1 and breaks down into small pieces with a crackling noise4 ,this mineral is farther distinguished by its fracture being conchoidal1 or appearing somewhat like the impression of a shell2 and by its adhering strongly to the tongue4 ,although bole is at present little used except as a basis of tooth powder1 and a coarse kind of paint1 it was formerly considered an important article in medicine1 and used as an astringent4 ,we are informed that tobacco pipes are sometimes made of this mineral2 and that it is employed as an ingredient in the glaze of some kinds of earthen ware4 ,it is chiefly imported from the ,levant2 though it has also been found in considerable beds in ,silesia and ,saxony4 #abh4 ,,lemnian ,,earth is a kind of bole of yellowish grey1 or yellowish white colour1 sometimes marbled with rustlike spots4 ,it is distinguished from bole by being dry and not unctuous to the touch1 dull internally1 adhering slightly to the tongue1 and its fracture being earthy4 ,with the ancients this mineral was considered an almost invaluable medicine4 ,they procured it chiefly from ,armenia1 and the island of ,lemnos1 in the ,grecian ,archipelago4 ,the ,lemnian bole was held so sacred that it was dug in the presence of the priests of ,venus1 and1 after having been mixed by them with goat's blood1 was moulded into cakes1 which were impressed with the figure of a goat1 to authenticate them4 ,this done1 it was administered as a consecrated remedy2 and1 even so lately as the sixteenth century1 the vein of bole in ,lemnos was annually opened on the sixth of ,august1 and1 after certain prayers by the priests1 so much of the earth was taken out as was thought sufficient for the consumption of the ensuing year4 ,the entrance was then closed1 and the severest punishments were denounced against any one who should open it without permission4 ,a portion of the earth was sent to ,constantinople1 where it was made into small cakes1 and sealed by the ministers of the ,emperor2 the remainder was prepared in the island1 and was impressed with the seal of the ,governor4 ,not many years ago1 it was customary with certain empirics on the ,continent1 to sell this substance in sealed packets1 as a nostrum of great value1 and particularly as possessing astringent properties of very extraordinary nature4 #abi4 ,,fuller's ,,earth is a wellknown mineral1 generally of greenish colour1 more or less mixed with brown1 grey1 or yellow3 of soft and almost friable texture1 and somewhat unctuous to the touch4 ,when put into water it immediately absorbs it1 and breaks down into a fine pulp4 ,this earth is valuable for its property of taking grease out of woollen and other cloths1 which1 on a large scale1 is effected by the operation called fulling1 whence its name has been derived4 ,this operation1 which is performed by a kind of water mill1 called a fulling mill1 is particularly necessary with respect to new cloths1 to extract from them the grease and oil that have been used in their preparation4 ,fuller's earth was formerly considered an article of such importance in ,england that its exportation was prohibited under severe penalties4 ,it was then employed for most of those purposes for which soap has since been so extensively applied4 ,in the dressing of cloth it is now so indispensable1 that foreigners1 although they can procure the wool1 are never able1 without fuller's earth1 to reach the perfection of the ,english cloths3 and1 in this country1 incalculable quantities of it are consumed4 ,as an article of domestic utility1 it might be much more frequently used than it is1 as a substitute for soap1 in the cleaning and scouring of wooden floors and wainscots4 ,there are extensive beds of fuller's earth in several of the counties of ,england4 ,london is principally supplied from those of ,kent1 ,sussex1 and ,surrey4 ,at ,wavedon1 near ,woburn1 in ,bedfordshire1 a peculiarly fine kind is dug up from pits at the depth of ten or twelve feet below the surface of the ground2 and no country in the world is known to produce fuller's earth of quality so excellent as that obtained in ,england4 ,,talc ,,family4 #acj4 ,,jade1 or ,,nephrite1 is a very hard and tough species of stone1 of greenish or olive colour1 somewhat unctuous to the touch1 and looking as if it had imbibed oil4 ,it is found massive1 in bluntedged or rounded pieces4 ,nothing has so much tended to make this stone known1 as a superstitious notion that a piece of it suspended to the neck will dissolve stones in the kidneys4 ,hence has been attained its appellation of nephrite1 or divine stone2 and hence have originated all those numerous amulets in the form of oval plates1 hearts1 fishes1 birds1 c4 pierced with holes for ribbons to pass through1 which are seen in collections of the curious4 ,some of the ,indian nations make talismans of jade4 ,from the roughness and tenacity of this stone1 in addition to its hardness1 it is very difficult to be cut and polished2 and even the best polish which it is capable of taking as so imperfect1 that a person ignorant of its nature might consider it to be merely smoothed and rubbed with oil4 ,the ancient artists executed in it many beautiful and delicate figures2 and it is impossible but to admire the industry and perseverance by which they produced even chains1 and other hollow kinds of work1 in jade4 ,the ,turks cut it into handles for sabres and daggers1 and into several kinds of vessels1 to which they attach great value4 ,jade occurs in granite 7#bea7 and gneiss 7#bee7 in ,switzerland2 but the most beautiful specimens of this mineral are brought from ,persia1 ,egypt1 and ,siberia4 #aca4 ,,axestone is a kind of jade1 but differs from it in having a slaty texture2 and in being less transparent and less tough4 ,this stone is found in ,china1 ,new ,zealand1 and on the banks of the river of ,amazons1 in ,america4 ,and it is said that several of the tribes of ,american ,indians form of it the axes which they use in place of iron4 ,to explain how these people have been enabled to work a substance so rebellious as this is even to the file1 and to other instruments of steel 7of which they know not the use71 it has been presumed that1 when the stone is first taken from the earth1 it is considerably less hard than when1 by drying1 its humidity is evaporated3 that in this state they work it1 and subsequently harden it1 in some peculiar manner1 by exposure to heat4 #acb4 ,,serpentine is a stone which1 when polished1 has a near resemblance to marble1 is of dark green colour1 or reddish2 variously streaked1 and spotted with lighter green1 red1 brown1 and yellow4 ,it is found in beds1 and in a massive state2 is translucent at the edges2 and1 when pounded1 the powder feels soapy to the touch4 ,there are few stones likely to prove more valuable in ornamental architecture1 both for beauty and durability1 than this4 ,it admits of an excellent polish1 which is not easily injured by the effects of air or water4 ,it is also too hard to suffer the same inconveniences of being scratched or broken as marble2 and its colours are stated to be indestructible4 ,and such is the size of many of the blocks of serpentine1 that columns of almost any dimensions may be wrought out of them4 ,of the serpentine obtained from the ,island of ,anglesea1 and lately known by the name of ,mona marble1 a great proportion was sent to ,london by ,messrs4 ,bullock and ,co4 who1 until the death of ,mr4 ,bullock1 had a large warehouse and polishing rooms for it in ,oxfordstreet4 ,the prevailing colours of this stone are red and green4 ,the quarries were worked by them to considerable extent4 ,they manufactured it into chimney pieces1 slabs1 columns1 and other articles2 and its great beauty1 and its excellence1 in many respects1 over the generality of marbles1 will recommend it strongly to the public notice4 ,the chief places in which serpentine has hitherto been found are near ,bareuth1 and ,zblitz1 in ,saxony2 in some districts of ,cornwall2 about six miles west of the ,paris copper mine1 in the island of ,anglesea2 at ,portsoy1 in ,bamffshire1 and other parts of ,scotland2 and at ,cloghan ,lee1 in the county of ,donegal1 ,ireland4 ,at ,zblitz there are some extensive manufactories1 in which serpentine is made into vessels and ornaments of various shapes1 that are carried for sale over nearly all parts of ,germany4 ,several hundred persons are there employed in the working of this stone4 ,the name of serpentine is derived from some of the varieties appearing coloured and spotted like a serpent's skin4 ,this stone1 when found intermixed with primitive limestone1 or crystalline white marble1 differs in no respect from the celebrated verde antique marble 7#adi74 #acc4 ,,potstone1 or ,,lapis ,,ollaris1 is a greenish grey stone1 unctuous to the touchy and so soft when first taken from the quarry as to yield to the pressure of the nail1 yet not easily broken4 ,it is found in a massive state4 ,in consequence of the softness and tenacity of this stone1 it can be turned upon a lathe1 and otherwise cut and wrought with great ease4 ,hence1 in ,egypt1 ,lombardy1 ,norway1 and other countries where it is found1 it is formed into various kinds of culinary vessels and lamps1 which harden in drying1 and are capable of withstanding the strongest action of fire4 ,vessels of this description were known to the ancients2 and are particularly mentioned by ,pliny1 the ,roman naturalist1 who speaks of some that were highly wrought being very valuable4 ,potstone is used in some countries for the lining of stoves1 furnaces1 and ovens2 and it is so durable as to have1 in some instances1 stood unimpaired for several hundred years4 ,on the banks of the ,lake ,como1 there were some extensive quarries of potstone1 which had been worked from the beginning of the ,christian era4 ,these quarries1 however1 fell in1 on the #beth of ,august1 #afah1 and destroyed the neighbouring town of ,pleurs2 which had previously obtained by means of them an annual revenue of about sixty thousand ducats4 #acd4 ,,common1 or ,,venetian ,,talc1 is an earthy stone1 capable of being divided into plates or leaves1 which are soft and unctuous to the touch1 somewhat transparent1 and usually of greenish silvery white colour4 ,it leaves a white trace when rubbed upon any object4 ,mica and talc have a near resemblance to each other2 but the plates of the former1 when bent1 are elastic1 while those of the latter are not4 ,venetian talc is very abundant in the ,tyrol and the ,valteline4 ,in a state of powder it renders the skin soft and shining2 a property which appears to have suggested the idea of employing it as the basis of the cosmetic named rouge4 ,this is prepared by rubbing together1 in a warm mortar1 certain proportions of carmine1 or extract of the flowers of carthamus tinctorius1 with finely powdered talc1 and a certain portion of oil of benzoin4 ,the ,romans prepared a beautiful blue or purple colour1 by combining pounded talc with the colouring fluid of some particular kinds of testaceous animals1 that are found among the submarine rocks of the coasts of the ,mediterranean4 ,according to ,tavernier1 the ,french traveller1 the ,persians whiten the walls of their houses and gardens with lime1 and then powder them with a silvery white kind of talc2 which1 he says1 gives to them a very beautiful appearance4 ,talc is now used by the ,chinese1 and was formerly used by the ,europeans1 in medicine1 #ace4 ,,indurated ,,talc1 or ,,french ,,chalk1 is a heavy mineral1 of close texture1 and generally of greenish grey colour2 unctuous to the touch1 and having a somewhat slaty fracture4 ,it is found in a massive state2 and leaves a white trace when rubbed upon any object4 ,this is a well known substance1 which is in great request by carpenters1 tailors1 hatmakers1 and others1 as the lines that are drawn with it are not so easily effaced as those that are made with chalk1 and particularly as they remain unaltered even under water4 ,if lines be traced with it on glass1 they remain invisible1 or at least are scarcely perceptible by the naked eye1 till breathed upon4 ,this1 it has been conjectured1 in part depends on the comparative softness of the substance with which the impression is made2 the condensation of the breath taking place more readily on the glass than on the talc that covers it1 and the impression of the talc becoming more apparent by the contrast4 ,indurated talc1 when reduced to powder1 is frequently employed for the purpose of removing stains1 occasioned by grease1 from silk and cloth4 ,this it does effectually1 and1 in general1 without injuring even the most delicate colour4 ,like potstone1 it is sometimes manufactured into culinary vessels4 ,this mineral is found in several parts of the continent of ,europe2 and in ,cornwall1 ,scotland1 and the ,shetland ,islands4 #acf4 ,,asbestos is a greenish or silvery white mineral1 of fibrous texture1 which is found in many mountainous countries of the ,continent1 in the island of ,anglesea1 and in ,scotland4 ,it occurs in shapeless masses1 and varies much both in weight and hardness4 ,the name of asbestos is derived from the ,greek language1 and signifies that which is inconsumable4 ,this mineral1 and particularly a silky variety of it1 in long slender filaments1 called amianthus1 was well known to the ancients4 ,they made it into an incombustible kind of cloth1 in which they burned the bodies of their dead1 and1 by which means1 they were enabled to collect and preserve the ashes without mixture4 ,in the manufacture of this article they were not able to weave the asbestos alone2 but1 in the loom1 were obliged to join with it linen or woollen threads1 which were afterwards burned away4 ,incombustible cloth was purchased by the ,romans at an enormous expense4 ,sir ,j4 ,e4 ,smith1 when at ,rome1 saw a winding sheet of amianthus in the ,museum of the ,vatican4 ,it was coarsely spun1 but as soft and pliant as silk4 ,the person who attended him set fire to one corner of it2 and the same part burned repeatedly with great rapidity and brightness1 without being at all injured4 ,this interesting relic was discovered1 in the year #agjb1 in a funeral urn1 and contained burned bones1 together with a quantity of ashes4 ,it was nine ,roman palms long1 and about seven in width1 and had been deposited in the library of the ,vatican by order of ,pope ,clement the ,eleventh4 ,cloth made of amianthus1 when greased1 or otherwise contaminated with dirt1 may be cleansed by throwing it into a bright fire4 ,in this process the stains are burned out1 and the cloth is restored to a dazzling white colour4 ,pliny1 the ,roman naturalist1 informs us that he had himself seen tablecloths1 towels1 and napkins of amianthus taken from the table of a great feast1 thrown into the fire1 and burned before the company3 and by this operation1 he says1 they became better cleansed than if they had been washed4 ,the inhabitants of some parts of ,siberia manufacture gloves1 caps1 and purses of amianthus2 and in the ,pyrenees it is wrought into girdles1 ribbons1 and other articles4 ,the finest girdles are made by weaving the most beautiful and silky filaments with silver wire4 ,these are much prized by the women1 not only on account of their beauty1 but from certain mysterious properties they are supposed to possess4 ,the shorter fibres of amianthus have sometimes been manufactured into paper1 but this is too hard for use4 ,it has1 indeed1 been proposed to preserve valuable documents from fire1 by writing them on paper made of amianthus4 ,such a plan might deserve consideration1 if we possessed fireproof ink2 but until this be obtained1 the fireproof paper will be of little use4 ,when several of the long fibres of this mineral are placed together1 they may be formed into wicks for lamps2 and it has been asserted that such wicks are incombustible4 ,kircher1 the ,german philosopher1 had a wick made of amianthus which burned for two years without injury1 and was at last destroyed by accident4 ,it is said that the inhabitants of ,greenland make use of amianthus for the wicks of their lamps4 ,this substance1 although it will long continue unaltered in considerable heat1 yet if the heat be much increased it ceases to withstand it1 and is melted into a dense kind of scoria4 ,in the island of ,corsica asbestos is advantageously employed in the manufacture of pottery4 ,being reduced into fine filaments1 it is kneaded with clay2 and vessels made of this mixture are said to be lighter1 less brittle1 and more capable of sustaining sudden alterations of heat and cold than common earthenware4 ,,chrysolite ,,family4 #acg4 ,,chrysolite1 or ,,peridot1 is a soft gem1 usually of yellowish green colour1 though sometimes it is grassgreen1 or bluish green1 but with a tinge of brown4 ,it is generally found in fragments and rounded pieces1 and rarely crystallized4 ,in the latter case its regular form is an eight1 ten1 or twelvesided prism4 ,though scarcely harder than glass1 and consequently inferior to most other gems in lustre1 these stones are not unfrequently used in jewellery1 particularly for necklaces and ornaments for the hair2 and1 when well matched in colour1 and properly polished1 their effect is very good4 ,they are1 however1 too soft for ring stones2 for1 by wearing1 they soon become dull on the surface4 ,but it is said that their lustre may1 in some degree1 be restored by immersing them in olive oil4 ,to give the greatest brilliancy to this stone1 we are informed by ,mr4 ,mawe1 that a copper wheel is used1 on which a little sulphuric acid1 or spirit of vitriol 7#bd71 is dropped2 and that1 during the process1 an highly suffocating odour is given out4 ,but he is of opinion that the most advantageous way of working it would be that in which glass is cut4 ,chrysolite is imported from the ,levant1 and is said to be found in ,upper ,egypt1 and on the shores of the ,red ,sea4 ,,basalt ,,family4 #ach4 ,,basalt is a greyish black and coarse grained stone1 which is usually found either in globular distinct pieces or in groups of large columns1 each of which has from three to eight sides1 and is divided horizontally into numerous stones1 that very exactly lie upon1 or fit into each other4 ,the most remarkable assemblages of basaltic columns that are known are those called the ,giants' ,causeway1 on the coast of ,antrim1 in ,ireland1 and the ,cave of ,fingal1 in the island of ,staffa1 one of the ,hebrides1 or ,western ,islands of ,scotland4 ,the former1 which is believed by the common people to have been an artificial production1 the vast labour of giants who formerly inhabited the country1 consists of an irregular group of many thousand jointed pillars4 ,most of these are of considerable height2 are in general fivesided1 fifteen or sixteen inches in diameter1 and each perfectly distinct from top to bottom1 though so closely and compactly arranged that it is scarcely possible to introduce any thing betwixt them4 ,this assemblage of columns extends into the sea to a distance unknown1 and along a tract of the sea coast of nearly six miles4 ,the ,cave of ,fingal is accessible only by sea1 and is formed by ranges of massive basaltic columns1 fifty feet and upwards in height4 ,the stone of which these columns are formed very much resembles that of the ,giants' ,causeway4 ,in several parts of the world large masses of basalt are discovered1 composing entire insulated mountains1 of somewhat conical form4 ,they are considered by some writers as volcanic productions1 but the proofs of this are by no means satisfactory4 ,amongst the uses to which basalt has been applied1 two of the most important are as materials of an excellent and durable kind for building and paving4 ,when burned and pulverized1 these stones impart to mortar with which they are mixed the property of hardening under water4 ,they easily melt1 without any addition1 into an opaque and black glass2 and from them1 under a certain modification1 bottles of olivegreen colour1 and of extreme lightness1 but great strength and solidity1 have been formed4 ,some of the kinds have been advantageously employed as millstones4 ,basalt is occasionally used by artists for touch or teststones1 to ascertain the purity of gold and silver2 and goldbeaters and bookbinders1 on the ,continent1 usually make their anvils or beating blocks of it4 ,basalt1 though harder1 more brittle1 and less pleasing in its colours than marble1 was in considerable esteem among the sculptors of antiquity1 on account of its great durability4 ,many fine works were consequently executed by them in this stone4 ,pliny1 who has described several1 states that the columns of it were sometimes so large as to admit of several figures being wrought out of them4 ,the ,emperor ,vespasian had an entire statue1 accompanied by the figures of sixteen children1 cut out of a single column of basalt2 this statue he placed in the ,temple of ,peace1 and dedicated it to the ,nile4 ,the famous statue of ,minerva1 at ,thebes1 is described by travellers to have been formed of basalt4 ,antiques of basalt are always in a much better state of preservation than those of marble4 ,even such as are dug out of the earth still retain their original polish2 and the finest touches of the chisel upon them are still unimpaired4 ,,order ,,iii4--,,saline ,,stones4 ,,lime1 ,,or ,,calcareous ,,family4 #aci4 ,lime1 after it has been freed from extraneous matters by burning1 is a mineral of whitish colour1 and pungent1 acrid1 and caustic taste4 ,it has the property of changing vegetable blue colours to green1 and of corroding and destroying animal substances4 ,this mineral is found in nearly every country of the globe3 but1 in a native state1 has not hitherto been discovered except in combination with some acid4#c ,the process of purifying lime1 or depriving it of the acid with which it is combined1 is by burning4 ,this is done in a large kind of furnace1 called a kiln1 where the limestone and fuel are heaped in alternate layers4 ,after it has gone through this process it is called quicklime1 and has the abovementioned appearance and qualities4 ,footnote #c3 ,with carbonic acid 7#bf7 it forms common limestone1 marble1 chalk1 and some other substances2 with sulphuric acid 7#bd7 it constitutes alabaster1 or gypsum2 and with fluoric acid 7#bg7 it becomes that beautiful production1 the ,derbyshire spar4--,all these1 having lime for their bases1 are denominated ,,calcareous ,,substances4 ,the uses of lime are numerous and important4 ,the principal of these is in the formation of mortar1 or cement for buildings4 ,for this purpose it is first slaked1 by having water poured upon it3 a violent heat is thereby excited1 and the lime falls into powder3 it is then formed into paste by working it with water and sand4 ,this1 when dry1 becomes extremely solid1 hard1 and durable4 ,various examples might be mentioned of buildings nearly two thousand years old1 where the lime is1 at this day1 as hard as the stones which it cements together4 ,lime is also used for agricultural purposes3 when spread upon land it is supposed to hasten the dissolution and putrefaction of all kinds of animal and vegetable substances1 and to impart to it a power of retaining the moisture which is necessary for the vigorous growth of corn or grass4 ,it is employed in the refining of sugar1 in the manufacture of soap1 in the melting of iron1 and by tanners1 in a state of solution1 for dissolving the gelatinous parts of skins1 and removing the hair from them4 ,the manufacturers of glue mix it with that article1 for the purpose of adding to its strength1 and preventing its becoming flexible by the absorption of moisture4 ,this mineral1 if well dried1 pounded1 and mingled with gunpowder1 in the proportion of one pound to two1 is of great utility in the rending of stones and rocks3 the mixture1 it is said1 will cause an explosion equal in force to three pounds' weight of gunpowder4 ,lime1 if swallowed or inhaled1 is a virulent poison4 ,hence persons employed in limeworks are subject to very distressing complaints2 and hence1 if bread be adulterated with lime1 it is extremely injurious4 ,notwithstanding this pernicious quality1 lime is of considerable use in medicine4 ,it is chiefly given in a state of solution1 and in the proportion of half a pound of quicklime to twelve pints of boiling distilled water4 ,this preparation is called lime water4 ,the superb basin of ,lampi1 one of the principal reservoirs which furnishes the canal of ,languedoc with water1 was1 some years ago1 found to leak at the junction of the stones4 ,the engineer who had the direction of the works caused lime to be slacked in the water4 ,this1 passing through the apertures betwixt the stones1 formed a crust1 or very white covering1 over its whole surface1 of so hard and durable a nature1 that it now constitutes one solid and undivided substance1 which the water cannot penetrate4 ,,carbonat ,,of ,,lime4 #adj4 ,,common ,,lime is a variety of carbonat of lime1 or of lime in combination with carbonic acid 7#bf71 which is harder and heavier than chalk1 usually of a greyish colour1 and is always found in a massive state4 ,vast mountains of limestone occur in several countries of the globe2 but no where is lime more abundant than in some parts of ,england and ,wales4 ,it forms1 in particular1 nearly the whole mountainous districts of ,derbyshire and ,shropshire1 and encloses1 in its substance1 numerous veins of lead ore1 calamine1 and other important mineral productions4 ,its uses have been already described 7#aci74 #ada4 ,,chalk is a white or yellowish kind of limestone1 too well known to need any description4 ,it is found abundantly in many of the southern counties of ,england1 and is usually procured from large open places1 called chalkpits1 by digging4 ,in some parts of ,kent1 however1 the workmen save themselves1 in this respect1 much trouble4 ,they undermine the sides of hills to a certain depth1 then dig a trench at the top as far distant from the edge as the mining extends at the bottom4 ,this trench they fill with water1 which soaks through during the night1 and the whole mass is thereby loosened1 and falls down before morning4 ,the harder and more compact kinds of chalk are cut into blocks1 and used as building stones4 ,when burned and formed into lime1 chalk becomes an excellent mortar3 nearly all the houses in ,london are cemented with chalk mortar4 ,it is also used as lime in agriculture4 ,as it readily imbibes water1 it is used by starchmakers1 chemists1 and others1 to dry precipitates upon4 ,with isinglass or the white of eggs it forms a valuable lute or cement4 ,by artists it is in request for the construction of moulds to cast metals in2 and by carpenters and others1 as a material to mark with4 ,chalk is one of the most useful absorbents that are employed in medicine3 it likewise gives name to an officinal mixture1 to a powder1 and a potion4 ,when pounded and cleared from gritty particles1 it has the name of whiting4 ,in this state it is used for the cleaning and polishing of metallic and glass utensils2 for whitening the ceilings of rooms1 and numerous other purposes4 ,spanish white is the same substance cleansed with peculiar care2 and the ,vienna white1 which is used by artists1 is perfectly purified chalk4 #adb4 ,,marble is a compact and closegrained kind of limestone2 so hard as to admit of being polished4 ,it is this quality which principally distinguishes it from other calcareous substances4 ,although nearly all the numerous kinds of marble may be burned1 and thus converted into quicklime1 their use in ornamental architecture1 c4 is so important as1 in general1 to prevent their application to the inferior purpose of mortar4 ,marble has been known from a very early period4 ,the ,book of ,esther1 in the ,old ,testament1 describes the palace of ,ahasuerus to have had 8pillars of marble10 and the pavement of 8red1 and blue1 and white1 and black marble40 ,it would be impossible1 in an elementary work like the present1 to describe1 or even to enumerate1 all the different kinds of marble which were known to the ancients1 or are known to the moderns4 ,but it is1 perhaps1 requisite that an account should be given of some of the most important of them4 ,,greek ,,marbles4--#adc4 ,,pentelic ,,marble is of beautiful white colour1 and nearly resembles the ,parian marble 7#ade7 of the ,italians2 but it is in coarser granulations4 ,sometimes it is splintery4 ,it was obtained from quarries on ,mount ,pentelicus1 near ,athens1 and was generally preferred1 by the ,grecian artists1 to ,parian marble4 ,the ,pantheon was built entirely of ,pentelic marble2 and many of the ,athenian statues1 and works carried on near ,athens during the administration of ,pericles1 were executed in it4 ,dr4 ,clarke1 however1 has observed that while the works wrought of ,parian marble remain perfect to the present time1 those of ,pentelic marble have been decomposed by the atmosphere1 and sometimes exhibit a surface as rude and earthy as common limestone4 ,there are numerous examples of ,pentelic marble in those works of ,phidias which form the ,elgin collection in the ,british ,museum4 #add4 ,,greek ,,white ,,marble4--,the ,marmo ,greco1 of ,italian artists1 is of snowwhite colour1 in fine granulations2 and somewhat harder1 and consequently capable of higher polish1 than most other white marbles4 ,it is found near the river ,coralus1 in ,phrygia4 ,,italian ,,marbles4--#ade4 ,,parian ,,marble is of snowwhite colour1 inclining to yellowish white4 ,it is obtained from quarries in the island of ,paros1 is finely granular1 and1 when polished1 has somewhat of a waxy appearance4 ,parian marble hardens by exposure to the air1 and is one of the most permanent kinds that is known4 ,varro and ,pliny each state that it was named lychnites1 by the ancients1 from a ,greek word signifying a lamp1 because it was generally hewn in quarries by the light of lamps4 ,the finest ,grecian sculpture that has been preserved to the present time is of ,parian marble4 ,the principal statues of it now extant are the ,medicean ,venus1 the ,diana ,venatrix1 and ,venus leaving the ,bath4 ,it is also ,parian marble on which the celebrated tables at ,oxford are inscribed4 #adf4 ,,carrara ,,marble1 the purest of all the kinds with which we are acquainted1 is to this day obtained from quarries near the town of ,carrara4 ,it is of brilliant white colour1 has a granular texture2 and1 when broken1 sparkles like sugar4 ,this marble1 which is almost the only one in use by modern sculptors1 was also quarried and wrought by the ancients4 ,it is susceptible of a high polish1 and is applicable to every species of sculpture1 except when1 as is too often the case1 dark veins intrude1 and spoil the beauty of the work4 ,in the centre of the blocks a beautiful kind of rock crystals1 called ,carrara diamonds1 are sometimes found4 ,during the late war with ,france1 the exportation of statuary marble from the countries under the dominion of ,buonaparte was prohibited2 and1 at one time1 it became so scarce in ,england as to be sold at the rate of more than seven guineas per cubic foot4 ,the block of marble for the statue of his late ,majesty in the great ,council ,chamber at ,guildhall1 ,london1 was stated by the public prints to have cost twelve hundred guineas4 #adg4 ,,luni ,,marble is a snowwhite1 compact1 and finely granular variety1 which was obtained by the ancients from quarries on the coast of ,tuscany4 ,it was preferred by the ,grecian sculptors1 both to the ,parian and ,pentelic marbles2 and it is usually supposed that the ,belvidere ,apollo1 as well as the ,antinous of the ,capitol1 was wrought out of this marble4 ,there is now found at ,luni a white marble1 variegated with red spots and dots4 #adh4 ,,green ,,antique ,,marble1 or ,,verde ,,antique of the ,italians1 is a mixture of white marble and green serpentine 7#acb74 ,this is believed to have been obtained from some part of ,italy1 but the quarries are not now known4 #adi4 ,,sienna ,,marble is of close texture1 and yellowish colour1 disposed in large irregular spots1 surrounded with veins of bluish red1 passing sometimes into purple4 ,it is not uncommon in the vicinity of ,sienna1 and is in great request1 throughout ,europe1 for chimneypieces and ornamental furniture4 #aej4 ,,brocatello ,,marble is somewhat like the last2 but is also irregularly marked with various shades of red1 and1 in some parts1 with white4 #aea4 ,,mandelato ,,marble is of light red colour1 with yellowish white spots4 ,it is found at ,lugezzana1 in the ,veronese4 ,another variety1 bearing the same name1 occurs at ,preosa4 #aeb4 ,,verde ,,di ,,prato ,,marble is a green marble1 marked with darker green spots1 which is found near the town of ,prato in ,tuscany4 #aec4 ,,lago ,,maggiore ,,marble is a beautiful kind1 white1 with black spots and dots4 ,it has been employed for decorating the interior of many churches in the ,milanese4 #aed4 ,,bretonico ,,marble4--,this beautiful marble1 which is found near the village of ,bretonico1 in the ,veronese1 is varied with yellow1 grey1 and rose colour4 ,,french ,,marbles4--#aee4 ,many valuable kinds of marble are obtained from different parts of the ,french territory4 #aef4 ,,campan ,,marble4--,three kinds of marble are known by this name1 all of them procured from immense quarries at ,campan1 near ,bagnere1 in the ,pyrenees4 ,the first1 called ,green ,campan1 is of pale seagreen colour1 and exhibits1 on its surface1 lines of much deeper green1 forming a kind of network4 ,the second1 called ,isabel ,campan1 is of delicate rose colour1 with undulating green veins4 ,the third variety1 the ,red ,campan1 is of deep red colour1 with veins of still deeper red4 ,the green variegations in this stone are formed by a talcy mineral1 intermixed with the limestone4--,the ,campan marble is well adapted for slabs1 tables1 chimneypieces1 and other ornamental purposes in the interior of buildings2 but1 if exposed to the weather1 the talcose substances perish1 and leave hollow spaces which render its surface rough and uneven4 #aeg4 ,,griotte ,,marble is of a deep brown colour1 with bloodred oval spots1 formed by shells4 ,its name has been obtained from its brownish colour1 being similar to that of the cherries that are called by the ,french griotte4 ,this marble has1 of late1 been much used in the decoration of public monuments1 and in splendid furniture1 in ,france4 ,some of the ornaments of the ,triumphal ,arch of the ,carousel are made of it4 ,the department of ,herault is the part of ,france from which it is obtained4 ,it sometimes contains large white veins1 which destroy the harmony of the other tints4 #aeh4 ,,marquese ,,marble4--,this1 which is obtained from quarries1 near the village of ,marquese1 between ,calais and ,boulogne1 is marked with different shades and variegations of white and brown4 ,of this marble ,buonaparte commenced a magnificent column on the heights near the sea1 at ,boulogne1 to commemorate his victories2 but1 since his dethronement1 the erection of this structure has been discontinued4 #aei4 ,,sarencolin ,,marble is distinguished by exhibiting large zones1 and angular spots of yellow or bloodred colour4 ,it is found at ,sarencolin1 in the ,high ,pyrenees4 #afj4 ,,st4 ,,beaume1 or ,,languedoc ,,marble1 is of light red colour1 marked with white and grey zones1 formed by madrepores4 ,the eight columns which adorn the ,triumphal ,arch1 in the ,carousel at ,paris1 are of this marble4 ,it is obtained from quarries at ,st4 ,beaume1 in the department of ,aude4 #afa4 ,,breccia ,,marble ,,of ,,the ,,pyrenees4--,one kind of this marble contains black1 grey1 and red1 middlesized spots in a brownish red ground4 ,it admits of a good polish4 ,another kind has an orangeyellowcoloured ground1 containing small fragments of snowwhite colour4 ,both these are found in the ,pyrenees4 ,,spanish ,,marbles4--#afb4 ,few countries are more productive of marble than ,spain2 and in few countries are the public monuments and buildings more profusely decorated with marble4 ,the vault of the theatre of ,toledo is supported by #cej marble columns2 and an ancient mosque at ,cordova is ornamented with #abjj columns1 most of which are of ,spanish marble4 ,the palace and church of the ,escurial1 and many of the churches in ,madrid1 are decorated with marbles of the most beautiful description4 #afc4 ,,white ,,spanish ,,marble4--,near ,cordova2 at ,filabres1 three leagues from ,almeria1 in ,grenada2 and in some other parts of ,spain1 white marble is obtained1 which is susceptible of a good polish1 and is well adapted to the general purposes of sculpture4 #afd4 ,,seville ,,marble is a beautiful red variety1 with shining red and white spots and veins4 ,in the vicinity of ,,tortosa is found a kind of marble which has a violet ground1 spotted with bright yellow2 and near ,,grenada a marble of green colour1 which somewhat resembles the celebrated verde antique 7#adi74 #afe4 ,,spanish ,,breccia4--,there are several beautiful varieties of breccia in ,spain4 ,at ,riela1 in ,arragon1 there is one1 composed of angular portions or fragments of black marble1 embedded in a reddish yellow base4 ,the breccia marble of ,old ,castile is of bright red colour1 dotted with yellow and black1 and encloses fragments of pale yellow1 brickred1 deep brown1 and blackish grey colour4 ,,german ,,marbles4--#aff4 ,germany abounds in marbles1 and affords many kinds which are remarkable both for beauty and singularity4 ,of these the kind best known is #afg4 ,,lumachelli ,,marble4--,this exhibits beautiful iridescent colours1 which are sometimes prismatic internally1 but more commonly of various shades of red or orange2 whence it has also obtained the name of fire marble4 ,few kinds of marble are more generally admired than this4 ,it has a dark ground1 and is marked throughout with the appearance of small whitish shells1 which1 in certain parts1 refract the most beautiful and brilliant colours4 ,this marble is cut into the tops and bottoms of snuffboxes1 and several other ornamental articles4 ,it is found in veins at ,bleyberg1 in ,carinthia4 #afh4 ,many beautiful kinds of marble are obtained from the island of ,,sicily1 particularly one called ,sicilian jasper1 which is red1 with stripes like ribbons1 white1 red1 and sometimes green4 ,,switzerland abounds in marbles2 ,,portugal1 ,,sweden1 and ,,norway afford few4 ,in the ,,russian ,,empire many have been noticed1 particularly among the ,uralian mountains4 ,the late ,empress ,catharine caused an immense palace to be built for her favourite ,orloff1 which is entirely coated1 both inside and outside1 with marble4 ,she built the church of ,isaac with marbles of different kinds1 on a vast space1 near the statue of ,peter the ,great1 in ,petersburgh4 ,we are at present very imperfectly acquainted with the marbles of ,,asia4 ,dr4 ,shaw mentions a red marble obtained from ,mount ,sinai2 and ,mr4 ,morier1 in his journey through ,persia1 speaks of a beautiful translucent kind which he calls marble of ,tabriz1 and the colours of which are light green1 with veins sometimes of red1 sometimes of blue4 ,he says it is cut into large slabs1 some of which he describes to have measured nine feet in length1 and five feet in breadth4--,no account has hitherto been published of the marbles of ,,africa4--,in the ,united ,states of ,,america many kinds of marble have been discovered1 some of which have been wrought1 and polished2 but very imperfect descriptions have yet been given of them4 #afi4 ,few countries produce a greater variety of excellent marbles than the ,,british ,,islands4 ,although these marbles are seldom noticed much beyond the limits of the districts in which they occur1 many of them are admirably adapted for ornamental purposes2 particularly for slabs and chimneypieces4 ,it is much to be regretted that we should send to foreign countries for stones which1 in many instances at least1 could certainly be as well supplied from our own4 ,the following is an enumeration of a few of the most important kinds4 ,,english ,,marbles4--#agj4 ,,petworth ,,marble1 when cut into slabs1 is equal1 both in beauty and quality1 to many of the marbles imported from the ,continent4 ,the ,earl of ,egremont has1 at ,petworth1 several chimneypieces formed of it4 ,much of this marble was used in the cathedral church of ,canterbury4 ,the pillars1 monuments1 vaults1 pavement1 and other parts of that venerable structure1 have been formed of it4 ,the archbishop's chair is an entire piece of ,petworth marble4 ,this marble is found in greatest perfection upon an estate of the ,earl of ,egremont1 at ,kirdford4 ,it lies at the distance of from ten to twenty feet under the surface of the ground1 and in flakes or strata nine or ten inches in thickness4 ,petworth marble is also an excellent stone for walls2 and1 for paving1 it cannot be excelled4 ,when burned1 it also constitutes a valuable manure1 superior1 as some farmers imagine1 even to chalk4 #aga4 ,,purbeck ,,marble is obtained from the island of ,purbeck1 in ,dorsetshire4 ,it is of dark colour1 and contains numerous small round shells1 which1 when it is cut and polished1 mark it with roundish variegations of brown1 dark green1 and grey4 ,this marble was formerly more used than it is at present4 ,several of the small columns1 and many of the monuments1 in the churches of ,dorsetshire1 and the adjacent counties1 are formed of it4 ,but it is not so durable as many other kinds4 ,wherever it is long exposed to the weather1 the surface cracks1 splits off1 and becomes defaced4 #agb4 ,,babbicombe ,,marble is one of the most beautiful kinds that is found in any country4 ,it varies in colour1 from light brown to deep red2 and large slabs of it have been obtained that are elegantly and diversely marked1 some in streaks1 others in spots1 and others in different coloured shades4 ,this kind is quarried at ,babbicombe1 in ,torbay1 ,devonshire1 and is extensively manufactured into chimneypieces in the ,west of ,england4 ,an attempt was lately made to introduce it in ,london2 but1 from its not being the production of a foreign country1 this has failed of success4 #agc4 ,,derbyshire ,,marble4--,there are1 in ,derbyshire1 several kinds of marble1 most of which contain an abundance of fossil shells1 and other remains of marine animals4 ,at ,wetton1 near ,ashbourne1 a beautiful kind is obtained1 of greyish black colour1 which contains a vast number of whitish and very minute shells4 ,this has the name of bird's eye marble4 ,near ,monyash a beautiful variety is found1 of a cheerful colour1 inclining to brown red1 and full of large marine figures in all directions2 these1 when the marble is cut1 appear white1 and afford a pleasing contrast4 #agd4 ,,kendal ,,marble4--,some varieties of black1 grey1 and brown marble1 are wrought near ,kendal1 in ,westmoreland4 ,these somewhat resemble the ,derbyshire marbles2 and1 like them1 are manufactured into chimneypieces1 and ornamental slabs for houses4 ,several of the slabs are found to contain corallines1 and the remains of other marine animals1 which vary their appearance in a very pleasing manner4 ,the ,,mona ,,marble is a species of serpentine intermixed with white limestone3 it has been already described 7#acb74 ,,scottish ,,marbles4--,scotland affords many valuable and beautiful varieties of marble4 #age4 ,,tirie ,,marble4--,few of the ,british kinds of marble have been more admired than that obtained from ,tirie1 one of the ,western ,islands of ,scotland4 ,it is of a reddish1 sometimes a delicate rosecoloured tint1 and sometimes white2 and is always intermixed with other minerals which add to its beauty4 ,the most common of these is of black colour1 and called hornblende2 the others are pale green sahlite1 blackish brown mica 7#abc71 and green chlorite4 ,in some varieties the hornblende is more abundant than the marble4 #agf4 ,,assynt ,,marble4--,at ,assynt1 in ,sutherland1 a white marble has been discovered1 which is perfectly solid and pure1 and entirely free from blemishes or stains4 ,blocks or slabs of it may be cut of almost any size that can be required4 ,this marble acquires a smooth surface1 but remains of a dead hue2 whence1 of course1 its uses as an ornamental marble are much circumscribed4 #agg4 ,,isle ,,of ,,sky ,,marble4--,there is found in the ,isle of ,sky a marble of pure white colour1 which appears capable of yielding large and valuable blocks4 ,its fracture is granular and splintery1 and its texture fine4 ,it is harder1 heavier1 and more compact than the marble of ,carrara 7#adf72 and is apparently well fitted for all the purposes of sculpture4 ,but it has the defect of being very unequally hard4 ,while some parts of the stone are nearly as easy to work as that of ,carrara1 other parts are so hard as to add a charge of near fifty per cent4 to the cost of the working4 #agh4 ,,sutherland ,,marble4--,some beautiful specimens of marble of dark brown colour1 veined with whitish1 light red1 or light brown1 have lately been brought from the county of ,sutherland4 ,these appear of close texture1 are susceptible of a beautiful polish1 and are capable of being wrought into extremely beautiful slabs for chimneypieces and other ornamental purposes4 #agi4 ,,glen ,,tilt ,,marble is of white or grey colour1 and veined or spotted with yellow or green2 some specimens are nearly white4 ,the granulations are peculiarly large2 and1 in its aspect and composition1 the ,glen ,tilt has great general resemblance to the ,pentelic marble 7#adc74 ,this marble has of late attracted the notice of the ,duke of ,athol1 through the suggestion of ,dr4 ,macculloch2 and chimneypieces of it have since been made4 ,it is obtained from a valley of the same name in the county of ,perth4 #ahj4 ,,blairgowrie ,,marble4--,a few miles from ,blairgowrie1 in ,perthshire1 there is an excellent granulated broadbedded marble1 of sugarloaf texture1 and as white as the finest statuary marble4 ,it may be easily raised in blocks and in slabs of great size1 perfectly free from blemishes4 ,this marble is supposed to be well adapted for ornamental architecture1 but its large sparry texture renders it unfit for the sculptor4 #aha4 ,,glenavon ,,marble is of white colour1 with large granular concretions1 somewhat like spangles1 and as large as the scales of fishes4 ,this is a valuable