,transcrib]'s ,notes ,text betwe5 und]scores repres5ts text pr9t$ 9 italics1 text betwe5 equal signs repres5ts blacklett] text4 ,d repres5ts a subscript ,d4 ,small capitals h be5 transcrib$ z ,,all ,,capitals4 ,m ,transcrib]'s ,notes may be f\nd at ! end ( ?is text4 ,,! ,,pr9ciples ,,( ,,lea!r ,,manufacture ,illu/ration3 ,frontispiece4 ,,plate ,i4 ,,section ,,( ,,calf-,,sk94 7,= key1 see ,fig4 #i47 ,,! ,,pr9ciples ,,( ,,lea!r ,,manufacture ,,by ,h4 ,r4 ,,proct]1 ,f4,i4,c4 ,f4,c4,s4 ,,pr(essor ,,( ,,lea!r ,,indu/ries ,,at ,,! ,,york%ire ,,college1 ,,le$s2 ,,pa/ ,,presid5t ,,( ,,! ,,int]national ,,association ,,( ,,lea!r ,,trades ,,*emi/s ,illu/ration ,london3 ,e4 ,f4 ,n4 ,,spon1 ,,limit$1 #abe ,,/r& ,new ,york3 ,,spon ,,*amb]la91 #abc ,,lib]ty ,,/reet #aijc ,d$icat$ to ,,pr(essor ,f4 ,l4 ,,knapp ,,geheim5 ,,h(ra?1 ,,dr4 ,,phil4 ,,& ,,dr4 ,,+4 ,,! ,,pione] ,,( ,,sci5tific ,,rese>* ,,9 ,,lea!r ,,manufacture ,,preface4 ,! orig9 ( ! pres5t "w 0 an attempt to prep>e a second edition ( ! little ,text-,book ( ,tann+ :i* ! ,au?or publi%$ 9 #ahhe1 & :i* has be5 long out ( pr9t4 ,?\gh p]sev]$ 9 = ye>s1 ! "w 0 nev] br\ght to completion1 p>tly ow+ to ! con/ant pressure ( o!r duties1 b /ill m to ! rapid advances :i* h be5 made 9 our k ( ! subject1 & 9 ! sci5tific ?\ght :i* has be5 devot$ to x4 ,= 8 %>e 9 ! initiation ( ?is "w1 mu* cr$it is due to ,wilhelm ,eitn]1 ,director ( ! ,imp]ial ,royal ,rese>* ,in/itute = ,lea!r ,indu/ries 9 ,vi5na1 b ! advance he began has be5 en]getically c>ri$ =w>d n only 9 ,vi5na1 b 9 ! ,tann+ ,s*ools & ,rese>* ,in/itutes ( ,freib]g1 ,le$s1 ,london1 ,lige1 ,cop5hag51 ,b]l9 & else:]e1 & to a less ext5t 9 private laboratories4 ,"u ! pressure ( ?is rapid gr[?1 z x 0 impossible to complete ! "w z a :ole1 ! ,au?or publi%$ an in/alm5t deal+ ) ! purely *emical side ( ! subject 9 #ahih1 "u ! title ( ! #8,lea!r ,indu/ries ,laboratory ,book'2 :i* has be5 translat$ into ,g]man1 ,fr5* & ,italian1 & ( :i* ! ,engli% edition is rapidly approa*+ exhau/ion4 ,! pres5t "w1 :i* %\ld by "r h prec$$ ! ,laboratory ,book 7& :i* frequ5tly ref]s to x z 8,l4,i4,l4,b4071 attempts to deal ) ! g5]al sci5tific pr9ciples ( ! indu/ry1 )\t describ+ 9 detail its practical me?ods 7?\gh incid5tally _m practical po9ts are discuss$74 ,to complete ! subject1 a ?ird volume ought to be writt51 giv+ work+ details ( ! v>i\s me?ods ( manufacture2 b ap>t f ! difficulty ( ! subject1 & ! we>9ess ( 8mak+ _m books10 ! me?ods ( trade are s fluctuat+1 & dep5d5t on tempor>y conditions t !y h n ! same p]man5t value z ! record ( sci5tific advance4 ,z ! pres5t volume is int5d$ to appeal bo? to ! *emi/ & to ! practical tann]1 x mu/ to a c]ta9 ext5t fail 9 bo?1 s9ce _m matt]s are includ$ :i* are already famili> to ! =m]1 & x is to be fe>$1 "s1 :i* may prove difficult to ! latt]4 ,= ^! & o!r imp]fections ! ,au?or claims ! indulg5ce ( 8 ,read]s4 ,! ,au?or mu/ "h ackn[l$ge 8 indebt$ness to ,dr4 ,,tom ,,gu?rie & to ,mr4 ,a4 ,b4 ,,se>le = assi/ance 9 writ+ sev]al ( ! *apt]s2 to ,dr4 ,a4 ,,turnbull & ,mr4 ,f4 ,a4 ,,blockey = mu* help 9 read+ pro(s & prep>+ ! ,,ms4 = ! press2 & to ! _m g5tlem5 :o h furni%$ or all[$ him to use _! blocks & draw+s 9 illu/ration4 ,,! ,,york%ire ,,college1 ,,le$s4 ,,cont5ts4 ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,introductory ,,& ,,hi/orical4 ,primitive me?ods ( lea!r manufacture -- ,use ( lea!r by ! anci5ts -- ,progress ( lea!r manufacture 9 ,engl& -- ,me?ods ( production ( lea!r -- ,vegetable tannages -- ,comb9ation tannages -- ,use ( alum9ium1 iron & *romium -- ,oil- & fat-lea!rs -- ,difficulties ( sci5tific treatm5t ,,page #a ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,introductory ,,sket* ,,( ,,lea!r ,,manufacture4 ,! object ( tann+ -- ,wa%+ & soak+ -- ,removal ( hair by lim+ -- ,unhair+ by putrefaction -- ,unhair+ & fle%+ -- ,delim+ -- ,bat+1 pu]+ & dr5*+ -- ,! vegetable tann+ process -- ,curry+ -- ,alum1 *rome & *amois lea!rs ,,page #g ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,! ,,liv+ ,,cell4 ,! /ructure ( cells -- ,:ite blood-corpuscles -- ,! yea/-cell -- ,epid]mis cells -- ,! build+ up ( plants ,,page #aj ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,,putrefaction ,,& ,,f]m5tation4 ,! nature ( f]m5ts -- ,organis$ & unorganis$ f]m5ts -- ,classification ( organis$ f]m5ts -- ,g5]al prop]ties ( f]m5ts -- ,! alcoholic f]m5tation -- ,! action ( enzymes or unorganis$ f]m5ts -- ,! de/ruction ( f]m5ts by heat & antiseptics -- ,! products ( f]m5tation -- ,! f]m5tations ( ! tann]y -- ,f]m5tation 9 bat+ & pu]+ -- ,f]m5tation 9 ! tann+ liquors -- ,m\lds & mildews -- ,control ( f]m5tation ,,page #ae ,,*apt] ,v4 ,,antiseptics ,,& ,,dis9fectants4 ,di/9ction ( antiseptics & dis9fectants -- ,lime -- ,sulphur dioxide -- ,manufacture ( sulphuric acid -- ,bisulphites & metabisulphites -- ,boric acid & borates -- ,m]curic *loride -- ,m]curic iodide -- ,copp] sulphate -- ,z9c salts -- ,ars5ic -- ,fluorides -- ,ph5ol -- ,use ( c>bolic acid -- ,eud]m9 -- ,creasote -- ,creol9 -- ,salicylic acid -- ,b5zoic acid -- ,cresot9ic acid -- ,anticalcium -- 8,c4,t40 bate -- ,naph?al5e sulphonic acid -- ,naph?ols -- ,hydronaph?ol -- ,oxynaph?oic acid -- ,c>bon disulphide -- ,=maldehyde -- ,tri=mol -- ,camphor & ess5tial oils ,,page #ba ,,*apt] ,,vi4 ,,! ,,orig9 ,,& ,,cur+ ,,( ,,hides ,,& ,,sk9s4 ,m>k+ ( hides -- ,fellmong]+ ( %eep-sk9s -- ,! use ( salt -- ,salt+ ( pack] hides -- ,br9+ -- ,dry-salt+ -- ,indian pla/] cures -- ,analysis ( salt-e>?s -- ,salt- & iron-/a9s -- ,dry+ ( hides & sk9s -- ,damage by insects -- ,! w>ble-fly -- ,damage by br&+ -- ,cockle ,,page #cc ,,*apt] ,,vii4 ,,/ructure ,,& ,,gr[? ,,( ,,sk94 ,simil>ity ( ,mammalian sk9s -- ,developm5t ( sk9 -- ,/ructure ( calf-sk9 -- ,! epid]mis -- ,! /ructure ( hair -- ,! sebace\s gl&s -- ,! developm5t ( hair -- ,! hair-%ea? -- ,! hair-muscle -- ,! hyal9e lay] -- ,! corium -- ,connective tissue -- ,fat cells -- ,/rip$ muscle -- ,ela/ic fibres -- ,! unhair+ process -- ,! sweat+ process ,,page #df ,,*apt] ,,viii4 ,,! ,,*emical ,,con/itu5ts ,,( ,,sk94 ,! k]at9 tissues -- ,production ( gelat9e f connective tissue -- ,analyses ( hide & gelat9e -- ,con/itution ( gelat9e -- ,analysis & ,reactions ( gelat9e -- ,decomposition ( gelat9e -- ,reactions ( gelat9e -- ,*ondr9 -- ,cori9 -- ,hide-album9 -- 8,acid0 & 8alkali0 album9s -- ,egg-album9 -- ,vitell9 -- ,case9 -- ,k]at9s -- ,ela/ic fibres -- ,analytical me?ods -- ,kjeldahl process ,,page #ef ,,*apt] ,,ix4 ,,! ,,physical ,,*emi/ry ,,( ,,! ,,hide-,,fibre4 ,causes ( swell+ & contraction -- ,! ess5tials ( ! tann+ process -- ,! con/itution ( matt] -- ,! nature ( molecules -- ,vap\r-pressure -- ,surface-t5sion -- ,solution-pressures -- ,jellies -- ,cry/als -- ,osmotic pressure -- ,electrolytic dissociation -- ,electrolysis -- ,reactions ( ions -- ,absorption ( wat] by gelat9e -- ,dehydration by alcohol -- ,action ( acids1 alkalies & salts on gelat9\s fibre -- ,physical explanation ( swell+ -- ,action ( acids on gelat9e -- ,action ( alkalies on gelat9e -- ,effect ( salt -- ,! pickl+ process ,,page #gc ,,*apt] ,x4 ,,wat] ,,z ,,us$ ,,9 ,,! ,,tann]y4 ,impurities ( natural wat] -- ,h>dness -- ,soap te/ -- ,tempor>y h>dness -- ,cl>k's s(t5+ process -- ,ar*butt & ,deeley's s(t5+ app>atus -- ,o!r appliances -- ,effect ( tempor>y h>dness 9 tann+ & dye+ -- ,p]man5t h>dness -- ,boil] scale -- ,mud -- ,iron -- ,alum9a -- ,soda -- ,copp]1 lead1 etc4 -- ,sulphuric acid -- ,nitrates & ,nitrites -- ,*lor9e -- ,c>bonic acid -- ,silicic acid -- ,effect ( h>dness on plump+ -- ,peaty wat]s ,,page #ic ,,*apt] ,,xi4 ,,soak+ ,,& ,,s(t5+ ,,( ,,hides ,,& ,,sk9s4 ,wa%+ ( fre% hides -- ,dang] ( putrefaction -- ,soak+ ( salt$ hides & sk9s -- ,soak+ & s(t5+ ( dry & dry-salt$ hides -- ,am]ican wa%-:eel -- ,*emical me?ods -- ,difficulty ( s(t5+ hides dri$ at high temp]ature ,,page #ajh ,,*apt] ,,xii4 ,,depilation4 ,me?ods ( depilation -- ,sweat+ process -- ,lim+ -- ,s\rces ( lime -- ,quicklime -- ,slak+ ( lime -- ,solubility ( lime 9 wat] -- ,analysis ( lime -- 8,available0 lime -- ,action ( lime on hide -- ,lim+ 9 pits -- ,susp5sion limes -- ,effect ( w>m+ limes -- ,quantity ( lime requir$ -- ,! ,buffalo me?od -- ,action ( old limes -- ,solution ( hide sub/ance by limes -- ,sodium & potassium hydrates -- ,payne & ,pullman's process -- ,alkal9e c>bonates -- ,alkal9e sulphides -- ,sodium sulphide -- ,calcium ,sulphydrate -- ,gas-lime -- ,tank-wa/e -- ,lufk9's lim+ prep>ation -- ,b>ium sulphydrate -- ,realg>1 or r$ sulphide ( ars5ic -- 8,in(f5sive0 unhair+ solution -- ,e>p's pat5t -- ,unhair+ on ! beam -- ,unhair+ ma*9es -- ,vaughn ma*9e -- ,leidg5 ma*9e -- ,unhair+ 9 /ocks & wa%-:eel -- ,jones ma*9e -- ,fle%+ -- ,vaughn fle%+ ma*9e -- ,r\nd+ ,,page #aai ,,*apt] ,,xiii4 ,,delim+1 ,,bat+1 ,,pu]+ ,,& ,,dr5*+4 ,me?ods ( remov+ lime & r$uc+ swell+ -- ,use ( acids -- ,lactic1 acetic & =mic acids -- ,boral -- ,sodium bisulphate -- ,boric 7boracic7 acid -- ,borax -- 8,pull+ d[n0 process -- ,use ( ammonium *loride & sulphate -- ,pickl+ solutions -- ,dr5*+ ) lactic acid -- ,metabisulphite ( soda -- ,wa%+ out lime1 ,fr5* process -- ,nesbitt's process -- ,use ( c>bonic acid -- ,c>bolic acid -- ,cresot9ic acid -- ,oxynaph?oic acid -- 8,anticalcium0 -- 8,acril5e bat+ acid0 -- 8,c4,t4 ,bate0 -- ,use ( sulphides & polysulphides -- ,babool pods -- ,bran-dr5*+ -- ,bat+ & pu]+ -- ,causes ( bat+ effect -- ,peps9 -- ,tryps91 or ,pancreat9 -- ,wood's rese>*es -- ,erod9 -- ,palm]'s exp]im5ts -- ,o!r artificial bates -- ,relative effect ( dog- & pigeon-dung bates -- ,analysis ( dungs -- 8,scudd+10 or 8f9e hair+0 -- ,pres]vation & use ( dung ,,page #aeb ,,*apt] ,,xiv4 ,,alum ,,tannage1 ,,or ,,taw+4 ,nature ( lea!r -- ,m9]al tann+ sub/ances -- ,salts ( alum9ium -- ,alums -- ,alum9ium sulphate -- ,effect ( salt 9 taw+ -- ,basic alum9a solutions -- ,taw+ ( sk9s = rugs -- ,calf-kid manufacture -- ,glove-kid -- ,gre5 lea!r & o!r comb9ation tannages ,,page #ahd ,,*apt] ,,xv4 ,,iron ,,& ,,*rome ,,tannages4 ,iron tannages -- ,*rome tannages -- ,*emi/ry ( *romium comp\nds -- ,knapp's me?od ( *rome tannage -- ,cavall9 -- ,swan -- ,he9z]l+ -- ,hummel's improvem5t -- ,s*ultz's me?od -- ,!ory ( ! two-ba? process -- ,practical managem5t ( ! two-ba? process -- ,d5nis's *rome tann+ liquor -- ,proct]'s liquors -- ,!ory ( basic process -- ,practical use ( basic liquors -- ,wa%+ & neutralisation -- ,effect ( sulphur on *rome lea!r -- ,blueback+ -- ,fat-liquor+ -- ,dye+ ( *rome lea!r -- ,glaz+ & f9i%+ ,,page #aih ,,*apt] ,,xvi4 ,,pr9ciples ,,( ,,! ,,vegetable ,,tann+ ,,processes4 ,me?ods ( sole-lea!r tann+ -- ,f9i%+ ( sole-lea!r -- ,!ory ( vegetable tannage -- ,delim+ ( sole-lea!r -- 8,mell[ness0 ( liquors -- ,p5etration ( tannage -- ,dry+ ( sole-lea!r -- ,tann+ ( dress+ lea!rs -- ,prep>ation = tannage -- ,avoidance ( 8bloom0 -- ,tannage ( moroccos & o!r sk9s ,,page #bbj ,,*apt] ,,xvii4 ,,comb9ation ,,( ,,vegetable ,,& ,,m9]al ,,tannages4 ,e>ly comb9ation tannages -- ,respective effect ( m9]al & vegetable tannages -- ,use ( fat-liquor -- ,action ( m9]al & vegetable tann+ mat]ials on ea* o!r -- ,dani% & ,sw$i% glove lea!rs -- ,gre5 lea!rs -- ,mak+ ( fat-liquors -- ,*rome comb9ations ,,page #bcf ,,*apt] ,,xviii4 ,,vegetable ,,tann+ ,,mat]ials4 ,di/ribution ( tann9 9 plants -- ,/ructure ( b>ks -- ,botanical li/ ( important tann+ mat]ials ,,page #bdb ,,*apt] ,,xix4 ,,! ,,*emi/ry ,,( ,,! ,,tann9s4 ,s\rces ( tann9s -- ,g5]al qualities ( tann9s -- ,*emical con/itution -- ,cate*ol- & pyrogallol tann9s -- ,cate*9s -- ,t5d5cy ( ,cate*ol tann9s to d>k5 ) light -- 8,physiological0 & 8pa?ological0 tann9s -- ,pres5ce ( mordant col\r+ matt]s ,,page #bid ,,*apt] ,,xx4 ,,! ,,sampl+ ,,& ,,analysis ,,( ,,tann+ ,,mat]ials4 ,! ,int]national ,association ( ,lea!r ,trades ,*emi/s -- ,! ,am]ican ,(ficial ,association ( ,agricultural ,*emi/s -- ,! sampl+ ( mat]ial -- ,prep>ation ( solution = analysis -- ,extraction ( solid mat]ials -- ,total soluble matt] -- ,evaporations ( solutions -- ,! weigh+ ( residues -- ,! det]m9ation ( non-tann9s -- ,! hide-p[d] filt] me?od -- ,! hide-p[d] %ake me?od -- ,det]m9ation ( moi/ure -- ,col\r-measurem5t ,,page #cjj ,,*apt] ,,xxi4 ,,! ,,gr9d+ ,,( ,,tann+ ,,mat]ials4 ,primitive me?ods ( gr9d+ -- ,! bell mill or c(fee mill -- ,disc mills -- ,dis9tegrators -- ,c>r's dis9tegrator -- ,c>t]'s dis9tegrator -- ,adju/m5t ( dis9tegrators -- ,! ,williams pulv]is] -- ,myrobalans & ,valonia cru%]s -- ,saw+ mills -- ,%av+ mills -- ,dyewood cutt+ ma*9es -- ,scre5+ ( gr\nd mat]ials -- ,hat*+ ( b>k -- ,dis9tegrators & fire insurance -- ,du/ f dis9tegrators -- ,*a9 conveyors -- ,belt conveyors -- ,vibrat+ conveyors ,,page #caf ,,*apt] ,,xxii4 ,,! ,,extraction ,,( ,,tann+ ,,mat]ials1 ,,& ,,! ,,mak+ ,,( ,,extracts4 ,lea*+ -- ,e>ly =ms ( lea*es -- ,! press-lea* sy/em -- ,h&l+ ( liquors -- ,di/ribut+ tr\ghs & valves -- ,con/ruction ( lea*es -- ,influ5ce ( temp]ature -- ,use ( sil5t boil+ jet -- ,clos$ extractors -- ,spr9kl+ lea*es -- ,manufacture ( extracts -- ,decolorisation ( extracts -- ,soluble extracts -- ,conc5tration ( extracts -- ,y>yan evaporator -- ,multiple effects -- ,! use ( extracts 9 ! tann]y -- ,effect ( temp]ature on extraction & col\r ,,page #cbh ,,*apt] ,,xxiii4 ,,fats1 ,,soaps1 ,,oils ,,& ,,waxes4 ,*>act]i/ics ( fats & oils -- ,*emical con/itution -- ,nature & production ( soaps -- ,insoluble soaps -- ,di/illation ( fats -- ,solv5ts ( oils -- ,dry+ oils -- ,saturat$ fatty acids -- ,non-dry+ liquid fatty acids -- ,less-saturat$ liquid fatty acids -- ,ca/or oil -- ,tall[ -- ,neatsfoot oil -- ,wool fat -- ,hold5 fat -- ,di/ill$ wool grease -- ,di/ill$ /e>9e -- ,olive oil -- ,ca/or oil -- ,turkey-r$ oil -- ,l9se$ oil -- ,boil$ oils -- ,japan = lea!r -- ,cottonse$ oil -- ,sesame oil -- ,cod oil -- ,%>k liv] oil -- ,:ale oil -- ,seal oil -- ,m5had5 oil -- ,fi% oils -- ,fi% tall[ -- ,dgras & ,sod oil -- ,waxes -- ,sp]m oil -- ,beeswax -- ,c>nauba wax -- ,japan wax -- ,volatile or ess5tial oils -- ,bir* oil -- ,w9t]gre5 oil -- ,m9]al oils & waxes -- ,vasel9e & vasel9e oil -- ,p>aff9 wax -- ,ozok]it -- ,res9 oils -- ,res9 ,,page #cej ,,*apt] ,,xxiv4 ,,oil ,,tannages1 ,,& ,,! ,,use ,,( ,,oils ,,& ,,fats ,,9 ,,curry+4 ,primitive use ( oil 9 lea!r manufacture -- ,*amois+ & ! production ( wa%lea!r -- ,manufacture ( ,moellon1 or ,dgras -- ,sod oil -- ,=maldehyde lea!rs -- 8,cr[n0 & 8,helvetia0 lea!rs -- ,!ory ( oil lea!rs -- ,processes ( curry+ -- ,!ory ( ! /uff+ process -- ,h&-/uff+ -- ,drum-/uff+ -- ,/uff+ ( dry lea!r -- 8,spue+0 & its causes -- ,fat-liquor+ ,,page #cgh ,,*apt] ,,xxv4 ,,dyes ,,& ,,dye+4 ,coal-t> col\rs -- ,acid & basic col\rs -- ,!ories ( dye+ -- ,fixation ( col\rs on lea!r -- ,mordants & mordant col\rs -- ,curri]s' inks -- ,glazes & f9i%es -- 8,assi/ants0 9 dye+ -- ,bronz+ -- ,fad+ ( col\rs -- ,practical me?ods ( lea!r dye+ -- ,use ( dyewoods -- ,iron 8/rik]s0 -- ,tann9 blacks -- ,/a9+ -- ,!ory ( col\r-mixtures -- ,f9i%+ dy$ lea!rs -- ,te/+ ( dyes -- ,injuri\s effects ( metals 9 dye+ ,,page #cid ,,*apt] ,,xxvi4 ,,evaporation1 ,,heat+ ,,& ,,dry+4 ,!ory ( evaporation -- ,boil+ po9t & vap\r-pressure -- ,consumption ( heat 9 evaporation -- ,heat-units -- ,me*anical en]gy ( heat -- ,evaporation by 8multiple effect0 -- ,vap\r-pressure ( atmosph]ic moi/ure -- ,wet & dry bulb !rmomet]s -- ,heat & air requir$ 9 lea!r-dry+ -- ,loss ( heat by build+s -- ,quantity ( heat giv5 by /eam & hot-wat] pipes -- ,screw-fans = dry+ -- ,c5trifugal fans -- 8,turret0 dry] -- ,d[nw>d v5tilation -- ,arrangem5t ( /eam-pipes -- ,hot wat] pipes ,,page #dbj ,,*apt] ,,xxvii4 ,,con/ruction ,,& ,,ma9t5ance ,,( ,,tann]ies4 ,selection ( site -- ,arrangem5t ( build+s -- ,fire insurance -- ,automatic spr9kl]s -- ,possibility ( ext5sion -- ,production & di/ribution ( p[] -- ,electric motors -- ,%afts1 pulleys & belt+ -- ,balanc+ ( ma*9]y -- ,fire-risk f b>k mills -- ,*a9-conveyors -- ,lubricat+ oils -- ,con/ruction ( pits -- ,und]gr\nd pipes & ov]head tr\ghs -- ,pumps & pump+ appliances ,,page #ddd ,,*apt] ,,xxviii4 ,,wa/e ,,products ,,& ,,_! ,,disposal4 ,hair -- ,fle%+s & glue-/uff -- ,fat -- ,bate-%av+s -- ,horns -- ,sp5t tan -- ,tan-furnaces -- ,sewage & o!r wa/e liquids -- ,*emical purification ( sewage -- ,settl+ tanks -- ,filt]-presses -- ,bact]ial purification ( sewage -- ,tann]y wa/e-liquors ,,page #dfj ,,app5dix ,a4 ,,me?od ,,( ,,! ,,int]national ,,association ,,( ,,lea!r-,,trades ,,*emi/s ,,= ,,! ,,analysis ,,( ,,tann+ ,,mat]ials3 ,correct$ to #aija4 ,sampl+ f bulk -- ,prep>ation = analysis -- ,prep>ation ( infusion -- ,det]m9ation ( tann+ matt]s & non-tann9s -- ,col\r-measurem5t -- ,analysis ( us$ liquors ,,page #dge ,,app5dix ,b4 ,,! ,,decimal ,,sy/em4 ,metrical weights & measures -- ,c5tigrade !rmomet] ,,page #dha ,,app5dix ,c4 ,,me?od ,,( ,,analysis ,,( ,,tann+ ,,mat]ials ,,( ,,! ,,am]ican ,,association ,,( ,,(ficial ,,agricultural ,,*emi/s3 ,correct$ to #aija4 ,prep>ation ( sample -- ,quantity ( mat]ial -- ,moi/ure -- ,total solids -- ,soluble solids -- ,non-tann9s -- ,tann9s -- ,te/+ ( hide-p[d] -- ,te/+ non-tann9 filtrate ,,page #dhb ,,app5dix ,d4 ,,li/s ,,( ,,coal-,,t> ,,dyes ,,suitable ,,= ,,dye+ ,,& ,,/a9+ ,,lea!r1 furni%$ by ,mr4 ,m4 ,c4 ,,lamb4 ,col\rs = /a9+ lea!r -- ,col\rs = dye+ vegetable-tann$ lea!r -- ,dye+ & f9i%+ *rome-lea!r -- ,li/ ( col\rs suitable = *rome-lea!r ,,page #dhe ,,index ,,page #dii ,,pr9ciples ,,( ,,lea!r ,,manufacture4 ,illu/ration ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,introductory ,,& ,,hi/orical4 ,! orig9 ( lea!r manufacture dates f> back 9 ! prehi/oric ages1 & 0 probably "o ( ! e>lie/ arts practis$ by mank9d4 ,! relics :i* h come d[n to u f paloli?ic times1 & ! exp]i5ce ( ! mod]n explor]1 alike tell u t agriculture is a lat] & a high] /age ( developm5t ?an ! life ( ! hunt]2 & s9ce1 9 ! cold] regions1 clo?+ ( "s k9d mu/ always h be5 a necessity1 we may conclude t x 0 fir/ furni%$ by ! sk9s ( animals4#a #a ,see also ,g54 iii4 #ba4 ,:ile wet sk9s putrefy & decay1 dry ones are h>d & horny2 & no?+ c\ld be m natural to ! hunt] ?an to try to rem$y ?is by rubb+ ! dry+ sk9 ) ! fat ( ! animal1 ( :i* he mu/ h notic$ ! s(t5+ effect on 8 own sk94 ,by ?is means a s(t & durable lea!r may be produc$1 & ?is process ( rubb+ & knead+ ) greasy & album9\s matt]s1 su* z fat1 bra9s1 milk1 butt] & egg-yolks1 is 9 use to ?is day1 alike by ! ,t>t>s on ,asiatic /eppes & ! ,indians on ,am]ican prairies2 & n only s1 b we ourselves /ill use ! same pr9ciple 9 ! dress+ ( our f9e/ furs1 & 9 ! manufacture ( *amois1 & _m sorts ( lace- & belt-lea!rs4 ,su* a process is describ$ 9 ! ,iliad 7xvii4 #chi-cic7 9 ! acc\nt ( ! /ruggle ov] ! body ( ,patroclus3 8,z :5 a man ,a huge ox-hide drunk5 ) slipp]y l>d ,gives to be /ret*$1 8 s]vants all ar\nd ,dispos$1 j int]vals betwe51 ! task ,ply /r5u\s1 & :ile _m /ra9+ h>d ,ext5d x equal on all sides1 x sweats ,! moi/ure out & dr9ks ! unction 940 ,x mu/ also h be5 e>ly notic$ t wood smoke1 :i* 9 ^? days 0 insep>able f ! use ( fire1 _h an antiseptic & pres]vative effect on sk9s :i* 7 dri$ 9 x1 & smok$ lea!rs are /ill made 9 ,am]ica1 bo? by ! ,indians & by m civilis$ lea!r manufactur]s4 ,to ?is me?od ! ,psalmi/ ref]s#b :5 he says1 8,i am become l a bottle 9 ! smoke20 & su* bottles1 made ( ! entire sk9 ( ! goat1 are /ill famili> to travell]s 9 ! ,ea/4 #b ,ps4 cxix4 #hc4 ,! use ( vegetable tann+ mat]ials1 ?\gh prehi/oric1 is probably less anci5t ?an ! me?ods ,i h describ$1 & may possibly h be5 discov]$ 9 e>ly attempts at dye+2 an art :i* p]haps _h its orig9 ev5 be=e ! use ( clo?+6 ,! tann9s are v widely di/ribut$ 9 ! vegetable k+dom1 & mo/ b>ks1 & _m fruits1 are capable ( mak+ lea!r4 ,! employm5t ( alum & salt 9 tann+ 0 probably ( /ill lat] introduction1 & mu/ h orig9at$ 9 c\ntries :]e alum is f\nd z a natural product4 ,! art 0 lo/ or unkn[n 9 ,europe till introduc$ into ,spa9 by ! ,moors4 ,lea!r manufacture rea*$ consid]able p]fection 9 anci5t ,egypt4 ,a granite c>v+1 probably at lea/ #djjj ye>s old1 is pres]v$ 9 ! ,b]l9 ,museum1 9 :i* lea!r-dress]s are repres5t$4 ,"o is tak+ a tig]-sk9 f a tub or pit1 a second is employ$ at ano!r tub1 :ile a ?ird is work+ a sk9 ^u a table4 ,emboss$ & gilt lea!r /raps h be5 f\nd on a mummy ( ! n9? c5tury ,b4,c41 & an ,egyptian boat-cov] ( emboss$ goat lea!r1 z well z %oes ( dy$ & pa9t$ morocco1 are /ill 9 comp>atively good pres]vation4 ,! art is ( v e>ly date 9 ,*9a1 & 0 well und]/ood by ! ,greeks & ,romans4 ,9 ! ,grosv5or ,museum at ,*e/] is ! sole ( a ,roman caliga1 /udd$ ) bronze nails1 :i* is yet pretty flexible4 ,aft] ! fall ( ! ,roman empire _m arts 7 lo/ to ,europe1 & x 0 n until ! ,moori% invasion ( ,spa9 t ! art ( dye+ & f9i%+ ! f9] k9ds ( lea!r 0 re9troduc$4 ,engl& 0 v backw>d 9 ?is manufacture up to ! end ( ! la/ c5tury1 ow+ to ! fossilis+ influ5ce ( mu* pat]nal legislation1 & ( c]ta9 excise-duties1 :i* 7 only repeal$ 9 #ahcj4 ,s9ce ?is "t ! art has made rapid /rides1 especially 9 ! use ( lab\r-sav+ ma*9]y1 & ,engl& may at ! pres5t mom5t be consid]$ fairly abrea/ ( any o!r c\ntry z a :ole2 ?\gh 9 "s special manufactures we are surpass$ by ! ,cont95t & by ,am]ica4 ,9 mak+ comp>isons ( ?is k9d1 x mu/1 h[ev]1 be rememb]$ t1 especially 9 sole-lea!r tannage1 ! mo/ rapid progress has be5 made dur+ ! la/ few ye>s 9 ^? c\ntries :i* 7 m backw>d1 & t !re=e our sup]iority is mu* less pron\nc$ ?an =m]ly1 & 9 a few ye>s w probably cease to exi/ unless m>k$ improvem5ts are introduc$ 9 ! me?ods ( production4 ,9 ! sket* ( ! developm5t ( lea!r manufacture :i* has j be5 giv51 x has be5 impli$ t its object is to conv]t ! putrescible animal sk9 into a mat]ial :i* is p]man5t1 & n readily subject to decay1 :ile reta9+ suffici5t s(tness or flexibility = ! purposes = :i* x is int5d$4 ,z ^! range f boot-soles to kid-gloves1 !re are wide div]g5ces1 n only 9 ! processes employ$1 b also 9 ! mat]ials us$ & 9 ! pr9ciples ( _! application4 ,! mo/ important me?od ( produc+ lea!r is by ! use ( vegetable tann+ mat]ials1 & ?is is p]haps ! only "o :i* is really entitl$ to be call$ 8tann+10 ?\gh ! di/9ction is n v /rictly adh]$ to4 ,x includes ! :ole range--f sole lea!r1 ?r\gh /rap1 h>ness & dress+ lea!r1 to calf & goat sk9s1 & ! v>i\s suma* tannages :i* yield morocco & its imitations4 ,all ( ^! products b ! fir/ & ! la/ und]go1 aft] tann+1 ! fur!r processes ( 8curry+10 ( :i* ! mo/ important op]ation consi/s 9 8/uff+0 ) oily & fatty matt]s1 bo? to increase ! flexibility & to conf] a c]ta9 am\nt ( resi/ance to wat]4 ,suma*-tann$ sk9s are n /rictly 8curri$0 b usually receive a c]ta9 am\nt ( oil 9 ! process ( 8f9i%+40 ,next 9 importance to ! vegetable tannages are ! 8taw$0 lea!rs produc$ by ! ag5cy ( alum & salt1 includ+ ! 8:ite lea!rs0 = belt laces & aprons1 & calf- & glove-kid4 ,a connect+ l9k betwe5 tann+ & taw+ is f\nd 9 ! 8gre5 lea!r10 8,dongola10 & 8comb9ation0 tannages1 9 :i* alum & salt are employ$ 9 conjunction ) vegetable tann+ mat]ials1 & especially ) gambi]4 ,salts ( sev]al ( ! metals1 & p>ticul>ly ^? ( alum9ium1 iron1 & *romium1 h ! p[] ( conv]t+ sk9 into lea!r2 & processes 9 :i* salts ( *romium are us$ h rec5tly atta9$ v consid]able comm]cial importance4 ,9 ! production ( calf- & glove-kid1 9 addition to alum & salt1 album9\s & fatty matt]s1 su* z egg-yolk1 olive oil & ! glut5 ( fl\r1 play a consid]able "p1 & are ?us l9k$ bo? to ! primitive me?ods 9 use by ! ,indians & ,kalmucks1 & to ^? by :i* 8cr[n0 & 8,helvetia0 lea!r1 & _m o!r =ms ( belt- & lace-lea!rs are n[ produc$ by treatm5t ) fats & album5s4 ,f ^! aga9 ! /ep is a %ort "o to ! 8*amois0 & 8buff0 lea!rs1 & ! ,g]man 8fettg>0 lea!rs1 9 :i* oils & fats only are us$2 & ^! are probably aga9 relat$ *emically to lea!r produc$ by ! aid ( =maldehyde & o!r aldehydes4 ,9 an attempt to view all ^! complex processes f ! sci5tific /&po9t1 ! read] %\ld con/antly realise t ! pres5t me?ods ( lea!r manufacture are ! results ( t5s ( c5turies ( exp]i5ce1 & ( innum]able =gott5 failures1 & mu/ n !re=e expect t !y c be easily sup]s$$4 ,sci5ce mu/ foll[ be=e x c lead1 & its fir/ duty is to try to und]/& ! reasons & pr9ciples ( our pres5t practice1 = we c only build ! new on ! f\ndation ( :at has be5 already le>n$4 ,ano!r fact1 :i* is sc>cely und]/ood by ! practical man 9 8 dem&s on sci5ce1 is t 9 lea!r manufacture e "q :i* is rais$ seems to re/ on ! mo/ recondite problems ( *emi/ry & physics2 ! *emi/ry ( "s ( ! mo/ complex ( organic comp\nds1 & ! physics ( solution1 ( osmose1 & ( ! /ructure ( colloid bodies--problems :i* are yet f> f completely conqu]$ by ! highe/ sci5ce ( ! day4 ,x may seem bold to attempt ! sci5tific treatm5t ( su* a subject at all2 &1 inde$1 x mu/ be admitt$ t our k is /ill f> f adequate = its complete accompli%m5t1 b en\gh has be5 done to lay a f\ndation = future "w1 & ?is c at lea/ be summ>is$ & arrang$ 9 an available =m4 ,! subject falls naturally into two sections1 9 ! fir/ ( :i* ! processes ( manufacture w\ld only be describ$ 9 g5]al t]ms1 & ) suffici5t fulness to enable ! read] to und]/& ! sci5tific consid]ations on :i* !y are bas$1 & ! me?ods ( inve/igation :i* c be appli$ to !m2 :ile 9 ! second an ef=t %\ld be made to give work+ details ( ! v>i\s processes suffici5t to enable ^? ) a g5]al k ( ! trade to exp]im5t successfully 9 its v>i\s bran*es4 ,x 0 at fir/ int5d$ t ^! two sections %\ld be publi%$ 9 "o book z a second edition to ! ,au?or's #8,text-book ( ,tann+1' b ow+ to ! long delay 9 its publication1 x 0 decid$ to publi% ! fir/ section "u ! pres5t title #8,pr9ciples ( ,lea!r ,manufacture1' leav+ ! latt] section #8,processes ( ,lea!r ,manufacture' to a lat]1 & ,i fe>1 some:at unc]ta9 date2 :ile ! /rictly *emical portion has already appe>$ 9 ! #8,lea!r ,indu/ries ,laboratory ,book1' frequ5tly ref]r$ to 9 ! foll[+ pages "u ! abbreviation 8,l4,i4,l4,b40 ,:]e quantities & details are giv51 !y mu/ n be tak5 z recipes to be bl9dly foll[$2 or ev51 9 e case1 z ! be/ kn[n me?ods2 b r z m]e guides to exp]im5t1 :i* mu/ be modifi$ to suit v>y+ conditions & requirem5ts4 ,x is ! special virtue ( ! sci5tific1 z oppos$ to ! m]ely traditional way ( look+ at su* que/ions1 t kn[+ ! cause & effect ( ea* "p ( ! process1 x c s adju/ !m z to get ov] difficulties1 & to suit novel conditions4 ,x is ne$less to add t _m me?ods are jeal\sly pres]v$ z trade secrets1 & full details are frequ5tly unatta9able4 ,aft] :at has j be5 said1 x may be well to emphasise ! great importance ( practical k & exp]i5ce to ! lea!r manufactur]4 ,ev5 9 trades :i* h rea*$ ! highe/ sci5tific developm5t1 su*1 = in/ance1 z ! manufacture ( ! coal-t> col\rs1 ! small exp]im5ts ( ! laboratory are n trans=m$ into manufactur+ op]ations )\t exp]i5ce & sometimes ev5 failure2 & ?is mu/ /ill m (t5 be ! case 9 a trade l t ( lea!r-mak+1 :]e our k ( ! actual *anges involv$ is /ill s incomplete4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! co/ ( exp]im5ts on a manufactur+ scale is usually s heavy t ! lea/ sci5tific mu/ admit ! advantage ( le>n+ all :i* ! laboratory c tea* be=e v5tur+ on any?+ m2 :ile ev5 our pres5t imp]fect k ( ! *emical *anges involv$ w (t5 w>n u (f hopeless exp]im5ts1 & give u h9ts ( ! directions 9 :i* success may be atta9$4 ,a k ( *emi/ry w probably prove at lea/ z important to ! future ( our trade z t ( me*anics has be5 9 ! pa/4 ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,introductory ,,sket* ,,( ,,lea!r ,,manufacture4 ,! object ( tann+ has be5 /at$ to be ! r5d]+ ( animal sk9 imputrescible & pliable1 b z we n[ r>ely require lea!r ) ! hair on1 prelim9>y processes are ne$$ to remove x1 & to fit ! sk9 = tann+1 & ! nature ( ^! processes has great influ5ce on ! subsequ5t "* ( ! lea!r produc$4 ,! fir/ /ep is usually a wa%+ ( ! sk9 to remove blood & dirt2 :ile1 :]e x has be5 salt$ or dri$1 a m ?or\gh soak+ is ne$$ to remove ! salt1 & to re/ore ! sk9 to its orig9al s(t & p]meable condition4 ,! hair is !n loos5$ by s(t5+ & p>tial solution ( ! epid]mis /ructures 7see p4 #dg7 9 :i* x is root$4 ,?is is mo/ g5]ally accompli%$ by soak+ = "s days 9 milk ( lime1 :i* is occasionally assi/$ by ! addition ( cau/ic alkalies or ( sulphides4 ,:5 ! latt] are us$ 9 conc5trat$ solution1 ! hair itself1 z well z ! epid]mis tissues1 is s(t5$ & de/roy$ 9 ! c\rse ( a few h\rs4 ,! lime n only s]ves to loos5 ! hair1 b swells & splits up ! fibre-bundles ( :i* ! hide tissue is compos$1 & s fits x to receive ! tannage 7cp4 p4 #abe74 ,= "s purposes a regulat$ putrefactive process is sub/itut$ = ! lim+2 ! hides or sk9s be+ hung 9 a moi/ & w>m *amb] 7see p4 #aai71 :5 ! s(t muc\s lay] :i* =ms ! inn] "p ( ! epid]mis is dis9tegrat$1 p>tly by direct putrefaction1 p>tly by ! action ( ! ammonia evolv$1 s t ! hair c be scrap$ (f4 ,9 ?is case ! hide-fibre is n swoll51 & ! necess>y swell+ has to be obta9$ by subsequ5t processes4 ,9 :atev] way ! hair has be5 loos5$1 x is scrap$ (f ) a blunt & some:at curv$ two-h&l$ knife on a slop+ r\nd$ 8beam0 ( wood or metal2 ?is op]ation be+ t]m$ 8unhair+0 7see p4 #add74 ,?is is g5]ally foll[$ by 8fle%+10 :i* is p]=m$ on ! same beam ) a some:at simil> knife1 :i*1 h[ev]1 is two-edg$ & %>p4 ,9 ?is op]ation1 portions ( fle%1 & ! fat & loose tissue :i* und]lie ! true sk9 7see p4 #adg7 are remov$ by scrap+ & cutt+4 ,ma*9es = fle%+ are also l>gely 9 use = c]ta9 purposes 7see p4 #adh74 ,= sole lea!r1 ! hide1 aft] "s wa%+ 9 s(t wat] to cleanse f lime1 is !n ready = ! actual tann+ process2 b = ! s(t] lea!rs m ?or\gh treatm5t is ne$$ to remove ! lime1 & to /ill fur!r s(t5 ! sk9 by solution & removal ( a portion ( ! cem5t+ sub/ance ( ! fibres4 ,?is treatm5t is g5]ally ( a f]m5tive or putrefactive nature1 & ! mo/ common =m is t kn[n z 8bat+10 :i* consi/s 9 /eep+ 9 a f]m5t+ infusion ( pigeon- or h5-dung4 ,! !ory ( its action is n yet ?or\ghly und]/ood1 b ! effect is l>gely due to ! unorganis$ hydrolys+ f]m5ts produc$ by ! bact]ia pres5t2 :ile at ! same "t ! lime is neutralis$ & remov$ by ! weak organic acids & salts ( ammonia :i* are produc$2 & ! fibre :i* _h be5 plump & swoll5 ) lime1 becomes extremely relax$ & flaccid4 ,9 ! lighte/ lea!rs1 su* z kid- & lamb-sk9s = gloves1 & goat & %eep = moroccos & ! l1 dog-dung is sub/itut$ = t ( f[ls1 & ! process is !n call$ 8pu]+0 7see p4 #agj74 ,^! processes are (t5 foll[$ by 8dr5*+10 :i* sometimes inde$ takes _! place1 ! sk9s be+ soak$ 9 a f]m5t+ bran infusion4 ,9 ?is1 ! small quantities ( acetic & lactic acid =m$ by f]m5tation are ! active ag5ts1 neutralis+ & dissolv+ ! lime1 & cleans+ & slightly plump+ ! pelt 7see p4 #aff74 ,! tann+ process :i* foll[s consi/s 9 soak+ ! pelt 9 infusions ( v>i\s vegetable products conta9+ bodies ( ! class kn[n z 8tann9s10 :i* h ! p[] ( comb9+ ) sk9-fibre & conv]t+ x into lea!r4 ,if at fir/ /rong infusions 7 us$1 !y w\ld act too viol5tly on ! surface ( ! sk91 h>d5+ & contract+ x s t ! subsequ5t tannage ( ! int]ior w\ld be imp$$1 & ! 8gra90 or out] surface w\ld be 8drawn0 & wr9kl$4 ,?is is avoid$ by ! use at fir/ ( v weak infusions :i* h already be5 us$ on goods 9 a m advanc$ /age4 ,9 ! lat] "p ( ! process mu* /rong] solutions are employ$1 & ! hides are frequ5tly 8du/$0 9 !m ) gr\nd tann+ mat]ial4 ,9 ! case ( sole lea!r1 ^! processes may require f two to twelve mon?s = completion2 aft] :i* ! lea!r is dri$1 smoo!d1 & compress$ by me*anical means1 & is !n ready = use4 ,dress+-lea!rs1 rang+ f calf-sk9s to h>ness-hides1 receive a mu* %ort] tannage1 & ! subsequ5t treatm5t ) fats & oils1 :i*1 toge!r ) me*anical manipulations1 con/itute 8curry+40 ,! ?9 film ( grease di/ribut$ ov] ! surface ( ! fibres r5d]s !m supple1 & to "s ext5t wat]pro(4 ,! light] fancy lea!rs1 su* z morocco1 are dy$1 & und]go _m complex processes to fit !m = _! requir$ purposes & improve _! appe>ance4 ,_m sk9s su* z calf1 glove1 & glac kid1 are n tann$1 b 8taw$0 by a solution ( alum & salt1 :i* is (t5 supplem5t$ ) mixtures ( fl\r & egg-yolk to fill & s(t5 ! lea!r4 ,salts ( *romium are also employ$ 9 place ( alum & salt1 & produce an equally s(t1 b m p]man5t & endur+ lea!r4 ,la/ly1 wa%-lea!r1 or s-call$ 8*amois10 & buff-lea!r are produc$ by full+ ! prep>$ pelt ) fi% or :ale oil1 :i* conv]ts ! sk9 into lea!r by subsequ5t oxidation1 dur+ :i* aldehydes are evolv$4 ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,! ,,liv+ ,,cell4 ,! l>g] "p ( ! mat]ials employ$ 9 lea!r manufacture are organic 9 _! orig91 & ! sk9 itself is an organis$ /ructure1 :ile ! life-processes ( putrefaction & f]m5tation play a l>ge "p 9 ! tann]y4 ,"s k1 !re=e1 ( biological /ructures & processes is necess>y to a full und]/&+ ( mu* :i* foll[s1 & a few words are n out ( place ) reg>d to ! f\ndations ( life itself4 ,! bricks ( :i* all liv+ /ructures are built are ! liv+ 8cells0 & _! products1 & ^! fir/ elem5ts diff] little1 if at all1 :e!r ! life is animal or vegetable1 ! di/9ction be+ produc$ r by ! way 9 :i* !y are put toge!r1 ?an by diff]5ces 9 ! cells !mselves4 ,?is is s mu* ! case t x is (t5 difficult to decide 9 :i* ( ! two classes to place ! simple/ organisms1 s9ce mo/ ( ^! =ms are capable ( active movem5t1 & _! modes ( nutrition & reproduction are common to bo? k+doms4 ,9 its simple/ =m1 ! cell1 :e!r animal or vegetable1 is /rictly speak+ n a cell at all1 b consi/s m]ely ( a m9ute mass ( liv+ jelly or protoplasm4 ,su* is ! amba f\nd 9 wat] & damp soil1 su* are ! lymph-cells & :ite blood-corpuscles ( our bodies1 & su* also "s /ages at lea/ ( ! l[e/ =ms ( fungi1 l ! ?alium septicum :i* is sometimes f\nd on old tan-heaps z a crawl+ mass ( yell[ slime4 ,if a drop ( saliva be exam9$ ) ! microscope "u a cov]-glass1 ) "o-six? objective & small op5+ ( diaphragm1#c a few scatt]$ semi-transp>5t objects w be f\nd1 ( ! app>5t size ( a l5til or small pea1 & ( r\nd$ =m4 ,^! are lymph-corpuscles 7,fig4 #a74 ,_! cont5ts are full ( small granules1 & if !y be obs]v$ quickly1 or if ! slide be kept at ab\t ! w>m? ( ! body1 x w be notic$ t ^! are 9 con/ant /ream+ motion4 ,if ! w>m? c be kept con/ant1 :i* is difficult )\t special app>atus1 & ! cells c be obs]v$ f "t to "t1 x may be se5 t !y lose _! circul> =m1 & put out protub]ances 7pseudopodia1 8false feet07 "o ( :i* w gradually increase 9 bulk1 till x absorbs ! :ole cell1 :i* ?us crawls ab\t4 ,x w n[ readily be und]/ood h[ ^! cells w&] ?r\gh all ! tissues ( ! body1 pass+ ?r\gh ! smalle/ pores l ! fairy :o put h] f+] ?r\gh a keyhole1 & grew on ! o!r side till %e 0 all ?r\gh6 ,?is indep5d5t vitality1 9 a w>m & suitable nutri5t liquid1 may cont9ue = m ?an a week1 &1 9 ! case ( amba1 q indef9itely4 #c ,= details ( microscopic manipulation 9 ?is & ! foll[+ *apt] see ,l4,i4,l4,b41 p4 #bcd et seq4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #a4--,lymph-corpuscle ( frog1 %[+ gradual *ange ( =m4 7,ranvi]47 ,x is possible t by close att5tion1 a r\nd$ or elongat$ body1 some:at l an oil-globule1 may be se5 )9 ! cell1 ?\gh x is g5]ally m obvi\s :5 ! latt] has be5 kill$ & /a9$ ) a weak solution ( iod9e4 ,?is is ! nucleus1 & )9 x is a /ill small] speck call$ ! nucleolus1 :i* be>s an important1 & z yet little und]/ood1 "p 9 ! life-hi/ory ( ! cell4 ,aft] a p]iod1 x und]goes c]ta9 some:at complicat$ *anges1 & divides into two1 ! nucleus elongates1 & also divides1 ea* half c>ry+ ) x a portion ( ! liv+ protoplasmic jelly1 & ?us =m+ two complete & indep5d5t cells4 ,?is is ! life-hi/ory1 n only ( ! lymph-cell1 b ) m or less modification1 ( e liv+ cell or tissue4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #b4--,yea/-cells1 mu* magnifi$4 ,^! cells1 l all liv+ ?+s1 fe$ on ! nutrim5t :i* surr\nds !m1 & ev5 enclose small p>ticles ( solid food1 :i* are gradually dissolv$ & disappe>4 ,9 ?is way ! :ite blood-corpuscles are said to fe$ ^u & de/roy ! /ill small] organisms :i* ga9 access to ! blood1 & :i* might o!rwise cause disease4 ,! matt] :i* cells consume is n1 ( c\rse1 de/roy$1 b simply conv]t$ into o!r =ms1 "s ( :i* are useless1 or ev5 poison\s to ! cells1 & :i*1 l ! secretions ( high] animals1 are dis*>g$ into ! surr\nd+ fluids2 :ile o!rs are reta9$1 & contribute to ! gr[? ( ! cell4 ,?us mo/ vegetable cells secrete cellulose1 or plant-tissue1 :i* =ms a wall enclos+ ! protoplasm1 & s ju/ifies ! "n ( cell4 ,if to w>m wat] & a little sug> we add en\gh yea/ to r5d] x slightly milky1 & exam9e x l ! saliva1 we %all h be=e u typical vegetable cells ( ! simple/ =m 7,fig4 #b74 ,!re is ! same granul> protoplasm1 & !re is ! nucleus1 ?\gh x _c be se5 )\t special prep>ation1 ! r\nd$ spaces :i* look l "o1 be+ simply fill$ ) transp>5t fluid1 & call$ vacuoles4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 no motion1 z 9 ! case ( amba1 = ! cells are enclos$ 9 a t\gh sk9 ( cellulose1 :i* w be evid5t if !y are cru%$ by putt+ "s folds ( blott+ pap] on ! cov]-glass1 & press+ x ) ! h&le ( a ne$le or a r\nd$ glass rod1 :5 ! protoplasm w be =c$ out & ! sk9 rema9 l a bur/ bladd]4 ,?is w be m obvi\s if ! cells are previ\sly /a9$ ) iod9e or mag5ta1 :i* w /a9 ! protoplasm1 b n ! membrane4 ,x is easy to obs]ve ! multiplication ( ! yea/-cells1 :i* is some:at diff]5t to t ( ! corpuscles4 ,in/ead ( enl>g+ z a :ole1 & divid+ into two equal cells1 a small bud appe>s on ! side ( ! p>5t-cell1 & enl>ges till x becomes itself a p>5t-cell ) buds ( its own4 ,^! d n break away at once1 & h5ce *a9s & gr\ps ( atta*$ cells are =m$ :i* are easily notic$ 9 gr[+ yea/ if a microscope be employ$4 ,! pr9cipal nutrim5t ( yea/ is grape-sug> or glucose2 & mu* m ( ?is is consum$ ?an is ne$$ to produce ! cellulose wall & ! sub/ance ( new cells2 j z 9 ! animal1 sug>1 />* & fat are consum$ to give heat & en]gy4 ,9 ! yea/1 ?is extra sug> is split up into c>bon dioxide1 :i* escapes z gas1 & to :i* yea/ owes its p[] ( rais+ bread2 & into alcohol1 :i* 9 too l>ge proportion is poison\s to ! yea/ itself4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #c4--;,epi!lium-cells4 ,ranvi]4 p1 pressure-m>ks2 g1 granul> protoplasm4 ,9 exam9+ ! saliva = lymph-cells1 x is probable t "s mu* l>g] objects may h be5 notic$ ( irregul> polygonal outl9e & ) a well-m>k$ nucleus4 ,^! are cells f ! l9+ epi!lium ( ! m\?1 & only diff] f ^? ( ! epid]mis ( sk9 9 _! =m & size 7,fig4 #c74 ,note ! m>k+s caus$ by ! pressure ( ov]lapp+ cells4 ,9 ^! cells ! wall is =m$ ( k]at9 or horny tissue1 :i* takes ! place ( ! cellulose ( ! yea/4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #d4--,p5icillium glaucum1 a common gre5 m\ld4 ,o!r simple =ms ( cell are ^? ( ,sac*>omyces mycod]ma or torula :i* =ms a sk9 on ! surface ( old liquors1 & :i* mu* resembles a small yea/2 & ( ! v>i\s f]m5ts :i* are f\nd 9 liquors1 bates & dr5*es1 :i* w be m fully describ$ 9 ! *apt] foll[+4 ,_m ( ^!1 su* z ! acetic & lactic f]m5ts1 :i*1 l all o!r bact]ia1 multiply by division1 d n sep>ate1 b rema9 connect$ 9 *a9s or *aplets1 l a /r+ ( beads4 ,f ^!1 ! /ep is n a long "o to ! hyph or /ems ( ! high] m\lds1 :i* are too frequ5tly f\nd on lea!r :i* has be5 sl[ly dri$1 & :i* consi/ simply ( tubul> cells :i* elongate & divide by ! =mation ( septa or cross-p>titions1 & ?us build up a complicat$ plant-/ructure 7,fig4 #d74 ,z we proce$ high] 9 ! scale ( plant & animal life1 ! =ms & products ( ! cells become m v>i$1 & in/ead ( "o s+le cell1 fulfill+ all ! functions ( ! plant or animal1 ea* class ( cell has its own peculi> duties & prop]ties1 :ile all "w toge!r = ! ma9t5ance ( ! complex /ructure ( :i* !y =m a "p4 ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,,putrefaction ,,& ,,f]m5tation4 ,! *emical *anges produc$ by ! unicellul> plants1 su* z yea/s & bact]ia1 to :i* allusion has be5 made 9 ! la/ *apt]1 are kn[n z f]m5tation & putrefaction1 & are ( su* importance to ! tann]1 bo? = good & evil1 t ! subject mu/ be treat$ 9 "s detail4 ,no sci5tific di/9ction exi/s betwe5 f]m5tation & putrefaction1 ?\gh x is cu/om>y to re/rict ! latt] t]m to ^? decompositions ( nitrog5\s animal matt] :i* yield products ( disagreeable smell & ta/e4 ,! organisms :i* are ! cause ( bo? f]m5tation & putrefaction are kn[n by ! g5]al t]m ( 8f]m5ts40 ,?is t]m has also be5 ext5d$ 9 rec5t ye>s s z to include ! s-call$ 8unorganis$ f]m5ts0 7enzymes1 zymases7 :i* are active products secret$ by ! 8organis$ f]m5ts0 or liv+ organisms4 ,^! latt] are aga9 divid$ into ?ree classes3-- #a4 ,m\lds4 #b4 ,yea/s 7,sac*>omycetes74 #c4 ,bact]ia4 ,! memb]s ( "o class are di/+ui%$ f ^? ( ano!r by _! =m1 &1 m especially1 by ! sub/ances !y produce dur+ _! life-hi/ory4 ,all ?ree classes are n[ consid]$ to be fungi4 ,all f]m5ts possess ! foll[+ ?ree prop]ties3-- #a4 ,!y are nitrog5\s bodies4 #b4 ,!y are un/able1 i4e4 !y are de/roy$ by heat1 *emicals1 etc4 #c4 ,a relatively small quantity ( ! f]m5t is capable ( produc+ great *anges 9 ! sub/ances ^u :i* x acts1 especially if ! products ( ! *ange c be remov$ z !y are =m$4 ,! g5]al "* ( f]m5tation w be be/ und]/ood by a clos] /udy ( ! yea/ cell1 :i* has already be5 describ$ 7p4 #ab71 & its life-hi/ory briefly sket*$4 ,x has be5 %[n t x is a gr[+ plant ( a v simple type1 belong+ to ! fungi4 ,^! are devoid ( ! gre5 col\r+ matt] :i* enables ! high] plants to utilise ! en]gy ( sunlight to assimilate ! c>bonic acid ( ! atmosph]e1 exhal+ its oxyg51 & employ+ its c>bon = ! build+ up ( tissue2 & !y mu/ !re=e1 l animals1 h _! nutrim5t ready =m$1 & capable ( supply+ en]gy by its oxidation4 ,= yea/1 z has be5 /at$1 ! appropriate n\ri%m5t is glucose1 or 8grape-sug>40 ,?is is brok5 d[n1 9 ! ma91 into ! simpl] comp\nds1 alcohol & c>bonic acid1 :ile a small portion is utilis$ = ! build+ up ( ! cell & ! =mation ( second>y products4 ,! ma9 reaction is repres5t$ by ! foll[+ equation3 ,c,h,o #b;,c,h,o #b;,,co ,glucose ,alcohol ,c>bon dioxide ,yea/ _c directly f]m5t ord9>y cane-sug> 7,c,h,o71 b secretes a sub/ance call$ inv]tase1 :i* s acts on ! sug> z to break x up1 ) absorption ( "o molecule ( wat]1 into two molecules ( f]m5table glucose 7dextrose & levulose7 :i* s]ve z n\ri%m5t = ! yea/4#d ,?is inv]tase is ! type ( ! s]ies ( bodies :i* are kn[n z 8unorganis$ f]m5ts10 enzymes1 or zymases1 diff]+ f ! organis$ f]m5ts 9 be+ simply *emical products )\t life or p[] ( reproduction1 b capable ( break+ up an unlimit$ quantity ( ! bodies on :i* !y act1 )\t !mselves suff]+ *ange4 ,! way 9 :i* ?is is done is n cle>ly und]/ood1 b "s p>allel may be f\nd to x 9 ! action ( sulphuric acid on alcohol1 ( :i* x w conv]t an unlimit$ quantity into e!r1 )\t itself suff]+ any p]man5t *ange4 ,! action ( enzymes is limit$ to break+ d[n complex bodies into simpl] =ms1 (t5 ) absorption ( wat]1 z 9 ! case ( sug>1 :ile "s ( ! products ( liv+ f]m5ts are (t5 complex1 a "p ( _! nutrim5t be+ brok5 d[n into simple products su* z c>bonic acid1 m>% gas & ammonia1 to supply ! necess>y en]gy to elaborate ! rema9d]4 #d ,comp>e ,o',sullivan & ,?ompson1 ,j\r4 ,*em4 ,soc41 #ahij1 p4 #hcd2 #ahia1 p4 #df4 ,v _m diff]5t unorganis$ f]m5ts are kn[n to exi/1 z !y are n only produc$ by yea/s & bact]ia1 b are =m$ by ! cells ( high] plants & animals2 ?us ! dige/ive pr9ciples1 peps91 tryps91 ptyal91 are ( ?is "*--ptyal91 l dia/ase1 conv]t+ />* into sug>2 & su* bodies fulfil _m functions bo? 9 animal & vegetable economy4 ,9 f]m5tation1 z 9 disease1 x is (t5 difficult to di/+ui% :at is due to ! direct action ( bact]ia1 & :at to ! unorganis$ f]m5ts :i* !y produce1 & ! "q is fur!r complicat$ by ! fact t 9 mo/ natural f]m5tations m ?an "o f]m5t-organism is pres5t4 ,sometimes ! action ( ! unorganis$ f]m5ts may be di/+ui%$ by ! fact t ! addition ( *lor(orm has little effect on _! activity :ile x p>alyses t ( ! liv+ organism4 ,by exposure to high temp]ature bo? are de/roy$1 ! bact]ia1 yea/s & m\lds be+ kill$ & ! unorganis$ f]m5ts coagulat$ l :ite ( egg1 & s r5d]$ inop]ative4 ,_m antiseptics also de/roy ! activity ( bo? organisms & enzymes2 b o!rs1 l *lor(orm1 h no action on ! latt]4 ,9 "s cases1 z 9 t ( inv]tase1 ! actual zymase c be precipitat$ by alcohol f its aque\s solution1 filt]$ (f1 & re/or$ to activity by transf]5ce into wat]4 ,s9ce bo? classes ( f]m5ts are de/roy$ by high temp]atures1 all f]m5tation-processes are completely & p]man5tly arre/$ by exposure to suffici5t heat1 & subsequ5t pres]vation 9 vessels s clos$ t no new f]m5t-g]ms c ga9 access4 ,a famili> in/ance is t ( t9n$ meats4 ,all fully develop$ bact]ia are de/roy$ by a v %ort exposure to a boil+ temp]ature1 & mo/ by #fj to #gj ,c41 b _m species produce spores :i* are extremely difficult to de/roy4 ,! !rmophilic bact]ia discov]$ by ,globig & fur!r inve/igat$ by ,rab9[its*1#e ?rive at a temp]ature ( #fj ,c4 ,ab\t eight species are kn[n1 & !y take "p 9 ! heat+ ( hay & simil> f]m5tations :]e high temp]atures are involv$1 & are !re=e presumably pres5t 9 sp5t tan4 #e ,c5tr4 ,blatt fr ,bakt41 ,,ii4 ,ab?4 vol4 i4 p4 #ehe4 ,= absolute /]ilisation x is !re=e necess>y ei!r to boil "u pressure s z to raise ! temp]ature to1 say #aaj ,c41 or to heat repeat$ly = a %ort "t to temp]atures ( #hj-ajj ,c4 at successive int]vals ( #bd h\rs1 9 ord] to all[ ! spores to develop4 ,?is process is frequ5tly p]=m$ = bact]iological obs]vation 9 flasks or te/-tubes m]ely /opp$ ) a plug ( /]ilis$ cotton-wool1 :i* has be5 f\nd to effici5tly filt] ! g]ms f ! air :i* ent]s ?r\gh x 7see ,l4,i4,l4,b41 p4 #bgj74 ,! f]m5t-organisms _c ?rive & multiply unless !y h prop] n\ri%m5t & conditions ( gr[?1 ! am\nt ( moi/ure & ! temp]ature be+ two ( ! mo/ important ( ! latt]4 ,use is made ( ?is 9 ! pres]vation ( _m articles ( food1 etc41 s9ce by ensur+ t at lea/ "o ( ! conditions necess>y = gr[? %all be abs5t1 ^! sub/ances are prev5t$ f decompos+4 ,= in/ance1 hides are pres]v$ by dry+ !m2 ! abs5ce ( suffici5t moi/ure h9d]+ ! gr[? ( any organisms 9 !m s long z !y are dry1 b z soon z !y become some:at damp1 putrefaction comm5ces at once4 ,! wa/e products ( organisms are (t5 poison\s to !mselves1 & = ?is reason f]m5tations frequ5tly come to an end be=e ! :ole ( ! sub/ance is f]m5t$4 ,?us nei!r be] nor v9eg> c be obta9$ ( m ?an a c]ta9 /r5g? by direct f]m5tation1 ! alcohol or acetic acid *eck+ ! gr[? ( _! respective f]m5ts4 ,a solution ( glucose 8set0 ) ! lactic f]m5t ( s\r milk w only produce lactic acid to ! ext5t ( ab\t half a p] c5t42 b if *alk be add$1 ! lactic acid w be neutralis$ z produc$1 & ! f]m5tation w g on till ! :ole ( ! glucose is conv]t$ into insoluble calcium lactate4#f ,:5 ?is is accompli%$ ! lactic f]m5t dies f want ( nutrim5t1 & its place is tak5 by ano!r organism1 ( :i* "s g]ms are sure to be pres5t1 :i* f]m5ts ! calcium lactate into calcium butyrate4 ,if ! n\ri%m5t fails1 or ! conditions become less fav\rable = "o f]m5t ?an = "s o!r :i* exi/s ev5 9 small quantity 9 a liquid1 ! =m] is quickly ov]gr[n & kill$1 & ! latt] takes its place4 ,?us ! ord9>y f]m5t ( ! bran dr5* w die out rapidly unless con/antly transf]r$ to fre% bran infusions4 #f ,= ! practical prep>ation ( lactic acid1 ! solution may conta9 #g-aa p] c5t4 ( glucose1 & "s nitrog5\s n\ri%m5t4 ,! solution %\ld be slightly acid4 ,see ,j\rn4 ,soc4 ,*4 ,ind41 #ahig1 p4 #eaf4 ,_m ( ! products ( bact]ia 7l ^? ( "s ( ! high] plants7 are int5sely poison\s bo? to animals & man4 ,_m ( ! sev]e symptoms ( disease are caus$ by ^! poisons produc$ 9 ! body4 ,?us ! tetanus-bact]ia produce a poison simil> 9 its effects to /ry*n9e1 & q z virul5t4 ,n only are su* poisons produc$ by disease-bact]ia 9 ! body1 b frequ5tly also 9 ! e>li] /ages ( putrefactive f]m5tation4 ,! latt] are kn[n z ptoma9es1 & :5 pres5t 9 *eese & pres]v$ foods are liable to cause poison+4 ,su* putrefactions are (t5 unaccompani$ by any disagreeable od\r or flav\r4 ,! f]m5tations :i* are mo/ important 9 ! tann]y are1 fir/ly1 ! ord9>y putrefaction :i* attacks hides z well z o!r animal matt]1 & :i* is usually a complicat$ process c>ri$ on by _m sorts ( bact]ia & o!r micro-organisms4 ,?is may be reg>d$ z g5]ally injuri\s to ! tann]2 b x is utilis$ 9 ! 8sweat+0 process = depilation & 9 ! 8/al+0 ( %eepsk9s1 9 bo? ( :i* advantage is tak5 ( ! fact t ! s(t muc\s lay] ( ! epid]mis1 :i* conta9s ! hair-roots1 putrefies m rapidly ?an ! fibr\s /ructure ( ! hide itself4 ,9 soak+ also1 use is made ( ! p[] ( putrefactive f]m5ts to dissolve ! cem5t+ sub/ance ( ! hide1 ?\gh 9 ?is case ) d\btful advantage to ! tann]4 ,9 ! lim+ process putrefaction makes itself felt :5 ! limes are all[$ to become /ale & *>g$ ) animal matt]1 s(t5+ ! hide & f9ally r5d]+ ! lea!r loose1 empty & incl9$ to 8pipe40 ,"h ! effect is 9 _m cases useful if n c>ri$ too f>4 ,9 bat+ & pu]+1 ! action is almo/ entirely due to ! enzymes & o!r products ( bact]ial activity1 ! orig9al *emical con/itu5ts ( ! dung be+ app>5tly ( m9or importance4 ,naturally ! liquid is adapt$ to ! gr[? ( _m o!r organisms beside ^? act+ mo/ advantage\sly on ! hide1 & injury 9 ! bates f wrong =ms ( putrefaction is v common1 if inde$ x is n always pres5t 9 great] or less degree4 ,9 dr5*+1 ! effect is1 at fir/1 entirely due to ! weak acids produc$ by bact]ial f]m5tation ( ! bran1 b becomes complicat$ 9 its lat] /ages by putrefactive & o!r f]m5tations :i* may be desirable or o!rwise4 ,9 ! tann+ liquors1 f]m5tation is n s m>k$1 b is ( great importance ow+ to ! production ( acids by bact]ial action f ! sug>s pres5t 9 ! mat]ial4 ,! acids !mselves are apt to be f]m5t$ & de/roy$1 pr9cipally by ! oxidis+ action ( ,sac*>omyces mycod]ma & ! high] m\lds 7see p4 #ad71 :i* also act de/ructively on ! tann9s4 ,! effect ( ^! acids on ! hides is to swell !m & to neutralise any lime !y may conta94 ,!y also give to ! liquors a *>act]i/ic s\r ta/e1 z a consequ5ce ( :i*1 liquors conta9+ acetic & lactic acids are usually kn[n 9 ! tann]y z 8s\r liquors40 ,x is d\btful :e!r ! action ( fungi is completely /ay$ ev5 by ! dry+ process4 ,! heat+ ( lea!r 9 ! %$s is due to bact]ia & ! high] m\lds1 & ,eitn] consid]s _! gr[? "o ( ! causes ( ! 8spue+0 or 8gumm+0 ( curri$ lea!rs4 ,f :at has be5 said1 x is obvi\s t1 ) reg>d to f]m5tations1 a d\ble problem is pres5t$ to ! lea!r manufactur]1 s9ce he desires to utilise ^? :i* make = 8 advantage1 :ile controll+ or de/roy+ ^? :i* are injuri\s4 ,! fir/ /ep to a solution ( ^! problems is a m complete k ( ! organisms :i* s]ve or injure u1 t we may1 z x 71 discrim9ate fri5ds & enemies4 ,we may !n approa* ! "q 9 two ways4 ,tak+ ! dr5*+ process z an example1 we may on ! "o h& introduce a 8pure cultivation0 ( ! "r f]m5t into a /]ilis$ bran infusion1 & s induce only ! "o f]m5tation :i* we require2 or1 on ! o!r h&1 z diff]5t f]m5ts are affect$ 9 v>y+ degrees by antiseptics1 we may p]haps *oose su* z p]mit ! gr[? ( ! organism we want1 :ile kill+ or disc\rag+ ! re/4 ,we may also arrange ! nutrim5t1 temp]ature1 degree ( acidity & o!r conditions1 s z to fav\r "o organism r ?an ano!r4 ,all ?ree me?ods h be5 appli$ 9 brew+ ) good results4 ,,*apt] ,v4 ,,antiseptics ,,& ,,dis9fectants4 8,antiseptics0 are (t5 def9$ z sub/ances :i* *eck putrefaction )\t necess>ily de/roy+ bact]ia & _! spores1 :ile 8dis9fectants0 are poison\s to f]m5t-organisms1 & actually de/roy !m2 great diff]5ces exi/ 9 ! ext5t ( _! /]ilis+ p[]1 & ! :ole di/9ction is "o r ( degree ?an ( k9d1 & has little practical value4 ,?us common salt is incapable ( kill+ mo/ bact]ia1 ev5 9 conc5trat$ solution1 ?\gh x holds putrefaction 9 *eck bo? by )draw+ wat] f ! hide & by directly prev5t+ ! multiplication ( bact]ia4 ,if ! salt be wa%$ out ( ! hide1 putrefaction is at once resum$ by ! organisms pres5t4 ,hides1 on ! o!r h&1 :i* h once be5 /]ilis$ by p[]ful dis9fectants1 su* z ph5ol 78c>bolic acid07 or m]curic *loride1 d n aga9 putrefy till ! organisms :i* are kill$ are replac$ by fre% ones f outside4 ,! action ( sodium sulphate1 & _m o!r salts1 is simil> to common salt 9 ?is respect1 :ile a l>ge proportion ( ! aromatic comp\nds are p]man5tly dis9fectant1 ?\gh _! effici5cy v>ies ) ! species ( bact]ia involv$4 ,bi]nacki & o!rs h %[n t "s dis9fectants :5 extremely dilut$ actually /imulate alcoholic f]m5tation1 & probably ! gr[? ( o!r f]m5ts1 e4g4 m]curic *loride #a 9 #cjj1jjj1 salicylic acid #a 9 #fjjj1 & boric acid #a 9 #hjjj1 & 9 _m cases organisms become habituat$ to antiseptics 9 doses :i* w\ld at fir/ h prov$ fatal4 ,! numb] ( antiseptics available is n[ s great t x is impossible to give a detail$ acc\nt ( all1 b ! foll[+ are among ^? :i* are be/ kn[n & h be5 practically employ$4 ,lime possesses "s antiseptic prop]ties1 & is l>gely us$ 9 ! pres]vation ( fle%+s be=e !y are s5t (f to ! glue factory4 ,!y are mo/ conv5i5tly /or$ 9 a l>ge vat fill$ ) a /rong milk ( lime4 ,dilute solutions ( cau/ic alkalies h an effect simil> to t ( lime4 ,common salt1 sodium *loride1 ,na,cl1 acts to a c]ta9 ext5t by its solubility & a dehydrat+ effect on animal tissues common to *lorides1 :i* removes wat] f hides & o!r mat]ials :i* x is us$ to pres]ve4 ,probably ! latt] *>act]i/ic has a good deal to d ) its effect 9 *eck+ ! developm5t ( bact]ia1 s9ce _m species ?rive q well 9 weak salt solutions1 & "s ev5 9 br9e1 & ! dehydrat+ effect ( ! salt enables x to h>d5 _m animal tissues if us$ 9 suffici5t quantity1 ! wat] !y conta9 runn+ away 9 ! =m ( br9e4 ,ord9>y rock salt frequ5tly conta9s f]ric *loride1 & ?is1 ei!r orig9ally pres5t 9 ! salt1 or 9 "s cases d]iv$ f ! action ( ! latt] ^u ! iron conta9$ 9 ! blood1 is ! cause ( :at is kn[n z 8salt-/a9s40 ,^! %[ b little dur+ ! lim+ ( ! hides1 unless sulphides are us$1 :5 /a9s appe> ( a gre5i% black1 f ! =mation ( sulphide ( iron2 :51 h[ev]1 ! hides come into ! tann+ liquors1 black or blue /a9s are produc$ by ! action ( ! tann91 :i* are p>tially remov$ by ! acids ( ! liquors dur+ ! tann+ process1 b g5]ally %[ to "s ext5t 9 ! f9i%$ hide4 ,!re is ano!r species ( salt-/a91 n app>5tly due to iron1 b to ! col\r+ matt] produc$ by "s fungoid or bact]ial gr[?1 :i* x is practically impossible to remove1 & :i* is /at$ to be sometimes caus$ by ! use ( old salt ) :i* hides h be5 previ\sly salt$4 ,iron /a9s are mo/ readily recognis$ by ! use ( a solution ( potassium f]rocyanide or ?iocyanate slightly acidifi$ by hydro*loric acid4 ,if ?is be appli$ to ! lea!r1 ! /a9s w be *ang$ f a blacki% to a blue1 if ! =m]1 or a r$ col\r if ! latt] salt has be5 us$4 ,a m absolutely conclusive pro( is to lay a piece ( filt] pap] soak$ 9 dilute hydro*loric acid ^u ! /a91 & !n to te/ = iron ^u ! pap] ) f]rocyanide or ?iocyanate4 ,! fre$om ( ! pap] itself f iron mu/ be asc]ta9$ be=e use4 ,iron-/a9s produc$ 9 ! salt$ /ate are m difficult to dis*>ge ?an ^? :i* are caus$ lat] 9 ! tann+ process1 s9ce iron salts h di/9ct tann+ p[]1 & atta* !mselves firmly to ! untann$ fibre4 ,on ! ,cont95t1 :]e common salt is heavily tax$1 alum1 c>bolic acid1 naph?al5e & o!r mat]ials are frequ5tly add$ to x to 8d5aturise10 or r5d] x incapable ( be+ us$ z food1 & ^! additions are (t5 ! cause ( tr\ble to ! tann]4 ,sodium sulphate1 ,na,,s1 has little if any dis9fectant p[] 9 dilute solution1 b if us$ 9 ! calc9$ =m 7anhydr\s sodium sulphate7 z propos$ by ,eitn]#g z a sub/itute = common salt 9 pres]v+ hides1 x )draws wat] f ! hide & cry/allises ) #aj ,aq 7ab\t #ef p] c5t474 ,?is does n run away l br9e1 b rema9s 9 ! hide1 :i* reta9s its weight1 & rema9s plump & swells well 9 ! limes & liquors1 :i* *lorides h a great t5d5cy to prev5t2 #aj-ae p] c5t4 on ! weight ( ! hide is suffici5t1 :ile salt mu/ be us$ 9 ne>ly d\ble ?is quantity4 ,c>e mu/ be tak5 t ! sulphate us$ is free f bisulphate1 ,na,h,s,o1 :i* has a p[]ful swell+ effect ^u ! hide-fibre1 l sulphuric acid4 ,! neutral sulphate does n r$d5 me?yl orange or litmus4 ,pickl$ skiv]s may be 9 "p pres]v$ by ! sodium sulphate =m$ by ! action ( sulphuric acid ^u ! salt employ$ 9 ! pickl+ ba? 7see p4 #ij74 #g ,g]b]1 #ahhj1 p4 #ahe4 ,! /rong] m9]al acids h consid]able antiseptic p[]1 & are ( c\rse especially fatal to su* f]m5ts z ?rive be/ 9 alkal9e solutions4 ,! use ( sulphuric acid 9 pickl+ skiv]s has already be5 allud$ to1 & a v dilute solution appli$ )\t salt to raw hides prev5ts putrefaction1 ?\gh ! pr9cipal object 9 us+ x is to plump ! hides & produce a fictiti\s weight & sub/ance :i* disappe> on tann+4 ,su* hides ( c\rse h a p[]ful acid reaction to litmus4 ,sulphuric acid 9 small quantities has be5 us$ ) advantage 9 soak+ ,e4,i4 kips4 ,a v small excess ( hydro*loric acid w /]ilise putrid efflu5ts1 & no d\bt nitric or sulphuric acid w\ld h ! same effect4 ,! p[]ful effect ( m9]al acids on animal fibre1 & _! solv5t action on cem5ts & iron1 preclude h[ev]1 _! g5]al use z antiseptics4 ,m important is ! use ( sulphur\s acid & sulphur dioxide1 :i*1 f _! mild acidity & great antiseptic p[]s1 are capable ( a v>iety ( useful applications4 ,consid]able d\bt has be5 rais$ z to ! g]micide p[] ( sulphur dioxide1 & x is c]ta9 t ! dry gas is less effective on dry objects ?an :5 appli$ 9 solution1 or to moi/ mat]ials1 z is almo/ inv>iably ! case 9 ! tann]y4 ,x may possibly be m effici5t 9 its action on "s m\lds & putrefaction-f]m5ts ?an on ! pa?og5ic bact]ia :i* h be5 mo/ frequ5tly us$ to te/ ! p[] ( dis9fectants2 b 9 practice x is f\nd extremely useful 9 ! brew]y & 9 gelat9e manufacture1 & !re is no reason t x %\ld be less s 9 ! tann]y4 ,! gas is mo/ conv5i5tly produc$ by burn+ sulphur1 :i* produces d\ble its weight ( sulphur dioxide4 ,if us$ = 8/ov+0 dry+ rooms & o!r places infe/$ ) m\lds1 c>e mu/ be tak5 to avoid risk ( fire4 ,a %all[ ca/-iron pot set on bricks or s& is g5]ally ! mo/ suitable vessel1 & ! sulphur may be ignit$ by a piece ( r$-hot iron or a rag :i* has be5 previ\sly dipp$ 9 melt$ sulphur4 ,x is corrosive to metalwork1 & blea*es _m col\rs1 b does n produce any m>k$ injuri\s effect on lea!r1 ?\gh ! sulphuric acid =m$ by oxidation may1 if n remov$1 ultimately make x t5d]4 ,= _m purposes a solution ( ! gas is requir$1 & ?is is mo/ easily made by burn+ ! sulphur 9 a small metal or firebrick /ove f :i* ! fumes are suck$ ?r\gh a 8scrubb]10 :i*1 on a small scale1 is conv5i5tly made ( l>ge glaz$ sanit>y pipes1 pack$ ) coke or brok5 e>!nw>e1 ov] :i* wat] is all[$ to trickle4 ,! l[e/ pipe has an op5+ = a bran* pipe1 :i* is connect$ ) ! /ove & re/s on ?ree bricks 9 a tub1 :i* collects ! acid solution & =ms a wat]-seal to prev5t ! escape ( gas4 ,above ! inlet = ! gases is fix$ a wood5 grat+ on :i* ! coke re/s4 ,! scrubb] may be #aj-ae feet 9 height & connect$ at ! top ) a *imney or /eam ejector to produce ! draught4 ,! arrangem5t is illu/rat$ 9 ,fig4 #e4 ,ano!r me?od is to burn ! sulphur 9 a clos$ cyl9d] & to =ce ! products ?r\gh wat] ) an air-compressor or /eam-jet injector4 ,9 place ( us+ a scrubb]1 ! fumes may be bl[n by a /eam ejector direct into a tank4 ,?is is a v good arrangem5t = wa%+ & blea*+ hair1 etc41 b :]e l>ge quantities ( solution are requir$ is inf]ior to ! scrubb]4 ,ejectors ( h>d lead or regulus metal %\ld be us$1 & are less act$ on by ! dry gases ?an by ! v dilute moi/ exhau/ f ! scrubb] 7see p4 #cce74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #e--,sulphur\s acid app>atus4 ,bisulphites h also /rong antiseptic prop]ties4 8,bisulphite ( soda0 7hydric sodic sulphite7 solution may be made by supply+ ! scrubb] ) solution ( soda-a% or wa%+ soda2 bisulphite ( lime1 by us+ milk ( lime or pack+ ! scrubb] ) *alk or lime/one 7free f mu* iron7 9 place ( ! coke4 ,9 ei!r case a mu* /rong] solution is obta9$ ?an ) wat] alone4 ,boakes' 8metabisulphite ( soda0#h is a v conv5i5t s\rce ( sulphur\s acid :5 ! latt] is want$ 9 small quantities4 ,x is an anhydrosulphite1 ,na,o4#b7,,s71 & conta9s #fgd p] c5t4 ( its weight ( ,,s4 ,"o molecule ( ! salt 7 #aij7 requires "o molecule ( ,h,,s 7 #ih7 to set free ! :ole ( ! sulphur\s acid4 ,= _m purposes ! sulphate ( soda =m$ may be neglect$ & ! acidifi$ solution us$ direct4 #h ,pat5t$ by ,boakes1 ,ltd41 ,/rat=d1 ,london1 ,e4 ,= analysis ( sulphites & sulphur\s acid solution1 see ,l4,i4,l4,b41 pp4 #af & #cg4 ,boric acid1 borax & o!r borates are n v p[]ful dis9fectants4 ,!y h no injuri\s action ^u ! sk91 b to be effective require to be employ$ 9 pretty /rong solutions1 say #a p] c5t41 & _! comp>atively high co/ unfits !m = g5]al use z antiseptics 9 ! tann]y1 ?\gh boric 7boracic7 acid is v useful z a dr5*+ & delim+ ag5t 7see pp4 #aef1 #bbi1 & ,l4,i4,l4,b41 p4 #cg74 ,m]curic *loride1 corrosive sublimate1 ,hg,cl1 is an extremely p[]ful antiseptic1 prev5t+ ! gr[? ( "s species ( bact]ia 9 solutions s dilute z #a 9 #cjj1jjj 7,ko*74 #a 9 #ad1jjj is dis9fectant 7,miquel71 b its p[] v>ies v mu* ^u diff]5t organisms 7,jrg5s5 /ates t #a 9 #djj is requir$ to kill ,p5icillium glaucum71 & x is unsuit$ = mo/ purposes 9 lea!r manufacture1 bo? f its extremely poison\s "*1 & because x is r5d]$ inactive by v>i\s sub/ances pres5t 9 ! mat]ials us$4 ,m]curic iodide dissolv$ 9 iodide ( potassium solution 0 pat5t$ by ,messrs4 ,coll9 & ,b5oi/ z an antiseptic 9 tann+1 b x is ineffective = ! same reasons z m]curic *loride2 al?\gh "u fav\rable circum/ances x is ev5 m p[]ful ?an ! latt]4 ,copp] sulphate1 z9c *loride & sulphate1 & _m o!r metallic salts are p[]ful antiseptics1 b h only a limit$ application 9 lea!r indu/ries1 & d n usually actually /]ilise4 ,ars5ic 7ars5i\s acid71 :i* has be5 us$ 9 cur+ hides1 is an excell5t insecticide1 b n p>ticul>ly effective z an antiseptic2 & sulphide ( ars5ic 7realg>7 :5 us$ 9 limes 7see p4 #aci7 seems to h b little antiseptic effect4 ,ars5i\s acid is easily soluble 9 alkal9e solutions4 ,fluorides h be5 sugge/$ z antiseptics 9 ! tann]y1 b d n seem ( mu* practical value4 ,! mo/ important antiseptics at pres5t are ^? d]iv$ f coal t>1 & belong+ to ! aromatic s]ies4 ,( ^!1 ! ph5ols 7c>bolic acid1 cresol1 etc47 are ! mo/ us$4 ,pure ph5ol1 8pure cry/allis$ c>bolic acid10 is hydroxyb5z5e ,c,h7,,oh71 b ! crude =ms :i* are g5]ally employ$ conta9 cresols & high] memb]s ( ! s]ies 9 :i* "o or m ( ! atoms ( hydrog5 are sub/itut$ by ,,* gr\ps4 ,^! are oily bodies sc>cely soluble 9 wat]1 & ev5 pure ph5ol is only soluble 9 cold wat] to ! ext5t ( "s #g p] c5t4 ,crude c>bolic acid %\ld n be employ$ 9 ! tann]y1 s9ce ! insoluble oily p>ticles /a9 ! hide1 & r5d] x unsusceptible ( tann+4 ,suitable c>bolic acid %\ld be ( a pale yell[ col\r :5 fre% 7?\gh x w d>k5 on exposure to air & light71 & x %\ld be :olly soluble 9 a suffici5t quantity ( wat]4 ,its specific gravity %\ld be #ajej to #ajfe4 ,= me?ods ( *emical exam9ation1 see ,l4,i4,l4,b41 p4 #dj4 ,a saturat$ solution ( c>bolic acid /]ilises hide completely aga9/ mo/ putrefactive organisms1 b has a sort ( tann+ effect1 adh]+ ob/9ately to ! fibre s t x _c be remov$ by wa%+2 & hides :i* h be5 cur$ ) x _c be unhair$ by sweat+1 ?\gh !y may be lim$ 9 ! usual mann]1 if some:at m sl[ly4 ,c>e %\ld be tak5 9 mix+ ) wat] or liquor1 z undissolv$ drops w produce ! same effects z ^? ( ! crude acid4 ,hides are occasionally /a9$1 z has j be5 describ$1 by salt :i* has be5 d5aturis$ ) common sorts ( c>bolic acid4 ,eitn] recomm5ds ! use ( a solution ( c>bolic acid 9 an equal weight ( crude glyc]9e1 :i* readily dissolves 9 wat]1 & seems to prev5t any injuri\s effect on ! hide4 ,an aque\s solution conta9+ #a p] c5t4 ( c>bolic acid is suffici5t = m]e /]ilis+ ( hides1 b if x be desir$ to pres]ve !m = a long p]iod1 /rong] solutions 7up to #d p] c5t47 may be employ$4#i #i ,g]b]1 #ahhi1 p4 #ih4 ,quantities s small z #a "p p] #ajjj control ! f]m5tation ( liquors1 & prev5t ! =mation ( m\lds on ! surface1 economis+ tann91 & pres]v+ vegetable acids already pres5t1 b at ! same "t less5+ _! production by f]m5tation1 & !re=e sometimes lead+ to difficulties 9 ! e>ly /ages ( tann+4 ,c>bolic acid is n1 /rictly speak+1 an acid1 b r ( ! nature ( an alcohol1 al?\gh x =ms weak comb9ations ) bases4 ,x is a p[]ful n>cotic poison1 & if dropp$ on ! sk9 9 a conc5trat$ =m x produces sev]e burns2 ^! are be/ treat$ ) oil1 :ile 9 cases ( poison+1 oil & *alk mu/ be adm9i/]$ int]nally1 b if ! quantity ( c>bolic acid tak5 has be5 l>ge1 are n likely to be effective4 ,f its *eapness & effici5cy1 c>bolic acid is likely to be increas+ly us$1 al?\gh = special uses "s ( ! new] antiseptics h great advantages4 ,eud]m9 is a t>-oil manufactur$ by ,spey] & ,grund1 ( ,frank=t-on-,ma91 :i* is int5d$ z an antiseptic addition to /uff+ greases to prev5t m\ld & spue+4 ,x is recomm5d$ = ! purpose by ,eitn]#aj & c be us$ 9 proportions su* z #aj p] c5t4 ( ! grease4 ,creasotes & cresols c be dissolv$ 9 oils & /uff+ greases1 & act z antiseptics1 ?\gh less p[]fully ?an 9 aque\s solution4 ,ros9 oils & turp5t9e h also antiseptic prop]ties4 #aj ,ibid41 #ahic1 p4 #da4 ,creasote1 8heavy coal oil10 or 8dead oil10 is a complex mixture ( hydroc>bons1 ph5ols & cresols1 obta9$ by di/illation ( coal t>1 heavi] ?an wat]1 & almo/ insoluble 9 x4 ,x is l>gely us$ z a pres]vative = timb]4 ,c>bol9eum is an oil ( ?is class1 boil+ at ov] #cjj ,c41 & int5d$ = application to wood4 ,"o or m coats are appli$ to ! dry wood at a temp]ature ( #hj ,c4 ,! workman's h&s mu/ be protect$ by gloves1 z ! hot creasote raises pa9ful bli/]s4 ,eitn]#aa recomm5ds its use = pres]v+ pits1 po/s & o!r woodwork 9 tann]ies4 ,wood-creasote is a some:at simil> product obta9$ f wood-t>4 #aa ,g]b]1 #ahhi1 p4 #ahc4 ,! heavi] cresols are s little soluble 9 wat] z to be valueless 9 _! ord9>y =m z antiseptics1 b sev]al prep>ations are made "u ! names ( 8,creol910 8,jeye's fluid10 8,lysol10 8,izal10 8,soluble ph5yl10 etc41 9 :i* !y are treat$ ) additions ( soap or alkalies1 :i* cause !m to emulsify or dissolve 9 wat]1 g5]ally z milky liquids4 ,^! are p[]ful g]micides & h ! advantage ov] ph5ol ( be+ non-poison\s4 #ja to #je p] c5t4 solution ( creol9 w /]ilise hides aft] bat+ s t no putrefaction takes place 9 ! liquors4 ,mr4 ,j4 ,t4 ,wood specially recomm5ds creol9 = ! g5]al purposes ( ! tann]y1 dis9fect+ pits & tubs1 & = *eck+ ! action ( pu]s & dr5*es on goods :i* h gone a little too f>1 by ?r[+ !m into a #jb p] c5t4 solution4 ,salicylic acid1 or?ohydroxyb5zoic acid1 ,c,h,,oh7,,cooh71 is n[ artificially prep>$ f ph5ol4 ,x is mu* less poison\s ?an ! latt] & has no smell1 :i* makes x valuable = c]ta9 purposes1 b is too de> = mo/ te*nical applications4 ,_m bact]ia appe> to become gradually habituat$ to its action1 & ! same is true ( ph5ol to a less degree4 ,salicylic acid is closely relat$ to protocate*uic & gallic acids1 &1 l ^!1 gives a blacki% col\r ) iron salts4 ,x is freely soluble 9 hot wat]1 b v sp>+ly 9 cold4 ,! addition ( #a-b p>ts ( sodium phosphate1 sulphate1 or potassium nitrate to ea* "p ( salicylic acid greatly increases its solubility4 ,x seems mu* m p[]ful 9 prev5t+ ! developm5t ( bact]ia ?an c>bolic acid2 a solution ( #a "p ( salicylic acid 9 #fff ( wat] is said to be equal 9 ?is respect to #a "p ( c>bolic 9 #bjj4 ,b5zoic acid1 ,c,h,,cooh1 ?\gh n mu* employ$1 except 9 m$ic9e1 is a /ill m p[]ful dis9fectant1 & has ! advantage ( be+ non-poison\s to human be+s4 8,cresot9ic acid10 :i* is d]iv$ f ! cresols z salicylic acid is d]iv$ f ph5ol1 is m soluble ?an salicylic acid4 ,x is n v poison\s1 & a p[]ful dis9fectant4 ,9 a crude =m x has be5 introduc$ by ,hauff1 ( ,feu]ba*1 = bat+ or remov+ lime f hides4 ,?is x does v well1 ?\gh )\t ! s(t5+ action ( a true bate4 ,x has a t5d5cy to produce a p9ki% /a91 & 9 "s degree a sort ( tann+ ( ! fibre4 ,its price1 moreov]1 is r high = ext5sive te*nical use4 7,see also p4 #afb47 8,anticalcium0 is a m rec5t prep>ation introduc$ z a bate by ! same firm4#ab ,x is a solution ( mix$ sulphonic acids d]iv$ f cresols1 & has consid]able dis9fectant p[]s4 ,x removes lime v effectively1 b f its acid "* some:at swells ! sk94 ,x is us$ v successfully z a dr5* = ?9 sk9s 7p4 #afc74 #ab ,g]b]1 #ahie1 p4 #acc4 8,c4,t40 7coal-t>7 bate is a grey cry/all9e pa/y mass1 ) a t>ry smell1 & is *emically v simil> to anticalcium if n id5tical ) x4 ,naph?al5e sulphonic acid has /rong antiseptic prop]ties4 ,its use 9 bat+ has be5 pat5t$ by ,burns & ,cross4 7,see p4 #afc47 ,naph?ols1 ,c,h7,,oh74--,^! bodies1 :i* h ! same relation to naph?al5e z ! ph5ols to b5z5e1 are p[]ful antiseptics2 & naph?al5e itself appe>s to h antiseptic p[]1 & is occasionally us$ = d5aturis+ salt4 ,!re are two naph?ols1 v>y+ 9 ! position ( ! ,,oh gr\p 9 ! molecule1 & d5om9at$ & 1 ( :i* naph?ol is ! m p[]ful antiseptic & ! less poison\s1 ?\gh 1 be+ *eap]1 is ! common comm]cial article4 ,x is said t quantities s small z #ja-jd grams ( naph?ol p] lit] are suffici5t to prev5t ! developm5t ( microbes1 :ile ( naph?ol ab\t t5 times t quantity is requir$4 ,naph?ols are n v exp5sive1 b _! value is dim9i%$ by ! fact t !y are insoluble 9 wat]4 ,!y are soluble 9 alkal9e solutions1 b _! comp\nds ) bases are ( mu* l[] antiseptic value1 & ! same is true ( _! alcoholic solutions2 :5 an alcoholic solution is add$ to wat] ! naph?ol is precipitat$1 b if an addition ( soap or camphor be made to ! alcoholic solution1 ! naph?ol rema9s 9 a v f9ely divid$ condition1 if n dissolv$4 ,adopt+ ,eitn]'s sugge/ion ) reg>d to oxynaph?oic acid 7see bel[71 hides may no d\bt be /]ilis$ by treatm5t fir/ ) an alkal9e naph?ol solution1 & !n ) a v dilute acid to set ! naph?ol free4 8,hydronaph?ol10 tetra-hydro-naph?ol1 ,c,h,o1 is obta9$ by ! r$uction ( naph?ol by sodium 7,rideal74 ,x seems to be an excell5t dis9fectant4 ,oxynaph?oic acid1 hydroxynaph?oic acid1 ,c,h7,,oh7,,cooh1 :i* be>s ! same relation to naph?ol z salicylic acid does to ph5ol1 is *eap] ?an salicylic acid1 & said to be a m p[]ful antiseptic4 ,its salts h no antiseptic p[]4 ,9 its comm]cial =m x is a r$di% cry/all9e p[d]1 inodor\s1 b ) a burn+ ta/e1 & its du/ causes viol5t sneez+4 ,x is sc>cely soluble 9 wat]1 & is said to und]go "s *ange on keep+ :i* less5s its g]micide p[]2 x is readily soluble 9 alcohol1 & ! solution produces a milky fluid on mixture ) wat]4 ,su* a solution conta9+ #ae grams ( ! acid 9 #d lit]s ( wat]1 w /]ilise a hide4 ,eitn] recomm5ds#ac t x %\ld be dissolv$ 9 dilute soda solution1 & ! hides1 aft] soak+ 9 x1 pass$ ?r\gh wat] slightly acidifi$ ) hydro*loric acid1 z has be5 sugge/$ 9 ! case ( naph?ol2 ! me?od is also applicable to creosot9ic acid1 ! hides be+ p]man5tly /]ilis$ s t !y _c be unhair$ by sweat+1 ?\gh !y w lime 9 ! usual mann]4 #ac ,g]b]1 #ahhh1 p4 #aja2 #ahhi1 pp4 #ii et seq4 ,see also p4 #afc4 ,c>bon disulphide4--,moret has sugge/$ an aque\s solution ( ?is comp\nd z an antiseptic1 & x seems to h consid]able /]ilis+ p[]s1 b f its inflammability1 poison\s "*1 & unpleasant smell1 x is n likely to come l>gely into use4 ,=maldehyde1 ,,coh1 has rec5tly be5 introduc$ z an antiseptic 9 aque\s solution conta9+ #dj p] c5t4 ( =maldehyde toge!r ) a little =mic acid1 "u ! names ( 8=mal910 8=mol10 etc4 ,x seems to h great dis9fectant p[]s1 & may possibly be valuable 9 v>i\s processes ( lea!r manufacture z x becomes *eap]1 b has a curi\s h>d5+ tann+ effect on hide fibre & gelat9\s matt]s1 s t 9 v dilute solution x w produce lea!r4#ad ,! vap\r ( =maldehyde1 or ( its cond5sation-product p>a=m1 may be employ$ to h>d5 microscopic prep>ations4 #a "p ( =maldehyde1 & consequ5tly #b p>ts ( 8=mal90 9 #ab1jjj p>ts ( wat]1 is said to /]ilise1 & ?is proportion w\ld =m a good dis9fectant solution4 ,ev5 9 consid]ably l>g] proportion ?an ! above1 x does n appe> to be poison\s1 & ?us possesses ! bact]icidal p[] ( sublimate )\t ! latt]'s poison\s prop]ties4 ,=maldehyde has ano!r advantage ov] mo/1 if n all o!r antiseptics1 9 t x may be us$ z well 9 ! gase\s z 9 ! liquid /ate1 & on t acc\nt x is l>gely employ$ 9 ! dis9fection ( rooms or ( articles :i* w\ld be spoil$ if !y 7 to be wett$1 z ! gase\s =maldehyde1 ?\gh ?or\ghly dis9fect+ !m1 w n injure ! col\rs ( mat]ials ( ! mo/ delicate fabrics4 #ad ,g]b]1 #ahig1 p4 #fg2 ibid41 #ahii1 pp4 #aja1 #bje1 #bah4 ,on acc\nt ( its capability ( r5d]+ gelat9\s matt]s h>d & insoluble 9 wat]1 =maldehyde requires to be employ$ ) great c>e1 b #jb-jc p] c5t4 may be successfully us$ 9 admixture ) egg-album5 9 ! prep>ation ( 8season+0 9 ! f9i%+ ( morocco lea!r4 ,x is also us$ comm]cially to produce diff]5t v>ieties ( :ite lea!r = soldi]s' acc\trem5ts & simil> purposes 7p4 #chj74 ,tri=mol 7tri-oxyme?yl5e1 8p>a=m07 is a product ( ! polym]isation ( =maldehyde1 & is prep>$ by evaporat+ a solution ( ! latt] to dryness on ! wat]-ba?4 ,x is said to be m p[]ful ?an =mal9 9 its antiseptic prop]ties1 b has n ent]$ v l>gely into use z a dis9fectant1 ?\gh consid]able use is made ( x to 8fix0 bact]ia 9 gelat9 = bact]iological purposes4 ,camphor & ess5tial oils1 z well z oil ( turp5t9e1 h consid]able antiseptic p[]s1 & ! *eap] ess5tial oils su* z ^? ( w9t]-gre51 black bir*1 sassafras & anise$ are frequ5tly employ$1 especially 9 ,am]ica1 9 pres]v+ pa/es1 f9i%es & season+s1 & at ! same "t cov]+ (f5sive od\rs4 ,! od\r ( ess5tial oils becomes mu* m p[]ful z !y are dilut$1 & v small quantities suffice = ! purposes m5tion$4 ,bir*-t> oil1 su* z is us$ to give ! sc5t to ,russian lea!r 7p4 #cgb71 has consid]able antiseptic effect4 ,,*apt] ,,vi4 ,,! ,,orig9 ,,& ,,cur+ ,,( ,,hides ,,& ,,sk9s4 ,a consid]able proportion ( ! hides & sk9s us$ 9 lea!r manufacture are ^? ( animals kill$ by ! but*] = food1 & ^! are frequ5tly employ$ by ! tann] )\t any prelim9>y cur+4 ,dome/ic hides & sk9s are n[ g5]ally sold by auction 9 weekly m>kets 9 ! pr9cipal t[ns1 aft] sort+ & classification 9 weight & quality4#ae ,?is is 9 _m respects an improvem5t on ! old me?od ( pur*ase direct f ! but*]1 b x (t5 leads to delay 9 deliv]y1 & 9 hot wea!r hides suff] f putrefaction4 ,9 mo/ cases1 ! damage is n suffici5t s]i\sly to affect ! durability ( ! lea!r1 b ! delicate membrane ( ! 8gra90 is injur$1 & ! hide or sk9 unfitt$ = col\r$ lea!r1 or any purpose :]e small damages to appe>ance are important4 ,but*]s are adv]se to ! use ( salt1 because x )draws wat] f ! hide 9 ! =m ( br9e1 & s causes x to lose weight2 b mu* injury w\ld be sav$ by a light salt+1 & all hides or sk9s on :i* ! hair is 8slipp+0 %\ld be reg>d$ z damag$ = f9e lea!r manufacture4 #ae ,! weight ( ,engli% m>ket-hides z cr$it$ to ! but*] is usually m>k$ on ! edge ( ! butt ne> ! tail1 by cuts ) a knife1 ! mode ( num]ation be+ suffici5tly expla9$ by ,fig4 #f1 9 :i* cuts cross+ ! horizontal l9e ea* repres5t #bj lb41 t above x #aj lb41 :ile less am\nts are express$ 9 ,roman figures4 ,on ! ,cont95t weights are usually giv5 9 p\nds ( half a kilogramme 7#ej kilos #aaj lb4 ,engli%74 ,9 ,p>is ! m>k+ is on ! tail1 & is also %[n on ,fig4 #f4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #f4--,me?od ( m>k+ weight on hides2 #ig lb4 ,%eep-sk9s are n usually b\ght direct by ! tann]1 b by ! fellmong]1 :o removes ! wool2 & z ?is is usually ( mu* great] value ?an ! sk91 ! latt] is frequ5tly h&l$ v c>elessly1 & its quality sacrific$ = ! sake ( real or fanci$ improvem5t to ! wool4 ,9 v _m cases ! sk9 is 8sweat$0 or 8/al$0 by hang+ 9 a w>m & moi/ *amb]1 heavily *>g$ ) ammonia d]iv$ f ! putrefaction ( ! sk91 until ! wool is suffici5tly loos5$ to be 8pull$40 ,if ?is treatm5t is conduct$ ) extreme c>e ! sk9 may escape s]i\s injury1 b 9 mo/ cases ! gra9 is weak5$1 & ! f\ndation is laid ( damage1 :i* makes itself felt ?r\gh\t ! tann+ process4 ,= ! purposes ( ! tann]1 a mu* bett] way is to lime ! sk9s by pa9t+ ) ?ick limewa% on ! fle%-side1 & aft] fold+ ! sk9s d[n ! back1 fle%-side 91 to prev5t z mu* z possible ! access ( ! lime to ! wool1 to place !m 9 a pit1 & cov] !m ) wat]1 till ! wool is loos5$ by ! p5etration ( ! lime ?r\gh ! sk94 ,a /ill m satisfactory me?od1 & "o :i* is 9 g5]al use 9 ! ,am]ican /ocky>ds1 & to "s ext5t also 9 ,europe1 is to wa% ! sk9s 9 wat] to free !m f blood & dirt1 & !n1 lay+ !m 9 a wet condition1 fle% side up1 to pa9t !m ) a solution conta9+ ab\t #be p] c5t4 ( sulphide ( sodium1 ?ick5$ ) lime4 ,! sk9s1 z !y are pa9t$1 are d\bl$ d[n ! back1 fle%-side 91 & laid on a floor1 ov]lapp+ ea* o!r l tiles on a ro(1 = "s h\rs1 or ov]night1 till ! wool is suffici5tly loos5$ to pull1 aft] :i* ! pelts are lim$ & treat$ 9 ! ord9>y way4 ,z a g5]al rule ! ,engli% fellmong] keeps 8 sk9s 9 lime till !y are sold to ! tann]1 & z 9 small y>ds "s "t is tak5 to accumulate a p>cel1 ! e>li] sk9s may suff] great injury f ov]lim+4 ,ev5 sweet fre% limes dissolve ! cem5t+ sub/ance ( ! fibre1 & increase ! naturally loose texture ( ! %eep-sk91 b ! injury is mu* m consid]able :5 old & /ale limes1 *>g$ ) ammonia & bact]ial products1 are employ$1 z is frequ5tly ! case4 ,9 ! ,am]ican /ocky>ds ! sk9s are g5]ally lim$ only = ! necess>y "t to act ^u ! grease1 & to swell & diff]5tiate ! fibres1 & are !n at once pu]$1 dr5*$ & pres]v$ by 8pickl+40 ,= details ( 8pickl+0 see p4 #hi4 ,x is v probable t ! ,pullman process ( lim+ 7p4 #acg7 w\ld answ] well = fellmong]$ sk9s1 z goods w keep = a consid]able l5g? ( "t un9jur$ aft] treatm5t ) calcium *loride4 ,:]e hides or sk9s _c be us$ at once 9 ! fre% /ate1 !re is probably no bett] me?od ( pres]v+ !m ?an ! use ( salt4 ,al?\gh salt is n fatal to bact]ia1 x s sl[s bact]ial gr[?1 p>tly by its direct antiseptic effect on _m organisms1 & p>tly by )draw+ wat] f ! sk91 t well-salt$ sk9s c be kept 9 good condition = almo/ an unlimit$ "t4 ,:]e x is only requir$ to pres]ve goods = a week or two1 a mod]ate spr9kl+ on ! fle% side is effici5t1 b if !y are to be pres]v$ = any l5g? ( "t1 m ?or\gh treatm5t is necess>y4 ,x is said t h[ev] c>efully hides are salt$ !y det]iorate if kept 9 ?is condition above twelve mon?s4 ,! me?od ( salt+ employ$ 9 ! ,*icago /ocky>ds = 8pack]0 hides may be tak5 z a good type ( a ?or\gh salt+4 ,! hides are fir/ trimm$ f useless 8swit*es10 & any l>ge portions ( adh]+ fat are remov$4 ,! cur+ takes place 9 l>ge & cool cell>s1 ) concrete floors4 ,! detail is well giv5 9 ! foll[+ extract f ! #8,%oe & ,lea!r ,report]'3-- 8,great c>e is tak5 to make ! sides ( a pack high] ?an ! middle1 s t ! br9e :i* is made by ! juices ( ! hide com+ 9 contact ) ! salt w be reta9$4 ,! br9e c only escape by p]colation & h5ce ! fibre ( ! hides is ?or\ghly cur$4 ,! floor ( a hide cell> is usually ( concrete1 & a pack is f #ae to #bj feet long & z wide z ! space betwe5 ! po/s :i* support ! floor above4 ,! sides ( a pack are built fir/ to a height ( f #d to #f in*es2 ! cross lay]s are !n put on1 g5]ally ?ree on ea* side1 two be+ inside & "o hav+ ! butts drawn out to ! edge4 ,9 a pack #bj feet long1 ! side lay]s w conta9 ab\t #be m$ium-siz$ hides ea*1 & a cross-lay] #ab or #ad4 ,to beg9 a pack a truck-load ( hides is run along to ! front ( ! place select$1 "o spread] grasps ! butt & 8 p>tn] ! head ( a hide1 & toge!r !y c>ry x to :at is to be ! re> ( ! b$4 ,! hide is !n dropp$1 s t ! fold$ back is p>allel to & f #ae to #bj in*es f ! inside l9e ( ! po/s1 ! head a trifle clos] ?an ! butt4 ,! front man takes ! dewlap & front %ank 9 8 left h&1 & ext5ds 8 "r along ! belly ( ! hide z f> z is necess>y to raise ! edge1 ! re> man hold+ ! flank ) "o h& & ! h9d %ank ) ! o!r4 ,!y keep _! legs well out ( ! way ( ! salt ?r[]1 :o ) a s+le ?r[ cov]s ! :ole hide1 be+ p>ticul> t en\gh salt /rikes aga9/ ! edges held by ! m5 to make a pron\nc$ ridge :5 !y are lapp$ d[n4 ,a little salt is ?r[n on ! hair surface & ! butt fold$ ov] ab\t a foot4 ,! fold$ edge is !n drawn out ev5 ) ! out] l9e ( ! pack4 ,m hides are plac$ ! same way until ! corn] is high en\gh4 ,aft] ?is1 ea* hide is put fur!r =w>d to make a level surface f re> to front1 ! heads at ! front corn] be+ fold$ back z ! butts 7 at ! />t+ place4 ,! o!r side is built ! same way1 & !n ! cross lay]s are put on alt]nately until ! pack is level1 :5 sides are aga9 built z be=e4 ,9 putt+ on ! fir/ hides ( ! cross lay]s1 !y are ?r[n ov] ! edge1 to lap back aga9 :5 ! salt is ?r[n on2 ! lay] is !n cont9u$ on to ! front4 ,! spread] :o holds ! butt does ! guid+ 9 e case4 ,he drops ! butt d[n at exactly ! prop] place1 takes ! upp] flank & %ank 9 ea* h&1 sets "o foot on ! l[] %ank to keep x firm1 & ?r[s ! "o 9 8 h&s f him ) consid]able =ce4 ,! man at ! head wat*es 8 p>tn]1 keeps ! fold$ hide taut1 & drops x at ! same "t z ! latt]4 ,he takes ! =e-%ank at ! knee 9 ! "o h& & ! upp] head-piece 9 ! o!r1 & sett+ 8 foot on ! l[] side1 ?r[s ! upp] side =w>d simultane\sly ) ! re> man4 ,two exp]t spread]s1 accu/om$ to work+ toge!r1 spread a hide at a s+le ?r[1 b "s little /raight5+ has to be done by h& be=e ! hide is ready = ! salt4 ,a gang compos$ ( two spread]s1 "o salt ?r[] & a salt truck] put d[n =ty hides an h\r4 ,:5 gangs are d\bl$1 two m5 d all ! spread+2 ! o!r two place ! hides :]e !y c be got at conv5i5tly4 ,a d\ble gang put d[n eighty hides an h\r4 ,! salt truck] br+s ! salt to ! pack 9 box-trucks op5 at "o end to p]mit ! entrance ( a %ovel4 ,! salt ?r[] keeps ! edges & corn]s ( ! pack full ( salt4 ,he mu/ see t e "p ( ! fle%-side is well cov]$4 ,ea* hide takes two scoop %ovelfuls ( gr\nd rock or co>se :ite salt1 mix$ ) an equal quantity ( old or second salt4 ,! salt ?r[] ?r[s ! %ovel =w>d & to "o side & back aga9 ) a peculi> sw++ j]k1 caus+ ! salt to fall regul>ly ov] ! entire surface ( ! hide4 ,! ease & rapidity ) :i* a gang op]ates dep5ds greatly ^u ! effici5cy ( ! salt ?r[]4 ,:5 ! pack gets too high to be com=table = ! m51 x is br\ght to a dead level & cov]$ ov] ) clean salt4 ,x !n pres5ts a v neat & workmanlike appe>ance4 ,spread]s & salt ?r[]s receive #bj c5ts an h\r1 & truck]s get #ag c5ts4 ,:5 ! temp]ature is kept at an ev5 av]age1 two weeks is ample "t to cure ! hides4 8,9 #8tak+ up1' two m5 /rip ! hides f ! pack4 ,z !y 7 put d[n f ! re> to ! front1 !y are tak5 up 9 ! rev]se direction4 ,no matt] h[ mu* loose salt is ly+ on ! top1 ! man kn[s exactly :]e to place 8 h& on a %ank2 z ! hides are mov$ =w>d1 ! loose salt is ?r[n (f t[>d ! front4 ,"o man takes away ! salt z x accumulates & trucks x to ! salt b9s1 :]e x is mix$ ) new1 to be us$ aga94 ,a #8horse' made ( a network ( scantl+ ab\t #c feet wide by #f feet long1 & /&+ #b feet f ! floor1 is plac$ 9 front ( ! pack1 on ?is ! hides1 fle% side d[n1 are %ak5 to remove ! salt t is cl++ to !m4 ,?is process requires f\r m51 "o at ea* corn]4 ,! hide is br\ght d[n heavily on ! horse twice1 & !n spread on ! floor fle% side up = exam9ation by ! inspectors1 ( :i* !re are two1 "o repres5t+ ! h\se & ! o!r ! buy] ( ! hides4 ,!y sweep (f any salt t may be left1 & exam9e = cuts1 sores1 br&s1 manure & grubs4 ,!y also see t ! hide is prop]ly weigh$ & classifi$4 ,if ! contract calls = a special trim x is n[ done4 ,two m5 !n roll ! hide1 beg9n+ by lapp+ ov] ! %anks1 head & neck4 ,!n ! sides are fold$ ov] & lapp$ aga91 leav+ ! roll #ae to #ah in*es wide4 ,! ends are ?r[n inw>d1 slightly ov]lapp+ ea* o!r2 a f9al fold is !n giv51 & ! hide is ready to be ti$4 ,rope ! size ( clo!sl9e is us$ = ty+1 & is cut into l5g?s ( ab\t sev5 feet4 ,x takes ?ree m5 to tie = a gang su* z we h describ$4 ,aft] ty+1 ! neat bundles are weigh$ & load$ on ! c>s = %ipm5t4 ,a small t>e is all[$ ! buy]4 ,ord9>y workm5 9 hide cell>s get #ag c5ts an h\r1 & inspectors #be c5ts an h\r40 ,ab\t #be p] c5t4 ( salt on ! gre5 weight ( ! hide is requir$ = ?or\gh cur+4 ,rock salt m]ely cru%$ is frequ5tly employ$1 b ?is is v liable to conta9 iron 9 ! =m ( oxide & *loride1 :i* causes ! peculi> m>bl$ m>k+s kn[n z 8salt-/a9s40 ,x is !re=e mu* bett] to use a :ite cry/allis$ salt1 ?\gh x is possible ev5 9 ?is case t /a9s may arise f ! iron pres5t 9 ! blood4 ,"s salt-/a9s appe> also to be due to ! action ( pigm5t-bact]ia1 & n to conta9 iron4 ,a r$d5+ ( ! fle% side is (t5 notic$ 9 hides :i* h be5 kept 9 salt long or "u unsatisfactory conditions1 & is v frequ5t 9 wet-salt$ ,s\? ,am]ican hides4 ,su* hides are said nev] to produce s firm a lea!r z ^? :i* are s\nd4 ,hides are n unfrequ5tly cur$ by /eep+ 9 salt br9e1 in/ead ( /rew+ ) dry salt4 ,?is me?od is pr9cipally resort$ to 9 ord] to give fictiti\s weight4 ,br9$ hides d n plump well 9 tann+1 ! lea!r is n s good 9 quality z f ^? salt$ ) dry salt1 & ! cure is mu* less effici5t4 ,_m hides are n only salt$ b also dri$ 9 ord] to pres]ve !m4 ,n mu* detail has be5 publi%$ ) reg>d to ! me?ods us$1 :i* no d\bt v>y mu* 9 diff]5t places1 b probably 9 "s cases ! hides are salt$ 9 pile & 9 o!rs by br9+1 & !n hung up to dry4 ,! pr9cipal object ( ?is dry+ is to economise weight & co/ ( transport1 b x makes ! hides mu* m difficult to wa% & s(t5 = tann+1 & probably ! cry/allisation ( ! salt has a weak5+ effect on ! fibre4 ,hides cur$ 9 ?is way are /yl$ 8dry salt$40 ,a l>ge numb] ( ! hides ( ! small native cattle ( ,india are import$ into ?is c\ntry 9 a dry-salt$ condition4 ,! foll[+ p>ticul>s ( _! cure are tak5 f a pap] by ! ,au?or & ,mr4 ,w4 ,t[se4#af #af ,j\rn4 ,soc4 ,*4 ,ind41 #ahie1 p4 #ajbe4 ,dry-salt$1 or1 z !y are commonly call$ 8pla/] cures10 su* z ^? ( ,dacca & ,mehapore1 are ?ickly coat$ ) a :ite mat]ial1 :i* 9 ! fir/ in/ance is m]ely ! insoluble portion ( a sal9e e>? us$ 9 ! cure2 ?\gh 9 _m cases x is appli$ 9 l>g] quantities ?an necess>y1 ) ! simple object ( giv+ weight4 ,! salt+ is ?us describ$ by ,mr4 ,w4 ,g4 ,evans1 :o "s ye>s s9ce _h consid]able exp]i5ce z a tann] at ,cawnpore3-- 8,! salt us$ by ! natives is a salt-e>?2 & is s call$ by !m4 ,x is f\nd ext5sively 9 ! di/ricts ( ,cawnpore1 ,agra1 ,delhi1 ,luckn[1 ,patna1 etc41 & has no d\bt some?+ to d ) ! localisation ( ! hide-cur+ & k9dr$ indu/ries 9 ^! places4 ,! mode ( proc$ure us$ is pretty mu* z foll[s3--! salt-e>? is mix$ into a v ?9 pa/e1 & ?is is lightly bru%$ on to ! fle% side "o day1 & ! hide all[$ to rema9 ov] night "u cov]4 ,next day1 = be/ hides1 ! same solution is aga9 spread on ! fle% side ( ! out/ret*$ hide & rubb$ into x ) a por\s brick1 & !n = legitimate salt+1 ! hide is all[$ to dry "u cov]4 ,if = export1 ! salt+s may be ?ree or f\r1 & ! hides are treat$ out 9 ! op51 subject to ! int5se heat ( ! sun2 :i* acc\nts = ! numb] ( hides :i* g back 9 ! soaks 9 ,engl& & else:]e40 8,we _h a clause 9 our agreem5t ) hide-factors1 t any hides :i* did n come d[n to natural suppl5ess 9 two days 9 clean wat] 7 to be return$4 ,( ars5ic cur+ ,i "k no?+1 & x is n s mu* 9 vogue z =m]ly4 ,!re is q a trade 9 ,cawnpore1 ,luckn[1 ,allahabad1 etc41 9 treat+ old & inf]ior hides ) new = export1 & great ef=ts are made by native hold]s to get _! /ocks d[n be=e ! ra9s comm5ce1 z !y say1 & rightly ,i ?9k1 t hides are n wor? s mu* aft] ! ra9s by #cj p] c5t4 ,! peculi> lat5t moi/ure ( ! ra9s affects !m v detrim5tally40 ,"u c]ta9 circum/ances ?is mode ( cure gives rise to ext5sive iron-/a9+ ( ! sk9s1 & analyses ( ! mat]ial scrap$ (f ,dacca & ,mehapore kips 7 und]tak5 ) a view to elucidat+ ! causes ( ?is injury4 ,! foll[+ are ! results ( ! analyses ref]r$ to1 :i* 7 made ^u ! residue aft] ! r consid]able quantity ( fibr\s organic matt]1 :i* _h be5 scrap$ (f ) ! cure1 _h be5 de/roy$ by ignition1 toge!r no d\bt ) traces ( ammoniacal salts3-- ---------------------------------------- ----------- ---- ,dacca4 ,mehapore4 ,entire ,cure4,entire ,cure4 ---------------------------------------- ----- ,s& & silica #bjee #bgch ,fe,o #bgg #ahf ,al,o #bdh #bgd ,mn,o #jfj #jdj ,ca,o #bfj #cgj ,mg,o #cch #cfi ,na,o #bhig #bfhj ,,s #chij #ccge ,cl #jbb #jah ,h,,po & ,,co ,traces ,traces ------------------------ #ajjdg #ajjej ---------------------------------------- ----------- ,! soluble salts ( ! ,dacca cure 7 also analys$ sep>ately ) ! foll[+ result3-- ,ca,o #jgj ,mg,o #jfj ,na,o #bijj ,,s #cgij ,cl #bb ,insoluble #cbab ------ #ajjed ,x ?us consi/$ exclusively ( sulphates1 ) ! exception ( a trace ( *loride4 ,! cures1 aft] ignition1 7 bo? neutral to ph5olph?ale91 b be=e ignition ! ,dacca 0 di/9ctly alkal9e1 9 consequ5ce probably ( ! pres5ce ( ammonium salts1 & bo? %[$ consid]ably l>g] traces ( c>bonates be=e ?an aft]4 ,! mo/ /rik+ feature ( ^! analyses is ! abs5ce ( m ?an ! smalle/ traces ( *lorides4 ,! cures are ?us practically free f common salt1 & owe _! antiseptic p[] to ! sodium sulphate :i* !y conta91 & :i* inde$ =ms _! pr9cipal con/itu5t4 ,nitrates appe> to be entirely abs5t4 ,sodium sulphate sometimes =ms l>ge cry/als 9 pits us$ = soak+ ^! kips4 ,! iron-/a9+ ( hides :i* has be5 m5tion$ appe>s to result only :5 ! hides aft] cure are expos$ = a l5g!n$ p]iod to a moi/ atmosph]e1 9 :i* ! c>bonic acid pres5t probably also plays its "p1 ! iron pass+ into solution z hydric c>bonate4 ,! analyses %[ a /rik+ resemblance to ^? ( ! soda deposits ( ,wyom+1 giv5 by ,dr4 ,attfield1#ag except t _! p]c5tage ( sodium c>bonate is small]1 :i* is q intelligible 9 ! light ( ,mr4 ,brunn]'s ab/ract on ! #8,probable orig9 ( natural deposits ( sodium c>bonate1'#ah :i* supports ! view t ! sodium c>bonate is d]iv$ f sodium sulphate by ! r$uc+ & c>bonat+ action ( l[ organisms4 #ag ,j\rn4 ,soc4 ,*4 ,ind41 #ahie1 p4 #d4 #ah ,ibid41 #ahic1 p4 #aaf4 ,x may be not$ "h t ! pres]vative prop]ties ( sodium sulphate are well kn[n1 & ! anhydr\s sulphate has be5 recomm5d$ z a sub/itute = common salt 7see p4 #bc74 ,dry+ is a v common me?od ( pres]v+ hides z well z o!r putrescible matt]s4 ,x has no effect 9 kill+ bact]ia1 b putrefaction c only g on 9 pres5ce ( a consid]able am\nt ( moi/ure4 ,z appli$ to hides1 x is1 to ! tann]1 "o ( ! lea/ satisfactory modes ( cure1 involv+ v consid]able difficulties 9 br++ hides back to ! moi/ & swoll5 condition :i* is necess>y at ! outset ( 8 op]ations1 b x is ! only practical me?od 9 di/ricts f> f ! coa/ & ) primitive modes ( transit1 bo? on acc\nt ( ! co/ ( salt1 & ! less5$ weight ( ! dri$ hide4 ,great diff]5ces are f\nd 9 ! ease ) :i* dri$ hides s(t51 accord+ to ! way 9 :i* ! dry+ has be5 accompli%$1 ! difficulty be+ great] ! high] ! temp]ature :i* has be5 us$ 7see p4 #aaa74 ,! be/ mode ( dry+ is to hang 9 ! %ade 9 a good draught ( cool air1 ) ! fle% side out4 ,hides or sk9s dri$ 9 a tropical sun are n only difficult to s(t51 b are liable to damag$ portions1 :i* ei!r refuse to s(t51 or bli/] & g to pieces 9 lim+1 ow+ to ! /ructure ( ! hide be+ de/roy$ by heat1 ! out] surface dry+ fir/ & =m+ an imp]vi\s lay] :i* h9d]s evaporation f ! inside1 s t ! moi/ int]ior becomes melt$1 :ile ! outside appe>s q s\nd4 ,su* injuries are (t5 only to be discov]$ by soak+ & lim+4 ,v simil> damage may occur f putrefaction ( ! int]ior aft] ! outside has become dry1 & to get good results1 ! dry+ mu/ be gradual1 b rapid1 especially 9 hot climates4 ,s\? ,am]ican hides are mo/ly dri$ 9 ! sun1 susp5d$ by head & tail f /akes1 ) ! hair side out4 ,! risk ( injury by putrefaction dur+ dry+ is dim9i%$ by ! use ( antiseptics4 ,solutions ( ars5ic h be5 frequ5tly us$ = ?is purpose1 & _m ( ! dri$ ,indian kips are ( :at are kn[n z 8ars5ic cures10 al?\gh ! writ] has nev] be5 able to detect ars5ic 9 any :i* he has exam9$1 & its use seems by no means g5]al4 ,! ars5i\s acid is usually dissolv$ 9 soda solutions4 ,unless us$ pretty freely x has little antiseptic effect1 b is useful 9 prev5t+ ! attacks ( insects1 :i* are (t5 v de/ructive4 ,! l>va ( a small beetle1 ,d]me/es vulp9us1 frequ5tly dev\rs ! :ole tissue ( pat*es ( ! hide1 leav+ only ! epid]mis4 ,x may be well "h to say a few words ab\t ! injuries & defects to :i* hides & sk9s are liable1 al?\gh "s ( !m are n /rictly due to ! cure4 ,! mo/ s]i\s1 & yet prev5table injury is t due to but*]s' cuts4 ,z ! value ( ! hide be>s only a small proportion to t ( ! meat1 _m but*]s d _! "w extremely c>elessly1 & ?is is enc\rag$ by ! loose classification ( 8damag$ hides0 9 "s m>kets4 ,!re is also an idea t ! appe>ance ( ! meat is improv$ by a ?9 lay] ( ! :ite sk9-tissue be+ left on x1 & = ?is reason z well z m]e c>elessness1 but*]s frequ5tly score ! flanks ( ! hide ) %all[ cuts :i* greatly dim9i% its value4 ,! 8pack] hides0 ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & ! products ( ! l>ge salad]os or slaught]+ 78salt+07 e/abli%m5ts ( ,s\? ,am]ica1 su* z ,liebig's1 %[ :at c be done by skill$ "w 9 ?is respect4 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 mu* ( ! flay+ is done by means ( a wood5 cleav]1 in/ead ( a %>p knife4 ,ano!r me?od to "s ext5t 9 use1 & :i* may be recomm5d$ = calf & %eep sk9s1 is to inflate ! c>case be=e sk9n+1 ) air f a compress+ syr+e1 :i* te>s ! connect+ tissue betwe5 ! sk9 & ! body1 & r5d]s flay+ mu* easi]4 ,br&s are a great s\rce ( damage to hides1 b :]e cattle roam at l>ge on unf5c$ pla9s1 z on ! prairies ( ,texas & ! ,pampas ( ,s\? ,am]ica1 x seems indisp5sable = ! recognition ( own]%ip2 no o!r mode ( m>k+ be+ suffici5tly p]man5t & conspicu\s4 ,x is un=tunate1 t z ! animals cr[d toge!r1 & _c be closely approa*$1 x is necess>y t ! br&s %\ld n only be l>ge1 b plac$ on ! mo/ valuable "p ( ! hide4 ,g5]ally on ! ,pampas an ef=t is made to keep !m on "o side only1 s t 9 ,s\? ,am]ican hides x is possible to select cle> & br&$ sides4 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates mu* l& is n[ f5c$ ) b>b$ wire1 :i* :ile x obviates ! necessity ( br&+1 introduces ano!r evil 9 ! =m ( 8b>b$ wire scrat*es10 :i* are frequ5tly tr\blesome 9 8pack] hides40 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #g4--;,hypod]ma bovis4 #a1 egg2 #b1 maggot2 #d1 *rysalis case2 #f1 fly1 magnifi$ 7,brau]72 #c1 #e1 *rysalis & fly1 natural size 7,b4 ,cl>k74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #h4--,sac ( w>ble1 %[+ gr[? ( epid]mis r\nd ap]ture4 ,9 c\ntries :]e cattle are us$ = draught purposes1 goadm>ks are a frequ5t s\rce ( injury1 & "s ( ! l>ge cattle-ticks d consid]able damage to ! hides ( ,spa9 & ,s\? ,am]ica4 ,f ! tann]s' po9t ( view1 h[ev]1 ! mo/ injuri\s insects are ! 8bot-flies0 or 8w>ble-flies0 7,hypod]ma bovis & alli$ species1 ,fig4 #g74 ,!re is /ill "s controv]sy z to h[ ! eggs ( ^! insects are deposit$4 ,9 ! horse-bot fly x is kn[n t ! eggs1 fir/ deposit$ on ! sk91 are lick$ (f & swall[$ by ! animal1 & develop 9 ! /oma*1 :]e !y pass _! l>val & pupal life hang+ on to its int]ior coats1 & only drop (f & are pass$ out ) ! dung be=e _! f9al *ange to ! complete fly4 ,=tifi$ by ?is1 & by "s direct obs]vation1 "s ,am]ican naturali/s are ( op9ion t ! ,am]ican species at lea/1 hat*es 9 ! /oma*1 & z a m9ute l>va w&]s ?r\gh all ! int]v5+ tissues till x rea*es ! sk91 :]e x und]goes its fur!r developm5t4 ,! late ,miss ,orm]od1 :o has made a c>eful /udy ( ! ,engli% species1#ai /ates t ! egg hat*es on ! hair1 & t ! l>va simply eats its way bel[ ! sk91 leav+ a m9ute r$ puncture :i* x subsequ5tly enl>ges to obta9 air = its spiracles1 :i* are 9 ! tail4 ,z x gr[s x cont9ues to irritate ! l[] "p ( ! cavity ) hook$ m&ibles1 & lives on ! pus & matt] s produc$4 ,x gr[s to a l5g? ( fully in*1 & ! cavity1 ,fig4 #h1 situat$ betwe5 ! sk9 & ! subcutane\s tissue is (t5 z l>ge z half a walnut4 ,x rema9s 9 ! sac n only dur+ its l>val1 b its pupal /age1 :i* d n diff] mu* 9 appe>ance1 & falls out on ! gr\nd be=e complete developm5t4 ,9 small numb]s1 ! w>ble seems to d little injury to ! g5]al heal? ( ! animal1 b cases h be5 kn[n :]e animals h actually di$ ( ! inflammation produc$4 ,"s idea ( ! ext5t ( ! plague may be realis$ f ! /atem5t t an ,indian kip 9 ! possession ( ! writ] has n less ?an #fhj w>ble holes1 & t almo/ equal numb]s h be5 c\nt$ 9 ,engli% hides4 ,prev5tive measures are ! %elt]+ ( ! cattle dur+ ! summ] mon?s :5 ! fly is mo/ preval5t2 ! application ( mixtures ( oil or grease ) t>-oil & sulphur to ! hair1 to prev5t egg-lay+2 & ! de/ruction ( ! l>va 9 its e>ly /ages1 9 autumn & w9t] by sme>+ ! brea?+ ap]ture ) grease1 or bett]1 ) m]curial o9tm5t4 ,:5 ?is is done suffici5tly e>ly1 ! hole heals up )\t p]man5t injury1 b :5 x is all[$ to rema9 op5 dur+ ! p]iod ( gr[?1 its sides become p>tially coat$ by ! gr[? ( epid]mis1 & ?is p]man5tly prev5ts _! prop] union by sk9-tissue4 ,x is believ$ t if ! l>v 7 sy/ematically de/roy$ 9 a di/rict1 !y w\ld soon become ext9ct1 z !y are n suppos$ to travel f>4 #ai #8,"s ,obs]vations on ! /rid1' ,e4 ,a4 ,orm]od1 ,simpk9 & ,m>%all1 ,london1 #ahhd1 price #d;d4 ,a v tr\blesome injury to ! sk9s ( lambs & %eep is ! disease kn[n z 8cockle10 9 :i* ! sk9 becomes ?ickly dott$ ) spots ( ?ick5$ tissue1 :i* be> "s fanciful resemblance 9 =m to a cockle%ell4 ,! affection is preval5t dur+ ! spr+ :ile ! wool is ?ick1 & disappe>s almo/ imm$iately on %e>+1 b little is kn[n ( its causes or mode ( prev5tion4 ,climate & bre$ h a consid]able effect on ! quality ( hides & sk9s4 ,z a rule ! less highly br$ races1 & ^? :i* are mo/ expos$ to ! extremes ( wea!r1 h ! ?icke/ hides1 & 9 mo/ cases highly br$ animals h _h _! meat-produc+1 or 9 ! case ( %eep1 _! wool-be>+ qualities develop$ at ! exp5se ( ! *>act]i/ics mo/ valu$ by ! tann]4 ,,*apt] ,,vii4 ,,/ructure ,,& ,,gr[? ,,( ,,sk94 ,al?\gh1 at fir/ sight1 ! sk9s ( diff]5t animals appe> to h little 9 common1 a clos] exam9ation %[s t all ! ,mammalia possess sk9s :i* h ! same g5]al /ructure1 & ?us an anatomical description ( ! sk9 ( an ox applies almo/ equally to t ( a %eep1 goat1 or calf1 ?\gh on acc\nt ( ! diff]5ce 9 texture & ?ickness ! practical uses ( ^! v>i\s mat]ials may diff] widely4 ,! sk9s ( liz>ds1 alligators1 fi%es & s]p5ts diff] f ^? ( ! high] animals1 *iefly 9 hav+ consid]able modifications 9 ! epid]mis1 s t x becomes h>d] & =ms 8scales10 & ! arrangem5t ( ! fibres pres5ts consid]able diff]5ce4 ,9 _m fi%-sk9s = in/ance1 ! fibres are 9 successive lay]s1 at "r angles to ea* o!r & diagonal to ! sk91 b n int]lac$4 ,9 its natural condition1 ! sk9 is n m]ely a cov]+ = ! animal1 b at ! same "t an organ ( s5se & ( secretion1 & h5ce its /ructure is some:at complicat$4 ,x consi/s ( two pr9cipal lay]s1 ! epid]mis 7epi!lium1 cuticle7 & ! corium 7d]ma1 cutis or true sk974 ,^! are totally di/9ct1 n only 9 /ructure & functions1 b 9 _! orig94 ,9 ! egg ( a bird & ! ovum ( a high] animal1 ! liv+ g]m consi/s ( a s+le cell1 :i*1 z soon z f]tilis$1 beg9s to multiply by repeat$ division4 ,! mass ( cells ?us =m$ e>ly diff]5tiates into ?ree di/9ct lay]s1 f ! upp] ( :i* ! epi!lium arises1 :ile ! true sk91 toge!r ) ! bones & c>tilages1 is d]iv$ f ! middle "o4 ,?is di/9ction ( orig9 corresponds ) a wide diff]5ce ( bo? anatomical & *emical *>act]i/ics4 ,a diagrammatic section ( calf-sk9 is %[n 9 ,fig4 #i1 & a m correct repres5tation ( its actual appe>ance is giv5 9 ,plate ,i4 7,frontispiece74 ,! epid]mis is v ?9 z comp>$ ) ! true sk9 :i* x cov]s1 & is entirely remov$ prep>atory to tann+2 x nev]!less possesses important functions4 ,x is %[n 9 ,fig4 #aj at a & b1 m highly magnifi$4 ,its inn] muc\s lay] b1 ! rete malpighi1 :i* re/s ^u ! true sk9 c1 is s(t1 & compos$ ( liv+ nucleat$ cells1 :i* multiply by division & =m cell-walls ( k]at94 ,^! are elongat$ 9 ! deep] lay]s1 & gradually become flatt5$ z !y approa* ! surface1 :]e !y dry up1 & =m ! horny lay] a4 ,?is la/ is be+ con/antly worn away1 ?r[n (f z dead scales ( sk91 & z con/antly r5ew$ f bel[1 by ! multiplication ( ! cells4 ,x is f ! epi!lial lay] t ! hair1 z well z ! sweat & fat-gl&s1 are develop$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #i4--,v]tical section ( calf-sk91 magnifi$ ab\t #ej diamet]s4 a1 epid]mis2 b1 gra9 or papill>y lay]2 c1 fibr\s lay] ( sk92 d1 hairs2 e1 fat-gl&s2 f1 sweat-gl&s2 g1 op5+ ( ducts ( sweat-gl&s2 h1 hair-muscles4 ,ea* hair is surr\nd$ by a %ea? :i* is cont9u\s ) ! epid]mis1 & into :i* ! "y hair usually gr[s z ! old "o falls out4 ,! hair itself is cov]$ ) a lay] ( ov]lapp+ scales1 l ! slates on a ro(1 b ( irregul> =m4 ,^! give x a s]rat$ outl9e at ! sides1 & :5 /rongly develop$ z 9 wool & "s furs1 conf] ! prop]ty ( felt+4 ,)9 ^! scales1 :i* are call$ ! 8hair cuticle10 is a fibr\s sub/ance :i* =ms ! body ( ! hair2 & sometimes b n always1 !re is also a c5tral & cellul> pi?1 :i* "u ! microscope frequ5tly appe>s black & opaque1 f ! optical effect ( imprison$ air4 ,on boil+ or long soak+ 9 wat]1 alcohol1 or turp5t9e1 ! air-spaces become saturat$ ) ! liquid1 & !n appe> transp>5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aj4--;,epid]mis lay]4 ,! fibr\s "p ( ! hair is made up ( long sp9dle-%ap$ cells1 & conta9s ! pigm5t :i* gives ! hair its col\r4 ,! hair ( ! de] diff]s f t ( mo/ o!r animals 9 be+ almo/ :olly =m$ ( polygonal cells1 :i*1 9 :ite hairs1 are usually fill$ ) air4 ,9 d>k hairs1 bo? ! hair & %ea? are /rongly pigm5t$1 b ! hair is mu* ! mo/ s1 & h5ce ! bulb has usually a di/9ct d>k =m4 ,! d>k-hair$ portions ( a hide f :i* ! hair has be5 remov$ by lim+ /ill rema9 col\r$ by ! pigm5t$ cells ( ! hair-%ea?s1 :i* c only be completely remov$ by 8bat+ & scudd+40 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aa4--;a1 sebace\s gl&2 b1 hair2 c1 erector muscle4 ,mag4 #bjj4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ab4--;a1 hair2 b1 hair cuticle2 c1 inn] root-%ea?2 d1 out] root-%ea?2 e1 d]mic coat ( hair-%ea?2 f1 orig9 ( inn] %ea?2 g1 bulb2 h1 hair-papilla4 ,ne> ! op5+ ( ! hair-%ea? to ! surface ( ! sk9 ! ducts ( ! sebace\s or fat-gl&s pass into ! %ea? & secrete a sort ( oil to lubricate ! hair4 ,! gl&s !mselves are =m$ ( l>ge nucleat$ cells arrang$ some:at l a bun* ( grapes2 ! upp] & m c5tral ones be+ highly *>g$ ) fatty matt]4 ,_! appe>ance is %[n 9 ,fig4 #aa4 ,! base ( ! hair is a bulb1 enclos+ ! hair papilla h 7,fig4 #ab71 :i* is a project+ knob ( ! true sk9 & :i* by means ( ! blood-vessels conta9$ 9 x supplies n\ri%m5t to ! hair4 ,! hair-bulb is compos$ ( r\nd s(t cells1 :i* multiply rapidly1 & press+ upw>ds ?r\gh ! hair-%ea?1 become h>d5$1 ?us increas+ ! l5g? ( ! hair4 ,! cells outside ! bulb1 %[n at f 9 ,fig4 #ab1 pass upw>ds z !y gr[1 & =m a coat+ ar\nd ! hair1 kn[n z ! 8inn] root-%ea?40 ,9 embryonic developm5t1 a small knob ( cells =ms on ! "u side ( ! epid]mis1 ov] a knot ( capill>y blood-vessels 9 ! corium1 & enl>ges & s9ks deep] into ! latt]1 :ile ! root-bulb ( ! "y hair is =m$ )9 x1 surr\nd+ ! capill>ies f :i* x d]ives n\ri%m5t1 & :i* =m ! hair-papilla1 ,fig4 #ac4 ,9 ! r5ewal ( hair 9 ! adult animal ! process is v simil>4 ,! bulb ( ! old hair )]s1 & ! hair falls out1 & 9 ! meantime a ?ick5+ takes place 9 ! epid]mal coat+ ( ! bottom ( ! %ea?1 & ! "y hair is =m$ bel[1 & usually to "o side ( ! old "o1 gr[+ into ! %ea?1 & tak+ ! place ( ! old hair4 ,?is is "o cause ( ! difficulty ( remov+ gr\nd-hairs 9 ! process ( unhair+1 s9ce !y are n only %ort1 b deep] seat$ ?an ! old ones4 ,! process ( developm5t ( ! sudorif]\s or sweat-gl&s is v simil> to t ( ! hairs4 ,!y consi/ ( m or less convolut$ tubes ) walls =m$ ( longitud9al fibres ( connective tissue ( ! corium1 l9$ ) a s+le lay] ( l>ge nucleat$ cells1 :i* secrete ! p]spiration4 ,! ducts1 :i* are exce$+ly n>r[1 & ) walls ( nucleat$ cells l ^? ( ! out] hair-%ea?s1 sometimes op5 directly ?r\gh ! epid]mis1 b m frequ5tly into ! orifice ( a hair-%ea?1 j at ! surface ( ! sk94 ,ea* hair is provid$ ) a slant+ muscle call$ ! arrector or erector pili 7see ,fig4 #aa71 :i* is contract$ by cold or fe>1 & causes ! hair to 8bri/le10 or /& on end2 by =c+ up ! atta*$ sk91 x produces ! effect kn[n z 8goose-sk940 ,! muscle1 :i* is ( ! un/rip$ or involunt>y k9d1 passes f ne> ! hair-bulb to ! epid]mis1 & j "u ! sebace\s gl&s1 :i* x compresses :5 x contracts4 ,beside ! hair1 & hair-%ea?s1 & ! sebace\s & sudorif]\s gl&s1 ! epid]mis lay] produces o!r /ructures ( a horny "*1 includ+ horns1 ho(s1 claws & f+]-nails2 :i* bo? *emically & anatomically are analog\s to exagg]at$ hairs1 su* z ! quills ( ! porcup9e4 ,! :ole ( ! epid]mis1 toge!r ) ! hairs1 is sep>at$ f ! corium by an exce$+ly f9e membrane1 call$ ! hyal9e or glassy lay]4 ,?is =ms ! v ?9 buff-col\r$ 8gra9-0 surface ( tann$ lea!r1 :i* is evid5tly ( diff]5t /ructure f ! re/ ( ! corium1 s9ce1 if x gets scrap$ (f be=e tann+1 ! expos$ portion ( ! und]ly+ sk9 rema9s ne>ly :ite1 in/ead ( col\r+4 ,! :ole ( ! hair-%ea? is enclos$ 9 a coat+ ( ela/ic & connective-tissue fibres1 :i* are suppli$ ) n]ves & blood-vessels1 & =m "p ( ! corium4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ac4--;,developm5t ( "y hair4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ad4--;,connective-tissue fibres4 7,ranvi]47 ,! /ructure ( ! corium or true sk9 is q diff]5t f t ( ! epid]mis :i* has j be5 describ$1 z x is pr9cipally compos$ ( int]lac+ bundles ( :ite fibres1 ( ! k9d kn[n z 8connective tissue0 7see ,fig4 #ad72 ^! are compos$ ( fibrils ( extreme f95ess1 cem5t$ toge!r by a sub/ance some:at m soluble ?an ! fibres !mselves4 ,! fibres are n !mselves liv+ cells1 b are app>5tly produc$ by n>r[ sp9dle-%ap$ cells ly+ aga9/ !m4 ,! felt$ fibre-bundles are m loosely int]wov5 9 ! middle portion ( ! sk91 b become compact] aga9 ne> ! fle%4 ,9 ! case ( %eep-sk9s ?is is especially m>k$1 ! middle "p be+ full ( fat-cells & v loose4 ,any ill treatm5t ( ! pelt dur+ ! wet-"w is liable to /ill fur!r loos5 ?is middle lay] s t gra9 & fle% may sometimes be torn ap>t4 ,! fle%-splits ( %eep-sk9s mu/ h ?is loose fatty lay] friz$ (f be=e *amois+1 & ,am]ican 8wax$ fle%es0 f ox-hides are levell$ by splitt+ away ?is portion1 & f9i%$ on ! fle%4 ,! out]mo/ lay]1 j b5ea? ! epid]mis1 is exce$+ly close & compact1 ! fibre-bundles t run into x be+ sep>at$ into _! elem5t>y fibrils1 :i* are s int]lac$ t !y c sc>cely be recognis$4 ,?is is ! p>s papill>is1 & =ms ! light]-col\r$ lay]1 call$ 7toge!r ) its v f9e out] coat+7 ! 8gra90 ( lea!r4 ,x is 9 ?is "p t ! fat-gl&s are emb$d$1 :ile ! hair-roots & sweat-gl&s pass ?r\gh x into ! loos] tissue b5ea?4 ,x receives its "n f ! small projections or papill1 ) :i* its out] surface is /udd$1 & :i* =m ! *>act]i/ic gra9 ( ! v>i\s k9ds ( sk94#bj 7,see ,fig4 #i & ,plate ,i47 #bj ,x w be not$ t ! ^w 8gra90 is us$ by ! tann] 9 at lea/ ?ree diff]5t s5ses1 :i* are productive ( mu* confusion4 ,! extremely ?9 hyal9e lay] =ms a natural glaze to ! sk91 & might well be spok5 ( z su*2 ! =m & arrangem5t ( ! papill & hair-pores might be call$ ! 8patt]n0 ( ! gra91 leav+ ! use ( ! ^w 8gra90 itself re/rict$ to ! p>s papill>is4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ae4--;,fat-cells 9 connective tissue4 a1 fat-globule2 p1 protoplasm2 n1 nucleus2 m1 cell-wall4 7,ranvi]47 ,! /udy ( ! /ructure ( ! gra91 & especially ( ! arrangem5t ( ! hair-pores is v important1 z x is usually ! readie/ means ( id5tify+ ! k9d ( sk9 ( :i* a lea!r is made1 :i* 9 f9i%$ sk9s ) artificially pr9t$ gra9 is (t5 v difficult4 7,plate ,,ii47 ,! exam9ation is facilitat$ by wett+ & /ret*+ ! sk91 & by ! use ( a good l5s1 or a l[ p[] ( ! microscope4#ba #ba ,"u ! microscope1 ! sk9 is ( c\rse light$ f above by direct light f a w9d[1 or by t ( a lamp conc5trat$ by a 8bullseye0 cond5s]4 ,! rev]sal ( ! image 9 ! microscope (t5 causes a pseudoscopic effect v puzzl+ to ! beg9n]1 prom95ces appe>+ z holl[s1 & vice v]sa till ! real direction ( ! light+ is consid]$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate ,,ii4 ,,photo-,,micrographs ,,( ,,gra9 ,,( ,,v>i\s ,,sk9s 7,a4 ,seym\r-,jones74 #a4 ,c[-hide2 #b4 ,calf-sk92 #c4 ,ea/ ,india ,goat2 #d4 ,pig-sk92 #e4 ,ea/ ,india ,%eep2 #f4 ,wel% ,%eep4 ,face p4 #eb4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #af4--,/rip$1 or volunt>y muscul> fibre4 7,ranvi]47 ,z /at$ above1 ! surface ( sk9 :i* is next to ! fle% is firm] ?an t 9 ! c5tre1 & z ! fibres run ne>ly p>allel ) ! surface x has a m or less membran\s "*4 ,! sk9 is unit$ to ! body ( ! animal by a network ( connective tissue 7panniculus adiposus71 :i* is frequ5tly full ( fat-cells & is !n call$ adipose tissue4 ,?is con/itutes ! :iti% lay] :i* is remov$1 toge!r ) portions ( actual fle%1 9 ! op]ation ( 8fle%+40 ,if a m9ute portion ( adipose tissue be exam9$ microscopically1 x w appe> to consi/ ( a m]e mass ( fat-globules entangl$ 9 connective tissue4 ,if1 h[ev]1 x be /a9$ ) c>m9e or logwood x may be at once obs]v$ t ea* globule is conta9$ 9 a cell1 ( :i* ! nucleat$ protoplasm1 by :i* ! fat 0 secret$1 is press$ closely aga9/ ! wall 7,fig4 #ae74 ,simil> cells are conta9$ 9 consid]able quantities ?r\gh\t ! hide1 & especially 9 ! loose tissue ( ! c5tral "p2 h5ce 9 lea!r manufacture x is impossible to expel or wa% out ! fat until ! cells h be5 brok5 d[n by 8lim+0 or 9 "s o!r way4 ,_m animals 7ox1 horse1 etc47 possess a ?9 lay] ( volunt>y muscle 7r$ fle%7 spread ov] ! inn] side ( ! sk91 & us$ = twit*+ to drive (f flies4 ,9 r\gh fle%+ ?is is sometimes left on & may be a cause ( d>k fle% 9 sole lea!r4 ,ev5 9 ! f9i%$ lea!r its /rip$ /ructure may be detect$ microscopically 7,fig4 #af74 ,besides ! connective-tissue fibres1 ! sk9 conta9s a small proportion ( f9e yell[ 8ela/ic0 fibres4 ,if a ?9 section ( hide be soak$ = a few m9utes 9 a mixture ( equal p>ts ( wat]1 glyc]9e1 & /rong acetic acid1 & !n exam9$ "u ! microscope1 ! :ite connective-tissue fibres become swoll5 & transp>5t1 & ! yell[ 8ela/ic0 fibres may be se51 z !y are sc>cely affect$ by ! acid4 ,! hair-bulbs & sweat- & fat-gl&s are also r5d]$ di/9ctly visible by ?is treatm5t4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! :ite gelat9\s fibres are mo/ easily se5 by exam9+ ! section 9 a /rong solution ( common salt1 or 9 "o ( ammonium sulphate2 or by /a9+ ) "s anil9e dyes su* z safran9e4 ,sections are mo/ readily cut = ^! purposes by ! use ( ! freez+ microtome1 or aft] previ\s h>d5+ 9 alcohol4 ,= fur!r details see ,l4,i4,l4,b41 p4 #bed4 ,ord9>ily 9 ! production ( lea!r only ! corium1 or true sk9 is us$1 & 9 ord] to obta9 x 9 a suitable condition = ! v>i\s tann+ processes1 ! hair or wool1 toge!r ) ! epi!lium1 mu/ be completely remov$ )\t damag+ ! sk9 itself2 & especial c>e mu/ be tak5 t ! gra91 or portion next to ! epid]mis1 does n suff] any injury dur+ ! treatm5t4 ,all ! me?ods employ$ dep5d ^u ! fact t ! epid]mis cells1 especially ! s(t gr[+ ones next to ! corium1 & ^? ( ! epid]mis lay] :i* surr\nd ! hair-roots1 are m easily de/roy$ ?an ! corium itself ow+ to _! diff]5t *emical "*4 ,! 8unhair+0 process consi/s ess5tially 9 break+ d[n ^! cells by *emical or putrefactive ag5ts1 & remov+ ! hair toge!r ) ! re/ ( ! epid]mis by me*anical means4 ,( ! v>i\s sub/ances :i* may be us$ = ?is purpose1 lime is "o ( ! mo/ conv5i5t1 z its solubility 9 wat] is s slight1 t a solution ( su* a /r5g? z to injure ! hide _c be easily made4 ,cau/ic alkalies1 on ! o!r h&1 are mu* m soluble1 & unless c>e be tak5 to use only ! prop] quantity1 a dang]\sly /rong solution may be made ) consequ5t damage to ! sk94 ,! addition ( small am\nts ( sulphides to ! lime-solution accel]ates ! unhair+ ow+ to _! special solv5t action on ! epid]mis-/ructures1 & also 9 ! case ( alkal9e sulphides1 by ! cau/ic alkali :i* is produc$ by _! reaction ) ! lime4 ,ev5 if us$ alone1 /rong solutions ( alkal9e sulphides rapidly de/roy bo? hair & epid]mis1 conv]t+ !m into a mass :i* may be swept (f ! sk9 l wet pulp1 & yet !y h practically no injuri\s action on ! true sk94 ,9 ! 8sweat+0 process ! epid]mic cells are brok5 d[n by putrefactive organisms & _! products1 s t ! hair becomes loose & may !n be ei!r rubb$ or scrap$ (f4 ,ammonia1 :i* is produc$ dur+ ! putrefaction1 has also an important solv5t action1 & its pres5ce d\btless t5ds to quick5 ! processes bo? ( unhair+ & ( de/ruction4 ,to obta9 useful k ( ! /ructure ( any p>ticul> sk91 x is n necess>y to h a v elaborate or exp5sive microscope1 & x is q possible to obta9 useful in=mation m]ely by ! use ( a good pocket l5s1 z = in/ance1 9 ! exam9ation ( v>i\s =ms ( 8gra910 & ! emboss+ ( "o sk9 to imitate ano!r4 ,= fur!r details ( ! manipulation & selection ( ! microscope1 ! read] mu/ consult ,l4,i4,l4,b41 pp4 #bcd et seq4 ,,*apt] ,,viii4 ,,! ,,*emical ,,con/itu5ts ,,( ,,sk94 ,! *emi/ry ( ! v>i\s con/itu5ts ( sk9 is /ill v imp]fectly und]/ood1 b ,beil/e91 9 8 great h&book ( organic *emi/ry1 places gelat91 album5s & k]at9s 9 ! 8aromatic0 s]ies1 & implies !re=e t !y conta9 ! 8b5z5e0 r+4 ,x is at lea/ c]ta9 t all are v complex4 ,! epid]mis /ructures belong to ! class ( k]at9s1 :i* are closely relat$ to coagulat$ album92 :ile ! :ite fibres ( ! corium 7or true sk97 are ei!r id5tical ) gelat91 or only diff] f x 9 _! molecul> condition or degree ( hydration4 ,?is gelat9\s tissue con/itutes ! bulk ( ! corium1 b x also conta9s album5 z a con/itu5t ( ! lymph & blood :i* supply its n\ri%m5t1 k]at9s 9 ! epi!lial /ructures ( ! blood & lymph vessels1 & 8yell[ fibres10 :i* are p]haps alli$ to ! k]at9s1 b :i* _c well be isolat$ = analysis4 ,! :ite connective tissue ( ! corium is conv]t$ into gelat9 7glut97 by boil+ ) wat]4 ,ow+ to ! impossibility ( obta9+ unalt]$ hide-fibre free f ! o!r con/itu5ts1 & /ill m to t ( decid+ to :at po9t x %\ld be dri$ to remove uncomb9$ wat]1 x is impossible to prove by analysis :e!r its composition is id5tical ) t ( glut92 b z ! :ite fibre con/itutes by f> ! l>ge/ "p ( ! corium1 & ! o!r con/itu5ts d n diff] l>gely f x 9 _! p]c5tage composition1 an analysis ( c>efully purifi$ corium is practically id5tical ) t ( ! actual fibre4 ,! foll[+ analyses ( hide & gelat9 are !re=e ( int]e/4 ,! analyses ( ,von ,s*ro$] & ,paessl]#bb are ( special importance z be+ ! av]age ( a l>ge numb] ( sep>ate det]m9ations4 ,_! nitrog5 det]m9ations are by ,kjeldahl's me?od4 ,small am\nts ( a% & traces ( sulphur are neglect$1 & probably includ$ 9 ! ,o1 :i* is obta9$ by diff]5ce4 #bb ,d+4 ,polyt4 ,j\rn41 #ahic1 cclxxxvii4 pp4 #beh1 #bhc1 #cjj4 ,,analyses ,,( ,,purifi$ ,,corium4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,analy/4 ,mat]ial4 ,c ,h ,n ,o ,s ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,/ohmann & ,langbe9 44 #dii #ehahjbfj #jc ,mntz ,ox-hide #eah #fgahcbcb 44 ,ox1 calf1 horse1 ,von ,s*ro$] & ,paessl]camel1 pig1 #ejb #fdaghbed 44 rh9oc]os ,goat & de] #ejc #fdagdbei 44 ,%eep & dog #ejb #feagjbfc 44 ,cat 44 44 #eaa #feagabec 44 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,,analyses ,,( ,,gelat9 7free f ,a%74 ---------------------------------------- -- ,analy/4 ,c ,h ,n ,o ---------------------------------------- -- ,von ,s*ro$] & ,paessl]#eab #feahabdb ,muld] #eja #ffahcbej ,fremy #ejj #feagebfj ,s*tz5b]g] #ejj #fgahcbej ,*itt5d5 & ,solly#bc #did #fhahjbea ---------------------------------------- -- #bc ,conta9$ also #jg sulphur4 ,j\rn4 ,physiol41 xii4 p4 #bc4 ,x w be not$ t ! above analyses ( sk9 diff] m widely among !mselves ?an _! av]age does f t ( ! gelat9 analyses1 ?\gh on ! :ole ! nitrog5 is some:at high] 9 ! latt]4 ,! molecul> weight ( gelat9 mu/ be v high1#bd & any empirical =mula f\nd$ on ultimate analysis !re=e q hypo!tical4 ,bleun>d1#be ,s*tz5b]g] & ,b\rgois1#bf & ,h(mei/] agree on ! =mula ,c,h,n,o1 :i* leads to ! foll[+ p]c5tage composition3-- p] c5t4 ,c #iab #dig ,h #abd #fh ,n #ccf #ahc ,o #dfd #beb ---- ----- #ahcf #ajjj #bd ,paal 7,b]i*te ,d4 ,*4 ,ges41 xxv4 7#ahib7 pp4 #abjb-cf1 & ,*4 ,soc4 ,ab/41 #ahib1 pp4 #hie-g7 calculates a molecul> weight ( ab\t #ijj f physical 7freez+1 boil+ po9t7 me?ods4 #be ,annales de ,*imie #e xxvi4 p4 #ah4 #bf ,compt4 ,r5d41 lxxxii4 pp4 #bfb-d4 ,! addition ( a molecule ( wat] w\ld make a diff]5ce 9 ! p]c5tage composition indicat$ by ^! =mul :i* w\ld be less ?an _! probable exp]im5tal error1 & ! *ange may !re=e be "o ( hydration4 ,gelat9 c]ta9ly conta9s bo? c>boxyl & amido-gr\ps1 & is capable ( comb9+ ) bo? acids & alkalies 7see p4 #hd74 ,reim]#bg obta9$ :at he suppos$ to be pure unalt]$ fibre-sub/ance by dige/ion ( purifi$ hide ) p] c5t4 acetic acid = _m days & subsequ5t neutralisation4 ,8 analysis %[$ ,c #dhde p] c5t41 ,h #fff p] c5t41 ,n #ahde p] c5t41 ,o #bfdd p] c5t41 ?us deviat+ consid]ably f direct analysis ( unalt]$ sk94 ,x is obvi\s t little weight c be plac$ on ?is result1 ,reim]'s precipitate be+ probably a m]e decomposition product4 #bg ,d+4 ,polyt41 ccv4 p4 #afd4 ,h(mei/]#bh notes t on heat+ gelat9 x loses wat] & =ms an anhydride :i* he consid]s id5tical ) collag5 or hide-fibre4 ,:5 gelat9 is dri$ at a temp]ature ( #acj ,c4 x becomes incapable ( solution 9 wat]1 ev5 at boil+ temp]ature1 & c only be dissolv$ by heat+ "u pressure4 ,x is c]ta9 t collag5 7hide-fibre1 osse97 is less easily soluble 9 hot wat] ?an ord9>y gelat94 #bh ,bi$4 ,c5tr41 #ahhj1 p4 #ggb4 ,s f> z our pres5t k goes1 we may reg>d hide-fibre z m]ely an organis$ & p]haps dehydrat$ gelat94 ,gelat9 or glut9 7n to be conf\nd$ ) ! glut5 ( c]eals71 :5 pure & dry is a col\rless1 transp>5t solid ( horny t\ghness & ( sp4 gr4 #ac4 ,x beg9s to melt ab\t #adj ,c41 at ! same "t und]go+ decomposition4 ,x is insoluble 9 hydroc>bons1 9 e!r1 or 9 /rong alcohol4 ,9 cold wat] x swells to a transp>5t jelly1 absorb+ sev]al times its weight ( wat]1 b does n dissolve4 ,9 hot wat] x is soluble1 b a solution conta9+ ev5 #a p] c5t4 ( good gelat9 sets to a weak jelly on cool+4 ,gelat9 jellies melt at temp]atures :i* v>y consid]ably ) ! quality or fre$om f degradation products1 b :i* )9 pretty wide limits 7#e-aj p] c5t47 are little affect$ by ! conc5tration4 ,a #aj p] c5t4 solution ( be/ h>d gelat9 melts ab\t #ch ,c41 :ile l[ glue may fail to set at #ae ,c4 ,a useful te*nical te/ = ! sett+ p[] ( gelat91 bas$ on ?is fact1 consi/s 9 plac+ an angul> fragm5t ( ! jelly 9 a small tube atta*$ to a !rmomet]1 & /irr+ 9 a beak] ( wat]1 :i* is sl[ly heat$ till ! jelly melts1 :5 ! temp]ature is not$4 ,! exact po9t is p]haps m easily se5 if ! tube is drawn to a conical po9t4 ,! jelly may also be all[$ to set 9 capill>y tubes op5 at ! bottom1 & ! mom5t not$ :5 wat] rises into ! tube4 ,! temp]ature ( fusion is rais$ by ! addition ( =maldehyde1 salts ( *romium1 alum9a & f]ric salts1 :i* produce a tann+ effect1 & 9 a less degree by sulphates1 t>trates1 acetates1 "s o!r salts1 & dim9i%$ by iodides1 bromides1 *lorides & nitrates4#bi ,solutions ( gelat9 too weak or too w>m to gelat9ise possess consid]able viscosity4 ,gelat9 may !re=e be e/imat$1 9 ! abs5ce ( o!r visc\s matt]s1 by ! viscosimet]1 an in/rum5t :i* measures ! "t tak5 by a liquid 9 fl[+ ?r\gh a capill>y tube4#cj ,! firmness ( a jelly1 :i* is (t5 important = comm]cial purposes1 is frequ5tly measur$ by ,lip[itz's me?od1 9 :i* a slightly convex disc1 conv5i5tly ( exactly #a cm4 diamet]1 & cem5t$ to ! bottom ( a ?i/le-head funnel tube1 is load$ gradually ) m]cury till x s9ks 9 ! jelly4 ,! jelly 7#e or #aj p] c5t47 %\ld be all[$ to set "s h\rs be=e ! te/ is made4 #bi ,see ,pas*eles1 #8,v]su*e b] ,quellung1' ,ar*iv fr ges4 ,pa?41 ,bd4 #ga4 #cj ,see ,prollius1 ,d+4 ,polyt4 ,j\rn41 ccxlix4 p4 #dbe1 :o employs a #a p] c5t4 solution2 also ,/tz]1 ,zeit4 ,ann4 ,*41 xxxi4 pp4 #eja-ae4 ,solutions ( gelat9 f sk9 & bone are p[]fully lvorotatory to pol>is$ light4 ,at #cj ,c4 7,a7,d -#acj1 b temp]ature & ! reaction ( ! solution h mu* influ5ce on ! value f\nd4 ,gelat9 is precipitat$ f aque\s solution by ! addition ( /rong alcohol & conc5trat$ solutions ( ammonium sulphate & "s o!r salts4 ,_m o!r colloid bodies su* z dextr9 & gums behave simil>ly4 ,9 ! abs5ce ( ^! sub/ances1 precipitation by alcohol may be utilis$ = ! te*nical analysis ( gelat9s & glues1 pr9t]s' roll] compositions & gelat9 confection]y4 #be c4c4 ( ! gelat9\s solution1 :i* is pref]ably ( ab\t #aj p] c5t41 is plac$ 9 a small beak] t>$ toge!r ) a glass /irr+ rod1 & ?rice its volume ( absolute alcohol add$4 ,on /irr+1 ! gelat9 sets firmly on ! rod & sides ( ! beak]1 & may be wa%$ ) dilute alcohol or ev5 ) cold wat]1 dri$ & weigh$4 ,a v pure ,fr5* gelat9 gave #ihf p] c5t41 :ile a common bone-glue only yield$ ab\t #fj p] c5t4 precipitate4 ,absolute alcohol )draws wat] f gelat9-jelly1 leav+ a horny mass4 ,gelat9 may also be precipitat$ completely by saturat+ its solution ) sodium *loride1 & !n acidify+ slightly ) sulphuric or hydro*loric acid2 & masses ( jelly become h>d5$ 9 acidifi$ salt solution z 9 alcohol1 ?