,,elements ,,of ,,criticism4 ,,volume ,,ii4 ,,edinburgh3 ,printed for ,a4 ,,millar1 ,london2 ,,and ,a4 ,,kincaid ,j4 ,,bell1 ,edinburgh4 ,,mdcclxii4 ,,elements ,,of ,,criticism4 ,,chap4 ,x4 ,congruity and ,propriety4 ,man is distinguished from the brute creation1 not more remarkably by the superiority of his rational faculties1 than by the greater delicacy of his perceptions and feelings4 ,with respect to the gross pleasures of sense1 man probably has little superiority over other animals4 ,some obscure perception of beauty may also fall to their share4 ,but they are probably not acquainted with the more delicate conceptions of regularity1 order1 uniformity1 or congruity4 ,such refined conceptions1 being connected with morality and religion1 are reserved to dignify the chief of the terrestrial creation4 ,upon this account1 no discipline is more suitable to man1 or more congruous to the dignity of his nature1 than that by which his taste is refined1 to distinguish in every subject1 what is regular1 what is orderly1 what is suitable1 and what is fit and proper#a4 ,no discerning person can be at a loss about the meaning of the terms congruity and propriety1 when applied to dress1 behaviour1 or language2 that a decent garb1 for example1 is proper for a judge1 modest behaviour for a young woman1 and a lofty style for an epic poem4 ,in the following examples every one is sensible of an unsuitableness or incongruity3 a little woman sunk in an overgrown farthingale1 a coat richly embroidered covering coarse and dirty linen1 a mean subject in an elevated style1 or an elevated subject in a mean style1 a first minister darning his wife's stocking1 or a reverend prelate in lawn sleeves dancing a hornpipe4 ,but it is not sufficient that these terms be understood in practice2 the critical art requires1 that their meaning be traced to its foundation in human nature4 ,the relations that connect objects together1 have been examined in more than one view4 ,their influence in directing the train of our perceptions1 is handled in the first chapter2 and in the second1 their influence in generating passion4 ,here they must be handled in a new view2 for they are clearly the occasion of congruity and propriety4 ,we are so framed by nature1 as to require a certain suitableness or correspondence among things connected by any relation4 ,this suitableness or correspondence is termed congruity or propriety2 and the want of it1 incongruity or impropriety4 ,among the many principles that compose the nature of man1 a sense of congruity or propriety is one4 ,destitute of this sense1 we could have no notion of congruity or propriety3 the terms to us would be unintelligible#b4 ,as this sense is displayed upon relations1 it is reasonable beforehand to expect1 that we should be so formed1 as to require among connected objects a degree of congruity proportioned to the degree of the relation4 ,and upon examination we find this to hold in fact4 ,where the relation is strong and intimate as betwixt a cause and its effect1 a body and its members1 we require that the things be suited to each other in the strictest manner4 ,on the other hand1 where the relation is slight1 or accidental1 as among things jumbled together in the same place1 we demand little or no congruity4 ,the strictest propriety is required in behaviour and manner of living2 because a man is connected with these by the relation of cause and effect4 ,the situation of a great house ought to be lofty2 for the relation betwixt an edifice and the ground it stands upon1 is of the most intimate kind4 ,its relation to neighbouring hills1 rivers1 plains1 being that of propinquity only1 demands but a small share of congruity4 ,among members of the same club1 the congruity ought to be considerable1 as well as among things placed for show in the same niche4 ,among passengers in a stage-coach1 we require very little congruity2 and less still at a public spectacle4 ,congruity is so nearly allied to beauty1 as commonly to be held a species of it4 ,and yet they differ so essentially1 as never to coincide4 ,beauty1 like colour1 is placed upon a single subject2 congruity upon a plurality4 ,further1 a thing beautiful in itself1 may1 with relation to other things1 produce the strongest sense of incongruity4 ,congruity and propriety are commonly reckoned synonymous terms2 and hitherto in opening the subject they are used indifferently4 ,but they are distinguishable2 and the precise meaning of each must be ascertained4 ,congruity is the genus1 of which propriety is a species4 ,for we call nothing propriety1 but that congruity or suitableness which ought to subsist betwixt sensible beings and their thoughts1 words1 and actions4 ,in order to give a full view of this subject1 ,i shall trace it through some of the most considerable relations4 ,the relation of a part to the whole1 being extremely intimate1 demands the utmost degree of congruity4 ,for that reason1 the slightest deviation is disgustful4 ,every one must be sensible of a gross incongruity in the ,lutrin1 a burlesque poem1 being closed with a serious and warm panegyric on ,lamoignon1 one of the ,king's judges3 ---- ,amphora cpit ,institui2 currente rota1 cur urceus exit8 ,no relation affords more examples of congruity and incongruity1 than that betwixt a subject and its ornaments4 ,a literary performance intended merely for amusement1 is susceptible of much ornament1 as well as a music-room or a play-house4 ,in gaiety1 the mind hath a peculiar relish for show and decoration4 ,the most gorgeous apparel1 however unsuitable to an actor in a regular tragedy1 disgusts not at an opera4 ,the truth is1 an opera1 in its present form1 is a mighty fine thing2 but as it deviates from nature in its capital circumstances1 we look not for any thing natural in those which are accessory4 ,on the other hand1 a serious and important subject1 admits not much ornament#c3 nor a subject that of itself is extremely beautiful4 ,and a subject that fills the mind with its loftiness and grandeur1 appears best in a dress altogether plain4 ,to a person of a mean appearance1 gorgeous apparel is unsuitable3 which1 beside the incongruity1 has a bad effect2 for by contrast it shows the meanness of appearance in the strongest light4 ,sweetness of look and manner1 requires simplicity of dress joined with the greatest elegance4 ,a stately and majestic air requires sumptuous apparel1 which ought not to be gaudy1 or crowded with little ornaments4 ,a woman of consummate beauty can bear to be highly adorned1 and yet shows best in a plain dress3 ----,for loveliness ,needs not the foreign aid of ornament1 ,but is when unadorn'd1 adorn'd the most4 ,thomson's ,autumn1 #bjh4 ,in judging of the propriety of ornament1 we must attend1 not only to the nature of the subject that is to be adorned1 but also to the circumstances in which it is placed4 ,the ornaments that are proper for a ball1 will appear not altogether so decent at public worship2 and the same person ought to dress differently for a marriage-feast and for a burial4 ,nothing is more intimately related to a man1 than his sentiments1 words1 and actions2 and therefore we require here the strictest conformity4 ,when we find what we thus require1 we have a lively sense of propriety3 when we find the contrary1 our sense of impropriety is not less lively4 ,hence the universal distaste of affectation1 which consists in making a shew of greater delicacy and refinement than is suited either to the character or circumstances of the person4 ,nothing hath a worse effect in a story than impropriety of manners4 ,in ,corneille's tragedy of ,cinna1 milia1 a favourite of ,augustus1 receives daily marks of his affection1 and is loaded with benefits2 yet all the while is laying plots to assassinate her benefactor1 directed by no other motive but to avenge her father's death#d4 ,revenge against a benefactor founded solely upon filial piety1 will never suggest unlawful means2 because it can never exceed the bounds of justice4 ,and yet the crime here attempted1 murder under trust reposed1 is what even a miscreant will scarce attempt against his bitterest enemy4 ,what is said may be thought sufficient to explain the qualities of congruity and propriety4 ,but the subject is not exhausted4 ,on the contrary1 the prospect enlarges upon us1 when we take under view the effects these qualities produce in the mind4 ,congruity and propriety1 where-ever perceived1 appear agreeable2 and every agreeable object produceth in the mind a pleasant emotion4 ,incongruity and impropriety1 on the other hand1 are disagreeable2 and consequently produce painful emotions4 ,an emotion of this kind sometimes vanisheth without any consequence2 but more frequently is the occasion of other emotions4 ,when any slight incongruity is perceived in an accidental combination of persons or things1 as of passengers in a stage-coach or of individuals dining at an ordinary1 the emotion of incongruity1 after a momentary existence1 vanisheth without producing any effect4 ,but this is not the case of propriety and impropriety4 ,voluntary acts1 whether words or deeds1 are imputed to the author3 when proper1 we reward him with our esteem3 when improper1 we punish him with our contempt4 ,let us suppose1 for example1 an heroic action suitable to the character of the author1 which raises in him and in every spectator the pleasant emotion of propriety4 ,this emotion generates in the author both self-esteem and joy2 the former when he considers his relation to the action1 and the latter when he considers the good opinion that others will entertain of him4 ,the same emotion of propriety1 produceth in the spectators1 esteem for the author of the action3 and when they think of themselves1 it also produceth1 by means of contrast1 an emotion of humility4 ,to discover the effects of an unsuitable action1 we must invert each of these circumstances4 ,the painful emotion of impropriety1 generates in the author of the action both humility and shame2 the former when he considers his relation to the action1 and the latter when he considers what others will think of him4 ,the same emotion of impropriety1 produceth in the spectators1 contempt for the author of the action2 and it also produceth1 by means of contrast when they think of themselves1 an emotion of self-esteem4 ,here then are many different emotions1 derived from the same action considered in different views by different persons2 a machine provided with many springs1 and not a little complicated4 ,propriety of action1 it would seem1 is a chief favourite of nature1 or of the author of nature1 when such care and solicitude is bestowed upon it4 ,it is not left to our own choice2 but1 like justice1 is required at our hands2 and1 like justice1 inforced by natural rewards and punishments4 ,a man cannot1 with impunity1 do any thing unbecoming or improper4 ,he suffers the chastisement of contempt inflicted by others1 and of shame inflicted by himself4 ,an apparatus so complicated and so singular1 ought to rouse our attention4 ,nature doth nothing in vain2 and we may conclude with great certainty1 that this curious branch of the human constitution is intended for some valuable purpose4 ,to the discovery of this purpose ,i shall with ardor apply my thoughts1 after discoursing a little more at large upon the punishment1 for ,i may now call it so1 that ,nature hath provided for indecent or unbecoming behaviour4 ,this1 at any rate1 is necessary1 in order to give a full view of the subject2 and who knows whether it may not1 over and above1 open some track that will lead us to what we are in quest of8 ,a gross impropriety is punished with contempt and indignation1 which are vented against the offender by every external expression that can gratify these passions4 ,and even the slightest impropriety raises some degree of contempt4 ,but there are improprieties1 generally of the slighter kind1 that provoke laughter2 of which we have examples without end in the blunders and absurdities of our own species4 ,such improprieties receive a different punishment1 as will appear by what follows4 ,the emotions of contempt and of laughter occasioned by an impropriety of this kind1 uniting intimately in the mind of the spectator1 are expressed externally by a peculiar sort of laugh1 termed a laugh of derision or scorn#e4 ,an impropriety that thus moves not only contempt but laughter1 is distinguished by the epithet of ridiculous2 and a laugh of derision or scorn is the punishment provided for it by nature4 ,nor ought it to escape observation1 that we are so fond of inflicting this punishment1 as sometimes to exert it even against creatures of an inferior species2 witness a ,turkycock swelling with pride1 and strutting with displayed feathers4 ,this object appears ridiculous1 and in a gay mood is apt to provoke a laugh of derision4 ,we must not expect that the improprieties to which these different punishments are adapted1 can be separated by any precise boundaries4 ,of improprieties1 from the slightest to the most gross1 from the most risible to the most serious1 a scale may be formed ascending by degrees almost imperceptible4 ,hence it is1 that in viewing some unbecoming actions1 too risible for anger and too serious for derision1 the spectator feels a sort of mixt emotion partaking both of derision and of anger4 ,this accounts for an expression1 common with respect to the impropriety of some actions1 ,that we know not whether to laugh or be angry4 ,it cannot fail to be observed1 that in the case of a risible impropriety1 which is always slight1 the contempt we have for the offender is extremely faint1 though derision1 its gratification1 is extremely pleasant4 ,this disproportion betwixt a passion and its gratification1 seems not conformable to the analogy of nature4 ,in looking about for a solution1 ,i reflect upon what is laid down above1 that an improper action1 not only moves our contempt for the author1 but also1 by means of contrast1 swells the good opinion we have of ourselves4 ,this contributes1 more than any other article1 to the pleasure we feel in ridiculing the follies and absurdities of others4 ,and accordingly1 it is well known1 that they who put the greatest value upon themselves1 are the most prone to laugh at others4 ,pride is a vivid passion1 as all are which have self for their object4 ,it is extremely pleasant in itself1 and not less so in its gratification4 ,this passion singly would be sufficient to account for the pleasure of ridicule1 without borrowing any aid from contempt4 ,hence appears the reason of a noted observation1 ,that we are the most disposed to ridicule the blunders and absurdities of others1 when we are in high spirits2 for in high spirits1 self-conceit displays itself with more than ordinary vigor4 ,having with wary steps traced an intricate road1 not without danger of wandering2 what remains to complete our journey1 is to account for the final cause of congruity and propriety1 which make so great a figure in the human constitution4 ,one final cause1 regarding congruity1 is pretty obvious4 ,the sense of congruity1 as one of the principles of the fine arts1 contributes in a remarkable degree to our entertainment4 ,this is the final cause assigned above for our sense of proportion#f1 and need not be enlarged upon here4 ,congruity indeed with respect to quantity1 coincides with proportion4 ,when the parts of a building are nicely adjusted to each other1 it may be said indifferently1 that it is agreeable by the congruity of its parts1 or by the proportion of its parts4 ,but propriety1 which regards voluntary agents only1 can never in any instance be the same with proportion4 ,a very long nose is disproportioned1 but cannot be termed improper4 ,in some instances1 it is true1 impropriety coincides with disproportion in the same subject1 but never in the same respect4 ,i give for an example a very little man buckled to a long toledo4 ,considering the man and the sword with respect to size1 we perceive a disproportion4 ,considering the sword as the choice of the man1 we perceive an impropriety4 ,the sense of impropriety with respect to mistakes1 blunders1 and absurdities1 is happily contrived for the good of mankind4 ,in the spectators it is productive of mirth and laughter1 excellent recreation in an interval from business4 ,the benefit is still more extensive4 ,it is not agreeable to be the subject of ridicule2 and to punish with ridicule the man who is guilty of an absurdity1 tends to put him more upon his guard in time coming4 ,thus even the most innocent blunder is not committed with impunity2 because1 were errors licensed where they do no hurt1 inattention would grow into a habit1 and be the occasion of much hurt4 ,the final cause of propriety as to moral duties1 is of all the most illustrious4 ,to have a just notion of it1 the two sorts of moral duties must be kept in view1 viz4 those that respect others1 and those that respect ourselves4 ,fidelity1 gratitude1 and the forbearing injury1 are examples of the first sort2 temperance1 modesty1 firmness of mind1 are examples of the other4 ,the former are made duties by means of the moral sense2 the latter1 by means of the sense of propriety4 ,here is a final cause of the sense of propriety1 that must rouse our attention4 ,it is undoubtedly the interest of every man1 to regulate his behaviour suitably to the dignity of his nature1 and to the station allotted him by ,providence4 ,such rational conduct contributes in every respect to happiness3 it contributes to health and plenty3 it gains the esteem of others3 and1 which is of all the greatest blessing1 it gains a justly-founded self-esteem4 ,but in a matter so essential to our well-being1 even self-interest is not relied on4 ,the sense of propriety superadds the powerful authority of duty to the motive of interest4 ,the ,god of nature1 in all things essential to our happiness1 hath observed one uniform method4 ,to keep us steady in our conduct1 he hath fortified us with natural principles and feelings4 ,these prevent many aberrations1 which would daily happen were we totally surrendered to so fallible a guide as is human reason4 ,the sense of propriety cannot justly be considered in another light1 than as the natural law that regulates our conduct with respect to ourselves2 as the sense of justice is the natural law that regulates our conduct with respect to others4 ,i call the sense of propriety a law1 because it really is so1 not less than the sense of justice4 ,if by law be meant a rule of conduct that we are conscious ought to be obeyed1 this definition1 which ,i conceive to be strictly accurate1 is applicable undoubtedly to both4 ,the sense of propriety includes this consciousness2 for to say an action is proper1 is1 in other words1 to say1 that it ought to be performed2 and to say it is improper1 is1 in other words1 to say1 that it ought to be forborn4 ,it is this very consciousness of ought and should included in the moral sense1 that makes justice a law to us4 ,this consciousness of duty1 when applied to propriety1 is perhaps not so vigorous or strong as when applied to justice3 but the difference is in degree only1 not in kind3 and we ought1 without hesitation or reluctance1 to submit equally to the government of both4 ,but ,i have more to urge upon this head4 ,it must1 in the next place1 be observed1 that to the sense of propriety as well as of justice are annexed the sanctions of rewards and punishments2 which evidently prove the one to be a law as well as the other4 ,the satisfaction a man hath in doing his duty1 joined with the esteem and good-will of others1 is the reward that belongs to both equally4 ,the punishments also1 though not the same1 are nearly allied2 and differ in degree more than in quality4 ,disobedience to the law of justice1 is punished with remorse2 disobedience to the law of propriety1 with shame1 which is remorse in a lower degree4 ,every transgression of the law of justice raises indignation in the beholder2 and so doth every flagrant transgression of the law of propriety4 ,slighter improprieties receive a milder punishment3 they are always rebuked with some degree of contempt1 and frequently with derision4 ,in general1 it is true1 that the rewards and punishments annexed to the sense of propriety are slighter in degree than those annexed to the sense of justice4 ,and that this is wisely ordered1 will appear from considering1 that to the well-being of society1 duty to others is still more essential than duty to ourselves2 for society could not subsist a moment1 were individuals not protected from the headstrong and turbulent passions of their neighbours4 ,reflecting coolly and carefully upon the subject under consideration1 the constitution of man1 admirable in all its parts1 appears here in a fine light4 ,the final cause now unfolded of the sense of propriety1 must1 to every discerning eye1 appear delightful2 and yet hitherto we have given but a partial view of it4 ,the sense of propriety reaches another illustrious end2 which is1 to co-operate with the sense of justice in inforcing the performance of social duties4 ,in fact1 the sanctions visibly contrived to compel a man to be just to himself1 are equally serviceable to compel him to be just to others4 ,this will be evident from a single reflection1 ,that an action1 by being unjust1 ceases not to be improper4 ,an action never appears more eminently improper1 than when it is unjust4 ,it is obviously becoming and suitable to human nature1 that each man do his duty to others2 and accordingly every transgression of duty with respect to others1 is at the same time a transgression of duty with respect to self4 ,this is an undisguised truth without exaggeration2 and it opens a new and delightful view in the moral landscape4 ,the prospect is greatly enriched1 by the multiplication of agreeable objects4 ,it appears now1 that nothing is overlooked1 nothing left undone1 that can possibly contribute to the enforcing social duty4 ,for to all the sanctions that belong to it singly1 are superadded the sanctions of self-duty4 ,a familiar example shall suffice for illustration4 ,an act of ingratitude considered in itself1 is to the author disagreeable as well as to every spectator3 considered by the author with relation to himself1 it raises self-contempt3 considered by him with relation to the world1 it makes him ashamed4 ,again1 considered by others1 it raises their contempt and indignation against the author4 ,these feelings are all of them occasioned by the impropriety of the action4 ,when the action is considered as unjust1 it occasions another set of feelings4 ,in the author it produces remorse1 and a dread of merited punishment2 and in others1 the benefactor chiefly1 indignation and hatred directed upon the ungrateful person4 ,thus shame and remorse united in the ungrateful person1 and indignation united with hatred in the hearts of others1 are the punishments provided by nature for injustice4 ,stupid and insensible must he be in extreme1 who1 in a contrivance so exquisite1 perceives not the hand of the ,sovereign ,architect4 ,,chap4 ,,xi ,of ,dignity and ,meanness4 ,these terms are applied to man in point of character1 sentiment1 and behaviour4 ,we say1 for example1 of one man1 that he hath a natural dignity in his air and manner2 of another1 that he makes a mean figure4 ,there is a dignity in every action and sentiment of some persons3 the actions and sentiments of others are mean and vulgar4 ,with respect to the fine arts1 some performances are said to be manly and suitable to the dignity of human nature3 others are termed low1 mean1 trivial4 ,such expressions are common1 though they have not always a precise meaning4 ,with respect to the art of criticism1 it must be a real acquisition to ascertain what these terms truly import2 which possibly may enable us to rank every performance in the fine arts according to its dignity4 ,inquiring first to what subjects the terms dignity and meanness are appropriated1 we soon discover1 that they are not applicable to any thing inanimate4 ,the most magnificent palace ever built1 may be lofty1 may be grand1 but it has no relation to dignity4 ,the most diminutive shrub may be little1 but it is not mean4 ,these terms must belong to sensitive beings1 probably to man only2 which will be evident when we advance in the inquiry4 ,of all objects1 human actions produce in a spectator the greatest variety of feelings4 ,they are in themselves grand or little3 with respect to the author1 they are proper or improper3 with respect to those affected by them1 just or unjust4 ,and ,i must now add1 that they are also distinguished by dignity and meanness4 ,it may possibly be thought1 that with respect to human actions1 dignity coincides with grandeur1 and meanness with littleness4 ,but the difference will be evident upon reflecting1 that we never attribute dignity to any action but what is virtuous1 nor meanness to any but what in some degree is faulty4 ,but an action may be grand without being virtuous1 or little without being faulty4 ,every action of dignity creates respect and esteem for the author2 and a mean action draws upon him contempt4 ,a man is always admired for a grand action1 but frequently is neither loved nor esteemed for it3 neither is a man always contemned for a low or little action4 ,as it appears to me1 dignity and meanness are founded on a natural principle not hitherto mentioned4 ,man is endued with a sense of the worth and excellence of his nature4 ,he deems it to be more perfect than that of the other beings around him2 and he feels that the perfection of his nature consists in virtue1 particularly in virtue of the highest rank4 ,to express this sense1 the term dignity is appropriated4 ,further1 to behave with dignity1 and to refrain from all mean actions1 is felt to be1 not a virtue only1 but a duty3 it is a duty every man owes to himself4 ,by acting in this manner1 he attracts love and esteem4 ,by acting meanly or below himself1 he is disapproved and contemned4 ,according to the description here given of dignity and meanness1 they will be found to be a species of propriety and impropriety4 ,many actions may be proper or improper1 to which dignity or meanness cannot be applied4 ,to eat when one is hungry is proper1 but there is no dignity in this action4 ,revenge fairly taken1 if against law1 is improper1 but it is not mean4 ,but every action of dignity is also proper1 and every mean action is also improper4 ,this sense of the dignity of human nature1 reaches even our pleasures and amusements4 ,if they enlarge the mind by raising grand or elevated emotions1 or if they humanize the mind by exercising our sympathy1 they are approved as suited to our nature3 if they contract the mind by fixing it on trivial objects1 they are contemned as low and mean4 ,hence in general1 every occupation1 whether of use or amusement1 that corresponds to the dignity of man1 obtains the epithet of manly2 and every occupation below his nature1 obtains the epithet of childish4 ,to those who study human nature1 there is a point which has always appeared intricate4 ,how comes it that generosity and courage are more valued and bestow more dignity1 than good-nature1 or even justice1 though the latter contribute more than the former1 to private as well as to public happiness8 ,this question bluntly proposed1 might puzzle a cunning philosopher2 but by means of the foregoing observations will easily be solved4 ,human virtues1 like other objects1 obtain a rank in our estimation1 not from their utility1 which is a subject of reflection1 but from the direct impression they make on us4 ,justice and good-nature are a sort of negative virtues1 that make no figure unless when they are transgressed4 ,courage and generosity producing elevated emotions1 enliven greatly the sense of a man's dignity1 both in himself and in others2 and for that reason1 courage and generosity are in higher regard than the other virtues mentioned4 ,we describe them as grand and elevated1 as of greater dignity1 and more praise-worthy4 ,this leads us to examine more directly emotions and passions with respect to the present subject4 ,and it will not be difficult to form a scale of them1 beginning at the meanest1 and ascending gradually to those of the highest rank and dignity4 ,pleasure felt as at the organ of sense1 named corporeal pleasure1 is perceived to be low2 and when indulged to excess1 beyond what nature demands1 is perceived also to be mean4 ,persons therefore of any delicacy1 dissemble the pleasure they have in eating and drinking4 ,the pleasures of the eye and ear1 which have no organic feeling#g1 are free from any sense of meanness2 and for that reason are indulged without any shame4 ,they even arise to a certain degree of dignity1 when their objects are grand or elevated4 ,the same is the case of the sympathetic passions4 ,they raise the character considerably1 when their objects are of importance4 ,a virtuous person behaving with fortitude and dignity under the most cruel misfortunes1 makes a capital figure2 and the sympathising spectator feels in himself the same dignity4 ,sympathetic distress at the same time never is mean3 on the contrary1 it is agreeable to the nature of a social being1 and has the general approbation4 ,the rank that love possesses in this scale1 depends in a great measure on its object4 ,it possesses a low place when founded on external properties merely2 and is mean when bestowed upon a person of a rank much inferior without any extraordinary qualification4 ,but when founded on the more elevated internal properties1 it assumes a considerable degree of dignity4 ,the same is the case of friendship4 ,when gratitude is warm1 it animates the mind2 but it scarce rises to dignity4 ,joy bestows dignity when it proceeds from an elevated cause4 ,so far as ,i can gather from induction1 dignity is not a property of any disagreeable passion4 ,one is slight another severe1 one depresses the mind another rouses and animates it2 but there is no elevation1 far less dignity1 in any of them4 ,revenge1 in particular1 though it inflame and swell the mind1 is not accompanied with dignity1 not even with elevation4 ,it is not however felt as mean or groveling1 unless when it takes indirect measures for its gratification4 ,shame and remorse1 though they sink the spirits1 are not mean4 ,pride1 a disagreeable passion1 bestows no dignity in the eye of a spectator4 ,vanity always appears mean2 and extremely so where founded1 as commonly happens1 on trivial qualifications4 ,i proceed to the pleasures of the understanding1 which possess a high rank in point of dignity4 ,of this every one will be sensible1 when he considers the important truths that have been laid open by science2 such as general theorems1 and the general laws that govern the material and moral worlds4 ,the pleasures of the understanding are suited to man as a rational and contemplative being2 and they tend not a little to ennoble his nature4 ,even to the ,deity he stretches his contemplations1 which1 in the discovery of infinite power wisdom and benevolence1 afford delight of the most exalted kind4 ,hence it appears1 that the fine arts studied as a rational science1 afford entertainment of great dignity2 superior far to what they afford as a subject of taste merely4 ,but contemplation1 though in itself valuable1 is chiefly respected as subservient to action2 for man is intended to be more an active than a contemplative being4 ,he accordingly shows more dignity in action than in contemplation4 ,generosity1 magnanimity1 heroism1 raise his character to the highest pitch4 ,these best express the dignity of his nature1 and advance him nearer to divinity than any other of his attributes4 ,by every production that shows art and contrivance1 our curiosity is excited upon two points2 first how it was made1 and next to what end4 ,of the two1 the latter is the more important inquiry1 because the means are ever subordinate to the end2 and in fact our curiosity is always more inflamed by the final than by the efficient cause4 ,this preference is no where more visible1 than in contemplating the works of nature4 ,if in the efficient cause1 wisdom and power be displayed1 wisdom is not less conspicuous in the final cause2 and from it only can we infer benevolence1 which of all the divine attributes is to man the most important4 ,having endeavoured to assign the efficient cause of dignity and meanness1 and to unfold the principle on which they are founded1 we proceed to explain the final cause of the dignity or meanness bestowed upon the several particulars above mentioned1 beginning with corporeal pleasures4 ,these1 so far as useful1 are like justice fenced with sufficient sanctions to prevent their being neglected4 ,hunger and thirst are painful sensations2 and we are incited to animal love by a vigorous propensity4 ,were they dignified over and above with a place in a high class1 they would infallibly overturn the balance of the mind1 by outweighing the social affections4 ,this is a satisfactory final cause for refusing to corporeal pleasures any degree of dignity4 ,and the final cause is not less evident of their meanness1 when they are indulged to excess4 ,the more refined pleasures of external sense1 conveyed by the eye and the ear from natural objects and from the fine arts1 deserve a high place in our esteem1 because of their singular and extensive utility4 ,in some cases they arise to a considerable dignity4 ,the very lowest pleasures of the kind1 are never esteemed mean or groveling4 ,the pleasure arising from wit1 humour1 ridicule1 or from what is simply ludicrous1 is useful1 by relaxing the mind after the fatigue of more manly occupation4 ,but the mind1 when it surrenders itself to pleasure of this kind1 loses its vigor1 and sinks gradually into sloth4 ,the place this pleasure occupies in point of dignity1 is adjusted to these views4 ,to make it useful as a relaxation1 it is not branded with meanness4 ,to prevent its usurpation1 it is removed from this place but a single degree4 ,no man values himself upon this pleasure1 even during the gratification2 and if more time have been given to it than is requisite for relaxation1 a man looks back with some degree of shame4 ,in point of dignity1 the social passions rise above the selfish1 and much above the pleasures of the eye and ear4 ,man is by his nature a social being2 and to qualify him for society1 it is wisely contrived1 that he should value himself more for being social than selfish4 ,the excellency of man is chiefly discernible in the great improvements he is susceptible of in society4 ,these1 by perseverance1 may be carried on progressively to higher and higher degrees of perfection1 above any assignable limits2 and1 even abstracting from revelation1 there is great probability1 that the progress begun in this life will be completed in some future state4 ,now1 as all valuable improvements proceed from the exercise of our rational faculties1 the author of our nature1 in order to excite us to a due use of these faculties1 hath assigned a high rank to the pleasures of the understanding4 ,their utility1 with respect to this life as well as a future1 intitles them to this rank4 ,but as action is the end of all our improvements1 virtuous actions justly possess the highest of all the ranks4 ,these1 ,i find1 are by nature distributed into different classes1 and the first in point of dignity assigned to actions which appear not the first in point of use4 ,generosity1 for example1 in the sense of mankind1 is more respected than justice1 though the latter is undoubtedly more essential to society4 ,and magnanimity1 heroism1 undaunted courage1 rise still higher in our esteem4 ,one would readily think1 that the moral virtues should be esteemed according to their importance4 ,nature has here deviated from her ordinary path1 and great wisdom is shown in the deviation4 ,the efficient cause is explained above2 and the final cause is explained in the ,essays of morality and natural religion#h4 ,,chap4 ,,xii4 ,,ridicule4 ,this subject has puzzled and vexed all the critics4 ,aristotle gives a definition of ridicule1 obscure and imperfect#i4 ,cicero handles it at great length#aj2 but without giving any satisfaction4 ,he wanders in the dark1 and misses the distinction betwixt risible and ridiculous4 ,quintilian is sensible of this distinction#aa2 but has not attempted to explain it4 ,luckily this subject lies no longer in obscurity4 ,a risible object produceth an emotion of laughter merely#ab4 ,a ridiculous object is improper as well as risible2 and produceth a mixt emotion1 which is vented by a laugh of derision or scorn#ac4 ,having therefore happily unravelled the abstruse and knotty part1 ,i proceed to what may be thought further necessary upon this subject4 ,burlesque is one great engine of ridicule4 ,but it is not confined to that subject2 for it is clearly distinguishable into burlesque that excites laughter merely1 and burlesque that provokes derision or ridicule4 ,a grave subject in which there is no impropriety1 may be brought down by a certain colouring so as to be risible4 ,this is the case of ,virgil ,travestie#ad4 ,and it is the case of the ,secchia ,rapita#ae4 ,the authors laugh first at every turn1 in order to make their readers laugh4 ,the ,lutrin is a burlesque poem of the other sort4 ,the author ,boileau1 lays hold of a low and trifling incident to expose the luxury1 indolence1 and contentious spirit of a set of monks4 ,he turns the subject into ridicule by dressing it in the heroic style1 and affecting to consider it as of the utmost dignity and importance2 and though ridicule is the poet's aim1 he himself carries all along a grave face1 and never once bewrays a smile4 ,the opposition betwixt the subject and the manner of handling it1 is what produces the ridicule4 ,in a composition of this kind1 no image professedly ludicrous ought to have quarter2 because such images destroy the contrast4 ,though the burlesque that aims at ridicule1 produces its effect by elevating the style far above the subject1 yet it has limits beyond which the elevation ought not to be carried4 ,the poet1 consulting the imagination of his readers1 ought to confine himself to such images as are lively and readily apprehended4 ,a strained elevation1 soaring above an ordinary reach of fancy1 makes not a pleasant impression4 ,the mind fatigued with being always upon the stretch1 is soon disgusted2 and if it perseveres1 becomes thoughtless and indifferent4 ,further1 a fiction gives no pleasure1 unless where painted in so lively colours as to produce some perception of reality2 which never can be done effectually where the images are formed with labour or difficulty4 ,for these reasons1 ,i cannot avoid condemning the ,batrachomuomachia said to be the composition of ,homer4 ,it is beyond the power of imagination1 to form a clear and lively image of frogs and mice acting with the dignity of the highest of our species3 nor can we form a conception of the reality of such an action1 in any manner so distinct as to interest our affections even in the slightest degree4 ,the ,rape of the ,lock is of a character clearly distinguishable from those now mentioned4 ,it is not properly a burlesque performance1 but what may rather be termed an heroi-comical poem4 ,it treats a gay and familiar subject1 with pleasantry and with a moderate degree of dignity4 ,the author puts not on a mask like ,boileau1 nor professes to make us laugh like ,tassoni4 ,the ,rape of the ,lock is a genteel and gay species of writing1 less strained than the others mentioned2 and is pleasant or ludicrous without having ridicule for its chief aim2 giving way however to ridicule where it arises naturally from a particular character1 such as that of ,sir ,plume4 ,addison's ,spectator upon the exercise of the fan#af is extremely gay and ludicrous1 resembling in its subject the ,rape of the ,lock4 ,humour belongs to the present chapter1 because it is undoubtedly connected with ridicule4 ,congreve defines humour to be 8a singular and unavoidable manner of doing or saying any thing1 peculiar and natural to one man only1 by which his speech and actions are distinguished from those of other men40 ,were this definition just1 a majestic and commanding air1 which is a singular property1 is humour2 as also that natural flow of eloquence and correct elocution which is a rare talent4 ,nothing just or proper is denominated humour2 nor any singularity of character1 words1 or actions1 that is valued or respected4 ,when we attend to the character of an humorist1 we find that the peculiarity of this character lessens the man in our esteem3 we find that this character arises from circumstances both risible and improper1 and therefore in some measure ridiculous4 ,humour in writing is very different from humour in character4 ,when an author insists upon ludicrous subjects with a professed purpose to make his readers laugh1 he may be styled a ludicrous writer2 but is scarce intitled to be styled a writer of humour4 ,this quality belongs to an author1 who1 affecting to be grave and serious1 paints his objects in such colours as to provoke mirth and laughter4 ,a writer that is really an humorist in character1 does this without design4 ,if not1 he must affect the character in order to succeed4 ,swift and ,fontaine were humorists in character1 and their writings are full of humour4 ,addison was not an humorist in character2 and yet in his prose writings a most delicate and refined humour prevails4 ,arbuthnot exceeds them all in drollery and humorous painting2 which shows a great genius1 because1 if ,i am not misinformed1 he had nothing of this peculiarity in his character4 ,there remains to show1 by examples1 the manner of treating subjects so as to give them a ridiculous appearance4 ,il ne dit jamais1 je vous donne1 mais1 je vous prete le bon jour4 ,moliere4 ,orleans4 ,i know him to be valiant4 ,constable4 ,i was told that by one that knows him better than you4 ,orleans4 ,what's he8 ,constable4 ,marry1 he told me so himself2 and he said1 he car'd not who knew it4 ,henry ,v4 ,shakespear4 ,he never broke any man's head but his own1 and that was against a post when he was drunk4 ,ibid4 ,millament4 ,sententious ,mirabell6 pr'ythee don't look with that violent and inflexible wise face1 like ,solomon at the dividing of the child in an old tapestry hanging4 ,way of the world4 ,a true critic in the perusal of a book1 is like a dog at a feast1 whose thoughts and stomach are wholly set upon what the guests fling away1 and consequently is apt to snarl most when there are the fewest bones4 ,tale of a ,tub4 ,in the following instances the ridicule is made to appear from the behaviour of the persons introduced4 ,mascarille4 ,te souvient-il1 vicomte1 de cette demi-lune1 que nous emportmes sur les ennemis au siege d',arras8 ,jedelet4 ,que veux tu dire avec ta demi-lune8 c'etoit bien une lune toute entiere4 ,moliere les ,precieuses ,ridicules1 sc4 #aa4 ,slender4 ,i came yonder at ,eaton to marry ,mrs4 ,anne ,page2 and she's a great lubberly boy4 ,page4 ,upon my life then you took the wrong4 ,slender4 ,what need you tell me that8 ,i think so1 when ,i took a boy for a girl3 if ,i had been marry'd to him1 for all he was in woman's apparel1 ,i would not have had him4 ,merry ,wives of ,windsor4 ,valentine4 ,your blessing1 ,sir4 ,sir ,sampson4 ,you've had it already1 ,sir3 ,i think ,i sent it you to-day in a bill for four thousand pound2 a great deal of money1 ,brother ,foresight4 ,foresight4 ,ay indeed1 ,sir ,sampson1 a great deal of money for a young man2 ,i wonder what can he do with it4 ,love for ,love1 act #b4 sc4 #g4 ,millamant4 ,i nauseate walking2 'tis a country-diversion2 ,i lothe the country1 and every thing that relates to it4 ,sir ,wilful4 ,indeed6 hah6 look ye1 look ye1 you do8 nay1 'tis like you may---- here are choice of pastimes here in town1 as plays and the like2 that must be confess'd indeed4 ,millamant4 ,ah l'etourdie6 ,i hate the town too4 ,sir ,wilful4 ,dear heart1 that's much---- hah6 that you should hate 'em both6 hah6 'tis like you may2 there are some can't relish the town1 and others can't away with the country---- 'tis like you may be one of those1 ,cousine4 ,way of the world1 act #d4 sc4 #d4 ,lord ,froth4 ,i assure you1 ,sir ,paul1 ,i laugh at no body's jest but my own1 or a lady's3 ,i assure you1 ,sir ,paul4 ,brisk4 ,how8 how1 my ,lord8 what1 affront my wit6 ,let me perish1 do ,i never say any thing worthy to be laugh'd at8 ,lord ,froth4 ,o foy1 don't misapprehend me1 ,i don't say so1 for ,i often smile at your conceptions4 ,but there is nothing more unbecoming a man of quality1 than to laugh2 'tis such a vulgar expression of the passion6 every body can laugh4 ,then especially to laugh at the jest of an inferior person1 or when any body else of the same quality does not laugh with one2 ridiculous6 ,to be pleas'd with what pleases the crowd6 ,now1 when ,i laugh ,i always laugh alone4 ,double ,dealer1 act #a4 sc4 #d4 ,so sharp-sighted is pride in blemishes1 and so willing to be gratified1 that it will take up with the very slightest improprieties2 such as a blunder by a foreigner in speaking our language1 especially if the blunder can bear a sense that reflects upon the speaker3 ,quickly4 ,the young man is an honest man4 ,caius4 ,what shall de honest man do in my closet8 dere is no honest man dat shall come in my closet4 ,merry ,wives of ,windsor4 ,love-speeches are finely ridiculed in the following passage4 ,quoth he1 ,my faith as adamantine1 ,as chains of destiny1 ,i'll maintain2 ,true as ,apollo ever spoke1 ,or oracle from heart of oak2 ,and if you'll give my flame but vent1 ,now in close hugger-mugger pent1 ,and shine upon me but benignly1 ,with that one1 and that other pigsneye1 ,the sun and day shall sooner part1 ,than love1 or you1 shake off my heart2 ,the sun that shall no more dispense ,his own1 but your bright influence3 ,i'll carve your name on barks of trees1 ,with true love knots1 and flourishes2 ,that shall infuse eternal spring1 ,and everlasting flourishing3 ,drink ev'ry letter on't in stum1 ,and make it brisk champaign become4 ,where-e'er you tread1 your foot shall set ,the primrose and the violet2 ,all spices1 perfumes1 and sweet powders1 ,shall borrow from your breath their odours2 ,nature her charter shall renew ,and take all lives of things from you2 ,the world depend upon your eye1 ,and when you frown upon it1 die4 ,only our loves shall still survive1 ,new worlds and natures to outlive2 ,and1 like to herald's moons1 remain ,all crescents1 without change or wane4 ,hudibras1 part #b4 canto #a4 ,irony turns things into ridicule in a peculiar manner4 ,it consists in laughing at a man under disguise1 by appearing to praise or speak well of him4 ,swift affords us many illustrious examples of this species of ridicule4 ,take the following example4 8,by these methods1 in a few weeks1 there starts up many a writer1 capable of managing the profoundest and most universal subjects4 ,for what though his head be empty1 provided his commonplace book be full8 ,and if you will bate him but the circumstances of method1 and style1 and grammar1 and invention2 allow him but the common privileges of transcribing from others1 and digressing from himself1 as often as he shall see occasion2 he will desire no more ingredients towards fitting up a treatise that shall make a very comely figure on a bookseller's shelf1 there to be preserved neat and clean1 for a long eternity1 adorned with the heraldry of its title1 fairly inscribed on a label2 never to be thumbed or greased by students1 nor bound to everlasting chains of darkness in a library2 but when the fullness of time is come1 shall happily undergo the trial of purgatory1 in order to ascend the sky#ag40 ,the following passage from ,arbuthnot is not less ironical4 8,if the ,reverend clergy showed more concern than others1 ,i charitably impute it to their great charge of souls2 and what confirmed me in this opinion was1 that the degrees of apprehension and terror could be distinguished to be greater or less1 according to their ranks and degrees in the church#ah40 ,a parody must be distinguished from every species of ridicule4 ,it enlivens a gay subject by imitating some important incident that is serious4 ,it is ludicrous1 and may be risible4 ,but ridicule is not a necessary ingredient4 ,take the following examples1 the first of which refers to an expression of ,moses4 ,the skilful nymph reviews her force with care3 ,let spades be trumps6 she said1 and trumps they were4 ,rape of the ,lock1 canto iii4 #de4 ,the next is an imitation of ,achilles's oath in ,homer4 ,but by this lock1 this sacred lock1 ,i swear1 7,which never more shall join its parted hair1 ,which never more its honours shall renew1 ,clip'd from the lovely head where late it grew71 ,that while my nostrils draw the vital air1 ,this hand1 which won it1 shall for ever wear4 ,he spoke1 and speaking1 in proud triumph spread ,the long contended honours of her head4 ,ibid4 canto iv4 #acc4 ,the following imitates the history of ,agamemnon's sceptre in ,homer4 ,now meet thy fate1 incens'd ,belinda cry'd1 ,and drew a deadly bodkin from her side1 7,the same1 his ancient personage to deck1 ,her great-great-grandsire wore about his neck1 ,in three seal rings2 which after1 melted down1 ,form'd a vast buckle for his widow's gown3 ,her infant grandame's whistle next it grew1 ,the bells she jingled1 and the whistle blew2 ,then in a bodkin grac'd her mother's hairs1 ,which long she wore1 and now ,belinda wears47 ,ibid4 canto v4 #hg4 ,ridicule1 as observed above1 is no necessary ingredient in a parody4 ,but ,i did not intend to say1 that there is any opposition betwixt them4 ,a parody1 no doubt1 may be successfully employed to promote ridicule2 witness the following example1 in which the goddess of ,dullness is addressed upon the subject of modern education4 ,thou gav'st that ripeness1 which so soon began1 ,and ceas'd so soon1 he ne'er was boy nor man2 ,through school and college1 thy kind cloud o'ercast1 ,safe and unseen the young neas past#ai2 ,thence bursting glorious1 all at once let down1 ,stunn'd with his giddy larum half the town4 ,dunciad1 b4 iv4 #bhg4 ,the interposition of the gods in the manner of ,homer and ,virgil1 ought to be confined to ludicrous subjects1 which are much enlivened by such interposition handled in the form of a parody2 witness the cave of ,spleen1 ,rape of the ,lock1 canto #d42 the goddess of ,discord2 ,lutrin1 canto #a42 and the goddess of ,indolence1 canto #b4 ,those who have a talent for ridicule1 which is seldom united with a taste for delicate and refined beauties1 are quick-sighted in improprieties2 and these they eagerly lay hold of1 in order to gratify their favourite propensity4 ,the persons galled have no other refuge but to maintain1 that ridicule ought not to be applied to grave subjects4 ,it is yielded1 on the other hand1 that subjects really grave and important1 are by no means fit for ridicule3 but then it is urged1 that ridicule is the only proper test for discovering whether a subject be really grave1 or be made so artificially by custom and fashion4 ,this dispute has produced a celebrated question1 ,whether ridicule be or be not a test of truth8 ,i give this question a place here1 because it tends to illustrate the nature of ridicule4 ,the question stated in accurate terms is1 ,whether the sense of ridicule be the proper test for distinguishing ridiculous objects from those that are not so8 ,to answer this question with precision1 ,i must premise1 that ridicule is not a subject of reasoning1 but of sense or taste#bj4 ,this being taken for granted1 ,i proceed thus4 ,no person doubts that our sense of beauty is the true test of what is beautiful1 and our sense of grandeur1 of what is great or sublime4 ,is it more doubtful whether our sense of ridicule be the true test of what is ridiculous8 ,it is not only the true test1 but indeed the only test4 ,for this is a subject that comes not1 more than beauty or grandeur1 under the province of reason4 ,if any subject1 by the influence of fashion or custom1 have acquired a degree of veneration or esteem to which naturally it is not intitled1 what are the proper means for wiping off the artificial colouring1 and displaying the subject in its true light8 ,reasoning1 as observed1 cannot be applied4 ,and therefore the only means is to judge by taste4 ,the test of ridicule which separates it from its artificial connections1 exposes it naked with all its native improprieties4 ,but it is urged1 that the gravest and most serious matters may be set in a ridiculous light4 ,hardly so2 for where an object is neither risible nor improper1 it lies not open in any quarter to an attack from ridicule4 ,but supposing the fact1 ,i foresee not any harmful consequence4 ,by the same sort of reasoning1 a talent for wit ought to be condemned1 because it may be employed to burlesque a great or lofty subject4 ,such irregular use made of a talent for wit or ridicule1 cannot long impose upon mankind4 ,it cannot stand the test of correct and delicate taste2 and truth will at last prevail even with the vulgar4 ,to condemn a talent for ridicule because it may be perverted to wrong purposes1 is not a little ridiculous4 ,could one forbear to smile1 if a talent for reasoning were condemned because it also may be perverted8 ,and yet the conclusion in the latter case1 would be not less just than in the former2 perhaps more just1 for no talent is so often perverted as that of reason4 ,we had best leave ,nature to her own operations4 ,the most valuable talents may be abused1 and so may that of ridicule4 ,let us bring it under proper culture if we can1 without endeavouring to pull it up by the root4 ,were we destitute of this test of truth1 ,i know not what might be the consequences3 ,i see not what rule would be left us to prevent splendid trifles passing for matters of importance1 show and form for substance1 and superstition or enthusiasm for pure religion4 ,,chap4 ,,xiii4 ,,wit4 ,wit is a quality of certain thoughts and expressions4 ,the term is never applied to an action or a passion1 and as little to an external object4 ,however difficult it may be in every particular instance to distinguish a witty thought or expression from one that is not so1 yet in general it may be laid down1 that the term wit is appropriated to such thoughts and expressions as are ludicrous1 and also occasion some degree of surprise by their singularity4 ,wit also in a figurative sense expresses that talent which some men have of inventing ludicrous thoughts or expressions4 ,we say commonly1 a witty man1 or a man of wit4 ,wit in its proper sense1 as suggested above1 is distinguishable into two kinds2 wit in the thought1 and wit in the words or expression4 ,again1 wit in the thought is of two kinds2 ludicrous images1 and ludicrous combinations of things that have little or no natural relation4 ,ludicrous images that occasion surprise by their singularity1 as having little or no foundation in nature1 are fabricated by the imagination4 ,and the imagination is well qualified for the office2 being of all our faculties the most active1 and the least under restraint4 ,take the following example4 ,shylock4 ,you knew 7none so well1 none so well as you7 of my daughter's flight4 ,salino4 ,that's certain2 ,i1 for my part1 knew the tailor that made the wings she flew withal4 ,merchant of ,venice1 act #c4 sc4 #a4 ,the image here is undoubtedly witty4 ,it is ludicrous3 and it must occasion surprise2 for having no natural foundation1 it is altogether unexpected4 ,the other branch of wit in the thought1 is that only which is taken notice of by ,addison1 following ,locke1 who defines it 8to lie in the assemblage of ideas2 and putting those together with quickness and variety1 wherein can be found any resemblance or congruity1 thereby to make up pleasant pictures and agreeable visions in the fancy#ba40 ,it may be defined more curtly1 and perhaps more accurately1 8,a junction of things by distant and fanciful relations1 which surprise because they are unexpected#bb40 ,the following is a proper example4 ,we grant although he had much wit1 ,h' was very shie of using it1 ,as being loth to wear it out2 ,and therefore bore it not about1 ,unless on holidays1 or so1 ,as men their best apparel do4 ,hudibras1 canto #a4 ,wit is of all the most elegant recreation4 ,the image enters the mind with gaiety1 and gives a sudden flash which is extremely pleasant4 ,wit thereby gently elevates without straining1 raises mirth without dissoluteness1 and relaxes while it entertains4 ,wit in the expression1 commonly called a play of words1 being a bastard sort of wit1 is reserved for the last place4 ,i proceed to examples of wit in the thought4 ,and first of ludicrous images4 ,falstaff1 speaking of his taking ,sir ,john ,colevile of the ,dale3 ,here he is1 and here ,i yield him2 and ,i beseech your ,grace1 let it be book'd with the rest of this day's deeds2 or1 by the ,lord1 ,i will have it in a particular ballad else1 with mine own picture on the top of it1 ,colevile kissing my foot3 to the which course if ,i be inforc'd1 if you do not all shew like gilt twopences to me2 and ,i1 in the clear sky of fame1 o'er-shine you as much as the full moon doth the cinders of the element1 which shew like pins' heads to her2 believe not the word of the ,noble4 ,therefore let me have right1 and let desert mount4 ,second part1 ,henry ,,iv4 act #d4 sc4 #f4 ,i knew1 when seven justices could not take up a quarrel1 but when the parties were met themselves1 one of them thought but of an if2 as1 if you said so1 then ,i said so2 and they shook hands1 and swore brothers4 ,your if is the only peacemaker2 much virtue is in if4 ,shakespear4 ,for there