kind2 but its situation in the forest of ,glenavon1 on the property of the ,duke of ,gordon1 is remote and difficult of access4 #ahb4 ,,ballichulish ,,marble4--,on the north side of the ferry of ,ballichulish1 in ,lochaber1 there is a rock of marble1 of beautiful ashgrey colour1 and of a fine1 regular1 and uniform grain1 which is capable of being wrought into blocks or slabs of any size1 and is susceptible of a fine polish4 ,this marble is finely sprinkled throughout with grains and specks of pyrites 7#bcf71 and with grains and specks of a beautiful lead ore1 which to the eye appears to be rich in silver4 ,if used for ornamental purposes1 it would be a bright and beautiful metallic marble4 #ahc4 ,,blairmachyldach ,,marble4--,in the bed of a river1 at the farm of ,blairmachyldach1 about three miles south of ,fort ,william1 is a singular marble1 consisting of a black ground1 flowered with white4 ,it is of fine close grain1 but not very hard4 ,the flowering in it is light1 and beautiful1 like fine needlework1 or rather resembling the frosty fretwork upon glass windows1 in a winter morning4 ,the cutting and polishing of marble appear to have been performed by the ancients nearly in the same manner as it is with us4 ,in polishing1 the first substance employed is a sharp1 coarsegrained sand4 ,afterwards a finer sand is used1 then emery 7#eh7 in different degrees of fineness4 ,these are followed by a red powder called tripoli 7#aai73 and the last polish is given with putty4 #ahd4 ,,black ,,marble is a species of limestone1 of uniform black colour1 and easily distinguishable1 by an excessively disagreeable smell1 which is emitted on rubbing two pieces of it together1 or striking it with a hammer4 ,few minerals are susceptible of a more beautiful polish than this4 ,it is consequently much used for chimneypieces1 small columns1 vases1 and other ornamental work4 ,there are two quarries of black marble near ,bakewell1 in ,derbyshire3 and it is manufactured to a considerable extent by ,messrs4 ,brown and ,co4 at ,derby1 who have fixed up in their warerooms a large slab of it as a lookingglass4 ,by the ancients it was much prized4 ,marcus ,scaurus is said to have ornamented his palace with columns of black marble1 each thirtyeight feet high2 and many of the monuments of ancient ,persepolis were executed in it4 ,m4 ,d',avejan1 ,bishop of ,alais1 used a kind of black marble for paving the apartments of his palace2 but the friction and heat rendered it so fetid that his successors were compelled to substitute another species of stone in its place4--,the pavements1 however1 of many churches1 and of the porticos of several galleries1 on the ,continent1 are of black marble4 #ahe4 ,,calcareous ,,alabaster is a species of limestone of somewhat whitish or yellowish colour1 translucent1 and internally splendent or shining4 ,it is nearly a pure carbonat of lime2 and occurs in masses1 hanging1 like immense icicles1 from the roofs of limestone caverns1 and also coating the sides of such caverns4 ,the formation of this substance is deserving of notice4 ,the water which oozes through the crevices of limestone rocks1 becomes strongly impregnated with minute particles of lime4 ,this water1 when it has reached the roof or side of a cavern1 is generally suspended1 for a considerable time1 before a drop of sufficient size to fall by its own weight is formed4 ,in the interval which thus elapses1 some of the particles of lime are separated from the water1 owing to the escape of the carbonic acid 7#bf71 and adhere to the roof4 ,in this manner successive particles are separated1 and are attached to each other1 until what is called a stalactite1 having somewhat the appearance of an icicle1 is formed4 ,these stalactites are sometimes solid1 having a lamellar structure2 sometimes of a fibrous texture1 radiating from the centre to the circumference1 as may be observed when they are broken2 and sometimes hollow4 ,if the water collects and drops too rapidly to allow time for the formation of a stalactite1 it falls upon the floor1 and there forms an irregular lump of alabaster1 which has the name of stalagmite4 ,in some caverns1 the separation of the calcareous matter takes place both at the roof and on the floor2 and1 in course of time1 the substance upon each increasing1 they meet1 and form pillars1 sometimes of great magnitude4 ,caverns of this kind occur in almost every country4 ,those of ,derbyshire are well known2 but the most celebrated stalactitic cave in the world is that of ,antiparos1 in the ,grecian ,archipelago4 ,the kind of limestone formed in the above manner is what the ancients generally denominated alabaster4 ,it was employed by them for the same purposes as marble1 was cut into tables1 columns1 vases1 and sometimes even into statues4 ,they also used it in the manufacture of vases or boxes for containing unguents4 ,it is supposed to have been a vessel formed of this stone that is mentioned in the ,gospel of ,st4 ,matthew1 where it is said there came unto our ,saviour 8a woman having an alabaster box of precious ointment40 ,in the ,national ,museum at ,paris there is a colossal figure of an ,egyptian deity1 which is cut in a kind of alabaster brought from the mountains between the ,nile and the ,red ,sea4 #ahf4 ,,tufa1 or ,,incrusting ,,carbonat ,,of ,,lime1 is a calcareous substance deposited by such water as is impregnated with lime4 ,it clothes1 with a stony coat1 the smaller branches of trees1 leaves1 moss1 plants1 and other substances2 and thus preserves them from decay1 by protecting them from the action of the atmosphere4 ,most of the substances termed by the common people petrifactions belong to this kind of lime4 ,they are1 however1 merely covered with1 and by no means converted into stone4 ,the dropping well at ,knaresborough1 in ,yorkshire1 is particularly celebrated for them4 ,an overhanging rock1 several yards in depth1 has been gradually formed of the calcareous matter which the water holds in solution2 and1 from this rock1 it incessantly drops into the basin below4 ,the persons who have the care of the place constantly keep these petrified articles for sale4 ,even old wigs and hair brooms are subjected to the powers of the water1 to furnish subjects for attraction to the visitors4 ,there are other springs of this description in ,oxfordshire and ,somersetshire1 and particularly at ,matlock1 in ,derbyshire4 ,we are informed that at ,dalton1 on the south side of ,mendip1 the workmen not unfrequently discover large pieces of oak enveloped in blocks of stone which are four or five tons in weight4 ,blocks of tufa are1 in some countries1 cut and used for building stones2 and this substance1 when burned1 becomes an excellent lime4 ,pieces of it are sometimes hollowed1 and used as filtering stones4 ,in the ,british ,museum there is a human skull completely incrusted with stone1 which was found in the river ,tiber4 ,the warm baths of ,hungary are often so thickly coated at the sides and bottom with tufa1 that1 during certain intervals1 it actually fills up the tubes and canals through which they are supplied4 ,the fur in teakettles is a somewhat similar deposit from water in boiling4 #ahg4 ,,portland ,,stone1 ,,bath ,,stone1 ,,ketton ,,stone1 are different kinds of limestone2 and1 of a texture so hard and compact as to be used in building4 ,they have their names from the places where they are respectively found1 in ,portland ,island1 near ,bath1 and at ,ketton1 in the county of ,rutland4 ,of ,ketton stone several of the colleges in ,cambridge are built4 ,its grain has a singular resemblance to the petrified roe of a fish1 whence also it is sometimes called roestone4 ,the bridges1 ,st4 ,paul's ,cathedral1 the ,monument1 and nearly all the buildings of late date in ,london1 are constructed of ,portland stone4 ,some of these kinds of stone1 when first dug out of the quarry1 are so soft that they are readily worked into any form which use or ornament may require4 ,this is owing to the moisture with which they are naturally impregnated2 but when they once become hardened1 by exposure to the sun and air1 they are extremely firm and solid4 ,on the contrary1 other kinds of limestone that are used for buildings imbibe and retain the moisture of the atmosphere1 in consequence of which they burst or are crumbled by frost4 ,we are informed that ,portland stone was first used in ,london in the reign of ,james the ,first1 that monarch1 by the advice of his architects1 having employed it in the construction of the banquetting house at ,whitehall4 ,after the great fire in ,london1 it was brought into general use by ,sir ,christopher ,wren4 #ahh4 ,,marl is a combination of clay1 silex 7#gf71 and lime3 and is denominated calcareous1 argillaceous1 or siliceous1 as the lime1 clay1 or silex1 is most abundant4 ,the calcareous part of marl is frequently composed of shells1 whence it frequently has the name of shell marl2 and where these are predominant1 it affords an excellent manure for sandy1 dry1 gravelly1 or light lands4 ,marl likewise produces very beneficial effects on mossy and clayey soils2 and these effects1 where it has been properly applied1 have been observable for twelve or fourteen years4 ,some kinds of marl that contain but a small portion of lime have been successfully used in the manufacture of earthenware4 ,this mineral is usually found at the depth of from five to nine feet beneath the surface of the ground1 and deposited between beds of clay and sand4 ,it is dug out with spades2 and1 in the digging of it1 in ,ireland1 the workmen not unfrequently meet with the horns of deer and other curious fossils4 ,the usual mode by which persons1 generally unacquainted with minerals1 distinguish this from other clayey substances1 is1 to break a small piece of dry marl into a glass of vinegar4 ,if it be marl it will immediately dissolve with considerable effervescence2 and the briskness of the effervescence will be in proportion to the quantity of lime which it contains4 #ahi4 ,,florence ,,marble is a kind of indurated or hardened marl1 and is remarkable for presenting1 when polished1 the appearance of ruined edifices or rocks4 ,this kind of marble is never used in architecture4 ,little slabs of it are cut for ,mosaic work1 and to be framed like pictures2 and the latter1 when of considerable dimensions1 are sometimes purchased at a high price4 ,if held at a distance from the eye1 an inexperienced observer might mistake a slab of ,florence marble for a drawing in bistre4 ,here1 observes a ,french writer1 we remark a shattered ,gothic castle1 there the mouldering fragments of a cathedral2 in one part ruined walls1 and in another shattered bastions and towers4 ,but1 when we approach the picture1 the illusion vanishes1 and those imaginary figures which1 at a distance1 appeared to be so correctly drawn1 become changed into irregular spots1 lines1 and shades1 which present nothing distinct to the view4 #aij4 ,,cottam ,,marble1 which1 when cut and polished1 also exhibits the appearance of a landscape1 is a kind of compact marl4 ,it has its name from being found at ,cottam1 near ,bristol4 #aia4 ,,lias1 or ,,calp is a kind of limestone of bluish black1 or greyish blue colour1 and composed chiefly of lime1 silex 7#gf71 clay1 and oxide of iron 7#ba74 ,this stone1 when burned1 forms a cement which has the property of setting very strongly under water4 ,it has also1 of late years1 been employed in a manner which merits particular notice1 for the multiplying of copies of drawings and penmanship4 ,a drawing is made on prepared paper with a peculiar kind of ink4 ,a slab of lias1 about an inch thick1 is then heated2 the drawing is placed upon it1 and both are passed through a rolling press4 ,the paper is afterwards wetted1 and washed from the stone2 but the ink1 being of a gummy or glutinous quality1 becomes in part absorbed by the stone1 and remains4 ,the stone is then ready for the printer4 ,previously to taking off each impression1 the stone is wetted with a sponge2 fresh ink 7which is said somewhat to resemble printers' ink1 and is put on with a ball similar to that used by letterpress printers7 is then applied4 ,this is prevented1 by the water1 from adhering to any part except to the ink that had been absorbed1 by the stone1 from the paper on which the drawing was originally made4 ,paper is then placed on the stone1 both are passed through a rolling press as before1 and a perfect impression of the drawing is made upon the paper4 ,this art has been practised in ,germany with great success2 and with the difference only of the original drawing being made upon the stone instead of paper4 ,many beautiful specimens of drawings1 taken from slabs of lias1 may be seen in this country4 ,it is said that copies of military drawings and orders were1 to a very large amount1 multiplied by this means at the headquarters of the armies lately employed on the ,continent4 ,an artificial composition is sometimes used instead of lias4 ,considerable quarries of this stone are wrought in ,germany4 ,it is also found at ,leixlip1 near ,dublin2 in beds at ,aberthaw1 in ,glamorganshire2 in ,dorsetshire1 and near ,bath4 ,,sulphat ,,of ,,lime4 #aib4 ,,alabaster1 or ,,gypsum1 is a kind of sulphat of lime1 or of lime in combination with sulphuric acid 7#bd71 which has a shivery and glittering texture2 and is of white colour tinged with grey or red1 and sometimes striped1 veined1 or spotted4 ,when crystallized1 the primitive form of its crystals is a regular foursided prism 7,pl4 ,,ii1 ,fig4 #ad47 ,being considerably softer than marble1 this mineral is not capable of receiving a good polish4 ,from this circumstance it is1 however1 the more easily worked4 ,it is manufactured into chimneypieces1 columns1 busts1 ornamental vases1 and lamps2 the latter of which transmit a soft and pleasing light4 ,such is sometimes the transparency of alabaster1 that it has been employed for windows2 and1 at ,florence1 there is now a church which receives its light through the medium of this substance4 ,the ancients1 though acquainted with the art of making glass1 had not attained the knowledge of reducing it into thin transparent plates2 and frequently employed alabaster for windows4 ,of this stone the ,temple of ,fortune1 which was built by order of the ,emperor ,nero1 was erected4 ,it had no windows whatever1 and received only a soft kind of light through its walls2 appearing rather as if the light issued from the interior1 than that it was admitted from without4 ,the hot springs of ,st4 ,philip1 which supply the baths of ,tuscany1 are so strongly impregnated with alabaster1 that artists take advantage of this to obtain impressions of basreliefs1 by merely exposing their moulds to a current of the water until they become filled with the earthy deposit4 ,these impressions1 when taken out1 are found to be as hard as marble1 and are very beautiful4 ,there are1 in the ,british ,museum1 some casts of medals formed from the water of these springs4 ,when alabaster is heated1 it falls into a soft white powder1 which1 on being mixed with water1 absorbs it so rapidly1 that if it be formed into a paste1 it dries and becomes hard in a few minutes4 ,in this state it is called plaster of ,paris2 and is employed for the making of statues1 casts1 and other ornamental work1 which1 though of a beautiful white colour1 are very brittle4 ,when mixed with coloured gummy or glutinous substances1 it yields plasters of different hues1 and has the name of stucco2 and1 in this state1 is used for lining the walls and ceilings of rooms4 ,this plaster is much in request in the northern counties of ,england1 for the floors of dairies1 storerooms1 granaries1 and other apartments2 and1 when properly formed1 it constitutes a very smooth and durable flooring4 ,the fine white varieties of gypsum are used as an ingredient in the composition of earthenware and porcelain2 and the glaze1 or enamel1 with which porcelain is covered1 has the purest gypsum for one of its ingredients4 ,of late years this mineral has been advantageously employed as a manure for fertilizing the soil4 ,gypsum is found in ,cheshire and ,derbyshire1 as well as in several parts of the ,continent4 ,that which is imported into this country from ,italy and ,spain is considered the best4 #aic4 ,,fibrous ,,gypsum4--,there is a variety of gypsum which has a somewhat fibrous appearance1 and which1 when cut in a convex form1 and polished1 reflects a light not much unlike that of the catseye 7#hf74 ,hence it is sometimes sold to ignorant persons for that stone4 ,it has also been imposed upon purchasers for the gem called moonstone 7#aac74 ,fibrous gypsum is cut into earpendants1 crosses1 beads for necklaces1 and other female ornaments2 but its softness is such as to allow of its being easily injured both by dirt and friction4 ,,fluat ,,of ,,lime4 #aid4 ,,fluor ,,spar1 or ,,derbyshire ,,spar1 is a mineral formed by the combination of lime with fluoric acid 7#bg74 ,it sometimes occurs in a massive1 and sometimes in a crystallized state2 the primitive form of its crystals being a regular octohedron 7,pl4 ,,ii1 ,fig4 #e74 ,its colour is usually bluish1 green1 yellow1 whitish1 or a mixture of some of these4 ,when heated1 this substance cracks1 and shines brightly in the dark4 ,but if kept hot for some time1 it ceases to be luminous1 and this property cannot be restored to it4 ,if also two pieces be rubbed strongly together1 they become luminous in the dark4 ,from this spar are made several kinds of ornamental vases of considerable size1 columns1 and toys1 which1 from being extremely varied in their colours and appearance1 and admitting of a high polish1 are very beautiful4 ,when a piece of fluor spar is to be wrought into a vase1 or any similar article1 it is first carved with a mallet and chisel into a somewhat spherical form4 ,it is then fixed to a turner's lathe1 and1 with great care1 is formed into the shape that is required4 ,when this is complete1 it has to be polished1 which is done first with gritstone and pumice 7#ajh71 and lastly with emery 7#eh7 and putty4 ,the lathes formerly in use were worked by the foot2 but those now adopted are worked by machinery1 the advantage of the more steady motion of which has been that ornaments of much more delicate structure can now be formed than before4 ,the manufacture of articles from fluor spar gives employment to a great number of industrious families in ,derbyshire4 ,this mineral occurs in several parts of that county1 where it has the name of ,blue ,john1 and where it is obtained from caverns at a considerable depth beneath the surface of the earth4 ,it is also found in various countries both of the ,european and ,american continents4 ,the acid produced from fluor spar is called fluoric acid 7#bg71 and has the peculiar property of corroding glass and flint1 and consequently cannot be kept in glass bottles4 ,artists1 by means of fluoric acid1 are enabled to etch on glass1 in the same manner as1 with aqua fortis 7nitric acid71 they do on copper4 ,the process is sufficiently simple4 ,the glass is first a little heated1 for the purpose of covering it thinly over with wax2 then1 with a needle or other fine point the drawing is to be made1 by cutting through the wax to the surface of the glass4 ,the edges are next to have a little wall of wax raised upon them4 ,this done1 the glass must be placed in an horizontal position1 and sifted over with fluor finely pounded2 and lastly1 a mixture of one part of spirit of vitriol or sulphuric acid 7#bd7 with two or three parts of water is to be poured gently upon it4 ,the acid will be prevented from running off by the wax2 and1 in the course of a little while1 if these be cleared away1 the glass will be found corroded in all the lines along which the needle passed4 ,the mode of obtaining fluoric acid for chemical purposes is1 by pouring sulphuric acid upon powdered spar in a leaden retort1 and applying to it a gentle heat4 ,this acid should be used with great caution2 for1 when applied to the skin1 it instantly disorganizes it1 and produces very painful sores4 ,,barytes ,,family4 #aie4 ,these minerals are sometimes called ponderous earths1 and have their name from a ,greek word signifying heavy4 ,they comprehend all the combinations of barytes with acids4 ,when purified1 they form a greyish white1 porous substance1 which is easily reducible to powder2 has no perceptible smell1 but has a harsh and more burning taste than lime1 and changes the blues of vegetable colours to green4 ,although barytes is one of the most useful chemical tests that we are acquainted with1 it is not much employed in the arts1 because1 when purified1 it is found too expensive4 ,it is capable of being made into a very tenacious cement2 and painters use a preparation that is made from it as a white colour which will not change4 ,this is sold in the shops under the name of 8,hume's permanent white40 ,barytes taken into the stomach proves a virulent poison2 yet a preparation of it is used in medicine1 and particularly for the removal of scrophulous complaints4 ,when finely pounded and mixed with oatmeal1 carbonat of barytes has been found an efficacious poison for rats4 #aif4 ,,sulphat of ,,barytes is a mineral formed by the combination of sulphuric acid 7#bd7 with barytes4 ,it sometimes occurs in a state of powder1 frequently in shapeless masses1 and often crystallized3 the primitive form of its crystals being a foursided prism4 ,it is not soluble in any other than sulphuric acid4 ,with us sulphat of barytes is of no use in the arts4 ,the ,chinese1 however1 employ it as an ingredient in the composition of porcelain2 and it is said to form a good manure for clover fields4 ,the ,,bologna ,,phosphorus1 or ,,bononian ,,stone1 a very remarkable kind of barytes1 has its name from being found near ,bologna in ,italy4 ,this substance1 when detached1 is usually observed in roundish1 flat1 kidneyshaped pieces1 from about the size of a walnut to that of an orange1 which have a shining and somewhat fibrous texture within4 ,when the outer coat of this stone is washed away by heavy rains1 it has sometimes the appearance of burnished silver4 ,an ,italian shoemaker1 in the year #afcj1 deceived by this appearance1 carried home several pieces1 hoping1 by means of fire1 to extract silver from them4 ,but at the same time that he was disappointed in this expectation1 he was surprised by a very unlookedfor phenomenon4 ,all the pieces which he had thus attempted to melt1 when they were afterwards exposed to the light1 became themselves luminous4 ,it is the singular property of the ,bologna phosphorus1 after it has undergone calcination in a particular manner1 to become capable of imbibing so much light on exposure1 for a little while1 to the light of the sun1 or even to the flame of a candle1 that it will afterwards shine in the dark for an interval of from eight to fifteen minutes1 like a glowing coal1 but without any sensible heat4 ,the light which it emits is sufficient to read by1 provided the letters be placed near it4 ,if well prepared1 the stone will retain this extraordinary property for five or six years4 ,the preparation of it is thus conducted4 ,pieces of sulphat of barytes are made red hot1 for a few minutes1 in a covered crucible placed in the middle of a fire1 and then left to cool4 ,when cool1 they are pounded in a stone mortar1 and sifted4 ,the powder thus formed is made into a paste with a little gum arabic1 and divided into long cakes1 or cylinders1 each about a quarter of an inch thick4 ,these pieces are dried in a moderate heat1 and then1 by degrees1 are exposed to a more violent heat1 among charcoal1 in a wind furnace4 ,as soon as the coals of the furnace are half consumed1 it must be filled a second time1 and the phosphorus must be left undisturbed4 ,when the coals are quite consumed the ashes must be carefully blown off with a pair of bellows1 and the phosphorus will be found at the bottom of the grate4 ,,class ,,ii4--,,salts4 ,,order ,i4--,,earthy ,,salts4 ,,alumine ,,family4 #aig4 ,,alum is a substance of yellowish or greyish white colour1 usually opaque1 but sometimes transparent4 ,when purified1 it consists of slender1 irregular1 hairshaped fibres1 and has a sweetish1 astringent taste4 ,the alum of commerce is an artificial production from the different kinds of stones which contain it4 ,that called ,roman alum1 from its being procured from the neighbourhood of ,rome1 is usually considered preferable to the other sorts2 but good alum of our own manufacture is equal to it in quality4 ,the ,levant1 or ,roche alum1 is said to have had its name from the village of ,rocca1 the present ,edessa1 in ,syria4 ,there is a famous alum mine at ,tolfa1 near ,civita ,vecchia1 in ,italy4 ,the alum is obtained from this mine nearly in a pure state2 and it is so extremely hard1 that it can only be wrought by means of pickaxes1 and gunpowder4 ,at ,solfatara1 near ,naples1 and in other volcanic countries1 an abundance of alum is found1 in a state of efflorescence1 from the lava4 ,the alum of our own country is manufactured from a kind of slaty stone which is found near ,whitby1 in ,yorkshire4 ,this manufactory was first established about the conclusion of the sixteenth century1 by ,sir ,thomas ,chaloner1 who is supposed to have obtained his knowledge of the process1 from the alum works which had then lately been introduced into ,germany and ,spain4 ,the rock of alum slate1 near ,whitby1 is supposed to be nearly twelve miles in extent3 and affords an abundant supply of alum4 ,the workmen tear open the rock2 after which the different fragments are loosened1 in the form of slaty leaves or plates1 that are of a dark grey colour4 ,to obtain the alum1 a bed of fagots is formed from ten to twelve feet in depth4 ,by the side of this a scaffold is erected1 which enables the workmen to form a pile of mineral about fifty feet long1 and forty feet high4 ,while this pile is forming1 the fagots are lighted4 ,by the gradual operation of the heat1 a calcination takes place1 in consequence of which the alum is afterwards rendered capable of being more easily separated than it otherwise would be from the stone in which it was contained1 and from other extraneous matters that are combined with it4 ,after this1 the mineral is washed in shallow vessels1 so arranged that the water may be poured from one into the other4 ,by this process the alum becomes suspended in the water1 while all the earthy particles subside to the bottom4 ,the next operation is to evaporate the water saturated with alum4 ,this is done by boiling it in large leaden caldrons1 fixed1 on cast iron bars1 over a furnace4 ,as soon as the contents of the caldrons are brought to a proper state1 they are drawn off into casks1 where the alum concretes into a mass4 ,the hoops are then taken off1 and the alum is broken and left to dry2 after which it is packed in casks for sale4 ,alum is an article of indispensable importance to dyers1 not only on account of its cleansing and opening the pores of the substances to be dyed1 and thus rendering them fit to receive the colouring particles1 but also from its more essential property of fixing the colours in such manner that they cannot afterwards be washed out4 ,by tanners it is in great request for giving firmness to the skins after they have been rendered flaccid in the limepits4 ,it is employed in the manufacture of paper1 and by engravers1 and other artists4 ,in the making of candles1 alum is added to the tallow1 to render it glossy1 and to give it greater firmness and consistence2 and1 mixed with cream1 it aids the separation of butter4 ,it has a tendency to retard ignition4 ,paper soaked in alum water does not easily take fire1 and is thereby better fitted for the preservation of gunpowder4 ,such paper is likewise used in the whitening of silver1 and the silvering of brass4 ,it has been recommended that ladies' muslin dresses should be dipped in a solution of this substance1 for the purpose of rendering them less liable to catch fire4 ,a solution of alum also retards the putrefaction of animal substances1 and affords useful1 as well as economical1 means of preserving natural productions that are imported from foreign countries4 ,alum is frequently mixed with paste1 to prevent its losing its tenacity by the absorption of moisture4 ,it is asserted that bakers occasionally use it as an ingredient in bread1 and that its presence may be discovered by thrusting a heated knife into a loaf before it is cold3 if free from alum1 scarcely any alteration will be visible on the blade1 but if the contrary1 the surface1 when cool1 will appear slightly covered with an incrustation of alum4 ,a very important purpose to which alum may be applied is in the purifying and sweetening of water that has become fetid and unfit for use2 from five to ten grains of burned alum1 and double or treble that quantity of pounded charcoal1 will correct the fetor of a gallon of water4 ,printers' cushions1 and the blocks used for the printing of calicos1 are rubbed with burned alum to remove any greasiness1 which otherwise would prevent the ink or colour from sticking4 ,this substance is also occasionally employed by surgeons to stop the bleeding of small vessels1 to corrode fungous or proud flesh1 and for other purposes in medicine4 #aih4 ,,magnesia ,,family4 ,this is a family of minerals which comprehends all the combinations of magnesia with acids4 ,when freed from extraneous matters1 magnesia is a powdery substance of limpid white colour4 #aii4 ,,epsom ,,salts1 or ,,sulphat ,,of ,,magnesia1 consist of magnesia in conjunction with sulphuric acid 7#bd74 ,it is said that ,epsom salts have been found in the ,alps1 and in ,switzerland1 under a powdery form1 and sometimes even in masses1 or a state of incrustation on stones and rocks4 ,they are1 however1 chiefly found dissolved in mineral waters1 and particularly in those at ,epsom in ,surrey1 and ,sedlitz in ,bohemia4 ,their taste is bitter and unpleasant4 ,so little are they affected by exposure to the air1 that the ,abb ,hay kept some by him for more than twelve years without any sensible alteration4 ,these salts are much used in medicine1 and are sometimes manufactured from the waters of ,epsom 7#bij7 and ,sedlitz 7#bhi71 but more frequently1 and in much greater abundance1 from seawater4 ,the magnesia of the shops is prepared by dissolving ,epsom salts in water1 and adding to the solution half their weight of potash 7#bje74 ,the substance that sinks to the bottom is magnesia2 and this1 washed with a sufficient quantity of water and dried1 has the appearance of a light1 soft1 and white powder1 of insipid taste4 ,magnesia is used in medicine1 both in a simple state and when calcined or burned4 ,it is also employed in some chemical processes2 and is in considerable request in the manufacture of enamel and porcelain4 ,if putrid water be agitated with a small quantity of magnesia1 it will lose a considerable portion of its bad taste and smell4 #bjj4 ,,soda ,,family4 ,soda1 like potash 7#bje71 is an extremely caustic alkali 7#db74 ,it has a greyish white colour1 and agrees exactly with potash 7#bje7 in taste1 smell1 and corrosive quality1 but it is not so heavy4 ,in a mineral state soda has hitherto been found only in combination with some acid4 ,common salt 7#bjb7 is a compound of soda with muriatic acid 7#bi74 ,the soda of commerce is obtained from seawater2 and from the ashes of different kinds of plants that grow on the seashores1 but particularly from that called salsola soda1 which is found in great abundance on the coasts of the southern parts of ,europe2 and from which it has its name4 ,it is sometimes called barilla1 from the salsola soda being so denominated in ,spain4 ,this alkali is of essential use in the arts4 ,when melted with flint or sand1 it forms glass1 and answers much better for this purpose than potash4 ,in conjunction with oil and lime1 it is employed in the manufacture of soap2 and it is used as a substitute for soap in the cleaning and bleaching of linen1 flannels1 and worsted goods4 ,if a weak solution of soda be poured into foul bottles1 or casks in which wine has long been kept1 it will cleanse them4 ,it may also be successfully used for the cleansing of vessels in which milk has become acid4 ,saddles1 bridles1 or boottops1 may be effectually cleaned by means of this liquor1 and restored nearly to their original colour and appearance4 ,the art of soapboiling may easily be illustrated by the following experiment4 ,take a piece of quicklime1 slake it gradually by sprinkling on it a sufficient quantity of water4 ,when it is completely slaked1 add to it about twenty times its weight of water4 ,to this mixture add two parts1 by weight1 of common subcarbonat of soda1 previously dissolved in a sufficient quantity of water4 ,boil the whole for about half an hour1 strain it through a cloth1 and boil it till so much of the water is evaporated that a phial that will contain an ounce of water will hold one ounce1 seven pennyweights and a half1 of this ley4 ,then mix in an earthenware pipkin or basin1 one part of the ley1 with two parts of olive oil4 ,place the mixture in a gentle heat1 capable only of making the liquor simmer1 and allow it to simmer1 stirring the liquor continually1 with a wooden stick1 till1 by letting a few drops of it fall on a plate1 the soap will be found to coagulate1 and the water become speedily separated from it4 ,after which1 pour out the contents into a cup1 and suffer it to cool4--,soap may also be prepared without heat4 ,if one part of the ley be mixed with two parts of olive oil1 in a glass or stone ware vessel1 and the mixture be stirred1 from time to time1 with a wooden spoon or spatula1 it will become thick1 and white2 in seven or eight days afterwards the combination will be completed1 and a white and firm soap will be obtained4 ,white soap is formed of ingredients similar to those that have just been mentioned4 ,yellow soap is made with tallow1 resin1 and soda4 ,soap may be formed by boiling shreds of woollen cloth with ley till the whole has acquired a certain consistence4 ,this kind of soap has been made1 and applied with success1 in several manufactories in ,france4--,the combination of oil and other ingredients with potash 7#bje71 instead of soda1 affords what is called soft soap4 #bja4 ,,natron1 or ,,carbonat of ,,soda1 is a salt which consists of soda 7#bjj7 in combination with carbonic acid 7#bf74 ,it is massive1 of greyish colour1 soluble in water1 and has a disagreeable alkaline taste4 ,this salt is found in ,egypt1 on the surface of the earth1 and particularly near the margins of certain lakes called natron lakes4 ,in the summer season the water of these lakes is evaporated by the heat of the sun1 leaving a bed of natron generally about two feet in thickness4 ,this is broken with wedges and hammers2 and packed up for sale in the ,european markets4 ,the waters of some of the lakes contain both common salt and natron2 and these1 on evaporation1 crystallize in successive beds4 ,natron is found in considerable quantity under the form of an efflorescence1 on the surface of the earth1 in the plains of ,debreczin in ,hungary4 ,it is likewise found in small quantity in the ashes of most vegetables1 but particularly in those of salsoda and salicornia4 ,the ancient ,egyptians are said to have made great use of natron for the preservation of dead bodies1 by macerating them in it for several months previously to their being embalmed4 ,large quantities of this salt are sometimes imported into ,england1 by the ,east ,india ,company's ships1 from ,china1 and other parts of the ,east4 ,it is employed in the manufacture of soap1 and for the washing of linen4 ,glassmakers mix it with sand for the formation of glass4 ,on the continent it is administered as a medicine in complaints of the bowels and liver4 ,the ancients sometimes employed a mixture of natron for soaking their seed corn1 under an impression1 that1 when afterwards committed to the earth1 it would thereby be rendered more fertile4 #bjb4 ,,common ,,salt1 or ,,muriat of ,,soda1 though found in some countries in a solid and massive state1 is for the most part an artificial preparation from seawater1 and from the water of salt lakes and brine springs4 ,it consists of soda 7#bjj7 in combination with muriatic acid 7#bi74 ,few productions1 either natural or artificial1 are in so much request as common salt4 ,it is used by the inhabitants of nearly all countries1 for correcting the insipidity of food4 ,when applied in small quantities1 it accelerates the putrid fermentation2 and1 in this case1 is considered to aid digestion1 by promoting the decomposition of the aliments4 ,in larger quantity it has a contrary effect1 and tends to preserve organic substances from corruption4 ,salt is used for glazing the surface of coarse earthenware2 and is employed in several processes of dyeing4 ,when this substance is dug out of the earth it has the appellation of rock salt3 and immense masses of it are found in different countries of the world4 ,the most considerable1 as well as the most celebrated salt mines1 with which we are acquainted1 are those about five miles from ,cracow1 in ,poland2 and it is supposed that they contain more salt than would be sufficient to supply the wants of the whole world for several thousand years4 ,on descending to the bottom of these mines1 a stranger is astonished to find a kind of subterraneous republic1 consisting of many families1 who have their own peculiar laws and polity4 ,here are likewise public roads1 and carriages1 horses being employed to draw the salt to the mouths of the mine1 where it is taken up by engines4 ,the horses1 when once they are down1 never more see the light of day2 and many of the people seem buried alive in this immense abyss4 ,some are born there1 and never stir out2 others1 however1 have occasional opportunities of breathing the fresh air in the fields1 and enjoying the light of the sun4 ,the subterraneous passages or galleries are very spacious2 and1 in many of them1 chapels are hewn out of the salt4 ,in these are set up crucifixes1 and the images of saints1 before which lights are kept continually burning4 ,in some parts of the mine huge columns of salt are left standing to support the rock4 ,its windings are so numerous and intricate1 that workmen have frequently lost their way3 the lights they carried have been burned out1 and they have perished before they could be found4 ,the salt is taken from these mines in blocks so large as1 sometimes1 to measure nine feet in length1 four feet in width1 and two or three feet in thickness4 ,in the year #aghj1 the greatest depth to which the workmen had penetrated was about #cbj yards1 and the mass of salt was considered to be in some places more than #bdj yards thick1 and to extend at least three leagues4 ,near the town of ,cardona1 about fifty miles northwest of ,barcelona1 in ,spain1 there is a mountain of salt1 without cleft or crevice1 #ejj feet high1 and nearly three miles in circumference4 ,in the province of ,lahore1 in ,hindostan1 travellers have described a mountain of the same mineral1 not inferior to this in magnitude2 and the elevated regions of ,peru afford rock salt at the height of #gjjj feet above the level of the sea4 ,at ,northwich and ,nantwich1 in the county of ,chester1 there are salt mines of great depth and extent4 ,these are frequently visited by travellers1 and are found amply to repay the trouble and inconvenience of descending into them4 ,there are two principal beds of this substance2 the upper one is about fortytwo yards below the surface1 and twentysix yards thick4 ,this was originally discovered about a century and a half ago1 in searching for coal4 ,the lower bed has already been examined to the depth of forty yards1 without coming to the bottom2 and it is about the centre of this bed that the purest salt has been discovered4 ,the average depth of the cavity1 formed by the workmen along the vein of salt in the different mines1 is supposed to be about sixteen feet4 ,in some of the mines1 where pillars six or eight yards square are left to support the roof1 the appearance of the cavity is singularly beautiful3 and the effect is greatly increased when the mine is illuminated by numerous candles fixed to the side of the rock4 ,the scene so formed would almost seem to realize the notion of the magic palaces of ,eastern poets4 ,some of the mines are worked in aisles or streets4 ,the methods employed in working out the salt offer nothing worthy of notice4 ,larger masses are separated from the body of the rock1 by blasting with gunpowder2 and are afterwards broken down with pickaxes1 hammers1 and other instruments4 ,the present number of mines in the vicinity of ,northwich is eleven or twelve1 from which there are raised1 on an average1 #ej1jjj or #fj1jjj tons of salt per annum4 ,the greater part of this quantity is exported to ,ireland and the ,baltic2 and the remainder is employed in ,cheshire1 and the adjacent counties4 ,salt is also made from brine springs in ,cheshire1 ,cumberland1 ,staffordshire1 and ,worcestershire2 but the kind most commonly used in ,england is that which is made from sea water1 and has the name of sea salt4 ,the mode of manufacturing it is very simple4 ,the water is first pumped into shallow reservoirs of earth1 called salt pans1 or salterns4 ,in these it remains exposed to the sun until a certain proportion of the water is evaporated1 so as to leave it about seven times stronger than in its original state4 ,it is then conducted by another pump into flat iron pans1 eight or nine feet square1 and as many inches deep4 ,these1 being placed over a hot fire1 the liquor or brine is boiled until nearly all the remaining particles of water have passed off by evaporation1 and nothing is left in the pans but salt4 ,this is thrown together into proper vessels1 for a few days1 to drain1 after which it is fit for use4 ,in some countries the whole evaporation is performed by the heat of the sun2 and1 in extreme northern climates1 where the sun would not have sufficient power for the operation1 a very different process is adopted4 ,the water is suffered to freeze in the salterns1 and that portion of it which continues uncongealed is so strongly saturated that it requires only a moderate heat to evaporate the remainder of the water1 and to crystallize the salt4 ,bay salt is that which is produced from the evaporation of seawater by the heat of the sun only4 ,the inhabitants of ,cardona1 in ,spain1 make of the rock salt in their neighbourhood various transparent articles1 which they vend at a cheap rate4 ,these1 which consist of small altars1 figures of saints1 crosses1 chandeliers1 saltcellars1 c4 are as clear as crystal1 and1 to appearance1 as lasting4 ,they are chiefly purchased by strangers as curiosities1 and are distributed over various parts of ,spain and the south of ,france4 ,the decomposition of salt furnishes the muriatic acid 7#bi71 or spirit of salt of commerce4 ,this liquid1 which is much used in the arts1 and is in great request by chemists1 is prepared1 for common purposes1 by mixing one part of common salt with seven or eight parts of clay1 and distilling the mixture2 or by distilling common salt and spirit of vitriol or sulphuric acid 7#bd71 and receiving the product into a vessel containing water4 ,it has been discovered that muriatic acid1 in a state of gas1 is an excellent means of correcting putrid exhalations4 ,in the year #aggc1 the cathedral church of ,dijon was so much infected by the corruption of bodies which had been interred within its walls1 that it was entirely deserted4 ,the professor of ,chemistry at ,dijon having been applied to for assistance1 placed1 on a few burning coals1 in the middle of the church1 a glass vessel containing six pounds of common salt4 ,upon this he poured two pounds of sulphuric acid 7#bd71 precipitately withdrew1 and shut all the doors4 ,the gas soon filled the whole cathedral4 ,after twelve hours the doors were thrown open1 and a current of air was made to pass through to remove the gas1 which had entirely destroyed every putrid odour4 ,the following has been recommended as an eligible mode of fumigating rooms for the prevention of infectious disorders4 ,take six drachms of powdered nitre 7#bjf71 and six drachms of sulphuric acid 7spirit of vitriol72 and mix them in a teacup1 by adding to the nitre one drachm at a time of the oil4 ,during the preparation the cup must be placed on a piece of heated iron1 and the mixture stirred with a tobacco pipe or piece of glass4 ,as soon as the fumes arise1 the cup must be moved about to different parts of the room or house that are to be fumigated4 #bjc4 ,,glauber ,,salt1 or ,,sulphat of ,,soda1 is a salt which consists of soda 7#bjj7 in combination with sulphuric acid 7#bd74 ,it occurs in an efflorescent or powdery state1 on the borders of salt lakes2 or1 more commonly1 in a state of solution1 in certain mineral waters4 ,this salt1 which was originally discovered by a ,german chemist whose name was ,glauber1 has a nauseously bitter and saline taste4 ,it is found1 in an efflorescent state1 on meadow ground at ,eger1 in ,bohemia2 and on the walls of old galleries in mines1 at ,grenoble1 in ,france4 ,it is also abundant in the ashes of some kinds of vegetables1 especially of sea weeds4 ,the waters of the ,mediterranean yield a great proportion of it2 and the ,glauber salt used for commercial purposes is chiefly prepared from seawater1 or by decomposing common salt1 in order to procure muriatic acid 7#bi74 ,it may also be obtained by saturating soda with sulphuric acid 7#bd74 ,the use of this salt in medicine is well known2 and1 in some countries1 it is employed as a substitute for soda 7#bjj71 in the manufacture of white glass4 ,it ought to be kept in wellcorked bottles1 as otherwise the crystals soon fall into powder4 ,the following is a pleasing experiment1 which shows a singular and almost instantaneous crystallization of ,glauber's salt4 ,dissolve this salt by adding portions of it gradually to water kept boiling until the water will dissolve no more4 ,pour the solution1 whilst boiling1 into common medicine phials previously warmed1 and immediately cork them4 ,set the phials in a quiet place without