,,publications ,,of ,,the ,,university ,,of ,,pennsylvania ,,series ,,in ,philology ,literature and ,archology ,,vol4 ,,iii ,,no4 #b ,a ,,primer ,,of ,,mayan ,,hieroglyphics ,,by ,,daniel ,g4 ,,brinton1 ,a4,m41 ,m4,d41 ,,ll4,d41 ,sc4,d4 ,,professor ,,of ,,american ,,arch,,ology ,,and ,,linguistics ,,in ,,the ,,university ,,of ,,pennsylvania1 ,,president ,,of ,,the ,,american ,,association ,,for ,,the ,,advancement ,,of ,,science1 ,,etc41 ,,etc4 8,hieroglyphics old1 ,which sages and keen-eyed astrologers1 ,then living on the earth1 with labouring thought1 ,won from the gaze of many centuries40 --,,keats ,,ginn ,,company ,agents for ,united ,states1 ,canada1 and ,england #g-ac ,tremont ,place1 ,boston1 ,u4,s4,a4 ,,max ,,niemeyer ,agent for the ,continent of ,europe ,halle1 a ,s41 ,germany ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,preface4 ,in the following pages ,i have endeavored with the greatest brevity to supply the learner with the elements necessary for a study of the native hieroglyphic writing of ,central ,america4 ,the material is already so ample that in many directions ,i have been obliged to refer to it1 rather than to summarize it4 ,this will explain various omissions which may be noted by advanced scholars2 but they will not1 ,i believe1 diminish the usefulness of the work as an elementary treatise4 ,in conclusion ,i would express my thanks to the officers of the ,bureau of ,american ,ethnology1 ,washington1 and of the ,peabody ,museum of ,archology1 ,cambridge1 for various facilities they have obligingly furnished me4 ,,contents4 ,i4 ,introductory4 ,,page #a4 ,,general ,,character ,,of ,,mayan ,,hieroglyphics1 #i #b4 ,,the ,,mayan ,,manuscripts ,,or 8,,codices10 #aa #c4 ,,theories ,,of ,,interpretation4 8,,alphabets0 ,,and 8,,keys10 #ac ,,ii4 ,the ,mathematical ,elements4 #a4 ,,the ,,codices ,,as ,,time-,,counts1 #ah #b4 ,,the ,,mayan ,,numeral ,,system1 #ai #c4 ,,numerical ,,and ,,allied ,,signs1 #ai #d4 ,,the ,,rhetorical ,,and ,,symbolic ,,use ,,of ,,numbers1 #bd #e4 ,,the ,,mayan ,,methods ,,of ,,counting ,,time1 #be #f4 ,,the ,,calculations ,,in ,,the ,,codices1 #bi #g4 ,,rules ,,for ,,tracing ,,the ,,tonalamatl1 ,,or ,,ritual ,,calendar1 #ca #h4 ,,the ,,codices ,,as ,,astronomical ,,treatises1 #cb #i4 ,,astronomical ,,knowledge ,,of ,,the ,,ancient ,,mayas1 #cd ,,iii4 ,the ,pictorial ,elements4 #a4 ,,the ,,religion ,,of ,,the ,,ancient ,,mayas1 #cg ,itzamna--,cuculcan--,kin ich--,other ,gods--,the ,cardinal ,points--,the ,good ,gods--,the ,gods of ,evil--,the ,conflict of the ,gods4 #b4 ,,the ,,cosmogony ,,of ,,the ,,mayas1 #df #c4 ,,the ,,cosmical ,,conceptions ,,of ,,the ,,mayas1 #dg #d4 ,,pictorial ,,representations ,,of ,,divinities1 #ej ,representations of ,itzamna--,of ,cuculcan--,of ,kin ich--,of ,xaman ,ek1 the ,pole ,star--,of the ,planet ,venus--,of ,ghanan1 ,god of ,growth--,of the ,serpent ,goddess--of ,xmucane--,of ,ah puch1 ,god of ,death--,of the ,god of ,war--,of ,ek-,ahau and other ,black ,gods4 #e4 ,,the ,,maya ,,priesthood1 #fh #f4 ,,fanciful ,,analogies1 #fi #g4 ,,total ,,number ,,of ,,representations1 #gj #h4 ,,figures ,,of ,,quadrupeds1 #ga #i4 ,,figures ,,of ,,birds1 #gb #aj4 ,,figures ,,of ,,reptiles1 #gd #aa4 ,,occupations ,,and ,,ceremonies1 #gf ,,iv4 ,the ,graphic ,elements4 #a4 ,,the ,,direction ,,in ,,which ,,the ,,glyphs ,,are ,,to ,,be ,,read1 #gh #b4 ,,composition ,,of ,,the ,,glyphs1 #ha #c4 ,,the ,,proper ,,method ,,of ,,studying ,,glyphs1 #ha #d4 ,,an ,,analysis ,,of ,,various ,,graphic ,,elements1 #hb ,the ,hand--,the ,eye and ,similar ,figures--,the 8,spectacles0--,the ,ear--,crescentic ,signs--,sun and ,moon ,signs--,supposed ,variations of the ,sun ,sign--,the ,knife ,signs--,the 8,fish and ,oyster0 ,sign--,the ,sacred ,food ,offerings--,the ,ben ik and ,other ,signs--,the ,drum ,signs--,the ,yax and ,other ,feather ,signs--,the ,cross-hatched ,signs--,some ,linear ,signs and ,dots--,linear ,prefixes--,the 8,cloud-balls0 and the 8,cork-screw ,curl0--,signs for ,union--,the 8,tree of ,life0--,the 8,machete0 and ,similar ,signs--,supposed ,bird ,signs--,the 8,crotalean ,curve0--,objects ,held in the ,hand--,the ,aspersorium1 the ,atlatl and the ,mimosa--,the 8,constellation ,band0--,the ,signs for the ,cardinal ,points--,the ,directive ,signs--,the 8,cuceb40 #e4 ,,the ,,hieroglyphs ,,of ,,the ,,days1 #aji #f4 ,,the ,,hieroglyphs ,,of ,,the ,,months1 #aaf #g4 ,,the ,,hieroglyphs ,,of ,,the ,,deities1 #aba ,v4 ,specimens of ,texts4 #a4 ,,the ,,god ,,of ,,time ,,brings ,,in ,,the ,,dead ,,year4 ,,dresden ,,codex1 #abg #b4 ,,sacrifice ,,at ,,the ,,close ,,of ,a ,,year4 ,,dresden ,,codex1 #abh #c4 ,,end ,,of ,,one ,,and ,,beginning ,,of ,,another ,,time ,,period4 ,,cortesian ,,codex1 #abi #d4 ,,the ,,god ,,of ,,growth ,,and ,,the ,,god ,,of ,,death4 ,,cortesian ,,codex1 #aca #e4 ,,auguries ,,from ,,the ,,north ,,star4 ,,cortesian ,,codex1 #aca #f4 ,,itzamna1 ,,the ,,serpent ,,goddess1 ,,and ,,kin ,,ich4 ,,dresden ,,codex1 #acb #g4 ,,the ,,gods ,,of ,,death1 ,,of ,,the ,,sun1 ,,and ,,of ,,war4 ,,dresden ,,codex1 #acb #h4 ,,cuculcan ,,makes ,,new ,,fire4 ,,codex ,,troano1 #acc #i4 ,,the ,,gods ,,of ,,death1 ,,of ,,growth1 ,,and ,,of ,,the ,,north ,,star4 ,,dresden ,,codex1 #acc #aj4 ,,the ,,god ,,of ,,growth1 ,,of ,,the ,,sun1 ,,and ,,of ,,the ,,east4 ,,dresden ,,codex1 #acd #aa4 ,,an ,,inscription ,,from ,,kabah1 #ace #ab4 ,,linear ,,inscription ,,from ,,yucatan1 #acf #ac4 ,,the 8,,initial ,,series0 ,,from ,,the ,,tablet ,,of ,,the ,,cross1 ,,palenque1 #acg #ad4 ,,inscription ,,on ,,the 8,,tapir ,,tablet10 ,,chiapas1 #ach #ae4 ,,inscription ,,on ,a ,,tablet ,,from ,,tonin1 ,,chiapas1 #aci #af4 ,,inscription ,,on ,,an ,,amulet ,,from ,,ococingo1 ,,chiapas1 #aci #ag4 ,,inscription ,,on ,a ,,vase ,,from ,a ,,quiche ,,tomb1 ,,guatemala1 #adj ,a ,,primer ,,of ,,mayan ,,hieroglyphics4 ,i4 ,introductory4 ,the explorations among the ruined cities of ,central ,america undertaken of late years by various individuals and institutions in the ,united ,states and ,europe1 and the important collections of casts1 tracings and photographs from those sites now on view in many of the great museums of the world1 are sure to stimulate inquiry into the meaning of the hieroglyphs which constitute so striking a feature on these monuments4 ,within the last decade decided advances have been made toward an interpretation of this curious writing2 but the results of such studies are widely scattered and not readily accessible to ,american students4 ,for these reasons ,i propose1 in the present essay1 to sum up briefly what seem to me to be the most solid gains in this direction2 and to add from my own studies additional suggestions toward the decipherment of these unique records of aboriginal ,american civilization4 #a4 ,general ,character of ,mayan ,hieroglyphs4 ,one and the same hieroglyphic system is found on remains from ,yucatan1 ,tabasco1 ,chiapas1 ,guatemala1 and ,western ,honduras2 in other words1 in all ,central ,american regions occupied at the ,conquest by tribes of the ,mayan linguistic stock4#a ,it has not been shown to prevail among the ,huastecan branch of that stock1 which occupied the valley of the river ,panuco1 north of ,vera ,cruz2 and1 on the other hand1 it has not been discovered among the remains of any tribe not of ,mayan affinities4 ,the ,mexican manuscripts offer1 indeed1 a valuable ancillary study4 ,they present analogies and reveal the early form of many conventionalized figures2 but to take them as interpreters of ,mayan graphography1 as many have done1 is a fatal error of method4 ,in general character and appearance the ,mayan is markedly different from the ,mexican writing1 presenting a much more developed style and method4 ,although the graphic elements preserved in the manuscripts and on the monuments vary considerably among themselves1 these divergencies are not so great but that a primitive identity of elements is demonstrable in them all4 ,the characters engraved on stone or wood1 or painted on paper or pottery1 differ only as we might expect from the variation in the material or the period1 and in the skill or fancy of the artist4 ,the simple elements of the writing are not exceedingly numerous4 ,there seems an endless variety in the glyphs or characters2 but this is because they are composite in formation1 made up of a number of radicals1 variously arranged2 as with the twenty-six letters of our alphabet we form thousands of words of diverse significations4 ,if we positively knew the meaning or meanings 7for1 like words1 they often have several different meanings7 of a hundred or so of these simple elements1 none of the inscriptions could conceal any longer from us the general tenor of its contents4#b ,it will readily be understood that the composite characters may be indefinitely numerous4 ,mr4 ,holden found that in all the monuments portrayed in ,stephen's ,travels in ,central ,america there are about fifteen hundred2#c and ,mr4 ,maudslay has informed me that according to his estimate there are in the ,dresden ,codex about seven hundred4 ,each separate group of characters is called a 8glyph10 or1 by the ,french writers1 a 8katun10 the latter a ,maya word applied to objects arranged in rows1 as soldiers1 letters1 years1 cycles1 etc4 ,as the glyphs often have rounded outlines1 like the cross-section of a pebble1 the ,mayan script has been sometimes called 8calculiform writing0 7,latin1 calculus1 a pebble74 #b4 ,the ,mayan ,manuscripts or 8,codices40 ,the hieroglyphic writing is preserved to us on two classes of remains--painted on sheets of native paper1 about ten inches wide and of any desired length1 which were inscribed on both sides and folded in the manner of a screen2 and engraved or painted on stone1 wood1 pottery1 or plaster4#d ,of the former only four examples remain1 none of them perfect4 ,they have all been published with great care1 some of them in several editions4 ,they are usually spoken of as 8codices0 under the following names3 the ,codex ,troanus and the ,codex ,cortesianus1 probably parts of the same book1 the original of which is at ,madrid2 the ,codex ,peresianus1 which is in ,paris2 and the ,codex ,dresdensis1 in ,dresden4 ,the two former and the two latter resemble each other more closely than they do either member of the other pair4 ,there are reasons to believe that the two first mentioned were written in central ,yucatan1 and the last two in or near ,tabasco4#e ,this district and that of ,chiapas1 adjacent to it on the south1 was occupied at the time of the ,conquest by the ,tzental-,zotzil branch of the ,mayan stock1 who spoke a dialect very close to the pure ,maya of ,yucatan2 they were the descendants of the builders of the imposing cities of ,palenque1 ,ococingo1 ,tonin and others1 and we know that their culture1 mythology1 and ritual were almost identical with those of the ,mayas4 ,i shall treat of them1 therefore1 as practically one people4 ,although ,lord ,kingsborough had included the ,dresden ,codex in his huge work on 8,mexican ,antiquities10 and the ,codex ,troanus had been published with close fidelity by the ,french government in #ahfi1 it cannot be said that the serious study of the ,mayan hieroglyphs dates earlier than the faithful edition of the ,dresden ,codex1 issued in #ahhj under the supervision of ,dr4 ,e4 ,w4 ,frstemann1 librarian-in-chief of the ,royal ,library of ,saxony4 ,the most important studies of the codices have been published in ,germany4 ,besides the excellent writings of ,dr4 ,frstemann himself1 those by ,dr4 ,p4 ,schellhas and ,dr4 ,e4 ,seler1 of ,berlin1 are of great utility and will be frequently referred to in these pages4 ,in ,france1 ,professor ,leon de ,rosny1 the competent editor of the ,codex ,peresianus1 the ,count de ,charencey1 and ,m4 ,a4 ,pousse1 whose early death was a severe loss to this branch of research1 deserve especial mention4 ,in ,england no one has paid much attention to it but ,mr4 ,alfred ,p4 ,maudslay1 whose investigations have yielded valuable results1 forerunners of others of the first importance4 ,the earlier speculations of ,bollaert are wholly fanciful4 ,in our own country1 the mathematical portions of the essays of ,professor ,cyrus ,thomas are worthy of the highest praise2 and useful suggestions can be found in ,charles ,rau's article on the inscriptions of ,palenque1 and in ,edward ,s4 ,holden's paper on ,central ,american picture-writing4#f #c4 ,theories of ,interpretation4 ,the theories which have been advanced as to the method of interpreting the ,mayan hieroglyphs may be divided into those which regard them as ideographic1 as phonetic1 or as mixed4 ,the ,german writers1 ,frstemann1 ,schellhas1 and ,seler1 have maintained that they are mainly or wholly ideographic2 the ,french school1 headed by the ,abb ,brasseur1 de ,rosny1 and de ,charencey1 have regarded them as largely phonetic1 in which they have been followed in the ,united ,states by ,professor ,cyrus ,thomas1 ,dr4 ,cresson1 ,dr4 ,le ,plongeon1 and others4 ,the intermediate position1 which ,i have defended1 is that while chiefly ideographic1 they are occasionally phonetic1 in the same manner as are confessedly the ,aztec picture-writings4 ,in these we constantly meet with delineations of objects which are not to be understood as conveying the idea of the object itself1 but merely as representing the sound of its name1 either in whole or in part2 just as in our familiar 8rebus writing10 or in the 8chanting arms0 of ,european heraldry4 ,i have applied to this the term 8ikonomatic writing10 and have explained it so fully1 as it is found in the ,mexican manuscripts1 in my 8,essays of an ,americanist10 that ,i need not enter upon it further in this connection1 but would refer the reader to what ,i have there written4#g ,the attempt to frame a real alphabet1 by means of which the hieroglyphs could be read phonetically1 has been made by various writers4 ,the first is that preserved in the work of ,bishop ,landa4 ,it has failed to be of much use to modern investigators1 but it has peculiar value as evidence of two facts2 first1 that a native scribe was able to give a written character for an unfamiliar sound1 one without meaning1 like that of the letters of the ,spanish alphabet2 and1 secondly1 that the characters he employed for this purpose were those used in the native manuscripts4 ,this is proof that some sort of phonetic writing was not unknown4#h ,this alphabet was extended by the ,abb ,brasseur1 and especially by de ,rosny1 who1 in #ahhc1 defined twenty-nine letters1 with numerous variants from the ,codices and inscriptions4#i ,two years later1 ,dr4 ,a4 ,le ,plongeon published an 8,ancient ,maya ,hieratic ,alphabet according to ,mural ,inscriptions10 containing twenty-three letters1 with variants4 ,this he applied to the translating of certain inscriptions1 but added nothing to corroborate the correctness of the interpretations4 ,each sign1 he believed1 stood for a definite letter4#aj ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4--,landa's ,alphabet2 after a photograph from the original manuscript4 ,another student who devoted several years to an attempt to reduce the hieroglyphs to an alphabetic form was the late ,dr4 ,hilborne ,t4 ,cresson4 ,his theory was that the glyphs stood for the names of pictures worn down to a single phonetic element1 alphabetic or syllabic4 ,this element he conceived was consonantal1 to be read with any vowel1 either prefixed or suffixed2 and the consonant was permutable with any of its class1 as a lingual1 palatal1 etc4 ,on this basis he submitted1 shortly before his death in #ahid1 to the ,american ,association for the ,advancement of ,science several translations from the ,codex ,troano4 ,previous to this1 in #ahib1 he had announced his method in the journal 8,science10 and claimed that he had worked it out ten years before4#aa ,an alphabet of twenty-seven characters1 with variants1 which the author considered in every way complete1 was published in #ahhh1 by ,f4 ,a4 de la ,rochefoucauld4#ab ,by means of it he offered a volume of interlinear translations from the inscriptions and codices6 ,they are in the highest degree fanciful1 and can have little interest other than as a warning against the intellectual aberrations to which students of these ancient mysteries seem peculiarly prone4 ,in #ahib ,professor ,cyrus ,thomas1 of the ,bureau of ,ethnology1 announced with considerable emphasis that he had discovered the 8key0 to the ,mayan hieroglyphs2 and in ,july1 #ahic1 published a detailed description and applications of it4#ac ,in theory1 it is the same as ,dr4 ,cresson's1 that is1 that the elements of the glyphs were employed as true phonetic elements1 or letters4 ,in the article referred to he gives the characters for the following letters of the ,maya alphabet3 b1 c1 c'1 dz1 ch1 h1 i1 k1 l1 m1 n1 o1 p1 pp1 t1 th1 tz1 x1 v1 z2 also for a large number of syllabic sounds which he claimed to have recognized4 ,with such an apparatus1 if it had any value1 one would expect to reach prompt and important results2 but1 aside from the doubtful character of many of his analyses1 the fact that this 8key0 has wholly failed to add any tangible1 valuable addition to our knowledge of the inscriptions is enough to show its uselessness2 and the same may be said of all the attempts mentioned4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a slight inspection of the ,maya manuscripts and of almost any of the inscriptions will satisfy the observer that they are made up of three classes of objects or elements3-- #a4 ,arithmetical signs1 numerals1 and numerical computations1 #b4 ,pictures or figures of men1 animals1 or fantastic beings1 of ceremonies or transactions1 and of objects of art or utility2 and1 #c4 ,simple or composite characters1 plainly intended for graphic elements according to some system for the preservation of knowledge4 ,i shall refer to these as1 7#a7 the ,mathematical ,elements1 7#b7 the ,pictorial ,elements1 and 7#c7 the ,graphic ,elements of the ,mayan hieroglyphic writing4 ----- ,footnote #a3 ,in accordance with usage in this study1 ,i employ the adjective 8,mayan0 when speaking of the whole stock1 and confine 8,maya10 in an adjectival sense1 to that branch of the stock resident in ,yucatan4 ,footnote #b3 ,this is also the opinion of ,dr4 ,seler3 8,es ist eine verhltnissmssig geringe ,zahl von ,bildern und ,grundelementen1 die in diesen ,schriftzeichen wiederkehren40 ,verhand4 ,berliner ,anthrop4 ,gesell41 #ahhg1 ,s4 #bca4 ,footnote #c3 8,studies in ,central ,american ,picture ,writing10 in ,first ,an4 ,rep4 of the ,bureau of ,ethnology1 p4 #baj4 ,footnote #d3 ,among those who have especially merited the thanks of archologists in collecting material for the study of the monuments are ,m4 ,dsir ,charnay1 ,mr4 ,a4 ,p4 ,maudslay1 ,prof4 ,f4 ,w4 ,putnam2 and ,i shall hope to add ,dr4 ,le ,plongeon1 when he makes public his material4 ,footnote #e3 ,the ,peresianus has been supposed by some to have been written in ,guatemala2 by others1 both it and the ,dresdensis have been considered of ,tzental origin4 ,see ,pousse1 in ,arch4 de la ,soc4 ,amer41 #ahhe1 p4 #abf1 and ,paul ,perrin1 8,les ,annotations ,europennes du ,codex ,peresianus10 in the same1 ,june1 #ahhg1 p4 #hg sqq4 ,frstemann 7,entziff4 ,,iii47 gives several cogent reasons for believing that the ,dresdensis was written in or near ,palenque4 ,footnote #f3 ,the four ,codices can be obtained by placing an order with one of the leading importers of foreign books in ,new ,york ,city4 ,the four cost about one hundred dollars4 ,the study of the ,german writers is indispensable4 ,the contributions of ,dr4 ,schellhas and ,dr4 ,seler will be found in the numbers of the ,berlin ,zeitschrift fr ,ethnologie1 #ahhf and later4 ,dr4 ,frstemann has likewise published in the ,zeitschrift1 #ahia1 and also in the ,centralblatt fr ,bibliothekwesen1 in which remote quarter some of his most thoughtful contributions have appeared2 and in the ,proceedings of the ,international ,congress of ,americanists4 ,four of his articles bear the general title1 8,zur ,entzifferung der ,mayahandschriften10 ,i1 ,,ii1 ,,iii1 ,,iv4 ,i refer to them by these numbers4 ,the articles of ,professor ,thomas1 ,professor ,rau1 and ,mr4 ,holden are contained in the annual reports of the ,bureau of ,ethnology1 ,washington1 where they can be readily consulted by ,american students4 ,footnote #g3 ,the essays to which ,i particularly refer are3 8,the ,phonetic ,elements in the ,graphic ,systems of the ,mayas and ,mexicans20 8,the ,ikonomatic ,method of ,phonetic ,writing20 8,the ,writing and ,records of the ,ancient ,mayas20 and 8,the ,books of ,chilan ,balam40 ,all these are reprinted in my ,essays of an ,americanist1 published by ,porter ,coates1 ,philadelphia1 #ahij4 ,as to how far this or any phonetic system is consistent with the known differences of dialects in the ,mayan stock1 is a question which space does not permit me to enter upon4 ,i can only say that the signification seems to me to have been fixed in the ,maya-,tzental district1 and thence carried to the ,chortis1 ,quiches1 etc4 ,footnote #h3 ,the first copy of ,landa's alphabet published in the ,united ,states was by myself in the ,american ,historical ,magazine1 #ahgj4 ,twenty years later1 #ahij1 in my ,essays of an ,americanist1 p4 #bdb1 ,i reproduced a photographic fac-simile of it from the original ,,ms4 ,though not without considerable value in certain directions1 ,i do not think it worth while to dwell upon it here4 ,bishop ,landa's important work1 ,relacion de las ,cosas de ,yucatan1 written about #aegj1 must be carefully read by every student on this branch4 ,it has been twice published1 first by the ,abb ,brasseur1 at ,paris1 #ahfd1 and more fully at ,madrid1 under the competent editorship of ,juan de ,dios de la ,rada y ,delgado1 in #ahhd4 ,on the relative merits of the two editions1 see my 8,critical ,remarks on the ,editions of ,diego de ,landa's ,writings10 in the ,proceedings of the ,american ,philosophical ,society1 #ahhg4 ,footnote #i3 ,the ,abb ,brasseur's whimsical speculations are in his introduction to the ,codex ,troano1 published by the ,french government in #ahfi4 ,the chief work of de ,rosny on the subject is his ,essai sur le ,dchiffrement de l',ecriture ,hiratique de l',amrique ,centrale1 folio1 ,paris1 #ahgf4 ,he fully recognizes1 however1 that there are also ideographic and pictorial characters as well as phonetic4 ,footnote #aj3 ,dr4 ,le ,plongeon's 8,alphabet0 was published in the ,supplement to the ,scientific ,american1 ,new ,york1 for ,january1 #ahhe4 ,footnote #aa3 ,at the time of his unexpected death1 ,dr4 ,cresson had left with me a full exposition of his theory4 ,his enthusiasm was unbounded1 and the sacrifices he had made in the pursuit of archological science merit for his memory a kindly recognition among students of this subject4 ,footnote #ab3 ,palenqu et la ,civilisation ,maya 7,paris1 #ahhh74 ,the 8,alphabet phontique des anciens ,mayas0 is on pp4 #aj sqq4 ,the author was at one time attached to the ,french legation in ,guatemala4 ,footnote #ac3 ,in the ,american ,anthropologist1 ,washington1 ,d4 ,c4 ,,ii4 ,the ,mathematical ,elements4 #a4 ,the ,codices as ,time-,counts4 ,in another work ,i have explained the numeral system in vogue among the ancient ,mayas1 as well as the etymology of the terms they employed4#ad ,it will be sufficient1 therefore1 to say here that their system was vigesimal1 proceeding by multiples of twenty up to very large sums4 ,in the same work ,i have quoted from original sources the information that the fives up to fifteen were represented by single straight lines and the intermediate numbers by dots4 ,this has also been discovered independently by several students of the manuscripts4 ,the frequency and prominence of these elementary numerals in nearly every relic of ,mayan writing1 whether on paper1 stone1 or pottery1 constitute a striking feature of such remains1 and forcibly suggest that by far the majority of them have one and the same purpose1 that is1 counting2 and when we find with almost equal frequency the signs for days and months associated with these numerals1 we become certain that in these records we have before us time-counts--some sort of ephemerides or almanacs4 ,this is true of all the ,codices1 and of nine out of ten of the inscriptions4 ,here1 therefore1 is a first and most important step gained toward the solution of the puzzle before us4 ,but did this incessant time-counting refer to the past or to the future8 ,was it history or was it prophecy8 ,or1 passing beyond this world1 was it astronomy8 ,was it mythology or ritual1 the epochs and the eons of the gods8 ,perhaps the disposition1 sequence1 and values of the numbers themselves1 once comprehended1 will answer these vital questions4 #b4 ,the ,mayan ,numeral ,system4 ,unfortunately1 the old writers1 either ,spanish or native1 tell us little about ,maya mathematics4 ,they say the computation ran thus3-- #bj units one kal1 #bj4 #bj kal one bak1 #djj4 #bj bak one pic1 #hjjj4 #bj pic one calab1 #afj1jjj4 #bj calab one kinchil or tzotzceh1 #c1bjj1jjj4 #bj kinchil one alau1 #fd1jjj1jjj4 ,the ,tzental system was the same1 though the terms differed somewhat3 #bj units one tab 7cord or net-ful72 #bj tabs one bac2 #bj bacs one bac-baquetic 7bundle of bacs72 #bj bac-baquetics one mam 7grandfather72 #bj mams one mechun 7grandmother72 #bj mechuns one mucul mam 7great-grandfather71 #fd1jjj1jjj4ae ,no doubt in the numerical notation there were special signs for each of these higher unities2 but neither ,bishop ,landa nor the native writers who composed the singular 8,books of ,chilan ,balam0 have handed them down4 ,modern sagacity1 however1 has repaired ancient negligence1 and we can1 almost to a certainty1 restore the numerical notation of the aboriginal arithmeticians4 ,the scholar who has worked most successfully in this field is ,dr4 ,frstemann1 the editor of the ,codex of ,dresden1 and ,i shall introduce a condensed statement of his results1 referring the student to his own writings for their demonstration4 #c4 ,numerical and ,allied ,signs4 ,the first important discovery of ,dr4 ,frstemann in this direction was that of the sign for the naught or cipher1 #j4 ,it is given in ,fig4 #b4af ,it has a number of variants1 some ornamental in design4 ,next1 he discovered the system of notation of high numbers4 ,this is not like ours1 but resembles that in use in the arithmetic of ancient ,babylonia and some parts of ,china4 ,the numerals are arranged in columns1 to be read from below upward1 the value of each unit of a given number being that power of #bj which corresponds to the line on which it stands counted from the bottom4 ,this will be readily understood from the following example3-- ,maya ,simple values4 ,composite numerals4 values4 ,illustration #h 7#a #bjd1 #afj1jjj2 hence1 #h #afj1jjj7 #a1bhj1jjj ,illustration #aa 7#a #bjc1 #h1jjj2 hence1 #aa #h1jjj7 #hh1jjj ,illustration #h 7#a #bjb1 #djj2 hence1 #h #djj7 #c1bjj ,illustration #g 7#a #bj1 #bj2 hence1 #g #bj7 #adj ,illustration #j 7#a #a1 #a2 hence1 #j #a7 #j ------------------ ,total #a1cgg1cdj ,,fig4 #b4--,maya ,notation4 ,this would be according to the regular system of the ,maya numeration as given above2 but in applying it to the calculations of the native astronomer who wrote the ,dresden ,manuscript1 ,dr4 ,frstemann discovered a notable peculiarity which may extend over all that class of literature4 ,in the third line from the bottom1 where in accordance with the above rule the unit is valued at #bj #bj #djj1 its actual value is #bj #ah #cfj4 ,it immediately suggested itself to him that in time-counts this irregular value was assigned in order that the series might be brought into relation to the old solar year of #cfj days1 composed of #ah months of #bj days each1 in the native calendar4 ,this correction being made1 the above table would read3-- #h 7#a #gbjj #bj #add1jjj7 #a1aeb1jjj #aa 7#a #cfj #bj #g1bjj7 #gi1bjj #h 7#a #bj #ah #cfj7 #b1hhj #g 7#a #bj7 #adj #j 7#a #a7 #j ------------------ #a1bcd1bbj ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4--,maya ,numerals4 ,an examination of the mural inscriptions showed that on them also the same plan for the expression of high numbers had been employed1 and ,dr4 ,frstemann was enabled to interpret with accuracy the computations on the monuments from ,copan1 ,quirigua1 and ,palenque2 developing incidentally the remarkable fact that the inscriptions of ,copan contain as a rule higher numbers and are therefore presumably of later date than those of ,palenque4 ,the highest is that on 8,stela ,n10 as catalogued by ,mr4 ,maudslay1 which ascends to #a1dad1hjj days1 or #cicj years of #cfj days4#ag ,the next step was the identification of the graphic signs for the higher unities1 #bj1 #cfj1 and #gbjj1--;corresponding to the native kal1 bak1 and pic4 ,that generally used for #bj was identified by several students4 ,it is shown in ,fig4 #c1 ,no4 #c2 another also employed under certain circumstances for #bj is shown ,fig4 #c1 ,no4 #b4 ,this was identified independently1 first by ,pousse1 later by ,seler4#ah ,no4 #d is perhaps a variant of it4 ,the signs for the bak1 #cfj1 and the pic1 #gbjj1 are not so certainly established1 but ,dr4 ,frstemann has given cogent reasons for recognizing them respectively in the two shown ,fig4 #d1 ,nos4 #f and #g4 ,higher signs than these in the direct numerical scale have not yet been ascertained2 but such plausible reasons have been advanced by ,dr4 ,frstemann for assigning calendar values to certain other signs that they should be added in this description of the numerals4 ,the first is that shown in ,fig4 #d1 ,no4 #h4 ,it represents the katunic cycle of #eb years of #cfe days each1 #ah1ihj days4 ,the second is ,no4 #i4 ,this is taken to be the sign of the ahau katun1 #bd years of #cfe days1 #hgfj days4 ,the third is ,no4 #aj4 ,this corresponds to one-third of an ahau katun1 #bibj days4 ,the fourth1 shown ,no4 #aa1 is an old cycle of #bj years of #cfj days1 #gbjj4 ,no4 #ab means an old katunic cycle of #eb years of #cfj days1 #ah1gbj days1 and ,no4 #ac an old year of #cfj days4#ai ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4--;,calendar ,signs4 ,there are also a series of other signs evidently connected with the numerals1 the precise value of which is yet undetermined4 ,one of these is a small right or oblique cross1 or sometimes two arcs abutting against each other1 connected or not4 ,it is usually by the side of a single dot or unit1 or between two such4 ,in certain places1 it seems to be a multiplier with the value #bj2 in others1 it would indicate a change or alternation in the series presented of days or years4 7,see ,fig4 #e1 ,nos4 #a-d47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4--,numeral ,signs4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f4--,the 8,cosmic ,sign0 and its ,combinations4 ,of somewhat similar value are the calendar signs ,illustration1 ,fig4 #d1 ,nos4 #b1 #c1 #d1 like an ,s placed lengthwise4 ,this is also understood to be a sign of alternation or change of series of years or cycles4 ,of an opposite sense is the sign ,no4 #e1 the spiral1 and also the sign ,no4 #a1 both of which are held to represent union4 ,this list exhausts the mathematical signs so far as they have been ascertained with probability4 ,those for high numbers brought forward by ,brasseur1#bj have no evidence in their favor4 ,mr4 ,maudslay has offered reasons for believing that the character in ,fig4 #f1 a1 stands for the numeral #bj in a certain class of mural inscriptions4#ba ,he further points out that the character b is not unfrequently united with a1 and that it 7b7 almost alone of the mural glyphs is found with a double set of numerals attached to it as in c4 ,one or both these sets of numerals are at times replaced by the sign a1 giving the composites d1 e1 and f4 ,it is thus evident that a has some numerical or calendar meaning4 ,as a character itself1 it is the 8cosmic sign10 conveying the idea of the world or universe as a whole1 as is seen by the examples to which ,mr4 ,maudslay refers1 from various ,codices4 ,the cross-hatching upon it means1 as ,i shall show later1 8strong1 mighty10 and is merely a superlative4 ,it may very well mean #bj1 as that is the number conveying completeness or perfection in this mythology4#bb ,that it appears on what ,mr4 ,maudslay calls the 8,initial ,series0 of glyphs 7which ,i consider terminals71 is explained by the nature of the computations they preserve4 ,another combination1 belonging most likely to a similar class1 is the following ,illustration where the 8cosmic sign0 is united as a superfix to the pax and the flint4 ,it has usually been explained as a 8phallic emblem10 and by ,thomas as 8tortillas40#bc #d4 ,the ,rhetorical and ,symbolic ,use of ,numbers4 ,in the old ,maya language we find that certain numbers were used in a rhetorical sense1 and this explains their appearance in some non-mathematical portions of the ,codices and inscriptions4 ,the two most commonly employed were #i and #ac4 ,these conveyed the ideas of indefinite greatness1 of superlative excellence1 of infinity1 etc4 ,a very lucky man was a 8nine-souled man20 that which had existed forever was 8thirteen generations old10 etc4 ,the 8demon with thirteen powers0 was still prominent in ,tzental mythology in the time of ,nuez de la ,vega4 ,other numerals occasionally employed in a symbolic sense were #c1 #d1 and #g4bd ,all these occur in the ,codices as prefixes in relations where they are not to be construed in their arithmetical values1 but in those assigned them by the usages of the language or the customs of religious symbolism4 ,thus1 8twenty10 owing to the vigesimal method of numeration1 conveyed the associated ideas of completeness and perfection2 and as the month of #bj days was divided into four equal parts of #e days each1 by which markets1 etc41 were assigned1 these numbers also stood independently for other concepts than those of computation4 #e4 ,the ,mayan ,methods of ,counting ,time4 ,having ascertained the characters for the numerals1 and having learned that these records are mainly time-counts1 the next question which arises is3 ,how did the ,mayas count time8 ,about this we have considerable information from the works of the ,spanish writers1 ,landa1 ,aguilar1 ,cogolludo1 ,pio ,perez1 etc41 which has been supplemented by the researches of modern authors4 ,the ,maya system was a complicated one1 based on several originally distinct methods1 which it was the duty and the aim of the astronomer-priests to bring into unison1--and the effort to accomplish this will chiefly explain their elaborate computations4 ,undoubtedly their earliest time-count was that common to primitive tribes everywhere--a measurement of the solar year by lunations or 8moons40 ,the exact lunar month is #bi days1 #ab hours1 #dd minutes1 #c seconds2 but primitive peoples usually estimate it at #bh days1 and allow #ac months to the solar year1 as do yet many ,north ,asiatic peoples1 and as probably did the early ,aryans2#be or1 they estimate the 8moon0 at #cj days1 and allow #ab moons to the year4 ,there are good grounds for believing that the ,mayan tribes were at one time divided in custom about this1 some using one1 some the other method4 ,at the time of the ,conquest they had undoubtedly reached a knowledge of the length of the year as #cfe days2 and there is considerable probability that some of them at least made the correction arranged for in our bissextile or leap year4#bf ,this is all familiar enough and would create no difficulty in deciphering these aboriginal almanacs2 but a disturbing element enters4 ,the real time-count by which they adjusted the important events of their lives1 and which is most prominent in their records1 had nothing to do with the motions of the sun1 or the moon1 or any other natural phenomenon4 ,it was based on purely mythical relations supposed to exist between man and nature4 ,as the number #bj 7fingers and toes7 completes the man1 and as all the directions1 that is1 potencies1 of the visible and invisible worlds were held to be #ac1 these two numbers1 #ac and #bj1 formed the basis of an astrological and ritual calendar1 by which auspicious and inauspicious days were assigned1 future events foretold1 the major feasts and festivals of religious worship dictated1 and the like4 ,this singular time-count of #bj #ac #bfj days was adopted with slight variations by every semi-civilized nation of ,mexico and ,central ,america1 and even the names of the #bj days are practically of the same meaning in all these languages4#bg ,it constituted the tonalamatl of the ,nahuas1 the 8,book of ,days10 used in divination4 ,this sacred period was subdivided into four equal parts of #fe days each1 each of which was assigned to the rule of a special planet or star1 and to a particular cardinal point with attendant divinities2 and each was marked with a color of its own1 white1 black1 red1 or blue4 ,each 8month0 of #bj days was subdivided into four periods of five days each1 again each having its own divinity1 assignment1 etc4 ,but the importance to us of the tonalamatl is that its computations underlay the measurement of long periods of time1 the less and greater cycles4 ,these were estimated by the methods of the sacred year1 in groups of #ac1 #bj1 #bd1 #eb1 #ajd1 #bfj years1 etc4 ,these irregular numbers had to be brought into unison with the lunar and solar years1 with the vigesimal system of counting by #bj and its multiples1 and with the observed motions of the planets1 who were divinities controlling the ritual divisions of time4 ,to devise a mathematical method of equalities and differences by which these conflicting numbers could be placed in harmonious relations1 subsumed under common measures1 and the ceremonies and forecasts which they controlled assigned by uniform laws--this is the arithmetical problem which fills the pages of the ,mayan ,codices1 and in parts or at length is spread over the surface of the inscribed monuments and painted vases4 ,we need not search for the facts of history1 the names of mighty kings1 or the dates of conquests4 ,we shall not find them4 ,chronometry we shall find1 but not chronicles2 astronomy with astrological aims2 rituals1 but no records4 ,pre-,columbian history will not be reconstructed from them4 ,this will be a disappointment to many2 but it is the conclusion toward which tend all the soundest investigations of recent years4 ,let us recapitulate the numbers which the ,maya mathematician had to deal with and adjust under some scheme of uniformity3-- #a4 ,the 8week0 of #ac days1 #ac4 #b4 ,the 8month0 of #bj days1 #bj4 #c4 ,its division into four parts 7called tzuc71 each1 #e4 #d4 ,the complete tonalamatl1 #ac #bj days1 #bfj4 #e4 ,its divisions into four parts1 each1 #fe4 #f4 ,the solar year1 counted as #ah months of #bj days each1 #cfj4 #g4 ,the solar year1 counted as #ab months of #cj days each1 #cfj4 #h4 ,the solar year1 counted as #ac lunar months of #bh days each1 #cfd4 #i4 ,the solar year1 counted as #bh weeks of #ac days each1 #cfd4 #aj4 ,the true solar year1 days1 #cfe4 #aa4 ,the bissextile year 7871 #cff4 #ab4 ,the apparent revolution of ,venus 7,noh-ek1 the ,great ,star71 days1 #ehd4 #ac4 ,the apparent revolution of ,mercury 7871 days1 #aae4 #ad4 ,the apparent revolution of ,mars 7871 days1 #ghj4 #ae4 ,the kin katun1 or day-cycle of years1 #ac4 #af4 ,the older cycle of years1 #bj4 #ag4 ,the newer cycle of years1 #bd4 #ah4 ,the katun cycle of years1 #eb4 #ai4 ,the double cycle of years1 #ajd4 #bj4 ,the great cycle of years1 #bfj4 #f4 ,the ,calculations in the ,codices4 ,the ,codices contain numerous calculations intended to bring these various quantities into definite relations as aliquot parts of some arithmetical whole1 which might be taken as a general unit4 ,the scribes appear to have begun by establishing a period of #ad1jdj days4 ,this equals #ci years of #cfj days each1 and also #ed years of #bfj days each1 together1 of course1 with the divisors of these numbers1 #ac1 #ah1 #bj1 #fe1 etc4 ,then followed the determination of the period of #ah1ihj days1 #gc tonalamatl1 #eb solar years1 so prominent in the calendar and ritual of the ,nahuas4 ,this number1 however1 could not be adjusted to the cycle of the ahau katun1 which was #bd years of #cfe days each2#bh nor to the ceremonially prominent revolution of 8the ,great ,star10 ,venus1 which coincides with the ,earth's revolutions in #bibj days1 or eight solar years4 ,to bring these into accord with the tonalamatl required a period of #ajd solar years1 or #cg1ifj days2 and to adjust under one number the katuns1 the ahau katuns1 the revolutions of ,venus1 the solar year1 and the tonalamatl1 three times that number of days are required1 that is1 #aac1hhj1 #cab years4 ,this period had still to be brought into relation to the old year of #cfj days1 and this requires the estimation of a term covering #a1cff1efj days1 or #cgdd years2 and this extended era we find expressed in the ,dresden ,codex1 page #bd1 in the following simple notation1 the interpretation of which into our system of calculation1 according to the method above explained1 ,i add to the right4 ,this long period allowed all their important time-measures to be dealt with as aliquot parts of one whole1 and would seem to be sufficient for the purposes they had in view4 ,the credit of establishing it from their ancient writings is exclusively due to ,dr4 ,frstemann1 whose demonstrations of it appear to be conclusive4#bi ,illustration #i 7unit #add1jjj7 #a1bif1jjj ,illustration #i 7unit #g1bjj7 #fd1hjj ,illustration #af 7unit #cfj7 #e1gfj ,illustration #j 7unit #bj7 #j ,illustration #j 7unit #a7 #j ------------------ ,total1 #a1cff1efj ,this acute observer has1 however1 discovered some reasons to suppose that the native priests occasionally contemplated a much more extended era2 some of their calculations seem to require an era which embraced #ab1bii1jdj days1 that is1 #cc1fif years6#cj ,no doubt each of these periods of time had its appropriate name in the technical language of the ,maya astronomers1 and also its corresponding sign or character in their writing4 ,none of them has been recorded by the ,spanish writers2 but from the analogy of the ,nahuatl script and language1 and from certain indications in the ,maya writings1 we may surmise that some of these technical terms were from one of the radicals meaning 8to tie1 or fasten together10 and that the corresponding signs would either directly1 that is1 pictorially2 or ikonomatically1 that is1 by similarity of sound1 express this idea4 ,proceeding on the first of these suppositions1 ,dr4 ,frstemann has suggested that the character1 ,fig4 #d1 ,no4 #h1 signifies the period of #eb years1 the ,nahuatl xiuhmolpilli1 8the tying together of the years10 represented in the ,aztec pictographs by a bundle of faggots tied with cords4 ,the ,maya figure is explained as the day-sign imix1 representing the first day of the calendar1 and1 by a kind of synecdoche1 the whole calendar1 with a superfix4 #g4 ,rules for ,tracing the ,tonalamatl1 or ,ritual ,calendar4 ,that the computations of the tonalamatl underlie most of the numerals in the ,codices is shown by the rules for reading them1 formulated by ,pousse with reference to the red and black numerical signs4 ,these rules are as follows3--#ca #a4 ,if to a red number be added the black number immediately following it1 the total less #ac 7or its multiples1 when the total is above #ac7 equals the next following red number4 #b4 ,when the red and black numbers are written alternately on the same line1 they are to be read from left to right2 when written one above the other1 they are to be read from below upward2 when in two vertical columns1 they are to be read passing from one column to the other1 beginning with the first black number on the left1 passing to the first black number on the right1 returning to the second black number on the left1 and so on4 ,sequences of this kind are governed by the following rules3-- #a4 ,in any of the above systems the beginning is always marked by one or more columns of days surmounted by a number4 #b4 ,this number is always the same as that which ends the series1 and both are written in red4 #c4 ,the sum of the numbers written in black1 multiplied by the number of days with different names represented by the hieroglyphs attached1 always equals #bfj1 that is1 the number of days in the tonalamatl4 ,the above rules enable the student to recognize the relations of the different parts of the ,codices4 ,they prove1 for instance1 that the pages are not to be read from top to bottom1 but that the separate parts or chapters are to be read in many instances from left to right in the section of the page in which they begin1 without respect to the folds of the ,,mss42 and that evidently in reading these 8books0 they were unfolded and spread out4 ,a good example of this is in ,cod4 ,dresden1 pages #d-aj1 on which one chapter covers all the upper thirds of