\gh a neutral solution has little effect4 ,! cause ( ?is is difficult ( explanation1 b its be>+ on ! pickl+ ( %eep-sk9s 7p4 #hi7 & ! production ( :ite lea!r 7p4 #ahf7 is obvi\s4 ,decompositions4--,:5 aque\s solutions ( gelat9 are heat$ "u pressure1 or 9 pres5ce ( glyc]9 & o!r bodies :i* raise ! boil+-po9t1 or m sl[ly at l[] temp]atures1 !y gradually lose ! p[] ( gelat9is+ on cool+1 ! gelat9 be+ conv]t$ into modifications soluble 9 cold wat]1 b /ill capable ( be+ precipitat$ by tann94 ,h(mei/]#ca /ates t ! gelat9 takes up #c molecules wat] & is split up into hemicoll91 soluble 9 alcohol & n precipitat$ by plat9ic *loride solution2 & semiglut91 insoluble 9 alcohol & precipitat$ by plat9ic *loride solution4 ,bo? are precipitat$ by m]curic *loride4 ,dry gelat9 is soluble 9 glyc]9 at high temp]atures1 b probably suff]s a simil> *ange4 ,h5ce high temp]atures & long-cont9u$ heat+ mu/ be avoid$ 9 gelat9 manufacture2 & 9 mak+ pr9t]s' roll] compositions1 :i* are mixtures ( gelat9 & glyc]91 ! gelat9 mu/ be swoll5 ) wat] & melt$ at a l[ temp]ature ) ! glyc]94 #ca ,bi$4 ,c5tr41 #ahhj1 p4 #ggb1 & ,*4 ,soc4 ,abs41 #ahha1 p4 #bid4 ,gelat9 is also conv]t$ into soluble =ms 7peptones71 p]haps id5tical ) ! above1 by ! action ( heat 9 pres5ce ( dilute acids & alkalies4 ,^!1 l gelat91 are precipitat$ by tann9 & by metaphosphoric acid4#cb ,heat$ = long] p]iods or to high] temp]atures ) aque\s solutions ( ! cau/ic alkalies1 b>yta1 or lime1 gelat9 is gradually brok5 d[n into simpl] & simpl] products1 end+ 9 nitrog5 or ammonia1 wat] & c>bonic acid4 ,among ! int]m$iate products may be m5tion$ v>i\s acids ( ! amido-acetic s]ies1 z amido-acetic 7glycoc9e1 glycocoll71 amido-propionic 7alan9e71 & amido-caproic 7leuc9e72 & ( ! amido-succ9ic s]ies 7amido-succ9ic asp>tic acid74#cc #cb ,lor5z1 ,pflg]'s ,ar*41 xlvii4 pp4 #ahi-ie2 ,j\rn4 ,*em4 ,soc41 #ahia1 ,a4 p4 #dgg4 #cc ,comp>e ,s*tz5b]g]1 ,comptes ,r5d41 cii4 pp4 #abif-i2 ,j\rn4 ,*em4 ,soc41 #ahhf1 ,a4 p4 #hah4 ,treatm5t ) acids produces v simil> effects4 ,! fir/ products are soluble peptones4 ,paal#cd on treat+ #ajj p>ts ( gelat9 on ! wat]-ba? ) #afj p>ts wat] & #dj p>ts conc5trat$ ,h,cl till ! product 0 soluble 9 absolute alcohol1 obta9$1 on purification1 a :ite hygroscopic mass ( peptone salts conta9+ #aj-ab p] c5t4 ( hydro*loric acid4#ce #cd ,b]i*te1 xxv4 pp4 #abjb-cf2 ,j\rn4 ,*em4 ,soc41 #ahib1 ,a4 p4 #hie4 #ce ,see also ,bu*n] & ,curtius1 ,b]41 xix4 pp4 #hej-i2 ,j\rn4 ,*em4 ,soc41 #ahhf1 ,a4 p4 #fce4 ,! products ( dige/ion ( gelat9 ) ga/ric & pancreatic juice are peptones :i* d n diff] mat]ially f gelat9 9 ultimate composition1 & ! action is probably ma9ly hydrolytic4#cf #cf ,*itt5d5 & ,solly1 ,j\rn4 ,*em4 ,soc41 #ahia1 ,a4 p4 #hdi4 ,! e>li] products ( putrefaction are v simil>4 ,_m bact]ia h ! p[] ( liquefy+ gelat9-jelly4 ,?is has be5 %[n by ,brunton & ,mc,fadyen#cg to be due n to ! direct action ( ! bact]ia1 b to a soluble zymase secret$ by !m :i* peptonises ! gelat94 ,its action is fav\r$ by an alkal9e condition1 & de/roy$ by a temp]ature ( #ajj ,c4#ch ,z putrefaction progresses1 ! solution becomes v acid f ! =mation ( butyric acid1 & lat] on ammonia & amido-acids are =m$4 #cg ,r4 ,s4 ,proc41 xlvi4 pp4 #edb-ec4 #ch ,comp>e pp4 #ag1 #aga2 also ,*4 ,zeit41 #ahie1 p4 #adhg4 ,fahrion1#ci />t+ ) ! idea t album9oids & gelat9 7 cond5sation products ( a lactone "* 7,l4,i4,l4,b4 p4 #ahe71 & t !y might1 l lactones1 be depolym]is$ by saponification1 dige/$ ^! bodies ) alcoholic soda till !y 7 dissolv$1 & on neutralis+ ! solution ) hydro*loric acid1 ( :i* ! excess 0 driv5 (f by repeat$ evaporation1 & remov+ ! sodium *loride by treatm5t ) alcohol1 obta9$ 9 ea* case bodies ( acid reaction1 :i* f _! composition he suppos$ to be id5tical ) ,s*tz5b]g]'s proteic acid1 ,c,h,n,o1 :i* is soluble 9 wat] & alcohol1 insoluble 9 e!r & petroleum1 uncry/allisable1 & =m+ uncry/allisable salts4 ,fahrion sugge/$ t ! nitrog5\s "* :i* ,eitn] attribut$ to 8 8dgras-=m]0 7p4 #cgj7 0 probably due to contam9ation by ?is body2 & t its =mation might be utilis$ 9 ! analysis ( lea!r & o!r proteid bodies4 ,^! products h s9ce be5 fur!r inve/igat$ by ,pr(4 ,paal & ,dr4 ,s*ill+1#dj :o %[ t !y conta9 hydro*loric acid1 to :i* _! acid reaction is due1 & t !y are id5tical ) ! peptone salts previ\sly obta9$ by ,pr(4 ,paal 7v4 s47 by dige/ion ( proteids ) hydro*loric acid4 ,! free peptones are /rongly basic4 #ci ,*4 ,zeit41 #ahie1 p4 #ajjj4 #dj ,*4 ,zeit41 #ahie1 p4 #adhg4 ,by dry di/illation ( gelat9 a mixture ( pyrrol & pyrid9 bases are produc$4 ,?is is comm]cially obta9$ by ! di/illation ( bones1 & is kn[n z 8bone oil10 or 8,dippel's animal oil40 ,pyrrol1 ,c,h,n1 resembles phloroglucol 9 giv+ a purple-r$ col\r to fir wood moi/5$ ) hydro*loric acid 7p4 #bii74 ,reactions ( ,gelat94--,gelat9 is precipitat$ by m]curic *loride1 9 ?is respect resembl+ peptones1 b n by potassium f]rocyanide1 by :i* x is di/+ui%$ f album9oids1 & x diff]s f album9 9 n be+ coagulat$ by heat4 ,solution ( gelat9 dissolves consid]able quantities ( calcium phosphate2 h5ce ?is is always pres5t 9 bone-glues4 ,gelat9 & "s ( its decomposition products are precipitat$ by metaphosphoric acid4#da ,! precipitate conta9s ab\t #g p] c5t4 ,p,o1 b gradually loses x on wa%+4 ,v>i\s salts dim9i% ! solubility ( gelat9 9 hot wat]1 & especially ^? ( ! alum type4 ,*rome alum & basic *rome salts are especially p[]ful1 r5d]+ x practically insoluble4 ,! addition ( ab\t #c p] c5t4 ammonium or potassium di*romate causes glue or gelat9 to become insoluble by ! action ( light ) ! =mation ( basic salts ( *romium1 & has be5 utilis$ 9 photography & z a wat]pro( cem5t4 ,o!r colloids besides gelat9 are simil>ly affect$4 #da ,lor5z1 ,pflg]'s ,ar*iv1 xlvii4 pp4 #ahi-aie4 ,gelat9 is precipitat$ by all tann9s1 ev5 f v dilute solutions2 "o conta9+ only #jb grm4 p] lit] is r5d]$ di/9ctly turbid by gallotannic acid or infusion ( gall-nuts2 b "s o!r tann9s give a less s5sitive reaction4 ,! precipitate is soluble to a consid]able ext5t 9 excess ( gelat91 s t 9 us+ ! latt] z a te/ = traces ( tann9 c>e mu/ be tak5 to add a v small quantity only4 ,! addition ( a little alum r5d]s ! reaction m delicate4 ,:e!r ! precipitate is a def9ite *emical comp\nd has be5 disput$1 z its composition v>ies accord+ to :e!r gelat9 or tann9 is 9 excess4 ,btt+]#db /ates t ! precipitate produc$ by add+ gelat9 to excess ( gallotannic acid conta9s #ajg p] c5t4 ( nitrog51 indicat+ ! pres5ce ( #ff p] c5t4 ( gelat9 on ! assumption t gelat9 conta9s #afe p] c5t4 ,n 7see p4 #eg74 ,dige/$ ) wat] at #acj ,c41 ! precipitate is decompos$1 yield+ a solution :i* precipitates tann91 & probably indicat+ ! =mation ( a m acid comp\nd4 ,gelat9 ) excess ( oak-b>k tann9 gives a precipitate conta9+ #ie p] c5t4 ( nitrog51 correspond+ to #ege p] c5t4 ( gelat94 ,treat$ ) wat] at #aej ,c41 ?is precipitate yield$ ?ree products3 "o soluble 9 cold wat]1 ano!r 9 hot only & "o insoluble4 ,on addition ( a solution ( =maldehyde 7=mal97 to "o ( gelat9 no visible action takes place 9 ! cold1 unless ! solution ( gelat9 be v conc5trat$ & alkal9e1 b on heat+1 ! gelat9 is r5d]$ insoluble ow+ to ! =mation ( a comp\nd ) ! =maldehyde4 ,f ! v small am\nt ( =mal9 :i* is requir$ to produce =mo-gelat9 x is v d\btful if ?is is a def9ite comp\nd4 #db ,liebig's ,ann4 d] ,*41 ccxliv4 pp4 #bbg-cb4 ,weiske#dc /ates t bone-gelat91 c>efully fre$ f all m9]al matt]1 is n precipitat$ by tann9 till a trace ( a salt 7e4 g4 sodium *loride7 is add$4 ,s f> z is kn[n1 bone-gelat9 is id5tical ) t ( sk94 #dc ,bi$4 ,c5tr41 #ahhc1 p4 #fgc4 ,*ondr9 is ! gelat9\s body produc$ by ! dige/ion ( c>tilage ) wat] at #abj ,c4 = ?ree h\rs4 ,9 mo/ ( its physical prop]ties x is id5tical ) gelat91 b diff]s f ! latt] 9 be+ precipitat$ f its solution 9 wat] by acetic acid1 lead acetate1 alum1 & ! m9]al acids :5 ! latt] are n pres5t 9 excess4 ,*ondr9 also diff]s f gelat9 9 produc+ a sub/ance capable ( easily r$uc+ cupric oxide :5 x is boil$ = "s "t ) dilute m9]al acids4 ,x is extremely probable t *ondr9 is m]ely an impure gelat9e4#dd #dd ,cp4 ,petri1 ,b]i*te1 xii4 p4 #bfg2 ,mrn]1 ,sk&4 ,ar*iv f4 ,physiol41 i4 pp4 #baj-bdc2 & ,j\rn4 ,*em4 ,soc41 #ahhi1 ,a4 p4 #gcf & ,zeit4 ,physiol4 ,*em41 #ahie1 xx4 pp4 #ceg-cfd2 & ,j\rn4 ,*em4 ,soc41 #ahie1 ,a4 i4 p4 #bed4 ,see also ,ri*t]1 ,org4 ,*em41 i4 p4 #eei4 ,cori94--,rollet#de has %[n t :5 hide & o!r =ms ( connective tissue are soak$ 9 lime- or b>yta-wat]1 ! fibres become split up into f9] fibrils1 & z ! action proce$s1 ^! aga9 sep>ate into /ill f9] ones1 till ! ultimate fibrils are s f9e z to be only di/+ui%$ "u a p[]ful microscope4 ,at ! same "t1 ! alkal9e solution dissolves ! sub/ance :i* cem5t$ ! fibres toge!r1 & ?is may be recov]$ by neutralis+ ! solution ) acetic acid1 :5 ! sub/ance is ?r[n d[n z a floccul5t precipitate4 ,?is 0 consid]$ by ,rollet to be an album9oid sub/ance2 b ,reim]#df has %[n t x is mu* m closely alli$ to ! gelat9\s fibres1 &1 inde$1 is probably produc$ f !m by ! action ( ! alkal9e solution4 ,reim] us$ lim$ calf-sk9 = 8 exp]im5ts1 & subject$ x to prolong$ cleans+ ) di/ill$ wat]1 s t all soluble p>ts mu/ h be5 pretty ?or\ghly remov$ be=eh&4 ,he !n dige/$ x 9 clos$ glasses ) lime-wat] = #g-h days1 & precipitat$ ! cle> solution ) dilute acetic acid4 ,he f\nd t ! same portion ( hide might be us$ aga9 & aga91 )\t becom+ exhau/$1 :i* /rongly supports ! supposition t ! sub/ance is m]ely a product ( a p>tial decomposition ( ! hide-fibre1 & inde$ t !re is no di/9ct 8cem5t+ sub/ance10 b m]ely a diff]5ce 9 ! hydration or physical condition ( ! fibre sub/ance :i* causes x to split m readily 9 c]ta9 directions4 ,! dissolv$ sub/ance1 :i* he call$ 8cori910 0 purifi$ by repeat$ solution 9 lime-wat] & reprecipitation by acetic acid4 ,x 0 readily soluble 9 alkal9e solutions b n 9 dilute acids1 ?\gh 9 "s cases x became s swoll5 & f9ely divid$ z to appe> almo/ z if dissolv$4 ,x 01 h[ev]1 v soluble 9 common salt solution ( ab\t #aj p] c5t41 f :i* x 0 precipitat$ bo? by ! addition ( mu* wat] & by saturat+ ! solution ) salt4 ,reim] f\nd t a #aj p] c5t4 salt solution 0 equally effective ) lime-wat] 9 extract+ cori9 f ! hide1 & t x 0 p>tially precipitat$ on ! addition ( acid1 & completely s on saturat+ ! acidifi$ solution ) salt4 ,o!r salts ( ! alkalies & alkal9e e>?s act$ 9 a simil> mann]1 s t ,reim] 0 at fir/ deceiv$ :5 exp]im5t+ ) b>yta-wat]1 because1 be+ m conc5trat$ ?an lime-wat]1 ! cori9 rema9$ dissolv$ 9 ! b>ium salt =m$ on neutralis+ ) acid1 & x 0 necess>y to dilute be=e a precipitate c\ld be obta9$4 ,! slightly acid solution ( cori9 gave no precipitate ei!r 9 ! cold or on boil+ ) potassium f]rocyanide1 be+ ?us di/+ui%$ f album9oids4 ,! neutral or alkal9e solution %[$ no precipitate ) iron or m]curic *loride1 copp] sulphate1 or ) neutral lead acetate2 b ) basic lead acetate1 basic iron sulphate1 or an excess ( tann9 a precipitate 0 produc$4 ,reim]'s analysis %[$3 ,c>bon1 #deia2 hydrog51 #feg2 nitrog51 #aghb2 oxyg51 #bifj2 & he gives a =mula %[+ its relation to ! orig9al fibre1 :i* does n seem support$ by suffici5t evid5ce4 ,9 all probability cori9 is m]ely an impure degradation-product ( hide-fibre or gelat94 #de ,sitz4 ,wi5] ,akad41 xxxix4 p4 #cje4 #df ,d+4 ,polyt4 ,j\rn41 ccv4 p4 #aec4 ,hide ,album94--,! fre% hide conta9s a portion ( actual album91 viz4 t ( ! blood-s]um & ( ! lymph1 :i* is n only conta9$ 9 ! abundant blood-vessels1 b saturates ! fibr\s connective tissue1 ( :i* x =ms ! n\ri%m5t4 ,?is album9 is mo/ly remov$ f ! sk9 by ! lim+ & work+ on ! beam1 :i* is prep>atory to tann+4 ,probably = sole-lea!r1 ! album9 itself w\ld be r advantage\s if left 9 ! hide1 z x comb9es ) tann91 & w\ld assi/ 9 giv+ firmness & weight to ! lea!r4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 = reasons :i* w be se5 h]eaft]1 absolutely necess>y to get rid ( any lime :i* may be 9 comb9ation ) x4 ,! blood mu/ also be ?or\ghly cleans$ f ! hide be=e tann+1 z its col\r+ matt] conta9s iron1 :i*1 by comb9ation ) ! tann91 produces a bad col\r4 ,! album9s =m a class ( closely alli$ bodies ( :i* :ite ( egg may be tak5 z a type4 ,!y are also relat$ to ! case9 ( milk1 to fibr91 & m di/antly to gelat94 ,a good deal ( in=mation on ! class may be f\nd 9 ,watt's ,dict4 ( ,*em41 #bnd ed41 article #8,proteids1' & ,beil/e9's article #8,album9at51' & 9 ,all5's #8,comm]cial ,organic ,analysis1' vol4 iv4 ,! mo/ *>act]i/ic prop]ty ( album9s is t ( coagulation by heat4 ,! temp]ature at :i* ?is takes place diff]s some:at 9 diff]5t memb]s ( ! gr\p1 egg & s]um album9 coagulat+ at #gb-gc ,c4 ,dry album9s become insoluble if heat$ to #aaj ,c4 = "s "t4 ,traces ( acid t5d slightly to l[]1 & traces ( alkali to raise ! temp]ature ( coagulation4 ,sodium *loride & "s o!r neutral salts fav\r coagulation4 ,solutions ( album9 become opalesc5t at a temp]ature slightly bel[ t at :i* flakes =m4 ,album9s are also coagulat$ by alcohol & by /rong m9]al acids4 ,coagulat$ album9 is only soluble 9 /rong acids & alkalies by aid ( heat1 & /rongly resembles k]at9 7pp4 #ef1 #fh74 ,solutions ( album9 are lvorotatory to pol>is$ light4 8,acid0 & 8,alkali0 ,album9s are =m$ by ! action1 9 ! cold1 ( dilute acids 7su* z acetic1 hydro*loric7 & alkalies on album9 solution4 ,!y are uncoagulable by heat1 & are precipitat$ by c>eful neutralisation1 b are soluble 9 excess ( ei!r acid or alkali1 or alkal9e c>bonates4 ,!y are ?r[n out ( solution by saturation ) sodium *loride or magnesium sulphate4 ,x is d\btful :e!r album9s comb9e ) ei!r acids or bases1 & x is probable t ! 8acid0 or 8alkali0 album9s are id5tical ) ! p>apeptones =m$ 9 ! fir/ /age ( peptic dige/ion4 ,on putrefaction1 or on m sev]e treatm5t ) acids & alkalies1 album9s break d[n 9 a way simil> to gelat91 & yield almo/ id5tical products 7see p4 #eg72 amido-acids ( ! acetic s]ies1 & tyros9 7p>a-oxy--amido-ph5yl-propionic acid7 & asp>tic 7amido-succ9ic7 acid1 be+ ! mo/ important4 ,treatm5t ) alcoholic soda 7see p4 #fb7 yields peptones simil> to ^? ( gelat94#dg #dg ,paal1 ,*4 ,zeit41 #ahie1 p4 #adhg4 ,heat$ = "s days ) dilute nitric acid 7#a 3 #b7 all proteids1 includ+ album9s1 gelat9 & k]at9s1 yield yell[ flocks ( 8xan?o-proteic acid10 a sub/ance ( some:at indef9ite composition1 soluble 9 ammonia & 9 fix$ cau/ic alkalies ) production ( an orange-r$ or br[ni%-r$ col\r4 ,millon's reag5t gives an int5se r$ coloration :5 heat$ ) album9s1 k]at9s1 or gelat94 ,! reag5t is made by dissolv+ #be grm4 ( m]cury 9 #bj c4c4 ( conc5trat$ nitric acid1 add+ #ej c4c4 ( wat]1 all[+ to settle & !n decant+ ! cle> liquid4 ,album9s1 previ\sly purifi$ by boil+ ) alcohol & wa%+ ) e!r1 :5 dissolv$ 9 conc5trat$ hydro*loric acid 7sp4 gr4 #aaif7 by aid ( heat1 give a violet-blue coloration1 b ! reaction is (t5 some:at indef9ite4 ,gelat91 *ondr9 & k]at9s d n give ?is reaction4 ,treat$ ) a trace ( cupric sulphate & excess ( cau/ic pota% solution1 album9s give a violet1 & gelat9 & peptones a p9k solution 7biuret reaction74 ,dissolv$ 9 glacial acetic acid & treat$ ) conc5trat$ sulphuric acid1 album9s & peptones give a violet & feebly fluoresc5t solution4 ,a some:at simil> reaction is obta9$ if sug> solution be sub/itut$ = acetic acid4 ,a solution ( album9 r5d]$ /rongly acid ) acetic acid is precipitat$ by potassium f]rocyanide1 salt1 sodium sulphate1 lead acetate1 m]curic *loride1 tann9 & picric & tung/ic acids4 ,egg-,album9 is conta9$ 9 ! :ites ( eggs 9 membranes :i* are brok5 up by beat+ ) wat] & c !n be remov$ by filtration4 ,:5 fre% its reaction is slightly alkal9e1 & x is lvorotatory4 ,accord+ to ,lehmann1 :ite ( egg conta9s #hg p] c5t4 ( wat]1 & #ac p] c5t4 ( solid matt]1 ! latt] be+ almo/ entirely compos$ ( egg-album94 ,?is latt] coagulates & becomes insoluble 9 wat] on heat+ to #fj ,c4 ,vitell9 7! album9 or globul9#dh ( ! yolk7 is insoluble 9 wat]1 & is obta9$ z a :ite granul> residue on extract+ undri$ egg-yolk ) l>ge quantities ( e!r4 ,x closely resembles myos91 ! *ief globul9 ( muscle1 b diff]s f o!r globul9s 9 be+ soluble 9 a saturat$ solution ( common salt4 ,a neutral solution ( vitell9 9 v dilute br9e coagulates at #gj-ge ,c4 #dh ,globul9 is an album9 soluble 9 dilute salt solutions1 b insoluble 9 wat]4 ,yolks ( eggs1 pres]v$ by ! addition ( salt1 borax1 or =mal91 are us$ = dress+ sk9s 9 ! process ( 8taw+0 7see p4 #aia74 ,= ! analysis ( su* yolks1 see ,l4,i4,l4,b41 p4 #aei4 ,_! mo/ important con/itu5t = ! lea!r-dress] is egg-oil ( :i* !y conta9 ab\t #cj p] c5t4 ,case91 ! pr9cipal proteid ( milk1 may be m5tion$ "h 9 connection ) ! album9s to :i* x is closely relat$1 s9ce1 ?\gh 9 no way connect$ ) ! animal sk91 s9ce x is us$ to "s ext5t z a 8season+0 or glaze = lea!r1 = :i* x is well adapt$1 & x is n[ to a consid]able ext5t a wa/e product ( butt] manufacture4 ,x diff]s f album9s 9 be+ v incompletely if at all coagulat$ by boil+1 b sep>ates at once 9 curdy flakes on ! addition ( acids 7hydro*loric1 acetic1 butyric71 & by ! action ( r5net4 ,! curd is easily soluble 9 small quantities ( dilute alkalies1 lime-wat]1 & salts ( alkal9e reaction1 su* z sodium c>bonate & borax4 ,if no m ?an ! necess>y quantity ( alkali is employ$ = solution1 ! comp\nd has an acid reaction to ph5olph?ale91 & l ! orig9al milk1 is curdl$ by r5net & dilute acids4 ,case9 may also be dissolv$ by dige/ion ) dilut$ m9]al or organic acids4 ,hair1 ,epid]mis & ,gl&s4--,^! are all d]iv$ f ! epi!lial lay]1 & h5ce1 z might be inf]r$1 h mu* 9 common 9 _! *emical con/itution4 ,!y are all class$ by *emi/s "u "o "n1 8k]at910 or horny tissue1 & _! ultimate analysis %[s t 9 elem5t>y composition !y closely resemble ! album9s4 ,x is evid5t1 h[ev]1 t ! horny tissues are a class r ?an a s+le comp\nd4 ,! k]at9s are gradually loos5$ by prolong$ soak+ 9 wat]1 &1 by cont9u$ boil+ 9 a ,pap9's dige/] at #afj ,c41 evolve sulphurett$ hydrog51 at ! same "t dissolv+ to a turbid solution :i* does n gelat9ise on cool+4 ,k]at9 is dissolv$ by cau/ic alkalies2 ! epid]mis & ! s(t] horny tissues are easily attack$1 :ile hair & horn require /rong solutions & ! aid ( heat to effect complete solution4 ,! cau/ic alkal9e e>?s act 9 ! same mann] z dilute alkal9e solutions2 h5ce lime easily attacks ! epid]mis1 & loos5s ! hair1 b does n readily de/roy ! latt]4 ,alkal9e sulphides1 on ! o!r h&1 seem to attack ! h>d] tissues ) at lea/ ! same facility z ! s(t ones1 ! hair be+ (t5 completely dis9tegrat$1 :ile ! epid]mis is /ill almo/ intact2 h5ce _! applicability to unhair+ by de/ruction ( ! hair4 ,k]at9s give ! xan?oproteic reaction ) nitric acid1 & a r$ coloration ) ,millon's reag5t1 & also resemble album91 9 ! fact t !y are precipitat$ f _! solution 9 sulphuric acid by potassium f]rocyanide4 ,by fusion ) pota%1 or prolong$ boil+ ) dilute sulphuric acid1 k]at9 is decompos$1 yield+ leuc91 tyros91 ammonia1 etc4 ,! precipitate produc$ by ! addition ( acids to alkal9e solution ( k]at9 7hair1 horns1 etc471 mix$ ) oil & b>ium sulphate1 has be5 employ$ by ,dr4 ,putz z a fill+ mat]ial = lea!r1 = :i* purpose x acts 9 ! same way z ! egg-yolks & fl\r us$ 9 kid-lea!r manufacture4 ,eitn] attempt$ to use x = ! same purpose ) b>k-tann$ lea!r1 b )\t mu* success4 ,putz has also propos$ to precipitate ! mat]ial aft] fir/ work+ its solution into ! pores ( ! lea!r4 ,ela/ic ,fibres4--,! ela/ic or yell[ fibres ( ! hide are ( a v /able "*4 ,!y are n completely dissolv$ ev5 by prolong$ boil+1 & acetic acid & hot solutions ( cau/ic alkalies sc>cely attack !m4 ,!y d n appe> to comb9e ) tann91 & are v little *ang$ 9 ! tann+ process4 ,!y are pres5t 9 hide & sk9 to ! ext5t ( less ?an "o p] c5t4 ,analytical ,me?ods4--,! reactions di/+ui%+ ! pr9cipal sk9 con/itu5ts are summ>is$ 9 ! foll[+ table3-- ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,reag5t4 ,gelat94 ,album9s4 ,k]at9s4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,cold wat] ,swells only ,soluble ,insoluble4 ,heat$ 9 wat] ,soluble ,coagulate at ,soluble only at #gbto #ge ,c4 temp4 ov] #ajj ,c4 ,acetic acid & potassium f]ro- ,no precipitate,precipitate ,precipitate cyanide to aque- ous solution ,millon's reag5t ,no reaction ,r$ coloration ,r$ coloration4 ,hot conc5trat$ ,no coloration ,violet blue ,no coloration4 hydro*loric acid ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,!re is no simple me?od = ! quantitative sep>ation ( ! diff]5t con/itu5ts ( sk94 ,x is1 !re=e1 cu/om>y to simply det]m9e ! am\nt ( nitrog5 :i* any p>ticul> portion ( ! mat]ial may conta91 &1 z gelat9\s fibre1 :i* con/itutes by f> ! great] portion ( ! true sk91 conta9s #agh p] c5t4 ( nitrog51 to base ! e/imation ( ! am\nt ( sk9 pres5t ^u ?is figure 7see p4 #eg74 ,! mo/ conv5i5t process = ! det]m9ation ( ! nitrog5 is t devis$ by ,kjeldahl1 :i* is mo/ easily c>ri$ out z foll[s3-- ,a kn[n weight ( ! sub/ance :i* conta9s ab\t #ja gram ( nitrog5 7#je gram ( sk91 or a correspond+ quantity ( liquor7 is plac$ 9 a flask ( ,j5a glass1 capable ( hold+ #ejj-gjj c4c4 toge!r ) #ae c4c4 ( conc5trat$ sulphuric acid4 ,! cont5ts ( ! flask are !n boil$ ov] a small ,buns5 flame = #ae m9utes1 or m1 until all ! wat] has be5 driv5 (f & ! mat]ial is q dis9tegrat$2 & are !n all[$ to cool bel[ #ajj4 #aj grams ( dry p[d]$ potassium p]sulphate is n[ add$1 & ! boil+ cont9u$ till ! liquid has become col\rless4 ,! op]ation ( boil+ %\ld be conduct$ 9 a good draught1 or 9 ! op5 air4 ,be=e ! sub/ance has begun to *> x is advisable to place a small funnel 9 ! neck ( ! flask to prev5t1 z f> z possible1 spirt+ & loss ( sulphuric acid4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ah4--,kjeldahl ,app>atus4 ,! col\rless liquid is all[$ to cool ?or\ghly1 & ! flask is !n fitt$ ) a tapp$ funnel & tube1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #ah4 ,?is tube mu/ n be less ?an #d mm4 9 diamet]1 & ) ! end 9 ! flask cut diagonally to facilitate drops ( liquid fall+ back aga9 into ! flask4 ,x rises obliquely = a height ( #ab to #ae in*es1 is !n b5t ov] z %[n 9 ! figure & connect$ by a rubb] tube#di to a #ajj c4c4 pipette1 or simil>ly %ap$ tube1 ! o!r end ( :i* dips j bel[ ! surface ( a volume ( exactly #ej c4c4 ( 8normal0 hydro*loric acid conta9$ 9 a second flask4 ,ab\t #ej c4c4 ( di/ill$ wat] is introduc$ into ! flask conta9+ ! treat$ sample1 & aft] ?is #ajj c4c4 ( a solution ( #ej grams ( cau/ic soda 9 #ajj c4c4 ( wat] is c>efully & sl[ly run into ! flask by means ( ! tapp$ funnel ) :i* x is provid$4 ,! cont5ts ( ! flask are n[ boil$ = ab\t half an h\r1#ej ! normal acid 9 ! receiv+ flask be+ kept cool by imm]s+ ! latt] 9 cold wat]4 ,! liquid 9 ?is second flask is !n titrat$ ) normal sodium c>bonate1 us+ me?yl orange z indicator4 ,! diff]5ce 9 c4c4 betwe5 #ej c4c41 ! volume ( acid us$1 & ! quantity ( normal sodium c>bonate requir$ to neutralise x1 :5 multipli$ by #jjad repres5ts ! am\nt ( nitrog5 79 grams7 9 ! weight ( ! sub/ance us$ = ! det]m9ation2 or if multipli$ by #jjghf %[s ! weight ( hide-fibre 9 ! same quantity ( mat]ial4 ,"s *emi/s add copp] sulphate1 or a drop ( m]cury be=e boil+ up ! sub/ance ) ! /rong sulphuric acid1 b ! use ( su* sub/ances introduces complications 9 ! process )\t1 9 ! case ( gelat9\s matt]1 secur+ m accurate results4 ,x is absolutely necess>y t ! acids & alkali us$ %\ld be free f ammonia1 & a blank exp]im5t %\ld be made us+ pure sug> :i* conta9s no nitrog51 & a correction appli$ if necess>y = ! ammonia !y conta94#ea #di ,! ends ( ! glass tubes %\ld fit closely toge!r1 s z to expose ! rubb] z little z possible to ! action ( ammoniacal vap\r4 #ej 8,bump+0 is (t5 v tr\blesome at ?is /age1 & may be prev5t$ by pass+ a curr5t ( /eam f ano!r flask1 or ammonia-free air ?r\gh a tube ) a capill>y op5+ into ! boil+ liquid2 fragm5ts ( pure z9c1 ( plat9um1 or brok5 tobacco-pipe are mu* less effici5t4 ,x is an additional safegu>d aga9/ ! escape ( ammonia to fix a small absorption-tube conta9+ fragm5ts ( glass to ! absorption-flask4 ,! normal acid is run ?r\gh ?is tube into ! flask1 s z to wet ! brok5 glass1 & is f9ally r9s$ into ! absorption flask be=e titrat+ its cont5ts4 #ea ,cp4 ,proct] & ,turnbull1 ,j\r4 ,soc4 ,*em4 ,ind41 #aijj1 p4 #acj2 also ,nih\l1 ,composition des ,cuirs ,belges1 p4 #ad 7,b\rse aux ,cuirs de ,lige1 ,sept4 #aija71 :o advocates ! use ( potassium p]manganate 9 ! oxidation2 & ,law 7,j\r4 ,soc4 ,*4 ,ind41 #aijb1 p4 #hdg74 ,9 place ( us+ #aj grm4 ( potassium p]sulphate z describ$1 #aj grm4 ( ord9>y potassium sulphate may be us$1 & potassium p]sulphate add$ 9 small quantities t[>ds ! end ( ! op]ation till a p]fectly col\rless solution is obta9$4 ,,*apt] ,,ix4 ,,! ,,physical ,,*emi/ry ,,( ,,! ,,hide-,,fibre4 ,! nature ( ! *anges :i* take place 9 ! conv]sion ( raw hide into lea!r1 & ! causes ( swell+ & 8fall+0 9 ! v>i\s /ages ( ! wet-"w & tannage are among ! mo/ difficult problems ) :i* we h to deal1 & no intelligible explanation c be giv5 )\t tak+ into acc\nt facts :i* are among ! mo/ rec5t discov]ies ( physical *emi/ry2 & ( :i* ev5 yet our k is by no means complete4 ,we "k f our /udy ( ! /ructure ( hide1 t x consi/s 9 its natural /ate ( gelat9\s fibres :i* are s(t & swoll5 ) wat]1 & easy putrescible4 ,:5 ^! are dri$1 !y contract & adh]e to ea* o!r1 =m+ a h>d & almo/ homog5e\s mass1 resembl+ 9 degree1 a %eet ( glue or gelat9e4 ,aft] ! tann+ process1 ! fibres are *ang$ 9 "*1 ?\gh n 9 =m2 !y no long] absorb wat] s freely1 & 9 dry+ !y d n adh]e toge!r1 b rema9 deta*$ & capable ( indep5d5t movem5t4 ,! lea!r is !re=e por\s1 flexible1 & opaque on acc\nt ( ! scatt]+ ( light f ! surfaces ( ! fibres1 al?\gh ! individual fibres are transluc5t4 ,at ! same "t1 *emical *anges h tak5 place :i* r5d] ! fibres incapable ( ord9>y putrefaction4 ,our fir/ necessity1 !re=e1 9 ! conv]sion ( sk9 into lea!r is to dry ! fibres )\t all[+ !m to adh]e4 ,?is is accompli%$ 9 ! mo/ primitive mode ( lea!r dress+1 by me*anically work+ fatty sub/ances into ! sk9 z x sl[ly dries1 s z to coat & isolate ! fibres1 :i* are loos5$ by knead+ & /ret*+2 :ile at ! same "t ! fat =ms a wat]pro( coat+ :i* prev5ts !m f aga9 absorb+ ! wat] :i* is necess>y to putrefaction4 ,simil> results may be produc$ by caus+ *emical *anges 9 ! fibres !mselves1 :i* r5d] !m insoluble 9 wat]1 & consequ5tly non-adhesive2 & a sort ( lea!r may ev5 be made by m]ely replac+ ! wat] betwe5 ! fibres ) /rong alcohol1 9 :i* !y are insoluble1 & :i* absorbs & )draws ! wat] f !m1 all[+ !m to %r9k & h>d51 :ile prev5t+ _! adhesion4 ,! m]it ( hav+ fir/ cle>ly se5 & express$ ^! c>d9al pr9ciples 9 lea!r production belongs to ! n[ v5]able ,pr(essor ,knapp1 :o publi%$ 9 #aheh a %ort pap] 7,natur und ,wes5 d] ,g]b]ei und des ,l$]s7 :i* is a model ( cle> explanation & practical exp]im5t4 ,knapp1 h[ev]1 deals ma9ly ) ! *anges 9 ! condition ( ! fibre :i* are necess>y to conv]t x into lea!r1 & n ) _! physical causes2 & be=e we c expla9 ! means by :i* ^! *anges are br\ght ab\t1 we mu/ be acqua9t$ ) c]ta9 facts & !ories ab\t solutions :i* h become mu* cle>] s9ce he wrote4 ,! p>ticles 7molecules7 ( all sub/ances are drawn toge!r by attractive =ces some:at ( ! same "* z ! attraction ( gravitation :i* holds toge!r ! sol> sy/em1 & :i* is ! cause ( weight4 ,x is inde$ ev5 possible t ^! =ces are id5tical4 ,l gravitation1 ^! molecul> attractions increase rapidly 9 int5sity z ! di/ance ( ! attract+ bodies dim9i%es1 s t 9 solids & liquids1 :]e ! molecules are ne> toge!r1 !y are imm5sely p[]ful1 :ile 9 gases & vap\rs !y are b>ely p]ceptible4 ,^! attractions are oppos$ by ! motion ( heat1 :i* takes ! same "p 9 molecul> physics :i* ! en]gy ( planet>y motion does 9 ! sol> sy/em4 ,9 solids1 ! attractive =ces hold ! molecules rigidly 9 position1 ! motion ( heat be+ limit$ to %ort vibrations r\nd a fix$ po9t1 ! effects ( :i* are visible 9 ! expansion caus$ by ris+ temp]ature4 ,if ! temp]ature is increas$1 mo/ sub/ances become liquid1 a condition 9 :i* ! p>ticles c roll r\nd ea* o!r1 b are /ill held toge!r by _! mutual attractions1 z ! sun holds ! e>? f fly+ (f into space4 ,if ! temp]ature goes on ris+1 ! orbits ( ! molecules become great]1 ! liquid exp&s1 & f9ally molecules fly (f at a tang5t out ( rea* ( ! attractions ( ! mass ( liquid1 & are only div]t$ f _! c\rse by collid+ ) solids or ) o!r fly+ molecules1 f :i* !y reb\nd4 ,?is con/itutes ! /ate ( vap\r or gas4 ,! molecules usually consi/ ( gr\ps ( atoms4 ,?us 9 ! vap\r ( wat]1 ea* molecule conta9s "o atom ( oxyg5 comb9$ ) two ( hydrog51 & x is only at imm5se temp]atures t ?is inn] gr\p+ is brok5 up4 ,naturally1 ! m complicat$ & heavi] ! molecul> gr\p1 ! m easily x is brok5 up by outside causes into simpl] gr\p+s1 & molecules may exi/ 9 liquids or solids1 :i* break up be=e !y rea* ! gase\s =m4 ,( su* sub/ances ! *emi/ says t !y 8_c be volatilis$ )\t decomposition40 ,9 v r>e in/ances does ! gase\s molecule consi/ ( a s+le atom2 ev5 ^? ( ! mo/ p]fect gases1 su* z hydrog51 oxyg5 & nitrog5 consi/ ( pairs :i* are n brok5 up at any kn[n temp]ature4 ,! pressure ( a gas1 & its t5d5cy to exp& is due simply to ! motion & impact ( its fly+ molecules1 & x may be not$ t at ! same temp]ature & pressure equal volumes ( all gases h ! same numb] ( molecules1 ! light] molecules mak+ up = _! want ( weight by _! great] velocity4 ,! av]age velocity ( a molecule ( oxyg5 7,o7 at freez+ po9t is #dfa met]s p] second or ab\t t ( a rifle-bullet4 ,x mu/ n be tak5 h[ev]1 t 9 any giv5 solid1 liquid1 or gas1 all ! molecules at any temp]ature move at a uni=m velocity1 b t ea* individual molecule may v>y f mom5t to mom5t f re/ up to a v high spe$1 :ile ! temp]ature ( ! mass only repres5ts ! av]age4 ,?us x happ5s t 9 all liquids1 & ev5 9 solids1 a c]ta9 proportion ( ! molecules at any temp]ature w h a spe$ suffici5t to enable !m to leave ! surface1 & take ! =m ( vap\r1 :ile a c]ta9 proportion w fall back & be caught & reta9$4 ,?us e liquid1 & !oretically e solid1 has a 8vap\r-pressure10 ris+ ) ! temp]ature1 & dep5d+ on x only1 & at ! boil+ temp]ature ( ! liquid equal to t ( ! atmosph]e1 or ab\t #ae lb4 p] squ>e in*1 & !re=e able to =m bubbles 9 ! int]ior ( ! liquid4 ,if a little ( a liquid is conf9$ 9 a flask1 ! flask w become fill$ ) its vap\r1 & s long z any ( ! liquid is pres5t1 ! pressure ( ! vap\r w dep5d only on ! temp]ature & n at all on ! respective quantities ( liquid or vap\r4 ,nei!r w x be affect$ by ! pressure ( o!r vap\rs or gases pres5t 9 ! flask1 ! total pressure 9 :i* w be ! sum ( ! 8p>tial0 pressures ( all ! gases & vap\rs pres5t4#eb #eb ,cp4 p4 #dba4 ,! behavi\r ( gases & vap\rs has be5 describ$ 9 "s detail because x possesses v close analogy to t ( sub/ances 9 solution4 ,! molecules ( liquids are held toge!r by attractions :i* are v p[]ful ov] ! %ort di/ances :i* sep>ate !m1 am\nt+ 9 mo/ cases to _m tons p] squ>e c5timet] ( sectional area1 b ! range ov] :i* !y act is v small4 ,9 ! int]ior ( ! liquid ! attractions on "o side ( a molecule are ( c\rse exactly balanc$ by ^? on ! opposite side1 s t x is free to move )9 ! liquid )\t h9drance1 b at ! surface a v small "p ( ! =ce due to ! attractions ( ! surface-lay] is unbalanc$ & acts z a sort ( ela/ic sk9 hold+ ! liquid toge!r1 & is call$ 8surface-t5sion40 ,famili> examples ( ?is are f\nd 9 ! =ce :i* supports a drop on ! end ( a tube1 ! possibility ( lay+ a slightly oily ne$le on ! surface ( wat] )\t s9k+1 & ! ability ( "s flies to walk on wat] z if x 7 cov]$ ) a %eet ( india-rubb]4 ,_m liquids w mix or dissolve 9 ea* o!r 9 any proportions1 e4g4 wat] & alcohol2 ! attraction ( ! alcohol = ! wat]-molecule be+ z great or great] ?an t ( alcohol = alcohol1 or wat] = wat]4 ,9 o!r cases1 su* z wat] & oil1 or wat] & petroleum _s1 practically no mixture takes place1 _! mutual attraction be+ small2 & ea* reta9s a consid]able surface-t5sion at ! po9ts ( contact1 ?\gh less ?an t ( ! free surfaces1 s9ce ea* ex]ts an attraction on ! o!r4 ,!re are also _m int]m$iate cases1 su* z wat] ) *lor(orm1 c>bolic acid1 or e!r1 9 :i* ea* solv5t dissolves a portion ( ! o!r1 b ! two solutions d n mix1 b =m sep>ate lay]s4 ,9 ^! cases an equilibrium is atta9$1 9 :i* !re is j z mu* t5d5cy = ei!r ( ! liquids to pass into z out ( ! o!r lay]4 ,9 ?is !re is an extraord9>y resemblance to :at has be5 said ( vap\r-pressures2 & ! t5d5cy to pass into solution is (t5 call$ solution-pressure2 & x may be not$ t :5 equilibrium has be5 rea*$1 n only is ! solution-pressure1 b ! vap\r-pressure ( ea* con/itu5t equal 9 bo? solutions4 ,l vap\r-pressures1 ! solution-pressures usually increase ) rise ( temp]ature1 m ( ea* con/itu5t pass+ into ! o!r1 till at la/ ! composition ( ! two lay]s becomes id5tical1 _! surface-t5sions disappe>1 & complete mixture takes place4 ,) ph5ol 7c>bolic acid7 & wat] ?is takes place at ab\t #gj ,c4 ,mo/ ( :at has be5 said ( ! mutual solution ( liquids is also true ( ! solution ( solids1 b ! latt] may be divid$ into two v di/9ct classes1 colloids & cry/alloids 7:i*1 h[ev]1 %ade (f into ea* o!r74 ,! colloid or gluey bodies are mo/ly miscible 9 any proportion ) liquids 9 :i* !y dissolve1 & !re is no su* ?+ z a def9ite po9t ( saturation4 ,!re are h[ev] "s :i* =m jellies :i* h great analogy to ! p>tially miscible liquids2 !re is a mutual solubility1 a portion ( ! solid dissolv+ to a liquid solution1 :ile ! rema9d] ( ! liquid dissolves 9 ! solid1 increas+ its volume1 b /ill reta9+ ! *>act]i/ics ( ! solid /ate4 ,z ! temp]ature is rais$1 ?is mutual solubility g5]ally increases1 till at a giv5 po9t ! jelly melts1 & complete solution takes place1 z 9 ! case ( p>tially miscible liquids4 ,^! ph5om5a are ( prime importance 9 ! !ory ( tann+1 b _! fur!r consid]ation mu/ be def]r$ till a few words h be5 said ab\t ! cry/alloids4 ,^! are *>act]is$ by regul> cry/all9e =m1 indicat+ t ! attractive =ces ( _! molecules are ex]t$ 9 def9ite directions1 giv+ !m a t5d5cy to atta* !mselves toge!r 9 def9ite geometrical arrangem5ts4 ,!y dissolve 9 !mselves no "p ( ! solv5t1 b are dissolv$ by x till an equilibrium is rea*$ 9 :i* ! t5d5cy ( fur!r p>ticles ( ! solid to pass into ! solv5t is balanc$ by t ( ^? already dissolv$ to atta* !mselves to ! rema9+ solid1 or 8cry/allise out40 ,su* a solution is 8saturat$0 ) respect to ! solid residue1 b ! ^w has no mean+ unless solid cry/als are pres5t1 & :]e a body has1 z sometimes happ5s1 m ?an "o cry/all9e =m1 a solution may be saturat$ ) reg>d to "o ( !m1 & m or less ?an saturat$ ) reg>d to ano!r4 ,9 8sup]saturat$0 solutions1 cry/allisation is at once />t$ by ! addition ( a 8se$0 cry/al ( ! prop] =m4 ,if a cry/alloid sub/ance1 su*1 = in/ance1 z copp] sulphate1 be plac$ 9 a solv5t 7e4 g4 wat]71 ! dissolv$ salt w gradually spread itself ?r\gh ! :ole body ( ! solv5t1 ?\gh 9 ! complete abs5ce ( curr5ts 9 ! liquid1 ! motion is extremely sl[1 & ye>s may be tak5 = ! diffusion to rise ?r\gh a few feet4 ,9 _m cases salts diffuse ?r\gh aque\s jellies at ! same spe$ z !y w\ld ?r\gh /ill wat]4 ,colloid sub/ances on ! o!r h& h little or no p[] ( diffusion & mo/ly _c pass ?r\gh jellies at all4 ,?is is ! reason :y tannage ) m9]al salts is s mu* m rapid ?an ) vegetable tann9s :i* are ( colloidal "*1 & diffuse ?r\gh ! gelat9\s fibres ( ! hide ) extreme sl[ness4 ,all dissolv$ cry/alloids d n pass ?r\gh gelat9\s membranes ) equal ease1 & sub/ances are kn[n1 mo/ly gelat9\s precipitates1 :i* d n p]mit ! diffusion ( dissolv$ salts1 ?\gh !y all[ wat] to pass freely4 ,?9 lay]s ( su* precipitates =m :at are call$ 8semip]meable membranes40 ,! exi/5ce ( su* membranes af=ds u ! possibility ( direct measurem5t ( ! t5d5cy to diffusion1 or z x is g5]ally call$ ! 8osmotic0#ec pressure ( dissolv$ bodies4 ,?us a por\s e>!nw>e batt]y-cell may be imm]s$ 9 a solution ( copp] sulphate1 & fill$ ) "o ( potassium f]rocyanide4 ,9 ?is way its pores w be fill$ ) a gelat9\s precipitate ( copp] f]rocyanide1 :i* is p]vi\s to wat]1 b imp]vi\s to mo/ dissolv$ sub/ances4 ,if n[ ! cell be fill$ ) a dilute solution ( "s cry/alloid1 say sug>1 & its top clos$ by a p]=at$ cork fitt$ ) a v]tical tube1 & ! cell be plung$ 9 wat]1 ! latt] w pass into ! cell1 & ! dilute solution w rise 9 ! tube to a height ( _m feet above ! wat] outside4 ,by sub/itut+ a m]cury pressure gauge = ! v]tical tube1 exact measures ( ! pressure 9 ! cell c be made1 :i* is ! osmotic pressure ( ! dissolv$ sub/ance4 ,at fir/ sight x is p>adoxical t ! wat] %\ld fl[ into ! solution1 app>5tly aga9/ a heavy pressure1 b ! explanation is simple4 ,m5tion has already be5 made ( ! enorm\s int]nal pressures ( liquids produc$ by ! attractions ( _! molecules4 ,9 ! solution a portion ( ?is is borne by ! dissolv$ sub/ance1 & ! wat] fl[s 9 f ! outside till an int]nal me*anical pressure is produc$1 equal 9 am\nt to ! osmotic pressure ( ! dissolv$ sub/ance4 ,! resemblance ( ! ph5om5a ( solution to ^? ( vap\r-pressure has already be5 m5tion$1 & x is f\nd to be ev5 quantitative1 s9ce ! measur$ osmotic pressures are exactly equal 9 am\nt to ^? :i* ! dissolv$ body w\ld produce if x 7 9 ! /ate ( vap\r at ! same temp]ature & occupy+ ! same volume z ! solution4 ,x acts1 9 fact1 precisely z ! 8p>tial pressure0 ( a vap\r4 ,!re are sev]al indirect ways ( measur+ ! osmotic pressure ( dissolv$ bodies1 z = in/ance1 f ! l[]+ ( ! freez+ po9t1 or ! rais+ ( ! boil+ po9t ( ! solution z comp>$ to ^? ( ! pure solv5t1 all ( :i* confirm ! direct measurem5ts1 & %[ t 9 a giv5 volume at ! same temp]ature1 ! same numb] ( molecules w produce ! same osmotic pressure :atev] _! nature1 or conv]sely1 t at ! same osmotic pressure & temp]ature equal volumes ( any solution mu/ conta9 ! same numb] ( molecules4 ,! use ( ^! facts 9 det]m9+ molecul> weight is obvi\s4 #ec ,solution-pressure & osmotic pressure are really two names = ! same =ce2 ! =m] be+ employ$ to signify ! t5d5cy ( a solid to dissolve1 & ! latt] ! pressure produc$ by ! dissolv$ body :i* t5ds to prev5t fur!r solution4 ,?us1 9 a saturat$ solution 9 contact ) its solid1 ! two pressures are always equal1 b ex]t$ 9 opposite directions4 ,a curi\s app>5t deviation f ?is law is h[ev] notic$ 9 solutions ( salts1 acids1 & alkalies1 & inde$ ( electrolytes g5]ally2 ?us a dilute solution ( sodium *loride produces an osmotic pressure ne>ly d\ble t correspond+ to ! numb] ( molecules ( ,na,cl pres5t2 & 9 fact behaves z if x 7 a solution ( ,na & ,cl exi/+ sep>ately4 ,su* a solution conducts a curr5t ( electricity v readily1 :ile at ! same "t ! *lor9e is c>ri$ to ! positive1 & ! sodium to ! negative pole1 :]e !y sep>ate z ,na & ,cl 7! ,na decompos+ ! wat] pres5t & =m+ ,na,o,h74 ,9 fact1 ! mod]n !ory ( electrolysis ass]ts t ^! dissociat$ atoms are n sep>at$ f ea* o!r by electricity1 b t !y exi/ already sep>at$ 9 ! solution ( ! electrolyte1 & m]ely act z c>ri]s = ! electricity1 & t ! "w done by ! latt] is n t ( break+ up ! salt-molecule1 b ( giv+ its dissociat$ atoms fre% *>ges ( electricity :i* enable !m to comb9e z new molecules1 & escape f ! electrolyte4 ,complex salts d n always break up into s+le atoms1 ?us calcium sulphate dissociates into ,ca & ,,s1 hydrog5 sulphate 7sulphuric acid7 into #b;,h & ,,s1 & s on4 ,^! dissociat$ atoms & atom-gr\ps are call$ 8ions10 & may be monoval5t1 dival5t1 & s on2 ! dival5t ion c>ry+ d\ble ! electrical quantity or *>ge ( ! monoval5t4 ,)\t discuss+ ! ultimate nature ( electricity itself1 ! matt] is mo/ easily pictur$ by assum+ t ! molecule ( ! undissolv$ salt is made up ( an ion ) a *>ge 78kation10 e4g4 ,na71 & an ion ) a - *>ge 78anion10 e4g4 ,cl71 by ! electrical attraction ( :i* *>ges !y are held toge!r4 ,9 ! solution ^! attractions are balanc$ by ^? ( o!r ions1 s t !y c w&] freely )9 ! liquid1 b 9 ord] to take ! molecul> =m ( free elem5ts & escape1 say z ,na & ,cl1 ! pair ( kations mu/ g to ! - pole & give up "o *>ge1 & at ! same "t a pair ( anions mu/ g to ! pole & receive a *>ge4 ,?us ! ,na & all o!r kations sep>ate at ! - pole1 & ! ,cl & all o!r anions at ! pole4 ,f :at has be5 said1 x w be obvi\s t free ions c only exi/ 9 solution1 & c nei!r evaporate1 nor sep>ate z solids2 b t 9 ! liquid !y act mu* l o!r dissolv$ molecules1 ex]t+ _! own osmotic pressure indep5d5tly ( ea* o!r or ( ! dissolv$ salt1 b ) ! limitation t a solution mu/ always conta9 at ! same "t equal numb]s ( & - ions4 ,z a solution is dilut$1 m ions are lib]at$2 z x is conc5trat$1 m recomb9e to =m undissociat$ salt4 ,?is w be made cle>] by an example4 ,9 a saturat$ solution ( sodium *loride ) solid salt pres5t1 we h dissolv$ salt at ! solution-pressure ( ! cry/allis$ salt1 & ,na & ,cl ions at ! dissociation-pressure ( ! saturat$ salt solution1 & nei!r affect ! o!rs4 ,if we n[ add hydro*loric acid1 x has no effect directly on ! solubility ( ! salt1 b z ,h,cl dissociates l>gely into ,h & ,cl1 x increases ! pressure ( ! ,cl ions1 & s compels ! salt to recomb9e till ! ,cl pressure is r$uc$ to its normal am\nt4 ,?is increases ! conc5tration ( ! undissociat$ salt-solution1 & ?us salt is precipitat$ or cry/allises out till ! solution is no long] sup]-saturat$ ) respect to ! salt-cry/als4 ,mo/ *emical reactions1 & especially ^? betwe5 acids & bases1 are really reactions ( ! ions4 ,?us ,na,o,h 9 dilute solution is mo/ly ionis$ into ,na & ,,oh1 :ile ,h,cl is simil>ly ionis$ into ,h & ,cl4 ,on ! o!r h&1 wat] ionises only v slightly4 ,h5ce1 on mixture1 ! ,h & ,,oh comb9e & =m wat]1 ) evolution ( heat1 :ile no actual comb9ation occurs betwe5 ! ,na & ,cl1 s long z !y rema9 9 dilute solution4 ,= ?is reason1 ! heat ( neutralisation ( all /rong acids & bases is ! same1 indep5d5t ( _! nature1 s9ce /rong acids1 bases & salts are almo/ completely ionis$4 ,! rapidity ( action1 & consequ5tly :at we call ! 8/r5g?0 or 8avidity0 ( an acid or base dep5ds on ! numb] ( its free ions 9 solution2 v weak acids & bases are v little ionis$1 ?\gh _! salts ionise almo/ completely 9 dilute solution4 ,on ?is dep5ds ! explanation ( a fact ( great practical importance4 ,hydro*loric acid1 a /rong acid1 is almo/ completely ionis$ 9 solution2 acetic1 a weak "o1 v little2 :ile sodium acetate & sodium *loride z salts are bo? almo/ completely ionis$4 ,if we add hydro*loric acid to a solution ( sodium acetate1 we %all h sodium-ions1 acet-ions1 *lor9e-ions & hydrog5-ions 9 ! solution4 ,z ! pressure ( ! acet-ions & ! hydrog5-ions w be great] ?an ! dissociation-pressure ( acetic acid1 !y w comb9e to =m x1 till ! pressure is equalis$1 & we %all h 9 ! solution1 free acetic acid slightly ionis$1 ! sodium- & *lor9e-ions ( sodium *loride1 & ! sodium- & acet-ions ( any excess ( sodium acetate left4 ,if ! hydro*loric acid 7 j suffici5t to comb9e ) ! :ole ( ! sodium1 we %\ld h an equilibrium conta9+ mu* 7ionis$7 sodium *loride & little sodium acetate1 toge!r ) mu* free acetic acid1 & little hydro*loric4 ,?us ! 8/rong0 acid w\ld displace ! weak "o4 ,tak+ ano!r example1 we add sodium acetate to a solution ( acetic acid4 ,z ! ionisation-pressure ( ! acetic acid is mu* less ?an t ( sodium acetate1 & bo? h a common acet-ion1 ! ionisation ( ! acetic acid w dim9i%1 & m undissociat$ acetic acid w =m1 till by its conc5tration ! two pressures are equalis$4 ,! total quantity ( free acetic acid w be un*ang$1 b a less proportion ( x w be ionis$1 & x w act l a weak] acid4 ,?is r$uction ( ! activity ( a weak acid by ! addition ( its neutral salt is (t5 made use ( by *emi/s4 ,in/ances 9 tann+ practice are ! use ( excess ( potassium di*romate ) *romic acid 9 ! *rome tann+ process1 ! effect ( neutral salts 9 8mell[+0 ! action ( tann+ liquors1 & ! use ( salt 9 8pickl+40 ,let u n[ try to apply ^! facts to ! physics ( tann+1 tak+ fir/ ! simple/ cases1 :]e electrolytic dissociation does n take place4 ,we may consid] ! wet hide z made up ( a mass ( fibres ( gelat9e-jelly1 ) int]spaces :i* are fill$ ) wat]4 ,9 fact1 = _m purposes ( exp]im5t we may sub/itute = hide1 m]e %eets ( swoll5 gelat9e1 s z to avoid ! complications introduc$ by ! wat] or solution me*anically reta9$ betwe5 ! fibres4 ,if we place a %eet ( dry gelat9e 9 wat]1 x swells1 absorb+ p]haps sev5 or eight times its weight ( wat]1 b does n appreciably dissolve4 ,a condition ( equilibrium is rea*$ :5 ! attraction ( ! wat]-molecules = ! gelat9e is equal to ! sum ( ! cohesive attraction ( ! gelat9e = itself & ! int]nal attraction ( ! wat] outside4 ,an increase ( ! cohesion ( ! gelat9e w\ld t5d to make x contract & expel "p ( ! wat]1 & ?is contraction w\ld t5d fur!r to increase bo? ! cohesion ( ! gelat9e1 & its attraction on ! dim9i%$ numb] ( wat] molecules x conta9$1 & cle>ly ^! causes w\ld act 9 oppos+ directions4 ,! equilibrium is !re=e a v un/able "o1 & slight causes might be expect$ to produce great *anges 9 ! degree ( swell+1 :i* is inde$ ! case4 ,if we increase ! temp]ature we dim9i% ! cohesion ( ! gelat9e1 till at a po9t x becomes less ?an its attraction = ! wat]1 & ! jelly sudd5ly loses its solid condition & dissolves4 ,! absorption ( wat] by colloids 7includ+ gelat9e7 is accompani$ by contraction ( volume 7compression7 ( ! wat] absorb$1 & by evolution ( heat1 &1 z has be5 po9t$ out by ,ko]n]1#ed x is oppos$ 7& swell+ decreas$7 by increase ( temp]ature4 ,solution1 on ! o!r h&1 absorbs heat1 & is !re=e fav\r$ by rise ( temp]ature4 #ed ,beitrge zur wiss5s*aftli*5 ,grundlage d] ,g]b]ei1 ,freib]g1 #ahii4 ,if we place ! swoll5 jelly 9 alcohol1 x p>ts ) wat] & contracts4 ,! gelat9e & alcohol are n mutually soluble1 ! sum ( ! attraction ( wat] = alcohol1 & ! cohesive attraction ( ! gelat9e is great] ?an ! attraction ( ! latt] = wat]1 & z ! alcohol _c pass into ! gelat9e1 ! wat] passes out1 & ! jelly contracts4 ,! great] ! conc5tration ( ! alcohol1 ! m completely is ! jelly dehydrat$1 & 9 /rong alcohol x may become q h>d & solid4 ,if we l to express ! same facts 9 language m famili> to ! mod]n *emi/1 b p]haps less cle> to ! non-*emical read]1 we may say t ! alcohol ex]ts an osmotic pressure outside ! gelat9e1 b little or none inside x1 & !re=e ! wat] is squeez$ out4 ,x w\ld be equally true to say t ! wat] passes out ( ! jelly till its osmotic pressure is equal 9 bo? ! jelly & ! alcohol4 ,! jelly is a true 8solid solution0 ( wat] 9 gelat9e1 & 9 a solution we may reg>d ei!r ( ! two con/itu5ts z ! solv5t4 ,exact p>allels may be f\nd 9 ! di/ribution ( a ?ird sub/ance betwe5 two immiscible solv5ts 7see p4 #gf71 say alcohol betwe5 wat] & e!r4 ,! osmotic pressure ( wat] into alcohol may be demon/rat$ 9 a v simple way1 tak+ advantage ( ! fact t a film ( jelly is p]meable = wat] b n = alcohol4 ,if ! exp]im5t describ$ on p4 #gh be made by plac+ alcohol 9 a cell previ\sly wa%$ out ) a gelat9e solution1 & ! cell be plac$ 9 wat]1 ! wat] w pass into ! cell1 & ! alcoholic solution w rise _m feet 9 ! v]tical tube4 ,! insolubility ( gelat9e 9 alcohol may be made use ( = its e/imation4 ,if ?ree times its volume ( absolute alcohol be add$ to a solution conta9+ gelat9e1 ! latt] w sep>ate z a solid mass on a /irr+ rod1 or on ! sides ( ! beak]1 & may be wa%$ ) fur!r portions ( alcohol4 ,! me?od is useful 9 ! analysis ( gelat9e loz5ges & 8jelly squ>es10 roll] compositions1 hectograph masses1 & ! l2 & = ! det]m9ation ( true unalt]$ gelat9e 9 glues1 & comm]cial gelat9es 7see page #fj74 ,_m o!r colloids are h[ev] also precipitat$ by alcohol4 ,if hide be treat$ ) alcohol1 z 9 ,knapp's exp]im5t 7p4 #gd71 ! action is precisely ! same z has be5 describ$ ) gelat9e-jelly4 ,! wat] is )drawn1 fir/ f ! spaces betwe5 ! fibres1 & !n f ! fibres !mselves1 & ! sk9 dries ) ! fibres isolat$ & non-adh]5t1 & is 9 fact conv]t$ into a sort ( lea!r1 :i*1 h[ev]1 returns to raw pelt on soak+ 9 wat]4 ,! action ( solutions ( sug>s1 glyc]9e1 & ! l is 9 pr9ciple simil> to t ( alcohol1 b m complex1 s9ce 9 g5]al ^! bodies are soluble n only 9 ! wat]1 b 9 ! gelat9e or hide-fibre1 s t _! effect _c be =etold1 ?\gh usually x t5ds t[>ds contraction r ?an swell+4 ,9 g5]al t]ms ! equilibrium is a balance ( ! attraction ( ! wat] & ! sug> = ! gelat9e1 aga9/ ! sum ( _! mutual attraction 9 ! solution outside & ! resi/+ cohesive =ce ( ! gelat9e2 & w dep5d n only on ! nature ( ! sub/ances1 b on temp]ature & conc5tration4 ,! action ( acids1 alkalies & salts on gelat9\s fibre is yet m complex1 s9ce n only electrolytic dissociation1 b mo/ probably actual *emical comb9ation comes into ! "q4 ,! *emical con/itution ( gelat9e is z yet q unc]ta91 b x is kn[n t ! molecule conta9s bo? amido-gr\ps capable ( l9k+ ) acids1 & c>boxyls :i* w comb9e ) bases 7see p4 #eh74 ,h5ce hide-fibre absorbs bo? acids & bases ) great avidity1 s mu* s t ! sulphuric acid ( a dec9ormal solution may be completely remov$ by hide1 leav+ only wat] )\t a trace ( acid recognisable by litmus4 ,alkalies are absorb$ 9 a simil> way1 & 9 bo? cases ! gelat9e or gelat9\s fibre acquires a greatly increas$ p[] ( absorb+ wat]1 & consequ5tly ( swell+4 ,famili> cases ( ?is are ! swell+ ( hide by acid1 & by lime1 & 9 nei!r case c ! add$ sub/ance be remov$ 9 any reasonable "t by m]e wa%+ ) wat]4 ,h5ce to free hides f lime or acids x is necess>y to neutralise ! alkali ) acids 7see p4 #aec7 or ! acid ) *alk or alkalies 7p4 #ia74 ,no accurate det]m9ation has yet be5 made ( ! am\nt ( acid or alkali ) :i* gelat9e or hide-fibre w comb9e1 s9ce ! matt] is complicat$ by ! volume ( acid or alkal9e solution :i* is absorb$ me*anically1 & by ! t5d5cy ( ! comp\nd to p>tially decompose on wa%+ ) wat]4 ,exp]im5ts made by ! au?or lead to ! conclusion t #a grm4 ( air-dri$ gelat9e w comb9e ) ab\t #jjbe grm4 ( actual hydro*loric acid 7,h,cl7 :5 plac$ 9 a v dilute solution ( ! latt]1 & ?is comp\nd w absorb #dj or #de grm4 ( wat] :ile /ill reta9+ ! jelly /ate4 ,! maximum swell+1 ) bo? acids & alkalies1 is obta9$ ) dilute solutions2 & ) ! /rong] acids1 ! outside solution mu/ be almo/ neutral :5 equilibrium is atta9$1 increas+ quantities ( acid dim9i%+ ! am\nt ( wat] absorb$4 ,! same /atem5t is true ( ! /rong alkalies4 ,?us 9 bo? cases1 :]e swell+ is desir$1 ! object is defeat$ by ! use ( too /rong solutions1 & ! quantity ( acid or alkali %\ld be rigidly adju/$ to ! weight ( pelt1 & n to ! volume ( solution4 ,z reg>ds a physical explanation ( ! effect ( acid & alkal9e solutions ^u gelat9e1 any?+ :i* c yet be said mu/ be reg>d$ r z speculation ?an z actual sci5tific k4 ,x mu/ also be admitt$ t :ile ! view t actual *emical comb9ation takes place betwe5 ! gelat9e & acids 7or alkalies7 seems mu* ! mo/ probable1 difficulties arise f ! fact t diff]5t acids app>5tly d n always comb9e 9 proportion to _! equival5ts1 ?\gh x is probable t ^! w prove only app>5t anomalies :5 m accurate means are kn[n ( det]m9+ h[ mu* acid is really comb9$1 & h[ mu* m]ely me*anically absorb$4 ,leav+ out ( acc\nt = ! mom5t ! "q ( swell+1 a few words mu/ be said ab\t a prop]ty ( ^! acid- 7& alkali-7 gelat9e comp\nds1 a k ( :i* is ess5tial to und]/&+ ! swell+ process4 ,if a mass ( acid-gelat9e be susp5d$ 9 pure wat]1 a c]ta9 portion ( x w be decompos$ into neutral gelat9e & free acid1 & ! latt] w diffuse into ! wat]4 ,?us acid-gelat9e c only exi/ 9 pres5ce ( a c]ta9 am\nt ( free acid4 ,?is dissociation by wat] is a common prop]ty ( all salts1 & necess>ily foll[s f :at has be5 said ( ionisation2 b x is only :]e ! comb9+ aff9ity ( ! con/itu5ts is weak1 t x becomes practically p]ceptible4 ,wat] to a v small ext5t ionises to ,h & ,,oh4 ,if we imag9e a salt dissolv$ 9 x1 su* z ,na,cl1 :i* ionises almo/ completely to ,na & ,cl1 we see t a c]ta9 proportion ( ,na,o,h & ,h,cl mu/ be =m$ by comb9ation ) ! wat]-ions4 ,9 ! case nam$ ! quantity is absolutely negligible1 s9ce bo? sodium hydrate & hydro*loric acid are almo/ completely ionis$ !mselves1 b if ei!r ! acid or ! base is weak 7t is little ionis$71 ! process ( comb9ation mu/ g on till ! acid or basic solution is /rong en\gh to h an ionisation-pressure equal to t ( ! salt4 ,z ?is acid or base is no long] 9 an ionis$ condition1 x may be remov$ f ! solution by volatilisation or diffusion4 ,= in/ance1 if a solution ( f]ric *loride be conf9$ 9 a tray ( p>*m5t pap]1 ?r\gh :i* x has little p[] ( diffusion1 & ?is tray float$ ^u wat] :i* is frequ5tly *ang$1 ! dissociat$ acid w diffuse ?r\gh ! membrane into ! wat]1 & 9 ?is way ! :ole ( x may be ultimately remov$1 leav+ no?+ b a colloid solution ( hydrat$ f]ric oxide 9 ! tray4 ,actions ( ?is sort1 9 :i* ! gelat9\s fibre ( ! hide plays ! same "p z ! p>*m5t-pap] membrane1 h an important %>e 9 _m ( ! ph5om5a ( tann+4#ee ,?us1 9 ! case ( hide swoll5 ) acid1 ! acid comp\nd ) ! fibre is some:at dissociat$1 & if ! hide be hung 9 wat] :i* is con/antly *ang$1 ! acid diffuses into x1 & ! :ole may be ultimately1 ?\gh sl[ly remov$4 ,a simil> effect is produc$ 9 ! famili> op]ation ( remov+ acid f pelt or *rom$ lea!rs by paddl+ ) 8:it5+0 7calcium c>bonate74 ,! latt] is insoluble 9 wat]1 & !re=e _c p5etrate into ! hide1 b z x in/antly comb9es ) any acid :i* diffuses out1 ! acid-gelat9e comp\nd is rapidly decompos$1 s9ce x is only p]man5t 9 a solution conta9+ en\gh free acid to h an ionisation-pressure equal to t ( ! comp\nd4 ,simil> /atem5ts are true ( ! alkali-gelat9e & lime-gelat9e comp\nds4 #ee ,probably *rome1 alum9ium & iron salts are decompos$ 9 ?is way 9 m9]al tann+1 & ?us fix$ 9 ! hide z insoluble basic salts4 ,cp4 pp4 #ahf1 #bae4 ,x w be easi] to foll[ ! results ( :at has be5 said if we take a concrete case :i* has be5 c>efully inve/igat$ by ! au?or & o!rs2 t ( ! action ( hydro*loric acid solutions on gelat9e4 ,if a weigh$ %eet ( gelat9e be plac$ 9 a v dilute solution ( ! acid1 x swells mu* m consid]ably ?an x does 9 wat]1 a maximum swell+ be+ atta9$ ) a conc5tration ( ! out] solution ( #ja to #jb grm4 ( ,h,cl p] litre4 ,! swoll5 jelly has !n a volume ( ab\t #de c4c4 p] gram ( ! air-dri$ gelat9e1 & a conc5tration equal to ab\t #jge grm4 ( ,h,cl p] litre ( swoll5 jelly1 or at lea/ ab\t five times t ( ! out] solution4 ,z ! conc5tration ( ! latt] is increas$1 ! conc5tration 9 ! jelly also increases1 b 9 a mu* small] ratio1 :ile ! volume ( ! jelly dim9i%es1 till1 ) a conc5tration ( #e grm4 ( ,h,cl p] litre 9 ! out] solution1 ! volume ( ! jelly is only ab\t #ahe c4c41 & its conc5tration n q #f grm4 p] litre4 ,^! facts _c be acc\nt$ = by any !ory ( simple solution ( ! ,h,cl 9 ! jelly1 s9ce ! law ( su* solutions is t ! conc5tration 9 ea* ma9ta9s a con/ant ratio1 unless *emical *ange takes place4 ,x is possible t !y might be expla9$ by adsorption 7surface attraction71 b z x is kn[n t gelat9e conta9s bo? amido-gr\ps capable ( comb9+ ) acids1 & c>boxyl-gr\ps :i* c comb9e ) bases1 x is mu* m likely t actual *emical comb9ation takes place1 & t ! app>5t irregul>ities 9 ! am\nt ( acid fix$ are due to p>tial hydrolysis ( ! comp\nd4#ef #ef ,cp41 h[ev]1 ,walk] & ,appley>d on ! #8,absorption ( ,acids by ,silk1' ,*em4 ,soc4 ,trans4 #ahif1 p4 #accd4 ,! foll[+ may be sugge/$ z a work+ hypo!sis4 ,z bo? wat] & hydro*loric acid c pass freely 9 & out ( ! jelly1 x mu/ be 9 osmotic equilibrium ) ! out] solution 9 e respect1 & nei!r ! un-ionis$ hydro*loric acid ( ! solution1 nor ! small am\nt :i* may be =m$ by hydrolysis ( ! gelat9e comp\nd c h any effect on ! swell+4 ,s long z ! out] solution is v dilute1 by f> ! great] "p ( ! acid pres5t is absorb$ & fix$ by ! gelat9e1 & almo/ ! :ole ( ! out] acid w be ionis$1 z well z a portion ( t 9 comb9ation ) ! gelat9e4 ,9 ! latt] case1 h[ev]1 ! ions w be unable to pass out ( ! jelly1 & w !re=e cause an int]nal osmotic pressure1 & ! gelat9e w swell till ! ,cl-ions are 9 osmotic equilibrium ) ^? ( ! out] solution4 ,at ! same "t1 ?is int]nal pressure ( ,cl-ions w oppose ! entry ( ! ,cl-ions 7& !re=e also ( _! associat$ ,h-ions7 f ! out] solution1 & ! acid solution absorb$ me*anically w be some:at less conc5trat$ ?an t outside4 ,z ! conc5tration ( ! out] solution is increas$1 ! pressure ( ! out] ,cl-ions w repress ! ionisation ( ! gelat9e-*loride1 & at ! same "t its t5d5cy to hydrolyse4 ,?us ! acid actually comb9$ ) ! gelat9e %\ld some:at increase1 b ! swell+ %\ld dim9i%1 z is actually ! case4#eg ,x is impossible to c>ry ! conc5tration ( ! hydro*loric acid mu* above #e grm4 p] lit] )\t caus+ solution ( ! gelat9e1 b ! addition ( common salt to ! out] solution %\ld equally increase ! pressure ( its ,cl-ions1 & cause fur!r dim9ution ( swell+1 ! ,na-ions 9 ?is case increas+ ! outside pressure 9 ! same way z ! hydrog5 ions4 ,9 fact ! addition ( salt 9 suffici5t quantity w r$uce ! swell+ till ! gelat9e becomes q solid1 & reta9s only ab\t its own weight ( wat]1 :ile at ! same "t ! app>5tly comb9$ acid l>gely increases4 ,?is _c be attribut$ to any direct dehydrat+ action ( ! salt1 s9ce conc5trat$ sodium *loride solutions h no dehydrat+1 b r a swell+ effect on gelat9e 9 ! abs5ce ( acid1 & ! conc5tration ( ! salt 9 ! out] solution & 9 ! jelly proves precisely ! same )9 ! limits ( exp]im5tal error4 ,sev]al o!r facts may be not$1 t5d+ to support ! explanation :i* has be5 giv54 ,! t5d5cy to swell gelat9e is common to all acids ( appreciable /r5g?1 & 9 all cases :]e ! conc5tration ( ! acid c\ld be increas$ to a mod]ate ext5t )\t caus+ solution ( ! jelly1 ! effect ( a maximum swell+1 dim9i%+ z ! conc5tration ( ! acid increas$1 has be5 obs]v$4 ,o!r salts also produce simil> effects to sodium *loride2 ?us ! swell+ caus$ by sulphuric acid is repress$ by sodium sulphate4 ,sodium *loride seems to dim9i% ! swell+ caus$ by all acids1 b 9 pres5ce ( l>ge excess ( sodium *loride1 mo/ ( ! acid 9 comb9ation ) ! gelat9e w probably be hydro*loric1 :atev] ! acid us$ to orig9ally produce ! swell+4 ,a curi\s fact obs]v$ by ! au?or1 is t absolute alcohol1 :i* s effectually dehydrates neutral gelat9e1 is almo/ p[]less to remove ei!r wat] or acid f gelat9e swoll5 by hydro*loric acid4 ,h,cl is freely soluble ev5 9 absolute alcohol1 b ,h- & ,cl-ions c only exi/ 9 x to a v small ext5t1 s t we may conclude t ! acid :i* causes ! swell+ & reta9s ! wat] ( ! jelly exi/s ei!r 9 actual comb9ation ) ! gelat9e1 or 9 an ionis$ condition4 #eg ,! acid reta9$ by ! gelat9e1 z measur$ by d$uct+ f ! total conta9$ 9 ! jelly1 a quantity equival5t to ! volume ( solution absorb$1 at fir/ rises rapidly to a maximum1 !n slightly dim9i%es & rema9s practically con/ant4 ,on ! !ory sugge/$1 x is evid5t1 h[ev]1 t ! absorb$ solution mu/ be m dilute ?an t outside1 & ! actual comb9$ acid great] ?an t %[n by ! above calculation4 ,! 8comb9$0 acid1 z det]m9$ by indicators1 %[s slight b cont9u\s increase4 ,x is acid to ph5olph?ale91 b neutral to me?yl orange4 ,solutions ( cau/ic alkalies are 9 mo/ respects analog\s 9 _! swell+ action to ^? ( /rong acids4 ,a portion ( ! alkali is 9 "s way fix$ by ! gelat9e1 :ile ano!r portion is simply absorb$ z solution4 ,a maximum swell+ effect is also notic$ ) dilute solutions1 :i* is dim9i%$ z ! conc5tration increases4 ,swell+ by alkalies is n dim9i%$ by *lorides s f> z has be5 obs]v$1 & especially x may be not$ t ! swell+ produc$ by cau/ic soda is n dim9i%$ by sodium *loride4 ,on ! !ory :i* has be5 sugge/$ !re is no reason :y alkal9e swell+ %\ld be r$uc$ by *lorides1 s9ce ! swell+ ag5t has no ,cl-ion1 b x is some:at s+ul> t ! sodium salt1 hav+ a common ,na-ion %\ld produce no repression ( ! swell+ by cau/ic soda4 ,9 ! pres5t /ate ( our k no def9ite explanation c be giv51 b x is q possible t ! swell+ 9 ?is case is n produc$ by ! sodium-ion b by "s m complex "o1 or ev5 by ! hydroxyl-ion1 l mo/ ( ! *>act]i/ic reactions ( alkalies4 ,app>5tly ! gelat9-alkali comp\nd is /ill /rongly alkal9e1 affect+ ph5olph?ale9 indicator l uncomb9$ alkali--an effect :i* is kn[n to be due to ! pres5ce ( free ,,ho-ions4 ,! effect ( acids & alkalies has be5 /udi$ by ,proct] & o!rs on actual pelt z well z on gelat9e1 & has be5 f\nd to be qualitatively1 if n quantitatively q simil> to t on gelat9e1 ?\gh f ! acid reta9$ me*anically 9 ! int]fibr\s spaces1 exact quantitative det]m9ation is m difficult4 ,! am\nt ( swell+ produc$ is n proportional to ! /r5g? ( ! acid1 "s weak & little ionis$ acids su* z lactic produc+ l>g] swell+ ?an /rong] acids su* z hydro*loric & sulphuric1 ( :i* ! ionic pressure 9 ! ext]nal solution is great]4 ,dilute solutions g5]ally produce great] swell+ ?an m conc5trat$1 s t :]e swell+ is requir$ )\t de/ructive effect on ! fibre1 dilute solutions ( su* weak acids are to be pref]r$1 & ! pres5ce ( neutral salts is to be avoid$4 ,on ! o!r h&1 :]e x is desir$ to remove lime1 or to br+ ! pelt into an acid condition )\t swell+1 ! addition ( neutral salts1 & especially ( *lorides is advantage\s4 ,a v important application ( ?is pr9ciple is ! 8pickl+0 ( %eep-sk9s1 & especially ( %eep-gra9s1 9 ord] to pres]ve !m = export4 ,! pr9ciple ( ?is op]ation is t ! sk9s are fir/ swoll5 slightly ) sulphuric acid1 & ! swell+ is !n r$uc$ by salt1 ei!r add$1 or us$ 9 a subsequ5t ba?4 ,9 practice1 salt is n[ g5]ally also add$ to ! fir/ ba? to mod]ate ! swell+4 ,a suitable /r5g? = ! 8ris+ solution0 is ab\t #hj grm4 common salt1 & #ge grm4 sulphuric acid p] litre4 #ajj c4c4 ( ?is solution w !re=e require ab\t #ae c4c4 ( ,n_/#a alkali to neutralise x1 & x %\ld be te/$ aft] ea* lot ( sk9s1 & ma9ta9$ at ! same /r5g? by suitable additions ( acid4 ,! acid absorb$ by ! sk9s is ma9ly hydro*loric1 sodium sulphate accumulat+ 9 ! ba?4 ,! salt is n absorb$ by ! sk9s 9 ! same way z ! acid1 b w be cont9ually dilut$ by ! wat] !y br+ 91 & occasional additions ( salt mu/ !re=e be made1 ! d5sity be+ ma9ta9$ at ab\t #fe ,bkr4 7#ajfe sp4 gr47 ,aft] paddl+ or be+ /irr$ 9 ?is ba? = ab\t or h\r ! sk9s are transf]r$ to saturat$ br9e1 & /irr$ 9 x till fully fall5 9 ?ickness1 ! d5sity ( ! liquid be+ ma9ta9$ by excess ( salt4 ,!y may be all[$ to rema9 "s h\rs 9 ! saturat$ br9e ) advantage4 ,)9 mod]ate limits1 ! /r5g? ( ! ris+ liquor is n ( great importance1 s9ce ! sk9s w only absorb a c]ta9 am\nt ( acid 7increas+ ) ! conc5tration ( salt74 ,9 ! second or fall+ liquor ! l>ge excess ( salt =ces all ! acid pres5t into ! sk9s1 none diffus+ into ! ba?4 ,sk9s may be effectively pickl$ ) v mu* small] quantities ( acid ?an ^? prescrib$ above1 or ord9>ily us$1 & are mu* easi] to tan satisfactorily2 b x is said t !y are m liable to suff] f mildew4 ,pickl+ may also be done by plac+ ! sk9s 9 a conc5trat$ br9e-ba?1 & add+ a calculat$ quantity ( acid1 n exce$+ #ja grm4-molecule ( sulphuric acid p] kilo4 ( dry hide sub/ance1 b ! me?od is n economical 9 practice f ! dilution ( ! ba? produc$ by ! wat] br\ght 9 by ! sk9s & ! necessity ( con/ant l>ge additions ( salt4 ,pickl$ sk9s mu/ n be br\ght 9 contact ) wat]1 :i* by dilut+ ! br9e !y conta91 all[s ! excess ( acid to act ^u & de/roy ! fibre4 ,ev5 drops ( wat]1 accid5tally spr9kl$ on ! sk9s produce ?is effect1 & x is said t x spreads to p>ts :i* h n be5 wet4 ,= simil> reasons1 x is necess>y 9 tann+ pickl$ sk9s1 at lea/ to beg9 ! process 9 liquors to :i* salt has be5 add$1 ! quantity requir$ be+ dep5d5t on ! am\nt ( acid us$ 9 pickl+ ! sk9s1 & :]e ?is is r$uc$ to a m9imum1 x is ev5 possible to tan )\t fur!r addition ( salt ?an t conta9$ 9 ! sk9s4#eh ,! pickl+ process conv]ts ! sk9s into a species ( :ite lea!r1 & sk9s tann$ 9 salt$ liquors aft] pickl+1 or by addition ( bo? acid & salt to suma* liquors give good col\r1 & t\gh lea!r ) a mu* dim9i%$ consumption ( suma*4 ,! p]man5cy ( su* lea!r is some:at d\btful1 b ! writ] 0 unable to detect free sulphuric acid 9 a sample :i* he exam9$1 & x may be t :5 no acid is add$ to ! lat] liquors1 t d]iv$ f ! pickl+ is expell$ by ! tann92 b ?is is v d\btful4 #eh ,in/ead ( us+ salt$ liquors1 ! sk9s maybe 8depickl$0 by a ba? ( :it5+ & wat]1 borax1 or "s o!r mildly alkal9e solution be=e tann+4 ,! facts :i* h be5 discuss$ 9 ! prec$+ pages (f] a suffici5t explanation ( ! causes :i* op]ate 9 ^? delim+ processes :i* dep5d on ! simple neutralisation ( ! alkal9e matt]s pres5t 9 ! hide1 & ( ! swell+ by means ( acid :i* =ms a /ep 9 ! manufacture ( _m sorts ( sole-lea!r1 b !y by no means fully elucidate ! causes ( ! mu* m complete depletion ( ! pelt br\ght ab\t by ! bact]ial products ( bates & pu]s4 ,x has be5 po9t$ out 7p4 #hb7 t gelat9e & hide-fibre 9 a neutral condition are swoll5 by wat]1 b t ! equilibrium s rea*$ is an un/able "o1 easily influ5c$ by slight causes4 ,among ^!1 z has be5 po9t$ out by ,ko]n]1#ei ! surface-t5sion betwe5 ! wat] & ! swoll5 fibre holds a place2 & surface-t5sions ( ?is sort are greatly influ5c$ by _m sub/ances ( ! class to :i* bact]ial f]m5ts belong4 ,_m salts also alt] ! wat]-absorption ( gelat9\s fibres1 sometimes caus+ swell+1 & sometimes contraction1 accord+ to temp]ature1 conc5tration1 & ! nature ( ! salt4 ,?\gh mo/ salts d n seem to be absorb$ by hide-fibre1 x is possible1 z sugge/$ by ,ko]n] 7loc4 cit471 t 9 "s in/ances ! base may comb9e ) ! acid-gr\ps1 & ! acid ( ! salt ) ! basic gr\ps ( ! gelat9e-molecule1 :ile o!r cases are kn[n 9 :i* salts are actually dissociat$1 & _! acid fix$ by ! aff9ities ( ! hide-fibre4 ,an int]e/+ case ( ?is sort 0 rec5tly prov$ by ,paessl] & ,appelius1#fj :o %[$ t sulphuric acid 0 absorb$ f a solution ( hydric sodic sulphate1 & ! neutral sulphate left 9 ! solution4 ,simil> reactions und\bt$ly occur ) "s salts ( /rong acids & weak bases1 b ?is po9t mu/ be m fully discuss$ 9 connection ) ! !ory ( m9]al tannages4 #ei ,beitrge zur wiss5s*aftli*5 ,grundlage d] ,g]b]ei1 ,jahresb]i*te d] deuts*5 ,g]b]s*ule zu ,freib]g1 #ahih-i & #ahii-aijj4 #fj ,wiss5s*aftli*e ,beilage des ,l$]m>kt1 #aija1 ii4 p4 #ajf4 ,,*apt] ,x4 ,,wat] ,,z ,,us$ ,,9 ,,! ,,tann]y4 ,( all ! mat]ials employ$ 9 tann+1 none is ( m indisp5sable importance ?an wat]1 & its quality has und\bt$ly great influ5ce on tann+1 ?\gh x is con/antly blam$ = faults & tr\bles :i* are really due to ! mi/akes ( ! tann]4 ,wat] is *iefly us$ 9 tann]ies = soak+ & wa%+ hides & sk9s1 = mak+ ! limes1 ! bates1 & ! tann+ liquors1 = /eam boil]s1 & 9 dye+4 ,= all ^! purposes x %\ld be z free z possible f impurities1 b s9ce wat] is ! mo/ univ]sal solv5t 9 ,nature1 x is nev] f\nd pure1 b always conta9s m9]al matt] d]iv$ f ! rocks & soil ?r\gh :i* x has fl[$1 z well z organic impurities f decay+ animal & vegetable matt]4 ,associat$ ) ! latt] are usually liv+ organisms ( putrefaction 7bact]ia7 :i* may affect ! quality ( ! wat] = tann+ ev5 m s]i\sly ?an ! m9]al impurities4 ,! pure/ natural wat]s are ^? :i* h fl[$ only ov] h>d s&/ones & volcanic rocks4 ,wat] suffici5tly pure = laboratory use c only be obta9$ by di/illation4 ,! /eam-wat] f heat+ pipes usually conta9s l>ge quantities ( dissolv$ iron1 & (t5 also volatile organic matt]s f ! oil1 etc41 :i* f9ds its way into ! boil]4 ,x may sometimes be made fit = use by boil+ 7:i* precipitates ! f]r\s c>bonate pres5t71 & subsequ5t settl+ or filtration4 ,! use ( /eam-wat] conta9+ iron is a frequ5t s\rce ( /a9s & discolorations 9 ! tann]y :i* m ?an c\nt]balances ! advantage ( its s(tness4 ,! 8h>dness0 ( natural wat]s is mo/ly due to ! salts ( lime & magnesia :i* !y conta91 :i* precipitate soap 9 ! =m ( insoluble /e>ates & oleates1 :i* are useless = wa%+4 ,x is commonly e/imat$ by det]m9+ ! am\nt ( a /&>d alcoholic soap solution :i* mu/ be add$ 9 ord] to produce a p]man5t fro? on %ak+4 ,!oretically ab\t #ab p>ts ( soap 7sodium /e>ate or oleate7 are de/roy$ by #a "p ( calcium c>bonate or an equival5t quantity ( o!r lime salts1 ) =mation ( insoluble lime soaps 7calcium /e>ate or oleate74 ,really1 ! reaction is mu* m complicat$1 ow+ to ! dissociation ( ! soap into free alkali & acid-salts on solution 9 wat]4 ,te$#fa e/imates t to m is requir$ ?an ! !oretical quantity1 & m 9 hot wat] ?an cold4 ,?is unc]ta9ty is p>tially ov]come by te/+ ! soap solution aga9/ a kn[n solution ( calcium *loride4 ,! pres5ce ( magnesia also complicates ! te/ & leads to discrepant results4 #fa ,j\rn4 ,soc4 ,*em4 ,ind41 #ahhi1 p4 #bef4 ,cp4 also ,all51 ibid4 #ahhh1 p4 #gie4 ,! me?ods ( det]m9+ h>dness orig9at$ by ,hehn] 7see ,l4,i4,l4,b41 p4 #ai7 are simpl] & m accurate ?an ! soap-te/1 & are to be pref]r$1 except = direct det]m9ation ( ! suitability ( a wat] = sc\r+ ) soap4 8,degrees0 ( h>dness 9 ,engl& are calculat$ z p>ts ( ,ca,c,o p] #ajj1jjj1 or sometimes gra9s p] gallon 7#gj1jjj gra9s74 ,h>dness is ( two k9ds1 8tempor>y0 & 8p]man5t02 ! =m] be+ remov$ by boil+1 :ile ! latt] is n s remov$4 ,tempor>y h>dness consi/s ( ! c>bonates ( alkal9e e>?s held 9 solution by an excess ( c>bonic acid4 ,lime comb9es ) #a molecule ( c>bon dioxide to =m ! ord9>y normal c>bonate 7*alk71 :i* is practically insoluble 9 wat]4 ,:51 h[ev]1 excess ( c>bonic acid is pres5t1 hydric calcic c>bonate 7bic>bonate7 :i* is fairly soluble is produc$4 ,?is is easily demon/rat$ by pass+ c>bon dioxide into some:at dilut$ lime-wat]1 :i* at fir/ becomes turbid f precipitat$ *alk1 b soon cle>s by =mation ( soluble hydric c>bonate4 ,if ! solution be n[ boil$1 ! hydric c>bonate is decompos$1 & ! excess ( c>bonic acid is driv5 (f z ,,co1 & ! *alk aga9 precipitat$4 ,! reactions are repres5t$ by ! foll[+ equations3-- ,ca7,,oh7 ,,co ,ca,c,o ,,oh4 7#a7 ,ca,c,o ,ca,c,o ,,co ,,oh 7#b7 ,h,,co ,magnesia =ms soluble d\ble c>bonates 9 a simil> mann]1 b on cont9u$ boil+ gradually loses ! :ole ( its c>bonic acid1 & is precipitat$ z magnesium hydrate1 ,mg7,,oh74 ,"o ( ! mo/ important reactions 9 connection ) tempor>y h>dness is t caus$ by ! addition ( calcium hydrate 7slak$ lime71 :i* =ms ! basis ( ,cl>k's s(t5+ process4 ,:5 an equival5t am\nt ( lime is add$ to a solution ( hydric calcic c>bonate1 x displaces ! wat] ( ! 8half-b\nd0 c>bonic acid1 =m+ a second molecule ( calcium c>bonate1 :i* is precipitat$ toge!r ) t orig9ally pres5t1 z is repres5t$ 9 ! foll[+ equation3-- ,ca,c,o ,ca7,,oh7 #b;,ca,c,o #b,,oh4 7#c7 ,h,,co ,hydric magnesium c>bonate is also precipitat$ by lime1 b ! reaction is some:at diff]5t1 ! magnesia be+ remov$ z hydrate z foll[s3-- ,mg,c,o #b;,ca7,,oh7 #b;,ca,c,o #b,,oh ,mg7,,oh74 7#d7 ,h,,co ,x w be not$ t #b equival5ts ( lime are requir$ to precipitate #a ( magnesia4 ,two molecules ( sodium hydrate 7,na,o,h7 or potassium hydrate 7,,koh7 may be sub/itut$ = #a ( ,ca7,,oh7 ) simil> results1 & 9 "s cases x is practically advantage\s to use ! =m]1 z ! sodium c>bonate =m$ 9 precipitat+ ! tempor>y h>dness reacts aga9 on ! p]man5t1 ?r[+ d[n ! lime & magnesia z c>bonates4 7,see p4 #aja47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ai4--,plan ( ,ar*butt & ,deeley's ,app>atus4 ,! use ( lime = s(t5+ tempor>y h>d wat]s 0 orig9ally propos$ by ,?omas ,h5ry1 ,f4,r4,s41 ( ,man*e/]1 b 0 fir/ appli$ z a practical process by ,cl>k1 :o1 aft] add+ ! requisite quantity ( lime to ! wat] 9 a mix+ vat1 all[$ x to /& 9 a l>ge tank to cle> by subsid5ce1 ! precipitat$ c>bonate ( lime tak+ f #f to #ab h\rs to settle4 ,! process 9 its orig9al =m is a p]fectly satisfactory "o1 except = ! capaci\s settl+ tanks :i* are requir$1 :i* 9 "s cases are inconv5i5t & exp5sive4 ,messrs4 ,ar*butt & ,deeley#fb h pat5t$ a modification ( ! ,cl>k process1 by :i* ! "t ( subsid5ce is mu* %ort5$1 & accord+ to :i* ! precipitat$ c>bonate ( lime ( previ\s op]ations is all[$ to rema9 9 ! tank1 & ! fre% *>ge ( wat] & lime is mix$ up ) x by means ( /eam-injectors1 :i* bl[ 9 a curr5t ( air ?r\gh p]=at$ pipes at ! bottom ( ! tank1 & at ! same "t v slightly w>m ! wat]4 ,! action goes on mu* m rapidly at a slightly rais$ temp]ature ?an 9 ! cold2 & r curi\sly1 ! /irr$ up precipitate1 in/ead ( increas+ ! "t ( cle>+1 settles rapidly & c>ries d[n ) x t =m$ 9 ! new op]ation4 ,x is p>ticul>ly suitable = treat+ wat]s conta9+ magnesia1 f :i* a comp\nd ( lime & magnesia is apt to be precipitat$ 9 a colloid =m :i* *okes filt]-clo?s & w n readily settle4 ,aft] s(t5+1 ! wat] is usually 8c>bonat$0 by pass+ ! gases produc$ by burn+ coke into ! float+ exit-pipe ?r\gh :i* x falls1 9 ord] to reta9 any rema9+ traces ( c>bonates ( lime & magnesia 9 a soluble =m1 & prev5t _! subsequ5t precipitation 9 ! pipes4 ,! app>atus is made by ,messrs4 ,ma!r & ,platt1 ( ,man*e/]1 & its arrangem5t is %[n 9 ,figs4 #ai & #bj4 #fb ,j\rn4 ,soc4 ,*em4 ,ind41 #ahia1 p4 #eaa4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bj4 ,sev]al modifications ( ! ,cl>k process h be5 introduc$1 9 :i* ! precipitation is c>ri$ on cont9u\sly in/ead ( int]mitt5tly4 ,! mo/ important ( ^! is ! ,port]-,cl>k1 9 :i* "o portion ( ! wat] to be s(t5$ fl[s ?r\gh an agitator conta9+ excess ( lime1 ) :i* x =ms saturat$ lime-wat]1 :i* is pass$ sl[ly up a cyl9d] :]e x deposits ! excess ( susp5d$ lime4 ,! cle> lime-wat] s produc$ is mix$ ) a fre% portion ( ! wat] to be s(t5$ 9 a second cyl9d] also provid$ ) an agitator1 ! proportion ( ! two liquids be+ regulat$ by cocks4 ,! c>bonate ( lime is at once precipitat$1 & is remov$ by passage ?r\gh a filt] press4 ,?is process is 9 successful op]ation on a consid]able scale at ,messrs4 ,hodgsons' tann]y at ,bev]ley4 ,sev]al o!r =ms ( filt] h also be5 employ$ ) success1 & also me?ods 9 :i* ! treat$ wat] trav]ses tanks ) slop+ p>titions on :i* ! c>bonate ( lime is deposit$4 ,! latt] plan 0 orig9ally pat5t$ 9 ,france by ,gaillet-,huet1 & has be5 introduc$ into ,engl& by ,/anhope4 ,s f> z is yet kn[n1 f ! tann]'s po9t ( view1 x is h>dly necess>y to make any di/9ction betwe5 lime & magnesia1 ei!r or bo? ( :i* may be consid]$ simply z 8h>dness40 ,a h>d wat] probably s(t5s dri$ hides m sl[ly ?an a pur] wat]1 ?\gh x is possible t ! obs]v$ diff]5ce 9 ! "t requir$ may be due 9 _m cases to ! l[] temp]ature ( wells f :i* h>d wat] is g5]ally d]iv$4 ,9 ! actual 8limes0 ! h>dness ( ! wat] c h no appreciable influ5ce1 ?\gh if sodium sulphide be us$ alone = unhair+1 a c]ta9 wa/e occurs f tempor>y h>dness :i* may r5d] x advisable to add a little lime4 ,x is 9 wa%+ ! hides free f lime t ! influ5ce ( h>d wat] is fir/ di/9ctly felt4 ,if limy goods1 aft] unhair+1 are plac$ 9 a wat] ) mu* tempor>y h>dness1 ! same action occurs z 9 ,cl>k's wat]-s(t5+ process1 & *alk is deposit$ 9 ! surface ( ! hides1 mak+ !m h>% & apt to 8frize0 or r\gh5 ! gra9 9 8scudd+40 ,! common1 b n :olly satisfactory exp$i5t is to add a little lime1 or bett]1 a few pailfuls ( lime liquor to ! wat] be=e putt+ 9 ! hides4 ,! be/ plan is to use a prop]ly s(t5$ wat]4 ,p]man5t h>dness is n injuri\s 9 ?is way4 ,un=tunately x is n ! gra9 alone :i* is injur$ by ! use ( h>d wat] = wa%+ ! hides1 b on com+ into ! liquors ! precipitat$ bases comb9e ) ! acids & tann9s1 =m+ comp\nds :i* oxidise & d>k5 :5 expos$ to ! air1 & :i* are ! commone/ causes ( /a9s & m>k+s on all descriptions ( lea!r4 ,ev5 :5 goods are dr5*$ or bat$ be=e tann+ ! injury is n prev5t$1 s9ce ! weak organic acids :i* are capable ( remov+ ! lime 7z su*7 f ! hide h little effect on ! precipitat$ c>bonate1 :i* c only be dissolv$ by ! use ( /rong] acids4 ,x mu/ be not$ t ! same injuri\s effect on lim$ goods is produc$ by free c>bonic acid1 :i* may be pres5t ev5 9 s(t wat]s4 ,:5 tempor>ily h>d wat]s are employ$ = lea*+ tann+ mat]ials1 ! c>bonic acid is displac$ by ! tann9s1 :i* =m comp\nds simil> to ^? j m5tion$1 :i* are incapable ( tann+1 & d>k5 & discol\r :5 expos$ to ! air4 ,?\gh ! am\nt ( lime pres5t 9 a lit] ( ev5 ! h>de/ wat] is v small1 yet 9 ! aggregate ( ?\s&s ( gallons us$ weekly 9 a good-siz$ y>d x am\nts to some?+ v consid]able1 & z ! molecul> weight ( tann9s is v high1 ! quantity de/roy$ is _m times t ( ! lime pres5t4 ,?is loss c be prev5t$ 7a7 by ! addition ( suffici5t m9]al acid to conv]t ! tempor>y into p]man5t h>dness1 7b7 by ! use ( oxalic acid1 :i* precipitates ! :ole ( ! lime z oxalate1 or1 7c7 be/ ( all1 by s(t5+ ! wat] by suitable treatm5t be=e use4 ,ea* "p ( tempor>y h>dness reckon$ z ,ca,c,o 7,l4,i4,l4,b41 p4 #ai71 requires #abf p>ts ( cry/allis$ oxalic acid or #jih p>ts ( ,h,,s1 or say "o "p ( ord9>y oil ( vitriol ( sp4 gr4 #ahdj p] #ajj1jjj p>ts ( wat]4 ,z ! lime & magnesia ( tempor>ily-h>d wat] is ?r[n d[n by boil+1 x is deposit$ 9 /eam boil]s z a s(t precipitate1 mu* ( :i* c be bl[n out by suitable sludg+2 b if oils or fats obta9 access to ! boil]1 a s(t1 bulky1 adh]5t deposit is =m$1 keep+ ! wat] f ! plates1 :i* may become r$ hot1 & lead to collapse or explosion4 ,?is effect is n produc$ by m9]al oils1 :i*1 on ! contr>y1 t5d to prev5t adh]5ce ( scale to ! plates1 & z suitable m9]al oils are n only *eap]1 b mu* less injuri\s to ! work+ p>ts ( /eam eng9es ?an animal or vegetable oils or tall[1 !y %\ld always be us$ 9 pref]5ce = cyl9d] purposes4 ,wat] :i* is tempor>ily h>d ow+ to calcium & magnesium c>bonates1 is unsuitable = dye+1 z ! c>bonates react ) basic dyes1 precipitat+ ! col\r-base1 & s r5d]+ a "p ( ! dye useless4 ,fur!r1 z ?is precipitate is deposit$ on ! sk9s x causes unev5 dye+ & gives rise to spots & /reaks4 ,9 dye+ ) basic dyes1 !re=e1 x is advisable to add suffici5t acetic acid to ! wat] be=e use to exactly neutralise ! c>bonates pres5t4 ,( c\rse ?is treatm5t is q unnecess>y :5 acid dyes are employ$1 z acid is usually add$ ) ! dye1 & ) dyewoods ! pres5ce ( a little calcium salt is advantage\s4 ,z ea* 8degree0 ( total h>dness repres5ts a soap-de/roy+ p[] ( at lea/ #b oz4 ( soap p] #ajj gallons ( wat]1 all[ance mu/ be made 9 mak+ up 8fat-liquors0 ) soap & oil = ! loss ( soap due to its precipitation by ! m9]al matt] 9 ! wat]4 ,! /icky lime-soaps are apt to adh]e to ! lea!r & int]f]e ) glaz+2 s t x is mu* bett] to employ a s(t wat]4 ,p]man5t h>dness ( wat] is g5]ally caus$ by sulphates ( lime & magnesia1 & m r>ely by *lorides & nitrates4 ,z none ( ^! c be precipitat$ by lime1 p]man5t h>dness _c be remov$ by ,cl>k's process1 nor c x produce ! injuri\s effect on lim$ hides :i* h be5 attribut$ to tempor>y h>dness4 ,nei!r c ! lime & magnesia pres5t comb9e ) ! tann9s if us$ = lea*+1 s9ce !y are already fix$ by /rong] acids1 & at mo/ c only act injuri\sly by slightly less5+ ! solubility ( ! tann9s4 ,ev5 ?is effect _c be reg>d$ z prov$1 ?\gh x des]ves fur!r inve/igation4#fc ,p]man5t h>dness is !re=e ( little mom5t z reg>ds ! ord9>y uses ( ! tann]y1 ?\gh x has consid]able influ5ce 9 "s ( ! processes ( dye+1 & acts v injuri\sly :]e soap is us$ = sc\r+1 z 9 ! wa%+ ( %eep-sk9s = wool mats1 s9ce ea* "p ( lime reckon$ z c>bonate de/roys at lea/ twelve p>ts ( pure soap 7sodium /e>ate or oleate71 produc+ a /icky & insoluble lime-soap :i* adh]es to ! fibre4 ,9 sole-lea!r tann+1 p]man5t h>dness is sometimes advantage\s1 especially if x be due to calcium & magnesium sulphates1 & ,vignon recomm5d$ t sulphuric acid %\ld be add$ to ! wat] be=e use 9 quantity suffici5t to exactly neutralise ! c>bonates :i* cause tempor>y h>dness1 z magnesium & calcium sulphates are n injuri\s1 b t5d to plump ! hides4 ,x mu/ be rememb]$1 h[ev]1 t ! c>bonic acid lib]at$ may /ill h prejudicial effects on lim$ hides4 #fc ,rec5t inve/igations by ,nih\l 7#8,influ5ce de la nature de l'eau sur l'extraction des matires tannantes1' ,bullet9 de la ,b\rse aux ,cuirs de ,lige1 ,sept4 #aija7 on ! tann+ wat]s ( ,belgium seem to %[ t p]man5t h>dness is m injuri\s 9 ! extraction ( tann9 ?an has g5]ally be5 suppos$4 ,p]man5t h>dness is mo/ objectionable 9 wat]s employ$ = boil]-fe$+1 & calcium sulphate is especially s1 z x becomes ne>ly insoluble 9 wat] at #aej ,c4 or #ee lb4 /eam-pressure1 & is deposit$ on ! plates z a h>d cry/all9e scale :i* has to be *ipp$ (f ) a hamm]4 ,:]e _m boil]s h to be work$ ) a h>d wat]1 x is mu* ! mo/ satisfactory to s(t5 ! wat] ) cau/ic soda1 or ) lime & soda toge!r be=e x comes into ! boil]1 b 9 cases :]e ! plant requir$ w\ld be too co/ly1 boil]-compositions are sometimes us$ ) good effect1 ?\gh consid]able caution is advisable1 s9ce "s ( !m affect ! plates injuri\sly4 ,! active con/itu5t ( _m boil]-compositions is soda-a% or sodium c>bonate1 :i* acts by d\ble decomposition ) ! calcium sulphate1 =m+ sodium sulphate1 & precipitat+ calcium c>bonate z a s$im5t :i* is easily wa%$ out4 ,mo/ tann+ mat]ials1 & ev5 sp5t tan liquors1 w prev5t or less5 incru/ation if mix$ ) ! fe$ wat]1 b sometimes corrode ! plates if us$ too freely4 ,?is dang] is less5$ if !y are us$ 9 conjunction ) soda4 ,heavy m9]al oils1 ei!r introduc$ 9 small quantity ) ! fe$ wat]1 or pa9t$ on ! sides ( ! boil] :5 clean$1 are useful 9 prev5t+ ! =mation ( a coh]5t scale4 ,! removal ( p]man5t h>dness f wat] is easily effect$ 9 mo/ ( ! =ms ( app>atus employ$ = ! s(t5+ ( wat] by lime1 by us+ a calculat$ quantity ( sodium c>bonate 9 addition4 ,! reaction is repres5t$ 9 ! case ( calcium sulphate by ! foll[+ equation-- ,ca,s,o ,na,,co ,ca,c,o ,na,,s4 ,! conv]sion ( magnesium sulphate into c>bonate may be simil>ly effect$1 b z ! latt] is some:at soluble1 an additional equival5t ( lime mu/ be us$ to precipitate x z hydrate4 ,magnesium salts1 f _! solubility1 d n cause scale on boil]s 7?\gh ! *loride is apt to produce corrosion71 b !y are equally de/ructive ( soap ) ! calcium salts4 ,cau/ic soda w remove tempor>y h>dness1 & aft] becom+ conv]t$ into c>bonate w fur!r react on any p]man5t h>dness pres5t2 & its use is !re=e sometimes conv5i5t 9 small s(t5+ plants1 b x is n m effective1 & consid]ably m co/ly ?an a suitable mixture ( lime & sodium c>bonate4 ,ev5 ) ^!1 ,ar*butt /ates t ! co/ ( s(t5+ p]man5t h>dness is ab\t t5 times z great z t ( remov+ tempor>y h>dness ) lime only4#fd #fd ,proce$+s ( ,in/4 ( ,me*4 ,eng9e]s1 #ahih1 pp4 #djd-ed1 9 :i* mu* valuable in=mation on wat]-s(t5+ is giv54 ,z reg>ds ! influ5ce ( o!r impurities1 our k is f> f complete1 b ! foll[+ are ! mo/ important matt]s likely to be pres5t4 ,mud "u any circum/ances is objectionable4 ,x frequ5tly conta9s organic slime & organisms :i* enc\rage ! putrefaction ( hides plac$ 9 x to wa% or s(t54 ,x also almo/ inv>iably conta9s iron z "o ( its con/itu5ts1 & h5ce /a9s lea!r & gives d>k col\r$ liquors4 ,x is n easily remov$ by filtration1 z l>ge filt]-b$s are exp5sive & difficult to keep 9 ord]1 & mu* space is requir$ to cle> wat] by subsid5ce4 ,"s me*anical filt] :i* c be easily clean$1 & us$ "u pressure1 (f]s ! be/ *ance ( success4 ,! ,pulsomet] ,company make "o consi/+ ( sponge tightly pack$ bel[ a p]=at$ pi/on4 ,to cleanse ! filt] a /ream ( wat] is pass$ ! rev]se way1 & ! pi/on rais$ & work$ up & d[n1 ei!r by h& or p[]1 s z to loos5 & knead ! sponge4 ,filt]-presses1 9 :i* clo?s1 or 9 "s cases s&1 are us$ z ! filt]+ m$ium1 are also well adapt$ = ! purpose4 ,if a wat] be s(t5$ by ,cl>k's or o!r process ! precipitat$ *alk c>ries d[n ! mud ) x1 toge!r ) mo/ ( ! organisms4 ,iron is always an objectionable impurity 9 ! tann]y1 ?\gh x is less injuri\s to ! quality ?an ! appe>ance ( ! lea!r produc$1 & inde$ ,g]man sole-lea!r tann]s frequ5tly put old iron 9 ! h&l]s to d>k5 ! col\r ( ! lea!r1 & app>5tly1 if n really1 to quick5 ! tannage4 ,x mu/ n be pres5t 9 wat]s us$ = dye+4 ,iron oxide is frequ5tly pres5t z a mud m]ely1 & 9 ?is case c be remov$ by filtration4 ,x is r>ely 9 solution 9 any o!r =m ?an t ( acid c>bonate1 s9ce sulphate or *loride c\ld n exi/ 9 pres5ce ( bic>bonate ( lime4 ,9 ?is =m1 iron is precipitat$ at once by boil+ or on ! addition ( lime1 l ! tempor>y h>dness due to o!r bases1 9 ! =m ( f]ric hydrate1 & m sl[ly by oxidation on exposure to ! air4 ,! mud produc$ by s(t5+ wat]s :i* conta9 iron mu/ be completely remov$ by filtration1 or subsid5ce1 be=e ! wat] is us$ = lea*+1 or ! iron w r$issolve 9 ! acids ( ! liquors4 ,iron is n p]ceptibly injuri\s 9 ! limes1 b 9 ! bates & wa%-pits sometimes causes /a9s1 :i* are sc>cely visible till black5$ by ! tann+ liquors4 ,9 pres5ce ( sulphur 7f sulphide ( sodium or ! decomposition ( sulphates by ! sulphur-bact]ia ne>ly always pres5t 9 bates & soaks71 ! /a9s become blui% or gre5i% black1 & a black deposit is frequ5tly produc$ on ! sides ( ! pit1 9 :i* ! ?reads ( sulphur-bact]ia 7,?io?rix7 c (t5 be recognis$ by ! microscope4 ,z f]ric salts n only comb9e ) ! tann9s1 b are !mselves tann+ ag5ts 7see p4 #aih71 !y are rapidly absorb$ by lea!r1 & iron is always pres5t 9 lea!r a%4 7,= detection & e/imation see ,l4,i4,l4,b41 p4 #bah47 ,alum9a1 except z clay1 is r>ely pres5t 9 wat]s1 & probably h>mless 9 any wat] likely to be us$ 9 tann+4 ,soda is sometimes pres5t 9 consid]able am\nt1 z sulphate1 *loride1 or c>bonate4 ,! sulphate is probably inop]ative4 ,! *loride1 if pres5t 9 mat]ial quantities1 prev5ts plump+1 & may be ! cause ( ?9 & s(t lea!r1 & 9 l>ge am\nts w greatly imp$e ! prop] exhau/ion ( _m tann+ mat]ials4 ,sodium c>bonate is sometimes pres5t 9 consid]able quantities1 z 9 "s ( ! wat]s ( ! ,le$s di/rict4 ,x may coexi/ ) tempor>y h>dness1 & produces simil> injuri\s effects4 ,wat]s 9 :i* x is pres5t _c h any real p]man5t h>dness4 ,x may be neutralis$ by ! v cauti\s addition ( an acid2 or by admixture ( a p]man5t-h>d wat]4 ,x t5ds to increas$ plump+ 9 ! limes1 b neutralises ! free acids ( ! tan-liquors :i* are necess>y 9 sole-lea!r tann+4 ,copp]1 lead1 & o!r metallic bases are n likely to be pres5t 9 any wat]s us$ = tann+ 9 quantities suffici5t to be injuri\s4 ,sulphuric acid r>ely occurs free 9 wat]1 & !n only 9 su* traces z w\ld be h>mless = tann+1 ?\gh possibly injuri\s to /eam boil]s4 ,z sulphates x is mo/ common4 ,alkal9e sulphates are n kn[n to h any delet]i\s action4 ,! sulphates ( lime & magnesia are ! pr9cipal cause ( p]man5t h>dness1 q4v4 ,iron sulphate is sometimes f\nd 9 colli]y wat]s4 ,nitrates & nitrites 9 wat] are usually ! result ( 8previ\s0 sewage contam9ation1 & are only important z an indication ( ! possible pres5ce ( ! putrefactive f]m5ts1 & are ( little mom5t 9 wat]s only us$ = manufactur+ purposes1 :ile !y seem to be ev5 useful 9 promot+ ! 8work+0 ( bran dr5*es1 by supply+ ! nitrog5 requir$ by ! f]m5t4 ,*lor9e is seldom or nev] pres5t 9 wat] 9 ! free /ate1 b only 9 ! =m ( *lorides1 mo/ frequ5tly ( sodium *loride 7common salt71 ! effect ( :i* has be5 ref]r$ to above1 & also at p4 #hh4 ,! action ( o!r *lorides is probably simil> z reg>ds ! swell+ ( hide4 ,magnesium *loride is v objectionable z a con/itu5t ( boil]-wat]s1 z x lib]ates hydro*loric acid at high temp]atures1 & corrodes ! plates at ! surface ( ! wat]4 ,?is injury c be prev5t$ by addition ( soda4 ,c>bonic acid has be5 ref]r$ to "u tempor>y h>dness4 ,its pres5ce 9 ! free /ate is a matt] ( "s importance to ! tann] 7see p4 #ii74 ,silicic acid 9 a soluble =m is pres5t 9 "s wat]s 9 consid]able quantity4 ,su* wat]s are said to h>d5 lea!r1 b ( ?is ! writ] has no p]sonal exp]i5ce4 ,few accurate rese>*es h be5 made on ! effect ( ! impurities ( wat] on tann+1#fe & ?\gh1 f :at has already be5 said1 x w be se5 t !y are n )\t effect x is probable t 9 _m cases ! wat] is blam$ = tr\bles :i* are simply ! result ( mismanagem5t1 & cr$it$ ) virtues :i* are really due to c>eful & skilful manufacture4 #fe ,see ,nih\l1 #8,influ5ce de l'eau sur l'extraction des matires tannantes1' ,bullet9 de la ,b\rse aux ,cuirs de ,lige1 ,sept4 #aija4 ,! h>dness ( wat]1 & ! dissolv$ c>bonic acid :i* x conta9s1 are1 toge!r ) its temp]ature1 ! pr9cipal factors :i* det]m9e :e!r a hide w plump or fall 9 x4 ,almo/ ! only accurate inve/igation ( ?is po9t has be5 made by ,w4 ,eitn]4#ff ,he plac$ pieces ( hide1 unhair$ by sweat+1 & q flat & fall51 9 wat] = f\r days at a temp]ature ( #df ,f4 7#h ,c471 ) ! foll[+ results3-- #a4 ,9 di/ill$ wat] ,sc>cely at all plump$4 #b4 wat] saturat$ ) ,,co ,well plump$4 #c4 ) lime bic>bonate1 #bj ,g]man ,tol]ably plump4 scale ( h>dness #d4 magnesia bic>bonate1 #bj d4 #e4 lime sulphate #bj d4 ,well plump$4 #f4 magnesia sulphate1 #bj d ,be/ plump$4 #g4 magnesium *loride1 #bj d4 ,n at all plump$4 #h4 common salt1 #bj d4 7#a ,g]man degree ( h>dness corresponds to #a ( ,ca,o 9 #ajj1jjj47 #ff ,g]b]1 iii4 7#ahgg7 p4 #ahc4 ,! peculi>ities :i* 7 %[n by ! hide pieces on removal f ! wat] 7 ma9ta9$ ?r\gh\t ! tann+1 :i* 0 conduct$ 9 imitation ( ! ,g]man me?od1 ! hide be+ swoll5 & col\r$ ?r\gh 9 weak bir*-b>k liquors1 made ) di/ill$ wat] & acidifi$ 9 ea* case ) equal quantities ( lactic acid1 & f9ally laid away1 till tann$1 9 a mixture ( oak b>k & valonia4 ,no4 #f1 f magnesium sulphate1 0 ! be/2 !n ,no4 #b2 ,no4 #c 0 less good1 b all ! pieces f #a to #f 7 firm1 close & ( good sub/ance & texture1 ,no4 #a hav+ swell$ well 9 ! s\r liquor4 ,on ! o!r h&1 #g & #h sc>cely swell$ 9 liquor1 b rema9$ flat ?r\gh\t1 & 7 loos]1 ?9n] & ( f9] fibre4 ,f ?is exp]im5t x is cle> t :ile sulphates & c>bonates ex]t a fav\rable influ5ce on plump+1 *lorides d ! rev]se1 z !y !mselves n only d n plump1 b !y place ! hides 9 an unfav\rable condition = ! plump+ action ( acids 9 ! liquors4 ,^! exp]im5ts are q borne out by ! writ]'s exp]i5ce 9 practice4 ,! wat] at ! ,l[lights ,tann]y1 :i* 9 dry wea!r 0 mo/ly obta9$ f b$s ( :at 0 orig9ally sea-s&1 & :i* consequ5tly conta9$ a v abnormal proportion ( *lorides 7up to #fh pts4 ,na,cl p] #ajj1jjj71 requir$ special & v c>eful managem5t to make ?ick lea!r1 not)/&+ ! fact t x conta9$ a consid]able quantity ( calcium & magnesium sulphates4 ,^! facts also indicate ! importance ( ! ?or\gh removal ( salt f hides int5d$ = sole-lea!r4 ,plump+ is n a desirable ?+ 9 lea!r int5d$ = dress+ purposes1 & x is possible t ! use ( a small p]c5tage ( salt 9 ! liquors or wa% wat]s might 9 "s cases enable bat+ to be disp5s$ )4 ,l a bate1 salt w\ld dissolve a small proportion ( hide sub/ance 7see p4 #fe74 ,!re is no practicable means ( remov+ *lorides f wat]1 b ,eitn] sugge/s ! addition ( a small quantity ( sulphuric acid to wat] conta9+ mu* tempor>y h>dness 7bic>bonates71 9 ord] to conv]t x into p]man5t h>dness 7sulphates71 :i*1 z /at$ above1 plumps bett]4 ,! am\nt requir$ may be calculat$ f an acidimetric det]m9ation ( tempor>y h>dness 7see ,l4,i4,l4,b41 p4 #ai74 ,a simple b n v accurate guide1 is to add en\gh acid to purple1 b n to r$d5 litmus pap] ev5 aft] mov+ ! latt] ab\t 9 ! wat] = "s m9utes4 ,9 practice ! acid mu/ ( c\rse be v ?or\ghly mix$ ) ! wat] by /irr+ & plung+4 ,x mu/ be borne 9 m9d t ,eitn]'s exp]im5t 0 on sweat$ hides1 & t ) lim$ hide1 :i* is kept plump by ! dissolv$ lime reta9$ 9 ! hide1 diff]5t results z reg>ds c>bonic acid & bic>bonates w\ld be obta9$4 ,bo? ^! w\ld conv]t ! lime 9 ! hide into *alk1 :i* is insoluble & in]t1 & ! hide w\ld fall1 at any rate :5 ! lime 0 completely c>bonat$1 :ile hides w\ld rema9 plumpe/ 9 wat]s mo/ free f sub/ances capable ( neutralis+ lime4 ,f ?is we may conclude1 :at may be a priori expect$1 t ! pur] ! wat]1 ! plump] lim$ hides rema9 9 x4 ,9 s(t b peaty wat]s1 hides fall rapidly1 f ! neutralisation ( ! lime by ! weak organic acids ( ! peat4 ,su* wat]s are dang]\s = dome/ic use f _! solv5t action on lead1 b ?is dang] c be entirely remov$ by /or+ ! wat] 9 lime/one res]voirs1 or all[+ x to fl[ sl[ly ?r\gh a lime/one culv]t be=e use4 ,9 "s t[ns 9 ! nor? ( ,engl& a small quantity ( lime is add$ s z to neutralise ! wat] z x leaves ! res]voir & be=e x ent]s ! ma9s4 ,:]ev] ! conditions ( putrefaction or decay+ organic matt] are pres5t1 z 9 a bate1 hides fall rapidly1 & 9 extreme cases ev5 ! pres5ce ( ! /rong] acids w n ma9ta9 plumpness4 ,eitn] m5tions ! case ( a /ream at ,vissoko 9 ,bosnia1 :i* 0 9 special repute among ! tann]s f its p[] ( pull+ d[n hides rapidly1 & :i* took its rise 9 a common on :i* ! pigs ( ! t[n 7 pa/ur$4 ,! causes ( ?is action are no d\bt due to ! products ( putrefaction1 b are some:at obscure4 ,bact]ia pres5t 9 wat] are a frequ5t s\rce ( injury 9 ! soaks1 & probably 9 o!r /ages ( ! tann+ process4 ,ra9 wat] & ! wat] ( /reams 9 m\nta9 di/ricts ( h>d igne\s rock are g5]ally ne>ly free f m9]al con/itu5ts4 ,?is is ! case ) ! ,glasg[ wat] f ,lo* ,katr9e1 & ! ,?irlm]e wat] :i* supplies ,man*e/]4 ,su* wat]1 if cold en\gh1 & free f mud & organic impurity1 is ! be/ = almo/ e purpose 9 ! tann]y4 ,mo/ riv]-wat] conta9s mat]ial quantities ( m9]al matt]1 ?\gh x is usually s(t] ?an t ( spr+s or wells4 ,= fur!r details z to ! *emical exam9ation ( wat]1 & ! me?ods ( det]m9+ ! am\nts ( its diff]5t con/itu5ts1 see ,l4,i4,l4,b41 pp4 #ah et seq4 ,,*apt] ,,xi4 ,,soak+ ,,& ,,s(t5+ ,,( ,,hides ,,& ,,sk9s4 ,z has be5 expla9$ 9 ! la/ *apt]1 hides & sk9s come into ! h&s ( ! tann] ei!r uncur$ 78gre5071 z !y are tak5 (f ! animal1 pres]v$ ) salt or "s o!r antiseptic1 dri$1 or 8drysalt$0 9 :i* bo? me?ods are comb9$4 ,8 object 9 ea* case is to remove blood & dirt1 & to re/ore ! hide to its s(t & natural condition2 b ! treatm5t requir$ v>ies mu* ) ! /ate ( ! hides4 ,fre% hides m]ely require cleans+ f blood & dirt4 ,?is is necess>y because ! blood causes bad col\r1 & bo? blood1 lymph & adh]+ dung are s\rces ( putrefaction1 :i* ultimately attacks ! gra9 & fibr\s /ructure ( ! hide4 ,h5ce wa%$ hides keep bett] ?an unwa%$4 ,cold wat] is mo/ desirable1 z *eck+ putrefaction4 ,if ! wat] is mu* ov] #aj ,c41 or if x is *>g$ ) organic matt] & f]m5t-g]ms2 or if1 z is too g5]ally ! case1 ! hides are 9 a p>tially putrid /ate :5 receiv$1 ! "t ( soak+ mu/ be r$uc$ z mu* z possible1 & x may be necess>y to /]ilise ! wat] ) c>bolic acid or creol9 7pp4 #bf1 #bh74 ,9 su* cases ! use ( a wa%-:eel1 or tumbl]1 is v desirable1 rapidly cleans+ ! hides & remov+ adh]+ dung1 :i* int]f]es ) ! lim+1 & is a s]i\s cause ( damag$ gra94 ,! ,am]ican patt]n ( wa%-:eel %[n 9 ,fig4 #ba is v suitable = ! purpose4 ,9 no case is x desirable to all[ gre5 hides to lie = m ?an a few h\rs 9 wat]2 & unwise treatm5t at ?is "t is ! cause ( _m tr\bles1 :i* are only detect$ at lat] /ages1 & :i* are v difficult to trace to _! s\rce4 8,weak gra910 9 :i* ! hyal9e lay] 7p4 #ej7 is de/roy$1 & :i* tans a :iti% col\r2 8prick+10 or p]=ation ( ! gra9 ) small p9holes1 :i* may g on to 8pitt+0 ) l>g] holes1 & a g5]al weak5+ ( fibre1 ) s(t5+ & ne$less loss ( weight1 are among ^! results4 ,an in/ructive in/ance may be quot$4 ,a l>ge tann] f\nd t 8 curri$ lea!r 0 affect$ ) small spots & r+s ( d>k] col\r1 :i* r5d]$ x q unfit = /a9+1 & :i* reappe>$ ev5 :5 ! lea!r 0 buff$4 ,:5 f9i%$ z black gra91 ^! spots _h a t5d5cy to 8spue10 or rise z little pimples ( res9\s matt]4 ,be=e ! lea!r 0 /uff$ no defect 0 noticeable to ! eye1 b ei!r !n1 or on /ripp+ ! grease by a solv5t1 !y c\ld be se5 "u ! microscope z light] pat*es ( op5 & por\s gra9 :i* absorb$ m ?an _! %>e ( fat4 ,dur+ ! tann+ process !y c\ld h>dly be detect$1 b 9 ! fir/ col\r+ !y appe>$ = a few h\rs z blacki% specks almo/ exactly l ^? caus$ by p>ticles ( iron or iron-ru/4 ,by c>eful obs]vation !y 7 trac$ back to ! limes2 specim5s ( ! lim$ hide 7 submitt$ to ,director ,eitn]1 :o id5tifi$ ! defect z 8,/ipp510 caus$ by a species ( bact]ia1 :i* _c subsi/ 9 limes1 & :i* !re=e mu/ h be5 9 ! soaks4 ,^!1 :i* _h be5 some:at neglect$ f pressure ( "w1 7 clean$ out & /]ilis$ ) creol9 solution1 & ! mis*ief ceas$4 ,x is wor? not+ t ! tann] dat$ ! beg9n+ ( ! tr\ble f ! soak+ ( "s 8,spani%0 horse-hides1 :i* may h introduc$ ! infection4 ,sev]al v simil> cases h come "u ! writ]'s notice4 ,x is n absolutely necess>y to soak fre% hides or sk9s at all be=e lim+1 & :]e ! wat] is sc>ce or unfav\rable1 or ! sk9s ta9t$ or 8slipp+0 hair1 x is be/ to pass /raight into a weak lime4 ,9 ?is case ! limes mu/ be work$ 9 %ifts 7see p4 #aca7 & ! :ole ( ! olde/ liquor run away & ! hides rapidly *ang$ into a fre% lime1 or ! limes w become s *>g$ ) organic matt] & bact]ia t ! hides w cease to plump1 & may ev5 putrefy4 ,salt$ hides & sk9s require m soak+ & m ?or\gh wa%+ ?an fre% ones1 z x is n only necess>y to remove ! salt1 b to s(t5 & plump ! fibre :i* has be5 dehydrat$ & contract$ by salt+4 ,if goods ) salt 9 !m are tak5 into limes1 !y w n plump prop]ly1#fg & creases & wr9kles 7drawn gra97 are =m$ :i* no aft]-treatm5t w remove4 ,?is is especially important 9 sole lea!r4 ,9 decid+ on a me?od1 we mu/ be> 9 m9d t salt is easily soluble1 & diffuses rapidly into wat] or weak] solutions1 & t weak salt solutions t5d to prev5t ! plump+ ( ! fibre1 :ile ^? ( ab\t #aj p] c5t4 h consid]able p[] ( dissolv+ ! cem5t+ matt] ( ! fibres 7p4 #fe7 & s less5+ weight & firmness4 ,x may also be not$ t ?\gh salt is n a true dis9fectant 7p4 #bb71 salt$ hides are mu* less prone to putrefaction ?an fre% ones1 & !re=e a long] soak+ may be safely giv54 #fg ,exp]im5ts m5tion$ on p4 #hi ?r[ "s d\bt on ! p[] ( salt to prev5t plump+ 9 ! limes1 ?\gh ! op9ion 9 ! text is g5]ally held by tann]s4 ,^! conditions po9t to ! desirability ( free exposure to wat]1 atta9$ by susp5d+1 h&l+ frequ5tly1 or tumbl+1 & repeat$ *anges to remove ! salt4 ,! degree ( removal ( salt is easily det]m9$ by ! e/imation ( ,cl 9 ! la/ wa%-wat] 7,l4,i4,l4,b41 p4 #ah74 ,am]ican tann]s univ]sally soak wet-salt$ hides ?ree or f\r days ) z _m *anges ( wat]1 & frequ5tly f9i% by a few m9utes 9 a wa%-:eel4 ,any wa%+ tumbl] may be us$2 b ! *eap & simple con/ruction ( ! ,am]ican wa%-:eel w be easily und]/ood f ,fig4 #ba4 ,! sides are op51 s t hides c be put 9 or remov$ betwe5 ! spokes4 ,! rim ( ! :eel is g5]ally p]=at$1 = ! escape ( wat] :i* is suppli$ by a pipe pass+ ?r\gh ! axis2 & ! :eel is (t5 driv5 by a *a9 or rope r\nd its circumf]5ce4 ,no sev]e me*anical treatm5t1 su* z 8/ock+10 is necess>y or desirable = gre5 or salt$ hides4 ,dry & dry-salt$ hides require mu* long] soak+ ?an wet-salt$1 ! am\nt naturally dep5d+ on ! ?ickness ( ! hide & ! "* ( dry+4 ,ev5 ?9 sk9s :5 /rongly dri$ require consid]able "t to s(t5 & swell ! fibres1 al?\gh !y soon become wet-?r\gh & flexible4 ,_m diff]5t me?ods ( soak+ h be5 employ$4 ,sometimes hides are susp5d$ 9 runn+ wat]2 sometimes laid 9 soaks :i* may be ei!r r5ew$1 or all[$ to putrefy2 sometimes 9 wat] to :i* salt1 borax or c>bolic acid has be5 add$1 to prev5t putrefaction2 & m rec5tly weak solutions ( cau/ic soda1 sulphide ( sodium or sulphur\s acid h be5 us$ ) mu* success4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ba4--;,am]ican ,wa%-:eel4 ,! fir/ ( ^! me?ods1 7 x desirable1 is r>ely possible 9 ^! days ( ,riv] ,pollution ,acts2 ( ! o!rs1 x is difficult to say :i* is bett]1 s9ce ! treatm5t desirable v>ies ) ! h>dness ( ! hide & ! temp]ature at :i* x has be5 dri$4 ,! great object is to ?or\ghly s(t5 ! hide )\t all[+ putrefaction to injure x4 ,z dri$ hides are (t5 damag$ already f ?is cause1 ei!r be=e dry+1 or f becom+ moi/ & heat$ on %ipbo>d1 x is frequ5tly no easy matt] to accompli% ?is4 ,! fre% hide1 z has be5 se51 conta9s consid]able portions ( album91 & if ! hide is dri$ at a high temp]ature1 ?is may become :olly or p>tially coagulat$ & insoluble4 ,! gelat9\s fibre & ! cori9 7if inde$ ! latt] exi/s ready =m$ 9 ! fre% hide7 d n coagulate by heat1 b also become less readily soluble4 ,gelat9 dri$ at #acj ,c4 c only be r$issolv$ by acids1 or wat] at #abj ,c4 ,eitn]#fh exp]im5t$ ) pieces ( gre5 calf-sk9 ( equal ?ickness1 :i* 7 dri$ at diff]5t temp]atures1 ) results giv5 9 ! foll[+ table3-- ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,sample4,temp]ature,rem>ks4 ,"t ( ,rem>ks4 ,cori9 ( ,dry+4 ,s(t5+ ,dissolv$ by 9 ,wat]4 ,salt ,solution4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,i4 #ae ,c4 ,9 vacuo #bd h\rs ,)\t #afh p] c5t4 me*anical ,,ii4 #bb ,c4 ,9 sun #b days "w #afb ,,iii4 #ce ,c4 ,9 dry+#e ,twice work$ #jae closet ,refus$ to s(t5 ,,iv4 #fj ,c4 suffici5tly = traces tann+ ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- #fh ,g]b]1 #ahhj1 p4 #aab4 ,h5ce x is evid5t t1 = hides dri$ at l[ temp]atures1 %ort soak+ 9 fre% & cold wat] is suffici5t1 &1 except 9 w>m wea!r1 !re w\ld be little dang] ( putrefaction4 ,) h>d] dry+1 long] "t is requir$1 & m vigor\s measures may be necess>y4 ,a well-kn[n tann] recomm5d$ a br9e ( #cj-ce b>komet] 7sp4 gr4 #ajce1 or ab\t #e p] c5t4 ( ,na,cl74 ,?is has a d\ble action1 n only pres]v+ f putrefaction1 b dissolv+ a portion ( ! hide-sub/ance 9 ! =m ( cori91 :i* is und\bt$ly a loss to ! tann]1 ?\gh x is que/ionable if !re is any process :i* w s(t5 ov]dri$ hides )\t loss ( weight2 s9ce ev5 prolong$ soak+ 9 cold wat] at a temp]ature :i* is too l[ to all[ ( putrefaction tak+ place w dissolve a s]i\s am\nt ( hide-sub/ance4 ,*lorides1 h[ev]1 d n seem well adapt$ = ! purpose 9 view1 f _! weak antiseptic p[] & t5d5cy to prev5t swell+4 ,to prev5t ?is ,jackson ,s*ulz advis$ ! use ( wat] at #hj ,f4 = soak+ dur+ ! w9t] mon?s4 ,wat] conta9+ a small quantity 7#ja p] c5t47 ( c>bolic acid has be5 recomm5d$ = ! purpose1 & w prev5t putrefaction1 :ile x has no solv5t p[] on ! hide1 b1 on ! contr>y1 t5ds to coagulate & r5d] insoluble album9\s matt]s4 ,borax has be5 propos$ = ! same purpose1 &1 9 #a p] c5t4 solution1 c]ta9ly prev5ts putrefaction1 & has consid]able s(t5+ p[]1 b is f> too co/ly4 ,o!r me?ods ( *emical s(t5+ are describ$ on p4 #aae4 ,= "s descriptions ( hides1 & notably = ,india kips1 putrid soaks 7 =m]ly mu* employ$1 ! putrefactive action s(t5+ & r5d]+ soluble ! h>d5$ tissue4 ,9 ,india ! native tann]s s(t5 _! hides 9 v few h\rs by plung+ !m 9 putrid pools1 into :i* e description ( tann]y refuse is all[$ to run4 ,putrefactive processes1 h[ev]1 are always dang]\s1 z ! action1 ?r\gh *anges ( temp]ature1 or v>iation 9 ! previ\s /ate ( ! liquor1 is apt to be irregul>1 & ei!r to attack "o portion ( ! hide be=e ano!r1 or to proce$ fa/] ?an 0 expect$4 ,hides are also frequ5tly m or less damag$ by putrefaction & heat+ dur+ ! process ( cure1 & ^! damages are acc5tuat$ 9 a putrid soak4 ,h5ce hides 9 ! soaks require con/ant & c>eful wat*+1 & ! goods mu/ be )drawn z soon z !y are ?or\ghly s(t5$1 = ! putrefaction is con/antly de/roy+ z well z s(t5+ ! hides4 ,x is possible t putrefactive s(t5+ is less injuri\s to kips1 & su* goods z are int5d$ = upp]-lea!r1 ?an to ^? = sole purposes1 z x is g5]ally consid]$ necess>y 9 ! =m] case t a good deal ( ! album5 & int]fibrill>y matt] be remov$1 & t ! fibre be well divid$ into its con/itu5t fibrils = ! sake ( s(tness & pliability2 & ?us ! putrid soak1 if act+ rightly1 accompli%es "p ( ! "w :i* w\ld aft]w>ds h to be done by ! lime & ! bate1 z ! actual fibre ( ! hide seems less readily putrescible ?an ! s(t] cem5t+ sub/ance4 ,putrefaction is caus$1 z we h se51 by a great v>iety ( liv+ organisms1 ea* ( :i* has its own special products & modes ( action4 ,x is q possible t1 if we knew :at precise =m ( putrefaction 0 mo/ advantage\s1 we might by appropriate conditions be able to enc\rage x1 to ! exclusion ( o!rs1 & obta9 bett] results ?an at pres5t4 ,putrid soaks 79 ! old s5se7 are1 h[ev]1 disus$ 9 ! pres5t day by all enlight5$ tann]s1 z x is recognis$ t ! risks outbalance ! advantages1 & :5 drysalt$ hides are work$1 ! soluble salts ( ! cure accumulate to an injuri\s ext5t4 ,! mod]n me?od1 :]e no *emicals are us$1 is to give "o fre% wat] at lea/ to ea* pack ( hides or sk9s4 ,ev5 9 ?is case consid]able putrefaction takes place :]e ! soak+ occupies #g to #ad days1 z is ! case ) kips & hides1 & x is probable t ! use ( *emical & antiseptic me?ods ( soak+ w ultimately be g5]ally adopt$1 bo? on te*nical & sanit>y gr\nds4 ,! use ( dilute acids = s(t5+ has mu* to recomm5d x1 _! p[] ( caus+ ! fibre to swell & absorb wat] be+ q equal to t ( ! alkalies1 :ile few1 if any1 putrefactive bact]ia c ?rive 9 an acid liquid4 ,v dilute sulphuric acid has be5 us$ ) success to dissolve ! alkal9e 8pla/]0 ( ,ea/ ,india kips 7p4 #ci74 ,x has consid]able dis9fectant p[] 7p4 #bc71 b its action on ! hide-fibre is undesirably /rong4 ,sulphur\s acid is mu* m suitable4 ,its use = ?is purpose 0 pat5t$ by ,mayn>d1 along ) a numb] ( o!r possible uses1 b ! pat5t has n[ laps$1 & he does n seem to h succe$$ 9 introduc+ x into practice4 ,exp]im5ts at ! ,york%ire ,college1 & also at a tann]y on a manufactur+ scale1 h %[n t ! me?od is capable ( excell5t results4 ,! hides are soak$ = #bd-dh h\rs 9 a solution ( sulphur\s acid conta9+ ab\t #b p] c5t4 ( ,,s 7= manufacture1 comp>e p4 #bd2 = te/+1 ,l4,i4,l4,b41 pp4 #af1 #cg71 & are !n transf]r$ to wat]1 :]e !y swell freely to _! full ?ickness4 ,!y may be ei!r lim$ at once1 or fir/ neutralis$ ) dilute cau/ic soda1 ammonia1 or sulphide ( sodium1 :i*1 = dress+ lea!r1 is p]haps desirable4 ,no putrefaction takes place1 ev5 if !y are reta9$ = a consid]able "t 9 wat]1 & ! acid has little or no solv5t effect on ! hide-fibre1 ! /r5g? ( :i* is well pres]v$4 ,! lim+1 h[ev]1 mu/ ei!r be conduct$ ) ! aid ( sodium sulphide or 9 old limes1 s9ce ! /]ile condition ( ! hides r5d]s lim+ 9 fre% lime v sl[ 7cp4 p4 #acg74 ,= exp]im5tal purposes a p] c5t4 solution ( ,boakes' 8metabisulphite ( soda0 may be us$1 to :i* p] c5t4 ( conc5trat$ sulphuric acid previ\sly dilut$ ) wat] is gradually add$ dur+ ! soak+1 ! hides be+ fir/ )drawn4 ,= p]man5t "w x w be f\nd mu* *eap] to manufacture ! acid on ! spot by burn+ sulphur4 ,! use ( solutions ( cau/ic soda 7#a "p p] #ajjj71 or ( sodium sulphide 7#a-c p>ts p] #ajjj7 z sugge/$ by ,eitn]1 seems at pres5t likely to sup]s$e all o!r me?ods ( s(t5+ f _! simplicity & safety4 ,tw5ty-f\r to =ty-eight h\rs 9 ei!r ( ^! solutions1 :i* may if necess>y be foll[$ by a %ort soak 9 pla9 wat]1 seem suffici5t to s(t5 ei!r kips or hides4 ,exp]im5ts at ! ,york%ire ,college h %[n t solutions ( ?is /r5g? h little or no solv5t action on ! hide-fibre1 b promote its swell+ 9 wat] s effectively t no me*anical s(t5+ is ne$$ 7?\gh a slight drumm+ is advantage\s71 :ile putrefaction is almo/ entirely prev5t$1 s t ! solution may be repeat$ly us$ if kept up to its orig9al /r5g?1 :i* is easily det]m9$ ) /&>d acid & ph5olph?ale9 7see ,l4,i4,l4,b41 p4 #ag74 ,nei!r cau/ic soda nor sodium sulphide h any injuri\s effect on lim+1 ?\gh x may prove some:at sl[] ?an ) ! old] me?ods1 :]e ! epid]mis 0 p>tially de/roy$ by ! action ( putrid f]m5ts4 ,! dilute solutions us$ are n only less injuri\s to ! hide ?an ^? ( great] /r5g?1 b !y are also m effective 9 s(t5+4 ,eitn] 7,g]b]1 #ahii1 p4 #ehd7 /ates t :5 us+ a solution ( cau/ic soda ( #a "p 9 #ajjj /r5g?1 ! "t requir$ to s(t5 "s hides 0 only two days1 z aga9/ ?ree days = a sodium sulphide liquor1 & f\r days = pure wat]1 & t ) ! soda solution only ab\t #jf p] c5t ( ! hide-sub/ance ( ! sk9 0 dissolv$ out1 :il/ :5 sodium sulphide 0 us$ x 0 #jg p] c5t41 & ) pure wat] alone no less ?an #ai p] c5t4 0 lo/ by solution4 ,! use ( mod]ately w>m wat] 7#dj ,c47 9 a drum is q successful 9 rapidly s(t5+ s\nd hides aft] !y h previ\sly be5 soak$ = "s days 9 cold wat]2 b if !y are ta9t$ 9 ! cure1 x is v apt to int5sify ! mis*ief4 ,hides :i* h p>tially putrefi$ int]nally1 or :i* h be5 expos$ to a hot sun :ile ! int]ior is /ill moi/1 are v apt to appe> s\nd :ile dry1 b to bli/] or g to pieces f ! de/ruction ( ! fibres z soon z !y are lim$1 & ?is 9 spite ( ev5 ! mo/ c>eful treatm5t4 ,= ta9t$ hides1 cau/ic soda is probably pref]able to sodium sulphide4 ,_m *emicals h be5 pat5t$ = s(t5+ hides4 ,sulphide ( ars5ic is said to be 9 use1 & if dissolv$ 9 cau/ic soda solution w\ld diff] little 9 its effect f ord9>y sulphide ( sodium4 ,saltpetre has also be5 employ$1 b its effect1 if any1 0 probably m]ely antiseptic4 ,ord9>y sodium c>bonate has be5 us$1 b is less effective ?an cau/ic soda4 ,gas liquor & mixtures ( ?is ) t> & wat] 7 pat5t$ by ,b>ron1 & probably ! fir/ w\ld s(t5 by virtue ( its ammonia & sulphides1 :ile t> conta9s c>bolic acid4 ,probably ! mo/ absurd mixture ( all 0 pat5t$ by ,b]ry1 :i* consi/$ ( bucket ( slak$ lime1 bucket ( wood-a%es1 #ab lbs4 ( pota%1 #e lbs4 ( oil ( vitriol1 & #d lbs4 ( _s ( salt6 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bb4--;,fall] ,/ocks4 ,beside m]ely soak+ ! hides1 x is sometimes necess>y to "w !m me*anically1 to promote _! s(t5+2 ?is 0 =m]ly accompli%$ by 8break+ ov]0 ! hides on ! beam ) a blunt knife4 ,?is process is /ill 9 use = sk9s ( _m sorts1 b = ! heavi] classes ( lea!r is n[ usually sup]s$$ or supplem5t$ by ! use ( 8/ocks10 or drums4 ,! =m] consi/ ( a wood5 or metallic box1 ( peculi> %ape1 :]e9 "w two v heavy hamm]s1 rais$ alt]nately by p9s or cams on a :eel1 & let fall ^u ! hides1 :i* !y =ce up aga9/ ! curv$ end ( ! box ) a sort ( knead+ action4 ,! ord9>y =m ( ?is ma*9e is %[n 9 ,fig4 #bb4 ,a m mod]n =m1 :i* seems to possess "s advantages1 is ! ,am]ican 8d\ble-%ov]10 or 8hide-mill10 se5 9 ,fig4 #bc4 8,crank /ocks10 simil> 9 =m to ! fall] /ocks1 b driv5 by cranks1 are sometimes us$ = s(t5+1 b are bett] adapt$ to light] uses4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bc4--;,am]ican ,hide-,mill4 ,! numb] ( hides :i* c be /ock$ at once naturally v>ies ) ! size ( bo? hides & /ocks1 b %\ld be su* t ! hides "w regul>ly & /eadily ov] & ov]4 ,! :ole numb] %\ld n be put 9 at once1 b %\ld be add$ "o aft] ano!r1 z !y get into regul> "w4 ,! duration ( /ock+ is #aj-cj m941 accord+ to ! condition & "* ( ! hides4 ,hides %\ld n be /ock$ until !y are s f> s(t5$ t !y c be d\bl$ %>ply1 )\t break+ or /ra9+ ! fibre4 ,aft] /ock+1 !y mu/ be soak$ aga9 = a %ort "t1 & !n be br\ght into an old lime4 ,a small quantity ( sodium sulphide add$ to ! soaks or 9 ! /ocks has be5 recomm5d$ z ( great value 9 s(t5+ ob/9ate hides1 & probably ) ju/ice1 f its well-kn[n s(t5+ action ^u cellul> & horny tissues4 ,tumbl] drums ( v>i\s =ms may also be us$ ) good effect = s(t5+ purposes1 especially = sk9s1 & are mu* less detrim5tal ?an /ock+1 bo? z reg>ds ! weight & quality ( ! goods4 ,= sole lea!r1 & ev5 = kips1 ! use ( /ocks has 9 rec5t ye>s be5 entirely disc>d$ by _m ( ! m advanc$ tann]s4 ,if me*anical "w is requir$ at all1 ! drum is pref]r$1 & is sometimes employ$ aft] a few days' lim+1 ! goods be+ fir/ m]ely s(t5$ 9 fre% wat]4 ,! use ( cau/ic soda1 sodium sulphide1 or sulphur\s acid r5d]s me*anical s(t5+ almo/ unnecess>y4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bd4--;,drum = ,wa%+ or ,tann+4 ,! drums employ$ are 9 pr9ciple l a b>rel-*urn1 & are l>ge cyl9drical wood5 *amb]s #f to #ab feet 9 diamet]1 & fitt$ inside ei!r ) %elves l ! floats ( a wat]-:eel1 or ) r\nd$ pegs on :i* ! hides fall4 ,! ,am]ican wa%-:eel figur$ on p4 #aaa is a ma*9e ( ?is k9d1 & "o ( a m elaborate description is %[n 9 ,fig4 #bd4 ,drums are n only us$ = s(t5+1 b = tann+1 dye+1 & _m o!r purposes 9 lea!r manufacture4 ,x is advantage\s to be able to rev]se ! direction ( _! rotation to prev5t ! roll+ up ( ! hides4 ,,*apt] ,,xii4 ,,depilation4 ,aft] ! s(t5+ & cleans+ ( ! hide or sk9 is complet$1 & be=e proce$+ to tan x1 x is usually necess>y to remove ! hair or wool4 ,! e>lie/ me?od ( accompli%+ ?is 0 by means ( incipi5t putrefaction1 :i* attacks 9 ! fir/ in/ance ! s(t muc\s matt] ( ! epid]mis1 & ?us loos5s ! hair )\t mat]ially injur+ ! true sk94 ,?is loos5+ ( ! hair (t5 takes place accid5tally 9 hides :i* h be5 kept too long )\t salt+1 & is kn[n z 8slipp+10 & is apt to be accompani$ by "s degree ( injury to ! gra94 ,! old me?od ( loos5+ ! hair by putrefaction1 or1 z x is g5]ally call$1 8sweat+10 0 to lay ! hides 9 piles1 usually 9 "s w>m & damp place4 ,occasionally a slight prelim9>y salt+ 0 giv5 to prev5t too mu* putrefaction ( ! hide4 ,! action 9 ?is case1 h[ev]1 0 v irregul>1 & x has be5 q ab&on$ 9 all civilis$ c\ntries4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #be4--,sweat-,pit4 ,! me?od :i* is n[ us$ is to hang ! hides 9 a clos$ *amb]1 g5]ally call$ a 8sweat-pit10 ,fig4 #be1 b usually con/ruct$ above ! gr\nd-level & protect$ f sudd5 *anges ( temp]ature by d\ble walls1 or by m\nds ( e>?4 ,! hides are hung 9 ! sweat-pit1 9 small *amb]s ea* capable ( hold+ #ej or #ajj hides4 ,! temp]ature is kept at ab\t #ae to #bj ,c41 ! air be+ w>m$1 if necess>y1 by ! admission ( /eam bel[ a p]=at$ floor1 or cool$ by a %[] ( wat] f spr9kl]s1 s arrang$ z n to play directly on ! sk9s1 & is ?us always kept saturat$ ) moi/ure4 ,little if any v5tilation is all[$1 & a l>ge quantity ( ammonia is giv5 (f f ! decomposition ( ! organic matt]1 & no d\bt contributes to ! solution ( ! epid]mis & ! loos5+ ( ! hair1 z ! writ] has f\nd t ammoniacal vap\rs alone v spe$ily produce ?is effect4 ,aft] #d-f days ( ?is treatm5t1 ! hair is suffici5tly loos5$ to be remov$ by work+ ! sk9 ov] ! beam ) a blunt knife1 or by means ( ! /ocks or hide-mill 7see p4 #aaf74 ,great c>e & wat*fulness are requir$ to avoid injury to ! gra9 by putrefaction4 ,! hide is 9 a slimy & completely flaccid & 8fall50 condition1 & "s tr\ble is occasion$ by ! hair be+ work$ into ! fle% by ! hide-mill1 to obviate :i*1 a slight lim+ is frequ5tly giv5 aft] ! sweat+4 ,hides :i* h be5 unhair$ 9 ?is way require to be swoll5 by acid 9 ! liquors 9 ord] to produce a satisfactory sole-lea!r1 z ! sweat+ process does n swell or split up ! fibres4 ,9 "s ,european tann]ies a simil> process1 b at a high] temp]ature1 is employ$1 & x is also l>gely us$ = %eep-sk9s "u ! "n ( 8/al+10 b 9 ?is case is sometimes conduct$ 9 a v rude & primitive mann]1 & frequ5tly ) ! result ( consid]able injury to ! pelt4 ,! great objection to ! sweat+ process1 h[ev] c>efully conduct$1 is ! liability ( putrefaction to attack ! sk9 itself1 caus+ 8weak gra940 ,its mo/ advantage\s use is = sole lea!r1 z1 al?\gh ! solution ( ! hide-sub/ance may n be v mu* less ?an 9 ! case ( lim+1 ! dissolv$ matt] rema9s 9 ! hide in/ead ( be+ wa%$ out1 & be+ fix$ by ! tann91 contributes to ! solidity ( ! lea!r4 ,9 ,engl&1 lime is ! ag5t almo/ univ]sally employ$ = unhair+1 ?\gh e tann] admits its defici5cies & disadvantages4 ,x is h>d1 h[ev]1 to recomm5d a sub/itute :i* is free f ! same or great] evils1 & lime has "o or two valuable qualities :i* w make x v difficult to sup]s$e4 ,"o ( ^! is t1 ?\gh x inevitably causes loss ( sub/ance & weight1 x is also impossible1 ) any reasonable c>e1 totally to de/roy a pack ( hides by its use2 :i* is by no means ! case ) "s ( its rivals4 ,ano!r advantage is t1 ow+ to ! v limit$ solubility ( lime 9 wat]1 x is ( comp>atively small consequ5ce :e!r mu* or little is us$2 & ev5 if ! hides are left 9 a few days long] ?an necess>y1 ! mis*ief1 ?\gh c]ta91 is only to be detect$ by c>eful & accurate obs]vation4 ,) all o!r me?ods1 exact "t & quantity are ( prim>y importance1 & x is n easy to get ord9>y workm5 to pay ! necess>y att5tion to su* details4 ,aga91 ! qualities ( lime1 its virtues & fail+s1 h be5 matt] ( exp]i5ce = hundr$s ( ye>s1 & s f> z su* exp]i5ce c tea*1 we "k exactly h[ to deal ) x4 ,a new me?od1 on ! o!r h&1 br+s new & unlook$-= difficulties1 & (t5 requires *anges 9 o!r p>ts ( ! process1 z well z 9 ! m]e unhair+1 to make x successful4 ,z our k ( ! *emical & physical *anges involv$ becomes great]1 we may look to ov]com+ ^! ob/acles m readily4 ,! univ]sal s\rce ( lime is *alk or lime/one1 :i* consi/s ( calcium c>bonate1 & f :i* ! c>bon dioxide is driv5 (f by burn+ 9 a kiln4 ,_m lime/ones1 h[ev]1 are f> f be+ pure calcium c>bonate1 b conta9 l>ge proportions ( magnesia1 iron & alum9a1 ! latt] p]haps orig9ally deposit$ 9 ! =m ( clay ) ! s$im5t f :i* ! /one 0 =m$4 ,su* clay lime/ones :5 burnt yield natural cem5ts1 l oolite & o!r 8hydraulic0 limes1 :i* are capable ( sett+ ev5 "u wat]4 ,! pres5ce ( magnesia & clay is injuri\s n only by dim9i%+ ! am\nt ( lime pres5t1 b by mak+ ! lime mu* m difficult to slake2 & iron oxide1 ?