,,problems ,,of ,,conduct ,,an ,,introductory ,,survey ,,of ,,ethics ,,by ,,durant ,,drake ,a4,m4 7,harvard7 ,ph4,d4 7,columbia7 ,associate ,professor of ,ethics and ,philosophy of ,religion at ,wesleyan ,university ,,boston ,,new ,,york ,,chicago #aiad ,,to ,,the ,,dear ,,two ,,whose ,,interest ,,in ,,problems ,,of ,,conduct ,,first ,,awakened ,,mine ,,and ,,whose ,,eagerness ,,to ,,know ,,and ,,do ,,remains ,,undimmed ,,by ,,the ,,years ,,my ,,father ,,and ,,my ,,mother ,,preface ,this book represents in substance a course of lectures and discussions given first at the ,university of ,illinois and later at ,wesleyan ,university4 ,it was written to meet the needs both of the college student who has the added guidance of an instructor1 and of the generalreader who has no such assistance4 ,the attempt has been made to keep the presentation simple and clear enough to need no interpreter1 and by the list of readings appended to each chapter1 to make a self directed further study of any point easy and alluring4 ,these references are for the most part to books in ,english1 easily accessible1 and both intelligible and interesting to the ordinary untrained reader or undergraduate4 ,some articles from the popular reviews have been included1 which1 if not always authoritative1 are interesting and suggestive4 ,the function of the instructor who should use this as a textbook would consist1 first1 in making sure that the text was thoroughly read and understood2 secondly1 in raising doubts1 suggesting opposing views1 conducting a discussion with the object of making the student think for himself2 and1 thirdly1 in adding new material and illustration and directing the outside readings which should supplement this purposely brief and summary treatment4 ,the books to which reference is made in the lists of readings1 and other books approved by the instructor1 should be kept upon reserved shelves for the constant use of the class in the further study of questions suggested by the text or raised in the classroom4 ,it will be noticed that the disputes and the technical language of theorists have been throughout so far as possible avoided4 ,the discussion of historical theories and isms' is unnecessarily bewildering to the beginner2 and the aim has been rather to keep as close as possible to the actual experience of the student and the language of everyday life4 ,far more attention is given than in most books on ethics to concrete contemporary problems4 ,after all1 an insight into the fallacies of the reasoning of the various ethical schools1 an ability to know what they are talking about and glibly refute them1 is of less importance than an acquaintance with1 and a firm1 intelligent attitude toward1 the vital moral problems and movements of the day4 ,i have prayed to be saved from academic abstractness and remoteness1 and to go as straight as ,i could to the real perplexities from which men suffer in deciding upon their conduct4 ,the purpose of a study of ethics is1 primarily1 to get light for the guidance of life4 ,and so1 while referring to authors who differ from the views here expressed1 ,i have sought to impart a definite conception of relative values1 to offer a thread for guidance through the labyrinth of moral problems1 and to effect a heightened realization of the importance and the possibilities of right living4 ,it is necessary1 indeed1 in order to justify and clarify our concrete moral judgments1 that we should reach clear and firmly grounded conclusions upon the underlying abstract questions4 ,and the habit of laying aside upon occasion one's instinctive or habitual moral preferences and discussing with open mind their justification and rationality is of great value to the individual and to society4 ,hence the first two ,parts of this volume take up1 as simply as is consonant with the really intricate questions involved1 the history of the development of human morality and the psychological foundation of moral obligations and ideals4 ,the exposition of the meaning of right and wrong there unfolded serves as a basis for the sound solution of the confused concrete issues1 private and then public1 which are discussed in the remainder of the volume4 ,an introductory outline of any subject must inevitably be superficial4 ,to explain all the discriminations that are important to the specialist1 to justify thoroughly all the positions taken1 to do adequate justice to opposing views1 would require ten volumes instead of one4 ,and though there is a crying need of scholarly and elaborate discussion of the endless problems of morality1 there is a prior need for the student of surveying the field1 seeing what the problems are1 how they are related1 and what is approximately certain4 ,the impression left by many ethical treatises1 that everything is matter for dispute and no moral judgments are reliable1 seems to me unfortunate2 ,i have preferred to incur the charge of dogmatism rather than to fall into that error to offer a clear cut set of standards1 to which exception will be taken by this critic or that1 rather than to hold out to the student a chaos of confused possibilities4 ,no originality of viewpoint is claimed for this book4 ,its raison d'etre is simply to provide a clearer1 more concrete1 and more concisely comprehensive view of the nature of morality and its summons to men than has seemed to me available4 ,i have drawn freely upon the thoughts of ethical teachers1 classic and contemporary4 ,these ideas are1 or ought to be1 common property2 and it has been impracticable to trace them to their sources and offer detailed acknowledgment4 ,nothing has been presented here that has not first passed through the crucible of my own thinking and experience2 and where the sparks came from that kindled each particular thought ,i am sure ,i do not know4 ,portions of chapters xxi and xxix have appeared in the ,forum and ,north ,american ,review respectively2 to the editors of these periodicals my thanks are due for permission to reprint4 ,,durant ,,drake4 ,ml,d,d,l,e,t,o,w,n1 ,,conn1 ,august #c1 #aiad4 ,,contents ,,introductory4 ,what is the field of ethics8 ,why should we study ethics8 ,,part ,i4 ,,the ,,evolution ,,of ,,morality ,,chapter ,i4 ,,the ,,origin ,,of ,,personal ,,morality444 ,how early in the evolutionary process did personal morality of some sort emerge8 ,what were the main causes that produced personal morality8 ,how far has the moralizing process been blind and how far conscious8 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,the ,,origin ,,of ,,social ,,morality444 ,how early was social morality developed8 ,by what means was social morality produced8 ,how has morality been fostered by the tribe8 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,outward ,,development-,,morals444 ,what is the difference between morals and non-moral customs8 ,what1 in general1 has been the direction of moral progress8 ,what definition of morality emerges from this8 ,is moral progress certain8 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,inward ,,development-,,conscience444 ,what are the stages in the history of moral guidance8 ,out of what has conscience developed8 ,what is conscience now8 ,what is the value of conscience8 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,the ,,individualizing ,,of ,,conscience444 ,why did not the individualizing of conscience occur earlier8 ,what forces made against custom-morality8 ,conservatism vs4 radicalism4 ,what are the dangers of conventional morality8 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,can ,,we ,,base ,,morality ,,upon ,,conscience444 ,what is the meaning of moral intuitionism8 ,do the deliverances of different people's consciences agree8 ,if conscience everywhere agreed in its dictates1 could we base morality upon it8 ,what is the plausibility of moral intuitionism8 ,,part ,,ii4 ,,the ,,theory ,,of ,,morality ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,the ,,basis ,,of ,,right ,,and ,,wrong444 ,what is the nature of that intrinsic goodness upon which ultimately all valuations rest8 ,what is extrinsic goodness8 ,what sort of conduct1 then1 is good8 ,and how shall we define virtue8 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,the ,,meaning ,,of ,,duty444 ,why are there conflicts between duty and inclination8 ,must we deny that duty is the servant of happiness8 ,does the end justify the means8 ,what is the justification of justice and chivalry8 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,the ,,judgment ,,of ,,character444 ,wherein consists goodness of character8 ,can we say1 with ,kant1 that the only good is the ,good ,will8 ,what evils may go with conscientiousness8 ,what is the justification of praise and blame8 ,what is responsibility8 ,,chapter ,x4 ,,the ,,solution ,,of ,,personal ,,problems444 ,what are the inadequacies of instinct and impulse that necessitate morality8 ,what factors are to be considered in estimating the worth of personal moral ideals8 ,epicureanism vs4 ,puritanism4 ,what are the evils in undue self-indulgence8 ,what are the evils in undue self-repression8 ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,the ,,solution ,,of ,,social ,,problems444 ,why should we be altruistic8 ,what is the exact meaning of selfishness and unselfishness8 ,are altruistic impulses always right8 ,what mental and moral obstacles hinder altruistic action8 ,how can we reconcile egoism and altruism8 ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,objections ,,and ,,misunderstandings444 ,do men always act for pleasure or to avoid pain8 ,are pleasures and pains incommensurable8 ,are some pleasures worthier than others8 ,is morality merely subjective and relative8 ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,altebnative ,,theories444 ,is morality categorical1 beyond need of justification8 ,should we live according to nature1 and adjust ourselves to the evolutionary process8 ,is self-development1 or self-realization1 the ultimate end8 ,is the source of duty the will of ,god8 ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,,the ,,worth ,,of ,,morality444 ,morality as the organization of human interests4 ,do moral acts always bring happiness somewhere8 ,is there anything better than morality8 ,,part ,,iii4 ,,personal ,,morality ,,chapter ,,xv4 ,,health ,,and ,,efficiency444 ,what is the moral importance of health8 ,can we attain to greater health and efficiency8 ,is continued idleness ever justifiable8 ,are competitive athletics desirable8 ,is it wrong to smoke8 ,,chapter ,,xvi4 ,,the ,,alcohol ,,problem444 ,what are the causes of the use of alcoholic drinks8 ,what are the evils that result from alcoholic liquors8 ,what should be the attitude of the individual toward alcoholic liquors8 ,what should be our attitude toward the use of alcoholic liquors by others8 ,,chapter ,,xvii4 ,,chastity ,,and ,,marriage444 ,what are the reasons for chastity before and fidelity after marriage8 ,what safeguards against unchastity are necessary8 ,what are the factors in an ideal marriage8 #a;,is divorce morally justifiable8 ,,chapter ,,xviii4 ,,fellowship1 ,,loyalty1 ,,and ,,luxury444 what social relationships impose claims upon us8 ,what general duties do we owe our fellows8 ,are the rich justified in living in luxury8 ,is it wrong to gamble1 bet1 or speculate8 ,,chapter ,,xix4 ,,truthfulness ,,and ,,its ,,problems444 ,what are the reasons for the obligation of truthfulness8 ,what exceptions are allowable to the duty of truthfulness8 ,in what directions are our standards of truthfulness low8 ,the ethics of journalism4 ,,chapter ,,xx4 ,,culture ,,and ,,art444 ,what is the value of culture and art8 ,what is most important in cultural education8 ,what dangers are there in culture and art for life8 ,should art be censored in the interests of morality8 ,,chapter ,,xxi4 ,,the ,,mechanism ,,of ,,self-,,control444 ,what are our potentialities of greater self-control8 ,a practicable mechanism of self-control4 ,various accessories and safeguards4 ,,chapter ,,xxii4 ,,the ,,attainability ,,of ,,happiness444 ,the threefold key to happiness3 ,i4 ,hearty allegiance to duty4 ,,ii4 ,hearty acquiescence in our lot4 ,,iii4 ,hearty appreciation of the wonder and beauty in life4 ,can we maintain a steady under glow of happiness8 ,,part ,,iv4 ,,public ,,morality ,,chapter ,,xxiii4 ,,patriotism ,,and ,,world-,,peace444 ,what is the meaning and value of patriotism8 ,how should patriotism be directed and qualified8 ,what have been the benefits of war8 ,what are the evils of war8 ,what can we do to hasten world-peace8 ,,chapter ,,xxiv4 ,,political ,,purity ,,and ,,efficiency444 ,what are the forces making for corruption in politics8 ,what are the evil results of political corruption8 ,what is the political duty of the citizen8 ,what legislative checks to corruption are possible8 ,,chapter ,,xxv4 ,,social ,,alleviation444 ,what is the duty of the ,state in regard to3 ,i4 ,sickness and preventable death8 ,,ii4 ,poverty and inadequate living conditions8 ,,iii4 ,commercialized vice8 ,,iv4 ,crime8 ,,chapter ,,xxvi4 ,,industrial ,,wrongs444 ,in our present organization of industry1 what are the duties of businessmen3 ,i4 ,to the public8 ,,ii4 ,to investors8 ,,iii4 ,to competitors8 ,,iv4 ,to employees8 ,what general remedies for industrial wrongs are feasible8 ,,chapter ,,xxvii4 ,,industrial ,,reconstruction444 ,ought the trusts to be broken up1 or regulated8 ,what are the ethics of the following schemes3 ,i4 ,trade-unions and strikes8 ,,ii4 ,profit-sharing1 cooperation1 consumers' leagues8 ,,iii4 ,government regulation of prices1 profits1 and wages8 ,,iv4 ,socialism8 ,,chapter ,,xxviii4 ,,liberty ,,and ,,law444 ,what are the essential aspects of the ideal of liberty8 ,the ideal of individualism4 ,the ideal of legal control4 ,should existing laws always be obeyed8 ,,chapter ,,xxix4 ,,equality ,,and ,,privilege444 ,what flagrant forms of inequality exist in our society8 ,what methods of equalizing opportunity are possible8 ,what are the ethics of3 ,i4 ,the single tax8 ,,ii4 ,free trade and protection8 ,,iii4 ,the control of immigration8 ,,iv4 ,the woman's movement8 ,,chapter ,,xxx4 ,,the ,,future ,,of ,,the ,,race444 ,in what ways should the ,state seek to better human environment8 ,what should be done in the way of public education8 hat can be done by eugenics8 ,what are the gravest moral dangers of our times8 ,,problems ,,of ,,conduct ,,introductory ,what is the field of ethics8 ,to know what exists1 in its stark reality1 is the concern of natural science and natural philosophy2 to know what matters1 is the field of moral philosophy1 or ethics4 ,the one group of studies deals with facts simply as facts1 the other with their values4 ,human life is checkered with the sunshine and shadow of good and evil1 joy and pain2 it is these qualitative differences that make it something more than a meaningless eddy in the cosmic whirl4 ,natural philosophy 7including the physical and psychological sciences71 drawing its impartial map of existence1 is interesting and important2 it informs us about our environment and ourselves1 shows us our resources and our powers1 what we can do and how to do it4 ,moral philosophy asks the deeper and more significant question1 ,what ,,shall we do8 ,for the momentous fact about life is that it has differences in value1 and1 more than that1 that we can ,,make differences in value4 ,caught as we are by the irresistible flux of existence1 we find ourselves able so to steer our lives as to change the proportion of light and shade1 to give greater value to a life that might have had less4 ,this possibility makes our moral problem4 ,what shall we choose and from what refrain8 ,to what aims shall we give our allegiance8 ,what shall we fight for and what against8 ,for the savage practically all of his activity is determined by his imperative needs1 so that there is little opportunity for choice or reflection upon the aims of his life4 ,he must find food1 and shelter1 and clothing to keep himself warm and dry2 he must protect himself from the enemies that menace him1 and rest when he is tired4 ,nor are most of us today far removed from that primitive condition2 the moments when we consciously choose and steer our course are few and fleeting4 ,yet with the development of civilization the elemental burdens are to some extent lifted2 men come to have superfluous strength1 leisure hours1 freedom to do something more than merely earn their living4 ,and further1 with the development of intelligence1 new ways of fulfilling the necessary tasks suggest themselves1 moral problems arise where none were felt before4 ,men learn that they have not made the most of their opportunities or lived the best possible lives2 they have veered this way and that according to the moment's impulse1 they have been misled by ingrained habits and paralyzed by inertia1 they have wandered at random for lack of a clear vision of their goal4 ,the task of the moralist is to attain such a clear vision2 to understand1 first1 the basis of all preference1 and then1 in detail1 the reasons for preferring this concrete act to that4 ,here are a thousand impulses and instincts drawing us1 with infinite further possibilities suggesting themselves to reflection2 the more developed our natures the more frequently do our desires conflict4 ,why is any one better than another8 ,how can we decide between them8 ,or shall we perhaps disown them all for some other and better way4 ,man's effort to solve these problems is revealed outwardly in a multitude of precepts and laws1 in customs and conventions2 and inwardly in the sense of duty and shame1 in aspiration1 in the instinctive reactions of praise1 blame1 contentment1 and remorse4 ,the leadings of these forces are1 however1 often divergent1 sometimes radically so4 ,we must seek a completer insight4 ,there must be some best way of solving the problem of life1 some happiest1 most useful way of living2 its pursuit constitutes the field of ethics4 ,nothing could be more practical1 more vital1 more universally human4 ,why should we study ethics8 7#a7 ,the most obvious reason for the study of ethics is that we may get more light for our daily problems4 ,we are constantly having to choose how we shall act and being perplexed by opposing advantages4 ,decide one way or the other we must4 ,on what grounds shall we decide8 ,how shall we feel assured that we are following a real duty1 pursuing an actual good1 and not being led astray by a mere prejudice or convention8 ,the alternative is1 to decide on impulse1 at haphazard1 after some superficial and one-sided reflection2 or to think the matter through1 to get some definite criteria for judgments1 and to face the recurrent question1 what shall we do8 ,in the steady light of those principles4 ,footnote3 ,cf4 ,matthew ,arnold1 ,essays in ,criticism1 vol4 i3 ,marcus ,aurelius1 opening paragraph3 ,the object of systems of morality is to take possession of human life1 to save it from being abandoned to passion or allowed to drift at hazard1 to give it happiness by establishing it in the practice of virtue2 and this object they seek to attain by presenting to human life fixed principles of action1 fixed rules of conduct4 ,in its uninspired as well as in its inspired moments1 in its days of languor or gloom as well as in its days of sunshine and energy1 human life has thus always a clue to follow1 and may always be making way towards its goal4 7#b7 ,in addition to the fact that we all have unavoidable problems which we must solve one way or another1 a little familiarity with life1 an acquaintance with the biographies of great and good men1 should lead us to suspect that beyond the horizon of these immediate needs lie whole ranges of beautiful and happy living to which comparatively few ever attain4 ,there are better ways of doing things than most of us have dreamed4 ,the study of ethics should reveal these vistas and stimulate us to a noble discontent with our inferior morals4 ,footnote3 ,cf4 ,emerson1 in a letter to ,fraulein ,gisela von ,arnim3 ,in reading your letter1 ,i felt1 as when ,i read rarely a good novel1 rebuked that ,i do not use in my life these delicious relations2 or that ,i accept anything inferior or ugly4 ,such a forward look and development of ideals not only adds greatly to the worth of life but prepares a man to meet perplexities and temptations which may some day arise4 ,it pays to educate one's self for future emergencies by meditating not only upon present problems but upon the further potentialities of conduct1 right and wrong1 that may lie ahead1 and building up a code for one's self that will make life not only richer but steadier and more secure4 7#c7 ,another advantage of a systematic study of ethics is that it can make clearer to us ,,why one act is better than another2 why duty is justified in thwarting our inclinations and conscience is to be obeyed4 ,not only is this an intellectual gain1 but it is an immense fortification to the will4 ,there comes a time in the experience of every thinking man when a command not reinforced by a reason breeds distrust1 and when until he can intelligently defend an ideal he will hesitate to give it his allegiance4 ,morality1 to be depended upon1 must be not a mere matter of breeding and convention1 or of impulse and emotion1 but the result of rational insight and conscious resolve4 ,to many people morality seems nothing but convention1 or an arbitrary tyranny1 or a mysterious and awful necessity1 something extraneous to their own desires1 from which they would like to escape4 ,to be able to refute these skeptics1 expose the sophisms and specious arguments by which they support their wrongdoing1 and show that they have chosen the lesser good1 is a valuable help to the community and to one's own integrity of conduct4 ,too often the people perish for lack of vision2 an understanding of the naturalness and enormous desirability of morality1 together with an appreciation of its main injunctions1 would enlist upon its side many restless spirits who now chafe under a sense of needless restraint and seek some delusory freedom which leads to pain and death4 ,morality is simply the best way of living2 and the more fully men realize that1 the more readily will they submit themselves to the sacrifices it requires4 7#d7 ,finally1 a study of ethics should help us to see what are the prevalent sins and moral dangers of our day1 and thus arouse us to put the weight of our blame and praise where they are needed4 ,widespread public opinion is a force of incalculable power1 which is largely unused4 ,politics and business1 and to a far greater extent than now private life1 will become clean and honest and kind just so soon as a sufficient number of people wake up and demand it4 ,we have the power to make sins which are now generally tolerated and respectable1 so odious1 so infamous1 that they will practically disappear4 ,there are certain of the older forms of sin which the race in its long struggle upward has so effectually blacklisted that only a few perverts now lapse into them2 we have execrated out of existence whole classes of cruelty and vice4 ,but with the changing and ever more complex relations of society new forms of sin continually creep in2 these we have not yet come to brand with the odium they deserve4 ,leaders of society and pillars of the church are often1 and usually without disturbance of conscience1 guilty of wrongdoing as grave in its effects1 or graver1 than many of the faults we relentlessly chastise4 ,on the other hand1 many really useful reforms are blocked because they awaken old prejudices or cross silly and meaningless conventions4 ,the air is full of proposals1 invectives1 causes1 movements2 how shall we know which to espouse and which to reject1 or where best to lend a hand8 ,we need a consistent and well-founded point of view from which to judge4 ,to get such a sane and far-sighted moral perspective2 to see the acts of our fellow men with a proper valuation2 to be able to point out the insidious dangers of conduct which is not yet as generally rebuked as it ought to be2 and at the same time to emancipate ourselves and others from the mistaken and merely arbitrary precepts that are intermingled with our genuine morality1 and so attain the largest possible freedom of action1 such should be the outcome of a thorough study of ethical principles and ideals4 ,,part ,i ,,the ,,evolution ,,of ,,morality ,,chapter ,i ,,the ,,origin ,,op ,,personal ,,morality ,in almost any field it is wise to precede definition by an impartial survey of the subject matter4 ,so if we are to form an unbiased conception of what morality is1 it will be safest to consider first what the morals of men actually have been1 how they came into being1 and what function they have served in human life4 ,thus we shall be sure that our theory is in touch with reality1 and be saved from mere closet-philosophies and irrelevant speculations4 ,our task in this ,first ,part will be not to criticize by reference to any ethical standards1 but to observe and describe1 as a mere bit of preliminary sociology1 what it is in their lives to which men have given the name morality1 of what use it has been1 and through the action of what forces it has tended to develop4 ,with these data in mind1 we shall be the better able1 in the ,second ,part1 to formulate our criteria for judging the different codes of morality2 we shall find that we are but making explicit and conscious the considerations that1 unexpressed and unrealized1 have been the persistent and underlying factors in their development4 ,how early in the evolutionary process did personal morality of some sort emerge8 ,of course the words 7in any language7 and the explicit conceptions morality1 duty1 right1 wrong1 etc1 are very late in appearance1 presupposing as they do a power of reflection and abstraction which develops only in man and with a considerable civilization4 ,even in the ,homeric poems1 which reflect a degree of mental cultivation in some respects equal to our own1 these concepts hardly appear4 ,but ages earlier1 far back in the course of animal evolution1 there emerged phenomena which we may consider rudimentary forms of morality2 and all early human history was replete writh unanalyzed and unformulated moral struggles4 ,concretely1 we mean by personal morality courage1 industriousness1 self-control1 prudence1 temperance1 and other similar phenomena1 which have this in common1 that they involve a crossing of earlier-developed impulses and redirection of the individual's conduct1 with the result1 normally1 that his welfare is enhanced4 ,exceptions to this result will be considered later2 but the point to be noted at the outset is that personal morality is not at first the outcome of reflection1 or a purely human affair4 ,if we were to take the term morality in a narrower sense1 as meaning conscious obedience to a sense of duty or to the moral law1 it would obviously be a late product4 ,but morality in this sense is only an ultimate development of what in its less conscious and reflective forms dates far back in pre-human history4 ,take courage1 for example1 which may be briefly defined as action in spite of the instinct of fear and contrary to its leading4 ,nearly all of the higher animals exhibit courage in greater or less degree1 and there are many touching instances of it recorded to the credit of those we best know4 ,industriousness1 again1 is proverbial in the case of bees and ants ,go to the ant1 thou sluggard6--and noteworthy in the case of many birds1 of beavers1 and a long list of other animals4 ,prudence may be illustrated by the case of the camel who fills himself with water enough to last for many desert days1 or that of the bird who builds her nest with remarkable ingenuity and pains out of the reach of invaders4 ,whether or not we shall attribute self-control to the lower animals is a mere matter of definition2 in the looser sense we may credit with it the hungry fox who does not touch the bait whose dangerous nature he vaguely suspects4 ,temperance is probably one of the latest of the virtues1 and is rather conspicuously absent in much of human history and biography2 but perhaps students of animal psychology can guarantee instances to which the name might fairly be given4 ,in lesser degree1 then1 but unmistakably present1 we find the same sort of conduct appearing in the animals to which we give in man the names courage1 prudence1 etc4 ,purely instinctive these acts usually are though we may see even in the animals the beginnings of mental conflicts1 of reasoning1 of reflection4 ,but morality 7if we keep to the wider sense of the term7 is none the less morality when it is instinctive and natural4 ,morality is a general name for certain ,,kinds of conduct1 certain redirections of impulse4 ,these redirections appeared in animal life long before the emergence of what we may call man from his ape-like ancestry2 and all of our self-conscious moral idealism is but a continuation and development of the process then begun4 ,any theory of right and wrong must take account of the fact that morality1 unlike art1 science1 and religion1 is not an exclusively human affair4 ,in contrast with these late and purely human innovations1 it is hoary with antiquity and the possession1 in some rudimentary form or other1 of nearly the whole realm of organic life4 ,what were the main causes that produced personal morality8 ,how did these germinal forms of courage1 prudence1 industriousness1 etc1 first come into existence8 ,the answer to this question will also show what are the main underlying causes that promote these virtues today4 7#a7 ,they are in part due to certain organic needs and cravings which exist independently of the individual's environment4 ,hunger and thirst imperiously check the tendency to laziness1 or heedlessness1 and stimulate to industriousness and prudence4 ,to this day the mere need of food and clothing and shelter is the main bulwark of these virtues4 ,the acquisitive impulse1 which is also rather early in appearance1 has an increasing share in this sort of moralization4 ,the craving for action1 which is the natural result of abundant nervous and muscular energy1 the combative instinct1 the joy of conquest and achievement1 and the sexual impulse1 go far in counteracting cowardice and inertia4 ,the artistic impulse1 when it emerges in man1 long before the dawn of history1 makes against caprice for orderliness1 self-control1 and patience4 ,ambition is a potent force in human affairs4 ,the desire for the approval of others1 which is prehuman1 makes for all the virtues4 7#b7 ,but in addition to these inward springs of morality there is the constant pressure of a hostile environment4 ,cold1 storms1 rivers that block journeys1 forests that must be felled1 treacherous seas that lure with promise and exact toll for carelessness1 arouse men out of their torpor and aid the development of the virtues we have been considering4 ,the necessity of rearing some sort of shelter makes against laziness for industry and perseverance4 ,the dangers of wind or flood check heedlessness in the choice of location for the home and foster prudence and foresight4 ,in the harsher climates man is more goaded by nature2 hence more moral progress has1 probably1 been effected in the temperate than in the tropical zones4 7#c7 ,a third and very important source lies in the mutual hostility of the animal species and of men4 ,slothfulness and recklessness mean for the great majority of animals the imminent risk of becoming the prey of some stronger animal4 ,among tribes of men the ceaseless struggles for supremacy have pricked cowardice into courage1 demanded self-control instead of temper1 supplanted gluttony and drunkenness by temperance4 ,cruel as has been the suffering caused by war1 and deplorable as most of its effects1 it did a great deal in the early stages of man's history to promote the personal virtues1 alertness1 moderation1 caution1 courage1 and efficiency4 ,in the latest stages of man's development1 conscious regard for law and custom1 the fear of gods1 the explicit recognition of duty and conscience1 and the direct pursuit of ideals-all the reflective considerations that we may lump together under the word conscientiousness-play their ever increasing part and complicate the psychological situation4 ,but even in modern civilized man the underlying animal forces count for far more4 ,and without them the later self-conscious forces would not have come into play at all4 ,there is a small class of people who are dominated throughout their activities by consciously present ideals or obedience to religious injunctions4 ,but the average man still acts mainly under the pressure of the more primitive forces which we have enumerated4 ,how far has the moralizing process been blind and how far conscious8 7#a7 ,to a very large extent the moralizing process has been a merely mechanical one4 ,through slight differences in nerve-structure individuals have varied a little in their response to the pressure of inward cravings and outward perils4 ,the braver1 the more prudent1 the more industrious have had a better chance of survival4 ,so by the process which we have come to call natural selection there has been a continual weeding-out of the relatively lazy1 cowardly1 reckless1 and imprudent4 ,much of our morality is the result of tendencies thus long cultivated by the ruthless methods of nature2 we inherit a complex nervous organization1 the outcome of ages of molding and selection1 which now instinctively and easily responds to stimuli with a certain degree of inbred morality4 ,this is the case much more than is apparent upon the surface4 ,the child seems very unmoral1 the mere prey of passing impulses2 but latent in his brain are many aptitudes and tendencies which will at the proper time ripen and manifest themselves4 ,the period of adolescence is that during which the changes in mental structure which were effected during the later stages of evolution are being made in the mind of this new individual2 he reenacts1 as it were1 in a few years1 the history of the race1 and emerges without any conscious effort1 the possessor of the fruits of that long struggle of which he was always the heir4 7#b7 ,in all the later stages of animal evolution1 however1 moral development is largely conscious1 or semi-conscious4 ,besides our inner inheritance of altered brain-paths there is a social inheritance of habits which each generation adopts by imitation of its predecessors4 ,without any deliberate intention1 the young of every species imitate their parents1 and then the older members of the flock or herd4 ,suggestion is said by some to be the chief means of moralization2 we are brave or industrious because we see others practicing these virtues and naturally do as they do4 ,at any rate1 whichever are more important1 the inherited tendencies or those acquired by contagion1 both of these factors play a large part in the development of the individual's morals4 7#c7 ,the third method of moral development is that which we call learning by experience4 ,the pain or dissatisfaction which a wrong impulse brings in its train1 the satisfaction which follows a moral act1 are remembered1 and recur with the recurrence of a similar situation1 becoming perhaps the decisive factors in steering the animal or man toward his true welfare4 ,many animals quite low in the organic scale learn by experience2 and though of course the degree of consciousness that accompanies these readjustments varies enormously1 this method of moralization may be said to be always1 like the preceding1 a more or less conscious process4 ,learning by experience is subject1 of course1 to many mistaken judgments2 the fallacy of post hoc propter hoc leads many learners to avoid perfectly innocent acts as supposedly involving some evil result with which they were once by chance connected2 and the true causes of the evils are often overlooked4 ,even when dimly conscious readjustments become highly conscious deliberation1 the results of that deliberation may be less forwarding morally than the unconscious and merciless grinding of natural selection4 ,more and more1 of course1 as men grew in power of reflection1 did they consciously shape their morals2 and this intelligent selection1 which has as yet played a comparatively small role1 is bound1 as men become more and more rational1 to supersede in importance the other factors in moral evolution4 ,but in the later phases of evolution all three of these processes blend together2 and it would be impossible for the keenest analyst to tell how much of his conduct was determined in each of these ways4 ,h4 ,spencer1 ,data of ,ethics 7also published as the first part of his ,principles of ,ethics71 chap4 ,i and chap4 ,,ii1 through sec4 #d2 or ,j4 ,fiske1 ,cosmic ,philosophy1 part ,,ii1 chap1 ,,xxii1 first half1 to ,we are now prepared to deal4 ,l4 ,t4 ,hobhouse1 ,morals in ,evolution1 part ,i1 chap4 ,i1 secs4 #a-d4 ,i4 ,king1 ,development of ,religion1 pp4 #dh-ei ,a great mass of concrete material will be found in ,e4 ,westermarck's ,origin and ,development of ,moral ,ideas1 ,h4 ,o4 ,taylor's ,ancient ,ideals1 ,w4 ,e4 ,h4 ,leeky's ,history of ,european ,morals4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,the ,,origin ,,of ,,social ,,morality ,how early was social morality developed8 ,by social morality we mean1 concretely1 such virtues as tender and fostering love1 sympathy1 obedience1 subordination of selfish instincts to group-demands1 the service of other individuals or of the group4 ,these habits are later in development than some of the personal virtues1 but long antedate the differentiation of man from the other animals4 ,instances of self-sacrificing devotion of parent to offspring among birds and beasts are too common to need mention4 ,devotion to the mate1 though less developed1 is early present in many species4 ,the strict subordination of ants and bees to the common welfare is a well-known marvel1 the latter enthusiastically and poetically described by ,maeterlinck in his delightful ,life of the ,bees4 ,the stern requirements of obedience to the unwritten laws of the herd1 which make powerful so many species of animals individually weak1 are graphically1 though of course with exaggeration1 set forth by ,kipling in his ,jungle ,book4 ,many sorts of animals1 such as deer and antelopes1 might long ago have been exterminated but for their mutual cooperation and service4 ,affection and sympathy in high degree are evident in some sub-human species4 ,when we come to man1 we find his earliest recorded life based upon a social morality which1 if crude1 was in some respects stricter than that of today4 ,it is a mistake to think of the savage as ,rousseau imagined him1 a freehearted1 happy-go-lucky individualist1 only by a cramping civilization bowed under the yoke of laws and conventions4 ,savage life is essentially group-life2 the individual is nothing1 the tribe everything4 ,the gods are tribal gods1 warfare is tribal warfare1 hunting1 sowing1 harvesting1 are carried on by the community as a whole4 ,there are few personal possessions1 there is little personal will2 obedience to the tribal customs1 and mutual cooperation1 are universal4 ,footnote3 ,as an example of the solidarity of barbarous tribes1 note how ,abimelech1 seeking election as king1 says to all the men of ,shechem3 ,remember that ,i am your bone and your flesh4 7,judges ,,ix1 #b47 ,later1 all the tribes of ,israel say to ,david1 ,behold1 we are thy bone and thy flesh4 7#b ,sam4 ,v1 #a47 ,of savage life as observed in modern times we have many reports like this3 ,many strange customs and laws obtain in ,zululand1 but there is no moral code in all the world more rigidly observed than that of the ,zulus4 7,r4 ,h4 ,millward1 quoted by ,myers1 ,history as ,past ,ethics1 p4 #aa47 ,compare this3 ,a ,kafir feels that the 'frame that binds him in' extends to the clan4 ,the sense of solidarity of the family in ,europe is thin and feeble compared to the full-blooded sense of corporate union of the ,kafir clan4 ,the claims of the clan entirely swamp the rights of the individual4 7,kidd1 ,savage ,childhood1 p4 #gd47 ,an elaborate and stern social morality1 then1 long preceded verbally formulated laws2 it was a matter of instinct and emotion long before it was a matter of calculation or conscience4 ,the most primitive men acknowledge a duty to their neighbors2 and the subsequent advance of social morality has consisted simply in more and more comprehensive answers to the questions1 ,what is my duty8 and ,who is my neighbor8 ,at first1 the neighbor was the fellow tribesman only1 all outsiders being deemed fair prey4 ,every member of the clan instinctively arose to avenge an injury to any other member1 and rejoiced in triumphs over their common foes4 ,we still have survivals of this primitive code in the ,corsican vendettas and ,kentucky feuds4 ,with the growth of nations1 the cooperative spirit came to embrace wider and wider circles2 but even as yet there is little of it in international relations4 ,the old double standard of morality persists in spite of the command to which we give theoretic allegiance-,ye have heard that it hath been said1 ,thou shalt love thy neighbor1 and hate thine enemy4 ,but ,i say unto you1 ,love your enemies6 ,from the same lips came the final answer to the question1 ,who is my neighbour8 ,it can be found in the tenth chapter of the ,gospel according to ,luke4 ,by what means was social morality produced8 7#a7 ,the earliest source of social morality lies in the maternal instinct2 the first animal that took care of its young stood at the beginning of this wonderful advance4 ,the originating causes of the first slight care of eggs or offspring lay1 no doubt1 in some obscure physiological readjustments1 due to forces irrelevant to morality4 ,but the young that had even such slight care had a survival advantage over their rivals1 and would transmit the rudimentary instinct to their offspring4 ,thus1 given a start in that direction1 natural selection1 steadily favoring the more maternally disposed1 produced species with a highly developed and long continuing maternal love4 ,in similar manner but in lesser degree a paternal instinct was developed4 ,the existence of these instincts implied the power of sympathy and altruistic action that is1 action by one individual for another's welfare4 ,from sympathy for offspring to sympathy for mate and other members of the group was but a step2 and all sympathetic action may have its ultimate source in mother love4 7#b7 ,not only was natural selection early at work in the rivalry for existence between individuals1 protecting those stocks that had the stronger maternal and paternal instincts1 but it played an important part in the struggle between groups4 ,those species that developed the ability to keep together for mutual protection or for advantage4 ,and within a species those particular herds or flocks or tribes that cooperated best outlived the others4 ,with the strongest animals1 such as lions and tigers1 and with the weakest1 such as rabbits and mice1 the instinct to stand by one another is of no value and so was never fostered by natural selection4 ,but in many species of animals of intermediate strength1 that by cooperation might be able to resist attack or overcome enemies that they would singly be impotent against1 the cooperative instinct became strongly developed4 ,notably in such case was man2 and we find group consciousness1 tribal loyalty1 continually enhanced by the killing off of the tribes in which it was feebler4 ,the dominant races in man's internecine struggles have been those of passionate patriotism and capacity for working together4 ,nature has socialized man by a repeated application of the method hinted at in the adage ,united we stand1 divided we fall4 ,successful war demands loyalty and obedience1 self-forgetfulness and mutual service4 ,it demands also the cessation of internal squabbling1 the restraint of individual greed1 lust1 and caprice4 ,at first instinctive1 these virtues came with clearing consciousness to be deliberately cultivated by the tribe1 in ways which we shall in a moment indicate4 7#c7 ,as in the development of personal morality1 the hostility of inanimate nature1 coupled with the urgency of inner needs1 has also played its part in the socialization of man4 ,the satisfying of hunger1 protection against storm1 flood1 and other physical calamities1 is greatly forwarded by cooperation4 ,the rearing of a shelter1 for example1 that shall be at all comfortable and secure1 demands the labor of several4 ,with the development of civilization1 mutual assistance and the division of labor become more and more imperative4 ,as man developed more and more into a reflective animal1 the comprehension of these advantages became clearer and clearer to him4 ,resentment against mere individualism grew keener2 and any member whose laziness or passions led him to pull apart from the common good had to incur the anger of his fellows4 ,under these three heads--the selection of the maternal instinct1 with its potentialities of universal sympathy1 through the struggle between individuals2 the selection of the various powers of loyalty and cooperation through the struggle between groups2 and the production of cooperative habits through the struggle with inanimate nature-we may group the causes of social morality in man4 ,how has morality been fostered by the tribe8 ,social morality1 like personal morality1 is passed on from generation to generation by heredity and by imitation4 ,both1 in historic man1 are also deliberately cultivated by the tribe4 ,we have discriminated between the two aspects of morality for theoretic reasons which will later become apparent2 but no discrimination is possible or needful for the savage4 ,courage and prudence and industriousness and temperance in its members are assets of the tribe1 and are included among its requirements4 ,we shall now consider in what ways the group brings pressure to bear upon the individual and influences his moral development4 7#a7 ,it needs no great powers of observation to convince the members of a tribe severally that immorality of any sort-laziness1 cowardice1 unrestrained lust1 recklessness1 quarrelsomeness1 insubordination1 etc4 in another member is detrimental to him personally4 ,his own security and the satisfaction of his needs are thereby in some degree decreased4 ,contentment at the morality of the other members of the group1 and anger at their immorality1 are therefore among the earliest psychological reactions4 ,no men1 however savage1 are insensitive to these attitudes of their fellows2 and the emotional response of others to their acts is from the beginning a powerful force for morality4 ,when contentment becomes explicitly expressed1 becomes praise1 commendation1 honor2 when anger becomes openly uttered blame1 contempt1 ridicule1 rebuke1 their power is well nigh irresistible4 ,a civilized man1 with his manifold resources1 may defy public opinion2 the savage1 who cannot with safety live alone and has few personal interests to fill his mind1 is unavoidably subject to its sting4 ,his impulses and passions lead him often to immoral conduct1 but he is pretty sure to suffer from the condemnation of his fellows4 ,the memory of that penalty in his own case1 or the sight of it in the case of others1 may be a considerable deterrent2 while1 on the other hand1 the craving for applause and esteem may be a powerful incentive4 7#b7 ,even among some of the animals1 the resentment against the misconduct of a member of the herd finds expression in outward punishment maltreatment or death4 ,among men1 punishments for the immoral and outward honors for the virtuous antedate history4 ,decorations1 tattoos1 songs1 for the conspicuously brave and efficient1 death or some lesser penalty for the cowardly1 the traitorous1 the insubordinate1 figure largely in primitive life4 ,these honors are capricious1 uncertain1 and transitory2 but they are undoubtedly more stimulating to the savage1 who lives in the moment1 than they are in the more complex existence of the modern man4 ,and while in general the savage is more callous to punishments1 he has to fear much severer penalties than our humane conscience allows4 ,they are inflicted1 of course1 with greatest frequency for those sins which instinctively arouse the hottest anger2 that in turn varies with different types of men and various accidental circumstances that have determined the tribal points of view4 ,but in general it is the virtues that most obviously benefit the tribe that are rewarded1 and those that most obviously harm it that are punished4 7#c7 ,another important means of securing morality in the tribe is the education of the young4 ,this includes not only deliberate instruction1 encouragement1 and warning1 but various symbolic rites and customs1 whose value in impressing the plastic minds of the boys and girls of the tribe is only half realized4 ,initiation into manhood is accompanied in many races of men by solemn ceremonies1 which instill into the youth the necessity and glory of courage1 endurance1 self-control1 and other virtues4 ,the maidens are taught by equally solemn rites the obligatoriness of chastity4 ,the lowest races studied by anthropologists which1 however1 represent1 of course1 the result of ages of evolution have commonly an elaborate provision for the guidance of the young into the paths of the tribal morals4 7#d7 ,further1 all occasions upon which the tribe gets together for common work or play strengthen the group loyalty and make the group welfare appeal to the member as his own good4 ,hunting expeditions and wars1 the sowing and reaping of the communal harvest1 births1 marriages1 and deaths1 in which usually the group as a whole takes a keen interest1 feasts and dances1 bard recitals1 in common undertakings1 dangers1 calamities1 triumphs1 and celebrations1 merge the individuality of the separate members into a unity4 ,in many primitive races these influences are so strong that the individual has scarcely any separate life1 but lives from childhood till death for the tribe and its welfare4 7#e7 ,religion is1 until late in civilization1 almost wholly a group affair4 ,the gods are tribal gods1 their commands are chiefly the more obvious duties to the tribe4 ,the fear of their displeasure and the hope of their assistance are among the most powerful of the sanctions of early morality4 ,where a special set of men are set aside as priests1 to foster the religious consciousness and insure obedience to the divine behests1 he is rash who dares openly to transgress4 ,the idea of taboo of certain acts which must not be done1 certain objects which must not be touched1 etc4 i extraordinarily prominent among many early peoples4 ,the taboo may not be clearly connected with a divine prohibition2 but1 whether vague and mysterious or explicit1 it brings the awe of the supernatural to bear upon daily conduct4 ,the worship of the gods is one of the most important of the common activities1 covered by the preceding paragraph1 which make for the unifying of a tribe2 and the sense of their presence and jealous interest in its welfare one of the strongest motives that restrain the individual from cowardice or lust or any anti-social conduct4 7#f7 ,with the development of language1 the moral experience of a people becomes crystallized into maxims1 proverbs1 and injunctions1 which the elders pass on to the boys and girls together with their comments and personal instruction4 ,oral precepts thus condense the gist of recurrent experience for the benefit of each new generation4 ,such saws as ,honesty is the best policy1 ,lies are short lived1 ,ill gotten gains do not prosper1 date1 no doubt1 well back toward the origin of articulate language4 ,the gathering antiquity of this inherited counsel adds prestige to the personal authority of the old men who love to repeat it2 and the customs once instinctive and unconsciously imitated1 or adopted from fear and the hope of praise1 are now consciously cultivated as intrinsically desirable4 ,there is1 of course1 very little realization of ,,why some acts are commended and others prohibited2 the mere fact that such and such are the tribal customs1 that thus and so things have been done1 is enough4 ,primitive peoples are highly innovation4 ,so that the moral habits which were established before the age of reflection and articulate speech remain for the most part after they have become crystallized into precepts and commands1 and by this articulating process become much more firmly entrenched4 ,then from the existence of miscellaneous maxims and prohibitions1 taught by the elders and linked with whatever impulsive and haphazard punishments are customary1 to the formulation of legal codes1 with definite penalties attached to specific infringements1 is an easy transition4 ,with the invention of written language these laws could become still better fixed and more clearly known4 ,the appointment of certain men of authority as judges1 to investigate alleged cases of transgression and award the proper penalties1 completes the evolution of a civilized legal system1 the most powerful of all deterrents from flagrantly anti- social acts4 ,dewey and ,tufts1 ,ethics1 chaps4 ,,ii1 ,,iii4 ,h4 ,spencer1 ,data of ,ethics1 chap4 ,,ii1 secs4 #e1 #f4 ,j4 ,fiske1 ,cosmic ,philosophy1 part ,,ii1 chap4 ,,xxii1 second half4 ,a4 ,sutherland1 ,origin and ,growth of the ,moral ,instinct1 vol4 ,i4 ,c4 ,s4 ,wake1 ,evolution of ,morality1 vol4 ,i1 chaps4 ,v1 ,,vi1 ,,vii4 ,p4 ,v4 ,n4 ,myers1 ,history as ,past ,ethics1 chap4 ,i4 ,p4 ,kropotkin1 ,mutual ,aid1 chaps4 ,i-,,iv4 ,l4 ,t4 ,hobhouse1 ,morals in ,evolution1 part ,i1 chaps4 ,i-,,iii4 ,westermarck1 op4 cit1 chap4 ,,xxxiv4 ,j4 ,fiske1 ,through ,nature to ,god1 part ,,ii1 ,the ,cosmic ,roots of ,love and ,self-,sacrifice4 ,c4 ,read1 ,natural and ,social ,morals1 chap4 ,,iii4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,outward ,,development--,,morals ,what is the difference between morals and non-moral customs8 ,,morality1 before it is a matter of legal prescription or of reflective insight1 is a matter of instinctive and unconsciously imitated habit4 ,that this is so is shown by the fact that many ethical terms are by their etymology connected with the idea of custom4 ,morals and morality are from the ,latin mores1 usually translated customs1 ethics1 from a ,greek root of similar sense4 ,the ,german ,sitten has the same fused meanings4 ,most of our present-day morality is a matter of custom or convention2 and there are those who make a complete identification of the two concepts1 morality being simply to them conventional habits of conduct4 ,but a little thought will show that there is a distinction in our common usage2 the two categories overlap1 but are not identical4 ,on the one hand1 our highest moral ideals have never become customary2 we long1 in our best moments1 to make them habitual1 but seldom actually attain them4 ,the morals of ,jesus1 of ,buddha1 of ,marcus ,aurelius1 have never become habits with any but the saints1 yet we recognize them as the high-water mark of human morality4 ,on the other hand1 many of our customs have no moral aspect4 ,i may have a fixed habit of going from my home to my office by a certain one out of a number of equally advantageous routes4 ,all of the members of my set may habitually pronounce a given word in a certain way rather equally correct4 ,but about such habits there is nothing moral or immoral4 ,in a word1 ,,morals ,,are ,,customs ,,that ,,matter1 ,,or ,,are ,,supposed ,,to ,,matter2 standards to which each member of a group is expected by the other members to conform1 and for the neglect of which he is punished1 frowned upon1 scorned1 or blamed4 ,toward these standards he feels1 therefore1 a vague or definite pressure1 the reflection in him of he feelings of his fellows4 ,the line between mere habits or manners and morals is differently drawn in different times and places1 according to the differing ideas as to what matters4 ,the same actions which are moral to one community 7 i4e1 arouse feelings or judgments of commendation7 may be immoral to another community 7 i4e41 arouse reprobation or scorn7 and non-moral to a third 7 i4e41 arouse no such response at all74 ,for example1 in one tribe tattooing may be a mere matter of personal liking1 of no importance and with no group-judgment upon it2 yet certain habits with regard to it may become widespread4 ,in another tribe certain tattoos may be thought to be enjoined by the god1 and their neglect deemed a matter of serious importance to the tribe as a whole2 tattooing may here be said to be a part of the tribal morals4 ,to us moderns it is probably a morally indifferent affair2 but if we should learn it to be seriously deleterious to the body1 it would again become a moral matter4 ,in short1 morals are customs that affect1 or are supposed to affect1 a man's life or that of his tribe for weal or woe4 ,obviously1 this discrimination is not consciously made by savages2 indeed1 to this day1 such distinctions are enveloped in a haze for the average man4 ,men do not realize the raison d'etre of morals4 ,they follow them because their fathers did or their fellows do2 because they inherit instincts that drive them in their direction or inevitably imitate those who have formed the habits before2 because they feel a pressure toward them and are uncomfortable if they hold out against it4 ,when pressed for a justification of their conduct1 they are usually surprised at the inquiry2 such action seems obviously the thing to do1 and that is the end of it4 ,or they will hit upon some of the secondary sanctions that have grown up about these habits the penalties of the law1 the commandment of the gods1 or what not4 ,but with our resources of analysis and reflection1 it is not difficult to discern that the various forces at work have been such as to preserve1 in general1 habits which made for the welfare of individual or tribe and discard the harmful ones4 ,it is1 then1 not merely habits1 but habits that matter1 moral habits1 with whose growth and alteration we are here concerned4 ,what1 in general1 has been the direction of moral progress8 ,we have noted the main causes at work in the production of morality2 we now ask in what general direction these forces push4 ,we have in mind the concrete virtues which have been developed2 but what common function have these habits of conduct1 so produced1 had in human life8 ,what has been the net result of the process8 ,at first sight a generalized answer seems impossible4 ,all sorts of chance causes bring about local alterations in morals4 ,the momentary dominance of an impulse ordinarily weak1 the whim of a ruler1 the self-interest of classes1 superstitious interpretation of omens1 the attribution of some success to a prior act which may have had nothing to do with it such accidental and irrational sources of morals1 and the resulting codes1 are numberless4 ,but as in the process of organic evolution the various obscure physiological alterations which produce variations of type are all overruled and guided in a few directions of value to the species by the law of natural selection1 so in the evolution of in all directions are subject to the law of the survival of the fittest4 ,it is really of comparatively little importance to discover how a given moral habit first arose2 it may have arisen in a hundred different ways in a hundred different places2 indeed1 the precise origin of most of the cardinal virtues lies too far back in the mists of the past to be traced with assurance4 ,but the important truth to observe is not the particular details of their haphazard origin but the causes of their survival4 ,overlaying the countless originating causes of moral ideals are two main preservation--causes1 two constant factors which retain certain of the innumerable impulses for one reason or other momentarily dominant4 ,these are of extreme significance for a comprehension of the function of morality in life4 7#a7 ,in the first place1 a certain number of these blind1 hit-or-miss experiments in conduct were1 as we have seen1 of use to individuals or the tribe in increasing their chances of survival in the ceaseless rivalry for life4 ,the inclemency's of nature and the enmity of the beasts and other men kill more often the less moral than the more moral4 ,so that in general and in the long run those that developed the higher moral habits outlived the others and transmitted their morals to the future4 ,even within historic times this same weeding-out process has been observable4 ,on the whole1 the races and the individuals with the more advanced moral standards survive1 while those of lower standards perish4 ,this law accounts1 for instance1 in some measure probably for the relatively greater increase of whites than of ,negroes in the ,united ,states1 in spite of the higher birth rate of the latter4 ,other causes are1 to be sure1 also at work in this competition for life2 for one thing1 the long period of intercommunication between ,european races has largely weeded out the stocks most liable to certain diseases1 while the antecedent isolation of savage tribes1 with no such elimination at work1 allows them to fall victims in greater numbers to ,european diseases when mutual contact is established4 ,but the degree of the moralization of a people has been certainly one of the criteria of survival2 and thus by a purely mechanical elimination mankind has grown more and more moral4 ,it hardly needs to be added that the conscious selection of codes that tend to preserve life is a factor of growing importance in insuring movement in this same direction4 ,altogether1 moral progress consists primarily in an increasing adaptation of codes to the preservation of life4 7#b7 ,morality1 however1 makes not only for life1 thus insuring its own perpetuation2 it makes also for happiness4 ,arbitrary and tyrannous rules1 cruel or needlessly prohibitive customs1 engender restlessness1 and are not stable4 ,such barbarous morals may long persist1 propped by the power of the rulers1 the superstitions of the people1 and all the forces of conservatism2 but sooner or later they breed rebellion and are cast aside4 ,on the other hand1 more rational codes promote peace and security1 banish fear and hatred1 and make for all the benefits of civilization4 ,such codes are in relatively more stable equilibrium and gradually tend to replace the others4 ,all morality is1 of course1 in one aspect1 a restraint upon desire1 a check upon impulse2 rebelliousness against its decrees will be perpetually recurrent until human nature itself is completely refashioned and men have no inordinate and dangerous desires4 ,but while all codes of conduct are repressive at the moment of passion1 they vary widely in the degree in which they satisfy or thwart man's deeper needs4 ,such institutions as the gladiatorial games of ,rome1 human sacrifice1 or slavery1 were fruitful of so much pain that they were bound in time to perish4 ,in contrast with these cruel customs1 the prohibitions of the ,jewish law1 the ,ten ,commandments1 for example1 were so humane1 so productive of security and concord and a deep-rooted and lasting satisfaction1 that they persisted and became the parent of much of our present day morality4 ,an increasing part in this progress has been played by the conscious recognition of the advantages of code over code2 but long before such explicit perception of advantage1 the blind instincts and emotions of men were making for the gradual humanizing of morals1 the selection of ideals and laws that make for human happiness4 ,as civilization advances1 the consideration of mere preservation counts for less1 and that of happiness for more2 the margin1 the breathing space1 for liberal interests1 grows4 ,men become interested in causes for which they willingly risk their lives4 ,but1 except as these causes are fanatical1 off the real track of moral progress1 they make for human happiness4 ,and the center of interest can never shift too far4 ,for not only is premature death1 an evil in itself1 it precludes the cultivation of the humane pursuits that life might have allowed4 ,men have to learn to find their happiness not in what saps health or invites death1 but in what makes for health and life4 ,what definition of morality emerges from this8 ,the foregoing summary permits us to formulate a definition of morality4 ,historically1 there has been a gradual1 though not continuous1 progress toward ,,codes ,,of ,,conduct ,,which ,,make ,,for ,,the ,,preservation ,,of ,,life ,,and ,,for ,,happiness4 ,these codes have received an imaginative consecration1 and all sorts of secondary sanctions2 but it is their underlying utility that is of ultimate importance4 ,very simple and obvious causes have continually tended to destroy customs which made in the contrary direction and to select those which1 however originating1 made for either or both of these two ends4 ,it is these customs1 important for the welfare of the individual or tribe1 which we call morality4 ,if the original instincts of mankind had been delicately enough adjusted to their needs1 there would have been no need of these secondary and overruling impulses1 and the differentiation of impulse and duty1 of the natural and the spiritual man1 would never have arisen4 ,but actually1 mankind inherited from its brute ancestry instincts which1 unguided1 wrought great harm4 ,without the development of some system of checks men would forever have been the prey of overindulgence1 sexual wantonness1 civil strife1 and apathy4 ,they would have remained beasts and never won their dominance on the earth4 ,even rudimentary moral codes came as an amelioration of this dangerous and unhappy situation2 they enabled men1 by abstention from dangerous passions and from idleness1 to make their lives efficient1 interesting1 and comparatively free from pain2 by cooperation and mutual service to resist their enemies and develop a civilization4 ,morality thus has been the greatest instrument of progress1 the most fundamental of man's achievements1 the most important part of the wisdom of the race4 ,is moral progress certain8 ,a measure of hopefulness is to be won from the observation that1 quite apart from the conscious effort of men1 natural laws have been making for moral progress4 ,and unquestionably there has been a great advance in morality within historic times4 ,we are forever past the age of cannibalism1 of human torture1 of slavery1 of widespread infanticide4 ,war is on the wane and may vanish within a few generations4 ,never before was there so much sympathy1 so much conscious dedication to human service1 in the world4 ,we are apt to idealize the past2 we sigh for a return to nature1 or to the golden age of ,greece4 ,and there is some justification in our regrets4 ,simplicity of living1 hospitality1 courage1 patriotism one virtue or another has been more conspicuous in some particular age than ever before or since4 ,moral progress wavers1 and not all that is won is retained4 ,but on the whole there can be no doubt that we stand on a higher level morally than the ,greeks who had vices and sins that we scarcely hear of today and incomparably higher than savage races4 ,even within a lifetime one can see the wave of moral advance push forward4 ,yet this observable progress is not so certain of continuance that we can lapse into inertia and trust it to go on of itself4 ,with the softening of the struggle for existence among men1 with the disappearance of danger from wild animals1 and the increasing conquest over nature1 the chief means of moral progress hitherto are being removed4 ,more and more we must rely on man's conscious efforts on personal consecration and self-mastery1 on improved and extended legislation1 on the growth of a moralized public opinion1 on organizations and institutions that shall work for specific causes4 ,moreover1 with the changing situations in which man finds himself1 and especially with the growing complexification of society1 new opportunities for sin and new temptations continually arise4 ,no sooner is one immoral habit stamped out than another begins insidiously1 and perhaps unnoticed1 to form4 ,the battle-line moves on1 but new foes constantly appear2 it will not be an easy road to the millennium4 ,on the whole1 our material and intellectual advance has outrun our moral progress2 at present our chief need is to catch up morally4 ,footnote3 ,cf4 ,alfred ,russel ,wallace1 in his last book1 ,social ,environment and ,moral ,progress 7p4 #ej73 ,this rapid growth of wealth and increase of our power over ,nature put too great a strain upon our crude civilization and our superficial ,christianity2 and it was accompanied by various forms of social immorality1 almost as amazing and unprecedented4 ,we may note several reasons for this eddy in the moralizing process1 this counter-movement toward the development of new sins and the renascence of old ones4 7#a7 ,with the growth of large cities and the development of individual interests we come to live less and less in one another's eyes4 ,in primitive life it is almost impossible for a man to indulge in any vice or sin without its being immediately known to his fellows2 but today millions live such isolated lives in the midst of crowded communities that all sorts of immorality may flourish without detection4 ,under early conditions foodstuffs or other goods were consumed if not by the producer1 at least by his neighbors2 and any adulteration or sham was a dangerous matter4 ,today we seldom know who slaughtered the meat or canned the fruit we eat1 who made the clothing or utensils we use2 shoddy articles and unwholesome food can be sold in quantity with little fear of the consumer's anger4 ,all sorts of intangible and hardly traceable injuries can be wrought today by malicious or careless men injuries to reputation1 to credit1 to success4 ,in a city the criminal can hide and escape far more easily1 can associate with his own kind1 have a certain code of his own 7cf4 honor among thieves71 and more completely escape the pangs of conscience1 than under the surveillance of village life4 ,in a hundred ways there are increased opportunities for doing evil with impunity4 ,footnote3 ,cf4 ,e4 ,a4 ,ross1 ,sin and ,society1 pp4 #cb3 ,the popular symbol for the criminal is a ravening wolf2 but alas1 few latter day crimes can be dramatized with a wolf and a lamb as the cast6 ,your up-to-date criminal presses the button of a social mechanism1 and at the other end of the land or the year innocent lives are snuffed out4 ,as society grows complex1 it can be harmed in more ways4 ,each advance to higher organization runs us into a fresh zone of danger1 so there is more than ever need to be quick to detect and foil the new public enemies that present themselves4 ,the public needs a victim to harrow up its feelings4 ,the injury that is problematic1 or general1 or that falls in undefined ways upon unknown persons1 is resented feebly1 or not at all4 ,the fiend who should rack his victim with torments such as typhoid inflicts would be torn to pieces4 ,the villain who should taint his enemy's cup with fever germs would stretch ,footnote continued from previous page3 hemp4 ,but think of it6-the corrupt boss who1 in order to extort fat contracts for his firm1 holds up for a year the building of a filtration plant designed to deliver his city from the typhoid scourge1 and thereby dooms twelve hundred of his townspeople to sink to the tomb through the flaming abyss of fever1 comes off scatheless4 7#b7 ,with the gentler conditions of civilized life there is a general tendency toward the relaxing of social restraints4 ,the harsh penalties of early days would shock us by their cruelty2 and early codes are full of prohibitions and injunctions on matters which are now left to the individual conscience4 ,needlessly cramping and cruel as these primitive laws often were1 they were powerful deterrents1 and their lapse has often been followed by greater moral laxity4 ,the passionate pursuit of liberty1 which has been so prominent in modern times1 though on the whole of great advantage to man1 has not been without its ill effects4 7#c7 ,the monotonously specialized and unnatural work1 which confines a large proportion of our men1 women1 and youths today1 promotes restlessness and the craving for excitement4 ,the normal all-round occupations of primitive men tended to work off their energies and satisfy their natural impulses4 ,but the dulled and tired worker released from eight or ten hours' drudgery in a factory is apt to be in a psychological state that demands variety1 excitement1 pleasure at any cost4 ,it does not pay to repress human nature too much1 or to try to make out of a red-blooded young man or woman a mere machine4 ,gambling1 drunkenness1 prostitution1 and all sorts of pathological vices flourish largely as a reaction from the dullness and monotony of the day's work4 ,we are paying this heavy penalty for our increase of material efficiency at the expense of normal human living4 7#d7 ,with the increased possibilities of undetected sin1 above mentioned1 and the opportunity which criminals now have of forming within a city a little community of their own which permits them fellowship without rebuke for their sins1 there have arisen whole classes of vice-caterers4 ,these men and women make their living by tempting others to sin2 the allurements which they set before the young constitute a great check to moral advance1 and even threaten continually a serious moral degeneration4 ,the keepers of gambling houses1 saloons1 and houses of prostitution1 the venders of vile pictures and exciting reading matter1 the proprietors of indecent dance-halls and theaters1 of the shows of all sorts that flourish chiefly through their offering of sexual stimulation these are the worst sinners of our times1 for they cause thousands of others to sin1 and deliberately undermine the moral structure so laboriously reared1 and at such heavy cost4 ,conspicuous in commercialized vice-catering is the ,casino of ,monte ,carlo1 where thousands of lives have been ruined4 ,the business of seducing and kidnapping girls-the white slave trade flourishes secretly in our great cities4 ,associations of liquor producers and sellers are very powerful social and political forces4 ,one of the greatest problems before the race is how to exterminate these human beasts of prey that live at the expense of the moral deterioration and often utter ruin of their victims4 7#e7 ,while the older racial and national barriers between peoples are breaking down1 so that the possibilities of human brotherhood and cooperation are laterally increasing1 and the wretched fratricidal wars between peoples coming toward an end1 ,footnote3 ,as ,i read the proof sheets of this book 7,august1 #aiad71 news comes of the outbreak of what may prove the costliest and one of the least excusable wars of history4 ,nevertheless1 the end of international wars draws near4 ,other barriers1 between upper and lower classes1 are thickening1 new antagonisms and antipathies that threaten yet much friction and unhappiness and a retardation of moral progress4 ,rich are becoming farther and farther consciousness is on the increase1 class-wars in the form of strikes1 riots1 and sabotage1 are ominous symptoms4 ,masses of the laboring class believe that a great class-war is not only inevitable but desirable4 ,such conflicts1 however1 besides their material losses1 engender hatred1 cruelty1 lust1 greed1 and all sorts of other forms of immorality4 ,no one can predict how far such struggles may go in the future toward undoing the socializing process which at best has so many obstacles to meet and moves so slowly4 ,many forces are at work1 however1 for moral uplift4 ,the spread of education1 teaching men to think1 to discern evils1 and to comprehend the reasons for right conduct1 the increasing influence of public opinion through newspapers and magazines1 the growing number of organizations working to eradicate evils1 the gradual increase of wise legislation1 the reviving moral pressure of the ,christian ,church such signs of the times should give us courage as well as show us where we can take hold to help4 ,morality is not static1 a cut-and-dried system to be obeyed or neglected1 but a set of experiments1 being gradually worked out by mankind1 a dynamic1 progressive instrument which we can help ourselves to forge4 ,there is room yet for moral genius2 we are yet in the early and formative stage of human morality4 ,we should not be content with past achievement1 with the contemporary standards of our fellows4 ,if we give our keenest thought and our earnest effort1 there is no knowing what noble heights of morality we may be helping the future to attain4 ,dewey and ,tufts1 ,ethics1 chap4 ,,iv4 ,hobhouse1 op4 cit1 part ,,ii1 chaps4 ,,ii1 ,,viii4 ,westermarck1 op4 cit1 chap4 ,,vii4 ,sutherland1 op4 cit1 vol4 ,,ii1 chaps4 ,,xix-,,xxi4 ,w4 ,g4 ,sumner1 ,folkways1 chaps4 ,i1 ,,ii1 ,,xi4 ,sir ,h4 ,maine1 ,village ,communities4 ,c4 ,darwin1 ,descent of ,man1 part ,i1 chap4 v4 ,j4 ,g4 ,schurman1 ,ethical ,import of ,darwinism4 ,w4 ,i4 ,thomas1 ,source ,book for ,social ,origins1 part ,,vii4 ,c4 ,read1 ,natural and ,social ,morals1 chap4 ,,vi4 ,i4 ,king1 ,development of ,religion1 chap4 ,,xi4 ,on the question of moral progress3 ,dewey and ,tufts1 ,ethics1 pp4 #ahg-ib4 ,w4 ,bagehot1 ,physics and ,politics1 chap4 ,,vi4 ,h4 ,g4 ,wells1 ,new ,worlds for ,old1 chap4,i1 secs4 #b-d4 ,j4 ,bryce1 in the ,atlantic ,monthly1 vol4 #ajj1 p4 #ade4 ,e4 ,root1 ,the ,citizen's ,part in ,government1 pp4 #if-abc4 ,j4 ,s4 ,mackenzie1 ,manual of ,ethics 7#b;d ed471 chap4 ,,xv4 ,a4 ,r4 ,wallace1 ,social ,environment and ,moral ,progress4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,inward ,,development--,,conscience ,what are the stages in the history of moral guidance8 ,,there may be said to be five stages in the history of moral guidance3 guidance by instinct1 by custom1 by law and precept1 by conscience1 and by insight4 ,no one of these guides is discarded with the development of the others2 we rely today upon all of them in varying degree4 ,their evolution overlaps2 the alteration of instinct still goes on1 changing laws and customs still bring their pressure to bear from without upon the individual2 while our conscience and our insight have their roots far back in the past4 ,yet the prominence of each of these factors in turn marks a successive stage in the evolution of moral control4 ,inherited instinct1 and then custom1 unconsciously passed on by imitation and to some extent taught with a dimly conscious purpose1 shape the crude morality of the animals though the other means of guidance are not wholly absent even in them4 ,among savages legal codes1 unwritten and perhaps not even clearly formulated1 yet exacting and strictly enforced by penalties1 come to form an important supplement to instinct1 custom1 and proverbial wisdom4 ,but quite as important is the gradual development of an inward guide--those very various secondary impulses and inhibitions which we hump together because of their common function and call the moral sense or conscience4 ,we shall now consider briefly the origin of this internal steering-apparatus4 ,the latest and most mature guide of all1 reflective insight1 arises in marked degree only when abstraction and analysis4 ,there is no problem connected with its origin except the general problems of the development of human reason4 ,how moral insight may be trained and brought to bear upon conduct will1 it is hoped1 be clear to the student who patiently studies this volume4 ,out of what has conscience developed8 ,the conscience of our moralizing and religious literature figures as a sharply defined and easily recognizable faculty1 like will or reason4 ,but this classification1 though useful1 is misleading by its simplicity4 ,if we observe by introspection what goes on in our minds when we will or reason or listen to conscience1 we shall find all sorts of emotions1 ideas1 impulses1 surging back and forth1 altering from moment to moment1 never twice the same4 ,at another period of our lives1 or in another man's mind1 the psychological stuff pigeonholed under these names may be almost entirely different4 ,a great many diverse mental elements have at one time or other taken the role of1 or formed an ingredient in1 the function we label conscience4 ,we will enumerate the more important3 7#a7 ,experience quickly teaches her pupils that certain acts to which they feel a strong impulse will lead to an aftermath of pain or weariness1 or will stand in the way of other goods which they more lastingly desire or more deeply need4 ,the memory of these consequences of acts remains as a guide for future conduct1 not so often in the form of a clearly recognized memory as in a dim realization that the dangerous act must be avoided1 a vague pressure against the pull of momentary inclination1 or an uncomprehended feeling of impulsion toward the less inviting path4 ,this residuum of the moral experience of the individual is one ingredient in what we call his conscience4 7#b7 ,but there is much more than this4 ,the individual is a member of a group4 ,the customs and expectations of this group not only bear upon him from without but find a reflection in his own motor mechanism4 ,he hears the voice of the community in his heart1 an echo of the general condemnation and approval4 ,this acquired response1 the reverberation of the group judgment1 may easily supplant his personal inclinations4 ,primitive man is sensitive to the judgments and emotional reactions of his fellows2 the tribal point of view is unquestioned and authoritative over him4 ,so important is this pressure in his mental life1 though not understood or recognized for what it is1 that conscience is denned by many moralists as the pressure of the judgment of the tribe in the mental life of its members1 or in similar terms4 ,paulsen calls it the existence of custom in the consciousness of the individual4 ,this is to neglect unjustly the other sources of the sense of duty2 but certainly the pulls and pushes arising from these two sources1 which we may call the inner aspect of individual moral experience and of loyalty to the community-morals1 reinforcing one another as they generally do1 produce a very powerful form of conscience4 7#c7 ,a number of primitive emotions join forces with them4 ,sympathy is generally on their side1 and the instinctive glow of patriotism or pride in the tribe's success4 ,the shrinking from disapproval1 the craving for esteem1 the very early emotions of shame and vanity1 help to pull away from the self-indulgent or selfish impulse4 ,the spontaneous admiration of others for their virtues and anger at them for their sins is applied involuntarily by a man to himself2 contempt for his own weakness and joy in his superiority according to the generally accepted code are powerful deterrents4 ,the consciousness of the resentment that others will feel if he does evil1 the instinctive application to himself of a trace of the resentment he would feel toward him or toward these fellow tribesmen of is-such complex states of mind complicate his mental processes and help check his primary instincts4 7#d7 ,to these ingredients we must early add the more or less conscious fear of the penalties of the tribal law1 of the vengeance of chiefs or powerful members of the tribe1 of the tribal gods and their jealous priests4 ,these fears may be but dimly felt and not clearly discriminated2 but however subconscious they may be in a given case of moral conflict1 they play a large part4 ,the peace of mind that accompanies a sense of conformity to the will of rulers or of gods1 contrasted with the anxiety that follows infraction1 gives a greatly increased weight to that growing pressure of counter instincts which comes so largely to override a man's animal nature4 ,most of the sources of conscience thus date far back beyond the dawn of history4 ,but they can be pretty safely inferred from the earliest records1 from a study of existing savage races1 and from the study of childhood4 ,the definite conception of conscience is very late1 scarcely appearing until very modern times4 ,and the fact that conscience itself1 even in its rudimentary forms1 was much later in growth than the underlying animal instincts which it developed to control and guide1 is shown by its late development in the child-not1 normally1 until the beginning of the third year4 ,the early life of the individual parallels the evolution of the race2 and the later-developed faculties in the child are those which arose in the later stages of human progress4 ,but the existence of our well-defined moral sense1 with its significant role in modern life1 needs no supernatural explanation4 ,it has grown up and come to be what it is as naturally as have our language1 our customs1 and our physical organs4 ,what is conscience now8 ,it is a valuable exercise in introspection to observe a case of conscience in one's own life and note of what mental stuff it is made4 ,when a number write down their findings without mutual suggestion1 the results are usually widely divergent4 ,any of the original ingredients hitherto mentioned may be discovered1 or other personal factors4 ,there may be present to consciousness only a vague uneasiness or restlessness1 or there may be a sophisticated recurrence of the concepts of conscience1 duty1 etc4 ,the one universal fact is that there is a conflict between some primitive impulse or passion and some maturer mental checks4 ,any sort of mental stuff that serves the purpose of controlling desire will do2 we must define conscience in terms not of content but of function4 ,there is no such unity in the material as the single name seems to imply2 and whether or not that name shall be given to a given psychological state is a matter of usage in which there is considerable variation4 ,in general1 we reserve the name conscience for the vaguer and more elusive restraints and leadings1 the sense of reluctant necessity whose purpose we do not clearly see although we feel its pressure1 the accumulated residuum of long inner experience and many influences from without4 ,our minds retain many creases whose origin we have forgotten2 we veer away from many a pleasant inclination without knowing why4 ,these unanalyzed and residual inhibitions that grip us and will not let us go1 form a contrasting background to our more explicit motives and often count for more in our conduct4 ,the very lack of comprehension serves in less rational minds to enhance their prestige with an atmosphere of awe and mystery4 ,these strange checks and promptings that well up in a man's heart are which he must not dare to disobey4 ,the voice of ,god in our hearts we may1 indeed1 well conceive them to be4 ,the attempt to analyze into its psychological elements and trace the natural genesis of conscience1 as of morality in general must not be taken as an attempt to discredit it or to read ,god out of the world4 ,for ,god works usually1 if not universally1 through natural laws2 and the historical viewpoint1 that sees everything in our developed life as the outcome of ages of natural evolution1 is not only rich in fruitful insight1 but entirely consistent with a deep religious feeling4 ,for hortatory or inspirational purposes we do not need to make this analysis2 it has1 indeed1 its practical dangers4 ,it tends to rob the glory from anything to analyze it into its parts and study the natural causes that produced it4 ,the loveliest painting is but a mess of pigments to the microscope1 the loveliest face but a mess of cells and hairs and blood vessels4 ,there is something gruesome and inhuman about embryology and all other studies of origins4 ,while we are analyzing an object1 or tracing its genesis1 we are not responding to it as a whole or feeling its beauty and power4 ,the mystery1 the spell1 vanishes2 we cease to thrill when we dissect4 ,but knowledge proceeds by analysis1 and gains by a study of origins and causes4 ,and the temporary emotional loss should be more than balanced by the value of the insight won4 ,we need not linger too long at our dissecting4 ,the discovery that conscience is an explicable and natural development does not preclude a realization of the awfulness of obligation1 the sacredness of duty1 any more than a geologist must cease to thrill at the grandeur and beauty of the ,grand ,canyon because he has studied the composition of the rocks and understands the causes that have slowly1 through the ages1 wrought this miracle4 ,so we need feel no sense of duty is not something imposed upon human nature from without2 it is of its very substance1 it has developed step by step with our other faculties1 slowly crystallizing through millenniums of human and pre-human experience4 ,in the abstract1 then1 we may say that conscience is a name for ,,any ,,secondary ,,impulses ,,or ,,inhibitions ,,which ,,check ,,and ,,redirect ,,man',s ,,primary ,,impulses1 ,,for ,a ,,greater ,,good2 any later developed aversions or inclinations1 judgments of value or feelings of constraint1 which guide a man in the teeth of his animal nature toward a better way of life ,,provided ,,that ,,these ,,superimposed ,,impulses ,,are ,,not ,,explicit ,,enough ,,to ,,be ,,classified ,,under ,,some ,,other ,,head4 ,for example1 we may be pulled up sharply from a course of self-indulgence by a conscious realization of the harm we are doing to others thereby2 this bridling state of mind1 whether chiefly emotional or more intellectual1 we may call sympathy1 or an altruistic instinct1 or love4 ,but when we feel the pressure from these same mental states incipiently aroused1 when our motor-mechanism half automatically steers us away from the selfish act1 without our consciously formulating a specific name for the new impulse or recognizing any articulate motive1 we are apt to give this mental push the more general name of conscience4 ,so if we consciously reckon up1 balance advantages1 and decide on the less inviting act in recognition of its really greater worth to us1 we say we act from prudence or insight1 we are reasonable about it2 while if the grumbling of the prudential motives remain subterranean1 subconscious1 they play the role of conscience4 ,conscience is1 on such occasions1 but inarticulate common sense4 ,usually1 however1 prudential and altruistic motives would both be discovered if the dumb driving of conscience were to be made articulate4 ,the reverberation of parental teachings1 of sermons heard and books read1 of the opinions and emotions of our fellows1 might be found1 all bent and fused into a combined suggestion1 a mental push1 a must or ought1 from whose influence we find it difficult to escape4 ,the detailed psychological analysis of cases of conscience and the study of its genesis are of no essential ethical interest1 except as they show us that the sense of duty is not an ultimate1 irreducible element in our consciousness1 or make clearer to us its function and value4 ,conscience is the general name for coercion upon conduct from within the mind4 ,the important thing to note is the useful purpose1 which1 in its so widely varying forms1 it serves4 ,whatever its sources or its exact nature in contemporary man1 it is one of the most valuable of our assets4 ,to a more explicit statement of its value we must now turn4 ,what is the value of conscience8 ,it would seem1 at first glance1 as if the development of reason should make conscience unnecessary4 ,when we are able to discern the consequences of our acts1 formulate and weigh our motives and aims1 what need of these vague pre-rational promptings and inhibitions8 ,why not train men to supplant a blind sense of duty by a conscious insight1 a rational valuation of ends and means8 ,is not reason1 as it has been recently called1 the ultimate conscience8 ,footnote3 ,g4 ,santayana1 ,reason in ,science1 p4 #bcb2 where also the following3 ,so soon as conscience summons its own dicta for revision in the light of experience and of universal sympathy1 it is no longer called conscience1 but reason4 7#a7 ,conscience is valuable on account of our ignorance4 ,individually we have not had experience enough to guide us in our crises2 conscience is the representative in us of the wisdom of the race4 ,in many cases we should never reason out the right solution of a problem2 we lack the data4 ,but we can lean upon the racial experience4 ,many past experiences1 now forgotten1 have gone to the molding of this faculty4 ,the need of action is often imminent1 there is no time for the long study of the situation which alone could form a sure insight into the conduct it demands4 ,we need readymade morals4 ,moreover1 we are subject to bias1 to individual one sidedness1 and to the distortion of passion2 in the stress of temptation we are not in a mood to reason judicially1 even if we have the necessary data4 ,altogether1 insight1 though in the long run the critic of conscience1 is not a practical substitute4 ,what conscience tells us is more apt to be true than what at the moment seems a rational judgment4 7#b7 ,conscience is also valuable in view of our rebelliousness4 ,conventional morality is external1 and would continually arouse revolt1 were it not reinforced by an inward prompting4 ,if external motives and penalties alone bore upon us we should chafe under them1 and under the stress of passion or longing throw them aside4 ,even if these external sanctions were reinforced by insight into the rationality of morality1 that insight might still leave us rebellious and unpersuaded4 ,knowledge alone is feeble1 marginal in our lives4 ,we often sin in the full knowledge of the penalties awaiting us4 ,we need something more dynamic1 pressure as well as information4 ,conscience is such a driver4 ,its commands weigh upon us1 and will not be stilled4 ,reason plays but a weak part in the best of us2 and to counteract our incurable waywardness1 our recurrent longings for what cannot be had without too great a cost1 we need not only the presence of law and convention1 not only the weak voice of knowledge1 but the stern summons of this powerful psychological response4 ,nature was wise when she evolved this function as a bulwark against our weakness1 a bit between our because of our forgetfulness4 ,over and over again we say1 ,i didn't stop to think4 ,if our conscience had been properly acute1 it would have made us stop4 ,insight1 however comprehensive and clear1 is apt to remain somewhere in a locked drawer in our minds when the hot blooded impulse appears4 ,if we were but to pause and reflect1 we should be sensible and kind4 ,but our intellect is dulled by our emotions1 it does not get working4 ,we need a more instinctive1 a deeper-rooted mechanism1 an imperious ,halt6 at the brief moment between the thought of sin and the act4 ,conscience is not only a teacher and a driver1 it is a sentinel4 ,its red flag stops us at the brink of many a disaster1 and we have it to thank for many an otherwise forgotten duty performed4 ,to sum up3 ,instinct and desire are lacking in proper adjustment to the needs of life4 ,society seeks to control them by the pressure of law and custom4 ,these powerful forces1 however1 are external1 and1 savoring more or less of tyranny1 tend at times to awaken a rebellious spirit in the hotheaded4 ,so a perpetual antinomy would exist between internal impulse and external constraint1 were it not that that external constraint is reflected within the individual mind by a secondary and overlying set of inhibitions and promptings which we call variously the moral sense1 the sense of duty1 or conscience4 ,we often do not know or remember consciously at the moment of decision what the law ordains or the wisdom of the race teaches4 ,but we have an inward monitor4 ,we often hang back from a recognized duty4 ,but we feel an inward push4 ,when the wrong impulse is pungent and enticing1 and the right one insipid and tame1 when we would forget if we could the perils of sin1 conscience surges up in us and saves us from ourselves4 ,it is a mechanism of extreme value1 which nature has evolved in us for imposing on our weak and vacillating wills action that makes for a truer good than we should otherwise choose4 ,no wonder1 then1 if we reverence this saving power within us1 and crown it with a halo as the divine spark in the midst of our grosser nature4 ,the more we revere it1 the brighter the glamour it has for us1 the stronger it grows and the more it helps us4 ,the apotheosis of conscience has been of immense use in leading men to heed its voice and obey its leading4 ,yet this blind allegiance has its dangers2 conscience has often been a cruel tyrant4 ,it is by no means an always-safe guide1 as we shall presently note4 ,and as men grow more and more adjusted by instinct and training to their real needs1 they will have less and less need of this helmsman4 ,after all1 there is something wrong with a life that needs conscience2 it is a transition help for the long period of man's maladjustment4 ,spencer looks forward1 a little too hopefully1 perhaps1 to a time in the measurable future when we shall have outgrown the need of it1 when we shall wish to do right and need no compulsion1 outer or inner4 ,and ,emerson1 in a well known passage1 writes3 ,we love characters in proportion as they are impulsive and spontaneous4 ,when we see a soul whose acts are all regal1 graceful1 and pleasant as roses1 we must thank ,god that such things can be and are1 and not turn sourly on the angel and say1 ',crump is a better man with his grunting resistance to all his native devils4' ,a ,chinese proverb says1 ,he who finds pleasure in vice and pain in virtue is still a novice in both4 ,the saint is he who has learned really to love virtue1 in its concrete duties1 better than all the allurements of sin2 to him we may say1 as ,virgil said to ,dante1 ,take thine own pleasure for thy guide henceforth4 ,but until we are saints it is wise for us to cultivate conscientiousness1 the habit of obedience1 even when it costs1 to that inward urging which is1 on the whole1 for most of us1 our safest guide4 ,f4 ,paulsen1 ,system of ,ethics1 book ,,ii1 chap4 ,v1 secs4 #a1 #b1 #e4 ,h4 ,spencer1 ,,data ,,of ,,ethics1 chap4 ,,vii1 secs4 #dd-df4 ,s4 ,e4 ,mezes1 ,,ethics1 ,,descriptive ,,and ,,explanatory1 chaps4 ,v1 ,,viii4 ,sutherland1 op4 cit1 chap4 ,,xv4 ,f4 ,thilly1 ,,introduction ,,to ,,ethics1 chap4 ,,iii4 ,westermarck1 op4 cit1 chap4 ,v4 ,darwin1 ,,descent ,,of ,,man1 partt4 ,i1 chap4 ,,iii4 ,j4 ,h4 ,hyslop1 ,,elements ,,of ,,ethics1 chaps4 ,,vi1 ,,vii4 ,j4 ,s4 ,mill1 ,,utilitarianism1 chap4 v4 ,h4 ,w4 ,wright1 ,,self-,,realization1 part4 ,i1 chap4 ,,iv4 ,,chapter ,v ,,the ,,individualizing ,,of ,,conscience ,conscience as we have seen1 is the result of a fusion of elements coming from personal experience and tribal judgment4 ,in its early phases the latter elements predominate2 conscience may be fairly called the inner side of custom4 ,primitive men have little individuality and involuntarily reflect the general attitude4 ,but with widening experience and growing mental maturity1 conscience1 like man's other faculties1 tends to become more individual and divergent1 until we find1 in civilized life1 a man standing out for conscience' sake against the opinion of the world4 ,the individualization of conscience1 with the consequent clash of ideals1 gives the study of morality much of its interest and difficulty2 it will be worthwhile to note some of its causes4 ,why did not the individualizing of conscience occur earlier8 7#a7 ,in primitive man there is not much opportunity for the development of individuality4 ,there are few personal possessions1 there is little scope for the exercise of peculiar talents1 there is little power of reflection1 to develop strongly individual ideas4 ,the self-assertive instincts are to considerable extent still dormant for lack of stimulus to call them forth4 ,the individual is content to take his place in the group life1 and it seldom occurs to him to question the group- judgment4 7#b7 ,in primitive life there is a drastic repression of any incipient rebelliousness1 through the enforcement of custom or explicit law in the ways we have indicated2 the fear of a heavy discouragement to any innovator4 ,if men dared to defy the community morals1 they were very likely to be put to death before the habit of free judgment had much time to spread4 ,there was thus a sort of artificial selection for survival of the conventional type1 and weeding-out of the freethinker and moral genius4 ,even in historic times this process has continued and been an enormous clog on human progress4 ,the man of revolutionary moral insight has had to pay the penalty1 if not of death as in the case of ,socrates or of ,jesus-at least of ridicule and ostracism1 of excommunication and isolation as1 in our own day1 with ,tolstoy4 ,many and many a saint who might have been a beacon-light to mankind has lived under the curses or sneers of his fellows and died in loneliness1 to be soon forgotten4 ,a few have1 after years of opposition1 obtained a following and accomplished great reforms1 as did ,buddha1 ,mohammed1 ,st4 ,francis1 and ,luther4 ,but none can count the potential reformers1 the men of new insight1 of individual moral judgment1 who have been crushed by the weight of group-opposition4 ,man has been the worst enemy of his own progress4 7#c7 ,there is another aspect to this selective process1 noted before in another context- the struggle for existence between groups4 ,so intense are these tribal struggles in early society that harmony within a group is absolutely necessary4 ,individualization means disorganization2 and whatever communities developed free thought and divergent ideas were at a disadvantage when it came to action4 ,many such groups1 ahead of their rivals in individual moral development1 were wiped out by barbaric armies that gave unquestioning obedience to the tribal will and worked together like a machine4 ,up to a certain stage in human development individuality was an undesirable variation and was ruthlessly repressed1 sometimes by the execution of the particular offenders1 sometimes by the destruction of the group to which they belonged and which they by their divergence weakened4 ,what forces made against custom-morality8 ,against these repressive forces1 however1 other forces were from early times urging men on to reject the tyranny of custom4 ,those inward promptings that we call conscience were continually tending to become less the echo of the group conventions and more the expression of the individual's needs and deepest desires4 7#a7 ,at bottom1 of course1 lay the natural restlessness and passions of men1 the impatience of control1 the longing for liberty1 and the craving for self-expression4 ,the combative instinct1 pride1 obstinacy1 and notably the sex-instinct1 were from earliest times spurring men on to a disregard of the conventional and the formation of individual standards4 7#b7 ,we may make special mention of the love of power over others1 which has been one of the deep roots of the perpetual internecine struggles of man4 ,there is a need of leadership in every group2 and this need is felt more and more keenly as the groups increase in size4 ,at first the authority of the elders suffices1 or of strong men who push to the fore at times of crisis1 as in the case of the so called judges1 the military dictators1 as we might better call them1 of early ,israel4 ,but as ,israel1 grown in numbers1 and feeling the need of greater unity and readiness1 clamored for a king1 so generally1 at a certain stage of culture1 permanent chiefs of some sort become necessary4 ,now the chief1 enjoying his sense of power1 usually imposed his will upon the people2 his individuality1 at least1 had more or less free play4 ,and thus1 through the changing decrees of successive rulers1 all sorts of varying standards became realized1 and the rigidity of early custom was steadily loosened4 7#c7 ,in the hunting stage of primitive life1 and even in the pastoral stage1 there was little private property1 and hence little opportunity for the development of the acquisitive instinct4 ,but with the transition to an agricultural life1 and still more with the growth of commerce and the arts1 private accumulation became possible4 ,individual initiative began to pay2 the smarter and more ingenious could outstrip their fellows by breaking through the crust of custom1 while those who were