shaking them4 ,the solution1 when cool1 will remain perfectly fluid till the cork is taken out2 but the moment this is done1 and the air is admitted1 it will begin to crystallize on its upper surface1 in fine satinlike crystals1 which will shoot downward1 like a dense white cloud4 ,in this act so much heat becomes evolved as to make the phial feel sensibly warm to the hand4 ,when the crystallization is complete1 the whole mass generally becomes so solid1 that1 on inverting the bottle1 not a drop of it will fall out4 ,if the crystallization should not immediately ensue on opening the phial1 this may instantly be effected by dropping into it a minute crystal of the same salt4 ,the experiment may be exhibited any number of times afterwards1 by merely placing the phial in boiling water1 till the salt it contains be again completely liquefied2 and letting it stand1 as before1 to cool4 #bjd4 ,,borax is a salt composed of boracic acid 7#bh7 and soda 7#bjj71 and is imported chiefly from the ,east ,indies1 in the form of a brownish grey1 impure1 shapeless salt1 of sweetish taste2 or in detached prismatic crystals1 each about an inch in length4 ,although borax has long been known as an article of traffic1 there is scarcely any production with the origin of which we have been1 till lately1 less acquainted4 ,it is found in a native1 though impure state1 in a mountain lake1 situated about fifteen days' journey from the capital of ,thibet in the ,east ,indies4 ,this lake is so encompassed with hills as to have no stream either falling into it or flowing from it4 ,the water is salt to the taste1 and contains both borax and common salt2 and the edges and shallow parts are covered with a stratum of this substance1 which is dug up in considerable masses for exportation4 ,it has here the name of tinkal1 and is usually brought into ,europe enveloped in a kind of fatty substance4 ,the mode of refining it was for a long time kept1 by the ,dutch and ,venetians1 amongst those secrets which a want of sufficient research alone prevented from being generally known4 ,when refined1 it is called borax4 ,the uses of borax are numerous4 ,it is employed as a flux for metals1 being found to produce a more perfectly limpid fusion than any other substance4 ,for the same reason it is made an ingredient in the finest kinds of glass1 and particularly in some of the coloured glass pastes which are manufactured in imitation of gems4 ,but its chief use is to jewellers and goldsmiths1 to facilitate the soldering of gold and silver4 ,borax is also used in medicine4 #bje4 ,,potash ,,family4 ,potash is an alkaline substance 7#db71 of white colour1 and of smell somewhat resembling that which is perceived during the slaking of quicklime 7#acg74 ,it is extremely corrosive1 and remarkably acrid to the taste4 ,in a mineral state it is found only in combination with nitric acid 7#cj74 ,potash principally exists under the form of a salt1 in vegetable substances2 and is obtained by burning them1 afterwards repeatedly washing the ashes with water1 and then filtering and evaporating these to dryness4 ,the appellation of potash was given to this salt from its having formerly been prepared in large iron pots4 ,the uses to which it is applied are numerous4 ,in chemistry it is employed for a variety of purposes2 and also in many arts and manufactures1 in scouring1 washing1 bleaching1 dyeing1 glassmaking1 and several others4 ,its corrosive property is such that it is often used by surgeons under the name of potential cautery1 to open abscesses1 and to destroy useless or hurtful excrescences4 ,potash1 after it has been made red hot1 is rendered whiter and more pure4 ,in this state it has the name of pearl ash4 #bjf4 ,,nitre1 or ,,saltpetre1 is a salt which consists of potash in combination with nitric acid 7#cj74 ,its colour is whitish or limpid2 and it does not liquefy by the action of the air4 ,it is usually observed in the form of fine capillary crystals1 though it is sometimes found in a massive state4 ,when pure1 it crystallizes into sixsided prisms 7,pl4 ,,ii1 ,fig4 #ae7 which have a rectangular base4 ,it is denominated by chemists nitrat of potash4 ,nitre is found incrusted on the surface of the earth1 in some parts of ,india1 ,africa1 and ,spain1 and1 in such abundance1 as to admit of being swept off at certain seasons of the year1 twice or three times a week4 ,in our own country it not unfrequently occurs in a state of white efflorescence1 on old plaster walls that are sheltered from rain4 ,nitre is also produced in stables and carthouses1 from the mixture of animal and vegetable substances in a state of putrescence4 ,many kinds of plants1 which grow in soils favourable to the production of it1 contain nitre3 this is particularly the case with pellitory1 borage1 and the large sunflower4 ,immense quantities of nitre are annually required for the purposes of war4 ,from its constituting one of the most important substances in the composition of gunpowder1 it has been found necessary to adopt artificial modes of procuring it4 ,in several districts of the ,east ,indies there are places called saltpetre grounds4 ,from these large quantities of the earth are dug1 and put into cavities through which water is passed4 ,this brings away with it the salt which the earth contains1 and which is afterwards separated from the water by boiling4 ,the ,east ,india ,company1 for more than a century past1 has been under engagements to import into this country1 and supply the board of ordnance1 for his ,majesty's service1 with #ejj tons of nitre annually1 at given rates and prices in times of peace and war4 ,in ,france this article is obtained in what are called nitrires1 or nitre beds4 ,these consist of the refuse of animal and vegetable substances1 which undergo putrefaction1 mixed with calcareous and other earths2 and the nitre is obtained from them by water1 as abovementioned4--,the principal requisites for the formation of nitre are said to be lime1 animal and vegetable matters1 heat1 and an open1 but not too free communication with dry atmospheric air4 ,the discovery of gunpowder has completely changed the modern art of war4 ,the earliest notice that has occurred respecting the use of this article in ,europe is1 that it was employed in the wars of ,germany1 somewhat before the year #acgc4 ,it is said1 however1 to have been known in ,china long anterior to that period4 ,its component parts are nitre1 charcoal1 and sulphur1 in the proportion of seventysix1 fifteen1 and nine parts1 in every hundred4 ,these ingredients are first reduced to a fine powder separately1 and then mixed with water1 so as to form a thick paste4 ,after this has dried a little1 it is placed upon a kind of sieve full of small holes1 through which it is forced4 ,by this process it is divided into grains1 the size of which depend of course upon the size of the holes through which it has been squeezed4 ,it afterwards undergoes some other operations before it is ready for use4 ,nitre is frequently administered in medicine2 and it is used very extensively in different arts4 ,a mixture of equal parts of nitre and tartar1 burned together in a crucible1 forms what is called white flux1 which is used for melting and reducing different kinds of metallic substances4 ,and a mixture of one part of nitre and two parts of tartar burned in the same manner forms what is called black flux4 ,nitre possesses antiseptic qualities in a considerable degree1 whence it is much used1 in conjunction with common salt and bay salt1 for the preserving of animal food from putrefaction4 ,aquafortis1 or nitric acid 7#cj7 as it is denominated by chemists1 is prepared from this mineral4 ,the mode of obtaining it in large manufactories is by distilling a mixture of nitre and clay in glass or stone retorts1 each capable of containing seventy or eighty pounds' weight of this mixture4 ,but the acid thus procured being weak and impure1 chemists1 for nicer purposes1 generally prepare it by distilling1 in a glass apparatus1 a proportion of three parts of nitre and one of sulphuric acid 7#bd74 ,the uses of aquafortis are various and important4 ,all kinds of metals1 except gold and platina1 are capable of being dissolved in it4 ,hence1 among other uses1 it is employed by dyers1 for dissolving tin1 and forming with madder a scarlet colour2 and1 by hatters1 for dissolving mercury 7#bbh7 for some processes in the preparation of hats4 ,jewellers use it for several purposes4 ,,ammonia ,,family4 #bjg4 ,,sal,,ammoniac1 or ,,muriat ,,of ,,ammonia1 is a salt compounded of ammonia and muriatic acid 7#bb74 ,it is occasionally found in a state of powder1 sometimes in a massive form1 and sometimes in very irregularly shaped crystals1 the primitive form of which is an octohedron 7,pl ,,ii1 ,fig4 #e74 ,it is1 however1 more frequently an artificial production from the soot of burned animal matter4 ,the name of salammoniac was acquired by this substance from its having been found by the ancients in great abundance amongst sand near the temple of ,jupiter ,ammon1 in ,africa4 ,it is at present found in ,persia2 and1 accompanying sulphur1 amongst volcanic matter near ,mount ,vesuvius4 ,this salt was formerly imported from ,egypt in the form of conical loaves1 or of round cakes1 which were convex on one side and concave on the other2 but it is now made in ,europe1 by burning at the same time soot1 bones1 oil1 and salt4 ,the deposit formed by the vapour consists of salammoniac1 in conjunction with other substances1 which are separated from it by a subsequent process4 ,when good1 it is white1 transparent1 and dry within2 and externally of yellowish grey1 or blackish colour4 ,salammoniac is applied to many useful purposes4 ,occasionally it is used in medicine4 ,a considerable portion of it is consumed by dyers1 to give brightness to some of their colours4 ,it is also employed in the assay of metals1 to discover the presence of iron2 and having the property of rendering lead brittle1 is sometimes used in the manufacture of shot4 ,by coppersmiths and tinners it is used for cleansing the surface of the metals which they are about to cover with tin4 ,in certain manufactories salammoniac is mixed with tobacco1 to give that article1 or the snuff that is made from it1 additional stimulant properties4 ,salammoniac dissolved in nitric acid 7#cj7 forms the fluid named aquaregia1 which is employed in the solution of gold4 ,,order ,,ii4--,,metallic ,,salts4 ,,salts ,,of ,,iron4 #bjh4 ,,green ,,vitriol1 ,,iron ,,vitriol1 or ,,copperas1 is a mineral salt formed on a decomposition of pyrites 7#bcf7 by the moisture of the atmosphere4 ,it is also called ,,sulphat ,,of ,,iron4 ,its colour is bright green1 and its taste very astringent2 a solution of it in water dropped on oak bark instantly produces a black spot4 ,although copperas is occasionally found in grottoes1 caverns1 the galleries of mines1 and other places2 yet1 being much in request by dyers1 tanners1 and the manufacturers of ink1 it is artificially prepared from pyrites4 ,this mineral being moistened and exposed to the air1 a crust is formed upon it1 which is afterwards dissolved in water2 and from this the crystals of vitriol are obtained by evaporation4 ,the principal use of vitriol is in dyeing woollen articles1 hats1 and other manufactures1 black4 ,it is the basis of ink1 and is used in the manufacture of ,prussian blue4 ,if it be reduced to powder by the action of fire in a crucible1 and mixed with powder of galls1 it forms a dry portable ink4 ,sulphuric acid 7#bd7 may be obtained from this kind of vitriol by distillation4 ,the residue1 after the process is completed1 is used as a red paint2 and when washed1 is employed for the polishing of steel4 ,,salts ,,of ,,copper4 #bji4 ,,blue ,,vitriol1 or ,,sulphat ,,of ,,copper1 is a blue salt formed by a combination of copper with sulphuric acid 7#bd74 ,this substance1 though sometimes found in a state of concretion1 or in the form of powder disseminated over the surface of stones that have been in contact with water impregnated with it1 is more frequently an artificial preparation obtained from evaporating the water which runs through copper mines4 ,in the mines of ,neussol1 in ,hungary1 at the depth of #chj feet beneath the surface of the ground1 are several vats1 placed at different distances1 for the purpose of collecting the water impregnated with copper1 and which flows into them through a kind of gallery above4 ,from this water the vitriol is afterwards separated by evaporation4 ,a process somewhat similar is pursued in our own country4 ,in the principal blue vitriol manufactories established in ,france1 the operation is thus carried on4 ,pieces of copper are first dipped into water1 and their surface1 while wet1 is covered with a stratum of powdered sulphur4 ,the copper thus prepared is put into an oven1 and heated to redness4 ,after some time1 it is taken out1 and1 while hot1 is plunged into a vessel filled with water4 ,these operations are repeated several times1 till the whole of the copper is dissolved1 and the water becomes loaded with vitriol4 ,thus saturated1 the water is placed over a fire till all the fluid particles are dissipated1 and the vitriol alone is left4 ,blue vitriol is used by artists and manufacturers in various ways4 ,it is employed in dyeing3 and enters into the composition of black colours1 to which it gives depth and solidity4 ,blue feathers are stained by plunging them into a hot solution of it4 ,the beautiful grassgreen colour of the shops1 called mineral green1 is made from blue vitriol2 and fowlingpieces and teaurns are browned by washing them with a preparation of it4 ,,salts ,,of ,,zinc4 #baj4 ,,white ,,vitriol1 or ,,sulphat ,,of ,,zinc1 is a whitish1 yellowish1 or greenish white salt1 formed by a combination of zinc 7#bda7 with sulphuric acid 7#bd74 ,although the white vitriol that is used in commerce is chiefly an artificial preparation1 this salt sometimes occurs in a natural state1 in mineral repositories that contain blende 7#bda72 and it appears to be formed by a decomposition of that ore4 ,it is found at ,holywell1 in ,flintshire1 and in some parts of ,cornwall4 ,when white vitriol is artificially prepared1 the blende is roasted1 and thrown1 while red hot1 into a vessel filled with water2 in which it is allowed to remain about eighteen hours4 ,this process is repeated several times2 and1 after the solution has become clear1 it is removed into leaden vessels1 and the water is evaporated by means of heat4 ,on cooling1 it crystallizes4 ,after this the crystals are melted in a copper vessel1 and the surface of the solution is skimmed with a hair sieve4 ,it is then poured into a wooden vessel1 and stirred till it becomes cool1 and acquires a sufficient degree of consistence1 when it is formed into loaves for sale4 ,in this state it has the appearance and colour of refined sugar4 ,white vitriol is chiefly manufactured in ,germany4 ,it is used in medicine2 and is employed in great quantities by varnishers1 to make their oil varnishes dry more readily than they otherwise would4 ,a fine white colour1 called zincwhite1 which is more durable than white lead1 is prepared from it4 ,dyers use a considerable quantity of white vitriol to render deeper the colours produced by madder1 cochineal1 and other substances4 ,a pleasing experiment is made by mixing in a phial a small quantity of solution of white vitriol with a little liquid ammonia4 ,though each of the fluids is transparent when separate1 yet the zinc will now be immediately precipitated in a white mass2 and1 what is peculiarly deserving of remark1 if then shaken1 it will almost as instantly be redissolved4 ,,class ,,iii4--,,combustibles4 ,,sulphur ,,family4 #baa4 ,,common ,,sulphur1 or ,,brimstone1 is a yellow1 dry1 and brittle substance1 which1 in burning1 yields a suffocating fume3 the smell of this1 under the denomination of sulphureous1 is well known4 ,sulphur is found in a pure or native state in nearly all volcanic countries3 it is about twice as heavy as water2 and is sometimes crystallized in the form of octohedrons1 whose bases are rhombs4 ,it exists abundantly in a state of combination with several metallic substances1 and is also formed in putrid animal remains4 ,a great proportion of the sulphur which is used in commerce is obtained by the process of roasting copper1 and other ores1 previously to their being smelted4 ,it passes off in the form of vapour1 and1 on being received into chambers constructed for the purpose1 is there deposited in a powdery state4 ,the substance thus formed is the flour of sulphur of the shops4 ,it is afterwards melted in large pans1 and cast in wooden tubes1 to make the hard1 or roll brimstone4 ,nearly all the sulphur used in ,france comes from the ,solfatara of ,italy4 ,this volcanic country every where exhibits indications of the agency of subterraneous fires4 ,nearly the whole ground is bare and white2 and1 in every part1 is warmer than the atmosphere during the greatest heat of summer4 ,a sulphureous vapour is constantly emitted from the earth1 and sulphur is condensed in various parts1 and in great abundance4 ,this is collected1 packed in casks1 and exported to ,marseilles1 where it undergoes certain preparations that are necessary towards purifying and rendering it fit for sale4 ,a considerable quantity of sulphur is employed in the composition of gunpowder 7#bjf74 ,its readiness of taking fire is the reason of its being employed in the making of matches4 ,sulphur gives a blue colour to artificial fireworks4 ,its vapour is used for the whitening of silk and wool1 and also for the bleaching of straw used for making ladies' hats4 ,modellers employ sulphur to make moulds for various kinds of casts2 and artists are enabled1 by means of it1 to take sharp and beautiful impressions of medals and engraved stones4 ,the mode of doing this is very simple4 ,the sulphur is put into an earthen vessel called a crucible1 and placed on a hot fire4 ,it soon melts2 and if kept some time over the fire1 becomes thick and darkcoloured4 ,when poured into water in this state1 it is as soft as wax4 ,it may now be easily worked between the fingers into any given form3 and1 if pressed upon a seal or engraved stone1 will be found to retain a perfect impression of it4 ,it is this property of sulphur of which ,mr4 ,tassie1 of ,leicesterfields1 ,london1 has availed himself1 to furnish extremely elegant impressions of many antique gems4 ,sulphur was much used by the ancients in medicine2 and it is now occasionally administered both as an external and internal remedy4 ,the compounds formed from it are employed to considerable extent in various processes of dyeing and calico printing4 ,many of the mineral waters1 those1 for instance1 of ,harrowgate 7#bii7 and ,moffat 7#cjj71 are indebted to sulphur for their most valuable qualities4 ,this substance has the property of becoming electric by rubbing4 ,on exposure to a gentle heat1 it melts2 but if the heat be increased1 it is entirely consumed1 and passes off in vapour4 ,when ignited1 and the combustion is slow1 it burns with a suffocating and acid fume1 and blue flame2 but when the combustion is quick it burns with a white and vivid flame4 ,if exposed to a sudden1 though gentle heat1 by holding it1 for instance1 in a hand when that is warm1 it will sometimes break in pieces with a crackling noise4 ,it is a remarkable circumstance1 that1 if a bar of iron be heated to perfect whiteness1 and then touched with a roll of sulphur1 the two bodies combine1 and drop down together1 in a fluid state1 forming what is called sulphuret of iron1 a compound of the same nature as iron pyrites 7#bcf74 ,a piece of iron rolled out very thin may be apparently melted in the hand1 by putting it1 when heated to whiteness1 upon a thick piece of solid sulphur4 ,it is1 however1 necessary1 that this experiment be performed with great care2 and under a chimney1 or in a place where there is a current of air1 to carry off the suffocating vapour4 ,useful as sulphur is1 in various ways1 its most important application is supposed to be for the production of sulphuric acid1 or spirit of vitriol 7#bd74 ,one mode in which this acid is obtained for the purposes of commerce1 is by burning a mixture of sulphur and nitre 7#bjf7 in large chambers lined with lead4 ,in this process the nitre supplies a considerable portion of oxygen 7#ba7 to the sulphur1 and the air of the atmosphere furnishes the rest4 ,thus a substance which1 in a natural state1 is one of the mildest that we are acquainted with1 is by this operation converted into a corrosive and dangerous1 though useful fluid4 ,its taste is strongly acid3 and1 when applied to animal or vegetable substances1 it soon corrodes1 and destroys their texture4 ,the properties of sulphuric acid have rendered it extremely valuable for numerous purposes1 both in the arts and in the laboratory4 ,it has been long employed by chemists1 as one of their most useful and frequent agents4 ,the fluid that is put into the bottles for procuring instantaneous light is no other than sulphuric acid2 and it is poured among filaments of asbestos 7which it will not corrode71 for the same purpose as ink is sometimes poured upon cotton4 ,the matches are slips of wood dipped in a mixture of equal weights of sugar or charcoal powder1 and what the chemists call hyperoxymuriat of potash4 ,these are to be rubbed together in a mortar1 but with great care1 as by strong friction the mixture is apt to explode4 ,to obtain a light1 nothing farther is requisite than to dip a match1 thus formed1 into a bottle containing the acid4 ,,bitumen ,,family4 #bab4 ,,naphtha1 or ,,rock ,,oil1 is a yellow or brownish bituminous fluid1 of strong penetrating odour1 somewhat greasy to the touch1 and so light as to float even on spirit of wine4 ,by exposure to the air1 the consistence of naphtha is increased1 and it passes into petroleum 7#bac74 ,there are copious springs of naphtha at ,baku1 on the shore of the ,caspian ,sea2 and also in some parts of ,italy1 particularly at ,monte,chiaro1 near ,piacenza4 ,at ,pitchford1 in ,shropshire1 extensive strata or beds of sandstone are saturated with this mineral fluid1 which is obtained from the stone by distillation1 and is sold1 as a remedy against sprains and rheumatism1 under the name of ,betton's ,british oil4 ,by the ,persians and ,russians naphtha is used internally as a cordial4 ,on the shores of the ,caspian it is burned in lamps1 instead of oil2 and1 in some parts of ,italy it is employed in the lighting of churches and streets4 ,when mixed with certain vegetable oils1 it forms an excellent varnish4 ,it is the property of naphtha to take fire on the approach of a light1 and to burn with great readiness and a white flame1 leaving scarcely any residuum4 ,the town of ,broseley1 in ,shropshire1 was formerly celebrated for a burning spring1 which was first discovered in the month of ,june1 #agaa4 ,its original issuing from the ground was announced by a terrible noise in the night1 which awakened several persons who lived near the spot4 ,some of these1 on going out to ascertain the cause of the alarm1 perceived1 about two hundred yards from the river ,severn1 an extraordinary shaking of the earth1 and a little bubbling of water through the grass4 ,on digging round the spot1 the water sprang up to a great height1 and a candle which one of them held in his hand1 set it on fire4 ,this circumstance excited great curiosity2 and many persons1 from different parts of the adjacent country1 came to visit what was called the 8burning well40 ,to prevent this spring from being destroyed1 an iron cistern was placed upon it1 with a small hole in the cover1 through which the water might be viewed4 ,when a lighted candle was put into this hole1 the water immediately took fire1 darting and flashing in a violent manner1 much in the same way as spirits do in a lamp1 but with greater agitation4 ,it would sometimes burn for fortyeight hours successively1 and without any sensible diminution3 and a teakettle1 full of water1 by being placed upon the hole1 has been made to boil in nine minutes4 ,in #agdg1 this spring had been lost for many years2 but another was shortly afterwards discovered1 the issuing of which was announced by a rumbling noise under ground1 similar to that which had been formerly heard4 ,this1 however1 also disappeared in the year #agef1 by the sinking of a coalpit in the neighbourhood4 #bac4 ,,petroleum1 or ,,mineral ,,oil1 is a fluid bitumen1 of somewhat greater consistency than naphtha3 of black1 brown1 or sometimes dingy green colour4 ,by exposure to the air it assumes the consistence of tar1 and is then called ,,mineral ,,tar 7#bad74 ,this substance exudes spontaneously from the earth1 or from clefts of rocks1 and is found in nearly all countries1 particularly in the ,east ,indies1 ,italy1 ,france1 ,spain1 ,germany1 and ,england4 ,in the neighbourhood of ,rangoon1 in ,pegu1 there are several hundred wells of petroleum4 ,these are of square form1 of considerable depth1 and each lined with cassia wood staves4 ,the oil is drawn from them pure1 and in a liquid state1 and is conveyed thence in small jars4 ,the whole annual produce of this district is estimated at more than #djj1jjj hogsheads4 ,at ,colebrook ,dale1 in ,shropshire1 there is a spring of petroleum4 ,this was discovered at the depth of about thirty yards beneath the surface of the earth1 in digging an archway for the conveying of coals from a very deep pit4 ,the petroleum was at first found to ooze from between the crannies of the rock1 but it soon afterwards poured forth in a considerable stream4 ,the utility of this fluid having been made known1 large iron pipes were formed from the spring into pits sunk for the purpose of receiving it4 ,from these pits it is conveyed into immense caldrons1 where it is boiled until it attains the consistency of pitch4 ,since the first discovery of this substance1 three different springs of it have broken out4 ,one of these is near the celebrated iron bridge2 and the fluid that issues from it is almost pellucid1 but1 at the same time1 is thicker than treacle4 ,petroleum easily takes fire1 and1 in burning1 yields a strong1 sharp1 and somewhat unpleasant odour2 and a thick and disagreeable smoke4 ,in cold weather it congeals in the open air4 ,in ,pegu1 and other parts of the ,east1 petroleum is used in place of oil for lamps4 ,boiled with a species of resin1 it is employed for painting the timber of houses1 and covering the bottoms of boats and other vessels4 ,in the latter respect it is considered to be particularly efficacious1 by protecting the timber from the attacks of marine worms4 ,it is also used by the inhabitants of eastern countries as a lotion in cutaneous eruptions1 and as an embrocation in bruises and rheumatic affections4 ,the ancient ,egyptians used it in the embalming of dead bodies4 ,in some countries lumps of earth are soaked with petroleum1 and are employed as fuel4 #bad4 ,,mineral ,,tar1 or ,,barbadoes ,,tar1 is a fluid kind of bitumen1 somewhat thicker than petroleum1 and nearly of the consistence of common tar4 ,it is viscid1 of a black1 brownish black1 or reddish colour4 ,in burning its smell is disagreeable1 but less pungent than that of most other kinds of bitumen4 ,its weight is somewhat greater than that of water4 ,in the ,west ,indies1 where this substance is principally found1 it is applied to many of the purposes for which the preceding species is used2 but its principal repute has been obtained from its being thought useful in disorders of the breast and lungs1 though this application of it is considered very improper4 ,it is likewise used as an external remedy in paralytic disorders4 #bae4 ,,elastic ,,bitumen1 or ,,mineral ,,caout,,chouc1 has a strong resemblance to ,indian rubber4 ,in some instances it is elastic1 and so soft as to adhere to the fingers1 and in others brittle1 and so hard as nearly to resemble asphalt 7#baf74 ,its colour is yellowish1 reddish brown1 or blackish4 ,one kind of this mineral1 when fresh cut1 nearly resembles fine cork1 both in texture and colour4 ,this extraordinary substance1 which will expunge the marks of black lead in the same manner as ,indian rubber1 was first discovered1 about the year #aghf1 in cavities of the lead mine of ,odin1 near ,castleton1 in ,derbyshire1 and it has not hitherto been found elsewhere4 ,elastic bitumen appears to be a peculiar modification of petroleum1 in its passage to asphalt3 and probably owes its elasticity to its cellular texture1 and to the moisture with which it is combined4 #baf4 ,,asphalt1 or ,,solid ,,bitumen1 is a brittle substance1 of black or brownish black colour1 and of consistence somewhat harder than pitch4 ,it has nearly the same weight as water1 is smooth to the touch1 does not stain the fingers1 and has little or no smell unless it be rubbed or heated4 ,when heated1 it melts1 swells and inflames2 and1 if pure1 burns without leaving any ashes4 ,the ancients were well acquainted with this substance1 which is nothing more than mineral tar 7#bad7 in an indurated or hardened state4 ,it is found on the surface of volcanic productions1 and floats1 in solid pieces1 and in considerable abundance1 on the ,asphaltic ,lake1 in ,syria1 which has thence received its name4 ,this lake is also called the ,dead ,sea1 from a notion that the odour arising from the asphalt destroys even birds which fly over it3 ,maundrell1 however1 states that this is not true1 as he saw several birds fly about and over it1 without experiencing the slightest injury4 ,asphalt is also found near ancient ,babylon2 and there is reason to suppose that the mortar so celebrated amongst the ancients1 and with which the walls of ,babylon and of the ,temple of ,solomon were cemented1 was nothing more than a preparation of asphalt4 ,we are informed by ,herodotus that a composition of heated bitumen1 mixed with the tops of reeds1 was used by the ancients as a cement4 ,this account is confirmed by modern travellers1 who assert that the remains of buildings have been discovered in which bitumen was formerly thus employed4 ,it is presumed to be the same substance which1 in our translation of the ,old ,testament1 is called pitch1 and which was used by ,noah1 as an exterior and interior coating of the ark2 by the mother of ,moses as a coating for the little vessel in which he was exposed2 and on various other occasions4 ,as an article of modern utility1 it is to be remarked that the ,arabians dissolve asphalt in oil1 and1 with the mixture1 smear their horse harness1 to preserve it from the effects of weather1 and the attacks of insects4 ,in a state of solution it is applied1 in several eastern countries1 as a covering for timber and the bottoms of ships4 ,it is occasionally used in the cleansing and healing of ulcers1 and other sores4 ,in ,france it is manufactured into a substance which is in considerable request for greasing the wheels of carriages4 ,it is used by the makers of watchdials1 who mix it with lamp black1 and oil of turpentine2 but its chief use is as an ingredient in certain varnishes1 and particularly in the varnish used by copperplate engravers4 ,it is frequently adulterated by a mixture with common pitch2 but this is easily discovered by the smell4 ,besides the countries and places already mentioned1 asphalt is found in several parts of ,america1 in the island of ,trinidad1 in the province of ,neufchatel1 and many parts of the ,continent of ,europe4 ,,coal ,,family4 #bag4 ,the component parts of coals are principally carbon or charcoal 7#dh71 and bitumen 7#baf74 ,some kinds of coal are laminar1 and others compact4 ,they in general burn freely1 with a bituminous odour1 and leave a considerable residuum4 ,this invaluable mineral is found in beds1 or strata1 frequently betwixt clay slate 7#beg7 and sandstone 7#bfg71 and seldom betwixt those of limestone 7#adj74 ,it chiefly occurs in the northern hemisphere1 particularly in countries which lie nearly in the same latitudes with ,great ,britain2 in ,siberia1 ,germany1 ,sweden1 ,france1 ,canada1 and ,newfoundland2 and in some of the northern parts of ,china4 ,it is stated to be abundant in ,new ,holland2 but we have no distinct account of coal in the continent of ,africa4 ,no fewer than seventy different kinds of coals are brought to the ,london market1 the value and prices of which greatly differ4 ,of these the coals called ,wall'send1 from the name of the pit1 near ,newcastle1 whence they are obtained1 usually bear the highest price4 #bah4 ,,common ,,coal1 or ,,pit ,,coal1 is of black colour1 and has generally a slaty structure and foliated texture4 ,when handled it stains the fingers2 and when burnt it cakes more or less during combustion4 ,its component parts are usually charcoal 7#dh7 and bitumen 7#baf71 with a small portion of clay1 and sometimes with pyrites1 or sulphat of iron 7#bcf74 ,what is called slaty coal contains a greater portion of clay than other kinds4 ,some foreign writers have ascribed the great wealth possessed by this country to the coals which are here produced in such abundance1 and which facilitate1 in a very essential degree1 nearly all its manufactures1 and consequently are a means of promoting its commerce to an extent which is possessed by few other countries4 ,all our great manufacturing towns1 ,birmingham1 ,sheffield1 ,leeds1 ,glasgow1 c4 are situated either in the midst of coal districts1 or in places to which coals are conveyed1 with little expense1 by canal carriage4 ,coals are principally obtained from the neighbourhood of ,newcastleupon,tyne1 ,sunderland1 and ,whitehaven4 ,the particular places whence they are obtained have the name of collieries1 and the mines from which they are dug are called pits4 ,the deepest of these are in ,northumberland1 and are worked at more than #ijj feet below the surface of the earth4 ,at ,newcastle there is a coalpit near #hjj feet in depth1 and which1 at that depth1 is wrought five miles horizontally1 quite across1 and beneath the bed of the river ,tyne1 and under the adjacent part of the county of ,durham4 ,at ,whitehaven the mines are of great depth1 and are extended even under the sea1 to places where there is above them sufficient depth of water for ships of great burthen1 and in which the miners are able sometimes to hear the roaring of the water4 ,on the contrary1 in some parts of ,durham the coal lies so near the surface of the earth that the wheels of carriages lay it open1 and in such quantity as to be sufficient for the use of the neighbourhood4 ,the beds of coal are of various thicknesses1 from a few inches to several feet2 and in some places1 it is found advantageous to work them at a very great depth1 although their thickness does not exceed four or five feet4 ,the thickest bed of ,english coal1 of any extent1 is that of the main coal in ,staffordshire1 which measures about thirty feet4 ,in many places there are several beds above1 and parallel to1 each other1 separated by strata of slate1 sandstone1 and other minerals4 ,coal is never found in chalk1 and very rarely in limestone4 ,at ,whitehaven1 the principal entrance to the coalmine1 both for men and horses1 is by an opening at the bottom of a hill1 through a long passage hewn in a rock4 ,this1 by a steep descent1 leads to the lowest bed of coal4 ,the greatest part of the descent is through spacious galleries1 which intersect other galleries2 all the coal having been cut away1 except large pillars1 which1 in deep parts of the mine1 are three yards high1 and about twelve yards square at the base1 such great strength being there required to support the ponderous roof4 ,there are three distinct and parallel strata of coal1 which lie at a considerable distance above each other1 and which have a communication by pits that are sunk between them4 ,these strata are not always regularly continued in the same plane4 ,the miners occasionally meet with veins of hard rock1 which interrupt their further progress1 and1 at such places1 the earth1 on one side of the vein1 appears to have sunk down1 while that on the opposite side has its ancient situation4 ,these breaks the miners call dykes 7#d74 ,when they come to one of them1 their first care is to discover whether the coal1 in the part adjoining1 be higher or lower than that in which they have been working2 or1 to use their own terms1 whether it be cast down or cast up4 ,for this purpose they examine attentively the mineral strata on the opposite side1 to see how far they correspond with those which they have already passed through4 ,if the coal be cast down1 they sink a pit to it3 but if it be cast up1 the discovery of it is often attended with great labour and expense4 ,in general the entrance to coal mines is by perpendicular shafts1 and the coals and workmen are drawn up by machinery4 ,as the mines frequently extend to great distances1 horizontally1 beneath the surface of the earth1 peculiar care is necessary to keep them continually ventilated with currents of fresh air1 for the purpose1 not only of affording to the workmen a constant supply of that vital fluid1 but also to expel from the mines certain noxious exhalations which are sometimes produced in them4 ,one of these1 denominated fire damp1 is occasioned by the generation of hydrogen gas1 or inflammable air 7#de74 ,this gas1 when mixed with the common air of the atmosphere1 explodes1 with great violence1 on the approach of a lighted candle1 or any other flame2 and has1 at different times1 occasioned the loss of many valuable lives4 ,it is a singular circumstance1 that although it is immediately set on fire by a flame1 yet it cannot be kindled by red hot iron1 nor by sparks produced from the collision of flint and steel4 ,hence a machine was1 some years ago1 adopted in the mines near ,whitehaven and ,workington1 in which a wheel formed of steel1 and in shape somewhat like that of a razorgrinder1 was turned round with very rapid motion against a series of flints1 and in such manner as to yield to the miners sufficient light to carry on their work in places where the flame of a candle would occasion the most dreadful explosions4 ,sir ,humphrey ,davy has lately invented1 for the use of mines where this gas is prevalent1 what is called a safety lamp4 ,this is a lamp enclosed in a wire cylinder1 the interstices of which are so extremely small as1 whilst it gives light1 will not explode the gas4 ,another injurious exhalation in coal mines arises from the formation of carbonic acid gas1 or fixed air 7#bf71 and is called choke damp4 ,it is the property of inflammable air to rise to the upper parts2 but this1 on account of its weight1 occupies principally the lower parts of mines1 and occasions death by suffocation1 though it is by no means so fatal as the former4 ,in some mines a prevention of injury arising from each of these gases is attained1 by ascertaining the particular crevices in the coal from which they issue1 confining them at those places within a narrow space1 and1 if possible1 conveying them out of the mines1 through long pipes1 into the open air4 ,there is yet another danger attending coal mines which requires to be provided against1 and this is inundation4 ,many mines have been destroyed by the flooding of water1 which springs up within them4 ,the modes by which this was formerly extracted were extremely laborious1 and1 in numerous instances1 entirely inefficacious4 ,by means1 however1 of the fire or steam engines now in use1 the quantity of water raised from mines is perfectly astonishing4 ,four engines in one of the collieries at ,whitehaven discharge more than twenty hogsheads per minute1 or upwards of #cj1jjj hogsheads in every twentyfour hours4 ,the coal trade1 which at present affords so important a nursery for our seamen1 and1 in numerous other respects1 yields advantages of the most beneficial description to this country1 was entirely unknown a few centuries ago4 ,coals were not generally adopted as fuel until the beginning of the reign of ,charles ,i4 ,they were1 however1 noticed in documents anterior to the reign of ,henry ,,iii41 for1 that monarch1 in the year #abcd1 renewed a charter1 granted by his father1 to the inhabitants of ,newcastle1 by which they were permitted to dig coal upon payment of #ajjl4 per annum4 ,coals had been introduced into ,london before #acjf2 for in that year1 the use of them as fuel was prohibited1 from the supposed tendency of their smoke to corrupt the air4 ,about the beginning of the sixteenth century1 the best coals were sold in ,london at the rate of #ds4 #a;d4 per chaldron1 and at ,newcastle for no more than #bs4 #f;d4 ,during the ensuing century1 however1 they were received into such general use1 that1 in #afdh1 on a scarcity of coal in ,london1 many of the poor are said to have died from want of fuel4 ,the whole quantity of coals imported into ,london has been estimated1 on an average of four years1 ending in ,march1 #ahae1 to amount to #a1agj1jjj chaldrons per annum4 ,some writers have imagined coal to be the remains of antediluvian timber1 which floated upon the waters of the deluge until several strata of mineral substances had been formed3 others conceive it to have been antediluvian peat bog4 ,it is called pit coal1 from the circumstance only of its being obtained from mines or pits2 and1 in ,london1 for no better reason than its having been conveyed thither by sea1 it has the name of sea coal4 ,its uses as fuel are too extensively known to need here any observations4 ,by the distillation of coal an inflammable gas is produced1 which has of late been introduced for the lighting of manufactories1 and lighting several of the streets and shops of the metropolis4 ,this gas is conveyed by pipes1 from the reservoir in which it is collected1 to great distances2 and the light which it yields is peculiarly brilliant and beautiful4 ,it was at the foundery belonging to ,messrs4 ,boulton and ,watts1 at ,birmingham1 that the first public display of gas lights was made1 in the year #ahjb1 on the occasion of the rejoicings for peace4 ,in #ahje the cotton mills of ,messrs4 ,phillips and ,lee1 at ,manchester1 were lighted with gas1 to the exclusion of lamps1 candles1 and every other source of artificial light4 ,in the beginning of #ahaf it was estimated that1 at the three gaslight stations1 in ,peterstreet1 ,westminster1 ,worshipstreet1 and ,norton ,falgate1 ,london1 twentyfive chaldrons of coals were used daily2 and that these were sufficient to supply with gas #abe1jjj large lamps4 ,at the works in ,dorsetstreet1 ,fleetstreet1 the daily consumption of coal was about three chaldrons1 which afforded gas for #a1ejj lamps4 ,the production of the gas light is easily effected in miniature1 by putting common coal1 pounded small1 into the bowl of a tobaccopipe1 and closely covering this with clay made into a stiff lute with water4 ,when the clay is dry1 the bowl of the pipe must be put into the fire1 and there heated gradually4 ,in a few minutes a stream of gas will issue from the end of the pipe4 ,this may be set on fire with a piece of paper1 and will burn with a bright flame4 ,when the gas is no longer disengaged1 there will be found in the bowl of the pipe the remains of the coals1 in the form of coke4 ,it is estimated that one chaldron of good coals will afford from #ag1jjj1 to #bj1jjj cubical feet of gas2 and that one of the large burners in the shops of ,london1 consumes about four cubical feet per hour4 ,soot is produced from the smoke of burned coal1 and is used as a manure for cold1 moist1 and clayey meadows and pastures3 and pounded coal has been applied to the same purpose in some parts of the ,continent4 ,by a process called charring1 coal is divested of its humid1 acid1 and bituminous particles1 and is converted into a kind of cinder called coke4 ,this is employed in cases where intense heat is requisite1 as for the smelting of iron ore2 and likewise where acid and bituminous particles of coal would be detrimental1 as in the drying of malt4 ,what is usually termed culm is the refuse or dusty coal1 produced in working the common coals4 ,it contains much earthy matter1 will not kindle in an ordinary fireplace1 but produces considerable heat and flame in a furnace1 where a strong current of air is introduced4 ,in ,england it is exempted from the high duty imposed on other coals1 and is sold at a very low price4 ,it is used for burning lime1 making salt1 and in steam engines4 #bai4 ,,cannel ,,coal is of black colour1 with little lustre1 is not laminar1 but breaks in any direction1 like pitch1 and does not stain the fingers4 ,this highly inflammable kind of coal is found abundantly in the neighbourhood of ,wigan1 in ,lancashire1 where there is an entire stratum of it about four feet in thickness4 ,it is also found near ,whitehaven1 in some of the pits at ,newcastle1 and in some parts of ,scotland4 ,doubts have been entertained respecting the name of this coal2 but when it is recollected that in ,lancashire1 whence it is chiefly brought1 the word candle is usually pronounced with the omission of the letter d1 and that1 in many instances1 the coal is used by the poor as a substitute for candles1 these will be immediately removed4 ,in ,scotland it has the name of parrot coal4 ,no kind of coal takes fire so readily1 nor burns with so cheerful and brilliant a flame as this3 and its not soiling the fingers1 like pit coal1 renders the use of it peculiarly pleasant2 but it does not cake1 and soon burns away4 ,when first kindled1 it crackles and splinters very much2 and1 on this account1 would be dangerous1 were it not easily prevented from so doing by being previously immersed for a little while in water4 ,cannel coal has much the appearance of jet4 ,it admits of being turned in a lathe1 and takes a good polish2 and snuffboxes and trinkets made of it have in many instances been sold as jet 7#bbb74 ,of all the kinds of coal that are used for gaslights1 none are said to be so useful as this4 #bbj4 ,,stone ,,coal1 ,,kilkenny ,,coal1 ,,welsh ,,coal1 or ,,glance ,,coal1 is of a dark ironblack colour1 with a metallic lustre and foliated texture2 and consists almost entirely of charcoal4 ,unlike most other kinds of coal1 this occurs both in stratified masses1 and in lumps1 nested in clay4 ,it is found in several countries of the ,continent1 in ,wales1 ,scotland1 and near ,kilkenny in ,ireland4 ,when laid on burning coals1 it becomes red hot1 emits a blue lambent flame in the same manner as charcoal2 and is1 at length1 slowly consumed1 leaving behind a portion of red ashes4 ,no smoke nor soot is produced from this coal2 but1 on the contrary1 it whitens the places where the fume is condensed2 and the effluvia which it gives out are extremely suffocating4 ,this coal is chiefly used in the drying of malt4 #bba4 ,,bovey ,,coal1 ,,brown ,,coal1 or ,,bituminous ,,wood1 is of brown colour1 and in shape exactly resembles the stems and branches of trees1 but is usually compressed4 ,it is soft1 somewhat flexible1 and so light as nearly to float when thrown into water4 ,the greatest abundance of this coal occurs at ,bovey1 near ,exeter1 from which place it derives its name4 ,the lowest stratum is worked at the depth of seventyfive feet beneath the surface of the earth4 ,it is also found in ,scotland1 ,ireland1 and ,germany4 ,as fuel1 the ,bovey coal is used only by the poorest classes of the community1 as1 notwithstanding its burning with a clear flame1 it emits a sweetish but extremely disagreeable sulphureous gas1 which is injurious to the health of the inhabitants4 ,it is principally used for the burning of lime1 and for the first baking of earthen ware4 #bbb4 ,,jet1 or ,,pitch ,,coal1 is a solid1 black1 and opaque mineral1 harder than coal1 and found in detached masses from an inch to seven or eight feet in length1 having a fine or regular structure1 and a grain resembling that of wood4 ,it has sometimes been confounded with cannel coal 7#bai71 but it is easily distinguished by its superior hardness3 ,jet cannot without difficulty be scratched with a knife1 whilst cannel coal may be marked by the simple pressure of the nail4 ,the name of jet has been derived from ,gages1 a river of ,lycia1 whence the ancients are said to have obtained this substance4 ,it is frequently cast ashore on the eastern coasts of ,england1 together with pieces of amber and curious pebbles1 particularly near ,lowestoft in ,suffolk1 and in some parts of ,yorkshire1 where many persons employ their leisure in searching for it1 and forming it into various kinds of trinkets4 ,jet is found in several countries of the ,continent4 ,it is stated that in the district of ,aude1 in ,france1 there are more than #a1jjj persons constantly employed in the fabrication of jet into rosaries1 buttons1 earrings1 necklaces1 bracelets1 snuffboxes1 and trinkets of different kinds4 ,near fifty tons weight of it are annually used for this purpose2 and articles to the value of #ah1jjj livres are said to be sold in ,spain alone4 ,in ,prussia the amber diggers call it black amber1 because it is found accompanying that substance2 and because1 like amber1 it is faintly electric1 or attracts feathers and other light objects when rubbed4 ,they manufacture it into various ornamental articles1 and sell these to ignorant persons1 as black amber1 at a great price4 ,in different parts of the globe the trunks of trees1 which have been long buried1 have passed into the state of jet2 and1 in almost all these trees may be traced the distinctive characters of the species to which they belong4 ,they are more or less brittle1 more or less unctuous1 according to the species1 the degree of alteration1 and the nature of the soil4 ,all of them have a smooth and glassy fracture1 but all are not adapted for the tool of the workman4 ,when1 for instance1 the texture of the tree presents only a mass of dry fibres1 the jet obtained is dry and brittle2 and cannot be used in the forming of trinkets4 ,but1 if the texture be unctuous the fibre acquires a considerable degree of softness1 is susceptible of being properly wrought1 and receives a perfect and beautiful polish4 ,a fictitious kind of jet is made of glass2 and several varieties of mineral pitch1 and cannel coal1 are imposed upon ignorant purchasers for jet4 ,when jet is once set on fire it burns with a green flame1 and continues to burn for a considerable time1 exhaling a strong bituminous smell4 ,if the heat be rendered greater1 it melts4 ,,graphite ,,family4 #bbc4 ,,black ,,lead1 or ,,plumbago1 is an inflammable mineral1 which consists of carbon1 or charcoal 7#dh71 combined with iron1 in the proportion of about nine parts of the former to one of the latter4 ,it is of dark irongrey colour1 with a strong metallic lustre1 and so soft that it is easily scratched with a knife4 ,to the touch it is soft and greasy2 and1 when handled1 it stains the fingers4 ,in weight it is about twice as heavy as water4 ,the name of black lead has very improperly been given to this substance from its appearance only1 as it has no alliance whatever with lead4 ,it is usually found in kidneyshaped lumps of various size1 and occurs in several countries of ,europe1 but no where of such excellent quality as in ,borrowdale1 ,cumberland1 where it has the name of wadd4 ,the vein of black lead lies between strata of slate1 and is from eight to nine feet thick4 ,this mine is not opened more than once every three or four years1 the quantity thus obtained being found fully sufficient for the demand4 ,the only other mine of black lead in ,britain is in ,ayrshire1 ,scotland4 ,artists in watercolours1 if deprived of this mineral1 would find great difficulty in making their sketches2 as the marks that are erroneously made with it are more easily expunged than those of almost any other substance4 ,hundreds of thousands of pencils are every year formed of black lead4 ,for this purpose the mineral is sawed into slender square pieces4 ,these are fixed into grooves1 of the same shape1 cut in cedar1 or some other soft wood2 another piece of wood is then glued upon this1 and the whole is worked into a circular form4 ,the finer kinds of black lead are prepared for use by being boiled in oil before they are cut4 ,the coarser kinds1 and the refuse of the sawings1 are melted with sulphur1 and then cast into coarser pencils for carpenters4 ,these may1 in general1 be easily distinguished by their sulphureous smell4 ,the pencils that are manufactured in ,england are more esteemed on the ,continent than any others4 ,the powder produced in the sawing of pencils is employed for numerous purposes4 ,it is used for giving a bright gloss to castiron grates and stoves1 and defending them from rust1 and from the action of fire4 ,it may also be advantageously applied to the inner surface of wooden screws1 to packing presses1 the axles of various sorts of machines1 to slides1 and other wood work1 which are subject to friction4 ,in this respect it is far superior either to grease or soap4 ,the makers of razorstrops occasionally employ black lead in the composition which they spread upon leather for the sharpening of razors2 and1 on the ,continent1 it is sometimes used for blackening the hair4 ,a coarser kind of black lead is used for making the vessels that are used by chemists1 called crucibles4 ,,resin ,,family4 #bbd4 ,,amber is a substance usually of golden yellow colour1 semitransparent1 and of shining and somewhat resinous lustre4 ,it is occasionally seen of yellowish white colour1 and nearly opaque4 ,the origin of amber is unknown4 ,from the ants and other insects which it frequently contains1 there can be no doubt that it has once been in a fluid state3 and some writers have thought that it is a resinous juice1 gradually modified by the action of sulphuric acid 7#bd72 but this is entirely conjecture4 ,the ancients called it electron1 and attributed its formation to the sisters of ,phaton1 who1 lamenting the death of their brother1 were converted into poplar trees2 these1 it was said1 instead of tears1 yielded every year this substance2 which1 issuing from them in a fluid state1 ran into the river1 and there became hardened4 ,amber is usually found in rounded and detached pieces1 on the south coast of the ,baltic1 on the eastern shores of ,england1 and in small quantity1 on those of ,sicily and the ,adriatic2 and a substance greatly resembling it is occasionally found in gravel pits near ,london4 ,the only mines of amber at present known are in ,prussia4 ,these are worked in the usual way1 by shafts and galleries1 to the depth of about #ajj feet4 ,the amber is imbedded in a stratum of fossil wood1 and occurs in rounded pieces1 from a few grains to three and even five pounds in weight4 ,the largest piece of amber ever known to be discovered in a detached state was found near the surface of the ground1 in ,lithuania1 about twelve miles from the ,baltic ,sea4 ,it weighed more than eighteen pounds1 and was deposited in the cabinet of the ,king of ,prussia at ,berlin4 ,very lately a mass of amber1 weighing thirteen pounds1 was also found in ,prussia4 ,for this piece #ejjj dollars are said to have been offered2 but the ,armenian merchants assert that it might have been sold in ,constantinople for more than #cj1jjj dollars4 ,anterior to the discovery or general dispersion of precious stones from ,india1 amber was considered of great value as a jewel1 and was employed in all kinds of ornamental dresses4 ,the ancient ,romans were so partial to this substance that ,pliny1 reprobating the great demand for it1 says1 the ,roman females would give larger sums for a puppet or figure in amber1 resembling a man or woman1 however small its size1 than they would for the finest man or the most valiant soldier4 ,under the ,emperor ,nero1 persons were sent from ,rome1 for the purpose of collecting and purchasing amber2 and so much of it was at length obtained1 that it was used for ornamenting the nets and cordage employed in the theatres for preventing the wild animals from approaching the populace there assembled4 ,it was likewise used to ornament the armour1 the biers1 and funeral apparatus of such persons as were killed4 ,amber is now chiefly in request by ,greek and ,armenian merchants1 but it is uncertain where they dispose of it4 ,some persons conjecture that it is purchased by pilgrims previously to their journey to ,mecca2 and that1 on their arrival in that place1 they burn it in honour of ,mahomet4 ,the kind most in esteem is of a bright golden yellow colour4 ,this is occasionally manufactured into snuffboxes1 small vases1 necklaces1 bracelets1 caneheads1 and other ornamental articles1 many of which are purchased by the ,turks1 ,russians1 and ,poles2 but the general demand for them has of late very much decreased4 ,some years ago the ,german artists paid great attention to this substance2 and many experiments were made for the purpose of discovering means of removing its defects1 and improving its beauty4 ,it is said that they possessed the art of liquefying it to such a degree1 that it could be run into moulds without injuring its beauty2 and that specimens of this liquefied amber are preserved in the ,electoral ,cabinet at ,dresden4 ,there are still considerable manufactories of amber at ,stolpen1 ,konigsberg1 ,dantzic1 and ,lubeck4 ,amber1 when wrought into ornaments1 is first split on a leaden plate1 and then turned on a particular kind of whetstone4 ,the polishing of it is performed with chalk and water1 or chalk and oil2 and the work is finished by rubbing the whole with clean flannel4 ,without great attention it becomes very hot1 and either flies into pieces1 or takes fire during the operation4 ,after having been roasted or melted1 amber is readily soluble in oil1 and1 in this state1 constitutes the basis of several kinds of varnish4 ,it was formerly much used in medicine1 but1 in this respect1 it is now almost wholly neglected4 ,some persons1 however1 have still an absurd notion that a collar or necklace of amber1 tied round an infant's neck1 will enable it to cut its teeth in safety4 ,oil of amber combined with liquid ammonia constitutes a white soapy liquor called eaudeluce4 ,it has already been mentioned that insects are occasionally found in amber4 ,these are generally in a very perfect state1 and consist of flies1 small moths1 c4 ,grains of sand1 pieces of iron pyrites1 and the leaves of plants1 are also sometimes found in it4 ,insects1 sand1 and other substances1 are likewise remarked in a species of gum1 called gum anim1 which1 in colour1 appearance1 and qualities1 so nearly resembles amber1 that it is almost impossible to distinguish the two substances from each other4 ,large productions1 which were formerly supposed to have been made of amber1 such as a column ten feet high in the ,florentine ,museum1 are now usually considered to have been formed of this gum2 and many of the large beads of what are sold as amber necklaces are made of it4 ,if a piece of amber be fixed on the point of a knife and lighted1 it will burn entirely away1 emitting at the same time a white smoke1 and a somewhat agreeable though sickly odour4 ,when rubbed it has the property of attracting light bodies2 hence one of the ancient ,greek philosophers attributed to it a certain kind of life4 ,from the name of electron1 which was given to it by them1 in consequence of this property1 we derive our word electricity4 ,,class ,,iv4-,,metallic ,,substances4 ,,of ,,metals ,,in ,,general4 #bbe4 ,,metals1 in a perfect state1 are easily distinguished from other minerals1 by a peculiar brilliancy which pervades their whole substance1 and which has the name of metallic lustre2 by their complete opacity1 and their great weight in proportion to that of other mineral substances4 ,when taken from the earth they are found in one or other of the four following states3 #a4 ,in a native or metallic state1 #b4 ,combined with sulphur1 #c4 ,in a state of oxide 7#ba7 #d4 ,combined with acid4 ,metals1 when found in a state of combination with other substances1 have the name of ores4 ,they are in general deposited in veins 7#d71 of various thickness1 and at various depths in the earth4 ,the mode of obtaining them is to penetrate from the surface of the earth to the vein1 and there to follow it1 in whatever direction it may lie4 ,the hollow places thus formed are called mines1 and the men employed in them are denominated miners4 ,when the veins are at a great depth1 or extend to any considerable distance beneath the surface of the earth1 it is necessary1 at intervals1 to make openings1 or shafts1 to the surface1 for the admission and circulation of the air2 and also to draw off the water which collects at the bottom1 by drains1 pumps1 or steamengines1 as the situation or circumstances require4 ,after the metallic ores are drawn from the mine1 they1 in general1 go through several processes before they are in a state fit for use4 ,some of them are first washed in running water1 to clear them from earthy particles4 ,they are then piled with combustible substances1 and burnt or roasted1 for the purpose of ridding them of the sulphur or arsenic with which they may happen to be combined1 and which rises from them in a state of fume or smoke4 ,thus1 having been freed from impurities1 they undergo the operation of melting1 in furnaces constructed according to the nature of the respective metals1 or the uses to which they are to be subsequently applied4 ,the knowledge of metals is a subject of great importance to mankind4 ,their use in trade is so frequent1 and in the arts so various and so interesting1 that few objects can be more worthy of attention than these4 ,,order ,i4--,,malleable ,,metals2 ,,or1 ,,such ,,as ,,are ,,capable ,,of ,,being ,,flattened ,,or ,,elongated ,,by ,,the ,,hammer1 ,,without ,,tearing ,,or ,,breaking4 #bbf4 ,,platina1 the most ponderous of all the metals with which we are acquainted1 is1 when purified1 about twenty times heavier than water4 ,it is also one of the hardest and most difficult to be melted1 is of white colour1 but darker and not so bright as silver1 and is found only in small blunted and angular grains or scales in the sands of some of the rivers in ,south ,america4 ,if platina could be obtained in sufficient quantity1 it would perhaps be the most valuable of all metals4 ,the important uses to which it is applicable may easily be imagined when we state that it is nearly as hard as iron1 and that the most intense fire and most powerful acids have scarcely any effect upon it4 ,platina is not fusible by the heat of a forge1 but requires either the concentrated rays of the sun in a burning mirror1 the galvanic electricity1 or a flame produced by the agency of oxygen gas4 ,it is admirably adapted for the uses of the philosophical chemist3 although vessels made of it must always be found expensive1 from its being necessary to solder them with gold2 and although it has the disadvantage of being subject to corrosion by the application or use of caustic alkalies4 ,vessels made of it are not liable to be broken1 and are as indestructible as those made of gold4 ,when properly refined1 its colour is somewhat betwixt that of silver and iron4 ,not being liable to tarnish like silver1 platina is manufactured into several kinds of trinkets4 ,its ductility is so great that it may be rolled into plates1 or drawn into wire2 and platina wire1 for strength and tenacity1 is considered much preferable to that either of gold or silver of equal thickness4 ,platina is also made into mirrors for reflecting telescopes1 into mathematical instruments1 pendulums1 and clockwork2 particularly where it is requisite that the construction of these should be more than usually correct1 as platina is not only free from liability to rust1 but is likewise subject to very little dilatation by heat4 ,it is sometimes beaten into leaves and applied to porcelain1 in the same manner as leaf gold2 and its oxide 7#ba7 is used in enamel painting1 and might be used1 with great advantage1 in the painting and ornamenting of porcelain4 ,the platina employed for all these purposes is repeatedly melted with arsenic1 as without the aid of this it could only be obtained in very small masses1 owing to the intense heat that is required for its fusion4 ,this extraordinary metal was unknown in ,europe until about the year #agce1 when it was first brought from ,south ,america by ,don ,antonio ,ulloa4 #bbg4 ,,gold is a metal distinguished by its yellow colour2 by its being next in weight to platina1 softer than silver1 but considerably more hard than tin2 and being more easily melted than copper4 ,it is found in various states1 massive1 in grains1 small scales1 and capillary1 or in small branches4 ,it cannot be dissolved in any acid except that called aqua regia 7#bjg71 and is more than nineteen times heavier than water4 ,the countries of hot climates are those chiefly in which gold is discovered4 ,it abounds in the sands of many ,african rivers1 and is very common in several districts both of ,south ,america and ,india4 ,the gold mines of ,lima and ,peru have had great celebrity2 but1 since the late commotions in the ,spanish colonies1 the working of them has been much neglected4 ,it is from ,brazil that the greatest part of the gold which is seen in commerce is brought4 ,the annual produce of the various gold mines in ,america has been estimated at nearly #i1ejj1jjjl4 sterling4 ,the principal gold mines in ,europe are those of ,hungary1 and next to them those of ,saltzburg4 ,spain is probably very rich in gold4 ,considerable mines were worked there in former times1 particularly in the province of ,asturia2 but1 after the discovery of ,america1 these were given up or lost4 ,gold has been found in ,sweden and ,norway1 and also in several parts of ,ireland1 but particularly in the county of ,wicklow4--,among the sands of a mountain stream in that county1 and among the sand of the valley on each side1 lumps of gold are occasionally found4 ,pieces have been discovered which weighed twentytwo ounces1 but they are generally much smaller1 from two or three ounces to a few grains4 ,it is said that lumps of gold1 of large size1 have been used as weights in some of the common shops1 and that others have been placed to keep open the doors of cottages and houses in some parts of ,ireland1 the owners not knowing what they were4 ,gold is also occasionally found in ,cornwall1 and some other counties of ,england4 ,wherever it occurs it is commonly observed in a state of alloy with copper or silver1 and in the form of grains1 plates1 or small crystals4 ,gold was formerly obtained in ,scotland4 ,it is asserted that1 at the marriage of ,james ,v4 there were covered dishes filled with coins made of ,scottish gold1 and that a portion of these was presented to each of the guests by way of dessert4 ,very extensive operations for the discovery of gold were carried on during the reign of ,queen ,elizabeth1 at ,leadhills1 in ,lanarkshire1 under the direction of an ,englishman whose name was ,bulmer4 ,the trenches1 the heaps of soil that were turned up1 and other marks of these operations1 are yet visible near the road between ,leadhills and ,elvanfoot4 ,it is said that #cjj men were then employed2 and that1 in the course of a few years1 a quantity of gold was collected1 equal in value to #ajj1jjjl4 sterling4 ,not many years ago similar operations were commenced under the superintendence of a celebrated manager of the ,scottish lead mines4 ,the gold was found immediately under the vegetable soil2 and the method of obtaining it was to direct a small stream of water1 so as to carry the soil along with it1 to basins or hollow places1 where the water might deposit the matters carried down by the force of its current4 ,the matter thus deposited was repeatedly washed1 till the whole of the earthy substances were carried off4 ,the gold1 being heaviest1 sunk to the bottom1 and remained behind4 ,the soil still furnishes gold2 but the produce would by no means be equal to the expense of collecting it4 ,searching for gold1 therefore1 is now regarded only as an amusement1 and not as a source of profit4 ,grains of this metal are sometimes found1 after great floods1 among the sand of brooks in different parts of ,scotland4 ,the mode of extracting gold from its ore is by reducing it into a fine powder1 and mixing this powder with quicksilver 7#bbh74 ,the latter having the quality of uniting with itself every particle of the precious metal1 but being incapable of union with the other substances1 extracts it even from the largest portions of earth4 ,the quicksilver1 which has absorbed the gold1 is then separated by means of heat2 it flies off in vapour1 and leaves the other metal in the vessel used for the operation4 ,gold has been known1 and in request1 from the very earliest ages of the world4 ,by the assent of civilized nations1 it has become the representative of wealth under the form of money2 and it is now an universal circulating medium for the purchase of all kinds of commodities4 ,it has been chosen to occupy this important place on account of its scarcity1 its weight1 and other valuable properties4 ,as gold is not liable to tarnish or rust1 it is frequently employed for ornaments of dress4 ,but1 beyond its use in the coinage1 its most important uses are for goldsmith's work1 in jewellery1 and for gilding4 ,in each of these its standard or purity is different4 ,that denominated coinage1 or sterling gold1 consists of an alloy of about twentytwo parts of gold with two parts of copper2 whilst gold of the new standard1 of which gold plate1 watchcases1 and many other articles are made1 consists of only eighteen parts of gold1 and six parts of copper4 ,each of these is stamped at ,goldsmiths' ,hall2 the former with a lion1 a leopard's head 7the mark of the goldsmith's company71 a letter denoting the year1 the king's head1 and the manufacturer's initials2 the latter is stamped with the king's head1 letter for the year1 a crown1 the number #ah to designate its quality1 and the manufacturers initials4 ,the coinage gold of ,portugal and ,america is of the same standard as our own2 that of ,france is somewhat inferior2 and ,spanish gold is inferior to the ,french4 ,the ,dutch ducats and some of the ,moorish coins are of gold unalloyed4 ,trinket gold1 which is unstamped1 is in general much less pure than any of the above2 and the pale gold which is used by jewellers is an alloy of gold with silver4 ,the ductility and tenacity of this metal1 particularly when alloyed with copper1 are extremely remarkable1 and are fully proved by the great extent to which a very small quantity of it may be beaten into leaves1 or drawn into wire4 ,leaves of gold may be beaten so thin1 that a single grain may be made into fiftysix leaves1 each an inch square4 ,these leaves are only #a_/bhbjjj of an inch thick2 and the gold leaf which is used to cover silver wire is but the twelfth part of that thickness4 ,an ounce of gold upon silver wire is capable of being extended more than #a1cjj miles in length3 and sixteen ounces of gold1 which1 in the form of a cube1 would not measure more than an inch and a quarter on each side1 will completely gild a silver wire in length sufficient to compass the whole earth like a hoop4 ,gold is beaten into leaves upon a smooth block of marble1 fitted into the middle of a wooden frame about two feet square1 in such manner that the surfaces of the marble and of the frame are exactly level4 ,on three of the sides there is a high ledge2 and the front1 which is open1 has a flap of leather attached to it1 which the man who beats the gold uses as an apron for preserving the fragments that fall off4 ,in this process there are three kinds of animal membranes used1 some of which are laid between the leaves to prevent their uniting together1 and others over them to defend them from being injured by the hammer4 ,the exterior cover is of parchment4 ,for interlaying with the gold1 the smoothest and closest vellum that can be procured is first used2 and1 when the gold becomes thinner1 this is exchanged for much finer skin1 made of the entrails of oxen1 prepared for this express purpose1 and hence called gold beater's skin4 ,after the leaf has been beaten to a sufficient degree of thinness1 it is taken up by a cane instrument1 and thrown flat upon a leathern cushion1 where it is cut to a proper size with a square frame of cane1 or wood edged with cane4 ,these pieces are then fitted into books of twentyfive leaves each1 the paper of which has been well smoothed1 and rubbed with red bole 7#abg71 to prevent them from sticking4 ,the leaves are about three inches square1 and the gold of each book weighs somewhat more than four grains and a half4 ,it was anciently the custom to beat gold into thin plates1 and to gild the walls of apartments1 the surfaces of dishes1 drinking utensils1 and other articles1 by covering them with such4 ,but this was not only an expensive1 but it must have been a most clumsy mode of ornament4 ,the present modes of gilding are very different4 ,when wood is to be gilded1 the surface is first smeared with an adhesive kind of oil1 or with a kind of glue called size2 and the gold leaf1 above mentioned1 is then spread upon it by a tuft of cotton or other soft substance4 ,the gilding of iron or copper is performed by cleaning and polishing its surface1 and then heating it till it has a blue colour4 ,when this has been done1 a layer of gold leaf is put on1 slightly burnished down1 and exposed to a gentle fire4 ,it is usual1 in common work1 to place three such layers1 or four at the most1 each consisting of a single leaf4 ,the heating is repeated at each layer1 and last of all the work is burnished4 ,for gilding in or moulu1 as it is denominated by the ,french1 an amalgam consisting of ten parts of mercury and one part of gold is used4 ,this is spread upon the metal1 and is afterwards exposed to the action of a fire sufficiently strong to evaporate the mercury and leave the gold behind4 ,the gilding in or moulu is much more solid and permanent than that by the former method4 ,when gilding is pale and dirty1 it may be revived by means of what is called gilding wax1 a composition of yellow wax1 bole 7#abg71 verdigris 7#bcj71 and alum4 ,a very beautiful gilding upon metals1 and particularly upon silver1 is effected by soaking clean linen rags in a solution of gold made by aqua regia 7#bjg74 ,the rags are dried and burnt2 and the ashes are carefully preserved4 ,these ashes are used by taking a sound cork1 moistening it with a little water1 dipping it into the ashes1 and then rubbing strongly a portion of them on the surface of the silver1 which should be perfectly clean and bright4 ,by this simple and economical process1 it will be covered with an extremely thin coating of gold1 the colour and brilliancy of which may be heightened by burnishing4 ,the ornaments upon snuffboxes1 fans1 and various kinds of trinkets1 are merely thin plates of silver1 gilded in this manner4 ,the edges of teacups1 and other similar articles1 may be gilded1 though not in a very durable manner1 by applying a thin coat of amber varnish 7#bbd71 and then placing leafgold upon it4 ,when the varnish is dry1 the gold is to be burnished4 ,gold1 in a state of solution1 is sometimes used for staining marble1 ivory1 ornamental feathers1 and other articles1 a purplered colour1 which cannot be effaced4 ,by chemical processes an oxide 7#ba7 is obtained from this metal1 which is employed for giving those beautiful shades of lilac1 rose colour1 red and purple1 which we observe in glass and porcelain4 ,a gold powder for painting may be made by uniting one part of gold with eight parts of mercury 7#bbh71 and afterwards evaporating the latter by heat4 ,the article denominated gold wire is generally silver wire gilded1 very little wire being made entirely of gold4 ,its uses are chiefly for embroidery and filagree work4 ,gold thread consists of flatted silver gilt wire1 laid over a thread of yellow silk1 by twisting it in a machine with iron bobbins4 ,it is of this1 and not of gold1 that the article called gold lace is made4 ,the ,chinese1 instead of flatted wire1 use slips of gilt paper1 which they interweave in their stuffs1 and twist upon silk threads4 #bbh4 ,,mercury1 in its native state1 is called quicksilver1 and is found in small globules of shining1 silvery appearance1 scattered through different kinds of stones1 clay1 and ores4 ,it is nearly fourteen times heavier than water4 ,the principal ore of mercury1 and that from which the metal is chiefly obtained1 is cinnabar4 ,this is of red colour1 and consists of mercury mineralized with sulphur4 ,it is sometimes found in a massive state1 sometimes in grains1 and sometimes crystallized2 and chiefly among rocks of the coal formation4 ,the most productive mines of cinnabar are in the palatinate of ,germany1 at ,idria in ,carniola1 and at ,almaden in ,spain4 ,those of ,idria are supposed to be more valuable than any of the others4 ,their first discovery1 which was somewhat more than three hundred years ago1 was made in a very extraordinary manner4 ,this part of the country was then much inhabited by coopers2 and one of the men1 on retiring from work in the evening1 placed a new tub under a dropping spring1 to try if it would hold water2 and1 when he came in the morning1 he found it so heavy that he could scarcely move it4 ,examining into the cause of this extraordinary circumstance1 the man observed that it was owing to a shining and ponderous fluid which was at the bottom4 ,the affair was noised abroad1 and a society of persons was formed to search further1 and discover the mine from which this quicksilver had flowed4 ,such was their success that the reigning ,duke of ,austria paid them a compensation for the discovery1 and took the mine into his own possession4 ,the greatest perpendicular depth of this mine is now more than #hcj feet4 ,it is descended by buckets1 or by ladders placed obliquely in a zigzag direction4 ,in some parts of the mine the pure metal flows in small streams1 so that in six hours a man has been known to collect more than thirtysix pounds weight of it4 ,in other parts it is found in a multitude of little drops1 either in ores or in clay4 ,the whole produce of the mine is said to exceed a hundred tons weight of mercury per annum4 ,it has been asserted that1 several years ago1 in digging out clay for the foundation of a house opposite to the ,king's ,arms inn1 in the street called ,hydehill1 in ,berwickupon,tweed1 a quantity of native mercury was discovered4 ,the clay1 when dug out1 lay for some time in the place to which it was conveyed2 and the mercury was observed to exude from the small fissures or cracks that were formed as it dried4 ,it is said that1 several years afterwards1 in making some alteration in the yard of the same house1 the workmen penetrated into the same bed of clay2 and that it then appeared to be impregnated with native mercury1 which ran out in small globules4 ,mercury is sometimes imported into ,europe from ,peru1 and from the ,east ,indies4 ,the mode of extracting it from cinnabar is said to be by mixing this ore either with pounded chalk1 or with half its weight of iron filings1 and distilling it in a stoneware retort4 ,by this process the sulphur combines with the iron1 and the mercury1 in a state of purity1 passes into the receiver4 ,when pure or native mercury occurs in mixture with other substances1 these are stamped or ground into a coarse powder4 ,water is poured upon them2 they are briskly stirred until the water becomes thick and turbid1 and then are left to settle4 ,this operation is repeated till the water runs off perfectly clear4 ,the substance at the bottom1 which is principally mercury1 is then put into large iron retorts and the metal is obtained1 free from all extraneous matters1 by distillation4 ,it is the singular property of this metal1 which has no other alliance whatever with silver than its appearance1 to be capable of division1 by the least effort1 into an indefinite number of particles1 each of which assumes a spherical form2 and to be always in a fluid state in the common temperature of our atmosphere4 ,even during the most intense frost1 it still retains its fluidity4 ,by the effect1 however1 of extreme cold artificially produced1 mercury becomes a solid metal1 and in this state may be beaten with a hammer and extended without breaking2 but care must be taken that it does not touch the fingers1 as it would blister them and cause unpleasant sores1 in the same manner as any burning substance4 ,mercury has been known from the remotest ages2 and it was employed by the ancients in gilding1 and in the operations of separating gold and silver from their ores1 in the same manner as at present4 ,being the heaviest of all fluids of which we have any knowledge1 and not congealing in the temperature of our climate1 it has been preferred1 before all others1 for barometers1 as a measure of the weight of the atmosphere4 ,and1 as heat dilates mercury similarly to other fluids1 it is likewise made into thermometers4 ,mercury is sometimes used in medicine in its pure metallic state4 ,the combinations of mercury with other metals are termed amalgams4 ,that of mercury and gold is formed so readily1 that if gold be dipped into mercury1 its surface immediately becomes as white as silver4 ,an amalgam of mercury and gold is employed for the gilding1 and of mercury and silver for the silvering of metals4 ,mercury and tin combined together form the substance that is used for the silvering of lookingglasses4 ,the process is as follows3 ,a quantity of tinfoil1 equal in size to the glass1 is evenly placed on a flat stone or table2 and mercury1 in which some tin has been dissolved1 is poured upon it1 and spread with a feather1 or bunch of cloth1 until its union has covered every part4 ,a plate of glass is then cautiously slided upon it1 from one end to the other1 in such manner that part of the redundant mercury is driven off1 or swept away before its edge4 ,the remainder is now united to the tin4 ,the glass is then loaded with weights all over1 so as to press out still more of the mercury4 ,by inclining the table1 this remaining mercury becomes discharged2 and1 in a few hours1 the rest of the tinfoil and mercury adhere so firmly to the glass1 that the weight may be removed without any danger of its falling4 ,about two ounces of mercury are requisite for covering1 in this manner1 three square feet of glass4 ,by means of mercury a fulminating powder is made1 which1 when struck with a hammer on an anvil or flat iron1 such as is used by laundresses1 explodes with a stunning and disagreeable report1 and with such force as to indent both the anvil and the hammer4 ,four or five grains are as much of this powder as ought to be used for such experiments4 ,its force is much greater than that of gunpowder1 but does not extend so far4 ,hence it is a substance which might be rendered of great use in the blasting of rocks4 ,corrosive sublimate is an extremely poisonous preparation from mercury4 ,among other uses1 it is employed by dyers as a mordant to fix their colours4 ,from certain proportions of corrosive sublimate rubbed together1 until they are perfectly incorporated1 is formed calomel2 a salt which1 of late years1 has been extensively and most usefully employed in medicine4 ,a valuable red colour or pigment called vermilion1 or artificial cinnabar1 which was as well known to the ancients as it is to the moderns1 is usually formed of three parts of mercury and one of sulphur1 melted together1 heated to redness1 and then sublimated out of contact of the air4 ,the manufacture of vermilion was long kept a secret by the ,dutch2 and it is stated that1 before the late war1 nearly #ej1jjj pounds weight of it were annually made1 in three furnaces1 by four workmen1 near ,amsterdam4 ,native cinnabar is sometimes used for the same purpose2 but the artificial kind is preferred on account of the purity and brightness of its colour4 #bbi4 ,,silver is a white1 brilliant1 sonorous1 and ductile metal1 somewhat more than ten times heavier than water4 ,it is found in different states4 ,of these the principal is denominated native silver1 from its being nearly in a state of purity4 ,native silver sometimes occurs in small lumps1 sometimes in a crystallized form1 and sometimes in leaves1 threads1 or wire4 ,in many instances the latter are so connected with each other as to resemble the branches of trees1 in which case the ore is called dendritic4 ,there are also several ores of silver1 in which this metal is combined with lead1 antimony1 arsenic1 sulphur1 and other substances4 ,the silver that is produced from the mines of ,potosi1 in ,south ,america1 is of the dendritic kind2 and is considered by the ,spaniards as the purest that is known4 ,a range of mountains near ,potosi1 about twenty miles in circumference1 is said to be perforated by more than #cjj shafts1 or openings of mines1 and to produce1 in the whole1 from #cj1jjj to #dj1jjj dollars' worth of ore per week4 ,the annual produce of the silver mines in ,america has been estimated at near #b1djj1jjjl4 sterling4 ,silver is also found in several parts of ,europe2 and1 some years ago1 there were mines of this metal1 worked to a great extent1 at ,konigsberg in ,norway4 ,these were discovered in #afbc1 and they were found so profitable1 that in #agea fortyone shafts and twelve veins were wrought there2 and #c1ejj officers1 artificers1 and labourers1 were employed4 ,the perpendicular depth of the principal shaft was more than #gej feet4 ,specimens of native silver are not uncommon from some of the coppermines of ,cornwall2 and1 many years ago1 a vein of silver ore was1 for a short time1 wrought with considerable advantage in the parish of ,alva1 ,stirlingshire1 ,scotland4 ,it is said that from #dj1jjjl4 to #ej1jjjl4 worth of silver was obtained from it before the repository was exhausted4 ,we are informed that a mass of capillary native silver was found1 in veins traversing the bluecoloured limestone of ,isla1 one of the ,western ,islands of ,scotland4 ,great quantities of silver are extracted from lead4 ,there was lately melted in one refining house in ,london #ej1jjjl4 worth of this metal1 from lead of the ,beralston mines in ,devonshire4 ,different methods are employed1 in different countries1 to extract silver from its ore4 ,in ,mexico and ,peru the mineral is pounded1 roasted1 washed1 and then mixed with mercury in vessels filled with water2 a mill being employed for the more perfectly agitating and mingling them4 ,by this process the silver combines with the mercury4 ,the alloy thus obtained1 after undergoing some further processes1 is submitted to the action of heat1 by which the mercury passes off in a state of vapour1 leaving the silver behind4 ,the silver is then melted and cast into bars or ingots4 ,in other countries1 after the earthy matters are cleared from the silver ore by pounding and washing1 the remainder is melted with lead3 which1 by a subsequent process1 is separated1 and leaves the silver alone and pure4 ,this metal ranks next in value to gold4 ,like gold1 it is coined into money1 and is manufactured into various kinds of utensils1 such as goblets1 vases1 spoons1 and dishes1 which have the general appellation of silver plate4 ,for all these purposes it is alloyed with copper1 which does not affect its whiteness1 and is not easily detected1 unless it be in too great proportion3 the intention of this is to render it harder than it would otherwise be1 and thereby the better to adapt it to receive fine and sharp impressions on being cast4 ,our standard silver is composed of somewhat more than #ab parts of pure metal and one part of copper2 and the metal of this standard is used1 both for silver plate1 and in the coinage4 ,the mark or stamp which is given to it at ,goldsmiths' ,hall is similar to that which has been explained for sterling gold4 ,after platina 7#bbf7 and gold 7#bbg71 silver is considered the most unchangeable of all metals4 ,the air does not easily act upon its surface in such manner as to injure it2 but1 when long exposed to the atmosphere1 especially in frequented or smoky places1 it acquires a covering or rust of dark brown colour1 which1 on examination1 is found to be what chemists denominate sulphuret of silver4 ,the fumes of sulphur and other inflammable substances blacken silver4 ,various powders have been contrived with a view to restore to plate its original lustre2 but these should be used with caution1 as some of them are very injurious4 ,silver is nearly as ductile as gold4 ,it may be beaten into leaves so thin that a single grain in weight will cover a space of more than fiftyone inches2 and it may be drawn into wire much finer than a human hair1 indeed so fine that a single grain of silver has1 in this form1 been extended nearly to the length of #djj feet4 ,it is this wire gilded that has the name of gold wire2 and what is denominated gold lace 7#bbg7 is but flatted silver thread gilt1 twisted round silk1 and woven4 ,the plating of copper with silver is a very useful operation1 and is thus performed4 ,plates of silver are bound with iron wire1 upon small ingots of copper4 ,the quantity generally allowed is one ounce of silver to twelve ounces of copper4 ,the surface of the plate of silver is made not quite so large as that of the copper2 and upon the edges of the copper1 which are not covered by the silver1 a little borax 7#bjd7 is put4 ,by exposing the whole to a strong heat1 the borax melts2 and1 in melting1 contributes to fuse that part of the silver to which it is contiguous1 and to attach it1 in that state1 to the copper4 ,the ingot1 with its silver plate1 is then rolled between steel rollers moved by machinery1 till it is of proper thickness4 ,it is afterwards cut into such sizes and to such shapes as may be required for use4 ,an ounce of silver is thus often rolled out into a surface of three square feet1 having its thickness1 upon the copper1 not more than the threethousandth part of an inch4 ,hence we ought not to be surprised at the silver being soon worn from the sharp edges of plated goods4 ,to prevent this1 it is customary1 with the best articles1 to have all the edges1 and the parts liable to be worn1 formed1 to a considerable thickness1 of silver4 ,what is called ,french plate is made by heating copper1 or more frequently1 brass1 to a certain degree1 then applying leafsilver to the surface1 and strongly rubbing it with a burnisher4 ,the durability of this plating depends of course on the number of leaves which are applied on a given surface4 ,for ornaments that are not much used ten leaves may be sufficient2 but a hundred will not last long1 if the metal be exposed to frequent handling or washing4 ,besides the above1 there are various modes of silvering metal articles1 or1 as it is called1 washing them with silver4 ,all these are performed by different chemical preparations of this metal4 ,the article denominated shellsilver1 used by painters1 is prepared1 by carefully grinding silverleaf1 with a little honey or gum water upon a slab1 or in a mortar1 and separating the honey or gum by means of water4 ,when this is washed away1 the silver may be put on paper1 or kept in shells1 for use4 ,when it is to be used1 it must again be diluted with gum water4 ,the application of silverleaf for the silvering of paper or wood is similar to that of goldleaf 7#bbg74 ,silver1 dissolved in aqua fortis 7nitric acid1 #cj71 yields crystals1 which1 afterwards melted in crucibles1 form that grey mass usually called lunar caustic1 and by chemists nitrat of silver4 ,this preparation is of considerable use in surgical cases1 being employed to keep down fungous or proud flesh1 in wounds and ulcers1 and also for the consuming of warts1 small wens1 and other excrescences upon the skin4 ,it is likewise1 though a most violent medicine1 sometimes given internally1 but in very small doses1 to persons subject to epileptic fits4 ,the liquid in which the silver is dissolved becomes excessively caustic4 ,it gives to the skin1 the hair1 and almost all animal substances1 an indelible black colour4 ,hence it is often used as a specific for dyeing the human hair4 ,no person1 however1 would employ it for this purpose1 who was acquainted with its injurious qualities1 not only to the hair itself1 but also to the skin1 if permitted to come in contact with it4 ,the article called indelible1 or permanent marking ink1 for marking linen1 and other wearing apparel1 is formed by dissolving1 in a glass mortar1 two drachms of nitrat of silver1 in six drachms