\gh q insoluble1 may become me*anically fix$ 9 ! gra9 ( ! hide1 & may be ! cause ( subsequ5t /a9s4 ,! burn+ ( lime 9 ! kiln is probably n q s simple an op]ation z ! equations ( ! text-books w\ld sugge/4 ,by m]e heat+1 ! c>bonate c1 x is true1 be decompos$1 b to d ?is completely a good :ite heat is requir$1 :i* is r>ely atta9$ 9 practical burn+1 & x is probable t at lea/ a "p ( ! c>bon dioxide pres5t is r$uc$ to c>bon monoxide by ! combu/ible fuel-gases1 & s sep>at$ f ! lime1 = :i* x has no aff9ity4 ,c>bon monoxide is ! cause ( ! int5sely poison\s "* ( limekiln gases1 ! pure dioxide be+ irrespirable1 b n /rictly poison\s4 ,quicklime1 ,ca,o1 on com+ 9 contact ) wat]1 comb9es ) x ) ! evolution ( consid]able heat1 becom+ slak$ or conv]t$ into hydrate1 ,ca7,,oh74 ,?is *ange takes place rapidly & easily :5 ! lime is light & por\s1 su* z is obta9$ by ! burn+ ( *alk or good lime/one at a l[ temp]ature2 b if x has be5 too int5sely heat$ or 8ov]-burnt10 or conta9s silicates or o!r salts :i* fuse at ! temp]ature ( ! kiln1 a compact lime is =m$ :i* slakes ) difficulty & extreme sl[ness1 ?us be+ lo/ to ! tann]1 or lead+ to ! /ill m s]i\s result ( burn+ holes 9 ! hides by ! heat produc$ by slak+ 9 contact ) !m4 ,x is /at$ by ,le ,*ateli]#fi t = d5se limes #bd-dh h\rs is frequ5tly requir$ = complete slak+ 9 ! cold1 :ile magnesia is /ill m ob/9ate1 mon?s be+ sometimes necess>y = ! complete hydration ( h>d-burnt samples2 & mixtures ( lime & magnesia are int]m$iate 9 _! "*4 ,slak+ is greatly assi/$ by heat1 ev5 heavily burnt magnesia be+ hydrat$ 9 ab\t six h\rs at #ajj ,c4 ,slak+ is also mu* m rapid 9 a dilute solution 7#b p] c5t47 ( calcium or magnesium *loride4 ,f ^! facts x is easy to d$uce ! reason :y a suitable quantity ( wat]1 nei!r too mu* nor too little1 is desirable = ! rapid & effectual slak+ ( lime4 ,if too little is us$1 ! lime is only p>tially slak$1 & x is n easy = fur!r portions ( wat] to ga9 access to ! int]ior ( ! p[d]y mass4 ,on ! o!r h&1 if x is 8dr[n$0 by excess1 ! temp]ature is l[]$1 ! process goes on sl[ly1 & ! mass does n readily fall into p[d]1 & s fails to be utilis$ 9 ! lim+ process4 ,( all me?ods ( slak+ lime1 ! ord9>y "o ( tipp+ x direct into ! lime-pits is p]haps ! mo/ irrational1 lead+ to ! =mation ( unslak$ lumps :i* may burn ! hides1 & :i*1 toge!r ) /ones & dirt1 rapidly *oke ! pits ) useless matt]4 ,! be/ process is t adopt$ by build]s & 9 _m ,cont95tal y>ds1 9 :i* a l>ge quantity ( lime is slak$ 9 a %all[ tank by ?r[+ on x suffici5t wat] to ?or\ghly wet x1 & aft] all[+ x to heat & fall = #bd h\rs1 add+ en\gh wat] to conv]t x into a /iff pa/e4 ,9 ?is =m x may be kept = mon?s )\t mat]ial det]ioration4 ,:5 requir$ = use1 a suitable quantity ( ! pa/e is dug out1 & well /irr$ ) wat] 9 a tub or tank be=e runn+ into ! pit :5 ! /ones & s& rema9 9 ! tank4 ,9 ?is way all nuisance f du/ is also avoid$4 ,if lime is /or$ unslak$1 x gradually absorbs moi/ure f ! air1 fall+1 & soon becom+ du/y & difficult to slake completely1 :ile ! traces ( c>bon dioxide 9 ! air gradually conv]t x into useless c>bonate4 #fi ,bull4 de la ,soc4 d',enc\ragem5t1 #ahie1 x4 pp4 #eb-fb2 ,j\rn4 ,soc4 ,*em4 ,ind41 #ahie1 p4 #ege4 ,! solubility ( lime 9 wat] is v limit$1 & ! figures det]m9$ by diff]5t *emi/s d n agree v satisfactorily4 ,! foll[+ table gives ! result ( det]m9ations made by ,mr4 ,a4 ,gu?rie 9 ! ,au?or's laboratory1 & is probably "o ( ! mo/ accurate#gj3-- #ajj c4c4 ( saturat$ lime wat] at #e ,c4 conta9 #jacej grm4 ( ,ca,o4 #aj #jacdb #ae #jacbj #bj #jabic #be #jabed #cj #jabai #ce #jaafa #dj #jaaai #ej #jjiha #fj #jjhgi #gj #jjgha #hj #jjgdj #ij #jjfif #ajj #jjeig #gj ,j\rn4 ,soc4 ,*em4 ,ind41 #aija1 p4 #bbd4 ,x w be notic$ t unlike t ( mo/ sub/ances1 ! solubility ( lime 9 wat] dim9i%es z ! temp]ature is rais$4 ,x is !re=e necess>y 9 employ+ lime-wat] z a /&>d solution to take c>e t x is saturat$ at a con/ant temp]ature4 ,! results giv5 9 ! above table are ^? f pure m>ble lime4 ,:]e ! ord9>y impure limes f lime/one are employ$1 a some:at /rong] lime-wat] is (t5 obta9$4 ,?is is difficult to expla91 b possibly "s d\ble hydrate ( lime & magnesia is =m$ :i* is m soluble ?an ei!r hydrate alone4 ,! results h>monise ) ! old belief ( tann]s t *alk-lime is mild] 9 its action on sk9 ?an t made f less pure lime/ones4 ,! solubility ( any giv5 lime is easily det]m9$ by add+ x 9 excess to wat] 9 a /opp]$ flask1 & %ak+ frequ5tly until a solution ( con/ant /r5g? is obta9$4 ,a kn[n volume ( ?is solution 7:i* mu/ be cle> & free f undissolv$ lime7 is !n titrat$ ) ,n_/#aj hydro*loric acid1 us+ ph5olph?ale9 z ! indicator4 ,saturat$ lime-wat] may be conv5i5tly us$ z an alkal9e /&>d solution = _m purposes1 & if kept on excess ( lime is always cau/ic1 & v>ies v little 9 /r5g? at ord9>y laboratory temp]atures4 ,! solution is ne>ly normal1 b = accurate "w its /r5g? %\ld be exactly det]m9$ ) ,n_/#aj acid4 #a lit] ( pure lime-wat] at #ae ,c4 %\ld require #dgad c4c4 ( ,n_/#aj acid = neutralisation4 ,lime is mu* m soluble 9 sug> solutions ?an 9 wat]4 ,su* solutions h be5 us$ z /&>d solutions1 & sug> has be5 add$ to limes to increase ! action on ! hides4 ,! foll[+ is ! analysis ( a lime us$ 9 a ,le$s tann]y1 :i* 0 made by ,mr4 ,g4 ,w4 ,fl[]1 ,b4,sc41 9 ! ,lea!r ,indu/ries ,laboratory ( ! ,york%ire ,college#ga3-- ,p] c5t4 ,si,o & insoluble matt] #aggj ,fe,o #fdb ,ca,o #dihf ,ca,c,o #adba ,ca,s,o #cja ,ca,cl #jcc ,mg,o #bji ,organic matt] #jhj ,moi/ure by diff]5ce #eeh ------ #ajjjj #ga ,j\rn4 ,soc4 ,*em4 ,ind41 #aija1 p4 #bbd4 ,! sample only conta9$ #cajb p] c5t4 ( available lime1 ! rema9d] be+ probably comb9$ ) ! silica4 ,x also conta9$ an appreciable quantity ( iron oxide1 :i* might lodge me*anically 9 ! pores ( ! sk9 & become dissolv$ 9 lat] processes1 d>k5+ ! col\r ( ! lea!r4 ,! lime 0 also "u-burnt1 judg+ f ! am\nt ( c>bonate x conta9$4 ,= comp>ison ) ?is1 ! analysis ( a good specim5 ( c>bonif]\s-lime/one lime f ,buxton may be giv53-- ,p] c5t4 ,ca,o #iaie ,mg,o #acj ,,co & moi/ure #fge ------ #ajjjj ,det]m9ation ( 8,available0 ,lime4--,! practical value ( lime = ! tann] is easily det]m9$ by draw+ a sample by break+ (f small pieces f a numb] ( lumps ( ! bulk1 co>sely pulv]is+ !m 9 a mort>1 & !n rapidly gr9d+ a portion z f9e z possible1 & transf]r+ x at once to a /opp]$ bottle = weigh+4 ,a portion ( ?is1 n exce$+ #a grm41 is %ak5 into a /opp]$ lit] flask1 :i* is fill$ up r\ghly to ! m>k ) hot & well-boil$ di/ill$ wat]1 & all[$ to /& = "s h\rs ) occasional %ak+4 ,:5 cold x is fill$ exactly to ! m>k ) cold di/ill$ wat]1 well %ak5 aga9 & all[$ to settle1 or rapidly filt]$1 & #be or #ej c4c4 ( ! cle> liquid )drawn ) a pipette & titrat$ ) ,n_/#aj hydro*loric or sulphuric acid & ph5olph?ale94 ,ea* cubic c5timet] ( ,n_/#aj acid equals #jjbh grm4 ,ca,o4 ,x is g5]ally a v mi/ak5 economy to make use ( an inf]ior lime = tann+ purposes1 z any sav+ 9 co/ is disc\nt$ by ! l>g] quantity requir$1 ! m frequ5t clean+ ( ! pits1 & ! dang] ( /a9s & ( burns f imp]fect slak+4 ,! action ( lime on ! hide has already be5 spok5 ( to "s ext5t4 ,x is ?r\gh\t a solv5t "o4 ,! h>d5$ cells ( ! epid]mis swell up & s(t51 ! muc\s or gr[+ lay] & ! hair-%ea?s are loos5$ & dissolv$1 s t1 on scrap+ ) a blunt knife1 bo? come away m or less completely ) ! hair 7con/itut+ 8scud0 or 8scurf10 ,g]4 ,gnei/ or ,grund74 ,! hair itself is v slightly alt]$1 except at its s(t & gr[+ root-bulb1 b ! true sk9 is vigor\sly act$ on4 ,! fibres swell & absorb wat]1 s t ! hides become plump & swoll51 &1 at ! same "t1 ! 8cem5t-sub/ance0 ( ! fibres is dissolv$1 & !y become split-up into f9] fibrils3 ! fibrils !mselves become fir/ swoll5 & transp>5t1 & f9ally corrod$1 & ev5 dissolv$4 ,a simil> swell+ ( ! fibres is produc$ by bo? alkalies & acids1 & is probably due to weak comb9ations =m$ ) ! fibre-sub/ance1 :i* h great] aff9ities = wat] ?an ! unalt]$ hide4#gb ,?is swell+ is useful to ! tann]1 s9ce x r5d]s ! hide easi] to 8fle%0 7i4e4 to free f ! adh]+ fle%7 on acc\nt ( ! great] firmness :i* x gives to ! true sk94 ,x also assi/s ! tann+1 by splitt+ up ! fibre into its individual fibrils1 & s expos+ a great] surface to ! action ( ! liquors4 ,?is is advantage\s 9 dress+-lea!r :i* is aft]w>ds tann$ 9 sweet liquors1 & :i* mu/ h ! cem5t-sub/ance ( ! fibres dissolv$ & remov$ = ! sake ( flexibility2 &1 9 ! case ( sole-lea!r1 x is necess>y = sake ( weight & firmness t ! hide be plump$ at "s /age ( ! process2 b x is probable t ?is effect is produc$ ) less loss ( sub/ance & solidity by suitable acidity ( ! tann+-liquors4 ,ano!r advantage ( lime is t x acts on ! fat ( ! hide1 conv]t+ x m or less completely into an insoluble soap1#gc & s h9d]+ its injuri\s effects on ! aft] tann+ process1 & on ! f9i%$ lea!r4 ,if /rong acids :e!r m9]al or organic are us$ lat] on1 ?is lime soap is decompos$1 & ! grease is aga9 set free4 ,9 sweat$ or v l[-lim$ hides ?is grease is a =midable evil1 caus+ d>k5+ or grease spots on ! f9i%$ lea!r4 #gb ,cp4 p4 #hd4 #gc ,?is has be5 que/ion$1 b ,i h satisfi$ myself x is correct4 ,! cu/om>y me?od ( lim+ is simply to lay ! hides horizontally "o at once 9 milk ( lime 9 l>ge pits1 tak+ c>e t ea* hide is completely imm]s$ be=e ! next is put into ! pit1 s z to ensure a suffici5cy ( liquor betwe5 !m4 ,e day1 or ev5 twice a day1 ! hides are drawn out 78haul$071 & ! pit is well plung$ up1 to di/ribute ! undissolv$ lime ?r\gh ! liquor4 ,! hides are !n drawn 9 aga9 78set071 c>e be+ tak5 t !y are fully spread out4 ,h[ mu* lime is requir$ is d\btful1 b ow+ to its limit$ solubility1 an excess1 if well slak$1 is r wa/eful ?an injuri\s4 ,great diff]5ces exi/ 9 ! quantity ( ! lime us$1 ! "t giv51 & ! me?od ( work+1 n only = v>i\s classes ( lea!r1 b = ! same k9ds 9 diff]5t y>ds4 ,lime1 z we h se51 is only soluble to ! ext5t ( ab\t #abe grm4 p] litre1 or 7z #a cub4 foot ( wat] weighs ab\t #ajjj oz47 say #a oz4 p] cub4 foot1 or1 9 an ord9>y lime-pit1 n m ?an lb4 p] hide4 ,only ! lime 9 solution acts on ! hide1 b x is necess>y to provide a surplus ( solid lime :i* dissolves z t 9 ! liquor is consum$ or absorb$ by ! hide2 & ?is is especially ! case :]e1 z is g5]ally cu/om>y1 ! hides are laid flat 9 pits1 s t no circulation ( liquor is possible4 ,:]e hides are susp5d$ 9 lime-wat]1 :i* is con/antly circulat$ & kept up to its full /r5g? by agitation 9 ano!r vessel ) solid lime1 !y unhair z quickly z ) milk ( lime1 b ! me?od seems1 9 ! case ( lime1 to pres5t no special advantage ov] ! ord9>y "o1 if 9 ! latt] ! hides are haul$ suffici5tly (t5 to keep ! lime uni=mly di/ribut$4 ,! case is o!rwise 9 deal+ ) m soluble depilatories4 ,v>i\s pat5ts h be5 tak5 = me?ods ( lim+ by susp5d+ 9 liquors1 b ! idea is n[ public prop]ty1 & is l>gely us$ on ! ,cont95t4 ,x is necess>y t ! lime :i* settles to ! bottom ( ! pit %\ld be agitat$ & kept 9 susp5sion1 :i* may be effect$ ei!r by mov+ ! hides on a frame z 9 8susp5d]s0 7p4 #bba71 or by agitators act+ on ! pr9ciple ( pumps1 & rais+ ! liquor & sludge f ! bottom4 ,su* agitators h be5 pat5t$ 9 ,g]many1 b _h be5 9 use mu* e>li] 9 ! ,au?or's tany>d4 ,an agitator on ! pr9ciple ( ! screw-propell] ( a /eam%ip1 plac$ ne> ! bottom ( ! pit1 & protect$ by a lattice1 may also be usefully employ$ 7,fig4 #bf74 ,sk9s are frequ5tly lim$ 9 paddles1 or /irr$ up by bl[+ air into ! pit4 ,! latt] me?od is nei!r effective nor economical 9 p[]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bf4--,susp5sion ,lime-,pit4 ,z has be5 not$1 ! solubility ( lime1 & consequ5tly ! /r5g? ( ! lime-liquor1 is dim9i%$ by rise ( temp]ature1 b its solv5t action on hide-sub/ance is mu* increas$4 ,z a consequ5ce1 ! loos5+ ( ! hair proce$s mu* m rapidly 9 w>m limes1 b ! hides d n plump well1 & become loose1 holl[ & incl9$ to 8pipe0 9 ! gra91 & to weigh out badly1 & = sole lea!r ! me?od is !re=e 9 e way disa/r\s4 ,9 ! few cases among ! light] lea!rs :]e a decid$ s(t5+ & loos5+ ( ! texture ( ! sk9 is requir$1 x is possible t useful advantage may be tak5 ( ?is effect2 b x w\ld be exce$+ly difficult to regulate ! temp]ature ( an ord9>y lime-pit ) accuracy1 & bett] results c\ld probably be obta9$ ) susp5d]s 9 :i* ! liquor c\ld be con/antly circulat$4 ,:5 limes are v cold1 9 spite ( ! great] /r5g? ( solution1 ! action is v mu* *eck$1 & :]e goods are froz5 into pits 9 sev]e wea!r1 !re is b little dang] ( ov]lim+1 al?\gh ! usual "t may be mu* exce$$4 ,x is g5]ally be/ to "w limes at ab\t ! ord9>y summ] temp]ature1 & ?is is bett] done 9 w9t] by w>m+ ! limey>d ?an by any direct heat+ ( ! limes4 ,if lime :i* has cool$ aft] slak+ is us$1 ! wat] ) :i* limes are made may safely be w>m$ 9 midw9t] to a temp]ature n exce$+ #bj ,c4 ,! quantity ( lime us$ by diff]5t tann]s1 & = diff]5t sorts ( hides & sk9s1 is v v>iable1 n only accord+ to ! effect :i* x is desir$ to produce1 & ! way 9 :i* x is us$1 b f ! arbitr>y fancy ( ! us]1 s9ce its limit$ solubility r5d]s an excess comp>atively innocu\s4 ,= sole-lea!r1 ! am\nt recomm5d$ v>ies f "u #a p] c5t4 to #aj or #ab p] c5t4 on ! gre5 weight ( ! hide2 b probably #b-c p] c5t4 is all t c be really utilis$1 ! rema9d] be+ wa/$4 ,9 ord]1 h[ev]1 to utilise ! :ole ( ! lime1 v frequ5t h&l+ or agitation is requir$ to ensure its uni=m di/ribution4 ,x mu/ also be borne 9 m9d t ! /r5g? ( comm]cial limes v>ies f above #hj d[n to #cj p] c5t4 ( available calcium oxide4 ,von ,s*ro$] has f\nd t a /r5g? ( #f grams ( calcium oxide 7,ca,o7 p] lit] 0 suffici5t1 b1 9 practice1 mu* m is g5]ally add$4 ,x is also notewor?y t a p]fectly fre% milk ( lime mu/ be made mu* /rong] ?an "o :i* has be5 us$4 ,?is is p>tially due to ! fact t "s bact]ial action takes place 9 an old lime & t ammonia is =m$ :i* assi/s unhair+1 9 addition to ! effect ( ! lime itself1 & p>tially because ! lime 9 old liquors rema9s 9 susp5sion = a mu* long] "t1 & is ?us m ev5ly di/ribut$4 ,a me?od ( lim+1 sometimes kn[n z ! 8,buffalo me?od10 has be5 l>gely adopt$ = sole-lea!r 9 ,am]ica1 & is n[ us$ 9 _m ,cont95tal y>ds4 ,x consi/s 9 a v %ort lim+ & ! subsequ5t use ( w>m wat]4 ,! limes are also (t5 %>p5$ by ! addition ( a little sodium sulphide or ( "s o!r sulphide4 ,?us1 9 "o l>ge y>d 9 ! ,/ates1 ! hides = sole-lea!r 7salt$ 8pack]s07 are lim$ = #aj h\rs only ) #b lb4 lime & #b oz4 ( sulphide ( sodium p] side1 & aft] ly+ ov]night 9 wat] ( a temp]ature ( #ce-de ,c41 are easily unhair$4 ,a ,cont95tal firm lime two days 9 weak fre% limes ) a little tank-wa/e1 & !n treat ) wat] at #cb ,c4 = #f-h h\rs1 :5 ! hides are unhair$ & return$ to ! w>m wat] = two h\rs be=e scudd+4 ,all sorts ( comb9ations betwe5 lim+ & hot wat] treatm5t c be employ$4 ,! long] & /rong] ! lim+1 ! l[] temp]ature or %ort] "t 9 ! wat] w suffice4 ,! me?od is mu* to be recomm5d$ = firm sole-lea!r1 b x does n saponify grease or swell ! fibres ?or\ghly1 & usually vitriol is us$ = ! latt] purpose 9 a lat] /age4 ,! hide goes into ! liquors practically free ( lime1 & ! loss ( hide-sub/ance is mu* less ?an 9 ! ord9>y me?od ( lim+4 ,a po9t ( probably mu* great] importance ?an ! quantity ( lime us$ is ! l5g? ( "t dur+ :i* a lime is work$ )\t *ange ( liquor4 ,an old lime becomes *>g$ ) ammonia & o!r products ( ! action ( lime ^u ! sk91 su* z tyros91 leuc9 7amidocaproic acid71 & "s caproic acid1 ! disagreeable goaty od\r ( :i* is v obvi\s on acidify+ an old lime-liquor ) sulphuric acid1 by :i* consid]able quantities ( p>tially alt]$ gelat9 are at ! same "t precipitat$ 7comp>e p4 #fd74 ,lime has consid]able antiseptic p[]1 & a new lime is practically /]ile1 b v old limes1 especially 9 hot wea!r1 (t5 conta9 l>ge numb]s ( active bact]ia1 :i* may be se5 9 ! microscope "u a good -in* objective4 ,_! pres5ce is always an indication t putrefaction is go+ =w>d1 & if _! numb] be v excessive1 ! lea!r out ( su* limes w g5]ally prove loose1 holl[ & dull-gra9$1 & 9 extreme cases hides may be totally de/roy$4 ,sph]ical concretions ( calcium c>bonate may also be se5 "u ! microscope1 resembl+ on a small] scale ^? f\nd 9 ,p]mian lime/one1 & caus$ p]haps 9 bo? cases by cry/allisation f a liquid conta9+ mu* organic matt]4 ,x is h>dly probable t 9 _m tann]ies ! ammonia w\ld pay = recov]y f ! lime-liquors1 ?\gh x c\ld be easily done by /eam+ ! old limes 9 suitable vessels1 & cond5s+ ! ammoniacal vap\rs 9 dilute sulphuric acid4 ,its quantity r>ely exce$s #ja p] c5t4 ( ,,nh4 ,= me?ods ( e/imation ( ammonia1 see ,l4,i4,l4,b41 p4 #cj4 ,up to a c]ta9 po9t1 x is f\nd t old limes unhair mu* m readily1 & h a great] s(t5+ effect ?an new ones1 :i* is (t5 advantage\s = dress+ goods2 ?\gh = sole lea!r1 :]e weight & firmness are ( prim>y importance1 ! use ( /ale limes mu/ be kept )9 ! n>r[e/ limits4 ,9 ! f9] lea!rs also1 su* z kid & moroccos & col\r$ calf1 :]e a s\nd & glossy gra9 is desir$1 ! effects m5tion$ are g5]ally bett] obta9$ 9 o!r ways1 su* z by ! use ( sulphides4 ,on ,ea/ ,india kips & o!r dri$ hides1 :i* are difficult to s(t51 & :i* h great p[] ( resi/ance to ! action ( lime1 old limes are di/9ctly useful1 b1 ev5 !re1 !re are limits :i* %\ld n be pass$4 ,probably no lime ought to be all[$ to g = m ?an ?ree mon?s at ! outside limit )\t at lea/ a p>tial *ange ( liquor1 & ! sy/em ( all[+ all ! limes 9 a y>d to run = twelve mon?s1 & !n clean+ !m all toge!r1 is almo/ ! wor/ :i* c be plann$4 ,a v mu* bett] way is to clean ! limes 9 regul> rotation1 us+1 if desir$1 a portion ( ! old liquor 9 mak+ ! new lime1 s z to avoid a too sudd5 transition4 ,! old liquor is valuable1 if at all1 = ! ammonia & organic matt] :i* x conta9s1 z ! am\nt ( lime 9 solution is n wor? consid]+4 ,! ammonia consid]ably increases ! solv5t & unhair+ p[]1 :ile swell+ ! hide less ?an an equival5t am\nt ( lime4 ,9 "s cases x may be desirable to add ammonia artificially = ?is purpose4 ,9 ?is case x w be *eap] & m conv5i5t to add x 9 ! =m ( ammonium sulphate ?an z liquid ammonia4 ,if x be desir$ to reta9 ammonia1 ! lime %\ld be kept cov]$4 ,v old limes conta9+ excess ( ammonia & lime1 sometimes 9 hot wea!r cause a transp>5t swell+ ( ! goods1 ) de/ruction ( ! fibr\s texture4#gd ,! writ] has obs]v$ a simil> ph5om5on 9 v weak & old limes /r5g!n$ ) sulphides1 9 :i* hide 0 left exp]im5tally = sev]al weeks4 ,! pr9cipal effect ( ! dissolv$ animal matt] is to enable bact]ia to ?rive 9 x1 :i* !y w n d 9 a fre% lime1 b putrid limes probably also conta9 liquefy+ f]m5ts produc$ by ! bact]ia pres5t 7p4 #ag71 & :i* dissolve hide4 ,eitn] has publi%$ rese>*es on ! am\nt ( hide-sub/ance dissolv$ by limes1#ge 9 :i* he %[s t ! loss ( sub/ance 9 lim+ suffici5tly to unhair is mat]ially great] 9 old limes ?an 9 fre% ones1 al?\gh dur+ ! fir/ two days ( lim+ ! new limes are decid$ly ! mo/ active4 ,z he rem>ks1 ?is ju/ifies ! wisdom ( ! me?od1 n[ l>gely adopt$1 ( work+ limes 9 %ifts1 & beg9n+ ! op]ation 9 old limes & complet+ x 9 fre% ones4 7,see also p4 #aca47 #gd ,g]b]1 #ahhd1 pp4 #aej1 #ahd4 #ge ,g]b]1 #ahie1 pp4 #aeg-i1 #afi-gb4 ,= details ( ! analytical me?ods employ$1 ,eitn]'s orig9al pap] mu/ be consult$1 b ! annex$ table 7see next page7 summ>ises 8 results4 ,! lett]s head+ ! columns h ! foll[+ mean+s4 ,a4 ,hide sub/ance precipitat$ by neutralisation ( ! lime ) c>bonic acid4 ,b4 ,a fur!r precipitate obta9$ by slight acidification ) hydro*loric acid4 ,c4 ,soluble peptones precipitat$ by hypo*lor\s acid or m]curic nitrate4 ,x is obvi\s t none ( ^! figures repres5t ! total dissolv$ organic matt]1 & x is to be regrett$ t ?is 0 n det]m9$4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 fairly safe to assume t ! table correctly repres5ts ! relative solubility 9 ! diff]5t liquors4 ,9 ea* case #b lit]s ( liquor 7 us$ = ea* kilo ( gre5 hide4 ,:5 old liquors 7 employ$1 ! hide-sub/ance !y orig9ally conta9$ 0 det]m9$1 & d$uct$ f ! f9al result4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,hide ,description ( ,days ,hide-sub/ances 9 ,loss ,us$4 ,lime ,liquor4 ,lim+4 ,grams p] ,lit]4 p] c5t4 on --------------------- ,dry ,a4 ,b4 ,c4 ,total4,pelt4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- #a,ox- ,fre% lime #cj grm4 p] #fgf #ajfhjcbdbcgj #cgfb #bce hidelit] #b ,ditto #i #bgfdjedjcfbd #fibh #dad #c ,fre% lime #cj grm41 grm4 sulphide ( #egf #jhebjagbahaf #bhdj #age sodium p] lit] #d ,ditto #h #abdjjeadchdf #efjj #ccf #e #e weeks old lime1 ?r\gh :i* f\r #b #jahjjbabjihh #achj #jhg packs _h pass$ #f ,ditto #egf #jhfhacahccef #eedb #cdf #g #e mon?s old lime1 #b #jaifjahhjhfd #abdh #jgg ) sodium sulphide #h ,ditto #egf #jibhaaihcjjd #eacj #cjf #i;,c[-,fre% lime z above #egf #aihbjdacdeja #fhif #dcj hide #aj ,ditto #h #cacbjfgbegda #iede #eid #aa ,fre% lime z above1 & grm4 sodium #egf #ajabjdjcbcae #dgcj #bif sulphide p] lit] #ab ,ditto #h #bebajfecejbf #hbjj #dhg #ac ,old disus$ lime #e #jcddjbiabcda #bigf #ahd #ad ,ditto #hgf #baaiafigfiebajgfh #fde #ae ,us$ sulphide ( sodium lime #d weeks #egf 44 #afjjajdg #bebg #aeh old #af ,ditto #h #jgiajeaideib #ehib #cdc ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- #gf ,hides unhair$4 ,tak+ into acc\nt ! lim+ necess>y = unhair+ only1 z %[n 9 ! table1 x w be not$ t ! p]c5tage ( loss is inv>iably great] 9 old limes ?an 9 new ones1 & less 9 limes %>p5$ ) sulphide ( sodium ?an :]e lime alone is us$4 ,! only exception to ?is rule is 9 ,no4 #ae1 :]e a sulphide lime #d weeks old %[s ! lea/ loss ( any 9 ! "t requir$ = unhair+2 & inde$ sulphide limes if kept /r5g!n$ ) ! requisite addition ( sulphide1 seem to det]iorate v sl[ly1 ,no4 #h1 ) a lime #e mon?s old1 %[+ a result :i* may /ill be consid]$ good4 ,ano!r po9t especially not$ by ,eitn] is ! slight action ( old limes dur+ ! fir/ /ages ( lim+1 z comp>$ ) _! rapid solv5t effect z ! hair becomes loos5$4 ,! loss 9 any case does n appe> to be s great z ! advocates ( o!r unhair+ processes h (t5 claim$4 ,if we assume t all ! dissolv$ hide-sub/ance might h made lea!r1 ! wor/ loss on oxhide only lim$ to ! po9t ( unhair+ am\nts to less ?an #c p] c5t4 on ! possible total2 & x mu/ be rememb]$ t at lea/ a "p ( ?is consi/s ( dissolv$ epid]mis matt]1 :i* c\ld n by any possible me?od h be5 conv]t$ into lea!r4 ,x w be not$ 9 ,nos4 #b1 #d1 #aj1 #ab & #af1 :at consid]able losses are produc$ by plump+ limes aft] unhair+1 b x mu/ be borne 9 m9d t1 9 ! case ( dress+-lea!r1 solution ( at lea/ a "p ( ! cem5t+ matt] is ess5tial to produce ! necess>y s(tness & flexibility4 ,eitn] calculates ! dry pelt-weight f t ( ! gre5 hide on ! assumption1 bas$ on exp]im5t1 t #ajj p>ts ( ! orig9al sk9 corresponds to #cb p>ts ( dry pure pelt 9 gre5 oxhide1 #be p>ts 9 gre5 calf-sk9s1 & #ef p>ts 9 dri$ calf-sk9s4 ,9 "s ( ! small] sk9s1 su* z kid work$ = glove lea!r1 :]e great s(tness & /ret* is requir$1 ! loss is necess>ily mu* great] ?an 9 ord9>y dress+-lea!rs1 am\nt+1 9 ! case ( kid1 to f #bj to #bg p] c5t4 ,! p>ts tak5 by ! purely *emical activity ( ! lime1 & by ! action ( bact]ia & bact]ial f]m5ts 9 ! unhair+ process mu/ /ill be reg>d$ z unc]ta94 ,! late ,pr(essor von ,s*ro$]#gg c>ri$ out a s]ies ( exp]im5ts on lim+ & sweat+ :i* 7 *>act]is$ by 8 usual c>e & ?or\ghness1 & :i* t5d to prove t ! *emical action is f> m important ?an ! bact]ial4 ,he _h fre% hides well wa%$ 9 a tann]y imm$iately aft] slaught]1 & fle%$4 ,! butts 7 !n cut into pieces ( ab\t #aj cm4 7#d in*es7 squ>e1 & salt$ 9 br9e repeat$ly *ang$1 & f9ally pres]v$ = use 9 glass j>s 9 saturat$ salt solution4 ,he f\nd t :5 wa%$ free f salt1 & plac$ 9 a moi/ *amb] at a temp]ature ( #af ,c41 ! hair 0 suffici5tly loos5$ by bact]ial action 9 f\r to five days4 ,pieces plac$ 9 ! moi/ *amb] )\t previ\s removal ( ! salt only %[$ signs ( sweat+ aft] ab\t t5 weeks' exposure4 ,lim+ exp]im5ts 7 made ) simil> pieces ( salt$ hide1 bo? aft] ?ree days' wa%+ to free !m f salt1 & unwa%$1 & 9 bo? cases ! pieces unhair$ freely 9 ?ree to f\r days4 ,^! exp]im5ts 7 v>i$ by us+ #f1 #ah & #cj grms4 ( lime p] lit] ( wat] 9 :i* ab\t #bjj grms4 ( hide 7 plac$1 b nei!r 9 ! wa%$1 nor unwa%$ portions 0 !re any mat]ial diff]5ce 9 ! "t requir$ to loos5 ! hair4 ,addition ( #a vol4 ( us$ lime-liquor to #c vols4 ( wat] 9 mak+ up ! limes 0 equally )\t p]ceptible influ5ce1 & c>eful bact]iological exam9ation ( hide & liquors %[$ t ! =m] 0 almo/ /]ilis$ by ! int5se salt+1 & t ! lime-liquors 7 practically free f bact]ia4 #gg ,g]b]ei-,*emie1 ,b]l91 #ahih4 p4 #fdf4 ,von ,s*ro$]'s conclusion t no ga9 arises f ! use ( excessive quantities ( lime1 s long z ! solution is kept saturat$1 is fully ju/ifi$ bo? by exp]i5ce & sci5tific reason+1 b 8 results ) reg>d to ! effect ( old liquors & bact]ia contradict ! conclusions bo? ( practical tann]s & ( o!r sci5tific exp]im5t]s4 ,! diff]5t effects ( old & new limes are too well kn[n to practical tann]s to be disc\nt$ by laboratory exp]im5ts1 ev5 if !y 7 n confirm$ n only by ,eitn]'s results1 b by a consid]able am\nt ( "w done 9 ! ,au?or's laboratory & else:]e2 :ile ! necessity ( bact]ial action is at lea/ r5d]$ probable by ! fact t soda solutions1 :i* are completely /]ile to bact]ia1 fail to unhair hides :i* h n previ\sly und]gone "s putrefaction 7see p4 #acg74 ,9 "s exp]im5ts und]tak5 at ! sugge/ion ( ! ,au?or x 0 f\nd t a p]fectly fre% & /]ilis$ calf-sk9 :i* 0 n unhair$ aft] t5 days' lim+ 9 /]ilis$ lime-liquor unhair$ rapidly on ! addition ( a bact]ial culture to ! lime4 ,x is extremely difficult to exclude bact]ia1 & ev5 :]e p]fectly fre% sk9s treat$ ) *lor(orm or c>bon disulphide 7 employ$1 bact]ia 7 always to be recognis$ :5 ! sk9 0 ready = unhair+4 ,von ,s*ro$]'s "w1 is1 h[ev]1 s pa9/ak+ & reliable1 t ^! div]g5t results mu/ be expla9$ z o!r ?an exp]im5tal errors4 ,) reg>d to old liquors1 x is kn[n t ammonia is a p[]ful aid to ! unhair+ process1 & x is n c]ta9 to :at ext5t ! liquors he us$ 7 *>g$ ) x4 ,x is also c]ta9 t old limes conta9+ mu* organic matt]1 support bact]ial life freely1 :ile #be p] c5t4 ( a possibly n v old liquor w\ld probably be /]ilis$ by ! addition ( lime & #ge p] c5t4 wat]4 ,9 ord] to te/ ! matt] fairly "u exact tann]y conditions1 ! lime %\ld h be5 made up entirely ) old lime-liquor well *>g$ ) ammonia & organic matt]s1 in/ead ( ) wat]4 ,x is also probable t ! hides _h und]gone a suffici5t am\nt ( bact]ial *ange 9 ! tann]y be=e !y came into ,von ,s*ro$]'s salt solutions1 & x is n at all unlikely t ! salt solution itself ex]cis$ "s specific effect on ! unhair+4 ,x is also possible t 8 bact]ial cultures 7 made on gelat9e m$ia unsuitable = ! gr[? ( alkal9e bact]ia1 & !re=e gave blank results4 ,"u ^! circum/ances x is sc>cely possible to arrive at any v def9ite conclusions1 & x is obvi\s t fur!r exp]im5ts on ^! po9ts are extremely desirable4 ,sodium & ,potassium ,hydrates4--,f ! e>lie/ antiquity1 wood-a%es1 consi/+ ma9ly ( potassium c>bonate1 h be5 us$ = unhair+1 ei!r alone or 9 conjunction ) lime1 & inde$ ! ,g]man "n ( ! process 7,aes*]n7 is d]iv$ f ! fact4 ,9 m rec5t times1 cau/ic soda1 ei!r ready =m$1 or cau/icis$ on ! spot by ! addition ( lime1 has (t5 be5 recomm5d$ z a sub/itute = lime4 ,its action is v simil> to lime1 b1 f its great] solubility1 is f> m p[]ful1 & probably ?is has hi!rto =m$ "o ( ! greate/ ob/acles to its use1 s9ce a solution ( ! /r5g? ( lime-wat] is almo/ imm$iately exhau/$1 :ile a mu* /rong] "o is too viol5t 9 its action on ! hides4 ,exp]im5ts made 9 ! ,au?or's laboratory %[ t cau/ic soda1 9 solutions ( ! same /r5g? z lime-wat]1 dissolve consid]ably less hide sub/ance ?an ! latt]1 b x is m antiseptic ?an lime1 & does n unhair readily )\t ! aid ( bact]ial action 7cp4 p4 #acg74 ,x also swells m viol5tly1 & x is difficult to keep ! gra9 smoo? & unwr9kl$4 ,cau/ic soda has ! great advantage t f its solubility1 & t ( its c>bonates 9 wat]1 x is mu* m easily & completely remov$ by wa%+ ?an is ! case ) lime4 ,x has be5 successfully appli$ 9 "s in/ances to s(t5 sk9s ( :i* ! texture is naturally too compact = moroccos & ! s(t] lea!rs2 & is usefully employ$ 9 s(t5+ dri$ goods 7p4 #aae74 ,:]e cau/ic soda is requir$ m]ely to 8%>p50 limes1 x is be/ add$ 9 ! =m ( sodium c>bonate 7soda-a% or cry/als71 :i* are cau/icis$ by ! lime 9 ! pits4 ,"o-qu>t] or "o-half p] c5t4 on ! weight ( hides add$ 9 ?is way decid$ly increases ! plump+ p[] ( ! lime4 ,x may be not$ t 9 ! use ( sodium sulphide 9 conjunction ) lime1 cau/ic soda is "o ( ! products ( its decomposition1#gh & is probably "o great cause ( ! diff]5ce ( effect ( ?is mat]ial = %>p5+ limes z comp>$ ) r$ ars5ic4 #gh ,?is has be5 d5i$1 b is probably correct1 ?\gh ! actual reaction is n easy to prove analytically2 b ! effect on ! hide is practically :at is /at$4 ,an indirect me?od ( lim+ has rec5tly be5 pat5t$ by ,messrs4 ,payne & ,pullman ( ,godalm+1#gi :i* is ( bo? sci5tific & practical int]e/4 ,f ! difficult solubility ( lime1 & ! consequ5tly weak solutions :i* mu/ be employ$1 ! ord9>y process ( lim+ is a sl[ "o4 ,cau/ic soda1 h[ev]1 c be us$ 9 mu* /rong] solutions )\t produc+ injury to ! hide1 or l>g] solution ( hide sub/ance1 & f its great diffusibility1 x p5etrates v rapidly4 ,us$ alone1 h[ev]1 ! hide becomes too mu* swoll5 = mo/ purposes1 & = c]ta9 classes ( lea!r at lea/ 7e4g4 buff & *amois lea!r7 ! pres5ce ( a portion ( lime 9 ! hide appe>s to be necess>y = successful "w4 ,if a hide :i* has be5 swoll5 ) cau/ic soda be aft]w>ds treat$ ) a solution ( calcium *loride1 d\ble decomposition takes place1 & cau/ic lime is =m$ actually 9 ! int]ior ( ! fibre ( ! hide1 :ile ! sodium unites ) ! *lor9e to =m common salt4 ,bo? solutions may be us$ 9 any conv5i5t way1 & by ! employm5t ( drums1 ! :ole lim+ process may be accompli%$ 9 five or six h\rs4 ,x is f\nd1 h[ev]1 t p]fectly fre% hides treat$ 9 ?is way _c be unhair$1 & ! explanation appe>s to be t 9 ! ord9>y lim+ process1 ! epid]mis is made soluble by ! jo9t action ( bact]ial f]m5ts & ( ! alkal9e solutions4 ,if sodium sulphide be add$ to ! cau/ic soda us$ = unhair+1 ! goods w unhair )\t ! use ( putrefactive means1 b ! process is difficult to manage )\t de/ruction ( ! hair1 & ,messrs4 ,pullman n[ recomm5d t all hides or sk9s = unhair+ by _! process %\ld be soak$ = =ty-eight h\rs 9 w9t]1 & tw5ty-f\r h\rs 9 summ] 9 a really putrid /ale soak4 ,?is necessity con/itutes = v _m purposes a s]i\s weakness 9 ! me?od1 z putrid soak+ is always extremely dang]\s to ! gra9 ( ! hide1 & especially s 9 hot wea!r4 ,= c]ta9 purposes1 h[ev]1 advantage may be tak5 ( ! fact t ! hide or sk9 c be fully lim$ by ,pullman's process & ! fibres swoll5 s z to be prep>$ = tann+ )\t any loos5+ ( ! hair1 & ! ,au?or has se5 de]sk9s :i* h be5 treat$ 9 ?is way1 on :i* ! hair 0 p]fectly firm1 :ile !y possess$ a s(tness & fulness :i* c\ld n be atta9$ )\t lim+4 #gi ,eng4 ,pat4 #bhgc1 #ahih4 ,messrs4 ,pullman n[ recomm5d t ! treatm5t ) _! solutions %\ld take place 9 pits1 9 pref]5ce to drums or paddles1 & t ! cau/ic soda %\ld n exce$ a /r5g? ( "o p\nd 9 t5 gallons 7#a p] c5t474 ,! hides or calf-sk9s rema9 9 ?is = ab\t =ty-eight h\rs1 dur+ :i* !y are once drawn & return$1 by :i* "t1 if ! putrid soak+ has be5 prop]ly done1 ! hair %\ld be fully loos5$4 ,! hides are !n dra9$ = two h\rs1 & pass$ into ano!r pit conta9+ a solution ( calcium *loride1 :i* %\ld be slightly /rong] ?an ! cau/ic soda1 say ( ab\t "o & a half p\nds p] t5 gallons4 ,! goods rema9 9 ?is = ab\t =ty-eight h\rs1 dur+ :i* !y are drawn once1 & are !n well wa%$ 9 s(t wat] 7free f tempor>y h>dness7 9 :i* !y may be kept = "s "t )\t injury4 ,z bo? ! cau/ic soda & ! calcium *loride solutions are q /]ile to ord9>y putrefactive bact]ia1 bo? c be us$ = an almo/ unlimit$ "t1 & !y are conv5i5tly kept up to /r5g? by ! addition ( /rong /ock-solutions4 ,^! may be made ( a sp4 gr4 ( #ad 7#hj deg4 ,tw47 :i* gives a /r5g? ( ab\t #e lb4 ( cau/ic soda & #e lb4 ( calcium *loride p] gallon4 ,9 addition to ! advantage ( consid]able sav+ ( "t1 ! effects c be mu* m easily regulat$ ?an 9 ord9>y lim+1 & ! am\nt ( soda 7& subsequ5tly ( lime7 absorb$ by ! hide c be exactly det]m9$ by titration ( ! liquors4 ,grease is bett] remov$ ?an by ord9>y lim+1 z soda-soaps are soluble 9 wat]1 b if ?is result is to be obta9$1 ! soap mu/ be work$ out be=e pass+ into ! calcium *loride solution1 :i* w\ld o!rwise conv]t x into an insoluble lime-soap4 ,a great ga9 9 _m di/ricts is t ! process yields practically no efflu5ts & no lime slab1 bo? ( :i* are frequ5tly v difficult to dispose (4 ,! s]i\s disadvantages ( ! /ale soak+1 h[ev]1 h already be5 m5tion$4 ,9 place ( apply+ ! cau/ic soda fir/1 & ! calcium *loride subsequ5tly1 hides may be fir/ treat$ ) calcium *loride solution1 & !n ) cau/ic soda1 or ! cau/ic soda may be appli$ to ! fle% side ( ! hide by pa9t+4 ,^! modifications are cov]$ by ,messrs4 ,pullman's pat5t1 b !y are will+ to grant lic5ces = exp]im5ts at a nom9al fee4 ,alkal9e c>bonates are mu* mild] 9 _! action on hide ?an ! correspond+ hydrates1 & al?\gh !y w unhair hides1 9 abs5ce ( lime1 _! action is some:at unc]ta9 & sl[4 8,polysulph90 7,polysulph9 ,co41 ,keyn%am7 owes its unhair+ p[] pr9cipally to ! sodium c>bonate1 & n to ! small traces ( sulphur comp\nds :i* x conta9s4 ,sodium c>bonate occurs 9 comm]ce 9 ?ree =ms3 8soda a%10 a m or less pure dry sodium c>bonate2 8soda cry/als10 or wa%+ soda1 ,na,,co#aj;,aq1 conta9+ #fbie p] c5t4 ( wat] ( cry/allisation1 & effloresc+ 9 ! air2 & ,gaskell & ,deacon's 8cry/al soda10 ,na,,co#a;,aq1 conta9+ only #ade p] c5t4 ( wat] ( cry/allisation4 ,x mu/ be rememb]$ t :]e c>bonate is us$ 9 conjunction ) lime x becomes cau/icis$ & conv]t$ into ,na,o,h4 ,sulphides4--,! practice ( us+ realg>1 or r$ sulphide ( ars5ic 7,g]4 ,rusma7 z an addition to limes = f9e lea!rs is "o ( consid]able antiquity4 ,x has ! prop]ty ( loos5+ ! hair & epid]mis /ructures ) less solution ( cem5t-sub/ance ?an lime alone1 & h5ce produces a lea!r ( full] & clos] texture4 ,x w1 h[ev]1 be conv5i5t to def] ! consid]ation ( ?is ag5t till aft] t ( "s ( ! m mod]n & simpl] sub/itutes1 su* z ! sulphides ( sodium & calcium4 ,sulphides ( ! alkalies & alkal9e e>?s1 if us$ 9 /rong solution1 say #e p] c5t4 or upw>ds1 h ! effect ( v rapidly r$uc+ ! h>d] k]at9-/ructures1 su* z hair & wool1 to a pulp1 attack+ fir/ ! int]ior cells1 s t ! hair crumples up l a /r+ ( sausages1 & 9 a few h\rs1 or ev51 ) v /rong solution1 9 a few m9utes1 ! :ole mass becomes s completely dis9tegrat$ t x c be swept (f ! hide ) a broom1 or wa%$ (f 9 a tumbl]4 ,at ! same "t1 ! action on ! sub/ance ( ! hide1 & especially on ! cem5t+ sub/ance1 is v slight1 ?\gh ! gra9 is swoll5 & tempor>ily r5d]$ some:at t5d]4 ,on ! o!r h&1 :5 us$ 9 weak solutions1 say p] c5t4 & "u1 9 conjunction ) lime1 ! hair is b little injur$1 :ile ! hair-roots & dirt are rapidly loos5$1 & results are obta9$ v simil> to ^? ) ars5ic4 ,sodium ,sulphide 7,na,s#i,,oh74#hj--;,= ! me?ods ( valuation & det]m9ation ( sodium sulphide1 see ,l4,i4,l4,b41 p4 #bh4 #hj ,9 ! ,laboratory ,book ! wat] ( cry/allisation is giv5 z #aj ,aq4 ,lat] rese>*es %[ t pure cry/als ( ! comm]cial sulphide only conta9 #i ,aq41 or #fge p] c5t4 ( wat]4 ,hides susp5d$ 9 solutions ( sulphide ( sodium ( #b to #c p] c5t4 /r5g? unhair rapidly4 ,= ! common] classes ( sole-lea!r1 hair is frequ5tly remov$ by pa9t+ on ! hair side ) a #ae-bh ,tw4 7#cj-dj p] c5t47 solution ( 7cry/allis$7 sulphide ( sodium ?ick5$ ) lime1 appli$ ) a fibre-bru%1 & fold+ ! hide 9 cu%ions 9 a damp place1 or pack+ 9 a tub4 ,! hair is r$uc$ to pa/e 9 a few h\rs4 ,! same effect is produc$ by draw+ ! hides ?r\gh a simil> solution )\t lime1 ( :i* suffici5t is reta9$ by ! hair to de/roy x4 ,! workm5 mu/ be provid$ ) indi>ubb] gloves to prev5t ! cau/ic effect ( ! solution on ! sk9 & nails4 ,sk9s & light] hides are conv5i5tly unhair$ by pa9t+ ! mixture on ! fle% side1 :5 x w loos5 ! hair or wool 9 a few h\rs )\t de/roy+ x4 ,= dress+-lea!rs & ! f9] sorts ( sole x is be/ employ$ z an addition to ord9>y limes to ! ext5t ( - p] c5t4 on ! weight ( ! hides or sk9s1 :5 ! hair is loos5$ m rapidly ?an ) lime alone1 & ) less loss ( hide sub/ance4 ,good samples ( sulphide ( sodium consi/ ( pale-br[n1 almo/ col\rless cry/als1 conta9+ #bh to #cb p] c5t4 ( dry sodium sulphide1 :i* readily deliquesce on exposure to air4 ,fus$ sodium sulphide c n[ be obta9$1 :i* conta9s ne>ly twice z mu* actual sulphide z ! cry/all9e =m4 ,! d>k gre5 col\r possess$ by _m samples ( sodium sulphide is due to ! pres5ce ( iron sulphide4 ,if c>efully us$ no s]i\s h>m c accrue f its pres5ce4 ,if all[$ to /& a %ort "t 9 solution ! iron sulphide w settle out4 ,calcium sulphydrate1 ,ca7,,%71 sometimes call$ ,bttg]'s ,grnkalk1 is a p[]ful depilatory1 :ile x has probably less de/ructive action on ! hide-fibre ?an ev5 ! sulphide ( sodium1 & w\ld no d\bt be l>gely us$ b = its un/able "*4 ,x is probably ! pr9cipal active product produc$ by ! use ( sulphide ( ars5ic 9 conjunction ) lime1 ?\gh x is possible t a sulph>s5ite may be =m$4 ,x may be produc$ by pass+ hydrog5 sulphide 7,,%71 into milk ( lime4 ,accord+ to von ,s*ro$]1 x is n =m$ by ! reaction ( sodium sulphide on lime solutions 7see note1 p4 #acf74 ,x may be obta9$ cry/allis$1 & is soluble 9 wat]1 b is decompos$ on boil+4 ,! sulphide1 ,ca,s1 is insoluble 9 wat]1 b by ! action ( /eam "u pressure x is said to be conv]t$ into a mixture ( equival5t p>ts ( hydrate & sulphydrate4 ,x may also be dissolv$ 9 a solution ( hydrog5 sulphide1 =m+ a solution ( sulphydrate4 ,9 ?is way x might be =m$ on a l>ge scale f ! 8tank wa/e0 ( ! ,leblanc soda process4 ,gas-lime is pr9cipally active on acc\nt ( ! calcium sulphide :i* x conta9s1 b is v v>iable 9 its /r5g?1 z bo? sulphydrate & sulphide are decompos$ by ! c>bon dioxide always pres5t 9 ! gas1 =m+ c>bonates4 ,lime has ne>ly gone out ( use = purify+ gas1 its place be+ n[ tak5 by iron oxide1 b =m]ly gas-lime 0 a good deal us$ = unwool+ ! small lambsk9s us$ = ! common] sort ( glove-kid1 usually by pa9t+ a cream ( x on ! fle% side1 b sometimes by imm]s+ 9 a /rong solution1 :i* ( c\rse de/roy$ ! wool4 ,its place is n[ tak5 by a solution ( sodium sulphide ( #ae-ah ,tw4 7approximately #cj-ce p] c5t4 cry/als71 ?ick5$ ) lime to a s\py consi/5ce1 ! use ( :i* is mu* to be recomm5d$ = unwool+ %eep-sk9s4 ,! tank-wa/e f ! ,leblanc process1 consi/+ pr9cipally ( calcium sulphide1 is1 :5 fre%1 q insoluble1 & has no depilatory p[]s2 b :5 expos$ to air & moi/ure1 decompositions take place1 result+ 9 ! =mation ( sulphydrates & polysulphides1 :i* =m a solution :i* has be5 ! subject ( sev]al pat5ts = unhair+4#ha ,polysulphides alone h probably no unhair+ effect1 b 9 conjunction ) lime1 sulphydrates are =m$ :i* rapidly loos5 ! hair4 ,?is fact 0 ! basis ( an +5i\s & effective unhair+ process us$ v _m ye>s ago by ,mr4 ,john ,muir1 ( ,bei?1 :o1 aft] lim+ = #bd h\rs 9 ! usual way1 submitt$ ! hides to a pretty /rong solution ( wea!r$ tank wa/e = #bd h\rs1 & f9ally to wat] = #bd h\rs1 to remove ! surplus lime & sulphides4 ,! sulphydrates =m$ 9 ! hide attack$ ! hair-roots ) little injury to ! hair itself1 & ! hides conta9$ s little lime t !y c\ld be tann$ = dress+ )\t bat+1 & made ab\t #aj p] c5t4 m weight ?an ^? treat$ 9 ! ord9>y way4 ,"s tr\ble 0 occasion$ by /a9s caus$ by impurities 9 ! tank-wa/e4 #ha ,squire1 ,e4 ,p41 #gef1 #ahee2 ,claus1 ,e4 ,p41 #aijf1 #ahee4 ,a some:at simil> unhair+ mixture to t obta9$ f tank-wa/e1 :i* is n[ seldom to be got1 0 pat5t$ by ,pr(4 ,lufk91#hb :o mix$ equal p>ts ( sulphur & soda-a% ) a little wat] till comb9$1 & !n add$ #h to #aj p>ts ( lime1 slak$ & /ill hot4 ,s*ultz#hc /ates t su* a mixture conta9+ #aj lb4 ( sulphur1 w unhair fifty hides 9 ! same way1 & 9 ab\t ! same "t z an ord9>y lime1 ! pelt be+ little plump$ & easily r$uc$ )\t bat+ by a few m9utes' :eel+ 9 w>m wat]4 ,by boil+ lime & sulphur ) wat] a yell[ solution is obta9$ :i* c be us$ 9 ! same way z t f ! tank-wa/e4 ,a fur!r quantity ( wat] c be boil$ on ! same mat]ials1 m lime & sulphur be+ add$ z requir$4 ,polysulphides appe> to h a m>k$ effect 9 prev5t+ plump+4 #hb ,eng4 ,pat4 #bjec1 #ahfj4 #hc #8,lea!r ,manufacture1' p4 #ce4 ,b>ium sulphydrate has be5 put on ! m>ket exp]im5tally z an unhair+ ag5t1 9 ! =m ( a /rong solution conta9+ yell[ polysulphides1 & :i* deposits cry/als ( sulphydrate 9 cold wea!r4 ,x is m /able ?an calcium sulphydrate1 b1 on ! :ole1 does n seem to pres5t any advantages ov] sodium sulphide4 ,realg> or r$ sulphide ( ars5ic1 ,z,s1 is made by fus+ ars5i\s acid & sulphur4 7,orpim5t is ,z,s1 b its action is diff]5t f t ( realg>47 ,mix$ ) lime x produces calcium sulphydrate & possibly hyposulph>s5ite4 ,to produce a rapid & complete reaction x mu/ be mix$ ) hot lime1 & ! hott] ! mixture is made ! m p[]ful is its unhair+ action4 ,mild] =ms may be made by mix+ cold1 or ) ! aid ( hot wat] only4 ,x is us$ ) great advantage 9 conjunction ) lime 9 v>y+ proportions = unhair+ lamb- & kid-sk9s = glove-kid & o!r f9e lea!rs1 to :i* x gives ! necess>y /ret* & s(tness & cleanness ( gra91 )\t ! loos5+ ( texture & loss ( hide-sub/ance :i* w\ld be caus$ by an equival5t am\nt ( ord9>y lim+4 ,= glove-kid ab\t #ja-jc p] c5t4 ( realg> & #e p] c5t4 ( lime is us$1 reckon$ on ! gre5 weight ( ! sk94 ,= pa9t+ ! fle% side ( calf- & lamb-sk9s #a "p ( realg> is mix$ ) #aj p>ts ( hot lime1 made into a pa/e ) wat]4 ,calf w unhair 9 #h or #aj h\rs4 8,in(f5sive0 unhair+ solution conta9s a l>ge quantity ( ars5ic sulphide app>5tly dissolv$ 9 cau/ic soda1 al?\gh ,moret's orig9al pat5t claim$ ! use ( wool-sweat pota% only6 ,w4 ,r4 ,e>p#hd has sugge/$ ! use ( comp\nds ( sulphur & ars5ic 7?io-ars5ates1 ?io-ars5ites1 etc471 9 #e p] c5t4 alkal9e solution4 ,he pref]s to add ! comp\nds to ! ord9>y lime-liquors1 or to manufacture !m 9 situ by add+ ! prop] quantities ( ars5i\s or ars5ic acid mix$ ) "o-?ird ( its weight ( sulphur to a solution ( an alkal9e sulphide 9 lime-liquor4 ,! pelt is n bat$ or dr5*$ 9 ! ord9>y way1 b1 aft] unhair+1 is pass$ directly into ! tann+ liquor to :i* sulphur\s acid has be5 previ\sly add$4 #hd ,eng ,pat41 ,no4 #bjeb1 ,feb4 #ab1 #ahhf4 ,!re is m dang] ( injury to ! hide f ! v prolong$ action ( weak solutions ( sulphides1 :i* t5d ultimately to de/roy ! /ructure & r$uce ! fibre to a gelat9\s condition1 ?an !re is f too conc5trat$ solutions4 ,no dang] ne$1 h[ev]1 be appreh5d$ 9 ! c\rse ( any ord9>y lim+4 ,ars5ical limes are n suit$ = ta9t$ sk9s1 & !y %\ld n be made s /rong z to de/roy ! hair or wool4 ,= me?ods ( analysis ( bo? old & new lime-liquors1 see ,l4,i4,l4,b41 pp4 #bg to #cd4 ,:i*ev] me?od ( loos5+ ! hair be adopt$1 ! actual removal mu/ be effect$ by plac+ ! hide on a slop+ beam ) a convex surface1 & !n scrap+ x ) a blunt two-h&l$ knife 7,fig4 #bg71 ! workman pu%+ ! hair d[nw>d & away f himself4 ,! beam may be ei!r ( ca/ iron or ( wood1 usually cov]$ ) z9c to increase its we>+ capacity4 ,! hides aft] be+ remov$ f ! lime-pits1 are all[$ to dra9 = half an h\r or s be=e ! hair is remov$1 & imm$iately ?is op]ation has be5 complet$1 !y %\ld be plac$ 9 s(t wat]4 ,x is ( great importance t ! lim$ hides %\ld n be expos$ to ! air long] ?an is absolutely necess>y = ! removal ( ! hair1 z ! c>bonic acid pres5t 9 ! atmosph]e quickly c>bonates any lime conta9$ 9 ! surface ( ! sk91 =m+ *alk1 & lead+ to unev5 tann+ at a lat] /age4 ,:5 hide has be5 insuffici5tly lim$ x is (t5 easy to remove ! long] hair b excessively difficult to get rid ( ! %ort "u-gr[? ( ! "y hairs1 :i* ev5 9 prop]ly lim$ sk9s c (t5 only be remov$ by %av+ !m ) a %>p h&knife4 ,?is difficulty is caus$ p>tly by ! small resi/ance :i* ! %ort hairs (f] to ! unhair+-knife1 & p>tly by _! be+ m deeply root$ 9 ! sk9 ?an ! old] hairs 7see p4 #di74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bg4--,unhair+ 7,p5ke? ,tann]y74 ,v>i\s ma*9es h be5 devis$ to accompli% ! removal ( ! hair1 b ow+ to ! rapidity ) :i* x may be work$ (f by h&1 & ! fact t ! "w is n difficult1 no ma*9e has z yet come into g5]al use4 ,h&-"w has ! fur!r advantage t 9 ^? portions ( sk9 :]e ! hair is tight] ?an usual x may be remov$ by great] pressure ( ! knife or by h&-%av+1 :]eas aft] goods h be5 unhair$ by ma*9e !y mu/ always be exam9$ & any pat*es ( hair remov$ by h& on ! beam4 ,! edges inv>iably require to be gone ov] by h&4 ,sev]al ma*9es ) spiral knives h be5 introduc$ = ! purpose4 ,t made by ! ,vaughn ,company 7,peabody1 ,mass47 = fle%+ is "o ( ! mo/ satisfactory = unhair+1 ?\gh any o!r ma*9e ( a simil> type1 & provid$ ) spiral knife-blades1 purposely kept blunt1 may be us$4 ,! ,leidg5 unhair+ ma*9e1 %[n 9 ,figs4 #bh & #bi1 is "o ( ! late/ & mo/ +5i\s4#he #he ,e4 ,h4 ,munkwitz1 ,milwaukee4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bh4--,leidg5 ,unhair+ ,ma*9e4 ,occasionally goods are unhair$ by full+ 9 ! 8/ocks02 b x is v d\btful :e!r ! sav+ 9 lab\r is n m ?an c\nt]act$ by ! loss ( weight caus$ by submitt+ ! hide1 :ile its gelat9 is 9 a p>tially dissolv$ condition1 to su* r\gh usage4 ,! use ( ! wa%-:eel 7see pp4 #aaa1 #aah7 = ! same purpose is mu* m satisfactory1 & may be pr(itably employ$ = common goods1 especially :5 ! hair has be5 loos5$ by pa9t+ ) a sulphide mixture4 ,aft] be+ unhair$1 ! hides are 8fle%$0 on ! beam4 ,?is "w1 :i* consi/s 9 remov+ any small pieces ( fle% & fat left by ! but*] on ! inn] side ( ! sk91 %\ld be c>efully & ?or\ghly done2 b ! clos5ess ( ! fle%+ requir$ is dep5d5t on ! purpose to :i* ! hides or sk9s are to be appli$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bi4--,leidg5 ,unhair+ ,ma*9e4 ,x is necess>y n only to remove ^? portions ( fat :i* are easily visible1 b also to =ce out t conta9$ 9 ! loose areol> tissue4 ,! =m ( knife us$ 9 ,engl& 9 fle%+ is %[n 9 ,fig4 #cj4 ,x diff]s f ! "o us$ = unhair+ 9 be+ some:at broad] & heavi]1 & bo? its edges are %>p1 s t :]e ! fle% is too tight to remove by m]e friction ( ! knife1 x may be actually cut away by hold+ ! knife almo/ flat on ! beam1 & us+ ! convex %>p edge4 ,! /rokes 9 cutt+ mu/ n be too broad1 or1 f ! convexity ( ! beam1 ! sub/ance ( ! hide w be cut into 9 ! middle1 or fle% w be left at ! edges ( ! /roke4 ,?is difficulty is avoid$ by ! flexible knife commonly us$ 9 ,g]many1 b 9 o!r ways its "w is less rapid & effective4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cj4--;,fle%+4 ,ma*9es h long be5 us$ = fle%+ & scudd+ light goods1 su* z lamb-1 kid-1 & goat-sk9s1 & _! use = fle%+ dress+ hides has n[ become v g5]al 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & is gradually ga9+ gr\nd 9 ,engl&4 ,! type ( ma*9e us$ = ^! heavi] lea!rs1 v>ies consid]ably f t us$ = light sk9s1 b ! g5]al pr9ciple is ! same4 ,9 mo/ cases ! work+ tool ( ! ma*9e is a cyl9d] ) spiral blades1 :i* are g5]ally arrang$ "r-h&$ on "o half1 & left h&$ on ! o!r1 s z n only to scrape ! hide 9 ! direction 9 :i* ! cyl9d] works1 b also to ext5d x sideways4 ,mu* ( ! effici5cy ( ^! ma*9es dep5ds on ! exact adju/m5t ( ! pit* ( ! spiral1 & 9 ! ,vaughn ma*9e1 :i* is probably mo/ 9 practical use1 ! blades are s arrang$ z to =m two int]sect+ spirals1 "o ( /eep] pit* ?an ! o!r4 ,! great diff]5ce 9 ! ma*9es = sk9s & = heavy "w1 consi/s 9 ! means adopt$ to support ! sk91 & to c>ry x "u ! spiral blades4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ca4--;,jones ,fle%+ ,ma*9e4 ,9 ! ma*9e inv5t$ by ! late ,j4 ,m]$i? ,jones1 ! sk9s are support$ ^u an india-rubb] blanket /ret*$ ov] two roll]s1 s t ! knife-cyl9d] works on t "p ( ! blanket :i* is betwe5 !m1 by :i* great ela/icity is obta9$1 & ?is ma*9e has prov$ mo/ successful 9 treat+ delicate sk9s4 ,9 "s o!r =ms ( ma*9e1 cyl9d]s ?ickly cov]$ ) rubb] h be5 sub/itut$ = ?is arrangem5t4 ,! ,jones ma*9e is %[n 9 ,fig4 #ca4 ,= heavy hides ! ,vaughn ma*9e is mo/ g5]ally us$1 & may be tak5 z ! type ( ! re/1 z ! ,vaughn ,company c]ta9ly orig9at$ ! semi-cyl9drical 8beam10 :i* =ms a v important feature4 ,its con/ruction w be se5 f ,fig4 #cb4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cb4--,vaughn ,fle%+ ,ma*9e1 front view4 ,x w be easily notic$ t if a hide be ?r[n ov] ! half-cyl9d] s t "o half hangs outside x1 & ! o!r half falls 9 its holl[1 & x be !n rotat$1 ! hide is fir/ caught firmly by a spr+-clamp1 :i* has be5 support$ above ! edge ( ! half-cyl9d] by blocks atta*$ to ! frame4 ,z ! edge rises1 x lifts ?is clamp (f ! blocks1 & ?us c>ries ! hide "u ! spiral knife-cyl9d]4 ,! blades ( ?is spiral knife-cyl9d] are gr\nd to a %>p rectangul> edge1 & p>tly scrape & p>tly cut ! loose tissue ( ! fle%4 ,:5 ! half-cyl9d] has made a semi-revolution1 x returns to its orig9al position1 & ! sizes ( ! driv+ pulleys are s arrang$ t ! cyl9d] travels d[nw>ds m rapidly ?an x rises1 9 ord] to economise "t1 ?\gh 9 bo? cases ! hide is work$ ^u by ! knife-spiral :i* is rotat$ at a /ill high] spe$4 ,! hide is ( c\rse turn$ on ! beam-cyl9d] & ! o!r half is simil>ly fle%$4 ,! beam-cyl9d] rev]ses automatically1 or may be rev]s$ by h&1 & its ne>ness to ! spiral knife is also "u control4 ,x is usually cov]$ ) a ?ick %eet ( rubb]4 ,x is obvi\s t ma*9es ( ?is type c n only be us$ = fle%+1 b = unhair+ & scudd+1 by ! sub/itution ( suitable knife-cyl9d]s1 & 9 ! case ( light sk9s1 cyl9d]s fitt$ ) slates are frequ5tly employ$ = ! latt] op]ation4 ,! slate = ! purpose mu/ be ( a peculi>ly f9e & ev5 gra91 & is mo/ly obta9$ f a s+le qu>ry 9 ,wales4 ,! ,vaughn ma*9e is frequ5tly us$ 9 ,am]ica = fle%+ hides aft] soak+ b be=e !y g into ! limes1 & mu* is to be said 9 fav\r ( ?is me?od1 z ! removal ( ! fle% p]mits ev5 & uni=m action ( ! lime4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 a di/9ct disadvantage to ! me?od t ! fle% appe>s r\gh-look+ aft] tann+1 & ! me?od is mo/ suitable 9 conjunction ) ! ,am]ican sy/em ( splitt+ ! tann$ lea!r4 ,9 ! production ( sole-lea!r1 fle%+ ma*9es h n z yet come into v g5]al use4 ,?is may be acc\nt$ = by ! fact t if us$ be=e lim+ a r\gh fle% is produc$1 :i* is unsightly on sole-lea!r1 & :i* _c well be aft]w>ds improv$1 :ile some?+ ( ! same objection atta*es to fle%+ aft] lim+1 ) ! add$ disadvantage t ! hide is too mu* press$1 & is n easy to plump aga91 s z to make a satisfactory sole-lea!r4 ,9 ,am]ica1 bo? sole- & dress+-lea!rs are usually tann$ 9 sides1 ! hide be+ cut d[n ! c5tre ( ! back4 ,9 ,engl&1 ! hide is usually 8r\nd$0 = sole-lea!r into 8butts0 or 8b5ds0 & 8(fal10 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #cc4 ,! r\nd+ is done by h& ) a %>p knife on a table1 & 9 "s ( ! be/ tann]ies frames made ( wood or metal are employ$1 to m>k ! sizes requir$4 ,! *ief advantage ( r\nd+ be=e tann+ is t ! diff]5t p>ts ( ! hide c be diff]5tly tann$1 & appropriat$ to ! purposes = :i* !y are mo/ suitable4 ,! (fal is n[ frequ5tly split & work$ up = light lea!r1 or 9 o!r cases is tann$ ) a *eap] & m rapid tannage ?an ! butts4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cc4--;,diagram ( ,hide4 ,dress+ lea!r is m frequ5tly r\nd$ aft] tann+1 accord+ to ! purposes = :i* x may be requir$4 ,,*apt] ,,xiii4 ,,delim+1 ,,bat+1 ,,pu]+ ,,& ,,dr5*+4 ,al?\gh lime is 9 _m respects ! mo/ useful & satisfactory means ( loos5+ hair f hides & sk9s1 x is ( ! greate/ importance t x %\ld be completely remov$ :5 x has done its "w1 s9ce its action on tann9s is mo/ injuri\s1 & x is (t5 h>mful 9 taw+4 ,= s(t lea!rs x is also necess>y t ! sk9 %\ld be br\ght f a swoll5 to a s(t & flaccid condition4 ,9 practice ?is is ma9ly accompli%$ = dress+ lea!rs by bat+1 pu]+ & dr5*+2 :ile sole-lea!r & /rap-butts are only too frequ5tly left to *ance1 & to ! natural acidity ( ! tann+ liquors4 ,bat+ consi/s 9 h&l+1 or /eep+ ! goods 9 a weak1 f]m5t+ infusion ( pigeon- or h5-dung = a "t usually ext5d+ ov] "s days1 & is appli$ to ! heavi] classes ( dress+ lea!r1 su* z 8common0 & %av$ hides1 kips & calf-sk9s4 ,pu]+ is a v simil> process1 appli$ to ! f9] & light] sk9s1 su* z glove- & glac-kids & moroccos1 9 :i* dog-dung is sub/itut$ = t ( birds1 &1 z ! mixture is us$ w>m & ! sk9s are ?91 ! process is g5]ally complete 9 a few h\rs at mo/4 ,nei!r bat+ nor pu]+ are v effective 9 remov+ lime1 & seem to act pr9cipally by "s direct effect ( ! bact]ial products on ! swell+ ( ! pelt4 ,dr5*+ is occasionally us$ 7e4g4 on calf-kid7 z a sub/itute = bat+ or pu]+1 b m frequ5tly foll[s ! latt]1 & s]ves to cleanse & slightly plump ! sk9s be=e tann+1 & complete ! removal ( lime4 ,! dr5*-liquor is an infusion ( bran made ) hot wat]1 & all[$ to f]m5t "u ! influ5ce ( special bact]ia1 :i* are always pres5t 9 vats us$ = ! purpose1 & :i* develop lactic & acetic acids4 ,x w be not$ t all ^! me?ods are f]m5tative1 & _! effect is n simply ! *emical "o ( remov+ ! lime1 b ! bact]ial action leads also to solution ( ! cem5t+ sub/ance ( ! hide-fibres1 & produces a m>k$ s(t5+ effect on ! lea!r1 toge!r ) consid]able loss ( hide-sub/ance4 ,9 ! manufacture ( ! s(t] lea!rs ?is effect is g5]ally desir$1 & no process w\ld be satisfactory :i* did n produce x2 b 9 o!r cases1 su* z h>ness- & /rap-butts1 firm] & heavi] weigh+ lea!rs w\ld be pref]r$1 if x 7 kn[n h[ to make !m4 ,! putrefactive processes w\ld be gladly rel9qui%$1 if satisfactory sub/itutes c\ld be f\nd1 n only on acc\nt ( _! (f5sive "*1 b because ( _! unc]ta9ty & dang] to ! goods2 & ev5 if lime only 7 remov$1 ! necess>y s(tness c\ld (t5 be obta9$ by appropriate lim+ & tann+4 ,x w be be/1 !re=e1 to deal fir/ ) ! purely *emical me?ods :i* aim only at removal ( lime1 be=e consid]+ ^? involv+ bact]ial action4 ,un=tunately1 ! *emical problem is n s simple z x might at fir/ sight appe>4 ,! alkal9e lime cl+s ob/9ately to ! hide-fibre1 & c only be remov$ v sl[ly1 if at all1 by m]e wa%+4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! use ( any excess ( /rong acid is absolutely preclud$1 because ( its p[]ful swell+ effect on ! pelt1 9 ! tann+ ( :i* x w\ld prove ev5 m injuri\s ?an ! lime1 mak+ d>k-col\r$ & brittle1 or t5d]1 lea!r4 ,?is effect is n to be avoid$ by ! use ( ev5 v dilute solutions ( /rong acids1 s9ce ! aff9ity ( hide-fibre = !m is s /rong t x w ab/ract practically all ! acid f ev5 a dec9ormal solution1 leav+ x q neutral4 ,:at is requir$ is an acid ( extremely weak aff9ities1 =m+ soluble lime salts1 & obta9able at a l[ co/2 or1 on ! o!r h&1 a salt ( "s weak base :i* c\ld be displac$ by lime1 & :i* w\ld n act injuri\sly on ! pelt4 ,) c]ta9 precautions1 & 9 special cases1 h[ev]1 ! /rong] acids may be us$ successfully4 ,9 ! cases ( sole- & belt+-lea!r no s(t5+ is desir$1 & =m]ly tann]s usually cont5t$ !mselves ) a v p]functory wa%+ 9 wat]1 tru/+ to ! acids pres5t 9 ! liquors to complete ! removal ( ! lime4 ,ev5 pure di/ill$ wat] effects ?is removal v sl[ly & imp]fectly1 ow+ to ! /rong attraction ( ! lime = ! fibre2 & if 8tempor>y h>d0 wat] is us$1 ! lime pres5t 9 ! hide comb9es ) t pres5t 9 ! wat] & is precipitat$ z *alk 9 ! surface ( ! hide4 ,?is may be prev5t$ by previ\sly add+ a small quantity ( lime or lime-liquor to ! wat] be=e use to s(t5 x 7see p4 #ie72 b unless ?is is v c>efully done1 ! free lime pres5t 9 ! wat] prev5ts x f remov+ any f ! hide4 ,! safe/ way is n to add lime direct to ! wat]1 b to *ange ! latt] gradually1 s z to all[ ! lime already pres5t to s(t5 ! new portion ( wat]4 ,a mu* m effici5t me?od is to susp5d ! butts 9 wat] to :i* small portions ( dilut$ acid are successively add$ till ! lime is ne>ly1 b n q1 neutralis$4 ,if c>efully us$1 sulphuric acid#hf is p]haps z good z any1 b1 ( c\rse1 any excess w spoil ! col\r or 8buff0 ( ! lea!r4 #hf ,! use ( sulphuric acid = ?is purpose 0 pat5t$ by ,h4 ,bel*] ( ,wantage 7,no4 #ad1idc71 b 0 us$ "s ye>s previ\sly 9 sev]al tann]ies kn[n by ! au?or4 ,acetic1 =mic1 & lactic acids are saf] ?an sulphuric1 b are some:at co/ly1 & mu/ n be us$ 9 appreciable excess4 ,crude pyroligne\s acid may be us$1 & x has a consid]able antiseptic effect ow+ to ! ph5ols1 etc41 :i* x conta9s4 ,hydro*loric acid is n suitable = sole-lea!r1 on acc\nt ( ! bad effect ( *lorides on plump+4 ,sulphur\s acid#hg is p]haps ! be/1 & its acid prop]ties are s weak t slight excess does little h>m1 b ! neutral calcium sulphite is insoluble1 & to actually dissolve ! lime ! hydric sulphite mu/ be =m$1 :i* c only occur 9 pres5ce ( excess ( ! acid4 ,unless su* excess is us$1 ! col\r ( ! pelt 9 ! e>ly liquors is apt to be some:at greyi%4 ,probably a v good me?od w\ld be to susp5d ! butts 9 a solution ( sulphur\s or "s o!r acid ( ab\t ,n_/#bj /r5g?1 suffici5tly long to remove all lime f ! surface & slightly to plump x b n to p5etrate to ! c5tre ( ! hide1 :i* %\ld !n be susp5d$ 9 wat] until any excess ( acid _h be5 tak5 up by ! unneutralis$ lime /ill pres5t 9 ! middle ( ! butt1 :i* at ! end ( ! op]ation %\ld be r alkal9e ?an acid4 ,! c\rse ( ?is1 or any o!r bat+ op]ation c be foll[$ by cutt+ ! hide1 & moi/5+ ! cut surface ) alcoholic solution ( ph5olph?ale91 :i* is turn$ r$1 or p9k1 by ! lea/ trace ( free lime4 #hg ,manufacture ( sulphur\s acid1 see p4 #bd2 te/+1 see ,l4,i4,l4,b41 p4 #cg4 ,9 us+ m9]al acids x is ( great importance t !y %\ld be p]fectly free f iron1 & t ! vat employ$ %\ld conta9 no iron :i* c\ld become dissolv$1 s9ce1 if pres5t 9 ! bat+ liquid1 x is sure to be fix$ by ! hide1 especially if ! quantity ( acid us$ is insuffici5t to neutralise ! :ole ( ! lime4 ,besides ! direct use ( m9]al acid :i* has be5 describ$1 sulphuric1 or /ill bett]1 oxalic acid may be v advantage\sly employ$ 9 precipitat+ lime f us$ bat+ liquids conta9+ weak organic acids1 or o!r lime solv5ts1 s z to re/ore _! orig9al activity4 ,n only is ! bate economis$ by be+ us$ repeat$ly1 b "s ( ! organic products dissolv$ f ! hide h !mselves consid]able p[] ( remov+ lime4 ,putrefaction %\ld n be all[$ to take place2 b _m ( ! organic acids :i* h be5 propos$ = bat+ belong to ! aromatic s]ies1 & h consid]able antiseptic p[]4 ,:]e organic acids are employ$1 ! pres5ce ( _! neutral lime-salts 9 ! liquor1 result+ f previ\s op]ations1 w r$uce ! swell+ action ( ! acid on ! sk91 )\t dim9i%+ its p[] ( remov+ lime 7cp4 p4 #ha74 ,9 place ( sulphuric acid1 "s tann]s h employ$ a mat]ial adv]tis$ "u ! "n ( 8boral40 ,?is sub/ance consi/s simply ( sodium anhydrosulphate melt$ up ) ab\t "o-sev5? ( its weight ( boric acid1 ! quantity ( :i* is1 h[ev]1 too small to h appreciable influ5ce z an antiseptic1 :ile x is said to =m insoluble borates ) ! lime pres5t1 :i* are sometimes a s\rce ( subsequ5t tr\ble4 ,!re is no reason :y ord9>y sodium bisulphate %\ld n be us$ = ! purpose1 & its action is m mild ?an t ( sulphuric acid itself1 b great c>e mu/ be tak5 t no nitric acid is pres5t1 z is frequ5tly ! case 9 ! crude product obta9$ 9 ! manufacture ( nitric acid f sodium nitrate1 & kn[n 9 comm]ce z 8nitre-cake40 ,! pres5ce ( a trace ( sodium *loride w\ld n be disadvantage\s = dress+ lea!r1 b w\ld t5d to prev5t plumpness 9 sole4 ,paessl] & ,appelius#hh h rec5tly %[n t raw hide absorbs sulphuric acid f sodium bisulphate1 leav+ ! neutral sulphate 9 solution4 #hh #8,wiss5s*aftli*-,te*nis*e ,beilage des ,l$]m>kt1' #aija1 p4 #ajg4 ,boric 7boracic7 acid1 ?\gh us$ to a slight ext5t = a numb] ( ye>s pa/1 has rec5tly come mu* into fav\r z a delim+ ag5t1 = :i* purpose x is 9 _m respects p>ticul>ly suitable4 ,sole-lea!r may be improv$ 9 col\r by giv+ a %ort ba? 9 #a-b p] c5t4 boric acid solution to remove surface-lime4 ,9 ?is case ! acid is be/ appli$ j be=e ! hide ent]s ! susp5d]s4 ,boric acid may also be suitably employ$ on hides :i* h be5 bat$4 ,x !n acts z a dr5* & removes traces ( lime /ill left 9 ! hides1 s t ! liquors h a m ev5 effect on !m4 ,exp]i5ce has %[n t ! sk9s %\ld nev] be all[$ to lie = any l5g? ( "t 9 ! boric acid solution 9 a motionless condition1 z ?is t5ds to produce pat*es ( p>tially delim$ sk91 :i* cause irregul> col\r4 ,x is be/ to keep ! sk9s 9 fairly con/ant motion 9 a paddle or by frequ5t h&l+4 ,boric acid has consid]able influ5ce 9 prev5t+ drawn gra9 9 ! e>ly liquors1 b if x gets into ! =w>d liquors x r5d]s ! lea!r loose & light 7cp4 p4 #bbi1 & ,l4,i4,l4,b4 p4 #cg74 ,borax has also be5 sugge/$ z a delim+ ag5t1 & z x is *emically an acid salt1 x has naturally "s delim+ effect1 b x _c comp>e ) boric acid 9 ei!r price or effici5cy4 ,bo? boric acid & borax are antiseptics 7see p4 #be74 ,9 ! employm5t ( ei!r sulphuric1 boric1 or any o!r acid =m+ calcium salts ( limit$ solubility1 x mu/ be borne 9 m9d t if ! solution is repeat$ly re-/r5g!n$1 x w become saturat$ ) ! lime-salt1 & al?\gh ! acid w /ill comb9e ) ! lime & r5d] x neutral1 x w no long] remove x f ! hide4 ,"u ^! conditions1 sulphuric acid may cause ! deposition ( cry/all9e calcium sulphate 9 m9ute nodules betwe5 ! fibres4 ,calcium borate may be simil>ly deposit$1 & has ! fur!r disadvantage ( becom+ decompos$ by ! tann+ liquors1 :i* =m d>k comp\nds ) ! lime4 ,9 us+ sulphuric acid alone x is !re=e be/ to r5ew ! wat] ea* "t4 ,:5 x is us$ 9 conjunction ) "s o!r acid1 =m+ v soluble lime salts1 ?is dang] is n to be appreh5d$1 :ile oxalic acid precipitates ! lime almo/ completely f ! solution4 ,x is to be borne 9 m9d t 9 all cases ( us+ acids1 any c>bonate ( lime pres5t on ! pit sides or else:]e w be decompos$1 & ! c>bonic acid w become dissolv$ 9 ! liquor1 & unless acid is us$ 9 suffici5t quantity to remove ! :ole ( ! lime1 may t5d to fix ! rema9d] z c>bonate4 ,9 ! case ( dress+ lea!r !re is less dang] ( ?is1 z w>m wat] is g5]ally us$1 9 :i* little c>bonic acid dissolves4 ,x is probable t "s ( ! coal-t> acids :i* h be5 adv]tis$ = bat+ dress+ lea!r might be advantage\sly employ$ = sole4 ,hauff's 8anticalcium0 7see pp4 #bi1 #afc71 w\ld appe> to be v suitable = ?is purpose1 & if ! liquor 7 reg5]at$ by ! addition ( suffici5t sulphuric acid to neutralise ! lime dissolv$ f ! hide1 might be us$ repeat$ly1 & w\ld n !n prove exp5sive2 :ile its /]ilis+ p[] w\ld be v advantage\s to ! prop] swell+ ( ! butts 9 ! h&l]s1 s9ce no?+ t5ds to *eck plump+ s mu* z putrefactive action4 ,turn+ f sole to dress+ lea!r1 m9]al acids are v successfully employ$ = 8pull+ d[n10 ! goods be+ ?r[n into a paddle conta9+ w>m wat] ( ab\t #cj-ce ,c41 & ! calculat$ quantity ( sulphuric or hydro*loric acid1 previ\sly l>gely dilut$ ) wat]1 is !n add$ 9 two or ?ree successive portions at int]vals ( p]haps t5 m9utes4 ,! acid mu/ 9 no case be suffici5t to neutralise q ! :ole ( ! lime4 ,goods treat$ 9 ?is way c be fur!r bat$1 pu]$1 or dr5*$ z requir$ by ! ord9>y me?ods1 if !y are n suffici5tly s(t4 ,if too mu* acid has be5 us$1 & ! sk9s %[ signs ( swell+1 !y may be br\ght d[n by ! addition ( a little ammonia1 borax1 or ev5 soda4 ,9 _m cases ! addition ( salt 9 small quantity to ! acid liquor w t5d to deplete ! hides1 & at ! same "t prev5t any injuri\s action ( ! acid4 ,ammonium *loride may also be us$ ) advantage 7see p4 #aei74 ,a solution conta9+ ab\t #ae p] c5t4 ( salt & #jc p] c5t4 ( sulphuric acid1 ) "s molasses1 has be5 a good deal us$ 9 ! ,/ates z a bate1 & seems to answ] well on "s classes ( goods1 b ! acid & salt are apt1 ultimately1 to f9d _! way into ! liquors & de/roy tann94 ,! process is well suit$ = *rome-lea!r1 & may also be usefully appli$ 9 cases :]e goods h become 8w9d-bla/$0 or o!rwise impregnat$ ) c>bonate ( lime1 s9ce 9 pres5ce ( salt ! acid c be us$ 9 suffici5t excess to dissolve ! c>bonate4 ,vegetable acids may1 ( c\rse1 be us$ 9 conjunction ) salt 9 ! same way4 ,! salt does n neutralise ! acid1 b simply controls ! swell+ ( ! sk91 & if acid has be5 us$ 9 any mat]ial excess1 ! fir/ "p ( ! tann+ mu/ be done 9 salt$ liquors1 or ! acid neutralis$ ) ammonia1 sodium c>bonate1 or *alk1 previ\s to tann+1 z1 o!rwise1 ! goods w plump up 9 ! liquors1 & be t5d] :5 tann$ 7cp4 p4 #ia74 ,lactic acid has rec5tly come l>gely into use z a delim+ ag5t4 ,x is be/ kn[n z ! acid :i* gives a *>act]i/ic ta/e to s\r milk1 & is ! *ief product ( ! lactic f]m5t4 ,x may be v successfully us$ = neutralis+ ! lime left 9 ! sk9s aft] ! depilation1 b1 if us$ 9 excess1 x t5ds to plump or swell ! lea!r v /rongly1 be+ "o ( ! be/ plump+ ag5ts kn[n4 ,:5 us$ = delim+1 a solution ( #b lbs4 9 #ajj gallons is v suitable4 ,x may1 9 _m cases1 be sub/itut$ = ! bran-dr5* ) advantage1 & is mu* m rapid & less dang]\s 9 hot wea!r1 b ! effect is n 9 all respects id5tical4#hi #hi ,on ! manufacture ( lactic acid by f]m5tation1 see ,clafl91 ,j\rn4 ,soc4 ,*em4 ,ind41 #ahig1 p4 #eaf4 ,campbell /ates t practically pure cultures ( ! lactic bact]ia are obta9$ by cont9u$ culture 9 milk4 ,^! cultures employ$ z a f]m5t = dr5*es h giv5 good results 9 ! ,york%ire ,college ,exp]im5tal ,tann]y4 ,:5 lactic acid is us$ = bat+1 or dr5*+1 ! op]ation %\ld always be conduct$ 9 a paddle1 & ! liquid works m satisfactorily if x is at a temp]ature ( #cj-ce ,c4 ,z reg>ds co/1 x w be f\nd t 9 practice x is n appreciably m exp5sive ?an dung or bran4 ,ab\t an h\r's paddl+ w g5]ally suffice1 if ! "r quantity ( acid has be5 us$1 b 9 "s cases x is be/ to add ! acid 9 sev]al portions & take m "t4 ,! e/imation ( ! am\nt ( lactic acid 9 ! comm]cial article may be c>ri$ out by dilut+ exactly #i grms4 ) ab\t t5 times its volume ( wat]1 & !n titrat+ x ) normal cau/ic soda z describ$ 9 ,l4,i4,l4,b41 p4 #af1 = acetic acid4 ,z ea* c4c4 ( normal alkali is equival5t to #jij grm4 ( lactic acid x w repres5t "o p] c5t4 ( real lactic acid 9 ! sample4 ,if o!r acids are pres5t1 !y are ( c\rse includ$4 ,comm]cial lactic acid is usually ( ab\t #ej p] c5t4 ,x is important t ! lactic acid %\ld be free f iron1 a dilute solution %\ld give no blue coloration on addition ( ei!r potassium f]rocyanide or f]ricyanide4 ,acid p]fectly free f iron is n[ easily obta9$4 ,=mic acid 9 #fj p] c5t4 solution1 =m$ syn!tically by ! comb9ation ( c>bon monoxide ) cau/ic soda & ! subsequ5t decomposition ( ! sodium =mate s produc$1 has rec5tly be5 br\ght into comm]ce at a *eap rate1 & w probably =m a satisfactory sub/itute = acetic acid 9 ! delim+ ( hides & _m o!r te*nical op]ations4 ,in/ead ( acids1 _m neutral salts may be us$ to neutralise lime1 & 9 sole-lea!r1 x is n g5]ally disadvantage\s to leave ! lime 9 ! hide1 s long z x is 9 an insoluble & fix$ condition1 & comb9$ ) an acid :i* _c be displac$ by tann94 ,?us phosphates1 or oxalates ( sodium or ammonium w conv]t ! lime into insoluble phosphate1 or oxalate1 sett+ free sodium- or ammonium-hydrate :i* =m soluble tannates & o!r salts :i* are easily wa%$ out ( ! hide4 ,z9c sulphate w =m sulphate ( lime & z9c oxide 9 ! hide1 & seems wor? fur!r exp]im5t = sole-lea!r1 b mu/ be free f iron4 ,alum1 or sulphate ( alum9a1 w\ld simil>ly =m calcium sulphate & alum9a1 b ! tann+ effect ( alum9a salts is too great to admit ( _! g5]al use = bat+4 ,ammonium sulphate w =m calcium sulphate ) lib]ation ( ammonia4 ,= dress+ lea!r1 ! use ( ammonium *loride w\ld be /ill m advantage\s1 & x is a p[]ful bat+ mat]ial1 conv]t+ ! lime into calcium *loride ) ! evolution ( ammonia1 :i* has b little plump+ p[]1 & :i* is easily wa%$ out4 ,ammonium *loride has be5 v successfully us$ 9 calf-kid manufacture z a prep>ation = dr5*+1 in/ead ( pu]+1 :i* 0 =m]ly 9 vogue4 ,z1 h[ev]1 only ab\t oz4 p] doz5 sk9s 0 employ$1 ! cleans+ mu/ h ma9ly dep5d$ on ! w>m wat] ) :i* x 0 us$1 & ! free ammonia evolv$4 ,! use ( ammonium *loride z a bate 0 pat5t$ by ,zollick(f] 9 #ahch4 ,a bat+ liquor :i* 0 propos$ by ! writ]1 & :i* has be5 us$ ) "s success on h>ness-lea!r1 is made up ) a lb4 ( good :ite ammonium *loride 7sal ammoniac7 & a lb4 ( ,boakes' 8metabisulphite ( soda0 p] hide1 & = successive packs suffici5t sulphuric acid to neutralise ! ammonia =m$1 toge!r ) a small quantity ( metabisulphite & ammonium *loride to re/ore t c>ri$ out by ! hides is add$4 ,x is probable t ?is w\ld also answ] well = delim+ sole-lea!r z x entirely removes lime )\t pull+ d[n ! hides mu*1 & !y w\ld rema9 /ill plump] if ammonium sulphate 7 sub/itut$ = ammonium *loride1 :ile ! sulphuric acid might be safely increas$ till ! liquor 0 b slightly alkal9e :5 ! bat+ 0 f9i%$4 ,ab\t #b-d oz4 ( good :ite oil ( vitriol is requir$ p] hide1 b ! exact quantity w dep5d on ! mode ( lim+1 & ! am\nt ( wa%+ ! hides receive be=e go+ into ! bate1 & c !re=e be only asc]ta9$ by exp]i5ce4 ,z no free sulphuric acid c exi/ 9 ! liquor s long z ! quantity ( metabisulphite is ma9ta9$1 !re is no practical dang] ( spoil+ ! lea!r if ! acid be 9 slight excess4 ,! quantities giv5 may 9 mo/ cases be advantage\sly dim9i%$1 s9ce x is n always advisable 9 practice to remove ! :ole ( ! lime1 :i* 9 small quantity r5d]s tannage & p5etration ( ! liquor mu* m rapid1 ei!r by act+ z a mordant to ! tann91 or by tempor>ily neutralis+ x & dim9i%+ its a/r+5t action on ! hide-fibre4 ,turn+ to dress+ lea!r1 we f9d t ! use ( cold wat] alone has be5 practically ab&on$ 9 ?is c\ntry1 ?\gh ! f9e/ ,fr5* calf is produc$ by repeat$ soak+s 9 cold wat] ) alt]nate work+s ov] ! beam1 sometimes ext5d+ to n9e or m4 ,9 ?is case1 f ! l5g!n$ exposure to wat]s :i* are only gradually r5ew$ x is probable t putrefactive action takes place1 & t a sort ( bat+ is effect$ by ! decompos+ products ( ! hide itself2 9 fact1 9 _m ,fr5* y>ds1 bran-dr5*es h be5 introduc$ to supplem5t ! action ( ! wat] alone4 ,wat]s diff] greatly 9 _! p[] ( remov+ lime f sk94 ,slightly acid & peaty wat]s1 & ^? 9 g5]al :i* conta9 mu* organic matt]1 are mu* m p[]ful 9 r$uc+ ?an ^? :i* are pur] 7cp4 p4 #ajg74 ,w>m wat] has mu* m effect 9 remov+ lime ?an cold1 s9ce ! heat less5s ! risk ( dissolv$ c>bonic acid1 & seems to h a direct deplet+ effect on ! pelt4 ,a good tumbl+ 9 w>m s(t wat] w remove a great deal ( lime1 & is an excell5t prep>ation = bat+1 b heat mu/ be us$ cauti\sly1 & %\ld nev] exce$ #cj-ce ,c42 "s sk9s1 su* z seals1 be+ v readily t5d]$ by its action1 :ile o!rs1 especially %eep-sk9s1 w /& a comp>atively high temp]ature4 ,! use ( a solution ( c>bonic acid = remov+ lime has be5 pat5t$ by ,nesbitt1#ij :o takes advantage ( ! fact t calcium c>bonate is soluble 9 excess ( c>bonic acid 7p4 #id74 ,! gas1 :i* he g5]ates1 z = soda wat]1 by ! action ( acids on *alk1 or lime/one1 is receiv$ 9 a ga%old]1 & =c$ by a compress+ pump into ! vessel conta9+ ! hides1 :i* is pref]ably a rotat+ drum l9$ ) copp]1 & capable ( be>+ a pressure ( ab\t ?ree atmosph]es4 ,! inv5tion excit$ consid]able int]e/ on its introduction1 z ! gas is1 c]ta9ly1 q un9juri\s to ! hides1 & x 0 claim$ t x enabl$ ! grease & dirt to be bett] remov$ ?an by ! ord9>y me?ods4 ,fur!r exp]i5ce has %[n1 h[ev]1 t ! removal ( ! lime is f> f complete1 s9ce1 = success1 x is n only necess>y to br+ x into solution1 b to wa% x out ) c>bonic acid solution "u pressure1 z on exposure to ! air1 solutions ( lime 9 excess ( c>bonic acid rapidly deposit calcium c>bonate4 ,at ! pres5t "t1 ! only tann]y 9 :i* to my k ! process is 9 use is t ( ,messrs4 ,mossop & ,g>l&1 ( ,capet[n1 :o /ate t x answ]s v well = h>ness-lea!r :5 a pure lime made by calc9+ sea-%ells is us$ = lim+1 b is n satisfactory ) ord9>y /one lime4 ,x is difficult to acc\nt = ?is on *emical gr\nds4 ,glue/uff may be treat$ v satisfactorily by simply bl[+ c>bon dioxide1 or wa%$ & cool$ lime-kiln- or furnace-gases1 into an op5 pit 9 :i* ! mat]ial is kept agitat$4 ,9 ?is case1 h[ev]1 !re is no ne$ = ! actual removal ( ! lime1 s long z x is c>bonat$ & its cau/ic "* de/roy$4 ,c>bonic acid does n decompose lime-soap1 & h5ce sets free no fatty acids1 :i*1 toge!r ) grease1 are ! ma9 cause ( ! turbidity ( glue1 & ! process !re=e yields a m brilliant ?\gh d>k] col\r$ glue ?an does treatm5t ) sulphur\s acid4 #ij ,eng4 ,pats4 #ggdd & #ab1fha1 #ahhf4 ,sev]al acids ( ! aromatic s]ies h be5 f "t to "t recomm5d$ z delim+ ag5ts1 & g5]ally possess ! m]it ( act+ at ! same "t z p[]ful antiseptics4 ,9 ?is connection x may be well to m5tion ! solution ( #a p] c5t4 ( ph5ol & #b p] c5t4 ( boric acid us$ by ,dr4 ,p>k] & ! writ] = prep>+ & pres]v+ sk9s = col\r te/s 7,l4,i4,l4,b41 p4 #acc74 ,?is answ]s v well z a bate ev5 :5 mu* dilut$1 & may be r5d]$ *eap en\gh = use 9 practice by ! employm5t ( a good comm]cial c>bolic acid in/ead ( pure ph5ol1 & ! use ( sulphuric acid to remove lime f ! solution & r5d] x capable ( repeat$ employm5t4 ,! c>bolic acid %\ld n be too d>k 9 col\r1 & %\ld be c>efully dissolv$1 or 8c>bolic0 /a9s w result4 8,cresot9ic acid10 a mixture ( impure acids obta9$ f cresols 9 ! same way z salicylic acid is manufactur$ f pure ph5ol1 0 introduc$ z a bate & unhair+ & delim+ ag5t by ,j4 ,hauff1 ( ,feu]ba*4#ia ,he also claims ! use ( hydro*loric acid to lib]ate ! acid aft] x has be5 comb9$ ) lime 9 ! delim+ process4 ,x is only soluble to ! ext5t ( ab\t #a 9 #hjj ( wat]1 s t1 ev5 if us$ 9 excess1 no dang]\sly /rong solution is =m$1 b x has a t5d5cy to slightly swell1 & some:at h>d51 ! hides or sk9s1 s t x is p]haps m suitable = sole ?an dress+ lea!r4 ,x has also p[]ful dis9fectant prop]ties 7see p4 #bi74ib #ia ,eng4 ,pat4 #ad1hhi1 #ahhh4 #ib ,comp>e also ,j\rn4 ,soc4 ,*em4 ,ind41 #ahhi1 p4 #ied4 ,hauff /ates t a solution ( #ah lb4 ( cresot9ic acid 9 #ejj gallons ( wat] at #cj ,c4 w bate "o lot ( #ej heavy hides1 & t ! same liquor may be us$ cont9u\sly1 by add+ #d-e lb4 m cresot9ic acid = ea* successive #ej hides4 ,= bat+ glove-lea!r1 ,hauff recomm5ds ! use ( #e kilos4 cresot9ic acid dissolv$ 9 #ajjj lit]s ( w>m wat] = e #ejj kilos4 ( wet sk9s1 to :i* is add$ ammonia ne>ly suffici5t to neutralise ! cresot9ic acid1 leav+ ! solution /ill slightly acid to litmus pap]2 & he also advises ! addition ( #e kilos4 ( ammonium *loride or sulphate4 ,! goods are paddl$ 9 ?is solution = ab\t half an h\r4 8,oxynaph?oic acid10 ! correspond+ mix$ acids ( ! naph?ols 7p4 #cj71 has also be5 pat5t$ by ,hauff z a bate1 s9ce cresot9ic acid sometimes acts too p[]fully on light sk9s4#ic ,he m5tions t mixtures ( ?is & cresot9ic acid1 or salicylic acid1 may also be us$4 ,oxynaph?oic acid requires = its solution #bj1jjj to #cj1jjj p>ts ( wat]4 #ic ,eng4 ,pats4 #aj1aaj & #ab1eba4 ,j\rn4 ,soc4 ,*em4 ,ind41 #ahhi1 pp4 #abd1 #hji2 #ahij1 p4 #he4 ,a mixture ( ! & mono- & di-sulphonic acids ( naph?al5e has also be5 pat5t$ = bat+1#id "u ! "n ( 8,acril5e bat+ & pu]+ acid40 #aej calf-sk9s1 weigh+ #hhj lb41 7 pur$ 9 a #c p] c5t4 solution ( ! acid1 & gave #bff lb4 ( lea!r z aga9/ #bee lb4 f a lot ( simil> weight treat$ ) h5-dung1 & ?is ga9 0 m ?an ma9ta9$ on /uff+1 :ile ! %\ld]s 7 plump] & full]4 ,?is pat5t appe>s to anticipate a "p ( ,hauff's claim m5tion$ 9 ! next p>agraph4 #id ,burns & ,hull1 ,eng4 ,pat4 #hjif1 #ahia2 ,j\rn4 ,soc4 ,*em4 ,ind41 #ahib1 p4 #dh4 ,m rec5tly ,hauff has pat5t$1 "u ! "n ( 8anticalcium10 a mixture ( impure sulphonic acids ( v>i\s cresols & hydroc>bons4 ,?is is *eap] ?an cresot9ic acid1 & l x1 possesses consid]able antiseptic p[]s4 ,"o-half to "o-qu>t] p] c5t4 solution w keep hides un9jur$ = a consid]able "t1 b at ?is /r5g? x plumps consid]ably1 & seems m suitable z a delim+ ag5t = sole-lea!r ?an z a bate = dress+-lea!r1 ?\gh x may replace dr5*+4 ,no d\bt1 by ! use ( w>m wat]1 & avoidance ( excess ( acid1 sk9s c\ld be pull$ d[n satisfactorily1 or ! plump+ c\ld be controll$ by addition ( salt1 b ! dis9fectant p[]s ( ! acid w\ld r5d] fur!r treatm5t ) an ord9>y bate or pu] v difficult4#ie #ie ,j4 ,hauff1 ,eng4 ,pat4 #bb1edf1 #ahid2 ,j\rn4 ,soc4 ,*em4 ,ind41 #ahie1 p4 #agj1 ,g]b]1 #ahie1 p4 #acc4 ,! 8,c4 ,t4 ,bate10 manufactur$ by ! ,m>t9 ,d5nis ,*rome ,company1 is ( a v simil> "*2 & is 9 ! =m ( a greyi% cry/all9e pa/e1 consi/+ ma9ly ( sulphonic acids ( naph?al5e & probably o!r hydroc>bons4 ,x is v possibly made by sulphonat+ coal-creasote oils1 :i* conta9 mu* naph?al5e & ph5an?r5e4 ,! foll[+ directions are giv5 by ! company = its use4 8#a4 ,aft] unhair+ & fle%+ f ! lime1 ! sk9s %\ld be ?or\ghly wa%$ ) wat] 7pref]ably w>m7 s z to remove z mu* lime z possible4 #b4 ,if1 9 ! lim+ process1 ! sulphide ( sodium is us$ 9 comb9ation ) ! lime1 x w r5d] ! lime m soluble & !re=e m easily remov$ ) wat]4 #c4 ,! m completely ! sk9s are cleans$ ) w>m wat] ! less w be ! quantity ( bate requir$4 #d4 ,aft] wa%+1 ! sk9s %\ld be ?or\ghly work$ on ! beam1 especially on ! gra94 #e4 ,a solution ( ,c4 ,t4 ,bate is n[ prep>$ 9 ! proportion ( f "o-half p\nd to "o p\nd ( bate 9 #ajj gallons ( w>m wat] 7#ij ,f474 ,9 mak+ ! solution d n h ! wat] ov] #adj ,f4 ,"u no circum/ances boil x4 #f4 ,if ! hides or sk9s h be5 treat$ z above indicat$1 "o p\nd ( bate %\ld be suffici5t = #djj p\nds wet hide1 wa%$ f ! limes4 ,! hides or sk9s are plac$ 9 ! bat+ solution & work$ = an h\r4 ,!y are !n all[$ to re/ 9 ! solution ) occasional /irr+ = "s h\rs or ov] night4 #g4 ,! l5g? ( "t t ! bat+ %\ld cont9ue w dep5d ^u ! degree ( s(tness & pliability requir$ 9 ! lea!r4 ,= in/ance1 = sole-lea!r fifte5 m9utes is suffici5t2 = sat9 lea!r ?irty m9utes2 = glove-lea!rs f\r to six h\rs or ev5 long]4 #h4 ,on remov+ ! sk9s f ! bat+ solution x is sometimes desirable1 especially = ! f9] grades ( lea!r1 to wa% !m 9 w>m wat] & aga9 "w !m ov] ! beam4 ,!y are !n ready to be plac$ 9 ! tann+ liquors4 #i4 ,9 prep>+ ! bat+ solution = ! second pack1 draw d[n ! old solution "o-?ird & replace ) fre% wat]2 !n add 9 solution j "o-half ! quantity ( bate us$ at fir/1 & s on ) ea* succe$+ pack4 #aj4 ,:5 fre% :ite limes are us$ t[>d ! end ( ! lim+ process1 & a manure bate is deem$ necess>y to r$uce ! h>%ness ( gra9 caus$ by ! fre% lime1 x is v b5eficial to give ! sk9s f ! manure bate a dr5* ( ,c4 ,t4 ,bate1 !reby arre/+ ! bact]ial action ( ! manure bate1 pres]v+ ! gra91 besides cleans+1 blea*+ & neutralis+ ! sk9s prep>atory to plac+ !m 9 ! tann+ liquors4 #aa4 ,aga91 :5 x is consid]$ desirable to use a manure bate1 x is good practice to treat ! sk9s z above indicat$ 7d[n to item ,no4 #g71 & !n place !m 9 ! manure bate4 ,by ?is previ\s treatm5t ! antiseptic action ( ! ,c4 ,t4 ,bate t5ds to arre/ ! de/ructive bact]ial action ( ! manure bate1 !reby less5+ ! risk ( damage to ! gra94 ,9 all cases :]e ! value ( ! lea!r is dep5d5t on ! quality & p]fection ( ! gra91 ?is is an important advantage to ga940 ,all ^! coal t> 8bates0 are r suitable to replace dr5*+ ?an bat+ or pu]+1 z _! effect is ma9ly t ( remov+ lime4 ,f _! antiseptic "* !y are v useful 9 /opp+ ! effects ( putrefaction1 & prev5t+ f]m5ts be+ c>ri$ into ! tann+ liquors1 & sk9s may safely be kept at lea/ = "s days 9 weak solutions1 b any necess>y f]m5tive pu]+ or bat+ %\ld usually be done be=e & n aft] _! use4 ,a writ] 9 ! #8,g]b]1' #ahge1 p4 #bgi1 recomm5ds ! use ( dilute solution ( sulphide ( sodium z a bat+ ag5t4 ,possibly x removes lime z sulphydrate1 & ! writ] nam$ seems to h obta9$ good results ) glove lamb-sk9s4 ,9 exp]im5ts made at ! ,york%ire ,college1 a solution ( #d grm4 p] litre us$ on #dj grm4 ( pelt 0 f\nd to plump x consid]ably1 b probably a mu* weak] solution might be suffici5t & m satisfactory4 ,polysulphides1 su* z 8liv] ( sulphur10 or ! yell[ solution obta9$ by boil+ dilute sodium sulphide or sodium hydrate solution ) excess ( sulphur1 h great p[] ( 8br++ d[n0 ! pelt1 & seem well wor?y ( exp]im5t z bat+ ag5ts4 ,9 ,india1 ! pods ( ! babool 7,acacia arabica7 are mu* us$ z a bate1 ! infusion be+ all[$ to f]m5t4 ,9 _! dry /ate !y conta9 ab\t #ab p] c5t4 ( an easily *angeable tann91 :i* does n precipitate lime-wat]1 & :i* by f]m5tation is v probably conv]t$ into gallic acid4 ,! use ( gallic acid itself z a bate has be5 pat5t$ by ,alb]t ,hull1#if & w\ld und\bt$ly accompli% ! removal ( ! lime if us$ 9 suffici5t quantity2 b z he only uses a solution ( #be mgr4 p] litre 7"o "p 9 #dj1jjj7 any effect mu/ be ma9ly due to ! wa%+ ) wat]4 ,gallic acid =ms d>k oxidation products ) lime4 #if ,eng4 ,pat4 #ad1eie1 #ahhi4 ,( ! f]m5tive me?ods ( remov+ lime1 8dr5*+0 ) f]m5t+ bran-infusions is ! simple/ 9 !ory1 & has be5 v c>efully inve/igat$ by ,mr4 ,j4 ,t4 ,wood4#ig ,x w1 !re=e1 be conv5i5t to consid] ?is process fir/1 al?\gh x is frequ5tly employ$ z a means ( cleans+ & slightly plump+ ! sk9 aft] ! lime has be5 remov$ by pu]+ or bat+4 ,9 calf-kid manufacture1 h[ev]1 x is n[ us$ )\t previ\s pu]+1 & 9 "s o!r cases x is sub/itut$ = ! use ( dung bates4 ,! mo/ important ( ! active f]m5ts are two species ( bact]ia1 nam$ by ,wood ,bact]ium furfuris & 1 :i* are v simil> 9 _! =m & action 7see ,l4,i4,l4,b41 p4 #bfd71 b produce a some:at bett] f]m5tation toge!r ?an sep>ately4 ,!y are %[n 9 ,figs4 #cd & #ce4 #ig ,j\rn4 ,soc4 ,*em4 ,ind41 #ahij1 p4 #bg2 #ahic1 p4 #dbb2 #ahig1 p4 #eaj2 ,brit4 ,assoc4 ,rep41 #ahic1 p4 #gbc4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cd4--;,bact]ium furfuris 4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ce4--;,bact]ium furfuris 4 ,nei!r species has any direct action on ! hide sub/ance1 b f]m5ts ! glucose produc$ by ! action ( ! c]eal9 ( ! bran on ! />* :i* is pres5t4 ,a consid]able quantity ( hydrog51 ) c>bon dioxide1 nitrog5 & small quantities ( hydrog5 sulphide1 are produc$ dur+ ! f]m5tation1 toge!r ) lactic & acetic1 & traces ( =mic & butyric acids & am9es4 ,active dr5*es conta9 #a-c grm4 ( mix$ acids p] lit]1 to :i* !y owe _! action1 a p]fectly satisfactory dr5*+ be+ produc$ by an artificial dr5* conta9+ #je grm4 ( glacial acetic acid & #a grm4 ( lactic acid 7sp4 gr4 #abaj7 p] lit] 9 :i* ! sk9s 7 work$ = #a-b h\rs1 :ile #ab-af h\rs w\ld h be5 requir$ 9 ! ord9>y dr5*4 ,an exp]im5tal dr5* gave ! foll[+ results on analysis3-- ,=mic acid #jjcjf grm4 p] litre ,acetic acid #jbdjb ,butyric acid #jjacd ,lactic acid #jgijg ------ ,total #ajgdi ,x is probable t o!r organisms are capable ( produc+ simil> f]m5tations1 & x is n c]ta9 t 9 all tann]ies ! same f]m5ts are pres5t4 ,mr4 ,a4 ,n4 ,palm] /ates t at ! ,cambrian ,lea!r ,works at ,wrexham1 he has be5 unable to detect lactic acid 9 ! dr5*es1 all ! acids pres5t be+ ( ! acetic s]ies4 ,! dr5*-f]m5ts inve/igat$ by ,wood are incapable ( attack+ or injur+ ! hide1 &1 9 8 op9ion1 :5 ! sk9 is attack$1 x is g5]ally due to putrefactive & gelat9e-liquefy+ organisms introduc$ f ! bates1 or f ! air 9 hot sultry wea!r4 ,dr5*+ takes place mo/ safely & satisfactorily at temp]atures n exce$+ #cj-ce ,c41 :5 ! process is usually complete 9 #ab-bd h\rs4 ,9 hot sultry wea!r a butyric f]m5tation ( an active "* sometimes sudd5ly takes ! place ( ! normal "o 7,g]4 ,ums*lag571 ! sk9s swell rapidly1 become transluc5t 7glasig7 & f9ally dissolve to a jelly4 ,if tann$ 9 ! swoll5 condition1 t5d] & useless lea!r results1 & ! injury1 once begun1 proce$s ) al>m+ rapidity1 sk9s be+ sometimes completely ru9$ 9 a few h\rs4 ,prompt action is !re=e necess>y1 & ! fir/ /ep to take is to add salt1 :i* *ecks ! f]m5tation1 & acts 9 ! same way z 9 ! pickl+ process1 controll+ ! action ( ! acid1 & produc+ a sort ( taw+4 ,su* sk9s w yield s\nd lea!r1 ?\gh ! gra9 is apt to be some:at drawn4 ,if ! sk9s c be imm$iately got out ( ! dr5*1 ! acid may be neutralis$ by ! cauti\s addition ( ammonia1 soda1 or :it5+ to ! wat] 9 :i* !y are plac$1 pref]ably 9 a paddle1 & if !y are insuffici5tly dr5*$ !y may !n be paddl$ 9 tepid wat]1 ?\gh ?is is h>dly likely to be ne$$1 z ! effect ( ! acid is to remove ! lime v completely4 ,! objection to ! use ( :it5+1 :i* o!rwise is ! safe/ & be/ mat]ial to employ = remov+ acid f pelt1 is t x is apt to become me*anically fix$ 9 ! gra91 &1 ?us1 to produce bad col\r ) vegetable tans4 ,= :ite or *rome lea!r x w\ld d no h>m4 ,precautions to prev5t ! recurr5ce ( ! injury are to keep ! temp]ature ( ! dr5* l[1 & to free ! bran f fl\r by wa%+ 9 two or ?ree cold wat]s1 be=e add+ to x ! hot wat] ) :i* ! actual dr5*-liquor is made1 s9ce ! fl\r1 or at lea/ its />*1 is ! s\rce f :i* ! butyric acid1 z well z ! lactic1 is =m$4 ,9 cold wea!r1 :]e dr5*+ is proce$+ 9 a normal way1 ! fl\r is useful1 s9ce x is ! natural nutrim5t ( ! dr5*-f]m5t2 &1 9 ,engl&1 fl\r is frequ5tly add$ purposely to ! bran to increase ! activity ( ! dr5*4 ,to reta9 ! fl\r1 ! bran may be wa%$ fir/ ) boil+ wat]1 :i* gelat9ises ! />* & makes x adh]e to ! bran1 &1 accord+ to ,eitn]1 removes a /icky fatlike matt] f x1 & fits x bett] to remove ! fat ( ! sk94 ,aft] soak+ 9 hot wat] = two h\rs1 x is wa%$ 9 sev]al cold wat]s & infus$ at ab\t #dj ,c4 = use4#ih ,_m tann]s use ! bran )\t previ\s wa%+1 b if mu* fl\r is pres5t x rises to ! top ) ! gas evolv$ by ! f]m5tation1 & =ms a pa/y mass on ! sk9s1 :i* int]f]es ) ev5 dr5*+4 #ih ,g]b]1 #ahhb1 p4 #bdf4 ,! quantity ( bran us$ 9 ord9>y dr5*+ is v v>iable1 b ab\t #d p>ts p] #ajjj ( wat] us$ & f #e to #aj p] c5t4 on ! weight ( pelt may be tak5 z an av]age quantity1 m be+ frequ5tly employ$4 ,! temp]ature may v>y f #aj up to ab\t #cj-ce ,c41 & ! "t inv]sely f days or weeks d[n to two or ?ree h\rs1 accord+ to ! temp]ature ( ! dr5*1 ! am\nt ( f]m5t pres5t1 & ! ?ickness & "* ( ! sk9s4 ,! sk9s are usually ?r[n into ! fre%ly prep>$ dr5*1 to :i* a few pailfuls ( old dr5*-liquor is frequ5tly add$ z a f]m5t4 ,f]m5tation soon sets 91 & ! gas evolv$ causes ! sk9s to float to ! surface2 ?is is call$ ! 8work+0 ( ! dr5*4 ,?9 sk9s may be suffici5tly dr5*$ aft] once ris+1 :ile ?ick ones require to be put d[n two or ?ree times4 ,a c]ta9 sign ( suffici5t dr5*+ is ! appe>ance ( small bli/]s on ! gra91 caus$ by ! evolution ( gas 9 ! sub/ance ( ! sk94 ,:5 ^! are se5 ! dr5*+ %\ld be at once discont9u$1 z o!rwise ! bli/]s w increase 9 numb] & bur/ ?r\gh ! gra91 caus+ m9ute holes or 8pricks0 7"o ( ! _m =ms ( ! compla9t call$ 9 ,g]man ,pikir5 or ,piqui]574 ,:5 a bubble ( air is enclos$ 9 a fold ( ! suffici5tly dr5*$ sk9 & press$1 x raises ! gra9 )\t actually sep>at+ x f ! sub/ance ( ! sk94 ,! prop]ly dr5*$ sk9 also falls easily 9 folds :5 held betwe5 ! h&s ei!r l5g?ways or crossways1 & if ?91 ! sk9 tightly /ret*$ ov] ! h& %[s gra9s ( bran und]nea? x z little lumps1 r\nd :i* ! sk9 cl+s to ! h&4 ,! dr5*$ sk9 %\ld n be transp>5t1 b :ite & s(t2 & :5 press$ %\ld reta9 ! m>k ( ! f+]4 ,"s exp]i5ce is requir$ to det]m9e c]ta9ly ! po9t ( suffici5t dr5*+1 :i*1 ( c\rse1 v>ies ) ! "* ( ! sk9s1 & ! k9d ( lea!r :i* is to be produc$2 & ! feel ( ! sk9 to a practis$ h& is "o ( ! mo/ important crit]ia4 ,a writ] 9 ! #8,g]b]'#ii divides dr5*+ into ?ree classes--8sweet10 8alcoholic0 & 8s\r40 ,sweet dr5*+ is done 9 a ba? ( tepid bran-wat]1 made by infus+ 9 hot wat] & draw+ ! cle> liquor (f ! bran1 :i* settles to ! bottom4 ,! sk9s are only all[$ to rema9 9 #b-c h\rs1 or n long en\gh = f]m5tation to set 94 ,! process is only suit$ = v ?9 or s(t sk9s1 :i* w n /& any fur!r loos5+4 ,! use ( bran-wat] has ! advantage ( sav+ ! lab\r ( 8brann+10 or remov+ adh]+ bran ) ! knife on ! beam1 b x is d\btful if unf]m5t$ bran has mu* actual effect4 ,bran-wat] c1 h[ev]1 be us$ = dr5*+ by f]m5tation1 & = small glove-lamb has l>gely sup]s$$ ! old] me?od4 ,! me*anical action ( ! bran 9 cleans+ ! pelt is h[ev] (t5 useful4 ,9 s\r dr5*+ ! bran is all[$ to /eep & s(t5 9 cold wat] = _m h\rs1 & boil+ wat] is !n add$ till ! temp]ature is rais$ to #ge ,c41 & x is all[$ to infuse ) frequ5t /irr+ = "s h\rs1 & aft] cool+ to #de a consid]able quantity ( old dr5*-liquor is add$ z a f]m5t4 ,if ! dr5* is us$ w>m 7#cj-ce1 or1 9 cold wea!r1 ev5 #dj ,c471 ! sk9s only rema9 9 #a-c h\rs1 b if cold ! dr5*+ c be ext5d$ ov] a p]iod ( #b-c days1 ! sk9s be+ frequ5tly h&l$4 ,?is modification is suitable = glac-kid & ! h>d] sorts ( sk9s1 b glove-lamb are always treat$ by ! w>m & rapid process4 ,:at ! writ] 9 ! #8,g]b]' describes z ! 8alcoholic0 bran-dr5* is probably ! me?od ( f]m5tation inve/igat$ by ,mr4 ,wood1 9 :i* ord9>y inflammable gases1 b no alcohol1 are produc$4 #ii ,g]b]1 #ahhh1 p4 #beg4 ,a normal dr5* plumps ! goods slightly1 b if x conta9s mu* ( ! putrid f]m5ts c>ri$ 9 f ! bate or pu] ! sk9s fall 9 x z !y w\ld d 9 a bate4 ,to increase ?is effect1 putrid soak-liquor is sometimes add$ to ! dr5*1 b ) d\btful advantage4 ,9 dr5*-liquors ! total acidity may be det]m9$ by titration ) lime-wat] or ,n_/#aj cau/ic soda1 ) ph5olph?ale9 z indicator2 & ! volatile acids may be di/ill$ (f z describ$ "u ! analysis ( tann+ liquors 7,l4,i4,l4,b41 p4 #abf74 ,= m complete me?ods ( analysis ! read] is ref]r$ to ,messrs4 ,wood & ,willcox's pap] on ! 8,nature ( ,bran ,f]m5tation40#ajj #ajj ,j\rn4 ,soc4 ,*em4 ,ind41 #ahic1 p4 #dbb4 ,dr5*es are said to 8"w0 some:at bett] if made ) wat] conta9+ nitrates1 & ?is is q probable2 b ! necess>y nitrog5 c easily be suppli$ if requir$ by ! addition ( a v small quantity ( saltpetre4 ,wood is ( ! op9ion t ! f]m5ts f\nd 9 bran d n orig9ate 9 ! dr5* itself1 b come f ! bat$ sk9s1 z ! dr5*-bact]ia soon die out )\t f9i%+ ! f]m5tation1 & con/ant r5ew+ ( ! nutri5t mat]ial is necess>y 7cp4 p4 #ah74 ,bat+ & pu]+1 ?\gh diff]+ practically 9 _m ways1 are id5tical 9 !ory1 & mo/ ( :at foll[s applies to bo? ( !m4 ,! action is mu* m complex ?an t ( ! dr5*1 involv+ bo? *emical reactions & ^? ( organis$ & unorganis$ f]m5ts1 & x is a matt] ( no little difficulty to say :at proportion ( ! obs]v$ effect %\ld be ascrib$ to ea* ( ^! ag5cies4 ,=m]ly1 ! pr9cipal effect 0 attribut$ to organic salts ( ammonia & its homologues1 & to amido-acids :i* comb9e ) lime4 ,phosphoric acid is also pres5t1 & if any exi/s 9 ! =m ( soluble salts1 x w comb9e ) lime1 & r5d] x insoluble & inactive4 ,x is probable1 h[ev]1 t mo/ if n all ! phosphoric acid is already 9 ! =m ( tricalcium phosphate1 & !re=e )\t effect4 ,x is n[1 h[ev]1 recognis$ t ! effects ( ^! *emicals are ( no importance z comp>$ ) ! products ( bact]ial action1 & ! rese>*es ( ,j4 ,t4 ,wood h cle>$ up mu* t 0 until rec5tly q inexplicable4#aja #aja ,j\rn4 ,soc4 ,*em4 ,ind41 #ahid1 p4 #bah2 #ahie1 p4 #ddi2 #ahih1 pp4 #hef1 #ajaj2 #ahii1 pp4 #aag1 #iij4 ,mu* effect has be5 ascrib$ to ! dige/ive f]m5ts1 su* z peps9 & tryps91 :i* are pres5t 9 fre% dung4 ,x is kn[n t ! animal organism secretes ^! 9 consid]able excess ( its requirem5ts1 b x is d\btful :e!r any exi/ undecompos$1 ev5 9 fre% dung2 ?\gh !y are app>5tly m resi/ant to putrefaction & decomposition ?an w\ld a priori h be5 expect$ ( su* complex organic comp\nds1 & !re is !re=e a possibility ( _! exi/5ce 9 ! dung1 ev5 z x comes to be us$ 9 ! tann]y4 ,bo? peps9 & tryps9 are enzymes 7see p4 #af71 & belong to ! great class ( album9oids4 ,!y are soluble 9 wat]1 b insoluble 9 alcohol1 & h5ce are precipitat$ by ! addition ( ! latt] to _! solution1 b are n alt]$ by x1 & rega9 _! activity on solution 9 wat]4 ,by heat !y are coagulat$ & decompos$1 & _! activity p]man5tly de/roy$4 ,peps9 is ! active pr9ciple ( ! secretion ( ! gl&s ( ! /oma*1 & l>ge quantities are prep>$ = m$ical use z an aid to dige/ion f ! /oma*s ( pigs4 ,peps9 only acts 9 slightly acid solution1 &1 ?\gh fre% bate liquor is slightly acid to litmus1 x spe$ily becomes alkal9e f ! lime ( ! sk9s & ! ammonia pres5t1 s t ! action ( peps9 9 a bate c only be a v limit$ "o4 ,wood#ajb comp>$ ! action ( a #a p] c5t4 solution ( peps91 acidifi$ ) #jb p] c5t4 ( hydro*loric acid1 ) t ( a dogs' dung pu] liquor1 bo? at ! temp]ature ( #dj ,c4 ,at ! end ( "o h\r ! sk9 9 ! peps9-solution 0 consid]ably fall51 b t 9 ! pu]-solution 0 almo/ dissolv$4 ,s9ce ! solution "h employ$ 0 mu* /rong] ?an is likely to occur 9 practice1 & ! conditions mu* m fav\rable to its action1 x may be assum$ t ! practical effect ( traces ( peps9 9 ! bate may be neglect$4 #ajb ,j\rn4 ,soc4 ,*em4 ,ind41 #ahid1 p4 #bbj4 ,tryps9 or pancreat9#ajc if pres5t1 is m likely to h an effect1 s9ce x is active 9 neutral & 9 alkal9e solutions4 ,x is ! product ( ! pancreas1 & is l>gely conc]n$ 9 inte/9al dige/ion4 ,*emically x mu* resembles peps91 b is m resi/ant to heat1 reta9+ its p[] ( dige/ion aft] heat+ to a temp]ature ( #afj ,c4 9 a dry condition4 ,its w>m$ solution dissolves fibr9 almo/ in/antly1 & 9 l>ge quantity1 & peptonises gelat9 & hide-fibre1 s z to r5d] !m soluble 9 wat]4 ,wood f\nd t a #a p] c5t4 solution ( pancreat9 act$ f> m rapidly ?an a solution ( peps9 ( equal /r5g?4 ,at #dj ,c4 9 neutral solution1 ! sk9 fell rapidly1 & ! action cont9u$ ev5 9 ! cold4 ,9 #ae h\rs ! liquid 0 sw>m+ ) m9ute bact]ia4 ,at ! sugge/ion ( ! ,au?or1 ! exp]im5t 0 !re=e repeat$1 ) ! addition ( #ae p] c5t4 ( *lor(orm1 :i* prev5t$ ! developm5t ( bact]ia1 :ile x did n /op ! action ( ! pancreat94 ,! sk9 fell z be=e1 b 9 nei!r case _h x ! peculi> t\* ( pu]$ sk91 nor 7 ! *>act]i/ics ( ! lea!r produc$ f x ! same4 ,we may !re=e conclude t1 ?\gh tryps9 may contribute to ! action ( ! bate or pu]1 x c only d s 9 a m9or degree1 & t ! pr9cipal effect ( ! bate or pu] is due to o!r causes4 ,x is c]ta91 h[ev]1 t fre% bird-dung1 & probably t ( all animals1 conta9s f]m5ts capable ( liquefy+ gelat94 ,an in/ance ( ?is is f\nd 9 ! obs]vation1 common 9 glue manufacture1 t if ! dropp+ ( a sp>r[ falls on a cool] full ( solidifi$ gelat9e size1 x w liquefy a track q d[n to ! bottom ( ! cool]4 ,tryps91 or at lea/ ! secretion ( ! pancreas1 z well z ! gall f ! liv]1 h great p[] ( wett+ & emulsify+ fats1 & ?is has possibly some?+ to d ) ! action ( ! bate 9 enabl+ ! sk9s to be cleans$ ( fat4 #ajc ,loc4 cit4 & ,beil/e91 iii4 p4 #acjh1 #bnd ed4 ,bact]ial f]m5tation & its products are h[ev] ! ma9 factor 9 ! action ( pu]s & bates1 & on ?is subject we owe mo/ ( our k to ! "w ( ,j4 ,t4 ,wood1 s9ce1 ?\gh ,popp & ,beck] h work$ ov] mu* ( ! same gr\nd1 !y h n ne>ly s freely publi%$ _! results4 ,wood %[$ t a fre% pu] liquor1 ev5 :5 boil$ = half an h\r & s fre$ f liv+ organisms & album9oid f]m5ts1 has /ill consid]able action on a lim$ sk91 ?\gh mu* less ?an ! unboil$ pu]4 ,he f\nd t ?is action 0 pr9cipally due to am9es & _! comp\nds ) organic acids1 :i* remov$ lime1 b did n remove ! int]fibrill>y sub/ance or give ! prop] feel ( pu]$ sk94 ,a v simil> result 0 obta9$ ) anil9e 7ph5yl-am9e7 hydro*loride 9 #a p] c5t4 solution4 ,a consid]able v>iety ( bact]ia f dung & o!r s\rces 7 cultivat$ 9 v>i\s m$ia & _! pu]+ p[] te/$1 b ?\gh great] ?an t ( ! unorganis$ *emical comp\nds su* z am9e salts & organic acids1 x 0 9 no case equal to t ( an ord9>y pu]1 or suffici5t = practical use4 ,:51 h[ev]1 a small quantity ( ! am9e salts obta9$ f ! pu] 7 add$ to a mix$ bact]ial culture ! effect on ! sk9 0 almo/ z rapid & consid]able z ) an actual pu]4 ,9 ord] to det]m9e :e!r ! pu]+ effect 0 due to ! direct action ( ! bact]ia or to _! enzyme-products1 ! latt] 7 sep>at$ f a filt]$ pu] solution by add+ x to a l>ge volume ( #ih p] c5t4 alcohol 9 :i* ! enzymes are insoluble4 ,:5 r$issolv$ 9 wat]1 !y _h a decid$ pu]+ effect1 & a solution ( #je grm4 ( ! mix$ enzymes & #je grm4 ( ! mix$ am9e hydro*lorides 9 #ajj c4c4 ( wat] at #cej ,c4 br\ght d[n a piece ( lim$ %eep-sk9 9 ?irty m9utes exactly l a pu]4 ,! action is !re=e dep5d5t on ! mutual action ( ! enzymes & am9e salts1 b z ! sep>ation ( ^! w\ld be too co/ly = practical use1 & ! pu]+ prov$ m effectual :5 !y 7 =m$ 9 contact ) ! sk9 by active bact]ia1 ,wood adopt$ ! me?od ( prep>+ a suitable /]ilis$ nutritive liquid1 :i* 0 inoculat$ be=e use ) a mix$ culture ( suitable bact]ia4 ,= laboratory purposes a suitable culture-m$ium 0 obta9$ by dige/+ #aj grm4 ( gelat9e ) #e grm4 ( lactic acid 7reckon$ wat]-free7 & #ajj c4c4 ( wat] = ?ree h\rs 9 a clos$ vessel on ! wat]-ba?4 ,! resultant solution 0 neutralis$ ) sodium c>bonate & dilut$ to #a litre ) addition ( a small quantity ( potassium phosphate4 ,! bact]ia ( fre% dog-dung 7 n f\nd to possess a satisfactory pu]+ effect1 b ^? f dung :i* _h be5 f]m5t$ a mon? 7z 9 practice7 gave a result ne>ly equal to actual pu]4 ,a /ill bett] result 0 obta9$ by a mix$ culture f ! roots ( wool loos5$ by sweat+4 ,! bact]ia 7 pr9cipally ( two species1 ( :i* nei!r sep>ately 0 capable ( satisfactory pu]+2 b :i* toge!r act$ m rapidly ?an an actual pu]4 ,^! bact]ia d n liquefy gelat9e4 ,dur+ ! c\rse ( 8 exp]im5ts1 ,wood f\nd t filt]$ pu] solutions 7 less active ?an turbid ones & t _! activity 0 increas$ ev5 by ! addition ( in]t sub/ances1 su* z kaol94 ,wood attributes ! diff]5ces 9 action betwe5 dog-dung & bird-dung n only to diff]5t bact]ia1 b to ! fact t 9 ! latt] case ! ur9>y products1 & especially uric acid are conta9$ 9 ! dung4 ,f ! results ( ^! & simil> rese>*es1 ,wood 9 ,engl&1 & ,popp & ,beck] 9 ,g]many succe$$ 9 produc+ a practical artificial pu]1 :i* !y n[ manufacture 9 conjunction "u ! "n ( 8,erod940 8,erod90 consi/s ( a solid nutri5t m$ium & a liquid 8pure culture0 ( ! bact]ia necess>y to effect ! requir$ bat+ or pu]+4 ,! foll[+ are ! directions = work+ ) erod9 bate1 z suppli$ by ! manufactur]s3-- 8,= #ajj lb4 ( wet sk9 wa%$ ready = bat+1 ab\t #a lb4 ( erod9 is requir$4 ,or 9 ! metric sy/em1 #a kilo4 wet sk9 requires ab\t #aj grm4 erod94 ,! /r5g? or conc5tration ( ! bate mu/ n fall bel[ #c grm4 p] litre ( bate liquor1 i4e4 oz4 p] gallon4 ,= prep>+ ! bate a suffici5tly l>ge cask or tub c>efully clean$ & /eam$ out is plac$ ne> ! bat+ paddle4 ,! cask %\ld be fitt$ ) a /eam pipe easily screw$ on & (f1 & also furni%$ ) a clean cov]4 ,! requisite quantity ( erod9 is weigh$ out & put into ! tub ) fifty times its weight ( wat]1 & ! :ole br\ght up to a temp]ature rea*+ b n exce$+ #dj ,c4 7#ajd ,f47 by direct admission ( /eam1 ?or\ghly /irr$1 & ! pure culture ( ,bacillus erodi5s add$ to ! mixture4 ,! temp]ature mu/ n be all[$ to fall bel[ #be;,c4 7#hg ,f471 & a little /eam %\ld be admitt$ fir/ ?+ 9 ! morn+1 aga9 at noon1 & 9 ! ev5+1 to br+ ! temp]ature up to #dj ,c4 7#ajd ,f474 ,a practical mode ( proc$ure is z foll[s3--,on ,friday make up & />t f]m5t+ twice z mu* erod9 z w be requir$ = a day's "w4 ,?is is all[$ to rema9 "u ! above-m5tion$ conditions until ,monday4 ,on ,monday half ! am\nt w be us$ = bat+2 ?is is replac$ by an equival5t am\nt ( fre% erod9 p[d]1 dissolv$ 9 fifty times its weight ( wat]1 :i* is add$ to ! already f]m5t$ erod9 9 ! tub4 ,proce$ 9 ?is way ea* day until ! foll[+ ,friday1 :5 !re w be left 9 ! tub suffici5t erod9 = "o day4 ,?is is put into a small] tub = use on ,saturday1 & ! cycle ( op]ation begun aga94 ,"o pure culture ( ,bacillus erodi5s %\ld be us$ = e #aa lb4 7#e kilos47 erod9 p[d] or less quantity4 ,suppose ! am\nt ( erod9 requir$ = a day's "w to be #aa lb4 7#e kilos471 !n on ,friday #bb lb4 7#aj kilos47 erod9 mu/ be ma%$ z above describ$ 9 #aaj galls4 7#ejj litres7 wat]1 #b pure cultures add$1 & all[$ to f]m5t until ,monday4 ,on ,monday half ( ?is is us$1 & to ! rema9d] #aa lb4 7#e kilos47 erod9 & #ee galls4 7#bej litres7 wat] is add$4 ,?is is repeat$ on ,tuesday1 ,w$nesday & ,?ursday2 & on ,friday half is us$ & ! rema9d] put into a sep>ate cask = use on ,saturday1 & 9 ! ma%+ cask a fre% quantity ( #bb lb4 7#aj kilos47 erod9 ) #aaj galls4 7#ejj litres7 wat] is made up = use next week4#ajd #ajd ,mr4 ,wood has f\nd t 9 _m cases x is unnecess>y to />t afre% at ! end ( ea* week1 b t additional quantities ( erod9 solution ) ! accompany+ bact]ial culture may be add$ cont9u\sly to ! /ock-tub z requir$4 ,9 pu]+1 ! conc5trat$ solution f ! tub may be dilut$ ) #d to #f times its volume ( w>m wat]4 ,! dilut$ liquor %\ld usually only be us$ = "o pack ( sk9s4 ,on ,saturday ! rema9d] ( ! old ma% is us$ up4 ,9 case ?is mode ( proc$ure is = any reason n suit$ to ! conditions ( "w1 erod9 may be us$ by mak+ up e day a fre% quantity ) fifty times its weight ( wat]1 add+ ! pure culture1 & all[+ x to f]m5t ?ree days be=e use40 ,9 "s cases ! solution may be us$ = sev]al consecutive packs1 m]ely add+ wat] & a small quantity ( erod9 )\t a new culture4 ,erod9 is be+ us$ mo/ successfully 9 sev]al l>ge works bo? 9 ,engl& & abroad1 & on calf-sk9s & %eep-sk9s has prov$ q z effective & mu* saf] ?an dog-dung2 ! sk9s com+ out clean & free f /a9s4 ,x has be5 a good deal us$ 9 ! exp]im5tal tann]y ( ! ,york%ire ,college1 & has prov$ a satisfactory sub/itute = pu]1 b ) ! pres5t bact]ial cultures c only be employ$ w>m1 & does n answ] us$ cold l ! ord9>y pigeon-dung bate4 ,no d\bt a suitable bact]ial m$ium & culture c be f\nd = cold bat+1 :i* = ?ick] lea!rs is (t5 pref]able to pu]+1 & exp]im5ts 9 ?is direction are be+ und]tak54 ,f ! multiplicity ( g]ms pres5t1 & ! adaptability ( ! dung infusion z a nutri5t m$ium = any putrefactive organisms :i* may ga9 access to x1 ! bat+ & pu]+ process is necess>ily a dang]\s "o = ! goods1 always lead+ to loss ( weight1 &1 if ! process is c>ri$ on too long1 to ! m or less complete de/ruction ( ! sk9s4 ,loss ( weight1 h[ev]1 9 great] or less] degree is inevitable1 & inde$ necess>y :]e a s(t lea!r is to be produc$4 ,if ! sk9s are all[$ to lie 9 ! bate or pu] liquor1 mud1 conta9+ organisms1 & zoogla-=ms ( bact]ia settle 9 ! folds1 & produce m>bl$ m>k+s1 /reaks & l9es by ! de/ruction ( ! gra9 surface 7hyal9e lay]74 ,black or blui% /a9s are also (t5 produc$1 kn[n z bate-/a9s1 & ei!r due to bact]ial pigm5ts1 or 9 "s cases1 to ! action ( evolv$ hydrog5 sulphide on iron pres5t f salt+ or o!r s\rces4 ,frequ5t *ange ( position is !re=e necess>y1 especially :5 ! liquor is active f be+ us$ at a high temp]ature1 b x does n seem to be desirable to keep ! sk9s 9 con/ant motion1 & if pu]+ is done 9 a paddle1 x %\ld only be run at int]vals4 ,t4 ,palm]#aje det]m9$ 9 exp]im5ts on pigeon-dung bates t !re is consid]able loss ( nitrog5 dur+ ! process1 & recomm5d$ bat+ 9 pits f :i* ! air 0 exclud$ z mu* z possible1 bo? z effect+ a consid]able economy 9 ! dung1 & 9 exclud+ false f]m5ts1 :i*1 he concludes1 are mo/ly a]obic4 ,x is n improbable t ! me?od is advantage\s1 s9ce x has be5 %[n by ,roscoe & ,scudd] t liquefaction ( gelat9 only takes place 9 pres5ce ( oxyg51 & its p>tial exclusion w\ld !re=e less5 ! risk ( ov]bat+1 & consequ5t damage & loss ( weight4 #aje ,lea!r ,trade ,circul>1 #bbnd ,sept41 #ahia2 #ahhg1 p4 #ffg2 & ,san=d1 ,j\rn4 ,soc4 ,*em4 ,ind41 #ahic1 p4 #ecj4 ,/>t+ f ! presumption t bat+ & pu]+ are1 9 ! ma91 bact]ial processes1 m or less successful attempts _h be5 made previ\s to ^? ( ,wood1 ,popp & ,beck]1 to sub/itute o!r f]m5t+ sub/ances = dung2 & probably ^! ef=ts fail$ 9 _m cases1 n s mu* because !y 7 wrong 9 pr9ciple1 z f want ( k ( ! necess>y details1 su* z ! use ( prop] f]m5ts1 & ! provision ( suitable culture-m$ia4 ,guano1 prep>$ horse-fle%1 ur9e1 yea/1 & f]m5t+ vegetables h all be5 tri$4 ,a solution ( glucose or treacle ( ab\t #aj p] c5t41 to :i* #c p] c5t4 ( pa/y dog-pu] is add$ ab\t a week be=e use1 0 tri$ _m ye>s s9ce 9 a morocco-factory1 at ! sugge/ion ( ! writ]1 z at lea/ a p>tial sub/itute = pu]1 & is /ill 9 use !re4 ,! mixture keeps = "s "t 9 an active /ate1 & is add$ to ! pu] liquors 9 ! same way & 9 approximately ! same proportions z ! dung pa/e4 ,simil> 9 pr9ciple is ! solid bate suppli$ by an ,am]ican firm1 9 :i* glucose is mix$ ) a small am\nt ( nitrog5\s matt] & phosphates1 toge!r ) a lactic f]m5t1 & :i* only requires dissolv+ 9 w>m wat] "s little "t be=e use4 ,its results are good = "s purposes1 b r resemble ^? ( a dr5* ?an a bate4 ,9 a simil> way1 pu] may be add$ to bran-dr5* liquors1 & induces 9 !m a f]m5tation :i* br+s ! sk9s d[n mu* l[] ?an ! ord9>y dr5*4 ,x is probable t a weak glucose solution1 ) traces ( m9]al con/itu5ts simil> to ,cohn's solution 7see ,l4,i4,l4,b41 p4 #bfi7 & 8set0 ) s\r milk1 or f]m5t+ dr5*-liquor1 might 9 "s cases be us$ ) advantage = dr5*+1 ) a sav+ ( co/4 ,a writ] 9 #8,hide & ,lea!r' describes a bate 9 :i* two p>ts by weight ( glucose are dissolv$ 9 ab\t #be p>ts ( wat]1 & f]m5t$1 = ab\t ?ree days1 till a foam ga!rs on ! top1 ) ab\t "o "p ( old bran dr5*-liquor1 or #ja "p ( press$ yea/1 & !n made up ) wat] to #ajjj p>ts4 ,! goods are bat$ #bd-cf h\rs at a temp]ature ( ab\t #ce ,c1 & ! bate is /r5g!n$ = a second pack ) ab\t "o-fif? ( ! orig9al glucose1 a new bate be+ made at ! end ( a week1 & set ) "o "p p] ?\s& ( ! old "o4 ,a %ort bat+ ( say #aj h\rs produc$ v nice h>ness-lea!r1 b ! g5]al t5d5cy 0 to make ! goods loos] & m spongy ?an a dung-bate4 ,x is obvi\sly n a matt] ( indiff]5ce :e!r old dr5*1 or yea/1 is us$ to />t ! f]m5tation1 s9ce 9 ! latt] case only alcohol c\ld be produc$ directly by ! f]m5t introduc$1 ?\gh ?is might be f]m5t$ lat]1 by o!r accid5tal organisms1 into acetic acid4 ,^! mix$ bates1 conta9+ glucose1 are h[ev] probably wrong 9 pr9ciple1 s9ce ! true pu]+ & bat+ bact]ia w n ?rive 9 pres5ce ( acids1 & require nitrog5\s nutrim5t4 ,z reg>ds ! relative effect ( dog- & h5- or pigeon-dung bates1 ! *ief ( ! publi%$ exp]im5ts are ^? made by ,w4 ,j4 ,salomon at ! ,vi5na ,v]su*san/alt fr ,l$]9du/rie1#ajf 9 :i* he det]m9$ ! relative solv5t p[] ( equal quantities z be+1 = dog-dung #b1 = pigeon-dung #b1 & = h5-dung #a4 ,x is obvi\s t ^! figures1 ?\gh int]e/+1 mu/ be tak5 ) "s res]ve1 z ! composition ev5 ( pure dungs is by no means con/ant1 dep5d+ on ! fe$+ ( ! animals1 & adult]ation is common4 ,! writ] has he>d /ories ( a c]ta9 deal] :o us$ to fabricate 8 product f clay by ! aid ( a popgun1 ?\gh he does n v\* = ! /atem5t6 ,x is g5]ally held t ! action ( bird-dung is m p5etrat+1 b less s(t5+ & loos5+ ?an t ( dog-dung1 :i* is ?us g5]ally us$ = descriptions ( lea!r :]e great s(tness & /ret* are requir$4 ,x is to be rememb]$ 9 ?is connection t bird-dung bates are g5]ally us$ cold1 & h5ce are mu* sl[] 9 _! action1 :i* all[s !m "t to p5etrate ?ick] hides m uni=mly4 ,few analyses ( ! dungs us$ 9 lea!r manufacture h be5 publi%$1 & ^! mo/ly ) a view to manurial value4 ,s*ulze#ajg gives ! result ( =ty analyses ( pigeon-dung z foll[s3-- ,m94 ,max4 ,mean4 p] c5t4 p] c5t4 p] c5t4 ,wat] #chj #djjj #bajj ,nitrog5 #adg #ejd #bec ,phosphoric acid #ajj #bgg #agi ,pota% #jga #beg #adf ,"o sample conta9$ #dcc p] c5t4 ( s&6 #ajf ,te*4 ,qu>t41 #ahib1 v4 p4 #ha4 #ajg ,d] ,l&wirt1 #ahie1 li4 p4 #cja4 ,wood#ajh quotes ! foll[+3-- ,h5-,dung4 ,p] c5t4 ,wat] #fjhh ,organic matt]#aji #aibb ,phosphates #ddg ,calcium c>bonate & sulphate #ghe ,alkal9e salts #aji ,silica & s& #ffi ,dog-,dung4 ,wat] #caj ,ca #dcj ,na1 ,k1 ,mg #jh ,,po #cd ,,co #ge ,organic matt] #adb ,traces ,fe1 ,cl1 ,si1 loss #ja #ajh ,j\rn4 ,soc4 ,*em4 ,ind41 #ahid1 p #bbj4 #aji ,conta9+ nitrog5 equal to #jgd p] c5t4 ( ammonia4 ,?is 0 app>5tly a sample f a dog f$ on bones2 t f ! k5nels1 :i* is m commonly us$ 9 lea!r manufacture1 conta9s mu* less lime2 a sample analys$ by ,wood gave #dg p] c5t4 m9]al matt]1 #ig p] c5t4 organic1 & #hef p] c5t4 ( wat]1 "p ( :i* 0 no d\bt add$4 ,analysis4--,little or no att5tion has be5 paid to ! analysis ei!r ( dungs = bat+ purposes1 or ( ! bat+ liquors1 & al?\gh ! total co/ ( manure bates is a high "o1 x is evid5t t su* l[- pric$ & irregul> articles w n pay = elaborate analysis4 ,probably 9 "s cases x w\ld be wor? :ile to make a det]m9ation ( moi/ure & organic & m9]al con/itu5ts by dry+ & ignition4 ,:]e a fur!r inve/igation is desir$1 ! det]m9ation ( ! soluble matt] by filt]+ & evaporat+ a portion ( ! solution to dryness1 & t ( ! nitrog5 by ,kjeldahl's me?od 7see p4 #gj71 w\ld be advisable1 & ( c\rse 9 ! future1 :5 ! subject is bett] und]/ood1 a bact]iological exam9ation may be useful4 ,if x is desir$ to e/imate ! solution ( hide-sub/ance 9 ! use ( bate or dr5* liquors1 ! det]m9ation ( ! nitrog5 9 a measur$ quantity by ,kjeldahl's me?od w af=d ! be/ basis ( calculation1 all[ance be+ made = ! nitrog5 pres5t 9 ! orig9al bate liquor4 ,hide-sub/ance conta9s ab\t #agh p] c5t4 ( nitrog54 ,9 _m cases1 simple weigh+ ( ! solid residue1 left on evaporat+ ! liquor to dryness & dry+ = sev]al h\rs at #ajj ,c41 ) subsequ5t ignition to det]m9e lime & o!r m9]al matt]s1 w suffice4 ,! quantity ( h5- or pigeon-dung us$ 9 bat+ hides is v v>iable1 b may be /at$ at f #ab to #fj litres p] #ajjj kilos ( raw hide1 9 at lea/ #bjjj litres ( wat]4 ,! bate is g5]ally us$ cold1 ! hides rema9+ 9 x #d-h days1 ) frequ5t h&l+2 b "s tann]s1 especially 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 pref] bat+ 9 a paddle or drum at a temp]ature ( ab\t #ce ,c41 9 :i* case ! "t mu/ be dim9i%$ to a few h\rs4 ,! dung is be/ infus$ ) w>m wat] 9 a sep>ate vessel1#aaj & all[$ to f]m5t = at lea/ a week )\t use1 :5 x w be f\nd to sw>m ) micrococcus-*a9s4 ,only ! cle> liquor %\ld be run into ! bate-pit1 ! s$im5t & dirt be+ ?r[n away1 or us$ z manure4 ,9 ?is way ! dang] ( /a9s & flak+ is mu* r$uc$4 ,bates may be m5d$ ) fre% portions ( dung-infusion = sev]al successive packs ( hides1 b %\ld n be us$ too long1 z !y ga9 9 solv5t p[] by ! dissolv$ hide-sub/ance & ! increas$ f]m5tation1 & ! me?od is n )\t risk4 #aaj ,?is seems to h be5 fir/ sugge/$ by ,t4 ,palm]1 ,eng4 ,pat4 #ac1fcf1 #ahhf4 ,aft] bat+1 ! hides are usually 8work$0 78scudd$10 8f9e-hair$07 on ! beam1 to remove dirt & grease1 b 9 ,am]ica a wa% 9 ! wa%-:eel is (t5 consid]$ suffici5t4 ,goods are occasionally 8/ock$0 7p4 #aaf7 f ! bates1 b ?is is n to be recomm5d$1 z x is likely to drive out mu* ( ! p>tially dissolv$ hide-sub/ance & produce undue loos5ess & loss ( weight4 ,x is difficult to give any def9ite m>ks ( suffici5t bat+ o!r ?an ! s(t & fall5 feel ( ! hides1 :i* is easily recognis$ by a practis$ h&4 ,"o ( ! e>lie/ signs ( comm5c+ ov]bat+ is ! occurr5ce ( blui% pat*es1 or a blui% t+e some:at simil> to an iron-/a91 :i*1 if slight1 g5]ally disappe>s 9 a few days aft] ! hides are tak5 into ! liquors4 ,h5- & pigeon-dung is probably be/ kept air-dri$1 ?\gh1 if v wet1 or = conv5i5ce = imm$iate use1 x may be kept 9 pa/e l dog-dung4 ,dog-dung %\ld nev] be all[$ to lie expos$ to ! air1 or x putrefies & turns black1 ! bat+ +r$i5ts are de/roy$1 & x w n pu] ! goods :i* turn black & putrid )\t s(t5+4 ,dung %\ld1 !re=e1 be mix$ to a pa/e ) wat] & kept 9 tanks1 s z to be b little expos$ to ! air1 :5 x w reta9 its pu]+ prop]ties = a long "t unaffect$4 ,fre% dung %\ld be all[$ to f]m5t = at lea/ a week be=e use4 ,no accurate /atem5t c be made z to ! quantities requir$4 ,eitn] /ates t #a-a pails ( dung-pa/e 7say #ad-bj litres7 is suffici5t = #bjj m$ium to l>ge lamb-sk9s = glove-kid4 ,x %\ld be suffici5t to make ! wat] q turbid1 b n ?ick or s\py4 ,= lamb-sk9s a temp]ature ( #ah-bj ,c4 is suitable1 :i* may be rais$ 9 v cold wea!r to #be ,c41 to all[ = cool+4 ,! "t requir$ is f two h\rs = ! ?9ne/ sl9k sk9s1 to #ab-ad h\rs = /rong ones4 ,x is well to use wood51 & n iron1 ut5sils = h&l+ ! dung1 & x %\ld be /ra9$ ?r\gh a co>se clo? aft] dilut+ ) wat]4 ,z has be5 rem>k$1 x is n desirable to keep ! sk9s 9 con/ant motion 9 ! pu]2 !y %\ld be /irr$ or paddl$ = ! fir/ #bj-cj m9utes1 & !n = #aj m9utes e h\r = five or six h\rs1 aft] :i* !y c be all[$ to lie = a long] p]iod )\t injury4 ,pu]+ is suffici5t :5 ! sk9s feel q s(t & flaccid1 hang+ 9 folds 9 any direction & all[+ ! fle% to be scrap$ (f ) ! f+]-nail4 ,wood recomm5ds t1 = ! pu]+ ( %eep-sk9s1 dung %\ld be all[$ to f]m5t "o mon? be=e use1 & /ates t x det]iorates if kept ov] ?ree mon?s4 ,! pu]+ products are ! result ( ! successive action ( _m sorts ( bact]ia1 & ,wood is ( op9ion t ^? actually conc]n$ 9 pu]+ orig9ate f ! air1 or f ! vessels 9 :i* ! dung is /or$1 & are n pres5t 9 x :5 excret$4 ,borgman#aaa advises t ! dung %\ld be kept 9 a dry condition1 & only made into a pa/e betwe5 a =tnight & ?ree weeks be=e use1 by cov]+ 9 a clean cask ) cold wat]1 & on ! foll[+ day mix+ to a smoo? pa/e ) a clean wood5 8poss-/ick10 made f wood free f tann94 ,! cask %\ld !n be cov]$ up1 & all[$ to re/ undi/urb$ till requir$4 ,clean extract-casks are v suitable = ! purpose1 if c>efully & repeat$ly /eam$ out1 & ,borgman advises t a regul> s]ies %\ld be arrang$1 s z to supply ! dung requir$1 ! date ( mix+ be+ c>efully m>k$ on ea* cask4 ,?r\gh\t ! process ! utmo/ cleanl9ess %\ld be obs]v$1 & ! casks %\ld be c>efully /eam$ out z soon z empti$4 ,imm$iately be=e use ! dung-pa/e %\ld be heat$ by /eam+ ne>ly b n q to boil+ po9t1 c>e be+ tak5 to avoid ! introduction ( cond5s$ wat] conta9+ iron1 & ! dung ?or\ghly mix$ ) a l>ge quantity 7say #ajj gallons7 ( wat] at #de-ej ,c41 all[$ to settle1 & drawn (f ?r\gh a basket1 & /ra9$ into ! pu]+ paddle ?r\gh a second basket l9$ ) co>se op5 canvas 7su* z is us$ by pla/]]s to cov] w9d[s :ile ! pla/] is dry+74 ,a fur!r quantity ( w>m wat] %\ld be p\r$ on ! residue 9 ! mix+ tub1 & us$ = dilut+ t 9 ! paddle to ! prop] volume4 ,! temp]ature ( ! liquor may rea* #db ,c4 be=e ! sk9s are introduc$4 ,! liquor %\ld be ( a light col\r1 gre5i% to br[ni% yell[2 if d>k]1 x indicates decomposition ( ! dung by improp] /or+1 or too long f]m5tation1 & w be liable to cause /a9+ & injury to ! sk9s4 ,ab\t #cc lit]s ( dry dung is requir$ p] #ajj kilos4 ( wet sk9 prep>$ = pu]+ 7#cc gallons p] #ajjj lb474 ,dry dung %\ld be ( yell[ to br[n col\r1 d>k br[n or black dung is spoil$ & unsuitable = use4 ,wet dung is m difficult to judge1 b v d>k br[n or black %\ld be reject$1 z well z t ) a v /rong smell1 indicat+ t x has already f]m5t$4 ,borgman's directions be> ! /amp ( exp]i5ce & common s5se1 & ! book z a :ole repays /udy4 #aaa #8,die ,fe9l$]-,fabrikation1' ,b]l91 #aija1 p4 #fi4 ,borgman recomm5ds t ! sk9s %\ld be w>m$ by paddl+ = "s "t 9 wat] ( ab\t #dj ,c4 to :i* a c\ple ( pails ( pu]-pa/e h be5 add$1 be=e br++ !m into ! pu]1 ! temp]ature ( :i* !y %\ld r$uce to p]haps #ch ,c4 ,! pu]$ sk9s %\ld feel silky on ! gra91 & ev5 some:at slipp]y1 & :5 press$ betwe5 ! f+] & ?umb a d>k impress %\ld be left1 & ! fle% %\ld be t5d] & easily scrap$ (f4 ,! requisite condition w1 h[ev]1 v>y some:at ) ! k9d ( sk9s1 & ! purpose = :i* !y are int5d$4 ,aft] pu]+1 ! sk9s may be paddl$ = half an h\r 9 wat] ( ab\t ! same temp]ature z ! pu]4 ,,*apt] ,,xiv4 ,,alum ,,tannage ,,or ,,taw+4 ,we h n[ foll[$ ! raw mat]ial up to ! f9al /age ( prep>ation = its actual conv]sion into lea!r1 & x rema9s to consid] ! means by :i* t important *ange is produc$4 ,?\gh z yet ! vegetable tann+ process is mo/ l>gely us$1 & possesses ! greate/ comm]cial importance1 ! use ( m9]al salts has long be5 kn[n1 &1 ?r\gh ! adv5t ( *rome tann+1 has plac$ ! p]man5t supremacy ( ! vegetable tann9s 9 consid]able d\bt4 ,n only ! importance ( m9]al tann+ processes1 b _! great] simplicity f ! sci5tific side1 ju/ify _! consid]ation be=e ^? ( vegetable orig94 ,9 ! previ\s *apt]s x has be5 %[n t to produce a p]man5t lea!r1 x is n only necess>y to dry ! fibres 9 a sep>ate & non-adh]5t condition1 b s to coat !m or alt] _! *emical "* t !y are no long] capable ( be+ swell$ & r5d]$ /icky by wat]4 ,all salts :i* produce a contraction or dehydration ( ! fibre simil> to t caus$ by alcohol are capable ( ! fir/ effect 9 a great] or less degree4 ,_m sulphates1 & p>ticul>ly ^? ( sodium & magnesium1 ?\gh !y w n alone produce lea!r1 w s f> contract ! fibres z to greatly ha/5 tann+ by vegetable tann+ mat]ials1 & !y are !re=e capable ( useful application 9 quick tann+ processes1 especially :]e t\gh & light-weigh+ lea!rs are aim$ at1 :i* may be subsequ5tly weight$ & solidifi$ by fur!r treatm5t4 ,/rong solutions ( ammonium sulphate are almo/ z /rongly dehydrat+ z alcohol1 & w produce :ite lea!rs v simil> to ^? =m$ by pickl+1 a fact :i* is c]ta9ly ( consid]able comm]cial importance4 ,none ( ^! salts1 h[ev]1 c =m a complete lea!r 9 !mselves1 b require ! assi/ance ( metallic salts :i* w p]man5tly fix !mselves 9 ! fibre1 & dim9i% or de/roy its attraction = wat]4 ,_m sub/ances h ?is p[] 9 a great] or less degree1 b all ^? ( comm]cial importance belong to ! gr\p ( :i* alum9ium1 iron & *romium are repres5tative1 & :i* are capable ( produc+ salt-=m+ oxides ( ! =mula ,m,o 7e4g4 alum9a1 ,al,o74 ,manganese1 ( :i* ! salts ( ?is type are v un/able1 has v slight tann+ p[]1 :ile titanium1 :i* 9 _m ways is alli$ to ! gr\p1 ?\gh x does n /rictly belong to x1 has rec5tly be5 pat5t$ z a tann+ ag5t4 ,= ! pres5t1 h[ev]1 we may limit our att5tion to ! ?ree metals fir/ nam$4 ,alum9a & its salts dem& ! fir/ att5tion1 n only z hav+ be5 us$ = lea!r manufacture 9 v e>ly times1 b z be+ /ill important comm]cially4 ,! metal alum9ium is n[ well kn[n1 & its oxide1 alum9a1 ,al,o is abundant 9 nature1 comb9$ ) silica 9 ! =m ( clay & bauxite1 z fluoride 9 comb9ation ) sodium fluoride 9 cryolite1 & 9 "s cases z a native sulphate4 ,alum-%ale1 :i* 0 =m]ly ! pr9cipal s\rce ( alum1 is a bitum9\s clay conta9+ mu* iron sulphide1 & :i* :5 calc9$ yields alum9ium sulphate4 ,z alum9ium sulphate does n cry/allise readily1 & 0 difficult to free f iron1 potassium sulphate 0 add$ to ! liquor obta9$ by lea*+ ! calc9$ %ale1 f :i*1 aft] conc5tration by boil+1 pota%-alum1 a d\ble sulphate ( potassium & alum9ium1 ,al7,,s71,k,,s1#bd;,aq1 0 easily cry/allis$ out4 ,alum is n[ usually made by decompos+ clay or bauxite ) sulphuric acid1 & ammonium sulphate is g5]ally sub/itut$ = ! potassium salt1 yield+ ammonia-alum1 a d\ble sulphate ( alum9ium & ammonium ( simil> con/itution to pota%-alum4 ,ammonium alum is easily di/+ui%$ f ! potassium salt1 by ! /rong smell ( ammonia :i* x evolves on ! addition ( cau/ic soda or lime4 ,s f> z is kn[n1 !re is no practical diff]5ce 9 tann+ effect betwe5 ! two salts1 & ammonium alum is *eap]1 & slightly /rong]1 its molecul> weight be+ #ijf1 z aga9/ #idh = ! potassium salt4 ,ei!r alum dissolves readily 9 cold wat] to ! ext5t ( ab\t n9e p>ts 9 #ajj ( wat]1 & m easily1 & to a mu* l>g] ext5t 9 hot wat]1 f :i* ! excess cry/allises on cool+4 ,x is said t = purposes ( lea!r manufacture1 alum solutions %\ld n be boil$1 &1 ?