hidebound by a conventional conscience were at a disadvantage4 ,to a large extent this lawlessness or innovation in conduct came into conflict with the individual's conscience4 ,but the question ,why not8 would at once arise2 if possible1 a man would justify his act to himself4 ,and to some degree those new ways of acting would swing conscience over to their side4 7#d7 ,in earliest times each tribe lived1 very1 much to itself and developed its own morals1 under the stress of similar forces1 but without much influence from the experience of other groups4 ,it was thus exceedingly difficult for it to conceive of any other ways of doing things2 the ancestral customs were accepted as inevitable1 like the sun and the rain4 ,inter-tribal conflicts first gave1 perhaps1 a vantage point for mutual criticism4 ,a clan that by some custom had an obvious advantage over its neighbors would naturally be imitated as soon as men became quick-witted enough to understand its superiority4 ,the taking of prisoners1 the exchange of hostages or envoys1 friendly missions and journeys1 would give insight into one another's life4 ,with the development of commerce1 this mutual criticism of morals would be greatly accelerated4 ,so the authority of local conventions and standards would be discredited1 custom would become more fluid1 and individual judgment find freer play4 ,especially would the more observant1 the more traveled1 the more reflective1 tend to vary from the ideals of their neighbors4 7#e7 ,in various other ways1 apart from the mutual influence of divergent group-customs1 the progress of civilization tends to produce variations in ideals4 ,the increase of knowledge1 the development of science and philosophy1 bring floods of new ideas to burst the old dams2 deepening insight reveals the irrationality of old ideas to the leaders of thought4 ,the progress of the arts gives new interests and valuations4 ,the spiritual seers and prophets see visions of a better order and proclaim new gospels4 ,the development of classes and castes allows to the aristocracy more leisure to think and criticize2 the institution of slavery1 in particular1 produced a class of slave-owners with ample time to dissect their inherited conceptions4 7#f7 ,finally1 where1 under favoring conditions1 the danger of war in which man has for the most part lived became less acute1 custom generally grew laxer4 ,it is the imperious necessity of selfpreservation that has been the greatest conservative force2 warlike states have demanded strict allegiance and looked with suspicion upon deviations from the group ideals4 ,but peoples that1 whether from a fortunate geographical situation or because of their marked superiority in numbers and power over their neighbors have escaped this need of perpetual self-defense could afford to relax their vigilance for conformity4 ,and the very notable increase in individual variations in conduct and ideal during the past century has been largely owing to the era of comparative peace4 ,we seem to be reaching the age when the advantage is to lie not with the nation that has the most rigid customs1 but with the nation that shows the most individual initiative and progress4 ,conservatism vs4 radicalism ,we have become forever emancipated from the tyranny of custom morality under which the majority of men have lived4 ,legislation is1 to be sure1 continually on the increase1 shutting men out from the ever-new ways they discover to prey upon their fellows4 ,but nevertheless1 the freedom with which men may now live their own lives according to their own ideas is almost a new phenomenon upon the earth4 ,when we compare the free range that our individuality has with the tyranny of public opinion even so recently as the lifetime of our ,puritan grandparents1 when we see the new experiments in personal life and social legislation which are being tried on every hand1 when we read a few of the thousands of books and magazines and newspapers that are pouring a continual flood of new ideas into the world1 we must realize the immense change from the stereotyped customs of nearly all past epochs4 ,in each of our forty eight ,states different codes are showing their relative advantages2 here woman's suffrage is on trial1 there the initiative and referendum1 there the recall4 ,almost every sort of possible marriage law1 it would seem1 is being tried somewhere4 ,it is a time of moral confusion1 of the unsettling of old conceptions and a groping1 stumbling progress toward the new4 ,in such a situation it is no wonder that we have two types of thought1 two sets of forces1 at work4 ,on the one hand we have the conservatives1 the stand-patters1 the maintainers of the existing order2 on the other hand are the progressives1 the radicals1 the reformers of the existing order4 ,for the former the moral standards of their particular age and country tend to have an absolute and unconditional worth1 which must not be criticized or questioned4 ,the necessity of allegiance to morality has been so deeply stamped upon their minds that it has become a loyalty to the particular brand of morality they have grown up in1 however flagrantly inadequate or tyrannous it may be4 ,for the latter a commendable impatience with the imperfect is apt to foster a blindness to the value that almost always lies in ancient customs and a lack of regard for the need of stability and common agreement on some plane4 ,these iconoclasts1 vociferous in condemnation1 are often most empty handed1 giving us nothing wiser or more advantageous wherewith to replace the conventions they discard4 ,so it is difficult to say whether humanity is more in danger from the red-handed radicalism which destroys the precious fruit of long experience1 or from the obstinate obstructionists who by the dead weight of their apathy or the positive pull-back of their antagonism delay the remedying of existing evils4 ,the ideal lies in keeping morality plastic while giving its approved forms our hearty allegiance4 ,widely different ideals are theoretically conceivable2 but we live in a specific time and place and must defer to the code of our fellows2 it is along these lines1 and by gradual steps1 that progress must be made4 ,we must be on the alert for new suggestions1 but slow to tear down till we can build better4 ,the greatest of prophets1 keenly as he saw the flaws in existing standards1 proclaimed that he came not to destroy but to fulfill4 ,it is evident enough to the impartial observer that our present chaos and mutual antagonism of conflicting view-points is not ideal2 we need to work out of this disorder into some sane and stable order2 when we can find the best way of life we must discard these manifold variations1 most of which are foolish and ill-advised4 ,the undesirability of this contemporary disagreement1 which in some matters amounts to almost a complete moral anarchy1 is enough to explain the pull back of the conservatives4 ,and it is precisely the purpose of such a volume as this to help in the crystallizing of definite and universally accepted moral principles for personal and social life4 ,but1 on the other hand1 this temporary chaos is more pregnant with promise than the older blind acquiescence in full light of criticism and experiment to bear upon the laws and customs of the past4 ,new occasions teach new duties1 ,time makes ancient good uncouth4 ,we should reverence the great seers and lawmakers of the past2 but their true disciples are not those who slavishly accept their dicta1 they are rather those who think for themselves1 as they did1 and contribute1 as they did1 toward the slow progress of man4 ,what are the dangers of conventional morality8 ,the reasons why we cannot be content with our fathers' conservatism in morals1 and our fathers' custom-bound conscience1 may be summarized as follows3 7#a7 ,conventional morality is almost necessarily too general2 it is not elastic enough to fit the infinite variations in specific cases1 not detailed enough to fit all needs4 ,it therefore often causes needless and cruel repression2 the most sensitive and aspiring spirits have often revolted from the morality of their times because of its harshness4 ,it is well for the marriage-tie to be binding2 divorce has generally been deemed unchristian4 ,but if this judgment is rigidly enforced1 special cases arise1 very piteous1 very pathetic1 crying out for a more discriminating rule4 ,our forebears1 with their grave realization of the dangers of frivolousness1 forbade by law and a stern public opinion many innocent and wholesome diversions4 ,such injustices are inevitable where custom has unchecked sway4 ,the general aim and result may be very salutary1 but the application is too sweeping1 and brings suffering to many unfortunate individuals1 or to the community as a whole1 by its indiscrimination4 7#b7 ,but even in its general result custom may be harmful4 ,morals have developed blindly1 as we have seen1 through all sorts of irrational influences1 swayed this way by class interest1 by rulers or priests1 veered that way by superstition1 passion1 and stupidity4 ,morality has not understood itself2 and the natural forces which have developed it into its enormous usefulness have not always weeded out the baneful elements4 ,the persecution of heretics was sheer mistake1 but it was acceded to by practically the entire ,church in the ,middle ,ages1 and practiced with utter conscientiousness4 ,the hostility of the ,puritans to music and art was pure folly1 though it seemed to them their grim duty4 7#c7 ,new situations are continually arising1 new sins appearing4 ,conventional morality1 while sometimes over-severe against old and well-recognized sins1 lags far behind in its branding of the newer forms4 ,the evils arising from the modern congestion of population1 the unscrupulousness of modern business1 the selfishness of politicians1 the servility of newspapers to the interests and to advertisers1 for example1 find too little reprobation in our established moral codes4 ,business is business has been said by respectable church-members4 ,a successful ,american boss1 when asked if he was not in politics for his pocketbook1 said1 ,of course6 ,aren't you8 with no sense of shame4 ,probably he was very moral along the old lines1 an excellent father1 a kind husband1 an agreeable neighbor2 but his conventional code1 shared by most of his contemporaries1 did not include the reprobation of the practice of politics for private gain4 ,in the upper classes are many people who are good by the old standards1 but who are unhelpful and trivial-minded1 mere parasites devoted to sport or society1 with never a qualm of conscience for their selfishness4 ,the old standards need the constant infusion of new blood2 our consciences need to be adjusted to our new relations and deeper insight4 ,footnote3 ,cf4 ,rosa1 ,sin and ,society1 p4 #ad3 ,one might suppose that an exasperated public would sternly castigate these modern sins4 ,but the fact is1 the very qualities that lull the conscience of the sinner blind the eyes of the onlookers4 ,people are sentimental2 and bastinado wrongdoing not according to its harmfulness1 but according to the infamy that has come to attach to it4 ,undiscerning1 they chastise with scorpions the old authentic sins1 but spare the new4 ,they do not see that blackmail is piracy1 that embezzlement is theft1 that speculation is gambling that deleterious adulteration is murder4 ,the cloven hoof hides in patent leather2 and today1 as in ,hosea's time1 the people 'are destroyed for lack of knowledge4' 7#d7 ,custom-morality tends to literalism1 a mere formal observance of law or custom without the true spirit of service1 without any inward sweetness or power4 ,christ's condemnation of the ,pharisees will occur to every one2 the parable of the ,pharisee and publican1 and that of the widow's mite1 among others1 are classic illustrations of a cut-and dried formalism in morality4 ,such a legalism ,paul found could not save him4 ,and forever the prophets and spiritual leaders of men have had to burst the bonds of tradition to awaken a real love of and devotion to the good4 ,the letter killeth1 and a punctilious observance of rules may choke out the aspirations of the soul4 7#e7 ,finally1 conflicts between customs inevitably arise4 ,which shall a man obey8 ,the moral perplexity thus caused gives a great deal of its poignancy to the tragedy of life4 ,when one accepted ideal pulls us one way1 and another standard1 to which we have given allegiance1 calls us the other1 when we cry out with ,desdemona1 ,i do perceive here a divided duty1 the only solution lies in the development of insight and a recognition of the transition-nature of much of our accepted code4 ,if for no other reason1 to avoid these conflicts of ideals we must comprehend the ultimate aims of morality and take existing standards with a sort of tentative allegiance4 ,it should be clear1 then1 that the individualizing of conscience1 which has been going on observably in recent times1 is1 in spite of its dangers1 a necessary and desirable process4 ,dewey and ,tufts1 ,,ethics1 chaps1 ,v4 ,,ix4 ,w4 ,bagehot1 ,,physics ,,and ,,politics1 chaps4 ,,ii1 ,,vi4 ,f4 ,paulsen1 ,,system ,,of ,,ethics1 part ,,ii1 chap4 ,v1 sec4 #f4 ,s4 ,e4 ,mezes1 ,,ethics1 chap1 ,,vii1 pp4 #afd-hc4 ,j4 ,h4 ,coffin1 ,,the ,,socialized ,,conscience1 pp4 #ab-bc4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,can ,,we ,,base ,,morality ,,upon ,,conscience8 ,what is the meaning of moral intuitionism8 ,with the growth of individualism in morals1 the relaxing of the constraint of publicly accepted standards1 there is1 of course1 a dangerous drift toward self-indulgence and moral nihilism4 ,it becomes all the more necessary that conscience be strong and sensitive1 that inner restraints take the place of outer4 ,in the lack of a mature moral insight1 which is one of the latest of mental developments1 and indeed1 where it exists1 to reinforce its pale affirmations with greater impulsive power1 a stern sense of duty is a veritable rock of salvation4 ,many a people have perished1 many a brilliant hope of civilization been lost1 because of its lack4 ,so we cannot wonder when moralists put it forward as the foundation- stone of all morality and seek to build their systems upon it4 ,to a man who has been bred to obey the inner voice1 it seems the very source and basis of the right2 it is so inescapable1 so authoritative1 that it cannot be deemed derived1 or evolved by a mechanical process of selection4 ,it figures as something ultimate and unanalyzable1 if not frankly supernatural2 that it is a mere instrument in the attainment of an ulterior end1 to be used or rejected according to its observed usefulness is an abhorrent thought4 ,there has thus arisen a school of philosophers who base their justification of morality entirely upon the deliverances of conscience4 ,their theories vary in detail and have received sundry names2 we will group them here for convenience under the general caption moral intuitionism4 ,as a rule they steer clear of the historic point of view2 they refuse to believe that conscience has a natural history4 ,nor are they usually keen at psychological analysis2 the numberless variations in form which conscience assumes in different individuals are1 for their purposes1 better ignored4 ,instead of analyzing the moral sense into its components and describing the mental stuff of which it is composed1 instead of tracing its genesis and studying the forces that have produced it1 they wax eloquent over its importance and universality4 ,as preachers they are admirable4 ,but the foundation they provide for morality is slippery4 ,it amounts to saying1 ,we ought to do right because we know we ought6 ,when we ask how we can be sure1 in view of the general fallibility of human conviction1 that we are not mistaken in our assurance1 and following a false light1 they can but reiterate in altered phraseology that we know because we know4 ,to these intuitionists1 and to the popular mind very often1 the approval or disapproval of conscience is immediate1 intuitive1 and unerring4 ,its authority is absolute and not to be questioned4 ,we have this faculty within us that tells us as surely what is right and what wrong as our color-sense tells us what is red and what green4 ,some people may1 to be sure1 be color-blind1 or have defective consciences2 but the great mass of unsophisticated people possess this innate guide and commandment1 a quite sufficient warrant for all our distinctions of good and evil4 ,honest men do not really differ in their moral judgments4 ,they may misunderstand one another's concepts and engage in verbal disputes2 but at bottom their moral sense approves and disapproves the same acts4 ,our moral differences come mainly from the deluding effects of passion and the sophisticated ingenuities of the intellect4 ,we should return to nature1 go by ourselves alone1 and listen to the inner voice4 ,if we sincerely listen and obey we shall always do right4 ,footnote3 ,but truth and right1 founded in the eternal and1 is what every man can judge of1 when laid before him4 ',t is necessarily one and the same to every man's understanding1 just as light is the same1 to every man's eyes4 7,s4 ,clarke1 ,discourse upon ,natural ,religion1 #agjf47 ,we cannot but recognize a certain amount of practical truth in this picture4 ,but it is over-simplified1 and it is fundamentally unsatisfactory to the intellect4 ,we shall now pass in review its most obvious inadequacies4 ,do the deliverances of different people's consciences agree8 ,nothing is more notorious to an unbiased observer than the conscientious differences between men4 ,even among members of a single community1 with closely similar inheritance and environment1 we find marked divergence in moral judgment4 ,and when we compare widely different times and places we are apt to wonder if there is any common ground4 ,it is only a very smug provincialism that can attribute the alien standards of other races and nations to a disregard of the light4 ,mohammedans and ,buddhists have believed as firmly in1 and fought as passionately for1 their moral convictions as ,christians have for theirs4 ,when we survey the vast amount of material amassed by anthropologists1 we find that1 as has been often said1 there is hardly a vice that has not somewhere been deemed a virtue1 and hardly a virtue but has been branded as a vice4 ,history is full of the pathos of havoc wrought by conscientious men1 of foolish and ruinous acts which they have braced themselves to do for conscience' sake4 ,one has but to think of the earnest and prayerful inquisitors and persecutors in the mediaeval ,church1 of the ,puritans destroying the stained-glass windows and paintings of the ,madonna1 of the caliph who destroyed the great ,alexandrian library1 bereaving the world at one blow of that priceless culture-inheritance4 ,written biography1 fiction which truly represents life1 and individual memory are full of conscience have sundered those who truly loved and wrought irremediable pain and loss4 ,lately the newspapers told us of the heroic suicide of ,general ,nogi and his wife1 who felt it their duty not to survive their emperor4 ,to a ,catholic ,christian this imperious dictate of the ,japanese conscience would be a deadly sin4 ,and so it goes4 ,there is no need to multiply instances of what can be observed on every hand4 ,conscience reflects the traditions and influences amid which a man grows up4 ,but if the deliverances of different men's consciences conflict1 how shall we know which to trust8 ,if any particular command of the inner voice may be morally wrong1 how can we trust it at all8 ,there are obviously morbid and perverted consciences2 but if conscience itself is the ultimate authority1 and is not to be justified and criticized by some deeper test1 what right have we to call any of its manifestations morbid or perverted8 ,is it not a species of egotism to hold one's own moral discernment as superior to another's2 and if so1 do we not need some criterion by which to judge between them8 ,surely the diversity of its judgments makes conscience an impossible foundation for morality2 we should have as many codes as consciences and fall into a hopeless confusion4 ,if conscience everywhere agreed in its dictates1 could we base morality upon it8 ,even1 however1 if conscience led us all in the same direction1 would that prove its authority8 ,perhaps we should all be following a will o' the wisp1 and foolishly sacrificing our desires to an idol of the tribe1 a universal superstition4 ,must it not show its credentials before it can legitimately command our allegiance8 ,it is but one specific type of impulse among many2 why should it be given the reins1 the control over all8 ,do we say1 because conscience makes for our best welfare8 ,the answer would1 in general1 be true2 but we should then be putting as our test and ultimate authority the attainment of our welfare1 which would be to abandon the point of view we are discussing4 ,conscience claims authority4 ,but that might conceivably be mere impudence and tyranny4 ,moreover1 there are those who feel no call to follow conscience2 how could we prove to them that they ought8 ,is it not the height of irrationality to bow down before an unexplained and mysterious impulse and allow it to sway our conduct without knowing why8 ,if the ought is really shot out of the blue at us1 if there is no justification1 no imperious demand for morality but the existence of this inner push1 why might we not raise our heads1 refuse to be dominated by it1 and live the life of free men1 following the happy breezes of our desires8 ,that is precisely what many have done1 men who have reached maturity enough of mind to see the emptiness of following an ingrained impulse simply because it exists1 but not a full enough maturity to see beyond to the real justification and significance of conscience4 ,a further realization of the inadequacy of the intuitive theory comes when we observe that conscience is by no means always clear in its dictates4 ,it often leaves us in the lurch4 ,developed in us as it has been by circumstance and suggestion1 it helps us usually only in certain recognized types of situation4 ,when new cases arise1 it is hopelessly at sea4 ,as a practical working principle1 conscientiousness is not only apt to be a perverted and provincial guide1 it is insufficient for the solving of fresh and difficult problems4 ,the science casnistry has been developed in great detail to supply this lack1 to apply the well-recognized deliverances of a certain accepted type of conscience to the various possibilities of situation4 ,these systems1 however1 reflect the idiosyncrasies of their makers1 and have never won wide approbation4 ,morality must remain largely experimental1 individual4 ,conscience will play a very useful role in spurring us to our recognized duty in the commoner situations1 but for all the more delicate decisions we need a more ultimate touchstone4 ,we must grasp the underlying principles of right conduct1 and weigh the relative goods attainable by each possible act4 ,a well-balanced and normal conscience will save us the recurrent reasoning out of typical perplexities1 but it must be supplemented by an insight into the ends to be aimed for and kept rather strictly in its place4 ,what is the plausibility of moral intuitionism8 ,it is never wholly satisfactory merely to refute a theory2 we must see its plausibility and understand its appeal if we are to be sure of doing it justice4 ,in the case of the intuition-theory it is easy to discern the reasons that have kept it alive8 though it has never been at all widespread among thinking men8 in spite of the obvious objections that can be raised to it4 7#a7 ,perhaps the original source of the doctrine was a certain sort of religious faith2 it follows easily as a corollary to the belief in ,god4 ,if ,god commands us to do right1 it is felt1 ,he must have given us some way to know what is right4 ,the inner voice of conscience may be just such a ,god-given guide2 therefore it is such a guide2 therefore it is infallible4 ,a natural piece of a priori reasoning1 on a par with the ,christian ,scientist's syllogism3 ,god is good2 a good ,god would not permit evil to exist2 therefore there is no evil4 ,unfortunately a priori reasoning has to yield to actual experience4 ,since we see that conscience is not infallible and evil does exist1 there must be some fallacy in the arguments4 7#b7 ,another source of the doctrine's strength lies in its simplicity4 ,it is a great mental relief to drop the tangle of confusing considerations1 to stop trying to reason out one's course of action1 and follow a supposedly reliable guide4 ,the intuition-theory goes naturally with a moral conservatism which dreads the chaos and uncertainty that follow upon the doubt of established moral habits4 ,it is so much more comfortable to feel that one has already the one divine and ultimate code1 that one has always done right because one has steadily obeyed the inner light6 ,it is reassuring to divide the world into the sheep and the goats8 if one can believe one's self a sheep4 ,but what ,o dismay6 what if one were after all a goat6 ,a great deal of mental anguish has been caused by the pseudo-simplicity of this dichotomy4 ,there is no such clean-cut and clearly visible line between right and wrong2 there is instead a bewildering maze of goods4 ,hardly any choice but involves a sacrifice1 hardly any ideal but has its disadvantages4 ,one learns with experience to be wary of these simple theories1 these closet theories which collapse when they are brought out into the light of day4 7#c7 ,we must1 however1 be just4 ,the fact of the reliability of conscience1 and the wisdom of following its guidance1 holds over a wide range of human experience and the experience which is most apparent upon the surface4 ,for all ordinary cases we of ,christendom agree without hesitation that murder is wrong1 and lying1 and stealing4 ,it seems a waste of time to try to justify our instinctive verdict1 and the attempt would only be bewildering to most men4 ,it is only when brought face to face with some alien code that we see the need of digging below intuition4 ,a missionary to the ,south ,seas may be confronted with men to whom the killing of other tribesmen and the accumulation of skulls is a glorious and honorable feat1 or to whom skillful lying is an enviable and proud accomplishment4 ,but most of us live among neighbors whose conscience is comfortably like our own1 and only occasionally become seriously perplexed4 ,in the great mass of everyday occasions we do know our duty intuitively1 and we do agree with one another4 ,we recognize a duty at sight without realizing its teleology4 ,it is not1 indeed1 an innate faculty2 it was acquired during our formative years2 it is not infallible4 ,but the forces which have gone to the making of it are similar in all our lives1 and the products are more alike than unlike4 7#d7 ,finally1 it is true that to obey conscience is1 in a sense1 to do right1 to be moral1 no matter how distorted conscience may be4 ,conscientiousness is in itself a virtue4 ,to this point we shall later return4 ,we need only say here that conscientiousness is not enough4 ,life is not so simple a matter as that4 ,we need judgment1 sanity1 insight1 as well as a strong sense of duty4 ,we need to correct and train conscience1 to adjust it to our real needs1 to recognize that it is a means1 not an end4 ,our discussion1 though rapid1 should show that we cannot start with the ought of our conscience1 or moral sense1 and erect our moral theory upon that4 ,conscience itself needs to be explained4 ,its commands need to be justified by reference to some more ultimate criterion4 ,it needs to be pruned of its fanaticism1 developed where it is weak1 and kept in line with our growing insight into what is best in conduct4 ,ruskin once summed the matter up by saying1 ,obey thy conscience6 ,but first be sure it is not the conscience of an ass6 ,conscience may be a very dangerous guide4 ,and even where it is normal and useful it must not be invested with any absolute and irrational authority4 ,historical study1 then1 reveals the growth of personal and social morality through the action of forces1 which tend to drive men into conduct that makes for their welfare more surely than did their primitive animal impulses4 ,conscience arises through these same forces4 ,though subject to perversion and infinitely variant in detail1 community-morals and individual conscience have been the chief means of making man's life safe and wisely directed4 ,the criterion that emerges from such a study is not1 however1 the bald existence of codes of morals1 or of conscience1 but the human welfare which those codes and that conscience exist to serve4 ,to an exposition of the ways in which morality serves and should increasingly serve human welfare1 we now turn4 ,classic intuitional theories will be found developed in3 ,price1 ,review of the ,chief ,questions and ,difficulties of ,morals 7#ageg71 ,shaftesbury1 ,an ,inquiry ,concerning ,virtue or ,merit 7#afii74 ,f4 ,hutcheson1 ,an ,inquiry ,concerning ,moral ,good and ,evil 7#agbe74 ,joseph ,butler1 ,fifteen ,sermons upon ,human ,nature1 ,,ii1 ,,iii 7#agbf74 ,j4 ,martineau1 ,types of ,ethical ,theory 7#ahhe74 ,criticisms of the intuitional theories will be found in3 ,s4 ,e4 ,mezes1 ,ethics1 chap4 ,,iii2 ,dewey and ,tufts1 ,ethics1 chap4 ,,xvi1 sec4 #c2 ,f4 ,paulsen1 ,system of ,ethics1 part ,,ii1 chap4 ,v1 sec4 #d2 ,h4 ,spencer1 ,data of ,ethics1 chap4 ,,ii1 sec4 #ad2 chap4 ,,iv1 sec4 #bj2 ,muirhead1 ,elements of ,ethics1 secs4 #cb-ce4 ,h4 ,rashdall1 ,the ,theory of ,good and ,evil1 book ,i1 chap4 ,,iv4 ,w4 ,fite1 ,introductory ,study of ,ethics1 ,,part ,,ii ,,the ,,theory ,,of ,,morality ,,chapter ,,vii ,,the ,,basis ,,of ,,right ,,and ,,wrong ,,historical knowledge without critical insight leads to moral nihilism1 the conviction of the pre-,socratic ,sophists that1 since every time and people has its own standards1 there is no real objective right and wrong4 ,morality is seen to be not a fixed code sent readymade from heaven1 but a set of habits and intuitions that have had a natural origin and development4 ,our particular moral code is perceived to be but one out of many1 our type of conscience psychologically on the same level with the strange1 and to us perverted1 sense of duty of alien races4 ,how can we judge impartially between our standards and those of the ,fiji ,islanders8 ,what warrant have we for saying that our code is a better one than theirs8 ,or how do we know that the whole thing is not superstition8 ,what is the nature of that intrinsic goodness upon which ultimately all valuations rest8 ,as a matter of fact1 underneath the manifold disagreements as to good and bad1 there is a deep stratum of absolute certainty4 ,it is only in the more complex and delicate matters that doubt arises2 all men share in those elementary perceptions of good and bad that make up the bulk of human valuation4 ,to men everywhere it is an evil to be in severe physical pain or to be maimed in body1 to be shut away from air1 from food1 from other people4 ,it is a good to taste an appetizing dish1 to exercise when well and rested1 to hear harmonious music1 to feel the sweet emotion of love4 ,the fact that men agree upon judgments does not prove them true2 but these are not judgments1 they are perceptions4 ,footnote3 ,or affections4 ,let no one quarrel about the psychological terms used2 the only important matter is to note the fact1 however it be phrased1 that good and bad in their basic usage are ,,descriptive terms4 ,a toothache is bad just as indisputably as the sky is blue4 ,the word bad has a definite meaning1 just as the word blue has2 and the toothache is1 among other things1 precisely what we mean by bad1 just as the look of the cloudless sky by daylight is what we mean by blue4 ,to call love good is not to give an opinion1 it is to describe a fact4 ,it is a matter of direct first-hand feeling1 whose reality consists in its being felt4 ,to say that these experiences are good or bad is equivalent to saying that they ,,feel good or bad2 there can be no dispute about it4 ,this is the bottom fact of ethics4 ,different experiences have different intrinsic worth as they pass4 ,there is a chiaroscuro of consciousness1 a light and shade of immediate goodness and badness over all our variegated moments4 ,the good moments are their own excuse for being1 a part of the brightness and worth of life4 ,they need nothing ulterior to justify them4 ,the bad moments feel bad1 and that is the end of it2 they are bad-feeling moments1 and no sophistication can deny it4 ,conscious life looked at from this point of view1 and abstracted from all its other aspects1 is a flux of plus and minus values4 ,certain of its moments have a greater felt worth than others2 some experiences are intrinsically undesirable1 the shadows of life2 others1 intrinsically sweet1 a part of its sunshine4 ,in the last analysis1 all differences in value1 including all moral distinctions1 rest upon this disparity in the immediate worth of conscious states4 ,footnote3 ,cf4 ,g4 ,santayana1 ,the ,sense of ,beauty1 p4 #ajd3 ,all worth leads us back to actual feeling somewhere1 or else evaporates into nothing-into a word and a superstition4 ,i cannot but feel that contemporary definitions of value that omit reference to hedonic differences e4g4 that of ,professor ,brown 7,journal of ,philosophy1 ,psychology1 and ,scientific ,methods1 vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #cb73 ,value is degree of adequacy of a potentiality to the realization of the effect by virtue of which it is a potentiality-miss the real meaning of value4 ,we do1 indeed1 speak occasionally of x as having value as a means to y1 when y is not good or a means to a good4 ,but that seems to me a misuse of the word4 ,we may say absolutely that if it were not for this fundamental difference in feeling there would be no such thing as morality4 ,there might conceivably be a world in which consciousness should exist without any agreeable or disagreeable qualities2 in such a world nothing would matter2 all acts would be equally indifferent4 ,or there might be a world in which all experiences were equally pleasurable or painful2 in such a case all acts would be equally good or equally sad2 there would be no ground for choice4 ,one might in any of these hypothetical worlds be driven by mechanical impulse or fitful whim to do this or that1 but there would be no rational basis for preference4 ,such1 however1 is not the case4 ,comparative valuation is possible2 all secondary goods and evils arise1 all morality1 all art and religion and science have their wellspring in this brute fact1 this primordial parting of the ways between the more and the less desirable phases of possible conscious life4 ,morality of an elementary type would exist on this level even without the further complications of actual life4 ,at least a very important art would arise2 whether or not we should call it morality is a mere matter of definition4 ,for a choice between alternatives immediately felt goods would arise1 and the problem of how to get the better kinds of experience and avoid the worse would demand solution4 ,every bit of plus value added to experience would make the world so much the brighter1 as would every bit of pain avoided4 ,there are1 to be sure1 the mystical optimisms and pessimisms to be reckoned with1 the sweeping assertions of certain schools and individuals that everything is equally good or equally bad4 ,such undiscriminating formulas are either the mere objectification of a mood1 of some unusual period of ecstasy or sorrow1 a blind outcry of thanksgiving or of bitterness1 or they are the clumsy expression of some practical truth1 as1 the wisdom of acquiescence1 and the futility of preoccupation with evil4 ,but taken seriously and literally such statements are simply untrue to the facts and blur our fundamental perceptions4 ,if actually accredited1 either would lead to quiescence2 if everything were equally good or evil all striving would be meaningless1 one might as well jump from a housetop or walk into the fire4 ,but as a matter of fact such mystical assertions are indulged in only in the inactive moments of life1 and mean no more than a lyric poem or a burst of music4 ,every one in his practical moments acknowledges tacitly1 at least1 the difference between the intrinsic goodness and badness of experiences4 ,a life of even delight or even wretchedness1 or of colorless indifference1 is not inconceivable1 but it is not the lot of any actual human beings4 ,the larger quarrel between optimists and pessimists need not1 for our purposes1 be settled4 ,life may be a very good thing1 on the whole1 or a very bad thing4 ,the only point we need to note is that it is at any rate a varying thing4 ,some experiences are more worth having than others4 ,moral theory needs no further admission to find its foothold4 ,nor do we need to discuss the problem of evil4 ,it may be that all pain has its ultimate uses that nothing is really bad1 if we take that to mean that all evil has a necessary existence as a means to a good otherwise unattainable and worth the cost4 ,but however useful as a means evil may be1 it is nonetheless evil and regrettable4 ,it is not good qua pain4 ,if the same amount of good could be obtained without the preliminary evil1 it were better to skip it4 ,in short1 the existence of different values in immediate experience is indisputable2 we may call them for convenience intrinsic goodness and badness4 ,what is extrinsic goodness8 ,but there is a radically different sense of the words good and bad2 namely1 that in which we say that a thing is good ,,for this or that4 ,this is the kind of goodness the ,,things about us have2 they are good for the production of intrinsic goodness 7as we are using that phrase71 which is always 7so far as we know7 something produced in living organisms4 ,footnote3 ,we also occasionally speak of things as being good for something else when that something else is not a good or a means to a good 7see preceding footnote72 as1 sunshine is good for weeds4 ,but as applied to evils1 the phrase good for more often means good to abolish2 as1 hellebore is good for weeds4 ,these usages illustrate the ambiguity of all our common ethical terms4 ,to consider them here would be1 however1 needlessly confusing4 ,the two senses of the term good mentioned in the text are the only senses we need to bear in mind for the purposes of ethics4 ,to put the same truth in other terms1 things are good or bad only with respect to their effect upon our conscious experience4 ,footnote3 ,i am fully aware of the widespread current distaste for the word consciousness1 with its idealistic associations4 ,the term seems to me too useful to discard2 but ,i wish to point out that1 as ,i use it1 it involves no metaphysical viewpoint1 but is equally consonant with idealism or realism of any sort4 ,primitive man1 indeed1 imagines inanimate things as having intrinsic goodness or badness1 i4e41 as feeling happy or unhappy1 benevolent or malignant4 ,we still speak of a serene sky1 an angry storm cloud1 a caressing breeze1 and in a hundred ways read our affective life into material objects4 ,but we now recognize all these ascriptions as cases of the pathetic fallacy1 poetically significant but literally untrue4 ,animism1 which looms so large in primitive religion1 consists in thus objectifying into things the emotions they arouse in us4 ,in reality all of these affective qualities exist in us1 not in the outer objects2 so far as our epithets have an objective truth they describe not the content of the objects1 but their function in our lives4 ,when we speak of delicious food1 beautiful pictures1 ugly colors1 we mean strictly that these objects are such as to arouse in us certain peculiar pleasant or unpleasant feelings4 ,so that apart from the existence of consciousness there would be no goodness or badness at all4 ,footnote3 ,the neo-realists would prefer to say1 perhaps1 apart from the existence of organisms1 and this may be an exacter phrase2 we from previous page ,footnote3 pleasures and pains that remain out of connection with that interrelated stream of experience to which we usually limit the term consciousness4 ,on the other hand1 ,,may it not be that ,god1 and angels1 or other disembodied beings1 have consciousness1 and intrinsic goodness1 without having organisms8 ,of course1 for all we know1 the world about us may be chock full of pleasures and pains4 ,but for practical purposes1 and so far as our morality is concerned1 either the statement in the text or the suggested equivalent is true4 ,the point is1 that the foundation of morality is in ,,us--whether you call ,,us in the last analysis consciousnesses or organisms ,it is the existence of felt goodness1 intrinsic goodness1 and its opposite1 that allows us to attribute to objects another kind of goodness or badness1 according as they are calculated to produce in us the former kind4 ,this kind of goodness and badness we may call extrinsic4 ,it is only by thus attributing a sort of goodness and badness to senseless objects that we can aim for and avoid the good and bad phases of conscious life4 ,in themselves these conscious moments are largely unnamable and inexpressible4 ,there are1 as it is1 dumb objectless ecstasies that are of transcendent sweetness2 but we do not usually know how to reproduce them1 and for the most part we have to overlook these goods in our ideals and aim only for those that we can associate with recognized outer stimuli4 ,for practical purposes we think rather in terms of outer objects than of our states of experience2 nature has had need to make men but very slightly introspective4 ,and so it is that this derived use of our eulogistic and disparaging terms plays a larger part than its primary application4 ,but the essential point to note is that goodness and badness in the first instance refer to the fundamental cleavage between the affective qualities of experience1 and only secondarily and by metonymy apply to objects in the physical world which affect our conscious states4 ,the next point to note is that our conscious experiences and activities themselves have not only their intrinsic value1 as they pass1 but an extrinsic value1 as means toward future intrinsic values4 ,each phase of experience has its own worth1 while it lasts1 and also has its results in determining future phases with their varying degrees of worth4 ,our reveries1 our debauches1 our sacrifices are good or bad in their effects as well as in themselves4 ,thus all experience has a double rating2 acts are not only pleasant1 agreeable1 intrinsically desirable1 but also wise1 prudent1 useful1 virtuous1 i4e41 extrinsically desirable4 ,these extrinsic values usually bulk much larger in the end than the first transitory intrinsic value2 but our natural tendency is to forget them and guide our action by immediate values4 ,hence the need of a continual disparagement of the latter1 and the many means men have adopted of emphasizing the importance of the former4 ,yet1 after all1 our concern for the extrinsic value of acts has to do only with means to ends2 and unless acts tend to produce intrinsic goodness somewhere they are not extrinsically good4 ,there is no sense in sacrificing an immediate good unless the alternative act will tend in its ultimate effects to produce a greater good1 or unless the act sacrificed would have brought1 after its present intrinsic good1 some greater intrinsic evil4 ,the sacrifice of a good for no greater good is asceticism or fanaticism4 ,from this there is no ultimate salvation but by referring all acts to the final touchstone--asking which will produce in the end the greatest amount of intrinsic good and the least intrinsic evil4 ,what sort of conduct1 then1 is good8 ,and how shall we define virtue8 ,we are brought thus to the conception of an art which shall not only teach us which of two immediate1 intrinsic1 goods is the better1 but shall consider all the near and remote consequences of acts1 and direct us to that conduct which will produce most good in the end4 ,footnote3 ,the impossibility of finding any other ultimate basis for our conception of moral good or bad is well expressed by ,socrates in ,plato's ,protagoras 7p4 #ced73 ,then you think that pain is an evil and pleasure is a good1 and even pleasure you deem an evil1 when it robs you of greater pleasure than it gives1 or causes pain greater than the pleasure4 ,if1 however1 you call pleasure an evil in regard to some other end or standard1 you will be able to show us that standard4 ,,but ,,you ,,have ,,none ,,to ,,show444 ,and have you not a similar way of speaking about pain8 ,you call pain a good when it takes away greater pains than those which it has1 or gives pleasures greater than the pains4 ,he then goes on to explain the need of morality1-to guide us1 in the face of the foreshortening effects of our particular situation1 to what will make for the greatest happiness in the long run 7p4 #cef73 ,do not the same magnitudes appear larger to your sight when near1 and smaller when at a distance8 ,now suppose happiness to consist in doing or choosing the greater1 and in not doing or avoiding the less1 what would be the saving principle of human life8 ,would not the ,,act ,,of ,,measuring be the saving principle8 is best which will in the long run bring into being the greatest possible amount of intrinsic goodness and the least intrinsic evil4 ,for goodness of conduct we commonly use the term virtue2 and for intrinsic good the most widely accepted name-though one which is misleading to many is happiness4 ,so we may say1 in sum1 that virtue is that manner of life that tends to happiness4 ,objection is occasionally made that happiness is too vague a term1 too elusive a concept1 to be set forth as the ultimate aim of conduct4 ,alas6 says ,bradley1 the one question which no one can answer is1 what is happiness8 ,but this is a palpable confusion of thought4 ,if we mean by the question1 ,wherein is happiness to be found1 by doing what can we attain it8 then the answer is1 indeed1 uncertain in its completeness2 it is precisely to answer it that we study ethics4 ,or if we mean1 ,what is the psychology of happiness8 the answer is as yet dubious2 but it is irrelevant4 ,whatever its psychological conditions and the means to attain it1 we know happiness when we have it4 ,the puzzle is not to recognize it1 but to get it4 ,by happiness we mean the steady presence of what we have called intrinsic goodness and the absence of intrinsic badness2 it is as indefinable as any ultimate element of experience1 but as well known to us as blackness and whiteness or light and dark4 ,take1 as a typical moral situation1 a case in which a thirsty man drinks polluted water4 ,in the diagram the arrow represents the direction of the flow of time1 and each of the ribbons below represents the stream of consciousness of an individual concerned-the uppermost being that of the thirsty man himself1 the others those of his wife1 children1 or friends4 ,the plus sign early in the drinker's stream of experience stands for the plus value which drinking the water effects-the gratifying taste of the water and the allaying of the discomfort of thirst-real values1 whose worth cannot be gainsaid4 ,following1 in his own stream of experience1 are a row of minus signs1 indicating the undesirable penalties in his own life which follow-disease1 pain1 deprivation of other goods4 ,no good accrues to others1 unless the slight pleasure of seeing his thirst allayed4 ,but evils follow in their experience3 worry1 sympathetic pain at his suffering1 expense of doctor's bills1 perhaps 7which means deprivation of other possible goods71 etc4 ,it is clear at a glance that the positive good attained is not worth the lingering and widespread evils2 and the act of drinking the polluted water1 though to a very thirsty man a keen temptation1 is immoral4 ,morality is thus an acting upon a right perspective of life4 ,personal morality considers the goods and evils in the one stream of consciousness1 social morality the goods and evils in other conscious lives concerned4 ,between them they sum up the law and the prophets4 ,the best life for humanity is that which is1 on the whole1 felt best2 not necessarily that which is judged best by this man or that1 for our judgments are narrow and misrepresent actual values1-but that which has had from beginning to end the greatest total of happiness4 ,no other ultimate criterion for conduct can ever justify itself1 and most theoretical statements reduce to this4 ,to be virtuous is to be a virtuoso in life4 ,all sorts of objections have been raised to this simple1 and apparently pagan1 way of stating the case2 they will be considered in due time4 ,the reader is asked to refrain from parting company with the writer1 if his prejudices are aroused1 until the consonance of this sketchy account of the basis of morality with ,christianity and all idealism can be demonstrated4 ,h4 ,spencer1 ,data of ,ethics1 chap4 ,,iii4 ,s4 ,e4 ,mezes1 ,ethics1 chap ,,ix4 ,leslie ,stephen1 ,science of ,ethics1 chaps4 ,,ii1 ,,ix4 ,f4 ,thilly1 ,introduction to ,ethics1 chaps4 ,,iv1 ,v4 ,f4 ,paulsen1 book ,,ii1 chap4 ,i4 ,j4 ,s4 ,mill1 ,utilitarianism4 ,b4 ,p4 ,bowne1 ,principles of ,ethics1 chap4 ,,ii4 ,the classic accounts of a rational foundation of ethics are to be found by the discerning reader in ,plato's ,protagoras1 ,gorgias1 and ,republic 7esp4 books4 ,i1 ,,ii1 ,,iv71 and ,aristotle's ,ethics 7esp4 books4 ,i and ,,ii74 ,for refinements in the definition of right and wrong1 see ,g4 ,e4 ,moore1 ,ethics1 chaps4 ,i-,v2 ,b4 ,russell1 ,philosophical ,essays1 ,i1 secs4 ,,ii1 ,,iii4 ,international ,journal of ,ethics1 vol4 #bd1 p4 #bic4 ,definitions of value without reference to pleasure or pain will be found in ,journal of ,philosophy1 ,psychology1 and ,scientific ,methods1 vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #bi1 #aac1 #ada4 ,an elaborate and careful discussion will be found in ,g4 ,h4 ,palmer's ,nature of ,goodness4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,the ,,meaning ,,of ,,duty ,why are there conflicts between duty and inclination8 ,,if virtue is simply conduct that makes most truly for happiness1 why are not all but fools virtuous8 ,the answer is1 in a word1 because what will bring about the greatest good in the long run1 and to the most people1 is not always what the individual desires at the moment4 ,the two great temptations are the lure of the selfish and the lure of the immediate4 ,to purchase one's own happiness at the expense of others1 and to purchase present satisfaction by an act which will bring less good in the end-these are the cardinal sins1 and under these two heads every specific sin can be put4 ,the root of the trouble is that1 in spite of the superposition of conscience upon their primitive impulses1 human organisms have not yet motor-mechanisms fully adjusted to their individual or combined needs4 ,some instincts are over-strong1 others under-developed1 none is delicately enough attuned to the changing possibilities of the situation4 ,our desires tug toward all sorts of acts which would prove disastrous either to ourselves or others4 ,many of our faults we commit without realizing it2 we follow our impulses blindly1 unconscious of their treachery4 ,other sins we commit knowingly1 because in spite of warning voices we cannot resist the momentary desire4 ,readjustment of our impulses is always painful2 it is easier and pleasanter to yield than to control4 ,duty is the name we give virtue when she is opposed to inclination4 ,she is the representative at the helm of our conduct of all absent or undeveloped impulses4 ,the saints have no need of the concept2 virtue to them is easy and agreeable2 they have learned the beauty of holiness and have no unruly longings4 ,sometimes this happy adjustment of desire to need has been won by severe struggle2 the dangerous impulses have been trained to come to heel through many a painful sacrifice4 ,in other cases an approximation to this ideal state is the result of early training2 by skillful guidance the growing boy or girl has had his safe impulses fostered and his perilous desires atrophied with disuse4 ,the proverb1 ,bring up a child in the way he should go1 and when he is old he will not depart there from1 has much truth in it4 ,but no parent and no man himself can ever breathe quite safe2 we can never tell when some submerged animal instinct will rise up in us1 stun all our laboriously acquired morality into inactivity1 and bring on consequences that in any cool headed moment we should have known enough to avoid4 ,thus duty1 although she is the truest friend and servant of happiness1 figures as her foe4 ,and some moralists1 realizing vividly the frequent need of opposing inclination1 have generalized the situation by saying that happiness cannot be our end4 ,foolish ,word-monger and ,motive grinder1 shouts ,carlyle1 who in thy ,logic-mill hast an earthly mechanism for the ,godlike itself1 and wouldst fain grind me out ,virtuefrom the husks of ,pleasure1 ,i tell thee1 ,nay6 ,is the heroic inspiration we name ,virtue but some ,passion1 some bubble of the blood1 bubbling in the direction others ,,profit by8 ,i know not2 only this ,i know1 ,if what thou namest ,happiness be our true aim1 then are we all astray4 ',happy1' my brother8 ,first of all1 what difference is it whether thou art happy or not6 ',happiness our being's end and aim1' all that very paltry speculation is at bottom1 if we will count well1 not yet two centuries old in the world ,footnote3 ,sartor ,resartus3 ,the ,everlasting ,no ,past and ,present3 ,happy ,leaving aside this last statement1 which is an irrelevant untruth1 we probably feel an instinctive sympathy with ,carlyle1 and a sort of shame that we should have thought of happiness as the goal of conduct4 ,carlyle goes so far in his tirades as to call our happiness-morality a pig philosophy1 which makes the universe out to be a huge swine's trough from which mankind is trying to get the maximum pigs wash4 ,again he calls it a ,mechanical ,profit-and-,loss theory ,in such picturesque language he embodies a point of view which in milder terms has been expressed by many4 ,but to say that we must often oppose inclination in the name of duty is by no means to say that we must do what in the end will make against happiness4 ,the trouble with inclination and passion is precisely that they are often ruiners of happiness4 ,the very real and frequent opposition of desire and duty is no support of the view that duty is irrelevant to happiness1 but quite consistent with the rational account of morality-that dates at least back to the ancient ,greeks-which shows it to be the means to man's most lasting and widespread happiness4 ,must we deny that duty is the servant of happiness8 ,we may go on to point out various flaws in the doctrine1 of which ,carlyle is one of the extreme representatives1 that the account of morality as a means to happiness is immoral and leads to shocking results4 7#a7 ,the plausibility of the doctrine rests largely on its confusion with the very different truth that we should not make happiness our conscious aim4 ,it is one of the surest fruits of experience that happiness is best won by forgetting it2 he that loses his life shall truly find it4 ,to think much of happiness slides inevitably over into thinking too much of present happiness1 and more of one's own than others' happiness2 it leads to what ,spencer properly dubs the pursuit of happiness without regard to the conditions by fulfillment of which happiness is to be achieved4 ,carlyle is practically on the right track in bidding us think rather of duty1 of work1 of accomplishment4 ,but that is far from denying that these aims have their ultimate justification in the happiness they forward4 ,in order that remote ends may be attained1 it is often necessary to cease thinking of them and concentrate the mind upon immediate means4 ,to acquire unconsciousness of manner1 the last thing to do is to aim directly for it2 to acquire happiness1 the worst procedure is to make it one's conscious quest4 ,yet in the former case the attainment of the ease of manner sought1 and in the latter case the attainment of the happiest life for one's self and those whom one's action affects is the touchstone which at bottom determines the method to be adopted4 ,the proper method1 we contend1 is-morality4 ,it is the method that ,carlyle recommends4 ,so that in practice we agree with him1 while parting with him in theory4 7#b7 ,carlyle evidently has in mind usually the thought that it is one's own happiness only that is put up as the end by the moralists he opposes4 ,this was pure misunderstanding1 however1 or perversity4 ,other men's happiness has intrinsic worth 7or ,,is intrinsic worth1 for the word and the phrase are synonymous7 as truly as mine2 and morality is concerned quite as much with guiding the individual toward the general good as toward his own ultimate welfare4 ,to this point we must return1 merely mentioning here the fact that no reputable moralist now preaches the selfish theory4 7#c7 ,a part of ,carlyle's ammunition consists in the slurring connotations which have grown up about the word pleasure1 and even the word happiness4 ,because of the practical need of opposing immediate in the interests of remoter good1 the various words that designate intrinsic and immediate value have come to have a less worthy sound in our ears than those words which indicate control for the sake of more widespread or lasting interests-such as prudence1 duty1 and virtue4 ,moreover1 the word pleasures commonly connotes the minor goods of life in contrast with the great joys1 such as the accomplishment of some worthy task or the service of those we love4 ,again1 it commonly connotes things passively enjoyed1 rather than the active joys of life1 which are practically more important4 ,so that to condemn pleasure as an end arouses our instinctive sympathy4 ,a pleasure is any bit of immediate good1 however involved with pain1 however transitory1 and dangerous in its effects4 ,happiness generally refers to a more permanent state of satisfaction1 including comparative freedom from pain2 a stable and assured state of intrinsic worth1 good to reflection as well as to sense4 ,pleasures are easy enough to get1 but this safe state of happiness1 full of rich positive worth1 and immune from pain both in action and in moments of retrospect1 is far from easy4 ,hence it is better to use the word happiness for our goal than the word pleasure4 ,carlyle1 however1 takes happiness in the lower sense and rejects it in favor of what he calls blessedness4 ,this gives him the advantage of seeming to have a new and superior theory4 ,but when we ask what blessedness is1 it is apparent that it can be nothing but what we call happiness or the living of life in such a way as to lead to happiness4 7#d7 ,there is another important practical insight underlying the protests of ,carlyle and those of his ilk1 namely1 that it pays to disregard the minor ills and discomforts of life and keep our thoughts fixed on the big things4 ,these minor ills do not matter much as they pass2 they are transient1 and usually leave little pain for reflection4 ,it is the fear of them1 the complaining about them1 the shrinking from them1 the attending to them1 that constitutes the greater part of their badness4 ,carlyle has the same practical common sense that the ,christian ,scientists show2 but1 as in their case1 he lets his practical wisdom confuse his theoretical insight4 ,sympathize1 then1 as we all must with these anti-happiness preachers1 we may point out that their intuitions are quite compatible with a sane view of the ultimate meaning of morality4 ,if morality does not exist for human welfare1 what is it good for8 ,and what else can welfare ultimately be but happiness8 ,other proposed ends we shall presently consider4 ,but the happiness-account of morality leads to no dangerous laxity4 ,if any eudemonistic moralists have lived loosely1 it was because they did not realize what really makes for happiness or had not strength of will to cleave to it1 not because they saw happiness as the criterion4 ,an immature perception of this as the criterion without a full recognition of its bearings may have misled some2 it is possible to see a general truth clearly and yet evaluate wrongly in concrete situations4 ,but the converse of the truth that morality makes for happiness is the truth that the way to attain happiness is morality4 ,no lesson could be more salutary4 ,correct concrete evaluations are more important than correct abstract generalizations1 and ,carlyle is nearly always on the right side in the former4 ,but his influence would have been still more wholesome if he had added to his sound sermonizing a sane and clearly analyzed theory4 ,does the end justify the means8 ,our account of morality may be called the eudemonistic account1 from the ,greek eudemonia1 happiness1 or the teleological account1 from telos1 an end4 ,it asserts1 that is1 that morality is to be judged by the end it subserves2 that end is happiness4 ,we have seen the sort of protest that arises with respect to the word happiness4 ,we may now note a danger that arises from the use of the concept end2 it finds expression in the familiar proverb1 ,the end justifies the means4 ,conduct is to be judged by the end it subserves2 therefore1 if the end is good any means may be used to attain it4 ,this has been the defense of much wrongdoing4 ,the ,jesuits who lied1 slandered1 cheated1 and murdered1 to promote the interests of the ,church1 the ,mc,namara brothers1 who dynamited buildings and bridges as a means toward the final end of attaining for laborers a just share of the fruits of their labor1 the suffragettes who have been burning private houses1 sticking up mail-boxes1 and breaking windows1 have justified their crimes by reference to the great ends they expected thereby to attain4 ,what shall we say to this plea8 7#a7 ,the motto means3 ,conduct in itself undesirable may be justified ,,if the end attained is important enough to warrant it4 ,in every case1 then1 the question must arise3 ,is the end to be attained worth the cost8 ,to justify means that are intrinsically bad1 it must be shown that the end attained is so good as to overbalance this evil4 ,,was the advancement of the ,church worth the cost in human suffering1 estrangement1 and bitterness that the ,jesuits exacted8 ,,is the advancement of labor interests worth the destruction of property and life1 the fostering of class-enmity and of moral anarchism that the criminal wing of the ,i4 ,w4 ,w4 stands for8 ,,are votes for women worth the similar evils which ,british suffragettes are drifting into8 ,sometimes a cause is so important that almost any act is justified in its advancement4 ,but such cases are rare1 at least in modern life4 ,always there must be a balancing of good and evil4 ,and the trouble with the attitude of mind which we have illustrated is that the end sought is usually not so all-important as to warrant the grave evils which its seekers cause4 ,when the ,titanic was sinking1 the boat's officers shot several men who tried to jump into the lifeboats ahead of the women and children4 ,it was probably the only way to stop a mad panic stricken rush1 which would have endangered the lives of all as well as broken the chivalrous code which is worth so much sacrifice4 ,the evil of shooting down unarmed and frightened men was great2 but it was undoubtedly justified by the end attained4 ,whether any of the other instances mentioned are cases where the evil done would be similarly justified by the end1 if thereby attained1 we shall not here discuss4 ,but the principle is evident4 ,the end justifies evil means only if it is so supremely good as to overbalance that evil4 7#b7 ,it is pertinent1 however1 to add two considerations4 ,first1 we must feel sure that no less harmful means are available4 ,and secondly1 we must feel sure that these evil means are really adapted to attain the purpose4 ,is there no other way of securing votes for women than by the hysterical and criminal pranks our ,british sisters have been playing8 ,and will those irritating acts actually forward their cause1 or tend to bring about a revulsion of feeling8 ,did the crimes of the ,jesuits make the ,church triumphant8 ,not in the long run4 ,immediate gains may often be won by unpleasant methods1 as in the case of the ,titanic4 ,but when the struggle is bound to be a long one1 as in the case of woman's suffrage and industrial justice1 methods which 7not to beg the question7 would ordinarily be criminal are seldom in the end advantageous4 ,the ,mc,namara case hurt the ,i4 ,w4 ,w4 sorely4 ,suffrage legislation has possibly been retarded in ,britain4 ,and in both cases there are probably more efficacious1 as well as less harmful1 ways of attaining the desired end4 7#c7 ,it is strictly true that ,,the end1 human welfare1 justifies any means necessary to attain it4 ,whatever pain must be caused to bring about the greatest possible human happiness is thereby exempt from reprobation4 ,whatever conduct is necessary for that supreme end ,,becomes morality1 or virtue2 for that is precisely what morality ,,is4 ,for example1 it is undoubtedly necessary at times to murder1 to steal1 and to lie for the sake of human welfare2 in such cases these acts are universally approved4 ,only1 we give the acts in such cases new names1 that the words murder1 etc1 may retain their air of reprobation4 ,we call murder of which we approve capital punishment or justifiable homicide or patriotic courage4 ,if taking a man's property without his consent is stealing1 then the ,state steals2 but1 approving the act1 we call it eminent domain4 7#d7 ,the motto has its chief danger1 perhaps1 in the tendency it encourages to ignore remoter consequences for the sake of immediate gain4 ,this point we will consider under the following topic4 ,what is the justification of justice and chivalry8 ,if the greatest total of human happiness is the supreme end of conduct1 was not ,caiaphas right in deeming it expedient that one man should die for the people1 even though he were innocent of all sin8 ,were not the ,french army officers sane in preferring to make ,dreyfus their scapegoat rather than bring dishonor and shame upon their army8 ,for that matter1 does not the aggregate of enjoyment of a score of cannibals outweigh the suffering of the one man whom they have sacrificed to their appetite1 or the delirious excitement with which a brutal crowd witnesses a lynching overbalance the pain of their solitary victim8 ,yet our souls revolt against such things4 ,we cry1 ruat caelum1 fiat justitia6 ,justice is prior to all expediency6 ,is this irrational1 or can it be shown to be teleologically justifiable8 ,justice is undoubtedly justifiable2 and the only reason that we ever hesitate to acknowledge it in any concrete case is that we tend to overlook indirect and remote results and see only the immediate effect of action4 ,the harm done by injustice consists not merely in the pain inflicted upon the victim4 ,there is the sympathetic pain caused in all those who are at all tender hearted4 ,there is the sense of insecurity caused in each by the realization that he too might some day be a victim2 when justice is not enforced no man is safe4 ,there is the stimulation given to human passions by one indulgence which will breed a whole crop of pain4 ,there is the danger that if injustice is allowed in one case where a great good seems to warrant it1 it will be practiced in other cases where no such necessity exists4 ,men are not to be trusted to judge clearly of relative advantages where their passions are concerned2 they must bind themselves by an inflexible code4 ,the cases cited are comparatively clear4 ,no one would seriously contend that cannibalism or lynching1 the execution of ,christ1 or the banishment of ,dreyfus1 made in the direction of the greatest happiness of mankind4 ,but it has been seriously urged that the insane and the feeble and the morally worthless should be killed off1 as they were in some sterner ancient states4 ,why should we guarantee life and liberty to such as are a useless drag upon the community1 spend upon them millions which might be spent for bringing joy and recreation to the rest of us8 ,or again1 if medical men need a living human victim to experiment upon1 in order to conquer some devastating disease1 why not pounce upon some good-for-nothing member of the community and force him to undergo the pain8 ,the considerations enumerated in the preceding paragraph1 however1 bid us halt4 ,imagine the anxiety and the anguish that would be caused if some commission were free to determine who were insane or feeble or worthless enough to be put out of the way6 ,or free to select a human victim for vivisection whenever experts deemed it wise6 ,the widespread horror and uneasiness of such a regime1 the callousness to suffering it would engender1 the private revenges and crimes that might insidiously creep in under the guise of public good1 are alone enough to render vicious such a procedure4 ,it is true that one person's suffering is less of an evil than the suffering of many4 ,the ,state1 by universal consent1 inflicts undeserved suffering upon individuals when the social welfare seems to require it2 as when it takes away a man's beloved acre to built a railroad or highway1 or when it compels vaccination1 or when it drafts soldiers for the national defense and sends them to their death4 ,when a man volunteers to risk his life or to endure pain for his fellows we rightly applaud his act4 ,in such a case the ill effects above-mentioned do not follow1 and the gain is clear2 in addition1 the stimulating value of the voluntary self-sacrifice is great4 ,the ,american soldiers1 who risked their lives to rid ,cuba and the world of yellow fever1 by offering themselves for inoculation with the disease1 stand among the world's heroes4 ,it is also true that rights are not primitive and transcendent2 their existence rests upon purely utilitarian grounds4 ,the right to liberty and life is limited by the community's welfare4 ,so is the right to property4 ,but in estimating advantage we must beware of a superficial calculation4 ,the concept of justice1 and the enthusiasm for it1 have been of enormous value to man's happiness4 ,it is of extreme importance1 from a eudaemonistic standpoint1 to cherish that ideal4 ,even if in some individual case a greater general happiness would result from infringing upon it1 we cannot afford to do so2 we should find ourselves lapsing into less advantageous habits and incurring unforeseen penalties4 ,chivalry is in like case with justice4 ,it might have seemed better for the world that the able and distinguished men should have been saved from the ,titanic-some of them were men of considerable importance in various lines of work-rather than less-needed women4 ,but the effect of the noble example in strengthening the will to sacrifice self for others1 and in maintaining our beautiful devotion to woman1 was worth the cost4 ,fox was right when he said1 ,example avails ten times more than precept4 ,even if the loss had been greater than it was1 it would have been better to incur it than to allow an exception to the code of chivalry4 ,such codes are formed with infinite pains and are very easily shattered2 a little laxity here1 a tolerated exception there1 and the selfishness and passions of men rise to the surface and undo the work of years4 ,,at ,,all ,,costs ,,we ,,must ,,maintain ,,the ,,code4 ,in the end it pays4 ,the greatest genius must run the risk of drowning in the endeavor to save the life of some unknown person who may be a worthless scamp4 ,he may die and the scamp live1 a great loss to the world4 ,but only so can the code of honor be maintained which in the long run adds so much positive joy to man and saves him from so much pain4 ,in most instances1 though not in some of those cited1 the reward of justice and chivalry is sufficient for the individual himself4 ,as ,socrates said to ,theodoras1 ,footnote3 ,plato1 ,theoetetus1 #agf4 ,the penalty of injustice cannot be escaped4 ,they do not see1 in their infatuation1 that they are growing like the one and unlike the other1 by reason of their evil deeds2 and the penalty is1 that they lead a life answering to the pattern which they resemble4 ,on the other hand1-to supplement ,plato with ,emerson1 ,footnote3 ,essays1 ,first ,series3 ,spiritual ,laws4 ,cf4 ,george ,eliot1 in ,romola3 ,the contaminating effect of deeds often lies less in the commission than the hero the avowal of a just and brave act1 it will go unwitnessed and unloved4 ,one knows it himself and is pledged by it to sweetness of peace and to nobleness of aim1 which will prove in the end a better proclamation of it than the relating of the incident4 ,and1 we may add1 a greater joy4 ,but even in view of the cases where no apparent compensation comes to the individual1 the ideals of justice and chivalry1 like the more general concept of duty1 are among the most valuable possessions of man's fashioning4 ,cross our inclinations as they often do1 cost dearly as they sometimes will1 the habit of unquestioning allegiance to them is one of the greatest of all gains as means to the attainment by mankind of a stable and assured happiness4 ,a brief discussion of the conflict of duty and inclination will be found in ,dewey and ,tufts1 ,ethics1 chap4 ,,xvii1 first few pages4 ,carlyle's declamations against happiness are too scattered and unsystematic to make reference to specific chapters useful4 ,the general point of view may be found1 more temperately stated1 in ,f4 ,h4 ,bradley's ,ethical ,studies1 the chapter entitled ,why ,should ,i be ,moral8 ,contemporary accounts of the nature of obligation will be found in the ,international ,journal of ,ethics1 vol4 #bb1 p4 #bhb2 vol4 #bc1 pp4 #adc1 #cbc4 ,a discussion of the motto1 ,the end justifies the means will be found in ,f4 ,paulsen's ,system of ,ethics1 book ,,ii1 and chap4 ,i1 sec4 #d4 ,the justification of justice is treated in ,j4 ,s4 ,mill's ,utilitarianism1 chap4 ,v4 in the consequent adjustment of our desires1 the enlistment of our self-interest on the side of falsity4 ,the purifying influence of public confession springs from the fact that by it the hope in lies is forever swept away1 and the soul recovers the noble attitude of simplicity4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,the ,,judgment ,,of ,,character ,wherein consists goodness of character8 ,character is the sum of a man's tendencies to conduct4 ,our estimate of a man's character is a sort of weather forecast of what he will do in various situations4 ,goodness of character consists1 then1 of such an organization of impulses as will lead to good acts-to acts productive ultimately of a preponderance of intrinsic good1 or happiness4 ,the blame and approval that attaches in our minds to certain acts becomes attached also to the disposition that is fruitful of such acts4 ,a good man is he whose mind is so set and adjusted that it will turn away from evil deeds and espouse the right4 ,we can say1 then1 with ,dewey and ,tufts1 ,goodness consists in active interest in those things which really bring happiness4 ,footnote3 ,ethics1 p4 #cif4 ,similarly1 ,paulsen writes1 ,virtues may be defined as habits of the will and modes of conduct which tend to promote the welfare of individual and collective life4 ,footnote3 ,system of ,ethics1 ,eng4 p4 #dge4 ,and ,santayana puts it more tersely in the statement1 ,goodness is that disposition that is fruitful in happiness4 ,footnote3 ,reason in ,common ,sense1 p4 #add4 ,it is easy1 then1 to understand the enthusiasm that men feel for goodness2 it is the resultant of the passionate longing to be delivered from the domination of evil impulses1 the instinctive joy in splendid and unselfish acts1 the sense of relief and gratitude felt toward those from whom one has nothing to fear4 ,contrariwise1 the shrinking from a bad man springs primarily from the dread of what he may do1 from the disgust which the sight of his foolish and ruinous acts inspires and from various other reactions of the spectator which we need not enumerate4 ,if character were a sort of merely inward possession1 unconnected with conduct1 we should not ,jeel thus toward it4 ,merely to ,,feel virtuous is pleasant1 but it is not important4 ,imputed goodness must be judged by the kind of conduct it yields1 and that conduct in turn by its consequences4 ,by their fruits ye shall know them4 ,but this inward disposition1 though important chiefly for its effects1 is more important therefore than we are apt to realize4 ,as a man thinketh in his heart1 so he is4 ,the scientific study of psychology has emphasized the fact1 which is open to everyday observation1 that even secret thoughts and moods influence inevitably a man's outward acts4 ,what we do depends upon what we have been thinking and imagining and feeling4 ,the ,great ,teacher was right when he bade men refrain not merely from murder1 but from angry thoughts2 not merely from adultery1 but from lustful glances2 not merely from perjury1 but from the desire to deceive4 ,epictetus puts it1 ,what we ought not to do we should not even think of doing4 ,and ,marcus ,aurelius writes1 ,we should accustom ourselves to think upon othing that we should hesitate to reveal to others if they asked to know it4 ,this is sound advice4 ,without attempting to settle the problem of determinism or indeterminism1 which falls properly within the sphere of natural rather than of moral philosophy1 it is evident that our conduct is largely the result of that set of potentialities which we call character1 that our happiness is in great degree shaped by our inward mental states4 ,hence the large role of motive and intent in ethical theory4 ,high motives and good intentions lead-sometimes to disastrous1 acts we know what place is paved therewith4 ,we need the wisdom of the serpent as well as the innocence of the dove4 ,but other things being equal1 pure desires tend to right conduct4 ,a man whose mind dwells upon the good side of his neighbors1 who loves and sympathizes1 and enjoys their friendship1 will be far less likely to give vent to acts of cruelty or malice than one who indulges in spiteful feelings1 fault finding1 and resentment4 ,our habitual thoughts and desires make us responsive to certain stimuli and indifferent to others4 ,the words of our mouth and the meditations of our heart1 as well as the trifling acts that we perform1 in themselves however unimportant1 have their subtle and accumulative influence in determining our momentous acts4 ,the familiar case of the drinker who says1 ,this glass doesn't count can be paralleled in every field of life4 ,it pays to keep in moral training1 to cultivate kindly and disciplined thoughts1 to forbid ill natured and unworthy feelings1 and self-indulgent dreams4 ,otherwise before we know it the barriers of resistance will crumble and we shall do what we had never supposed we should do1 some act that is the fruit of our unregulated inner life4 ,footnote3 ,cf4 ,george ,eliot in ,romola3 ,tito 7who1 having posed as a rich and noble gentleman1 being unexpectedly confronted with his plebeian father1 on the spur of the moment disowned him with the merciless words1 ,some madman1 surely67 ,was experiencing that inexorable law of human souls1 that we prepare ourselves for sudden deeds by the reiterated choice of good or evil that gradually determines character4 ,can we say1 with ,kant1 that the only good is the ,good ,will8 ,it is not uncommon for instrumental goods to come to receive a homage greater than that which is paid to the ends they serve4 ,it is notably and necessarily so with the various aspects of the concept of morality2 virtue1 conscience1 goodness of character are actually more important for us to think about and aim for than the happiness to which they ultimately minister4 ,but this apotheosis denial of its fundamentally instrumental value4 ,as with the miser who rates his bank notes more highly than the goods he could purchase with them1 an abstract moralist occasionally exalts the means at the expense of the end4 ,we are told that only goodness counts2 that its worth has nothing to do with its relation to happiness2 that goodness would command our allegiance even if it brought nothing but misery in its train4 ,the best-known exponent of this blind worship of goodness is ,kant4 ,he writes1 ,a ,good ,will is good1 not because of what it performs or effects1 not by its aptness for the attainment of some proposed end1 but simply by virtue of the volition2 that is1 it is good in itself ,its fruitfulness or fruitlessness can neither add nor take away anything from this value 444 ,moral worth 444 cannot lie anywhere but in the principle of the ,will1 without regard to the ends which can be attained by the action4 ,footnote3 ,the ,metaphysic of ,morality4 ,to be found in ,kant's ,theory of ,ethics1 trans4 by ,abbott1 pp4 #aj1 #af4 ,so far does ,kant carry this worship of the idea of goodness that he separates it from the several virtues that make up goodness in the concrete and bows down before the resulting bare abstraction ,good ,will1 the will to do good4 ,this leads him to a curiously dehumanized position4 ,prudential acts1 he declares1 are obviously good in their consequences2 they therefore deserve no praise2 whatever one does calculatingly1 with view to future results1 has no moral worth4 ,and on the other hand1 whatever good acts one does instinctively1 pushed on by animal impulses1 including love and sympathy1 deserve no praise and have no moral worth4 ,it is only what one does from the single motive of desiring to do the right that awakens ,kant's enthusiasm4 ,the preservation of one's own life1 for instance1 is a duty2 but1 as every one has a natural inclination to which most men usually devote to this object has no intrinsic value1 nor the maxim from which they act any moral import4 ,footnote3 ,the ,metaphysic of ,morality1 sec4 ,i4 ,what shall we say to this8 7#a7 ,kant's statements are a mere crystallization of an unanalyzed feeling2 their plausibility rests upon our ingrained enthusiasm for goodness4 ,but if that enthusiasm be challenged1 how shall we justify it8 ,how do we know that good will is good1 unless we can see ,,why it is good8 ,many other things appeal to our instincts as good2 may not this particular judgment be mistaken1 or may not all these other things be equally good with good will8 ,kant's ,hebraic training is clearly revealed in his exaltation of good will2 it reflects the practical ,lebensweisheit we have learned from the ,bible4 ,to the ,greek it would have been foolishness1 fanaticism4 ,we want not only good will1 but wisdom1 sympathy1 skill1 common sense4 ,also we want health1 love1 wives and children1 friends1 and congenial work4 ,all of these things are part of the worth of life4 ,what would it profit us if we lost all these and had only our good will6 ,footnote3 ,a reduction ad absurdum of the ,kantian view may be found in ,cardinal ,newman's statement of the ,catholic ,christian view4 ,the ,church holds that it were better for sun and moon to drop from heaven1 for the earth to fall1 and for all the many millions who are upon it to die of starvation in extremist agony1 so far as temporal affliction goes1 than that one soul1 ,i will not say should be lost1 but should commit one single venial sin1 should tell one willful untruth1 though it harmed no one1 or steal one poor farthing without excuse4 7,anglican ,difficulties1 p4 #aij47 ,the valuation that ignores all natural goods but one is unreal1 inhuman1 fanatical2 it leads when unchecked to the emasculated life of the anaemic mediaeval saint or anchorite4 ,kant's eloquent eulogy of good will appeals to one of our noblest impulses2 but that impulse is as much in need of justification to the reason as any other1 and it is only one of a number of equally healthy and justifiable natural preferences4 ,good will1 the desire to do right1 is perhaps1 on the whole1 ,,in ,,the ,,emergency1 a safer guide to trust than warm-blooded impulse or reasoned calculation4 ,moreover1 it has a thin1 precarious existence in most of us at best1 and needs all the encouragement it can get4 ,practically1 we need ,kant's kind of sermonizing2 we need to exalt abstract goodness and resist the appeal of immediate and sensuous goods4 ,so ,kant has been popular with earnest men more interested in right living than in theory4 ,but as a theorist he is hopelessly inadequate4 7#b7 ,it is true that we admire good will without consideration of the effects it produces1 and even when it leads to disaster4 ,but if good will ,,usually led to disaster we should never have come to admire it4 ,chance enters into this world's happenings and often upsets the normal tendencies of acts4 ,but we have to act in ways that may normally be expected to produce good results4 ,and we have to admire and cherish that sort of action1 in spite of the margin of loss4 ,the admiration that we have come to feel for goodness is partly the result of social tradition1 buttressing the code that in the long run works out to best advantage2 and partly1 of course1 the spontaneous emotion that rises in us at the sight of courage1 heroism1 self-sacrifice1 and the other spectacular virtues4 ,but however naive or sophisticated a reaction it may be1 its psychogenesis is perfectly intelligible1 ,u and its existence is no proof of the supernal nature of the goodness of good will4 7#c7 ,kant argues as follows3 ,nothing can possibly be conceived1 in the world or out of it1 which can be called good ,,without ,,qualification1 except a good will4 ,footnote3 ,op4 cit1 sec4 ,i4 ,he goes on to show that wit1 courage1 perseverance1 etc1 are all bad if the will that makes use of them is bad as in the case of a criminal2 while health1 riches1 honor1 etc1 may inspire pride or presumption1 and so not be unmitigated thing that can in every case be called good4 ,but is this so8 ,may not a man have good will and yet do much mischief8 ,if courage1 wit1 etc1 need to be employed by good will1 so does good will need to be joined with common sense1 knowledge1 tact1 and many other helpers4 ,good will is good only if it is sanely and wisely directed2 else it may go with all sorts of fanaticism4 ,if one says1 ,it is still good qua good will1 we may reply1 ,yes1 but so are all goods2 courage is always good qua courage1 knowledge qua knowledge1 etc4 ,all harmless joys are good without qualification1 and all goods whatever are good except as they get in the way of some greater good or lead to trouble4 7#d7 ,kant's formula good will is ambiguous4 ,,of ,,course a ,,good act of will is good2 that is a mere tautology1 and gives us no guidance whatever4 ,which acts of will ,,are good is our problem4 ,kant1 however1 worked out his empty formula into a concrete maxim1 ,act as if the maxim of thy action were to become by thy will a universal law of nature4 ,but how should we ,,wish others to act in the given situation8 ,it would be quite possible for a lustful man to be willing that unrestrained lust should be the general rule2 he would be much more comfortable and freer if it were4 ,there is nothing in the law of consistency to direct him2 men might be consistently bad as well as consistently good4 ,we have still no criterion1 only an appeal to coolness1 to detachment from hot impulses and selfishness4 ,practically1 what the ,kantian viewpoint amounts to is an exaltation of conscience-a much more concrete 7and variable7 thing than this abstract formula4 ,do your duty1 at any cost6 ,our hearts respond to such preaching1 but our intellects remain perplexed1 if the practical apotheosis of goodness is not supplemented by an adequate theoretic justification thereof4 ,what evils may go with conscientiousness8 ,at this point it may repay us to note more carefully the inadequacy of that mere blind conscientiousness which is the practical burden of the ,kantian teaching4 ,one would think that the only source of our troubles lay in our lack of desire to do right6 ,as a matter of fact1 there is a vast amount of good will in the world which effects no good1 or does serious harm1 for want of wise direction4 ,much of the tragedy of life consists of the clashes between wills equally consecrated and pure4 ,conscientious cranks and blunderers are perhaps even more of a nuisance than out-and-out villains2 they hurt every good cause they espouse and bring noble ideals into ridicule2 they provoke discouragement and cynicism4 ,there is hardly a folly or a crime that has not been committed prayerfully and with a clear conscience2 the saint and the criminal are sometimes psychologically indistinguishable indeed1 by which name we call a fanatic may depend upon which side we are on4 ,we may discriminate among the types of perverted conscience3 7#a7 ,the fanatical conscience1 the meddling conscience1 that feels a mission to stir up trouble4 ,under this head come the parents who interfere needlessly with their children's ways when different from their own1 the breakers-up of love-affairs1 the fault-finders1 the militantly religious1 all that great multitude of men who with prayer and tears have felt it their duty to override others' wills and impose their codes upon the world4 7#b7 ,the obstructive conscience1 that has become set and will not suffer change4 ,here we can put all the earnest stand-patters1 who resist innovation of every sort4 ,slaves of the particular standards that they happen to have grown up in1 unable to conceive that their individual brand of religion may not be the ultimate truth1 horror-struck at the suggestion that we should forsake the ways of our fathers1 their conscientious conservatism stands like a rock in the way of progress4 7#c7 ,the ascetic conscience1 that overemphasizes the need of sacrifice1 and deletes all the positive joy of life for the sake of freedom from possible pain4 ,this particular misdirection of conscience is not prominent in contemporary life2 but at certain periods1 as among some of the mediaeval saints1 or the early ,puritans1 this hypertrophy of conscience has been a serious blight4 7#d7 ,the anxious conscience1 that magnifies trifles and gives us no rest with its incessant suggestions1 lest we forget1 lest we forget4 ,this type of over conscientiousness is a form of unhealthy self consciousness1 a bane to its possessor and a nuisance to every one within range4 ,these familiar evils that may go with the utmost good will show us that good will or conscientiousness is not enough4 ,the conscientious man may not only leave undone important duties2 his good will may lead him to push in exactly the wrong direction and do great harm4 ,there are thus two ways of judging a man4 ,first1 did he do the best he knew8 ,did he live up to his conscience8 ,secondly1 did he do what was really best8 ,was his conscience properly developed and directed8 ,our approval must often be divided2 we may rate him high by the standard of conscientiousness1 but low in his standard of morality4 ,this is the familiar distinction between what is objectively right and what is subjectively right4 ,an objectively right action is one such that1 if it be done1 the total value of the universe will be at least as great as if any other possible alternative had been done by the agent2 whereas it is subjectively right for the agent to do what he judges to be most probably objectively right on his information-whether he judges correctly or not4 ,footnote3 ,c4 ,d4 ,broad in ,international ,journal of ,ethics1 vol4 #bd1 pp4 #caf1 #cbj4 ,it may then be right 7in one sense7 for a man to do an act which is wrong 7in the other sense7 ,footnote3 ,strictly speaking1 there are four possible usages of the word right3 ,an act is right which 7a7 is actually going to have the best consequences2 which 7b7 might be expected1 on our best human knowledge1 to have the best consequences2 which 7c7 the actor1 on his partial information1 and with his partial powers of judgment1 expects to have the best consequences2 or which 7d7 his conscience approves1 without reference to consequences4 ,what is the justification of praise and blame8 ,kant was expressing a familiar thought when he wrote that a man deserved no praise for either instinctive or calculating acts4 ,why should we praise a man for doing what he wants to do1 what is the most natural and easy thing for him to do1 or what he can foresee will bring about desirable consequences8 ,should we not praise only the man who fights his inclinations1 does right when he does not want to1 and without foresight of ultimate gain8 ,as a matter of fact1 however1 we do praise and admire and love the saints who do right easily and graciously4 ,we do not refuse our admiration to ,christ because it was his meat and drink1 his deepest joy1 to do his ,father's work2 nor do we imagine him as having to wrestle with inner devils of spitefulness and ill-temper4 ,the type of character we rate highest is that from which all these lower impulses have been finally banished1 the character that inevitably seeks the pure and the good4 ,and on the other hand1 as we have just seen1 we often blame the man who1 with the noblest intentions1 and at great cost to himself1 does what we consider wrong4 ,it is thus true that our reactions of praise and blame are complicated and inconsistent4 ,we often praise a man and blame him at the same time2 praise him for following his conscience1 and blame him for having a narrow and distorted conscience to follow4 ,different people in a community will praise or blame him according as they consider this or that aspect of his conduct4 ,what1 then1 is the rationale of these emotion-reactions8 ,obviously1 the same natural forces which have produced morality have1 pari passu1 produced these emotions2 they are one of the great means by which men have been pushed into being moral4 ,we praise people1 ultimately1 because it is socially useful to praise them2 the approbation of one's fellows is one of the greatest possible incentives to right conduct4 ,we blame people that they and others may be thereby deterred from wrongdoing4 ,for ages these emotions have been arising in men's hearts1 veering their fellows toward moral action4 ,neither blamer nor blamed has realized the purpose nature may be said to have had in view2 the emotional reaction has been instinctive1 like sneezing4 ,but if it had not been for its eminent usefulness it would never have developed and become so deep-rooted in us4 ,if blame did no good1 if it did not tend to correct evildoing1 it would be an unhappy and undesirable state of mind1 to be weeded out1 like malice or discouragement4 ,praise might be kept for its intrinsic worth1 its agreeableness1 like sweet odors and pleasant colors4 ,but actually we need to conserve these reactions for their extrinsic value1 as spurs and correctives4 ,the man who acts upon a calculated expectation of consequences is1 indeed1 to be praised1 if the ends he has sought are good and his calculation correct4 ,prudence1 foresight1 thoughtfulness are among the most important virtues4 ,on the other hand1 the man who does right instinctively is to be most admired2 for to reach that goal is the aim of much of our inner struggle4 ,the approbation we heap upon him1 if not needed to keep him up to his best1 at least is beneficial to others1 who thereby may be stimulated to imitate his goodness4 ,any sort of conduct that is in line with human welfare is to be praised and loved and sung1 and kept before the minds of the young and plastic4 ,more deeply rooted1 perhaps1 than the disparagement of praise1 is the compassionate revulsion from blame4 ,he meant well2 ,his conscience is clear2 ,how could he help sinning with such a bringing-up6 such pleas pull us up in the midst of our condemnation4 ,and they must have their weight4 ,conscientiousness must be praised1 while in the same breath we blame the folly or fanaticism it led to4 ,and the visibly degrading effects of environment should make us tender toward the erring1 even while1 for their own sakes and the sake of others1 we continue to blame the sin4 ,society cannot afford to overlook sin because it sees provocation for it4 ,there is always provocation1 there are always causes outside the sinner's heart4 ,but there is also always a cause within the heart1 an openness to temptation1 and acquiescence in the evil impulse1 which we must try to reach and influence by our blame and condemnation4 ,no doubt in like circumstances we should do as badly1 or worse4 ,but to blame does not mean that we set ourselves up as of finer clay2 it means only that we continue to use a weapon of great value for the advancement of human welfare4 ,a man always could have helped it he could have if his inward aversion to the sin had been strong enough2 and it is precisely because blame tends to make that aversion stronger in the sinner and in all who are aware of it1 that we must employ it4 ,reward and punishment are the materialization of praise and blame and have the same uses4 ,we reward and punish men not because in some unanalyzable sense they deserve it1 but ultimately in order to foster noble and heroic acts and deter men from crime4 ,the giving of rewards for good conduct has never been systematized 7except for ,carnegie medals1 school prizes1 and a few other cases71 and the practical difficulties in the way are probably insuperable4 ,indeed1 the natural outward rewards of fame1 position1 increased salary1 etc1 would be spur enough1 if they could be made less capricious and more certain4 ,but to restrain its members from injury to one another is so necessary to society1 and so difficult1 that elaborate systems of punishment have been used since prehistoric times4 ,to a consideration of the contemporary problems concerning punishment we shall return at a later stage in our study4 ,what is responsibility8 ,there is one plea which exempts a person from blame- when we say he was not responsible4 ,responsibility means accountability1 liability to blame and punishment4 ,we do not hold accountable those classes whom it would do no good to blame or punish4 ,babies1 the feeble minded1 the insane1 are not deterred by blame2 hence we do not hold them responsible4 ,beyond these obvious exemptions there are all sorts of degrees of responsibility1 carefully worked out in that branch of the law known as torts4 ,the principle upon which man has instinctively gone1 and which the law now recognizes1 in holding men accountable or1 in other words1 imputing responsibility-is the degree in which they might have been expected to foresee the consequences of their acts4 ,the following set of cases will illustrate the principle3 7#a7 ,we do not hold a man responsible at all for unforeseeable results of his action4 ,if because of turning his cows into pasture a passing dog gets excited and tramples a neighbor's flower-bed1 the owner of the cows is not responsible for the damage2 it would do no good to exact punishment for what was so indirectly and unexpectedly due to his action4 7#b7 ,but if his cows got over the wall and trampled the beds1 he would be held responsible1 in different degrees1 according to the circumstances4 ,if he had inspected the wall with eyes of experience and honestly thought it would keep the cows in1 we deem him only slightly responsible4 ,he could have done nothing more2 yet he must learn more accurately to distinguish safe walls from unsafe4 ,it is fairer for him to pay for the damage than for the owner of the flower- bed to suffer the loss2 such risks must be assumed as a part of the business of keeping cows4 7#c7 ,if he was ignorant of the necessary height or strength of wall1 we blame him more4 ,he has no business-keeping cows until he knows all aspects of the business4 7#d7 ,if there was a gap in the wall which he would have noticed if he had taken ordinary care1 we hold him still further to blame1 and his punishment must be severer4 7#e7 ,if he remembered the gap in the wall and did not take the trouble to repair it1 thereby consenting to the damage his cows might do1 his case is still worse4 7#f7 ,finally1 if he deliberately turned the cows into his field with the hope that they would go through the gap and damage his neighbor's flower-beds1 he is the most dangerous type of criminal1 of malice aforethought1 and his punishment must be severest of all4 ,in such ways do we distinguish between traits of character more and more dangerous to society1 and adjust our blame and punishment to their different degrees of danger1 and the differing degrees of efficacy that the blame and punishment may have4 ,but throughout these are purely utilitarian1 an unhappy necessity for the preservation of human welfare4 ,on goodness of character3 ,dewey and ,tufts1 ,ethics1 chap4 ,,xii4 ,f4 ,paulsen1 ,system of ,ethics1 book ,,ii1 chap1 ,i1 secs4 #c1 #e4 ,leslie ,stephen1 ,science of ,ethics1 chap4 ,,vii4 ,the ,kantian theory3 ,kant's ,metaphysic of ,morality4 ,a good edition in ,english is ,abbott's ,kant's ,theory of ,ethics4 ,there are many discussions of his theory4 ,an interesting recent one is ,felix ,adler's1 in ,essays ,philosophical and ,psychological in ,honor of ,william ,james2 see also the chapter of ,dewey and ,tufts1 ,ethics1 above mentioned2 ,paulsen1 ,system of ,ethics1 book ,,ii1 chap4 ,v1 secs4 #c1 #d2 ,american ,journal of ,psychology1 vol4 #h1 p4 #ebh4 ,on responsibility3 ,mezes1 op4 cit1 pp4 #bi-ce4 ,sutherland1 op4 cit1 vol4 ,,ii1 chap4 ,,xviii4 ,alexander1 ,moral ,order and ,progress1 book ,,iii1 chap1 ,,iii1 sec4 ,,chapter ,x ,,the ,,solution ,,of ,,personal ,,problems ,,personal morality is the way to live the most desirable1 the most intrinsically valuable1 life-in the long run1 and in view of the inescapable needs and conditions of human welfare2 the way to avoid the snares and pitfalls of impulse and attain those sweetest goods that come only through effort and sacrifice of lesser goods4 ,that is what morality is1 with reference to the single individual alone1 and that is ample justification for it4 ,a recent writer phrases it as follows3 ,i would define goodness as doing what one would wish one had done in twenty years-twenty years1 twenty days1 twenty minutes1 twenty seconds1 according to the time the action takes to get ripe ,perhaps when we stop teasing people and take goodness seriously4 and calmly1 and see that goodness is essentially imagination that it is brains1 that it is thinking down through to what one really wants goodness will begin to be more coveted4 ,except among people with almost no brains or imagination at all1 it will be popular4 ,footnote3 ,gerald ,stanley ,lee4 ,cf4 also ,g4 ,lowes ,dickinson1 ,the ,meaning of ,good1 p4 #ada4 ,of morality he says3 ,its specific quality consists in the refusal to seize some immediate and inferior good with a view to the attainment of one that is remoter but higher4 ,the difference between the moral and the immoral man is not that the latter allows himself to enjoy pleasant and exciting phases of experience which the former denies himself for the sake of some good lying outside of experience1 but that the latter indulges himself in any agreeable sensation that he chances to desire1 while the former conflict with greater1 being content not with any goods that may come to hand1 but only with the attainable best4 ,footnote3 ,cf4 ,g4 ,santayana1 ,reason in ,science1 pp4 #beb-ec3 ,happiness is hidden from a free and casual will2 it belongs rather to one chastened by a long education and unfolded in an atmosphere of sacred and perfected institutions4 ,it is discipline that renders men rational and capable of happiness1 by suppressing without hatred what needs to be suppressed to attain a beautiful naturalness4 ,what are the inadequacies of instinct and impulse that necessitate morality8 ,it would seem as if the best way to live should be obvious and irresistible in its appeal4 ,but in truth we are commonly very blind and foolish about this business of living2 we lack wisdom1 and we lack motive-power at the right place4 ,instinct is altogether too clumsy and impulse too uncertain4 ,we need a more delicate adjustment2 for this1 intelligence and conscience have been developed4 ,morality is the way of life that intelligence and conscience oppose