the seven pages4 #h4 ,the ,codices as ,astronomical ,treatises4 ,a careful examination of ,dr4 ,frstemann's remarkable studies1 as well as a number of other considerations drawn from the ,codices themselves1 have persuaded me that the general purpose of the ,codices and the greater inscriptions1 as those of ,palenque1 have been misunderstood and underrated by most writers4 ,in one of his latest papers#cb ,professor ,cyrus ,thomas says of the ,codices3 8,these records are to a large extent only religious calendars20 and ,dr4 ,seler has expressed his distrust in ,dr4 ,frstemann's opinions as to their astronomic contents4 ,my own conviction is that they will prove to be much more astronomical than even the latter believes2 that they are primarily and essentially records of the motions of the heavenly bodies2 and that both figures and characters are to be interpreted as referring in the first instance to the sun and moon1 the planets1 and those constellations which are most prominent in the nightly sky in the latitude of ,yucatan4 ,this conclusion is entirely in accordance with the results of the most recent research in neighboring fields of ,american culture4 ,the profound studies of the ,mexican ,calendar undertaken by ,mrs4 ,zelia ,nuttall have vindicated for it a truly surprising accuracy which could have come only from prolonged and accurately registered observations of the relative apparent motions of the celestial bodies4#cc ,we may be sure that the ,mayas were not behind the ,nahuas in this2 and in the grotesque figures and strange groupings which illustrate the pages of their books we should look for pictorial representations of astronomic events4 ,of course1 as everywhere else1 with this serious astronomic lore were associated notions of astrology1 dates for fixing rites and ceremonies1 mythical narratives1 cosmogonical traditions and liturgies1 incantations and prescriptions for religious functions4 ,but through this maze of superstition ,i believe we can thread our way if we hold on to the clue which astronomy can furnish us4 ,in the present work1 however1 ,i do not pretend to more than prepare the soil for such a labor4 ,a proof of the correctness of this opinion and also an admirable example of the success with which ,dr4 ,frstemann has prosecuted his analysis of the astronomical meaning of the ,codices is offered by his explanation of the #bdth page of the ,dresden ,codex1 laid before the ,international ,congress of ,americanists1 in #ahid4 ,he showed that it was intended to bring the time covered in five revolutions of ,venus into relation to the solar years and the ceremonial years1 or tonalamatl1 of #bfj days2 also to set forth the relations between the revolutions of the ,moon and of ,mercury2 further1 to divide the year of ,venus into four unequal parts1 assigned respectively to the four cardinal points and to four divinities2 and1 finally1 to designate to which divinities each of the five ,venus-years under consideration should be dedicated4 ,this illustrates at once the great advance his method has made in the interpretation of the ,codices1 and the intimate relations we find in them between astronomy and mythology4 ,such a theory of the ,mayan books which we have at hand is world-wide distant from that of ,thomas and ,seler4 ,take1 for example1 the series of figures1 ,cod4 ,cort41 pp4 #ad;a1 #ae;a1 #af;a4#cd ,frstemann and myself would consider them to represent the position of certain celestial bodies before the summer solstice 7indicated by the turtle on p4 #g72 while ,thomas says of them1 8,it may safely be assumed that these figures refer to the ,maya process of making bread660#ce #i4 ,astronomical ,knowledge of the ,ancient ,mayas4 ,our information from ,european sources as to the astronomical knowledge possessed by the ,mayas is slight4 ,that they looked with especial reverence to the planet ,venus is evident from the various names they applied to it4 ,these were3 ,noh ,ek1 8the ,great ,star0 or 8the ,right-hand ,star20 ,chac ,ek1 8the ,strong ,star0 7or 8the ,red ,star072 ,zaztal ,ek1 8the ,brilliant ,star20 ,ah-,zahcab1 8the ,controller or ,companion of the ,dawn20#cf and ,xux ,ek1 8the ,bee or ,wasp ,star10 for reasons which will be considered later4 ,in the ,tzental dialect it was called ,canan ,chulchan1 8the ,guardian of the ,sky10 and ,mucul ,canan1 8the ,great ,guardian40 ,the ,north ,star was well known as ,xaman ,ek 7xaman1 north1 ek1 star71 and also as ,chimal ,ek1 8the ,shield ,star10 or 8,star on the ,shield40#cg ,it was spoken of as 8the ,guide of the ,merchants0 7,dicc4 de ,motul71 and therefore was probably one of their special divinities4 ,the historian ,landa states that the ,mayas measured the passage of time at night by observations of the ,pleiades and ,orion4#ch ,the name of the former in their language is ,tzab1 a word which also means the rattles of the rattlesnake4 ,in the opinion of ,dr4 ,frstemann1#ci their position in the heavens decided the beginning of the year 7or1 perhaps1 cycle1 as with the ,nahuas71 and they were represented in the hieroglyphs by the moan sign 7to be explained on a later page74 ,certain stars of the constellation ,gemini were defined1 and named ,ac1 or ,ac ,ek1 8the ,tortoise ,stars10 from an imagined similarity of outline to that of the tortoise4#dj ,this may explain the not infrequent occurrence of the picture of that animal in the ,codices1 and its representations in stone at ,copan and elsewhere4 ,the terms for a comet in ,maya were ,budz ,ek1 8,smoking ,star10 and ,ikomne1 8,breathing or ,blowing10 as it was supposed to blow forth its fiery train2 in ,tzental it was ,tza ,ec1 8,star ,dust40 ,shooting stars were ,chamal ,dzutan1 8,magicians' ,pipes10 as they were regarded as the fire-tubes of certain powerful enchanters4 ,the stars in ,orion were known as ,mehen ,ek1 8the ,sons10 doubtless referring to some astronomical myth4 ,the ,milky ,way was spoken of under two different names1 both of obscure application1 ,tamacaz and ,ah ,poou4 ,another meaning of the former word is 8madness1 insanity20 and the latter term was also applied to a youth who had just attained the age of puberty4#da ,perhaps the connection of the word lies in the ceremonies of initiation practiced by many tribes when a youth reached this age1 and which1 by fasting and the administration of toxic herbs1 often led to temporary mania2 and the deity of the ,milky ,way may have presided over these rites4 ,the moon in opposition was referred to as u nupptanba1 from nupp1 opposed1 opposite4 ,when in conjunction1 the expression was hunbalan u1 8the rope of the moon10 or1 8the moon roped40 ,when it was in eclipse1 it was chibil u1 8the moon bitten10 the popular story being that it was bitten by a kind of ant called xulab4 ,an eclipse of the sun was also chibil kin1 8the sun bitten20 but more frequently the phrase was tupul u uich kin1 or1 tupan u uich kin1 8the eye of the day is covered over10 or1 8shut up40 ,it is useful to record such expressions1 as they sometimes suggested the graphic representations of the occurrences4#db ----- ,footnote #ad3 ,see my ,library of ,aboriginal ,american ,literature1 ,no4 #a3 ,the ,maya ,chronicles1 ,introduction1 pp4 #cg-ej 7,philadelphia1 #ahhb74 ,footnote #ae3 ,vincente ,pineda1 ,gramatica de la ,lengua ,tzel-tal1 pp4 #aed1 sqq4 7,chiapas1 #ahhg74 ,pineda makes the multiplier #djj instead of #bj1 in which he is certainly in error4 ,footnote #af3 ,the object portrayed is evidently a shell1 probably selected as a rebus2 but the name of the species ,i have not found4 ,the ordinary terms are puy and xicin4 ,footnote #ag3 ,frstemann1 ,entzifferung1 ,no4 ,,iv1 and ,maudslay1 ,biologia ,centrali-,americana1 ,archology4 ,part ,,iv4 ,footnote #ah3 ,according to ,pousse 7,archives de la ,soc4 ,amer4 de ,france1 #ahhg1 p4 #afe71 it is used to designate the particular day which falls on the #bjth of the month1 that is1 the last day of the month1 and has therefore the sense of 8last10 8final10 rather than of #bj4 ,it is written as an affix to the month sign4 ,thomas states that it is used with month symbols 8only where the month 7of #bj days7 is complete or follows one completed40 ,amer4 ,anthropologist1 ,vol4 ,,vi1 p4 #bdf4 ,there is some doubt whether ,no4 #d is not an element of union4 ,compare ,seler1 ,zeitschrift fr ,ethnologie1 #ahhg1 p4 #eg4 ,footnote #ai3 ,dr4 ,frstemann's article1 8,zur ,maya-,chronologie10 assigning the reasons for these identifications1 appeared in the ,berlin ,zeitschrift fr ,ethnologie1 #ahia4 ,footnote #bj3 ,etude sur le ,manuscrit ,troano1 p4 #bbj4 ,footnote #ba3 ,a4 ,p4 ,maudslay3 ,biologia ,centrali-,americana2 ,archology1 ,part ,,ii4 ,text1 pp4 #dj-db 7,london1 #ahij74 ,the character b closely resembles the day-sign chuen4 ,this could readily be chosen to express ikonomatically chun1 8the beginning1 the first10 and my studies convince me that it repeatedly must be so understood4 ,to this ,i shall recur on a later page4 ,footnote #bb3 ,since the above was written1 ,mr4 ,stewart ,culin1 ,director of the museum of the ,university of ,pennsylvania1 has called my attention to the fact that the cross-hatching on the 8cosmic sign0 would1 in ,oriental1 especially ,chinese symbolism1 convey the idea of the fundamental dual principles of existence1--male and female1 upper and lower1 etc4 ,the same interpretation may quite possibly apply in the ,mayan symbolism4 ,footnote #bc3 ,see my ,native ,calendar of ,central ,america1 pp4 #di-ei 7,philadelphia1 #ahic74 ,footnote #bd3 ,the dictionaries give3 8bolon pixan1 bien adventurado20 bolon dzacab1 and oxlahun dzacab1 8cosa eterna40 ,the numeral 8one10 as in ,english1 had a superlative sense1 as hun miatz1 8the one scholar10 i4 e41 the most distinguished4 ,why a symbolic or superlative sense was attached to such numbers is a question too extensive to discuss here4 ,i have touched upon it in my ,native ,calendar of ,central ,america1 pp4 #h1 #ac1 and in an article on 8,the ,origin of ,sacred ,numbers0 in ,the ,american ,anthropologist1 ,april1 #ahid4 ,in another connection we find maay1 odor from something burning2 8bolonmayel1 qualquier olor suavissimo y transcendente0--,dicc4 ,motul4 ,dr4 ,seler has suggested that the number #ac may refer to the thirteen heavens2 but offers no evidence that the ,mayas entertained the ,nahuatl myth to which this refers4 ,footnote #be3 ,schrader3 ,prehistoric ,antiquities of the ,aryan ,peoples1 pp4 #cjg-i4 ,footnote #bf3 ,to enter into this debated question at length would not be possible in this connection2 but ,i would merely note3 7#a7 ,the positive assertion of ,landa that the ,maya year 8invariably0 began ,july #af 7,cosas de ,yucatan1 p4 #bcf71 could not be true even for five years1 unless the bissextile correction was made1 which he asserts was done2 7#b7 the example of a ,maya year given by ,aguilar 7,informe contra ,idolum ,cultores del ,obispado de ,yucatan1 ,madrid1 #afci71 is actually one containing six intercalary days1 8seis dias que fueron sus caniculares20 and 7#c7 ,father ,martin de ,leon1 in his 8,calendario ,mexicano10 pointedly states that the fourth year was a bissextile year 7,camino del ,cielo1 fol4 #ajj1 ,mexico1 #afaa74 ,i do not maintain that this knowledge was general1 but that it had been acquired by the astronomer-priests of certain localities4 ,the investigations of ,mrs4 ,zelia ,nuttall tend to demonstrate this opinion4 ,footnote #bg3 ,on these points ,i would refer the reader to my work1 ,the ,native ,calendar of ,central ,america and ,mexico2 ,a ,study in ,linguistics and ,symbolism 7,philadelphia1 #ahic74 ,footnote #bh3 ,professor ,cyrus ,thomas1 in his carefully written article1 8,the ,maya ,year10 in the ,bulletins of the ,bureau of ,ethnology 7,washington1 #ahid71 has collected evidence that the same calendar system1 based1 he believes1 on the year of #cfe days1 was used in ,palenque1 ,menche 7,lorillard ,city71 and ,tikal1 as well as in the ,cod4 ,dresdensis4 ,that the ,mayas had1 at the time of the ,conquest1 long known the year of #cfe days1 was demonstrated from the ,codices by ,dr4 ,frstemann4 7,see his ,erluterungen zur ,maya-,handschrift1 ,dresden1 #ahhf1 p4 #ba1 and his 8,die ,zeitperioden der ,mayas10 in ,globus1 ,january1 #ahib74 ,footnote #bi3 ,see especially his articles1 ,die ,zeitperioden der ,mayas1 #ahib1 and his ,zur ,entzifferung der ,maya-,handschriften1 ,,iv1 #ahid4 ,footnote #cj3 ,the grounds for this opinion are stated in his ,zur ,entzifferung1 etc41 ,no4 ,,ii4 ,footnote #ca3 ,a4 ,pousse1 in ,archives de la ,socit ,amricaine de ,france1 #ahhf1 #ahhg4 ,footnote #cb3 ,in the ,american ,anthropologist for ,july1 #ahic4 ,footnote #cc3 ,see her 8,note on the ,ancient ,mexican ,calendar ,system10 communicated to the ,tenth ,international ,congress of ,americanists1 ,stockholm1 #ahid4 ,footnote #cd3 ,as the pages of the ,codices are generally divided into compartments by transverse lines1 the custom of students is to designate these from above downward by small letters added to the number of the page4 ,footnote #ce3 ,in ,american ,anthropologist1 ,july1 #ahic1 p4 #bfb4 ,footnote #cf3 8,el lucero de la maana1 que parece hacer amanecer40 ,dicc4 de ,motul4 ,footnote #cg3 ,like chimal ik1 8north wind40 ,chimal is the ,nahuatl chimalli1 shield1 so these terms must be of late origin in ,maya4 ,footnote #ch3 8,regianse de noche1 para conocer la hora1 por el lucero1 i las cabrillas i los astilejos2 de dia1 por el medio dia40 ,landa1 ,cosas de ,yucatan1 cap4 #cd4 ,footnote #ci3 ,entzifferung der ,mayahandschriften1 ,no4 ,,iv4 ,footnote #dj3 8,las tres estrellas juntas que estan en el signo de ,geminis1 las quales1 con otras1 hacen forma de tortuga40 ,dicc4 de ,motul4 ,footnote #da3 ,these definitions are given in the ,dicc4 ,motul4 ,footnote #db3 ,in ,cod4 ,peres41 pp4 #ah1 #ai1 the sun is shown bitten by birds1 snakes1 etc4 ,we probably have in this a reference to an eclipse4 ,on a later page ,i shall show the hieroglyph of the double loop of the rope1 which probably signifies the moon in conjunction4 ,,iii4 ,the ,pictorial ,elements4 ,to understand the pictorial portions of the inscriptions some acquaintance with the native mythology is indispensable4 #a4 ,the ,religion of the ,ancient ,mayas4 ,the religion of the ,mayas was a polytheism1 but the principal deities were few in number1 as is expressly stated by ,father ,francisco ,hernandez1 the earliest missionary to ,yucatan 7#aeag72dc and these1 according to the explicit assertion of ,father ,lizana1 were the same as those worshipped by the ,tzentals of ,tabasco and ,chiapas4#dd ,both these statements are confirmed by a comparison of the existing remains1 and they greatly facilitate a comprehension of the ,codices and epigraphy4 ,the spirit of this religion was dualistic1 the gods of life and light1 of the sun and day1 of birth and food1 of the fertilizing showers and the cultivated fields1 being placed in contrast to those of misfortune and pain1 of famine and pestilence1 of blight and night1 darkness and death4 ,back of them all1 indeed the source of them all1 was ,hunab ,ku1 8the ,one ,divine20 but of him no statue and no picture was made1 for he was incorporeal and invisible4#de ,itzamna4--,chief of the beneficent gods was ,itzamna4 ,he was the personification of the ,east1 the rising sun1 with all its manifold mythical associations4 ,his name means 8the dew or moisture of the morning10 and he was the spirit of the early mists and showers4 ,he was said to have come in his magic skiff from the ,east1 across the waters1 and therefore he presided over that quarter of the world and the days and years assigned to it4 ,for similar reasons he received the name ,lakin chan1 8the ,serpent of the ,east10 under which he seems to have been popularly known4 ,as light is synonymous with both life and knowledge1 he was said to have been the creator of men1 animals1 and plants1 and was the founder of the culture of the ,mayas4 ,he was the first priest of their religion1 and invented writing and books2 he gave the names to the various localities in ,yucatan1 and divided the land among the people2 as a physician he was famous1 knowing not only the magic herbs1 but possessing the power of healing by touch1 whence his name ,kabil1 8the skilful hand10 under which he was worshipped in ,chichen ,itza4 ,for his wisdom he was spoken of as ,yax coc ah-mut1 8the royal or noble master of knowledge40 ,cuculcan4--,in some sense a contrast1 in others a completion of the mythical concepts embodied in ,itzamna1 was ,cuculcan or ,cocol chan1 8the feathered or winged serpent40#df ,he also was a hero-god1 a deity of culture and of kindliness4 ,he was traditionally the founder of the great cities of ,chichen ,itza1 and ,mayapan2 was active in framing laws and introducing the calendar1 at the head of which some ,maya tribes placed his name2 was skilled in leechcraft1 and was spoken of as the god of chills and fevers4 ,as ,itzamna was identified with the ,east1 so was ,cuculcan with the ,west4 ,thence he was said to have come1 and thither returned4#dg ,in the ,tzental calendars he was connected with the seventh day 7moxic1 ,maya1 manik72 hence he is mystically associated with that number4 ,he corresponds to the ,gukumatz of the ,quiche mythology1 a name which has the same signification4 ,in the myth he is described as clothed in a long robe and wearing sandals1 and1 what is noteworthy1 having a beard4 ,in the calendars of the ,tzentals he was painted 8in the likeness of a man and a snake10 and the 8masters0 explained this as 8the snake with feathers1 which moves in the waters10 that is1 the heavenly waters1 the clouds and the rains2 for which reason ,bishop ,nuez de la ,vega1 to whom we owe this information1 identified him with the ,mexican ,mixcoatl1 8the cloud serpent20#dh whereas ,bishop ,landa was of opinion that he was the ,mexican ,quetzalcoatl4 ,kin ich4--,as ,itzamna was thus connected with the rising1 morning sun1 and ,cuculcan with the afternoon and setting sun1 so the sun in the meridian was distinguished from both of them4 ,as a divinity1 it bore the name ,kin ich1 8the eye or face of the day40 ,the sacrifices to it were made at the height of noontide1 when it was believed that the deity descended in the shape of the red macaw 7the ,ara macao71 known as ,kak mo1 8the bird of fire10 from the color of its plumage1 and consumed the offering4 ,such ceremonies were performed especially in times of great sickness1 general mortality1 the destruction of the crops through locusts1 and other public calamities4 ,it seems probable from the accounts that ,kin ich was a much less prominent divinity in the popular mind than either of the other two solar deities1 and his attributes were occasionally assigned to ,itzamna1 as we find the combination ,kin ich ahau ,itzamna among the names of divinities4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g4--,the ,beneficent ,gods draw from their ,stores4 7,photographed from the ,cortesian ,codex47 ,other ,gods4--,to ,itzamna was assigned as consort ,ix ,chel1 8the rainbow10 also known as ,ix ,kan ,leom1 8the spider-web0 7which catches the dew of the morning74 ,she was goddess of medicine and of childbirth1 and her children were the ,bacabs1 or ,chacs 7giants71#di four mighty brethren1 who were the gods of the four cardinal points1 of the winds which blow from them1 of the rains these bring1 of the thunder and the lightning1 and consequently of agriculture1 the harvests1 and the food supply4 ,their position in the ritual was of the first importance4 ,to each were assigned a particular color and a certain year and day in the calendar4 ,to ,hobnil1 8the hollow one0 or 8the belly10 were given the south1 the color yellow1 and the day and years kan1 the first of the calendar series1 and so on4 ,the red ,bacab was to the east1 the white to the north1 and the black1 whose name was ,hozan ,ek1 8the ,disembowelled10 to the west4#ej ,the ,cardinal ,points4--,much attention has been directed to these divinities as representing the worship of the cardinal points and to the colors1 days1 cycles1 and elements mythically associated with them4 ,uniform results have not been obtained1 as the authorities differ1 as probably did also the customs of various localities4#ea ,pio ,perez assigns kan to the east1 muluc to the north1 ix to the west1 and cauac to the south4 ,the arrangement based on ,landa's statements would be as follows3-- ,cardinal ,bacab4 ,days4 ,colors4 ,elements4 point4 ,south1 ,hobnil 7the ,belly71 ,kan1 ,yellow1 ,air4 ,east1 ,canzicnal 7,serpent ,being71 ,muluc1 ,red1 ,fire4 ,north1 ,zaczini 7,white ,being71 ,ix1 ,white1 ,water4 ,west1 ,hozan ek 7the ,disembowelled ,cauac1 ,black1 ,earth4 ,black one71 ,on the other hand1 it should be noted that the names of the winds in ,maya distinctly assign the color white to the east1 thus3-- ,east wind1 zac ik1 8white wind40 ,northeast wind1 zac xaman ik1 8white north wind40 ,southeast wind1 zac nohol ik1 8white south wind40 ,the solution of these difficulties must be left for future investigation4 ,the ,good ,gods4--,divinities of a beneficent character were ,yum ,chac1 8,lord of ,waters or ,rains20 ,yum ,kaax1 8,lord of the ,harvest ,fields20 ,cum ,ahau1 8,lord of the ,vase10 that is1 of the rains1 who is described in the ,dic4 ,motul as 8,lucifer1 ,chief of the ,devils0 and is probably a name of ,itzamna2 ,zuhuy ,kak1 8,virgin ,fire10 patroness of infants2 ,zuhuy ,dzip1 8,the ,virgin of ,dressed ,animals10 a hunting goddess2 ,ix ,tabai1 8,goddess of the ,ropes or ,snares10 also a hunting goddess as well as the patroness of those who hanged themselves2 ,ah ,kak ,nech1 8,he ,who ,looks after the ,cooking ,fire10 ,ah ,ppua1 8the ,master of ,dew10 and ,ah ,dziz1 8,the ,master of ,cold10 divinities of the fishermen4 ,to this list should be added ,acan1 8the ,god of the ,intoxicating ,mead10 the national beverage1 that being its name2 ,ek ,chua1 8the ,black ,companion10 god of the cacao planters and the merchants1 as these used the cacao beans as a medium of exchange2 ,ix ,tub ,tun1 8she who spits out ,precious ,stones10 goddess of the workers in jade and amethysts2 ,cit ,bolon ,tun1 8the ,nine 7i4 e41 numberless7 ,precious ,stones10 a god of medicine2 ,xoc ,bitum1 the ,god of ,singing1 and ,ah ,kin ,xoc or ,ppiz ,lim ,tec1 the ,god of ,poetry 7xoc1 to sing or recite72 ,ix ,chebel ,yax1 the first inventress of painting and of colored designs on woven stuffs 7chebel1 to paint1 and a paint-brush74 ,a minor deity was ,tel ,cuzaan1 8the swallow-legged10 a divinity of the