\gh x is improbable t ?is produces any *ange1 x mu/ be rememb]$ t *rome alum on boil+ really does und]go decomposition to free acid & a m basic salt1 indicat$ by *ange ( col\r f violet to gre51 f :i* x sl[ly returns to ! violet =m on cool+4 ,alums are only valuable 9 lea!r manufacture 9 proportion to ! alum9ium sulphate :i* !y conta91 ! potassium or ammonium sulphate tak+ no "p 9 ! reaction1 & s9ce improv$ me?ods h r5d]$ possible ! production ( alum9ium sulphate practically free f iron1 x has l>gely tak5 ! place ( alum1 ?an :i* x is bo? *eap] & /rong]4 ,cry/allis$ alum9ium sulphate1 ,al7,,s71 #ah;,aq1 has a molecul> weight ( #fff1 :i* is ( equal value to #ijf ( ammonia-alum1 & #idh ( pota%-alum4 ,iron is ! mo/ objectionable impurity 9 bo? alums & alum9ium sulphate1 & may be detect$ by ! addition ( potassium ?iocyanate1 :i* w produce a r$ col\r1 or potassium f]rocyanide 7yell[ prussiate ( pota%71 :i* w produce a blue4 ,z ! iron may be pres5t 9 ! f]r\s condition1 x is saf] fir/ to boil ! alum solution ) a few drops ( nitric acid or brom9e wat]4 ,= m accurate det]m9ation ( iron see ,l4,i4,l4,b41 pp4 #bj1 #acf4 ,no satisfactory lea!r c be produc$ ) a solution ( alum or alum9ium sulphate alone1 ! sk9 dry+ horny1 & incapable ( s(t5+ by /ret*+4 ,9 practice1 salt is always us$ 9 addition1 ! proportion be+ v v>iable1 b av]ag+ ab\t half ! weight ( alum1 or two-?irds ! weight ( sulphate ( alum9a employ$4 ,! mode ( action ( ! salt has long puzzl$ *emi/s1 & x has be5 suppos$ t its use 0 to conv]t ! alum9ium sulphate into *loride1 a reaction :i* takes place to "s ext5t1 b :i* fails to expla9 ! production ( a s(t lea!r1 s9ce alum9ium *loride1 ?\gh freely tak5 up by ! sk91 produces no m satisfactory lea!r ?an alum9ium sulphate4 ,! real explanation is f\nd 9 ,*apt] ,,ix4 ,alum9a is a weak base1 :i* readily gives up its acid to ! pelt1 becom+ conv]t$ into a basic salt 7see p4 #ahg74 ,! acid n only swells ! pelt1 & r5d]s x incapable ( produc+ a s(t lea!r1 b ! swoll5 pelt is less ready to absorb ! alum9a salt1 & s rema9s und]tann$4 ,! addition ( salt prev5ts ! swell+ effect ( ! acid1 & produces a p>tial pickl+ ( ! sk9 7p4 #hi71 :i*1 9 conjunction ) ! tann+ effect ( ! basic alum9a salt =m$1 yields a satisfactory lea!r1 ?\gh "o :i* is readily affect$ by wa%+4 ,if in/ead ( add+ common salt to ! alum solution1 an alkali su* z soda is add$1 x comb9es ) a portion ( ! acid1 =m+ sodium sulphate1 :ile ! alum9a rema9s 9 solution z a 8basic salt40 ,z ! t]m 8basic salt0 mu/ be frequ5tly employ$ 9 connection ) m9]al tannage1 x may "h be expla9$4 ,basic salts are comp\nds int]m$iate betwe5 ! normal salt1 9 :i* ! :ole ( ! base is comb9$ ) acid1 & ! hydrat$ oxide 9 :i* ! :ole is comb9$ ) ,,oh gr\ps4 ,?us alum9ium *loride1 ,al,cl1 is a normal salt1 9 :i* ! :ole ( ! comb9+ p[]s ( ! alum9ium are saturat$ ) *lor9e3 alum9ium hydrate1 ,al7,,oh71 is ! hydrat$ oxide1 & ,al,cl,,oh1 ,al,cl7,,oh71 & s on are basic salts 9 :i* successively m ( ! ,cl is sub/itut$ by ,,oh4 ,g5]ally1 z a salt becomes m basic1 its solution 9 wat] becomes m un/able1 & v basic salts are ei!r insoluble1 or are precipitat$ f _! solutions by v trifl+ causes1 su* z boil+1 dilution1 or ! attraction ( animal or vegetable fibres2 sep>at+ into free acid & ei!r hydrate or a /ill m basic & insoluble salt4 ,on ?is prop]ty dep5ds _! importance 9 tann+ & dye+1 _m ( ! metallic mordants be+ solutions ( basic salts4 ,basic salt solutions are =m$ 9 v>i\s ways1 ! mo/ common be+ ! direct solution ( a hydrat$ oxide 9 a solution ( ! normal salt1 or ! neutralisation ( a "p ( ! acid ( ! normal salt by ! addition ( a /rong] base4 ,?is is :at takes place on ! addition ( soda to an alum solution4 ,if ! soda is add$ 9 excess1 ! :ole ( ! alum9a is precipitat$ z hydrate1 or z an insoluble basic salt1 b if a proportion n exce$+ ab\t f\r p>ts ( cry/allis$ sodium c>bonate be dissolv$ sep>ately1 & add$ sl[ly ) con/ant /irr+ to ! t5 p>ts ( alum dissolv$ 9 wat]1 no precipitation w take place4 ,9 ?is solution lea!r c be tann$1 ei!r ) or )\t addition ( salt1 ! alum9a is tak5 up m freely ?an f ! normal alum1 & ! lea!r is m easily s(t5$1 & m resi/ant to wat]4 ,9 fact su* lea!r be>s a /rong resemblance to ! *rome tannages1 /&+ a great deal ( wa%+1 & consid]able temp]atures )\t return+ to a pelty condition4 ,! m basic ! solution t is us$1 ! full] & s(t] is ! lea!r produc$4 ,! alum9a-salt tak5 up by ! sk9 f su* basic solutions is always basic1 :ile t absorb$ f alum or alum9a sulphate is app>5tly ! normal alum9ium sulphate4 ,x is probable h[ev] t ! actual tann+ salt is 9 bo? cases basic1 & t ! acid is fix$ z free acid1 z 9 ! pickl+ process1 z ! proportions ( acid & base f\nd 9 ! residual liquor are some:at v>iable4 ,basic alum9a solutions h h>dly tak5 ! place 9 practice :i* !y des]ve1 ?\gh !y 7 describ$ by ,knapp 9 #ahehaab & h s9ce be5 pat5t$ by ,hunt1 b ! pat5t 7probably invalid7 has be5 all[$ to lapse4 ,a good /ock solution = practical use is made by dissolv+ #aj lb4 ( sulphate ( alum9a 9 #aj gallons ( wat]1 & #d lb4 ( wa%+ soda 9 #d gallons1 & gradually mix+ ! latt] ) ! =m]4 ,salt c be us$ 9 addition if desir$1 & fl\r & egg-yolk may also be add$4 #aab #8,natur und ,wes5 d] ,g]b]ei1' ,brauns*weig1 #aheh4 ,9 cur+ small sk9s1 :]e x is n desirable = ! fur to come 9 contact ) ! liquid1 or 9 ! taw+ ( wool rugs1 x is (t5 conv5i5t1 aft] free+ ! sk9 z mu* z possible f blood & dirt1 & adh]+ fle%1 to /ret* x on a frame1 or nail x out on a bo>d1 & apply a /rong alum-&-salt solution1 z hot z ! h& w be>1 ) a sponge1 repeat+ ! op]ation till ! sk9 is /ruck ?r\gh4 ,ab\t #a lb4 ( alum & lb4 ( salt p] gallon is a suitable /r5g?4 ,9 place ( apply+ ! solution1 p[d]$ alum & salt is sometimes rubb$ into ! wet sk94 ,alum$ goods %\ld g5]ally be dri$ out rapidly1 & f9ally at a good temp]ature1 z ?is t5ds to fix ! tannage1 :i* is also made m p]man5t & resi/ant to wat] by keep+ ! sk9s = a mon? or m 9 ! alum$ condition1 an op]ation kn[n z 8age+40 ,:5 fir/ dri$1 alum$ goods are inv>iably /iff & horny1 &1 to give !m s(tness1 mu/ fir/ be damp$ back to a half-dry condition1 & !n gradually s(t5$ by me*anical means4 8,/ak+10 & 8p]*+0 are ! usual me?ods1 ! fir/ consi/+ 9 draw+ ! goods vigor\sly ov] a blunti% blade fix$ on ! top ( a po/1 & ! second 9 fix+ ! sk9s on a horizontal pole 7! 8p]*071 & work+ !m ) ! 8crut* /ake10 a tool =m$ some:at l a small %ovel ) a semicircul> blade1 9 place ( :i* a 8moon-knife0 7a r\nd blade some:at l a broad ?9 quoit7 is (t5 fix$ 9 a wood5 crut*4 ,! tools1 & mode ( us+ !m are %[n 9 ,figs4 #cf & #cg4aac ,ma*9es1 describ$ on p4 #aib1 are n[ g5]ally us$ = ^! op]ations4 ,aft] ! fir/ /ak+ or s(t5+1 ! sk9s are all[$ to become ne>ly dry1 & are !n /ak$ a second "t4 ,"s judgm5t is requir$ z to ! precise degree ( moi/ure 9 ea* case3 9 ! fir/ in/ance ! sk9s mu/ be suffici5tly damp to yield )\t injury to ! me*anical /ret*+1 b 9 ?is /ate !y reta9 suffici5t moi/ure to enable ! fibres aga9 to adh]e on dry+2 & at ! second /ak+ or p]*+1 !y mu/ be damp en\gh to all[ ^! fibres to be aga9 loos5$ )\t viol5ce1 & dry en\gh to prev5t _! aga9 adh]+4 #aac ,! process %[n 9 ,fig4 #cg is n actually 8p]*+10 b 8gr\nd+10 9 :i* a moon-knife ) a %>p turn$ edge is us$ to r$uce ! ?ickness ( ! sk9 on ! p]*1 at ! same "t z x /ret*es & s(t5s x4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cf4--,/ak+ ,:ite ,lea!r4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cg4--;,gr\nd+ ) ! ,moon-knife4 ,! foll[+ slight sket* ( ! manufacture ( calf-kid w s]ve to illu/rate ! practical manufacture ( ! f9] alum$ or 8:ite0 lea!rs4 ,! raw mat]ial is 9 ,engl& mo/ly l>ge m>ket-calf1 ?\gh salt$ & dri$ sk9s are sometimes employ$4 ,aft] suffici5t soak+ or wa%+ 9 wat]1 !y are lim$ )\t ars5ic or o!r sulphides1 9 limes :i* mu/ n be all[$ to gr[ /ale or putrid1 until ! hair c be easily remov$4 ,aft] unhair+ & fle%+ 9 ! usual way1 !y receive a few days 9 a pretty fre% lime1 9 ord] to plump !m1 & are !n fre$ f lime gradually b z completely z possible1 by successive /eep+s & wa%+s 9 wat] s(t5$ by a mixture ( t already us$ on o!r goods & by work+ on ! beam4 ,?is acts z a p>tial sub/itute = pu]+ ) dung1 :i* is n[ no long] us$ on calf-kid4 ,! goods are next dr5*$ 9 ! ord9>y way1 #c-d ( bran be+ us$1 & ! goods all[$ to rise two or ?ree times 9 ! dr5*1 :i* %\ld be conduct$ ) ! usual precautions 7p4 #afg7 to avoid ! dang] ( butyric f]m5tation 9 hot wea!r4 ,! goods %\ld come out ( ! dr5* free f lime1 & unswoll5 by acid1 b full1 :ite1 & s(t4 ,! tann+ 7or 8taw+0 z x is usually call$ 9 ! case ( alum$ goods7 is done 9 a rotat+ drum ) a mixture ( alum or sulphate ( alum9a1 salt1 fl\r1 egg-yolk1 & olive oil4 ,ab\t #e p] c5t4 ( fl\r1 #be p] c5t4 ( alum1 #a p] c5t4 ( salt1 ! yolks ( #be eggs1 or #a lb4 ( pres]v$ egg-yolk1 #b oz4 ( olive oil1 & #a-a gallon 7#ab-ae lb47 ( wat] are requir$ p] #ajj lb4 ( wet pelt4 ,! fl\r is fir/ made into a smoo? pa/e ) a little wat]1 ! egg-yolk1 some:at dilut$ ) w>m wat] & /ra9$1 is mix$ 9 toge!r ) ! oil1 & f9ally ! alum & salt solution is add$ at su* a temp]ature z to br+ ! :ole mixture to blood-heat 7#ch ,c474 ,! l5g? ( drumm+ dep5ds on ! ?ickness ( ! sk9s1 sev]al h\rs be+ requir$ = v ?ick ones1 b c>e mu/ be tak5 to /op & v5tilate ! drum at frequ5t int]vals1 s z to prev5t ! sk9s becom+ hot by friction4 ,?is "p ( ! process 0 =m]ly accompli%$ by tread+ ) b>e feet 9 a tub4 ,aft] taw+1 ! goods are all[$ to lie 9 piles ov]-night1 or are sometimes laid 9 tanks = a day or s ) any t rema9s ( ! taw+ pa/e1 to complete ! absorption ( ! salt & alum1 & are !n frequ5tly split ) ! b&-knife ma*9e1 ?\gh x w\ld be bett]1 z is (t5 done on ! ,cont95t1 to split !m be=e taw+1 ! mat]ials ( :i* are n only co/ly1 b unfit ! splits = _m purposes = :i* !y might be employ$4 ,! dry+ %\ld be rapid1 b is be/ done fir/ at a mod]ate temp]ature1 or 9 ! op5 air1 & !n 9 a r hot /ove4 ,!y may n[ be all[$ to 8age0 f "o to ?ree mon?s1 b x is usually bett] be=e age+ to d ! fir/ "p ( ! f9i%+ process1 consi/+ ( damp+ back1 /ak+1 & if necess>y1 %av+4 ,ma*9es are n[ almo/ inv>iably us$ = ! /ak+1 ! pr9ciple ( :i* may be describ$ z t ( a pair ( tongs1 c>ry+ "o or g5]ally two /ak+ blades on "o limb1 & a roll] on ! o!r :i* closes on ! sk91 & presses x aga9/ & betwe5 ! blades1 :ile ! tongs are drawn backw>ds1 all[+ x to slip ?r\gh4 ,fig4 #ch illu/rates ! ,slocomb1 "o ( ! mo/ popul> ma*9es ( ?is type4 ,aft] /ak+ & age+1 ! sk9 is soak$ 9 wat] till ?or\ghly wet 9 all p>ts4 ,?is n only s(t5s ! sk91 & prep>es x = dye+1 b takes out ! sup]flu\s alum & salt1 & at ! same "t a good deal ( fl\r & egg4 ,to replace ^!1 8re-egg+0 is necess>y1 & :ile "s manufactur]s give egg-yolk1 or egg-yolk & fl\r only1 _m add a proportion ( salt1 & sometimes also ( alum4 ,?is is done be=e dye+1 if ! sk9s are to be black$ on ! table1 b z tray-dye+ 7see p4 #djf7 w\ld aga9 wa% out ! egg1 ! re-egg+ is def]r$ till aft] dye+ if ?is process is resort$ to4 ,be=e dye+1 ! sk9s receive an alkal9e mordant to ov]come greas9ess1 & enable !m bett] to take ! col\r4 ,9 =m] times ?is 0 usually /ale ur9e1 b ?is has mo/ly be5 sup]s$$ by solutions ( 8hydrole9e0 7a wa%+ p[d]71 or ( soap r5d]$ m or less alkal9e ) ammonia4 ,eitn] gives ! foll[+ recipe1 viz4 lb4 ,m>seilles soap dissolv$ 9 boil+ wat]1 #e or #f egg-yolks add$1 & ! :ole made up to #d gallons ) wat] & lb4 pota% bi*romate4 ,! col\r us$ is infusion ( logwood or its extract1 or two-?irds logwood & "o-?ird fu/ic1 :i* is be/ extract$ )\t alkali1 a small quantity ( soda or ammonia be+ aft]w>ds add$4 ,x is fix$ & d>k5$ by a wa% ( iron-liquor or a solution ( #a ( f]r\s sulphate 9 #ge ( cold wat]4 ,aft] be+ aga9 dri$1 ! sk9s are sometimes gr\nd$ ) ! moon-knife1 s(t5$ aga9 by /ak+ or p]*+1 = :i* a ma*9e ) incl9$ or spiral blades atta*$ to a drum & work+ on a sort ( lea!r apron is (t5 pref]r$ to ma*9es ( ! ,slocomb type1 & rubb$ ov] on ! gra9 ) a composition conta9+ oil1 wax1 etc41 & are f9ally iron$ ) a heavy flat-iron1 to give !m a f9e & smoo? surface4 ,eitn] gives a recipe = ! gloss3--#a kilo gum arabic1 kilo yell[ wax1 kilo beef-tall[1 kilo ,m>seilles soap1 #a lit] /rong logwood infusion1 & #e lit]s wat]4 ,! wat] is br\ght to a boil 9 an e>!n pot1 & !n ! soap1 wax1 gum1 & tall[ are add$ successively1 ea* be+ /irr$ till dissolv$ be=e add+ ! next1 & la/ly ! logwood4 ,aft] boil+ = an h\r1 x is all[$ to completely cool1 be+ incessantly /irr$ dur+ ! :ole process4 ,aft] iron+ ! goods are rubb$ ov] ) a f9al gloss1 = :i* ,eitn] gives ! foll[+ recipe3--#h lit]s olive oil1 #ejj grm4 tall[1 #ejj grm4 yell[ wax1 #ejj grm4 ros91 #ejj grm4 gum arabic4 7,no wat] is giv5 9 ! recipe1 b ! gum arabic is presumably s(t5$ 9 wat]47 ,! mixture is cook$ = two h\rs 9 an e>!n pot till ! wat] is evaporat$1 & all[$ to cool ) con/ant /irr+4 ,! sk9s are !n rubb$ ) a flannel ) a v small spr9kl+ ( ,fr5* *alk1 & are ready = sale4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ch4--,! ,slocomb ,/ak+ ,ma*9e4 ,! manufacture ( glove-kid is q simil> 9 pr9ciple to t j describ$1 b v>i$ 9 detail to suit ! s(t] & m delicate sk9s employ$1 to give great] s(tness1 & especially ! quality ( /ret*+ 9 any direction )\t spr++ back1 :i* is s *>act]i/ic ( ! lea!r4 ,lamb-sk9s are ! pr9cipal raw mat]ial1 ?\gh g5u9e kid is also employ$ = ! be/ qualities4 ,! manufacture v>ies mu* ) ! quality & "* ( ! goods4 ,! sk9s1 :i* are mo/ly dri$1 are soak$ 9 clean & cool wat] = ?ree to f\r days1 accord+ to age & ?ickness4 ,common qualities 7small import$ sl9k lambs7 are (t5 unhair$ by dipp+ 9 or pa9t+ ) a pa/e ( gas-lime1 lime & sulphide ( sodium1 or lime & r$ ars5ic1 s z to de/roy ! wool4 ,bett] sk9s are sometimes unhair$ by pa9t+ on ! fle% ) lime alone or 9 mixture1 & 9 o!r cases ord9>y lime-pits are us$1 ) limes1 :i* are mo/ usually /r5g!n$ ) r$ ars5ic1 :i* is add$ to ! lime :ile hot f slak+ 7cp4 p4 #adb74 ,! calcic sulphydrate 7& p]haps sulph>s5ite7 ?us =m$ ha/5s ! unhair+1 & pres]ves ! gloss ( ! gra94 ,well conduct$ glove-kid e/abli%m5ts avoid z mu* z possible ! use ( old limes1 :i* produce a loose1 por\s lea!r1 ) a r\gh1 dull gra94 ,! lim+ la/s on ! av]age t5 days1 & is ( ! greate/ importance4 ,x is ess5tial t ! int]-fibrill>y sub/ance %\ld be dissolv$1 t ! lea!r may h ! quality kn[n 9 ,g]many z ,/&1 t is to say1 may be /rongly /ret*$ 9 ei!r l5g? or bread? )\t spr++ back4 ,x also dep5ds ^u ! lim+ 7& ?is is ( special importance 9 ! case ( lamb-sk9s71 :e!r ! tissue ( ! fat-gl&s is well loos5$1 s t ! fat1 ei!r z su*1 or z lime- or ammonia-soap1 may be readily & completely work$ out4 ,sk9s 9 :i* ?is is neglect$ c nev] be prop]ly dy$4 ,:5 ! hair 7or wool7 is well loos5$1 ! sk9s are r9s$ 9 wat]1 & !n unhair$ on ! beam ) a blunt knife4 ,! wat] employ$ 9 wa%+ %\ld n be mu* cold] ?an ! limes1 or x w prev5t ! hair f com+ away readily4 ,! wool or hair is wa%$ & dri$ = sale4 ,! sk9s are ?r[n into wat]1 to :i* a little lime-liquor has be5 add$1 to prev5t precipitation ( ! lime 9 ! sk9s by ! free c>bonic acid ( ! wat]1 :i* w\ld h ! effect ( mak+ !m r\gh-gra9$4 ,next comes ! fir/ fle%+ 7,v]glei*57 or 8levell+40 ,by ?is1 ! loose cellul> tissue on ! fle%-side is remov$1 toge!r ) ! head1 e>s1 & %anks2 & ! flanks are trimm$4 ,! sk9s are !n aga9 ?r[n into wat] s(t5$ ) lime-liquor z above describ$1 & !n into a pu] ( dogs'-dung4 ,?is is prep>$ by /irr+ up :ite & f]m5t$ dogs'-dung ) boil+ wat]1 & /ra9+ x ?r\gh a sieve or wick] basket4 ,! pu] mu/ be us$ tepid1 & n too /rong4 ,! sk9s 8fall0 7lose _! plumpness7 9 x rapidly1 & become extremely s(t & f9e to ! t\*2 & ! fat-gl&s1 rema9+ hairs1 & o!r dirt1 c n[ be v readily scudd$ out4 ,too /rong pu]s1 or too long cont9uance 9 !m1 produce evid5t putrefactive effects on ! sk9s4 7,see also p4 #aha47 ,:5 ! sk9s come out ( ! pu]1 !y are /ret*$ & work$ on ! fle% ) a %>p knife1 & any rema9+ subcutane\s tissue is remov$4 ,?is con/itutes ! second fle%+4 ,!y are !n r9s$ 9 w>m wat]1 & beat5 ) clubs 9 a tub1 or work$ 9 a tumbl]-drum1 9 ei!r case ) a v little wat] only2 & f9ally br\ght into a tank ( wat]1 n too cold1 & kept 9 con/ant motion ) a paddle-:eel4 ,! sk9s are next cleans$ on ! gra9-side by work+ on ! beam ) plates ( vulcanite set 9 wood5 h&les1 s z to remove fat1 lime- & ammonia-soaps1 & o!r lime comp\nds1 toge!r ) all rema9+ hair or wool4 ,! sk9s are n[ a second "t wa%$ 9 ! 8paddle-tumbl]10 fir/ 9 cold1 & !n 9 tepid wat]2 & aft] all[+ ! wat] to dra9 f !m1 !y are transf]r$ to ! bran-dr5*4 ,?is is prep>$ by soak+ :eat5 bran 9 wat] at ab\t #ej ,c41 & dilut+ ) w>m wat]4 ,sometimes ! mixture is /ra9$1 & ! bran-wat] only us$1 to save ! tr\ble & co/ ( remov+ adh]+ p>ticles ( bran f ! delicate sk9s4 ,suffici5t ( ! liquid mu/ be employ$ to well cov] ! sk9s1 & ! temp]ature may range f #ej ,f4 7#aj ,c47 to #fh ,f4 7#bj;,c474 ,^! conditions are fav\rable to bact]ial activity1 :i* comes into play1 &1 on ! "o h&1 evolves acetic & lactic acids1 :i* dissolve any rema9+ traces ( lime1 & on ! o!r1 loos5s & diff]5tiates ! hide tissue1 s z to fit x to absorb ! taw+ solution4 ,mu* c>e is requir$ 9 ! managem5t ( ! bran-dr5*1 especially 9 summ]1 s9ce ! lactic readily passes into ! butyric f]m5tation 7see also p4 #afg74 ,! taw+ mixture is compos$ 7l t employ$ 9 ! fabrication ( calf-kid1 q4v47 ( alum1 salt1 fl\r & egg-yolks1 9 a q ?9 pa/e4 ,a small quantity ( olive oil is also g5]ally us$4 ,! sk9s are ei!r trodd5 9 x ) ! feet1 or m g5]ally put into a tumbl]-drum ) x4 ,ka?re9] po9t$ out1 "s ye>s ago1#aad t a mixture ( olive-oil & glyc]9e might be p>tially sub/itut$ = ! egg-yolks1 9 bo? ! tann+ & dye+ ( glove-kid lea!r4 #aad ,g]b]1 i4 7#ahge7 p4 #agj2 ii4 7#ahgf7 p4 #ffd4 ,! taw$ sk9s are n[ dri$ by hang+ on poles1 gra9 inw>ds4 ,rapid dry+ 9 well-v5tilat$1 b only mod]ately heat$ rooms is ess5tial to ! manufacture ( a satisfactory product4 ,! dry lea!r is rapidly pass$ ?r\gh tepid wat]1 & aft] be+ hung = a v %ort "t1 to all[ ! wat] to dra9 (f1 is trodd5 tightly into *e/s1 & all[$ to rema9 9 !m = ab\t #ab h\rs1 s t ! moi/ure may be uni=mly di/ribut$4 ,x is !n trodd5 on hurdles 7,g]man ,hord57 compos$ ( squ>e b>s ( wood1 jo9$ corn] to corn]1 s z to make a floor ( %>ply angul> ridges4 ,! next op]ation is /ret*+ ) ! 8moon-knife02 aft] :i* ! lea!r is dri$ ne>ly completely1 & /ak$ aga94 ,?is completes ! taw+ process4 ,! goods are n[ 8ag$0 z 9 calf-kid manufacture4 ,be=e dye+ !y are wa%$ ) tepid wat] to remove "p ( ! taw+ mixture1 & especially1 sup]flu\s alum & salt1 & are re-egg$ mu* l calf-kid1 be=e dye+ if ! latt] is done by bru%+1 & aft] if 9 ! dye-tray or paddle4 ,anil9e col\rs are m us$ ?an =m]ly1 especially = topp+ & bright5+ ! natural col\rs1 b ! dyewoods & o!r mordant col\rs are /ill l>gely employ$4 ,! lea!r is fir/ prep>$ ) an alkal9e mordant 7/ale ur9e1 ammonia1 etc47 7cp4 p4 #dac71 !n repeat$ly bru%$ ) or dipp$ 9 ! dyewood liquor1 & a wa% 78/rik]10 ,g]man ,ueb]/ri*7 conta9+ "s metallic salt is g5]ally appli$1 ) ! object ei!r ( br++ out ! special tone requir$1 or ( mak+ ! col\r m lively & p]man5t4 ,! /rik] is usually a solution ( "o ( ! s-call$ 8vitriols03 8:ite vitriol0 7z9c sulphate71 8blue vitriol0 7copp] sulphate71 8gre5 vitriol0 7iron sulphate71 or occasionally o!r salts4 ,aft] ! dye+1 ! sk9s1 if dipp$1 are wrung out & re-egg$2 if bru%-dy$1 sleek$ out ) a brass or ebonite sleek] to get rid ( sup]flu\s wat]4 ,!y are !n dri$ 9 an airy room4 ,be=e /ak+ 7/ret*+71 ! sk9s are laid or hung 9 a damp cell>1 or 9 moi/ saw-du/4 ,!y are /ak$ twice3 once damp1 & once ne>ly dry2 & are f9i%$ by glass+ or iron+4 ,sk9s :i* are mu* damag$ on ! gra91 or o!rwise faulty1 are smoo!d ) lump pumice on ! fle% side1 or fluff$ ) f9e em]y on ! fluff+ :eel4 ,!y are !n dy$ on ! fle% side1 mo/ly by dipp+1 b occasionally ) ! bru%1 9 :i* case1 ! me?od describ$ is slightly modifi$4 ,taw+ ) alum & salt is frequ5tly employ$ = common] & /rong] lea!rs1 su* z aprons 7( %eep-sk971 lea!r = :ip-la%es1 laces = belts1 & 8skiv]s0 = capp+ *emi/s' bottles4 ,! process is practically ! same z = calf-kid1 except t no egg1 & little fl\r is us$4 ,(t5 fl\r is entirely omitt$1 & ! goods may !n be alum$ 9 tubs1 9 :i* !y are m]ely h&l$1 z ! alum solution p5etrates quickly4 ,goods :i* are requir$ :ite are frequ5tly h&l$ or tumbl$ ) a milk ( 8:it5+10 bo? to improve ! col\r1 & to neutralise any acid pres5t1 & fix ! alum by r5d]+ x m basic4 ,alum$ goods c be /uff$ ) greases1 ei!r by h& or 9 ! drum1 aft] ?or\gh s(t5+ by /ak+4 ,alum1 & o!r salts ( alum9a are frequ5tly us$ 9 comb9ation-tann+ ) vegetable mat]ials 7see ,*ap4 ,,xvii474 8,gre50 lea!r = laces1 8dongola10 & 8dog-sk90 glove-lea!rs are made 9 ?is way4 ,glaz$ kid = ladies' %oes mu/ be slightly vegetable-tann$ on ! surface1 or x w n glaze1 b ?is is frequ5tly accompli%$ by ! use ( mat]ials 9 ! dye-liquor conta9+ tann9s4 ,,*apt] ,,xv4 ,,iron ,,& ,,*rome ,,tannages4 ,iron tannages may be v %ortly dismiss$1 z _! practical int]e/ is at pres5t ei!r hi/orical or prospective1 b iron salts ent] 9 s _m ways into ! *emi/ry ( lea!r manufacture1 t _! prop]ties mu/ be briefly consid]$4 ,iron exi/s 9 salts 9 two /ates1 ! f]r\s1 & ! f]ric1 9 ! fir/ ( :i* x is dival5t1 & 9 ! second trival5t4 ,?us f]r\s *loride is ,fe,cl2 f]r\s oxide1 ,fe,o2 f]r\s sulphate1 ,fe,s,o2 f]r\s hydrate1 ,fe7,,oh74 ,! comp\nds ( f]r\s iron are mo/ly gre51 l f]r\s sulphate 78gre5 vitriol10 8copp]as073 expos$ to air & moi/ure1 !y easily absorb oxyg51 & pass into ! f]ric =m4 ,f]ric *loride is ,fe,cl 7or1 z x is sometimes writt5 )\t mu* reason1 ,fe,cl71 f]ric hydrate ,fe7,,oh71 f]ric oxide ,fe,o1 f]ric sulphate ,fe 7,,s71 & s on4 ,! atomic weight ( iron is #ef4 ,f]ric salts are mo/ly yell[ or orange1 f]ric hydrate is yell[-br[n1 & on ignition is conv]t$ into deep r$ f]ric oxide1 :i* is v difficultly soluble 9 acids4 ,f]ric salts 9 contact ) m easily oxidisable matt]s1 readily give up oxyg51 & pass into ! f]r\s /ate2 & especially does ?is happ5 9 ! pres5ce ( organic matt]1 "u ! influ5ce ( sunlight4 ,?us iron-salts (t5 act z c>ri]s ( oxyg51 & oxidis]s ( organic matt]1 absorb+ oxyg5 f ! air1 & giv+ x up aga9 "u ! influ5ce ( light or heat4 ,!re are sev]al o!r oxides ( iron :i* d n =m salts1 & !re is a f]ric acid1 app>5tly correspond+ to *romic acid1 :i* is s un/able t x has be5 v imp]fectly inve/igat$4 ,f]ric salts correspond 9 /ructure to ^? ( alum9a1 & l ^! are p[]ful tann+ ag5ts1 & readily =m basic salts1 :ile ! f]r\s salts h no tann+ effect until !y become oxidis$1 :5 !y =m basic f]ric salts4 ,f]ric salts are *>act]is$ by giv+ blue-black or gre5-black comp\nds ) tann9s1 & ) _m o!r alli$ bodies1 :ile ! correspond+ f]r\s comp\nds are mo/ly col\rless1 ?\gh !y rapidly oxidise & d>k54 ,f]ric iron1 l alum9a1 =ms an 8alum10 a d\ble sulphate ( iron & potassium1 ,fe7,,s7,k,,s1 #bd;,aq1 =m+ f9e pale-violet cry/als1 b dissolv+ to a yell[-br[n solution4 7,x mu/ be di/9ctly und]/ood t iron-alum & *rome-alum conta9 no alum9a1 b are simply call$ alums because ( _! simil>ity ( con/itution1 iron or *rome tak+ ! place ( ! alum9ium4 ,iron-alum1 9 conjunction ) salt1 c be us$ = tann+1 giv+ a pale buff-col\r$ lea!r v simil> to an ord9>y alum lea!r4 ,?us ! pres5ce ( a small quantity ( iron 9 an alum us$ = taw+ is ( no consequ5ce1 except z affect+ ! col\r ( ! lea!r4 ,9 impure sulphate ( alum9a su* z 8alum9o-f]ric10 x1 h[ev]1 g5]ally exi/s 9 ! gre5 f]r\s /ate1 & only acquires tann+ prop]ties on oxidation4 ,)\t common salt iron-salts are /ill less satisfactory tann+ ag5ts ?an ^? ( alum9a "u ! same conditions1 z ! acid is yet m loosely held1 & ?\gh basic f]ric salts are tak5 up 9 consid]able quantities by hide1 ! lea!r produc$ is ?91 & usually brittle4 ,pr(essor ,knapp devot$ mu* /udy to ! production ( a comm]cial sole-lea!r by basic iron-salts2 & took sev]al pat5ts1 :i* did n prove practically successful1 ?\gh ! brittl5ess 0 to "s ext5t ov]come by ! incorporation ( comp\nds ( iron ) organic mat]ials su* z blood & ur9e1 ( iron-soaps1 & ( ros9 & p>aff9 9 ! lea!r4 ,l mo/ m9]al tannages1 ! process 0 f> m rapid ?an t ) vegetable mat]ials4 ,knapp's basic tann+ liquor 0 made by ! oxidation ( f]r\s sulphate ) a small quantity ( nitric acid4 ,pat5ts h also be5 tak5 = ! oxidation ( f]r\s sulphate by p]oxide ( manganese 9 pres5ce ( sulphuric acid1 :i* produces basic f]ric sulphate 9 mixture ) manganese sulphate1 :i* has also "s tann+ prop]ties4 ,attempts h also be5 made to tan by treatm5t ( ! hide ) solutions ( f]r\s sulphate1 & subsequ5t exposure to ! air1 9 ord] to oxidise ! iron on ! fibre & conv]t x into a basic f]ric salt1 b h n prov$ ( any comm]cial value4 ,! pr9cipal use ( iron at pres5t 9 lea!r manufacture is 9 dye+ blacks 7see p4 #dac71 b 9 ?is case1 its feeble hold ^u acids 9 ! f]ric /ate1 & its t5d5cy to act z an oxidis+ ag5t1 or oxyg5 c>ri]1 r5d]s ! blacks some:at un/able1 & is frequ5tly injuri\s to ! lea!r4 ,!re is also little d\bt t ! pres5ce ( f]ric salts 9 lea!r blacks has a great t5d5cy to cause ! res9ification ( ! oil1 kn[n z 8spue+10 by promot+ its oxidation4 ,*rome tannages1 f a practical po9t ( view1 /& on a v diff]5t foot+ to ^? :i* h j be5 m5tion$2 hav+ e/abli%$ _! position 9 ! manufacture ( almo/ all sorts ( light lea!rs1 9 competition ) all ! old] me?ods1 & mak+ a s]i\s claim to a %>e 9 ! production ( belt+ & ev5 ( sole lea!rs4 ,*romium is a grey1 & v infusible metal1 :i* *emically mu* resembles iron 9 its comp\nds1 & has an atomic weight ( #eb1 or a little ov]4 ,l iron1 x possesses a dival5t & a trival5t =m1 b ! dival5t has s /rong an aff9ity = oxyg51 & passes s readily into ! trival5t =m1 t until easi] means are f\nd = its prep>ation1 x is ( little practical int]e/4 ,its salts are blue4 ,on ! o!r h&1 salts ( ! trival5t =m1 correspond+ to ! f]ric salts ( iron1 are v /able1 & p[]ful tann+ ag5ts4 ,!y are mo/ly gre51 b violet modifications are kn[n1 correspond+ to ! violet cry/als ( iron-alum1 b ( a mu* deep] t9t4 ,!re is also a hexaval5t =m1 probably correspond+ to t ( iron 9 ! un/able f]rates1 b 9 ! case ( *romium1 ( consid]able /ability4 ,its oxide is *romic anhydride1 ,cr,o1 commonly call$ *romic acid1 :i* comb9es ) bases1 & especially ) ! alkalies to =m yell[ or orange-r$ salts1 & ! anhydride itself is almo/ crimson 9 ! solid =m1 ?\gh dissolv+ to orange or yell[ solutions4 ,*romic acid ?\gh x h>d5s & pres]ves animal tissues1 has no tann+ prop]ties till x becomes r$uc$ to *romic oxide4 ,!re is also a high]1 b v un/able oxide1 p]*romic acid1 possibly correspond+ to p]sulphuric acid1 :i* is soluble 9 e!r to an int5sely blue solution4 ,! "n *romium is d]iv$ f ! int5se col\r ( _m ( its comp\nds4 ,our supplies ( *romium are d]iv$ f *rome-iron-ore1 a m9]al :i* conta9s oxides bo? ( *rome & iron4 ,?is is furnac$ ) a mixture ( lime1 & soda or pota%1 :5 x absorbs oxyg5 f ! air1 ! *romium becom+ conv]t$ into *romic acid :i* comb9es ) ! alkali pres5t1 :ile ! iron rema9s undissolv$ z f]ric oxide4 ,lixiviat+ ! mass1 & evaporat+ ! solution1 lime & potassium or sodium *romates are obta9$1 accord+ to ! alkali us$1 & on add+ suffici5t sulphuric acid to comb9e ) half ! base1 potassium or sodium di*romate 7or z x is commonly call$ 8bi*romate07 c be cry/allis$ out4 ,potassium di*romate is mo/ commonly made1 because x cry/allises well1 & is n deliquesc5t1 b sodium di*romate is some:at *eap]1 ?\gh less conv5i5t4 ,di*romates1 at lea/ 9 ! cry/allis$ /ate1 are n hydric salts l bisulphates1 b anhydro*romates correspond+ to ! potassium anhydrosulphate obta9$ by fus+ ord9>y bisulphate1 & to fum+ sulphuric acid4 ,?us ! =mula ( potassium di*romate is ,cr,o,,ok ,o 1 ,cr,o,,ok or ,cr,k,o & its molecul> weight is #bid1 :ile t ( sodium di*romate1 :i* is simil> 9 con/itution1 b cry/allises ) #b;,aq1 is #bih4 ,! molecul> weight ( ,cr,o is #ajj4 ,*romic acid1 & acidifi$ potassium di*romate are p[]ful oxidis+ ag5ts1 & are us$ z su* 9 _m processes1 & especially 9 ! manufacture ( aliz>9e4 ,if sulphuric acid be us$ 9 molecul> proportions1 ! product ( ! reaction is *rome-alum3 #d;,h,,s ,cr,k,o #c,o #d,,oh ,k,cr7,,s74 ,?is1 l ord9>y alum1 cry/allises ) #bd;,aq1 & h5ce has a molecul> weight ( #iih4 ,x =ms d>k purple1 almo/ black cry/als1 :i* are a f9e g>net-r$ by transmitt$ light4 ,9 cold wat] x dissolves to a violet solution1 :i* becomes gre5 on boil+1 b v sl[ly resumes ! violet condition :5 cold4 ,?is *ange1 :i* is n uncommon 9 *rome solutions1 is probably due to a p>tial decomposition into free acid & a basic salt1 ! basic salts ( *romium be+ g5]ally gre54 ,x has be5 notic$ t raw pelt swells mu* m 9 ! gre51 ?an 9 ! violet solution4 ,be+ d]iv$ f wa/e products1 *rome-alum is (t5 a *eap & valuable s\rce ( *romium = *rome tann+4 ,= ! analysis ( *rome comp\nds see ,l4,i4,l4,b41 p4 #ada et seq4 ,*rome oxide1 & basic *rome salts1 :5 /rongly ignit$1 become insoluble ev5 9 conc5trat$ acids1 & _! analysis is !re=e att5d$ ) "s difficulty4 ,if1 h[ev]1 ! ignit$ residue 7= in/ance a lea!r-a%7 be f9ely p[d]$1 & intimately mix$ ) a fusion-mixture consi/+ ( equal p>ts ( pure calc9$ magnesia & pure dry sodium c>bonate1 & ignit$ 7pref]ably ov] a ,teclu burn]71 9 a plat9um crucible1 9 :i* x is occasionally /irr$ ) a plat9um wire1 x w be quantitatively conv]t$ into *romate1 :i* may be dissolv$ 9 acid1 & e/imat$ ) potassium iodide & ?iosulphate 9 ! usual way4 ,if x is desir$ at ! same "t to e/imate sulphuric acid1 x is sometimes pref]able to sub/itute lime or calcium c>bonate = ! magnesia1 :i* is apt to be contam9at$ ) sulphates4 ,*rome is n only ( importance 9 tann+1 b 9 dye+2 on acc\nt ( its p[] ( =m+ insoluble col\r-lakes ) _m mordant col\r+ matt]s4 ,= ?is purpose normal or basic *romic salts are sometimes us$1 sometimes *romic acid or di*romates1 ! latt] act+ n only by yield+ *rome-oxide on r$uction1 b z oxidis+ ag5ts to ! col\r+ matt]s4 ,mo/ ( ! col\rs produc$ ) *rome mordants are ( d>k %ades1 t ) logwood be+ deep violet or black4 ,! mordant+ p[] ( *romium is important 9 ! dye+ ( *rome lea!r4 ,bi*romate ( pota% is (t5 us$ 9 dilute solution = d>k5+ ! %ade ( lea!r dy$ ) o!r mat]ials1 b is n to be recomm5d$ on acc\nt ( its de/ructive action on ! lea!r4 ,num]\s pat5ts h be5 tak5 = processes ( *rome tannage4 ,! fir/ practical me?od 0 describ$ by ,pr(essor ,knapp 9 #aheh 7see p4 #baj71 ?\gh he did n recognise its value4 ,"s ( ! pat5ts h a hi/orical int]e/1 ?\gh ( no importance4 ,among ^! may be m5tion$ t ( ,cavall91 a ,sw$i% apo!c>y1 ^: object 0 dye+ r ?an tann+1 b :o treat$ raw hide ) a solution ( bi*romate1 :i* 0 aft]w>ds r$uc$ on ! fibre by "o ( f]r\s sulphate4 ,! lea!r produc$ is d>k r$di% br[n1 & t5d] f ! am\nt ( basic f]ric salt =m$ at ! same "t4 ,mr4 ,j4 ,w4 ,swan1 well kn[n 9 connection ) photographic processes1 & electric light+1 also pat5t$ a process ( *rome tannage 7z an add5dum to a pat5t on c>bon pr9t+71 9 :i* ! *romic acid fir/ fix$ 9 ! pelt 0 r$uc$ by 8oxalic1 or o!r suitable acid40 ,al?\gh x is possible to produce lea!r )9 ! l9es ( ! pat5t1 ! /rongly acid reaction ( ! r$uc+ ag5t r5d]s x unsuitable = practical use4 ,! fir/ *rome tann+ process :i* made any %[ ( practical success1 0 t pat5t$ 9 #ahgi by ,he9z]l+1 :i* 0 acquir$ 9 ?is c\ntry by ! ,egl9ton ,tann+ ,company1 & also work$ "u _! lic5se = a %ort "t by ! ,york%ire ,tann+ ,company at ,le$s4 ,?\gh ! process 0 n comm]cially successful on any consid]able scale1 x possesses po9ts ( int]e/ :i* make a brief description desirable4 ,! hides or sk9s1 aft] prep>ation 9 ! usual way1 7 treat$ 9 a mix$ solution ( salt1 alum 7or alum9ium sulphate71 & potassium bi*romate1 b no sy/ematic attempt 0 made to r$uce ! *romic acid to a tann+ =m1 ! product be+1 at fir/ at lea/1 m]ely an alum tannage1 col\r$1 & p]haps some:at h>d5$ ) *romic acid1 ?\gh on keep+ = a l5g? ( "t1 r$uction gradually took place at ! exp5se ( ! hide-fibre1 & ( ! fats employ$ 9 curry+1 s t ! lea!r int]nally became greyi%-gre51 & really *rome-tann$4 ,specim5s ( ! e>ly products ( ! process1 pres]v$ 9 ! museum ( ! ,lea!r ,indu/ries ,dep>tm5t at ,le$s1 h n[ all und]gone ?is *ange1 b are /ill t\gh & flexible1 %[+ t ! rapid t5d]+ ( ! ,he9z]l+ lea!r1 :i* 0 "o ( ! causes ( its failure1 mu/ h be5 due to "s error 9 manufacture1 & 0 n inh]5t 9 ! process4 ,int]e/+1 hi/orically1 is ! fact1 t at an e>ly /age 9 ! life ( ! pat5t1 a specim5 ( ! lea!r 0 submitt$ to ! late ,pr(essor ,hummel1 9 ord] t he %\ld sugge/ "s means ( ov]com+ ! disagreeable yell[ col\r ( ! product4 ,he r$uc$ x ) a bisulphite1 & col\r$ x ) an anil9e dye1 & a piece is /ill 9 ! possession ( ! ,york%ire ,college1 & 9 p]fectly s\nd condition4 ,if legal publication ( ?is exp]im5t c\ld h be5 prov$1 x w\ld h invalidat$ ! important ,s*ultz pat5ts "u :i* mo/ ( ! *rome-kid ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates has be5 manufactur$4 ,z be>+ on mod]n *rome-tann+1 ! mo/ important reaction 9 ! process is t ( ! alum ) ! bi*romate4 ,x has be5 %[n by ,heal & ,proct]#aae t pelt absorbs practically no *romic acid f bi*romate1 unless x has be5 previ\sly set free by acidification4 ,:5 h[ev] alum1 or sulphate ( alum9a is add$1 its sulphuric acid lib]ates ! *romic acid1 leav+ a basic alum9a salt 9 solution1 & ?is fact has be5 utilis$ 9 "s mod]n tann+ processes4 #aae ,j\rn4 ,soc4 ,*em4 ,ind41 p4 #bea1 #ahie4 ,! fir/ really important advance 9 practical *rome tann+ 0 made by ,augu/us ,s*ultz1 9 #ahhd4 ,s*ultz 0 n a tann]1 b a *emi/1 employ$ by a ,new ,york firm ( anil9e col\r m]*ants1 & 8 att5tion 0 accid5tally drawn to lea!r by a fri5d :o ask$ him if x 7 possible to produce a lea!r = cov]+ corset /eels1 :i* w\ld n ru/ !m z ord9>y alum$ lea!rs d4 ,! process :i* he adopt$ 0 probably sugge/$ by a me?od !n rec5tly pat5t$ = ! mordant+ ( wool by *rome oxide1 & dep5d$ on ! p[] ( ! pelt to absorb free *romic acid 7z x does all o!r free acids71 & ! subsequ5t r$uction ( ! latt] on ! fibre to a basic *rome salt1 :i* produc$ ! tannage4 ,! r$uc+ sub/ance employ$ 0 ! free sulphur\s or ?iosulphuric acid ( an acidifi$ solution ( sodium ?iosulphate 7hyposulphite71 & z x 0 n c]ta9 :i* ( ! two acids 0 ! really active ag5t1 ,s*ultz duplicat$ 8 pat5t1 s z to cov] bo?4 ,?\gh he made no claim 9 8 pat5t to hav+ discov]$ ! be/ proportions ( 8 +r$i5ts1 ^? :i* he specifi$ h prov$ practically useful aft] all[+ = ! modifications requir$ by diff]5t sk9s1 & slightly diff]5t me?ods ( work+4 ,8 fir/ ba? consi/$ ( a solution ( #e p] c5t4 ( bi*romate ( pota%1 & #b p] c5t4 ( conc5trat$ hydro*loric acid 7or #abe p] c5t4 ( conc5trat$ sulphuric acid71 reckon$ on ! wet weight ( ! prep>$ pelt1 & dissolv$ 9 suffici5t wat] = conv5i5t use 9 ! paddle or drum :i* 0 to be us$ 9 ! process4 ,9 ?is ba? ! sk9s 7 work$ till !y took a uni=m yell[ col\r ?r\gh\t1 b )\t any tann+ effect be+ produc$4 ,!y 7 n[ fre$ f sup]flu\s *rome liquor by dra9+ or 8putt+ out10 & transf]r$ to ! second ba?1 :i* consi/$ ( #aj p] c5t4 ( 8hypo0 & #e p] c5t4 ( hydro*loric acid simil>ly dissolv$4 ,9 ?is1 !y rapidly took a duck-egg gre5 col\r f ! r$uction ( ! *romic acid2 & :5 ?is 0 uni=m ?r\gh\t ! sk91 ! tannage 0 complete4 ,! exact quantity ( wat] is n ( great importance1 & good results c be obta9$ ) any?+ v>y+ f #bj to #ej gallons p] #ajj lb4 ( pelt 7#bjj to #ejj p] c5t47 if "t be all[$ = ! weak] solution to act4 ,! quantities ( 8hypo0 & hydro*loric acid giv5 = ! second ba? are (t5 some:at insuffici5t1 & h to be slightly increas$ to complete ! r$uction4 ,! reactions :i* take place are repres5t$ by ! foll[+ =mul1 9 :i* ! weights ( ! mat]ials tak+ "p 9 ! reaction are also giv5 bel[ ! symbols4 ,9 ! fir/ ba?-- ,potassium ,hydro*loric ,potassium ,*romic ,wat]4 di*romate4 acid4 *loride4 acid4 ,k,cr,o #b;,h,cl #b,k,cl #b;,cr,o ,,oh #bid #gc #adi #bjj #ah ,z ord9>y conc5trat$ hydro*loric acid does n conta9 m ?an ab\t #cj p] c5t4 ( actual ,h,cl1#aaf ab\t #be p>ts w\ld be requir$ to completely decompose #bid p>ts ( di*romate1 :ile 9 ,s*ultz's =mula #be p>ts ( hydro*loric acid are us$ to #e p>ts ( di*romate4 ,?is excess has be5 f\nd useful 9 ! production ( a good lea!r1 bo? to prev5t accid5ts f an ov]dose ( hydro*loric acid1 & because ( ! modify+ effect ( an excess ( neutral salt on ! action ( ! *romic acid 7cp4 p4 #hb74 #aaf ,acid ( ,s4,g4 #aaf 7#cb ,tw47 conta9s #cae p] c5t4 ( ,h,cl by weight or #cff grm4 p] lit]1 & !re=e is practically #aj normal /r5g?4 ,acid ( ,s4,g4 #ab 7#dj ,tw47 conta9s #cia p] c5t4 or #dfi grm4 p] lit]4 ,! reactions :i* take place 9 ! second ba? are some:at complicat$4 ,eitn]1 9 a valuable s]ies ( articles on *rome tannage1 :i* h be5 appe>+ 9 ! #8,g]b]' s9ce ,janu>y #aijj1 /ates t ev5 bett] results are obta9$ by us+ ! hydro*loric acid 9 slight excess1 z ! action ( *romic acid 79 ! pres5ce ( ! potassium *loride ( ! *rome-ba?7 is n swell+ b h>d5+ to ! sk91 & ! slight swell+ action ( ! hydro*loric acid t5ds to c\nt]act ?is1 & also to facilitate ! subsequ5t r$uction4 ,! two views are n contradictory1 z ! excess ( bi*romate behaves to ! hide z an alkal9e salt1 :i* also produces a slight swell+ effect1 & x is q probable t bett] results are atta9$ :5 ! solution is ei!r alkal9e or acid1 ?an :5 ! potassium *romate is exactly decompos$4 ,eitn] recomm5ds ! use ( f\r p>ts by weight ( bi*romate1 & f\r p>ts ( ! /ronge/ hydro*loric acid1 dissolv$ 9 #djj p>ts ( wat]1 = ea* #ajj p>ts ( wet pelt1 :i* %\ld yield ab\t #dj p>ts ( dry lea!r4 ,he /ates t if su* a ba? be us$1 x may be safely & economically exhau/$ by a second pack ( sk9s1 :i* is impossible 9 a ba? conta9+ excess ( unacidifi$ bi*romate4 ,he gives#aag ! foll[+ explanation ( ! successive *anges :i* take place :5 acid is gradually add$ dur+ ! r$uction1 b po9ts out t 9 practice ! reactions always to "s ext5t g on simultane\sly4 #aag ,g]b]1 p4 #big1 #aijj4 ,9 ! fir/ /age1 v slight acidification is requir$1 & if ! sk9s h be5 *rom$ ) excess ( hydro*loric acid1 may be altoge!r disp5s$ )4 ,! sk9s become br[ni% f ! conv]sion ( ! *romic acid into s-call$ 8*romium dioxide0 7probably really a basic *romic *romate1 ,cr,cr,o7,,oh71 :i* on ignition leaves ,cr,o72 no sulphur\s acid is lib]at$1 or sulphur deposit$1 b sodium tetra?ionate is =m$ 9 ! ba?1 & ! reaction may be repres5t$ z foll[s3 7#a7 #c;,cr,o #f;,h,cl #f,na,s,o #c,na,s,o #f,na,cl #c,,oh ,cr,o4 ,fur!r addition ( hydro*loric acid bright5s ! col\r ( ! sk9s1 :ile ! liquid /ill rema9s cle>1 & *romium *loride is =m$ in/ead ( *romic *romate1 ! ma9 reaction be+3 7#b7 #b;,cr,o #ab;,h,cl #f,na,s,o #c,na,s,o #b;,cr,cl #f,na,cl #f,,oh4 ,on /ill fur!r addition ( hydro*loric acid1 sulphur is sep>at$ accord+ to ! foll[+ equation1 & is deposit$ p>tly 9 ! sk9s1 & p>tly 9 ! ba?3 7#c7 #b;,cr,o #f;,h,cl #c,na,s,o #c,na,,s #c,s #b;,cr,cl #c,,oh4 ,aft] complete r$uction1 & consumption ( ! free hydro*loric acid1 fur!r reactions take place at ! exp5se ( ! excess ( ?iosulphate :i* %\ld be pres5t1 result+ 9 ! production ( basic *romic salts1 & ! fur!r deposition ( sulphur1 mo/ly )9 ! sk91 z %[n 9 ! foll[+ equations3 7#d7 ,cr7,,s7 ,na,s,o ,,oh #b;,cr,o,h4,,s ,,s ,s ,na,,s4 7#e7 #b;,cr,cl ,na,s,o ,,oh #b;,cr,o,h4,cl ,,s ,s #b,na,cl4 ,! ?iosulphate ba? !re=e n only r$uces1 b precipitates sulphur 9 ! sk91 & r$uces ! *romic salt to a basic /ate4 ,9 boil+ solution1 ?iosulphate precipitates ! :ole ( ! *romium z *romic oxide1 b 9 ! cold1 & 9 pres5ce ( free sulphur\s acid1 x only r$uces to a basic salt4 ,eitn] does n consid] ! possibility1 :i* c]ta9ly requires inve/igation1 t in/ead ( basic salts1 sulphite-sulphates are =m$ at lea/ 9 ! fir/ in/ance4 ,su* salts ( "o base & two acids are q possible1 & x is v probable t 9 ! use ( *rom+ ba?s conta9+ organic acids1 !y h consid]able influ5ce on ! tannage4 ,! free sulphur :i* is lib]at$ is p>tially deposit$ on & among ! fibres ( ! lea!r1 & adds to its s(tness1 & also acts *emically on ! oils us$ 9 8fatliquor+10 s t x is probably "o ( ! ma9 causes ( diff]5ce betwe5 ! products ( ! ,s*ultz or 8two-ba?0 me?od1 & ! 8"o-ba?0 processes subsequ5tly to be describ$4 ,x does n fall )9 ! scope ( ?is book to describe 9 detail ! work+ me?ods = ! production ( ! diff]5t k9ds ( *rome lea!r1 b a few precautions common to all =ms ( ! process may be nam$4 ,x is n absolutely important 9 all cases t goods %\ld be completely fre$ f lime be=e *rome-tannage1 b 9 ?is case a suffici5cy ( acid mu/ be all[$ 9 ! fir/ ba? to neutralise ! lime introduc$4 ,pretty ?or\gh lim+ is g5]ally advisable1 to plump & sep>ate ! fibres1 b z a rule ! bat+ or pu]+ ( goods = *rom+ %\ld n be excessive1#aah b %\ld be plann$ n to remove m ?an is absolutely necess>y ( ! hide-sub/ance1 z ! *rome tannage is 9 its nature s(t & light1 & does n l5d itself to artificial fill+s1 su* z ! fl\r & egg-yolk ( ! calf-kid process4 ,sk9s are sometimes fre$ f lime by 8pickl+0 7p4 #hi71 & pickl$ sk9s may be *rom$ )\t depickl+1 :i* w be done by ! di*romate1 b 9 ?is case ! acid conta9$ 9 ! sk9s mu/ be consid]$ 9 ! composition ( ! *rom+ ba?4 ,sk9s1 inde$1 :i* are pickl$ ) a suffici5cy ( acid may be *rom$ 9 a neutral di*romate ba?1 & ?is is sometimes a conv5i5t mode ( proc$ure4 ,to prev5t draw+ ( ! gra9 dur+ tann+1 sk9s n unfrequ5tly receive a prelim9>y tannage ) alum1 or sulphate ( alum9a1 & ^! mat]ials1 toge!r ) salt1 may be introduc$ into ! *rom+ ba?1 9 :i* case !y w lib]ate a portion ( ! *romic acid1 z has be5 m5tion$ 9 connection ) ! ,he9z]l+ process4 ,alum1 *rome-alum1 & acid salts1 su* z sodium bisulphate1 may be sub/itut$ = ! acid 9 ! *rome ba?1 b organic acids mu/ n be us$1 z !y w\ld r$uce ! *romic acid4 ,! quantity ( free *romic acid 9 ! *rome ba? is ( ! mo/ vital importance to success1 z x1 & n ! di*romate 7:i* may be pres5t 9 consid]able excess71 regulates ! am\nt ( *rome tak5 up by ! sk91 & ! subsequ5t degree ( tannage4 ,x is v possible to injure lea!r by ov]*rom+1 r5d]+ x r\gh1 h>% & ev5 t5d]4 ,if a ba? conta9+ excess ( bi*romate is to be re-/r5g!n$1 x may be assum$ z a rule t all ! free *romic acid has be5 absorb$ by ! sk9s1 & :ile x is m]ely necess>y to re/ore ! /r5g? ( ! di*romate to its orig9al am\nt1 ! full quantity ( acid mu/ be us$ :i* w\ld be requir$ 9 prep>+ a new ba?4 ,:]e1 z 9 ,eitn]'s acid *rome ba?1 ! :ole ( ! *romic acid is lib]at$1 ! ba? may be exhau/$ by a second pack ( sk9s4 ,_m tann]s1 9 ord] to avoid ! complications ( remak+ a ba?1 run away _! *rome liquors aft] once us+1 conta9+ all ! excess ( di*romate :i* has be5 us$4 ,) prop] *emical control1 ?is %\ld n be necess>y1 & is objectionable1 n only f its wa/efulness1 b on acc\nt ( ! v poison\s "* ( ! unr$uc$ bi*romate4 ,ev5 weak di*romate solutions1 especially if w>m1 are liable to cause pa9ful & ob/9ate eruptions on ! h&s1 b ?is r>ely occurs to tann]s1 z ! poison\s action ( ! solution is remov$ on r$uction4 ,x is well1 h[ev]1 to arrange t m5 :o h&le sk9s 9 ! *rome ba?1 %\ld subsequ5tly also "w 9 ! r$uc+ ba?4 ,me?ods ( analysis ( us$ *rome liquors are giv51 ,l4,i4,l4,b41 pp4 #adb et seq4 ,^? = ! det]m9ation ( acidity are n h[ev] easily applicable 9 ! pres5ce ( alum & salts ( *romic oxide4 #aah ,goat-sk9s = glac kid ne$ ?or\gh pu]+ to produce a smoo? gra94 ,! sk9s1 on com+ f ! *rom+ ba? may be all[$ to lie = "s "t )\t s]i\s injury1 b %\ld be c>efully protect$ f ! action ( light1 :i* r$uces ! *rome at ! exp5se ( ! sk91 & r5d]s ! subsequ5t tannage irregul>4 ,x is f\nd t sk9s1 if br\ght into a weak or neutral r$uc+ ba?1 are apt to 8ble$0 or lose *romic acid1 :i* is r$uc$ wa/efully 9 ! ba?4 ,on ! o!r h& a /rong 8hypo0 ba? is apt to draw ! gra9 & contract ! sk9s1 ow+ to ! tannage tak+ place too sudd5ly4 ,a some:at /rong 8hypo0 ba? is !re=e (t5 employ$ z a prep>atory 8dip10 ! sk9s be+ simply drawn ?r\gh x to fix ! *rome on ! surface1 pil$ on a 8horse0 & subsequ5tly r$uc$ 9 a ba? ( ord9>y /r5g?4 ,! t5d5cy to ble$ is less5$1 b at ! exp5se ( ! pelt1 by ! r$uction :i* takes place if ! sk9s are all[$ to lie ov]night 9 ! *rom$ /ate4 ,eitn] /ates t sk9s *rom$ 9 an acid ba? 7i4e4 :]e ! :ole ( ! *romic acid is 9 a free /ate7 %[ little t5d5cy to ble$4 ,aft] r$uction1 ! sk9s are well wa%$ ) w>m wat]1 & _! subsequ5t treatm5t is ! same z t ( sk9s tann$ by ! "o-ba? process1 :i* is subsequ5tly describ$ 7see p4 #baa74 ,naturally 9 practical "w1 ! r$uction _c be made to proce$ rigidly 9 ! def9ite /eps describ$ by ,eitn] on p4 #bjf1 b all g on 9 diff]5t proportions toge!r1 ?\gh by supply+ ! acid 9 prop] quantities1 & at prop] int]vals1 !y may be made 9 ! ma9 to foll[ 9 ! giv5 ord]4 ,bo? on ?is acc\nt1 & because nei!r ! exact am\nt ( *romic acid 9 ! sk9s1 nor ! sulphur\s acid lo/ by escape into ! air c be exactly det]m9$1 ! r$uction _c be conduct$ on !oretical pr9ciples1 b ! be/ conditions mu/ be empirically det]m9$4 ,eitn] /ates t #ab p>ts ( ?iosulphate dissolv$ 9 #djj p>ts ( wat]1 & #f p>ts ( 7#dj p] c5t47 hydro*loric acid are suffici5t = #d p>ts ( bi*romate p] #ajj ( wet pelt employ$ 9 ! *rome ba?1 ( :i* n m ?an "o-half to two-?irds is absorb$2 & t if equal p>ts ( bi*romate & acid are employ$ 9 *rom+1 ! acid us$ 9 r$uc+ may be less5$ to #e p>ts4 ,9 ?is case x mu/ n be =gott51 t if ! p>tially exhau/$ *rome-ba? is us$ = a second pack ( sk9s1 :i* are aft]w>ds f9i%$ 9 a ba? ( full /r5g?1 ne>ly ! :ole quantity ( bi*romate us$ 9 mak+ up "o ba? w be absorb$ by ! sk9s4 ,! am\nt ( acid consum$ 9 r$uction w be great]1 ! m rapidly x is add$1 ow+ to increas$ escape ( sulphur\s acid4 ,x is bett] to add ! acid1 previ\sly dilut$ ) wat]1 9 #h or #aj successive portions1 m rapidly at fir/1 & m sl[ly dur+ ! latt] half ( ! op]ation1 ea* portion ( acid be+ add$ z soon z no fur!r *ange ( col\r appe>s to be caus$ by t already giv54 ,^! *anges are ! m rapid ! light] ! goods4 ,! col\r d>k5s at fir/ to olive-br[n1 !n gradually becomes gre51 & f9ally blue1 & :5 ?is col\r is uni=m ?r\gh\t ! ?ickness ( ! goods1 no fur!r acid ne$ be add$4 ,= goods :i* h be5 *rom$ 9 an acid ba?1 ,eitn] /ates t no acid w be ne$$ = ! fir/ tw5ty to ?irty m9utes4 ,x is important to h a suffici5t excess ( ?iosulphate 9 ! ba? :5 r$uction is complete1 9 :i* case ! goods may be left = "s h\rs or ov]night 9 ! ba?1 to complete 8neutralisation10 b ,eitn] pref]s to use a fre% ba? ( #a p>ts ( ?iosulphate 9 #djj p>ts ( wat] = ?is purpose1 ! ba? be+ us$1 aft] settl+1 = mak+ up ! r$uction ba? = ! next lot ( goods1 = :i* #a p>ts less ?iosulphate is us$4 ,! goods mu/ be kept 9 motion dur+ r$uction1 ei!r 9 a drum or a cov]$ paddle4 ,9 a pap] on 8,die ,natur und ,wes5 d] ,g]b]ei0 publi%$ by ,pr(essor ,knapp1 9 #aheh1 he describes cle>ly a *rome tann+ process ) basic *romic *loride1 =m$ by ! addition ( sodium c>bonate to a solution ( ! normal salt1 b he expressly /ates t ! product 0 n m resi/ant to wat] ?an ! ord9>y alum tannages4 ,h[ he fell into ?is error is h>d to expla91 = lea!rs produc$ accord+ to 8 directions1 resi/ n m]ely wa%+ 9 cold b boil+ wat]4 ,z soon z ! ,s*ultz process prov$ successful1 _m attempts 7 made to evade ! pat5t by ! use ( o!r r$uc+ ag5ts ?an ! 8hypo10 & o!r salts ( sulphur\s acid :i* x cov]$4 ,among ^!1 ! use ( hydrog5 sulphide1 & acidifi$ solutions ( alkal9e sulphides1 & especially ( polysulphides1#aai prov$ capable ( practical use1 ?\gh less conv5i5t ?an ?iosulphate1 b 7 soon acquir$ by a comb9ation1 ! ,pat5t ,tann+ ,company1 toge!r ) ,s*ultz's orig9al pat5ts4 #aai 8,liv] ( sulphur0 or solutions1 made by boil+ sodium sulphide or soda ) excess ( sulphur4 ,"u ^! circum/ances1 ,m>t9 ,d5nis1 ei!r by fre% discov]y1 or o!rwise1 reviv$ ! orig9al process ( ,knapp1 :i* he pat5t$#abj almo/ ^w = ^w1 & (f]$ a basic *rome tann+ liquor = sale1 )\t fur!r re/rictions on its use4 ,?is liquor 0 made by dissolv+ precipitat$ & wa%$ *romic hydrate 7easily prep>$ by precipitat+ *rome-alum solution ) excess ( alkali7 9 hydro*loric acid to saturation1 & add+ wa%+ soda until ! solution 0 r5d]$ suffici5tly basic4 ,su* a solution may be us$ on sk9s prep>$ 9 ! ord9>y way1 by dilut+ ) wat]1 & /r5g!n+ z ! tannage proce$s1 l a vegetable tan-liquor4 ,x is d\btful if ! pat5t is a valid "o1 z x 0 kn[n t ! use ( su* a solution 0 n new1 & x 0 only grant$ 9 ,am]ica on ! repres5tation1 :i* has s9ce be5 f\nd to be mi/ak51 t *lorides alone 7 applicable = tann+1 :ile ,knapp _h n re/rict$ 8 /atem5t to ^! salts4 ,9 reality *lorides & sulphates seem equally suitable1 b to produce simil> results ! =m] mu/ be made m basic ?an ! latt]4 ,9 any case ! pat5t _c cov] ! g5]al pr9ciple ( basic tann+1 b only ! p>ticul> liquor & mode ( prep>ation specifi$4 ,x 0 soon aft]w>ds %[n by ! writ]1#aba t a good *rome tann+ liquor might be prep>$ by direct r$uction ( di*romate ) sug> 9 pres5ce ( su* a limit$ quantity ( hydro*loric acid z to produce a basic salt4 ,suitable proportions are #e mol4 ,h,cl to #a mol4 potassium di*romate1 :i* produces a salt approximately ,cr,cl7,,oh74 ,! solution is easily made by dissolv+ ?ree p>ts ( di*romate 9 a conv5i5t quantity ( wat]1 add+ six p>ts by weight ( conc5trat$ hydro*loric acid1 & !n cane-sug> gradually till a gre5 solution is obta9$1 :5 ! :ole may be made up to "o hundr$ p>ts1 & w be approximately ( ! same /r5g? z a #aj p] c5t4 solution ( *rome-alum4 ,a little heat may be ne$$ to />t ! reaction1 b too mu* %\ld be avoid$1 z consid]able heat is evolv$ by ! oxidation2 & z mu* c>bonic anhydride is produc$1 :i* causes ! solution to eff]vesce briskly1 ! vessel us$ %\ld be ( ample size4 ,9 place ( cane-sug>1 a good quality ( glucose may be us$1 b "s samples conta9 "s impurity :i* produces a violet solution :i* w n tan satisfactorily4 ,?is liquor is 9 regul> use 9 _m tann]ies1 produc+ a good quality ( *rome calf1 b is some:at v>iable 9 its effects accord+ to ! temp]ature employ$ 9 its prep>ation1 & x appe>s to h no real advantage ov] a simple solution ( *rome-alum1 r5d]$ basic by soda & ) "s addition ( salt4 ,a some:at simil> prep>ation is ,eb]le's 8*romal910#abb 9 :i* "s organic sub/ance1 probably crude glyc]9e1 is us$ to r$uce ! bi*romate4 ,! organic matt]s1 & especially ! organic acids :i* result f ! oxidation ( ! sug> or glyc]9e1 are n )\t influ5ce on ! tann+ prop]ties ( ! liquor4 ,( c\rse ^! solutions may be r5d]$ /ill m basic by ! addition ( sodium c>bonate4 ,a good /ock-liquor1 ( approximately ! same /r5g? z t above describ$1 is made by dissolv+ #aj p>ts ( *rome-alum 9 #hj p>ts ( tepid1 b n hot wat]1#abc & add+ ) con/ant /irr+ a solution ( #b to #c p>ts ( wa%+ soda 9 #aj p>ts ( wat]4 ,! *rome alum dissolves some:at sl[ly )\t ! aid ( heat1 & ! solution is be/ made ei!r 9 a small drum driv5 by p[]1 or by susp5d+ ! cry/als 9 a basket ne> ! surface ( ! liquor1 s t ! saturat$ solution c desc5d4 #abj ,m>t9 ,d5nis1 ,u4,s4,a4 ,pat4 #diejbh1 #ahic2 & #eaadaa1 #ahic1 #ggcb1 #ahic4 ,e4 ,pat4 ,gallagh]4 #aba ,lea!r ,trades ,review1 ,jan4 #ab1 #ahig4 #abb ,comp>e ,eb]le's ,g]man pat5ts1 #aaijdb1 #ahih1 & #acjfgh1 #ahii4 ,! la/ ( ^! appe>s to be anticipat$1 at lea/ z reg>ds ! use ( glucose1 sug> & />*1 by ! writ]'s publication 9 #ahig above cit$4 #abc ,lea!r ,trades ,review4 ,lat] inve/igations h %[n t ! temp]ature ( ! wat] is unimportant if alkali be add$1 b *rome-alum dissociates to "s ext5t 9 hot wat]1 & comp>ative exp]im5ts h %[n t solutions ( ! normal salt made ) ! aid ( heat act on sk9 z if m acid ?an ^? made 9 ! cold4 ,eitn]#abd has po9t$ out ! important effect t diff]5ces ( basicity h on ! tann+ prop]ties ( *rome solutions4 ,normal *rome sulphate or *rome-alum col\rs ! lea!r quickly & equally ?r\gh\t1 & swells ! pelt on acc\nt ( its practically acid "*1 b gives a ?9 & lightly tann$ lea!r1 f :i* mu* ( ! *rome wa%es out1 unless x is at once 8neutralis$0 9 alkal9e solutions4 ,z ! *rome solution is made m basic1 ! tannage p5etrates m sl[ly1 b is heavi] & m ?or\gh1 ! col\r is d>k] & blu]1 & mu* less ( ! *romic salt is remov$ by wa%+ ) wat]4 ,:5 ! basicity becomes excessive1 ! solution becomes un/able1 & decomposes on dilution ) wat] into a v basic salt :i* is precipitat$1 & a m acid solution ?an t giv5 by a mod]ately basic salt4 ,! effect ( su* solutions on ! lea!r is v unsatisfactory1 produc+ ! bad effects bo? ( too acid & too basic salts4 ,! pelt is apt to be swoll5 & lightly col\r$ by ! m acid salt1 b at ! same "t ! actual tannage proce$s v sl[ly1 & 9 extreme cases x is difficult to tan ?r\gh1 :ile ! surface becomes ov]-tann$1 & ! gra9 (t5 t5d] & ev5 brittle f ! incru/ation ( precipitat$ basic salt4 ,eitn] lik5s ! effect ( ! m acid liquors to ! quickly p5etrat+ & lightly tann+ vegetable tans1 su* z gambi]1 & t ( ! m basic to ! heavi] tannages1 su* z valonia2 & )9 limits1 advantage may be tak5 ( ^! facts 9 adju/+ ! liquors to ! "* ( ! lea!r x is desir$ to produce4 ,9 sulphate liquors1 he consid]s ! salt ,cr,o,h4,,s z mo/ suit$ to g5]al use1 & 9 ! case ( *rome-alum1 ?is is produc$ by ! use ( #bhf p>ts ( soda-cry/als1 or #ajf p>ts ( dry sodium c>bonate 7#a molecule7 to #iih 7or practically #ajjj7 p>ts by weight 7#a mol47 ( *rome-alum4 7,9 us+ wa%+ soda1 c>e mu/ be tak5 to employ cle> cry/als ( ! salt1 & n ^? :i* h become :ite by loss ( wat]47 ,9 place ( soda1 ,eitn] makes a simil> basic liquor by boil+ #ajjj p>ts ( *rome-alum ) #bdh p>ts 7#a mol47 ( sodium hyposulphite until ! :ole ( ! lib]at$ sulphur\s acid is driv5 (f1 & ! sulphur deposit$4 ,9 comp>ative exp]im5ts by ! ,au?or1 no diff]5ce c\ld be detect$ betwe5 ! tann+ effects ( ! two solutions1 & t ) soda is bo? *eap] & m easily made4 ,if ! solution ) hyposulphite is n boil$1 a m acid liquor results1 9 :i* "p ( ! *romium is comb9$ ) sulphur\s acid1 =m+ an un/able comp\nd :i* may prove useful 9 c]ta9 cases4 #abd ,g]b]1 #aija1 pp4 #c et seq4 ,eitn] /ates t he has made *rome-solutions ( v>i\s types1 conta9+ organic comp\nds 9 comb9ation ) ! *rome-salt1 :i* comb9e ) ! lea!r1 produc+ a full] & s(t] tannage1 b he gives no details z to _! prep>ation1 z !y are made comm]cially by ! 8,er/e ,oe/]rei*is*e ,soda-,fabrik0 at ,hrus*au4 ,! writ] has f\nd t 9 "s cases by ! addition ( say #c p>ts ( sug>1 or /ill bett] ( glucose1 to #aj p>ts ( ! *rome-alum 9 mak+ up ! basic liquor1 a mu* full] & plump] lea!r is produc$1 :i* dries p]fectly s(t1 ev5 )\t /ak+ or fat-liquor+2 & x is probable t _m o!r organic comp\nds may be f\nd :i* produce simil> effects4 ,! addition ( v small quantities ( ev5 neutral t>trates or lactates1 & probably ( _m o!r organic salts or acids1 h a rem>kable effect 9 l[]+ ! app>5t basicity ( ! solution1 & x is possible t ^! may also be usefully employ$ 9 comb9ation ) v basic liquors4 ,x is highly probable t ! unsatisfactory tann+ liquors produc$ by direct r$uction ) "s samples ( glucose are due to ! pres5ce ( small quantities ( "s organic acid produc$ dur+ ! oxidation4 ,x has be5 f\nd t ^! solutions may be made to tan by ! lib]al addition ( soda4 ,x is probable t m satisfactory results 9 *rome-tann+ w be atta9$ by ! direct addition ( kn[n organic sub/ances to basic liquors ( def9ite con/itution1 ?an by ! some:at unc]ta9 products ( organic oxidations4 ,! quantity ( salt to be add$ dep5ds on ! qualities desir$ 9 ! lea!r1 & ^u :e!r *loride or sulphate liquors are employ$2 salt 9 *loride-liquors increas+ ! s(tness ( ! lea!r1 b 9 excess t5d+ to flatness1 :ile 9 sulphate-liquors x practically dim9i%es _! basicity by conv]t+ ! *romium sulphate into ! equival5t *loride1 :i*1 z ,eitn] po9ts out1 behaves z a less basic salt1 & h5ce b little advantage is to be ga9$ f its use4 ,x is be/ to beg9 ) a v weak liquor1 to avoid drawn gra91 & = ! same purpose a prep>atory tannage ) alum9a salts1 or an addition ( alum or sulphate ( alum9a & salt may be made to ! fir/ liquor1 z ! attraction ( ! *rome salt = ! fibre is suffici5t to produce a *rome tannage1 ev5 9 pres5ce ( excess ( alum9a salts4 #aj lb4 ( *rome alum w tan ab\t #ajj lb4 ( wet pelt1 b m mu/ be us$ = ! fir/ p>cel2 z to avoid loss ( "t1 ! sk9s may be tann$ out 9 a pretty /rong liquor4 ,! ba? has a t5d5cy to become acid by use1 & be=e /r5g!n+1 x may be necess>y to add "s m soda solution4 ,v little additional salt is requir$1 z x is only absorb$ by ! sk9s to a small ext5t1 probably z *romic *loride4 ,z ! liquors gradually become *>g$ ) sulphates1 x is be/ to "w !m out l b>k liquors1 & n to g on /r5g!n+ ! same liquor indef9itely4 ,if old liquors are us$ = gre5 goods1 x is n necess>y to neutralise !m ) soda be=e use1 z ,eitn] has %[n t less basic liquors col\r m ev5ly & ) less t5d5cy to produce drawn gra94 ,basic *rome liquors1 su* z h be5 describ$1 may also be us$ 9 *rome comb9ation tannage4 ,x is g5]ally be/ to let ! light vegetable tannage prec$e ! *rome1 & lightly tann$ sk9s1 su* z 8,p]sians0 & ,ea/ ,india kips1 acquire _m ( ! qualities ( *rome-tann$ lea!r by ! treatm5t4 ,! effect is /ill fur!r increas$ by a previ\s detannisation ( ! lea!r ) alkal9e solutions 7see p4 #bda74 ,sev]al firms beside ,d5nis n[ supply basic *rome liquors ready prep>$ = use4 ,! "t ( tannage w ( c\rse v>y ) ! ?ickness ( ! goods1 & = calf-sk9s w usually ext5d ov] "s days1 ?\gh x c be mu* quick5$ by drumm+4 ,! tannage is g5]ally be/ accompli%$ 9 ! paddle1 b c be c>ri$ out by frequ5t h&l+ 9 pits or tubs1 or1 :]e v smoo? gra9 is important1 by susp5sion4 ,:5 ! goods come out ( ! f9al liquor1 !y may be all[$ to lie 9 pile = tw5ty-f\r h\rs1 or ev5 = "s days1 ) advantage1 z ! surplus *rome liquor is press$ out1 & ! tannage becomes m complete4 ,!y are !n wa%$ ) pl5ty ( w>m wat]1 till x ceases to be col\r$ ) *rome4 ,!y may be kept = an almo/ unlimit$ "t 9 a wet condition1 z !y d n ble$1 & h little t5d5cy to heat ev5 9 pile4 ,!y h n[ rea*$ ! /age at :i* we left ! 8two-ba?0 lea!r1 & ! subsequ5t treatm5t may be ! same 9 bo? cases4 ,al?\gh by bo? processes1 ! *rome-salt fix$ 9 ! fibre is ( a decid$ly basic "*1 x /ill conta9s en\gh acid to act injuri\sly on ! lea!r 9 c\rse ( "t1 & to lead to s]i\s inconv5i5ces 9 its subsequ5t treatm5t4 ,be=e proce$+ fur!r1 ?is access ( acid mu/ be remov$ or neutralis$1 & x is n too mu* to say t mo/ ( ! tr\bles exp]i5c$ 9 ! fat-liquor+ arise f neglect or mi/ake 9 ! wa%+ & neutralisation4 ,! difficulty 9 ! process arises f ! fact t :ile ! acid %\ld be r$uc$ to a m]e trace1 x mu/ n be entirely remov$1#abe z *romic oxide itself does n seem capable ( tann+1 & at any rate ! effect ( excess ( /rong alkalies is at once to r5d] ! lea!r h>d & pelty4 ,borax is "o ( ! safe/ neutralis+ mat]ials1 ab\t #c p] c5t4 on ! wet weight ( ! pelt be+ requir$1 9 n m ?an p] c5t4 solution4 ,eitn] recomm5ds ! use ( silicate ( soda1 :i*1 sold z a solution ( ,s4,g4 #ae1 is some:at /rong] & mu* *eap] ?an borax4 ,hyposulphite ( soda & :it5+ toge!r neutralise m rapidly & completely ?an ei!r alone4 ,o!r salts ( weak acids may also be us$1 ! acids ex]cis+ a regulat+ influ5ce :i* prev5ts neutralisation go+ too f>4 ,sodium c>bonate or bic>bonate1 or ammonia may also be us$1 b ) ^! x is difficult to get ev5 8neutralisation10 or to avoid ! risk ( c>ry+ ! process too f>4 ,ev5 a ?or\gh drumm+ ) a milk ( 8:it5+0 7calcium c>bonate7 is effective4 ,) ! latt] !re is no dang] ( ov]do+ ! process1 b 9 "s cases ! adh]+ :it5+ & precipitat$ calcium sulphate are tr\blesome 9 lat] op]ations4 ,9 any case ! neutralis+ %\ld only be c>ri$ s f> t ! sk9s %[ no acid reaction to litmus pap]4 #abe ,proct] & ,griffi?1 ,j\rn4 ,soc4 ,*em4 ,ind41 #aijj1 p4 #bbc4 ,x is probable t "o ( ! great causes ( diff]5ce betwe5 8"o-ba?0 & 8two-ba?0 lea!rs is ! pres5ce ( free sulphur 9 ! latt]4 ,?is may also be introduc$ into 8"o-ba?0 lea!r1 by treat+ x 9 ! wet *rom$ /ate1 )\t wa%+ out ! *rome liquor1 ) excess ( a solution ( hyposulphite1 or ( an alkal9e polysulphide1 :i* at ! same "t w neutralise ! sk94 ,! m acid ! *rome liquor1 ! great] ! quantity ( sulphur :i* w be introduc$4 ,! simple/ means ( di/+ui%+ 8two-ba?0 f 8"o-ba?0 tannages is to te/ = ! pres5ce ( sulphur1 by wrapp+ up a silv] co91 ) a piece ( ! lea!r 9 pap]1 & leav+ ! p>cel = an h\r 9 ! wat]-ov51 or "s o!r w>m place1 :5 ! pres5ce ( sulphur w be %[n by ! black5+ ( ! co94 ,( c\rse a sulphuris$ 8"o-ba?0 lea!r w give ! same reaction4 ,! lea!r mu/ n[ be dy$ & fat-liquor$4 ,:i* ( ^! two op]ations %\ld be fir/ und]tak5 w dep5d on circum/ances4 ,mo/ lea!rs dye m easily be=e fat-liquor+1 b z _m dyes are soluble 9 ! alkal9e fat-liquor1 a good deal ( col\r is (t5 lo/4 ,?is may be comp5sat$ by dissolv+ a suitable anil9e 7acid7 col\r 9 ! fat-liquor4 8,blueback+0 is g5]ally done be=e fat-liquor+ by drumm+ ) me?yl-violet1 or "s o!r anil9e col\r 7) or )\t logwood1 :i* gives alone a v d>k violet74 ,any %av+ or splitt+ requir$ mu/ ( c\rse be done be=e blueback+4 ,! fat-liquor is an emulsion ( soap & oil1 :i* = *rome lea!r %\ld be z neutral z possible1 if ! neutralis+ has be5 ?or\gh2 b if any acid be left on ! sk9s1 a neutral fat-liquor w be precipitat$ z a greasy mass4 ,?is c sometimes be rem$i$ by ! addition ( a little ammonia or borax1 or by re-fat-liquor+ ) soap solution only1 b if ! wa%+ ( ! sk9s has be5 incomplete1 & soluble *rome-salts rema91 ! mis*ief is almo/ irretrievable1 z /icky *rome-soaps are =m$1 (t5 col\r$ ) ! anil9e violet1 :i* adh]e to ! sk9s1 & :i* c sc>cely be remov$ by any solv5t :i* does n injure ! lea!r4 ,z reg>ds ! soaps & oils us$1 !re is consid]able latitude3 #a p] c5t4 ( ca/or-oil soap1 & p] c5t4 ( ca/or or olive oil on ! wet weight ( ! pelt has done good s]vice 9 my h&s1 b _m manufactur]s employ s(t soaps1 curd soaps1 etc41 ) ca/or1 olive1 cod or neatsfoot oil1 & sometimes sod-oil or degras4 ,eitn] consid]s olive-oil & olive-oil pota% soap ! mo/ suitable1 & p>ticul>ly w>ns aga9/ ! use ei!r ( dry+ oils or ( oils conta9+ tall[ 7su* z neatsfoot71 :i* are n only apt to cause a :ite effloresc5ce1 b to give ! lea!r a disagreeable rancid smell4 ,fi%-oils are unsuitable1 b m9]al oils are (t5 useful con/itu5ts ( fat-liquors4 ,wool-fat also makes a good fat-liquor1 b is unsuitable = goods :i* are to be glaz$4 8,turkey-r$ oil0 7:i* is sulphat$ ca/or7 may be us$ z a fat-liquor1 simply mix$ ) w>m wat]1 )\t soap1 & has be5 recomm5d$ :]e delicate col\rs are to be dy$ aft] fat-liquor+2 b x is said to h an unsatisfactory aft]-effect1 h>d5+ & t5d]+ ! lea!r4 ,"s soaps made f ! saponifiable "p ( wool grease1 su* z 8,lanosoap10 also act well 9 conjunction ) olive1 ca/or1 or o!r oils4 ,:]e lea!r is to be glaz$1 ! am\nt ( fat-liquor+ mu/ be kept v mod]ate4 ,fat-liquors %\ld be ?or\ghly emulsifi$1 & are g5]ally us$ w>m4 ,!y p5etrate bett] if ! lea!r is p>tially dri$ by sleek+ out1 or press+1 or cauti\s 8samm+10 b ! lea!r mu/ n be completely dri$ out be=e fat-liquor+ & dye+1 unless x has be5 previ\sly treat$ ) glyc]9e1 glucose1 treacle or "s deliquesc5t salt1 :i* w enable x to be wet back4 ,*rome lea!rs are n 8wat]pro(10 z has (t5 be5 /at$1 unless r5d]$ s by treatm5t ) soaps & greases1 & are app>5tly easily wett$1 b ! fibre w no long] absorb wat] aft] ?or\gh dry+1 & consequ5tly w nei!r dye nor /uff satisfactorily4 ,9 ord] to enable *rome lea!r to be kept 9 an undy$ condition1 glyc]9e or syrup is sometimes mix$ ) ! fat-liquor1 b z ! wat]y portion ( ?is is n g5]ally completely absorb$1 ! process is some:at wa/eful4 ,mr4 ,m4 ,c4 ,lamb avoids ?is difficulty by apply+ a solution ( glyc]9e to ! gra9-side ) a sponge aft] fat-liquor+4 ,9 ?is case ! lea!r may be dri$ suffici5tly = /ak+ or %av+ )\t risk4 ,*rome lea!r c be dy$ by _m ( ! acid anil9e col\rs )\t a mordant4 ,basic col\rs are only fix$ :5 ! lea!r has be5 fir/ prep>$ ) a vegetable tann91 gambi]1 or a mixture ( gambi] & suma* be+ ! mo/ suitable4 ,consid]able c>e mu/ be employ$ 9 ! application ( tann9s to *rome lea!r1 z !y h a t5d5cy to h>d5 x & dim9i% its /ret*1 or ev5 to r5d] x t5d]1 b traces ( tann9 9 ! dye probably facilitate glaz+4 ,be=e dye+1 x is advantage\s to fix ! tann9 ) t>t> emetic1 or = br[ns & yell[s1 ) titanium potassium oxalate solution1 :i* itself gives a good yell[-br[n ) tann94 ,9 place ( employ+ ! tann9 & titanium salt 9 two sep>ate ba?s1 !y may be comb9$1 us+ a weight ( ! gambi] or tann+ extract 7oakwood1 *e/nut1 etc47 ab\t equal to t ( ! titanium salt1 or titanium tanno-oxalate solution may be us$4 ,*rome lea!r may be dy$ ) ! v>i\s dye-woods1 :i* are mordant$ by ! *romium pres5t1 b ! col\rs are mo/ly dull1 t ( logwood be+ ne>ly black4 ,a good black ( a v p]man5t "* is obta9$ by dye+ ) logwood1 & sadd5+ ) a hot solution ( titanium oxalate 9 ! drum4 ,a little iron-alum add$ to ! *rome liquor 9 tann+ w facilitate dye+ ! sk9s black ) logwood & help x to p5etrate ?r\gh ! lea!r1 :i* is sometimes desir$4 ,sev]al anil9e blacks1 & notably ! 8corvol9es0 ( ! ,badis*e ,anil9 und ,soda ,fabrik1 ,casella's 8lea!r black ,c10 & ,claus ,re's *rome-black give v satisfactory blacks by bru%+ or dye+4 ,*rome sk9s may be glaz$ 9 ! ord9>y way ) blood or album5 mixtures "u glass or agate1 b require good pressure & repeat$ season+s & glaz+s1 & mu* c>e is requir$ 9 fat-liquor+4 ,! glaz+ is (t5 assi/$ by ! previ\s application ( b>b]ry juice 7p9e v9ette7 or ( lactic or t>t>ic acid solution ) a trace ( sug>4 ,mu* ( ! difficulty :i* has be5 exp]i5c$ 9 glaz+ *rome lea!rs is due ei!r to ! natural fat ( ! sk91 or to oils us$ 9 fat-liquor+ 9 excessive quantity or ( unsuitable "*4 ,,*apt] ,,xvi4 ,,pr9ciples ,,( ,,! ,,vegetable ,,tann+ ,,processes4 ,! processes employ$ 9 ! production ( lea!r ) ! vegetable tann+ mat]ials v>y extremely accord+ to ! class ( lea!r :i* is be+ produc$1 bo? 9 ! mat]ials select$ & 9 ! "t requir$4 ,9 sole-lea!r tann+1 :]e ?ick hides are us$1 & :]e diffusion is ! only =ce act+ to c>ry ! tann9 into ! hide1 _m mon?s are frequ5tly ne$$1 :ile ) ?9 sk9s1 & ) ! aid ( me*anical motion1 :i* circulates ! tann+ liquid betwe5 ! fibres1 ! process is (t5 complete )9 a few h\rs4 ,diff]5ces 9 ! /r5g? ( ! liquors accord+ to :e!r h>d or s(t lea!rs are to be produc$1 & ! mutual action ( ! acids naturally pres5t 9 ! liquors1 & ( ! tan1 h also a det]m9+ effect ^u ! quality ( ! product4 ,! simple/ =m ( tann+ 9 pr9ciple is probably ! old-fa%ion$ me?od ( sole-lea!r manufacture4 ,= ?is purpose1 ! hides are usually 8r\nd$0 or trimm$ aft] lim+1 unhair+ & fle%+1 s t ! mo/ valuable "p1 ! 8butt10 c be tann$ sep>ately f ! 8(fal40 ,! butts are usually wa%$ 9 wat] to remove a portion ( ! lime1 consid]able c>e be+ requir$ at ?is /age to avoid c>bonation & fixation ( *alk by means ( free c>bonic acid1 or hydric calcium c>bonate 7tempor>y h>dness7 9 ! wat] employ$1 or by ! free c>bonic acid ( ! air4 ,?is some:at primitive process c at be/ only remove a small portion ( ! lime1 s9ce s long z ! lime rema9s 9 ! cau/ic condition1 x is v ob/9ately held by ! hide-fibre4 ,advanc$ tann]s n[ frequ5tly employ weakly acid ba?s1 9 addition to wa%+1 9 ord] to produce m complete delim+1 & ?is effects a v consid]able improvem5t ( col\r 9 ! e>ly liquors4 ,! use ( lactic acid 7free f iron7 or boric 7boracic7 acid 9 solutions ( ab\t #d lb4 p] #ajj gallons1 9 :i* ! butts are kept 9 motion1 are among ! safe/ & mo/ satisfactory ways ( remov+ surface-lime & improv+ ! col\r1 b ev5 ! /rong] m9]al acids may be us$ successfully ) caution 7see ,*ap4 ,,xiii474 ,:e!r acid be us$ or n1 ! butts are n[ usually susp5d$ 9 deep pits conta9+ old & ne>ly exhau/$ tan liquors4 ,^! liquors conta9 a c]ta9 am\nt ( lactic & acetic acids1 d]iv$ by f]m5tation f ! sug>y matt]s ( ! tann+ mat]ials1 & also 9 "s cases1 weak acids orig9ally pres5t 9 ! mat]ials !mselves4 ,^! acids are mo/ important to successful tannage1 & _! effect is tw(old2 9 ! fir/ place1 !y neutralise & remove any lime :i* /ill rema9s 9 ! butts2 &1 secondly1 !y br+ ! butt into a slightly acid condition1 9 :i* x rema9s plump & swoll5 9 ! liquors1 :ile ! tann9 gradually p5etrates & tans ! fibre4 ,if1 z frequ5tly happ5s1 especially 9 mod]n y>ds :]e extracts are v l>gely us$1 ! natural acid ( ! liquors is n suffici5t = ?is purpose1 ! lime comb9es ) ! tann+ matt]s1 & ! butts ei!r become discol\r$ at once1 or d>k5 by exposure & oxidation1 :5 !y come to be dri$1 :ile ! pelt rema9s flat & insuffici5tly swoll54 ,to avoid ?is tr\ble1 resort is sometimes _h to artificial acidification ( ! liquors4 ,z a g5]al rule1 x may be /at$ t x does n answ] to mix ! /rong] m9]al acids directly ) ! liquors1 b lactic & acetic acids may be us$1 or ev5 oxalic acid may be add$ to ! susp5d]s 9 su* quantities z to precipitate & remove ! lime :i* !y conta91 sett+ free ! organic acids ) :i* x _h be5 comb9$4 ,! use ( oxalic acid %\ld nev] be pu%$ fur!r ?an ?is1 z x has a mo/ p[]ful swell+ action on ! hide2 & goods :i* are too mu* swoll5 by acids tan d>k & brittle4 ,aft] ! hides h rema9$ f t5 days to a =tnight 9 ! susp5d]s1 !y are usually laid 9 pits call$ 8h&l]s0 :i* are work$ 9 s]ies ( #f1 #h1 or #aj pits1 conta9+ ! same numb] ( packs ( goods4 ,! weake/ liquor f ! y\nge/ pack is run to ! susp5d]s daily1 a new & /rong] liquor is run to ! pit1 :i* n[ becomes ! head ( ! s]ies1 into :i* ! olde/ & mo/ tann$ pack ( butts is mov$2 & ! next takes its place & liquor1 & s on d[n ! s]ies1 ! y\nge/ pack f9ally occupy+ ! place :i* _h previ\sly be5 tak5 by ! la/ b "o4 ,9 ?is way ea* pack receives a *ange ( liquor ( regul>ly graduat$ /r5g?2 & dur+ ! "t :i* x rema9s 9 ! h&l]s1 passes f a /r5g? ( p]haps #bj ,bkr4 7sp4 gr4 #ajbj7 to "o ( ab\t #dj ,bkr4 7sp4 gr4 #ajdj74 ,dur+ ?is "p ( ! process ! butt is completely or ne>ly col\r$ ?r\gh1 & is !n ready = ! 8lay]s40 ,9 ! =w>d h&l]s1 du/+s ( gr\nd b>k or o!r tann+ mat]ial are v frequ5tly giv51 & ! lay]s only diff] f ^! 9 hav+ mu* heavi] du/+1 /rong] liquors1 & be+ all[$ to rema9 undi/urb$ = great] l5g?s ( "t1 rang+ f a week up to a mon? or ev5 six weeks1 z ! tannage progresses4 ,! h&l]-liquors are pr9cipally f ! old lay]s1 ?\gh !y are frequ5tly made up ) weak liquors f ! lea*es1 & /r5g!n$ ) extracts or gambi]4 ,v v>i$ mat]ials are us$ 9 ! manufacture ( sole-lea!r4 ,oak-b>k is "o ( ! olde/1 & z reg>ds quality "o ( ! mo/ satisfactory1 b x is co/ly1 n only on acc\nt ( its weakness 9 tann9 b f ! light weight ( lea!r :i* x gives4 ,valonia is "o ( ! fav\rite mat]ials1 giv+ heavy weight & a solid lea!r1 9 :i* x deposits a great deal ( bloom4 ,oakwood1 *e/nut-wood1 & hemlock-b>k extracts are n[ v l>gely consum$1 pr9cipally 9 /r5g!n+ ! lay]-liquors2 ! great object be+ n only to less5 ! co/ 9 mat]ial1 b to save "t1 & produce great] weight & firmness4 ,! lay]-liquors 9 "s y>ds :]e extract is us$1 rea* /r5g?s ( ev5 #abj to #aej ,bkr4 7sp4 gr4 #aab to #aae71 :ile 9 pure oak-b>k y>ds x is difficult to get above #cj or #ce ,bkr42 & ev5 ^! figures are only rea*$ by repeat$ly /r5g!n+ ! same liquor1 9 :i* l>ge quantities ( non-tann+ sub/ances accumulate4 ,! op9ion ( ! mo/ intellig5t tann]s is1 h[ev]1 t bett] results are atta9$ by a regul> *ange ( liquor1 ev5 if ! app>5t /r5g? is less4 ,:5 ! lea!r has rema9$ a suffici5t "t 9 ! lay]s to h atta9$ all ! weight & solidity ( :i* x is capable1 x is wa%$ up 9 a cle> & some:at weak] liquor or ev5 9 w>m wat]1 & tak5 into ! %$ to be dri$ & f9i%$4 ,z ?is f9i%+ is almo/ purely me*anical1 & sc>cely comes )9 ! scope ( ! pres5t volume1 a v brief sket* mu/ suffice4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ci4--,wilson's ,/rik+ ,ma*9e4 ,! mode ( f9i%+ :i* 0 =m]ly1 at lea/1 9 vogue 9 ,lanca%ire & ,*e%ire may be tak5 z a type ( ! be/ "w4 7,9 ! pres5t day1 ! v>i\s me?ods are s widely kn[n t !y h ceas$ to be local1 & are v>i$ accord+ to ! quality & tannage ( ! goods47 ,! butts1 :i* 9 e>li] times 7 l>gely b>k-tann$1 are tak5 wet f ! pits1 & sc\r$ on a r\nd$ beam or 8horse0 ) /one & bru%1 till ! bloom is completely remov$1 & are !n lightly oil$ on ! gra91 half dri$ 78samm$071 laid 9 pile to temp]1 & 8/ruck out0 ) ! 8p910 a two-h&l$ tool ( triangul> section %[n 9 ,fig4 #bi4 ,! use ( ?is tool has n[ be5 l>gely sup]s$$ by ,wilson's /rik+ ma*9e ,fig4 #ci1 9 :i* knives or sleek]s 7or /ones & bru%es71 held 9 jo9t$ arms1 are made to "w on ! butt1 :i* is ext5d$ ov] a sl[ly rotat+ cyl9d]4 ,! object ( ! p9n+ is n s mu* to remove bloom or dirt1 :i* has be5 previ\sly effect$ by ! sc\r+1 z to smoo? & flatt5 ! gra94 ,aft] fur!r dry+1 a second p9n+ is g5]ally giv51 & ! goods are !n twice roll$1 fir/ ) a light weight1 & some:at moi/ gra91 & !n m heavily ) ! gra9 ne>ly dry4 ,?is 0 =m]ly accompli%$ by a sort ( box or c>1 heavily load$ ) weights1 support$ on a smoo? brass roll] ( ab\t #e in*es diamet] & #i in*es long1 & manipulat$ ) a long wood5 h&le on a floor ( h>d wood1 or z9c plates4 ,"o type ( ! ma*9es :i* h n[ almo/ entirely replac$ ?is primitive contrivance is %[n 9 ,fig4 #dj1 b is pr9cipally us$ = (fal & common classes ( goods4 ,= bett] "w1 trav]s+ roll]s1 su* z ,wilson's +5i\s d\ble b$ roll] %[n 9 ,fig4 #da1 are to be pref]r$4 ,aft] roll+1 ! goods are dri$ pretty rapidly by ! aid ( mod]ate heat1 &1 aft] poli%+ ) a bru% 7h&1 or ma*9e1 ,fig4 #db71 are ready = sale4 ,x may be po9t$ out t al?\gh ! tools are diff]5t1 ! process is almo/ ! same z t us$ = 8va*e lisse0 9 ,france & ,belgium1 & closely resembles t ( curry+ h>ness lea!r except t ! 8/uff+0 ) fats & oil is omitt$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dj4--,(fal ,roll]4 ,9 contra/ ) ! r elaborate me?od j describ$1 we may place ! ,am]ican f9i% ( r$ hemlock sides1 :i* are tann$ ?r\gh\t ) a mat]ial :i* yields no bloom4 ,on ^!1 ! sc\r+ & 8/rik+0 is altoge!r omitt$3 ! goods are completely dri$ out f ! pits1 :i* is f\nd to fix ! d>k-col\r$ liquor1 & result 9 bett] col\r2 !y are !n damp$ back1 & temp]$1 & heavily roll$ "u a rapidly mov+ p5dulum roll]1 :i* poli%es at ! same "t t x smoo?s ! lea!r4 ,! sav+ ( co/ by s simple a process is n inconsid]able4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #da4--,wilson's ,d\ble-b$ ,butt ,roll]4 ,9 ! ,we/ ( ,engl&1 mu* heavy lea!r is /ill manufactur$ f ,s\? ,am]ican hides1 :i* are tann$ ) a l>ge proportion ( valonia2 & :i* consequ5tly are heavily bloom$4 ,no attempt is made to remove ?is bloom1 :i* w\ld too mu* less5 ! weight & firmness1 b ! goods1 aft] a light oil+ to pres]ve ! col\r1 are hung up & p>tially dri$1 & are !n laid 9 pile to temp]4 ,! gra9 side is n[ wet ) soap & wat]1 ) :i* a little oil is (t5 mix$1 & ! bloom is 8/ruck 90 ) ! p9 or ma*9e2 a some:at blunt p9 be+ us$1 or a blunt tool 9 ! /rik+ ma*9e2 :i* is held at su* an angle z to smoo? & compress ! gra9 )\t tak+ too mu* hold on x4 ,aft] a little fur!r dry+1 ! /rik+ is g5]ally repeat$1 ! goods are wa%$ ov] ) wat]1 & roll$ 8on40 ,!y are n[ col\r$ ) a mixture ( pigm5t col\r1 g5]ally conta9+ a l>ge proportion ( :it5+1 or sometimes ( ,fr5* *alk col\r$ ) o*res1 *rome-yell[ & orange1 or :atev] may suit ! t9t pref]r$ by ! tann]1 or be/ imitate ! col\r ( a clean-sc\r$ tannage1 & usually mix$ ) size & oil1 or sometimes ) oil & tan liquor4 ,?is mixture is well rubb$ 91 & smoo!d ov] ) a clo?1 & !n poli%$ by bru%+1 :5 ! goods are 8roll$ (f10 rapidly dri$1 & aga9 bru%$4 ,if ! "w has be5 well done1 x is n easy to di/+ui% f clean sc\r+1 & is mu* *eap]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #db4--;,bru%+ ,ma*9e4 ,a me?od int]m$iate betwe5 ?is & ! fir/ describ$1 & :i* 0 =m]ly mu* us$ 9 ,london1 0 to proce$ z above1 b us+ m wat] & hold+ ! p9 9 ! fir/ /rik+ s z to sc\r out z mu* bloom z possible1 & assi/+ ?is by ! free use ( wat] & ! bru%4 ,in/ead ( us+ an opaque pigm5t-col\r1 ! goods 7 g5]ally col\r$ ei!r betwe5 /rik+ & ! fir/ roll+1 or betwe5 ! two roll+s1 ) a transp>5t col\r1 su* z dissolv$ annatto1 or a mixture ( anil9e dyes1 s z to conceal ! traces ( bloom1 & to r5d] slight damages to ! gra9 less conspicu\s4 ,! pr9ciples ( ! manufacture h be5 fully expla9$ 9 previ\s sections1 up to ! "t :5 ! goods are tak5 into ! tann+ liquors4 ,at ?is /age complicat$ reactions take place betwe5 ! lime 9 ! butts1 ! free vegetable acids 9 ! liquors1 & ! tann9s2 & on ! "r adju/m5t ( ^! ?ree factors mu* ( ! success ( ! op]ation1 & inde$ ( ! :ole manufacture dep5ds4 ,if ! lime is 9 excess ( ! acids pres5t1 x =ms insoluble comp\nds ) ! tann9s 9 ! surface ( ! hide4 ,if ^! are protect$ f ! air1 !y are g5]ally r$issolv$ z !y advance into m acid liquors1 b !y readily become oxidis$ into d>k-col\r$ matt]s1 :i* c no long] be remov$4 ,_! pres5ce 9 ! f9i%$ lea!r is "o ( ! great causes ( d>k5+ 9 dry+4 ,if ! hide 9 ! limy condition has be5 expos$ ei!r to ! c>bonic acid ( ! air1 or to free c>bonic acid1 or acid calcium c>bonate dissolv$ 9 wat] 78tempor>y0 h>dness1 p4 #id71 a precipitate ( calcium c>bonate w be =m$ 9 ! surface1 :i* is mu* m difficult to remove ?an free lime1 & :i* is p]haps ! mo/ common cause ( ! /a9s & discolorations :i* are s s]i\s a s\rce ( loss to ! sole-lea!r tann]4 ,^! /a9s may1 if n too mu* oxidis$1 be remov$ by treatm5t ( ! tann$ lea!r ) weak w>m sulphuric acid1 b ?is rem$y br+s o!r evils 9 its tra91 & %\ld n be requir$4 ,! great rem$y is to keep ! goods f ! "t ( unhair+ till !y g into ! liquors1 "u wat] 9 :i* !re is always a trace ( cau/ic lime1 or :i* at any rate are free f c>bonic acid4 ,9 delim+ sole-lea!r ) acids1 x is be/ to give ! full dose ( acid requir$1 at once1 & n gradually1 s t x may act mo/ p[]fully on ! ext]ior1 & remove any c>bonates pres5t1 be=e x p5etrates to & becomes neutralis$ by ! excess ( lime 9 ! int]ior4 ,?is is exactly ! rev]se ( :at is advisable ) dress+ lea!r1 :]e ! object ( ! tann] is to remove lime z uni=mly & completely z possible1 )\t excessive acidity ( any "p4 ,( c\rse hides %\ld n1 ev5 9 ! case ( sole-lea!r1 be all[$ to g into ! liquors :ile any acid swell+ ( ! surface rema9s1 b ?is w soon disappe> if ! goods are susp5d$ = a "t 9 cold wat] aft] delim+1 unless excess ( acid has be5 us$ 7cp4 p4 #aec et seq474 ,if ! proportion ( free acid 9 ! susp5d] liquors is z x ought to be1 x is probably r advantage\s ?an o!rwise = a little lime to rema9 9 ! int]ior ( ! hide1 z x keeps ! pelt 9 a plump condition dur+ ! fir/ /ages ( col\r+1 quick5s ! p5etration ( ! tann91 & less5s ! t5d5cy to 8drawn0 or wr9kl$ gra91 :i* arises :5 ! goods g into ! liquors 9 a flat or fall5 condition4 ,! causes ( drawn gra9 are (t5 a little obscure4 ,( c\rse t case ne$s no elucidation 9 :i* ! hides are submitt$ to ! tann+ liquor 9 a creas$ or wr9kl$ condition1 :i* is simply fix$ & made p]man5t4 ,?is may arise1 ei!r f c>elessness 9 h&l+ ! goods be=e tak+ into ! susp5d]s1 or f ! way 9 :i* !y are slung to ! /icks1 :i* (t5 draws !m into long wr9kles1 aft]w>ds difficult to remove4 ,drawn gra9 9 g5]al1 h[ev]1 arises f ! gra9-surface becom+ tann$ & fix$ 9 area1 :ile ! sub/ance ( ! hide is 9 a m ext5d$ condition ?an t :i* x assumes z tannage proce$s4 ,hides 9 a flat & unswoll5 condition are ?9n]1 ! fibres are sl5d]] & loos] ?an :5 swoll51 & consequ5tly ! hide has a l>g] area4 ,if1 aft] ! gra9 is tann$1 ! sub/ance ( ! hide becomes contract$ 9 ! liquor1 ei!r by swell+ ) acids1 or by ! direct action ( ! tann9 on ! int]ior fibres1 ! gra9 is c]ta9 to be %rivell$1 l ! sk9 ( a dri$ apple4 ,a simil> effect1 produc$ 9 a me*anical way1 may always be not$ :]e a hide has be5 col\r$ hang+ gra9-side out ov] a pole1 s t ! surface is ext5d$ at ! b5d1 on :i* long wr9kles are =m$ z soon z x is /raight5$4 ,a hide 9 a slightly alkal9e condition col\rs1 & ev5 tans m quickly ?an "o :i* is acid4 ,9 pres5ce ( a trace ( lime1 & defici5cy ( free acid 9 ! susp5d] liquor1 tannages ( valonia & b>k give ! butt a sort ( lemon-yell[ col\r1 :i* is n 9 itself injuri\s1 & :i* disappe>s z ! hides advance into m acid liquors1 b :i* is a sign ( dang]1 z %[+ t no excess ( acid exi/s 9 ! susp5d]-liquors4 ,gambi] gives pelt p]fectly free f lime a pale buff col\r1 b :]e lime is pres5t1 ! col\r is always r$di%1 & mu* d>k]1 & ?is coloration does n disappe> s readily z t ) valonia1 s t if gambi] is to be us$ 9 ! fir/ liquors1 c>e %\ld be tak5 to remove all lime f ! surface4 ,! only kn[n tann9 :i* gives no insoluble comp\nd ) lime is t ( ! babool pod 7sometimes call$ 8gambia-pod071 :i* is frequ5tly us$ 9 ,india z a bate1 & :i* w\ld probably prove v useful 9 col\r+ liquors 7pp4 #afe1 #bhh74 ,:5 sole-lea!r fir/ goes into liquors1 x is g5]ally swoll5 ) lime to "s ext5t4 ,if ! liquors conta91 z !y usually d1 suffici5t free acid 7acetic1 lactic7 9 addition to ! tann9s1 ^! comb9e ) & neutralise ! lime1 & ! pelt1 )\t absolutely becom+ flat & ?91 loses its firmness1 & becomes s(t & spongy4 ,?is is a fav\rable condition = ! absorption ( tann91 b c>e %\ld be tak5 n to all[ ! pelt to be squeez$ or press$1 or wat] w be squeez$ out1 & ! pelt w n easily resume its plumpness4 ,z ! tannage proce$s1 bo? ! tann9 & ! acid ( ! liquors p5etrate deep] into ! pelt1 ! =m] t5d+ to contract & ! latt] to swell ! fibres4 ,?us a giv5 quantity ( acid w cause ! great] swell+1 ! less tann9 is pres5t2 & !re=e 9 /rong tann+ liquors m acid is requir$4 ,! pres5ce ( c]ta9 products ( bact]ial putrefaction has a great b unexpla9$ effect 9 prev5t+ hide f swell+ ) acids2 & 9 hot wea!r1 mu* bett] swell+ is obta9$ by /]ilis+ & delim+ ! hides ) "o ( ! coal-t> products m5tion$ on pp4 #cj1 #afb4 ,boric acid may also be satisfactorily us$ = ?is purpose1 b %\ld n be all[$ to get into sole-lea!r liquors1 z x t5ds to produce a s(t & loose tannage1 & f its inorganic & inde/ructible "*1 is apt to accumulate 9 a y>d 9 :i* x is us$4 ,! same reasons r5d] unadvisable its introduction into any liquors :i* are to be return$ to ! lea*es ev5 9 ! tannage ( dress+ lea!r1 ?\gh its pres5ce 9 ! col\r+ liquors is o!rwise v useful 9 less5+ ! a/r+5cy ( ! tann9s 78mell[+ ! liquors071 & mak+ a f9e gra94 ,its mode ( action is by no means cle>ly expla9$1 b is 9 "s way connect$ ) its t5d5cy to produce 8conjugat$ acids0 7,l4,i4,l4,b41 pp4 #cg1 #df74 ,! s-call$ 8mell[ness0 ( old liquors requires a ^w ( comm5t4 ,x is well kn[n to practical tann]s1 t old liquors are mu* less liable to produce drawn gra91 & a h>% surface1 :5 us$ to col\r gre5 goods1 ?an liquors1 ev5 equally weak1 :i* h be5 made f fre% mat]ials4 ,?is is probably due1 9 "p at lea/1 to m ?an "o cause4 ,mo/ natural tann+ mat]ials conta9 tann+ matt]s ( v>i$ degrees ( a/r+5cy & p[] ( atta*+ !mselves to ! lea!r-fibre4 ,x is obvi\s t if a tann+ liquor is us$1 ! mo/ a/r+5t & en]getic tann9s w be fir/ remov$ f x1 leav+ ^? ( a mild] "*4 ,x is also kn[n t ! pres5ce ( neutral alkal9e salts ( weak acids has consid]able influ5ce 9 produc+ mell[ness2 ! addition1 = in/ance1 ( sodium acetate has a m>k$ effect4 ,?is effect is probably due 9 ! fir/ place to ! action ( neutral salts 9 dim9i%+ ! en]gy ( weak acids 7see p4 #ha71 & secondly to ! fact1 t _! bases comb9e to "s ext5t ) ! tann9s2 & t1 z 0 p]haps fir/ po9t$ out by ! writ]1 su* tann9s are1 z x 71 p>tially p>alys$ 9 _! action on hide 7p4 #cci74 ,sodium sulphite acts p[]fully 9 ?is way1 & may p]haps prove ( te*nical value 9 tempor>ily dim9i%+ ! a/r+5cy ( liquors 9 quick tannage4 ,borax has a simil> effect1 b is too alkal9e1 &1 unless us$ ) extreme caution1 spoils ! col\r ( ! liquors by caus+ oxidation4 ,x is probable t simil> causes expla9 ! mell[ness ( palmetto extract1 :i* conta9s l>ge quantities ( alkal9e salts1 & ( "s extracts :i* h be5 treat$ ) sulphites1 :5 us$ undilut$ 9 drum tannage4 ,! addition ( free acid w g5]ally re/ore ^! tann9s to an active condition4 ,z ! tannage proce$s & p5etrates fur!r into ! hide1 ! liquors are us$ /rong]1 z ! outside1 once tann$1 is to a l>ge ext5t protect$ f _! action1 & x is only by cont9u\sly increas+ ! /r5g? ( ! liquors t m tann9 c diffuse into ! int]ior1 s9ce diffusion only takes place f a /rong] into a weak] liquor4 ,! liquor 9 ! int]ior ( ! butts is always exhau/$ ( tann9 s long z any "p ( ! hide-fibre rema9s untann$1 b z ! lay] ( tann$ fibre betwe5 ?is & ! outside gets ?ick]1 a great] diff]5ce is requir$ to ma9ta9 a reasonable rate ( ex*ange1 j z a great] head ( liquor is requir$ to ma9ta9 a fl[ ( liquor ?r\gh an increas$ numb] ( p]colation-lea*es4 ,if ! /r5g? ( ! liquor outside be all[$ to fall (f1 ?is graduation ( /r5g? f ! outside to ! inside ( ! butt is di/urb$1 & takes "s "t to re-e/abli%4 ,z ! liquors become /rong] 9 tann91 !y may also become some:at /rong] 9 acid1 s9ce1 z has be5 /at$1 ! two act to "s ext5t 9 opposition to ea* o!r4 ,! acid-swoll5 fibre absorbs ! tann9 m sl[ly ?an if x 7 9 m neutral condition1 b x absorbs x app>5tly 9 l>g] quantity1 & at any rate1 makes a firm]1 solid]1 & less flexible lea!r4 ,x has be5 m5tion$ t 9 ! latt] /ages ( ! process1 solid tann+ mat]ials are g5]ally /rew$ betwe5 ! butts 9 ! tann+ liquor4 ,x may be po9t$ out t _m mat]ials v>y 9 _! tann+ effect1 accord+ to :e!r !y are us$ 9 solid =m or m]ely 9 liquors4 ,x has be5 %[n by ,y\l & ,griffi?#abf t su* mat]ials z valonia1 oakwood & *e/nut extracts1 & myrobalans1 :i* conta9 bo? gallotannic & ellagitannic acids1 lose /r5g? rapidly :5 kept 9 ! =m ( liquor1 ! ellagitannic acid becom+ decompos$ ) sep>ation ( insoluble ellagic acid4 ,n[ x is j ?is ellagic acid1 :i* deposit$ 9 or on ! lea!r1 gives weight1 solidity & bloom1 & ! inve/igation po9ts out n only an important s\rce ( loss 9 ! tann+ indu/ry1 b also1 :y valonia1 :i* 9 sole-lea!r tannage is kn[n to give h>d & heavy lea!r1 c be us$ 9 l>ge quantities on dress+ lea!rs 9 ,york%ire1 ) gambi]1 9 ! =m ( liquor1 giv+ a s(t & mell[ lea!r almo/ de/itute ( bloom4 ,if weight & solidity are requir$ f ! use ( su* mat]ials1 x is obvi\s t !y mu/ be br\ght into imm$iate contact ) ! lea!r to be tann$1 s t z l>ge a "p ( ! bloom z possible is deposit$ 91 & n outside ! lea!r4 ,) _m o!r mat]ials1 su* z hemlock1 quebra*o1 & mimosa1 :i* yield no bloom1 b 8difficultly soluble0 tann9s 7r$s or phlobaph5es71 ! same rule holds1 s9ce 9 contact ) ! hides1 ! small proportion ( ^! mat]ials :i* is soluble 9 ! liquors1 is replac$ f ! mat]ials z rapidly z x is absorb$ by ! lea!r1 :ile1 :5 liquors or extracts only are us$1 ! great] "p ( ^! solidify+ & weight-giv+ con/itu5ts rema9 unutilis$ 9 ! sp5t tann+ mat]ials4 ,at ! same "t1 ! long 8lay]s0 af=d an opportunity = ! acetic & lactic f]m5tations to g on :i* are ! pr9cipal s\rce ( ! natural acidity ( liquors4 ,x mu/ be und]/ood t :at are call$ lay]s 9 ,engl&1 are n to be id5tifi$ ) ! ,stze1 b r ) ! ,v]s5ke ( ! ,g]man tann]1 ! =m] be+ lay]s giv5 9 mu* ! same mann] z 0 curr5t 9 ,engl& #aej ye>s ago2 9 :i* ! lea!r1 ) ?ick lay]s ( tann+ mat]ial betwe5 x1 is laid into ! empty pit1 :i* is aft]w>ds fill$ up ) liquor1 (t5 ( a comp>atively weak "*4 ,9 su* lay]s1 ! acidification1 & ! solidification ( ! lea!r bo? g on to a /ill great] degree2 ! acid =m$1 app>5tly gradually p5etrat+ to ! he>t ( ! lea!r-fibres1 & produc+ a solidity1 & *eesy texture :i* c h>dly be obta9$ by lay]s ( ! ,engli% k9d2 :i* nev]!less h ! advantage 9 rapidity & *eapness4 #abf ,j\rn4 ,soc4 ,*em4 ,ind41 #aija1 p4 #dbh4 ,9 dry+ sole-lea!r1 "o ( ! great objects :i* mu/ be aim$ at is to remove ! d>k col\r$ liquor1 ) :i* ! goods are saturat$1 f ! surface1 & to prev5t fur!r portions ( x f f9d+ _! way !re f ! int]ior4 ,if a /rip ( filt]-pap] be all[$ to re/ ) "o end 9 a bas9 conta9+ a little liquor1 & be plac$ 9 a draught ( air1 ! expos$ end ( ! pap] w rapidly become d>k br[n or black1 ! liquor :i* evaporates !re be+ con/antly replac$ by fre% portions suck$ up by capill>y attraction f ! bas94 ,a simil> action is con/antly se51 :5 filt]+ liquors ?r\gh pap]1 if ! latt] be all[$ to project above ! edge ( ! funnel4 ,precisely ! same effect occurs1 p]haps increas$ by ! oxidation ( ! tann9s1 on ! edges & o!r p>ts ( a butt :i* are mo/ expos$ to draughts ( air4 ,! use ( oil+ ! gra9 is n only1 to a c]ta9 ext5t to protect x f oxidation1 b also to *eck evaporation1 & ! consequ5t accumulation !re ( ! d>k-col\r$ solids conta9$ 9 ! liquor4 ,a v simil> result is atta9$ by wett+ ! gra9-side1 & all[+ z mu* ( ! evaporation z possible to take place f ! fle%4 ,! process ( sole lea!r tann+ has be5 discuss$ 9 consid]able detail on acc\nt ( its simplicity & importance4 ,x is n[ "t to po9t out 9 :at respects ! tannage ( ! light] lea!rs diff]s f x 9 pr9ciple4 ,tak+ ! case ( ord9>y dress+ lea!rs1 su* z kips & %av$ hides1 ! fir/ po9t to rememb] is t ^! goods come into ! liquors n m]ely almo/ entirely depriv$ ( lime by bat+1 b 9 a v flat & fall5 condition f ! action ( ! bact]ial f]m5ts ( ! bate4 ,z a g5]al rule 9 ?is c\ntry ! col\r+ is done 9 paddles1 b :]e a v smoo? gra9 is requir$1 ! use ( susp5d]s is to be recomm5d$1 & 9 ,am]ica is l>gely adopt$4 ,inde$ 9 ! ,/ates ! entire tannage ( mu* ( ! *eap] lea!r is done 9 susp5sion1 & ! sides are only remov$ f ! la?s to :i* !y h be5 nail$1 :5 !y are requir$ = splitt+4 ,x is obvi\s1 f :at has be5 said ( sole lea!r1 t z ! hides are br\ght into liquors 9 a v fall5 & ext5d$ condition1 ! gra9 w be likely to be wr9kl$2 & inde$ ?is is sure to be ! case unless1 by susp5sion1 ! hide is m or less kept 9 t5sion till its fibres are fix$ by tann+4 ,! free motion 9 ! paddle fav\rs ! =mation ( a 8pebbl$0 gra91 s9ce ! hide is b5t n[ ?is way1 n[ t1 & m9ute wr9kles & creases are =m$ 9 all directions4 ,= _m purposes1 & especially if a gra9 is aft]w>ds to be rais$ by 8bo>d+0 ! curri$ lea!r1 ?is gra9+ 9 ! paddle is n disadvantage\s1 s long z x is n excessive4 ,9 "s o!r cases x causes mu* tr\ble & lab\r to ! curri] be=e x is remov$1 & if ! ,engli% tann] & curri] are ev] to compete ) ! ,am]ican 9 smoo? gra9 f9i%es1 x w be necess>y = !m to obviate ?is s\rce ( wa/$ lab\r4 ,! gra9+ is ! less consid]able1 & ! easi] to remove1 ! weak] & m mell[ are ! liquors employ$ 9 col\r+ & ! m gradually _! /r5g? is increas$4 ,! production ( a s(t lea!r dep5ds on ! fibre be+ tann$ 9 a fall5 & unswell$ condition4 ,x is = ?is reason t bat+ is 9 _m cases ess5tial1 ?\gh :]e some:at firm] lea!rs are requir$1 m]e r$uction ( ! swell+ by removal ( ! lime is suffici5t4 ,= ! same reason1 no acid-swell+ is p]missible ei!r be=e tann+1 or 9 ! liquors1 & ?\gh liquors = s(t lea!rs mu/ be r acid ?an alkal9e1 !y are incapable ( remov+ any l>ge quantity ( lime1 & = ! be/ results1 ! delim+ mu/ be complete be=e tann+4 ,z m]e bat+ or pu]+ is ma9ly design$ to r$uce swell+ by ! action ( bact]ial products 7p4 #agb71 & is n a v effici5t means ( remov+ lime1 x is desirable :]e x is employ$1 to supplem5t x by "s m active delim+ process4 ,9 ! light] lea!rs1 dr5*+ 7p4 #aff7 g5]ally fulfils ?is purpose & _m ( ! m intellig5t tann]s n[ give bat$ hides a ba? 9 boric acid be=e tann+1 :i* n only removes ! la/ traces ( lime )\t acid-swell+1 b *ecks ! bact]ial f]m5tation1 & prev5ts its introduction into ! liquors4 ,9 gambi] tannages1 a decid$ly bett] col\r is obta9$ by ?is treatm5t 7p4 #bbh74 ,9 mo/ cases ! production ( bloom is n desir$ 9 dress+ lea!r tannage1 & is prev5t$ by rely+ *iefly on liquors1 & avoid+ ! use ( bloom-giv+ solid mat]ials1 :i* include mo/ pyrogallol tann9s4 ,dress+ lea!r tannages c frequ5tly be advantage\sly ha/5$ by drumm+3 :i* by cont9u\sly b5d+ ! lea!r 9 all directions1 con/antly wid5s & contracts ! spaces betwe5 ! diff]5t fibres1 &1 z x 71 pumps ! liquor ?r\gh ! sk94 ,! s(tness ( dress+ lea!rs is increas$1 & ! h>d5+ action ( acids pres5t 9 ! liquors is prev5t$ by ! addition ( salt1 or ( "s sulphates 7sodium1 magnesium1 ammonium7 :i* ex]cise a sort ( pickl+ action on ! fibre1 & prev5t its swell+1 b at ! same "t t5d to light weight & a some:at empty tannage4 ,x by no means foll[s t a hide or sk9 :i* is ?or\ghly col\r$ ?r\gh1 is really fully tann$2 z1 ?\gh ! fibres may be actually tann$ or coat$ on ! surface1 "t is requir$ = ! tann9s to p5etrate !m to ! c5tre4 ,?is incomplet5ess ( saturation is (t5 f\nd 9 drum tannages4 ,su* lea!rs are g5]ally t\gh1 & ga9 weight & s(tness 9 curry+4 ,9 ord] to 8c>ry grease0 well1 t is1 to absorb a l>ge quantity )\t appe>+ greasy1 x is ess5tial t ! fibre-bundles %\ld be ?or\ghly split up or diff]5tiat$2 & ! degree to :i* ?is is atta9$ l>gely dep5ds on ! ext5t ( lim+4 ,!re is also consid]able diff]5ce 9 diff]5t tannages1 z to ! am\nt ( grease :i* !y w c>ry4 ,x is n[ n uncommon to comb9e a degree ( alum or *rome tannage ) vegetable tannage 9 ! f9] dress+ lea!rs4 ,= fur!r in=mation on ?is ! read] mu/ be ref]r$ to ! next *apt]4 ,! f9e/ sorts ( lea!r su* z goat1 calf1 %eep & seal = bookb9d+1 uphol/]y & ! l1 are mo/ly tann$ ) suma*2 paddles & drums be+ l>gely us$ to quick5 ! op]ation4 ,lea!r tann$ ) suma* has be5 prov$ by ! rese>*es ( ! committee ( ! ,society ( ,arts on ! decay ( bookb9d+ lea!rs#abg to be ! mo/ durable lea!r = ?is purpose1 "s o!r tann+ mat]ials ( ! pyrogallol class com+ ne> x 9 ?is respect1 :ile all cate*ol tannages are f\nd peculi>ly liable to de/ruction by ! action ( sunlight1 dry heat1 gas fumes1 & traces ( sulphuric acid f o!r s\rces1 al?\gh 9 _m cases m durable ?an ! pyrogallol tannages :5 expos$ to me*anical we> & moi/ure1 z is ! case ) %oe-lea!r 7p4 #bih74 ,ea/ ,india %eep- & goat-sk9s 7s-call$ 8,p]sians07 are tann$ ) ! cate*ol tann9 ( turw> or cassia b>k4 #abg ,soc4 ( ,arts ,j\rn41 #aija1 p4 #ad4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #db;a4--,int]ior ( ,light ,lea!r ,tann]y4 ,! f9] lea!rs ( :i* we are n[ speak+ are almo/ inv>iably prep>$ = tann+ by pu]+ ) dog-dung1 & dr5*+ ) bran1 z col\r & s(tness are ! special *>act]i/ics aim$ at4 ,a some:at int]e/+ /yle ( tannage is occasionally us$ = %eep-sk9s 7roans71 & calf-sk9s1 9 :i* ! sk9 is sewn into a bag1 fle% side out1 ) only a small ap]ture left = fill+ at "o ( ! %anks4 ,x is !n turn$ gra9-side out1 & fill$ ) /rong suma* liquor1 & a little leaf suma*1 & float$ 9 a ba? ( w>m suma* liquor4 ,aft] a %ort imm]sion1 ! sk9s are pil$ on a /age1 s t ! liquor is press$ ?r\gh !m by _! weight2 & :5 p>tially empty1 !y are refill$ & ! process repeat$4 ,! "t ( tannage is v %ort1 n exce$+ ab\t tw5ty-f\r h\rs1 & ! lea!r produc$ is v s(t4 ,,*apt] ,,xvii4 ,,comb9ation ,,( ,,vegetable ,,& ,,m9]al ,,tannage4 ,9 v e>ly times lea!rs 7 produc$1 :i* 7 p>tly tann$ ) alum1 & p>tly ) vegetable mat]ials4 ,"o ( ! e>lie/ ( ^! 0 probably ! ,sw$i% or ,dani% glove-lea!r4 ,! pr9ciple has long be5 appli$ to ! production ( c]ta9 v t\gh & flexible lea!rs kn[n z 8gre5 lea!r10 & us$ = 8pick]-b&s0 = looms1 laces = belt+1 8comb+-lea!rs0 & "s o!r purposes :]e s(tness & t\ghness are ( pr9cipal importance4 ,ab\t tw5ty-five ye>s s9ce1 x 0 appli$ 9 ,am]ica by ,mr4 ,k5t to ! manufacture ( an imitation ( glaz$ kid1 :i* he nam$ ,dongola lea!r2 & s9ce t "t1 ! me?od 9 v>i\s modifications1 has tak5 a consid]able place 9 ! manufacture ( ! f9] lea!rs = %oe purposes1 especially 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,alum-tann$ lea!rs1 z has be5 already /at$1 are rem>kable = s(tness & t\ghness1 & ! m9]al 7cry/alloid7 tannages h ! p[] ( p5etrat+ & isolat+ ! individual fibrils ( ! sk9 9 a mu* great] degree ?an ! vegetable tann9s1 & h5ce are less dep5d5t ?an ! latt] on a previ\s isolation produc$ by lim+4 ,on ! o!r h&1 !y give mu* less plumpness & solidity1 & m liability to /ret*1 & are less resi/ant to ! action ( wat]2 & are1 z a g5]al rule 7to :i* "s *rome-tannages are an exception71 incapable ( produc+ a s(t lea!r )\t me*anical s(t5+ 7/ak+7 aft] ! tannage is complet$4 ,purely m9]al tannages h always a woolly fibr\s /ructure1 & nev] ! firm & compact fle% :i* is requir$ 9 lea!rs :i* are to be 8wax$10 or f9i%$ on ! fle% side to a smoo? surface1 & z !y communicate m or less ( ^! peculi>ities to comb9ation-tannages1 ! latt] are mo/ly us$1 ei!r = gra9-f9i%1 or = uses :]e a s(t & velvety fle%-side is requir$1 z 9 ! case ( 8ooze-0 or 8velvet-0 calf4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! p>tial use ( vegetable tannage communicates to !m a degree ( plumpness1 fulness & resi/ance to wat] :i* is n possible to alum-tannages pure & simple1 & a s(tness :i* is n easily obta9$ 9 vegetable tannage )\t ! use ( l>ge quantities ( fats or oils4 ,a prelim9>y m9]al tannage also greatly increases ! rapidity ( ! p5etration ( ! vegetable tans1 by isolat+ ! fibres1 & r5d]+ !m less gelat9\s4 ,once a lea!r is ?or\ghly tann$ by vegetable mat]ials1 x is little affect$ by subsequ5t treatm5t ) alum9a1 or ev5 ) *rome2 & on ! o!r h&1 ?\gh *rome & alum9a lea!rs are /ill capable ( absorb+ consid]able quantities ( vegetable tann9s1 !y always reta91 9 a degree1 ! qualities :i* ! m9]al tannage has communicat$ to !m4 ,! result+ lea!rs are ?us n only modifi$ by ! diff]5t proportion ( vegetable & m9]al tannages :i* h be5 giv51 & by ! prop]ties ( ! p>ticul> vegetable tannage us$2 b by ! ord] 9 :i* ! sev]al treatm5ts h be5 giv51 & always reta91 to a consid]able ext5t1 ! *>act]i/ics ( t :i* has be5 fir/ appli$4 ,we h ?us 9 our h&s a p[]ful means ( modify+ ! "* ( our lea!r to suit ! special requirem5ts :i* x is to fulfil4 ,s long z tann]s 7 re/rict$ on ! "o h&1 to ! ord9>y me?ods ( /uff+ tann$ lea!rs ) oils & fats1 & on ! o!r to ! use ( egg-yolk1 :i* _h long be5 common 9 alum-tannages1 comb9ation-tannage rema9$ ( b second>y importance1 & x 0 ! application ( ! me?od ( 8fat-liquor+0 by ,james ,k5t to 8 ,dongola lea!r1 :i* gave !m ! place !y n[ possess1 by provid+ a *eap sub/itute = egg-yolk1 & enabl+ ! tann] to obta9 s(tness & resi/ance to wat]1 )\t produc+ ! greasy feel :i* is common to curri$ lea!rs4 ,! process ( fat-liquor+ has already be5 m5tion$ 9 connection ) *rome lea!rs1 to :i* x 0 subsequ5tly appli$1 & we %all return to x1 aft] hav+ giv5 "s fur!r details ( ! me?ods ( tannage4 ,9 ! fir/ place we mu/ consid] briefly ! mutual action ( ! m9]al & vegetable tannages on ea* o!r4 ,x has be5 po9t$ out by ,eitn]1 & also m5tion$ 7p4 #cci7 9 connection ) ! decolorisation ( extracts1 t ! addition ( say p] c5t4 ( alum1 or alum9ium sulphate to tann+ liquors1 light5$ _! col\r1 n only by giv+ a degree ( acidity to ! solution1 b by precipitat+ a portion ( ! less soluble & m d>kly col\r$ tann9s4 ,*rome-alum1 & basic *rome salts produce a simil> effect1 ?\gh f _! m>k$ col\r1 ! light5+ ( ! solution is n s easily obs]v$4 ,x is !re=e advisable if ^! salts are to be us$ 9 actual mixture ) ! vegetable tans1 to all[ ! solution "t to subside1 or to filt] (f ! d>k-col\r$ precipitat$ matt]s4 ,l>g] quantities ?an p] c5t4 ( ! alum d n appe> mat]ially to increase ! effect j describ$4 ,a second effect produc$ by ^! m9]al salts on vegetable tann9s1 is 9 _m cases to develop mordant col\r+ matt]s :i* are pres5t2 & ?us1 s9ce mo/ ( ^! col\r+ matt]s are yell[1 to produce a yell[] lea!r ?an w\ld be obta9$ ) ! vegetable mat]ial alone4 ,?is effect is v m>k$ 9 ! cases ( suma*1 gambi] & quebra*o4 ,! comp\nds :i* ^! col\r+ matt]s =m ) *rome are mo/ly ( a d>k] %ade ?an ^? ) alum9a1 t5d+ to olive1 & !re=e *rome-comb9ation lea!rs are g5]ally dull 9 col\r4 ,potassium di*romate1 especially if acidifi$1 g5]ally oxidises & precipitates tann9s1 & d>k5s _! col\rs1 s t x is n practical to foll[ a vegetable tannage by ! two-ba? *rome process2 & ?\gh ! rev]se ord] may be pursu$1 ! s+le-ba? *rome process1 & t foll[+ & n prec$+ ! vegetable tannage1 g5]ally gives ! be/ results4 ,if lightly tann$ lea!rs1 su* = in/ance z ! import$ ,ea/ ,indian tannages1 ) babool or turw> b>ks1 be treat$ ) a basic *rome tann+ liquor1 su* z is describ$ on p4 #bae1 s l>ge a proportion ( *rome w be absorb$1 t ! lea!r w possess mo/ ( ! *>act]i/ics ( a g5u9e *rome lea!r4 ,comb9ation-tannages = glove-lea!rs1 su* z ! ,dani% & ,sw$i% lea!rs already allud$ to1 are g5]ally fir/ taw$ ) alum & salt1 ) or )\t addition ( fl\r & egg-yolk1 & are !n col\r$1 & m or less tann$ ) vegetable mat]ials4 ,t employ$ on ! orig9al ,dani% lea!r 0 will[ b>k 7( ,salix ar5>ia74 ,9 ,france1 :]e ?is will[ is n f\nd1 ! b>k ( ! common] ,salix caprea 0 sub/itut$2 & z x is mu* weak] 9 tann91 additions ( oak-b>k or suma* to supply ! defici5cy1 & ( madd] to give a r$d] col\r 7 made to x4 ,! dye+ ( ^! lea!rs is frequ5tly comb9$ ) ! tannage1 dyewoods or dyewood liquors be+ mix$ ) ! tann+ liquors4 ,9 ! manufacture ( glaz$ ,fr5* kid1 inde$1 ! process is s arrang$1 by bru%+ on dye-liquors mix$ ) tann9s1 z m]ely to tan ! gra9-surface1 :i* is necess>y to enable x to be glaz$ by friction1 leav+ ! sub/ance ( ! lea!r ( purely alum tannage4 ,on ! o!r h&1 9 ! 8gre5 lea!rs0 7s-call$ f _! gre5i%-yell[ col\r1 & l>gely made 9 ! ,we/ ,rid+ ( ,york%ire71 ! hides usually receive a light gambi] tannage1 ext5d+ ov] a week or s 9 weak gambi] liquors 9 h&l]s1 & are !n 8cur$0 by h&l+ 9 hot & /rong solution ( salt & alum1 9 :i* !y are f9ally left all night1 & !n dri$ rapidly )\t wa%+ out ! alum1 mu* ( :i* consequ5tly cry/allises on ! surface4 ,?is is slick$ (f1 & ! lea!r damp$ back1 & heavily /uff$ ) sod-oil4 ,if1 h[ev]1 ! comb9ation-tannage is prop]ly c>ri$ out1 x w /& lib]al wa%+ )\t los+ ! necess>y alum1 & ( c\rse a t\gh] & m satisfactory1 ?\gh some:at light] weigh+ lea!r results4 ,x is 9 _m cases a bett] plan to comb9e ! two tannages 9 "o ba?1 mix+ ! alum & salt ) ! gambi]1 & h&l+ or paddl+ ! goods 9 ! mixture4 ,?is is ! plan usually adopt$ = ,dongola lea!r1 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,= sk9s :i* are to be glaz$1 x is important t ! surface %\ld be tann$ ) ! vegetable mat]ial1 & ! goods are !re=e work$ into gambi] liquors1 to :i* ! salt & alum are only add$ aft] ! tannage has made "s little progress2 :ile = dull ,dongola1 int5d$ r to imitate calf-kid1 x is be/ = ! alum & salt tannage to beg9 fir/4 ,= goat-sk9s = glaz$ ,dongola kid1 ab\t #d lb4 ( block gambi]1 lb4 ( alum1 & lb4 ( salt are us$ p] doz51 & ! tannage occupies 9 all ab\t tw5ty-f\r h\rs4 ,aft] ! sk9s are tann$1 !y are ?or\ghly wa%$ out ) tepid wat]1 to remove loose alum & gambi]1 & are !n ready = fat-liquor+4 ,z 9 ! case ( *rome lea!r1 x is ( great importance t ?is wa%+ %\ld be done ?or\ghly1 z any rema9+ alum :i* diffuses into ! fat-liquor1 w cause x to curdle4 ,if ! wa%+ is ?or\gh1 ! m neutral ! fat-liquor & ! bett]2 b a some:at alkal9e soap-solution is less liable to curdle4 ,! orig9al fat-liquor us$ by ,mr4 ,k5t 0 ! alkal9e liquor :i* _h be5 us$ 9 wa%+ ! surplus oil f *amois lea!r 7see p4 #chj71 b n[ soap- & oil-solutions are g5]ally made specially = ! purpose4 ,mo/ ( ! rem>ks 9 ! *apt] on *rome tannages are applicable 9 ?is case1 b probably fat-liquor+ is some:at easi] ?an 9 ! case ( *rome4 ,mixtures ( ei!r s(t soap or curd soap ) cod1 sod1 & olive oil are frequ5tly employ$4 ,sesame oil also seems well adapt$ = ! purpose4 ,! bett] ^! are emulsifi$1 & ! m satisfactory is ! result2 a cyl9d] ( z9c or copp] fitt$ ) a plung]1 some?+ l t ( a 8,lightn+ ,egg ,beat]10 b cov]$ ) p]=at$ z9c1 or wire gauze1 does v good s]vice z an emulsifi] on a small scale4 ,ano!r me?od is to melt ! soap ) j suffici5t wat] to make x pa/y1 & to incorporate ! oil ?or\ghly ) ! mass1 :i* is aft]w>ds dissolv$ 9 hot wat]4 ,oils are ! mo/ easily emulsifi$ :5 !y are some:at acid4 ,= ?is reason rancid olive oils are (t5 us$ = ! ,turkey-r$ process1 b a simil> effect c be obta9$ by add+ a small quantity ( c&lemak]'s oleic acid to ! oil be=e mix+4 ,! addition ( sulphat$ ca/or oil 7,turkey-r$ oil7 also helps emulsification1 & is 9 itself a v good s(t5+ ag5t4 ,"o ( ! commone/ mi/akes 9 fat-liquor+ is ! employm5t ( too /rong an emulsion--ev5 s small a quantity z p] c5t4 ( soap1 & half t quantity ( oil1 reckon$ on ! wet weight ( ! well-dra9$ lea!r1 w produce a v notable s(t5+ effect4 ,( c\rse1 = dull f9i%es1 mu* l>g] proportions may be us$4 ,n only comb9ation-tannages1 b ^? entirely vegetable1 c be fat-liquor$ ) excell5t effect1 & ! process is n[ l>gely us$ = col\r$ calf1 & o!r lea!rs1 :i* are requir$ s(t & n\ri%$1 b )\t any appe>ance ( greas9ess4 ,lea!rs absorb ! fat-liquor mo/ readily if put into x 9 a samm$ or p>tially dri$ condition1 b ev5 if q wet1 !y soon take up ! :ole ( ! oil & soap on drumm+1 leav+ only a little cle> wat] 9 ! drum4 ,goods may be black$ :ile /ill wet ) fat-liquor1 b %\ld g5]ally 7except 9 ! case ( *rome lea!rs7 be dri$ out be=e dye+1 z ?is fixes ! oil & soap 9 ! fibres4 ,_m col\r$ lea!rs are n[ made by a process :i* may be consid]$ a comb9ation ( ! ,dongola process itself ) ! ord9>y process ( vegetable tann+1 ! goods be+ col\r$ & p>tially tann$ z if = a vegetable tannage1 & !n f9i%$ 9 ,dongola liquors ) alum1 salt & gambi]4 ,v good lea!rs are made 9 ?is way 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ) a tannage begun 9 susp5sion 9 hemlock b>k liquors4 ,imitations ( ,dongola lea!r are made by treat+ ,ea/ ,india %eep or goat ) alum liquors1 & aft]w>ds fat-liquor+ 7if necess>y7#abh & f9i%+ l g5u9e ,dongola lea!r4 ,! treatm5t is mo/ effective1 if a portion ( ! orig9al tan be remov$ by wa%+ ) w>m wat]1 ) a little borax1 ammonia1 or ev5 soda1 & ! goods !n alum$ ) a 8neutralis$0 or basic alum solution su* z t describ$ on p4 #ahg4 ,goods treat$ ) a basic *rome-liquor1 l t us$ = ! "o-ba? *rome process1 p4 #bab1 are almo/ conv]t$ into *rome-tann$ goods1 & w ev5 /& "s degree ( boil+4 ,! use ( a liquor made l ! ,m>t9-,d5nis liquor1 by dissolv+ *romic oxide 9 hydro*loric acid1 0 ! subject ( an ,am]ican pat5t#abi :i* 9 ?is c\ntry is own$ by ,wi*ell[ & ,tebbutt1 b :i* expires 9 #aijc4 #abh ,ea/ ,india %eep & goat are g5]ally s heavily oil$ ) sesame oil 7up to #cj p] c5t4 ( _! weight71 t x is desirable 9 _m cases r to dim9i% ?an increase ! oil1 :i* may be done by wa%+ ) soap solutions1 pref]ably be=e alum+4 #abi ,eng4 ,pat4 ,j5s5 #acabf1 #ahhi4 ,*rome-comb9ations may also be made by retann+ goods tann$ by ei!r ( ! *rome processes ) vegetable mat]ials1 ( :i* gambi] seems ! mo/ suitable4 ,! use1 ev5 ( v weak liquors ( suma* & mo/ o!r tann+ mat]ials1 deprives *rome lea!r ( its /ret*1 & if c>ri$ to excess1 readily makes x h>d & t5d]4 ,,*apt] ,,xviii4 ,,vegetable ,,tann+ ,,mat]ials4 ,z has be5 /at$ 9 ! previ\s *apt]1 our k ( ! *emi/ry ( tann9s is n suffici5tly advanc$ to r5d] possible any /rictly *emical classification1 :ile an additional complication arises f ! fact t v diff]5t tann9s may coexi/ 9 ! wood1 b>k1 fruit1 galls1 etc4 ( ! same plant4 ,x !re=e seems be/ to foll[ ! example ( ,pr(4 ,b]n>d9 9 8 #8,classification de #cej matires tannantes1'#acj & arrange ! plants "u ! ord]s ( ! natural sy/em ( botany1 z has already be5 done by von ,hhnel#aca & ,a4 de ,l(4#acb ,9 ! foll[+ pages1 only ^? mat]ials :i* f _! high p]c5tage ( tann91 or f "s o!r cause1 are ( comm]cial int]e/ or value1 are includ$1 z ! tann9s are s widely di/ribut$ 9 ! vegetable k+dom1 t any exhau/ive li/ w\ld be q out ( ! "q4 #acj ,g&1 #ahhj4 #aca #8,die ,g]b]9d51' ,b]l91 #ahhj4 #acb #8,matires tannantes1' ,halle aux ,cuirs1 ,p>is1 #ahij4 ,see also #8,agricultural ,l$g]1' #aijb1 ,no4 #a 7,gov]nm5t ,pr9t+ ,(fice1 ,calcutta1 #f;d471 by ,mr4 ,d4 ,hoop]1 :i* conta9s mu* valuable in=mation4 ,tann9s are n conf9$ to any p>ticul> "p ( ! plant1 ?\gh !y are usually mo/ abundant 9 b>ks & fruits4 ,insect-galls are (t5 v ri* 9 tann91 usually gallotannic acid2 :ile 9 sev]al cases woods are ( comm]cial importance f _! *eapness1 ?\gh ! p]c5tage ( tann9 !y conta9 is n g5]ally high4 ,! function ( tann9s 9 ! vegetable economy is n well und]/ood4 ,9 "s cases !y are probably a wa/e product ( plant-life1 & may help to w>d (f attacks ( insects4 ,!y usually exi/ z cell-cont5ts1 & z vegetable cells h frequ5tly ?ick & imp]meable walls1 & ! diffusive p[] ( tann9s is l[1 mu* "t is requir$ = extraction1 unless ! cells h be5 previ\sly cru%$ or brok54 ,x w\ld be beyond ! scope ( ?is text-book to describe 9 detail ! /ructures ( ! tann9-yield+ p>ts ( plants2 b b>ks are ( su* g5]al importance1 t "s p>ticul>s seem desirable4 ,! detail$ /ructure ( b>k v>ies greatly 9 diff]5t trees1 ?\gh its g5]al pr9ciples rema9 unalt]$4 ,"o ( ! be/ %ort acc\nts ( ^! is giv5 by ,pr(4 ,h4 ,m>%all ,w>d on page #aii ( 8 little book on #8,timb] & "s ( its ,diseases1'#acc & fur!r in=mation may be f\nd 9 ,van ,tieghem's #8,trait de ,botanique' & o!r works on /ructural botany4 #acc ,macmillan ,co4 ,) reg>d to detail$ /ructure ( v>i\s tann+ b>ks1 #8,die ,g]b]9d5' ( von ,hhnel#acd is "o ( ! be/ au?orities4 #acd #8,die ,g]b]9d51' ,b]l91 #ahhj4 ,! inn] surface b>k ( a "y tree1 or twig1 consi/s ( a lay] ( s(t & liv+ cells re/+ on ! out] surface ( ! wood1 & call$ ! cambium4 ,^! cells multiply by division 7cp4 p4 #ab7 & produce f _! inn] surface ! successive annual lay]s ( wood1 & on _! out] a fibr\s tissue call$ ! ba/ 7phloem71 consi/+ ( l5g!n$ cells1 & tubes ) p]=at$ divisions 7sieve-tubes7 :i* convey sap1 & mo/ly run 9 ! direction ( ! bran*1 b are cross$ transv]sely by cells 9 a l9e ) ! m$ull>y rays ( ! wood4 ,all ^! cells :5 fir/ produc$ 9 ! cambium-lay] h ?9 & s(t cellulose walls1 b ! inn] lay] =m+ ! wood becomes lignifi$1 or h>d5$1 by deposits ( lign9e on ! int]ior ( ! cell-walls1 :ile _! cont5ts ( liv+ protoplasm disappe>4 ,! out] lay] =m+ ba/ rema9s mu* s(t] & m fibr\s1 & reta9s its vitality long]4 ,! out] surface ( ! "y bran* is cov]$ by a ?9 lay] ( flat cork-l cells =m+ ! epid]mis1 develop$ f ! gr[+ tissue ( ! bud1 b5ea? :i* is a lay] ( gr[+ cells frequ5tly call$ ! cork-cambium4 ,?is produces1 on its inn] side1 a lay] ( s(t1 juicy1 ?9-wall$ cells 7p>5*ym71 :i* are liv+ & capable ( gr[?1 & conta9 protoplasm & (t5 *lorophyll1 to :i* ! gre5 col\r ( "y twigs is due4 ,?is lay] at fir/ re/s on ! ba/4 ,on ! out] side1 ! cork-cambium produces corky lay]s b5ea? ! epid]mis4 ,! section ( an oak-twig is %[n 9 ,fig4 #dc4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dc4--,section ( ,oak ,twig1 drawn by ,pr(4 ,ba/93 c1 corky lay]2 t1 tann9-cells2 ,/1 /one-cells2 ,ca1 cambium2 ,mr1 m$ull>y ray2 ,p1 pi?4 ,z ! tree gr[s1 x is obvi\s t ! corky epid]mis :i* gr[s 9 ?ickness1 b n 9 bread?1 mu/ become di/5d$ & f9ally ruptur$4 ,9 "s cases ! surface is r5ew$ by fre% corky lay]s con/antly develop$ bel[ x1 & !n ! b>k rema9s smoo? & unfurr[$1 z 9 ! bee* & "y oak1 or 9 ! bir*1 f :i* ?9 corky lay]s are cont9ually peel+2 or x may produce a ?ick lay] ( cork1 z 9 ! cork-oak4 ,9 _m cases1 & especially 9 old] trees1 ! out] or prim>y lay] ( cork-cambium ultimately dies = want ( n\ri%m5t1 & a fre% cork-produc+ lay] is develop$ 9 ! /ill liv+ p>5*ym4 ,z cork is practically air- & wat]-pro(1 ! new lay] cuts (f f its s\rce ( n\ri%m5t & kills all ! p>5*ym ext]ior to x4 ,9 "s cases ?is peels (f1 z 9 ! ,ori5tal plane 7,platanus71 b usually x =ms a con/antly increas+ coat ( dead tissue =m+ ! 8ross0 or 8crap0 7,g]4 ,borke71 :i* z x _c increase 9 bread?1 becomes deeply fissur$ z ! tree becomes old4 ,9 "s cases ! new gr[+ lay] or second>y cork-cambium =ms a complete coat+ p>allel ) ! fir/1 b m (t5 x consi/s ( a s]ies ( arcs convex t[>ds ! tree & cutt+ ! prim>y cork-cambium at v>i\s places1 s z to divide ! tissue outside itself into scales4 ,lat] on ! process repeats itself1 new arcs =m+ inside ! fir/1 & cutt+ (f fur!r portions ( ! p>5*ym4 ,9 ?is way ! cork-=m+ lay] gradually s9ks deep] & deep] into ! b>k1 till x frequ5tly passes ev5 into ! ba/-lay]1 & v complicat$ arrangem5ts ( tissue result1 9 :i* corky lay]s f ! second>y cork-cambium are int]sp]s$ ) ba/-cells & sieve-tubes4 ,z a rule ! out] & dead "p ( ! b>k conta9s b little tann91 ?\gh to ?is !re are exceptions1 z1 = in/ance1 9 ! hemlock & ,aleppo p9es4 ,x always conta9s a l>ge proportion ( d>k col\r+ matt]s 7r$s1 phlobaph5es1 p4 #big74 ,cork consi/s ( ?91 & (t5 r\ghly cubical cells1 :i* are fill$ ) air1 :ile tann9 is usually conta9$ 9 some:at simil> cells ) ?ick] walls4 ,! walls ( _m vegetable cells are p]=at$ ) f9e holes1 & become ?ick5$ by int]nal deposits ( h>d ligne\s matt] :i* sometimes almo/ fill ! entire cell 78/one-cells074 ,b>k-cells (t5 conta9 />*-granules1 frequ5tly ( peculi> & *>act]i/ic =ms 7:i* are easily recognis$ by ! blue col\r produc$ on treat+ ! prep>ation "u ! microscope ) a drop ( a solution ( iod9e 9 potassium iodide71 z well z cry/als ( oxalate ( lime & o!r matt]s4 ,^!1 & ! =m & arrangem5t ( ! cells z se5 9 sections "u ! microscope1 =m useful m>ks ( recognition ( ! v>i\s b>ks4 ,tann9 is mo/ easily detect$ by /a9+1 be=e cutt+ sections1 ) a solution ( f]ric *loride 9 absolute alcohol4 ,ap>t f microscopic *>act]i/ics1 ! ext]nal appe>ance ( b>ks1 bo? to ! nak$ eye & by ! aid ( a l5s1 =ms a valuable means ( recognition4 ,! arrangem5t ( ! ba/ & corky lay]s1 ! rema9s ( epid]mis1 or ! =m & "* ( ! fissures1 & ( ! l5ticels or small corky protub]ances :i* take ! place ( /omata 9 ! epid]mis1 %\ld be obs]v$4 ,space does n p]mit ( any detail$ acc\nt ( ! /ructure ( fruits1 wood & leaves1 :i* are also cellul> /ructures 9 _m respects resembl+ ! b>k4 ,! cuticles ( leaves1 & especially ! /omata or brea?+ pores1 & ! hairs are (t5 v *>act]i/ic4 7,cp4 ,plates ,,iii4 & ,,iv41 & p4 #bgb47 ,valuable h9ts may also be obta9$ f ! *emical reactions :i* are describ$ on p4 #gj et seq41 ,l4,i4,l4,b4 ,,botanical ,,li/ ,,( ,,tann+ ,,mat]ials4#ace #ace ,! p]c5tage ( tann9 giv5 :]e ! s\rce ( in=mation is n /at$ mu/ 9 _m cases be reg>d$ z unc]ta91 _m analyses hav+ be5 made be=e ! introduction ( mod]n me?ods1 b ^? quot$ z hav+ be5 done 9 ! au?or's laboratory are ( rec5t date & h be5 made by ! late/ me?ods4 ,,conif]1 ,p9es1 ,cypresses1 mo/ly conta9+ ,cate*ol tans1 yield+ r$s4 ,abies excelsa1 ,lam4 7,p9us ,abies1 ,p9us ,picea1 ,picea vulg>is1 ,l9k471 ,norway ,spruce4 ,fr4 ,faux sap92 ,g]4 ,fi*te1 ,rottanne4 ,! s\rce ( ! s-call$ l>*-extract1 & a pr9cipal tann+ mat]ial ( ,au/ria4 ,conta9s #g-ac p] c5t4 ( a cate*ol-tann9 & mu* f]m5table sug>1 & on ?is acc\nt is useful = swell+ & col\r+1 b does n tan heavily4 ,engli% & ,sc&9avian b>k does n seem mu* utilis$4 ,be/ b>k #b-h mm4 ?ick2 smoo?1 yell[ inside1 ) r$di%-br[n ross outside4 ,= detail$ description ( /ructure see von ,hhnel1 #8,die ,g]b]9d51' p4 #ce4 ,abies pect9ata1 ,silv] ,fir4 ,fr4 ,sap92 ,g]4 ,edeltanne1 ,silb]tanne1 ,weis/anne4 ,us$ to a limit$ ext5t1 b apt to be confus$ ) spruce4 ,conta9s #f-ae p] c5t4 iron-blue+ tann94 ,us$ 9 ,/yria1 ,au/ria1 ,russia4 ,)\t 8ross10 b silv]-grey & smoo? outside4 7,von ,hhnel1 #8,die ,g]b]9d51' p4 #dj2 #8,g]b]1' #ahge1 p4 #cge47 ,abies 7,p9us1 ,tsuga7 canad5sis1 ,hemlock ,fir 7,fig4 #dd74 ,! pr9cipal ,am]ican tann+ mat]ial1 & s\rce ( hemlock extract2 av]ages #h-aj p] c5t4 ( a cate*ol-tann91 b v>iable1 #ah p] c5t4 report$1 possibly f a diff]5t species4 ,abundant 9 ,canada & ! ,nor!rn & ,nor?-we/]n ,/ates ( ,am]ica4 ,! b>k ( old trees1 :i* is pr9cipally us$ = tann+ & extract-mak+1 is #b-d cm4 ?ick1 smoo? & yell[ )91 greyi% & deeply fissur$ )\t4 ,! ross1 :i* is r$ & ?ick1 conta9s a consid]able quantity ( tann91 ) mu* d>k-r$ phlobaph54 ,x does n diff] 9 /ructure f ! inn] liv+ & yell[ 8fle%40 ,! b>k is easily recognisable by its well-m>k$ concave lamell ( cork1 cutt+ (f successive lay]s ( 8ross0 ( sev]al millimetres 9 ?ickness4 7,von ,hhnel1 ibid41 p4 #db47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dd4acf--;,hemlock ,fir 7,tsuga canad5se74 #acf ,ba/9 & ,trimble's ,am]ican ,conif]1 ,am]ican ,j\rnal ( ,ph>macy4 ,abies alba 7,picea alba71 ,:ite ,spruce1 ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,9 "* ( tree & b>k v simil> to ,norway spruce4 ,l>ix europa ,d4,c4 7,abies or ,p9us ,l>ix71 ,l>*4 ,fr4 ,mlze2 ,g]4 ,lr*e4 ,conta9s #i-aj p] c5t4 pale cate*ol-tann91 mild & suitable = light lea!rs4 ,us$1 especially 9 ,scotl&1 = basil tannage4 ,p9us halep5sis1 ,aleppo ,p9e4 ,an important tann+ mat]ial ( ! ,m$it]ranean coa/s4 ,! out] b>k1 /ripp$ l cork f ! liv+ tree 7,scorza or ,cortegia rossa71 is a deep r$ tannage1 & conta9s ab\t #ae p] c5t4 ( tann9 v simil> to hemlock4 ,x is l>gely us$ 9 ! isl& ( ,syra4 ,! inn] & fle%y "p ( ! b>k1 only obta9$ :5 ! tree is cut1 is ,sn\b> or ,snob> b>k1 conta9+ up to #be p] c5t4 ( light] col\r$ tann94 ,?is b>k is r$di% br[n1 & pretty smoo? on bo? sides1 except = %ell-l depressions on ! out] surface4 ,! 