to instinct and impulse4 ,not to be guided by their wisdom is to forfeit our birthright1 like ,esau1 for a mere mess of pottage4 ,some of the main types of difficulty that necessitate their overruling guidance we may now note4 7#a7 ,our impulses are often deceptive4 ,what promises keen pleasure turns flat in the tasting2 what threatens pain may prove our greatest joy4 ,most men are led astray at one time or other by some delusory good1 some ignis fatuus-whoring1 money-making1 fame are among the commonest which has fascinated them1 from the thought of which they cannot tear themselves away1 but which brings no proportionate pleasure in realization1 or an evanescent pleasure followed by lasting regret4 ,pleasures are like poppies spread1 ,you seize the flow'r1 its bloom is shed4 ,all sorts of insidious consequences follow secretly in the train of innocent-seeming acts2 the value of following a given impulse is complicated in many ways of which the impulse itself does not inform us4 ,we are the frequent victims of a sort of inward mirage1 and have to learn to discount our hopes and fears4 ,morality is the corrector of these false valuatiens2 it discriminates for us between real and counterfeit goods1 teaches us to discount the pictures of our imagination and see the gnawed bones on the beach where the sirens sing4 7#b7 ,our impulses often clash4 ,and since1 as we have just said1 the relative worth to us of the acts is not always accurately represented by the impulses1 we need to stand off and compare them impartially4 ,no single passion must be allowed to run amuck2 the opposing voices1 however feeble1 must be heard4 ,when desires are at loggerheads1 when a deadlock of interests arises-an almost daily occurrence when life' is kept at a white heat-there must be some moderator1 some governing power4 ,morality is the principle of coordination1 the harmonizer1 the arbitrator of conflicting claims4 7#c7 ,we often lack impulses which would add much to the worth of our lives2 we are blind to all sorts of opportunities for rich and joyous living4 ,we need to develop our latent needs1 to expand our natures to their full potentiality1 to learn to love many things we have not cared for4 ,in general we ignore the joys that we have not ourselves experienced or imagined1 and those which belong to a different realm from that of our temporary enthusiasms4 ,a lovesick swain1 an opium fiend1 are utterly unable to respond to the lure of outdoor sport or the joy of the well-doing of work2 these joys1 though perhaps acknowledged as real possibilities for them1 fail to attract their wills1 touch no chord in them1 have no influence on their choices4 ,morality is the great eye-opener and insistent reminder of ignored goods4 7#d7 ,we often have perverted impulses4 ,we inherit disharmonies from other conditions of life1 like the vermiform appendix and the many other vestigial organs which have come down to us only for harm4 ,in general we inherit bodies and brains fairly well organized for our welfare2 but there are still atavisms to be ruthlessly stamped out4 ,the craving for stimulants or drugs1 sexual perversions1 kleptomania1 pyromania1 and the other manias1 bad temper1 jealousy- there is a good deal of the old ,adam in us which is just wholly bad and to be utterly done away with2 rebellious impulses that are hopelessly at war with our own good and must go the way of cannibalism and polygamy4 ,morality is the stern exterminator of all such enemies of human welfare4 ,what factors are to be considered in estimating the worth of personal moral ideals8 ,this summary consideration of the obstacles that block the path to happiness through the heedless following of impulse1 shows the necessity of moral ideals2 that is to say1 of directive codes which shall steer the will through the tumultuous seas of haphazard desire into the harbor of its true welfare4 ,how1 then1 can we decide between conflicting ideals and estimate their relative value8 ,it can only be by judging through experience the degree of happiness which they severally effect in the situations to which they are to be applied4 ,but there are many factors which contribute to or detract from that happiness in its totality2 and a proper estimation of ideals must note the degree in which they provide for each possible element of satisfaction4 7#a7 ,in the first place1 the mere fact of yielding to an impulse1 of whatever sort1 brings a relief from craving1 and a momentary satisfaction4 ,just to do what we wish to do is1 negatively at least1 a good2 and in so far every act desired is really desirable4 ,an ideal which crosses inclination must have this initial price debited against it4 ,at times the restlessness of pent-up longing is so great that it pays to gratify it even at some cost of pain or loss4 ,but in general1 desire can be modified to fit need2 and rational ideals rather than silly wishes must guide us4 ,it is dangerous to lay much stress on the urgency of desire1 and almost always possible with a little firmness to hush the blind yearning and replace it with more ultimately satisfying desires4 7#b7 ,normally1 however1 our desires represent real goods1 which must bulk much larger in our calculation than the mere relief of yielding to the impulse4 ,not only is it ipso facto good to have what we want1 but what we want is usually something that can directly or indirectly give us pleasure4 ,the pleasure1 then1 to be attained through following this or that impulse is to be estimated1 both in its intensity and its duration4 ,the certainty or uncertainty of its attainment may also legitimately be considered4 ,and this pleasure1 though it is but one phase of the total situation1 must be taken seriously into account in our appraisal of ideals which permit or forbid it4 7#c7 ,a further question is as to the purity of this pleasure1 i4e1 its freedom from mixture with pain4 ,most selfish and sensual pleasures1 however keen1 are so interwoven with restlessness1 shame1 or dissatisfaction1 or so inevitably accompanied by a revulsion of feeling1 disgust or loathing1 that they must be sharply discounted in our calculus4 ,whereas intellectual1 aesthetic1 religious pleasures are generally free from such intermixture of pain1 and so1 though milder1 on the whole preferable even in their immediacy and apart from ultimate consequences4 7#d7 ,but the most imperious need of life lies in the tracing-out and paying heed to these extrinsic values1 these after effects of conduct4 ,the drinking of alcoholic liquors1 for example1 not only stills a craving that arises in a man's mind1 not only brings pleasure of taste and comfort of oblivion1 not only brings the quick revulsion of emotional staleness and headache1 but has its gradual and inevitable effects in undermining the constitution1 lessening the power of resistance to disease1 and decreasing the vitality of offspring4 ,quite commonly these ultimate consequences are the most important1 and so the determining1 factors in deciding our ideals4 ,among them may be included the influence of single acts in increasing or decreasing the power to resist future temptations1 and the gradual paralysis of the will through unchecked self-indulgence4 7#e7 ,another important aspect of any moral situation lies in the rejection which every choice involves4 ,not only must we ask what a given impulse has to offer us1 in immediate and remote satisfaction2 we must consider what alternative goods its adoption precludes4 ,what might we have been doing with our time and strength or money8 ,is this act not only a good one1 is it the best one for that moment of our lives8 ,an important function of ideals is to point us to realms of happiness into which our preexisting impulses might never have led us1 and whose existence we might scarcely have suspected4 7#f7 ,finally1 we may ask of every proposed line of conduct1 what will be its worth to us in memory8 ,not only in our leisure hours1 but in a current of subconscious reflection that accompanies our active life1 we constantly live in the presence of our past4 ,and the nature of memory is such that it cannot well retain the traces of certain of our keenest pleasures1 but can continually feed us upon other joys of our past4 ,it is imperative1 then1 for a happy life1 so to live that the years are pleasant to look back upon4 ,vicious self-indulgence and selfishness are rarely satisfying in retrospection1 whereas all courage and heroism and tenderness are a source of unending comfort4 ,for better or worse1 we are1 and cannot shirk being1 judges of our own conduct4 ,we may be prejudiced1 and may properly try to correct our prejudices2 we may discount our own disapprovals1 and seek to escape from our own self- condemnation4 ,but after all1 we must live with ourselves2 and it pays to aim to please not only the evanescent impulses whose disapproval will soon be forgotten1 but that more deeply rooted and insistent judgment that cannot wholly be stilled4 ,regret and remorse are among the greatest poisoners of happiness1 and prospective ideals must bear that truth in mind4 ,no matter what other elements in any moment of consciousness may tend to give it agreeable tone1 if there is not the element of approval1 there is not yet any deep1 wide1 and lasting pleasantness for consciousness4 ,a flash of light here1 a casual word there1 and it is gone4 ,just when we are safest1 there's a sunset- touch2 ,a fancy from a flower-bell1 some one's death1 ,a chorus ending from ,euripides1 ,and that's enough to bring the shock of disapproval1 and with it disagreeable feeling- tone continues till disapproval is removed or approval is won4 ,if there be won this approval1 other elements of disagreeableness1 however great1 can be endured4 ,the massive movement of the complex unified consciousness of a ,socrates drinking hemlock1 of a ,jesus dying on the cross1 whatever strong eddies of pain there be in it1 is still toned agreeably1 as it makes head conqueringly toward that end which each has ideally constructed as fit4 ,footnote3 ,h4 ,g4 ,lord1 in ,essays ,philosophical and ,psychological in ,honor of ,william ,james1 p4 #chh-hi4 ,no reference has been made1 in this summary of the factors which determine our estimate of the worth of personal ideals1 to the bearing of these ideals upon other people's lives4 ,actually1 of course1 the social values of even primarily personal ideals are impossible to overlook1 and often bulk larger than the merely personal values4 ,this whole side of the matter will be left for convenience1 however1 to the following chapter4 ,epicureanism vs4 ,puritanism4 ,personal ideals have swung historically between two magnets1 richness and purity1 self-expression and self-repression1 indulgence and asceticism4 ,the crux of the individual's problem is the question how much repression is necessary2 and man's answer has wavered somewhere between these extremes1 which we may designate by the names of their best-known exemplars1 ,epicureanism and ,puritanism4 ,many differences in degree or detail there have been1 of course1 in the various historic embodiments of these ideals2 but for the sake of making clear the fundamental contrast we may neglect these individual divergences and group together those on the one hand who have called men to a fuller1 completer life and those who have summoned them to an austerer and purer life1 free from taint of sin and regret4 ,we shall then put in the first group such well-known seers and poets as ,epicurus1 ,lucretius1 ,horace1 ,goethe1 ,shelley1 ,byron1 ,walter ,pater1 ,walt ,whitman2 we shall think of the ,greek gods1 of the ,renaissance artists1 the ,english cavaliers4 ,we shall think of the motto1 ,carpe diem1 and ,gather ye rosebuds while ye may2 and perhaps of ,stevenson's ,the world is so full of a number of things1 ,i'm sure we should all be as happy as kings4 ,footnote3 ,an excellent brief plea for this ideal of the life that shall be rich in experience can be found in ,walter ,pater's ,renaissance1 the ,conclusion4 ,in contrast to these followers are afraid of impulse1 those who warn and rebuke and seek to save life from its pitfalls4 ,we shall think of ,buddha1 the ,stoics1 the ,hebrew prophets1 the mediaeval saints1 ,dante and ,savonarola1 the ,english and ,american ,puritans1 or1 in modern times1 of ,tolstoy4 ,the ideal of such men is expressed not by the wholesomely happy and carefree ,greek gods1 but by haloed saint1 by the calm-eyed ,buddha of ,eastern lands1 by the figure of ,christ on the cross4 ,the answer to the ,epicurean's heedlessness is expressed in such lines as ,what is this world's delight8 ,lightning that mocks the night1 ,brief even as bright4 ,it is condensed in the familiar ,respice finem2 the peace of its self- denial shines out in ,christ's ,not my will but thine1 and in ,dante's ,in ,his will is our peace4 ,meager and cold and repellent as this ideal in its extreme expressions often seems1 it appeals to us as the softer and irresponsible ideal of the ,epicureans cannot4 ,but obviously our way lies between the extremes4 ,and after all that has now been said1 our summary of the dangers inherent in each ideal may be very brief4 ,what are the evils in undue self-indulgence8 ,apart from the selfishness of self-indulgence1 which is obvious upon the surface1 but with which we are not now concerned1 7#a7 ,self-indulgence1 if unbridled1 leads almost inevitably to pain1 disease1 and premature death4 ,for in the majority of men there are certain instincts so strong and so dangerous -as1 the sex-instinct1 the craving for stimulants and excitement-that where no repressive principle exists they tend to override the grumblings of prudence and drag their possessor to disaster4 ,it is impossible for most men1 if they give themselves over to the pursuit of personal pleasure1 to keep to the quiet1 refined1 healthful pleasures which ,epicurus advocated4 ,their feet go down to death4 7#b7 ,but even if the worst penalties are escaped1 indulgence brings at least satiety1 the heart high cloyed1 a blunted capacity for enjoyment1 ennui1 restlessness1 and depression of spirit4 ,keen as its zest may be at the outset1 it is short-lived at best2 and with the ensuing emotional fatigue1 pleasures pall1 life seems empty1 robbed of its meaning and glory4 7#c7 ,moreover1 pleasure-seeking is cursed with the specter of aimlessness2 it entirely misses the deepest and most satisfying joys of life1 the joy of healthy1 unspent forces and desires1 the joy of purpose and achievement1 the joy of the pure1 disciplined1 loyal life4 ,it renders these joys unattainable2 we cannot serve ,god and sense1 ideals and lusts of the flesh4 ,the parting of the ways lies before every man2 and it is the perennial tragedy of life that so many1 misled by impulse and blinded by desire1 fail to see the beauty of holiness and choose the lesser good4 7#d7 ,especially as we grow older does it matter less and less what evanescent enjoyments we have had1 and more and more what we have accomplished4 ,our happiness lies increasingly with the years in the memory1 subconscious most of the time but constantly potent in its influence1 of our past4 ,to have gratified the senses1 to have tasted the superficial delights of life1 to have yielded to the tug of desire1 leaves little in the way of satisfaction behind2 but to have done something worthy1 to have lived nobly1 even to have fought and failed1 is a lasting honor and joy4 ,what are the evils in undue self-repression8 ,asceticism1 like self-indulgence1 is selfish4 ,it asks1 ,what shall ,i do to be saved8 rather than ,what shall ,i do to serve8 ,endlessly preoccupied with the endeavor not to do wrong1 the ascetics have failed to do the positive good they ought4 ,the grime that comes through loving service is better than the stainlessness of inactivity2 as the poet ,spenser puts it1 ,entire affection hateth nicer hands4 ,and the emphasis upon freedom from taint of sin tends to produce a scorn of others who do not thus deny themselves1 a self-righteousness and ,pharisaism1 a callousness to others1 which distorts the judgment as well as dries up the sympathies4 ,but apart from these dangers1 and from a purely personal point of view1 asceticism has its evil side4 7#a7 ,an overemphasis upon self-denial sacrifices unnecessarily the sweetness and richness of life1 stunts it1 distorts it1 robs it of its natural fruition4 ,the denial of any satisfaction is cruel except as it is necessary4 ,purity1 carried to a needless extreme1 became celibacy2 the virtue of frugality became the vice of a starvation diet1 producing the emaciated and weakened saints2 the unworldliness which can be in the world but not of it was transformed into the morbidly lonely and futile isolation of the hermits4 ,these are abnormal and undesirable perversions of human nature4 7#b7 ,a reaction from needless repression is almost inevitable4 ,the attempt radically to alter and repress human nature is nearly always disastrous4 ,most of the ascetics had to pass their days in constant struggles against their temptations1 and many of them recurrently lapsed into wild orgies of sin1 the result of pent-up impulses denied their natural channels4 ,morality should be rather directive than repressive1 using all of our energies for wise and noble ends1 and overcoming evil with good4 ,a merely negative morality implies the continual dwelling of attention upon sin and the continual rebellion of desire4 ,it keeps the soul in a state of unstable equilibrium1 and defeats its own ends4 ,r4 ,b4 ,perry1 ,moral ,economy1 chap1 ,,ii1 secs1 ,,ii1 ,,iii2 chap1 ,,iii1 secs1 ,,ii1 ,,iii1 ,,iv4 ,f4 ,paulsen1 ,system of ,ethics1 book ,,iii1 chap4 ,,ii4 ,s4 ,e4 ,mezes1 ,ethics1 chap1 ,x1 ,,xi1 ,dewey and ,tufts1 ,ethics1 chap1 ,,xviii1 secs4 #a1 #b1 #d2 chap1 ,,xix1 sees4 #a1 #b1 #d4 ,matthew ,arnold1 ,culture and ,anarchy1 chap4 ,,iv4 ,h4 ,c4 ,king1 ,rational ,living1 pp4 #ic-ajb4 ,w4 dew4 ,hyde1 ,the ,five ,great ,philosophies of ,life1 chaps1 ,i-,,iv4 ,h4 ,bashdall1 ,theory of ,good and ,evil1 book ,,ii1 chap4 ,,iii4 ,,chapter ,,xi ,,the ,,solution ,,op ,,social ,,problems ,,duty1 like charity1 begins at home2 and we need to take the motes out of our own eyes before we can see clearly how to help our fellows4 ,to keep physically well1 pure1 and prudent1 following worthy purposes and smothering unruly desires1 is our first business2 and there would be much less to do for one another if every one did his duty by himself4 ,but even with our best endeavors we need a helping hand now and then1 and1 indeed1 are continuously dependent upon the work and kindness of others for all that makes life tolerable1 or even possible4 ,and the other side to this truth is that we are never free from the obligation of doing our duty squarely by those whose welfare is in some degree dependent upon us4 ,no man can1 if he would1 live to himself alone2 life is necessarily and essentially social4 ,personal and social duties are so inextricably interwoven that it is impossible except by an artificial abstraction to separate them4 ,the cultivation of one's own health1 for example1 is a boon to the community2 and to care for the community's health is to safeguard one's own4 ,every advance in personal purity1 culture1 or self-control increases the individual's value and diminishes his menace to his fellows2 while every step in social amelioration makes life freer and more comfortable for him4 ,so close- knit is society today that an indifference to sanitation in ,asia or a religious persecution in ,russia may produce disastrous results to some innocent and utterly indifferent individual in ,massachusetts or ,california4 ,on the other hand1 there is no vice so solitary and so can widespread social results4 ,footnote3 ,cf4 ,george ,eliot in ,adam ,bede3 ,there is no sort of wrong deed of which a man can bear the punishment alone4 ,men's lives are as thoroughly blended as the air they breathe2 evil spreads as necessarily as disease4 ,society has a vital interest in the personal life of its members1 and every member1 however self- contained he may be1 has a vital interest in the general standards of morality4 ,for purposes of analysis1 however1 it is convenient to make the distinction between the two aspects of morality1 the governance of intra-human and of inter-human relations2 the ordering of the single life and the ordering of the community life4 ,of the two the latter is even more imperative than the former1 the arbitration of clashes between individuals even more difficult than the governing of the impulses within a single heart4 ,we turn1 therefore1 to consider the problems involved in the general conception of social morality1 which we may define as the direction of the action of each toward the greatest attainable welfare of all4 ,why should we be altruistic8 ,that altruism 7action directed toward others' welfare7 is best for the community as a whole is obvious4 ,in order to maintain his life in the face of the many obstacles that thwart and dangers that threaten him1 man must present a solid front to the universe4 ,all clashes of interest1 friction1 and civil strife1 all withholding of help1 means a weakening of his united forces1 an invitation to disaster4 ,and even where life becomes relatively secure and individualism possible1 the greatest good for the greatest number is attainable only by continual cooperation and mutual sacrifice4 ,so vital is it to each member of the community that selfishness and cruelty in others be repressed1 that society cannot afford to leave at least the grosser forms of egoism unpunished4 ,men must enforce upon one another that mutual regard which individuals are constantly tempted to ignore1 but without which no man's life can find its adequate fulfillment or security4 ,no man1 then1 can be called moral1 can be said to have found a comprehensive solution of life1 however self-controlled and pure he may be1 if he is cruel1 or even lacking in consideration for others4 ,this is the most glaring defect in both ,epicureanism and asceticism2 both are fundamentally selfish4 ,for the proper adjustment of life to its needs we must turn rather to ,christianity1 or to ,buddhism1 with their ideals of service2 to the patriotic ideals of the noblest ,greeks2 to ,kant1 with his ,so act as to treat humanity1 whether in their own person or in that of any other1 as an end1 never as a means only2 or to the ,british utilitarians with their ,every one to count for one1 and only one4 ,the question1 however1 persistently recurs1 ,why should the ,,individual be altruistic8 ,what does ,,he get out of it8 ,to this we may reply3 7#a7 ,the life of service is1 in normal cases1 a happier life in itself than the life that is preoccupied with self4 ,it is richer1 fuller in potentialities of joy2 it is freer from regrets and the eventual emptiness of the self-centered life4 ,footnote3 ,cf4 ,mill1 ,utilitarianism1 chap4 #b3 ,when people who are tolerably fortunate in their outward lot do not find in life sufficient enjoyment to make it valuable to them1 the cause generally is1 caring for nobody but themselves4 ,it is saner1 less likely to be veered off on some tangent of morbid and ultimately disastrous indulgence 7#b7 ,the altruistic life earns the gratitude and love of others1 while the selfish life remains isolated1 unloved1 without their stimulus and help4 ,ingratitude there is1 of course1 and the returning of evil for good2 on the other hand1 the selfish man may hope for undeserved forgiveness and even love from his fellows4 ,but in the long run it pays to be good to others2 bread cast upon the waters does return after many days2 normally unkindness provokes dislike1 contempt1 open hostility1 retaliation1 while kindness finds a natural and proper reward in return favors1 esteem1 and affection4 ,no man can tell when he will be in need of sympathy or of aid2 it is folly so to live as to forfeit our fellows' good will4 ,and finally1 selfishness carried beyond a certain point brings the penalty not only of the unfavorable opinion and private retaliations of others1 but of the publicly enforced law4 ,in normal cases1 we have said4 ,and we must add that there are cases though they are less common than we are apt to suppose in which the good of the individual is hopelessly at variance with that of the community4 ,if our fellows could be counted on for a fair reciprocity of self-denial and service1 we should not begrudge these necessary sacrifices4 ,the sting lies not so much in the loss of personal pleasures as in the lack of appreciation and return2 to do our part when others are not doing theirs takes1 indeed1 a touch of saintliness4 ,socrates drinking the hemlock1 ,jesus dying in agony on the cross1 ,regulus returning to be tortured at ,carthage1 were deliberately sacrificing their personal welfare for the good of other men4 ,and in numberless ways a host of heroic men and women have practiced and are daily practicing unrewarded self-denial in the name of love and service1 self-denial which by no means always brings a joy commensurate with the pain4 ,these are the abnormal cases2 but the abnormal is1 after all1 not so very uncommon4 ,and for these men and women we must grieve1 while we honor and admire them and hold them up for imitation4 ,society must insist on just such sacrifices when they are necessary for the good of the whole1 and must so train its youth that they will be willing to make them when needful4 ,what is the exact meaning of selfishness and unselfishness8 ,selfishness is the pursuance of one's own good at the expense of others4 ,a mistaken idea1 which it is necessary to guard against1 is that selfishness must be conscious1 deliberate4 ,it is not uncommon for a person accused of selfishness to say1 or think1 ,this is an unjust accusation2 ,i have not had a selfish thought6 ,but unconscious selfishness is by far the commoner sort2 millions of essentially good- hearted people are guilty of selfish acts through thoughtlessness and stagnant sympathy4 ,conscious cruelty is rare compared with moral insensibility4 ,it cannot be too often repeated that selfishness is not a way of feeling about people1 it is a way of acting toward them4 ,to be wholly free from selfish conduct necessitates insight into the needs and feelings of others as well as a vague good will toward them4 ,the girl who allows her mother to drudge that she may have immaculate clothes1 the mother who keeps her son at home when he ought to be given the opportunity of a wider life1 is conscious only of love2 but she is really putting her own happiness before that of the loved one4 ,the owner of the vilest tenement houses is sometimes a generous and benevolent-minded man1 the luxuriously rich are often honest and glad to confer favors1 the political boss is full of the milk of human kindness2 but the superficial or adventitious altruism of such men should not blind us to their fundamental1 though often entirely unrealized1 selfishness4 ,a complementary fallacy is that which denies the epithet unselfish to a man who enjoys helping others4 ,who has not heard the cynical remark1 ,there's nothing unselfish about ,so-and-,so's benevolence that is his enjoyment in life6 ,such a comment ignores the fact that the goal of moral progress lies precisely at the point where we shall all enjoy doing what it is our duty to do4 ,altruistic impulses are our own impulses1 as well as egoistic ones2 the distinction between them lies not in the pleasure they may give to their possessor1 or the sacrifice they may demand1 but in the objective results they tend to attain4 ,happy is the man whose ,,delight is in the law of the ,lord6 ,unselfish action is1 in the broader sense1 all action that is not selfish2 in the narrower and positive sense1 it is all action that tends to the welfare of others at the expense of the narrower interests of the individual4 ,are altruistic impulses always right8 ,it would be an easy solution for our problems if we could say1 ,in every case follow the altruistic impulse4 ,but this simplification is impossible2 the ideal of service is not such an ,open ,sesame to our duty4 ,and this for several reasons3 7#a7 ,there are frequently clashes between altruistic impulses4 ,in fact1 almost all moral errors have some unselfish impulse on their side which helps to justify them in the eyes of the sinner and his friends4 ,the politician who gets the best jobs for his supporters1 the legislator who puts through a special statute to favor his constituents1 the jingo who helps push his country into war for its honor or glory-these and a host of other wrongdoers are conscious of a genuine altruistic glow4 ,they ignore the fact that they are doing1 on the whole1 more harm than good to others1 because the smaller group that is apparently benefited looms larger to the eye than the more widely distributed and less directly affected sufferers4 ,all of our most vexing moral problems are those in which benefit to some must be weighed against benefit to others4 ,shall a man who is needed by his family risk his life to save a ne'er-do-well8 ,shall we insist that people unhappily married shall endure their wretchedness and forego the possibility of a happier union in order that heedlessness and license may not be encouraged in the lives of others8 ,life is full of such two- sided problems2 it is not enough that an act may bring good to some1 it must be the act that brings most good to most4 7#b7 ,an apparently altruistic act1 dictated by sympathy1 and productive of happiness1 may not be for the ultimate good of the very person made happy4 ,to give everything they want to children is inevitably to spoil them1 as we rightly say2 to spoil their own happiness in the long run as well as their usefulness to others4 ,to condone another's sin and save him the unpleasantness of rebuke or the inflicting of a penalty is often the worst thing that could be done to him4 ,to give alms to a beggar may mean to assist his moral degeneration and in the long run increase his misery4 7#c7 ,even when an act superficially egoistic conflicts with one that seems altruistic1 the greatest good of the community often dictates the former4 ,there is1 as ,trumbull used to put it1 a duty of refusing to do good4 ,a man who can best serve the common good by concentrating his strength on that work where his particular ability or training makes him most effective1 may be justified in refusing other calls upon his energies1 however intrinsically worthy4 ,an ,edison would be doing wrong to spend his afternoons in social service1 a ,burbank has no right to diminish his resources by giving a public library4 ,emerson deserves our commendation for refusing to be inveigled into the various causes that would have drafted his time and strength4 ,even to the anti-slavery agitation he refused his services1 saying1 ,i have quite other slaves to free than those ,negroes1 to wit1 imprisoned thoughts far back in the brain of man1 which have no watchman or lover or defender but me4 ,this brings us to the question how far a man may legitimately live a self- contained life4 ,certainly there is a measure of truth in ,goethe's saying1 ,no man can he isolates himself2 in ,ibsen's ,the most powerful man is he who is most alone2 and in ,matthew ,arnold's ,alone the sun rises1 and alone ,spring the great streams4 ,a multiplicity of interests distracts the soul and often confuses our ideals4 ,by keeping free from social burdens some men1 like ,kant1 have accomplished tasks of unusual magnitude4 ,on the other hand1 we can match ,goethe's assertion with another of his own3 ,a talent forms itself in solitude1 a character in the stream of the world4 ,isolation tends almost inevitably to narrowness1 to an abnormal and cramped outlook1 to willfulness or ,pharisaism1 and usually to loneliness and depression4 ,the only pervasively happy life for man is the life of cooperation and loyalty4 ,we may well withdraw into the silence1 take our daily communion with ,god in our closets1 or our forty days in the wilderness1 to win clearer vision and steadier purpose4 ,but solitude should1 in normal cases1 be only an interlude of rest1 or a quiet maturing for service4 ,the ideal is perhaps expressed in ,wordsworth's sonnet on ,milton3 ,thy soul was like a star and dwelt apart4 4444 ,and yet thy heart ,the lowliest duties on herself did lay4 ,the organization of life implies a criticism of and control over altruistic as well as egoistic impulses4 ,there is nothing inherent in the fact of a good being ,,others' good to make it necessarily the greatest good in a given situation4 ,the ultimate criterion must always be the greatest good of the greatest number2 but an altruistic as well as an egoistic impulse may stand in the way of that end4 ,our altruistic inclinations are often perverted1 non-representative1 a matter of instinctive and irrational sympathy or shortsighted impulse4 ,and so1 while one of the great tasks of moral education is to make men unselfish1 that alone is not enough2 unselfishness must be directed by reason and tact1 rendered far-sighted and intelligent4 ,what mental and moral obstacles hinder altruistic action8 ,although an altruistic impulse is not necessarily a right impulse to follow1 there are a great many altruistic duties which are clear and summoning2 and it is a never ending disappointment to the man of social conscience to behold the apathy wherewith obvious social duties are regarded4 ,it will be worthwhile to pause and note the chief mental and moral obstacles that prevent a more general devotion to social betterment4 7#a7 ,the most formidable obstacle1 perhaps1 is the selfishness of those who are themselves 4well enough off4 ,our cities1 and even1 to some extent1 our small towns1 grow up in quarters2 the rich living in one district and the poor in another4 ,this permits the suffering of the latter to go unknown or only half-realized by the former4 ,the well-to- do have many interests and many pleasant uses for their money2 the call of the unfortunate-,come over and help us6- rings faint and far away in their ears4 ,or they may excuse their callousness by the assertion that the poor are used to their evil living conditions1 do not mind them1 and are as contented1 on the whole1 as the rich2 complacently ignoring the fact that being used to conditions is not the same as enjoying or profiting by them1 and that contentment by no means implies a useful or desirable life4 ,it is true that the needy are often but dimly conscious of their needs2 in that very fact lies a reason why the favored classes should rouse them out of their dullness1 save them from the physical and moral degeneration into which they so unconsciously and helplessly drift4 ,the indifference of the fortunate comes not so often from a deliberate hardening of the heart as from a lack of contact with the needy or imagination to picture their destitution4 ,but blame must rest upon all comfortable citizens who do not bestir themselves to help in social betterment because it is too much trouble or requires a sacrifice they are not willing to make4 7#b7 ,another serious obstacle lies in the distrust with which many people regard any duty which they have not been accustomed to regard as a duty4 ,this may take the form of an overdeveloped loyalty1 that bows before the sacredness of existing institutions and labels any reform as unconstitutional1 a departure from the ways that were good enough for our fathers4 ,it may wear the guise of a lazy piety that would leave everything with ,god1 accepting social ills as manifestations of his will1 and interference as a sort of arrogant presumption6 ,it may be a mere mental apathy1 an inertia of habit1 that sees no call for a better water supply or bothersome laws about the purity of milk4 ,or it may defend itself by pointing out the uncertainties that attend untried ways and warning against the danger of experimentation4 ,to these warnings we may reply that our altruistic zeal must1 indeed1 be coupled with accurate thinking2 unless we have based our proposals on wide observation and cautious inference we may find unexpected and baneful results in the place of our sanguine expectations4 ,but we may point out that it is nothing venture nothing have2 we cannot work out our social salvation without experimenting2 and1 after all1 ways that do not work well can readily be discontinued4 ,what is vital is to keep alive an intolerance of apathy and contentment1 to realize that we are hardly more than on the threshold of a rational civilization1 to recognize evils1 cherish ideals1 and maintain our determination in some way to actualize them4 7#c7 ,a further steady damper upon our altruistic zeal is the dread of raising the taxes4 ,humanitarian movements are well enough1 but they cost so much6 ,what is needful is to point out that poverty1 unemployment1 disease1 and the other social ills are also costly2 indeed1 they cost the public in the long run far more than the expenditure necessary for their abolition or alleviation4 ,it pays in dollars and cents1 within a generation or two at least1 to make and keep the social organism sound4 ,a wise altruism is not merely a matter of philanthropy2 it is also a matter of economy2 a means of saving individuals from suffering1 but at the same time a means of safeguarding the public treasury4 ,if the community does not pay for the curing of these evils it will have to pay for their results4 ,it seems to me essentially fallacious to look upon such expenditures as indulgences to be allowed rather sparingly to such communities as are rich enough to afford them4 ,they are literally a husbanding of resources1 a safeguard against later unprofitable but compulsory expenditure1 a repair in the social organism which1 like the repair of a leaky roof1 may avert disaster4 ,footnote3 ,e4 ,t4 ,devine1 ,misery and its ,causes1 p4 #bgb4 ,the public must be educated to see the wisdom of investing heavily in long-neglected social repairs and reconstruction1 which in the end will far more than pay for itself in the lowering of expenses for police1 courts1 prisons1 hospitals1 asylums1 and almshouses1 in the lowered death-rate1 immunity from costly disease1 and increased working capacity of the people4 7#d7 ,finally1 a hopelessness of accomplishing anything often paralyzes our zeal4 ,this sometimes takes the form of a more or less honest conviction that poverty1 unemployment1 and other maladjustments are simply the result of moral degeneration-of the laziness1 extravagance1 drinking1 or other wrongdoing of the poor2 their suffering is their own fault1 and they must be left to endure it4 ,of course such factors often-though by no means always-enter in4 ,one may well say1 ,who are we of the upper classes to throw the first stone8 ,under like conditions most of us would have become as discouraged or demoralized1 yielded to the consolation of some vice1 or balked at the monotonous grind of factory labor4 ,but however that may be1 in so far as social evils are due to these faults1 the faults must be attacked1 not accepted as inevitable and incurable4 ,the pressure that pushes men into them must be eased1 the ignorance and foolishness that foster them must be dissipated by education and moral training4 ,and for all the social maladjustments that are ,,not due to vice and sin1 other remedies must be found4 ,the road to social salvation is long and beset with many difficulties1 but the goal is not hopeless of attainment2 and every step toward the goal is so much gain4 ,because we cannot now see how to remedy all evils must not be a pretext for refusing to lend a hand to movements that are of proved value4 ,how can we reconcile egoism and altruism8 ,although altruism is usually wise from the individual's own standpoint1 it does not always seem so4 ,the commonest moral clash is between the individual's apparent good and that of others2 the cases in which one man's position1 wealth1 success precludes another's are everyday occurrences4 ,must this conflict be eternal8 ,is there any way of reconciling these opposing interests except by an unhappy and regrettable sacrifice8 ,must life be a perpetual compromise1 a social contract1 a treaty to make reciprocal concessions1 with every one's real interests at war with every one else's8 ,certainly the altruistic summons cannot be ignored2 we cannot all follow our egoistic impulses2 in the common disaster we should be individually involved4 ,and1 indeed1 the altruistic impulses have become so deeply rooted in our natures that1 turn away from them as we might1 they would yet persist in the form of an undercurrent of dissatisfaction and remorse4 ,the only possible solution of the deadlock lies in the killing-off of the selfish impulses4 ,this is not a fantastic dream4 ,we see in the ideal mother1 father1 husband1 wife1 in the ardent patriot and religious devotee1 this sloughing-off of the egoistic nature already accomplished4 ,love1 and joy in service1 are not alien to us2 they are as instinctive as self- seeking2 the hope of ultimate peace lies in the strengthening of these impulses till they so dominate us that we no longer care for the selfish and narrow aims4 ,we must cultivate the masculine aspect of unselfishness1 the loyalty of the ,greeks1 the impulse to stand by and fight for others2 and we must cultivate its more feminine side1 the caritas of ,i ,corinthians ,,xiii1 the love that suffereth long and is kind1 the sympathy and tenderness infused into a rough and rugged world by ,christianity4 ,in this highest developed life there will then be no dualism of motive2 at the top of the ladder of moral progress individual and social goods coincide4 ,it is joy to the righteous to do righteousness2 it is the keenest delight in life for the lover of men to serve4 ,the unselfish impulse has thus a double value2 it blesseth him that gives and him that takes4 ,it is more blessed to give than to receive1 when the giver has reached the moral level where giving is his greatest joy4 ,the development of sympathy and the spirit of service in modern times gives great hope that the time will come when men will universally find a rich and satisfying life in ways which bring no harm but only good to others4 ,h4 ,spencer1 ,data of ,ethics1 chaps1 ,,xi-,,xiv4 ,r4 ,b4 ,perry1 ,moral ,economy1 chap1 ,,ii1 secs1 ,,iv1 ,v42 chap1 ,,iii1 secs1 ,v1 ,,vi4 ,f4 ,paulsen1 ,system of ,ethics1 book ,,ii1 chap4 ,i1 sec4 #f2 chap1 ,,vi2 book ,,iii1 chap1 ,x1 sec4 #a4 ,dewey and ,tufts1 ,ethics1 chap1 ,,xviii1 sec4 e4 ,w4 ,k4 ,clifford1 ,right and ,wrong1 ,on the ,scientific ,basis of ,morals1 in ,lectures and ,essays1 vol4 ,,ii4 ,r4 ,m4 ,mc,connell1 ,duty of ,altruism4 ,b4 ,russell1 ,philosophical ,essays1 chap4 ,i1 sec4 ,v4 ,j4 ,royce1 ,problem of ,christianity1 vol4 ,i1 chap4 ,,iii4 ,,chapter ,,xii ,,objections ,,and ,,misunderstandings ,,having now outlined the eudfemonistic account of morality1 we may note certain objections that are commonly raised to it1 and certain is understandings that constantly recur4 ,do men always act for pleasure or to avoid pain8 ,many of the earlier theorists1 not content with showing that the good consists ultimately in a quality of conscious states1 asserted that all of men's actions are actually ,,directed ,,toward the attainment of agreeable states of experience or avoidance of disagreeable states4 ,there is no act but is aimed for pleasure of some sort or away from pain2 men differ1 then1 only in their wisdom in selecting the more important pleasures and their skill in attaining what they aim for4 ,this assertion1 easily refuted1 has seemed to some opponents of the eudemonistic account of morality so bound up with it as to involve its downfall4 ,the classic statement of this erroneous psychology1 which has been the source of much satisfaction to anti-eudemonistic philosophers1 is to be found in the fourth chapter of ,mill's ,utilitarianism4 ,there is in reality nothing desired except happiness4 ,whatever is desired otherwise than as a means to some end beyond itself1 and ultimately to happiness1 is desired as itself a part of happiness1 and is not desired for itself until it has become so4 ,human nature is so constituted as to desire nothing which is not either a part of happiness or a means to happiness ,a careful reading of ,mill shows that he did not mean these statements without qualification4 ,but since they1 and similar sweeping assertions1 ,footnote3 ,cf4 ,leslie ,stephen1 ,science of ,ethics1 p4 #dd3 ,the love of happiness must express the sole possible motive of ,judas ,iscariot and of his ,master2 it must explain the conduct of ,stylites on his pillar or ,tiberius at ,caprae or ,a ,kempis in his cell or of ,nelson in the cockpit of the ,victory4 have been a stumbling-block to many1 we must pause to note their inaccuracy1 while insisting that they are no part of a sound utilitarian1 or eudemonistic1 theory4 ,far from the desire for happiness being the universal motive1 it is one of the less common springs of conduct4 ,habit1 inertia1 instinct1 ideals drive us this way and that2 we do a thousand things daily without any thought of happiness1 because our minds are so made that they naturally run off into such action4 ,we desire concrete ,,things1 without reference to their bearing on our happiness4 ,we even go directly and consciously counter to our happiness at times1 deliberately sacrifice it1 perhaps for some foolish fancy4 ,the idealist in politics expects to get no pleasure out of what his associates deem his pigheadedness2 but he has seen a vision and he keeps true to it4 ,regulus did not go back to ,carthage to be tortured to death for the pleasure of it1 or to avoid the greater pain of an uneasy conscience2 he went in spite of foreseen pain and the allurement of possible pleasure4 ,when a man endures privations for the sake of posthumous fame1 it is not that he expects to enjoy that fame when it comes1 or expects others to enjoy it2 he is simply so made that he cannot resist the sway of that ambition which will bring him no good4 ,the pursuit of pleasure is a sophisticated impulse which appears in marked degree only in a few self-conscious and idle individuals4 ,william ,james gave the deathblow to this pleasure-seeking psychology4 ,important as is the influence of pleasures and pains upon our movements1 they are far from being our only stimuli4 ,with the manifestations of instinct and emotional expression1 for example1 they have absolutely nothing to do4 ,who smiles for the pleasure of smiling1 or frowns for the pleasure of the frown8 ,who blushes to escape the discomfort of not blushing8 ,or who in anger1 grief1 or fear is actuated to the movements which he makes by the pleasures which they yield8 ,in all these cases the movements are discharged fatally by the vis a tergo which the stimulus exerts upon a nervous system framed to respond in just that way4 ,the ,,impulsive ,,quality of mental states is an attribute behind which we cannot go4 ,footnote3 ,w4 ,james1 ,psychology1 vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #eej4 ,it is not true1 then1 that love of pleasure and fear of pain are the universal motives4 ,it is not true that we inevitably act along the line of least hedonic resistance1 that pain necessarily veers us off and pleasure irresistibly attracts4 ,by force of will1 by suggestion or training1 we can go directly counter to the pull of pleasure4 ,it is true that we should not have the instincts and habits and impulses that we do were they not in general useful for our existence or happiness4 ,but the evolutionary process has been clumsy2 we are not properly adjusted2 we become the victims of ideas fixes2 ideas and activities obsess us quite without relation to their hedonic value4 ,so pleasure and pain are not usually the impelling force or conscious motive behind conduct4 ,what they are is-the touchstone1 the criterion1 the justification4 ,we do not act in ways that bring the greatest happiness1 but we ought to4 ,we do not consciously seek happiness1 and we ought not to4 ,we ought to continue to care for ,,things and for ,,ideals2 but the things and ideals we care and work for ought to be such that through them man's welfare is advanced4 ,are pleasures and pains incommensurable8 ,an objection commonly raised is that pleasures and pains of various sorts are incommensurable2 that therefore no calculation of relative advantage is possible2 and that the eudaemonistie criterion for action is thereby made impracticable and useless4 7#a7 ,to this we may reply that the estimation of the relative worth of different kinds of experience is1 indeed1 often very difficult4 ,but on any theory the decision as to the right is equally complicated and puzzling4 ,the fact that the criterion is difficult to use is no evidence that it is not the right criterion4 ,which set of consequences will be of most intrinsic worth1 it is sometimes impossible to know4 ,but one set is1 nevertheless1 of more intrinsic worth1 and the act that secures them is the best act1 even though we do not recognize it as such4 ,there will continue to be1 many differences of judgment as to which of alternative possible experiences is the more desirable4 ,but that uncertainty does not alter the fundamental fact that some experiences ,,are intrinsically more desirable than others and more deserving of pursuit4 ,a debtor who cannot pay me offers to compound for his debt by making over one of sundry things he possesses- a diamond ornament1 a silver vase1 a picture1 a carriage4 ,other questions being set aside1 ,i assert it to be my pecuniary interest to choose the most valuable of these1 but ,i cannot say which is the most valuable4 ,does the proposition that it is my pecuniary interest to choose the most valuable1 therefore1 become doubtful8 ,must ,i not choose as well as ,i can1 and if ,i choose wrongly1 must ,i give up my ground of choice8 ,must ,i infer that in matters of business ,i may not act on the principle that1 other things equal1 the more profitable transaction is to be preferred1 because1 in many cases1 ,i cannot say which is the more profitable and have often chosen the less profitable8 ,because ,i believe that of many dangerous courses ,i ought to take the least dangerous1 do ,i make 'the fundamental assumption' that courses can be arranged according to a scale of dangerousness1 and must ,i abandon my belief if ,i cannot so arrange them8 ,footnote3 ,h4 ,spencer1 ,data of ,ethics1 chap4 ,,ix4 7#b7 ,if it is practically impossible to calculate the relative worth of consequences in many cases1 it is yet easy enough to do so in the great majority of moral situations4 ,in most cases the preponderance of value is clear4 ,that selfishness and self-indulgence are not worth while2 that abstinence from pleasure-giving drugs and intoxicating liquors is worth the sacrifice2 that truth and honesty1 the law-abiding spirit1 the spirit of service1 friendliness and courtesy1 sanitary measures1 incorruptible courts1 and a thousand other things are worth the effort and cost of acquiring them1 is indisputable4 ,it is only in some peculiarly balanced situations that we find practical difficulty in deciding4 ,if morality were limited to the cases where we can be sure on which side the greater good or lesser evil lies1 we should not be shorn of much of our present code4 7#c7 ,it would1 of course1 be impracticable to stop and calculate at the moment when action is needed4 ,but such continual recalculation is unnecessary4 ,our ancestors1 after many experiments1 have found solutions for all the familiar types of situation2 the results of their thought are crystallized for us in the ideals that press upon us from without and the voice of conscience that calls to us within4 ,forces beyond the individual human mind have taken care of these things and slowly steered man1 with all his passions and caprices1 toward his own better welfare4 ,it is only in moments when we long to understand and justify our ideals1 or when some unusually baffling problem arises1 that we need to calculate and weigh relative advantage and disadvantage4 ,and that is what1 in such situations1 most people do4 ,are some pleasures worthier than others8 ,undiscriminating critics have often condemned the eudsemonistic criterion on the ground that any sort of pleasure is rated equally high on its scale so long as it is pleasure4 ,pushpin as good as poetry6 seems to some the height of sarcasm4 ,socrates says in the ,philebus1 ,do we not say that the intemperate has pleasure1 and that the temperate has pleasure in his very temperance1 and that the fool is pleased when he is full of foolish fancies and hopes1 and that the wise man has pleasure in his wisdom8 ,and may not he be justly deemed a fool who says that these pairs of pleasures are respectively alike8 ,why1 however1 do we rate the pleasures of temperance and wisdom above those of intemperance and folly8 ,simply because of their respective ,,effects4 ,,intrinsically they may be equally desirable1 or the latter may even be keener pleasures8 that depends upon the individual circumstances2 but there is no question about their relative ,,extrinsic value4 ,there is always the devil to pay for intemperance and folly2 while temperance and wisdom lead to health1 love1 honor1 achievement1 and many another good4 ,as to push- pin-or let us say baseball-,,versus poetry1 it is only prejudice that makes us say we rate the latter higher4 ,outdoor games are not only productive of a keener delight to most people1 they are extrinsically good as well1 conducing to health1 quickness of wit1 self-control1 and other goods4 ,they ,,are1 in their time and place1 as good as poetry4 ,the reason for the greater reverence we feel1 or feel we ought to feel1 for poetry lies in the fact that it takes much more mental cultivation to acquire the taste for it2 the love of poetry is a sort of patrician distinction4 ,it is also true that poetry opens up to its lover a much wider range of enjoyments2 it opens his eyes to the beauty and significance and pathos in the world2 it is immensely educative1 and inspiring to the spiritual life4 ,the love of broadening and inspiring things requires cultivation in most of us2 so that we praise and honor such things and urge people toward them4 ,pushpin1 or baseball1 ,,needs no apotheosis4 ,but if we ever develop into a race of anaemic bookworms1 we shall have to glorify sport and learn to shrug our shoulders at the soft and easy enjoyments of poetry4 ,nothing is more obvious than the utilitarian nature of such habitual judgments and attitudes4 ,one of the ,platonic illustrations1 often brought up1 is that of the happy oyster4 ,footnote3 ,philebus1 #bb4 ,is such a life eligible8 asks ,socrates4 ,later 7#dj71 he agrees that a man must be admitted to have real pleasure who is pleased with anything or anyhow1 but asks if it is not true that some pleasures are false4 ,protarchus hits the nail on the head by replying1 ,no one would call pleasures bad because they are 'false1' but ,,by ,,rason ,,of ,,some ,,other ,,great ,,evil ,,to ,,which ,,they ,,are ,,liable1 i4e1 because of their after-effects4 ,who would wish1 however miserable1 to exchange places with it6 ,are there not other things to be considered besides happiness8 ,it is better to be a ,socrates dissatisfied than a fool satisfied4 ,and why8 ,in the first place1 we suspect that the oyster's1 or even the fool's1 range of happiness is very limited4 ,we should hesitate to forego such joys as we do have1 even if sorrow attends them1 at so great a sacrifice4 ,in the second place1 each of us has a deep-rooted love of his own personal memories and expectations2 and except in cases of unusual depression of spirits few of us would wish to lose our identity and become some other person or thing even if we knew that other being to be happier4 ,in the third place1 a man knows ,,he could ,,not be happier as an oyster2 an oyster's joys 7whatever they may be7 would not satisfy him2 he has other needs and desires4 ,he must find happiness1 if at all1 in the satisfaction of his human cravings4 ,the oyster's life1 however satisfactory to the oyster1 would leave him restless and bored4 ,if you are a ,socrates1 you realize similarly that you could not ,,find satisfaction in the fool's life4 ,you know that although you have sorrows the fool wots not of1 you also have a whole range of joys beyond his ken2 and those joys are particularly precious to you4 ,in the fourth place1 the very words oyster and fool beg the question4 ,fool means by very definition a sort of person one would ,,not choose to be2 and the very visualization of an oyster is repellent4 ,were one to offer as the alternative a happy lion or eagle2 or a happy1 free- hearted savage such as ,chateaubriand and ,rousseau painted1 one suspects that not a few suffering men and women would jump at the chance4 ,it is not really important to decide1 however1 what any one would choose4 ,our choices are biased and often foolish4 ,the actual question is1 ,is the happiness of a fool1 or of an oyster 7if happiness it has7 as worthy1 as objectively desirable1 as that of a wise man8 ,and here again we have to say1 not ,,extrinsically so desirable4 ,the wise man is he who finds his happiness in activities that conduce to his ultimate welfare and that of others4 ,the happiness of fool or oyster is transitory1 blind1 and fraught with unseen dangers2 it is of no value to the community in which they live4 ,but ,,intrinsically1 just qua happiness1 it is-if it is-as good4 ,what makes one form of happiness more worthy than another is simply1 in the first place1 its greater keenness or extent or freedom from pain1 and in the second place its potentialities of future happiness or pain for self and others4 ,when ,mill wrote1 therefore1 in his classic treatise1 that some ,,kinds of pleasure are more desirable and valuable than others1 he showed a-for him unusual-failure to analyze4 ,some kinds of ,,pleasures are more desirable1 for the reasons summarized above4 ,but ,,pleasure1 in the abstract1 pleasantness1 agreeableness1 intrinsic worth1 whatever you choose to call it1 is itself a quality2 there can be more or less of it in a concrete experience1 that is all4 ,to speak of ,,kinds of pleasure is to mean ,,kinds ,,of ,,experience which have the common attribute of pleasantness4 ,in themselves all kinds of experience that are equally pleasant are equally worthy2 there is no meaning to that adjective as applied to intrinsic immediate good4 ,worthy and unworthy apply to experience only when we begin to consider their consequences4 ,is morality merely subjective and relative8 ,different people find happiness in different ways2 if morality is simply the means to happiness1 is it not relative to their varying desires2 is it not a purely subjective matter and without a fixed objective nature8 ,we must discriminate4 ,morality is not relative to our inclinations and desires1 because those often do not rightly represent our own true welfare1 still less the general welfare4 ,happiness is desirable whether our impulses are adjusted so as to aim for it or not4 ,nor is morality relative to our opinions2 an act may be wrong though the whole world proclaim it right4 ,it is a matter not of opinion but of fact whether an act is going to bring the greatest attainable welfare or not4 ,however biased and shortsighted we may4 be1 the consequences of acts will be what they will be4 ,in a very real sense1 then1 morality is objective2 it is valid whether we recognize its validity and want it or not4 ,it represents our needs more truly than our own wills1 and thus has a greater authority1 just as the rules of dietetics are not a matter of appetite or whim1 but have a rational authority over our caprices4 ,morality is not1 like imagination1 something we can shape at will2 it is imposed upon us from without1 like sensation4 ,its development is predetermined by the structure of human nature and its environment2 we do not invent it1 we accept it4 ,footnote3 ,cf4 ,cudworth 7ca4 #afhh71 ,treatise1 chap1 n1 sec4 #c3 ,it is so far from being true that all moral good and evil1 just and unjust1 are mere arbitrary and factitious things1 that are created wholly by will1 that 7if we would speak properly7 we must needs say that nothing is morally good or evil1 just or unjust1 by mere will without nature1 because everything is what it is by nature1 and not by will4 ,a good recent discussion bearing upon the question of the relativity of morality will be found in ,santayana's ,winds of ,doctrine1 pp4 #ach-aed4 ,but although imposed upon our restive impulses1 it is not imposed by any alien and arbitrary will4 ,it is imposed by the same cosmos that set our consciousness into relation with a given kind of body in a given world4 ,submission to it is simply submission to the laws of our own natures4 ,lasting happiness can be found only in certain ways2 we must make the best of it1 but it is for our own good that we obey4 ,morality is relative to our organic needs and particular environment4 ,it is a function of human nature1 varying with its variations4 ,a different race of beings on another planet might have to have a very radically different code4 ,ours is a distinctively human code1 bearing the earmarks of our humanity and stamped with the particular nature of our earth-life4 ,to say this is to admit that morality varies with different temperaments and different needs4 ,what is best for one person is not necessarily best for another2 what is right for an early stage of civilization is not always right for a later4 ,the patriarchal family was a source of strength in primitive society2 today it would be a needless tyranny4 ,life in a tropical isle frees man from the necessity of many virtues which a more rigorous climate entails4 ,the poet needs to live in a different way from the coal-heaver4 ,just so far as our individual and racial needs vary-our real needs1 not our supposed needs and pathological desires 7and always bearing in mind the needs of others7-just so far is what is right for one different from what is right for another4 ,this is no condemnation of eudsemonistic morality4 ,on the contrary1 a clear recognition of this truth would happily relax the sometimes over-rigid conventions of society1 its cut-and- dried- made-on-one-pattern code1 and make it more elastic and suitable to individual needs4 ,however1 we are not so different from one another as we are apt to think4 ,the extenuation of sin on the plea that the artistic temperament demands this1 or a sensitive nature needs that1 is much overdone4 ,differences in temperament are superficial compared with the miles of underlying strata of plain human nature4 ,a man's a man for a' that1 and must submit to the rules for human life4 ,the man of artistic temperament does not know himself well enough4 ,he feels superficial and transient cravings2 he ignores his underlying needs1 and the fundamental duties which1 in common with all other men1 he owes to his fellows4 ,the standard of morality is absolute and objective1 then1 for each individual1 and approximately the same for all human beings4 ,he is wise who seeks not to mould his life according to his longings1 but who accepts the rules of the game and follows the paths blazed by the seers and doers before him4 ,only those individuals and those nations have achieved success that have been willing to learn and follow the ideals which life itself imposes1 the eternal laws which religious men call the will of ,god4 ,for criticisms of the account of morality here defended3 ,f4 ,paulsen1 ,system of ,ethics1 book ,,ii1 chap4 ,,ii4 ,j4 ,martineau1 ,types of ,ethical ,theory1 book ,,ii1 chaps1 ,i1 ,,ii4 ,t4 ,h4 ,green1 ,prolegomena to ,ethics1 book in1 chap4 ,i1 first half1 book ,,iv1 chap4 ,,iii4 ,dewey and ,tufts1 ,ethics1 chap4 ,,xiv4 ,j4 ,s4 ,mackenzie1 ,manual of ,ethics1 #b;d ed1 chap4 vi4 ,h4 ,rashdall1 ,theory of ,good and ,evil1 book ,i1 chap1 ,,iii2 book ,,ii1 chaps1 ,i1 ,,ii4 ,w4 ,fite1 ,introductory ,study of ,ethics1 part ,i4 ,g4 ,e4 ,moore1 ,ethics1 chap4 ,,vii4 ,in rebuttal of some of these arguments3 ,j4 ,s4 ,mill1 ,utilitarianism1 chaps1 ,,ii and ,,iv4 ,h4 ,spencer1 ,data of ,ethics1 chaps1 ,,ix1 ,x4 ,leslie ,stephen1 ,science of ,ethics1 chap4 ,x4 ,,chapter ,,xiii ,,alternative ,,theories ,,after this summary answer to the commoner objections to our account of morality1 we should notice a few of the more persistently recurrent formulas that seem inconsistent with this explanation of its fundamental nature4 ,is morality categorical1 beyond need of justification8 ,to ,kant and his followers1 as well as to many less philosophical minds1 the justification of morality by its utility has seemed unworthy4 ,morality is much more ultimate and imperious4 ,the pursuit of happiness is not binding2 morality is4 ,the way to attain happiness is dubious and variable2 the commandments of morality are clear-cut and certain4 ,different people find happiness in different activities2 the laws of morality are universal and changeless4 ,morality1 therefore1 is prior to the pursuit of happiness2 its dictates are known by an independent faculty4 ,there is in us all an unanalyzable and unavoidable ought2 ours not to reason why2 ours but to do-and die1 if need be4 ,morality is not a means to employ ,,if we wish happiness2 in that case its precepts would be but hypothetical1 if you wish happiness1 do so and so4 ,no1 its commands are categorical4 ,the inescapable fact of oughtness is the bottom fact upon which our ethics must be built4 ,to the truth in this manner of speech we must all respond4 ,as we have seen1 morality is not purely subjective and relative2 it carries the authority not of opinion but of fact4 ,the right1 the best way1 ,,is unconditionally best1 whether we are wise enough to desire it or no4 ,the greatest good ,,is the greatest good1 however narrow or short- sighted our impulses4 ,kant expresses eloquently the absolute and inescapable nature of duty in its perennial opposition to our transitory and nickering desires4 7#a7 ,but ,kant is unfair in his picturesque contrast between the perplexities attending the pursuit of happiness and the certainty attachable to morality4 ,as a matter of observation1 moral codes have varied quite as much as man's different ways of finding happiness4 ,cases of moral perplexity are as common as cases of uncertainty with regard to the road to happiness2 there is no such universality and changelessness about morality as he assumes4 ,if a certain code seems fixed and indubitable to us1 it is in large degree because we have become accustomed to it and given it our allegiance2 a wider acquaintance with other codes1 contemporary or past1 would shake our confidence4 ,some fundamental rules are unquestionable-rules against murder1 rape1 etc42 but just as unquestionable is the fact that these acts make against human happiness4 7#b7 ,only a man with an ,hebraic training and rigoristic temper could think of morality in this awestruck and unquestioning way4 ,more ,bohemian people feel no such categorical ought in their breasts4 ,and if a man feels no such categorical imperative1 how can you prove to him it is there8 ,kant's theory is at bottom mere assertion2 if because of your training and temperament you respond to it1 and if you are content not to analyze and explain the existence of this imperious pressure upon your will1 you are tremendously impressed4 ,otherwise the whole elaborate ,kantian system probably seems to you an unreal brain-spun structure4 ,kant1 though a man of extraordinary mental powers1 had but a narrow range of experience to base his theories upon1 and lived too early to catch the genetic viewpoint4 ,hence there is a certain pedantic naivete in his constructions4 ,no man with any modern psychological or historical training ought to be content to leave this extraordinary categorical imperative unexplained4 ,it is quite possible to trace its origin and understand its function2 there is nothing unique or mysterious about it4 ,why should we bow down to a command shot at us out of the air1 a command irrelevant to our actual interests8 ,children have to do so1 and the majority of the human race are still children1 who may properly acquiesce in the rules of morality without clearly realizing why4 ,but the reflective man should not be content to yield himself to the yoke unless he can see its necessity and value4 ,the ought1 the knowledge of what is right1 antedates the individual's experience of what is best1 and so seems mysterious and a priori to him2 but it does not antedate the racial experience2 it is rather its fruit4 ,the teleology of conscience is very simple1 and its genesis and development purely natural4 7#c7 ,the ought seems more objective than conscience1 more impersonal4 ,just so does beauty seem more impersonal and objective than our pleasure in contemplating nature and art4 ,it is a constant tendency of the mind to project its values out of itself2 to create universes of discourse that seem more stable and real than its own fleeting states4 ,all that exists psychologically is a sense of pleasure at looking at certain combinations of outer objects2 but that pleasure is constantly evoked by that peculiar combination1 both in our own mind and in others'4 ,so we objectify that pleasure and call it the beauty of the object4 ,similarly1 all that exists psychologically is a certain felt pressure1 certain emotions and ideas and pushes whose teleology is not realized4 ,but we objectify that constantly and pretty universally felt pressure and think of an impersonal1 objective ought4 ,all the arts are expressible in oughts2 and if there is a more authoritative and categorical nature to moral laws than there is1 for example1 to the aesthetic laws that art-study reveals1 it is because aesthetics deals with only one aspect of human good and ethics with its totality4 ,indeed1 every impulse is1 in its initial push1 categorical1 offering no reasons1 simply pressing upon us with its requirements4 ,hunger and thirst and sex-desire do not say to us1 ,if you desire to be happy1 eat1 drink1 and gratify your passion2 they call to us with an imperious and immediate demand4 ,the demand of the moral law is more insistent and more authoritative simply because it represents a far more widespread and lasting need4 7#d7 ,kant's categorical imperative is purely formal and empty4 ,we ,,ought1 we ,,ought-but what8 ,it leads1 if to anything1 to a mere emotional reinforcement of our preexisting moral conceptions1 to that canonization of good will as the one and only good1 which is ,kant's own position1 but which we have found inadequate and misleading4 ,when we come to new situations it has no clue to offer4 ,how do we actually decide in such cases8 ,by imagining the consequences of acts and seeing their relative productiveness of happiness and pain4 ,or else by finding some already decided case under which we can put the new instance4 ,we are tempted to an act that promises profit1 but something checks us4 ,ought we to do this8 ,gradually it comes over us that this would be stealing2 and stealing we have already decided1 or the race has decided for us1 is wrong4 ,we have to decide things in terms of our welfare1 or of those already stereotyped decisions which represent the half-conscious strivings of past generations for human welfare4 ,there is no other way2 the conception of an imperious impersonal ought bearing ruthlessly down upon us gives no help whatsoever4 ,a later and ,english expression of the feeling that morality needs no justification may be found in ,bradley's ,,ethical ,,studies4 ,footnote3 ,pages #ef-eg4 ,to take virtue as a mere means to an ulterior end is in direct antagonism to the voice of moral consciousness4 ,that consciousness1 when unwarped by selfishness and not blinded by sophistry1 is convinced that to ask for the ,why is simple immorality2 to do good for its own sake is virtue1 to do it for some ulterior end or object444is never virtue444,virtue not only does seem to be1 but is1 an end in itself4 ,against the base mechanical which meets us on all sides1 with its ',what is the use' of goodness1 or beauty1 or truth1 there is but one fitting answer from the friends of science1 or art1 or religion and virtue1 ',we do not know and we do not care4' 7#a7 ,but morality would then be a mere arbitrary tyranny2 if it were of no use1 the sacrifices it demands would be sheer cruelty4 ,a moral law irrelevant to human interests would have no possible authority over us2 it would not be a moral1 i4e14 a right1 law for us4 7#b7 ,and what criterion should we have to judge what is virtuous8 ,virtue for virtue's sake is equivalent to the best way because it is the best way4 ,but what makes it the best way8 ,and how shall we decide what is the best way8 7#c7 ,we must be blind not to see the use of morality1 even if we feel that usefulness degrades it4 ,all moralists agree that virtue does actually lead to happiness4 ,but is that connection a mere accident8 ,is it not likely that the usefulness of virtue has something to do with its origin and existence8 7#d7 ,a real practical value of the motto ,virtue for virtue's sake lies in the implied rejection of virtue for ,,individual profit merely4 ,the moralist rightly feels that such proverbs as ,honesty is the best policy1 ,ill-gotten gains do not prosper1 do not strike deep enough4 ,even if ill-gotten gain should prosper1 it would be wrong4 ,but it would be wrong simply because of the damage to others' welfare1 not for any transcendental reason4 ,the opponent of the eudaemonistic account of morality nearly always identifies it with a selfish pursuit1 by each individual1 of his own personal happiness4 ,but that is1 of course1 a very narrow and unjustifiable interpretation of it4 7#e7 ,another practical value of the motto lies in the implied contrast of virtue with expediency4 ,questions of expediency are questions of the best means to a given end2 questions of virtue ask which ends are to be sought4 ,expediency asks1 ,how shall ,i do this8 ,virtue asks1 ,shall ,i do this or that8 ,the counsels of expediency are thus always relative to the value of the end1 in itself unquestioned2 this is the thing to do ,,if such and such an end is right to seek4 ,the counsels of virtue are absolute-,this is the best thing to do4 ,it is rightly felt that in matters of right and wrong there is no if about it2 you act not with relation to an end which may be chosen or rejected1 on ulterior grounds4 ,the only end to which virtue is the means is-the living of the best life4 ,virtue is the ultimate expediency4 ,but it is well contrasted with all those secondary matters of debate for which we reserve the name expediency4 7#f7 ,finally1 the motto is practically useful in advising us not to rely upon calculation in the concrete emergency1 but to fall back upon an already adopted code1 to love virtue as one does the flag1 and follow it unquestioningly1 as the soldier does his general4 ,we must be willing to accept guidance and leadership4 ,but every one knows that the flag is but a symbol2 that the general's word is authoritative because it serves the best interests of the country4 ,and our impulsive allegiance to virtue1 and love of it1 would be a mere silly daydream and empty sacrifice were it not for its loyal safeguarding of human interests4 ,should we live according to nature1 and adjust ourselves to the evolutionary process8 ,according to the ,stoic philosophy1 the criterion for conduct was to live according to nature4 ,what is meant by 'rationally'8 asks ,epictetus1 and answers1 ,conformably to nature4 ,convince me that you acted naturally1 and ,i will convince you that everything which takes place according to nature takes place rightly4 ,footnote3 ,book ,,iii1 chap1 ,i2 book ,i1 chap4 ,,xi4 ,and ,marcus ,aurelius writes1 ,do not think any word or action beneath you which is in accordance with nature2 and never be misled by the apprehension of censure or reproach4 ,i will march on in the path of nature till my legs sink under me4 ,philosophy will put you upon nothing but what your nature wishes and calls for4 ,footnote3 ,book ,v4 ,of this preaching ,bishop ,butler says that it is a manner of speaking1 not loose and indeterminate1 but clear and distinct1 strictly just and true4 ,footnote3 ,preface to ,sermons4 ,in modern times this doctrine has taken the form of exhortation to take our place in the evolutionary process4 ,it is thought by some that to grasp the trend of existing natural forces is to know the direction of duty4 ,we have only to keep in the current1 to espouse heartily the struggle for existence and rejoice in the survival of the fittest1 because it is nature's way4 ,in a recent book by a ,harvard professor we read1 ,whatever the order of the universe is1 that is the moral order444,the laws of natural selection are merely ,god's regular methods of expressing his choice and approval4 ,the naturally selected are the chosen of ,god444,the whole life of moral people will consist in an intelligent effort to adjust themselves to the will thus expressed4 ,footnote3 ,t4 ,n4 ,carver1 ,the ,religion ,worth ,having1 pp4 #hd-hi4 ,it is easy enough to point out1 however1 that nature man to follow4 ,in sober truth1 nearly all the things which men are hanged or imprisoned for doing to one another1 are nature's everyday performances4 ,nature impales men1 breaks them as if on the wheel1 casts them to be devoured by wild beasts1 crushes them with stones like the first ,christian martyr1 starves them with hunger1 freezes them with cold1 poisons them by the quick or slow venom of her exhalations4 ,footnote3 ,j4 ,s4 ,mill1 ,three ,essays on ,religion3 ,nature1 p4 #bh4 ,the evolutionary process is cruel and merciless2 multitudes perish for every one that survives1 and the survivor is not the most deserving1 but the strongest or swiftest or cleverest4 ,why should we imitate such ruthless ways8 ,nature is to be not followed but improved upon4 ,not only morality1 but most of man's activity1 consists in making nature over to suit his needs4 ,if nature and man are both the works of a ,being of perfect goodness1 that ,being intended nature as a scheme to be amended1 not imitated1 by man4 ,footnote3 ,ibid1 p4 #da4 7#b7 ,not only is there no reason ,,why we should follow nature1 but the result of so doing would be any thing but what we agree is moral4 ,hardly a sin is committed but was natural to the sinner4 ,it is natural to lose our tempers2 to be vain1 selfish1 greedy1 lustful4 ,nothing could be practically more pernicious than the idea that an impulse is right because it is natural2 that is1 because it is common to most men4 ,following nature naturally means following our inclinations2 nothing is more disastrous4 ,virtue necessitates self denial1 effort1 living by ideals1 which are late and artificial products4 ,it is actually true1 in its metaphorical way1 that we need to be born again1 to be turned about1 converted1 saved from ourselves4 ,the natural man is the carnal man2 the spiritual man1 while potential in us all1 needs to be fostered and stimulated by every possible means if life is to be serene and full and beautiful4 ,the difference between the natural man and the moral man is the difference between the untrained child1 capricious1 the victim of a thousand whims and longings1 and the man of formed character whom we respect and trust4 ,morality is1 of course1 in a sense1 natural too-everything that exists is natural2 but in the sense in which the word has a specific meaning1 it is flatly opposed to that making-over1 that readjustment of our impulses1 which is the very differentia of morality4 ,there is1 indeed1 a eulogistic sense of the word natural2 to ,rousseau the return to nature meant the abandonment of needless artificiality and silly convention4 ,but except in this sense1 what is natural has no particular merit4 ,the great achievements of man have consisted not in following natural1 primitive instincts1 but in controlling and disciplining those instincts4 ,if we were to imitate nature in making the survival of the fittest our aim1 we should return to the barbaric ruthlessness of ancient ,sparta or ,rome1 exposing infants1 killing the feeble and insane1 and becoming just such cold-blooded pursuers of efficiency as ,nietzsche admires4 ,that such pitiless competition is moral1 or desirable1 no one but a few cranks would on examination maintain4 ,let us understand once for all1 says ,huxley1 that the ethical progress of society depends not on imitating the cosmic process1 still less in running away from it1 but in combating it4 ,footnote3 ,evolution and ,ethics1 title essay4 7#c7 ,this cosmic defiance of ,huxley's commands our approval2 if morality interferes with the evolutionary process1 let it interfere2 the sooner an immoral process is stopped the better4 ,but1 after all1 ,huxley unnecessarily limits the meaning of the phrase the cosmic process1 applying it only to that stage which antedates the development of morality4 ,that development1 however1 is itself natural selection1 which in its earlier stages selects merely the strong and swift and clever1 in its later stages selects also the moral races and individuals4 ,so that to follow out the evolutionary process is1 for man1 after all1 to follow morality as well as to cultivate speed and strength and wit4 ,there is1 indeed1 a danger to the race from the development of the tenderer side of morality1 in the care for the feeble and degenerate which permits them to live and produce offspring1 instead of being ruthlessly exterminated1 as in ruder days4 ,but this danger can1 and will1 be met by measures which1 while permitting life and1 so far as possible1 happiness1 to these unfortunates1 will prevent them from having children4 ,except for this removable danger1 the development of sympathy and tenderness by no means involves a lessening of virility1 but is rather its necessary complement and check4 ,is self-development or self-realization the ultimate end8 ,it is no justification of morality to say that it is in harmony with nature4 ,is it an adequate justification to say that morality is what makes for self-development or self-realization8 ,a number of classic and contemporary moralists1 fighting shy of the acknowledgment of happiness as the ultimate end1 have rested content with such expressions4 ,darwin wrote1 ,the term 'general good' may be defined as the rearing of the greatest number of individuals in full vigor and health1 with all their faculties perfect1 under the conditions to which they are subjected4 ,footnote3 ,descent of ,man1 chap1 iv4 ,paulsen writes1 ,the value of virtue consists in its favorable effects upon the development of life444,the value of life consists in the normal performance of all functions1 or in the exercise of capacities and virtues444,a perfect human life is an end in itself4 ,the standard is what has been called the normal type1 or the idea1 of human life4 ,footnote3 ,system of ,ethics1 book ,,ii1 chap4 ,,ii4 7#a7 ,such a point of view gives opportunity for stimulating words4 ,but it gives no guidance4 ,observation can teach us1 slowly1 what conduct makes for happiness2 but what conduct makes for self-development8 ,the fact is1 the cultivation of any impulse will develop us in its direction and preclude our development in other directions2 along which path shall we let ourselves develop8 ,every choice involves rejection2 infinite possibilities diverge before us2 which among the myriad impulses that call upon us shall we follow8 ,while still young and plastic1 we may develop ourselves into poets or philosophers or lawyers or businessmen4 ,in which of these ways shall we realize ourselves8 ,footnote3 ,cf4 ,william ,james1 ,psychology1 vol4 ,i1 p4 #cji3 ,i am often confronted by the necessity of standing by one of my empirical selves and relinquishing the rest4 ,not that ,i would not1 if ,i could1 be both handsome and fat and well dressed1 and a great athlete1 and make a million a year1 be a wit1 a bon-vivant1 and a lady-killer1 as well as a philosopher2 a philanthropist1 statesman1 warrior1 and ,african explorer1 as well as a 'tone-poet' and saint4 ,but the thing is simply impossible4 ,the millionaire's work would run counter to the saint's2 the bon vivant and the philanthropist would trip each other up2 the philosopher and the lady-killer could not well keep house in the same tenement of clay4 ,such different characters may conceivably at the outset of life be alike possible to a man4 ,but to make any one of them actual1 the rest must more or less be suppressed4 ,it is evident that we need some deeper ground of choice4 ,may it not even be better drastically to choke our natures1 better to get a new nature than to realize the old8 ,surely there are perverted natures1 which ought not to be developed4 ,in the name of happiness we can decide on development or non-development1 as the need may be4 ,but the ideal of self development gives us no criterion4 ,it is too sweeping1 too indiscriminate4 7#b7 ,again1 we may ask ,,why we should develop ourselves4 ,this ideal is in need of justification to the has a eulogistic connotation in our ears2 but to rely upon that is to beg the question4 ,strictly1 it means only the actualizing of potentiality1 which may be potentiality for evil as well as for good4 ,concretely1 if developing our natures led to pain and sorrow we should do well to resist such development4 ,the plausibility of the formula lies in the fact that the development of one's self along any line is normally pleasant and normally conduces to ultimate happiness4 ,the idea of it attracts us1 and it is well that it should2 it is intrinsically and extrinsically good4 ,but it is the fact of possessing that intrinsic and extrinsic goodness that makes it a legitimate ideal4 ,in sum1 it is good to develop one's powers only because and in so far as such development makes for happiness or is itself an aspect of happiness4 ,for happiness is the only sort of thing that is in itself intrinsically and obviously desirable1 without need of proof4 7#c7 ,practically1 this ideal-tends to selfishness2 it does not point to the fact that the best development of self lies in service4 ,the ideal is capable of this interpretation1 but its emphasis is in the wrong direction4 ,it is essentially a pagan conception1 and practically inferior to the ,christian ideal of service4 ,service cannot be the ultimate ideal1 any more than the ,chinese in the story could support themselves by taking in one another's washing2 and it needs to be justified1 like self-development1 by the happiness it brings4 ,but for a working conception it is far better4 ,self-realization has never been the aim of the saints and heroes4 ,imagine a patriot dying for his country's freedom1 or a mother giving years of sacrificing toil for her child1 on the ground of self-development6 ,the patriot may feel that through his sacrifice and that of his comrades his countrymen will be freer or more united or rid of some curse i4e41 ultimately1 happier4 ,the mother thinks consciously of the happiness of the child she serves4 ,but except for the young man or properly be for the time self-centered1 self-development makes but a sorry ideal4 ,we may admire a ,goethe who cares primarily for the development and perfection of his own powers-if he is handsome and clever and of a winning personality4 ,but the men we really love and reverence are those who forget themselves and prefer to go1 if necessary1 with their artistic sense undeveloped or their scientific sense untrained1 so they may bring help and peace to their fellows4 ,footnote3 ,cf4 a recent story writer1 ,nalbro ,hartley1 in ,ainslee's 7a mountain-white is speaking73 ,i reckon the best way to get on in this world is to learn just enough to make you all always want to know more but to be so busy usin' what you-all has learned that there ain't no time to learn the rest6 ,goethe1 with all his genius1 encyclopedic knowledge1 and universality of experience1 his wit and energy and power of expression1 stands on a lower moral level than ,buddha1 ,st4 ,francis1 ,christ4 7#d7 ,finally1 the theory1 if taken strictly1 is immoral4 ,to set up self- realization as the criterion is to say that the self-realizing act is to be chosen ,,even ,,if ,,it ,,should ,,produce ,,less ,,than ,,the ,,greatest ,,attainable ,,total ,,good4 ,that such cases do not occur1 no one can prove2 in fact1 observation tends to the belief that they do4 ,this criterion is1 then1 not only practically but theoretically selfish4 ,perfection of character should be our aim1 yes4 ,but perfection of character is not to be found in a mere indiscriminate cultivation of whatever faculties we may have4 ,it means the superposition of a severe discipline upon our faculties1 a purification of the will1 directed by more ultimate considerations4 ,is the source of duty the will of ,god8 ,obedience to the will of ,god describes the highest morality1 as does the phrase perfection of character4 ,but is it1 any more than that1 the ,,ultimate ,,justification of morality8 ,is the will of ,god the ,,source of morality8 ,an adequate discussion of this question would involve a philosophy of religion1 but a few considerations may be useful1 and it is hoped1 not misleading4 7#a7 ,how can we know what is the will of ,god except by considering what makes for human welfare8 ,our ,bible is but one of a number of holy books which are held to be a revelation of ,god's will4 ,even if we grant the superior authority of the ,hebrew- ,christian ,bible1 can we rely on its teachings implicitly8 ,how do we know that it is a revelation of ,god except by our experience of the beneficence of its teachings8 ,as a matter of fact1 there is wide disagreement1 among those who accept the ,bible as authoritative1 over its real teachings4 ,a text is available for every variety of belief4 ,christians usually emphasize those texts that make for what they hold true1 and slur over others4 ,look not on the wine when it is red is preached in every ,sunday ,school1 while ,take a little wine for thy stomach's sake is seldom quoted save by brewers4 ,the ,bible1 the work of a hundred hands during a span of a thousand years1 represents a great variety of views4 ,it is certainly an inspired book if there ever was one2 so much inspiration could not have come from it if none had gone into it4 ,but to extract a satisfactory ethical code from it is possible only by a process of judicious selection and ingenious inference4 ,the ,mosaic code is held by ,christians to be now abrogated2 the recorded teachings of ,christ are fragmentary and touch only a few fundamental matters4 ,how1 for example1 shall we ascertain from the ,bible the will of ,god with respect to the trust problem1 or currency reform1 or penal legislation8 ,times have changed1 our problems are no longer those of the ancient ,jews2 a hundred delicate questions arise to which no answers can be will of ,god to be clearly and unquestionably known1 why should we obey it8 ,because he is stronger1 and can reward or punish8 ,if that is the reason1 the freehearted man would defy ,him4 ,might does not make right4 ,if ,god were to command us to sin1 it would not be right to obey ,him4 ,on the contrary1 we should sympathize with ,mill in his outburst3 ,whatever power such a being may have over me1 there is one thing which he shall not do3 he shall not compel me to worship him4 ,i will call no being good1 who is not what ,i mean when ,i apply that epithet to my fellow creatures2 and if such a being can sentence me to hell for not so calling him1 to hell ,i will go4 ,footnote3 ,an ,examination of ,sir ,william ,hamilton's ,philosophy1 chap4 ,,vi4 ,it is clear that ,god is to be obeyed only because ,he is good and his will right4 ,not the existence of a will1 but its goodness makes it authoritative4 ,but how do we know that it is good unless we have some deeper criterion to judge it by8 ,how do we know that ,god is not an arbitrary tyrant8 ,the answer must be that we judge the ,christian teachings to be a revelation of ,god because we know on other grounds what we mean by right and good1 and see that these teachings fit that conception4 ,if the teachings were coarse and low1 no prodigies or miracles would suffice to attest them as ,god-given2 it would be superstition to obey them4 ,experience alone can be judge2 the experience of the beneficence of the ,christian ideal4 ,the ,way of ,life that ,christ taught verifies itself when tried2 that it is the supreme ideal for man is proved by the transfiguration of life it effects4 ,christ and the ,bible deserve our allegiance because they are worthy of it2 from them we can learn the secrets of man's true welfare4 ,morality is1 indeed1 older than religion4 ,it develops to a certain point1 and in some cases very highly1 without the concept of ,god4 ,it has an and needs no supernatural prop4 ,religion is not the root of morality1 but its flower and consummation4 ,the finest ideals1 the loftiest heights of morality1 merge into religion2 but even these spiritual ideals have their ultimate root in the common soil of human welfare1 and are rational ideals because they minister to human need4 ,for the categorical theory of morality1 see ,kant's ,theory of ,ethics1 trans4 ,abbott2 ,f4 ,h4 ,bradley1 ,ethical ,studies2 ,f4 ,paulsen1 ,system of ,ethics1 book ,,ii1 chap1 ,v1 secs4 #c and #d2 ,dewey and ,tufts1 ,ethics1 chap1 ,,xvi1 sec4 #b2 ,h4 ,spencer1 ,data of ,ethics1 chap1 ,,iii1 sees4 #ab1 #ac4 ,w4 ,fite1 ,introductory ,study of ,ethics1 chap4 ,x4 ,h4 ,rashdall1 ,theory of ,good and ,evil1 book ,i1 chap4 ,v4 ,for the according to nature theory1 see ,epictetus and ,marcus ,aurelius1 passim2 ,rousseau1 ,discourse on ,science and ,art1 etc42 ,j4 ,s4 ,mill1 ,nature in ,three ,essays on ,religion2 ,t4,h4 ,huxley1 ,evolution and ,ethics4 ,t4 ,n4 ,carver1 ,the ,religion ,worth ,having4 ,for the self-realization theory1 see ,t4 ,h4 ,green1 ,prolegomena to ,ethics2 ,f4 ,paulsen1 op4 cit1 esp4 book ,,ii1 chap1 ,,ii1 secs4 #e-h2 ,h4 ,w4 ,wright1 ,self-,realization2 ,j4 ,s4 ,mackenzie1 ,manual of ,ethics1 #b;d ed1 chaps1 ,,vi and ,,vii4 ,w4 ,fite1 op4 cit1 chap4 ,,xi4 ,for theological ethics1 see any of the older theological books4 ,a brief comment may be found in ,h4 ,spencer's ,data of ,ethics1 chap1 ,,iv1 sec4 #ah4 ,,chapter ,,xiv ,,the ,,worth ,,of ,,morality ,,before proceeding to a more concrete unfolding of the difficulties and problems of morality1 it will be well to formulate our theory in terms of modern biology1 and then1 finally1 to answer those modern critics who reject not merely the rational explanation of morality but morality itself4 ,morality as the organization of human interests4 ,the worth of morality is most commonly defended today1 in biological terms1 by describing it as a synthesis of human interests2 it is valuable because it is what we really want and need4 ,it does1 indeed1 forbid the carrying-out of any impulse which renders impossible greater goods2 it flatly opposes that unrestrained satisfying of a part of our natures which we call self-indulgence1 or of one nature at the expense of others which we call selfishness4 ,but it stifles desire only for a greater ultimate good2 it rejects that needless repression of a part of the self which we call asceticism1 and an undue subordination of self to others4 ,it is1 then the organizing or harmonizing principle1 subordinating the interests of each aspect of the self1 and of the many conflicting selves1 to the total welfare of the individual and of the community4 ,as ,plato pointed out1 ,footnote3 ,republic1 books4 ,i-,,iv2 e4g4 7#ddd73 ,is not the creation of righteousness the creation of a natural order and government of one another in the parts of the soul1 and the creation of unrighteousness the opposite8 and 7#ceb73 ,is not unrighteousness equally suicidal when existing in an individual as it is when it exists in the ,state1 rendering him incapable of action because he is not at unity with himself1 making him an enemy to himself8 and 7#ddc73 ,the righteous man does not permit the several elements within him to meddle with one another1 or any of them to do the work of others2 but he sets in order his own inner life1 and is his own master1 and at peace with himself2 and when 444 he is no longer many1 but has become one entirely temperate and perfectly adjusted nature1 then he will think and call right and good action that which preserves and cooperates with this condition4 7,in quoting ,plato ,i have used ,jowett's translation1 with an occasional substitution2 as1 above1 in the use of righteousness and right instead of justice and just47 representative of all other interests1 the consensus of interest4 ,such a definition1 we must admit1 happily describes morality1 showing us that if we would find its leading we must know ourselves2 we must examine our actual existing needs and consider how best to attain them4 ,the direction of morality is that of a carefully pruned and weeded human nature4 ,but there are certain dangers inherent in this form of definition which we must note3 7#a7 ,we must not be satisfied with the synthesis of consciously felt desires4 ,many of our deepest needs fail to come to the surface and embody themselves in impulses2 we do not know or seek what is really best for ourselves4 ,there are possibilities of harmony and peace upon low levels4 ,we must be pricked into desire for new forms of life and not allowed to stagnate in a condition which1 however well organized and contented1 is lacking in the richness and joy we might attain4 ,we must include in the interests to be organized all our dumb and unrealized needs1 all potential and latent impulses1 as well as our articulate desires4 7#b7 ,on the other hand1 there are perverse and pathological impulses which are deserving of no regard and must be simply cast aside in the organizing process1 because they lead only to unhappiness4 ,there is a difference between the desirable and the desired2 morality is not merely an organizing but a corrective force1 bringing sometimes not peace but a sword4 ,a truer figure would be to represent it as a flowers and ruthlessly pruning or weeding out others1 that the garden may be the most beautiful place4 7#c7 ,moreover1 this definition1 while an excellent ,,descriptiontion of what morality in general is1 is not a ,,justification of morality1 does not point to its ultimate raison d'etre4 ,to all this organizing activity we might say1 ,cui bono1 for what good8 ,,why should we organize our interests2 why not deny them like the ascetics8 ,the mere existence of pushes1 in this direction and that1 affords no material for moral judgment2 a harmonizing of them would make a mathematical resultant1 but it would be of no superior ,,worth4 ,if there were no pleasure and pain in life1 it would not ,,matter in the least whether the various life forces were organized or not4 ,in such a colorless world a unison of human impulses would be as morally indifferent as the convergence of tributary rivers or the formation of an organized solar system4 ,it is only1 as we long ago pointed out1 ,footnote3 ,cf4 ante1 p4 #gd when consciousness differentiates into its plus and minus values1 pleasure and pain1 that a reason arises why any forces in the cosmos should be thwarted or allowed free play4 ,with the emergence of those values1 however1 everything that affects them becomes significant4 ,if the complete transformation of our interests would make human life brighter1 fuller of plus values1 such a radical alteration1 rather than a harmonization1 would be our ideal4 ,as it is1 desire points normally toward the really desirable2 the direction of human welfare lies1 in general1 along the line of our organic needs1 of the avoidance of clashes1 of the mutual subordination and cooperation of natural impulses4 ,the principle of reason1 of intelligence1 is necessary in morality to find this way of cooperation1 this ultimate drift of need2 but without the potentiality of happiness chaos would be as good as order1 both within the individual soul and within the social group4 ,footnote3 ,plato realized this1 and in the ,philebus points out that we cannot completely describe morality either in terms of pleasure-pain or in terms of reason 7or wisdom71 the organizing principle4 ,both aspects of morality are important4 ,cf1 along this line1 ,h4 ,g4 ,lord1 ,the ,abuse of ,abstraction in ,ethics1 in the ,james memorial volume4 ,do moral acts always bring happiness somewhere8 ,the ultimate justification of morality the value of synthesizing our interests1 lies in the happiness men thereby attain4 ,but there is one fundamental doubt that ever and anon recurs the doubt whether1 after all1 actions that we agree in calling virtuous always ,,bring happiness4 ,if not1 either our definition of morality1 or our universal judgment as to what is moral1 would seem to be in error4 ,perhaps morality is1 after all1 off the track1 and to be discarded4 7#a7 ,we must first lay aside cases of perverted conscience1 acts which are subjectively moral1 or conscientious1 but not objectively best4 ,these cases we have already glanced at2 they need be no stumbling block4 7#b7 ,we must remember that the types of conduct which we have glorified by the concepts virtue1 duty1 etc1 are those which ,,tend to produce happiness4 ,we have to frame our judgments and pigeonhole acts according to their normal results4 ,but it happens not infrequently that accidents upset these natural tendencies4 ,for these unforeseeable eventualities the actor is not responsible2 if his act was the best that could have been planned1 in consideration of all known factors1 it remains the ideal for future cases1 it still retains the halo of virtue which must attract others to it4 ,good acts may lead1 by unexpected chance1 to evil consequences2 bad acts may result1 by some accident1 in good4 ,but to the interfering factor belongs the credit or blame2 the act that would normally have led to good or to evil remains right or wrong4 ,to rescue a drowning man is right1 for such action normally tends to human welfare2 if the rescued man turns out a great criminal1 or escapes this death to suffer a worse1 the act of rescuing the drowning remains a desirable and therefore moral act4 ,on the other hand1 if one man slanders another1 with the result that the latter1 refuting the slander1 thereby attains prominence and position1 the act of slander1 normally harmful1 remains an immoral act4 ,it is a failure to recognize this necessarily general character of our moral judgments that raises the problem of ,job4 ,the ancient ,israelites saw clearly that righteousness was the road to happiness2 ,footnote3 ,cf4 for example1 ,righteousness tendeth to life2 he that pursueth evil pursueth it to his own death4 ,blessed is every one that feareth the ,lord1 that walketh in his ways4 ,happy shalt thou be1 and it shall be well with thee4 and when a righteous man like ,job fell into misfortune1 they accused him of secret sin4 ,job is conscious of his innocence1 of having done his part aright1 and cannot understand how he has come to such an evil pass4 ,it would have brought him no material alleviation1 but it might have saved him some mental chafing1 to recognize that morality is simply doing our part4 ,when we have done our best we are still at the mercy of fortune4 ,happiness1 as ,aristotle pointed out1 is the result of two cooperating factors1 morality and good fortune4 ,footnote3 ,nichomachean ,ethics1 book ,i1 several places3 e4g1 in chap4 ,,vii1 ,to constitute happiness there must be1 as we have said1 complete virtue and fit external conditions4 ,if either is lacking1 evil will ensue4 ,if all men were perfectly virtuous1 we should still be at the mercy of flood and lightning1 poisonous snakes1 icebergs and fog at sea1 a thousand forms of accident and disease1 old age and death4 ,the millennium will not bring pure happiness to man2 he is too feeble a creature in the presence of forces with which he cannot cope4 ,morality is just-the best man can do2 and it is not to be blamed for the twists of fate that make futile its efforts4 7#c7 ,are there not1 however1 cases where conduct which we agree is right is not even likely to bring the greatest happiness attainable2 where not only immediate but lasting happiness is to be deliberately sacrificed in the name of morality8 ,suppose1 for example1 a politician who becomes convinced of the evils of the liquor trade ruins his career in a hopeless fight against the saloons4 ,he loses his office1 his income1 his honor in the sight of his associates2 he brings suffering upon his innocent wife and children2 and all for no good1 since his fight is futile and ineffective4 ,surely any one could foresee that such action would make only for