is not through all nature1 another so callous and insensible a member as the world's posteriors1 whether you apply to it the toe or the birch4 ,preface to a ,tale of a tub4 ,the war hath introduced abundance of polysyllables1 which will never be able to live many more campaigns4 ,speculations1 operations1 preliminaries1 ambassadors1 palisadoes1 communication1 circumvallation1 battalions1 as numerous as they are1 if they attack us too frequently in our coffeehouses1 we shall certainly put them to flight1 and cut off the rear4 ,tatler1 ,n #bcj4 ,speaking of ,discord1 8,she never went abroad1 but she brought home such a bundle of monstrous lies1 as would have amazed any mortal1 but such as knew her2 of a whale that had swallowed a fleet of ships2 of the lions being let out of the tower to destroy the ,protestant religion2 of the ,pope's being seen in a brandy-shop at ,wapping10 c4 ,history of ,john ,bull1 part4 #a4 ch4 #af4 ,the other branch of wit in the thought1 viz4 ludicrous combinations and oppositions1 may be traced through various ramifications4 ,and1 first1 fanciful causes assigned that have no natural relation to the effects produced4 ,lancaster4 ,fare you well1 ,falstaff2 ,i1 in my condition1 ,shall better speak of you than you deserve4 ,exit4 ,falstaff4 ,i would you had but the wit2 'twere better than your dukedom4 ,good faith1 this same young sober-blooded boy doth not love me2 nor a man cannot make him laugh2 but that's no marvel1 he drinks no wine4 ,there's never any of these demure boys come to any proof2 for thin drink doth so over-cool their blood1 and making many fish-meals1 that they fall into a kind of male green-sickness2 and then1 when they marry1 they get wenches4 ,they are generally fools and cowards2 which some of us should be too1 but for inflammation4 ,a good sherris-sack hath a twofold operation in it2 it ascends me into the brain2 dries me there all the foolish1 dull1 and crudy vapours which environ it2 makes it apprehensive1 quick1 forgetive1 full of nimble1 fiery1 and delectable shapes2 which deliver'd o'er to the voice1 the tongue1 which is the birth1 becomes excellent wit4 ,the second property of your excellent sherris1 is1 the warming of the blood2 which before cold and settled left the liver white and pale2 which is the badge of pusillanimity and cowardice3 but the sherris warms it1 and makes it course from the inwards1 to the parts extreme2 it illuminateth the face1 which1 as a beacon1 gives warning to all the rest of this little kingdom1 man1 to arm2 and then the vital commoners and inland petty spirits muster me all to their captain1 the heart2 who1 great1 and puff'd up with this retinue1 doth any deed of courage3 and this valour comes of sherris4 ,so that skill in the weapon is nothing without sack1 for that sets it a-work2 and learning a mere hoard of gold kept by a devil1 till sack commences it1 and sets it in act and use4 ,hereof comes it1 that ,prince ,harry is valiant2 for the cold blood he did naturally inherit of his father1 he hath1 like lean1 steril1 and bare land1 manured1 husbanded1 and till'd1 with excellent endeavour of drinking good and good store of fertil sherris1 that he is become very hot and valiant4 ,if ,i had a thousand sons1 the first human principle ,i would teach them1 should be to forswear thin potations1 and to addict themselves to sack4 ,second part of ,henry ,,iv4 act4 #d4 sc4 #g4 ,the trenchant blade1 toledo trusty1 ,for want of fighting was grown rusty1 ,and ate into itself1 for lack ,of some body to hew and hack4 ,the peaceful scabbard where it dwelt1 ,the rancor of its edge had felt3 ,for of the lower end two handful1 ,it had devoured1 'twas so manful2 ,and so much scorn'd to lurk in case1 ,as if it durst not shew its face4 ,hudibras1 canto #a4 ,speaking of physicians1 ,le bon de cette profession est1 qu'il y a parmi les morts une honntet1 une discretion la plus grande du monde2 jamais on n'en voit se plaindre du mdicin qui l'a tu4 ,le medicin malgr lui4 ,admirez les bontez1 admirez les tendresses1 ,de ces vieux esclaves du sort4 ,ils ne sont jamais las d'aqurir des richesses1 ,pour ceux qui souhaitent leur mort4 ,belinda4 ,lard1 he has so pester'd me with flames and stuff--,i think ,i shan't endure the sight of a fire this twelvemonth4 ,old ,bachelor1 act #b4 sc4 #h4 ,to account for effects by such fantastical causes1 being highly ludicrous1 is quite improper in any serious composition4 ,therefore the following passage from ,cowley1 in his poem on the death of ,sir ,henry ,wooton1 is in a bad taste4 ,he did the utmost bounds of ,knowledge find1 ,he found them not so large as was his mind4 ,but1 like the brave ,pellan youth1 did moan1 ,because that ,art had no more worlds than one4 ,and when he saw that he through all had past1 ,he dy'd1 lest he should idle grow at last4 ,fanciful reasoning1 ,falstaff4 ,imbowell'd6---- if thou imbowel me to-day1 ,i'll give you leave to powder me1 and eat me to-morrow6 ',sblood1 'twas time to counterfeit1 or that hot termagant ,scot had paid me scot and lot too4 ,counterfeit8 ,i lie1 ,i am no counterfeit2 to die is to be a counterfeit2 for he is but the counterfeit of a man1 who hath not the life of a man3 but to counterfeit dying1 when a man thereby liveth1 is to be no counterfeit1 but the true and perfect image of life1 indeed4 ,first ,part ,henry ,,iv4 act #a4 sc4 #aj4 ,clown4 ,and the more pity that great folk should have countenance in this world to drown or hang themselves1 more than their even ,christian4 ,hamlet1 ,act #e4 sc4 #a4 ,pedro4 ,will you have me1 ,lady8 ,beatrice4 ,no1 my ,lord1 unless ,i might have another for working days4 ,your ,grace is too costly to wear every day4 ,much ado about nothing1 act #b4 sc4 #e4 ,jessica4 ,i shall be saved by my husband2 he hath made me a ,christian4 ,launcelot4 ,truly the more to blame he2 we were ,christians enough before1 e'en as many as could well live by one another3 this making of ,christians will raise the price of hogs2 if we grow all to be pork-eaters1 we shall not have a rasher on the coals for money4 ,merchant of ,venice1 act #c4 sc4 #f4 ,in western clime there is a town1 ,to those that dwell therein well known2 ,therefore there needs no more be said here1 ,we unto them refer our reader3 ,for brevity is very good1 ,when w' are1 or are not understood4 ,hudibras1 canto #a4 ,but ,hudibras gave him a twitch1 ,as quick as lightning1 in the breech1 ,just in the place where honour's lodg'd1 ,as wise philosophers have judg'd2 ,because a kick in that part1 more ,hurts honour1 than deep wounds before4 ,ibid4 canto #c4 ,ludicrous junction of small things with great1 as of equal importance4 ,this day black omens threat the brightest fair ,that e'er deserv'd a watchful spirit's care2 ,some dire disaster1 or by force1 or flight2 ,but what1 or where1 the fates have wrapt in night3 ,whether the nymph shall break ,diana's law2 ,or some frail china jar receive a flaw2 ,or stain her honour1 or her new brocade2 ,forget her pray'rs1 or miss a masquerade2 ,or lose her heart1 or necklace1 at a ball2 ,or whether ,heav'n has doom'd that ,shock must fall4 ,rape of the ,lock1 canto ii4 #aja4 ,one speaks the glory of the ,british ,queen1 ,and one describes a charming ,indian screen4 ,ibid4 canto iii4 #ac4 ,then flash'd the living lightning from her eyes1 ,and screams of horror rend th' affrighted skies4 ,not louder shrieks to pitying heav'n are cast1 ,when husbands1 or when lapdogs breathe their last2 ,or when rich china vessels fall'n from high1 ,in glitt'ring dust1 and painted fragments lie6 ,ibid4 canto iii4 #aee4 ,not youthful kings in battle seiz'd alive1 ,not scornful virgins who their charms survive1 ,not ardent lovers robb'd of all their bliss1 ,not ancient ladies when refus'd a kiss1 ,not tyrants fierce that unrepenting die1 ,not ,cynthia when her manteau's pinn'd awry1 ,e'er felt such rage1 resentment1 and despair1 ,as thou1 sad virgin6 for thy ravish'd hair4 ,ibid4 canto iv4 #c4 ,joining things that in appearance are opposite4 ,as for example1 where ,sir ,roger de ,coverley1 in the ,spectator1 speaking of his widow1 8,that he would have given her a coal-pit to have kept her in clean linen2 and that her finger should have sparkled with one hundred of his richest acres40 ,premisses that promise much and perform nothing4 ,cicero upon this article says1 8,sed scitis esse notissimum ridiculi genus1 cum aliud expectamus1 aliud dicitur3 hic nobismetipsis noster error risum movet#bc40 ,beatrice4---- ,with a good leg and a good foot1 uncle1 and money enough in his purse1 such a man would win any woman in the world1 if he could get her good-will4 ,much ado about nothing1 act #b4 sc4 #a4 ,beatrice4 ,i have a good eye1 uncle1 ,i can see a church by day-light4 ibid4 ,le medecin que l'on m'indique ,sait le ,latin1 le ,grec1 l',hebreu1 ,les belles lettres1 la physique1 ,la chimie et la botanique4 ,chacun lui donne son aveu3 ,il auroit aussi ma pratique2 ,mais je veux vivre encore un peu4 ,again1 ,vingt fois le jour le bon ,grgoire ,a soin de fermer son armoire4 ,de quoi pensez vous qu'il a peur8 ,belle demande6 ,qu'un voleur ,trouvant une facile proie1 ,ne lui ravisse tout son bien4 ,non2 ,gregoire a peur qu'on ne voie ,que dan son armoire il n'a rien4 ,again1 ,l'athsmatique ,damon a cru que l'air des champs ,repareroit en lui le ravage des ans1 ,il s'est fait1 a grands fraix1 transporter en ,bretagne4 ,or voiez ce qu'a fait l'air natal qu'il a pris6 ,damon seroit mort ,paris3 ,damon est mort la campagne4 ,having discussed wit in the thought1 we proceed to what is verbal only1 commonly called a play of words4 ,this sort of wit depends for the most part upon chusing words that have different significations4 ,by this artifice1 hocus-pocus tricks are played in language2 and thoughts plain and simple take on a very different appearance4 ,play is necessary for man1 in order to refresh him after labour2 and accordingly man loves play4 ,he even relisheth a play of words2 and it is happy for us1 that words can be employed1 not only for useful purposes1 but also for our amusement4 ,this amusement accordingly1 though humble and low1 is relished by some at all times1 and by all at some times1 in order to unbend the mind4 ,it is remarkable1 that this low species of wit1 has1 at one time or other1 made a figure in most civilized nations1 and has gradually gone into disrepute4 ,so soon as a language is formed into a system1 and the meaning of words are ascertained with tolerable accuracy1 opportunity is afforded for expressions1 which1 by the double meaning of some words1 give a familiar thought the appearance of being new4 ,and the penetration of the reader or hearer1 is gratified in detecting the true sense disguised under the double meaning4 ,that this sort of wit was in ,england deemed a reputable amusement1 during the reigns of ,elisabeth and ,james ,i4 is vouched by the works of ,shakespear1 and even by the writings of grave divines4 ,but it cannot have any long endurance3 for as language ripens1 and the meaning of words is more and more ascertained1 words held to be synonymous diminish daily2 and when those that remain have been more than once employed1 the pleasure vanisheth with the novelty4 99 99 99 99 99 ,i proceed to examples1 which1 as in the former case1 shall be distributed into different classes4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a seeming resemblance from the double meaning of a word4 ,beneath this stone my wife doth lie3 ,she's now at rest1 and so am ,i4 ,a seeming contrast from the same cause1 termed a verbal antithesis1 which hath no despicable effect in ludicrous subjects4 ,whilst ,iris his cosmetic wash would try ,to make her bloom revive1 and lovers die4 ,some ask for charms1 and others philters chuse1 ,to gain ,corinna1 and their quartans lose1 ,dispensary1 canto #b4 ,and how frail nymphs1 oft by abortion1 aim ,to lose a substance1 to preserve a name4 ,ibid4 canto #c4 ,other seeming connections from the same cause4 ,will you employ your conqu'ring sword1 ,to break a fiddle and your word4 ,hudibras1 canto #b4 ,to whom the knight with comely grace ,put off his hat to put his case4 ,hudibras1 ,part #c4 canto #c4 ,here ,britain's statesmen oft the fall foredoom ,of foreign tyrants1 and of nymphs at home2 ,here thou1 great ,anna6 whom three realms obey1 ,does sometimes counsel take--and sometimes tea4 ,rape of the ,lock1 canto #c4 l4 #e4 ,o'er their quietus where fat judges dose1 ,and lull their cough and conscience to repose4 ,dispensary1 canto #a4 ,speaking of ,prince ,eugene4 8,this ,general is a great taker of snuff as well as of towns40 ,pope1 ,key to the ,lock4 ,exul mentisque domusque4 ,metamorphoses1 lib4 ix4 #dji4 ,a seeming inconsistency from the same cause4 ,hic quiescit qui nunquam quievit4 ,again1 ,quel ge a cette ,iris1 dont on fait tant de bruit8 ,me demandoit ,cliton n'aguere4 ,il faut1 dis-je1 vous satisfaire1 ,elle a vingt ans le jour1 et cinquante ans la nuit4 ,again1 ,so like the chances are of love and war1 ,that they alone in this distinguish'd are2 ,in love the victors from the vanguish'd fly1 ,they fly that wound1 and they pursue that die4 ,waller4 ,what new-found witchcraft was in thee1 ,with thine own cold to kindle me8 ,strange art2 like him that should devise ,to make a burning-glass of ice4 ,cowley4 ,wit of this kind is unsuitable in a serious poem2 witness the following line in ,pope's ,elegy to the memory of an unfortunate lady3 ,cold is that breast which warm'd the world before4 ,this sort of writing is finely burlesqued by ,swift3 ,her hands1 the softest ever felt1 ,though cold would burn1 though dry would melt4 ,strephon and ,chloe4 ,taking a word in a different sense from what is meant1 comes under wit1 because it occasions some slight degree of surprise4 ,beatrice4 ,i may sit in a corner1 and cry ,heigh ho6 for a husband4 ,pedro4 ,lady ,beatrice1 ,i will get you one4 ,beatrice4 ,i would rather have one of your father's getting3 hath your ,grace ne'er a brother like you8 ,your father got excellent husbands1 if a maid could come by them4 ,much ado about nothing1 act #b4 sc4 #e4 ,falstaff4 ,my honest lads1 ,i will tell you what ,i am about4 ,pistol4 ,two yards and more4 ,falstaff4 ,no quips now1 ,pistol3 indeed1 ,i am in the waste two yards about2 but ,i am now about no waste2 ,i am about thrift4 ,merry wives of ,windsor1 act #a4 sc4 #g4 ,lo4 ,sands4---- ,by your leave1 sweet ladies1 ,if ,i chance to talk a little wild1 forgive me3 ,i had it from my father4 ,anne ,bullen4 ,was he mad1 ,sir8 ,sands4 ,o1 very mad1 exceeding mad1 in love too2 ,but he would bite none---- ,k4 ,henry ,,viii4 ,an assertion that bears a double meaning1 one right1 one wrong2 but so connected with other matters as to direct us to the wrong meaning4 ,this species of bastard wit is distinguished from all others by the name pun4 ,for example1 ,paris4---- ,sweet ,helen1 ,i must woo you1 ,to help unarm our ,hector3 his stubborn buckles1 ,with these your white inchanting fingers touch'd1 ,shall more obey1 than to the edge of steel1 ,or force of ,greekish sinews3 you shall do more ,than all the island kings1 disarm great ,hector4 ,troilus and ,cressida1 act #c4 sc4 #b4 ,the pun is in the close4 ,the word disarm has a double meaning4 ,it signifies to take off a man's armour1 and also to subdue him in fight4 ,we are directed to the latter sense by the context4 ,but with regard to ,helen the word holds only true in the former sense4 ,i go on with other examples4 ,esse nihil dicis quicquid petis1 improbe ,cinna3 ,si nil1 ,cinna1 petis1 nil tibi1 ,cinna1 nego4 ,martial1 l4 #c4 epigr4 #fa4 ,jocondus geminum imposuit tibi1 ,sequana1 pontem2 ,hunc tu jure potes dicere pontificem4 ,sanazarius4 ,n4 ,b4 ,jocondus was a monk4 ,chief ,justice4 ,well6 the truth is1 ,sir ,john1 you live in great infamy4 ,falstaff4 ,he that buckles him in my belt1 cannot live in less4 ,chief ,justice4 ,your means are very slender1 and your waste is great4 ,falstaff4 ,i would it were otherwise3 ,i would my means were greater1 and my waste slenderer4 ,second part1 ,henry ,,iv4 act4 #a sc4 #e4 ,celia4 ,i pray you bear with me1 ,i can go no further4 ,clown4 ,for my part1 ,i had rather bear with you than bear you3 yet ,i should bear no cross if ,i did bear you2 for ,i think you have no money in your purse4 ,as you like it1 act #b4 sc4 #d4 ,he that imposes an oath makes it1 ,not he that for convenience takes it2 ,then how can any man be said1 ,to break an oath he never made8 ,hudibras1 part #b4 canto #b4 ,the seventh satire of the first book of ,horace1 is purposely contrived to introduce at the close a most execrable pun4 ,talking of some infamous wretch whose name was ,rex ,rupilius4 ,persius exclamat1 ,per magnos1 ,brute1 deos te ,oro1 qui reges consueris tollere1 cur non ,hunc regem jugulas8 ,operum hoc1 mihi crede1 tuorum est4 ,though playing with words is a mark of a mind at ease1 and disposed for any sort of amusement1 we must not thence conclude that playing with words is always ludicrous4 ,words are so intimately connected with thought1 that if the subject be really grave1 it will not appear ludicrous even in this fantastic dress4 ,i am1 however1 far from recommending it in any serious performance4 ,on the contrary1 the discordance betwixt the thought and expression must be disagreeable2 witness the following specimen4 ,he hath abandoned his physicians1 ,madam1 under whose practices he hath persecuted time with hope3 and finds no other advantage in the process1 but only the losing of hope by time4 ,all's well that ends well1 act #a4 sc4 #a4 ,k4 ,henry4 ,o my poor kingdom1 sick with civil blows6 ,when that my care could not with-hold thy riots1 ,what wilt thou do when riot is thy care8 ,second part1 ,k4 ,henry ,,iv4 ,a smart repartee may be considered as a species of wit4 ,a certain petulant ,greek1 objecting to ,anacharsis that he was a ,scythian3 ,true1 says ,anacharsis1 my country disgraces me1 but you disgrace your country4 ,,chap4 ,,xiv4 ,custom and ,habit4 ,inquiring into the nature of man as a sensitive being1 and finding him affected in a high degree with novelty1 would any one conjecture that he is equally affected with custom8 ,yet these frequently take place1 not only in the same person1 but even with relation to the same subject3 when new1 it is inchanting2 familiarity renders it indifferent2 and custom1 after a longer familiarity1 makes it again desirable4 ,human nature1 diversified with many and various springs of action1 is wonderfully1 and1 indulging the expression1 intricately constructed4 ,custom hath such influence upon many of our feelings1 by warping and varying them1 that we must attend to its operations if we would be acquainted with human nature4 ,this subject1 in itself obscure1 has been much neglected2 and to give a complete analysis of it will be no easy task4 ,i pretend only to touch it cursorily2 hoping1 however1 that what is here laid down1 will dispose more diligent inquirers to attempt further discoveries4 ,custom respects the action1 habit the actor4 ,by custom we mean1 a frequent reiteration of the same act2 and by habit1 the effect that custom has on the mind or body4 ,this effect may be either active1 witness the dexterity produced by custom in performing certain exercises2 or passive1 as when1 by custom1 a peculiar connection is formed betwixt a man and some agreeable object1 which acquires thereby a greater power to raise emotions in him than it hath naturally4 ,active habits come not under the present undertaking2 and therefore ,i confine myself to those that are passive4 ,this subject is thorny and intricate4 ,some pleasures are fortified by custom2 and yet custom begets familiarity1 and consequently indifference#bd4 ,in many instances1 satiety and disgust are the consequences of reiteration4 ,again1 though custom blunts the edge of distress and of pain2 yet the want of any thing to which we have long been accustomed1 is a sort of torture4 ,a clue to guide us through all the intricacies of this labyrinth1 would be an acceptable present4 ,whatever be the cause1 it is an established fact1 that we are much influenced by custom4 ,it hath an effect upon our pleasures1 upon our actions1 and even upon our thoughts and sentiments4 ,habit makes no figure during the vivacity of youth2 in middle age it gains ground2 and in old age it governs without control4 ,in that period of life1 generally speaking1 we eat at a certain hour1 take exercise at a certain hour1 go to rest at a certain hour1 all by the direction of habit4 ,nay a particular seat1 table1 bed1 comes to be essential4 ,and a habit in any of these1 cannot be contradicted without uneasiness4 ,any slight or moderate pleasure frequently reiterated for a long time1 forms a connection betwixt us and the thing that causes the pleasure4 ,this connection1 termed habit1 has the effect to raise our desire or appetite for that thing when it returns not as usual4 ,during the course of enjoyment1 the pleasure grows insensibly stronger till a habit be established2 at which time the pleasure is at its height4 ,it continues not however stationary4 ,the same customary reiteration which carried it to its height1 brings it down again by insensible degrees1 even lower than it was at first4 ,but of this circumstance afterward4 ,what at present we have in view1 is to prove by experiments1 that those things which at first are but moderately agreeable1 are the aptest to become habitual4 ,spirituous liquors1 at first scarce agreeable1 readily produce an habitual appetite2 and custom prevails so far1 as even to make us fond of things originally disagreeable1 such as coffee1 assa-stida1 and tobacco4 ,this is pleasantly illustrated by ,congreve3 ,fainall4 ,for a passionate lover1 methinks you are a man somewhat too discerning in the failings of your mistress4 ,mirabell4 ,and for a discerning man1 somewhat too passionate a lover2 for ,i like her with all her faults2 nay like her for her faults4 ,her follies are so natural1 or so artful1 that they become her2 and those affectations which in another woman would be odious1 serve but to make her more agreeable4 ,i'll tell thee1 ,fainall1 she once us'd me with that insolence1 that in revenge ,i took her to pieces1 sifted her1 and separated her failings2 ,i study'd 'em1 and got 'em by rote4 ,the catalogue was so large1 that ,i was not without hopes1 one day or other1 to hate her heartily3 to which end ,i so us'd myself to think of 'em1 that at length1 contrary to my design and expectation1 they gave me every hour less and less disturbance2 till in a few days it became habitual to me1 to remember 'em without being displeased4 ,they are now grown as familiar to me as my own frailties2 and in all probability1 in a little time longer1 ,i shall like 'em as well4 ,the way of the world1 act #a4 sc4 #c4 ,a walk upon the quarterdeck1 though intolerably confined1 becomes however so agreeable by custom1 that a sailor in his walk on shore1 confines himself commonly within the same bounds4 ,i knew a man who had relinquished the sea for a country-life4 ,in the corner of his garden he reared an artificial mount with a level summit1 resembling most accurately a quarterdeck1 not only in shape but in size2 and this was his choice walk4 ,play or gaming1 at first barely amusing by the occupation it affords1 becomes in time extremely agreeable2 and is frequently prosecuted with avidity1 as if it were the chief business of life4 ,the same observation is applicable to the pleasures of the internal senses1 those of knowledge and virtue in particular4 ,children have scarce any sense of these pleasures2 and men very little1 who are in the state of nature without culture4 ,our taste for virtue and knowledge improves slowly2 but is capable of growing stronger than any other appetite in human nature4 ,to introduce a habit1 frequency of acts is not alone sufficient3 length of time is also necessary4 ,the quickest succession of acts in a short time1 is not sufficient2 nor a slow succession in the longest time4 ,the effect must be produced by a moderate soft action1 and a long series of easy touches removed from each other by short intervals4 ,nor are these sufficient1 without regularity in the time1 place1 and other circumstances of the action4 ,the more uniform any operation is1 the sooner it becomes habitual2 and this holds equally in a passive habit4 ,variety in any remarkable degree1 prevents the effect4 ,thus any particular food will scarce ever become habitual1 where the manner of dressing is varied4 ,the circumstances then requisite to augment any pleasure and at the long run to form a habit1 are weak uniform acts1 reiterated during a long course of time without any considerable interruption4 ,every agreeable cause which operates in this manner1 will grow habitual4 ,affection and aversion1 as distinguished from passion on the one hand1 and on the other from original disposition1 are in reality habits respecting particular objects1 acquired in the manner above set forth4 ,the pleasure of social intercourse with any person1 must originally be faint1 and frequently reiterated1 in order to establish the habit of affection4 ,affection thus generated1 whether it be friendship or love1 seldom swells into any tumultuous or vigorous passion2 but is however the strongest cement that can bind together two individuals of the human species4 ,in like manner1 a slight degree of disgust often reiterated with any degree of regularity1 grows into the habit of aversion1 which generally subsists for life4 ,those objects of taste that are the most agreeable1 are so far from having a tendency to become habitual1 that too great indulgence fails not to produce satiety and disgust4 ,no man contracts a habit of taking sugar1 honey1 or sweet-meats1 as he doth of tobacco3 ,dulcia non ferimus3 succo renovamur amaro4 ,ovid4 art4 ,amand4 l4 #c4 ,insipido quel dolce1 che condito ,non di qualche amaro1 e tosto satia4 ,aminta di ,tasso4 ,these violent delights have violent ends1 ,and in their triumph die4 ,the sweetest honey ,is loathsome in its own deliciousness1 ,and in the taste confounds the appetite2 ,therefore love mod'rately1 long love doth so3 ,too swift arrives as tardy as too slow4 ,romeo and ,juliet1 act #b4 sc4 #f4 ,the same holds in the causes of all violent pleasures3 these causes are not naturally susceptible of habit4 ,great passions suddenly raised are incompatible with a habit of any sort4 ,in particular they never produce affection or aversion4 ,a man who at first sight falls violently in love1 has a strong desire of enjoyment1 but no affection for the woman#be4 ,a man who is surprised with an unexpected savour1 burns for an opportunity to exert his gratitude1 without having any affection for his benefactor4 ,neither does desire of vengeance for an atrocious injury involve aversion4 ,it is perhaps not easy to say why moderate pleasures gather strength by custom4 ,but two causes concur to prevent this effect in the more intense pleasures4 ,these1 by an original law in our nature1 increase quickly to their full growth1 and decay with no less precipitation#bf2 and custom is too slow in its operation to overcome this law4 ,another cause is not less powerful4 ,the mind is exhausted with pleasure as well as with pain4 ,exquisite pleasure is extremely fatiguing2 occasioning1 as a naturalist would say1 great expence of animal spirits#bg4 ,and therefore1 of such the mind cannot bear so frequent gratification as to superinduce a habit4 ,if the thing which raises the pleasure return before the mind have recovered its tone and relish1 disgust ensues instead of pleasure4 ,a habit never fails to admonish us of the wonted time of gratification1 by raising a pain for want of the object1 and a desire to have it4 ,the pain of want is always first felt2 the desire naturally follows2 and upon presenting the object1 both vanish instantaneously4 ,thus a man accustomed to tobacco1 feels1 at the end of the usual interval1 a confused pain of want1 which in its first appearance points at nothing in particular1 though it soon settles upon its accustomed object4 ,the same may be observed in persons addicted to drinking1 who are often in an uneasy restless state before they think of their bottle4 ,in pleasures indulged regularly and at equal intervals1 the appetite1 remarkably obsequious to custom1 returns regularly with the usual time of gratification2 and a sight of the object in the interim1 has scarce any power to move it4 ,this pain of want arising from habit1 seems directly opposite to that of satiety4 ,singular it must appear1 that frequency of gratification should produce effects so opposite as are the pains of excess and of want4 ,the appetites that respect the preservation and propagation of our species1 are attended with a pain of want similar to that occasioned by habit4 ,hunger and thirst are uneasy sensations of want1 which always precede the desire of eating or drinking3 and a pain for want of carnal enjoyment precedes the desire of a proper object4 ,the pain being thus felt independent of an object1 cannot be cured but by gratification4 ,an ordinary passion1 in which desire precedes the pain of want1 is in a different condition4 ,it is never felt but while the object is in view2 and therefore by removing the object out of thought1 it vanisheth with its desire and pain of want#bh4 ,these natural appetites above mentioned1 differ from habit in the following particular1 ,they have an undetermined direction toward all objects of gratification in general2 whereas an habitual appetite is directed upon a particular object4 ,the attachment we have by habit to a particular woman1 differs widely from the natural passion which comprehends the whole sex2 and the habitual relish for a particular dish1 is far from being the same with a vague appetite for food4 ,notwithstanding this difference1 it is still remarkable1 that nature hath inforced the gratification of certain natural appetites essential to the species1 by a pain of the same sort with that which habit produceth4 ,the pain of habit is less under our power1 than any other pain for want of gratification4 ,hunger and thirst are more easily endured1 especially at first1 than an unusual intermission of any habitual pleasure4 ,we often hear persons declaring1 they would forego sleep or food1 rather than snuff or any other habitual trifle4 ,we must not however conclude1 that the gratification of an habitual appetite affords the same delight with the gratification of one that is natural4 ,far from it3 the pain of want only is greater4 ,the slow and reiterated acts that produce a habit1 strengthen the mind to enjoy the habitual pleasure in greater quantity and more frequency than originally2 and by this means a habit of intemperate gratification is often formed4 ,after unbounded acts of intemperance1 the habitual relish is soon restored1 and the pain for want of enjoyment returns with fresh vigor4 ,the causes of the pleasant emotions hitherto in view1 are either an individual1 such as a companion1 a certain dwelling-place1 certain amusements1 c42 or a particular species1 such as coffee1 mutton1 or any particular food4 ,but habit is not confined to these4 ,a constant train of trifling diversions1 may form such a habit in the mind1 as that it cannot be easy a moment without amusement4 ,variety in the objects prevents a habit as to any one in particular2 but as the train is uniform with respect to amusement in general1 the habit is formed accordingly2 and this sort of habit may be denominated a generic habit1 in opposition to the former1 which may be called a specific habit4 ,a habit of a town-life1 of country-sports1 of solitude1 of reading1 or of business1 where sufficiently varied1 are instances of generic habits4 ,it ought to be remarked1 that every specific habit hath a mixture of the generic4 ,the habit of one particular sort of food1 makes the taste agreeable2 and we are fond of this taste where-ever found4 ,a man deprived of an habitual object1 takes up with what most resembles it3 deprived of tobacco1 any bitter herb will do1 rather than want4 ,the habit of drinking punch1 makes wine a good resource4 ,a man accustomed to the sweet society and comforts of matrimony1 being unhappily deprived of his beloved object1 inclines the sooner to a second choice4 ,in general1 the quality which the most affects us in an habitual object1 produceth1 when we are deprived of it1 a strong appetite for that quality in any other object4 ,the reasons are assigned above1 why the causes of intense pleasure become not readily habitual4 ,but now ,i must observe1 that these reasons conclude only against specific habits4 ,with regard to any particular object that is the cause of a weak pleasure1 a habit is formed by frequency and uniformity of reiteration1 which in the case of an intense pleasure cannot obtain without satiety and disgust4 ,but it is remarkable1 that satiety and disgust have no effect1 except as to that thing which occasions them4 ,a surfeit of honey produceth not a loathing of sugar2 and intemperance with one woman1 produceth no disrelish of the same pleasure with others4 ,hence it is easy to account for a generic habit in any strong pleasure4 ,the disgust of intemperance1 is confined to the object by which it is produced4 ,the delight we had in the gratification of the appetite1 inflames the imagination1 and makes us1 with avidity1 search for the same gratification in whatever other object it can be found4 ,and thus frequency and uniformity in gratifying the same passion upon different objects1 produceth at the longrun a habit4 ,in this manner1 a man acquires an habitual delight in high and poignant sauces1 rich dress1 fine equipage1 crowds of company1 and in whatever is commonly termed pleasure4 ,there concurs at the same time to introduce this habit1 a peculiarity observed above1 that reiteration of acts enlarges the capacity of the mind1 to admit a more plentiful gratification than originally1 with regard to frequency as well as quantity4 ,hence it appears1 that though a specific habit can only take place in the case of a moderate pleasure1 yet that a generic habit may be formed with respect to every sort of pleasure1 moderate or immoderate1 that can be gratified by a variety of objects indifferently4 ,the only difference is1 that any particular object which causes a weak pleasure1 runs naturally into a specific habit2 whereas a particular object that causes an intense pleasure1 is altogether incapable of such a habit4 ,in a word1 it is but in singular cases that a moderate pleasure produces a generic habit3 an intense pleasure1 on the other hand1 cannot produce any other habit4 ,the appetites that respect the preservation and propagation of the species1 are formed into habit in a peculiar manner4 ,the time as well as measure of their gratification1 are much under the power of custom2 which1 by introducing a change upon the body1 occasions a proportional change in the appetites4 ,thus1 if the body be gradually formed to a certain quantity of food at regular times1 the appetite is regulated accordingly2 and the appetite is again changed when a different habit of body is introduced by a different practice4 ,here it would seem1 that the change is not made upon the mind1 which is commonly the case in passive habits1 but only upon the body4 ,when rich food is brought down by ingredients of a plainer taste1 the composition is susceptible of a specific habit4 ,thus the sweet taste of sugar1 rendered less poignant in a mixture1 may1 in course of time1 produce a specific habit for such mixture4 ,as moderate pleasures1 by becoming more intense1 tend to generic habits2 so intense pleasures1 by becoming more moderate1 tend to specific habits4 ,the beauty of the human figure1 by a special recommendation of nature1 appears to us supreme1 amid the great variety of beauteous forms bestowed upon animals4 ,the various degrees in which individuals enjoy this property1 render it an object sometimes of a moderate sometimes of an intense passion4 ,the moderate passion1 admitting frequent reiteration without diminution1 and occupying the mind without exhausting it1 becomes gradually stronger till it settle in a habit4 ,so true this is1 that instances are not wanting1 of an ugly face1 at first disagreeable1 afterward rendered indifferent by familiarity1 and at the longrun agreeable4 ,on the other hand1 consummate beauty1 at the very first view1 fills the mind so as to admit no increase4 ,enjoyment in this case lessens the pleasure#bi2 and if often repeated1 ends commonly in satiety and disgust4 ,constant experience shows1 that the emotions created by great beauty become weaker by familiarity4 ,the impressions made successively by such an object1 strong at first and lessening by degrees1 constitute a series opposite to that of the weak and increasing emotions1 which grow into a specific habit4 ,but the mind1 when accustomed to beauty1 contracts a relish for it in general1 though often repelled from particular objects by the pain of satiety4 ,thus a generic habit is formed1 of which inconstancy in love is the necessary consequence4 ,for a generic habit1 comprehending every beautiful object1 is an invincible obstruction to a specific habit1 which is confined to one4 ,but a matter which is of great importance to the youth of both sexes1 deserves more than a cursory view4 ,though the pleasant emotion of beauty differs widely from the corporeal appetite1 yet both may concur upon the same object4 ,when this is the case1 they inflame the imagination2 and produce a very strong complex passion#cj1 which is incapable of increase1 because the mind as to pleasure is limited rather more than as to pain4 ,enjoyment in this case must be exquisite1 and therefore more apt to produce satiety than in any other case whatever4 ,this is a never-failing effect1 where consummate beauty on the one side1 meets with a warm imagination and great sensibility on the other4 ,what ,i am here explaining1 is the naked truth without exaggeration4 ,they must be insensible upon whom this doctrine makes no impression2 and it deserves well to be pondered by the young and the amorous1 who in forming a society which is not dissolvable1 are too often blindly impelled by the animal pleasure merely1 inflamed by beauty4 ,it may indeed happen after this pleasure is gone1 and go it must with a swift pace1 that a new connection is formed upon more dignified and more lasting principles4 ,but this is a dangerous experiment4 ,for even supposing good sense1 good temper1 and internal merit of every sort1 which is a very favourable supposition1 yet a new connection upon these qualifications is rarely formed4 ,it generally or rather always happens1 that such qualifications1 the only solid foundation of an indissoluble connection1 are rendered altogether invisible by satiety of enjoyment creating disgust4 ,one effect of custom1 different from any that have been explained1 must not be omitted1 because it makes a great figure in human nature4 ,custom augments moderate pleasures1 and diminishes those that are intense4 ,it has a different effect with respect to pain2 for it blunts the edge of every sort of pain and distress great and small4 ,uninterrupted misery therefore is attended with one good effect4 ,if its torments be incessant1 custom hardens us to bear them4 ,it is extremely curious1 to remark the gradual changes that are made in forming habits4 ,moderate pleasures are augmented gradually by reiteration till they become habitual2 and then are at their height4 ,but they are not long stationary2 for from that point they gradually decay till they vanish altogether4 ,the pain occasioned by the want of gratification1 runs a very different course4 ,this pain increases uniformly2 and at last becomes extreme1 when the pleasure of gratification is reduced to nothing4 ---- ,it so falls out ,that what we have we prize not to the worth1 ,whiles we enjoy it2 but being lack'd and lost1 ,why then we rack the value2 then we find ,the virtue that possession would not shew us ,whilst it was ours4 ,much ado about nothing1 act #d4 sc4 #b4 ,the effect of custom with relation to a specific habit1 is displayed through all its varieties in the use of tobacco4 ,the taste of this plant is at first extremely unpleasant4 ,our disgust lessens gradually till it vanish altogether2 at which period the plant is neither agreeable nor disagreeable4 ,continuing the use1 we begin to relish it2 and our relish increases by use till it come to its utmost extent4 ,from this state it gradually decays1 while the habit becomes stronger and stronger1 and consequently the pain of want4 ,the result is1 that when the habit has acquired its greatest vigor1 the pleasure of gratification is gone4 ,and hence it is1 that we often smoke and take snuff habitually1 without so much as being conscious of the operation4 ,we must except gratification after the pain of want2 because gratification in that case is at the height when the habit is strongest4 ,it is of the same kind with the joy one feels upon being delivered from the rack1 the cause of which is explained above#ca4 ,this pleasure however is but occasionally the effect of habit2 and however exquisite1 is guarded against as much as possible1 by preventing want4 ,with regard to the pain of want1 ,i can discover no difference betwixt a generic and specific habit3 the pain is the same in both4 ,but these habits differ widely with respect to the positive pleasure4 ,i have had occasion to observe1 that the pleasure of a specific habit decays gradually till it become imperceptible4 ,not so the pleasure of a generic habit4 ,so far as ,i can discover1 this pleasure suffers little or no decay after it comes to its height4 ,the variety of gratification preserves it entire4 ,however it may be with other generic habits1 the observation ,i am certain holds with respect to the pleasures of virtue and of knowledge4 ,the pleasure of doing good has such an unbounded scope1 and may be so variously gratified1 that it can never decay4 ,science is equally unbounded2 and our appetite for knowledge has an ample range of gratification1 where discoveries are recommended by novelty1 by variety1 by utility1 or by all of them4 ,here is a large field of facts and experiments1 and several phenomena unfolded1 the causes of which have been occasionally suggested4 ,the efficient cause of the power of custom over man1 a fundamental point in the present chapter1 has unhappily evaded my keenest search2 and now ,i am reduced to hold it an original branch of the human constitution1 though ,i have no better reason for my opinion1 than that ,i cannot resolve it into any other principle4 ,but with respect to the final cause1 a point of still greater importance1 ,i promise myself more success4 ,it cannot indeed have escaped any thinking person1 that the power of custom is a happy contrivance for our good4 ,exquisite pleasure produceth satiety3 moderate pleasure becomes stronger by custom4 ,business is our province1 and pleasure our relaxation only4 ,hence1 satiety is necessary to check exquisite pleasures1 which otherwise would ingross the mind1 and unqualify us for business4 ,on the other hand1 habitual increase of moderate pleasure1 and even conversion of pain into pleasure1 are admirably contrived for disappointing the malice of ,fortune1 and for reconciling us to whatever course of life may be our lot3 ,how use doth breed a habit in a man6 ,this shadowy desert1 unfrequented woods1 ,i better brook than flourishing peopled towns4 ,here ,i can sit alone1 unseen of any1 ,and to the nightingale's complaining notes ,tune my distresses1 and record my woes4 ,two ,gentlemen of ,verona1 act #e4 sc4 #d4 ,the foregoing distinction betwixt intense and moderate1 holds in pleasure only1 not in pain1 every degree of which is softened by time and custom4 ,custom is a catholicon for pain and distress of every sort2 and of this regulation the final cause is so evident as to require no illustration4 ,another final cause of custom will be highly relished by every person of humanity2 and yet has in a great measure been overlooked4 ,custom hath a greater influence than any other known principle1 to put the rich and poor upon a level4 ,weak pleasures1 which fall to the share of the latter1 become fortunately stronger by custom2 while voluptuous pleasures1 the lot of the former1 are continually losing ground by satiety4 ,men of fortune1 who possess palaces1 sumptuous gardens1 rich fields1 enjoy them less than passengers do4 ,the goods of ,fortune are not unequally distributed3 the opulent possess what others enjoy4 ,and indeed1 if it be the effect of habit to produce the pain of want in a high degree while there is little pleasure in enjoyment1 a voluptuous life is of all the least to be envied4 ,those who are accustomed to high feeding1 easy vehicles1 rich furniture1 a crowd of valets1 much deference and flattery1 enjoy but a small share of happiness1 while they are exposed to manifold distresses4 ,to such a man1 inslaved by ease and luxury1 even the petty inconveniencies of a rough road1 bad weather1 or homely fare on a journey1 are serious evils4 ,he loses his tone of mind1 becomes peevish1 and would wreak his resentment even upon the common accidents of life4 ,better far to use the goods of ,fortune with moderation4 ,a man who by temperance and activity has acquired a hardy constitution1 is1 on the one hand1 guarded against external accidents1 and is1 on the other1 provided with great variety of enjoyment ever at command4 ,i shall close this chapter with the discussion of a question more delicate than abstruse1 viz4 ,what authority custom ought to have over our taste in the fine arts8 ,it is proper to be premised1 that we chearfully abandon to its authority every thing that nature leaves to our choice1 and where the preference we bestow has no foundation other than whim or fancy4 ,there appears no original difference betwixt the right and the left hand3 custom however has established a difference1 so as to make it aukward and disagreeable to use the left where the right is commonly used4 ,the various colours1 though they affect us differently1 are all of them agreeable in their purity4 ,but custom has regulated this matter in another manner3 a black skin upon a human creature1 is to us disagreeable2 and a white skin probably not less so to a negro4 ,thus things originally indifferent1 become agreeable or disagreeable by the force of custom4 ,nor ought this to be surprising after the discovery made above1 that the original agreeableness or disagreeableness of an object1 is1 by the influence of custom1 often converted into the opposite quality4 ,concerning now those matters of taste where there is naturally a preference of one thing before another2 it is certain1 in the first place1 that our faint and more delicate feelings are readily susceptible of a bias from custom2 and therefore that it is no proof of a defective taste1 to find these in some measure under the government of custom4 ,dress1 and the modes of external behaviour1 are justly regulated by custom in every country4 ,the deep red or vermilion with which the ladies in ,france cover their cheeks1 appears to them beautiful in spite of nature2 and strangers cannot altogether be justified in condemning this practice1 considering the lawful authority of custom1 or of the fashion1 as it is called4 ,it is told of the people who inhabit the skirts of the ,alps facing the north1 that the swelling they universally have in the neck is to them agreeable4 ,so far has custom power to change the nature of things1 and to make an object originally disagreeable take on an opposite appearance4 ,but as to the emotions of propriety and impropriety1 and in general as to all emotions involving the sense of right or wrong1 custom has little authority1 and ought to have none at all4 ,emotions of this kind1 being qualified with the consciousness of duty1 take naturally place of every other feeling2 and it argues a shameful weakness or degeneracy of mind1 to find them in any case so far subdued as to submit to custom4 ,these few hints may enable us to judge in some measure of foreign manners1 whether exhibited by foreign writers or our own4 ,a comparison betwixt the ancients and the moderns1 was some time ago a favourite subject4 ,those who declared for the former1 thought it a sufficient justification of ancient manners1 that they were supported by the authority of custom4 ,their antagonists1 on the other hand1 refusing submission to custom as a standard of taste1 condemned ancient manners in several instances as irrational4 ,in this controversy1 an appeal being made to different principles1 without the slightest attempt on either side to establish a common standard1 the dispute could have no end4 ,the hints above given tend to establish a standard1 for judging how far the lawful authority of custom may be extended1 and within what limits it ought to be confined4 ,for the sake of illustration1 we shall apply this standard in a few instances4 ,human sacrifices1 the cruellest effect of blind and groveling superstition1 wore gradually out of use by the prevalence of reason and humanity4 ,in the days of ,sophocles and ,euripides1 the traces of this savage practice were still recent2 and the ,athenians1 through the prevalence of custom1 could without disgust suffer human sacrifices to be represented in their theatre4 ,the ,iphigenia of ,euripides is a proof of this fact4 ,but a human sacrifice1 being altogether inconsistent with modern manners1 as producing horror instead of pity1 cannot with any propriety be introduced upon a modern stage4 ,i must therefore condemn the ,iphigenia of ,racine1 which1 instead of the tender and sympathetic passions1 substitutes disgust and horror4 ,but this is not all4 ,another objection occurs against every fable that deviates so remarkably from improved notions and sentiments4 ,if it should even command our belief1 by the authority of genuine history1 its fictitious and unnatural appearance1 however1 would prevent its taking such hold of the mind as to produce a perception of reality#cb4 ,a human sacrifice is so unnatural1 and to us so improbable1 that few will be affected with the representation of it more than with a fairy tale4 ,the objection first mentioned strikes also against the ,phedra of this author4 ,the queen's passion for her stepson1 being unnatural and beyond all bounds1 creates aversion and horror rather than compassion4 ,the author in his preface observes1 that the queen's passion1 however unnatural1 was the effect of destiny and the wrath of the gods2 and he puts the same excuse in her own mouth4 ,but what is the wrath of a heathen god to us ,christians8 ,we acknowledge no destiny in passion2 and if love be unnatural1 it never can be relished4 ,a supposition1 like what our author lays hold of1 may possibly cover slight improprieties2 but it will never engage our sympathy for what appears to us frantic or extravagant4 ,neither can ,i relish the catastrophe of this tragedy4 ,a man of taste may peruse1 without disgust1 a ,grecian performance describing a sea-monster sent by ,neptune to destroy ,hippolytus4 ,he considers1 that such a story might agree with the religious creed of ,greece2 and1 entering into ancient opinions1 may be pleased with the story1 as what probably had a strong effect upon a ,grecian audience4 ,but he cannot have the same indulgence for such a representation upon a modern stage2 for no story which carries a violent air of fiction1 can ever move us in any considerable degree4 ,in the ,cophores of ,eschylus#cc1 ,orestes is made to say1 that he was commanded by ,apollo to avenge his father's murder2 and yet if he obeyed1 that he was to be delivered to the furies1 or be struck with some horrible malady4 ,the tragedy accordingly concludes with a chorus1 deploring the fate of ,orestes1 obliged to take vengeance against a mother1 and involved thereby in a crime against his will4 ,it is impossible for any man at present to accommodate his mind to opinions so irrational and absurd1 which must disgust him in perusing even a ,grecian story4 ,among the ,greeks again1 grossly superstitious1 it was a common opinion1 that the report of a man's death was a presage of his death2 and ,orestes1 in the first act of ,electra1 spreading a report of his own death in order to blind his mother and her adulterer1 is even in this case affected with the presage4 ,such imbecility can never find grace with a modern audience4 ,it may indeed produce some degree of compassion for a people afflicted to such a degree with absurd terrors1 similar to what is felt in perusing a description of the ,hottentotes3 but manners of this kind will not interest our affections1 nor excite any degree of social concern4 ,,chap4 ,,xv4 ,external ,signs of ,emotions and ,passions4 ,so intimately connected are the soul and body1 that there is not a single agitation in the former1 but what produceth a visible effect upon the latter4 ,there is1 at the same time1 a wonderful uniformity in this operation2 each class of emotions being invariably attended with an external appearance peculiar to itself#cd4 ,these external appearances or signs1 may not improperly be considered as a natural language1 expressing to all beholders the several emotions and passions as they arise in the heart4 ,we perceive display'd externally1 hope1 fear1 joy1 grief3 we can read the character of a man in his face2 and beauty1 which makes so strong an impression1 is known to result1 not so much from regular features and a fine complexion1 as from good nature1 good sense1 sprightliness1 sweetness1 or other mental quality1 expressed some way upon the countenance4 ,though perfect skill in this language be rare1 yet so much knowledge of it is diffused through mankind1 as to be sufficient for the ordinary events of life4 ,but by what means we come to understand this language1 is a point of some intricacy4 ,it cannot be by sight merely2 for upon the most attentive inspection of the human visage1 all that can be discerned are figure1 colour1 and motion2 and yet these1 singly or combined1 never can represent a passion or a sentiment4 ,the external sign is indeed visible4 ,but to understand its meaning1 we must be able to connect it with the passion that causes it2 an operation far beyond the reach of eye-sight4 ,where then is the instructor to be found1 that can unvail this secret connection8 ,if we apply to experience1 it is yielded1 that from long and diligent observation1 we may gather in some measure in what manner those we are acquainted with express their passions externally4 ,but with respect to strangers1 of whom we have no experience1 we are left in the dark4 ,and yet we are not puzzled about the meaning of these external expressions in a stranger1 more than in a bosom-companion#ce4 ,further1 had we no other means but experience for understanding the external signs of passion1 we could not expect any uniformity or any degree of skill in the bulk of individuals4 ,but matters are ordered so differently1 that the external expressions of passion form a language understood by all1 by the young as well as the old1 by the ignorant as well as the learned4 ,i talk of the plain and legible characters of this language2 for undoubtedly we are much indebted to experience in deciphering the dark and more delicate expressions4 ,where then shall we apply for a solution of this intricate problem1 which seems to penetrate deep into human nature8 ,in my mind it will be convenient to suspend the inquiry1 till we be better acquainted with the nature of external signs and with their operations4 ,these articles therefore shall be premised4 ,the external signs of passion are of two kinds1 voluntary and involuntary4 ,the voluntary signs are also of two kinds3 some are arbitrary and some natural4 ,words are arbitrary signs1 excepting a few simple sounds expressive of certain internal emotions2 and these sounds1 being the same in all languages1 must be the work of nature4 ,but though words are arbitrary1 the manner of employing them is not altogether so2 for each passion has by nature peculiar expressions and tones suited to it4 ,thus the unpremeditated tones of admiration1 are the same in all men2 as also of compassion1 resentment1 and despair4 ,dramatic writers ought to be well acquainted with this natural manner of expressing passion4 ,the chief talent of a fine writer1 is a ready command of the expressions that nature dictates to every man when any vivid emotion struggles for utterance2 and the chief talent of a fine reader1 is a ready command of the tones suited to these expressions4 ,the other kind of voluntary signs1 comprehends certain attitudes and gestures that naturally accompany certain emotions with a surprising uniformity4 ,thus excessive joy is expressed by leaping1 dancing1 or some elevation of the body2 and excessive grief by sinking or depressing it4 ,thus prostration and kneeling have been employ'd by all nations and in all ages to signify profound veneration4 ,another circumstance1 still more than uniformity1 demonstrates these gestures to be natural1 viz4 their remarkable conformity or resemblance to the passions that produce them#cf4 ,joy1 which produceth a chearful elevation of mind1 is expressed by an elevation of body4 ,pride1 magnanimity1 courage1 and the whole tribe of elevating passions1 are expressed by external gestures that are the same as to the circumstance of elevation1 however distinguishable in other respects4 ,hence it comes1 that an erect posture is a sign or expression of dignity3 ,two of far nobler shape1 erect and tall1 ,godlike erect1 with native honour clad1 ,in naked majesty1 seem'd lords of all4 ,paradise ,lost1 book #d4 ,grief1 on the other hand1 as well as respect1 which depress the mind1 cannot for that reason be