8scorza rossa0 is d>k r$-br[n int]nally1 grey & irregul> outside1 frequ5tly v ?ick1 & divid$ into successive lay]s ( #a-b mm4 ?ickness by cork lamell4 7,von ,hhnel1 ibid41 p4 #dd47 ,9 appe>ance ! tree resembles ! ,scot* fir4 ,p9us tda1 ,am]ica2 ,p4 ,l>icio1 ,au/rian ,p9e2 ,p4 m>itima1 ,m$it]ranean2 ,p4 ,cembra1 ,alps1 ,tyrol1 #c-e p] c5t42 ,p4 sylve/ris1 ,scot* ,fir4 ,g]4 ,kief]2 ,fr4 ,p9 sauvage1 #d-e p] c5t4 ,p4 longifolia ,roxb41 ,india1 #aa-ad p] c5t4 ,junip]us communis1 ,junip]4 ,b>k us$ 9 ,russia4 ,podoc>pus elongata & ,?unb]gii1 ,cape ( ,good ,hope2 ,geelh\t1 ,yell[ woods4 ,phyllocladus tri*omanoides1 ,new ,zeal&2 ,tanekahi1 ,t>sekahi1 ,kiri-toa-toa1 8,gold5 ,tan40 ,us$ 9 dye+ glove-lea!r4 ,tann91 #cj p] c5t41 gives gre5 blacks ) iron4 ,p4 aspl5ifolia1 ,tasmania1 ,cel]y-topp$ ,p9e2 #bc p] c5t4 ,phyllocladus belongs to ,yew family4 ,,liliace4 ,scilla m>itima1 ,squill4 ,tann9 /at$ f #b-bd p] c5t4 ,m valuable = ph>macy4 ,,palm4 ,areca cate*u1 ,betel-,nut ,palm ( ,india4 ,yields a species ( cut* ( no importance = tann+4 ,sabal s]rulata1 ,saw ,palmetto ( ,florida 7,trimble74 78,dw>f0 palmetto is ,s4 ,adansonia47 ,palmetto root has be5 mu* talk$ ( z a tann+ mat]ial2 & makes a light-col\r$ lea!r4 ,an extract is n[ made f ! roots ( ! ,saw ,palmetto1 :i* gr[s freely 9 ! ,s\!rn ,/ates ( ,am]ica1 & is especially abundant on ! ea/ coa/ ( ,florida4 ,! plant is an ev]gre51 ! /em gr[+ flat along ! gr\nd1 be+ held 9 place by num]\s roots ea* ! size ( a pipe-/em4 ,! leaves are fan-%ap$ & ribb$1 & two to ?ree feet 9 diamet]4 ,9 its h>dihood ! palmetto resembles a we$1 z ! leaves may be cut (f q close to ! /em )\t damag+ ! plant1 :i* w gr[ freely on poor s&y l& :i* is wor?less = o!r purposes4 ,! av]age yield is /at$ to be ab\t #aj cwt4 to ! acre1 b 9 good seasons & ) ri* l&1 ov] a ton p] acre has be5 obta9$4 ,! air-dri$ leaves conta9 ab\t #ac p] c5t4 ( tann91 b ! results obta9$ by diff]5t *emi/s v>y f #e to #bj p] c5t4 ,possibly ^! v>iations are caus$ by ! diff]5t am\nts ( moi/ure 9 ! v>i\s samples4 ,! leaves mu/ be treat$ ) a solution ( cau/ic soda1 to remove ! glossy silice\s %ield :i* cov]s !m & prev5ts _! be+ easily extract$4 ,aft] ! tann+ matt] has be5 extract$ ! rema9+ fibre c be pr(itably dispos$ ( to pap] & rope manufactur]s4 ,z ! supply ( palmetto is v l>ge x is likely t x w1 to a consid]able ext5t1 sub/itute ! employm5t ( gambi]1 & 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ! extract has already met ) a consid]able sale4 ,samples ( ! extract exam9$ by ! ,au?or analys$ f #af-bb p] c5t4 ( tann+ matt]1 & sev]al p] c5t4 ( m9]al matt]1 & produc$ a v s(t & mell[ lea!r ( good col\r4 ,! extract conta9s noticeable quantities ( common salt1 & organic salts ( soda :i* leave sodium c>bonate on ignition4 ,cocos nucif]a1 ! ,cocoa-nut ,palm1 also conta9s tann9 9 roots4 ,,casu>94 ,casu>9a equisetifolia ,l4 7lat]ifolia ,lam472 ,filao b>k1 ,reunion2 ,tjam>a laut1 ,java2 ,casagha or ,t9ian ,p9e1 ,ceylon4 ,widely di/ribut$ 9 ,s\!rn ,asia1 b>k us$ = tann+ & dye+4 ,tann9 gives blue-blacks ) iron4 ,sev]al o!r species v simil> 9 /ructure & prop]ties4 7,von ,hhnel47 ,hoop] f\nd #aa-ah p] c5t4 ( tann94 ,,myricace4 ,myrica ,gale1 ,sweet ,gale1 or bog-myrtle4 ,myrica 7,comptonia7 aspl5ifolia1 ,u4,s4,a42 8,sweet ,f]n40 ,cov]s millions ( acres 9 ,mi*igan4 ,yields #dj p] c5t4 ( 8extract40 ,leaves #d-e p] c5t41 roots #d-f p] c5t4 tann91 accord+ to season 7,trimble74 ,has be5 mu* talk$ (1 b 9 ,pr(4 ,trimble's op9ion is n likely to prove ( mu* importance4 ,myrica nagi 7,h9d4 ,kaiphal71 ,india1 conta9s #ac-bg p] c5t4 ( tann9 9 ! b>k1 & a col\r+ matt]1 myricet91 id5tical ) t ( suma*4#acg ,lea!r tann$ ) x is ( a some:at r$di% col\r :i* is mu* bright5$ by suma*+1 & conv]t$ into a pale yell[ by treatm5t ) alum4 ,x promises to be a valuable tann+ mat]ial4 #acg ,p]k9 & ,hummel1 ,trans4 ,*em4 ,soc41 #ahif1 p4 #abhg4 ,,betulace4 ,alnus glut9osa1 ,common ,ald]4 ,fr4 ,aulne2 ,g]4 ,erle4 ,conta9s #af-bj p] c5t4 iron-gre5 tann91 ) mu* r$ col\r+ matt]2 old b>ks z l[ z #aj p] c5t4 ,col\r develops dur+ & aft] tannage4 ,us$ alone x gives a r$1 h>d & brittle lea!r1 b ) galls1 valonia1 etc4 x produces a satisfactory tannage4 ,its pr9cipal use is to furni% gunp[d]-*>coal1 & x is possible ! b>k might be obta9$ f p[d]-factories1 if ! use ( gunp[d] is n sup]s$$ by nitro-comp\nds4 7,von ,hhnel47 ,alnus m>itima1 ,hannoki1 ,japan2 & ,a4 firma1 ,m9ib>i4 ,fruits 7ya%i7 conta9 #be p] c5t4 tann+ matt] 7iron-blue+71 & little col\r+ matt]4 ,us$ 9 ,japan = dye+ & tann+4 ,a4 nepal5sis & ,a4 nitida us$ 9 ,india4 ,sev]al o!r species ( ,alnus conta9 tann94 ,betula alba1 ,:ite or ,common ,bir*4 ,fr4 ,b\leau blanc2 ,g]4 ,birke4 ,inn] b>k us$ 9 ,scotl& 79 conjunction ) l>* = tann+ %eep-sk9s71 ,norway1 ,russia1 etc4 ,x conta9s only #b-e p] c5t4 ( iron-gre5+ tann91 & mu* f]m5table sug>4 ,by f> ! mo/ important use ( bir* b>k 9 tann+ is to produce ! bir*-b>k t> us$ to give sc5t & insect-resi/+ p[] to 8,russia0 lea!r 7,y\ft2 ,g]4 ,ju*t574 ,! outside b>k consi/s ( ?9 lay]s ( cork1 (t5 :ite ) a cry/all9e deposit ( betul91 :i* :5 di/ill$ yields ! odor\s oil4 ,! di/illation is a dry "o1 & t>ry products accompany ! true oil1 & at fir/ give a /rong empyreumatic smell to ! lea!r1 :i* x loses by keep+1 :ile ! true 8,russia0 od\r rema9s4 ,?is 8age+0 may be ha/5$ by hang+ ! lea!r 9 a hot /ove4 ,if ! oil is di/ill$ 9 a curr5t ( /eam1 or ) petroleum e!r1 ! t>ry matt] passes ov]1 :ile ! matt] giv+ ! true od\r rema9s 9 ! retort 7p4 #cgb74 ,betula l5ta1 ,am]ican ,black ,bir*4 ,! b>k & twigs di/ill$ ) wat] yield an ess5tial oil1 :i* is almo/ pure salicylate ( me?yl1 & l>gely sub/itut$ = oil ( w9t]gre5 7,gaul!ria procumb5s71 ) :i* x is *emically id5tical4 ,us$ = p]fum]y1 & z a rheumatism rem$y4 ,(t5 errone\sly spok5 ( z ! s\rce ( 8,russia0 oil4 ,a mixture ( a trace ( w9t]gre5 oil ) s&al-wood oil consid]ably resembles ! 8,russia0 sc5t 7p4 #cgc74 ,,cupulif]4 ,ca/anea vesca1 ,true or ,spani% ,*e/nut4 ,fr4 ,*taigni]2 ,g]4 ,ka/anie4 ,abundant 9 ,italy1 ,s\? ( ,france & ,corsica1 :]e x =ms great =e/s4 ,b>k said to be ne>ly z /rong 9 tann9 z oak 7up to #ag p] c5t41 de ,l(71 b n mu* us$ 9 tann+4 ,wood only conta9s #c-f p] c5t4 tann91 b is ! s\rce ( ! valuable *e/nut extract1 fir/ employ$ = dye+1 & introduc$ z a tann+ ag5t by ,aim ,ko*4 ,! /r5g? ( extract is ( c\rse v v>iable1 ev5 = ! same d5sity 7see p4 #cci71 b x usually conta9s f #bh to #cb p] c5t4 ( tann94 ,! tann9 gives blue-black ) iron1 b is n id5tical ) ei!r oak-b>k or gall tann9s1 b app>5tly a mixture1 or possibly a me?ylat$ d]ivative ( ! latt]1 & id5tical ) oakwood tann91 or s ne>ly s z to be indi/+ui%able2 x may also be id5tical ) divi tann94 ,decoloris$ *e/nut extracts1 sometimes mix$ ) quebra*o & o!r mat]ials1 are (t5 sold z 8oakwood0 or 8oak-b>k0 extracts4 ,! extract gives a firm lea!r1 ) a good deal ( bloom if us$ /rong1 & a m r$di% t9t ?an valonia4 ,! extract (t5 conta9s d>k col\r+ matt]s1 & ! col\r ( lea!r tann$ ) x is readily d>k5$ by traces ( lime d]iv$ f calc>e\s wat]s or imp]fectly delim$ hides4 ,l all wood-extracts x tans rapidly1 ! col\r p5etrat+ fir/1 & ! tan foll[+1 b1 accord+ to ,eitn]1 x does n1 alone1 make full or solid tannage1 p]haps f want ( acid-=m+ matt]s1 b answ]s p>ticul>ly well 9 comb9ation ) spruce-b>k4 ,x is l>gely us$ 9 ,engl& = sole-lea!r 9 comb9ation ) valonia1 myrobalans & o!r mat]ials4 ,! high] ! temp]ature ( extraction1 ! m col\r+ matt] is conta9$ 9 ! extract 9 proportion to tann9 matt] & ! great] is its viscosity4 ,mu* col\r+ matt] rema9s undissolv$ if ! extract is dissolv$ 9 cold wat]1 b !re is1 9 addition1 a loss ( tann+ p[]1 ! col\r+ matt] be+ also capable ( comb9+ ) hide4 ,x has 9 fact be5 us$ = tann+ by dissolv+ x 9 solutions ( borax or alkal9e salts4 ,by improv$ me?ods ( manufacture ! col\r+ matt] has be5 mu* r$uc$4 ,! *e/nut is an important food tree1 ! nuts =m+ a consid]able "p ( ! food ( ! inhabitants ( ,corsica & ,s>d9ia1 & ev5 ( ,italy4 ,oaks4 ,almo/ all species ( oak conta9 useful quantities ( tann9 9 ! b>k1 & probably 9 ! wood4 ,mo/ if n all oaks yield cate*ol-tann9s )1 probably1 "s mixture ( ellagitannic acid4 ,qu]cus robur1 ,common ,oak4 ,fr ,*ne2 ,g]4 ,ei*e4 ,x is frequ5tly sep>at$ into ! two subspecies3-- ,qu]cus p$unculata4 ,commone/ oak ( l[l&s1 ,engl&1 ,irel& & ,scotl&4 ,acorns 9 bun*es or spikes on a /alk in* long1 h5ce ,g]4 "n1 ,/iel-,ei*e4 ,leaves sessile or %ort-/alk$4 ,9 fav\rable situations1 said to yield ab\t #b p] c5t4 m tann9 ?an ,q4 sessiliflora1 b ?is is d\btful4 ,x is ! commone/ oak 9 ,slavonia1 & ! s\rce ( comm]cial oakwood-extract4 ,q4 sessiliflora1 ,g]4 ,traub5ei*e4 ,common 9 hilly di/ricts1 & scatt]$ ?r\gh\t ! c\ntry4 ,acorns 9 bun* on ! bran*1 or ) v %ort /alk2 leaves on /alk -#a in* long4 ,( ,engli% b>ks1 ,sussex & ,hamp%ire are consid]$ ! be/1 & conta9 up to #ab-ad p] c5t4 ( tann+ matt]2 a coppice b>k f ,wa/dale1 ,cumb]l&1 is h[ev]1 record$ to h yield$ #ai p] c5t4 tann+ matt] 7,hellon74 ,probably ea* ( ! two v>ieties ( oak gives be/ b>k :]e x ?rives be/ 7v4 ,hhnel74 ,belgian b>k is sometimes equal to ,engli%1 & conta9s #aj-ab p] c5t4 tann+ matt]4 ,dut* b>k z export$ is g5]ally inf]ior & n clean$2 ,sw$i% is bright1 b v poor4 ,oak-b>k conta9s a tann+ matt]1 qu]citannic acid1 giv+ gre5-blacks ) iron salts1 & possibly conta9+ bo? cate*ol & pyrogallol gr\ps1 b its con/itution is n fully und]/ood4 ,x yields bo? r$ anhydrides & ellagic acid2 & gallic acid has be5 obta9$ by ! action ( hydro*loric acid1 ?\gh n by f]m5tation 9 ! tann]y4 ,! tann9 is n a glucoside1 b ! fact t a sug>1 lvulose1 is also pres5t 9 ! b>k has l$ "s obs]v]s to errone\s conclusions reg>d+ ! con/itution ( ! tann94 ,! unpurifi$ infusion ( ! b>k ( ,q4 robur gives a blue-black ) iron-salts1 f ! pres5ce ( a col\r+ matt]2 b ^? ( mo/ o!r oaks give gre5-blacks4 ,mo/ tann9 is conta9$ 9 ! liv+ "p ( ! b>k4 ,! yield dim9i%es 9 trees ov] tw5ty-five ye>s1 & coppice b>ks1 f abs5ce ( ross1 are (t5 /rong1 & also conta9 less col\r+ matt] & m f]m5table sug>4 ,w>m & ri* soils seem to yield ! be/ b>ks4 ,! bright] ! col\r ( ! fre% cut 8fle%10 ! bett] ! b>k4 ,d>k br[n inn] side %[s t b>k has be5 expos$ to ra91 :i* det]iorates /r5g? & col\r2 b a v light col\r is ?\ght by "s to indicate poorness 9 tann94 ,:ite li*5 is said to be a m>k ( poor b>k1 & probably indicates a damp & unfav\rable situation4 ,oaks are g5]ally cut :5 ! sap is ris+ 7#ae? ,april to #ae? ,june71 & ! buds op5 & new s(t cells beg9 to gr[1 = ! b>k is !n m easily deta*$4 ,exp]im5ts 9 ,france h %[n t ! b>k ( timb] fell$ at o!r seasons may be loos5$ by /eam+1 & x is said !re is no practical loss ( tann94 ,sup]heat$ /eam1 produc$ 9 a small boil] 9 ! woods1 is us$4 ,! b>k is peel$ ) tools ( v>i\s =ms1 ! bran* & knott$ places be+ loos5$ by beat+ ) a mallet4 ,! b>k mu/ be peel$ imm$iately ! tree has be5 fell$4 ,! peel$ b>k1 9 pieces up to ?ree feet long1 is laid on hurdles slop$ 9 su* a way t ! ra9 runs (f z mu* z possible1 & 9 ?is way x is dri$1 b 9 wet seasons is mu* damag$4 ,b>k s dri$ 9 ! woods (t5 reta9s #dj-ej p] c5t4 wat]1 & mu/ be /ack$ or /or$ s z to all[ ( fur!r dry+4 ,engli% b>k is sometimes sold 9 8long r9d10 & sometimes 8hat*$0 or *opp$ 9 pieces ab\t f\r in*es long4 ,belgian & ,dut* b>ks are g5]ally hat*$4 ,belgian tree b>k is 8clean$0 7& clean+s (t5 mix$ back ) bulk71 ,dut* b>k is n clean$4 ,mu* s& & dirt is conta9$ 9 mo/ ,cont95tal b>k3 scre5+s ( ,belgian b>k yield$ a black liquor1 & conta9$ s mu* s& t !y w\ld n ev5 burn6 ,oak-b>k extract is occasionally (f]$ = sale1 b is n usually g5u9e or ( good quality1 except t ( ! ,am]ican *e/nut-oak1 ,q4 pr9us1 f :i* an excell5t extract has be5 manufactur$ 9 ! ,alleghanies4 ,factiti\s extracts (t5 conta9 myrobalans & quebra*o4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #de4--,turkey ,oak 7,qu]cus c]ris74 ,oakwood conta9s only a v small p]c5tage 7f #b-d p] c5t47 ( a tann91 practically id5tical ) t ( *e/nut1 b diff]5t to t ( oak-b>k4 ,x is /at$ by de ,l( to rea* #i-ad p] c5t4 9 old he>t-wood2 b ?is is d\btful4 ,! wood reta9s ! tann9 9 its int]ior = a long "t4 ,wood ( a ,roman bridge built at ,ma9z #ee ,b4,c4 is /at$ by de ,l( to h /ill conta9$ #bad p] c5t4 tann9 9 #ahha ,a4,d4 ,a good deal ( imitat$ oakwood extract is und\bt$ly made f *e/nut wood1 & un=tunately no v satisfactory way ( di/+ui%+ x is kn[n1 ?\gh oak-b>k extract c be di/+ui%$ f oakwood by giv+ a precipitate at once1 ev5 9 dilute solution1 ) brom9e-wat]1 :ile ! wood gives a br[n precipitate only aft] long /&+4 ,precipitation by brom9e-wat] is a g5]al *>act]i/ic ( cate*ol tann9s1 & h5ce a mixture ( quebra*o 7a *eap cate*ol tan7 ) *e/nut w\ld simulate oak-b>k 9 ?is respect4 ,if a few drops ( ! non-tann9 solution or an alcoholic extract f ! 8total soluble0 ( extracts conta9+ quebra*o or o!r cate*ol tann9s be treat$ ) conc5trat$ sulphuric acid 9 a te/-tube1 a deep crimson w be produc$1 especially at ! surface ( ! acid1 :i* rema9s p9k on dilution ) wat]4 ,) pyrogallol d]ivatives1 su* z g5u9e oakwood1 a yell[ or br[n only is produc$ 7,j4 ,hughes74 ,! te/ is v delicate4 ,ano!r di/9ction is t b>k extracts conta9 p]ceptible traces ( manganese1 b ?is _c be reli$ on z _m wood extracts also conta9 "s1 probably d]iv$ f ! twig & bran* b>k :i* is us$ along ) ! wood4 ,oakwood extract is n[ manufactur$ on an enorm\s scale 9 ,slavonia1 & is us$ bo? by sole- & dress+-lea!r tann]s1 *iefly to increase ! /r5g? ( ! lay] liquors4 ,! extract is also us$ to increase ! weight ( lea!r aft] tannage by mopp+ on ! fle%-side4 ,all ! be/ oakwood extract manufactur]s contract to sell on analysis & col\r e/imation1 & good ,slavonian oakwood extract g5]ally conta9s #bf-bh p] c5t4 ( tann+ matt]1 giv+ a t9tomet] measurem5t ( #d-e r$1 & #bj-be yell[1 :5 a solution conta9+ p] c5t4 ( tann+ matt] is measur$ 9 a #a cm4 cell4 ,= p>ticul>s ( ! manufacture ( conc5trat$ extracts see p4 #ccg4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #df4--;,cork ,oak 7,qu]cus sub]74 ,q4 c]ris1 ,turkey ,oak4 ,g]4 ,z]rei*e4 ,common 9 s\!rn ,europe1 a f9e tree1 b b>k inf]ior to ,q4 robur4 ,fig4 #de4 ,q4 pubesc5s4 ,fr4 ,*ne velu2 ,g]4 ,weiss- or ,s*w>zei*e4 ,9 m\nta9 di/ricts & scatt]$ 9 ,s\!rn ,europe1 ab\t equal to ,q4 robur4 ,q4 ilex1 ,ev]gre5 ,oak4 ,fr4 ,*ne v]t1 ,*ne yeuse2 ,g]4 ,grnei*e1 ,/e9ei*e2 ,span4 & ,ital4 ,enc9a4 ,s\? ,europe1 ,alg]ia4 ,said to be some:at /rong] 9 tann9 ?an common oak1 yield+ #e-aa p] c5t4 ( a r d>k] col\r$ tann91 b well adapt$ to sole-lea!r4 ,good b>k is smoo? outside1 )\t fissures1 %ort 9 fracture4 ,q4 ,sub]1 ,cork ,oak4 ,f4 ,*ne lige2 ,ital4 ,sugh]o1 ,suv]o4 7,figs4 #df1 #dg47 ,! out] b>k is cork2 ! int]ior b>k conta9s #ab-ae p] c5t4 ( tann9 :i* is r$d] ?an t ( ord9>y oak4 ,trees at fir/ produce an irregul> cork1 sold z 8virg9 cork0 = f]n]ies1 etc4 ,aft] ?is is /ripp$1 lat] gr[?s are m uni=m1 & fit = use2 tann+ b>k is only obta9$ :5 ! tree is cut d[n4 ,b>k is r\gh b pale-col\r$ on bo? sides & ab\t #a cm4 ?ick2 int]ior l ord9>y oak1 b m /rongly furr[$4 ,produc$ *iefly on ,m$it]ranean coa/s1 & =m]ly l>gely us$ 9 ,irel&4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dg4--,section ( ,cork ,oak1 %[+ cork1 inn] b>k & wood4 ,q4 pseudosub]1 ,african ,oak4 ,fr4 ,*ne faux lige4 ,alg]ia4 ,n /rong] ?an ,engli% oak1 b ) m col\r+ matt]1 h5ce /rikes quickly ?r\gh lea!r4 ,b>k v ?ick4 ,q4 ,mirbecki4 ,fr4 ,*ne ,ze54 ,alg]ia4 ,rapid gr[?4 ,b>k conta9s #h p] c5t4 ( tann94 ,q4 ,toz4 ,fr4 ,*ne tauz94 ,pyr5ees & ,s4 ,france4 ,b>k conta9s #ad p] c5t4 ( tann94 ,q4 coccif]a1 ,k]mes ,oak4 ,fr4 ,k]mes1 ,g>\ille 7,fig4 #dh74 ,s\? ,europe & ,alg]ia4 ,root b>k is call$ 8rusque0 or 8g>\ille02 av]ages #aj-ah p] c5t4 tann91 b trunk b>k does n exce$ #aa p] c5t4 ,?is tree is ! food ( ! k]mes insect1 us$ = dye+ sc>let be=e ! introduction ( co*9eal4 ,g>\ille is pr9cipally us$ 9 ! s\? ( ,france1 giv+ a firm sole-lea!r ( a disagreeable od\r & d>k br[n col\r4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dh4--,k]mes ,oak 7,qu]cus coccif]a74 ,q4 gilops 7& probably o!r species--,q4 macrolepis1 grca1 ,ung]i1 coccif]a71 ,valonia4 ,fr4 ,valone2 ,g]4 ,valonea1 ,ack]dopp51 ,ori5talis*e ,knopp]n4 ,be/ ,smyrna conta9s up to #dj p] c5t41 ,greek #ai-cj p] c5t41 ,c&ia valonias up to #da p] c5t41 & ,c>amanian 7probably n ,q4 gilops7 #ag-bb p] c5t4 ( tann9s :i* are at lea/ pr9cipally pyrogallol d]ivatives & :i* give blue-blacks ) iron1 no precipitate ) brom9e-wat]1 & :i* deposit a great deal ( bloom consi/+ ( ellagic acid4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #di4--,valonia ,oak 7,q4 gilops74 ,q4 gilops 7,fig4 #di7 is said to be mo/ abundant 9 ! highl&s ( ,morea1 ,r\melia1 ,greek ,ar*ipelago1 ,asia ,m9or & ,pale/9e1 :ile macrolepis =ms l>ge =e/s 9 _m p>ts ( ,greece1 & especially on ! l[] slopes ( ,m\nt ,taygetos4 ,9 ,asia ,m9or ! fruit rip5s 9 ,july-,augu/1 :5 ! trees are beat5 & acorns left on ! gr\nd to dry4 ,!y are aft]w>ds ga!r$1 & c>ri$ on camels to /ores 9 ! t[ns1 & !nce by camel & rail to ,smyrna1 :]e !y are plac$ 9 heaps #e-f feet deep 9 l>ge airy /ores1 & all[$ to f]m5t & heat = "s weeks1 :5 ! acorn1 :i* conta9s b little tann91 contracts & falls f ! cup1 & is us$ = fe$+ pigs4 ,?is f]m5tation is risky1 & if c>ri$ too f> ! cups become d>k-col\r$ & damag$4 ,! acorn conta9s a consid]able am\nt ( f]m5table sug>4 ,:5 ready = %ipm5t1 ! valonia is h&-pick$1 ! l>ge/ & f9e/ cups 7prima7 go+ to ,trie/e1 ! second selection to ,engl& 7,+lese71 & ! rema9d]1 kn[n z 8natural10 also com+ l>gely to ,engl&4 ,! 8,+lese10 al?\gh inf]ior 9 appe>ance to ! v l>ge select$ cups1 is1 ( c\rse1 less co/ly1 & gives an equal yield ( tann94 ,9 #ahhg1 ,smyrna export$ ab\t #bc1jjj tons to ,engl&1 & #af1jjj tons else:]e1 pr9cipally to ,au/ria1 ,g]many & ,italy4 ,! l>ge/ kn[n crop is /at$ at #gj1jjj tons 9 ,asia ,m9or1 & #ad1jjj 9 ,greece1 b ! av]age yield is consid]ably less ?an ?is4 ,! be>d conta9s consid]ably m tann9 ?an ! cups1 sometimes ov] #dj p] c5t4 ,x is (t5 sold sep>ately at ! same or a l[] price1 & 9 ,smyrna is kn[n by ! ,turki% "n tirnac 7,ital4 trillo74 ,9 ,greece ! be/ valonia is collect$ 79 ,april87 be=e ! cup is matur$ & :ile x /ill encloses ! acorn1 & is kn[n z *amada 7,x4 camata & camat9a74 ,! col\r ( ^! k9ds is excell5t & ! p]c5tage ( tann9 high4 ,ma9ly us$ by dy]s1 b (t5 wor? att5tion = tann+ :]e col\r is important4 ,9 camat9a ! acorn is completely cov]$ 9 ! cup1 :ile 9 camata x is p>tly expos$4 ,! next quality1 rhabdi/o1 is beat5 d[n by /icks 9 ,septemb]-,octob] 7h5ce "n71 :ile aft] ! fir/ ra9s ! fruit falls & turns black1 & is call$ *>cala4 ,x conta9s b little tann91 & is n g5]ally collect$4 ,sometimes valonia is attack$ by a sort ( honeydew1 probably caus$ by an aphis1 :i* r5d]s x v /icky1 & p]haps m liable to heat1 b does n 9 itself damage its tann+ prop]ties4 ,! light] ! col\r1 ! heavi] ! weight1 & ! ?ick] ! scales ( ! be>d1 ! bett] ! quality usually proves1 b analysis is ! be/ guide4 ,c>amanian valonia is v inf]ior4 ,! tann9 conta9$ 9 valonia is especially suitable 9 ! manufacture ( sole-lea!r4 ,x deposits mu* bloom1 & if us$ z a du/+ mat]ial1 has ! *>act]i/ic ( mak+ ! lea!r solid & compact1 b leaves ! gra9 some:at r\gh & h>d to "w4 ,9 mixture ) gambi] & o!r mat]ials1 x is an excell5t tannage = dress+ lea!r1 & ) prop] managem5t deposits little or no bloom 7cp4 p4 #bca74 ,q4 infectoria 7,fig4 #ej7 is ! s\rce ( ! 8,turki%0 or ,aleppo galls4 ,galls are caus$ by insects1 pr9cipally ( ! g5us ,cynips1 or gall-wasps1 :i* lay _! eggs 9 diff]5t p>ts ( plants1 & 9 "s way cause an abnormal gr[? ( ! bud1 leaf1 or o!r "p4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ej4--;,gall ,oak 7,q4 infectoria74 ,aleppo galls are develop$ f ! "y %oot ( ! oak1 are be/ be=e ! insect has escap$1 & conta9 9 ?is /age up to #ej or #fj p] c5t4 ( gallotannic acid4 ,:5 ! insect has develop$ & escap$1 ! galls are ( c\rse p]=at$1 mu* light]1 & m por\s4 ,^! galls & ^? ( ,rhus semialata are ! pr9cipal s\rces ( ! tann9 ( comm]ce4 ,! ,q4 infectoria also be>s a l>ge gall l an apple1 8,apples ( ,sodom10 or 8rove10 caus$ by a diff]5t insect4 ,?is1 9 a cru%$ condition1 has be5 some:at l>gely us$ z a tann+ mat]ial1 & conta9s #bd-cd p] c5t4 gallotannic acid4 ,engli% oaks h sev]al species ( galls & oak-apples1 b !y d n seem to be ( mu* value = tann+4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ea4--;,*e/nut ,oak 7,q4 pr9us74 ,knopp]n are galls produc$ on ! immature acorns ( v>i\s species ( oaks1 pr9cipally ,q4 ,c]ris 9 ,hung>y1 & 7 =m]ly l>gely us$ !re = tann+1 z !y conta9 up to #ce p] c5t4 gallotannic acid4 ,!y are n[ less abundant1 & h be5 l>gely replac$ by valonia1 sometimes call$ ori5talis*e ,knopp]n4 ,l all purely gallotannic mat]ials1 !y naturally give a s(t & por\s tannage1 ill-adapt$ = sole-lea!r purposes1 :i* has l$ to ! ,au/rian practice ( dry+1 or r /ew+1 ! lea!r 9 v hot & damp /oves1 :i* make x h>d & brittle4 ,*9ese & ,japanese galls are ! product ( ! action ( an aphis on a species ( suma*1 & w be m5tion$ aga9 "u suma*s 7,rhus74 ,djaft1 d*ift1 jift1 or jaft is a mat]ial app>5tly ( ,ea/]n orig91 & said to be d]iv$ f an oak ( ,kurdi/an4 ,d>k r$ scales or fragm5ts1 orig9 unc]ta91 v a/r+5t & d>ki% tannage1 liquor :5 spilt dries :iti%1 app>5tly f cry/allisation ( "s sort4 ,x conta9s a l>ge am\nt ( tann94 ,x appe>s v irregul>ly 9 comm]ce & ! writ] w\ld be glad to obta9 fur!r samples & details ( orig94 ,he once us$ #f or #g tons successfully 9 sole-lea!r tannage4 ,x has also be5 attribut$ to a %rub alli$ to ! ,csalp9ias 7p4 #bhf74 ,! mo/ important ,am]ican oaks are--,q4 pr9us 7ca/anea1 monticola71 ! ,*e/nut or ,rock ,oak 7,fig4 #ea74 ,ab\t equal to our oak 9 /r5g?1 b>k v ?ick1 & infusion /rongly fluoresc5t1 especially 9 pres5ce ( ammonia4 ,s\rce ( *e/nut-oak extract4 ,! mo/ important tann+ oak-b>k ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,q4 alba1 or 8:ite oak10 is p]haps ! mo/ widely di/ribut$ & abundant ( any ( ! ,am]ican oaks1 & v closely resembles ! ,european ,q4 robur4 ,q4 t9ctoria or nigra1 ,black or ,qu]citron ,oak4 ,poor z a tann+ mat]ial1 b us$ = dye+ yell[1 & = modify+ ! col\r ( hemlock tannages4 ,! dye/uff1 qu]cet91 is closely alli$ to t ( fu/ic1 & gives yell[s ) alum & t9 mordants4 ,a good deal ( in=mation is giv5 by ,trimble#ach on ,am]ican oaks & o!r tann+ mat]ials4 #ach #8,! ,tann9s1' vol4 ii41 ,lipp9cott1 ,philadelphia1 #ahid4 ,important ,indian oaks are ,q4 glauca1 ,q4 lamellosa & ,q4 incana2 b>k ( la/ said to yield #bb p] c5t4 ( tann94 ,,salicace1 ,will[s4 ,! b>k ( v>i\s will[s1 especially ,salix ar5>ia & ,russeliana1 is us$ = tann+ 9 ,russia1 & = ,dani% glove-lea!r4 ,"s conta9 up to #ab-ad p] c5t4 ( an iron-blue+ tann94 ,!y imp>t a /rong od\r to lea!r1 b diff]5t to t ( bir*-t> oil1 & ! sc5t ( g5u9e ,russia lea!r is due to a comb9ation ( bo?4 ,9 _m cases ! b>k peel$ (f osi]s = basket-mak+ is employ$4 ,a ,russian will[ 7species unkn[n71 9 ! =m ( ?9 b>k ( osi]s or small bran*es1 gave #ie p] c5t4 tann9 :5 exam9$ 9 ! ,lea!r ,indu/ries ,laboratory ( ! ,york%ire ,college2 & will[ b>ks c]ta9ly dem& m att5tion ?an !y h receiv$ 9 ,engl& z tann+ mat]ials = f9e lea!rs4 ,salix caprea has be5 us$ 9 ,france = glove lea!rs1 b is weak] ?an ,s4 ar5>ia4 ,popl>s belong to ! same natural ord]1 & h be5 us$ = tann+1 b _! b>ks at ! mo/ conta9 #b-c p] c5t4 ,,polygonace1 ,docks4 ,mo/ memb]s ( ?is family conta9 tann94 ,rumex hym5osepalum1 ,canaigre1 ,gonagra 7,cana agria71 ,r$ ,dock1 wild pie-plant 7,fig4 #eb74 ,common 9 s&y alluvial pla9s ( ,mexico & ,texas1 & consid]ably resembl+ rhub>b4 ,its tub]\s roots resemble ^? ( ! dahlia1 & conta91 :5 air-dri$1 #be-cj p] c5t4 ( a cate*ol tann91 probably alli$ to t ( mimosa4 ,undri$1 ! roots conta9 ab\t #fh p] c5t4 ( wat] & only #h p] c5t4 ( tann94 ,:5 well h>ve/$ by slic+ ?9 & rapidly dry+1 x gives lea!r a bright orange col\r1 &1 x is said1 consid]able weight & firmness1 & is ?us specially suitable = use 9 retann+ & f9i%+ light goods & h>ness lea!r4 ,besides tann91 ! root conta9s a yell[ col\r+ matt]1 & ab\t #h p] c5t4 ( />*1 ( :i* ! granules are v v>iable 9 =m & size1 b mo/ly oval or elongat$4 ,!y d n /a9 readily ) iod9e till !y h be5 well wa%$1 or treat$ ) dilute sulphuric acid4 ,bo? ! />* & tann9 are conta9$ 9 l>ge & some:at ?9-wall$ cells1 & ! slic$ mat]ial is easily extract$ at l[ temp]atures4 ,great] heat gelat9ises ! />*1 & extracts a d>k] col\r4 ,! be/ temp]ature = extraction is betwe5 #cj & #ej ,c4 7see p4 #cdh74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #eb4--;,canaigre 7,rumex hym5osepalum74 #8,new ,comm]cial ,drugs & ,plants1' ,t4 ,*ri/y4 ,! root is mo/ readily gr[n f tub]s or portions includ+ ! cr[n1 z ! plant se$s sp>+ly4 ,s&y soils1 subject to inundation or irrigation1 seem be/ suit$ to its culture4 ,9 ,cali=nia & ,arizona ! gr[? beg9s 9 ,octob] or ,novemb] ) ! w9t] ra9s1 bloom+ ab\t ! end ( ,janu>y1 :ile ! leaves die d[n 9 ,may & ! roots rema9 dormant dur+ ! summ]4 ,x is n important at :at "t ! roots are h>ve/$1 & !y seem to improve 9 p]c5tage ( tann9 up to ! second ye>1 aft] :i* !y become d>k] & det]iorate4 ,! h>ve/$ crop %\ld be slic$ into ?9 pieces & rapidly dri$ at a l[ temp]ature1 or /ill bett]1 conv]t$ at once into extract4 ,?is is already done on a consid]able scale at ,dem+1 ,new ,mexico4 ,! residue aft] extraction is us$ 9 ,am]ica z cattle-food2 & might no d\bt be also appli$ to ! production ( alcohol4 ,plant+ takes place 9 autumn1 9 r[s1 say #cj in*es ap>t1 ) #aj in*es betwe5 ea* root4 ,roots = 8se$0 %\ld be kept 9 ! gr\nd or /or$ 9 dry s&4 ,?is %\ld yield a crop ( #aj tons p] acre 9 an av]age season4 ,ref]5ces4--,report ,u4,s4 ,commission] ( ,agriculture1 #ahgh1 pp4 #aai et seq42 ,trimble1 ,am4 ,j\r4 ( ,ph>macy1 p4 #cie1 #ahhi2 ,canaigre1 ,bull4 ,no4 #g1 ,arizona ,agr4 ,expt4 ,/ation1 #ahic2 #8,canaigre or ,tann]'s ,dock1' ,bull4 ,no4 #aje1 ,univ]sity ( ,cali=nia1 ,b]keley1 ,cal42 #8,canaigre ,tann91' ,trimble & ,peacock1 ,philadelphia1 #ahic2 #8,report to ! ,g]man ,lea!r ,trades ,association1' by ,v4 ,s*ro$]1 #ahid2 #8,il ,canaigre1' ,e4 ,&rieis1 ,tur91 #ahii4 ,rumex m>itima1 or m>itimus4 ,c5tral ,europe1 ,engl&1 ,irel&4 ,x is said by de ,l( to be f\nd 9 ,cali=nia1 :]e x is us$ by ! ,indians = tann+2 b he probably conf\nds x ) canaigre4 ,de ,l( f\nd its roots1 wet1 to conta9 #f p] c5t4 & aft] dry+1 #bb p] c5t4 ( tann91 toge!r ) />* & an acid alli$ to malic4 ,sev]al ,engli% docks conta9 tann92 ! writ] _h a sample ( lea!r tann$ ) dock-root 7v possibly ,r4 aquaticus71 _m ye>s old1 b /ill s(t & close 9 texture1 & ( excell5t quality4 ,polygonum amphibium4 ,said to gr[ on ?\s&s ( acres 787 on ! l[] ,miss\ri4 ,roots conta9 #bb p] c5t41 bran*es #ag p] c5t4 ( tann94 ,p4 amphibium is a common ,engli% & ,european plant1 ) spikes ( p9k fl[]s1 gr[+ 9 m>%es & ponds4 ,probably ?is is ! ,polygonum analys$ by ,fraas1 :o f\nd #bj-bf p] c5t4 tann94 ,polygonum ,bi/orta4 ,common 9 damp places 9 ,engl&4 ,bi/ort1 ,snakewe$1 call$ 8,ea/]m] giants0 9 ,cumb]l&1 :]e ! "y leaves are us$ = mak+ h]b-pudd+s4 ,fraas f\nd #af-ba p] c5t4 tann9 9 ! roots4 ,o!r species are kn[n to conta9 mu* tann94 ,p]k9 f\nd a r$ col\r+ matt] 9 ,p4 cuspidatum1 a native ( ,india & ,*9a1 commonly gr[n 9 g>d5s z a foliage plant 7,j\rn4 ,*em4 ,soc41 #ahie1 p4 #ajhd74 ,p4 t9ctorium1 us$ z a s\rce ( indigo 9 ,*9a & ,japan4 ,coccoloba uvif]a1 ,seaside ,grape ( ,we/ ,indies2 s\rce ( ,we/ ,indian k9o4 ,:ole plant ri* 9 tann94 ,,laurace1 ,bay ,family4 ,p]sea1 or ,laurus l+ue4 ,b>k us$ 9 ,*ili = tann+ ,valdivia lea!r4 7,accord+ to ,arata1 ,laurus cau/ica47 ,a tree #be-cj feet high & #b feet 9 circumf]5ce4 ,b>k r\gh outside1 & :iti%1 ) an aromatic smell & ta/e1 brittle & easily gr\nd1 conta9s #ag-ai p] c5t4 ( a cate*ol-phloroglucol tann91 gre5+ iron salts 7,j\rn4 ,*em4 ,soc41 #ahha1 p4 #fjj74 ,ab\t #fj1jjj heavy hides are tann$ ye>ly ) ?is b>k 9 ,valdivia & di/rict1 & mo/ly s5t to ,hamburg4 ,! hides are ?ick & sc>cely tann$ ?r\gh1 col\r fair1 lea!r s(t & por\s4 ,p]sea ,mey]9a ,n4 & ,laurus ,pneumo4 ,said to be also us$ 9 ,*ili4 ,,santalace4 ,osyris compressa 7,fusanus compressus1 ,colpoon compressum1 ,!sium ,colpoon71 8,cape ,suma*10 8,pruim ,ba/10 leaves & b>k1 ,cape ( ,good ,hope4 ,leaves conta9 ab\t #bc p] c5t4 ( tann9 & =m a useful sub/itute = suma*2 b ! tann9 is n id5tical1 & is ( ! cate*ol class1 resembl+ gambi]4 ,o4 arborea4 ,nor!rn ,india4 ,leaves ri* 9 tann94 ,fusanus acum9atus 7,santalum acum9atum71 8,qu&ony40 ,au/ralia4 #ah-ai p] c5t4 tann91 d>k col\r$4 ,exoc>pus cupressi=mis4 ,au/ralia4 ,b>k conta9s #ae p] c5t4 tann94 ,,daphnoid1 ,spurge ,laurels4 ,daphne ,cnidium ,l41 8,g>\40 ,alg]ia4 ,us$ = dye+ & tann+4 ,,proteace4 ,banksia s]rata1 ,hea? ,honeysuckle4 ,au/ralia4 ,specim5 exam9$ conta9$ #aa p] c5t4 tann92 accord+ to ,maid5 x rea*es #bc p] c5t4 ,banksia integrifolia4 ,que5sl&4 ,b>k conta9s #aa p] c5t4 tann94 ,grevillia /riata4 ,au/ralia4 ,b>k conta9s #ah p] c5t4 tann94 ,leucosp]mum conoc>pum4 ,kruppelboom4 ,knott$ ,tree4 ,cape ( ,good ,hope4 ,said by de ,l( to conta9 #bb p] c5t4 ( tann92 b a specim5 exam9$ by ! ,au?or yield$ #aji p] c5t4 on analysis4 ,protea mellif]a4 ,sug>bu%4 ,suik]bos*4 ,cape ( ,good ,hope4 ,conta9s #be p] c5t4 tann91 accord+ to de ,l(2 b ,palm] f\nd #ahh p] c5t4 ,protea gr&iflora4 ,waag5boom4 ,cape4 ,conta9s #be p] c5t4 tann9 7de ,l(72 #aei p] c5t4 7,palm]72 #aef p] c5t4 7,proct]74 ,protea speciosa4 ,cape ( ,good ,hope4 ,leucad5dron arg5teum1 ,silv] ,tree1 ,silv]boom1 ,witteboom ,cape ( ,good ,hope4 ,b>k said to conta9 #af p] c5t4 tann9 7de ,l(72 a specim5 exam9$ by ! ,au?or yield$ #ib p] c5t4 ,brabium /ellatifolium1 ,wilde ,am&elboom1 ,wild ,almond4 ,,plumbag94 ,plumbago ,europea1 ,leadwort4 ,fr4 ,d5telaire4 ,a g>d5 plant 9 ,engl&1 native 9 ,france2 conta9s mu* tann91 especially 9 ! root-b>k4 ,/atice cori>ia1 ,m>% ,rosem>y4 ,s\? ( ,russia4 ,roots up to #c metres long & #b-ab cm4 ?ick2 us$ by ,kalmucks = tann+ %eep-sk9s2 conta9 #bb p] c5t4 ( tann9 7de ,l(74 ,/atice limonum1 ,sea ,lav5d]4 ,coa/s & salt m>%es ( ,europe & ,am]ica4 ,ri*] 9 tann9 ?an ,s4 cori>ia2 us$ 9 ,france1 ,spa9 & ,portugal4 ,sev]al o!r species conta9 tann94 ,^! plants are alli$ to 8,?rift0 7,arm]ia74 ,,malpighiace4 ,byrsonima spicata1 ,antilles1 8,tamwood40 ,byrsonima coriacea1 ,jamaica1 8,gold5 ,spoon40 ,byrsonima *rysophylla1 etc4 ,malpighia punicifolia1 ,nic>agua1 8,nancite02 8,mangrutta40 ,b>k conta9s #bj-cj p] c5t4 ( light-col\r$ tann94 ,,polygalace1 ,milkwort ,family4 ,kram]ia tri&ria1 ,rhatany1 ,p]u4 ,! root is us$ 9 m$ic9e1 & is /at$ to conta9 #dj p] c5t4 ( tann94 ,witt/e9 f\nd only #bj p] c5t4 ( an iron-gre5+ cate*ol-phloroglucol tann9 alli$ to torm5til tann91 9 ! root-b>k1 ! only active "p ( root4 ,,anac>diace4 ,loxopt]yngium ,lor5zii4 ,span4 ,quebra*o colorado4 ,s\? ,am]ica1 especially ,arg5t9e ,republic2 ! highe/ proportion ( tann9 occurr+ 9 ! wood f ,gran ,*aco di/rict4 ,wood conta9s on an av]age ab\t #bj p] c5t4 ( a r$1 difficultly-soluble tann91 yield+ 8r$s10 & conta9+ cate*ol & phloroglucol4 ,! tann9 is n v soluble 9 wat]1 & h5ce c only be us$ 9 weak liquors1 b is v a/r+5t1 & gives a firm1 r$di% lea!r4 ,! wood also conta9s a cate*9#aci & a col\r+ matt]1 fu/91 id5tical ) t ( 8"y fu/ic40 ,x is import$ into ,engl&1 & m l>gely to ,havre & ,hamburg1 9 logs1 :i* are !re *ipp$ l logwood1 & ei!r us$ direct = tann+1 or made into extract4 ,a v *eap tan4 ,) alum x gives a yell[ col\r4 ,! extract usually dissolves to a fawn-col\r$ turbid solution4 ,_m quebra*o extracts are n[ made completely soluble by treatm5t ) alkalies or sulphites 7cp4 p4 #cch74 #aci ,see ,p4 ,arata1 ,j\rn4 ,*em4 ,soc41 #ahgh1 ,a1 p4 #ihf2 #ahha1 ,a1 p4 #aaeb2 & ,p]k9 & ,gunnell1 ,trans4 ,*em4 ,soc41 #ahif1 #acjc4 8,quebra*o0 means 8axebreak]10 & is consequ5tly appli$ to a v>iety ( h>d woods4 ,its specific gravity is #abg-ach1 & x !re=e s9ks 9 wat]4 ,pi/acia l5tiscus1 ,ital4 ,pi/acio1 ,fr4 ,l5tisque4 ,sicily1 ,cyprus1 ,alg]ia4 ,small myrtle-l leaves conta9 f #ab-ai p] c5t4 ( a cate*ol-tann91 & are v l>gely us$ 9 ! adult]ation ( suma*4 ,lea!r tann$ ) suma* adult]at$ ) ?is mat]ial d>k5s & r$d5s on exposure to light & air1 & = ?is reason its use 9 _m cases is decid$ly injuri\s4 ,9 ,cyprus & ! ,ea/ x is kn[n z 8,sk5s10 ,ital4 ,s*9ia1 ,fr4 ,p\dre de ,l5tisque1 9 ,engl&1 (t5 call$ ,cyprus suma*4 7,cp4 p4 #bgb47 ,p4 ori5talis1 t]eb9?us1 v]a1 etc41 ,india1 ,m$it]ranean4 ,v>i\s aphis galls1 #cj-dj p] c5t4 tann94 ,a sample ( galls ( ,pi/acia v]a1 8,gool-i-pi/a10 ,india1 rec5tly exam9$ 9 ! ,au?or's laboratory1 conta9$ #cj p] c5t4 ( a light-col\r$ tann94 ,s*9us molle1 8,molle10 ,bu5os ,ayres4 ,leaves only us$2 said to conta9 #ai p] c5t4 tann94 ,s4 ,aroeira1 ,brazil4 ,said to conta9 #ad p] c5t4 tann94 ,rhus cori>ia1 ,sicilian suma*4 ,ital4 ,somacco4 7,fig4 #ec47 ,a %rubby bu%1 ( :i* leaves & small twigs are us$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ec4--,sicilian ,suma* 7,rhus cori>ia74 ,mo/ly propagat$ by suck]s f old] plants1 :i* are plant$ 9 r[s ab\t two feet ap>t 9 e>ly spr+1 & prun$ to #f-h in*es4 ,bu%es beg9 to be> ! ye> aft] plant+1 ?\gh ! /r5g? is n s good z f m mature plants4 ,cropp+ is ei!r by prun+ (f %oots1 or ga!r+ leaves by h&2 9 ! latt] case %rubs are prun$ 9 w9t]4 ,! leaves are dri$ ei!r 9 ! fields1 or on cov]$ ?re%+ floors1 :]e !y are aft]w>ds sep>at$ f ! /ems by beat+4 ,"s is export$ 9 ?is /ate1 z 8leaf0 or 8bal+0 suma*1 b mo/ is gr\nd to f9e p[d] "u edge-runn]s4 8,v5tilat$0 suma* is w9n[$ to remove du/ & s&1 :i* (t5 conta9s iron4 8,mascol9o0 is ! be/ suma* f ,pal]mo & di/rict2 8fem9ella0 consi/s ( weak] sorts f o!r p>ts1 & is g5]ally us$ = mix+4 ,! diff]5t v>ieties ( suma* are class$ z foll[s3-- ,relative ,m>ket ,value4 ,suma* = bal+ #be gr9d+ #bc f ye>l+ plants #ae ends ( bran*es collect$ 9 autumn #aj ,to prep>e ^! diff]5t grades = ultimate consumption1 !y are gr\nd 9 mills simil> to ^? employ$ = cru%+ olives1 t is1 9 :i* two l>ge /one :eels foll[ ea* o!r1 revolv+ ^u a circul> b$1 ! :ole con/ruction be+ ab\t ! same z ! ,spani% or ,mexican arra/re4 ,! suma* ?us pulv]is$ is pass$ ?r\gh bolt+-scre5s to sep>ate ! f9] f ! co>s] p>ticles4 ,aft] ! suma* leaf has be5 subject$ to ! fir/ process ( trituration1 ! co>se rema9+ portions are re-gr\nd & ! product add$ to t :i* has be5 already obta9$4 ,! /ill unpulv]is$ residue kn[n z p$uzzo is sift$1 & ! co>s] & ungr9dable p>ts are us$ z fuel1 :ile ! f9] are mix$ ) ! p>tially-gr\nd1 small1 leaf-be>+ bran*es 7gambuzza1 gammuzza71 & gr\nd aga94 ,pal]mo is ! pr9cipal seat ( ! suma* trade4 ,! mat]ial is g5]ally b\ght f ! small gr[]s by middlem51 :o hold x till m>ket conditions are fav\rable4 ,! quotations are always 9 t> ( #dbe c5times p] cant> ( #gicdb kilos1 :i* are obsolete ev5 9 ,sicily1 & h to be reckon$ into lire 7francs7 & kilos4 ,consequ5tly #a t> p] cant> equals #jecefe lira p] #ajj kilos4 ,9 #ahid1 ! prices deliv]$ at ! mills 7 ab\t #da-db t> = mascol9o1 #cg-ch t> = femm9ello1 #ad-ah t> = brusca1 & #aj t> = /9co1 p] cant>2 ! lira be+ wor? ab\t #i;d4#adj #adj ,cf4 #8,kew ,bullet91' ,no4 #ajg1 pp4 #bic-f4 ,suma* has be5 introduc$ into ,au/ralia1 & is said to ?rive well 9 ! dry pla9s ( ! ,wimm]a di/rict4 ,suma* (t5 conta9s mu* s&1 & sometimes p>ticles ( magnetic iron ore1 :i* cause black /a9s1 & may be collect$ by a magnet1 & :i* dissolve 9 dilute hydro*loric acid )\t evolution ( hydrog51 to a yell[ solution4 ,metallic iron1 :i* is also attract$ by ! magnet1 dissolves 9 hydro*loric acid ) eff]vesc5ce to a col\rless or gre5 solution4 ,good suma* conta9s at lea/ #be-bg p] c5t4 ( tann94 ,! ,au?or has analys$ samples ( und\bt$ g5u95ess conta9+ z mu* z #cb p] c5t4 ( a tann91 pr9cipally gallotannic1 ) "s ellagitannic acid1 & a col\r+ matt] 7myricet97 id5tical ) t ( ,myrica nagi 7p4 #bej71 :i* gives yell[s ) alum9a & t9 mordants1 & is fugitive to light4 ,suma* is ! be/ tann+ mat]ial kn[n = pale col\r & s(t tannage1 & is h5ce us$ = moroccos1 roans1 skiv]s1 etc41 & also = bright5+ lea!rs ( d>k] tannages1 su* z mimosa1 gambi]1 ! col\r+ matt]s ( :i* w>m suma* liquors seem able to dissolve4 ,9 ! report ( ! ,society ( ,arts ,committee on bookb9d+ lea!rs1#ada x is /at$ on abundant evid5ce1 t suma*-tann$ lea!rs are less affect$ by light & gas-fumes1 & less liable to decay ?an ^? ( any o!r kn[n tannage4 #ada ,soc4 ,arts4 ,j\rn41 #aija1 p4 #ad4 ,suma* is frequ5tly adult]at$ ) ! gr\nd leaves & twigs ( ,pi/acia l5tiscus 78s*9ia0 or 8sk5s071 ,cori>ia myrtifolia 78/9co071 ,tam>ix africana 78brusca071 ,ailantus gl&ulosa1 ,vitis v9if]a 7leaf ( ! common grape v9e7 & "s o!r species ( ! ,rhus family1 b ,pi/acia l5tiscus is us$ to a mu* l>g] ext5t ?an any ( ! o!rs4 ,pi/acia1 cori>ia1 & tam>ix all conta9 consid]able quantities ( tann91 ?\gh less ?an g5u9e suma*1 & ( a diff]5t *emical con/itution4 ,! mo/ satisfactory me?od ( detect+ ^! adult]ants is by microscopic exam9ation1 none ( ! *emical me?ods propos$ be+ v satisfactory2 ?\gh1 z _m ( ! add$ matt]s conta9 cate*ol tann9s1 :ile ^? ( suma* are purely pyrogallol d]ivatives1 ! me?od propos$ by ,hughes = ! detection ( quebra*o 9 oakwood by ! reaction ( conc5trat$ sulphuric acid 7p4 #bif7 might r5d] good s]vice1 & any suma* infusion :i* 0 r5d]$ turbid by brom9e-wat] w\ld at lea/ be op5 to grave suspicion4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate ,,iii4 ,ailantus gl&ulosa4 ,cori>ia myrtifolia4 ,colpoon compressa4 ,rhus cot9us4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate ,,iv4 ,pi/acia l5tiscus4 ,rhus metopium4 ,rhus cori>ia4 ,tam>ix ,africana4 ,! mo/ important "w on ! microscopic /ructure ( ! tissues ( suma* & its adult]ants 0 done by ,&reas*1 :5 dur+ ! lat] /ages ( 8 la/ illness he 0 oblig$ to w9t] 9 ,sicily4#adb ,8 "w w well repay /udy1 b un=tunately does n admit ( useful ab/raction "h4 ,a v useful inve/igation 0 also made 9 ! ,au?or's laboratory by ,messrs4 ,m4 ,c4 ,lamb & ,w4 ,h4 ,h>rison1#adc z reg>ds ! treatm5t & exam9ation ( ! leaf-cuticles1 :i* r5d]s ! detection ( mixture comp>atively easy4 ,= details1 ! orig9al memoir mu/ be consult$1 b if ! suspect$ suma* be g5tly w>m$ = a few m9utes ) /rong nitric acid1 its m delicate leaf /ructure is entirely de/roy$1 & aft] wa%+ & neutralis+ ) sodium c>bonate ! /rong cuticles ( ! leaves ( ! m common adult]ants1 8s*9ia0 7,pi/acia l5tiscus71 8/9co0 7,cori>ia myrtifolia71 8brusca0 7,tam>ix africana71 & ,ailantus gl&ulosa are un9jur$1 & easily recognis$4 ,exam9ation is r5d]$ easi] by dye+ ! cuticles2 safran9e1 acid gre51 ,bism>ck br[n1 & naph?ol yell[ be+ suitable = ! purpose4 ,mr4 ,lamb's photographs ( ! cuticles are reproduc$ on ,plates ,,iii4 & ,,iv41 b if possible1 x is mo/ satisfactory to comp>e ! suspect$ sample direct ) kn[n specim5s ( ! adult]ants4 #adb #8,sicilianis*] ,suma* und se9e ,v]fals*ung1' ,wi51 #ahih4 #adc #8,suma* & ! ,microscopic ,detection ( its ,adult]ants1' ,j\rn4 ,soc4 ,dy]s & ,colori/s1 ,m>* #ahii4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ed4--;,am]ican ,suma* 7,rhus glabra74 ,r4 glabra1 ,s\!rn ,/ates1 ,u4,s4,a4 7,fig4 #ed74 ,v l>gely us$ 9 ! ,/ates to take ! place ( ,sicilian suma*4 ,a sample collect$ by ! late ,pr(essor ,trimble1 & analys$ 9 ! ,lea!r ,indu/ries ,laboratory1 conta9$ #be p] c5t4 ( tann9 & produc$ a lea!r ( v mu* d>k] col\r ?an ,sicilian4 ,r4 typh9a1 8/aghorn0 or ,virg9ian suma*1 conta9s #aj-ah p] c5t4 ( tann94 ,a sample f same s\rce z above conta9$ #ac p] c5t4 ,r4 cotonoides1 ,u4,s4,a4 ,! analysis ( a sample ( ?is mat]ial gave #ba p] c5t4 ( tann+ matt]1 & lea!r tann$ ) x 0 almo/ equal 9 col\r to t f ,r4 glabra4 ,o!r sorts f\nd 9 ,/ates3 ,r4 semialata 7#e p] c5t4 tann972 ,r4 aromatica 7#ac p] c5t4 tann972 ,r4 metopium 7#h p] c5t472 ,r4 copall9a1 ,r4 pumila1 ,r4 canad5sis2 ,r4 toxicod5dron is ! well-kn[n 8poison ivy10 a climb+ plant :i* causes a sev]e & irritat+ eruption if t\*$4 ,r4 glabra & ,r4 copall9a are *iefly recomm5d$ = ext5d$ cultivation 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,9 ,virg9ia1 ! leaves are collect$ & cur$ by ! c\ntry p1 & sold & deliv]$ to own]s ( mills = gr9d+4 ,_! p>ticul> object be+ to secure ! l>ge/ possible quantity ( product at ! l[e/ co/1 little att5tion is giv5 to ! quality obta9$1 or ! mann] ( collect+4 ,! mo/ intellig5t deal]s 9 ! raw mat]ial urge ^u collectors to obs]ve ! foll[+ p>ticul>s3--,to ensure a maximum value = tann+ purposes1 ! leaf %\ld be tak5 :5 full ( sap1 be=e x has turn$ r$1 has begun to )]1 or has be5 affect$ by fro/4 ,ei!r ! leaf-be>+ /ems may be /ripp$ (f1 or ! entire /alk may be cut away1 & ! leaves ^u x all[$ to )] be=e be+ c>ri$ to ! dry+ %$2 b c>e mu/ be obs]v$ t !y are nei!r scor*$ nor blea*$ by ! sun4 ,:5 wilt$1 !y are c>ri$ to a cov]$ place1 & spread ^u op5 %elv+ or racks to dry1 avoid+ ! deposit 9 any "o place ( a quantity s great z to endang] ! quality ( ! product by ov]heat+ & f]m5tation4 ,suma* %\ld be all[$ to rema9 9 ! dry+-h\se = at lea/ "o mon? be=e s5d+ to ! m>ket2 9 case ( bad wea!r1 a long] p]iod may be requir$4 ,:5 ready = pack+ = %ipm5t1 x %\ld be p]fectly dry & v brittle1 o!rwise x is likely to suff] injury 9 w>eh\ses f heat+ & f]m5tation4 ,buy]s ( suma* leaves = gr9d+ dep5d l>gely ^u col\r = ! det]m9ation ( ! value2 ! leaves %\ld1 !re=e1 :5 ready = m>ket1 pres5t a bright-gre5 col\r1 :i* is evid5ce t !y h suff]$ nei!r f ra9 aft] be+ ga!r$1 nor f heat+ dur+ ! process ( dry+4 ,leaves hav+ a m\ldy od\r or appe>ance are reject$4 ,! ,virg9ian crop rea*es #gjjj-hjjj tons1 & is collect$ at any "t betwe5 ,july #a/ & ! appe>ance ( fro/4 ,!re is an important diff]5ce 9 ! value ( ! ,european & ,am]ican products4 ,! proportion ( tannic acid 9 ! latt] is g5]ally l[] ?an t f\nd 9 ! =m]1 :i* is mu* pref]r$ by tann]s & dy]s4 ,by us+ ,sicilian suma* x is possible to make ! f9e/ :ite lea!rs1 :ile by ! employm5t ( ! ,am]ican product1 ! lea!r has a disagreeable yell[ or d>k col\r1 app>5tly due to a col\r+ matt]1 :i* exi/s 9 l>g] quantity 9 ! ,am]ican v>iety ?an 9 ! ,sicilian4 ,exp]im5ts ^u ! pres5ce ( col\r+ matt]s made by treat+ an infusion ( suma* ) a solution ( gelat9e1 gave ! foll[+ results3-- ,virg9ia1 mix$1 collect$ 9 ,june1 gave ,a ne>ly :ite precipitate4 ,july1 ,a decid$ly yell[i%- :ite precipitate4 ,r4 copall9a ,augu/1 ,a dirty- yell[ precipitate4 ,r4 glabra ,a v dirty- :ite precipitate4 ,fr$]icksburg1 mix$ ,a dirty- yell[ precipitate4 ,sicilian ,a slightly yell[i%- :ite precipitate4 ,= ! purpose ( tann+ :ite & delicately col\r$ lea!rs1 !re=e1 ! collection %\ld be made 9 ,june2 :ile = tann+ d>k-col\r$ lea!rs1 & = dye+ & calico-pr9t+ 9 d>k col\rs1 :]e ! slightly yell[ %ade w h no injuri\s effect1 ! collection may be made 9 ,july4 ,x appe>s t = all purposes1 ! suma* collect$ aft] ! #a/ ( ,augu/ is inf]ior 9 quality4 ,exp]im5tal results z reg>ds p]c5tage ( tann9 obta9$ by collect+ suma* at diff]5t seasons %[$3-- ,p] ,c5t4 ( ,tannic ,acid4 ,virg9ia1 mix$1 collect$ 9 ,june1 gave #bbge ,july1 #bgch ,r4 glabra ,augu/1 #bcef ,r4 copall9a #afii ,sicilian1 ,r4 cori>ia #bdbg ,x is evid5t1 !re=e1 t 9 ord] to secure ! maximum am\nt ( tannic acid1 ! suma* %\ld be collect$ 9 ,july1 b ! col\r+ matt] ( ! leaves has an important influ5ce ^u ! value ( ! product4 ,! leaves ( ! upp] extremities ( ! /alks are always ri*] 9 tannic acid ?an ^? ( ! base2 & ! increase ( age ( ! plant is accompani$ by a g5]al dim9ution ( ?is acid4 ,! mill us$ = gr9d+ suma* leaves consi/s ( a heavy1 solid1 circul>1 wood5 b$1 #ae feet diamet]1 ) a depression ar\nd ! edge a few in*es deep & #a foot wide1 = ! reception ( ! gr\nd suma* f ! b$1 & two edge-roll]s1 weigh+ ab\t #bejj lb4 ea*1 #e-f feet diamet]1 & provid$ ) num]\s tee? ( iron or wood1 ?ickly ins]t$4 ,9 ,europe & 9 "s p>ts ( ! ,s\!rn ,/ates1 suma* is /ill gr\nd by /ones revolv+ on a /one b$1 & ! sift+ is (t5 done by h&4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ee4--,v5etian ,suma* 7,rhus cot9us74 ,r4 cot9us1 ,v5etian suma*4 ,fr4 ,arbre p]ruques2 ,g]4 ,p]ruk5/rau* 7,fig4 #ee74 ,m important z a dye+ ?an z a tann+ mat]ial1 its twigs & wood1 8"y fu/ic10 conta9+ a l>ge proportion ( a col\r+ matt] 7fiset971 :i* ) t9 & alum9a mordants dyes bright yell[s2 & mu* resembles1 b is n id5tical ) ! myricet9 pres5t 9 ,r4 cori>ia4#add ,its leaves1 kn[n z ,turki% or ,v5etian suma*1 conta9 ab\t #ag p] c5t4 ( tann91 & are us$ = tann+4 #add ,p]k9 & ,all51 ,trans4 ,*em4 ,soc4 #ahif1 #abii4 ,r4 p5taphylla1 8,tez]a10 ,alg]ia1 is us$ by ! ,arabs = tann+ goat-sk9s4 ,r4 ,?unb]gii1 ,kliph\t1 ,cape ( ,good ,hope4 ,a sample ( ! b>k analys$ 9 ! ,au?or's laboratory conta9$ #bh p] c5t4 ( tann+ matt]4 ,a valuable tann+ mat]ial1 ( r$di% col\r4 ,! tann9 is ( ! cate*ol class4 ,sev]al o!r species ( ,rhus are us$ 9 tann+4 ,r4 semialata yields ,*9ese & ,japanese galls1 conta9+ up to #gj p] c5t4 gallotannic acid4 ,!y are caus$1 n by a fly1 b by ! attack ( an aphis1 z are ^? ( ! alli$ ,pi/acia4#ade ,! aphides pass _! asexual /age inside ! gall1 :i* is l>ge & ?9-wall$4 ,a simil> aphis-gall is f\nd on ! ,am]ican suma*4 ,a specim5 ( ! leaves exam9$ at ! ,york%ire ,college yield$ only #e p] c5t4 ( tann94 #ade ,see ,flckig] & ,hanbury1 #8,ph>macographia4' ,mangif]a indica1 ,mango1 widely di/ribut$ 9 ! ,tropics4 ,b>k & leaves ri* 9 tann91 :i* gives gre5-blacks ) iron4 ,,cori>iace4 ,cori>ia myrtifolia1 ,fr5* suma* 7( :i* !re are f\r k9ds--fauvis1 d\zre1 r$\l or r$on1 & pudis74 ,a poison\s %rub ( ,s\? ( ,france2 leaves us$ = tann+1 & z a suma* adult]ant "u ! "n ( 8/9co02 conta9 ab\t #ae p] c5t4 tann94 7,cp4 p4 #bgb47 ,cori>ia ruscifolia b>k1 ! tutu ( ,new ,zeal&1 conta9s #af-ag p] c5t4 ( tann94 ,o!r ,cori>ias m]it exam9ation1 & are kn[n to conta9 mu* tann94 ,,rubiace4 ,rubia1 ,madd]1 alli$ to ,galiums1 :i* are almo/ ! only ,engli% repres5tatives ( ! family4 ,! c(fee- & c9*ona-plants are =eign repres5tatives4 ,nauclea1 or ,unc>ia gambir4 ,ea/ ,indies4 7,fig4 #ef47 ,a climb+ %rub1 s\rce ( 8gambi]10 or 8,t]ra ,japonica02 also call$ 8,cate*u10 9 common ) sev]al o!r solid extracts4 ,gambi] is fir/ describ$ by ! ,dut* trad] ,c\p]us1 9 #aghj2 plant introduc$ 9 ,malacca1 #ageh2 plantations e/abli%$ 9 ,s+apore 9 #ahai4 ,culture is ma9ly by ,*9am51 & is v rude2 x yields rapid return1 b "u ! treatm5t to :i* x is subject$ a plantation is worn out 9 t5 to fifte5 ye>s4 ,cropp+ comm5ces ?ree ye>s aft] plant+1 & is cont9u$ two to f\r times annually1 ) little reg>d to fitness ( %rubs1 ! plant be+ cropp$ till x has b>ely leaves left to support exi/5ce4 ,x is f\nd advantage\s to comb9e pepp]-culture ) t ( gambi]1 ! sp5t leaves =m a good protection = ! pepp]-plant roots1 b !y h little actual manurial value4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ef4--;,gambi] ,%rub 7,nauclea gambir74 ,cropp+ is done ) a knife call$ a p>ang1 :ile a l>g] knife is us$ = *opp+ ! leaves & twigs be=e !y are put 9 a boil]1 9 :i* !y are heat$ ) wat] till ! liquid1 :i* is con/antly /irr$ dur+ ! op]ation ) a wood5 five-prong$ /irr]1 becomes syrupy4 ,! leaves are !n br\ght out ) a wood5 =k1 & all[$ to dra9 on a tray1 s t ! liquor runs back into ! boil]4 ,! co>s] matt] /ill rema9+ 9 ! boil] is remov$ ) a /ra9] l a racquet1 & ! f9] by /ra9+ ! liquor ?r\gh a p]=at$ cocoanut %ell into small %all[ tubs1 :]e x is all[$ to cool ) con/ant /irr+ ) a cyl9drical wood5 b>1 :i* is work$ up & d[n ) a rot>y motion until ! cate*9 cry/allises4 ,:5 q cool ! pa/y mass is turn$ out ( ! tub1 cut into cubes ) sides #a in* long ) a hoop-iron knife1 & dri$ on bamboo trays 9 racks "u %$s1 or sometimes smoke-dri$ ) wood fires4 ,good cube gambi] is an e>?y-look+ sub/ance & is d>k outside1 b pale )9 f cry/allisation ( cate*94 ,cate*9 is n itself a tann+ mat]ial1 b is app>5tly conv]t$ into a tann9 by dry+ at #aaj-abf ,c41 :5 x p>ts ) a molecule ( wat]4 ,x is v probable t a simil> *ange occurs 9 ! tann]y4 ,! tann9 is a cate*ol-phloroglucol d]ivative1 less a/r+5t ?an mo/ ( ?is s]ies1 & ( pale col\r4 7,see p4 #big47 ,a common] quality1 call$ 8block-gambi]10 in/ead ( be+ cut into cubes1 is run into l>ge oblong blocks ( ab\t #bej lb4 weight1 :i* are wrapp$ 9 matt+ & export$ 9 a pa/y condition4 ,^! conta9 #ce-dj p] c5t4 ( tann91 z e/imat$ by ! hide-p[d] me?od1 :ile ! be/ cubes rea* #ej-fe p] c5t4 ,besides ! =ms nam$1 v>i\s o!rs are made1 pr9cipally = native use 9 *ew+ ) betel-nut 9 ! =m ( small biscuits1 or 9 ?9 discs 78waf] gambi]07 by runn+ ! pa/y mass into bamboos & cutt+ ! cyl9d] s =m$ into ?9 slices4 ,^! =ms are usually light 9 col\r1 & v ri* 9 cate*94 ,= details ( ! *emi/ry & employm5t ( gambi]1 see pp4 #bbh1 #bca1 #bci1 etc4 ,,apocynace4 ,aspidosp]mum quebra*o4 ,sp4 ,quebra*o blanco4 ,brazil4 ,b>k conta9s aspidosp]m91 an alkaloid us$ 9 m$ic9e1 b bo? b>k & wood are poor 9 tann94 ,quebra*o colorado1 see ,,anac>diace1 p4 #bfi4 ,,ericace1 ,hea? ,family4 ,arcto/aphylos 7or ,arbutus7 uva-ursi1 ,be>b]ry4 ,us$ 9 ,russia1 ,f9l&2 twigs & leaves said to conta9 #ad p] c5t4 tann94 ,(t5 adult]at$ ) leaves ( ,vacc9ium vitis-id or ,c[b]ry4 ,arbutus un$o1 ,common ,arbutus4 ,leaves1 fruit & b>k us$ on ,m$it]ranean coa/s4 ,,vacc9i4 ,vacc9ium ,myrtillus1 ,bilb]ry4 ,us$ 9 ,pi$mont4 ,,saxifrage4 ,weimannia glabra ,l41 8,curtidor0 b>k4 ,v5ezuela4 ,weimannia macro/a*ys ,d4,c4 ,reunion4 ,weimannia racemosa1 ,new ,zeal& ,t[ai or ,ta:]i b>k4 ,^! species conta9 #aj-ac p] c5t4 ( iron-blue+ tann91 & h be5 practically us$1 b are n ( mu* importance4 ,,tam>isc9i4 ,mo/ ( ! memb]s ( ?is gr\p are poor 9 tann91 b sev]al species h galls :i* are ri*4 ,tam>ix africana2 ,egypt1 ,alg]ia4 ,galls conta9+ #bf-ef p] c5t4 tann94 ,! small twigs are collect$ 9 ,tunis1 & :5 dri$ & gr\nd are import$ into ,sicily to be us$ = ! adult]ation ( suma* "u ! "n ( 8,brusca10 & conta9 ab\t #i p] c5t4 ( tann94 7,cp4 p4 #bgb47 ,t4 articulata1 ,morocco1 yields galls produc$ by aphides1 call$ 9 ,arabia ,tak\t1 & /at$ by ,vogel to conta9 #dc p] c5t4 ( tann94 ,tam>ix gallica1 us$ 9 ,spa9 & ,italy4 ,,oxalide4 ,oxalis gigantea1 s\rce ( *urco b>k1 ,*ili4 ,a ?91 brittle1 d>k r$ b>k1 mo/ly ab\t #b mm4 ?ick1 cork & ross entirely abs5t4 ,! b>k is brittle1 & ! cells ?94 ,x conta9s ab\t #be p] c5t4 ( an easily extract$1 d>k r$ tann91 giv+ gre5-blacks ) iron4 ,! b>k has be5 incorrectly attribut$ to ,fu*sia macro/emma4 7,cp4 ,von ,hhnel1 #8,die ,g]b]9d51' p4 #abe1 & ?is book1 p4 #bhd47 ,,combretace4 ,sev]al families ( ?is g5us conta9 trees ri* 9 tann91 b mo/ important are ! ,myrobalans 7(t51 b incorrectly1 writt5 ,myrabolams or ,myrabolans71 ! unripe fruit ( v>i\s species ( ,indian ,t]m9alia4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #eg4--,myrobalan ,tree 7,t]m9alia ,*ebula74 ,t4 ,*ebula 7,fig4 #eg71 a tree #dj-ej feet high1 & yield+ good timb]1 is ! s\rce ( all ! ord9>y v>ieties1 :i* diff] only 9 ! di/rict f :i* !y are obta9$1 & ! /ate ( maturity ( ! fruit4 ,! nuts conta9 f #cj to #dj p] c5t4 ( tann94 ,( ! v>i\s sorts1 probably ^? kn[n z ,bombays are lea/ unripe1 :ile 8lean gre5s0 are ! mo/ s4 ,! unripe fruit is ! ri*e/ 9 tann94 8,bombays0 h a smoo? sk9 9 co>se wr9kles1 & :5 cut are por\s & light col\r$4 8,j's0 7,jubbalpores7 & 8,v's0 7,v+orlas71 h f9] & %all[] wr9kles1 & are h>d]1 solid] & consequ5tly d>k] look+1 b d n give a d>k] liquor1 :ile 8lean gre5s0 are gre5]1 h less yell[ col\r+ matt]1 & consequ5tly m ne>ly approa* 9 "* to suma*1 :i* ! tann9 9 _m respects resembles1 ?\gh probably conta9+ m ellagitannic acid 9 proportion to gallotannic acid ?an ! latt]4 ,! 8nuts0 %\ld be bright 9 col\r1 n worm-eat51 nor 8waxy0 or s(t4 ,if kept 9 a damp place !y rapidly absorb moi/ure1 & fall into ! 8waxy0 condition1 9 :i* !y are v difficult to gr9d1 /ick+ to & *ok+ ! cutt]s or beat]s ( ! mill4 ,nei!r ! l>ge h>d /ones nor _! k]nels conta9 tann91 b ! latt] h an oil :i* gives a peculi> od\r to lea!r4 ,! tann9 exi/s 9 l>ge & r ?ickly-wall$ cells1 & is n v easily extract$2 ! sk9 is wr9kl$1 b ! uncru%$ nuts swell up to _! orig9al plum-l =m :5 plac$ 9 wat] = "s "t4 ,! b>k is almo/ z ri* z ! fruit1 & ! tree also yields galls4 ,t4 ,bel]ica yields ,bel]ic or 8,b$da nuts10 :i* are d[ny1 r\nd] & l>g] ?an ord9>y myrobalans1 & conta9 ab\t #ab p] c5t4 ( tann91 us$ z adult]ant ( gr\nd myrobalans4 ,a sample ( solid extract made f ! b>k ( ,t4 ,bel]ica conta9$ #gj p] c5t4 ( tann94 ,t4 tom5tosa has d[ny nuts1 conta9+ ab\t #aj p] c5t4 ( tann91 b>k /at$ by de ,l( to conta9 #cf p] c5t4 ( tann94 ,a sample ( solid extract conta9$ #ef p] c5t4 ( tann94 ,! b>k conta9s ab\t #aa p] c5t4 ,!re are sev]al o!r ,indian species4 ,t4 ,catappa1 8,badami] b>k0 ( ,mauritius1 conta9s #ab p] c5t4 ( tann94 ,t4 mauritiana1 8,jamrosa b>k10 said to conta9 #cj p] c5t4 ( tann94 ,t4 ,oliv]i1 ,malay ,ar*ipelago1 yields 8,?ann leaves10 f :i* an extract is made z a cut* sub/itute4 ,a sample ( ! extract f ,burmah exam9$ rec5tly 9 ! ,au?or's laboratory1 conta9$ #fb p] c5t4 ( tann94 ,! tann9 is a cate*ol d]ivative1 diff]+ f t ( ,acacia cate*u 9 conta9+ no phloroglucol 7p4 #big74 ,a sample ( b>k f ,m&alay conta9$ #ca p] c5t4 ( tann91 :ile ! leaves f ! same tree conta9$ #ad p] c5t4 ,emblic myrobalans1 see p4 #bic4 ,,rhizophorace1 ,mangles or ,mangroves4 ,rhizophora ,mangle1 & o!r alli$ species1 ,mangrove or ,mangle1 ,mangli]1 ,paletuvi]1 ,cascalote1 gr[s on tropical coa/s all r\nd ! _w4 ,! b>ks v>y mu* 9 /r5g?1 f #ae up to #dj p] c5t4 9 diff]5t species 7see ,c]iops74 ,leaves1 us$ 9 ,havana1 are said to conta9 #bb p] c5t4 tann94 ,accord+ to ,eitn]1 ! y\ng] plants conta9 ! highe/ proportion ( tann94 ,r4 ,mangle seems to yield a b>k inf]ior to sev]al o!r species4 ,all trees gr[+ 9 swamp1 & ( ! same "* ( gr[? z mangrove1 are call$ 8,bakau0 9 ! ,ea/ ,indies 7,anglice1 mangrove7 & v>i\s species ( ,c]iops yield ! be/ tann+ b>k4 ,a tidal mangrove swamp at l[ wat] is a tangle ( ar*$ roots l inv]t$ bran*es on :i* ! trees are support$4 ,! cate*ol-tann91 :i* is easily extract$1 is ( deep r$ col\r & alli$ to t ( ! mimosas4 ,9 admixture ) o!r mat]ials ! r$ col\r has a mu* small] effect1 & mangrove b>k is n[ l>gely us$ 9 comb9ation ) p9e1 oak & mimosa4 ,sev]al o!r species are also ri* 9 tann91 & us$ 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ! _w "u ! "n ( mangle1 z are also sev]al species ( ,conoc>pus belong+ to ! ,combretace4 ,rhizophora mucronata4 ,india & ,burmah4 ,b>k v>ies consid]ably2 ,david ,hoop]1 ,indian ,museum1 ,calcutta1 gives #bfi p] c5t4 ( tann94 ,dr4 ,ko]n] 7,deuts*5 ,g]b]s*ule1 ,freib]g7 analys$ two samples 9 #aijj1 "o conta9+ #dh p] c5t4 & ! o!r #ba p] c5t4 ( tann92 two samples f ! ,briti% ,imp]ial ,in/itute rec5tly exam9$ by ! ,au?or %[$ only #de & #fa p] c5t4 ( tann9 respectively4 ,c]iops ,c&olleana1 ,bakau or ,t5gah ,b>k1 ,ea/ ,indies4 ,goran1 ,b5gal4 ,conta9s up to #bg p] c5t4 ( tann9 & yields an extract :i* promises well z a sub/itute = cut*1 to :i*1 = dye+ purposes x is ne>ly or q equal4 ,! solid extract conta9s up to #fe p] c5t4 tann91 mak+ a good b d>k r$ lea!r4 ,c]iops ,roxburghiana1 a some:at l>g] tree1 also gr[+ 9 ! ,sund]bans1 b>k v simil> 9 /r5g? & "* to ! above4 ,,onagrace1 ! no!ra ,family4 ,fu*sia excorticata1 ! only decidu\s tree ( ,new ,zeal&4 ,conta9s #e p] c5t4 tann94 ,fu*sia macro/emma1 ,*ili4 ,yields ,tilco or ,*ilco b>k4 ,*urco b>k has be5 incorrectly attribut$ to ?is plant1 b x is c]ta9ly d]iv$ f an oxalis1 z /at$ by ! ,kew au?orities4 7,cp4 von ,hhnel1 #8,die ,g]b]9de1' p4 #abe47 ,,gunn]ace4 ,gunn]a scabra 7,pangue871 ,pauke1 ,*ili4 ,us$ occasionally 9 ! tann+ ( goat-sk9s4 ,,myrtace4 ,eucalyptus globulus1 & o!r species ( ,e4 common 9 ,au/ralia1 & introduc$ into ,alg]ia & ,s\!rn ,europe 7gum-trees71 are m or less ri* 9 cate*ol-tann9s1 _! sap be+ ! s\rce ( ,botany ,bay or ,au/ralian k9os1 :i* conta9 up to #gi p] c5t4 tann94 ,sev]al species ( ,eucalyptus af=d a/r+5t extracts2 ^? f ! 8r$10 8:ite10 or 8flood$0 gum 7,e4 ro/rata71 ! 8blood-wood0 7,e4 corymbosa71 & ,e4 citriodora1 be+ q suitable = replac+ ! (fic9al k9d4 ,! gum is *iefly obta9$ by woodcutt]s1 be+ f\nd 9 a viscid /ate 9 flatt5$ cavities 9 ! wood1 & soon becom+ inspissat$1 h>d & brittle4 ,m9or quantities are procur$ by incis+ ! b>k ( liv+ trees2 a treacly fluid yield+ #ce p] c5t4 ( solid k9o on evaporation is ?us obta9$4 ,! gum is import$ f ,au/ralia1 b !re are no /ati/ics to %[ 9 :at quantity4#adf #adf ,comp>e ,j\rn4 ,soc4 ,*em4 ,ind41 #aijb1 p4 #aei4 ,eucalyptus longifolia b>k1 ! 8woolly-butt0 ( ,au/ralia1 conta9s #hc p] c5t4 ( tannic acid1 & #bh ( gallic4 ,! 8pepp]m9t0 tree conta9s #bj p] c5t4 ( tannic acid 9 its b>k4 ,! 8/r+y-b>k0 7,e4 obliqua7 gives #ac p] c5t4 ( k9otannic acid4 ,! ,victorian 8iron-b>k0 7,e4 leucoxylon7 conta9s #bb p] c5t4 ( k9otannic acid1 b is available only = inf]ior lea!r4 ,myrtus communis1 & sev]al o!r myrtle species1 conta9 a consid]able am\nt ( tann9 9 ! b>k & leaves4 ,,granatace4 ,punica ,granatum1 ,pomegranate4 ,peel ( fruit employ$ 9 ,spa9 & ! ,ea/ z sub/itute = suma*1 conta9+ up to #be p] c5t4 ( tann94 ,b>k said to conta9 #bb p] c5t4 tann94 ,balau/9es1 wild pomegranates1 ,ea/ ,indies4 ,fruit1 said to conta9 #df p] c5t4 tann94 ,,rosace4 ,torm5tilla erecta1 ,pot5tilla torm5tilla4 ,root v>i\sly /at$ to conta9 #bj-df p] c5t4 tann94 ,r$ col\r$ lea!r1 =m]ly us$ 9 ,orkneys1 ,%etl&1 & ,f>oe ,isl&s1 & 9 "s p>ts ( ,g]many4 ,sorbus or ,pyrus ,aucup>ia1 ,m\nta9 ,a%4 ,b>k said to be /rong] ?an oak4 ,_m o!r plants ( ! family conta9 tann91 among o!rs ! /rawb]ry4 ,,papilionace4 ,butea frondosa4#adg ,?is 7) ,pt]oc>pus m>supium7#adh furni%es ,ea/ ,indian k9o4 ,! fl[]s are us$ 9 ,india z a dye1 "u ! "n ( ,tesu4 ,b>k fairly ri* 9 tann94 #adg #8,diction>y ( ,economic ,products1' ,i4,b41 p4 #idd2 ,hummel & ,cavallo1 ,proc4 ,*em4 ,soc4 #ahid1 p4 ii4 #adh ,agricult4 ,l$g]1 #aija1 ,no4 #aa1 ,gov4 ,pr9t+ ,(fice1 ,calcutta4 ,pt]oc>pus or ,drepanoc>pus s5egal5sis is ! s\rce ( ,african k9o1 :i* conta9s up to #ge p] c5t4 ( tann94 ,csalp9ia cori>ia1 ,divi-divi4 ,a tree ( #bj-cj feet1 native 9 ,c5tral ,am]ica1 introduc$ successfully 9 ,india1 b pr9cipally import$ f ,m>acaibo1 ,p>aiba & ,rio ,ha*e4 ,! dri$ pods conta9 #dj-de p] c5t4 ( a pyrogallol-tann91 ma9ly ellagitannic acid1 & w\ld be a mo/ valuable tann+ mat]ial1 b = a liability to f]m5tation & sudd5 developm5t ( a deep r$ col\r+ matt]4 ,! causes are n well und]/ood1 b app>5tly ! risk c be mat]ially less5$ by use ( antiseptics4 ,if us$ 9 /rong liquors x gives a heavy & firm lea!r1 b is pr9cipally employ$ z a p>tial sub/itute = gambi] on dress+ lea!r4 ,us$ 9 rapid drum-tannage = light lea!rs1 an excell5t col\r may be obta9$4 ,x is said to give an especially firm & glossy fle%4 ,lea!r tann$ ) x1 ev5 :5 ( outw>dly good col\r1 has (t5 a bluei%-violet %ade )91 p]haps due to ! developm5t ( a col\r+ matt] alli$ to t ( logwood4 ,! se$s d n conta9 tann91 :i* lies almo/ free 9 ! husk ( ! pod4 ,! pods are ab\t #c-d cm4 long1 d>k outside1 & curl up 9 dry+ to an ,s-%ape4 ,c4 digyna1 ,t>i or t]i pods4 ,occurs 9 ,prome1 ,t\ngoo1 ,bass91 ,mynang & o!r p>ts ( ,india & ,burmah1 :]e x is us$ z a drug4 ,! pod-case is said to yield ov] #ej p] c5t4 ( tann+ matt]4 ,a sample f ,burmah1 k9dly s5t by ! ,imp]ial ,in/itute1 exam9$ by ! ,au?or 9 #aijj1 conta9$ #bd p] c5t4 ( tann91 b aft] remov+ ! se$s ! rema9+ pod-cases yield$ #dd p] c5t4 ( tann9 on analysis4 ,c4 digyna promises to become a valuable tann+ mat]ial if x proves free f ! t5d5cy to f]m5t :i* is s tr\blesome 9 divi-divi4 ,x has be5 introduc$ into ,engl& "u ! "n ( 8:ite tan10 :i* yields a lea!r q z :ite z suma*2 b ! supply seems at pres5t unc]ta94 ,c4 cacolaco1 ,cascalote1 ,mexico4 ,pods ri* 9 tann9 7up to #ee p] c5t41 ,eitn]74 ,pods l>g] & fle%i] ?an divi1 se$s small]1 tann9 simil>4 ,! pods ( sev]al o!r ,csalp9ias are us$ 9 tann+1 sometimes "u ! "n ( 8,alg>obilla10 :i* is simply a dim9utive ( ,alg>oba1 ! c>ob1 or locu/-bean1 d]iv$ f ,arabic al ,kh>roba1 & appli$ to sev]al small pods4 7,see ,balsamoc>pon & ,prosopis47 ,c4 7or ,balsamoc>pon7 brevifolia1 ,*ili1 ord9>y ,alg>obilla4 ,fig4 #eh4 ,"o ( ! /ronge/ tann+ mat]ials kn[n1 conta9+ an av]age ( #de p] c5t4 ( a tann9 v l t ( divi1 b less prone to discoloration4 ,! tann9 lies loose 9 a v op5 skeleton ( fibre1 & is easily soluble 9 cold wat]2 ! se$s conta9 no tann94 ,if n all[$ to f]m5t x produces a v bright-col\r$ lea!r4 ,alg>obilla has be5 attribut$ to ,prosopis pallida1 b ?is appe>s incorrect4 ,sev]al species ( ,p4 are kn[n to yield tann+ pods2 ^? ( ,p4 ,/ephaniana ( ! des]t ( ,kas*an1 9 ,p]sia1 are ds*igh ds*ighe1 p]haps id5tical ) d*ift or jaft4 7,see p4 #bfc47 ,b>k ( ,p4 spicig]a us$ 9 ,punjab4 ,c4 7or ,hmatoxylon7 campe*ianum1 ,logwood1 ,c5tral ,am]ica4 ,9 addition to col\r+ matt]1 & a glucoside :i* x yields on oxidation1 ?is wood conta9s ab\t #c p] c5t4 tann94 ,its pr9cipal use is 9 dye+ blacks ) iron or *rome mordants4 7,see p4 #dac47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #eh4adi--;,alg>obilla 7,csalp9ia brevifolia74 #adi #8,new ,comm]cial ,drugs & ,plants1' ,no4 #e1 ,t4 ,*ri/y4 ,c4 e*9ata yields 8,brazil-wood40 7,see p4 #dac47 ,c4 ,sappan1 ,sappan-wood1 ,india4 ,cassia auriculata1 ,turw> or ,tanghadi b>k1 ,s\!rn ,india4 ,us$ = tann+ s-call$ 8,p]sian0 %eep- & goat-sk9s1 conta9s ab\t #ag p] c5t4 ( a cate*ol tann94 ,lea!r tann$ ) x is ( a pale yell[ col\r1 b rapidly r$d5s 9 sunlight4 ,cp4 p4 #bce4 ,c4 fi/ula1 ,india4 ,husk ( pod1 #ag p] c5t4 tann94 ,! pulp ( pod is us$ z an ap]i5t4 ,c4 elongata & lanceolata4 ,s5na leaves4 ,upp] ,egypt4 ,c4 ,sophora1 8,bali-babilan40 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ei4--;,babool 7,acacia arabica74 ,,mimose1 a ,tribe ( ,legum9os4 ,acacia arabica1 8,babool10 8,babul10 ,india1 ,egypt4 ,fig4 #ei4 ,b>k conta9s ab\t #ab-bj p] c5t4 ( cate*ol tann92 "o ( ! pr9cipal ,indian tann+ mat]ials1 us$ = kips & heavi] lea!rs4 ,pods1 us$ 9 ,india = bat+1 conta9 ab\t same am\nt ( tann9 z b>k1 b ( a diff]5t k9d1 t ( ! b>k be+ a cate*ol-tann91 ) a good deal ( r$ col\r+ matt]1 :ile ! pods conta9 a pal] tann9 alli$ to divi1 :i* is n precipitat$ by lime-wat]4 ,9 ,egypt ! pods are call$ bablah1 a "n :i* is also appli$ to pods ( ,a4 c9]>ia & ,a4 v]a1 & o!rs4 ,!y are us$ = dye+ glove-lea!rs4 ,a4 nilotica1 ,egypt4 ,pods call$ neb-neb or bablah4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fj4--;,cut* ,tree 7,acacia cate*u74 ,a4 cate*u1 ,india4 ,! wood yields cut* or 8d>k cate*u40 ,a light] col\r$ v>iety call$ ka?1 conta9+ mu* cry/allis$ cate*91 is also made 9 ,india1 & pr9cipally us$ = *ew+ ) betel4 ,a4 cate*u is a tree #cj-dj feet high1 common 9 ,india & ,burma1 & also 9 tropical ,ea/ ,africa1 :]e1 h[ev]1 x is n utilis$4 ,9 ,s\!rn ,india1 ,a4 suma is also us$ = ! same purpose4 ,trees ( ab\t #a foot diamet] are cut d[n1 & ! wood 7"s /ate ! he>t-wood only7 is r$uc$ to *ips1 & boil$ ) wat] 9 e>!n j>s ov] a mud-fireplace4 ,z ! liquor becomes ?ick & /rong1 x is decant$ into ano!r vessel1 & ! evaporation cont9u$ till ! extract w set on cool+1 :5 x is p\r$ into m\lds made ( leaves or clay1 ! dry+ be+ complet$ by exposure to ! sun & air4 8,ka?10 or pale cut*1 is made 9 ,nor!rn ,india1 by /opp+ ! evaporation at an e>li] po9t1 & all[+ ! liquor to cool1 & cry/allise ov] twigs & leaves ?r[n into pots = ! purpose4 ,x conta9s a l>ge proportion ( cate*91 app>5tly id5tical ) t ( gambi]1 b its tann9 is mu* r$d]4 ,good cut* conta9s ab\t #fj p] c5t4 tann+ matt]1 b is pr9cipally us$ = dye+ br[ns & blacks ) *rome & iron mordants4 ,x conta9s qu]cet91 a yell[ col\r+ matt] 7p4 #bfc74 ,a4 leucophlea1 ,india & ,java 8,pilang40 ,pods & b>k equal to ,a4 arabica4 ,au/ralia ab\nds 9 acacias 7mimosas71 _m ( :i* are us$ 9 tann+1 b v>y greatly 9 /r5g?1 n only accord+ to species1 b probably also by situation & gr[?4 ,probably ! be/ in=mation is to be f\nd 9 a pamphlet on #8,wattles & ,wattle-,b>k1' by ,j4 ,h4 ,maid51 ,f4,l4,s41 publi%$ by ! ,dep>tm5t ( ,public ,in/ruction at ,sydney1 #ahij4 ,8 analyses 7 made by ! ,lw5?al process1 & c only be r\ghly comp>$ ) ^? by ! hide-p[d] me?od4 ,! analyses giv5 are by ! ,i4,a4,l4,t4,c4 me?od1 & mo/ly on samples furni%$ by ,mr4 ,maid54 ,a peculi>ity l>gely develop$ 9 ! mimosa family is ! t5d5cy = ! true leaves to be suppress$1 & _! place tak5 by ! flatt5$ & exp&$ midrib 7phyllode74 ,?us leaves ( two v di/9ct =ms are common 9 ! g5us1 & "s acacias1 z ,a4 het]ophylla1 may h bo? =ms on ! same bran*4 ,comp>e ,a4 pycnan?a & ,a4 decurr5s4 ,! ,au/ralian mimosas h be5 naturalis$ 9 ,india1 & gr[ freely 9 ! ,nilgiri ,hills1 b ! b>k does n appe> to be utilis$4 ,! mo/ important species are z foll[s3-- ,a4 pycnan?a4 7,fig4 #fa47 8,broad-leav$0 or 8,gold5 ,wattle10 ,s\? ,au/ralia4 ,"o ( ! /ronge/ tann+ b>ks kn[n4 ,a sample m>k$ 8special10 analys$ 9 ! ,york%ire ,college1 conta9$ #ej p] c5t4 ( tann92 ano!r sample m>k$ 8ord9>y0 conta9$ #dj p] c5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fa4--;,broad-leav$ ,wattle 7,acacia pycnan?a74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fb4--;,gre5 ,wattle 7,acacia decurr5s74 ,a4 longifolia1 ! ,gold5 ,wattle ( ,new ,s\? ,wales1 only conta9s half z mu* tann9 z ,a4 pycnan?a4 ,a4 mollissima1 ) its two v>ieties ,a4 decurr5s 7,fig4 #fb7 & ,a4 dealbata1 are among ! mo/ important ( ! ,wattle family comm]cially4 ,two samples ( ! =m] m>k$ 8,gre5 ,wattle0 %[$ #cf-ci p] c5t4 ( tann+ matt]2 ano!r sample m>k$ 8,sydney ,gre5 ,wattle10 conta9$ #da p] c5t4 ,a sample ( ,a4 decurr5s1 ! second v>iety1 0 mu* weak]1 %[+ only #ab p] c5t4 on analysis4 ,a4 p5n9]vis 7,hickory b>k7 is said to be p>ticul>ly h>dy1 b its /r5g? seems to v>y4 ,a sample f ,bateman's ,bay conta9$ #ch p] c5t4 ( tann+ matt]4 ,a4 b9]vata1 ano!r 8,black ,wattle0 conta9s up to #cj p] c5t4 tann+ matt]1 z does also ! 8,weep+ ,will[10 ,a4 saligna4 ,! latt] is poison\s1 & is said to be us$ = kill+ fi%4 ,a4 prom95s1 ! b>k ( :i* resembles t ( ! ,gold5 ,wattle1 ,a4 longifolia1 9 appe>ance conta9s only #ad p] c5t4 tann94 ,! cultivation ( wattles 9 ,au/ralia has be5 some:at neglect$1 b w\ld r5d] possible ! utilisation ( _m acres ( l& ly+ wa/e1 or :i* h already be5 exhau/$ & r5d]$ unfit = ! gr[? ( c]eals4 ,x requires s little att5tion z to make x v pr(itable1 & wattle-gr[+ & %eep-graz+ c be comb9$ satisfactorily aft] ! fir/ ye>1 :5 ! "y trees 9 ! plantation h rea*$ ! height ( #c-d feet4 ,9 ,natal ! ,au/ralian wattles1 especially ,a4 mollissima1 h be5 acclimatis$ & cultivat$ ) success1 & l>ge quantities ( excell5t b>k are n[ export$ to ,engl&4 ,african wattle-b>ks usually conta9 ab\t #cj p] c5t4 ( tann94 ,wattles gr[ 9 almo/ any soil1 ev5 ! poore/1 b _! gr[? is mo/ rapid on loose1 s&y pat*es1 or :]e ! surface has be5 brok5 = agricultural purposes4 ,:5 ! soil is h>d & firm1 pl\gh-furr[s %\ld be made at a regul> di/ance ( #f-h feet ap>t1 & ! se$s dropp$ into ^!4 ,! se$ %\ld be s[n 9 ,may1 hav+ be5 previ\sly soak$ 9 hot wat]1 a little bel[ boil+ temp]ature1 9 :i* !y may be all[$ to rema9 = a few h\rs4 ,x %\ld be dropp$ at an av]age di/ance ( #a foot ap>t along ! furr[1 9 :i* case1 ab\t #gbjj se$s w\ld suffice = "o acre ( l&4 ,! se$ %\ld n be cov]$ ) m ?an ab\t in* ( soil4 ,on loose s&y soil1 x might ev5 be unnecess>y to break up ! gr\nd 9 any way2 ! furr[s may be disp5s$ )1 & ! se$ s[n broadca/ aft] ! l& has be5 h>r[$4 ,aft] ! plants h come up1 !y %\ld be ?9n$ s t !y /& #f-h feet ap>t4 ,:5 ! "y trees h atta9$ ! height ( #c-d feet1 ! l[] bran*es %\ld be prun$ (f1 & e ef=t aft]w>ds made to keep ! /em /raight & cle>1 9 ord] to facilitate ! /ripp+1 & induce an increas$ yield ( b>k4 ,x is advisable t ! black & broad-leav$ k9ds %\ld be gr[n sep>ately1 z ! black wattle1 be+ ( mu* l>g] & quick] gr[?1 w\ld oppress ! sl[]-gr[+ broad-leav$ "o4 ,c>e %\ld be tak5 to replace e tree /ripp$ by re-s[+1 9 ord] t !re %\ld be z little v>iation 9 ! yield z possible4 ,9 ,victoria1 ! mon?s ( ,septemb]-,decemb] are ^? 9 :i* ! sap rises )\t int]mission1 & ! b>k is *>g$ ) tann94 ,analysis proves t ! b>k f trees gr[+ on lime/one is greatly inf]ior 9 tann9 to t obta9$ f o!r =mations1 diff]+ #aj-be p] c5t4 ,! foll[+ are ,s\? ,am]ican mimosas3-- ,a4 cav5ia1 ,esp9illo4 ,b>k1 conta9s #f p] c5t41 pods1 #ah-ba p] c5t41 or m ( tann94 ,a4 cebil1 ,r$ ,cebil4 ,b>k1 conta9s #aj-ae p] c5t42 leaves1 #f-g p] c5t4 tann94 ,arg5t9e ,republic4 ,a4 ,gu>5sis1 ,alg>obilla ( ,arg5t9e ,republic4 ,b>k1 pods & fl[]s said to be us$ = tann+4 ,a4 timbo1 ,bu5os ,ayres4 ,a4 curupi1 ,curupy b>k4 ,a4 angico1 or ,piptad5ia macroc>pa1 ,brazil1 yields 8angica b>k10 a sample ( :i* conta9$ #bj p] c5t4 ( tann+ matt] :5 analys$ rec5tly 9 ! ,au?or's laboratory4 8,:ite ,b>k10 ,s\? ,am]ica1 probably an acacia1 b>k int]nally v simil> to angica1 if n id5tical4 ,a4 horrida1 8,doornbos*10 ,cape ( ,good ,hope1 conta9s #h p] c5t4 ( tann94 ,+a feuillei1 8,paypay10 ,p]u4 ,pods said to conta9 #ab-ae p] c5t4 ( tann9 7d\btful74 ,sev]al o!r species ( ,+a kn[n to conta9 tann94 ,elephantorrhiza ,bur*ellii1 ,el&sbos*jes1 ,tugw>1 or ,tulwah1 ,s\? ,africa2 a papilionace\s plant4 ,! air-dry root conta9s #ab p] c5t4 ( tann91 & a great deal ( r$ col\r+ matt]4 ,! roots are sev]al feet long1 & ab\t #b in*es 9 diamet]1 gr[+ by ! sides ( riv]s4 ,! foll[+ additions may be made to ! above li/3-- ,,euphorbiace4 ,clei/an?us coll9us1 8,kod>si10 ,deccan4 ,b>k /at$ to conta9 #cc p] c5t4 ( tann94 ,phyllan?us emblica1 ,india1 yields emblic myrobalans1 :i* 9 immature condition conta9 consid]able tann94 ,leaves 7#ah p] c5t47 & b>k us$ = tann+4 ,phyllan?us di/i*us & nepal5sis bo? yield tann+ b>ks4 ,,combretace4 ,anogeissus latifolia1 ,india4 ,b>k & leaves ri* 9 tann94 ,,guttif]4 ,g>c9ia mango/ana1 ,india4 ,! r9d ( ! mango/e5 fruit conta9s mu* tann94 ,,*apt] ,,xix4 ,,! ,,*emi/ry ,,( ,,! ,,tann9s4 ,! ess5tial con/itu5ts ( tann+ mat]ials are memb]s ( a l>ge gr\p ( organic comp\nds kn[n z 8tann9s0 or 8tannic acids10 :i* are widely di/ribut$ ?r\gh\t ! vegetable k+dom1 & said to h "o repres5tative among animals1 9 ! body ( ! corn-weevil4 ,_! use 9 vegetable physiology is z yet unc]ta91 & inde$ !y appe> 9 "s cases to be wa/e products ( organic *ange4 ,! tann9s1 ?\gh v>y+ consid]ably 9 _! *emical con/itution1 & 9 _m important *>act]i/ics1 are all m>k$ by ! p[] ( precipitat+ gelat9e & "s alli$ bodies f _! solutions1 ( conv]t+ animal sk9 into ! imputrescible mat]ial kn[n z lea!r1 & ( =m+ d>k-col\r$ comp\nds ) f]ric salts :i* are (t5 utilis$ z inks4 ,!y are also precipitat$ by lead & copp] acetates1 /ann\s *loride1 & _m o!r metallic salts1 & =m insoluble comp\nds ) _m organic bases1 su* z qu99e1 & ) ! basic anil9e col\rs4 ,!y are possess$ ( feeble acid "*4 ,all tann9s are soluble 9 wat] to a great] or less degree2 !y are also soluble 9 alcohol1 9 mixtures ( alcohol & e!r1 9 e?yl acetate1 acetone1 & a few simil> solv5ts1 b are n dissolv$ by dry e!r alone1 nor by *lor(orm1 petroleum _s1 c>bon disulphide1 nor b5z9e4 ,z ! tann9s are uncry/allisable1 & incapable ( be+ di/ill$ )\t decomposition1 !y are exce$+ly difficult to obta9 9 a /ate ( purity1 &1 ow+ to ! consid]able diff]5ces 9 _! "*1 no "o me?od is equally applicable to ! :ole gr\p4 ,z _! successful sep>ation requires consid]able *emical tra9+1 & exp]i5ce1 detail$ description is outside ! scope ( ! pres5t "w1 b "s p>ticul>s ( ! m important me?ods employ$ are giv5 on p4 #dc1 ,l4,i4,l4,b4 ,_! *emical con/itution is complex & 9 mo/ cases imp]fectly und]/ood1 b all ! natural tann9s :i* h be5 inve/igat$ prove to be d]ivatives ( ! trihydric ph5ol1 pyrogallol1 or ( ! dihydric ph5ol1 cate*ol1 ! latt] ( :i* is (t5 accompani$ by a trihydric ph5ol1 phloroglucol1 :i* is isom]ic ) pyrogallol4 ,! ph5ols are1 !mselves1 a class ( d]ivatives ( b5z5e1 ,c,h1 9 :i* "o or m ( ! hydrog5 atoms are replac$ by ,,oh gr\ps4 ,common ph5ol or 8c>bolic acid0 is _! simple/ repres5tative4 ,_m ( !m1 includ+ pyrogallol & cate*ol1 are us$ z photographic 8develop]s40 ,! ph5ols on replac+ ano!r hydrog5 by c>boxyl 7,,co4,,oh7 =m true acids1 ( :i* salicylic corresponds to common ph5ol1 protocate*uic to cate*ol1 & gallic to pyrogallol2 & ! tann9s are app>5tly complicat$ acids1 9 :i* "o ( ! two latt] acids is l9k$ to a second molecule ( ! same or ano!r acid z an anhydride1 9 "s cases possibly ) ! addition ( ph5ols or o!r organic gr\ps4 ,= m detail$ in=mation1 see ,l4,i4,l4,b41 p4 #de4 ,gallotannic acid is app>5tly digallic acid1 9 :i* two molecules ( gallic acid are l9k$ toge!r aft] giv+ up ! elem5ts ( a molecule ( wat]4 ,natural gallotannic acid & _m o!r tann9s are glucosides1 or at lea/ conta9 glucose1 :i* 9 _m cases c be remov$ by purification4 ,f :at has j be5 said1 x is obvi\s t a classification ( ! tann9s accord+ to con/itution1 is at pres5t impracticable1 n only f our imp]fect k1 b f ! difficulty ( sep>at+ & det]m9+ ! products ( _! decomposition4 ,x is n1 h[ev]1 difficult to di/+ui% ! cate*ol- f ! pyrogallol-tann9s by _! *emical *>act]i/ics1 ap>t f actual sep>ation ( ! ph5ols1 & ! division is important z x is m>k$ by c]ta9 broad diff]5ces 9 _! prop]ties :i* affect _! use 9 tann+4 ,! cate*ol-tann9s1 dissolv$ 9 wat]1 yield a precipitate :5 brom9e-wat] is add$ till ! solution smells /rongly ( x4 ,! precipitate is occasionally cry/all9e1 b g5]ally amorph\s1 & ( yell[i% or br[ni% col\r4 ,:5 ! infusion ( tann9 is v weak1 ! precipitate is sometimes only slight1 or =ms sl[ly4 ,pyrogallol-tann9s give no precipitate ) brom9e-wat]4 ,ano!r reaction1 :i* is g5]ally *>act]i/ic ( cate*ol-tann9s1 is t if conc5trat$ sulphuric acid is add$ to a s+le drop ( ! infusion 9 a te/-tube1 a d>k r$1 or crimson r+ is =m$ at ! junction ( ! two liquids1 & on dilution ) wat]1 ! solution is g5]ally p9k4 ,pyrogallol-tann9s on ! o!r h& give a yell[1 or at mo/ a d>k br[n r+1 :i* dilutes to a yell[i% solution4 ,?is reaction is ( great delicacy1 :i* may be fur!r increas$ by ! use ( an alcoholic in/ead ( an aque\s extract4 ,x is (t5 giv5 also by ! non-tann9 residue ( cate*ol-tann9s :i* is left aft] treatm5t ) hide-p[d]1 9 :i* case x is probably due to ! pres5ce ( cate*9s alli$ to ! tann9s4 ,) f]ric salts 7pref]ably a solution ( iron-alum71 pyrogallol-tann9s give blue-blacks1 :ile cate*ol-tann9s g5]ally give gre5i% blacks1 ?\gh ! reaction is apt to be r5d]$ unc]ta9 by ! pres5ce ( col\r+ matt]s1 or p]haps 9 "s cases by ! con/itution ( ! tann94 ,?us aque\s infusions ( common oak-b>k 7,qu]cus robur7 give a decid$ly blue black ) iron1 ?\gh ! tann9 is a cate*ol "o1 & ! purifi$ tann9 gives a gre5-black4 ,mo/ ( ! b>ks ( ,am]ican oaks1 su* z ,q4 pr9us1 give gre5-blacks )\t purification4 ,! ,au/ralian mimosas g5]ally give dull purple-blacks ) iron-salts1 ?\gh !y all conta9 cate*ol-tann9s4 ,! iron te/ 0 fir/ propos$ by ,/5h\se z a means ( classification4 ,trimble has %[n t :ile ! purifi$ pyrogallol-tann9s only conta9 ab\t #eb p] c5t4 ( c>bon1 ! cate*ol-tann9s h ab\t #fj p] c5t4#aej #aej #8,! ,tann9s1' ii4 p4 #aca4 ,only two tann9s ( ! pyrogallol gr\p h be5 def9itely di/+ui%$1 ?\gh x is v possible t m exi/4 ,^! are ord9>y tannic acid ( gall-nuts 7probably digallic acid71 :i* yields gallic acid :5 heat$ ) dilute acids1 or by ! action ( c]ta9 unorganis$ f]m5ts or zymases 7p4 #af7 :i* are g5]ally pres5t 9 tann+ mat]ials2 & ellagitannic acid 7usually pres5t 9 great] or less proportion 9 mixture ) ! gallotannic acid71 :i*1 "u ! same conditions yields 8bloom0 7an insoluble deposit ( ellagic acid71 z "o ( its products4 ,h5ce x happ5s t mo/ pyrogallol tann9s deposit 8bloom0 on lea!r1 ?\gh 9 v diff]5t proportions1 gall-nuts & suma* giv+ v little1 & myrobalans1 valonia & divi-divi a great deal4 ,engli% oak-b>k deposits a good deal ( 8bloom0 on lea!r1 ?\gh x is c]ta9 t its pr9cipal tann9 is a cate*ol "o1 b x is possible t ! blue-black :i* x gives ) iron salts may be due to ! pres5ce ( ellagitannic acid1 ?\gh gallotannic acid is kn[n to be abs5t4 ,! tann9s ( oakwood1 *e/nut & valonia are pr9cipally if n entirely pyrogallol d]ivatives1 closely alli$ to1 if n id5tical ) ! two j nam$1 b1 if s1 v difficult to obta9 9 a pure condition4 ,x is notewor?y t s wide a diff]5ce exi/s betwe5 ! v>i\s products ( ! oak2 galls1 b>k1 fruit & wood yield+ tann9s ( v v>i$ prop]ties4 ,! tann9 ( o!r galls1 su* z ^? ( ! suma* & pi/acio1 g5]ally conta9 gallotannic acid1 ev5 :51 z 9 ! la/ case1 ! rema9d] ( ! plant yields cate*ol-tann9s4 ,! tann9s ( ! cate*ol gr\p appe> to pres5t mu* m v>iety ?an ! pyrogallol-tann9s1 ?\gh x is possible t _m app>5t diff]5ces may be due to ! pres5ce ( impurities4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 at lea/ c]ta9 t ! tann9s ( gambi] & cut* conta9 phloroglucol z "o ( _! con/itu5ts1 :ile x is abs5t f mo/ o!r tann+ mat]ials4 ,its pres5ce is easily detect$ by moi/5+ p9e-wood 7a deal %av+7 ) an infusion ( ! tann9 9 "q1 & apply+ a little conc5trat$ hydro*loric acid1 :5 aft] a few m9utes1 a bright r$ or purple /a9 is produc$4 ,! cate*ol-tann9s1 on boil+ ) acids1 yield no gallic acid1 or bloom1 b g5]ally a deposit ( 8r$s10 insoluble 9 wat] b soluble 9 alkal9e liquids1 & 9 alcohol1 & :i* are closely alli$ to res9s1 & especially to ! r$ res9 kn[n z 8dragon's blood40 ,^! r$s are anhydrides ( ! tann9s1 t is1 are produc$ f !m by ! ab/raction ( wat]2 & are consequ5tly =m$ by any ag5cy :i* t5ds to remove wat]1 su* z long boil+ or high temp]ature4 ,! l[] anhydrides 7t is1 ^? f :i* lea/ wat] has be5 ab/ract$7 are n :olly insoluble1 b =m ! 8difficultly soluble0 tann9s :i* are naturally pres5t 9 _m mat]ials4 ,!y are mu* m readily soluble 9 hot ?an 9 cold wat]1 :i* is "o ( ! causes :y liquors made by ! aid ( heat g5]ally give d>k] col\r to lea!r ?an ^? extract$ cold4 ,!y exi/ 9 l>ge quantity 9 hemlock extract & quebra*o4 ,attempts h be5 made to utilise _! alkal9e solutions = tann+1 b )\t mu* success2 ?\gh alkalies or alkal9e sulphites are frequ5tly us$ to obta9 8soluble0 quebra*o extracts 7p4 #cch74 ,_m cate*ol tann+ mat]ials1 & especially gambi]1 cut* & quebra*o1 conta9 9 addition to ! tann91 consid]able portions ( col\rless bodies call$ cate*9s1 :i* are only slightly soluble 9 cold wat]1 b readily 9 hot1 & :i* cry/allise out on cool+4 ,^! bodies d n tan1 b are 9 a s5se ! s\rce ( ! tann9s1 :i* appe> to be _! fir/ anhydrides1 ! r$s be+ =m$ by ! successive loss ( fur!r molecules ( wat]4 ,^! bodies v probably ultimately become conv]t$ into tann9s by *anges 9 ! tany>d4 ,! *ange may be br\ght ab\t v rapidly by heat+ to a temp]ature ( #ajj to #abj ,c4#aea ,! cate*9 ( gambi]1 by cry/allis+ on & 9 ! lea!r1 is ! cause ( a tr\ble kn[n z 8:ites10 :i* is common :]e gambi] is l>gely us$4 #aea ,"s d\bt exi/s z to ! exact temp]ature at :i* cate*9s become conv]t$ into anhydrides1 & ,p]k9 puts x high] ?an t /at$4 ,an un=tunate peculi>ity1 app>5tly common to all cate*ol-tann9s1 is t1 h[ev] light-col\r$ ! lea!r produc$ by !m1 x d>k5s & r$d5s rapidly by exposure to /rong light1 & ultimately becomes q friable & rott54#aeb ,cp4 pp4 #bcd1 #bgb4 #aeb ,cp4 ,report ( ,committee on ,lea!rs = ,bookb9d+1 ,j\rn4 ,soc4 ( ,arts1 #aija1 p4 #ad4 ,wagn]1 a ,g]man *emi/1 attempt$ to classify ! tann9s into 8physiological0 tann9s1 :i* 7 produc$ 9 ! natural gr[? ( ! plant1 & 8pa?ological0 :i* 7 caus$ by ! attack ( insects su* z ! gall-wasps1 & he fur!r v5tur$ ! ass]tion t only ! =m] class 7 capable ( produc+ lea!r4 ,x has s9ce be5 %[n t ! tann9s produc$ 9 galls are id5tical ) "s ( ^? f\nd 9 heal?y plants1 & galls !mselves h be5 us$ 9 tann+ f v anci5t times4 ,x is only necess>y to rem9d ! read] ( ! use ( ,turki% gall-nuts1 9 place ( suma*1 :i* 0 common 9 ! ,ea/ 9 ! tannage ( moroccos1 & ( ! 8,knopp]n10 or oak-galls =m]ly s l>gely us$ 9 ,au/ria z a tann+ mat]ial = sole lea!r4 ,x is true t ! tann9 ( galls is n v suitable = ! latt] purpose1 consi/+ z x does mo/ly ( gallotannic acid1 :i*1 giv+ no solid deposit ( bloom or r$s1 is incapable ( mak+ a heavy or solid lea!r4 ,pure gallotannic acid itself produces a v :ite & s(t lea!r4 ,! class to :i* ! tann9s ( ! diff]5t tann+ mat]ials belong is mo/ly m5tion$ 9 ! ,botanical ,li/ 7,*ap4 ,,xviii471 b x may be well "h to specify a few ( ! mo/ common4 ,galls & suma* conta9 gallotannic acid ) a little ellagitannic2 myrobalans1 valonia1 divi-divi1 alg>obilla1 oakwood & *e/nut are all pyrogallol-tann9s giv+ ellagic & gallic acid among _! decomposition products4 ,all ! p9e b>ks1 includ+ ! ,am]ican hemlock1 & ! l>*1 all ! acacias & mimosas1 includ+ ! ,indian ,babul 7,acacia arabica71 ! oak b>ks 7?\gh n ! oak wood1 fruits1 or galls71 quebra*o wood1 cassia#aec & mangrove b>ks1 canaigre1 cut* & gambi] are cate*ol-tann9s1 & ! two la/ conta9 phloroglucol1 ( :i* m9ute traces are also pres5t 9 _m o!r cate*ol-tann9s 7p4 #big74 #aec ,cassia auriculata1 or 8turw>0 b>k1 is ! ord9>y tannage ( ! ,ea/ ,indian or 8,p]sian0 %eep- & goat-sk9s1 l>gely us$ 9 bookb9d+1 b :i* r$d5 & decay v rapidly4 ,gallotannic acid1 & sev]al artificial tann9s ) ! *>act]i/ic reactions ( ! class h be5 produc$ 9 ! laboratory1 b !re is no pres5t prospect ( _! manufacture at prices :i* c 9 ! fa9te/ way compete ) ^? ( natural production4 ,tann+ mat]ials frequ5tly conta9 mordant col\r+ matt]s1 (t5 d]iv$ f ! same ph5ols z ! accompany+ tann9s4 ,!y also usually conta9 gums1 />* & glucose4 ,oak b>k conta9s lvulose :i* is n comb9$ ) ! tann94 ,_m tann9s1 h[ev]1 exi/ 9 nature 9 comb9ation ) ! sug>s z glucosides1 :i* are easily decompos$ by ! action ( acids or by f]m5tation4 ,^! sug>y matt]s are important z furni%+ by f]m5tation ! acetic & lactic acids ( tann+ liquors4 ,,*apt] ,,xx4 ,,! ,,sampl+ ,,& ,,analysis ,,( ,,tann+ ,,mat]ials4 ,al?\gh ! analysis ( tann+ mat]ials falls m prop]ly )9 ! scope ( a book = *emi/s ?an "o int5d$ prim>ily = tann]s1 & ?\gh x has be5 treat$ at consid]able l5g? 9 ! #8,lea!r ,indu/ries ,laboratory ,book1' a slight sket* mu/ n[ be giv5 ( ! me?ods 9 g5]al use1 s9ce x is ( great importance t at lea/ ! pr9ciples on :i* !y are bas$ %\ld be und]/ood by all to :om !y are ( practical int]e/1 & also because an approximate analysis ( a tann+ mat]ial by ! hide-p[d] me?od is )9 ! scope ( any intellig5t tann] :o w provide himself ) ! necess>y implem5ts4 ,mu* att5tion has be5 paid to ! subject area by ! ,int]national ,association ( ,lea!r ,trades ,*emi/s1 & also by ! ,am]ican ,(ficial ,association ( ,agricultural ,*emi/s1 & z ! me?ods prescrib$ by "o or o!r ( ^! are ) v little exception employ$ by all qualifi$ *emi/s ?r\gh\t ! _w1 _! directions1 correct$ up to date1 are giv5 9 ,app5dices ,a & ,c4 ,z1 h[ev]1 ^! directions are address$ to *emi/s already famili> ) ! usual c\rse ( analysis1 a some:at full] explanation mu/ "h be giv54 ,x mu/ specially be insi/$ on1 t absolute adh]5ce to ! me?ods giv5 is ess5tial to obta9+ concordant results1 & little po9ts ( manipulation :i* appe> 9 !mselves unimportant1 are frequ5tly ! result ( long exp]i5ce & c>eful discussion4 ,! memb]s ( ! ,int]national ,association1 especially1 are b\nd by _! rules to make note 9 _! analytical reports ( any deviation1 h[ev] small1 f ! prescrib$ process4 ,! fir/ /ep 9 ! analysis ( any mat]ial is to draw a sample truly repres5t+ ! bulk1 :i* is (t5 by no means easy1 :ile failure to accompli% x is probably ! cause ( m errors & disputes ?an any inaccuracy ( ! me?od ( analysis itself4 ,9 v _m cases1 *emi/s are blam$ = discrepancies :i* really exi/ 9 ! samples suppli$ to !m4 ,! *emi/s ( ! ,int]national ,association only hold !mselves responsible = ! accuracy ( _! analyses :5 ! sampl+ has be5 done /rictly accord+ to ! rules prescrib$ by _! ,association4 ,on ?is acc\nt1 all important samples %\ld be drawn 9 ! pres5ce ( a pr9cipal1 or "s o!r responsible p]son4 ,9 liquid extracts1 ! ?or\gh mix+ ( ! liquid is ( ! greate/ importance4 ,mo/ extracts conta9 a portion ( 8difficultly soluble0 tann9s 7see p4 #big71 :i* sl[ly settle to ! bottom1 or adh]e to ! sides ( ! cask2 f :i* su* exp$i5ts z m]ely roll+ a full cask are q ineffici5t to dislodge !m4 ,9 fact no?+ b tak+ ! heads out ( a suffici5t numb] ( casks1 & actually /irr+ !m ) a suitable plung]1 :i* %\ld be specially appli$ to ! sides & bottom1 or empty+ ! entire cont5ts ( ! casks into a tank 9 :i* ! :ole c be adequately mix$1 is really ?or\ghly reliable1 ?\gh at times x is necess>y to be cont5t ) less satisfactory me?ods4 ,9 any case1 :5 x is probable t samples mu/ be submitt$ to m ?an "o *emi/1 ! :ole %\ld be drawn at once1 ?or\ghly mix$ & divid$1 & seal$ 9 sep>ate bottles1 & 9 divid+ a sample ! same c>e mu/ be tak5 to ensure complete mixture1 z 9 draw+ ! orig9al sample4 ,solid & pa/y extracts1 su* z quebra*o1 cut* & gambi]1 are /ill m difficult to sample fairly1 z ! outside is almo/ inv>iably mu* dri] ?an ! int]ior4 ,g5]ally ! only way is to select su* portions z are ?\ght fairly to repres5t ! bulk1 to *op !m into mod]ately small pieces1 mix & seal 9 an air-tight t91 leav+ x to ! *emi/ to draw f ^! ! small] sample requir$ = analysis4 ,gambi] is be/ sampl$ ) a tubul> tool l a cork-bor]1 design$ by ,mr4 ,ka?re9]1 ,fig4 #fc1 :i* %\ld be pass$ completely ?r\gh ! bale1 or ! cyl9drical sample ( gambi] _c be )drawn4 ,! same tool may also be us$ = sampl+ suma* 9 bags1 if ! damage to ! bag is n object$ to4 ,if su* a tool is n available1 ! only fair way to sample gambi] is to cut slices completely ?r\gh ! bale ) a clean fle%+ knife4 ,9 any case x is ( ! utmo/ importance t ! sample once drawn1 %\ld be mix$ z rapidly z possible1 & at once enclos$ 9 an air-tight box or j>1 seal$ & labell$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fc4--,ka?re9]'s ,sampl+ ,tools4 ,a1 /rong cross-h&le2 ,b1 gu>d-disc2 ,c ,c1 brass tube %>p5$ at ,c2 ,d1 brass or wood5 plung]4 ,dry tann+ mat]ials1 su* z b>k & valonia1 require judgm5t 9 select+ samples :i* fairly repres5t bulk4 ,if !y are ( a nature :i* d n readily sep>ate into du/ & fibre1 a good me?od is to gr9d a suffici5t quantity 9 an ord9>y b>k-mill1 & aft] well mix+1 to draw ! sample f ! gr\nd portion4 ,9 o!r cases x is be/ to empty a suffici5t numb] ( bags "o ^u ano!r 9 lay]s on a smoo? floor1 & to take out a section d[n to ! floor4 ,9 su* mat]ials z valonia & divi-divi1 ! du/ or be>d is usually mu* /rong] ?an ! av]age ( ! pods or cups4 ,! same sort ( precautions are requir$ 9 draw+ ! /ill small] sample requir$ = analysis f ! l>g] orig9al sample1 b ^! are suffici5tly detail$ 9 ! directions ( ! ,i4,a4,l4,t4,c4 giv5 9 ! ,app5dix4 ,z mat]ials usually require f9] gr9d+ ?an c be manag$ ) ! mills employ$ 9 ! tann]y1 a suitable mill mu/ be provid$1 & "o ( ! simple/1 at a mod]ate price1 is a ,no4 #d drug-mill made by ,a4 ,k5rick & ,sons1 ,limit$1 ,we/ ,bromwi*1 ,fig4 #fd4 ,c(fee mills are seldom /rong en\gh = ! purpose1 b if no?+ bett] is available1 ! sample mu/ be ?or\ghly dri$ be=e gr9d+1 & its loss ( weight not$1 & tak5 into acc\nt 9 calculat+ ! analysis1 c>e be+ tak5 t ! sample aft] gr9d+ is s pres]v$ t x _c re-absorb moi/ure4 ,valonia1 myrobalans & ev5 b>ks1 may be=e gr9d+ be brok5 ) a flat-fac$ hamm]1 on a ?ick ca/-iron plate1 ) rais$ edges to prev5t loss f fly+ fragm5ts4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fd4--,k5rick's ,drug-,mill4 ,prep>ation ( solution = analysis4--,z ! me?od ( analysis only gives satisfactory results :5 ! quantity ( tann+ matt] 9 ! solution is )9 c]ta9 limits1 ! ,int]national ,association prescribes t x mu/ be su* z to conta9 betwe5 #ce & #de grms4 ( tann+ matt] p] lit]1 or z ne> z possible1 on ! av]age1 to #d grms4 ,if1 z w r>ely happ51 ! /r5g? ( a mat]ial is q unkn[n1 x may be necess>y to make a trial te/ to asc]ta9 ! quantity ( sub/ance to be us$1 b ! foll[+ table gives ! quantity ) suffici5t accuracy = mo/ ord9>y mat]ials4 ,,table ,,%[+ ,,! ,,am\nt ,,( ,,diff]5t ,,mat]ials ,,to ,,be ,,weigh$ ,,out ,,= ,,analysis ,,to ,,make ,,up ,,"o ,,lit] ,,( ,,solution4 ,b>ks1 etc4 ,grams4 ,alg>obilla #i ,canaigre #ae ,divi-divi #i ,hemlock b>k #af ,mimosa b>k #aa ,myrobalans #ae ,oak-b>k #cj ,oak-wood #ajj ,quebra*o wood #bj ,suma* #ae ,valonia #ae ,valonia be>d #aa ,extracts4 ,oak-wood1 sp4 gr4 #ab or ov] #ae ,*e/nut ditto #ad ,quebra*o 7solid7 #f 7liquid7 #i to #ac ,gambi] 7block7 #aj 7cube7 #g ,! be/ me?od ( weigh+ out exact quantities may be "h describ$ = ^? to :om x is n already kn[n1 z mu* "t may be wa/$ by attempt+ x unsy/ematically4 ,! mat]ial is ( c\rse weigh$ 9 a bas91 :i* toge!r ) ! weight :i* is desir$ ( ! mat]ial1 is exactly c\nt]pois$ by weights 9 ! o!r pan4 ,:]e _m weigh+s ( ! sort h to be made1 x saves "t to keep "o p>ticul> bas9 = ! purpose1 :i* %\ld be prop]ly m>k$#aed2 & to make a c\nt]poise ( lead or brass exactly equal to x 9 weight1 s t x is only necess>y to add weights correspond+ to ! quantity requir$ to be weigh$ out4 ,suppos+ n[1 t x is a liquid extract :i* is to be weigh$1 a suffici5t quantity is introduc$ into ! bas9 ) a pipette1 to slightly exce$ ! requir$ weight4 ,! pipette is n[ empti$1 & a small quantity is )drawn ) x f ! bas94 ,if ! bas9 is /ill too heavy1 ! pipette is empti$1 & ! process repeat$ until ! bas9 is too light4 ,! true weight n[ lies betwe5 t 9 ! bas9 & ! small quantity reta9$ 9 ! pipette1 f :i* extract is add$ till ! bas9 is aga9 ov]-weigh$1 & ! same process is repeat$1 ea* "t r$uc+ ! m>g91 till a suffici5t approximation is obta9$4 ,x is n necess>y 9 weigh+ out ! sample1 to be accurate to a s+le milligram2 b ) practice1 ?is am\nt ( accuracy is easily atta9$4 ,if ! mat]ial is solid1 a spatula is sub/itut$ = ! pipette4 ,! weigh+ ( liquid or pa/y extracts %\ld be z rapid z possible1 z !y lose weight on ! balance by evaporation4 #aed ,porcela9 bas9s may be indelibly m>k$ by writ+ on !m ) an ord9>y iron ink1 & heat+ /rongly ) a bl[pipe4 ,liquid extracts are mo/ easily dissolv$ by plac+ a l>ge funnel 9 ! neck ( a lit] flask1 & aft] p\r+ a little boil+ wat] into ! flask1 hold+ ! bas9 incl9$ 9 ! funnel1 & wa%+ out its cont5ts ) boil+ di/ill$ wat] f a glass wa%-bottle1 or a p]fectly clean copp] kettle1 till ! flask is fill$ to ! m>k4 ,! flask is n[ cov]$ ) a small beak]1 :i* mu/ hang loose on its neck1 )\t re/+ on its %\ld]s1 & is rapidly cool$ by plac+ x "u a cold wat] tap1 to a temp]ature z little above #ae ,c4 z possible1 & is !n fill$ up to ! m>k on ! neck ) cold wat]1 & well mix$ by %ak+ v ?or\ghly4 ,solid or pa/y extracts are dissolv$ 9 a beak] by /irr+ ) successive quantities ( boil+ wat]1 :i* are p\r$ (f into ! flask1 leav+ ! undissolv$ matt] 9 ! beak]4 ,:5 ! flask is ne>ly full1 if any small portions rema9 undissolv$ or insoluble1 !y may be r9s$ into x ) ! la/ portions ( hot wat]1 & ! flask is n[ cool$ & mix$ z already describ$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fe4--,proct]'s ,extractor4 ,extraction ( solid mat]ials1 su* z b>ks1 or valonia1 is m difficult1 b ! foll[+ is a conv5i5t me?od1 :i* has be5 recognis$ z (ficial by ! ,int]national ,association4 ,an ord9>y beak]1 ( ab\t #bjj c4c4 capacity1 b :i* may be v>i$ 9 size accord+ to ! weight ( ! mat]ial :i* x is necess>y to treat1 is plac$ 9 a wat]-ba?1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #fe4 ,a ?i/le-head$ funnel1 ! /em ( :i* is b5t twice at "r angles1 & ( :i* ! head is cov]$ ) a piece ( f9e silk gauze 7su* z is us$ by mill]s7 to act z a /ra9]1 is plac$ 9 ! beak] & held 9 position by a clamp z %[n 9 ! figure4 ,to ! free end ( its /em a piece ( glass tube1 six or eight in*es long1 is atta*$ by indi>ubb] tube1 :i* is provid$ ) a p9*cock to regulate ! fl[ ( liquid4 ,f9e silv]-s&1 fre$ f iron & soluble matt]s by wa%+ fir/ ) hydro*loric acid1 & !n v ?or\ghly ) wat]1 is n[ p\r$ into ! beak]1 s z to surr\nd ! head ( ! funnel to ab\t half an in* 9 dep?2 & ! weigh$ quantity ( tann+ mat]ial is next introduc$4 ,x is be/ to cov] ! mat]ial ) cold wat]1 & all[ x to /& all night1 b 9 case ( ha/e1 wat] ( #cj to #ej may be us$1 & ! extraction proce$$ ) aft] ! mat]ial is ?or\ghly soak$4 ,p]colation is />t$ by suck+ ! syphon1 & all[+ ! liquid to drop sl[ly into a lit] flask1 ! temp]ature ( ! wat]-ba? be+ ma9ta9$ by a ,buns5 burn]1 & ! beak] be+ refill$ z x requires x ) wat] at ! desir$ temp]ature4#aee ,at lea/ #ejj c4c4 mu/ be p]colat$ be=e ! temp]ature is all[$ to exce$ #ej1 aft] :i*1 except 9 ! case ( suma* & canaigre1 :i* %\ld be begun ab\t #cj1 & at no "t all[$ to rise above #ej1 ! temp]ature may be rais$ to boil+ po9t4 ,at lea/ #a h\r %\ld be employ$ 9 p]colat+ #hjj to #ijj c4c4 & if ! mat]ial is n !n practically exhau/$1 ! lit] flask mu/ be )drawn1 & an ord9>y ungaug$ flask sub/itut$1 into :i* ! p]colation is cont9u$ till ! mat]ial is exhau/$4 ,! v dilute liquor 9 ! second flask is n[ boil$ d[n till its volume is suffici5tly small to be add$ to t 9 ! lit] flask1 a small funnel be+ plac$ 9 its neck dur+ ebullition1 to prev5t spirt+ & ! access ( air4 ,"u no conditions mu/ ! /rong] liquor ( ! fir/ "p ( ! p]colation be boil$ d[n1 z ?is w\ld involve de/ruction ( tann94 ,! solution is n[ cool$1 & made up to ! m>k z has be5 be=e describ$4 ,mo/ ord9>y mat]ials may be practically exhau/$ by ! lit] ( wat] if p]colation is sl[1 & ! tr\ble ( evaporation may ?us be avoid$4 #aee ,! mat]ial %\ld be kept 9 an ev5 lay]1 & if necess>y ! surface may be /irr$ at int]vals ) ! !rmomet] or a glass rod4 ,total soluble matt]4--,! solution ( :i* ! prep>ation has be5 describ$1 mu/ n[ be filt]$1 ! size & k9d ( pap]1 & exact me?od ( filtration prescrib$ by ! ,int]national ,association be+ /rictly adh]$ to4 ,all pap]s & me?ods ( filtration absorb traces ( tann+ matt]s1 & b few w give a cle> filtrate ) su* solutions z ^? ( quebra*o & hemlock extracts2 & to obta9 uni=m results exact uni=mity ( me?od is ess5tial4#aef ,deviations f ! exact me?od1 9 ! case ( quebra*o1 easily cause discrepancies ( sev]al units p] c5t4 9 ! result4 ,! object ( reject+ ! fir/ portions ( ! filt]$ solution is to prev5t1 z f> z possible1 errors :i* w\ld arise f ! absorption ( tann9 by ! pap]1 & to insure a cle> filtrate4 #ej c4c4 ( ! cle> filtrate is n[ measur$ by an accurate pipette1 & evaporat$ to dryness 9 a weigh$ porcela9 bas91 on a /eam-ba?1 9 ord] to det]m9e ! 8total soluble40 ,?is & succe$+ op]ations %\ld be done 9 duplicate1 ev5 if ?is has n be5 ! case 9 mak+ up ! orig9al solution1 :i* is c]ta9ly desirable4 #aef ,me?ods ( correction = absorption ( filt]-pap]s h be5 work$ out 9 ! ,au?or's laboratory1 & adopt$ by ! la/ conf]5ce ( ! ,int]national ,association4 ,cp4 ,collegium1 pp4 #ade-aeh1 #aijb1 & ,app4 ,a1 p4 #dgg4 ,ord9>y light porcela9 bas9s1 g5]ally ( ab\t ?ree in*es diamet]1 are employ$ = evaporation1 :i* takes place some:at m rapidly if !y are flat-bottom$ 7sauc]-%ap$74 ,9 place ( porcela91 ?9 glass bas9s ( hemisph]ical =m may be us$1 &1 b = ! co/1 plat9um w\ld be bett] ?an any?+ else4 ,alum9ium & nickel bas9s h be5 tri$1 b are slightly attack$ by "s liquors1 & h5ce are m liable to v>y 9 weight1 ?\gh !y h ! advantage 9 rapidity ( evaporation4 ,evaporation takes place mo/ quickly if ! /eam-ba? c be plac$ 9 a draught ( air1 s z to rapidly c>ry away ! vap\r =m$1 b ! bas9s mu/ be protect$ f du/4 ,"u fav\rable circum/ances1 evaporation ( #ej c4c4 9 porcela9 bas9s occupies "o to "o & a half h\r4 ,an ord9>y pan fitt$ ) a lid ( ?9 copp] p]=at$ ) holes ( two & ?ree-qu>t] in*es 9 diamet]1 makes a useful wat]-ba?2 b :]e mu* "w is done1 x is desirable to h a rectangul> ba? ( ?9 %eet copp]1 tak+ a s+le1 or at mo/ a d\ble r[ ( bas9s1 & fitt$ ) ! usual appliance = keep+ ! wat] at con/ant level2 or ) a supply ( /eam f a boil]1 & an ov]fl[ = cond5s$ wat]4 ,z soon z ! cont5ts ( ! bas9s appe> completely dry1 !y may be transf]r$ to ! dry+ ov54 ,! mo/ satisfactory =m is "o 9 :i* ! bas9s are plac$ 9 a clos$ *amb]1 surr\nd$ by /eam at ! atmosph]ic pressure1 & at ! same "t subject$ to a vacuum ma9ta9$ by a wat]-jet air-pump2 b z ?is app>atus is some:at co/ly1 x w probably only be provid$ 9 laboratories :i* make a speciality ( su* "w4 ,next to ! vacuum-ov51 an air-ov51 heat$ by a gas-burn]1 & ) its temp]ature controll$ by a m]curial regulator to #ajj-aje ,c41 gives ! be/ results1 & x is also ! *eape/2 b consid]able c>e & "s sci5tific k are requir$ to "w x satisfactorily4 ,9 intellig5t h&s good results may be got f ! small 8breakfa/ cook]0 gas ov5s made by ,flet*] ( ,w>r+ton1 :i* are plac$ on an iron plate heat$ by a gas burn]1 ! supply ( gas to :i* is regulat$ by a !rmo/at1 or m]curial gas-regulator1 ins]t$1 toge!r ) a !rmomet]1 ?r\gh holes drill$ 9 ! top4 ,! bas9s mu/ n be plac$ too ne> ! bottom ( ! ov51 :i* mu/ be protect$ by a p]=at$ metal plate support$ p]haps "o in* above x1 to prev5t radiation & to di/ribute ! hot air4 ,any cold air requir$ = v5tilation %\ld be admitt$ bel[ ?is plate1 & c>e %\ld be tak5 to exclude ! products ( ! burn+ gas4 ,contact ( ! bas9s ) any heat$ "p ( ! metal-"w %\ld be c>efully avoid$1 & !y are be/ support$ on grid-%elves cov]$ ) wire gauze or p]=at$ metal1 s z to all[ ( free circulation ( air4 ,if p]=at$ z9c is us$1 x mu/ be well support$1 z x is mu* s(t5$ at ! temp]ature us$4 ,! lea/ satisfactory appliance 9 skill$ h&s1 b probably ! mo/ easy to "w by ! inexp]i5c$1 is ! ord9>y wat]- or /eam-ov54 ,x is impossible1 9 ?is app>atus1 to raise ! temp]ature ( ! int]ior fully to boil+ po9t1 & bel[ ?is gambi]1 quebra*o1 & o!r solutions conta9+ cate*9s 7p4 #bih71 dry v sl[ly4 ,on ! o!r h&1 s long z x is kept boil+ & suppli$ ) wat]1 ! temp]ature is necess>ily con/ant1 & !re is no dang] ( ov]heat+1 :i* easily occurs 9 ov5s heat$ directly by gas4 ,su* ov5s are (t5 fitt$ ) op5+s at ! top = use z a /eam-ba?4 ,to get ! be/ results1 ! bas9s mu/ be z freely expos$ z possible to ! air 9 ! int]ior ( ! ov5 79 no case mu/ bas9s be set "o inside ano!r1 except 9 ! exsiccator = cool+71 & little or no v5tilation f ! outside is requir$1 z only traces ( moi/ure rema9 aft] evaporation on ! /eam-ba?2 s t1 aft] an h\r's dry+1 any v5tilators may safely be clos$4 ,z a good deal ( cool+ takes place ?r\gh ! door1 x is be/ to protect x ) "s non-conduct+ mat]ial1 su* z asbe/os millbo>d1 :i* may be atta*$ ) rivets1 or ev5 ) ord9>y pap]-fa/5]s4 ,"o to "o & a half h\rs w be requir$ to dry to con/ance 9 ! vacuum-ov52 two to ?ree 9 ! air-ov5 at #aje2 & probably ab\t f\r h\rs 9 ! wat]-ov51 except 9 ! case ( gambi]s1 :i* may require some:at long]4 ,too long heat+ is disadvantage\s1 z ! residues beg9 to oxidise & ga9 9 weight4 ,z soon z x is judg$ t ! bas9s w be con/ant 9 weight1 !y are )drawn f ! dry+ ov51 & at once plac$ 9 an exsiccator 7a glass vessel ) an accurately fitt$ lid1 :i* %\ld be slightly greas$1 9 ! bottom "p ( :i* is plac$ ei!r dry calcium *loride or conc5trat$ sulphuric acid1 to absorb ! moi/ure ( ! air x conta9s74 ,9 ?is !y are left till ?or\ghly cold1 :i* if sev]al bas9s are put 9 toge!r1 may require half an h\r4 ,!y are !n weigh$ accurately1 b z rapidly z possible2 return$ to ! dry+ ov5 = half an h\r2 & replac$ 9 ! exsiccator4 ,! exact weight ( ea* bas91 z x comes 9 turn to be weigh$1 is n[ plac$ on ! balance be=e remov+ ! bas9 f ! exsiccator1 s t x c be se5 in/antly if !re is loss or ga9 ( weight1 be=e x has "t to absorb any moi/ure f ! air4 ,! weight %\ld n be m ?an a milligram or s less ?an at ! fir/ weigh+2 if weight has be5 ga9$1 x is caus$ by oxidation1 & ! fir/ weight %\ld be tak5 z correct if x is c]ta9 t ! bas9 0 !n p]fectly cold2 a v slight am\nt ( w>m? easily r$uc+ ! app>5t weight by sev]al milligrams4 ,if mat]ial loss has occurr$1 ! bas9 mu/ ( c\rse be return$ to ! ov51 & re-weigh$ 9 ano!r half h\r2 b ) exp]i5ce1 ?is %\ld r>ely be ne$$4 ,x is necess>y t ! balance us$ %\ld weigh accurately to milligrams2 & x mu/ c>ry at lea/ #ej grm4 on ea* pan2 :ile x is m conv5i5t t x %\ld c>ry #ajj or m1 x is always possible ) a little +5uity1 to manage )9 #ej grm42 & if a *eap balance mu/ be us$1 ! small] size w probably be m accurate4 ,balances ( ?is sort c n[ be got = two or ?ree p\nds1 ?\gh x is 9 all respects bett] to obta9 "o ( fir/ rate quality1 :i* %\ld co/ ab\t t5 p\nds4 ,! balances ( ,v]beek & ,peckholdt1 ( ,dresd51 f _! simplicity & rapidity ( weigh+1 h giv5 great satisfaction 9 te*nical "w 9 ! ,york%ire ,college4 ,:atev] economy be ex]cis$ 9 ! *oice ( ! balance1 x is ess5tial t ! set ( weights %\ld be ( ! greate/ accuracy1 & especially t all ! weights ( "o d5om9ation 7#aj grm41 #a grm41 etc471 %\ld accurately balance ea* o!r4 ,ev5 aft] all precautions are tak51 x is desirable t ^? weights :i* are 9 duplicate %\ld receive di/+ui%+ m>ks 7e4g4 ) a c5tre-pun*71 & %\ld always be plac$ on ! scale 9 ! same ord]2 &1 n only on acc\nt ( possible inaccuracy1 b to save "t1 x is desirable to reject bas9s :i* are s ne>ly ( an ev5 weight 7#bj1 #be1 #cj grm47 t :5 weigh$ ) ! residue 7#jc-jd grm471 a *ange ( ! l>g] weights may be requir$1 s9ce x is to be rememb]$ t any error ( ! weights employ$ is conc5trat$ on ! small weight ( ! residue4 ,aft] d$uct+ ! weight ( ! empty bas9s1 ! weight 9 milligrams ( ! two residues ( #ej c4c41 :i* %\ld be practically alike1 are add$ toge!r1 & ! sum divid$ by ! weight 9 grams ( tann+ mat]ial us$2 :i* gives ! p]c5tage ( 8total soluble matt]40 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ff4 ,hide-p[d] ,filt]4 ,non-tann9s4--,x is n[ necess>y to det]m9e ! proportion ( ! 8total soluble0 :i* consi/s ( 8non-tann+ matt]s10 t is1 ( sub/ances n remov$ f ! solution by treatm5t ) hide-p[d]4 ,! s-call$ 8tann+ matt]s0 remov$1 include col\r+ matt]s & "s o!r sub/ances1 :i* ?\gh absorb$ by hide1 are c]ta9ly n tann9s 9 a /rictly *emical s5se4 7,see note1 p4 #dhj47 ,accord+ to ! me?od ( ! ,int]national ,association1 ! app>atus %[n 9 ,fig4 #ff is employ$ = ?is purpose4 ,! glass bell is c>efully & uni=mly /uff$ ) hide-p[d]1 c>e be+ tak5 t no *annels are left1 especially at ! sides1 ?r\gh :i* ! liquor c rea* ! syphon )\t trav]s+ ! hide-p[d]4 ,be=e fill+ ! bell1 ! %ort leg ( ! syphon-tube %\ld be loosely plugg$ ) cotton-wool 7( :i* a little is all[$ to project f ! end71 9 ord] to prev5t ! p[d] f ga9+ access to ! tube4 ,! p[d] is reta9$ 9 its position 9 ! bell by a piece ( musl9 held by an indi>ubb] b&1 & ! bell is !n plac$ 9 a beak] or tumbl] z %[n 9 ! figure2 & filt]$ liquor is gradually add$1 z x is absorb$ by ! p[d]1 till ! :ole is uni=mly wett$4 ,! liquor :i* 0 fir/ filt]$ ?r\gh ! pap]1 & reject$ = 8total solubles10 may be us$ = ?is purpose1 & x is n necess>y t x %\ld be absolutely cle>4 ,! syphon is n[ g5tly suck$1 & ! filtrate is all[$ to fall1 drop by drop1 into a gaug$ cyl9d]4 ,! fir/ #cj c4c4 :i* collects is reject$1 s9ce x conta9s traces ( dissolv$ hide-sub/ance ev5 f ! pure/ hide-p[d]2 & ! next #ej c4c4 %\ld give no turbidity if a few drops are mix$ ei!r ) cle> tann9 solution 7abs5ce ( dissolv$ hide-sub/ance71 or ) ! fir/ #cj c4c4 7abs5ce ( tann974 ,?is #ej c4c4 is us$ = det]m9ation ( non-tann9s1 by evaporation & dry+ precisely z has be5 describ$ 9 ! case ( 8total soluble40 ,"s *emi/s1 ) v accurate balances1 pref] to evaporate only #be c4c41 :i* effects a little sav+ ( "t 9 evaporation2 b 9 any case ! :ole ( ! #ej c4c4 mu/ be all[$ to run ?r\gh ! filt] be=e x is measur$1 z ! filtrate v>ies some:at 9 solid cont5ts z ! filtration proce$s4 ,! filtration & evaporation %\ld be done 9 duplicate4 ,! weight ( ! residue is calculat$ into p]c5tage z 8soluble non-tann+ matt]s0 precisely z has be5 describ$ = ! 8total soluble02 & :5 subtract$ f ! latt]1 ! rema9d] is ! p]c5tage ( 8tann+ matt]s40 ,if ! hide-p[d] n[ employ$ by ! ,engli% memb]s ( ! ,int]national ,association 7manufactur$ by ,messrs4 ,mehn] & ,/ransky 9 ,freib]g 9 ,sa*s571 be employ$1 no difficulty w be f\nd 9 ! filtration4 ,?is p[d] is q neutral1 & conta9s betwe5 #aj & #bj p] c5t4 ( cellulose to r5d] x m absorb5t4 ,x does n swell 9 ! filt]1 & h5ce %\ld be /uff$ into ! bell almo/ z tightly z possible1 ab\t #aj grm4 be+ requir$4 ,if ! bell is prop]ly fill$1 ! filtration %\ld altoge!r take ab\t "o h\r1 b if ! liquid runs too fa/1 x mu/ be regulat$ by a p9*cock on ! indi>ubb] tube ( ! syphon4 ,if o!r p[d]s are us$1 :i* (t5 conta9 acid1 & swell v mu* 9 ! bell1 ! fill+ is mu* m difficult1 & :ile ! sides ( ! bell mu/ be closely pack$1 great c>e is requisite to keep ! p[d] loose 9 ! c5tre1 or ! filt] w n run4 ,"o po9t requires m5tion ) reg>d to neutral hide-p[d]s4 ,if an extract :i* has be5 r5d]$ soluble by ! addition ( alkalis or sulphites 7p4 #chh7 be analys$ ) a p]fectly neutral p[d]1 x has be5 %[n by ,paessl] & ,appelius#aeg t a "p ( ! tann9 comb9$ ) ! alkali w n be absorb$1 :ile ) acid p[d]s1 ! :ole w be e/imat$4 #aeg ,wiss5s*aftli*e ,beilage des #8,l$]m>kt1' #aija1 p4 #ajg4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fg4 ,am]ican ,milk-%ak]4 ,! 8%ake-me?od0 adopt$ by ! ,am]ican ,association ( ,(ficial ,agricultural ,*emi/s1 possesses "s advantages1 especially 9 ! analysis ( us$ liquors :i*1 f ! acids !y conta91 are apt to give some:at too high results by ! filt] me?od 7see ,app4 ,b1 page #dhj74 ,x has ! fur!r advantage ( be+ mu* less dep5d5t ?an ! filt]-me?od on ! quality ( ! hide-p[d] employ$4 ,x has !re=e be5 accept$ by ! ,int]national ,association z p]missive = all tann+ mat]ials1 & z compulsory = us$ liquors 7see ,app4 ,a71 & mu/ !re=e be briefly expla9$4 ,x c be c>ri$ out successfully ) some:at inf]ior hide-p[d]s to ^? requir$ = ! filt]1 b g5]ally gives results #a or #b p] c5t4 l[] 9 tann9s ?an ! latt]4 ,a special %ak+ ma*9e mu/ be employ$1 capable ( ?or\ghly agitat+ a mixture ( hide-p[d] & ! liquor to be analys$2 & if _m analyses h to be done1 x is conv5i5t t x %\ld be driv5 by p[]1 z o!rwise ! "w becomes some:at labori\s4 ,a ma*9e call$ a 8milk-%ak]10 ,fig4 #fg1 employ$ 9 ! mix+ ( summ] dr9ks1 is g5]ally us$4 ,! quantity ( p[d] requir$ = ! analyses to be made 7ab\t #h grm4 ( ord9>y air-dri$ p[d] = ea* det]m9ation1 ) say #e grm4 add$71 is /irr$ 9 a l>ge beak] ) #be times its weight ( di/ill$ wat]1 & all[$ to soak = #bd h\rs1 #ae p] c5t4 ( *rome-alum previ\sly dissolv$ 9 wat] be+ add$ at ! beg9n+ ( ! op]ation1 & #ae p] c5t4 m n less ?an #f h\rs be=e its end4 ,! p[d] is !n wa%$ by squeez+ ?r\gh l951 & ! wa%+ is cont9u$ till ! wa%-wat] no long] gives a precipitate ) b>ium *loride2 & is !n well squeez$ out 9 l951 pref]ably ) ! aid ( a press4 ,! damp squeez$ p[d] is n[ r\ghly weigh$1 to det]m9e approximately :at quantity x is necess>y to take1 to give #ge grm4 ( ! orig9al dry p[d] to ea* e/imation 7air-dri$ p[d] conta9s ab\t #ae p] c5t4 ( moi/ure71 & a portion is accurately weigh$ 9 a bas91 & dri$1 fir/ on ! wat]-ba?1 & !n 9 ! dry+ ov51 to det]m9e its moi/ure by loss4 ,! approximate am\nt ( p[d] requir$ = ea* det]m9ation--if possible a r\nd numb] ( grams--is n[ weigh$ into z _m bottles ( ab\t #cjj c4c4 capacity z det]m9ations are to be made1 #ajj c4c4 ( ! filt]$ liquors1 prep>$ z be=e describ$1 are introduc$ into ea* bottle1 & ! bottles are !n ea* %ak5 = #aj m9utes 7,mr4 ,alsop /ates t 9 8 exp]i5ce #e m9utes is suffici5t74 ,! cont5ts ( ! bottles are n[ filt]$ ?r\gh funnels1 ! /ems ( :i* are plugg$ ) pure cotton-wool1 & ! liquor is return$ till a cle> filtrate is obta9$1 ( :i* #ej c4c4 is evaporat$ z 9 ! ,int]national me?od4 ,x is n[ necess>y to accurately correct ! residue obta9$1 = ! am\nt ( wat] c>ri$ 9 by ! wet p[d]4 ,! loss ( weight ( ! p[d] :i* has be5 dri$1 divid$ by its wet weight1 gives ! wat] conta9$ 9 ea* gram ( wet p[d]1 & ?is multipli$ by ! weight ( wet p[d] add$ to ! liquor1 gives ! weight 9 grams 7or volume 9 c4c47 ( wat] :i* has be5 add$ to ea* #ajj c4c4 ( liquor4 ,consequ5tly1 if ! residues f\nd be multipli$ by ?is weight plus #ajj1 & ! product divid$ by #ajj1 ! weight w be obta9$ :i* %\ld h be5 giv5 by #ej c4c4 ( undilut$ b detannis$ liquor2 & f ?is ! non-tann9s are calculat$ exactly z 9 ! case ( ! residues f ! filt] process4 ,( c\rse1 9 practice1 a factor is f\nd1 by :i* x is simply necess>y to multiply all ! residues1 to correct !m to undilut$ weight4 ,! process s\nds some:at complicat$1 b 9 reality1 :]e a l>ge numb] ( det]m9ations h to be made1 is q z quick1 if n quick] ?an ! filt] me?od2 :i* x is q possible x may ultimately sup]s$e1 z mu* att5tion is be+ devot$ to its improvem5t4 ,hav+ det]m9$ ! tann+1 & soluble non-tann+ matt]s ( ! mat]ials1 x rema9s to det]m9e ! moi/ure1 & ! insoluble :i* make up ! :ole4 ,to det]m9e moi/ure1 a quantity1 n exce$+ two or ?ree grams ( dry solid mat]ials1 or half a gram ( moi/ or liquid extracts1 is weigh$ into a bas91 & dri$ 9 ! same way z has be5 describ$ = ! residues1 only t a consid]ably long] "t w be requir$ be=e con/ancy is atta9$4 ,! object ( employ+ s small a quantity ( liquid extracts is to abridge ?is "t1 & ! consequ5t oxidation1 z mu* z possible1 z ! extract soon =ms a h>d sk9 on ! ext]ior1 :i* r5d]s fur!r dry+ v t$i\s4 ,x is advantage\s to add a little alcohol to liquid & semi-liquid extracts1 & s dilute !m t by incl9+ ! bas9 !y c be di/ribut$ 9 a ?9 lay] ov] its sides1 :ile at ! same "t ! alcohol facilitates ! evaporation ( ! wat]4 ,! weight ( ! dri$ residue 9 ! bas9 is ! 8total solids10 :ile ! loss is ! 8wat]02 & ^! c be conv]t$ into p]c5tages by multiply+ by #ajj & divid+ by ! weight ( sub/ance orig9ally tak54 ,an alt]nate me?od1 :i* is frequ5tly conv5i5t ) extracts1 is to pipette (f #ej c4c4 79 duplicate7 ( ! dissolv$ & well-mix$ extract-solution be=e filtration1 & dry exactly 9 ! same way z = 8total soluble40 ,! sum ( ! two residues 9 milligrams1 divid$ by ! weight ( extract tak5 = analysis1 gives ! 8total solids02 subtract+ ?is f #ajj leaves ! 8wat]10 :ile ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! 8total solids0 & ! 8total soluble0 is ! p]c5tage ( insoluble matt]4 ,two fur!r po9ts mu/ be not$4 ,if ! total solids are det]m9$ by ! fir/ me?od1 & ! total soluble 9 ! ord9>y way1 9 an extract :i* conta9s no insoluble matt]1 x frequ5tly happ5s t !y diff] by #ja or #jb p] c5t41 ow+ ei!r to ! difficulty ( driv+ (f ! :ole ( ! wat]1 or to slight oxidation ( ! total soluble residue4 ,on ! o!r h&1 if ! second me?od is adopt$1 a small am\nt ( 8insoluble0 is inv>iably f\nd1 ev5 9 p]fectly soluble extracts1 :i* is due to ! absorption ( tann9 or col\r+ matt] by ! filt] pap]4 ,on ! correction ( ?is error1 see ,collegium1 #aijb1 pp4 #ade-aeh1 & ,app4 ,a1 p4 #dgg4 ,z ! value ( a tann+ mat]ial (t5 dep5ds v mu* on ! pal5ess ( its col\r1 x has become cu/om>y to specify 9 contracts ! int5sity ( col\r ( a solution ( x conta9+ "o-half p] c5t4 ( tann+ matt] 7z measur$ by ! ,i4,a4,l4,t4,c4 me?od ( analysis71 9 a glass cell ( "o c5timet] ?ick1 by comp>ison ) /&>d col\r$ glasses 9 ! t9tomet]4 ,on ! me?od ( mak+ ! measurem5t see ,l4,i4,l4,b41 p4 #aca4 ,,note4--,all ! app>atus nam$ 9 ?is *apt] c be obta9$ ( ,messrs4 ,reynolds & ,branson1 ,comm]cial ,/reet1 ,le$s2 or ( ,messrs4 ,portway1 ,jamaica ,road1 ,s4,e42 & ( mo/ o!r deal]s 9 *emical app>atus4 ,,*apt] ,,xxi4 ,,gr9d+ ,,( ,,tann+ ,,mat]ials4 ,be=e ! tann9 !y conta9 c be extract$1 mo/ mat]ials require to be gr\nd1 almo/ ! only exceptions to ?is rule be+ divi-divi & alg>obilla1 9 :i* ! tann9 is v loosely conta9$4 ,extracts1 :e!r solid or liquid1 m]ely require to be dissolv$ 9 wat] or liquor1 9 :i* !y are1 = all practical purposes1 p]fectly soluble4 ,) ! less soluble extracts x is g5]ally pref]able to dissolve at a temp]ature ( #ej to #fj ,c4 ) vigor\s /irr+4 ,! actual me?od ( gr9d+1 & consequ5tly ! ma*9]y employ$ = ! purpose1 v>y n only ) ! mat]ial to be gr\nd1 b ) ! me?od ( lea*+ adopt$1 z x is ess5tial t ! mass ( gr\nd mat]ial %\ld be completely p]meat$ by ! liquor employ$ 9 lea*+2 & if x be gr\nd too f9ely1 or subject$ to too mu* pressure on acc\nt ( ! height to :i* x is pil$ 9 ! lea*es1 x is apt to =m a compact & clay-l mass1 ! int]ior ( :i* rema9s unextract$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fh4--;,cone-,mill4 ,9 ! laboratory1 :]e ?or\gh extraction mu/ be complet$ 9 a few h\rs1 ! mat]ial c h>dly be too f9e2 b on ! l>g] scale a mu* co>s] product mu/ be us$1 & lea*+ requires days1 or sometimes ev5 weeks1 & is !n seldom successful 9 remov+ all ! tann94 ,x is probable1 h[ev]1 t 9 ! future ^! me*anical difficulties ( extraction w be ov]come2 & ! mat]ial w !n be z f9ely divid$1 & z completely extract$ on ! l>ge scale1 z x is 9 ! laboratory at ! pres5t "t4 ,"o ( ! e>lie/ me?ods ( gr9d+ oak-b>k1 & :i* is /ill us$ = suma* 7p4 #bga7 consi/s 9 cru%+ x "u l>ge circul> edge-/ones1 frequ5tly turn$ by a horse4 ,?is process 0 v sl[ & ineffici5t = b>ks1 & bo? x & horizontal mill/ones simil> to ^? us$ = :eat 7 long ago sup]s$$ by iron or /eel mills on ! same pr9ciple z ! ord9>y c(fee-mill4 ,^! mills1 ,fig4 #fh1 consi/ ( a 8bell0 or inn] cone1 cov]$ ) blades or tee? arrang$ at a slight angle to ! v]tical section ( ! cone1 & :i* are made f9] & increas$ 9 numb] t[>ds its l[] & wid] "p4 ,?is cone rotates )9 an out] holl[ cone or cas+1 also provid$ ) blades or tee? :i* are slop$ slightly 9 ! opposite direction to ^? ( ! inn] cone1 s z to meet !m at an angle1 l ! cutt+-blades ( a pair ( scissors1 & ! angles ( ! cone are s *os5 t ! blades approa* ea* o!r m closely t[>ds _! base4 ,! out] cone is fix$1 & is provid$ ) a hopp] l a c(fee-mill1 :ile ! inn] cone is s rotat$ on its axis t b>k plac$ 9 ! hopp] is screw$ d[n betwe5 ! two1 & cut f9] & f9] till x rea*es ! l[] edge1 :5 x drops out4 ,! blades or tee? are usually ca/ 9 "o piece ) ! metal cones1 & %>p5$ :5 requir$ by *ipp+ ) cold *isels4 ,?is op]ation %\ld n be conduct$ 9 ! mill-h\se1 or small *ipp+s ( iron may get mix$ ) ! b>k1 & cause /a9s on ! lea!r4 ,?is =m ( mill1 :i* is run 9 ,engl& at ab\t #cj revolutions p] m9ute1 & at ne>ly ?ree times ?is spe$ 9 ,am]ica1 works v well ) dry mat]ial1 b clogs badly if x be appreciably damp4 ,on ?is acc\nt x is always well to run ! mill ) a fairly slack belt :i* w slip be=e ex]t+ suffici5t pressure to break ! ma*9e1 z 9 su* op]ations z gr9d+1 safety clut*es are ( b little use4 ,a type ( mill v>y+ some:at f ! above1 consi/s ( a pair ( discs or v obtuse cones1 ! inn] "o ( :i* runs on a horizontal axis4 ,! tee? are g5]ally arrang$ 9 conc5tric r+s & int]lock ) ea* o!r4 ,! mat]ial to be gr\nd is f$ at or ne> ! c5tre ( ! fix$ disc1 & escapes at ! edges4 ,! con/ruction ( ?is class ( mill w be easily und]/ood f ,fig4 #fi4 ,v small pieces ( iron or /eel :i* get caught betwe5 ! tee? w (t5 result 9 ! break+ ( ! latt]1 & ! =mation ( iron du/1 :i* is a s]i\s objection to ! employm5t ( ?is type ( mill 7to :i* ! ,s*meija 8,excelsior10 ! ,glaes] 8,favorita10 & ! 8,devil ,dis9tegrator0 ( ! ,h>dy ,pat5t ,pick ,co4 belong7 = gr9d+ b>ks4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fi4--8;,excelsior0 ,mill4 ,myrobalans & mimosa-b>ks h prov$ especially tr\blesome to gr9d1 ! =m] f ! h>dness ( ! /ones ( ! fruit1 & a t5d5cy to clog ! mill1 & ! latt] f _! comb9$ h>dness & t\ghness4 8,dis9tegrators0 ( v>i\s patt]ns are n[ made1 :i* are capable ( gr9d+ bo? ^! mat]ials satisfactorily1 & b = _! liability to cause fire1 & ! l>ge proportion ( f9e du/ :i* !y make1 are usually to be pref]r$ to too!d mills4 ,9 spite ( _! disadvantages1 h[ev]1 !y h come v l>gely into use1 on acc\nt ( _! effici5cy 9 gr9d+ ob/9ate mat]ials4 ,dis9tegrators "w on ! pr9ciple ( knock+ or beat+ ! mat]ial to p[d]1 by means ( v rapidly revolv+ beat]s1 :i*1 9 ! small] ma*9es1 are driv5 at #bejj to #cjjj revolutions p] m9ute4 ,! fir/ dis9tegrator 0 made by ,c>r & consi/$ ( two conc5tric cyl9d]s or baskets ( /eel b>s1 rotat+ 9 opposite directions at a v high spe$4 ,! mat]ial 0 f$ betwe5 ^! & 0 da%$ to pieces by be+ ?r[n aga9/ ! b>s & ! out] cas+4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gj4--;,dis9tegrator4 ,a simpl] =m 0 soon introduc$ by ,c>t]1 9 :i* only "o axis 0 employ$1 c>ry+ radial beat]s :i* da%$ ! mat]ial aga9/ ! s]rat$ out] cas+1 a portion ( ! circumf]5ce ( :i* 0 fitt$ ) grat+s1 ?r\gh :i* ! gr\nd mat]ial 0 ?r[n z soon z x 0 suffici5tly r$uc$ 9 size1 ! f95ess ( ! gr9d+ be+ regulat$ by *ang+ ! grates z requir$4 ,?is type ( dis9tegrator is1 ) slight v>iations1 made by all ! lead+ mak]s ( tann]s' ma*9]y2 & "o =m is %[n 9 ,fig4 #gj1 & a simil> b small] ma*9e1 op5$ to %[ con/ruction1 9 ,fig4 #ga4 ,9 ! m mod]n ma*9es ! sides z well z ! circumf]5ce ( ! cas+ are frequ5tly corrugat$ 9 ord] to increase ! action on ! mat]ial4 ,mills runn+ at su* high rates ( spe$ z #cjjj revolutions p] m9ute w gr9d mo/ h>d sub/ances1 su* z /one or brick1 )\t injury1 b pieces ( iron among ! tann+ mat]ial are apt to cause damage1 & v>i\s magnetic devices h be5 employ$ = sep>at+ ?is metal1 b ) only p>tial success4 ,9 ! be/ mills1 !re=e1 ! beat]s & inn] cas+s are con/ruct$ s t !y c be easily replac$1 & ! damage is !n r>ely s]i\s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ga4--;,dis9tegrator op5$1 %[+ con/ruction4 ,9 ord] to avoid vibration1 ! discs & beat]s ( all ^! high-spe$ mills mu/ be balanc$ ) great accuracy4 ,?is is be/ accompli%$ by remov+ ! sp9dle f ! mill1 & all[+ x to roll on two levell$ /raight-edges1 & !n fil+ or *ipp+ ! beat]s on ! heavy side until x w rema9 indiff]5tly 9 any position4 ,a new =m ( dis9tegrator has be5 rec5tly br\ght out 9 ,am]ica by ! ,williams' ,pat5t ,cru%] & ,pulv]is] ,company1 9 :i* a s]ies ( discs are key$ to ! ma9 %aft1 to ! circumf]5ce ( :i* a numb] ( sets ( 8hamm]s0 are susp5d$ by means ( h+e-bolts4 ,ea* ( ^! /eel b>s1 or hamm]s1 has a free arc movem5t ( #abj1 & :5 ! ma*9e is 9 motion take a position div]g5t f ! c5tre on acc\nt ( ! c5trifugal =ce4 ,aft] /rik+ a bl[ aga9/ any mat]ial f$ on to a plate s]v+ z an 8anvil10 ! hamm]s recoil1 &1 aft] pass+ any mat]ial :i* is n %att]$ by ! bl[1 aga9 resume _! normal position1 leav+ ! next set ( hamm]s to beat aga9/ ! ungr\nd mat]ial4 ,! h+$ susp5sion ( ! hamm]s imp>ts a degree ( flexibility to ! mill :i* is n f\nd 9 any o!r ma*9e ( ?is "*1 & less5s ! risk ( s]i\s damage to ! ma*9e by ! introduction ( pieces ( metal along ) ! b>k4 ,! mak]s claim t ?is ma*9e c be repair$ m rapidly & ) less exp5se ?an any o!r dis9tegrator ( equal p[] on ! m>ket4 ,consid]able improvem5ts h rec5tly be5 made 9 ! details ( its con/ruction4 ,fig4 #gb %[s a section ( ?is mill4 ,( c\rse only ! end hamm]s ( ea* set c be se5 9 ! figure4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gb4--,section ( ,williams' ,cru%]4 ,:5 myrobalans or valonia is to be us$ = lea*+1 x is g5]ally bett] to cru% x betwe5 too!d or flut$ roll]s1 r ?an to gr9d x f9ely1 z ! cellul> /ructure is j z completely brok5 up1 & ! flakes =m$ by cru%+ all[ ( mu* fre] p]colation ?an :5 ! mat]ial is p[d]$ by ! dis9tegrator1 :ile ! consumption ( p[] is also less4 ,! g5]al con/ruction ( ! ma*9e w be easily und]/ood f ,fig4 #gc1 & x is only necess>y to po9t out t ! small upp] roll] acts ma9ly z a 8fe$0 to ! l>g] cru%+ rolls4 ,9 ! be/ mills1 ! roll]s are made up ( a s]ies ( too!d /eel discs on a squ>e axis1 & are on ?is acc\nt easily replac$ or %>p5$ :5 !y h become brok5 or worn4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gc4--,myrobalans ,cru%]4 ,sev]al mills h be5 introduc$ 9 ,am]ica 9 :i* ! b>k is sawn or rasp$ by too!d discs l circul> saws1 b ^! are only capable ( deal+ ) b>ks ( a brittle nature1 & are imm$iately *ok$ by t\gh mat]ials l ! b>k ( ! mimosa or oak4 ,a bett] =m ( mill1 b "o :i* is1 to "s ext5t1 subject to ! same disadvantage1 is ! 