unhappiness1 or for no happiness commensurable with the sacrifice4 ,yet if we agree with his premise1 that the liquor trade is a curse to humanity1 we deem his conduct not only conscientious but objectively noble and right4 ,how can we justify that judgment8 ,in the first place1 we cannot be sure1 beforehand1 that such a fight will not be successful4 ,forlorn hopes sometimes win4 ,we must encourage men to venture1 to take chances2 only so can the great evils that ride mankind be banished4 ,if there is a fighting chance of accomplishing a great good it is contemptible not to try2 society must maintain a code that leads at times to quixotic acts4 ,in the second place1 the fight1 even if in itself hopeless1 is sure to have valuable indirect results4 ,it arouses others to the need2 it stimulates in others the willingness to sacrifice self-interest and work for the general good4 ,every such honorable defeat has its share in the final victory4 ,the subtle benefits that result from such moral gallantry are not evident on the surface1 but they are there4 ,no push for the right is wholly wasted4 ,it pays mankind to let its heroes lavish their lives in apparently ineffective struggles2 through their example the apathetic masses are stirred and moved a little farther toward their goal4 ,in general1 we may say that the belief that virtue is not the right road to happiness betrays inexperience and immaturity of judgment4 ,a moderate degree of morality saves man from many pitfalls into which his unrestrained impulses would lead him4 ,the highest levels of morality bring a degree of happiness unknown to the natural man4 ,who are the happiest people in the world8 ,the saints2 those who are inwardly at peace1 who play their part with absolute loyalty4 ,even the irremediable misfortunes of life do not affect them as they do the worldly man2 they have learned the luxury of doing good4 ,of morality a recent writer says1 ,its distribution of felicity is ideally just4 ,to him who is most unselfish1 who sinks most thoroughly his own interests in those of the race of which he is a unit1 it awards the most complete beatitude4 ,footnote3 ,j4 ,h4 ,levy1 of ,london1 in a funeral oration4 ,to him who complains that he is moral but not happy1 the answer is1 ,be more moral6 ,a high enough morality1 a complete enough consecration1 will lead1 in all but very abnormal cases1 to happiness in the individual life1 as well as make its due contribution to the happiness of others4 ,is there anything better than morality8 ,it is this lack of vision1 this immature skepticism as to the service of morality to human welfare1 that has fired a flame of revolt in certain minds1 a revolt not merely against incidental defects and outworn conceptions of morality1 but against morality uberhaupt4 ,the declamations of these ,promethean rebels make it clear1 however1 that their protest is but the old fault of condemning a necessary institution altogether for its imperfections or its abuses4 ,morality has been blended with superstition and tyranny1 has been often blind1 perverted1 narrow1 checking noble impulses and choking the rich and happy development of life4 ,but it is one thing to arraign these accidents and corruptions of morality2 it is quite another to discard the whole system of guidance of which they are but the excrescences and mistakes4 ,this usurping is1 of course1 also in large part a thirst for novelty1 a love of paradox1 of practicing ingenuity in making the better appear the worse2 it is in part a volcanic eruption of suppressed longings and a protest against the inadequacy of our present code to provide opportunity and happiness for the masses4 ,the motives vary with the individual rebels4 ,it must suffice1 however1 from among the many leaders of this revolt1 to quote that clever but unbalanced ,german iconoclast1 ,nietzsche4 ,typical of his doctrine is the following3 ,footnote3 ,genealogy of ,morals 7ed4 ,alex4 ,tille71 ,foreword1 p4 #i4 ,never until now was there the least doubt or hesitation to set down the 'good' man as of higher value than the 'evil' man-of higher value in the sense of furtherance1 utility1 prosperity1 as regards ,,man in general 7the future of man included74 ,what if the reverse were true8 ,what if in1 the 'good' one also a symptom of decline were contained1 and a danger1 a seduction1 a poison1 a narcotic by which the present might live ,,at ,,the ,,expense ,,of ,,the ,,future8 ,perhaps more comfortably1 less dangerously1 but also in humbler style- more meanly8 ,so that just morality were to blame1 if a ,,highest ,,mightiness ,,and ,,splendor of type of man-possible in itself were never attained8 ,and that1 therefore1 morality itself would be the danger of dangers8 ,the point of this tirade is that morality puts a wet blanket over human powers2 it is a bourgeois ideal1 saving men1 indeed1 from pain1 but also robbing life of its picturesqueness and glory4 ,many people frankly prefer interesting to good people2 ,nietzsche generalizes this feeling4 ,morality is to him uninteresting1 dull1 a code for slaves1 for the clash of combat1 the tang of cruelty and lust1 the tingle of unrestrained power4 ,every man for himself then1 and the ,devil take the hindmost4 ,shocked as we are by this brutal platform1 there is something in it that appeals to the red blood and adventurous spirit in us2 after all1 we are not far removed from the savage1 and the thought of a psalm-singing1 tea-drinking1 tamely good world is abhorrent to the marrow of us4 ,stevenson1 with his delightfully irresponsible audacity1 sighs for an occasional furlough from the moral law2 and there are times for most of us when it seems as if we should choke and smother under the everlasting ,thou shalt not6 ,but the daring rebel1 the defiant ,titan1 comes creeping back to the shelter of morality with a headache or something worse1 and discovers that his ,promethean boldness was but childish petulance2 that it is futile and foolish to try to escape the inexorable laws of human life4 ,there are1 in fact1 two adequate answers that can be made to the despiser of morality3 7#a7 ,dull or not1 repressive or not1 morality is absolutely necessary4 ,it is better than the pain1 the insecurity1 the relapse into barbarism1 that immorality implies4 ,our whole civilization1 everything that makes human life better than that of the beasts of prey1 would collapse without its foundation of moral obedience4 ,the regime of slashing individualism would kill off many of the weaker who are precious to humanity-a ,homer 7if he was blind71 a ,keats1 a ,stevenson2 nay1 if carried to extreme1 it would put an end to the race4 ,for who are the weakest1 the hindmost1 but the babies6 ,sympathy and love and self sacrifice1 at least in parents1 are necessary if the race is to endure a generation4 ,but even for the individual1 the penalties of immorality are too obvious to need recapitulation4 ,if morality is repression1 it is the minimal repression consistent with the maintenance of successful and happy life4 ,its real aim is to bring life1 and life more abundantly4 7#b7 ,but if we are looking for something great1 for adventure and excitement and battle against odds1 we can find it much better than in brutally slashing at our fellows1 or running amuck at the beck of our impulses1 by putting our valor at the service of some really great human endeavor4 ,if we want to get into the big game1 the great adventure1 we must pit ourselves1 with the leaders of mankind1 against the hostile universe4 ,the men and women who set our blood tingling and our hearts beating fastest are-,darwin1 discoverer by patient labor of a great cosmic law2 ,pasteur1 conqueror at last over a terrible human disease2 ,peary1 first to plant foot upon the axis of the world2 ,goethals1 builder of a canal that links the oceans4 ,the steady march of a moralized civilization1 presenting united front to the cosmos1 is infinitely more glorious than the futile1 aimless1 and petty struggles of an anarchic immorality4 ,our half-disciplined life is already far richer and more romantic than the life of ,nietzsche's supermen could be2 and we are only a little way along the road of moral progress4 ,the real superman will be a ,,better man1 a man of tenderness and chivalry1 of loyalty and self-control1 a man of disciplined heart and purified will2 to attain to such a supermanliness is1 indeed1 a heroic and splendid achievement1 worthy of our utmost endeavor1 and calling into play all our noblest powers4 ,some there are1 accustomed to the vision of tables of stone engraved by the hand of ,god and set up for man's obedience amid ,sinaitic thunders1 for whom the discovery of the humble human and prehuman origin1 and the stumbling hit-or-miss evolution1 of morality dulls its sanctity4 ,but any one who is tempted for this reason to deride morality may console himself with the reflection that everything else of supreme importance in human life is of plebeian ancestry4 ,reason1 art1 government1 religion1 had their crude and superstition-ridden beginnings4 ,man himself was once hardly different from a monkey4 ,yet there is a spark of the divine in him and in all these arts and institutions which he with the aid of the cosmic forces has evolved4 ,surely a juster judgment may find a sublimity in this age-long march from the clod toward the millennium that could never belong to the spectacular but very provincial myths of the ,semites4 ,the emotions ever lag behind the intellect2 and our hearts may still yearn for the neighborly and passionate battle-god of the ,pentateuch4 ,moreover1 we shall continue to recognize a vast fund of truth and insight in those early folk tales and primitive codes4 ,but there comes a deeper breath to the man who realizes that morality and religion long antedate the ,jewish revelation1 and comes to see ,god in the tens and hundreds of thousands of years of slow but splendid human progress4 ,historical codes of morals are1 indeed1 seamed with superstition and are progressively displaced2 but morality persists4 ,at no time has man wholly solved the problem of life1 but he must ever live by the best solution he has found4 ,the innumerable codes are so many experiments1 their very differences bearing witness to the need of some set of guiding principles for conduct4 ,it is sometimes said that morality1 being a merely human invention1 may be discarded when we choose4 ,to this we may reply that morality bears1 indeed1 the indisputable marks of human instinct1 will1 and reason2 but it is not an invention2 it is a lesson1 slowly learned4 ,in its humanness lies its value4 ,it is not an alien code1 irrelevant to human nature2 it is a natural function2 it is the greatest of human institutions unless that be religion1 which is its flower and consummation4 ,morality is made for man1 for his use and guidance2 what could possibly have greater sanctity or authority for him8 ,rebel as he may1 and chafe under its restraints1 he always comes back to morality2 perhaps to a revised code1 but to essentially the same control2 for he cannot do without it4 ,our morality has its defects1 but it is on the right track4 ,a clearer insight into its teleological necessity1 the purpose it exists to serve1 will direct us in our efforts to revise it1 so to fashion it as to make it productive of still greater good in the time to come4 ,but if we discard it altogether1 we are like the base ,indian who threw a pearl away1 ,richer than all his tribe4 ,what we need is not to abandon but to steadily improve our code2 and whereas any one can pick flaws1 only the man of trained mind and controlled desire can discover feasible lines of advance4 ,when all is said1 there is nothing as yet to be changed in our old ,aryan ideal of justice1 conscientiousness1 courage1 kindness1 and honor4 ,we have only to draw nearer to it1 to clasp it more closely1 to realize it more effectively2 and1 before going beyond it1 we have still a long and noble road to travel beneath the stars4 ,footnote3 ,maeterlinck1 ,our ,anxious ,morality1 in ,the ,measure of the ,hours4 ,the conception of morality as the organization of interests will be found in ,plato's ,republic and ,aristotle's ,ethics1 and in many recent ethical books and papers4 ,among them are ,r4 ,b4 ,perry's ,moral ,economy1 ,g4 ,santayana's ,reason in ,science 7chap4 ,,ix72 ,william ,james1 ,the ,moral ,philosopher and the ,moral ,life 7in the ,will to ,believe and ,other ,essays74 ,a discussion of whether morality really makes for happiness will be found in ,leslie ,stephen1 ,system of ,ethics1 chap4 ,x2 ,w4 ,l4 ,sheldon1 ,an ,ethical ,movement1 chap4 ,,viii4 ,for ,nietzsche's theory1 see his ,beyond ,good and ,evil4 ,there are many excellent replies2 a brief but adequate one will be found in ,perry1 op4 cit1 chap4 ,i4 ,,part ,,iii ,,personal ,,morality ,,chapter ,,xv ,,health ,,and ,,efficiency ,with the general nature and justification of morality in our minds1 we may now seek to apply our criteria of conduct to the concrete problems that confront us1 first taking up those problems which1 however important their social bearings1 are primarily problems of private life1 problems for the individual to settle1 and then turning to those wider problems which the community as a whole must grapple with and solve by public action4 ,bodily health is the foundation of personal morality2 to act at all there must be physical energy available2 and1 other things equal1 the man with the greatest store of vitality will live the happiest and most useful life4 ,christianity has too often forgotten this fundamental truth1 which needs emphasis at the very outset of our concrete studies in morality4 ,what is the moral importance of health8 7#a7 ,health is in itself a great contribution to the intrinsic worth of life4 ,to awake in the morning with red blood stirring in the veins1 to come to the table with hearty appetite1 to go about the day's work with the springing step of abounding energy1 and to reach the close of day with that healthy fatigue that quiets restless desire and betokens the blessed boon of sound and dreamless sleep-this is to be a long way on the road to contentment4 ,health cannot in itself guarantee happiness if other evils obtrude2 but it removes many of the commonest impediments thereto1 and normally produces an increase in all other values4 ,heightened vitality means an increased sense of power1 a keener zest in everything2 troubles slide off the healthy man that would stick to the less vigorous4 ,bodily depression almost always involves mental depression2 our blues usually have an organic basis4 ,it was not a superstition that evolved our word melancholy from the ,greek black 7i4e41 disordered7 liver nor is it a mere pun or paradox to say that whether life is worth living depends upon the liver4 ,more than this1 health is opportunity4 ,the man of abundant energy can taste more of the joys of life1 can enlarge the bounds of his experience1 can use precious hours of our brief span which the weakling must devote to rest1 can learn more1 can range farther1 can venture all sorts of undertakings from which the other is precluded by his lack of strength4 ,all these experiences1 if they are guided by prudence and self-control1 bring their meed of insight and skill and character4 ,it is only through living that we grow1 and health means the potentiality of life4 7#b7 ,health means efficiency1 more work done1 greater usefulness to society4 ,sooner or later every man who is worth his salt finds some task the doing of which arouses his ambition and becomes his particular contribution to the world4 ,how bitterly will he then regret the heritage denied him or foolishly squandered1 the handicap of quivering nerves1 muscular flabbiness1 wandering mind1 that impedes its accomplishment6 ,determination and persistence may1 indeed1 use a frail physique for splendid service2 such names as ,darwin1 ,spencer1 ,prescott1 remind us of the strength of human will that can override physical obstacles and by long effort produce a great achievement4 ,but for one victor in this struggle of will against body there are a hundred vanquished2 and even these men of genius and grit could have accomplished far more if they had had normally serviceable bodies4 7#c7 ,health makes morality easier and likelier4 ,the pernicious influence of bodily frailty and abnormality upon mind and morals has always been recognized 7cf4 the mens sana in corpore sano of the ancients71 but was never so clearly seen as today4 ,the lack of proper nutrition or circulation1 the state of depressed vitality resulting from want of fresh air1 exercise1 or sleep1 are important factors in the production of insanity and crime4 ,over fatigue means a weakening of the power of attention1 and hence of will1 a paralyzing of the highest brain centers1 a lowered resistance to the more primitive instincts and passions4 ,chronic irritability1 moroseness1 pathological impulses of all sorts1 generally betokens eyestrain1 dyspepsia1 constipation1 or some other bodily derangement4 ,with the regaining of normal health the unruly impulses usually become quieter1 sympathy flows more freely1 the man becomes kinder1 more tolerant1 and morally sane4 ,professor ,chittenden of ,yale is quoted as saying that lack of proper physical condition is responsible for more moral 444 ills than any other factor4 ,certain temptations1 at least1 bear more hardly upon the man of weak and unstrung nerves2 in ,rousseau's well known words1 ,the weaker the body1 the more it commands4 ,and in general1 abnormal organic conditions involve a warping of the judgment1 a twisted or unbalanced view of life 7e4g4 ,wordsworth's ,spontaneous reason breathed by health71 which leads away from the path of virtue4 ,all honor1 then1 to the men who have kept clean and true and cheerful through years of bodily depression2 such conquest over evil conditions is one of the finest things in life4 ,but nobility of character is hard enough to attain without adding the obstacle of a reluctant body2 and although some virtues are easier to the invalid1 and some temptations removed from his circumscribed field of activity1 it remains true in general that health is the great first aid to morality4 ,can we attain to greater health and efficiency8 ,if health is1 then1 so important to the individual and society1 its pursuit is not a selfish or a trivial matter2 it is rather a serious and unavoidable duty4 ,the gospel of health is sorely needed in our modern world4 ,young men and women use up their apparently limitless capital with heedless waste2 those who start with a lesser inheritance neglect the means at their command for increasing their stock of strength and winning the power and exuberance of life that might be theirs4 ,there are1 of course1 many cases of undeserved ill health2 we ill understand as yet the causes and enemies of bodily vigor1 and many a gallant fight for health has gone unrewarded4 ,but in the great majority of cases a wise conduct of life would retain robust strength for the threescore or more years of our allotted course1 increase it for those who start poorly equipped1 and regain it for those who by mischance1 blunder1 or imprudence have lost their heritage4 ,yet half the world hardly knows what real health is4 ,our hospitals and sanitariums are crowded1 our streets are full of half-sick people-hollow chests1 sallow faces1 dark-rimmed eyes1 nervous1 run-down1 worn-out1 brain-fagged1 dragging on their existence1 or dying before their time1 robbed by stupidity and ignorance of their birthright of full-breathed rosy-cheeked health1 and robbing the society that has reared them of the full quota of their service4 ,health is not merely freedom from disease2 we have a right to what ,emerson called plus health4 ,and among the men who rightly awaken our enthusiasm are those who out of a frail childhood have built up for themselves by perseverance and will a manhood of physical power1 endurance1 and efficiency4 ,the principles of health for the normal man are few and simple1 the reward great2 what stands in the way is partly our apathy and indifference1 partly our incontinent appetites1 partly the unwholesome and deadening social influences in which we find ourselves enmeshed4 ,for those who care enough1 almost unlimited vistas open up2 as ,spinoza has it1 ,no one has yet found the limits of what the body can do4 ,william ,james was convinced ,footnote3 ,see his essay1 ,the ,energies of ,man1 in ,memories and ,studies4 that the potentialities of human energy and efficiency are but half realized by the best of us4 ,we must learn better to run the human machine4 ,our prevalent disregard of the conditions of bodily vigor1 our persistent carelessness in the elementary matters of hygiene and health1 is nothing short of criminal4 ,we would have health1 and yet still use our bodies ill2 ,bafflers of our own prayers from youth to life's last scenes4 ,happiness that impairs health seldom pays4 ,where it is a question of useful work done at the expense of our fatigue1 there may be more question2 normally such sacrifices are undesirable2 but what seems over fatigue may not really be so1 and the earnest man will err on this side rather than run risk of pusillanimous shirking4 ,moreover1 some work practically requires an over effort for its accomplishment2 and no man of mettle will begrudge his very life-blood when necessary4 ,overwork is the last infirmity of noble minds4 ,yet when not really necessary1 it must be ranked as a sin1 and not too generously condoned4 ,the intense competition of modern industry1 the complexity of our economic machinery1 the colossal accumulation of facts which must be mastered for success1 bring heavy pressure to bear upon those who have their way to make in the world4 ,the pace is fast1 and many there are that die or break from overstrain when at the height of their usefulness4 ,such1 overpressure does not pay2 it means that less work will in the end get done4 ,when we consider also the moral dangers it involves1 the glumness or irritability of taut nerves1 the unhealthy tension that demands strong excitements and does not know how to rest or enjoy quiet and restorative pleasures2 when we consider the broken men and women that have to be taken care of1 the widows and children of the workers who have died before their time1 the children perhaps weakened for life because of the tired condition of their parents at birth2 when we consider the number of defective children born to such overworked parents1 we realize that it is not primarily a question of enjoying life more or less1 it is a matter of grave economic and moral import4 ,footnote3 ,cf4 ,m4 ,g4 ,schlapp1 in the ,outlook1 vol4 #ajj1 p4 #ghb4 ,whether we actually work harder1 on the whole1 than our forebears1 and whether there is actually a decrease in the health and endurance of the younger generation today owing to the overstrain of their parents1 is open to dispute4 ,certainly when one compares a portrait of ,reynolds1 ,gainsborough1 or ,stuart with one by ,sargent1 ,thayer1 or ,alexander1 there is a noticeable difference of type1 indicative of a different ideal of life in the upper stratum of society1 an ideal of effort and efficiency1 which is far better than a patrician dilettantism1 but has in turn its dangers4,we need to recall the line of ,a,eschylus1 ,all the gods' work is effortless and calm4 ,or ,matthew ,arnold's sonnet on ,quiet ,work3 ,one lesson1 ,nature1 let me learn of thee1 ,a lesson that on every wind is borne1 ,a lesson of two duties kept at one ,though the loud world proclaim their enmity3 ,of toil unsevered from tranquility1 ,of labor that in lasting fruit outgrows ,far noisier schemes1 accomplished in repose1 ,too great for haste1 too high for rivalry444 ,most of us would find our powers adequate to our duties if we learned to rest when we are not working1 and spend no energy in worry and fretfulness4 ,footnote3 ,cf4 ,w4 ,james's essay on ,the ,gospel of ,relaxation1 in ,talks to ,teachers and ,students1 or ,annie ,payson ,call's books1 of which the best known is ,power ,through ,repose4 ,this nervous leakage is a notoriously ,american ailment2 we knit our brows1 we work our fingers1 we fidget1 we rock in our chairs1 we talk explosively1 we live in a quiver of excitement and hurry1 in a chronic state of tension4 ,we need to follow ,st4 ,paul's exhortation to ,study to be quiet2 to learn what ,carlyle called the great art of sitting still4 ,we must not lower our ,american ideal of efficiency1 of the strenuous life2 but it is precisely through that self-control that is willing to live within necessary limitations1 and able to cut off the waste of fruitless activity of mind and body1 that our national efficiency can be maintained at its highest4 ,is continued idleness ever justifiable8 ,we do not need ,stevenson's charming ,apology for ,idlers1 to know that rest and recreation are as wholesome and necessary as work4 ,but idleness is only profitable and really enjoyable when it comes as an interlude in the midst of activity4 ,there is much to be done1 and no one is free to shirk his share of the world's work2 we may enjoy our vacations only as we have earned the right to them4 ,except for invalids and idiots1 continued idleness never justifiable4 ,clothes we must have1 and food1 and shelter1 and much else2 if a man does not produce these things for himself1 or some equivalent which he can fairly exchange for them1 he is a parasite upon other men's labor4 ,six days shalt thou labor is the universal commandment1 and ,in the sweat of thy brow shalt thou eat bread4 ,an old ,chinese proverb runs1 ,if there is one idle man1 there is another who is starving4 ,certainly a state in which the masses will have their drudgery lightened for them and opportunity for a well rounded human life given1 will be attained only in a society where there are no drones2 and no man or woman worthy of the name will be content to live idly on the labor of others4 ,others have labored1 and we have entered into their labors2 it is not fair to accept so much without giving what we can in return4 ,for most men and women there is1 of course2 no alterative2 they must work or live a wretched1 comfortless life1 with the actual risk of starvation4 ,a few may prefer the precarious existence of the tramp1 or pauper2 but they must pay the price in homelessness and hazard4 ,except for abnormal social conditions1 the vile housing of the poor1 the hopeless monotony and overlong hours of most forms of unskilled labor1 the lure of drink1 and the deprivation of the natural joys of life1 there would be few of these voluntary idlers among the poor4 ,the aversion to work1 when it is decently agreeable1 in decent surroundings1 and not carried to the point of fatigue1 is abnormal2 and it is by the improvement of the conditions and remuneration of labor that we must seek to cure that unwillingness to work1 in the poor1 which ,tolstoy came to believe was their greatest curse4 ,footnote3 ,see his ,what ,shall ,we ,do ,then8 7or ,what to ,do87 ,much more difficult to cure is the curse of idleness among the rich4 ,the absence of the need of working1 and the possibilities of pleasure seeking which money affords1 are a constant temptation to them to live a life of ease4 ,the spectacle is not unfamiliar of rich young men traveling about the world1 living at their clubs1 spending their energies in gayeties and sports1 with hardly a sense of the responsibilities which their privileges entail4 ,fortunately1 however1 there is1 in ,america at least1 a pretty widespread sense of shame among men about such shirking1 and the idler has to face a certain amount of mild contempt4 ,upon women the pressure of public opinion has not yet become nothing upper-class ladies who spend their time at cards1 at teas1 at the theater1 who think of little but dress and gossip1 or of the latest novels and music1 who evade their natural duties of motherhood or give over care of home and children to hired servants1 that they may be freer to live the butterfly life1 are still too little rebuked by their hard-working sisters and by men4 ,we must impress it upon all that the inheritance of money does not excuse laziness2 if the pressure to earn a living is removed1 there are numberless ways in which the rich can serve1 privileged ways1 happy ways1 which there is far less pretext for avoiding than the poor have for hating their grim toil4 ,in ,carlyle's words1 ,if the poor and humble toil that we have food1 must not the high and glorious toil for him in return1 that he may have light1 have guidance1 freedom1 immortality8 ,the rich commonly point the finger of scorn at the poor who turn away from honest work2 we may well wonder if they would work themselves at such dirty and dangerous occupations4 ,many a charity visitor who preaches the gospel of toil is herself1 except for some fitful and ineffective social work1 a useless ornament to society who hardly knows the meaning of toil4 ,if idleness is a mote in the eyes of the poor1 it is a beam in the eyes of the rich4 ,neither blood nor rank nor sex excuses from the universal duty4 ,we must all toil or steal 7howsoever we name our stealing71 which is worse4 ,footnote3 ,carlyle's writings are full of such wholesome declarations4 ,and cf4 ,w4 ,dew4 ,hyde3 ,an able-bodied man who does not contribute to the world at least as much as he takes out of it is a beggar and a thief2 whether he shirks the duty of work under the pretext of poverty or riches4 ,cf4 also ,tolstoy1 in ,what to ,do8 ,for example 7from chap4 ,,xxvi71 ,how can a man who considers himself to be1 we will not say a ,christian1 or an educated and humane man1 but simply a man not entirely devoid of reason and of conscience1 how can he1 ,i say1 live in such a way that1 not taking part in the struggle of all mankind for life1 he only swallows up the labor of others1 struggling for existence1 and by his own claims increases the labor of those who struggle1 and the number of those who perish in struggle8 relieved from the necessity of earning a living 7unless one intends to use that freedom for unpaid service71 an ideal dangerous to social welfare1 and shortsighted for the individual4 ,work makes up a large part of the worth of life4 ,drudgery it may be at the time1 a weary round1 with no compensation apparent2 but it is of just such stuff that real life is made4 ,what ennobles it1 what gives it meaning1 is the courageous attack1 the putting of heart into work1 the facing of monotony1 the finding of the zest of accomplishment4 ,there is no such thing as menial work2 the washing of dishes and the carting away of garbage are just as necessary and important as the running of a railway or the making of laws4 ,the real horror is the dead weight of ennui1 the aimlessness and fruitlessness of a life that has done nothing and has nothing to do4 ,if the thought of the day's work depresses1 it is probably because of ill health1 over fatigue1 unpleasant surroundings or companions1 because of worry1 or because the particular work is not congenial4 ,the finding of the right work for the right man and woman is one of the great problems which we have hardly begun to solve4 ,but all of these sources of the distaste for work can normally1 or eventually1 be reached and the evil remedied4 ,in spite of the burden and the strain1 if we could have our way with the order of things1 one of the most foolish things we could do would be to take away the necessity of work4 ,here1 as usual1 personal and social needs coincide2 in the working life alone can be found a lasting satisfaction for the soul and the hope of salvation for society4 ,are competitive athletics desirable8 ,as samples of the concrete problems involved in the ideal of health and efficiency1 we may briefly discuss two questions that confront particularly the young man4 ,and first1 that concerning athletic sports are of marked value3 7#a7 ,they are to any normal man or woman1 and especially to the young who have not yet become immersed in the more serious game of life1 one of the greatest and most tonic joys4 ,the stretching and tension of healthy muscles1 the deep draughts of out-of-door air1 the excitement of rivalry1 the comradeship of cooperative endeavor1 the ,,abandon of effort1 the glow of achievement1 contribute much in immediate and retrospective pleasure to the worth of living4 7#b7 ,when not carried too far1 the physical gain is clear4 ,regular exercise is necessary for abundant health2 and of all forms of exercise the happiest is1 other things equal1 the best4 7#c7 ,in many ways there are potentialities of moral gain in athletics which do not result from ordinary exercise4 ,there is the stimulus to intense effort1 the awakening of strenuousness which may carry over into other fields of activity4 ,here1 at least1 indolence is impossible1 alertness is demanded1 and the willingness to strive against obstacles4 ,to put one's whole soul into anything is wholesome1 even if it be but a game2 and the man who bucks the line hard on the gridiron has begun a habit which may serve him well when he meets more dangerous obstacles and more doughty opponents on a larger field4 7#d7 ,the lesson of cooperation taught by teamwork of any sort is a valuable schooling4 ,one of the prime needs of our day is the development of the spirit of loyalty1 the willingness to subordinate individual welfare to that of a group1 and to look upon one's own work as part of a larger endeavor4 ,the man who has learned to take pride in making sacrifice hits is ripe to respond to the growing sense of the dishonorableness of making personal profit the aim of business or of politics4 7#e7 ,athletic games1 where properly supervised1 inculcate the spirit of sportsmanship4 ,to keep to the rules of longing1 to restrain temper and accept the decisions of the umpire without complaint1 to take no unfair advantage and indulge in no foul play1 to give a square deal to opponents and ask no more for one's own side1 to endure defeat with a smile and without discouragement- surely this is just the spirit we need in everything4 ,it is vitally important that unsportsmanlike conduct should be ruthlessly stamped out in all competitive sports1 and that every team should prefer to lose honorably than to win unfairly4 ,footnote3 ,there has been a good deal of criticism of ,american intercollegiate athletics on the ground of their fostering unsportsmanlike conduct4 ,a recent paper in the ,atlantic ,monthly 7by ,c4 ,a4 ,stewart1 vol4 #aac1 p4 #aec7 concludes with this recommendation3 ,a forceful presentation of the facts of the situation1 with an appeal to the innate sense of honor of the undergraduates2 such a revision of the rules as will retain only those based upon essential fairness2 and a strict supervision by the faculty2-upon the success of these three measures rests the hope that college athletics may be purged of trickery and the spirit of 'get away with it4' 444 ,a few men expelled for lying about eligibility1 and a few teams disbanded because of unfair play1 would arouse undergraduates with a wholesome jolt4 7#f7 ,wherever they are taken seriously athletic contests require a preliminary period of training1 which includes abstinence from sex incontinence1 from alcohol1 smoking1 overeating1 and late hours4 ,the discipline which this involves is an object lesson in the requirements for efficiency in any undertaking1 and excellent practice in their fulfillment4 ,how far athletes learn this lesson and apply it to wider spheres of activity1 it would be interesting to discover4 ,in any case1 they have proved in themselves the ability to repress inclination and find satisfaction in what makes for health and efficiency2 and all who know the implications of training have received a subconscious suggestion in the right direction4 ,the other side of the problem is this3 7#a7 ,competitive athletics1 if taken seriously contests1inevitably take more time and energy than their importance 4warrants4 ,a member of a college football or baseball team can do little else during the season4 ,studies are neglected1 intellectual interests are subordinated1 college figures essentially as a group of men endeavoring to beat another college on the field4 ,if a man is bright he may keep up with his studies1 but his intellectual profit is meager2 his energies are being absorbed elsewhere4 ,this phenomenon has given rise to much satire and to much perplexity on the part of college administrations4 ,a few have gone so far as to banish intercollegiate contests1 asserting thatthe purpose of coming to college is primarily to learn to use the brain1 not the muscles4 7#b7 ,the strain of intense rivalry is too severe on the body4 ,it is now known that the intercollegiate athlete is very probably sacrificing some of his life when he throws his utmost effort into the game or the race4 ,the length of life of the big athletes averages considerably shorter than that of the more moderate exercisers4 ,from the physical point of view1 interclass or interfraternity contests1 not taken too earnestly1 are4 far better than the intercollegiate struggles4 ,they also have the advantage that far more can participate4 ,the problem before our college authorities and leaders of student sentiment is how to check the fierceness of the big contests-shortening them1 perhaps1 possibly forbidding entirely the more strenuous and how to provide sports for all members of the college2 so that1 instead of a few overstrained athletes and a lot of fellows who under exercise1 we shall see every man out on the field daily1 and no one overdoing4 ,this ideal necessitates far larger athletic grounds than most of our colleges have reserved4 ,it may necessitate the abolition of some of the big contests that have been the excitement of many thousands4 ,but it must not be forgotten prelude and preparation for life2 they must not be allowed to usurp the chief place in a man's thoughts or to unfit him for his greatest after-usefulness4 ,footnote3 ,cf4 ,atlantic ,monthly1 vol4 #ij1 p4 #ecd2 ,outlook1 vol4 #ih1 p4 #eig4 ,is it wrong to smoke8 ,statistics taken with care at many ,american colleges show with apparent conclusiveness that the use of tobacco is physically and mentally deleterious to young men4 ,footnote3 ,see1 e4g41 in the ,popular ,science ,monthly for ,october1 #aiab1 a summary by ,dr4 ,f4 ,j4 ,pack of an investigation covering fourteen colleges4 ,similar investigations have been made by several others1 with generally similar results4 ,it seems that smokers lose in lung capacity1 are stunted slightly in their growth1 are lessened in their endurance1 develop far more than their proportion of eye and nerve troubles1 furnish far less than their proportion of the athletes who win positions on college teams1 furnish far less than their proportion of scholarship men1 and far more than their proportion of conditions and failures4 ,it is perhaps too early to be quite sure of these results2 but in all probability further experiment will confirm them1 and make it certain that tobacco is physically harmful as has long been recognized by trainers for athletic contests4 ,the harm to adults seems to be less marked2 perhaps to some it is inappreciable4 ,and if there is appreciable harm1 whether it is great enough to counterbalance the satisfaction which a confirmed smoker takes in his cigar or pipe1 or any worse than the restlessness which the sacrifice of it might engender1 is one of those delicate personal problems that one can hardly solve for another4 ,but certainly where the habit is not formed1 the loss of tobacco involves no important deprivation2 its use is chiefly a social custom which can be discontinued without ill effects4 ,effort should be made to keep the young from forming the habit2 college smokers1 where free cigarettes and cigars are furnished1 should be superseded by rallies1 where the same amount of money could provide some light and harmless refreshment4 ,this is not one of the important problems4 ,but1 after all1 everything is important2 and men must1 and ultimately will1 learn to find their happiness in things that forward1 instead of thwarting1 their great interests2 what makes at all against health and efficiency-when it is so needless and artificial a habit as smoking1 so mildly pleasant and so purely selfish-must be rooted out of desire4 ,the great amount of money wasted on tobacco could be far more wisely and fruitfully expended4 ,we shall not brand smoking as a sin1 hardly as a vice2 but the man who wishes to make the most of his life will avoid it himself1 and the man who wishes to work for the general welfare will put his influence and example against it4 ,h4 ,s4 ,king1 ,rational ,living1 chap4 ,,vi1 secs4 ,i1 ,,ii4 ,j4 ,payot1 ,the ,education of the ,will1 book ,,iii1 sec4 ,,iv4 ,j4 ,mac,cunn1 ,the ,making of ,character1 part ,,ii1 chap4 ,,ii4 ,w4 ,hutchinson1 ,handbook of ,health4 ,l4 ,h4 ,gulick1 ,the ,efficient ,life4 ,f4 ,paulsen1 ,system of ,ethics1 book ,,iii1 chap4 ,,iii4 ,t4 ,roosevelt1 ,the ,strenuous ,life4 ,p4 ,g4 ,hamerton1 ,the ,intellectual ,life1 part ,i4 ,,chapter ,,xvi ,,the ,,alcohol ,,problem ,,of all the problems relating to health and efficiency there is none graver than that of the narcotic-stimulants4 ,with the exception of tobacco1 which is probably1 for adults1 but mildly deleterious1 their use is fraught with danger1 both physical and moral2 beyond the narrowest limits it is certainly baneful1 while it is as yet an open question whether even a very slight use is not distinctly harmful4 ,the exact physiological effects of the several narcotic-stimulants are different1 but they are alike in stimulating certain activities and depressing others2 and their attraction for men is similar4 ,opium1 morphine1 and cocaine are more powerful drugs1 and more inherently dangerous2 but alcohol is much the most widely used and so most productive of evil4 ,the hypodermically used narcotics need not be here discussed2 for although they can give a far keener pleasure than alcohol1 the penalty they inflict is more evident4 ,moreover1 since their sale is not pushed by such powerful interests as continually stimulate the use of alcohol1 they can1 by the vigilant enforcement of existing laws1 be readily removed from any general use4 ,we turn1 then1 to the consideration of the one which has got a universal hold on the imagination and social habits of men1 the only one that constitutes at present a serious and complicated problem4 ,what are the causes of the use of alcoholic drinks8 7#a7 ,we may dismiss at once the suggestion that alcoholic liquors are drunk for the pleasantness of their taste or for their food value4 ,to some slight extent these factors enter in2 but neither is important4 ,the taste for them is for most men an acquired taste2 and with so many other delicious drinks to be had1 especially in recent years1 drinks that are far less expensive and without their poisonous effects1 it is safe to say that the mere taste of them would not go far toward explaining the lure they have for men4 ,as to their food value1 there are those who justify themselves on the score of the nutrition they are getting from their wine or beer4 ,but careful experiments have shown that the food value of alcohol is slight2 and certainly1 for nutrition received1 these are among the most expensive foods1 to be ranked with caviar and pate de foie gras4 ,beer is the most nutritious of the alcoholic drinks2 but the same amount of money spent on bread would give about thirty times the nutrition1 and a more all-round nutrition at that4 ,alcoholic liquors as food are1 as has been said1 like gunpowder as fuel very costly and very dangerous4 ,footnote3 ,see ,h4 ,s4 ,williams1 ,alcohol1 p4 #acc2 ,h4 ,s4 ,warner1 ,social ,welfare and the ,liquor ,problem1 p4 #hj1 and bibliography1 p4 #ie4 7#b7 ,a much commoner plea for drinking rests upon its sociability4 ,but this is a matter of convention which can readily enough be altered4 ,there is nothing inherently more sociable in the drinking of wine than in the drinking of grape-juice1 or coffee1 or chocolate1 or tea4 ,indeed1 one may well ask why the chief social bond between men should consist in drinking liquids side by side6 ,games and sports1 in which wit is pitted against wit1 or which bring men together in happy cooperation1 together with the great resource of conversation1 are more socially binding than any drinks4 ,there will1 indeed1 be a temporary social hardship for many abstainers until the custom is generally broken up2 one runs the risk of being thought by the heedless a prig and a ,puritan4 ,but that is a small price to pay for one's health and one's influence on others4 7#c7 ,more important than any of these causes is the craving for a stimulant4 ,the monotony of work1 the fatigue toward the end of the day1 the severity of our ,northern climate1 the longing for intenser living1 lead men to seek to apply the whip to their flagging energies4 ,this stimulus to the body is1 however1 largely if not wholly1 illusory4 ,the mental-emotional effects1 noted in the following paragraph1 give the drinker the impression that he is physically fortified2 but objective tests show that1 after a very brief period1 the dominant effect upon the organism is depressant4 ,the apparent increase in bodily warmth1 so often experienced1 is a subjective illusion2 in reality alcohol lowers the temperature and diminishes resistance to cold4 ,arctic explorers have to discard it entirely4 ,the old idea of helping to cure snake bite1 hydrophobia1 etc1 by whiskey was sheer mistake2 the patient has actually much less of a chance if so drugged4 ,only for an immediate and transitory need1 such as faintness or shock1 is the quickly passing stimulating power of alcohol useful2 and even for such purposes other stimulants are more valuable4 ,reputable physicians have almost wholly ceased to use it4 ,footnote3 ,see ,h4 ,s4 ,williams1 op4 cit1 p4 #d1 #abd-abg2 ,h4 ,s4 ,warner1 op4 cit1 pp4 #hg 7#d7 ,the one real value of alcohol to man has been the boon of stimulating his emotional and impulsive life1 bringing him an elevation of spirits1 drowning his sorrows1 helping him to forget1 helping to free his mind from the burden of care1 anxiety1 and regret4 ,as ,william ,james1 with his unerring discernment1 wrote twenty-five years ago3 ,the reason for craving alcohol is that it is an unaesthetic1 even in moderate quantities4 ,it obliterates a part of the field of consciousness and abolishes collateral trains of thought4 ,footnote3 ,tolstoy also hit the nail on the head in his little essay1 ,why do ,men ,stupefy ,themselves8 ,this use1 in relieving brain-tension1 in bringing a transient cheer and comfort to poor1 overworked1 worried1 remorseful men1 is not to be despised4 ,dull lives are vivified by it1 a fleeting anesthesia of unhappy memories and longings is effected1 and for the moment life seems worth living4 ,without considering yet the physical penalty that must be paid for this evanescent freedom1 we may make the obvious remark that it is a morally dangerous freedom4 ,as the ,odyssey has it1 ,wine leads to folly1 making even the wise to love immoderately1 to dance1 and to utter what had better have been kept silent4 ,alcohol slackens the higher1 more complicated1 mental functions-our conscience1 our scruples1 our reason- and leaves freer from inhibition our lower passions and instincts4 ,we cannot afford thus to submerge our better natures1 and leave the field to our lower selves2 it is a dangerous short cut to happiness4 ,a far safer and more permanently useful procedure for the individual would be so to live by his reason and his conscience that he would not need to stupefy them1 to forget his life as he is shaping it from day today4 ,and the lesson to the community is so to brighten the lives of the poor with normal1 wholesome pleasures and recreations1 so to lift from them the burdens of poverty and social injustice1 that they will not so much need to plunge into the grateful oblivion of the wine-cup4 7#e7 ,the most tenacious hold of the alcohol trade lies1 however1 in two things not yet enumerated4 ,the one is1 that much use of alcohol creates a pathological craving for it2 the man who is accustomed to his beer or whiskey is restless and depressed if he cannot get it1 and will sacrifice much to still for the nonce that insatiable longing4 ,the other and even more important fact is1 that the sale of liquor is immensely profitable to the manufacturers and sellers4 ,the fighters for prohibition have to encounter the desperate opposition of those who have become slaves to the drug-many of whom may never get intoxicated1 and would resent the term slaves1 but who have formed the abnormal habit and cannot without discomfort get rid of it4 ,they have to meet the still fiercer hostility of those who are making money from the sale of liquor and do not intend to let go their opportunity4 ,what are the evils that result from alcoholic liquors8 ,the one real value of alcohol1 we have said1 lies in its temporary mental effects4 ,it raises the hedonic tone of consciousness2 it brings about1 when taken in proper amounts1 the well-known happy-go-lucky1 scruple-free1 expansive state of mind4 ,what now is the price that must be paid for its use8 7#a7 ,the physical harmfulness of even light drinking is considerable4 7a7 ,alcohol1 even in slight doses1 as in a glass of wine or beer1 has poisonous effects upon some of the bodily functions1 which are clearly revealed by scientific experiment4 ,footnote3 ,see1 for one testimony out of very many in medical literature1 an article by ,dr4 ,herbert ,mc,intosh in the ,journal of ,advanced ,therapeutics for ,april1 #aiab1 p4 #afg3 ,alcohol and ether are the two great enemies of the electrochemical properties of the salts necessary to organic life4 ,he speaks of paralysis of the vaso-constrictor nerves1 inhibition of the cortical centers1 etc4 ,hence the temporary cheer must be paid for with usury by a much longer depression1 resulting from the poisonous effects of alcohol upon the body4 ,a jolly evening is followed by the familiar symptoms of the morning after4 ,the extent of the physical and mental depression caused is not always realized1 because it is spread out over a considerable period of time and may not be acute2 a healthy person can stand a good deal without being conscious of the ill effects4 ,but they are there4 ,in bodily vigor1 and so in mental buoyancy1 the abstainer is ,,in ,,the ,,end better off than if he drank even a little1 or seldom4 7b7 ,careful and repeated experiments seem to show that even a very little drinking-a glass of beer or wine a day- decreases the capacity for both muscular and mental work4 ,this loss of ability is not usually perceptible to the drinker2 he often feels an illusory glow of power2 but he cannot do as much4 ,a bottle of beer a day means an appreciable loss in working efficiency4 ,footnote3 ,accounts of the experiments will be found in ,h4 ,s4 ,williams1 op4 cit1 pp4 #e-bc1 #abh1 #acg2 ,h4 ,s4 ,warner1 op4 cit1 p4 #aaf4 ,they had some realization of this truth even in the days of the ,iliad4 ,hector says1 ,bring me luscious wines1 lest they unnerve my limbs and make me lose my wonted powers and strength4 7c7 ,even a moderate use of alcohol increases liability to disease and shortens the chances of life4 ,in any case of exposure to or contraction of disease1 the total abstainer has a proved advantage over even the light drinker4 ,the ,british life insurance companies reckon that at the age of twenty a total abstainer has an average prospect of life of forty-four years1 a temperate regular drinker a prospect of thirty-one years1 and a heavy drinker of fifteen years4 ,many other factors enter into the individual situation1 of course2 we know many cases where inveterate drinkers have lived to a ripe old age2 it takes a great deal to break the iron constitutions of some men4 ,but averages tell the story4 ,an authority on tuberculosis states that if for no other reason than the prevention of tuberculosis1 state prohibition would be justified ,the use of alcohol predisposes the body to many kinds of disease2 and according to conservative figures1 approximately seventy thousand deaths yearly in the ,united ,states are caused by alcoholism and diseases that owe their grip to the use of alcohol4 ,besides this1 a great deal of insanity and chronic invalidism1 and a large proportion of deaths after operations1 are due to this cause4 ,footnote3 ,see ,h4 ,s4 ,williams1 op4 cit1 pp4 #be- #dc1 #adi1 #aej2 ,h4 ,s4 ,warner1 op4 cit1 chap4 ,,iv1 and bibliography at end4 7d7 ,the chances of losing children at chances of begetting feeble-minded or degenerate children1 are markedly greater for even moderate drinkers than for abstainers4 ,children of total abstainers have a great advantage1 on the average1 in size1 stature1 bodily vigor1 intellectual power2 they stand1 on the average1 between a year and two years ahead in class of the children of moderate drinkers1 they have less than half as many eye1 ear1 and other physical defects4 ,this proved influence of even light drinking upon the vitality and normality transmitted to children should be the most serious of indictments against self-indulgence4 ,truly the sins of the fathers are visited upon the second and third generation4 ,footnote3 ,see ,journal of ,philosophy1 ,psychology1 and ,scientific ,methods1 vol4 ,,ix1 p4 #bcd2 ,h4 ,s4 ,williams1 op4 cit1 pp4 #dd-dg4 7#b7 ,the economic waste is enormous3 7a7 ,nearly1 if not quite1 two billion dollars a year are spent by the people of the ,united ,states for intoxicating beverages4 ,between fifty and seventy-five million bushels of grain are consumed annually in their production1 besides the grapes used for wines4 ,nor does the money spent for liquors go in any appreciable degree into the pockets of the farmers who raise the grains2 less than a thirtieth part finds its way to them1 the brewers1 distillers1 and retailers getting about two thirds4 ,the money invested in the beer industry alone was in #aiji over #eej1jjj1jjj4 ,footnote3 ,see ,independent1 vol4 #fg1 p4 #acbf2 ,year-,books of the ,anti-,saloon ,league4 ,for this whole subject of the cost of the liquor trade1 see chap4 ,v1 in ,h4 ,s4 ,warner1 op4 cit1 and the bibliography appended4 ,the importance of the national liquor bill can be realized by a simple computation2 it would suffice to pay two million men three dollars a day1 six days in the week1 year in and year out2 it would suffice to build four or five ,panama ,canals 7at #djj1jjj1jjj7 a year4 ,when we reckon up the total liquor bill of the world1 a sum many times this1 we can see what a frightful waste of man's resources is going on2 for not only is there no a tremendous additional drain of wealth caused indirectly thereby4 7b7 ,among the factors in this additional drain of wealth1 which must be added to the figures given above in estimating the total financial loss to the community1 are3 the loss in efficiency of workers through the- usually unrealized- toxic effects of alcohol2 the loss of the lives of adult workers due to alcoholic poisoning-an annual loss greater than that of the whole ,civil ,war2 the support by the ,state of paupers1 two fifths of whom1 it is estimated1 owe their status to alcoholism2 ,footnote3 ,see ,h4 ,s4 ,williams1 op4 cit1 p4 #he the support by the ,state of the insane1 from a quarter to a half of whom owe their insanity directly or indirectly to alcohol2 ,footnote3 ,ibid1 p4 #fc the support of destitute and deserted children2 ,footnote3 ,ibid1 p4 #hi the maintenance of prisons1 of courts1 and police - the ,massachusetts ,bureau of ,labor ,statistics has shown that eighty-four per cent of all criminals under conviction in the correctional institutions of that ,state committed their crimes under the influence of alcohol4 ,footnote3 ,ibid1 p4 #gb ,when we add to this the still greater numbers of incapables supported by their families and friends1 we realize that the national drink bill is really very much greater than the mere sums spent for liquor4 ,comparative statistics show graphically how strikingly pauperism1 crime1 and destitution are diminished by prohibition4 ,it is variously estimated that a fourth or a third or more of all acute poverty is due directly or indirectly to alcohol4 ,our municipalities are always poor2 all sorts of needed improvements are blocked for lack of funds4 ,if this leakage of the national wealth can be stopped we shall be able with the money saved to create a radically different and higher civilization4 7#c7 ,the moral harm of alcohol is comparable to its physical and economic harm4 7a7 ,as we noted when considering the value of alcohol1 the higher nature is stupefied1 leaving the emotions less controlled4 ,the silliness1 the irritability1 the glumness1 the violence1 the lust of men are given freer rein4 ,the effect of alcohol is coarsening1 brutalizing2 we are not our best selves under its influence4 ,the judgment is dulled1 the spirit of recklessness is stimulated-an impatience of restraint and a craving for further excitement4 ,even after the palpable effects of a potation have disappeared1 a permanent alteration in the brain remains1 which makes it likely that the drinker will go farther next time or the time after4 ,the accumulation of such effects leads finally to the complete demoralization of character1 to the point where a man's higher nature can no longer keep control over his conduct4 ,this is what is meant by saying that alcohol undermines the will power4 ,footnote3 ,see ,h4 ,s4 ,williams1 op4 cit1 p4 #ef ,in particular1 most sexual sins are committed after drinking2 and the gravity of the sex problem is so great that this fact alone would justify the banishment of alcohol1 the greatest of sexual stimulants4 ,footnote3 ,cf4 ,jane ,addams1 ,a ,new ,conscience and an ,ancient ,evil1 p4 #ahi3 ,even a slight exhilaration from alcohol relaxes the moral sense and throws a sentimental or adventurous glamour over an aspect of life from which a decent young man would ordinarily recoil2 and its continued use stimulates the senses at the very moment when the intellectual and moral inhibitions are lessened4 7b7 ,a very large proportion of the crimes committed are committed under the influence of alcohol4 ,in ,massachusetts1 for example 7in #ahie71 only five per cent of convictions for crime were of abstainers4 ,in general1 statistics show that from a half to three quarters of the total amount of crime has drinking for a direct contributing cause4 ,when we add to this the crime-inducing influence of the poverty1 ill health1 and immoral social conditions caused by drink2 we can form some idea of the moral indictment against alcohol4 ,footnote3 ,h4 ,s4 ,warner1 op4 cit1 p4 #bfa4 7c7 ,the liquor trade is the most powerful of all interests in the corruption of politics1 one of the most demoralizing phases of our ,american life4 ,footnote3 ,h4 ,s4 ,warner1 op4 cit1 chap4 ,,xi4 ,the saloon power is in politics with a grim determination to keep its business from extermination4 ,it is able to throw the votes of a large body of men as it wills4 ,it maintains a powerful lobby at ,washington and at the state capitals4 ,in many places it has had a strangle hold on legislation4 ,the trade naturally tends to ally itself with the other vicious interests that live by exploiting human weakness-the gamblers1 the fosterers of prostitution1 the keepers of vile shows2 it has a vast revenue for the purchasing of votes1 and1 in the saloon1 the easiest of channels for reaching the bribable voter4 ,corrupt political machines have been glad to use its support1 and have derived a large measure of their strength there from4 ,were the liquor trade destroyed1 the greatest obstacle in the way of political reform would be removed4 ,in sum1 we can say that the evils caused by alcohol1 instead of having been exaggerated1 have never until very recently been sufficiently realized4 ,the half hath not been told4 ,what should be the attitude of the individual toward alcoholic liquors8 ,in the light of our present knowledge1 the attitude toward liquor demanded by morality of the individual admits of no debate4 ,he may love dearly his wines or his beer1 but his enjoyment is won at too dear a cost to himself and others2 his support of the liquor trade is very selfish4 ,he has no right to poison himself1 to impair his health and efficiency1 as even a little drinking will do4 ,he has no right to run the risk of becoming the slave of alcohol1 as so many of the most promising men have become2 the effect of the drug is insidious1 and no man can be sure that he will be able to resist it4 ,he has no right to spend in harmful self-indulgence money that might be spent for useful ends4 ,he has no right to incur the1 however immeasurable1 moral and intellectual impairment which is effected by even rather moderate drinking4 ,he has no right to bequeath to his children a weakened heritage of vitality4 ,he has no right1 by his example1 to encourage others1 who may be far more deeply harmed than he1 in the use of the drug2 let no man put a stumbling-block or an occasion to fall in his brother's way4 ,the influence of every man who is amenable to altruistic motives is needed against liquor1 to counteract its lure2 we must create a strong public sentiment and make it unfashionable and disreputable to drink4 ,happily the tide of liquor-drinking1 which has been rising rapidly in the last half- century1 owing to the increase in prosperity1 the great influx of immigrants from liquor-drinking countries1 and the stimulation of the trade by the highly organized liquor industry1 has at last1 by the earnest efforts of enlightened workers1 been turned4 ,men of influence are standing out publicly against it4 ,grape-juice has been substituted for wine in the ,white ,house2 ,kaiser ,wilhelm has become an abstainer1 with a declaration that in the present era of fierce competition the nations that triumph will be those that have least to do with liquor4 ,so conservative and cautious a thinker as ex-,president ,eliot of ,harvard has recently become an abstainer1 saying1 ,the recent progress of science has satisfied me that the moderate use of alcohol is objectionable4 ,the yearly per capita consumption of alcoholic liquors1 which rose from #h4gi gallons in #ahhj to #ag4gf in #aijj and #bb4gi in #aiaa1 fell in #aiab to #ba4ih4 ,it is to be devoutly hoped that the tide will ebb as rapidly as it rose4 ,what should be our attitude toward the use of alcoholic liquors by others8 ,the consideration of this question falls properly under the head of ,public ,morality4 ,but it will be more convenient to treat it here1 following the presentation of the facts concerning alcohol4 ,the right of the community to interfere with the conduct of its members will be discussed in chapter xxviii1 and we must assume here the result therein reached1 that whatever is deemed necessary for the greatest welfare of the community as a whole may legitimately be required of its individual members1 however it may cross their desires or however they may consider the matter their private concern4 ,the argument against prohibition on the ground that it interferes with individual rights would apply also to child-labor legislation1 to legislation against street soliciting by prostitutes or the sale of indecent pictures1 and1 more obviously still1 against anti-opium and anti-cocaine legislation4 ,as a matter of fact1 the older individualistic point of view has been generally abandoned now1 and we are free to discuss what is desirable for the general welfare4 ,we may at once say that whatever method will most quickly and thoroughly root out the evil should be adopted4 ,different methods may be more or less efficacious in different places2 it is a matter for legitimate opportunism4 ,but the goal to be kept in sight can only be absolute prohibition of the manufacture1 sale1 and importation of all alcoholic liquors for beverages4 ,education on the matter1 and exhortation to personal abstinence1 must be continued4 ,but education and exhortation are not alone sufficient2 self-restraint cannot be counted on1 constraint must be employed4 ,high ,license and ,regulation have been thoroughly tried and have not checked the evil2 moreover1 it has been a serious blunder to make the ,state or municipality dependent upon the liquor trade for revenue1 and therefore eager to retain it4 ,the ,state ,monopoly system has not proved a success in this country in lessening the evil2 it made the liquor power a more sinister influence than ever in politics4 ,if liquor must be sold1 the ,company1 or ,scandinavian system1 which eliminates the factor of private profits1 without fostering political corruption1 is probably the least harmful method of selling4 ,but no method of selling liquor can be more than a temporary expedient4 ,we must work inch by inch to extend the boundaries of absolutely dry territory4 ,local ,option has been of very great value in this movement1 and may still in some ,states be the best attainable status4 ,option by counties1 with a prohibition of the shipment of liquor from wet to dry counties1 is the preferable form4 ,statewide prohibition1 for a while in disrepute because of open violation of the law1 is again gaining ground1 ten of the forty-eight ,states being entirely dry at time of writing4 ,the ultimate solution can only be the adoption of an amendment to the ,national ,constitution enforcing nation-wide prohibition2 the agitation for such an amendment is already acute1 and the promise of its passage within a generation bright4 ,the arguments against prohibition are not strong4 ,that the law is poorly enforced in localities where public sentiment is against it is natural2 but no law is universally obeyed1 and that a law is broken is a poor reason for removing it from the statute books4 ,no one would suggest repealing the laws against burglary or seduction because they are daily disobeyed4 ,this pseudo-concern for the dignity of the law is simply a specious argument advanced by those who have an interest in the trade1 and accepted by those who suppose liquor drinking to be wrong only in excess and harmless in moderation4 ,the reply is to show that alcohol1 practice that is always harmful must be fought by the law as well as by moral suasion4 ,public sentiment must be educated up to the law2 and the existence of the law is itself of educative value4 ,moreover1 the old observations of non-enforcement must now be modified2 recent experience shows that the prohibition ,states are on the whole increasingly successful in enforcing their laws4 ,the new national law prohibiting importations from wet to dry ,states helps immensely2 and with the forbidding of importations from abroad and of the manufacture of liquor anywhere in the country1 the problem of enforcement will settle itself4 ,except for the precarious existence of moon-shiners1 and for what individuals may make for themselves1 the stuff will not be obtainable4 ,footnote3 ,for the arguments for prohibition1 see ,h4 ,s4 ,warner1 op4 cit1 chaps4 ,,ix1 ,,xii4 ,artman1 ,the ,legalized ,outlaw4 ,fehlandt1 ,a ,century of ,drink ,reform4 ,wheeler1 ,prohibition4 ,that prohibition involves the ruin of a great industry is true2 these millions of workers will be free to give their strength to productive labor1 these millions of dollars can be invested in some industry useful to mankind4 ,confiscation will work hardship to the brewers and distillers2 so it does to the opium-growers1 the makers of indecent pictures1 and counterfeit money4 ,a trade so inimical to the general interest deserves no mercy4 ,the ,states that have unwisely used the tainted money drawn from the industry by license will have a far richer community to tax in other ways2 for every dollar got in liquor-license fees1 many dollars have been lost to the ,state4 ,as ,gladstone said1 ,give me a sober population1 not wasting their earnings in strong drink1 and ,i shall know where to obtain the revenue4 ,pending the enactment of legal prohibition1 what is called industrial prohibition is proving widely efficacious4 ,growing numbers of manufacturers1 railway managers1 and storekeepers are refusing to employ men who drink at all4 ,the ,united ,states ,commissioner of ,labor reports that ninety per cent of the railways1 eighty-eight per cent of the trades1 and seventy-nine per cent of the manufacturers of the country discriminate already against drinkers4 ,the only other point to be noted is that the saloon-the public house1 the poor man's salon-must be replaced by other social centers1 that give opportunities for recreation1 cheer1 and social intercourse4 ,the question of substitutes for the saloon will be alluded to again1 in chapter xxx4 ,footnote3 ,see ,raymond ,calkins1 ,substitutes for the ,saloon4 ,h4 ,s4 ,warner1 op4 cit1 chap4 ,,viii4 ,forum1 vol4 #ba1 p4 #eie4 ,the nation-wide campaign against alcohol is on1 the area of its legalized sale is steadily diminishing4 ,we who now discuss it may live to see it swept off the face of the earth2 if not we1 our children or children's children4 ,and we must see to it that no other drug opium1 morphine1 or the like gets a similar grip on humanity4 ,our descendants will look with as great horror upon the alcohol indulgence of our times as most of us now do upon opium smoking4 ,o ,god1 that men should put an enemy into their mouths to steal away their brains6 that we should1 with joy1 pleasance1 revel1 and applause1 transform ourselves into beasts6 ,the best book for practical use is ,h4 ,s4 ,warner's ,social ,welfare and the ,liquor ,problem 7revised edition1 #aiac71 where extensive references to the authorities will be found4 ,two other excellent popular books are ,h4 ,s4 ,williams1 ,alcohol 7#aiji71 and ,horsley and ,sturge1 ,alcohol and the ,human ,body 7#aiaa74 ,see also ,rosanoff1 in ,mc,clure's ,magazine1 vol4 #cb1 p4 #eeg2 ,rountree and ,sherwell1 ,the ,temperance ,problem and ,social ,reform2 ,t4 ,n4 ,kelynack1 ,the ,drink ,problem3 ,scientific ,conclusions concerning the ,alcohol ,problem 7,senate ,document #dh1 #fast ,congress1 #aiji72 and the five volumes of conclusions of the ,committee of ,fifty1 published by ,houghton1 ,mifflin ,co1 under the general title1 ,aspects of the ,liquor ,problem2 a summary of these conclusions is published with the title ,the ,liquor ,problem1 ed4 ,f4 ,j4 ,peabody4 ,barker1 ,the ,saloon ,problem and ,social ,reform4 ,fanshawe1 ,liquor ,legislation in the ,united ,states and ,canada4 ,c4 ,b4 ,henderson1 ,the ,social ,spirit in ,america1 chap4 ,,xvi4 ,the best available data1 to date1 on the physiological questions underlying the moral questions may be found in ,g4 ,rosenfeld1 ,der ,einfluss des ,alkohols auf den ,organismus 7#aija7 ,a4,b4,cushney1 ,the ,action of ,alcohol 7#aijg7-paper read before the ,british ,association2 ,meyer and ,gottlieb1 ,pharmacology 7#aiad74 ,,chapter ,,xvii ,,chastity ,,and ,,marriage ,,temperance ,in the indulgence of the appetites is a manifest necessity for health and efficiency-temperance in work and play1 in eating and drinking1 in novel reading and theater going1 in whatever activity desire may suggest4 ,but two appetites stand on a different footing from the others1 and demand more than temperance4 ,the love of alcohol and the other narcotics1 being1 as we have seen1 a pathological and highly dangerous appetite1 productive of scarcely any real good1 must be completely rooted out of human nature1 as it readily can be1 to the great advantage of mankind4 ,the other great appetite1 that of sex1 cannot be treated so cavalierly2 to eradicate it or deny its fulfillment would be to put a speedy end to the human race4 ,the solution of the problems of sex is therefore not so simple1 the remedying of the evils of which sexual passion is the source not so feasible4 ,on the one hand1 we have to recognize the sex instinct as normal and necessary1 the source of the keenest1 and1 indirectly1 of some of the most lasting1 pleasures of life2 the denial of its enticements to the extent which our ,christian ideal demands provokes perennial resentment and rebellion4 ,on the other hand1 we are confronted by the incalculable evils which unrestrained lust produces1 and forced to admit the imperious necessity of some strictly repressive code4 ,to many1 the gravest dangers in life lie here2 the sex instinct is the great rebel1 promising a glorious liberty1 a melting of the barriers between human bodies and souls1 an ecstasy of mutual happiness that nothing else can offer4 ,yet beyond these transient excitements lie the saddest tragedies-disease and suffering1 unwished childbirth1 heartbreak and death4 ,desire sings a siren music in our ears2 but the bones of those who have surrendered to the song lie bleaching on the rocks4 ,these sweet anticipations presage sorrow and ruin2 there is no heavier sight than to see happy1 heedless youth caught by the lure of this strange1 mysterious thrill and drifting to their destruction-,as a bird hasteth to the snare1 ,and know not that it is for his life4 ,so much is at stake here that we must be more than ordinarily sure that we are not biased1 that we are not binding ourselves by needless restrictions4 ,but after whatever doubts and wanderings1 the man of mature experience comes back to the monogamous ideal with the conviction that in it lies not only our salvation but our truest happiness4 ,a thousand pities that so many learn the lesson too late6 ,nothing in the whole field of ethics is more important than for each generation1 as it stands on the threshold of temptation and opportunity1 to see clearly the basic reasons for our hard-won and barely maintained code of chastity4 ,a reverence for authority1 a deep- implanted sentiment1 a recurrent emotional appeal1 and a barrier of scruples and pledges may keep many within the lines of safety4 ,but the morality of sentiment and authority must always be based on a morality of reason and experience4 ,we must therefore begin by recapitulating the fundamental reasons for our monogamous ideal4 ,what are the reasons for chastity before and fidelity after marriage8 7#a7 ,the most glaring danger for a man in unchastity is disease4 ,the venereal diseases are among the most terrible known to man2 they are highly contagious-one contact1 and that not necessarily actual intercourse1 sufficing for infection-and at present only very partially curable4 ,practically all prostitutes become infected before long2 the youngest and prettiest are usually diseased2 the chance of indulging in promiscuous intimacies without catching some form of infection is slight4 ,the only sure way of escape from this imminent danger is by the exclusive love of one man and one woman4 ,moreover1 these diseases are1 in their effects1 transmissible from husband to wife and from wife to children4 ,many women's diseases1 a large part of their sterility1 of miscarriages and infant deaths1 a large proportion of the paralysis1 insanity1 and blindness in the world1 are due to the sins of a husband or parent4 ,thus the penalty for a single misstep may be very grim2 and the worst of it is that it must often be shared by the innocent4 ,footnote3 ,see ,prince ,morrow1 ,social ,diseases and ,marriage4 ,w4 ,l4 ,howard1 ,plain ,facts on ,sex ,hygiene4 7#b7 ,for a girl the danger of disease is not all4 ,there is the additional danger of pregnancy1 which means1 and must mean1 for her not only pain and risk of life1 but lasting shame and disgrace4 ,even paid prostitutes1 who are willing to employ dangerous methods to prevent conception1 and soon become nearly sterile through disease or overindulgence1 often have to resort to illegal operations1 at the risk of their lives1 and not infrequently come to childbirth4 ,the virgin who gives herself to her lover under the spell of his ardent wooing is very much more likely to conceive4 ,it cannot be too bluntly stated that the barest contact may suffice for conception2 for a momentary intimacy two lives1 or three1 have often been ruined4 7#c7 ,the reason why society cannot afford to be lenient with illegitimacy is that there is no proper provision for rearing children born out of wedlock4 ,the woman and the child usually need the financial support of the man2 they always need his love and care4 ,if the man marries the girl he has wronged1 there is not only the disgrace still attaching to her 7and rightly to him1 still more71 but the fact of a hasty and unintended and probably more or less unhappy marriage4 ,certainly in every such case the girl has a right to demand that the man shall marry her2 whether or no she will wish him to1 or will prefer to bear her burden and disgrace alone1 is for her to determine4 ,but this is sure that any man who takes the chance of ruining a foolish and ignorant or oversusceptible girl and all for a bit of pleasure1 as1 if he had a man's heart in him1 he 'd ha' cut his hand off sooner than he'd ha' taken it ,footnote3 ,george ,eliot's ,adam ,bede1 from which these words are taken1 ought to be read by every boy and girl4- ought to be despised and socially ostracized by his fellows4 ,except for the penalty of disease1 women have always borne the brunt of sexual follies1 though men have been the more to blame4 ,it is high time that this injustice were remedied to such extent as law and public opinion can do it4 7#d7 ,the employment of paid prostitutes for man's gratification keeps in existence the unhappiest and most degraded class in the world4 ,brutalized and worn by their abnormal life1 treated with coarse indignities which they cannot resent1 deprived of their birthright of genuine love1 of wifehood and motherhood1 stricken with disease and doomed to an early death1 thousands of the prettiest1 reddest-blooded1 most promising young girls of our land1 the girls who ought to be bearing healthy children and rearing the future citizens of the ,state1 now walk the streets painted and gaudily bedecked1 seeking their miserable livelihood1 and snaring the heedless and restless youth of the cities1 the young men void of understanding1 to their common degradation4 ,this human wastage is worse upon the race than war2 and all the more pathetic because it consists of girls scarcely past the threshold of their maidenhood4 ,when we consider further the indescribably horrible cruelty of the white-slave trade1 which the insatiable lust of men has brought into being1 we may begin to realize to what the absence of restraint upon this appetite has led4 ,it is quite conceivable that within the near future the venereal diseases will be rendered entirely curable by the progress of medicine4 ,it is possible that some certain and harmless method of preventing conception will be found and become so universally known that the danger of unintentional childbirth will become practically nonexistent4 ,such a situation would remove the most obvious reasons for chastity1 and would insure a rapid growth of free-love sentiment4 ,it would be pointed out that free love would do away with the shameful existence of the paid prostitutes1 and that thus all four of the basic reasons above given for chastity would no longer exist4 ,to discuss such possibilities may seem premature4 ,but as a matter of fact1 even now every one who indulges in free love hopes to escape disease and conception4 ,and there is an increasing propaganda insisting on the removal of the old conventions and the permission of promiscuous love4 ,the spirit of adventure is in the air2 and with even a good chance of escaping the penalties1 there are many who will seize their opportunities for enjoyment1 preferring a present pleasure with its spice of risk to a dull negation of desire4 ,we must then go on with the argument and point out that even where these terrible results are escaped1 the way of free love is not the happiest way4 7#e7 ,freedom from restraint in inter-sex relations inevitably leads1 in the majority of men and women1 to an overindulgence which seriously impairs health and efficiency4 ,the one salient motive for the opposition of ancient codes to sex license was the necessity of preserving the virility of the young men for war4 ,today athletes are enjoined to chastity4 ,but1 indeed1 if a man would succeed in anything1 he must check this so easily overdeveloped impulse4 ,promiscuity means a continually renewed stimulus2 the passion1 which quickly becomes normal and intermittent when it spends itself upon one object1 is apt to become an abnormal and almost continuous craving when it is solicited by a succession of novel and piquant attractions4 ,the advocates of free love assert that it is unnatural repression that creates an undue and morbid longing2 that freedom to satisfy the instinct would tend to keep it in its properly subordinate place4 ,but the contrary is1 in reality1 true4 ,more usually1 as ,rabelais has it1 the appetite comes during the eating4 ,the absence of temptation will leave an instinct dormant which free opportunity to indulge will develop into a dominant appetite4 ,and nothing more quickly drafts strength or ambition than absorption in sex pleasures2 we need to put our energies into something that instead of being inimical is forwarding to the rest of our interests4 7#f7 ,sexual intemperance coarsens1 blunts delight in the less violent and more delicate emotions4 ,the pleasures of sex1 though of the keenest1 are not lasting1 like those of the intellect1 of religion1 art1 and manly achievement4 ,but if recklessly indulged in1 they inevitably sap our interest in these other ideals4 ,except where they spring from and reinforce true affection1 they are an opiate1 taking us into a dream world that makes actual life stale and tasteless4 ,hold off from sensuality1 says ,cicero2 for if you give yourself up to it1 you will be unable to think of anything else4 ,there is so much else that is worthwhile1 life has so many possible values1 that for our own final happiness1 we cannot afford to let this instinct usurp too great a place4 ,the vision of ,god is worth many hours of transient and shallow excitement2 and that vision comes only to the pure in heart4 7#g7 ,but even for the greatest pleasure in sex itself1 incontinence is a blunder4 ,the one telling argument for free love is the sweetness of the delights that the chaste must miss2 the bodily intimacy that soothes the lonely heart1 the adventurous excitement of breaking down barriers1 of dominance and surrender1 with its quickened breathing and heightened sense of living4 ,but the plea comes usually from the inexperienced2 it is the yearning of youth toward the lure of the untried ways1 of the untasted joys4 ,actually1 where passion is unbridled1 the halo and the vision quickly vanish2 the sated impulse becomes a restless craving for more violent stimulation1 a thirst that no mere physical intimacy can ever assuage2 or it leaves the heart cloyed and despondent and resourceless4 ,this is the natural history of undisciplined passion2 it cheapens love1 it robs it quickly of its exquisiteness and charm4 ,the faithful lover1 on the other hand1 by checking premature intimacies1 and keeping true to the one woman who calls or will some day call out all his love1 knows a steady joy that bulks in the end far greater than the flaring and fitful and quickly disillusioned passions of unearned love4 ,where the veil of mystery is not too rudely drawn aside1 the ability to respond to the charm of girlhood and of ripe womanhood may be long retained2 the pleasures of sex that count for most in the end are not the moments of passion1 but the daily enjoyment of companionship with the opposite sex1 the assurance and comfort of mutual fidelity1 the love that feeds on daily caresses1 endearing words1 and acts of tender service4 ,and these lasting joys do not accrue to the man or woman who is not willing to wait1 or who squanders his potentialities of love in reckless and fundamentally unsatisfying debauchery4 ,this is the paradox of love2 whoso would find its best gifts must be willing to deny himself its gaudiest4 ,the old love of twos1 the loyalty of man and wife that bring to each other pure hearts and bodies1 is best4 7#h7 ,there are1 besides1 certain practical consequences of which experience warns4 ,free love would mean that the pretty and well- developed girls1 the handsomer and physically stronger men1 would be besieged with solicitations and almost inevitably debauched by excess of temptation1 while the less attractive would starve for love4 ,it would mean jealousies1 deserted lovers1 and broken hearts4 ,free love is especially hard on a woman2 she readily becomes attached1 and craves loyalty4 ,inconstancy1 though it is so natural to man as often to need the pressure of law and convention for its repression1 is not only the worst enemy of his own happiness1 but the inevitable source of friction and clash between men and between women4 ,if freedom to break the troth that love instinctively plights is allowed1 the chances are numerous that one or the other will some day discover another affinity that1 at least for the time1 seems closer and better suited to him2 unless a stern loyalty prevents1 one or two or three hearts may be broken4 ,our monogamous code-whose iological value is clearly indicated by its adoption by most of the higher animals 7not counting the domesticated animals1 whose morals have been hopelessly ruined7-stands among the wisest of our ideals4 ,what safeguards against unchastity are necessary8 ,overwhelming as is the argument for monogamy1 it runs counter to such violent impulses that it needs every prop and sanction that can be given it4 ,it must shelter itself under the law1 keep on its side the conscience of men1 and be hallowed by alliance with religion4 ,all this is partially attained by the social-religious institution of marriage4 ,the wedding ceremony itself1 adding as it does dignity and symbolism1 the memory of a beautiful occasion1 and the witness of friends to the plighting of mutual vows1 is of appreciable value4 ,we must now consider the practical question how1 in the face of almost inevitable temptation1 the young man and woman may keep chaste during the years prior to marriage4 ,if pre-marital chastity is maintained1 there is comparatively little danger of infidelity when chosen love and loyalty to vows come to reinforce the earlier motives4 7#a7 ,certain abstinences1 that might not seem in themselves important1 are necessary4 ,little familiarities1 kisses and caresses1 must be avoided2 they are a playing with fire2 and the youth never knows when the electric thrill will vibrate through his being1 awakened by a touch1 that will summon him to a new world wherein he must not yet enter4 ,the finest men do not take these liberties1 nor do well-bred girls permit them or respect those who seek them4 ,vulgar jokes and stories must be despised1 as well as all allusions to vice as a natural or amusing thing4 ,alcohol1 gambling1 and all unhealthy excitements must be shunned4 ,above all1 the imagination must be controlled2 nothing is more dangerous than the indulgence in voluptuous dreams4 ,longings so fostered1 so pent up without outlet1 are too apt to break out1 in despite of scruples and resolves1 if a favorable and alluring opportunity occurs4 ,the battle against sin is won more in private than in the actual moments of temptation4 7#b7 ,but in this matter1 as always1 we must not merely avoid evil1 we must overcome evil with good2 we can best hope to escape the sirens not as ,ulysses did1 by having himself bound to the mast1 but as ,orpheus did1 by playing a sweeter music still than they4 ,the best antidote to impurity is a pure love1 the next best the dedication to a love yet to be found4 ,the passionate youth must speak in the vein of the ,knight in ,santayana's poem3 ,as the gaudy shadows ,stalked by me which men take for beauteous things1 ,i laughed to scorn each feeble counterfeit1 ,and cried to the sweet image in my soul1 ,how much more bright thou wast and beautiful4 ,normal friendships with pure girls are vitally necessary for a man1 and comradeship with men important for women4 ,normal interests of all sorts are necessary2 the man or woman who has a full1 all-round life1 who cultivates wholesome intellectual1 aesthetic1 religious activities1 is in far less danger of an unregulated passion4 ,human energy must find some happy outlets1 or it will tend to run amuck2 what we become depends largely on what we get interested in4 ,in particular1 the abundant physical activity of robust health makes it much easier to banish immoderate desires4 7#c7 ,there are certain safeguards that the community should erect4 7a7 ,among these are the conventions that control intimacy between the sexes4 ,on the one hand1 the wholesome comradeship of boys and girls1 above desiderated1 must be encouraged1 not only for the removal of that loneliness and morbid curiosity which are among the greatest of sex irritants1 but in order that husband and wife may be wisely chosen4 ,on the other hand1 the attractiveness of the other sex may easily draw too much attention from the studies and sports that ought to make up the bulk of the activity of youth2 and too great freedom of companionship leads to an unnecessary amount of temptation4 ,the fearless1 heart- free friendship of chaste youths and maidens is a priceless boon4 ,but close lines must be drawn1 and a certain amount of wise chaperonage is necessary4 ,too free a physical intimacy between the sexes leads almost irresistibly on1 with many1 to actual intercourse2 the instinct is too imperious to be withstood when opportunity is too easy1 if there are not many barriers to be broken first4 7b7 ,another duty of the community lies in the fight against the public sources of sensual appeal not merely the houses of prostitution and street solicitation1 but the vile shows1 indecent pictures and books1 and other means by which the greed of money panders to the sex instinct4 ,the questions concerning the drama1 the ballet1 and the nude in art will recur when we come to discuss the general relations of art and morality4 ,closely parallel are the problems concerning the costume of women2 these are phases of the eternal conflict between beauty and morality4 ,what is pretty is tempting4 ,how can we have enjoyment without being wrecked by it2 how can we make life rich and yet keep it pure8 ,some line must be drawn2 just where1 we have not space to discuss4 7c7 ,education on matters of sex must probably be attended to in the public schools4 ,it were better done by parents1 perhaps2 but parents cannot be depended upon to do it4 ,the dangers that await indulgence1 the cruelty and brutality of prostitution1 should be universally but cautiously taught2 too many boys and girls wreck their lives for l ack of such knowledge4 ,it is indeed a delicate task to instruct adolescents in these matters2 there is1 as ,professor ,munsterberg has well pointed out1 a grave danger of stimulating1 by calling attention to it1 the very impulse which it is desired to curb1 of dissipating the fear of the unknown which may be greater than that of clearly understood1 and thereby1 perhaps1 avoidable dangers1 and of breaking down barriers of shyness and reticence1 which form one of the most effective of safeguards4 ,personal attention to the individual needs of boys and girls of widely differing temperaments and mental condition is imperative4 ,but in general1 it is to be remembered that almost every boy and girl learns1 somehow1 long before marriage1 the main facts concerning sex-relations4 ,and it is far better that that knowledge should be imparted reverently1 accurately1 unemotionally1 and with due emphasis upon perils and penalties1 than that it should be gained in coarse and exciting ways1 or remain half understood and with a glamour of mystery about it4 ,what are the factors in an ideal marriage8 ,celibacy is neither natural nor desirable2 a happy marriage should be the goal of every healthy man's and woman's thought4 ,the economic situation that prevents so many from marrying till nearly or quite thirty is thoroughly unwholesome and must in some way be remedied4 ,marriage in the early twenties is not only an important safeguard against unchastity2 it is physiologically better for the woman and her offspring4 ,the danger and pain in childbirth to a woman of twenty or twenty-five are less than in later life1 and the children have a better chance of health4 ,moreover1 young people are mentally and morally more plastic2 they have not yet become so set in their ways as they will later become1 and are more likely to grow together and make easily those little compromises and adjustments which the fusing of two lives necessitates4 ,and it is always a pity that the two who are to be life comrades should fail to have these years1 in some ways the best of their lives1 together4 ,yet this sacred and exacting relationship must not be hastily entered1 for nothing more surely than marriage makes or mars character and happiness4 ,too early marriage is apt to be impulsive and thoughtless4 ,it is true that many confirmed bachelors and maiden ladies lose through an excess of timidity the great experiences and joys which a little boldness1 a little willingness to take a risk and put up with the imperfect would have brought them4 ,no man or woman is perfect2 no one can expect to find a wholly ideal mate2 it is foolish to be too exacting1 and it is conceited1 implying that one is flawless one's self4 ,nevertheless1 the counsel of caution is more commonly needed4 ,happily we have pretty generally got away from mariages de convenance1 marriages for money1 or title1 or other extraneous advantages4 ,and we have recognized the right of the two who are primarily concerned to make their own choice without interference1 other than friendly counsel and warning1 from others4 ,but we still have many marriages from which the basic desiderata are in too great degree absent4 7#a7 ,there should be genuine sex attraction2 not necessarily a violent passion1 or love at first sight1 but some measure of that instinctive organic attraction1 that unpredictable and irrational emotional satisfaction in physical proximity1 which differentiates sex love from the love of men or women for one another4 ,not that platonic relations between husband and wife are not possible or permissible2 but if a young couple are not linked by this sweetest of bonds1 they not only miss much of the charm and mutual drawing- together of marriage1 but they stand in gravest danger of an eventual arousing of the instinct by another-and that means either a bitter fight for loyalty or actual tragedy4 ,it is never to be forgotten that husband and wife have to spend a great part of their life in the same house1 in the same room4 ,no degree of similarity of interests can take the place of that mere instinctive liking1 that pervasive content at each other's presence1 that enjoyment in seeing each other about1 and in the daily caresses and endearing words that rightly mated couples know4 7#b7 ,but this underlying physical attraction1 however keen at first is not of guaranteed permanence2 it must be buttressed by common tastes and sympathies4 ,to like the same people1 to enjoy doing the same things1 to judge problems from the same angle1 to cleave to similar moral1 aesthetic1 religious canons is of great importance4 ,a certain amount of contrast in ideas and ideals is1 indeed1 piquant and stimulating2 and where marriage is early there is likelihood of an adequate convergence in ,weltanschauung4 ,but too radically different an outlook upon life may lead to continual friction1 to loneliness1 and mutual antagonism4 ,the two who are to be comrades in the great experiment of life must be able to help each other1 strengthen each other's weaknesses1 and admire each other's aims and achievements4 ,in particular1 religious fanaticism is an intractable enemy of marital happiness4 ,as ,stevenson puts it1 ,there are differences which no habit nor affection can reconcile1 and the ,bohemian must not ntermarry with the ,pharisee4 ,the best of men and the best of women may sometimes live together all their lives1 and1 for want of some consent on fundamental questions1 hold each other lost spirits to the end4 7#c7 ,it scarcely needs to be added that there must be on both sides a high standard of morality4 ,truthfulness1 sincerity1 self-control1 the willingness to work1 to sacrifice personal desires and pull together for the common welfare of the house1 are essential1 as well as fidelity to marriage vows and abstinence from all intemperance and lawbreaking4 ,common tastes can be formed after marriage2 even the organic attraction is pretty sure to be awakened in some degree if the pair are not actually repulsive to each other2 but low moral ideals at the age of marriage are seldom radically transformed afterward and render any happiness in home-making insecure4 7#d7 ,perhaps some day it may become incumbent upon the suitor to weigh the matter of the heredity back of the lady of his choice1 and consider whether she is best adapted1 by mating with him1 to give birth to normal and healthy children2 or for the maiden sought to regard with equal care the antecedents of the suitor4 ,but-fortunately for lovers' consciences-we know too little at present about heredity and the breeding of human beings to give much useful advice or make any demands of the prospective couple1 except to insist that those who are tainted with hereditary disease or feeble-mindedness shall refrain from marriage4 ,to this subject we shall recur in chapter ,,xxx4 ,is divorce morally justifiable8 ,if marriage were always undertaken with adequate caution1 there would seldom be need of annulling it4 ,but since mistakes are bound to be made and unhappy unions result2 since1 further1 matters arising after marriage often tend to push couples apart and engender a state of friction or absolute antagonism1 a necessary postscript to the questions concerning marriage must be that concerning divorce4 ,it is matter of common knowledge that there is a marked tendency in recent years toward a loosening of the marriage bond2 the ease with which divorces are granted in some ,states has become a national scandal4 ,among the causes for this are the lessening of allegiance to religious authority1 the loss of the older fears and restraints1 the growing spirit of adventure and iconoclasm4 ,with the breaking-up of traditions1 the lure of freedom has been strong1 especially upon the so-long- dominated and docile sex4 ,women are becoming better educated and asserting their rights everywhere2 they are now able to earn their living in many independent ways1 and are in a position to break loose2 the era of the subjection of women is over1 and it is natural that many1 particularly of the idle and frivolous1 should turn this new-won liberty into license4 ,but1 indeed1 human nature being as it is1 there would inevitably arise1 and have always arisen1 many cases of strain and friction in marriage relations4 ,as ,chesterton says1 a man and a woman are1 in the nature of the case1 incompatible2 and that underlying incommensurability of viewpoint easily results in clash where a deep-rooted affection and a habit of self-control are absent4 ,innumerable couples have suffered and hated each other and made the best of it2 nowadays they are deeming it better frankly to admit and end the discord4 ,and the problem1 ,which solutionis better8 is by no means an easy one4 ,we can but make here a few general suggestions4 7#a7 ,divorce must certainly not be so easy as to encourage hasty and unconsidered marriage1 or to turn this most sacred of relationships into a mere experimental and provisional alliance4 ,trial marriage is a palpably reprehensible scheme1 involving an unwarrantable stimulus to the sex appetite2 many men would enjoy taking one woman after another1 until their passion in each case had exhausted its force with the lapse of novelty2 women1 who are not so naturally promiscuous1 would suffer most4 ,what would become of the children is a question whose very posing condemns the proposal4 ,but a lax divorce law provides practically for trial marriage2 one or the other party may enter into the contract and pronounce the solemn vows without any intention of keeping them when it shall cease to be for his or her pleasure4 ,not in this way is to be got the real worth of marriage2 the conscious and earnest effort1 at least1 must be to keep to it for life4 ,an easy short cut to freedom would tempt too many from the harder but nobler way of compromise1 conciliation1 and self-subordination4 ,if one is weak and erring1 or petulant and unkind1 the other must patiently and lovingly seek to help1 to educate1 to uplift2 seventy times seven times is not too often for forgiveness2 and many a marriage that seemed hopelessly wrecked has been saved by magnanimity and tactful affection4 ,there is a fine disciplinary value in these forbearances1 and much opportunity for spiritual growth in the persevering endeavor toward harmony and mutual understanding4 ,many a man and woman who might have been lost if divorced1 has been saved for a better life by the unwillingness of wife or husband to desert under grievous provocation4 ,there comes an ebb to most conjugal disputes2 men and women grow wiser1 and often gentler1 with age2 while there is any hope for readjustment and revival of love it is wrong to break marital vows4 ,many a divorce has been as hasty and ill considered as the marriage it ended1 and has left the couple in the end less happy and useful members of the community4 ,particularly when there are children should the parents sacrifice much for the sake of giving them a real home1 with both mother- and father-love4 7#b7 ,yet there are cases where love is hopelessly killed and harmony is impossible2 cases where much suffering1 and even moral degeneration1 would result from continuance of the married life4 ,where a man transfers his love to another or indulges in infidelity to his vows2 where he crazes himself with liquor or some other narcotic1 and will not give it up2 where he treats his wife with cruelty or contempt1 or through selfishness or laziness deserts or refuses to support her2 where she refuses to perform her wifely duties1 gives herself to other men1 makes home intolerable for him--in short1 in any case where mutual loyalty and cooperation are hopeless of attainment1 it is surely best that there should be separation4 ,it does not make for the welfare of the children1 or for the sanctity of marriage1 that such wretched travesties of it should continue4 ,moreover1 for eugenic reasons1 we must urge the freeing of wives from husbands who have transmissible diseases1 inheritable defects1 or chronic alcoholism4 ,nor should the fact of one mistake preclude the injured party from another opportunity for happiness and usefulness4 ,whether the guilty man or woman1 the one wholly or chiefly to blame for the failure1 should be permitted to remarry is another matter2 but probably1 on the whole1 it is better than the alternative encouragement of immorality and illegitimacy4 7#c7 ,the community should exert its influence toward the remedying of the present anomalies and uncertainties by making both marriage laws and divorce laws more stringent1 and uniform throughout the country4 ,statutes that will render impulsive marriage impossible1 by requiring an interval to elapse after statement of intention to marry1 and making a clean bill of health necessary2 divorce laws that shall refuse to pander to caprice and willfulness1 but shall make it easy1 without scandal or needless publicity1 to deliver a woman or a man from an intolerable and irremediable situation1 and that shall not be appreciably more lenient in one ,state than in another1 will go far toward curing contemporary evils4 ,it may yet be that the ,constitution will be so amended as to permit the ,national ,government to control these matters and thus replace our present chaos with order4 ,dewey and ,tufts1 ,ethics1 chap4 ,,xxvi4 ,scharlieb and ,silby1 ,youth and ,sex4 ,c4 ,read1 ,natural and ,social ,morals1 chap4 ,,vii4 ,anon1 ,life1 ,love1 and ,light 7,macmillan71 pp4 #hd-if4 ,r4 ,c4 ,cabot1 ,what ,men ,live ,by1 chaps4 ,,xxiv-,,xxix4 ,w4 ,l4 ,sheldon1 ,an ,ethical ,movement1 chaps4 ,,xi1 ,,xii4 ,c4 ,f4 ,dole1 ,ethics of ,progress1 part ,,vii1 chap4 ,,iii4 ,felix ,adler1 ,marriage and ,divorce1 ,the ,spiritual ,meaning of ,marriage4 ,n4 ,smyth1 ,christian ,ethics1 pp4 #dje-ae4 ,b4 ,p4 ,bowne1 ,principles of ,ethics1 part ,,iii1 chaps4 ,,viii1 ,,ix4 ,w4 ,e4 ,h4 ,lecky1 ,the ,map of ,life1 chap4 ,,xiv4 ,stevenson1 ,virginibus ,puerisque4 ,g4 ,e4 ,c4 ,gray1 ,husband and ,wife4 ,j4 ,rus1 ,the ,peril and ,preservation of the ,home4 ,thompson and ,geddes1 ,problems of ,sex4 ,h4 ,munsterberg1 ,sex-,education 7in ,psychology and ,social ,sanity74 ,h4 ,g4 ,wells1 ,divorce 7in ,social ,forces in ,england and ,america74 ,c4 ,j4 ,hawkins1 ,will the ,home ,survive8 ,biblical ,world1 vol4 #dc1 p4 #cc4 ,international ,journal of ,ethics1 vol4 #ag1 p4 #aha4 ,for the data3 ,united ,states ,department of ,commerce and ,labor1 ,reports on ,marriage and ,divorce4 ,publications of the ,national ,league for the ,protection of the ,family 7,secretary ,s4 ,w4 ,dike1 ,auburndale1 ,massachusetts7 and of the ,society of ,sanitary and ,moral ,prophylaxis 7#aje ,west #djth ,street1 ,new ,york74 ,howard1 ,,matrimonial ,,institutions4 ,sutherland1 ,,origin ,,and ,,growth ,,of ,,the ,,moral ,,instinct of the ,moral ,instinct1 chaps4 vii1 ix4 ,lestourneaux1 ,,evolution ,,of ,,marriage4 ,,chapter ,,xviii ,,fellowship1 ,,loyalty1 ,,and ,,luxury ,,every man has to solve the problem of how far he will live for his smaller1 personal self1 and how far for that larger self that includes the interests of others4 ,the general principles involved we have discussed in chapter ,,xi2 we may now proceed to consider their application to the concrete situations in which we find ourselves4 ,what social relationships impose claims upon us8 7#a7 ,the relations of husband and wife and of parenthood are most sacred and exacting1 because they are voluntarily assumed1 and because the need and possibilities of help are here greatest4 ,a man or woman may without odium remain free from these obligations2 but once they have made the vows that initiate the dual life1 once they have brought a helpless child into the world1 neither may evade the consequent responsibilities4 ,if undertaken at all1 these duties must be conscientiously fulfilled2 and whatever sacrifices are necessary must1 as a matter of course1 and ungrudgingly1 be made4 7#b7 ,next in inviolability to these claims are those of father and mother1 brother and sister1 and other near relatives4 ,involuntary as these relations are1 the natural piety that accepts the burdens they entail must not be allowed to grow dim4 ,those nearest of kin are the natural supports and helpers of the weak and dependent2 and though patience and resources be severely taxed1 it is better to let blood ties continue to involve obligation than to permit the selfish irresponsibility of a freer and more individualistic society4 ,much provocation can be borne by remembering ,she is my mother2 ,he is my brother2 after all1 their interests are ours1 and our lives are impoverished1 as well as theirs1 if we ignore them4 7#c7 ,the voluntary bonds of friendship entail somewhat vaguer obligations1 since the closeness of the tie is not clearly fixed1 as it is in the case of blood relationship4 ,but once a friend always a friend is the truehearted man's motto4 ,assure thee1 says one of ,shakespeare's heroines1 if ,i do vow a friendship1 ,i'll perform it to the last article4 ,no one who has won another's friendship1 and1 however tacitly1 pledged his own1 is thenceforth free to ignore the bond4 ,here are for most men the happiest opportunities for fellowship1 for inward growth1 and for service2 for if the love of wife surpasses that of friends1 it is not only on account of the fascination of sex1 but because marriage may be the supreme friendship4 ,emerson declared that every man passes his life in the search after friendship2 and the greatest of ,stevenson's three desiderata for happiness was - ,ach1 ,du lieber ,gott1 friends6 ,human beings1 even when brought up in a similar environment1 are so infinitely divergent in temperament and ideal1 that the near of kin seldom meet a man's deepest needs1 and he must wait and watch to find one here and there with whom he can clasp hands in real mutual comprehension and accord4 ,want of this spontaneous comradeship sadly limits a life2 nothing pays more in joy than the circle of friends that a man can draw about him4 ,nothing1 likewise1 is more morally stimulating4 ,what a friend thinks me to be1 that must ,i be4 ,this linking of our lives to others draws us out of ourselves1 corrects our cramped and distorted vision1 and reinforces our wavering aspirations4 ,hence those who are so critical and fastidious as to make few friends ill serve their own interests4 ,a certain heartiness and fearlessness of trust is necessary2 reproaches and suspicions1 accusations and demands for explanations1 must not be indulged in1 even if wrong is actually done4 ,a presumption of good intentions must always be maintained1 even if appearances are black4 ,it is more shameful1 as ,la ,rochefoucauld said1 to distrust a friend than to be deceived by him4 ,indeed1 these deceptions and disillusions are oftenest the result of our own mistaken idealization2 we must expect neither perfection nor those particular virtues in which we ourselves are especially punctilious1 and undertake to love and cleave to a mortal1 not an angel4 ,friendship requires not only that we lend a hand when help is needed2 it implies patience and tact and the endeavor to understand4 ,through common experiences1 repeated interchange of thought and observation1 mutual enjoyment of beauty and fun1 particularly in expressing common ideals and working together for common causes1 there grows to maturity this wonderful relationship the slowest fruit in the whole garden of ,god1 which many summers and many winters must ripen4 7#d7 ,beyond the boundaries of blood and friendship lie a whole hierarchy of lesser relationships-to neighbors1 to employees1 to fellow townsmen1 to human beings the world over4 ,mere proximity constitutes a claim that is not commonly acknowledged when distance interposes2 most men would be mortally ashamed to let a next-door neighbor starve1 although they may feel no call to lessen their luxuries when thousands1 whom they could as easily succor1 are perishing in the antipodes4 ,and there is a measure of necessity in this2 to burden our minds with the thought of the suffering in ,india1 in ,russia1 in ,japan1 leads to a paralyzing sense of impotence4 ,if we confine our thought to the dwellers on our street or in our town1 it may not seem utterly hopeless to try to remedy their distress2 to improve the situation of the laborers in one's own shop or factory lies within the limits of practicability4 ,but the ,christian doctrine of the universal brotherhood of man is becoming a working principle at last2 and millions of dollars and thousands of our ablest young men and women are crossing the oceans to uplift and civilize the more backward nations1 in deference to the admonition that we are our brothers' keepers4 ,at home this recognition of the basic human relationship of living together on this little sphere1 that is plunging with us all through the great deeps of space1 should help to obliterate class lines and snobbishness and bring about a real democracy of fellowship4 7#e7 ,finally1 we have a duty to those dumb brothers of ours1 the animal species that share with us the earth4 ,for they1 too1 feel pain and pleasure1 and are much at our mercy4 ,we must learn ,never to blend our pleasure or our pride ,with sorrow of the meanest thing that feels4 ,all needless hurting of sentient creatures is cruelty1 whether of the boy who tortures frogs and flies1 or of the grown man who takes his pleasure in hunting to death a frightened deer4 ,beasts of prey must1 indeed1 be ruthlessly put to death1 just as we execute murderers2 among them are to be counted flies1 mosquitoes1 rats1 and the other pests so deadly to the human race and to other animals4 ,but death should be inflicted as painlessly as possible2 no humane man will prolong the suffering of the humblest creature for the sake of sport or take pleasure in the killing4 ,we must say with ,cowper ,i would not enter on my list of friends1 7,though graced with polished manners and fine sense1 ,yet wanting sensibility7 the man ,who needlessly sets foot upon a worm4 ,this does not necessarily imply that we may not rear and kill animals for food4 ,when properly slaughtered1 they suffer inappreciably-no more1 and probably less1 than they would otherwise suffer before death2 the fear of the hunted animal is not present1 and there is no danger of leaving mate and offspring to suffer4 ,indeed1 the animals that are bred for food would not have their chance to live at all but for serving that end2 and their existence is ordinarily1 without doubt1 of some positive balance of worth to them4 ,certainly the rearing of cattle and sheep and chickens adds appreciably to the picturesqueness and richness of human life2 and if dieticians are to be believed1 their food value could hardly be replaced by substitutes4 ,the question of vivisection is not a difficult one4 ,certainly experimentation on living animals should be sharply controlled1 anesthetics should be used whenever possible1 and the needless repetition of operations for illustrative purposes should be forbidden4 ,but it is far better for the general good that necessary experimentation should be performed upon animals than upon human beings2 not at all as a partisan judgment1 to shift suffering from ourselves to others1 which would be unjustifiable1 but because animals are less sensitive to pain1 and unable to foresee and fear it as human beings would4 ,the human lives saved have been of far greater worth not only to themselves but objectively than the animal lives sacrificed4 ,moreover1 except for a few glaring instances1 vivisection has involved little cruelty2 and the crusade against it1 though actuated by a noble impulse1 has rested upon misrepresentation of facts and exaggeration of evils4 ,what general duties do we owe our fellows8 7#a7 ,the abstract duty to refrain from hurting our fellows1 and to give positive help1 to whomever we can1 will find constant application in connection with each specific problem we are to study4 ,but a few general remarks may be pertinently made here4 ,in the first place1 we need to be reminded that to help requires insight and tact and ingenuity2 it is not enough to respond to obvious needs or actual requests2 we must learn to understand our fellows' wants1 remember their tastes1 seek out ways to add to their happiness or lighten their burdens4 ,for another must realize the importance of manners1 cultivate kindliness of voice and phrase1 courtesy1 cheerfulness1 and good humor4 ,surliness and ill temper1 glumness1 touchiness1 are inexcusable2 nor may we needlessly burden others with our troubles and disappointments - the motto1 ,burn your own smoke1 voices an important duty4 ,again1 we must remember that people generally are lonely and in need of love2 we must be generous in our affection4 ,it is sometimes said that love given as a duty is a mockery2 and doubtless spontaneous and irresistible love is best4 ,but it is possible to cultivate love4 ,if we think of others not as rivals or enemies1 but as fellows whose interests we ourselves have at heart1 if we try to put ourselves in their place1 see through their eyes1 and enjoy their pleasures and successes1 we shall find ourselves coming to want happiness for them and then feeling some measure of affection4 ,men and women do not have to be perfect to be loved2 all or nearly all are love worthy1 if we have it in us to love4 7#b7 ,the question how far we should tolerate what we believe to be wrong in others1 and how far we should work to reform them1 is of the most difficult4 ,certainly moral evil must be fought2 the counsel to resist not evil cannot be taken too sweepingly4 ,no one can sit still while a big boy is bullying a smaller1 while vice caterers are plying their trades1 while cruelty and injustice of any sort are being perpetrated4 ,in lesser matters1 too1 we must not be inactive1 but use our influence and persuasion to call our fellows to better things4 ,they may well at some later day reproach us if we shirk our duty to help them see and correct their faults2 still more may we be reproached by others who have been harmed by faults that we might have done something toward curing4 ,often a single gentle and tactful admonition has turned the whole current of a man's life4 ,the truest friendship is not too easy- going2 it stimulates and checks as well as comforts4 ,emerson happily phrases this aspect of the matter3 ,i hate1 when ,i looked for a manly furtherance1 or at least a manly resistance1 to find a mush of concession4 ,better be a nettle in the side of your friend than his echo4 ,this is1 however1 only half the truth4 ,what ,stevenson calls the passion of interference with others is one of the wretchedest poisoners of human happiness4 ,people are1 after all1 hopelessly at variance in ideals1 and we must be content to let others live in their own way and according to their own inner light1 as we live by ours4 ,probably neither is the light of perfect day4 ,parents are particularly at fault in this respect2 rare is the father or mother who is willing that son and daughter should leave the parental paths and follow their own ideals4 ,incalculable is the amount of needless suffering caused by the conscientious attempt to make others over into our own image4 ,as ,carlyle wrote1 ,the friendliest voice must speak from without2 and a man's ultimate monition comes only from within4 ,we need not only a shrugging tolerance1 but a willingness to admit that those who differ from us may after all be in the right of it4 ,it often happens that as we live our standards change1 and we come to see that those whom we were anxious to reform were less in need of reformation than we2 and very likely while we were blaming others1 they in their hearts were blaming us4 ,the older we grow the less we feel ourselves qualified for the office of censor4 ,certain practical counsels may perhaps be not too impertinent3 ,be sure you can take advice yourself without offense or irritation before you proffer it to others2 there may be beams in your own eyes as well as motes in your neighbors'4 ,be sure you see through the other's eyes1 and get his point of view2 only so can you feel reasonably confident that you are right in your advice or reproof4,footnote3 ,cf4 ,w4 ,e4 ,h4 ,lecky1 ,the ,map of ,life1 p4 #fh3 ,few men have enough imagination to realize types of excellence altogether differing from their own4 ,it is this1 much more than vanity1 that leads them to esteem the types of excellence to which they themselves approximate as the best1 and tastes and habits that are altogether incongruous with their own as futile and contemptible4 ,be sure that you are saying what you are saying for the other's good1 and not to give vent to your own irritability or selfishness or sense of superiority2 say what must be said sweetly or gravely1 never patronizingly or sharply1 with resentfulness or petulance4 ,be sure you choose your occasion tactfully1 and above all things do not nag2 it is better to have it out once and for all than to be forever hinting and complaining and reproving4 ,praise when you can1 temper advice with compliments1 make it apparent that your spirit is friendly and your mood good-tempered4 ,talk and think as little as possible of others' faults2 he who is above doing a low act is above talking about another's failings4 ,the only right gossip is that which dwells upon the pleasant side of our neighbors' doings4 ,avoid all impatience1 contempt1 and anger2 they poison no one so much as him who feels them4 ,cultivate kindliness and sympathy2 love opens blind eyes1 helps us to understand our neighbor1 and to help him in the best way4 ,are the rich justified in living in luxury8 ,of all the problems that loyalty to our fellows involves1 none is acuter1 to the conscientious man1 than that concerning the degree of luxury he may allow himself4 ,it is strictly things in the world is limited2 the more ,i have1 the less others have4 ,how can a good man be content to spend unnecessary sums upon himself and his own family1 when within arm's reach men and women and children are being stunted mentally and morally1 are living in dirt and squalor1 are succumbing to disease1 are actually dying1 for lack of the comfort and opportunity that his superfluous wealth could give8 ,wherever we may live1 if we draw a circle around us of a hundred thousand sic1 or a thousand1 or even of ten miles' circumference1 and look at the lives of those men and women who are inside our circle1 we shall find half- starved children1 old people1 pregnant women1 sick and weak persons1 all working beyond their strength1 with neither food nor rest enough to support them1 and so dying before their time4,footnote3 ,tolstoy1 ,what ,shall ,we ,do ,then8 chap4 xxvi4 ,it is only a lack of imagination and sympathy1 or an actual ignorance of conditions1 that can permit so many really kind-hearted people to spend so much money upon clothes1 amusements1 elaborate dinners1 and a lot of other superfluities1 in a world so full of desperate need4 ,it would be well if every citizen could be compelled to do a little charity-visiting1 or something of the sort1 that he might see with his own eyes the cramping and demoralizing conditions under which1 for sheer lack of money1 so many worthy poor1 under the present crude social organization1 must live4 ,it is the segregation of the well to do in their separate quarters that fosters their shameless callousness1 and leads1 in the rich1 to that flagrant exhibition of great wealth which almost frightens those who know the destitution of the poor4 ,there is1 however1 a growing uneasiness among those who have1 an increasing sense of responsibility toward those who have not2 there are hopeful signs of a return to the sane ideal of the ,greeks1 who deemed it vulgar and barbaric to spend money lavishly on self4 ,the compunctions of the rich are indicated1 on the one hand1 by generous donations made to all sorts of causes1 and on the other hand1 by the arguments which are now thought necessary to justify the selfish use of money4 ,these arguments we may cursorily discuss4 7#a7 ,a clever writer in a recent magazine ,footnote3 ,katherine ,fullerton ,gerould1 in the ,atlantic ,monthly1 vol4 #aji1 p4 #ace4 speaks of factitious altruism2 with this altruism of the ,procrusteans who would reduce every one to the simple life-she has little patience4 ,thousands of people seem to be infected with the idea that by doing more themselves they bestow leisure on others2 that by wearing shabby clothes they somehow make it possible for others to dress better- though they thus admit tacitly that leisure and elegance are not evil things4 ,or perhaps-though ,heaven forbid they should be right6-they merely think that by refusing nightingales' tongues they make every one more content with porridge4 ,let us be gallant about the porridge that we must eat2 but let us never forget that there are better things to eat than porridge4 ,this philosophy1 less gracefully expressed1 is not uncommon4 ,luxury is1 other things equal1 better than simplicity4 ,but other things are not equal when our neighbors are cold and sick and hungry4 ,what self- respecting man can eat caviar on principle when another has not even bread8 ,by wearing plainer clothes we can make it possible for others to dress better1 by denying ourselves nightingales' tongues we can buy porridge for the poor4 ,it surely betokens a low moral stage of civilization that so many1 nevertheless1 choose the ,paquin gowns and the six-course dinners4 ,luxury is better than simplicity if it can be the luxury of all4 ,if not1 it means selfishness1 callousness1 and broken bonds of brotherhood4 ,moreover1 it has personal dangers2 it tends to breed softness and laziness1 an inability to endure hardship1 what ,agnes ,repplier calls loss of nerve4 ,it tends to choke the soul1 to crush it by the weight of worldly things1 as ,tarpeia was crushed by the ,sabine shields4 ,hardly can a rich man enter the kingdom of heaven4 ,simple living1 with occasional luxuries1 far more appreciated for their rarity1 is healthier and safer1 and in the end perhaps as happy4 ,certainly the luxury of the upper classes has usually portended the downfall of nations4 ,it is luxury which upholds states8 asks ,laveleye2 yes1 just as the executioner upholds the hanged man4 ,ill fares the land1 to hastening ills a prey1 ,where wealth accumulates and men decay4 7#b7 ,there is a patrician illusion prevalent among the rich1 to the effect that they are more sensitive than the poor1 have higher natures which demand more to satisfy them2 that the lower classes do not need and would not appreciate the luxuries which are necessary to their existence4 ,to this the reply is1 ,go and get acquainted with them2 you will find that they are just the same sort of people that you and your friends are-not so educated1 very likely1 nor so refined of speech and manner1 but with the same longings and capacities for enjoyment4 ,of course1 they become used to discomfort and deprivation1 seared by suffering2 so would you in their place4 ,human nature has a fortunate ability to adjust itself to its environment4 ,but even if the poor do not realize what they are missing1 that is scant excuse for not bringing to them1 as we can1 new comforts and opportunities4 7#c7 ,the commonest fallacy lies in the argument that by lavish consumption the rich provide employment for the poor4 ,they provide employment1 yes1 in serving them4 ,they create needless work1 where there is so much work crying to be done4 ,if that money is put into the bank1 instead1 or into stocks and bonds1 it will employ men and women in really useful tasks4 ,if it is given to some of the worthy causes which are always handicapped for lack of funds1 it will employ men in caring for the sick1 in educating the ignorant1 in feeding the hungry1 or in bringing recreation and relief to the worn4 ,every man or woman whose time and strength we buy for our personal service-valet1 maid1 gardener1 dressmaker1 chef1 or what not-is taken away from the other work of the world4 7#d7 ,a certain hopelessness of effecting any good often paralyzes good will4 ,the help a little money can give seems like a drop in the bucket2 its assistance is but for a day1 and the need remains as great as ever4 ,it may even be worse than wasted2 it may encourage shiftlessness1 it may pauperize4 ,there is no doubt that indiscriminate and thoughtless charity is dangerous2 the crude largesse of a few rich ,romans of the ,empire bred vast corruption and pauperism4 ,but there is much that can safely be done2 there are many wise and cautious agencies at work for aid and uplift2 and every little1 if given to one of them1 is of real help4 7#e7 ,it is sometimes said that if society discountenances luxury1 the motive for hard and efficient work will be too much reduced2 we need this extra spur to exertion4 ,but the earning of what may permissibly be spent on self is spur enough2 there is no need of inordinate luxury to foster faithfulness and exertion4 ,the praise of superiors and equals1 a moderate rise in scale of living1 the shame of shirking1 the instinctive glory in achievement1 and the joy of helping others1 are stimuli enough4 7#f7 ,finally1 the last argument of the selfish man is that he has earned his money2 it is his2 he has a right to do with it as he pleases ,this we cannot admit4 ,legally he is as yet free so backward is our social order-to accumulate and spend upon himself vast sums4 ,but it is not best for society that he should1 and so he is not morally justified therein4 ,we must agree with ,carnegie that whatever surplus wealth comes to him 7beyond his needs and those of his family7 is to be regarded as a social trust1 which he is bound to administer for the good of his fellows2 and with ,professor ,sager1 that the general interest requires acceptance of the maxim3 the consumption of luxuries should be deferred until all are provided with necessaries4 ,this does not mean that we need live like peasants1 as ,tolstoy advised1 make our own shoes1 and till our own plot of ground2 nor that we must come down to the level of the lowest4 ,by doing that we should lose the great advantages of our material progress1 which rests upon the high specialization of labor and reciprocal service4 ,we should lose the charm and picturesqueness of highly differentiated lives1 and sink into the dull1 monotonous democracy which ,matthew ,arnold so dreaded4 ,we must work where we can best serve2 we must try to make our lives and their surroundings beautiful1 so far as beauty does not require too great cost4 ,we must save up for a rainy day1 for insurance against illness and old age1 for wife and children4 ,we may properly invest money1 where it will be used to good ends - so that we beware of spendthrift or lazy heirs4 ,we must keep up a reasonably comfortable and beautiful standard of living1 such a standard as the majority could hope to attain to by hard work and abstinence and thrift4 ,but all the money one can earn beyond this ought to be used for service4 ,the extravagance and ostentation and waste of many even moderately well to do are a blot upon our civilization4 ,the insane ideal of lavish adornment1 of fashionable clothes and costly furnishings1 of mere vain display and wanton luxury1 infects rich and poor alike1 isolating the former from the great universal current of life1 and provoking in the latter bitterness and anarchism4 ,let us ask in every case1 ,does this expenditure bring use1 health1 joy commensurate with the labor it represents8 ,a great deal of current expense in dressing1 in entertaining1 in eating1 could be saved by a sensible economy1 with no appreciable loss in enjoyment4 ,we must not forget that everything we consume has been produced by the labor and time of others4 ,what fortune1 or our own cleverness1 has put into our hands that we do not need for making fair and free our own lives1 and the lives of those dependent upon us1 we should pass on to those whose need is greater than ours4 ,is it wrong to gamble1 bet1 or speculate8 ,a corollary to our discussion of the duties appertaining to the use of money must be a condemnation of gambling4 ,its most obvious evil is the danger of loss of needed money2 most gamblers cannot rightly afford to throw away what ought to be used for their real needs and those of their families4 ,notably is this the case with college students1 supported by their parents1 who heedlessly waste the money that others have worked hard to save4 ,but even if a man be rich1 he should steward his wealth for purposes useful to society4 ,and he must remember that if he can afford to lose1 perhaps his opponent cannot4 ,moreover1 if many cannot afford to lose1 no one can afford to win4 ,insidiously this getting of unearned money promotes laziness1 and the desire to acquire more money without work4 ,it makes against loving relations with others1 since one always gains at another's expense4 ,it quickly becomes a morbid passion1 an unhealthy excitement1 which absorbs too much energy and kills more natural enjoyments4 ,the gambling mania1 like any other reckless dissipation1 easily leads to other dissipations1 such as drinking and sex indulgence4 ,these disastrous consequences are1 of course1 by no means always incurred4 ,but in order that the weaker may be saved from them1 it behooves the stronger to abstain4 ,all betting1 all playing games for money1 all gambling in stocks is wrong in principle1 liable to bring needless unhappiness4 ,the honorable man will hate to take money which has not been fairly earned2 he will wish to help protect those who are prone to run useless risks against themselves4 ,the safest place to draw the line is on the near side of all gambling1 however trivial4,footnote3 ,see ,h4 ,jeffs1 ,concerning ,conscience1 ,appendix4 ,r4 ,e4 ,speer1 ,a ,young ,man's ,questions1 chap4 xi ,b4 ,s4 ,rowntree1 ,betting and ,gambling4 ,international ,journal of ,ethics1 vol4 #ah1 p4 #gf4 ,general relations to others3 ,f4 ,paulsen1 ,system of ,ethics1 book ,,iii1 chap4 ,,ix1 sec4 #f2 chap4 ,x1 secs4 #c1 #d1 #e4 ,g4 ,santayana1 ,reason in ,society4 ,j4 ,s4 ,mackenzie1 ,manual of ,ethics1 #b;d ed1 chap4 ,,ix4 ,emerson1 ,society and ,solitude title essay4 ,p4 ,g4 ,hamerton1 ,the ,intellectual ,life1 part ,,ix4 ,friendship3 ,aristotle1 ,ethics1 books4 ,,viii1 ,,ix4 ,emerson1 ,friendship 7in ,essays1 vol4 ,i74 ,h4 ,c4 ,trumbull1 ,friendship the ,master ,passion4 ,randolph ,bourne1 in ,atlantic ,monthly1 vol4 #aaj1 p4 #gie4 ,luxury3 ,e4 de ,laveleye1 ,luxury4 ,e4 ,j4 ,urwick1 ,luxury and ,waste of ,life4 ,tolstoy1 ,what ,shall ,we ,do ,then8 7or1 ,what ,to ,do87 ,maeterlinck1 ,our ,social ,duty 7in ,measure of the ,hours74 ,f4 ,paulsen1 ,system of ,ethics1 book ,,iii1 chap4 ,,iv1 secs4 #c1 #d4 ,t4 ,w4 ,higginson1 in ,atlantic ,monthly1 vol4 #ajg1 p4 #cja4 ,h4 ,sidgwick1 ,practical ,ethics1 chap4 ,,vii4 ,hibbert ,journal1 vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #ci4 ,h4 ,r4 ,seager1 ,introduction to ,economics1 chap4 ,,iv1 secs4 #dc-de4 ,,chapter ,,xix ,,truthfulness ,,and ,,its ,,problems ,sins of untruthfulness are not so seductive or1 usually1 so serious as those we have been considering2 but for that reason they are perhaps more pervasive - we are less on our guard against them4 ,what are the reasons for the obligation of truthfulness8 ,truthfulness means trustworthiness4 ,the organization of society could not be maintained without mutual confidence4 ,this general need and the specific harm done to the individual lied to1 if he is thereby misled1 are sufficiently plain4 ,footnote3 ,i will content myself with quoting one sentence from ,mill 7,utilitarianism1 chap4 ,,ii71 warning the reader to take a deep breath before he plunges in3 ,inasmuch as the cultivation in ourselves of a sensitive feeling on the subject of veracity is one of the most useful1 and the enfeeblement of that feeling one of the most hurtful1 things to which our conduct can be instrumental2 and inasmuch as any1 even unintentional1 deviation from truth does that much towards weakening the trustworthiness of human assertion1 which is not only the principal support of all present social well-being1 but the insufficiency of which does more than any one other thing that can be named to keep back civilization1 virtue1 everything on which human happiness on the largest scale depends1 - we feel that the violation1 for a present advantage1 of a rule of such transcendent expediency1 is not expedient1 and that he who1 for the sake of a convenience to himself or to some other individual1 does what depends on him to deprive mankind of the good1 and inflict upon them the evil1 involved in the greater or less reliance which they can place in each others' words1 acts the part of one of their worst enemies4 ,the evil resulting to the man who lies is less generally recognized4 ,we may summarize it under three heads3 7#a7 ,it is much simpler and less worrisome1 usually1 to tell the truth4 ,a lie is apt to be scantly on our guard2 and one lie is very likely to need propping by others4 ,we are led easily into deep waters1 and discover what a tangled web we weave ,when first we practice to deceive4 ,but when we tell the truth1 we have no need to remember what we said2 there is a carefree heartiness about the life that is open and aboveboard that the liar1 unless he has given up trying to maintain a reputation1 never knows4 7#b7 ,lying is usually a ,,symptom - of selfishness1 vanity1 greed1 slovenliness1 or some other vicious tendency which a man cannot afford to tolerate4 ,refusing to give vent in speech to these undesirable states of mind helps to atrophy them1 while every expression of them insures them a deeper hold4 ,untruthfulness is the great ally of all forms of dishonesty2 and strict scruples against lying make it much easier to clear them from the soul4 ,this is the best vantage point from which to attack the half-conscious egotism which seeks to create a false impression of one's virtues or powers1 the insidiously growing avarice that instinctively overvalues goods for sale and disparages what is offered4 ,it is a good vantage point from which to attack carelessness1 inaccuracy1 and negligence2 the man who has trained himself to precision of speech1 who is painstakingly honest in his statements1 who qualifies and discriminates1 and hits the bull's eye in his descriptions of fact1 can be pretty safely depended upon to do things rightly as well4 ,the selfish lie is never justifiable1 because selfishness is never justifiable2 the cowardly lie - lying out of unpleasant consequences - is wrong1 because cowardice is wrong4 ,to banish the symptoms may not wholly banish the underlying causes1 but it is one good way to go about it4 ,at least1 the lies are danger signals4 7#c7 ,the habit of lying is very easily acquired2 and the habitual liar is sure1 sooner or later1 to be caught and to be despised4 ,he has forfeited the confidence of men and will find it almost impossible to regain it or to win a position of trust4 ,if one must lie1 then1 it pays to lie boldly1 as a definite and authorized exception to one's general rule2 in this way one may keep from sliding unawares into the habit4 ,all equivocations and dissimulations1 all literal truths that are really deceptions1 all attempts to salve one's own conscience by making one's statements true in a sense1 and yet gain the advantage of an out-and- out lie1 are miserable make-shifts and utterly demoralizing4 ,there is not much in a truthfulness which is only phrase-deep4 ,whether we deceive others or no1 we cannot afford to deceive ourselves2 we should never deviate a hair's breadth from the truth without acknowledging the deviation to ourselves as a necessary but unfortunate evil4 ,a man may say nothing but what is true1 and yet intentionally give a wrong impression2 truth in spirit1 not truth to the letter1 is the true veracity4 ,a lie may be told by a truth1 or a truth conveyed by a lie4 ,a man may have sat in a room for hours and not opened his teeth1 and yet come out of that room a disloyal friend or a vile calumniator4,footnote3 ,stevenson1 ,virginibus ,puerisque1 chap4 ,,iv4 ,if a man lies deliberately and regretfully1 for an end that seems to him to require it1 he may be making a mistake2 but he is escaping the worst danger of lying4 ,he is not corrupting his soul1 blurring his vision of the line between sincerity and insincerity1 and numbing his conscience so that presently he will lie as a matter of course - and be universally distrusted4 ,all of this is very clear1 and sufficiently explains our ideal of veracity4 ,but it is not enough for moralists to dwell upon the general necessity of truthfulness2 the problems connected therewith arise when one asks1 ,are there not legitimate or even obligatory exceptions to the rule8 ,except for a few theorists who are more attracted by unity and simplicity than by the concrete complexities of life1 practically all agree that there are occasions when lying is necessary1 occasions when the confidence of men would not be destroyed by a lie because of the clearly exceptional nature of the case4 ,can we lay down any useful rules in the matter1 indicating what types of cases require untruthfulness8 ,what exceptions are allowable to the duty of truthfulness8 ,love undoubtedly sometimes requires1 and oftener still excuses1 a lie4 7#a7 ,there are the trite cases where by misinformation a prospective murderer is misled and his potential victim saved2,footnote3 ,cf4 the somewhat similar situation in ,victor ,hugo's ,les ,miserables 7,fantine1 last chapter7 where ,soeur ,simplice lies to ,javert about ,jean ,valjean4 ,hugo applauds the lie perhaps too extravagantly 7,o sainte fille6 que ce mensonge vous soit compte dans le paradis672 but few probably would condemn it4 ,another interesting case is that of a ,french girl in the days of the ,commune4 ,on her way to execution her fiance tried to interfere2 but she1 realizing that if he were known to be her lover he would likewise be executed1 looked coldly upon him and said1 ,sir1 ,i never knew you6 where a sick man1 who would have less chance of recovery if he realized his dangerous condition1 is cheered and carried over the critical point by loving deception2 where a theater catches fire and a disastrous panic is averted by a statement to the audience that one of the actors has fallen ill1 and the performance must be ended4 ,in such cases it is foolish to talk of the possibility of evasion2 it is direct misstatement that is necessary to prevent the great evil that knowledge1 or even suspicion of the truth1 might entail4 ,truthfulness under such circumstances1 or even the taking of a chance by attempting to effect deception without literal untruth1 would be brutal and inexcusable4 ,as ,saleeby puts it1 ,when the choice is between being a liar or a brute1 only brutal people can tell the truth or hesitate to lie - and that right roundly4,footnote3 ,ethics1 p4 #ajc4 ,in such cases the public1 including the very people deceived 7except the murderer1 who deserves no consideration71 applaud the lie2 no lack of confidence is engendered4 ,other cases1 less commonly discussed1 are equally clear4 ,a mother has just lost a son whom she has idealized and believed to be pure2 his classmates know him to have been a rake4 ,if she asks them about his character1 will not all feel called upon to deceive her1 and leave her in her bereavement at least free from that worst sting8 ,when a timid woman or a sensitive child is alarmed1 say1 for example1 at sea in a fog1 will not a considerate companion reiterate assurance that there is little or no danger1 even when he himself believes the risk may be great8 ,when a man is asked about some matter which he has promised to keep secret1 if the attempt to evade the question in the nature of the case is practically a letting-out of the secret1 there seems sometimes to be hardly an alternative to lying4 ,mrs4 ,gerould puts it thus3 ,a question put by some one who has no right to the information demanded1 deserves no truth4 ,if a casual gossip should ask me whether my unmarried great-aunt lived beyond her means1 ,i should feel justified in saying that she did not although it might be the private family scandal that she did4 ,there are inquiries which are a sort of moral burglary ,footnote3 ,in the ,atlantic essay referred to at the end of this chapter4 ,the unassigned quotations following are from that paper1 which ,i am particularly glad to commend after rather curtly criticizing that other essay of hers in the preceding chapter4 7#b7 ,in regard to the little lies which form a part of the conventions of polite society1 there may be difference of opinion4 ,their aim is to obviate hurting people's feelings1 to oil the wheels of social misled by them4 ,when asked by one's hostess if one likes what is apparently the only dish provided1 or if one has had enough when one is really still hungry1 the average courteous man will murmur a gallant falsehood4 ,what harm can be done thereby1 and why cause her useless embarrassment8 ,we simply have to be polite as our race and clime understand politeness1 and no one except a naive is really going to take this sort of thing seriously4 ,to thank a stupid hostess for the pleasure she has not given1 is loving one's neighbor as one's self4 ,i know only one person whom ,i could count on not to indulge herself in these conventional falsehoods1 and she has never been able1 so far as ,i know1 to keep a friend4 ,the habit of literal truth-telling1 frankly1 is self-indulgence of the worst4 ,in some circles1 at least1 the phrase not at home is generally understood as a politer form of not seeing visitors4 ,it must be admitted1 however1 that there is danger in these courteous untruths4 ,if the visitor does not understand the not at home in the conventional sense1 she may be deeply hurt and lose her trust in her friend1 if she by chance discovers her to have been in the house at the time4 ,nor is it always wise to truckle to sensibilities that may be foolish2 blunt truthfulness1 even if unpalatable1 is often in the end the best service4 ,there are cases where untruthfulness is shirking one's duty1 just as there are cases where truthfulness is mean or brutal4 ,to tell what we honestly think of a person1 or his work1 may mean to discourage him and invite demoralization or failure2 to attribute virtues or powers to him which he actually does not possess may be to foster those virtues or powers in him4 ,or the reverse may be the case2 his individual need may be of frank criticism or rebuke4 ,the concrete decision can only be reached by following the guidance of the law of kindness1 the ,apostle's counsel of speaking truth in love4 7#c7 ,in this connection it may be well to go further and emphasize the fact that there are many cases1 not necessitating a lie1 where the truth is not to be thrust at people4 ,friend1 though thy soul should burn thee1 yet be still4 ,thoughts were not meant for strife1 nor tongues for swords1 ,he that sees clear is gentlest of his words1 ,and that's not truth that hath the heart to kill4 ,there are usually pleasant enough things that one ,,can say - though one may be hard put to it2 and if the truth must be told1 it may often be sugarcoated4 ,president ,hadley1 when a young man1 was receiving instructions for a delicate negotiation4 ,if the issue is forced upon us1 he interrupted1 there is1 ,i think1 nothing to do but to tell the truth4 ,even then1 replied his chief1 not butt end foremost4 ,cases of religious disbelief will occur to every one4 ,while all hypocrisy and truckling to the majority opinion is ignoble1 the blunt announcement of disbelief may do much more harm than good4 ,truth is not the only ideal2 men live by their beliefs1 and one who cannot accept a doctrine which is precious and inspiring to others should think twice before helping to destroy it4 ,not only may he1 after all1 be in the wrong1 or but half right2 even if he is wholly right1 it may not be wise to thrust his truth upon those whom it may discourage or morally paralyze4 ,footnote3 ,on the ethics of outspokenness in religious matters1 see ,h4 ,sidgwick1 ,practical ,ethics1 chap4 ,,vi2 ,j4 ,s4 ,mill1 ,inaugural ,address at ,st4 ,andrews2 ,matthew ,arnold1 ,prefaces to ,literature and ,dogma and ,god and the ,bible ,f4 ,paulsen1 ,system of ,ethics1 book ,,iii1 ,chap4 ,,xi1 sec4 #aj4 ,in what directions are our standards of truthfulness low8 ,truthfulness in private affairs averages fairly high in our times4 ,many people will1 indeed1 lie about the age of a child for the sake of paying the half- fare rate1 use the return half of a round-trip ticket sold only for the original purchaser's use1 or look unconcernedly out of the window if they think the conductor will pass them by without collecting fare4 ,certain forms of such oral or tacit lying are so common that people of looser standards adopt them with the excuse that every one does it1 or that the company can afford to lose it4 ,but in more public matters the prevalence of untruthfulness is much more shocking4 ,standards are low or unformulated1 and it is often extremely difficult for the honorable man to know what to do2 strict truthfulness would deprive him of his position4 ,we may barely hint at some of these situations4 7#a7 ,in business1 misstatement is generally expected of a salesman4 ,advertisements of bargains1 for example1 have to be discounted by the wary shopper4 #aj value1 reduced to #c4ih1 may mean something worth really #c4 ,finest quality may mean average quality2 goods passed off as first-class may be shoddy or adulterated4 ,labels on foodstuffs and drugs are1 happily1 controlled to some degree by the national government2 there ought to be a similar control over all advertising4 ,much is being done by the better magazines in investigating goods and refusing untruthful advertising2 and many houses have built up a deserved reputation for reliability4 ,but still the economical householder has to spend much time in comparing prices and studying values1 that he may be sure he is not being cheated4 7#b7 ,in politics1 frank truth telling is almost rare4 ,it is deemed necessary to suppress what sounds unfavorable to a candidate's chances1 to make unfair insinuations against opponents1 to juggle statistics1 emphasize half-truths1 and work generally for the party by fair means or foul4 ,too great candor in admitting the truth in opponents' arguments or the worth of their candidates would be sharply reprimanded by party leaders4 ,especially in international diplomacy is truthfulness far to seek4 ,secretary ,hay1 indeed1 stated in the following words3 ,the principles which have guided us have been of limpid simplicity4 ,we have set no traps2 we have wasted no time in evading the imaginary traps of others4 ,there might be worse reputations for a country to acquire than that of always speaking the truth1 and always expecting it from others4 ,in bargaining we have tried not to get the worst of the deal1 alway remembering1 however1 that the best bargains are those that satisfy both sides4 ,let us hope we may never be big enough to outgrow our conscience4 ,other ,american diplomats have followed the same ideal4 ,but ,american diplomacy has been labeled abroad as crude1 and is perpetually in danger of lapsing from this moral level4 7#c7 ,the profession of the lawyer presents peculiarly difficult problems4 ,may he so manipulate the facts in his plea as to convince a jury of what he is himself not convinced8 ,may he by use of the argumentum ad populum1 by his eloquence and skill1 win a case which he does not believe in at heart8 ,in some ancient codes lawyers had to swear not to defend causes which they believed unjust4 ,but this is hardly fair to a client1 since1 even though appearances are against him1 he may be innocent2 whatever can be said for him should be discovered and presented to the tribunal4 ,dr4 ,johnson said3 ,you are not to deceive your client with false representations of your opinion1 you are not to tell lies to the judge1 but you need have no scruple about taking up a case which you believe to be bad1 or affecting a warmth which you do not feel4 ,you do not know your cause to be bad till the judge determines it4 ,an argument which does not convince you may convince the judge1 and1 if it does convince him1 you are wrong and he is right4 ,footnote3 ,quoted by ,w4 ,e4 ,h4 ,lecky1 ,the ,map of ,life1 p4 #aaj4 ,the chapter which contains this quotation gives an interesting discussion of the ethics of the lawyer and some further references on the subject4 ,this dilemma of the lawyer could be matched by equally doubtful situations that confront the physician1 ,footnote3 ,see1 for a discussion of the ethics of the medical profession1 ,g4 ,bernard ,shaw1 ,preface to ,the ,doctor's ,dilemma1 and ,b4 ,j4 ,hendrick1 ,the ,new ,medical ,ethics1 in ,mc,clure's ,magazine1 vol4 #db1 p4 #aag4 and members of the other professions4 ,there is need of acknowledged professional codes1 drawn up by representative members1 and enforced by public opinion within the profession and perhaps by the danger of expulsion from membership in the professional associations4 ,it is largely the variation in practice between equally conscientious members that causes the distrust and disorder of our present situation4 ,truthfulness must be standardized for the professions4 ,footnote3 ,on professional codes1 see ,h4 ,jeffs1 ,concerning ,conscience1 chap4 ,,viii4 7#d7 ,the author1 whether of books or essays or reviews1 has to face particularly powerful temptations4 ,it is so easy to overstate his case1 to omit facts that make against his conclusions1 to use colored words1 to beg the question adroitly1 to create prejudice by unfair epithets1 to evade difficult questions1 to take the popular side of a debated matter at the cost of loyalty to truth4 ,controversy almost inevitably breeds inaccuracy2 there are few writers who fight fair4 ,quotations1 torn from their context1 mislead2 carefully chosen figures give a wrong impression2 the reviewer is tempted to pick out passages that support only his contention1 whether eulogistic or depreciatory4 ,leslie ,stephen speaks of the ease with which a man endowed with a gift of popular rhetoric1 and a facility for catching at the current phrases1 can set up as teacher1 however palpable to the initiated may be his ignorance4 ,a larger proportion of the great mass of books yearly published are mere trash1 appealing to untrained readers1 and only confirming them in unwarranted beliefs and opinions4 ,few there are who are really fit to teach the public2 and of those there are fewer still who love truth more than the triumph of their opinion1 who are candid1 scrupulous1 and exact in their statements4 ,there is doubtless little conscious deception2 but there is a great deal of misstatement which is inexcusable1 and due either to slovenliness1 lack of proper training1 or partisanship4 ,this brings us to the similar and even graver evils in our modern newspapers1 which we must pause to study in somewhat greater detail4 ,for nowhere is untruthfulness so rampant and so shameless as in contemporary journalism4 ,the ethics of journalism4 7#a7 ,the gravest evil1 perhaps1 in journalistic practice is the suppression or distortion of news in the interest of political parties and big business4 ,it is impossible to rely on the political information given in most of our newspapers2 they are dominated by a party1 subservient to the interests1 afraid to publish anything that will offend them4 ,they misrepresent facts1 give prejudiced accounts of events1 gloss over occurrences unfavorable to their ends1 circulate unfounded rumors to create opinion1 pounce upon every flaw in the records of opponents1- going often to the point of shameless libel1- while eulogizing indiscriminately the politicians of their own party4 ,many of them cannot be counted on to attack corruption or politically protected vice4 ,they are organs neither of an impartial truth seeking nor of public service4 ,however conscientious the reporters and editors might wish to be1 they are bound1 by the fear of dismissal1 to follow the policy of the owners4 7#b7 ,no less reprehensible1 though somewhat less important1 is the toadying of the newspapers to their advertisers4 ,the average paper could not exist were it not for this source of income1 and it cannot afford to refuse the big advertisements even when they are pernicious to the morals or health of the community4 ,so we are confronted daily by the premedicine fakirs1 who injure the health and drain the pocketbooks of the guileless4 ,so we are exposed to the plausible suggestions of the swindlers1 feasted with glowing prospectuses of mines that will never yield a dividend1 or eulogistic descriptions of house lots to be sacrificed at a price that is really double their worth4 ,in a recent postal raid the financial frauds exposed had fleeced the public of nearly eighty million dollars1 about a third of which had been spent in advertising4 ,not only do the newspapers accept such advertisements1 and those of the brewers1 the cigarette-makers1 and the proprietors of vile theaters1 but they do not dare in their columns to denounce these frauds or undesirable trades4 ,they are muzzled because they cannot afford to tell the truth when it will offend those who supply their revenue4 7#c7 ,less harmful1 but more superficially conspicuous1 is the tendency toward the fabrication of imaginary news1 to attract attention and sell the paper4 ,huge headlines announce some exciting event1 which below is inconspicuously acknowledged to be but a rumor4 ,it will be denied the next day in an obscure corner1 while the front page is devoted to some new sensation4 ,this yellow journalism is very irritating to one who cares more for facts than for thrills2 and the more reputable newspapers have stood out against this disgraceful habit of their less scrupulous rivals4 ,mr4 ,pulitzer1 the son of the famous editor of the ,new ,york ,world1 in an address at the opening of the ,columbia ,university ,school of ,journalism1 spoke vehemently against this evil3 ,the newspaper which sells the public deliberate fakes instead of facts is selling adulterated goods just as surely as does the rascal who puts salicylic acid in canned meats or arsenical coloring in preserves2 and it ought to be subject to the same penalties for adulteration as are these other adulterators4 ,the fakir is a liar if he is guilty of a fake that injures people1 he is not only a vicious liar but often a moral assassin as well2 but in either event he is a liar1 and it is only by treating him uncompromisingly as such that he may be corrected if he is not yet a confirmed fakir1 or rooted out if he is an inveterate fakir4 ,there is surely enough1 for those who have eyes to see1 that is dramatic and exciting in actual life without depending upon fictitious news4 ,chesterton berates the contemporary press for failing to give us the thrill of reality4 ,it offends as being not sensational or violent enough2 4 4 4 does not merely fail to exaggerate life-it positively underrates it4 ,with the whole world full of big and dubious institutions1 with the whole wickedness of civilization staring them in the face1 their idea of being bold and bright is to attack the ,war ,office4 4 4 4 ,something which is an old joke in fourth-rate comic papers4 ,footnote3 ,the ,mildness of the ,yellow ,press1 chap4 ,,viii of ,heretics4 7#d7 ,another danger of our irresponsible journalism lies in pandering to prejudices and antipathies1 in stirring up class hatred or national jingoism4 ,evil motives are attributed to foreign powers2 the ,german ,emperor has designs upon ,south ,america2 the ,japanese are preparing to invade our ,pacific ,coast4 ,insignificant words of individuals are headlined and treated as portentous2 foreign peoples are caricatured2 our national honor is held to be in danger daily4 ,or the capitalists are pictured as universally fat and greedy and unscrupulous2 anarchism is encouraged-as in the case of the murderer of ,mc,kinley1 who was directly incited to his deed by the violent diatribes of a contemporary newspaper4 ,such demagoguery might flourish even with strict regard for truthfulness2 but it becomes far worse when1 as usual1 in its appeal to popular prejudices1 it exaggerates and invents and suppresses facts4 7#e7 ,the notorious emphasis upon crime and summary of journalistic evils4 ,every unpleasant fact that ought1 from kindness to those concerned and from regard to the morals of the readers1 to be ignored or passed lightly over1 is instead dragged out into the light4 ,the delight in besmirching supposedly respectable citizens1 the brutal intrusion into private unhappiness1 the detailed description of domestic tragedy1 is nothing short of outrageous4 ,pictures of adulterers and murderers1 of the instruments and scenes of crimes1 precise instructions to the uninitiated for their commission1 explanations of the success of burglary or train-wreckers1 help marvelously to sell a paper1 but do not help the morals of the younger generation4 ,no one can estimate the amount of sexual stimulation1 of suggestion to sin and vice1 for which our newspapers are responsible4 7#f7 ,in conclusion1 we may mention a trivial matter which1 however1 brings our newspapers into deserved disrepute-their self-laudation ad boasting4 ,how many greatest ,american newspapers are there8 ,there are even1 in this country alone1 more than one ,world's greatest newspaper6 ,from this principle of conceit there are all gradations down to the humblest village paper that lies about its circulation and extols itself as the necessary adjunct of every home4 ,these overstatements are pernicious in their influence upon public standards of accuracy and honesty4 ,the newspaper is potentially an instrument of incalculable good4 ,no other influence upon the minds and morals of the people is so continuous and universal4 ,through the newspapers knowledge is disseminated1 judgment and outlook upon life are crystallized1 political and social beliefs are shaped4 ,they might be the means of great social and moral reforms4 ,but so long as they are subject to the struggle for existence which1 necessitates their truckling to parties1 to advertisers1 and to public prejudices and passions1 so long their influence will be largely unwholesome4 ,if public opinion cannot force them to a higher moral level in their present status as sources of private profit1 they must be published by the ,state or by trustees of an endowment fund4 ,municipally owned papers are liable to partisanship and corruption1 in their way1 and endowed papers to an undue regard for the interests of the class to which the majority of the trustees may belong4 ,but the dangers would probably be far less than are inherent in our present system1 where morals have to defer to pocketbooks2 and when municipal government in this country is finally ordered in a sensible way1 so that corruption is much more difficult and easily detected1 the municipal newspaper1 run after the city manager plan1 will probably become universal4 ,f4 ,paulsen1 ,system of ,ethics1 book ,,iii1 chap4 ,,xi4 ,l4 ,stephen1 ,science of ,ethics1 chap1 ,v1 sec4 ,,iv4 ,c4 ,f4 ,dole1 ,ethics of ,progress1 part ,,vii1 chaps1 ,i1 ,,ii4 ,e4 ,l4 ,cabot1 ,everyday ,ethics1 chaps4 ,,xix1 ,,xx4 ,t4 ,k4 ,abbott1 ,kant's ,theory of ,ethics1 ,appendix ,i4 ,stevenson1 ,virginibus ,puerisque1 chap4 ,,iv4 ,e4 ,westermarck1 ,origin and ,development of ,moral ,ideas1 chap4 ,,xxxi4 ,k4 ,f4 ,gerould1 in ,atlantic ,monthly1 vol4 #aab1 p4 #ded4 ,ethics of ,journalism3 ,h4 ,holt1 ,commercialism and ,journalism4 ,h4 ,george1 ,jr1 ,the ,menace of ,privilege1 book ,,vii1 chap4 ,i4 ,w4 ,e4 ,weyl1 ,the ,new ,democracy1 chap4 ,,ix4 ,educational ,review1 vol4 #cf1 p4 #aba4 ,atlantic ,monthly1 vol4 #ajb1 p4 #dda2 vol4 #aje1 p4 #cjc2 vol4 #ajf1 p4 #dj2 vol4 #aac1 p4 #bhi4 ,forum1 vol4 #ea1 p4 #efe4 ,e4 ,a4 ,ross1 ,changing ,america1 chap4 ,,vii4 ,north ,american ,review1 vol4 #aij1 p4 #ehg4 ,,chapter ,,xx ,,culture ,,and ,,art ,,the function of the newspaper1 which we have been discussing1 is1 to a considerable extent1 to widen our horizon1 to give us new ideas and sympathies1 to enrich and brighten our lives2 in greater degree1 that is the role of the fine arts1 and of that wide conversance with beauty and truth that we call culture4 ,man is not a mere worker1 and efficiency is not the only test of value2 the pursuit of truth and beauty for its own sake is a legitimate human ideal4 ,but beauty1 as we have seen1 brings temptations2 and even the search for truth may lure a man away from his duty4 ,we must consider1 then1 how far culture1 and its outward expression in art1 may rightly claim the time and energies of man4 ,what is the value of culture and art8 7#a7 ,culture1 according to ,matthew ,arnold1 ,footnote3 ,culture and ,anarchy1 ,preface1 and chap4 ,i4 is the disinterested endeavor after man's perfection 4 4 4 4 ,it is in endless additions to itself1 in the endless expansion of its powers1 in endless growth in wisdom and beauty that the spirit of the human race finds its ideal4 ,this wisdom1 this beauty that culture offers us1 does not need extrinsic justification2 it is1 as ,emerson so happily said1 its own excuse for being2 it is a fragment of the ideal2 and it means that life has in so far been solved1 its goal attained4 ,it is in itself a great addition to the worth1 the richness and joy1 of life1 and it is a pledge to the heart of the possibility of the ideal1 a realization of that perfection for which we long and strive4 ,it means a multiplication of interests1 a participation by proxy in the throbbing life of mankind1 which lifts us above the disappointments of our personal fortunes1 helps us to identify ourselves with the larger currents of life1 and to live as citizens of the world4 ,a limitless resource against ennui1 it refreshes1 rests1 and recreates1 relieves the tension of our working hours1 makes for health and sanity4 ,if a man find himself with bread in both hands1 said ,mohammed1 he should exchange one loaf for some flowers of the narcissus1 since the loaf feeds the body1 indeed1 but the flowers feed the soul4 ,there is in certain quarters a tendency to disparage culture as not practical- a spirit of cultivated inaction -unworthy of the attention of serious men4 ,the word connotes1 perhaps1 to these critics certain superficial polite accomplishments1 mere frills and decorations1 which fritter away our time and dissipate our ambitions4 ,but in its proper sense1 culture is far more than that2 it is the comprehension of the meaning of life and the appreciation of its beauty4 ,and grim as is the age-long struggle with evil1 insistent as is the duty to toil and suffer and achieve1 it were a harsh taskmaster who should refuse to poor driven men and women the right to snatch such innocent joys as they can by the way1 to try to understand the whirl of existence in which they are caught2 in short1 to really live1 as well as to earn a living4 ,it would be a sorry outcome if when we reached the age of complete mechanical efficiency1 with all the machinery of a complex industrial life well oiled and perfected1 we should find ourselves imaginatively sterile1 hopelessly utilitarian1 earthbound in our vision4 7#b7 ,but the moralist need not rest with this apology for culture4 ,by helping us to understand the life about us1 culture shows us the better how to solve our own problems1 and saves us from the tragedy of putting our energies into fiction1 poetry1 and the drama give us an insight into the longings1 the temptations1 the ideals of others1 and so indirectly into our own hearts4 ,thus a normal perspective of values is fostered2 we come to learn what is base and what is excellent1 and have our eyes opened to the inferior nature of that with which we had before been content4 ,there is a pathos in the ignorance of the uncultivated man as to what is good4 ,give him money to spend and he will buy tawdry furniture and imitation jewelry1 he will go to vulgar shows and read cheap and silly trash4 ,he is unaware of what the best things are1 and unable to spend his money in such a way as really to improve his mind1 his health1 or his happiness4 ,even in his vocation he could be helped by a background of culture2 the college graduate outstrips the uneducated man who has had several years the start of him4 ,and no one can tell how many an undeveloped genius there may be1 now working at some humble and routine task1 who might have contributed much to the world if his mental horizon had been widened and his latent powers unfolded4 ,knowledge is power2 we never know what bit of apparently useless insight may find application in our own lives and help us to solve our personal problems4 7#c7 ,moreover1 culture is not only informative1 it is inspirational4 ,history and biography fire the youth with a noble spirit of emulation2 poetry1 fiction1 and the drama1 and to some extent music1 painting1 and sculpture1 arouse the emotions and direct them-if the art is good-into proper channels4 ,meunier's sculptured figures1 ,millet's ,angelus or ,man with the ,hoe1 the oratorio of the ,messiah or a national song like the ,marseillaise1 have a stirring and ennobling effect upon the soul2 while such a poem as ,moody's ,ode in ,time of ,hesitation1 a story like ,dickens's ,christmas ,carol1 or a play like ,the ,servant in efficacious than many a sermon4 ,the study of any art has a refining influence1 teaching exactness and restraint1 proportion1 measure1 discipline4 ,and in any case1 if no more could be said1 art and culture substitute innocent joys and excitements for dangerous ones1 satisfy the craving for sense-enjoyment by providing natural outlets and developing normal powers1 thus tending to check its crude and unwholesome manifestations4 ,in these ways they are valuable moral forces1 whose usefulness we ought not to neglect4 7#d7 ,culture socializes4 ,it adds to our competitive life1 to our personal ambitions and self-seeking1 an unselfish pleasure1 a pleasure which we can share with all1 and which needs to be shared to be best enjoyed4 ,nothing binds men together more joyously and with less likelihood of friction than their common love of the beautiful4 ,all classes and all peoples1 men of whatever trade or interests1 may learn to love the same scarlet of dawn1 the same stir and heave of the sea1 that ,homer loved and fixed in winged words for all men of all time4 ,from whatever land we come we may thrill to the words of ,english ,shakespeare or ,florentine ,dante1 to the chords of ,german ,wagner and ,italian ,verdi1 to the colors of ,raphael and ,murillo1 to the noble thoughts of ,athenian ,plato1 ,roman ,marcus ,aurelius1 and ,russian ,tolstoy4 ,our opinions differ1 our interests diverge1 our aims often cross2 but in the presence of high truth and beauty1 fitly expressed1 our differences are forgotten and we are conscious of our essential unity4 ,prejudices and provincialisms crumble1 personal eccentricities fade1 barriers are broken1 all sorts of fanaticisms and frictions are choked off1 under the influence of a widespread cultural education4 ,what is most important in cultural education8 ,wisdom and beauty are vague words2 and to make our discussion practical we must indicate what in the ideal curriculum4 ,it is a matter of relative values1 since nearly every study is of some worth2 and the detailed decision as to subjects and methods must be left to the expert on pedagogy4 ,but to present the general needs that education must meet falls within our province4 ,in addition1 then1 to the particular vocational education which is to fit each man for his specific task1 in addition to that physical development which must always go hand in hand with intellectual growth1 in addition to that moral-religious training and that preparation for parenthood1 of which we shall later speak1 we may mention three important ideals to be grouped under our general conception of culture4 7#a7 ,first1 we must have ,,knowledge of the world we live in -not so much masses of facts as a comprehension of principles1 insight into relations and tendencies4 ,a man should be at home upon the earth2 he should be able to call the stars by name1 to realize something of the immensities by which this spinning planet is surrounded1 and to see in every landscape a portion of the wrinkled1 water-eroded surface of the globe4 ,he should see this apparently solid sphere as a whirl of atoms1 and come face to face with the old puzzles of matter and mind4 ,he should be able to trace in imagination the growth of stellar systems2 the history of our own earth2 the evolution of plant and animal life1 from the first protoplasmic nuclei to the mammoth and mastodon2 the emergence of man from brute hood into self-consciousness1 his triumph over nature and the other animals1 and his achievement of civilization4 ,he should watch primitive man wrestling with problems as yet partly unsolved1 see him gradually establishing law and order1 inventing and discovering1 mastering his fate4 ,he should follow the floods and ebbs of progress1 the rise and fall of nations1 know the great names of history and have for friends humanity's saints and heroes4 ,he should be at home in ancient ,israel1 in classic ,greece1 in ,rome of the ,republic1 in ,italy of the ,renaissance1 especially in the early days of our own land1 learning to comprehend and sympathize with the struggles and ideals that have made our nation what it is4 ,he should understand the clash of creeds and codes1 follow the thoughts of ,plato1 of ,bacon1 of ,emerson1 and grasp the essence of the problems that now confront us4 ,what dangers lie before us1 what the great statesmen and reformers are aiming at1 what are the meaning and use of our institutions1 our government1 our laws1 our morals1 our religion - here is a hint of the knowledge that every man who comes into the world should amass4 ,to know less than this is to be only half alive1 and unable to fulfill properly the duties of citizenship4 ,widespread ignorance of the larger social1 moral1 political1 religious problems of the day1 is ominous to the ,republic2 and it is impossible to understand aright without a background of history and theory4 ,the aim of the schools should be to give not only some detailed information but a structural sense of life as a whole1 a sane perspective2 and to inspire an enthusiasm for intellectual things which shall outlast the early years of schooling4 ,the few facts imparted should suggest the vast fields beyond1 and stir youth to that passion for truth which shall lead to ever-new vistas and farther horizons4 7#b7 ,but the most encyclopedic acquaintance with facts1 or even with principles1 is not enough2 ,,training ,,to ,,think ,,accurately1 to reason logically1 so as to arrive at valid conclusions and be able to discriminate sound from unsound arguments in others1 is vitally necessary4 ,with new and intricate problems continually confronting us1 we need the temper that observes with exactness1 and without prejudice or passion1 that judges truly1 that thinks clearly1 and forms independent convictions4 ,there has been in our educational system an overemphasis on the acquirement of facts1 a natural result of our modern dependence upon books2 too much is accepted on authority1 too little thought out at first hand4 ,we must banish the idolatry of knowledge1 as ,ruskin exhorted1 and realize that calling out thought and strengthening the mind are an entirely different and higher process from the putting in of knowledge and the heaping up of facts4 ,we have many well-informed scholars to one clear and reliable thinker2 the world is full of books1 widely read and applauded1 in which the trained mind detects false premises1 fallacious reasoning1 unwarranted conclusions4 ,when the public is really educated1 these superficially plausible arguments will not be heeded1 these appeals to the prejudices and emotions of the reader will not be tolerated2 a stricter standard of logic will be demanded1 and we shall be by so much the nearer a solution of our perplexing problems4,footnote3 ,this mental training can be given not merely by a specific course in logic1 but by an insistence on exactness and the critical spirit in every study4 ,it is particularly easy to cultivate this temper in scientific study4 ,so ,karl ,pearson1 for example1 pleads for more science in our schools3 ,it is the want of impersonal judgment1 of scientific method1 and of accurate insight into facts1 a want largely due to a non-scientific training1 which renders clear thinking so rare1 and random and irresponsible judgments so common in the mass of our citizens today4 7,grammar of ,science1 ,introductory47 ,cf4 ,emerson1 ,education1 in ,lectures and ,biographies3 ,it is better to teach the child arithmetic and ,latin grammar than rhetoric or moral philosophy1 because they require exactitude of performance2 it is made certain that the lesson is mastered1 and that power of performance is worth more than the knowledge4 ,there is in our modern get-knowledge-easy methods a grave danger of letting the child absorb wisdom so comfortably1 so almost unconsciously1 that its wits shall not be sharpened to grapple with fallacies1 to refute specious arguments1 and to find their way through a chaos of facts to a correct conclusion4 ,by way of contrast with these pleas for science1 the student should read ,arnold's argument for the superiority of literature1 in the address on ,literature and ,science included in ,discourses in ,america4 ,we may include under our ideal of clear thought1 the ability to use clearly and efficiently the language by which the steps and conclusions of thought are formulated and expressed4 ,thought proceeds1 where it is precise and logical1 by words2 unless a man's vocabulary is wide1 unless his understanding of the language is exact1 his thoughts must inevitably be vague and muddled4 ,moreover1 he will be unable to transmit his thoughts clearly and readily to others4 ,the most important tool for the carrying on of life is- language2 the slovenliness and inadequacy of the average man's speech is a sad commentary on our boasted educational system4 7#c7 ,wide information and a trained mind must be supplemented by a ,,sound ,,taste4 ,to love excellence everywhere1 to appreciate the good and the beautiful in every phase of life1 should be the third1 and possibly most important1 aim of cultural education4 ,it is1 at least1 the prime function of art4 ,art informs us of life1 its pursuit trains in precision and judgment2 but above all1 it opens our eyes to beauty4 ,the man who is versed in the work of the masters can never after be content with the ugliness and squalor that our industrial civilization continually tends to increase4 ,he has caught the vision of beauty1 and must strive to shape his environment toward that high ideal4 ,the artist sees what we had not learned to see2 by isolating and perfecting this bit of the ideal1 he directs our attention to it and teaches us to love it4 ,no one can feel the spell of a landscape by ,corot or ,innes without delighting more deeply in such scenes in the outdoor world2 no one can live long in the atmosphere of ,greek art without longing for such a body and such a poise of spirit4 ,we are not accustomed to look at nature1 or at man1 with observing eyes1 to see the richness of color in sun-kissed meadows or humming city streets1 the infinite variations of light and shade1 the depth of distance1 the charm of line and composition4 ,the picturesque is everywhere about us1 undiscerned and unloved4 ,so us the marvelous varieties in human character and circumstance1 the humor and dignity and pathos of life4 ,literature and art1 by revealing to us unsuspected possibilities of beauty1 breed a healthy discontent with ugliness and urge us on to its banishment4 ,the ultimate aim of art should be to make life beautiful in every nook and corner1 to elevate the humdrum working days of common men by fair and sunny surroundings1 to make manners gentle and gracious1 speech melodious and refined1 homes1 pleasant and restful4 ,but art has a further function4 ,however beautiful and harmonious our lives1 they are at best confined within narrow boundaries2 and the lover of beauty will always rejoice in the glimpses which art affords into an ideal realm beyond his daily horizon4 ,he will gaze eagerly at the masterpieces of color and form that he cannot have forever about him1 he will enrich his imagination with the great scenes of drama1 he will solace his soul with the cadenced lines of poetry and the melody of music1 he will live with the heroes of fiction for a day1 and return to his work ennobled and sweetened by the contact with these forms of excellence which lie beyond the bounds of his own outward life4 ,in two ways the fine arts add to the preexisting beauty in a man's life3 by representing to him beautiful scenes and objects which he cannot enjoy in themselves1 because he cannot go where they are1 and by creating from the artist's imagination a new universe of emotions and satisfactions1 congenial to the human spirit and full of a refined and pure joy4 ,what dangers are there in culture and art for life8 ,we must now glance at the other side of the picture4 ,enormous as are the potentialities for good in culture and art1 they also have their perils4 7#a7 ,culture and art must not take time1 energy1 or money that is needed for work4 ,achievement necessitates concentration and sacrifice2 beauty must not beguile men away from service4 ,footnote3 ,cf4 what ,pater says of ,winckelmann 7,the ,renaissance1 p4 #aie73 ,the development of his force was the single interest of ,winckelmann1 unembarrassed by anything else in him4 ,other interests1 practical or intellectual1 those slighter motives and talents not supreme1 which in most men are the waste part of nature1 and drain away their vitality1 he plucked out and cast from him4 ,the boys and girls who squander health in their eagerness to explore the new worlds opening before them1 the older folk who give a disproportionate share of their time and money to music or the theater1 the voracious readers who pore over every new novel and magazine without really assimilating and using what they read1 are turning what ought to be recreation or inspiration into dissipation1 and thereby seriously impairing their efficiency4 ,it is so much easier to read something new than to meditate fruitfully upon what one has read1 to pass from picture to picture in a gallery and win no genuine insight from any4 ,a single great book thoroughly mastered-the ,bible1 ,homer1 ,shakespeare-were better for a man than the superficial skimming of many1 one beautiful picture well loved than a hundred idly glanced at and labeled with some trite comment4 ,too many of the upper class1 for whom limitless cultural opportunities are open1 dabble in everything1 know names and schools1 repeat glibly the current phrases of criticism1 but miss the lesson1 the clarification of insight1 the vision of the author or artist4 ,such superficial culture is a futile expenditure of time and money4 ,footnote3 ,for an arraignment of the money thrown away on modern decadent art1 see ,tolstoy's ,what is ,art8 chapter ,i4 ,in this connection we must mention the waste of time over what ,arnold called instrument knowledge4 ,years are spent by most upper-class boys and girls in half-learning several languages which they will never use1 in acquiring the technique of the piano1 or of some other art which they will never learn to practice with proficiency4 ,there is1 to be sure1 a certain mental training in all this1 but no more than can be found in more useful studies4 ,a foreign language is essentially a tool for carrying on conversation with its users1 or for utilizing the literature written therein2 the technique of an art is a tool for producing or copying beautiful forms of that art4 ,and except as these tools are actually so utilized1 the time spent on learning to handle them might better be otherwise occupied4 7#b7 ,more than this1 cultural interests may fritter away in passive and useless thrills the emotions and energies that ought to stimulate moral and practical activity4 ,it is so easy1 where there is money enough to live on1 to let one's faculties become absorbed in the fascinations of study1 without applying it to practice2 to enjoy the relatively complete attainment possible in the fine arts1 and keep out of the dust and chaos and ugliness of real life4 ,or1 when the student or art-lover does return to realities1 after his absorption in some dream-world1 there is danger that he carry over into actual moral situations his habit of passive contemplation1 that he be content to remain a spectator instead of plunging in and taking sides4 ,he has learned to enjoy the spectacle-sin1 suffering1 and all-and lost the primitive reaction of protest against evils1 of practical response to needs1 and the impulse to realize ideals in conduct4 ,thus culture and art may relax human energy or scatter it in trivial accomplishments2 the dilettante spends his days in dreaming rather than in doing4 ,footnote3 ,cf4 ,william ,james1 ,psychology1 vol4 ,i1 pp4 #abe-bf3 ,every time a fine glow of feeling evaporates without bearing practical fruit is worse than a chance lost2 it works so as positively to hinder future emotions from taking the normal path of discharge4 ,there is no more contemptible type of human ,footnote continued from ,page #bfi character than that of the nerveless sentimentalist and dreamer1 who spends his life in a weltering sea of sensibility and emotion1 but who never does a manly concrete deed4 4 4 4 ,the habit of excessive novel reading and theater going will produce true monsters in this line4 ,the weeping of a ,russian lady over the fictitious personages in the play1 while her coachman is freezing to death on his seat outside1 is the sort of thing that everywhere happens on a less glaring scale4 ,even the habit of excessive indulgence in music1 for those who are neither performers themselves nor musically gifted enough to take it in a purely intellectual way1 has probably a relaxing effect upon the character4 ,one becomes filled with emotions which habitually pass without prompting to any deed1 and so the inertly sentimental condition is kept up4 ,the remedy would be1 never to suffer one's self to have an emotion at a concert1 without expressing it afterward in some active way4 ,let the expression be the least thing in the world-speaking genially to one's aunt1 or giving up one's seat in a horse-car1 if nothing more heroic offers-but let it not fail to take place4 ,professor ,james also refers in this connection to an interesting paper by ,vida ,scudder in the ,andover ,review for ,january1 #ahhg1 on ,musical ,devotees and ,morals4 7#c7 ,graver still1 however1 is the risk of the overstimulation of certain dangerous emotions4 ,the artistic temperament is notoriously prone to reckless self- indulgence2 the continual seeking of the immediately satisfying tends to weaken the powers of restraint4 ,artists and poets1 and those who immerse themselves constantly in the pleasures of sense1 tend to chafe under the dull repressions of morality and crave ever-new forms of excitement4 ,art is an emotional stimulant2 and unless the emotions aroused are harnessed in the service of morality1 they are apt to run amuck4 ,artists and authors often take to drink1 and almost always have to meet exceptional sexual temptations4 ,the most beautiful forms of art are those which have the element of sex interest1 and the general emotional susceptibility of the creator or lover of beauty makes the sex emotion particularly inflammable4 ,other emotions also may be unwisely stimulated by art4 ,in times of international friction1 war-songs1 patriotic speeches1 or martial processions may arouse an unreasoning jingo spirit4 ,the love of deviltry is fostered in boys by many of the penny novels1 by sensational movies and newspaper stories2 a famous detective has said that seventy per cent of the crimes committed by boys under twenty are traceable to suggestions received from these sources4 ,should art be censored in the interests of morality8 ,art1 then1 with its vast potentialities of both good and harm1 needs supervision in the interests of human welfare4 ,the motto1 ,art for art's sake1 should not be taken to mean that what is detrimental to human life must be tolerated1 just because it is art4 ,there is1 indeed1 this truth in the adage1 that art does not need to have a moral or practical use to justify its existence4 ,it may be merely pleasant1 serving no end beyond the enjoyment of the moment4 ,but it must not be harmful4 ,it is but one of the many interests in life1 and must be judged1 like any other interest1 in the light of the greatest total good4 ,we cannot say1 ,work for work's sake1 ,education for education's sake2 not even1 ,morality for morality's sake2 it is work1 education1 morality1 for the sake of the ultimately happiest human life4 ,the moralist must not despise forms of art which have no ulterior1 utilitarian value2 but he must insist that no enjoyment of art is really1 in the long run1 good for man which influences his life in the unwholesome ways we have indicated4 ,since morality is that way of life that gives it its greatest worth1 indulgence in art at the expense of morality is seizing an immediate but lesser good at the expense of an ultimately greater good4 ,practically1 however1 the censorship of art is the most delicate of matters1 because the influence of the same work of art on one person may be widely different from its effect upon another4 ,a play or a picture that pleases or even inspires one spectator may be disastrous to his neighbor4 ,and it is always difficult to decide between the claims of an immediate good and the warnings of dangers that may lurk therein4 ,but we universally acknowledge the duty of some censorship1 by prohibiting the most openly tempting pictures1 plays1 and literature4 ,and there can be no doubt that this supervision should be carried further than it now is4 ,the most pressing contemporary problem is that concerning the stage4 ,footnote3 ,see ,j4 ,addams1 ,the ,spirit of ,youth and the ,city ,streets1 chap4 ,,iv4 ,p4 ,mac,kaye1 ,the ,civic ,theatre in ,relation to the ,redemption of ,leisure4 ,h4 ,munsterberg1 ,psychology and ,social ,sanity1 pp4 #bg-dc4 ,j4 ,h4 ,coffin1 ,the ,socialized ,conscience1 pp4 #acj-da4 ,outlook1 vol4 #ib1 p4 #aaj2 vol4 #aja1 p4 #dib2 vol4 #ajg1 p4 #dab4 ,atlantic ,monthly1 vol4 #hi1 p4 #dig2 vol4 #ajg1 p4 #cej4 ,any number of boys and girls owe their undoing to the influences of the theater4 ,no other form of art now tolerated so frequently overstimulates the sex instinct4 ,the scant costumes permitted1 with their conscious endeavor to reveal the feminine form as alluringly as possible1 the voluptuous dances and ballets1 the jokes1 stories1 and suggestive gestures1 and often the low moral tone of the play1 making light of sacred matters and encouraging lax ideas on sex relations1 are powerful excitants4 ,many theaters frankly pander to the desire for such stimulation2 and they are crowded4 ,for while human nature remains as it is1 the young will flock whither they can find sex excitement4 ,scarcely less dangerous are the magazines and books that by their pictures and their stories play up to this eternal instinct4 ,even painters in oils often use this drawing card2 the ,paris salons have always a considerable sprinkling of nudes1 in all sorts of voluptuous attitudes1 making a frank appeal to desire4 ,french literature abounds in books1 some of great literary merit1 that exploit this aspect of human nature2 but in every tongue there are the ,boccaccios and the ,byrons4 ,plato found this problem in planning his ideal republic1 and decreed that all voluptuous and tempting art must be banished4 ,we are rightly unwilling to sacrifice beauty and enjoyment to so great an extent2 such ,puritanism inevitably provokes reaction1 besides sadly impoverishing life4 ,the feminine form1 at its best1 is exquisitely lovely2 and a perfect nude is one of the most beautiful things in the world4 ,footnote3 ,on the moral problem of the nude in art1 see ,atlantic ,monthly1 vol4 #hh1 pp4 #bhf1 #heh4 ,how we shall retain this beauty to enrich our lives while avoiding the overstimulation of an already dangerously dominant instinct1 is a problem whose gravity we can but indicate without presuming to offer a satisfactory solution4 ,what can emphatically be said is that artists must subordinate themselves to the welfare of life as a whole4 ,and this is not so great a loss1 for only that art is of the deepest beauty which expresses noble and wholesome feelings4 ,the trouble with the artist is apt to be that he becomes so absorbed in the solution of the practical difficulties attendant upon his art that he cares primarily for triumphs of technique1 irrespective of the worth of the feelings which that technique is to express4 ,indeed1 there is actually a sort of scorn of beauty in certain studies and studios2 the literary or artistic point of view is taken to mean a regard only for skill of execution1 rather than for that beauty of whose realization the skill should be but the means4 ,there is1 indeed1 a beauty of words and rhythms1 of brushwork1 of modeling2 but if the poet does not love beautiful thoughts and acts1 no verbal power can make his product great2 and if the artist paints trivial or vulgar subjects he wastes his genius4 ,too much poetry that is sensual1 flippant1 drearily pessimistic1 morbid1 or obscure1 is included in anthologies because cleverly wrought1 with a sense for form and cadence4 ,too many stories1 too many pictures1 are applauded by critics1 though in subject and tone they are contemptible4 ,as proofs of human skill these works may excite such admiration as we give to a juggler's feats2 as practice in handling a stubborn medium they may be valuable4 ,but the artist who does not have a sane and high sense of what is really noble and beautiful in life prostitutes the talents by which he ought to serve the world4 ,often one feels as ,emerson felt when he wrote of another1 ,i say to him1 if ,i could write as well as you1 ,i would write a good deal better4 ,the bald truth is that artists are seldom competent to be final judges of art2 they are too much behind the scenes1 concerned too constantly with problems of method4 ,the final judgment as to beauty can come only from one who combines a delicate appreciation of technique with a wide insight into life and a sane perspective of its values4 ,for lack of such a criticism of art1 the average man wanders distracted through our art-museums1 with their hodge-podge of beautiful and ugly pictures1 wades through the ingeniously clever stories and sensationally original but often meaningless or trivial verses in the magazines1 goes to a concert and joins others in applauding some brilliant display of vocal gymnastics1 some instrumental pyrotechnics1 while his heart is thirsting for high and noble feelings1 for something to elevate and inspire his life4 ,the great poets1 the great painters1 the great dramatists and novelists1 have been high-souled men as well as artists1 lovers of the really beautiful in life as well as masters of their medium4 ,their art has no conflict with morality2 it is rather its greatest stimulus and stay4 ,to the lesser brood with the gift of melody1 of rhythm1 with an eye for color or form1 but without a true perspective of human values1 we must repeat sadly1 or even sternly1 the poet's reproof3 ,can'st thou from heaven1 ,o child ,of light1 but this to declare8 ,on culture3 ,matthew ,arnold1 ,culture and ,anarchy2 ,literature and ,science 7in ,discourses in ,america74 ,f4 ,paulsen1 ,system of ,ethics1 book ,,iii1 chap4 ,v4 ,h4 ,spencer1 ,education4 ,h4 ,sidgwick1 ,practical ,ethics1 chap4 ,,viii4 ,atlantic ,monthly1 vol4 #ij1 p4 #ehi2 vol4 #ig1 p4 #dcc2 vol4 #aji1 p4 #aaa4 ,international ,journal of ,ethics1 vol4 #bc1 p4 #a4 ,on the moral censorship of art3 ,plato1 ,republic1 books4 ,i1 ,,iii1 ,x4 ,aristotle1 ,poetics4 ,ruskin1 ,lectures on ,art4 ,tolstoy1 ,what is ,art8 ,g4 ,santayana1 ,reason in ,art1 chaps4 ,,ix1 ,,xi4 ,r4 ,b4 ,perry1 ,moral ,economy1 chap4 ,v4 ,h4 ,r4 ,haweis1 ,music and ,morals4 ,mackenzie1 ,manual of ,ethics1 chap4 ,,xvi4 ,c4 ,read1 ,natural and ,social ,morals1 chap4 ,x4 ,forum1 vol4 #ej1 p4 #ehh4 ,outlook1 vol4 #ajg1 p4 #dab4 ,,chapter ,,xxi ,,the ,,mechanism ,,of ,,self-,,control ,to discuss1 as we have been doing1 the various duties which are the unavoidable pre-conditions of a lasting and widespread welfare for men1 would be futile1 if we had not the ability to fulfill them4 ,the power of self-control is the sine qua non of a secure morality1 and therefore of a secure happiness4 ,but this power seems often bafflingly absent4 ,hard as it is to know what is right to do1 it is harder yet for many of us to make ourselves do what we know is right4 ,life for the average conscientious man is a perpetual battle between two opposing tendencies1 that which his better self endorses1 and that which is easiest or most alluring at the moment of action4 ,the latter course too often seduces his will2 and for the earnest and aspiring this continual moral failure constitutes one of the most tragic aspects of life4 ,footnote3 ,cf4 ,ovid's ,video meliora proboque1 deteriora sequor4 ,and ,st4 ,paul's ,to will is present with me1 but how to perform that which is good ,i find not4 ,for the good that ,i would ,i do not1 but the evil which ,i would not1 that ,i do4 ,from pagan and ,christian pen alike there comes testimony to this universal and disheartening experience4 ,there is no greater need for most men than that of some wiser and more effective method whereby those who have ideals beyond their practice may regularly and consistently realize them4 ,what are our potentialities of greater self-control8 ,the encouraging side of the matter is that there have been many1 of very various codes and creeds1 who have attained to a nearly perfect self-control1 who easily and almost inevitably govern their conduct by their ideals4 ,puritans with their personal ,devil1 ,christian ,scientists who believe that there is no evil at all-,christians1 ,buddhists1 atheists-there have been saints in all the folds4 ,the fact seems to be that the particular form which our moral ideas take matters much less than the completeness with which they possess the mind4 ,almost any of the many motives to right conduct will reform a character if it be so stamped into the mind as to become the dominant idea4 ,what is necessary is some vivid and dominating anti-sinning idea rammed deep into the brain4 ,the religions have been the chief means of effecting this2 and the ,church1 that draws men together1 and into the presence of ,god1 for the reinforcing of their better selves1 is the most efficacious of instruments for the control of sin4 ,but the existence of a vast1 and by most men hardly tapped1 reservoir of power for righteousness 7whether or not it is thought of as ,god7 is recognized today by science as well as by religion2 and we must here discuss the matter in a purely secular way4 ,we can control our conduct if we care enough to set about using the forces at our disposal4 ,the various religions have found and used them2 modern psychology1 analyzing their success1 shows us clearly and exactly how to succeed1 even if we stand aloof from religion altogether4 ,psychologically considered1 this whole affair of saintliness or sinfulness is a matter of the preponderant idea4 ,to have merely resolved is not enough2 our moral forces must be drilled and made ready before the battle4 ,this fortifying process we nowadays call suggestion4 ,by it we can so set our minds1 so deepen the channels that flow toward the right actions1 that when the time of conflict comes our minds will work along those grooves4 ,habit1 to be sure1 means a deep-cut channel in the mind2 it may require much effort to dig a deeper one to take its place4 ,unless the work is persistently carried through1 the mental currents1 diverted temporarily into the new course1 will soak through the barriers and find their old bed again4 ,moreover1 different minds differ greatly in their plasticity1 their susceptibility to suggestion4 ,but the great fact remains that habits can be made over1 temptations rendered harmless1 and character formed1 by this simple means4 ,it may be worthwhile to remind ourselves of the remarkable power of suggestion4 ,it is most strikingly seen at work in the phenomena of hypnotism1 because a person who is hypnotized is in a peculiarly susceptible state2 he is asleep to everything but the words of the hypnotist1 which thus have full influence over him1 except as checked and balanced by the preexisting bias of his mind4 ,hypnotism is simply the perfect case of suggestion1 isolated from disturbing factors4 ,the hypnotizing process itself1 the putting to sleep1 is only preliminary to the suggestion2 and to patients who are difficult to hypnotize1 waking suggestion is given1 with the patient in as relaxed and empty a state of mind as possible4 ,the popular notion that healing through hypnotism is uncanny and dangerous is1 of course1 entirely erroneous4 ,to be sure1 every great power has its dangers from misuse1 and hypnotism is not to be used except for proper ends2 but there is nothing occult about it4 ,it simply uses the psychological truth that the mind acts on the predominating idea1 by lulling to sleep all ideas but the one wanted and impressing that upon the mind4 ,immediate and lasting moral changes are daily being effected through suggestion by professional hypnotists4 ,but though the power of suggestion is most obvious when employed by the scientifically trained physician of today1 it has been successfully1 though often unconsciously1 used in all times4 ,prophets and saints of old1 the touch of a king's hand1 the sight of relics or images1 have wrought striking moral and physical cures through this same mental law4 ,christian ,scientists and mental healers of various sorts are curing people daily through them4 ,cases of religious conversion1 where a man's whole inner life is turned about through a powerful emotional appeal1 show best of all the possibilities of suggestion in the moral field4 ,these are the extreme cases4 ,but1 indeed1 all our moral education is1 in psychological language1 but so much suggestion4 ,the imperious necessity for man of preaching1 of ritual and liturgy1 of prayer and praise1 is to drive home the high and noble thoughts which in his sanest moments he recognizes to be what he needs4 ,the aim of the preacher is to bring to his hearers ideals of right living and to make them as appealing and vivid as possible4 ,yet even the best preaching comes only on ,sundays1 and there are six days between of other sorts of suggestion1 which are often counter- suggestions1 so that it is no wonder we lag so far behind our ,sabbath- day ideals4 ,in subtle and unrealized ways all the factors of our environment are so many sources of suggestion1 constantly working upon our minds4 ,could we always command powerful and inspiring moral influences1 and keep out of range of evil ones1 our morals would perhaps take care of themselves4 ,but while seeking so far as possible these external props1 and if necessary having recourse to the still more effective help of the professional hypnotists1 there remains a vast deal that we must do for ourselves if we are to resist successfully the downward pull of evil influences1 solve our own individual problems1 conquer our own peculiar temptations1 and attain our ideals4 ,we must practice autosuggestion4 ,it is noteworthy that the loftiest spirits have always practiced it1 in their habit of daily prayer4 ,for whatever else prayer accomplishes1 it certainly brings the mind back to its ideals1 concentrates it earnestly engaged in1 is the best possible form of suggestion4 ,the lapse of this habit helps to explain why unbelievers so often degenerate morally4 ,comte1 that positive disbeliever in supernatural dogmas1 clearly recognized this danger1 and enjoined upon his followers a consecration prayer three times a day4 ,in recent years the writers who call their doctrine by the name of ,the ,new ,thought - and other kindred thinkers have called attention to the possibilities of self- help1 directing us to retire into the silence1 there to concentrate our minds upon those beliefs that are comforting and inspiring to us2 and have helped many thereby to attain peace and self-possession4 ,but still the conscious use of autosuggestion for the attainment of personal ideals has been very little discussed1 and in the employment of this great power we are astonishingly backward4 ,a practicable mechanism of self-control4 ,let us1 then1 outline briefly the chief points necessary to note in using this force for our own benefit4 ,a necessary preliminary is to study our problems1 analyze our difficulties1 make sure exactly what we want to do and wherein we fail2 and thereby to pin our aspirations down to definite resolves to act in certain ways rather than in certain other ways4 ,our ideals are apt to be vague and even conflicting1 or else so abstract and general as to fail to direct us with precision to any concrete act4 ,we realize dumbly that we are not what we should be1 and we grope for better things2 but just wherein the difference consists1 just where is the point where we go off the track1 is uncertain in our minds4 ,as in physical achievement1 half the success lies in applying the effort at just the right place4 ,the men who have accomplished much are those who have known exactly what they wanted to do and have concentrated their energies upon that4 ,if we have so much self-reformation to accomplish as to dissipate our attention1 it may be wise to decide which changes are most immediately important and to limit our endeavors at first to those4 ,included in this preliminary task is the fixation in our minds of the reasons for the lines of conduct we intend to follow1 all the motives that draw us toward them4 ,this will show us whether we1 i4e41 our better selves1 really wish to acquire these new habits1 are really convinced that they are right1 or whether we are merely putting before ourselves some one else's ideal which we vaguely feel we ought or are expected to follow4 ,one can often convince one's self quite thoroughly of ideas one did not really believe in by this method of suggestion2 but if we are to control our own morals we wish to control them not by some one else's ideals but by our own4 ,if a thing is really right to do there must be definite and legitimate reasons for the doing which can appeal to our intelligence and our emotions2 these we should bring into the foreground of our thought and express as clearly and forcibly as possible4 ,we have now the material for our work4 ,we must so hammer these resolutions and the motives to them into our heads that they will be vividly conscious to us when they are needed4 ,in this process there are three main points to be remembered - ,concentration1 ,iteration1 and ,assertion4 7#a7 ,concentration4 ,the more completely the mind can be concentrated upon the resolution and its motives the deeper will they penetrate into it1 to lie there ready for use at the moment of action4 ,a definite time should be set apart when the mind can be withdrawn from other thoughts and compelled to give all its attention to this matter4 ,on first waking1 or just before going to sleep4 ,if one is not too tired-one can usually best get away from the distracting details of life4 ,the resolutions should be written down1 with the most important words or phrases underlined1 to serve as catchwords and mottoes4 ,they should be read aloud and repeated from memory1 as well as thought over silently1 thus adding visual and auditory images to the mental concepts4 ,in meditating upon them one's thoughts should not be allowed to wander too far1 but must be constantly referred to the definite numbered resolutions4 ,the use of symbols1 of colors1 etc1 will readily occur to any one who goes into this matter with lively interest4 ,always repeat the resolutions with the greatest possible emphasis and enthusiasm1 so as to carry them away ringing in the mind4 ,remember that the astonishing results of hypnotism and mental healing are due simply to the complete possession of the mind by the new idea4 7#b7 ,,iteration4 ,the oftener the mind is fixed upon the resolution and its motives1 the more deeply will they become engraved in it4 ,sometimes one determined concentration will carry the day2 but if this quick assault does not win the victory a long-continued siege can do it4 ,by hammering away continually at the same spot the requisite impression will finally be made4 ,a momentary rehearsal of the resolutions may be made a hundred times a day1 in passing2 and immediately before the time for execution1 if it can be foreseen1 forces should be rallied1 even if only by an instantaneous flash of determination4 ,above all1 one should not be discouraged and stop trying2 for every renewed effort1 even if showing no reward in success1 produces its exact and unfailing effect4 ,keeping everlastingly at it is as necessary for success in morals as in everything else4 7#c7 ,,assertion4 ,the more vigorously we assert our power to keep our resolutions the more likely we are to do so4 ,it is largely lack of confidence in ourselves that paralyzes us4 ,the religions have realized the need of inspiring hope and confidence in their converts by preaching the necessity of faith4 ,the faith we need is not necessarily faith in any supernatural help1 but only in the demonstrated fact of the possibility of controlling our own minds and morals by going at it in the right way4 ,but we must not passively wait for faith to possess us1 we must grasp it1 cleave to it1 assert it4 ,we must repeat our resolutions always with the conviction that we are really going to carry them out4 ,we must picture ourselves at the time of temptation1 with the triumphant thought of how splendidly we are going to worst the ,devil1 and never for a moment think or talk of ourselves as likely to forget or yield4 ,such persistent assertion1 even if there is a background of distrust that we cannot wholly banish from our minds1 will greatly help4 ,whatever we may think about the ethics of belief as applied to supernatural things1 the will to believe in our own power is certainly legitimate and important4 ,footnote3 ,the important problem of the ethics of belief1 as applied to religious matters1 has not been discussed in this volume4 ,the present writer hopes to discuss