of pure water1 and then adding to them two drachms1 by measure1 of thick gum water4 ,this is the ink for writing on the linen4--,in another vessel dissolve half an ounce of salt of tartar1 or of the subcarbonat of soda1 of commerce1 in four ounces of water2 and add to the solution half an ounce1 by measure1 of thick gum water4 ,this forms the preparatory liquor4 ,with this the linen is to be thoroughly wetted at the part intended to be marked4 ,the linen is to be dried1 and then to be written upon by a clean pen dipped in the marking ink4 ,the letters will at first be pale1 but by exposure to light and heat1 they will soon become black2 and be so permanently fixed1 that no washing nor bleaching can efface them4 ,the attention of the curious has of late been turned to a very extraordinary compound called fulminating silver1 which explodes without heat1 and with even the slightest degree of friction4 ,of this compound little fulminating balls have been made4 ,these are globules of thin glass1 each somewhat larger than a pea1 and containing a grain or two of fulminating silver4 ,after the silver is put in1 it is secured by a piece of soft paper1 pasted over the ball1 so as completely to cover it4 ,these balls explode by merely crushing them under the heel of the shoe4 ,what are called fulminating bombs are similar balls1 but of the size of hazel nuts4 ,no one should attempt to explode these by crushing them with the shoe1 as their explosive effect is so violent as sometimes to prove injurious4 ,fulminating silver requires the utmost care4 ,it should never be put into phials1 nor should it be in any way handled so as to produce much friction4 ,it is the most dangerous preparation that is known4 ,the mere touch of a hard substance will sometimes explode it2 and its very preparation is so hazardous that this ought never to be attempted without a mask upon the face with strong glass eyes4 ,the following are three pleasing experiments with preparations of silver3 #a4 ,mix or amalgamate together four parts of silver leaf with two parts of mercury 7#bbh7 and dissolve this in diluted aqua fortis4 ,to the solution add as much water as will be equal to thirty times the weight of the metals employed4 ,pour a portion of the above mixture into a phial1 and place at the bottom a small piece of silver4 ,after it has stood awhile1 little filaments of silver will be seen to shoot up from it somewhat in the form of a shrub4 ,this apparent vegetation is popularly called the tree of ,diana4 #b4 ,a production nearly similar may be obtained by adding a little quicksilver to a solution of nitrat of silver in water4 #c4 ,drop upon a clean plate of copper a small quantity of solution of lunar caustic1 or nitrat of silver4 ,in a short time a metallic vegetation will be perceptible1 branching out in pleasing forms1 and in various directions4 #bcj4 ,,copper is a red or orangecoloured metal1 about nine times heavier than water4 ,it is the most sonorous of all metals1 and1 except iron1 the most elastic4 ,it is found under a great variety of forms1 sometimes in masses of pure metal1 but1 more frequently1 in combination with other substances1 particularly sulphur4 ,there are valuable copper mines in every quarter of the world2 and the use of copper is probably of greater antiquity than that of any other metal4 ,it is mentioned in the ,old ,testament2 and1 at a very early period1 domestic utensils and instruments of war were made of bronze1 or a compound of copper and tin4 ,even during the ,trojan war1 as we learn from ,homer1 the combatants had no other armour than what was made of bronze4 ,the ,greek and ,roman sculptors are said to have executed fine works of art in porphyry1 granite1 and other hard minerals1 by means of copper instruments2 whence historians have been induced to believe that the ancients possessed the secret of rendering this metal as hard as steel3 some of them even imagined that they had the means of converting it into steel4 ,copper is very abundant in several parts of ,great ,britain1 particularly in the island of ,anglesea4 ,the copper mines of ,anglesea are situated on the top of a mountain1 and form an enormous cavity more than five hundred yards long1 a hundred yards broad1 and a hundred yards deep4 ,the ore is got from the mine by pickaxes1 and blasting with gunpowder4 ,it is then broken with hammers into small pieces1 an operation which is chiefly performed by women and children4 ,after this1 it is piled into kilns of great length1 and each about six feet high2 from the upper parts of which flues are attached that communicate with what are called sulphur chambers4 ,the kilns are closely covered2 and fires are lighted in different parts1 that the ore may undergo the process of roasting4 ,the whole mass gradually kindles1 and the sulphur1 which is combined with the ore1 is expelled in fumes1 by the heat1 and is conveyed1 through the flues1 to the sulphur chamber4 ,this process occupies from three to ten months1 according to the size of the kilns2 and1 during that period1 the sulphur chamber is cleared four or five times4 ,when the operation is complete1 or the ore is freed from the sulphur1 it is taken to places denominated slacking pits4 ,it is subsequently conveyed to the smelting houses1 where1 by intense heat1 the pure metal is drawn off in a fluid state4 ,as the water1 which passes through several parts of the ,paris mine1 is strongly impregnated with sulphat of copper 7#bji71 or copper held in solution by sulphuric acid 7#bd71 the proprietors turn the course of this water through certain large and shallow pits1 which they have formed for the purpose1 and in each of which they place a quantity of iron4 ,a decomposition here takes place3 the iron is corroded1 and1 at length1 entirely dissolved1 and the copper1 in the form of a brown mud1 falls to the bottom4 ,one ton weight of iron1 thus immersed1 will produce nearly two tons of copper mud1 each of which1 when melted1 will yield sixteen hundred weight of metal4 ,this mode of obtaining copper is said to have been an accidental discovery from one of the workmen1 several years ago1 having left a shovel in the water1 which1 when afterwards taken out1 appeared changed into copper4 ,the magnitude of the above mentioned copper works may readily be conceived1 when it is stated that the beds of ore are1 in some places1 more than sixty feet in depth3 that the proprietors employ more than #ajjj workmen2 and that they ship1 from the adjacent port of ,amlwch1 upwards of #bj1jjj tons of copper1 annually4 ,there is at ,ecton1 in ,staffordshire1 a copper mine which is now worked at the depth of #adaf feet below the surface of the ground4 ,this is the deepest mine in ,england4 ,the uses of copper are numerous and important4 ,when rolled into sheets1 betwixt large iron cylinders1 it is employed for the covering of houses1 sheathing the bottoms of ships1 and other purposes4 ,as a covering for houses1 copper is lighter than slate1 but whether it be more durable has not been yet ascertained4 ,the coppering of ships tends to facilitate their progress through the water1 by presenting a smoother surface than that of wood1 and not permitting shell animals to fasten to it as they do to wood4 ,it likewise preserves the bottoms of the ships from being punctured by marine worms2 and consequently secures to them a longer duration than they would otherwise have4 ,plates1 or flat pieces of copper1 are used by artists for engraving pictures upon1 either by cutting them with a sharp steel instrument1 or corroding them with aqua fortis 7#bjf71 in lines drawn by a needle through a thin coat of wax spread upon their surface4 ,copper is manufactured into various kinds of cooking utensils4 ,great care1 however1 ought to be taken that acid liquors1 or even water intended for drinking1 or to be mixed with food1 be not suffered to stand long in such vessels1 otherwise they will dissolve so much of the metal as to give them disagreeable and even poisonous qualities4 ,yet1 it is remarkable that1 while acid liquors are kept boiling1 they do not seem to dissolve any of the metal4 ,hence it is that confectioners1 by skilful management1 prepare the most acid syrups in copper vessels1 without their receiving any unpleasant taste or injurious quality from the metal4 ,all vessels formed of this metal which are employed in cookery1 ought to have their inner surface covered with a coat of tin 7#bch74 ,as copper does not1 like iron1 strike fire by collision1 it has on this1 as well as on some other accounts1 been substituted for iron in the machinery which is employed in gunpowder mills4 ,it is also made into water pipes1 and sometimes into sash frames4 ,under the hammer it is capable of being beaten into thin leaves like gold4 ,copper wire is much employed by bellhangers and other artisans4 ,the filings of this metal are used for giving a green colour to some kinds of artificial fireworks4 ,several preparations of copper are employed in medicine1 some of them internally1 and others externally2 but most of the former are violently emetic4 ,verdigris is a rust or oxide 7#ba7 of copper1 usually prepared from that metal by corroding it with vinegar4 ,there is a large manufactory of verdigris at ,montpelier in ,france4 ,the workmen place alternate strata of copper plates and husks of grapes1 the latter of which speedily become acid and corrode the metal4 ,the verdigris1 thus formed1 is scraped off as it collects on the surface2 it is afterwards dried1 and put in bags or casks for sale4 ,a manufactory of verdigris has lately been established at ,deptford1 near ,london4 ,a solution of this substance in distilled vinegar affords permanent crystals1 which are improperly called distilled verdigris1 and are made into a green paint4 ,verdigris is principally consumed by dyers in combination with logwood1 for striking a black colour4 ,it is a virulent poison4 ,oxide of copper is employed for giving a beautiful green colour to porcelain4 ,it also imparts the same colour to glass1 and hence is frequently employed for the formation of artificial emeralds4 ,alloys of ,copper4 ,of all metals that are known1 copper is the most susceptible of alloy4 ,the most frequent and useful of these alloys are made with copper and zinc1 in different proportions4 ,brass is an alloy composed of three parts of copper1 and about a fourth part of zinc 7#bda74 ,it is a beautiful1 useful1 and wellknown yellow metal4 ,not being so apt to tarnish and rust as copper1 and being1 in other respects1 better adapted for the purpose than that metal1 it is much used for clockwork1 and for mathematical and astronomical instruments4 ,it is more ductile than either copper or iron1 and hence is peculiarly fitted to be made into wire1 for the strings of musical instruments1 and other purposes4 ,sieves are woven with brass wire1 after the manner of cambric weaving1 and of such extreme fineness that similar ones could not possibly be made with copper wire4 ,brass wire1 flatted and gilded1 is sometimes made into lace4 ,the finest brass is manufactured at ,geneva4 ,it unites great beauty of colour to a high degree of ductility2 and is used chiefly for escapement wheels1 and other nicer parts of watchmaking4 ,for work in which there is no friction it is necessary to cover brass with a kind of varnish or laquer1 to improve its colour1 and prevent it from being tarnished by exposure to the atmosphere4 ,prince's ,metal1 or ,pinchbeck1 is an alloy containing three parts of zinc 7#bda71 and four of copper4 ,this metal has nearly the same colour as gold1 and was formerly much in use for the manufacture of ornamental articles of different kinds4 ,dutch ,gold is formed by the cementation of copperplates with calamine 7#bda71 hammered out into leaves4 ,this article is chiefly manufactured in ,holland and ,germany1 and has about five times the thickness of gold leaf4 ,bronze1 and the metal of which cannons are made1 consist of from six to twelve parts of tin 7#bch7 combined with #ajj parts of copper4 ,this alloy is brittle1 heavier than copper1 and of a yellow colour4 ,before the method of working iron was brought to perfection1 it was used by the ancients for the manufacture of sharppointed instruments2 and it is supposed to have been the s or brass of the ,romans4 ,bell ,metal1 or the metal of which bells are formed1 is usually composed of three parts of copper and one of tin4 ,its colour is greyish white2 and it is very hard1 sonorous1 and elastic4 ,bronze and bell metal are not1 however1 always made of copper and tin only4 ,they frequently have other admixtures1 consisting of lead1 zinc1 or arsenic4 ,bellmakers sometimes abuse the vulgar credulity by pretending that they add a certain quantity of silver to the alloy1 for the purpose of rendering the bells more melodious3 but they are better acquainted with their business than to employ so valuable a metal in the operation4 ,white ,copper is an alloy composed of equal parts of copper and arsenic 7#bdb74 ,the metal produced by this mixture is of a whitish colour1 but with a coppery tinge4 ,it is freed from the latter by being melted several times2 and1 by this process1 is at last rendered as white as silver4 ,white copper is very brittle2 but1 if the arsenic be evaporated by heat1 it resumes its ductility1 and still preserves its white colour4 ,when the operation is well performed1 it is easy1 at the first glance1 to mistake white copper for silver2 but the difference may immediately be ascertained from the properties inherent to the two metals4 ,white copper is employed in the manufacture of many kinds of trinkets3 and of a great number of domestic utensils2 such as teapots1 coffeepots1 and candlesticks4 #bca4 ,,malachite is a solid green copper ore1 the surface of which has frequently a bubbled appearance1 and the interior is marked with numerous irregular zones1 and layers of different shades of green4 ,it is somewhat more than three times as heavy as water1 and is so soft as to be easily scratched by a knife4 ,in its appearance1 malachite somewhat resembles green jasper2 but it is by no means so hard4 ,it is1 however1 capable of being cut and polished as a gem1 and is manufactured into various kinds of trinkets1 which of late years have been much in request for necklaces1 brooches1 and bracelets4 ,it is also cut into slabs1 and mounted into snuffboxes4 ,such is the size of which it is sometimes found1 that ,m4 ,patrin saw1 at ,petersburgh1 a plate of malachite thirtytwo inches long and seventeen inches broad1 which was valued at #bj1jjj livres2 but the finest specimens in ,europe are some slabs that are adapted as the tops of tables1 sideboards1 c4 at ,trianon1 in the ,park of ,versailles3 the largest of these are nearly four feet in length and two feet wide4 ,they may indeed have been formed by various pieces joined together2 but1 if so1 the joints are so completely concealed as not to be discoverable even by the closest examination4 ,malachite is sometimes employed for the engraving of cameos1 but is seldom cut in intaglio4 ,smaller pieces of this substance1 that are used for trinkets1 are about the same value as carnelian4 ,independently of its use1 in the above respects1 and also as an ore of copper1 malachite1 when pure1 is ground into powder1 and employed as a green pigment4 ,the ,vosges ,mountains in ,lorraine1 and certain copper mines of ,saxony1 are celebrated for producing very fine specimens of malachite4 ,this beautiful mineral is also found in our own country1 in the copper mines of ,cornwall and ,wales4 #bcb4 ,,turquoise4 ,the beautiful light blue substances that are called turquoises have usually been considered as the bones or teeth of animals1 impregnated with blue oxide 7#ba7 of copper2 but they are sometimes found in nodules which are certainly not of an osseous nature4 ,turquoises are frequently set in rings1 necklaces1 brooches1 and other female ornaments4 ,in ,persia they are very common2 and1 amongst the ,turks1 are held in such estimation that persons of rank almost constantly wear them in some part of their dress1 as ringstones1 and to adorn the handles of stilettoes4 ,they are imported into ,england from ,russia1 stuck with pitch upon the ends of straws2 because if mixed together in parcels1 the purchaser would not easily be able1 in turning them over1 to observe their colour1 and ascertain their value4 ,in the turquoise there is nothing that can recommend it to notice except the agreeable softness of its colour1 which is particularly distinguishable by candlelight2 this alone has rendered it so fashionable as an ornament in female dress1 for rings1 eardrops1 and brooches1 that the demand for it is at present greater than the supply4 ,imitations of turquoise are easily made in paste1 and not unfrequently imposed upon the ignorant purchaser2 but in these1 though the colour is correctly given1 there is a glassy lustre much higher than that of the real stone4 ,of late years a spurious kind of turquoise has also found its way into ,europe1 which is much softer than the genuine kind2 has more of a green than a blue cast1 and is by no means capable of so good a polish4 #bcc4 ,,iron is a wellknown metal1 of livid greyish colour1 hard and elastic1 and capable of receiving a high polish4 ,its weight is nearly eight times as great as that of water4 ,it is seldom found in a truly native state1 but occurs1 abundantly1 in almost every country of the world1 in a state of oxide 7#ba71 and mineralized with sulphuric 7#bd71 carbonic 7#bf71 and other acids4 ,iron is found in plants1 in several kinds of coloured stones1 and even in the blood of animals4 ,of all the metals there are none which1 in the whole1 are so useful1 or are so copiously and variously dispersed as iron4 ,its uses were ascertained at a very early period of the world4 ,moses speaks of furnaces for iron1 and of the ores from which it was extracted1 and tells us that swords1 knives1 axes1 and instruments for cutting stones1 were1 in his time1 all made of this metal4 ,the most considerable iron mines at present existing are those in ,great ,britain and ,france4 ,after iron ore is dug out of the earth1 it is crushed or broken into small pieces1 by machinery4 ,it is next washed1 to detach the grosser particles of earth which adhere to it4 ,this operation ended1 it is roasted in kilns1 formed for the purpose1 by which the sulphur1 and some other substances that are capable of being separated by heat1 are detached4 ,it is then thrown into a furnace1 mixed with a certain portion of limestone and charcoal1 to be melted4 ,near the bottom of the furnace there is a taphole1 through which the liquid metal is discharged into furrows made in a bed of sand4 ,the larger masses1 or those which flow into the main furrow1 are called sows2 the smaller ones are denominated pigs of iron2 and the general name of the metal in this state is cast iron4 ,with us iron is employed in three states1 of cast iron1 wrought iron1 and steel4 ,cast iron is distinguishable1 by its properties of being1 in general1 so hard as to resist both the hammer and the file2 being extremely brittle1 and for the most part1 of a dark grey or blackish colour4 ,a great number of useful and important articles are formed of cast iron1 such as grates1 chimney backs1 pots1 boilers1 pipes1 and cannon shot4 ,these are made by casting ladles full of the liquid metal into moulds that are shaped1 for the purpose1 in sifted sand4 ,wrought iron4 ,the process of converting cast iron into wrought or malleable iron1 is called blooming4 ,the cast iron is thrown into the furnace1 and kept melted by the flame of combustibles which is made to play upon its surface4 ,here it is suffered to continue for about two hours1 a workman constantly stirring it1 until1 notwithstanding the continuance of the heat1 it gradually acquires consistency1 and congeals4 ,it is then taken out1 while hot1 and violently beaten with a large hammer worked by machinery4 ,in this state it is formed into bars for sale4 ,the value of iron is beyond all estimate1 and infinitely greater than even that of gold4 ,by means of this metal the earth has been cultivated and subdued4 ,without it houses1 cities1 and ships1 could not have been built2 and few arts could have been practised4 ,it forms also the machinery by which the most useful and important mechanical powers are generated and applied4 ,steel is usually made by a process called cementation4 ,this consists in keeping bars of iron in contact with powdered charcoal1 during a state of ignition1 for several hours1 in earthen troughs1 or crucibles1 the mouths of which are stopped up with clay4 ,steel1 if heated to redness1 and suffered to cool slowly1 becomes soft2 but if plunged1 whilst hot1 into cold water1 it acquires extreme hardness4 ,it may be rendered so hard as even to scratch glass2 and at the same time1 it becomes more brittle and elastic than it was before4 ,although thus hardened1 it may have its softness and ductility restored1 by being again heated1 and suffered to cool slowly4 ,a piece of polished steel1 in heating1 assumes first a strawyellow colour1 then a lighter yellow1 next becomes purple1 then violet1 then red1 next deep blue1 and at last of all bright blue4 ,at this period it becomes red hot1 the colours disappear1 and metallic scales are formed upon1 and encrust its surface4 ,all these different shades of colour indicate the different tempers that the steel acquires by the increase of heat1 from that which renders it proper for files1 to that which fits it for the manufacture of watch springs4 ,mr4 ,stoddart has availed himself of this property to give to surgical1 and other cutting instruments1 those degrees of temper which their various uses require4 ,the kind of steel which has been most celebrated in this country is that imported from ,syria under the name of ,damascus steel4 ,germany is also noted for its steel4 ,the best steel manufactured in ,britain is known by the name of cast steel2 and the making of it1 although it was long kept a profound secret1 is now discovered to be a simple process4 ,it consists merely in fusing it with carbonat of lime 7#adj71 or in what is called cementation1 with charcoal powder1 in a peculiar kind of furnace4 ,the iron produced in ,sweden is considered superior to that of any other country in ,europe for the manufacture of steel4 ,all kinds of edge tools1 where excellence is required1 are made of steel2 and a steel instrument may be immediately known from an iron one1 by letting fall upon it a drop of nitric acid or aqua fortis 7#bjf71 somewhat diluted with water4 ,if it be steel1 this will occasion a black spot2 but if it be iron1 it will not have this effect4 ,steel is attracted by the magnet1 and is capable of receiving a permanent magnetic property1 which has led to the discovery of the mariner's compass4 ,had iron been productive of no other advantages to mankind than this1 it would on this account alone have been entitled to their greatest attention4 ,iron1 when exposed to the moisture of the atmosphere1 becomes gradually covered with a brown1 or yellowish substance1 known by the name of rust1 which1 if suffered to continue without interruption1 will corrode the entire substance of the iron4 ,the rust or oxide of iron 7#ba7 is a substance in considerable request by calico printers for a dye4 ,ironmoulds are spots on linen occasioned by its exposure to iron in damp situations2 these are removeable only by the application of an acid4 ,there are various modes of preserving iron and steel from rust4 ,the following is recommended by an eminent ,french chemist as one of the best4 ,mix copal varnish1 made greasy with oil1 with about fourfifths of the best spirit of turpentine4 ,apply this by means of a sponge1 over the whole surface1 and allow it to dry4 ,this varnish may be successfully used for all the metals2 and particularly for the preservation of such philosophical instruments as1 by being brought into contact with water1 are liable to lose their splendour1 and become tarnished4 #bcd4 ,,meteoric ,,stones are a species of iron ore1 which have at different times been known to fall from the atmosphere4 ,they have been seen only in shapeless masses1 of from a few ounces to several hundred pounds in weight4 ,their texture is granular4 ,they are covered externally with a thin blackish crust1 and are1 internally1 of an ashy grey colour1 mixed with shining minute particles4 ,there is sufficient evidence to show that solid masses of stone have been observed to fall from the air at a period considerably anterior to the ,christian era4 ,notwithstanding this1 so very extraordinary was the phenomenon1 that1 until the year #ahjb1 it was generally regarded by philosophers as a vulgar error4 ,mr4 ,howard1 in that year1 submitted to the ,royal ,society a paper which contained an accurate examination of the testimonies connected with events of this kind2 and described a minute analysis of several of the substances which had been said to have fallen in different parts of the globe4 ,the result of his examination was that all these stony bodies differ completely from every other known stone2 that they all resemble each other1 and are all composed of the same ingredients4 ,the greatest number of the stones which have fallen from the air have been preceded by the appearance of luminous bodies or meteors4 ,these meteors have burst with an explosion1 and then the shower of stones has fallen to the earth4 ,sometimes the stones have continued luminous until they sunk into the earth1 but most commonly their luminousness disappeared at the time of the explosion4 ,their motion through the air is surprisingly rapid1 in a direction nearly horizontal2 but they seem to approach the earth before they explode4 ,in their flight they have frequently been heard to yield a loud whizzing sound4 ,they are hot when they first reach the earth2 and exhibit1 on their surface1 visible marks of fusion4 ,a general tradition has prevailed in almost all ages1 and amongst all people1 of the fall of solid bodies from the atmosphere1 under various denominations1 but1 with us1 more particularly1 under that of thunderbolts4 ,in barbarous and uncivilized countries1 these have usually been ascribed to the miraculous judgment of the deity2 and they may be considered as the true origin of the worship of stones4 ,the image of ,diana1 mentioned in the ,acts of the ,apostles1 as believed by the ,ephesians to have fallen down from ,jupiter1 and the ,palladium or sacred statue of ,minerva1 which also is said to have fallen from ,heaven1 and to have been preserved in ,troy1 as a treasure1 on the safety of which that of the city depended1 had each1 no doubt1 this origin4 ,the ,psalmist evidently alludes to the falling of meteoric stones1 when1 speaking of the ,almighty1 he says1 8,he made darkness his secret place2 his pavilion round about him with dark water1 and thick clouds to cover him4 ,at the brightness of his presence his clouds removed2 hailstones and coals of fire4 ,the ,lord also thundered out of ,heaven1 and the ,highest gave his thunder2 hailstones and coals of fire40 ,among numerous other instances of these stones1 it is recorded that1 on the seventh of ,november1 #adib1 betwixt eleven and twelve o'clock at noon1 a dreadful clap of thunder was heard at ,ensisheim1 a considerable town in ,alsace1 and that a huge stone was seen to fall on a field lately sown with wheat4 ,on several of the neighbours going to the place1 the hole it had formed was found to be about three feet in depth1 and the stone when dug out1 weighed two hundred and sixty pounds4 ,it was preserved in the cathedral of ,ensisheim until the beginning of the ,french ,revolution1 when it was conveyed to the public library at ,colmar4 ,there are in the ,british ,museum two small pieces of this stone1 and fragments of several other meteoric stones which have fallen in different parts of the world4 ,two stones fell near ,verona in ,italy1 in the year #afgb1 one of which weighed three hundred1 and the other two hundred pounds4 ,mr4 ,sowerby1 the publisher of ,english ,botany1 and of several other highly estimable works1 possessed a meteoric stone which fell near ,wold ,newton in ,yorkshire1 in the afternoon of the thirteenth of ,december1 #agie1 and weighed fiftysix pounds4 ,whilst this stone was in motion through the air1 several persons perceived a body passing along the clouds1 although they were unable to ascertain what it was4 ,it passed over several different villages1 and was also accurately and distinctly heard4 ,the day was foggy2 and1 though there was some thunder and lightning at a distance1 it was not until the stone fell that an explosion took place which alarmed all the adjacent country2 and created1 distinctly1 a sensation that something very extraordinary had happened4 ,a shepherd belonging to ,captain ,topham was within a hundred and fifty yards of the place where it fell2 ,george ,sawden1 a carpenter1 within sixty yards2 and ,john ,shepley1 one of ,captain ,topham's farming servants1 was so near that he was forcibly struck by some of the mud and earth that were raised by the stone dashing into the ground4 ,in its fall the stone excavated a place nineteen inches in depth 7seven inches of which were in a solid rock of chalk71 and somewhat more than three feet in diameter1 fixing itself so firmly that some labour was required to dig it out4 ,another stone of considerable size fell in ,scotland on the fifth of ,april1 #agjd4 ,a misty commotion was observed in the atmosphere1 and1 nearly at the time of the stone falling1 a report was heard as loud as if three or four cannon had been fired at a little distance4 ,the report was succeeded by a violent rushing or whizzing noise2 and1 almost immediately afterwards1 the stone fell into a drain1 in the presence of two men and two boys1 splashing the water to a distance of twenty feet around4 ,the stone1 when dug out1 was found to have sunk about eighteen inches into the earth4 ,on the fifth of ,november1 #ahad1 about half past four o'clock in the afternoon1 a dreadful peal of thunder was heard in the ,doab in ,persia1 and was immediately succeeded by a shower of large stones1 many of them from twentysix to thirty pounds weight each4 ,several inhabitants of the adjacent country were present at the time2 and not fewer than nineteen of the stones were collected4 ,professor ,pallas1 many years ago1 discovered lying on the surface of a hill in ,siberia1 a mass of native iron1 which weighed #afhj pounds4 ,it was considered by the natives as a holy relic1 and was believed by them to have fallen from heaven4 ,m4 de ,bougainville1 the ,french circumnavigator1 discovered1 on the banks of the river ,la ,plata1 in ,south ,america1 an enormous mass of native iron1 which he calculated to have weighed about #ajj1jjj pounds4 ,and a mass of native iron1 appearing in every respect to have been of meteoric origin1 was1 some years ago1 discovered in the district of ,st4 ,jago del ,estro1 in ,south ,america4 ,it was in the middle of a great plain1 and had no rock nor mountain near it1 and was calculated to have weighed about thirty tons4 ,the origin of meteoric stones is involved in great obscurity4 ,some writers have imagined that they might be projected from distant volcanoes2 others1 that they may have been detached from rocks1 and had their substance considerably changed by a concurrence of natural causes2 others1 that they may have been generated in the air by a combination of mineral substances2 and others1 that they may have been projected from the moon4 ,the latter was the opinion of ,la ,place the astronomer1 who says that a mass1 if thrown by a volcano from the moon1 with a velocity of about a mile and half per second1 it will thence be projected beyond the sphere of the moon's attraction1 and into the confines of that of the earth2 the consequence of which will be1 that the mass must presently fall to the earth1 and become a part of it4 #bce4 ,,loadstone1 or ,,magnetic ,,ironstone1 is a compact blackish kind of iron ore1 which is possessed of the power of attracting iron1 as well as every substance which contains ferruginous particles4 ,it is betwixt four and five times as heavy as water4 ,this mineral is found in masses of different form and size in most of the iron mines of ,europe and ,america1 and1 when submitted to the furnace1 it yields a considerable proportion of metal4 ,it makes excellent bar iron1 but very indifferent cast iron4 ,in ,sweden1 and particularly at ,roslager1 magnetic iron stone is found quite pure1 and the iron that is wrought from it is imported in considerable quantities into ,great ,britain1 for the purpose of being manufactured into steel4 ,the appellation of load1 or leading stone1 has been given to this kind of iron from its magnetic virtues2 for it is not only endowed with the property of attracting iron1 but also of pointing itself1 and even enabling a needle touched with it to point1 towards the poles of the world4 ,we are1 however1 entirely ignorant what is the cause of this very extraordinary property4 ,artificial magnets1 constructed of steel1 not only possess all the essential virtues of the genuine loadstone1 but even in a much higher degree4 ,the natural magnet is consequently now little esteemed except as an object of curiosity4 #bcf4 ,,pyrites1 or ,,marcasite1 is a mineral substance1 formed by a combination of iron with sulphur4 ,it is usually of a bronze1 yellow1 or brownish colour1 very various in form1 being massive1 globular1 clubshaped1 oval1 or crystallized2 and so hard as to strike fire with flint4 ,few minerals are more common than this1 as it occurs1 in some state or other1 in almost every rock and vein4 ,it is often found among coals2 and1 when heated1 decrepitates with a loud unpleasant noise and sulphureous smell4 ,to the decomposition of this mineral it is that the hot temperature of almost all the mineral waters may be ascribed4 ,the name of pyrites1 which in the ,greek language signifies firestone1 has been obtained by this mineral from its property of striking sparks from steel4 ,it was formerly used for firearms1 as we now use flints4 ,in commerce it is known by the name of marcasite4 ,some years ago it was much used1 particularly in ,france1 for the making of buttons and buckles2 and was cut and polished1 by lapidaries1 for trinkets1 particularly for the rims and hands of watches1 and various kinds of female ornaments4 ,if skilfully cut in the form of small rose diamonds1 although an opaque substance1 it has somewhat the appearance of a diamond4 ,in the tombs of the ,peruvian princes1 with whom a considerable portion of their valuables was always interred1 there have been found polished plates of marcasite1 which appear to have served them as mirrors4 ,this mineral is never worked as an ore of iron2 and it is principally valued on account of the sulphur which can be obtained from it by means of heat2 and the green vitriol1 or copperas 7#bjh71 which it affords by exposure to the air4 ,ignorant persons frequently mistake iron pyrites for gold2 but it is easily distinguished from that precious metal by its brittleness4 ,it breaks when hammered1 whereas gold is malleable1 or may be extended by hammering3 it also strikes fire with steel1 which gold will not4 #bcg4 ,,red ,,ochre1 ,,reddle1 or ,,red ,,chalk1 is an iron ore of bloodred colour1 which is sometimes found in powder1 and sometimes in a hardened state4 ,it has an earthy texture1 and stains the fingers when handled4 ,the principal use of red chalk is for drawing3 the coarser kinds are employed by carpenters and other mechanics1 and the finer kinds by painters4 ,for the latter purpose it should be free from grit1 and not too hard4 ,in order to free it from imperfections1 and render it better for use1 it is sometimes pounded1 washed1 mixed with gum1 and cast into moulds of convenient shape and size4 ,under the name of reddle1 this substance is much used for the marking of sheep2 and 7when mixed with oil7 for the painting of pales1 gates1 and the woodwork of outbuildings4 ,another kind of iron ore1 or rather a compound of the ores of iron and manganese1 is called umber4 ,this mineral1 which is of a brown colour1 is found in beds in the island of ,cyprus1 and is used as a kind of paint both in a raw state and burnt4 #bch4 ,,tin is a white metal1 somewhat like silver in appearance1 but is considerably lighter1 and makes a squeaking or crackling noise when bent4 ,it is very soft and ductile1 and has but little elasticity4 ,this metal is always found either in a state of oxide 7#ba71 or in combination with sulphur and copper2 and is about seven times as heavy as water4 ,the principal tin mines which are known to us are those of ,cornwall1 ,devonshire1 ,germany2 the island of ,banca1 and peninsula of ,malacca1 in ,india2 and ,chili and ,mexico in ,america4 ,of these the most celebrated are the mines of ,cornwall1 which are known to have been worked before the commencement of the ,christian era4 ,diodorus ,siculus1 who wrote forty years before the birth of ,christ1 gives an account of these mines1 and says that their produce was conveyed to ,gaul1 and thence to different parts of ,italy4 ,this species of metal was used in the time of ,moses1 and is mentioned in the writings of ,homer4 ,tin is found in veins1 or beds1 but chiefly in veins1 running through granite and other rocks4 ,in some of the valleys and low grounds of ,cornwall1 the tin ore is found in rounded grains and masses4 ,in these situations1 small grains of gold are sometimes found with it4 ,to separate the tin from earthy and other matters with which it is intermixed1 streams of water are passed over them2 and these deposits have the name of streamworks4 ,when the tin ore has been dug from the earth1 or has been collected at these streamworks1 it is thrown into heaps1 and broken to pieces4 ,after this it is washed1 and subsequently roasted in an intense heat1 for the purpose of dissipating some of the substances with which it is combined4 ,it is lastly melted in a furnace1 and thereby reduced to a metallic state4 ,the metal is then poured into quadrangular moulds of stone1 each containing about #cbj pounds weight4 ,these have the denomination of blocktin1 and are stamped by officers of the ,duke of ,cornwall1 with the impression of a lion1 the arms of that duchy4 ,this is rendered a necessary operation before the tin can be offered for sale2 and on stamping1 it pays a duty of four shillings per hundred weight to the ,prince of ,wales1 as ,duke of ,cornwall1 who thence derives a very considerable income4 ,the article usually called tin1 or tinplate1 and1 in ,scotland1 white iron1 of which saucepans1 boilers1 drinking vessels1 and other utensils of domestic economy are made1 consists only of thin iron plate coated with tin4 ,it is thus formed4 ,the iron plates are immersed in water rendered slightly acid by spirit of salt 7muriatic acid1 #bjb7 or spirit of vitriol 7sulphuric acid1 #baa73 after which1 to clean them completely1 they are scoured quite bright4 ,these plates are then each dipped into a vessel filled with melted tin1 the surface of which is covered with suet1 pitch1 or resin1 to prevent the formation of dross upon it4 ,the tin not only covers the surface of the iron1 but completely penetrates it1 giving to its whole substance a white colour4 ,in a manner similar to this1 stirrups1 buckles1 bridlebits1 and other articles1 are tinned4 ,iron is usually tinned before1 but copper always after it has been formed into utensils4 ,the object to be attained by the tinning of copper is to prevent the vessels made of that metal from being corroded1 and to preserve the food prepared in them from being mixed with any particles of that poisonous substance called verdigris1 which is formed by such corrosion4 ,in the tinning of copper vessels1 their interior surface is first scraped very clean with an iron instrument1 and then rubbed over with salammoniac 7#bjg71 for the purpose of more completely cleansing them1 and also of preventing the formation of verdigris from the copper during the operation4 ,the vessel is then heated1 and a little pitch is thrown into it4 ,while quite hot1 a piece of tin is applied to the copper1 and this1 instantly uniting with it1 soon clothes the whole surface with tin4 ,this metal1 when amalgamated with mercury1 is used for the silvering of lookingglasses 7#bbh74 ,when tin is melted in an open vessel1 its surface is soon found to be covered with a grey powder1 which is an oxide 7#ba7 of the metal1 and is generally called dross4 ,if the heat be continued1 the colour of this powder becomes yellow4 ,in this state it is known by the name of tinputty1 and is employed in polishing glass1 steel1 and other hard substances4 ,when the heat is very violent1 the metal takes fire1 and is converted into a fine white oxide1 which is used to render glass opaque1 for the forming of enamel4 ,oxide of tin is also an important article to dyers4 ,it is employed by them1 in large quantities1 to give brightness to such colours as are used in forming scarlets and other reds3 and to precipitate the colouring matter of other dyes4 ,tin is an essential ingredient in bellmetal1 bronze1 pewter1 and various other compounds4 ,it may be combined with lead1 in any proportion1 by fusion2 and this alloy is harder1 and possesses much more tenacity than tin4 ,the hardest alloy is a composition of three parts of tin and one of lead4 ,the presence of the tin destroys1 in a great measure1 the noxious qualities of the lead4 ,it is sometimes customary to tin copper vessels with this mixture1 and it has been ascertained that such vessels are in no respects injurious4 ,there are three kinds of pewter in common use4 ,these are called plate1 trifle1 and ley pewter4 ,the first1 which is made into plates and dishes1 is formed of tin1 with a small proportion of lead and antimony 7#bde74 ,the second1 or trifle pewter1 which is made in somewhat different proportions1 is used for the quart and pint pots of the publicans3 and the ley pewter1 which is formed of three parts of tin and one of lead1 is manufactured into wine and spirit measures4 ,tin may be beaten into leaves or plates that are much thinner than paper4 ,but1 when it is thus worked1 several leaves must be joined together4 ,they then support each other1 and yield to the hammer without tearing4 ,these leaves are used for the silvering of glass globes1 and the plating of other metals4 ,those that are used for the silvering of lookingglasses are much thicker4 ,the article called tinfoil is an alloy1 consisting generally of two parts of tin and one of lead2 and capable of being beaten to less than the thousandth part of an inch in thickness4 #bci4 ,,lead is a heavy metal1 of pale and livid grey colour when broken1 not sonorous when pure1 very flexible1 and so soft that it may be marked with the nail4 ,it stains paper or the fingers of a bluish colour1 and is about eleven times heavier than water4 ,the most common state in which lead is found is in combination with sulphur and a small portion of silver4 ,this ore is known by the name of galena1 and is frequently in the form of blackish cubical crystals4 ,lead is also found in union with arsenic 7#bdb7 and many acids4 ,great ,britain possesses the most important leadmines in the world2 and those that are best known are in the counties of ,flint and ,derby4 ,the latter are supposed to have been worked even in the time of the ,romans4 ,lead mines are entered sometimes by perpendicular shafts1 and sometimes 7when in the sides of hills7 by levels4 ,in some of the ,derbyshire mines1 where the depth of the veins will admit of it1 the men work1 at different heights1 of from four to six feet above each other1 along what are called stoops2 the uppermost men being two or three yards before those next in succession1 and thus forming a kind of steps4 ,the implements used are picks1 hammers1 and strong iron wedges2 and the rocks are also frequently loosened by means of gunpowder4 ,when the ore is brought out of the mine1 it is sorted and washed1 to free it from dirt and rubbish4 ,after this it is spread on a board2 the best pieces are picked out and separated2 and those containing ore mixed with spar 7#aid7 or other substances1 are placed separate1 to be broken1 and again picked4 ,after the ore1 by pickings and washing1 has been sufficiently cleansed from extraneous matters1 it is roasted in a kind of kiln to free it from the sulphur that is combined with it4 ,the next process is to mix it with a certain quantity of coke1 charcoal1 or peat1 and submit it to the smelting furnace4 ,in this furnace there are tapholes1 which1 when the lead is melted1 are opened1 and the metal1 in a fluid state1 runs into a large iron pan4 ,the dross which floats on its surface is now skimmed off2 and the metal is taken out by ladles1 and poured into cast iron moulds1 with round ends4 ,the lead thus formed1 is ready for use1 and has the name of pig lead4 ,according to their size1 the pieces that are thus cast have the appellation of pigs1 and halfpigs4 ,lead is mentioned in the ,sacred ,writings2 and is described by ,homer as in common use at the period of the ,trojan war4 ,the ancients seem to have considered it as nearly allied to tin4 ,the ,romans employed it to sheathe the bottoms of their ships1 fastening it to the planks and timbers by nails made of bronze4 ,when first melted1 lead is bright1 but it soon tarnishes by exposure to the air4 ,it melts at a temperature very low in comparison with most other metals2 and when a strong heat is applied1 it boils and evaporates4 ,lead is much employed in the useful arts4 ,when rolled between iron cylinders to a requisite state of thinness and uniformity1 it is used for the covering of houses and churches1 notwithstanding the danger1 in case of fire1 to persons within1 who are exposed to a shower of burning metal4 ,it is cast into pipes1 cisterns1 and reservoirs for water1 as well as into large boilers for chemical purposes4 ,but all culinary or domestic vessels made of lead1 particularly if intended for the keeping of acid liquors1 should carefully be avoided1 as the surface of the lead is thereby corroded1 and the liquid contained in them is rendered poisonous4 ,hence arises that dreadful complaint1 too