island of ,cozumel 78,swallow ,island074 ,on a lofty pyramid1 where is now the city of ,valladolid1 ,yucatan1 was worshipped ,ah zakik ual1 8,lord of the ,east ,wind40 ,his idol was of pottery in the shape of a vase1 moulded in front into an ugly face4 ,in it they burned copal and other gums4 ,his festival was celebrated every fourth year with sham battles4#eb ,probably this was a representation of ,itzamna as lord of the cardinal point4 ,the 8,island of ,women10 ,isla de ,mugeres1 on the east coast1 was so named because the first explorers found there the statues of four female divinities1 to whom altars and temples were dedicated4#ec ,they were ,ix-chel1 ,ix-chebel-yax1 ,ix-hun-y1 and ,ix-hun-yeta4 ,the first two have already been mentioned4 ,the last two seem to have been goddesses connected with the moonrise and sunrise1 as the dictionaries give as the meaning of y1 8to show one's self1 to appear20 as in the phrases yethaz y ahalcab1 8at the appearance of the dawn20 yethaz u hokol u1 8at moonrise20 yet hokol kin1 8at sunrise40 ,prominent among mythical beings were the dwarfs1 known as ppuz1 8bent over20 ac uinic1 8turtle men20 tzapa uinic1 8shortened men20 and pputum1 8small of body40 ,they are sometimes represented in the carvings1 an interesting example being in the ,peabody ,museum4 ,a legend concerning such brownies was that before the last destruction of the world the whole human race degenerated into like diminutive beings1 which prompted the gods to destroy it4#ed ,one class of these little creatures1 called acat1 were said to become transformed into flowers4 ,as ,i have shown elsewhere1#ee many similar superstitions survive in the folk-lore of ,yucatan and ,tabasco to-day4 ,but it is not safe to look at such survivals as part of genuine ancient mythology4 ,for instance1 the goddess ,ix-nuc1 or ,xnuc1 said by ,brasseur to have been goddess of the mountains1 by ,seler1 goddess of the earth1 and by ,schellhas1 goddess of water1 is in fact not a member of the ,maya ,pantheon4 ,the name means simply 8old woman10 and was first mentioned by an anonymous modern writer in the ,registro ,yucateco4 ,the ,gods of ,evil4--,in contrast to the beneficent deities were those who presided over war1 disease1 death1 and the underworld4 ,distinctively war gods were ,uac ,lom ,chaam1 8,he whose teeth are six lances10 worshipped anciently at ,ti-ho1 the present ,mrida2 ,ahulane1 8,the ,archer10 painted holding an arrow1 whose shrine was on the island of ,cozumel2 ,pakoc 7from paakal1 to frighten7 and ,hex ,chun ,chan1 8,the dangerous one10 divinities of the ,itzaes2 ,kak u pacat1 8,fire 7is7 his face10 who is said to have carried in battle a shield of fire2 ,ah ,chuy ,kak1 8,he who works in fire10 that is1 for destruction2 ,ah ,cun ,can1 8,the serpent charmer10 also worshipped at ,ti-,ho2 ,hun ,pic ,tok1 8,he of #hjjj lances10 who had a temple at ,chichen ,itza4 ,chief of all these evil beings was the ,god of ,death4 ,his name is preserved in the first account we have of ,yucatecan mythology1 that by ,father ,hernandez1 and1 according to ,father ,lara1 it was the same among the ,tzentals1 ,maya1 ,ah-puch1 ,tzental1 ,pucugh4 ,these words mean 8the ,undoer10 or 8,spoiler10 apparently a euphemism to avoid pronouncing a name of evil omen4#ef ,in modern ,maya he is plain ,yum cimil1 8lord of death40 ,he was painted as a skeleton with bare skull1 and was then called ,chamay ,bac1 or ,zac ,chamay ,bac1 8white teeth and bones40#eg ,the spirit 7pixan7 after death was supposed to go to the ,underworld1 which was called ,mitna1 or ,metna where presided the god ,xibilba or ,xabalba1 sometimes called ,hun ,ahau1 8the ,one lord10 for to his realm must all come at last4#eh ,another name for this ,hades was tancucula 7perhaps tan kukul1 8before the gods10 i4 e41 where one is judged71 which is given by the ,dicc4 ,motul as an 8ancient word0 7vocablo antiguo74 ,the happy souls then passed to a realm of joy1 where they spent their time under the great green tree ,yaxche1 while those who were condemned sank down to a place of cold and hunger4 ,the ,conflict of the ,gods4--,between these two classes of deities--those who make for good and those who make for evil in the life of man--there is1 both in the myths and in the picture writings1 an eternal conflict4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #h4--,the gods of ,life and of ,growth plant the tree4 ,death breaks it in twain4 7,photographed from the ,cortesian ,codex47 ,in the ,codex ,troano1 as ,dr4 ,seler remarks1 8,the god of death appears as the inevitable foil of the god of light and heaven4 ,in whatever action the latter is depicted1 the god of death is imitating it1 but in such a manner that with him all turns to nought and emptiness4 ,where the light-god holds the string1 in the hands of the death-god it is torn asunder2 where the former offers incense1 the latter carries the sign of #8fire' wherewith to consume it2 where the former presents the sign kan1 food1 the latter lifts an empty vase bearing the signs of drought and death40 #b4 ,the ,cosmogony of the ,mayas4 ,we know practically nothing of the cosmogony of the ,mayas2 but it is instructive in connection with their calendar system to find that1 like the ,nahuas1 they believed in ,epochs of the ,universe1 at the close of each of which there was a general destruction of both gods and men4 ,the early writer1 ,aguilar1 says that he learned from the native books themselves that they recorded three such periodical cataclysms4 ,the first was called ,mayacimil1 8general death20 the second1 ,oc na kuchil1 8the ravens enter the houses10 that is1 the inhabitants were all dead2 and the third1 ,hun yecil1 a universal deluge1 a term which the ,dicc4 ,motul seems to explain by mentioning a tradition that the water was so high 8that its surface was within the distance of one stalk of maguey from the sky60 ,another term for this catastrophe was bulcabal1 haycabal or haycabil 7destruccion1 asolamiento y diluvio general con que fu destruido y asolado el mundo4 ,dicc4 ,motul74 ,this would make the present the fourth age of the world 7not the fifth1 as the ,nahuas believed72 and this corresponds to the prophecies contained in the 8,books of ,chilan ,balam10 which ,i have quoted in another work4 ,the scene of the creation of man1 the 8terrestrial ,paradise10 was known as hun anhil1 and the name of the first man was ,anum1 both apparently from the verb anhel1 to stand erect4 ,many of the high calculations of the priests must have been for the purpose of discovering the length of the present epoch and how soon the world would end4 ,they seem to have thought this would take place when all their various time-measures would merge together into a common unity1 which each could divide without remainder4#ei #c4 ,cosmical ,conceptions of the ,mayas4 ,the cosmical conceptions of the ancient ,mayas have not hitherto been understood2 but by a study of existing documents ,i believe they can be correctly explained in outline4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #i4--,the ,universe4 7,from the ,chilan ,balam of ,mani47 ,one of these is the central design in the ,chilan ,balam1 or ,sacred ,book1 of ,mani 7,fig4 #i74 ,it was copied by ,father ,cogolludo in #afdj1 and inserted in his ,history of ,yucatan1 with a totally false interpretation which the natives designedly gave him4 ,the lettering in the above figure is by the late ,dr4 ,c4 ,h4 ,berendt1 and was obtained by him from other books of ,chilan ,balam1 and native sources4 ,in ,cogolludo's work1 this design is surrounded by thirteen heads which signify the thirteen ahau katuns1 or greater cycles of years1 as ,i have explained elsewhere4#fj ,the number thirteen in ,american mythology symbolizes the thirteen possible directions of space4#fa ,the border1 therefore1 expresses the totality of ,space and ,time2 and the design itself symbolizes ,life within ,space and ,time4 ,this is shown as follows3 ,at the bottom of the field lies a cubical block1 which represents the earth1 always conceived of this shape in ,mayan mythology4#fb ,it bears1 however1 not the lettering1 lum1 the ,earth1 as we might expect1 but1 significantly1 tem1 the ,altar4 ,the ,earth is the great altar of the ,gods1 and the offering upon it is ,life4 ,above the earth-cube1 supported on four legs which rest upon the four quarters of the mundane plane1 is the celestial vase1 cum1 which contains the heavenly waters1 the rains and showers1 on which depends the life of vegetation1 and therefore that of the animal world as well4 ,above it hang the heavy rain clouds1 muyal1 ready to fill it2 within it grows the yax che1 the ,tree of ,life1 spreading its branches far upward1 on their extremities the flowers or fruit of life1 the soul or immortal principle of man1 called ol or yol4#fc ,turning now to the central design of what has been called the 8,tableau of the ,bacabs10 in the ,codex ,cortesianus1 ,fig4 #aj1 we can readily see in the light of the above explanation that its lesson is the same4 ,the design is surrounded by the signs of the twenty days1 beyond which the field 7not shown in this cut7 is apportioned to the four cardinal points and the deities and time-cycles connected with them4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aj4--,our ,first ,parents4 7,from the ,cortesian ,codex47 ,again it is ,life within ,space and ,time which the artist presents4 ,the earth is not represented2 but we readily recognize in conventionalized form the great ,tree of ,life1 across it the celestial ,vase1 and above it the cloud-masses4 ,on the right sits ,cuculcan1 on the left ,xmucane1 the divine pair called in the ,popol ,vuh 8the ,creator and the ,former1 ,grandfather and ,grandmother of the race1 who give ,life1 who give ,reproduction40#fd ,in his right hand ,cuculcan holds three glyphs1 each containing the sign of ,life1 ik4 ,xmucane has before her one with the sign of union 7sexual72 above it1 one containing the life-sign 7product of union72 and these are surmounted by the head of a fish1 symbolizing the fructifying and motherly waters4 ,the total extension of the field in these designs resembles the glyph a in ,fig4 #f4 ,it is found in both ,mayan and ,mexican ,,mss41#fe and expresses the conception these peoples had of the ,universe4 ,hence ,i give it the name of the 8cosmic sign40 #d4 ,pictorial ,representations of ,divinities4 ,turning to the ,codices and the monuments with the above mythological lore in one's memory1 it seems to me there is no difficulty in identifying most of the pictures presented by them4 ,that this has not been accomplished heretofore1 ,i attribute to the neglect of the myths by previous writers1 and a persistent desire to discover in the mythology of the ,mayas1 not the divinities which they themselves worshipped1 but those of some other nation1 as the ,nahuas1 ,quiches1 ,zapotecs1 or ,pueblo dwellers4#ff ,i shall pay small attention to such analogies1 as the ,mayas had a religion of their own1 and it is that which ,i wish to define4 ,we may turn first to the-- ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aa4--,monogram of ,itzamna4 ,representations of ,itzamna4--,i have no hesitation in identifying ,itzamna with the 8god ,b10 as catalogued by ,dr4 ,schellhas in his excellent study of the divinities of the ,codices1#fg and which he believes to be ,cuculcan1 while the ,abb ,brasseur1 followed by ,dr4 ,seler1 argue1 that it is a 8,tlaloc0 or ,chac1 i4 e41 a rain god4#fh ,he is extremely prominent in the ,codices1 being painted in the ,dresden ,codex alone not less than #acj times1 and in the others about #gj times4 ,no other deity has half so many representations1 and we may well believe1 therefore1 that he was the ,jove of their ,pantheon4 ,this at once suggests ,itzamna2 but a phrase of the historian ,cogolludo leaves no doubt about it4 ,the 8god ,b0 is associated with the signs of the east1 and his especial and invariable characteristic are two long1 serpent-like teeth1 which project from his mouth1 one in front1 the other to the side and backward4#fi ,these traits enable us to identify 8,b0 with ,lakin ,chan1 8the serpent of the east10 who was portrayed 8with strangely deformed teeth10 and this was unquestionably but another name for ,itzamna1 the god of the east4#gj ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ab4--;,itzamna3 from the ,codex ,troano4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ac4--;,itzamna3 from the ,inscription of ,kabah4 ,an abundance of evidence may be adduced to confirm this opinion4 ,this deity is represented in close relations with the serpent1 holding it in his hand1 sitting upon it1 even swallowed by it1 or emerging from its throat4 ,as a 8medicine man0 he carries the 8medicine bag10 and the wand or baton1 called in ,maya caluac1 8the perforated stick10#ga surmounted with a hand1 hinting at his name above given1 ,kabil1 the ,skilful ,hand4 ,he is often in a boat1 to recall his advent over the eastern sea1 and he is frequently associated with the showers1 as was ,itzamna1 who said of himself1 itz en muyal1 itz en caan1 8,i am what trickles from the clouds1 from the sky40 ,as the rising sun which dispels the darkness1 or else as the physician who heals disease1 he is portrayed sitting on the head of the owl1 the bird of night and sickness2 and as the giver of life he is associated with the emblem of the snail1 typical of birth4 ,he himself is never connected with the symbols of death or misfortune1 but always with those of life and light4 ,the lance and tomahawk which he often carries are to drive away the spirits of evil4 ,besides the above peculiarities1 he is portrayed as an elderly man1 his nose is long and curved downward1 his eye is always the 8ornamented eye10 which in the ,maya ,codices indicates a divinity4 ,he is associated with all four quarters of the globe1 for the ,east defines the cardinal points2 and what is especially interesting1 it is he who is connected with the ,maya 8,tree of ,life10 the celebrated symbol of the cross1 found on so many ancient monuments of this people and which has excited so much comment4 ,this ,i shall consider later4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ad4--;,itzamna3 from the ,dresden ,codex4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ae4--,mask of ,itzamna 7874 ,we know from the mythology that ,itzamna1 like most deities1 was multiform1 appearing in various incarnations4 ,in the ceremonies this was represented by masks2 with this in mind ,i class as merely one of the forms or epiphanies of ,itzamna that figure in the ,codices described by ,dr4 ,schellhas as a separate deity1 8the god with the ornamental nose10 whom he catalogues as 8god ,k40 ,i am led to this conclusion by a careful study of all the pictographs in which this deity appears2 they all seem to show that it is ,itzamna wearing a mask to indicate some one manifestation of his power 7see especially ,cod4 ,dresden41 pp4 #g1 #ab1 #be1 #bf1 and #cd1 #fe1 and #fg1 where ,itzamna is carrying the mask on his head74 ,that there is a particular monogram for this character merely indicates that it was a separate mythological manifestation1 not a different deity4 ,a remarkable and constant feature in the representations of ,itzamna is his nose4 ,thomas calls it 8elephantine10 but1 as ,waldeck and ,seler have shown1 it is undoubtedly intended to imitate the snout of the tapir4#gb ,when we remember that this animal was sacred to ,votan1 who played the same part in ,chiapas that ,itzamna did in ,yucatan1 dividing and naming the land1 etc42 and that the interesting slate tablets from ,chiapas1 in the ,national ,museum of ,mexico1 portray the sacred tapir in intimate connection with the symbol of the hand1#gc that associated with ,itzamna1--we are led to identify the two mythical personages as one and the same4 ,according to ,bishop ,landa the tapir was not found in ,yucatan except on the western shore near the bay of ,campeche1#gd which shows that the myth of the tapir god was imported from ,tzental territory4 ,it may be asked why the tapir1 a dull animal1 loving swamps and dark recesses of the forests1 should have been chosen to represent a divinity of light4 ,i reply1 that it arose from the 8ikonomatic0 method of writing4 ,the word for tapir in ,maya is tzimin1 in ,tzental tzemen1 and from the similarity of this sound to i-tzam-na the animal came to be selected as his symbol4 ,no such sacredness attached to the brute among the ,quiches1 for in their tongue the allusive sound did not exist1 the tapir being called tixl4 ,this rebus also confirms the identity of ,itzamna with the tapir-nosed deity of the ,codices4#ge ,the annual festival to ,itzamna was called ,pocam1 8the cleansing40 ,on that occasion the priests1 arrayed in all their insignia1 assembled in the house of their prince4 ,first1 they invoked ,itzamna as the founder of their order and burned to him incense with fire newly made from the friction of sticks4 ,next they spread out upon a table covered with green leaves the sacred books1 and asperged their pages with water drawn from a spring of which no woman had ever tasted4 ,this was the ceremonial 8cleansing40 ,then the chief priest arose and declared the prognostics for the coming year as written in the holy records4#gf ,we may well believe that the ,dresden ,codex1 pages #bi-dc1 which are entirely taken up with the deeds and ceremonies of ,itzamna1 was one of the books spread out on this solemn occasion4 ,representations of ,cuculcan4--,as ,i believe the reasons above given are sufficient to establish the identity of the 8god ,b10 of ,dr4 ,schellhas' catalogue1 with ,itzamna1 so ,i think his 8god ,d0 is ,cuculcan4#gg ,he himself believes it to be a 8night god10 or a 8moon god10 while ,dr4 ,seler considers it to portray ,itzamna4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #af4--,monogram of ,cuculcan4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ag4--;,cuculcan1 with owl head-dress4 ,the characteristics of this divinity are3 ,a face of an old man1 with sunken mouth and toothless jaws1 except one tooth in the lower jaw1 which1 in the ,tro4 and ,cortes4 ,codices1 is exaggerated as a distinctive sign2 he has the 8ornamented eye0 peculiar to deities2 and to his forehead is attached1 or over it hangs1 an affix1 which generally bears the sign akbal1 which means 8darkness10 because he is the setting or night sun2 for which reason his head-dress is often the horns of the eared owl4 ,he is clearly a beneficent deity1 and is never associated with symbols of misfortune or death4 ,indeed1 he is at times evidently a god of birth1 being accompanied with the symbol of the snail1 above explained1 and is sometimes associated with women apparently as an obstetrician4 ,he is connected with serpent emblems1 and holds in his hand a sacred rattle formed of the rattles of the rattlesnake4 ,all these traits coincide with the myths of ,cuculcan2 but when we perceive that he1 and he alone of all the deities1 is occasionally depicted with a beard under his chin1 just as ,cuculcan wore in the legend1 the identification becomes complete4#gh ,the most striking of his representations1 and that which is most distinctive of his identity with the 8green-feathered serpent10 is the picture which extends over pp4 #d and #e1 middle1 of the ,dresden ,codex4 ,here he is seen with face emerging from the mouth of the great1 green-feathered snake-dragon1 indicative of his own personality1 his hieroglyph immediately above his head4#gi ,representations of ,kin ich4--,as has already been observed1 the sun at noon1 conceived as a divinity1 did not occupy a prominent place in ,maya mythology2 and this is also the case in the pictorial designs4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ah4--,monogram of ,kin ich4 ,there is no doubt as to his representation4 ,it is accompanied by the well-known ideogram of the sun scattered over his body and represented above him4 ,it will be seen on a later page4 ,he is richly arrayed with large ear-rings and a characteristic1 prominent nose decoration4 ,he has the 8ornamented eye0 and a full head dress4 7,god 8,g0 of ,schellhas47 ,proceeding now to consider other divinities of the beneficent class1 ,i begin with-- ,representations of ,xaman ,ek1 the ,pole ,star4--,this is the 8god ,c1 of the ornamented face10 of ,dr4 ,schellhas' list1 who suggests its identity with the pole star4 ,the very characteristic face recurs extremely frequently1 especially in ,codices ,troano1 ,cortesianus1 and ,peresianus4 ,we have evidently to do with an important divinity1 and1 as ,dr4 ,schellhas says1 8one of the most remarkable and difficult figures in the manuscripts40 ,that it is the personification of a star he argues1 7#a7 from the ring of rays with which it is surrounded1 ,cod4 ,cort41 p4 #aj2 7#b7 from its appearance in the 8constellation band20 7#c7 from its surmounting in certain pictures the 8tree of life20 and that it is the ,north ,star is shown by its presence in the hieroglyph of that quarter and its association with the sign for north4 ,there is another1 and1 to me1 decisive argument1 which at once confirms ,dr4 ,schellhas' opinion1 and explains why the north star is represented by this peculiar1 decorated face4 ,the term for 8north0 in ,maya is xaman1 whence xaman ek1 north star4 ,the only other word in the language which at all resembles this is xamach1 the flat1 decorated plate or dish 7,nahuatl1 comalli7 on which tortillas1 etc41 are served4 ,in the rebus-writing the decorations on the rim of this dish were conventionally transferred to the face of the deity1 so as to distinguish it by recalling the familiar utensil4 ,for a similar reason it is also called 8the shield star10 chimal ek 7like chimal ik1 north wind72 but as this is a foreign word 7from the ,nahuatl1 chimalli1 shield71 it was doubtless later and local4 ,i shall refer to this peculiar edging or border as the 8pottery decoration10 and we shall find it elsewhere4 ,that the figure is associated at times with all four quarters of the world1 and also with the supreme number #ac 7see above1 p4 #bd71 are not at all against the identification1 as ,dr4 ,schellhas seems to think1 but in favor of it2 for at night1 all four directions are recognized by the position of the pole2 and its immovable relation to the other celestial bodies seems to indicate that it belongs above the highest4 ,the ,north ,star is especially spoken of as 8the guide of merchants40 ,its representation is associated with symbols of peace and plenty 