8%av+-mill10 9 :i* blades are fix$ l plane-irons ^u a disc1 cones or cyl9d]1 & are rotat$ at a high spe$ aga9/ ! mat]ial :i* is f$ aga9/ !m by too!d roll]s at su* an angle t ! %av+s are cut diagonally to ! gra94 ,^! %av+-mills are l>gely 9 use 9 ,am]ica = hemlock-b>k1 ) :i* !y are p>ticul>ly successful4 ,! pr9ciple ( ! ma*9e is exactly ! same z t ( ! ma*9es us$ 9 cutt+ oakwood1 quebra*o1 & ! diff]5t dye woods4 ,"o type ( %av+-mill is illu/rat$ 9 ,fig4 #gd4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gd4--,%av+ ,mill4 ,x frequ5tly happ5s t ! mat]ial is deliv]$ f ! mill 9 a v unequal /ate ( division1 & x is sometimes necess>y to scre5 x & ?us sep>ate ! co>s] portion ei!r = use 9 ! lea*es or = re-gr9d+1 :ile ! f9] portion is m suitable = 8du/+40 ,) dis9tegrators1 :i* deliv] ! b>k ) consid]able impetus1 ! scre5+ c be accompli%$ by plac+ a scre5 diagonally bel[ ! mill1 ?r\gh :i* ! f9] p>ts are project$4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 ess5tial t ?is scre5 %\ld be q smoo? on its upp] surface & v /rong1 z ord9>y wire gauze is imm$iately cut ?r\gh by ! impact ( ! mat]ial4 ,:at are call$ 8lock$ wire scre5s0 9 :i* ! wires are support$ by be+ actually twi/$ r\nd ! transv]se b>s are v suitable4 ,:]e ! circum/ances w n p]mit ( scre5+ 9 ?is way1 cyl9drical rotat+ scre5s1 or ne>ly horizontal scre5s vibrat$ by an ecc5tric may be us$4 ,! latt] are *eap] to erect & h ! advantage t !y take up less room1 & by hav+ l5g?s ( wirework or p]=at$ /eel ( diff]5t co>s5ess1 ! mat]ial may be sep>at$ into m ?an "o degree ( f95ess4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ge4--;,b>k-,break]4 ,oak-b>k z x is tak5 (f ! trees is usually 9 l5g?s ( p]haps ?ree feet1 & x is necess>y to cut or break x into small] fragm5ts be=e x c be gr\nd 9 mo/ ( ! ma*9es j describ$4 ,?is is frequ5tly done by h& by *opp+ ! b>k into pieces ab\t f\r in*es long1 & ! op]ation is kn[n z 8hat*+40 ,ma*9es on ! pr9ciple ( ! *aff-cutt]1 consi/+ ( a fly-:eel ) curv$ blades radially atta*$ to x1 are sometimes us$4 ,in/ead ( 8hat*+0 x1 ! b>k is frequ5tly brok5 by pass+ ?r\gh too!d roll]s fitt+ into ea* o!r1 & (t5 atta*$ to ! mill2 ! con/ruction ( ?is ma*9e w be readily und]/ood f ,fig4 #ge4 ,9 ,belgium1 & "s o!r b>k-produc+ di/ricts1 ! adh]+ moss & dead outside b>k are usually remov$ be=e hat*+1 b app>5tly ^! impurities are frequ5tly re-mix$ ) ! b>k aft] ! hat*+ is complet$6 ,z su* b>ks (t5 also conta9 mu* clay & dirt1 x is g5]ally exp$i5t to pass ! hat*$ b>k ov] a co>se scre5 be=e lett+ x ent] ! mill1 s z to remove ! great] "p ( su* rubbi%1 s9ce1 if left 9 ! b>k1 x produces black & unsatisfactory liquors4 ,9 draw+ up policies = fire insurance1 x is usual to *>ge a high] rate :]e dis9tegrators are us$ to gr9d ! tann+ mat]ial1 z ow+ to ! am\nt ( du/ & ! production ( sp>ks by ! /rik+ ( ! /eel p>ts ( ! ma*9e on any *ance piece ( fl9t or metal :i* may get into x1 !re is a great] liability to fire ?an ) too!d mills1 al?\gh ) prop] precautions ! risk is really small4 7,cp4 p4 #ddf47 ,all dis9tegrators act l v5tilat+ fans1 & suck 9 air ) ! mat]ial1 bl[+ x out aga9 ) great =ce at ! p]iph]y4 ,?is air is heavily lad5 ) du/ f ! tann+ mat]ial :i* is extremely irritat+ to ! lungs4 ,! difficulty is to "s ext5t rem$i$ by an air-*annel or flue 7g5]ally ca/ 9 ! cas+ ( ! ma*9e7 connect+ ! dis*>ge ) ! fe$-op5+ s z to convey ! air back to ! dis9tegrator4 ,! air is ?us circulat$ ?r\gh ! arrangem5t1 b "s is always drawn 9 f ! ext]nal atmosph]e & driv5 out ) ! gr\nd mat]ial1 & x is advisable t ! *amb] into :i* x is dis*>g$ %\ld be provid$ ) "s means ( filt]+ ! air be=e x escapes4 ,"o conv5i5t me?od is to h a l>ge flannel bag :i* is bl[n out by ! air l a balloon & out ( :i* ! du/ c be %ak5 :5 ! ma*9]y has /opp$4 ,ano!r effici5t me?od is to h "o ( ! walls or ! ceil+ ( ! *amb] made ( canvas or ( sack+2 b 9 any case ! air %\ld be all[$ an escape :]e a little du/ w n cause annoyance4 ,*a9-,conveyors4--,:ile1 9 ,engl&1 ! gr\nd mat]ial is usually c>ri$ f ! mill to ! lea*es 9 b>r[s or baskets1 9 ,am]ica ! use ( conveyors is practically univ]sal1 & !re is no d\bt t !y effect a great sav+ ( lab\r at a comp>atively small co/4 ,! mo/ practical conveyor = tann+ mat]ials consi/s ( a tr\gh ?r\gh :i* an endless *a9 passes1 c>ry+ scrap]s4 ,! *a9 g5]ally us$ = ?is purpose is "o consi/+ ( squ>e l9ks fitt+ into ea* o!r & capable ( runn+ ov] too!d :eels4 ,^! *a9s are made by sev]al firms 9 ,am]ica1 & 9 ,engl& by ! ,ew>t ,*a9 ,conveyor ,co41 ( ,d]by1 :o supply n only pla9 l9ks b also ^? hav+ projections to :i* buckets1 scrap]s & a v>iety ( atta*m5ts may be fix$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gf4--;,*a9-,conveyor4 ,9 _m cases ! tr\gh is ,v-%ap$ ) ! *a9 runn+ 9 ! angle2 9 o!rs flat-bottom$ z 9 ! illu/ration1 or rectangul>4 ,! scrap]s may consi/ ei!r ( metal or ( wood2 & :]e mat]ials h to be c>ri$ up a /eep incl9e buckets in/ead ( scrap]s %\ld be employ$4 ,! arrangem5t ( su* a conveyor is illu/rat$ by ,fig4 #gf4 ,a useful =m ( conveyor = dry mat]ials consi/s 9 a wov5 cotton belt runn+ 9 a smoo? tr\gh & ) la?s rivet$ across x at int]vals4 ,^! la?s %\ld project slightly beyond ! edges ( ! belt s z to prev5t we>4 ,c>e mu/ be tak5 ) belts ( ?is sort t ! mat]ial does n get betwe5 ! belt & ! pulley4 ,*a9-c>ri]s are (t5 us$ = convey+ ! sp5t tan to ! furnaces f ! lea*es1 & occasionally = c>ry+ sk9s4 ,sev]al o!r k9ds ( conveyor are 9 use 9 corn-mills1 spiral or worm conveyors :i* "w on ! screw pr9ciple be+ v l>gely us$ = c>ry+ corn4 ,!y are n v suitable = tann+ mat]ials on acc\nt ( ! co>s5ess ( ! latt]1 by :i* ! friction is greatly increas$2 !y are h[ev] occasionally us$4 ,^? built up ( sep>ate blades are specially to be avoid$4 ,an +5i\s =m ( conveyor has be5 rec5tly introduc$ f ,g]many1 & consi/s ( a light tr\gh support$ on /eel spr+s & vibrat$ longitud9ally by means ( an ecc5tric 9 su* a way z to %ake ! mat]ial f "o end ( ! c>ri] to ! o!r2 ! velocity ( motion ( ! tr\gh be+ less 9 ! outw>d ?an ! return /roke1 s t ! mat]ial is c>ri$ ) x z x moves =w>d & slides ov] x 9 its return4 ,x is obvi\s t ! pr9ciple may also be appli$ to scre5+ or sift+4 ,,*apt] ,,xxii4 ,,! ,,extraction ,,( ,,tann+ ,,mat]ials1 ,,& ,,! ,,mak+ ,,( ,,extracts4 ,lea*+4--,! mat]ial1 hav+ be5 r$uc$ to a suitable /ate ( f95ess1 is ready = extraction4 ,?is requires a consid]able am\nt ( "t1 z ! tann9 is conta9$ 9 cells ^: walls are ( a wood-l sub/ance 7cellulose & lign9e71 ?r\gh :i* ! wat] diffuses b sl[ly4 ,h5ce1 unless ! mat]ial be v f9ely gr\nd1 a long soak+ w be necess>y be=e x becomes 8sp5t40 ,x %\ld be ! aim ( ! tann] to h 8 b>ks1 etc4 gr\nd s f9ely t !y may be extract$ z rapidly z possible1 & yet n be s f9e t !y settle to a compact mass 9 ! lea*es & s prev5t circulation4 ,us+ ! pres5t me?ods ( extraction on ! l>ge scale x is necess>y to h ! mat]ial only some:at co>sely gr\nd or cru%$1 s z to r5d] its p]colation practicable2 b x is q possible t 9 ! ne> future "s bett] me*anical means w be f\nd ( treat+ ! du/ & o!r excessively f9ely gr\nd matt] s z to br+ ab\t a v rapid extraction4 ,up to p]haps #aej ye>s ago1 no attempt 0 made to lea* ! tann+ mat]ial1 :i* 0 simply /rew$ 9 lay]s betwe5 ! hides1 & moi/5$ ) wat]4 ,lea*+ orig9at$ 9 ,engl&1 & 0 fir/ appli$ m]ely to complete ! exhau/ion ( ! mat]ial :i* _h be5 already us$ = lay]s2 b ! use ( ev5 weak liquors in/ead ( wat] 9 ! lay]s 0 f\nd s advantage\s1 t new mat]ial 0 soon appli$ to make /rong] infusions4 ,! e>lie/ =m ( lea* 0 simply a pit ) a p]=at$ wood5 8eye0 or %aft d[n "o corn]1 9 :i* a pump c\ld be plac$ to remove ! liquor )\t be+ *ok$ ) solid matt]4 ,?is 0 consid]ably improv$ by ! addition ( a p]=at$ 8false bottom0 to ! pit1 ) :i* ! eye communicat$4 ,! p]=ations ( ! latt] 7 f\nd unnecess>y1 & x n[ s]ves simply = pump+ ?r\gh1 or = ! manipulation ( a plug 9 a hole communicat+ ) an und]gr\nd 8trunk0 lead+ into a pump-well4 ,! false-bottom is be/ made ( la?s ab\t #a in* ?ick & #b in*es wide1 cut slant+ s z to be wid] on ! upp] ?an ! l[] surface1 :i* makes ! spaces betwe5 !m less liable to *oke4 ,! la?s are nail$ on cross-batt5s ) copp] nails1 :i* %\ld be long en\gh to cl9*1 -in* to -in* spaces be+ all[$ betwe5 ! la?s accord+ to ! f95ess ( ! gr\nd mat]ial4 ,! lattice-bottom %\ld be 9 at lea/ two sections1 s z to all[ ( its easy removal = clean+1 & %\ld re/ on deta*$ blocks1 :i* are be/ nail$ to ! und]side ( ! batt5s4 ,a space ( #b in*es to #c in*es bel[ ! false bottom w prove suffici5t if x is cle>$ e "t ! pit is empti$1 b n o!rwise4 ,cle>ness f ob/ruction bo? bel[ ! bottom & betwe5 ! la?s !mselves is v important 9 secur+ free runn+ 9 ! 8press lea*0 sy/em ab\t to be describ$4 ,a section ( ! lattic$ bottom is %[n 9 ,fig4 #gg4 ,! la?s are easily cut by employ+ a circul> saw ) a tilt$ table1 & turn+ ! bo>d at ea* cut4 ,no advantage is ga9$ by plan+ !m4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gg4--,section ( ,lea*-,bottom4 ,z a /rong liquor _c be made by ! use ( a s+le lea*+-pit1 a s]ies ( pits are n[ always employ$1 & x is ! lea*+1 sy/ematic or o!rwise1 :i* det]m9es h[ mu* ( ! total tann9 w be ?r[n away & lo/ 9 ! 8sp5t tan40 ,9 ! case ( prop]ly extract$ mat]ials ! 8sp5t tan0 w n conta9 m ?an "o p] c5t4 ( tann+ matt]1 b ! degree ( extraction :i* is pr(itable is dep5d5t on ! tann+ mat]ial employ$ & ! class ( lea!r to be produc$4 ,! sy/em ( lea*es n[ consid]$ to be ! be/ is bas$ on ! 8cont9u\s0 process ( extraction4 ,( its diff]5t =ms1 ! 8press-lea*0 is ! simple/ & 9 mo/ cases is all t is requir$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gh4--,plan & ,section ( ,batt]y ( ,press-,lea*es4 ,a plan & v]tical section ( ! lea*es is %[n 9 ,fig4 #gh4 ,assum+ t ! lea*es h be5 work+ = "s "t & t ! liquor 9 ! /ronge/ lea* has be5 run (f to ! tan-pits1 or 9 ! case ( manufactur+ extracts to ! decoloris+ tanks or evaporator1 ! la/ vat 9 ! s]ies is n[ fill$ ) wat] or sp5t liquor1 :i* may be heat$ by /eam if desir$1 & ?is wat]1 :i* completes ! exhau/ion ( ! mat]ial 9 ?is vat1 =ces ! liquor =w>d 9 ! :ole s]ies1 s t x gets /rong] & /rong] z x passes f vat to vat4 ,! v weak liquor rema9+ 9 ! la/ vat is n[ pump$ into a sp>e pit1 or on to ! next /rong] vat1 press+ ! liquor =w>d z be=e2 ! vat is empti$ ( ! sp5t mat]ial & refill$ ) new1 & n[ becomes ! head lea*2 & ! /ronge/ liquor is press$ on to x by runn+ wat] or weak liquor on ! weake/ vat4 ,z reg>ds ! con/ruction ( su* a 8batt]y0 ( lea*es1 details w diff] accord+ to :e!r ! usual ,engli% squ>e sunk pits1 or ! ,am]ican =m ( circul> tub-lea*es is employ$4 ,9 ! =m] case ! v]tical sp\ts connect$ ) ! space "u ! false bottoms are usually made ( wood1 l ! old fa%ion$ 8eye10 & plac$ at "o side or corn] ( ea* pit1 & connect$ ) ! top ( ! next pit by a %ort tr\gh :i* may be op5 above or cov]$ z pref]r$4 ,bo? eyes & cross tr\ghs mu/ be ( ample size1 s z n to *eck ! runn+ ( ! liquor1 & = a set ( six or eight lea*es1 ! bottom ( ! cross tr\gh %\ld be at lea/ #aj or #ab in*es bel[ ! actual top ( ! lea*1 :i* %\ld n be fill$ ) mat]ial above t level4 ,! object ( ?is is to all[ ( a suffici5t fall f ! fir/ to ! la/ lea*4 ,means mu/ be provid$ = ! tempor>y clos+ ( ! cross-tr\gh betwe5 ! vats :i* =m ! fir/ & la/ lea*4 ,on a v small scale1 ?is may be done ) a plug2 slid+ wood5 doors are conv5i5t1 b difficult to keep tight4 ,a h+$ or slid+ door held aga9/ an indi>ubb] fac+ by a w$ge or toggle-jo9t w\ld seem a practicable device4 ,if r\nd tub-lea*es are employ$1 ! v]tical connection may be simil>ly made ) a wood5 tr\gh1 b copp] tubes are almo/ ess5tial = ! cross connections4 ,if a v]tical copp] eye 9 ! c5tre ( ! lea* be provid$ = boil+1 or = empty+ ! lea* 7p4 #ccd71 x may be utilis$ = ! upfl[ by connect+ x ) ! cross pipe ) a ?9 copp] pipe ( l>ge diamet]1 :i* mu/ be movable = ! purpose ( ca/+ ! lea*4 ,a jo9t l t ( a /ove-pipe w probably prove suffici5tly tight1 b if necess>y may be made tight] by roll+ an indi>ubb] r+ ov] x4 ,six to eight lea*es is g5]ally a suffici5t numb] to =m a press-lea* 8batt]y40 ,if m are connect$ 9 "o s]ies x w usually be necess>y to assi/ ! circulation1 ei!r by pump+ an int]m$iate lea*1 or by "o or m pumps on ! ,holbrook sy/em1 9 :i* a p[]-driv5 pump ( simple con/ruction is fitt$ 9 ! eye ( ! lea*4 ,x is h>dly necess>y to note t ! liquor mu/ run d[nw>d ?r\gh ! lea*es1 & up ?r\gh ! v]tical pipes1 9 ord] to prev5t mixture ( ! weak] ) ! /rong] liquor4 ,sev]al additions & modifications to ! sy/em h be5 made ) a view ( obviat+ ! s-call$ 8*annel difficulty40 ,!re is always a fe> on ! "p ( "s tann]s t ! liquid 9 ! lea*es may pu% ! mat]ial aside & =m *annels ?r\gh x1 ?us prev5t+ prop] extraction ( ! tann+ matt]4 ,9 ! au?or's op9ion ?is evil has be5 greatly exagg]at$1 z1 unless ! liquid be pump$ f ! lea*es at a v rapid rate :ile !y are 9 circulation1 x is n at all easy = ! =mation ( su* *annels to take place4 ,9 any case x c be entirely avoid$ by turn+ ov] ! mat]ial 9 ! lea*es occasionally1 s z to light5 x some:at & re>range x a little4 ,x may also be po9t$ out t ! provision ( a prop] sy/em = press+ or circulat+ lea*es does n prev5t _! be+ pump$ (f z frequ5tly z desir$1 ?\gh ?is is g5]ally to be avoid$1 s9ce :5 ! lea* is empti$ ( liquor1 ! mat]ial t5ds to settle into a compact mass1 :i* is n easy to p]colate1 & :i* is liable to %r9k f ! sides ( ! pit1 ?us caus+ ! v tr\ble :i* x is desir$ to avoid4 ,!re are "s advantages 9 tak+ ! fir/ & /ronge/ liquors (f ! mat]ial 9 a sep>ate tank1 & !n f9i%+ ! exhau/ion 9 ! press lea*es1 s9ce _m mat]ials swell1 & pack tightly :5 !y are fir/ wett$1 b on ! :ole ! me?od h>dly pays = its add$ co/4 ,! press-lea* sy/em z above describ$ is well adapt$ = ! requirem5ts ( tann]s1 z its fir/ co/ is v small 9 addition to t ( ! con/ruction ( ! lea*es !mselves2 x extracts ! b>k well1 & saves mu* lab\r 9 pump+1 & greatly less5s ! t5d5cy ( ! pump] to miss pits 9 ! s]ies1 to save "t1 :5 ! ma/]'s eye is n on him4 ,ano!r advantage :i* is (t5 important1 is t :5 ! lea*es are full1 mu* m ?an a s+le liquor c be run f ! head-lea* )\t pump+ on2 & simil>ly :5 !y are run d[n to _! l[e/ level1 mu* m ?an a s+le liquor c be pump$ on to ! wor/ lea* be=e x ov]fl[s4 ,z ! lea*es fl[ sl[ly 9 comp>ison to ! rate at :i* liquors c be pump$ by a good /eam pump1 x is v advantage\s to all[ ! pump to dis*>ge into a liquor-tank rais$ to su* a height t ! liquor c be run f x into any lea* at a suitable rate = ! circulation1 & x also enables liquors to be pump$ )\t wait+ till room has be5 f\nd = !m 9 ! lea*es4 ,simil> tanks are v useful 9 runn+ liquors = ! y>d1 & especially = ! susp5d]s 9 a sole-lea!r y>d1 enabl+ circulation to be kept up dur+ ! night1 & at o!r times :5 ! pumps are n runn+4 ,!y may also be us$ z filt]s = ! susp5d] liquors by fitt+ !m ) false bottoms cov]$ ) a lay] ( ne>ly sp5t tan4 ,! liquors may be di/ribut$ to ! diff]5t pits & lea*es by means ( canvas hose-pipes1 or1 :at is (t5 m conv5i5t1 by ov]head tr\ghs1 c>efully levell$1 & fitt$ ) dis*>ge valves :]e requir$4 ,! latt] are conv5i5tly made ( lead 9 a hemisph]ical =m1 re/+ on an indi>ubb] wa%] support$ by a light brass ca/+1 or a suitably turn$ rebate 9 a block ( wood4 7,cp4 p4 #deg & ,fig4 #gi47 ,su* valves if good indi>ubb] is us$1 we> well1 & are absolutely tight4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gi4--,valve = ,liquor-,tr\ghs4 ,9 ,engl&1 lea*es are usually sunk 9 ! gr\nd1 & are frequ5tly made ( brick & cem5t1 or ( l>ge ,york%ire flag/ones4 ,su* lea*es are some:at co/ly b v durable4 ,squ>e wood5 pits1 puddl$ outside ) clay1 are also us$1 & la/ well ) cold1 or ev5 w>m liquors1 b w n /& direct /eam+1 ! wood gradually b5d+1 & all[+ ! clay to leak into ! liquor1 caus+ black /a9s4 ,! l>ge r\nd vats ( ?ick p9e1 & (t5 hold+ #aj or #ab tons1 :i* are g5]ally us$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 /& boil+ mu* bett]1 & are frequ5tly support$ above a tramway or conveyor1 into :i* ! sp5t b>k c be dis*>g$ ?r\gh a manhole 9 ! bottom4 ,if ?is me?od is adopt$1 x mu/ be rememb]$ t b>k1 & inde$ mo/ o!r tann+ mat]ials1 w n run ?r\gh a hole l corn1 b mu/ be ca/ into x1 s t unless ! vat is ( great dep?1 x is simpl] & almo/ z easy to ca/ ov] ! top4 ,if ! manhole is us$1 a c5tral hole mu/ be made 9 ! false bottom1 & ?is mu/ be surm\nt$ by a copp] pipe made 9 sections ( two or ?ree feet1 & rea*+ to ! top ( ! lea*4 ,:5 ! pit is to be empti$1 ! top l5g? is remov$1 & ! tan %ovell$ d[n ! hole until ! second l5g? is rea*$1 & ! process repeat$4 ,! c5tral pipe s]ves also = ! circulation ( ! liquor :5 ! pits are boil$1 & may be us$ z ! asc5d+ pipe = circulat+ on ! press-lea* sy/em4 ,! "q ( ! influ5ce ( temp]ature on extraction is discuss$ on p4 #cdd1 b except :]e a pale col\r is all important1 x is g5]ally pr(itable to use a mod]ate degree ( heat 9 extraction4 ,9 ! op9ion ( ! writ] 7:i* is support$ by a va/ am\nt ( c>eful exp]im5t7 only ! ne>ly exhau/$ lea*es %\ld be heat$1 n m]ely to avoid discoloration1 b to extract ! maximum am\nt ( tann94 ,9 ,am]ican tann]ies ! boil+ is frequ5tly done by copp] coils fix$ bel[ ! false bottoms ( ! vats1 b su* coils are v co/ly1 &1 :]e weak liquors only are to be heat$1 seem to pres5t no advantage ov] a well-arrang$ sy/em ( heat+ by direct /eam 9 :i* c>e is tak5 t dry /eam only is us$1 & t all wat] cond5s$ 9 /eam pipes1 & usually conta9+ iron1 is remov$ by effective /eam-traps4 ,if /eam is bl[n into cold liquor ?r\gh an op5 pipe1 a v disagreeable rattl+ & vibration is produc$1 :i* is n only annoy+1 b is v injuri\s to ! lea*es4 ,?is evil may be avoid$ by ! use ( 8sil5t boil+ jets0 on ! pr9ciple ( ! /eam-jet wat]-rais]2 &1 foll[+ a sugge/ion ( ! writ]1 ^! jets may be us$ at ! same "t to circulate ! wat] ?r\gh ! tann+ mat]ial ( ! ne>ly exhau/$ vat1 & s wa% out ! la/ traces ( tan4 ,! simple/ way to accompli% ?is is to l[] ! boil+ jet1 direct$ upw>ds1 & connect$ ) a movable /eam-pipe1 into ! eye ( ! lea* 7:i* is pref]ably c5tral7 s t ! heat$ wat] fl[s ov] its top1 & p]colates d[nw>ds ?r\gh ! mat]ial to be wa%$4 ,two =ms ( ^! boil+ & mix+ jets made by ,messrs4 ,krt+ are %[n 9 ,figs4 #hj & #ha4 ,illu/ration3 ,,figs4 #hj & #ha4--;,boil+ & ,mix+ ,jets4 ,batt]ies ( clos$ copp] extractors1 work$ on ! press sy/em1 & simil> to ^? us$ 9 extract+ sug> f beetroot1 h frequ5tly be5 advocat$1 b are v co/ly1 & h no o!r advantage ov] op5 vats ?an t ! liquor c be =c$ ?r\gh ! s]ies by pressure1 in/ead ( circulat+ by gravity4 ,no advantage is ga9$ by boil+ "u pressure1 s9ce ev5 boil+ 9 op5 vats has be5 %[n to de/roy tann91 d>k5 ! col\r ( ! liquor1 & increase ! am\nt ( insolubles1 & high] temp]atures are /ill m injuri\s4 ,heat+ ! weake/ lea* 9 ! press-lea* sy/em promotes ! ev5 circulation ( ! liquor1 s9ce ! w>m weak liquor is mu* light] ?an ! cold] & /rong] liquors 9 ! =w>d lea*es1 & s floats on ! top1 & presses ! /rong] liquor uni=mly d[nw>ds4 ,x also has ! advantage t ! liquors are cool$ be=e !y are /rong en\gh = ! y>d1 :ile 9 tann]ies :]e all ! lea*es are heat$1 exp5sive tubul> cool]s are (t5 employ$4 ,z ! liquor cools1 mu* ( ! col\r+ matt]s & r$s dissolv$ 9 ! hot liquor sep>ate1 & are filt]$ out by ! tann+ mat]ial1 s t mu* bright] & light] col\r$ liquors are obta9$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hb4--,spr9kl]-,lea*4 ,spr9kl]-,lea*es1 ,fig4 #hb1 7 =m]ly us$ 9 _m tann]ies & extract factories1 especially 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,!y 7 introduc$ by ,all5 & ,w>r51 & yield a liquor :i* is at fir/ v /rong1 b :i* becomes v rapidly weak] z ! runn+ is cont9u$4 ,^! lea*es are simil> 9 pr9ciple to ! ma%+-tub & sp>g] ( ! brew]1 b ! process is n well adapt$ = tann]s' use1 z ! mat]ial is left too mu* expos$ to ! air1 :i* is apt to cause oxidation & loss ( tann94 ,x is also extremely difficult to completely exhau/ ! mat]ial )\t us+ an impracticably l>ge volume ( wat]4 ,spr9kl]-lea*es are arrang$ s z to spray ! liquor1 or wat]1 on to ! top ( ! solid mat]ial :i* is to be extract$ at su* a rate t x fl[s out j z rapidly z x fl[s into ! vat4 ,"s idea ( ! great am\nt ( oxidation & consequ5t loss ( tann9 :i* takes place 9 ?is =m ( extractor may be obta9$ :5 x is rememb]$ t ?is same me?od is n[ us$ = ! de/ruction ( sewage matt] by spray+ x on to b$s ( coke s t x may be mix$ ) z mu* air z possible be=e x is attack$ by ! bact]ia ( ! coke-b$s 7see p4 #dgc71 & also to oxidise weak alcohol to acetic acid 9 ! 8quick v9eg> process40 ,s f> z extraction is conc]n$1 !re is no diff]5ce 9 pr9ciple betwe5 ! me?ods adopt$ by ! tann] & ! extract manufactur]1 ?\gh ! latt] usually works on a l>g] scale1 & n unfrequ5tly1 9 ord] to increase 8 output1 or ! gravity ( 8 extract1 employs a high] temp]ature4 ,?is is probably ju/ifi$ by practical consid]ations 9 ! manufacture ( extracts f v l[-grade mat]ials1 su* z oakwood1 :i* only conta9s #b to #c p] c5t4 ( tann+ matt]1 or ev5 ( *e/nut wood :i* is some:at /rong]1 b x is "o ( ! causes :y decoloration ( ! batt]y liquor is g5]ally necess>y4 ,dri$ blood is *iefly us$ z ! decoloris+ ag5t1 b a pa/e ( blood-album5 has be5 rec5tly plac$ on ! m>ket1 :i* is said to be free f sev]al ( ! disadvantages att5d+ ! use ( ! crude mat]ial4 ,! liquor to be decoloris$ is run into a mix+ vat fitt$ ) a /eam coil capable ( rais+ ! temp]ature ( ! liquid to at lea/ #hj ,c41 & usually provid$ ) a simple rot>y /irr+ ge>4 ,! liquor1 z run into ! mix+ vat1 mu/ n h a temp]ature ( m ?an #dh ,c4 7#aah ,f47 nor a /r5g? ( m ?an ab\t #bj ,bkr4 7sp4 gr4 #ajbj74 ,! blood or album5 dissolv$ 9 a little wat]1 is add$ to ! cont5ts ( ! vat1 :i* are !n well mix$1 & ! temp]ature is rais$ to #gj ,c4 :5 ! album5 coagulates & c>ries d[n mu* ( ! col\r+ matt]4 ,! solution is run into ano!r tank :]e ! precipitate is all[$ to settle1 & ! cle> liquor is !n drawn (f = ! evaporation4 ,! muddy portion1 ab\t #h in*es 9 dep?1 is pump$ ?r\gh filt]-presses 7:i* c be *eaply con/ruct$ ( wood71 ! cle> liquors go+ to ! evaporators & ! press-cakes be+ dri$ = manure4 ,9 addition to blood-album51 sev]al o!r sub/ances1 su* z lead acetate 7sug> ( lead71 salts ( alum9a1 case9 & o!r album9\s matt]s h be5 employ$ 9 ! decoloration ( extracts1 b !y are by no means s effici5t z album54 ,decoloris+ always causes a loss ( tann+ matt]1 "s ( ?is be+ c>ri$ d[n ) ! precipitat$ col\r+ matt]2 & is = ?is reason to be disp5s$ ) :5ev] its use is n really necess>y4 ,x may (t5 be avoid$ by c>eful extraction at mod]ate temp]atures1 & ?is is especially to be aim$ at 9 ! case ( /rong tann+ mat]ials1 :i* easily yield batt]y liquors ( mu* great] /r5g? ?an #bj ,bkr41 & :i* ?us1 if !y c be s5t direct to ! evaporator1 save co/ 9 evaporation1 :i* is (t5 an important consid]ation4 ,ano!r me?od :i* is frequ5tly us$ to bright5 ! col\r ( extracts1 is treatm5t ) sulphur\s acid4 ,dilute sulphur\s acid solution may be us$ = extraction1 b a m common me?od is to pass sulphur dioxide gas into ! liquor be=e conc5tration4 ,sulphur\s acid acts p>tly z a weak acid1 9 decompos+ comp\nds ( ! tann9s & col\r+ matt]s ) bases1 su* z lime1 iron1 copp]1 b m actively by r$uc+ oxyg5 comp\nds & prev5t+ oxidation4 ,blea*+ 9 ?is way does n actually de/roy or remove ! col\r+ matt]s1 :i* are apt to reappe> on exposure to ! air1 ei!r 9 ! liquor1 or p]haps m (t5 9 ! lea!r tann$ ) x1 s t ! ga9 is frequ5tly m app>5t ?an real4 ,if pres5t 9 any consid]able quantities1 sulphur\s acid may also cause inconv5i5ce by its swell+ action on ! pelt1 b is mo/ly expell$ 9 conc5tration4 ,ano!r process %\ld p]haps also be m5tion$ "h1 ?\gh n /rictly a means ( blea*+4 ,sev]al tann+ mat]ials1 & notably quebra*o & hemlock1 conta9 l>ge quantities ( 8difficultly soluble tann9s10 :i* r5d] ! liquors made f _! extracts turbid on cool+4 ,^! tann9s =m soluble comp\nds ) alkalis & ) alkal9e sulphites1 9 ! latt] case probably sett+ free ! sulphur\s acid & comb9+ ) ! base4 ,?is has be5 tak5 advantage ( 9 a rec5t pat5t#aeh 9 :i* quebra*o & o!r extracts are r5d]$ soluble by heat+ 9 clos$ vessels ) bisulphites1 sulphites1 sulphides1 or ev5 cau/ic alkalis2 & _m 8soluble quebra*o extracts0 made on ?is pr9ciple are n[ on ! m>ket4 ,9 ?is case1 ev5 :]e bisulphites are us$1 ! great] "p ( ! sulphur\s acid1 aft] s]v+ its purpose 9 prev5t+ oxidation1 escapes 9 c\rse ( manufacture1 & ! extracts rema9 neutral or alkal9e4 ,!re is no reason t su* extracts %\ld n prove s]viceable 9 tann+1 b x has rec5tly be5 %[n by ,paessl] t ! alkal9e tann9 is n absorb$ by neutral hide-p[d]1 & x !re=e may lead1 n only to discrepancies 9 analysis1 b 9 case ( drum-tannage1 :]e no acid is naturally pres5t1 to failure to utilise ! :ole ( ! tann91 ?\gh1 :5 add$ to ord9>y liquors1 ! acids conta9$ 9 ! latt] w set free ! tann9s4 #aeh ,lepetit1 ,dollfus1 & ,ganss]1 ,eng4 ,pat4 #hehb1 #ahif4 ,! use ( f]rocyanides has be5 sugge/$ z a means ( precipitat+ iron & copp] pres5t 9 extracts1 & x may also be po9t$ out1 t ) _m r$-col\r$ tann+ mat]ials1 su* z hemlock & quebra*o1 ! addition ( small quantities ( alum to ! tann+ liquor effects consid]able improvem5t 9 col\r1 n only by precipitat+ a "p ( ! difficultly soluble 8r$s10 b by develop+ ! yell[ col\r ( c]ta9 col\r+ matt]s 7qu]cet91 myricet91 etc47 :i* may be pres5t4 ,su* an addition does no h>m 9 ! case ( s(t lea!rs1 b w\ld probably be injuri\s 9 a sole-lea!r tannage4 ,! liquors1 :e!r direct f ! lea*es or f ! decoloris+ vats1 mu/ next be conc5trat$ by evaporation 7,*ap4 ,,xxvi471 to sirupy consi/5cy = liquid extracts1 or until !y w become ne>ly solid on cool+1 if a solid extract is requir$4 ,z has already be5 /at$1 ! action ( heat t5ds to cause a loss ( tann9 & a d>k5+ ( col\r by decomposition & ! =mation ( insoluble r$s4 ,to r$uce ?is loss to a m9imum1 ! weak liquors are evaporat$ ) z little access ( air & at z l[ a temp]ature z possible1 & ^! conditions are be/ obta9$ by ! use ( /eam-heat$ vacuum pans4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hc4--,triple-effect ,y>yan ,evaporator4 ,= conc5tration to gravities n exce$+ #abjj1 ! ,y>yan app>atus made by ,mirrlees1 ,watson & ,y>yan1 ( ,glasg[1 is t mo/ employ$4 ,! g5]al arrangem5t ( a 8triple effect0 ma*9e ( ?is make is %[n 9 ,fig4 #hc1 & ! int]nal con/ruction 9 ,fig4 #hd4 ,ea* body consi/s ( a /rong cas+ into :i* /eam is admitt$1 & :i* is trav]s$ by copp] tubes :i* t]m9ate 9 a sep>at+ *amb] at ! fur!r end1 :i* is ma9ta9$ at a l[ pressure by an air-pump4 ,! liquid to be evaporat$ is admitt$ into ! tubes1 & is imm$iately conv]t$ into spray by ! /eam g5]at$ f x1 & swept =w>d into ! sep>at+ *amb]1 f :i* x is )drawn by a pump4 ,! /eam be=e go+ to ! air-pump 7or1 9 ! case ( 8multiple effects10 to ! next body71 is pass$ ?r\gh a 8cat*-all10 to sep>ate any spray /ill reta9$ 9 ! /eam4 ,?us ! liquor to be evaporat$ w pass ?r\gh ! entire app>atus 9 f\r or five m9utes1 & may be conc5trat$ f a gravity ( #ajb or #ajc to t ( #abj )\t ev] hav+ be5 heat$ above #gj ,c4 7#afj ,f474 ,unless fuel is v *eap1 :i* is (t5 ! case :]e ! sp5t tann+ mat]ial c be us$ to raise /eam1 x is advisable to use a d\ble or triple effect1 9 :i* ! /eam f ! evaporation ( ! weake/ liquor 9 ! fir/ body is us$ to heat ! second1 :i* is ma9ta9$ at a l[] vacuum1 & s on4 ,9 ?is way ! /eam is made to d ne>ly d\ble or triple duty4 ,z ! /eam f ! extract-liquors conta9s acids :i* corrode iron1 x is necess>y to h ! cas+ z well z ! tubes made ( copp] 9 all bodies 9 :i* x is employ$4 ,iron mu/1 9 fact1 be c>efully avoid$ 9 e "p ( app>atus :i* comes 9 contact ) extract-liquor or its vap\r4 ,besides ! ,y>yan1 !re are sev]al o!r evaporators 9 :i* ! spray pr9ciple is m or less completely employ$4 ,! simple/ ( ^! consi/s 9 sub/itut+ = ! heat+ coil ( an ord9>y vacuum-pan a copp] /eam-box trav]s$ by v]tical tubes op5 at bo? top & bottom4 ,?is is imm]s$ 9 ! liquid to be evaporat$1 :i* ent]s at ! bottom ( ! tubes & is spray$ out at ! top4 ,paul ,neubck]1 ( ,danzig1 con/ructs a pan on ?is pr9ciple ) a v +5i\s arrangem5t = ! de/ruction ( foam1 :i* seems wor? att5tion4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hd4--,section ( ,y>yan ,evaporator4 ,x is un=tunately impossible to c>ry ! evaporation ( extracts mu* fur!r ?an sp4 g4 #ab ) spray app>atus1 z ?ick] liquors are apt to clog ! tubes1 :i* are !n difficult to clean1 s t ev5 liquid extracts are usually f9i%$ 9 vacuum-pans ( ! ord9>y type1 :i* may also be arrang$ 9 multiple effect4 ,9 ! case ( a solid extract1 ! evaporation mu/ be c>ri$ on until x is z ?ick z c be run f ! app>atus4 ,to d ?is satisfactorily1 /irr]s mu/ be provid$ to keep ! extract 9 motion s long z x is 9 ! pan4 ,! ?ick1 hot1 liquid extract is !n run into boxes l9$ ) pap]1 or o!r suitable mat]ial1 :]e x is all[$ to cool & to solidify4 ,! pan = ! f9al evaporation ( solid extracts %\ld be plann$ s z to all[ ( easy clean+ & ready access to its int]ior1 s t if accid5tally ! evaporation is c>ri$ s f> t ! liquid w n run out1 ! cle>+ ( ! pan may be a comp>atively easy matt]4 ,x is also important t ! extract-exit %\ld be ( l>ge size4 ,probably a broad & some:at %all[ pan1 heat$ m]ely by a /eam jacket1 & fitt$ ) rotat+ /irr]s1 is ! mo/ suitable4 ,! ,use ( ,extracts 9 ! ,tann]y4--,"o ( ! great attractions ( extracts is t !y save ! tr\ble & co/ ( lea*+1 & z ! extract manufactur] makes ?is 8 specialty1 he c (t5 extract m tann+ matt] f a mat]ial ?an ! tann] :o has no means ( conc5trat+ 8 weak liquors4 ,! extract manufactur] also c employ me?ods ( decoloration :i* w\ld be impracticable to ! tann]1 & s enable ! latt] to obta9 bett] col\r ?an if he employ$ ! raw mat]ial4 ,by ! use ( extracts a tann] c /r5g!n weak liquors )\t tr\ble1 & ) def9ite quantities ( mat]ials2 & by us+ extracts = ?is purpose ! tann] is enabl$ to use up ! weak] liquors ( 8 lea*es & s employ m wat] & obta9 bett] extraction ( 8 solid mat]ials ?an if he us$ !m alone4 ,9 ! case ( v weak mat]ials l oakwood1 ! difficulties ( mak+ liquors ( suffici5t /r5g? = tann+ )\t evaporation are s great z to r5d] su* mat]ials useless to ! tann] = 8 own extraction1 & _! c>riage ev5 = %ort di/ances may am\nt to m ?an _! total value4 ,ev5 ) mu* ri*] mat]ials1 extraction effects a sav+ if ! c>riage is a long "o1 z x r>ely pays to import any mat]ial conta9+ less ?an ab\t #be p] c5t4 ( tann+ matt]4 ,ev5 :5 ! /r5g? ( ! natural mat]ial is consid]able1 z 9 ! case ( quebra*o1 extraction may be pr(itable if f its h>dness1 or o!r reasons1 ! mat]ial is difficult = ! tann] to h&le4 ,= long voyages1 & especially f ! tropics1 solid extracts are m suitable ?an liquid1 z ! exp5se ( casks is sav$1 & ! dang] ( f]m5tation is less5$4 ,z x is impossible = ! tann] to judge by appe>ance or consi/5cy ( ! /r5g? or value ( extracts1 !y %\ld always be b\ght & sold on ! analysis ( ! p>ticul> %ipm5t or p>cel by a compet5t *emi/4 ,= directions = sampl+ see pp4 #cja1 #dge4 ,extracts simply require to be dissolv$ 9 a suitable quantity ( wat] or weak liquor at an appropriate temp]ature1 to obta9 a liquor ( any requir$ /r5g?4 ,"s extracts are completely soluble 9 cold wat] or liquor1 b mo/ dissolve bett] by ! aid ( heat4 #dj-fj ,c4 7#ajj-adj ,f47 is g5]ally suffici5t1 & probably no advantage c arise f temp]atures ov] #hj 7#ahj ,f474 ,boil+ %\ld be avoid$1 z x facilitates ! =mation ( insoluble 8r$s0 ) consequ5t loss ( tann+ matt] & d>k5+ ( col\r4 ,! extract %\ld be run into ! vat 9 a ?9 /ream1 & cont9u\sly plung$ up2 :]e l>ge quantities ( extract are to be dissolv$1 a me*anical agitator is advantage\s4 ,a 8sil5t boil+ jet0 7p4 #cce7 may be us$1 fitt$ into a small cas+ imm]s$ 9 ! liquor & op5 at bo? ends1 & ! extract run into ! curr5t x produces4 ,:e!r 9 ! manufacture ( extracts1 or = direct use 9 ! tann]y1 ! temp]ature at :i* tann+ mat]ials are extract$ is ( prime importance4 ,x is a common mi/ake to assume t ! l>ge/ am\nt ( tann9 is extract$ by boil+4 ,mr4 ,a4 ,n4 ,palm] has po9t$ out t ?is is by no means ! case1 b t ea* mat]ial has an optimum temp]ature ( extraction1 at :i* m tann9 is extract$ ?an at any o!r2 & ! "q has be5 c>efully inve/igat$ by ,j4 ,g4 ,p>k] & ! au?or1#aei ) results :i* are giv5 9 ! foll[+ tables4 ,= _m purposes ! col\r+ matt] :i* accompanies ! tann9 is a s]i\s disadvantage1 & x is usually mo/ extract$ at ! high] temp]atures2 & on ?is acc\nt x is necess>y = ! tann] :o w "w 8 lea*es economically to asc]ta9 at :at temp]ature he c extract ! l>ge/ am\nt ( tann9 comb9$ ) no m col\r+ matt] ?an he c p]mit to ent] 8 lea!r4 ,mo/ mat]ials are satisfactorily extract$ at #ej-fj ,c41 b z a g5]al rule x is be/ to beg9 cold or ne>ly s1 & only raise ! temp]ature z ! extraction proce$s4 ,! tables %[ ! p]c5tages ( tann+ matt]1 & ! am\nt ( col\r 7z measur$ by ,lovibond's t9tomet]71 obta9$ by extract+ mat]ials 9 a ,proct]'s extractor 7p4 #cjf & ,l4,i4,l4,b41 p4 #ajb7 s long z any col\r or tann9 c\ld be obta9$4 #aei ,j\rn4 ,soc4 ,*4 ,ind41 #ahie1 #fce4 ,,belgian ,,oak ,,b>k4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,temp]ature ,tann+ ,soluble ,p] c5t4 ,col\r ( ,p] c5t4 ( ,matt]s ,non-tann+( ,tann9 p] c5t4 ( ,col\r ,extraction4absorb$ ,matt]s4 on ,solution 9 on by ,hide4 ,maximum in* ,cell4 ,maximum ,yield4 -------------- ,yield4 ,r$4 ,yell[4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,c4 p] c5t4 p] c5t4 deg4 deg4 #ae #ei #ea #fai #hf #bca #egd #ae-cj #fh #ee #gjg #ib #bfd #fde #cj-dj #hj #ee #hce #aaf #cjd #gfa #dj-ej #hb #eg #hdb #abj #cba #hjj #ej-fj #he #eh #hgf #abe #cfj #hdj #fj-gj #ia #ei #iee #aca #cha #ibg #gj-hj #ib #fj #ieg #adg #chi #ihg #hj-ij #if #fj #ajjj #adj #cfi #icb #ij-ajj #if #fa #ajjj #adj #dab #idf ,boil$ h\r #ia #ff #icg #aej #dbf #ajjj ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,,myrobalans4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,temp]ature ,tann+ ,soluble ,p] c5t4 ,col\r ( ,p] c5t4 ( ,matt]s4 ,non- ( p] c5t4 ( ,extraction4 ,tann9s4 ,tann9 on solution 9 ,col\r on ,maximum in* ,cell4 ,maximum ,yield4 ------------- ,yield4 ,r$4 ,yell[4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,c4 p] c5t4p] c5t4 deg4 deg4 #ae #bhe #abh #gib #aji #di #igd #ae-cj #cja #acf #hcf #ajj #da #hbe #cj-dj #cbc #adc #hih #ajc #da #hbg #dj-ej #cce #acf #icj #ajc #db #hdd #ej-fj #cdg #add #ifd #ajc #dd #hgf #fj-gj #cdh #add #iff #ajc #de #hic #gj-hj #cdi #adi #ifh #aaj #dg #ida #hj-ij #cea #aej #igd #aaf #dh #ifg #ij-ajj #cfj #adi #ajjj #aab #di #igj ,boil$ #ced #aee #iha #abf #di #ajjj ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,,smyrna ,,valonea4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,temp]ature ,tann+ ,soluble ,p] c5t4 ,col\r ( ,p] c5t4 ( ,matt]s4 ,non- ( p] c5t4 ( ,extraction4 ,tann9s4 ,tann9 on ,solution 9 ,col\r on ,maximum in* ,cell4 ,maximum4 ,yield4 ---------------- ,r$4,yell[4,blue4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,c4 p] c5t4p] c5t4 deg4 deg4 deg4 #ae #bee #aia #gje #be #fj #jc #gdf #ae-cj #bia #ahc #gde #be #fd #jc #ghj #cj-dj #ccf #aha #hfb #bc #fd #jc #gfb #dj-ej #cee #aha #hfb #bc #fe #jc #gdf #ej-fj #cia #aff #ajjj #bj #fj #jc #gfb #fj-gj #chf #agj #iij #bj #fh #jc #hdg #gj-hj #chh #age #iie #ba #gd #jd #hdg #hj-ij #cfi #agb #iej #bb #gf #jd #hdg #ij-ajj #cff #agj #idj #bd #gh #je #ijf ,boil$ #ced #agf #ijf #cj #hb #jf #ajjj ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,,greek ,,valonea4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,temp]ature ,tann+ ,soluble ,p] c5t4 ,col\r ( ,p] c5t4 ( ,matt]s4 ,non- ( p] c5t ( ,col\r ,extraction4 ,tann9s4 ,tann9 on ,solution 9 9 ,maximum in* ,cell4 p] c5t4 ,yield4 ----------------( ,tann9 ,r$4,yell[4,blue4,solution4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,c4 p] c5t4p] c5t4 deg4 deg4 deg4 #ae #afj #acj #fdj #bi #fc #jc #fgc #ae-cj #aha #abf #gbd #cj #ff #jc #gjj #cj-dj #baa #abj #hdd #bh #fe #jc #fhj #dj-ej #bcf #aba #idd #bd #ff #jc #fei #ej-fj #bdh #abd #iib #bg #gj #jd #gaf #fj-gj #bej #abf #ajjj #bi #gc #je #geh #gj-hj #bdf #abe #ihd #ca #gi #jf #hbc #hj-ij #bdj #abe #ifj #cd #ha #jf #heh #ij-ajj #bcf #abf #idd #ce #hh #jg #ibj ,boil$ #bbf #acj #hhh #ci #id #jh #ajjj ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,,natal ,,mimosa4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,temp]ature,tann+ ,soluble ,p] c5t4 ,col\r ( ,p] c5t4 ( ,matt]s4 ,non- ( p] c5t ( ,extraction4 ,tann9s4 ,tann9 on ,solution 9 ,col\r on ,maximum4 in* ,cell4,maximum4 ------------- ,r$4 ,yell[4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,c4 p] c5t4p] c5t4 deg4 deg4 #ae #bab #aaf #ffb #bf #da #eaa #ae-cj #bij #ih #ijf #cj #da #edb #cj-dj #cja #ih #idj #cj #dd #efe #dj-ej #cjb #ih #idd #ca #ej #fah #ej-fj #cjd #ajd #iej #ci #fe #gii #fj-gj #cae #ajf #ihd #db #fe #haf #gj-hj #cbj #ajh #ajjj #db #gj #hee #hj-ij #cjh #aab #ifb #di #gd #ich #ij-ajj #cja #aah #idj #ec #gh #ajjj ,boil$ #bid #abj #iah #eg #gb #ihd ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,,suma*4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,temp]ature,tann+ ,soluble ,p] c5t4 ,col\r ( ,p] c5t4 ( ,matt]s4 ,non- ( p] c5t ( ,extraction4 ,tann9s4 ,tann9 on ,solution 9 ,col\r on ,maximum4 in* ,cell4 ,maximum4 ------------- ,r$4 ,yell[4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,c4 p] c5t4p] c5t4 deg4 deg4 #ae #adb #agh #gjj #af #ed #fcf #ae-cj #agf #aha #hfg #ad #dc #eah #cj-dj #ahe #aha #iaa #ac #dd #eah #dj-ej #bja #ahe #iij #ad #dd #ebi #ej-fj #bjc #aia #ajjj #ae #dg #efe #fj-gj #aij #aid #icf #ag #ef #fff #gj-hj #ahj #aii #hia #ai #fb #gbh #hj-ij #afi #baa #hcb #bc #fh #hbg #ij-ajj #aff #bbc #hag #bf #gj #hgg ,boil$ #aeb #bdj #gdh #cc #gg #ajjj ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,,quebra*o ,,wood4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,temp]ature,tann+ ,soluble ,p] c5t4,col\r ( ,p] c5t4 ( ,matt]s4 ,non- ( ,tann9 p] c5t ( ,extraction4 ,tann9s4 on ,solution 9 ,col\r on ,maximum4 in* ,cell4,maximum4 ------------- ,r$4 ,yell[4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,c4 p] c5t4p] c5t4 deg4 deg4 #ae #gf #bb #cej #hi #ada #gac #ae-cj #aja #bd #dfe #fd #ajg #fhg #cj-dj #aah #bd #edd #ei #if #feb #dj-ej #aea #bd #fie #ec #hd #fjj #ej-fj #afe #bd #gfj #ed #he #fjd #fj-gj #agd #bd #hjj #ef #hb #eii #gj-hj #aia #bg #hhj #fd #hf #fgd #hj-ij #bag #cj #ajjj #fd #id #gdc #ij-ajj #aie #cj #hih #ff #ih #ajjj ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,,mangrove ,,b>k 7,c]iops74 ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,temp]ature ,tann+ ,soluble ,p] c5t4 ,col\r ( ,p] c5t4 ( ,matt]s4 ,non- ( ,tann9 p] c5t4 ( ,extraction4 ,tann9s4 on ,solution 9 ,col\r on ,maximum4 in* ,cell4 ,maximum4 ------------- ,r$4 ,yell[4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,c4 p] c5t4p] c5t4 deg4 deg4 #ae #acj #ajd #faf #adb #bjh #fdg #ae-cj #afa #ajd #gfc #afa #bag #fih #cj-dj #agd #abe #hbd #aeh #bcj #gag #dj-ej #ahe #aad #hgg #afe #cce #gch #ej-fj #bjc #ajc #ifb #afj #bcd #gbh #fj-gj #bjj #aad #idg #age #cab #ijj #gj-hj #bjd #aab #ifg #afe #bhc #hbh #hj-ij #baa #ajh #ajjj #aed #bdf #gch #ij-ajj #bjb #aad #ieg #bcj #cda #ajjj ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,,canaigre ,,root 7?ree ye>s old74 ,effect ( ,diff]5t ,temp]atures4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,temp]ature ,tann+ ,soluble ,p] c5t4 ,col\r ( p] ,p] ( ,matt]s ,non- ( ,tann9 c5t4 ,solution 9 c5t4 ,extraction4 absorb$ ,tann+ on -in* ,cell4 ( by ,hide4 ,matt]s4 ,maximum ----------------- ,col\r ,yield4 ,r$4,yell[4,total4 on ,maximum ,yield4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,c4 p] c5t4p] c5t4 deg4 deg4 deg4 #ae #baa #acj #ghg #af #da #ei #dae #ae-cj #bfb #abe #hef #af #ch #dd #chj #cj-dj #bha #abe #iah #ad #cg #ea #cei #dj-ej #cje #aca #iif #ba #db #fc #ddc #ej-fj #cjf #acf #ajjj #bd #dh #gb #ejg #fj-gj #bgb #ada #hhh #be #ej #ge #ebg #gj-hj #bfd #adf #hfb #bh #fa #hi #fbf #hj-ij #bcb #adh #geh #ca #fi #ajj #gjd #ij-ajj #bbh #adh #gde #dc #gd #aag #hbd ,boil$ h\r #aib #abc #fbg #ef #hf #adb #ajjj ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,,cube ,,gambi]4 ,effect ( ,diff]5t ,temp]atures4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,temp]ature ,tann+ ,soluble ,p] c5t4 ,col\r ( p] ,p] ( ,matt]s ,non- ( ,tann9 c5t4 ,solution 9 c5t4 ,extraction4 absorb$ ,tann+ on -in* ,cell4 ( by ,hide4 ,matt]s4 ,maximum ----------------- ,col\r ,yield4 ,r$4,yell[4,total4 on ,maximum ,yield4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,c4 p] c5t4p] c5t4 deg4 deg4 #ae #dfh #bah #ghj #be #gh #ajc #egb #ae-cj #dhh #baj #hac #ag #hj #ig #edi #cj-dj #ejb #bbj #hcg #ag #hf #ajc #egb #dj-ej #eai #bcj #hfe #ag #hh #aje #ehc #ej-fj #eaa #bjc #iai #ag #hi #ajf #ehh #fj-gj #eef #bjc #ibg #ai #id #aac #fbg #gj-hj #eeg #bjc #ibh #bb #aja #abc #fhc #hj-ij #eeh #bab #ica #bc #ajf #abi #gaf #ij-ajj #efa #bbj #icc #bh #aaf #add #hjj ,boil$ h\r #fjj #bjj #ajjj #cb #adh #ahj #ajjj ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,,block ,,gambi]4 ,effect ( ,diff]5t ,temp]atures4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,temp]ature ,tann+ ,soluble ,p] c5t4 ,col\r ( p] ,p] ( ,matt]s ,non- ( ,tann9 c5t4 ,solution 9 c5t4 ,extraction4 absorb$ ,tann+ on -in* ,cell4 ( by ,hide4 ,matt]s4 ,maximum ----------------- ,col\r ,yield4 ,r$4,yell[4,total4 on ,maximum ,yield4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,c4 p] c5t4p] c5t4 deg4 deg4 #ae #cja #bgd #eja #bf #ha #ajg #cce #ae-cj #cdh #bfb #fif #bd #hj #ajd #cdj #cj-dj #djh #bgb #haf #bj #ij #aaj #eej #dj-ej #ddh #bgf #hif #bd #ih #abb #faj #ej-fj #dfh #bgh #icf #bd #aja #abe #fbe #fj-gj #dgc #bgf #idf #be #ajf #acb #ffj #gj-hj #dgd #bgf #idg #bh #aji #acg #fce #hj-ij #dgf #bgc #ieb #cb #aaf #adh #gdj #ij-ajj #dhb #bga #ifd #ch #abh #aff #hcj ,boil$ h\r #ejb #bfd #ajjj #ej #aej #bjj #ajjj ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,,*apt] ,,xxiii4 ,,fats1 ,,soaps1 ,,oils ,,& ,,waxes4 ,fats & oils con/itute a l>ge class ( sub/ances1 ( animal or vegetable orig91 :i* may be solid1 pa/y or m or less visc\s liquids1 b :i* 9 ! latt] case are commonly kn[n z 8fix$0 or fatty oils1 to di/+ui% !m f ! volatile1 or ess5tial oils1 :i* may be di/ill$ )\t decomposition1 & :i* are ! s\rce ( mo/ ( ! od\rs ( plants1 & ( q diff]5t *emical con/itution4 ,! t]m 8oil0 is also appli$ to v>i\s products ( m9]al orig91 & especially to ^? d]iv$ f petroleum1 on acc\nt ( _! simil>ity 9 appe>ance & physical prop]ties to ! fix$ oils1 ?\gh1 *emically1 !y =m a v di/9ct class4 ,! waxes are ano!r gr\p some:at closely alli$ to ! fats2 & !re are c]ta9 fix$ oils1 su* z sp]m oil1 :i* ?\gh v simil> 9 appe>ance & prop]ties to ! fatty oils1 are *emically memb]s ( ! gr\p ( waxes4 ,z x is obvi\s t !re is no *emical di/9ction betwe5 ! fats & fatty oils1 except t ( melt+-po9t1 x w be conv5i5t to treat !m toge!r2 especially z :at is a solid fat 9 "o climate may be an oil 9 ano!r4 ,palm & cocoa-nut oils are cases 9 po9t1 z ! fir/ is butt]y1 & ! second a h>d fat 9 ?is c\ntry1 ?\gh !y are bo? liquid 9 tropical climates4 ,= m detail$ in=mation on ! *emi/ry ( fats & oils1 ! read] mu/ be ref]r$ to ! #8,lea!r ,indu/ries ,laboratory ,book1' sect4 xviii41 or to ! l>g] manuals devot$ specially to ! subject by ,lewk[its*1 ,jean1 & o!rs1 or ! v excell5t section on oils 9 ,all5's #8,comm]cial ,organic ,analysis1' vol4 ii42 b a few g5]al facts mu/ be recapitulat$4 ,! true fats conta9 c>bon1 hydrog5 & oxyg51 b no nitrog54 ,!y are all comp\nds ( glyc]9 ) organic acids :i* are g5]ally t]m$ 8fatty acids10 & :i* resemble 9 _m ( _! *>act]i/ics ! fats !mselves4 ,glyc]9 is a v weak base1 ( ! nature ( an alcohol1 & consequ5tly1 :5 a fat is heat$ ) a solution ( "o ( ! cau/ic alkalis1 ! fatty acid comb9es ) ! latt]1 & ! glyc]9 is set free4 ,! salts ?us =m$ are d5om9at$ 8soaps40 ,! reaction ) /e>9 7glyc]9 /e>ate71 ! pr9cipal con/itu5t ( h>d animal fats1 is %[n 9 ! foll[+ equation4 ,/e>9 ,sodium ,sodium ,glyc]9 hydrate /e>ate 7,c,h,,co4,o7,c,h #c,na,o,h #c;,c,h,,co4,o,na ,c,h7,,oh74 ,if a soap is treat$ ) an acid /rong] ?an its own1 ! latt] is set free1 :ile ! new acid comb9es ) ! base4 ,! foll[+ equation1 = in/ance1 %[s ! action ( hydro*loric acid on ! /e>ic soap4 ,sodium ,hydro- ,/e>ic acid ,sodium ,/e>ate *loric *loride acid ,c,h,,co4,o,na ,h,cl ,c,h,,co4,,oh ,na,cl4 ,if any soap be dissolv$ 9 hot wat]1 & suffici5t hydro*loric or sulphuric acid add$ to r5d] ! solution acid1 ! latt] w turn fir/ milky1 & 7if x be kept w>m7 ! fatty acid w f9ally rise 9 an oily lay] to ! surface1 :i* 9 _m cases w h>d51 z x cools1 to a solid mass4 ,! am\nt ( fatty acid 9 a soap may be r\ghly det]m9$ by weigh+ #be grm41 dissolv+ 9 #ej c4c4 ( boil+ wat]1 & add+ excess ( acid1 & all[+ ! reaction to take place 9 a graduat$ cyl9d]1 or a flask ) a graduat$ neck1 9 a vessel ( boil+ wat]4 ,:5 ! fatty acid has ris5 to ! top1 its volume may be not$1 & ea* c4c4 may be r\ghly reckon$ z #ji grm4 7,= m detail$ me?ods cp4 ,l4,i4,l4,b41 ,sect4 ,,xvii474 ,soaps are insoluble 9 /rong cau/ic alkal9e solutions1 & !re=e saponification 7z ! decomposition ( fats by alkalis is call$71 does n readily take place 9 !m1 & = ?is reason ! soap-boil] g5]ally dilutes 8 cau/ic soda solutions to a /r5g? n exce$+ #ah ,tw4 7sp4 gr4 #ajij7 9 gravity1 & sep>ates ! soap at ! end ( ! op]ation1 by ! addition ( br9e1 9 :i* x is insoluble4 ,an easi] me?od1 & "o :i* is (t5 useful = ! prep>ation ( small quantities ( special soaps = fat liquors & ! l1 is z foll[s4#afj #aj lb4 ( a good cau/ic soda1 free f common salt1 is dissolv$ 9 #d gallons ( wat]1 & #ge lb4 ( oil or fat is w>m$ to ab\t #be ,c4 or j suffici5tly to r5d] x liquid1 & ! soda solution is add$ 9 a ?9 /ream1 ) con/ant /irr+1 :i* mu/ be cont9u$ until ! mass becomes too pa/y4 ,x is n[ set aside 9 a w>m place = at lea/ tw5ty-f\r h\rs1 dur+ :i* saponification gradually takes place4 ,= lea!r purposes1 a neutral soap1 ) a slight excess ( fat1 is g5]ally advantage\s1 s t ! fat may be increas$ to #hj lb42 or1 9 place ( ?is1 ! op]ation w be facilitat$ by ! addition ( #e lb4 ( comm]cial oleic acid4 ,if s(t soap is desir$1 #ad lb4 ( cau/ic pota% may be us$ 9 place ( ! #aj lb4 ( cau/ic soda4 ,! h>dness or s(tness ( soaps v>ies to "s ext5t ) ! fat us$1 b pota% soaps are always mu* s(t] ?an ! correspond+ soda soaps4 ,x is obvi\s t ) soaps made 9 ?is way1 all ! glyc]9 rema9s mix$ ) ! soap4 ,if1 on te/+1 ! soap does n prove to be free f cau/ic1 x may be re-melt$1 :i* w g5]ally complete ! reaction4 ,be=e attempt+ to "w ) l>ge quantities1 a laboratory exp]im5t is desirable1 us+ #aj grm4 ( soda 9 #dj c4c4 ( wat]1 & #ge to #hj grm4 ( oil or fat4 ,! neutrality or fre$om ( ! soap f cau/ic alkali may be te/$ by t\*+ a fre%ly cut surface ) an alcoholic solution ( ph5olph?ale91 :i* ! lea/ trace ( cau/ic soda or pota% w r5d] p9k4 #afj ,c>p5t]1 #8,soap1 ,c&les & ,lubricants1' p4 #add4 ,if solutions ( soaps are mix$ ) ^? ( salts ( ! heavy metals or ( ! alkal9e e>?s1 a mutual decomposition takes place1 ! acid ( ! salt comb9+ ) ! alkali ( ! soap2 & ! fatty acid ) ! metallic base1 to =m a metallic soap4 ,mo/ ( ^! soaps are /icky masses1 insoluble 9 wat]1 b n unfrequ5tly soluble 9 turp5t9e or petroleum _s1 if previ\sly ?or\ghly dri$1 s t "s ( !m h be5 appli$ to ! production ( v>ni%4 ,alum9a soaps are occasionally us$ to ?ick5 m9]al oils1 or r5d] !m m visc\s4 ,! g5]al reaction ( ! /e>9 soap ) calcium sulphate is %[n 9 ! foll[+ equation1 ?\gh 9 practice x is sometimes m complex3 ,/e>9 soap ,calcium ,sodium ,calcium sulphate sulphate /e>ate #b;,c,h,,co4,o,na ,ca,s,o ,na,,s 7,c,h,,co4,o7,ca ,?is is ! reaction :i* causes ! curdl+ ( soap by h>d wat]1 page #ic4 ,true fats _c be di/ill$ alone )\t decomposition4 ,:5 di/ill$ 9 a curr5t ( /eam1 "s undecompos$ fat passes ov]1 b ! great] "p is brok5 up into free fatty acid & glyc]92 & hydroc>bons practically id5tical ) m9]al oils are also =m$4 ,fats & oils are insoluble 9 wat]1 & 9 mo/ cases only sp>+ly soluble 9 alcohol1 b freely soluble 9 e!r1 petroleum _s1 b5z5e1 & mo/ o!r hydroc>bons1 z well z 9 *lor(orm1 c>bon tetra*loride1 & c>bon disulphide4 ,petroleum _s1 (t5 call$ b5z9e1 is l>gely us$ = _! extraction1 & = de-greas+ lea!r1 & remov+ grease f clo!s4 ,9 ! laboratory1 c>bon disulphide1 or c>bon tetra*loride is to be pref]r$4 ,ca/or oil is an exception to ! rule1 ow+ to ! l>ge proportion ( oxyg5 :i* x conta9s1 be+ readily soluble 9 alcohol1 & v sp>+ly 9 petroleum-_s2 & o!r oils1 :5 oxidis$1 usually become m soluble 9 alcohol1 & less s 9 hydroc>bons4 ,oils v>y mu* 9 _! t5d5cy to 8dry10 or become conv]t$ into solid or /icky res9-l sub/ances4 ,?is t5d5cy is greate/ 9 "s ( ! se$ oils1 & lea/ 9 olive oil1 & ! oily "p ( animal fats 7tall[ oil1 neatsfoot oil74 ,sp]m oil1 a 8liquid wax10 is also v free f ?is t5d5cy1 b all fi% oils possess x 9 a great] or less degree4 ,x is n due to evaporation1 b to ! absorption ( oxyg5 by ! fatty acid4 ,! t5d5cy to oxyg5-absorption1 & consequ5tly to dry+ 7&1 9 ! case ( lea!r-oils1 to 8spue+071 is measur$ analytically by ! 8iod9e-value10 ! absorption ( iod9e be+ proportional to t ( oxyg51 :ile x is mu* m easily measur$4 ,!re are no simple te/s by :i* ! purity ( oils c be det]m9$1 ?\gh 9 a few cases ! pres5ce ( p>ticul> oils c be detect$4 ,! mix+ & adult]ation ( oils is n[ a sci5ce1 & ^? :o practise x are well acqua9t$ ) ! cu/om>y te/s1 & take c>e to adju/ _! mixtures s z to meet !m4 ,ta/e & smell h[ev]1 ) practice1 (t5 furni% useful indications4 ,natural oils & fats are inv>iably mixtures ( ! glyc]ides ( sev]al fatty acids1 & _! qualities dep5d simply on ! "* ( ^! glyc]ides & ! proportions 9 :i* !y are mix$4 ,! fatty acids =m sev]al gr\ps1 diff]+ 9 _! degree ( 8saturation10#afa or1 inv]sely1 9 _! p[] ( tak+ up oxyg51 on :i* _! t5d5cy to dry+ dep5ds4 ,! memb]s ( any "o ( ^! gr\ps resemble ea* o!r /rongly1 diff]+ pr9cipally 9 melt+ po9ts1 d5sity1 & o!r physical *>act]i/ics4 #afa ,a 8saturat$0 comp\nd is "o1 ! con/itu5ts ( :i* are pres5t 9 su* proportions t all ! comb9+ aff9ities ( ea* are satisfi$ by ! o!rs4 ,iod9e value1 see ,l4,i4,l4,b41 p4 #agf1 & ,j\r4 ,soc4 ,*4 ,ind41 #aijb1 p4 #ded4 ,saturat$ ,fatty ,acids4--,/e>ic acid1 ,c,h,o4,,oh1 & palmitic acid1 ,c,h,o4,,oh1 are ! mo/ important4 ,at ord9>y temp]atures !y are h>d1 :ite1 cry/all9e bodies1 & melt at #fi & #fb ,c4 respectively4 ,!y d n1 "u ord9>y circum/ances1 absorb any oxyg51 nor iod9e1 & are v little liable to *emical *ange4 ,toge!r ) oleic acid1 !y are ! pr9cipal acids ( tall[ & o!r animal fats1 :ile palmitic acid & "s l[] memb]s ( ! same gr\p are m common 9 vegetable oils4 ,free /e>ic acid is an important con/itu5t ( ! 8di/ill$ /e>9es0 us$ 9 curry+2 :ile 8oleo/e>9e0 consi/s ma9ly ( ! neutral fats or glyc]ides ( /e>ic & palmitic acids4 ,liquid ,fatty ,acids1 ,non-dry+4--,( ^!1 oleic acid is mu* ! mo/ common & important2 its glyc]ide1 ole91 =m+ ! liquid "p ( animal fats1 & be+ ! pr9cipal con/itu5t ( vegetable non-dry+ oils4 ,olive oil consi/s almo/ entirely ( ole91 ) a little palmit94 ,! =mula ( oleic acid is ,c,h,o4,,oh1 ?us diff]+ f /e>ic acid 9 hav+ two less atoms ( hydrog54 ,! 8bonds0 or aff9ities correspond+ to ^! two atoms are l9k$ toge!r1 b c sep>ate1 & atta* two atoms ( iod9e1 brom9e1 or *lor9e1 or "o ( oxyg54 ,! iod9e-value ( pure ole9 is #hci 7t is1 #ajj grm4 absorb #hci grm4 iod9e72 & t ( olive oil ab\t #hc4 ,any oil ) a high] 8iod9e-value0 ?an ole9 mu/ conta9 dry+ oils1 ?\gh a l[] value does n necess>ily indicate _! abs5ce1 if palmit9 or o!r saturat$ acids are also pres5t4 ,unsaturat$ ,liquid ,fatty ,acids4--,( ^! !re are sev]al gr\ps1 diff]+ 9 _! degree ( saturation1 & also probably 9 _! /ructure4 ,_! glyc]ides1 toge!r ) ole91 & sometimes palmit91 are ! con/itu5ts ( ! se$ oils1 ! dry+ t5d5cy ( :i* dep5ds on _! proportion ( unsaturat$ acids1 & ! p>ticul> gr\p to :i* !y belong4 ,! fi% oils conta9 a peculi> gr\p ( unsaturat$ acids1 toge!r ) ole91 & usually /e>9 & palmit91 l ! o!r animal fats4 ,l9ol5ic acid1 ,c,h,o4,,oh1 "o ( ! acids ( l9se$ oil1 has six hydrog5 atoms less ?an /e>ic acid1 & !re=e ?ree d\ble l9k+s1 & w take up six atoms ( iod9e4 ,its !oretical iod9e-value is #bgd1 :ile l9se$ oil itself (t5 has an iod9e-value exce$+ #ahj4 ,! iod9e-value ( cod-liv] oil is sometimes ne>ly z high4 ,bo? oils !re=e conta9 o!r acids less unsaturat$ ?an l9ol5ic4 ,! 8spue+0 ( lea!r is due to ! absorption ( oxyg5 & consequ5t res9ification ( ! oils1 & !re=e all dry+ oils1 h[ev] pure1 are capable ( produc+ x1 ?\gh "s are m liable to d s ?an o!rs 7cp4 pp4 #cfc1 #cfe1 #cff1 #cfh1 #cij74 ,l9ol5ic acid1 & probably o!r alli$ acids1 become conv]t$ by absorption ( oxyg5 into solid v>ni%-l sub/ances1 :i* are important to ! tann]1 z furni%+ ! pr9cipal con/itu5ts ( japans = lea!r4 ,! unsaturat$ acids ( fi% oils seldom give h>d v>ni%es1 ?\gh m5had5 oil 7page #cfg7 is sometimes us$ z pa9t-oil = outside "w4 ,mo/ fats are liable to become rancid by exposure to ! air1 acquir+ a disagreeable ta/e & smell1 & an acid reaction f ! lib]ation ( ! fatty acids4 ,! *anges :i* take place are some:at complex4 ,! fatty acid ( ca/or oil is ( peculi> con/itution1 be+ an oleic acid 9 :i* "o ( ! hydrog5-atoms is replac$ by a 8hydroxyl0 or ,,oh gr\p4 ,! solubility ( ca/or oil 9 alcohol has already be5 allud$ to4 ,x does n dry1 & is an excell5t oil = lubricat+ heavy ma*9]y4 ,x is sometimes adult]at$ ) 8bl[n0 oils1 :i* are made f non-dry+1 or slightly dry+ se$ oils1 l cotton-se$ or rape1 by bl[+ air ?r\gh !m 9 a w>m$ condition4 ,"u ?is treatm5t !y increase greatly 9 viscosity & d5sity & 9 _! solubility 9 alcohol1 b d n acquire ! o!r valuable prop]ties ( g5u9e ca/or oil4 ,! 8foots0 or s$im5ts :i* oils deposit on /&+1 sometimes consi/ ( animal or vegetable fibres1 or mucilage comb9$ ) wat]1 b (t5 are simply ! h>d] fats1 /e>91 palmit91 etc41 :i* cry/allise f ! oil on cool+4 ,9 ?is case !y are re-dissolv$ on w>m+ ! oil4 ,su* oils1 :i* l neatsfoot & tall[ oils become turbid 9 cold wea!r1 are /yl$ 8t5d]40 ,,non-,,dry+ ,,fats ,,& ,,oils4 ,tall[ 7,fr4 ,suif2 ,g]4 ,talg7 is ! fat ( v>i\s mammalia1 pr9cipally ( ! ox & %eep1 b occasionally also ( ! goat4 ,! mix$ fat obta9$ f all p>ts ( ! c>cass is kn[n z 8r5d]$ tall[10 :ile t obta9$ f ! region ( ! kidneys 7suet7 is h>d]4 ,a sub/ance commonly ref]r$ to z 8press$ tall[0 or 8oleo-/e>9e0 is obta9$ by press+ ord9>y tall[1 9 clo?s1 9 ! hydraulic press4 ,! m liquid portion :i* is express$ is tall[-oil1 ! f9] qualities ( :i* are us$ 9 mak+ m>g>9e4 ,oleo-/e>9e mu/ n be conf\nd$ ) ! 8di/ill$ /e>9e10 obta9$ f ,york%ire grease by di/illation & pressure 7page #cei71 nor ) c&lemak]s' 8/e>9e10 :i* is a mixture ( free /e>ic & palmitic acids4 ,pure tall[ is :ite & ta/eless1 b mu* ( t sold is yell[i% & ( a disagreeable1 slightly rancid flav\r4 ,mutton tall[ is usually h>d] & :it] ?an t ( beef4 ,goat tall[ has a *>act]i/ic od\r1 z h ! recov]$ /e>9es & o!r wa/e greases f glue-works4 ,buck tall[1 :i* is p>ticul>ly h>d1 has n[ be5 l>gely replac$ by oleo-/e>9e4 ,beef tall[ melts at ab\t #dj ,c42 mutton tall[ at #de4 ,9 *emical composition1 tall[ consi/s *iefly ( a mixture ( ! tri-glyc]ides ( palmitic1 /e>ic & oleic acids2 its h>dness dim9i%+ ) ! increase ( ! la/4 ,tall[ %\ld1 :5 melt$1 be p]fectly cle>1 turbidity indicat+ ! pres5ce ( wat] or o!r =eign matt]s1 due ei!r to c>elessness 9 ! manufacture or1 possibly1 adult]ation4 ,traces ( phosphate ( lime1 or fragm5ts ( animal tissue1 may be pres5t z accid5tal impurities2 lime1 on ! o!r h&1 is sometimes add$ to ?ick5 ! tall[ & enable x to reta9 m wat]2 />*1 *9a clay1 :it+1 heavy sp>1 etc41 are also occasionally employ$4 ,tall[ has be5 n infrequ5tly adult]at$ ) ! di/ill$ fatty acids f wool grease4 ,:5 ?is is ! case1 cry/als ( *ole/]ol 7see ,l4,i4,l4,b41 p4 #aha7 may be detect$ by exam9ation ( ! unsaponifiable matt] ( ! mixture "u a microscope4 ,x w\ld also give ! tall[ an unusually high 8acid-value40 ,me?ods = ! proximate analysis ( tall[ are giv5 9 ! #8,laboratory ,book1' pp4 #ahi et seq4 ,! fats produc$ by ! boil+ ( fle%+s = glue1 & by ! press+ ( %eep-sk9s1 are ( ! nature ( s(t tall[s4 ,if ! fle%+s are delim$ ) acid1 & boil$ fre%1 ! grease is g5]ally ( good col\r1 & ) little unpleasant od\r1 b conta9s traces ( free fatty acids d]iv$ f ! decomposition ( ! lime-soaps4 ,if ! fle%+s h be5 dri$ & ! lime c>bonat$1 ! grease w g5]ally be br[n1 & m or less rancid2 b ! lime-soaps are n decompos$1 unless ! 8scut*0 or refuse be treat$ ) acid1 :5 a fur!r yield ( grease is obta9$4 ,! grease f %eep-sk9s is g5]ally some:at br[n1 & (t5 smells ( ! volatile acids & o!r con/itu5ts ( ! tan-liquors1 especially if l>* b>k has be5 us$4 ,^! greases are usually mu* improv$ 9 appe>ance & od\r1 if well wa%$ by boil+ or /eam+ on wat]1 or by bl[+ a mixture ( air & /eam ?r\gh !m1 or sometimes ev5 by m]e heat+ to a suffici5t temp]ature to evaporate ! wat] & drive (f ! volatile matt]s4 ,by all[+ ! grease to cool sl[ly1 s z to fav\r cry/allisation1 till x is ( a s\py consi/5cy1 & !n pump+ ?r\gh a filt] press ) wooll5 clo?s1 ! m liquid is sep>at$ easily f a m solid portion1 & bo? may 9 _m cases be us$ 9 lea!r manufacture1 ! tall[ = curry+1 & ! oil 9 place ( neatsfoot oil4 ,horse-fat1 & especially t f ! fatty portions ( ! neck 7,g]4 ,kammfett71 z well z v>i\s o!r animal greases1 are us$ 9 ! manufacture ( lea!r4 ,!y diff] f tall[ *iefly 9 t !y h a l[] melt+-po9t1 & conta9 m ole9 9 proportion to ! /e>9 & palmit9 ?an true tall[1 & are consequ5tly some:at s(t]4 ,?\gh (t5 almo/ :ite1 ^! greases are sometimes d>k5$ 9 col\r by ! products ( putrefy+ animal matt]1 b ?is does n1 z a rule1 int]f]e ) ! oil be+ us$ = lea!r dress+4 ,!y are usually s *eap t !y are b little adult]at$2 means ( det]m9+ _! purity are1 h[ev]1 giv5 9 ,l4,i4,l4,b41 p4 #aia4 ,neatsfoot oil is a yell[i%1 ne>ly od\rless oil1 ( bl& ta/e1 :i* is l>gely employ$ 9 ! dress+ ( calf-kid4 ,x has a simil> composition to tall[ oil & ! o!r oils obta9$ by subject+ ! s(t animal fats to great pressure at a l[ temp]ature4 ,x is (t5 adult]at$ ) bone oil1 l>d oil & cotton-se$ oil1 & occasionally ) m9]al oil & recov]$ wool-grease4 ,z neatsfoot oil is some:at co/ly1 curri]s may ) advantage (t5 use ord9>y animal greases 7horse-fat1 etc47 aft] !y h _h ! h>d] tall[ extract$ by cool+ & pressure1 ! product ?us obta9$ be+1 *emically1 ! same z neatsfoot oil1 & 9 e respect z suitable1 :ile x is mu* less liable to adult]ation4 ,! true neatsfoot oil is prep>$ by boil+ ! feet ( cattle1 & sometimes ( %eep & horses1 ) wat]1 & skimm+ (f & cl>ify+ ! oil :i* is ?us obta9$4 ,! physical & *emical *>act]i/ics ( ?is oil are describ$ 9 ,l4,i4,l4,b41 p4 #aib4 ,wool-,fat 7,fr4 ,su9t1 oesype2 ,g]4 ,wolls*weissfett7 is a grease ( high specific gravity1 exsud$ f ! sebace\s gl&s ( ! %eep1 toge!r ) organic salts ( potassium4 ,x is obta9$ by extract+ wool ) solv5ts2 or by wa%+ ) alkal9e solutions1 f :i* x is recov]$ by precipitation ) acid1 & subsequ5t hot-press+ ( ! 8magma10 or1 m rec5tly1 by evaporat+ ! sc\r+ liquor to small bulk1 & c5trifugat+4 ,wool-fat is *>act]is$ by its l[ p]c5tage ( glyc]ides1 ! fatty acids :i* x conta9s be+ ma9ly comb9$ ) high] alcohols 7bodies ( alcoholic /ructure1 b ( a waxlike consi/5cy71 & *emically x is r a wax ?an a true fat4 ,among ! alcohols :i* x conta9s is includ$ a m>k$ p]c5tage ( *ole/]ol & iso*ole/]ol4 ,x is difficultly saponifiable1 requir+ to be heat$ to #aje-aaj ,c4 ) alcoholic pota% "u pressure2 & ev5 !n ab\t #dd p] c5t4 ( alcohols rema91 :i* are incapable ( fur!r saponification4 ,c>e mu/ !re=e be tak5 n to assume t unsaponifiable matt] 9 greases :i* may conta9 wool-fat is necess>ily m9]al oil4 ,= details ( analysis see ,l4,i4,l4,b41 p4 #aid4 ,pure wool-fat is ne>ly :ite1 ( salve-l consi/5cy & v slight smell1 ) a d5sity ( #jigc at #ae ,c4 ,crude wool-fat is yell[ or br[n1 ) an unpleasant & v p]si/5t *>act]i/ic smell4 ,bo? ! pure & ! crude wool-fat h an extraord9>y p[] ( emulsify+ ) wat]1 :i* makes !m v valuable z sub/itutes = dgras 9 /uff+ greases4 ,lanol9e 7& sev]al o!r prep>ations "u diff]5t names7 are mixtures ( purifi$ wool-fat & wat]1 ( :i* lanol9e conta9s ab\t #bb p] c5t4 8,york%ire grease0 diff]s f crude wool-fat1 9 be+ recov]$ f ! wat]s employ$ 9 sc\r+ wooll5 clo?s1 z well z wool1 & h5ce conta9s ! free fatty acids ( soaps us$ 9 sc\r+1 z well z ! 8ole9es10 etc41 us$ 9 oil+ ! clo?1 & al?\gh x (t5 conta9s mu* wool-fat1 x is occasionally de/itute ( ?is sub/ance4 ,hold5 ,fat consi/s ( ord9>y wool-grease mix$ ) fi% oil1 & is us$ ei!r z a sub/itute =1 or 9 admixture ) dgras 7q4 v474 ,di/ill$ ,wool ,grease is produc$ by di/ill+ crude ,york%ire grease ) /eam4 ,mo/ ( ! glyc]ides are brok5 up1 b _m ( ! free fatty acids1 alcohols & waxes di/il ov] un*ang$1 ?\gh a consid]able "p is decompos$ into volatile hydroc>bons /rongly resembl+ m9]al oils4 ,! di/illate is sep>at$ by cool+ & pressure into a liquid 8ole9e0 & a solid 8/e>9e40 ,! latt] =ms a v valuable /uff+-grease :i*1 9 ,engl&1 l>gely takes ! place ( ! 8oleo-/e>9e0 us$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates--) :i*1 h[ev]1 x mu/ n be conf\nd$4 ,di/ill$ ,/e>9e1 prep>$ z above describ$1 is a pale yell[-to-br[n fat1 :i* v>ies 9 h>dness & 9 its melt+ po9t accord+ to ! conditions ( its prep>ation4 ,x has a *>act]i/ic od\r :i* is v p]si/5t1 & x consi/s l>gely ( free /e>ic & palmitic acids2 mo/ ( ! liquid hydroc>bons =m$ by di/illation be+ remov$ ) ! 8ole9e40 ,olive ,oil 7,fr4 ,huile d'olive2 ,g]4 ,oliv5oel1 ,baumoel7 f9ds ext5sive use 9 lea!r dress+1 & especially 9 ! manufacture ( 8fat-liquors0 7pp4 #bag1 #bdj74 ,x is extract$ f ! fruit ( ! olive tree by pressure1 & ( late ye>s f ! residues by extraction ) c>bon disulphide4 ,al?\gh x *emically resembles tall[ & l>d oils v /rongly1 its adult]ation ) ^! sub/ances may usually be detect$1 at any rate r\ghly1 by ! ta/e & od\r ( ! oil4 ,x is pr9cipally *>act]is$1 f a *emical po9t ( view1 by conta9+ ! glyc]ide ( palmitic b n t ( /e>ic acid1 & by hav+ a mu* l>g] proportion ( ole9 to solid glyc]ides ?an mo/ ( ! non-dry+ animal oils4 ,at l[ temp]atures1 olive oil solidifies to a product :i* c be sep>at$ by pressure into a solid tall[-l fat1 & a fluid oil consi/+ ess5tially ( tri-ole94 ,olive oil is ! type ( a non-dry+ vegetable oil1 b ?\gh x does n ?ick5 mat]ially on exposure1 x becomes rancid some:at rapidly1 & is ?us r5d]$ unsuitable = lubrication4 ,unless ! acidity is excessive x does n appe> to spoil ! oil = lea!r manufacture1 & = "s purposes is actually an advantage z aid+ emulsification4 ,free acids 9 oils may be remov$ by %ak+ ) sodium c>bonate solution4 ,olive oil always conta9s "s free acid2 :i* is ( importance 9 ! prep>ation ( fat-liquors1 z x facilitates ! production ( an emulsion4 ,?is quality may be increas$ by ! addition1 :5 necess>y1 ( a little oleic acid4 ,olive oil is frequ5tly adult]at$ ) o!r vegetable oils4 ,probably ! mo/ useful crit]ion is ! iod9e-value1 :i* is rais$ by ! addition ( any se$ oil4 ,exam9ation 9 ! refractomet] also af=ds useful indications4 ,cotton-se$1 sesame & ara*is 7e>?-nut7 oils are ! mo/ frequ5t adult]ants ( ! bett] qualities1 & 9 _m cases may be recognis$ by special te/s4 ,ca/or ,oil 7,fr4 ,huile de ric92 ,g]4 ,ric9usoel7 is ! oil express$ f ! se$s ( ,ric9us communis1 & is a transp>5t1 col\rless or pale yell[i% liquid1 hav+ a fa9t od\r & a disagreeable ta/e4 ,at a l[ temp]ature x ?ick5s & deposits slightly1 & at -#ah ,c4 x solidifies to a pale yell[ mass4 ,ca/or oil is di/+ui%$ f all o!r natural fix$ oils by its high d5sity 7#jifj to #jifd7 & viscosity1 & by its solubility 9 alcohol & its insolubility 9 petroleum e!r4 ,g5u9e ca/or oil is completely soluble 9 an equal volume ( absolute alcohol1 or 9 f\r times its volume ( 8rectifi$ _s0 at ! ord9>y temp]ature4 ,x is practically insoluble 9 petroleum e!r1 b c dissolve an equal measure ( t liquid4 ,= ! purpose ( ! lea!r manufactur]1 ! ord9>y hot-press$ oil1 su* z is us$ = lubricat+ ma*9]y1 is q z good z ! m co/ly cold-press$ oil :i* is us$ = m$ic9al purposes4 ,x is g5]ally import$ 9 t9s hold+ ab\t #dj lb4 ( oil4 ,ca/or oil1 & ca/or-oil soap made z describ$ on p4 #ceb1 are v good = fat-liquors1 seem+ to int]f]e ) dye+ & glaz+ less ?an mo/ o!r oils4 ,boots oil$ ) ca/or oil may be black$ at once1 & w take a good poli%4 ,! only oils :i* are usually mix$ ) ca/or oil are 8bl[n0 or oxidis$ se$ oils1 or res9 oil4 ,any o!r oils w\ld s s]i\sly l[] ! specific gravity z to r5d] _! use impracticable4 ,= ! detection & e/imation ( ^! ! #8,laboratory ,book' %\ld be consult$1 or if full] details are requir$ ! read] is ref]r$ to ,b5$ikt & ,lewk[its*'s #8,oils1 ,fats & ,waxes1' or to ,all5's #8,comm]cial ,organic ,analysis1' vol4 ii4 ,sulphonat$ ca/or oil or ,turkey-r$ oil is n[ l>gely us$ = 8fat-liquor+10 = :i* x 0 probably fir/ employ$ by ! au?or1 ab\t #ahij4 ,?is mat]ial--:i* mu/ be c>efully di/+ui%$ f ! olive oil prep>ation :i* is also us$ = dye+ cotton a ,turkey-r$ col\r--is made by treat+ ca/or oil ) "o-qu>t] ( its weight ( /rong sulphuric acid 7specific gravity #ah71 add+ ! latt] 9 v small quantities at a "t1 & tak+ c>e t ! temp]ature ( ! mixture at no "t exce$s #ce ,c4 ,! mixture is !n all[$ to /& = tw5ty-f\r h\rs1 ) occasional /irr+1 & is wa%$ ) its own volume ( wat]1 all[$ to /& until ! wat] has all sep>at$1 & ! oil is !n syphon$ (f4 ,if desir$1 ! oil may be fur!r wa%$ once or twice ) a solution ( /rong br9e1 b ?is is ( d\btful advantage1 & %\ld 9 no case be excessive4 ,! wa%$ oil is f9ally neutralis$ by ! cauti\s addition ( "o-hundr$? ( its volume ( /rong ammonia solution 7sp4 gr4 #jhhj74 ,if prop]ly prep>$1 ,turkey-r$ oil 7sulphonat$ ca/or oil7 w1 :5 l>gely dilut$ ) wat]1 be> ! addition ( ammonia to alkal9e reaction )\t %[+ any turbidity ev5 on /&+ sev]al h\rs4 ,if a turbidity is produc$1 x indicates t ! ca/or oil us$ 0 impure & conta9$ "s oil ri* 9 /e>94 ,! alcohol te/ describ$ on p4 #cfj may also be appli$1 z ! oily lay] w be entirely soluble if ca/or oil alone 0 us$ 9 ! prep>ation ( ! r$ oil4 ,turkey-r$ oil usually conta9s ab\t #ej p] c5t4 ( fatty acids 7,all574 ,l9se$ ,oil 7,fr4 ,huile de l92 ,g]4 ,le9oel7 is us$ by lea!r manufactur]s 9 ! prep>ation ( ! japan = mak+ 8pat5t lea!r10 & to "s ext5t also 9 curry+1 = oil+ (f levants & moroccos1 ?\gh = ^! purposes x has be5 l>gely sup]s$$ by m9]al oils4 ,x is obta9$ f ! se$s ( ! flax plant1 ,l9um usitatissimum1 *iefly gr[n 9 ,russia & ,india4 ,! ,russian oil is usually mix$ ) ! oil f hemp to ! ext5t ( ab\t #bj p] c5t41 :ile t f ,india1 be+ gr[n z a mix$ crop ) mu/>d & rape1 is nev] p]fectly pure4 ,! ,baltic oil is consid]$ be/ = japans1 & is improv$ by /or+ = a consid]able "t 9 tanks 9 a w>m place4 ,:5 obta9$ by cold pressure ( ! se$s1 l9se$ oil is ( a bright yell[ col\r2 if a high] temp]ature be us$ 9 ! extraction ! oil is m or less br[n1 & ta/es mu* m acrid4 ,on exposure to air1 l9se$ oil turns easily rancid1 absorbs oxyg51 & if spread out 9 a suffici5tly ?9 film x dries to a neutral sub/ance 7l9oxyn71 :i* is insoluble 9 e!r4 ,?is prop]ty is ! "o on :i* ! *ief value ( l9se$ & o!r 8dry+ oils0 dep5ds4 ,l9se$ oil is *iefly adult]at$ ) o!r se$ oils1 cottonse$ be+ ! mo/ (t5 us$ = ?is purpose1 ?\gh m5had5 & v>i\s o!r fi% oils are occasionally employ$4 ,z ! d5sity ( raw l9se$ oil v>ies betwe5 #jicb & #jicf at #ae ,c41 ! addition ( o!r se$ oils or ( m9]al oil w\ld cause an appreciable l[]+ ( ?is figure1 :il/ ros9 or ros9 oil w\ld raise x4 ,a judici\s admixture ( bo? m9]al & ros9 oils w\ld give a product ( normal d5sity4 ,fi% oils c be detect$ by _! *>act]i/ic smell1 especially on w>m+4 ,v>i\s me?ods h be5 propos$ = judg+ ! quality ( l9se$ oil1 b none ( !m are p]fectly satisfactory4 ,! be/ oil is t :i* dries ! mo/ p]fectly2 b ! rapidity ( ! dry+1 & ! consi/5cy ( ! dri$ product1 are mo/ important factors :i* mu/ also be tak5 into acc\nt4 ,! iod9e-valve1 :i* is a measure ( ! dry+ p[]1 %\ld n fall mu* bel[ #ahj4 ,a satisfactory practical te/1 recomm5d$ by ,all51#afb consi/s 9 mix+ ! oil ) ?ree times its weight ( g5u9e :ite lead1 & cov]+ a p]fectly clean glass surface ) ! pa9t4 ,an exactly simil> exp]im5t is made simultane\sly ) a /&>d sample ( l9se$ oil1 & ! rates ( dry+ & ! *>act]s ( ! coat+ ( pa9t comp>$4 #afb ,comm]cial ,organic ,analysis1 ii4 p4 #abb4 ,j4 ,mut] has simplifi$ ?is te/ by m]ely flood+ a plate ( glass ) ! oil & !n expos+ x to a temp]ature ( #ch ,c4 7#ajj ,f47 9 a good curr5t ( air4 ,! "t requir$ = dry+1 to su* an ext5t t ! coat+ w n come (f :5 lightly t\*$1 is not$1 & comp>$ ) /&>d samples ( oil4 ,by apply+ ! f+] at int]vals to diff]5t p>ts ( ! film surface ! progress ( ! dry+ c be readily obs]v$4#afc #afc ,ka?re9] /ates t ?is me?od is a useful te/ = fi% & liv] oils1 ^? :i* dry mo/ rapidly be+ specially liable to 8spue40 ,boil$ ,oils4--,its capacity = ?us dry+ is mu* enhanc$ by heat+1 ) addition ( 8dri]s10 to a temp]ature ( #acj ,c4 & upw>ds1 :ile pass+ a curr5t ( air ?r\gh ! oil & !n increas+ ! temp]ature until ! oil beg9s to eff]vesce 78boil074 ,l>ge quantities ( l9se$ oil are n[ treat$ 9 ?is way = use 9 ! arts4 ,! dri]s us$ are metallic salts1 pr9cipally ^? ( lead & manganese1 :i* app>5tly act z oxyg5-c>ri]s4 ,li?>ge 0 =m]ly mo/ commonly us$1 b its place has be5 tak5 to a consid]able ext5t by acetate1 borate & res9ate ( manganese4 ,f #a to #b p] c5t4 ( ei!r li?>ge or manganese borate may be us$1 ?\gh less quantities produce a m>k$ effect4 ,app>5tly li?>ge gives ! mo/ rapid dry+1 & manganese a mu* pal] col\r4#afd ,l9se$ oil is usually d>k5$ by boil+1 & increases bo? 9 actual weight & 9 specific gravity & viscosity4 ,! *emical reactions :i* take place 9 boil+ are n well und]/ood1 b x is 9 ! ma9 a process ( oxidation & polym]isation1 p]haps accompani$ by ! =mation ( anhydrides ( ! fatty acids1 & a portion ( ! dri] rema9s dissolv$ 9 ! boil$ oil4 ,^! dri]s may be detect$ by boil+ an ounce or s ( ! oil ) dilute hydro*loric acid1 all[+ ! mixture to sep>ate into two lay]s & !n syphon+ (f ! l[] into ano!r vessel1 & te/+ = metals 7lead1 manganese1 z9c7 or acids 7boric1 oxalic1 etc474 #afd ,cp4 ,f4 ,h4 ,?orpe1 ,ab/4 ,j\r4 ,soc4 ,*em4 ,ind41 #ahij1 #fbh1 f ,te*nology1 ,qu>t41 iii4 pp4 #i-af4 ,black japan = pat5t lea!rs is made by boil+ l9se$ oil1 )\t bl[+ air ?r\gh x1 = at lea/ sev5 or eight h\rs1 ) ,prussian blue1 or ) oxides ( iron4 ,! japan is br[ni% r ?an blue 9 col\r1 & x is probable t ! ,prussian blue s]ves m]ely z a s\rce ( iron oxide1 :i* acts bo? z a col\r+ matt] & a dri]4 ,o!r dri]s1 su* z li?>ge1 are sometimes add$1 & = col\r$ enamels o!r pigm5ts are sub/itut$ = ! ,prussian blue4 ,cotton-se$ ,oil 7,fr4 ,huile de coton2 ,g]4 ,cottonoel or ,baumwoll5sam5oel7 is n[ express$ 9 enorm\s quantities 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 on ! cont95t ( ,europe & 9 ,great ,brita94 ,! crude oil conta9s a v *>act]i/ic col\r+ matt] :i*1 ?\gh naturally ruby r$1 is sometimes s int5se z to make ! oil appe> to be ne>ly black4 ,?is col\r+ matt] causes ! oil to produce /a9s1 & is !re=e remov$ by a process ( ref9+1 & a product ( a /raw- or gold5-yell[ col\r is ?us obta9$4 ,! ref9+ is usually effect$ by %ak+ ! crude oil ) a cold #e p] c5t4 solution ( cau/ic soda1 us+ ab\t t5 times z mu* oil z soda solution4 ,cotton-se$ oil is1 on acc\nt ( its price1 seldom or nev] adult]at$1 b is itself frequ5tly employ$ z an adult]ant ( olive & neatsfoot oils4 ,x is a semi-dry+ oil1 & unsuitable = mo/ purposes 9 lea!r manufacture4 ,= a description ( its *>act]i/ic prop]ties1 bo? *emical & physical1 ! read] is ref]r$ to ,lewk[its*'s #8,oils1 ,fats & ,waxes1' or to ,all5's #8,comm]cial ,organic ,analysis1' vol4 ii4 ,sesam ,oil 7,fr4 ,huile de ssam2 ,g]4 ,sesamoel2 ,teel oil1 ,g+eli oil7 is ano!r se$ oil1 usually ( pal] col\r ?an cotton-se$ oil1 b resembl+ x 9 hav+ sc>cely any od\r1 & possess+ a bl& & agreeable1 ?\gh n v *>act]i/ic ta/e4 ,x is (t5 us$ z an adult]ant ( olive oil4 ,sesam oil is a non-dry+ oil1 :i* does n easily turn rancid4 ,:5 pres5t 9 o!r oils1 x may be detect$ by agitat+ #aj c4c4 ( ! sample ) #e c4c4 ( conc5trat$ hydro*loric acid 9 :i* #ja grm4 ( :ite sug> has previ\sly be5 dissolv$4 ,aft] %ak+ toge!r = at lea/ t5 m9utes1 ! oil & acid are all[$ to sep>ate1 :51 if sesam oil be pres5t1 ! acid lay] w h a m>k$ rose col\r1 ! int5sity ( :i* increases ) ! am\nt ( sesam oil 9 ! sample 7,baud\9's te/74 ,sesam oil is l>gely us$ 9 ,india = oil+ tann$ %eep- & goat-sk9s 78,p]sians071 & has ! *>act]i/ic prop]ty ( be+ assimilable 9 l>ge quantities by lea!r )\t ! latt] appe>+ oily4 ,ea/ ,india tann$ sk9s (t5 conta9 #be & ev5 #cj p] c5t4 ,! oil is appli$ to !m 9 ! wet condition be=e !y are dri$4 ,x is easily detect$ 9 ! oils extract$ f ^! sk9s by ,baud\9's te/4 ,! oil seems well adapt$ = _m purposes 9 lea!r manufacture4 ,cod ,oil 7,fr4 ,huile de morue2 ,g]4 ,leb]?ran7 is by f> ! mo/ important oil us$ by lea!r manufactur]s1 & is obta9$ f ! liv] ( ! common cod-fi% 7,gadus ,morrhua7 & sev]al o!r memb]s ( ! g5us ,gadus4 ,! *ief seats ( ! cod fi%]y are ! coa/s & banks ( ,newf\ndl&1 ,nova ,scotia1 ! ,gulf ( ,/4 ,lawr5ce1 ! coa/s ( ,norway1 ,d5m>k & ,g]many1 ! ,dogg] ,bank 9 ! ,nor? ,sea1 & ! %ores ( ,alaska 9 ! ,pacific ,ocean4 ,! oil 0 =m]ly obta9$ by keep+ ! liv]s ( ! fi% 9 l>ge wood5 vats1 /irr+ con/antly until s mu* decomposition has tak5 place t ! cells conta9+ ! oil bur/1 & ! oil ?us releas$ rises to ! surface & is skimm$ (f ) wood5 ladles4 ,! crude oil is all[$ to deposit any susp5d$ matt]s by s$im5tation 9 a tank1 & is !n p\r$ into casks ready = sale4 ,! 8br[n oil0 s (t5 us$ by tann]s is obta9$ by boil+ ! solid matt] left aft] extract+ ! oil z above 9 iron tanks until all ! wat] has evaporat$2 ! oil ?us lib]at$ is !n /ra9$ (f1 cl>ifi$ & put into b>rels4 ,! pur] qualities ( cod-liv] oil are n[ obta9$ by boil+ ! liv]s ) wat] & skimm+ (f ! oil :i* rises to ! surface4 ,?ree grades are on ! m>ket at ! pres5t "t3 m$ic9al1 or ord9>y bright2 an inf]ior 8light br[n02 & 8d>k-br[n10 or 8tann]s' oil40 ,x is probable t ^! /eam-extract$ oils are mu* m liable to 8spue0 ?an ^? extract$ by ! old me?od at a high] temp]ature1 s9ce ,eitn]#afe has %[n t seal oils extract$ at a l[ temp]ature spue badly1 b lose ! t5d5cy if heat$ = "s "t to #bej-cjj ,c4 #afe ,g]b]1 #ahhj1 p4 #bdd4 ,g5u9e cod oil1 z suitable = use 9 lea!r manufacture1 is always m or less br[n 9 col\r1 ( specific gravity ab\t #jibh1 & refractive index #adhb4 ,at pres5t prices x c only be adult]at$ ) o!r fi% oils1 ros91 or m9]al oil1 or ) wat]1 gelat9e or mucilage4 ,( ^!1 ros9 oil & petroleum are ! mo/ frequ5tly employ$ 9 sophi/ication4 ,an inf]ior v>iety ( oil1 kn[n z 8coa/ cod10 made f ! liv]s ( v>i\s fi%1 su* z l+1 haddock & hake1 is also sold1 b1 z x is frequ5tly mix$ ) oils f o!r fi% refuse1 x has a v poor reputation4 ,cod oil1 toge!r ) mo/ ( ! o!r oils obta9$ f fi% liv]s1 has ! prop]ty ( produc+ an int5se r$di%-violet col\r :5 a drop ( /rong sulphuric acid is dropp$ ^u t5 or fifte5 drops ( ! oil conta9$ 9 a :ite porcela9 tray or sauc]4 ,! reaction succe$s /ill bett]1 if1 in/ead ( ! oil itself1 its solution 9 *lor(orm1 c>bon disulphide or tetra*loride is employ$4 ,?is te/1 al?\gh v useful = ! detection ( liv] oils :5 !y are pres5t 9 oils ( a totally diff]5t "*1 su* z rape or olive oils1 does n 9 any way indicate :e!r a sample ( fi% oil is pure or o!rwise4 ,a v simil> reaction is giv5 by *ole/]ol :i* is pres5t 9 wool-fat4 ,%>k-liv] ,oil 7,fr4 ,huile de requ92 ,g]4 ,haifis*?ran7 is obta9$ f ! liv] ( ! 8bask+ %>k10 or 8ice-%>k10 *iefly caught (f ! coa/ ( ,norway2 b ! liv]s ( ! dog-fi% & sev]al alli$ fi% also are sometimes sub/itut$4 ,%>k oil has be5 employ$ 9 tann]ies z a sub/itute = cod-liv] oil1 b1 accord+ to ,lewk[its*1 & to ,all51 x is no long] employ$ 9 ,engl&4 ,f its pale col\r x is probably pr9cipally us$ to improve ! appe>ance ( d>k] oils4 ,accord+ to ,eitn]1#aff its use causes lea!r to 8spue0 badly if n previ\sly heat$4 #aff ,g]b]1 #ahhf1 p4 #bff4 ,%>k oil is *>act]is$ by ! v notable proportion ( unsaponifiable matt] :i* x conta9s1 :i* is ( ! same "* z t ( sp]m oil1 & n easily remov$ f its soap solution by petroleum e!r4 ,x gives a /rong violet-blue coloration ) conc5trat$ sulphuric acid1 ! reaction be+ ev5 m m>k$ ?an ) cod-liv] oil itself1 & ( a blu] violet4 ,:ale ,oil 7,fr4 ,huile de bale9e2 ,g]4 ,wallfis*?ran7 is extract$ f ! blubb] ( v>i\s species ( :ale1 & (t5 conta9s traces ( sp]maceti1 ! sub/ance :i* *>act]ises ! oil f ! sp]m :ale4 ,?is yields on saponification high] alcohols1 :i* are f\nd 9 ! unsaponifiable matt]2 b 9 ord9>y :ale oil ! total unsaponifiable matt] seldom exce$s #a to #b p] c5t4 ,:ale oil is l>gely us$ on ! ,cont95t = 8*amois+0 7q4v471 & is consequ5tly a con/itu5t ( dgras4 ,x is mu* less oxidisable ?an cod4 ,seal oil 7,fr4 ,huile de phoque2 ,g]4 ,robb5?ran7 is obta9$ f ! common r\gh-coat$ seal1 abundant 9 ! ,arctic regions4 ,x be>s a /rong resemblance to bo? :ale & fi% oils1 & _c be detect$ 9 mixtures ( ^!4 ,! ,sw$i% 8,dreikron5?ran0 7,?ree ,cr[n ,oil7 is a mixture ( seal & fi% oils4 ,z g5u9e seal oil only conta9s ab\t p] c5t4 ( unsaponifiable matt]1 its adult]ation by m9]al or res9 oils may be detect$ by a det]m9ation ( ! matt] extract$ by petroleum e!r aft] saponification ( ! oil 7see ,l4,i4,l4,b41 p4 #agh74 ,!re is no simple te/ by :i* ! purity or o!rwise ( a sample ( oil c be det]m9$1 z ! deal]s "k all ! be/ te/s :i* ! us]s c\ld try1 & fake up _! oils accord+ly4 ,= in/ance1 if petroleum is to be add$ surreptiti\sly to a cod oil1 ! decrease 9 specific gravity ( ! oil caus$ by ?is addition w\ld be correct$ by ! addition ( a suitable quantity ( soap or ros9 oil1 :i* w\ld sc>cely affect ! col\r1 ta/e or od\r ( ! sample4 ,! only satisfactory me?od ( detect+ adult]ation is to submit ! oil to a complete *emical exam9ation1 & = ?is purpose ,l4,i4,l4,b41 pp4 #aef et seq41 or ! l>g] text-books already nam$ may be suitably consult$4 ,m5had5 ,oil 7,porgie oil1 ,/raits oil7 is l>gely us$ 9 c]ta9 di/ricts z an adult]ant or sub/itute = cod oil4 ,x is obta9$ f ! ,alosa ,brevoordia or m5had51 a memb] ( ! h]r+ family1 ab\t a foot long4 ,! fi% is caught on ! ,atlantic coa/ ( ,am]ica1 & is s pl5tiful t x is v d\btful :e!r cod oil c ev] compete ) x successfully 9 price4 ,! fi% are boil$ 9 /eam kettles1 ! oil squeez$ by hydraulic presses1 cl>ifi$1 & blea*$ by expos+ to ! sun 9 %all[ glass-cov]$ tanks4 ,an inf]ior grade is kn[n z 8,bank oil40 ,m5had5 oil is *iefly *>act]is$ by its v high 8specific temp]ature reaction0 7,l4,i4,l4,b41 p4 #afi7 :i* is ab\t #cjf4 ,x is n a good lea!r-oil1 be+ v liable to 8spue40 ,_m o!r v>ieties ( oil extract$ f ! bodies1 & n f ! liv]s only ( fi%es1 are class$ z fi% oils4 ,m5had5 oil is ! pr9cipal ( ^!2 b ,japanese oil1 s>d9e & h]r+ oils1 & ^? obta9$ f ! refuse ( o!r fi% are sc>cely less important1 ?\gh z !y are d]iv$ f su* diff]5t s\rces x is n possible to quote any def9ite *>act]i/ics by :i* !y may be id5tifi$ :5 mix$ ) m valuable oils4 ,!y are usually v liable to 8spue40 ,fi% ,tall[1 :i*1 accord+ to ,eitn]1 is a good & *eap sub/itute = dgras1 is ! solid grease obta9$ f diff]5t k9ds ( fi% oil by subject+ !m to a l[ temp]ature & sep>at+ ! matt] :i* is ?us precipitat$1 or 7z 9 ,*9a & ,japan7 ! solid fat :i* is extract$ at ! same "t z ! oil f ! body ( ! fi%4 ,=m]ly fi% tall[ 0 only obta9$ f & ) ,japanese tra9 oil1 b x is n[ obta9$ f :ale blubb]4 ,?is latt] yields a v pure =m ( ! tall[1 :i* does n ne$ any rectification2 b ! ,japanese v>iety1 :i* is obta9$ f fi% ( ! h]r+ family1 conta9s a sort ( fi% glue1 :i* greatly det]iorates ! quality ( ! product4 ,by c>eful purification1 h[ev]1 ?is glut9\s matt] may be remov$1 & ! ref9$ product has none ( ! lea!r-/a9+ prop]ties s *>act]i/ic ( ! crude tall[4 ,! ref9$ tall[ is sold 9 squ>e flat cakes1 melts at #db & is n q s /iff z ox tall[4 ,dgras & ,sod ,oil are products ( *amois-lea!r dress+ 7p4 #cgh7 :i* are us$ 9 curry+4 ,sk9s are treat$ ) m>9e animal oils1 & submitt$ to oxidation1 & ! surplus & p>tially alt]$ oil is recov]$4 ,9 ! ,fr5* me?od1 :ale & seal oils z well z liv] oils are us$1 & ! oxidation is sl[ & gradual1 & ! residual oil1 be+ liquid1 is recov]$ by pressure1 & con/itutes moellon1 ( :i* ! fir/ press+ 7premire torse7 is ! be/4 ,?is is nev] sold = curry+ 9 its orig9al purity2 b1 mix$ ) fur!r quantities ( fi% oils1 tall[s1 & sometimes wool-fat1 x con/itutes ! ord9>y dgras ( comm]ce4 ,! additions1 ?\gh !y l[] ! value1 are n to be consid]$ z simple adult]ations1 s9ce ! moellon alone w\ld be less suitable = ! purpose4 ,aft] removal ( z mu* oil z is possible by dipp+ 9 hot wat] & press+1 a fur!r quantity is recov]$ by wa%+ ) solutions ( pota% or soda1 f :i* x is sep>at$ by addition ( acid1 & con/itutes a l[] quality ( degras4 ,! moellon is ( su* value z a curry+ mat]ial1 t factories are run 9 :i* *amois+ is c>ri$ on solely = its production1 ! sk9s be+ oil$ & oxidis$ repeat$ly1 till r$uc$ to rags4 ,9 ! ,engli% me?od ( *amois+1 liv] oils are almo/ exclusively us$1 & ! oxidation is mu* m rapid & int5se1 ! sk9s be+ pack$ 9 boxes or pil$1 & all[$ to heat4 ,! product obta9$ 9 ?is way is mu* m visc\s1 & c only be recov]$ by sc\r+ ) alkalis2 & ! product1 recov]$ ) acid1 con/itutes sod oil4 ,9 _m ,engli% factories1 a modifi$ me?od is n[ adopt$1 & a product recov]$ by pressure1 :i* sc>cely diff]s f moellon4 ,an important peculi>ity ( dgras & sod oil is its ready emulsification ) wat]1 :i* f its mode ( prep>ation1 x always naturally conta9s1 & :i* %\ld be pres5t 9 a good dgras to ! ext5t ( n less ?an #bj p] c5t4 ,su* a mixture1 conta9+ wat]1 is a sort ( natural fat-liquor & is absorb$ mu* m p]fectly by ! sk9s ?an an oil alone4 ,sod oils1 h[ev]1 are frequ5tly 8evaporat$10 or depriv$ ( wat] by heat+ above #ajj1 ) ! object n only ( effect+ a fanci$ improvem5t1 b ( gett+ rid m completely ( ! sulphuric acid :i* ! wat] is apt to conta94 ,?is makes !m m homog5e\s1 & consequ5tly mu* d>k] 9 col\r4 ,x is n easy to neutralise ! acid 9 an aque\s sod oil by direct addition ( alkali2 possibly ammonia is be/ adapt$ = ! purpose2 or a sugge/ion1 ,i ?9k due to ,eitn]1 may be adopt$1 ( incorporat+ a small quantity ( a suitable soap4 ,9 any case1 v complete mixture is requir$4 ,if ! sulphuric acid us$ 9 recov]y has be5 insuffici5t = complete neutralisation ( ! alkali1 ! dgras or sod oil w naturally conta9 soaps1 & sometimes also free alkali4 ,free acid & free alkali are bo? injuri\s to lea!r1 ! =m] if any?+ ! m s1 d>k5+ ! col\r1 & ev5 r5d]+ ! lea!r t5d]4 ,:5 dgras is us$ 9 mixture ) o!r fats1 c>e %\ld be tak5 n to raise ! temp]ature ( ! mixture s high z to drive (f ! wat]1 to :i* a good deal ( its special efficacy is due4 ,! *emical *anges :i* take place dur+ ! *amois+ process are z yet incompletely und]/ood4 ,a l>ge proportion ( ! glyc]9e is dehydrat$ dur+ ! 8heat+10 =m+ acrole9 7acrylic aldehyde71 to ! action ( :i* x is v possible t ! actual conv]sion ( ! sk9 into lea!r is due1 :ile ! fatty acids also und]go oxidation4 ,dgras !re=e always conta9s consid]able quantities ( oxidis$ fatty acids1 :i* are sometimes associat$ ) nitrog5\s products f ! sk9s1 & :i* are soluble 9 alcohol1 b insoluble 9 petroleum e!r4 ,to ^! products ,sim& gave ! "n ( ,degrasbildn] 7dgras-=m]1 ,fr4 dgragne71 & x has be5 consid]$ a measure ( ! quality ( ! degras1 b its exact value & function is r d\btful4 ,accord+ to ,sim&1 a g5u9e dgras %\ld conta9 n less ?an #ae to #bj p] c5t4 ( ! dgras-=m] z e/imat$ by 8 me?od1 calculat$ on ! dry oil1 & a small] p]c5tage is also pres5t 9 ! orig9al fi% oils4 7,= me?od ( e/imation see ,l4,i4,l4,b41 p4 #ahb74 ,z ! process ( dgras manufacture is obvi\sly ma9ly "o ( oxidation1 _m attempts h be5 made to produce x by direct oxidation ( fi% oils1 )\t ! ag5cy ( sk9s1 bo? by bl[+ air ?r\gh ! oil1 & by addition ( oxidis+ ag5ts su* z nitric acid4 ,eitn] /ates t su* oxidis$ oils are m liable to 8spue0 ?an ! orig9al oils1 z !y already conta9 l>ge quantities ( res9is$ products2 b ?is is c]ta9ly n true ( all artificial dgras1 "s ( :i* answ]s its purpose p]fectly z a curry+ mat]ial1 ?\gh x is v probably ju/ifi$ 9 o!r cases4 ,( c\rse ! me?ods ( successful manufactur]s are kept z pr(\nd secrets4 ,dgras & sod oil1 :5 depriv$ ( wat]1 are d>k & visc\s oils1 ( high specific gravity 7#jide-jiee71 & !re=e heavi] ?an ! oils :i* h be5 employ$ 9 _! manufacture4 ,,waxes1 z has already be5 /at$1 diff] 9 _! *emical "* f true fats1 9 t _! fatty acids1 :i* are mo/ly ( high molecul> weight1 are comb9$1 n ) glyc]9e1 b ) alcohols1 also ( high molecul> weight & ( wax-l consi/5cy4 ,mo/ waxes are solid bodies ( high melt+ po9t1 b "s oils1 especially sp]m & bottl5ose oils1 are *emically liquid waxes2 woolfat conta9s a consid]able proportion ( waxes2 & _m m>9e oils1 su* = in/ance z %>k-liv] oil 7p4 #cff71 conta9 waxes 9 small] quantity 9 mixture ) true fatty oils4 ,sp]m ,oil 7,fr4 ,huile de ca*alot2 ,g]4 ,sp]macetioel1 ,walratoel7 is obta9$ f ! sp]m :ale1 an inhabitant ( ! ,ant>ctic seas4 8,arctic sp]m0 7,g]4 ,doegl+?ran7 is a v simil> oil obta9$ f ! 8,bottl5ose :ale40 ,^! oils are v fluid1 d n dry1 & are excell5t lubricat+ oils = light ma*9]y1 & also good lamp oils4 ,!y conta9 little if any glyc]ides1 & ab\t #dj p] c5t4 ( unsaponifiable solid alcohols1 :i* are soluble 9 e?yl-alcohol1 & mu/ n be confus$ ) ord9>y unsaponifiable m9]al oils1 :i* are frequ5tly us$ z adult]ants 9 mixture ) fatty oils to adju/ gravity & ! 8saponification value40 ,m9]al oils are liquid1 & insoluble 9 alcohol4 ,sp]m oil is ! lighte/ ( ord9>y oils1 its gravity be+ only ab\t #jhhj at #ae ,c4 ,f its price x is p>ticul>ly liable to sophi/ication4 ,x is us$ 9 lea!r manufacture 9 ! f9i%+ ( "s f9e lea!rs1 & sometimes z a con/itu5t ( fat-liquors4 ,sp]maceti1 a wax also obta9$ f ! sp]m :ale1 is an occasional con/itu5t ( lea!r poli%es4 ,beeswax 7,fr4 ,cire des abeilles2 ,g]4 ,bi55wa*s7 is "o ( ! mo/ important waxes = ! lea!r-dress]4 ,z is well kn[n1 x is obta9$ f ! honeycomb ( ! ord9>y bee4 ,x is a yell[i% solid body1 fairly pla/ic :5 fre%1 & ( 8waxy0 feel4 ,at l[ temp]atures x is brittle & ( f9e granul> texture1 & :5 pure is almo/ ta/eless4 ,x is (t5 blea*$ by repeat$ melt+ & exposure to sunlight4 ,z wax always conta9s a consid]able am\nt ( poll5 x may be id5tifi$ :5 9 admixture ) o!r sub/ances by means ( ! microscope4 ,beeswax is almo/ insoluble 9 cold alcohol1 b boil+ alcohol dissolves out ! conta9$ c]otic acid1 :i* cry/allises f x on cool+4 ,wax is saponifi$ by alcoholic pota%1 b ! result+ myricyl alcohol 7ab\t #ed p] c5t47 is n capable ( fur!r saponification4 ,beeswax is frequ5tly adult]at$4 ,wat] & m9]al matt]s 7o*re1 gypsum1 etc47 also fl\r1 />*1 tall[1 /e>ic acid1 ,japan wax1 c>naba wax1 res9 & p>aff9-wax are among ! sub/ances mo/ commonly us$ 9 its sophi/ication4 ,! detection ( ^!1 & especially ( ! o!r waxes1 is s difficult t x w n be describ$ "h4 ,! read] is1 h[ev]1 ref]r$ to ,b5$ikt & ,lewk[its*'s #8,oils1 ,fats & ,waxes1' = fur!r in=mation4 ,c>naba ,wax 7,fr4 ,cire de c>nauba2 ,g]4 ,ce>5wa*s1 ,c>naubawa*s7 has come l>gely into use rec5tly ow+ to ! adv5t ( ! col\r$ lea!r %oe4 ,z x is a v h>d wax x has become v popul> ) boot poli% mak]s1 its l[ price be+ also 9 its fav\r4 ,c>naba wax is an exudation f ! leaves ( ,cop]nica c]if]a1 a palm indig5\s to ,brazil1 & is1 on ?is acc\nt1 (t5 kn[n z ,brazilian wax4 ,x is difficult to saponify1 & ) diff]5t exp]im5t]s has yield$ v v>i$ results on analysis2 x is g5]ally agre$1 h[ev]1 t x is a complicat$ mixture ( sev]al ( ! high] alcohols & acids4 ,japan ,wax is n a true wax1 b a fat consi/+ ( glyc]ides4 ,x is a pale yell[1 h>d1 waxy sub/ance obta9$ f ! b]ries ( a suma* 7,rhus succ$anea1 etc474 ,at ord9>y temp]atures its specific gravity is exactly t ( wat]1 & x melts at #ef ,c4 ,any admixture ) o!r fats w\ld l[] ! melt+ po9t1 b japan wax is (t5 adult]at$ ) #ae to #cj p] c5t4 ( wat]4 ,x is *iefly valuable to lea!r dress]s z a sub/itute = beeswax on acc\nt ( its l[] price4 ,,volatile ,,or ,,ess5tial ,,oils4 ,^! oils are di/+ui%$ f ^? describ$ 9 ! previ\s section 9 t !y are capable ( di/illation )\t und]go+ any s]i\s am\nt ( decomposition4 ,!y occur to "s consid]able ext5t 9 nature1 b ^? ( mo/ importance to ! lea!r trade are produc$ by ! decomposition ( m complicat$ mat]ials4 ,bir* ,oil is by f> ! mo/ important ( ?is class ( oils s f> z ! lea!r-dress] is conc]n$1 s9ce x is ! sub/ance :i* gives to 8,russian lea!r0 its *>act]i/ic od\r4 ,! oil is obta9$ by de/ructive di/illation1 & ! process by :i* ! peasants conduct ?is is "o ( ! rude/ t c be imag9$4 ,a cauldron is fill$ ) dry bir*-b>k1 clos$1 & heat$ ov] a fire4 ,! vap\rs :i* are evolv$ are c>ri$1 by means ( a pipe1 to ano!r vessel :i* is buri$ 9 ! gr\nd1 & are !re cond5s$4 ,! d>k-br[n liquid 7bir*-t>7 is all[$ to cool1 & ! liquor :i* rises to ! surface skimm$ (f4 ,! t> is sometimes di/ill$1 & an oil is ?us obta9$ :i* does n give ! true bir*-oil sc5t v /rongly ?\gh occasionally sold z a ref9$ oil4 ,! true odor\s sub/ance is evid5tly ( v high boil+ po9t & rema9s ma9ly 9 ! t>4 ,! bir* t> is almo/ entirely us$ = giv+ lea!rs a 8,russian0 od\r1 = al?\gh x smells some:at /rongly ( t>ry products1 ! oils caus+ ?is smell are f> m volatile ?an ! bir* sc5t itself1 & !re=e disappe> on /or+ ! lea!r a %ort "t4 ,t> obta9$ f v>i\s species ( p9e is sometimes sub/itut$ = bir* t>1 b x may readily be di/+ui%$ f ! latt] by ! od\r & ! diff]5ce 9 ! specific gravity4 ,bir* t> has a specific gravity ( #jibe to #jide1 :il/ fir t> has "o ( #ajb to #aje2 ?us ! =m] floats on wat] :ile ! latt] s9ks if x be entirely free f enclos$ air4 ,fir t>1 too1 gives up a yell[ col\r+ matt] to wat] %ak5 up ) x1 :ile bir* t> leaves ! wat] col\rless4 ,bir* t> has a di/9ctly acid reaction1 & mu/ n be kept 9 iron vessels4 7,see p4 #bea74 ,! leaves & twigs ( ,am]ican black bir* :5 di/ill$ ) wat] or /eam1 yield an oil :i* is practically id5tical ) t ( ,gaul!ria procumb5s 7w9t]gre571 & consi/s almo/ entirely ( me?yl salicylate4 ,x is cl>ifi$1 & to "s ext5t decoloris$1 by filtration ?r\gh wooll5 blankets & r$i/illation4 ,a ton ( bru%wood is said to yield ab\t f\r p\nds ( oil4 ,?is oil has q a diff]5t od\r to t ( ! real ,russian oil1 & _c be us$ 9 ! sc5t+ ( 8,russia0 lea!r4 ,s&alwood oil ) a little black bir* or w9t]gre5 oil is sometimes employ$ = sc5t+ small fancy articles & be>s consid]able resemblance to ! true 8,russia0 lea!r od\r4 ,black bir*1 anise$1 sassafras & v>i\s o!r ess5tial oils are occasionally us$ 9 small quantities z pres]vatives1 & to cov] disagreeable od\r 9 blood-season+s1 cem5ts & o!r products us$ 9 ! lea!r trade4 ,! me?ods employ$ = _! detection & e/imation d n1 h[ev]1 come )9 ! scope ( a "w su* z ! pres5t "o4 ,mo/ ess5tial oils h consid]able p[] z antiseptics1 & 9 prev5t+ mildew & ! attacks ( insects4 ,,m9]al ,,oils ,,& ,,waxes4 ,?is class ( bodies is totally diff]5t 9 *emical con/itution f ! true oils & waxes1 conta9+ nei!r glyc]ides1 fatty acids nor alcohols1 b consi/+ ( c>bon & hydrog5 only1 approximately 9 ! proportion ( "o atom ( ! =m] to two ( ! latt]4 ,!y occur 9 und]gr\nd lakes1 f :i* !y are obta9$ by spr+s or bor+s2 or 9 %ales1 f :i* !y are sep>at$ by di/illation4 ,x is commonly suppos$ t !y h be5 =m$1 at "s remote p]iod ( ! e>?'s hi/ory1 by ! decomposition ( animal & vegetable matt]s1 at a high temp]ature & "u great pressure4#afg #afg ,oils f wells or spr+s are te*nically call$ 8petroleum oils10 ^? f %ale1 8p>aff90 oils1 b *emically1 !re is no def9ite di/9ction4 ,! m9]al oils & waxes are l>gely capable ( be+ di/ill$ )\t decomposition1 b if heat$ to high temp]atures1 are readily 8crack$0 or brok5 up into simpl] & g5]ally m volatile comp\nds--a fact :i* is employ$ 9 ! production ( gas1 & ! utilisation ( "s ( ! heavi] products4 ,!y diff] greatly 9 _! gravity & boil+-po9t1 b n mu* 9 _! ultimate composition1 consi/+ l>gely ( saturat$ or ne>ly saturat$ hydroc>bons 7cp4 p4 #ced71 & h5ce are little liable to oxidation1 & act$ on by few *emical reag5ts4 ,f _! con/itution !y are ( c\rse unsaponifiable1 & 9 ?is way c be sep>at$ f fats & oils ) :i* !y h be5 mix$4 7,= p>ticul>s ( ! me?od see ,l4,i4,l4,b41 p4 #agh47 ,! heavi] m9]al oils are a good deal us$ 9 mixture ) o!r oils & fats1 = /uff+ lea!rs1 ^? ( a specific gravity ( #jhhj-jijj be+ usually mo/ suitable4 ,!y are q incapable ( 8spue+10 & are useful 9 less5+ t t5d5cy 9 o!r oils ) :i* !y are mix$4 ,!y h n1 h[ev]1 ! same aff9ity = ! lea!r fibre z "s ( ! true oils1 & are to a c]ta9 slight ext5t volatile1 & %\ld g5]ally be us$ 9 mixture1 r ?an alone4 ,mo/ m9]al oils1 :5 held s t a /rong light 7daylight or electric light ri* 9 ultra-violet rays7 falls ^u !m1 %[ a gre5 or violet fluoresc5ce or 8bloom40 ,?is is v p]si/5t1 ev5 :5 ! oil is mix$ ) a l>ge volume ( o!r oils1 & is (t5 reli$ ^u z a means ( detect+ !m :5 us$ z adult]ants4 ,! te/ is1 h[ev]1 n infallible1 s9ce ! effect is due to impurities :i* may be remov$ by purification1 or mask$ by ! addition ( su* sub/ances z nitrob5z5e or nitronaph?al5e1 & x also occurs 9 ! hydroc>bon products produc$ 9 ! di/illation by /eam ( animal oils1 & is occasionally se5 to "s ext5t ev5 9 oils :i* h n und]gone di/illation4 ,vasel9e & ,vasel9e ,oil are ! mo/ visc\s & d5se/ ( ! petroleum oil products4 ,!y probably diff] f ! solid p>aff9s 9 *emical con/itution1 ?\gh _! ultimate composition is almo/ ! same4 ,!y are (t5 useful con/itu5ts ( /uff+ greases4 ,p>aff9 ,wax consi/s ( a mixture ( hydroc>bons simil> 9 *emical con/itution to ! p>aff9 & petroleum oils1 b ( high] boil+ po9t1 & solid at ord9>y temp]atures4 ,its hydroc>bons are mo/ly saturat$1 & h5ce v /able bodies1 & little liable to oxidation4 ,!y are completely unsaponifiable1 & unaffect$ by boil+ ) alcoholic pota%1 & 9 mo/ cases by boil+ ) /rong sulphuric acid1 by :i* !y may be sep>at$ f animal & vegetable waxes or fats ) :i* !y h be5 mix$4 ,!y are q incapable ( res9is+ by oxidation1 or ( caus+ 8spue+0 9 lea!r4 ,!y are soluble 9 petroleum _s1 c>bon disulphide & mo/ ( ! ord9>y solv5ts ( fats1 b insoluble 9 alcohol4 ,p>aff9 wax sep>ates f ! liquid oils by cry/allisation on cool+1 & ! rema9+ liquid :i* adh]es is remov$ by hydraulic press+1 z 9 ! case ( tall[4 ,! h>dness & melt+ po9t v>y accord+ to ! ext5t to :i* ! press+ has be5 c>ri$1 & ! temp]ature at :i* x has be5 done4 ,! p>aff9s ( high] melt+ po9t are z a rule ! m co/ly4 ,pure p>aff9 wax is a :ite1 m or less h>d & brittle sub/ance :i* does n melt s easily z ord9>y fats1 & is on ?is acc\nt us$ 9 /uff+ c]ta9 k9ds ( lea!r1 h>d5+ ! /uff+ grease1 & mak+ ! lea!r feel less oily4 ,:5 melt$1 p>aff9 wax =ms a ?9 liquid1 m resembl+ an ord9>y petroleum lamp oil ?an ! visc\s vasel9es & lea!r oils4 ,on ignition x burns ) a bright some:at smoky flame1 & leaves no a% beh9d4 ,x is f\nd on analysis :5 mix$ ) o!r waxes or oils 9 ! 8unsaponifiable matt]0 7see ,l4,i4,l4,b41 p4 #agh74 ,ozok]it is a natural p>aff9 mat]ial us$ = ! manufacture ( c]as9 c&les1 :i* sometimes occurs 9 ! vic9ity ( petroleum spr+s1 especially 9 ,galicia4 ,x is ( pale yell[ col\r :5 pure1 & has !n a melt+ po9t ( ab\t #gj ,c4 ,its *ief impurities are petroleum oils1 wat] & clay4 ,^! are remov$ by melt+ ! ozok]it1 decant+ (f ! cle> oil1 & filt]+ x ?r\gh f9e animal *>coal4 ,if liquid oils are pres5t ! mat]ial is treat$ ) alkali or ) /rong sulphuric acid1 & is press$ be=e filt]+ ?r\gh *>coal4 ,! ref9$ product is t]m$ 8c]as910 & is ( a m waxy & less cry/all9e texture ?an ord9>y p>aff9 wax4 ,! ,res9 ,oils are d]iv$ f res9s1 & ma9ly f colophony or common p9e ros91 by de/ructive di/illation4 ,_! specific gravity ranges f #jif to #jii1 b _! *emical composition is v imp]fectly und]/ood1 & appe>s to be by no means con/ant4 ,l ! m9]al oils !y are 8unsaponifiable10 b (t5 conta9 small am\nts ( soap-=m+ mat]ial 7res9 acids74 ,! detection & e/imation ( res9 oils is (t5 a matt] ( consid]able difficulty1 b fur!r p>ticul>s on ?is po9t w be f\nd 9 ,l4,i4,l4,b41 p4 #ahj4 ,f _! *eapness1 !y are consid]ably employ$ z adult]ants ( o!r oils1 & _! high gravity makes !m conv5i5t to adju/ ! gravity ( m9]al oils :5 us$ = ?is purpose1 z ! latt] are usually light] ?an ! fatty oils4 ,z curry+ oils1 !y are n p>ticul>ly suitable1 ?\gh (t5 employ$ 9 /uff+ pick] b&s1 & o!r heavily greas$ lea!rs4 ,!y h consid]able antiseptic p[]s1 & = ?is reason are useful 9 lea!r greases1 prev5t+ heat+1 & *eck+ mildews4 ,res9 itself is occasionally us$ z an addition to /uff+ greases1 & is said to increase ! wat]pro(ness ( ! lea!r1 & to give x a dri] feel4 ,9 mixture ) ab\t half its weight ( p>aff9 wax1 & ) a little grease if necess>y to s(t5 ! mixture1 x is (t5 us$ 9 wat]pro(+ mixtures1 :i* c be made to melt at #ej to #fj ,c4 ,lea!r w be> imm]sion 9 ! melt$ mixture )\t scald+ if ?or\ghly dri$ 9 a hot /ove at a temp]ature ( n less ?an #ej ,c4 be=e dipp+4 ,any great increase ( ! proportion ( p>aff9 wax causes ! ros9 to sep>ate4 ,ros9 consi/s ma9ly ( free acids :i* easily comb9e ) alkalies & alkal9e c>bonates 9 boil+4 ,x is h5ce l>gely us$ 9 ! manufacture ( soaps on acc\nt ( its *eapness1 & to r5d] !m m soluble 9 wat]4 ,! ros9 acids are n s /rong z _m ( ! fatty acids1 & ros9 soaps are !re=e some:at /rongly alkal9e4 ,ros9 soap1 precipitat$ among ! gr\nd pap] pulp 9 ! rag eng9e1 by addition ( alum or sulphate ( alum9a1 is l>gely us$ z a siz+ = common pap]s4 ,,*apt] ,,xxiv4 ,,oil ,,tannages1 ,,& ,,! ,,use ,,( ,,oils ,,& ,,fats ,,9 ,,curry+4 ,! conv]sion ( sk9 into lea!r by ! ag5cy ( oils & fats is probably "o ( ! mo/ primitive me?ods1 & is us$ 9 diff]5t ways suit$ to ! sk9s & fats :i* are available1 by savage races 9 all qu>t]s ( ! globe4 ,9 its simple/ =m1 x consi/s m]ely 9 oil+ or greas+ ! wet sk91 & knead+ & /ret*+ x z x sl[ly loses moi/ure & absorbs ! fat4 ,"u ^! conditions1 ! fibres become coat$ ) a greasy lay]1 :i* prev5ts _! adh]5ce aft] !y are once sep>at$ by ! me*anical treatm5t4 ,at ! same "t "s *emical *ange takes place 9 ! fibre itself1 :i* has a "p 9 its conv]sion into lea!r v>y+ 9 importance accord+ to ! me?od & fat employ$1 & ( :i* ! *emi/ry w be be/ discuss$ aft] "s slight sket* has be5 giv5 ( ! me?ods !mselves4 ,! mo/ complete sort ( oil-lea!r is t produc$ by 8*amois+10 or oil-dress+ ) m>9e oils1 a process appli$ to ! ord9>y 8*amois0 or 8wa%-lea!rs0 7n[ made f ! fle%-split or 8l9+0 ( ! %eep-sk971 & to ! manufacture ( 8buff-lea!r0 = milit>y purposes4 ,! process v>ies some:at accord+ to ! "* ( ! lea!r1 b ! manufacture ( ! common wa%-lea!r may be tak5 z a type4 ,= ?is purpose ! %eep-splits are fre$ f ! loose & fatty middle lay] 7p4 #ea7 by 8friz+0 ) a %>p knife on a beam simil> to t us$ = fle%+ 7,fig4 #cj1 p4 #adg71 b mu* m /eeply incl9$4 ,! process is r "o ( scrap+ ?an cutt+1 & 0 orig9ally adopt$ to remove ! gra9 f ! de]-sk9s :i* 7 l>gely us$ = glove-lea!rs1 s9ce oil-dress+ does n easily p5etrate a sk9 ) ! gra9 surface intact4 ,! fle%es are usually delim$ by dr5*+1 b removal ( fat is unimportant4 ,aft] be+ well dra9$1 !y are 8/ock$0 = "s "t ) sawdu/ till !y become p>tially dry & por\s1 ! common 8fall]0 /ocks %[n 9 ,fig4 #bb1 p4 #aaf1 be+ g5]ally employ$4 ,dur+ ! /ock+1 c>e mu/ be tak5 t ! goods are n ov]heat$ by ! friction produc$4 ,:5 ! sk9s h become opaque f ! inclusion ( air betwe5 ! fibres1 !y are1 accord+ to ! ,cont95tal me?od1 %ak5 out & oil$ on ! table1 & aft] fold+ into bundles1 are put back 9 ! /ocks4 ,9 ,engl&1 ! oil is usually add$ to !m dur+ ! /ock+1 9 small quantities1 :i* become rapidly & ev5ly di/ribut$ by ! motion ( ! sk9s4 ,9 ,engl&1 cod oil is almo/ exclusively employ$1 b on ! ,cont95t1 a consid]able proportion ( seal & :ale oils is us$4 ,z ! goods are apt to heat1 n only f friction1 b f ! oxidation ( ! oils employ$1 !y are remov$ f ! /ocks at int]vals1 & all[$ to cool1 usually hung on hooks expos$ to ! air4 ,9 ,france ?is exposure to ! air is mu* m consid]able ?an 9 ,engl&1 ! sk9s be+ hung = eight or twelve h\rs aft] ea* /ock+4 ,! dry+ rooms are kept mod]ately w>m1 & a good deal ( oxidation ( ! oil takes place 9 !m1 :i* mat]ially affects ! "* ( ! product1 & especially ( ! residual oil or dgras1 :i* is aft]w>ds squeez$ out ( ! sk9s & us$ = curry+ 7p4 #cfh74 ,great c>e is requir$ to prev5t any p>ts ( ! sk9s becom+ dry be=e !y are completely saturat$ by ! oil1 :i* causes h>d & transp>5t pat*es :i* ! oil w n aft]w>ds p5etrate4 ,aft] ea* exposure to ! air1 ! sk9s are oil$ on ! table & return$ to ! /ocks4 ,! /ock+ has to be cont9u$ = _m h\rs1 ev5 = wa%-lea!r2 & z x proce$s1 ! sk9s lose ! smell ( lim$ sk91 & acquire a peculi> mu/>d-l od\r f ! volatile products ( oxidation ( ! oils4 ,:5 ! sk9s are completely saturat$1 !y are1 accord+ to ! ,engli% me?od1 pack$ 9 boxes1 & all[$ to heat spontane\sly by oxidation ( ! oils1 dur+ :i* great c>e is requir$1 especially at ! outset1 t ! heat does n rise s high z to de/roy ! sk9s4 ,to prev5t ?is1 !y are remov$ at int]vals f ! boxes & spread on ! floor to cool1 & !n re-pack$1 & ?is treatm5t is cont9u$ until ! oxidation is complete1 & ! sk9s cease to heat4 ,dur+ ! heat+1 l>ge quantities ( volatile & v pung5t products are giv5 (f1 & especially acrole9 7acrylic aldehyde1 f ! dehydration ( ! glyc]9e71 :i* is excessively irritat+ to ! eyes4 ,! ,g]man me?od is n unlike ! ,engli%1 b 9 ,france1 ! pack+ 9 boxes is omitt$1 & ! oxidation is completely effect$ 9 w>m /oves 9 :i* ! goods are hung on hooks4 ,! heat+ 9 ?is case is mu* m mod]ate1 & ! oil less ?ick5$1 a result :i* may be p>tly due to ! diff]5t oils employ$1 & :i* leads to diff]5ces 9 ! subsequ5t treatm5t ( ! lea!r4 ,9 ! ,fr5* process1 ! oily sk9s are dipp$ 9 hot wat] & wrung or hydraulic press$1 ! express$ oil con/itut+ moellon or dgras 7p4 #cfh71 & ! sk9s are aft]w>ds wa%$ 9 a hot soda or pota% solution1 f :i* a fur!r portion ( an inf]ior dgras is recov]$4 ,9 ! old-fa%ion$ ,engli% me?od1 ! oil became s ?ick5$ t x c\ld n be press$ out1 & ! :ole 0 remov$ by wa%+ ) soda or pota% solution1 f :i* x 0 recov]$ by ! use ( acid1 con/itut+ 8sod oil0 7p4 #cfi47 ,n[ _m ,engli% manufactur]s adopt a modifi$ me?od1 & remove a good deal ( _! oil by pressure4 ,buff lea!r1 mu* us$ = milit>y acc\trem5ts1 is made 9 a simil> mann] to *amois1 f ox or c[ hides1 ! gra9 ( :i* is friz$ (f4 ,! blea*+1 bo? ( buff & *amois1 is done by expos+ to ! sun 9 a damp condition1 ! sk9s be+ wat]$ z requir$ ) wat] or fat-liquor1 or ! alkal9e emulsion ( dgras obta9$ 9 wa%+ ! sk9s4 ,x may also be blea*$ by oxidis+ ag5ts1 su* z p]manganate ( pota% or acidifi$ sodium p]oxide4 ,if p]manganate is us$1 ! lea!r is treat$ 9 a solution ( p]haps #e grm4 p] lit] till ( a deep br[n col\r1 & !n 9 a solution ( sulphur\s or oxalic acid till ! col\r is remov$4 ,messrs4 ,j4 & ,e4 ,pullman1 ( ,godalm+1 make a species ( buff lea!r1 :i* !y /yle 8,kasp9e0 lea!r1 by treat+ lim$ & dr5*$ hides or sk9s 9 a drum ) a v dilute solution ( =maldehyde 78=mal907 r5d]$ alkal9e ) sodium c>bonate 7,eng4 ,pat4 #bhgb1 #ahih74 ,! *ange to lea!r takes place v rapidly1 & ! lea!r is aft]w>ds treat$ ) soap solutions ( fat-liquors1 to fe$ & s(t5 x4 ,x is almo/ indi/+ui%able f g5u9e buff lea!r1 except f ! fact t x is :ite ?r\gh\t1 & ne$s no blea*+4 ,x is f9d+ consid]able application = milit>y purposes4 ,a type ( lea!rs :i* be> a close *emical relation to oil-lea!rs1 is t includ+ 8,cr[n10 8,helvetia10 & fat-tann$ lea!rs4 ,! fir/ lea!r ( ! sort 0 inv5t$ by a ,g]man cab9et-mak] nam$ ,klemm1 by :om ! secret 0 sold to ,prell]1 :o manufactur$ x 9 ,s\?w>k1 "u ! "n ( 8,cr[n0 lea!r4 ,klemm us$ fl\r1 ox-bra9s1 butt]1 milk1 & s(t fat1 :i* 0 made into a pa/e ) wat]1 & spread on ! lim$1 dr5*$ & p>tially dri$ sk9s1 :i* 7 roll$ into bundles1 & drumm$ 9 slightly w>m$ drums = "s h\rs2 tak5 out1 aga9 dri$ slightly1 & coat$ ) ! mixture1 & aga9 drumm$4 ,= ?ick hides ! process 0 repeat$ a ?ird "t1 drumm+ 9 ea* op]ation = ab\t eight h\rs4 ,! lea!r 0 us$ = laces1 pick]-b&s1 light belts1 & o!r purposes :]e great t\ghness & flexibility 7 requir$4 ,x 0 f\nd by fur!r exp]i5ce 7if inde$1 x 0 n kn[n to ,klemm himself7 t ! only really ess5tial +r$i5ts ( ! mixture 7 ! s(t fats & fl\r2 & ev5 ! latt] c\ld1 = "s sorts ( lea!r1 be disp5s$ )4 ,x 0 fur!r asc]ta9$ t only ! glut5 or album9\s "p ( ! fl\r 0 absorb$ by ! lea!r1 ! />* s]v+ ma9ly to facilitate ! emulsification ( ! fats4 ,! proportions us$ 9 ! pa/e are ab\t sev5 p>ts ( fl\r1 sev5 p>ts ( s(t fat su* z horse grease1 two p>ts ( tall[1 f\r p>ts ( wat]1 & a little salt or nitre to act z an antiseptic4 ,o!r greases1 su* z mixtures ( tall[ & oil1 c be sub/itut$ = ! horse grease1 & pipe-clay or o*re may to "s ext5t take ! place ( ! fl\r1 :ile soap may also be add$4 ,! simil>ity ( ! mixtures us$ to ! taw+ pa/e 9 calf- & glove-kid dress+ 7pp4 #aia1 #aif7 is obvi\s1 & ,klemm _h an e>li] process 9 :i* ! op]ation j describ$ 0 prec$$ by a slight alum tannage1 & :i* 0 almo/ id5tical 9 its detail ) ! me?ods n[ 9 use = ! production ( s-call$ 8raw-hide40 ,on ! o!r h& x is ne>ly alli$ to ! production ( 8,riems10 or raw-hide /raps 9 ,s\? ,africa1 = :i* a long ?ong is cut spirally f a hide1 & w\nd into a sort ( ske9 :i* is susp5d$ f a crossb>1 ) a heavy weight at its l[] end1 & oil$ & twi/$1 ) frequ5t *anges ( position1 until ! wat] is dri$ out1 & ! ?ong is saturat$ ) fat1 =m+ a v t\gh & durable lea!r4 ,a simil> mat]ial c be made by full+ or o!rwise work+ grease into a raw hide prep>$ = tann+4 ,eitn] exam9$ samples ( 8,cr[n-lea!r0 *emically1 by remov+ ! glut5 ( ! fl\r ) an alkal9e solution1 & f\nd t an imp]fectly *amois$ lea!r rema9$1 :i* :5 re/uff$ ) fat1 0 mu* less full1 & c>ri$ a mu* small] quantity ( grease ?an be=e4#afh #afh ,g]b]1 #ahgh1 p4 #b4 ,v>i\s !ories h be5 propos$ to expla9 ! reaction :i* takes place 9 ! production ( oil-lea!rs4 ,knapp suppos$ t x 0 m]ely a case 9 :i* ! smalle/ fibrils ( ! hide 7 coat$ ) ! products ( ! oxidation ( oils1 & s prev5t$ f adh]+ toge!r1 & protect$ f ! action ( wat] by ! sort ( wat]pro( coat+ :i* 0 =m$4 ,?is explanation is sc>cely feasible 9 ! face ( ! fact t *amois lea!r c be treat$ ev5 ) hot dilute solutions ( ! cau/ic alkalies )\t de/ruction1 :ile cotton fibres wat]pro($ by treatm5t ) dry+ oils h _! coat+ entirely remov$ by treatm5t ) alkalies4 ,lietzmann suppos$ t ! :ole ( ! gelat9\s fibres 7 remov$ 9 ! lim+ & subsequ5t treatm5t1 & t ! f9i%$ lea!r consi/$ only ( ! skeleton ( yell[ or ela/ic fibre :i* exi/s 9 ! sk91 & :i* is rem>kable = its resi/ance to heat1 acids & alkalis4 ,un=tunately ! proportion ( ^! fibres does n exce$ ab\t #f p] c5t4 ( ! total1 s t !y are q insuffici5t to acc\nt = ! production ( ! lea!r4 ,we n[ "k1 h[ev]1 t aldehydes1 includ+ ! acryl-aldehyde1 :i* is evolv$ 9 ! oil oxidation ( *amois+ 7& :i* is cov]$ by ,messrs4 ,pullman's pat5t7 are capable 9 !mselves ( conv]t+ gelat9\s sub/ances into a mat]ial id5tical 9 its prop]ties1 & especially 9 its p[] ( resi/+ hot wat] & alkal9e solutions1 ) ! fibre ( *amois lea!r4 ,9 all cases :]e p]fect *amois+ is produc$1 int5se oxidation takes place1 & oxidisable oils are us$ :i* w evolve acrylic & o!r aldehydes4 ,:]e oils ( little dry+ p[] are employ$1 z 9 ! case ( ,cr[n- & o!r fat-lea!rs1 only an imp]fect *amois+ occurs1 & we are !re=e ju/ifi$ 9 attribut+ ! special qualities ( *amois lea!r to a natural aldehyde tannage4 ,on ! o!r h&1 !re is no d\bt t ! coat+ ( ! fibres ) oxidis$ oil-products really occurs1 & is probably a p[]ful factor 9 ! lea!r+ ( ,cr[n-lea!r1 & o!r simil> products :i* are n wa%$ out ) alkal9e solutions4 ,knapp prov$ by treat+ raw pelt :i* _h be5 dehydrat$ ) alcohol 7p4 #gd7 ) a v dilute alcoholic solution ( /e>ic acid1 t a ?9 coat+ ( /e>ic acid on ! fibres w\ld conf] great s(tness & consid]able resi/ance to wat]4 ,ev5 :]e no /e>ic or o!r fatty acid is purposely add$ to alcohol us$ = dehydrat+ pelt1 traces are pres5t f ! decomposition ( ! natural fat ( ! sk91 & !re is little d\bt t ?is is ! cause :y su* alcohol-lea!rs are mu* m difficult to wet back aga9 to ! /ate ( pelt ?an w\ld a priori be expect$2 & :y hide-p[d] dehydrat$ 9 ?is way is unsuitable = use 9 ! hide-p[d] filt] 7p4 #caa7 f its non-absorption ( wat]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #he4--,sc\r+ l>ge ,seal-,sk9s by ,h&4 ,x is n )9 ! scope ( ! pres5t volume to describe 9 detail ! processes us$ 9 curry+1 _m ( :i* are purely me*anical1 & ( no !oretical int]e/1 :atev] _! practical importance2 & ) :i* ! writ] hopes to deal fully 9 a future book4 ,! lea!r is usually sc\r$ ) /one1 bru% & sleek] to free x f 8bloom0 & loose tan 7,fig4 #he72 or by ma*9es su* z ,fig4 #hf2 & is (t5 r$uc$ 9 ?ickness by %av+ by h& 7,fig4 #hg71 or by ma*9e 7,fig4 #hh74 ,9 place ( %av+1 hides & sk9s are frequ5tly split into two or m ?icknesses4 ,?is is done by v>i\s ma*9es1 ( :i* ! 8b&knife0 %[n 9 ,fig4 #hi is ! mo/ important2 ! cutt+ tool be+ a ?9 /eel belt /ret*$ l a b&saw & %>p5$ on "o edge by an em]y-:eel4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hf4--,sc\r+ ,ma*9e4 ,illu/ration3 ,,curry+ ,,%op1 ,,lea!r ,,indu/ries ,,dep>tm5t1 ,,york%ire ,,college4 ,some?+ mu/ be said "h ab\t ! function ( ! oils & fats us$ 9 curry+1 & _! g5]al me?od ( application4 ,x is obvi\s t ! possibility ( coat+ ! f9e/ fibrils ( lea!r ) a fatty lay] is n re/rict$ to raw hide1 b is pres5t1 sometimes ev5 9 a high] degree1 9 tann$ or taw$ lea!rs1 9 :i* ! fibres are already s f> isolat$ z to make ! access ( ! fat easy4 ,ev5 ! possibility ( an aldehyde-tannage is n exclud$1 :]e ! fibre is n already completely saturat$ ) o!r tann+ ag5ts or :]e ^! ag5ts1 f _! nature1 h n s firm a hold on ! fibre z to be incapable ( be+ displac$ by ! action ( aldehydes4 ,x is !re=e obvi\s t we may apply "s ( ! ideas :i* we h =m$ ) reg>d to oil-tannages to ! action ( fats ^u tann$ lea!r4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 x mu/ be rememb]$ t gelat9\s matt]s are z a rule insoluble 9 fats2 & vice v]sa1 t fats are incapable ( p5etrat+ dry & solid gelat9\s fibres4 ,if ! sk9 becomes dry 9 ! *amois+ process1 t "p rema9s raw4 ,x may !re=e be conclud$ t fats & oils h little p[] 9 !mselves ( isolat+ ! fibrils1 & t ?is mu/ be accompli%$ by o!r ag5cies1 s9ce if !y are /ill adh]+ toge!r1 ! fats _c p5etrate !m4 ,h5ce ! necessity ( moi/ure1 :i* keeps ! fibres s(t & divisible2 & ) raw hide1 ! importance ( p[]ful me*anical treatm5t1 :i* w "w ! m9ute globules ( fat betwe5 ! fibrils4 ,9 ! case ( tann$ lea!rs1 ! la/ condition is less important1 s9ce ! fibres are already isolat$ by ! tannage1 & capill>ity assi/s ! p5etration4 ,ev5 9 ?is case ! di/ribution ( ! fat is mu* assi/$ if x is already 9 a /ate ( f9e division 7emulsification71 & if ! surface-t5sion 7p4 #gf7 betwe5 x & wat] is l[1 z is ! case ) dgras & o!r p>tially oxidis$ oils4 ,on ?is r ?an on any special *emical aff9ity probably dep5ds ! importance ( ! 8dgras-=m]0 & o!r products ( oxidation :i* are pres5t 9 dgras2 & ! diff]5ce 9 p5etrat+ p[] ( diff]5t oils4 ,s long z oil rema9s 9 an undivid$ condition1 s long c x be squeez$ out1 & ! lea!r w feel & appe> greasy2 :ile1 :5 x is ?or\ghly emulsifi$1 & adh]5t to ! fibre1 x c no long] be expell$ by me*anical means4 ,no d\bt ! diff]5t p[] ( diff]5t tannages to 8c>ry grease0 )\t appe>+ greasy1 is also relat$ to ! degree ( isolation ( ! fibrils1 & _! surface t5sion ) reg>d to fats4 ,we may judge t ! m readily an oil c be emulsifi$1 ! m freely & completely x is likely to fix itself on ! lea!r fibre4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hg4--;,h& ,%av+4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hh4--,%av+ ,ma*9e4 ,x is a practically inv>iable rule t ! lea!r-fibre mu/ be wet :5 x is /uff$4 ,! surface-t5sion betwe5 ! wat] & ! fats is less ?an t ( ei!r ) reg>d to air2 & !re=e1 z ! wat] dries out ( ! small int]/ices ( ! lea!r1 ! fat foll[s x 91 & gradually takes its place4 ,g5]ally speak+1 ! am\nt ( wat] %\ld be su* t "s exsudes 9 m9ute drops :5 ! lea!r is p9*$1 t is1 t n only ! m9ute/ spaces betwe5 ! fibrils are fill$1 b ev5 ! l>g] ones betwe5 ! fibre-bundles to a consid]able ext5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hi4--;,b&-,knife ,splitt+ ,ma*9e4 ,9 8h&-/uff+10 ! lea!r is n[ coat$ on ! fle% side1 or occasionally on bo? sides ) 8dubb+10 :i* is a pa/y mixture ( fats usually ma9ly compos$ ( cod-oil & tall[1 :i* is appli$ r ?ickly ) a bru% & smoo!d d[n ) ! fle%y "p ( ! =e>m4 ,:5 su* con/itu5ts are melt$ toge!r1 ! h>d] fats dissolve 9 ! oils1 & z ! mixture cools1 mu* ( ! h>d fats aga9 cry/allise out4 ,to make a good dubb+1 ! cool+ fats mu/ be /irr$ cont9u\sly till ?is has tak5 place1 z o!rwise ! mixture sep>ates into little globul> masses ( cry/als ) liquid oil betwe5 !m1 in/ead ( =m+ a uni=m body ( salve-l consi/5cy4 ,! proportions ( ! h>d & s(t con/itu5ts ( ! dubb+ %\ld be adju/$ to ! season1 & to ! temp]ature at :i* ! dry+ ( ! /uff$ lea!r is to take place1 s t on ! "o h&1 ! dubb+ w n melt & run (f1 & on ! o!r1 t x %\ld n solidify m ?an is necess>y1 z only ! liquid solution :i* rema9s entangl$ among ! cry/als c be absorb$ by ! lea!r4 ,! solid cry/all9e fats rema9 on ! surface1 & are scrap$ (f by ! sleek] 9 f9i%+1 z 8table-grease10 :i* is g5]ally re-melt$ & us$ ov] aga94 ,x does n answ]1 9 h&-/uff+1 to c>ry ?is re-use too f>1 z ! table-grease conta9s only ! h>d] p>ts ( ! fat1 ) a cont9ually increas+ proportion ( /e>ic acid1 s t if a dubb+ be made cont9u\sly ( table-grease & oil1 9 ! end little b ! latt] w be absorb$ by ! lea!r2 :ile :]e fre% tall[ is us$1 a portion ( its s(t] con/itu5ts rema9s dissolv$ 9 ! oil4 ,! pr9cipal function ( ! h>d] fats is ! me*anical "o ( reta9+ ! oil on ! surface ( ! lea!r2 & to a c]ta9 ext5t !y may be replac$ by o!r solids1 su* z /eatite 78,fr5* *alk071 or p]haps o!r pulpy mat]ials4 ,! use ( a portion ( s(t fat1 su* z bone-fat1 or ! bett] sorts ( glue-grease1 is q practicable1 especially if mix$ ) ! h>d] table-grease4 ,! dry+ ( h&-/uff$ lea!r %\ld be sl[1 to all[ "t = ! absorption ( ! grease2 & ! temp]ature %\ld be s regulat$ z to keep ! dubb+ 9 a s(t b n liquid condition4 ,9 w9t]1 if ! temp]ature ( ! out] air be rais$ suffici5tly = ?is1 ! dry+ w be too ke5 7cp4 p4 #dbf7 & ! wat] w be dri$ out be=e ! grease is prop]ly absorb$4 ,x is !re=e be/1 9 cold wea!r1 to ma9ta9 ! v5tilation ma9ly by circulat+ ! air 9 ! room1 ) little admission f ! outside1 & 9 extreme cases ev5 artificial damp+ ( ! air may be advantage\s4 ,sometimes ! t5d5cy to mildew dur+ sl[ & w>m dry+ is v tr\blesome4 ,?is may be prev5t$ by ! addition ( antiseptics to ! /uff+ grease4 ,c>bolic acid & creasote are effective1 b g5]ally objectionable f _! smell2 ros9 oil has consid]able antiseptic p[]1 & m9]al oils also 9 a less degree4 ,probably -naph?ol w\ld prove an effici5t rem$y1 z x has little od\r1 & its antiseptic prop]ties are v /rong1 b x has n be5 tri$ by ! writ]4 7,cp4 ,*apt] ,v47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ij4--;,haley's ,injector ,/uff+ ,drum4 ,9 drum-/uff+ ! conditions diff] mat]ially f ^? ( h&-/uff+4 ,! goods1 9 a damp condition1 are plac$ 9 a drum 7,fig4 #ij71 :i* has be5 heat$ by /eam to z high a temp]ature z ! lea!r w safely /&4 ,cold damp lea!r may be /uff$ 9 a drum heat$ to #fj ,c4 & ! grease may be run 9 at ! same temp]ature4 ,! grease %\ld g5]ally be melt$ & mix$ at a some:at high] temp]ature4 ,sometimes /eam is m]ely bl[n into ! drum be=e introduc+ ! lea!r1 to heat x to ! requir$ temp]ature2 sometimes a /eam-coil is plac$ 9 ! drum itself4 ,a m mod]n me?od1 :i* is n[ l>gely us$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 is to heat by hot air1 :i* is circulat$ by a fan ov] an ext]nal /eam heat] & ?r\gh ! drum4 ,! drum is set 9 rotation1 & ! /uff+ grease 9 a melt$ condition is run 9 ?r\gh ! holl[ axle1 or if ?is is n provid$1 x is introduc$ ?r\gh ! door1 & ! rotation is ma9ta9$ = tw5ty to ?irty m9utes4 ,dur+ ! la/ few m9utes ! door is frequ5tly replac$ by an op5 grat+ or cold air is drawn ?r\gh ! drum by means ( ! fan1 9 ord] to cool ! goods1 :i* are set out ) ! sleek] on ! table :ile yet some:at w>m1 & dri$ "u mu* ! same conditions z h be5 describ$ ) reg>d to h&-/uff$ goods4 ,9 drum-/uff+1 ! h>dness ( ! grease is limit$ by its melt+-po9t1 :i* mu/ n be s high z to damage ! lea!r1 b x may be s(t z is desir$4 ,z ! grease is =c$ by me*anical means into ! int]ior ( ! lea!r1 !re is no dang] ( its runn+ (f1 b ! dry+ mu/ take place at su* a temp]ature z to keep x at lea/ 9 a p>tially s(t condition1 z ! drumm+ only =ces x into ! co>s] spaces ( ! lea!r1 & does n complete its di/ribution on ! fibre4 ,by ! use ( exce$+ly h>d greases1 su* z 8/e>90 7p4 #cei7 & oleo-/e>9 7p4 #cef71 sometimes ) additions ( p>aff9 wax1 x is possible to introduce imm5se quantities ( grease1 & yet to obta9 a lea!r :i* w bo>d up to a good col\r4 ,9 ,am]ica1 x is n unusual to reckon #ajj or ev5 #aae lb4 ( greases to #ajj lb4 ( lea!r weigh$ dry aft] sc\r+1 or e/imat$ f its wet weight2 & ! :ole ( ?is is absorb$1 sc>cely any?+ com+ (f 9 8sett+40 ,! lea!r1 z x comes f ! drum1 is d>k br[n1 b :5 b5t %>ply 9 8bo>d+0 to =m ! gra91 aft] cool+ & dry+1 ! v h>d & cry/all9e fats crumble into :ite p[d]1 & ! lea!r takes a light & pretty col\r4 ,su* lea!r w\ld ( c\rse d>k5 at once if x 7 held to ! fire1 b w\ld aga9 bright5 on cool+ & break+ up ) ! 