well known where cyder is kept in leaden cisterns1 called the ,devonshire colic2 hence also the injury which sometimes follows from the use of lead in the glazing of coarse earthenware4 ,great quantities of lead are consumed for the making of shot4 ,for this purpose the metal is alloyed with arsenic 7#bdb71 to render it more brittle2 and to render the grains more round and perfect than they otherwise would be4 ,shot is formed by dropping the melted alloy into water1 through an iron or copper frame1 perforated with round holes1 according to the size required4 ,for the smallest shot the elevation is about ten feet above the water2 and for the largest about a hundred and fifty feet4 ,an alloy of lead and tin1 in the proportion of two parts of lead and one of tin1 forms the solder which is used by plumbers4 ,the types that are used by printers for very large characters are sometimes composed of an alloy of lead and copper4 ,lead is also used1 with tin1 in the manufacture of pewter4 ,oxides of ,lead4 ,the different oxides 7#ba7 of lead are easily soluble in oil1 and consequently are of great use to painters4 ,of these the following are the most important3 ,white ,lead1 or ,ceruse4--,this is made by suspending thin plates of lead over heated vinegar1 in such manner that the vapour which rises from the acid may circulate about the plates4 ,by this process the plates become at length entirely corroded1 and converted into a heavy white powder4 ,the manufacture of white lead is a most unhealthy trade1 and is confined to a few persons1 who have large conveniences for the purpose4 ,this substance1 when mixed with oil1 is used as a paint for woodwork both of the outsides and insides of buildings4 ,the fumes that are emitted from white paint are extremely noxious4 ,persons who breathe them are frequently seized with pains1 and experience symptoms not much unlike those that precede palsy2 and the danger which attends the inhabiting of apartments recently painted is well known4 ,the odour of vinegar will correct the pernicious effect of these exhalations1 by acting as a solvent1 and combining with1 and precipitating them4 ,we are informed that white lead1 dangerous as it is1 was in great request among the ,roman ladies as a cosmetic4 ,it is sometimes used as an external application for ulcers and other kinds of sores4 ,massicot is a mineral substance of yellow colour1 used for painting1 and prepared from the dross or pellicle that is formed by the melting of lead4 ,red ,lead1 or ,minium1 is a mineral substance of red colour1 used for painting1 and made1 by a tedious and troublesome process1 from massicot4 ,for this purpose the massicot is ground to a fine powder1 put into a furnace1 and constantly stirred1 whilst the flame of the burning coals plays against its surface for about fortyeight hours1 when it is converted into a red powder1 which is the article under consideration4 ,it is subsequently passed through very fine iron sieves4 ,the use of red lead as a pigment is well known2 but as it is liable to turn black1 vermilion is generally preferred to it4 ,it is sometimes employed in medicine as an external application for abating inflammations1 for cleansing and healing ulcers1 and the like2 and is used in the manufacture of glass4 ,litharge is another kind of oxide of lead4 ,this is prepared by exposing calcined lead to a brisk fire for a certain length of time4 ,the substance1 on cooling1 concretes into a flaky matter4 ,litharge is used by potters for the glazing of earthenware1 but vessels that are glazed with it are thereby rendered unwholesome4 ,it is also employed1 in the composition of the finer kinds of glass1 for the purpose1 not only of giving them greater transparency1 but also of rendering them capable of sustaining sudden changes from heat to cold1 and of giving to them a susceptibility of being cut without breaking4 ,it1 however1 adds considerably to the weight of the glass4 ,litharge ,plaster1 or ,diachylon ,plaster1 as it is more frequently called1 is prepared by boiling two pints of olive oil with one pint of litharge1 adding water1 and constantly stirring the mixture till they are duly incorporated4 ,this plaster is applied in excoriations of the skin1 slight wounds1 and other sores4 ,sugar of ,lead is a preparation either from the metal itself1 or from white lead and distilled vinegar4 ,it is usually observed in the form of small slender crystals1 which have a glossy appearance like satin4 ,this substance is employed1 in considerable quantity1 by dyers and calico printers2 and is the basis of a liquid frequently used in medicine1 called ,goulard1 or ,goulard's ,extract4 ,although in itself a most virulent poison1 it is often used by unprincipled dealers for correcting the rancidity of oil of almonds and olive oil2 and a similar pernicious fraud is practised by dissolving a portion of it in wines which are becoming acid1 in order to correct their acidity4 ,these frauds1 however1 are easily detected by preparations or tests1 which are sold by chemists for that purpose4 ,perhaps the best and simplest test is ,harrowgate water3 a little of this poured into the suspected compound will discover the presence of lead by giving to the fluid a dark brown or blackish tinge4 ,the following is a pleasing experiment4 ,dissolve an ounce of sugar of lead in about a quart of water2 filter the solution through a piece of blotting paper1 and put it into a glass decanter1 suspending in it a piece of zinc by a brass wire4 ,a decomposition will take place2 the lead will be set at liberty1 and will attach itself to the zinc1 forming there a sort of metallic tree4 99 99 99 99 99 ,it has been stated that silver is usually a component part of lead ore4 ,to disengage this1 where the quantity is sufficient to repay the expense1 the lead1 after it has been smelted1 is subjected to the action of what is called a refining furnace4 ,a continued blast of fresh air is thrown upon its surface by means of large bellows1 while the lead is kept in a state as intensely hot as possible4 ,this by degrees converts the lead into a yellow scaly oxide or dross4 ,the oxide1 thus formed1 is driven off from the melted metal as it rises1 and the silver is left alone at the bottom1 in a metallic state4 ,after the operation is complete1 the oxide is fused with charcoal1 and again reduced to metallic lead4 99 99 99 99 99 ,we must not omit to mention that1 in some of the mines of ,derbyshire1 there is a singular variety of lead ore called slickenside4 ,this is a kind of galena1 which presents1 to the eye1 a smooth and bright surface1 appearing as if it were plated4 ,sometimes it forms the sides of cavities2 and it has the extraordinary property1 when merely pierced with the miner's tool1 of rending with great violence1 and exploding with a crackling noise4 ,some miners1 fearless of danger1 venture to scratch it with their tools2 and1 on coming again to the spot1 they often find that1 during their absence1 the slickenside has exploded1 and fallen off in considerable quantity4 ,sometimes1 however1 they suffer for their imprudence4 ,mr4 ,mawe1 in his account of the ,mineralogy of ,derbyshire1 says1 that he has seen a man come out of a mine cut violently1 as if he had been stabbed about the neck and in other parts of the body1 in consequence of the explosion of slickenside which he had pierced4 ,the cause of this extraordinary phenomenon has not been explained4 #bdj4 ,,nickel1 when pure1 is a fine white metal1 somewhat resembling silver in appearance1 but it is attracted by the magnet1 and has itself the property of attracting iron4 ,it is ductile and malleable1 difficult of fusion1 and about nine times heavier than water4 ,this metal is always mixed with arsenic 7#bdb7 and iron4 ,nickel is found in ,cornwall1 and in some other counties of ,england2 in ,germany1 ,sweden1 ,france1 ,spain1 and several parts of ,asia4 ,the ,chinese employ it in making white copper2 and1 in conjunction with copper and zinc1 they manufacture it into various kinds of children's toys4 ,nickel gives a certain degree of whiteness to iron4 ,it is used1 with advantage1 by some of the ,birmingham manufacturers1 in combination with that metal1 and by others in combination with brass4 ,if it were possible to discover an easy method of working nickel1 there can be little doubt but it would be found a very valuable metal for surgical instruments1 for compass needles1 and other articles1 as it is not1 like iron1 liable to rust4 ,when nickel is freely suspended1 it points to the north and south1 in precisely the same manner as the common magnetic needle4 ,oxide of nickel is used for giving colours to enamels and porcelain4 ,in different mixtures it produces brown1 red1 and grassgreen tints4 #bda4 ,,zinc1 or ,,spelter1 as it is sometimes called1 is a bluish white metal formed in thin plates adhering together4 ,it has a very perceptible taste1 is about seven times heavier than water1 rather harder than silver2 and possesses but a small degree of malleability and ductility1 except under certain circumstances4 ,this metal is never found in a pure state2 and the principal ores from which it is procured are known by the names of ,calamine and ,blende4 ,of these the former is an oxide 7#ba7 of zinc combined with carbonic acid 7#bf71 and the latter is a combination of zinc with sulphuric acid 7#bd74 ,the ores of zinc are very abundant in many countries4 ,we are informed that nearly the whole of ,flintshire in ,north ,wales abounds with calamine2 and that1 so entirely ignorant were the inhabitants of its use1 as1 till after the middle of the eighteenth century1 to have even mended their roads with it4 ,these roads1 however1 have since been turned up in many places1 and the materials have been converted to more valuable purposes4 ,derbyshire affords a great quantity of the ores of zinc1 particularly calamine4 ,this is found at various depths1 generally in beds of yellow1 or reddish brown clay1 and usually near some vein of lead ore4 ,the mode of extracting zinc from its ore is by distillation4 ,the process adopted1 in some parts of ,saxony1 is equally simple and ingenious4 ,an inclined stone is placed near the anterior part of a furnace1 in which the ore of lead containing zinc is fused4 ,a great part of the zinc condenses upon this stone1 and flows1 in drops or globules1 into a quantity of charcoal placed at the bottom to receive it4 ,these globules are afterwards again melted1 to run the metal into a mass4 ,when exposed to the air1 the surface of zinc is soon tarnished1 but it scarcely undergoes any other change4 ,it has a certain degree of ductility4 ,when heated a little above #bah of ,fahrenheit1 it is malleable2 and1 when annealed1 may be passed through rollers1 and formed into thin sheets or leaves4 ,although1 previously to being thus heated1 it is brittle2 on now cooling1 it continues soft1 flexible1 and ductile4 ,the inconvenience arising from the brittleness of the zinc being removed1 this metal is applicable to many useful purposes4 ,it may even be drawn into wire1 but the tenacity of this is not great3 a piece of zinc wire1 one tenth of an inch in diameter1 will sustain only a weight of twentysix pounds without breaking4 ,it has been proposed to substitute zinc in the place of tin for the lining of copper vessels2 but it has not hitherto been ascertained whether this can be done with effect1 and without injury4 ,prizes have of late been offered1 to a considerable extent1 in ,france1 for the ascertainment of this fact4 ,in ,china1 zinc is employed as a current coin of the country2 and for this purpose it is used in the utmost purity4 ,the ,chinese also1 as well as the artists of our own country1 employ it to a great extent in various alloys4 ,it is used in the manufacture of brass1 pinchbeck or prince's metal1 and bronze1 all of which consist of this metal in combination with different proportions of copper 7#bcj74 ,tutenag is a well known white metal1 made principally of zinc1 and used for forming candlesticks and other articles4 ,when tutenag is well manufactured1 it is of good colour1 and not more disposed to tarnish than silver4 ,zinc is one of the metals employed to form the galvanic or voltaic apparatus2 and its filings are mixed with gunpowder1 to produce those brilliant stars and spangles which are seen in the best kinds of artificial fireworks4 ,preparations of zinc are occasionally used in medicine4 ,if a thin plate of zinc be applied to the upper surface of the tongue1 and a shilling to the lower surface1 and both metals1 after a little while1 be brought into contact1 a very peculiar taste will1 at that instant1 be perceived4 ,the same sensation will be perceived1 though in a weaker degree1 if the silver be placed at the top and the zinc at the bottom4 ,if a silver probe be introduced high up one of the nostrils1 and be brought into contact with a piece of zinc placed on the tongue1 a sensation not unlike that of a strong flash of light will be produced in the corresponding eye4 ,a similar perception will result1 both at the moment of contact and that of separation1 if one of the metals be applied as high as possible between the gums and upper lip1 and the other in a similar situation with the under lip1 or even under the tongue4 ,a white oxide 7#ba7 prepared from zinc1 was1 some years ago1 proposed as a substitute for white lead in house painting4 ,this oxide is not dangerous in its application2 and does not become yellow when mixed with oil4 ,but these advantages are counterbalanced by some defects1 which have hitherto caused it to be rejected4 ,it is lighter than white lead3 does not cover the surface so equally1 nor so well2 and is of considerably higher price4 ,,calamine4--,the principal use of calamine is in the manufacture of brass 7#bcj72 and the mines of ,derbyshire1 and of ,limbourg in the ,netherlands1 supply with this mineral nearly all the brass works in ,europe4 ,after the calamine is dug out of ground1 it is reduced to pieces not in general larger than a nut4 ,it is then roasted for five or six hours1 in what is called a reverberating furnace4 ,the large pieces are separated1 and the small ones are passed through a sieve4 ,it is washed2 and1 when dry1 is ground in a mill4 ,in this state it is sold4 ,the principal demand for it is at ,birmingham1 for the different brass founderies in that town4 ,the use of calamine in the composition of brass was known at a very early period4 ,it is mentioned by ,aristotle1 who also makes a distinction between the compound resulting from the mixture of copper and calamine or brass1 and that resulting from the mixture of copper and tin or bronze4 ,,order ,,ii4--,,brittle ,,metals1 ,,or ,,such ,,as ,,are ,,not ,,capable ,,of ,,being ,,flattened ,,or ,,elongated ,,by ,,the ,,hammer ,,without ,,tearing ,,or ,,breaking4 #bdb4 ,,arsenic1 in a metallic state1 has a bluish white colour1 and considerable brilliancy2 it is remarkably brittle1 is the softest of all known metals1 and is somewhat more than eight times heavier than water4 ,it is found nearly pure1 and in considerable abundance1 in different parts of ,germany2 usually occurring in masses of various shapes1 and in combination with a small portion of iron1 gold1 or silver4 ,the arsenic sold in the shops1 and too well known for its poisonous qualities1 is an oxide 7#ba7 of this metal artificially prepared4 ,in some mines on the ,continent arsenic is very abundant1 and is found extremely injurious to the workmen4 ,being very volatile1 its fumes affect and destroy the lungs1 and occasion death in a short time to many of them4 ,one of its ores1 arsenical pyrites1 is found abundantly in ,cornwall and ,devonshire1 accompanying ores of copper and tin2 and1 in combination with other metals1 it occurs1 in a greater or less proportion1 in almost all mines4 ,arsenic is occasionally used in the arts4 ,it is employed in various metallic combinations where a white colour is required1 and1 particularly1 for the whitening or bleaching of copper1 which is thereby also rendered capable of taking a fine polish2 hence its use in many of the compositions for the mirrors of reflecting telescopes1 and for other optical instruments4 ,the manufacturers of glass frequently employ the oxides of arsenic in the fabrication of that article4 ,arsenic is used in the processes of dyeing and calico printing2 and for the imparting of different artificial shades and colours to furs4 ,it is also used in the manufacture of small shot1 from its rendering the lead more brittle1 and better capable of being formed into grains1 than it would be without such admixture4 ,the arsenic of commerce is prepared to a great extent in ,bohemia and ,saxony1 by roasting cobalt ores for the manufacture of zaffre 7#bdg74 ,white arsenic is made1 by mixing the common oxide with potash1 and submitting it to a certain degree of heat1 in vessels adapted to the purpose2 the arsenic1 rising in fumes1 is separated1 leaving the sulphur behind1 united to the potash4 ,this process is called sublimation4 ,of all substances with which we are acquainted this is perhaps the most deadly4 ,if only a few grains of it be taken into the stomach1 it proves fatal2 and it has frequently proved the more injurious from its deceitful appearance1 in which it somewhat resembles salt or white sugar4 ,carelessly left in places open to the access of children1 arsenic has not unfrequently been mistaken by them for sugar1 and has been attended with the most dreadful consequences4 ,if thrown on heated coals1 however1 it is immediately known1 by the smell of garlic1 and the white fumes which it gives out4 ,the best remedy for this poison is said to be a few scruples of liver of sulphur 7sulphuret of potash71 dissolved in half a pint or a pint of water1 and administered a little at a time1 as the patient can bear it4 ,notwithstanding its deleterious qualities1 arsenic is occasionally used in medicine1 though in extremely small doses2 and it has1 in particular1 been found efficacious in many cases of intermittent fever4 ,it is employed as a poison for rats and mice2 and1 diluted with water1 it attracts and poisons flies1 whence it is sometimes called by the ,french1 poudre a mouches4 ,there cannot1 however1 be too great caution used either in the preparation1 or in the application1 of this fatal poison4 #bdc4 ,,yellow ,,orpiment is a mineral substance of lemon colour1 which consists of arsenic in combination with sulphur2 and in the proportion of about fiftyseven parts of the former and fortythree of the latter4 ,it is about thrice as heavy as water2 and is found both in a massive and crystallized state2 but the crystals are so confused that their figures cannot easily be determined4 ,the orpiment of commerce is an artificial production1 and is chiefly imported from different parts of the ,levant4 ,the ,turks1 and other ,orientals1 use it in the depilatories which serve to render bald the top of the head4 ,a very beautiful1 but fugitive pigment1 called ,king's yellow1 is prepared from this mineral2 and other preparations of orpiment are occasionally used by painters1 and also by dyers and calico printers4 ,the whole of these1 however1 are extremely poisonous4 ,orpiment is found in a natural state1 along with copper and other ores1 in ,natolia1 ,servia1 ,hungary1 ,turkey1 and some other countries4 #bdd4 ,,realgar1 or ,,red ,,orpiment1 is a mineral substance of red or orange colour1 which consists of arsenic in combination with sulphur2 and in the proportion of seventyfive parts of the former1 and twentyfive of the latter4 ,it is somewhat more than three times as heavy as water2 and occurs sometimes in a crystallized1 and sometimes in a massive or disseminated state4 ,this production1 which1 by ignorant persons1 is not unfrequently mistaken for red lead1 is in considerable request by painters1 dyers1 and calico printers4 ,in ,china it is manufactured into small pagodas and other ornaments4 ,and the ,chinese form it into medical cups1 and use lemon juice which has stood for some hours in them1 as a cathartic4 ,realgar is poisonous1 but by no means so much so as arsenic 7#bdb74 ,it is found in ,sicily1 ,hungary1 and various parts of ,germany3 and is very common in several districts of ,china4 #bde4 ,,antimony is a compact metallic substance of brilliant and slightly bluish white colour1 destitute of ductility1 and about seven times heavier than water4 ,its texture is laminated1 the plates crossing each other in almost every different direction4 ,it is as hard as silver1 and so brittle that it may easily be reduced to powder1 in a mortar4 ,in the state of the ,connecticut1 ,north ,america1 it is said that antimony1 in a pure metallic form1 is found in such abundance that1 in some places1 large masses of it may be seen lying on the surface of the ground4 ,the principal supply of antimony in ,europe is from an ore which is found in ,hungary and ,norway1 called sulphuret of antimony4 ,the process of bringing it into a state for use is very simple4 ,the mineral is put into pots1 each of which has a hole in the bottom1 and which is placed on another pot bedded in the earth4 ,the upper pots1 which are filled with the mineral1 are heated4 ,as soon as the antimony is fused it flows into the lower pots1 while the substances with which it was combined remain in the upper ones4 ,the antimony fixes1 and forms cakes of the shape of the pots which receive it4 ,in this state the metal presents1 in its fracture1 a surface thickset1 with long needleshaped crystals1 which1 lying by the side of each other1 compose1 as it were1 the whole of the mass4 ,it is afterwards remelted and cast into cakes for sale4 ,this metal1 in a pure state1 or alloyed only with a very small portion of silver and iron1 is found in veins of mountains in some parts of ,france and ,sweden1 occurring in massive and kidneyshaped lumps of white colour4 ,the only mine of antimony in ,britain1 which is of any importance1 is at ,glendinning in ,dumfriesshire4 ,it was discovered in #agfj1 in searching for lead ore1 but was not regularly worked till #agfc4 ,in the first five years about a hundred tons' weight of antimony were obtained from it4 ,this at #hdl4 per ton1 produced the sum of #hdjjl4 ,the undertaking was afterwards relinquished1 but1 as the price of antimony is now at least thrice what it then was1 it is supposed that this work1 if resumed1 might prove an advantageous speculation4 ,the vein of ore is only from eight inches to a foot and a half in thickness4 ,antimony was known to the ancients4 ,the earliest account we have of it is in the ,sacred ,writings4 ,the passage in the ,second ,book of ,kings1#d which states that1 on the approach of ,jehu to the city of ,jezreel1 8,jezebel painted her face10 implies1 in the original1 that she stained her eyes and eyebrows with antimony1 for the purpose of making them look black and large1 a custom which1 at that period1 was prevalent in several of the ,eastern countries4 ,antimony was likewise considered by the ancients a remedy against inflammations of the eyes4 ,this metal is the basis of many of the officinal preparations which are now in use2 and it was the basis of many others which were formerly used1 but are now discontinued4 ,no mineral substance has so much attracted the attention1 or so much divided the opinion of physicians1 as antimony4 ,one party extolled it as an infallible specific for almost every disease2 whilst another described it as a virulent poison1 which ought to be expunged from the list of medicines4 ,it was on this metal that the alchemists of the middle ages principally founded their hope of discovering the philosopher's stone2 and1 by a kind of good fortune1 of which we can cite but few examples1 it has happened that1 in pursuing a chimera1 they hit upon a succession of important realities4 ,to the unremitted perseverance with which they tormented this metal1 if we may so express it1 the art of healing has been most essentially indebted4 ,footnote #d3 ,ch4 ix4 v4 #cj4 ,see also ,ezek4 ,ch4 xxiii4 v4 #dj4 ,the first rational account of the properties of antimony was given1 about the end of the seventeenth century1 by a ,french chemist1 whose name was ,lemeri4 ,its great importance in medicine will be seen by an enumeration of some of the most valuable preparations of it which are still in use4 ,antimonial ,wine is prepared from antimony1 in conjunction with white ,lisbon wine4 ,it is employed as an emetic2 but1 if mixed with milk1 this quality is said to be completely destroyed1 and it becomes narcotic4 ,emetic ,tartar1 which is much more employed in this country than all the other antimonial preparations put together1 is formed from antimony mixed with its own weight of tartar1 and a certain proportion of water1 and afterwards boiled1 filtered1 and suffered to crystallize4 ,butter of ,antimony is obtained from a combination of antimony with corrosive sublimate4 ,it is denominated by chemists muriat of antimony1 and is usually a thick fatty mass of greyish white colour4 ,glass of ,antimony is a vitreous substance of reddish brown colour1 which is occasionally used in medicine1 but more frequently in colouring the imitations of yellow diamond1 ,oriental1 ,brazil1 and ,saxon topaz1 hyacinth1 emerald1 and beryl4 ,james's ,powder1 or ,antimonial ,powder1 is a wellknown medicine1 composed of phosphat of lime and antimony4 ,an alloy consisting of sixteen parts of lead and one part of antimony constitutes the metal of which printers' types are formed4 ,this alloy does not differ from lead except in being considerably harder and more tenacious4 ,the plates on which music is engraved are formed of a mixture of tin and antimony2 and the oxides of antimony are used for the colouring of glass4 #bdf4 ,,bismuth is a reddish white semimetal1 harder than silver1 and composed of broad brilliant plates adhering together4 ,it is nearly ten times heavier than water1 and is so brittle as readily to break under the hammer4 ,none of the semimetals are so easy to be fused as this2 it melts even in the flame of a wax candle1 and long before it becomes red hot1 and has the singular property of expanding as it cools4 ,the ores of bismuth chiefly occur in ,sweden1 ,norway1 ,germany1 ,france1 and ,england4 ,this metal appears to have been known to the ancients4 ,it was confounded by them with tin2 and1 even in our own manufactories1 it is known to the workmen by the name of tinglass4 ,it is not of much use in the arts2 but its fusibility renders the working of it very simple and easy4 ,it is employed in the composition of some of the soft kinds of solder2 and is also used for giving hardness to tin and other metals4 ,amalgamated with mercury it renders that metal less fluid2 and the addition of it to mercury and tin is found useful in the foliating or silvering of lookingglasses4 ,some manufacturers use it in the composition of pewter2 but it is said that this ought not to be done1 particularly for the formation of vessels intended to contain food1 as bismuth partakes of the noxious properties of lead1 and sometimes contains even arsenic4 ,it is also occasionally employed in the fabrication of printers' types4 ,a very singular metal is formed by melting together eight parts of bismuth1 five of lead1 and three of tin4 ,teaspoons formed of this metal surprise all who are unacquainted with their nature3 they have somewhat the appearance of common spoons1 but they melt as soon as they are put into boiling water4 ,bismuth reduced to powder1 mixed with the white of eggs and applied to wood1 gives it1 when gradually dried and rubbed with a polisher1 the appearance of being silvered4 ,if this metal be dissolved in aquafortis 7#cj71 and water be poured into the solution1 a white powder precipitates1 which is an oxide of bismuth1 and which1 after being well washed1 is used as a pigment1 under the name of pearlwhite4 ,from its beautiful appearance1 this powder is sometimes employed by ladies for painting their skin2 a practice which cannot be too much condemned1 both on account of the danger with which it is attended1 and from its soon injuring both the texture and natural colour of the skin4 ,it has the further disadvantage of turning black when touched by the fumes of fetid and other substances2 and ladies1 who have used this cosmetic1 and have afterwards bathed in the ,harrowgate waters1 have come from the bath a perfectly tawny colour4 ,it was probably the oxide of bismuth which the ,roman ladies used for whitening their skin2 for ,martial1 in speaking of a lady1 who made too free an use of cosmetics1 describes her as afraid even of the sun4 ,the oxide of bismuth is used in the composition of most of the pomades employed in ,france for painting the face4 ,a preparation of bismuth has lately been employed in medicine1 as a remedy against spasmodic affections of the stomach4 ,the following is a pleasing experiment1 illustrative of metallic crystallization4 ,melt a ladleful of bismuth1 and allow it to cool slowly and quietly till a thin crust is formed on the surface3 then1 with a pointed iron1 make two small opposite apertures through the crust3 and1 through one of these1 quickly pour out the fluid portion1 as carefully and with as little motion of the mass as possible4 ,the air having entered by the other aperture1 there will appear1 on removing the upper crust by means of a chisel1 when the vessel has become cold1 a cupshaped concavity1 studded with very brilliant crystals1 and more or less regular according to the quantity of metal employed1 the tranquillity and slowness with which it has cooled1 and the dexterity with which the fluid portion of the mass was poured off before it became solid4 ,the same effect may be produced by melting bismuth in a crucible which has a hole in the bottom1 lightly closed by an iron rod or stopper2 this is to be drawn out when the mass begins to congeal4 ,by so doing1 the upper portion1 which is fluid1 is made to run off1 and a cake studded with crystals will be left4 #bdg4 ,,cobalt is a semimetal of grey colour with a shade of red1 brittle1 somewhat harder than silver1 nearly eight times as heavy as water1 is attracted by the magnet1 and is itself capable of being rendered permanently magnetical4 ,the ores of cobalt are not numerous1 and are1 for the most part1 combinations of this substance with other metals1 or of its oxides 7#bd7 with arsenic1 or with sulphuric acid 7#ba74 ,the name of this metal implies an evil being1 7,kobold1 ,german1 goblin7 and is said to have been given on account of the vapour of arsenic1 which issues from it1 tormenting the miners1 and making them believe that they are afflicted by wicked spirits4 ,hence it was once customary in ,germany to introduce into the church service a prayer that ,god would preserve miners and their works from cobalts and spirits4 ,cobalt is found in several parts of ,europe1 but most plentifully in the southern borders of ,france1 and in ,saxony2 and the cobalt ores of ,hesse1 although they were formerly used for no other purpose than the mending of roads1 are said now to yield a clear profit of nearly #ae1jjjl4 a year4 ,some parts of our own country yield this substance in considerable abundance1 particularly the ,mendip ,hills in ,somersetshire1 and a mine near ,penzance in ,cornwall4 ,after the ore is taken from the earth1 it is broken into pieces about the size of a hen's egg1 and the stony parts are picked out4 ,the sorted mineral is then pounded in mills1 and sifted through brasswire sieves4 ,the lighter particles are next carried off by water4 ,after undergoing some other preparations1 to rid it of the impurities and foreign matters with which it is connected1 it appears in the form of a dark grey oxide4 ,the working of the cobalt ores in ,germany is considered so injurious1 on account of the arsenic with which they are combined1 that much of the labour is performed by criminals who are condemned to it for the commission of crimes which1 by the laws of the country1 have deserved the punishment of death4 ,as a metal1 cobalt was unknown till the year #agcc1 when it was discovered by a celebrated ,swedish chemist whose name was ,brant4 ,in its metallic state it is not employed in the useful arts2 but in a state of oxide it is found extremely valuable in the colouring of porcelain1 in painting1 enamelling1 and for other purposes4 ,cobalt and ultramarine form the most permanent blue colours with which we are acquainted4 ,the old painters generally used them for the representation of the sky and of blue drapery1 and this is the reason why these parts in some old pictures have been found so much more durable than any others4 ,zaffre is an oxide of cobalt mixed with about three times its own weight of calcined and pounded flint4 ,it has been chiefly imported into this country from ,saxony and ,bohemia1 but it is now also manufactured from cobalt dug from mines in the ,mendip ,hills and in ,cornwall4 ,in ,staffordshire there are several persons who carry on a considerable trade in preparing this colour for the earthenware manufacturers of that county4 ,this substance is extremely valuable for the colouring of porcelain and glass2 as it resists without change1 the effects of the most intense heat4 ,hence also it is advantageously used for giving various shades of blue to enamels1 and to glass manufactured in imitation of lapis lazuli1 turquoise1 sapphire1 and various precious stones4 ,so intense is the colour imparted by it that a single grain of zaffre will give a full blue tint to #bdj grains of glass4 ,smalt is a kind of glass1 of dark blue colour1 formed by melting zaffre with three parts of sand and one of potash2 when this substance is ground to a coarse powder1 it has the name of strewingsmalt1 and is much used by sign painters1 as an ornamental filling up of the vacant space betwixt the letters of signs4 ,in ,germany it is frequently employed instead of sand for the purpose of drying ink after writing4 ,the same substance reduced to a perfectly fine or impalpable powder1 is the article which is sold under the name of powderblue1 and which is not only used by laundresses and others in the getting up of linen1 but also as the basis of several kinds of paint2 and by the manufacturers of writing and printing papers1 to give a blue tinge to those articles4 ,a solution of the oxide of cobalt in spirit of salt 7muriatic acid1 #bi7 and afterwards diluted till nearly the whole of its colour disappears1 forms one of the most beautiful sympathetic inks with which we are acquainted4 ,if a landscape be drawn with ,indian ink1 and1 afterwards1 the foliage be washed over with this solution1 it will have no peculiar appearance2 but1 on holding the paper near the fire1 the part representing the vegetation will gradually assume a green tint1 which will subside on removing the paper into a cool situation4 #bdh4 ,,manganese1 in the state that we usually see it1 is a black oxide of a metal which is of a silvery grey colour1 of leafy or foliated texture1 and somewhat more than six times as heavy as water4 ,mines of manganese have long been worked in several parts of ,great ,britain1 but particularly in the counties of ,devon and ,somerset4 ,near ,exeter and in the ,mendip ,hills this mineral is found in great abundance4 ,it is employed for various useful purposes4 ,in the manufacture of the finer kinds of glass it is used in a double capacity1 both as a colouring material and as a destroyer of colour4 ,as a colouring ingredient1 the imitators of several precious stones are indebted to it for the red and purple tints which they give to the oriental ruby1 the balais ruby1 and the amethyst4 ,the violet colour given to porcelain is obtained from manganese4 ,this substance is also used for the glazing of black earthen ware1 as a paint1 and an ingredient in printers' ink4 ,as a discharger of colour it is applied in small quantities1 and1 by the oxygen which it gives out1 it is said completely to destroy any tinge left in the glass1 by the presence of iron1 and some other colouring matters4 ,this property has obtained for it the appellation of the soap of glass4 ,it is from manganese that all the oxygen gas 7#ba7 used by chemists is obtained4 ,by the application of a red heat this is yielded in such abundance that an ounce of the oxide of this metal will yield about two quarts of gas4 ,the consumption of manganese has1 of late years1 become very considerable by the discovery of the oxygenated muriatic acid1 which is now extensively used in the bleaching of linen and cotton2 that liquor being made by the distillation of the oxide of manganese with spirit of salt 7muriatic acid1 #bi74 ,,compound ,,minerals1 ,,or ,,rocks4 #bdi4 ,there exist considerable masses of minerals in a state of combination1 or aggregation with each other4 ,these constitute the rocks and soil of which the globe of the earth is composed2 and the study of them is called ,,geology4 ,the opinions of learned men relative to their structure1 and original formation1 have produced various systems denominated theories of the earth2 but1 when we consider that the greatest depth beneath the surface to which the art and industry of man have been able to penetrate1 does not exceed #a_/cejjj part of the earth's diameter1 we must confess that this is very insufficient to allow of any correct opinion being thereby formed concerning the structure of the whole4 ,modern geologists1 for the more convenient arrangement of the compound minerals1 have divided them into four classes1 which they denominate primitive rocks1 secondary rocks1 alluvial depositions1 and volcanic rocks4 ,i4 ,,primitive ,,rocks4 #bej4 ,these are so called from their being considered by geologists1 to belong to the first formed parts of the globe4 ,rocks of this description are of a nature extremely hard4 ,they contain no vestiges whatever of animal or organic remains2 and the substances of which they are composed are crystallized4 ,they rise through other rocks at various elevations1 in every quarter of the globe2 and never either alternate with1 or rest upon rocks that enclose organic remains1 though they are themselves frequently covered by such4 ,the following are the principal kinds4 #bea4 ,,granite or moonstone is a compound rock composed of felspar 7#aaj71 quartz 7#gf71 and mica 7#abc71 each in crystalline grains of various size1 and promiscuously arranged2 sometimes one and sometimes the other of these ingredients predominates1 but generally the felspar4 ,this is one of the most common and most widely extended rocks that are known2 and is considered as the foundation on which the secondary rocks are deposited4 ,in ,cornwall it is very abundant1 and veins both of copper and tin are found in it4 ,granite forms the summits of the highest mountains in ,scotland1 of the highest of the ,grampian ,hills1 the ,alps1 and the ,pyrenees2 and indeed the loftiest parts of most of the countries of the world4 ,the ,logan or rocking stones1 in ,cornwall1 are immense blocks of granite4 ,the uses of this stone are numerous and important4 ,millstones1 steps1 troughs for stamping mills1 and innumerable other articles1 are made of it4 ,the streets of ,london are chiefly paved with granite1 and its hardness and durability render it peculiarly eligible for this use4 ,weather has little effect upon it4 ,consequently1 when applied to architectural purposes it is found infinitely preferable to ,portland stone1 of which nearly all the public buildings of modern date in ,london have been constructed1 and many of which are fast going to decay4 ,this circumstance induced the proprietors of the ,waterloo ,bridge to adopt granite in the construction of that edifice4 ,mr4 ,smeaton also chose it for the outer walls of the ,eddystone ,lighthouse4 #beb4 ,,scottish ,,granite4--,scotland is remarkable for many kinds of granite1 some of which are susceptible of an excellent polish4 ,the greatest part of the mountain of ,ben ,nevis1 near ,fort ,william1 is composed of a reddish granite1 one of the best and most beautiful that is known4 ,this mountain is nearly a mile in perpendicular height1 and is said to contain granite enough for all the kingdoms of the earth1 although they should be as partial to this stone as the ancient ,egyptians were4 ,columns and obelisks of any size and height might be cut from it3 for the rock is one uniform mass1 without appearance of strata1 division1 or fissure of any kind4 ,a convincing proof has been given of the strength and hardness of this granite1 in a fragment of several tons' weight1 which fell from nearly the top of a precipice five hundred yards in height1 upon a hard and solid rock below1 and yet continued entire4 #bec4 ,,granite ,,of ,,ingria4--,a beautiful red granite is found in some parts of ,russia1 remarkable on account of the felspar 7#aaj7 that it contains1 appearing in round or oval pieces1 from half an inch to two inches in diameter4 ,this granite1 when polished1 exhibits shining spots of round or oval shape1 which give to it somewhat the appearance of being studded with precious stones4 ,the royal summer garden at ,petersburg is decorated with a superb colonnade of ,ingrian granite4 ,the columns are sixty in number1 and each of a single piece twenty feet high1 and three feet in diameter4 ,many of the public buildings in ,petersburg are of this granite4 ,an immense block of it thirtytwo feet long1 twentyone feet broad1 and seventeen feet high1 forms the pedestal of the celebrated equestrian statue of ,peter the ,great1 in that city4 #bed4 ,,graphic ,,granite4--,a singular kind of granite has been discovered in the island of ,corsica1 and lately near ,portsoy in the north of ,scotland4 ,the ground of this granite is a whitish or reddish yellow felspar1 in which are embedded crystals of quartz each from an inch to an inch and half long1 and several lines in diameter4 ,the name of graphic granite was given to it in consequence of an imaginary resemblance which the sections of these crystals have to ,hebrew1 or ,arabic1 and sometimes to musical characters4 #bee4 ,,gneiss is a primitive rock1 consisting1 like granite1 of felspar 7#aaj71 quartz 7#gf71 and mica 7#abc71 but differing from that rock in its structure1 being slaty4 ,mountains of gneiss are not so steep as those of granite1 and their summits are usually rounded4 ,ben ,lomond and others in ,scotland1 and mount ,rosa in ,italy1 are almost wholly of gneiss1 as well as the middle part of the ,pyrenees4 ,it is not an uncommon rock1 but in ,britain is of less frequent occurrence than granite4 ,many valuable metallic ores are found in veins of gneiss4 ,this rock also sometimes contains crystals of garnet 7#gj71 and tourmaline 7#fi74 #bef4 ,,mica ,,slate1 or ,,micaceous ,,schistus1 is a primitive rock of slaty structure1 consisting principally of quartz 7#gf7 and mica 7#abc74 ,like gneiss1 it is rich in ores4 ,it often contains beds of magnetic ironstone 7#bce71 galena 7#bci71 copper1 blende 7#bda71 cinnabar 7#bbh71 and sometimes even gold4 ,it frequently has garnets1 and sometimes tourmalines 7#fi71 interspersed in different parts of it4 ,mica slate occurs in many parts of ,scotland2 the mountain of ,schehallien1 and the rocky adjacent country1 are in a great degree composed of it4 #beg4 ,,clay ,,slate is a primitive rock generally of dull blue colour1 more or less compact1 always slaty1 and always stratified4 ,under the appellation of clay slate are included roofing slate 7#abj71 whet slate 7#abb71 drawing slate 7#aba71 and some other kinds already described4 ,few rocks abound more in veins and beds of valuable metals than slate4 ,in different countries it contains ores of tin1 lead1 cobalt 7#bdg71 silver1 and copper2 and gold1 and mercury 7#bbh7 sometimes occur in it4 ,the celebrated quicksilver mines of ,idria 7#bbh71 and the immense mass of copper at ,parys mountain in the island of ,anglesea 7#bcj71 are in clay slate4 ,crystals of pyrites 7#bcf71 and sometimes garnets 7#gj71 and thin layers of quartz 7#gf71 and felspar 7#aaj71 are all occasionally found embedded in it4 ,this is a widelyextended rock2 it sometimes forms whole mountains1 and even chains of mountains2 but these usually have a gentle acclivity4 ,the summit of the celebrated mountain called ,skiddaw in ,cumberland is of clay slate4 #beh4 ,,primitive ,,limestone is a simple mountain rock of crystalline or granular structure2 and generally of white1 yellowish1 greenish1 or reddish colour4 ,to this species of rock belong many of the rich and beautiful kinds of marble already described 7#adc1 c474 ,carrara1 or statuary marble 7#adf71 is a familiar instance of it4 ,whole mountains in ,stiria1 ,carinthia1 ,carniola1 and the ,pyrenees1 and three mountains in ,switzerland1 #aj1jjj feet in height1 are of primitive limestone4 ,the mountain of ,filabres in ,spain1 is said to consist of one block of white granular marble1 #b1jjj feet high1 and three miles in circuit2 without intermixture of other earths or stones1 and almost without a fissure4 ,various mineral ores1 in beds and veins1 as lead1 zinc 7#bda71 and iron1 are occasionally found in this kind of rock4 #bei4 ,,primitive ,,trap is a mountain rock composed of a black mineral called hornblende1 mixed1 in some varieties1 with felspar 7#aaj71 and1 in others1 with mica 7#abc74 ,the word trap is of ,german origin1 signifying a stair2 and rocks of this formation are called trap rocks1 because their strata1 when exposed1 usually jut out1 one beneath the other1 somewhat like a stair4 ,under this term is comprehended a series of rocks1 distinguished chiefly by the hornblende1 which they all contain4 ,rocks belonging to this formation are numerous4 ,they occur in ,scotland2 and abundantly in ,derbyshire and some other parts of ,england4 ,in many countries they constitute considerable hills4 ,they abound in ores4 #bfj4 ,,serpentine is a primitive rock1 usually consisting of quartz 7#gf71 magnesia 7#aih71 alumine 7#aig71 with a portion of oxide 7#ba7 of iron4 ,this rock and its various uses1 have been already described 7#acb74 ,it generally occurs in shapeless masses and beds2 and seldom in distinct strata4 ,it is found in ,cornwall1 the island of ,anglesea1 and several parts of ,scotland2 but it rarely forms mountains4 ,ores of lead1 silver1 and copper1 are sometimes found in serpentine4 #bfa4 ,,porphyry is a primitive