7removing the contents of a tall vase1 ,c4 ,cortes41 p4 #dj2 seated under a canopy1 ibid41 p4 #bi74 ,in front of his forehead is attached a small vase1 the contents of which are trickling into his mouth 7874 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ai4--,the ,north ,star ,god4 ,he is especially prominent in the earlier pages of the ,cod4 ,peres41 where his presence seems to have been practically overlooked by previous writers2 and it is true that the drawings are nearly erased4 ,close inspection will show1 however1 that he is portrayed on both sides of the long column of figures which runs up the middle of page #c4 ,on the left1 he is seated on the 8,tree of ,life10 as in ,cod4 ,troanus1 p4 #ag1 a 7which is growing from the vase of the rains1 precisely as in ,cod4 ,tro41 #ad1 b1 where the star-god is sailing in the vase itself74 ,on the right of the column he is shown in the darkness of night 7on a black background71 holding in his hand the kan symbol of fortune and food4 ,a similar contrast is on page #g1 where on the right of the column he is seen above the fish1 and on the left1 in the dark1 again with the kan symbol4 ,on the intermediate page he is seated opposite the figure of ,kin ich ,ahau1 which is head downward1 signifying that when the sun is absent the pole star rules the sky4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bj4--,the ,bee god4 7,codex ,troano47 ,representations of the ,planet ,venus4--,in view of the prominent part which the ,venus-year plays in the calculations of the ,codices1 it has surprised students that no pictorial figures of this bright star appear on their pages4 ,on this point ,i have some suggestions to make4 ,in one part of the ,codex ,troano 7pp4 #a99-aj997 there are a great many--nearly fifty--pictures of an insect resembling a bee in descending flight4 ,these pages have been explained by ,thomas as relating to apiculture and the festivals of the bee-keepers1 and by ,seler1 who rejects that rendering1 as referring generally to the descent of deities to receive offerings4 ,direction downward is indicated not only by the position of the insect1 but by the accompanying hieroglyph1 which reads caban1 the first syllable of which1 cab1 means 8downward40 ,my suggestion is that in this bee-like insect we have an ikonomatic allusion to the ,evening ,star1 which1 as ,i have already stated1 was sometimes called xux ek1 8the bee or wasp star40#hj ,not only is the picture phonetically appropriate1 and the 8sign0 consistent1 but that a deity is referred to is shown by three anthropomorphic pictures of the bee 7two on p4 #d99 and one on p4 #e9974 ,furthermore1 the 8sign0 or monogram of the bee deity 7,fig4 #bj7 appears on the so-called 8title pages0 of the ,cod4 ,tro4 and ,cod4 ,cortes41 adjacent to that of the north star1 indicating that another stellar deity is represented4 ,the object toward which the insect descends is generally either a fire1 or that shown in ,fig4 #bb4ha ,this was supposed by ,brasseur to be a honeycomb1 and by ,seler1 a food offering4 ,it is almost precisely the conventional representation of the clouds1 as may be noted in the interesting scene on ,cod4 ,tro41 p4 #e991 where this object is placed upon the earth1 below which is the cloud symbol4 ,often it is yellowish1 a point which has been urged in proof that it is honey4 ,does it not mean the golden-hued clouds of sunset1 and the fire1 the flame of the setting sun1 into which the ,evening ,star descends8 ,the sign caban1 8downward10 naturally refers to the ,earth4#hb ,thither sinks the star of evening to join the departed orb of day2 hence this star mythically becomes the ,earth-goddess1 the associate of the setting sun4 ,cuculcan is very frequently depicted in relation to an old crone1 having1 like himself1 but one tooth1 and1 like himself1 ever engaged in kindly offices1 good to men4 ,she1 ,i take it1 is the ,evening ,star in her epiphany as ,mother ,earth1 source of life1 ancestress of the race4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ba4--,monograms of the ,bee ,god4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bb4--,offerings to the ,bee ,god4 ,a striking verbal analogy supports this4 ,in the ,popol ,vuh1 the sacred book of the ,quiches1 the 8feathered serpent10 ,gukumatz1 is positively said to be the bisexual principle of life represented by the male ,xpiyacoc and the female ,xmucane1 ancestor and ancestress of all that is4#hc ,here1 x-mucane is most likely the ,quiche feminine form of muc 7ul7 canan1 which is a ,tzental name for the planet ,venus1 as ,i have already mentioned4#hd ,my conclusion is1 therefore1 that the old woman so frequently associated with ,cuculcan is the ,evening ,star1 in her form as the ,earth-,goddess4 ,i shall recur to her on a later page4 ,i think all these representations of the bee should be interpreted as indicating the movements of ,venus1 and the mythical conceptions with which they were connected in the native mind4 ,representation of ,ghanan1 ,god of ,growth and ,fertility4--,bishop ,nuez de la ,vega tells us that in the calendar he discovered among the natives of his diocese1 the fourth 8sign0 or day corresponded to the ,mexican ,centeotl1 god of fertility and the maize harvests4 ,this fourth day in the ,tzental calendar bore the name ,ghanan1 and on turning to the ,tzental ,dictionary prepared by ,father ,lara1 we find that ghan is the general term for the ear of maize2 aghan1 when the grains are still soft4 ,his representations in the ,codices are moderately frequent and quite peculiar4 ,they all present in a marked degree the flattening of the forehead and prolongation of the occiput upward which is so striking in many of the sculptures4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bc4--;,from the ,head-dress of the ,god of ,growth4 ,dr4 ,schellhas1 indeed 7who catalogues him as 8,god ,e071 is so impressed by this that he argues that all such forms were imaginary1 obtained by the artists through copying the conventional drawings of an ear of maize arranged as a head-dress4 ,this1 however1 is going too far1 as there is evidence1 derived from ancient skulls1 that certain classes of ,maya priests used to have the head artificially flattened in this manner4#he ,perhaps they were those destined for the service of this or similar deities4 ,the officiants on the ,palenque 8,tablet of the ,cross10 presenting offerings to the 8tree of life10 are both deformed in this manner4 ,the maize god is associated with symbols of food1 of vegetable growth1 and of prosperity4 ,he carries a vase or is drawing forth the contents of one1 ,cod4 ,cort41 p4 #dj2 he is seen with the loom1 ,cod4 ,dres41 p4 #de1 and he generally has about him the kan symbol1 that of means and comfort4 ,representations of the ,serpent ,goddess4--,one of the most striking pictures in the ,codices is the ,serpent ,goddess1 whose familiar is the rattlesnake1 which she wears as a head-dress or as a girdle4 ,she is depicted as an old woman1 her costume ample and often splendid1 decorated with embroidery and bells1 with necklace and ear-rings of jade4 ,in expression she is severe1 her lips protrude in anger1 and her hands and feet sometimes end in claws4 ,the sinister cross-bones sometimes decorate her skirts4 ,her business is with water and the rains4 ,she is pouring from a vase 7,cod4 ,dres41 pp4 #dc1 #fg1 #gd72 or water is flowing from her armpits1 hands1 and mamm2 or she is ejecting it forcibly from her mouth 7,cod4 ,tro41 pp4 #be1 #bg1 #cd9974 ,she is1 however1 not always represented as in old age1 or else there was another serpent goddess in the mythology2 for in a number of places a similar serpentine head-dress is borne by a young woman who holds a vase containing the rattles of the rattlesnake 7,cod4 ,dres41 pp4 #ae1 #ah72 or 7ibid41 p4 #bj71 a figure which shows seven black dots4 ,may this be a sign of the constellation of the ,pleiades1 which in the ,maya language bore the same name as the rattles of the rattlesnake1 tzab8 ,as to the signification of the serpent goddess1 ,i think there can be no question of it1 from a study of her appearance1 signs1 and associations4 ,she was the personification of the thunderstorm4 ,the vase she empties is the descending torrent of rain1 the rattles she carries are the thunderclaps1 her severe mien is the terror inspired by the din of the elements4 ,in ,maya1 the word for 8thunder10 pecchac1 is derived from the noun pec1 which means 8a sound like that of a bell or rattle0 7,dicc4 ,motul74 ,representations of ,xmucane4--,a third goddess who can be clearly distinguished is one with features of an old woman1 her face wrinkled1 her mouth sunken1 and but one tooth left in her lower jaw4 ,she usually wears her hair in a peculiar style1 two wisps or ends of it twisted above her head4 ,she does not appear in the ,peresianus1 and perhaps not in the ,dresden manuscript1 but holds a prominent place in the ,troanus and ,cortesianus4 ,her occupations are peaceable2 she is weaving on a loom 7,c4 ,tro41 p4 #aa71 carrying a plate of cakes1 etc4 7,cod4 ,cortes41 pp4 #aj1 #aa74 ,in appearance she is the female counterpart of ,cuculcan1 and is plainly intended to represent his companion or wife4 ,in the 8,tableau des ,bacabs0 of the ,codex ,cortes41 these two alone are represented sitting under the central 8tree of life10 where they are placed back to back 7see above1 p4 #di72 while in the section of the tableau showing the ,west1 they are placed face to face1 she seated under a canopy hung with black and red dotted lines4 ,in her1 therefore1 we have a person of great importance1 the consort of ,cuculcan1 intimately associated with the quarter of the ,west to which he belongs4 ,dr4 ,seler has argued that she was the goddess ,ix chel1 and the personification of the ,earth4 ,with the last supposition ,i agree1 but not with the name4 ,ix chel was distinctly by name and myth the goddess of the rainbow4 ,much more probably we have in this ancient crone1 as ,i have already said1 the personification of the ,evening ,star1 and the ,earth1 ,xmucane1 the companion of the sun when worn out by his day's work1 whose home is with him in the ,west1 and whom she soon joins4 ,representation of ,ah-,puch1 ,god of ,death4--,next to ,itzamna1 god of ,life1 the god of ,death1 ,ah-,puch1 is represented most frequently on both ,codices and monuments4 ,in the former his picture is given about eighty times1 usually as a skeleton with tremendous jaws1 always with fleshless skull and backbone1--a true 8,god ,barebones10 as the ,dicc4 de ,motul describes him4 ,his symbols are unmistakeable1--the head of a corpse and cross-bones1 the ill-omened owl and the ravenous dog1--wonderfully 8,european0 indeed4 ,he has numerous costumes and head dresses1 some quite fanciful1 and occasionally bells are attached to his ankles and clothing4 ,some of his delineations seem to reveal a sense of ghastly humor1 as we see in the medieval 8dance of death40 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bd4--,the ,god of ,death4 7,from the ,codices47 ,he is associated with the north1 because in that direction lay the mythical home of departed souls2 but he is also present in the other quarters of the compass1 for death knows no distinction of places or persons4 ,besides the cross-bones1 usually shown as in ,fig4 #be1 ,no4 #a1 he often bears the curious design ,no4 #b1hf which ,i take to be a maggot1 and his head-dress is sometimes as ,no4 #c1 decorated with teeth1 or flints1 with rays4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #be4--,symbols of the ,god of ,death4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bf4--,the ,god of ,war4 ,representation of the ,god of ,war4--,frequently associated with the figure of death is that of a deity with a black line across his face4 ,this is numbered by ,dr4 ,schellhas the 8god ,f10 and called by him a 8god of death40 ,much has been made of the line across his face as identifying him with the ,mexican god ,xipe1 8the flayer20 but this is not a constant mark of ,xipe1 as ,father ,duran neither mentions it nor portrays it4 ,in fact1 it is nothing more than the line of black paint athwart the face which meant 8war0 very generally among the ,american ,indians4 ,an inspection of the pictures clearly indicates that this is a war god4 ,for instance1 in ,cod4 ,tr41 #bg991 #bh991 #bi99 c1 he is shown repeatedly at full length1 armed with a flaming torch in one hand and a flint knife in the other1 firing the canopies of princes1 his body striped with war-paint like his face1 following the god of death1 who goes before him beating on a drum and singing a song of war 7as shown by the lines issuing from his mouth74 ,in ,cod4 ,dresden41 p4 #f e1 he wears a war helmet with nose-piece1 and his body is black-striped also4 ,which of the gods of war ,i have named this leading one may have been1 ,i leave undetermined4 ,representations of ,ek ,ahau and ,other ,black ,gods4--,in the ,codices there are about fifty figures painted black1 evidently intended to represent deities supposed to be thus colored4 ,forty of them are in the ,codex ,troano1 which is in parts devoted to a prominent character of this hue4 ,he is depicted with a truculent expression1 a reddish-brown band around his mouth1 and with a large1 hanging under-lip4 ,he is generally armed and often fighting4 ,his figure is sometimes drawn unusually large1 of a ferocious appearance1 and carrying a huge spear1 a shield1 a tomahawk1 a lighted torch1 or other fearful sign of war4 7,see ,cod4 ,tro41 pp4 #bd1 #be47 ,previous writers have not been able to assign a name to this deity4 ,prof4 ,thomas suggested that it was ,ek ,chuah1 said by ,landa to be the god of the cacao planters2 but to this1 ,schellhas objects that his warlike traits exclude such a supposition4#hg ,so the latter refers to him merely as 8the god ,m40 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bg4--;,ek ,ahau1 the ,black ,captain4 ,about his name1 however1 there can be no doubt4 ,the paintings correspond precisely with what ,nuez de la ,vega tells us of the ,tzental divinity ,ical ,ahau1 ,maya1 ,ek ,ahau1 names which he translates1 8the black chief10 or1 8the king of the blacks40 ,he was reported to have been 8a famous warrior and most cruel40 ,he was depicted 8in the figure of a ferocious blackamoor with the members of a man40#hh ,the 8blacks0 of whom he was king were seven in number1 and were painted in most of the native calendars which the bishop found among the ,tzentals4 ,they were the signs of seven days1 beginning1 he adds1 with ,friday1 which may have been an erroneous explanation of the 8masters40 ,among the remainder of the seven were doubtless the god ,ek ,chuah1 of the cacao planters1 and the god 8,l0 of ,dr4 ,schellhas' list4 ,the latter is found in the ,cod4 ,dresden41 pp4 #g1 #ad1 #ba1 #bd1 #df2 but not at all in the ,troanus4 ,it is evident1 however1 that1 as ,dr4 ,schellhas observes1 several minor black gods are depicted1 which is explained by the statement of the ,bishop of ,chiapas1 that there were seven of them4#hi #e4 ,the ,maya ,priesthood4 ,not all the designs of the inscriptions and ,codices are to be considered deities1 however4 ,doubtless the priests1 their representatives1 also appear4 ,these were numerous and of both sexes1 called respectively1 ah-kin and ix-kin1 masters of days and mistresses of days1 that is1 having power to predict auspicious and inauspicious days4 ,the chief priest was variously called ah-kin mai and ahau can mai1 the word mai1 dust1 fragrance1 vapor1 referring to the sacred rite of blowing substances through a tube in incantation1 as we find often represented in the ,codices4#ij ,ahau can1 which at times means 8rattlesnake10 should perhaps here be translated1 8master of words10 as another term for the high priest was ah-chun can1 which is rendered 8one who has the right of the first speech in business2 also1 high priest40 7,dicc4 ,motul47 ,they were divided into a number of classes exercising special functions2 as the ah-mac ik1 who conjured the winds2 the ah-uai chac1 who could bring rains2 the ah-pul1 8fetchers10 who could cause sickness1 induce sleep1 etc42 the ah-uai xibalba1 who made a specialty of interviewing departed spirits2 the ah-cunal than1 who conjured by magical words2 and others4#ia ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bh4--;,a ,maya ,priestess1 bearing the ,moan ,bird4 7,from the ,dresden ,codex47 ,in their rites they were accustomed to appear in masks1 koh1 and dressed in skins of wild animals1 as tigers1 etc4#ib ,their ceremonies were often painful1 as the old writers report1 and as the words to express them1 kup1 to cut1 ppeta1 to cry out with pain1 testify4 ,this is also abundantly shown by the pictures of scarifying the body and transfixion of the tongue and ears1 on the monuments4 ,they are said to have worn their hair uncombed and long1 often matted with the blood of the sacrifices4 ,the expression for this was hunhun buclah u tzotzel hol1 7el que trae largos revueltos y maraados los cabellos como los traen los idolatras4 ,dicc4 ,motul74 #f4 ,fanciful ,analogies4 ,it were easy in these names1 myths1 and pictures1 to pick out abundant analogies to the mythologies of ,peru and ,mexico1 of the ,pueblos and of the ,old ,world4 ,it has been done over and over again1 usually with a total oversight of the only point in which such analogies have much value--the similarity disclosed the world over by independent evolutions of the religious sentiment4 ,the effort by such resemblances to prove identity of historical origin is to be deprecated whenever the natural growth of myths and rites will explain the facts considered4 ,for that reason ,i shall say nothing about 8,tlaloc deities10 8serpent gods10 etc41 with which so many pages of other writers have been fruitlessly taken up4 ,that the adjacent nations of equal culture influenced the people of ,yucatan to some extent1 was no doubt a fact4 ,it could not have been otherwise4 ,but that the ,mayan mythology and civilization were distinctly independent1 and were only superficially touched by their neighbors1 ,i am deeply convinced4 ,on the other hand1 just how far the influence of this potent and personal culture of the ,mayas extended1 it is difficult to delimit4 ,i have found no trace of its peculiar forms in ,south ,america1 nor anywhere in ,north ,america1 beyond the boundaries within which that extraordinary calendar was accepted1 upon which so much of it was based2 but this1 as ,i have shown elsewhere1 included not less than seven entirely different linguistic stocks4#ic #g4 ,total ,number of ,representations4 ,the actual progress toward an analysis of the pictorial elements of the ,codices which the above identifications indicate1 may best be shown by a few statistics4 ,i find that the total number of figures of men and women1 or of anthropomorphic deities1 which are preserved in the manuscripts1 is just about #iej1 of which #hbe are males and #abe are females4 ,they are distributed as follows3-- ,codex ,peresianus1 #dj males no females ,codex ,cortesianus1 #aeg males #f females ,codex ,troanus1 #cde males #dg females ,codex ,dresdensis1 #bhc males #gb females ------ ------ #hbe #abe ,confining our attention to the male deities1 the attributes of which have been above described1 we find their pictures are distributed as follows3--#id ,,peresianus4 ,,cortesianus4 ,,troanus4 ,,dresdensis4 ,itzamna1 #d #cj #cb #acj ,cuculcan1 #bb #ed #bj ,kin ,ich1 #d #b #h #bb ,xaman ,ek1 #g #bj #bj #e ,the ,god of ,maize1 #af #fj #f ,ah ,puch1 #b #ba #be #bi ,the ,god of ,war1 #i #c #bf #ac ,the ,black ,gods1 #b #b #ci #d ,total1 #bh #aaf #bfd #bbi ,this gives a total of #fch figures which have been recognized2 in other words1 more than three-fourths of the whole number4 ,of the remainder a considerable portion are unimportant men and persons1 victims of sacrifice1 captives1 attendants1 etc42 others are priests or officiants in ceremonies2 allowing for which1 it is certain that no prominent figure in ,mayan mythology under the human form remains to be discovered in the ,codices4 ,this is a satisfactory result1 and shows that1 as far as their pictographs go1 the contents of these once mysterious volumes are scarcely an unsolved enigma4 #h4 ,figures of ,quadrupeds4 ,the pictorial portions of the ,codices contain delineations of various animals1 some of which are evidently introduced with symbolical meanings1 and others probably so4 ,the dog1 ,maya1 pek1 is one of the most conspicuous4 ,it is the native breed1 with smooth coat and erect ears4 ,in many instances it is associated with the sign for night1 akbal1 and with the god of death 7,cod4 ,tro41 pp4 #b1 #c1 #cb1 #cc72 also with the storm and the lightning4 ,for that reason ,dr4 ,schellhas and ,dr4 ,seler regard him as a symbol of lightning4#ie ,but ,i am persuaded that while not disconnected with this1 the dog represents primarily some star or constellation4 ,at times he is dotted with spots to represent stars1 ,cod4 ,dres41 p4 #ba2 the akbal sign refers to the night4 ,his body is often in human form1 carrying a torch in each hand1 ,cod4 ,dres41 p4 #ci4 7,compare ,cod4 ,tro41 p4 #bc9947 ,in ,cod4 ,dres41 p4 #dj1 he falls from the sky2 and in ibid41 p4 #dg1 he is slain by the shaft of ,itzamna4 7,compare id4 #b1 where ,itzamna is sitting upon him47 ,he plays on the medicine drum1 ,cod4 ,tro41 p4 #bj1 and is associated with the rains1 id4 pp4 #bf1 #bg4 ,he represents the end and beginning of time-periods1 ,cod4 ,cort41 p4 #cb4 ,the spotted leopard1 the jaguar1 ,maya1 balam1 whose name is attached to the ,chacs1 and which appears in the calendar and in many of the myths of the ,mayan stock1 is represented in a number of passages of the ,codices1 as ,cod4 ,dres41 pp4 #h1 #bf2 ,cod4 ,tro41 pp4 #ag1 #bj1 #ba1 #bb4 ,in one part1 ,cod4 ,tro41 #ad1 he enters dressed as a warrior with a human body4 ,the monkey1 maax1 is not often depicted1 but is found with astronomic relations1 ,cod4 ,tro41 #be992 his sign is distinguishable by the markedly prognathic jaws4 ,deer are numerous1 especially in the ,cod4 ,troanus1 where the pages #i-ab are occupied with a series of pictures of the animal in snares4 ,on page #ad a large one is shown1 sitting on his rump1 his organ erect and prominent4 ,i have little doubt these represent a constellation4 ,in ,cod4 ,dres41 p4 #b1 a composite figure with deer's hoofs appears three times1 sailing through the sky on the serpent's head4 7,compare ,cod4 ,cort41 p4 #ad47 ,the small edentate1 the nine-banded armadillo1 ,tatusia novemcincta1 in ,maya1 ibach1 is shown twice in the ,cod4 ,tro41 both times caught under a trap1 once1 p4 #i1 under the wind sign1 again1 p4 #bb991 under the cauac sign4 ,what it represents is unknown4 #i4 ,figures of ,birds4 ,birds had important symbolical functions1 and a number are figured in the ,codices4 ,in their identification ,i have had the advantage of the advice of ,mr4 ,witmer ,stone1 who has pursued his ornithological studies in ,yucatan itself4 ,the following are recognizable3-- #a4 ,the red macaw1 ,ara macao1 ,maya1 moo or ahlo2 the type is shown in ,fig4 #bi4 ,this was the symbol of ,kin ich4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bi4--;,bird ,symbols from the ,codices4 #b4 ,the horned or eared owl1 a large raptorial bird of the genus ,bubo1 ,maya1 coz4#if ,he is usually shown in full face to display his ears or horns1 e4 g41 ,cod4 ,tro41 #ah994 ,he appears as an associate of the gods of death and war1 and symbolizes clouds1 darkness1 and inauspicious events4 ,his horns frequently appear on the head-dress of ,cuculcan to indicate the departing sun and night1 like the akbal sign4 7,see ,cod4 ,tro41 pp4 #ai1 #bi991 #ce9947 ,he is often associated with the number #ac1 and may represent in the calendar the #ac-;day period4 #c4 ,two species of vulture1 the king vulture1 ,vultus papa1 and the turkey vulture1 ,cathartes aura1 both abundant in ,yucatan1 ,maya1 kuch and ahchom4 ,the former is the bird seated on the 8tree of life10 tearing out the eyes of the victim1 ,cod4 ,dres41 p4 #c2 ,cod4 ,tro41 pp4 #ae1 #ag1 or the entrails1 ,cod4 ,tro41 p4 #ae1 #ag4 ,the naked head and neck of the vulture on a human body is seen ,cod4 ,dres41 pp4 #h1 #ac1 #ai1 #ch2 ,cod4 ,cort41 p4 #aj1 etc4 ,his head is his monogram1 frequent in ,cod4 ,peres41 pp4 #d1 #g1 #i1 etc4 7,see ,fig4 #bi1 ,no4 #b47 ,its body is sometimes black1 at others more or less white4 #d4 ,the quetzal bird1 ,trogon splendens1 is distinctly shown in ,cod4 ,dres41 p4 #af1 above the middle figure4 #e4 ,the crested falcon1 ,spiztus tyrannus1 the moan bird1 in ,maya muan or muyan4 ,this has well-developed tufts of erectile feathers on the head and resembles in the drawings the horned owl4 ,it is believed by ,frstemann to be the symbol of the ,pleiades2 by ,seler1 to be associated with the clouds and rains4 ,both are probably correct4#ig 7,see ,fig4 #bh47 #f4 ,the pelican or cormorant is drawn with a human body and the 8fish and oysters0 sign in ,cod4 ,cort41 pp4 #bj1 #ba4 #g4 ,blackbirds1 of which two species live in ,yucatan1 are portrayed in ,cod4 ,tro41 p4 #ca4 #h4 ,the wild turkey is easily recognized by his head and 8wattle0 among the food offerings4 #aj4 ,figures of ,reptiles4 ,among reptilians1 the turtle or tortoise 7,maya1 ac7 is one of the most prominent4 ,by ,dr4 ,schellhas it has also been called a ,blitzthier1 or animal symbolical of the lightning1 basing his opinion especially on ,cod4 ,dres41 p4 #dj1 where a human figure with a tortoise head is seen holding a torch in each hand4 ,it is distinctly represented as a celestial body in ,cod4 ,cort41 pp4 #ac1 #ag1 #cg1 and #ch2 and when we are informed that the ,mayas called a portion of the constellation ,gemini by the name 8the tortoise10 it is quite clear that we are dealing with an astronomical1 not a meteorological1 emblem4 ,dr4 ,frstemann has advanced the theory that at least one and an important function of the tortoise was as a symbol of the summer solstice1 in accordance with which he explains ,cod4 ,dres41 p4 #dj2 and that on the earth-plane it indicated the northeast and northwest directions4 ,his arguments for this opinion1 if not conclusive1 certainly attach to it a high probability4 ,between the tortoise and the snail 7,maya1 hub or ut7 there is in the ,codices some mythical relation4 ,in the ,aztec symbolism the snail is often an emblem of death2 but also of birth4 ,it is likely that the same holds true of the ,maya designs4 ,the animal is associated distinctly with the beneficent deities1 notably with ,itzamna and ,cuculcan1 ,cod4 ,dres41 #e and #cg4 ,but it is also visible in close relation with the god of death1 ,cod4 ,dres41 pp4 #i1 #ab1 #ac1 #ad1 #bc4 ,regarding it as a counterpart of the tortoise1 ,dr4 ,frstemann has given various reasons for holding that it symbolizes the winter solstice and the directions southwest and southeast1 and thinks it probable that it is found in the hieroglyph of the month mol1 which occurs about that season of the year4#ih ,the frog1 ,maya1 much1 uo1 is a well-known symbol of water and the rains4 ,it is shown falling from the sky in ,cod4 ,cort41 p4 #ag2 and on p4 #ab1 ,itzamna1 in his character as a rain god1 appears with the body of one4 ,the scorpion 7,maya1 zinaan7 is depicted several times1 especially in ,cod4 ,cort41 p4 #g1 and ,tro41 pp4 #i1 #ac1 where it is of large size4 ,its symbolic sense is not clear4 ,the ,mayas applied the term zinaan ek1 8scorpion stars10 to a certain constellation1 but it is possible they derived it from the ,spaniards4 ,another possibility is that the animal represents the earth-plane4 ,the word zinaan is derived from the radical zin1 which means to stretch out1 to extend2 and the entire earth1 as one extended plane1 was called zinil4 ,the rattlesnake appears to be the only serpent which is represented as a symbol4 ,it was distinctively called1 both in ,tzental and ,maya1 8the ,snake ,king0 7,maya1 ahau can1 ,tzental1 aghau chan74 ,its rattles were termed tzab1 and hence its name ahau tzab can1 also in use4 ,according to the ,dicc4 ,motul1 the natives believed there were four varieties1 corresponding to the four sacred colors1 white1 black1 red1 and yellow4 ,it is shown in the ,codices1 realistically1 biting a man's foot1 ,tro41 p4 #g2 astronomically1 in the sky among the stars1 ,cod4 ,dres41 p4 #dc2 ,cort41 pp4 #ab1 #ac2 as the head-dress of the serpent goddess1 already described2 as the companion of ,itzamna and ,cuculcan1 frequently2 as the body of ,itzamna1 ,cod4 ,cort41 #aj1 in ,cod4 ,dres4 and ,cod4 ,tro4 ,it carries the 8constellation band10 and may generally be regarded as one of the symbols of ,time4 #aa4 ,occupations and ,ceremonies4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cj4--;,a ,religious ,function4 7,from the ,dresden ,codex47 ,among the illustrations are a number which throw light on the habits and customs of the ancient ,mayas4 ,we see persons engaged in spinning and weaving1 ,cod4 ,tro41 pp4 #aa991 #af991 etc41 ,cod4 ,dres41 p4 #de2 others making idols1 ,cod4 ,tro41 p4 #ab991 ,dres41 p4 #f1 etc4 ,various religious ceremonies are pictured1 as piercing the tongue1 ,cod4 ,tro41 pp4 #af991 #ag992 baptizing children1 which was performed at the age of four years1#ii ,cod4 ,tro41 #bj992 and the important functions at the end of the years1 depicted both in ,cod4 ,tro41 pp4 #bj-bd1 and ,cod4 ,dres41 pp4 #be-bh4ajj ,a curious scene is that ,fig4 #bi1 from the ,dresden ,,ms41 p4 #ce4 ,in the center1 resting upon an altar of three degrees surmounted by the sign caban1 earth1 is the head of the god of fertility1 his soul escaping from his nostril4 ,below1 on each side of the altar1 are two figures1 one playing on a flute1 the second on the medicine drum4 ,above are also two1 one shaking the sacred rattle1 the second squatted before a flaming altar1 in one hand the holy staff1 caluac1 while the other lifts above his head the 8fish and oyster0 sign1 symbol of the products of the sea4 ,on the right hand are other offerings1 the turkey and the dog2 and below them a ladder1 eb-che1 probably signifying the day eb1 on which this ceremony took or should take place4 ,its successful result is shown in the picture which follows it in the ,codex4 99 99 99 99 99 ,those who would follow ,frstemann's 7and my own7 views in understanding the ,codices1 must accustom themselves to look upon the animals1 plants1 objects1 and transactions they depict as largely symbolic1 representing the movements of the celestial bodies1 the changes of the seasons1 the meteorological variations1 the revolutions of the sun1 moon1 and planets1 and the like2 just as in the ancient zodiacs of the ,old ,world we find similar uncouth animals and impossible collocations of images presented4 ,the great snakes which stretch across the pages of the ,codices mean ,time2 the torches in the hands of figures1 often one downward and one upward1 indicate the rising and the setting of constellations2 the tortoise and the snail mark the solstices2 the mummied bodies1 the disappearance from the sky at certain seasons of certain stars1 etc4 ,a higher1 a more pregnant1 and1 ,i believe1 the only correct meaning is thus awarded to these strange memorials4 ----- ,footnote #dc3 ,the account of ,hernandez is given by ,las ,casas1 ,historia de las ,indias1 cap4 ,,cxxiii4 ,the monk says that the principal lords alone knew the histories of the gods4 ,footnote #dd3 ,lizana's work1 of which only one complete copy is known to exist 7in ,madrid71 has been partly republished by ,brasseur in the ,appendix to ,landa1 ,cosas de ,yucatan4 ,he says the votaries came from ,chiapas and ,tabasco1 p4 #cei4 ,footnote #de3 ,the ,dicc4 ,motul defines ,hunab ,ku thus3 8the one true and living ,god2 the greatest of all the gods of ,yucatan was so named1 and he had no idol1 because they said that he could not be represented1 seeing that he was incorporeal40 ,this dictionary1 to which ,i shall often refer1 is one of the ,maya language1 composed at the ,convent of ,motul1 about #aegj4 ,a copy is in my possession4 ,footnote #df3 ,in my work1 ,american ,hero-,myths 7,philadelphia1 #ahhb71 ,chap4 ,,iv1 8,the ,hero-gods of the ,mayas10 ,i have treated at considerable length the duplicate traditions relating to ,itzamna and ,cuculcan4 ,footnote #dg3 8,todos conforman en que este 7,cuculcan7 entr por la parte del poniente40 ,herrera1 ,historia de las ,indias1 ,dec4 ,,iv1 cap4 #b4 ,looking toward the ,north1 ,itzamna was the right-hand god1 ,cuculcan the left-hand2 hence1 the arrival of the former was called nohnial1 8right-hand coming10 of the latter1 dzicnial1 8left-hand coming40 7,cogolludo1 ,hist4 de ,yucatan1 ,lib4 ,,iv1 cap4 ,,iv47 ,footnote #dh3 8,en los ,repertorios mas generales tienen pintado el #g signo en figura de hombre y de ,culebra1 que llaman ,cuchul chan1 y han explicado los ,maestros que es culebra de plumas que anda en el agua40 ,nuez de la ,vega1 ,constituciones ,diocesanas1 ,parte ,,ii1 p4 #acb4 ,footnote #di3 ,the word chac means 8strong2 the color red2 heat2 water40 ,the ,dicc4 ,motul says3 8,significa agua en algunas maneras de decir2 tambien dios de las aguas1 relampago y trueno2 chacal ik1 tempestad de agua1 huracan40 ,footnote #ej3 ,mr4 ,j4 ,walter ,fewkes is certainly correct in his argument that the 8ceremonial circuit10 of the ,mayas1--the direction of movement in their ceremonies--was sinistral1 that is1 from right to left1 in most instances4 ,this should be remembered in studying the pictorial portion of the ,codices4 ,see ,mr4 ,fewkes' article1 8,a ,central-,american ,ceremony10 in the ,american ,anthropologist1 ,july1 #ahic4 ,footnote #ea3 ,an article by ,dr4 ,c4 ,schultz-,sellack1 entitled 8,die ,amerikanischen ,gtter der vier ,weltrichtungen10 in the ,zeitschrift fr ,ethnologie1 ,bd4 ,,xi1 may be profitably read in this connection1 though some of its statements are antiquated4 ,footnote #eb3 ,relacion de la ,villa de ,valladolid 7#aegi71 caps4 ,i and ,x4 ,this ,relacion was printed in the ,compte ,rendu of the ,congress of ,americanists1 the ,madrid ,meeting4 ,footnote #ec3 ,landa1 ,rel4 de las ,cosas de ,yucatan1 p4 #gb 7,madrid ,ed474 ,the ruins of this ancient fane are still plainly visible from the sea4 ,j4 ,l4 ,stephens1 ,travels in ,yucatan1 vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #ceh4 ,footnote #ed3 ,carrillo1 ,historia ,antigua de ,yucatan1 p4 #bjg4 ,footnote #ee3 ,see the article 8,the ,folk-lore of ,yucatan10 in my ,essays of an ,americanist 7,philadelphia1 #ahij74 ,footnote #ef3 ,in ,maya1 ppuch tun means to stone to death1 matar pedradas1 ,dic4 ,motul4 ,footnote #eg3 ,beltran1 ,arte de la lengua ,maya1 p4 #bag4 ,another name he gives is ,ox kokol tzek1 8thrice beaten bones40 ,footnote #eh3 ,dr4 ,seler 7,verhand4 ,berlin4 ,anthrop4 ,gesell41 #ahhf1 ,s4 #daf7 considers ,hun ,ahau to be a calendar name2 but it is significant1 without having recourse to this roundabout explanation4 ,xibilbay1 8the place of disappearance10 is the ,quiche name for the underworld1 corresponding to the ,mictlan of the ,nahuas4 ,both the terms in the text may therefore be borrowed4 ,see my ,essays of an ,americanist1 pp4 #abg1 #adc4 ,footnote #ei3 ,there are some reasons to believe that at the time of the composition of the ,cod4 ,dres4 the priests calculated that the world had then been in existence #cgdd years4 ,see ,frstemann1 in ,compte ,rendu du ,congrs des ,amricanistes1 ,,vii ,session1 p4 #gdf4 ,elsewhere1 however1 another suggestion as to the meaning of that number is offered4 ,footnote #fj3 ,see my ,essays of an ,americanist1 p4 #bfi2 and also an article by me1 8,notes on the ,codex ,troano and ,maya ,chronology10 in the ,american ,naturalist1 ,september1 #ahha4 ,footnote #fa3 ,see the interesting observations of ,mr4 ,f4 ,h4 ,cushing in my ,native ,calendar of ,central ,america and ,mexico1 p4 #h4 ,footnote #fb3 ,thus in the ,popol ,vuh1 pp4 #d1 #f1 it is called 8the quadrated earth1 four-pointed1 four-sided1 four-bordered40 ,footnote #fc3 8,,ol2 el corazon formal y no el material40 ,dic4 ,motul4 ,footnote #fd3 8,e alom1 e qaholom40 ,popol ,vuh1 p4 #f4 ,ximenes adds3 8y mas en los nacimientos de los nios son los que asisten40 ,origen de los ,indios1 p4 #aeh4 ,footnote #fe3 ,see numerous examples in ,prof4 ,cyrus ,thomas's suggestive monograph1 8,notes on certain ,maya and ,mexican ,manuscripts10 in the third annual ,report of the ,bureau of ,ethnology 7,washington1 #ahhd74 ,mr4 ,francis ,parry1 in an article entitled 8,the ,sacred ,symbols and ,numbers of ,aboriginal ,america10 in ,bull4 of the ,amer4 ,geog4 ,soc41 #ahid1 classes it as a 8sun symbol20 but in this1 as in most of his identifications1 ,i find myself unable to agree with him4 ,footnote #ff3 ,the doubts expressed by ,dr4 ,schellhas as to the worth of mythology in these studies 7,zeitschrift fr ,ethnologie1 #ahib1 p4 #ajb71 are justified by the confusion of ,mayan with ,mexican myths in ,dr4 ,seler's writings2 but ,i hope to show not by the facts themselves4 ,footnote #fg3 ,schellhas1 8,die ,gttergestalten der ,mayahandschriften10 in ,zeitschrift fr ,ethnologie1 #ahib4 ,this is a classical article which ,i shall have frequent occasion to quote4 ,footnote #fh3 ,brasseur1 ,le ,,ms4 ,troano1 p4 #bad4 ,footnote #fi3 ,without pausing to discuss whether this is 8tooth0 or 8tongue10 it is1 at any rate1 a serpentine trait1 as may readily be seen by comparison with many serpents pictured in the ,codices4 ,i may add that ,professor ,cyrus ,thomas writes me that he also considers the 8long-nosed god0 to be ,itzamna4 ,footnote #gj3 ,the phrase of ,cogolludo is3 8con dientes muy disformes40 ,the name ,lakin ,chan1 is in the ,tzental dialect4 ,the ,maya would be ,likin can2 though lakin1 east1 appears in the 8,books of ,chilan ,balam40 ,footnote #ga3 ,caluac is from calacal1 8cosa muy agujerada0 7,dicc4 ,motul74 ,the mayordomo was called ah caluac1 the baton being his staff of office4 ,landa omits the prefix by mistake1 ,rel4 de ,yucatan1 p4 #dj4 ,it is well shown on a later page4 ,footnote #gb3 ,waldeck1 ,voyage ,pittoresque dans l',yucatan1 pp4 #cg1 #gd1 etc4 7,paris1 #ahch47 ,this writer recognized the tapir snout on various masks and statues at ,palenque1 and adds that he found the animal still venerated by the natives4 ,dr4 ,seler does not mention ,waldeck's remarks1 but extends the identification to the figures in the codices4 ,zeitschrift fr ,ethnologie1 #ahhh4 ,footnote #gc3 ,on the symbolism of the tapir see the erudite remarks of ,don ,alfredo ,chavero in the ,antiguedades ,mexicanas publicadas por la ,junta ,colombina de ,mexico1--,texto1 p4 xxxv 7,mexico1 #ahib74 ,footnote #gd3 ,relacion de las ,cosas de ,yucatan1 p4 #aji 7,madrid ,edition74 ,footnote #ge3 ,in the ,american ,anthropologist1 ,july1 #ahid1 ,mr4 ,j4 ,walter ,fewkes devotes an article to what he calls 8the long-nosed god0 in the ,cortesian ,codex 7,itzamna74 ,he does not mention the similarity of the nose to the snout of the tapir1 and his conclusion is that it is a 8snake rain god10 8probably ,cuculcan10 8parallel with ,tlaloc40 ,he thinks the heads portrayed in the ,codices are 8masks or ceremonial helmets40 ,it is needless to point out the divergence between his opinions and mine on these points4 ,footnote #gf3 ,landa3 ,relacion de las ,cosas de ,yucatan1 p4 #hg4 ,footnote #gg3 ,the name has various orthographies2 that which ,i here adopt appears to have most in its favor4 ,it is a compound of cucul1 covered 7i4 e41 with feathers71 and can1 snake2 7cucul also means 8revolving074 ,footnote #gh3 ,examples are frequent2 a good one is ,cod4 ,tro41 p4 #bd99;a4 ,not to be confounded with the moan hairs around the mouth1 nor with the chin beard of the black monkey4 ,footnote #gi3 ,space does not permit me to enter into the symbolism and myths connected with 8the feathered serpent0 of ,central ,american mythology4 ,mr4 ,fewkes has argued that it also extended to the ,pueblo tribes1 and traces may be found still further north4 ,see ,fewkes1 in ,american ,anthropologist1 ,july1 #ahic4 ,footnote #hj3 ,father ,lara1 in his ,vocabulario ,tzental1 ,,ms41 gives the name of one variety of bee as xanab xux2 in ,maya1 xux is usually translated 8wasp10 8abispa brava40 ,as a radical1 it seems to mean 8to go or sink slowly into something40 ,footnote #ha3 ,the two bees1 one waking1 one sleeping1 ,cod4 ,tro4 #cc991 are placed between signs representing the winds4 ,footnote #hb3 ,the word cab has various meanings3 a bee2 a bee-hive2 honey2 the red or white clay with which potters painted their jars2 strength or power2 town1 place1 or world2 short or low2 down1 downward1 or below 7all given in the ,dicc4 de ,motul74 ,footnote #hc3 8,thus it is that are named1 sung1 and celebrated those who are the grandmother and grandfather1 whose name is ,xpiyacoc1 ,xmucane1 preserver1 protector1 twofold grandmother1 twofold grandfather4 99 99 99 ,they alone1 the ,maker1 the ,former1 the ,ruler1 the ,serpent clothed in feathers1 ,they who beget1 ,they who impart life1 ,they rest upon the waters like a growing light4 ,they are clothed in color green and blue4 ,therefore their name is ,gucumatz1 #8,feathered ,serpent4'0 ,popol ,vuh1 pp4 #d1 #f4 ,footnote #hd3 ,the root muc1 in all the ,mayan dialects1 also means 8to cover over1 to hide1 to bury40 ,the word mucul 78that which is disappearing07 is applied to the moon when in the wane 7luna menguante74 ,footnote #he3 ,see ,crescencio ,carrillo1 in ,anales del ,museo ,nacional de ,mexico1 ,tomo ,,iii1 and ,dr4 ,boas1 in ,proceedings of the ,american ,antiquarian ,society for #ahij1 pp4 #cej-ceg2 the ,dic4 ,motul gives the ,maya word for one with head thus flattened1 8pechhec hol1 el de cabeza chata40 ,landa1 ,cosas de ,yucatan1 cap4 ,,xxx1 speaks of the custom4 ,footnote #hf3 ,former students have been unable to explain this design4 ,it is also found in ,mexican pictography1 as ,cod4 ,vien41 pp4 #bj1 #bb4 ,footnote #hg3 ,in ,cod4 ,tro41 p4 #bi991 et seq41 the black god has a girdle1 to which are attached the leg and claw of a scorpion4 ,the name of the large black scorpion in ,maya is ek chuh1 literally 8the black scorcher40 ,dr4 ,seler appositely suggests that this may be a rebus for the name of the god4 ,footnote #hh3 8,en figura de feroz negro1 como una imagen de esculptura1 con los miembros de hombre4 99 99 99 ,fu gran guerreador y crudelissimo4 99 99 99 ,quiere decir negro principal1 ,seor de los negros40 ,nuez de la ,vega3 ,constituciones ,diocesanas1 p4 #i2 ,carta ,pastoral1 ,,ix4 7,rome1 #agjb47 ,footnote #hi3 8,en muchos pueblos de las provincias de este obispado tienen pintados en sus ,repertorios ,calendarios siete negritos para hacer divinacions y prognosticos correspondientes los siete dias de la semana1 comenzandola por el viernes contar40 ,nuez de la ,vega3 ,constituciones ,diocesanas1 p4 #i4 ,footnote #ij3 ,i add the following definitions3 8,,mai1 polvillo que sale del tabaco1 etc41 cuando le tratan con las manos4 ,,maay1 espuma del palo que se quema4 ,,bolon ,,mayel1 qualquier olor suavissimo y transcendente40 ,bolon1 nine1 in the last word is used in ,maya as an expression of admiration4 7,see p4 #be47 ,the term is from ,landa1 ,cosas de ,yucatan1 c4 #g4 ,footnote #ia3 ,among feminine forms ,i find ix-bouat1 prophetess2 ix-cunal than1 conjuress4 ,footnote #ib3 ,the ,dicc4 ,motul gives3 ,ah-koh keuel1 for the wizard wearing a mask and clothed in the skin of the jaguar4 ,footnote #ic3 ,see ,the ,native ,calendar of ,central ,america and ,mexico1 p4 #e4 ,footnote #id3 ,my count does not agree entirely with that of other observers 7,fewkes1 ,schellhas74 ,i have limited my identifications to such figures as seemed to me beyond reasonable doubt4 ,footnote #ie3 ,there may be here an ikonomatic allusion1 or play on words4 ,the word pek1 dog1 is close to pec1 to sound1 to make a noise1 which was used for the thunder1 as in the current phrase pecni caan1 8the sky rang0 7son el cielo1 ,dicc4 ,motul74 ,footnote #if3 ,in ,spanish1 bujarro4 ,the ,dicc4 ,motul says of it1 sub voce1 coz1 8ave de rapina2 coge gallinas y grita como muchachos40 ,footnote #ig3 ,some writers have thought that the moan bird was a mythical animal2 but ,dr4 ,c4 ,h4 ,berendt found the name still applied to the falcon4 ,in the form muyan1 it is akin in sound to muyal1 cloud1 moan1 cloudy2 which may account for its adoption as a symbol of the rains1 etc4 ,footnote #ih3 ,frstemann1 ,entzifferung1 ,no4 ,,iii4 ,footnote #ii3 ,relacion de la ,villa de ,valladolid 7#aegi71 cap4 #ad4 ,footnote #ajj3 ,these are described at length by ,landa1 and their representations in the ,codices have been explained by ,thomas in his ,manuscript ,troano4 ,,iv4 ,the ,graphic ,elements4 ,having made this satisfactory progress in explaining the numeral and the pictorial portions of the ,codices1 we are well prepared to approach the more difficult part of our task1 the interpretations of the hieroglyphs themselves4 ,fortunately1 an even superficial inspection of the manuscripts shows us that we are not without material aids to this end4 ,it is clear that many of the hieroglyphs are those of the