expressed more significantly than by a similar depression of the body4 ,hence1 to be cast down1 is a common phrase1 signifying to be grieved or dispirited4 ,one would not imagine1 who has not given peculiar attention1 that the body is susceptible of such a variety of attitude and motion1 as readily to accompany every different emotion with a corresponding gesture4 ,humility1 for example1 is expressed naturally by hanging the head2 arrogance1 by its elevation2 and langour or despondence1 by reclining it to one side4 ,the expressions of the hands are manifold4 ,by different attitudes and motions1 the hands express desire1 hope1 fear3 they assist us in promising1 in inviting1 in keeping one at a distance3 they are made instruments of threatening1 of supplication1 of praise1 and of horror3 they are employ'd in approving1 in refusing1 in questioning2 in showing our joy1 our sorrow1 our doubts1 our regret1 our admiration4 ,these gestures1 so obedient to passion1 are extremely difficult to be imitated in a calm state4 ,the ancients1 sensible of the advantage as well as difficulty of having these expressions at command1 bestowed much time and care1 in collecting them from observation1 and in digesting them into a practical art1 which was taught in their schools as an important branch of education4 ,the foregoing signs1 though in a strict sense voluntary1 cannot however be restrained but with the utmost difficulty when they are prompted by passion4 ,of this we scarce need a stronger proof1 than the gestures of a keen player at bowls4 ,observe only how he wreaths his body1 in order to restore a stray bowl to the right track4 ,it is one article of good breeding1 to suppress1 as much as possible1 these external signs of passion1 that we may not in company appear too warm or too interested4 ,the same observation holds in speech4 ,a passion1 it is true1 when in extreme1 is silent#cg2 but when less violent1 it must be vented in words1 which have a peculiar force1 not to be equalled in a sedate composition4 ,the ease and trust we have in a confident1 encourages us no doubt to talk of ourselves and of our feelings4 ,but the cause is more general2 for it operates when we are alone as well as in company4 ,passion is the cause2 for in many instances it is no slight gratification to vent a passion externally by words as well as by gestures4 ,some passions1 when at a certain height1 impel us so strongly to vent them in words1 that we speak with an audible voice even where there is none to listen4 ,it is this circumstance in passion1 that justifies soliloquies2 and it is this circumstance that proves them to be natural#ch4 ,the mind sometimes favours this impulse of passion1 by bestowing a temporary sensibility upon any object at hand1 in order to make it a confident4 ,thus in the ,winter's ,tale#ci1 ,antigonus addresses himself to an infant whom he was ordered to expose3 ,come1 poor babe1 ,i have heard1 but not believ'd1 the spirits of the dead ,may walk again3 if such thing be1 thy mother ,appear'd to me last night2 for ne'er was dream ,so like a waking4 ,the involuntary signs1 which are all of them natural1 are either peculiar to one passion or common to many4 ,every violent passion hath an external expression peculiar to itself1 not excepting pleasant passions3 witness admiration and mirth4 ,the pleasant emotions that are less vivid1 have one common expression2 from which we may gather the strength of the emotion1 but scarce the kind3 we perceive a chearful or contented look2 and we can make no more of it4 ,painful passions1 being all of them violent1 are distinguishable from each other by their external expressions4 ,thus fear1 shame1 anger1 anxiety1 dejection1 despair1 have each of them peculiar expressions2 which are apprehended without the least confusion4 ,some of these passions produce violent effects upon the body1 such as trembling1 starting1 and swooning4 ,but these effects1 depending in a good measure upon singularity of constitution1 are not uniform in all men4 ,the involuntary signs1 such of them as are display'd upon the countenance1 are of two kinds4 ,some make their appearance occasionally with the emotions that produce them1 and vanish with the emotions3 others are formed gradually by some violent passion often recurring2 and1 becoming permanent signs of this prevailing passion1 serve to denote the disposition or temper4 ,the face of an infant indicates no particular disposition1 because it cannot be marked with any character to which time is necessary4 ,and even the temporary signs are extremely aukward1 being the first rude essays of ,nature to discover internal feelings4 ,thus the shrieking of a new-born infant1 without tears or sobbings1 is plainly an attempt to weep4 ,some of the temporary signs1 as smiling and frowning1 cannot be observed for some months after birth4 ,the permanent signs1 formed in youth while the body is soft and flexible1 are preserved entire by the firmness and solidity which the body acquires2 and are never obliterated even by a change of temper4 ,permanent signs are not produced after a certain age when the fibres become rigid2 some violent cases excepted1 such as reiterated fits of the gout or stone through a course of time4 ,but these signs are not so obstinate as what are produced in youth2 for when the cause is removed1 they gradually wear away1 and at last vanish4 ,the natural signs of emotions1 voluntary and involuntary1 being nearly the same in all men1 form an universal language1 which no distance of place1 no difference of tribe1 no diversity of tongue1 can darken or render doubtful4 ,education1 though of mighty influence1 hath not power to vary or sophisticate1 far less to destroy1 their signification4 ,this is a wise appointment of ,providence4 ,for if these signs were1 like words1 arbitrary and variable1 it would be an intricate science to decipher the actions and motives of our own species1 which would prove a great or rather invincible obstruction to the formation of societies4 ,but as matters are ordered1 the external appearances of joy1 grief1 anger1 fear1 shame1 and of the other passions1 forming an universal language1 open a direct avenue to the heart4 ,as the arbitrary signs vary in every country1 there could be no communication of thoughts among different nations1 were it not for the natural signs in which all agree4 ,words are sufficient for the communication of science1 and of all mental conceptions3 but the discovering passions instantly as they arise1 being essential to our well-being and often necessary for self-preservation1 the author of our nature1 attentive to our wants1 hath provided a passage to the heart1 which never can be obstructed while our external senses remain entire4 ,in an inquiry concerning the external signs of passion1 actions ought not altogether to be overlooked3 for though singly they afford no clear light1 they are upon the whole the best interpreters of the heart#dj4 ,by observing a man's conduct for a course of time1 we discover unerringly the various passions that move him to action1 what he loves and what he hates4 ,in our younger years1 every single action is a mark not at all ambiguous of the temper2 for in childhood there is little or no disguise4 ,the subject becomes more intricate in advanced age2 but even there1 dissimulation is seldom carried on for any length of time4 ,and thus the conduct of life is the most perfect expression of the internal disposition4 ,it merits not indeed the title of an universal language2 because it is not thoroughly understood but by those who either have a penetrating genius or extensive observation4 ,it is a language1 however1 which every one can decipher in some measure2 and which1 joined with the other external signs1 affords sufficient means for the direction of our conduct with regard to others4 ,if we commit any mistake when such light is afforded1 it never can be the effect of unavoidable ignorance1 but of rashness or inadvertence4 ,in reflecting upon the various expressions of our emotions1 voluntary and involuntary1 we must recognise the anxious care of ,nature to discover men to each other4 ,strong emotions1 as above hinted1 beget an impatience to express them externally by speech and other voluntary signs1 which cannot be suppressed without a painful effort4 ,thus a sudden fit of passion is a common excuse for indecent behaviour or harsh words4 ,as to the involuntary signs1 these are altogether unavoidable4 ,no volition or effort can prevent the shaking of the limbs or a pale visage1 when one is agitated with a violent fit of terror4 ,the blood flies to the face upon a sudden emotion of shame1 in spite of all opposition3 ,vergogna1 che'n altrui stampo natura1 ,non si puo' rinegar3 che se tu' tenti ,di cacciarla dal cor1 fugge nel volto4 ,pastor ,fido1 act #b4 sc4 #e4 ,emotions indeed properly so called1 which are quiescent1 produce no remarkable signs externally2 nor is it necessary that the more deliberate passions should1 because the operation of such passions is neither sudden nor violent4 ,these however remain not altogether in the dark4 ,being more frequent than violent passion1 the bulk of our actions are directed by them4 ,actions therefore display1 with sufficient evidence1 the more deliberate passions1 and complete the admirable system of external signs1 by which we become skilful in human nature4 ,next in order comes an article of great importance1 which is1 to examine the effects produced upon a spectator by external signs of passion4 ,none of these signs are beheld with indifference3 they are productive of various emotions tending all of them to ends wise and good4 ,this curious article makes a capital branch of human nature4 ,it is peculiarly useful to writers who deal in the pathetic2 and with respect to history-painters1 it is altogether indispensable4 ,when we enter upon this article1 we gather from experience1 that each passion1 or class of passions1 hath its peculiar signs2 and that these invariably make certain impressions on a spectator4 ,the external signs of joy1 for example1 produce a chearful emotion1 the external signs of grief produce pity1 and the external signs of rage produce a sort of terror even in those who are not aimed at4 ,secondly1 it is natural to think1 that pleasant passions should express themselves externally by signs that appear agreeable1 and painful passions by signs that appear disagreeable4 ,this conjecture1 which ,nature suggests1 is confirmed by experience4 ,pride seems to be an exception2 its external signs being disagreeable1 though it be commonly reckoned a pleasant passion4 ,but pride is not an exception2 for in reality it is a mixed passion1 partly pleasant partly painful4 ,when a proud man confines his thoughts to himself1 and to his own dignity or importance1 the passion is pleasant1 and its external signs agreeable3 but as pride chiefly consists in undervaluing or contemning others1 it is so far painful1 and its external signs disagreeable4 ,thirdly1 it is laid down above1 that an agreeable object produceth always a pleasant emotion1 and a disagreeable object one that is painful#da4 ,according to this law1 the external signs of a pleasant passion1 being agreeable1 must produce in the spectator a pleasant emotion2 and the external signs of a painful passion1 being disagreeable1 must produce in him a painful emotion4 ,fourthly1 in the present chapter it is observed1 that pleasant passions are1 for the most part1 expressed externally in one uniform manner2 and that only the painful passions are distinguishable from each other by their external expressions4 ,in the emotions accordingly raised by external signs of pleasant passions1 there is little variety4 ,they are pleasant or chearful1 and we have not words to reach a more particular description4 ,but the external signs of painful passions produce in the spectator emotions of different kinds3 the emotions1 for example1 raised by external signs of grief1 of remorse1 of anger1 of envy1 of malice1 are clearly distinguishable from each other4 ,fifthly1 emotions raised by the external signs of painful passions1 are some of them attractive1 some repulsive4 ,every painful passion that is also disagreeable#db1 raises by its external signs a repulsive emotion1 repelling the spectator from the object4 ,thus the emotions raised by external signs of envy and rage1 are repulsive4 ,but this is not the case of painful passions that are agreeable4 ,their external signs1 it is true1 are disagreeable1 and raise in the spectator a painful emotion4 ,but this painful emotion is not repulsive4 ,on the contrary1 it is attractive2 and produceth in the spectator good-will to the man who is moved by the passion1 and a desire to relieve or comfort him4 ,this cannot be better exemplified than by distress painted on the countenance1 which instantaneously inspires the spectator with pity1 and impels him to afford relief4 ,the cause of this difference among the painful emotions raised by external signs of passion1 may be readily gathered from what is laid down chapter ,emotions and passions1 part #g4 ,it is now time to look back to the question proposed in the beginning1 ,how we come to understand external signs1 so as readily to ascribe each sign to its proper passion8 ,we have seen that this branch of knowledge1 cannot be derived originally from sight1 nor from experience4 ,is it then implanted in us by nature8 ,the following considerations will help us to answer this question in the affirmative4 ,in the first place1 the external signs of passion must be natural2 for they are invariably the same in every country1 and among the different tribes of men4 ,pride1 for example1 is always expressed by an erect posture1 reverence by prostration1 and sorrow by a dejected look4 ,secondly1 we are not even indebted to experience for the knowledge that these expressions are natural and universal4 ,we are so framed as to have an innate conviction of the fact4 ,let a man change his habitation to the other side of the globe2 he will1 from the accustomed signs1 infer the passion of fear among his new neighbours1 with as little hesitation as he did at home4 ,and upon second thoughts1 the question may be answered without any preliminaries4 ,if the branch of knowledge we have been inquiring about be not derived from sight nor from experience1 there is no remaining source from whence it can be derived but from nature4 ,we may then venture to pronounce1 with some degree of confidence1 that man is provided by nature with a sense or faculty which lays open to him every passion by means of its external expressions4 ,and ,i imagine that we cannot entertain any reasonable doubt of this fact1 when we reflect1 that even infants are not ignorant of the meaning of external signs4 ,an infant is remarkably affected with the passions of its nurse expressed on her countenance3 a smile chears it1 and a frown makes it afraid4 ,fear thus generated in the infant1 must1 like every other passion1 have an object4 ,what is the object of this passion8 ,surely not the frown considered abstractly1 for a child never abstracts4 ,the nurse who frowns is evidently the object4 ,fear1 at the same time1 cannot arise but from apprehending danger4 ,but what danger can a child apprehend1 if it be not sensible that the person who frowns is angry8 ,we must therefore admit1 that a child can read anger in its nurse's face2 and it must be sensible of this intuitively1 for it has no other means of knowledge4 ,i have no occasion to affirm1 that these particulars are clearly apprehended by the child4 ,to produce clear and distinct perceptions1 reflection and experience are requisite4 ,but that even an infant1 when afraid1 must have some notion of its being in danger1 is extremely evident4 ,that we should be conscious intuitively of a passion from its external expressions1 is conformable to the analogy of nature4 ,the knowledge of this language is of too great importance to be left upon experience4 ,to rest it upon a foundation so uncertain and precarious1 would prove a great obstacle to the formation of societies4 ,wisely therefore is it ordered1 and agreeably to the system of ,providence1 that we should have ,nature for our instructor4 ,manifold and admirable are the purposes to which the external signs of passion are made subservient by the author of our nature4 ,what are occasionally mentioned above1 make but a part4 ,several final causes remain to be unfolded2 and to this task ,i apply myself with alacrity4 ,in the first place1 the signs of internal agitation that are displayed externally to every spectator1 tend to fix the signification of many terms4 ,the only effectual means to ascertain the meaning of any doubtful word1 is an appeal to the thing it represents4 ,hence the ambiguity of words expressive of things that are not objects of external sense2 for in that case an appeal is denied4 ,passion1 strictly speaking1 is not an object of external sense3 but its external signs are2 and by means of these signs1 passions may be appealed to1 with tolerable accuracy4 ,thus the words that denote our passions1 next to those that denote external objects1 have the most distinct meaning4 ,words signifying internal action and the more delicate feelings1 are less distinct4 ,this defect with respect to internal action1 is what chiefly occasions the intricacy of logic4 ,the terms of that science are far from being sufficiently ascertained1 even after the care and labour bestowed by an eminent writer#dc3 to whom however the world is greatly indebted1 for removing a mountain of rubbish1 and moulding the subject into a rational and correct form4 ,the same defect is remarkable in criticism1 which has for its object the more delicate feelings4 ,the terms that denote these feelings1 are not more distinct than those of logic4 ,to reduce this science of criticism to any regular form1 has never once been attempted4 ,however rich the ore may be1 no critical chymist has been found to give us a regular analysis of its constituent parts1 and to distinguish each by its own name4 ,in the second place1 society among individuals is greatly promoted by this universal language4 ,the distance and reserve that strangers naturally discover1 show its utility4 ,looks and gestures give direct access to the heart2 and lead us to select with tolerable accuracy the persons who may be trusted4 ,it is surprising how quickly1 and for the most part how correctly1 we judge of character from external appearances4 ,thirdly1 after social intercourse is commenced1 these external signs contribute above all other means to the strictest union1 by diffusing through a whole assembly the feelings of each individual4 ,language no doubt is the most comprehensive vehicle for communicating emotions3 but in expedition1 as well as in the power of conviction1 it falls short of the signs under consideration2 the involuntary signs especially1 which are incapable of deceit4 ,where the countenance1 the tones1 the gestures1 the actions1 join with the words1 in communicating emotions1 these united have a force irresistible4 ,thus all the agreeable emotions of the human heart1 with all the social and virtuous affections1 are1 by means of these external signs1 not only perceived but felt4 ,by this admirable contrivance1 social intercourse becomes that lively and animating amusement1 without which life would at best be insipid4 ,one joyful countenance spreads chearfulness instantaneously through a multitude of spectators4 ,fourthly1 dissocial passions being hurtful by prompting violence and mischief1 are noted by the most conspicuous external signs1 in order to put us upon our guard4 ,thus anger and revenge1 especially when suddenly provoked1 display themselves on the countenance in legible characters#dd4 ,the external signs again of every passion that threatens danger1 raise in us the passion of fear4 ,nor is this passion occasioned by consciousness of danger1 though it may be inflamed by such consciousness4 ,it is an instinctive passion1 which operating without reason or reflection1 moves us by a sudden impulse to avoid the impending danger#de4 ,in the fifth place1 these external signs are made subservient in a curious manner to the cause of virtue4 ,the external signs of a painful passion that is virtuous or innocent1 and consequently agreeable1 produce indeed a painful emotion4 ,but this emotion is attractive1 and connects the spectator with the person who suffers4 ,disagreeable passions only1 are productive of repulsive emotions involving the spectator's aversion1 and frequently his indignation4 ,this artful contrivance makes us cling to the virtuous and abhor the wicked4 ,sixthly1 of all the external signs of passion1 those of affliction or distress are the most illustrious with respect to a final cause2 and deservedly merit a place of distinction4 ,they are illustrious by the singularity of their contrivance2 and they are still more illustrious by the sympathy they inspire1 a passion to which human society is indebted for its greatest blessing1 that of securing relief in all cases of distress4 ,a subject so interesting1 ought to be examined with leisure and attention4 ,the conformity of the nature of man to his external circumstances1 is in every particular wonderful4 ,his nature makes him prone to society2 and his situation makes it necessary for him4 ,in a solitary state he is the most helpless of beings2 destitute of support1 and in his manifold distresses destitute of relief4 ,mutual support1 the shining attribute of society1 being essential to the well-being of man1 is not left upon reason1 but is inforced even instinctively by the passion of sympathy4 ,here sympathy makes a capital figure2 and contributes1 more than any other means1 to make life easy and comfortable4 ,but however essential sympathy be to comfortable existence1 one thinking of it beforehand1 would find difficulty in conjecturing how it could be raised by external signs of distress4 ,for considering the analogy of nature1 if these signs be agreeable1 they must give birth to a pleasant emotion leading every beholder to be pleased with human misfortunes4 ,if they be disagreeable1 as they undoubtedly are1 ought not the painful emotion they produce to repel the spectator from them1 in order to be relieved from pain8 ,such would be the conjecture1 in thinking of this matter beforehand2 and such would be the effect1 were man purely a selfish being4 ,but the benevolence of our nature gives a very different direction to the painful passion of sympathy1 and to the desire involved in it4 ,far from flying from distress1 we fly to it in order to afford relief2 and our sympathy cannot be otherwise gratified than by giving all the succour in our power#df4 ,thus external signs of distress1 though disagreeable1 are attractive2 and the sympathy they inspire us with is a powerful cause1 impelling us to afford relief even to a stranger as if he were our friend or blood-relation4 ,this branch of human nature concerning the external signs of passion1 is so finely adjusted to answer its end1 that those who understand it the best will admire it the most4 ,these external signs1 being all of them resolvable into colour1 figure1 and motion1 should not naturally make any deep impression on a spectator4 ,and supposing them qualified for making deep impressions1 we have seen above1 that the effects they produce are not what would be expected4 ,we cannot therefore account otherwise for the operation of these external signs1 than by ascribing it to the original constitution of human nature4 ,to improve the social state1 by making us instinctively rejoice with the glad of heart1 weep with the mourner1 and shun those who threaten danger1 is a contrivance illustrious for its wisdom as well as benevolence4 ,with respect to the external signs of distress in particular1 to judge of the excellency of their contrivance1 we need only reflect upon several other means seemingly more natural1 that would not have answered the end proposed4 ,i am attracted by this amusing speculation1 and will not ask pardon for indulging in it4 ,we shall in the first place reverse the truth1 by putting the case that the external signs of joy were disagreeable1 and the external signs of distress agreeable4 ,this is no whimsical supposition2 for these external signs1 so far as can be gathered from their nature1 seem indifferent to the production of pleasure or pain4 ,admitting then the supposition1 the question is1 ,how would our sympathy operate8 ,there is no occasion to deliberate for an answer4 ,sympathy1 upon that supposition1 would be not less destructive1 than according to the real case it is beneficial4 ,we should be incited1 to cross the happiness of others if its external signs were disagreeable to us1 and to augment their distress if its external signs were agreeable4 ,i make a second supposition1 ,that the external signs of distress were indifferent to us1 and productive neither of pleasure nor pain4 ,this would annihilate the strongest branch of sympathy1 that which is raised by means of sight4 ,and it is evident1 that reflective sympathy1 felt by those only who have more than an ordinary share of sensibility1 would be far from being sufficient to fulfil the ends of the social state4 ,i shall approach nearer truth in a third supposition1 ,that the external signs of distress being disagreeable1 were productive of a painful repulsive emotion4 ,sympathy upon this supposition would not be annihilated2 but it would be rendered useless4 ,for it would be gratified by flying from or avoiding the object1 instead of clinging to it1 and affording relief4 ,the condition of man would in reality be worse than if sympathy were totally eradicated2 because sympathy would only serve to plague those who feel it1 without producing any good to the afflicted4 ,loath to quit so interesting a subject1 ,i add a reflection1 with which ,i shall conclude4 ,the external signs of passion are a strong indication1 that man1 by his very constitution1 is framed to be open and sincere4 ,a child1 in all things obedient to the impulses of nature1 hides none of its emotions3 the savage and clown1 who have no guide other than pure nature1 expose their hearts to view by giving way to all the natural signs3 and even when men learn to dissemble their sentiments1 and when behaviour degenerates into art1 there still remain checks1 which keep dissimulation within bounds1 and prevent a great part of its mischievous effects4 ,the total suppression of the voluntary signs during any vivid passion1 begets the utmost uneasiness1 which cannot be endured for any considerable time4 ,this operation becomes indeed less painful by habit3 but luckily the involuntary signs1 cannot by any effort be suppressed or even dissembled4 ,an absolute hypocrisy1 by which the character is concealed and a fictitious one assumed1 is made impracticable2 and nature has thereby prevented much harm to society4 ,we may pronounce therefore1 that nature1 herself sincere and candid1 intends that mankind should preserve the same character1 by cultivating simplicity and truth1 and banishing every sort of dissimulation that tends to mischief4 ,,chap4 ,,xvi4 ,,sentiments4 ,every thought suggested by a passion or emotion1 is termed a sentiment#dg4 ,the knowledge of the sentiments peculiar to each passion considered abstractly1 will not alone enable an artist to make a just representation of nature4 ,he ought1 over and above1 to be acquainted with the various appearances of the same passion in different persons4 ,passions1 it is certain1 receive a tincture from every peculiarity of character2 and for that reason1 it rarely happens that any two persons vent their passions precisely in the same manner4 ,hence the following rule concerning dramatic and epic compositions1 ,that a passion be adjusted to the character1 the sentiments to the passion1 and the language to the sentiments4 ,if nature be not faithfully copied in each of these1 a defect in execution is perceived4 ,there may appear some resemblance2 but the picture upon the whole will be insipid1 through want of grace and delicacy4 ,a painter1 in order to represent the various attitudes of the body1 ought to be intimately acquainted with muscular motion3 not less intimately acquainted with emotions and characters ought a writer to be1 in order to represent the various attitudes of the mind4 ,a general notion of the passions1 in their grosser differences of strong and weak1 elevated and humble1 severe and gay1 is far from being sufficient4 ,pictures formed so superficially1 have little resemblance1 and no expression4 ,and yet it will appear by and by1 that in many instances our reputed masters are deficient even in this superficial knowledge4 ,in handling the present subject1 it would be endless to trace even the ordinary passions through their nicer and more minute differences4 ,mine shall be an humbler task2 which is1 to select from the best writers instances of faulty sentiments1 after paving the way by some general observations4 ,to talk in the language of music1 each passion hath a certain tone1 to which every sentiment proceeding from it ought to be tuned with the greatest accuracy4 ,this is no easy work1 especially where such harmony is to be supported during the course of a long theatrical representation4 ,in order to reach such delicacy of execution1 it is necessary that a writer assume the precise character and passion of the personage represented4 ,this requires an uncommon genius4 ,but it is the only difficulty2 for the writer1 who1 forgetting himself1 can thus personate another1 so as to feel truly and distinctly the various agitations of the passion1 need be in no pain about the sentiments3 these will flow without the least study1 or even preconception2 and will frequently be as delightfully new to himself as afterward to his reader4 ,but if a lively picture even of a single emotion require an effort of genius2 how much greater must the effort be1 to compose a passionate dialogue1 in which there are as many different tones of passion as there are speakers8 ,with what ductility of feeling ought a writer to be endued who aims at perfection in such a work2 when1 to execute it correctly1 it is necessary to assume different and even opposite characters and passions1 in the quickest succession8 ,and yet this work1 difficult as it is1 yields to that of composing a dialogue in genteel comedy devoid of passion2 where the sentiments must be tuned to the nicer and more delicate tones of different characters4 ,that the latter is the more difficult task1 appears from considering1 that a character is greatly more complex than a passion1 and that passions are more distinguishable from each other than characters are4 ,many writers accordingly who have no genius for characters1 make a shift to represent1 tolerably well1 an ordinary passion in its plain movements4 ,but of all works of this kind1 what is truly the most difficult1 is a characteristical dialogue upon any philosophical subject4 ,to interweave characters with reasoning1 by adapting to the peculiar character of each speaker a peculiarity not only of thought but of expression1 requires the perfection of genius1 taste1 and judgement4 ,how hard dialogue-writing is1 will be evident1 even without reasoning1 from the imperfect compositions of this kind found without number in all languages4 ,the art of mimicking any singularity in voice or gesture1 is a rare talent1 though directed by sight and hearing1 the acutest and most lively of our external senses3 how much more rare must the talent be of imitating characters and internal emotions1 tracing all their different tints1 and representing them in a lively manner by natural sentiments properly expressed8 ,the truth is1 such execution is too delicate for an ordinary genius2 and for that reason1 the bulk of writers1 instead of expressing a passion like one who is under its power1 content themselves with describing it like a spectator4 ,to awake passion by an internal effort merely1 without any external cause1 requires great sensibility2 and yet this operation is necessary not less to the writer than to the actor2 because none but they who actually feel a passion1 can represent it to the life4 ,the writer's part is much more complicated3 he must join composition with action2 and1 in the quickest succession1 be able to adopt every different character introduced in his work4 ,but a very humble flight of imagination1 may serve to convert a writer into a spectator1 so as to figure1 in some obscure manner1 an action as passing in his sight and hearing4 ,in this figured situation1 he is led naturally to describe as a spectator1 and at second hand to entertain his readers with his own observations1 with cool description and florid declamation2 instead of making them eye-witnesses1 as it were1 to a real event1 and to every movement of genuine passion#dh4 ,thus1 in the bulk of plays1 a tiresome monotony prevails1 a pompous declamatory style1 without entering into different characters or passions4 ,this descriptive manner of expressing passion1 has a very unhappy effect4 ,our sympathy is not raised by description3 we must be lulled first into a dream of reality2 and every thing must appear as actually present and passing in our sight#di4 ,unhappy is the player of genius who acts a capital part in what may be termed a descriptive tragedy4 ,after he has assumed the very passion that is to be represented1 how must he be cramped in his action1 when he is forced to utter1 not the sentiments of the passion he feels1 but a cold description in the language of a by-stander8 ,it is this imperfection1 ,i am persuaded1 in the bulk of our plays1 that confines our stage almost entirely to ,shakespear1 his many irregularities notwithstanding4 ,in our latest ,english tragedies1 we sometimes find sentiments tolerably well adapted to a plain passion4 ,but it would be fruitless labour1 to search in any of them for a sentiment expressive of character2 and1 upon that very account1 all our modern performances of the dramatic kind1 are intolerably insipid4 ,looking back upon the foregoing observation1 ,i am uncertain whether it will be sufficiently apprehended2 for1 upon this complicated subject1 ,i find some difficulty to express myself with perspicuity4 ,i despair not however to place this matter in the clearest light1 by adding example to precept4 ,in the front shall be set one or two examples of sentiments that appear the legitimate offspring of passion2 and to them shall be opposed a few others that are descriptive only1 and illegitimate4 ,in making this comparison1 ,i shall borrow my instances from ,shakespear and ,corneille1 who for genius in dramatic composition stand uppermost in the rolls of fame4 99 99 99 99 99 ,shakespear shall furnish the first instance1 being of sentiments dictated by a violent and perturbed passion4 ,lear4----,filial ingratitude6 ,is it not1 as if this mouth should tear this hand ,for lifting food to't8--,but ,i'll punish home2 ,no1 ,i will weep no more4---- ,in such a night1 ,to shut me out6---- ,pour on1 ,i will endure4 ,in such a night as this6 ,o ,regan1 ,gonerill1 ,your old kind father1 whose frank heart gave all-- ,o1 that way madness lies2 let me shun that2 ,no more of that4---- ,kent4 ,good1 my ,lord1 enter here4 ,lear4 ,pr'ythee1 go in thy thyself1 seek thine own ease1 ,this tempest will not give me leave to ponder ,on things would hurt me more--but ,i'll go in2 ,in1 boy1 go first4 ,you houseless poverty---- ,nay1 get thee in2 ,i'll pray1 and then ,i'll sleep-- ,poor naked wretches1 wheresoe'er you are1 ,that bide the pelting of this pitiless storm6 ,how shall your houseless heads and unfed sides1 ,your loop'd and window'd raggedness1 defend you ,from seasons such as these8---- ,o ,i have ta'en ,too little care of this6 take physic1 ,pomp2 ,expose thyself to feel what wretches feel1 ,that thou may'st shake the superflux to them1 ,and show the heavens more just4 ,king ,lear4 act #c4 sc #e4 ,to illustrate the foregoing doctrine1 one other instance of the same kind may suffice1 expressing sentiments arising from remorse and despair4 ,othello4 ,lo6 ,i have a weapon3 ,a better never did itself sustain ,upon a soldier's thigh4 ,i've seen the day1 ,that with this little arm1 and this good sword1 ,i've made my way through more impediments ,than twenty times your stop4 ,but1 oh vain boast6 ,who can controul his fate8 'tis not so now4 ,be not afraid1 though you do see me weapon'd2 ,here is my journey's end1 here is my butt1 ,the very sea mark of my outmost sail4 ,do you go back dismay'd8 'tis a lost fear4 ,man but a rush against ,othello's breast1 ,and he retires4 ,where should ,othello go8 ,now---- how dost thou look now8 ,oh ill starr'd wench6 ,pale as thy smoke6 when we shall meet at compt1 ,this look of thine will hurl my soul from heav'n1 ,and fiends will snatch at it4 ,cold1 cold1 my girl1 ,ev'n like thy chastity4 ,o cursed slave6 ,whip me1 ye devils1 ,from the possession of this heav'nly sight2 ,blow me about in winds1 roast me in sulphur1 ,wash me in steep-down gulfs of liquid fire---- ,oh1 ,desdemona6 ,desdemona6 dead6 dead6 oh1 oh6 ,othello1 act #e4 sc4 #i4 ,the sentiments here display'd flow so naturally from the passions represented1 and are such genuine expressions of these passions1 that it is not possible to conceive any imitation more perfect4 99 99 99 99 99 ,with regard to the ,french author1 truth obliges me to acknowledge1 that he describes in the style of a spectator1 instead of expressing passion like one who feels it2 and also that he is thereby betray'd into the other faults above mentioned1 a tiresome monotony1 and a pompous declamatory style#ej4 ,it is scarce necessary to produce particular instances2 for he never varies from this tone4 ,i shall however take two passages at a venture1 in order to be confronted with those transcribed above4 ,in the tragedy of ,cinna1 milia1 after the conspiracy was discovered1 having nothing in view but racks and death to herself and her lover1 receives a pardon from ,augustus1 attended with the brightest circumstances of magnanimity and tenderness4 ,this is a happy situation for representing the passions of surprise and gratitude in their different stages4 ,these passions1 raised at once to the utmost pitch1 are at first too big for utterance2 and milia's feelings must1 for some moments1 have been expressed by violent gestures only4 ,so soon as there is a vent for words1 the first expressions are naturally broken and interrupted4 ,at last we ought to expect a tide of intermingled sentiments1 occasioned by the fluctuation of the mind betwixt the two passions4 milia is made to behave in a very different manner4 ,with extreme coolness she describes her own situation1 as if she were merely a spectator2 or rather the poet takes the task off her hands4 ,et je me rens1 ,seigneur1 ces hautes bonts1 ,je recouvre la ve auprs de leurs clarts1 ,je connois mon forfait qui me sembloit justice1 ,et ce que n'avoit p la terreur du supplice1 ,je sens naitre en mon ame un repentir puissant2 ,et mon cur en secret me dit1 qu'il y consent4 ,le ciel a rsolu votre grandeur suprme1 ,et pour preuve1 ,seigneur1 je n'en veux que moi-mme2 ,j'ose avec vanit me donner cet clat1 ,puisqu'il change mon cur1 qu'il veut changer l'tat4 ,ma haine va mourir que j'ai crue immortelle1 ,elle est morte1 et ce cur devient sujet fidle1 ,et prenant dsormais cette haine en horreur1 ,l'ardeur de vous servir succede sa fureur4 ,act #e4 sc4 #c4 ,in the tragedy of ,sertorius1 the ,queen1 surprised with the news that her lover was assassinated1 instead of venting any passion1 degenerates into a cool spectator1 even so much as to instruct the by-standers how a queen ought to behave on such an occasion4 ,viriate4 ,il m'en fait voir ensemble1 et l'auteur1 et la cause4 ,par cet assassinat c'est de moi qu'on dispose1 ,c'est mon trne1 c'est moi qu'on pretend conquerir1 ,et c'est mon juste choix qui seul l'a fait perir4 ,madame1 aprs sa perte1 et parmi ces alarmes1 ,n'attendez point de moi de soupirs1 ni de larmes2 ,ce sont amusemens que ddaigne aisement ,le prompt et noble orgueil d'un vif ressentiment4 ,qui pleure1 l'affoiblit1 qui soupire1 l'exhale1 ,il faut plus de fiert dans une ame royale2 ,et ma douleur soumise aux soins de le venger1 c4 ,act #e4 sc4 #c4 ,so much in general upon the genuine sentiments of passion4 ,i proceed now to particular observations4 ,and1 first1 ,passions are seldom uniform for any considerable time3 they generally fluctuate1 swelling and subsiding by turns1 often in a quick succession#ea4 ,this fluctuation1 in the case of a real passion1 will be expressed externally by proper sentiments2 and ought to be imitated in writing and acting4 ,accordingly1 a climax shows never better than in expressing a swelling passion4 ,the following passages shall suffice for an illustration4 ,oroonoko4---- ,can you raise the dead8 ,pursue and overtake the wings of time8 ,and bring about again1 the hours1 the days1 ,the years1 that made me happy8 ,oroonoko1 act #b4 sc4 #b4 ,almeria4---- ,how hast thou charm'd ,the wildness of the waves and rocks to this8 ,that thus relenting they have giv'n thee back ,to earth1 to light and life1 to love and me8 ,mourning ,bride1 act #a4 sc4 #g4 ,i would not be the villain that thou think'st ,for the whole space that's in the tyrant's grasp1 ,and the rich earth to boot4 ,macbeth1 act #d4 sc4 #d4 ,the following passage expresses finely the progress of conviction4 ,let me not stir1 nor breathe1 lest ,i dissolve ,that tender1 lovely form1 of painted air1 ,so like ,almeria4 ,ha6 it sinks1 it falls2 ,i'll catch it ere it goes1 and grasp her shade4 ',tis life6 'tis warm6 'tis she6 'tis she herself6 ,it is ,almeria6 'tis1 it is my wife6 ,mourning ,bride1 act #b4 sc4 #f4 ,in the progress of thought1 our resolutions become more vigorous as well as our passions4 ,if ever ,i do yield or give consent1 ,by any action1 word1 or thought1 to wed ,another ,lord2 may then just ,heav'n show'r down1 c4 ,mourning ,bride1 act #a4 sc4 #a4 ,and this leads to a second observation1 ,that the different stages of a passion1 and its different directions1 from its birth to its extinction1 ought to be carefully represented in the sentiments1 which otherwise will often be misplaced4 ,resentment1 for example1 when provoked by an atrocious injury1 discharges itself first upon the author4 ,sentiments therefore of revenge take place of all others1 and must in some measure be exhausted before the person injured think of pitying himself1 or of grieving for his present distress4 ,in the ,cid of ,corneille1 ,don ,diegue having been affronted in a cruel manner1 expresses scarce any sentiment of revenge1 but is totally occupied in contemplating the low situation to which he was reduced by the affront4 ,o rage6 desespoir6 vieillesse ennemie6 ,n'ai je donc tant vecu que pour cette infamie8 ,et ne suis-je blanchi dans les travaux guerriers1 ,que pour voir en une jour fletrir tant de lauriers8 ,mon bras1 qu'avec respect toute l',espagne admire1 ,mon bras1 qui tant de fois a sauv cet empire1 ,tant de fois affermi le trne de son roi1 ,trahit donc ma querelle1 et ne fait rien pour moi6 ,o cruel souvenir de ma gloire passe6 ,oeuvre de tant de jours en un jour efface6 ,nouvelle dignit fatale mon bonheur6 ,precipice lev d'ou tombe mon honneur6 ,faut-il de votre clat voir triompher le ,comte1 ,et mourir sans vengeance1 ou vivre dans la honte8 ,comte1 fois de mon ,prince present gouverneur1 ,ce haut rang n'admet point un homme sans honneur2 ,et ton jaloux orgueil par cet affront insigne1 ,malgr le choix du ,roi1 m'en a su rendre indigne4 ,et toi1 de mes exploits glorieux instrument1 ,mais d'un corps tout de glace inutile ornement1 ,fer jadis tant a craindre1 et qui dans cette offense ,m'as servi de parade1 et non pas de defense1 ,va quitte desormais le dernier des humains1 ,passe pour me vanger en de meilleures mains4 ,le ,cid1 act #a4 sc4 #d4 ,these sentiments are certainly not what occur to the mind in the first movements of the passion4 ,in the same manner as in resentment1 the first movements of grief are always directed upon its object4 ,yet with relation to the hidden and severe distemper that seized ,alexander bathing in the river ,cydnus1 ,quintus ,curtius describes the first emotions of the army as directed upon themselves1 lamenting that they were left without a leader far from home1 and had scarce any hopes of returning in safety4 ,their ,king's distress1 which must naturally have been their first concern1 occupies them but in the second place according to that author4 ,in the ,aminta of ,tasso1 ,sylvia1 upon a report of her lover's death1 which she believed certain1 instead of bemoaning the loss of a beloved object1 turns her thoughts upon herself1 and wonders her heart does not break4 ,ohime1 ben son di sasso1 ,poi che questa novella non m'uccide4 ,act #d4 sc4 #b4 ,in the tragedy of ,jane ,shore1 ,alicia1 in the full purpose of destroying her rival1 has the following reflection3 ,oh ,jealousy6 thou bane of pleasing friendship1 ,thou worst invader of our tender bosoms2 ,how does thy rancour poison all our softness1 ,and turn our gentle natures into bitterness8 ,see where she comes6 ,once my heart's dearest blessing1 ,now my chang'd eyes are blasted with her beauty1 ,loathe that known face1 and sicken to behold her4 ,act #c4 sc4 #a4 ,these are the reflections of a cool spectator4 ,a passion while it has the ascendant1 and is freely indulged1 suggests not to the man who feels it any sentiment to its own prejudice4 ,reflections like the foregoing1 occur not to him readily till the passion have spent its vigor4 ,a person sometimes is agitated at once by different passions4 ,the mind in this case vibrating like a pendulum1 vents itself in sentiments which partake of the same vibration4 ,this ,i give as a third observation3 ,queen4 #8,would ,i had never trod this ,english earth1 ,or felt the flatteries that grow upon it6 ,ye've angels faces1 but ,heav'n knows your hearts4 ,what shall become of me now6 wretched lady6 ,i am the most unhappy woman living4 ,alas6 poor wenches1 where are now your fortunes8 ,to her women4 ,shipwreck'd upon a kingdom1 where no pity1 ,no friends1 no hope6 no kindred weep for me6 ,almost1 no grave allow'd me4 ,henry ,,viii4 act #c4 sc4 #a4 ,othello4 ,oh devil1 devil6 ,if that the earth could teem with woman's tears1 ,each drop she falls1 would prove a crocodile4 ,out of my sight4 ,desdemona4 ,i will not stay t'offend you4 going4 ,lodovico4 ,truly1 an obedient lady3 ,i do beseech your ,lordship1 call her back4 ,oth4 ,mistress---- ,des4 ,my ,lord4 ,oth4 ,what would you with her1 ,sir8 ,lod4 ,who1 ,i1 my ,lord8 ,oth4 ,ay2 you did wish that ,i would make her turn3 ,sir1 she can turn and turn1 and yet go on2 ,and turn again4 ,and she can weep1 ,sir1 weep2 ,and she's obedient3 as you say1 obedient2 ,very obedient--proceed you in your tears--,concerning this1 ,sir1--oh well-painted passion6--,i am commanded home--get you away1 ,i'll send for you anon--,sir1 ,i obey the mandate1 ,and will return to ,venice4---- ,hence1 avaunt6 ,exit ,desdemona4 ,othello1 act #d4 sc4 #f4 milia4 ,oh6 my good ,lord1 ,i would speak a word with you4 ,othello4 ,yes1 'tis milia--by and by--she's dead4 ',tis like1 she comes to speak of ,cassio's death2 ,the noise was high4--,ha1 no more moving8 ,still as the grave4 ,shall she come in8 were't good8 ,i think she stirs again--,no--what's the best8 ,if she come in1 she'll1 sure1 speak to my wife2 ,my wife6 my wife6 ,what wife8 ,i have no wife4 ,oh insupportable6 oh heavy hour6 ,othello1 act #e4 sc4 #g4 ,a fourth observation is1 that nature1 which gave us passions1 and made them extremely beneficial when moderate1 intended undoubtedly that they should be subjected to the government of reason and conscience#eb4 ,it is therefore against the order of nature1 that passion in any case should take the lead in contradiction to reason and conscience4 ,such a state of mind is a sort of anarchy1 which every one is ashamed of1 and endeavours to hide or dissemble4 ,even love1 however laudable1 is attended with a conscious shame when it becomes immoderate3 it is covered from the world1 and disclosed only to the beloved object3 ,et que l'amour souvent de remors combattu ,paroisse une foiblesse1 et non une vertu4 ,boileau1 ,l'art poet4 chant4 #c4 l4 #aja4 ,o1 they love least that let men know their love4 ,two ,gentlemen of ,verona1 act #a4 sc4 #c4 ,hence a capital rule in the representation of strong passions1 that their genuine sentiments ought to be hid or dissembled as much as possible4 ,and this holds in an especial manner with respect to criminal passions4 ,one never counsels the commission of a crime in plain terms4 ,guilt must not appear in its native colours1 even in thought3 the proposal must be made by hints1 and by representing the action in some favourable light4 ,of the propriety of sentiment upon such an occasion1 ,shakespear1 in the ,tempest1 has given us a beautiful example4 ,the subject is a proposal made by the usurping ,duke of ,milan to ,sebastian1 to murder his brother the ,king of ,naples4 ,antonio4---- ,what might ,worthy ,sebastian--,o1 what might--no more4 ,and yet1 methinks1 ,i see it in thy face1 ,what thou should'st be3 th'occasion speaks thee1 and ,my strong imagination sees a crown ,dropping upon thy head4 ,act #b4 sc4 #a4 ,there cannot be a finer picture of this sort1 than that of ,king ,john soliciting ,hubert to murder the young ,prince ,arthur4 ,k4 ,john4 ,come hither1 ,hubert4 ,o my gentle ,hubert1 ,we owe thee much2 within this wall of flesh ,there is a soul counts thee her creditor1 ,and with advantage means to pay thy love4 ,and1 my good friend1 thy voluntary oath ,lives in this bosom1 dearly cherished4 ,give me thy hand1 ,i had a thing to say---- ,but ,i will fit it with some better time4 ,by ,heaven1 ,hubert1 ,i'm almost asham'd ,to say what good respect ,i have of thee4 ,hubert4 ,i am much bounden to your ,majesty4 ,k4 ,john4 ,good friend1 thou hast no cause to say so yet---- ,but thou shalt have--and creep time ne'er so slow1 ,yet it shall come for me to do thee good4 ,i had a thing to say--but1 let it go3 ,the sun is in the heav'n1 and the proud day1 ,attended with the pleasures of the world1 ,is all too wanton1 and too full of gawds1 ,to give me audience4 ,if the midnight-bell ,did with his iron tongue and brazen mouth ,sound one into the drowsy race of night2 ,if this same were a church-yard where we stand1 ,and thou possessed with a thousand wrongs2 ,or if that surly spirit ,melancholy ,had bak'd thy blood and made it heavy-thick1 ,which else runs tickling up and down the veins1 ,making that idiot ,laughter keep men's eyes1 ,and strain their cheeks to idle merriment1 7,a passion hateful to my purposes72 ,or if that thou could'st see me without eyes1 ,hear me without thine ears1 and make reply ,without a tongue1 using conceit alone1 ,without eyes1 ears1 and harmful sounds of words2 ,then1 in despight of broad-ey'd watchful day1 ,i would into thy bosom pour my thoughts4 ,but ah1 ,i will not--,yet ,i love thee well2 ,and1 by my troth1 ,i think thou lov'st me well4 ,hubert4 ,so well1 that what you bid me undertake1 ,though that my death were adjunct to my act1 ,by ,heav'n1 ,i'd do't4 ,k4 ,john4 ,do not ,i know1 thou would'st8 ,good ,hubert1 ,hubert1 ,hubert1 throw thine eye ,on yon young boy4 ,i'll tell thee what1 my friend2 ,he is a very serpent in my way4 ,and1 wheresoe'er this foot of mine doth tread1 ,he lies before me4 ,dost thou understand me8 ,thou art his keeper4 ,king ,john1 act #c4 sc4 #e4 ,as things are best illustrated by their contraries1 ,i proceed to collect from classical authors1 sentiments that appear faulty4 ,the first class shall consist of sentiments that accord not with the passion2 or1 in other words1 sentiments that the passion represented does not naturally suggest4 ,in the second class1 shall be ranged sentiments that may belong to an ordinary passion1 but unsuitable to it as tinctured by a singular character4 ,thoughts that properly are not sentiments1 but rather descriptions1 make a third4 ,sentiments that belong to the passion represented1 but are faulty as being introduced too early or too late1 make a fourth4 ,vicious sentiments exposed in their native dress1 instead of being concealed or disguised1 make a fifth4 ,and in the last class1 shall be collected sentiments suited to no character or passion1 and therefore unnatural4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the first class contains faulty sentiments of various kinds1 which ,i shall endeavour to distinguish from each other4 ,and first sentiments that are faulty by being above the tone of the passion4 ,othello4---- ,o my soul's joy6 ,if after every tempest come such calms1 ,may the winds blow till they have waken'd death3 ,and let the labouring bark climb hills of seas ,olympus high1 and duck again as low ,as hell's from heaven6 ,othello1 act #b4 sc4 #f4 ,this sentiment is too strong to be suggested by so slight a joy as that of meeting after a storm at sea4 ,philaster4 ,place me1 some god1 upon a pyramid ,higher than hills of earth1 and lend a voice ,loud as your thunder to me1 that from thence ,i may discourse to all the under-world ,the worth that dwells in him4 ,philaster of ,beaumont and ,fletcher1 act #d4 ,secondly1 ,sentiments below the tone of the passion4 ,ptolemy1 by putting ,pompey to death1 having incurred the displeasure of ,csar1 was in the utmost dread of being dethroned4 ,in this agitating situation1 ,corneille makes him utter a speech full of cool reflection1 that is in no degree expressive of the passion4 ,ah6 si je t'avois cr1 je n'aurois pas de matre1 ,je serois dans le trne o le ,ciel m'a fait natre2 ,mais c'est une imprudence assez commune aux rois1 ,d'ecouter trop d'avis1 et se tromper au choix4 ,le ,destin les aveugle au bord du prcipice1 ,ou si quelque lumiere en leur ame se glisse1 ,cette fausse clart dont il les eblouit1 ,le plonge dans une gouffre1 et puis s'evanouit4 ,la mort de ,pompe1 act #d4 sc4 #a4 ,in ,les ,freres ennemies of ,racine1 the second act is opened with a love-scene4 ,hemon talks to his mistress of the torments of absence1 of the lustre of her eyes1 that he ought to die no where but at her feet1 and that one moment of absence was a thousand years4 ,antigone on her part acts the coquette1 and pretends she must be gone to wait on her mother and brother1 and cannot stay to listen to his courtship4 ,this is odious ,french gallantry1 below the dignity of the passion of love4 ,it would scarce be excusable in painting modern ,french manners2 and is insufferable where the ancients are brought upon the stage4 ,the manners painted in the ,alexandre of the same author are not more just4 ,french gallantry prevails there throughout4 99 99 99 99 99 ,third4 ,sentiments that agree not with the tone of the passion2 as where a pleasant sentiment is grafted upon a painful passion1 or the contrary4 ,in the following instances the sentiments are too gay for a serious passion4 ,no happier talk these faded eyes pursue2 ,to read and weep is all they now can do4 ,eloisa to ,abelard1 l4 #dg4 ,again1 ,heav'n first taught letters for some wretch's aid1 ,some banish'd lover1 or some captive maid2 ,they live1 they speak1 they breathe what love inspires1 ,warm from the soul1 and faithful to its fires2 ,the virgin's wish without her fears impart1 ,excuse the blush1 and pour out all the heart2 ,speed the soft intercourse from soul to soul1 ,and waft a sigh from ,indus to the pole4 ,eloisa to ,abelard1 l4 #ea4 ,these thoughts are pretty2 they suit ,pope extremely1 but not ,eloisa4 99 99 99 99 99 ,satan1 enraged by a threatening of the angel ,gabriel1 answers thus3 ,then when ,i am thy captive talk of chains1 ,proud limitary cherub2 but ere then ,far heavier load thyself expect to feel ,from my prevailing arm1 though ,heaven's ,king ,ride on thy wings1 and thou with thy compeers1 ,us'd to the yoke1 draw'st his triumphant wheels ,in progress through the road of heav'n star-pav'd4 ,paradise ,lost1 book #d4 ,the concluding epithet forms a grand and delightful image1 which cannot be the genuine offspring of rage4 99 99 99 99 99 ,fourth4 ,sentiments too artificial for a serious passion4 ,i give for the first example a speech of ,piercy expiring3 ,o1 ,harry1 thou hast robb'd me of my growth3 ,i better brook the loss of brittle life1 ,than those proud titles thou hast won of me2 ,they wound my thoughts1 worse than thy sword my flesh4 ,but thought's the slave of life1 and life time's fool2 ,and time1 that takes survey of all the world1 ,must have a stop4 ,first part1 ,henry ,,iv4 act #e4 sc4 #i4 ,livy inserts the following passage in a plaintive oration of the ,locrenses accusing ,pleminius the ,roman legate of oppression4 8,in hoc legato vestro1 nec hominis quicquam est1 ,patres ,conscripti1 prter figuram et speciem2 neque ,romani civis1 prter habitum vestitumque1 et sonum lingu ,latin4 ,pestis et bellua immanis1 quales fretum1 quondam1 quo ab ,sicilia dividimur1 ad perniciem navigantium circumsedisse1 fabul ferunt#ec40 ,congreve shows a fine taste in the sentiments of the ,mourning ,bride4 ,but in the following passage the picture is too artful to be suggested by severe grief3 ,almeria4 ,o no6 ,time gives increase to my afflictions4 ,the circling hours1 that gather all the woes ,which are diffus'd through the revolving year1 ,come heavy-laden with th' oppressing weight ,to me2 with me1 successively1 they leave ,the sighs1 the tears1 the groans1 the restless cares1 ,and all the damps of grief1 that did retard their flight1 ,they shake their downy wings1 and scatter all ,the dire collected dews on my poor head2 ,then fly with joy and swiftness from me4 ,act #a4 sc4 #a4 ,in the same play1 ,almeria seeing a dead body1 