rock1 consisting of quartz 7#gf7 or felspar 7#aaj71 or both1 embedded in a solid and compact cement or ground4 ,the ground or basis of porphyry varies in the different kinds4 ,in some it is claystone1 in others pitchstone1 hornstone1 or compact felspar4 ,when not covered by other formations1 porphyry sometimes forms single rocks2 but it never constitutes elevated mountains4 ,it occurs in beds of considerable magnitude1 but never appears in distinct and welldefined strata4 ,there are many beautiful and splendid works in porphyry4 ,obelisks1 statues1 and columns1 wrought in it1 have had great celebrity4 ,it is susceptible of a polish as high as that of marble1 but is so hard1 that the expense of working it has caused it to be much neglected by the moderns4 ,this hardness1 however1 renders it very durable1 and also constitutes it a material of great utility for mortars1 slabs for grinding colours upon1 and for several other purposes4 ,porphyry was much esteemed by the ancient ,egyptians2 and ,pliny informs us that the procuratorgeneral in ,egypt1 under ,claudius ,csar1 brought thence1 for that ,emperor1 certain statues of porphyry1 which he conceived to be very valuable3 this act1 however1 was not much approved1 and the example was not followed by any other ,roman4 ,the principal quarries of porphyry are in ,egypt2 but this stone is also found in ,italy1 ,germany1 and various parts of the ,european continent4 ,it may be traced from ,norway to the borders of the ,black ,sea1 and it has been discovered in some of the western and northern parts of ,great ,britain4 #bfb4 ,,sienite is a rock composed chiefly of felspar 7#aaj7 and hornblende4 ,its colours are usually reddish and black4 ,some varieties of it contain quartz 7#gf7 and mica 7#abc71 with but little hornblende4 ,in these the colours are various4 ,although this is a less abundant rock than any of those that have yet been mentioned1 it occurs1 in great abundance1 at ,mount ,mado1 in the island of ,jersey4 ,there are extensive quarries of it in that mountain1 not only for the use of the island1 but for exportation to ,england1 and other distant countries4 ,the cliffs1 for a long space1 and an elevation of a hundred feet or more1 consist entirely of sienite1 in large masses1 which are apparently uninterrupted by a single fissure4 ,shafts for columns of considerable length have been taken from these quarries2 and1 were the demand sufficient to call for new openings1 it is imagined that columns of twenty feet and upwards in length might be raised4 ,the felspar is of a flesh colour1 and the stone is capable of a beautiful polish4 ,a somewhat similar kind of sienite is found at ,grande ,roque1 in the island of ,guernsey1 in large masses1 which are quarried for building stones4 ,sienite also occurs in some parts of ,scotland and ,derbyshire2 in ,saxony1 ,hungary1 the island of ,cyprus1 and ,egypt4 ,its name has been derived from that of the city of ,syene1 in ,upper ,egypt1 where it is found in great abundance4 ,sienite was much used by the ancients in ornamental architecture4 ,what was called the red granite of ,egypt 7for this rock has usually been considered a granite7 furnished numerous magnificent obelisks and columns1 of a single piece1 which have been much admired in ,rome and other places4 ,the ancient artists sometimes cut this kind of stone into statues1 vases1 monumental and other works4 ,the celebrated column in ,egypt1 upwards of ninety feet high1 and known by the name of ,pompey's ,pillar1 is formed of sienite4 ,in veins of this rock are found1 in different countries1 many kinds of metallic ores3 among others1 silver1 iron1 tin1 copper1 and lead4 #bfc4 ,,quartz ,,rock is a simple mountain rock1 usually of granular texture1 and whitish colour4 ,it sometimes contains mica1 in which case it has a slaty form4 ,in certain mountains of ,scotland1 and the ,scottish islands1 quartz rock is very abundant4 ,on the ,continent it appears in ,saxony1 ,bohemia1 ,silesia1 and several other countries4 ,we are informed that a mountain1 #cej feet high1 and near #ejjj feet broad and long1 one of the ,altaisch chain1 in ,siberia1 consists entirely of a milkwhite quartz4 ,the uses of quartz have been already described 7#gf1 c47 ,this kind of rock does not contain metallic ores of any description4 ,,ii4 ,,secondary ,,rocks4 #bfd4 ,,secondary ,,rocks are composed of1 or at least contain within them1 the mineralized remains of organic substances4 ,these must necessarily have been formed at a period subsequent to the formation of those organized bodies the remains of which they enclose2 and they have apparently been formed by the deposition of water4 ,hence it is that1 to distinguish them from rocks of the preceding class1 they have received the appellation of secondary4 ,they always rest upon or cover primitive mountains1 and sometimes lean upon their sides or invest them4 ,werner1 the celebrated ,german mineralogist1 makes two divisions of secondary rocks4 ,the first of these he denominates transition rocks1 and states that they are less perfectly crystallized than the primitive rocks2 and that they enclose the remains of marine animals1 no species of which are at this time known to exist3 the other division he terms floetz1 or flat rocks1 because they are generally disposed in horizontal or flat strata4 ,some of the latter contain the fossil remains of marine animals and shells1 approaching in character and appearance to the kinds which are now found in the ocean2 and others contain shells precisely similar to those now known to exist4 ,these rocks usually occur at the foot of primitive mountains1 or in deep valleys4 #a4 ,,transition ,,rocks4 #bfe4 ,,transition ,,limestone is distinguished by containing marine petrifactions of corals1 and other zoophytes which are supposed no longer to exist4 ,it often contains veins of calcareous spar1 and exhibits a variety of colours1 which give to it a marbled appearance4 ,this species of limestone occurs in immense beds1 and forms a great portion of the mountainous parts of ,derbyshire and ,scotland2 but it does not rise so high1 on the sides of mountains1 as primitive rocks 7#bej74 ,it often contains veins of valuable metallic ores4 ,when cut and polished1 many of the varieties of transition limestone are beautiful marbles2 some of them have been already described4 #bff4 ,,grey ,,wacka is a transition rock1 composed of pieces of quartz 7#gf71 flinty slate1 felspar 7#aaj71 and clay slate 7#abj71 cemented together by a basis of clay slate4 ,it has various appearances1 the pieces being sometimes as large as a hen's egg1 and sometimes so small that they can scarcely be perceived by the naked eye4 ,when the rocks of grey wacka are not covered by those of any other formation1 they form roundbacked hills1 usually insulated towards the tops1 and intersected by deep valleys4 ,they are widely distributed3 and are often extremely rich in ores1 both in beds and veins4 ,almost all the mines of copper1 lead1 and zinc1 in the ,hartz1 are in grey wacka2 and1 in ,transylvania1 this species of rock is traversed by numerous small veins of gold4 #b4 ,,floetz1 ,,or ,,flat ,,rocks4 #bfg4 ,,old ,,red ,,sandstone1 or ,,millstone ,,grit1 is a floetz or flat rock1 composed of large grains of sand or quartz 7#gf71 coloured by oxide 7#ba7 of iron1 and usually cemented together by a kind of clay4 ,in several parts of ,derbyshire this kind of rock forms the uppermost stratum2 and in some places1 is known to be #abj yards thick4 ,what are known by the name of peak millstones are formed of millstone grit4 ,they are chiefly obtained from quarries near ,nether ,padley1 in ,hathersede1 ,derbyshire2 a very inaccessible part of the country1 but where the stone is of better quality than it can elsewhere be procured4 ,these millstones are made of different dimensions1 from two feet in diameter1 and eight inches thick1 to five feet and half in diameter1 and seventeen inches thick4 ,some of the beds of millstone grit1 which have spherical stains in them1 of light red colour1 are said to be infusible2 and are consequently a valuable stone for lining the hearths of iron and other furnaces1 where an intense heat is required4 ,these are called firestones1 and ,roches quarry1 near ,upper ,town1 in ,ashover1 ,derbyshire1 is famous for them4 ,the upper beds of this kind of rock are often thin1 and capable of division1 so as to make excellent paving stones1 or flags4 ,there is a particular bed of it at ,stanton1 in the ,peak of ,derbyshire1 so porous that it is made into filtering stones for the cleansing of turbid water4 #bfh4 ,,third ,,sandstone1 ,,gritstone1 or ,,freestone1 is another kind of floetz or flat rock1 formed of very small agglutinated particles of sand4 ,it is opaque1 usually of whitish colour1 and found in large masses1 of various degrees of hardness4 ,the name of freestone has been given to this kind of rock1 from its capability of being broken or hewn1 with nearly equal facility1 in any direction4 ,hence1 as well as from its great durability1 it is peculiarly esteemed for buildings4 ,it is also formed into cisterns and troughs of various kinds2 into pillars for supporting corn ricks2 into rolling stones2 and into grinding stones for cutlers1 edgetool makers1 and workers in polished steel4 ,paviors' flags1 or the stones used for the paving of footpaths1 yards1 kitchens1 and outhouses1 are generally flat pieces of freestone4 ,scythestones1 or stones for the sharpening of scythes upon1 are made of freestone4 ,considerable numbers of these are wrought in ,derbyshire2 and the dexterity that is displayed in cleaving and forming them is somewhat remarkable4 ,the workmen use sharppointed picks1 several very small wedges1 and a hammer4 ,a proper block of stone being selected1 two or three of these small wedges are set in a row1 by gentle blows of the hammer4 ,these blows are successively repeated till the stone splits4 ,the wedges are then set in a straight line into the face of the piece split off1 and the stone is cleft again in that direction4 ,in this manner the subdivisions are continued1 until a piece remains of size to make two scythestones1 each an inch and a half square1 and about twelve inches long4 ,this the workman holds in his left hand1 nearly upright2 with the point of his pick he traces a deep nick down the middle of first one side and then the other2 and then by a slight blow of his pick he separates it1 into two1 so dexterously1 that not more than three or four in a hundred are broken in the cleaving4 ,such stones as are intended for round rubbers1 are first reduced into an octagonal shape by the point of the pick1 and then handed over to women and boys1 who grind or rub them in a notch formed in a hard stone1 until they are of the requisite shape4 ,the square ones are finished by being ground on a flat stone4 99 99 99 99 99 ,other rocks1 belonging to what is called the floetz1 or flat formation1 have been already mentioned1 under the heads of limestone 7#adj71 gypsum 7#aib71 rock salt 7#bjb71 chalk 7#ada71 and coal 7#bag74 ,,iii4 ,,alluvial ,,depositions4 #bfi4 ,these are described to comprehend all such substances as have been formed from previously existing rocks1 of which the materials have been worn down1 by long exposure to the agency of water and air1 and afterwards deposited in nearly horizontal beds on the surface of the land4 ,alluvial deposits have been formed1 and are still forming in every quarter of the globe4 ,they occur both in mountainous regions and in flat countries1 filling up the valleys or hollows in the one2 and often forming vast and extended plains in the other4 ,they consist of peat1 sand1 gravel1 loam1 clay1 and other substances4 ,,iv4 ,,volcanic ,,rocks4 #bgj4 ,volcanic rocks are composed of such mineral substances as have been ejected from volcanoes1 or have been formed by the agency of subterraneous fires1 and have undergone certain changes in such fires4 ,they are of two kinds2 the one called pseudo volcanic1 such as burnt clay1 porcelain jasper1 and earthslag1 which have been altered in consequence of the burning of beds of coal in their neighbourhood2 and the other1 called true volcanic minerals1 such as stones1 ashes1 and lava1 which have been thrown out of real volcanoes4 #bga4 ,it will somewhat tend to illustrate the history of the mineral kingdom1 to state1 in conclusion1 under a tabular form1 the relative heights of the principal mountains1 or masses of rocks1 which occur in the different countries of the world2 previously remarking1 that the most lofty and magnificent of these1 respecting which any account sufficiently authentic has hitherto been obtained1 are the mountains of ,nepaul and ,thibet1 in ,asia1 one of the former being #bg1ffg1 and the highest of the latter measuring at least #bc1bfb feet1 or from #d miles to #e miles in perpendicular height above the level of the sea4 ,previously to the knowledge that has lately been attained respecting the ,asiatic mountains1 those of the ,andes1 on the continent of ,south ,america1 had been considered by far the highest in the world4 ,one of them1 ,chimborazo1 is #bj1ijj feet in height4 ,of the ,european mountains1 the highest is ,mont ,blanc1 in ,switzerland1 which measures #ae1fhj feet1 or about #b miles4 ,the loftiest summit within the ,british islands is ,ben ,nevis1 in ,invernessshire1 ,scotland1 which does not exceed #d1chj feet1 or somewhat more than three quarters of a mile2 and the great pyramid of ,egypt1 the loftiest work of human art and industry with which we are acquainted1 and which will serve as a point in the scale1 measures only #dgg feet4 #bgb4 ,it has been remarked that the greatest altitude at which bananas and other palmtrees grow in ,america is about #cbhj feet above the level of the sea 7,frontispiece1 ,fig4 #dh73 that in the torrid zone1 the superior limits of oaks is about #aj1ejj feet 7#di71 of pines #ab1jjj feet 7#ej71 and of lichen plants #ah1bbe feet 7#ea74 ,the ,american travellers1 ,messrs4 ,humboldt and ,bonpland1 on the twentythird of ,june1 #ahjb1 ascended the mountain of ,chimborazo to the height of #ai1djj feet 7#eb74 ,the highest flight that has been remarked of the ,south ,american vulture1 called the condor1 was #ba1jjj feet 7#ec74 ,m4 ,lussac1 on the #afth of ,september1 #ahjd1 ascended in a balloon from ,paris1 to the height of #bb1ijj feet4 ,in ,switzerland1 the limit of perpetual snow is above the altitude of #ijjj feet 7#ed74 ,height of the ,principle ,mountains4 ,frontispiece4 ,ft4 above ,fig4 the sea ,british ,islands4 ,scotland ,ben ,nevis1 ,invernessshire #a #dchj ,ben ,lawers1 ,perthshire #b #djea ,england ,skiddaw1 ,cumberland #c #cecj ,cross ,fell1 ,cumberland #d #ccij ,helvellyn1 ,cumberland #e #ccbd ,wharnside1 ,yorkshire #f #bdhj ,ingleborough1 ,yorkshire #g #bchj ,wales ,snowdon1 ,caernarvonshire #h #cefh ,cader ,idris1 ,merionethshire #i #ceej ,ireland ,macgillicuddy's ,reeks1 ,kerry #aj #cdjd ,sleibh,dorin1 ,londonderry #aa #caej ,continent of ,europe4 ,france ,mont d',or1 ,auvergne #ab #fgjg ,puy de ,sausi1 ,auvergne #ac #fgjj ,pyrenees ,mont ,perdu1 the highest of the #ad #aa1bhc ,pyrenees ,le ,pic ,blanc1 ,spain #ae #aj1bje ,alps ,loucira #af #ad1dea ,loupilon #ag #ad1add ,switzerland ,mont ,blanc1 highest mountain #ah #ae1fhj in ,europe ,mont ,rosa #ai #ae1eee ,mont ,st4 ,gothard #bj #aj1jad ,italy ,mont ,cimone #ba #fdja ,vesuvius #bb #cijj ,germany ,ortler,spitze1 ,tyrol #bc #ae1dcj ,ostelle1 ,saltzburg #bd #ab1hjj ,carpathian ,mountains1 highest #be #hfdj summit ,lomnitz ,peak #bf #hfdj ,sweden ,areskutan1 ,jempland #bg #fahj ,islands4 ,teneriffe ,peak of ,teneriffe #bh #ab1bcf ,sicily tna #bi #aj1ifc ,jamaica ,blue ,mountains #cj #gdca ,iceland ,snfiel #ca #fhfj ,hecla #cb #dijj ,asia4 ,india ,dhawalgeri in ,nepaul #df #bg1ffg ,mountains of ,thibet #dg #bc1bfb ,turkey ,mount ,lebanon1 estimated at #cc #iebj in ,asia ,mount ,ararat1 estimated at #cd #iejj ,mount ,ida #ce #difj ,america4 ,andes1 ,south ,chimborazo1 ,quito #cf #bj1ijj ,america4 ,cotopaxi1 ,quito #cg #ah1hhj ,height of ,remarkable ,lakes1 ,cities1 c4 ,alps ,lake of ,lausanne #ch #hfdj ,lake of ,lanzon1 on the #ci #fgig mountain of ,olan ,switzerland ,lake of ,lucerne #dj #adjh ,south ,america ,city of ,riobamba1 ,quito #da #ah1hjj ,city of ,quito #db #icef ,north ,america ,city of ,mexico #dc #gdbd ,austria ,town of ,eisenerz #dd #bjef ,egypt ,the great ,pyramid #de #dgg ,,water ,,in ,,general4 #bgc4 ,,water1 generally speaking1 is a transparent and nearly incompressible fluid1 the component parts of which are two kinds of gas1 called hydrogen 7#de7 and oxygen 7#ba74 ,it is liquid in the common temperature of our atmosphere1 assumes a solid state under the denomination of ice1 in a cold temperature 7#cb of ,fahrenheit's thermometer72 and1 by heat at #bab1 is converted into an elastic vapour of almost incredible force1 called steam4 ,at any temperature betwixt these two points1 it returns1 unaltered1 to its liquid state4 ,the weight of water is about #haf times greater than that of atmospheric air4 ,water abounds in1 and may be considered as1 a kind of general cement to all solid bodies4 ,it performs the most important functions both in the animal and vegetable kingdoms1 and even enters largely into their composition4 ,a chief part of the nutrition of vegetables is the water which they absorb from the earth through the pores of their roots4 ,the great quantity so absorbed may readily be imagined1 when it is stated that the driest and most compact kinds of wood1 such as even heart of oak1 when converted into charcoal1 lose1 during the process1 full threefourths of their weight2 and that the fluid which escapes is nearly pure water4 ,this fluid is found in the driest of solid bodies1 whatever be their description4 ,a piece of hartshorn kept for forty years1 and thereby become as hard and dry as metal 7so that if struck against a flint it would give sparks of fire71 upon being distilled1 was found to yield an eighth part of its weight of water4 ,every being with life1 in a great degree1 lives by it2 and whatever grows1 through it receives its growth2 and wherever it enters1 it promotes and sustains life1 preserving the whole of created nature in their proper classes of existence4 ,and whether we consider it as productive of health to animals and vegetables1 as requisite to the existence and beauty of the earth1 or as one of the great powers by which the ,almighty works in the support of the world1 we cannot but admire and adore the wisdom by which it has been ordained4 ,in the various kinds of water1 even of that which is commonly used in drinking1 and for the preparation of food1 there is great difference both of taste and appearance4 ,this difference is chiefly occasioned by the foreign matters which they hold in solution or suspension4 ,in some cases the quantity of these is so minute as to have but little influence on the taste2 but in others they alter its properties altogether1 and render the water noxious1 or medicinal1 or unfit for the preparation of food4 ,the chemical analysis of water1 for the purpose of ascertaining the different substances which it holds in solution1 is one of the most difficult and complicated operations that is known in this branch of science2 and one that exercises1 in a peculiar degree1 both the skill and industry of the operator4 ,the difficulty arises not only from the diversity of the bodies which occur1 but from the very minute quantities of some of them4 ,these bodies are discovered by an addition to the water of certain substances1 the consequence of which is some change in its appearance1 and this change indicates the presence or absence of the bodies suspected4 ,the substances thus employed are very numerous1 and have the name of tests4 ,the methods of ascertaining the exact proportion of each of these ingredients are much too complicated to require a place in the present work4 ,water cannot be obtained in any state of perfect purity except by the artificial process of distillation4 ,,order ,i4--,,common ,,water4 #bgd4 ,,rain ,,water is considered to be next in purity to distilled water1 from its having undergone a natural distillation4 ,its foreign contents vary according to the state of the air through which it falls4 ,hence1 for instance1 when it passes through the atmosphere of a smoky town1 it becomes impure3 and when collected in towns1 it frequently acquires a small quantity of sulphat of lime 7#aib71 and calcareous matter from the mortar and plaster of the houses4 ,this water is always very soft2 and is1 consequently1 well calculated for the dissolving of soap1 in washing and other processes4 ,it is also peculiarly adapted to the solution of alimentary or colouring matter1 in the preparation of food and dyeing1 and is accordingly used to great extent for these purposes4 ,by the addition of a small quantity of a solution of barytes 7#aie71 it may be rendered sufficiently pure for all chemical uses4 ,if rain water be long kept1 especially in hot climates1 it acquires a disagreeable smell1 and becomes putrid1 and full of animalcul4 #bge4 ,,ice and ,,snow ,,water are equal to rain water in purity2 and the air having been expelled from them during the process of freezing1 they are consequently devoid of air when first melted4 ,ice and snow1 in their natural state1 are highly important to mankind4 ,it is a general law of nature that all bodies become more dense and heavy by exposure to cold2 but the freezing of water is an exception to this law1 and for a purpose of extreme benefit to mankind4 ,by this ordination it is that ice always rises to the surface of the water1 and thus preserves from the effects of the surrounding cold1 a vast body of heat in the fluid beneath2 and is itself ready to receive its own accustomed quantity upon the first change of the atmosphere4 ,the expansion of water1 in freezing1 is owing to its assuming a crystallized form2 and this expansion is often so great that glass bottles1 filled with water1 are burst by it4 ,during the intense cold of winter1 snow1 which is of a soft and spongy texture1 is considered of great utility in preventing the immediate access of the atmospheric air to the ground2 it has doubtless been designed by ,providence as a garment to protect the incipient vegetation1 at that inclement season1 from injury4 ,the inhabitants of all the extreme northern parts of the world use thawed snow for their constant beverage during winter2 and the vast masses of ice which float in the polar seas afford an abundant supply of fresh water to the navigators of those dreary regions4 ,snow water has1 however1 long lain under the imputation of occasioning those extraordinary swellings in the neck1 which deform the inhabitants of some of the alpine valleys of ,switzerland2 but this opinion is not supported by any wellauthenticated facts4 ,indeed it is rendered quite improbable by the frequency of this disease in the island of ,sumatra1 where ice and snow are never seen3 and by its being quite unknown in ,chili and ,thibet1 though the rivers of these countries are chiefly supplied by the melting of the snows4 #bgf4 ,,spring ,,water is nothing more than rain water1 which having gradually filtered through the earth1 collects at the bottom of declivities1 and there makes its way to the surface4 ,it is obvious that spring water must be nearly as various in its contents as the substances through which it flows4 ,ordinary springs pass insensibly into mineral springs1 according as their foreign contents become more abundant2 but it has not unfrequently happened that waters have acquired great medical reputation from their purity only4 ,although by far the greater number of springs are cold1 some are hot1 or at least are of a temperature which1 at all times1 exceeds that of summer heat3 and this warmth is so little influenced by the state of the atmosphere1 that it is nearly the same both in summer and winter4 ,the water of almost every spring is of such nature that it will not dissolve1 but curdles1 soap2 and cannot be used for dressing several kinds of food4 ,water of this description is denominated hard1 a property owing to the great proportion of earthy salts which it holds in solution1 and which1 at the same time1 are not in such abundance as to impair its taste4 ,the most common of these salts is selenite1 or sulphat of lime 7#aib71 and chalk1 or carbonat of lime 7#adj72 when it contains only the latter1 the water is easily rendered soft by boiling1 which expels the excess of carbonic acid 7#bf71 and thus causes the chalk to be precipitated4 ,hence originates the earthy crust or fur in such tea kettles as have had hard water several times boiled in them4 ,the water of deep wells is for the most part much harder than that of springs which overflow their channels4 #bgg4 ,,river ,,water is a mixture of spring and rain water1 which1 from much agitation1 and by long exposure to the air1 in the course of its channel1 becomes1 in general1 tolerably soft and free from earthy salts4 ,for washing1 and other purposes of domestic economy1 river water1 from its softness and purity1 is not only preferable to spring water1 but also serves for many uses to which the latter cannot be at all applied4 ,as a beverage1 however1 it is in general vapid and unpleasant4 ,the waters of some rivers1 particularly where the beds1 over which they flow1 are sandy or stony1 are remarkably pure4 ,this is the case with several of those in ,switzerland1 ,wales1 ,scotland1 and the northern counties of ,england4 ,the river ,seine has great repute in ,france on this account3 it has been found1 on accurate examination1 even more pure than ,bristol water4 ,that of the river ,thames1 impregnated as it would appear to be with putrid remains1 is soft and good1 when taken up at low water2 and1 after rest and filtration1 is found to contain but a small portion of any thing either noxious or unpleasant4 ,it is preferred1 by mariners1 to most other water for sea store2 but it soon becomes putrid1 and undergoes a remarkable spontaneous change4 ,when1 after having been kept a month or two1 a cask is opened1 a quantity of inflammable air escapes1 and the water is black and nauseous4 ,if1 in this state1 it be racked off into large earthen vessels 7oil jars it is said are commonly used for the purpose71 and exposed to the air1 it gradually deposits a portion of black slimy mud1 and becomes perfectly clear1 sweet1 and fit for use4 #bgh4 ,,stagnant ,,water contains greater impurities than any other4 ,in ponds and marshes particularly1 it is filled with the remains of animal and vegetable matters1 which are there undergoing a gradual decomposition4 ,the water of lakes is not1 in general1 so much contaminated as this2 but from the same cause1 it frequently has a slimy appearance1 a brownish colour1 and an unpleasant taste4 ,from the putrefying contents of stagnant water1 nutriment is afforded to various living plants and insects which there supply the place of those that perish4 ,its taste is vapid1 unpleasant1 and wholly destitute of that agreeable freshness which is found in spring water4 ,it is1 however1 generally soft1 and1 by filtration1 it may be freed from many of its impurities4 ,the air which issues from marshes and stagnant pools is extremely noxious1 and is the cause of agues and other distressing complaints1 to such persons as reside in the neighbourhood of them or are much exposed to them2 and the injurious effects of such air have also been considered to extend to the internal use of these waters4 ,,order ,,ii4--,,sea ,,water4 #bgi4 ,,sea ,,water is a very heterogeneous compound1 not only containing a considerable portion of saline substances1 but holding also suspended in it an infinite number of minute animal and vegetable particles1 to the gradual putrefaction of which its peculiarly nauseous and bitter taste1 at the surface1 is in some measure to be attributed4 ,the average quantity of salt in sea water is estimated to amount to about onethirtieth part of its weight4 ,it likewise contains a certain portion of muriat of magnesia1 sulphat of magnesia or ,epsom salts 7#aii71 and a small quantity of sulphat of lime 7#aib74 ,sea water1 taken from a great depth1 has not the bitterness which the water of the surface has3 it is only saline4 ,no natural waters1 if we except certain brine springs and salt lakes1 are so saline as those of the ocean2 and the latter differ1 in this respect1 in different parts of the world4 ,at the tropic1 the sea is in general more salt than it is at the poles1 a wise ordination to preserve it1 in those climates1 from the great tendency to putrefaction3 and1 at a considerable depth1 it is always found more salt than at the surface4 ,the water of the ,baltic is much less salt than that of the ,atlantic2 and it is a remarkable circumstance1 that its saline contents are increased by a west wind1 but still more so by a gale from the north west4 ,some philosophers have endeavoured1 but to little purpose1 to account1 from second causes1 for the saltiness of the ocean4 ,dr4 ,halley persuaded himself that it might have been gradually acquired1 in very minute portions1 by a deposit of salt washed down from the land by rivers1 and that1 as it could not be carried off by evaporation1 instead of being diminished1 it must be constantly increasing4 ,but this idea of salting the sea with fresh water1 is1 to say the least of it1 somewhat absurd1 more particularly as it presumes that the sea was originally unimpregnated with salt4 ,had this been the case1 the putrefaction of the immense mass of animal and vegetable substances which it gradually contained1 would1 in a short time1 have proved fatal to the whole inhabitants of the earth4 ,the temperature of the sea1 although it must necessarily vary in the different seasons1 is much more uniform than that of any inland water exposed to the atmosphere4 ,this is1 in a great measure1 attributable to its vast body of water1 and the perpetual agitation to which it is exposed4 ,sea water1 when congealed by frost1 is found to reject all1 or nearly all1 its saline particles2 and consequently1 when thawed1 its ice yields water so fresh that it may be drunk without unpleasantness4 ,the freezing of sea water is not unfrequently practised in the northern parts of the world1 with a view to lessen the trouble and expense of extracting salt from it1 for domestic and other uses 7#bjb74 ,salt water may likewise be rendered fresh and palatable by distillation1 a mode which is now very generally practised at sea4 ,the sea shore has of late become so much frequented by invalids1 for the purpose of bathing1 that there is scarcely a fishing village1 on the whole extent of our coast1 but which is provided with some accommodation for bathers4 ,as a cold bath1 sea water is employed1 with advantage1 in all those cases of debility for which cold bathing has1 in general1 been recommended4 ,it is also used as an external application in tumours and some other complaints2 and1 taken internally1 as a remedy in various disorders4 ,it is to sea water that we are chiefly indebted for the salt which we use at table1 and for all the purposes of domestic economy 7#bjb74 ,from this water is also obtained those salts used in medicine1 called ,glauber's 7#bjc7 and ,epsom salts 7#aii74 ,,order ,,iii4--,,mineral ,,waters4 #a4 ,,the ,,more ,,simple ,,cold ,,waters4 #bhj4 ,,malvern ,,water is a simple cold water1 perfectly bright and pellucid3 it has an agreeable1 and somewhat pungent flavour2 but1 in other respects1 it does not differ in taste from pure and good soft water4 ,it contains carbonic acid 7#bf71 and a very small portion of earth1 either lime or magnesia2 but1 the carbonic acid perhaps excepted1 the foreign bodies are less in quantity than those even of our common spring water4 ,the spring from which this water principally issues is denominated the ,holy ,well3 and is situated high up the hill1 about midway between the villages of ,great and ,little ,malvern1 in ,worcestershire4 ,both as an external and internal application1 the waters of ,malvern have been considered beneficial in many obstinate complaints4 ,it is a singular circumstance respecting them that1 notwithstanding their apparent purity1 if they be exposed to the air in an open vessel1 they will soon acquire a fetid and unpleasant smell4 ,malvern is principally frequented during the summer season4#e ,footnote #e3 ,adjoining to ,great ,malvern1 and a little higher up the hill1 there is a very light and pleasant chalybeate water4 #b4 ,,the ,,more ,,simple ,,warm ,,waters4 #bha4 ,,bristol ,,hot,,well ,,water is pure1 warm1 and slightly acidulated1 clear1 sparkling1 and agreeable to the palate1 but without any very decided taste4 ,it is also destitute of smell4 ,when poured into a glass it sends forth numerous airbubbles4 ,the heat of this spring is very moderate1 the average being about #gd of ,fahrenheit's thermometer2 and this heat does not sensibly vary during summer or winter4 ,the foreign contents of the hotwell water are muriat of magnesia1 common salt1 ,glauber's salt1 sulphat of lime 7#aib71 and chalk3 but these are in extremely small quantity4 ,it also contains at the rate of about thirty cubic inches of carbonic acid gas1 or fixed air 7#bf71 in every gallon4 ,this water springs from the bottom of the southern extremity of ,st4 ,vincent's rock1 a lofty cliff of limestone situated on the north bank of the river ,avon1 and about a mile below the city of ,bristol4 ,and1 although it is considerably higher than the river1 it is so far affected by the spring tides as to become1 thereby1 in some degree turbid4 ,the discharge of water amounts to about forty gallons in a minute4 ,there is another spring at ,clifton1 on the summit of the same hill1 from the bottom of which the waters of the hotwell issues4 ,this is called the ,sion spring1 and is one or two degrees colder1 but1 in other respects1 it very nearly resembles the water of the hotwell4 ,its discovery was somewhat remarkable4 ,a ,mr4 ,morgan1 an attorney of ,bristol1 having erected a house near the spot1 sunk a well for the supply of his family with water4 ,the workmen had proceeded to the depth of nearly #bdj feet without success1 when they were suddenly alarmed by the gushing forth of such an abundance of water that they were compelled to retreat with precipitation4 ,the proprietor was so far disappointed of his hopes as to find that this was a spring of warm instead of cold water4 ,but the circumstance induced him to erect an engine to raise the water for medicinal purposes2 and1 since that period1 a pump room and bathing houses have been prepared for the accommodation of visitors4 ,the water of each of these springs1 besides being used medicinally in pulmonary consumptions and other complaints1 is employed very extensively at table1 and for all domestic purposes4 ,it is remarkable for softness and purity2 and1 from its quality of continuing untainted for a great length of time1 even in hot climates1 is a valuable water for long voyages1 and is accordingly exported in considerable quantities to distant parts4 ,the season of general resort to ,clifton and the hotwells is from about the middle of ,april to the end of ,october4 #bhb4 ,,matlock ,,water is a simple warm water1 which1 in its sensible properties1 exclusive of its temperature1 which is only about #ff of ,fahrenheit1 is scarcely different from good spring water4 ,it is beautifully clear1 and exhales no steam1 except in very cold weather4 ,the medicinal virtues of this water have chiefly been ascribed to its temperature4 ,its supply is very copious1 and from several different sources4 ,though recommended in some internal complaints1 it is principally employed as a bath2 and1 in this respect1 it forms a medium betwixt the waters of ,bath or ,buxton and those of the generality of cold baths4 ,matlock1 which is a beautifully romantic village1 situated in a hilly part of ,derbyshire1 and at the distance of #adc miles north of ,london1 was first brought into public notice about the year #afih1 shortly after which period the first bath was erected4 ,it is chiefly frequented from the month of ,may to that of ,october2 or1 if the weather continue fine1 till near the beginning of ,november4 #bhc4 ,,buxton ,,water is a simple warm water1 which contains so little foreign matter1 as scarcely to be distinguishable from common spring water heated to the same temperature4 ,it has neither smell nor taste2 and1 though it sparkles a little in the glass1 when first drawn1 this is not apparently more than what is observable in the water of many common springs4 ,its temperature1 in the bath called the ,gentleman's bath1 is invariably #hb4 ,buxton has been celebrated1 for its warm springs1 nearly two centuries and a half4 ,as early as the year #aegb a treatise on their virtues was published3 this states them to have been at that time much resorted to by persons from all the adjacent counties4 ,the water is employed both externally and internally1 and to great extent4 ,its principal value1 as a bath1 arises from its very copious supply1 its purity1 and its high temperature4 ,the sensation which is felt from bathing in it is considered to be such as would be experienced from any bath heated to the highest temperature which is compatible with giving some sensation of cold when the body is first plunged into it4 ,this water is also used as an internal medicine2 and is frequently used by the inhabitants as their common beverage1 and for such domestic purposes as its hardness will admit4 ,there are several springs and several distinct baths2 but the original and most ancient of them is called ,st4 ,ann's ,well1 and is enclosed in an elegant stone building4 ,these waters are frequented by persons afflicted with the rheumatism1 gout1 diseases of the alimentary organs1 and kidneys1 and various other complaints3 and the chief influx of company is during the summer and autumnal months4 ,the situation of ,buxton is in a narrow and funnelshaped valley1 surrounded by wild1 bleak1 and dreary mountains1 in the midst of the county of ,derby1 and about #afj miles north of ,london4 #c4 ,,hot ,,carbonated ,,chalybeate ,,water4 #bhd4 ,,bath ,,water is a hot carbonated chalybeate4 ,when first drawn1 it appears clear and colourless1 nor does it afford any signs of briskness or effervescence4 ,the temperature of the water drawn from the ,king's ,bath1 which is that usually employed for drinking1 is #aaf of ,fahrenheit1 and that of the ,cross ,bath is #aab4 ,no odour whatever is perceptible from a glass of fresh water2 but from a large body of it the nose is affected by a slight degree of pungency4 ,when the water is hot from the pump1 it fills the mouth with a strong chalybeate impression without any pungency1 and accompanied with scarcely any kind of saline taste2 and1 what is remarkable1 as soon as the water cools1 the chalybeate taste is entirely lost1 and nothing but an extremely slight saline sensation remains upon the palate4 ,the foreign contents of ,bath water are sulphat of lime 7#aib71 chalk1 ,glauber's salt 7#bjc71 and common salt2 together with a very small portion of oxide of iron 7#ba71 yet sufficient to give iron mould stains to the linen of the bathers4 ,the water curdles soap1 and is so hard as to be unfit for many domestic purposes4 ,the city of ,bath has been celebrated for its hot springs even from the time of the ,romans4 ,these are of higher temperature than any within the ,british dominions2 and indeed are the only natural waters which we possess that are at all hot to the touch1 the other thermal waters being of heat below the animal temperature4 ,there are three principal sources of these waters1 called the ,king's ,bath1 the ,cross ,bath1 and the ,hot ,bath2 and they differ slightly in their properties4 ,the springs arise within a short distance of each other1 at the lower part of the city2 and yield so copious a supply that all the large reservoirs used for bathing are filled every evening with water fresh from their respective fountains4 ,the application of the water externally is either general or local4 ,the latter consists in pumping it for a considerable time on the part affected4 ,this is called dry pumping1 because in it only one part of the body is wetted1 whilst the rest is kept dry2 and in many cases1 it is found an excellent remedy4 ,the diseases for which these waters are resorted to are very numerous1 and are amongst the most important and difficult to be cured that come under medical treatment4 #d4 ,,hot ,,alkaline ,,sulphureous ,,water4 #bhe4 ,,aix,,la,,chapelle or ,,aken ,,water1 is an alkaline sulphureous water1 much hotter than that of any of the springs in ,england1 varying in temperature in the different baths from #aab to #adc4 ,it has a saline1 bitterish1 and somewhat alkaline taste2 and its smell precisely resembles1 but is greatly more powerful than1 that of ,harrowgate water 7#bii74 ,it contains a small quantity of chalk1 common salt1 and carbonat of soda 7#bja71 the latter of which renders it soapy to the touch4 ,but the most striking feature in this water is the unusual quantity of sulphur which it contains2 and which is so extremely volatile on the application of heat1 that none of it is left in the residuum after evaporation4 ,in this water there is also a considerable portion of carbonic acid4 ,the city of ,aixla,chapelle is in the circle of ,westphalia1 betwixt the rivers ,meuse and ,rhine1 about seventy miles east of ,brussels1 and in a rich and fertile country4 ,its waters have been in great medical repute1 and have attracted a numerous concourse of visitants for many centuries past4 ,their reputation was so well established1 even in the time of ,charlemagne1 that he frequently resided at ,aix3 and he is said to have been so much delighted in the use of the waters as to have sometimes even held his levee at the baths4 ,in this city1 and in the small territory that belongs to it1 there are several sources of hot water4 ,of these the principal spring is enclosed in a stone cistern1 which is vaulted and almost conical at the top1 and the parts of which are connected with the utmost care1 to prevent the vapour from escaping4 ,from this spring the water flows1 in a copious stream1 into several spacious and elegant baths1 in the different parts of the city1 distinguished by the names of the ,emperor's ,bath1 the ,nobles' ,bath1 the ,poor's ,bath1 and other appellations4 ,in most of these there is every necessary apparatus for bathing by immersion1 for vapour bathing1 and for pumping on any particular parts of the body4 ,the water rises1 with great quickness1 from the springs1 and sends forth bubbles of air1 which burst with a slight noise when they reach the surface4 ,it is at first perfectly colourless and pellucid1 and emits a large portion of steam1 and with it a strong sulphureous smell1 which is perceptible at a great distance4 ,its temperature is so high1 that1 in the large baths1 it requires to stand from fifteen to eighteen hours before it is sufficiently cooled for tepid bathing2 and it is one of the few natural springs which are hot enough to be employed as a vapour bath without the addition of artificial heat4 ,on standing to cool1 it gradually loses its clearness1 acquires a milky hue1 and deposits an earthy sediment1 which is entirely calcareous4 ,at the same time it loses its offensive smell1 and1 when cold1 has scarcely any odour4 ,wherever a large quantity of this water passes hot from the spring through a confined place1 the upper covering becomes encrusted with sulphur4 ,this is particularly the case with respect to the dome of the vault that encloses the great source which supplies the ,emperor's bath1 and which is opened1 from time to time1 for the purpose of having the sulphur brushed off4 ,from the waters of ,aixla,chapelle1 though only internally used1 the body acquires a sulphureous smell2 and even silver worn in the pocket becomes tarnished4 #bhf4 ,,borset ,,water is of two kinds4 ,one of these resembles the water of ,aix in every respect1 except as to the impregnation of sulphur1 which is much weaker3 its temperature is #acb4 ,the other contains no sulphur3 it is1 however1 equally alkaline1 and the heat is as high as #aeb1 which much exceeds the hottest of the waters of ,aix4 ,both these waters are used by fullers and clothworkers1 on account of the convenience they afford1 without expense1 of a sufficiency of hot and somewhat alkaline fluid which is well adapted for the cleansing of woollen cloth4 ,in the latter of the abovementioned springs a large portion of earth is suspended4 ,this1 as the water cools1 is deposited1 and forms hard incrustations of considerable thickness round every substance with which it comes in contact4 ,it is not1 however1 on this account found less useful for the scouring of cloth1 boiling of vegetables for the table1 or any of those domestic purposes for which soft water is required4 ,in this spring there is a considerable portion of carbonic acid gas1 or fixed air 7#bf71 which is continually escaping from the fresh water1 and is in sufficient quantity to corrode1 in a short time1 the leaden covering that is used for the vapour baths1 and any iron within its reach4 ,after having supplied several baths1 the stream flows into a large fish pond1 where it is still of blood heat4 ,in this pond we are informed that carp and tench multiply very fast1 and grow to an enormous size2 but that their flesh is soft and without flavour1 until they have been removed1 for about six months1 into a pond of cold water1 where they become perfectly firm and good for the table4 ,in their medicinal application these waters are chiefly employed externally1 and their great heat allows of every convenience for vapour1 hot1 warm1 and tepid bathing4 ,the village of ,borset1 or ,bordscheit1 in which they are found1 is situated about a quarter of a mile south of ,aixla,chapelle 7#bhe74 #e4 ,,hot1 ,,saline1 ,,highly ,,carbonated ,,chalybeate ,,water4 #bhg4 ,,the ,,vichy ,,waters are hot1 saline1 and chalybeate4 ,they vary in some degree in the different springs1 have a salt and somewhat bitter taste1 and a considerable pungency of smell4 ,they are alkaline1 and about the temperature of #abj4 ,there are1 at ,vichy1 a small town on the banks of the river ,allier1 