8bo>d40 ,"s portion ( liquid fats1 su* z dgras or fi% oil1 %\ld be conta9$ 9 ! /uff+ grease1 z ! solid fats alone w n p5etrate to ! he>t ( ! fibres1 b w leave ! lea!r dry & h>%4 ,by drum-/uff+1 x is possible to incorporate solid matt] ) ! lea!r1 & b>ytes 7gr\nd heavy-sp> or b>ium sulphate7 0 =m]ly mu* us$ = ?is purpose1 b has n[ be5 ne>ly ab&on$4 ,glucose is /ill us$ z an adult]ant ( lea!r1 b is n introduc$ 9 ! drum1 b by pa9t+ ! goods ) syrup be=e /uff+4 ,x n only adds weight1 & gives ! lea!r a light] col\r ?an an equival5t quantity ( grease1 b at ! same "t less5s its t\ghness1 & ought to be prohibit$ 9 ,engl&1 z x already is 9 ,g]many4 ,on ! detection ( adult]ation ( lea!r1 see ,l4,i4,l4,b41 p4 #bab4 ,drum-/uff+ is 9 ?is c\ntry ma9ly appli$ to %oe-lea!rs1 b 9 ,am]ica1 ) ! hot-air drum1 is com+ into increas+ use = h>ness1 & ev5 belt+4 ,a me?od ( /uff+ is us$ 9 ,g]many = heavy belt+ & ! l1 :i* appe>s at fir/ glance to contradict ! axiom t lea!r mu/ be /uff$ wet4 ,x is call$ ,e9br5n5 7to burn 971 & consi/s 9 fir/ dry+ at a high temp]ature 7#ej ,c471 to ensure ! abs5ce ( all moi/ure1 & !n ei!r p\r+ hot melt$ tall[ ov] ! lea!r on a table1 & hold+ x ov] a brazi]1 to all[ ! grease to s9k 91 or dipp+ x completely 9 a ba? ( melt$ tall[4 ,! exception is only app>5t1 because1 ?\gh ! lea!r is at ?is /age completely saturat$ ) tall[1 x is only aft] wett+ & drumm+ t x atta9s ! flexibility due to true /uff+4 ,simil> me?ods are applicable to alum$ lea!rs1 & ev5 to *rome-lea!r2 & s-call$ 8wat]pro(0 or 8anhydr\s0 lea!r is made by imm]s+ ?or\ghly dri$ lea!r 9 a ba? ( #b p>ts ( res9 & #a ( p>aff91 or "s simil> mixture4 ,if ! lea!r is n fir/ ?or\ghly dri$1 x is scald$ & de/roy$ by ! hot grease4 ,! mo/ tr\blesome defect to :i* /uff$ lea!rs are liable1 is kn[n z 8spue+10 & is ( two k9ds1 ( :i* ! fir/ & less s]i\s 7p]haps m prop]ly di/+ui%$ z 8/rik+ out07 consi/s ( a :ite effloresc5ce r l incipi5t m\ld1 :i* is easily wip$ (f1 b g5]ally reappe>s4 ,?is is due to ! cry/allisation ( ! h>d] fats1 & especially ( ! free fatty acids1 on ! surface ( ! lea!r1 & is almo/ sure to occur 9 great] or less degree :5 ! h>d fats su* z tall[ or /e>9e are comb9$ ) a non-dry+ oil su* z neatsfoot1 or :5 s(t fats are pres5t 9 ! lea!r4 ,x is sometimes comb9$ ) actual mildew1 f :i* x is r difficult to di/+ui%1 ev5 "u ! microscope1 & may ev5 be caus$ by fungoid plants1 :i* n only me*anically expel ! fats by _! gr[?1 b probably promote _! rancidity & ! sep>ation ( ! cry/all9e fatty acids4 ,x is at mo/ only a defect ( appe>ance1 & does n 9 any way injure ! lea!r4 ,x is con/antly pres5t 9 calf-kid1 f ! neatsfoot oil us$ 9 f9i%+1 & is 9 ?is case r lik$ by ! buy]s1 :o = "s reason reg>d x z a pro( ( quality4 ,a v simil> appe>ance may be caus$ by ! use ( solutions ( b>ium *loride1 alum or o!r m9]al salts1 = weight+ or o!r purposes2 b is p]si/5t :5 ! lea!r is held to ! fire1 :ile ! cry/allis$ fatty acids at once melt & disappe>4 ,! fatty acids are at once remov$ by a drop ( b5z5e or petroleum _s2 b unaffect$ by wat]1 :ile ) wat]-soluble salts ! rev]se occurs4 ,! second =m ( spue+ is ( a mu* m tr\blesome "*1 & makes its fir/ appe>ance z m9ute spots or pimples ( res9\s matt]1 rais$ above ! surface ( ! lea!r1 :i* if remov$1 g5]ally reappe>1 & :i* may become s bad z to =m a /icky res9\s coat+ ov] ! :ole surface4 ,! exsud$ matt] consi/s ( ! oxidis$ products ( oxidisable oils1 b ! cause ( its appe>ance is n always easy to expla94 ,! curri] g5]ally attributes x to adult]at$ oils1 & x mu/ be admitt$ t "s oils almo/ inv>iably produce x1 b x appe>s occasionally :5 only ! pure/ & absolutely g5u9e cod-oil has be5 us$4 ,x c only be produc$ f dry+ or semi-dry+ oils1 :i* include all ! ord9>y fi% oils & mo/ ( ! vegetable se$ oils1 b c nev] arise f tall[ or /e>9e1 f m9]al oils or vasel9e1 or f g5u9e non-dry+ oils1 su* z tall[1 neatsfoot1 sp]m1 or m9]al oils1 nor1 probably1 f ros9 oil4 ,x is fav\r$ by causes :i* promote ! oxidation ( oils1 su* z moi/ heat ) limit$ access ( air1 & by ! pres5ce ( oxyg5-c>ri]s1 su* z iron-salts 9 blacks1 & possibly also by ! pres5ce ( free acids4 ,a l>ge am\nt ( free fatty acid 9 ! oils !mselves is suspici\s1 n only because ! free acids oxidise m freely ?an ! neutral fats1 b because _! pres5ce is an evid5ce ( ! t5d5cy to rancidity & *ange 9 ! oil4 ,x is also said to be caus$ by previ\s mildew+ ( ! lea!r1 & c]ta9ly (t5 occurs :]e ! gra9 has be5 r5d]$ por\s by bact]ial action 9 ! soaks1 limes1 or bates1 probably f ! great] quantity ( oil absorb$ by ^! p>ts4 ,:ile x is easy to say :i* oils may possibly spue1 !re is no kn[n *emical te/ :i* w =etell :e!r a giv5 sample is likely to d s "u ord9>y conditions4 ,eitn]#afi /ates t seal oil extract$ at a l[ temp]ature is v liable to spue1 b t :5 heat$ = a consid]able "t to a temp]ature ( #bej-bij ,c4 x d>k5s 9 col\r & loses ! t5d5cy4 ,?is is probably true ( _m o!r m>9e oils2 & may be "o cause ( ! frequ5t tr\ble ) mod]n oils1 _m ( :i*1 especially ! light] col\r$ k9ds1 are extract$ by /eam at a temp]ature bel[ boil+ po9t4 ,x is v probable t "o effect ( heat+ to a consid]able temp]ature is to dehydrate & sep>ate album9\s or gelat9\s matt]s :i* are pres5t 9 ! fre% oils1 & :i* probably increase _! t5d5cy to decomposition4 ,_m ( ^! sub/ances sep>ate z 8foots0 f oils dur+ long /or+1 & su* old oils are said to be less liable to spue ?an ^? ( rec5t manufacture4 #afi ,g]b]1 #ahhj1 p4 #bdc4 ,if oxidisable oils are us$ ^u lea!r1 !y 8dry0 ^u ! fibre1 & if a suffici5cy ( non-dry+ con/itu5ts are n pres5t at ! same "t1 ! lea!r w ultimately become h>d1 & may ev5 crack f h>d5+ ( ! fibre4 ,m9]al oils are n liable 9 ?is way to =m a h>d coat+ on ! fibre1 b z !y are slightly volatile1 ?\gh ( v high boil+ po9t1 !y may ultimately evaporate1 & leave ! lea!r insuffici5tly n\ri%$4 ,f _! l[ surface-t5sion1 !y h great p[]s ( capill>y p5etration1 z is witness$ by ! way t lamp oils 8creep0 ov] ! surface ( ! lamp1 b !y h less aff9ity = wat] ?an ! m oxidisable oils1 & probably d n comb9e s intimately ) ! lea!r-fibre4 ,!y are probably bett] us$ 9 comb9ation ) o!r greases ?an alone4 ,! admixture ( solid p>aff9 ) /uff+ greases has ! t5d5cy to make ! lea!r feel less greasy & dri] ?an x o!rwise w\ld2 & crude turp5t9e & ros9 are said to h a /ill great] effect 9 ?is direction4 ,! wat] :i* is requir$ = satisfactory /uff+ may 9 "s cases be introduc$ into ! /uff+ grease z well z into ! lea!r4 ,! effect ( dgras is l>gely due to ! wat] ) :i* x is intimately mix$1 & :5 dgras or sod-oil is depriv$ ( t :i* x naturally conta9s1 by heat+ x to too high a temp]ature1 ei!r be=e or aft] its mixture 9 a /uff+ grease1 its efficacy is greatly less5$4 ,fat-liquor+ 7pp4 #bag1 #bci7 may be consid]$ a special case ( /uff+1 9 :i* ! oil is v p]fectly emulsifi$ ) a l>ge quantity ( wat]4 ,9 ?is way1 v consid]able quantities ( oil may be introduc$ into lea!r )\t giv+ x ! lea/ greasy feel4 ,egg-yolk conta9s ab\t #cj p] c5t4 ( an oil *emically v l olive1 b ) a l>g] proportion ( palmit91 & may be consid]$ z a v p]fect natural fat-liquor1 conta9+ also "s album5 :i* s]ves z 8n\ri%m5t0 = ! lea!r4 ,if a means ( emulsify+ olive1 l>d1 or tall[ oil 7) ! addition ( a little palm oil7 ) album9\s matt] z p]fectly z 9 ! egg c\ld be discov]$1 ! problem ( an egg-yolk sub/itute w\ld 9 all probability be solv$4 ,milk & cream are also natural fat-liquors4 ,,*apt] ,,xxv4 ,,dyes ,,& ,,dye+4 ,be=e ! discov]y ( artificial organic dye/uffs1 ! only col\r+ mat]ials kn[n to indu/ry 7 ^? ( m9]al & direct organic orig92 & on ?is acc\nt ! dye+ ( lea!r 0 =m]ly subject to great difficulties & limitations4 ,! discov]y ( ! means ( artificially prep>+ an organic dye/uff 7mauve7 by ,p]k9 "s =ty-five ye>s s9ce1 op5$ up a new field = rese>*1 & s9ce t "t1 ! li/ ( comm]cial dyes has s increas$ t !re is n[ sc>cely a t9t or %ade :i* _c be accurately mat*$ & reproduc$ by ! coal-t> col\rs4 ,^! col\rs are (t5 spok5 ( z 8anil9e dyes0 ow+ to ! fact t _m ( !m1 & especially ! e>li] ones1 h be5 d]iv$ f anil9e1 "o ( ! products ( coal-t>2 b m rec5tly1 a consid]able numb] ( important col\rs h be5 prep>$ f o!r con/itu5ts ( ! t>1 & x is !re=e m correct to t]m ! :ole ( ! dyes obta9$1 ei!r directly or indirectly1 f coal-t>1 ! 8coal-t> col\rs40 ,! coal-t> col\rs are g5]ally soluble 9 wat]1 or mixtures ( wat] & alcohol1 & ! majority ( !m comb9e ) ! fibre ( ! lea!r )\t ! use ( any mordant1 s t 9 mo/ cases x is only necess>y to apply a solution ( ! dye direct to ! lea!r1 ?\gh _! suitability = ! purpose v>ies consid]ably4 ,a few :i* are only soluble 9 oils or hydroc>bons1 are n suitable = lea!r-dye+1 ?\gh !y may sometimes be utilis$ 9 conjunction ) fats 9 curry+2 & !re are also c]ta9 col\rs :i* are n appli$ to ! fibre ready =m$1 b are develop$ on x by subsequ5t *emical treatm5t1 & :i* h only be5 appli$ to a limit$ ext5t to lea!r4 ,a numb] ( ! coal-t> dyes1 :i* are produc$ 9 ! cry/all9e =m1 h a totally diff]5t col\r :5 solid to t ( _! solutions1 & to ! col\r !y produce :5 dy$4 ,a well-kn[n in/ance ( ?is is mag5ta or fu*s9e1 :i* =ms gli/5+ gre5 cry/als1 :ile 9 solution x is a brilliant r$ dye4 ,! col\rs ( ! cry/als are usually complem5t>y to ^? ( ! solution1 ?us sev]al blues h ! appe>ance ( metallic copp]1 & violets1 su* z me?yl-violet1 are gre5i%-yell[1 g5]ally ) a pron\nc$ metallic lu/re4 ,?is peculi>ity is ! cause ( ! defect 9 dye+ kn[n z 8bronz+10 9 :i* ! dye1 :5 appli$ 9 too conc5trat$ a =m1 takes a surface-%imm] ( its complem5t>y col\r4 ,! coal-t> col\rs are mo/ly ei!r 8acid0 or 8basic40 ,! =m] are ! salts ( organic col\r-acids ) inorganic bases 7g5]ally sodium7 & are usually readily soluble 9 wat]1 b frequ5tly d n fix !mselves on ! fibre till ! col\r-acid is set free by ! addition ( "s /rong] acid to ! ba?1 & 9 _m cases ! free col\r-acid is ( diff]5t col\r to its salts4 ,! 8basic0 col\rs are salts ( col\r-bases 7organic bases ( ! nature ( v complicat$ ammonia-d]ivatives7 ) acids 7mo/ly hydro*loric1 sulphuric or acetic74 ,mo/ ( ^? 9 comm]cial use are soluble 9 wat]1 ?\gh a few require ! addition ( alcohol4 ,! col\r-bases !mselves are usually insoluble 9 wat]1 & !re=e precipitat$ by alkalies1 & 9 "s cases !y are also col\rless4 ,! basic dyes h g5]ally great] int5sity ( col\r ?an ! acid dyes1 b l>ge classes ( !m are v fugitive :5 expos$ to light1 & 9 /rong solution _m o!rs are v liable to 8bronze10 a defect :i* is g5]ally less m>k$ ) ! acid col\rs4#agj #agj ,x has rec5tly be5 %[n by ,lamb 7see ,app4 ,d1 p4 #dih7 t _m basic col\rs are mu* fa/] to light on lea!r ?an on textiles4 ,z x is n obvi\s at fir/ sight :e!r a giv5 dye is acid or basic1 a reag5t to di/+ui% !m is useful4 ,= ?is purpose a solution ( #a "p ( tannic acid & #a "p ( sodium acetate 9 #aj p>ts 7by weight7 ( wat] is conv5i5tly employ$1 :i* gives col\r$ precipitates ) basic dyes1 b is n affect$ by acid ones4 ,! fact t basic dyes are precipitat$ by tann9s influ5ces _! use 9 lea!r dye+1 n only z reg>ds _! fixation on ! lea!r-fibre by ! tann9 :i* x conta9s1 b z ! cause ( _! precipitation 9 ! dye-ba? if great c>e is n tak5 to avoid ! pres5ce ( tann9s 9 a soluble =m4 ,! use ( ! sodium acetate is to comb9e ) ! m9]al acid ( ! col\r-salt1 :i* if left free w\ld prev5t complete precipitation1 sub/itut+ = x acetic acid1 :i* is mu* weak]1 especially 9 pres5ce ( excess ( sodium acetate 7cp4 p4 #ha74 ,9 us+ ! t]ms 8acid0 & 8basic0 ) reg>d to dyes1 x is n to be und]/ood t ! dye/uffs z employ$ are acid or alkal9e 9 ! s5se t v9eg> is acid1 & soda basic1 b m]ely t ! actual col\r-con/itu5t ( ! salt is 9 ! "o case ( an acid nature1 & set free by /rong] acids1 & 9 ! o!r case is basic1 & lib]at$ 7& (t5 precipitat$7 by /rong] alkalies4 ,!re are sev]al g5]al !ories ) reg>d to ! fixation ( col\rs 9 dye+ organic fibres1 & x is probable t no "o ( !m af=ds a complete explanation 9 all cases4 ,"o holds t ! action ( dye+ is me*anical r ?an *emical1 ! col\r adh]+ to ! fibre by surface-attraction2 ano!r1 t an actual *emical comp\nd is =m$ betwe5 ! dye & ! dy$ mat]ial or "o ( its con/itu5ts2 & a ?ird1 ! 8solid solution0 !ory ( ,witt1 is 9 a s5se int]m$iate1 hold+ t ! col\r+ matt] is actually dissolv$ 9 ! dy$ fibre4 ,! idea ( a solid solution1 /range at fir/1 (f]s little difficulty on consid]ation4 ,! col\r+ metallic salts 9 t9t$ glasses exi/ obvi\sly 9 solution 9 ! melt$ glass1 & c h>dly be said to *ange _! condition 9 ?is respect :5 ! glass becomes solid4 ,gelat9e1 indi>ubb]1 & p]haps all o!r colloid bodies1 absorb wat] or o!r liquids )\t los+ _! solid =m1 & ^! liquids may fairly be said to be dissolv$ 9 ! solid4 ,all animal & vegetable fibres are 9 ?is respect l gelat9e1 & dur+ ! process ( dye+ are swoll5 ) wat]4 ,x is q easy to dye a mass ( gelat9e ?r\gh\t ) mo/ wat]-soluble dye/uffs4 7,comp>e on ^! po9ts :at is said 9 ,*apt] ,,ix4 on ! physical *emi/ry ( hide-fibre47 ,! di/9ctions betwe5 solution & molecul> surface-attraction on ! "o h&1 & c]ta9 =ms ( *emical comb9ation on ! o!r1 are n wide ones1 & probably all ?ree !ories are true 9 diff]5t cases1 & %ade (f into ea* o!r by imp]ceptible gradations4 ,! subject ( lea!r-dye+ is1 9 fact1 a v complicat$ "o1 s9ce we are n deal+ ) a fibre ( uni=m composition1 b ) "o :i* has _h its /ructure 7bo? *emical & physical7 alt]$ by ! processes to :i* x has be5 subject$ dur+ its conv]sion into lea!r4 ,al?\gh1 /rictly speak+1 ! con/itution ( ! gelat9\s fibre ( ! sk9 is unkn[n1 we are q ju/ifi$ 9 /at+#aga t1 l ! amido-acids :i* are important proximate products ( its decomposition1 x conta9s bo? acid & basic gr\ps1 & is !re=e capable ( attract+ bo? bases & acids4 ,x is well kn[n1 = in/ance1 t ! neutral fibre is capable ( )draw+ sulphuric acid f a dec9ormal solution ) su* vig\r t ! residual liquid is neutral to litmus pap]2 & x w also absorb cau/ic alkalies ) p]haps equal avidity4#agb #aga ,proct]1 ,j\r4 ,soc4 ,*em4 ,indu/ry1 #aijj1 p4 #bc4 #agb ,cp4 ,*ap4 ,,ix4 ,x is ?us readily dy$ by col\r+ matt] ( ei!r basic or acid "*1 & 9 _m cases w ev5 dissociate _! salts1 dye+ ! *>act]i/ic col\r ( ! free dye/uff1 b possibly at ! same "t fix+ ! lib]at$ base or acid ) :i* ! col\r+ matt] has be5 comb9$4 ,_m tann+ processes consi/ 9 a some:at analog\s fixation ( weak bases & acids1 & x is1 !re=e1 to be anticipat$ t !y w pr(\ndly modify ! col\r-fix+ prop]ties ( ! orig9al fibre1 z inde$ proves to be ! case4 ,exactly :at ! result ( a p>ticul> tann+ process 9 ?is respect w be is less easy to =esee4 ,9 ! ord9>y vegetable tann+ process1 ! tann9s1 :i* are ( acid nature1 are freely fix$ by ! fibre4 ,x is1 !re=e1 n surpris+ t vegetable-tann$ lea!r mo/ readily fixes ! basic col\rs1 especially z ^! =m insoluble comp\nds ) ! tannic acids1 s t x is q probable t ! dye+ is ma9ly effect$ by ! =mation ( tann9-col\r-lakes on ! fibre1 r ?an by actual fixation ( ! col\r-base 9 comb9ation ) ! orig9al matt] ( ! sk94 ,x is notewor?y1 h[ev]1 t ev5 fully tann$ sk9 has by no means lo/ its attractions = acid col\r+ matt]s1 _m ( :i* w dye x ev5 )\t ! pres5ce ( free acid1 ?\gh x is possible t ! tannic acid p]=ms ! function ( saturat+ ! alkal9e base ) :i* ! col\r acid has be5 comb9$4 ,x %\ld be po9t$ out t :ile ! sub/ance ( animal sk9 consi/s practically ( gelat9\s fibres1 x is cov]$ on ! out] surface ) a ?9 membrane ( extreme t5uity1 call$ ! hyal9e or glassy lay] 7p4 #ej7 :i*1 9 ! liv+ animal1 sep>ates ! true sk9 f ! epid]mis4 ,?is lay]1 ! *emi/ry ( :i* is q unkn[n1 reacts to col\r+ matt]s diff]5tly f ! gelat9\s fibres1 & probably is less absorb5t = basic col\rs1 & m s = ! col\r$ anhydrides ( ! tann9s1 & p]haps = acid col\rs g5]ally1 ?an is ! true sk94 ,z a result1 x col\rs m d>kly 9 tann+1 & less s 9 dye+ ) basic col\rs1 & z x is extremely liable to damage 9 ! prelim9>y op]ations ( remov+ hair & lime by ! tann]1 ?is irregul>ity ( col\r+ is a s]i\s disadvantage :i* is mo/ m>k$ ) ! basic col\rs4 ,small quantities ( lime left 9 ! sk9 are also probably important causes ( irregul> dye+4 ,mordants are *emicals us$ to enable ! fibre to fix dyes = :i* x w\ld n o!rwise h suffici5t attraction1 & h5ce are g5]ally sub/ances :i* h aff9ity bo? = ! fibre & ! dye4 ,?us cotton1 :i* does n itself attract ! basic col\rs1 is mordant$ = !m by a solution ( tann91 :i* x attracts1 & :i*1 9 its turn1 attracts & fixes ! col\rs4 ,9 _m cases1 h[ev]1 ! function ( mordants is m complex1 n m]ely fix+ ! dye/uff1 b (t5 modify+1 or ev5 produc+ its col\r4 ,?us tann9 dyes black on an iron mordant1 ?\gh x is itself col\rless4 ,su* mordants may be appli$ aft] ! col\r+ matt]1 :]e x has suffici5t attraction = ! fibre to be tak5 up alone1 b does n produce ! requir$ col\r4 ,?is process is (t5 call$ 8sadd5+10 z ! col\r is g5]ally d>k5$4 ,a famili> in/ance is ! use ( iron solutions to d>k5 or black5 tann9 or logwood4 ,!re is sc>cely any di/9ction 9 !ory betwe5 mordants ( ?is class & ! con/itu5ts ( dyes :i* are successively appli$ to ! lea!r 9 ord] to produce ! col\r+ matt] on ! fibre4 ,among ^! may be m5tion$ sev]al m9]al salts :i* 7 =m]ly employ$ 9 lea!r dye+1 ?\gh _! use is n[ ne>ly obsolete4 ,iron salts are easily fix$ by lea!r1 :e!r tann$ or taw$1 & 9 ! =m] case produce a d>k col\r by action ( ! tann94 ,on subsequ5t treatm5t ) a solution ( potassium f]rocyanide1 a deep blue is =m$ 7,prussian blue74 ,if copp] acetate or ammoniacal solution ( copp] sulphate be sub/itut$ = ! iron salt1 a deep r$-br[n f]rocyanide is produc$4 ,yell[s are sometimes dy$ by fir/ treat+ tann$ lea!rs ) lead acetate1 :i* is fix$ by ! tann91 & !n ) potassium bi*romate1 by :i* yell[ lead *romate is produc$4 ,a m important use ( lead is 9 ! s-call$ 8lead-blea*10 :i* is really a :ite pigm5t-dye+ ) lead sulphate4 ,! tann$ lea!r1 aft] wa%+1 is fir/ treat$ ) a solution ( lead acetate 7usually 8br[n sug> ( lead0 ( ab\t #d grm4 p] lit]71 & subsequ5tly ) a dilute sulphuric acid ( ab\t #cj grm4 ( conc5trat$ acid p] litre1 & !n ?or\ghly wa%$ to free x f acid4 ,! process is (t5 us$ z a prep>ation = dye+ pale %ades1 z _m ( ! anil9e dyes are easily fix$ on ! blea*$ lea!r1 b is subject to ! disadvantage att5dant on all pigm5ts conta9+ lead1 ( becom+ rapidly d>k5$ by traces ( sulphur or sulphurett$ hydrog51 su* z are con/antly conta9$ 9 light+ gas1 or arise f ! putrefaction ( organic matt]s4 ,! use ( acid is also liable to cause e>ly decay ( ! lea!r4 ,a l>ge proportion ( ! coal-t> col\rs conta9 amido-gr\ps 7,,nh gr\ps7 :i*1 :5 treat$ on ! fibre ) nitr\s acid 7or an acidifi$ solution ( sodium nitrite71 become 8diazotis$0 7conv]t$ into --,n 3 ,n-- gr\ps ) elim9ation ( ,,oh74 ,on fur!r treat+ ! diazo-comp\nd ) solutions ( am9es or ph5ols1 comb9ation takes place1 & new azo-col\rs are =m$ 9 or on ! fibre1 (t5 rem>kably fa/ to wa%+ or rubb+4 ,s9ce ^! qualities are less important 9 lea!r ?an 9 textiles1 & ! process is moreov] some:at delicate1 & ! nitr\s acid is apt to injuri\sly affect ! lea!r1 ^! processes h be5 little us$ 9 lea!r-dye+1 & are only m5tion$ "h = ! sake ( complet5ess4 ,! use ( ! natural polyg5etic col\rs 9 dye+ lea!r ( vegetable tannage1 :i* 0 once univ]sal1 is gradually disappe>+1 except = ! production ( blacks4 ,lea!r _c be v satisfactorily mordant$ = ^! col\r+ matt]s2 b !y h "s natural attraction = ! lea!r itself1 & are g5]ally dy$ fir/1 & _! col\rs aft]w>ds develop$ by metallic mordants su* z iron1 *rome1 t9 salts1 & alum1 :i* act n only on ! absorb$ dye/uff1 b frequ5tly on ! tann9 & col\r+ matt]s d]iv$ f ! tann+ mat]ials4 ,= black-dye+1 ! use ( coal-t> col\rs1 ei!r alone1 or to deep5 ! col\rs produc$ by iron1 is gradually ext5d+4 ,claus & ,re's 8,au?o-black10 ! 8,corvol9es0 ( ! ,badis*e ,co41 & ,casella's 8,naph?ylam9e ,black10 8,anil9e ,grey10 & 8,naph?ol ,blue-black0 may be m5tion$ z useful col\rs4 ,z coal-t> blacks are mo/ly d>k violets r ?an dead blacks1 _! col\r may be deep5$ by ! admixture ( suitable yell[s or br[ns1 & ?is has already be5 done 9 "o or two ( ! col\rs nam$4 ,ap>t f ! coal-t> col\rs1 black dye+ is g5]ally produc$ by ! action ( iron 7& *rome71 ei!r on ! tann9 ( ! lea!r itself or on logwood4 ,z ! lea!r is frequ5tly greasy1 & ! satisfactory =mation ( a tann9- or logwood-lake c only take place 9 pres5ce ( a base to absorb ! lib]at$ acid ( ! iron salt1 ! sk9s are ei!r bru%$ )1 or plung$ 91 a logwood infusion1 r5d]$ alkal9e ) soda or ammonia1 or ! tann$ lea!r receives a prelim9>y treatm5t ) weak soda or ammonia solution4 ,z su* solutions act p[]fully on tann$ lea!rs1 r5d]+ !m h>% & t5d]1 great c>e mu/ be tak5 to avoid excess4 ,! effect ( ?is alkal9e treatm5t is n only to assi/ ! wett+ ( ! greasy surface1 b to prev5t too deep p5etration ( ! dye1 by caus+ rapid precipitation ( ! col\r-lake4 ,9 rec5t times1 h[ev]1 lea!rs are sometimes dem&$ 9 :i* ! col\r goes "r ?r\gh1 & 9 ?is case x might be well to rev]se ! treatm5t1 beg9n+ ) a weak solution ( a f]r\s salt1 p]haps ) addition ( sodium acetate or potassium t>trate1 & f9i%+ ) alkal9e logwood1 z )\t alkali ! full col\r is n develop$4 ,! use ( iron salts is n v satisfactory 9 reg>d to ! p]man5ce ( ! lea!r2 & 9 ?is respect x is ( great importance t !y %\ld n be us$ 9 excess1 & t any /rong acids !y conta9 %\ld be saturat$ ) p]man5t bases1 & if possible wa%$ out4 ,lea!r-surfaces black$ ) iron almo/ inv>iably ultimately lose _! col\r1 becom+ br[n if tann9s1 & r$ if logwood has be5 employ$1 & at ! same "t ! lea!r surface usually becomes brittle or friable4 ,?is is to a l>ge ext5t due to ! effect ( iron oxides z oxyg5-c>ri]s4 ,expos$ to light1 !y become r$uc$ to ! f]r\s /ate1 oxidis+ ! organic matt]s ) :i* !y are comb9$1 & 9 ! d>k !y re-oxidise1 & ! process is repeat$4 ,x is !re=e ( ! fir/ importance t excess ( ! organic col\r+ matt] %\ld be provid$1 & t ! quantity ( ! iron %\ld be z small z possible1 & 9 /able comb9ation4 ,^! po9ts are greatly neglect$ 9 practice1 especially :]e black+ is done by ! application ( iron salts )\t logwood1 :5 ! evils m5tion$ are int5sifi$ by ! actual removal ( "p ( ! tann9 ( ! lea!r1 & p]haps by ! comb9ation ( f]ric oxide ) ! sk9-fibre itself1 =m+ a brittle iron-lea!r4 ,treatm5t ) alkal9e suma*-1 gambi]- or logwood-solutions1 bo? be=e & aft] ! application ( ! iron1 w\ld less5 ! evil4 ,iron-logwood blacks are mu* less p]man5t1 & fade m rapidly "u ! influ5ce ( light & air ?an iron-tann9 blacks4 ,! use ( iron-blacks on curri$ lea!rs seems consid]ably to increase ! t5d5cy to 8spue+10 a defect due to oxidation ( ! oils 7see p4 #cij74 ,copp] salts mordant logwood a v d>k blue1 :i* is mu* m /able ?an ! iron comp\nd1 & h5ce are (t5 us$ advantage\sly 9 mixture ) iron salts4 ,9 practice1 iron blacks are g5]ally oil$ 9 f9i%+1 & ?is r5d]s !m m p]man5t1 bo? by protect+ ! lake f air & by =m+ iron soaps :i* are /able4 ,! use ( actual soaps 9 black+ & f9i%+ is n unkn[n1 & probably des]ves m att5tion4 ,h>d soaps ( soda & /e>ic acid1#agc =m an excell5t f9i% :]e a mod]ate glaze is requir$1 ! soap jelly be+ appli$ ) a bru% v ?9ly1 all[$ to dry ?or\ghly1 & poli%$ ) a flannel or bru%1 or glass$4 ,_m acid col\rs are soluble 9 su* soap jellies1 :i* may ?us be employ$ = /a9+4 ,simil> b h>d] f9i%es1 & capable ( be+ glaz$ to a high poli%1 are made by dissolv+ %ellac ) dilute borax or ammonia solutions4#agd ,bo? ( ^! f9i%es are useful 9 less5+ ! t5d5cy ( iron blacks to smut or rub (f1 a fail+ :i* is due to ! precipitation ( loose iron-lakes on ! surface1 in/ead ( 9 comb9ation ) ! fibre1 & is p>ticul>ly obvi\s :]e 8inks0 or "o-solution blacks are employ$1 or :]e ! mordant & ! col\r+ matt] solutions are all[$ to mix on ! surface ( ! lea!r4 ,su* 8inks0 are g5]ally made ) a f]r\s salt & logwood or tann91 toge!r ) "s anil9e black1 & ! col\r-lake %\ld only be =m$ on oxidation4 ,*rome is n mu* employ$ 9 blacks ) vegetable tannages1 z x only produces blacks ) logwood1 ! *rome comp\nds ( tann9s hav+ no col\r+ value2 & bi*romates us$ at all freely be+ v injuri\s to ! lea!r4 #agc #a ( cau/ic soda 9 #aj-ae ( wat]1 boil$ ) #h ( /e>ic acid till cle>1 cool$ to #be ,c4 & dilut$ ) #djj-hjj wat]1 ) con/ant /irr+1 till ! :ite jelly ( suitable consi/5ce is obta9$4 ,some:at simil>1 b h>d] prep>ations may be made ) waxes1 or fatty acids /ill high] ?an /e>ic4 #agd #e p>ts ( %ellac dige/$ w>m ) #ajj wat] & #c ( ammonia =t41 or #a ( borax4 ,if ! solution is us$ z a 8season+0 = glaz+1 ! waxy matt] :i* sep>ates on /&+ %\ld be mix$ by %ak+ be=e use4 ,z a v>ni%1 a /rong] solution %\ld be us$ & ! wax skimm$ (f4 ,9 dye+ blacks on o!r ?an vegetable tannages1 h[ev]1 *rome becomes ( importance1 z logwood is pr9cipally employ$1 ?\gh sometimes 9 conjunction ) tann91 & (t5 ) addition ( qu]citron or fu/ic1 to correct ! blui% %ade ( ! logwood-*rome or logwood-iron lake4 ,x mu/ n be ov]look$ 9 practice1 t if f]r\s salts are mix$ ) bi*romate solutions1 ! latt] are r$uc$1 & ! iron is oxidis$ to ! f]ric /ate4 ,9 alum$ lea!rs ! fix+ p[] ( ! orig9al hide-fibre is mu* less affect$ ?an 9 vegetable tannages4 ,:atev] may be ! tru? ) reg>d to ! latt]1 !re is little d\bt t physical influ5ces are at lea/ z important z *emical ones 9 ! production ( m9]al tannages4 ,! am\nt ( ! tann+ ag5t absorb$ is greatly influ5c$ by ! conc5tration ( ! solutions1 & 9 ord9>y alum taw+ mu* ( ! alum9a may aga9 be remov$ by free wa%+4 ,9 ?is case1 ! sulphate ( pota% pres5t takes no "p 9 ! op]ation1 b ! alum9a salt is absorb$ app>5tly z a normal salt4 ,alum or alum9a sulphate alone is incapable ( produc+ any satisfactory tannage )\t ! assi/ance ( common salt1 ! quantity absorb$ be+ small1 & ! fibre becom+ swoll5 by ! action ( ! acid4 ,9 pres5ce ( salt ! absorption is great]1 & ! swell+ is prev5t$4 ,! explanation ( ?is is n to be f\nd 9 ! =mation ( alum9ium *loride1 = ?\gh ?is und\bt$ly takes place1 x has be5 %[n t ! action ( alum9ium *loride )\t salt is n m satisfactory ?an t ( alum4 ,x has long be5 kn[n t salt prev5ts ! swell+ action ( acids on sk91 al?\gh x does n less5 ! absorption ( acid2 & ! fact is capable ( explanation on mod]n osmotic !ories 7cp4 p4 #hi74 ,! sk9 s treat$ is f\nd to be conv]t$ into lea!r1 b if ! salt be wa%$ out1 ! acid is reta9$ by ! sk91 :i* returns to ! /ate ( acid-swoll5 pelt4 ,x is probable1 !re=e1 t al?\gh ! acid & alum9a are absorb$ 9 equival5t proportions to ea* o!r1 !y are really dissociat$1 & atta*$ to diff]5t gr\ps 9 ! gelat9e molecule1 & t ! effect ( ! salt is to all[ ! absorption ( ! acid )\t swell+1 &1 osmotically1 to increase ! dissociat+ p[] ( ! pelt4 ,if1 9 place ( a normal alum9a salt1 a basic salt is employ$1 su* z may be obta9$ by p>tial neutralisation ( ! sulphuric acid ) soda1 satisfactory tannage may be accompli%$ )\t salt1 a basic comp\nd is absorb$1 & ! lea!r is mu* less affect$ by wa%+4 ,9 ! analog\s case ( *rome tannage1 ?is basic comp\nd may be /ill fur!r depriv$ ( its residual acid1 by wa%+ ! tann$ sk9 ) alkal9e solutions1 leav+ a lea!r :i* is extremely resi/ant ev5 to hot wat]2 & a some:at simil> result may be obta9$ ) alum9a1 ?\gh ) m difficulty1 z app>5tly a v small excess ( alkali de/roys ! qualities ( ! lea!r4 7,cp4 p4 #ahg47 ,! results on dye+ are almo/ :at might h be5 =ese54 ,:ile ord9>y alum$ lea!r absorbs bo? acid & basic dyes readily1 ! basic *rome lea!r has practically lo/ its aff9ity = ! latt]4 ,bo? *rome & alum9a lea!rs readily absorb vegetable tann9s1 ?us support+ ! view t ! acid-fix+ gr\ps ( ! gelat9e molecule are /ill unsaturat$ 7tann9s are capable ( tann+ pelt swoll5 ) sulphuric acid & app>5tly ( expell+ ! acid74 ,9 ! case ( *rome lea!r ! effect ( re-tann+ ) tann9s is greatly to less5 its /ret*1 & if c>ri$ too f>1 to de/roy its t\ghness1 b x at once becomes capable ( fix+ basic dye/uffs4 ,?is prop]ty is frequ5tly made use ( 9 dye+1 b ! effect on ! lea!r mu/ n be disreg>d$ :]e s(tness & /ret* are important1 z 9 ! case ( glove-lea!rs4 ,polyg5etic dyes are1 ( c\rse1 fix$ on alum- or *rome-lea!rs by ! alum9a- or *rome-mordant1 ?\gh app>5tly ! bases are n pres5t 9 ! mo/ fav\rable condition = fix+ col\rs4 ,?us logwood extract$ )\t alkali dyes tann$ lea!r yell[1 alum$ lea!r violet-blue1 & *rome lea!r blacki%-violet1 & "s ( ! aliz>9e gr\p dye v well on *rome z its resi/ance to hot wat] all[s mu* high] temp]atures to be us$ ?an ) mo/ o!r lea!rs4 ,! tann9 conta9$ 9 dyewoods has ! effect ( less5+ ! /ret* ( *rome lea!rs4 ,some?+ %\ld p]haps be said on ! dye+ ( oil & aldehyde lea!rs1 b ! subject has z yet be5 sc>cely treat$ sci5tifically1 & our practical k ( ! subject is insuffici5t to ju/ify !oris+4 7,see1 h[ev]1 p4 #dif47 ,defects 9 ! col\r ( ! f9i%$ lea!r are due to a v>iety ( causes1 b _m are produc$ by want ( cleanl9ess & sy/em dur+ ! dye+ itself4 ,! greate/ c>e is ne$$ 9 ?is respect1 & 9 bru%-dye+ a diff]5t bru% %\ld be us$ = ea* diff]5t col\r1 z x is impossible to ?or\ghly remove all traces ( dye by ! ord9>y me?ods ( cleans+4 ,irregul> & surface dye+ sometimes occurs ow+ to too rapid fixation ( ! col\rs2 :ile 9 o!r cases ! aff9ity ( ! dye is too small to all[ ( reasonable exhau/ion ( ! ba?4 ,addition ( salts ( weak acids1 su* z potassium hydrog5 t>trate 7t>t>71 or ( ^? l sodium sulphate1 :i* =m hydric salts1 less5 rapidity ( dye+ ) acid col\rs2 :ile acids g5]ally increase x1 & x is also (t5 increas$ by addition ( common salt1 :i* less5s ! solubility ( ! dye4 ,weak acids1 su* z acetic or =mic1 or acid salts1 su* z sodium bisulphate1 are g5]ally to be pref]r$ to sulphuric acid z an addition to ! dye-ba?2 & if ! latt] is us$1 great c>e is desirable 9 its complete removal4 ,!re is no d\bt t ! rapid decay ( lea!r bookb9d+s & uphol/]y is l>gely due to ! c>eless use ( sulphuric acid 9 8cle>+0 & dye+ ! lea!r2#age & ev5 if x is fully remov$1 x has saturat$ all bases su* z lime1 :i* are naturally pres5t 9 lea!rs 9 comb9ation ) weak acids1 & :i* w\ld o!rwise act z "s protection f ! sulphuric acid evolv$ 9 burn+ coal gas4 #age ,see ,report ( ,committee ( ,society ( ,arts on ,bookb9d+ ,lea!rs1 #aija4 8,bronz+10 ! di*roic effect produc$ by light reflect$ f ! surface ( _m col\r+ matt]s1 complem5t>y to t transmitt$ by !m & reflect$ by ! surface ( ! dy$ mat]ial1 is n peculi> to basic col\rs1 b is g5]ally m m>k$ 9 !m ?an 9 acid ones4 ,basic col\rs1 f _! great aff9ity = tann9s1 & consequ5t rapid dye+1 are apt to dye irregul>ly1 & )\t suffici5tly p5etrat+ ! lea!r1 & if ! soluble tann9 is n :olly wa%$ out ( ! sk9s previ\sly to dye+1 x ble$s 9 ! dye-ba?1 & precipitates insoluble tann9-lakes1 :i* wa/e col\r & adh]e to ! surface ( ! lea!r4 ,! inconv5i5ce ( basic col\rs due to _! too rapid fixation may sometimes be less5$ by slight acidification ( ! dye-ba? ) a weak acid1 su* z acetic or lactic4 ,! acid may be /ill fur!r 8weak5$0 if desir$1 by ! addition ( its neutral 7sodium7 salt4 ,! precipitation ( tann9-lakes 9 ! ba? may be prev5t$ by previ\s fixation ( ! tann9 ) t>t> emetic1 titanium potassium oxalate or lactate1 or "s o!r suitable metallic salt4 ,! fad+ ( ! col\rs ( dy$ goods by exposure to light is a defect :i* has be5 mu* m inve/igat$ 9 ! textile indu/ries ?an 9 lea!r manufacture1 ?\gh 9 ! latt] case1 & especially ) reg>d to bookb9d+ & furniture lea!rs1 x is ( ev5 great] importance4 ,x is probable t no col\rs are actually unaffect$ by /rong sunlight1 b 9 _m cases ! action is s slight t x may practically be disreg>d$2 "s ( ! coal-t> col\rs1 & especially "s ( ! aliz>9es1 be+ practically p]man5t1 :ile o!rs1 & p>ticul>ly ! anil9e col\rs belong+ to ! triph5ylme?ane gr\p1 su* z mag5ta1 are s fugitive z to be practically blea*$ by a week ( /rong sunlight4 ,*rysoid9e & ! eos9s are also v bad 9 ?is respect4 ,! fa/ness ( col\rs to light is a good deal influ5c$ by ! mat]ial on :i* !y are dy$1 & b little has yet be5 publi%$ ( ! results ( direct exp]im5ts on lea!rs1 b ,mr4 ,m4 ,c4 ,lamb has be5 = "s "t engag$ 9 a rese>* ( ?is nature1#agf & ! subject is n[ receiv+ a good deal ( att5tion 9 o!r qu>t]s4 ,exp]im5ts are easily made by expos+ samples to sunlight "u glass or 9 a s\? w9d[1 a "p ( ! lea!r be+ cov]$ ) wood or ?ick br[n pap] = comp>ison4 ,! results are (t5 complicat$ by ! t5d5cy ( all lea!rs tann$ ) tann9s ( ! cate*ol gr\p1 & especially ) turw> b>k 7p4 #bih71 mimosa & quebra*o1 to d>k5 & r$d5 9 sun%9e1 or ev5 by exposure to diffus$ light4 ,pure suma* tannages are ne>ly free f ?is defect1 & are also mu* less easily de/roy$ by ! action ( gas fumes 7sulphuric acid71 & ! o!r injuri\s influ5ces to :i* books & furniture are (t5 subject$4#agg #agf ,see ,app4 ,d41 p4 #dhh1 #dih1 & ,j\rn4 ,soc4 ,*em4 ,ind41 #aijb1 pp4 #aef-aeh4 #agg ,cp4 ,report ( ,society ( ,arts ,committee on ,bookb9d+ ,lea!rs1 #aija4 ,want ( fa/ness to friction or rubb+ is a defect g5]ally m important 9 textiles ?an 9 lea!r1 :]e x is (t5 prev5t$ by glaz+s or o!r f9i%es appli$ to ! surface2 b 9 "s cases1 &1 especially 9 black lea!r1 x is apt to be annoy+4 ,if suitable col\rs are us$1 ! defect is g5]ally due to ! precipitation ( loose col\r on ! surface1 ei!r by ! too free use ( mordants1 or ! dye+ ( basic col\rs on lea!rs :i* h n be5 suffici5tly fre$ f loose tann94 ,x is also (t5 caus$ by 8flam+0 or ! application ( col\r mix$ ) ! 8season+0 us$ 9 glaz+1 to hide imp]fections 9 ! dye+1 or v>y its col\r4 ,col\r appli$ 9 ?is way is only me*anically fix$ on ! lea!r1 & is easily remov$ by moi/ure1 /a9+ articles ) :i* x comes 9 contact4 ,a v simil> defect may be caus$ by incomplete wa%+ ( ! dy$ lea!r1 :i* leaves loose dye f ! dye-ba? 9 ! goods4 ,to avoid x 9 glove-lea!rs1 :]e its occurr5ce w\ld be p>ticul>ly annoy+1 ! natural mordant col\rs are /ill l>gely 9 use1 :i* be+ precipitat$ on ! fibre 9 an insoluble =m by ! mordant or 8/rik]0 7g5]ally a metallic salt7 are little liable to come (f4 ,basic col\rs may be fix$ by a subsequ5t treatm5t ) tann91 or by topp+ ) c]ta9 acid col\rs su* z picric acid4 ,"s few col\rs1 & especially ,m>tius or 8,man*e/]0 yell[ 7d9itronaph?ol7 are volatile at a l[ temp]ature1 & !re=e liable to 8m>k (f0 or /a9 any mat]ials ) :i* ! dy$ fabric1 ev5 9 a dry /ate1 is plac$ 9 contact4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ia4--;,dye+ 9 ! ,tray4 ,! practical dye+ ( lea!rs v>ies consid]ably accord+ to :e!r !y are tann$ ) vegetable mat]ials1 *rome1 alum9a salts1 or *amois+4 ,vegetable-tann$ lea!rs are dy$ ei!r by h& 9 ! 8dye-tray10 or 9 ! drum or paddle1 ! two latt] me?ods be+ n[ l>gely employ$4 ,! dye-tray is a %all[ vat1 ab\t #aj in*es deep1 & l>ge en\gh = ! goods to be laid flat 9 x4 ,9 ! ,engli% me?od1 "o or two doz5 sk9s1 or ev5 m1 are dy$ at a "t1 be+ turn$ ov] 9 ! tray by h&1 ! und]mo/ pair be+ drawn out & plac$ on ! top 7,fig4 #ia74 ,! me?od is conv5i5t :]e only a small numb] ( sk9s are to be dy$ to "o p>ticul> %ade1 :i* is m easily mat*$ z ! goods are always "u obs]vation1 & x has ! fur!r advantage t1 if desir$1 ! gra9 sides only ( ! sk9s c be col\r$1 by 8pair+0 or 8pleat+0 !m be=e dye+4 ,= ?is purpose two sk9s ( equal size are laid toge!r fle% to fle% 7pair+71 or ea* sk9 is d\bl$ d[n ! back1 fle% side 9 7pleat+71 & press$ firmly toge!r ) a sleek] on ! table1 :5 ! sk9s adh]e s closely t if c>efully h&l$1 no col\r p5etrates betwe5 !m dur+ ! dye+1 except a little r\nd ! edges4 ,?is effects consid]able economy ( dye-/uff1 z ! fle%es w\ld absorb a good deal1 & = "s purposes1 an undy$ fle% is pref]r$4 ,9 dye+ 9 ! paddle or drum1 ! sk9s are m]ely plac$ loose 9 ! dye-liquor1 s t ! fle%es are dy$ equally ) ! gra9 sides4 ,paddle-dye+ has ! advantage ( effect+ a consid]able sav+ ( lab\r1 z comp>$ ) ! dye-tray1 9 :i* con/ant h&l+1 :i* (t5 la/s an h\r or m1 is requir$4 ,x also all[s ( almo/ equal facility 9 exam9+ ! col\r ( ! sk9s1 :i* is v important :5 dye+ to %ade2 b x is less economical 9 dye-/uff1 z n only ! fle% sides are dy$ b a mu* l>g] volume ( liquor is us$1 & z ! dye-ba? c nev] be entirely exhau/$1 m dye is run away 9 ! us$ liquor4 ,drum-dye+ is mu* less exp5sive 9 ?is respect1 z ! volume ( liquor may be v small1 & f ! effici5cy ( ! motion1 ! dye+ is v ?or\gh1 & p5etrates deeply into or ?r\gh ! sk91 :i* 9 _m cases is advantage\s1 b x is difficult to dye to exact %ade1 s9ce ! sk9s c only be exam9$ by /opp+ & op5+ ! drum4 ,mo/ dyes are m readily fix$ at high temp]atures1 & 9 ?is respect ! drum has an advantage ov] all o!r me?ods1 z once heat$ x reta9s its heat ) v little loss to ! end ( ! op]ation1 :ile bo? 9 ! paddle & ! dye-tray ! liquor is rapidly cool$1 & special me?ods ( ma9ta9+ ! temp]ature complicate ! app>atus1 & require great c>e to avoid ov]heat+4 ,x is usually be/ to "w at ! highe/ temp]ature :i* ! goods w safely be>1 & ?is v>ies to "s ext5t ) ! class ( goods1 *rome tannages & *amois lea!r be+ peculi> 9 /&+ almo/ any temp]ature %ort ( boil+4 ,) vegetable tann$ lea!r #ej ,c4 may be tak5 z a maximum2 b cold wet sk9s may safely be introduc$ rapidly into a liquor heat$ to #fj1 z !y w cool x suffici5tly4 ,! ,cont95tal me?od ( dye+ 9 two trays may be m5tion$ "h1 z x produces v rapid & ev5 dye+1 ) consid]able economy ( dye-/uff1 & ! pr9ciple is capable ( application to o!r me?ods :]e a l>ge numb] ( sk9s h to be dy$ to ! same col\r4 ,z g5]ally c>ri$ out1 two trays are employ$1 ea* ab\t #d feet long1 #ah in*es wide1 & #aj in*es or a foot deep1 & ^! are usually made ) a slop+ bottom1 or propp$ up 9 su* a way t ! dye-liquor all runs to ! fur!r side ( ! tray4 ,a s+le pair ( sk9s is usually dy$ at once 79 ab\t #f lit]s 7#e qt47 ( liquor = %eep & goat74 ,to beg9 )1 ! fir/ tray is fill$ ) a v weak liquor1 & ! second ) "o ( ab\t half /r5g?4 ,! goods are ent]$ 9 ! fir/ tray1 turn$ a few times1 & pass$ into ! second2 ! liquor 9 ! fir/ is run away1 & x is re-fill$ ) "o ( ! full /r5g?1 to :i* ! goods are !n transf]r$1 & dy$ to %ade4 ,! second tray is mu* r$uc$ 9 /r5g? by ! sk9s1 & n[ s]ves z ! weak liquor = a fre% pair1 :i* 9 its turn passes into t f :i* ! goods h be5 dy$ out1 & !n into a new liquor2 ea* pair ( goods ?us pass+ ?r\gh ?ree ba?s1 ( :i* ! la/ is ( full /r5g?1 & :i* quickly br+s up a full & ev5 col\r4 ,9 ! ord9>y ,engli% me?od1 ! goods mu/1 = ! sake ( economy ( dye-/uff1 be dy$ out 9 a ne>ly exhau/$ ba?1 :i* is a t$i\s op]ation1 ! la/ /age ( dye+ (t5 tak+ a "t f> long] ?an t requir$ to br+ ! goods ne>ly up to %ade1 & ev5 !n fail+ to produce a good & full col\r4 ,?is evil may be less5$ by add+ ! dye-/uff 9 sev]al successive portions1 z ! ba? becomes exhau/$1 b _c be altoge!r avoid$ ) a s+le tray1 if any reasonable exhau/ion ( ! ba? is to be atta9$4 ,at fir/ sight x seems a v sl[ process to dye ! goods 9 s+le pairs1 b ?is is to a great ext5t comp5sat$ by ! rapidity ) :i* !y take on col\r4 ,9 ! ,cont95tal sy/em1 ! dyes1 mo/ly ( ! coal-t> s]ies1 are us$ z /rong solutions1 & ea* new dye-ba? is made up by fill+ ! tray ) a def9ite volume ( hot wat] & add+ a measur$ quantity ( ! dye-solution4 ,! re-use ( p>tially exhau/$ dye-ba?s is g5]ally limit$ to cases :]e ei!r s+le dyes1 or mixtures ( v equal aff9ity = ! lea!r are employ$1 s9ce :]e dyes ( unequal aff9ity are employ$1 "o is m rapidly remov$ ?an ! o!r1 & ! %ade ( ! dye-ba? is alt]$4 ,_m dyes sold z s+le col\rs are really mixtures1#agh & alt] 9 %ade if successive quantities ( lea!r are dy$ 9 _! solutions4 ,basic dyes are also apt to be precipitat$ by traces ( tann9 wa%$ out ( ! goods1 & ?us r5d]$ unfit = use a second "t4 ,?is may be avoid$ by suitable prep>ation ( ! goods 7see p4 #daa74 #agh ,su* mixtures may (t5 be detect$ by putt+ a drop ( _! solution on blott+-pap]1 :5 ! dyes =m diff]5tly col\r$ r+s accord+ to _! m or less rapid fixation by ! pap]1 or by du/+ ! dry dye v ?9ly on wet blott+-pap]1 :5 ea* p>ticle produces its sep>ate spot4 ,mu* ( ! success ( practical lea!r-dye+ dep5ds on prop] selection & prep>ation ( ! goods4 ,s\nd un9jur$ gra9 is a matt] ( fir/ importance2 no satisfactory dye+ c be expect$ on sk9s :i* ?r\gh c>elessness 9 soaks1 limes1 or bates1 are ta9t$ by :at is kn[n z 8weak gra910 caus$ by de/ruction or injury ( ! delicate hyal9e lay]1 :i* =ms ! natural glaze & out] surface ( ! sk9 7p4 #ej74 ,= su* goods1 8acid0 are to be pref]r$ to 8basic0 dyes1 ! latt] hav+ an especial t5d5cy to dye d>k] & deep] :]e ! gra9 is imp]fect4 ,goods ( diff]5t tannages & col\rs %\ld nev] be dy$ toge!r1 z !y are c]ta9 to produce diff]5t %ades 9 ! same dye-ba?4 ,tann$ sk9s :i* h be5 dri$1 especially if !y h be5 9 /ock = "s "t1 %\ld be ?or\ghly s(t5$ by soak+ 9 tepid wat] & drumm+1 a temp]ature ( betwe5 #dj & #de ,c4 be+ mo/ advantage\s4 ,sk9s1 su* z calf ( mix$ or b>k tannage1 mu/ n[ be fre$ f all bloom by sc\r+ ) bru% & if necess>y ) slate or /one1 b great c>e is requisite to avoid injury to ! gra94 ,a little borax or o!r weak alkal9e solution assi/s 9 remov+ bloom4 ,fre% suma*-tann$ sk9s m]ely require sett+ out ) a brass sleek]1 b ^? :i* h be5 long dri$ (t5 dye m ev5ly & readily if !y are re-suma*$4 ,d>k col\r$ tannages1 su* z ,au/ralian bazils1 & ,ea/ ,india %eep & goat tann$ ) cassia b>k1 are always improv$ by suma*+1 & if = light col\rs1 by fir/ /ripp+ a portion ( ! orig9al tan by drumm+ = a qu>t] ( an h\r ) a weak 7 p] c5t47 solution ( soap p[d] or borax at a temp]ature ( #cj to #ce ,c4 & !n pass+ 7aft] well wa%+ 9 w>m wat]1 b ) z little exposure z possible to ! air7 ?r\gh a weak s\r ( sulphuric acid ( #a-b p] c5t4 ,! acid %\ld n[ be z ?or\ghly remov$ z possible by wa%+ 9 wat]1 & ! goods %\ld be suma*$4 ,! process1 & especially ! use ( sulphuric acid1 is always delet]i\s to ! sk9s1 & is "o ( ! causes ( ! e>ly decay ( col\r$ bookb9d+s & furniture lea!rs4 ,lactic1 =mic1 or acetic acid may be sub/itut$ = sulphuric ) safety1 & ! risk ( injury f sulphuric1 :i* g5]ally is only app>5t aft] ! lapse ( a consid]able "t1 is a good deal less5$ by add+ to ! suma* liquor a small quantity ( potassium t>trate1 sodium acetate or lactate1 or "s o!r salt ( a weak organic acid1 :i* is ?us sub/itut$ = ! mu* m dang]\s sulphuric4 ,except 9 cases ( absolute necessity = ! production ( light %ades1 ! use ( sulphuric acid %\ld n be resort$ to1 & !n only = goods :i* are n expect$ to possess great p]man5ce4 ,= light %ades = bookb9d+ & uphol/]y1 good suma*-tann$ lea!rs & organic acids only %\ld be employ$4 ,alkal9e treatm5t also dem&s great caution1 z excess ( /rong alkalies is v injuri\s to ! lea!r4 ,ano!r objectionable me?od = ! prep>ation ( lea!r = v light %ades1 is ! use ( ! lead-blea* describ$ on p4 #cii4 ,! suma*+ is be/ done 9 a drum1 at a temp]ature ( ab\t #dj4 ,lamb advises t #a to #b lb4 ( suma* p] doz5 is suffici5t = calf1 & recomm5ds runn+ 9 ?is liquor = two or ?ree h\rs4 ,! sk9s are !n r9s$ 9 wat] to free !m f adh]+ suma*1 & set out on a table ) a brass sleek]1 & are n[ ready = dye+ ) 8acid0 dye-/uffs4 ,if 8basic0 dyes are us$1 ?or\gh wa%+ 9 sev]al tepid wat]s is necess>y to free !m f ! loose tann92 & if deep col\rs are to be dy$1 x is bett]1 in/ead ( too mu* wa%+1 to fix ! tann91 :i* !n s]ves z a mordant = ! col\r4 ,= blues1 blue-gre5s1 or violets1 ?is is done ) a solution ( 8t>t> emetic0 7antimony potassium t>trate1 ( #e to #bj grm4 p] lit] accord+ to ! am\nt ( tann9 to be fix$1 (t5 ) addition ( "s common salt71 :i* produces no alt]ation 9 ! col\r4 ,= br[ns1 yell[s1 deep r$s1 or yell[-gre5s1 x is advantage\s to use titanium-potassium lactate or oxalate 7#b grm4 p] lit]71 :i* 9 comb9ation ) ! tann9 produces a v p]man5t yell[ coloration on :i* ! basic col\rs dye freely4 ,9 _m cases ! titanium salt is be/ appli$ aft] dy+ ) "o ( ! dyewoods 7,dreh]74 ,! basic col\rs usually require simple solution 9 hot wat] be=e add+ to ! dye-ba?1 & are us$ 9 quantities ( #je to #be grm4 p] lit] ( dye-ba?1 accord+ to _! col\r+ p[]1 :i* v>ies a good deal1 & to ! dep? ( %ade requir$4 ,! solutions %\ld n be boil$1 & "s col\rs are injur$ by too high a temp]ature4 ,"s col\rs dissolve incompletely1 & require filtration ?r\gh a cotton clo?4 ,z basic col\rs are precipitat$ by calcium c>bonate1 x is important t 8tempor>y0 h>d wat]s %\ld be neutralis$ ) acetic or lactic acid till !y fa9tly r$d5 litmus2 & 9 ! case ( col\rs :i*1 f _! attraction = ! lea!r fibre1 dye too rapidly1 & consequ5tly unev5ly1 bett] dye+ is (t5 obta9$ by ! use ( a small excess ( acetic acid1 :i* also increases ! solubility ( ! col\r4 ,too mu* acid1 h[ev]1 w prev5t ! prop] exhau/ion ( ! ba?4 ,"s few col\rs1 n[ little us$1 require to be dissolv$ 9 ! fir/ in/ance 9 a little me?ylat$ _s2 & ! addition ( _s w (t5 assi/ dye+ & /a9+ :]e ! lea!r is slightly greasy1 ?\gh consid]ations ( co/ g5]ally prev5t its use4 ,sodium sulphate is n unfrequ5tly add$ to dye+ ba?s to improve equality ( dye+2 & ) "s ( ! cotton dyes common salt is us$ to less5 _! solubility & facilitate ! exhau/ion ( ! dye-ba?4 8,acid0 col\rs usually dye bett] if acid is add$ to ! ba?1 to lib]ate _! col\r-acids1 & = ?is purpose sulphuric acid is g5]ally us$ 9 weight ab\t equal to t ( ! col\r us$4 ,its use is1 h[ev]1 objectionable1 9 ?is case1 = ! same reasons z 9 blea*+1 s9ce x is impossible by m]e wa%+ to remove x entirely f ! lea!r1 :i* x ultimately rots :5 conc5trat$ by exposure to a dry atmosph]e or high temp]ature2 & x is bett] to use =mic or acetic acid to ! ext5t ( two or ?ree times ! weight ( ! dye-/uff4 ,sodium acid sulphate may also be us$1 b is probably m objectionable ?an an organic acid4 ,_m acid col\rs1 h[ev]1 dye q satisfactorily f a neutral ba?4 ,! acid col\rs are us$ 9 some:at simil> quantities to ! basic1 b are g5]ally inf]ior 9 col\r+ p[]1 ?\gh !y dye m ev5ly1 especially on defective gra91 & are (t5 m p]man5t to light4 ,m5tion has already be5 made ( ! polyg5etic or mordant dye-/uffs1 :i* are /ill us$ to "s ext5t = dye+ glove-lea!rs1 & ( :i* logwood is important 9 dye+ blacks4 ,fu/ic & ,brazil-wood 7pea*-wood7 are n q gone out ( use among old-fa%ion$ dy]s1 ev5 = dye+ moroccos & o!r col\r$ lea!rs ( vegetable tannage4 ,pea*-wood1 ) a t9 mordant 7g5]ally a s-call$ 8t9 spirits0 made by dissolv+ t9 9 mixtures ( hydro*loric & nitric acid7 0 =m]ly mu* us$ 9 dye+ *eap crimsons1 b is n[ q displac$ by ! azo-sc>lets4 ,! acid t9-solutions 7 frequ5tly v injuri\s to ! lea!r4 ,! wood-infusion1 r5d]$ slightly alkal9e ) soda1 ammonia or1 =m]ly1 ) /ale ur9e1 is usually dy$ fir/ on ! lea!r1 & foll[$ by ! mordant 8/rik]02 f]r\s or f]ric solutions1 & potassium bi*romate be+ us$ = d>k col\rs1 & t9 salts1 or sometimes alum1 = ! bright] ones4 ,! mordant is sometimes add$ to ! dye-ba? t[>ds ! end ( ! op]ation1 b is bett] us$ z a sep>ate ba?1 z x is apt to produce a precipitate ( col\r-lake on ! surface ( ! sk91 :i* rubs (f on friction4 ,9 "s cases1 & especially 9 black dye+1 ! /rong infusion ( dye-wood1 & ! necess>y 8/rik]0 are successively appli$ by bru%+ in/ead ( 9 ! dye-tray4 ,logwood & ,brazil wood are bo? ,csalp9ias closely alli$ to divi-divi4 ,logwood is ,csalp9ia 7see p4 #bhg7 ,campe*ianum4 ,its col\r+ matt] is hmatoxyl91 a sub/ance ne>ly alli$ to tann9s1 & almo/ col\rless2 :i* on oxidation gives hmat91 :i* dyes a yell[-br[n1 only develop+ o!r col\rs by ! aid ( mordants4 ,logwood *ips are extract$ by boil+ or heat+ "u pressure = "s "t ) wat]2 & z hmat9 gives d>k purpli%-r$ comp\nds ) alkalies1 soda or /ale ur9e is frequ5tly add$ "u ! mi/ak5 belief t x produces a bett] extraction1 b really leads to wa/e ( col\r+ matt] by oxidation4 ,x is be/ to extract ) wat] alone1 & add any necess>y alkali to ! infusion be=e use4 #a-b lb4 ( wood p] gallon is frequ5tly employ$ 9 mak+ ! infusion1 & z ?is proportion ( wat] is q insuffici5t to prop]ly extract ! wood1 ! residue %\ld be boil$ ) "o or m fur!r quantities1 :i* are employ$ 9 turn = extract+ fre% portions ( wood4 ,logwood dyes be/ at high temp]atures1 & especially 9 ! case ( *rome lea!r ) :i* a temp]ature ( #hj ,c4 may be safely us$4 ,! pres5ce ( a trace ( a salt ( lime is advantage\s1 & ) v s(t wat]s a little lime wat] or *alk may be add$ to ! logwood liquor4 ,9 black+ sk9s1 ! /rong infusion is r5d]$ slightly alkal9e ) sodium c>bonate or ammonia1 & bru%$ undilut$ on ! lea!r4 ,if employ$ z a ba?1 a some:at weak] infusion is us$1 & ! lea!r is frequ5tly treat$ fir/ 9 an alkal9e ba?1 to :i* a small quantity ( potassium bi*romate is (t5 add$4 ,! object ( ! alkali is n only to assi/ 9 ! =mation ( ! col\r-lake1 by saturat+ ! acid set free f ! iron-salt us$ z a /rik]1 & ?us to prev5t ! col\r f p5etrat+ ! lea!r too deeply1 b1 at ! same "t1 to ov]come ! resi/ance to wett+ caus$ by grease or oil :i* ! lea!r may conta94 ,x mu/ ?us be us$ m freely :5 /uff$ lea!r is to be black$1 b excess %\ld be c>efully avoid$1 z x easily r5d]s ! lea!r t5d] & brittle4 ,! potassium bi*romate oxidises ! hmatoxyl91 or ! f]r\s salt subsequ5tly appli$1 & =ms a ne>ly black *rome-logwood lake4 ,! iron solution is g5]ally ei!r ( f]r\s sulphate ( p]haps #e p] c5t4 /r5g?1 or comm]cial 8iron-liquor10 :i* is a 8pyrolignite0 or crude acetate ( iron1 conta9+ cate*ol-d]ivatives & o!r organic products f ! di/illation ( wood1 :i* act advantage\sly1 bo? z antiseptics1 & 9 prev5t+ ! rapid oxidation :i* occurs :5 pure f]r\s acetate is us$4 ,iron-liquor is g5]ally to be pref]r$ to f]r\s sulphate 78gre5 vitriol071 z ! sulphuric acid ( ! latt]1 unless completely neutralis$ by ! alkali employ$ 9 prep>ation1 acts 9 ! end disa/r\sly on ! lea!r4 ,comm]cial iron-liquor is (t5 adult]at$ ) f]r\s sulphate1 :i* may be detect$ by its giv+ a precipitate ) b>ium *loride4 ,great c>e %\ld be tak5 n to use iron 9 excess ( ! logwood or tann9 pres5t1 z x o!rwise takes tann9 f ! lea!r itself1 mak+ x h>d & liable to crack1 :ile any uncomb9$ iron acts z a c>ri] ( oxyg51 giv+ up its oxyg5 to ! col\r+ matt] or tann9 ) :i* x is 9 contact1 & aga9 oxidis+ f ! air1 & s caus+ 8spue+0 or oil-oxidation1 & o!r evils4 ,good blacks :i* are m p]man5t ?an ^? ) logwood1 may be obta9$ by m]ely treat+ lea!r conta9+ an excess ( oak-b>k tann9 or suma*1 fir/ ) an alkal9e solution 7n at ! mo/ /rong] ?an #b p] c5t4 ( liquid ammonia1 or #e p] c5t4 ( soda cry/als71 & !n ) iron-liquor4 ,if x is n c]ta9 t ! lea!r conta9s excess ( a suitable tann91 a tann9-solution mu/ be employ$ l ! logwood infusion1 or ! lea!r mu/ be suma*$4 ,! addition ( "s suma* to logwood liquor is (t5 advantage\s1 & a black] 7i4e4 less blue7 black1 especially on alum$ lea!rs1 is obta9$ by us+ a proportion ( fu/ic4 ,solutions made by boil+ #aj p] c5t4 ( cut* ) #e p] c5t4 ( sodium c>bonate give good blacks ) iron-liquor1 & d n make ! lea!r t5d]1 & !y c be us$ 9 mixture ) logwood4 ,_m comm]cial logwood extracts conta9 *e/nut-wood extract z an adult]ant4 ,in/ead ( dye+ 9 ! ba?1 x is v common1 especially = ! *eap] lea!rs su* z l9+s1 & col\r$ lea!rs ( ! common] sort1 to apply ! col\r by bru%+ 7commonly call$ 8/a9+074 ,_m col\rs1 h[ev]1 :i* dye well ) "t & w>m?1 are inapplicable 9 ?is way1 & only ^? %\ld be us$ :i* h a /rong attraction = ! lea!r1 & h5ce g on well 9 ! cold4 ,if 8acid0 col\rs are employ$1 x is ess5tial to select ^? :i* c be us$ 9 neutral solution1 or at mo/ ) addition ( "s mild organic acid su* z =mic or acetic1 s9ce1 z ! lea!r is n wa%$ aft] /a9+1 ! sulphuric acid w\ld rema9 9 x1 & w\ld ultimately de/roy x4 ,:]e lea!rs h a h>d & repell5t surface1 ! addition ( a little me?ylat$ _s to ! dye is (t5 v useful4 ,! col\rs are us$ 9 solutions ( f to #a p] c5t41 :i* %\ld be q cle> & free f s$im5t4 ,difficultly soluble col\rs mu/ be us$ 9 weak solution1 or ! dye kept w>m :ile 9 use4 ,dye-solutions w n g5]ally keep = any great l5g? ( "t )\t *ange4 ,be=e /a9+1 ! lea!r mu/ be c>efully 8set out10 or o!rwise made z smoo? z possible1 & ! /a9+ is g5]ally done aft] mo/ ( ! o!r op]ations ( curry+ or dress+ h be5 complet$4 ,/a9+ is be/ begun ) ! lea!r 9 a slightly damp or 8sammi$0 condition1 & ! col\r is appli$ ev5ly ) a s(ti% bru% 9 two or ?ree coats1 ! lea!r be+ slightly dri$ aft] ea*4 ,z a rule ! m coats are appli$1 ! m ev5 is ! "w2 b to save co/ ( lab\r x is common on *eap goods to be cont5t ) two1 ( :i* ! fir/ is giv51 pref]ably ) a weak] solution1 to ! dry lea!r4 ,:]e ! lea!r is 8weak-gra9$0 x is sometimes advantage\s to size x fir/ ) a weak solution ( gelat9e1 gum tragacan?1 or l9se$ mucilage1 & simil> solutions are (t5 us$ to fix ! col\r & give a high] gloss4 ,! /e>9e-glaze m5tion$ on p4 #dja may also be us$ = ?is purpose1 & a weak solution ( x is sometimes employ$ z a vehicle = ! acid col\rs4 ,acid yell[s & br[ns may also be dissolv$ 9 ! undilut$ glaze :]e only a pale col\r is requir$1 or to height5 ! col\r ( lea!r already /a9$4 ,a li/ ( suitable col\rs = /a9+ is giv5 9 ! ,app5dix1 p4 #dhf4 ,x r>ely happ5s 9 lea!r dye+ t ! requir$ col\r c be giv5 by ! application ( a s+le dye1 mo/ ( ! %ades n[ requir$ be+ produc$ by mixtures4 ,x is1 !re=e1 necess>y to say a few words on ! !ory ( col\r comb9ations4 ,:ite light is ( c\rse compos$ ( a mixture ( all ! spectrum-col\rs1 & c be sep>at$ into !m by ! prism4 ,x is probable1 h[ev]1 t ! eye is only capable ( ?ree di/9ct col\r-s5sations1 & t all ! col\rs we p]ceive are repres5t$ by ! excitem5t ( ^! 9 diff]5t proportions1 ! actual col\r-s5sations be+ r$1 blue-gre51 & violet4#agi ,if we int]pose a piece ( yell[ glass betwe5 ! eye & :ite light1 ! violet & blue are absorb$1 & ! rema9+ r$ & gre5 rays comb9e to produce ! s5sation ( yell[4 ,if pure blue glass is us$1 ! r$ is absorb$1 & we h blue z ! result ( ! rema9+ mixture ( gre5 & violet4 ,r$ glass absorbs ! :ole ( ! gre51 & gre5i%-blue1 all[+ r$ & mu* ( ! violet to pass4 ,?us1 if we comb9e blue & yell[ glass1 only ! gre5 is all[$ to pass1 & simil>ly ) r$ & blue glass1 gre5 & blue is cut out1 & only ! violet rema9s4 ,?us r$1 yell[1 & blue are frequ5tly call$ ! prim>y col\rs1 & by comb9+ all ?ree 9 equal proportions all col\rs are cut out1 & black or grey results4 ,! blue & violet :i* are /opp$ by yell[ glass are ^? col\rs :i* w\ld produce ! s5sation ( violet-blue1 & h5ce ! latt] is call$ ! 8complem5t>y col\r0 ( yell[1 & s on ) ! re/4 ,x w be not$ t all ! col\rs ( col\r$ objects are produc$ by absorption ( a "p ( ! light1 & !re=e col\r$ bodies are always d>k] ?an :ite ones1 & :]e a col\r is mix$ ) its complem5t>y 9 suitable proportion1 all col\rs are absorb$ & black or grey is produc$4 #agi ,! subject ( col\r is too complicat$ to be adequately treat$ "h2 & = full] in=mation1 read]s are ref]r$ to ,abney's #8,col\r ,measurem5t & ,mixture1' ,s4,p4,c4,k41 ,london1 #ahia4 ,x may1 h[ev]1 be po9t$ out t1 :ile ! true prim>y col\r-s5sations are unque/ionably r$1 blue-gre5 & violet1 & by mixture ( light ( ^! col\rs1 all o!r col\rs1 includ+ :ite1 c be produc$2 ! prim>y pigm5ts or dyes are r$1 yell[1 & blue2 ! effect be+ produc$ 9 ! =m] case by ! addition ( col\rs1 & 9 ! latt] by _! subtraction4 ,col\rs :i* are made by mix+ two prim>y col\rs are g5]ally call$ 8second>y02 :ile ! dull] t9ts made by ! addition to ^! ( black1 or ( a complem5t>y col\r :i* produces black1 are call$ 8t]ti>y40 ,any prim>y col\r is complem5t>y to ! second>y col\r produc$ by mix+ ! o!r two prim>ies & vice v]sa4 ,! foll[+ tabul> arrangem5t %[s at once ! effect ( col\r mix+4 ,,prim>y4 ,,second>y4 ,,t]ti>y4 ,r$ ,orange ) ,black4 ,br[n4 ,yell[ ,gre5 ,olive1 ,sage4 ,blue ,purple 7,violet74 ,puce1 ,m>oon4 ,r$ ,!oretically1 any col\r may be obta9$ by mixture ( ! prim>ies1 & t ?is is possible to a great ext5t is %[n 9 ! success ( mod]n 8?ree col\r0 pr9t+1 by :i* pictures are obta9$ 9 natural col\rs by ! use ( ?ree prim>ies only2 b 9 practice few col\rs are q pure1 & if two v diff]5t col\rs are mix$1 x is difficult to avoid ! production ( t]ti>ies4 ,! mo/ brilliant col\rs are g5]ally produc$ by dye+ ) ! ne>e/ col\r :i* c be obta9$ to t requir$1 & %ad+ ) ano!r :i* is ne>1 b on ! o!r side ( ! desir$ t9t4 ,?us if we want to produce bright %ades 9 dye+1 we mu/ avoid ! introduction ( complem5t>y col\rs4 ,a blui% r$ mix$ ) a r$di% blue w produce a bright %ade ( violet1 b if we mix an orange-r$ ) a gre5i%-blue1 we introduce yell[ into ! mixture1 & obta9 a dull m>oon or puce accord+ to ! proportion ( ! o!r col\rs4 ,9 a simil> way1 ! introduction ( a blue dye w dull a bright orange to a br[n1 & a little ( a yell[ dye w dull a bright purple to a m>oon4 ,?is fact is frequ5tly us$ 9 produc+ ! quiet %ades ( col\r (t5 requir$ f ! mo/ brilliant dyes4 ,if to a bright orange we add black1 or a blue dye :i* z its complem5t>y produces black1 we conv]t x into a br[n4 ,if in/ead ( blue we use gre5 = dull+1 we give ! br[n a yell[] %ade1 s9ce ! gre5 produces black at ! exp5se ( ! r$ ( ! orange4 ,violet simil>ly us$ gives a r$d] br[n1 s9ce x produces black by comb9ation ) ! yell[4 ,?is %ad+1 if small 9 am\nt1 is frequ5tly done by direct mixture ( a suitable dye1 b if consid]able1 x is g5]ally bett] to top "o col\r ) ano!r4 ,?us a blue1 topp$ ) a p[]ful orange1 w produce a ,havanna br[n4 ,= d>k col\rs1 x is frequ5tly conv5i5t to produce a d>k gr\nd ) "s *eap dye1 su* z logwood & iron or *rome1 & to top x ) a bright %ade ( ! col\r requir$4 ,9 ?is way *eap d>k blues & gre5s c be easily produc$4 ,= r$s & br[ns1 mixtures ( logwood & ,brazil-wood1 or ,brazil-wood & fu/ic may be us$1 topp$ ) coal-t> col\rs4 ,tann+ mat]ials1 su* z quebra*o & mangrove extracts1 :i* give br[ns ) bi*romate1 are also employ$ on *eap goods4 ,x is also frequ5tly wise to dye ) a basic col\r & top ) an acid "o1 or vice v]sa2 z 9 _m cases ! "o fixes & comb9es ) ! o!r1 & an increase ( fa/ness is obta9$4 ,morocco & _m o!r col\r$ lea!rs are f9i%$ by damp+ ! surface ( ! dri$ lea!r ) a v dilute 8season+0 ( wat]1 milk1 & blood or album51 all[+ ! lea!r to become q or ne>ly dry1 & poli%+ by friction "u a cyl9d] ( agate1 glass1 or wood 9 ! glaz+ ma*9e4 ,_m lea!rs are also gra9$ by pr9t+ f engrav$ or electrotype roll]s1 or by 8bo>d+10 or a comb9ation ( ! two4 8,bo>d+0 consi/s 9 pu%+ =w>d a fold 9 ! lea!r on a table ) a flat bo>d r\gh$ und]nea?1 or l9$ ) cork1 9 a way :i* is difficult to describe1 b :i* 9 skilful h&s wr9kles or 8gra9s0 ! sk9 9 a regul> patt]n4 ,! col\r ( a dy$ sk9 is mu* alt]$ by f9i%+ & especially by glaz+1 :i* always d>k5s & enri*es ! col\r4 ,9 dye+ to patt]n1 x is useful to glaze a little bit ( ! rapidly dri$ sk9 by friction ) a smoo? piece ( h>d wood = comp>ison1 & a portion ( ! patt]n may also be wett$ = comp>ison ) ! wet sk94 ,col\rs :i* look full & ev5 9 ! dye-ba?1 (t5 g d[n 9 a mo/ disappo9t+ mann] on dry+1 ?\gh to "s ext5t !y rega9 int5sity on f9i%+4 ,9 comp>+ ! dye+ value ( col\rs1 ! mo/ practical way is to make actual dye+ trials ) equal or kn[n quantities ( ! col\rs & ( wat]4 ,su* trials may be made1 ei!r by 8turn+0 ! samples 9 photographic porcela9 trays1 kept w>m 9 a wat]-ba? 7a 8dripp+ t90 may be us$ = ! purpose1 ! trays be+ support$ a little above ! bottom on t9 supports sold]$ to ! t971 or ! lea!r may be hung f glass rods1 by hooks ( copp] wire1 9 glass vessels 7squ>e batt]y j>s71 also plac$ 9 a wat]-ba?4 ,! lea!r samples %\ld be ( equal surface 9 e case2 = susp5sion1 pieces ( 8skiv]0 7%eep-gra97 ( #h by #d 94 or #bj by #aj cm4 are v conv5i5t4 ,^! may ei!r be 8pleat$0 or susp5d$ by ! two ends gra9 side out1 ) a %ort glass rod to weight ! fold1 & keep !m flat4 ,! weight ( col\r us$ = a sample #h 94 by #d 94 multipli$ by #ed times ! area ( a s+le sk9 9 feet1 w give approximately ! weight ( col\r ne$$ p] doz52 :i* is1 h[ev]1 a good deal influ5c$ by ! mode ( dye+1 & ! quantity ( wat] us$4 ,9 dye+ on ! l>ge scale1 iron1 z9c & ev5 copp] are to be avoid$1 ! latt] act+ v injuri\sly on _m col\rs1 & on ! :ole wood5 vessels are to be pref]r$4 ,?\gh ^! become deeply dy$1 !y become v h>d1 & if well wa%$ ) hot wat]1 & occasionally ) dilute acid1 !y may be cleans$ s z to give up no col\r 9 subsequ5t dye+ op]ations1 ?\gh ( c\rse x is n desirable1 if x c be avoid$1 to use ! same vessel = v diff]5t col\rs4 ,z9c rapidly blea*es _m col\rs1 especially :ile wet & slightly acid1 & dis*>ge-patt]ns may (t5 be produc$ by press+ ! wet lea!r on p]=at$ z9c plates4 ,,*apt] ,,xxvi4 ,,evaporation1 ,,heat+ ,,& ,,dry+4 ,que/ions ( evaporation1 :e!r = rais+ /eam1 or = ! conc5tration ( tann+ extracts & o!r solutions are ( consid]able importance 9 ! tann+ indu/ry1 & z ! same natural laws :i* apply to ^! equally gov]n ! dry+ ( lea!r1 x is conv5i5t to /udy ! !ory ( ! :ole subject 9 "o *apt]1 r ?an to divide x1 & place ea* "p 9 a diff]5t portion ( ! book4 ,! mod]n conception ( evaporation & vap\r pressures has be5 describ$ on page #ge1 b x w be necess>y to recapitulate a little4 ,x is a well-kn[n fact t mo/ liquids1 if left expos$ 9 an op5 vessel1 gradually disappe> by evaporation into ! air1 ev5 at ord9>y temp]atures4 ,if ! vessel is heat$ suffici5tly1 ! liquid 8boils02 t is1 bubbles ( vap\r are =m$ 9 x1 & escape1 & ! evaporation is !re=e mu* m rapid4 ,to avoid complication1 let u fir/ imag9e a liquid seal$ 9 a glass flask1 :i* conta9s no air1 b :i* is only p>tially fill$ by ! liquid4 ,x has be5 po9t$ out t ! motion ( heat by :i* ! molecules ( ! liquid are agitat$1 enables "s ( !m to break away f ! attraction by :i* liquid p>ticles are held toge!r1 & pass into ! =m ( gas or vap\r1 :i* w fill ! empty "p ( ! flask4 ,?is evaporation w1 h[ev]1 soon rea* a limit1 s9ce ! vap\r _c escape f ! flask4 ,! fly+ molecules ( vap\r produce pressure by /rik+ ! walls ( ! flask1 :ile a proportion ( !m w /rike ! surface ( ! liquid1 & aga9 be caught & reta9$ by its attraction2 & z ! pressure rises1 ! numb] ( ^! necess>ily increases till a po9t is rea*$ :5 z _m fall back & are reta9$ 7or 8cond5s$071 z ^? :i* evaporate1 & ! pressure w !n rema9 con/ant4 ,! am\nt ( ! pressure w v>y ) ! nature ( ! liquid1 & w be ! great] ! m volatile x is1 or1 9 o!r words1 ! less ! p[] ( its int]nal attraction4 ,x w also increase ) ris+ temp]ature1 :i*1 by increas+ ! velocity ( motion ( ! molecules1 r5d]s _! escape f ! liquid easi]1 & _! recapture m difficult4 ,x w n be at all affect$ by ! volume ( vap\r or ! size ( ! flask1 b s long z any liquid is pres5t1 x w dep5d m]ely ^u ! nature ( ! liquid1 & ! temp]ature4 ,if ! flask is l>ge1 m ( ! liquid w evaporate till ! same pressure is rea*$4 ,if at ! outset ! flask is n empty1 b fill$ ) air1 x w make no diff]5ce to ! pressure or quantity ( ! vap\r 9 x1 :i* w be add$ to t ( ! air1 :atev] t may be4 ,if ! seal+ ( ! flask is brok5 s t x is op5 to ! atmosph]e1 air & vap\r w escape1 or air w pass 91 till ! total pressure is equal to ! atmosph]ic pressure outside1 7ab\t #ae lb4 p] squ>e in*74 ,z1 h[ev]1 ! vap\r 9 ! flask is always r5ew$ by evaporation1 s t ! full vap\r-pressure ( ! liquid is ma9ta9$1 ! 8p>tial0 pressure 7z x is call$7 ( ! air 9 ! flask w be less ?an t ( ! out] atmosph]e by ! am\nt ( ! vap\r-pressure1 :i* makes up ! diff]5ce4 ,once ?is balance is atta9$1 evaporation w g on v sl[ly 9 ! flask1 z x c only replace ! small quantity ( vap\r :i* escapes4 ,if1 h[ev]1 ! vap\r is remov$ by bl[+ fre% air into ! flask1 x w rapidly be replac$ 9 ! old proportion by fre% evaporation4 ,?us goods 9 a close room w dry only v sl[ly1 ev5 if ! temp]ature is high1 unless ! moi/5$ air is replac$ by dry] air f ! outside by "s effective sy/em ( v5tilation4 ,9 abs5ce ( ?is1 evaporation only becomes rapid :5 ! temp]ature ( ! liquid is rais$ to its 8boil+ po9t10 t is1 :5 ! vap\r-pressure becomes slightly 9 excess ( t ( ! atmosph]e1 s t ! fre%ly =m$ vap\r c pu% out t already 9 ! flask or *amb] into ! out] air1 & at ! same "t1 bubbles c be =m$ 9 ! int]ior ( ! liquid by ! escap+ vap\r4 ,z ! vap\r-pressure ( a liquid rises cont9u\sly ) increas+ temp]ature1 & its boil+ po9t is def9$ z t temp]ature at :i* x is equal 9 pressure to ! air 7or vap\r7 9 contact ) x1 x is evid5t t ! boil+ po9t mu/ entirely dep5d on ! pressure4 ,?us ! boil+ po9t ( wat] 9 a boil] at a pressure ( #ee lb4 p] squ>e in* above ! atmosph]e is #aej;,c41 & 9 a p>tial vacuum equal to #eh in*es ( b>ometric pressure1 is only #fj ,c41 a fact :i* is made use ( 9 ! conc5tration ( extracts & o!r liquids at a l[ temp]ature 9 ! vacuum-pan4 7,atmosph]ic pressure is tak5 at #cj in*es or #gfj millimet]s ( ! b>omet] or #adg lb4 p] in*1 or #ajcc kilos p] squ>e c5timet]47 ,if a piece ( iron is plac$ ov] a p[]ful gas-burn]1 x w g on gett+ hott] till its temp]ature is ne>ly or q equal to t ( ! gas-flame4 ,on ! o!r h&1 a pan ( wat]1 9 ! same condition1 once x has rea*$ its boil+ po9t1 becomes no hott] till all ! wat] is evaporat$4 ,x is evid5t t ! :ole available heat or en]gy ( ! gas-flame is consum$ 9 conv]t+ ! wat] into /eam4 ,we might conv]t a proportion ( ?is en]gy into me*anical "w1 by us+ ! /eam 9 a /eam eng9e2 b ev5 )\t ?is1 "w is actually be+ done by ! escap+ /eam 9 rais+ ! weight ( ! atmosph]e1 & 9 ov]com+ ! attractive =ce :i* holds ! p>ticles ( wat] toge!r 9 ! liquid =m4 ,x is ( c\rse kn[n to ev]yone1 t en]gy may *ange its =m1 z f heat to "w1 b t x _c be de/roy$1 dim9i%$ or increas$2 & !re=e ! :ole ( ! "w p]=m$ 9 conv]t+ ! wat] into /eam is aga9 recov]$ z heat :5 ! /eam is cond5s$4 ,9 ?is connection a cle> di/9ction mu/ be made betwe5 quantity ( heat1 & temp]ature1 :i* 9 popul> language are (t5 confus$4 ,x is = in/ance obvi\s t if we mix a p\nd ( wat] at boil+ temp]ature ) ano!r p\nd at freez+ po9t1 ! temp]ature is alt]$ to #ej ,c41 b ! total quantity ( heat is un*ang$4 ,x is equally cle> t no *ange 9 quantity ( heat takes place :5 #a lb4 ( m]cury at #ajj is mix$ ) #a lb4 ( wat] at #j1 ?\gh 9 ?is case1 ow+ to ! small capacity ( m]cury = heat1 ! common temp]ature w\ld only be rais$ to ab\t #c4 ,we mu/ !re=e h "s measure ( heat ap>t f ! m]e direct indications ( ! !rmomet]1 & t mo/ g5]ally us$ is ! quantity ( heat requir$ to raise #a kilo ( wat] #a ,c4 7kilogram-calorie74#ahj ,9 ,engl& ! heat requir$ to raise #a lb4 ( wat] #a ,f4 is also 9 use z a unit4 ,! k4-calorie is equal to #cig 7v approximately #d7 lb4 ,f4 units4 ,= our purpose x may be tak5 t #ajj k4-calories ( heat are requir$ to raise #a kilo or lit] ( wat] f freez+ to boil+ temp]ature4 ,if1 h[ev]1 ! wat] is actually froz51 we require #hj k-calories m]ely to melt ! kilogram ( ice )\t p]ceptibly rais+ its temp]ature1 & :5 ! wat] is rais$ to #ajj1 #ecf calories ( heat are /ill necess>y m]ely to conv]t x into /eam at ! same temp]ature4 ,to melt #a lb4 ( ice requires #add lb4 ,f4 units1 to raise x to boil+ po9t #ahj m1 & to evaporate x #ife additional4 ,! quantity ( heat requir$ = actual evaporation v>ies a little at diff]5t temp]atures1 be+ some:at l>g] at l[] temp]atures1 b ! total heat requir$ to raise wat] f ! freez+ po9t1 & conv]t x into /eam at any pressure is ne>ly con/ant1 be+ #fce calories at atmosph]ic pressure1 & only ab\t #fej calories1 or #aahj lb4 ,f4 units at #ej lb4 p] sq4 in*4 ,! quantity ( heat evolv$ by ! combu/ion ( #a lb4 ( good coal is #ac1jjj to #ae1jjj lb4 ,f4 units2 or ( #a kilo1 #gbjj to #hcjj k-calories1 b 9 rais+ /eam 9 a good boil] coal w only evaporate #aj times its weight ( wat] at #ajj 7#ecfj calories or #ifej lb4 ,f4 units71 ! rema9+ heat be+ lo/4 #a horse-p[] 7#cc1jjj foot-p\nds p] m9ute7#aha 9 ! be/ eng9es requires ab\t #a lb4 ( coal or #ae lb4 ( /eam p] h\r1 b 9 ^? ( worse con/ruction may run up to _m times t am\nt4 ,z1 ev5 !oretically1 n #bj p] c5t4 ( ! total heat c be conv]t$ into me*anical "w 9 a 8p]fect0 eng9e work+ at #ge lb4 pressure1 x is (t5 economical to use wa/e /eam = heat+ or evaporation1 & :]e ?is c be done pr(itably1 ! additional co/ ( ! me*anical p[] is v small4 #ahj ,a gram-calorie ( "o-?\s&? "p ( ! above is also 9 use = "s sci5tific purposes1 b ! kilogram-calorie only is us$ 9 ! foll[+ pages4 #aha ,?is is equal to #gfjd kilogrammet]s p] sec41 b ! metrical horse-p[] is only tak5 at #ge kilogrammet]s 9 ,france & ,g]many4 ,9 evaporat+ liquids 9 ! op5 pan #ecf calories is requir$ to evaporate #a kilo ( wat] already rais$ to boil+ temp]ature1 & a l>g] am\nt = salt-solutions1 & x makes comp>atively little diff]5ce :e!r ?is is done at #ajj or at a l[] temp]ature4 ,:]e1 h[ev]1 evaporation is done 9 vacuo1 consid]able economy c be effect$ by :at are kn[n z multiple 8effects10 9 :i* ! /eam f "o vacuum-pan is employ$ to boil a second "u a r$uc$ pressure1 & consequ5tly boil+ at a l[] temp]ature4 ,?is pr9ciple c be practically appli$ to z _m z five or six successive 8effects10 ! weak] liquor be+ usually evaporat$ at ! highe/ temp]ature & l[e/ vacuum 9 ! fir/ 8effect10 by ! exhau/ /eam ( ! eng9e us$ = ! vacuum pumps1 :ile ! /eam f ! fir/ effect heats t ( ! next high] conc5tration1 & s on4 ,9 ! ,y>yan evaporator 7p4 #cci71 ! boil+ liquid is spray$ ?r\gh coil-tubes1 ?us expos+ an enorm\s surface to evaporation1 & ! :ole conc5tration ( any giv5 portion ( liquid takes place z x passes ?r\gh ! app>atus1 :i* does n1 ev5 9 multiple effects1 occupy m ?an #d or #e m9utes2 & )\t ! temp]ature ( ! liquid ev] ris+ above #fj or #gj ,c4 ,9 ! case ( liquids1 l sug>- & tann9-solutions :i* are liable to *emical *ange f cont9u$ heat+1 ! %ortness ( ! "t is a v great advantage4 ,! numb] ( effects :i* x is desirable to use dep5ds greatly on ! co/ ( fuel z comp>$ to ! l>gely increas$ co/ ( ! app>atus4 #a lb4 ( coal employ$ 9 rais+ /eam w evaporate #h lb4 9 a s+le-effect ,y>yan1 #af lb4 9 a d\ble-effect1 #bc lb4 9 a triple1 #cj lb4 9 a quadruple1 & #cg lb4 9 a qu9tuple-effect app>atus4 ,:]e liquids are evaporat$ 9 ! op5 air at temp]atures bel[ boil+1 x is advisable by "s means to spread ! liquid 9 a ?9 film1 s z to expose a l>ge surface1 :i* mu/ be cont9u\sly remov$ by agitation1 s z to prev5t ! =mation ( a sk94 ,a good app>atus = ?is purpose is ! ,*5ali] evaporator 7,fig4 #ib71 :i* consi/s ( /eam-heat$ copp] discs rotat+ 9 a tr\gh conta9+ ! liquid1 :i* is tak5 up by buckets atta*$ to ! rims ( ! discs1 & p\r$ ov] _! heat$ surfaces4 ,9 o!r =ms1 ! liquid is all[$ to trickle ov] /eam-heat$ pipes or corrugat$ plates4 ,su* evaporators %\ld be plac$ 9 a curr5t ( air s z to rapidly c>ry (f ! vap\r =m$4 ,_! use is v objectionable = liquids1 l tann9-liquors1 :i* are injur$ by oxidation1 & !y are n ne>ly s economical z vacuum-pans4 ,! dry+ ( lea!r dep5ds on ! same laws z ! evaporation ( liquids1 b dem&s special consid]ation f its v diff]5t conditions ( temp]ature & supply ( heat4 ,x is important to rememb] t evaporation _c g on unless ! vap\r-pressure ( ! liquid to be evaporat$ is high] ?an t ( ! vap\r 9 contact ) x1 & t air-pressure does n prev5t evaporation1 s t if we sweep away ! /agnant vap\r ) dry air1 evaporation w g on z quickly z 9 vacuo1 except t ! liquid _c boil4 ,we mu/ also be> 9 m9d t evaporation consumes q z mu* heat at l[ temp]atures z 9 a /eam boil]1 & t ?is heat mu/ g5]ally come f ! surr\nd+ air1 ! temp]ature ( :i* x r$uces4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ib4--;,*5ali] ,evaporator & ,glue ,cool]s4 ,! rapidity ( evaporation1 & ! quantity ( moi/ure :i* c be tak5 up by a giv5 volume ( air dep5ds on ! vap\r-pressure1 :i* increases ) temp]ature4 ,! relation betwe5 ! two1 & ! weight ( wat] 9 grams p] cubic met] :i* c be dissolv$ 9 dry air is giv5 9 ! foll[+ table4 7,grams p] cubic met] is practically equival5t to ounces p] #ajjj cubic feet4 ,vap\r-pressure is giv5 9 millimet]s ( m]cury ( ! b>omet]1 p4 #dbb47 ,,vap\r ,,pressure ,,( ,,wat]4 ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,temp]ature1 ,c -#aj- #e #j #e #aj #ae #bj #be #cj #ce #dj ,f #ad #bc #cb #da #ej #ei #fh #gg #hf #ie #ajd ,pressure1 mm4 #bbcbdffeiaabgagdbcecaedaiedi ,grams p] cb4 m4#bdcddifhicabhagbbbhcjacib 44 ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,air is practically nev] dry1 & 9 damp wea!r is frequ5tly saturat$ ) moi/ure to ! full ext5t correspond+ to its temp]ature4 ,9 ,engl& ! av]age quantity ( moi/ure conta9$ 9 ! air ?r\gh\t ! ye> is #hb p] c5t4 ( ! total possible1 & ev5 9 ! drie/ summ] wea!r x is nev] less ?an #eh p] c5t4 ,s long z ! wat] is 9 ! =m ( vap\r1 ! air rema9s q cle> & does n feel damp2 9 fogs1 ! air is n only saturat$ ) moi/ure1 b conta9s small liquid p>ticles float+ 9 x4 ,( c\rse :5 ! air is really saturat$ ) moi/ure1 x has no dry+ p[] :atev]4 ,z is evid5t f ! table1 ! am\nt ( wat] :i* c be dissolv$ 9 a giv5 volume ( air rapidly increases ) temp]ature4 ,air at #j ,c4 is only capable ( conta9+ #di grams p] cubic met]1 or n mu* m ?an #bj p] c5t4 ( :at x c conta9 at #be ,c4 ,x h5ce rapidly increases 9 dry+ p[] z x is w>m$1 & consequ5tly ! air 9 a w>m well-v5tilat$ dry+ room 9 w9t] is g5]ally mu* dri]1 & has great] capacity = absorb+ moi/ure ?an ! op5 air 9 ! drie/ summ] wea!r4 ,?is is ! pr9cipal cause ( ! t5d5cy to h>% & irregul> dry+ by ! use ( artificial heat2 & may be rem$i$ by a prop] circulation ( ! air by a fan )\t too frequ5t *ange ) ! cold] air outside4 ,on ! o!r h& ! use ( a little artificial heat 9 damp summ] wea!r1 :5 ! air is saturat$ ) moi/ure1 may be q z necess>y z 9 w9t]4 ,! am\nt ( moi/ure 9 ! air is mo/ easily asc]ta9$ by a device kn[n z ! 8wet & dry bulb !rmomet]s40 ,?is consi/s ( two !rmomet]s m\nt$ on a bo>d2 "o ( :i* has ! bulb cov]$ ) musl91 & kept moi/ by a lamp-wick atta*$ to x1 & dipp+ 9 a vessel ( wat]4 ,! temp]ature ( ! wet bulb is l[]$ by ! heat consum$ 9 evaporation1 & ! diff]5ce ( its temp]ature f t ( ! dry bulb is proportionate to ! dry+ p[] ( ! air4 ,?is may be approximately calculat$ 9 grams p] cubic met] by multiply+ ! diff]5ce by #jfd = ,c5tigrade or #jce = ,fahr5heit degrees2 & if d$uct$ f ! total capacity = moi/ure correspond+ to ! temp]ature ( ! wet bulb z giv5 9 table1 p4 #dbf1 w give ! actual moi/ure 9 grams conta9$ 9 a cubic met] ( air2 b = practical purposes1 all t is necess>y is to f9d by exp]i5ce ! temp]ature & diff]5ce betwe5 ! wet & dry bulbs1 :i* gives ! be/ result = ! dry+ requir$1 & to ma9ta9 x z ne>ly z possible by regulation ( ! heat+ & v5tilation4 ,*eap =ms ( ! in/rum5t are made = use 9 cotton-mills1 :]e x is necess>y to ma9ta9 a c]ta9 degree ( moi/ure2 or x may be improvis$ f two *emical !rmomet]s :i* agree well toge!r4 ,di/ill$ 7ra9 or /eam7 wat] %\ld be us$ to moi/5 ! bulb1 or x w quickly become coat$ ) lime salts1 & x %\ld be plac$ 9 a draught1 or its indications w n be accurate4 ,x is ( c\rse obvi\s t n only ! wet !rmomet]1 b ! wet hides or sk9s are cool$ by evaporation1 & !y1 9 _! turn1 cool ! air ) :i* !y are 9 contact1 :i* n only becomes moi/5$1 b is less5$ 9 its capacity = moi/ure by cool+1 & ?us rapidly rea*es a condition :5 x c absorb no m moi/ure4 ,x is ?us necess>y to ma9ta9 its temp]ature by artificial heat1 or to replace x con/antly by fre% air f ! outside1 & :i* ( ^! exp$i5ts is mo/ economical w dep5d on ! temp]ature ( ! air outside z comp>$ ) t :i* x is requir$ to ma9ta94 ,if ! outside air is suffici5tly w>m1 & n saturat$ ) moi/ure1 x is g5]ally be/ to use x 9 l>ge quantities )\t artificial heat1 w9d usually supply+ ! necess>y motive p[] = its circulation4 ,wet goods f ! pits may ?us be dri$ to a 8samm$0 condition by any air :i* is n saturat$1 & above freez+ po9t2 ?\gh ! dry+ w (t5 be sl[4 ,= dry+ 8(f10 artificial heat is g5]ally necess>y1 s9ce ! attraction ( ! fibre = ! la/ traces ( moi/ure is v consid]able1 & to remove x ! dry+ p[] ( ! air mu/ be consid]ably high] ?an t requir$ = ! evaporation ( free wat]4#ahb ,9 dry+ /uff$ lea!r a temp]ature mu/ g5]ally be ma9ta9$ suffici5t to keep ! fats employ$ 9 p>tial fusion1 & s p]mit _! absorption by ! lea!r1 :ile at ! same "t ! dry+ mu/ be gradual1 or ! wat] may be dri$ out be=e ! fats h "t to take its place4 ,?is is g5]ally be/ atta9$ by ! use ( artificial heat1 & v5tilation by circulat+ ! air by a fan )\t its too frequ5t r5ewal1 especially 9 cold wea!r4 ,frequ5tly air :i* has be5 heat$ & us$ = dry+ (f f9i%$ goods1 & s p>tially saturat$ ) moi/ure1 may be us$ ) advantage = wet goods1 or = o!r purposes :]e a m g5tle dry+ is requir$4 ,if ! temp]ature is l[ outside1 ! am\nt ( heat consum$ 9 heat+ cold air to ! temp]ature requir$ may be v consid]able4 ,! weight ( a cubic met] ( air at #j ,c4 & atmosph]ic pressure is #abic kilos1 & its specific heat at con/ant pressure is #jbcge ( t ( wat]4 ,!re=e to heat a cubic met] ( air at ord9>y pressure & temp]ature #a ,c4 w require ! same am\nt ( heat z t us$ to heat #jc kilo ( wat] to ! same ext5t1 or 9 o!r words #jc ( a k4-calorie4 ,if /eam-heat+ is us$1 #a kilo ( good coal burnt "u ! boil] %\ld heat ab\t #ahjj cubic met]s #aj ,c41 or #a lb4 %\ld heat #eb1jjj cubic feet #aj ,f41 assum+ t ! cond5s$ wat] is n cool$ bel[ #ajj ,c4 ,^! seem l>ge volumes1 b if we reflect t a #dh-;in* ,blackman fan may move #cj1jjj cubic feet p] m9ute1 we %all realise t ! co/ ( coal 9 heat+ air is n inconsid]able4 #ahb ,comm]cially-dry lea!r g5]ally1 if un/uff$1 conta9s ab\t #ae p] c5t4 ( residual moi/ure1 :i* v>ies 9 am\nt ) ! wea!r1 & c be m or less completely remov$ by dry+ at high temp]atures4 ,if lea!r has be5 ov]-dri$1 x only sl[ly rega9s its weight on exposure to cold air4 ,comm]cial disputes n unfrequ5tly arise on ! dryness ( lea!r4 ,9 ! op9ion ( ! writ]1 a cu/om] c only claim t ! lea!r %\ld be suffici5tly dry n to lose weight :5 expos$ to dry air at ! ord9>y temp]ature & degree ( dryness ( a w>eh\se or factory1 & claims bas$ on re-dry+ 9 hot dry+ rooms are di/9ctly fraudul5t4 ,we mu/ n[ consid] ! heat consum$ by ! actual evaporation ( ! wat] 9 ! lea!r4 ,! actual evaporation ( wat] already rais$ to #ajj ,c4 consumes #ecf k4-calories1 b ! evaporation ( wat] :i* has n previ\sly be5 heat$ s f> consumes m heat1 & we may take t requir$ at ord9>y temp]atures z 9 r\nd numb]s #fjj k4-calories p] kilo1 or #ajhj lb4 ,f4 units p] lb4 ,disreg>d+ small fractions1 ?is is equival5t to ! cool+ to ! same temp]ature ( an equal weight ( /eam 9 ! heat+ pipes1 & ?is1 z we h se51 dem&s ab\t ( its weight ( coal = its production f wat] already heat$ to #ajj ,c4 ,! cool+ takes place1 9 ! fir/ in/ance1 9 ! lea!r1 ! temp]ature ( :i* is r$uc$ l t ( ! wet-bulb !rmomet]2 & ?is 9 its turn cools ! air 9 contact ) x4 ,?us 9 air-dry+ )\t artificial heat1 ! :ole heat mu/ be suppli$ by ! air & ! loss r$uces its capacity = moi/ure1 greatly increas+ ! volume requir$4 ,?is is n ( mu* consequ5ce 9 op5-air dry+1 s9ce ev5 a light w9d w supply air 9 enorm\s volume4 ,a mod]ate breeze ( t5 miles an h\r moves ab\t #ae feet or #d met]s p] second4 ,:51 h[ev]1 ! air mu/ be mov$ by fans1 ! p[] requir$ becomes important4 ,! evaporation ( #a kilo ( wat] at summ] temp]ature w cool ab\t #bjjj cubic met]s1 & t ( #a lb4 #cb1jjj cubic feet ( air #a ,c4 ,9 calculat+ ! v5tilat+ & heat+ p[] requir$ 9 fitt+ up dry+ rooms1 x is usually necess>y to asc]ta9 t requir$ "u ! mo/ unfav\rable circum/ances1 & !n add a lib]al m>g9 to cov] errors & accid5ts4 ,z ! calculations are1 9 consequ5ce ( ! _m v>y+ conditions1 some:at complex1 x may be conv5i5t to give z examples ! quantities ( air & heat requir$ to evaporate #a kilo 7#bbje lb47 ( wat] "u diff]5t ord9>y conditions1 & ^! may s]ve z a basis ( calculation ( ! dry+ p[] :i* mu/ be provid$ = diff]5t tann]ies4 #a4 ,indiff]5t ,op5-,air ,dry+4--,air at #aj ,c4 7#ej ,f471 wet-bulb !rmomet] #g ,c4 7#ddc ,f471 indicat+ a total capacity = moi/ure ( ab\t #b grm4 p] cubic met]2 air n to be cool$ beyond #gge ,c4 7#df ,f471 leav+ a residual capacity = moi/ure ( #je grm4 p] cubic met]4 ,ea* cubic met] w !re=e take up #ae grm4 ( moi/ure1 & z #a kilo conta9s #ajjj grm4 we h #ajjj ---- #ae #fff cubic met]s p] kilo requir$ to absorb moi/ure2 & #fjj ----------- #bbe #jc #hhh cubic met]s r$uc$ #bbe to furni% ! #fjj cal4 requir$ = evaporation4 ,total air us$ #aeed cubic met]s or #ed1ijj cubic feet4 #b4 ,dry+ ) ,heat4--,outside-air at #aj saturat$ ) moi/ure1 heat$ to #bj ,c4 7#fh ,f47 acquires a capacity = #gi grm4 p] cubic met]4 ,if we assume t a dry+ capacity ( #b grm4 p] met] is requir$ to complete ! dry+1 we h an effective capacity ( #ei grm4 #ajjj ---- #ei #agj cubic met]s or #fjjj cubic feet1 & to heat ?is #aj ,c4 w require #eaj cal4 ,evaporation ( #a kilo w consume #fjj cal4 ,total heat #aaaj cal4 #c4 ,dry+ ) ,heat4--,outside-air at #aj z above1 heat$ to #be ,c41 giv+ an effective capacity = moi/ure ( #ace - #bj #aae grm4 p] cubic met]4 #ajjj ---- #aae #hg cubic met]s or #cjgj cubic feet4 ,to w>m ?is #ae requires #cia cal42 & #fjj cal4 add$ = evaporation gives a total ( #iia cal4 ,comp>+ #b & #c we see t ! high] temp]ature is m economical1 :]e x c be all[$1 ?an ! l[]1 bo? 9 air & heat1 ?\gh ?is is p>tly comp5sat$ by ! great] loss ( heat by cool+ ( ! build+1 etc41 :i* x entails4 #d4 ,air at #j ,c4 heat$ to #bj requires ab\t #ig cubic met]s1 or #cdcj cubic feet ( air1 & a total ( #aahj cal4 #e4 ,air at #j ,c4 & heat$ to #be ,c4 requires #fc cubic met]s or #bbcj cubic feet1 & a total ( #ajge cal4 #f4 ,air at -#ae ,c4 7#e ,f47 requires #de cal4 p] cubic met] to raise x to #j ,c41 & acquires a capacity = dry+ ( ab\t #b grm4 p] met]4 ,we w apply ^! figures to a dry+ room arrang$ ) a screw-fan ) a c5tral division1 or two floors1 s t ! air c be ei!r circulat$ or replac$ ) fre% air f ! outside at w 7see ,fig4 #id1 p4 #dce74 ,su* a room ) #ajj feet ( l5g? cle> ( space requir$ = fans1 air passages1 & heat+ pipes1 & #bj feet #h feet 9 section1 %\ld hang ab\t #hjj m$ium butts1 weigh+ say #ab kilo 7#bg lb47 ea*1 & :5 wet f ! y>d1 conta9+ ! same weight ( wat]4 ,a #dh-;in* ,blackman fan1 "u ^! conditions w\ld probably move say #bj1jjj cubic feet 7#efe cubic met]s7 ( air p] m9ute1 at ! co/ ( #b or #b horse-p[]4 ,?is1 9 a room ( ! section nam$1 w\ld give an av]age velocity ( #abe feet p] m9ute or r "u #a miles an h\r2 n at all too mu* to keep ! air freely circulat+ among closely hung lea!r4 ,if we assume t ^! butts are to be dri$ 9 a week 7practically #aj1jjj m9utes7 "u ! conditions ( ,no4 #b1 ! #aj1jjj kilos ( wat] !y conta9 w require #a1gjj1jjj cubic met]s ( air1 or ab\t #agj cubic met]s p] m9ute1 or ab\t ( ! air mu/ be fre% e "t x passes ?r\gh ! fan4 #a kilo ( wat] requir+ #aaaj cal4 mu/ be evaporat$ p] m9ute4 ,"u ! conditions ( ,no4 #d1 only #ig cubic met]s ( air p] m9ute w\ld be requir$1 or ab\t might be circulat$ )\t *ange1 b ! total heat requir$ w\ld be ab\t ! same1 #aahj cal4 ,"u ! conditions ( ,nos4 #d & #f "s #afbj cal4 p] m9ute w\ld be employ$4 ,x is h>dly necess>y to provide = ! full am\nt ( heat requir$ by ,no4 #f1 s9ce 9 ?is c\ntry su* conditions occur b seldom1 & nev] = m ?an a few days at a "t1 & dur+ su* a p]iod1 mu* less heat w\ld suffice to c>ry on ! dry+ at a sl[] rate1 & keep out ! fro/4 ,beside ! heat requir$ = actual dry+1 x is necess>y to provide = t lo/ by ! build+ dur+ cold wea!r1 & ?is is mu* m difficult to calculate4 ,if1 by arrang+ ! outlet = moi/ air on ! pressure side ( ! fan1 ! int]nal pressure ( ! build+ be kept a little l[] ?an ! outside1 !re c be no loss by escape ( hot air1 any leakage be+ inw>ds1 & supply+ a "p ( ! *ange ( air :i*1 we h se51 is necess>y4 ,9 a brick build+ ) glass w9d[s1 ! loss ( heat is f> less ?an 9 ! old-fa%ion$ wood5 l\vre-bo>d$ /ructure1 & :]e fan-dry+ is 9 con/ant use1 ! brick /ructure is mu* to be pref]r$4 ,frequ5t w9d[s1 ) casem5ts horizontally pivot$ at ! c5tre1 w supply en\gh air = fav\rable conditions ( air-dry+1 & :5 ! wea!r is bad1 resort is _h to ! fan4 ,mo/ mod]n dry+ rooms 9 ! ,le$s di/rict are built ^u ?is plan4 ,:]e l\vre-bo>d$ /ructures mu/ be us$ = fan-dry+1 ! sides %\ld be made z tight z possible 9 w9t] by %eets ( canvas or sail-clo? nail$ on1 = :i* purpose old sails c be b\ght 9 seaport t[ns at reasonable rates1 a few l\vre-bo>ds only be+ kept op5 = ! admission ( air 9 suitable positions4 ,box1 9 8 #8,practical ,treatise on ,heat'#ahc puts ! loss ?r\gh walls 9 brick build+s = a diff]5ce ( #cj ,f4 7#aff ,c47 betwe5 inside & outside temp]atures1 at ! approximate am\nts %[n 9 ! foll[+ table4 #ahc ,e4 ,f4 ,n4 ,spon1 ,ltd41 ,london4 ,,loss ,,( ,,heat ,,?r\gh ,,walls4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,?ickness ,k4-calories -- ( ,wall p] ,sq4 ,foot 9 ,in*es4 p] ,h\r4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- #de #agf ,/one walls mu/ be ab\t "o-half ?ick]1 to #i #add af=d equal w>m? ) brick ones4 #ad #abj ,! loss f glass w9d[s am\nts to #c or #d #ah #ajf k4-calories p] squ>e foot p] h\r4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,if ! build+ is ( sev]al /ories1 ! loss to ! ro( 9 ! int]m$iate ones ne$ h>dly be tak5 into acc\nt1 b if ! ceil+ is n tight1 & op5 to ! ro(1 ! loss may be great1 b difficult to e/imate4 ,if we consid] ! dry+ room already describ$1 ! total area ( ! walls & ceil+ is ab\t #djjj feet1 & to ma9ta9 its temp]ature #cj ,f4 above ! atmosph]e at #ab cal4 p] sq4 foot w\ld require #dhjj cal4 p] h\r or #hj cal4 p] m9ute1 a v small am\nt comp>$ to t consum$ 9 dry+4 ,! foll[+ table calculat$ f data giv5 by ,box w give "s idea ( ! am\nt ( /eam or hot-wat] pip+ requir$ = heat+4 ,! sizes giv5 are = ! int]nal diamet] ( ! pipe1 all[ance be+ made = ! increas$ heat+ surface ( pipes ( ord9>y ?ickness4 ,small pipes are consid]ably m effective 9 proportion to _! surface ?an l>ge ones1 & = high-pressure heat+ #a or #b-;in* wr\ght-iron pipes are to be recomm5d$ z 9 _m ways pref]able to ca/ iron4 ,! gill$ or ribb$ pipes n[ (t5 us$ are also advantage\s z giv+ a greatly increas$ heat+ surface4 ,,heat ,,giv5 ,,by ,,/eam-,,pipes4 ---------------------------------------- --------- ,/eam ,temp]ature ,k4-calories p] ,pressure1 ( h\r p] foot run lb4 p] ,pipe4 ( ,pipe4 sq4 94 ---------------------------------------- ------- ,f4 #b 94#c 94#d 94 #eb #cjj #ajb #acg #afi #ce #bhj #ib #aba #adh #ba #bfj #ha #ajf #acj #aj #bdj #fh #ib #aac #be #bbj #ei #ha #ig #baj #ed #gb #hi #bjj #di #ff #ha #aij #de #fj #gd #ahj #dj #ed #fg #agj #cf #di #fj ---------------------------------------- ------- ,! temp]ature ( ! air to be heat$ is und]/ood to be #fj ,f42 at l[] temp]atures ! quantity ( heat giv5 (f by ! pipes w\ld be great]1 & at high] temp]atures less2 ! am\nt be+ approximately proportional to ! diff]5ce ( temp]ature betwe5 ! air & ! hot pipes4 ,x is also important to note t ! table ref]s to /eam-pipes 9 /ill air1 & t if plac$ 9 a p[]ful draught1 7z imm$iately be=e or beh9d ! fan71 _! heat+ effect may be at lea/ d\bl$4 ,?is has n be5 consid]$ 9 ! foll[+ calculations4 ,apply+ ^! figures to ! e/imate ( #aaaj calories p] m9ute requir$ = dry+ 9 our build+1 & assum+ #hj calories p] m9ute = ! loss ( heat ?r\gh ! walls1 we h a total ( ab\t #ga1djj calories p] h\r1 & to obta9 ?is w\ld require #gcf feet ( #d-;in* pipe at #bbj ,f4 7heat$ by exhau/ /eam7 or #gjj feet ( #b-;in* pipe heat$ to #cjj ,f4 by /eam at #eb lb4 pressure4 ,if we adopt ! e/imate ( #afbj calories ( ,no4 #e & #f1 we %all require #ajej & #ajjj feet ( ! two pipes respectively1 & ?is cov]s approximately ! wor/ conditions4 ,we mu/1 h[ev]1 rememb] t ^! e/imates are made = cont9u\s dry+ dur+ ! tw5ty-f\r h\rs1 & t if ! fan & /eam are only appli$ dur+ a portion ( ?is "t1 ! supply bo? ( air & /eam mu/ be proportionately increas$1 or ! "t ( dry+ correspond+ly l5g!n$4 ,x is v desirable1 h[ev]1 t ! fan %\ld be driv5 by a small sep>ate eng9e1 ! /eam = :i* w only =m a small proportion ( t requir$ = heat+1 & ( :i* ! :ole ( ! heat w be recov]$1 s9ce ev5 t utilis$ 9 driv+ ! fan w aga9 be conv]t$ into heat by ! friction ( ! air1 & w !re=e co/ no?+4 ,?is arrangem5t w enable ! dry+ to proce$ s long z ! necess>y /eam is ma9ta9$1 :i* 9 bad wea!r c easily be done by ! night wat*man4 ,x may also be po9t$ out t1 dur+ a great "p ( ! ye>1 ! goods c be dri$ to a 8sammi$0 condition )\t heat1 or 9 ! op5 air1 or 9 ! case ( dress+ lea!r1 a consid]able "p ( ! wat] c be remov$ by press+ or squeez+1 effect+ a fur!r economy4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ic4--;,blackman ,fan4 ,x mu/ be left to ! read] to apply ! same calculation to o!r sorts ( lea!r ?an sole1 b x may be po9t$ out t ! ess5tial po9t1 z reg>ds heat+ & v5tilation1 is ! weight ( wat] to be evaporat$ 9 a giv5 "t1 & t ! actual size & %ape ( ! dry+ room is unimportant1 s long z adequate heat+ & circulation ( ! air betwe5 ! lea!r is secur$2 & ^! rem>ks also apply to ! p>ticul> =m ( fan or o!r v5tilation employ$1 & to ! means ( heat+4 ,z ! quantity ( heat consum$ is v consid]able1 x is well to look out = s\rces ( wa/e heat :i* c be employ$1 or = means by :i* ! heat ( ! fuel c be m directly & completely utilis$ ?an x is 9 rais+ /eam4 ,?us a l>ge am\nt ( heat c sometimes be obta9$ by pass+ air ?r\gh pipes or 8economis]s0 fitt$ 9 a *imney-flue2#ahd or gill$ /oves or 8calorif]s0 may be us$ 9 a sep>ate *amb] to directly heat ! air :i* is drawn 9 by ! fan4 #ahd ,^! pipes %\ld be provid$ ) scrap]s to remove soot z 9 ,gre5's economis]1 or _! effici5cy w be mu* dim9i%$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #id4--,section ( ,dry+ ,rooms ) ,fan4 ,figs4 #ic & #id1 furni%$ by ! ,james ,kei? & ,blackman ,co41 ,ltd41 give a good idea ( ! con/ruction ( screw fans1 & ! g5]al pr9ciple ( arrangem5t ( fan dry+ rooms1 ! air 9 ?is case be+ circulat$ 9 opposite directions on two floors1 & ! am\nt ( *ange be+ regulat$ by ! %utt]s at ,a1 etc4 ,! gr\p+ ( pipes at ! ends ( ! two floors :i* x %[s is 9 g5]al a good arrangem5t1 b ! l5g? betwe5 !m %\ld n be too great1 or ! dry+ w be unequal 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ! room4 ,sometimes ?is is conv5i5t2 ?us if mo/ ( ! heat be suppli$ to ! air com+ fre% f ! inlet on ! upp] floor1 ! damp] & cold] air ( ! l[] room c be cont9u\sly us$ = dry+ wet goods f ! y>d1 & ! upp] res]v$ = dry+ (f ! f9i%$ lea!r4 ,a disadvantage ( ?is plan is t op5 air dry+ c seldom be utilis$ except 9 an elevat$ build+2 & ev5 :5 x is adopt$1 means %\ld be provid$ = heat+ ! l[] room 9 cold wea!r4 ,9 place ( two floors1 x is obvi\s t a s+le floor may be divid$ into two comp>tm5ts by a longitud9al p>tition4 ,:atev] pipes are gr\p$ at ! ends ( ! build+1 x is advisable to arrange suffici5t to prev5t fro/1 aga9/ ! walls1 or 9 ! old-fa%ion$ way on ! floors b5ea? ! lea!r1 b n too close to x1 & protect$ by a wood5 lattice on :i* ! workm5 c /&1 :i* removes ! risk ( accid5t f wet lea!r fall+ on ! hot pipes4 ,! lattic$ space %\ld be op5 at ! end fac+ ! air curr5t1 s z to receive a portion ( ! draught1 :i* w become heat$ & asc5d1 its place be+ tak5 by damp & cold air f ! lea!r1 to be re-w>m$4 ,wat]-vap\r 9 itself is light] ?an air1 b ! contraction produc$ by ! cool+ ( evaporation m ?an comp5sates ?is1 & ! damp air is !re=e heavi] ?an ! dry4 ,! arrangem5t ( hot pipes ne> ! ceil+ ( a dry+ room1 :i* has be5 borr[$ f "s ,am]ican tann]ies1 is wrong 9 pr9ciple1 unless ! air is =c$ 9 at ! upp] "p ( ! room1 or ! upp] floor is lattic$1 & only acts 9 o!r cases :5 ! air is ?or\ghly mix$ & circulat$ by me*anical v5tilators2 :ile pipes ne> ! floor w cont9ue to produce a c]ta9 am\nt ( circulation ( ! air1 ev5 :5 ! fan is n runn+4 ,9 protect+ pipes by lattices c>e %\ld be tak5 n to conf9e !m too closely1 or _! heat+ effect w be s]i\sly dim9i%$4 ,9 fan-dry+1 lea!r %\ld be hung edgeways to ! curr5t ( air1 s z to all[ ( its free & uni=m passage betwe54 ,9 ! case ( sole lea!r ! butts or b5ds are conv5i5tly susp5d$ by ,s-hooks ( brass or iron wire1 to hooks or nails fix$ 9 ! joi/s4 ,if gangways betwe5 ! lea!r mu/ be left 9 ! direction ( ! draught1 !y %\ld be clos$ at int]vals 9 ! l5g? ( ! room by curta9s or %utt]s1 s z to deflect ! air-curr5t into ! lea!r4 ,screw fans l ! ,blackman c be us$ ei!r to suck or to bl[ ! air1 ?\gh ! =m] is pref]able :]e x c be arrang$1 because x produces a m uni=m curr5t 9 ! room4 ,on ! bl[+ side ! air issues ) consid]able velocity 9 a sort ( cone1 b little com+ ?r\gh ! c5tre ( ! fan1 :ile t ne> ! edges spreads rapidly f its c5trifugal motion4 ,?is is r advantage\s :]e ! fan bl[s into an op5 room1 b involves wa/e ( p[] :]e x dis*>ges into n>r[ & squ>e air-ways4 ,! ends ( ! vanes ( ! ,blackman are turn$ 9 at ! rim ( ! fan to prev5t ?is tang5tial dis*>ge1 b x is probable t :]e a fan is to bl[ into a room1 x w\ld be m advantage\s to put x on ! inn] side ( ! wall1 & )\t curv$ ends to ! vanes1 s z to di/ribute ! air z widely z possible4 ,a some:at simil> result w\ld be atta9$ ) a ,blackman1 by plac+ x 9 a position ! rev]se ( t = :i* x is int5d$1 & runn+ x also ! rev]se way2 b its 8effici5cy0 might possibly be less5$4 ,screw-fans are good = mov+ l>ge volumes ( air at comp>atively l[ velocities1 & aga9/ little or no resi/ance1 b !y are q unsuitable = =c+ air aga9/ high resi/ance1 or ?r\gh n>r[ *annels1 & = ?is purpose c5trifugal fans l ! ,capel 7,fig4 #ie7 are mu* m suitable1 & me*anically m effici5t4 ,9 any case !re is mu* loss ( p[] 9 =c+ air ?r\gh n>r[ airways1 & if a screw fan mu/ be employ$ = ! purpose1 ! *annel %\ld be z l>ge 9 section z ! area ( ! fan1 & all %>p angles 9 its c\rse %\ld be avoid$4 ,!re is great loss ( p[] :]e a curr5t ( air or wat] has to pass sudd5ly ei!r f a wid] to a n>r[] *annel1 or ! rev]se1 & 9 bo? cases ! resi/ance is dim9i%$ by mak+ ! enl>gem5t or contraction gradual or 8bell-m\!d40 ,?us a pipe convey+ wat] at a giv5 head into or out ( a ci/]n w dis*>ge a mu* l>g] quantity1 if ! ends are bell-m\!d1 ?an if x t]m9ates abruptly4 ,= ! same reasons1 air suff]s consid]able resi/ance if x has to pass sudd5ly into1 or out ( a l>g] space1 su* z a dry+ room2 & unnecess>y p>titions1 & o!r abrupt *anges ( dim5sion 9 ! curr5t %\ld be avoid$4 ,curves %\ld also take ! place ( angles z mu* z possible4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ie4--;,capel ,c5trifugal ,fan4 ,sy/ems 9 :i* air is drawn or =c$ ov] sy/ems ( heat+ pipes by a c5trifugal fan1 & !n di/ribut$ ?r\gh comp>atively small airways among ! lea!r :i* is to be dri$ are 9 "s cases conv5i5t & advantage\s4 ,among ^! may be m5tion$ ! ,/urtevant & ! ,seagrave-,bev+ton4 ,!re c be no valid pat5t on ! g5]al pr9ciple ( heat+ by di/ribut+ air 9 ?is way1 b only on ! p>ticul> arrangem5t or appliances us$ 9 ! special case4 ,c5trifugal fans %\ld be consid]ably l>g] 9 diamet] ?an 9 axial l5g?1 ^? ) long vanes ( small radius be+ wa/eful 9 p[] f ! insuffici5t supply ( air to ! c5tre4 ,!re is also no reason :y1 9 "s cases1 c5trifugal fans %\ld n be sub/itut$ = screw-fans 9 dry+ on ! sy/em :i* ,i fir/ describ$1 especially 9 cases :]e ! air has to enc\nt] consid]able resi/ance1 z = in/ance 9 trav]s+ a filt] to remove du/4 ,"o ( ! be/ filt]s = ?is purpose is a table ( wire-gauze cov]$ to a dep? ( #c or #d in*es ) loose wool4 ,hair or *eap] fibr\s mat]ials may be sub/itut$ = ! wool1 b are less effici5t4 ,! air mu/ ( c\rse be suck$ d[nw>ds ?r\gh ! gauze4 ,:5 ! wool becomes dirty1 x may be wa%$1 if possible 9 a wool- or hair-wa%+ ma*9e1 & aga9 spread on ! table 9 a damp condition1 z x w quickly be dri$ by ! curr5t ( air4 ,flannel is also useful :]e ! wool-filt] is impracticable1 b requires frequ5t wa%+4 ,ap>t f w9d1 natural v5tilation is seldom to be reli$ on = dry+ on any consid]able scale4 ,heat$ air is1 ( c\rse1 light] ?an cold1 & ?is is ! cause ( *imney-draught1 b to get a good circulation 9 ?is way1 a high %aft1 & high temp]ature is requir$4 ,nev]!less1 9 "o ( its be/ =ms1 ! me?od has be5 a good deal us$ 9 ,am]ica1 9 ! s-call$ 8turret-dry]10 a build+ ( sev5 or eight /ories 9 height1 con/ruct$ ( wood ) lattic$ floors1 & heat$ by /eam-pip+ at ! bottom1 :]e ! air is admitt$4 ,! me?od is n likely to be mu* us$ 9 ?is c\ntry1 z ap>t f ! que/ions ( co/ ( build+1 fire-risk1 & tr\ble ( rais+ & l[]+ ! lea!r1 a good draught w only be obta9$ :5 ! out] temp]ature is l[ 9 comp>ison to t inside1 & 9 our mild] & moi/] climate ! conditions are n ne>ly s fav\rable z 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,z ! air is r5d]$ heavi] by ! cool+ ( evaporation to a l>g] ext5t ?an x is light5$ by ! wat] vap\r1 !re is a t5d5cy 9 dry+ by upw>d v5tilation = ! w>m air to =m local upw>d curr5ts1 :ile ! cold & damp air falls back2 & f ?is irregul>ity ( fl[1 x is difficult to saturate ! air equally4 ,?is may be avoid$ by d[nw>d v5tilation1 9 :i* ! w>m air is admitt$ at ! top ( ! dry+ room & ! cold & damp air all[$ to escape at ! bottom4 ,?is fact sugge/s t 9 us+ sy/ems ( dry+ su* z ! ,/urtevant1 x w\ld be bett] to place ! di/ribut+ pipes at ! top r ?an ! bottom ( ! room1 b 9 ?is case c>e w\ld h to be tak5 t !re 7 no op5+s left by :i* ! air c\ld escape at ! top ( ! room )\t desc5d+ ?r\gh ! lea!r4 ,if ?is be avoid$1 ! w>m air w float on ! top ( ! cold] & damp]1 & press x uni=mly d[n & out4 ,i believe ! m]it ( fir/ hav+ appli$ ! pr9ciple ( d[nw>d v5tilation to lea!r-dry+ is due to ,edw>d ,wilson ( ,exet]4 ,x is necess>y t ! hot air %\ld be =c$ 9 at ! top1 or ! cold air suck$ out f ! bottom2 & ! m]e plac+ ( hot pipes ne> ! top ( ! room 7p4 #dcf7 w n cause ! requir$ circulation4 ,wilson plac$ 8 heat+ pipes 9 a p>tition$ space at ! side ( ! room1 at ! bottom ( :i* cold air 0 admitt$ f ! outside1 :i* escap$ into ! room at ! top4 ,z ! temp]ature ( ?is side *amb] 0 high & ! air consequ5tly light1 an upw>d curr5t 0 produc$ 9 x1 ?\gh probably some:at ineffici5tly1 z ! height ( ! column ( heat$ air c\ld only be small4 ,assi/$ by a fan1 & circulat+ a "p ( ! air1 ! me?od %\ld give good results1 especially ov] two 7lattic$7 floors4 ,z ! air c\ld n be satisfactorily heat$ 9 its d[nw>d c\rse1 ! me?od w\ld n be suit$ = m ?an ab\t two floors1 & ! dry+ 9 ! l[] room w\ld be cool & g5tle4 ,"o or two po9ts 9 ! practical arrangem5t ( /eam-pipes may be m5tion$1 z !y are (t5 ov]look$ ev5 by pr(essional eng9e]s4 ,! /eam mu/ always be admitt$ at ! highe/ po9t 9 ! sy/em1 & !re mu/ be a /eady desc5t1 )\t holl[ places :]e cond5s$ wat] c accumulate1 to ! /eam-trap by :i* x is remov$4 ,9 horizontal pipes1 ab\t #a in* desc5t 9 #ajj is suffici5t4 ,if wat] accumulates1 !re is n m]ely s]i\s dang] 9 case ( fro/1 b dur+ use1 by ! sudd5 cond5sation ( ! /eam1 a vacuum is frequ5tly =m$1 into :i* ! wat] is %ot l ! liquid 9 a 8wat] hamm]10 produc+ viol5t & noisy concussions1 & 9 "s cases ev5 fracture ( ! pipes1 or loos5+ ( _! jo9ts4 ,if high-pressure /eam is us$1 a v small supply-pipe w fe$ a consid]able sy/em ( heat+ pipes or radiators1 b ) exhau/ /eam1 great pa9s %\ld be tak5 to h pipes ( ample size1 to avoid back-pressure on ! eng9es4 ,9 bo? cases x is (t5 conv5i5t to arrange ! pipes1 n z a cont9u\s l9e1 9 :i* dra9age is g5]ally difficult1 b 9 p>allels l ! b>s ( a gridiron4 ,) high-pressure /eam1 !re ne$ be no fe>1 if ! pipes are kept cle> ( air by all[+ a little escape ?r\gh small air-taps1 ( ! /eam fail+ to f9d its way to all p>ts ( ! pipe1 z a vacuum is produc$ by cond5sation 9 proportion to ! heat giv5 (f4 ,) exhau/-/eam1 no /eam-trap is desirable1 b any /eam n cond5s$ %\ld escape freely into ! op5 air or a *imney 7aft] sep>at+ cond5s$ wat]71 & x is well to r5d] ! resi/ance 9 all ! pipes ( a gridiron approximately equal1 :i* may be done by admitt+ /eam at "o corn]1 & all[+ x to escape at ! opposite 7diagonal7 "o4 ,9 ! arrangem5t ( /eam-pipes 9 p>allels1 ! practicability ( repair to "o pipe or jo9t )\t int]f]+ ) ! o!rs mu/ always be consid]$4 ,if screw$ wr\ght-iron pipes are us$1 ea* p>allel mu/ be provid$ ) a bolt$ flange1 or 8runn+ socket10 to p]mit ( unscrew+4 ,! difficulty ( accurately adju/+ ! l5g?s ( ! sev]al p>allels mu/ be consid]$1 especially ) flang$ metal pipes1 & also _! motion by expansion :5 hot1 :i* am\nts to #a or #b p>ts p] #ajjj ( l5g? accord+ to ! temp]atures ( /eam & air4 ,expansion-jo9ts ) /uff+ boxes are co/ly & tr\blesome1 & apt to leak1 & may 9 _m cases be avoid$ by suitable arrangem5t ( ! pipes4 ,?us in/ead ( hav+ ! pipes rigidly fix$ at bo? ends1 "o end ( ! sy/em may be left free to move1 ea* pipe be+ sep>ately return$ to an exit pipe at ! same end b l[] 9 level ?an ! supply2 or a s+le exit pipe may be ?us return$1 its expansion & contraction be+ practically ! same z t ( ! heat+ pipes4 ,9 mod]ate l5g?s ( wr\ght-iron pipe1 suffici5t relief may (t5 be obta9$ f ! flexure ( ! pipe1 if 9 "s "p ( its c\rse x is c>ri$ at "r angles to its g5]al direction1 :i* is (t5 necess>y = o!r reasons4 ,if pipes are laid 9 long l5g?s1 ! loose end %\ld be support$ on roll]s or %ort pieces ( pipe1 s z to avoid mov+ ! supports or /ra9+ ! pipe 9 expansion4 ,x is useless to attempt to regulate ! temp]ature ( l[ pressure /eam-pipes by turn+ d[n ! /eam1 s9ce1 s long z ! pipe is suppli$ ) suffici5t /eam to fill x1 its temp]ature _c be less ?an #ajj1 & ev5 ) high-pressure pipes1 ! p[] ( regulation by alt]+ ! /eam-pressure is v limit$4 ,x is f> bett] to arrange ! pipes or radiators 9 gr\ps1 f "s ( :i* ! /eam c be turn$ (f entirely :5 less heat is ne$$4 ,x mu/ n be =gott5 t if ^! dis*>ge into a common /eam-trap1 x w be necess>y to turn (f _! exits z well z _! /eam supply1 or /eam w come back into !m f ! o!r pipes1 & probably prev5t ! escape ( cond5s$ wat]4 ,9 "s cases x is m conv5i5t to give ! sev]al sections indep5d5t exits or /eam-traps4 ,_m good /eam-traps are n[ on ! m>ket1 dep5d+ ei!r on ! expansion & contraction ( metals1 or on floats 9 a clos$ box1 :i* op5 a valve z ! wat] accumulates4 ,traps ( ! latt] class ) clos$ copp] balls are to be avoid$1 z ! ball is sure ev5tually to become fill$ ) wat]4 ,sev]al traps h be5 devis$ 9 :i* an op5 vessel is us$ z a float1 :i* is always kept empty by ! dis*>ge ( ! wat] ?r\gh a pipe dipp+ into x4 ,! cond5s$ wat] f /eam-pipes is r>ely suitable = use 9 ! tann]y1 f ! dissolv$ & susp5d$ iron-oxide :i* x conta9s1 f :i* x c only be fre$ by boil+ & filt]+1 or treatm5t ) precipitants 7p4 #ie74 ,its mo/ appropriate use is g5]ally return to ! boil]4 ,sy/ems 7 =m]ly 9 vogue by :i* x 0 all[$ to run back to ! boil] z x cond5s$1 b ^! c\ld only answ] :5 ! pressure 9 ! pipes 0 equal to t 9 ! boil]1 :i* is r>ely ! case4 ,x mu/ g5]ally be =c$ 9 by ! fe$-pump or injector4 ,hot wat] has (t5 be5 advocat$ 9 pref]5ce to /eam = heat+1 b is m co/ly1 z x requires a sep>ate boil]1 & mu* l>g] pipe-surface = ! same effect4 ,its only important advantage is t ! pipes ma9ta9 _! heat = "s "t1 ev5 :5 ! fire has gone d[n1 :ile /eam-pipes cool at once if /eam is all[$ to g d[n 9 ! boil]4 ,9 any consid]able tann]y1 h[ev]1 ?is w seldom or nev] be ! case1 s9ce if a good pressure ( /eam is up at night1 :5 ! fires are bank$ up1 ! boil] w 9 itself conta9 a l>ge res]ve ( heat1 &1 ( c\rse1 work+ pressure w be requir$ be=e ! eng9es c />t 9 ! morn+4 ,hot wat] sy/ems require c>eful plann+ to obta9 reliable & uni=m circulation4 ,,*apt] ,,xxvii4 ,,con/ruction ,,& ,,ma9t5ance ,,( ,,tann]ies4 ,z few ar*itects h specially /udi$ ! con/ruction ( tann]ies1 & 9 mo/ cases mu* ( ! arrangem5t dep5ds on ! k ( ! tann] himself1 a %ort *apt] on ! subject w n be out ( place4 ,9 ! selection ( a site1 a clay or loamy soil is to be pref]r$ to a gravelly or s&y "o1 z less5+ ! liability to leakage1 & wa/e ( liquor4 ,p]haps1 h[ev]1 ! fir/ consid]ation ( all is ! possibility ( dra9age & disposal ( efflu5t wa/e liquors & wa%+ wat]s1 s9ce x is n[ r>ely possible to run ^!1 )\t previ\s treatm5t1 into a riv] or /ream4 ,"s in=mation is giv5 9 ,*apt] ,,xxviii4 on ! me?ods ( p>tial purification :i* are available to ! tann]1 b ^! are always co/ly & tr\blesome1 & ! possibility ( runn+ direct into a sew]age sy/em1 or a tidal riv] is ( great advantage4 ,"u ! ,public ,heal? ,act1 au?orities are b\nd to receive manufactur+ efflu5ts into _! sew]s if ! latt] are ( suffici5t capacity1 & ! efflu5ts n su* z ei!r to damage ! sew]s1 or int]f]e ) ! processes ( purification adopt$ by ! au?ority4 ,?is act is 9 _m di/ricts practically sup]s$$ by special legislation1 b tann]s' efflu5ts are g5]ally receiv$ into sew]s if fre$ f solid matt]4 ,:5 mix$ ) o!r sewage1 !y d n int]f]e ) irrigation or bact]ial treatm5t4 ,9 select+ a site )9 a sew]$ di/rict1 reg>d mu/ be _h to ! possibility ( caus+ a nuisance to ! neighb\rhood by f\l smells4 ,really injuri\s smells %\ld n be caus$ by a prop]ly conduct$ tann]y1 b x is difficult to avoid od\r1 & a s+le badly dispos$ neighb\r may cause inf9ite tr\ble & exp5se4 ,ano!r important consid]ation is ! wat] supply1 s9ce = ! l>ge quantities us$ 9 a tann]y1 t[n wat] is g5]ally v exp5sive4 ,) reg>d to quality & impurities ( wat] in=mation may be f\nd 9 ,*apt] ,x42 b1 z a g5]al rule1 ! s(t] & pur] ! supply ! bett]4 ,x is also ( great advantage :5 ! s\rce is at su* a level t ! wat] c fl[ into ! tan-y>d1 or at lea/ into ! beam-h\se1 )\t pump+4 ,filtration too1 :5 ne$$1 is mu* facilitat$ by a suffici5t head ( wat]4 ,comm]cial facilities1 su* z ne>ness to m>kets & s\rces ( supply ( raw mat]ials1 & ! availability ( rail & wat] c>riage are ( an importance at lea/ equal to ! po9ts already consid]$1 b h>dly come )9 ! scope ( ?is "w4 ,! site *os51 ! next "q is ! arrangem5t ( ! build+s4 ,x is v d\btful1 :]e gr\nd is n inord9ately exp5sive1 :e!r x is wise to erect dry+-%$s ov] ! pits4 ,9 case ( fire1 v s]i\s damage is done to liquor & lea!r by ! heat & burn+ timb]4 ,if ! turret =m ( dri] be decid$ on1 /rong f\ndations are requir$1 & ! gr\nd-floor or basem5t is occupi$ ) heat+ app>atus2 if fan-dry+1 no l(ty build+s are ne$$1 & ! dry+ rooms are conv5i5tly plac$ ov] ! f9i%+ & curry+ %ops2 &1 on ! o!r h&1 ! tan-h\se may be easily & *eaply cov]$ ) slat$ ro(s1 ) ne>ly v]tical sections ( glass1 to ! nor? if possible1 l a weav+-%$1 ?r\gh :i* suffici5t light = conv5i5t "w & cleanl9ess is admitt$4 ,! direct rays ( ! sun %\ld be avoid$1 b 9 ! writ]'s op9ion ! balance ( advantage is l>gely 9 fav\r ( a lib]al supply ( light4 ,iron ro(s are unsuitable1 s9ce ! moi/ure cond5ses on1 & ru/s !m2 & p>ticles ( oxide fall into ! liquors1 & cause iron-/a9s4 ,good v5tilation along ! ridge ( ! ro( %\ld be provid$1 :]ev] !re is any /eam or hot liquor us$2 or ! cond5s$ moi/ure soon leads to decay4 ,9 arrang+ ! g5]al plan ( ! build+s1 mu* dep5ds on local circum/ances2 b z f> z possible1 !y mu/ be s arrang$ t ! hides & lea!r "w /raight =w>d f "o dep>tm5t to ano!r ) z little :eel+ or c>ry+ z possible2 t ! build+s :]e p[] is us$ be ne> to ! eng9e s z to avoid long transmissions1 :i* are v wa/eful ( p[]2 & t ! diff]5t build+s be s isolat$ z to dim9i% ! risk ( ! :ole be+ de/roy$ 9 case ( fire4 ,a *apt] on ! con/ruction & ma9t5ance ( tann]ies & lea!r works w\ld be incomplete if x did n ref] to ! v important "q ( ,fire ,insurance4#ahe ,to an ext5t ?is may be reg>d$ z a fix$ *>ge aga9/ any bus9ess1 v mu* 9 ! same way z local & imp]ial rates4 ,x is n1 h[ev]1 to be lo/ sight (1 t to "s consid]able ext5t ! am\nt ( insurance premium is regulat$ by ! insur$ himself4 ,if a man conducts 8 bus9ess 9 unsuitable & badly con/ruct$ build+s2 if att5tion is n paid to "s ( ! elem5t>y haz>ds connect$ ) a fire outbreak2 he mu/ n blame ! insurance companies = ! dem& ( :at he consid]s an excessive premium4 ,if ?is faulty con/ruction & imp]fect equipm5t ( build+s p]ta9 to any consid]able ext5t ?r\gh\t a giv5 trade :]e ! process is m or less haz>d\s1 x is futile to appeal to insurance companies1 :i*1 aft] all1 are m]ely comm]cial & n *>itable in/itutions1 = a r$uction 9 ! rates4 ,! only /&>d to guide ! company is ! loss-ratio1 & giv5 a high loss-ratio1 !re mu/ be a correspond+ premium paid4 #ahe ,) reg>d to fire insurance1 ,i am mu* indebt$ to ,mr4 ,a4 ,w4 ,ba91 ( ,le$s = valuable in=mation4 ,!re is1 h[ev]--?anks to mod]n sci5ce--a me?od available :]eby ! great bulk ( fires may be *eck$ 9 _! inception2 an appliance1 automatic 9 its op]ation1 & ( prov$ effici5cy4 ,?is appliance is kn[n z ! spr9kl]4 ,a sy/em ( wat]-pipes is fix$ "u ! ceil+s ( ! build+ to be protect$1 to :i* are atta*$ spr9kl+ jets at suitable int]vals1 ea* ( :i* is clos$ by a valve held 9 place by a jo9t ( fusible metal1 :i* gives way if ! temp]ature rises beyond a giv5 po9t4 ,!re are two or ?ree recognis$ patt]ns approv$ by ! ,fire ,(fices ,committee aft] pati5t inve/igation & practical te/4 ,^! appliances h n[ be5 at "w = some?+ l fifte5 ye>s 9 ?is c\ntry4 ,"o ( ! fir/ trades to recognise _! utility 0 t ( ! cotton-sp9n]4 ,at "o "t s]i\s fires 9 ! cotton trade 7 ( frequ5t occurr5ce4 ,n[--ow+ to ! effici5t fire appliances--:ile fires may be z frequ5t 9 _! inception z =m]ly1 !y are /opp$ at su* a /age z to prev5t any consid]able loss4 ,! consequ5ce has be5 t ! cotton-sp9n]1 at "o "t ! own] ( a highly-rat$ risk1 & "o :i* few companies c>$ to insure1 is n[ 9 ! position ( hav+ 8 bus9ess eag]ly s\ght aft]1 & l>ge disc\nts (f]$ him (f ! *>ges he 0 once call$ ^u to pay4 ,m important /ill is ! consid]ation to him t 8 bus9ess is n s liable to be int]f]$ ) or /opp$ z ! result ( fire4 ,!re are1 x is e/imat$1 at ! pres5t mom5t1 no less a proportion ?an #ij p] c5t ( ! cotton-sp9n]s ^: premises are protect$ by spr9kl] in/allations4 ,o!r haz>d\s risks su* z corn-mill]s'1 wooll5 & wor/$ manufactur]s'1 saw-mill]s'1 eng9e]s'1 are adopt+ ^! appliances freely1 & x is a matt] ( surprise t s v few tann]ies or curry+ %ops--s f> z ,i h be5 able to le>n1 n m ?an twelve--h done ! same4 ,! consequ5ce is t ! loss-ratio 9 tann]y risks /ill reta9s its un5viable notoriety3 ! rates = fire insurance h ris5 consid]ably1 & z a result ! tann]s' pr(its are correspond+ly less4 ,consid]+ ! ext5t & importance ( _m ( ! tann]y risks ?r\gh\t ,great ,brita91 "o c only express surprise t ^! appliances h be5 s little adopt$4 ,! con/ruction ( a new tann]y dem&s s]i\s att5tion f an insurance /&po9t4 ,! boil]-h\se %\ld be a deta*$ build+2 ! gr9d+ ( b>k & myrobalans %\ld be conduct$ 9 build+s isolat$ f ! g5]al works2 9 fact no bett] advice c\ld be giv5 to a tann]1 ei!r 9 ! con/ruction ( new premises1 or ! re>rangem5t & remodell+ ( old1 ?an to consult an exp]i5c$ insurance man1 :e!r (ficial or brok]1 z to ! be/ means ( con/ruct+ & arrang+ to secure ! mo/ fav\rable t]ms4 ,ano!r po9t :i* %\ld be provid$ =1 & :i* is (t5 ov]look$1 is ! feasibility ( future ext5sion )\t s]i\s *anges ( arrangem5t4 ,x may be tak5 z a probability ( ! future1 ev5 if x be n already a fact1 t small tann]ies _c be made to pay1 & t if a bus9ess succe$s1 its ext5sion w prove desirable2 & 9 an ill-plann$ y>d ?is may involve ei!r entire recon/ruction ( a v exp5sive & inconv5i5t sort1 or ! sep>ation ( new dep>tm5ts1 s z to involve s]i\s increase ( c>ry+4 ,a good arrangem5t is t ( a long front build+ s]v+ to connect ! :ole1 beh9d :i* ! v>i\s dep>tm5ts are erect$ at "r angles leav+ room = ext5sion backw>ds z requir$4 ,z reg>ds ! fir/ ( ^! conditions1 if ! v>i\s soaks1 limes1 bates1 & h&l]s are well arrang$1 x is h>dly necess>y to d m ?an draw ! goods f "o pit into ! next ?r\gh\t ! :ole ( ! process4 ,to1 & f ! lay]s1 ! goods mu/ g5]ally be c>ri$ or :eel$4 ,9 ! %$s1 if x be a sole-lea!r tann]y1 ! butts %\ld fir/ come into turrets or op5 %$s = ! r\gh dry+2 !n into a room %elt]$ f draughts to temp] = /rik+4 ,! /rik+ ma*9es or beams %\ld be 9 an adjo9+ room1 or imm$iately bel[2 !n a small %$-space = dry+ be=e roll+2 next ! roll] room2 & !n ! w>m /ove = dry+ (f4 ,if two ( ! latt] c be provid$ to be us$ alt]nately1 x w all[ ! goods to be air$ (f )\t tak+ d[n1 & !y may !n be imm$iately h&$ or l[]$ into ! w>eh\se1 )\t fe> ( ov]-dry+1 :i* is sometimes difficult to avoid :]e lea!r mu/ be tak5 direct out ( ! hot dry+-room4 ,! same pr9ciples are easily appli$ 9 y>ds = light] lea!rs4 ,to less5 loss ( p[] 9 transmission1 ! eng9e %\ld be ne> ! c5tre ( ! ma9 range ( build+s1 ) p]haps ! gr9d+ ma*9]y on "o side1 & ! lea!r f9i%+ on ! o!r2 b ?is w\ld be r liable to increase ! fire-risk4 ,a v good plan w\ld be to h ! eng9e-h\se 9 ! c5tre z sugge/$1 b sep>at$ f ! build+s on ea* side by brick gables2 & ) ! boil]-h\se beh9d x1 & "u a sep>ate ro(1 say ( corrugat$ iron4 ,if x be impossible to h ! eng9e ne> its "w1 x is 9 mo/ cases bett] to employ a sep>ate high-pressure eng9e1 :i* may be )9 a glass p>tition1 & w "w all day ) sc>cely any att5tion4 ,! loss ( p[] 9 c>ry+ /eam = mod]ate di/ances ?r\gh suffici5tly l>ge & well-clo!d pipes is mu* small] ?an t ( long l9es ( %aft+4 ,! writ] has kn[n cases :]e fully half ! indicat$ p[] ( ! eng9e 0 consum$ 9 friction ( ! eng9e1 %aft+ & belts4 ,high-pressure eng9es are z a rule to be pref]r$ to cond5s+ = tann]y use1 s9ce ! wa/e /eam c g5]ally be employ$ = heat+1 & bo? ! fir/ co/ & t ( ma9t5ance are small]4 ,:]e mu* fuel is us$1 x is q wor? :ile to h ! cyl9d]s indicat$ occasionally1 bo? runn+ light1 & driv+ ! ma*9]y2 mu* in=mation is ga9$ 9 ?is way z to ! p[] sp5t on ! v>i\s ma*9es1 & v frequ5tly l>ge economy is effect$ by prop] adju/m5t ( ! valves4 ,to "w economically1 an eng9e %\ld be ( ample p[] = all x has to d2 & adju/$ to its "w1 n by l[]+ ! pressure ( /eam1 or by *eck+ x at ! ?rottle-valve1 b by sett+ ! slide-valves to cut (f z e>ly 9 ! /roke z may be4 ,z to h[ e>ly ?is is possible1 an indicator-diagram w at once give in=mation4 ,if ! :ole ( ! wa/e /eam c be us$ pr(itably = heat+ purposes1 economy 9 ! work+ ( ! eng9e is ( little consequ5ce1 b1 o!rwise1 x is v injudici\s1 = ! sake ( a little sav+ 9 fir/ co/1 to put 9 an old or inf]ior eng9e1 :i* has to be de>ly paid = 9 wa/e ( fuel4 ,9 ! *oice ( an eng9e1 ! advice ( an exp]t eng9e] is desirable1 s9ce _m eng9es :i* are me*anically well made1 are uneconomical ?r\gh ! faults ( a rule-(-?umb design4 ,9 ?is respect ! ,engli% eng9e-build] is frequ5tly inf]ior to 8 bett] tra9$ cont95tal competitor4 ,9 place ( us+ small /eam eng9es to di/ribute p[]1 electric driv+ des]ves consid]ation4 ,= long drives ! loss ( p[] is mu* less ?an t ( %aft+1 & by conc5trat+ ! :ole production ( ! p[] 9 "o l>ge & well-con/ruct$ eng9e1 ! co/ p] horse-p[] c be mu* r$uc$4 ,:ile l>ge & well-con/ruct$ eng9es may develop #a horse-p[] at a co/ 9 coal ( #a lb4 p] h\r1 x is n uncommon to use #ab lb4 = ! same output4 ,9 tann]ies1 h[ev]1 ! p[] us$ be>s a mu* less proportion to total exp5ses ?an x does 9 ! textile & _m o!r trades4 ,! fir/ co/ ( electric driv+ is some:at high4 ,motors ( ! 8arm\r$0 or iron-cas$ type mu/ be us$ 9 all positions :]e !y are subject to wet or du/4 ,x mu/ be borne 9 m9d t an electric motor w n />t aga9/ a heavy load1 z x only develops its full p[] at a high spe$1 & if x receive ! full pressure ( ! curr5t be=e ?is is atta9$1 its coils w probably be burnt out1 unless sav$ by ! melt+ ( its safety-fuse4 ,a simil> dang] is incurr$1 if ! motor is br\ght up by ov]load+ :ile ! curr5t is on4 ,x is !re=e g5]ally necess>y to connect a motor ) its "w by a belt :i* is only br\ght on to ! work+ pulley :5 its full spe$ is atta9$4 ,9 "s cases ! use ( gas-eng9es is conv5i5t & economical2 = ?\gh gas f t[n-supplies is an exp5sive fuel1 ! be/ gas eng9es give a high] me*anical effici5cy ?an /eam-eng9es1 & !y "w ) v little att5tion4 ,9 arrang+ %aft+1 mod]ate spe$s1 say #ajj-aej revolutions p] m9ute1 %\ld be *os5 = ma9 l9es1 & :5 high] spe$s are necess>y1 !y %\ld be got by light & well balanc$ c\nt]-%afts1 ) wr\ght iron or wood5 pulleys4 7,cp4 p4 #deb47 ,9 calculat+ spe$s1 x mu/ be rememb]$ t !y v>y inv]sely z ! size ( ! pulleys4 ,?us a #c-;feet pulley runn+ at #ajj revolutions w drive a #b-;foot pulley at #aej revolutions1 & a #ab-;in* "o at #cjj4 ,( c\rse ! high] its spe$1 ! m p[] any %aft w transmit1 b increas$ friction & we> & te> soon limit ?is advantage4 ,! velocity ( a belt 9 feet p] m9ute is obta9$ by multiply+ ! numb] ( revolutions p] m9ute by ! gir? ( ! pulley 9 feet or by its diamet] multipli$ by #c1 or m accurately1 #cadaf4 ,pulleys %\ld always be ( ample bread? = ! p[] !y h to transmit2 & x is m economical1 bo? 9 p[] & co/1 to use broad s+le belt+ ?an ! same /r5g? 9 d\ble4 ,if ! pulley w n take a belt broad en\gh = ! "w x has to d1 a second belt may be made to run on ! top ( ! fir/1 z sugge/$ by ,mr4 ,j4 ,tullis1 & w d its %>e ( ! "w4 ,belts %\ld be wa%$ occasionally ) soap & tepid wat]1 & oil$ ) ca/or or neatsfoot oil2 b if ( suffici5t bread?1 %\ld n require ! use ( ros91 or adhesive mat]ials1 to make !m grip ! pulley4 ,*rome-lea!r belts %\ld be kept ?or\ghly oil$4 ,!y h a mu* great] adhesion ?an vegetable tannages1 & ?is is increas$ by oil+4 ,good *rome belt+ is mu* /rong] ?an b>k-tann$2 & is unaffect$ by damp or /eam1 b g5]ally /ret*es some:at m4 ,mak]s ( ma*9es (t5 err 9 con/ruct+ _! driv+ pulleys too small bo? 9 bread? & diamet]4 ,! horse-p[] :i* a belt is capable ( transmitt+ obvi\sly v>ies extremely ) circum/ances1 b may be approximately calculat$ by ! =mula a 4 v ---------1 #ffjjj :]e a is ! area ( contact ( ! belt ) ! smalle/ pulley1 & v its velocity 9 feet p] m9ute4 ,ano!r rule is1 t at a velocity ( #ajjj feet p] m9ute1 ea* in* ( bread? ( belt %\ld transmit #b horse-p[] on metal pulleys1 or #e on wood5 ones1 on :i* ! adhesion is great]4 ,adhesion may also be increas$ by cov]+ ! pulleys ) lea!r or indi>ubb]4 ,bo? rules assume t ! belt is ( ample /r5g?4 ,"o horse-p[] w\ld be transmitt$ by a belt runn+ #ajjj feet p] m9ute ) a pull ( #cc lb4 ,a good s+le belt %\ld n break ) a mu* less /ress ?an #ajjj lb4 p] in* ( bread?1 & %\ld /& ab\t z mu* z a work+ /ress4 ,! foll[+ table gives ! exp]im5tal break+ /resses & ext5sions ( "s lea!rs4 ,x may be not$ t #a squ>e in* sectional area is equal to a belt #d in*es wide in* ?ick2 & t kilos p] cm #adbb lb4 p] in*4 ,,break+ ,,/resses ,,( ,,lea!r4#ahf ---------------------------------------- ------------------- -- ,kilo p] sq4 ,lb4 p] ,/ret* c5timetre4sq4 in*4p] c5t4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,belt+ lea!r1 lay] sy/em #bhc #d1jcj #bed ,durio sy/em #bih #d1bdj #ba ,well-tann$ *rome lea!r #gdj #aj1ejj #cbe ,ov]-tann$ *rome lea!r #bcd #c1ccj #bc ,/uff$ alum$ lea!r #hce #aa1ijj #chc ,alum$ 8ra:ide0 #iba #ac1ajj #cad ---------------------------------------- ------------------- #ahf #8,g]b]1' #aijj1 p4 #gc4 ,good ,engli% tann$ belt+ lea!r breaks at f #dejj to #eejj lb4 p] sq4 in* sectional area4 ,ov]-tann$ lea!rs are less t\gh1 :e!r ( vegetable or m9]al tannage1 ?an ^? some:at lightly tann$1 & ! t5sile /r5g? ( lea!r v>ies consid]ably ) ! "p ( ! hide f :i* x is tak51 t f approximately ov] ! kidneys be+ ! /ronge/4 ,ev5 ?ick & t\gh lea!r is easily torn if a cut or nick is once />t$1 & all holes us$ 9 jo9t+ belts %\ld be c>efully r\nd$4 ,glucose1 & ! use ( acid 9 blea*+ bo? less5 ! t\ghness ( belts1 & !y may also be r5d]$ t5d] by ! heat evolv$ 9 slipp+ on a pulley4 ,c\nt]%aft+ & high-spe$ ma*9]y1 su* z dis9tegrators1 /rik+ ma*9es ( ! ,prie/man type1 etc41 %\ld run )\t mat]ial j> or vibration4 ,if ?is occurs1 x is g5]ally a sign t ! runn+ "p is n equally balanc$4 ,9 ?is case ! %aft or sp9dle mu/ be tak5 out ( its be>+s1 & support$ on two exactly horizontal /raight-edges1 on :i* x w roll till ! heavie/ "p is d[nw>ds2 & weight mu/ !n be tak5 (f or add$ till x w lie 9 any position4 ,9 ?is way ! writ] has _h to add fully #b lb4 ( iron to balance ! drum ( a /rik+ ma*9e be=e equilibrium 0 secur$1 & a mo/ tr\blesome vibration prev5t$4 ,( c\rse all ma*9]y %\ld be support$ z solidly z possible2 & if circum/ances p]mit1 mo/ ma*9es are bett] on a gr\nd floor4 ,9 plac+ b>k mills1 h[ev]1 x is frequ5tly conv5i5t to fix !m at a high] level1 s t ! gr\nd mat]ial may be s5t d[n %oots by its own weight to ! requir$ places4 ,an alt]native plan is to set ! mill on ! gr\nd ov] a pit1 & to raise ! gr\nd mat]ial ) a bucket-elevator4 ,?is may be done successfully by lett+ ! mat]ial fall directly f ! mill into ! buckets2 b o!rwise x mu/ be ?r[n 9 ) a %ovel1 z buckets w n pick up gr\nd b>k1 ev5 f a hopp]2 & 9 any case su* elevators are apt to be tr\blesome4 ,9 a gr9d+ plant design$ by ! writ]1 ! ungr\nd mat]ial 0 fill$ on ! basem5t floor into an iron b>r[1 :i* 0 :eel$ into an iron sl+ work+ betwe5 upright guide-rails l a hoi/4 ,on pull+ a brake l9e1 ! b>r[ 0 rais$ to ! top ( ! build+1 & its cont5ts 7 tipp$ into a l>ge hopp]1 aft] :i* ! b>r[ right$ itself1 & desc5d$ = ano!r load4 ,9 ! bottom ( ! hopp] 0 a slid+ %ov]1 :i* =c$ ! mat]ial on to vibrat+ scre5s1 by :i* x 0 guid$ ei!r into a dis9tegrator1 or cru%]-rolls1 at pleasure4 ,bo? ^! dis*>g$ ?r\gh iron sp\ts into l>ge hopp]s on ! outside ( a brick gable1 f :i* p[d]y mat]ials l myrobalans & valonia c\ld be run direct into b>r[s or trucks4 ,x is v desirable t su* hopp]s %\ld be sep>at$ f ! ma9 build+ by a firepro( p>tition4 ,fires may occur f h>d sub/ances gett+ into dis9tegrators along ) ! b>k1 etc4 & if ?is occur ) a dry & du/y tann+ mat]ial1 x is n unlikely t x may result 9 an explosion su* z sometimes happ5s 9 fl\r mills1 9 :i* ! fire is rapidly convey$ along sp\ts1 & into *amb]s fill$ ) du/y air4 ,insurance companies g5]ally *>ge an extra rate = dis9tegrators1 & x is v desirable to keep ! mill-h\se /ructurally ap>t f o!r build+s1 ei!r by actual sep>ation or by ! introduction ( brick gables divid+ ! ro(s4 ,on ! :ole1 h[ev]1 mills ( ! c(fee-mill type are probably q z dang]\s z dis9tegrators2 s9ce if !y become p>tially *ok$1 ! heat caus$ by friction is v great4 ,9 ,am]ica1 ! fire-risk f mills is (t5 less5$ or prev5t$ by ! introduction ( a jet ( /eam into ! *amb] or sp\t by :i* ! mill dis*>ges1 b ?is is only p]missible if ! tann+ mat]ial is convey$ at once to ! lea*es or y>d4 ,! use ( *a9-conveyors = h&l+ tann+ mat]ial bo? wet & dry is practically univ]sal 9 ,am]ica1 ?