which she took to be ,alphonso's1 expresses sentiments strained and artificial1 which nature suggests not to any person upon such an occasion3 ,had they1 or hearts1 or eyes1 that did this deed8 ,could eyes endure to guide such cruel hands8 ,are not my eyes guilty alike with theirs1 ,that thus can gaze1 and yet not turn to stone8 --,i do not weep6 ,the springs of tears are dry'd1 ,and of a sudden ,i am calm1 as if ,all things were well2 and yet my husband's murder'd6 ,yes1 yes1 ,i know to mourn6 ,i'll sluice this heart1 ,the source of wo1 and let the torrent loose4 ,act #e4 sc4 #aa4 ,lady ,trueman4 ,how could you be so cruel to defer giving me that joy which you knew ,i must receive from your presence8 ,you have robb'd my life of some hours of happiness that ought to have been in it4 ,drummer1 act #e4 ,pope's ,elegy to the memory of an unfortunate lady1 expresses delicately the most tender concern and sorrow for the deplorable fate of a person of worth4 ,a poem of this kind1 deeply serious and pathetic1 rejects all fiction with disdain4 ,we therefore can give no quarter to the following passage1 which is eminently discordant with the subject4 ,it is not the language of the heart1 but of the imagination indulging its flights at ease4 ,it would be a still more severe censure1 if it should be ascribed to imitation1 copying indiscreetly what has been said by others4 ,what though no weeping loves thy ashes grace1 ,nor polish'd marble emulate thy face8 ,what though no sacred earth allow thee room1 ,nor hallow'd dirge be muttered o'er thy tomb8 ,yet shall thy grave with rising flow'rs be drest1 ,and the green turf lie lightly on thy breast3 ,there shall the morn her earliest tears bestow1 ,there the first roses of the year shall blow2 ,while angels with their silver wings o'ershade ,the ground1 now sacred by thy reliques made4 ,fifth4 ,fanciful or sinical sentiments1 sentiments that degenerate into point or conceit1 however they may amuse in an idle hour1 can never be the offspring of any serious or important passion4 ,in the ,ierusalem of ,tasso1 ,tancred1 after a single combat1 spent with fatigue and loss of blood1 falls into a swoon4 ,in this situation1 understood to be dead1 he is discovered by ,erminia1 who was in love with him to distraction4 ,a more happy situation cannot be imagined1 to raise grief in an instant to its highest pitch2 and yet1 in venting her sorrow1 she descends most abominably to antithesis and conceit1 even of the lowest kind4 ,e in lui vers d'inessicabil vena ,lacrime1 e voce di sospiri mista4 ,in che misero punto hor qui me mena ,fortuna8 a che veduta amara e trista8 ,dopo gran tempo i' ti ritrovo pena ,tancredi1 e ti riveggio1 e non son vista1 ,vista non son da te1 benche presente ,e trovando ti perdo eternamente4 ,cant4 #ai4 st4 #aje4 ,armida's lamentation respecting her lover ,rinaldo#ed1 is in the same vitious taste4 ,queen4 ,give me no help in lamentation1 ,i am not barren to bring forth complaints3 ,all springs reduce their currents to mine eyes1 ,that ,i1 being govern'd by the wat'ry moon1 ,may send forth plenteous tears to drown the world4 ,ah1 for my husband1 for my dear ,lord ,edward4 ,king ,richard ,,iii4 act #b4 sc4 #b4 ,jane ,shore4 ,let me be branded for the public scorn1 ,turn'd forth1 and driven to wander like a vagabond1 ,be friendless and forsaken1 seek my bread ,upon the barren wild1 and desolate waste1 ,feed on my sighs1 and drink my falling tears2 ,ere ,i consent to teach my lips injustice1 ,or wrong the orphan who has none to save him4 ,jane ,shore1 act #d4 ,give me your drops1 ye soft-descending rains1 ,give me your streams1 ye never-ceasing springs1 ,that my sad eyes may still supply my duty1 ,and feed an everlasting flood of sorrow4 ,jane ,shore1 act #e4 ,jane ,shore utters her last breath in a witty conceit4 ,then all is well1 and ,i shall sleep in peace---- ',tis very dark1 and ,i have lost you now---- ,was there not something ,i would have bequeath'd you8 ,but ,i have nothing left me to bestow1 ,nothing but one sad sigh4 ,oh mercy1 ,heav'n6 ,dies4 ,act #e4 ,gilford to ,lady ,jane ,gray1 when both were condemned to die3 ,thou stand'st unmov'd2 ,calm temper sits upon thy beauteous brow2 ,thy eyes that flow'd so fast for ,edward's loss1 ,gaze unconcern'd upon the ruin round thee1 ,as if thou hadst resolv'd to brave thy fate1 ,and triumph in the midst of desolation4 ,ha6 see1 it swells1 the liquid crystal rises1 ,it starts in spight of thee---- but ,i will catch it1 ,nor let the earth be wet with dew so rich4 ,lady ,jane ,gray1 act #d4 near the end4 ,the concluding sentiment is altogether sinical1 unsuitable to the importance of the occasion1 and even to the dignity of the passion of love4 99 99 99 99 99 ,corneille1 in his ,examen of the ,cid#ee1 answering an objection1 that his sentiments are sometimes too much refined for persons in deep distress1 observes1 that if poets did not indulge sentiments more ingenious or refined than are prompted by passion1 their performances would often be low2 and extreme grief would never suggest but exclamations merely4 ,this is in plain language to assert1 ,that forced thoughts are more relished than such as are natural1 and therefore ought to be preferred4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the second class is of sentiments that may belong to an ordinary passion1 but are not perfectly concordant with it1 as tinctured by a singular character4 ,in the last act of that excellent comedy1 ,the ,careless ,husband1 ,lady ,easy1 upon ,sir ,charles's reformation1 is made to express more violent and turbulent sentiments of joy1 than are consistent with the mildness of her character4 ,lady ,easy4 ,o the soft treasure6 ,o the dear reward of long-desiring love---- ,thus6 thus to have you mine1 is something more than happiness1 'tis double life1 and madness of abounding joy4 ,if the sentiments of a passion ought to be suited to a peculiar character1 it is still more necessary that sentiments devoid of passion be suited to the character4 ,in the #eth act of the ,drummer1 ,addison makes his gardener act even below the character of an ignorant credulous rustic3 he gives him the behaviour of a gaping idiot4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the following instances are descriptions rather than sentiments1 which compose a third class4 ,of this descriptive manner of painting the passions1 there is in the ,hippolytus of ,euripides1 act #e4 an illustrious instance1 viz4 the speech of ,theseus1 upon hearing of his son's dismal exit4 ,in ,racine's tragedy of ,esther1 the ,queen hearing of the decree issued against her people1 instead of expressing sentiments suitable to the occasion1 turns her attention upon herself1 and describes with accuracy her own situation4 ,juste ,ciel8 ,tout mon sang dans mes veines se glace4 ,act #a4 sc4 #c4 ,again1 ,aman4 ,c'en est fait4 ,mon orgueil est forc de plier1 ,l'inexorable ,aman est reduit a prier4 ,esther1 act #c4 sc4 #e4 ,athalie4 ,quel prodige nouveau me trouble et m'embarrasse8 ,la douceur de sa voix1 son enfance1 sa grace1 ,font insensiblement mon inimiti ,succder---- ,je serois sensible a la piti8 ,athalie1 act #b4 sc4 #g4 ,titus4 ,o de ma passion fureur desespere6 ,brutus of ,voltaire1 act #c4 sc4 #f4 ,what other are the foregoing instances than describing the passion another feels8 99 99 99 99 99 ,an example is given above of remorse and despair expressed by genuine and natural sentiments4 ,in the fourth book of ,paradise ,lost1 ,satan is made to express his remorse and despair in sentiments1 which though beautiful1 are not altogether natural4 ,they are rather the sentiments of a spectator1 than of a person who actually is tormented with these passions4 ,the fourth class is of sentiments introduced too early or too late4 ,some examples mentioned above belong to this class4 ,add the following from ,venice preserv'd1 act #e4 at the close of the scene betwixt ,belvidera and her father ,priuli4 ,the account given by ,belvidera of the danger she was in1 and of her husband's threatening to murder her1 ought naturally to have alarmed her relenting father1 and to have made him express the most perturbed sentiments4 ,instead of which he dissolves into tenderness and love for his daughter1 as if he had already delivered her from danger1 and as if there were a perfect tranquillity4 ,canst thou forgive me all my follies past8 ,i'll henceforth be indeed a father2 never1 ,never more thus expose1 but cherish thee1 ,dear as the vital warmth that feeds my life1 ,dear as these eyes that weep in fondness o'er thee3 ,peace to thy heart4 ,immoral sentiments exposed in their native colours1 instead of being concealed or disguised1 compose the fifth class4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,lady ,macbeth projecting the death of the ,king1 has the following soliloquy3 ---- ,the raven himself's not hoarse ,that croaks the fatal entrance of ,duncan ,under my battlements4 ,come all you spirits ,that tend on mortal thoughts1 unsex me here1 ,and fill me from the crown to th' toe1 top-full ,of direct cruelty2 make thick my blood1 ,stop up th' access and passage to remorse ,that no compunctious visitings of nature ,shake my fell purpose4 ,macbeth1 act #a4 sc4 #g4 ,this speech is not natural4 ,murder under trust was never perpetrated even by the most hardened miscreant without compunction4 ,and that the lady here must have been in horrible agitation appears1 from her invoking the infernal spirits to fill her with cruelty1 and to stop up all avenues to remorse4 ,but in this state of mind1 it is a never-failing device of self-deceit1 to draw the thickest veil over the wicked action1 and to extenuate it by all circumstances that imagination can suggest4 ,and if the crime cannot bear disguise1 the next attempt is1 to thrust it out of mind altogether1 and to rush on to action without thought4 ,this last was the husband's method4 ,strange things ,i have in head1 that will to hand2 ,which must be acted1 ere they must be scann'd4 ,act #c4 sc4 #e4 ,the lady follows neither of these courses1 but in a deliberate manner endeavours to fortify her heart in the commission of an execrable crime1 without even attempting a disguise4 ,this ,i think is not natural4 ,i hope there is no such wretch to be found1 as is here represented4 ,in the ,pompey of ,corneille#ef1 ,photine counsels a wicked action in the plainest terms without disguise4 ,seigneur1 n'attirez point le tonnerre en ces lieux1 ,rangez-vous du parti des destins et des dieux1 ,et sans les accuser d'injustice1 ou d'outrage1 ,puis qu'ils font les heureux1 adorez leur ouvrage2 ,quels que soient leurs decrets1 dclarez-vouz pour eux1 ,et pour leur obir1 perdez le malheureux4 ,press de toutes parts des colres celestes1 ,il en vient dessus vous faire fondre les restes2 ,et sa tte qu' peine il a p drober1 ,tout prte de choir1 cherche avec qui tomber4 ,sa retraite chez vous en effet n'est qu'un crime2 ,elle marque sa haine1 et non pas son estime2 ,il ne vient que vous perdre en venant prendre port1 ,et vous pouvez douter s'il est digne de mort6 ,il devoit mieux remplir nos vux et notre attente1 ,faire voir sur ses nefs la victoire flotante2 ,il n'et ici trouv que joye et que festins1 ,mais puisqu'il est vaincu1 qu'il s'en prenne aux destins ,j'en veux sa disgrace et non sa personne1 ,j'excute regret ce que le ciel ordonne1 ,et du mme poignard1 pour ,csar destin1 ,je perce en soupirant son cur infortun4 ,vouz ne pouvez enfin qu'aux dpens de sa tte ,mettre l'abri la vtre et parer la tempte4 ,laissez nommer sa mort un injuste attentat1 ,la justice n'est pas une vertu d'etat4 ,le choix des actions1 ou mauvaises1 ou bonnes1 ,ne fait qu'anantir la force des couronnes2 ,le droit des rois consiste ne rien pargner2 ,la timide quit dtruit l'art de regner1 ,quand on craint d'tre injuste on a tojours craindre1 ,et qui veut tout pouvoir doit oser tout enfraindre1 ,fuir comme un deshonneur la vertu qui le pert1 ,et voler sans scrupule au crime qui lui fert4 ,in the tragedy of ,esther#eg1 ,haman acknowledges1 without disguise1 his cruelty1 insolence1 and pride4 ,and there is another example of the same kind in the ,agamemnon of ,seneca#eh4 ,in the tragedy of ,athalie#ei1 ,mathan1 in cool blood1 relates to his friend many black crimes he had been guilty of to satisfy his ambition4 99 99 99 99 99 ,in ,congreve's ,double-dealer1 ,maskwell1 instead of disguising or colouring his crimes1 values himself upon them in a soliloquy3 ,cynthia1 let thy beauty gild my crimes2 and whatsoever ,i commit of treachery or deceit1 shall be imputed to me as a merit4---- ,treachery6 what treachery8 ,love cancels all the bonds of friendship1 and sets men right upon their first foundations4 ,act #b4 sc4 #h4 ,in ,french plays1 love1 instead of being hid or disguised1 is treated as a serious concern1 and of greater importance than fortune1 family1 or dignity4 ,i suspect the reason to be1 that in the capital of ,france1 love1 by the easiness of intercourse1 has dwindled down from a real passion to be a connection that is regulated entirely by the mode or fashion#fj4 ,this may in some measure excuse their writers1 but will never make their plays be relished among foreigners4 ,maxime4 ,quoi1 trahir1 mon ami6 ,euphorbe4---- ,l'amour rend tout permis1 ,un vritable amant ne connot point d'amis4 ,cinna1 act #c4 sc4 #a4 ,cesar4 ,reine1 tout est paisible1 et la ville calme1 ,qu'un trouble assez leger avoit trop alarme1 ,n'a plus redouter le divorce intestin ,du soldat insolent1 et du peuple mutin4 ,mais1 ,dieux6 ce moment que je vous ai quitte1 ,d'un trouble bien plus grand mon ame agite1 ,et ces soins importuns qui m'arrachoient de vous ,contre ma grandeur mme allumoient mon courroux4 ,je lui voulois du mal de m'tre si contraire1 ,de rendre ma presence ailleurs si necessaire4 ,mais je lui pardonnois au simple souvenir ,du bonheur qu'a ma flme elle fait obtenir4 ,c'est elle dont je tiens cette haute esprance1 ,qui flate mes desirs d'une illustre apparence1 ,et fait croire ,cesar qu'il peut former de vux1 ,qu'il n'est pas tout--fait indigne de vos feux1 ,et qu'il peut en pretendre une juste conqute1 ,n'ayant plus que les ,dieux au dessus de sa tte4 ,oui1 ,reine1 si quelqu'un dans ce vaste univers ,pouvoit porter plus haut la gloire de vos fers2 ,s'il toit quelque trne o vous puissiez parotre ,plus dignement assise en captivant son matre1 ,j'irois1 j'irois lui1 moins pour le lui ravir1 ,que pour lui disputer le droit de vous servir2 ,et je n'aspirerois au bonheur de vous plaire1 ,qu'aprs avoir mis bas un si grand adversaire4 ,c'etoit pour acquerir un droit si prcieux1 ,que combatoit par tout mon bras ambitieux1 ,et dans ,pharsale mme il a tir l'epe ,plus pour le conserver1 que pour vaincre ,pompe4 ,je l'ai vaincu1 ,princesse1 et le ,dieu de combats ,m'y favorisoit moins que vos divins appas4 ,ils conduisoient ma main1 ils enfloient mon courage1 ,cette pleine victoire est leur dernier ouvrage1 ,c'est l'effet des ardeurs qu'ils daignoient m'inspirer2 ,et vos beaux yeux enfin m'ayant fait sopirer1 ,pour faire que votre ame avec gloire y rponde1 ,m'ont rendu le premier1 et de ,rome1 et du monde2 ,c'est ce glorieux titre1 prsent effectif1 ,que je viens ennoblir par celui de captif2 ,heureux1 si mon sprit gagne tant sur le vtre1 ,qu'il en estime l'un1 et me permette l'autre4 ,pompe1 act #d4 sc4 #c4 ,the last class comprehends sentiments that are unnatural1 as being suited to no character nor passion4 ,these may be subdivided into three branches3 first1 sentiments unsuitable to the constitution of man and the laws of his nature2 second1 inconsistent sentiments2 third1 sentiments that are pure rant and extravagance4 99 99 99 99 99 ,when the fable is of human affairs1 every event1 every incident1 and every circumstance1 ought to be natural1 otherwise the imitation is imperfect4 ,but an imperfect imitation is a venial fault1 compared with that of running cross to nature4 ,in the ,hippolytus of ,euripides#fa1 ,hippolytus1 wishing for another self in his own situation1 ,how much 7says he7 should ,i be touched with his misfortune6 as if it were natural to grieve more for the misfortunes of another than for one's own4 ,osmyn4 ,yet ,i behold her--yet--and now no more4 ,turn your lights inward1 ,eyes1 and view my thought1 ,so shall you still behold her--'twill not be4 ,o impotence of sight6 mechanic sense ,which to exterior objects ow'st thy faculty1 ,not seeing of election1 but necessity4 ,thus do our eyes1 as do all common mirrors1 ,successively reflect succeeding images4 ,nor what they would1 but must2 a star or toad2 ,just as the hand of ,chance administers6 ,mourning ,bride1 act #b4 sc4 #h4 ,no man1 in his senses1 ever thought of applying his eyes to discover what passes in his mind2 far less of blaming his eyes for not seeing a thought or idea4 ,in ,moliere's ,l',avare#fb1 ,harpagon being robbed of his money1 seizes himself by the arm1 mistaking it for that of the robber4 ,and again he expresses himself as follows3 ,je veux aller querir la justice1 et faire donner la question toute ma maison2 servantes1 valets1 fils1 fille1 et moi aussi4 ,this is so absurd as scarce to provoke a smile if it be not at the author4 99 99 99 99 99 ,of the second branch the following are examples4 ---- ,now bid me run ,and ,i will strive with things impossible1 ,yea get the better of them4 ,julius ,csar1 act #b4 sc4 #c4 ,vos mains seules ont droit de vaincre un invincible4 ,le ,cid1 act #e4 sc4 last4 ,que son nom soit beni4 ,que son nom soit chant4 ,que l'on celebre ses ouvrages ,au de la de l'eternit4 ,esther1 act #e4 sc4 last4 ,me miserable6 which way shall ,i fly ,infinite wrath and infinite despair8 ,which way ,i fly is hell3 myself am hell3 ,and in the lowest deep1 a lower deep ,still threat'ning to devour me1 opens wide2 ,to which1 the hell ,i suffer seems a heav'n4 ,paradise ,lost1 book #d4 ,of the third branch1 take the following samples4 99 99 99 99 99 ,lucan1 talking of ,pompey's sepulchre1 ---- ,romanum nomen1 et omne ,imperium ,magno est tumuli modus4 ,obrue saxa ,crimine plena dem4 ,si tota est ,herculis ,oete1 ,et juga tota vacant ,bromio ,nyseia2 quare ,unus in ,egypto ,magno lapis8 ,omnia ,lagi ,rura tenere potest1 si nullo cespite nomen ,hserit4 ,erremus populi1 cinerumque tuorum1 ,magne1 metu nullas ,nili calcemus arenas4 ,l4 #h4 l4 #gih4 ,thus in ,rowe's translation3 ,where there are seas1 or air1 or earth1 or skies1 ,where-e'er ,rome's empire stretches1 ,pompey lies4 ,far be the vile memorial then convey'd6 ,nor let this stone the partial gods upbraid4 ,shall ,hercules all ,oeta's heights demand1 ,and ,nysa's hill for ,bacchus only stand2 ,while one poor pebble is the warrior's doom ,that fought the cause of liberty and ,rome8 ,if fate decrees he must in ,egypt lie1 ,let the whole fertile realm his grave supply1 ,yield the wide country to his awful shade1 ,nor let us dare on any part to tread1 ,fearful we violate the mighty dead4 ,the following passages are pure rant4 ,coriolanus speaking to his mother1 ,what is this8 ,your knees to me8 to your corrected son8 ,then let the pebbles on the hungry beach ,fillop the stars3 then let the mutinous winds ,strike the proud cedars 'gainst the fiery sun3 ,murd'ring impossibility1 to make ,what cannot be1 slight work4 ,coriolanus1 act #e4 sc4 #c4 ,csar4---- ,danger knows full well1 ,that ,csar is more dangerous than he4 ,we were two lions litter'd in one day1 ,and ,i the elder and more terrible4 ,julius ,csar1 act #b4 sc4 #d4 ,almahide4 ,this day---- ,i gave my faith to him1 he his to me4 ,almanzor4 ,good ,heav'n1 thy book of fate before me lay ,but to tear out the journal of this day4 ,or if the order of the world below1 ,will not the gap of one whole day allow1 ,give me that minute when she made that vow4 ,that minute ev'n the happy from their bliss might give1 ,and those who live in grief a shorter time would live4 ,so small a link if broke1 th' eternal chain ,would like divided waters join again4 ,conquest of ,granada1 act #c4 ,almanzor4---- ,i'll hold it fast ,as life2 and when life's gone1 ,i'll hold this last4 ,and if thou tak'st it after ,i am slain1 ,i'll send my ghost to fetch it back again4 ,conquest of ,granada1 part #b4 act #c4 ,lynairaxa4 ,a crown is come1 and will not fate allow4 ,and yet ,i feel something like death is near4 ,my guards1 my guards---- ,let not that ugly skeleton appear4 ,sure ,destiny mistakes2 this death's not mine2 ,she doats1 and meant to cut another line4 ,tell her ,i am a queen---- but 'tis too late2 ,dying1 ,i charge rebellion on my fate2 ,bow down1 ye slaves---- ,bow quickly down and your submission show2 ,i'm pleas'd to taste an empire ere ,i go4 ,dies4 ,conquest of ,granada1 part #b4 act4 #e4 ,ventidius4 ,but you1 ere love misled your wand'ring eyes1 ,were1 sure1 the chief and best of human race1 ,fram'd in the very pride and boast of nature1 ,so perfect1 that the gods who form'd you wonder'd ,at their own skill1 and cry'd1 ,a lucky hit ,has mended our design4 ,dryden1 ,all for ,love1 act #a4 ,not to talk of the impiety of this sentiment1 it is ludicrous instead of being lofty4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the famous ,epitaph on ,raphael is not less absurd than any of the foregoing passages3 ,raphael1 timuit1 quo sospite1 vinci ,rerum magna parens1 et moriente mori4 ,imitated by ,pope in his ,epitaph on ,sir ,godfrey ,kneller3 ,living1 great ,nature fear'd he might outvie ,her works2 and dying1 fears herself may die4 ,such is the force of imitation2 for ,pope of himself would never have been guilty of a thought so extravagant4 ,,chap4 ,,xvii4 ,language of ,passion4 ,among the particulars that compose the social part of our nature1 a propensity to communicate our opinions1 our emotions1 and every thing that affects us1 is remarkable4 ,bad fortune and injustice affect every one greatly2 and of these we are so prone to complain1 that if we have no friend or acquaintance to take part in our sufferings1 we sometimes utter our complaints aloud even where there are none to listen4 ,but this propensity1 though natural1 operates not in every state of mind4 ,a man immoderately grieved1 seeks to afflict himself2 and self-affliction is the gratification of the passion4 ,immoderate grief is therefore mute2 because complaining is struggling for relief3 ,it is the wretch's comfort still to have ,some small reserve of near and inward wo1 ,some unsuspected hoard of inward grief1 ,which they unseen may wail1 and weep1 and mourn1 ,and glutton-like alone devour4 ,mourning ,bride1 act #a4 sc4 #a4 ,when grief subsides1 it then and no sooner finds a tongue4 ,we complain1 because complaining is an effort to disburden the mind of its distress#fc4 ,surprise and terror are silent passions for a different reason3 they agitate the mind so violently1 as for a time to suspend the exercise of its faculties1 and in particular that of speech4 ,love and revenge1 when immoderate1 are not more loquacious than immoderate grief4 ,but when these passions become moderate1 they set the tongue free1 and1 like moderate grief1 become loquacious4 ,moderate love1 when unsuccessful1 is vented in complaints2 when successful1 is full of joy expressed both in words and gestures4 ,as no passion hath any long uninterrupted existence#fd nor beats always with an equal pulse1 the language suggested by passion is also unequal and interrupted4 ,and even during an uninterrupted fit of passion1 we only express in words the more capital sentiments4 ,in familiar conversation1 one who vents every single thought is justly branded with the character of loquacity4 ,sensible persons express no thoughts but what make some figure4 ,in the same manner1 we are only disposed to express the strongest impulses of passion1 especially when it returns with impetuosity after some interruption4 ,i already have had occasion to observe#fe1 that the sentiments ought to be tuned to the passion1 and the language to both4 ,elevated sentiments require elevated language3 tender sentiments ought to be clothed in words that are soft and flowing3 when the mind is depressed with any passion1 the sentiments must be expressed in words that are humble1 not low4 ,words have an intimate connection with the ideas they represent2 and the representation must be imperfect1 if the words correspond not precisely to the ideas4 ,an elevated tone of language to express a plain or humble sentiment1 has a bad effect by a discordant mixture of feeling4 ,there is not less discord when elevated sentiments are dressed in low words3 ,versibus exponi tragicis res comica non vult4 ,indignatur item privatis ac prope ,socco ,dignis carminibus narrari cna ,thyest4 ,horace1 ,ars poet4 l4 #hi4 ,this however excludes not figurative expression1 which1 within moderate bounds1 communicates to the sentiment an agreeable elevation4 ,we are sensible of an effect directly opposite1 where figurative expression is indulged beyond a just measure4 ,the opposition betwixt the expression and the sentiment1 makes the discord appear greater than it is in reality#ff4 ,at the same time1 all passions admit not equally of figures4 ,pleasant emotions1 which elevate or swell the mind1 vent themselves in strong epithets and figurative expression4 ,humbling and dispiriting passions1 on the contrary1 affect to speak plain3 ,et tragicus plerumque dolet sermone pedestri ,telephus et ,peleus3 cum pauper et exul uterque2 ,projicit ampullas et sesquipedalia verba1 ,si curat cor spectantis tetigisse querela4 ,horace1 ,ars poet4 #ie4 ,figurative expression is the work of an enlivened imagination1 and for that reason cannot be the language of anguish or distress4 ,a scene of this kind is painted by ,otway in colours finely adapted to the subject4 ,there is scarce a figure in it1 except a short and natural simile with which the speech is introduced4 ,belvidera talking to her father of her husband3 ,think you saw what pass'd at our last parting2 ,think you beheld him like a raging lion1 ,pacing the earth1 and tearing up his steps1 ,fate in his eyes1 and roaring with the pain ,of burning fury2 think you saw his one hand ,fix'd on my throat1 while the extended other ,grasp'd a keen threat'ning dagger2 oh1 'twas thus ,we last embrac'd1 when1 trembling with revenge1 ,he dragg'd me to the ground1 and at my bosom ,presented horrid death2 cry'd out1 ,my friends1 ,where are my friends8 swore1 wept1 rag'd1 threaten'd1 lov'd2 ,for he yet lov'd1 and that dear love preserv'd me ,to this last trial of a father's pity4 ,i fear not death1 but cannot bear a thought ,that that dear hand should do th' unfriendly office2 ,if ,i was ever then your care1 now hear me2 ,fly to the senate1 save the promis'd lives ,of his dear friends1 ere mine be made the sacrifice4 ,venice preserv'd1 act #e4 ,to preserve this resemblance betwixt words and their meaning1 the sentiments of active and hurrying passions ought to be dressed in words where syllables prevail that are pronounced short or fast2 for these make an impression of hurry and precipitation4 ,emotions1 on the other hand1 that rest upon their objects1 are best expressed by words where syllables prevail that are pronounced long or slow4 ,a person affected with melancholy has a languid and slow train of perceptions4 ,the expression best suited to this state of mind1 is where words not only of long but of many syllables abound in the composition4 ,for that reason1 nothing can be finer than the following passage3 ,in those deep solitudes1 and awful cells1 ,where heav'nly-pensive ,contemplation dwells1 ,and ever-musing ,melancholy reigns4 ,pope1 ,eloisa to ,abelard4 ,to preserve the same resemblance1 another circumstance is requisite1 that the language conformable to the emotion1 be rough or smooth1 broken or uniform4 ,calm and sweet emotions are best expressed by words that glide softly2 surprise1 fear1 and other turbulent passions1 require an expression both rough and broken4 ,it cannot have escaped any diligent inquirer into nature1 that in the hurry of passion1 one generally expresses that thing first which is most at heart4 ,this is beautifully done in the following passage4 ,me1 me2 adsum qui feci3 in me convertite ferrum1 ,o ,rutuli1 mea fraus omnis4 neid ix4 #dbg4 ,passion has often the effect of redoubling words1 the better to make them express the strong conception of the mind4 ,this is finely represented in the following examples3 ---- ,thou sun1 said ,i1 fair light6 ,and thou enlighten'd earth1 so fresh and gay6 ,ye hills and dales1 ye rivers1 woods1 and plains6 ,and ye that live1 and move1 fair creatures6 tell ,tell1 if ye saw1 how came ,i thus1 how here4-- ,paradise ,lost1 b4 viii4 #bgc4 ---- ,both have sinn'd6 but thou ,against ,god only2 ,i1 'gainst ,god and thee3 ,and to the place of judgement will return4 ,there with my cries importune ,heav'n2 that all ,the sentence1 from thy head remov'd1 may light ,on me1 sole cause to thee of all this woe2 ,me6 ,me6 only just object of his ire4 ,paradise ,lost1 book x4 #icj4 ,shakespear is superior to all other writers in delineating passion4 ,it is difficult to say in what part he most excels1 whether in moulding every passion to peculiarity of character1 in discovering the sentiments that proceed from various tones of passion1 or in expressing properly every different sentiment4 ,he imposes not upon his reader1 general declamation and the false coin of unmeaning words1 which the bulk of writers deal in4 ,his sentiments are adjusted1 with the greatest propriety1 to the peculiar character and circumstances of the speaker2 and the propriety is not less perfect betwixt his sentiments and his diction4 ,that this is no exaggeration1 will be evident to every one of taste1 upon comparing ,shakespear with other writers1 in similar passages4 ,if upon any occasion he fall below himself1 it is in those scenes where passion enters not4 ,by endeavouring in this case to raise his dialogue above the style of ordinary conversation1 he sometimes deviates into intricate thought and obscure expression#fg4 ,sometimes1 to throw his language out of the familiar1 he employs rhyme4 ,but may it not in some measure excuse ,shakespear1 ,i shall not say his works1 that he had no pattern1 in his own or in any living language1 of dialogue fitted for the theatre8 ,at the same time1 it ought not to escape observation1 that the stream clears in its progress1 and that in his later plays he has attained the purity and perfection of dialogue2 an observation that1 with greater certainty than tradition1 will direct us to arrange his plays in the order of time4 ,this ought to be considered by those who magnify every blemish that is discovered in the finest genius for the drama ever the world enjoy'd4 ,they ought also for their own sake to consider1 that it is easier to discover his blemishes1 which lie generally at the surface1 than his beauties1 of which none can have a thorough relish but those who dive deep into human nature4 ,one thing must be evident to the meanest capacity1 that where-ever passion is to be display'd1 ,nature shows itself strong in him1 and is conspicuous by the most delicate propriety of sentiment and expression#fh4 ,i return to my subject from a digression ,i cannot repent of4 ,that perfect harmony which ought to subsist among all the constituent parts of a dialogue1 is a beauty1 not less rare than conspicuous4 ,as to expression in particular1 were ,i to give instances1 where1 in one or other of the respects above mentioned1 it corresponds not precisely to the characters1 passions1 and sentiments1 ,i might from different authors collect volumes4 ,following therefore the method laid down in the chapter of sentiments1 ,i shall confine my citations to the grosser errors1 which every writer ought to avoid4 ,and1 first1 of passion expressed in words flowing in an equal course without interruption4 ,in the chapter above cited1 ,corneille is censured for the impropriety of his sentiments2 and here1 for the sake of truth1 ,i am obliged to attack him a second time4 ,were ,i to give instances from that author of the fault under consideration1 ,i might copy whole tragedies2 for he is not less faulty in this particular1 than in passing upon us his own thoughts as a spectator1 instead of the genuine sentiments of passion4 ,nor would a comparison betwixt him and ,shakespear upon the present point1 redound more to his honour1 than the former upon the sentiments4 ,racine here is less incorrect than ,corneille1 though many degrees inferior to the ,english author4 ,from ,racine ,i shall gather a few instances4 ,the first shall be the description of the sea-monster in his ,phdra1 given by ,theramene the companion of ,hippolytus1 and an eye-witness to the disaster4 ,theramene is represented in terrible agitation1 which appears from the following passage1 so boldly figurative as not to be excused but by violent perturbation of mind4 ,le ciel avec horreur voit ce monstre sauvage1 ,la terre s'en meut1 l'air en est infect1 ,le flot1 qui l'apporta1 recule epouvant4 ,yet ,theramene gives a long pompous connected description of this event1 dwelling upon every minute circumstance1 as if he had been only a cool spectator4 ,a peine nous sortions des portes de ,trzene1 c4 ,act #e4 sc4 #f4 ,the last speech of ,atalide1 in the tragedy of ,bajazet1 of the same author1 is a continued discourse1 and but a faint representation of the violent passion which forc'd her to put an end to her own life4 ,enfin1 c'en est donc fait1 c4 ,act #e4 sc4 last4 ,though works1 not authors1 are the professed subject of this critical undertaking1 ,i am tempted by the present speculation1 to transgress once again the limits prescribed1 and to venture a cursory reflection upon this justly-celebrated author1 ,that he is always sensible1 generally correct1 never falls low1 maintains a moderate degree of dignity without reaching the sublime1 paints delicately the tender passions1 but is a stranger to the true language of enthusiastic or fervid passion4 ,if in general the language of violent passion ought to be broken and interrupted1 soliloquies ought to be so in a peculiar manner4 ,language is intended by nature for society2 and a man when alone1 though he always clothes his thoughts in words1 seldom gives his words utterance unless when prompted by some strong emotion2 and even then by starts and intervals only#fi4 ,shakespear's soliloquies may be justly established as a model2 for it is not easy to conceive any model more perfect4 ,of his many incomparable soliloquies1 ,i confine myself to the two following1 being different in their manner4 ,hamlet4 ,oh1 that this too too solid flesh would melt1 ,thaw1 and resolve itself into a dew6 ,or that the ,everlasting had not fix'd ,his cannon 'gainst self slaughter8 ,o ,god6 ,o ,god6 ,how weary1 stale1 flat1 and unprofitable ,seem to me all the uses of this world6 ,fie on't6 ,o fie6 'tis an unweeded garden1 ,that grows to seed3 things rank and gross in nature ,possess it merely4 ,that it should come to this6 ,but two months dead1 nay not so much2 not two-- ,so excellent a king1 that was1 to this1 ,hyperion to a satyr3 so loving to my mother1 ,that he permitted not the winds of heav'n ,visit her face too roughly4 ,heav'n and earth6 ,must ,i remember1--why1 she would hang on him1 ,as if increase of appetite had grown ,by what it fed on2 yet1 within a month---- ,let me not think----,frailty1 thy name is ,woman6 ,a little month1 or ere those shoes were old1 ,with which she follow'd my poor father's body1 ,like ,niobe1 all tears---- why she1 ev'n she---- 7,o ,heav'n6 a beast that wants discourse of reason ,would have mourn'd longer----7 married with mine uncle1 ,my father's brother2 but no more like my father ,than ,i to ,hercules---- ,within a month---- ,ere yet the salt of most unrighteous tears ,had left the flushing in her gauled eyes1 ,she married---- ,oh1 most wicked speed1 to post ,with such dexterity to incestuous sheets6 ,it is not1 nor it cannot come to good4 ,but break1 my heart1 for ,i must hold my tongue4 ,hamlet1 act #a4 sc4 #c4 ,ford4 ,hum6 ha6 is this a vision8 is this a dream8 do ,i sleep8 ,mr ,ford1 awake2 awake ,mr ,ford2 there's a hole made in your best coat1 ,mr ,ford6 this 'tis to be married6 this 'tis to have linen and buck baskets6 ,well1 ,i will proclaim myself what ,i am2 ,i will now take the leacher2 he is at my house1 he cannot 'scape me2 'tis impossible he should2 he cannot creep into a halfpenny-purse1 nor into a pepper-box4 ,but lest the devil that guides him should aid him1 ,i will search impossible places2 though what ,i am ,i cannot avoid1 yet to be what ,i would not1 shall not make me tame4 ,merry ,wives of ,windsor1 act #c4 sc4 last4 ,these soliloquies are accurate copies of nature4 ,in a passionate soliloquy one begins with thinking aloud2 and the strongest feelings only1 are expressed4 ,as the speaker warms1 he begins to imagine one listening1 and gradually slides into a connected discourse4 ,how far distant are soliloquies generally from these models8 ,they are indeed for the most part so unhappily executed1 as to give disgust instead of pleasure4 ,the first scene of ,iphigenia in ,tauris discovers that princess1 in a soliloquy1 gravely reporting to herself her own history4 ,there is the same impropriety in the first scene of ,alcestes1 and in the other introductions of ,euripides1 almost without exception4 ,nothing can be more ridiculous4 ,it puts one in mind of that ingenious device in ,gothic paintings1 of making every figure explain itself by a written label issuing from its mouth4 ,the description a parasite1 in the ,eunuch of ,terence#gj1 gives of himself in the form of a soliloquy1 is lively2 but against all the rules of propriety2 for no man1 in his ordinary state of mind1 and upon a familiar subject1 ever thinks of talking aloud to himself4 ,the same objection lies against a soliloquy in the ,adelphi of the same author#ga4 ,the soliloquy which makes the third scene1 act third1 of his ,heicyra1 is insufferable2 for there ,pamphilus1 soberly and circumstantially1 relates to himself an adventure which had happened to him a moment before4 ,corneille is not more happy in his soliloquies than in his dialogue4 ,take for a specimen the first scene of ,cinna4 ,racine also is extremely faulty in the same respect4 ,his soliloquies1 almost without exception1 are regular harangues1 a chain completed in every link1 without interruption or interval4 ,that of ,antiochus in ,berenice#gb resembles a regular pleading1 where the parties pro and con display their arguments at full length4 ,the following soliloquies are equally destitute of propriety3 ,bajazet1 act #c4 sc4 #g4 ,mithridate1 act #c4 sc4 #d4 act #d4 sc4 #e4 ,iphigenia1 act #d4 sc4 #h4 ,soliloquies upon lively or interesting subjects1 but without any turbulence of passion1 may be carried on in a continued chain of thought4 ,if1 for example1 the nature and sprightliness of the subject prompt a man to speak his thoughts in the form of a dialogue1 the expression must be carried on without break or interruption1 as in a dialogue betwixt two persons4 ,this justifies ,falstaff's soliloquy upon honour3 ,what need ,i be so forward with ,death1 that calls not on me8 ,well1 'tis no matter1 ,honour pricks me on4 ,but how if ,honour prick me off1 when ,i come on8 how then8 ,can ,honour set a leg8 ,no3 or an arm8 ,no3 or take away the grief of a wound8 ,no3 ,honour hath no skill in surgery then8 ,no4 ,what is ,honour8 ,a word4--,what is that word honour8 ,air2 a trim reckoning4---- ,who hath it8 ,he that dy'd a ,wednesday4 ,doth he feel it8 ,no4 ,doth he hear it8 ,no4 ,is it insensible then8 ,yea1 to the dead4 ,but will it not live with the living8 ,no3 ,why8 ,detraction will not suffer it4 ,therefore1 ,i'll none of it2 honour is a mere scutcheon1 and so ends my catechism4 ,first part ,henry ,,iv4 act #e4 sc4 #b4 ,and even without dialogue1 a continued discourse may be justified1 where the soliloquy is upon an important subject that makes a strong impression1 but without much agitation4 ,for if it be at all excusable to think aloud1 it is necessary that the language with the reasoning be carried on in a chain without a broken link4 ,in this view that admirable soliloquy in ,hamlet upon life and immortality1 being a serene meditation upon the most interesting of all subjects1 ought to escape censure4 ,and the same consideration will justify the soliloquy that introduces the #eth act of ,addison's ,cato4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the next class of the grosser errors which all writers ought to avoid1 shall be of language elevated above the tone of the sentiment2 of which take the following instances4 ,zara4 ,swift as occasion1 ,i ,myself will fly2 and earlier than the morn ,wake thee to freedom4 ,now 'tis late2 and yet ,some news few minutes past arriv'd1 which seem'd ,to shake the temper of the ,king---- ,who knows ,what racking cares disease a monarch's bed8 ,or love1 that late at night still lights his lamp1 ,and strikes his rays through dusk1 and folded lids1 ,forbidding rest1 may stretch his eyes awake1 ,and force their balls abroad at this dead hour4 ,i'll try4 ,mourning ,bride1 act #c4 sc4 #d4 ,the language here is undoubtedly too pompous and laboured for describing so simple a circumstance as absence of sleep4 ,in the following passage1 the tone of the language1 warm and plaintive1 is well suited to the passion1 which is recent grief4 ,but every one will be sensible1 that in the last couplet save one1 the tone is changed1 and the mind suddenly elevated to be let fall as suddenly in the last couplet4 ,il dteste jamais sa coupable victoire1 ,il renonce la cour1 aux humains1 la gloire2 ,et se fuant lui-mme1 au milieu des deserts1 ,il va cacher sa peine au bout de l'univers2 ,la1 soit que le soleil rendt le jour au monde1 ,soit qu'il fint sa course au vaste sein de l'onde1 ,sa voix faisoit redire aux echos attendris1 ,le nom1 le triste nom1 de son malheureux fils4 ,henriade1 chant4 viii4 #bbi4 ,language too artificial or too figurative for the gravity1 dignity1 or importance1 of the occasion1 may be put in a third class4 99 99 99 99 99 ,chimene demanding justice against ,rodrigue who killed her father1 instead of a plain and pathetic expostulation1 makes a speech stuffed with the most artificial flowers of rhetoric3 ,sire1 mon pere est mort1 mes yeux ont v son sang ,couler gros bouillons de son gnreux flanc2 ,ce sang qui tant de fois garantit vos murailles1 ,ce sang qui tant de fois vous gagna des batailles1 ,ce sang qui1 tout sorti fume encore de courroux ,de se voir rpandu pour d'autres que pour vous1 ,qu'au milieu des hazards n'osoit verser la guerre1 ,rodrigue en votre cour vient d'en couvrir la terre4 ,j'ai couru sur le lieu sans force1 et sans couleur2 ,je l'ai trouv sans vie4 ,excusez ma douleur1 ,sire2 la voix me manque ce rcit funeste1 ,mes pleurs et mes soupirs vous diront mieux le reste4 ,and again3 ,son flanc etoit ouvert1 et1 pour mieux m'emouvoir1 ,son sang sur la poussire crivoit mon devoire2 ,ou plutt sa valeur en cet tat rduite ,me parloit par sa plaie1 et htoit ma pursuite1 ,et pour se faire entendre au plus juste des ,rois1 ,par cette triste bouche elle empruntoit ma voix4 ,act #b4 sc4 #i4 ,nothing can be contrived in language more averse to the tone of the passion than this florid speech4 ,i should imagine it more apt to provoke laughter than to inspire concern or pity4 99 99 99 99 99 ,in a fourth class shall be given specimens of language too light or airy for a severe passion4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the agony a mother must feel upon the savage murder of two hopeful sons1 rejects all imagery and figurative expression1 as discordant in the highest degree4 ,therefore the following passage is undoubtedly in a bad taste3 ,queen4 ,ah1 my poor princes6 ah1 my tender babes1 ,my unblown flow'rs1 new-appearing sweets6 ,if yet your gentle souls fly in the air1 ,and be not fixt in doom perpetual1 ,hover about me with your airy wings1 ,and hear your mother's lamentation4 ,richard ,,iii4 act #d4 sc4 #d4 ,again1 ,k4 ,philip4 ,you are as fond of grief as of your child4 ,constance4 ,grief fills the room up of my absent child1 ,lies in his bed1 walks up and down with me1 ,puts on his pretty looks1 repeats his words1 ,remembers me of all his gracious parts1 ,stuffs out his vacant garment with his form2 ,then have ,i reason to be fond of grief4 ,king ,john1 act #c4 sc4 #f4 ,a thought that turns upon the expression instead of the subject1 commonly called a play of words1 being low and childish1 is unworthy of any composition1 whether gay or serious1 that pretends to the smallest share of dignity4 ,thoughts of this kind make a fifth class4 99 99 99 99 99 ,in the ,aminta of ,tasso#gc the lover falls into a mere play of words1 demanding how he who had lost himself1 could find a mistress4 ,and for the same reason1 the following passage in ,corneille has been generally condemned3 ,chimene4 ,mon pere est mort1 ,elvire1 et la premire pe ,dont s'est arm ,rodrigue sa trame coupe4 ,pleurez1 pleurez1 mes yeux1 et fondez-vous en eau1 ,la moiti de ma vie a mis l'autre au tombeau1 ,et m'oblige venger1 aprs ce coup funeste1 ,celle que je n'ai plus1 sur celle qui me reste4 ,cid1 act #c4 sc4 #c4 ,to die is to be banish'd from myself3 ,and ,sylvia is myself2 banish'd from her1 ,is self from self2 a deadly banishment6 ,two ,gentlemen of ,verona1 act #c4 sc4 #c4 ,countess4 ,i pray thee1 ,lady1 have a better cheer3 ,if thou ingrossest all the griefs as thine1 ,thou robb'st me of a moiety4 ,all's well that ends well1 act #c4 sc4 #c4 ,k4 ,henry4 ,o my poor kingdom1 sick with civil blows6 ,when that my care could not with-hold thy riots1 ,what wilt thou do when riot is thy care8 ,o1 thou wilt be a wilderness again1 ,peopled with wolves1 thy old inhabitants4 ,second part1 ,henry ,,iv4 act #d4 sc4 #aa4 ,cruda ,amarilli1 che col nome ancora ,d'amar1 ahi lasso1 amaramente insegni4 ,pastor ,fido1 act #a4 sc4 #b4 ,antony1 speaking of ,julius ,csar3 ,o world6 thou wast the forest of this hart2 ,and this1 indeed1 ,o world1 the heart of thee4 ,how like a deer1 stricken by many princes1 ,dost thou here lie6 ,julius ,csar1 act #c4 sc4 #c4 ,playing thus with the sound of words1 which is still worse than a pun1 is the meanest of all conceits4 ,but ,shakespear1 when he descends to a play of words1 is not always in the wrong2 for it is done sometimes to denote a peculiar character2 as is the following passage4 ,king ,philip4 ,what say'st thou1 boy8 look in the lady's face4 ,lewis4 ,i do1 my ,lord1 and in her eye ,i find ,a wonder1 or a wond'rous miracle2 ,the shadow of myself form'd in her eye2 ,which being but the shadow of your son1 ,becomes a sun1 and makes your son a shadow4 ,i do protest1 ,i never lov'd myself1 ,till now infixed ,i beheld myself ,drawn in the flatt'ring table of her eye4 ,faulconbridge4 ,drawn in the flatt'ring table of her eye6 ,hang'd in the frowning wrinkle of her brow6 ,and quarter'd in her heart6 he doth espy ,himself ,love's traitor3 this is pity now1 ,that hang'd1 and drawn1 and quarter'd1 there should be1 ,in such a love so vile a lout as he4 ,king ,john1 act4 #b4 sc4 #e4 ,a jingle of words is the lowest species of this low wit2 which is scarce sufferable in any case1 and least of all in an heroic poem4 ,and yet ,milton in some instances has descended to this puerility3 ,and brought into the world a world of wo4 ---- ,begirt th' almighty throne ,beseeching or besieging---- ,which tempted our attempt---- ,at one slight bound high overleap'd all bound1 ---- ,with a shout ,loud as from numbers without number4 ,one should think it unnecessary to enter a caveat against an expression that has no meaning1 or no distinct meaning2 and yet somewhat of this kind may be found even among good writers4 ,these make a sixth class4 ,sebastian4 ,i beg no pity for this mould'ring clay4 ,for if you give it burial1 there it takes ,possession of your earth3 ,if burnt and scatter'd in the air2 the winds ,that strow my dust1 diffuse my royalty1 ,and spread me o'er your clime2 for where one atom ,of mine shall light1 know there ,sebastian reigns4 ,dryden1 ,don ,sebastian ,king of ,portugal1 act #a4 ,cleopatra4 ,now1 what news my ,charmion8 ,will he be kind8 and will he not forsake me8 ,am ,i to live or die8 nay1 do ,i live8 ,or am ,i dead8 for when he gave his answer1 ,fate took the word1 and then ,i liv'd or dy'd4 ,dryden1 ,all for ,love1 act #b4 ,if she be coy1 and scorn my noble fire1 ,if her chill heart ,i cannot move2 ,why1 ,i'll enjoy the very love1 ,and make a mistress of my own desire4 ,cowley1 poem inscribed1 ,the ,request4 ,his whole poem1 inscribed1 ,my ,picture1 is a jargon of the same kind3 ---- ',tis he1 they cry1 by whom ,not men1 but war itself is overcome4 ,indian ,queen4 ,such empty expressions are finely ridiculed in the ,rehearsal3 ,was't not unjust to ravish hence her breath1 ,and in life's stead to leave us nought but death8 ,act #d4 sc #a4 ,,chap4 ,,xviii4 ,beauty of ,language4 ,of all the fine arts1 painting only and sculpture are in their nature imitative4 ,a field laid out with taste1 is not1 properly speaking1 a copy or imitation of nature1 but nature itself embellished4 ,architecture deals in originals1 and copies not from nature4 ,sound and motion may in some measure be imitated by music2 but for the most part music1 like architecture1 deals in originals4 ,language has no archetype in nature1 more than music or architecture2 unless where1 like music1 it is imitative of sound or motion4 ,in the description of particular sounds1 language sometimes happily furnisheth words1 which1 beside their customary power of exciting ideas1 resemble by their softness or harshness the sound described3 and there are words1 which1 by the celerity or slowness of pronunciation1 have some resemblance to the motion they signify4 ,this imitative power of words goes one step farther4 ,the loftiness of some words1 makes them proper symbols of lofty ideas3 a rough subject is imitated by harsh-sounding words2 and words of many syllables pronounced slow and smooth1 are naturally expressive of grief and melancholy4 ,words have a separate effect on the mind1 abstracting from their signification and from their imitative power4 ,they are more or less agreeable to the ear1 by the roundness1 sweetness1 faintness1 or roughness1 of their tones4 ,these are beauties1 but not of the first rank3 ,they are relished by those only1 who have more delicacy of sensation than belongs to the bulk of mankind4 ,language possesseth a beauty superior greatly in degree1 of which we are eminently conscious when a thought is communicated in a strong and lively manner4 ,this beauty of language1 arising from its power of expressing thought1 is apt to be confounded with the beauty of the thought expressed2 which beauty1 by a natural transition of feeling among things intimately connected1 is convey'd to the expression1 and makes it appear more beautiful#gd4 ,but these beauties1 if we wish to think accurately1 must be carefully distinguished from each other4 ,they are indeed so distinct1 that we sometimes are conscious of the highest pleasure language can afford1 when the subject expressed is disagreeable4 ,a thing that is loathsome1 or a scene of horror to make one's hair stand on end1 may be described in the liveliest manner4 ,in this case1 the disagreeableness of the subject1 doth not even obscure the agreeableness of the description4 ,the causes of the original beauty of language considered as significant1 which is a branch of the present subject1 will be explained in their order4 ,i shall only at present observe1 that this beauty is the beauty of means fitted to an end1 viz4 the communication of thought4 ,and hence it evidently appears1 that of several expressions all conveying the same thought1 the most beautiful1 in the sense now mentioned1 is that which in the most perfect manner answers its end4 ,the several beauties of language above mentioned1 being of different kinds and distinguishable from each other1 ought to be handled separately4 ,i shall begin with those beauties of language which arise from sound2 after which will follow the beauties of language considered as significant4 ,this order appears natural2 for the sound of a word is attended to1 before we consider its signification4 ,in a third section come those singular beauties of language that are derived from a resemblance betwixt sound and signification4 ,the beauties of verse ,i propose to handle in the last section4 ,for though the foregoing beauties are found in verse as well as in prose2 yet verse has many peculiar beauties1 which for the sake of perspicuity must be brought under one view4 ,and versification1 at any rate1 is a subject of so great importance1 as to deserve a place by itself4 ,,sect4 ,i4 ,beauty of language with respect to sound4 ,i propose to handle this subject in the following order1 which appears the most natural4 ,the sounds of the different letters come first4 ,next1 these sounds as united in syllables4 ,third1 syllables united in words4 ,fourth1 words united in a period4 ,and in the last place1 periods united in a discourse4 ,with respect to the first article1 every vowel is sounded by a single expiration of air from the wind-pipe through the cavity of the mouth2 and by varying this cavity1 the different vowels are sounded4 ,the air in passing through cavities differing in size1 produceth various sounds1 some high or sharp1 some low or flat4 ,a small cavity occasions a high sound1 a large cavity a low sound4 ,the five vowels accordingly1 pronounced with the same extension of the wind-pipe1 but with different openings of the mouth1 form a regular series of sounds1 descending from high to low1 in the following order1 i1 e1 a#ge1 o1 u4 ,each of these sounds is agreeable to the ear4 ,and if it be inquired which of them is the most agreeable1 it is perhaps the safest side to hold1 that there is no universal preference of any one before the rest4 ,probably those vowels which are farthest removed from the extremes1 will generally be the most relished4 ,this is all ,i have to remark upon the first article4 ,for consonants being letters which of themselves have no sound1 have no other power but to form articulate sounds in conjunction with vowels2 and every such articulate sound being a syllable1 consonants come naturally under the second article4 ,to which therefore we proceed4 ,all consonants are pronounced with a less cavity than any of the vowels2 and consequently they contribute to form a sound still more sharp than the sharpest vowel pronounced single4 ,hence it follows1 that every articulate sound into which a consonant enters1 must necessarily be double1 though pronounced with one expiration of air1 or with one breath as commonly expressed4 ,the reason is1 that though two sounds readily unite2 yet where they differ in tone1 both of them must be heard if neither of them be suppressed4 ,for the same reason1 every syllable must be composed of as many sounds as there are letters1 supposing every letter to be distinctly pronounced4 ,we next inquire1 how far articulate sounds into which consonants enter1 are agreeable to the ear4 ,with respect to this point1 there is a noted observation1 that all sounds of difficult pronunciation are to the ear harsh in proportion4 ,few tongues are so polished as entirely to have rejected sounds that are pronounced with difficulty2 and such sounds must in some measure be disagreeable4 ,but with respect to agreeable sounds1 it appears1 that a double sound is always more agreeable than a single sound4 ,every one who has an ear must be sensible1 that the diphthongs oi or ai are more agreeable than any of these vowels pronounced singly4 ,and the same holds where a consonant enters into the double sound4 ,the syllable le has a more agreeable sound than the vowel e or than any vowel4 ,and in support of experience1 a satisfactory argument may be drawn from the wisdom of ,providence4 ,speech is bestowed upon man1 to qualify him for society4 ,the provision he hath of articulate sounds1 is proportioned to the use he hath for them4 ,but if sounds that are agreeable singly were not also agreeable in conjunction1 the necessity of a painful selection would render language intricate and difficult to be attained in any perfection4 ,and this selection1 at the same time1 would tend to abridge the number of useful sounds1 so as perhaps not to leave sufficient for answering the different ends of language4 ,in this view1 the harmony of pronunciation differs widely from that of music properly so called4 ,in the latter are discovered many sounds singly agreeable1 that in conjunction are extremely disagreeable2 none but what are called concordant sounds having a good effect in conjunction4 ,in the former1 all sounds singly agreeable are in conjunction concordant2 and ought to be1 in order to fulfil the purposes of language4 ,having discussed syllables1 we proceed to words2 which make a third article4 ,monosyllables belong to the former head4 ,polysyllables open a different scene4 ,in a cursory view1 one will readily imagine1 that the effect a word hath upon the ear1 must depend entirely upon the agreeableness or disagreeableness of its component syllables4 ,in part it doth2 but not entirely2 for we must also take under consideration the effect that a number of syllables composing a word have in succession4 ,in the first place1 syllables in immediate succession1 pronounced1 each of them1 with the same or nearly the same aperture of the mouth1 produce a weak and imperfect sound2 witness the ,french words dtt 7detested71 dit-il 7says he71 patetique 7pathetic74 ,on the other hand1 a syllable of the greatest aperture succeeding one of the smallest1 or the opposite1 makes a succession1 which1 because of its remarkable disagreeableness1 is distinguished by a proper name1 viz4 hiatus4 ,the most agreeable succession1 is1 where the cavity is increased and diminished alternately by moderate intervals4 ,secondly1 words consisting wholly of syllables pronounced slow or of syllables pronounced quick1 commonly called long and short syllables1 have little melody in them4 ,witness the words petitioner1 fruiterer1 dizziness4 ,on the other hand1 the intermixture of long and short syllables is remarkably agreeable2 for example1 degree1 repent1 wonderful1 altitude1 rapidity1 independent1 impetuosity4 ,the cause will be explained afterward1 in treating of versification4 ,distinguishable from the beauties above mentioned1 there is a beauty of some words which arises from their signification4 ,when the emotion raised by the length or shortness1 the roughness or smoothness1 of the sound1 resembles in any degree what is raised by the sense1 we feel a very remarkable pleasure4 ,but this subject belongs to the third section4 ,the foregoing observations afford a standard to every nation1 for estimating1 pretty accurately1 the comparative merit of the words that enter into their own language4 ,and though at first view they may be thought equally useful for estimating the comparative merit of different languages2 yet this holds not in fact1 because no person can readily be found who is sufficiently qualified to apply the standard4 ,what ,i mean is1 that different nations judge differently of the harshness or smoothness of articulate sounds3 a sound1 harsh and disagreeable to an ,italian1 may be abundantly smooth to a northern ear4 ,where are we to find a judge to determine this controversy8 and supposing a judge1 upon what principle is his decision to be founded8 ,the case here is precisely the same as in behaviour and manners4 ,plain-dealing and sincerity1 liberty in words and actions1 form the character of one people4 ,politeness1 reserve1 and a total disguise of every sentiment that can give offence1 form the character of another people4 ,to each the manners of the other are disagreeable4 ,an effeminate mind cannot bear the least of that roughness and severity1 which is generally esteemed manly when exerted upon proper occasions4 ,neither can an effeminate ear bear the least harshness in words that are deemed nervous and sounding by those accustomed to a rougher tone of language4 ,must we then relinquish all thoughts of comparing languages in the point of roughness and smoothness1 as a fruitless inquiry8 ,not altogether so2 for we may proceed a certain length1 though without hope of an ultimate decision4 ,a language with difficulty pronounced even by natives1 must yield the preference to a smoother language4 ,again1 supposing two languages pronounced with equal facility by natives1 the preference1 in my judgement1 ought to be in favour of the rougher language2 provided it be also stored with a competent share of more mellow sounds4 ,this will be evident from attending to the different effects that articulate sound hath upon the mind4 ,a smooth gliding sound is agreeable1 by smoothing the mind and lulling it to rest4 ,a rough bold sound1 on the contrary1 animates the mind4 ,the effort perceived in pronouncing1 is communicated to the hearers3 they feel in their own minds a similar effort1 which rouses their attention and disposes them to action4 ,i must add another consideration4 ,the agreeableness of contrast in the rougher language1 for which the great variety of sounds gives ample opportunity1 must1 even in an effeminate ear1 prevail over the more uniform sounds of the smoother language#gf4 ,this appears to me all that can be safely determined upon the present point4 ,with respect to the other circumstances that constitute the beauty of words1 the standard above mentioned is infallible when apply'd to foreign languages as well as to our own4 ,for every man1 whatever be his mother-tongue1 is equally capable to judge of the length or shortness of words1 of the alternate opening and closing of the mouth in speaking1 and of the relation which the sound bears to the sense4 ,in these particulars1 the judgement is susceptible of no prejudice from custom1 at least of no invincible prejudice4 ,that the ,english tongue1 originally harsh1 is at present much softened by dropping in the pronunciation many redundant consonants1 is undoubtedly true4 ,that it is not capable of being farther mellowed1 without suffering in its force and energy1 will scarce be thought by any one who possesses an ear4 ,and yet such in ,britain is the propensity for dispatch1 that overlooking the majesty of words composed of many syllables aptly connected1 the prevailing taste is1 to shorten words1 even at the expence of making them disagreeable to the ear and harsh in the pronunciation4 ,but ,i have no occasion to insist upon this article1 being prevented by an excellent writer1 who possessed1 if any man ever did1 the true genius of the ,english tongue#gg4 ,i cannot however forbear urging one observation borrowed from that author4 ,several tenses of our verbs are formed by adding the final syllable ed1 which1 being a weak sound1 has remarkably the worse effect by possessing the most conspicuous place in the word4 ,upon that account1 the vowel is in common speech generally suppressed1 and the consonant is added to the foregoing syllable4 ,hence the following rugged sounds1 drudg'd1 disturb'd1 rebuk'd1 fledg'd4 ,it is still less excuseable to follow this practice in writing2 for the hurry of speaking may excuse what is altogether improper in a composition of any value4 ,the syllable ed1 it is true1 makes but a poor figure at the end of a word3 but we ought to submit to that defect1 rather than multiply the number of harsh words1 which1 after all that has been done1 bear an over-proportion in our tongue4 ,the author above mentioned1 by showing a good example1 did all in his power to restore that syllable2 and he well deserves to be imitated4 ,some exceptions however ,i would make4 ,a word which signifies labour1 or any thing harsh or rugged1 ought not to be smooth4 ,therefore forc'd1 with an apostrophe1 is better than forced1 without it4 ,another exception is1 where the penult syllable ends with a vowel4 ,in that case the final syllable ed may be apostrophized without making the word harsh4 ,examples1 betray'd1 carry'd1 destroy'd1 employ'd4 ,the article next in order1 is to consider the music of words as united in a period4 ,and as the arrangement of words in succession so as to afford the greatest pleasure to the ear1 depends on principles pretty remote from common view1 it will be necessary to premise some general observations upon the effect that a number of objects have upon the mind when they are placed in an increasing or decreasing series4 ,the effect of such a series will be very different1 according as resemblance or contrast prevails4 ,where the members of a series vary by small differences1 resemblance prevails2 which1 in ascending1 makes us conceive the second object of no greater size than the first1 the third of no greater size than the second1 and so of the rest4 ,this diminisheth in appearance the size of the whole4 ,again1 when beginning at the largest object1 we proceed gradually to the least1 resemblance makes us imagine the second as large as the first1 and the third as large as the second2 which in appearance magnifies every object of the series except the first4 ,on the other hand1 in a series varying by great differences1 where contrast prevails1 the effects are directly opposite4 ,a large object succeeding a small one of the same kind1 appears by the opposition larger than usual3 and a small object1 for the same reason1 succeeding one that is large1 appears less than usual#gh4 ,hence a remarkable pleasure in viewing a series ascending by large intervals2 directly opposite to what we feel when the intervals are small4 ,beginning at the smallest object of a series where contrast prevails1 this object has the same effect upon the mind as if it stood single without making a part of the series4 ,but this is not the case of the second object1 which by means of contrast makes a much greater figure than when viewed singly and apart2 and the same effect is perceived in ascending progressively1 till we arrive at the last object4 ,the direct contrary effect is produced in descending2 for in this direction1 every object1 except the first1 makes a less figure than when viewed separately and independent of the series4 ,we may then lay down as a maxim1 which will hold in the composition of language as well as of other subjects1 ,that a strong impulse succeeding a weak1 makes a double impression on the mind2 and that a weak impulse succeeding a strong1 makes scarce any impression4 ,after establishing this maxim1 we can be at no loss about its application to the subject in hand4 ,the following rule is laid down by ,diomedes#gi4 8,in verbis observandum est1 ne a majoribus ad minora descendat oratio2 melius enim dicitur1 ,vir est optimus1 quam1 ,vir optimus est40 ,this rule is applicable not only to single words1 but equally to entire members of a period1 which1 according to our author's expression1 ought not more than single words to proceed from the greater to the less1 but from the less to the greater4 ,in arranging the members of a period1 no writer equals ,cicero4 ,the beauty of the following examples out of many1 will not suffer me to slur them over by a reference4 ,quicum qustor fueram1 ,quicum me sors consuetudoque majorum1 ,quicum me ,deorum hominumque judicium conjunxerat4 ,again3 ,habet honorem quem petimus1 ,habet spem quam prpositam nobis habemus1 ,habet existimationem1 multo sudore1 labore1 vigiliisque1 collectam4 ,again3 ,eripite nos ex miseriis1 ,eripite nos ex faucibus eorum1 ,quorum crudelitas1 nostro sanguine non potest expleri4 ,de oratore1 l4 #a4 #eb4 ,this order of words or members gradually increasing in length1 may1 so far as concerns the pleasure of sound singly1 be denominated a climax in sound4 ,the last article is the music of periods as united in a discourse2 which shall be dispatched in a very few words4 ,by no other human means is it possible to present to the mind1 such a number of objects and in so swift a succession1 as by speaking or writing4 ,and for that reason1 variety ought more to be studied in these1 than in any other sort of composition4 ,hence a rule regarding the arrangement of the members of different periods with relation to each other1 ,that to avoid a tedious uniformity of sound and cadence1 the arrangement1 the cadence1 and the length of these members1 ought to be diversified as much as possible4 ,and if the members of different periods be sufficiently diversified1 the periods themselves will be equally so4 ,,sect4 ,,ii4 ,beauty of language with respect to signification4 ,it is well said by a noted writer#hj1 8,that by means of speech we can divert our sorrows1 mingle our mirth1 impart our secrets1 communicate our counsels1 and make mutual compacts and agreements to supply and assist each other40 ,considering speech as contributing thus to so many good purposes1 it follows1 that the chusing words which have an accurate meaning1 and tend to convey clear and distinct ideas1 must be one of its capital beauties4 ,this cause of beauty1 is too extensive to be handled as a branch of any other subject4 ,to ascertain with accuracy even the proper meaning of words1 not to talk of their figurative power1 would require a large volume2 an useful work indeed2 but not to be attempted without a large stock of time1 study1 and reflection4 ,this branch therefore of the subject ,i must humbly decline4 ,nor do ,i propose to exhaust all the other beauties of language with respect to signification4 ,the reader1 in a work like the present1 cannot fairly expect more than a slight sketch of those that make the greatest figure4 ,this is a task which ,i attempt the more willingly1 as it appears to be connected with some principles in human nature2 and the rules ,i shall have occasion to lay down1 will1 if ,i judge aright1 be agreeable illustrations of these principles4 ,every subject must be of importance that tends in any measure to unfold the human heart2 for what other science is more worthy of human beings8 ,the present subject is so extensive1 that1 to prevent confusion1 it must be divided into parts2 and what follows suggests a division into two parts4 ,in every period1 two things are to be regarded1 equally capital2 first1 the words of which the period is composed2 next1 the arrangement of these words4 ,the former resemble the stones that compose a building2 and the latter resembles the order in which these stones are placed4 ,hence the beauty of language with respect to its meaning1 may not improperly be distinguished into two kinds4 ,the first consists in a right choice of words or materials for constructing the period2 and the other consists in a due arrangement of these words or materials4 ,i shall begin with rules that direct us to a right choice of words1 and then proceed to rules that concern their arrangement4 ,and with respect to the former1 communication of thought being the principal end of language1 it is a rule1 ,that perspicuity ought not to be sacrificed to any other beauty whatever4 ,if it should be doubted whether perspicuity be a positive beauty1 it cannot be doubted1 that the want of it is the greatest defect4 ,nothing therefore in the structure of language ought more to be studied1 than to prevent all obscurity in the expression2 for to have no meaning1 is but one degree worse than to express it so as not to be understood4 ,want of perspicuity from a wrong arrangement1 belongs to the next branch4 ,i shall give a few examples where the obscurity arises from a wrong choice of words2 and as this defect is so common in ordinary writers as to make examples from them unnecessary1 ,i confine myself to the most celebrated authors4 99 99 99 99 99 ,livy1 speaking of a rout after a battle1 ,multique in ruina majore quam fuga oppressi obtruncatique4 ,l4 #d4 #df4 ,unde tibi reditum certo subtemine ,parc ,rupere4 ,horace1 epod4 xiii4 #bb44 ,qui perspe cava testudine flevit amorem1 ,non elaboratum ad pedem4 ,horace1 epod4 xiv4 #aa4 ,me fabulos ,vulture in ,appulo1 ,altricis extra limen ,apuli1 ,ludo1 fatigatumque somno1 ,fronde nova puerum palumbes ,texere4 ,horace1 ,carm4 l4 #c4 ode #d4 ,pur rivus aqu1 silvaque jugerum ,paucorum1 et segetis certa fides me1 ,fulgentem imperio fertilis ,afric ,fallit sorte beatior4 ,horace1 ,carm4 l4 #c4 ode #af4 ,cum fas atque nefas exiguo fine libidinum ,discernunt avidi4 ,horace1 ,carm4 l4 #a4 ode #ah4 ,ac spem fronte serenat4 neid iv4 #dgg4 ,there is want of neatness even in an ambiguity so slight as that is which arises from the construction merely2 as where the period commences with a member which is conceived to be in the nominative case1 and which afterward is found to be in the accusative4 ,example3 8,some emotions more peculiarly connected with the fine arts1 ,i propose to handle in separate chapters#ha40 ,better thus3 8,some emotions more peculiarly connected with the fine arts1 are proposed to be handled in separate chapters40 99 99 99 99 99 ,the rule next in order1 because next in importance1 is1 ,that the language ought to correspond to the subject4 ,grand or heroic actions or sentiments require elevated language3 tender sentiments ought to be expressed in words soft and flowing2 and plain language devoid of ornament1 is adapted to subjects grave and didactic4 ,language may be considered as the dress of thought2 and where the one is not suited to the other1 we are sensible of incongruity1 in the same manner as where a judge is dressed like a fop1 or a peasant like a man of quality4 ,the intimate connection that words have with their meaning1 requires that both be in the same tone4 ,or1 to express the thing more plainly1 the impression made by the words ought as nearly as possible to resemble the impression made by the thought4 ,the similar emotions mix sweetly in the mind1 and augment the pleasure#hb4 ,on the other hand1 where the impressions made by the thought and the words are dissimilar1 they are forc'd into a sort of unnatural union1 which is disagreeable#hc4 ,in the preceding chapter1 concerning the language of passion1 ,i had occasion to give many examples of deviations from this rule with regard to the manner of expressing passions and their sentiments4 ,but as the rule concerns the manner of expressing thoughts and ideas of all kinds1 it has an extensive influence in directing us to the choice of proper materials4 ,in that view it must be branched out into several particulars4 ,and ,i must observe1 in the first place1 that to write with elegance1 it is not sufficient to express barely the conjunction or disjunction of the members of the thought4 ,it is a beauty to find a similar conjunction or disjunction in the words4 ,this may be illustrated by a familiar example4 ,when we have occasion to mention the intimate connection that the soul has with the body1 the expression ought to be the soul and body2 because the particle the1 relative to both1 makes a connection in the expression1 which resembles in some degree the connection in the thought4 ,but when the soul is distinguished from the body1 it is better to say the soul and the body1 because the disjunction in the words resembles the disjunction in the thought4 ,in the following examples the connection in the thought is happily imitated in the expression4 ,constituit agmen2 et expedire tela animosque1 equitibus jussis1 c4 ,livy1 l4 #ch4 #be4 ,again3 ,quum ex paucis quotidie aliqui corum caderent aut vulnerarentur1 et qui superarent1 fessi et corporibus et animis essent1 c4 ,livy1 l4 #ch4 #bi4 ,post acer ,mnestheus adducto constitit arcu1 ,alta petens1 pariterque oculos telumque tetendit4 neid1 l4 v4 #ejg4 ,the following passage of ,tacitus appears to me not so happy4 ,it approaches to wit by connecting in the foregoing manner things but slightly related1 which is not altogether suitable to the dignity or gravity of history4 ,germania omnis a ,galliis1 ,rhtiisque1 et ,pannoniis1 ,rheno et ,danubio fluminibus2 a ,sarmatis ,dacisque1 mutuo metu aut montibus separatur4 ,de moribus ,germanorum4 ,i am more doubtful about this other instance3 ---- ,the fiend look'd up1 and knew ,his mounted scale aloft2 nor more1 but fled ,murm'ring1 and with him fled the shades of night4 ,paradise ,lost1 ,b4 #d4 at the end4 ,i shall add some other examples where the opposition in the thought is imitated in the words2 an imitation that is distinguished by the name of antithesis4 99 99 99 99 99 ,speaking of ,coriolanus soliciting the people to be made consul3 ,with a proud heart he wore his humble weeds4 ,coriolanus4 ,had you rather ,csar were living1 and die all slaves2 than that ,csar were dead1 to live all free men8 ,julius ,csar4 ,he hath cool'd my friends and heated mine enemies4 ,shakespear4 ,why1 if two gods should play some heav'nly match1 ,and on the wager lay two earthly women1 ,and ,portia one1 there must be something else ,pawn'd with the other2 for the poor rude world ,hath not her fellow4 ,merchant of ,venice1 act #c4 sc4 #f4 ,this rule may be extended to govern the construction of sentences or periods4 ,a sentence or period in language ought to express one entire thought or mental proposition2 and different thoughts ought to be separated in the expression by placing them in different sentences or periods4 ,it is therefore offending against neatness1 to crowd into one period entire thoughts which require more than one2 for this is conjoining in language things that are separated in reality2 and consequently rejecting that uniformity which ought to be preserved betwixt thought and expression4 ,of errors against this rule take the following examples4 99 99 99 99 99 ,csar1 describing the ,suevi3 ,atque in eam se consuetudinem adduxerunt1 ut locis frigidissimis1 neque vestitus1 prter pelles1 habeant quidquam1 quarum1 propter exiguitatem1 magna est corporis pars operta1 et laventur in fluminibus4 ,commentaria1 l4 #d4 prin4 ,burnet1 in the history of his own times1 giving ,lord ,sunderland's character1 says1 ,his own notions were always good2 but he was a man of great expence4 ,i have seen a woman's face break out in heats1 as she has been talking against a great lord1 whom she had never seen in her life2 and indeed never knew a party-woman that kept her beauty for a twelvemonth4 ,spectator1 ,n #eg4 ,lord ,bolingbroke1 speaking of ,strada3 ,i single him out among the moderns1 because he had the foolish presumption to censure ,tacitus1 and to write history himself3 and your ,lordship will forgive this short excursion in honour of a favourite author4 ,letters on history1 vol4 #a4 let4 #e4 ,it seems to me1 that in order to maintain the moral system of the world at a certain point1 far below that of ideal perfection1 7for we are made capable of conceiving what we are incapable of attaining71 but however sufficient upon the whole to constitute a state easy and happy1 or at the worst tolerable3 ,i say1 it seems to me1 that the author of nature has thought fit to mingle from time to time1 among the societies of men1 a few1 and but a few1 of those on whom he is graciously pleased to bestow a larger proportion of the ethereal spirit than is given in the ordinary course of his providence to the sons of men4 ,bolingbroke1 on the spirit of patriotism1 let4 #a4 ,to crowd into a single member of a period1 different subjects1 is still worse than to crowd them into one period4 ---- ,trojam1 genitore ,adamasto ,paupere 7mansissetque utinam fortuna7 profectus4 neid4 iii4 #fad4 ,where two things are so connected as to require but a copulative1 it is pleasant to find a resemblance in the members of the period1 were it even so slight as where both begin with the same letter3 ,the peacock1 in all his pride1 does not display half the colour that appears in the garments of a ,british lady1 when she is either dressed for a ball or a birth-day4 ,spectator1 ,n #bfe4 ,had not my dog of a steward run away as he did1 without making up his accounts1 ,i had still been immersed in sin and sea-coal4 ,ibid4 ,n4 #ecj4 ,my life's companion1 and my bosom-friend1 ,one faith1 one fame1 one fate shall both attend4 ,dryden1 ,translation of neid4 ,there is obviously a sensible defect in neatness when uniformity is in this case totally neglected#hd2 witness the following example1 where the construction of two members connected by a copulative is unnecessarily varied4 ,for it is confidently reported1 that two young gentlemen of real hopes1 bright wit1 and profound judgment1 who upon a thorough examination of causes and effects1 and by the mere force of natural abilities1 without the least tincture of learning1 have made a discovery that there was no ,god1 and generously communicating their thoughts for the good of the public1 were some time ago1 by an unparallelled severity1 and upon ,i know not what obsolete law1 broke for blasphemy#he4 ,better thus3 ,having made a discovery that there was no ,god1 and having generously communicated their thoughts for the good of the public1 were some time ago1 c4 ,he had been guilty of a fault1 for which his master would have put him to death1 had he not found an opportunity to escape out of his hands1 and fled into the deserts of ,numidia4 ,guardian1 ,n #aci4 ,if all the ends of the revolution are already obtained1 it is not only impertinent to argue for obtaining any of them1 but factious designs might be imputed1 and the name of incendiary be applied with some colour1 perhaps1 to any one who should persist in pressing this point4 ,dissertation upon parties1 ,dedication4 ,it is even unpleasant to find a negative and affirmative proposition connected by a copulative4 ,nec excitatur classico miles truci1 ,nec horret iratum mare2 ,forumque vitat1 et superba civium ,potentiorum limina4 ,horace1 ,epod4 #b4 l4 #e4 ,if it appear not plain1 and prove untrue1 ,deadly divorce step between me and you4 ,shakespear4 ,an artificial connection among the words1 is undoubtedly a beauty when it represents any peculiar connection among the constituent parts of the thought2 but where there is no such connection1 it is a positive deformity1 because it makes a discordance betwixt the thought and expression4 ,for the same reason1 we ought also to avoid every artificial opposition of words where there is none in the thought4 ,this last1 termed verbal antithesis1 is studied by writers of no taste2 and is relished by readers of the same stamp1 because of a certain degree of liveliness in it4 ,they do not consider how incongruous it is1 in a grave composition1 to cheat the reader1 and to make him expect a contrast in the thought1 which upon examination is not found there4 ,a light wife doth make a heavy husband4 ,merchant of ,venice4 ,here is a studied opposition in the words1 not only without any opposition in the sense1 but even where there is a very intimate connection1 that of cause and effect2 for it is the levity of the wife that vexes the husband4 ---- ,will maintain ,upon his bad life to make all this good4 ,king ,richard ,,ii4 act4 #a4 sc4 #b4 ,lucetta4 ,what1 shall these papers lie like tell-tales here8 ,julia4 ,if thou respect them1 best to take them up4 ,lucetta4 ,nay1 ,i was taken up for laying them down4 ,two ,gentlemen of ,verona1 act #a4 sc4 #c4 ,to conjoin by a copulative1 members that signify things opposed in the thought1 is an error too gross to be commonly practised4 ,and yet writers are guilty of this fault in some degree1 when they conjoin by a copulative things transacted at different periods of time4 ,hence a want of neatness in the following expression4 ,the nobility too1 whom the ,king had no means of retaining by suitable offices and preferments1 had been seized with the general discontent1 and unwarily threw themselves into the scale1 which began already too much to preponderate4 ,history of ,g4 ,britain1 vol4 #a4 p4 #bej4 ,in periods of this kind1 it appears more neat to express the past time by the participle passive1 thus3 ,the nobility having been seized with the general discontent1 unwarily threw themselves1 c4 or1 ,the nobility who had been seized1 c4 unwarily threw themselves1 c4 ,so much upon conjunction and disjunction in general4 ,i proceed to apply the rule to comparisons in particular4 ,where a resemblance betwixt two objects is described1 the writer ought to study a resemblance betwixt the two members that express these objects4 ,for it makes the resemblance the more entire to find it extended even to the words4 ,to illustrate this rule1 ,i shall give various examples of deviations from it4 ,i begin with the words that express the resemblance4 ,i have observed of late1 the style of some great ministers very much to exceed that of any other productions4 ,letter to the ,lord ,high ,treasurer4 ,swift4 ,this1 instead of studying the resemblance of words in a period that expresses a comparison1 is going out of one's road to avoid it4 ,instead of productions which resemble not ministers great or small1 the proper word is writers or authors4 ,if men of eminence are exposed to censure on the one hand1 they are as much liable to flattery on the other4 ,if they receive reproaches which are not due to them1 they likewise receive praises which they do not deserve4 ,spectator4 ,here the subject plainly demands uniformity in expression instead of variety2 and therefore it is submitted whether the period would not do better in the following manner3 ,if men of eminence be exposed to censure on the one hand1 they are as much exposed to flattery on the other4 ,if they receive reproaches which are not due1 they likewise receive praises which are not due4 ,i cannot but fancy1 however1 that this imitation1 which passes so currently with other judgements1 must at some time or other have stuck a little with your ,lordship#hf4 ,better thus3 ,i cannot but fancy1 however1 that this imitation1 which passes so currently with others1 must at some time or other have stuck a little with your ,lordship4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a glutton or mere sensualist is as ridiculous as the other two characters4 ,shaftesbury1 vol4 #a4 p4 #abi4 ,they wisely prefer the generous efforts of good-will and affection1 to the reluctant compliances of such as obey by force4 ,remarks on the history of ,england4 ,letter #e4 ,bolingbroke4 ,titus ,livius1 concerning the people of ,enna demanding the keys from the ,roman garrison1 makes the governor say1 ,quas simul tradiderimus1 ,carthaginiensium extemplo ,enna erit1 fdiusque hic trucidabimir1 quam ,murganti prsidium interfectum est4 ,l4 #bd4 #ch4 ,quintus ,curtius1 speaking of ,porus mounted on an elephant1 and leading his army to battle3 ,magnitudini ,pori adjicere videbatur bellua qua vehebatur1 tantum inter cteras eminens1 quanto aliis ipse prstabat4 ,l4 #h4 cap4 #ad4 ,it is a still greater deviation from congruity1 to affect not only variety in the words1 but also in the construction4 ,describing ,thermopyl1 ,titus ,livius says1 ,id jugum1 sicut ,apennini dorso ,italia dividitur1 ita mediam ,grciam deremit4 ,l4 #cf4 #ae4 ,speaking of ,shakespear3 ,there may remain a suspicion that we over-rate the greatness of his genius2 in the same manner as bodies appear more gigantic on account of their being disproportioned and mishapen4 ,history of ,g4 ,britain1 vol4 #a4 p4 #ach4 ,this is studying variety in a period where the beauty lies in uniformity4 ,better thus3 ,there may remain a suspicion that we over-rate the greatness of his genius1 in the same manner as we over-rate the greatness of bodies which are disproportioned and mishapen4 ,next as to the length of the members that signify the resembling objects4 ,to produce a resemblance betwixt such members1 they ought not only to be constructed in the same manner1 but as nearly as possible be equal in length4 ,by neglecting this circumstance1 the following example is defective in neatness4 ,as the performance of all other religious duties will not avail in the sight of ,god1 without charity1 so neither will the discharge of all other ministerial duties avail in the sight of men without a faithful discharge of this principal duty4 ,dissertation upon parties1 dedication4 ,in the following passage all the errors are accumulated that a period expressing a resemblance can well admit3 ,ministers are answerable for every thing done to the prejudice of the constitution1 in the same proportion as the preservation of the constitution in its purity and vigour1 or the perverting and weakening it1 are of greater consequence to the nation1 than any other instances of good or bad government4 ,dissertation upon parties1 dedication4 ,the same rule obtains in a comparison where things are opposed to each other4 ,objects contrasted1 not less than what are similar1 require a resemblance in the members of the period that express them4 ,the reason is1 that contrast has no effect upon the mind1 except where the things compared have a resemblance in their capital parts#hg4 ,therefore1 in opposing two circumstances to each other1 it remarkably heightens the contrast1 to make as entire as possible the resemblance betwixt the other parts1 and in particular betwixt the members expressing the two circumstances contrasted4 ,as things are often best illustrated by their contraries1 ,i shall also give examples of deviations from the rule in this case4 99 99 99 99 99 ,addison says1 ,a friend exaggerates a man's virtues1 an enemy inflames his crimes4 ,spectator1 ,n #cii4 ,would it not be neater to study uniformity instead of variety8 as thus3 ,a friend exaggerates a man's virtues1 an enemy his crimes4 ,for here the contrast is only betwixt a friend and an enemy2 and betwixt all the other circumstances1 including the members of the period1 the resemblance ought to be preserved as entire as possible4 99 99 99 99 99 ,speaking of a lady's head-dress3 ,about ten years ago it shot up to a very great height1 insomuch that the female part of our species were much taller than the men4 ,spectator1 ,n #ih4 ,it should be1 ,than the male part4 ,the wise man is happy when he gains his own approbation2 the fool when he recommends himself to the applause of those about him4 ,ibid4 ,n #gc4 ,better3 ,the wise man is happy when he gains his own approbation2 the fool when he gains that of others4 ,sicut in frugibus pecudibusque1 non tantum semina ad servandum indolem valent1 quantum terr proprietas clique1 sub quo aluntur1 mutat4 ,livy1 l4 #ch4 #ag4 ,sallust1 in his history of ,catiline's conspiracy3 ,per illa tempora quicumque rempublicam agitavere1 honestis nominibus1 alii1 sicuti populi jura defenderent1 pars1 quo senati auctoritas maxuma foret1 bonum publicum simulantes1 pro sua quisque potentia certabant4 ,cap4 #ch4 ,we proceed to a rule of a different kind4 ,during the course of a period1 the same scene ought to be continued without variation4 ,the changing from person to person1 from subject to subject1 or from person to subject1 within the bounds of a single period1 distracts the mind1 and affords no time for a solid impression4 ,i illustrate this rule by giving examples of deviations from it4 ,honos alit artes1 omnesque incenduntur ad studia glori2 jacentque ea semper qu apud quosque improbantur4 ,cicero1 ,tuscul4 qust4 l4 #a4 ,speaking of the distemper contracted by ,alexander bathing in the river ,cydnus and of the cure offered by ,philip the physician3 ,inter hc ,parmenione fidissimo purpuratorum1 literas accipit1 quibus ei denunciabat1 ne salutem suam ,philippo committeret4 ,quintus ,curtius1 l4 #c4 cap4 #f4 ,hook1 in his ,roman history1 speaking of ,eumenes1 who had been beat down to the ground with a stone1 says1 ,after a short time he came to himself2 and the next day1 they put him on board his ship1 which conveyed him first to ,corinth1 and thence to the island of gina4 ,i give another example of a period which is unpleasant1 even by a very slight deviation from the rule4 ,that sort of instruction which is acquired by inculcating an important moral truth1 c4 ,this expression includes two persons1 one acquiring1 and one inculcating2 and the scene is changed without necessity4 ,to avoid this blemish1 the thought may be expressed thus3 ,that sort of instruction which is afforded by inculcating1 c4 ,the bad effect of this change of person is remarkable in the following passage4 ,the ,britains1 daily harassed by cruel inroads from the ,picts1 were forced to call in the ,saxons for their defence1 who consequently reduced the greatest part of the island to their own power1 drove the ,britains into the most remote and mountainous parts1 and the rest of the country1 in customs1 religion1 and language1 became wholly ,saxons4 ,letter to the ,lord ,high ,treasurer4 ,swift4 ,the following example is a change from subject to persons4 ,this prostitution of praise is not only a deceit upon the gross of mankind1 who take their notion of characters from the learned2 but also the better sort must by this means lose some part at least of that desire of fame which is the incentive to generous actions1 when they find it promiscuously bestowed on the meritorious and undeserving4 ,guardian1 ,n #d4 ,even so slight a change as to vary the construction in the same period1 is unpleasant3 ,annibal luce prima1 ,balearibus levique alia armatura prmissa1 transgressus flumen1 ut quosque traduxerat1 ita in acie locabat2 ,gallos ,hispanosque equites prope ripam lvo in cornu adversus ,romanum equitatum2 dextrum cornu ,numidis equitibus datum4 ,tit4 ,liv4 l4 #bb4 #df4 ,speaking of ,hannibal's elephants drove back by the enemy upon his own army3 ,eo magis ruere in suos bellu1 tantoque majorem stragem edere quam inter hostes ediderant1 quanto acrius pavor consternatam agit1 quam insidentis magistri imperio regitur4 ,liv4 l4 #bg4 #ad4 ,this passage is also faulty in a different respect1 that there is no resemblance betwixt the members of the expression1 though they import a comparison4 ,the present head1 which relates to the choice of materials1 shall be closed with a rule concerning the use of copulatives4 ,longinus observes1 that it animates a period to drop the copulatives2 and he gives the following example from ,xenophon4 ,closing their shields together1 they were push'd1 they fought1 they slew1 they were slain4 ,treatise of the ,sublime1 cap4 #af4 ,the reason ,i take to be what follows4 ,a continued sound1 if not strong1 tends to lay us asleep4 ,an interrupted sound rouses and animates by its repeated impulses4 ,hence it is1 that syllables collected into feet1 being pronounced with a sensible interval betwixt each1 make more lively impressions than can be made by a continued sound4 ,a period1 the members of which are connected by copulatives1 produceth an effect upon the mind approaching to that of a continued sound3 and therefore to suppress the copulatives must animate a description4 ,to suppress the copulatives hath another good effect4 ,the members of a period connected by the proper copulatives1 glide smoothly and gently along2 and are a proof of sedateness and leisure in the speaker4 ,on the other hand1 a man in the hurry of passion1 neglecting copulatives and other particles1 expresses the principal image only4 ,hence it is1 that hurry or quick action is best expressed without copulatives3 ,veni1 vidi1 vici4 ---- ,ite3 ,ferte cite flammas1 date vela1 impellite remos4 neid4 iv4 #eic4 ,quis globus1 ,o ,cives1 caligine volvitur atra8 ,ferte cite ferrum1 date tela1 scandite muros4 ,hostis adest1 eja4 neid4 ix4 #cf4 ,in this view ,longinus#hh justly compares copulatives in a period to strait tying1 which in a race obstructs the freedom of motion4 ,it follows from the same premisses1 that to multiply copulatives in the same period ought to be avoided4 ,for if the laying aside copulatives give force and liveliness1 a redundancy of them must render the period languid4 ,i appeal to the following instance1 though there are not more than two copulatives4 ,upon looking over the letters of my female correspondents1 ,i find several from women complaining of jealous husbands2 and at the same time protesting their own innocence1 and desiring my advice upon this occasion4 ,spectator1 ,n #agj4 ,i except the case where the words are intended to express the coldness of the speaker2 for there the redundancy of copulatives is a beauty4 ,dining one day at an alderman's in the city1 ,peter observed him expatiating after the manner of his brethren1 in the praises of his sirloin of beef4 8,beef10 said the sage magistrate1 8is the king of meat3 ,beef comprehends in it the quintescence of partridge1 and quail1 and venison1 and pheasant1 and plum-pudding1 and custard40 ,tale of ,tub1 #d4 ,and the author shows great taste in varying the expression in the mouth of ,peter1 who is represented more animated4 8,bread10 says he1 8dear brothers1 is the staff of life1 in which bread is contained1 inclusiv1 the quintescence of beef1 mutton1 veal1 venison1 partridge1 plum-pudding1 and custard40 ,we proceed to the second kind of beauty1 which consists in a due arrangement of the words or materials4 ,this branch of the subject is not less nice than extensive2 and ,i despair to put it in a clear light1 until a sketch be given of the general principles that govern the structure or composition of language4 ,every thought1 generally speaking1 contains one capital object considered as acting or as suffering4 ,this object is expressed by a substantive noun4 ,its action is expressed by an active verb2 and the thing affected by the action is expressed by another substantive noun4 ,its suffering or passive state is expressed by a passive verb1 and the thing which acts upon it1 by a substantive noun4 ,beside these1 which are the capital parts of a sentence or period1 there are generally under-parts4 ,each of the substantives as well as the verb1 may be qualified4 ,time1 place1 purpose1 motive1 means1 instrument1 and a thousand other circumstances1 may be necessary to complete the thought4 ,and in what manner these several parts are connected together in the expression1 will appear from what follows4 ,in a complete thought or mental proposition1 all the members and parts are mutually related1 some slightly1 some more intimately4 ,in communicating such a thought1 it is not sufficient that the component ideas be clearly expressed3 it is also necessary1 that all the relations contained in the thought be expressed according to their different degrees of intimacy4 ,to annex a certain meaning to a certain sound or word1 requires no art4 ,the great nicety in all languages is1 to express the various relations that connect together the parts of the thought4 ,could we suppose this branch of language to be still a secret1 it would puzzle1 ,i am apt to think1 the greatest grammarian ever existed1 to invent an expeditious method4 ,and yet1 by the guidance merely of nature1 the rude and illiterate have been led to a method so perfect1 that it appears not susceptible of any improvement4 ,without a clear conception of the manner of expressing relations1 one at every turn must be at a loss about the beauties of language2 and upon that subject therefore ,i find it necessary to say a few words4 ,words that import a relation1 must be distinguished from those that do not4 ,substantives commonly imply no relation1 such as animal1 man1 tree1 river4 ,adjectives1 verbs1 and adverbs1 imply a relation4 ,the adjective good must be connected with some substantive1 some being possessed of that quality4 ,the verb write must be applied to some person who writes2 and the adverbs moderately1 diligently1 have plainly a reference to some action which they modify4 ,when in language a relative term is introduced1 all that is necessary to complete the expression1 is1 to ascertain that thing to which the term relates4 ,for answering this purpose1 ,i observe in ,greek and ,latin two different methods4 ,adjectives are declined as well as substantives2 and declension serves to ascertain the connection that is betwixt them4 ,if the word that expresses the subject be1 for example1 in the nominative case1 so also must the word be that expresses its quality4 ,example1 vir bonus4 ,again1 verbs are related1 on the one hand1 to the agent2 and1 on the other1 to the subject upon which the action is exerted4 ,a contrivance similar to that now mentioned1 serves to express this double relation4 ,the nominative case is appropriated to the agent1 the accusative to the passive subject2 and the verb is put in the first second or third person1 to correspond the more intimately with both4 ,examples3 ,ego amo ,tulliam2 tu amas ,semproniam2 ,brutus amat ,portiam4 ,the other method is by juxtaposition1 which is necessary with respect to words only that are not declined1 adverbs for example1 articles1 prepositions1 and conjunctions4 ,in the ,english language there are few declensions2 and therefore juxtaposition is our chief resource4 ,adjectives accompany their substantives#hi2 an adverb accompanies the word it qualifies2 and the verb occupies the middle place betwixt the active and passive subjects to which it relates4 ,it must be obvious1 that those terms which have nothing relative in their signification1 cannot be connected in so easy a manner4 ,when two substantives happen to be connected1 as cause and effect1 as principal and accessory1 or in any other manner1 such connection cannot be expressed by contiguity solely2 for words must often in a period be placed together which are not thus related4 ,the relation betwixt substantives1 therefore1 cannot otherwise be expressed than by particles denoting the relation4 ,latin indeed and ,greek1 by their declensions1 go a certain length to express such relations1 without the aid of particles4 ,the relation of property1 for example1 betwixt ,csar and his horse is1 expressed by putting the latter in the nominative case1 the former in the genitive2 equus ,csaris4 ,the like in ,english1 ,csar's horse4 ,but in other instances1 declensions not being used in the ,english language1 relations of this kind are commonly expressed by prepositions4 ,this form of connecting by prepositions1 is not confined to substantives4 ,qualities1 attributes1 manner of existing or acting1 and all other circumstances1 may in the same manner be connected with the substantives to which they relate4 ,this is done artificially by converting the circumstance into a substantive1 in which condition it is qualified to be connected with the principal subject by a preposition1 in the manner above described4 ,for example1 the adjective wise being converted into the substantive wisdom1 gives opportunity for the expression 8a man of wisdom10 instead of the more simple expression1 a wise man4 ,this variety in the expression1 enriches language4 ,i observe beside1 that the using a preposition in this case1 is not always a matter of choice4 ,it is indispensable with respect to every circumstance that cannot be expressed by a single adjective or adverb4 ,to pave the way for the rules of arrangement1 one other preliminary must be discussed1 which is1 to explain the difference betwixt a natural style1 and that where transposition or inversion prevails4 ,there are1 it is true1 no precise boundaries betwixt these two2 for they run into each other1 like the shades of different colours4 ,no person however is at a loss to distinguish them in their extremes3 and it is necessary to make the distinction2 because though some of the rules ,i shall have occasion to mention are common to both1 yet each has rules peculiar to itself4 ,in a natural style1 relative words are by juxtaposition connected with those to which they relate1 going before or after1 according to the peculiar genius of the language4 ,again1 a circumstance connected by a preposition1 follows naturally the word with which it is connected4 ,but this arrangement may be varied1 when a different order is more beautiful4 ,a circumstance may be placed before the word with which it is connected by a preposition2 and may be interjected even betwixt a relative word and that to which it relates4 ,when such liberties are frequently taken1 the style becomes inverted or transposed4 ,but as the liberty of inversion is a capital point in handling the present subject1 it will be necessary to examine it more narrowly1 and in particular to trace the several degrees in which an inverted style recedes more and more from that which is natural4 ,and first1 as to the placing a circumstance before the word with which it is connected1 ,i observe1 that it is the easiest of all inversion1 even so easy as to be consistent with a style that is properly termed natural4 ,witness the following examples4 ,in the sincerity of my heart1 ,i profess1 c4 ,by our own ill management1 we are brought to so low an ebb of wealth and credit1 that1 c4 ,on ,thursday morning there was little or nothing transacted in ,change-alley4 ,at ,st ,bride's church in ,fleetstreet1 ,mr ,woolston1 7who writ against the miracles of our ,saviour71 in the utmost terrors of conscience made a public recantation4 ,the interjecting a circumstance betwixt a relative word and that to which it relates1 is more properly termed inversion2 because1 by a violent disjunction of words intimately connected1 it recedes farther from a natural style4 ,but this liberty has also degrees2 for the disjunction is more violent in some cases than in others4 ,this ,i must also explain3 and to give a just notion of the difference1 ,i must crave liberty of my reader to enter a little more into an abstract subject1 than would otherwise be my choice4 ,in nature1 though a substance cannot exist without its qualities1 nor a quality without a substance2 yet in our conception of these1 a material difference may be remarked4 ,i cannot conceive a quality but as belonging to some subject3 it makes indeed a part of the idea which is formed of the subject4 ,but the opposite holds not4 ,though ,i cannot form a conception of a subject devoid of all qualities1 a partial conception may however be formed of it1 laying aside or abstracting from any particular quality4 ,i can1 for example1 form the idea of a fine ,arabian horse without regard to his colour1 or of a white horse without regard to his size4 ,such partial conception of a subject1 is still more easy with respect to action or motion2 which is an occasional attribute only1 and has not the same permanency with colour or figure4 ,i cannot form an idea of motion independent of a body2 but there is nothing more easy than to form an idea of a body at rest4 ,hence it appears1 that the degree of inversion depends greatly on the order in which the related words are placed4 ,when a substantive occupies the first place1 we cannot foresee what is to be said of it4 ,the idea therefore which this word suggests1 must subsist in the mind at least for a moment1 independent of the relative words afterward introduced2 and if it can so subsist1 that moment may without difficulty be prolonged by interjecting a circumstance betwixt the substantive and its connections4 ,examples therefore of this kind1 will scarce alone be sufficient to denominate a style inverted4 ,the case is very different1 where the word that occupies the first place1 denotes a quality or an action2 for as these cannot be conceived without a subject1 they cannot without greater violence be separated from the subject that follows4 ,and for that reason1 every such separation by means of an interjected circumstance belongs to an inverted style4 ,to illustrate this doctrine examples being necessary1 ,i shall begin with those where the word first introduced does not imply a relation4 ---- ,nor ,eve to iterate ,her former trespass fear'd4 ---- ,hunger and thirst at once1 ,powerful persuaders1 quicken'd at the scent ,of that alluring fruit1 urg'd me so keen4 ,moon1 that now meet'st the orient sun1 now fli'st ,with the fix'd stars1 fix'd in their orb that flies1 ,and ye five other wand'ring fires that move ,in mystic dance not without song1 resound ,his praise4 ,in the following examples1 where the word first introduced imports a relation1 the disjunction will be found more violent4 ,of man's first disobedience1 and the fruit ,of that forbidden tree1 whose mortal taste ,brought death into the world1 and all our wo1 ,with loss of ,eden1 till one greater man ,restore us1 and regain the blessful seat1 ,sing heav'nly muse4 ---- ,upon the firm opacous globe ,of this round world1 whose first convex divides ,the luminous inferior orbs1 inclos'd ,from chaos and th' inroad of darkness old ,satan alighted walks4 ---- ,on a sudden open fly1 ,with impetuous recoil and jarring sound1 ,th' infernal doors4 ---- ,wherein remain'd1 ,for what could else8 to our almighty foe ,clear victory1 to our part loss and rout4 ----,forth rush'd with whirlwind sound ,the chariot of paternal ,deity4 ,language would have no great power1 were it confined to the natural order of ideas4 ,a thousand beauties may be compassed by inversion1 that must be relinquished in a natural arrangement4 ,i shall soon have an opportunity to make this evident4 ,in the mean time1 it ought not to escape observation1 that the mind of man is happily so constituted as to relish inversion1 though in one respect unnatural2 and to relish it so much1 as in many cases to admit a violent disjunction of words that by the sense are intimately connected4 ,i scarce can say that inversion has any limits2 though ,i may venture to pronounce1 that the disjunction of articles1 conjunctions1 or prepositions1 from the words to which they belong1 never has a good effect4 ,the following example with relation to a preposition1 is perhaps as tolerable as any of the kind4 ,he would neither separate from1 nor act against them4 ,i give notice to the reader1 that ,i am now ready to enter upon the rules of arrangement2 beginning with a natural style1 and proceeding gradually to what is the most inverted4 ,and in the arrangement of a period1 as well as in a right choice of words1 the first and great object being perspicuity1 it is above laid down as a rule1 ,that perspicuity ought not to be sacrificed to any other beauty whatever4 ,ambiguities occasioned by a wrong arrangement are of two sorts2 one where the arrangement leads to a wrong sense1 and one where the sense is left doubtful4 ,the first being the more culpable1 shall take the lead1 beginning with examples of words put in a wrong place4 ,how much the imagination of such a presence must exalt a genius1 we may observe merely from the influence which an ordinary presence has over men4 ,characteristics1 vol4 #a4 p4 #g4 ,this arrangement leads to a wrong sense3 ,the adverb merely seems by its position to affect the preceding word2 whereas it is intended to affect the following words an ordinary presence2 and therefore the arrangement ought to be thus4 ,how much the imagination of such a presence must exalt a genius1 we may observe from the influence which an ordinary presence merely has over men4 ,the time of the election of a poet-laureat being now at hand1 it may be proper to give some account of the rites and ceremonies anciently used at that solemnity1 and only discontinued through the neglect and degeneracy of later times4 ,guardian4 ,the term only is intended to qualify the noun degeneracy1 and not the participle discontinued2 and therefore the arrangement ought to be as follows4 ---- and discontinued through the neglect and degeneracy only1 of later times4 ,sixtus the ,fourth was1 if ,i mistake not1 a great collector of books at least4 ,letters on history1 vol4 #a4 let4 #f4 ,bolingbroke4 ,the expression here leads evidently to a wrong sense4 ,the adverb at least1 ought not to be connected with the substantive books1 but with collector1 thus3 ,sixtus the ,fourth was a great collector at least1 of books4 ,speaking of ,lewis ,,xiv4 ,if he was not the greatest king1 he was the best actor of majesty at least1 that ever filled a throne4 ,ibid4 letter #g4 ,better thus3 ,if he was not the greatest king1 he was at least the best actor of majesty1 c4 ,this arrangement removes the wrong sense occasioned by the juxtaposition of majesty and at least4 ,the following examples are of the wrong arrangement of members4 ,i have confined myself to those methods for the advancement of piety1 which are in the power of a prince limited like ours by a strict execution of the laws4 ,a project for the advancement of religion4 ,swift4 ,the structure of this period leads to a meaning which is not the author's1 viz4 power limited by a strict execution of the laws4 ,this wrong sense is removed by the following arrangement4 ,i have confined myself to those methods for the advancement of piety1 which1 by a strict execution of the laws1 are in the power of a prince limited like ours4 ,this morning when one of ,lady ,lizard's daughters was looking over some hoods and ribands brought by her tirewoman1 with great care and diligence1 ,i employed no less in examining the box which contained them4 ,guardian1 ,n #d4 ,the wrong sense occasioned by this arrangement1 may be easily prevented by varying it thus3 ,this morning when1 with great care and diligence1 one of ,lady ,lizard's daughters was looking over some hoods and ribands1 c4 ,a great stone that ,i happened to find after a long search by the sea-shore1 served me for an anchor4 ,gulliver's ,travels1 part #a4 chap4 #h4 ,one would think that the search was confined to the sea-shore2 but as the meaning is1 that the great stone was found by the sea-shore1 the period ought to be arranged thus3 ,a great stone1 that1 after a long search1 ,i happened to find by the sea-shore1 served me for anchor4 ,next of a wrong arrangement where the sense is left doubtful2 beginning1 as in the former sort1 with examples of the wrong arrangement of words in a member4 ,these forms of conversation by degrees multiplied and grew troublesome4 ,spectator1 ,n #aai4 ,here it is left doubtful whether the modification by degrees relate to the preceding member or to what follows4 ,it should be1 ,these forms of conversation multiplied by degrees4 ,nor does this false modesty expose us only to such actions as are indiscreet1 but very often to such as are highly criminal4 ,spectator1 ,n #deh4 ,the ambiguity is removed by the following arrangement4 ,nor does this false modesty expose us to such actions only as are indiscreet1 c4 ,the empire of ,blefuscu is an island situated to the north-east side of ,lilliput1 from whence it is parted only by a channel of #hjj yards wide4 ,gulliver's ,travels1 part #a4 chap4 #e4 ,the ambiguity may be removed thus3 ---- from whence it is parted by a channel of #hjj yards wide only4 ,in the following examples the sense is left doubtful by a wrong arrangement of members4 ,the minister who grows less by his elevation1 like a little statue placed on a mighty pedestal1 will always have his jealousy strong about him4 ,dissertation upon parties1 dedication4 ,bolingbroke4 ,here1 so far as can be gathered from the arrangement1 it is doubtful1 whether the object introduced by way of simile1 relate to what goes before or to what follows4 ,the ambiguity is removed by the following arrangement4 ,the minister who1 like a little statue placed on a mighty pedestal1 grows less by his elevation1 will always1 c4 ,since this is too much to ask of freemen1 nay of slaves1 if his expectation be not answered1 shall he form a lasting division upon such transient motives8 ,ibid4 ,better thus3 ,since this is too much to ask of freemen1 nay of slaves1 shall he1 if his expectation be not answered1 form1 c4 ,speaking of the superstitious practice of locking up the room where a person of distinction dies3 ,the knight1 seeing his habitation reduced to so small a compass1 and himself in a manner shut out of his own house1 upon the death of his mother ordered all the apartments to be flung open1 and exorcised by his chaplain4 ,spectator1 ,n #aaj4 ,better thus3 ,the knight1 seeing his habitation reduced to so small a compass1 and himself in a manner shut out of his own house1 ordered1 upon the death of his mother1 all the apartments to be flung open4 ,speaking of some indecencies in conversation3 ,as it is impossible for such an irrational way of conversation to last long among a people that make any profession of religion1 or show of modesty1 if the country-gentlemen get into it1 they will certainly be left in the lurch4 ,spectator1 ,n4 #aai4 ,the ambiguity vanishes in the following arrangement4 ---- the country-gentlemen1 if they get into it1 will certainly be left in the lurch4 ,speaking of a discovery in natural philosophy1 that colour is not a quality of matter3 ,as this is a truth which has been proved incontestably by many modern philosophers1 and is indeed one of the finest speculations in that science1 if the ,english reader would see the notion explained at large1 he may find it in the eighth chapter of the second book of ,mr ,locke's essay on human understanding4 ,spectator1 ,n #dac4 ,better thus3 ,as this is a truth1 c4 the ,english reader1 if he would see the notion explained at large1 may find it1 c4 ,a woman seldom asks advice before she has bought her wedding-cloaths4 ,when she has made her own choice1 for form's sake she sends a conge d'elire to her friends4 ,ibid4 ,n #dge4 ,better thus3 ---- she sends for form's sake a conge d'elire to her friends4 ,and since it is necessary that there should be a perpetual intercourse of buying and selling1 and dealing upon credit1 where fraud is permitted or connived at1 or hath no law to punish it1 the honest dealer is always undone1 and the knave gets the advantage4 ,gulliver's ,travels1 part #a4 chap4 #f4 ,better thus3 ,and since it is necessary that there should be a perpetual intercourse of buying and selling1 and dealing upon credit1 the honest dealer1 where fraud is permitted or connived at1 or hath no law to punish it1 is always undone1 and the knave gets the advantage4 ,from these examples1 the following observation will readily occur1 that a circumstance ought never to be placed betwixt two capital members of a period2 for by such situation it must always be doubtful1 so far as we gather from the arrangement1 to which of the two members it belongs4 ,where it is interjected1 as it ought to be1 betwixt parts of the member to which it belongs1 the ambiguity is removed1 and the capital members are kept distinct1 which is a great beauty in composition4 ,in general1 to preserve members distinct which signify things distinguished in the thought1 the sure method is1 to place first in the consequent member some word that cannot connect with what precedes it4 ,if by any one it shall be thought1 that the objections here are too scrupulous1 and that the defect of perspicuity is easily supplied by accurate punctuation2 the answer is1 ,that punctuation may remove an ambiguity1 but will never produce that peculiar beauty which is felt when the sense comes out clearly and distinctly by means of a happy arrangement4 ,such influence has this beauty1 that by a natural transition of feeling1 it is communicated to the very sound of the words1 so as in appearance to improve the music of the period4 ,but as this curious subject comes in more properly afterward1 it is sufficient at present to appeal to experience1 that a period so arranged as to bring out the sense clear1 seems always more musical than where the sense is left in any degree doubtful4 ,a rule deservedly occupying the second place1 is1 ,that words expressing things connected in the thought1 ought to be placed as near together as possible4 ,this rule is derived immediately from human nature1 in which there is discovered a remarkable propensity to place together things that are in any manner connected#ij4 ,where things are arranged according to their connections1 we have a sense of order3 otherwise we have a sense of disorder1 as of things placed by chance4 ,and we naturally place words in the same order in which we would place the things they signify4 ,the bad effect of a violent separation of words or members thus intimately connected1 will appear from the following examples4 ,for the ,english are naturally fanciful1 and very often disposed1 by that gloominess and melancholy of temper which is so frequent in our nation1 to many wild notions and visions1 to which others are not so liable4 ,spectator1 ,n #dai4 ,here the verb or assertion is1 by a pretty long circumstance1 violently separated from the subject to which it refers4 ,this makes a harsh arrangement2 the less excusable that the fault is easily prevented by placing the circumstance before the verb or assertion1 after the following manner3 ,for the ,english are naturally fanciful1 and1 by that gloominess and melancholy of temper which is so frequent in our nation1 are often disposed to many wild notions1 c4 ,for as no mortal author1 in the ordinary fate and vicissitude of things1 knows to what use his works may1 some time or other1 be applied1 c4 ,spectator1 ,n #he4 ,better thus3 ,for as1 in the ordinary fate and vicissitude of things1 no mortal author knows to what use1 some time or other1 his works may be apply'd4 ,from whence we may date likewise the rivalship of the house of ,france1 for we may reckon that of the ,valois and that of ,bourbon as one upon this occasion1 and the house of ,austria1 that continues at this day1 and has oft cost so much blood and so much treasure in the course of it4 ,letters on history1 vol4 #a4 letter #f4 ,bolingbroke4 ,it cannot be impertinent or ridiculous therefore in such a country1 whatever it might be in the ,abbot of ,st ,real's1 which was ,savoy ,i think2 or in ,peru1 under the ,incas1 where ,garcilasso de la ,vega says it was lawful for none but the nobility to study--for men of all degrees to instruct themselves in those affairs wherein they may be actors1 or judges of those that act1 or controllers of those that judge4 ,letters on history1 vol4 #a4 letter #e4 ,bolingbroke4 ,if ,scipio1 who was naturally given to women1 for which anecdote we have1 if ,i mistake not1 the authority of ,polybius1 as well as some verses of ,nevius preserved by ,aulus ,gellius1 had been educated by ,olympias at the court of ,philip1 it is improbable that he would have restored the beautiful ,spaniard4 ,ibid4 letter #c4 ,if any one have a curiosity for more specimens of this kind1 they will be found without number in the works of the same author4 ,a pronoun1 which saves the naming a person or thing a second time1 ought to be placed as near as possible to the name of that person or thing4 ,this is a branch of the foregoing rule2 and with the reason there given1 another concurs1 viz4 ,that if other ideas intervene1 it is difficult to recal the person or thing by reference4 ,if ,i had leave to print the ,latin letters transmitted to me from foreign parts1 they would fill a volume1 and be a full defence against all that ,mr4 ,partridge1 or his accomplices of the ,portugal inquisition1 will be ever able to object2 who1 by the way1 are the only enemies my predictions have ever met with at home or abroad4 ,better thus3 ---- and be a full defence against all that can be objected by ,mr4 ,partridge1 or his accomplices of the ,portugal inquisition2 who1 by the way1 are1 c4 ,there being a round million of creatures in human figure1 throughout this kingdom1 whose whole subsistence1 c4 ,a modest proposal1 c4 ,swift4 ,better3 ,there being1 throughout this kingdom1 a round million of creatures in human figure1 whose whole subsistence1 c4 ,tom is a lively impudent clown1 and has wit enough to have made him a pleasant companion1 had it been polished and rectified by good manners4 ,guardian1 ,n #afb4 ,it is the custom of the ,mahometans1 if they see any printed or written paper upon the ground1 to take it up1 and lay it aside carefully1 as not knowing but it may contain some piece of their ,alcoran4 ,spectator1 ,n #he4 ,the arrangement here leads to a wrong sense1 as if the ground were taken up1 not the paper4 ,better thus3 ,it is the custom of the ,mahometans1 if they see upon the ground any printed or written paper1 to take it up1 c4 ,the following rule depends on the communication of emotions or feelings to related objects1 a principle in human nature we have had more than one occasion to mention4 ,we find this operation1 even where the objects are not otherwise related than by the juxtaposition of the words that express them4 ,hence to elevate or depress an object1 one method is1 to join it in the arrangement to another that is naturally high or low4 ,witness the following speech of ,eumenes to the ,roman senate4 ,causam veniendi sibi ,romam fuisse1 prter cupiditatem visendi deos hominesque1 quorum beneficio in ea fortuna esset1 supra quam ne optare quidem auderet1 etiam ut coram moneret senatum ut ,persei conatus obviam iret4 ,livy1 l4 #db4 cap4 #aa4 ,to join the ,romans with the gods in the same enunciation1 is an artful stroke of flattery1 because it tacitly puts them on a level4 ,on the other hand1 when the purpose is to degrade or vilify an object1 this is done successfully by ranking it with one that is really low3 ,i hope to have this entertainment in a readiness for the next winter2 and doubt not but it will please more than the opera or puppet-show4 ,spectator1 ,n #bh4 ,manifold have been the judgments which ,heaven from time to time1 for the chastisement of a sinful people1 has inflicted upon whole nations4 ,for when the degeneracy becomes common1 'tis but just the punishment should be general4 ,of this kind1 in our own unfortunate country1 was that destructive pestilence1 whose mortality was so fatal as to sweep away1 if ,sir ,william ,petty may be believed1 five millions of ,christian souls1 besides women and ,jews4 ,god's revenge against punning4 ,arbuthnot4 ,such also was that dreadful conflagration ensuing in this famous metropolis of ,london1 which consumed1 according to the computation of ,sir ,samuel ,morland1 #ajj1jjj houses1 not to mention churches and stables4 ,ibid4 ,but on condition it might pass into a law1 ,i would gladly exempt both lawyers of all ages1 subaltern and field officers1 young heirs1 dancing-masters1 pickpockets1 and players4 ,an infallible scheme to pay the public debts4 ,swift4 ,circumstances in a period resemble small stones in a building employ'd to fill up vacancies among those of a larger size4 ,in the arrangement of a period1 such under-parts crowded together make a poor figure2 and never are graceful but when interspersed among the capital parts4 ,i shall illustrate this rule by the following example4 ,it is likewise urged1 that there are1 by computation1 in this kingdom1 above #aj1jjj parsons1 whose revenues1 added to those of my ,lords the bishops1 would suffice to maintain1 c4 ,argument against abolishing ,christianity4 ,swift4 ,here two circumstances1 viz4 by computation and in this kingdom1 are crowded together unnecessarily4 ,they make a better appearance separated in the following manner4 ,it is likewise urged1 that in this kingdom there are1 by computation1 above #aj1jjj parsons1 c4 ,if there be room for a choice1 the sooner a circumstance be introduced1 the better4 ,circumstances are proper for that coolness of mind1 with which a period as well as a work is commenced4 ,in the progress1 the mind warms1 and has a greater relish for matters of importance4 ,when a circumstance is placed at the beginning or near the beginning of the period1 the transition from it to the principal subject is agreeable3 it is like ascending or mounting upward4 ,on the other hand1 to place it late in the period has a bad effect2 for after being engaged in the principal subject1 one is with reluctance brought down to give attention to a circumstance4 ,hence evidently the preference of the following arrangement1 ,whether in any country a choice altogether unexceptionable has been made1 seems doubtful1 before this other1 ,whether a choice altogether unexceptionable has in any country been made1 c4 ,for this reason the following period is exceptionable in point of arrangement3 ,i have considered formerly1 with a good deal of attention1 the subject upon which you command me to communicate my thoughts to you4 ,bolingbroke of the study of history1 letter #a4 which1 with a slight alteration1 may be improved thus3 ,i have formerly1 with a good deal of attention1 considered the subject1 c4 ,the bad effect of placing a circumstance last or late in a period1 will appear from the following examples4 ,let us endeavour to establish to ourselves an interest in him who holds the reins of the whole creation in his hand4 ,spectator1 ,n #ab4 ,better thus3 ,let us endeavour to establish to ourselves an interest in him1 who1 in his hand1 holds the reins of the whole creation4 ,virgil1 who has cast the whole system of ,platonic philosophy1 so far as it relates to the soul of man1 into beautiful allegories1 in the sixth book of his neid1 gives us the punishment1 c4 ,spectator1 ,n #ij4 ,better thus3 ,virgil1 who in the sixth book of his neid has cast1 c4 ,and ,philip the ,fourth was obliged at last to conclude a peace1 on terms repugnant to his inclination1 to that of his people1 to the interest of ,spain1 and to that of all ,europe1 in the ,pyrenean treaty4 ,letters on history1 vol4 #a4 letter #f4 ,bolingbroke4 ,better thus3 ,and at last1 in the ,pyrenean treaty1 ,philip the ,fourth was obliged to conclude a peace1 c4 ,in arranging a period1 it is of importance to determine in what part of it a word makes the greatest figure1 whether in the beginning1 during the currency1 or at the close4 ,the breaking silence rouses the attention to what is said2 and therefore deeper impression is made at the beginning than during the currency4 ,the beginning1 however1 must yield to the close2 which being succeeded by a pause1 affords time for a word to make its deepest impression4 ,hence the following rule1 ,that to give the utmost force to a period1 it ought if possible to be closed with that word which makes the greatest figure4 ,the opportunity of a pause should not be thrown away upon accessories1 but reserved for the principal object1 in order that it may make a full impression4 ,this is an additional reason against closing a period with a circumstance4 ,there are however periods that admit not this structure2 and in that case1 the capital word ought if possible to be placed in the front1 which next to the close is the most advantageous for making an impression4 ,hence1 in directing our discourse to any man1 we ought to begin with his name2 and one will be sensible of a degradation1 when this rule is neglected1 as it frequently is for the sake of verse4 ,i give the following examples4 ,integer vit1 scelerisque purus1 ,non eget ,mauris jaculi1 neque arcu1 ,nec venenatis gravid sagittis1 ,fusce1 pharetr4 ,horat4 ,carm4 l4 #a4 ode #bb4 ,je crains ,dieu1 cher ,abner1 et n'ai point d'autre crainte4 ,in these examples the name of the person addressed to makes a mean figure1 being like a circumstance slipt into a corner4 ,that this criticism is well founded1 we need no other proof than ,addison's translation of the last example4 ,o ,abner6 ,i fear my ,god1 and ,i fear none but him4 ,guardian1 ,n #aag4 ,o father1 what intends thy hand1 she cry'd1 ,against thy only son8 ,what fury1 ,o son1 ,possesses thee to bend that mortal dart ,against thy father's head8 ,paradise ,lost1 book #b4 l4 #gbg4 ,every one must be sensible of a dignity in the invocation at the beginning1 which that in the middle is far from reaching4 ,i mean not however to censure this expression4 ,on the contrary it appears beautiful1 by distinguishing the respect due to a father and to a son4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the substance of what is said in this and the foregoing section1 upon the method of arranging the words of a period so as to make the strongest impression with respect to sound as well as signification1 is comprehended in the following observation4 ,that order of the words in a period will always be the most agreeable1 where1 without obscuring the sense1 the most important images1 the most sonorous words1 and the longest members1 bring up the rear4 99 99 99 99 99 ,hitherto of arranging single words1 single members1 and single circumstances4 ,but the enumeration of many particulars in the same period is often necessary2 and the question is1 ,in what order they should be placed4 ,it does not seem easy at first view to bring a subject apparently so loose under any general rules4 ,but luckily reflecting upon what is said in the first chapter about order1 we find rules laid down to our hand1 so as to leave us no harder task than their application to the present question4 ,and1 first1 with respect to the enumerating a number of particulars of equal rank1 it is laid down in the place cited1 that as there is no foundation for preferring any one before the rest1 it is indifferent to the mind in what order they be viewed4 ,and it is only necessary to be added here1 that for the same reason1 it is indifferent in what order they be named4 #b;dly1 ,if a number of objects of the same kind1 differing only in size1 are to be ranged along a straight line1 the most agreeable order to the eye is that of an increasing series4 ,in surveying a number of such objects1 beginning at the least and proceeding to greater and greater1 the mind swells gradually with the successive objects1 and in its progress has a very sensible pleasure4 ,precisely for the same reason1 the words expressive of such objects ought to be placed in the same order4 ,the beauty of this figure1 which may be termed a climax in sense1 has escaped ,lord ,bolingbroke in the first member of the following period4 ,let but one great1 brave1 disinterested1 active man arise1 and he will be received1 followed1 and almost adored4 ,the following arrangement has sensibly a better effect4 ,let but one brave1 great1 active1 disinterested man arise1 c4 ,whether the same rule ought to be followed in enumerating men of different ranks1 seems doubtful4 ,on the one hand1 a procession of a number of persons1 presenting the lowest class first1 and rising upon the eye in succession till it terminate upon the highest1 is undoubtedly the most agreeable order4 ,on the other hand1 in every list of names1 it is customary to set the person of the greatest dignity at the top1 and to descend gradually through his inferiors4 ,where the purpose is to honour the persons named according to their rank1 the latter order ought to be followed2 but every one who regards himself only1 or his reader1 will chuse the former order4 #c;dly1 ,as the sense of order directs the eye to descend from the principal to its greatest accessory1 and from the whole to its greatest part1 and in the same order through all the parts and accessories till we arrive at the minutest2 the same order ought to be followed in the enumeration of such particulars4 ,i shall give one familiar example4 ,talking of the parts of a column1 viz4 the base1 the shaft1 the capital1 these are capable of six different arrangements1 and the question is1 ,which is the best8 ,when one has in view the erection of a column1 he will naturally be led to express the parts in the order above mentioned2 which at the same time is agreeable by mounting upward4 ,but considering the column as it stands without reference to its erection1 the sense of order1 as observed above1 requires the chief part to be named first4 ,for that reason we begin with the shaft2 and the base comes next in order1 that we may ascend from it to the capital4 ,lastly1 ,in tracing the particulars of any natural operation1 order requires that we follow the course of nature4 ,historical facts are related in the order of time4 ,we begin at the founder of a family1 and proceed from him to his descendents4 ,but in describing a lofty oak1 we begin with the trunk1 and ascend to the branches4 ,when force and liveliness of expression are aimed at1 the rule is1 to suspend the thought as much as possible1 and to bring it out full and entire at the close4 ,this cannot be done but by inverting the natural arrangement1 and by introducing a word or member before its time4 ,by such inversion our curiosity is raised about what is to follow2 and it is agreeable to have our curiosity gratified at the close of the period4 ,such arrangement produceth on the mind an effect similar to a stroke exerted upon the body by the whole collected force of the agent4 ,on the other hand1 where a period is so constructed as to admit more than one complete close in the sense1 the curiosity of the reader is exhausted at the first close1 and what follows appears languid or superfluous4 ,his disappointment contributes also to this appearance1 when he finds1 that1 contrary to his expectation1 the period is not yet finished4 ,cicero1 and after him ,quintilian1 recommend the verb to the last place4 ,this method evidently tends to suspend the sense till the close of the period2 for without the verb the sense cannot be complete4 ,and when the verb happens to be the capital word1 which is frequently the case1 it ought at any rate to be put last1 according to another rule1 above laid down4 ,i proceed as usual to illustrate this rule by examples4 ,the following period is placed in its natural order4 ,were instruction an essential circumstance in epic poetry1 ,i doubt whether a single instance could be given of this species of composition1 in any language4 ,the period thus arranged admits a full close upon the word composition2 after which it goes on languidly1 and closes without force4 ,this blemish will be avoided by the following arrangement4 ,were instruction an essential circumstance in epic poetry1 ,i doubt whether1 in any language1 a single instance could be given of this species of composition4 ,some of our most eminent divines have made use of this ,platonic notion1 as far as it regards the subsistence of our passions after death1 with great beauty and strength of reason4 ,spectator1 ,n #ij4 ,better thus3 ,some of our most eminent divines have1 with great beauty and strength of reason1 made use of this ,platonic notion1 c4 ,men of the best sense have been touched1 more or less1 with these groundless horrors and presages of futurity1 upon surveying the most indifferent works of nature4 ,spectator1 ,n #eje4 ,better3 ,upon surveying the most indifferent works of nature1 men of the best sense1 c4 ,she soon informed him of the place he was in1 which1 notwithstanding all its horrors1 appeared to him more sweet than the bower of ,mahomet1 in the company of his ,balsora4 ,guardian1 ,n #afg4 ,better3 ,she soon1 c4 appeared to him1 in the company of his ,balsora1 more sweet1 c4 ,the ,emperor was so intent on the establishment of his absolute power in ,hungary1 that he exposed the ,empire doubly to desolation and ruin for the sake of it4 ,letters on history1 vol4 #a4 let4 #g4 ,bolingbroke4 ,better3 ---- that for the sake of it he exposed the ,empire doubly to desolation and ruin4 ,none of the rules for the composition of periods are more liable to be abused1 than those last mentioned3 witness many ,latin writers1 among the moderns especially1 whose style1 by inversions too violent1 is rendered harsh and obscure4 ,suspension of the thought till the close of the period1 ought never to be preferred before perspicuity4 ,neither ought such suspension to be attempted in a long period2 because in that case the mind is bewildered among a profusion of words4 ,a traveller1 while he is puzzled about the road1 relishes not the finest prospects4 ,all the rich presents which ,astyages had given him at parting1 keeping only some ,median horses1 in order to propagate the breed of them in ,persia1 he distributed among his friends whom he left at the court of ,ecbatana4 ,travels of ,cyrus1 book #a4 ,the foregoing rules concern the arrangement of a single period4 ,i shall add one rule more concerning the distribution of a discourse into different periods4 ,a short period is lively and familiar4 ,a long period1 requiring more attention1 makes an impression grave and solemn4 ,in general1 a writer ought to study a mixture of long and short periods1 which prevents an irksome uniformity1 and entertains the mind with variety of impressions4 ,in particular1 long periods ought to be avoided till the reader's attention be thoroughly engaged2 and therefore a discourse1 especially of the familiar kind1 ought never to be introduced with a long period4 ,for that reason1 the commencement of a letter to a very young lady on her marriage is faulty4 ,madam1 ,the hurry and impertinence of receiving and paying visits on account of your marriage1 being now over1 you are beginning to enter into a course of life1 where you will want much advice to divert you from falling into many errors1 fopperies1 and follies1 to which your sex is subject4 ,swift4 ,see a stronger example in the commencement of ,cicero's oration1 ,pro ,archia poeta4 99 99 99 99 99 ,before we proceed farther1 it may be proper to take a review of the rules laid down in this and the preceding section1 in order to make some general observations4 ,the natural order of the words and members of a period1 is undoubtedly the same with the natural order of the ideas that compose the thought4 ,the tendency of many of the foregoing rules1 is to substitute an artificial arrangement1 in order to reach some beauty either of sound or meaning that cannot be reached in the natural order4 ,but seldom it happens1 that in the same period there is place for a plurality of these rules4 ,if one beauty can be catched1 another must be relinquished4 ,the only question is1 ,which ought to be preferred8 ,this is a question that cannot be resolved by any general rule4 ,but practice1 supported by a good taste1 will in most instances make the choice easy4 ,the component words and members of a period1 are ascertained by the subject4 ,if the natural order be not relished1 a few trials will discover that artificial order which has the best effect4 ,all that can be said in general is1 that in making a choice1 sound ought to yield to signification4 ,the transposing words and members out of their natural order1 so remarkable in the learned languages1 has been the subject of much speculation4 ,it is agreed on all hands1 that such transposition or inversion bestows upon a period a very sensible degree of force and elevation2 and yet writers seem to be at a loss in what manner to account for this effect4 ,cereau#ia ascribes so much power to inversion1 as to make it the characteristic of ,french verse1 and the single circumstance which in that language distinguishes verse from prose4 ,and yet he pretends not to say1 that it hath any other power but to raise surprise2 he must mean curiosity2 which is done by suspending the thought during the period1 and bringing it out entire at the close4 ,this indeed is one power of inversion2 but neither its sole power1 nor even that which is the most remarkable1 as is made plain above4 ,but waving censure1 which is not an agreeable task1 ,i enter into the matter4 ,and ,i begin with observing1 that if a conformity betwixt words and their meaning be agreeable1 it must of course be agreeable to find the same order or arrangement in both4 ,hence the beauty of a plain or natural style1 where the order of the words corresponds precisely to the order of the ideas4 ,nor is this the single beauty of a natural style3 it is also agreeable upon account of its simplicity and perspicuity4 ,this observation throws light upon the subject4 ,for if a natural style be in itself agreeable1 a transposed style cannot be so4 ,and therefore1 it cannot otherwise be agreeable1 but as contributing to some positive beauty which is excluded in a natural style4 ,to be confirmed in this opinion1 we need but reflect upon some of the foregoing rules1 which make it evident1 that language1 by means of inversion1 is susceptible of many beauties that are totally excluded in a natural arrangement of words4 ,from these premisses it clearly follows1 that inversion ought not to be indulged1 unless in order to reach some beauty superior to that of a natural style4 ,it may with great certainty be pronounced1 that every inversion which is not governed by this rule1 will appear harsh and strained1 and be disrelished by every one of taste4 ,hence the beauty of inversion when happily conducted2 the beauty1 not of an end1 but of means1 as furnishing opportunity for numberless ornaments that find no place in a natural style4 ,hence the force1 the elevation1 the harmony1 the cadence1 of some compositions4 ,hence the manifold beauties of the ,greek and ,roman tongues1 of which living languages afford but faint imitations4 ,,sect4 ,,iii4 ,beauty of language from a resemblance betwixt sound and signification4 ,the resemblance betwixt the sound and signification of certain words1 is a beauty1 which has escaped no critical writer1 and yet is not handled with accuracy by any of them4 ,they have probably been erroneously of opinion1 that a beauty so obvious in the feeling1 requires no explanation in the understanding4 ,in order to supply this defect1 ,i shall give examples of the various resemblances betwixt sound and signification2 and at the same time shall endeavour to explain why such resemblances are beautiful4 ,i begin with examples where the resemblance betwixt the sound and signification is the most entire2 proceeding to others1 where the resemblance is less and less so4 ,there being frequently a strong resemblance betwixt different sounds1 it will not be surprising to find a natural sound imitated by one that is articulate4 ,thus the sound of a bow-string is imitated by the words that express it4 ---- ,the string let fly1 ,twang'd short and sharp1 like the shrill swallow's cry4 ,odyssey xxi4 #ddi4 ,the sound of felling trees in a wood3 ,loud sounds the ax1 redoubling strokes on strokes2 ,on all sides round the forest hurls her oaks ,headlong4 ,deep-echoing groan the thickets brown1 ,then rustling1 crackling1 crashing1 thunder down4 ,iliad1 xxiii4 #add4 ,but when loud surges lash the sounding shore ,the hoarse rough verse should like the torrent roar6 ,pope's ,essay on ,criticism1 #cfi4 ,no person can be at a loss about the cause of this beauty4 ,it is obviously that of imitation4 ,that there is any other natural resemblance betwixt sound and signification1 must not be taken for granted4 ,there is evidently no resemblance betwixt sound and motion1 nor betwixt sound and sentiment4 ,in this matter1 we are apt to be deceived by artful reading or pronouncing4 ,the same passage may be pronounced in many different tones1 elevated or humble1 sweet or harsh1 brisk or melancholy1 so as to accord with the thought or sentiment4 ,such concord1 depending on artful pronunciation1 must be distinguished from that concord betwixt sound and sense1 which is perceived in some expressions independent of artful pronunciation4 ,the latter is the poet's work3 the former must be attributed to the reader4 ,another thing contributes still more to the deceit4 ,in language1 sound and sense are so intimately connected1 as that the properties of the one are readily communicated to the other4 ,an emotion of grandeur1 of sweetness1 of melancholy1 or of compassion1 though occasioned by the thought solely1 is transferred upon the words1 which by that means resemble in appearance the thought that is expressed by them#ib4 ,i have great reason to recommend these observations to my reader1 considering how inaccurately the present subject is handled by critics4 ,not one of them distinguishes the natural resemblance of sound and signification1 from the artificial resemblance now described4 ,witness ,vida in particular1 who in a very long passage has given very few examples1 but what are of the latter kind#ic4 ,that there may be a resemblance betwixt natural and artificial sounds1 is self-evident2 and that in fact there exist such resemblances successfully employ'd by writers of genius1 is clear from the foregoing examples1 and many others that might be given4 ,but we may safely pronounce1 that this natural resemblance can be carried no farther4 ,the objects of the several senses1 differ so widely from each other as to exclude any resemblance4 ,sound in particular1 whether articulate or inarticulate1 resembles not in any degree taste1 smell1 or motion2 and as little can it resemble any internal sentiment1 feeling1 or emotion4 ,but must we then agree1 that nothing but natural sound can be imitated by that which is articulate8 ,taking imitation in its proper sense1 as involving a resemblance betwixt two objects1 the proposition must be admitted4 ,and yet in many passages that are not descriptive of natural sound1 every one must be sensible of a peculiar concord betwixt the sound of the words and their meaning4 ,as there can be no doubt of the fact1 what remains is1 to inquire into its cause4 ,resembling causes may produce effects that have no resemblance2 and causes that have no resemblance may produce resembling effects4 ,a magnificent building1 for example1 resembles not in any degree an heroic action2 and yet the emotions they produce1 being concordant1 bear a resemblance to each other4 ,we are still more sensible of this resemblance1 in a song where the music is properly adjusted to the sentiment4 ,there is no resemblance betwixt thought and sound2 but there is the strongest resemblance betwixt the emotion raised by music tender and pathetic1 and that raised by the complaint of an unsuccessful lover4 ,to apply these examples to the present subject1 ,i observe1 that the sound even of a single word makes1 in some instances1 an impression resembling that which is made by the thing it signifies2 witness the word running1 composed of two short syllables2 and more remarkably the words rapidity1 impetuosity1 precipitation4 ,brutal manners produce in the spectator1 an emotion not unlike what is produced by a harsh and rough sound4 ,hence the figurative expression1 rugged manners2 an expression peculiarly agreeable by the relation of the sound to the sense4 ,again1 the word little1 being pronounced with a very small aperture of the mouth1 has a weak and faint sound1 which makes an impression resembling that made by any diminutive object4 ,this resemblance of effects1 is still more remarkable where a number of words are connected together in a period4 ,words pronounced in succession make often a strong impression2 and when this impression happens to accord with that made by the sense1 a peculiar pleasure arises4 ,the thought or sentiment produces one pleasant emotion3 the melody or tone of the words produces another4 ,but the chief pleasure proceeds from having these two concordant emotions combined in perfect harmony1 and carried on in the mind to a full close#id4 ,except in the single case where sound is described1 all the examples given by critics of sense being imitated in sound1 resolve into a resemblance of effects4 ,emotions raised by sound and signification may have a resemblance2 but sound itself cannot have a resemblance to any thing but sound4 ,proceeding now to particulars1 and beginning with those cases where the emotions have the strongest resemblance1 ,i observe1 first1 ,that in pronouncing a number of syllables in succession1 an emotion is sometimes raised extremely similar to that raised by successive motion4 ,this may be made evident even to those who are defective in taste1 by the following fact1 that the term movement in all languages is equally apply'd to both4 ,in this manner1 successive motion1 such as walking1 running1 galloping1 can be imitated by a succession of long or short syllables1 or by a due mixture of both4 ,for example1 slow motion may be aptly imitated in a verse where long syllables prevail2 especially when aided by a slow pronunciation3 ,illi inter sese magn vi brachia tollunt4 ,georg4 iv4 #agd4 ,on the other hand1 swift motion is imitated by a succession of short syllables3 ,quadrupedante putrem sonitu quatit ungula campum4 ,again3 ,radit iter liquidum1 celeres neque commovet alas4 ,thirdly1 a line composed of monosyllables1 makes an impression1 by the frequency of its pauses1 similar to what is made by laborious interrupted motion3 ,with many a weary step1 and many a groan1 ,up the high hill he heaves a huge round stone4 ,odyssey1 xi4 #gcf4 ,first march the heavy mules1 securely slow2 ,o'er hills1 o'er dales1 o'er craggs1 o'er rocks1 they go4 ,iliad1 xxiii4 #ach4 ,fourthly1 the impression made by rough sounds in succession1 resembles that made by rough or tumultuous motion4 ,on the other hand1 the impression of smooth sounds resembles that of gentle motion4 ,the following is an example of both4 ,two craggy rocks projecting to the main1 ,the roaring wind's tempestuous rage restrain2 ,within1 the waves in softer murmurs glide1 ,and ships secure without their haulsers ride4 ,odyssey1 iii4 #aah4 ,another example of the latter3 ,soft is the strain when ,zephyr gently blows1 ,and the smooth stream in smoother numbers flows4 ,essay on ,crit4 #cff4 ,fifthly1 prolonged motion is expressed in an ,alexandrine line4 ,the first example shall be of slow motion prolonged3 ,a needless ,alexandrine ends the song2 ,that1 like a wounded snake1 drags its slow length along4 ,essay on ,crit4 #cef4 ,the next example is of forcible motion prolonged3 ,the waves behind impel the waves before1 ,wide-rolling1 foaming high1 and tumbling to the shore4 ,iliad1 xiii4 #ajjd4 ,the last shall be of rapid motion prolonged3 ,not so when swift ,camilla scours the plain1 ,flies o'er th' unbending corn1 and skims along the main4 ,essay on ,crit4 #cgc4 ,again1 speaking of a rock torn from the brow of a mountain1 ,still gath'ring force1 it smokes1 and1 urg'd amain1 ,whirls1 leaps1 and thunders down1 impetuous to the plain4 ,iliad1 xiii4 #aig4 ,sixthly1 a period consisting mostly of long syllables1 that is1 of syllables pronounced slow1 produceth an emotion resembling faintly that which is produced by gravity and solemnity4 ,hence the beauty of the following verse4 ,olli sedato respondit corde ,latinus4 ,seventhly1 a slow succession of ideas is a circumstance that belongs equally to settled melancholy1 and to a period composed of polysyllables pronounced slow4 ,hence1 by similarity of emotions1 the latter is imitative of the former3 ,in those deep solitudes and awful cells1 ,where heav'nly-pensive ,contemplation dwells1 ,and ever-musing ,melancholy reigns4 ,pope4 ,eloisa to ,abelard4 ,eighthly1 a long syllable made short1 or a short syllable made long1 raises1 by the difficulty of pronouncing contrary to custom1 a feeling similar to that of hard labour3 ,when ,ajax strives some rock's vast weight to throw1 ,the line too labours1 and the words move slow4 ,essay on ,crit4 #cgj4 ,ninthly1 harsh or rough words pronounced with difficulty1 excite a feeling resembling that which proceeds from the labour of thought to a dull writer3 ,just writes to make his barrenness appear1 ,and strains from hard-bound brains eight lines a-year4 ,pope's epistle to ,dr4 ,arbuthnot1 l4 #aha4 ,i shall close with one other example1 which of all makes the finest figure4 ,in the first section mention is made of a climax in sound1 and in the second of a climax in sense4 ,it belongs to the present subject to observe1 that when these coincide in the same passage1 the concordance of sound and sense is delightful4 ,the reader is conscious not only of pleasure from the two climaxes separately1 but of an additional pleasure from their concordance1 and from finding the sense so justly imitated by the sound4 ,in this respect1 no periods are more perfect than those borrowed from ,cicero in the first section4 ,the concord betwixt sense and sound is not less agreeable in what may be termed an anticlimax1 where the progress is from great to little2 for this has the effect to make diminutive objects appear still more diminutive4 ,horace affords a striking example3 ,parturiunt montes1 nascetur ridiculus mus4 ,the arrangement here is singularly artful4 ,the first place is occupied by the verb1 which is the capital word by its sense as well as sound4 ,the close is reserved for the word that is the meanest in sense as well as in sound4 ,and it must not be overlooked1 that the resembling sounds of the two last syllables give a ludicrous air to the whole4 ,reviewing the foregoing examples1 it appears to me1 contrary to expectation1 that in passing from the strongest resemblances to those that are fainter1 the pleasure rises gradually in proportion4 ,can this be accounted for8 or shall ,i renounce my taste as capricious8 ,when ,i renew the experiment again and again1 ,i feel no wavering1 but the greatest pleasure constantly from the faintest resemblances4 ,and yet how can this be8 for if the pleasure lie in imitation1 must not the strongest resemblance afford the greatest pleasure8 ,from this vexing dilemma1 ,i am happily relieved1 by reflecting on a doctrine established in the chapter of resemblance and contrast1 that the pleasure of resemblance is the greatest1 where it is least expected1 and where the objects compared are in their capital circumstances widely different4 ,nor will this appear surprising1 when we descend to familiar examples4 ,it raiseth not wonder in the smallest degree1 to find the most perfect resemblance betwixt two eggs of the same animal4 ,it is more rare to find such resemblance betwixt two human faces2 and upon that account such an appearance raises some degree of wonder4 ,but this emotion rises to a still greater height1 when we find in a pebble1 an aggat1 or any natural production1 a perfect resemblance to a tree or other organised body4 ,we cannot hesitate a moment1 in applying these observations to the present subject4 ,what occasion of wonder can it be to find one sound resembling another1 where both are of the same kind8 ,it is not so common to find a resemblance betwixt an articulate sound and one not articulate2 and accordingly the imitation here affords some slight pleasure4 ,but the pleasure swells greatly1 when we employ sound to imitate things it resembles not otherwise than by the effects produced in the mind4 ,i have had occasion to observe1 that to complete the resemblance betwixt sound and sense1 artful pronunciation contributes not a little4 ,pronunciation therefore may be considered as a branch of the present subject2 and with some observations upon it ,i shall conclude the section4 ,in order to give a just idea of pronunciation1 it must be distinguished from singing4 ,the latter is carried on by notes1 requiring each of them a different aperture of the windpipe4 ,the notes properly belonging to the former1 are expressed by different apertures of the mouth1 without varying the aperture of the windpipe4 ,this however doth not hinder pronunciation to borrow from singing1 as a man sometimes is naturally led to do1 in expressing a vehement passion4 ,in reading1 as in singing1 there is a key-note4 ,above this note the voice is frequently elevated1 to make the sound correspond to the elevation of the subject4 ,but the mind in an elevated state1 is disposed to action4 ,therefore in order to a rest1 it must be brought down to the key-note4 ,hence the term cadence4 ,the only general rule that can be given for directing the pronunciation1 is1 ,to sound the words in such a manner as to imitate the things they represent1 or of which they are the symbols4 ,the ideas which make the greatest figure1 ought to be expressed with a peculiar emphasis4 ,in expressing an elevated subject1 the voice ought to be raised above its ordinary pitch2 and words signifying dejection of mind1 ought to be pronounced in a low note4 ,a succession of sounds gradually ascending from low to high notes1 represents an ascending series of objects4 ,an opposite succession of sounds1 is fitted for objects or sentiments that descend gradually4 ,in ,dryden's ode of ,alexander's feast1 the line1 ,faln1 faln1 faln1 faln1 ought to be pronounced with a falling voice2 and is pronounced in that manner1 by every one of taste1 without instruction4 ,another circumstance contributes to the resemblance betwixt sense and sound1 which is slow or quick pronunciation4 ,for though the length or shortness of the syllables with relation to each other1 be in prose ascertained in some measure1 and in verse always2 yet taking a whole line or period together1 it is arbitrary to pronounce it slow or fast4 ,hence it is1 that a period expressing what is solemn or deliberate1 ought to be pronounced slow2 and ought to be pronounced quick1 when it expresses any thing brisk1 lively1 or impetuous4 ,the art of pronouncing with propriety and grace1 being calculated to make the sound an echo to the sense1 scarce admits of any other general rule than that above mentioned4 ,this rule may indeed be branched out into many particular rules and observations3 but these belong not properly to the present undertaking1 because they cannot be explained in words4 ,we have not words to signify the different degrees of high and low1 loud and soft1 fast and slow2 and before these differences can be made the subject of regular instruction1 notes must be invented resembling those employ'd in music4 ,we have reason to believe1 that in ,greece every tragedy was accompanied with such notes1 in order to ascertain the pronunciation4 ,but the moderns hitherto have not thought of this refinement4 ,cicero indeed#ie1 without the help of notes1 pretends to give rules for ascertaining the several tones of voice that are proper in expressing the several passions2 and it must be acknowledged1 that in this attempt he has exhausted the whole power of language4 ,at the same time1 every person of judgement must see1 that these rules avail little in point of instruction4 ,the very words he employs1 are scarce intelligible1 except to those who beforehand are acquainted with the subject4 ,to vary the scene a little1 ,i propose to close with a slight comparison betwixt singing and pronouncing4 ,in this comparison the five following circumstances relative to articulate sound1 must be kept in view4 #ast1 ,it is harsh or smooth4 #b;d1 ,a sound or syllable1 is long or short4 #c;d1 ,it is pronounced high or low4 #dth1 ,it is pronounced loud or soft4 ,and1 lastly1 a number of words in succession constituting a period or member of a period1 are pronounced slow or quick4 ,of these five1 the first depending on the component letters1 and the second being ascertained by custom1 admit not any variety in pronouncing4 ,the three last are arbitrary1 depending on the will of the person who pronounces2 and it is chiefly in the artful management of these1 that just pronunciation consists4 ,with respect to the first circumstance1 music has evidently the advantage2 for all its notes are agreeable to the ear1 which is not always the case of articulate sound4 ,with respect to the second1 long and short syllables variously combined1 produce a great variety of feet2 yet far inferior to the variety which is found in the multiplied combinations of musical notes4 ,with respect to high and low notes1 pronunciation is still more inferior to singing4 ,for it is observed by ,dionysius of ,halicarnassus#if1 that in pronouncing1 i4e4 without altering the aperture of the windpipe1 the voice is confined within three notes and a half4 ,singing has a much greater compass4 ,with respect to the two last circumstances1 pronunciation equals singing4 99 99 99 99 99 ,in this discourse1 ,i have mentioned none of the beauties of language1 but what arise from words taken in their proper sense4 ,those beauties that depend on the metaphorical and figurative power of words1 are reserved to be treated in chap4 #bj4 ,,sect4 ,,iv4 ,,versification4 ,the music of verse1 though handled by every grammarian1 merits more attention than has been given it4 ,the subject is intimately connected with human nature2 and to explain it thoroughly1 several nice and delicate feelings must be employ'd4 ,entering upon this subject1 it occurs as a preliminary point1 ,by what mark is verse distinguished from prose8 ,the discussion of this point is necessary1 were it for no other purpose but to ascertain the nature and limits of our subject4 ,to produce this distinguishing mark1 is a task not perhaps so easy as may at first be apprehended4 ,verse of every sort1 has1 it is true1 rules for its construction4 ,it is composed of feet1 the number and variety of which are ascertained4 ,prose1 though also composed of feet1 is more loose and scarce subjected to any rules4 ,but many are ignorant of these rules3 ,are such left without means to make the distinction8 ,and even with respect to the learned1 must they apply the rule before they can with certainty pronounce whether the composition be prose or verse8 ,this will hardly be maintained2 and therefore1 instead of rules1 the ear must be appealed to as the proper judge4 ,but what gain we by being thus referred to another standard8 ,it still recurs1 by what mark does the ear distinguish verse from prose8 ,the proper and satisfactory answer is1 ,that these make different impressions1 which are readily distinguishable by every one who hath an ear4 ,this advances us one step in our inquiry4 ,taking it then for granted1 that verse makes upon the ear a different impression from that of prose2 nothing remains but to explain this difference1 and to assign its cause4 ,to these ends1 ,i must call to my aid an observation made above in treating of the sound of words1 that they are more agreeable to the ear when composed of long and short syllables than when all the syllables are of the same sort4 ,a continued sound in the same tone1 makes an impression that comes not up to any idea we have of music4 ,the same note successively renewed by intervals1 is more agreeable2 but still makes not a musical impression4 ,to produce this impression1 variety is necessary as well as number4 ,the successive sounds or syllables1 must be some of them long1 some of them short2 and if also high and low1 the music is the more perfect4 ,now if this impression can be made by single words1 much more by a plurality in an orderly succession4 ,the musical impression made by a period consisting of long and short syllables arranged in a certain order1 is what the ,greeks call rhythmus1 the ,latins1 numerus1 and we modulation or measure4 ,cicero justly observes1 that in one continued sound there is no modulation3 8,numerus in continuatione nullus est40 ,but in what follows he is wide of the truth1 if by numerus he means modulation or musical measure4 8,distinctio1 et qualium et spe variorum intervallorum percussio1 numerum conficit2 quem in cadentibus guttis1 quod intervallis distinguuntur1 notare possumus40 ,falling drops1 whether with equal or unequal intervals1 are certainly not musical4 ,we begin then only to be sensible of a musical expression1 when the notes are varied4 ,and this also was probably the opinion of the author cited1 though his expression be a little unguarded#ig4 ,it will probably occur1 that modulation1 so far as connected with long and short syllables combined in a sentence1 may be found in prose as well as in verse2 considering especially1 that in both1 particular words are accented or pronounced in a higher tone than ordinary2 and therefore that the difference betwixt them cannot consist in modulation merely4 ,the observation is just2 and it follows1 that the distinction betwixt prose and verse1 since it depends not on modulation merely1 must arise from the difference of the modulation4 ,this is precisely the case1 though the difference cannot with any accuracy be explained in words4 ,verse is more musical than prose2 and of the former1 the modulation is more perfect than of the latter4 ,the difference betwixt verse and prose1 resembles the difference in music properly so called betwixt the song and the recitative4 ,and the resemblance is not the less complete1 that these differences1 like the shades of colours1 approximate sometimes so nearly as scarce to be discernible4 ,a recitative in its movement approaches sometimes to the liveliness of a song2 which on the other hand degenerates sometimes toward a plain recitative4 ,nothing is more distinguishable from prose1 than the bulk of ,virgil's hexameters4 ,many of those composed by ,horace1 are very little removed from prose4 ,sapphic verse has a very sensible modulation4 ,that on the other hand of an ,iambic1 is extremely faint#ih4 ,this more perfect modulation of articulate sounds1 is what distinguisheth verse from prose4 ,verse is subjected to certain inflexible laws4 ,the number and variety of the component syllables are ascertained1 and in some measure the order of succession4 ,such restraint makes it a matter of difficulty to compose in verse2 a difficulty that is not to be surmounted but by a singular genius4 ,useful lessons of every sort convey'd to us in verse1 are agreeable by the union of music with instruction4 ,but are we for that reason to reject knowledge offered in a plainer dress8 ,this would be ridiculous2 for knowledge may be acquired without music1 and music is entertaining independent of knowledge4 ,many there are1 not less willing than capable to instruct us1 who have no genius for verse4 ,hence the use of prose1 which1 for the reason now given1 is not confined to precise rules4 ,there belongs to it1 a certain modulation of an inferior kind1 which1 being extremely ornamental1 ought to be the aim of every writer4 ,but to succeed in it1 practice is necessary more than genius4 ,nor are we rigid on this article4 ,provided the work answer its chief end of instruction1 we are the less solicitous about its dress4 ,having ascertained the nature and limits of our subject1 ,i proceed to the laws by which it is regulated4 ,these would be endless1 were verse of all different kinds to be taken under consideration4 ,i propose therefore to confine the inquiry1 to ,latin or ,greek hexameter1 and to ,french and ,english heroic verse2 which perhaps will carry me farther than the reader may chuse to follow4 ,the observations ,i shall have occasion to make1 will at any rate be sufficient for a specimen2 and these with proper variations may easily be transferred to the composition of other sorts of verse4 ,before ,i enter upon particulars1 it must be premised in general1 that to verse of every kind1 five things are of importance4 #ast1 ,the number of syllables that compose a verse4 #b;d1 ,the different lengths of syllables1 i4e4 the difference of time taken in pronouncing4 #c;d1 ,the arrangement of these syllables combined in words4 #dth1 ,the pauses or stops in pronouncing4 #eth1 ,pronouncing syllables in a high or low tone4 ,the three first mentioned are obviously essential to verse4 ,if any of them be wanting1 there cannot be that higher degree of modulation which distinguisheth verse from prose4 ,to give a just notion of the fourth1 it must be observed1 that pauses are necessary for three different purposes4 ,one is1 to separate periods and members of the same period according to the sense3 another is1 to improve the modulation of verse3 and the last is1 to afford opportunity for drawing breath in reading4 ,a pause of the first kind is variable1 being long or short1 frequent or less frequent1 as the sense requires4 ,a pause of the second kind1 is in no degree arbitrary2 its place being determined by the modulation4 ,the last sort again is in a measure arbitrary1 depending on the reader's command of breath4 ,this sort ought always to coincide with the first or second2 for one cannot read with grace1 unless1 for drawing breath1 opportunity be taken of a pause in the sense or in the melody2 and for that reason this pause may be neglected4 ,with respect then to the pauses of sense and of melody1 it may be affirmed without hesitation1 that their coincidence in verse is a capital beauty4 ,but as it cannot be expected1 in a long work especially1 that every line should be so perfect2 we shall afterward have occasion to see1 that the pause necessary for sense must often1 in some degree1 be sacrificed to the verse-pause2 and the latter sometimes to the former4 ,the pronouncing syllables in a high or low tone1 contributes also to melody4 ,in reading1 whether verse or prose1 a certain tone is assumed1 which may be called the key-note2 and in this tone the bulk of the words are sounded4 ,sometimes to humour the sense and sometimes the melody1 a particular syllable is sounded in a higher tone2 and this is termed accenting a syllable1 or gracing it with an accent4 ,opposed to the accent1 is the cadence1 which ,i have not mentioned as one of the requisites of verse1 because it is entirely regulated by the sense1 and hath no peculiar relation to verse4 ,the cadence is a falling of the voice below the key-note at the close of every period2 and so little is it essential to verse1 that in correct reading the final syllable of every line is accented1 that syllable only excepted which closes the period1 where the sense requires a cadence4 ,the reader may be satisfied of this by experiments2 and for that purpose ,i recommend to him the ,rape of the ,lock1 which1 in point of versification1 is the most complete performance in the ,english language4 ,let him consult in particular a period canto #b4 beginning at line #dg4 and closed line #eb4 with the word gay1 which only of the whole final syllables is pronounced with a cadence4 ,he may also examine another period in the #eth canto1 which runs from line #de4 to line #eb4 ,though the five requisites above mentioned1 enter the composition of every species of verse1 they are however governed by different rules1 peculiar to each species4 ,upon quantity only1 one general observation may be premised1 because it is applicable to every species of verse4 ,syllables1 with respect to the time taken