it fully in a later volume1 to be called ,problems of ,religion4 ,various accessoriesand safeguards4 ,the dogged and hearty practice of auto-suggestion1 whether in the secular form above outlined1 or in the warmer and more satisfying form of prayer1 is sufficient to keep a man master of himself and above the reach of whatever temptations he recognizes and chooses to resist4 ,but there are various other furtherances to self- control that may be briefly suggested4 7#a7 ,the method of turning over a new leaf is of the utmost value to minds of a certain type4 ,to declare a definite break with the old life1 a fresh beginning1 unstained and full of hope1 often gives just the extra impetus that was needed4 ,we are weighted by the memory of our failures1 we live in the shadow of the past1 and easily slide into a hopelessness and sense of impotence which a mere dogged persistence cannot overcome4 ,new ,year's ,day1 a birthday1 any change in place or manner of life1 may well be made the occasion for a bout of moral house-cleaning1 which will give a new enthusiasm and vitality to our better natures4 ,the essential thing in such cases is to look out for the first tests1 and not allow a single exception to the new resolutions4 ,a slight lapse1 that seems inconsequential1 may serve to check the new momentum2 as ,la ,rochefoucauld says1 ,it is far easier to extinguish a first desire than to satisfy all those that follow in its train4 ,there is1 however1 a real danger in this method1 of a discouragement and demoralization resulting from the collapse of enthusiastic hopes4 ,and there is the further danger that a man will excuse indulgence in such hours of discouragement1 on the ground that he is going to turn over another new leaf to-morrow and might as well have a good fling to- day4 ,it is well to remember the truth that ,martineau expressed by his apt phrase1 the tides of the spirit4 ,but1 alas1 ,stevenson puts it1 by planting a stake at the top of the flood1 you can neither prevent nor delay the inevitable ebb4 ,after all1 in most of our moral warfare1 it's dogged as does it4 ,he that stumbles and picks himself up is as if he had never fallen4 ,we cannot kindle when we will ,the fire which in the heart resides2 ,the spirit bloweth and is still1 ,in mystery our soul abides4 ,but tasks in hours of insight will'd ,can be through hours of gloom fulfill'd4 ,if we do try the abrupt break1 it is of the utmost importance to utilize every opportunity for the carrying out of the new program1 to hunt up occasions while the will is strong and the courage high4 ,one actual fulfillment of a resolution is worth many mental rehearsals4 ,and when the enemy is repulsed by this charge with the bayonet1 vigilance must not be relaxed1 lest he return to take us unawares4 ,footnote3 ,i cannot forbear including1 in this connection1 the admirable remarks of ,william ,james 7,psychology1 vol4 ,i1 pp4 #abc-bd73 ,the first maxim is that in the acquisition of a new habit1 or the leaving off of an old one1 we must take care to ,,launch ,,ourselves ,,with ,,as ,,strong ,,and ,,decided ,,an ,,initiative ,,as ,,possible4 ,accumulate all the possible circumstances which shall reinforce the right motives2 put yourself assiduously in conditions that encourage the new way2 make engagements incompatible with the old2 take a public pledge1 if the case allows2 in short1 envelop your resolution with every aid you know4 ,this will give your new beginning such a momentum that the temptation to break down will not occur as soon as it otherwise might2 and every day during which a breakdown is postponed adds to the chances of its not occurring at all4 ,the second maxim is3 ,,never ,,suffer ,,an ,,exception ,,to ,,occur ,,till ,,the ,,new ,,habit ,,is ,,securely ,,rooted ,,in ,,your ,,life4 ,each lapse is like the letting fall of a ball of string which one is carefully winding up2 a single slip undoes more than a great many turns will wind again4 ,the need of securing success at the ,,outset is imperative4 ,failure at first is apt to dampen the energy of all future attempts1 whereas past experience of success nerves one to future vigor4 ,it is surprising how soon a desire will die of inanition if it be ,,never fed4 ,a third maxim may be added to the preceding pair3 ,,seize ,,the ,,very ,,first ,,possible ,,opportunity ,,to ,,act ,,on ,,every ,,resolution ,,you ,,make1 ,,and ,,on ,,every ,,emotional ,,prompting ,,you ,,may ,,experience ,,in ,,the ,,direction ,,of ,,the ,,habits ,,you ,,aspire ,,to ,,gain4 ,it is not in the moment of their forming1 but in the moment of their producing ,,motor ,,effects that resolves and aspirations communicate the new 'set' to the brain4 7#b7 ,it is an excellent thing to do a little gratuitous spiritual exercise every day1 just to keep in training1 to get the habit of conquering impulse1 of doing disagreeable things4 ,nothing is more useful to a man than that power4 ,we must not let our lives get too easy and our wills too soft4 ,to jump out of bed when the whistle blows1 instead of dawdling just for a minute more in indolent comfort1 to make one's self take the cold bath that is abhorrent to the flesh1 to deny one's self the cigar or the candy that may not be in itself particularly harmful-by some means or other to keep one's self in the saddle and riding one's desires1 may enable one when some crisis comes to thrust aside a man too fatally accustomed to doing things in the easiest way4 7#c7 ,discretion is sometimes the better part of valor4 ,besides strengthening our own wills1 it is wise to seek in every way to remove temptation from our path1 and1 if need be1 to run away from it4 ,we must keep away from situations that experience warns are dangerous for us1 however innocent they may be to others4 ,if a man find that dancing1 or the theater1 arouses his passionate nature1 it may be better to avoid it entirely till his hypersensitive state is normalized4 ,always alcoholic liquors are to be avoided2 they cloud the reason and the will1 and let impulse loose4 ,always overexcitement and overfatigue are to be avoided4 ,the power to overcome temptation1 ,jane ,addams writes1 reaches its limit almost automatically with that of physical resistance4 7#d7 ,we must follow ,bossuet's advice not to combat passions directly so much as to turn them aside by applying them to other objects4 ,our emotional nature is a gift of the gods2 the sinner might have been a saint if his emotions had only been enlisted under the right banner4 ,something good to love1 to work for1 and think about1 something that can arouse our whole nature and relieve it from suppression1 is the best antidote to morbid desire4 ,it is sometimes alleged that it is better to satisfy a passion than to keep it pent up within the organism4 ,but satisfying a wrong passion not only brings its inevitable unhappy consequences1 to one's self and to others1 it makes it far harder to resist the passion again1 when it recurs4 ,the only safe outlet is one that leads into right conduct2 under skilful guidance all passions can be transmuted into valuable driving forces and allies of morality4 7#e7 ,even if one seems to be playing a losing game1 one can still keep up the fight4 ,one can spoil one's enjoyment in self-indulgence or selfishness2 one can refuse to give in all over4 ,this minority representation of the better impulse will suffice to keep it alive in us2 and when the revulsion from sin comes we shall be in better shape to make the fight next time4 ,a hundred failures need not discourage2 some of the greatest men have gained the final ascendancy over their weaknesses only after a long and often losing struggle4 ,the case is hopeless only for the man who stops fighting4 ,self-control is the measure of manhood4 ,it is the most important thing in the personal life4 ,and it is within the reach of any man who can be brought to understand the mechanism where through it can be attained4 ,it remains true that it is best attained through religion1 which utilizes the power of prayer1 of faith1 the enthusiasm of a great cause and motive1 and the comradeship and help of others engaged in the same eternal war with sin4 ,but religion1 to be efficacious1 must be not passively accepted1 but ,,used4 ,its help comes not to him who saith ,lord1 ,lord6 but to him who earnestly seeks to do the will of the ,father4 ,j4 ,payot1 ,education of the ,will4 ,h4 ,c4 ,king1 ,rational ,living1 chap4 ,,vi1 sec4 ,,iii2 chap4 ,x4 ,w4 ,james1 ,psychology1 vol4 ,i1 pp4 #abb-bg2 vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #efa-gi4 ,w4 ,e4 ,h4 ,lecky1 ,map of ,life1 chap4 ,,xii4 ,a4 ,bain1 ,the ,emotions and the ,will1 part ,,ii1 chap4 ,,ix4 ,l4 ,h4 ,gulick1 in ,world's ,work1 vol4 #ae1 p4 #igig4 ,bossuet1 ,connaissance de ,dieu et de ,soi meme1 chap4 ,,iii1 sec4 #ai4 ,st4 ,augustine1 ,confessions1 book ,,viii1 chap4 ,v4 ,janet1 ,elements de ,morale1 chap4 ,x1 sec4 #c4 ,w4 ,l4 ,sheldon1 ,an ,ethical ,movement1 chap4 ,x4 ,a4 ,bennett1 ,the ,human ,machine1 chaps4 ,i-,v4 ,o4 ,s4 ,marden1 ,every ,man a ,king4 ,,chapter ,,xxii ,,the ,,attainability ,,of ,,happiness ,,we have now discussed the more recurrent problems of the individual1 and pointed out the salient duties that private life entails4 ,but there remains something to be added before we shall have clearly pointed the way to personal happiness4 ,mere morality1 even when coupled with good fortune1 is not enough2 a sinless man1 scrupulous to fulfill the least command of the law1 may yet be anxious1 restless1 depressed1 unsatisfied4 ,we need more than morality1 as the word is commonly used2 we need religion - or something of the sort4 ,there is no doubt that for the attainment of a pervasive and stable happiness there is nothing so good as the best sort of religion2 but1 as in discussing self- control1 we must here steer clear of religious controversy and phrase what we have to say in the colder terms of mere morality4 ,and though there will be a great loss in feeling1 in persuasiveness and unction thereby1 there will be gain in clearness4 ,it is possible to express in the drab tones of morality the profound insights which have made religion the great guide to happiness2 and even the man who deems himself irreligious may1 if he takes to heart these more prosaic counsels1 find something of the peace that has been the boon of true believers4 ,the threefold key to happiness3 ,i4 ,,hearty ,,allegiance ,,to ,,duty4 ,the one thing above all others that makes life worth living is the utter devotion of the heart and will to the commands of morality4 ,to throw one's self whole-heartedly into the game1 to play one's part for all it is worth1 transforms what were else a grim and unhappy necessity into a glorious opportunity4 ,the happy man is the loyal man1 the man who has taken sides1 who has enrolled himself definitely on the side of right and tastes the zest of battle4 ,he has something to live for1 and something lasting4 ,he has put his heart into a cause that the limitations and accidents of life cannot take from him1 he has laid up his treasure in heaven1 where moth and rust doth not corrupt or thieves break through and steal4 ,any cause1 any ambition1 any great endeavor that can stir the blood1 and give a life direction1 purpose1 and continuity of achievement1 has the power to rescue life from ennui1 from emptiness1 and give it positive worth4 ,but most ambitions pall in time1 and many a cause that has taken a man's best energies has come to seem mistaken or futile with the years4 ,there is only one great campaign which is so eternal1 so surely necessary1 so clear in its summons to all men1 that the heart can rest in it as in something great enough to ennoble a whole life4 ,that is the age-long war against evil1 the unending summons to duty1 the service of ,god4 ,once a man learns this deepest of joys1 nothing can take it from him2 whatever his limitations1 however narrow his sphere1 there will not fail to be a right way1 a brave way1 a beautiful way to live4 ,there is comradeship in it2 in this common service of ,god - or of good1 if we must avoid religious terms - we stand shoulder to shoulder with the saints and heroes of all races and times1 with all1 of whatever land or tongue1 who are striving to push forward the line1 to make the right prevail and banish evil4 ,every effort1 every sacrifice1 has its inextinguishable effect2 in his moral conquests a man is no longer an individual1 he is a part of the great tide that is resistlessly making toward the better world of the future1 the ,kingdom of ,god4 ,the great ,power in the world that makes for righteousness is back of him1 and in him2 in no loyal moment is he alone4 4 4 4 ,inevitably the tongue slips into religious language in dealing with these high truths2 but nonetheless are they scientific truths1 matters of plain every day observation4 ,the essential point is1 that it is not enough to obey the ,law2 we must ,,espouse the ,law1 clasp it to our bosoms1 love it1 and give ourselves to it utterly4 ,we must - to use the pregnant words of ,james base our lives on doing and being1 not on having2 base our lives solidly upon it1 so that everything else is secondary4 ,the pleasures of life are well enough in their time1 but they must not usurp the chief place in a man's thought4,footnote3 ,cf4 ,j4 ,s4 ,mill1 ,autobiography1 p4 #adb3 ,the enjoyments of life are sufficient to make it a pleasant thing1 when they are taken en passant1 without being made a principal object4 ,the only chance is to treat1 not happiness1 but some end external to it1 as the purpose of life4 ,his first concern must be to keep true1 to play the game2 he must seek first the ,kingdom of ,god and ,his righteousness1 if he would have these other things added unto him4 ,he must lose his life his worldly interests1 his dependence upon ease and luxury1 and even love if he would truly find it4 ,in a hundred such phrases from the ,great ,teacher's lips one finds the secret4 ,more baldly expressed1 it comes to this1 that only through putting the main emphasis upon doing the right1 obeying the call of duty1 only through the courageous attack and the giving of our utmost allegiance1 can we keep a positive zest in living1 exorcise the specter of aimlessness and depression1 and lift ordinary commonplace life to the level of heroism4 ,blessed is the man whose ,,delight is in the law of the ,lord4 ,,ii4 ,,hearty ,,acquiescence ,,in ,,our ,,lot4 ,the fighter1 for whatever cause1 can bear the blows that come as a part of the battle2 if a man has put his heart into living by his ideal1 he is immune from the disappointments and irritations that beset man upon a lower level4 ,but it is well to take thought also for this side of the matter1 to cultivate deliberately the spirit of acquiescence in the inevitable pain and losses of life4 ,many of the sweetest pleasures are by their nature uncertain or transient2 these we must hold so loosely that1 while not refusing to enjoy their sweetness1 we are ot dependent upon them and can let them go without losing sight of the steady gleam that we follow4 ,however dear to us are the people we love1 and the material things we own1 we must keep the underlying assurance that if they be taken from us life will still bring us in other ways renewed opportunities for that loyalty to duty1 that faithful living1 which is after all the end for which we live4 ,we must count whatever comes to us1 whether sweet or bitter1 as the conditions under which we serve1 the material with which we have to work1 the stuff which we have to try the soul's strength on4 ,for there is no way to be armor-proof against unhappiness but by seeing to it that our hearts are not set on anything but doing or being2 nothing else is reliably permanent amid the fitful sunshine and shadow of human life4 ,make hy claim of wages a zero2 then hast thou the world at thy feet4 ,footnote3 ,in ,maeterlinck's ,measure of the ,hours1 he speaks of a sundial found near ,venice by ,hazlitt with the inscription1 ,horas non numero nisi serenas and quotes ,hazlitt's remarks thereon3 ,what a fine lesson is conveyed to the mind to take no note of time but by its benefits1 to watch only for the smiles and neglect the frowns of fate1 to compose our lives of bright and gentle moments1 turning always to the sunny side of things and letting the rest slip from our imaginations1 unheeded or forgotten4 ,this necessity of detaching the heart from dependence upon uncertainties found extreme expression in the various historic forms of asceticism and monasticism4 ,such a running away from the world does not satisfy our age1 with its eagerness for life and life more abundantly2 if it escapes the poignant sorrows it cannot happiness1 or make life better for others4 ,but we may well take to heart the half-truth taught by the hermits and monks of the past4 ,we may be in the world1 indeed1 but not of it2 we1 too1 may make no claims upon life1 while putting our hearts into playing our own part in it well4 ,the writings of ,epictetus and ,marcus ,aurelius are full of passages that express the gist of the matter1 such as the following3 ,it is thy duty to order thy life well in every single act2 and if every act does its duty as far as is possible1 be content2 no one is able to hinder thee so that each act shall not do its duty4 ,but something external will stand in the way8 ,nothing will stand in the way of thy acting justly and soberly and considerately4 ,but perhaps some of thy active powers will be hindered8 ,well1 by acquiescing in the hindrance1 and being content to transfer thy efforts to that which is allowed1 another opportunity of action is immediately put before thee in place of that which was hindered4 ,what is this but saying in other words that not in having lies our life1 but in doing and being4 ,not even in succeeding1 we must remember2 and this is perhaps the hardest part of our lesson4 ,it is one thing to bear with serenity those blows of fortune against which we are obviously defenseless2 it is another thing1 when there seems a chance for averting the disaster1 when our whole heart and soul are thrown into that effort1 to await the outcome with tranquility1 to bear failure without complaint4 ,the might have been's and the perhaps may yet be's are the greatest disturbers of our peace4 ,to use our keenest wits for attaining what seems best1 to use our utmost persuasion for protecting ourselves from the selfishness and stupidity of others1 and then if we fail1 if the fair hope slips from our grasp1 if the thoughtlessness or cruelty of men prevails against us1 to smile and attack the next problem with undaunted cheerfulness1 requires1 indeed1 to attain to that level may well be called the last infirmity of noble minds4 ,for the very concentration of life upon doing and being carries with it the danger of staking happiness upon the success of the doing1 the attainment of the ideals4 ,we must count even the stupidity and impulsiveness of our own mental make-up as among the materials we have to work with1 and not allow remorse for our own part in past failures to interfere with the joyful earnestness with which we attack the problems of the eternal present4 ,we may1 indeed1 often succeed1 and that may be a very great and pure joy to us2 but we are not to count upon success2 or1 to put it another way1 we are to think of the real success as lying in the dauntless renewal of the effort rather than in the show of outward result4 ,to have often resisted the diabolic1 and at the end to be still resisting it1 is for the poor human soldier to have done right well4 ,to ask to see some fruit of our endeavor is but a transcendental way of serving for reward4 ,this is not pessimism1 it is the first step toward a sound and invulnerable optimism4 ,we must recognize once for all that this world is not the world of our dreams1 and cease to be so pathetically surprised and hurt when it falls short of them4 ,were we to be rebellious at life for not being built after the pattern of our ideals there would be no limit to our faultfinding4 ,we may1 indeed1 long in our idle hours with ,omar ,to grasp this sorry scheme of things entire1 shatter it to bits-and then ,remould it nearer to the heart's desire6 ,but in our daily life a braver and saner attitude befits us2 for it is not in such an ideal world but in the actual world that we have to live4 ,evils there are in it and will yet be-why we cannot tell and need not know2 the only alternative we have is to take them cheerfully or gloomily1 to rebel or to accept the situation4 ,our duty then is clear4 ,to face the events of life as they come to us1 without discouragement or dismay1 to laugh at them a little and learn to carry on our lives through them with steadfast heart and smiling face- surely that is the part of wisdom and of true manliness4 ,the ugly things in life seem much less formidable when thus boldly faced than when we try to shut our eyes to them1 with the consequent disillusion at their continual reappearance4 ,confess frankly the faults of life and it becomes tolerable1 is even in a fair way to become lovable4 ,for after all1 when its obvious imperfections do not blind us to its good points1 it is a dear old world we live in1 and the healthy minded man loves it1 as he loves his friends in spite of their faults loves it1 and finds it a world gloriously worth living in4 ,,iii4 ,,hearty ,,appreciation ,,of ,,the ,,wonder ,,and ,,beauty ,,in ,,life4 ,finally1 when we have our great purpose in life1 and have overcome the fear of pain and loss1 we must learn to see and appreciate the beauty of the world we live in4 ,the man who refuses to be downed by trouble is in a condition to enjoy each bit of good fortune that comes to him1 to welcome each as a pure gift or addition to life1 and to know that gifts of some sort or other will always come4 ,holding all things with that looser grasp that is ready to let them go if go they must1 he can relish the good things of life the more freely for not having counted on them1 as he can the more freely admire the virtues of his friends for not having expected them to be perfect4 ,he can feel the beauty of the world without being dependent upon it1 not looking for mortal things to be immortal or human things to be ideal1 but whole-heartedly enjoying today what he has today and tomorrow what he shall have to-morrow4 ,the things he cannot have at all1 instead of spoiling his happiness in what he has1 will rather add to it by forming another dimension of the actual1 full of beautiful visions and glorious possibilities4 ,and meantime the real world1 of events that actually occur1 will not fail1 in spite of its flaws and rebuffs1 to bring him ever-fresh delights4 ,let no one minimize these delights4 ,there is more beauty1 more interest here in this mundane existence of ours1 more inspiration1 more inexhaustible possibility of enjoyment than the keenest of us has dreamed of4 ,we need some sort of shaking up to rouse us to the beauty of common things- the freshness of the air we breathe1 the warmth of sunshine1 the green of trees and fields and the blue of the sky1 the joy in exercise of brain and muscle1 in reading and talking and sharing in the life of the world2 and in such daily things as eating at the family table when we are hungry1 or a good night's sleep when we are tired4 ,we need some teacher like ,whitman to open our eyes to the beauty not only of flowers but of leaves of grass1 to the picturesqueness and significance of so dull a thing as a ferryboat2 or like ,wordsworth1 with his picturing of homely country scenes and events1 with his emotion at the sight of the sleeping city- a sight so touching in its majesty4 ,this sense of the meaning of common things floods most of us at one time or another1 and we see what in our blindness we have been overlooking4 ,go without your comfortable bed for a while1 your well-cooked food1 your home1 friends1 neighbors1 and you will discover how rich you have been4 ,your mother's face hinted by some stranger in a foreign land will some day overcome you with the realization of the comfort of her love2 and unless you are a crabbed egotist the life of your fellows can furnish you with endless pleasures4 ,it is not necessary to own things to enjoy them2 our interests and enjoyments may well overlap and include those of our friends and neighbors1 and even those of strangers4 ,the smile of a happy child1 a friend's good fortune a sunrise or moonlit cloud-strewn sky1 should bring a pure gladness to any one who has eyes to see and heart to feel4 ,we must ,learn to love the morn1 ,love the lovely working light1 ,love the miracle of sight1 ,love the thousand things to do4 ,footnote3 ,these lines are ,richard ,le ,gallienne's4 ,cf4 also ,matthew ,arnold's lines3 ,is it so small a thing ,to have enjoyed the sun1 ,to have lived light in the spring1 ,to have loved1 to have thought1 to have done1 ,to have advanced true friends and beat down baffling foes8 ,the sports of the country people1 ,a flute note from the woods1 ,sunset over the sea2 ,seed-time and harvest1 ,the reapers in the corn1 ,the vinedresser in his vineyard1 ,the village girl at her wheel4 4 4 ,the true lover of beauty will not need to seek forever-new scenes and objects to admire4 ,he will find that which can feed his heart in the clouds of morning1 the blue of noon1 or the stars of night4 ,one graceful vase with a flower-stalk bending over to display its drooping blossoms1 will fill him with a quiet happiness2 the merry laughter of a child1 the tender smile of a lover1 the rugged features of a weather beaten laborer1 will stir his soul to response2 a few lines of poetry remembered in the midst of work1 a simple song sung in the twilight1 a print of some old master hanging by his bedside1 a bird-call heard at sunset or the scent of evening air after rain1 may so speak to his spirit that he will say1 ,it is enough6 ,it is not the number of beautiful things that we have that matters1 but the degree in which we are open to their influence1 the atmosphere into which we let them lead us4 ,our hearts must be free from self-seeking1 from regret1 from anger1 from restlessness4 ,the vision comes not always to the connoisseur1 comes to him whose life is simple1 earnest1 open-eyed and openhearted4 ,in the pauses of his faithful work he will refresh his soul with some bit of beauty that tells of attainment1 of peace1 of perfection4 ,that is a proof to him of the beauty in the midst of which he lives1 inexhaustible1 hardly discerned2 it carries him beyond itself into the ideal world of which it is a sample and illustration2 unconsciously during the duties of the day he lives in the light of that vision1 and everything is sweetened and blessed thereby4 ,can we maintain a steady under glow of happiness8 ,happiness--happiness sufficient to make life well worth living is1 for most men at least1 at most times1 a real possibility4 ,to be won it has but to be sought vigorously enough4 ,it is to be sought1 however1 not primarily by changing one's environment but by changing one's self2 not by acquiring new things1 but by acquiring a new attitude toward things2 not by getting what could make one happy1 but by learning to be happy with what one can get4 ,,the ,,kingdom ,,of ,,heaven ,,is ,,within ,,you6 ,this is not merely a moralist's theory1 or an empirical observation2 it is a scientific fact4 ,we may restate the matter in psychological language by saying that happiness and unhappiness are responses of the organism to its environment1 reactions upon a stimulus1 our attitude of welcome or dissatisfaction toward the various matters of our experience4 ,true1 we often think of the quality of pleasantness as inhering in the things we enjoy1 and speak of troubles and sorrows as objective4 ,but this is only a shorthand way of describing experience4 ,in reality the pleasure we feel in eating when we are hungry or in seeing a friend we love is something added to and different from the taste sensations1 or the complex visual perceptions and memory images the friend arouses in us4 ,so a cutting or burning sensation1 the thought of a friend's death1 or of our failure1 on the one hand1 and our unhappiness thereat on the other hand1 are two distinct things1 closely bound together in our minds but separable4 ,the separation is1 indeed1 difficult to bring about1 because the age long struggle for existence has made unhappiness at physical pain and pleasure at the healthy exercise of our organs or satisfying of our appetite instinctive and immediate1 that we may avoid what is harmful to life and pursue what is useful4 ,all our cravings and longings and regrets have this biological value2 they are the machinery by which nature spurs us on to better adjustment to the conditions of life4 ,and in learning to do without the spur we must learn not to need it4 ,discontent is better than laziness1 remorse better than callous selfishness1 suffering under extreme cold better than recklessly exposing the body till it is weakened4 ,but as soon as we have reached that stage of rationality where we can choose the better way and stick to it without the stinging goad of pain1 the pain is no longer necessary and we may safely learn to weed it out4 ,a few blessed souls we know who have learned the secret1 who go about with perpetually radiant face and take smilingly the very mishaps that worry and sadden the rest of us4 ,to some extent this may be merely a matter of better nerves1 of less sensitive temperament1 of more abounding vitality2 but there are many of the weakest and most sensitive among those who have learned that better way2 they can turn everything into happiness as ,midas turned everything into gold4 ,it is surprising1 looking through such a one's eyes1 to see how full life is of delight4 ,yet in the same situations there may be room for endless complaint if every grief is entertained that's offered4 ,it all depends on the attitude taken4 ,in trouble one man will fall to fretting1 while another does what can be done and then turns his thoughts to something else2 in discomfort one will lower the corners of his mouth and feel wretched1 while the other finds it all vastly amusing2 one will have his day quite spoiled by some disappointment which the other takes as a mere incident2 one will find the same environment dull and stupid which the other finds full of interest and opportunity2 and so out of like conditions one will make an unhappy1 the other a happy life4 ,footnote3 ,cf4 ,in journeying often1 in perils of waters1 in perils of robbers1 in perils by mine own countrymen1 in perils by the heathen1 in perils in the city1 in perils in the wilderness1 in perils in the sea1 in perils among false brethren1 in weariness and painfulness1 in watching often1 in hunger and thirst1 in fasting often1 in cold and nakedness 4 4 4 yet always rejoicing6 ,rejoicing in tribulation even1 because to the brave man every obstacle and failure is so much further opportunity for courage and contrivance1 for matching himself against things4 ,human joy1 writes the author of the ,simple ,life1 has celebrated its finest triumphs under the greatest tests of endurance4 ,the ,apostle ,paul is but one of many who have welcomed each rebuff1 and proved that if rightly taken life almost at its worst can be transmuted by courage into happiness4 ,this1 then1 is the philosophy of happiness in a nutshell3 ,,put ,,your ,,heart ,,into ,,doing ,,your ,,duty2 ,,demand ,,nothing ,,else ,,of ,,life ,,than ,,the ,,opportunity ,,to ,,do ,,your ,,duty2 ,,enjoy ,,freely ,,and ,,without ,,fear ,,everything ,,good ,,and ,,beautiful ,,that ,,comes ,,in ,,your ,,way4 ,to acquire and keep this attitude of mind requires of course resolution and persistence4 ,we must rouse ourselves and take sides4 ,we must definitely pledge ourselves once and for all to happiness2 and if we cannot at a leap attain to it1 we must still remember that we have committed ourselves to that side4 ,we must pretend to be happy1 throw aside all complaining and sighs and long faces2 whatever comes1 we must remember that we are on trial to preserve our buoyancy1 our power not to be downcast4 ,we shall not be able to disuse our habit of unhappiness at once4 ,but if we stick to our colors and refuse to add to whatever depression masters us by brooding upon it and giving it right of way2 if we remember the conditions of happiness stated above1 and thrust resolutely from us all thoughts and words incompatible with living according to them1 the unhappiness will be gone before we know it4 ,it is a well-known psychological law that if we choke the expression of an emotion1 we shall presently find that we have smothered the emotion itself4 ,it may seem like hollow pretense at first1 but it will pay to pretend hard2 when we have pretended long enough1 we shall find we no longer need to pretend4 ,there will always be those1 no doubt1 who will declare it impossible1 and they will continue to be unhappy2 there will be many others who will concede the possibility of it1 but will not have the determination and persistence to effect it2 but there will always be some who will say1 ,happiness is possible6 who will set out to get it1 and who will get it1 as they will deserve to4 ,some men are born happy1 some seem to have happiness thrust upon them1 but some achieve happiness4 ,it will not be the same kind of happiness that we had as children1 before the shocks of life awoke us4 ,it will be a happiness that meets and rises above pain4 ,life will always have its tragedies1 sickness and separation1 pain and sudden death4 ,they are the common inheritance of mankind4 ,but it is not these things in themselves that make life unendurable1 it is the way we take them1 our fear of them1 our worry over them1 our longings and rebelliousness1 our magnifying and brooding over and shrinking from them2 when we resolve to lift our heads and assert our power1 we shall find life tragic1 yes1 but endurable1 and full of a deep joy4 ,the little worries and disappointments will cease to trouble us4 ,and the same attitude that enables us to rise above them will1 when more staunchly held1 lift us over the great sorrows also1 and keep alive in us an under glow of joy4 ,an under glow of joy-that is what can be found in life in any but its highly abnormal phases1 by conforming to its conditions and taking it for what it is1 stuff which1 we have to shape into service to the ideal4 ,it should be recognized as the final word of personal morality that a man must train himself to a happiness that is independent of circumstances4 ,we need no mystical painting out of the shadows1 no blindness to facts1 only a will to serve the right1 a readiness to accept the imperfect1 and eyes to see the beauty that surrounds us4 ,if ,i have faltered more or less ,in my great task of happiness1 ,if ,i have moved among my race ,and shown no glorious morning face1 ,if beams from happy human eyes ,have moved me not2 if morning skies1 ,books and my food1 and summer rain1 ,knocked on my sullen heart in vain4 ,if1 in short1 we have not disciplined ourselves to happiness1 it may well be maintained that we have left undone our highest duty to our neighbor and ourselves4 ,and he may with good reason declare that he has solved the greatest problem of life who can proclaim with ,tolstoy1 ,i rejoice in having taught myself not to be sad6 or with the ,apostle ,paul1 ,i have learned in whatsoever state ,i am therein to be content4 ,much of the secret of happiness is to be found in ,epictetus and ,marcus ,aurelius and1 of course1 in the ,gospels4 ,of modern writers1 among the most useful are ,stevenson and ,chesterton4 ,see1 for example1 ,stevenson's ,christmas ,sermon1 and ,j4 ,f4 ,genung's ,stevenson's ,attitude toward ,life4 ,chesterton's counsels are too sattered to make reference practicable4 ,see also ,c4 ,w4 ,eliot1 ,the ,happy ,life4 ,c4 ,hilty1 ,happiness4 ,p4 ,g4 ,hamerton1 ,the ,quest of ,happiness4 ,p4 ,paulsen1 ,system of ,ethics1 book m1 chap1 n1 sees4 #c1 #f2 chap1 iv1 sees4 #a1 #b4 ,h4 ,c4 ,king1 ,rational ,living1 chap1 x1 sec4 iv4 ,j4 ,payot1 ,education of the ,will1 book iv1 chap4 iv4 ,a4 ,bennett1 ,the ,human ,machine1 chaps1 ,,vi2 ,mental ,efficiency1 chap4 ix4 ,in ,royce's ,philosophy of ,loyalty1 ,roosevelt's ,strenuous ,life1 and ,gannett's ,blessed be ,drudgery1 we get valuable notes2 and ,carlyle has many1 especially ,,id the latter chapters of ,sartor ,resartm4 ,,part ,,iv ,,public ,,morality ,,chapter ,,xxiii ,,patriotism ,,and ,,world-,,peace ,,the goal of personal morality is reached with the adoption of that mode of life that leads to the stable and lasting happiness of the individual4 ,such a happiness necessarily presupposes relations of kindness and cooperation with those other persons that form the immediate environment4 ,but it is quite compatible with a neglect of those wider aspects of duty that we call public morality4 ,the ,stoics1 the anchorites1 some communities of monks1 and many a well-to-do recluse today1 are examples of those who have found a selfish happiness for themselves without taking any hand in forwarding the general welfare4 ,yet the greatest total good is not to be attained in any such way2 if man is to win in his inexorable war with a hostile and grudging environment1 men must march ,,en ,,masse1 must work for ends that lie far beyond their personal satisfactions1 for the welfare of the ,state and posterity4 ,it is these larger1 public duties that we must now consider4 ,and it is here that our greatest stress must be laid2 for these obligations are too easily overlooked1 and toward them the contemporary conscience needs most sharply to be aroused4 ,the first great public problem1 historically1 is that of war4 ,and theoretically it may well come first1 since the attainment of peace is the prerequisite of all other social advance4 ,while a nation's energies are absorbed in war1 nothing1 or nearly nothing else can be done4 ,so we turn to a consideration of war2 and first1 of that emotion1 patriotism1 whose training and redirection must underlie the movement toward universal peace4 ,what is the meaning and value of patriotism8 ,matthew ,arnold began his famous ,american address on ,numbers by quoting ,dr4 ,johnson's saying1 ,patriotism is the last refuge of a scoundrel4 ,we must admit that to certain forms of it the gibe is pertinent4 ,but in its essence1 patriotism is that most useful of human possessions1 an emotion that turns a duty into a joy4 ,it is necessary for men1 however burdensome they may find the obligation1 to be loyal to the interests of the ,state of which they are members4 ,but the patriot feels it noburden2 he loves his country1 and serves her willingly1 as his privilege and glad desire4 ,to be conscious of belonging to a social group1 whose interests are regarded as one's own1 to mourn its disasters and rejoice in its successes1 and give one's hands and brains without reluctance1 when needed1 to its service- that is patriotism4 ,for the individual1 its value is that it widens his sympathies1 gives him new interests1 stimulates his ambition1 warms his heart with a sense of brotherhood in common hopes and fears2 the man without a country is1 as ,dr4 ,bale's story graphically depicted1 like a man without a home2 the citizens of the world1 who voluntarily expatriate themselves1 miss much of the tang of life that is tasted by him who keeps his local attachments and national loyalty4 ,for the ,state1 its value is that it welds men together1 softens their civil strife1 lifts them above petty jealousies1 rouses them to maintain the common weal against all dangers1 external and internal4 ,especially in view of our hybrid population is it necessary to stimulate patriotism1 by the celebration of national anniversaries1 the salutation of the flag in the public schools1 and whatever other means help to enlist the emotions on the side of civic consciousness4 ,but while seeking to foster patriotism1 for its great potentialities of good1 we must guard diligently against its lapse into forms that are really harmful to the community which it avowedly serves4 ,like every other great emotion1 it needs to be controlled1 developed along the lines of greatest usefulness1 directed into proper channels4 ,how should patriotism be directed and qualified8 7#a7 ,patriotism must be rationalized1 so as to be an enthusiasm for the really great and admirable phases of the national life4 ,instead of a pride in the prowess of army and navy1 of yachts or athletes1 it should become a pride in national efficiency and health1 in the national art1 literature1 statesmanship1 and educational system1 in the beauty of public buildings and the standards of public manners and morals4 ,it should think not so much of defending by force the national honor1 as of maintaining standards of honor that shall be worth defending4 ,there may1 indeed1 still be occasions when we can learn the truth of the old ,roman verse1 ,dulce et decorum est pro patria mori2 but the newer patriotism consists not so much in willingness to die as in willingness to live1 for one's country-to take the trouble to study conditions1 to vote1 and to work for the improvement of conditions and the invigorating of the national life4 ,the real anti-patriots are not the peace-men1 but the selfish and unscrupulous money-makers1 the idle rich1 the dissolute1 the ill-mannered1 all those who put private interest or passion above the public weal1 help to weaken national strength and solidarity1 and bring our country's name into disrepute4 7#b7 ,patriotism must not merge into conceit and blind self-satisfaction4 ,the superior1 patronizing air of many ,americans1 their insufferable boasting and dogmatism1 does more1 perhaps1 to prejudice foreigners against us than any other thing4 ,we must teach international good manners1 a becoming modesty1 a generosity toward the prejudices of others1 and a recognition of our own shortcomings4 ,the blind patriotism that will not confess to any fault1 that shouts1 ,our country1 right or wrong1 leads in the direction of arrogance1 wrongdoing1 and dishonor4 ,we must be free to criticize our own government2 we must have no false notions about national honor such as were once held concerning personal honor in the days of dueling4 ,we shall doubtless be in the wrong sometimes2 we must welcome enlightenment and try to learn the better way4 ,apologizing is sometimes nobler than bluster2 and he is no true lover of his country who seeks to condone1 and so perpetuate1 her errors4 7#c7 ,patriotism must not imply a hatred of1 or desire to hurt1 other countries4 ,the sight of one great civilization seeking to injure another is the shame of humanity4 ,for in the end our interests are the same2 we should not profit by ,germany's loss any more than ,connecticut would gain by injury to ,vermont4 ,jingoism1 contempt of other peoples1 and purely selfish diplomacy1 are sinful outgrowths of patriotism4 ,we must learn to be fair and good-tempered1 to appreciate the admirable in other nations1 to thrill to their ideals1 and banish all suspicious1 sneering1 or hypercritical attitudes toward them4 ,it is a pity that the mass of our people get their conceptions of foreign peoples and rulers so largely through newspaper cartoons and caricatures1 which emphasize and exaggerate their points of difference and inferiority instead of revealing their power and excellence4 ,it is a stupid provinciality that conceives a distaste for foreigners because of their alien manners and to us uncouth language1 their different dress and habits4 ,as a matter of fact1 they feel as superior to us as we to them1 and on the whole1 perhaps1 with as good a right4 ,no one of the nations but has some noble ideals and achievements to its credit2 if we do not appreciate them1 we are thereby proved to be in need of what they have to give4 ,and underneath these usually superficial differences1 we are all just men and women1 with the same loves and hatreds1 the same needs1 the same weaknesses and repentances and aspirations4 ,if we realized our common humanity1 we should try to treat them as we should wish to be treated by them2 the ,golden ,rule1 the ,christian spirit1 the method of reason and kindness1 is as applicable to international as to inter-personal relations4 ,we should not be too sensitive to the trivial breaches of manners1 the intemperate words and selfish acts of neighbor-nations1 but make allowances and preserve our good-fellowship1 as we do in our personal life4 ,we should beware of letting our own patriotism lead us into like misconduct4 ,above all1 we must refuse to let it lead us into the lust of conquest2 we must respect the rights and liberties of other peoples1 keep strictly to our treaty obligations1 honor less the patriots who have inflamed national hatreds and led us to battle against other peoples than those who have wrought for their country's righteousness and true honor1 and let it be our pride to stand for international comity and good will4 ,a question that may properly be discussed here is whether it is permissible to shift patriotism from one country to another4 ,such a change of loyalty is1 in times of war1 called treason1 and naturally evokes the resentment of the deserted side4 ,even as impartial judges1 we are properly suspicious of such action1 as denoting a vacillating nature1 devoid of the true spirit of loyalty1 or as indicative of a selfishness that follows its own personal advantage4 ,and so far as that suspicion is well founded1 we must condemn the traitor4 ,but certainly1 if a man experiences a sincere change of conviction1 he should not be required to continue to serve the side that he now feels to be in the wrong2 every man must be free to follow his conscience1 even if it leads him to disavow his own earlier allegiance4 ,suppose ,benedict ,arnold to have developed a sincere conviction that the ,american revolutionists were in the wrong1 and that the true welfare of both ,america and ,britain lay in their continued union4 ,in such a case he must1 as a conscientious man1 have transferred his allegiance to the ,tory side4 ,so a man who has been a worker for the saloon interests1 who should become convinced of the anti-social influence of the liquor trade1 would do right to come over to the anti- saloon side and work against his former associates4 ,the really difficult question lies rather here3 may such a man use for the advantage of the cause he now serves the knowledge he gained1 the secrets entrusted to him1 the power he won1 as a worker for the opposite cause8 ,if ,benedict ,arnold was a sincere convert to the ,british cause1 did he do right in trying to deliver ,west ,point into their hands8 ,or are we right in execrating him for his attempted breach of trust8 ,may the former saloon-worker use his inside knowledge of the saloon men's plans1 and his familiarity with the business1 to help the cause to which he has transferred his allegiance8 ,the two cases may be closely parallel2 but each will probably be decided by most people according to the side upon which they stand4 ,an impartial judgment will1 perhaps1 condemn all breaches of faith1 all use of delegated power for ends contrary to those for which the power was delegated1 including secrets deliberately entrusted1 but will not condemn the use for the new cause of knowledge gained by the individual's own observation1 or influence won through the power of his own personality4 ,what have been the benefits of war8 ,war has not been an unmitigated evil4 ,in fairness we must note the following points3 7#a7 ,in spite of its danger1 and its pain1 war has been a great excitement and joy to men4 ,tennyson is doubtless true to life in making ,ulysses exclaim ,all times ,i have enjoyed ,greatly1 have suffered greatly4 4 4 ,and drunk delight of battle with my peers1 ,far on the ringing plains of windy ,troy4 ,how dull it is to pause1 to make an end1 ,as though to breathe were life6 ,in the ,iliad1 indeed1 we read3 ,with everything man is satiated1 sleep1 sweet singing1 and the joyous dance2 of all these man gets sooner tired than of war4 ,in primitive times1 and even1 though decreasingly1 in modern times1 the cause of war has lain not merely in the ends to be attained thereby1 but in the sheer love of war for its own sake-the quickened heartbeats1 the sense of power and daring and achievement1 the joy in martial music and uniforms1 in the rhythmic footsteps of marching men1 in the awakened thrill of patriotism1 the love of effort and sacrifice for a cherished cause4 ,to some extent this primitive lure of war still persists4 ,but1 fortunately1 the glory and excitement of hand-to-hand conflict1 the picturesque valor and visible achievement of earlier battles1 are now gone4 ,the soldier is but a cog in a machine1 usually at a considerable distance from his enemy4 ,he does not know whether his shot has hit or not2 if he is wounded it is by an invisible hand4 ,all the strain and fatigue and pain of war remain1 but little of its glory and delight4 ,moreover1 whatever normal satisfaction has been found in war can be had1 as we shall presently note1 in other ways- in all sorts of generous rivalries and useful as well as exciting endeavors that are open to the modern man4 7#b7 ,war has necessitated discipline1 organization1 courage1 self- sacrifice1 and has thus been a great stimulus to virtues which to some extent have carried over into other fields4 ,it has kept men from sinking into inertia or mere pleasure seeking1 fostered energy and hardihood1 quieted civil strife1 taught the necessity of union and justice at home4 ,the patriotism awakened by struggle against a common enemy has often persisted when the conflict was over1 given birth to art and history1 and many an act of devotion to the ,state4 ,but national solidarity and a regime of justice within the ,state are now our stable possession1 while the hardier and heroic virtues can be awakened in other and less disastrous ways4 ,war has ceased to have its former usefulness as a spur to personal and social morality4 7#c7 ,wars of self-defense have often been necessary1 to preserve goods that would have been lost by conquest2 as when the ,greeks at ,marathon repelled the barbaric hordes of ,asia1 or when ,charles ,martel and the ,franks checked the advance of the ,saracens at ,tours4 ,offensive wars1 even1 may have been necessary to wipe out evils1 such as slavery or the oppression of neighboring peoples4 ,but in modern times the moral justification of war on such grounds has usually been a flimsy pretext2 and certainly the occasion for legitimate warfare is becoming steadily rarer4 ,nearly always the good aimed at could have been attained without the evils of war4 ,if the ,american colonies had had a little more patience1 they could have won the liberty they craved without war and separation from the mother country-as ,canada and ,australia have done4 ,if the ,united ,states had had a little more patience and tact and diplomacy1 it is probable that ,cuba could have been saved from the intolerable oppression of ,spain without war4 ,now that the moral pressure of the world's opinion is becoming so strong1 and the ,hague tribunal stands ready to adjust difficulties1 there is seldom excuse for recourse to brute strength4 ,the real cause of war lies far less often in the moral demand that prefers righteousness to peace than in the touchiness1 selfishness1 and resentments of nations1 or their desire for glory and conquest4 7#d7 ,war has1 directly or indirectly1 been the means of spreading the blessings of civilization4 ,alexander's campaigns brought ,greek culture to the ,eastern world1 the ,roman conquests civilized the ,west1 the famous ,corniche ,road was built by ,napoleon to get his troops into ,italy1 the trans-,siberian railway1 the subsidized steamship lines of modern nations1 the ,panama ,canal1 owe their existence primarily to the fear of war4 ,but today all lands are open to peaceful penetration2 missionaries and traders do more to civilize than armies4 ,and if the building of certain roads and railways and canals might have been somewhat postponed in an era of stable peace1 many more material improvements1 actually more imperative if less spectacular1 would certainly have been carried out with the vast sums of money saved from war expenditures4 ,whatever good ends1 then1 war may have served in the past1 it is now superfluous1 a mere survival of savagery1 a relic of our barbaric past1 a clear injury to man1 in ways which we shall next consider4 ,what are the evils of war8 7#a7 ,we need not dwell on the physical and mental suffering caused by war2 ,general ,sherman's famous declaration1 ,war is hell6 sums the matter up4 ,agonizing wounds1 pitiless disease1 the permanent crippling1 enfeeblement1 or death of vigorous men in the prime of life1 the anguish of wives and sweethearts1 the loneliness of widows1 the lack of care for orphans-it is impossible for those who have not lived through a great war to realize the horror of it1 the cruel pain suffered by those on the field1 the torturing suspense of those left behind4 ,it is1 indeed1 a sad commentary on man's wisdom that1 with all the distress that inevitably inheres in human life1 he should have voluntarily brought upon himself still greater suffering and premature death4 7#b7 ,but the moral harm of war is no less conspicuous than the physical4 ,it fosters cruelty1 callousness1 contempt of life2 it kills sympathy and the gentler virtues2 it coarsens and leads almost inevitably to sensuality4 ,after a war there is always a marked increase in crime and sexual vice2 ex-soldiers are restless1 and find it hard to settle down to a normal life4 ,there is a permanent coarsening of fiber4 ,even the maintenance of armies in time of peace is a great moral danger4 ,the unnatural barrack-life1 the requisite postponement of marriage1 the opportunity for physical and moral contagion1 make military posts commonly sources of moral contamination4 ,prostitution flourishes and illegitimacy increases where soldiers are quartered2 the army is a bad school of morals4 ,add to this indictment the stimulus to national hatreds caused by war1 the inflaming of resentments and checking of international good will4 ,frenchmen still nourish a bitter animosity against the ,germans for the possession of ,alsace and the occupation of ,paris4 ,the instinctive racial antipathies of the ,balkan peoples have been immeasurably deepened by the recent wars on the peninsula4 ,the eventual brotherhood of man is indefinitely postponed by every war and by every rumor of war4 ,the interest in war also takes attention and effort away from the remedying of social and moral evils2 it is useless to attempt any moral campaign while a war is on4 ,jane ,addams tells us1 in ,twenty ,years at ,hull ,house1 that when she visited ,england in #ahif she found it full of social enthusiasm1 scientific research1 scholarship1 and public spirit2 while on a second visit1 in #aijj1 all enthusiasm and energy seemed to be absorbed by the ,boer ,war1 leaving little for humanitarian undertakings4 7#c7 ,a less obvious1 but even more lasting1 evil is that caused by the loss of the best blood of a nation4 ,in general1 the strongest and best men go to the field2 the weaklings and cowards are left to produce the next generation4 ,the inevitable result is racial degeneration4 ,the decline of the ,greek and ,roman civilizations was doubtless in large part due to the continual killing off of the best stocks1 until the earlier and nobler breed of men almost ceased to exist4 ,the effect of modern war is the exact opposite of that of primitive war1 where all the men had to fight1 and the strongest or bravest or swiftest survived2 strength and valor and speed avail nothing against modern projectiles1 and it is the stay-at-homes who are selected for survival1 in general the weakest and least worthy4 ,war is the greatest of dysgenic forces1 and undoes the effect of a hundred eugenic laws4 7#d7 ,the vast and increasing expense of war is a very serious matter for the moralist1 because it means a drain of the resources that might otherwise be utilized for the advance of civilization4 ,the cost of a modern war goes at least into the hundreds of millions of dollars1 and any great war would cost billions4 ,every shot from a modern sixteen inch gun costs approximately a thousand dollars6 ,add to this direct cost the indirect costs of war1 not reckoned in the usual figures-the loss of the time and work of the hundreds of thousands of able-bodied men1 the economic loss of their illness and death1 the destruction of buildings1 bridges1 railways1 etc1 the obstruction of commerce1 the paralysis of industry and agriculture1 the ravages and looting of armies1 the maintenance of hospitals and nurses1 and then1 finally1 the money given in pensions4,footnote3 ,the recent ,balkan war is reckoned to have cost nearly half a million men killed or permanently disabled1 a billion and a half dollars of direct ,add further the cost of the expenditure1 besides many billions of indirect expense4 ,the colossal ,european war just beginning as these pages go to press bids fair to cost immeasurably more aintenance of armies upon a peace-footing-the feeding and clothing of the men1 the building and maintenance of barracks and forts1 of battleships and torpedo boats1 of guns and ammunition1 automobiles1 aeroplanes1 and the increasing list of expensive modern military appurtenances4 ,europe spends nearly two billion dollars a year in times of peace on its armies and navies-money enough to build four or five ,panama canals annually4 ,the entire merchant marine of the world is worth but three billion dollars4 ,more than this1 over four million strong young men are kept under arms in ,europe1 a million more workers are engaged in making ships1 weapons1 gunpowder1 military stores4 ,over a million horses are kept for army use4 ,this money and these men1 if used in the true interests of humanity1 could quickly provide adequate and comfortable housing for every ,european1 adequate schooling1 clothing1 and food for every one4 ,here is the great criminal waste of our times4 ,in ,america our waste is less flagrant1 but it is steadily increasing4 ,we throw away money enough in these fratricidal preparations to cover the country with excellent roads in short order1 or give every child a high school education4 ,in a way1 however1 the rapidly growing cost of war and preparation for war is to be welcomed4 ,for it is this that is creating1 more than all our moral propaganda1 a rising sentiment against war1 and will presently make it impossible4 ,when the ,german militarists became excited over the ,morocco incident in #aiaa1 a financial panic ensued1 credit was withdrawn1 pockets were touched1 and a great protest arose which did much to quench the jingo spirit4 ,japan was induced to sign her treaty of peace with ,russia because her money was giving out4 ,turkey was unable1 in the winter of #aiac-ad1 to renew war with ,greece for the ,aegean ,islands1 because she could not raise a loan till she promised peace4 ,the growing international financial network1 and the revolt of the taxpayers against the incessant draining of their pocketbooks1 promise a change for the better in ,european militarism before very long4 ,what can we do to hasten world-peace8 ,there are powerful forces1 which without our conscious effort are making for the abolition of war3 its growing cost2 the extension of mutual knowledge1 through the newspapers and magazines1 through travel1 through exchange professorships and ,rhodes scholarships and all international associations2 the growing sensitiveness to suffering2 the spread of eugenic ideals2 and the increasing interest in worldwide social1 moral1 and material problems4 ,but the epoch of final peace for man can be greatly accelerated by means which we may now note4 7#a7 ,we may stimulate counter-enthusiasms to take the place of the passion for war4 ,after all1 the great war of mankind is the war against pain1 disease1 poverty1 and sin2 the real heroes are not those who squander human strength and courage in fighting one another1 but those who fight for man against his eternal foes4 ,the war of man against man is dissension in the ranks4 ,we must make it seem more glorious to men to enlist in these humanitarian campaigns than in the miserable civil wars that impede our common triumphs4 ,footnote3 ,cf4 ,perry1 ,moral ,economy1 p4 #cb2 ,war between man and man is an obsolescent form of heroism4 4 4 4 ,the general battle of life1 the first and last battle1 is still on2 and it has that in it of danger and resistance1 of comradeship and of triumph1 that can stir the blood4 ,and cf4 ,president ,eliot's fine eulogy of ,dr4 ,lazear1 who died of yellow fever after voluntarily undergoing inoculation by a mosquito1 in the attempt to learn how to stay the disease3 ,with more than the courage and ,further1 we should awaken interest in innocent devotion of the soldier1 he risked and lost his life to show how a fearful pestilence is communicated and how its ravages may be prevented4 excitements and rivalries-in sports1 in industrial competition1 in missionary enterprise4 ,a world's series in baseball1 or an intercollegiate football season1 can work off the restless energies of many thousands who in earlier days would have lusted for war4 ,the revival of the ,olympic games was definitely planned as a substitute for war4 ,and men must have not only excitements and rivalries1 but real difficulties and dangers-something to try their courage and endurance and train them in hardihood4 ,for this we have exploration and mountaineering1 the prosecution of difficult engineering undertakings1 the attacking of corruption and the achievement of political and social reforms4 ,footnote3 ,cf4 ,w4 ,james1 ,the ,moral ,equivalent of ,war 7in ,memories and ,studies71 p4 #bhg3 ,we must make new energies and hardihood's continue the manliness to which the military mind so faithfully clings4 ,martial virtues must be the enduring cement1 intrepidity1 contempt of softness1 surrender of private interest1 obedience to command1 must still remain the rock upon which states are built4 ,the martial type of character can be bred without war4 ,the only thing needed henceforward is to inflame the civic temper as past history has inflamed the military temper4 7#b7 ,we may spread popular knowledge of the evils of war4 ,it is incredible that this barbarous method of deciding disputes could be continued if the people generally had a lively realization of its cost in pain1 money1 and degradation4 ,already many societies exist for the diffusion of literature on the matter1 ,footnote3 ,and of course for other work in the direction of peace4 ,the oldest such organization in this country is the ,american ,peace ,society4 ,the ,association for ,international ,conciliation1 founded in ,paris by ,baron d' ,estournelles de ,constant1 in #ahii1 has branches now in all the important countries4 ,lately we have ,mr4 ,carnegie's endowments for international peace conscientious editors of journals and newspapers use their columns for peace propaganda1 public schools teach children the evils of war1 ministers use their pulpits to denounce it4 ,all this1 effort must be pushed in greater degree until a general public sentiment is aroused that will insist on the peaceful settlement of all international difficulties4 7#c7 ,indirectly1 too1 education and association can make war more and more unlikely4 ,we can create a greater knowledge of and sympathy with other nations4 ,we can to considerable extent train out pugnacity1 quick temper1 resentfulness1 and train in sensitiveness to suffering1 sympathy1 breadth of view4 ,all such moral progress helps in the war against war4 ,we can encourage the interchange of professors and scientists between countries1 increase the number of professional and industrial international organizations4 ,the ,international ,socialist party1 with its threatened weapon of the general strike against war1 may actually prove to be- whether we like it or not the most efficient of all forces4 ,the ,international ,federation of ,students 7,corda ratres71 founded at ,turin in #ahih1 with its branches in all civilized countries1 may be of great use4 ,a censorship of the press to exclude all jingoistic and inflammatory utterances may at times be necessary4 ,it is even questionable whether uniforms and martial music ought not to be banished for a while1 until the habit of peaceful settlement becomes fixed4 7#d7 ,politically1 we must make our public policies so high and unselfish that other nations cannot justly take offense4 ,most wars are provoked by national greed or selfishness1 lack of manners1 or the breaking of treaty obligations4 ,the ,united ,states1 it must be confessed1 has to some extent lost the respect and trust of other nations for its high- handed methods and disregard of treaties4 ,congress is allowed to modify or abrogate any treaty without consultation with the other nation involved2 and we have what many critics deem acts of grave dishonor upon our record4 ,footnote3 ,for example1 the recent abrogation of our long-standing treaty with ,russia1 without her consent1 which has forfeited her friendship2 or what seemed to many the violation of our treaty-promise to ,england by ,congress in its exemption1 now repealed1 of ,american coastwise shipping from canal tolls4 ,it would be well to engrave over the entrance to the ,capitol the ,psalmist's words3 ,he that sweareth to his own hurt and changeth not4 ways we have needlessly offended and insulted other nations4 ,the voter must watch the conduct of parties and work to elect men who1 refraining from provoking other nations1 will aim for peace4 7#e7 ,practical steps in the direction of peace may be mentioned4 ,most important are arbitration treaties4 ,they must be made binding1 and made to apply to all matters2 the loophole which permits a nation to refuse to arbitrate a matter which it believes to involve its honor practically invalidates the treaty altogether1 as every matter in dispute may be so construed4 ,alliances in which one country agrees to help another if the latter has agreed to arbitrate a matter and its enemy has refused1 may be of great value4 ,treaties that guarantee existing boundaries and bind a nation not to extend its territory are useful1 even if there is no adequate method as yet of enforcing such guaranties4 ,the question whether we shall increase or decrease our army and navy is hotly disputed4 ,the ,united ,states might well lead the way in disarmament1 since the oceans that separate us from ,europe and ,asia are a better protection than forts or fleets1 and no nation has enough to gain by fighting us to make it worth the cost4 ,with the great ,european nations the case is different1 and disarmament will probably have to come by mutual agreement4 ,the only valid reason for an ,american army and navy lies in the power they give us to protect our citizens abroad1 or to protect our weaker neighbors against foreign aggression4 ,perhaps until there is formed an international army and navy1 it will be necessary for the most civilized and pacific nations to keep armed1 since the less scrupulous nations would remain armed and acquire the balance of power4 ,but the contention that a great armament is the best guaranty of peace is untrue1 for two reasons3 it is an inevitable provocation to other nations to match it with other great armaments2 and the very existence of battleships and weapons creates a temptation to use them4 ,the professional soldier is always eager to see active service1 to prove his efficiency1 have excitement1 win glory and advancement4 ,as the ,odyssey puts it1 ,the steel blade itself often incites to deeds of violence4 7#f7 ,the ultimate solution for international difficulties must1 of course1 be world organization4 ,the beginnings of an international court we have already1 the outcome of the first two ,hague ,conferences1 in #ahii and #aijg4 ,it must be given greater powers1 and backed up by an international executive1 legislature1 and police4 ,perhaps the police will be the combined armies of the world put at the service of international justice4 ,this parliament of nations1 federation of the world is not a ,utopian dream2 it is hardly a greater step than that by which savage tribes1 or the thirteen ,states of ,north ,america1 or the ,south ,african and ,australian ,states1 became welded into nations4 ,it is to be remembered that the wager of battle was the original method of settling private disputes2 and even when trial by jury was authorized1 the older form of settlement persisted long-being legally abolished in ,england only as late as #ahai4 ,similarly1 the peaceful settlement of international disputes will doubtless before many generations become so universal that it will be difficult for our grandchildren or great- grandchildren to realize that as late as early in the twentieth century the most civilized nations still had recourse to the old and barbarous wager of battle4 ,h4 ,spencer1 ,patriotism11 ,rebarbarization 7in ,facts and ,comments74 ,g4 ,k4 ,chesterton1 ,patriotism 7in ,the ,defendant74 ,g4 ,santayana1 ,reason in ,society1 chap4 ,,vii4 ,outlook1 vol4 #ib1 p4 #cag2 vol4 #ij1 p4 #ecd4 ,international ,journal of ,ethics1 vol4 #af1 p4 #dgb4 ,the ,american ,association for ,international ,conciliation 7,sub-,station #hd1 ,new ,york ,city7 sends free literature on request4 ,a bibliography of peace literature will be found in their pamphlet ,no4 #fd4 ,e4 ,l4 ,godkin1 ,peace 7in ,reflections and ,comments74 ,w4 ,james1 ,speech at the ,peace ,banquet1 and ,the ,moral ,equivalent of ,war 7in ,memories and ,studies'74 ,jane ,addams1 ,newer ,ideals of ,peace1 chaps4 ,i1 ,,vii2 ,the ,arbiter in ,council4 ,j4 ,novicow1 ,war and its ,alleged ,benefits4 ,n4 ,angell1 ,the ,great ,illusion4 ,w4 ,j4 ,tucker1 ,the ,new ,movement of ,humanity4 ,v4 ,l4 ,kellogg1 ,beyond ,war1 chap4 ,i4 ,d4 ,s4 ,jordan1 ,war and ,waste4 ,r4 ,c4 ,morris1 ,international ,arbitration and ,procedure4 ,international ,journal of ,ethics1 vol4 #bb1 p4 #abg4 ,world's ,work1 vol4 #bj1 p4 #accah2 vol4 #ba1 p4 #adabh4 ,independent1 vol4 #gg1 p4 #cif4 ,outlook1 vol4 #hf1 pp4 #acg1 #ade2 vol4 #hc1 p4 #cgf2 vol4 #hd1 p4 #bi2 vol4 #ih1 p4 #ei4 ,hibbert ,journal1 vol4 #ab1 p4 #aje4 ,,chapter ,,xxiv ,,political ,,purity ,,and ,,efficiency ,,the attainment of a stable peace is the first public duty2 the second is the achievement of an efficient government4 ,where politics are corrupt and inefficient all social progress is obstructed2 and all such ideals of a reshaped human society as the ,socialists yearn toward must be postponed until we have learned to run the machinery of government smoothly and effectively4 ,the backward condition of peoples whose government is unintelligent needs no examples4 ,the ,russo-,japanese ,war brought into sharp contrast a nation of limitless resources and fine human stock handicapped and crippled by a selfish bureaucracy1 and a much smaller nation1 inexperienced and remote from the great world currents1 but strengthened and made efficient by an intelligent and patriotic administration4 ,in ,persia and ,mesopotamia we find poverty1 ignorance1 desert1 where once flourished mighty empires3 bad government is the cause4 ,greece and ,italy and ,egypt are struggling to recover from centuries of misgovernment4 ,in this country government has been far wiser and more responsive to the community's needs2 and yet the apathy of the intelligent public and the intrusion of private greed have distorted and obstructed legislation until social reformers throw up their hands in despair4 ,but there are hopeful signs4 ,the causes of this political mismanagement are being more generally recognized today1 and it is probable that the next few decades will witness great strides toward improving the mechanism of ,american government and banishing corruption4 ,what are the forces making for corruption in politics8 7#a7 ,by one means or other1 unscrupulous rulers and officeholders have always been able to replenish their private income by misuse of their official powers4 ,since popular government was first tried there has existed a class of professional politicians with little regard for the public welfare and ready to do anything to keep themselves in power and fatten their pocketbooks4 ,we have in ,america the well-known phenomena of the machine1 the ring1 and the boss1 whose motto is ,politics is politics1 and who are unashamed to put their interests above those of the people at large4 ,their control of the machinery of government enables them1 unless ingenious provisions prevent1 to wink at illegal voting and fraudulent counting of votes1 to get the dregs of the population out to the polls1 and perhaps intimidate their opponents from voting4 ,the police power has often been misused for such purposes2 the gerrymander is another clever method of manipulating the results of elections4 ,such means1 together with the use as bribe money of funds deflected from the public treasury1 the blackmail of vice1 and the acceptance of contributions from favored parties1 create a vicious circle which tends to keep in power corrupt officials who have once got hold4 7#b7 ,but the power of unscrupulous politicians is made far greater by the support of those whose personal interests they make a business of furthering4 ,whole sections of the people are pleased and placated and bribed by special legislation in their favor1 and as many individuals as possible are given positions4 ,behind every boss there are always hundreds of men who owe their jobs to him1 and many others who cherish promises and hopes for personal favors4 ,jane ,addams tells us that upon one occasion when the reformers in ,chicago tried to oust a corrupt alderman they soon discovered that approximately one out of every five voters in the nineteenth ward at that time held a job dependent upon the good will of the alderman4 ,footnote3 ,twenty ,years at ,hull ,house1 p4 #caf4 7#c7 ,of especial importance are the great interests that are always to be found behind a corrupt administration4 ,these corporations are so dependent upon the good will of the ,government for their prosperity1 and even for their very existence1 that from the primitive instinct of self-preservation as well as from the greed of exorbitant profits1 they stand ready to give liberal bribes1 or at least to back with money and moral support the party machine that promises to favor them4 ,they control a large proportion of the newspapers and magazines1 and are thus able to distort facts1 protect themselves from attack1 and even stir up a factitious distrust of would-be reformers4 ,as every little contractor naturally favors the ring that awards contracts to him1 so the great corporations publicly or secretly support it4 ,the liquor trade and the vice caterers-the keepers of gambling dens1 illegal shows1 and disorderly houses-back by their money and votes the machine that they know will let them alone4 ,but1 indeed1 the most respectable trusts and public-service corporations are often most culpable1 and the greatest power behind the throne4 ,their interest in the personnel of the ,government is far keener than that of the average citizen2 they can usually succeed1 by cleverly specious presentations of the situation1 in dividing the forces against them1 and often1 by deals1 in effecting secret alliances of the rings in control of supposedly opposing parties4 ,the poor are right in supposing that these powerful interests are their greatest enemy2 as that keen observer of our national life1 ,mr4 ,bryce1 has put it1 the power of money is for popular governments the most constant source of danger4 7#d7 ,but1 after all1 this combination of forces in defiance of the common weal would not be effective but for the comparative indifference of the people1 which may thus be called a contributing factor4 ,the average voter feels no stimulus of self-interest in the matter2 what is everybody's business is nobody's business1 and the individual finds his personal influence so slight that it seems hardly worth his pains to do anything about it4 ,occasionally popular passions become aroused and reform movements make a clean sweep2 but the result is usually temporary1 and when the general attention is turned elsewhere the bosses creep back to power4 ,modern life has so many more personal interests in it than the ancient republics had1 that public affairs seldom become so big and absorbing an interest4 ,and the more public affairs become the concern of a special group of men with dubious reputations1 the more politics are shunned by the average citizen4 ,home life and business1 social life and amusements1 aesthetic1 intellectual1 and religious interests1 are so much more attractive to him1 that he gives little heed to political conditions1 lets himself be duped by newspaper talk1 and votes blindly some party ticket1 without realizing his gullibility and his poor citizenship4 ,what are the evil results of political corruption8 7#a7 ,the obvious result of these conditions is inefficiency of administration and waste of the public moneys4 ,the real interests of city or ,state are neglected4 ,streets become filthy1 unsanitary tenements are built1 firetrap factories and theaters allowed2 every effort to improve public health is sidetracked1 and the will of the people is subordinated to the will of the gang4 ,officials are nominated or appointed not for their competence but for their subservience to the organization2 the boss himself1 inexpert in administration1 responsible to no one1 and usually bribable1 dictates public policy4 ,the public funds disappear as in a quicksand2 extravagant prices are paid for building lots and contracts1 in return for political support or a share of the loot4 ,philadelphia before the reform movement of #aiaa borrowed fifty-one million dollars in four years1 and at the end had practically nothing to show for it1 with the city dirty1 buildings out of repair1 and everything important neglected4 ,one contractor in the ring was paid #ebj1jjj a year to remove the city garbage-a privilege which is actually paid for in some cities1 the value of the garbage for fertilizer and the manufacture of other products making the collection of it a profitable business4 7#b7 ,another evil result lies in the subordination of general to local interests4 ,the scattered and ineffective pork-barrel appropriations of ,congress are dictated not by intelligent consideration for the public weal1 but by the desire to throw a sop to this and that section of the country1 and thereby win votes4 ,costly buildings are authorized in many towns where they are not needed1 river and harbor improvements proceed at a halting pace in a hundred places at once1 unnecessary navy yards and custom houses are maintained at heavy cost1 the army is scattered at many small and expensive posts4 ,even the tariff is largely a deal between various manufacturing interests1 rather than an instrument of the public good4 ,most officials consider themselves bound to exert all their influence in favor of their particular constituency's desires2 if they cross those wishes they will probably not be reelected1 while if they sacrifice the interests of the people as a whole they will be immune from punishment4 ,most of the state universities1 normal schools1 asylums1 and other institutions have been located where they are as the result of a deal between different sections rather than with a view to the most advantageous site4 7#c7 ,to these grave evils we must add the moral harm of selfish and corrupt politics4 ,standards of honor are blurred1 the spirit of public service is almost lost sight of1 and the cheap materialism to which our prosperous age is too easily prone flourishes apace4 ,the man who would succeed in politics-unless he is a man of extraordinary personality and favored by good fortune-must be disingenuous and a time-server1 must truckle to bosses and do favors for the ring2 he must appeal to prejudice and passion and put his personal advancement before his ideals4 ,no one can estimate the evil effect that corruption in politics has had upon the national character4 ,when we add the indirect effects- the distortion of the public news-service1 the protection of vice1 the insecurity of justice-the moral evils of political corruption are seen to be of gravest importance4 ,what is the political duty of the citizen8 7#a7 ,in the present chaotic state of our machinery of government1 where corruption is so easy and efficiency so difficult to obtain1 the burden must rest upon every conscientious voter to play his part with intelligence4 ,he must study the situation1 keep himself informed as to candidates and issues1 watch the conduct of officials1 vote at primaries and elections1 however irksome and fruitless this effort may seem4 ,above all1 he must use independence of judgment1 and not let himself be duped by disingenuous appeals to party loyalty2 where blind party voting is prevalent there is little stimulus to party managers to nominate able and honorable men or to promote needed legislation4 ,public opinion must be kept aroused1 the sense of individual responsibility awakened1 and political matters kept in the glare of publicity4 ,at election times whoever can spare the time should1 after learning the local situation1 take some part in the campaign1 by public speaking1 personal soliciting of is a shame that the peaceable home-loving citizen should have to be dragged into this business of politics1 which ought to be left to experts to manage2 but at present there seems no help for it in most communities4 7#b7 ,an important service lies in joining or forming local branches of the leagues which now exist for the pushing of specific political measures1 for the investigation and publication of impartial records of candidates1 or for the investigation of the expenditures and results of administrations4 ,under the first head we may classify1 for example1 the ,national ,short ,ballot ,organization2 under the second head the ,good ,government ,association1 that makes it its business to send to each voter in a community a printed statement of the past history of each candidate for office1 including the record of his vote on important matters2 under the third head there are the ,bureaus of ,municipal ,research4 ,the ,new ,york ,bureau1 incorporated in #aijg1 conducts a yearly budget exhibit that shows graphically what is being done with the money raised by taxation4 ,inefficiency and corruption are ferreted out1 waste is demonstrated1 suggestions are made for economy1 for the improvement of administration in every detail1 and the amelioration of evil social conditions4 ,by its determined publicity it can do much to energize and modernize city government4 ,footnote3 ,cf4 ,world's ,work1 vol4 #bc1 p4 #fhc4 ,national ,municipal ,review1 vol4 #b4 p4 #dh4 7#c7 ,the outlook for clean and public-spirited young men1 with expert knowledge and ideals1 who wish to enter a political career1 is gradually becoming more encouraging4 ,the reformer in politics must be not merely an idealist1 but a man who can do things4 ,he must show his constituents that reform government serves them better than the ringsters4 ,reform tactics have too often been negative2 stopped1 but no positive measures for social welfare have been passed4 ,to be successful1 a politician must show the people that he understands and is able to satisfy their needs4 ,more effective than any moral house- cleaning in securing the tenure of an administration is its efficiency in promoting better living and working conditions1 improving opportunities for recreation and education1 or loosening the clutch of the predatory interests4 ,moreover1 the politician must be a good mixer1 willing to work with those who do not share his idealism1 good- natured and conciliatory1 ready to postpone the accomplishment of much that he has at heart in order to get something done4 ,as organization is in most matters necessary for effectiveness1 he must usually work with a party1 do a lot of distasteful detail work1 and make compromises for the sake of agreements4 ,happily1 the ,progressive party has made an out- and-out stand for the application of morals to politics2 and the growing movement in the cities toward seeking experts to manage their affairs gives hope that the way will soon be generally open for men of scientific training and high ideals in political life4 ,what legislative checks to corruption are possible8 ,it is1 of course1 an unnatural situation when the ordinary citizen has to spend a lot of time and effort if he would guard against being misgoverned4 ,he ought to be able to tend to his own affairs and leave the machinery of government to those who have been trained to it and whose business it is4 ,and while no political mechanism will ever wholly run itself1 without watchfulness on the part of the people1 experience shows clearly that it is possible by a wise system to make corruption much more difficult and more easily checked4 ,we ,americans are beginning to awake from our complacent self-gratulation and realize that our political machinery is clumsy and antiquated and a standing invitation to inefficiency4 ,the discussion of the relative advantages of legislative schemes belongs to the science of government rather than to ethics2 but their bearing upon public morality is so important that certain typical movements must be explained4 ,the stages by which the advanced form of popular government which we have now attained has been reached need not1 for our purposes1 be considered-the extension of suffrage to the masses1 government by representatives1 registration laws1 the secret ballot1 and the like4 ,we need only discuss several reforms now being agitated and tried1 whose aim is to make government more responsive to the real wishes and needs of the people1 and more difficult of usurpation by selfish interests4 ,i4 ,we may first speak of several reforms whose aim is to improve our mechanism of election1 in order that merit1 rather than pull1 shall lead to office1 and that officials shall represent the people rather than the political rings4 ,it is not generally true that good and able men are unwilling to accept public office2 what they are unwilling to do is to truckle to bosses1 to do all the questionable things that will keep them in with the ring1 or to spend large sums of money in advertising their claims to the public4 ,so thoroughly have political machines entrenched themselves that it is often practically useless for any one to oppose the machine candidate4 ,appointees receive their positions for political services rendered1 or in return for a campaign contribution for which they may hope to recoup themselves when in office4 ,to destroy utterly this political graft will be impossible until human nature becomes more generally moralized2 but to render it more difficult and less common is the purpose of a number of measures1 of which we may mention the following3 7#a7 ,,civil ,,service ,,laws4 ,these require appointments to office1 made by officials1 to be made on the basis of competitive examinations which shall test the ability and knowledge of the applicants4 ,by this means1 within a generation1 tens of thousands of positions have been put beyond the reach of spoilsmen1 and men of worth have replaced political henchmen4 ,instead of a great overturn with every new political regime1 the man who has now fairly won his position retains it for life1 except in case of proved inefficiency4 ,the quality of the public service has been immeasurably improved1 the subservience of office-holders to political chiefs abolished4 ,footnote3 ,see ,atlantic ,monthly1 vol4 #aac1 p4 #bgj4 ,national ,municipal ,review1 vol4 #a1 p4 #fed2 vol4 #c1 p4 #caf4 ,but there are still many thousands of offices that have not been brought within the civil service1 and there are continual attempts on the part of politicians to withdraw from it this or that class of appointments1 that they may have plums to offer their constituents4 ,to the most important positions the civil service method is1 however1 inapplicable2 imagine a ,president having to appoint as his ,secretary of ,state the man who passed the best examination in diplomacy6 ,so many other considerations affect the availability of a man for such posts that the elected officials must be given a free hand in their choice and held responsible therefore to the people4 ,these important appointees will be enough in the public eye to make it usually expedient for the career of the appointers that they pick reasonably honest and able men-especially if the recall 7of which we shall presently speak7 is in operation4 7#b7 ,the short ballot4 ,as our government has grown more and more complex1 the number of officials for whom the citizen must vote has increased1 with the result that he has to decide in many cases among rival candidates about none of whom he knows anything definitely4 ,for four or five offices he can be fairly expected the merits of the candidates in the field2 but to investigate or remember the relative merits and demerits of a score or more is more than the average voter will do4 ,so he may scratch his party's candidate for governor or mayor1 but usually votes the straight ticket for the minor officials4 ,this works too well into the hands of the political machines4 ,the obvious remedy is to give him only a few officers to vote for and to require the remaining offices to be filled by appointment instead of election4 ,by this method1 not only is the voter saved from needless confusion and enabled to concentrate his attention upon the few big offices1 but the responsibility for misgovernment is far more clearly fixed1 and the possibility of remedying it made much easier4 ,if a dozen state officials are elected1 the average citizen is uncertain who is to blame for inefficiency2 each official shoves the responsibility on to the others' shoulders1 and it is not plain what can be done except to depose them all1 one by one4 ,if a governor only is elected1 and is required to appoint his subordinates1 the entire blame rests upon his shoulders4 ,if dishonesty or misadministration is discovered1 he must take the shame2 he may be recalled from office if he is not quick enough in removing the guilty man and remedying the evil4 ,further1 the right to choose his own subordinates makes the work of the chief much easier1 brings a unity of purpose into an administration which is likely to be absent when a number of different men1 simultaneously elected1 perhaps representing different parties1 have to work together4 ,the increased power and responsibility of the chief offices attract able men1 men of ideals and training1 who do not care for an office whose power is limited by that of various machine politicians who1 they know1 will hamper them on every side in their efforts for efficient administration4 ,and1 apart from this consideration1 a man able enough to win election as governor is a far better judge of the men best fitted for the various technical duties that fall to his subordinates than is the general public4 ,experience shows that the men chosen by chiefs who are elected and held responsible to the people are generally abler than those elected to the same positions by popular vote4 ,the present movement toward a short ballot1 with responsibility clearly denned and concentrated1 will doubtless do away ultimately with the clumsy systems by which both ,states and cities in this country are now governed-the two-chambered legislatures1 with their inevitable friction betwixt themselves and with the executive4 ,this method of checks and counter-checks was thought necessary as a safeguard against tyranny1 the bugbear of our forefathers1 but is now the enemy of efficiency and the haunt of corruption4 ,the much simpler commission form of government1 which1 originating in ,galveston and ,des ,moines a few years ago1 has already1 at date of writing1 been adopted by over three hundred cities1 substitutes for the usual executive and legislative branches a small group of elected officials - commonly five-who1 with the aid of appointed subordinates1 carry on the whole business of the city4 ,some such plan may eventually be adopted for states1 and even for the national government4 ,footnote3 ,r4 ,s4 ,childs1 ,short ,ballot ,principles1 ,story of the ,short ,ballot ,cities4 ,c4 ,a4 ,beard1 ,loose ,leaf ,digest of ,short ,ballot ,charters4 ,free literature of the ,national ,short ,ballot ,organization 7#chc ,fourth ,avenue1 ,new ,york ,city74 ,c4 ,r4 ,woodruff1 ,city ,government by ,commission4 ,e4 ,s4 ,bradford1 ,com- mission ,government in ,american ,cities4 ,national ,municipal ,review1 vol4 #a1 pp4 #dj1 #agj1 #cgb1 #efb2 vol4 #b1 p4 #ffa4 ,the ,american ,city1 vol4 #i1 p4 #bcf4 ,outlook1 vol4 #ib1 pp4 #fce1 #hbi2 vol4 #ii1 p4 #cfb4 ,forum1 vol4 #ea1 p4 #ced4 7#c7 ,direct primaries4 ,experience has conclusively shown that the caucus system of making nominations for office plays directly into the hands of the machine2 its practical result has been that the voter is usually restricted in his nominees of the bosses and the interests4 ,the direct primary gives the independent candidate his opportunity1 and makes it more practicable for honest citizens to determine between what candidates the final choice shall lie4 ,it implies effort on the part of the candidate to make himself known to the voters2 but such effort there must always be1 unless the candidate is already a conspicuous figure1 in order that the citizen may have grounds for his decision4 ,it has in some places led to an exorbitant expenditure for self-advertisement2 but this expenditure can be pretty well controlled by legislation4 ,the argument that it does away with the deliberation possible in a caucus wears the aspect of a joke1 in view of the sort of deliberation the caucus has in practice encouraged2 and discussion does1 of course1 take place in the public press1 which is the modern forum4 ,it is possible1 however1 that some modified form of the direct primary plan may be better still1 such as the ,hughes plan1 which provided for the election at each primary of a party committee to present carefully discussed nominations for the following year's primary to approve or reject4,footnote3 ,see ,outlook1 vol4 #ij1 p4 #chb2 vol4 #ie1 p3 #ejg4 ,north ,american ,review1 vol4 #aij1 p4 #a ,arena1 vol4 #ce1 p4 #ehg2 vol4 #cf1 p4 #eb2 vol4 #da1 p4 #eej4 ,forum1 vol4 #db1 p4 #dic4 ,atlantic ,monthly1 vol4 #aaj1 p4 #da4 7#d7 ,,preferential ,,voting4 ,a more radical movement would abolish primaries altogether and settle elections upon one day by preferential voting4 ,the voter indicates his second choices1 and any further choices he may care to indicate4 ,if no candidate receives a majority of first choices1 the first and second choices are added together2 if necessary1 the third choices4 ,in this way the danger1 so often realized1 of a split vote and the election of a minority candidate1 will be banished2 it will no longer be possible for a machine candidate1 actually the least majority of the people1 to win a plurality over the divided forces of opposition4 ,the real wishes of the voter can be discovered and obeyed more readily than with our present troublesome and expensive system of double elections4 ,footnote3 ,national ,municipal ,review1 vol4 #a1 p4 #chf2 vol4 #c1 pp4 #di1 #hc4 7#e7 ,,proportional ,,representation4 ,by means of preferential voting it is possible to make representative bodies a mirror not of the majority party1 but of the real divisions of opinion in a community4 ,one of the great evils in our present system of majority rule is the suppression of the wishes of the minority-which may amount to nearly half the community4 ,footnote3 ,cf4 ,unpopular ,review1 vol4 #a1 p4 #bb4 ,strong parties may go for many years without any representation1 or with representation quite disproportionate to their numbers4 ,by the method of proportional representation1 every man's vote counts1 and every considerable body of opinion can send its representative to council4 ,men of marked personality1 who have aroused too great hostility to make them safe candidates as we vote today1 because they would be unlikely to win a majority1 can get a constituency sufficient to elect them1 while the harmless nobody1 elected today only to avoid a feared rival1 will have less chance4 ,the evil gerrymander will be abolished1 and representative bodies will be divided along party lines in the very proportions in which the people are divided4 ,moreover1 since on this plan every vote counts1 the greatest source of political apathy will be removed-that sense of hopelessness which paralyzes the efforts of the members of a minority party4 ,corruption will hardly pay2 for whereas at present the boss has but to win the comparatively few votes necessary to swing the balance toward a bare majority1 in order to have complete control1 he will upon this plan secure control only in actual proportion to the number of votes he can secure4 ,another advantage of the system lies in the stabler policy it will ensure4 ,our present system results in frequent sharp overturns1 according as this party or that may get a temporary majority4 ,but this battledore and shuttlecock of legislation does not represent the far more gradual changes in public opinion4 ,a system whereby the number of representatives of each party is always directly proportioned to the number of votes cast for that party would make it possible to evolve a careful machinery of government1 as is not possible with our periodic upheavals and reversals of personnel and policy4,footnote3 ,see publications of the ,american ,proportional ,representation ,league 7,secretary ,c4 ,g4 ,hoag1 ,haverford1 ,pennsylvania74 ,national ,municipal ,review1 vol4 #c1 p4 #ib4 ,american ,city1 vol4 #aj1 p4 #cai4 ,thomas ,hare1 ,representation4 ,j4 ,s4 ,mill1 ,representative ,government1 chap4 ,,vii4 ,political ,science ,quarterly1 vol4 #bi1 p4 #aaa4 ,atlantic ,monthly1 vol4 #aab1 p4 #faj4 7#f7 ,,the ,,separation ,,of ,,national1 ,,state1 ,,and ,,local ,,issues4 ,the obtrusion of national party lines into state and municipal affairs has continually confused issues and blocked reforms in the narrower spheres4 ,masses of voters will support a candidate for governor or mayor simply because he is a ,republican or ,democrat1 although the national party issues in no way enter into the campaign4 ,bosses skillfully play on this blind party allegiance1 and many a scoundrel or incompetent has ridden into office under the party banner4 ,the separation of local from national elections has proved itself a necessity2 in the most advanced communities they are now put in different years1 that the loyalties evoked by one campaign may not carry over blindly into another4 ,the direct election of ,united ,states ,senators has this great advantage1 among others1 of separating issues2 in former days the alternative was often forced upon the citizen of voting for a state legislator who stood for measures of which he disapproved1 or of voting for a better legislator who would not vote for the ,united ,states ,senator he wished to see elected4 7#g7 ,space forbids the further discussion of reforms that aim at improving the machinery of election4 ,the value of anti-bribery laws is obvious1 as of the laws that require publicity of campaign accounts1 forbid campaign contributions by corporations1 and limit the legal expenditures of individuals4 ,footnote3 ,cf4 ,outlook1 vol4 #ha1 p4 #edi4 ,the publication at public expense and sending to every voter of a pamphlet giving in his own words the arguments on the strength of which each candidate seeks election has recently been tried in the ,west4 ,but this is sure1 that in one way or other the ,american people will evolve a mechanism which will make it easier for able and honest men to attain office than for the rogues and their incompetent henchmen4 ,,ii4 ,a second set of reforms bears rather upon the quality of legislation than upon the selection of men for office4 ,it is not enough that the way be made easy for good men to attain office2 they must1 when elected1 be freed from needless temptations and given every inducement to work for the interests of the community they represent4 ,every possible pressure is valuable that can counteract the pull of sectional interests1 party interests1 or the interests of the great corporations1 away from the general welfare4 ,for even the best intentioned officials may yield to the insistence of local or partisan wishes1 to the arguments of big business1 or to the lure of personal advantage4 7#a7 ,,representation ,,at ,,large4 ,the method of legislation by representatives of local districts leads inevitably to laws that are a compromise or bargain between the interests of the several districts1 rather than the result of a desire to further the best interests of the entire community4 ,congressmen are continually beset by their constituents to secure special favors for them1 aldermen are expected to push the interests of their respective wards4 ,each representative stands in danger of political suicide if he refuses to use his influence for these often improper ends2 and legislation takes the form of a quid pro quo3-,you vote for this bill which my section desires1 and ,i'll vote for the bill yours demands4 ,this evil is so great that it may be necessary eventually to do away entirely with district representation4,footnote3 ,see ,outlook1 vol4 #ie1 p4 #gei4 7#b7 ,,delegated ,,government4 ,another plan1 which evades the pressure of local interests while allowing district representation1 also avoids the friction and deadlocks which result from government by a group of representatives of sharply opposed parties or principles4 ,by this plan1 a representative body is elected1 by districts1 or at large1 by proportional representation2 but this body1 instead of itself deciding or executing the state or municipal policy1 serves merely to select and watch experts1 who carry on the various phases of government4 ,these experts remain responsible to the representatives1 who in turn are responsible to the people4 ,this method promises to combine concentration of responsibility1 efficiency1 and business-like government1 with democracy1 that is1 responsiveness to popular control4 ,the national ,congress may1 for example1 appoint a commission of experts on the tariff1 agreeing to consider no tariff legislation except such as they recommend2 in this way they are freed from all requests to propose this or that alteration in the interests of their ,state or one of its industries1 while the commissioners1 not being responsible to any localities1 are under no pressure to yield to such requests4 ,similarly1 the right to recommend-or even to enact-legislation on pensions1 on river and harbor appropriations1 or what not1 may be delegated to an appointed body responsible only to the ,congress at large2 and all the pork-barrel legislation1 which the better class of legislators hate1 but which is forced upon them by the threat of political ruin1 may be obviated4 ,footnote3 ,cf4 the new 7#aiad7 ,public ,health ,council of six members1 in ,new ,york ,state1 to whom has been delegated all power to make and enforce laws bearing upon the public health throughout the ,state 7except in ,new ,york ,city74 ,see ,world's ,work1 vol4 #bg1 p4 #die4 ,the plan of delegating power to appointed experts has very recently been winning approval in municipal government1 where it is commonly called the ,city ,manager plan4 ,a small body of commissioners are elected and held responsible for the city government2 these men may remain in their private vocations1 and draw a comparatively small salary from the city4 ,their duty is to select an expert city manager who will receive a high salary1 and conduct personally and through his appointees the whole business of the city4 ,the commissioners may dismiss him if his work is not satisfactory and engage another to take his place4 ,responsibility is concentrated2 mismanagement can be stopped at once1 more readily even than by the recall2 unity and continuity of policy become possible2 in short1 the same successful methods that have made ,american business the admiration of the world can be applied to politics4 ,if this plan becomes widely adopted1 as it bids fair to be1 politics can become a trained profession1 and we can be governed by experts instead of by politicians4 ,footnote3 ,see ,the ,city ,manager ,plan of ,municipal ,government 7printed by the ,national ,short ,ballot ,organization7 ,national ,municipal ,review1 vol4 #a1 pp4 #cc1 #edi2 vol4 #b1 pp4 #gf1 #fci2 vol4 #c1 p4 #dd4 ,outlook1 vol4 #ajd1 p4 #hhg4 7#c7 ,,the ,,recall4 ,many of the newer plans for government include a method by which an inefficient or dishonest official can be removed from office by the people1 without the cumbersome process of an impeachment4 ,it would not be wise to apply the recall to local representatives1 who would then be still more at the mercy of local wishes2 but with a short ballot and the concentration of responsibility upon executives or small commissions who represent the community as a whole1 it is highly desirable to have a method available for quickly remedying mistakes4 ,the danger of being recalled from office is a salutary influence upon a weak or a self-willed man4 ,and the possibility of it allows the election of officials for longer terms1 which are desirable from several points of view3 they bring a more stable government1 freed from too frequent breaks or reversals of policy2 they permit the acquiring of a longer political experience1 and stimulate abler men to run for office2 they save the public the bother and expense of too frequent elections4 ,footnote3 ,see ,national ,municipal ,review1 vol4 #a1 p4 #bjd4 ,forum1 vol4 #dg1 p4 #aeg4 ,north ,american ,review1 vol4 #aih1 p4 #ade4 7#d7 ,,the ,,referendum4 ,a less drastic instrument of popular control over legislation is the referendum1 which refers individual measures back to the people for approval or rejection4 ,an official may be efficient and free from corruption1 yet opposed to the general wish on some particular matter4 ,in this1 then1 he may be overruled by the referendum without being humiliated or required to resign his office4 ,thus not only the improper influence of the machine or the interests may be guarded against by the public1 but the unconscious prejudices of generally efficient officials4 ,of course there is1 in the case of both recall and referendum1 the possibility that the official may be right and the people wrong4 ,but that danger is inherent in democratic government4 ,the best that can be done is to make government responsive to the sober judgment of the majority2 if that is mistaken1 nothing but time and education can correct it4 ,footnote3 ,see ,w4 ,b4 ,munro1 ,the ,initiative1 ,referendum and ,recall2 ,the ,government of ,american ,cities1 p4 #cba4 ,political ,science ,quarterly1 vol4 #bf1 p4 #dae2 vol4 #bh1 p4 #bjg4 ,national ,municipal ,review1 vol4 #a1 p4 #ehf4 ,nation1 vol4 #ie1 p4 #cbd4 ,the air is full of suggestions1 and experiments are being tried in every direction4 ,there is every hope that ,america may yet learn by her failures and evolve a system of government that shall be her pride rather than her shame4 ,our ,national ,government has worked far better than our state and local government1 but even that can be further freed from the pull of improper motives1 made much more efficient and responsive to the general will4 ,we are in a peculiar degree on trial to show what popular government can accomplish4 ,the ,old ,world looks to us with distrust1 but with hope4 ,and though the solution of our political problem involves many technical matters1 it has deep underlying moral bearings1 and affects profoundly the success of every great moral campaign4 ,r4 ,c4 ,brooks1 ,corruption in ,american ,politics and ,life4 ,l4 ,steffens1 ,the ,shame of the ,cities4 ,j4 ,bryce1 ,the ,hindrances to ,good ,government4 ,w4 ,e4 ,weyl1 ,the ,new ,democracy1 chaps4 ,,viii1 ,,ix4 ,jane ,addams1 ,democracy and ,social ,ethics1 chap4 ,,vii4 ,a4 ,t4 ,hadley1 ,standards of ,public ,morality1 chaps4 ,,iv1 ,v4 ,t4 ,roosevelt1 ,american ,ideals4 ,c4 ,r4 ,henderson1 ,the ,social ,spirit in ,america1 chap4 ,,xi4 ,edmond ,kelly1 ,evolution and ,effort1 chap4 ,,ix4 ,w4 ,h4 ,taft1 ,four ,aspects of ,civic ,duty4 ,e4 ,root1 ,the ,citizen's ,part in ,government4 ,d4 ,f4 ,wilcox1 ,government by ,all the ,people4 ,l4 ,s4 ,rowe1 ,problems of ,city ,government4 ,h4 ,e4 ,deming1 ,the ,government of ,american ,cities4 ,publications of the ,national ,municipal ,league 7#gjc ,north ,american ,building1 ,philadelphia74 ,political ,science ,quarterly1 vol4 #ah1 p4 #ahh2 vol4 #ai1 p4 #fgc2 ,,chapter ,,xxv ,,social ,,alleviation ,,when the security of peace and an efficient government are attained1 the way lies open for the amelioration of social evils4 ,freedom from war and from political corruption are but the pre-conditions of social advance1 which must consist in three things3 the healing of existing ills1 the reorganization of society to prevent the recurrence of similar ills1 and the bringing of new opportunities and joys to the people4 ,our first step1 then1 is to consider social therapeutics-the palliation of present suffering1 the redressing of existing wrongs2 however we may seek1 by radical readjustments1 to strike at the roots of these evils1 we must not fail to mitigate1 as best we can1 the lot of those who are the unfortunate victims of our still crude social organization4 ,the detailed study of social ills and their remedies has come to be a science by itself1 and a science that calls for close attention2 for there is more good will than insight a field1 and nothing demands more wisdom and experience than the permanent curing of social sores4 ,but it falls to ethics to note the general duties and opportunities1 to point out the responsibility of the individual citizen for wrongs which he is not helping to right1 and to direct him to the great moral causes in one or more of which an increasing number of our educated men and women are enrolling themselves4 ,a questionnaire recently sent out by the author of this book discloses the fact that over half the college graduates of this country have given time and money to one or more of the campaigns which are being waged for social betterment4 ,footnote3 ,some of the results of this questionnaire were published in the ,independent for ,august #e1 #aiac1 vol4 #ge1 p4 #cdh4 ,these evils which it is the duty of the ,state to try to remedy we shall now consider4 ,what is the duty of the ,state in regard to3 ,i4 ,,sickness ,,and ,,preventable ,,death8 ,physical ills are the unavoidable lot of the human race2 but by no means to the extent to which they now prevail4 ,a very large percentage of existing sickness and infirmity could have been prevented by a timely application of such knowledge as the intelligent already possess4 ,it is the poverty1 the crowded and unsanitary living conditions1 the ignorance and helplessness of the masses1 that perpetuate all this unnecessary suffering1 this economic waste1 this drag on human efficiency and happiness4 ,not only from humanitarian motives1 but also from regard for national prosperity and virility1 it behooves the ,state to wage war against preventable illness and safeguard the general health4 ,how shocking conditions are1 in view of the sanitary and medical knowledge we now possess1 we are not apt to realize4 ,it is estimated that of the three million or so who are seriously ill in this country on any average day1 more than half might have been kept well by the enforcement of proper precautions2 that of the #a1ejj1jjj deaths that occur annually in the ,united ,states1 nearly half could have been postponed4 ,tuberculosis1 for example1 is not a highly contagious or rapid disease2 it is absolutely preventable by measures now understood1 and almost always curable in its earliest stages4 ,yet half a million people in our country are suffering from it1 and about #acj1jjj die of it annually4 ,typhoid1 which could readily be as nearly eradicated as smallpox has been1 claims some #cj1jjj victims annually4 ,it has been estimated by various statisticians that the nation could save a billion dollars a year through postponing deaths1 and at least half as much again by preventing illness that does not result fatally4 ,tuberculosis alone is said to cost the country half a billion annually1 typhoid over three hundred million1 and so on4 ,the cost in suffering1 broken lives1 and broken hearts is beyond computation4 ,there are many different ways in which the campaign for public health can be simultaneously waged3 7#a7 ,the enforcement of quarantine laws1 vaccination1 and fumigation1 should be much stricter than it is in many parts of the nation4 ,by such means the cholera1 bubonic plague1 and other terrible diseases have been practically kept out of the country1 and smallpox has become1 from one of the most dreaded scourges1 an almost negligible peril4 ,experience shows strikingly the advantage of isolating patients suffering from contagious diseases2 here at least the ,state1 in the interest of the community as a whole1 must sternly limit individual liberty4 ,and it looks as if we were at the threshold of an era of vaccination for other diseases besides smallpox2 typhoid is now absolutely preventable by that means1 and the number of diseases amenable to prevention or mitigation by similar methods is yearly increasing4 ,in some or all of these cases there is a slight risk to the patient1 in view of which compulsory vaccination is in some quarters strenuously opposed4 ,leaving the discussion of the principle here involved to chapter ,,xxviii1 we may confidently say1 at least1 that voluntary inoculation against diseases is an increasingly valuable safeguard not only for the individual in question but for the whole community4 7#b7 ,apart from state action1 voluntary organizations formed to attack specific diseases1 by spreading popular knowledge of preventive measures1 and pushing legislation for their enforcement1 offer much promise4 ,the ,anti-,tuberculosis ,league can already point to a ten per cent decline in the death rate from that plague in the decade from #aijj to #aiaj4 ,footnote3 ,for methods and results consult the ,secretary of the ,national ,association for the ,study and ,prevention of ,tuberculosis1 #aje ,east ,twenty-second ,street1 ,new ,york ,city4 ,free literature is sent1 and information furnished on request4 ,but while in ,new ,york ,city alone nearly thirty thousand fresh victims are seized by the disease every year1 a voluntary organization cannot hope to cope with the situation2 the power and resources of the ,state are needed4 ,the congestion of population1 and the lack of proper light and air1 which are the greatest factors1 perhaps1 in the spread of the scourge1 must be attacked by legislation4 ,so typhoid must be fought not only by vaccination1 but by legislation insuring a pure water supply1 proper sewage disposal1 and the protection of food from contamination4 ,measures necessary to eradicate that pest1 the house fly1 must be enforced1 the mosquito must be as nearly as possible exterminated1 streets and yards must be kept clean1 the smoke nuisance abated1 the slaughtering of animals and canning of food sharply regulated1 sanitary conditions enforced in homes and factories4 ,one of the prerequisites to any marked improvement will be the taking out of politics of the public health service and making it an expert profession4 7#c7 ,another service that the community must eventually1 in its own interests1 provide1 is free medical attendance1 by really competent physicians1 wherever there is need4 ,without referring to the suffering and anxiety spared1 the expense of this service will far more than be saved the ,state in the prevention of illness and premature death4 ,the most careful medical inspection of school children1 including attention by experts to eyes1 ears1 and teeth1 is of utmost importance2 all sorts of ills can thus be averted which the parents are too ignorant or careless to forestall4 ,footnote3 ,consult the literature of the ,american ,school ,hygiene ,association 7,secretary ,t4 ,a4 ,storey1 ,college of the ,city of ,new ,york74 ,l4 ,d4 ,cruickshank1 ,school ,clinics at ,home and ,abroad4 ,outlook1 vol4 #hd1 p4 #ffb4 ,it is earnestly to be hoped that the present chaos of medical education and practice will be soon reduced to a better order2 that practitioners who prefer manipulation or mental healing1 for example1 will1 instead of forming separate and antagonistic schools1 unite their insight and experience with the main stream of scientific therapeutic effort4 ,the quacks who delude and murder hordes of ignorant victims must be1 so far as is practicable1 severely punished2 and adequate physiological and medical education should be required for all practicing healers1 whatever methods they may then choose to employ4 7#d7 ,besides free medical attendance1 the ,state must pro- vide free hospitals for the sick1 nurses for the poor1 asylums for those who are incapacitated by infirmity from self-support4 ,the care and treatment of the feeble-minded1 the insane1 the deaf1 the blind1 the crippled1 should always be in the hands of experts2 and1 so far as possible1 work that they can do must be provided4 ,with the enforcement of the measures we have enumerated1 the need of such institutions will become much less2 but at present they are inadequate in number and equipment1 too often managed by incompetent officials1 and not always free from scandal4 ,footnote3 ,cf4 ,c4 ,r1 ,henderson1 ,social ,spirit in ,america1 chap4 ,,xv4 7#e7 ,most important of all1 perhaps1 is the work that must be done to save the babies4 ,approximately a third of the babies born in this country die before they are four years old2 half or two thirds of these could be saved4 ,wonderful results in baby saving have followed strict control of the milk supply and the banishing of the fly4 ,besides this1 mothers must in some way be given instruction in the very difficult and complicated art of rearing infants2 for many of the deaths are due to simple ignorance4,footnote3 ,for methods and results in baby-saving1 consult the ,secretary of the ,national ,association for the ,study and ,prevention of ,infant ,mortality1 #abaa ,cathedral ,street1 ,baltimore1 ,maryland4 ,also ,outlook1 vol4 #aja1 p4 #aij4 ,j4 ,s4 ,gibbon1 ,infant ,welfare ,centers4 ,poverty1 the necessity of self- support on the part of mothers1 also plays a large part2 we shall consider in chapter xxx the possibility of state care of mothers during the infancy of their children4 ,,ii4 ,poverty and inadequate living conditions8 ,if human illness can be in large measure averted by state action1 poverty can be practically abolished4 ,the poor we have always had with us1 indeed2 but we need not forever have them4 ,there is no excuse for our tolerance of the suffering and degradation of the submerged classes2 the causes of this wretchedness are in the main removable4 ,the initial cost will be great1 but in the long run the saving to the community will be enormous4 ,individual effort can only achieve a superficial and temporary relief2 and even the two or three hundred charity organization societies in the country are impotent1 for lack of funds and of power1 to stem the forces that make for poverty4 ,to dole out charity to this family and to that is unhappily necessary in our present crude social situation2 but it is not a solution4 ,it not only runs the continual risk of encouraging shiftlessness and dependence1 but it does not go to the root of the matter4 ,there will always be inequalities in wealth and room for personal gifts from the more to the less fortunate2 but the ,state must not be content with such patching and palliating1 but must strike at the roots of the evil4 ,we will consider the chief causes of poverty and their cure4 7#a7 ,the cause that bulks largest is the inadequate wages of a considerable portion of the lowest class4 ,it is obviously impossible to support the average family of five in decency1 not to say in health1 efficiency1 or comfort1 with an income of1 say1 less than a thousand dollars a year1 as prices go at time of writing 7#aiad74 ,yet great numbers of families at present have to exist somehow upon less1 even much less4 ,five million adult male workers in this country receive less than six hundred dollars a year for their work4,footnote3 ,cf4 ,professor ,fairchild's comments in ,forum1 vol4 #eb1 p4 #di 7,july1 #aiad74 ,even when mothers work who ought to be at home tending the children1 even when children work who ought to be in school1 the total income is often miserably inadequate4 ,yet there is ample wealth in the country1 if it were better distributed1 to pay a living wage to every laborer4 ,by some one of the means which we shall presently discuss1 the ,state must see that all laborers are well enough paid to enable them1 while they work1 to support in comfort a moderate family4 7#b7 ,involuntary unemployment is the next source of poverty4 ,this is due to many causes3 the periodic depressions and failures of industries2 the introduction of new machinery1 throwing out whole classes of laborers2 the enormous influx of immigrants and consequent congestion in the cities of unskilled labor2 lack of education1 or natural stupidity1 which render some men too incompetent to retain positions4 ,ignorance can be overcome by proper compulsory education laws2 all but the actually feeble-minded 7who must be cared for in institutions7 can1 by skillful attention1 be taught proficiency in some trade4 ,and with a more widespread education the work that requires no skill can be left to the hopelessly stupid4 ,the congestion of labor in the cities ,footnote3 ,in ,february1 #aiad1 there were reported to be #cej1jjj men out of work in ,new ,york ,city 7,outlook1 ,march #ad1 #aiad74 can be largely remedied by free state employment bureaus which shall serve as distributing agencies2 there is almost always work enough and to spare in some parts of the country1 and usually not far away4 ,but more than this is necessary2 the ,state must see that work is offered every man who is able to work4 ,all sorts of public works need unskilled laborers in every city of the country2 there is digging to be done1 shoveling and sweeping and carting4 ,there are roads to be built1 rivers to be dredged1 parks to be graded1 buildings to be erected1 a thousand things to be done4 ,it will be quite feasible1 when wages are generally adequate1 for the cities1 by general agreement1 to offer work to all applicants at a wage so low as not to attract men away from other employments1 and yet to enable them to support their families decently4 ,the low wages given will save the city much money directly1 as well as saving it the care of the indigent4 ,but it will be a feasible plan only when the city's jobs cease to be used as a means of vote-buying by politicians and are offered where they are needed4 ,footnote3 #a ,see ,w4,h4 ,beveridge1 ,unemployment4 ,j4,a4 ,hobson1 ,the ,problem of the ,unemployed4 ,alden and ,hayward1 ,the ,unemployable and the ,unemployed4 ,c4 ,s4 ,loch1 ,methods of ,social ,advance1 chap4 ,,ix4 ,quarterly ,journal of ,economics1 vol4 #h1 pp4 #afh1 #dec1 #dii4 ,review of ,reviews1 vol4 #i1 pp4 #bi1 #agi4 ,charities ,review1 vol4 #c1 pp4 #bba1 #cbc4 ,independent1 vol4 #gg1 p4#cfc4 ,national ,municipal ,review1 vol4 #c1 p4#cff4 ,the unemployment which is the result of laziness must be cured by compulsory work as in farmcolonies1 which have been successful in ,europe4 ,cf4 ,edmond ,kelly1 ,the ,elimination of the ,tramp4 7#c7 ,the third important cause of poverty is sickness and the death of wage earners4 ,here the way is clear4 ,when the ,state has taken the measures we have enumerated for the public health1 when it provides competent doctors and nurses1 and bears the cost of illness1 we shall have only the loss of wages during the illness or after the death of wage earners to consider4 ,and here some form of universal insurance will probably be the solution2 this is preferable to state care of dependents1 as it carries no taint of charity4 ,this solves every problem but the delicate one1 which must be entrusted to expert diagnosticians1 of determining to work is caused by physical weakness or mere laziness4 7#d7 ,the fourth great cause of poverty1 drink1 can and must be abolished in the near future1 by the means already considered4 7#e7 ,there remain three personal causes which need be the only permanently troublesome factors- -laziness1 self-indulgence1 and the incontinence which results in over- large families4 ,the laziness which prefers chronic inactivity to work is not normal to human nature1 and will be largely banished by education1 the improvement of health1 and the improvement of the conditions and hours of labor4 ,the obstinate cases of unwillingness to work must be cured by compulsory labor in farm colonies or on public works2 most such cases respond to intelligent treatment and cease to be troublesome when some physical or moral twist has been remedied4 ,the waste of income in self-indulgence of one form or other is more difficult to deal with2 but the law can justly forbid the wage-earner from squandering upon himself money needed by wife and children1 and direct that a due proportion of his wages be paid directly to the wife4 ,if neither father nor mother will use their money for the proper welfare of the children1 the ,state must take the children from them though that step should only be a last and desperate resort4 ,finally1 there is the tendency1 unfortunately most prevalent among the lowest classes1 to have more children than can be decently cared for4 ,to some extent this evil can be remedied by the dissemination of information concerning proper methods of preventing conception ,footnote3 ,there is1 however1 a danger in the general dissemination of such information- the danger of increasing prostitution by lessening one of the chief deterrents there from42 to some extent by moral training to self-control and a sense of responsibility4 ,or the ,state may undertake the countenance large families2 if this is done 7see chapter xxx71 steps must of course be taken to prevent the marrying of the unfit-or1 at least1 their breeding4 ,with our rapidly decreasing birth rate1 and the spread of education1 which will do away with lower classes and fit every one in some decent degree to be a parent1 this will probably be the ultimate solution4 ,with the disappearance of poverty1 the miserable living conditions of so large a proportion of our population will automatically improve4 ,but much should be done directly by the ,state to prevent such housing conditions as make for physical or moral degeneration4 ,we are far behind ,europe in housing-legislation1 and conditions in most of our cities are going from bad to worse4 ,there is1 however1 no need whatever of unsanitary housing2 it is merely the selfishness of owners and the apathy of the public that permits its existence4 ,the crowding-which in ,new ,york ,city runs up to some thirteen hundred per acre-can be stopped by simple legislation4 ,the lack of proper light or ventilation1 of proper water supply1 plumbing1 or sewerage1 of proper removal of ashes1 garbage1 or rubbish1 is inexcusable4 ,the results of living in the dark1 foul-aired1 unsanitary tenements of our slums are3 a great increase in sickness and premature death2 a stunting of growth1 physical and mental1 and an increase in numbers of backward and delinquent children2 the spread of vicious and criminal habits through the lack of privacy and contagion of close contact with the vicious4 ,we are breeding in our slums a degenerate race1-boys who grow up used to vice1 and girls that drift naturally into prostitution2 we are allowing disease to spread from them1 through the children that go to the public schools1 the shop-girls we buy from in the stores1 the servants that enter our houses1 the men we rub elbows with on the street or in the street-cars4 ,very salutary are the laws that require the name of the owner to be placed on all buildings2 shame before the public may wring improvements from many a landlord who now takes profits from tenements unfit for habitation4 ,but it ought not to be left to the conscience of the individual owner2 the ,state must exercise its primary right to forbid the crowding of tenants into houses which do not afford sanitary quarters and permit a decent degree of privacy4 ,,iii4 ,,commercialized ,,vice8 ,the duty of the ,state in regard to the vice caterers is obvious2 the commercializing of vice must be strictly prohibited by law and enforced by whatever means experience proves most effective4 ,we must learn to include in this class of enemies of society the manufacturers and sellers of alcoholic liquors1 as well as of the less generally used arcotics2 but this matter has been already discussed in connection with our study of the individual's duty in relation to alcohol4 ,of the proprietors of gambling dens1 indecent shows1 etc1 we need not further speak1 concentrating our attention instead upon the worst species of vice catering1 the commercializing of prostitution4 ,the extent to which the sale of woman's virtue prevails in our cities is scarcely believable4 ,the recent commission of which ,mr4 ,rockefeller was chairman actually counted #ad1ibf professional prostitutes in ,manhattan alone1 in #aiab2 while personal visitation established the existence of over sixteen hundred houses where the gratification of lust could be bought4 ,not all1 certainly1 were counted2 and this list is1 of course1 entirely exclusive of the great number of girls occasionally and secretly selling themselves to friends1 acquaintances1 and employers4 ,many hundreds of men and women1 keepers of houses1 procurers1 and the like1 live on the proceeds of this great underground industry2 and to some extent-though to what extent it is1 of course1 impossible to ascertain the forcible retention of young girls is exist in most of the world's cities4 ,what is being done to abolish this ghastliest of evils8 ,in most great cities1 scarcely anything1 for two reasons3 the one being that so many men1 perhaps the majority1 secretly wish to retain an opportunity for purchasing sex gratification1 the other that the police generally find the protection of illegal vice an easy source of revenue4 ,if the police are honest1 they break up a disorderly house-and let the inmates carry the lure of their trade elsewhere4 ,the magistrates fine them1 or give them sentences just long enough to bring them needed rest and nutrition1 and send them back to their business4 ,or they drive them out of town-to swell the numbers in the next town4 ,attempts at legalization and localization are frank admissions of inability or lack of desire to fight the evil2 their effect is to make the way of temptation easier for the youth4 ,compulsory medical inspection gives a promise of immunity from disease which is largely illusory1 and entices men who are now restrained by prudential motives4 ,there are1 however1 many promising lines of attack3 7#a7 ,when women gain the vote1 they can be counted on to fight the evil4 ,the prostitutes themselves1 being mostly minors1 and1 in any case1 anxious to conceal their identity1 seldom vote2 and the remaining women are almost en masse bitterly opposed to the trade4 ,with women voting1 and an efficient political administration inaugurated in our cities1 we shall hope to witness the end of the scandalous nonenforcement of existing laws4 7#b7 ,the abolishing of the liquor trade will take away the great political ally of the trade in girlhood2 and without the demoralizing influence of alcohol fewer men will yield to their passions and fewer girls be pliant thereto4 7#c7 ,the ,rockefeller ,commission disclosed majority of prostitutes are almost wholly uneducated-about half of those questioned had not even gone through the primary school1 and only seven per cent had finished the grammar-school work4 ,compulsory education1 vigilantly enforced1 will greatly lessen the number of girls who will be willing to take up the life of degradation1 suffering1 and premature death2 especially will this be the case if sex hygiene is properly taught4 ,approximately a quarter of the girls studied were mentally defective2 these should have been detected in the schools and removed to the proper institutions before they fell prey to the clever schemes of the procurer4,footnote3 ,of #fdg wayward girls recently at the ,bedford ,reformatory1 over #cjj were accounted mentally deficient4 ,for a falling-off in this alarming number of mental defectives we must await scientific eugenic laws to be discussed in chapter xxx4 7#d7 ,it is a shameful fact that thousands of girls1 dependent upon their own earnings for support1 receive less than enough to enable them to live in decent comfort1 not to say with any enjoyment of life4 ,many1 of course1 waste their earnings on needlessly fine clothes1 or at the shows2 the ,american fashion of extravagant dress and the craving for amusement are factors of importance in the ruin of young girls4 ,but five dollars1 or even seven dollars1 a week is not enough to live on in the cities2 and many girls are paid no more1 even less4 ,the ,state1 in framing its minimum wage laws1 or other legislation1 must take cognizance of this startling and intolerable situation4 7#e7 ,provision should be made for the care of girls who come alone to the cities4 ,dormitories with clean and airy bedrooms at minimum cost1 and attractive reading- and social-rooms1 offering provision for normal social life and amusement1 can do much to keep lonely and restless girls out of the clutches of the vicious provision for young men who live alone might avail to lessen to some extent their patronage of houses of vice4 7#f7 ,the model injunction acts of a few of our more advanced ,states vest the power in any citizen1 whether he or she is personally damaged by such establishment1 to institute legal proceedings against all concerned2 to secure the abatement of the nuisance1 and perpetual injunction against its reestablishment4 ,it is too early yet to speak with assurance of the practical working of this method2 but it bids fair to make the brothel business more precarious4 ,if1 in addition1 laws against street soliciting are strictly enforced1 the first steps of young men into vice will be made much less alluringly easy than at present4 7#g7 ,the most radical and effective measure of all will be to arrest the professional prostitutes1 segregate them1 and keep them segregated during the dangerous years1 except as genuine signs of intention to reform appear1 in which case they may be released upon probation4 ,the expense will be1 at the outset1 considerable4 ,but the girls will be taught trades1 and kept at work which will in most cases more than pay for their support4 ,moreover1 the community will1 of course1 save the vast sums now passed over by its lustful men to these women4 ,the saving of health and life will be incalculable4 ,the girls1 although under restraint1 will be infinitely better off than they were1 and can in most cases1 with patience and education1 be made ultimately to realize their gain2 as they grow older and forget their early years of shame1 they can be set free again1 with some skilled trade learned1 and some accumulated earnings4 ,professional prostitution will1 of course1 still flourish to a degree underground2 but it will be a highly risky business1 attracting far fewer girls1 and difficult for the uninitiated young man to discover4 ,with this outlet for lust partially closed1 there would no doubt tend to be an increase in solitary and homosexual vice1 and in the seduction of innocent girls4 ,but the latter outlet can be checked by raising the age of consent to twenty or twenty-one1 and punishing the seduction of younger girls as rape4 ,and the former evils1 serious as they are1 are far less of an evil than the creation of our present wretched class of professional prostitutes4 ,as a matter of fact1 there would1 beyond all question1 be a great diminution in sexual vice1 the present amount of it being due by no means wholly to desire that is naturally imperious1 but to the artificial fostering of that desire by those who hope to profit financially thereby4 ,,iv4 ,crime8 ,the gravest of all social ills is-crime4 ,its treatment may be considered under the three heads of prevention1 conviction1 and the treatment of convicted criminals4 7#a7 ,to some extent1 not yet clearly determined1 the causes of crime are temperamental1 due to congenital defects or overexcitable impulses4 ,the inherited effects of insanity1 alcoholism1 and other pathological conditions1 make self-control far more difficult for some unfortunates4 ,such baneful inheritances will some day be minimized by eugenic laws2 and individuals whose abnormal mental condition makes them dangerous to society will be kept under permanent restraint4 ,the causes of crime are1 however1 to a far greater degree environmental4 ,undernutrition1 overwork1 worry1 and various other sources of poor health1 create a condition of lowered resistance to impulse4 ,the herding of the poor into crowded tenements1 the inability to find work1 the lack of wholesome interests and excitements to provide a normal outlet for energy of body and mind1 the daily sight of the luxury of the rich and the bitterness of its contrast with their own need1 awaken dangerous passions and reckless defiance of law4 ,the lack of education1 contact with absorption of law-defying philosophies of life1 tend to make crime appear natural and justified4 ,all of these unhealthy conditions are being attacked under the spur of our new social conscience2 and with every step in social alleviation crime diminishes4 ,criminals are1 in general1 just such men and women as we2 in like situations we too should be tempted to crime4 ,we might all repeat with ,bunyan3 ,there1 but for the grace of ,god1 go ,i6 ,give every man and woman a fair chance for happiness in normal ways1 and the lure of crime will largely vanish4,footnote3 ,cf4 ,an ,open ,letter to ,society from ,convict #aggf 7,f4 ,h4 ,revell ,co474 ,yet human nature in its most favorable circumstances and in its most favored individuals has its twists and its anti-social impulses4 ,for the potential criminal-and that means for every one of us-there must be elaborated also a system of moral or religious training which shall seek to develop the better nature that is in every man and enchain the brute4 ,with such a discipline imposed upon each generation there would be a far greater hope for the repression of evil tendencies1 whether due to temperamental perversion or provocative environment4 7#b7 ,if there is much to be done in the prevention of crime1 there is also much to be done in insuring the prompt conviction of offenders4 ,the legal delays and obtrusion of the technicalities which now so often obstruct the administration of justice1 hold out a means to the criminal of escaping punishment1 work hardship to the poor1 who cannot afford to employ the sharpest lawyers1 and needlessly retard the clearing of the reputation of the innocent4 ,the overuse of the plea of insanity has become latterly a public scandal4 ,in certain courts it has sometimes seemed impossible to convict a criminal who has plenty of money or strong political influence4 ,in other cases such men have been set free on bail and proceeded to further may have to wait years for compensation2 if they are poor1 they may hesitate to set out on the long and dubious course of a lawsuit2 or1 if they embark upon it1 it is only by an agreement wherein the speculator- lawyer takes the lion's share of the compensation4 ,the result of all this friction in the machinery of the courts is an increase in crime1 and an increase in the illegal punishment of crime4 ,lynching1 which are such a disgrace to this country1 are due primarily to indignation at crime which bids fair to be inadequately punished2 they will occur1 in spite of their injustice and brutality1 until the penalties of the law are made universally prompt and sure and fair4,footnote3 ,see ,j4 ,e4 ,cutler1 ,lynch ,law4 ,outlook1 vol4 #ii1 p4 #gjf4 ,a wholesome disregard of technicalities1 and an interpretation of the law in the line of equity1 a rigid exclusion of irrelevant evidence and argument1 the provision of an adequate number of courts to prevent the piling up of cases1 and of a public defender1 of skill and training1 to look after the interests of the poor1 the removal of judgeships from politics by the general improvement of our political system1 and the adjudgment of insanity only by impartial1 state-hired alienists-these are some of the reforms that ethical considerations suggest4,footnote3 ,cf4 ,w4 ,h4 ,taft1 ,four ,aspects of ,civic ,duty1 ,,ii4 ,outlook1 vol4 #ib1 p4 #cei2 vol4 #ih1 p4 #hhd4 7#c7 ,the ends to be borne in mind in the treatment of the convicted ,criminal are four3 ,first1 reparation to the injured party must be demanded of him1 so far as money will constitute reparation2 if he has not the money1 his future work must go for its accumulation1 so far as that is compatible with the support of his infant children4 ,secondly1 he must be punished severely enough to serve as a warning to other potential offenders and1 so far as they are amenable to such fears1 deter them from similar crimes4 ,capital punishment for the worst crimes is shown deterrent than confinement2 whether the danger of executing an innocent man is grave enough to offset this public gain is an open question4,footnote3 ,see ,a4 ,j4 ,palm1 ,the ,death ,penalty4 ,thirdly1 he must be prevented from doing any more harm2 this means confinement just so long as expert criminologists deem him dangerous1 whether not at all 7unless to deter others7 or for life4 ,the old system of giving a fixed sentence is wholly unjustifiable2 some are thereby kept imprisoned when there is every reason to believe them capable of living honorably and serving the community as free men1 others are let loose1 after a term1 more dangerous to the community than ever4 ,the habitual criminal1 who alternates between periods of crime and periods of imprisonment1 should be an unknown phenomenon4 ,the judge should be obliged to pronounce an indeterminate sentence1 and leave it to the expert prison officials to decide if1 or when1 it is safe to release the prisoner on parole4 ,experience has already shown that few mistakes are made 7where prison management is kept out of machine politics72 and as the released prisoner is under surveillance1 and may be returned to the prison without trial for disorderliness1 drunkenness1 or other anti-social conduct1 he is not likely to do much damage4 ,a second offense would be likely to bring upon him imprisonment for life1 which would be within the discretion of the prison officials4 ,this method provides a spur to good behavior1 and1 when used in conjunction with the reforming influences we are about to consider1 works admirably in abolishing the criminal class2 whatever criminal class persists-those who cannot or will not reform are kept under restraint for life1 where they can do no harm4 ,fourthly1 and most important of all1 a painstaking attempt must be made to reform the criminal1 to make him a normal1 socially useful man4 ,at present our prisons are rather schools of corruption than of uplift2 too often first offenders are thrown into association with hardened criminals1 and come out after their term of years with their minds full of criminal suggestions1 and less able than before to live a normal life4 ,the prison should be a training school for the morally perverted4 ,first of all1 the prisoner should be taught a trade1 if he knows none1 and made competent to earn an honest living4 ,he should be kept at regular work1 and his wages used partly to reimburse society for his keep1 and partly to support his family1 or1 if he has none1 to give him a new start when he leaves prison4 ,recent experience shows that the great majority of prisoners can be trusted to work outside the prison1 at any ordinary labor1 without guards-returning to the prison each evening4,footnote3 ,see ,century1 vol4 #hg1 p4 #gdf4 ,regular hours1 and wholesome living in every way1 are1 of course1 enforced2 sports are encouraged in leisure hours1 and physical development ensured4 ,educational influences are brought to bear1 through class-instruction1 books1 sermons1 private talks4 ,the individual's mind is studied and every effort made to supplant morbid and anti-social by normal and moral ideas4 ,few criminals but are amenable to skillful guidance2 most of them1 could1 if pains were taken1 be transformed into useful citizens4 ,all this application of modern penological ideas means a greatly increased expense per capita2 but this will be largely offset by the work required of all healthy prisoners1 and in any case is the best sort of an investment4 ,the prevention of crime is1 in the long run1 much less costly1 even from a purely financial standpoint1 than crime itself4 ,on pathological social conditions in general3 ,smith1 ,social ,pathology4 ,e4 ,t4 ,devine1 ,misery and its ,causes4 ,m4 ,conyngton1 ,how to ,help4 ,c4 ,aronovici1 ,knowing ,one's ,own ,community4 ,jane ,addams1 ,twenty ,years at ,hull ,house4 ,s4 ,nearing1 ,social ,adjustment4 ,charles ,booth1 ,life and ,labor of the ,people of ,london4 ,hall1 ,social ,solutions4 ,c4 ,r4 ,henderson1 ,social ,duties4 ,w4 ,gladden1 ,social ,salvation4 ,public health3 ,h4 ,ellis1 ,the ,task of ,social ,hygiene1 ,the ,nationalization of ,health4 ,outlook1 vol4 #ih1 p4 #fc2 vol4 #ajb1 p4 #gfd4 ,literature published by ,the ,committee of ,one ,hundred on ,national ,health 7#aje ,east ,twenty-second ,street1 ,new ,york ,city74 ,c4 ,r4 ,henderson1 ,the ,social ,spirit in ,america1 chap4 ,v4 ,world's ,work1 vol4 #ag1 p4 #aacba2 vol4 #ba1 p4 #achha2 vol4 #bc1 p4 #fib4 ,w4 ,h4 ,allen1 ,civics and ,health4 ,poverty and living conditions3 ,r4 ,hunter1 ,poverty4 ,b4 ,s4 ,rowntree1 ,poverty1 ,a ,study of ,town ,life4 ,adams and ,sumner1 ,labor ,problems1 chap4 ,v4 ,a4 ,s4 ,warner1 ,american ,charities4 ,e4 ,t4 ,devine1 ,principles of ,relief4 ,s4 ,webb1 ,prevention of ,destitution4 ,literature of the ,american ,association of ,societies for ,organizing ,charity1 and of the ,charity ,organization ,department of the ,russell ,sage ,foundation 7both at #aje ,east ,twenty-second ,street1 ,new ,york ,city74 ,l4 ,veiller1 ,housing ,reform4 ,deforest and ,veiller1 ,the ,tenement-,house ,problem4 ,j4 ,lee1 ,constructive and ,preventive ,philanthropy4 ,alden and ,hayward1 ,housing4 ,j4 ,a4 ,riis1 ,the ,battle with the ,slum4 ,national ,municipal ,review1 vol4 #b1 p4 #baj4 ,commercialized vice3 ,jane ,addams1 ,a ,new ,conscience and an ,ancient ,evil4 ,report of the ,chicago ,vice ,commission3 ,the ,social ,evil in ,chicago4 ,g4 ,j4 ,kneeland1 ,commercialized ,prostitution in ,new ,york ,city4 ,outlook1 vol4 #id1 p4 #cjc2 vol4 #aja1 p4 #bde2 vol4 #ajd1 p4 #aja4 ,crime3 ,f4 ,h4 ,wines1 ,punishment and ,reformation4 ,e4 ,a4 ,ross1 ,social ,control1 chap4 ,,xi4 ,r4 ,m4 ,mc,connell1 ,criminal ,responsibility and ,social ,constraint4 ,h4 ,ellis1 ,the ,criminal4 ,a4 ,h4 ,currier1 ,the ,present- ,day ,problem of ,crime4 ,p4 ,a4 ,parsons1 ,responsibility for ,crime4 ,e4 ,ferri1 ,the ,positive ,school of ,criminology4 ,w4 ,tallack1 ,penological and ,preventive ,principles4 ,e4 ,carpenter1 ,prisons1 ,police1 and ,punishment4 ,outlook1 vol4 #id1 p4 #beb2 vol4 #ig1 p4 #djc4 ,world's ,work1 vol4 #ba1 p4 #adbed4 ,north ,american ,review1 vol4 #ach1 p4 #bed4 ,international ,journal of ,ethics1 vol4 #bj1 p4 #bha4 ,,chapter ,,xxvi ,,industrial ,,wrongs ,,we have been discussing the treatment of recognized crime4 ,but beyond the boundaries of conduct universally labeled as criminal1 there is a whole realm of anti-social action to which the public conscience is only beginning to be sensitive1 although it is often far more harmful to the general welfare than that for which men are imprisoned4 ,especially is this true of the wrongs connected with modern industry4 ,as ,professor ,ross puts it1 ,footnote3 ,sin and ,society1 p4 #ig4 the master iniquities of our time are connected with money-making2 and so our moral pace-setters1 who are1 for the most part1 confining their attacks to the time-worn and familiar sins1 do not get into the big fight at all4 ,the root of the trouble is that great power over the lives and happiness of others has been acquired by a small class of irresponsible men1 many of whom fail to recognize their privileged position as a public trust and care only for enriching themselves4 ,as we noted in chapter in1 the complexification of our industrial life is making possible a whole new range of what must be branded as crimes2 endless opportunities have been opened up of money-making at the cost of others' suffering4 ,often that suffering1 or loss1 is so remote from the path of the greedy business man that he does not see himself1 and others fail to see him1 as the predatory money-grabber that he is4 ,the many who have been ruined by unscrupulous competitors are often embittered1 the repressed capitalism2 but the public as a whole has not been aroused to rebuke this newer unrighteousness4 ,we must proceed to note its commonest contemporary forms4 ,in our present organization of industry1 what are the duties of businessmen3 ,i4 ,to the public8 7#a7 ,the first duty of businessmen is to supply honest goods1 in honest measure4 ,underweight1 undermeasure1 double- bottomed berry-boxes1 bottles so shaped as to appear to contain more than their actual contents1 are obviously cheating4 ,misbranding of goods is now regulated1 so far as interstate trade goes1 by the ,federal ,pure ,food and ,drugs ,act2 and most ,states have similar legislation4 ,misrepresentation in advertisement should be severely punished2 the selling of cold storage for fresh products1 of part-cotton for all-wool clothing1 of less for more expensive woods1 and the thousand other ways of panning inferior goods upon an inexpert public for high-grade articles4 ,at present there is little recourse but to carry distrust into all purchasing1 learn to be canny1 and to recognize differences in quality in all articles needed4 ,but the average man cannot become an expert purchaser2 he buys furniture which breaks down prematurely2 he pays a high price for clothing which proves to have no wearing quality2 he buys patent medicines which promise to cure his physical ills1 and is lucky if they do not leave him worse in health than before4 ,jerry- building1 and the doing of fake jobs by contractors1 especially for municipalities1 is one of the scandals of our times4 ,footnote3 ,see ,encyclopedia ,britannica1 article1 ,adulteration4 ,e4 ,kelly ,twentieth ,century ,socialism1 book ii1 chap4 i4 ,for a notorious case of tampering with weights1 see ,outlook1 vol4 #ib1 p4 #be2 vol4 #ic1 p4 #haa4 ,for cases of adulteration1 ,good ,housekeeping ,magazine1 vol4 #ed1 p4 #eic4 ,f4 ,w4 ,taussig1 ,principles of ,economics1 chap4 #de4 7#b7 ,another duty1 less generally recognized by even the more honorable businessmen1 is to sell their goods at fair prices4 ,the strangulation of competition by mutual agreements or the formation of trusts1 aided often by an iniquitously high tariff1 has put many a business for a time on a par with those natural monopolies which1 if unregulated1 can always exact exorbitant prices for what the public needs4 ,rich profits have been made by the tucking of a few cents on to the price of gas1 or coal1 or steel1 or oil1 or telephone service4 ,enormous fortunes have been made1 at the public expense1 by the practical cornering of staple commodities4 ,these hold-up prices should be clearly recognized for what they are-a form of modern piracy4 ,no business man or corporation is entitled in justice to more than a moderate reward for the mental and physical labor expended2 the excessive incomes of monopoly are largely at the expense of the public1 who1 by one means or other1 are being compelled to pay more than a fair price for the article4 ,footnote3 ,for cases1 see ,c4 ,r4 ,van ,hise1 ,concentration and ,control1 pp4 #aji1ade1 #adi4 7#c7 ,finally1 all business must be looked upon as a form of public service1 and the convenience of customers scrupulously consulted4 ,where there is competition this tends to regulate itself2 but our public- service monopolies have too often followed the public- be-damned policy4 ,the long-suffering community puts up with inadequate and crowded streetcars1 inconvenient train service1 a bungled and high- handed telephone system4 ,railway managements have sometimes been criminally indifferent to public safety1 finding it less expensive to lose occasional damage suits than to install safety appliances4 ,efficiency in serving the public has likewise been sacrificed to dividends2 and courtesy1 where it is not recognized to have a cash value1 tends to disappear4 ,such indictments point to the widespread existence of the idea that men and corporations are in business for themselves only1 and not as fulfilling a public need4,footnote3 ,for concrete illustrations1 see ,outlook1 vol4 #ia1 p4 #hfa2 vol4 #ie1 p4 #eae4 ,world's ,work1 vol4 #bc1 p4 #egi4 ,,ii4 ,,to ,,inventors8 ,it has not been generally enough recognized that business men owe it to investors to do their best to see to it that they get fair returns on their money invested -and only fair returns4 ,there are a number of ways in which1 on the one hand1 the investing public is skinned1 and1 on the other hand1 stock in a business1 largely owned by the management itself1 has been rewarded with undeserved dividends at the expense of the public4 7#a7 ,there are1 in the first place1 the get-rich-quick swindles1 the out-and-out impostures1 which have deceived the credulous into investments that never could pay4 ,bonanza mines1 impractical inventions1 town lots laid out on the prairie1 orange groves that existed only on paper-such bogus hopes have enticed many an honest man and woman1 who could ill afford to lose1 into turning over their small earnings to the brazen exploiters4,footnote3 ,for cases1 see ,world's ,work1 vol4 #ba1 p4 #adaab4 7#b7 ,but such arrant deception is not the commonest form of wrong4 ,a more usual practice1 and more dangerous- because it deceives even the intelligent-is to overcapitalize an honest business1 to issue watered stock-that is1 stock in excess of the actual value of plant1 patents1 and other assets4 ,these stocks are issued merely to sell4 ,if the business is very successful1 its profits may pay a fair return on all this capital2 if not1 low dividends or none can be paid until the business slowly catches up with its overcapitalization4 ,in all investment-as our industrial organization at present goes-there is risk2 but to create a needless risk and deceive the public into taking it is plain dishonesty4 ,the extra money thus sucked from the public goes sometimes to pay excessive salaries to the officials of the company1 sometimes to pay excessive prices for patents or plants purchased2 there are many subtle ways1 known to high finance1 of misappropriating stockholders' money and diverting it to the pockets of the promoters4 ,many great fortunes have been made in this way2 such exploitation is so new to society that it has not yet awakened to its essentially criminal nature4 ,even if the business is able to pay good dividends on watered stock1 the crime of overcapitalization is not lessened1 though the harm done is now not to the investor but to the public4 ,stocks should represent only the actual value of the property1 so that dividends may be only a fair return for capital really invested in the business4 ,where there is sharp competition1 the possibility of overcharging the public to make returns on watered stock is cut out1 and the loss falls upon the investor4 ,but in the case of monopolies1 such as railways1 or of combinations which practically stifle competition1 the public may be charged enough to pay a fair dividend to investors1 although the money upon which dividends are being made went not into improving the service1 but into fattening the promoters' purses4 ,footnote3 ,on stock watering1 see ,dewey and ,tufts1 ,ethics1 pp4 #efa-fd4 ,outlook1 vol4 #he1 p4 #efb4 ,political ,science ,quarterly1 vol4 #bf1 p4 #hh4 ,international ,journal of ,ethics1 vol4 #ah1 p4 #aea4 ,c4 ,r4 ,van ,hise1 ,concentration and ,control1 pp4 #aae1 #adb1 etc4 7#c7 ,a third method of fleecing investors lies in skillful manipulation of the stock market4 ,in ways which are known to the initiated1 it is often possible artificially to raise or lower the market value of stocks4 ,unwary investors are lured in2 timid investors are frightened out2 through all ticker fluctuations the brokers win their commissions2 the skilled financiers and organizers of combinations rake in unearned sums that are sometimes immense1 while the losses fall mostly to the lot of the are honestly seeking to put their savings into solid investments4 ,the ethics of the stock market has not yet been clearly decided1 and the subject is too big to discuss here4 ,it is mentioned only to point out one more form of social sinning1 as yet inadequately punished or rebuked1 whereby men of capital and brains have been able to pocket money for which they have given no return to society4 ,footnote3 ,for cases1 see ,c4 ,norman ,fay1 ,big ,business and ,government4 ,outlook1 vol4 #ia1 pp4 #eia1 #fcf4 ,,iii4 ,,to ,,competitors8 7#a7 ,the most conspicuous form of wrongdoing1 perhaps1 to be charged to modern business is the attempt to get monopoly by foul means4 ,the story of too many of our great trusts is a story of competitors ruined by ruthless and unscrupulous methods4 ,the competitor may be hurt by the circulation of falsehoods concerning his business1 his right to patents1 or the worth of his goods4 ,he may be denied outlet to markets by control of the railway upon which he must depend4 ,if the capital of the concern that is seeking monopoly permits1 the price of the article manufactured may be lowered until rivals with less financial backing are forced out of business-after which the price can be raised and losses recouped4 ,with skill and foresight worthy of a better cause1 some of the great industrial leaders of our day have eliminated one rival after another and attained that unification of a business which has1 indeed1 its great economic advantages1 but is not to be won at such a bitter cost4 ,footnote3 ,see1 for example1 ,i4 ,tarbell1 ,history of the ,standard ,oil ,company4 7#b7 ,even where monopoly is not sought1 there are many unfair methods of competition-unfair to competitors and to the public that both should serve4 ,one method1 much discussed in recent years1 is that of railway rebates4 ,by this is meant favoritism in freight rates between shippers and between localities4 ,one manufacturer1 who is in a position to ship his goods by either of two railways1 perhaps by a water route1 is given a low rate to get his freight2 another manufacturer of similar goods1 not so favorably situated1 is made to pay a higher rate4 ,rates from seaboard or river cities1 where water competition exists1 have often been considerably lower than rates from inland towns on the same line1 with a very much shorter haul4 ,in such ways the railway squeezes those whom it can squeeze and is content with a bare profit where it can do no better4 ,where the railway is controlled by the same interests that control some industrial combination1 the favoritism may go even farther1 and the railway's profits be sacrificed entirely for the cheaper marketing of that particular trust's article4 ,against all such inequalities in the treatment of shippers the public conscience has lately protested2 the railways are recognized as a public instrument of transportation1 which should be open to use by all upon equal terms1 at a price which will repay the cost of carriage plus a fair profit4 ,footnote3 ,on railway rebates1 see ,h4 ,r4 ,seager1 ,introduction to ,economics1 chap4 ,,xxiv1 secs #bfj-fc4 ,f4 ,w4 ,taussig1 ,principles of ,economics1 chap4 #fj1 secs4 #g1 #h4 ,outlook1 vol4 #ha1 p4 #hjc2 vol4 #he1 p4 #afa4 ,,iv4 ,,to ,,employees8 7#a7 ,the first duty of employers is to give to all employees a fair wage4 ,if the business does not pay enough to allow this1 it has no right to exist2 if the owners are pocketing large salaries1 or giving dividends to stockholders1 this money should be used first for a proper payment of the workers4 ,so many laborers are at the mercy of the employing class1 because of their ignorance1 their lack of capital and necessity of work at any wage1 and often their unfamiliarity with the language and customs of the country1 that it has become possible in many cases to treat them like animals and give them less than enough to sustain life in decency1 not to say in comfort4 ,such a case as that of our benevolent ,mr4 ,carnegie1 who million dollars in one year's earnings of his steel trust1 while many hundreds of his employees were getting but a miserable pittance and living in vile surroundings1 is exceptionally glaring2 but in lesser degree the same injustice is being wrought in many industries4 ,wages have1 indeed1 been raised gradually1 here and there2 but not usually by the free will of employers4 ,the callousness of some of the privileged classes toward the underpayment of the lower classes is almost on a par with the attitude of the nobility before the ,french ,revolution4,footnote3 ,see1 for example1 ,outlook1 vol4 #aja1 p4 #cde4 ,fortunately1 the public is coming to see not only the wrong done to the helpless poor1 but the cost to the community in breeding underfed1 ill- housed1 criminally tempted classes1 and the danger that lies ahead if these classes realize their power before amelioration is effected from above4 ,as a recent writer has put it1 ,addition ,division,revolution4 ,footnote3 ,s4 ,hearing1 ,wages in the ,united ,states2 ,social ,adjustment1 chap4 ,,iv4 ,ryan1 ,a ,living ,wage4 7#b7 ,another phase of modern industrial injustice is the overlong hours of work still required in many industries4 ,the race for cheapness of product has blinded manufacturers and the public to the cost in terms of human happiness4 ,an eight-hour day is quite long enough to produce all that is necessary1 with the aid of modern machinery2 every man should be given a margin of leisure for education1 recreation1 and social life4 ,and every man should be given the benefit of that one day's rest out of seven which is so precious a legacy to us from the ,jewish religion4,footnote3 ,a joint legislative committee in ,massachusetts in #aijg estimated that #bbb1jjj persons in that ,state were working seven days in the week4 ,similar1 or worse1 conditions exist throughout the country4 ,those industries that require continuous use of machinery should employ three complete shifts of workmen2 and those that must be run every day in the week should have enough extra helpers man4 ,this humanizing of hours cannot be done by individual action1 where competition is sharp2 but by legislation that bears equally upon all1 a generous standard-the eight-hour day and six-day week -can be maintained1 with hardship to none and a great increase in the health and happiness of the masses4 ,especially jealous should the law be for the welfare of women workers4 ,in cotton mills in the ,south women work ten and twelve hours a day2 in canneries in the ,north they work1 during the short season1 fifteen and eighteen hours a day1 eighty or even ninety hours a week4 ,particularly should women be protected during the weeks before and after childbirth2 as it is1 women workers are often ruined in health for life1 the rate of infant mortality is shockingly high1 and the children that survive are usually subnormal4 ,girls through overwork are weakened too seriously to bear strong children- which1 in any case1 they have had no time or opportunity to learn how to nurture and rear4 ,no doubt women should work1 as well as men2 if not in the home1 then outside the home4 ,but the contemporary economic pressure that bears so hard on so many girls and women must be eased not only for their sakes but for that of coming generations4 ,footnote3 ,dorothy ,richardson1 ,the ,long ,day4 ,s4 ,nearing1 ,social ,adjustment1 chap4 ,x4 ,j4 ,rae1 ,eight ,hours for ,work4 7#c7 ,the most piteous form of industrial slavery is that of young children1 who should be in school or out of doors1 developing their minds and bodies into some measure of readiness for adult work and responsibility1 instead of prematurely losing the joy of life and stunting their mental and physical growth4 ,in #aiaj some two million children under sixteen were earning their living in this country4 ,even many thousands of children of twelve years or less are set to work in our factories and canneries4 ,these children get almost no development and wholesome recreation2 in great numbers they die early1 and if they live it is commonly to fall into some form of vice or crime1 and to breed an inferior race4 ,nothing is more inhumane or more mad than for the community to permit cheapness of goods at such a price4 ,indeed1 child labor means1 in the end1 economic waste2 the ultimate loss in efficiency on the part of these undeveloped1 uneducated children1 far more than overbalances the temporary industrial gain4 ,the situation has been incredibly shocking2 the employers who seek such an advantage over their humaner rivals1 and the legislators who have winked at their inhumanity1 deserve no mild reprobation4 ,but legislation alone is not adequate to meet the situation2 the underlying cause is the insufficient payment of adult workers1 which practically necessitates supplementation by what the children can add to the family income4 ,this is one illustration of the way in which all our social problems are tangled together so that it is impossible fully to solve any one without solving the others4 ,when every adult receives wages enough to support a normal family-and when he is content to restrict his family to normal size2 when the public schools are made efficient enough to show their evident worth to parents and to attract the children themselves1 and a strict truant system takes care that the law is really obeyed2 when the sick and defective and aged among the poor are cared for at public expense as a matter of course1 there will be no need for children to work to help support the family2 and we must endeavor1 by the arousal of public opinion and by nationwide legislation1 to keep children out of the factories1 the shops1 and the mines1 till they are full-grown and educated4 ,footnote3 ,s4 ,nearing1 ,the ,solution of the ,child-,labor ,problem4 ,j4 ,spargo1 ,the ,bitter ,cry of the ,children4 ,e4 ,n4 ,clopper1 ,child ,labor in ,city ,streets4 ,reports of ,annual ,meetings of the ,national ,child ,labor ,committee4 7,free literature4 #aje ,east ,twenty-second ,street1 ,new ,york ,city47 7#d7 ,a less appalling1 but still sufficiently serious2 aspect of industrial unrighteousness is the dirty1 crowded1 ugly1 unsanitary1 and sometimes indecent conditions under which many workers in our prosperous age have to carry on their work4 ,lack of proper lighting1 space1 and ventilation1 unnecessary noises1 and general untidiness1 undermine the health and morals of laborers2 while insufficient fire- protection causes intermittently one tragedy after another4 ,much has been done in many quarters to improve such conditions2 not a few up-to- date factories are models of cleanliness and sanitation1 spacious1 reasonably quiet1 and altogether pleasant places in which to spend the working day4 ,they point the way which all must in time follow4 ,in addition1 the provision of reading-rooms1 baths1 rest- and recreation- rooms1 lunch-rooms1 athletic fields1 and the like1 give augury of that happy future when work shall be divorced from ugliness and free from unnecessary physical strain4,footnote3 ,sir ,t4 ,oliver1 ,diseases of ,occupation4 ,w4 ,h4 ,tolman1 ,social ,engineering1 chaps4 ,,iii1 ,x1 ,,xi4 ,world's ,work1 vol4 #ae1 p4 #iecd2 vol4 #bc1 p4 #bid4 ,outlook1 vol4 #ig1 p4 #hag2 vol4 #ajj1 p4 #cec4 7#e7 ,finally1 the callousness to injuries incurred by employees must be sharply checked4 ,well over a hundred thousand men1 women1 and children are killed or injured every year in the various industries of this country4 ,our proportion of accidents is far greater than in ,europe2 the great majority are preventable by the adoption of known safeguards4 ,what stands in the way is1 partly1 ignorance and heedlessness on the part of employers1 and1 still more1 the initial cost of installing safety appliances4 ,it is often cheaper to lose an occasional damage suit than to forestall accidents4 ,in coal mines alone we have let thirty thousand men be killed and seventy-five thousand be more or less seriously maimed1 in a decade2 proportionately about twice as many as in ,european mines-which are far from ideally safeguarded4 ,there are two ways to check this waste and crippling of human life2 one is to keep our legislation up to date1 and require the installation of every effective safety device1 no matter if the cost to the public has to be increased4 ,the other is to make accidents so expensive to employers that they will have a greater interest in taking measures to prevent them4 ,certainly all deaths or injuries in any industry where proper precautions have been neglected must be a criminal matter for the employer4 ,footnote3 ,outlook1 vol4 #ib1 p4 #aga2 vol4 #ic1 p4 #aif2 vol4 #ii1 p4 #bjb4 ,world's ,work1 vol4 #bb1 p4 #acfjb2 vol4 #bc1 p4 #gac4 ,we must do entirely away with the system whereby accidents to workingmen bear so heavily upon their families4 ,though it is true that they are commonly due1 in some measure1 to the carelessness of the worker1 his punishment1 in the loss of life or limb1 is great enough2 and if he dies or is incapacitated from supporting wife and children1 the burden should fall upon the community1 which is able to bear it4 ,it should not be necessary to bring a damage suit against the employer2 that method is slow1 dubious1 and expensive2 the corporation1 with its expert lawyers1 has too great an advantage over the helpless and sorrow-struck poor4 ,in some form1 automatic compensation for injuries is destined to become universal2 the cost will fall upon the industry1 where it belongs1 bad feeling between employer and employee will cease1 the courts will be freed from a good deal of work1 and relief will follow injury with promptness and certainty4 ,footnote3 ,h4 ,r4 ,seager1 ,social ,insurance4 ,outlook1 vol4 #he1 p4 #ejh2 vol4 #ib1 p4 #cai2 vol4 #ih1 p4 #di4 ,s4 ,nearing1 ,social ,adjustment1 chap4 ,,xii4 ,what general remedies for industrial wrongs are feasible8 7#a7 ,the first step toward an amelioration of our crude and unjust industrial code is to awaken the public conscience to protest against the evils we have enumerated4 ,publicity1 pitiless publicity1 alone can lead to redress4 ,these large- scale1 impersonal sins must not be so nonchalantly tolerated2 instead of applauding and envying the shrewd financier who rakes in unearned profits by clever manipulation1 by unscrupulous use of inside information1 and disregard of the welfare of workers1 competitors1 and public1 we must brand him as a selfish scoundrel1 turn him out of the church1 ostracize him in society4 ,such a man must not be looked upon as a successful businessman any more than a pirate is a successful trader2 success must clearly imply obedience to the rules of the game4 ,taking all that one can grab without punishment is a reversion to barbarism2 the unscrupulous magnate is morally no better than a pickpocket4 ,and these men are1 in general1 responsive to public opinion2 it has effected rapid improvement in some points in the past few years4 ,just so soon as the community conscience is aroused to the point of a general condemnation of industrial robbery1 it will cease to flaunt itself so boldly1 and lurk only underground with the other furtive sins4 7#b7 ,we cannot rely wholly upon the force of public opinion1 however2 the law must be ready to check those who are insensitive to moral restraints4 ,one by one1 the paths of evildoing must be blocked4 ,especially must the law learn how to punish corporations1 which have been the greatest offenders4 ,at present the stockholders throw responsibility upon the directors1 the directors upon their managers1 and they upon the subordinates who have personally carried through the evil practices4 ,but to punish these subordinates is ineffective1 because they have1 in general1 little money wherewith to pay fines1 and will be ready to run the risk of imprisonment for the sake of pleasing their superiors and earning promotion4 ,if they are imprisoned1 others can readily be found to step into their places and higher up4 ,it is these superiors who must be held responsible for acts done by their subordinates4 ,if they realize the risk of punishment falling upon their own heads1 they will see to it that illegal practices are discontinued4 ,it will probably be necessary to hold directors responsible for the conduct of their managers1 and stockholders for the character of their directors4 ,it will then become the business of owners and directors to watch out for lawbreaking and to put men in control who will keep to fair dealing4 ,this will put an end to the easy assumption of the directorship of several corporations at once by men whose names are wanted2 directorship will be made to imply actual attention to the affairs of the business4 ,and the stockholders will take pains to elect such directors as will not incur fines for the corporation that will lessen their dividends4 ,footnote3 ,for comment on this matter1 see ,outlook1 vol4 #hh1 p4 #hfb4 7#c7 ,through these two means1 public opinion and the law1 we must work toward the ultimate solution1 the establishment of codes of honor in the professions and industries4 ,canons of professional ethics have been adopted by lawyers and doctors2 any member of these professions who is guilty of breaking these canons suffers loss of prestige and1 almost inevitably1 financial loss4 ,so must it be in every industry2 each must be organized and must formulate for itself its code2 so that pressure from within will supplement pressure from without4 ,there is plenty of capacity for loyalty1 self-denial1 and discipline in men1 even in captains of industry2 it needs only to be aroused1 crystallized1 directed4 ,we may prevent certain specific practices by statutes which make them misdemeanors2 but in so doing we have simply cut off one way of reaching an end4 ,men will get the same result by another route4 obtaining money or office in certain specified ways4 ,we must so shape their ambitions that they do not wish to obtain money or office by means that injure the community4 ,we must get them to consider public selfishness as dishonorable a thing as we now consider private selfishness4 ,if a man today crowds himself out of a theater1 leaving behind him a trail of bruised women and children1 the very newsboy in the street will hiss him when he gets to the door4 ,such a man will be despised by the public1 and in his heart he will despise himself1 for taking advantage of his strength to crush others4 ,but if a man gets money or office by analogous processes1 the world is inclined to admire the result and forgive the means2 and the man1 instead of despising himself for his selfishness1 applauds himself for his success4,footnote3 ,a4 ,t4 ,hadley1 ,standards of ,public ,morality1 p4 #h4 ,certainly1 unless in these peaceful ways we can transform our present system of grab-as-grab-can into a fair and rational industrial order1 changes will come by violence and revolution4 ,there are volcanic passions slumbering beneath the prosperity of our trade and manufacture2 there is but a brief respite before society wherein to evolve a measure of social justice4 ,the lower classes are awakening to their power2 unless society and government grant them their fair share of the fruits of industry1 they will take them through the wreck of society and government4 ,there is no moral problem more pressing than the finding of peaceful remedies for industrial wrongs4 ,e4 ,a4 ,ross1 ,sin and ,society4 ,h4 ,r4 ,seager1 ,introduction to ,economics1 chap4 ,,xxii4 ,c4 ,r4 ,van ,hise1 ,concentration and ,control1 chap4 ,,ii4 ,a4 ,t4 ,hadley1 ,standards of ,public ,morality4 ,h4 ,c4 ,potter1 ,the ,citizen in his ,relation to the ,industrial ,situation4 ,w4 ,gladden1 ,the ,new ,idolatry4 ,r4 ,c4 ,brooks1 ,corruption in ,american ,politics and ,life4 ,h4 ,jeffs1 ,concerning ,conscience1 chaps4 ,,xxii1 ,,xxiii4 ,c4 ,r4 ,henderson1 ,the ,social ,spirit in ,america1 chaps4 ,,vii1 ,,ix4 ,j4 ,s4 ,brooks1 ,the ,social ,unrest4 ,jane ,addams1 ,democracy and ,social ,ethics1 chap4 ,v4 ,buskin1 ,unto this ,last4 ,international ,journal of ,ethics1 vol4 #bc1 p4 #dee4 ,for specific references1 see footnotes4 ,,chapter ,,xxvii ,,industrial ,,reconstruction ,,our modern industrial evils are so grave and so deep-rooted that it is highly questionable whether the pressure of public opinion1 piecemeal legislation1 and the development of codes of honor can strike deep enough to eradicate them4 ,is not1 perhaps1 the whole system morally wrong8 ,instead of these endless attempts to cure the natural results of the system1 is there not need of a radical reconstruction8 ,various attempts have been made1 divers proposals are offered1 in the hope of curing the causes of present maladies and devising a juster system4 ,many of these are doubtless impracticable1 or tend to work more hardship than amelioration4 ,but each proposal1 of any plausibility1 has a right to a hearing if it offers to end the great wrongs of contemporary industry2 we must be very confident that it will not work before we reject it4 ,for some way must be found to right these wrongs1 or our whole industrial order will go to smash4 ,we must not condemn too hastily a method which has not had a thorough trial1 or whose defects time and experience might remedy4 ,for mistaken experiments can be discontinued2 and great as is the danger in incautious radicalism1 the danger in standing pat is greater4 ,ought the trusts to be broken up or regulated8 ,the greatest sinners are1 certainly1 to speak generally1 the great corporations that we call trusts-though the word distrust would better express contemporary feeling6 ,so great has popular hostility to them become that the ,democratic party platform of ,july1 #aiab1 declared that a private monopoly is indefensible and intolerable1 and demanded the enactment of such additional legislation as may be necessary to make it impossible for a private monopoly to exist in the ,united ,states1 i4e41 the control by any one corporation of so large a proportion of any industry as to make it a menace to competitive conditions4 ,but is it necessary to destroy this splendidly efficient concentration of industry in order to avoid its evils8 ,the proposal to revert to the older competitive plan is reminiscent of the outcry against machine production a century earlier1 and the earnest pleas then made to return to the hand-tool method4 ,big business constitutes one of the greatest advances in human industry1 and therefore has surely come to stay4 ,from the era of individual workers owning their tools1 mankind advanced to the age of competition between small concerns using machines2 no less marked an advance is that to the age of large-scale production and unified industry4 ,its advantages may be briefly summarized3 7#a7 ,the competitive system involves needless duplications of plant1 machinery1 and workers2 clerks stand idly in rival stores1 waiting for trade1 drummers spend their time in getting trade away from one another1 great sums have to be spent on advertising4 ,monopoly means a saving of all this wasted time1 labor1 and money4 7#b7 ,the competitive system means great fluctuations in industry1 constant anxiety1 forced cut prices1 and frequent failures1 with their financial ruin and heartbreak to employers and loss of work to employees4 ,monopoly means stability1 comparative freedom from anxiety1 and a saving of the economic confusion and loss of bankruptcies4 7#c7 ,the great scale of monopolistic production tends to still further economies4 ,raw ported in larger quantities1 and so at lower cost2 less need be kept on hand at a given time4 ,the utilization of by-products1 made feasible by large-scale production1 has proved1 in many cases1 a striking addition to human wealth4 7#d7 ,monopolistic production means that more money can be put into improved processes1 into plant and machinery1 into making factories sanitary1 and working conditions pleasant4 ,the conspicuousness of the plant makes it more open to public criticism and more likely to awaken a sense of pride in the owners4 ,conditions are seldom tolerated in the big concerns that go unheeded in the little shops4 ,surely our attempt1 then1 must be to retain big business1 and cure its evils1 rather than to turn the hands of the clock backward by reverting to the wasteful competitive system4 ,if this proves possible1 we should work for the organizing of the as yet unorganized industries4 ,half of human effort is still wasted1 through lack of such organization4 ,if the innumerable butcher shops1 grocery stores1 apothecary shops1 dry goods stores1 etc1 throughout the country1 were consolidated locally1 and then for some considerable section of the country1 we could have greatly reduced prices and greatly improved shops4 ,mr4 ,woolworth's chain of five- and ten-cent stores offers a familiar contemporary example of the efficiency and saving to the consumer of such consolidation4 ,what are the ethics of the following schemes3 ,i4 ,,trade ,,unions ,,and ,,strikes8 ,we must1 then1 consider what methods of regulating1 without destroying1 monopoly are efficient and morally defensible2 and1 first1 the method into which the working classes have put most of their effort and enthusiasm4 ,the labor-unions have1 as a matter of fact1 actually effected certain results1 which we may rapidly review3- 7#a7 ,their chief accomplishment1 and indeed effort1 has been the raising of wages and shortening of hours for labor4 ,their success1 however1 has fallen far short of their hopes2 and it is impossible to say how much more they have accomplished in this direction than would have been effected by other causes without their efforts4 ,as a whole1 the employing class disbelieves in the unions and is strenuously disinclined to yield to their desires4 ,and at present the employers are usually stronger than their employees1 unless public opinion or legislation forces them to surrender their position4 7#b7 ,to some slight extent1 but only to a slight extent1 they have effected amelioration in other matters have freed labor from the tyranny of company stores1 decreased child labor1 secured the installation of safety appliances1 sanitary conditions1 and other needed improvements4 7#c7 ,their social effect has been greatest4 ,they have amalgamated our stream of heterogeneous immigrants and fired them with common understanding and purpose2 they have taught the ignorant to cooperate1 made them think1 frowned to some degree upon vice1 insured their members to4 some extent against illness and death1 and promoted general friendliness among the laboring classes4 ,on the other hand1 their methods have been productive of much harm3 7#a7 ,the economic loss due to strikes has been enormous2 the employers have suffered heavily1 the public has suffered heavily2 the laborers have suffered most of all4 ,social amelioration certainly ought not to have to come about through such wasteful methods and such bitter privation4 7#b7 ,the inconvenience caused the public by strikes has often been very great1 especially where the coalmines or railways have been affected4 ,only a few years ago a veritable tragedy was barely averted1 when ,president ,roosevelt succeeded1 after the most strenuous efforts1 in ending the general coal strike in the winter season4 ,a strike of locomotive engineers means obviously a great peril to the traveling public4 7#c7 ,the antagonisms and class hatreds engendered by this sort of industrial warfare do infinite moral harm1 and retard heavily the peaceful solution of the problems4 ,the class organs always denounce in bitterest terms the opposing class1 and lawlessness always lurks in the background4 7#d7 ,apart from their conduct of strikes1 the labor unions must answer to many serious indictments4 ,they have endeavored to restrict output1 in order to raise prices4 ,they have sought to restrict the number of apprentices in a trade1 and have opposed trade schools1 in order to keep down the competition for positions4 ,they have insisted on a uniform wage without regard to efficiency4 ,they have opposed scientific management and the increase of efficiency in various industries1 in order to retain more workers therein4 ,they have insisted upon the retention of incompetent employees1 thereby directly causing railway accidents and other evils4 ,they have often antagonized such other ameliorative methods as profit sharing and government regulation1 and have rejected overtures from employers1 because these-to quote from a union pamphlet-remove the scope and field of trade-unionism4 ,they have at times been run in the interests of selfish leaders and seemed chiefly a moneymaking scheme of a few grafters4 ,there can be no question1 on a dispassionate consideration1 that the militant methods of the trade unions are an unfortunate and temporary expedient4 ,the grievances which they have sought to remedy are very real and very bitter2 and perhaps1 on the whole1 the unions have done more good than harm1 and accomplished results that would not so soon have been effected in any other way4 ,but they have been rather strikingly unsuccessful4 ,after fifty years of propaganda1 seventy per cent of all industrial workers remain non-unionized2 and there has been a relative loss in their numbers during the past decade4 ,they have never succeeded in cornering the labor market1 and there seems to be no prospect of their succeeding4 ,in all events1 for a permanent and thoroughgoing solution of labor troubles we must turn to some other method4 ,,ii4 ,,profit ,,sharing1 ,,cooperation1 ,,and ,,consumers' ,,leagues8 7#a7 ,the usual method of profit-sharing is for the employer to set aside voluntarily a certain proportion of the profits of successful years1 to be distributed among the employees in addition to their regular wages1 the distribution being made proportionate to the amount of each man's wages4 ,it is thus properly called a dividend to wages1 and is equivalent to a small ownership of the stock of the business by each worker4 ,the advantage lies not only in the fairer distribution of the profits of a business1 but in the interest1 contentment1 and increased efficiency of the employees4 ,the self-interest of the laborers is enlisted to prevent strikes1 and a feeling of good will tends to prevail4 ,not a few employers are giving a degree of profit sharing as a mere business proposition2 and the results have been generally successful4 ,but the method is only a sop4 ,it touches only one of the evils above mentioned1 that of underpayment of workers4 ,and1 for that matter1 it is oftenest introduced where the workers are already well paid4 ,it is possible only in successful and firmly established industries2 and even in them1 bad years may necessitate a temporary cessation of dividends to wages1 and generate resentment in the minds of the laborers1 who do not know the precise status of the business4 ,moreover1 since the workers cannot be expected to reverse the procedure in lean years and contribute to the maintenance of the business1 it is necessary1 in most industries1 to reserve a considerable sum from the profits of fat years to tide over possible periods of lean years4 ,it might be possible to enforce by law the accumulation of such a reserve fund1 and then the distribution of a fixed percentage of the net profits of the business to labor-instead of permitting all the profits to go into the pockets of owners or stockholders4 ,but such a plan will probably be superseded by or incorporated into some more comprehensive solution for industrial evils1 a scheme that can remedy other wrongs besides that of inadequate wages4 7#b7 ,cooperation in production involves democratic management of a business as well as a more radical sharing of its profits4 ,the workers themselves contribute the capital1 elect the managers1 and divide the profits4 ,by their votes they can determine hours of work1 and arrange conditions to suit themselves1 so far as their capital allows4 ,cooperation-when fully carried out-is socialism on a small scale introduced into the midst of a capitalistic regime4 ,its defects are1 first1 that it is difficult while that regime lasts to find capital enough-since those who have capital to invest usually prefer to manage the business themselves or to entrust their money to a business conducted on ordinary lines2 secondly1 that failure means the loss of the hard-earned savings of workingmen2 thirdly1 that it is difficult to retain skillful managers1 since such men usually prefer the opportunities which individualistic business offers of making a larger income2 and fourthly1 that it is difficult for a democratically managed concern to compete successfully with autocratic business4 ,political democracies are at a disadvantage in a struggle with tyrannies1 if the latter are governed by able men4 ,a one- man policy is more stable1 permits of quicker action and a more consistent policy than is possible to a democracy4 ,exactly so in business1 our dictatorial captains of industry have an advantage over their usually less skilled and always less powerful heads1 and their smaller capital4 ,the millionaire can cut prices and stand losses which would ruin a cooperative body of workingmen4 ,so that cooperative production has not generally proved successful4 ,in any case1 there seems to be no probability of societies of producers being able to supplant the capitalistic concerns2 we must turn elsewhere for the solution of our problems4 7#c7 ,consumers' cooperation has been more widely successful4 ,on this plan a number of people contribute the capital of a business in equal small amounts and share the profits in proportion to their purchases4 ,the possibility of excessive profits to a single owner or a small group of owners is thus abolished4 ,but the other evils of autocratic industry remain2 laborers are hired for current wages1 as by the capitalists1 and the temptations to unfair treatment of employees and of competitors remain4 7#d7 ,consumers' ,leagues1 so called1 have made a business of ascertaining the conditions under which goods are produced1 and exhorting their members to purchase only those which have involved fair treatment to the workers4 ,the undertaking is praiseworthy1 and has accomplished some good4 ,but its effects are limited by obvious causes4 ,it is extremely difficult in many cases for the consumer to discover the conditions of production of what he wishes to buy4 ,it is a nuisance to have to burden himself with such perplexing considerations4 ,and it is impossible to maintain public allegiance to a white list in face of the temptation of bargain sales4 ,evils must be attacked at their source2 they cannot be effectively controlled from the consumer's end4 ,,iii4 ,government regulation of prices1 profits1 and wages8 ,there are two proposals that promise thoroughgoing cure for industrial evils government regulation of business1 leaving it upon its present capitalistic basis1 and socialism1 the complete democratizing of industry4 ,it seems that one or the other alternative must ultimately be accepted4 ,according to the former1 and less radical1 plan1 publicity of accounts would be required in every industry2 and state or national commissions would have full power to supervise the conditions of production1 to set a minimum standard below which wages must not fall1 to fix maximum prices above which the products must not be sold1 to prevent stock- watering1 to enforce standards of honesty and good workmanship in goods1 to see to it that all competition is carried on fairly1 and to forbid excessive salaries to managers4 ,equal standards would be exacted throughout an industry1 and any increased cost of production would result in the raising of prices 7except where profits had previously been exorbitant72 thus there would be no real hardship upon employers4 ,the minimum wage should not1 of course1 be set above the actual productive power of labor2 and the inefficient laborers who would be thrown out of employment as not worth the standard wage must be looked after by the provision of free vocational education and state employment4 ,apprentices1 cripples1 defectives1 and persons giving only part time1 would be permitted to receive partial wages2 and above the minimum wage1 differences in stipend would still exist1 as now1 to stimulate industry and skill4 ,with such provision for safe- guarding the rights of labor1 of competitors1 and of the public1 profits would not be directly regulated2 if they became excessive1 they would be clipped by the requirement of a lower price for the product1 or of more sanitary or safer conditions of production4 ,but the initiative and energy of the owners would be retained by permitting a sliding scale of profits2 the higher the wages paid1 or the lower the price set upon products1 the greater the profits they could be allowed4 ,thus a premium would still be set upon efficiency4 ,under this plan monopoly could be carried to any extent2 strikes could be absolutely forbidden1 and all dissatisfaction settled by the arbitration of the impartial government commission4 ,monopoly might even be legally maintained by a refusal of charters to would-be competitors1 thus insuring to the public the advantages of a completely organized business without leaving the public at its mercy4 ,the natural monopolies1 such as railways1 telephones1 lighting-service1 from which private fortunes have often been made at public expense1 can easily be regulated by carefully considered and short-term franchises4 ,up to date1 the partial and tentative trials of this plan have been encouragingly successful4 ,but there are obvious defects in it1 which we must notice3 7#a7 ,the danger of failures in business would still exist4 ,some factors would tend to lessen this danger as1 the prevention of stock- watering1 misappropriation of funds1 excessive salaries1 and the unfair competition of rivals4 ,but failures could no longer be averted by squeezing wages1 neglecting conditions of production1 or lowering the quality of goods4 ,the employers may well ask1 in bitterness1 what right the ,government has to close their chances of high profits when it leaves the chance of total loss4 ,private ownership of business1 still retained on the plan we are considering1 must involve risk of bankruptcy1 with its economic waste and its suffering4 7#b7 ,the plant1 capital1 and management of a business would still be entirely at the disposal of the owner1 and handed down in his family or to partners voluntarily taken in4 ,the son of a capitalist1 who inherits the business1 may be by no means the most deserving or efficient person to carry it on4 ,industry is not democratic under this plan2 justice is attained as a compromise between the interests of capitalists and laborers4 ,class antagonisms are still fostered2 distrust of the impartiality of the government commission would continually be present1 and might at any time lead to actual rebellion and violence4 7#c7 ,the temptations to corruption would be enormous4 ,the capitalists1 with their reserve funds1 would be in a position to bribe or unfairly influence any susceptible members of the commissions2 and with the danger of bankruptcy on the one hand1 and the great prizes to be won on the other1 there would inevitably result in the present state of the average human conscience-a great deal of foul play4 ,commissioners would have an unlimited opportunity of blackmailing employers4 ,labor members would pull in one direction1 and upper-class members in another4 ,the strain upon public morality would be severe4 ,,iv4 ,,socialism8 ,socialism promises1 according to its adherents1 to accomplish all the good results of government regulation1 while obviating its defects4 ,it behooves us1 then1 to give it careful and unbiased attention4 ,the movement toward it is1 at least1 one of the most significant and widespread movements of our times1 evoking on the one hand extraordinary enthusiasm and loyalty1 so that to millions of men it is almost a religion1 and on the other hand deep distrust1 impatient contempt1 or bitter hostility4 ,moreover1 the movement is steadily growing2 we must recognize that it is not a fad1 but a deep current1 an international brotherhood that numbers in its ranks many able and intellectual men4 ,we may here disregard the inadequate economic theories that have hampered its earlier years1 and the ,utopian dreams that have been published under its name1 and consider it only as a practical program for remedying our acknowledged and serious industrial evils4 ,the gist of the socialist proposal is that all industry shall be made democratic1 as government is now becoming democratic all over the earth4 ,all plants and all capital are to be owned by the ,state1 and all business run as the ,post-,office is run1 or as the ,panama ,canal was built4 ,the managers of each industry are to be chosen from the ranks1 according to their fitness1 for proved efficiency and knowledge of the business4 ,everybody will be upon a salary1 and the opportunity of increasing personal profits by lowering wages1 cheating the public1 neglecting evil conditions of production1 or damaging rivals1 will be absent4 ,thus1 instead of trying by an elaborate system of checks to keep within due bounds the greed of man1 the possibility of satisfying that greed is definitely removed1 and all earnings made proportionate to industriousness and skill4 ,we proceed to summarize the advantages that1 it is urged1 would follow the inauguration of this industrial democracy3 7#a7 ,all industries could be organized and centralized4 ,a vast amount of human effort could be saved1 and waste eliminated4 ,business would no longer1 as so often now1 be hampered for lack of funds to carry out plans4 ,a special staff could be retained to invent and apply new ideas4 ,in short1 just as the trusts now are much more efficient and economical than the small concerns they have superseded1 so the completely organized industries of a socialistic regime would be1 we are told1 in a position to double human efficiency4 ,if the postal business were open to competition1 there can be no doubt that we should be paying higher rates today for a much less efficient service4 ,if it were a private monopoly1 some one would probably be getting enormous profits out of it profits which now go back into extending the service4 ,the labor saved by industrial unification would be available for a thousand other undertakings that cry to be carried out4 7#b7 ,all the industrial wrongs enumerated in the preceding chapter could1 it is asserted1 be remedied1 and all problems adjusted1 with comparatively little friction1 because it would be to no one's particular advantage to retard such betterment4 ,those in control of every business1 being upon a fixed salary1 and having nothing to gain by squeezing laborers or public1 would be amenable to a sense of pride in the honesty1 cleanliness1 and efficiency of their business1 and the contentment of their employees4 ,if they were too lazy or stupid to respond to such motives1 they could quickly be superseded in office by men who were more ambitious for the fair showing of their branch of the public service4 7#c7 ,opportunity to rise to the control of a business would be open to every laborer in it4 ,the sons of rich men could no longer step easily into the soft berths1 whether they were deserving or not4 ,proved efficiency1 plus popularity1 would be the road to success4 ,with the higher wages paid to labor 7made possible partly by the economic saving through organization1 and partly by cutting out the private fortunes now made out of industry71 every boy would be able to get a thorough vocational education1 and be in a position to strive1 if he is ambitious1 for leadership4 ,industrial power would be conferred1 directly or indirectly1 by popular vote2 business would be recognized as a public affair1 and nepotism and hereditary advantage banished from it as they have been from politics4 7#d7 ,the risk of bankruptcies1 with all their attendant evils1 would be done away with entirely4 ,business would have a stability unknown to our present individualistic industry1 and businessmen would be freed from that anxiety that drives so many today to a premature grave4 7#e7 ,all speculation in stocks would be likewise eliminated4 ,the necessary capital for any new undertaking would be provided by the industrial ,state1 and the undeserved gains and losses of our present system of private investment would come to an end4 7#f7 ,morally1 there would be a probable gain in several ways4 ,the elimination of private profit from business would give freer room for the development of a social spirit which is now choked out by the temptation that each owner of a business is under to grab all that he can for himself4 ,there would be no motive1 and no fortunes available1 for1 at least1 the most striking forms of that corruption of the press which is such a grave problem today4 ,municipal theaters would be under no temptation to produce nasty plays4 ,all this exploitation of human weakness and passion is done because it ,,pays2 if the men at the top were on a salary there would be no such inducement to cater to vicious instincts4 ,the economic pressure that now pushes so many girls in the direction of prostitution would be relieved4 ,the people generally would be dignified and educated by their participation in industrial1 as now in political decisions4 ,if some of the tougher strains of character1 grit1 push1 endurance1 etc4 would be less fostered1 the gentler and more social aspects of character would find better soil4 ,whether all these advantages would actually accrue1 in the degree hoped for1 it is1 of course1 impossible to know4 ,there are1 however1 at least two grave dangers in socialism which must be squarely faced3 7#a7 ,a certain degree of slackness and consequent inefficiency would almost inevitably result from the relaxing of the pressure of competition and the removal of the opportunity for unlimited personal profit4 ,employees and managers of state and municipal undertakings are apt to take things easily2 and there have been usually waste and inertia and extravagance in such enterprises4 ,the probable loss in grit1 push1 and endurance1 mentioned above1 might prove serious4 ,we must admit that1 on the whole1 private business has been managed much better than public business1 both in this country and abroad4 ,to a considerable extent1 however1 the inefficiency of municipal and state undertakings has been due to the clumsiness and corruption of political systems1 and can be cured by political reform4 ,that public affairs can be managed as successfully as private business has been demonstrated on many occasions4 ,the parcel post offers a much more economical service than the express companies ever gave4 ,the most efficient and successful engineering undertaking ever accomplished by man the construction of the ,panama ,canal was a thoroughgoing socialistic achievement4 ,moreover1 in our criticism of public undertakings1 we are apt to forget how slack and inefficient the great bulk of private business has been2 our attention is caught by the few concerns that have made a striking success1 and we overlook the vast numbers that have failed or barely kept alive4 ,looking at the matter psychologically1 observation does not altogether confirm the statement that men need an unlimited possibility of financial reward to work hard4 ,the vast majority of workers today are on salary2 and on the whole they probably work as faithfully as the few at the top 7continually becoming fewer7 who have the spur of private profit4,footnote3 #a ,cf4 this testimony in regard to former owners of stores in ,minnesota and ,wisconsin who have been bought out and retained as managers by cooperative societies3 they work for moderate salaries1 and in almost all cases are working as ardently for success as they ever did for their own gain4 ,n4 ,o4 ,nelson1 in ,outlook1 vol4 #hi1 p4 #ebg4 ,not all capitalists are hard workers2 much of the real work is done for them by salaried managers4 ,it is very questionable if doctors and lawyers1 who work for profits1 give any more loyal service to the community than teachers1 ministers1 or nurses1 who work on salary4 ,there would still be the need of earning one's living1 and the incentive of rising to positions of higher salary1 greater authority1 and wider interest4 ,and1 after all1 most of the really good work of the world is done on honor1 from the normal human pleasure in doing things well1 and pride in being known to do things well4 ,when freed from the private greed and antisocial class feelings which now inhibit it1 this zest in efficient work and loyal service might receive a new impetus4 ,a socialistic regime would surely make a business of inculcating in its public schools the conception of all work as public service2 and the pressure of public opinion would bear more heavily upon workers-as there is today much freer criticism of public than of private undertakings4 ,but even if there should be a considerable increase in slackness and a decrease in ,,per ,,capita production1 that economic loss might be more than made up by the saving of labor through organization4 ,and if not1 it is true that efficiency is not the only good4 ,considerations of humanity should weigh with us as well as considerations of moneymaking2 if socialism can cure the intolerable evils in our present selfish and chaotic system1 a certain decrease in production might not be too great a price to pay4 7#b7 ,the running of the complicated socialistic machine would involve a great deal of friction1 with consequent dissatisfaction and dissension4 ,problems would arise on all hands3 ,on what basis should the wage-rate in this industry and in that be determined8 ,how much of the public moneys should be put into this and how much into that undertaking8 ,was this department head fair in discharging this man and promoting that man8 ,suspicion of bribery and graft would continually recur4 ,bad seasons would be encountered1 blunders would be made1 overproduction would occur1 men would be thrown out of employment in the work they had chosen1 floods1 fires1 plagues1 and other disasters would sweep away profits2 the adjustment of these losses would be an enormously delicate matter4 ,at present1 the poor are apt to feel that prosperity for them is hopeless2 under a socialistic regime they would expect it1 and be loath to see their incomes diminished when things went wrong4 ,socialism would require a great deal of good temper and willingness to submit to decisions which seemed unwise or unfair4 ,it is highly doubtful if human nature is yet good enough to fit the system4 7#c7 ,a third objection to socialism1 that corruption would be increased1 is a much-debated point4 ,there would be1 as now1 opportunity for falsification of accounts and embezzlement4 ,individual promotions would too often hinge upon personal friendship or favors received4 ,the enormous administrative machinery would open up all sorts of new avenues to personal gain at the expense of others1 which unprincipled men would be quick to take advantage of4 ,but1 on the other hand1 no great private fortunes or wealthy corporations would exist to bribe1 and no such money-prizes would exist to be won by bribery as are common in our present system4 ,there would be no temptation to adulterate goods1 and less of a temptation to award contracts or franchises to friends -since there would be no private profit in it4 ,what supports our political rings today is1 above all1 the existence of the interests wealthy corporations that are making profits enough to spare large sums for influencing legislation2 these interests would no longer exist4 ,on the whole1 then1 the amount and direction of corruption under socialism is unpredictable2 but its possibility should give us pause4 ,the other general objections to socialism are probably less serious2 some of them complete misapprehensions4 ,it is certainly not anti-,christian2 on the contrary1 there are those who believe that it is the necessary the ,christian spirit4,footnote3 ,cf1 for example1 ,w4 ,rauschenbusch1 ,christianity and the ,social ,crisis4 ,it is not materialistic any more than any industrial system must necessarily be4 ,it would not necessarily destroy private