twenty days and the eighteen months of the ,maya year1 which are preserved to us in the work of ,bishop ,landa2 others1 again1 by their arrangement1 must be connected with the cardinal points2 and others suggest1 by their appearance and disposition1 that they portray the celestial bodies1 the sun1 moon1 and stars2 others are in the columns of numerals1 and must have numerical values2 and others are so related to the pictures that they are plainly a repetition of them in a partial and conventional manner1 as the written characters for divinities1 which are usually merely the head of the divinity more or less cursively expressed4 #a4 ,the ,direction in which the ,glyphs are to be read4 ,the first step in the decipherment of any inscription is to ascertain the direction in which it is to be read4 ,in my earliest essay on this subject1#aja ,i stated that whatever the prevailing rule in this respect might have been1 the native artists had no hesitation in disregarding it1 when artistic or other reasons presented themselves4 ,this is the conclusion which has since been arrived at by conservative later students4 ,i shall have numerous illustrations of it to offer in the following pages4 ,most of the diversity in this respect was not capricious1 however1 but in accordance with rules1 some of which have been ascertained4 ,three points in this connection will immediately attract the attention of the student4 ,the movement of the principal figures in the records1 both manuscript and mural1 is generally from right to left2 the main portion of the composite characters are drawn on the right1 and the minor portions or affixes are added on the left2#ajb and in placing numerals on a line1 the upright strokes which mean the fives are placed to the right1 and the dots which mean units less than five are placed to the left4 ,these facts look as if the lines were written from right to left4 ,the general opinion1 however1 is that expressed by ,pousse and by ,thomas1 that the characters when arranged in lines are to be read from left to right1 and when in columns from top to bottom4#ajc ,that this rule does not hold good in a number of instances1 as ,i shall show1 need not surprise us1 as precisely the same uncertainty in the arrangement is found in the ,mexican picture-writing1 as ,chavero has pointed out1#ajd and exists to-day in the manuscripts of the ,tuaregs of the ,sahara4#aje ,dr4 ,frstemann has shown conclusively that the numerical elements in the long computations to which ,i have referred 7above p4 #cj7 are to be read from below upward and from right to left4#ajf ,great aid in settling this question in any given instance can be obtained by a close examination of the rubrication of the manuscript4 ,the native scribe1 before he filled in the glyphs or letters1 divided his sheet into small compartments by faint red lines1 bounding as it were the different sentences or paragraphs he intended to set down4 ,each such sentence consists usually of four or six characters1 arranged either in a column or in a square1 the whole of which may be called a 8cartouche40 ,the following diagram illustrates the manner in which the separate glyphs are to be read in ordinary cases3-- a a b a b a b c d c d b c c d picture picture d ,without the aid of the rubrics1 from an independent study of the characters themselves1 ,m4 ,pousse demonstrated that this is a necessary arrangement of the majority of the written passages4#ajg ,the signs for the days are usually placed in columns on the left of the groups of hieroglyphic characters1 the numeral belonging to each being inscribed above it2 while immediately below the groups are numerals in black and red1 generally indicating certain days4 ,this disposition of the elements of the writing shows that it was intended for a 8time-count10 as ,i have before stated4 ,for the somewhat voluminous analysis of the ,codices in this direction1 the reader is referred to the works of ,frstemann and ,thomas1 who have paid fruitful attention to this department4 #b4 ,composition of the ,glyphs4 ,i have already stated1 p4 #aj1 that the main elements of the ,mayan hieroglyphic writing are not numerous4 ,the apparent complexity of many of the glyphs arises from the combination of a number of frequently recurring elements which are placed in different positions and relations1 and each of which has many variant forms1 dependent on the degree of skill or care of the scribe or sculptor1 and the material which he used for the record4 ,usually each glyph or katun consists of one main element with a number of others drawn in or around it1 which are generally known as 8affixes40 ,an element within another is called an 8infix20 placed in front of it1 a 8prefix20 behind it1 a 8suffix0 or 8postfix20 above it1 a 8superfix20 and below it1 a 8subfix40 ,the same element will often be found first in one and then in another of these positions2 and a certain class of elements are employed as affixes only4 ,i shall refer to the single elements as 8simple characters10 and to the complex glyphs as 8composite characters40 #c4 ,the ,proper ,method of ,studying the ,glyphs4 ,the proper method to adopt in studying composite characters is first carefully to separate them into the simple characters of which they are composed1 noting the relative positions of these4 ,the next step is vitally important and often most difficult4 ,it is to determine what visible objects these simple characters were intended to represent4 ,they are often so conventionalized or so negligently sketched that the most careful students have reached absurdly different opinions as to what they were designed to portray4#ajh ,this identification accomplished1 the student should proceed to ascertain the name of the object in the ,maya language2 because1 though it may be employed as pure ideogram in one connection1 in another it may be used for its phonetic value according to the 8ikonomatic10 or rebus method1 as ,i have above explained1 and instances of which ,i give in these pages4 ,i do not believe that a further phonetic analysis--that to the isolation of distinct alphabetic elements--as has been pursued by a number of writers already referred to1 is justified by the nature of the ,maya script1 or will yield useful results4 #d4 ,an ,analysis of ,various ,graphic ,elements4 ,i shall now proceed1 in the manner above described1 to examine a number of simple and composite characters1 not by any means exhausting the stock1 but rather merely offering suggestions and examples for future students4 ,in their application it must always be remembered that any ,maya character may be employed in either of three values3 #a1 ,as an ideogram2 #b1 as a rebus2 #c1 as an astronomical or numerical sign4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ca4--,the ,hand4 ,the hand contributes to some of the most numerous hieroglyphs in the ,mayan writing2 and the significant poses assigned it in the pictures and statues prove how expressive it was to this people4 ,the forms presented in ,fig4 #cj by no means exhaust its delineations4 ,they are drawn from gesture-speech and each is significant4 ,no4 #a1 from the ,cod4 ,cort41 is the usual sign 8to give20 ,no4 #b1 from the ,cod4 ,tro41 shows it in hasty writing2 ,no4 #c is the hand closing 78la main qui se ferme10 ,brasseur74 ,it is the sign for the day manik1 and is explained by ,dr4 ,seler1 8to eat20 but ,i take it to be the rebus for mach1 8to grasp0 78asir1 tomar con las manos10 ,dic4 ,motul74 ,no4 #d1 the hand closed1 thumb downward 7pollice verso71 has probably an inauspicious significance 7very common1 e4 g41 ,cod4 ,per41 pp4 #b1 #c1 #f1 #g72 ,no4 #e is the 8supporting hand0 7very frequent1 usually in composition72 ,no4 #f is intended to show the hand1 palm upward1 forming a cup 7,cod4 ,dres41 p4 #dj1 ,cod4 ,tro41 p4 #ba71--;it would signify 8offering20 ,no4 #f1 from the stel of ,copan1 must mean union or friendship4 ,the two hands held as ,no4 #g occur repeatedly in ,cod4 ,dres41 pp4 #f1 #g1 in the ,tro4 and ,cort4 often thus1 ,illustration1 to which ,thomas1 by means of his 8key10 assigns the wonderful meaning1 8a meat pie06 ,nos4 #h and #i are explained by ,seler as the supporting hand2 ,no4 #aj shows the hand and arm pointing2 ,no4 #ab1 ,cod4 ,tro41 #cj1 #ca1 is the index finger extended2 ,no4 #aa1 ,cort41 p4 #bh1 shows the closed hand as a suffix to the sign ik4#aji ,phonetically the hand is kab1 which also means 8arm1 finger1 juice1 sap1 tears20 and as a rebus it could stand for kaba1 name4 ,by some writers all the signs1 ,fig4 #cb are supposed to represent the eye4 ,nos4 #a and #b may also stand for a tooth1 and for the small bells worn as ornaments4 ,no4 #c has been called the 8weeping eye10 and by ,brasseur 8une hache20 but ,i take it to be the space within the closing hand 7,figs4 #ca1 ,no4 #c74 ,no4 #d shows the eyelashes of the closed eye1 and signifies sleep or death4 ,no4 #e is the 8ornamented0 or 8serpent0 eye1 and1 according to ,thomas1 is the characteristic of a deity4 ,nos4 #f and #h are supposed by ,seler to be the eye torn out4 ,they are extremely common affixes4 ,schellhas explains ,no4 #f as 8the head and creeping foot of a snail40 ,i am persuaded that it is a bird's wing1 or the chief feather of a wing1 and means 8superior10 8supremacy10 or something of that kind4#aaj ,for that reason it always appears in the sign of ,kin ich ahau4 ,no4 #h ,i regard also as copied from a feather ornament4#aaa ,no4 #g1 called by ,seler the 8bleeding eye10 ,i take to be a sign for stars4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cb4--,the ,eye and ,similar ,figures4 ,in ,maya1 ich1 the eye1 also means 8face0 and 8twins40 ,the design1 ,fig4 #cc1 ,no4 #a1 abundant in the ,codices and on the stone and ceramic remains1 shows eyes1 but is believed by ,frstemann to represent the planet ,venus1 and to be a variant of ,fig4 #cg1 ,no4 #d4 ,seler thinks it an ornamental kin 7see ,fig4 #cf74 ,it is carved on the great tortoise of ,copan1 and ,nos4 #b1 #c1 and #d are from the pottery of that city1 on which it is the most common glyph ,i have noted4 ,in ,no4 #e1 from ,cod4 ,dres41 p4 #eg1 it is postfixed to a human figure reversed4 ,brasseur explains it as 8the spectacles of ,tezcatlipoca10 and for a name1 we may call it 8the spectacles glyph40 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cc4--,the 8,spectacles40 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cd4--,the ,ear4 ,the human ear has been represented by ,no4 #b1 ,fig4 #cd1 as has been proved by de ,rosny and ,thomas4 ,no4 #a 7,cod4 ,cort41 p4 #af7 is either an ear or an ear ornament4 ,it is not the ordinary ear-ring1 which is clearly shown in ,figs4 #ab1 #ag1 etc4 ,this latter is often used as an affix1 and has been confused with the serpent rattle1 and with ,no4 #c1 which is the lower jaw bone1 cham or camach4 7,see ,cod4 ,cort41 pp4 #ce1 #cf1 etc47 ,the ear is xicin1 which also means 8shell40 ,ear-rings are tup1 a word which as a verb signifies 8to stop up1 to cover over1 to extinguish40#aab ,the group of signs1 ,fig4 #ce1 beginning with a person seated1 are1 in the opinion of ,seler1 all derivatives from 8man40 ,nos4 #b1 #c1 and #d he calls 8eyes10 and ,nos4 #e-aa outlines of the mouth1 jaws1 and face1 with a general value1 8person40 ,other suggestions are1 that the crescentic outlines1 ,nos4 #f1 #g1 #aa1 refer to a crescent moon1 or an ear 7,schellhas71 or to a serpent's mouth 7,allen72 while ,no4 #aj may be an eye and eyelashes 7,allen71 a comb 7,valentini71 a claw1 a feather1 part of a plant1 etc4 ,it may be called the 8comb sign40#aac ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ce4--;,crescentic ,signs4 ,my belief is that some of these affixes show the necklace on which beads and precious stones were strung4 ,this was called u1 which is also the word for moon1 and in sound is akin to uil1 food4#aad ,by the latter fact ,i would explain the frequent appearance of this sign ,illustration on the neck of vases and on haunches of venison 7,cod4 ,tro4 #bb1 etc474 ,the picture of a necklace shown in the ,lienzo de ,tlascala1 p4 #g1 will demonstrate how close is the resemblance4 ,that in ,landa's alphabet 7see above1 p4 #ae7 this sign is given for u1 confirms my supposition4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cf4--,sun and ,moon ,signs4 ,the hieroglyphs of the sun1 ,fig4 #cf1 ,nos4 #a and #b1 cannot be mistaken4 ,in the latter1 the four teeth indicate the biting heat4 ,this design often occurs on war shields4 ,no4 #a is that usually employed in composition4 ,the word for sun is kin1 which has the further meanings1 8day1 light1 festival1 time1 news1 to rule20 from it are derived kinal1 8heat1 hot20 kinam1 8strength1 bravery1 power1 poison1 fear1 veneration20 ah-kin1 8a priest10 etc4 ,the kin sign usually indicates a beneficent divinity4 ,the third sign in ,fig4 #cf is that for moon 7,schellhas74 ,dr4 ,seler1 however1 claims that it is the symbol of 8night10 and that where it means #bj 7see above1 p4 #ba71 it is not derived from u1 moon1 but from uinic1 man4 ,he explains the figure as a human head with a 8bleeding eye10 and bare teeth4 ,in all these points ,i think he is in error4 ,maya grammar does not authorize the derivation of uinal from uinic 7in which ,seler follows ,brasseur72 but it may come from u1 month1 uin or uen1 8relating to a month40 ,his statement that the #bj-;day period was not spoken of as an uinal1 is disproved by ,landa1 who calls it uinal hun ekeh1 8a dark month10 to distinguish it from one lighted by the moon4 ,a close examination of most of the drawings will show that the line on which the supposed bare teeth are shown is not that of the mouth1 but that of the necklace above mentioned1 which has the value u4 ,cf4 ,fig4 #c1 ,no4 #c4 ,no4 #a1 ,fig4 #cg1 ,i introduce from ,mexican pictography2 it is the sacred green jade jewel1 the xihuitl1 meaning 8precious1 divine40 ,by it ,i explain the very common ,no4 #b1 a modification either of it or of the kin sign1 constantly associated with deities 7on the hand1 ,cod4 ,dres41 p4 #ba2 on the leg1 id41 #ab2 on the back1 id41 #ci2 and always on the head-dress of the ,god of ,growth74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cg4--,supposed ,derivatives of the ,sun ,sign4 ,no4 #c may be a modification of the kin4 ,it is given in ,landa's alphabet1 where it stands for be1 footprints4 ,it may also be the stones of the hearth1 and signify 8house40 ,as a 8directive sign10 it stands for the point south1 and the color yellow2 and it appears as an occasional variant of the day-signs lamat1 muluc1 and chuen4 ,no4 #d is thought by ,seler to be merely an ornamental form of the kin sign2 but by ,frstemann is taken for the monogram of the planet ,venus1 at least in the ,cod4 ,dres41 where it is very frequent on pp4 #df-ej4 ,it is repeated with slight variations on the ,copan pottery4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ch4--,the ,knife ,signs4 ,the flint knife was an important implement4 ,landa speaks of the numerous large ones kept by the priests for slaughtering their victims4#aae ,they were called ta1 and licil dzicil2 in ,tzental1 chinax1 from chi1 to bite4 ,fig4 #ch1 ,nos4 #a1 #b1 and #d1 show the usual forms in which they are drawn1 the small squares at the end being the biting edges4 ,no4 #c1 surmounted by the 8trinal0 sign1 refers probably to lightning4 ,no4 #f is a rare sign for a dog1 showing his biting teeth 7,cod4 ,tro41 p4 #be74 ,the flint knife typifies sacrifice1 death1 war1 the ,east1 and fire4 ,as a rebus1 it could stand for ta1 excrement2 tah1 a dramatic representation1 etc4 ,no4 #e is a very common affix4 ,it has been regarded as a variant of the knife 7,seler1 etc74 ,but it is too constantly distinguished from it to have this meaning4 ,i consider it the sacred bean1 with which divination was practiced and lots cast4 ,this was called bul1 a word which1 as an affix1 means 8all10 the whole of anything1 as bulkin1 8the whole day40 ,this may suggest its signification4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ci4--,the 8,fish and ,oyster0 ,sign4 ,the curious objects in ,fig4 #ci were long a puzzle to me1 and have not been explained by previous writers4 ,i believe them to be representations of the food products of the sea1 showing a fish and two shellfish4 ,my reasons for this are that in ,cod4 ,dres41 p4 #cd1 they are seen along with other food-offerings 7see ,fig4 #cj72 in some places the fish tail is unmistakeable 7,cod4 ,dres41 pp4 #f1 #g1 #cf72 in ,cod4 ,cort41 pp4 #bj1 #ba1 they are associated with a fishing bird1--a pelican or cormorant2 in ,cod4 ,dres41 p4 #ej1 the two shells are replaced by one conch shell2 and in ,cod4 ,dres41 p4 #fg1 a fish and two shells are painted separately1 to represent food from the sea4 ,the two shells are often seen in other relations1 as sprinkled with blood 7,cod4 ,tro41 p4 #ah9971 and as an affix 7see ,fig4 #ca1 ,no4 #aj74 ,i shall refer to this as the 8fish and oyster0 sign4 ,shells had a peculiar sacredness in ,maya symbolism4 ,the robes of some of the priests were bordered with them4#aaf ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dj4--,the ,sacred ,food-,offerings4 ,some other sacred food-offerings are shown in ,fig4 #dj4 ,the first is the haunch of venison tied up 7identified as such by ,brasseur72 the second is the fish1 here shown with a subfix2 the third is the wild turkey1 represented by his head in a dish4 ,another is the iguana 7see p4 #abb1 ,no4 #ad72 and a fifth is the object shown on p4 #abb1 ,no4 #ab4 ,it has been explained as a grain of corn sprouting from the ground1 or a mole emerging from its hole 7,schellhas74 ,the true explanation is that of ,brasseur1 that it portrays the forequarter and head of a food-animal1 tied up4 ,he does not specify what animal1 but in some of the drawings ,i distinctly recognize the dog1 with his sharp teeth1 the species raised by the ,mayas to be eaten on festival occasions1 as stated by ,landa4#aag ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #da4--,the ben-ik and other ,signs4 ,nos4 #a and #b1 ,fig4 #da1 are variants of an element often occurring with a ben-ik superfix4 ,dr4 ,seler1 who is apt to see gory human heads everywhere1 thinks it is one carried in a sling and means 8conquered in war40 ,dr4 ,frstemann1 with greater probability1 considers that it symbolizes an astronomical event connected with the motions of the sun4 7,see the significant designs1 ,cod4 ,tro41 #bh99 b47 ,the ben-ik sign referred to is rendered by ,seler to mean conquest and destruction2 by ,frstemann1 astronomically1 as the lunar month of #bi days2 in a general sense1 ,i would say1 8strength and deific power40 ,it is a very constant association of the two day-signs so named1 ben giving the idea of motion1 and ik of life and power4 ,in ,no4 #c is a long worm-like figure under the ben-ik sign4 ,brasseur pointed out that it is a variant of the day-sign men1 and explained it as a caterpillar 7chenille74 ,seler speaks of it as an eagle1 and as a symbol of 8mother earth20 ,schellhas1 as perhaps the serpent goddess4 ,it sometimes is drawn to have a fish-like appearance 7,cod4 ,per41 p4 #g71 and may symbolize the waters2 the more so as it has occasionally as a superfix the 8cloud-balls40 ,no4 #d is explained by ,brasseur as the girdle1 xoc1 around the body2 and ,i prefer this to later suggestions4 ,a similar design was the tress of hair1 kax pol or kaaxi1 worn by women 7see ,cod4 ,tro41 p4 #bg2 ,cod4 ,dres41 p4 #de74 ,its signification would seem to be 8to tie together1 to join10 or1 as a rebus1 8rain1 to rain10 for kaxala 7llover1 y la lluvia74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #db4--,the ,drum ,signs4 ,no more prominent hieroglyph than ,no4 #a1 ,fig4 #db1 can be found in the ,mayan inscriptions1 and none which has proved such a stumbling block to interpreters4 ,valentini has called it the picture of a censer or brazier2 de ,rosny thought it a variant of the ahau sign2 ,dr4 ,seler explained it as a precious stone2 and ,thomas as 8a stone heap60 ,it is the upper figure in the 8,initial ,series0 of glyphs at ,palenque1 ,copan1 ,quirigua1 etc4 7see above1 p4 #bd71 and recurs with but slight variations in all the ,codices4 ,i first announced what it represents and its signification at the meeting of the ,american ,association for the ,advancement of ,science1 ,august1 #ahid4aah ,it is the picture of a drum1 the large variety1 made of the hollow trunk of a tree resting upon short feet1 the trunk being sawed across partly through so as to give two vibrating surfaces1 which were often decorated with cross-hatching4 ,such drums are described by the early ,spanish writers1 and one is shown in the ,atlas to ,duran's ,history4#aai ,their sound could be heard for two leagues1 and they were important adjuvants in the services in the temples4 ,in the hieroglyphics the significance of this design is primarily phonetic4 ,the name of this particular kind of drum was pax che1 from pax1 musical instrument1 and che1 wooden2 a large one was bolon pax che1 the word bolon1 nine1 being a superlative prefix in ,maya4 ,employed according to the ikonomatic method1 this expressed the word paxan1 a very common term in ,maya1 meaning 8it is finished10 and applied to anything completed1 ended1 or destroyed1 in a good or bad sense4#abj ,this is why in the numeral signs it marks the end of a series 7see above1 p4 #bb71 and in the so-called 8,initial ,series0 7which ,i believe to be terminal71 it surmounts and thus closes 7reading from below upward7 the rows of computation signs4 ,for the same reason it is the support of the figure representing the dying year in the ceremonies at its termination 7,cod4 ,tro41 pp4 #bj-bd71 and is often associated with the deities of old age1 destruction1 and death4 ,several other varieties of drums were in use among the ,mayas4 ,that shown ,fig4 #db ,no4 #b1 is noteworthy4 ,it is the dzacatan 7,berendt71 or medicine-drum 7from dzacah1 to cure1 to practice medicine74 ,it was used in the sacred ceremonies 7see ,fig4 #cj71 and ,itzamna is portrayed playing upon one 7,cod4 ,dres41 p4 #cd74 ,its representations in the ,codices are peculiar1 and have been entirely misunderstood by previous writers4 ,i show them in ,fig4 #dc1 ,nos4 #a1 #b1 #c4 ,in a more highly conventionalized form we find them in the ,cod4 ,troano1 thus3 ,illustration which has been explained by ,pousse1 ,thomas1 and others1 as making fire or as grinding paint4 ,it is obviously the dzacatan1 what ,i have called the 8pottery decoration0 7see p4 #eh7 around the