in pronouncing1 are distinguished into long and short2 two short syllables1 with respect to time1 being precisely equal to one long4 ,these two lengths are essential to verse of all kinds2 and to no verse1 so far as ,i know1 is a greater variety of time necessary in pronouncing syllables4 ,the voice indeed is frequently made to rest longer than commonly1 upon a word that bears an important signification4 ,but this is done to humour the sense1 and is not necessary for the modulation4 ,a thing not more necessary occurs with respect to accenting1 similar to that now mentioned4 ,a word signifying any thing humble1 low1 or dejected1 is naturally1 in prose as well as in verse1 pronounced in a tone below the key-note4 ,we are now sufficiently prepared for entering upon particulars2 and ,latin or ,greek ,hexameter1 which are the same1 coming first in order1 ,i shall exhaust what ,i have to say upon this species of verse1 under the four following heads2 of number1 arrangement1 pause1 and accent2 for as to quantity1 so far as concerns the present point1 what is observed above may suffice4 ,hexameter lines are1 with respect to time1 all of the same length4 ,a line may consist of seventeen syllables2 and when regular and not ,spondaic1 it never has fewer than thirteen4 ,hence it is plain1 that where the syllables are many1 the plurality must be short2 where few1 the plurality must be long4 ,and upon the whole1 the number of syllables in every line with respect to the time taken in pronouncing1 are equivalent to twelve long syllables1 or twenty-four short4 ,with regard to arrangement1 this line is susceptible of much variety4 ,the succession of long and short syllables1 may be greatly varied without injuring the melody4 ,it is subjected however to laws1 that confine its variety within certain limits4 ,for trying the arrangement1 and for determining whether it be perfect or faulty1 grammarians have invented a rule by ,dactyles and ,spondees1 which they denominate feet4 ,one at first view is led to think1 that these feet are also intended to regulate the pronunciation4 ,but this is far from being the case4 ,it will appear by and by1 that the rules of pronunciation are very different4 ,and indeed were one to pronounce according to these feet1 the melody of a ,hexameter line would be destroy'd1 or at best be much inferior to what it is when properly pronounced#ii4 ,these feet then must be confined to their sole province of regulating the arrangement1 for they serve no other purpose4 ,they are withal so artificial and complex1 that1 neglecting them altogether1 ,i am tempted to substitute in their room1 other rules1 more simple and of more easy application2 for example1 the following4 #ast1 ,the line must always commence with a long syllable1 and close with two long preceded by two short4 #b;d1 ,more than two short can never be found in any part of the line1 nor fewer than two if any4 ,and1 #c;d1 ,two long syllables which have been preceded by two short1 cannot also be followed by two short4 ,these few rules fulfil all the conditions of a ,hexameter line1 with relation to order or arrangement4 ,to these again a single rule may be substituted1 for which ,i have a still greater relish1 as it regulates more affirmatively the construction of every part4 ,that ,i may put this rule into words with the greater facility1 ,i take a hint from the twelve long syllables that compose an ,hexameter line1 to divide it into twelve equal parts or portions1 being each of them one long syllable or two short4 ,this preliminary being established1 the rule is shortly what follows4 ,the #ast1 #c;d1 #eth1 #gth1 #ith1 #aath1 and #abth portions1 must each of them be one long syllable2 the #ajth must always be two short syllables2 the #b;d1 #dth1 #fth1 and #hth1 may indifferently be one long or two short4 ,or to express the thing still more curtly1 ,the #b;d1 #dth1 #fth1 and #hth portions may be one long syllable or two short2 the #ajth must be two short syllables2 all the rest must consist of one long syllable4 ,this fulfils all the conditions of an ,hexameter line1 and comprehends all the combinations of ,dactyles and ,spondees that this line admits4 99 99 99 99 99 ,next in order comes the pause4 ,at the end of every ,hexameter line1 no ear but must be sensible of a complete close or full pause4 ,this effect is produced by the following means4 ,every line invariably is finished with two long syllables preceded by two short2 a fine preparation for a full close4 ,syllables pronounced slow1 resemble a slow and languid motion tending to rest4 ,the mind put in the same tone by the pronunciation1 is naturally disposed to a pause4 ,and to this disposition the two preceding short syllables contribute2 for these1 by contrast1 make the slow pronunciation of the final syllables the more conspicuous4 ,beside this complete close or full pause at the end1 others are also requisite for the sake of melody4 ,i discover two clearly1 and perhaps there may be more4 ,the longest and most remarkable1 succeeds the #eth portion1 according to the foregoing measure4 ,the other1 which being more faint1 may be called the semipause1 succeeds the #hth portion4 ,so striking is the pause first mentioned1 as to be distinguished even by the rudest ear4 ,the monkish rhymes are evidently built upon it4 ,in these1 it is an invariable rule1 to make the final word chime with that which immediately precedes the pause3 ,de planctu endo mitrum cum carmine nudo ,mingere cum bumbis res est soluberrima lumbis4 ,the difference of time in the pause and semipause1 occasions another difference not less remarkable4 ,the pause ought regularly to be at the end of a word2 but it is lawful to divide a word by a semipause4 ,the bad effect of dividing a word by the pause1 is sensibly felt in the following examples4 ,effusus labor1 atque inmitis rupta ,tyranni ,again1 ,observans nido implumes detraxit2 at illa ,again1 ,loricam quam ,demoleo detraxerat ipse ,the dividing a word by a semipause has not the same bad effect3 ,jamque pedem referens casus evaserat omnes4 ,again1 ,qualis populea mrens ,philomela sub umbra ,again1 ,ludere qu vellem calamo permisit agresti4 ,lines1 however1 where words are left entire to be pronounced as they ought to be1 without being divided even by a semipause1 run by that means much the more sweetly4 ,nec gemere area cessabit turtur ab ulmo4 ,again1 ,quadrupedante putrem sonitu quatit ungula campum4 ,again1 ,eurydicen toto referebant flumine rip4 ,the reason of these observations1 will be evident upon the slightest reflection4 ,betwixt things so intimately connected as sense and sound in pronunciation1 to find discordance is unpleasant to the ear2 and for that reason1 it is a matter of importance1 to make the musical pauses coincide as much as possible with those of the sense4 ,this is requisite1 more especially1 with respect to the pause4 ,a deviation from the rule is less remarkable in a semipause1 which makes but a slight impression4 ,considering the matter as to modulation solely1 it is indifferent whether the pauses be at the end of words or in the middle4 ,but when we carry the sense along1 nothing is more disagreeable than to find a word split into two parts1 neither of which separately have any meaning4 ,this bad effect1 though it regard the sense only1 is by an easy transition of ideas transferred to the sound1 with which the sense is intimately connected2 and by this means1 we conceive a line to be harsh and grating to the ear1 which in reality is only so to the understanding#ajj4 ,to the rule which places the pause after the #eth portion1 there is one exception1 and no more4 ,if the syllable succeeding the #eth portion be short1 the pause is sometimes postponed to it3 ,pupillis quos dura premit custodia matrum ,again1 ,in terris oppressa gravi sub religione ,again1 ,et quorum pars magna fui2 quis talia fando ,this contributes to diversify the melody2 and where the words are smooth and liquid1 is not ungraceful2 as in the following examples4 ,formosam resonare doces ,amaryllida sylvas ,again1 ,agricolas1 quibus ipsa procul discordibus armis ,if this pause1 postponed as aforesaid to the short syllable1 happen also to divide a word1 the melody by these circumstances is totally annihilated3 witness the following line of ,ennius1 which is plain prose4 ,rom mnia terruit impiger ,hannibal armis ,hitherto the arrangement of the long and short syllables of an ,hexameter line and its different pauses1 have been considered with respect to melody4 ,but to have a just notion of ,hexameter verse1 these particulars must also be considered with respect to sense4 ,there is not perhaps in any other sort of verse1 such a latitude in the long and short syllables4 ,this circumstance contributes greatly to that richness of modulation which is remarkable in ,hexameter verse2 and which makes ,aristotle pronounce1 that an epic poem in any other sort would not succeed#aja4 ,one defect however must not be dissembled4 ,the same means that contribute to the richness of the melody1 render it less fit than several other sorts for a narrative poem4 ,with regard to the melody1 as above observed1 there cannot be a more artful contrivance than to close an ,hexameter line with two long syllables preceded by two short4 ,but unhappily this construction proves a great imbarrassment to the sense2 as will be evident from what follows4 ,as in general there ought to be a strict concordance betwixt every thought and the words in which it is dressed1 so in particular1 every close in the sense1 complete and incomplete1 ought to be accompanied with a similar close in the sound4 ,in the composition of prose1 there is sufficient latitude for applying this rule in the strictest manner4 ,but the same strictness in verse1 would occasion insuperable difficulties4 ,some share of the concordance betwixt thought and expression1 may be justly sacrificed to the melody of verse2 and therefore during the course of a line1 we freely excuse the want of coincidence of the musical pause with that of the sense4 ,but the close of an ,hexameter line is too conspicuous to admit a total neglect of this coincidence4 ,and hence it follows1 that there ought to be always some pause in the sense at the end of every ,hexameter line1 were it but such a pause as is marked with a comma4 ,it follows also1 for the same reason1 that there ought never to be a full close in the sense but at the end of a line1 because there the modulation is closed4 ,an ,hexameter line1 to preserve its melody1 cannot well permit any greater relaxation2 and yet in a narrative poem1 it is extremely difficult to keep up to the rule even with these indulgences4 ,virgil1 the greatest poet for versification that ever existed1 is forc'd often to end a line without any close in the sense1 and as often to close the sense during the running of a line3 though a close in the melody during the movement of the thought1 or a close in the thought during the movement of the melody1 cannot fail to be disagreeable4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the accent1 to which we proceed1 is not less essential than the other circumstances above handled4 ,by a good ear it will be discerned1 that in every line there is one syllable distinguishable from the rest by a strong accent4 ,this syllable making the #gth portion1 is invariably long2 and in point of time occupies a place nearly at an equal distance from the pause which succeeds the #eth portion1 and the semipause1 which succeeds the #hth3 ,nec bene promeritis capitr nec tangitur ira ,again1 ,non sibi sed toto genitm se credere mundo ,again1 ,qualis spelunca subit commota columba ,in these examples1 the accent is laid upon the last syllable of a word4 ,and that this is a favourable circumstance for the melody1 will appear from the following consideration4 ,in reading1 there must be some pause after every word1 to separate it from what follows2 and this pause1 however short1 supports the accent4 ,hence it is1 that a line thus accented1 has a more spirited air1 than where the accent is placed on any other syllable4 ,compare the foregoing lines with the following4 ,alba neque ,assyrio fuctur lana veneno ,again1 ,panditur interea domus mnipotentis ,olympi ,again1 ,olli sedato respndit corde ,latinus ,in lines where the pause comes after the short syllable succeeding the #eth portion1 the accent is displaced and rendered less sensible4 ,it seems to be split into two1 and to be laid partly on the #eth portion1 and partly on the #gth1 its usual place2 as in ,nuda genu1 nodque sins collecta fluentes ,again1 ,formosam resonre docs ,amaryllida sylvas ,beside this capital accent1 slighter accents are laid upon other portions2 particularly upon the #dth1 unless where it consists of two short syllables2 upon the #ith1 which is always a long syllable2 and upon the #aath1 where the line concludes with a monosyllable4 ,such conclusion1 by the by1 lessens the melody1 and for that reason is not to be indulged unless where it is expressive of the sense4 ,the following lines are marked with all the accents4 ,ludere qu vllem calam permsit agresti ,again1 ,et dur qurcus sudbunt rscida mella ,again1 ,parturiunt mntes1 nasctur rdiculs mus ,inquiring into the melody of ,hexameter verse1 we soon discover1 that order or arrangement doth not constitute the whole of it4 ,comparing different lines1 equally regular as to the succession of long and short syllables1 the melody is found in very different degrees of perfection4 ,nor does the difference arise from any particular combination of ,dactyles and ,spondees1 or of long and short syllables4 ,on the contrary1 we find lines where ,dactyles prevail and lines where ,spondees prevail1 equally melodious4 ,of the former take the following instance3 neadum genetrix hominum divumque voluptas4 ,of the latter3 ,molli paulatim flavescet campus arista4 ,what can be more different as to melody than the two following lines1 which1 however1 as to the succession of long and short syllables1 are constructed precisely in the same manner8 ,spond4 ,dact4 ,spond4 ,spond4 ,dact4 ,spond4 ,ad talos stola dimissa et circumdata palla4 ,hor4 ,spond4 ,dact4 ,spond4 ,spond4 ,dact4 ,spond4 ,placatumque nitet diffuso lumine clum4 ,lucret4 ,in the former1 the pause falls in the middle of a word1 which is a great blemish1 and the accent is disturbed by a harsh elision of the vowel a upon the particle et4 ,in the latter the pauses and the accent are all of them distinct and full3 there is no elision3 and the words are more liquid and sounding4 ,in these particulars consists the beauty of an ,hexameter line with respect to melody2 and by neglecting these1 many lines in the ,satires and ,epistles of ,horace are less agreeable than plain prose2 for they are neither the one nor the other in perfection4 ,to make these lines sound1 they must be pronounced without relation to the sense4 ,it must not be regarded1 that words are divided by pauses1 nor that harsh elisions are multiplied4 ,to add to the account1 prosaic low sounding words are introduced2 and which is still worse1 accents are laid on them4 ,of such faulty lines take the following instances4 ,candida rectaque sit1 munda hactenus sit neque longa4 ,jupiter exclamat simul atque audirit2 at in se ,custodes1 lectica1 ciniflones1 parasit ,optimus est modulator1 ut ,alfenus ,vafer omni ,nunc illud tantum quram1 meritone tibi sit4 ,next in order comes ,english heroic verse1 which shall be examined under the whole five heads1 of number1 quantity1 arrangement1 pause1 and accent4 ,this verse sometimes employs rhymes and sometimes not1 which distinguishes it into two kinds2 one named metre1 and one blank verse4 ,in the former1 the lines are connected two and two by similarity of sound in the final syllables2 and such connected lines are termed couplets4 ,similarity of sound being avoided in the latter1 banishes couplets4 ,these two sorts must be handled separately1 because there are many peculiarities in each4 ,the first article with respect to rhyme or metre1 shall be discussed in a few words4 ,every line consists of ten syllables1 five short and five long4 ,there are but two exceptions1 both of them rare4 ,a couplet can bear to be drawn out1 by adding a short syllable at the end of each of the two lines3 ,there hero's wits are kept in pond'rous vases1 ,and beau's in snuff-boxes and tweezer-cases4 ,the piece1 you think1 is incorrect8 ,why1 take it2 ,i'm all submission2 what you'd have it1 make it4 ,this licence is sufferable in a single couplet2 but if frequent would soon become disgustful4 ,the other exception concerns the second line of a couplet1 which is sometimes stretched out to twelve syllables1 termed an ,alexandrine line4 ,a needless ,alexandrine ends the song1 ,that1 like a wounded snake1 drags its slow length along4 ,it doth extremely well when employ'd to close a period with a certain pomp and solemnity suitable to the subject4 ,with regard to the second article1 it is unnecessary to mention a second time1 that the quantities employ'd in verse are but two1 the one double of the other2 that every syllable is reducible to one or other of these standards2 and that a syllable of the larger quantity is termed long1 and of the lesser quantity short4 ,it belongs more to the present article1 to examine what peculiarities there may be in the ,english language as to long and short syllables4 ,in every language1 there are syllables that may be pronounced long or short at pleasure2 but the ,english above all abounds in syllables of that kind4 ,in words of three or more syllables1 the quantity for the most part is invariable4 ,the exceptions are more frequent in dissyllables2 but as to monosyllables1 they may without many exceptions be pronounced either long or short4 ,nor is the ear hurt by this liberty2 being accustomed to the variation of quantity in the same word4 ,this shows that the melody of ,english verse must depend less upon quantity1 than upon other circumstances4 ,in that particular it differs widely from ,latin verse4 ,there1 every syllable having but one sound1 strikes the ear constantly with its accustomed impression2 and a reader must be delighted to find a number of such syllables1 disposed so artfully as to raise a lively sense of melody4 ,syllables variable in quantity cannot possess this power4 ,custom may render familiar1 both a long and short pronunciation of the same word2 but the mind constantly wavering betwixt the two sounds1 cannot be so much affected with a syllable of this kind as with one which bears always the same sound4 ,what ,i have further to say upon quantity1 will come in more properly under the following head1 of arrangement4 ,and with respect to arrangement1 which may be brought within a narrow compass1 the ,english heroic line is commonly ,iambic1 the first syllable short1 the second long1 and so on alternately through the whole line4 ,one exception there is1 pretty frequent4 ,many lines commence with a ,trochus1 viz4 a long and a short syllable4 ,but this affects not the order of the following syllables4 ,these go on alternately as usual1 one short and one long4 ,the following couplet affords an example of each kind3 ,sme n th felds f prst thr ply1 nd bsk nd whtn n th blze f dy4 ,it is unhappy in the construction of ,english verse1 that it excludes the bulk of polysyllables1 though the most sounding words in our language2 for upon examination it will be found1 that very few of them are composed of such alternation of long and short syllables as to correspond to either of the arrangements mentioned4 ,english verse accordingly is almost totally reduced to dissyllables and monosyllables4 ,magnanimity is a sounding word totally excluded4 ,impetuosity is still a finer word by the resemblance of the sound and sense2 and yet a negative is put upon it1 as well as upon numberless words of the same kind4 ,polysyllables composed of syllables long and short alternately1 make a good figure in verse2 for example1 observance1 opponent1 ostensive1 pindaric1 productive1 prolific1 and such others of three syllables4 ,imitation1 imperfection1 misdemeanour1 mitigation1 moderation1 observator1 ornamental1 regulator1 and others similar of four syllables1 beginning with two short syllables1 the third long1 and the fourth short1 may find a place in a line commencing with a ,trochus4 ,i know not if there be any of five syllables4 ,one ,i know of six1 viz4 misinterpretation4 ,but words so composed are not frequent in our language4 ,one would not imagine without trial1 how uncouth false quantity appears in verse2 not less than a provincial tone or idiom4 ,the article the is one of the few monosyllables that is invariably short4 ,see how harsh it makes a line where it must be pronounced long3 ,ths nmph1 t th dstrctin f mnknd1 ,again3 ,th' dvnt'rus brn th brght lcks dmr'd4 ,let the article be pronounced short1 and it reduces the melody almost to nothing4 ,better so however than a false quantity4 ,in the following examples we perceive the same defect4 ,and old impertinence expel by new4 ,with varying vanities from ev'ry part4 ,love in these labyrinths his slaves detains4 ,new stratagems the radiant lock to gain4 ,her eyes half-languishing half-drown'd in tears4 ,roar'd for the handkerchief that caus'd his pain4 ,passions like elements though born to fight4 ,the great variety of modulation conspicuous in ,english verse1 will be found upon trial to arise chiefly from the pauses and accents2 and therefore these circumstances are of greater importance than is commonly thought4 ,there is a degree of intricacy in this branch of our subject1 and it will require some pains to give a distinct view of it4 ,but we must not be discouraged by difficulties4 ,the pause1 which paves the way to the accent1 offers itself first to our examination4 ,from a very short trial1 the following facts will be verified4 #ast1 ,a line admits but one capital pause4 #b;d1 ,in different lines1 we find this pause after the fourth syllable1 after the fifth1 after the sixth1 and after the seventh4 ,these particulars lay a solid foundation for dividing ,english heroic lines into four sorts1 distinguished by the different places of the pause4 ,nor is this an idle distinction4 ,on the contrary1 unless it be kept in view1 we cannot have any just notion of the richness and variety of ,english versification4 ,each sort or order hath a melody peculiar to itself1 readily distinguishable by a good ear2 and1 in the sequel1 ,i am not without hopes to make the cause of this peculiarity sufficiently evident4 ,it must be observed1 at the same time1 that the pause cannot be made indifferently at any of the places mentioned4 ,it is the sense that regulates the pause1 as will be seen more fully afterward2 and consequently1 it is the sense that determines of what order every line must be4 ,there can be but one capital musical pause in a line2 and this pause ought to coincide1 if possible1 with a pause in the sense2 in order that the sound may accord with the sense4 ,what is said must be illustrated by examples of each sort or order4 ,and first of the pause after the fourth syllable3 ,back through the paths of pleasing sense ,i ran ,again1 ,profuse of bliss and pregnant with delight ,after the #eth3 ,so when an angel by divine command1 ,with rising tempests shakes a guilty land1 ,after the #fth3 ,speed the soft intercourse from soul to soul ,again1 ,then from his closing eyes thy form shall part ,after the #gth3 ,and taught the doubtful battle where to rage ,again1 ,and in the smooth description murmur still ,beside the capital pause now mentioned1 other inferior or semipauses will be discovered by a nice ear4 ,of these there are commonly two in each line2 one before the capital pause1 and one after it4 ,the former is invariably placed after the first long syllable1 whether the line begin with a long syllable or a short4 ,the other in its variety imitates the capital pause4 ,in some lines it follows the #fth syllable1 in some the #gth1 and in some the #hth4 ,of these semipauses take the following examples4 99 99 99 99 99 #ast and #hth3 ,led through a sad variety of wo4 #ast and #gth3 ,still on that breast enamour'd let me lie #b;d and #hth3 ,from storms a shelter and from heat a shade #b;d and #fth3 ,let wealth let honour wait the wedded dame #b;d and #gth3 ,above all pain all passion and all pride ,even from these few examples1 it appears1 that the place of the last semipause1 like that of the full pause1 is directed in a good measure by the sense4 ,its proper place with respect to the melody is after the eighth syllable1 so as to finish the line with an ,iambus distinctly pronounced1 which1 by a long syllable after a short1 is a preparation for rest4 ,if this hold1 the placing this semipause after the #fth or after the #gth syllable1 must be directed by the sense1 in order to avoid a pause in the middle of a word1 or betwixt two words intimately connected2 and so far melody is justly sacrificed to sense4 ,in discoursing of the full pause in a ,hexameter line1 it is laid down as a rule1 ,that it ought never to divide a word4 ,such licence deviates too far from the connection that ought to be betwixt the pauses of sense and of melody4 ,and in an ,english line1 it is for the same reason equally wrong to divide a word by a full pause4 ,let us justify this reason by experiments4 ,a noble superfluity it craves ,abhor1 a perpetuity should stand ,are these lines distinguishable from prose8 ,scarcely1 ,i think4 ,the same rule is not applicable to a semipause1 which being short and faint1 is not sensibly disagreeable when it divides a word4 ,relentless walls whose darksome round contains ,for her white virgins hymeneals sing ,in these deep solitudes and awful cells ,it must however be acknowledged1 that the melody here suffers in some degree4 ,a word ought to be pronounced without any rest betwixt its component syllables4 ,the semipause must bend to this rule1 and thereby vanisheth almost altogether4 ,with regard to the capital pause1 it is so essential to the melody1 that a poet cannot be too nice in the choice of its place1 in order to have it full1 clear1 and distinct4 ,it cannot be placed more happily than with a pause in the sense2 and if the sense require but a comma after the fourth1 fifth1 sixth1 or seventh syllable1 there can be no difficulty about this musical pause4 ,but to make such coincidence essential1 would cramp versification too much2 and we have experience for our authority1 that there may be a pause in the melody where the sense requires none4 ,we must not however imagine1 that a musical pause may be placed at the end of any word indifferently4 ,some words1 like syllables of the same word1 are so intimately connected as not to bear a separation even by a pause4 ,no good poet ever attempted to separate a substantive from its article3 the dividing such intimate companions1 would be harsh and unpleasant4 ,the following line1 for example1 cannot be pronounced with a pause as marked4 ,if ,delia smile1 the flow'rs begin to spring ,but ought to be pronounced in the following manner4 ,if ,delia smile1 the flow'rs begin to spring4 ,if then it be not a matter of indifferency where to make the pause1 there ought to be rules for determining what words may be separated by a pause and what are incapable of such separation4 ,i shall endeavour to unfold these rules2 not chiefly for their utility1 but in order to exemplify some latent principles that tend to regulate our taste even where we are scarce sensible of them4 ,and to that end1 it seems the eligible method to run over the verbal relations1 beginning with the most intimate4 ,the first that presents itself1 is that of adjective and substantive1 being the relation of substance and quality1 the most intimate of all4 ,a quality cannot exist independent of a substance1 nor is it separable from it even in imagination1 because they make parts of the same idea2 and for that reason1 it must1 with regard to melody1 be disagreeable1 to bestow upon the adjective a sort of independent existence1 by interjecting a pause betwixt it and its substantive4 ,i cannot therefore approve the following lines1 nor any of the sort2 for to my taste they are harsh and unpleasant4 ,of thousand bright inhabitants of air ,the sprites of fiery termagants inflame ,the rest1 his many-colour'd robe conceal'd ,the same1 his ancient personage to deck ,ev'n here1 where frozen ,chastity retires ,i sit1 with sad civility1 ,i read ,back to my native moderation slide ,or shall we ev'ry decency confound ,time was1 a sober ,englishman wou'd knock ,and place1 on good security1 his gold ,taste1 that eternal wanderer1 which flies ,but ere the tenth revolving day was run ,first let the just equivalent be paid ,go1 threat thy earth-born ,myrmidons2 but here ,haste to the fierce ,achilles' tent 7he cries7 ,all but the ever-wakeful eyes of ,jove ,your own resistless eloquence employ ,i have upon this article multiplied examples1 that in a case where ,i have the misfortune to dislike what passes current in practice1 every man upon the spot may judge by his own taste4 ,the foregoing reasoning1 it is true1 appears to me just3 it is however too subtile1 to afford conviction in opposition to taste4 ,considering this matter in a superficial view1 one might be apt to imagine1 that it must be the same1 whether the adjective go first1 which is the natural order1 or the substantive1 which is indulged by the laws of inversion4 ,but we soon discover this to be a mistake4 ,colour cannot be conceived independent of the surface coloured2 but a tree may be conceived1 as growing in a certain spot1 as of a certain kind1 and as spreading its extended branches all around1 without ever thinking of the colour4 ,in a word1 qualities1 though related all to one subject1 may be considered separately1 and the subject may be considered with some of its qualities independent of others2 though we cannot form an image of any single quality independent of the subject4 ,thus then1 though an adjective named first be inseparable from the substantive1 the proposition does not reciprocate4 ,an image can be formed of the substantive independent of the adjective2 and for this reason1 they may be separated by a pause1 when the former is introduced before the latter3 ,for thee1 the fates severely kind ordain ,and curs'd with hearts unknowing how to yield4 ,the verb and adverb are precisely in the same condition with the substantive and adjective4 ,an adverb1 which expresses a certain modification of the action expressed by the verb1 is not separable from it even in imagination4 ,and therefore ,i must also give up the following lines4 ,and which it much becomes you to forget ',tis one thing madly to disperse my store ,but an action may be conceived leaving out a particular modification1 precisely as a subject may be conceived leaving out a particular quality2 and therefore when by inversion the verb is first introduced1 it has no bad effect to interject a pause betwixt it and the adverb which follows4 ,this may be done at the close of a line1 where the pause is at least as full as that is which divides the line3 ,while yet he spoke1 the ,prince advancing drew ,nigh to the lodge1 c4 ,the agent and its action come next1 expressed in grammar by the active substantive and its verb4 ,betwixt these1 placed in their natural order1 there is no difficulty of interjecting a pause4 ,an active being is not always in motion1 and therefore it is easily separable in idea from its action4 ,when in a sentence the substantive takes the lead1 we know not that action is to follow2 and as rest must precede the commencement of motion1 this interval is a proper opportunity for a pause4 ,on the other hand1 when by inversion the verb is placed first1 is it lawful to separate it by a pause from the active substantive8 ,i answer not1 because an action is not in idea separable from the agent1 more than a quality from the substance to which it belongs4 ,two lines of the first rate for beauty have always appeared to me exceptionable1 upon account of the pause thus interjected betwixt the verb and the consequent substantive2 and ,i have now discovered a reason to support my taste3 ,in these deep solitudes and awful cells1 ,where heav'nly-pensive ,contemplation dwells1 ,and ever-musing ,melancholy reigns4 ,the point of the greatest delicacy regards the active verb and the passive substantive placed in their natural order4 ,on the one side it will be observed1 that these words signify things which are not separable in idea4 ,killing cannot be conceived without some being that is put to death1 nor painting without a surface upon which the colours are spread4 ,on the other side1 an action and the thing on which it is exerted1 are not1 like substance and quality1 united in one individual subject4 ,the active subject is perfectly distinct from that which is passive2 and they are connected by one circumstance only1 that the action exerted by the former1 is exerted upon the latter4 ,this makes it possible to take the action to pieces1 and to consider it first with relation to the agent1 and next with relation to the patient4 ,but after all1 so intimately connected are the parts of the thought1 that it requires an effort to make a separation even for a moment4 ,the subtilising to such a degree is not agreeable1 especially in works of imagination4 ,the best poets however1 taking advantage of this subtilty1 scruple not to separate by a pause an active verb from its passive subject4 ,such pauses in a long work may be indulged2 but taken singly1 they certainly are not agreeable4 ,i appeal to the following examples4 ,the peer now spreads the glitt'ring forfex wide ,as ever sully'd the fair face of light ,repair'd to search the gloomy cave of ,spleen ,nothing1 to make philosophy thy friend ,shou'd chance to make the well-dress'd rabble stare ,or cross1 to plunder provinces1 the main ,these madmen never hurt the church or state ,how shall we fill a library with wit ,what better teach a foreigner the tongue8 ,sure1 if ,i spare the minister1 no rules ,of honour bind me1 not to maul his tools4 ,on the other hand1 when the passive subject by inversion is first named1 there is no difficulty of interjecting a pause betwixt it and the verb1 more than when the active subject is first named4 ,the same reason holds in both1 that though a verb cannot be separated in idea from the substantive which governs it1 and scarcely from the substantive it governs2 yet a substantive may always be conceived independent of the verb4 ,when the passive subject is introduced before the verb1 we know not that an action is to be exerted upon it2 therefore we may rest till the action commences4 ,for the sake of illustration take the following examples4 ,shrines6 where their vigils pale-ey'd virgins keep ,soon as thy letters trembling ,i unclose ,no happier task these faded eyes pursue ,what is said about placing the pause1 leads to a general observation1 which ,i shall have occasion for afterwards4 ,the natural order of placing the active substantive and its verb1 is more friendly to a pause than the inverted order4 ,but in all the other connections1 inversion affords by far a better opportunity for a pause4 ,upon this depends one of the great advantages that blank verse hath over rhyme4 ,the privilege of inversion1 in which it far excels rhyme1 gives it a much greater choice of pauses1 than can be had in the natural order of arrangement4 ,we now proceed to the slighter connections1 which shall be discussed in one general article4 ,words connected by conjunctions and prepositions freely admit a pause betwixt them1 which will be clear from the following instances4 ,assume what sexes and what shape they please ,the light militia of the lower sky ,connecting particles were invented to unite in a period two substantives signifying things occasionally united in the thought1 but which have no natural union4 ,and betwixt two things not only separable in idea1 but really distinct1 the mind1 for the sake of melody1 chearfully admits by a pause a momentary disjunction of their occasional union4 99 99 99 99 99 ,one capital branch of the subject is still upon hand1 to which ,i am directed by what is just now said4 ,it concerns those parts of speech which singly represent no idea1 and which become not significant till they be joined to other words4 ,i mean conjunctions1 prepositions1 articles1 and such like accessories1 passing under the name of particles4 ,upon these the question occurs1 ,whether they can be separated by a pause from the words that make them significant8 ,whether1 for example1 in the following lines1 the separation of the accessory preposition from the principal substantive1 be according to rule8 ,the goddess with a discontented air ,and heighten'd by the diamond's circling rays ,when victims at yon altar's foot we lay ,so take it in the very words of ,creech ,an ensign of the delegates of ,jove ,two ages o'er his native realm he reign'd ,while angels1 with their silver wings o'ershade ,or separating the conjunction from the word it connects with what goes before3 ,talthybius and ,eurybates the good ,it will be obvious at the first glance1 that the foregoing reasoning upon objects naturally connected1 are not applicable to words which of themselves are mere ciphers4 ,we must therefore have recourse to some other principle for solving the present question4 ,these particles out of their place are totally insignificant4 ,to give them a meaning1 they must be joined to certain words4 ,the necessity of this junction1 together with custom1 forms an artificial connection1 which has a strong influence upon the mind4 ,it cannot bear even a momentary separation1 which destroys the sense1 and is at the same time contradictory to practice4 ,another circumstance tends still more to make this separation disagreeable4 ,the long syllable immediately preceding the full pause1 must be accented2 for this is required by the melody1 as will afterward appear4 ,but it is ridiculous to accent or put an emphasis upon a low word that raises no idea1 and is confined to the humble province of connecting words that raise ideas4 ,and for that reason1 a line must be disagreeable where a particle immediately precedes the full pause2 for such construction of a line makes the melody discord with the sense4 99 99 99 99 99 ,hitherto we have discoursed upon that pause only which divides the line4 ,are the same rules applicable to the concluding pause8 ,this must be answered by making a distinction4 ,in the first line of a couplet1 the concluding pause differs little1 if at all1 from the pause which divides the line2 and for that reason1 the rules are applicable to both equally4 ,the concluding pause of the couplet1 is in a different condition3 it resembles greatly the concluding pause in a ,hexameter line4 ,both of them indeed are so remarkable1 that they never can be graceful1 unless when they accompany a pause in the sense4 ,hence it follows1 that a couplet ought always to be finished with some close in the sense2 if not a point1 at least a comma4 ,the truth is1 that this rule is seldom transgressed4 ,in ,pope's works1 upon a cursory search indeed1 ,i found but the following deviations from the rule4 ,nothing is foreign3 parts relate to whole2 ,one all extending1 all-preserving soul ,connects each being---- ,another3 ,to draw fresh colours from the vernal flow'rs1 ,to steal from rainbows ere they drop in show'rs ,a brighter wash---- ,but now1 supposing the connection to be so slender as to admit a pause1 it follows not that a pause may always be put4 ,there is one rule to which every other ought to bend1 ,that the sense must never be wounded or obscured by the music2 and upon that account1 ,i condemn the following lines3 ,ulysses1 first in public cares1 she found4 ,and1 ,who rising1 high th' imperial sceptre rais'd4 ,with respect to inversion1 it appears both from reason and experiments1 that many words which cannot bear a separation in their natural order1 admit a pause when inverted4 ,and it may be added1 that when two words1 or two members of a sentence1 in their natural order1 can be separated by a pause1 such separation can never be amiss in an inverted order4 ,an inverted period1 which runs cross to the natural train of ideas1 requires to be marked in some measure even by pauses in the sense1 that the parts may be distinctly known4 ,take the following examples4 ,as with cold lips ,i kiss'd the sacred veil4 ,with other beauties charm my partial eyes4 ,full in my view set all the bright abode4 ,with words like these the troops ,ulysses rul'd4 ,back to th' assembly roll the thronging train4 ,not for their grief the ,grecian host ,i blame4 ,the same where the separation is made at the close of the first line of the couplet3 ,for spirits1 freed from mortal laws1 with ease ,assume what sexes and what shapes they please4 ,the pause is tolerable even at the close of the couplet1 for the reason just now suggested1 that inverted members require some slight pause in the sense3 ',twas where the plane-tree spread its shades around3 ,the altars heav'd2 and from the crumbling ground ,a mighty dragon shot4 ,thus a train of reasoning hath insensibly led us to conclusions with regard to the musical pause1 very different from those in the first section1 concerning the separating by an interjected circumstance words intimately connected4 ,one would conjecture1 that where-ever words are separable by interjecting a circumstance1 they should be equally separable by interjecting a pause4 ,but1 upon a more narrow inspection1 the appearance of analogy vanisheth4 ,to make this evident1 ,i need only premise1 that a pause in the sense distinguishes the different members of a period from each other2 that two words of the same member may be separated by a circumstance1 all the three making still but one member2 and therefore that a pause in the sense has no connection with the separation of words by interjected circumstances4 ,this sets the matter in a clear light4 ,it is observed above1 that the musical pause is intimately connected with the pause in the sense2 so intimately indeed1 that regularly they ought to coincide4 ,as this would be too great a restraint1 a licence is indulged1 to place pauses for the sake of the music where they are not necessary for the sense4 ,but this licence must be kept within bounds4 ,and a musical pause ought never to be placed where a pause is excluded by the sense2 as1 for example1 betwixt the adjective and following substantive which make parts of the same idea1 and still less betwixt a particle and the word which makes it significant4 ,abstracting at present from the peculiarity of modulation arising from the different pauses1 it cannot fail to be observed in general1 that they introduce into our verse no slight degree of variety4 ,nothing more fatigues the ear1 than a number of uniform lines having all the same pause1 which is extremely remarkable in the ,french versification4 ,this imperfection will be discerned by a fine ear even in the shortest succession1 and becomes intolerable in a long poem4 ,pope excels all the world in the variety of his modulation1 which indeed is not less perfect of its kind than that of ,virgil4 ,from what is now said1 there ought to be one exception4 ,uniformity in the members of a thought1 demands equal uniformity in the members of the period which expresses that thought4 ,when therefore resembling objects or things are expressed in a plurality of verse-lines1 these lines in their structure ought to be as uniform as possible1 and the pauses in particular ought all of them to have the same place4 ,take the following examples4 ,by foreign hands thy dying eyes were clos'd1 ,by foreign hands thy decent limbs compos'd1 ,by foreign hands thy humble grave adorn'd4 ,again1 ,bright as the sun1 her eyes the gazers strike1 ,and1 like the sun1 they shine on all alike4 ,speaking of ,nature1 or the ,god of ,nature3 ,warms in the sun refreshes in the breeze1 ,glows in the stars and blossoms in the trees1 ,lives through all life extends through all extent1 ,spreads undivided operates unspent4 ,pauses are like to dwell longer upon hand than ,i imagined2 for the subject is not yet exhausted4 ,it is laid down above1 that ,english heroic verse1 considering melody only1 admits no more than four capital pauses2 and that the capital pause of every line is determined by the sense to be after the fourth1 the fifth1 the sixth1 or seventh syllable4 ,and that this doctrine holds true so far as melody alone is concerned1 every good ear will bear testimony4 ,at the same time1 examples are not unfrequent1 in ,milton especially1 of the capital pause being after the first1 the second1 or the third syllable4 ,and that this licence may be taken1 even gracefully1 when it adds vigour to the expression1 ,i readily admit4 ,so far the sound may be justly sacrificed to the sense or expression4 ,that this licence may be successfully taken1 will be clear from the following example4 ,pope1 in his translation of ,homer1 describes a rock broke off from a mountain1 and hurling to the plain1 in the following words4 ,from steep to steep the rolling ruin bounds2 ,at every shock the crackling wood resounds2 ,still gath'ring force1 it smokes2 and urg'd amain1 ,whirls1 leaps1 and thunders down1 impetuous to the plain3 ,there stops ,so ,hector4 ,their whole force he prov'd1 ,resistless when he rag'd2 and when he stopt1 unmov'd4 ,in the penult line the proper place of the musical pause is at the end of the fifth syllable2 but it enlivens the expression by its coincidence with that of the sense at the end of the second syllable4 ,the stopping short before the usual pause in the melody1 aids the impression that is made by the description of the stone's stopping short4 ,and what is lost to the melody by this artifice1 is more than compensated by the force that is added to the description4 ,milton makes a happy use of this licence2 witness the following examples from his ,paradise ,lost4 ---- ,thus with the year ,seasons return1 but not to me returns ,day or the sweet approach of even or morn4 ,celestial voices to the midnight-air ,sole or responsive each to others note4 ,and over them triumphant ,death his dart ,shook but delay'd to strike4 ---- ,and wild uproar ,stood rul'd stood vast infinitude confin'd4 ---- ,and hard'ning in his strength ,glories for never since created man ,met such embodied force4 ,from his slack hand the garland wreath'd for ,eve ,down drop'd and all the faded roses shed4 ,of unessential night1 receives him next1 ,wide gaping and with utter loss of being ,threatens him1 c4 ----,for now the thought ,both of lost happiness and lasting pain ,torments him round he throws his baleful eyes1 c4 ,if we consider the foregoing passages with respect to melody singly1 the pauses are undoubtedly out of their proper place4 ,but being united with those of the sense1 they inforce the expression and enliven it greatly4 ,and the beauty of expression is communicated to the sound1 which1 by a natural deception1 makes even the melody appear more perfect than if the musical pauses were regular4 99 99 99 99 99 ,to explain the rules of accenting1 two general observations must be premised4 ,the first is1 ,that accents have a double effect4 ,they contribute to the melody1 by giving it air and spirit3 they contribute not less to the sense1 by distinguishing important words from others4 ,these two effects ought never to be separated4 ,if a musical accent be put where the sense rejects it1 we feel a discordance betwixt the thought and the melody4 ,an accent1 for example1 placed on a word that makes no figure1 has the effect to burlesk it1 by giving it an unnatural elevation4 ,the injury thus done to the sense1 is communicated to the melody by the intimacy of connection1 and both seem to be wounded4 ,this rule is applicable in a peculiar manner to particles4 ,it is indeed ridiculous to put an emphasis on a word which of itself has no meaning1 and like cement serves only to unite words significant4 ,the other general observation is1 ,that a word of whatever number of syllables1 is not accented upon more than one of them4 ,nor is this an arbitrary practice4 ,the object represented by the word1 is set in its best light by a single accent3 reiterated accents on different syllables in succession1 make not the emphasis stronger2 but have an air1 as if the sound only of the accented syllables were regarded1 and not the sense of the word4 ,keeping in view the foregoing observations1 the doctrine of accenting ,english heroic verse1 is extremely simple4 ,in the first place1 accenting is confined to the long syllables2 for the melody admits not an accent upon any short syllable4 ,in the next place1 as the melody is inriched in proportion to the number of accents1 every word that has a long syllable ought to be accented1 unless where the accent is rejected by the sense3 a word1 as observed1 that makes no figure by its signification1 cannot bear an accent4 ,according to this rule1 a line may admit five accents2 a case by no means rare4 ,but supposing every long syllable to be accented1 there is constantly1 in every line1 one accent which makes a greater figure than the rest4 ,this capital accent is that which precedes the capital pause4 ,hence it is distinguishable into two kinds2 one that is immediately succeeded by the pause1 and one that is divided from the pause by a short syllable4 ,the former belongs to lines of the first and third order3 the latter to those of the second and fourth4 ,examples of the first kind4 ,smooth flow the wves the zephyrs gently play1 ,belinda sml'd and all the world was gay4 ,he rais'd his azure wnd and thus begun ,examples of the second4 ,there lay three grters half a pair of gloves2 ,and all the trphies of his former loves4 ,our humble prvince is to tend the fair1 ,not a less plasing though less glorious care4 ,and hew triumphal rches to the ground ,these accents make different impressions on the mind1 which will be the subject of a following speculation4 ,in the mean time1 it may be safely pronounced a capital defect in the composition of verse1 to put a low word1 incapable of an accent1 in the place where this accent should be4 ,this bars the accent altogether2 and ,i know no other fault more subversive of the melody1 if it be not that of barring a pause altogether4 ,i may add affirmatively1 that it is a capital beauty in the composition of verse1 to have the most important word of the sentence1 so placed as that this capital accent may be laid upon it4 ,no single circumstance contributes more to the energy of verse1 than to have this accent on a word1 that1 by the importance of its meaning1 is intitled to a peculiar emphasis4 ,to show the bad effect of excluding the capital accent1 ,i refer the reader to some instances given above1 p4 ooo1 where particles are separated by a pause from the capital words that make them significant1 and which particles ought1 for the sake of the melody1 to be accented1 were they capable of an accent4 ,add to these the following instances from the ,essay on ,criticism4 ,oft1 leaving what is natural and fit1 line #ddh4 ,not yet purg'd off1 of spleen and sour disdain l4 #ebh4 ,no pardon vile obscenity should find l4 #eca4 ,when love was all an easy monarch's care l4 #ecg4 ,for 'tis but half a judge's talk1 to know l4 #efb4 ',tis not enough1 taste1 judgement1 learning1 join l4 #efc4 ,that only makes superior sense belov'd l4 #egh4 ,whose right it is1 uncensur'd1 to be dull l4 #eij4 ',tis best sometimes your censure to restrain l4 #eig4 ,when this fault is at the end of the line that closes a couplet1 it leaves not the least trace of melody3 ,but of this frame the bearings1 and the ties1 ,the strong connections1 nice dependencies ,in a line expressive of what is humble or dejected1 it improves the resemblance betwixt the sound and sense1 to exclude the capital accent4 ,this1 to my taste1 is a beauty in the following lines4 ,in thse deep slitudes and aful cells ,the por inhbitant behlds in vain ,to conclude this article1 the accents are not1 like the syllables1 confined to a certain number4 ,some lines have no fewer than five1 and there are lines that admit not above one4 ,this variety1 as we have seen1 depends entirely on the different powers of the component words4 ,particles1 even where they are long by position1 cannot be accented2 and polysyllables1 whatever space they occupy1 admit but one accent4 ,polysyllables have another defect1 that they generally exclude the full pause4 ,i have shown above1 that few polysyllables can find place in the construction of ,english verse4 ,here are reasons for excluding them1 could they find place4 99 99 99 99 99 ,i am now prepared to fulfil a promise concerning the four sorts of lines that enter into ,english heroic verse4 ,that these have1 each of them1 a peculiar melody distinguishable by a good ear1 ,i ventured to suggest1 and promised to account for3 and though this subject is extremely delicate1 ,i am not without hopes of making good my engagement4 ,first1 however1 like a wary general1 ,i take all advantages the ground will permit4 ,i do not aver1 that this peculiarity of modulation is in every instance perceptible4 ,far from it4 ,the impression made by a period1 whether it be verse or prose1 is occasioned chiefly by the thought1 and in an inferior degree by the words2 and these articles are so intimately united with the melody1 that they have each of them a strong influence upon the others4 ,with respect to the melody in particular1 instances are without number1 of melody1 in itself poor and weak1 passing for rich and spirited where it is supported by the thought and expression4 ,i am therefore intitled to insist1 that this experiment be tried upon lines of equal rank4 ,and to avoid the perplexity of various cases1 ,i must also insist1 that the lines chosen for a trial be regularly accented before the pause3 for upon a matter abundantly refined in itself1 ,i would not willingly be imbarrassed with faulty and irregular lines4 ,these preliminaries being adjusted1 ,i begin with some general observations1 that will save repeating the same thing over and over upon each particular case4 ,and1 first1 an accent succeeded by a pause1 makes sensibly a deeper impression than where the voice goes on without a stop3 to make an impression requires time2 and there is no time where there is no pause4 ,the fact is so certain1 that in running over a few lines1 there is scarce an ear so dull as not readily to distinguish from others1 that particular accent which immediately precedes the full pause4 ,in the next place1 the elevation of an accenting tone1 produceth in the mind a similar elevation1 which is continued during the pause4 ,every circumstance is different where the pause is separated from the accent by a short syllable4 ,the impression made by the accent is more slight when there is no stop2 and the elevation of the accent is gone in a moment by the falling of the voice in pronouncing the short syllable that follows4 ,the pause also is sensibly affected by the position of the accent4 ,in lines of the first and third order1 the close conjunction of the accent and pause1 occasions a sudden stop without preparation1 which rouses the mind1 and bestows on the melody a spirited air4 ,when1 on the other hand1 the pause is separated from the accent by a short syllable1 which always happens in lines of the second and fourth order1 the pause is soft and gentle4 ,this short unaccented syllable succeeding one that is accented1 must of course be pronounced with a falling voice1 which naturally prepares for a pause4 ,the mind falls gently from the accented syllable1 and slides into rest as it were insensibly4 ,further1 the lines themselves1 derive different powers from the position of the pause4 ,a pause after the fourth syllable divides the line into two unequal portions1 of which the largest comes last4 ,this circumstance resolving the line into an ascending series1 makes an impression in pronouncing like that of mounting upward4 ,and to this impression contributes the redoubled effort in pronouncing the largest portion1 which is last in order4 ,the mind has a different feeling when the pause succeeds the fifth syllable4 ,the line being divided into two equal parts by this pause1 these parts1 pronounced with equal effort1 are agreeable by their uniformity4 ,a line divided by a pause after the sixth syllable1 makes an impression opposite to that first mentioned4 ,being divided into two unequal portions1 of which the shortest is last in order1 it appears like a slow descending series2 and the second portion being pronounced with less effort than the first1 the diminished effort prepares the mind for rest4 ,and this preparation for rest is still more sensibly felt where the pause is after the seventh syllable1 as in lines of the fourth order4 ,no person can be at a loss in applying these observations4 ,a line of the first order is of all the most spirited and lively4 ,to produce this effect1 several of the circumstances above mentioned concur4 ,the accent1 being followed instantly by a pause1 makes an illustrious figure3 the elevated tone of the accent elevates the mind3 the mind is supported in its elevation by the sudden unprepared pause which rouses and animates3 and the line itself1 representing by its unequal division an ascending series1 carries the mind still higher1 making an impression similar to that of mounting upward4 ,the second order has a modulation sensibly sweet1 soft1 and flowing4 ,the accent is not so sprightly as in the former1 because a short syllable intervenes betwixt it and the pause3 its elevation1 by the same means1 vanisheth instantaneously3 the mind1 by a falling voice1 is gently prepared for a stop3 and the pleasure of