\gh comp>atively r>e 9 ,engl&4 ,v>i\s =ms are us$1 ! mo/ common consi/+ ( a *a9 ( squ>e l9ks ( malleable ca/ iron :i* hook into ea* o!r1 s t a brok5 l9k c be imm$iately replac$ 7see p4 #cbe74 ,at int]vals special l9ks are ins]t$1 :i* c be _h ( v>i\s patt]ns1 = ! atta*m5t ( scrap]s or buckets4 ,! endless *a9 runs 9 a tr\gh ( rectangul> or ,v-%ap$ section1 & is driv5 by a too!d :eel1 ov] :i* x runs l a belt4 ,9 "s cases ! return+ half ( ! *a9 c be utilis$ to br+ back ! sp5t tan on its way to ! boil] h\se4 ,= dry mat]ials1 cotton or lea!r belts ) %ort wood5 cross-la?s atta*$1 may (t5 be us$ satisfactorily 9 place ( ! *a94 ,= lubricat+ purposes1 m9]al oils ( high d5sity are n m dang]\s ?an animal or vegetable1 b r ! rev]se2 z1 ?\gh !y are possibly m inflammable1 & make m smoke1 _! mixture ) cotton-wa/e & o!r por\s mat]ials is n spontane\sly combu/ible1 z ^? ( vegetable & animal oils occasionally are4 ,! dang] ( spontane\s combu/ion is v consid]able :5 heaps ( lea!r %av+s or cutt+s conta9+ fi%-oils are all[$ to accumulate 9 w>m work%ops1 &1 especially ne> /eam-pipes4 ,heavy m9]al oils %\ld always be us$ z cyl9d]-oils 9 high-pressure eng9es1 9 pref]5ce to o!r oils or tall[1 s9ce !y are n decompos$ by /eam1 & d no h>m if bl[n into ! fe$-wat]1 b s]ve to loos5 & prev5t scale & deposit4 ,ord9>y oils & tall[1 on ! o!r h&1 :5 submitt$ to ! action ( high-pressure /eam1 are sep>at$ into glyc]9 & fatty acids 7see p4 #cea71 & ! latt] corrode ! valve faces & seat+s1 & are liable ) 8tempor>y h>d0 wat]s to =m a v dang]\s por\s deposit 9 ! boil]s1 :i* (t5 leads to ov]heat+ ( ! tubes4 ,next to ! ma*9]y1 ! pits dem& special consid]ation4 ,! *apt] on ! subject 9 ! late ,mr4 ,jackson ,s*ultz's book on #8,lea!r ,manufacture1' is well wor? att5tive /udy z giv+ ,am]ican practice on ! subject4 ,! old-fa%ion$ me?od ( s9k+ pits is to make !m ( wood1 & c>efully puddle !m r\nd ) clay1 :i* %\ld be well work$ up be=e use4 ,x is ( no use to ?r[ x 9 9 lumps & attempt to puddle x betwe5 ! pits1 :i* w n be made tight1 b probably displac$ by ! pressure4 ,su* pits1 if made ( good p9e & kept 9 con/ant use1 are v durable1 "s ( ! orig9al pits at ,l[lights ,tann]y1 con/ruct$ 9 #agfe1 hav+ be5 9 use till #ahhi4 ,loam mix$ ) wat] to ! consi/5ce ( ?9 mort> may also be employ$1 ! pits be+ fill$ up ) wat]1 to keep !m /eady1 at ! same rate z ! loam is run 94 ,probably ! be/ mat]ials = pit-sides are ! l>ge ,york%ire flag/ones4 ,:]e ^! are n atta9able1 v durable pits may be made ( brick1 ei!r built ) ,lias lime1 & po9t$ ) ,portl& cem5t1 or built entirely ) ! latt]4 ,common lime _c be us$1 z x spoils bo? liquors & lea!r2 & ev5 cem5ts ) too l>ge a p]c5tage ( lime are unsatisfactory4 ,brick & common mort> are1 h[ev]1 suitable = lime-pits1 & = ^! ,mr4 ,c4 ,e4 ,p>k]'s plan ( con/ruct+ ! bottom ( cem5t1 ! ends & slop+ he>? ( brick1 & ! sides ( #c-;in* planks bolt$ toge!r is also v satisfactory 7,fig4 #if74 ,! writ] has con/ruct$ wood5 pits 9 two ways4 ,9 ! "o case1 aft] mak+ ! excavation1 beams 7 laid 9 a well-puddl$ b$ ( clay2 on ^! a floor ( /rong tongu$ & groov$ deals 0 laid1 & on ?is ! pits 7 con/ruct$ ( simil> wood to ! floor1 & puddl$ r\nd ) clay4 ,9 ! second case ! pits 7 built l l>ge boxes above gr\nd1 & :5 f9i%$1 l[]$ on to a b$ ( clay prep>$ = !m1 & !n puddl$ bo? ar\nd & betwe54 ,x may h be5 due to defective workman%ip 9 ! fir/ case1 b ^? made on ! la/-nam$ plan1 :i* is t adopt$ f v e>ly times1 c]ta9ly prov$ ! tighte/ & mo/ satisfactory4 ,mr4 ,s*ultz describes a plan z ! ,buffalo me?od1 9 :i* a floor is laid z j describ$1 & grooves cut ) a plane = ! reception ( ! sides1 :i* are =m$ ( p]p5dicul> planks1 ea* end & side be+ f9ally tight5$ up by ! ins]tion ( a 8w$ge plank40 ,ow+ to ! p]p5dicul> position ( ! side-planks su* pits w\ld be difficult to repair 9 ! common case ( decay at ! top4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #if4--,mr4 ,c4 ,e4 ,p>k]'s con/ruction ( ,lime-,pits4 ,if bricks be us$1 great c>e mu/ be tak5 t ! cem5t is n m]ely laid s z to fill ! jo9ts t[>ds ! two surfaces ( ! wall1 z is ! habit ( mod]n bricklay]s1 b actually float$ into all ! jo9ts s z to make ! wall a solid mass2 or leaks c h>dly be avoid$4 ,h>d press$ bricks are be/1 & %\ld be te/$ z to :e!r !y discol\r liquor4 ,cem5t-pits are v good1 &1 ?\gh n p>ticul>ly *eap 9 mat]ial1 :i* mu/ be ( ! be/1 are readily made by intellig5t lab\r]s "u good sup]vision4 ,! fir/ /ep is to lay a level floor ( good concrete1 9 :i* glaz$ pipes = empty+ ! pits may be emb$d$2 c>e be+ also tak5 t all jo9ts 9 ^! are ?or\ghly tight1 s9ce future repairs are impossible4 ,! next /ep is to make frames1 ! exact l5g? & bread? ( ! pits requir$1 & p]haps #ae in*es deep4 ,^! are arrang$ on ! floor :]e ! pits are to be1 & ! int]v5+ spaces are fill$ ) concrete ( p]haps #a ( cem5t to #c or #d ( cru%$ /one or brick4 ,r\gh /ones & bricks may also be b$d$ 9 ! concrete z ! "w goes on1 to help to fill up4 ,aft] ! fir/ lay] has set1 ! frames may be rais$ & a second add$1 & s on4 ,! "w is g5]ally f9i%$ by float+ ov] x1 :ile /ill damp1 a little pure cem5t1 to give a smoo? surface4 ,be=e us+1 ! cem5t %\ld be tri$ on a small scale1 to be sure t x does n discol\r lea!r or liquors1 & ! pits %\ld always be season$ ) old or *eap liquor be=e actual use4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ig4--;,clean+ ,rod ,jo9t4 ,if possible1 bo? lea*es & h&l]-pits %\ld be provid$ ) plugs & und]gr\nd pipes1 communicat+ ) a liquor-well "s feet bel[ _! levels4 ,glaz$ fire-clay is v suitable bo? = pipes & plug-holes1 :i* %\ld be 9 ! pit corn]s4 ,if fire-clay blocks = plug-holes _c be obta9$1 !y may be ca/ 9 good cem5t1 ! wood5 m\ld be+ soak$ ) hot p>aff9 wax to prev5t adhesion4 ,means mu/ be provid$ = ! ready cle>+ ( ! pipes :5 *ok$ ) tann+ mat]ials4 ,a good plan is to let ea* l9e ( pipes end 9 a liquor-well l>ge en\gh = a man to g d[n4 ,z x is almo/ impossible to make plugs fit )\t occasional leakage1 x is n well to run pits ) v diff]5t /r5g?s ( liquors to "o well1 b ! lay]s1 h&l]s1 & diff]5t sets ( lea*es %\ld ea* h _! own1 s z to avoid mixture4 ,a good means ( cle>+ pipes consi/s 9 a s]ies ( iron rods #c-d feet long1 connect$ by hooks fitt+ into d\ble eyes1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #ig4 ,x is obvi\s t 9 a n>r[ pipe or dra91 ^! _c become disconnect$4 ,pipes may (t5 be =c$ out by fitt+ a /rong deliv]y-hose ( a /eam-pump into "o ( ! plug-holes4 ,x is1 z ,s*ultz po9ts out1 ( que/ionable advantage to lay wood5 tr\ghs "u ! alleys = supply+ liquor to ea* pit1 s9ce x is almo/ impossible to pres]ve !m f decay2 b ! same objection w\ld n apply to glaz$ pipes1 jo9t$ ) pit* or cem5t$4 ,a good & *eap plan 9 practice1 is to let ! liquor-pump1 or a rais$ liquor-ci/]n1 dis*>ge into a l>ge & q horizontal tr\gh rais$ #f or #g feet above ! level ( ! y>d1 & provid$ ) plug-holes at int]vals1 f :i* ! liquor c be run into ! v>i\s pits by %ort sp\ts or sailclo? hose4 ,9 place ( plugs 9 ! rais$ tr\gh1 a simple & conv5i5t valve devis$ by ! writ] may be advantage\sly employ$4 ,a lead weight is made by ca/+ 9 a hemisph]ical t9 bas9 ( ab\t #e in*es diamet] & #b in*es deep 9 ! c5tre1 a loop ( /rong brass wire ) turn$ up l[] ends1 be+ susp5d$ 9 ! middle1 s z to become fix$ 9 ! lead4 ,to prev5t adhesion1 ! t9 mu/ be previ\sly burn$ (f1 & ! bas9 well blacklead$4 ,?is weight =ms ! valve1 :i* re/s 9 use on a #f-;in* wa%] ( good indi>ubb] ) a #d-;in* hole1 :i* is held by a wood block aga9/ ! bottom ( ! tr\gh1 ?r\gh :i* a #e-;in* hole is cut4 ,! valve is rais$ by a lev] or cord1 & is absolutely wat]-tight 9 use4 ,x is %[n 9 section 9 ,fig4 #gi1 p4 #ccc4 ,x is v advantage\s 9 practice1 in/ead ( pump+ direct into ! pits1 to h "o or m tanks1 into :i* liquor c be deliv]$ by ! pump1 & :i* are suffici5tly rais$ to all[ x to be run f !m into ! horizontal di/ribut+ tr\ghs :i* h be5 m5tion$4 ,?is is specially important ) reg>d to liquors = lea*es & susp5d]s :i* are work$ on a circulat+ sy/em1 s9ce !y d n run v quickly1 & mu* "t is lo/ 9 pump+ out pits1 if ! spe$ ( ! pump has to be regulat$ by ! rate at :i* ! liquor w circulate4 ,x also enables liquors to be run ?r\gh susp5d]- & rock]-pits dur+ ! night or at meal-times :ile ! ma*9]y is /&+2 & x is (t5 useful on beg9n+ "w 9 ! morn+1 to h an empty tank into :i* ! fir/ liquor c be pump$4 ,direct-act+ /eam-pumps )\t fly-:eels are v unsatisfactory = tan-y>ds1 s9ce !y are usually unc]ta9 9 _! action1 difficult to run sl[ly1 & apt to 8hamm]02 & !y are also co/ly 9 /eam1 :i* _c be us$ expansively4 ,/eam-pumps ) fly-:eels1 op]at+ ! /eam-valve by an ecc5tric1 are free f ^! defects1 & ?\gh m co/ly at ! outset1 soon save ! diff]5ce 9 less5$ repairs & consumption ( /eam4 ,pumps ) a capacity ( #hjjj gallons p] h\r are v suitable1 & c be us$ ) a #c-;in* hose pipe2 small] sizes are decid$ly m liable to *oke ) tann+ mat]ial4 ,rubb] mitre-valves "w satisfactorily1 & d n *oke frequ5tly1 b are co/ly1 & easily damag$ by hot liquors4 ,on ! :ole brass clack-valves are ! mo/ satisfactory1 b ! h+e-p9s1 in/ead ( fitt+ neatly 9 circul> sockets1 %\ld be held 9 slots1 all[+ ! back ( ! valve to rise half an in*1 :5 x w cle> itself ( small h>d myrobalan /ones & su*like ?+s1 :i* gett+ "u a m tight-fitt+ h+e w\ld prev5t ! valve clos+1 & s /op ! pump4 ,:atev] valves are employ$1 means %\ld be provid$ = easy access )\t unscrew+ too _m bolts4 ,if ! sev]al valve-*amb]s ( ! pump are clos$ by a s+le cov] ) an indi>ubb] wa%]1 ! spaces betwe5 !m :i* make ! jo9t %\ld be fac$ ) brass or gun-metal1 z1 if ! lea/ leakage takes place ov] an iron surface1 ! friction & solv5t p[] ( ! liquors soon eat away ! metal & r5d] a good jo9t impossible4 ,:]e col\r is ( fir/ importance1 x is well to h ! :ole pump ( gun-metal1 b 9 any case ! work+ cyl9d] %\ld be brass-l9$1 & ! pi/on & rod1 & ! valves & seat+s %\ld be ( brass or gun-metal4 ,spr+-r+s are f> bett] ?an pump-lea!r & are unaffect$ by hot liquors2 *rome lea!r1 h[ev]1 w /& a good deal ( heat4 ,d\ble-act+ =ce-pumps h practically sup]s$$ ! old] s+le-act+ d\ble or triple pumps4 ,in/ead ( direct driv+ ) a /eam cyl9d]1 x is sometimes advantage\s to drive by belt1 b at lea/ "o /eam pump %\ld be provid$1 s t pump+ c be done :5 ! ma9 eng9e is n runn+1 & ! spe$ ( ! pump c be regulat$ to ! "w1 :i* is impossible 9 a belt-driv5 pump4 ,/eam pumps are sometimes v useful z fire eng9es4 ,c5trifugal pumps are v suitable = tann]y "w1 :]e ! liquor is drawn f a well1 b are n well adapt$ = use ) suction-pipes4 ,if ! =m ) v]tical sp9dle is adopt$1 :i* is sunk bel[ ! liquor 9 ! well1 ! pump fills itself1 & ne$s no foot-valve1 b unless ! well is v l>ge1 or "s conv5i5t means is devis$ ( )draw+ ! pump1 repair or clean+ is difficult4 ,if ! horizontal patt]n is us$1 :i* is above ! gr\nd1 repair1 clean+1 & driv+ is mu* easi]1 b a foot-valve is necess>y1 :i* may itself give tr\ble1 & "s conv5i5t means1 su* z a pipe f a rais$ tank1 %\ld be provid$ = fill+ ! pump ) liquor1 z1 unlike suction pumps1 c5trifugals w n />t unless full1 al?\gh !y raise v l>ge quantities :5 runn+1 & f _! /eady fl[1 w deliv] mu* m ?r\gh a giv5 pipe ?an an ord9>y reciprocat+ pump ) ! same p[]4 ,9 select+ ! pump1 c>e %\ld be tak5 t ! patt]n all[s ready access1 n only to ! foot-valve1 b to ! body ( ! pump4 ,x is seldom satisfactory to use w9dbores or /ra9]s to prev5t tann+ mat]ial gett+ into a pump1 z !y spe$ily become *ok$2 & x w be f\nd bett]1 aft] tak+ su* precautions z are possible1 to h ! pump & valve ( ample size & suitable con/ruction to pass :at comes ) ! liquor4 ,! writ] has kn[n a mop-head pump$ & deliv]$ ?r\gh a #c-;in* hose )\t /oppage1 by a ,tangye fly-:eel /eam-pump ) brass clack-valves su* z h be5 allud$ to4 ,pulsomet]s h n1 9 ! exp]i5ce ( ! writ]1 prov$ satisfactory 9 tann]ies1 w>m+ & dilut+ ! liquor1 consum+ mu* m /eam ?an a pump ( ! same p[]1 & becom+ easily *ok$4 ,= ! same reasons1 /eam-jet wat]-rais]s are n to be recomm5d$ except :]e rais+ is to be comb9$ ) heat+1 z 9 "s lea*+ devices 7p4 #ccd74 ,,*apt] ,,xxviii4 ,,wa/e ,,products ,,& ,,_! ,,disposal4 ,! products :i* are ( no direct value to ! tann] & curri] 9 ! manufacture ( lea!r1 & :i* are nev]!less obta9$ 9 fairly l>ge quantities1 are ( v v>y+ *>act]s4 ,9 ! pres5t *apt]1 ! mo/ important ( !m w be describ$1 & "s ( _! uses m5tion$4 ,hair is remov$ f ! sk9 ( ! animal 9 ! process ( depilation 7p4 #adc7 9 ! =m ( a wet sodd5 mass1 conta9+ a consid]able am\nt ( lime :5 ! sk9 has be5 ?r\gh ! lime-pits4 ,z :ite hair is ! m valuable1 c>e %\ld be tak5 9 ! unhair+ to keep x sep>ate f ! col\r$4 ,x is wa%$ fir/ 9 pla9 wat] to get rid ( z mu* ( ! lime z possible1 & !n 9 wat] conta9+ a little acid4 ,hydro*loric acid is (t5 us$ = ?is purpose1 b sulphur\s acid 7p4 #be7 is pref]able z x has a slight blea*+ action on ! hair4 ,! acid neutralises & r5d]s soluble ! lime :i* /ill rema9s 9 ! hair1 s t x c be easily remov$ by wa%+ ) wat]4 ,9 _m tann]ies1 hair-wa%+ ma*9es are us$4 ,! wa%$ hair is dri$ by lay+ x out on frames2 or pref]ably1 ! great] "p ( ! wat] is fir/ remov$ by a c5trifugal dri]1 or by press+1 & ! dry+ is complet$ 9 a dry+ room1 ! temp]ature ( :i* is a few degrees high] ?an t ( ! outside air1 & :i* is provid$ ) a fan or "s o!r appliance = me*anical v5tilation4 ,tables ( wire gauze on :i* ! hair is spread1 & ?r\gh :i* ! w>m air ( ! room is drawn by a c5trifugal fan1 are ! mo/ effective4 ,col\r$ hair is sometimes wa%$ & treat$ l ! :ite hair1 b is usually sold direct to pla/]]s1 9 :i* case !re is no necessity to remove all ! lime & o!r impurities :i* ! hair conta9s4 ,a consid]able am\nt ( hair is also sold to iron f\nd]s1 :o use x 9 prep>+ cores & 9 loam-ca/+4 ,! loose lime may be effectively beat5 f dri$ hair by pass+ x ?r\gh a dis9tegrator ) "o ( ! grates remov$4 ,fle%+s & ,glue-/uff4--,! v>i\s scraps ( fat & fle%1 m or less free f actual hide sub/ance1 are usually work$ up = glue1 ?\gh if !y _c be sold = a fair price x w pay to boil !m 9 ord] to recov] ! fat !y conta94 ,if ?is is to be done1 ! fatty portions may be ?r[n out at ! beam & n mix$ ) ! fle%+s z 9 ! ord9>y way4 ,be=e boil+1 ! fat is treat$ ) sulphur\s1 sulphuric or hydro*loric acid1 suffici5t to neutralise ! lime pres5t4 ,! boil+ %\ld be c>ri$ on v g5tly1 s z to all[ ! fat to rise )\t emulsify+ ) ! gelat9\s matt]4 ,= boil+1 op5 /eam may be us$1 b 9 ?is case ! size =m$ w h little value2 on ! o!r h&1 if sulphur\s acid has be5 us$ & a wood5 vat ) a copp] /eam-coil be employ$1 really good glue may be obta9$1 & ! slight trace ( bisulphite :i* x may conta9 w prev5t its putrefaction4 ,except "u special conditions x w n pay to make glue on a small scale 9 ,engl&1 z its value dep5ds mu* on its appe>ance1 & ! necess>y plant is some:at exp5sive4 ,9 "s places1 h[ev]1 size c be sold to advantage4 ,fig4 #ih %[s a glue-boil+ plant4 ,aft] sep>ation ( ! fat by skimm+1 ! cle> size is run (f f ! residual matt] into wood5 cool+ tr\ghs ab\t #e feet long by #i in*es deep & #ae in*es wide1 9 :i* x is all[$ to set 7,fig4 #ib1 p4 #dbe74 ,great c>e is requir$ t bo? size & cool]s are q sweet & free f putrefaction1 ! cool]s be+ frequ5tly wa%$ ) sulphur\s acid solution or fre% milk ( lime4 ,! jelly is cut out 9 blocks1 & slic$ into cakes ( appropriate ?ickness by means ( a s]ies ( frames l slate-frames :i* fit ov] ! block ( glue1 & betwe5 :i* a wire or ?9 blade /ret*$ on a saw-frame is ins]t$ to cut ! glue into %eets4 ,9 "s factories a ma*9e is us$1 ) a s]ies ( p>allel blades aga9/ :i* ! glue-block is pu%$4 ,! %eets are aft]w>ds sep>at$ by girls & laid to dry on nets1 on :i* !y are frequ5tly turn$4 ,:5 dry1 ! cakes may be wa%$ ) w>m wat] to remove any adh]+ dirt1 b ?is causes "s loss ( weight1 & 9 _m cases x pays bett] to dry 9 a /ove until q h>d1 !n gr9d 9 a dis9tegrator & sell z 8size-p[d]10 9 :i* appe>ance c\nts = little if ! col\r & /r5g? ( ! size are good4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ih4--;,glue ,boil+4 ,fat4--,! fat1 :e!r obta9$ 9 ! manufacture ( glue1 or by boil+ ! fle%+s & %av+s = its recov]y alone1 is skimm$ f ! surface ( ! heat$ liquor1 & %\ld aft]w>ds be fre$ f gelat9\s matt] by wa%+ x ) hot wat] 9 a tub & runn+ (f ! upp] lay] aft] all[+ ! wat] to settle out4 ,! fat ?us obta9$ is a light-col\r$ grease ( butt]y consi/5ce4 ,!re are v>i\s o!r s\rces ( wa/e fats :i* may be consid]$ "h4 ,if glue is made f dri$ glue-/uff )\t previ\s treatm5t ) acid1 ! fat skimm$ (f ! pans1 ?\gh d>k 9 col\r1 w be neutral or alkal9e1 & a consid]able additional quantity ( fat & free fatty acids may be obta9$ by reboil+ ! 8scut*0 or refuse ) op5 /eam 9 lead pans ) ! addition ( wat] & en\gh sulphuric acid to r5d] ! cont5ts ( ! pan di/9ctly acid4 ,?is grease w be d>k & ( unpleasant smell f volatile fatty acids1 b its od\r may be to a consid]able ext5t improv$ by bl[+ air & /eam ?r\gh x1 & wa%+ ) wat]1 or by heat+ to a temp]ature some:at above ! boil+-po9t ( wat] = a consid]able "t4 ,! same sort ( treatm5t may be appli$ to ! fat press$ out ( %eepsk9s1 & to t obta9$ by boil+ curri]'s %av+s ) wat] & a little acid4 ,recov]$ fats may be sep>at$ into a tol]ably firm grease suitable = use in/ead ( tall[ 9 curry+1 & an oil n unlike neatsfoot oil1 by melt+1 all[+ to cool sl[ly to a s\py consi/5cy to promote ! cry/allisation ( ! h>d] fats1 & =c+ ! mixture ?r\gh flannel clo?s 9 a filt] press4 ,! temp]ature at :i* ! filtration %\ld take place is g5]ally #bj-be ,c4 ,! oil is1 ( c\rse1 8t5d]10 or liable to solidify 9 cold wea!r2 & ! m s ! high] ! temp]ature at :i* filtration takes place4 ,! tall[ is obta9$ 9 cakes4 ,if f fre% fle%+s1 x w be :ite & ) little od\r1 b t f dri$ glue-/uff is usually br[n & ( unpleasant smell1 :ile recov]$ grease f curri]s' %av+s or 8mois+s0 is always d>k 9 col\r4 ,if ! fle%+s are to be sold wet1 !y %\ld be pres]v$ 9 a sweet lime liquor2 if to be dri$1 !y are wa%$ c>efully 9 a fre% lime1 spread on frames1 & frequ5tly turn$ ov] s t !y may dry ev5ly & rapidly4 ,heat1 if employ$ at all1 is 9 mo/ cases only us$ at ! end ( ! dry+ op]ation1 b "s tann]s dry f ! fir/ 9 a room ! temp]ature ( :i* is a few degrees high] ?an ! normal1 & :i* is provid$ ) good v5tilation4 ,= ! purposes ( ! glue manufactur]1 ! r\nd+s & l>g] pieces are m valuable ?an ! fle%+s1 & %\ld be treat$ ) correspond+ly great] c>e by ! beamsman & 8 assi/ants4 ,bate-,%av+s are v valuable z siz+ mat]ials4 ,!y %\ld be well wa%$ 9 wat]1 or ) a v dilute solution ( sulphur\s acid1 & are !n laid out 9 ?9 lay]s to dry4 ,!y may also be p>tially dri$ by press+ betwe5 lattic$ bo>ds 9 a screw or hydraulic press1 & are !n be/ f9i%$ z cakes4 ,on ! manufacture ( sulphur\s acid comp>e p4 #be4 ,horns are usually kept until ! 8sl\gh10 8pi?10 or int]nal bone c be knock$ out1 hav+ become loos5$ ?r\gh dry+ & putrefaction4 ,if kept dry1 practically no long] "t is requir$1 & ! smell & o!r annoyances incid5tal to /or+ 9 a damp place are avoid$4 ,! sl\ghs may be remov$ by /eam+1 b ! horns are some:at damag$ by ?is treatm5t4 ,! sl\ghs are pr9cipally gr\nd = 8bone-meal10 b "s are boil$ = glue1 ei!r )\t prep>ation1 or aft] decalcify+ ) dilute hydro*loric acid4 ,! actual horn itself1 :i* is q incapable ( mak+ glue1 is us$ *iefly 9 ! manufacture ( combs1 buttons1 & simil> articles4 ,! value ( horns is to a consid]able ext5t dep5d5t on _! size1 small horns be+ unpr(itable to "w up = ! articles above m5tion$4 ,sp5t ,tan4--,! tan z x is obta9$ f ! lea*es aft] extraction has1 naturally1 no value = ! tann] except z a fuel4 ,sp5t tan _c be pr(itably sold z manure1 z its wor? 9 ?is respect is extremely small4 ,9 ^? places :]e :ite lead is /ill made by ! ,dut* process1 oak-b>k is us$ to cov] up ! e>!n pots1 & comm&s a good price4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 ess5tial t oak-b>k only %\ld be us$1 z _m o!r tann+ mat]ials give (f products :i* injure ! col\r ( ! :ite lead4 ,! quantities ( tan us$ = hot-b$s1 & = dead5+ ! noise ( traffic 9 ! /reets1 are s small t !y are ( no practical acc\nt 9 ! disposal ( ?is product4 ,sp5t tan is n ne>ly s good z wood = ! manufacture ( pap]1 & an attempt to di/il x & !reby obta9 pyroligne\s acid & wood-_s did n result 9 any comm]cial success4 ,on ! ,cont95t1 f9e-gr\nd tan is usually press$ into briquettes = use z dome/ic fuel1 b x w\ld be h>d to obta9 a m>ket = ^! 9 ,engl&4 ,on ! :ole1 9 spite ( its l[ heat+ value1 sp5t tan is be/ utilis$ z a fuel4 ,= ?is purpose specially con/ruct$ furnaces are necess>y on acc\nt ( ! dampness ( ! tan1 & its l[ calorific value1 :i* v>ies1 h[ev]1 ) ! p>ticul> mat]ials3 ?us :ile oak-b>k & valonia are only poor fuels1 hemlock & myrobalans are mu* bett] on acc\nt ( ! res9 & lign9e !y conta94 ,! fir/ successful furnaces = rais+ /eam ) wet tan 7 introduc$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & consi/$ ( l>ge ar*$ combu/ion *amb] ) abundant grate-area1 & ) f\r or six fe$-holes 9 ! fire-brick top :i* =m$ a floor on :i* ! sp5t tan 0 laid1 & :]e to "s ext5t x 0 dri$ by ! wa/e heat4 ,! flames & furnace gases 7 conduct$ "u ! boil]s1 ! flue be+ v l>ge & deep s z to collect ! light a% :i* 0 drawn 9 great quantities f ! furnace1 & ! gases !n return$ ?r\gh ! tubes ( ! boil]1 aft]w>ds pass+ d[n ! sides & go+ to ! *imney4 ,! wet fuel 0 f$ 9 ?r\gh ! fir+ holes alt]nately1 s t only a "p ( ! grate-space 0 cov]$ at once ) wet fuel2 :i* 0 spe$ily ignit$ by ! heat f o!r p>ts ( ! furnace1 & especially f ! vault$ ar*4#ahg ,! l>ge grate-area 0 a necessity n only on ?is acc\nt1 b because ( ! light weight ( ! fuel & its l[ calorific p[]1 :i* involv$ ! ne$ ( burn+ a l>ge volume4 ,fig4 #ii repres5ts a furnace ( simil> pr9ciple con/ruct$ by ,messrs4 ,huxham & ,br[ns4 ,furnaces ( ?is type are1 ! au?or believes1 /ill l>gely 9 use 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 b 9 ,g]many 8/ep-grates0 slop+ f ! furnace-doors t[>ds ! back1 are n[ pref]r$4 ,9 ^! ! combu/ible mat]ial re/s ^u ! flat surfaces ( ! grate1 :ile ! air ent]s by ! spaces betwe5 ! /eps )\t ! fuel be+ able to fall ?r\gh4 ,fig4 #ajj repres5ts ! furnace on ?is pr9ciple con/ruct$ by ! ,mo5us ,co4 ( ,frank=t4 #ahg ,detail$ draw+s & p>ticul>s are giv5 9 ,jackson ,s*ultz's #8,lea!r ,manufacture 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1' ,new ,york1 #ahgf4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ii4--;,huxham & ,br[ns' ,furnace4 ,! ess5tial conditions :i* are to be obs]v$ 9 ! prop] burn+ ( ! tan are a suffici5tly l>ge grate-area1 a correct & suffici5t supply ( air1 & a combu/ion-*amb] ( v high temp]ature4 ,x is consequ5tly n possible to burn tan v successfully 9 an ord9>y ,lanca%ire or ,corni% boil]1 s9ce n only ! grate-space is too limit$1 b ! wat] ( ! boil] prev5ts ! upp] "p ( ! furnace f atta9+ a high temp]ature2 & x is !re=e difficult to get ! damp tan rapidly into vigor\s combu/ion4 ,! difficulty may to "s ext5t be ov]come by mix+ ! tan ) a proportion ( coal1 & by clos+ ! a%-pit & employ+ a =c$ draught unless ! *imney is a v p[]ful "o4 ,9 ?is way l>ge quantities ( tan may be burnt1 b )\t effect+ any great sav+ ( coal4 ,! heat+ p[] ( ! tan is improv$ by ! p>tial removal ( its wat] by press+1 & ?is is almo/ ess5tial :]e a special furnace is n employ$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ajj4--,mo5us ,/ep-grate ,furnace4 ,! answ] to ! "q z to :e!r tan %\ld be us$ z fuel 9 ! wet /ate 9 :i* x is obta9$ f ! lea*es1 or :e!r x %\ld be previ\sly press$1 dep5ds ^u ! nature & quantity ( ! tan4 ,:]e abundant quantities ( a fairly good mat]ial su* z hemlock b>k are to be dispos$ (1 ! co/ ( press+ is an unnecess>y exp5diture2 b if x is desirable to obta9 ! highe/ value f ! fuel1 or if ! furnaces are n well con/ruct$ = burn+ v wet fuels1 x w be pr(itable to press ! tan4 ,hydraulic presses h be5 us$ = ?is purpose1 b ^? n[ commonly employ$ consi/ ( p[]ful roll]s arrang$ 9 ! same way z ^? ( ! valonia-cru%] 7p4 #cbb74 ,! pressure is giv5 by lev]s load$ ) weights or fitt$ ) p[]ful spr+s4 ,! liquid :i* runs f ^! presses is ( little value1 z x conta9s su* l>ge quantities ( f9ely divid$ mat]ial t x is almo/ impossible to filt] x1 & if run ^u ! lea*es x *okes !m & prev5ts _! prop] circulation4 ,mu* ( ! co/ ( press+ is caus$ by ! lab\r ( fe$+ x to ! press1 & ?is may be greatly r$uc$ by ! use ( me*anical conveyors 7p4 #cbe7 f ! lea*es4 ,a tan press is %[n 9 ,fig4 #aja4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aja4--,tan ,press4 ,sewage & o!r ,wa/e ,liquids4--,! wa/e liquors f ! diff]5t lim+1 bate+1 pu]+1 tann+1 wa%+ & o!r soak+ processes are1 )\t any d\bt1 ! mo/ tr\blesome ( any ( ! side-products :i* are obta9$ 9 ! manufacture ( lea!r4 ,9 =m] times !y 7 simply run into ! ne>e/ /ream1 b n[aday ! v>i\s sanit>y au?orities & o!r simil> bodies w only p]mit comp>atively pure wat]s to be turn$ into a public /ream or wat]c\rse4 ,v>i\s me?ods ( effect+ ! necess>y purification ( ! wa/e liquors f tann]ies h be5 propos$ at diff]5t times1 & h be5 us$ ) v>y+ degrees ( success4 ,^! me?ods may be divid$ into ?ree heads3 precipitation1 foll[$ by filtration or s$im5tation l&-treatm5t2 & bact]ial purification4 ,! fir/ ( ^! dep5ds on ! p[] ( c]ta9 sub/ances1 su* z alum9a & oxide ( iron1 to c>ry d[n organic matt] ) !m if precipitat$ 9 solutions conta9+ x4 ,! me?od usually consi/s 9 add+ a suffici5t quantity ( lime to r5d] ! wa/e liquid slightly alkal9e1 & !n treat+ x ) "s crude salt ( alum9ium or ( iron4 ,by ?is means a precipitate ( alum9ium or iron hydrate is =m$1 :i* encloses )9 itself a consid]able proportion ( ! organic matt] ( ! liquid1 & aft] settl+ to ! bottom ( ! precipitation-tank is drawn (f z 8sludge40 ,v>i\s *emicals are sold "u fancy names1 su* z 8alum9o-f]ric10 8f]rozone10 etc41 & h a composition n v dissimil> to t ( crude sulphate ( iron or alum9a4 ,9 "s cases by-products1 su* z ! acid liquors us$ 9 prep>+ iron articles = 8galvaniz+10 c be us$ ) advantage4 ,9 ! case ( ! wa/e liquors f a tann]y1 ! use ( ^! *emicals may (t5 be avoid$ if suffici5t c>e be tak5 9 regulat+ ! proportion ( ! v>i\s liquids :i* are to be mix$ toge!r & run into ! settl+ tank4 ,z tann+ matt] comb9es ) lime & dissolv$ hide-sub/ance to =m a heavy br[n insoluble precipitate1 x is cle> t if c>e be tak5 to h r m wa/e lime-liquor mix$ ) ! wa/e tan-liquors ?an is necess>y to ?r[ all ! tan out ( solution1 a v consid]able am\nt ( purification ( ! efflu5t w h tak5 place )\t any co/ :atev] to ! tann]4 ,h5ce1 if ! proportion ( wa/e lime is small 9 comp>ison to t ( ! tann+ liquors1 an extra addition ( lime may be necess>y 9 ord] to precipitate ! tann94 ,! precipitation- or settl+-tanks are usually squ>e or rectangul> vessels or pits1 ! size ( :i* v>ies ) ! quantity ( liquid to be treat$1 b ! dep? ( :i* r>ely exce$s six feet4 ,!y may be divid$ into two classes--! 8int]mitt5t10 & ! 8cont9u\s40 ,9 ! =m] class ! tank is fill$ ) ! mix$ wa/e liquids1 tak+ c>e t su* a suffici5cy ( lime is pres5t t ! mixture is fa9tly alkal9e to ph5olph?ale9 pap]1 & is !n all[$ to re/ until ! susp5d$ matt] has settl$ d[n to ! bottom ( ! tank1 :5 ! cle>1 or almo/ cle> upp] liquid is drawn (f1 ! rema9d] be+ ! 8sludge02 "s means mu/ also be employ$ to prev5t ! passage ( scum & float+ matt]s4 ,9 ! case ( ! int]mitt5t process x is advisable to h two tanks1 "o ( :i* is be+ fill$ :ile ! o!r "o is settl+ or be+ empti$4 ,) ! cont9u\s process ! liquids are run into ! tank 9 ! proportions calculat$ to give a maximum am\nt ( purification1 z describ$ above1 b z !y ent] v sl[ly ! undissolv$ matt] soon settles1 & consequ5tly ! liquid may be cont9u\sly run out at ! fur!r end ( ! tank4 ,?is plan1 ?\gh x does n yield su* good results 9 ! h&s ( unskill$ workm51 is yet useful 9 _m cases1 z only "o tank is absolutely necess>y4 ,x is desirable t 9 runn+ (f ! tanks1 ! efflu5t %\ld be tak5 z ne> ! surface z possible1 by means ( a h+$ pipe atta*$ to a float1 or "s equival5t device2 & c>e is requir$1 z ! tank gets l[1 to avoid ! escape ( any ( ! sludge4 ,= cont9u\s settl+ ! tanks are usually long & some:at %all[ rectangul> ponds1 into :i* ! previ\sly well-mix$ precipitat+ liquid fl[s ?r\gh a wood5 tr\gh fix$ across "o end & z long z ! bread? ( ! tank1 & p]=at$ ) holes to all[ ! uni=m & quiet influx ( ! liquid1 :i* f9ally escapes by a simil> tr\gh cross+ ! opposite end ( ! tank4 ,9 front ( ! exit-tr\gh a 8scum bo>d0 mu/ be plac$1 :i* is a simple plank dipp+ slightly bel[ ! surface ( ! liquid1 s z to prev5t any oil1 scum or o!r float+ matt] f pass+ out ( ! tank along ) ! cle> efflu5t4 ,:e!r ! int]mitt5t or cont9u\s sy/em is employ$1 ! efflu5t %\ld 9 mo/ cases be aft]w>ds pass$ ?r\gh a bact]ial filt]-b$1 or treat$ by l& filtration be=e x is all[$ to fl[ into a /ream or riv]4 ,tann]y efflu5ts are usually receiv$ into sew]s )\t fur!r treatm5t ?an mix+ & settl+ to remove solid matt]1 & _m au?orities are satisfi$ ) ! removal ( m]ely su* co>se susp5d$ matt]s z might *oke ! sew]s4 ,:]e cont9u\s precipitation-tanks are us$1 !y mu/ be empti$ at frequ5t int]vals1 & ! sludge run on to c9d]-filt]s1 to "p ) mo/ ( its wat]4 ,^! filt]s are conv5i5tly plac$ at a l[] level ?an ! settl+ tanks1 & x is g5]ally necess>y to return ! efflu5t f !m = fur!r precipitation & settl+4 ,sev]al types ( cont9u\s settl+ tank ) upw>d fl[ h be5 devis$ by ,mr4 ,c&y & o!rs1 :i* are v suitable = use :]e space is limit$2 b o!rwise less co/ly con/ructions are (t5 suffici5t4 ,ap>t f ! "q ( obta9+ an efflu5t suffici5tly good to satisfy ! sanit>y au?ority1 ! treatm5t ( ! sludge is "o ( ! greate/ difficulties 9 ! purification ( efflu5ts4 ,x is usually v bulky1 easily putrescible1 & !re=e difficult to dry2 x is ( little value = manure2 & if all[$ to rema9 long wet1 its smell is v (f5sive4 ,x has be5 m5tion$ t 9 mo/ cases ! liquid1 & 9 e case ! sludge1 mu/ be fre$ f solid undissolv$ matt] by filtration4 ,?is may take place ?r\gh op5 filt]s or ?r\gh filt]-presses4 ,! op5 filt]s g5]ally consi/ ( a pit ) an exit at ! bottom = ! filt]$ liquid4 ,?is pit is fill$ ) ei!r /ones & s&1 ) cl9k]1 a%es or coke4 ,mo/ tann]s use cl9k] & a%es1 z !y d n co/ any?+2 & ! mat]ial %\ld be s arrang$ t :ile ! l[e/ lay]s are v co>se1 ! surface ( ! filt]-b$ %\ld be ( ! f9e/ mat]ial4 ,z soon z ?is has become cov]$ ) s ?ick a lay] ( solid matt] t ! filtration proce$s too sl[ly1 ! top surface ( ! filt] may be remov$ ) a rake 7tak+ c>e to remove z little ( ! a%es or s& z possible71 & burnt1 or dri$ & us$ z manure4 ,9 "s cases1 filt]-presses are us$ :i* are compos$ ( groov$ or p]=at$ plates ) clo?s betwe5 !m ?r\gh :i* ! liquid is =c$ by pressure4 ,! solid matt] rema9s beh9d 9 ! =m ( a comp>atively dry 8cake40 ,! filt]-cake1 dri$ if desir$1 is sold z manure1 = :i* x is 9 _m ways v suitable4 ,al?\gh !y "w mu* m rapidly ?an d ! op5 filt]s1 ! clo?s s soon become rott5 & h to be replac$1 t ! op5 a%-filt] is on ! :ole ! mo/ conv5i5t = ! tann]'s use4 ,x w be readily und]/ood t app>atus ( ?is k9d1 ?\gh v effici5t on a small scale1 is q out ( ! "q :5 _m ?\s& gallons ( liquid h to be filt]$ daily1 & s c only be effectively appli$ to 8sludge40 ,no sy/em ( *emical precipitation has z yet prov$ entirely satisfactory4 ,und\bt$ly a great deal ( purification is effect$ by ?is means1 b 9 mo/ cases ! 8purifi$0 liquid is /ill too impure to be turn$ into a /ream1 ?\gh = v>i\s reasons ?is is (t5 p]mitt$ by ! au?orities4 ,a great advance 0 made 9 ! purification ( efflu5ts :5 manufactur]s 7 compell$ by law to all[ ! efflu5t f ! precipitation-tank to filt] ?r\gh l& set ap>t = t purpose4 ,9 ?is case c]ta9 h>dy c]eals 7 s[n on ! l&1 :i* 0 wat]$ z (t5 z possible ) ! efflu5t4 ,?is latt]1 aft] soak+ ?r\gh ! l&1 0 dra9$ (f into ! ne>e/ /ream4 ,al?\gh 9 _m ways ?is treatm5t 0 satisfactory1 x _h ! disadvantage ( be+ v exp5sive1 especially 9 ! neighb\rhood ( l>ge t[ns :]e ! price ( l& is high1 &1 9 addition to ?is1 ! conditions necess>y = success 7 f> f be+ correctly und]/ood1 s t ! l& (t5 became 8sewage-sick0 or wat]logg$1 & ceas$ to purify ! efflu5t4 ,x 0 n until ! rese>*es ( bact]iologi/s prov$ t ! purification by l&-filtration 0 ma9ly due to ! bact]ia 9 ! soil1 t any really satisfactory solution ( ! problem c\ld be f\nd1 b ! "q has n[ be5 to a consid]able ext5t simplifi$ by ! introduction ( 8bact]ial treatm5t40 ,bact]ia1 consid]$ f ! po9t ( view ( _! action on organic matt]1 are (t5 classifi$ z 8ana]obic0 & 8a]obic10 ?\gh _m species are capable ( exi/+ "u bo? conditions 7,cp4 ,l4,i4,l4,b41 ,section ,,xxiv474 ,! ana]obic bact]ia ?rive only 9 ! abs5ce ( air1 & _! *emical action consi/s 9 break+ d[n ! organic matt] on :i* !y fe$ into simpl]1 & g5]ally m soluble =ms1 by processes :i* d n involve oxidation4 ,! a]obic bact]ia1 on ! o!r h&1 require air or oxyg5 = _! exi/5ce1 & produce *anges :i* are g5]ally ( a less complex "*1 b result 9 ! complete oxidation & conv]sion ( ! organic matt] to simple comp\nds1 su* z nitrates & c>bonic acid1 :i* are p]fectly h>mless & in(f5sive4 ,! two classes !re=e are to a l>ge ext5t complem5t>y to ea* o!r1 ! ana]obic bact]ia conv]t+ ! animal or vegetable sub/ances into m soluble & simple comp\nds :i* are adapt$ to ! ne$s ( ! a]obic1 :i* complete ! de/ruction ( ! organic matt]4 ,9 h>mony ) :at has j be5 said1 bact]ial treatm5t ( sewage is ( two k9ds1 ea* ( :i* may be us$ alone1 or 9 conjunction ) a prelim9>y precipitation-process1 b :i* are g5]ally be/ us$ successively4 ,! olde/ =m ( bact]ial purification dep5ds ma9ly on ! action ( ana]obic bact]ia1 & is kn[n z ! 8septic tank40 ,?is orig9ally consi/$ ( a tank sometimes fill$ ) small pieces ( coke1 b g5]ally conta9+ ! liquid only1 & :i* 0 tightly clos$ to prev5t access ( air & escape ( f\l gases4 ,x has1 h[ev]1 be5 f\nd t if deep tanks 7#f to #aj feet7 are employ$1 !y soon become 9 cont9u\s use s cov]$ ) scum & float+ matt] z effectually to prev5t access ( air & light1 or any s]i\s escape ( smell4 ,! liquid to be purifi$ is all[$ to fl[ v sl[ly ?r\gh a tank or s]ies ( tanks ( ?is description1 ent]+ ab\t a foot bel[ ! surface ?r\gh a di/ribut+ tr\gh at "o end1 & fl[+ out simil>ly at ! o!r1 at su* a rate z to *ange ! cont5ts ( ! tank ab\t once 9 tw5ty-f\r h\rs2 & :5 ! tank is 9 work+ ord]1 ! liquid is mu* purifi$ by ! process1 & mo/ ( ! solid organic matt] has become liquefi$ & disappe>s4 ,x n unfrequ5tly happ5s1 especially :]e ! septic tank treatm5t is n v prolong$1 t ! liquid :i* escapes has a /rong] & m (f5sive od\r ?an x _h on ent]+ ! tank4 ,x is nev]!less really pur] ?an be=e1 ! increas$ smell be+ due to ! volatile products ( ! p>tially decompos$ organic matt]2 &1 by pass+ ! liquid ?r\gh an op5 coke-filt]1 ! smell w be effectually remov$4 ,9 all cases x mu/ be borne 9 m9d t z septic tanks & bact]ial filt]s dep5d = _! effici5cy on ! organisms !y conta91 "t mu/ be all[$ = ^! to develop & accumulate be=e good results are obta9$2 & = ?is ab\t six weeks' use is g5]ally necess>y1 aft] :i* !y w cont9ue to act = an indef9ite p]iod until !y become *ok$ by s& & inorganic matt]4 ,x mu/ n be suppos$ t ! action 9 ! septic tank is :olly ana]obic2 & ) weak sewage1 mo/ ( ! organic matt] may "u fav\rable circum/ances be conv]t$ into nitrates & c>bonic acid by ?is means only2 b g5]ally a mu* m complete purification is effect$ by ! subsequ5t use ( 8bact]ial filt]s40 ,^! 9 _! simple/ =m consi/ ( tanks ( ab\t #d feet deep1 fill$ ) coke1 brok5 bricks1 or cl9k]s1 & fitt$ ) dra9 pipes at ! bottom1 by :i* !y c be easily empti$4 ,^! tanks1 (t5 kn[n z 8contact-b$s10 are fill$ ) ! sewage or septic tank efflu5t1 :i* is all[$ to rema9 on !m two h\rs1 & ! tank is !n empti$1 & all[$ a re/ ( six h\rs = oxidation & a]ation4 ,9 mo/ cases ! sewage requires two su* treatm5ts1 ! la/ (t5 ?r\gh a b$ ) f9] coke1 9 ord] to be completely fre$ f putrescible matt]4 ,9 place ( ! int]mitt5t process1 z appli$ on ! contact-b$s1 cont9u\s a]obic filtration is (t5 employ$1 ! b$ be+ s con/ruct$ z to all[ ( free admission ( air at ! bottom & sides1 & ! liquid to be purifi$ be+ di/ribut$ on ! surface by a spr9kl]1 or "s simil> device1 & all[$ to trickle ?r\gh ! b$4 ,! cont9u\s process seems likely to sup]s$e ! int]mitt5t "o1 z ! b$s are n only capable ( treat+ a mu* l>g] quantity ( sewage 9 proportion to _! area1 b are also less liable to *oke4 ,ab\t six weeks is requir$1 ) ei!r contact-b$s or cont9u\s filt]s1 be=e ! mat]ial !y conta9 becomes coat$ ) ! necess>y bact]ial lay] & !y get into full work+ ord]4 ,! results z reg>ds ! efflu5t are p]fectly satisfactory1 & ! great difficulty & co/ consi/s 9 ! sl[ b inevitable *ok+ ( ! b$s1 :i* involves ! replacem5t ( ! por\s mat]ial4 ,?is is consid]ably delay$ by ! use ( a settl$ or precipitat$ sewage1 & 9 ?is respect1 beside its bact]iological function1 ! septic tank s]ves a useful purpose 9 settl+ insoluble matt]1 :i* is mu* m *eaply remov$ f x ?an f ! filt]-b$s4 ,x w be obvi\s t ord9>y settl+-tanks1 if deep1 fulfil _m ( ! functions ( ! septic-tank1 & bo? lead to ! production ( a mu* m uni=m liquid f ! diff]5t efflu5ts :i* ! tann] produces1 :i* is important 9 ! subsequ5t bact]ial purification4 ,a good deal ( int]e/+ in=mation on ^! subjects w be f\nd 9 a pap] by ,mr4 ,w4 ,h4 ,h>rison on ! #8,bact]iological ,treatm5t ( ,sewage4'#ahh #ahh ,j\rn4 ,soc4 ,*em4 ,ind41 #aijj1 p4 #eaa4 ,!re are a good _m pat5ts 9 connection ) ! v>i\s me?ods ( sewage purification1 & "s caution is necess>y to avoid _! infr+em5t1 ?\gh ( c\rse ! g5]al pr9ciples ( settl+ & filtration1 & ! de/ruction ( organic matt] by bact]ial action1 are op5 to all4 ,z a g5]al rule ! wa/e-liquors f a tan-y>d or lea!r dye-works are exce$+ly impure4 ,!y conta9 ! organic matt] 79 a /ate ( great putrefaction7 f ! soaks1 bates & pu]s2 o!r organic matt]1 also m or less putrefi$1 f ! tan-pits2 ! lime liquors1 ) _! l>ge proportion ( lime & ( dissolv$ hide-sub/ance1 & 9 addition ! v>i\s dyes & o!r *emicals :i* may h be5 us$ 9 ! conv]sion ( ! raw hide into ! f9i%$ lea!r2 & h5ce _! effici5t purification has pres5t$ difficulties :i* d n occur 9 mo/ o!r trades4 ,! diff]5t wa/e liquids are be/ run into a capaci\s tank1 &1 aft] be+ ?or\ghly mix$ up toge!r1 are all[$ to settle = "s h\rs4 ,by ?is means ! great] "p ( ! tann+ matt] w comb9e ) ! lime also pres5t to =m a heavy1 br[n insoluble sub/ance2 "s ( ! dye & o!r organic matt] w become entangl$ 9 ?is1 & ?us be remov$ f ! liquid4 ,! cle> liquid is next run (f into a bact]ial filt] 7pref]ably a septic tank1 foll[$ by an op5 coke filt]71 & !n into ! ne>e/ /ream4 ,if ! tann]y is ne> to a t[n1 & ! corporation sew]s c be utilis$1 x is probable t a filt] made ( sp5t tan may be sub/itut$1 z ?is mat]ial w n only remove all excess ( lime f ! liquid b w also fix mu* ( ! col\r+ matt] z well 7,ko5ig74 ,! tan1 aft] be+ us$ = ?is purpose1 conta9s s mu* lime 9 its pores t x is said to be useful z manure4 ,9 tann]ies :]e l>ge quantities ( dis9fectants su* z m]curic *loride1 c>bolic acid1 etc41 are us$1 x is necess>y t ! mix$ liquids %all conta9 s mu* lime z to make !m di/9ctly alkal9e4 ,9 ?is way mo/ ( ! dis9fectants w be ei!r precipitat$ or r5d]$ inactive4 ,:]e ars5ic is us$ 9 ! limes x may be advisable to add a little f]r\s sulphate 7gre5 vitriol or copp]as71 9 ord] t ! ars5ic may =m an insoluble comp\nd ) ! iron1 & s be remov$ along ) ! sludge4 ,! ink produc$ by ! action ( ! iron salt on ! tan liquors w be completely remov$ by ! bact]ial filt]4 ,,app5dices4 ,,app5dix ,a4 ,,me?od ,,( ,,! ,,int]national ,,association ,,( ,,lea!r ,,trades ,,*emi/s ,,= ,,! ,,analysis ,,( ,,tann+ ,,mat]ials4 ,,includ+ ,,alt]ations ,,adopt$ ,,at ,,! ,,le$s ,,conf]5ce ,,9 #aijb4 ,,section ,i4--,,sampl+ ,,f ,,bulk4#ahi #ahi ,see ,london ,report1 pp4 #bb-bi & #abd4 #a4 ,liquid ,extracts4--,9 draw+ samples1 at lea/ #e p] c5t4 ( ! casks mu/ be tak51 ! numb]s be+ select$ z f> ap>t z possible4 ,! heads mu/ be remov$1 & ! cont5ts mix$ ?or\ghly by means ( a suitable plung]1 c>e be+ tak5 t any s$im5t adh]+ to sides or bottom %all be ?or\ghly /irr$ 94 ,all samples mu/ be drawn 9 ! pres5ce ( a responsible p]son4 #b4 ,gambi] & ,pa/y ,extracts4--,gambi] & pa/y extracts %\ld be sampl$ f n less ?an #e p] c5t4 ( blocks1 by a tubul> sampl+ tool1 :i* %all be pass$ completely ?r\gh ! block 9 sev5 places4 ,solid extracts %all be brok51 & a suffici5t numb] ( portions drawn bo? f ! inn] & out] p>ts ( ! blocks to fairly repres5t ! bulk4 ,9 bo? cases samples %all be rapidly mix$ & enclos$ at once 9 an air-tight bottle or box1 seal$ & labell$4 #c4 ,valonia1 ,alg>obilla1 ,divi-divi1 & ,g5]al ,tann+ ,mat]ials4 ,valonia1 alg>obilla1 & all o!r tann+ mat]ials conta9+ du/ or fibre1 %all be sampl$1 if possible1 by spread+ at lea/ #e p] c5t4 ( ! bags 9 lay]s "o above ano!r on a smoo? floor1 & tak+ sev]al samples v]tically d[n to ! floor4 ,:]e ?is _c be done1 ! samples mu/ be drawn f ! c5tre ( a suffici5t numb] ( bags4 ,:ile valonia & mo/ mat]ials may be s5t to ! *emi/ gr\nd1 x is pref]able t divi-divi1 alg>obilla1 & o!r fibr\s mat]ials %all be ungr\nd4 ,b>k 9 long r9d1 & o!r mat]ials 9 bundles1 %all be sampl$ by cutt+ a small section f ! middle ( #c p] c5t4 ( ! bundles ) a saw4 #d4 ,samples = m ?an "o ,*emi/4--,samples to be submitt$ to m ?an "o *emi/ mu/ be drawn z "o sample1 & well mix$2 !n divid$ into ! requisite numb] ( portions1 n less ?an ?ree1 & at once enclos$ 9 suitable packages1 seal$ & labell$4 ,,section ,,ii4--,,prep>ation ,,= ,,analysis4#aij #aij ,see ,london ,report1 p4 #dj et seq4 #a4 ,liquid ,extracts4--,liquid extracts %all be ?or\ghly /irr$ & mix$ imm$iately be=e weigh+1 :i* %all be rapidly done to avoid loss ( moi/ure4 ,?ick extracts1 :i* _c be o!rwise mix$1 may be heat$ to #ej ,c41 !n /irr$ & rapidly cool$ be=e weigh+1 b ! fact t ?is has be5 done mu/ be not$ 9 ! ,report4 #b4 ,solid ,extracts4--,solid extracts %all be co>sely p[d]$ & well mix$4 ,pa/y extracts %all be rapidly mix$ 9 a mort>1 & ! requisite quantity weigh$ out ) z little exposure z possible1 to avoid loss ( moi/ure4 ,:]e extracts are p>tly dry & p>tly pa/y1 s t nei!r ( ^! me?ods is applicable1 ! entire sample %all be weigh$ & all[$ to dry at ! ord9>y temp]ature suffici5tly to be pulv]is$1 & %all !n be weigh$1 & ! loss ( weight tak5 into calculation z moi/ure4 ,9 su* cases z gambi]1 9 :i* x is n possible to gr9d1 or by o!r me*anical means to ?or\ghly mix ! con/itu5ts ( ! sample1 x is p]missible to dissolve ! :ole1 or a l>ge portion ( ! sample1 9 a small quantity ( hot wat]1 & imm$iately aft] ?or\gh mix+ to weigh out a portion ( ! /rong solution = analysis4 #c4 ,b>ks1 & o!r ,solid ,tann+ ,mat]ials4--,! :ole sample1 or n less ?an #bej grms41 %all be gr\nd 9 a mill until x w pass ?r\gh a sieve ( #e wires p] c5timetre4 ,:]e mat]ials su* z b>ks & divi-divi conta9 fibr\s mat]ials :i* _c be gr\nd to p[d]1 ! gr\nd sample %all be siev$1 & ! respective p>ts :i* d & d n pass ?r\gh ! sieve %all be weigh$ sep>ately1 & ! sample = analysis %all be weigh$ s z to conta9 l proportions4 ,,section ,,iii4--,,prep>ation ,,( ,,infusion4 #a4 ,/r5g? ( ,solution4--,! tann9 solution employ$ %all conta9 f #jce to #jde grms4 p] #ajj c4c4 ( tann+ matt]s absorb$ by hide4 7,p>is #aijj47 #b4 ,solution ( ,liquid ,extracts4--,a suffici5t quantity %all be weigh$ into a cov]$ bas9 or beak]1 f :i* x %all be wa%$ into a lit] flask ) boil+ wat] & well %ak51 & ! flask %all be fill$ to ! m>k ) boil+ wat]4 ,! neck be+ cov]$ ) a small beak]1 ! flask %all be plac$ "u a cold wat] tap or o!rwise rapidly cool$ to a temp]ature betwe5 #ae & #bj ,c41 & made up accurately to ! m>k1 aft] :i* x %all be ?or\ghly mix$1 & ! filtration at once proce$$ )4 ,note4--,tann9 infusions may be kept f f]m5t+ by ! addition ( #c to #e drops ( ess5tial oil ( mu/>d p] lit]4 7,f4 ,ka?re9]47 #c4 ,filtration4--,! filtration ( ! solution = analysis may take place ?r\gh any pap] :i* may be consid]$ mo/ suitable = ! p>ticul> case1 & ) or )\t ! use ( kaol91 absorption ( tann+ matt]1 if any1 be+ correct$ = by an am\nt det]m9$ by a simil> filtration ( a cle> solution4 ,p]fectly cle> solutions ne$ n be filt]$4 ,to det]m9e ! correction1 ab\t #ejj c4c4 ( ! tann+ solution ( ! /r5g? prescrib$ = analysis is obta9$ p]fectly cle>1 pref]ably by ! me?od ( filtration :i* is to be correct$ =4 ,aft] ?or\gh mix+1 #ej c4c4 is evaporat$ to det]m9e 8total soluble ,no4 #a40 ,a portion ( ! rema9d] is !n filt]$ 9 ! mann] = :i* correction is to be made1 & #ej c4c4 ( ! filtrate is evaporat$ = 8total soluble ,no4 #b40 ,d$uct+ ,no4 #b f ,no4 #a ! diff]5ce is ! correction requir$1 :i* mu/ be add$ to ! total soluble f\nd by analysis4 ,x is g5]ally advisable1 bo? 9 analysis & 9 ! second filtration = correction1 to filt] fir/ #aej c4c4 7:i* 9 analysis may be us$ = ! det]m9ation ( non-tann9s71 & !n to employ ! next #ej c4c4 = evaporation1 keep+ ! filt] full dur+ ! op]ation2 b :atev] proc$ure is adopt$ mu/ be rigidly adh]$ to 9 all analyses to :i* ! correction is appli$4 ,:]e kaol9 is employ$1 a con/ant weigh$ quantity 7#a or #b grm47 mu/ be us$1 :i* is fir/ wa%$ ) #ge c4c4 ( ! liquor by decantation1 & !n wa%$ on to ! filt] ) a fur!r quantity ( liquor1 ( :i* #bjj c4c4 is filt]$ z above4#aia #aia ,x is obvi\s t 9 ! fir/ in/ance x w be necess>y to det]m9e ! correction = ea* p>ticul> mat]ial employ$1 b x w soon be f\nd t ! correction is practically con/ant = l>ge gr\ps ( tann+ mat]ials1 s long z ! same me?od ( filtration is rigidly adh]$ to4 #d4 ,solid ,extracts4--,solid extracts %all be dissolv$ by /irr+ 9 a beak] ) boil+ wat]1 ! undissolv$ portions be+ all[$ to settle1 & treat$ ) fur!r quantities ( boil+ wat]1 & ! solution p\r$ into a lit] flask4 ,aft] ! :ole ( ! soluble matt] is dissolv$1 ! solution is treat$ simil>ly to t ( a liquid extract4 #e4 ,extraction ( ,solid ,mat]ials4--,su* quantities %all be weigh$ z w give an infusion ( ! /r5g? already prescrib$4 7,prep>ation ( ,infusion1 ,resolution #a47 ,n less ?an #ejj c4c4 ( ! infusion %all be extract$ at a temp]ature n exce$+ #ej ,c41 aft] :i* ! temp]ature %all be gradually rais$ to #ajj ,c41#aib & ! extraction cont9u$ till ! p]colate is free f tann9 & ! :ole made up to "o lit]1 ! weak] portions ( ! solution be+ fir/ conc5trat$ if necess>y by evaporation 9 a flask1 9 ! neck ( :i* a funnel is plac$4 #aib ,9 sub/ances :i*1 l canaigre1 conta9 a l>ge quantity ( />*1 ! extraction %\ld be complet$ at a temp]ature ( #ej ,c4--,h4 ,r4 ,p4 ,,section ,,iv4--,,det]m9ation ,,( ,,tann+ ,,matt]s ,,& ,,non-,,tann9s2 ,,etc4 #a4 ,total ,soluble ,matt]4--#ajj c4c4#aic ( ! cle> filt]$ tann+ solution1 or a small] quantity if ! balance employ$ is ( suffici5t delicacy1 %all be evaporat$ 9 an op5 weigh$ bas9 ( plat9um1 h>d glass1 porcela91 or nickel1 on ! wat]-ba?1 & ! bas9 %all aft]w>ds be dri$ till con/ant 9 an air-ov51 at a temp]ature ( #ajj to #aje ,c41 or at a temp]ature n exce$+ #ajj ,c4 9 vacuo till con/ant1 c>e be+ tak5 t no loss occurs by spl9t]+ ( ! residue4 ,! use ( ! vacuum-ov5 = dry+ ! residues is recomm5d$ :5 possible4 #aic #ej c4c4 is suffici5t1 & is ! quantity n[ g5]ally employ$4 #b4 ,det]m9ation ( ,non-,tann9s4--,t ! filt] me?od %all rema9 ! (ficial me?od until ! next ,conf]5ce1 b t memb]s be p]mitt$ to employ ! *rom$ hide-p[d] me?od ( ! ,am]ican ,association ( ,(ficial ,agricultural ,*emi/s ( #aija 7,app5dix ,c7 :]e x is desir$1 ! fact be+ cle>ly /at$ on ! report t ! ,a4,o4,a4,c4 me?od has be5 employ$1 & n t ( ! ,i4,a4,l4,t4,c4 7,le$s1 #aijb1 see note1 p4 #dhj47 ,t ! 8bell =m0#aid ( filt]1 z describ$ by ,pr(essor ,proct]1 %all be employ$2 n less ?an #e grms4 ( hide-p[d] be us$2 ! hide-p[d] %\ld be s pack$ 9 ! tube t ! detannis$ liquor %all come ov] at a rate ( ab\t "o drop 9 two seconds2 & ! filtrate be reject$ s long z x gives a turbidity ) a cle> tann+ solution4 ,! filtrate may be us$ = ! det]m9ation ( non-tann9 s long z x gives no reaction ) salt$ gelat9e solution4#aie ,! fir/ #cj to #ce c4c4 %\ld be ?r[n away1 & ! next #ej c4c4 ( detannis$ solution1 or an aliquot "p ( x1 evaporat$ 9 a weigh$ bas9 on a wat] ba?1 & !n dri$ till con/ant 9 an air-ov5 at a temp]ature ( #ajj to #aje ,c41 or1 9 vacuo1 n exce$+ #ajj ,c4 #aid ,x is obvi\s t ! exact =m & dim5sions ( ! filt] mu/ be adapt$ to ! "* ( ! hide-p[d] available1 z consid]able diff]5ces exi/ 9 ! absorptive p[] ( diff]5t samples4 #aie #h to #i grams ( good gelat9e are dissolv$ 9 #ejj c4c4 ( hot wat]1 #ajj grams ( salt add$1 & ! :ole cool$ & filt]$4 #c4 ,hide-,p[d]4--,t ! hide-p[d] mu/ be suffici5tly absorb5t = use 9 ! filt]1 & t 9 a blank exp]im5t conduct$ ) di/ill$ wat] 9 ! same way z an analysis1 ! residue f ! evaporation ( #ej c4c4 %\ld n exce$ #e milligrams4 ,! ,freib]g ,hide-,p[d]1 made by ,mehn] & ,/ransky1 conta9+ betwe5 #aj & #bj p] c5t4 ( cellulose 7z sugge/$ by ,c]y*71 is recomm5d$ by ! ,conf]5ce 7,lige1 #aija7 & is v suitable = ! filt] me?od2 b ! p[d]1 :5 analys$ by ! ,kjeldahl me?od & calculat$ to #ah p] c5t4 ( moi/ure1 mu/ n conta9 less ?an #aae p] c5t4 ( nitrog5 7,le$s1 #aijb74 #d4 ,det]m9ation ( ,moi/ure & 8,total ,dry ,matt]40--,t ! moi/ure 9 ! sample be det]m9$ by dry+ a small portion at ! temp]ature adopt$ 9 ! det]m9ation ( ! 8total soluble40 ,9 extracts yield+ turbid solutions :i* c be ?or\ghly mix$1 x is g5]ally pref]able aft] mix+ ! solution & be=e filtration1 to measure (f & evaporate #ej c4c4 = ! det]m9ation ( total dry matt] 7& moi/ure7 9 ! same mann] z ! 8total soluble40 #e4 ,/atem5t ( ,results4--,x is recomm5d$1 :5 full analysis is giv51 t ! ,/atem5t %\ld be made 9 ! foll[+ mann]3-- 7#a7 ,tann+ ,matt]s ,absorb$ by ,hide4--,obta9$ by d$uct+ ! 8soluble non-tann+ matt]s0 f\nd by evaporat+ ! hide-p[d] filtrate f ! 8total soluble40 7#b7 ,soluble ,non-,tann+ ,matt]s4--,f\nd by evaporation ( filtrate f hide-p[d] filt]4 7#c7 ,insoluble4--,by d$uct+ 8total soluble matt]0 f ! 8total dry matt]40 7#d7 ,moi/ure4--,det]m9$ by dry+ a portion at ! temp]ature adopt$ 9 ! det]m9ation ( 8total soluble40 ,if o!r det]m9ations are giv5 !y %all =m a sep>ate additional /atem5t4 ,d5sity4--,! /atem5t ( d5sities ( extracts1 etc41 %\ld be giv5 z specific gravity 9 pref]5ce to arbitr>y degrees1 su* z ,baum1 ,twaddell1 etc4 ,,section ,v4--,,col\r ,,measurem5t4 ,col\r ,measurem5t4--,x is recomm5d$ t ! me?od us$ by ,engli% *emi/s1 namely1 measur+ ) ,lovibond's ,t9tomet] 7z describ$ by ,pr(essor ,proct] & ,dr4 ,p>k]1 ,j\rn4 ,soc4 ,*em4 ,ind41 #ahie1 #abe71 %all be us$1 & ! results /at$ 9 units ( r$1 yell[ & black4 ,! measurem5t may be made on ! solution us$ = analysis1 b mu/ be calculat$ to "o conta9+ #je p] c5t4 ( tann+ matt]1 9 a c5timetre cell4 ,,analysis ,,( ,,us$ ,,liquors4 ,x 0 decid$ at ,lige1 #aija1 & ,le$s1 #aijb1aif t ! 8,%ake ,me?od0 ) *rom$ hide-p[d]1 ( ! ,am]ican ,association ( ,(ficial ,agricultural ,*emi/s1 #aija 7,a4,o4,a4,c471 %\ld be employ$ 9 ! detannisation ( us$ tann+ liquors1 z ) ^! ! filt] me?od is apt to give too high results ow+ to ! am\nt ( non-volatile acids :i* !y conta94 ,! me?od ( ! ,a4,o4,a4,c4 is giv5 9 ,app5dix ,c4 #aif ,proct] & ,blockey quot$ exp]im5ts at ! ,le$s ,conf]5ce1 prov+ t gallic acid & "s o!r non-tann+ sub/ances 7 l>gely absorb$ by ! hide-p[d] filt]1 ?\gh probably n p]man5tly reta9$ by lea!r2 :ile ! error1 ?\gh /ill consid]able1 0 mu* less :5 ! *rom$ hide-p[] %ake me?od 0 employ$4 ,:]e only gallotannic & gallic acids are pres5t1 z 9 ! case ( suma* & comm]cial gallotannic acids1 ! mo/ accurate quantitative e/imation is probably t by ! ,lw5?al me?od c>ri$ out z describ$ ,l4,i4,l4,b41 p4 #abc1 b consid]able skill is requir$ 9 its execution4 ,,analysis ,,( ,,sp5t ,,tans4 ,x 0 decid$ at ,le$s1 #aijb1 t sp5t tans mu/ be analys$ l fre% tann+ mat]ials2 b :]e ! prescrib$ /r5g? ( solution _c o!rwise be obta9$ x is p]missible to conc5trate ! entire solution by evaporation4 ,x is advisable1 :]e suitable app>atus is available1 to conc5trate 9 vacuo2 b fail+ ?is1 an ord9>y flask may be us$1 9 ! neck ( :i* a funnel is plac$4 ,,app5dix ,b4--,,! ,,decimal ,,sy/em4 ,! metrical sy/em ( weights & measures1 & ! ,c5tigrade !rmomet] scale h be5 g5]ally us$ ?r\gh\t ! book1 z m int]national & sci5tific ?an ! complicat$ sy/ems /ill un=tunately 9 use 9 ?is c\ntry4 ,!y h be5 fully expla9$ 9 ! ,au?or's #8,laboratory ,book1' p4 #b2 b z ?is is n always at h&1 a %ort sket* may be p]mitt$ "h4 ,! basis ( ! metrical sy/em is ! 8met]10 :i* is approximately 11 ( ! di/ance f ! e>?'s pole to ! equator1 & is equal to #cicgjh ,engli% in*es1 & = _m practical purposes may be r\ghly reckon$ z #dj in*es4 ,! met] is divid$ into #aj p>ts or 8decimet]s10 #ajj p>ts or 8c5timet]s10 & #ajjj p>ts or 8millimet]s40 ,! /&>d ( capacity is a cube ( #a decimet]1 or ab\t #d in*es1 & consequ5tly conta9s #ajjj cubic c5timet]s1 & is d5om9at$ a 8lit]40 ,! /&>d ( weight is #a cubic c5timet] ( wat] 7at #d ,c471 :i* is call$ a 8gram40 ,h5ce #a lit] ( wat] weighs #a 8kilogram10 or #ajjj grams4 #a cubic met] ( wat] conta9s #ajjj lit]s1 & weighs #ajjj kilograms1 or #a metrical ton 7#bbjj lb4 ,engli%74 ,= purposes ( r$uction1 ! foll[+ figures may be giv53-- #a gram #aedca gra9s4 #a lb4 av4 #decf grams4 #a lit] #jbb gallon4 #a gallon #dedc litres4 ,actual r$uction is1 h[ev]1 g5]ally unnecess>y if ! "q be treat$ z "o ( proportion4 ,?us a solution ( #a gram p] lit] is ( ! same /r5g? z "o ( #a lb4 p] #ajj gallons 7#ajjj lb471 & v approximately1 z "o ( #a oz4 avoirdupois p] cubic foot4 ,9 ! case ( pits1 x is (t5 simple/ to measure !m directly ) a met] rule2 l5g?1 bread? & dep?1 measur$ 9 decimet]s & multipli$ toge!r1 giv+ ! cont5ts 9 lit]s1 &1 9 ! case ( wat]1 ! weight 9 kilograms4 ,! ,c5tigrade or ,celsius !rmomet] divides ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! freez+ & ! boil+ po9ts ( wat] into #ajj4 ,! foll[+ table gives ! po9ts at :i* its scale agrees )\t fractions ) t ( ,fahr5heit3 ,,comp>ison ,,( ,,c5tigrade ,,& ,,fahr5heit ,,degrees4 ,c4 ,f4 -#bj -#d -#ae #e -#aj #ad -#e #bc #j #cb #e #da #aj #ej #ae #ei #bj #fh #be #gg #cj #hf #ce #ie #dj #ajd #de #aac #ej #abb #ee #aca #fj #adj #fe #adi #gj #aeh #ge #afg #hj #agf #he #ahe #ij #aid #ie #bjc #ajj #bab #aje #bba #aaj #bcj #aae #bci ,,app5dix ,c4 ,,(ficial ,,me?od ,,= ,,analysis ,,( ,,tann+ ,,mat]ials1 ,,adopt$ ,,at ,,! ,,eighte5? ,,conv5tion ,,( ,,! ,,am]ican ,,association ,,( ,,(ficial ,,agricultural ,,*emi/s1 #aija4 ,i4 ,,prep>ation ,,( ,,sample4 ,b>ks1 woods1 leaves1 dry extracts1 & simil> tann+ mat]ials %\ld be gr\nd to su* a degree ( f95ess t !y c be ?or\ghly extract$4 ,fluid extracts mu/ be heat$ to #ej ,c41 well %ak51 & all[$ to cool to room-temp]ature4 ,,ii4 ,,quantity ,,( ,,mat]ial4 ,9 ! case ( b>k & simil> mat]ial1 use su* quantity z w give ab\t #jce to #jde gram tann9s p] #ajj c4c4 ( solution1 extract 9 ,soxhlet or simil> app>atus at /eam-heat = non-/>*y mat]ials4 ,= canaigre & sub/ances conta9+ l am\nts ( />* use temp]ature ( #ej to #ee ,c41 until ne> complete extraction1 f9i%+ ! op]ation at /eam-heat4 ,9 case ( extract1 weigh su* quantity z w give #jce to #jde gram tann9s p] #ajj c4c4 ( solution1 dissolve 9 #ijj c4c4 ( wat] at #hj ,c41 let /& twelve h\rs1 & make up to #ajjj c4c4 ,,iii4 ,,moi/ure4 7a7 ,place #b grams1 if x be an extract1 9 a flat-bottom di%1 n less ?an #f cm4 9 diamet]1 add #be c4c4 ( wat]1 w>m sl[ly till dissolv$1 cont9ue evaporation & dry4 7b7 ,all dry+s call$ =1 aft] evaporation to dryness on wat]-ba?1 or o!rs1 %all be done by "o ( ! foll[+ me?ods1 ! soluble solids & non-tann9s be+ dri$ "u simil>1 & s f> z possible id5tical conditions3 #a4 ,= eight h\rs at ! temp]ature ( boil+ wat] 9 a /eam ba?4 #b4 ,= six h\rs at #ajj ,c41 9 an air ba?4 #c4 ,to con/ant weight 9 vacuo at #gj ,c4 ,,iv4 ,,total ,,solids4 ,%ake ! solution1 & )\t filt]+ imm$iately measure out #ajj c4c4 ) a pipette1 evaporate 9 a weigh$ di%1 & dry to con/ant weight1 at ! temp]ature ( boil+ wat]4 ,di%es %\ld be flat-bottom$1 & n less ?an #f cm4 9 diamet]4 ,v4 ,,soluble ,,solids4 ,d\ble-pleat$ filt] pap] 7,s4 & ,s41 ,no4 #eij1 #ae cm47 %all be us$4 ,to #b grams ( kaol9 add #ge c4c4 ( ! tann+ solution1 /ir1 let /& fifte5 m9utes1 & decant z mu* z possible4 ,add #ge c4c4 m ( ! solution1 p\r on filt]1 keep filt] full1 reject ! fir/ #aej c4c4 ( filtrate1 evaporate ! next #ajj c4c4 & dry4 ,evaporation dur+ filtration mu/ be gu>d$ aga9/4 ,,vi4 ,,non-,,tann9s4 ,prep>e #bj grams ( hide-p[d] by dige/+ tw5ty-f\r h\rs ) #ejj c4c4 ( wat]1 & add+ #jf gram *rome alum 9 solution1 ?is solution to be add$ z foll[s4 ,"o-half at ! beg9n+ & ! o!r half at lea/ six h\rs be=e ! end ( ! dige/ion4 ,wa% by squeez+ ?r\gh l951 cont9ue ! wa%+ until ! wa%-wat] does n give a precipitate ) b>ium *loride4 ,squeeze ?or\ghly by h&1 & remove z mu* wat] z possible by means ( a press1 weigh ! press$ hide1 & take approximately "o-f\r? ( x = moi/ure det]m9ation4 ,weigh ?is f\r? c>efully & dry to con/ant weight4 ,weigh ! rema9+ ?ree-f\r?s c>efully & add !m to #bjj c4c4 ( ! orig9al solution2 %ake t5 m9utes1 ?r[ on funnel ) cotton plug 9 /em1 return until cle>1 evaporate #ajj c4c4 & dry4 ,! weight ( ?is residue mu/ be correct$ = ! dilution caus$ by ! wat] conta9$ 9 ! press$ hide-p[d]4#aig ,! %ak+ mu/ be done 9 "s =m ( me*anical %ak]4 ,! simple ma*9e us$ by druggi/s1 & kn[n z ! milk-%ake1 is recomm5d$4 #aig ,= me?od ( correction1 see p4 #cac4 ,,provisional ,,me?od4--,to #ad grams ( dry *rom$ hide-p[d] 9 a %ak] glass add #bjj c4c4 ( ! tann9 solution1 let /& two h\rs1 /irr+ frequ5tly1 %ake fifte5 m9utes1 ?r[ on funnel ) a cotton plug 9 ! /em1 let dra91 tamp d[n ! hide-p[d] 9 ! funnel1 return ! filtrate until cle> & evaporate #ajj c4c4 ,,vii4 ,,tann9s4 ,! am\nt ( ^! is %[n by ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! soluble solids & ! correct$ non-tann9s4 ,,viii4 ,,te/+ ,,hide-,,p[d]4 7a7 ,%ake #aj grms4 ( hide-p[d] ) #bej c4c4 ( wat] = five m9utes1 /ra9 ?r\gh l951 squeeze ! magma ?or\ghly by h&2 repeat ?is op]ation ?ree times1 pass ! la/ filtrate ?r\gh pap] 7,s4 & ,s4 ,no4 #eij1 #ae cm47 till cle>1 evaporate #ajj c4c4 & dry4 ,if ?is residue am\nts to m ?an #aj mg4 ! hide mu/ be reject$4 7b7 ,prep>e a solution ( pure gallo-tann9 by dissolv+ #f grams 9 #ajjj c4c4 ( wat]4 ,det]m9e ! total solids by evaporat+ #ajj c4c4 ( ?is solution & dry+ to con/ant weight4 ,treat #bjj c4c4 ( ! solution ) hide-p[d] exactly z describ$ 9 p>agraph #f4 ,! hide-p[d] mu/ absorb at lea/ #ie p] c5t4 ( ! total solids pres5t4 ,! gallo-tann9 us$ mu/ be completely soluble 9 wat]1 alcohol1 acetone & acetic e!r1 & %\ld n conta9 m ?an #a p] c5t4 ( sub/ances n remov$ by dige/+ ) excess ( yell[ m]curic oxide on /eam-ba? = two h\rs4 ,,ix4 ,,te/+ ,,non-,,tann9 ,,filtrate4 7a7 ,= ,tann94--,te/ a small portion ( ! cle> non-tann9 filtrate ) a few drops ( a #a p] c5t4 solution ( ,nelson's gelat94 ,a cl\d9ess indicates ! pres5ce ( tann91 9 :i* case repeat ! process describ$ "u ,,vi41 us+ #ce in/ead ( #bj grams ( hide-p[d]4 7b7 ,= ,soluble ,hide4--,to a small portion ( ! cle> non-tann9 filtrate add a few drops ( ! filt]$ tann9 solution4 ,a cl\d9ess indicates ! pres5ce ( soluble hide1 9 :i* case repeat ! process describ$ "u ,,vi41 giv+ ! hide-p[d] a m ?or\gh wa%+4 ,! temp]ature ( solutions %all be betwe5 #af & #bj :5 measur$ or filt]$4 ,all dry+s %\ld be made 9 flat-bottom$ di%es ( at lea/ #f cm4 diamet]1 ,s4 & ,s4 ,no4 #eij1 #ae cm4 filt] pap] %\ld be us$ 9 all filtrations4 ,,app5dix ,d4 ,! foll[+ ,li/s ( ,col\rs h be5 furni%$ by ,mr4 ,m4 ,c4 ,lamb1 ,director ( ! ,lea!r ,dye+ ,dep>tm5t ( ,h]old's ,in/itute1 ,london1 :o has devot$ mu* "t to te/+ ! v>i\s dyes ) reg>d to _! p]man5ce & suitability = lea!r4 ,_m ( ! col\rs h also be5 te/$ & f\nd satisfactory 9 ! ,lea!r ,dep>tm5t ( ! ,york%ire ,college4 ,! foll[+ abbreviations ( mak]s' names are us$ 9 ! li/s3-- ,b4 ,,basl] ,,*emis*e ,,fabrik1 ,a4 ,g4 ,basle1 ,switz]l&4 ,b4,a4,s4,f4 ,,badis*e ,,anil9 ,,und ,,soda ,,fabrik4 ,ludwig%af5 a4 ,rh9e1 ,g]many4 ,b]4 ,,b]l9 ,,anil9e ,,co4 ,b]l9 ,s4,o41 ,g]many4 ,b4,s4 ,spl4 ,,brooke1 ,,simpson ,,spill]4 ,atlas ,dye ,works1 ,hackney ,wick1 ,london1 ,n4,e4 ,by4 ,,f>b5-,,fabrik51 late ,,bay] ,,co4 ,elb]feld1 ,g]many4 ,c4 ,l4 ,,cassella ,,co4 ,frank=t a4 ,ma91 ,g]many4 ,c4,a4 ,,fr5* ,,anil9e ,,col\r ,,works4 ,vieux-,conde 7,norde71 ,france4 ,c4 ,r4 ,,claus ,r,e4 ,clayton1 ne> ,man*e/]4 ,d4 ,,dahl ,,co4 ,b>m51 ,g]many4 ,d4 ,h4 ,,dur&1 ,,hugu59 ,,co4 ,basle1 ,switz]l&4 ,g4 ,r4 ,,geigy ,,co4 ,basle1 ,switz]l&4 ,g]4 ,,g]b] ,,co4 ,basle1 ,switz]l&4 ,k4 ,,kalle ,,co4 ,bi]bri* a4 ,rh9e1 ,g]many4 ,leon4 ,a4 ,,leonh>dt ,,co4 ,muhlheim a4 ,ma91 ,g]many4 ,leit* ,j4 ,w4 ,,leit*4 ,milnsbridge ,*emical ,works1 ,hudd]sfield4 ,lev4 ,,lev9/e9 ,,ltd4 #ba ,m9%ull ,/reet1 ,man*e/]4 ,m4,l4,b4 ,,mei/]1 ,,lucius ,,brun+4 ,hoe*/ a4 ,ma91 ,g]many4 ,mo4 ,,gilli>d1 ,p4 ,,monnet ,,g>ti]4 ,lyons1 ,france4 ,n4 ,,noetzel1 ,,i/el ,,co4 ,grie%eim a4 ,ma91 ,g]many4 ,o4 ,k4 ,,oehl] ,,co4 ,(f5ba* a4 ,ma91 ,g]many4 ,p4 ,,/4 ,,d5is ,,dye/uff ,,co41 late ,,p\ri]4 ,/4 ,d5is1 ne> ,p>is4 ,r4 ,,soci,,te ,,*imique ,,des ,,us9es ,,du ,,rhone4 ,lyons1 ,france4 ,r4 ,h4 ,s4 ,,read1 ,,holliday ,,sons4 ,hudd]sfield4 ,s4,c4,ind4 ,,society ,,( ,,*emical ,,indu/ry4 ,basle1 ,switz]l&4 ,u]4 ,,*emis*e ,,fabrik54 ,u]d+5 a4 ,rhe91 ,g]many4 ,w4 ,bros4 ,,williams ,,bros4 ,,co4 ,h\nsl[1 ,middlesex4 ,,/a9+4 ,,s+le ,,acid ,,dyes ,,suitable ,,= ,,/a9+ ,,vegetable ,,tann$ ,,lea!r4 ,br[ns4 ,solid br[n4 7,m4,l4,b47 ,acid br[n4 7,w4 ,bros47 ,br[n ,a#b4 7,b4,s4 ,spl47 ,br[n ,a#a4 7,b4,s4 ,spl47 ,mikado br[n ,b4 7,leon47 ,new acid br[n4 7,b4,s4 ,spl47 ,bronze acid br[n4 7,by47 ,gold5 br[n ,y4 7,c471 7,by47 ,acid an?rac5e br[n ,r4 7,by47 ,fa/ br[n ,n4 7,b4,a4,s4,f47 ,nut br[n ,a4 7,c47 ,fa/ br[n4 7,by47 ,fa/ br[n ,g4 7,b]47 ,resorc9 br[n4 7,b]47 ,resorc9 br[n4 7,d47 ,acid br[n4 7,b]47 ,d>k nut br[n4 7,w4 ,bros47 ,acid br[n ,r4 7,c47 ,acid br[n ,r4 7,u]47 ,acid br[n ,r4 7,r4 ,h4 ,s47 ,new gold5 br[n ,a#a4 7,c47 ,d>k br[n4 7,c47 ,acid br[n ,l4 7,b4,a4,s4,f47 ,acid br[n ,d4 7,c47 ,yell[s4 ,azo yell[4 7,u]47 ,phosph9e sub/4 7,b4,s4 ,spl47 ,*ryso9e4 7,w4 ,bros47 ,azo-acid-yell[4 7,b]47 ,new phosph9e ,g4 7,c47 ,cuba yell[ #bjgb4 7,s4,c4 ,ind47 ,cuba yell[ 7,w4 ,bros47 ,azo-flav9e ,,rs4 7,c47 & 7,b4,a4,s4,f47 ,azo-flav9e #c,r4 7,b4,a4,s4,f47 ,indian yell[ ,r4 7,by47 ,turm]ic yell[4 7,g47 ,solid yell[ ,g4 7,leon47 ,solid yell[ ,b4 7,leon47 ,indian yell[ ,r4 7,c47 ,cuba yell[4 7,c47 ,nap?ol yell[ ,s4 7,by471 7,c471 7,b4,a4,s4,f47 ,turm]ic yell[4 7,c471 7,g47 ,fa/ acid yell[4 7,c4,a47 ,r$s & ,oranges4 ,sc>let ,r4 7,by47 ,croce9 sc>let #c;,,bn4 7,by47 ,orange #b4 7,m4,l4,b471 7,s4,c4 ,ind471 7,c47 & 7,b4,a4,s4,f47 ,orange #b;,b4 7,by47 ,m&>9 ,g extra4 7,b]47 ,brill4 croce9 ,m4,o4,o4 7,c47 ,bordeaux ,g4 7,by47 ,atlas orange4 7,b4,s4 ,spl47 ,bordeaux cov4 7,b]47 ,fa/ r$ #baebh4 7,by47 ,fa/ r$ ,a4 7,leon471 7,by471 7,b]471 & 7,b4,a4,s4,f47 ,bordeaux ,b4 7,m4,l4,b47 ,gre5s4 ,acid gre5 extra conc4 7,c47 ,gu9ea gre5 ,b4 7,b]47 ,gu9ea gre5 ,g4 7,b]47 ,acid gre5 ,,gg4 7,by47 ,acid gre5 ,,bb4 7,by47 ,acid gre5 ,b4 7,by47 ,acid gre5 ,g4 7,by47 ,acid gre5 #jjj4 7,leon47 ,acid gre5 extra4 7,by47 ,acid gre5 7,u]47 ,acid gre5 7,r4 ,h4 ,s47 ,light gre5 ,,sf4 7,b4,a4,s4,f47 ,erioglauc9e4 7,g47 ,violets4 ,acid violet #d,,rs4 7,b]47 ,acid violet #g;,b4 7,b]47 ,acid violet #f;,b4 7,by47 ,=myl violet ,s#d;,b4 7,c47 ,blues4 ,bav>ian blue ,d4,b4 7,b]47 ,m>9e blue o4 7,k47 ,solid blue4 7,m4,l4,b47 ,blue #a4 7,lev47 ,blue #b4 7,lev47 ,blue #c4 7,lev47 ,,s+le ,,basic ,,dyes ,,suitable ,,= ,,/a9+ ,,vegetable ,,tann$ ,,lea!r4 ,br[ns4 ,bism>k br[n ,,gg4 7,c47 ,*rysoid9e ,,ag4 7,o47 ,bism>k br[n #b;,b4 7,k47 ,bism>k br[n 7,by47 ,bism>k br[n ,r4,c4,e4 7,lev47 ,bism>k br[n ,m4 7,by47 ,vesuv9e conc4 7,m4,l4,b47 ,vesuv9e conc4 7,b4,a4,s4,f47 ,bism>k br[n ,c extra4 7,leon47 ,bism>k br[n ,,rs4 7,b4,s4 ,spl47 ,bism>k br[n #cgfb4 7,w4 ,bros47 ,rheon9e ,a4 7,b4,a4,s4,f47 ,rheon9e ,n4 7,b4,a4,s4,f47 ,br[n ,r4 7,g47 ,br[n ,g4 7,g47 ,man*e/] br[n4 7,c47 ,yell[s4 ,acrid9e yell[ ,,nc4 7,leon47 ,phosph9e ,n4 7,b]47 ,pat5t phosph9e ,r4 7,s4,c4 ,ind47 ,lea!r yell[ #fgcj4 7,c4,a47 ,auram9e #b4 7,by47 ,*rysoid9e cry/4 7,b4,s4 ,spl47 & 7,by47 ,*rysoid9e diamond cry/4 7,w4 ,bros47 ,lea!r yell[ o4 7,m4,l4,b47 ,*rysoid9e4 7,r4 ,h4 ,s47 ,lea!r yell[ ,g4 7,m4,l4,b47 ,lea!r yell[ #fgcj4 7,c4,a47 ,pat5t phosph9e ,g4 7,s4,c4 ,ind47 ,lea!r yell[ ,,drr4 7,b]47 ,xan?9e4 7,o47 ,cannella ,g4 7,w4 ,bros47 ,pure phosph9e4 7,c47 ,new phosph9e ,g4 7,c47 ,cori-phosph9e o4 7,by47 ,p>a-phosph9e ,r4 7,c47 ,p>a-phosph9e ,g4 7,c47 ,lea!r yell[ #cgd4 7,d47 ,lea!r yell[ #cge4 7,d47 ,homo-phosph9e ,g4 7,leon47 ,phosph9e ,,abn4 7,leon47 ,auram9e #b pat5t4 7,s4,c4 ,ind47 ,gre5s4 ,me?yl gre5 cry/4 7,b]47 ,me?yl5e gre54 7,m4,l4,b47 ,solid gre54 7,leon47 ,mala*ite gre54 7,b]471 7,m4,l4,b471 7,p471 7,c4,a471 7,s4,c4 ,ind471 7,r4 ,h4 ,s471 7,lev471 7,c471 7,b4,s4 ,spl47 & 7,k47 ,r$s4 ,safran9e4 7,m4,l4,b471 7,b4,a4,s4,f471 7,s4,c4 ,ind47 & 7,k471 7,b]471 7,by471 7,c4,a471 7,leon471 7,u]47 ,russian ,r$4 7,by47 & 7,b]47 ,violets4 ,me?yl violets4 7,b]471 7,by471 7,m4,l4,b471 7,r4 ,h4 ,s471 7,b4,s4 ,spl471 7,c47 7,s4,c4 ,ind471 7,p47 & 7,d474 ,blacks4 ,corvol9e ,b4 7,b4,a4,s4,f47 ,corvol9e ,g4 7,b4,a4,s4,f47 ,,dye+4 ,,s+le ,,acid ,,col\rs ,,suitable ,,= ,,dye+ ,,vegetable ,,tann$ ,,lea!rs4#aih #aih ,= explanation ( ,roman num]als see end ( ,app5dix ,d4 ,yell[s4 ,,ii4 ,nap?ol yell[ ,s4 7,b]471 7,b4,a4,s4,f471 7,by47 & 7,c474 ,,vii4 ,qu9ol9e yell[4 7,b]471 7,by47 & 7,b4,a4,s4,f474 ,,ii4 ,citron9e4 7,leon47 ,,iv4 ,solid yell[ ,g4 7,leon47 ,,iv4 ,solid yell[ ,b4 7,leon47 ,v4 ,indian yell[ ,s4 ,v4 ,azo-acid yell[4 ,,iv4 ,indian yell[ ,t4 7,c47 ,,vii4 ,indian yell[ ,r4 7,by47 & 7,c474 ,,iv4 ,indian yell[ ,g4 7,by47 & 7,c474 ,,iv4 ,cuba yell[4 7,c471 7,w4 ,bros47 & 7,s4,c4,ind474 ,v4 ,azo-flav9e ,,rs4 7,b4,a4,s4,f47 & 7,c474 ,v4 ,azo-flav9e #c,r4 7,b4,a4,s4,f47 & 7,c474 ,,vi4 ,circume9 extra4 7,b]47 ,,vii4 ,t>traz9e4 7,b4,a4,s4,f47 ,oranges4 ,v4 ,orange #b4 7,b4,a4,s4,f471 7,c471 7,m4,l4,b471 7,s4,c4 ,ind471 7,p47 7,w4 ,bros47 & 7,by474 ,v4 ,m&>9 ,g extra4 7,b]47 ,v4 ,croce9 orange4 7,k47 & 7,by474 ,,vi4 ,ponceaux #aj,,rb1 #d,r1 ,bo1 #d,,rb1 #f,,rb4 7,b]471 7,by47 & 7,d474 ,bordeaux4 ,,vii4 ,azo bordeaux4 7,by47 ,,iv4 ,bordeaux ,b extra4 7,by47 ,,vi4 ,bordeaux ,g4 7,by47 ,v4 ,bordeaux ,y4 7,w4 ,bros47 ,v4 ,acid m>oon4 7,m4,l4,b47 & 7,b4,s4 ,spl474 ,,viii4 ,*romatrop #f;,b4 7,m4,l4,b47 ,r$s4 ,v4 ,fa/ r$ ,a4 7,b]471 7,by471 7,b4,a4,s4,f471 7,b4,s4 ,spl47 & 7,leon47 ,,viii4 ,fa/ r$ ,s4 7,m4,l4,b47 ,,vi4 ,fa/ r$ #baebh4 7,by47 ,sc>lets4 ,v4 ,croce9 sc>let ,r4 7,by47 & 7,k474 ,v4 ,croce9 sc>let #b,r4 7,by47 ,,vii4 ,fa/ sc>let ,b4 7,b4,a4,s4,f471 7,w4 ,bros47 & 7,k47 ,br[ns4 ,,iv4 ,acid br[n ,r4 7,c47 ,v4 ,acid br[n ,l4 7,b4,a4,s4,f47 ,v4 ,acid br[n ,y4 7,s4,c4 ,ind47 ,,iv4 ,acid br[n ,d4 7,c471 7,b4,a4,s4,f47 ,,iv4 ,acid br[n 7,r4,h4 ,s47 ,,iv4 ,acid br[n #dfja4 7,b4,s4 ,spl47 ,v4 ,acid br[n ,d4 7,c47 ,,vii4 ,resorc9 br[n4 7,b]47 ,v4 ,acid br[n4 7,u]47 ,,iv4 ,acid br[n ,r4 7,b]47 ,,viii4 ,acid br[n ,y4 7,m4,l4,b474 ,,vi4 ,solid br[n o4 7,m4,l4,b47 ,v4 ,fa/ br[n4 7,by47 ,v4 ,fa/ br[n4 ,g4 7,b]47 ,v4 ,fa/ br[n4 ,n4 7,b4,a4,s4,f47 ,,iv4 ,fa/ br[n4 #c;,b4 7,b]47 ,v4 ,bronze acid br[n4 7,by47 ,,viii4 ,acid an?rac9e br[n ,r4 7,by47 ,v4 ,new acid br[n4 7,b4,s4 ,spl47 ,,vi4 ,d>k nut br[n4 7,u]47 ,,iv4 ,new gold5 br[n ,a#a4 7,c47 ,blacks4 ,,iv4 ,nap?ol blue black4 7,c47 ,v4 ,nap?ylam9e black #d;,b4 7,c47 ,v4 ,nap?ylam9e black #f;,b4 7,c47 ,,vii4 ,ph5ol black ,s4 7,by47 ,,iv4 ,ph5ylam9e black #d;,b4 7,by47 ,,vii4 ,victoria black ,b4 7,by47 ,blues4 ,,viii4 ,fa/ blue ,r4 7,b]47 ,,viii4 ,bav>ian blue ,,db4 7,b]47 ,v4 ,erioglauc9e4 7,g47 ,,iv4 ,cyanole ext4 7,c47 ,,iv4 ,m>9e blue4 7,k47 ,,vii4 ,wat] blue ,n4 7,b4,a4,s4,f47 ,,viii4 ,wat] blue #d ,b4 7,b]47 ,,vii4 ,cotton blue ,,ii4 7,by474 ,,vii4 ,toluid9e blue4 7,b4,a4,s4,f47 & 7,by474 ,,vii4 ,wat] blue ,r4 7,leon47 ,,vii4 ,wat] blue #c,r4 7,leon47 ,,vii4 ,wat] blue ,,btr4 7,b4,a4,s4,f47 ,violets4 ,acid violets 7,lev471 7,b4,a4,s4,f47 & 7,by47 ,,ix4 ,acid violets #d,r4 7,b4,a4,s4,f47 ,v4 ,acid violets ,r4 7,c47 ,v4 ,acid violets ,r4 7,b4,a4,s4,f47 ,,vi4 ,acid violets #c;,,ba4 7,m4,l4,b47 ,,iv4 ,acid violets #c;,,bn4 7,lev47 ,,ii4 ,acid violets #f;,b4 7,by47 & 7,c474 ,,iii4 ,=myl violet ,s#d;,b4 7,c47 ,gre5s4 ,,iv4 ,acid gre5 extra conc4 7,c47 ,,iv4 ,gu9ea gre5 ,b & ,g4 7,b]47 ,,iv4 ,acid gre5 ext4 7,by47 ,,iv4 ,acid gre5 ,,gg ext4 7,by47 ,,iv4 ,acid gre5 #bbe4 7,by47 ,,iv4 ,acid gre5 ,,bb4 ext4 7,by47 ,,iv4 ,acid gre5 o4 7,m4,l4,b47 ,,iv4 ,acid gre5 #efgg4 7,b4,s4 ,spl47 ,v4 ,capri gre5 #b;,g4 7,lev47 ,,s+le ,,basic ,,dyes ,,suitable ,,= ,,dye+ ,,vegetable ,,tann$ ,,lea!rs4 ,br[ns4 ,,iv4 ,vesuv9e ooo ext4 7,b4,a4,s4,f47 ,,ii4 ,vesuv9e ,b4 7,b4,a4,s4,f47 ,,ii4 ,vesuv9e 7,c47 ,,iii4 ,vesuv9e conc4 7,m4,l4,b47 ,,iii4 ,bism>k br[n ext4 7,b]47 & 7,b4,s4 ,spl474 ,,iii4 ,bism>k br[n ext4 ,m4 7,by47 ,,iii4 ,bism>k br[n ,f4 7,by47 ,,iv4 ,bism>k br[n ,,ys4 7,b4,s4 ,spl47 ,,iii4 ,bism>k br[n ,,ps4 7,c47 ,,iii4 ,bism>k br[n ,,gg4 7,c47 ,,iii4 ,bism>k br[n ,o4 7,l47 ,,iii4 ,bism>k br[n ,g4 7,o47 ,,iii4 ,bism>k br[n 7,s4,c4 ,ind47 ,,iii4 ,bism>k br[n ,,nyy4 7,w4 ,bros47 ,,iii4 ,bism>k br[n o4 7,m4,l4,b47 ,,ii4 ,cannella4 7,b4,s4 ,spl47 ,,ii4 ,cannella4 7,b4,a4,s4,f47 ,,ii4 ,cannella4 7,c47 ,v4 ,cannella4 7,s4,c4 ,ind47 ,,ii4 ,cannella ,s4 7,b]47 ,,iii4 ,cannella ,p4 7,w47 ,,iv4 ,nank+4 7,b4,a4,s4,f47 ,,iv4 ,nank+4 7,r4,h4 ,s47 ,,iv4 ,nank+4 7,s4,c4 ,ind47 ,,iii4 ,lavilli]e's #abb4 7,by47 ,,ii4 ,rheon9e4 7,b4,a4,s4,f47 ,,iv4 ,xan?9e4 7,o47 ,yell[i% ,oranges4 ,,iii4 ,*rysoid9es1 7,leit*72 ,r1 7,r4,h4 ,s47 ,,iv4 ,*rysoid9es ext4 7,w474 ,,ii4 ,*rysoid9es 7,s4,c4,ind472 ,,gg17,c47 ,,iii4 ,*rysoid9es ,g4 7,leon47 ,,ii4 ,*rysoid9es ,,re4 7,lev47 ,,iii4 ,*rysoid9es ,,yy4 7,c47 ,,iii4 ,*rysoid9es cry/4 7,b4,s4 ,spl47 ,,iii4 ,*rysoid9es ,g4 7,by47 ,v4 ,*rysoid9es cry/4 7,c4,a47 ,yell[s4 ,,iii4 ,auram9e #b4 7,b4,a4,s4,f47 ,,iii4 ,auram9e4 7,s4,c4 ,ind47 ,,iii4 ,auram9e4 7,g47 ,,iii4 ,auram9e4 7,b]47 ,,iii4 ,auram9e4 7,by47 ,,iii4 ,auram9e4 7,l47 ,,iii4 ,auram9e4 7,w47 ,,iii4 ,auram9e4 7,c47 ,,iii4 ,auram9e4 7,w47 ,v4 ,auram9e conc4 7,m4,l4,b474 ,,iv4 ,phosph9e ,e4 7,b4,a4,s4,f47 ,,iv4 ,phosph9e ,l4 7,b4,a4,s4,f47 ,,iv4 ,phosph9e ,g4 7,b]47 ,,iv4 ,phosph9e4 7,o47 ,,iv4 ,phosph9e4 7,c47 ,,iv4 ,phosph9e ,ext4 7,m4,l4,b47 ,,iv4 ,phosph9e ,b ext4 7,s4,c4 ,ind47 ,,iii4 ,phosph9e ,,iii41 ,,ii41 ,i4 7,leon47 ,,iii4 ,phosph9e ,n4 7,b]474 ,v4 ,cori-phosph9e4 7,by47 ,v4 ,homo-phosph9e4 7,leon47 ,v4 ,p>a-phosph9e4 7,c47 ,gre5s4 ,,iii4 ,me?yl gre5 cry/4 7,by47 ,d4 ,v4 ,me?yl5e gre5 o4 7,m4,l4,b47 ,,ii4 ,diamond gre5 ,b & ,g4 7,b4,a4,s4,f47 ,,ii4 ,b5zal gre54 7,o47 ,,ii4 ,brillt4 gre5 cry/4 7,m4,l4,b47 ,,ii4 ,brillt4 gre5 cry/4 7,by47 ,,ii4 ,brillt4 gre5 cry/4 7,o47 ,,ii4 ,brillt4 gre5 cry/4 7,l47 ,,ii4 ,brillt4 gre5 cry/4 7,lev47 ,,ii4 ,brillt4 gre5 cry/4 7,u]47 ,,ii4 ,brillt4 gre5 cry/4 7,s4,c4 ,ind47 ,,ii4 ,mala*ite gre54 7,b4,s4 ,spl47 ,,ii4 ,mala*ite gre54 7,b]47 ,,ii4 ,mala*ite gre54 7,c4,a47 ,,ii4 ,mala*ite gre54 7,k47 ,,ii4 ,mala*ite gre54 7,m4,l4,b47 ,,ii4 ,mala*ite gre54 7,lev47 ,,ii4 ,mala*ite gre54 7,g47 ,,ii4 ,mala*ite gre54 7,o47 ,blues4 ,,vii4 ,me?yl5e blue ,b1 #b;,b & ,r4 7,b]47 ,,vii4 ,me?yl5e blue4 7,b4,a4,s4,f47 ,,vii4 ,me?yl5e blue4 7,m4,l4,b47 ,,vii4 ,me?yl5e blue4 7,lev47 ,,vii4 ,me?yl5e blue4 7,c47 ,,vii4 ,me?yl5e blue4 7,c4 ,r47 ,,viii4 ,new me?yl5e blue4 ,,gg4 7,c47 ,,viii4 ,new me?yl5e blue4 ,,bb4 7,c47 ,,iv4 ,new blue ,r4 7,b]47 ,v4 ,new blue ,r4 7,by47 ,,vi4 ,new pat5t blue #d;,b4 7,by47 ,violets4 ,,iv4 ,me?yl ,violet #d;,b4 7,b4,a4,s4,f47 ,,iv4 ,me?yl ,violet #d,r4 7,k47 ,,iv4 ,me?yl ,violet #d,r4 7,c47 ,,iv4 ,me?yl ,violet #c;,b4 7,by47 ,,iv4 ,me?yl ,violet #c;,b4 7,b]47 ,,iv4 ,me?yl ,violet #b;,b4 7,m4,l4,b47 ,,iv4 ,me?yl ,violet 7,d47 ,,iv4 ,me?yl ,violet #f;,b4 7,leon47 ,,iv4 ,neutral violet ext4 7,c47 ,bordeaux4 ,,iv4 ,mag5ta ,,wb4 7,leon47 ,,iv4 ,mag5ta #c;,b4 7,b]47 ,,iv4 ,mag5ta ,,re4 7,leon47 ,,iv4 ,mag5ta ,,wbg4 7,leon47 ,,iv4 ,mag5ta4 7,m4,l4,b47 ,,iv4 ,mag5ta4 7,k47 ,,iv4 ,mag5ta4 7,b4,a4,s4,f47 ,,iv4 ,mag5ta #dabh4 7,b4,s4 ,spl47 ,r$s4 ,,viii4 ,rhodam9e ,b extra4 7,b]47 ,,viii4 ,rhodam9e ,b4 7,b4,a4,s4,f47 ,,viii4 ,rhodam9e ,b4 7,by47 ,,viii4 ,rhodam9e 7,s4,c4 ,ind47 ,,viii4 ,rhodam9e 7,m4,l4,b47 ,,vii4 ,safran9e4 7,b4,a4,s4,f47 ,,iv4 ,russian r$ ,g4 7,b4,a4,s4,f474 ,,iv4 ,russian r$ ,b4 7,c47 ,,iv4 ,russian r$ 7,b]47 ,,iv4 ,russian r$ 7,u]47 ,,iv4 ,russian r$ ,b4 7,b4,a4,s4,f47 ,,iv4 ,russian r$ ,g4 7,c47 ,,iv4 ,russian r$ 7,b]47 ,,iv4 ,russian r$ ,r4 7,by47 ,,iv4 ,c>d9al #d;,b4 7,by47 ,,viii4 ,rhodul9e r$4 7,by47 ,v4 ,safran9e ,g ext4 7,c47 ,,vii4 ,safran9e ,,bs4 7,by47 ,safran9e ,g ext4 7,b]47 ,,acid ,,mixtures ,,suitable ,,= ,,dye+ ,,& ,,/a9+ ,,vegetable ,,tann$ ,,lea!rs4 ,orange #b4 7,m4,l4,b47 ,azo-yell[ o4 7,m4,l4,b47 ,pat5t blue ,v4 7,m4,l4,b47 ,resorc9 br[n4 7,b]47 ,circume9 ext4 7,b]47 ,nigros9e #aje4 7,b]47 ,acid br[n ,r4 7,c47 ,indian yell[ ,g4 7,c47 ,pure soluble blue4 7,c47 ,new acid br[n4 7,b4,s4 ,spl47 ,phosph9e sub/4 7,b4,s4 ,spl47 ,indul9e4 7,b4,s4 ,spl47 ,acid br[n ,r4 7,c47 ,azo-flav9e ,r4,s4 7,c47 ,naphtol blue black4 7,c47 ,resorc9 br[n1 7,b]47 ,fa/ br[n ,g4 7,b]47 ,nap?ylam9e black ,d4 7,c47 ,fa/ br[n ,g4 7,b]47 ,circum9e ext4 7,b]47 ,nigros9e #aje4 7,b]47 ,fa/ br[n4 7,by47 ,indian yell[ ,r4 7,by47 ,fa/ gre5 blue %ade4 7,by47 ,acid an?rac5e br[n4 7,by47 ,indian yell[ ,r4 7,by47 ,fa/ gre5 blue %ade4 7,by47 ,fa/ br[n ,n4 7,b4,a4,s4,f47 ,azo-flav9e ,,rs4 7,b4,a4,s4,f47 ,light gre5 ,s4,f4 7,b4,a4,s4,f47 ,d>k nut br[n4 7,u]47 ,azo-yell[4 7,u]47 ,acid gre54 7,u]47 ,acid br[n4 7,d47 ,croce9 orange4 7,d47 ,cotton blue #c,r4 7,d47 ,resorc9 br[n4 7,d47 ,cotton blue #c,r4 7,d47 ,acid br[n ,b4 7,s4,c4 ,ind47 ,cuba yell[ #bjgb4 7,s4,c4 ,ind47 ,acid gre54 7,s4,c4 ,ind47 ,resorc9 br[n4 7,w4 ,bros47 ,cuba yell[4 7,w4 ,bros47 ,acid gre54 7,w4 ,bros47 ,nap?ol br[n4 7,leon47 ,citron9e ,a4 7,leon47 ,acid gre5 #jjj4 7,leon47 ,acid br[n ,r4 7,r4,h4 ,s47 ,acid yell[4 7,r4,h4 ,s47 ,nigros9e cry/4 7,r4,h4 ,s47 ,orange #b4 7,p47 ,yell[ o,s4 7,p47 ,acid gre5 ,j#c;,e4 7,p47 ,acid br[n4 7,c4,a47 ,acid yell[ ,s4 7,c4,a47 ,pure blue cry/4 7,c4,a47 ,resorc9 br[n4 7,b]47 ,azo-acid-yell[ or ,circum9e ext4 7,b]47 ,bav>ian blue ,,db1 or ,gu9ea gre5 ,g4 7,b]47 ,indian yell[ ,r4 7,c47 ,acid br[n ,r4 7,c47 ,pure soluble blue4 7,c47 ,azo-acid-yell[ conc4 7,m4,l4,b47 ,solid br[n o4 7,m4,l4,b47 ,fa/ blue o sol4 7,m4,l4,b47 ,bronze acid br[n4 7,by47 ,indian yell[ ,r4 7,by47 ,fa/ gre5 blue %ade4 7,by47 ,acid an?rac5e br[n4 7,by47 ,indian yell[ ,r4 7,by47 ,fa/ gre5 blue %ade4 7,by47 ,orange #aa4 7,b4,a4,s4,f47 ,sc>let ,,gl4 7,b4,a4,s4,f47 ,light gre5 ,,sfys4 7,b4,a4,s4,f47 ,azo-flav9e ,,rs4 7,b4,a4,s4,f47 ,acid br[n ,l4 7,b4,a4,s4,f47 ,light gre5 ,,sfys4 7,b4,a4,s4,f47 ,*ocolate4 7,u]47 ,t>traz9e1 7,b4,a4,s4,f472 or ,azo-yell[1 7,u]47 ,,basic ,,mixtures ,,suitable ,,= ,,dye+ ,,& ,,/a9+ ,,vegetable ,,tann$ ,,lea!rs4 ,bism>k br[n ,m4 7,by47 ,auram9e #b4 7,by47 ,me?yl5e blue ,,bb4 7,by47 ,rheon9e ,a4 7,b4,a4,s4,f47 ,vesuv9e ,b#b4 7,b4,a4,s4,f47 ,diamond gre5 ,g4 7,b4,a4,s4,f47 ,bism>k br[n ,o4 7,leon47 ,auram9e #b4 7,leon47 ,solid gre5 ,p4 7,leon7 ,bism>ck ,br[n ext4 7,b]47 ,philadelphia yell[ ,r4 7,b]47 ,mala*ite gre5 cry/4 7,b]47 ,new phosph9e ,g4 7,c47 ,*rysoid9e4 7,c47 ,new blue ,b4 7,c47 ,phosph9e ext4 7,f47 ,*rysoid9e diamond cry/4 7,f47 ,bright gre5 cry/4 ext4 7,f47 ,bism>k br[n ,,gg4 7,o47 ,anil9e yell[ ext4 7,o47 ,neutral violet ext4 7,o47 ,d>k br[n ,b4 7,by47 ,auram9e #b4 7,by47 ,em]ald gre5 cry/4 7,by47 ,phosph9e #c,,rb4 7,b]47 ,philadelphia yell[ ,r4 7,b]47 ,russian gre5 #cfghd4 7,b]47 ,bism>k ,br[n ,,rs4 7,b4,s4 ,spl47 ,cannella4 7,b4,s4 ,spl47 ,mala*ite gre54 7,b4,s4 ,spl47 ,vesuv9e conc4 7,m4,l4,b47 ,auram9e conc4 7,m4,l4,b47 ,me?yl5e gre54 7,m4,l4,b47 ,cut* br[n4 7,leit*47 ,lemon yell[ ,g4 7,leit*47 ,russian gre5 #c ,b4 7,leit*47 ,bism>k br[n #b ,b4 7,k47 ,yell[ = lea!r ext4 7,k47 ,mala*ite gre5 cry/4 7,k47 ,auram9e4 7,g47 ,br[n ,r4 7,g47 ,mala*ite gre54 7,g47 ,auram9e o4 7,lev47 ,bism>k br[n ,r4,c4,e4 7,lev47 ,brill4 gre54 7,lev47 ,bism>k br[n ,y#dj4 7,r4,h4 ,s47 ,can>y #b4 7,r4,h4 ,s47 ,gre5 cry/4 ,y4 7,r4,h4 ,s474 ,lea!r br[n ,a4 7,s4,c4 ,ind47 ,auram9e #b4 7,s4,c4 ,ind47 ,lea!r black #a4 7,s4,c4 ,ind47 ,lea!r black ,r4 7,u]474 ,yell[ #dhjc4 7,u]47 ,blue black ,s4 7,u]47 ,bism>k br[n ,,nyy4 7,w4 ,bros47 ,cannella ,g4 7,w4 ,bros47 ,br[n = lea!r #cge4 7,d47 ,fa/ yell[ #afh4 7,d47 ,me?yl gre5 ,g ext4 f9e4 7,d47 ,br[n ,n4 7,d47 ,lea!r br[n ,p4 7,d47 ,p>is violet o4 7,d47 ,,*rome ,,lea!r4 ,! foll[+ dye-/uffs are suitable = dye+ *rome lea!r4 ,! lea!r aft] tann+1 is borax$ 9 ! usual mann] & !n mordant$ by drumm+ or paddl+ 9 a tann9 solution2 = d>k %ades #c p] c5t4 gambi] & #c p] c5t4 fu/ic extract 7! weight be+ calculat$ on ! lea!r /ruck out aft] borax+7 is suitable2 = light %ades #a p] c5t4 gambi] is to be recomm5d$4 ,! lea!r1 aft] mordant+1 is fat-liquor$ & dy$1 add+ a weight ( sodium or potassium bisulphate equal to t ( ! dye-/uff1 to ! dye-ba?4 ,! foll[+ is n by any means a complete li/ ( ! dyes :i* w dye *rome lea!r well1 b m]ely repres5tative4 ,aft] ! goods are dy$1 !y %\ld be well wa%$ 9 tepid wat] to :i* has be5 add$ a little common salt2 "o p\nd to e ?ree doz5 sk9s be+ a suitable am\nt to use4 ,:5 ! goods h be5 wa%$1 !y are /ruck out by ma*9e & are !n ready = %av+1 if ! op]ation has n be5 p]=m$ previ\s to dye+4 ,! sk9s are aft]w>ds nail$ out flat1 gra9-side up1 on bo>ds1 & a mixture ( glyc]9e & wat]--#c lb4 ( glyc]9e dissolv$ 9 "o gallon ( wat] be+ a suitable /r5g?--is well spong$ on ! gra9-side2 ! goods are n[ lightly oil$ 7us+ a good sp]m1 neat's-foot or m9]al oil71 be=e be+ tak5 to ! dry+ room4 ,:5 ?or\ghly dry !y are tak5 (f ! bo>ds1 & plac$ ) lay]s ( damp sawdu/ betwe5 ea* sk91 = a few h\rs 9 ord] to all[ ! goods to become suitably damp = /ak+4 ,! sk9s %\ld n[ be well /ak$ by ma*9e1 ! ,haley 7,engl&71 ,slocomb or ,vaughn 7,am]ica7 be+ good ma*9es = ?is purpose 7p4 #aib74 ,aft] /ak+1 ! goods are 8s(t-bo>d$10 & a ?9 coat ( a weak l9se$ mucilage is appli$ to ! sk9s1 :i* are aft]w>ds dri$ out & season$ ) ! foll[+ mixture3-- 8,soak #aj to #ae oz4 ( dry egg album5 = f\r h\rs 9 #a gallon ( cold wat]1 ) occasional /irr+1 /ra9 (f any insoluble matt] & add #a gallon ( milk4 ,a little c>bolic acid 7ph5ol7 may be add$ to ! above if x is desir$ to keep ! f9i% = m ?an two or ?ree days--#a oz4 ( ph5ol previ\sly dissolv$ 9 a little wat]1 add$ to ea* gallon ( ! f9i%1 be+ a suitable am\nt40 ,a little dye %\ld be add$ to ! mixture4 ,aft] season+1 ! sk9s are dri$ out 9 ! /ove1 glaz$ twice r\nd & re-season$ ) ! above mixture dilut$ ) its own volume ( wat]4 ,! goods are dri$ out & aga9 glaz$1 p]*$ lightly1 & f9ally bo>d$ up f neck to tail 9 ord] to raise ! popul> /raight-gra94 ,%\ld ! glaze be too bright ! album5 solution may be r$uc$ to half-/r5g?4 ,:5 ! goods h be5 glaz$ !y are rubb$ ov] on ! gra9 side ) a flannel clo? :i* is slightly damp ) l9se$ oil1 trimm$ up1 & are ready = sale4 ,,dyes ,,suitable ,,= ,,dye+ ,,*rome-,,tann$ ,,lea!r4 ,br[ns4 ,resorc9 br[n4 7,b]47 ,*ocolate4 7,u]47 ,fa/ br[n4 7,,by47 ,fa/ br[n4 7,b]47 ,new gold5 br[n ,a4#a4 7,c47 ,fa/ br[n4 7,b4,a4,s4,f47 ,acid br[n ,y4 7,s4,c4 ,ind47 ,acid br[n ,b4 7,s4,c4 ,ind47 ,gold5 br[n4 7,leit*47 ,bronze acid br[n4 7,by47 ,light nut br[n4 7,u]47 ,resorc9 br[n4 7,w4 ,bros47 ,acid br[n #ebaj4 7,w4 ,bros47 ,new acid br[n4 7,b4,s4 ,spl47 ,light nut br[n4 7,r47 ,br[n #b,y4 7,r47 ,azo-phosph9e4 7,u]47 ,gold5 br[n ,y4 7,w4 ,bros47 ,yell[i% ,br[ns & ,yell[s4 ,citron9e4 7,leon47 ,azo-flav9e ,,rs4 7,b4,a4,s4,f47 ,cuba yell[ #bjgb4 7,s4,c4 ,ind47 ,phosph9e sub/itute4 7,b4,s4 ,spl47 ,azo-yell[ conc4 7,m4,l4,b47 ,azo-flav9e4 7,r47 ,gold5 orange ,r4 7,leit*47 ,circume9 ext4 7,b]47 ,indian yell[ ,g4 7,by47 ,turm]ic sub/itute 7,w4 ,bros474 ,azo-yell[ ,r4 7,m4,l4,b474 ,*rysoph59 ,g4 7,leon47 ,indian yell[ ,t4 7,c47 ,qu9ol9e yell[4 7,b]47 ,cuba yell[4 7,c47 & 7,w4 ,bros47 ,indian yell[4 ,g4 7,c47 ,*ryso9e ext4 7,w4 ,bros47 ,azo-flav9e4 7,b4,s4 ,spl47 ,turm]ic yell[ ,b4 7,leit*47 ,azo-yell[ ,,fy4 7,r4,h4 ,s47 ,orange #d4 7,r4,h4 ,s47 ,naphtol yell[ ,s4 7,b4,a4,s4,f47 ,turm]ic yell[ ,y4 7,leit*47 ,azo-flav9e #gjcb4 7,s4,c4 ,ind47 ,turm]ic yell[4 7,g47 ,solid yell[ ,y4 7,leon47 ,solid yell[ ,b4 7,leon47 ,mill+ br[n ,g4 7,leon47 ,nap?am9e yell[ #c ,g4 7,k47 ,orange ,,gg4 7,c47 ,resorc9 yell[4 7,b]47 ,gre5s4 ,acid gre5 conc4 7,m4,l4,b47 ,acid gre5 ooo4 7,leon47 ,gu9ea gre5s ,g & ,b4 7,b]47 ,acid gre5 ext4 conc4 7,c47 ,fa/ acid gre5 ,,bn4 7,c474 ,erioglauc9e4 7,g47 ,acid gre5 #efgg4 7,w4 ,bros47 ,acid gre5 7,u]47 ,light gre5 ,,sf4 7,b4,a4,s4,f47 ,acid gre5 ext4 ,,gg4 7,by47 ,violets & ,blues4 ,bav>ian blue ,,db4 7,b]47 ,blue ,r4 7,lev47 ,wat] blue ,,tr4 7,b4,a4,s4,f47 ,fa/ blue ,o4 7,m4,l4,b47 ,wat] blue #d;,b4 7,leon47 ,cyanole extra4 7,c47 ,acid blue4 7,c4,a47 ,acid violets #c;,,bn & #f;,,bn4 7,lev47 ,oranges4 ,orange #b1 7,s4,c4 ,ind472 ,c1 7,m4,l4,b472 ,b1 7,by47 & 7,b4,a4,s4,f474 ,orange ,a4 7,leon47 ,orange ,g4 7,r4,h4 ,s47 ,ponceaus4 7,b]47 & 7,by47 ,croce9 oranges4 7,k47 & 7,by47 ,m&>9e ,g ext4 7,b]47 ,atlas oranges4 7,b4,s4 ,spl47 ,sc>lets & ,r$s4 ,mo/ acid sc>lets & r$s dye *rome lea!r well on ! mordant1 p>ticul>s ( :i* are giv5 above4 ,blacks4 ,^! are dy$ direct )\t any mordant+4 ,lea!r black ,v4 7,by47 ,lea!r black #a4 7,s4,c4,ind47 ,naph?ylam9e blacks #d;,b & #f;,b4 7,c47 ,fr5* black4 7,u]47 ,*rome lea!r black4 7,c4 ,r47 ,coomassie black #d;,,bs4 7,lev47 ,ph5ylam9e black #d;,b4 7,by47 ,titanium salts 7potassium titanium oxalate & tanno-titanium oxalate7 may be employ$ 9 conjunction ) ! coal-t> col\rs = dye+ *rome lea!r1 ) _m advantages ov] ! ord9>y mordants1 ! col\r produc$ be+ fa/] to light1 rubb+1 full] 9 %ade1 & ) mu* less t5d5cy to 8gr9n+40 ,:5 employ+ titanium mordants1 ! lea!r %\ld be fir/ lightly mordant$ ) "s tann9 solution & aft]w>ds dy$ ) ! titanium & dye-/uff 9 ! same ba?1 9 :i* case only 8acid0 dye/uffs may be employ$4 ,if desir$ ! goods may be mordant$ ) ! tann9 mordant1 aft]w>ds treat$ ) ! titanium salts1 wa%$ & dy$2 9 ?is case ! dye+ & application ( ! titanium mordant be+ c>ri$ out sep>ately1 ! lea!r may be dy$ ) ei!r ! acid or basic dye /uffs4 ,! titanium & tann9 mordants may also be appli$ 9 ! same ba?4 ,,dye+ ,,*amois ,,lea!r4 ,! foll[+ col\rs dye *amois lea!r well1 aft] wa%+ ! lea!r 9 a weak soda solution1 mordant+ ) #c p] c5t4 basic *rome alum solution1 & transf]r+ to ! dye-ba? )\t wa%+4 ,equal weight ( bisulphate ( soda to t ( ! dye/uff is add$ to ! dye-ba?4 ,,basic ,,coal-,,t> ,,col\rs4 ,bism>k br[n extra4 7,b]47 ,philadelphia yell[ ,r4 7,b]47 ,pure phosph9e4 7,c47 ,lea!r blue ,v4 7,g47 ,lea!r br[n ,y4 7,s4,c4 ,ind47 ,lea!r br[n ,a4 7,s4,c4 ,ind47 ,philadelphia br[n4 7,b]47 ,,acid ,,coal-,,t> ,,col\rs4 ,circum9e extra4 7,b]47 ,resorc9 br[n4 7,b]47 ,indul9e ,,nn4 7,b4,a4,s4,f47 ,orange #b4 7,m4,l4,b47 ,gold5 br[n4 7,leit*47 ,fa/ br[n4 7,by47 ,azo-yell[ ,r4 7,m4,l4,b47 ,nap?ylam9e black #d;,b4 7,c47 ,*ocolate4 7,u]47 ,azo-flav9e ,,rs4 7,c47 ,azo-phosph9e4 7,u]47 ,acid an?rac5e br[n ,r4 7,by47 ,acid gre5 conc4 7,m4,l4,b47 ,acid br[n ,y4 7,s4,c4 ,ind47 ,acid br[n ,b4 7,s4,c4 ,ind47 ,nap?ylam9e black #d;,b4 7,o47 ,jet black cry/4 7,c47 ,an?rac5e br[n ,r4 7,by47 ,an?rac5e br[n ,,gg4 7,by47 ,an?rac5e br[n ,w4 7,by47 ,d>k nut br[n4 7,u]47 ,orange #b4 7,m4,l4,b47 ,,natural ,,dye/uffs4 ,pea*wood extract4 ,sapan ext4 ,logwood ext4 ,fu/ic ext4 ,turm]ic ext4 ,a v>iety ( %ades may be obta9$ on *amois lea!r by mordant+ 9 a #a p] c5t4 solution ( ! titanium salts above m5tion$ & !n transf]r+ )\t wa%+ to ! dye-liquor1 :i* is be/ us$ 9 ! drum4 ,! col\rs :i* are mo/ suitable are ! ,aliz>9 col\rs1 ,janus col\rs & ! natural dye/uffs4 ,aliz>9 ,col\rs4 ,aliz>9 black produces light slate4 ,aliz>9 orange bright orange4 ,aliz>9 blue blue4 ,azo-aliz>9 black br[ni% m>oon4 ,azo-aliz>9 br[n r$di% violet4 ,aliz>9 r$ bright sc>let r$4 ,azo-aliz>9 blue slate blue4 ,co]ule9 yell[i% gre54 ,azo-aliz>9 yell[ bright yell[4 ,an?rac5e br[n fawn br[n4 ,acid an?rac5e br[n ,g br[ni% orange4 ,acid an?rac5e br[n ,r dull *ocolate br[n4 ,an?rac5e blue pale blue4 ,mordant yell[ lemon yell[4 ,janus ,col\rs4 ,janus yell[ ,g4 produces bright orange4 ,janus yell[ ,r4 r$di% orange4 ,janus r$ d>k m>oon4 ,janus cl>et r$ blui% m>oon4 ,janus br[n ,r4 d>k r$di% *ocolate4 ,janus blue ,b4 blui% black4 ,natural ,dye/uffs4 ,b>wood produces salmon p9k4 ,logwood dull r$di% br[n4 ,fu/ic bright yell[4 ,turm]ic yell[4 ,brazil wood r$di% br[n4 ,sapan wood light nut br[n4 ,suma* buff yell[4 ,p]sian b]ries light orange yell[4 ,madd] r$4 ,qu]citron b>k light orange yell[4 ,cut* fawn br[n4 ,campe*e can>y yell[4 ,pea* wood pale r$di% t9t4 ,divi-,divi buff yell[4 ,! lea!r is run 9 ! dye/uff solution at a temp]ature ( ab\t #de to #ej ,c4 = ab\t half an h\r1 & !n lightly fat-liquor$1 if desir$1 & aft]w>ds dri$4 ,9 addition to ! dye/uffs m5tion$ above _m basic col\rs may be employ$ aft] ! treatm5t ) titanium1 "s ( ^! produc+ a col\r lake ) ! titanium mordants4 ,z reg>ds ! p]man5cy ( ! v>i\s col\rs to light1 ! read] is ref]r$ to an important pap] by ,mr4 ,lamb1#aii b 9 _m cases ! probable p]man5cy is indicat$ by a numb] prefix$ to ! "n ( ! col\r 9 ,roman figures1 ,i4 correspond+ to ! l[e/1 & ,x4 to ! highe/ p]man5cy4 ,9 ! rese>* ref]r$ to1 ab\t #aejj samples ( lea!rs dy$ ) coal-t> dyes 7 expos$ to light = a s]ies ( 8p]iods10 ea* equal 9 act9ic p[] to n9e days ( ! brighte/ summ] sun%9e4 ,! mo/ fugitive col\rs fad$ completely1 ev5 9 ! fir/ 8p]iod10 & ! mo/ p]man5t be=e ! end ( ! t5?4 ,! prefix$ num]als indicate to :i* ( ^! 8p]iods0 ! col\r surviv$4 #aii ,j\rnal ( ,society ( ,*emical ,indu/ry1 #aijb1 p4 #aef4 ,,index4 ,abies1 #bdf ,acacia1 #bhh -- arabica1 #afe ,acetic acid1 #aed1 #bba1 #daj ,acid1 acetic1 #aed1 #bba1 #daj -- amido-acetic1 #fa -- -- -caproic1 #fa -- -- -propionic1 #fa -- -- -succ9ic1 #fa -- ars5i\s1 #bf -- asp>tic1 #fa -- b5zoic1 #bi -- boric1 #aee1 #afb1 #bba1 #bbi -- butyric1 #fa -- c>bolic1 #bf1 #bie -- c>bonic1 #ii1 #aje1 #afa -- *romic1 #bjj -- cresot9ic1 #bi1 #afb -- digallic1 #bie -- ellagic1 #bca1 #bif -- ellagitannic1 #bca1 #big -- =mic1 #aed1 #aei1 #daj -- gallotannic1 #bie -- hydro*loric1 #aed1 #aeg -- lactic1 #aed1 #aeh1 #bba -- l9ol5ic1 #cee -- oleic1 #bdj1 #ced1 #cfj -- oxalic1 #aee1 #bba -- oxynaph?oic1 #cj1 #afc -- p]*romic1 #bjj -- protocate*uic1 #bie -- pyroligne\s1 #aed -- salicylic1 #bh1 #bie -- /e>ic1 #cea -- sulphuric1 #aad1 #aed1 #aeg1 #daj -- sulphur\s1 #bc1 #aad1 #cch -- xan?oproteic1 #fg ,acids1 action on hide1 #hd -- amido-1 #fa1 #ff -- 9 tann+ liquors1 #bj -- m9]al1 #bc -- use 9 s(t5+1 #aad ,acril5e bat+ acid1 #afc ,adipose tissue1 #ec ?alium septicum1 #aj ,african oak1 #beg ,age+1 #ahh ,ailantus1 #bgb ,air1 capacity = moi/ure1 #dbf -- co/ ( heat+1 #dbh -- -filt]s1 #dci -- -passages1 #dcg -- weight (1 #dbh ,alan9e1 #fa ,album9 ( hide1 #fe ,album9s1 #ef1 #ff ,alcohol1 action on hide1 #hc ,alcoholic f]m5tation1 #ac1 #af ,ald]1 #bej ,all51 #cff ,aleppo p9e1 #bdh ,alg>obilla1 #bhf1 #bic ,aliz>9e col\rs1 #djc ,alkalies1 action on gelat9e1 #hi -- -- on hide1 #hd ,alkal9e c>bonates1 #ach ,alnus1 #bej ,alsop1 #cac ,alum1 #aei1 #cci1 #ahe ,alum$ lea!rs1 #b1 #d1 #i -- -- dye+1 #djb ,alum9a1 #ahe -- 9 wat]1 #ajc -- soap1 #ceb ,alum9ium1 #ahe ,amido-acetic acid1 #fa -- -acids1 #fa1 #ff -- -caproic acid1 #fa -- -propionic acid1 #fa -- -succ9ic acid1 #fa ,am9es1 #agc ,amba1 #aj ,ammonium *loride1 #aeg1 #aei -- sulphate1 #aei1 #ahd ,analysis ( tann+ mat]ials1 #cjj1 #dge1 #dhb ,anac>diace1 #bfi ,&reas*1 #bgb ,angicab>k1 #bic ,anhydrides ( tann9s1 #big ,anil9e dyes1 #cid ,anion1 #hj ,anogeissus1 #bic ,anticalcium1 #bi1 #aeg ,antiseptics1 #ba ,a4,o4,a4,c4 me?od1 #cjj1 #cab1 #dhb ,apocynace1 #bgi ,apples ( ,sodom1 #bfa ,arata1 #bfi ,arbutus1 #bgi ,ar*butt & ,deeley1 #ie ,arcto/aphylos1 #bgi ,ars5ic1 #bf -- cures1 #ci1 #db -- -limes1 #aid -- sulphide1 #aci1 #adb ,ars5i\s acid1 #bf ,asp>tic acid1 #fa ,aspidosp]mum1 #bgi ,association ( ,(ficial ,agric4 ,*em41 #cjj1 #cab1 #dhb ,atmosph]ic pressure1 #dbb ,attractions ( molecules1 #gd ,avidity ( acids1 #ha ,azo-col\rs1 #cii ,bablah1 #bhi ,babool1 #afe1 #bbh1 #bhh ,babul--see ,babool ,bacillus erodi5s1 #age ,bact]ia1 #ad1 #ae -- a]obic & ana]obic1 #dga ,bact]ial filt]s1 #dfi1 #dgb -- products1 #ah1 #ai ,bact]ium furfuris1 #aff ,badami] b>k1 #bhb ,bag-tannage1 #bce ,bakau b>k1 #bhc ,balance1 analytical1 #caj ,balau/9es1 #bhe ,bali-babilan1 #bhh ,balsamoc>pon1 #bhf ,b&-knife splitt+ ma*9e1 #chd1 #chg ,banksia1 #bfh ,b>b$ wire scrat*es1 #dc ,b>ium *loride1 #cia -- sulphydrate1 #adb ,b>k1 #bdc1 #bdd ,b>k mills1 #caf1 #deb ,b>ytes1 #cij ,basic *rome liquors1 #baa1 #bda -- salts1 #ahg1 #aii ,ba/1 #bdc ,ba/91 #bdd ,bate-%av+s1 #dfc -- -/a9s1 #agf ,bat+1 #h1 #ai1 #aeb1 #agj1 #bcc -- effect ( wat] on1 #ajg ,baud\9's te/1 #cfe ,be>b]ry1 #bgi ,beck]1 #agb1 #agd ,b$da nuts1 #bhb ,beeswax1 #cga ,beetle attack+ hides1 #db 8,bell0-mills1 #cag ,belt+1 #dej ,b5z5e1 #bie ,b5zoic acid1 #bi ,b]n>d91 #bdb ,betel nut1 #bdh ,betula1 #bej ,betulace1 #bej ,bi*romate ( pota%1 #bja ,bi]nacki1 #ba ,bilb]ry1 #bhj ,bir*1 #bej -- -t> oil1 #cb ,bi/ort1 #bff ,bisulphites1 #be1 #cch ,biuret reaction1 #fg ,black-dye+1 #cih1 #cii1 #dac ,bleun>d1 #eg ,blood-album51 #ccg ,bloom1 #bca1 #big ,blueback+1 #bag ,bo>d+1 #bcc ,boil] incru/ations1 #ii1 #aja ,boil+ po9t1 #ge1 #dba ,bone-oil1 #fb ,book-b9d+ lea!rs1 #bcd ,boral1 #aee ,borax1 #aef1 #baf ,borgman1 #aha ,boric or boracic acid1 #aef ,bottle-tannage1 #bce ,b\rgois1 #eg ,brabium1 #bfh ,bran-dr5*1 #aff1 #aie ,br&s1 #dc ,brazil-wood1 #bhg1 #dac ,break+ /ress ( lea!rs1 #dea ,bre$1 effect on sk91 #de ,brick pits1 #dee ,br9+ hides1 #ch ,briquettes ( tan1 #dfd ,bronz+1 #cie1 #djd ,brunton1 #fa ,brusca1 #bgb1 #bhj ,bru%+ ma*9e1 #bbf ,buff-lea!r1 #cgh 8,buffalo0 me?od1 #abi ,burns & ,hull1 #afc ,butea1 #bhe ,butyric acid1 #fa ,byrsonima1 #bfi ,c4 ,t4 bate1 #afc ,calcium sulphydrate1 #adj ,calculation ( tann9 analysis1 #cad ,calf-kid1 #ahi ,calorie1 #dbb ,cambium1 #bdc ,camphor1 #ca ,canaigre1 #bfd -- root1 extraction1 #cdh ,c>bolic acid1 #bf1 #bie ,c>bol9eum1 #bh ,c>bon disulphide1 #cj ,c>bonic acid1 #ii1 #aje1 #afa ,c>boxyl1 #bie ,c>r's dis9tegrator1 #cai ,c>t]'s dis9tegrator1 #cai ,cascalote1 #bhf ,case91 #fh ,cassia1 #bce1 #bhg1 #bii ,ca/anea1 #bea ,casu>9a1 #bdi ,cate*9s1 #bih ,cate*ol1 #bie -- tannages1 #bcd1 #bie ,cate*u1 #bgg1 #bhi ,cau/ic alkalies1 #bb -- soda1 #aad1 #acf ,cavall91 #bjb ,cavallo1 #bhe ,cebil1 #bic ,cells1 #aj ,cellulose1 #ab ,c5tigrade !rmomet]1 #dha ,c5trifugal pumps1 #deh ,c]iops1 #bhc ,*a9-conveyors1 #cbe1 #dec ,*amois lea!r1 #i1 #cgh -- -- dye+1 #dif ,*amois+1 #cfi1 #cgh ,*emical delim+1 #aec ,*5aili] evaporator1 #dbd ,*e/nut1 #bea -- -oak1 #bed1 #bfc -- -wood extract1 #bbb1 #bca ,*lorides 9 wat]1 #ajd ,*ondr91 #fc ,*romal91 #bab ,*rome-alum1 #bja -- -blacks1 #djb -- comb9ation tannages1 #bae -- -iron ore1 #bjj -- lea!r1 #d1 #i -- -- dyes =1 #did -- tannages1 #bjj ,*romic acid1 #bjj ,*romium1 #ahe1 #bjj ,*urco b>k1 #bhj ,cl>k1 #ie ,clei/an?us1 #bic ,coal-t> or ,c4 ,t4 bate1 #bi1 #afc -- -- dyes1 #cid ,coccoloba1 #bfg ,cocos1 #bdi ,cockle1 #de ,csalp9ia1 #bhe ,c(fee-mill1 #cag ,cohn's solution1 #agg ,colloids1 #gg1 #cif ,col\r1 !ory (1 #daf -- -measurem5t1 #dgi ,col\r+ matt]s1 #bii ,col\rs1 prim>y1 #daf -- second>y1 #daf -- t]ti>y1 #daf ,comb9ation-tannages1 #d1 #bcf ,combretace1 #bhj1 #bic ,conc5tration ( extracts1 #cci ,concrete pits1 #dee ,cone-mill1 #cag ,conif]1 #bdf ,connective tissue1 #ej ,conoc>pus1 #bhc ,contact-b$s1 #dgb ,conveyors1 #cbe1 #cbg1 #dec ,copp] 9 wat]1 #ajd -- sulphate1 #bf ,cori>iace1 #bgg ,cori>ia1 #bgb1 #bgg ,corium1 #df ,cori91 #fd ,cork1 #bdd ,cork-cambium1 #bdc ,cork oak1 #beg ,corrosive sublimate1 #be ,cortegia rossa1 #bdh ,c\p]us1 #bgg ,creasote1 #bh ,creol91 #bh ,cresot9ic acid1 #bi1 #afb ,cr[n lea!r1 #cha ,cry/allisation1 #gg ,cry/alloids1 #gg ,cupulif]1 #bea ,curtidor b>k1 #bhj ,curupy b>k1 #bic ,cut*1 #bhi ,cuticle1 #df ,cutis1 #df ,cyl9d]-oils1 #ajj ,dani% glove-lea!r1 #bcf1 #bch ,daphne1 #bfg ,daphnoid1 #bfg ,decoloration ( extracts1 #ccg ,degrees ( h>dness1 #id1 #aje ,dgras1 #cfh1 #chj 8,dgras-=m]10 #cgj1 #che ,delim+ by acids1 #aed -- by wa%+1 #aed1 #afj ,de ,l(1 #bdb ,d5aturis$ salt1 #bc ,d5nis1 #afc1 #baa ,depickl+1 #ia ,depilation1 #g1 #ed1 #aai ,depletion by pu]s & bates1 #ia ,d]ma1 #df ,d]me/es vulp9us1 #db 8,devil dis9tegrator10 #cah ,dextrose1 #af ,diazo-comp\nds1 #cii ,digallic acid1 #bie ,diffusion1 #gh ,dippel's oil1 #fb ,disc-mill1 #cag ,dis9fectants1 #ba1 #dgd ,dis9tegrators1 #cah ,dissociation1 #he ,di/ill$ grease1 #cei ,divi-divi1 #bhe ,djaft1 #bfc ,docks1 #bfd ,dog-dung1 #agd1 #agi1 #aha 8,dogsk910 #aig ,dongola1 #aig -- imitations1 #bda -- lea!r1 #bcf1 #bci ,doornbos*1 #bic ,dr5* f]m5tation1 #ai ,dr5*+1 #h1 #bj1 #aeb1 #aff1 #aie1 #bcc ,drepanoc>pus1 #bhe ,dress+-lea!r tannage1 #bcb -- lea!rs1 #h ,dri]s = oils1 #cfc ,drum-/uff+1 #chh ,drumm+1 #bcd ,drums1 #aag ,dry hides1 #aaj ,dry+1 effect on sk91 #aab -- hides1 #da -- lea!r1 #dbd -- ov51 #cjh -- rooms1 #dca -- ( sole lea!r1 #bcb ,dry-salt$ hides1 #aaj -- -salt+1 #ch ,ds*igh ds*ighe1 #bhf ,dubb+1 #chf ,du/-prev5tion1 #cbe ,dye-te/+1 #dai ,dye+ alum$ lea!rs1 #djb -- *rome lea!r1 #djc1 #dic -- ,cont95tal me?od1 #djh -- defects 91 #djd -- 9 drum1 #djh -- 9 paddle1 #djg -- 9 tray1 #djf1 #djh -- kid1 #aif -- oil-lea!rs1 #djd -- selection ( goods1 #dji -- !ories (1 #cif ,dyes1 acid1 #cie1 #dab -- basic1 #cie1 #daa -- li/s (1 = lea!r1 #dhf1 et seq4 -- li/ ( manufactur]s1 #dhe -- mixtures = lea!r1 #dia -- -woods1 #dab ,e>p1 ,w4 ,r41 #adc ,ea/ ,india sk9s1 #bce1 #bch1 #bda ,eb]le1 #bab ,edge-/ones1 #caf ,efflu5ts1 #dfg ,egg-album91 #fg -- -yolk1 #fh1 #cic ,egl9ton ,tann+ ,co41 #bjc ,egyptian lea!rs1 #b ,e9br5n51 #cij ,eitn]1 #aje1 #aji1 #aab1 #aad1 #aca1 #afh1 #bje1 #bab1 #baf1 #beb1 #cff1 #chb1 #cib ,el&sbos*jes1 #bic ,ela/ic fibres1 #ec1 #fi ,electric driv+1 #ddi ,electrolytes1 #gi ,electrolytic dissociation1 #gi ,elephantorrhiza1 #bic ,ellagic acid1 #bca1 #big ,ellagitannic acid1 #bca1 #big ,emulsify+1 #bdj ,enzymes1 #ae1 #af1 #aga1 #agc ,epid]mis1 #df1 #fh ,epi!lium1 #df -- -cells1 #ac ,erector pili1 #ej ,ericace1 #bgi 8,erod910 #agd ,esp9illo1 #bic ,ess5tial oils1 #ca ,eucalyptus1 #bhd ,eud]m91 #bg ,euphorbiace1 #bic ,evaporation1 #dba -- = analysis1 #cjg -- 9 vacuo1 #dbc ,evaporator1 ,y>yan1 #cci ,ev]gre5 oak1 #bef ,excise-duties on lea!r1 #c ,extraction1 optimum temp]ature1 #cdd ,extracts1 liquid1 analysis1 #cja1 #cje1 #dge1 #dgf1 #dgg -- solid1 analysis1 #cja1 #cje1 #dgf1 #dgg -- use (1 #cdb ,fad+ ( col\rs1 #dje ,fahrion1 #fa ,fall]-/ocks1 #aaf ,fan1 ,blackman1 #dbh1 #dcj1 #dcd -- ,capel1 #dcg -- c5trifugal1 #dcg1 #dci -- dry+ by1 #dcc -- screw1 #dcj1 #dcd1 #dcg ,fat1 #dfa1 #dfb -- -cells1 #eb -- -gl&s1 #dh -- -liquor+1 #bag1 #bcg1 #bci1 #cic -- -liquors1 #ajj -- -tann$ lea!rs1 #a1 #d ,fats & oils1 #cej -- solv5ts (1 #cec ,fatty acids1 liquid1 #ced -- -- saturat$1 #ced -- -- unsaturat$1 #cee ,fellmong]+1 #cd ,f]m5tation1 #ac1 #ae ,f]ric *loride1 #hf -- salts1 #aih ,f]rocyanides1 #cci ,f]r\s salts1 #aih ,fibre-bundles1 #ej ,fibres1 ela/ic1 #ec ,fibrils1 #ej ,filao b>k1 #bdi ,filt] me?od1 #caa1 #dgh ,filtration = analysis1 #cjg1 #dgg1 #dhc -- ( sludge1 #dgj 8,f9e-hair+10 #ahj ,f9i%es = lea!r1 #dja ,fire insurance1 #cbe ,fi%-tall[1 #cfh ,flay+1 #db ,fle%+1 #h1 #adf -- ma*9es1 #adg ,fle%+s1 #dfa ,flckig] & ,hanbury1 #bgg ,fluorides1 #bf 8,foots10 #cef ,=maldehyde1 #cj1 #chj ,=mal91 #ca1 #chj ,=mic acid1 #aed1 #aei1 #daj ,friz+1 #cgh ,fu*sia1 #bhd ,fu*s9e1 #cie ,fungi1 #ae ,fusanus1 #bfg ,gall oak1 #bfa ,gallotannic acid1 #bie ,galls1 #bfa1 #bhj ,gambi]1 #bbb1 #bca1 #bgg -- extraction1 #cdi ,g>c9ia1 #bic ,gas-eng9e1 #ddi -- -lime1 #ada ,gase\s /ate ( matt]1 #gd ,gaul!ria1 #bea1 #cgc ,gelat91 #ef1 #eh -- action ( bact]ia on1 #fa -- analyses1 #eg -- *emical con/itution1 #eg -- decompositions1 #fj -- det]m9ation1 #ei1 #fj -- prop]ties (1 #eh -- reactions1 #fb -- swell+ (1 #hb ,glaes] mill1 #cah ,glassy lay]1 #ej1 #cih ,glaz+1 #dah ,globul91 #fg ,globig1 #ag ,glove-kid1 #aid ,glucose1 #ac1 #af1 #agg1 #cij ,glue1 #dfa ,glue/uff1 #dfa ,glut91 #ef1 #eh ,glyc]91 #cea 8,gold5 spoon10 #bfi -- tan b>k1 #bdh ,gonagra1 #bfd ,gra91 #bcc -- 8drawn10 #bbh -- -lay]1 #ea -- microscopic exam9ation1 #eb1 #ee -- patt]n (1 #eb ,gra9s ( v>i\s sk9s1 #eb ,granatace1 #bhe ,grease1 recov]y1 #dfb -- ref9+1 #dfc ,greases1 #ceg 8,gre5 lea!r10 #aig1 #bci ,grevillia1 #bfh ,griffi?1 #bca ,gr9d+ ma*9]y1 #deb -- samples1 #cjc1 #dgf ,gr\nd+1 #ahi ,guano1 #agg ,gum tree1 #bhd ,gumm+1 #bj ,guttif]1 #bic ,gunn]a1 #bhd ,gunn]ace1 #bhd ,glycoc9e1 #fa ,glycocoll1 #fa ,hmatoxylon1 #bhf ,hair1 #fh1 #dfj -- -bulb1 #di -- -cuticle1 #dh1 #di -- -muscle1 #ej -- -papilla1 #di -- /ructure & gr[?1 #dg ,h&-/uff+1 #chf ,h&l]s1 #bba ,h>dness det]m9ation1 #id -- effect on dye+1 #ajj -- effects on tann+1 #ih1 #aje -- ( wat]1 #ic ,h>rison1 #bgc1 #dgc ,hauff1 #aeg1 #afb1 #afc ,heal1 #bjc ,heat1 capacity =1 #dbb -- consum$ 9 evaporation1 #dbc1 #dbh -- -- 9 melt+ ice1 #dbc -- giv5 by pipes1 #dcb -- loss ?r\gh walls1 #dca -- measure ( quantity1 #dbb -- ( combu/ion ( coal1 #dbc ,heat+ by hot wat]1 #ddb -- by /eam1 #dcb1 #dcf1 #ddj ,hea? honeysuckle1 #bfh ,hea?s1 #bgi ,hehn]1 #id ,he9z]l+1 #bjc ,helvetia lea!r1 #cha ,hemicoll91 #fj ,hemlock-b>k1 #bbb ,h5-dung1 #agi1 #aha ,h5ry1 #ie 8,hickory0 b>k1 #bia ,hide-fibre1 analysis1 #eg -- -m>kets1 #cc -- -mill1 #aag -- p[d]1 #caj1 #cab1 #dgi1 #dhd -- -- filt]1 #caa1 #dgh -- -- *rom$1 #cac1 #dhc ,high-spe$ ma*9]y1 #dea ,h(mei/]1 #ef1 #eg1 #fj ,holbrook sy/em1 #cca ,hold5 fat1 #cei ,horns1 #dfd ,horn-sl\ghs1 #dfd ,horny /ructures1 #ej ,horse-fat1 #ceg -- -fle%1 #agg -- -p[]1 #dbc ,hrus*au1 #bad ,hull1 #afc1 #afe ,hummel1 #bjc1 #bej1 #bhe ,hunt1 #ahh ,hyal9e lay]1 #ej1 #agf1 #cih ,hydro*loric acid1 #hf1 #aed1 #aeg ,hydronaph?ol1 #cj ,hypod]ma bovis1 #dc ,hyposulphite ( soda1 #bjd ,hyph1 #ad ,i4,a4,l4,t4,c4 me?od1 #cjj1 #caa1 #dge ,ice1 heat to melt1 #dbc ,ilex1 #bef ,immiscible liquid1 #gf ,+a1 #bic ,inks1 #djb 8,in(f5sive10 #adc ,int]national ,association ( ,lea!r ,trade ,*emi/s1 #cjj1 #caa1 #dge ,int]nal pressure ( liquids1 #gf ,inv]tase1 #af ,iod9e-value1 #cec ,ionisation-pressure1 #ha ,ions1 #hj ,iron-alum1 #aii -- -b>k tree1 #bhd -- -blacks1 #cih1 #dac -- 9 wat]1 #ajb -- /a9s1 #bb1 #ch -- tannages1 #aih ,izal1 #bh ,jamrosa b>k1 #bhb ,japans1 #cee ,jeye's fluid1 #bh ,jellies1 #gg ,j5s51 #bda ,jones fle%+ ma*9e1 #adh ,junip]1 #bdh ,kasp9e lea!r1 #chj ,ka?1 #bhi ,ka?re9]1 #cja ,kation1 #hj ,k5t1 #bcf ,k]at91 #ad1 #ef1 #fh ,k]mes oak1 #beh ,kid-lea!r1 #i ,kilogram1 #dha ,kips1 soak+1 #aac ,kjeldahl's me?od1 #gj1 #agi ,klemm1 #cha ,knapp1 #gd1 #ahh1 #aii1 #bjb1 #baj1 #chb ,knopp]n1 #bfb ,knott$ tree1 #bfh ,ko*1 #bea ,ko]n]1 #hb1 #ia1 #bhc ,kram]ia1 #bfi ,lace-,lea!rs1 #aig ,lactic acid1 #aed1 #aeh1 #bba1 #daj -- f]m5tation1 #ah ,lamb1 #bah1 #bgc1 #dje1 #dhe ,l& filtration1 #dgj ,lanol9e1 #cei ,lanosoap1 #bah ,l>*1 #bdg ,l>ix1 #bdg ,laurace1 #bfg ,lay]s1 #bbb1 #bca ,lea*-bottom1 #cbi ,lea*+1 #cbh ,lead-blea*1 #cii -- 9 wat]1 #ajd ,lea!r ,indu/ries ,laboratory ,book1 #e ,legum9os1 #bhh ,leidg5 unhair+ ma*9e1 #ade ,l5tisque1 #bfi ,leucad5dron1 #bfh ,leuc9e1 #fa ,leucosp]mum1 #bfh ,levulose1 #af ,lewk[its*1 #cff ,lietzmann1 #chb ,l4,i4,l4,b41 #e ,liliace1 #bdh ,lime1 #ba1 #abj -- action on hide1 #abe -- analyses1 #abd -- 8available10 #abe -- -burn+1 #aba -- -liquors1 analysis1 #adc -- pits1 #abg1 #dee -- quantity us$1 #abi -- solubility 9 wat]1 #abc -- -wat]1 #abc ,limes1 age (1 #acj -- bact]ial action 91 #acd -- plump+1 #acc ,lim+1 #abf -- loss ( hide-sub/ance1 #acb -- ,pullman's me?od1 #acg -- %eep-sk9s1 #cd -- temp]ature1 #abi ,l9ol5ic acid1 #cee ,lip[itz1 #ei ,liquor-pipes1 #def ,liquid /ate ( matt]1 #gd ,liquor tanks1 #ccb1 #deg -- -tr\ghs1 #ccc1 #deg ,lit]1 #dha ,logwood1 #bhf1 #dac1 #cih1 #dja ,loxopt]yngium1 #bfi ,lubrication1 #dec ,lufk91 ,pr(41 #adb ,lymph corpuscules1 #aj ,lysol1 #bh ,mc,fadyen1 #fa ,madd]1 #bci1 #bgg ,maid51 #bij ,mag5ta1 #cie ,magnesia1 #ie ,malpighia1 #bfi ,malpighiace1 #bfi ,manganese1 #ahe ,mangif]a1 #bgg ,mangle1 #bhc ,mango1 #bgg ,mango/e51 #bic ,mangrove1 #bhc -- b>k1 extraction1 #cdh ,mangrutta1 #bfi ,m>ket-hides1 #cc1 #ajh 8,m>k+ (f10 #djf -- weight ( hides1 #cc ,m>% ,rosem>y1 #bfh ,ma!r & ,platt1 #ig ,mauve1 #cid ,mayn>d1 #aad 8,mell[+0 ( liquors1 #hb ,mell[ness ( liquors1 #bbi ,m]curic *loride1 #be -- iodide1 #bf ,metabisulphite ( soda1 #be1 #aad1 #afj ,met]1 #dha ,metrical sy/em1 #dha ,milk-%ak]1 #cac ,millon's reag5t1 #fg ,mill = samples1 #cjc ,mills1 arrangem5t (1 #deb -- con/ruction1 #caf ,mimosa1 #bca1 #bij -- extraction1 #cdf ,mimose1 #bhh ,m9]al acids1 #bc ,moellon1 #cfh1 #chj ,moi/ure 9 tann+ mat]ials1 #cad1 #cae1 #dgi1 #dhb ,molecules1 #gd ,mordant col\r+ matt]s1 #bch ,mordants1 #cih ,m\lds1 #ad1 #ae1 #bj ,m\nta9 a%1 #bhe ,muc\s lay]1 #dg ,mud1 #ajb ,muir1 ,john1 #ada ,multiple effect1 #cdb1 #dbc ,munkwitz1 #ade ,muscle1 volunt>y1 #ec ,mycod]ma1 #ad1 #bj ,myrica1 #bej ,myricace1 #bej ,myrobalans1 #bca1 #bhj1 #bic -- cru%]1 #cbb -- extraction1 #cde ,myrtace1 #bhd ,myrtus1 #bhd ,nancite1 #bfi ,naph?al5e sulphonic acid1 #bi ,naph?ols1 #bi ,nauclea1 #bgg ,neb-neb1 #bhi ,nesbitt's bat+ process1 #afa 8,neutralis+0 *rome lea!rs1 #baf ,nih\l1 #ajd ,nitrates & nitrites 9 wat]1 #ajd ,nitrog5 e/imation1 #gj 8,non-tann9s10 #caj1 #dgh1 #dhc ,nucleolus1 #aa ,nucleus1 #aa ,oak-,b>k1 #bbb1 #bec -- - -- extraction1 #cdd -- -twigs1 #bdd ,oakwood1 #bed -- extract1 #bbb1 #bca1 #bef ,oaks1 #beb no!ra1 #bhd ,oil1 ,arctic sp]m1 #cga -- bir*1 #cgb -- black bir*1 #cgc -- boil$ l9se$1 #cfc -- bottl5ose1 #cga -- ca/or1 #cec1 #cee1 #cfj -- cod-liv]1 #cfe -- cottonse$1 #cfd -- egg-yolk1 #cic -- f fats1 #dfc -- h]r+1 #cfh -- ,japanese1 #cfh -- l9se$1 #cfb -- m5had51 #cfg -- neatsfoot1 #ceh -- olive1 #cei -- porgie1 #cfg -- ,russia1 #cgb -- s&alwood1 #cgc -- s>d9e1 #cfh -- sassafras1 #cgc -- seal1 #cfg -- sesam1 #cfd -- %>k-liv]1 #cff -- sod1 #cfh1 #chj -- sp]m1 #cec1 #cga -- ,/raits1 #cfg -- ,?ree-cr[n1 #cfg -- ,turkey-r$1 #cfa -- vasel9e1 #cge -- :ale1 #cfg -- w9t]gre51 #cgc ,oils & fats 9 curry+1 #chd -- bl[n1 #cee1 #cfa -- dry+1 #cec -- ess5tial1 #cej1 #cgb -- fix$1 #cej -- lubricat+1 #dec -- m9]al1 #cgd -- non-dry+1 #cec -- res91 #cgf -- volatile1 #cgb ,oleic acid1 #bdj1 #ced1 #cfj ,ole9e1 #cei ,oleo/e>9e1 #cef1 #cei ,onagrace1 #bhd ,"o-ba? *rome process1 #baa ,organis$ f]m5ts1 #ae ,orig9 ( lea!r manufacture1 #a ,osmotic pressure1 #gh ,osyris1 #bfg ,ovum1 developm5t (1 #df ,oxalates1 #aei ,oxalic acid1 #aee1 #bba ,oxalide1 #bhj ,oxalis1 #bhj ,oxynaph?oic acid1 #cj1 #afc ,ozok]it1 #cgf ,paal1 #eg1 #fb1 #ff ,paessl]1 #ef ,pair+1 #djg ,palm]1 ,a4 ,n41 #afg ,palm]1 ,t41 #agf ,palmetto1 #bde ,palm1 #bdh ,pancreat91 #agb ,panniculus adiposus1 #ec ,papilionace1 #bhe ,p>aff91 #cge ,p>a=m1 #ca ,p>apeptones1 #ff ,p>5*ym1 #bdc ,p>k]1 ,j4 ,g41 #afb ,p>k]1 ,c4 ,e41 #dee ,p>s papill>is1 #ea 8,p>tial0 pressure1 #gf ,paypay1 #bic ,payne & ,pullman1 #acg ,peaty wat]s1 #ajf ,p5icillium1 #ad ,peps91 #aga ,peptones1 #fj1 #fa1 #fb ,p]*+1 #ahh ,p]*romic acid1 #bjj ,p]k91 #bej1 #cid -- & ,all51 #bgf -- & ,gunnell1 #bfi ,p]man5t h>dness1 #ajj ,p]sea1 #bfg 8,p]sians10 #bce1 #bhg1 #bii1 #cfe ,ph5ol1 #bf -- = delim+1 #afb ,ph5ols1 #bie ,ph5olph?ale91 #aee ,phloem1 #bdc ,phlobaph5es1 #bca ,phloroglucol1 #bie1 #big ,phosphates1 #aei ,phyllan?us1 #bic ,phyllocladus1 #bdh ,pickl+1 #bc1 #hi1 #ahg ,pigeon-dung1 #agh ,pilang1 #bij ,p9us1 #bdf ,pipes1 arrangem5t (1 #dcf1 #ddj -- heat f1 #dcb ,piptad5ia1 #bic ,pi/acia1 #bfi1 #bgb ,pits1 con/ruction (1 #ded ,pla/]-cure ( ,indian kips1 #ci ,pleat+1 #djg ,plumbag91 #bfh ,podoc>pus1 #bdh ,poison ivy1 #bgd ,polygalace1 #bfi ,polyg5etic col\rs1 #cii1 #djc ,polygonace1 #bfd ,polygonum1 #bff ,polysulphides1 #afe1 #baa 8,polysulph910 #aci ,pomegranate1 #bhe ,popl>s1 #bfd ,popp1 #agb1 #agd ,porcela91 to m>k1 #cjd ,port]-,cl>k1 #ih ,potassium di*romate1 #bja -- hydrate1 #acf ,pot5tilla1 #bhe ,precipitation tanks1 #dfh ,prell]1 #cha ,press-lea*es1 #ccj 8,prick+10 #afi ,primitive lea!r manufacture1 #a1 #gc ,pr9t+1 #dah ,protace1 #bfh ,proct]1 #bjc ,proct]'s extractor1 #cjf ,prosopis1 #bhf ,protea1 #bfh ,protocate*uic acid1 #bie ,protoplasm1 #aj ,pseudopodia1 #aa ,pt]oc>pus1 #bhe ,pu]+1 #h1 #ai1 #aeb1 #agj1 #bcc ,pulleys1 #dej 8pull+ d[n10 #aeg ,pullman1 #chj ,pullman's lim+ me?od1 #acg ,pulsomet]s1 #dei ,pumps1 #deg ,punica1 #bhe ,putrefaction1 #ae1 #ai ,putrid soak1 #aac1 #acg ,putz1 ,dr41 #fi ,pyrogallol1 #bie -- tannages1 #bcd -- tann9s1 #bie ,pyroligne\s acid1 #aed ,pyrrol1 #fb ,pyrus1 #bhe ,quebra*o1 #bca1 #bfi1 #bgg -- wood1 extraction1 #cdg ,qu]cet91 #bfc ,qu]cus1 #beb ,quicklime1 #abb ,rab9[its*1 #ag ,raw hide lea!r1 #cha ,realg>1 #adb ,r$d5+ ( lea!r by light1 #dje 8,r$s10 #bca1 #big1 #cci ,reim]1 #eh1 #fd ,res91 #cgf ,rete malpighi1 #dg ,rhatany1 #bfi ,rhizophorace1 #bhc ,rhus1 #bgj ,riems1 #cha ,roans1 #bce ,rollet1 #fd ,roll+ ma*9es1 #bbd ,roman lea!rs1 #b ,rosace1 #bhe ,ros91 #cgf ,r\nd+1 #aea ,rove1 #bfa ,rubiace1 #bgg ,rumex1 #bfd ,rusma1 #aci 8,russia0 lea!r1 #bea ,sabal1 #bdh ,sac*>omyces1 #ad1 #bj ,sac*>omycetes1 #ae ,sadd5+1 #cih ,salicace1 #bfc ,salicylic acid1 #bh1 #bie ,saliva-corpuscles1 #aj ,salix ar5>ia1 #bch1 #bfc -- caprea1 #bci1 #bfd ,salomon1 #agh ,salt1 #bb -- & acids1 action on gelat9e1 #hh -- -/a9s1 #bb1 #ch ,salts1 action on hide1 #hd1 #ib ,salt$ hides1 #aji ,salt+1 #ce ,sampl+ tann+ mat]ials1 #cja1 #dge -- tool1 #cja ,santalace1 #bfg ,saponification1 #cea ,sappan-wood1 #bhg ,saturat$ solutions1 #gg ,saxifragace1 #bhj ,s*ill+1 #fb ,s*9ia1 #bgb ,s*9us1 #bgj ,s*meija mill1 #cah ,s*ulze1 #agh ,s*ultz1 ,a41 #bjc1 #bjd -- ,jackson ,s41 #aab1 #ded1 #def ,s*utz5b]g]1 #eg ,scilla1 #bdh ,scorza rossa1 #bdh ,sc\r+1 #chd -- ma*9e1 #chd ,scre5+ tann+ mat]ials1 #cbc ,scudd+1 #ahj ,sea lav5d]1 #bfh ,seagrave-,bev+ton dry]1 #dch ,seaside grape1 #bfg ,season+s1 #dah ,sebace\s gl&s1 #dh ,semiglut91 #fj ,semip]meable membranes1 #gh ,s5na1 #bhh ,septa1 #ad ,septic tank1 #dgb ,settl+ tanks1 #dfh ,sewage1 #dfg -- purification1 #dfh ,%aft+1 #ddh1 #dej ,%ake-me?od1 #cab1 #dhc ,%av+1 #chd -- ma*9e1 #chd1 #chf -- mill1 #cbc ,%eep-sk9s1 #cd ,%ellac glaze1 #dja ,sil5t boil+ jets1 #ccd1 #cdc ,silicic acid 9 wat]1 #ajd ,silv] fir1 #bdf ,sk5s1 #bgb ,sk91 /ructure1 #df ,skiv]s1 alum$1 #aig ,skut*1 #dfb ,slak+ ( lime1 #abb ,slocomb /ak+ ma*9e1 #aib ,sludge1 #dgj ,smok$ lea!rs1 #b ,snakewe$1 #bff ,sn\b> b>k1 #bdh ,soak+ & wa%+1 #g -- ( hides1 #ajh -- ) cau/ic soda1 #aad ,soaps1 #cea -- cold process1 #ceb ,soap te/1 #id ,society ( ,arts1 #bcd ,soda 9 wat]1 #ajc ,sodium bisulphate1 #aee -- c>bonate1 #aci -- hydrate1 #acf -- silicate1 #baf -- sulphate1 #bc1 #da -- sulphide1 #aad1 #aci -- ?iosulphate1 #bjd1 #bac1 #baf ,sole-lea!r tann+1 #bbj ,solid solution1 #hc1 #cif -- /ate ( matt]1 #gd ,solubility ( liquids1 #gf ,solution-pressure1 #gf1 #gh ,soluble ph5yl1 #bh ,sorbus1 #bhe ,s\r+1 #daj ,sp5t tan1 #cbi1 #dfd -- tans1 analysis1 #dhj ,sp]maceti1 #cga ,splitt+1 #chd ,spr9kl]1 #ddf -- -lea*1 #ccf ,spruce fir1 #bdf ,spue+1 #bj1 #cec1 #cee1 #cij ,squill1 #bdh ,/a9+1 #dae -- dyes suitable =1 #dhf1 #dia ,/a9s caus$ by h>d wat]1 #ii -- on sole-lea!r1 #bbg ,/ak+1 #ahh -- ma*9es1 #aib ,/al+1 #cd ,/anhope1 #ih ,/atice1 #bfh ,/eam-eng9e1 #dbc1 #dcc1 #ddh -- - -- indicator1 #ddi -- -pumps1 #deg -- -traps1 #ddb ,/e>ic acid1 #cea ,/e>91 #cea1 #cei ,/e>9e glaze1 #dja1 #dae ,/5h\se1 #bif ,/]ilisation1 #ah ,/9co1 #bgb ,/ipp51 #aji ,/ock+1 #ahj ,/ocks1 #aaf -- = unhair+1 #ade ,/one-cells1 #bde -- pits1 #ded ,/rik+1 #bbc -- ma*9e1 #bbc ,/r+y b>k tree1 #bhd ,/ructure ( sk91 #df ,/uff+1 #chf -- drum1 #chh ,/urtevant dry]1 #dch ,sudorif]\s gl&s1 #di ,sug>-bu%1 #bfh ,sulphate ( soda1 #bc ,sulphates 9 wat]1 #ajd ,sulphide ( sodium1 #cd1 #acb1 #aci1 #afe ,sulphides1 #aci ,sulphur dioxide1 #bc -- 9 *rome-lea!r1 #baf ,sulphonat$ oils1 #cfa ,sulphuric acid1 #aad1 #aed1 #aeg1 #daj ,sulphur\s acid1 #bc1 #aad1 #cch ,suma*1 #bcd -- ,cape1 #bfg -- extraction1 #cdg -- ,fr5*1 #bgg -- ,sicilian1 #bgj -- ,v5etian1 #bgf ,suma*s1 ,am]ican1 #bgc ,suma*+1 #daj1 #daa ,sup]saturat$ solutions1 #gg ,surface-t5sion1 #gf ,susp5d]s1 #bba1 #bbg1 #bcb ,susp5sion lime-pit1 #abh ,swan1 #bjb ,sweat-gl&s1 #di -- -pit1 #aai ,sweat+1 #a1 #ai1 #cd1 #aai ,sw$i% glove-lea!r1 #bcf1 #bch ,swell+1 #hb1 #hd ,tall[1 #cef -- fi%1 #cfh ,tam>ix1 #bgb1 #bhj ,tam>isc9i1 #bhj ,tamwood1 #bfi ,tan z fuel1 #dfd -- -burn+ furnaces1 #dfd -- -press1 #dfg ,tanekahi b>k1 #bdh ,tanghadi b>k1 #bhg ,tank-wa/e1 #ada ,tann]y1 con/ruction1 #dde -- ext5sion1 #ddg -- fire risks1 #ddf1 #deb -- selection ( site1 #ddd ,tann9 col\r-lakes1 #cig -- mat]ials1 extraction1 #cje -- -- sampl+1 #cjb 8,tann+ matt]s10 #caa1 #dgh1 #dhc ,tann9s1 #bdb1 #bid1 #cig -- pa?ological1 #bih -- physiological1 #bih ,t>i pods1 #bhf ,t>t> emetic1 #daa ,taw+1 #aia1 #aif ,temp]ature1 #dbb -- 9 lea*+1 #cdc ,tempor>y h>dness1 #id1 #aed1 #daa ,t5gah b>k1 #bhc ,t]i pods1 #bhf ,t]m9alia1 #bhj ,t]ra japonica1 #bgg ,?ann tree1 #bhb ,!rmophilic bact]ia1 #ag ,t9ian p9e1 #bdi ,t9tomet]1 #cae1 #dgi ,titanium1 #ahe1 #bah1 #daa1 #die ,tjam>a laut1 #bdi ,topp+1 #djf ,torm5tilla1 #bhe ,torula1 #ad 8,total soluble0 matt]1 #cjg1 #dgg1 #dgh ,treacle1 #agg ,tri-=mol1 #ca ,trimble1 #bfc ,trioxyme?yl5e1 #ca ,tryps91 #aga1 #agb ,tsuga1 #bdf ,tub-lea*es1 #cca ,tugw>1 #bic ,turkey oak1 #bee1 #bef -- -r$ oil1 #bag1 #bdj ,turw> b>k1 #bce1 #bhg ,turret-dry]1 #dci ,two-ba? *rome process1 #bjd1 #bac1 #baf ,tyros91 #ff ,unhair+1 #g1 #ed1 #adc -- ma*9es1 #add ,unorganis$ f]m5ts1 #ae1 #af ,us$ liquors1 analysis1 #dhj ,vacc9i1 #bhj ,vacc9ium1 #bhj ,vacuoles1 #ac ,vacuum-ov51 #cjh -- pans1 #cdb ,valdivia lea!r1 #bfg ,valonia1 #bbb1 #bca1 #beh -- extraction1 #cde1 #cdf ,valve1 #deg -- = liquor tr\ghs1 #ccc ,van ,tieghem1 #bdc ,vap\r-pressure1 #ge1 #dba ,vasel9e1 #cge ,vaughn fle%+ ma*9e1 #ade1 #adh ,vegetable-tann$ lea!rs1 #b1 #c ,velocity ( gase\s molecules1 #ge ,v5tilation & heat+1 #dbi -- d[nw>d1 #ddj ,v]beek & ,peckholdt1 #caj ,vibration1 #deb ,vitell91 #fg ,vitis1 #bgb ,von ,hhnel1 #bdb -- ,s*ro$]1 #ef1 #abi1 #acd ,wagn]1 #bih ,w>bles1 #dc ,w>d1 ,h4 ,m>%all1 #bdc ,wa%-:eel1 #ajh1 #aah1 #ahj -- -- = unhair+1 #ade ,wa%+ ( hides1 #ajh1 #aaa ,wa/e liquids1 #dfg ,wat]1 cond5s$1 #ddb -- h>dness1 #ic -- impurities1 #ic -- ov51 #cjh -- rais]s1 #dei -- s(t5+1 #ie1 #aja ,wattles1 #bij ,wax1 bees-1 #cga -- ,brazilian1 #cgb -- c>nauba1 #cgb -- ,japan1 #cgb -- m9]al1 #cgd -- p>aff91 #cge ,waxes1 #cej1 #cec1 #cgj -- liquid1 #cej1 #cec1 #cga ,weak gra91 #ajh ,weigh+ = analysis1 #cjd ,weimannia1 #bhj ,weiske1 #fc 8,wet & dry bulb0 !rmomet]1 #dbf 8,:ite b>k10 #bic -- lea!rs1 #aig -- or gelat9\s fibres1 #ej -- spruce1 #bdg ,wi*ell[ & ,tebbutt1 #bda ,wild almond1 #bfh ,williams' pat5t cru%]1 #cbj ,will[-b>k1 #bch ,will[s1 #bfc ,wilson1 #bbc1 #bbd1 #ddj ,w9d1 #dbg1 #dci ,w9dbores1 #dei ,wood1 ,j4 ,t41 #aff1 #aga ,woolfat1 #ceh ,woolly butt tree1 #bhd 8,work+10 #ahj ,xan?oproteic acid1 #fg ,y>yan evaporator1 #cci1 #dbd ,yea/1 #ab ,yea/s1 #ae ,yell[ fibres1 #ec1 #fi ,yolk ( egg1 #fh ,york%ire grease1 #cei ,y\l1 #bca ,"y hair1 #add ,z9c *loride1 #bf -- sulphate1 #bf1 #aei ,zollick(f]1 #afj ,zymases1 #ae1 #af1 #ag1 #fa1 #bif ,,london3 ,,pr9t$ ,,by ,,william ,,cl[es ,,& ,,sons1 ,,limit$1 ,,great ,,w9dmill ,,/reet1 ,w41 ,,& ,,duke ,,/reet1 ,,/am=d ,,/reet1 ,s4,e4 ,transcrib]'s ,notes ,inconsi/5t & unusual spell+1 hyph5ation1 etc4 7includ+ 9 names & non-,engli% words7 h be5 reta9$1 except z m5tion$ bel[4 ,! orig9al "w does n h a ,fig4 #ag4 ,page #aii1 7,x mu/ be di/9ctly und]/ood 4443 ! clos+ bracket is miss+ 9 ! s\rce docum5t4 ,page #bbc3 444 tool ( triangul> section %[n 9 ,fig4 #bi3 ! ref]5ce %\ld possibly be to ,fig4 #bg 7or #cj74 ,page #bfg1 kruppelboom3 %\ld possibly read kreupelboom4 ,*anges made3 ,footnotes1 illu/rations1 & tables h be5 mov$ outside text p>agraphs4 ,! foll[+ phrases h be5 /&>dis$3 ,c4 ,t4 bate & ,c4,t4 bate to ,c4,t4 bate 7cole-t>72 c4c4 & cc4 to c4c4 7cubic c5timetre72 ,lige & ,lige to ,lige4 ,pullman & ,pullmans to ,pullman2 ,huxham & ,br[n & ,huxham & ,br[ns to ,huxham & ,br[ns2 ,kjehldahl & ,kjeldahl to ,kjeldahl2 ,krn] & ,ko]n] to ,ko]n]4 ,:]e useful = cl>ity's sake1 ,ibid4 9 lit]ature ref]5ces has be5 replac$ ) ! actual 7abbreviat$7 title4 ,"s obvi\s m9or typographical errors h be5 correct$ sil5tly2 acc5ts 9 ,fr5* & ,g]man words h n be5 correct$ or add$4 ,page #dj3 ,9 ! re-r5ewal 444 *ang$ to ,9 ! r5ewal 444 ,page #fd3 ,*rondr9 *ang$ to ,*ondr9 ,page #gd3 ,die ,natur und ,wes5 444 *ang$ to ,natur und ,wes5 444 ,page #aci3 ,na,s1#i,,oh *ang$ to ,na,s#i,,oh ,page #bdh3 footnote an*or remov$ f aft] 444 by cork lamell 7!re is no footnote 9 ! orig9al "w74 ,page #beb3 444 & ! m col\r+ matt] is conta9$ 444 *ang$ to 444 ! m col\r+ matt] is conta9$ 444 ,page #bec3 444 & ! bett] ! b>k *ang$ to 444 ! bett] ! b>k ,page #bgb3 ,ailantus gladulosa *ang$ to ,ailantus gl&ulosa ,page #caj3 ,v]beck *ang$ to ,v]beek ,page #cbi3 444 is %[n 9 ,fig4 #hf *ang$ to 444 is %[n 9 ,fig4 #gg ,page #cfa3 ,b5$ict *ang$ to ,b5$ikt ,page #djj3 ,claus & ,ree *ang$ to ,claus & ,re ,page #dbi3 #ddc ,f4 *ang$ to #ddc ,f4 ,page #dea3 kilos p] cm #adbb lb4 p] in* *ang$ to kilos p] cm #adbb lb4 p] in* ,page #dhf3 ,acid gre5 ,b4,b4 *ang$ to ,acid gre5 ,,bb4 ,page #eja3 ,blue-back+ *ang$ to ,blueback+ ,page #ejg3 ,oxalic acid1 page numb] #aee correct$ ,page #ejh3 ,pay-pay *ang$ to ,paypay2 ,phylocladus *ang$ to ,phyllocladus2 ,protac *ang$ to ,protace ,page #eji3 ,s*utz5b]g] *ang$ to ,s*tz5b]g] ,page #eab1 ,zymases3 page numb]s #ag1 #fa1 #bif ins]t$ ,index3 "s entries mov$ to _! prop] place4