property or lessen human freedom1 except in the one matter that it would prevent private ownership of the instruments of industrial production and destroy the freedom to conduct business to private advantage4 ,but it is clear that it would involve us in all sorts of complicated and delicate problems of detail which would require generations for satisfactory solution and which might never be satisfactorily solved4 ,and it might1 of course1 lead to other difficulties now unforeseen1 graver and more difficult to meet than we now realize4 ,surely1 then1 it is not to be lightly undertaken1 and not to be undertaken as a mere revolt of the lower classes against their industrial masters4 ,it must be worked out in great detail1 and contrasted with every possible alternative1 before cautious statesmen will consent to its adoption4 ,for it would mean a revolutionary change of enormous proportions2 and it would not be easy to revert to the earlier order4 ,our political machinery1 under which the vast industrial system would come1 must first be reconstructed and made efficient4 ,religion and public education must be strengthened to meet the new demands upon character and intelligence4 ,it is earnestly to be hoped that if socialism comes1 it will come not by revolution1 as the result of a class struggle1 but by evolution and a general consent1 the result of long and careful public discussion4 ,in the writer's opinion1 present steps must be along the line of government regulation1 with socialism as the possible1 but as yet by no means certain1 eventual outcome4 ,in any case1 there is no simple and sweeping panacea for our industrial ills2 the patient thought and experimentation and effort of generations will be required before a satisfactory and stable equilibrium is attained4 ,competition ,,vs4 concentration3 ,c4 ,r4 ,van ,hise1 ,,concentration ,,and ,,control1 chap4 ,i4 ,j4 ,w4 ,jenks1 ,,the ,,trust ,,problem4 ,e4 von ,halle1 ,,trusts ,,and ,,industrial ,,combinations4 ,f4 ,c4 ,mc,vey1 ,,modern ,,industrialism4 ,s4 ,c4 ,t4 ,dodd1 ,,combinations1 ,,their ,,use ,,and ,,abuse4 ,r4 ,t4 ,ely1 ,,monopolies ,,and ,,trusts4 ,c4 ,n4 ,fay1 ,,big ,,business ,,and ,,government4 ,edmond ,kelly1 ,,twentieth ,,century ,,socialism1 book ,,ii1 chap1 ,,ii2 book ,,iii1 chap4 ,i4 ,a4 ,j4 ,eddy1 ,,the ,,new ,,competition4 ,atlantic ,monthly1 vol4 #gi1 p4 #cgg4 ,,forum1 vol4 #h1 p4 #fa4 ,,journal ,,of ,,political ,,economy1 vol4 #bj1 p4 #ceh4 ,labor unions and strikes3 ,j4 ,r4 ,commons1 ,,trade-,,unionism ,,and ,,labor ,,problems4 ,carlton1 ,,history ,,and ,,problems ,,of ,,organized ,,labor4 ,s4 and ,b4 ,webb1 ,,industrial ,,democracy2 ,,history ,,of ,,trade ,,unionism4 ,j4 ,mitchell1 ,,organized ,,labor4 ,c4 ,r4 ,henderson1 ,,social ,,spirit ,,in ,,america1 chap4 ix4 ,jane ,addams1 ,,newer ,,ideals ,,of ,,peace1 chap4 v4 ,,atlantic ,,monthly1 vol4 #aji1 p4 #geh4 ,h4 ,r4 ,seager1 ,i ,,ntroduction ,,to ,,economics1 chap4 xxi4 ,f4 ,w4 ,taussig1 ,,principles ,,of ,,economics1 chap4 #ee4 ,profit sharing3 ,w4 ,h4 ,tolman1 ,,social ,,engineering1 chap4 vii4 ,seager1 ,,op4 ,,cit1 chap1 xxvi1 sec4 #bha4 ,adams and ,sumner1 ,,labor ,,problems1 chap4 ,x4 ,n4 ,p4 ,gilman1 ,,profit ,,sharing2 ,a ,,dividend ,,to ,,labor4 ,outlook1 vol4 #ajf1 p4 #fbg4 ,,quarterly ,,review1 vol4 #bai1 p4 #eji4 ,cooperation3 ,g4 ,j4 ,holyoake1 ,,history ,,of ,,cooperation4 ,c4 ,r4 ,fay1 ,,cooperation ,,at ,,home ,,and ,,abroad4 ,adams and ,sumner1 ,,labor ,,problems1 chap4 x4 ,,arena1 vol4 #cf1 p4 #bjj2 vol4 #dj1 p4 #fcb4 ,h4 ,r4 ,seager1 ,,op4 ,,cit1 sec4 #bhb4 ,f4 ,w4 ,taussig1 ,,op4 ,,cit1 chap4 #ei4 ,consumers' leagues3 ,publications of the ,national ,consumers' ,league 7#ajf ,east ,nineteenth ,street1 ,new ,york ,city74 ,government regulation3 ,j4 ,w4 ,jenks1 ,,op4 ,,cit1 ,appendices4 ,c4 ,r4 ,van ,hise1 ,,op4 ,,cit1 chaps1 iii-v4 ,f4 ,w4 ,taussig1 ,,op4 ,,cit1 chaps4 #fb1fc4 ,h4 ,r4 ,seager1 ,,op4 ,,cit1 chap4 xxv4 ,c4 ,l4 ,king1 ,,regulation ,,of ,,municipal ,,utilities4 ,j4 ,b4 and ,j4 ,m4 ,clark1 ,,control ,,of ,,the ,,trusts4 ,e4 ,m4 ,phelps1 ,,federal ,,control ,,of ,,interstate ,,corporations4 ,,atlantic ,,monthly1 vol4 iii1 p4 #dcc4 ,,outlook1 vol4 #ii1 p4 #fdi2 vol4 #ajj1 pp4 #egd1 #fij2 vol4 #aja1 p4 #cec2 vol4 #ajc1 p4 #dgf4 ,,north ,,american ,,review1 vol4 #aig1 pp4 #fb1 #bbb1 #cej4 ,,international ,,journal ,,of ,,ethics1 vol4 #bc1 p4 #aeh4 ,,journal ,,of ,,political ,,economy1 vol4 #bj1 pp4 #cji1 #egd4 ,socialism3 ,edmond ,kelly1 ,,twentieth ,,century ,,socialism4 ,h4 ,g4 ,wells1 ,,new ,,worlds ,,for ,,old4 ,j4 ,spargo1 ,,socialism4 ,m4 ,hillquit1 ,,socialism ,,in ,,theory ,,and ,,practice4 ,a4 ,schaffle1 ,,the ,,quintessence ,,of ,,socialism4 ,f4 ,w4 ,taussig1 ,,op4 ,,cit1 chaps4 #fd1 #fe4 ,j4 ,rae1 the roman numerals are both upper and lower case did not standardize ,,porary ,,socialism4 ,r4 ,t4 ,ely1 ,,socialism4 ,w4 ,g4 ,towler1 ,,socialism ,,in ,,local ,,goivernemnt4 ,h4 ,r4 ,,seager1 ,,op4 ,,cit1 sec4 #bhb4 ,n4 ,p4 ,gilman1 ,,socialism ,,and ,,the ,,american ,,spirit4 ,r4 ,hunter1 ,,socialists ,,at ,,work4 ,,journal ,,of ,,political ,,economy1 vol4 #ad1 p4 #beg4 ,,outlook1 vol4 #ia1 pp4 #fah1 #ffb2 vol4 #ie1 pp4 #hca1 #hgf4 ,,chapter ,,xxviii ,,liberty ,,and ,,law ,,we have spoken of the practical defects and dangers inherent in the various proposals that look to the rectification of industrial wrongs4 ,but there is one source of opposition to these proposals that requires more extended consideration-the fear that they-and especially socialism-unduly threaten that ideal of personal liberty which our fathers so passionately served and we have come to look upon as the cornerstone of our prosperity4 ,what is this ideal of liberty1 and how should it affect our efforts at industrial regeneration8 ,what are the essential aspects of the ideal of liberty8 ,throughout a long stretch of human history one of the most vexing obstacles to general happiness and progress has been the irresponsible power of sovereigns and oligarchies4 ,to generations it has seemed that if freedom from selfish tyranny could but be won1 the millennium would be at hand4 ,our heroes have been those who fought against despots for the rights of the people2 we measure progress by such milestones as the ,magna ,charta1 the ,french ,revolution1 the ,american ,declaration of ,independence4 ,to this day we engrave the word liberty on our coins2 and the converging multitudes from ,europe look up eagerly to the great statue that welcomes them in ,new ,york ,harbor and symbolizes for them the freedom that they have often suffered so much to gain4 ,in ,mrs4 ,hemans's hymn1 in ,patrick ,henry's famous speech1 in ,mary ,antin's wonderful autobiography1 ,the ,promised ,land1 we catch glimpses of that devotion to liberty which1 it is now said1 we are jeopardizing by our increasing mass of legislative restraints and propose to banish for good and all by an indefinite increase in the powers of the ,state4 ,more than a generation ago ,mill wrote3 ,there is in the world at large an increasing inclination to stretch unduly the powers of society over the individual1 both by the force of opinion and even by that of legislation2 and as the tendency of all the changes taking place in the world is to strengthen society1 and diminish the power of the individual1 this encroachment is not one of the evils which tend spontaneously to disappear1 but1 on the contrary1 to grow more and more formidable4,footnote3 ,essay on ,liberty1 ,introductory4 ,not a few observers today are reiterating this note of alarm with increasing emphasis4 ,are their fears well founded8 ,we may at once agree in applauding the liberty worship of our fathers and of our contemporaries in the more backward countries4 ,no secure steps in civilization can be taken until liberty of body1 of movement1 and of possession are guaranteed2 there must be no fear of arbitrary execution1 arrest1 or confiscation4 ,to this must be added liberty of conscience1 of speech1 and of worship2 the right of free assembly1 a free press1 and that freedom to worship ,god that the ,pilgrims sought4 ,wherever these rights1 so fundamental to human happiness1 are impugned1 ,liberty6 is still the fitting rallying-cry4,footnote3 ,the exact limits within which freedom of speech must be allowed are debatable1 7a7 ,speech which incites to crime1 to lawbreaking1 to sexual and other vice1 must be prevented2 and 7b7 slander1 the public utterance of grossly disparaging statements concerning any person1 without reasonable evidence of their truth4 ,may we attempt to stifle the utterance of 7c7 such other untruths as are inexcusable in the light of our common knowledge8 ,there are certainly many matters where there is no longer room for legitimate difference of opinion2 and the general diffusion of correct knowledge is greatly retarded by the silly utterances of uninformed people4 ,yet to draw the line here is so difficult that we must probably tolerate this evil forever rather than run the risk of stifling some generally unsuspected truth4 rights are safely won2 the danger now is rather of abusing them4 ,we must not forget that liberty is only a means1 not an end in itself1 to be restricted in so far as may be necessary for the greatest happiness4 ,from our discussion in ,part ,,ii it should be clear that there are no natural rights which the community is bound to respect2 liberty must be granted the individual so far1 and only so far1 as it does not impede the general welfare4 ,we do not hesitate to end the liberty1 or even to take the life1 of those we deem dangerous to society4 ,we do not hesitate to confiscate the land which we deem necessary for a highway or railroad or public building4 ,indeed1 we hedge personal liberty about with a thousand restrictions by general consent1 in the realization that public interests must come before private4 ,we have no need to discuss the doctrine of anarchism ,footnote3 ,for an eloquent defense of anarchism see ,tolstoy's writings2 here is a sample statement3 ,for a ,christian to promise to subject himself to any government whatsoever-a subjection which may be considered the foundation of state life-is a direct negation of ,christianity4 7,kingdom of ,god1 chap4 ,,ix47 ,cf4 this utterance of one of the ,chicago anarchists of #ahhf4 ,whoever prescribes a rule of action for another to obey is a tyrant3 usurper1 and an enemy of liberty4- unrestricted liberty since the general chaos that would result there from1 in the present stage of human nature1 is sufficiently apparent4 ,liberty can never be absolute4 ,indeed1 there has been a curious reversal of situation4 ,the older cry of liberty that stirs us was a cry of the oppressed masses against their masters2 now it is a slogan of the privileged upper classes against that increasing popular legislation which restricts their powers4 ,kings are now but figureheads1 if they linger at all1 in our modern democracies2 governments are not irresponsible masters of the people1 they are instruments for carrying out the popular will4 ,the real tyrants now1 those whose irresponsible authority is dangerous to the masses1 are the kings of industry2 if the cry of liberty is to be raised again1 it should be raised1 according to all historical precedent1 in behalf of the slaves of modern industry rather than in behalf of the fortunate few who give up so grudgingly the practical powers they have usurped4 ,there were those1 indeed1 who fought passionately for the divine right of kings1 those who died to maintain the right of a white man to hold ,negroes as slaves2 there are those today who with a truly religious fervor uphold the right of the capitalistic class to manage the industries of the country at their own sweet will1 unhampered by such legislative restrictions as the majority may deem expedient for the general welfare4 ,but it is a travesty on the sacred word liberty that it should be thus invoked to uphold the prerogatives of the favored few4 ,liberty1 in the sense in which it is properly an ideal for man1 connotes the right to all such forms of activity as are consonant with the greatest general happiness1 and to no others4 ,it implies the right not to be oppressed1 not the right to oppress4 ,mere freedom of contract is not real freedom1 if the alternative be to starve2 such formal freedom may be practical slavery4 ,the real freedom is freedom to live as befits a man2 and it is precisely because such freedom is beyond the grasp of multitudes today that our system of free contract is discredited2 it offers the name of liberty without the reality4 ,but apart from this questionable appeal to the ideal of liberty1 there are not a few who sincerely believe1 on grounds of practical expediency1 that legislation ought not to interfere any more than proves absolutely necessary with the conduct of industry4 ,this scheme of individualism we will now consider4 ,the ideal of individualism4 ,the individualistic1 or laissez-faire1 ideal dates perhaps from ,rousseau and the ,french doctrinaires2 its best-known representatives in ,english speech are ,mill and ,spencer4 ,dewey and ,tufts have pithily expressed it as follows3 ,the moral end of political institutions and measures is the maximum possible freedom of the individual consistent with his not interfering with like freedom on the part of other individuals4,footnote3 ,ethics1 p4 #dhc4 ,its leading arguments may be presented and answered1 summarily1 as follows3 7#a7 ,legislation has so often been mischievous that it is well to have as little of it as possible4 ,the masses are uneducated1 the prey of impulse and passion2 politics are corrupt2 to submit the genius of free ,,entrepreneurs to the clumsy and ill-fitted yoke of a popularly wrought legal control is to stifle their enterprise and interfere with their chances of success4 ,after all1 every one knows his own needs best2 and if we leave people alone1 they will secure their own welfare better than if we try to dictate to them how they shall seek it4 ,out of the fourteen thousand odd acts which1 in our own country1 have been repealed1 from the date of the ,statute of ,merton down to #ahgb 4 4 4 how many have been repealed because they were mischievous8 4 4 4 ,suppose that only three thousand of these acts were abolished after proved injuries had been caused1 which is a low estimate4 ,what shall we say of these three thousand acts which have been hindering human happiness and increasing human misery2 now for years1 now for generations1 now for centuries8,footnote3 ,h4 ,spencer1 ,principles of ,ethics1 part ,,iv1 sec4 #aca4 ,but to admit that much legislation has been blundering is not to admit that the principle of social control is wrong4 ,our political system must1 indeed1 be made must be placed in the way of overhasty and ill-considered lawmaking4 ,but it is not always true that the individual is the best judge of his own ultimate interests2 and it is demonstrably untrue that the pursuit by each of what he deems best for himself will bring the greatest happiness for all4 ,the stronger and more favorably situated will take advantage of their position and resources2 the weaker1 though theoretically free1 will in reality be under the handicap of poverty1 ignorance1 hunger4 ,such a system is inevitably vicious in its moral effects4 ,to say that in a popular government legislation cannot properly standardize practice1 cannot formulate a higher code of public morality than men can be depended upon to attain if unrestrained1 is unwarrantably to discredit democracy4 ,if the laws are bad1 improve them4 ,if the public is uneducated1 educate it4 ,if our system gives us poor lawmakers1 change the system4 ,but to give up the attempt at legal control1 to leave things as they are or rather1 to leave them to go from bad to worse1 is unthinkable4 7#b7 ,too much legislation stifles individuality1 drags genius down to the dead level of average ideas1 tends to produce an unprogressive uniformity of practice4 ,it imposes the conceptions of the past upon the future4 ,if the measures have any effect at all1 the effect must in part be that of causing some likeness among the individuals2 to deny this is to deny that the process of molding is operative4 ,but in so far as uniformity results advance is retarded4 ,every one who has studied the order of nature knows that without variety there can be no progress4,footnote3 ,h4 ,spencer1 op4 cit1 sec4 #ach4 ,persons of genius1 it is true1 are1 and are always likely to be1 a small minority2 but in order to have them it is necessary to preserve the soil in which they grow4 ,genius can only breathe freely in an atmosphere of freedom4 444 ,it is important to give the freest scope possible to uncustomary things1 in order that it may in time appear which of these are fit to be converted into customs4 ,footnote3 ,j4 ,s4 ,mill1 ,on ,liberty1 chap4 ,,iii4 ,but the intention of social legislation is to check only such individual action as is demonstrably detrimental2 the uniformity produced will be only a uniform absence of flagrant wrongs and adoption of such positive precautions as will make the detection and checking of these harmful acts easy4 ,beyond this minimum uniformity 7which1 however1 must include an enormous number of details1 so manifold have the possibilities of wrongdoing become7 there will on any system be ample range for the development of new methods and processes4 ,whatever danger there once was in choking individual initiative by needlessly paralyzing restrictions1 will be1 in the long run1 negligible in an age of omnivorous reading and free discussion1 and in a land whose conscious ideal is improvement1 new invention1 progress4 ,as a matter of fact1 it is chiefly through legislation that new methods of social practice become diffused4 ,each of our forty-eight ,states is experimenting in social guidance1 trying to thwart this or that sin1 to remedy this or that wrong1 to work out a plan by which men can happily cooperate in our complex public life4 ,the process of evolving an efficient and frictionless social machine1 instead of being retarded by this activity of lawmaking1 is actually accelerated thereby4 ,private business tends to fall into ruts2 and one man's ideals are blocked by lack of cooperation from others4 ,legislation tends not only to preserve the best of past experiments2 but1 goaded by the zeal of reformers1 and pushed by political parties1 to drag complacent and inert individuals along new and untried paths4 ,the greatest field for genius lies today in devising successful constructive legislation2 and the greatest hope for progress in this era of mutual dependence lies in the winning of a majority for some social scheme that must be generally adopted if at all4 7#c7 ,laws1 however beneficent1 which rise above the general conscience of the people are undesirable2 character should precede legislation4 ,to conform to custom1 merely as custom1 does not educate or develop in a man any of the qualities which are the distinctive endowment of a human being4 4 4 4 ,he who does anything because it is the custom makes no choice4 ,he gains no practice either in discerning or in desiring what is best4 ,the mental and moral1 like the muscular powers1 are improved only by being used4 4 4 4 ,it is possible that he might be guided in some good path1 and kept out of harm's way1 without using his own judgment1 powers of decision1 self control1 etc4 ,but what will be his comparative worth as a human being8 ,it really is of importance1 not only what men do1 but also what manner of men they are that do it4 ,footnote3 ,j4 ,s4 ,mill1 op4 cit1 chap4 ,,iii4 ,a little common sense will show us1 however1 that there are1 and always will be1 plenty of occasions for exercising our moral muscle1 however closely we hedge in the field of legitimate activity4 ,prone to temptation as men are1 and beset by a thousand wrong impulses1 we may well seek to block this and that path of possible wrongdoing without fear of turning them mechanically into saints4 ,on the contrary1 we should hasten to use the experience of the past to avert needless temptations from the men of the future4 ,our experience has been costly enough2 and if it has revealed its lessons too late to save contemporary social life1 at least it should serve as warning for our sons4 ,to sacrifice right conduct to moral gymnastics is to set up the means as more important than the end2 every good act that can be lifted from the plane of moral struggle and put securely on the plane of habit is a step in human progress1 and leaves men freer to grapple with the remaining temptations4 ,if you wish to educate men up to a law1 put it upon the statute books if you can1 compel attention to it and discussion of the reasons pro and con1 show its practical workings2 it is far easier to educate conscience up to an existing law than beyond it4 ,moreover1 it must be said that those who prefer to see men left to think things out anew for themselves1 without the restraint and guidance of the law1 show a singular callousness toward those whom their action1 if they choose wrongly1 will hurt4 ,if we could trust men to choose aright-but we cannot2 and men must be protected against their own stupidity and weakness1 and that of others1 by the collective wisdom and will4 7#d7 ,individualism makes for prosperity4 ,offering a fair chance to all1 it brings the best to the top2 the fittest survive1 and win the positions of power2 the community as a whole is1 then1 in the end advantaged4 ,free competition in profits coordinates industrial efficiency and industrial reward4,this is equality of opportunity1 through which every man is rewarded according to his worth to the consumer4 ,footnote3 ,f4 ,y4 ,gladney1 in the ,outlook1 vol4 #aja1 p4 #bfa4 ,unfortunately1 however1 it is those who are fittest to serve not the community but their own interests that have the best chance to survive-the clever1 the privileged1 the unscrupulous4 ,nor is there equality of opportunity where some will not play fair and others have a long start4 ,the individualistic struggle makes for the selection of a type of greedy1 self-centered man1 with little sense of social responsibility4 ,even granted that the men who reach the top are the men best fitted to manage the industries of the country1 this method of selection of leaders is too wasteful of strength1 too hard on the unsuccessful1 to be generally profitable4 ,the prosperity of modern industry is due not primarily to its chaotic plan of individual effort and cross-purposes1 but to the measure of cooperation we have nevertheless attained1 with its consequent division and specialization of labor and large-scale production1 aided by the extraordinary development of invention and machinery4 ,the ideal of legal control4 ,the epoch of ultra individualism1 of what ,huxley called administrative nihilism1 is rapidly passing4 ,jane ,addams speaks of the inadequacy of those eighteenth-century ideals the breakdown of the machinery which they provided1 pointing out that that worldly wisdom which counsels us to know life as it is discounts the assumption that if only the people had freedom they would walk continuously in the paths of justice and righteousness4 ,footnote3 ,newer ,ideals of ,peace1 pp4 #ca-cb4 ,h4 ,g4 ,wells remarks1 ,we do but emerge now from a period of deliberate happy- go-lucky and the influence of ,herbert ,spencer1 who came near raising public shiftlessness to the dignity of a natural philosophy4 ,everything would adjust itself-if only it was left alone4 ,footnote3 ,social ,forces in ,england and ,america1 p4 #hj4 ,it is becoming clear that we cannot trust to education and the conscience of individuals to right matters1 not only because as yet we provide no moral education of any consequence for our youth1 but because1 if we did1 the temptations in a world where every man is free to grab for himself would still be almost irresistible4 ,but there are two positive arguments for the extension of legal control that clinch the matter3 7#a7 ,without the support of the law it is often impossible for the conscientious man to act in a purely social spirit4 ,the competition of those who are less answerable to moral motives forces him to lower his own ideals if he would not see his business ruined4 ,the employer of child labor in one factory cannot afford to hire adults1 at their higher wage1 until all the other factories give up the cheaper labor also4 ,where sweatshop labor produces cheap clothing for some manufacturers1 the more scrupulous are undersold4 ,one employer cannot1 unless he is unusually prosperous1 raise the wages of his employees or shorten their hours until his competitors do likewise4 ,improvement of conditions must take place all along the line or not at all4 ,and since unanimous voluntary consent is practically impossible to obtain1 and of precarious duration if obtained1 the legal enforcement of common standards is necessitated4 7#b7 ,men generally are willing to bind themselves by law to higher codes than they will live up to if not bound4 ,in their reflective moments1 when they are deciding how to vote1 temptations are less insistent and ideals stronger than when they are confronting concrete situations4 ,to vote for a law which will restrain others1 and incidentally one's self1 comes easier than to make a purely personal sacrifice that leaves general practice unaltered4 ,to realize that this is true1 we need but look at the remarkable ethical gains made now year by year through laws voted for by many of the very men whose practice had hitherto been upon a lower moral level4 ,very many evils that once seemed fastened upon society have been thus legislated out of existence4,footnote3 ,for a vivid picture of earlier industrial conditions which would not now be tolerated1 see ,charles ,reade's ,put ,yourself in ,his ,place4 ,and if the industrial situation still seems wretched1 it is because1 in our swift advance1 new evils are arising about as fast as older evils are eradicated4 ,the law necessarily lags behind the spread of abuses1 so that there will probably always be a running duel between anti-social action and legislation designed to check it4 ,novel methods of corruption will constantly require novel methods of correction 4 4 ,but this constant development of the law should make corrupt practices increasingly difficult for the less gifted rascals who must always constitute the great majority of would-be offenders4 ,footnote3 ,r4 ,c4 ,brooks1 ,corruption in ,american ,politics and ,life1 p4 #ii4 ,the law can never1 of course1 cover the whole field of human conduct2 it represents1 in ,stevenson's phrase1 that modicum of morality which can be squeezed out of the rock of mankind4 ,unnecessary extension of the law is cumbersome1 expensive1 and provocative of impatience and rebellion4 ,moreover1 there is always some minimum of danger of injustice in attempting legal constraint2 the law itself1 as approved by the majority1 may be unfair1 or its application to the concrete case may be unfair4 ,the individualists are right in feeling that men must be left alone1 wherever the possible results are not too dangerous4 ,but no hard-and-fast line can be drawn between activities that must be left free and those which must be regulated4 ,such apparently personal matters as the use of opium or alcohol must be checked because the general happiness is1 in the end1 greatly and obviously enhanced by such restraint4 ,but there will always be1 beyond the law1 a wide field for the satisfaction of personal tastes and the practice of generosity4 ,there is no double standard2 if an act is legally right and morally wrong1 that simply means that it lies beyond the boundaries of the limited field which the law covers4 ,the extension of that field is a matter of practical expediency in each type of situation2 beyond that field1 but working to the same ends1 the forces of education and public opinion are alone available4 ,footnote3 ,for a discussion of this point1 see ,f4 ,paulsen1 ,system of ,ethics1 book ,,iii1 chap4 ,,ix1 sec4 #i4 ,international ,journal of ,ethics1 vol4 #ah1 p4 #ah4 ,should existing laws always be obeyed8 ,year by year we are extending our network of laws over human conduct2 more and more pertinent becomes the them8 and the further question1 ,are there times when the law may be rightly disobeyed8 ,we shall discuss the second question first4 ,it is obvious that our whole social structure rests upon the willingness of the people to obey the law4 ,the watchword of republics should be1 not liberty1 but obedience2 their gravest danger now is not tyranny1 but anarchy4 ,we must individually submit with patience and good temper to the decisions of the majority1 even if we disapprove those decisions4 ,we must abide by the rules of the game until we can get the rules changed4 ,and all changes must be effected according to the rules agreed upon for effecting changes4 ,this law-abiding spirit is the great triumph of democracy2 only so long as it exists can popular government stand4 ,though it be slower and exacting of greater effort and skill1 evolution1 not revolution1 is the method of permanent progress4 ,we must1 then1 band together against any groups that1 in their impatience of reform or opposition to the common will1 cast aside the restraints of law4 ,however dearly we may long for woman's suffrage1 we must sternly repress those excited suffragettes who would gain this end by defiance of law and destruction of property2 even if they further their particular cause by their violence-which is highly doubtful-they do it at the expense of something still more precious1 the preservation of the law-abiding spirit4 ,other organizations will not be slow to profit by the lesson of their success2 and we shall have ,heaven knows how many causes seeking to attain their ends by destructiveness and resistance4 ,similarly1 the more serious and menacing rebellion of labor against law must be firmly controlled2 much as we may sympathize with their grievances1 we cannot countenance the attempt to remedy them by violence4 ,the ,industrial ,workers of the ,world1 with action1 ,footnote3 ,cf1 in a pamphlet issued by them3 ,the ,i4,w4,w4 will get the results sought with the least expenditure of time and energy4 ,the tactics used are determined solely by the power of the organization to make good in their use4 ,the question of 'right' and 'wrong' does not concern us4 ,in short1 the ,i4,w4,w4 advocates the use of militant 'direct action' tactics to the full extent of our power to make them4 7,quoted in ,atlantic ,monthly1 vol4 #aji1 p4 #gjc47 have made themselves enemies of society4 ,the advocates of sabotage1 the reds in the socialist camp1 the preachers of practical anarchism1 must be treated as among the most dangerous of criminals4 ,on the other hand1 the spread of the spirit of lawlessness among the lower classes should serve to warn the upper classes that present social conditions will not much longer be endured4,footnote3 ,cf4 ,ettor 7quoted in ,outlook1 vol4 #aja1 p4 #cdj73 ,they tell us to get what we want by the ballot4 ,they want us to play the game according to the established rules4 ,but the rules were made by the capitalists4 ,,they have laid down the laws of the game4 ,,they hold the pick of the cards4 ,we never can win by political methods4 ,the right of suffrage is the greatest hoax of history4 ,direct action is the only way4 ,there is a great deal of idealism among the advocates of violence2,footnote3 ,cf1 for example1 ,giovannitti's poem1 ,the ,cage1 in the ,atlantic ,monthly1 ,june1 #aiac4 there is a great deal of sympathy on the part of the public with lawless strikers1 with the ,i4,w4,w4 gangs that have recently invaded city churches1 with all those under-dogs who are now determining to have a share in the good things of life4 ,unless the employing and governing classes meet their demands halfway1 gunpowder and dynamite pretty surely lie ahead4 ,will the spirit of lawlessness spread8 ,ought we to slacken our process of lawmaking lest we make the yoke too hard to bear8 ,as a matter of fact1 it is through more laws1 better laws1 and a better mechanism for punishing infraction of laws1 that we can hope to check lawlessness4 ,lynching-as we noted in chapter ,,xxv-have been the product of inadequate legislation and judicial procedure2 as our laws against the worst crimes become sharper1 our police forces more efficient1 and our court trials quicker and less hampered by technicalities1 they decrease in number4 ,as education on the liquor question spreads1 violations of prohibition laws become fewer4 ,the kind of lawlessness that is on the increase is that which exists as a protest against and a means of remedying evils that the laws have not yet properly dealt with4 ,give us by law an industrial code that will minimize the exploitation of the weak by the strong1 bringing a good measure of security and comfort to all1 and such outrages as those of the ,mc,namara brothers will cease1 or at worst will be merely sporadic and generally condemned4 ,allow present conditions to drift on without sharp legal guidance1 and such outrages will certainly become more and more numerous4 ,the alternative that confronts the modern world is plainly evolution by law or revolution by violence4 ,individualism3 ,j4 ,s4 ,mill1 ,on ,liberty4 ,h4 ,spencer1 ,principles of ,ethics1 part iv1 chaps1 ,,xxv-,,xxix2 ,social ,statics2 and many other writings4 ,j4 ,h4 ,levy1 ,the ,outcome of ,individualism4 ,various publications of the ,british ,personal ,rights ,association4 ,w4 ,donisthorpe1 ,individualism4 ,w4 ,fite1 ,individualism1 lect4 ,,iv4 ,legal control3 ,florence ,kelley1 ,some ,ethical ,gains through ,legislation4 ,jane ,addams1 ,newer ,ideals of ,peace4 ,e4 ,a4 ,ross1 ,social ,control1 chap4 ,,xxxi4 ,d4 ,s4 ,ritchie1 ,principles of ,state ,interference4 ,j4 ,w4 ,jenks1 ,government ,action for ,social ,welfare4 ,a4 ,v4 ,dicey1 ,law and ,opinion4 ,j4 ,seth1 ,study of ,ethical ,principles1 pp4 #big-cca4 ,h4 ,c4 ,potter1 ,relation of the ,individual to the ,industrial ,situation1 chap4 ,,vi4 ,w4 ,j4 ,brown1 ,underlying ,principles of ,modern ,legislation4 ,journal of ,philosophy1 ,psychology1 and ,scientific ,methods1 vol4 #aj1 p4 #aac4 ,a4 ,t4 ,hadley1 ,freedom and ,responsibility4 ,j4 ,w4 ,garner1 ,introduction to ,political ,science1 chaps1 ,,ix1 ,x4 ,edmond ,kelly1 ,evolution and ,effort4 ,lawlessness3 ,atlantic ,monthly1 vol4 #aji1 p4 #dda4 ,outlook1 vol4 #ih1 p4 #ab2 vol4 #ii1 p4 #ija2 vol4 #ajj1 p4 #cei4 ,j4 ,g4 ,brooks1 ,american ,syndicalism4 ,,chapter ,,xxix ,,equality ,,and ,,privilege ,all men1 our ,declaration of ,independence tells us1 are created free and equal-that is1 with a right to freedom and equality4 ,they are not actually equal in natural gifts1 but they ought1 so far as possible1 to be made equal in opportunity2 equality is not a fact1 but an ideal4 ,and as an ideal it comes sometimes into conflict with its twin ideal of liberty2 the freedom of the stronger must be curtailed when it robs the weaker of their fair share of happiness2 but1 on the other hand1 a dead level of equality must not be sought at the sacrifice of the potentialities for the general good that lie in the free play of individuality4 ,the various projects for securing a greater equality among men must be scrutinized with an eye to their total effects upon human happiness4 ,what flagrant forms of inequality exist in our society8 ,equality is a modern ideal2 in former times it was generally assumed that men inevitably belong to classes or castes2 that some must have luxury and others poverty1 some must rule and others obey4 ,plato1 in constructing his ideal state1 retains the walls between the small governing class1 the warriors1 and the mass of artisans1 who are of no particular account but to get the work done4 ,castiglione1 in his ,book of the ,courtier1 declares that there are many men who1 although they are rational creatures1 have only such share of reason as to recognize it1 but not to possess or profit by it4 ,these1 therefore1 are naturally slaves1 and it is better and more profitable for them to obey than to command4 ,but the invention of the printing press brought ideas to the masses1 the invention of gunpowder brought them power2 the colonization of new continents leveled old distinctions of rank2 the development of manufacture and commerce brought fortune and power to men of humble origin4 ,the forces thus set in motion have resulted in our day in the general acceptance of political democracy witness in contemporary affairs the inception of the ,portuguese ,republic1 the ,chinese ,republic1 the abolition of the veto-power of the ,british ,house of ,lords-and are creating a widespread belief in industrial democracy4 ,so complete is our ,american acquiescence in the principle of equality in the abstract that it is difficult for us to realize the burning passions that underlay such familiar words as ,don ,quixote's1 ,know1 ,sancho1 that one man is no more than another unless he does more than another2 or ,burns's ,a man's a man for a' that2 or ,tennyson's ',tis only noble to be good4 ,yet1 for all our abstract belief in equality1 we have not become equal in opportunity1 and in some ways are actually becoming less so4 ,land1 for example1 which was once to be had for the taking1 is steadily rising in price1 and is now1 in most parts of the country1 getting beyond the reach of the poor4 ,foreign observers agree that there is no other existing nation so plutocratic as our own2 and wealth here is probably though the matter is in doubt becoming more and more concentrated4 ,footnote3 ,for a recent and cautious discussion of this point see ,f4 ,w4 ,taussig1 ,principles of ,economics1 chap4 #ed1 sec4 #c4 ,there is really no accurate information available to settle the question whether wealth is becoming more or less concentrated4 ,certainly the number of the rich has rapidly increased1 and very many of the poor have risen into the class of the well to do4 ,wages and the scale of living of the poor have risen1 but not in proportion to the total increase in wealth4 ,the rich seem to be not only getting richer1 but getting a larger ,,share of the national wealth4 ,it is estimated that one per cent of the inhabitants of our country now own more property than the remaining ninety-nine per cent4 ,the natural resources of the country have been to a considerable extent such natural monopolies as railways1 telegraph and telephone service1 gas and electric lighting1 are controlled by1 and largely in the interests of1 a small owning class4 ,the ,astors have become enormously rich because one of their progenitors bought for an inconsiderable sum farm land on ,manhattan ,island which is now worth so many dollars a square foot4 ,others have made gigantic fortunes out of the country's forests1 its coal deposits1 its copper1 its waterpower1 its oil4 ,a certain upper stratum of society is freed from the necessity of work1 can exercise vast power over the lives of the poor1 and use its great accumulations for personal luxury or at its caprice1 in defiance of the general welfare4 ,such congestion of wealth involves poverty on the part of masses of the less fortunate4 ,with no capital1 the poor man cannot compete in the industrial game2 he has no money to invest1 no reserve to fall back upon2 he must accept employers' terms or starve4 ,he cannot pause to educate himself1 to get the skill and knowledge that might enable him to work up the ladder4 ,his power in politics is overshadowed by that of the great corporations with their funds and their control of legal skill4 ,he cannot afford expert medical care1 or proper hygienic conditions of life2 he is lucky if he can get a measure of justice in the courts4 ,to call such a situation one of equality is irony4 ,it is certain that1 far as we are yet from final solution of the problems of production1 we are still farther from a solution of the problems of the distribution of wealth4 ,a new and fair division of the goods and rights of this world should be1 ,de ,tocqueville long ago declared1 the main object of all who conduct human affairs4 ,what methods of equalizing opportunity are possible8 ,three plans for a fairer distribution of wealth have been proposed4 ,according to one1 the profits from industry would be divided among the population on a basis of their ,,needs4 ,this is1 however1 clearly impracticable2 every one1 would discover unlimited needs1 and no one would be fit to make the apportionment4 ,the second scheme is that all men should be paid alike for equal hours of work1 or1 rather1 in proportion to the disagreeableness of the work1 the amount of ,,sacrifice made4 ,this scheme is that usually advocated by ,socialists4 ,the objection to it is that equal pay for every man would take away the chief stimulus to initiative1 skill1 energy1 efficiency2 it would take the zest and excitement out of the game of life1 make living too monotonous2 there must be rewards for the ambitious youth1 prizes to be won4 ,the third plan proportions reward to efficiency4 ,and on the whole1 as men are constituted1 it seems desirable to reward men financially according to their efficiency1 so far as that can be measured4,footnote3 ,f4 ,w4 ,taussig1 ,principles of ,economics1 chap4 #fd1 sec4 #c4 ,this does not mean to leave things as they are4 ,for at present the shrewd1 if also fortunate1 are rewarded out of all proportion to their efficiency2 and many who are not efficient at all1 who even do no work at all that is socially useful1 are among the wealthiest4 ,moreover1 efficiency itself is only partly due to the individual's will and effort2 it is due to the physique and gifts and fortune he has inherited1 the education and environment that have molded him1 the social situation in which he finds himself1 the willingness of others to cooperate with him1 and his good luck in early ventures4 ,it seems unfair that to him that hath so much1 so much more should be given4 ,or at least it seems fair that he that hath less should be given more favorable opportunity4 ,it is not enough1 as ,professor ,giddings says1 to reward every man according to his performance2 we must find a way to enable every man to achieve his potential performance4 ,the plan of proportioning rewards to efficiency must be modified by mercy for the weak-minded and weak-bodied4 ,it must be supplemented by earnest efforts to provide health1 education1 and favorable environment for all1 and1 by the limitation of the right of inheritance1 that all may have1 so far as possible1 approximately equal opportunity4 ,it must beware of judging efficiency by immediate and obvious results1 must encourage inventions that ripen slowly1 genius that stumbles and blunders before succeeding1 work that contributes to others' results and makes no showing for itself4 ,it must involve a restriction of the right to unearned incomes4 ,to put these necessary corollaries to the efficiency- reward plan into concrete form3 7#a7 ,the handicap of ignorance must be removed by providing free education for all1 to the point of enabling every one to develop efficiency in some vocation4 ,scholarships for the needy1 the prohibition of child labor1 and a high enough wage scale for adults to permit the youth of all classes to complete their education1 are indispensable4 7#b7 ,the handicap of ill-health must be1 so far as possible1 removed by state support of mothers-so that children need not inherit a weakened constitution from overtired mothers1 or suffer from want of care in infancy2 by free medical aid to all2 by strict legislation for sanitary housing1 pure food1 etc2 by the provision of public parks and playgrounds4 7#c7 ,the possibility of exorbitant profits from industry 7profits out of proportion to the actual contribution of the individual in skillful work1 mental or manual7 must be abolished1 by one of the plans discussed in chapter ,,xxvii4 7#d7 ,there must be abolition or sharp limitation of unearned incomes i4e41 incomes for which a return to society in service has not been made by the getter4 ,this is the step that is clearest of all theoretically1 but the worst sticking point in practice4 ,if we could persuade men that they should not reap where they have not sown1 the gravest inequities of our present order would disappear4 ,the sources of unearned incomes are1 first1 the unearned increment in land values2 secondly1 the unearned increment in the value of natural resources2 thirdly1 all interest on investment2 fourthly1 all wealth inherited or obtained by legacy or gift4 7a7 ,land in the heart of ,new ,york or ,london sells at fifteen million dollars or so an acre4 ,the land value of ,manhattan ,island alone1 the central part of ,new ,york ,city1 is in the neighborhood of #c1ejj1jjj1jjj1 and rapidly increasing4 ,a few generations ago it was all bought from the ,indians for #bd4 ,it is estimated that the unearned increment of land values in ,berlin during fifty years has been between #ejj1jjj1jjj and #gej1jjj1jjj4 ,what is true so strikingly in the case of these great cities is true1 in lesser degree1 of all cities and towns and villages that have grown in population4 ,the total increase in land values in ,america since the days of the pioneers equals1 of course1 the present value of its land1 since it was acquired by our forefathers without payment1 or with only a nominal fee to the ,indians4 ,almost all of this enormous increase in wealth has gone into the pockets of the fortunate individuals who got possession2 very little into the public treasury4 ,our cities have remained terribly poor1 always in debt1 obliged to pass by many needed improvements and to impose heavy taxes on their citizens4 ,yet all this wealth 7not counting improvements made by the possessor upon his land7 has been socially created4 ,others have moved into the neighborhood1 factories have been built near by1 roads and railways and sewers and water systems and lighting-systems and police protection1 and a hundred other things1 have made the individual's land more and more salable4 ,if our fathers had been wise enough to divert a large percentage of this increase in value into the public coffers1 no one would have been wronged1 but many private fortunes would today be smaller1 and the entire population could have been free from taxation from the beginning1 with plenty of money for all needed public works1 including many that we can now only dream about4 ,it is easy to see what could have been done2 to determine what should now be done is far more difficult4 ,to try to regain for the public the unearned increments of past years would be an injustice to those who have purchased lands recently1 at the increased prices1 and even1 perhaps1 to those who have benefited by the increasing values1 since they have regarded the increase as theirs and adjusted their expenditures to this added income4 ,the best that could be done would be to take an inventory of all land values now1 and provide for a recurrent reappraisal2 then to take all1 or a large percentage1 of the increased value from now on4 ,it would1 indeed1 be dangerous to attempt to take it all1 on account of the extreme difficulty of drawing the line between earned and unearned increments2 even the most painstaking and impartial decisions would be sometimes unjust4 ,but to take half or two thirds of what should be deemed unearned would be practicable4 ,several modern ,states now take from ten to fifty per cent2 and the percentage taken will doubtless increase4 ,the objections to such a course are twofold4 ,in the first place1 it is pointed out that if the unearned increment of value is appropriated by the ,state1 the ,state should recoup landowners for all undeserved decrements of value2 it is not fair to take away the possibility of gain and leave the possibility of loss4 ,so long1 however1 as our population grows1 the ,state could afford to make good the comparatively few cases of decreased value and yet get a big income4 ,the other objection is that the hope of winning the increased land values has been a great and needed incentive to the development of the country1 and a legitimate compensation for the hardships of pioneering4 ,but while this is true of the earlier days1 it applies less and less to present conditions1 and is hardly at all applicable to the profits made in city lands4 ,on the whole1 there seems little objection to the appropriation by the ,state henceforth of the unearned increments of land value4 ,but the days of enormous increments are passing1 and land will presently reach a comparatively stable value4 ,so that this method of preventing inflated fortunes must be counted1 on the whole except for new and rapidly growing communities a lost opportunity4 ,footnote3 ,h4 ,j4 ,davenport1 ,state and ,local ,taxation1 pp4 #bid-cjc4 ,f4 ,c4 ,howe1 ,european ,cities at ,work1 pp4 #ahi-bjg4 ,quarterly ,journal of ,economics1 vol4 #bb1 p4 #hc2 vol4 #be1 p4 #fhb2 vol4 #bg1 p4 #eci4 ,political ,science ,quarterly1 vol4 #bg1 p4 #ehf4 ,national ,municipal ,review1 vol4 #c1 p4 #ced4 ,f4 ,w4 ,taussig1 ,principles of ,economics1 chap4 #dd1 sec4 #e4 7b7 ,what is true of land is true of the natural resources of the country-coal1 minerals1 oil1 gas1 waterpower1 forests4 ,these were seized1 with a small payment or none1 by the early comers1 and sold later at a great advance1 or worked for an increasing profit by the owner4 ,here1 again1 if the nation had maintained an inventory of these values and appropriated to itself all or a percentage of the increase in value 7which results from the increasing public need of the resources and the limited supply1 together with the increase in facilities for transportation1 etc1 rather than from the owner's labor or skill71 many of our present gross inequalities in wealth would have been forestalled1 and the community would be far richer in its common wealth4 ,add to the realization of this fact the sight of the reckless waste by private owners of such resources as can be wasted1 and the present conservation movement is fully explained4 ,the best that can now be done is to retain under government ownership such natural resources as have not yet passed into private hands1 and to appropriate further increases in value of those that are privately owned4 ,footnote3 ,c4 ,r4 ,van ,hise1 ,concentration and ,control1 pp4 #aed-ff4 ,outlook1 vol4 #he1 p4 #dbf2 vol4 #hf1 p4 #gaf2 vol4 #ic1 p4 #ggj2 vol4 #ie1 p4 #ba4 7c7 ,practically all of the upper classes add to the incomes they earn by labor of hands or brain an unearned income derived from investment2 i4e41 from the willingness of others to pay for the use of their accumulated wealth or lands4 ,a considerable class is thus enabled1 if it chooses1 to live without working4 ,a great proportion of this wealth that draws interest was never itself earned by the possessors1 in the stricter sense of the word earned2 it has come to them by inheritance1 by the increase of value of land or natural resources1 or squeezed out of labor and the public by the unregulated profits of some autocratically managed industry or franchise4 ,is it expedient to allow this accumulated wealth to bring an income to its possessors8 ,there are two possibilities3 one goes with government control of private industry1 the other with industrial socialism4 ,according to the first plan1 income might still be derived from money in savings banks1 from stocks and bonds1 and from the rent of land and buildings4 ,but it would cease to be a serious source of inequality4 ,for if the unearned increment of land values and natural resources were deflected to the ,state1 if none but moderate profits were allowed from industry2 and if1 in addition1 the right of inheritance and gift were sharply curtailed1 there would be1 after a generation1 no large fortunes left or thereafter possible4 ,a man might receive by legacy a moderate amount of money1 a little land or property2 by working efficiently and living simply he might add continually to his investments and so come to have an income measurably beyond his earnings4 ,but he could not get wealth enough for investment to be freed in perpetuity from the necessity of earning his living2 and inequalities of wealth could not become very great2 no greater1 perhaps1 than would be consistent with the greatest happiness4 ,according to the socialistic plan1 since all industry would be run by the ,state1 on state provided capital1 there would be no demand for a man's savings except for purely personal uses1 no stocks and no bonds1 no savings banks1 except for the safe deposit of money and valuables4 ,all interest might then be forbidden2 and a man would save merely for future use1 or to pass on to others1 not for the sake of drawing a further income from his savings4 ,all rent must then in fairness be forbidden also1 except such payments as would be a fair return for improvements made1 buildings constructed1 with the cost of repairs1 insurance1 etc4 ,this would result in all land being owned by the users1 and do away with landlordism4 ,the unearned increment would be so widely distributed that it would be needless1 for purposes of equalizing distribution1 to bother with it1 though it might still be appropriated by the ,state as a means of increasing its revenue4 ,this scheme would make it impossible for any one to live without earning his livelihood1 except during such periods as his accumulated earnings would tide him over4 ,it would1 indeed1 lessen the incentive to saving2 but if it were buttressed by the provision of fair salaries for all and by universal insurance against illness1 accident1 old age1 and death1 there would no longer be much need of saving4 ,this social order would be eminently just1 leaving only such inequalities in wealth as would result from the differences in productive efficiency of different men1 coupled with a moderate right of inheritance4 ,its practicability1 however1 hinges upon the general practicability of socialism1 which must remain for the present an open question4 ,footnote3 ,f4 ,w4 ,taussig1 ,principles of ,economics1 chap4 #df2 chap4 #ff1 sec4 #e2 chap4 #fd1 radical change as this lies beyond the range of immediate possibilities 7d7 ,the right of inheritance and gift1 which we have had to mention as aggravating other sources of inequality1 needs1 as matters are at present1 drastic curtailment4 ,the tax must not1 indeed1 be heavy enough to encourage spendthrift living and lessen thrift1 or to cut too deeply into the capital necessary for carrying on business4 ,but a carefully devised tax can escape these dangers2 and it is plainly not best for society1 or for the heirs themselves in most cases1 that they should have irresponsible use of large sums of money which they have not earned in a world where millions are starving1 physically1 mentally1 and spiritually1 for lack of what money can provide4 ,if1 however1 the plan last outlined is ever carried into effect1 there will be no need of restricting the right of inheritance2 even the alternative plan would require little attention to inheritance after present inequalities had been approximately leveled1 as there would then be little opportunity for large accumulations4 ,a sharply graded inheritance tax may therefore be looked upon as a now necessary but temporary expedient4,footnote3 ,f4 ,w4 ,taussig1 ,principles of ,economics1 chap4 #ed1 sec4 #e2 chap4 #fg4 secs4 #e1 #f4 ,we may conclude with the consideration of four special problems that are related1 in some aspect1 to the conceptions of equality and privilege4 ,what are the ethics of3 ,i4 ,the single tax8 ,the single-tax idea is that all the public revenue should be raised by a land tax4 ,the push behind the movement comes from the sight of the unearned fortunes that have been made out of land4 ,the term is used loosely by some to mean merely the taking or taxing by the ,state1 as we have already suggested1 of all future unearned increments of land value1 so far as they can be computed4 ,but1 this would not now provide enough revenue for most communities1 and so would not really make possible a single tax4 ,the real single tax would involve taking in taxation not only future ,,increases in values1 but ,,all the rental value of land4 ,even this would not always produce revenue enough1 as the needs of public revenue bear no relation to the land values in a given area4 ,but it would in most places produce considerably more than enough revenue4 ,land taxes in ,new ,york ,city1 for example1 if trebled1 would supply all the revenue2 they would have to be quintupled to absorb the entire rental value of the land the city stands on4 ,the simplicity of the scheme appeals to many-especially to those who own no land4 ,but it amounts to a confiscation of land values by the ,state1 which would be unjust to land-owners1 however advantageous to the rest of the community4 ,it means charging everybody rent for the land he now owns4 ,present tenants would be no worse off1 but present owners of the land they use1 as well as landlords1 would be hard hit4 ,let us consider each in turn4 ,a considerable proportion of the land is owned by the users1 the majority of whom are members of the middle class and but moderately well to do4 ,upon them the burden of supporting our increasing public undertakings would largely fall4 ,but why8 ,,they are not getting any unearned income4 ,,they have1 in most cases1 paid pretty nearly full value for their land1 even though that land was originally acquired for little or nothing4 ,they have put their earnings into land in good faith1 when they might have put it into industry or enjoyed its use4 ,the single tax would work grave injustice to them4 ,it would also be practically inexpedient1 in drawing the public revenue largely from a class that can less afford it1 while leaving hardly touched most of the bigger fortunes1 which consist seldom chiefly of land oldings4 ,but even as to that part of the land that is bringing unearned income to landlords is it fair to stop that income unless we stop all other forms of income on investment8 ,one man has put his fortune into stocks or bonds2 he draws his five per cent in security with no further trouble than clipping coupons2 another1 having put an equal fortune into land1 finds his five per cent income entirely confiscated4 ,not by such class legislation can justice be served or equality produced4 ,the landlord class deserves no worse than the stockholder class or the investor in a savings bank4 ,it is fair1 as we suggested above1 to put an end to ,,all incomes from investment1 and make every man live on his earnings2 it is not fair to pick out landlords for exploitation4 ,,ii4 ,free trade and protection8 ,free trade is undoubtedly the ultimate industrial ideal2 not as a natural right1 but as a matter of mutual advantage1 that everything may be manufactured in the most economical place and way4 ,the geographical division of labor is as generally advantageous as the assignment of highly specialized tasks within a community4 ,import duties result in diverting labor into less economical channels1 and hence entail a loss to the community as a whole4 ,the prosperity of the ,united ,states has been in considerable measure the result of its complete internal free trade4 ,on this general truth the best economists are pretty universally agreed4 ,the argument that a tariff wall is necessary to maintain our generally higher standard of wages and living is pure fallacy1 as1 indeed1 can be seen in the fact that wages in free-trade ,england are higher than in protectionist ,germany4 ,the only legitimate economic question is whether special advantages may accrue from protecting certain industries under certain peculiar conditions4 ,for example1 a new industry1 in the conduct of which skill has not yet been acquired1 may need nursing while it is growing strong enough to produce as cheaply as foreign competitors4 ,again1 when foreign nations impose a tax upon our products1 it may be politically expedient to impose a counter-tariff1 as a means toward reciprocity and eventual free trade4 ,but the discussion of such situations involves no ethical principles1 and may be left to the economists and statesmen4 ,the considerations that concern the moralist are rather such as these3 ,is it advisable to keep our own people self-sufficing1 producing all they need to consume8 ,is it permissible to protect 7by a subsidy1 which is equivalent to an import duty in other matters7 our foreign merchant marine1 so as to have the satisfaction of seeing our flag flying in foreign ports and the assurance of plenty of transports1 colliers1 etc1 in case of war8 ,or is it better for humanity that the nations should become mutually interdependent1 requiring one another's products and somewhat at one another's mercy in case of war8 ,there can be no doubt that the narrower1 patriotic view retards the deepest interests of humanity1 and that free trade is to be sought not only as a means toward economic prosperity1 but as an avenue toward universal peace4 ,the other dominant ethical aspect of the situation lies in the fact that the tariff plays into the hands of certain monopolies1 enables them to maintain high prices and make excessive profits1 which international competition would reduce4 ,as actually used1 the ,american tariff is largely an instrument for favoring special classes of manufacturers at the general expense1 and so is to be condemned4 ,on the other hand1 where manufacturers are enabled by the tariff merely to make fair profits1 and economic considerations would dictate a removal of the duty and the shifting of labor to industries where it could be more regard for vested interests should make us pause4 ,to ruin an industry in which capitalists have invested their fortunes and laborers have acquired skill1 although it would be in the end for the general good1 would work unjust hardship to them2 in such cases1 then1 a tariff should be lowered only with great caution1 or some compensation should be made to the individuals who suffer loss thereby4 ,,iii4 ,the control of immigration8 ,another contemporary question is whether discrimination may rightfully be exercised in the admission of aliens to residence in our country4 ,abstract considerations would suggest the desirability of equal treatment to all comers4 ,but certain practical effects must be considered4 7#a7 ,the admission of hordes of ill-educated and ill-disciplined immigrants from countries lower in the scale of progress than our own is a serious menace to the ideals and standards of living that we have at great cost evolved4 ,our own morals and manners are not firmly enough fixed to be sure of withstanding the downward pull of more primitive conceptions and habits4 ,their willingness to work for small wages lowers the remuneration of ,americans2 their contentment with wretched living conditions blocks our attempts to raise the general standard of life4 ,many of them are unappreciative of ,american ideals1 easily misled by corrupt politicians1 and thus a deadweight against political and social advance4 ,we may1 perhaps1 disregard the poverty of the immigrant1 if he is in good health and able to work2 we may even disregard his lack of education1 if he is mentally sound and reasonably intelligent4 ,but if some practicable method could be devised to lessen radically the incoming stream of those who are low in their standards of living1 we should be spared the social indigestion from which we now suffer4 ,one feasible suggestion is to limit the number of immigrants annually admitted from each country to a certain small percentage of the number of natives of that country already resident here4 ,in that way the total number could be restricted without offense to any nation1 and those peoples most easily assimilated would be admitted in greatest proportions4 ,in addition1 naturalization should be permitted only after a number of years1 during which the immigrant would be in danger of deportation for proved criminality1 vicious indulgence1 intemperance1 shiftlessness1 troublesome agitation1 and other undesirable traits4 7#b7 ,the admission of peoples of very alien race to residence side by side with our own inevitably gives rise to friction and unpleasantness4 ,however irrational it may be1 there are instinctive antipathies and distrusts between the different racial stocks4 ,the importation of the ,negroes brought us a terrible racial problem1 one for which there seems no satisfactory solution4 ,white men as a class dislike living side by side with them1 and fiercely resent intermarriage1 which might ultimately merge the races1 as it seems to be doing in ,south ,america4 ,a general feeling of brotherhood and social democracy is greatly retarded by this racial chasm4,footnote3 ,cf4 ,j4 ,m4 ,mecklin1 ,democracy and ,race ,friction4 ,it is earnestly to be hoped that ,chinese1 ,japanese1 ,hindus1 and other non-,european races may not be admitted to residence here in any great degree2 similar antipathies and resentments would be added to our existing discords4 ,it is not that these races are inferior to our own1 they are simply different2 and however superficial the differences1 they are just the sort of differences that cause social friction4 ,precisely the same argument would apply to the exodus of ,americans and ,europeans to ,asiatic countries4 ,a certain amount of intermingling of students1 travelers1 missionaries1 traders1 is highly beneficial1 in the exchange of ideas and manners it stimulates2 that the main racial stocks should remain apart1 on their several continents1 in that mutual respect and brotherhood that the superficial repugnancies of too close contact tend to destroy4 ,the plan suggested at the close of the preceding paragraph would sufficiently avert these undesirable racial migrations4 ,,iv4 ,the woman-movement8 ,the demand of women for a larger life and a recognition from men of their full equality has found expression recently1 not only in the hysterical and criminal acts of ,british suffragettes1 but in many soberer revolts against the traditional assignment of duties and privileges4 ,we may agree at once in deploring the exclusion of women from any rights and opportunities which are not inconsistent with a wise division of labor1 and that patronizing air of superiority shown toward them by so many men-a condescension not incompatible with tenderness and chivalry4 ,theirs has been the repressed and petted sex4 ,yet there are no adequate grounds for supposing that men are1 on an average1 really abler or saner or more reasonable naturally than women2 that they are1 indeed1 in any essential sense different1 except for the results of their different education and life1 and such divergences as the differentiation of sex itself involves including an average greater physical strength4,footnote3 ,but cf4 ,munsterberg1 ,psychology and ,social ,sanity1 p4 #aie ,men and women are naturally equals2 with equally good training they can contribute almost equally to the world's work2 they have an equal right to education1 a useful vocation1 and the free pursuit of happiness4 ,but equal rights do not necessarily imply identical duties2 there is a certain division of labor laid down by nature4 ,women alone can bear children1 mothers alone can properly rear them2 no incubators and institutions can supply this fundamental need4 ,if women1 in their eagerness to compete with men in other occupations1 neglect in any great numbers this most difficult and honorable of all vocations1 there will be a dangerous decline in the numbers and the nurture of coming generations4 ,moreover1 if homes are not to be supplanted by boarding houses and hotels1 the great majority of women must stay at home and do the work which makes a home possible4 ,home making and child rearing are the duties that always have been and always will be the lot of most women2 and they are duties too exacting to permit of being conjoined with any other vocation4 ,on the other hand1 the woman who has servants and rears no children should be pushed by public opinion into some outside occupation2 women have no more right to idle than men4 ,all unmarried women1 when past the years that may properly be devoted to education1 should certainly enter upon some useful vocation2 and there is no reason why 7with a few obvious exceptions7 any occupation save the more physically arduous should be closed to such4 ,every girl should be prepared for some remunerative work1 in case she does not marry or her husband dies leaving her childless4 ,such economic independence would1 further1 have the inestimable value that she would be under no pressure to marry in order to be supported and have an honorable place in the world2 if she is trained to earn her living she will be free to marry only for love4 ,if she does marry1 and gives up her prior vocation to be housekeeper and child-rearer1 she should be legally entitled to half her husband's earnings4 ,the grave difficulty is that a woman needs to prepare herself both for her probable duties as housekeeper and mother1 and also for her possible need of earning a living otherwise4 ,education in the former duties1 that must fall to the great majority of women1 cannot safely be neglected1 as it is so largely today2 the only general solution will be for unmarried women to adopt1 as a class1 the vocations for which less careful preparation is necessary4 ,the question of the ballot is not practically of great importance1 first1 because equal suffrage is coming very fast1 whatever we may say1 and1 secondly1 because it will make no great difference when it comes4 ,there is no natural right in the matter2 the decision in political affairs might well be left to half the population-when that half cuts so completely through all classes and sections-if the saving in expense or trouble seemed to make it expedient4 ,the interests of women are identical with those of men4 ,women are1 in most parts of this country1 as well off before the law as men2 they do not need the ballot to remedy any unjust discriminations4 ,moreover1 the ballot will mean the necessity of sharing the burden of political responsibility4 ,the women who look upon the right to vote as a plum to be grasped for1 a something which they want because men have it1 with no conception of the training necessary to exercise that right responsibly1 are not fit to be trusted with it4 ,it often seems that it were better to restrict our present trustful and generous right of suffrage to those who can show evidence of intelligence and responsibility1 rather than to double the number of shallow and untrained voters4 ,but1 on the other hand1 there is reason to suppose that women1 through their greater interest in certain goods1 will materially accelerate some reforms-as1 the sanitation of cities1 the improvement of education1 child-welfare legislation1 the warfare against alcohol and prostitution4 ,the actual results already attained where women vote are1 on the whole1 important enough to warrant the extension of the right1 as a matter of social expediency4 ,moreover1 the very increase in the number of voters makes the securing of power through bribery more difficult2 and the entrance of women into politics will probably hasten their purification in many places4 ,at any rate1 the necessity of voting will tend to develop a larger interest among women in public affairs1 to fit them better for the education of their children1 and to do away with the lingering sense of the inferiority of women4 ,certain it is1 finally1 that an increasing number of women want the vote1 and will not rest till they get it4 ,general3 ,f4 ,w4 ,taussig1 ,principles of ,economics1 chap4 #ed4 ,w4 ,e4 ,weyl1 ,the ,new ,democracy1 book ,i4 ,adams and ,sumner1 ,labor ,problems1 chap4 ,,xiii4 ,c4 ,b4 ,spahr1 ,the ,present ,distribution of ,wealth in the ,united ,states4 ,dewey and ,tufts1 ,ethics1 chap4 ,,xxv1 secs4 #f1 #g4 ,atlantic ,monthly1 vol4 #aab1 pp4 #dhj1 #fgi4 ,the single tax3 ,henry ,george1 ,progress and ,poverty2 ,social ,problems4 ,r4 ,c4 ,fillebrown1 ,the ,a4,b4,c4 of ,taxation4 ,outlook1 vol4 #id1 p4 #caa4 ,shearman1 ,natural ,taxation4 ,atlantic ,monthly1 vol4 #aab1 p4 #gcg2 vol4 #aac1 pp4 #bg1 #ede4 ,h4 ,r4 ,seager1 ,introduction to ,economics1 chap1 ,,xxvi1 secs4 #bhc-hh4 ,f4 ,w4 ,taussig1 op4 cit1 chap4 #db1 sec4 #g4 ,arena1 vol4 #cd1 p4 #ejj2 vol4 #ce1 p4 #cff4 ,new ,world1 vol4 #g1 p4 #hg4 ,free trade3 ,north ,american ,review1 vol4 #ahi1 p4 #aid4 ,quarterly ,review1 vol4 #bjb1 p4 #bej4 ,h4 ,fawcett1 ,free ,trade and ,protection4 ,w4 ,j4 ,ashley1 ,the ,tariff ,problem4 ,h4 ,r4 ,seager1 op4 cit1 chap4 ,,xx1 secs4 #baa-ag4 ,f4 ,w4 ,taussig1 op4 cit1 chaps4 #cf1 #cg4 ,immigration3 ,jenks and ,lauck1 ,the ,immigration ,problem4 ,h4 ,p4 ,fairchild1 ,immigration4 ,adams and ,sumner1 ,labor ,problems1 chap4 ,,iii4 ,f4 ,j4 ,warne1 ,the ,immigrant ,invasion4 ,a4 ,shaw1 ,political ,problems1 pp4 #fb-hf4 ,north ,american ,review1 vol4 #aii1 p4 #hff4 ,nineteenth ,century1 vol4 #eg1 p4 #bid4 ,educational ,review1 vol4 #bi1 p4 #bde4 ,forum1 vol4 #db1 p4 #eeb4 ,charities1 vol4 #ab1 p4 #abi4 ,quarterly ,journal of ,economics1 vol4 #af1 pp4 #a1 #ada4 ,the woman question3 ,j4 ,s4 ,mill1 ,the ,subjection of ,women4 ,c4 ,p4 ,gilman1 ,women and ,economics4 ,o4 ,schreiner1 ,woman and ,labor4 ,k4 ,schirmacher1 ,the ,modern ,woman's ,rights ,movement4 ,jane ,addams1 ,newer ,ideals of ,peace1 chap4 ,,vii4 ,f4 ,kelley1 ,some ,ethical ,gains through ,legislation1 chap4 ,v4 ,outlook1 vol4 #hb1 p4 #afg2 vol4 #ia1 pp4 #ghj1 #ghd1 #hcf2 vol4 #ie1 p4 #aag2 vol4 #aja1 pp4 #ged1 #gfg4 ,atlantic ,monthly1 vol4 #aab1 pp4 #dh1 #aia1 #gba4 ,century1 vol4 #hg1 pp4 #a1 #ffc4 ,national ,municipal ,review1 vol4 #a1 p4 #fbj4 ,,chapter ,,xxx ,,the ,,future ,,of ,,the ,,race ,in proportion as fair means are found and utilized for remedying the gross inequalities in the present distribution of wealth1 and big fortunes disappear1 it will become necessary for the ,state to undertake more and more generally the functions that have1 during the last few generations1 been largely dependent upon private philanthropy4 ,this will be an advantage not merely in putting this welfare work upon a securer basis1 but in enlisting the loyalty of the masses to the ,government4 ,much of the energy and devotion which are now given to the labor-unions1 because in them alone the workers see hope of help1 might be given to the ,state if it should take upon itself more adequately to minister to the people's needs4 ,the rich can get health and beauty for themselves2 but the poor are largely dependent upon public provision for a wholesome and cheerful existence4 ,laissez-faire individualism has provided them with saloons2 in the new age the ,state must provide them with something better than saloons4 ,flowers and sunshine for all1 in ,richard ,jefferies' wistful phrase-the ,state should make a determined and thoroughgoing effort1 not merely to repress1 to punish1 to palliate conditions1 but in every positive way that expert thought can devise and the people will vote to support1 to add to the worth of human life4 ,we may consider these paternal functions of government under three heads3 the improvement of human environment1 to make it more beautiful and convenient2 the development1 through educational agencies1 of the mental and moral life of the people2 and the improvement1 by various means1 of the human stock itself4 ,in what ways should the ,state seek to better human environment8 7#a7 ,municipal governments should supervise town and village planning4 ,the riotous individualism of our ,american people has resulted in the haphazard growth of countless dreary towns and an architectural anarchy that resembles nothing more than an orchestra playing with every instrument tuned to a different key4 ,the stamp of public control is to be seen1 if at all1 in an inconvenient and monotonous chessboard plan for streets4 ,congestion of traffic at the busy points2 wide stretches of empty pavement on streets little used2 houses of every style and no style1 imbued with all the colors of the spectrum2 weed-grown vacant lots1 unkempt yards1 some fenced1 some unfenced2 poster-bedecked billboards-verily1 the average ,american town is not a thing of beauty4 ,matthew ,arnold's judgment is corroborated by every traveler4 ,evidently1 he wrote1 this is that civilization's weak side4 ,there is little to nourish and delight the sense of beauty there4 ,a certain crudeness is inevitable in a new country1 and will be outgrown2 age is a great artist4 ,man usually mars with his first strokes2 and it is only when he has met his practical needs that he will dally with aesthetic considerations4 ,many of our older cities and villages have partly outgrown the awkward age1 become dignified in the shade of spreading trees1 and fallen somehow into a kind of unity2 a few of them1 especially near the ,atlantic seaboard1 where the stupid rectangularity of the towns farther west was never imposed1 are among the loveliest in the world4 ,but in general1 in spite of many costly1 and some really beautiful1 buildings1 and acknowledging the individual charm of many of the wide piazzaed shingled houses of the well-to-do1 and the general effect of spaciousness1 our towns and villages are shockingly1 depressingly ugly4 ,money enough has been spent to create a beautiful effect2 the failure lies in that unrestrained individualism that permits each owner to build any sort of a structure1 and to color it any hue1 that appeals to his fancy1 without regard to its effect upon neighboring buildings or upon the eyes of passers-by4 ,all sorts of architectural atrocities are committed-curious false fronts1 fancy shingles1 scroll-work balustrades1 and the like2-in the town where these words are written1 a builder of a number of houses has satisfied a whim to give eyebrows to his windows1 in the shape of flat arches of alternate red and white bricks1 with an extraordinarily grotesque and discomforting effect4 ,but even where the buildings are good separately1 the general effect is1 unless by coincidence1 a sad chaos4 ,in the more progressive countries of ,europe matters are not left thus to the caprice of individuals2 in some ,german towns1 and the so-called garden cities of ,england1 we have excellent examples of scientific town planning1 conducing to homogeneity1 convenience1 and beauty4 ,the awakening social sense in this country will surely lead soon to a general conviction of the duty of an oversight of street planning and building in the interests of the community as a whole4 ,there is no reason why our towns should not be sensibly laid out1 according to a prearranged and rational plan2 they might have individuality1 picturesqueness1 charm2 be full of interesting separate notes1 yet harmonious in design1 making a single composition1 like a great mosaic4 ,such an environment would have its subconscious effects upon the morals of the people1 would awaken a new sense of community loyalty1 and drive home the lesson of the necessity and beauty of the cooperative spirit4 ,among the features of this town planning are these3 ,streets must be laid out in conformity with the topography of the neighborhood and the direction of traffic4 ,gentle curves1 or frequent circles1 as in ,washington1 must break the monotony of straight lines2 the natural features of the landscape1 hills1 bluffs1 a river1 must be utilized to give character to the town4 ,the height of buildings must be regulated in relation to the width of the streets1 and the percentage of ground space that may be built upon determined4 ,all designs for buildings must be approved by the community architects with consideration of their harmony with neighboring buildings4 ,a public landscape architect should have supervision over and give expert advice for the planting of trees and shrubbery and the beautifying of yards back as well as front4 ,factories and shops should be confined to certain designated portions of a town 7and the smoke nuisance strictly controlled72 disfiguring billboards and overhead wires done away with2 parks laid out and kept intact from intrusion of streets or buildings4 ,fortunately1 the majority of our ,american houses1 built of wood1 are temporary in character2 and most city buildings at present have a life of but a generation or two4 ,in this evanescence of our contemporary architecture lies the hope for an eventual regeneration of ,american towns4 ,in the city and village of the future1 life will be so bosomed in beauty that there will be less need of artificial beauty-seeking and gaslight pleasures4 ,a healthy local pride will be fostered and community life come into its own again4 7#b7 ,municipalities should provide facilities for wholesome recreation out of doors4 ,children1 in particular1 ought not to be obliged1 for lack of other space1 to play upon city streets1 where they impede traffic and run serious risks4 ,footnote3 ,on ,new ,york ,city streets two hundred and thirty-one children were killed in twenty-one months1 according to recent figures4 ,schoolyards should be larger than they generally are1 and bedtime2 in the big cities the roofs should be utilized also4 ,every neighborhood should have its ample playgrounds4 ,for want of such provision children of the poor grow up pale and pinched1 without the normalizing and educative influence of healthy play1 and with no proper outlet for their energies1 so that crime and vice flourish prematurely4 ,with proper foresight open spaces can be retained as a city grows1 without great expense2 the economic gain1 in a reduced death-rate1 reduced cost for doctors and nurses1 police1 courts1 and prisons1 and increased efficiency of the next generation of workers1 will easily balance the outlay1 without weighing the gain in happiness and morality4,footnote3 ,see on this point1 the literature of the ,division of ,recreation of the ,russell ,sage ,foundation1 and of the ,playground and ,recreation ,association of ,america 7#a ,madison ,avenue1 ,new ,york ,city74 ,jane ,addams1 ,the ,spirit of ,youth and the ,city ,streets4 ,c4 ,zueblin1 ,american ,municipal ,progress1 chap ,,ix4 ,j4 ,lee1 ,constructive and ,preventive ,philanthropy1 chaps4 ,,viii-,,xii4 ,outlook1 vol4 #hg1 p4 #gge2 vol4 #ie1 p4 #eaa2 vol4 #if1 p4 #ddc4 ,but1 indeed1 adults stand also in need of outdoor life4 ,grounds for ball games1 bowls1 and all sorts of sports should be generously provided if human life is not to lose one of its pleasantest and most useful aspects4 ,for evenings there should be attractive social meeting-places1 neighborhood clubs1 supervised dance halls1 and the like1 such as the social settlements now to a slight extent provide1 with notably beneficial results4 ,as the poorer classes come more and more into their inheritance of the fruits of industry1 these desiderata may perhaps be again left to private initiative2 but at present there is a large class too pressed by poverty to get for itself these necessities of a normal life2 and the need of the people makes the duty of the ,state4,footnote3 ,cf4 ,c4 ,r4 ,henderson1 ,the ,social ,spirit in ,america1 chap4 ,,xiv4 7#c7 ,the ,states and the ,nation must be careful to conserve the natural resources of the country from waste1 and advantage of the people4 ,the forests1 still so recklessly felled1 must be guarded1 not only for the sake of the future timber supply1 but to prevent floods1 ensure a proper supply of water in times of drought1 and preserve the soil from being washed away4 ,the scientific practice of forestry1 the maintenance of an efficient fire patrol1 and the reforestation of denuded areas that can best be utilized for the growth of timber1 must be undertaken or supervised by government experts4 ,the very limited supplies of coal1 oil1 and natural gas must be protected from waste4 ,arid lands must be brought into use where irrigation is possible1 swamp lands drained1 waterways and harbors improved to their full usefulness4,footnote3 ,on national conservation1 see ,c4 ,r4 ,van ,hise1 ,the ,conservation of ,natural ,resources4 ,outlook1 vol4 #ic1 p4 #ggj4 ,atlantic ,monthly1 vol4 #aja1 p4 #fid4 ,review of ,reviews1 vol4 #cg1 p4 #ehe4 ,chautauquan1 vol4 #ee1 pp4 #ba1 #cc1 #aab4 ,national and state highways must be built as object-lessons to the towns and counties that still leave their roads a stretch of mud or sand4,footnote3 ,it is estimated that ninety per cent of the public roads in the ,united ,states are still unimproved2 that the average cost of hauling produce is twenty-five cents a mile-ton1 as against twelve cents in ,france2 that #cjj1jjj1jjj a year would be saved in hauling expenses if our roads were as good as those of western ,europe4 ,all of these material improvements have their civilizing influence1 their moral significance2 as ,edmond ,kelly put it1 ,by constructing our environment with intelligence we can determine the direction of our own development4 ,so it is of no small consequence what sort of homes and cities we live in4 ,during the next generation or so1 while the ,state is slowly bestirring itself to undertake these duties1 there will be great need of civic and village improvement associations1 women's clubs1 merchants' associations1 etc1 to arouse public interest1 demonstrate possibilities1 and stir up municipal holidays1 ,memorial ,day1 ,independence ,day1 ,arbor ,day1 ,thanksgiving ,day1 etc1 should be used to stimulate civic pride in these matters2 pulpit and press should be brought into line4 ,it will be a slow and discouraging1 but necessary1 task to awaken the people to a realization of the potentialities for a better civilization that lie in the utilization of government powers4 ,what should be done in the way of public education8 ,the principle of state support of education has1 happily1 been pretty fully accepted in this country1 although in the ,east the universities still have to depend upon private benefactions4 ,the public-school system is excellent in plant and principle2 the next step is to work out a rational curriculum4 ,the average high-school graduate today has learned little of what he most needs to know how to earn his living1 how to spend his money wisely1 how to live4 ,the average girl knows little of housekeeping1 less of the duties of motherhood4,footnote3 ,cf4 ,h4 ,spencer1 ,education1 chap4 ,i3 ,is it not an astonishing fact that though on the treatment of offspring depend their lives or deaths1 and their moral value or ruin1 yet not one word of instruction on the treatment of offspring is ever given to those who will hereafter be parents8 ,is it not monstrous that the fate of a new generation should be left to the chances of unreasoning custom1 impulse1 fancy 4 4 4 8 ,the whole chapter is worth reading2 the neglect of which ,spencer complained still persists4 ,the dangers of sex indulgence-the greatest of all perils to youth1 the poisonous effects of alcohol1 the necessities of bodily hygiene1 are seldom effectively taught4 ,moral and religious education is1 owing to our sectarianism1 almost absolutely neglected4 ,the evils of political corruption and unscrupulousness in business1 the social problems that so insistently beset us1 are little discussed in school4 ,yet here is an enormous opportunity for the awakening of moral idealism and the social spirit4 ,boys and girls in their teens can be brought to an eager interest in moral and social problems2 class after class could be sent out fired with enthusiasm to remedy wrongs and push for a higher civilization4 ,the failure to awaken more of this dormant good will and energy1 and to direct it for the elevation of community standards and the solution of community problems1 is a grave indictment against our complacent stand-pat educational system4 ,religious instruction will be a delicate matter for the indefinite future2 but inspirational talks on non-controversial themes should find place1 and perhaps a presentation of different religious views in rotation by representatives of different communions4 ,in some way1 at least1 recognition should be made of the important role played by religion in life4 ,besides the school system1 other means of public education must be extended4 ,the libraries and art museums must reach a wider public4 ,the docent-work in the museums is a recent undertaking of considerable importance4 ,free public lectures1 free mothers' schools1 city kindergartens1 municipal concerts1 university extension courses-such enterprises will doubtless become universal4 ,the work of the ,national ,government in spreading knowledge of scientific methods of agriculture and of practicable methods of improving country life- information about the installation of plumbing systems1 water supply1 sewage systems1 electric lights1 etc4- is of wide educational value4 ,in #aiaa the average schooling of ,americans was five years apiece4 ,such inadequate preparation for life is a disgrace to our prosperous age4 ,education should be universally compulsory until the late teens at least2 it should be regarded not as a luxury1 like kid gloves and caviar1 but as the normal development of a human being and the common heritage4 ,it ought not to be the exclusive privilege of gentlemen- of certain select1 upper- class individuals2 as economic conditions are straightened out1 universal education will become practically feasible4 ,it is not only as a matter of justice1 but in the interests of public welfare1 that education should be given to all4 ,it will actually pay in dollars and cents1 in increased efficiency1 more intelligent voting1 decreased crime1 decreased commercial prostitution1 and crazy propaganda of all sorts4 ,the city of ,boston was right in inscribing on its public library the motto3 ,the commonwealth requires the education of the people as the safeguard of order and liberty4 ,what can be done by eugenics8 ,environment and education are of enormous importance in determining what the mature individual shall be4 ,but the result is strictly limited by the material they have to work upon2 the individual who is handicapped by heredity cannot expect to catch up with him who starts the race of life better equipped1 if both have equally favorable influences and opportunities4 ,these influences can effect little permanent improvement in the human stock2 that can only be radically bettered by seeing to it that individuals of superior stock have children and those of inferior stock do not4 ,we have harnessed heredity to produce better types of wheat and roses and cattle and horses and dogs2 why not produce better types of men8 ,the study of these possibilities constitutes the new science of eugenics1 which its founder1 ,francis ,galton1 defined as the study of those agencies which humanity through social control may use for the improvement or the impairment of the racial qualities of future generations4 ,dr4 ,kellogg defines it as taking advantage of the facts of heredity to make the human race better4 ,good breeding of the human species4 ,we may first ask what duties the disclosures of this new science lay upon the individual4 7#a7 ,the constitutional health of children is partly deter parents at the time of conception and birth4 ,most deaths of newborn infants are due to prenatal influences4 ,overstrain1 malnutrition1 alcoholism1 and all physical excesses tend to cause physical degeneracy in the offspring4 ,it is obviously the duty of prospective parents- and that means practically all healthy young people-to keep themselves well and strong1 so as to give a good endowment of health to their children4 7#b7 ,feeble-mindedness1 epilepsy1 some forms of insanity1 and some venereal diseases are inheritable defects2 those who suffer from them must refrain from having children4 ,studies of the ,jukes family and the ,kallikak family1 and others1 show convincingly the spread of these defects where defectives marry4 ,to bring children into the world to bear such burdens-and to cost the ,state1 as they are almost sure to1 for their support ,footnote3 ,the descendants of the original degenerate couple of ,jukes cost ,new ,york ,state in seventy-five years #a1cjj1jjj4 ,see ,r4 ,l4 ,dugdale1 ,the ,jukes4 ,h4 ,h4 ,goddard1 ,the ,kallikak ,family-ought to be regarded as a grave sin4 7#c7 ,little positive advice can yet be given as to those who are ,,best fitted to have children1 except in the matter of health and freedom from inheritable defects4 ,according to ,professor ,boaz1,footnote3 ,f4 ,boaz1 ,the ,mind of ,primitive ,man4 one racial stock is about as good as another2 so whatever selection is to be made may be between individual strains4 ,but to breed the human stock for beauty1 energy1 mental ability1 immunity to disease1 sanity1 or what not1 is a task far beyond our present knowledge4 ,personal value and reproductive value are not closely correlative2 and the factors that determine a good inheritance are highly complex4 ,so that the choice of wife and husband may be left to those instinctive affinities and preferences which will in any case continue to be the deciding causes for the strong and educated and well-to-do to beget and rear children2 the tendency to race-suicide among the upper classes is a matter for serious alarm4 ,that portion of the population that is least able to give proper nurture to children1 and to train them up to ,american ideals1 is producing them in overwhelmingly greatest numbers4 ,the older stocks in this country are dying out and being replaced by the large families of the east and south ,european immigrants4 ,in ,england also1 we are told1 one sixth of the population1 and this the least desirable sixth1 is producing half of the coming generation4 ,in #agij the ,american family averaged #e4h persons2 in #aijj the average was #d4f4 ,among native ,americans the average is lower still4 ,college graduates are failing to reproduce their own numbers4 ,everywhere the ,western peoples are breeding more and more slowly1 while the ,orientals1 ,negroes1 and1 in general1 the less civilized peoples1 are multiplying rapidly4 ,unless the upper classes in western ,europe and ,america cease their selfish refusal to rear citizens1 the earth will be inherited by the more backward peoples4 ,this means1 plainly1 a perpetual clog upon progress4 ,we may now ask what the ,state should demand in the interests of race- improvement4 7#a7 ,health certificates may be required from both parties at marriage i4e41 marriage may be prohibited without a guarantee from a licensed physician of freedom from communicable or inheritable disease1 or inheritable defects4 ,this seems the minimum of protection due the contracting parties themselves1 as well as due the next generation4 7#b7 ,marriage restrictions are easily evaded1 however2 unscrupulous physicians can usually be found to sign certificates4 ,and where marriage is prohibited1 illegitimacy is sure to flourish4 ,hence the segregation 7with proper care7 of those obviously unfit to become parents seems necessary4 ,great as would be the initial expense1 the rapid reduction in the number of idiots1 epileptics1 etc1 would in a generation or two counterbalance it and greatly diminish the problem4 ,it is estimated that there are some three hundred thousand feeble- minded persons in the ,united ,states1 only twenty thousand of whom are segregated in institutions1 the rest being free to propagate-which they do with notorious rapidity4 ,most of them can be made self-supporting2 and real as the hardship to some of them may be in confining them from sex relations1 the sacrifice seems demanded by the welfare of coming generations4 7#c7 ,an alternative to segregation 7for inheritable1 but not for communicable1 diseases7 is sterilization4 ,the operation when performed on adults seems to have no effects upon character or the enjoyment of life1 not even interfering with ordinary sex gratification4 ,it is not painful1 and perfectly harmless1 to man2 for women there is a risk1 which is said1 however1 to be slight4,footnote3 ,cf4 ,dr4 ,e4 ,c4 ,jones1 in ,woman's ,medical ,journal1 ,december1 #aiab4 ,sterilization permits the unfit to be entirely at liberty1 to marry1 if they can find mates1 and to have all the pleasures of life except that of parenthood4 ,a number of the ,american ,states have passed laws permitting the compulsory sterilization of certain very restricted classes of people undesirable as parents1 at the discretion of the proper authorities2 and this seems1 on the whole1 at least in the case of men1 the best solution4 7#d7 ,of an entirely different nature is the movement to secure state support for mothers2 a movement1 however1 which is also eugenic in its intent4 ,at present those parents who are zealous to maintain a high standard of living1 those with talents which they are ambitious to develop1 and those who realize keenly the care and expense that children need1 are deterred from having many1 or any2 while the shiftless and happy-go-lucky propagate without scruple4 ,there is1 for all except the rich1 a premium on childlessness1 which the natural desire for parenthood cannot wholly discount4 ,but this ought not to be so4 ,childbearing and rearing is a very necessary and arduous vocation1 in which all the best women should be enlisted4 ,in a socialistic regime the ,state would as a matter of course pay for this work as well as for all other productive work4 ,but state endowment of motherhood1 the payment of maternity benefits1 may be practiced apart from industrial socialism4 ,it may be objected that the removal of economic pressure would bring an undue increase in population and the evils that ,malthus feared4 ,but the tendency of advancing civilization seems to be so strikingly toward a declining birth-rate-a phenomenon unrecognized in this country because of the tide of immigration1 but apparent in western ,europe-that the net outcome may be attained of a stationary population4 ,moreover1 the scheme in question would not only tend to increase the number of children born to the prudent among the middle classes1 it would enable mothers and prospective mothers to save themselves from that overwork which enfeebles so many children today2 it would insure them the means to care properly for the children4 ,state inspectors would visit homes and examine the children of state supported mothers2 the amount granted might vary in proportion to the care apparently given to the children1 their cleanliness1 health1 progress in education1 the clothing1 food1 air1 and space provided for them2 if the nurture of a child was judged too inadequate1 it might1 after warning1 be removed to an institution and the parents punished4,footnote3 ,see1 besides the books referred to later1 ,h4 ,g4 ,wells1 ,the ,endowment of ,motherhood 7in ,social ,forces in ,england and ,america72 or1 ,new ,worlds for ,old1 chap4 ,,iii4 ,f4 ,w4 ,taussig1 ,principles of ,economics1 chap4 #fe1 sec4 #a4 ,survey1 vols4 #bi and #cj1 many articles4 recruiting of coming generations from the diseased and feeble-minded1 to prevent the handicapping of poor children through the overwork and poverty of their parents1 and gradually to raise the level of inherited human nature4 ,when coupled with improved environment and with universal and rational education1 it will surely mean the existence of a happier race of men-which should be the ultimate goal of all human endeavor4 ,what are the gravest moral dangers of our times8 ,in conclusion1 we may venture a judgment as to which1 out of the many evils we have noted in contemporary life1 are most serious1 and where our moral energies should most earnestly be directed4 ,the most prominent of prevalent vices are certainly sex incontinence and the use of alcohol2 the lure of wine and the lure of women have from time immemorial been man's undoing4 ,alcohol is being vigorously fought1 and is probably doomed to general prohibition1 together with opium and morphine and the other narcotics4 ,the sex dangers are not to be so easily overcome1 and we are probably in for an increase of license and its inevitable evils4 ,there will be need for every farsighted and earnest man and woman to stand firm1 in spite of enticing promises of liberty1 for the great ideal of faithful marriage that makes in the end for man's deepest happiness4 ,the most prominent sins of today are1 selfish moneymaking1 selfish money spending1 selfish idleness2 the chief sinners we may label pirates1 prodigals1 parasites4 ,by pirates are meant the dishonest dealers1 the grafters1 the vice caterers1 the unscrupulous competitors1 the pilers-up of exorbitant profits at the expense of employees and public2 by prodigals1 the spendthrift rich1 the wasters of wealth1 those who lavish in luxury or ostentation money that is sorely needed by others2 by parasites1 the idle rich1 the lazy poor1 the tramps1 all who take1 but do not give a return of honest work4 ,there are also the jingoes1 the preachers of lawlessness1 the demagogues1 and many less common types of sinners4 ,but the particularly flagrant wrongs of our day have to do with the getting and spending of money2 and the peril of the near future which looms now most menacingly on the horizon is the irritation of the wronged classes to the point of civil warfare and revolution4 ,such a calamity might1 of course1 be ultimately a means of great social advance2 but it is a highly dangerous and uncertain method1 involving great moral damage as well as great individual suffering1 and to be averted by every possible means4 ,the hope for averting it lies not only in the growth of public condemnation of lawlessness1 but in the substitution of an ideal of service for the ideal of personal gain1 and in the growing willingness of the community to check by progressive legislative measures the various means which resourceful men have discovered for advantaging themselves at the expense of society4 ,necessary initial steps are the securing of international peace and the construction of an efficient political system4 ,when these ends have been attained and a just industrial order evolved1 the citizens of the future will take pride in using the powers of the ,state to bring the greatest possible health and happiness to all4 ,our forefathers had great wrongs to right-political tyranny to overthrow1 human slavery to eradicate1 civil and religious liberty to win1 a system of popular education to inaugurate1 and with it all the wilderness to tame and a new land to develop4 ,for these ends they sacrificed much4 ,it is for us to attack with equal courage the evils of the present4 ,life has outwardly become easy for many of us2 our spiritual muscle easily becomes flabby4 ,but there are new tasks equally importunate1 equally worthy of our loyalty and sacrifice1 hard enough to stir our blood4 ,the times call for new idealism1 new courage1 new effort2 the purpose of this book will not be attained unless the reader carries away from its perusal some new realization of the moral dangers that confront our civilization1 and some new determination to have a hand in meeting them4 ,environment3 ,j4 ,nolen1 ,replanning ,small ,cities4 ,t4 ,c4 ,horsfelt1 ,the ,improvement of the ,dwellings and ,surroundings of the ,people4 ,e4 ,howard1 ,garden ,cities of ,to-,morrow4 ,the ,city ,beautiful 7magazine74 ,literature of the ,national ,league of ,improvement ,associations1 the ,american ,civic ,association 7#iad ,union ,trust ,building1 ,washington1 ,d4,c471 the ,city ,club of ,new ,york1 ,metropolitan ,improvement ,league of ,boston1 etc4 ,the ,civic ,federation of ,chicago1 ,what it has ,accomplished 7,hollister1 ,chicago1 #ahii74 ,atlantic ,monthly1 vol4 #aac1 p4 #hbc4 ,world's ,work1 vol4 #ae1 p4 #ajjbb4 ,outlook1 vol4 #ib1 p4 #cgc2 vol4 #ig1 p4 #cic2 vol4 #ajc1 p4 #bjc4 ,national ,municipal ,review1 vol4 #a1 p4 #bcf4 ,education3 ,h4 ,home1 ,idealism in ,education4 ,g4 ,spiller1 ,moral ,education in ,eighteen ,countries4 ,international ,journal of ,ethics1 vol4 #bj1 p4 #ded2 vol4 #bb1 pp4 #adf1 #cce4 ,i4 ,king1 ,social ,aspects of ,education4 ,e4 ,boutroux1 ,education and ,ethics4 ,proceedings of the ,national ,education ,association1 ,religious ,education ,association1 ,international ,moral ,education ,congresses4 ,c4 ,r4 ,henderson1 ,the ,social ,spirit in ,america1 chap1 xn1 xm4 ,s4 ,nearing1 ,social ,adjustment1 chaps1 in1 xv4 ,world's ,work1 vol4 #ae1 p4 #ajaje4 ,outlook1 vol4 #he1 pp4 #ffd1 #idc2 vol4 #hi1 p4 #ghi2 vol4 #id1 p4 #gja4 ,eugenics3 ,c4 ,b4 ,davenport1 ,eugenics2 ,heredity in ,relation to ,eugenics4 ,w4 ,d4 ,mc,kim1 ,heredity and ,human ,progress4 ,e4 ,schuster1 ,eugenics4 ,c4 ,w4 ,saleeby1 ,parenthood and ,race ,culture4 ,h4 ,g4 ,wells1 ,mankind in the ,making1 chap4 in4 ,new ,tracts for the ,times 7various authors1 ,moffat1 ,yard ,co474 ,reports of ,international ,eugenic ,congresses4 ,atlantic ,monthly1 vol4 #aaj1 p4 #hja4 ,forum1 vol4 #ea1 p4 #edb4 ,quarterly ,journal of ,economics1 vol4 #bf1 p4 #a4