uniformity from the division of the line into two equal parts1 is calm and sweet4 ,the third order has a modulation not so easily expressed in words4 ,it in part resembles the first order1 by the liveliness of an accent succeeded instantly by a full pause4 ,but then the elevation occasioned by this circumstance1 is balanced in some degree by the remitted effort in pronouncing the second portion1 which remitted effort has a tendency to rest4 ,another circumstance distinguisheth it remarkably4 ,its capital accent comes late1 being placed on the sixth syllable2 and this circumstance bestows on it an air of gravity and solemnity4 ,the last order resembles the second in the mildness of its accent and softness of its pause4 ,it is still more solemn than the third1 by the lateness of its capital accent4 ,it also possesses in a higher degree than the third1 the tendency to rest2 and by that circumstance is of all the best qualified for closing a period in the completest manner4 ,but these are not all the distinguishing characters of the different orders4 ,each order also1 by means of its final accent and pause1 makes a peculiar impression2 so peculiar as to produce a melody clearly distinguishable from that of the others4 ,this peculiarity is occasioned by the division which the capital pause makes in a line4 ,by an unequal division in the first order1 the mind has an impression of ascending2 and is left at the close in the highest elevation1 which is display'd on the concluding syllable4 ,by this means1 a strong emphasis is naturally laid upon the concluding syllable1 whether by raising the voice to a sharper tone1 or by expressing the word in a fuller tone4 ,this order accordingly is of all the least proper for concluding a period1 where a cadence is proper1 and not an accent4 ,in the second order1 the final accent makes not so capital a figure4 ,there is nothing singular in its being marked by a pause1 for this is common to all the orders2 and this order1 being destitute of the impression of ascent1 cannot rival the first order in the elevation of its accent1 nor consequently in the dignity of its pause2 for these always have a mutual influence4 ,this order1 however1 with respect to its close1 maintains a superiority over the third and fourth orders4 ,in these the close is more humble1 being brought down by the impression of descent1 and by the remitted effort in pronouncing2 considerably in the third order1 and still more considerably in the last4 ,according to this description1 the concluding accents and pauses of the four orders being reduced to a scale1 will form a descending series probably in an arithmetical progression4 ,after what is said1 will it be thought refining too much to suggest1 that the different orders are qualified for different purposes1 and that a poet of genius will be naturally led to make a choice accordingly8 ,i cannot think this altogether chimerical4 ,it appears to me1 that the first order is proper for a sentiment that is bold1 lively1 or impetuous2 that the third order is proper for subjects grave1 solemn1 or lofty2 the second for what is tender1 delicate1 or melancholy1 and in general for all the sympathetic emotions2 and the last for subjects of the same kind1 when tempered with any degree of solemnity4 ,i do not contend1 that any one order is fitted for no other talk1 than that assigned it4 ,at that rate1 no sort of modulation would be left for accompanying ordinary thoughts1 that have nothing peculiar in them4 ,i only venture to suggest1 and ,i do it with diffidence1 that one order is peculiarly adapted to certain subjects1 and better qualified than the others for expressing such subjects4 ,the best way to judge is by experiment2 and to avoid the imputation of a partial search1 ,i shall confine my instances to a single poem1 beginning with the first order4 ,on her white breast1 a sparkling cross she wore1 ,which ,jews might kiss1 and ,infidels adore4 ,her lively looks1 a sprightly mind disclose1 ,quick as her eyes1 and as unfix'd as those3 ,favours to none1 to all she smiles extends2 ,oft she rejects1 but never once offends4 ,bright as the sun1 her eyes the gazers strike1 ,and1 like the sun1 they shine on all alike4 ,yet graceful ease1 and sweetness void of pride1 ,might hide her faults1 if belles had faults to hide3 ,if to her share some female errors fall1 ,look on her face1 and you'll forget 'em all4 ,rape of the ,lock4 ,in accounting for the remarkable liveliness of this passage1 it will be acknowledged by every one who has an ear1 that the modulation must come in for a share4 ,the lines1 all of them1 are of the first order2 a very unusual circumstance in the author of this poem1 so eminent for variety in his versification4 ,who can doubt1 that1 in this passage1 he has been led by delicacy of taste to employ the first order preferably to the others8 ,second order4 ,our humbler province is to tend the fair1 ,not a less pleasing1 though less glorious care2 ,to save the powder from too rude a gale1 ,nor let th' imprison'd essences exhale2 ,to draw fresh colours from the vernal flow'rs2 ,to steal from rainbows ere they drop their show'rs1 c4 ,again1 ,oh1 thoughtless mortals6 ever blind to fate1 ,too soon dejected1 and too soon elate4 ,sudden1 these honours shall be snatch'd away1 ,and curs'd for ever this victorious day4 ,third order4 ,to fifty chosen sylphs1 of special note1 ,we trust th'important charge1 the petticoat4 ,again1 ,oh say what stranger cause1 yet unexplor'd1 ,could make a gentle belle reject a lord8 ,a plurality of lines of the fourth order1 would not have a good effect in succession2 because1 by a remarkable tendency to rest1 its proper office is to close a period4 ,the reader1 therefore1 must be satisfied with instances where this order is mixed with others4 ,not louder shrieks to pitying ,heav'n are cast1 ,when husbands1 or when lapdogs1 breathe their last4 ,again1 ,steel could the works of mortal pride confound1 ,and hew triumphal arches to the ground4 ,again1 ,she sees1 and trembles at th' approaching ill1 ,just in the jaws of ruin1 and codille4 ,again1 ,with earnest eyes1 and round unthinking face1 ,he first the snuff-box open'd1 then the case4 ,and this suggests another experiment1 which is1 to set the different orders more directly in opposition1 by giving examples where they are mixed in the same passage4 ,first and second orders4 ,sol through white curtains shot a tim'rous ray1 ,and ope'd those eyes that must eclipse the day4 ,again1 ,not youthful kings in battle seiz'd alive1 ,not scornful virgins who their charms survive1 ,not ardent lovers robb'd of all their bliss1 ,not ancient ladies when refus'd a kiss1 ,not tyrants fierce that unrepenting die1 ,not ,cynthia when her manteau's pinn'd awry1 ,e'er felt such rage1 resentment1 and despair1 ,as thou1 sad virgin6 for thy ravish'd hair4 ,first and third4 ,think what an equipage thou hast in air1 ,and view with scorn two pages and a chair4 ,again1 ,what guards the purity of melting maids1 ,in courtly balls1 and midnight-masquerades1 ,safe from the treach'rous friend1 the daring spark1 ,the glance by day1 the whisper in the dark8 ,again1 ,with tender billet-doux he lights the pyre1 ,and breathes three am'rous sighs to raise the fire2 ,then prostrate falls1 and begs1 with ardent eyes1 ,soon to obtain1 and long possess the prize4 ,again1 ,jove's thunder roars1 heav'n trembles all around1 ,blue ,neptune storms1 the bellowing deeps resound1 ,earth shakes her nodding tow'rs1 the ground gives way1 ,and the pale ghosts start at the flash of day6 ,second and third4 ,sunk in ,thalestris' arms1 the nymph he found1 ,her eyes dejected1 and her hair unbound4 ,again1 ,on her heav'd bosom hung her drooping head1 ,which with a sigh she rais'd2 and thus she said4 ,musing on the foregoing subject1 ,i begin to doubt whether ,i have not been all this while in a reverie4 ,here unexpectedly a sort of fairy-scene opens1 where every object is new and singular4 ,is there any truth in the appearance1 or is it merely a work of imagination8 ,the scene seems to be a reality2 and if it can bear examination1 it must exalt greatly the melody of ,english heroic verse4 ,if uniformity prevail1 in the arrangement1 in the equality of the lines1 and in the resemblance of the final sounds2 variety is still more conspicuous in the pauses and accents1 which are diversified in a surprising manner4 ,the beauty that results from combined objects1 is justly observed to consist in a due mixture of uniformity and variety#ajb4 ,of this beauty many instances have already occurred1 but none more illustrious than ,english versification4 ,however rude it may be by the simplicity of arrangement1 it is highly melodious by its pauses and accents1 so as already to rival the most perfect species known in ,greece or ,rome4 ,and it is no disagreeable prospect to find it susceptible of still greater refinement4 99 99 99 99 99 ,we proceed to blank verse1 which hath so many circumstances in common with rhyme1 that what is necessary to be said upon it may be brought within a narrow compass4 ,with respect to form1 it differs not from rhyme farther than in rejecting the jingle of similar sounds4 ,but let us not think this difference a trifle1 or that we gain nothing by it but the purifying our verse from a pleasure so childish4 ,in truth1 our verse is extremely cramped by rhyme2 and the great advantage of blank verse is1 that1 being free from the fetters of rhyme1 it is at liberty to attend the imagination in its boldest flights4 ,rhyme necessarily divides verse into couplets3 each couplet makes a complete musical period2 the parts of which are divided by pauses1 and the whole summed up by a full close at the end3 the modulation begins anew with the next couplet3 and in this manner a composition in rhyme proceeds couplet after couplet4 ,i have more than once had occasion to observe the influence that sound and sense have upon each other by their intimate union4 ,if a couplet be a complete period with regard to the melody1 it ought regularly to be so also with regard to the sense4 ,this1 it is true1 proves too great a cramp upon composition2 and licences are indulged1 as explained above4 ,these however must be used with discretion1 so as to preserve some degree of uniformity betwixt the sense and the music4 ,there ought never to be a full close in the sense but at the end of a couplet2 and there ought always to be some pause in the sense at the end of every couplet4 ,the same period as to sense may be extended through several couplets2 but in this case each couplet ought to contain a distinct member1 distinguished by a pause in the sense as well as in the sound2 and the whole ought to be closed with a complete cadence4 ,rules such as these1 must confine rhyme within very narrow bounds4 ,a thought of any extent1 cannot be reduced within its compass4 ,the sense must be curtailed and broken into pieces1 to make it square with the curtness of melody3 and it is obvious1 that short periods afford no latitude for inversion4 ,i have examined this point with the greater accuracy1 in order to give a just notion of blank verse2 and to show that a slight difference in form may produce a very great difference in substance4 ,blank verse has the same pauses and accents with rhyme2 and a pause at the end of every line1 like what concludes the first line of a couplet4 ,in a word1 the rules of melody in blank verse1 are the same that obtain with respect to the first line of a couplet4 ,but luckily1 being disengaged from rhyme1 or1 in other words1 from couplets1 there is access to make every line run into another1 precisely as the first line of a couplet may run into the second4 ,there must be a musical pause at the end of every line2 but it is not necessary that it be accompanied with a pause in the sense4 ,the sense may be carried on through different lines2 till a period of the utmost extent be completed1 by a full close both in the sense and the sound4 ,there is no restraint1 other than that this full close be at the end of a line4 ,this restraint is necessary in order to preserve a coincidence betwixt sense and sound2 which ought to be aimed at in general1 and is indispensable in the case of a full close1 because it has a striking effect4 ,hence the aptitude of blank verse for inversion2 and consequently the lustre of its pauses and accents2 for which1 as observed above1 there is greater scope in inversion1 than when words run in their natural order4 ,in the second section of this chapter it is shown1 that nothing contributes more than inversion to the force and elevation of language4 ,the couplets of rhyme confine inversion within narrow limits4 ,nor would the elevation of inversion1 were there access for it in rhyme1 be extremely concordant with the humbler tone of that sort of verse4 ,it is universally agreed1 that the loftiness of ,milton's style supports admirably the sublimity of his subject2 and it is not less certain1 that the loftiness of his style arises chiefly from inversion4 ,shakespear deals little in inversion4 ,but his blank verse1 being a sort of measured prose1 is perfectly well adapted to the stage4 ,laboured inversion is there extremely improper1 because in dialogue it never can appear natural4 ,hitherto ,i have considered the advantage of laying aside rhyme1 with respect to that superior power of expression which verse acquires thereby4 ,but this is not the only advantage of blank verse4 ,it has another not less signal of its kind2 and that is1 of a more extensive and more complete melody4 ,its music is not1 like that of rhyme1 confined to a single couplet2 but takes in a great compass1 so as in some measure to rival music properly so called4 ,the intervals betwixt its cadences may be long or short at pleasure2 and1 by this means1 its modulation1 with respect both to richness and variety1 is superior far to that of rhyme2 and superior even to that of the ,greek and ,latin ,hexameter4 ,of this observation no person can doubt who is acquainted with the ,paradise ,lost4 ,in that work there are indeed many careless lines2 but at every turn it shines out in the richest melody as well as in the sublimest sentiments4 ,take the following specimen4 ,now ,morn her rosy steps in th' eastern clime ,advancing1 sow'd the earth with orient pearl1 ,when ,adam wak'd1 so custom'd1 for his sleep ,was ary light from pure digestion bred1 ,and temp'rate vapours bland1 which th' only sound ,of leaves and fuming rills1 ,aurora's fan1 ,lightly dispers'd1 and the shrill matin song ,of birds on every bough2 so much the more ,his wonder was to find unwaken'd ,eve ,with tresses discompos'd1 and glowing cheek1 ,as through unquiet rest3 he on his side ,leaning half-rais'd1 with looks of cordial love ,hung over her enamour'd1 and beheld ,beauty1 which1 whether waking or asleep1 ,shot forth peculiar graces2 then with voice ,mild1 as when ,zephyrus on ,flora breathes1 ,her hand soft touching1 whisper'd thus4 ,awake ,my fairest1 my espous'd1 my latest found1 ,heav'n's last best gift1 my ever new delight1 ,awake2 the morning shines1 and the fresh field ,calls us2 we lose the prime1 to mark how spring ,our tended plants1 how blows the citron grove1 ,what drops the myrrh1 and what the balmy reed1 ,how ,nature paints her colours1 how the bee ,sits on the bloom extracting liquid sweet4 ,book #a4 l4 #a4 ,comparing the ,latin ,hexameter and ,english heroic rhyme1 the former has obviously the advantage in the following particulars4 ,it is greatly preferable as to arrangement1 by the latitude it admits in placing the long and short syllables4 ,secondly1 the length of an ,hexameter line hath a majestic air3 ours1 by its shortness1 is indeed more brisk and lively1 but much less fitted for the sublime4 ,and1 thirdly1 the long high-sounding words that ,hexameter admits1 add greatly to its majesty4 ,to compensate these advantages1 ,english rhyme possesses a greater number and greater variety both of pauses and of accents4 ,these two sorts of verse stand indeed pretty much in opposition3 in the ,hexameter1 great variety of arrangement1 none in the pauses or accents3 in the ,english rhyme1 great variety in the pauses and accents1 very little in the arrangement4 ,in blank verse are united1 in a good measure1 the several properties of ,latin ,hexameter and ,english rhyme2 and it possesses beside many signal properties of its own4 ,if is not confined1 like a ,hexameter1 by a full close at the end of every line2 nor1 like rhyme1 by a full close at the end of every couplet4 ,this form of construction1 which admits the lines to run into each other1 gives it a still greater majesty than arises from the length of a ,hexameter line4 ,by the same means1 it admits inversion even beyond the ,latin or ,greek ,hexameter1 which suffer some confinement by the regular closes at the end of every line4 ,in its music it is illustrious above all4 ,the melody of ,hexameter verse1 is circumscribed to a line2 and of ,english rhyme1 to a couplet4 ,the melody of blank verse is under no confinement1 but enjoys the utmost privilege of which the melody of verse is susceptible1 and that is to run hand in hand with the sense4 ,in a word1 blank verse is superior to the ,hexameter in many articles2 and inferior to it in none1 save in the latitude of arrangement1 and in the use of long words4 99 99 99 99 99 ,in the ,french heroic verse1 there are found1 on the contrary1 all the defects of the ,latin ,hexameter and ,english rhyme1 without the beauties of either4 ,subjected to the bondage of rhyme1 and to the full close at the end of each couplet1 it is further peculiarly disgustful by the uniformity of its pauses and accents4 ,the line invariably is divided by the pause into two equal parts1 and the accent is invariably placed before the pause4 ,jeune et vaillant hers dont la haute sagesse ,ne'st point la fruit tardf d'une lente vieillesse4 ,here every circumstance contributes to a most tedious uniformity4 ,a constant return of the same pause and of the same accent1 as well as an equal division of every line2 by which the latter part always answers to the former1 and fatigues the ear without intermission or change4 ,i cannot set this matter in a better light1 than by presenting to the reader a ,french translation of the following passage of ,milton4 ,two of far nobler shape1 erect and tall1 ,godlike erect1 with native honour clad ,in naked majesty seem'd lords of all2 ,and worthy seem'd1 for in their looks divine ,the image of their glorious ,maker shon1 ,truth1 wisdom1 sanctitude severe and pure1 ,severe1 but in true filial freedom plac'd2 ,whence true authority in men3 though both ,not equal1 as their sex not equal seem'd2 ,for contemplation he and valour form'd1 ,for softness she and sweet attractive grace1 ,he for ,god only1 she for ,god in him4 ,were the pauses of the sense and sound in this passage1 but a little better assorted1 nothing in verse could be more melodious4 ,in general1 the great defect of ,milton's versification1 in other respects admirable1 is the want of coincidence betwixt the pauses of the sense and sound4 ,the translation is in the following words4 ,ce lieu dlicieux1 ce paradis charmant1 ,reoit deux objets son plus bel ornement2 ,leur port majestueux1 et leur dmarche altiere1 ,semble leur meriter sur la nature entiere ,ce droit de commander que ,dieu leur a donn4 ,sur leur auguste front de gloire couronn1 ,du souverain du ciel drille la resemblance3 ,dans leur simples regards clatte l'innocence1 ,l'adorable candeur1 l'aimable vrit1 ,la raison1 la sagesse1 et la svrit ,qu'adoucit la prudence1 et cet air de droiture ,du visage des rois respectable parure4 ,ces deux objets divins n'ont pas les mmes traits1 ,ils paroissent forms1 quoique tous deux parfaits2 ,l'un pour la majest1 la force1 et la noblesse2 ,l'autre pour la douceur1 la grace1 et la tendresse3 ,celui-ci pour ,dieu seul1 l'autre pour l'homme encor4 ,here the sense is fairly translated1 the words are of equal power1 and yet how inferior the melody6 ,i take the liberty to add here a speculation1 which1 though collateral only1 arises naturally from the subject1 and shall be discussed in a few words4 ,many attempts have been made to introduce ,hexameter verse into the living languages1 but without success4 ,the ,english language1 ,i am inclined to believe1 is not susceptible of this melody2 and my reasons are these4 ,first1 the polysyllables in ,latin and ,greek are finely diversified by long and short syllables1 a circumstance that qualifies them for the melody of ,hexameter verse4 ,ours are extremely ill qualified for this service1 because they superabound in short syllables4 ,secondly1 the bulk of our monosyllables are arbitrary with regard to length1 which is an unlucky circumstance in ,hexameter4 ,custom1 as observed above1 may render familiar a long or short pronunciation of the same word3 but the mind wavering betwixt the two sounds1 cannot be so much arrested with either1 as with a word that hath always the same sound2 and for that reason1 arbitrary sounds are ill fitted for a melody which is chiefly supported by quantity4 ,in ,latin and ,greek ,hexameter1 invariable sounds direct and ascertain the melody3 ,english ,hexameter would be destitute of melody1 unless by artful pronunciation2 because of necessity the bulk of its sounds must be arbitrary4 ,the pronunciation is easy in a simple movement of alternate short and long syllables2 but would be perplexing and unpleasant in the diversified movement of ,hexameter verse4 99 99 99 99 99 ,rhyme makes so great a figure in modern poetry1 as to deserve a solemn trial4 ,i have for that reason reserved it to be examined with some deliberation2 in order to discover1 if possible1 its peculiar beauties1 and the degree of merit it is intitled to4 ,the first view of this subject leads naturally to the following reflection1 8,that rhyme having no relation to sentiment1 nor any effect upon the ear other than a mere jingle1 ought to be banished all compositions of any dignity1 as affording but a trifling and childish pleasure40 ,it will also be observed1 8,that a jingle of words hath in some measure a ludicrous effect2 witness the celebrated poem of ,hudibras1 the double rhymes of which contribute no small share to its drollery2 that this effect would be equally remarkable in a serious work1 were it not obscured by the nature of the subject2 that having however a constant tendency to give a ludicrous air to the composition1 it requires more than ordinary fire to support the dignity of the sentiments against such an undermining antagonist#ajc40 ,these arguments are specious1 and have undoubtedly some weight4 ,yet1 on the other hand1 it ought to be considered1 that rhyme1 in later times1 has become universal among men as well as children2 and that to give it a currency1 it must have some foundation in human nature4 ,in fact1 it has been successfully employ'd by poets of genius1 in their serious and grave compositions1 as well as in those which are more light and airy4 ,here1 in weighing authority against argument1 the balance seems to hang pretty even2 and therefore1 to come at any thing decisive1 we must pierce a little deeper4 ,music has great power over the soul2 and may be successfully employ'd to inflame or sooth our passions1 if not actually to raise them4 ,a single sound1 however sweet1 is not music2 but a single sound repeated after proper intervals1 may have an effect upon the mind1 by rousing the attention and keeping the hearer awake4 ,a variety of similar sounds1 succeeding each other after regular intervals1 must have a still stronger effect4 ,this is applicable to rhyme1 which consists in the connection that two verse-lines have by closing with two words similar in sound4 ,and considering deliberately the effect that this may have2 we find1 that it rouses the attention1 and produceth an emotion moderately gay without dignity or elevation4 ,like the murmurings of a brook gliding through pebbles1 it calms the mind when perturbed1 and gently raises it when sunk4 ,these effects are scarce perceived when the whole poem is in rhyme2 but are extremely remarkable by contrast1 in the couplets which close the several acts of our later tragedies4 ,the tone of the mind is sensibly varied by them1 from anguish1 distress1 or melancholy1 to some degree of ease and alacrity4 ,for the truth of this observation1 ,i appeal to the speech of ,jane ,shore in the fourth act1 when her doom was pronounced by ,glo'ster2 to the speech of ,lady ,jane ,gray at the end of the first act2 and to that of ,calista1 in the ,fair ,penitent1 when she leaves the stage1 about the middle of the third act4 ,the speech of ,alicia1 at the close of the fourth act of ,jane ,shore1 puts the matter beyond doubt4 ,in a scene of deep distress1 the rhymes which finish the act1 produce a certain gaiety and chearfulness1 far from according with the tone of the passion4 ,alicia4 ,for ever8 ,oh6 ,for ever6 ,oh6 who can bear to be a wretch for ever6 ,my rival too6 his last thoughts hung on her3 ,and1 as he parted1 left a blessing for her4 ,shall she be bless'd1 and ,i be curs'd1 for ever6 ,no2 since her fatal beauty was the cause ,of all my suff'rings1 let her share my pains2 ,let her1 like me1 of ev'ry joy forlorn1 ,devote the hour when such a wretch was born3 ,like me to deserts and to darkness run1 ,abhor the day and curse the golden sun2 ,cast ev'ry good and ev'ry hope behind2 ,detest the works of nature1 loathe mankind3 ,like me with cries distracted fill the air1 ,tear her poor bosom1 and her frantic hair1 ,and prove the torments of the last despair4 ,having described1 the best way ,i can1 the impression that rhyme makes on the mind2 ,i proceed to examine whether rhyme be proper for any subject1 and to what subjects in particular it is best suited4 ,great and elevated subjects1 which have a powerful influence1 claim justly the precedence in this inquiry4 ,in the chapter of grandeur and sublimity1 it is established1 that a grand or sublime object1 inspires a warm enthusiastic emotion disdaining strict regularity and order4 ,this observation is applicable to the present point4 ,the moderately-enlivening music of rhyme1 gives a tone to the mind very different from that of grandeur and sublimity4 ,supposing then an elevated subject to be expressed in rhyme1 what must be the effect8 ,the intimate union of the music with the subject1 produces an intimate union of their emotions2 one inspired by the subject1 which tends to elevate and expand the mind2 and one inspired by the music1 which1 confining the mind within the narrow limits of regular cadency and similar sound1 tends to prevent all elevation above its own pitch4 ,emotions so little concordant1 cannot in union have a happy effect4 ,but it is scarce necessary to reason upon a case1 that never did1 and probably never will happen1 viz4 an important subject clothed in rhyme1 and yet supported in its utmost elevation4 ,a happy thought or warm expression1 may at times give a sudden bound upward2 but it requires a genius greater than has hitherto existed1 to support a poem of any length in a tone much more elevated than that of the melody4 ,tasso and ,ariosto ought not to be made exceptions1 and still less ,voltaire4 ,and after all1 where the poet has the dead weight of rhyme constantly to struggle with1 how can we expect an uniform elevation in a high pitch2 when such elevation1 with all the support it can receive from language1 requires the utmost effort of the human genius8 ,but now1 admitting rhyme to be an unfit dress for grand and lofty images2 it has one advantage however1 which is1 to raise a low subject to its own degree of elevation4 ,addison#ajd observes1 8,that rhyme1 without any other assistance1 throws the language off from prose1 and very often makes an indifferent phrase pass unregarded2 but where the verse is not built upon rhymes1 there1 pomp of sound and energy of expression are indispensably necessary1 to support the style and keep it from falling into the flatness of prose40 ,this effect of rhyme is remarkable in the ,french verse1 which1 being simple and natural and in a good measure unqualified for inversion1 readily sinks down to prose where it is not artificially supported4 ,rhyme1 by rousing the mind1 raises it somewhat above the tone of ordinary language3 rhyme therefore is indispensable in the ,french tragedy2 and may be proper even for their comedy4 ,voltaire#aje assigns this very reason for adhering to rhyme in these compositions4 ,he indeed candidly owns1 that even with the support of rhyme1 the tragedies of his country are little better than conversation-pieces4 ,this shows1 that the ,french language is weak1 and an improper dress for any grand subject4 ,voltaire was sensible of this imperfection2 and yet ,voltaire attempted an epic poem in that language4 ,the chearing and enlivening power of rhyme1 is still more remarkable in poems of short lines1 where the rhymes return upon the ear in a quick succession4 ,and for that reason1 rhyme is perfectly well adapted to gay1 light1 and airy subjects4 ,witness the following4 ,o the pleasing1 pleasing anguish4 ,when we love1 and when we languish6 ,wishes rising1 ,thoughts surprising1 ,pleasure courting1 ,charms transporting1 ,fancy viewing1 ,joys ensuing1 ,o the pleasing1 pleasing anguish4 ,rosamond1 act #a4 sc4 #b4 ,for this reason1 such frequent rhymes are very improper for any severe or serious passion3 the dissonance betwixt the subject and the modulation1 is very sensibly felt4 ,witness the following4 ,ardito ti renda1 ,t'accenda ,di sdegno ,d'un figlio ,il periglio ,d'un regno ,l' amor ,e' dolce ad un' alma ,che aspetta ,vendetta ,il perder la calma ,fra l'ire del cor4 ,metastasio4 ,artaserse1 act #c4 sc #c4 ,rhyme is not less unfit for deep distress1 than for subjects elevated and lofty2 and for that reason has been long disused in the ,english and ,italian tragedy4 ,in a work1 where the subject is serious though not elevated1 it has not a good effect2 because the airiness of the modulation agrees not with the gravity of the subject4 ,the ,essay on ,man1 which treats a subject great and important1 would show much better in blank verse4 ,sportive love1 mirth1 gaiety1 humour1 and ridicule1 are the province of rhyme4 ,the boundaries assigned it by nature1 were extended in barbarous and illiterate ages1 and in its usurpations it has long been protected by custom4 ,but taste in the fine arts1 as well as in morals1 improves daily2 and makes a progress1 slowly indeed1 but uniformly1 towards perfection3 and there is no reason to doubt1 that rhyme in ,britain will in time be forc'd to abandon its unjust conquests1 and to confine itself within its natural limits4 99 99 99 99 99 ,having thrown out what occurred upon rhyme1 ,i close the section with a general observation4 ,the melody of articulate sound so powerfully inchants the mind1 as to draw a vail over very gross faults and imperfections4 ,of this power a stronger example cannot be given1 than the episode of ,aristus1 which closes the fourth book of the ,georgics4 ,to renew a stock of bees when the former is lost1 ,virgil asserts1 that they will be produced in the intrails of a bullock1 slain and managed in a certain manner4 ,this leads him to say1 how this strange receipt was invented2 which is as follows4 ,aristus having lost his bees by disease and famine1 never dreams of employing the ordinary means for obtaining a new stock2 but1 like a froward child1 complains heavily of his misfortune to his mother ,cyrene1 a water-nymph4 ,she advises him to consult ,proteus1 a sea-god1 not how he was to obtain a new stock1 but only by what fatality he had lost his former stock2 adding1 that violence was necessary1 because ,proteus would say nothing voluntarily4 ,aristus1 satisfied with this advice1 though it gave him no prospect of repairing his loss1 proceeds to execution4 ,proteus is catched sleeping1 bound with cords1 and compelled to speak4 ,he declares1 that ,aristus was punished with the loss of his bees1 for attempting the chastity of ,euridice1 the wife of ,orpheus2 she having got her death by the sting of a serpent in flying his embraces4 ,proteus1 whose sullenness ought to have been converted into wrath by the rough treatment he met with1 becomes on a sudden courteous and communicative4 ,he gives the whole history of ,orpheus's expedition to hell in order to recover his spouse2 a very entertaining story indeed1 but without the least relation to the affair on hand4 ,aristus returning to his mother1 is advised to deprecate by sacrifices the wrath of ,orpheus1 who was now dead4 ,a bullock is sacrificed1 and out of the intrails spring miraculously a swarm of bees4 ,how should this have led any mortal to think1 that1 without a miracle1 the same might be obtained naturally1 as is supposed in the receipt8 ,a list of the different ,,feet1 and of their ,,names4 #a4 ,,pyrrhichius1 consists of two short syllables4 ,examples3 ,deus1 given1 cannot1 hillock1 running4 #b4 ,,spondeus1 consists of two long syllables4 ,ex4 omnes1 possess1 forewarn1 mankind1 sometime4 #c4 ,,iambus1 composed of a short and a long4 ,ex4 pios1 intent1 degree1 appear1 consent1 repent1 demand1 report1 suspect1 affront1 event4 #d4 ,,troch,,us1 or ,,choreus1 a long and a short4 ,ex4 fervat1 whereby1 after1 legal1 measure1 burden1 holy1 lofty4 #e4 ,,tribrachys1 three short4 ,ex4 melius1 property4 #f4 ,,molossus1 three long4 ,ex4 delectant4 #g4 ,,anap,,stus1 two short and a long4 ,ex4 animos1 condescend1 apprehend1 overheard1 acquiesce1 immature1 overcharge1 serenade1 opportune4 #h4 ,,dactylus1 a long and two short4 ,ex4 carmina1 evident1 excellence1 estimate1 wonderful1 altitude1 burdened1 minister1 tenement4 #i4 ,,bacchius1 a short and two long4 ,ex4 dolores4 #aj4 ,,hyppobacchius1 or ,,antibacchius1 two long and a short4 ,ex4 pelluntur4 #aa4 ,,creticus1 or ,,amphimacer1 a short syllable betwixt two long4 ,ex4 infito1 afternoon4 #ab4 ,,amphibrachys1 a long syllable betwixt two short4 ,ex4 honore1 consider1 imprudent1 procedure1 attended1 proposed1 respondent1 concurrence1 apprentice1 respective1 revenue4 #ac4 ,,proceleusmaticus1 four short syllables4 ,ex4 hominibus1 necessary4 #ad4 ,,dispondeus1 four long syllables4 ,ex4 infinitis4 #ae4 ,,diiambus1 composed of two ,iambi4 ,ex4 severitas4 #af4 ,,ditroch,,us1 of two ,trochi4 ,ex4 permanere1 procurator4 #ag4 ,,ionicus1 two short syllables and two long4 ,ex4 properabant4 #ah4 ,another foot passes under the same name1 composed of two long syllables and two short4 ,ex4 calcaribus1 possessory4 #ai4 ,,choriambus1 two short syllables betwixt two long4 ,ex4 ,nobilitas4 #bj4 ,,antispastus1 two long syllables betwixt two short4 ,ex4 ,alexander4 #ba4 ,p,,on #ast1 one long syllable and three short4 ,ex4 temporibus1 ordinary1 inventory1 temperament4 #bb4 ,p,,on #b;d1 the second syllable long1 and the other three short4 ,ex4 potentia1 rapidity1 solemnity1 minority1 considered1 imprudently1 extravagant1 respectfully1 accordingly4 #bc4 ,p,,on #c;d1 the third syllable long and the other three short4 ,ex4 animatus1 independent1 condescendence1 sacerdotal1 reimbursement1 manufacture4 #bd4 ,p,,on #dth1 the last syllable long and the other three short4 ,ex4 ,celeritas4 #be4 ,,epitritus #ast1 the first syllable short and the other three long4 ,ex4 voluptates4 #bf4 ,,epitritus #b;d1 the second syllable short and the other three long4 ,ex4 pnitentes4 #bg4 ,,epitritus #c;d1 the third syllable short and the other three long4 ,ex4 discordias4 #bh4 ,,epitritus #dth1 the last syllable short and the other three long4 ,ex4 fortunatus4 #bi4 ,a word of five syllables composed of a ,pyrrhichius and ,dactylus4 ,ex4 ministerial4 #cj4 ,a word of five syllables composed of a ,trochus and ,dactylus4 ,ex4 singularity4 #ca4 ,a word of five syllables composed of a ,dactylus and ,trochus4 ,ex4 precipitation1 examination4 #cb4 ,a word of five syllables1 the second only long4 ,ex4 necessitated1 significancy4 #cc4 ,a word of six syllables composed of two ,dactyles4 ,ex4 impetuosity4 #cd4 ,a word of six syllables composed of a ,tribrachys and ,dactyle4 ,ex4 pusillanimity4 ,n4 ,b4 ,every word may be considered as a prose foot1 because every word is distinguished by a pause2 and every foot in verse may be considered as a verse word1 composed of syllables pronounced at once without a pause4 ,end of the ,,second ,,volume4 ,,footnotes3 #a ,nec vero illa parva vis natur est rationisque1 quod unum hoc animal sentit quid sit ordo1 quid sit quod deceat in factis dictisque1 qui modus4 ,itaque eorum ipsorum1 qu aspectu sentiuntur1 nullum aliud animal1 pulchritudinem1 venustatem1 convenientiam partium1 sentit4 ,quam similitudinem natura ratioque ab oculis ad animum transferens1 multo etiam magis pulchritudinem1 constantiam1 ordinem1 in consiliis factisque conservandum putat1 cavetque ne quid indecor effeminatve faciat2 tum in omnibus et opinionibus et factis ne quid libidinos aut faciat aut cogitet4 ,quibus ex rebus conflatur et efficitur id1 quod qurimus1 honestum4 ,cicero de officiis1 l4 #a4 #b ,from many things that pass current in the world without being generally condemned1 one at first view would imagine1 that the sense of congruity or propriety hath scarce any foundation in nature2 and that it is rather an artificial refinement of those who affect to distinguish themselves by a certain delicacy of taste and behaviour4 ,the fulsome panegyrics bestowed upon the great and opulent1 in epistles dedicatory and other such compositions1 lead naturally to that thought4 ,did there prevail in the world1 it will be said1 or did nature suggest1 a taste of what is suitable1 decent1 or proper1 would any good writer deal in such compositions1 or any man of sense receive them without disgust8 ,can it be supposed1 that ,lewis ,,xiv4 of ,france was endued by nature with any sense of propriety1 when1 in a dramatic performance purposely composed for his entertainment1 he suffered himself1 publicly and in his presence1 to be styled the greatest king ever the earth produced8 ,these it is true are strong facts2 but luckily they do not prove the sense of propriety to be artificial4 ,they only prove1 that the sense of propriety is at times overpowered by pride and vanity2 which is no singular case1 for this sometimes is the fate even of the sense of justice4 #c ,contrary to this rule1 the introduction to the third volume of the ,characteristics1 is a continued chain of metaphors4 ,these in such profusion are too florid for the subject2 and have beside the bad effect of removing our attention from the principal subject1 to fix it upon splendid trifles4 #d ,see act #a4 sc4 #b4 #e ,see chap4 #g4 #f ,see chap4 #c4 #g ,see the ,introduction4 #h ,part ,i4 essay #b4 chap4 #d4 #i ,poet4 cap4 #e4 #aj ,l4 #b4 ,de oratore4 #aa ,ideoque anceps ejus rei ratio est1 quod a derisu non procul abest risus4 ,lib4 #f4 cap4 #c4 #a4 #ab ,see chap4 #g4 #ac ,see chap4 #aj4 #ad ,scarron4 #ae ,tassoni4 #af ,n #ajb4 #ag ,tale of a ,tub1 sect4 #g4 #ah ,a true and faithful narrative of what passed in ,london during the general consternation of all ranks and degrees of mankind4 #ai n4 l4 #a4 ,at ,venus obscuro1 c4 #bj ,see chap4 #aj4 compared with chap4 #g4 #ba ,b4 #b4 ch4 #aa4 #b4 #bb ,see chap4 #a4 #bc ,de oratore1 l4 #b4 cap4 #fc4 #bd ,if all the year were playing holidays1 ,to sport would be as tedious as to work3 ,but when they seldom come1 they wish'd-for come1 ,and nothing pleaseth but rare accidents4 ,first part1 ,henry ,,iv4 act #a4 sc4 #c4 #be ,violent love without affection is finely exemplified in the following story4 ,when ,constantinople was taken by the ,turks1 ,irene1 a young ,greek of an illustrious family1 fell into the hands of ,mahomet ,,ii4 who was at that time in the prime of youth and glory4 ,irene's charms conquered the savage heart of ,mahomet4 ,he abandoned himself to his new mistress2 and shut himself up with her1 denying access even to his ministers4 ,his passion seemed to increase with time4 ,in the most important expeditions1 frequently would he abandon the army1 and fly to his ,irene4 ,war was at a stand1 for victory was no longer the monarch's favourite passion4 ,the soldiers1 accustomed to booty1 began to murmur1 and the infection spread even among the commanders4 ,the ,basha ,mustapha1 consulting the fidelity he owed his master1 was the first who durst acquaint him of the discourses held publicly to the prejudice of his glory4 ,the ,sultan1 after a gloomy silence1 formed his resolution4 ,he ordered ,mustapha to assemble the troops next morning2 and then retired with precipitation to ,irene's apartment4 ,never before did that princess appear so charming3 never before did the prince bestow so many tender caresses4 ,to give a new lustre to her beauty1 he exhorted her women next morning to bestow all their art and care on her dress4 ,he took her by the hand1 led her into the middle of the army1 and pulling off her vail1 demanded at the ,bashas with a fierce look1 whether they had ever beheld so accomplished a beauty8 ,after an awful pause1 ,mahomet with one hand laying hold of the young ,greek by her beautiful locks1 and with the other pulling out his simitar1 severed the head from the body at one stroke4 ,then turning to his grandees1 with eyes wild and furious1 8,this sword10 says he1 8when it is my will1 knows to cut the bands of love40 #bf ,see chap4 #b4 part #c4 #bg ,lady ,easy1 upon her husband's reformation1 expresses to her friend the following sentiment4 8,be satisfy'd2 ,sir ,charles has made me happy1 even to a pain of joy40 #bh ,see chap4 #b4 part #c4 #bi ,see chap4 #b4 part #c4 #cj ,see chap4 #b4 part #d4 #ca ,chap4 #b4 part #a4 sect4 #b4 #cb ,see chap4 #b4 part #a4 sect4 #f4 #cc ,act #b4 #cd ,omnis enim motus animi1 suum quemdam a natura habet vultum et sonum et gestum4 ,cicero1 l4 #c4 ,de oratore4 #ce ,see this explained1 ,essays on morality and natural religion1 part #b4 essay #e4 #cf ,see chap4 #b4 part #f4 #cg ,see chap4 #ag4 #ch ,though a soliloquy in the perturbation of passion is undoubtedly natural1 and indeed not unfrequent in real life2 yet ,congreve1 who himself has penned several good soliloquies1 yields1 with more candor than knowledge1 that they are unnatural2 and he only pretends to justify them from necessity4 ,this he does in his dedication of the ,double ,dealer1 in the following words4 8,when a man in soliloquy reasons with himself1 and pro's and con's1 and weighs all his designs2 we ought not to imagine1 that this man either talks to us1 or to himself2 he is only thinking1 and thinking 7frequently7 such matter as were inexcuseable folly in him to speak4 ,but because we are concealed spectators of the plot in agitation1 and the poet finds it necessary to let us know the whole mystery of his contrivance1 he is willing to inform us of this person's thoughts2 and to that end is forced to make use of the expedient of speech1 no other better way being yet invented for the communication of thought40 #ci ,act #c4 sc4 #f4 #dj 3 ,the actions here chiefly in view1 are what a passion suggests in order to its gratification4 ,beside these1 actions are occasionally exerted to give some vent to a passion1 without proposing an ultimate gratification4 ,such occasional action is characteristical of the passion in a high degree2 and for that reason1 when happily invented1 has a wonderful good effect in poetry3 ,hamlet4 ,oh most pernicious woman6 ,oh villain1 villain1 smiling damned villain6 ,my tables---- meet it is ,i set it down1 ,that one may smile1 and smile1 and be a villain2 ,at least ,i'm sure it may be so in ,denmark4 ,writing4 ,so1 uncle1 there you are4 ,hamlet1 act #a4 sc4 #h4 #da ,see chap4 #b4 part #g4 #db ,see passions explained as agreeable or disagreeable1 chap4 #b4 part #b4 #dc ,locke4 #dd ,rough and blunt manners1 are allied to anger by an internal feeling1 as well as by external expressions resembling in a faint degree those of anger4 ,therefore such manners are easily heightened into anger2 and savages for that reason are prone to anger4 ,thus rough and blunt manners are unhappy in two respects4 ,they are first readily converted into anger3 and next1 the change being imperceptible1 because of the similitude of external signs1 the person against whom the anger is directed is not put upon his guard4 ,it is for these reasons a great object in society1 to correct such manners1 and to bring on a habit of sweetness and calmness4 ,this temper has two opposite good effects4 ,first it is not easily provoked to wrath4 ,next the interval being great betwixt it and real anger1 a person of this temper who receives an affront1 has many changes to go through before his anger be inflamed4 ,these changes have each of them their external sign1 and the offending party is put upon his guard1 to retire1 or to endeavour a reconciliation4 #de ,see chap4 #b4 part #a4 sect4 #e4 #df ,see chap4 #b4 part #g4 #dg ,see ,appendix4 #dh ,in the neid1 the hero is made to describe himself in the following words3 ,sum pius neas1 fama super thera notus4 ,virgil could never have been guilty of an impropriety so gross1 had he assumed the personage of his hero1 instead of uttering the sentiments of a spectator4 ,nor would ,xenophon have made the following speech for ,cyrus the younger1 to his ,grecian auxiliaries1 whom he was leading against his brother ,artaxerxes4 8,i have chosen you1 ,o ,greeks6 my auxiliaries1 not to enlarge my army1 for ,i have ,barbarians without number2 but because you surpass all the ,barbarians in valour and military discipline40 ,this sentiment is ,xenophon's2 for surely ,cyrus did not reckon his countrymen ,barbarians4 #di ,see chap4 #b4 part #a4 sect #f4 #ej ,this criticism reaches the ,french dramatic writers in general1 with very few exceptions4 ,their tragedies are mostly1 if not totally1 descriptive4 ,corneille led the way2 and later writers following his track1 have accustomed the ,french ear to a style1 formal1 pompous1 declamatory1 which suits not with any passion4 ,hence it becomes an easy task to burlesk a ,french tragedy3 it is not more difficult than to burlesk a stiff solemn fop4 ,the facility of the operation has in ,paris introduced a singular amusement1 which is1 to burlesk the more successful tragedies in a sort of farce1 called a parody4 ,la ,motte1 who himself appears to have been sorely galled by some of these burlesk compositions1 acknowledges1 that no more is necessary to give them a run1 than barely to vary the dramatis person1 and in place of kings and heroes1 queens and princesses1 to substitute tinkers and tailors1 milkmaids and seamstresses4 ,the declamatory style1 so different from the genuine expression of passion1 passes in some measure unobserved1 when great personages are the speakers4 ,but in the mouths of the vulgar1 the impropriety1 with regard to the speaker as well as to the passion represented1 is so remarkable as to become ridiculous4 ,a tragedy1 where every passion is made to speak in its natural tone1 is not liable to be thus burlesked4 ,the same passion is by all men expressed nearly in the same manner3 and therefore the genuine expressions of passion cannot be ridiculous in the mouth of any man1 provided only he be of such a character as to be susceptible of the passion4 ,it is a well-known fact1 that to an ,english ear the ,french actors appear to pronounce with too great rapidity2 a complaint much insisted on by ,cibber in particular1 who had frequently heard the famous ,baron upon the ,french stage4 ,this may in some measure be attributed to our want of facility in the ,french language2 as foreigners generally imagine1 that every language is pronounced too quick by natives4 ,but that it is not the sole cause1 will be probable from a fact directly opposite1 that the ,french are not a little disgusted with the languidness1 as they term it1 of the ,english pronunciation4 ,i conjecture this difference of taste may be derived from what is observed above4 ,the pronunciation of the genuine language of passion is necessarily directed by the nature of the passion1 and by the slowness or celerity of its progress4 ,in particular1 plaintive passions1 which are the most frequent in tragedy1 having a slow motion1 dictate a slow pronunciation4 ,in declamation again1 which is not the genuine language of any passion1 the speaker warms gradually2 and as he warms1 he naturally accelerates his pronunciation4 ,but as the ,french have formed their tone of pronunciation upon ,corneille's declamatory tragedies1 and the ,english upon the more natural language of ,shakespear1 it is not surprising that custom should produce such difference of taste in the two nations4 #ea ,see chap4 #b4 part #c4 #eb ,see chap4 #b4 part #g4 #ec ,titus ,livius1 l4 #bi4 #ag4 #ed ,canto #bj4 stan4 #abd4 #abe4 #abf4 #ee ,page #caf4 #ef ,act #a4 sc4 #a4 #eg ,act #b4 sc4 #a4 #eh ,beginning of act #b4 #ei ,act #c4 sc4 #c4 at the close4 #fj ,a certain author says humourously1 8,les mots mmes d'amour et d'amant sont bannis de l'intime socit des deux sexes1 et relegus avec ceux de chaine et de flame dans les ,romans qu'on ne lit plus40 ,and where nature is once banished1 a fair field is open to every fantastic imitation1 even the most extravagant4 #fa ,act #d4 sc4 #e4 #fb ,act #d4 sc4 #g4 #fc ,this observation is finely illustrated by a story which ,herodotus records1 book #c4 ,cambyses when he conquered ,egypt1 took ,psammenitus the ,king prisoner3 and to try his constancy1 ordered his daughter to be dressed in the habit of a slave1 and to be employ'd in bringing water from the river4 ,his son also was led to execution with a halter about his neck4 ,the ,egyptians vented their sorrow in tears and lamentations4 ,psammenitus only1 with a down-cast eye1 remained silent4 ,afterward meeting one of his companions1 a man advanced in years1 who being plundered of all1 was begging alms1 he wept bitterly1 calling him by his name4 ,cambyses was struck with wonder1 and sent a messenger with the following question1 8,psammenitus1 thy master ,cambyses is desirous to know1 why1 after thou hadst seen thy daughter so ignominiously treated1 and thy son led to execution1 without exclamation or weeping1 thou shouldst be so highly concerned for a poor man no way related to thee80 ,psammenitus returned the following answer3 8,son of ,cyrus1 the calamities of my family are too great to leave me the power of weeping3 but the misfortunes of a companion1 reduced in his old age to want of bread1 is a fit subject for lamentation40 #fd ,see chap4 #b4 part #c4 #fe ,chap4 #af4 #ff ,see this explained more particularly in chap4 #h4 #fg ,of this take the following specimen3 ,they clepe us drunkards1 and with swinish phrase ,soil our addition2 and1 indeed1 it takes ,from our atchievements1 though perform'd at height1 ,the pith and marrow of our attribute4 ,so1 oft it chances in particular men1 ,that for some vicious mole of nature in them1 ,as1 in their birth1 7wherein they are not guilty1 ,since ,nature cannot chuse his origin71 ,by the o'ergrowth of some complexion ,oft breaking down the pales and forts of reason2 ,or by some habit1 that too much o'er-leavens ,the form of plausive manners2 that these men ,carrying1 ,i say1 the stamp of one defect1 7,being ,nature's livery1 or ,fortune's scar71 ,their virtues else1 be they as pure as grace1 ,as infinite as man may undergo1 ,shall in the general censure take corruption ,from that particular fault4 ,hamlet1 act #a4 sc4 #g4 #fh ,the critics seem not perfectly to comprehend the genius of ,shakespear4 ,his plays are defective in the mechanical part1 which is less the work of genius than of experience2 and is not otherwise brought to perfection than by diligently observing the errors of former compositions4 ,shakespear excels all the ancients and moderns1 in knowledge of human nature1 and in unfolding even the most obscure and refined emotions4 ,this is a rare faculty1 and of the greatest importance in a dramatic author2 and it is this faculty which makes him surpass all other writers in the comic as well as tragic vein4 #fi ,soliloquies accounted for chap4 #ae4 #gj ,act #b4 sc4 #b4 #ga ,act #a4 sc4 #a4 #gb ,act #a4 sc4 #b4 #gc ,act #a4 sc4 #b4 #gd ,see chap4 #b4 part #a4 sect4 #d4 #ge ,here the ,german a is understood4 #gf ,that the ,italian tongue is rather too smooth1 seems to appear from considering1 that in versification vowels are frequently suppressed in order to produce a rougher and bolder tone4 #gg ,see ,swift's proposal for correcting the ,english tongue1 in a letter to the ,earl of ,oxford4 #gh ,see the reason1 chap4 #h4 #gi ,de structura perfect orationis1 l4 #b4 #hj ,scot's ,christian life4 #ha ,elements of criticism1 vol4 #a4 p4 #dc4 #hb ,chap4 #b4 part #d4 #hc ,ibid4 #hd ,see ,gerard's ,french grammar1 discourse #ab4 #he ,an argument against abolishing ,christianity1 ,swift4 #hf ,letter concerning enthusiasm4 ,shaftesbury4 #hg ,see chap4 #h4 #hh ,treatise of the sublime1 cap4 #af4 #hi ,taking advantage of a declension to separate an adjective from its substantive1 as is commonly practised in ,latin1 though it detract not from perspicuity1 is certainly less neat than the ,english method of juxtaposition4 ,contiguity is more expressive of an intimate relation1 than resemblance merely of the final syllables4 ,latin indeed has evidently the advantage when the adjective and substantive happen to be connected by contiguity as well as by the resemblance of the final syllables4 #ij ,see chap4 #a4 #ia ,reflections sur la poesie ,franoise4 #ib ,see chap4 #b4 part #a4 sect4 #d4 #ic ,poet4 ,l4 #c4 l4 #cfe4-ded4 #id ,see chap4 #b4 part #d4 #ie ,de oratore1 l4 #c4 cap4 #eh4 #if ,de structura orationis1 sect4 #b4 #ig ,from this passage1 however1 we discover the etymology of the ,latin term for musical expression4 ,every one being sensible that there is no music in a continued sound2 the first inquiries were probably carried no farther1 than that to produce a musical expression1 a number of sounds is necessary2 and musical expression obtained the name of numerus1 before it was clearly ascertained1 that variety is necessary as well as number4 #ih ,music1 properly so called1 is analysed into melody and harmony4 ,a succession of sounds so as to be agreeable to the ear1 constitutes melody4 ,harmony is the pleasure that arises from co-existing sounds4 ,verse therefore can only reach melody1 and not harmony4 #ii ,after some attention given to this subject1 and weighing deliberately every circumstance1 ,i have been forc'd to rest upon the foregoing conclusion1 ,that the ,dactyle and ,spondee are no other than artificial measures invented for trying the accuracy of composition4 ,repeated experiments convince me1 that though the sense should be altogether neglected1 an ,hexameter line read by ,dactyles and ,spondees1 will not be melodious4 ,and the composition of an ,hexameter line demonstrates this to be true1 without necessity of an experiment4 ,it will appear afterward1 that in an ,hexameter line1 there must always be a capital pause at the end of the fifth long syllable1 reckoning1 as above1 two short for one long4 ,and when we measure this line by ,dactyles and ,spondees1 the pause now mentioned divides always a ,dactyle or a ,spondee3 it never falls in at the end of either of these feet4 ,hence it is evident1 that if a line be pronounced1 as it is scanned1 by ,dactyles and ,spondees1 the pause must be utterly neglected2 which consequently must destroy the melody1 because a pause is essential to the melody of an ,hexameter verse4 ,if1 on the other hand1 the melody be preserved by making this pause1 the pronouncing by ,dactyles and ,spondees must be abandoned4 ,what has led grammarians into the use of ,dactyles and ,spondees1 seems not beyond the reach of conjecture4 ,to produce melody1 the latter part of a ,hexameter line consisting of a ,dactyle and a ,spondee1 must be read according to these feet3 in this part of the line1 the ,dactyle and ,spondee are distinctly expressed in the pronunciation4 ,this discovery1 joined with another1 that the foregoing part of the verse could be measured by the same feet1 has led grammarians to adopt these artificial measures1 and perhaps rashly to conclude1 that the pronunciation is directed by these feet as well as the composition4 ,the ,dactyle and ,spondee at the close1 serve indeed the double purpose of regulating the pronunciation as well as the composition3 but in the foregoing part of the line1 they regulate the composition only1 not the pronunciation4 ,if we must have feet in verse to regulate the pronunciation1 and consequently the melody1 these feet must be determined by the pauses4 ,the whole syllables interjected betwixt two pauses ought to be deemed one musical foot2 because1 to preserve the melody1 they must all be pronounced together1 without any stop4 ,and therefore1 whatever number there are of pauses in a ,hexameter line1 the parts into which it is divided by these pauses1 make just so many musical feet4 ,connection obliges me here to anticipate1 by observing1 that the same doctrine is applicable to ,english heroic verse4 ,considering its composition merely1 it is of two kinds4 ,one is composed of five ,iambi2 and one of a ,trochus followed by four ,iambi4 ,but these feet afford no rule for pronouncing4 ,the musical feet are obviously those parts of the line that are interjected betwixt two pauses4 ,to bring out the melody1 these feet must be expressed in the pronunciation2 or1 which comes to the same1 the pronunciation must be directed by the pauses1 without regard to the ,iambus or ,trochus4 #ajj ,see chap4 #b4 part #a4 sect4 #d4 #aja ,poet4 cap4 #be4 #ajb ,see chap4 #i4 #ajc ,vossius1 de poematum cantu1 p4 #bf4 says1 8,nihil que gravitati orationis officit1 quam in sono ludere syllabarum40 #ajd ,spectator1 ,n #bhe4 #aje ,preface to his dipus1 and in his discourse upon tragedy1 prefixed to the tragedy of ,brutus4