about #ahj miles southeast of ,paris1 no fewer than six different springs of hot water1 which vary somewhat in their temperature1 and in the proportion of their foreign contents4 ,the valley in which this town is situated is highly fertile and beautiful1 and abounds in vineyards and fruittrees4 ,it is remarkable that sheep1 cows1 and other animals1 crowd to drink this water with great eagerness1 and even to lick the stones and sides of the channel through which it flows4 ,their partiality for it is so great that1 at certain times1 they are known to swim across the river ,allier1 in considerable numbers together1 without even tasting of that water1 and to proceed1 without interruption onward1 until they reach this their favourite beverage4 #bhh4 ,,carlsbad ,,water is hot1 saline1 and chalybeate1 having an unpleasant alkaline and bitter taste1 though scarcely any smell4 ,its constant temperature is #afe4 ,it contains chalk1 ,glauber's salt 7#bjc71 common salt1 and carbonat of soda 7#bja71 together with a small portion of iron2 and carbonic acid gas1 or fixed air 7#bf71 in considerable quantity4 ,the town of ,carlsbad1 situated on the river ,eger1 in ,bohemia1 and its springs 7which have the name of ,caroline baths71 received their appellation from the ,emperor ,charles the ,fourth1 who is said to have himself discovered the latter1 in the year #acgj1 whilst hunting2 and1 since that period1 few waters have more engaged the attention of chemists and physicians than these4 ,carlsbad is now much frequented during the summer months1 and has good accommodations as a watering place4 ,its water is remarkable for a rapid and copious deposition of calcareous earth1 which takes place always on cooling1 and forms a very hard and beautiful crust on the inner surface or tube of any channel through which it flows2 and forms petrifactions round moss1 pieces of straw1 or other extraneous substances which are put into the stream1 even for so short a time as twentyfour hours4 ,all the iron which the fresh water contains is also precipitated by cooling1 and rather sooner than the calcareous earth4 ,a very fine laminated calcareous stone in variegated colours is thus formed in large masses around the channel of the stream1 which1 when polished1 is almost equal in beauty to jasper4 ,of the hot springs of this neighbourhood the principal is called the ,sprudel4 ,it boils up1 with great violence1 and discharges about #ceb cubic feet of water hourly1 through a curious natural vault or incrustation which it has gradually formed4 ,this water supplies the greater number of the baths4 ,the other springs are1 in general1 of much lower temperature3 they do not exceed from #aad to #abe1 and they differ somewhat from each other in their chemical properties4 ,they all contain a large portion of carbonic acid gas1 or fixed air1 and this is given out in such quantity by the water1 that it fills several caverns1 in the rocks adjoining to the springs1 rendering them fatal to all animals which incautiously enter them4 ,the waters of ,carlsbad are used for the removal of a great variety of disorders1 but particularly such as are connected with indigestion4 ,they are likewise used in obstructions of the bowels1 and diseases of the kidneys4 ,about five pints1 divided into fourteen portions1 are1 on an average1 drunk by each individual every day4 ,the ,sprudel spring is better than that of any mineral waters which are employed medicinally4 ,it requires to be considerably cooled before it can either be used as a bath1 or drunk4 ,its heat is such that it is occasionally employed1 in place of water artificially heated1 for several domestic purposes1 such as the scalding of fowls and hogs1 the feathers and hair of which it immediately loosens4 ,several hundred pounds weight of ,glauber's salt are annually prepared from this water4 #f4 ,,simple ,,saline ,,waters4 #bhi4 ,,sedlitz ,,water is very salty and bitter4 ,it contains a small portion of chalk1 some sulphat of lime 7#aib71 carbonat of magnesia1 muriat of magnesia1 and a very great proportion of ,epsom salt 7#aii71 to which its bitter taste and medicinal virtues are principally attributed4 ,the spring for which the village of ,sedlitz1 in ,bohemia1 has long been celebrated1 was1 for many years1 wholly neglected by the inhabitants1 on account of the bitter and nauseous taste of its water1 which rendered it unfit for nearly all domestic purposes4 ,its virtues1 as a medicine1 were first brought into notice about the year #agba1 by ,hoffman1 the celebrated ,prussian physician4 ,this water is considered a valuable remedy in cases of indigestion1 for removing scorbutic humours1 and in several other complaints4 #bij4 ,,epsom ,,water is saline1 and partakes1 in some degree1 of the nature and qualities of ,sedlitz water1 but it is by no means so powerful4 ,it is transparent and colourless2 and1 when first taken into the mouth1 has scarcely any taste1 but it leaves a decidedly bitter and saltish taste on the palate4 ,this water contains sulphat of magnesia1 or ,epsom salt 7#aii71 selenite1 and a small portion of chalk4 ,although the ,epsom waters1 on account of their deficiency of strength1 are now scarcely ever employed in medicine1 yet they were among the first saline cathartic springs which were brought into use in this country4 ,the salt to which they owe their property1 and which is known throughout ,europe by the name of ,epsom salt1 was1 for many years1 prepared almost exclusively from them and from ,sedlitz water4 ,but the quantity which they supplied was found so very inadequate to the increasing demands for this salt in medicine1 that ,epsom ,salt has1 for some time past1 been manufactured from sea water4 ,epsom water1 if closely corked1 may be kept for several months without injury3 but1 otherwise1 it soon becomes putrid4 ,the spring from which it issues is situated about half a mile from the town of ,epsom in ,surrey1 sixteen miles south of ,london4 ,there are1 in the neighbourhood of ,london1 many springs of similar quality to this of ,epsom3 of these the principal are at ,acton1 ,kilburne1 ,bagnigge ,wells1 and formerly the ,dog and ,duck in ,st4 ,george's ,fields2 but they are1 in general1 so weak as to render very large quantities of the water necessary to produce any sufficient medical effect4 #g4 ,,highly ,,carbonated ,,alkaline ,,water4 #bia4 ,,seltzer ,,water is an highly carbonated alkaline water4 ,when fresh1 or well preserved1 it is perfectly clear1 and sparkles much when poured into a glass4 ,it is somewhat pungent1 slightly saline1 and a little alkaline to the taste4 ,it contains chalk1 carbonat of magnesia1 carbonat of soda 7#bja71 and common salt2 and more carbonic acid gas1 or fixed air 7#bf71 than any water hitherto known4 ,it is hard1 and curdles with soap4 ,the spring which supplies this water is situated in ,nieder ,seltzer1 a village in a fine woody country1 within the bishopric of ,treves2 and there are few mineral springs which have acquired so much celebrity for medical virtues as this4 ,the diseases1 for the removal of which it has been successfully applied1 are too numerous to be here particularized4 ,to the taste it is very agreeable1 and when drunk in moderate quantity1 it exhilarates the spirits1 increases the appetite1 and produces no particular determination to the bowels4 ,it is to the strong impregnation with carbonic acid1 and the small proportion of soda which it contains1 that its most important benefits are owing4 ,if it be closely corked and sealed1 ,seltzer water may be kept without injury1 or even alteration1 for a very considerable time2 but1 if exposed to the air1 it soon becomes fetid4 ,it is used as a common drink at table in many parts of ,germany and ,holland1 and is even brought into ,england in stone bottles1 each containing about three pints4 ,a large proportion of ,seltzer water1 either genuine or artificial1 is consumed in this country4 #h4 ,,chalybeate ,,waters4 #bib4 ,are such as contain a portion of iron4 ,this is easily detected by the property which it has of striking a black colour with tincture of nutgalls4 #bic4 ,,tunbridge ,,water is a carbonated chalybeate1 the small portion of iron which it contains being held in solution by carbonic acid 7#bf74 ,it is1 however1 neither brisk nor acidulous4 ,to the taste it is simply chalybeate2 and that only in a slight degree4 ,its foreign contents are oxide of iron 7#ba71 a small portion of common salt1 muriat of magnesia1 and sulphat of lime 7#aib71 carbonic acid gas or fixed air 7#bf71 and other gases1 but these only in small quantity4 ,tunbridge ,wells is a populous village1 situated in a sandy but romantic valley in the county of ,kent1 about five miles from the town of ,tunbridge1 and thirtysix miles south of ,london4 ,there are1 at this place1 many chalybeate springs1 all of which nearly resemble each other in their chemical properties4 ,two of them1 however1 are chiefly used1 each of which yields about a gallon of water in a minute4 ,when first taken from the stone basin into which it flows1 the water is perfectly clear and bright1 and exhales no particular smell4 ,it does not sparkle in the glass1 but a few bubbles slowly separate1 and adhere to the sides of the vessel4 ,when it has stood for some hours exposed to the air1 it becomes turbid1 and otherwise undergoes a very material change4 ,as it does not properly curdle soap1 it may be denominated a soft water4 ,the original discovery of this water1 as to its medical properties1 is usually considered to have been in the reign of ,james the ,first4 ,the season for drinking it commences as early as ,march or ,april1 and continues till ,november4 #bid4 ,,spa ,,water1 the celebrity of which has given a general appellation to most other mineral springs1 is a highly carbonated chalybeate water1 which contains a great proportion of carbonic acid 7#bf74 ,it has an agreeable acidulous taste1 mixed with a strong impression of chalybeate1 which remains on the palate for a considerable time after it has been drunk4 ,it contains oxide of iron 7#ba71 chalk1 carbonat of magnesia1 carbonat of soda 7#bja71 and common salt1 together with about fortyfive parts in a hundred of carbonic acid gas or fixed air 7#bf72 and is sufficiently soft to mix both with milk and soap without curdling4 ,spa is a small but celebrated town in the ,netherlands4 ,it is situated on the little river ,weze1 about twenty miles southeast of ,liege1 and seven miles southwest of ,linsburg2 and is surrounded by rude and uncultivated mountains1 many of which are covered with wood1 and others with heath or morasses4 ,in its neighbourhood there are no fewer than sixteen mineral springs1 five of which are more celebrated than the others4 ,the most copious and most frequented of the whole is the ,pouhon spring1 in the marketplace of ,spa4 ,this is a large1 slow1 and deep spring1 the descent to which is by several steps4 ,in cold dry weather the water1 when first taken up1 appears colourless and perfectly transparent3 it scarcely sparkles1 but it soon covers the inside of the glass with small airbubbles1 which it also emits very copiously when shaken4 ,during moist weather the surface of the well appears somewhat turbid3 and1 on the approach of rain1 a whistling or humming noise is heard1 which is called by the country people the music of the spring4 ,if this water be bottled1 and then set in a warm place1 it will generally force out the cork1 with a loud explosive noise4 ,in preserving it for exportation1 it is consequently necessary to wire the corks firmly down4 ,in this state1 if well cemented1 it may be kept perfectly good for more than two years4 ,it is somewhat remarkable1 respecting this water1 that if it be taken in a full draught1 particularly in hot weather1 or upon an empty stomach1 it produces a swimming in the head1 and a degree of intoxication1 which frequently continues for half an hour or upwards1 and is very similar to that which arises from the drinking of spirituous liquor1 but it does not leave the same debility4 #bie4 ,,pyrmont ,,water is a highly carbonated chalybeate4 ,when recently taken from the spring1 it is clear and pellucid1 and sends forth a copious stream of bubbles for a considerable time4 ,in this respect it far exceeds any of the mineral waters with which we are acquainted4 ,its taste is pleasant1 being strongly acidulated1 and having a pungency not unlike that of brisk ,champagne wine2 but it is at the same time strongly chalybeate1 and a little bitterish4 ,it chiefly contains oxide of iron 7#ba71 chalk1 carbonat of magnesia1 ,epsom salt 7#aii71 sulphat of lime 7#aic71 and common salt1 and a great proportion of carbonic acid gas1 or fixed air4 ,it is very hard4 ,pyrmont is a town of ,westphalia1 and about thirtyeight miles southwest of ,hanover4 ,it is the capital of a county1 has a strong fort1 and is well known on account of its mineral springs4 ,the water which issues from these springs constantly emits so large a quantity of gas as to have a sensible pungency of smell to those who stand around1 and even to make the waterservers giddy4 ,it forms an atmosphere over the surface of the well which proves fatal to ducks and small birds that attempt to swim across4 ,the gas contained in the water is estimated to be nearly equal in bulk to the water4 ,it is owing to this1 that ,pyrmont water1 if bottled and well corked1 and afterwards removed into a warm place1 will frequently burst the bottles4 ,when drawn fresh from the spring and drunk copiously1 it produces a temporary kind of intoxication4 ,it also enlivens the spirits and increases the appetite4 ,this water is sent in bottles1 by the ,weser1 to ,bremen1 whence it is exported to various parts of the world4 #bif4 ,,cheltenham ,,water is a saline1 carbonated1 chalybeate1 which has a slight sulphureous smell1 and a brackish1 somewhat bitter1 and chalybeate taste1 but no briskness nor pungency4 ,its foreign contents are ,glauber's salts 7#bjc71 muriat and carbonat of magnesia1 common salt1 and oxide of iron1 together with a portion of carbonic acid gas1 and some other kinds of gas4 ,the original discovery of the mineral spring at ,cheltenham was about the year #agaf4 ,the water of this spring issues slowly1 and in a scanty stream of not more than #ce pints in an hour1 from a bed of sand intermixed with blue clay4 ,the well is sunk to the depth of six feet1 and is excluded from communication with the external air4 ,this spring is denominated the ,old ,spa4 ,in the year #aghh1 on digging a well for a private house1 another spring was accidentally discovered1 which is of nearly the same nature as this1 and produces a much more abundant supply of water4 ,it is about a hundred yards distant from it1 is upwards of forty feet deep1 and is drawn by a pump4 ,when ,cheltenham water is fresh drawn1 it appears tolerably clear1 though not perfectly transparent4 ,after standing some time1 it becomes more turbid1 and airbubbles1 in small quantity1 rise from it4 ,it contains more salt than perhaps any other waters1 except those of the sea and some brine springs2 and by far the greatest part of the salts are of a purgative kind4 ,it is also a very strong chalybeate1 and has a slight impregnation of sulphur4 ,this water cannot long be kept1 nor can it be transported to any distance without being materially altered4 ,in order1 however1 to reduce its valuable parts to a more convenient form1 for carriage and keeping1 the salts are extracted from it on the spot1 by evaporation1 and crystallizing the residuum4 ,these salts are much used1 in addition to the fresh water1 for the purpose of increasing its operation on the bowels4 ,cheltenham is a small town in the county of ,gloucester4 ,it is about ninetyfive miles northwest of ,london1 situated in a sandy vale1 surrounded with hills of moderate height1 and in the midst of a fertile and well cultivated country4 #big4 ,,brighton ,,chalybeate ,,water is a vitriolated chalybeate1 which1 when fresh1 has a peculiar and faint smell not uncommon in ferruginous waters1 and a strong though not unpleasant chalybeate taste4 ,it contains sulphat of iron or vitriol 7#bjh71 sulphat of lime 7#ahb71 common salt1 muriat of magnesia1 siliceous earth1 and a certain portion of carbonic acid gas 7#bf74 ,brighton is a wellknown markettown1 situated on the coast of ,sussex1 and about fiftyfour miles south of ,london4 ,the chalybeate spring is at ,wick1 on the declivity of a small eminence nearly a mile west of the town1 and a quarter of a mile from the sea4 ,a small but neat building has been erected immediately over the spot from which the water issues1 and where it is received1 a few feet under ground1 into a basin of ,portland stone4 ,this reservoir contains only a few gallons of water1 but it fills again almost as soon as it is emptied4 ,the water is so hard as instantly to curdle soap4 ,it is considered useful in cases of debility1 indigestion1 and such diseases for which chalybeate and tonic remedies are required4 ,the seabathing at ,brighton is1 in many cases1 an additional and important advantage to those persons who use the chalybeate water4 #i4 ,,cold ,,sulphureous ,,waters4 #bih4 ,,hepatic1 or ,,sulphureous ,,waters1 are so strongly impregnated with sulphur1 united either to hydrogen 7#de71 or to an alkali1 or both1 as thereby to acquire a very sensible smell and taste4 ,they have the property of blacking silver and lead2 and are immediately known by the smell1 which is very fetid1 and like that which arises from the scouring of a foul gunbarrel1 or1 as some persons suppose1 like the smell of rotten eggs4 ,the taste of these waters is peculiar1 and rather sweetish4 ,they constitute a drink which1 at first1 is very unpalatable1 but which1 by habit1 is soon reconciled to the drinker4 ,none of them will bear carriage to any distance4 #bii4 ,,harrowgate ,,water is a cold sulphureous water1 which has a very strong and fetid smell1 like that of a damp rusty gunbarrel4 ,to the taste it is bitter1 nauseous1 and strongly saline4 ,its foreign contents are common salt1 muriat of lime1 muriat of magnesia1 chalk1 carbonat of magnesia1 ,epsom salt 7#aii71 carbonic acid gas1 or fixed air 7#bf71 azotic gas1 and sulphureted hydrogen gas4 ,there are1 at ,harrowgate1 four distinct sulphureous springs1 which appear to have their rise in a large bog1 at a small distance from the wells4 ,the water of all these springs is similar in its properties and its distinguishing characters1 but as one of them is more strongly impregnated with sulphur than the others1 this alone is used for drinking1 whilst the other three are employed to supply the baths4 ,when the water of the former of these springs is first taken up1 it is perfectly clear and transparent2 and sends forth a few airbubbles4 ,notwithstanding both its nauseous smell and taste1 such is the power of habit in reconciling it to the palate1 that1 after a little while1 nearly all persons who drink this water do it without disgust4 ,when exposed to the air it loses its transparency1 and assumes a somewhat greenish colour3 the sulphureous odour abates2 and1 at last1 the sulphur is deposited on the bottom and sides of the vessel in which it is kept4 ,such is the nature of ,harrowgate water that a secret correspondence has often been carried on by means of it4 ,a letter written with solution of sugar of lead is illegible2 but if dipped into this water the writing will not merely become visible1 but1 in a short time1 will appear almost black4 ,hydrogen has the property of reviving the metallic oxides3 hence also it is that ladies who have used metallic cosmetics have become of a dark tawny colour by bathing in these waters4 ,harrowgate has long been celebrated for its sulphureous waters4 ,it has also two very valuable chalybeate springs1 called the ,old ,spa1 and the ,tewit ,well1 the water of which was formerly used internally1 whilst the other water was confined to external use4 ,but1 at present1 the latter is employed to very great extent as an internal medicine4 ,the two villages of ,high and ,low ,harrowgate are situated in a pleasant open country1 in the centre of the county of ,york1 near the town of ,knaresborough1 and about #bab miles north of ,london4 #cjj4 ,,moffat ,,water is a cold sulphureous water1 the smell of which is precisely similar to that of ,harrowgate water1 and the taste simply saline1 and without any bitterness4 ,its foreign contents are common salt1 together with carbonic acid gas1 azotic gas1 and sulphureted hydrogen gas4 ,it is consequently very simple in its composition4 ,moffat is a village situated1 at the head of a valley1 on the banks of the river ,annan1 and about fiftysix miles southwest of ,edinburgh4 ,it is surrounded by hills1 some of which are very lofty4 ,this village has obtained so much celebrity1 on account of its waters1 as to be considered the ,harrowgate of ,north ,britain4 ,these issue from a rock which is at a little distance below a bog1 whence1 probably1 they derive their sulphureous ingredients4 ,the principal spring is contained within a stone building1 and affords a sufficient quantity of water to supply every demand4 ,it is drawn by a pump4 ,when the water is first taken from the well it appears somewhat milky and bluish4 ,it sparkles a little2 but1 on being exposed to the air1 it becomes turbid1 and throws up a thin film1 which1 on examination1 will be found pure sulphur4 ,this change takes place even in close vessels1 so that it cannot be sent to any distance with advantage4 ,the common people so much esteem this water that many of them drink at the rate of from six to ten quarts of it in a morning1 and one instance has been stated of a person drinking thirtytwo quarts of it in eight hours4 ,,index ,,to ,,the ,,first ,,volume4 ,acid1 sulphuric1 #ab2 how made1 properties and uses of1 #ade ,acid1 phosphoric1 #ab ,acid1 carbonic1 #ab ,acid1 fluoric1 #ac2 how made1 properties and uses of1 #abj ,acid1 boracic1 #ac ,acid1 muriatic1 #ac2 ,how made and uses of1 #acb ,acid1 nitric1 #ad2 ,how made1 and uses of1 #ach ,adamant4 ,see ,diamond4 ,adamantine spar4 ,see ,corundum4 ,adularia1 description and uses of1 #gj ,agate1 description1 uses1 c4 of1 #fa1 #fb ----1 different kinds of1 #fc ,alabaster1 description and uses of1 #aag ----1 calcareous1 account and uses of1 #aaa1 #aab ,alkalies1 #ah ,alumine1 #ae1 #abc ,alluvial depositions1 #bce ,alum1 description and uses of1 #abc1 #abd ----1 ,roman and ,roche1 #abc ----1 how procured and made1 #abc ,amalgams1 what they are1 #agf ,amazon stone1 description and use of1 #fi ,amber1 description and history of1 #afa ----1 where found1 and how wrought1 #afb ----1 uses and properties of1 #afc ----1 varnish1 #afc ----1 gum anim often mistaken for1 #afd ,amethyst1 oriental1 #cb ----1 common1 description and uses of1 #dh ,amianthus4 ,see ,asbestos4 ,ammonia1 muriat of4 ,see ,salammoniac4 ,antimony1 description of1 and whence obtained1 #bae ----1 how prepared1 and uses of1 #baf1 #bag ----1 butter and glass of1 #bag ----1 oxides of1 #bag ,antimonial powder1 of what composed1 #bag ---- wine1 how prepared1 and use of1 #bag ,aqua marine1 description1 value1 and uses of1 #ci1 #dj ----1 where found1 how cut and set1 #dj ,aqua fortis1 mode of manufacturing1 and uses of1 #ach ,aqua regia1 of what made1 #aci ,argil1 #ae ,arsenic1 description of1 and whence obtained1 #bab ----1 how prepared for use1 and the uses of1 #bac ----1 poisonous effects of1 how counteracted1 #bac ----1 how to know from any other substance1 #bac ,asbestos1 use of1 for making incombustible cloth1 c41 #ic1 #id ,asphalt1 description of1 where found1 and uses of1 #adi1 #aej ,avanturine1 description1 uses1 and value of1 #ej ----1 imitations of1 how made1 #ej ,axestone1 description and use of1 #hi ,azure stone1 description and uses of1 #fg1 #fh ----1 imitation of1 how made1 #fh ,b4 ,barilla4 ,see ,soda4 ,barium1 #ag ,barytes1 description and uses of1 #abj ----1 sulphat of1 #aba ,basalt1 description and uses of1 #ie1 #if ,bath stone1 description and uses of1 #aad ,bell metal1 of what made1 #ahh ,beryl4 ,see ,aqua marine3aquamarine4 ,betton's ,british oil1 what it is1 #adf ,biscuit porcelain1 what it is1 and how made1 #ge ,bismuth1 description and uses of1 #bag1 #bah ----1 singular fusible metal prepared from1 #bah ----1 experiment with1 illustrative of metallic crystal1 #bcd ,bitumen4 ,see ,asphalt1 #adi ----1 elastic1 #adi ,black chalk1 description and use of1 #hj ----1 pencils1 how made1 #hj ,black tin1 what it is1 #bjj ,bloodstone1 description and uses of1 #ei ----1 singular specimen of1 #ei ,blue ,john4 ,see ,fluor spar4 ,blende1 #bji ,bole1 description and uses of1 #hg ,bologna phosphorus1 or ,bononian stone1 how prepared1 and properties of1 #aba ,boracic acid1 #ac ,borax1 description of1 whence and how obtained1 #acd ----1 preparation and uses of1 #ace ,bottles1 how made1 #ee ,brass1 how made1 and uses of1 #ahg ---- wire1 properties and uses of1 #ahg ,bricks1 how made1 #gb ,brimstone4 ,see ,sulphur4 ,bristol diamonds1 #dg ,bronze1 how made1 and uses of1 #ahg ,burning spring1 description of one in ,shropshire1 #adg ,burrstone1 or millstone1 description of1 #dd ----1 where found1 uses of1 and how split1 #de ,buxton diamonds1 #dg ,c4 ,cachalong opal1 description and use of1 #fe ,calamine1 description and uses of1 #bjibaa ,calcareous substances1 #ag1 #ig ,calcedony1 description and uses of1 #ef1 #eg ,calcium1 #ah ,calomel1 how made1 and uses of1 #agg ,caloric1 #i ,calp4 ,see ,lias4 ,caoutchouc mineral1 #adi ,carbon1 #bj ,carbonats1 #ac ,carbonic acid1 #ab ,carbuncle1 #dc ,carnelian1 description1 uses1 and value of1 #eg ,cat'seye1 description of1 how cut1 and uses of1 #ej ,cave of ,fingal1 account of1 #if ,cairn gorum crystal1 whence obtained1 how wrought1 and uses of1 #di ,ceruse4 ,see ,white lead4 ,chalk1 description and uses of1 #ii ----1 black1 description and uses of1 #hj ----1 red1 how prepared1 and uses of1 #aii ,chinese grotesque figures1 of what made1 #hd ,choke damp in coalmines1 what it is1 how produced1 and how to prevent the injurious effects of1 #aed ,chrysoberyl1 description1 value1 and uses of1 #ce ,chrysolite1 description of1 how cut1 and uses of1 #ie ,chrysoprase1 description of1 how cut1 imitations1 and uses of1 #eh1 #ei ,cinnabar1 artificial1 how manufactured1 and use of1 #agg ,cinnamon stone1 #dd ,clay1 various kinds1 description and uses of1 #ga1 #gb ,clayslate4 ,see ,roofingslate4 ,coal1 description of1 where found1 and value of1 #aea ----1 supposed origin1 and various uses of1 #aee ,coal mines1 account of1 #aeb ,coal trade1 history1 c4 of1 #aedaef ,coal1 cannel1 what1 why so called1 and uses of1 #aeg ----1 stone1 ,kilkenny1 or ,glance1 and ,welsh1 #aeh ----1 ,bovey1 or brown1 #aeh ----1 pitch1 #aeh ----1 parrot1 #aeg ,cobalt1 account of1 whence obtained1 and uses of1 #bbj ----1 oxide of1 #bba ,coke1 uses of1 #aef ,copper1 description and ancient uses of1 #ahc ----1 mines of ,anglesea described1 #ahc ----1 how extracted from the ore1 c41 #ahc ----1 uses of1 #ahe1 #ahf ----1 vessels1 in what respects pernicious1 #ahe ----1 oxide of1 uses of1 #ahf ----1 alloys of1 #ahf ----1 white1 of what made1 and uses of1 #ahh ----1 how to gild1 #agb ----1 sulphat of4 ,see ,vitriol1 white4 ,copperas4 ,see ,vitriolgreen4 ,cornish diamonds1 #dg ,corrosive sublimate1 what it is1 and uses of1 #agg ,corundum1 description and uses of1 #cd ,crystal1 description and uses of1 #dedg ----1 where found1 how wrought and polished1 #df1 #dg ,culm1 what it is1 and the uses of1 #aeg ,d4 ,derbyshire spar4 ,see ,fluor spar4 ,diachylon plaster1 how made1 and uses of1 #bjf ,diamond1 description of1 #bc ----1 where found1 how obtained1 and how known1 #bc1 #bd ----1 properties of1 #bd ----1 how cut1 polished1 and set1 #bf ----1 value and uses of1 #bf1 #bg ----1 account of several remarkable diamonds1 #bg1 #bh1 #bi ----1 ,buxton1 ,cornish1 and ,carrara diamonds1 #dg1 #ajb ,drawing slate4 ,see ,black chalk4 ,dropping well at ,knaresborough1 #aac ,dutch gold1 how made1 #ahg ,dykes1 mineral1 #c ,e4 ,earth1 #ad earthenware1 how manufactured1 #ga ,eaudeluce1 of what made1 #afd ,egyptian pebble1 description and uses of1 #fa ,electron of the ancients1 what it was1 #afb ,emerald1 description of1 where found1 how set1 and how valued1 #ch ----1 oriental1 #cb ----1 false1 #di ,emery1 description1 properties1 and uses of1 #cc ----1 how prepared for use1 #cc ----1 red1 #dc ,epsom salts1 description of1 how made1 and uses of1 #abf ,f4 ,faults1 in mining1 what they are1 #c ,felspar1 common1 description and uses of1 #fi ----1 ,labrador1 #fi ,figure stone1 description and uses of1 #hd ,filtering stone1 of what made1 #bcc ,fire damp in coalmines1 what it is1 how produced1 c41 #ai1 #aec ,flint1 description and uses of1 #ec1 #ed ----1 gunflints1 how made1 #ed ,florence marble1 description and use of1 #aae ,fluat of lime1 #aai ,fluats1 #ac ,fluoric acid1 what it is1 #ac ---- ----1 how to etch on glass by means of1 #abj ---- ----1 mode of obtaining1 #abj ,fluor spar1 description and properties of1 #aai ---- ----1 how manufactured1 and the uses of1 #aai ,flux1 white1 of what made1 #acg ----1 black1 #acg ,freestone1 description and uses of1 #bcc ,french chalk1 description and uses of1 #ib ,fuller's earth1 description and use of1 #hg ,fulminating powder1 #agf ,fulminating silver1 extraordinary properties of1 #ahb ,fumigating of rooms1 how effected1 #acc ,fur in tea kettles1 how formed there1 #aad ,g4 ,galena1 what it is1 #bjc ,gangue1 in mining1 what it is1 #d ,garnet1 precious1 where found1 how cut1 and value of1 #db1 #dc -- ----1 how set1 and uses of1 #db ----1 common1 #dc ----1 ,syrian and pyrope1 #dc ,gas1 what it is1 #aj ,gas lights1 history and uses of1 #aef ---- ----1 how produced1 #aef -- ----1 how exhibited on a small scale1 #aef ,gems1 engraving1 cutting1 and value of1 #babc ----1 imitations of1 #bb ,giant's causeway1 account of1 #ie ,gilding on iron or copper1 how performed1 #agb ---- in ormoulu1 what it is1 #agb ---- on silver1 how performed1 #agb ---- on the edges of teacups1 #agc ---- wax1 how made1 and use of1 #agb ----1 ancient mode of1 #agb ----1 on wood1 #agb ,glass1 how made1 #ee ----1 bottles1 how made1 #ee ----1 window and plate1 how made1 #ee1 #ef ----1 annealing of1 the use of1 #ef ----1 how to etch on1 #abj ----1 ,muscovy4 ,see ,mica4 ,glauber salt1 description of1 how obtained1 and uses of1 #abc ---- ----1 pleasing experiment with1 #acd ,glimmer4 ,see ,mica4 ,glucine1 #af ,gneiss1 #bbf ,gold1 description and properties of1 #afg1 #afh ----1 how obtained from mines in ,america and ,europe1 #afh ----1 found in ,ireland and ,scotland1 #afh1 #afi ----1 mode of extracting from the ore1 #afi ----1 value and uses of1 #agj ----1 coinage or sterling gold2 and gold of the new standard1 #agj ----1 description of the stamps on gold plate1 #agj ----1 how alloyed1 #agj ----1 coinage gold of ,portugal1 ,america1 ,france1 ,spain1 ,holland1 and ,morocco1 #agj ----1 trinket and pale gold1 how alloyed1 #agj ----1 ductility and tenacity of1 #agj ,gold leaf1 how beaten1 #aga ,gold wire1 #agc ,gold thread and lace1 what they are1 #agc ,gold powder for painting1 how made1 #agc ----1 ,dutch1 how made1 #ahg ,goldbeaters' skin1 how made1 and uses of1 #aga ,granite1 description and uses of1 #bbe ----1 various kinds of1 #bbe ,goulard1 of what made1 #bjg ,greywacka1 #bcb ,grindstones1 of what made1 #bcd ,gritstone1 description and uses of1 #bcc ,gunbarrels1 how browned1 #ada ,gunflints1 how made1 and how to choose1 #ed ,gunpowder1 how made1 #acg ,gypsum4 ,see ,alabaster4 ----1 fibrous1 description and uses of1 #aah ,h4 ,hair1 pernicious effects of preparations to colour the1 #aha ,heliotrope4 ,see ,bloodstone4 ,hone1 or whetslate1 description and use of1 #hj ,hyacinth1 description and uses of1 #cj ,hydrogen1 #ai ,i4 ,inflammable air1 #ai ,ink1 indelible1 for marking linen1 how made1 #aha ----1 sympathetic1 how made1 #bbb ,instantaneous light1 matches and bottles for procuring1 how made1 #ade ,iron1 description and uses of1 #aij ----1 mines1 account of1 #aij ----1 how extracted from the ore1 #aia ----1 cast iron1 what1 and uses of1 #aia ----1 wrought iron1 how made1 and uses of1 #aia ----1 how preserved from rust1 #aic ----1 native1 account of extraordinary masses of1 #aig ----1 magnetic1 or loadstone1 description and uses of1 #aig ----1 white1 what1 #bja ,iron pyrites1 description and uses of1 #aih ----1 how to gild on1 #agb ----1 sulphat of4 ,see ,vitriol1 green4 ,j4 ,jade1 description and uses of1 #hh ,james's powder1 of what made1 #bag ,jargoon1 description and uses of1 #bi ,jasper1 description and uses of1 #fj ----1 various kinds of1 #fa ----1 agate4 ,see ,agate4 ,jet1 description1 properties1 and uses of1 #aeh ----1 imitation of1 #afj ,k4 ,kaolin1 what it is1 and how made1 #gd ,ketton stone1 description and use of1 #aad ,l4 ,labrador felspar1 description and uses of1 #fi ,lapis lazuli4 ,see ,azure stone4 ,lapis ollaris1 description and use of1 #ij ,lazulite4 ,see ,azure stone4 ,lead1 description of1 #bjc ----1 how extracted from the ore1 #bah ----1 pig lead1 what it is1 #bjd ----1 ancient and modern uses of1 #bjd ----1 injurious effects of leaden vessels1 #bjd ----1 alloys and oxides of1 #bje ----1 silver1 how obtained from1 #agh1 #bjg ----1 white1 how manufactured1 and uses of1 #bje ----1 red or minium1 how manufactured1 and uses of1 #bjf ----1 sugar of1 #bjg ----1 how detected in wine1 c41 #bjg ----1 pleasing experiment with1 #bjg ,lead mines1 account of1 #bjc ,lemnian earth1 how obtained and use of1 #hf ,lias1 use of for multiplying drawings1 #aaf ,lime1 #ag2 how burnt1 and various uses of1 #ig ---- water1 how made1 #ih ,lime carbonat of1 #ii ,lime sulphat of1 #aag ,lime fluat of1 #aai ,limestone1 description and uses of1 #ii ----1 primitive1 #bbh ----1 transition1 #bcb ,litharge1 how made and uses of1 #bjf ---- plaster1 of what made1 #bjf ,loadstone1 description of1 where found1 and uses of1 #aig ,loam1 description and uses of1 #gc ,lookingglasses1 process of silvering1 #agf ,lunar caustic1 what it is1 and uses of1 #aha ,lydian stone1 description and uses of1 #ec ,m4 ,magnesia1 how prepared and uses of1 #abe ,malachite1 description and uses of1 #ahh ,manganese1 description of1 how obtained1 and uses of1 #bbb ,marble1 description and uses of1 #ajj ----1 statuary1 #ajb--aje--aji ----1 ,pentelic1 ,greek white1 and ,parian1 #aja ----1 ,carrara1 ,luni1 and ,verde antique1 #ajb ----1 ,sienna1 ,brocatello1 ,mandelato1 ,verde di ,prato1 ,lago ,maggiore1 ,bretonico1 and ,campan1 #ajc ----1 ,griotte1 ,marquese1 ,sarencolin1 ,st4 ,beaume or ,languedoc1 ,breccia of the ,pyrenees1 #ajd ----1 white ,spanish1 ,seville1 ,tortosa1 ,grenada1 ,spanish ,breccia1 #aje ----1 ,lumachelli1 ,sicilian1 ,swiss1 ,portuguese1 ,russian1 ,asiatic marble of ,tabriz1 ,african1 ,american1 #ajf ----1 ,petworth1 ,purbeck1 #ajg ----1 ,babbicombe1 ,derbyshire1 ,kendal1 ,mona1 ,tirie1 #ajh ----1 ,assynt1 ,isle of ,sky1 ,sutherland1 ,glen ,tilt1 #aji ----1 ,blairgowrie1 ,glenavon1 ,ballichulish1 ,blairmachyldach1 #aaj ----1 mode of cutting and polishing1 #aaa ----1 black1 #aaa ----1 ,florence1 #aae ----1 ,cottam1 #aaf ,marcasite4 ,see ,pyrites4 ,marking ink1 for linen1 c4 how made and used1 #aha ,marl1 description and uses of1 #aad ,matrix1 #d ,meerschaum1 how obtained1 prepared1 and used1 #hd ,mercury1 the ores of1 #agc ----1 how extracted from the ore1 #age ----1 properties and uses of1 #age1 #agf ,mercury mines in ,india1 description of1 #age ,metals1 different states in which they are found1 #afe ----1 how obtained and prepared for use1 #afe ,meteoric stones1 description of1 #aic ---- ----1 extraordinary instances of their falling from the air in #adib1 #afgb1 #agjd1 #agie1 #ahad1 c41 #aie ---- ----1 opinions of learned men respecting1 #aig ---- ----1 properties of1 #aid ,mica1 description of1 how obtained1 and uses of1 #ha ,mica slate1 or micaceous schistus1 #bbg ,millstones4 ,see ,burr ,stone4 ----1 ,peak1 what formed of1 #bcc ----1 of granite1 #bbe ,millstone grit1 description and uses of1 #bcc ,mineral green1 of what made1 #ada ,mineral oil4 ,see ,petroleum4 ,minerals1 systematic arrangement of1 #d ,mineral tar1 description and uses of1 #adh1 #adi ,minium1 how manufactured1 and uses of1 #bjf ,mochoa stone1 description and use of1 #fc ---- ----1 imitations of1 how made1 #fc ,mona marble4 ,see ,serpentine4 ,moonstone1 description and use of1 #gj ,mountains1 comparative heights of the principal1 #bcg ,muriatic acid1 #ac ,muriats1 #ac ,muscovy glass4 ,see ,mica4 ,music plates1 of what made1 #bag ,n4 ,naphtha1 where found1 uses and properties of1 #adf ,natron1 description of1 how obtained and uses of1 #abh ,nephrite4 ,see ,jade4 ,nickel1 description and uses of1 #bjh ----1 oxide of1 and for what used1 #bji ,nitrats1 #ad ,nitrat of silver1 uses of1 #aha ,nitre1 description of1 how and whence obtained1 #acf ----1 how manufactured1 and uses of1 #acf1 #acg ,nitric acid4 ,see ,aqua fortis4 ,nova ,mina topaz1 #cg ,o4 ,ochre1 red1 description and uses of1 #aii ,obsidian1 description and uses of1 #ff ,oil1 rancidity of1 how corrected1 #bjg ,onyx1 description and use of1 #eg ,opal1 description of1 where found1 use and value of1 #fc ----1 imitations of1 #fd ----1 ,hydrophanous1 singular quality1 use1 and value of1 #fd ----1 ,common1 #fe ----1 ,mother of pearl1 and wood opal1 #fe1 #ff ,orpiment1 yellow1 description and uses of1 #bad ----1 red1 #bad ,oxides1 #aa ,oxygen1 #aj ---- gas1 #aa ,p4 ,paint1 white1 how to prevent pernicious effects of1 #bje ---- ----1 made of oxide of zinc1 #baa ,paviour's flags1 of what made1 #bcd ,paving stones1 #bbe1 #bcc ,pearlash1 what it is1 and how prepared1 #acf ---- white1 of what made1 and use of1 #bah ,pebbles1 #df ,petrifactions4 ,see ,tufa4 ,petrifying springs1 at ,knaresborough and ,matlock1 #aac ,petroleum1 description1 properties1 and uses of1 #aeg ,petunz1 #fi ,pewter1 of what made1 #bjb ,phosphats1 #ab ,phosphoric acid1 #abbj ,phosphorus1 #ai ,pinchbeck1 of what made1 and use of1 #ahg ,pipeclay1 description and use of1 #gb ,plaster of ,paris1 of what made1 and use of1 #aah ,plate glass1 how made1 #ef ,plating of copper1 c4 how performed1 #ahj ,platina1 description1 properties1 and uses of1 #aff1 #afg ,pompey's pillar1 of what formed1 #bcj ,ponderous earth4 ,see ,barytes4 ,porcelainclay1 description and use of1 #gd ----1 ,chinese1 ,french1 and ,english porcelain1 account of1 #gd ----1 how manufactured1 glazed1 and painted1 #gd1 #ge ----1 biscuit1 how made1 #dg1 #ge ,porphyry1 description and uses of1 #bbi ,portland stone1 description and use of1 #aad ,potash1 description of1 how obtained1 and use of1 #ace ,potstone1 description and use of1 #ij ,pottery1 how made1 #gc ,powder blue1 of what made1 and use of1 #bbb ,prince's metal1 what it is1 and for what used1 #ahg ,printer's types1 of what made1 #bje1 #bah ,pumice1 description and use of1 #fg ,pyrites1 description1 properties1 and uses of1 #aih1 #aii ,q4 ,quartz1 description1 properties1 and uses of1 #dd ----1 rock1 #bca ,queen's ware pottery1 of what made1 #gc ,quick lime1 how made1 #ih ,quicksilver4 ,see ,mercury4 ,r4 ,red chalk and ,reddle1 description and uses of1 #aii ,realgar1 description and uses of1 #bad ,rocks1 systematic arrangement of1 #g1 #bbd ----1 primitive1 description of1 #bbd ----1 secondary1 #bca ----1 transition1 #bcb ----1 floetz or flat1 #bcc ----1 volcanic1 #bce ,rock oil4 ,see ,naphtha4 ,roe stone4 ,see ,ketton stone4 ,roofing slate1 description of1 #gf ---- ----1 how to choose1 #gg ---- ----1 ,welsh and ,westmoreland1 #gh ---- ----1 ,french1 #gf ---- ----1 various uses of1 #gghj ,rolling stones1 of what made1 #bcd ,rotten stone1 description and use of1 #gf ,rouge1 of what made1 #hd1 #ia ,rubellite1 valuable specimen of1 #da ,ruby1 ,oriental1 description of1 #ca ----1 whence imported1 value1 properties1 and uses of1 #ca1 #cb ----1 spinel1 description1 value1 and uses of1 #cb ----1 ,balais1 #cb ----1 false1 #di ,ruin marble4 ,see ,florence marble4 ,s4 ,sal ammoniac1 description of1 how made1 and uses of1 #ach1 #aci ,salt1 common1 description and uses of1 #abi ----1 mines in ,poland1 description of1 #abi ----1 mines in ,chester1 #acj ----1 mountains of1 in ,spain1 #acj ---- springs1 #aca ,salt1 how manufactured1 #aca ----1 bay1 #acb ----1 spirit of1 how made1 and uses of1 #acb ,saltpetre4 ,see ,nitre4 ,sand1 common1 description and uses of1 #eb ,sandstone1 #bcd ,sapphire1 ,oriental1 description of1 how cut and set1 #cj ----1 properties1 value1 and use of1 #cj1 #ca ----1 false1 or water1 #di ,sardonyx1 #eg ,scots pebbles1 description and use of1 #fb ,scythestones1 how made1 #bcd ,sea froth4 ,see ,meerschaum4 ,sea water1 description and properties of1 #bdd ---- ----1 cause of its bitterness1 and saltiness1 #bdd ---- ----1 uses of1 #bde ,serpentine1 description and uses of1 #hi1 #ij ,shell silver1 how prepared1 #aha ,shot1 how made1 #bje ,sienite1 description and uses of1 #bcj ,silex1 #ae ,siliceous earth1 #ae ,silicium1 #ae ,silver1 description of1 #agg ---- mines of ,potosi and ,norway1 account of1 #agg1 #agh ----1 found in ,scotland1 #agh ----1 extracted from lead1 #agh ----1 how extracted from its ores1 #agh ----1 value and uses of1 and how alloyed1 #agi ----1 marks or stamps on silver plate explained1 #agi ----1 nitrat of1 uses of1 #aha ----1 fulminating1 extraordinary properties of1 #ahb ----1 experiments with preparations of1 #ahb ----1 how to gild1 #agb ,silver plate1 how cleaned1 #agi ----1 ductility of1 #agi ,silver wire1 #agi ,silvering of lookingglasses1 process of1 #agf ---- of metals1 how performed1 #ahf ---- of paper and wood1 #aha ,slate4 ,see ,roofing slate1 and ,writing slate4 ,slate pencils1 how made1 #gh ,slickenside1 extraordinary properties of1 #bah ,smalt1 of what formed1 and uses1 #bba ----1 strewing1 #bba ,smaragdus1 #ch ,snowdon diamonds1 what they are1 #dg ,soap1 how made1 #abg ,soap1 boiling1 illustration of1 #abg ----1 white1 yellow1 and soft1 of what made1 #abh ---- of glass1 what it is1 #bbc ,soapstone4 ,see ,steatite4 ,soda1 description and uses of1 #abf ----1 carbonat of1 #abh ----1 muriat of1 #abi ----1 sulphat of1 #acc ,solder1 of what made1 #bje ,soot1 uses of1 #aef ,spanish chalk1 #hd ,spanish white1 of what made1 #ajj ,spelter4 ,see ,zinc4 ,stalactites1 description and uses of1 #aab ,stalagmite1 #aab ,steatite1 description and uses of1 #hc ,steel1 how made1 and uses of1 #aib1 #aic ----1 ,damascus1 what1 #aib ----1 cast1 how made1 #aib ----1 how to preserve from rust1 #aib ,strontian1 #ag ,stucco1 of what made1 #aah ,sulphur1 #ai2 description of1 and how manufactured1 #adc ----1 uses and properties of1 #adc1 #add ----1 singular experiment with1 #ade ,sulphuric acid1 how prepared1 properties and uses of1 #ade ,sympathetic ink1 how made and used1 #bbb ,t4 ,table slates1 how made1 #gh ,talc1 common1 or ,venetian1 description and uses of1 #ia ----1 indurated4 ,see ,french chalk4 ,tamarindtree1 petrified4 ,see ,woodstone4 ,tartar1 emetic1 how prepared1 #bag ,teacups1 how to gild1 #agc ,teaurns1 how browned1 #ada ,thunderbolts4 ,see ,meteoric stones4 ,tiles1 how made1 #gb ,tin1 description of1 #bjj ----1 alloys of1 #bjb ----1 block1 and tin plate1 what1 and uses of1 #bjj1 #bja ----1 how extracted from the ore1 #bjj ,tin mines1 and steam works1 account of1 #bjj ,tin putty1 how made1 and uses of1 #bjb ,tin foil1 how made1 and uses of1 #bjc ,tinglass4 ,see ,bismuth4 ,tincal4 ,see ,borax4 ,tinning of iron and copper1 how performed1 #bja ,tobacco pipes1 how made1 #gc ---- ----1 ,turkish1 of what made1 #hd ,topaz1 description of1 where found1 and how obtained1 #ce1 #cf ----1 value1 uses1 and properties of1 #cf ----1 ,oriental1 #cb ----1 ,brazilian1 ,saxon1 ,bohemian1 blue1 pink1 white1 or ,nova ,mina1 #cg ,tourmaline1 description and properties1 and uses of1 #dj ,trap1 primitive1 #bbh ,tripoli1 description and use of1 #gf ,tufa1 description and uses of1 #aac1 #aad ,turkey stone1 description and uses of1 #ha ,turquoise1 description of1 how imported1 and uses of1 #ahi ----1 spurious kind1 how detected1 #aij ,tutenag1 of what made1 and uses of1 #baj ,u4 ,ultramarine1 how made1 and uses of1 #fh ,umber1 description and use of1 #aii ,v4 ,verde antique marble1 #ajb ,verdigris1 how made1 and uses of1 #ahf ----1 distilled1 what1 and uses of1 #ahf ,vermilion1 what it is1 and how made1 #agg ,vesuvian1 description and use of1 #dc ,vienna white1 of what made1 #ajj ,vitriol1 ----1 blue1 description of1 how made and uses of1 #adj ----1 green1 or iron vitriol1 #aii ----1 white1 #ada ----1 spirit of4 ,see ,sulphuric acid4 ---- ----1 pleasing experiment with1 #adb ,w4 ,water1 uses and analysis of1 #bch1 #bci ----1 rain1 description and properties of1 #bdj ----1 ice and snow1 description1 properties1 and uses of1 #bdj ----1 spring1 river1 and stagnant1 #bdabde ----1 putrid1 how to render sweet1 #bdc ----1 sea1 #bdd ----1 ,malvern1 #bdf ----1 ,bristol ,hotwell1 #bdf ----1 ,matlock and ,buxton1 #bdh ----1 ,bath1 #bdi ----1 ,aixla,chapelle1 or ,aken1 #bej ----1 ,borset1 #beb ----1 ,vichy1 #bec ----1 ,carlsbad1 #bed ----1 ,sedlitz1 #bee ----1 ,epsom1 #bef ----1 ,seltzer1 #bef ----1 ,tunbridge1 #beg ----1 ,spa1 #beh ----1 ,pyrmont1 #bei ----1 ,cheltenham1 #bfj ----1 ,brighton chalybeate1 #bfa ----1 ,harrowgate1 #bfb ----1 ,moffat1 #bfd ,whetslate1 description and uses of1 #hj ,whiting1 of what made1 #ajj ,window glass1 how made1 #ee ,wine1 antimonial1 how prepared1 and use1 #bag ----1 how to detect the adulteration of1 #bjg ,woodstone1 description and uses of1 #ea ,writing slates1 how made1 #gh ,y4 ,yttria1 #af ,z4 ,zaffre1 what1 how made1 and uses of1 #bba ,zinc1 whence obtained1 and how extracted from the ore1 #bji ----1 uses and properties of1 #baj ----1 oxide of1 used as paint1 #baa ----1 white1 how prepared1 #ada ,zircon1 #bi ,,end ,,of ,,vol4 ,i4 ,c4 ,baldwin1 ,printer1 ,new ,bridgestreet1 ,london4 ,transcriber's ,notes3 ,the outline provide by the author 7page #ba7 did not match the text in two places3 8,,ii4 ,,soft ,,stones0 was changed to 8,,order ,,ii4 ,,soft ,,stones04 8,,order ,,ii4--,,saline ,,stones0 was changed to 8,,order ,,iii--,,saline ,,stones04 ,minor typographical errors were silently corrected4 ,missing or obscured punctuation was silently corrected4 ,inconsistent spelling and hyphenation were made consistent only when a predominant form was found in this book4 ,text that was in italics is enclosed by underscores 7italics72 text that was bold by 8equal0 signs 7bold74