figures1 showing that the body of the drum was of earthenware4 ,fig4 #db1 ,no4 #c shows the ordinary hand drum1 the huehuetl of the ,mexicans4 ,its name in ,maya is tunkul1 properly tankul1 which means either 8before the gods10 or 8now one worships0 7ahora se adora1 ,baeza47 ,it was either of wood and was struck with a stick2 or of pottery with a skin stretched over its mouth1 when the sound was produced by the fingers4 ,some were large and stood upright1 as shown in ,fig4 #dc4aba ,representations of these are common in the ,codices1 and have generally been mistaken for vases4 7,see ,cod4 ,cort41 p4 #bg47 ,even ,nos4 #d and #e1 ,fig4 #dd1 are probably some such musical instruments4 7,see ,cod4 ,cort41 pp4 #ab1 #cj1 #ca47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dc4--;,a ,standing ,drum4 7,from the ,cortesian ,codex47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dd4--;,graphic ,delineations of ,drums4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #de4--,the yax and other ,feather ,signs4 ,few glyphs are more frequent than ,no4 #a1 ,fig4 #de1 either alone or in such combinations as ,nos4 #b and #c4 ,the guesses as to what it represents have been singularly divergent4 ,brasseur said1 a kind of gourd2 ,seler1 a tree2 ,schellhas1 the zapote2 ,rosny and ,frstemann1 the phallus1 etc4 ,none of these suggestions seems to me tenable4 ,i believe it represents a common feather decoration made of short green or blue feathers1 attached to a style or staff4 ,it is frequent on ,mexican and ,maya figures1 and in ,no4 #d1 ,fig4 #de1 ,i copy one from a ,maya war dress4 ,the lower portion represents the ornament to which ,i allude4 ,it was called yax kukul1 and this gives the phonetic rebus value of the sign1 which is yax1 green1 and 7metaphorically7 new1 young1 fresh1 strong1 virile1 etc4 ,illustration ,care must be taken not to confound this with the character seen in the sign of the dog 7see p4 #gj71 which really represents the ribs and breast-bone1 although called a 8phallus0 by ,rosny1 an 8article of food0 by ,thomas1 a 8breastplate0 by ,allen1 and a 8vertebral column0 by ,seler4#abb ,the three feathers which surmounted the yax kukul1 as shown in ,no4 #d1 ,fig4 #de1 also developed in the hieroglyphs to an important sign4 ,it is shown in ,fig4 #df1 ,no4 #a1 and is the uppermost sign in the 8,initial glyph0 of ,palenque 7see p4 #acg7 and was a mark of eminent distinction4 7,see ,fig4 #dg1 ,no4 #b47 ,these three feathers indicated in ,maya symbolism the highest place and power4 ,they appear on the head of the important statue unearthed by ,dr4 ,le ,plongeon at ,chichen ,itza1 which he calls 8,chac ,mool10 in the form given ,fig4 #df1 ,no4 #b4 ,three was a sacred number with the ,mayas1 and with this in mind ,i shall refer to it as the 8trinal0 sign4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #df4--,the 8,trinal0 ,feather ,emblem4 ,in ,mexican writing the three feathers appear in the ikonomatic sign for tecpan1 royal1 in the ,lienzo de ,tlascala1 pp4 #ef1 #eg1 #gh4 ,as feather in ,maya is kukum1 which is allied in sound to ku1 god1 kul1 divine1 etc41 we see what an appropriate rebus the 8trinal0 makes4 ,rounded figures1 identified by ,seler as 8feather balls10 are sometimes portrayed above the men1 or 8,mother ,earth0 sign1 and in other relations4 ,see ,cod4 ,peres41 p4 #g1 for a good example4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dg4--,the 8,cross-hatched0 ,signs4 ,a number of drawings in the ,codices represent textile materials--mats1 cotton cloth1 wicker-work1 etc4 ,that ,fig4 #dg1 ,no4 #a is frequent1 both as an affix and as part of costume4 ,thomas calls it a trellis or lattice work2 ,seler1 an imitation of a snake skin2 ,frstemann1 of the shell of a tortoise4 ,in some places it is clearly a part of a helmet made of interlaced and twisted cords attached to a frame4 7,see ,cod4 ,tro41 pp4 #b1 #c1 #f1 #ai1 #bb991 #bc9947abc ,in ,nos4 #b and #c it appears as a written character with superfixes4 ,it forms part of the sign of the day chicchan1 and is attached to the sign of the sun and of the world4 ,this cross-hatching ,i regard as showing woven stuff1 or that twisted1 knotted1 and plaited2 and ,i consider its value when used phonetically to be 8strong1 mighty10 because the word for 8strong0 in ,maya is chich1 and that for twisting and interlacing cords is chich-kuch1--again a simple rebus4#abd ,the designs1 on p4 #abi1 are supposed by ,seler and ,thomas to represent a house1 the roof of which is indicated by the cross-hatched or plaited objects1 ,illustration and ,illustration4 ,i regard them as meaning a canopy1 the practical and symbolic uses of which article are often referred to by the early visitors to these tribes4#abe ,in ,fig4 #dh1 ,no4 #a1 ,i give a frequent postfix4 ,in the pictures it portrays the wing of a bird1 the foot of an animal1 the claw of a reptile or insect1 or the tail of a dog 7,cod4 ,tro41 p4 #bg74 ,no4 #b is the conventional sign for smoke1 as may be seen in ,cod4 ,tro41 pp4 #e991 #f991 etc4 ,no4 #c is called by ,seler an ideogram for 8man0 or 8person40 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dh4--,some ,linear ,signs and ,dots4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #di4--,the ,use of ,dots4 ,no4 #d ,i introduce from the ,mexican pictography to illustrate the use of black dots4 ,they have many significations which ,i have not traced in ,mayan ,codices1 such as seed1 salt1 ashes1 stars1 sand1 earth1 and from the latter1 place1 region1 world4#abf ,in the sign for the day1 ix1 ,i believe we see the dots with the signification xiix1 8grain-husks40 ,a line or lines of dots mean 8speech0 or vocal sound1 as attached to the drum1 ,fig4 #dd1 ,no4 #c2 coming from the mouth of a dog1 ,cod4 ,tro41 p4 #bj1 singing1 etc4 ,some have mistaken this for the sign of death4 ,dots in ,maya are ua or ual1 akin in sound to u1 month1 uil1 food1 and may be allusive for these ideas4 ,the kan and imix signs are often associated under two superfixes enclosing dots1 as in ,fig4 #di1 ,no4 #a4 ,these have been interpreted by ,seler to indicate copal gum1 or the burning of incense4 ,the sign is associated with various deities1 especially those of a beneficent character4 ,the same objects1 however1 occur elsewhere as superfixes over various glyphs1 as ,fig4 #di1 ,no4 #b1 where it is not easy to assign them any such meaning4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ej4--,linear ,prefixes4 ,modifications of ,fig4 #ej1 ,no4 #a are quite frequent4 ,this sign has had various explanations1 as typifying fire1 lightning1 or wind 7,seler1 ,schellhas72 but ,i believe it represents divine or magical power exerted by blowing4 ,as ,i have explained in my ,nagualism1 8the act of blowing was the essential feature in the practice of the #8medicine men4' ,it symbolized the exercise and transfer of spiritual power40#abg ,where the deity is portrayed with this addition1 he is in the act of exerting his divine influence4 ,for examples1 see the 8bee god10 in ,cod4 ,tro41 pp4 #e99 and #aj991 where the head is as in ,no4 #b2 and the scorpion1 in ,cod4 ,tro41 p4 #b1 precisely like one in the ,cod4 ,porfirio ,diaz1 lam4 ,i4 ,at times it also conveys the idea of speech1 or vocal sound1 or that from a drum1 etc41 e4 g41 ,fig4 #dd1 ,no4 #c4 ,no4 #c represents the usual mode of portraying the antenn of scorpions1 insects1 etc41 of interest because the word for these in ,maya1 matzab1 also means the rays of the sun and of light1 and the figure might so be interpreted4 ,dr4 ,frstemann believes that the circle of dots1 as in the lower portion of ,no4 #b1 means 8movement or precession20 as in ,cod4 ,dres41 p4 #fh4 ,the ,illustration sign is so surrounded1 indicating the junction of two time-periods2 or1 as others would say1 the crooked lightning darting from the sky4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ea4--,the 8,cloud-,balls0 and the 8,cork-screw ,curl40 ,in ,fig4 #ea1 ,nos4 #a and #b1 copied from the great tortoise of ,copan1 show the rain-clouds as conceived by the native artist4 ,in the ,codices they are seen in the day-sign cauac2 and elsewhere4 ,an almost identical conception appears in the pictography of the northern tribes4#abh ,seler speaks of them as ,wolkenballen1 8cloud-balls10 an appropriate name for the element4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eb4--,symbols for the ,earth4 ,no4 #c has been explained by ,thomas and ,seler as the portrayal of trickling fluid2 or1 again1 by the latter1 as a 8nose ornament40 ,dr4 ,schellhas first saw its real intention4 ,it is a picture of a twisted lock of hair1 or 8cork-screw curl10 worn by the ,maya women4 ,it appears in the monograms of various goddesses4 ,ideographically it has two meanings1 one1 woman or female2 the other1 down or downward2 either from its name 7which we do not know71 or because it hangs downward4 ,in the latter sense1 it is in the hieroglyph of the ,earth1 as that which is down or below us1 ,fig4 #eb2 although1 as the ,earth is the feminine principle in nature1--,mother ,earth1--,i would suggest that this is the intimation conveyed by the sign4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ec4--,signs for ,union4 ,no4 #a1 ,fig4 #ec1 occurs with great frequency4 ,allen explains it as 8the radical of the mouth10 others as 8falling water10 etc41 but ,i accept without hesitation ,brasseur's identification of it as the side view of the joint of a reed or maize stalk1 with the meaning 8union40 ,in the writing it is probably among other things the conjunctive conjunction1 yetal1 8and10 which explains its frequency4 ,it is common in the form ,no4 #b1 in the ,vienna ,codex1 signifying the union of day series 7pp4 #eh1 #fa1 #fd1 etc472 it may imply sexual union1 as in the 8,tableau des ,bacabs0 7see above1 p4 #ej47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ed4--,the ,knotted ,head ,dress4 ,other signs for union are ,no4 #c1 which is a knotted head-dress common on males1 and ,no4 #d1 from the ,cod4 ,troano1 p4 #e1 which perhaps indicates the union of two month periods1 or the new and old moons1 in relation4 ,the middle design between the two crescents is frequent as an affix 7e4 g41 ,cod4 ,tro41 p4 #g1 etc474 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ee4--,the 8,tree of ,life40 ,i have already hinted at the significance of the 8tree of life0 in ,mayan mythology4 ,it is shown in the ,codices under two forms1 ,fig4 #ee1 ,nos4 #a and #b4 ,in the former it seems to be growing from a bottle-shaped vase4 ,the leaves 7omitted in this instance7 are well shown in ,cod4 ,tro41 p4 #ag994 ,they are cordate and pendent4 ,no4 #b is taken from the ,cod4 ,peres41 p4 #c2 it beautifully shows the sacred tree1 here distinctly anthropomorphic1#abi in the vase of the heavenly waters1 lifting its fourfold branches4 ,in the original1 the god of the north star is resting upon them4 ,usually the tree is associated with ,itzamna4 ,both forms are frequent in the ,mexican manuscripts1 and the myths relating to them have been subjects of study by various writers4#acj ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ef4--,the 8,machete0 and ,similar ,signs4 ,forms like ,nos4 #a and #b1 ,fig4 #ef1 and perhaps ,no4 #c1 are usually taken to represent a chopper or machete4 ,the representation of this weapon or implement is seen in ,cod4 ,tro41 p4 #ag1 where a man is killing a snake with one4 ,in the conventional and negligent manner in which these characters are often written1 it is not easy to distinguish them from others of different origin and meaning4 ,nos4 #b and #c may be feather signs4 ,seler explains the machete as the symbol of striking or wounding 78,ausdruck des ,schlagens074 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eg4--,supposed ,bird ,signs4 ,characters like the above recur in all the forms of writing4 ,no4 #a has been called by ,seler the representation of 8man10 but this is doubtful4 ,it may be a variant of ,no4 #b1 which is a 8closing hand0 from ,fig4 #ca1 ,no4 #c4 ,nos4 #c and #d1 from ,copan and ,guatemalan pottery1 follow closely the ,codices4 ,with a 8comb affix10 ,frstemann calls ,no4 #d 8a well-known form of moan10 meaning the ,pleiades 7,entziff4 ,,iv72 while ,dr4 ,seler explains it as an owl symbol4 ,the design enclosed is held to depict the bill of a bird4 ,the 8,crotalean curve10 the outline of the jaws of the rattlesnake1 ,crotalus horridus1 has been dwelt upon with emphasis by ,allen and ,maudslay as one of the most notable emblems in ,maya art4#aca ,fig4 #eh1 ,nos4 #a1 #b1 #c1 #d1 show some of its forms in the ,codices1 and ,no4 #e1 from ,stephens1 illustrates its radical4 ,as a graphic element1 it is less prominent than in architecture4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eh4--,the 8,crotalean ,curve40 ,fig4 #ei1 ,nos4 #a-d1 are outlines of objects often seen in the ,codices4 ,no4 #a1 which looks like a carriage-wrench1 is in fact a serpent wand1 as can readily be seen by comparing ,cod4 ,tro41 pp4 #f1 #g1 #ca991 with ,cod4 ,dres41 pp4 #dj1 #db1 #dc4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ei4--,objects ,held in the ,hand4 ,no4 #b is the 8medicine rattle40 ,sometimes it was a gourd1 at others of earthenware1 as we see by the 8pottery decoration0 in ,cod4 ,tro41 #cd1 #ce1 etc4 ,sometimes it looks like a fan or a mirror4#acb ,no4 #c is the hatchet1 and ,no4 #d the chisel4 ,the peculiar shape and mode of use of the latter are seen ,cod4 ,tro41 #cd1 etc4 ,both of these implements were made of metal obtained from ,tabasco1 and ,landa especially says that the latter was that with which they carved their idols1 exactly as we see in the ,,mss4#acc ,the word for the tomahawk in ,maya was bat2 and from the same root come batul1 8to fight20 batab1 8a chief20 batan1 8first or in front of20 bat1 8hail20 for any of which ideas the weapon might be a symbol or a rebus4 ,it is of frequent occurrence in the texts4 ,one of its uses1 ,i am persuaded1 was to indicate a thunderbolt or stroke of lightning4 ,the name for this in ,maya was 8the blow of the cloud10#acd and in the group of the moan sign and the tomahawk we have this well expressed4 ,the first design in ,fig4 #fj shows the aspersorium1 lilbal1 with which the high priest sprinkled the holy water 7which was the dew collected in the early morning7 during the ceremonies4 ,to it were attached the rattles of the rattlesnake and tails of poisonous serpents4#ace ,it is often portrayed in the ,codices and inscriptions4 ,the second design is the throwing-stick1 in ,nahuatl1 atlatl4 ,the admirable monograph of ,mrs4 ,zelia ,nuttall explains its important symbolic uses4#acf ,examples where it is well portrayed are3 ,cod4 ,dres41 p4 #fj1 #fe2 ,cod4 ,tro41 pp4 #ba99 and #bb994 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fj4--,the ,aspersorium1 the ,atlatl1 and the ,mimosa4 ,the third design in ,fig4 #fj is what ,seler calls a broom 7,spanish1 escobilla1 ,nahuatl1 mallinalli17 and ,schellhas1 a feather4 ,but that it is1 as ,brasseur said1 a mimosa1 seems clear from ,cod4 ,tro41 p4 #bi1 where it is shown growing4 ,in id41 p4 #cb99;c1 where it is above the turtle1 it has an astronomic significance4 ,other objects sometimes depicted are fans1 ual or picit2 mirrors1 nen2 shields1 chimal2 and planting sticks1 xul4 ,the designs shown in ,fig4 #fa recur in all the ,codices1 and ,i agree with ,dr4 ,frstemann that they must refer to the celestial bodies and their relative motions 7contrary to the view of ,dr4 ,seler74 ,that they have not all been identified is perhaps because none of the students of the subject has been astronomer enough to understand the lessons they convey4 ,a few we are certain about4 ,no4 #a is the sun1 ,no4 #b the moon2 ,no4 #ac must be 8the rope of the moon0 7see above p4 #cf7 indicating its conjunction2#acg ,no4 #ab1 from the ,cod4 ,peres41 might reasonably indicate its opposition2 ,no4 #ad is the pole star1 occurring in ,cod4 ,tro41 pp4 #bj1 #bb1 #bc4 ,dr4 ,frstemann has offered certain reasons1 reaching a moderate probability1 that ,nos4 #c and #d symbolize the planet ,mercury2 ,nos4 #e and #f the planet ,venus2 ,no4 #g1 ,jupiter2 ,no4 #h1 ,mars2 and ,no4 #aa1 ,saturn2 ,no4 #ae ,i have seen only on the casts from ,sastanquiqui1 ,peten1 at the ,world's ,columbian ,exposition4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fa4--,the 8,constellation ,band40 ,these designs are arranged in rows of three or more1 forming ribbons or bands1 and therefore ,i shall refer to the series as 8the constellation band40 ,some members of it usually are placed above the representation of the sun and moon 7day and night71 frequent in the ,codices and represented in ,fig4 #fb4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fb4--,the 8,heavenly ,shield40 ,this has been called 8the heavenly shield10 a designation ,i shall retain4 ,its signification was first explained by ,schellhas4 ,the orbs are suspended from the 8constellation band0 by curious bearings1 which seem to be developments from a form very common in the ,mexican ,,mss41 and which is shown in ,fig4 #fc1 ,no4 #a1 which1 however1 ,i have copied from a potsherd brought from ,copan4 ,figs4 ,nos4 #b and #c1 from the same source1 also seem of astronomical intent1 though ,no4 #c may be a variant of the ik 7comp4 ,cod4 ,dres41 pp4 #ef1 #eg74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fc4--;,designs from ,copan ,potsherds4 ,after considerable discussion the signs for the cardinal points have been definitely determined to be as in ,fig4 #fd1 reading from left to right1 ,east1 ,north1 ,west1 ,south4 ,the ,east sign is composed of the kin 7sun7 sign with the ahau as a superfix and the 8claw0 postfix2 the ,north has the north star god's monogram with the lunar prefix2 the ,west the kin sign with the mach as a superfix 7see p4 #hc7 and the 8claw0 postfix2 the ,south has the yax with the mac superfix and sometimes an augment4 ,space will not permit a further analysis of these important composites1 but each is highly significant4 ,these signs never occur isolated1 but always together2 where one is found1 the others may confidently be looked for4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fd4--,the ,signs for the ,cardinal ,points4 ,another series of signs are intimately associated with these4 ,they are shown ,fig4 #fe1 and read from left to right1 ,south1 ,east1 ,north1 ,west4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fe4--,the 8,directive ,signs40 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ff4--,the 8,cuceb40 ,the precise purpose of these has remained obscure4 ,dr4 ,seler has suggested that they indicate the colors which were assigned to the four directions4 ,this is true as far as it goes1 but does not explain many of their uses4 ,my own studies have led me to believe they are primarily 8directive signs10 intended to guide the learner in the use of the calendar wheel4 ,this was somewhat intricate1 made by the superposition of two surfaces1 the lower marked with the cardinal points1 etc41 the upper1 ,i take it1 with these directive signs4 ,that any quarter in the native astrology could be transferred into any other1 explains why they are all found with all the signs of the cardinal points4#ach ,my view is borne out by the ,books of ,chilan ,balam4 ,in this work the rotation of the time-periods is called cuceb1 8the squirrel10 and their beginning is marked with the ,fig4 #ff4 ,this is identical with several variants of the ,north 8directive sign0 above2 and the reason it was called cuceb was that the verb cucul means 8to move round and round0 as they did their calendar wheels4 ,these four directive signs occur repeatedly as affixes4 ,they may be read1 7#a7 ideographically3 either as directions1 south1 east1 north1 west2 or for colors1 yellow1 red1 white1 black2 or1 7#b7 ikonomatically3 for the homonyms of the names of these colors1 that is1 for the other meanings of the color names4 ,these are numerous4 ,thus1 kan1 yellow1 also means 8jewels1 money1 food1 abundance1 a rope1 a hamac20 chac1 red1 may also signify 8strong1 water1 rain1 the rain god1 a tempest20 zac1 white1 is also an intensive particle1 8much1 very10 and is close to zacal1 to weave1 a web1 and zacan1 bread2 while ek1 black1 may also be translated 8dark1 darkness1 a star1 dyewood1 the fat of meat40 ,the sign for the ,east1 the flint knife1 may as such have the values assigned above to that object 7see p4 #hi74 ,this1 however1 does not make the method so complicated as one may think1 for in all rebus-writing we find the ordinary signs employed are limited to a few recognized meanings4 #e4 ,the ,hieroglyphs of the ,days4 ,in my work on 8,the ,native ,calendar of ,central ,america0 ,i pointed out that the hieroglyphs of the names of the days are to be looked upon as rebuses1 and therefore do not tell us the real meaning of the name given the day4 ,they are merely the pictures of some familiar visible object or objects1 the name of which has more or less similarity to the name of the day1 and would serve by an ocular representation to recall it to mind4 ,to repeat what ,i there said on this essential point3 8,it is quite misleading to seek the real meaning or derivation of a day-name or other word from the figure which represents it in the hieroglyphic writing4 ,the latter usually stands for a word of an entirely different meaning1 the only connection being a more or less similarity of sound40#aci ,it should be remembered1 therefore1 that some of these hieroglyphics of the day-names recur as independent characters with other than calendar significations4 ,illustration #a4 ,kan4 ,the object represented is a polished stone1 shell pendant1 or bead1 in ,maya1 kan4 ,it was their circulating medium1 and it stands for money1 and all which that magic word conveys1--food1 prosperity1 abundance4#adj ,the dot or eye in the upper portion is the perforation by which it was strung on a cord4 ,others explain it as an eye 7,seler72 a tooth 7,brasseur72 a grain of maize 7,schellhas74 ,illustration #b4 ,chicchan4 ,the allusive design to suggest the name is supplied by the twisted threads chich kuch4 ,see above1 p4 #if4 ,brasseur sees in it a petticoat1 ,seler a serpent's skin1 etc4 ,illustration #c4 ,cimi4 ,represented either by an eye closed as in death1 cimil2 or by the maggot 7see above p4 #fe74 ,illustration #d4 ,manik4 ,correctly explained by ,brasseur as a hand in the act of grasping1 8une main qui se ferme40 ,its phonetic value is not kab1 hand1 but mach1 8to grasp0 7see above p4 #hc74 ,illustration #e4 ,lamat4 ,the figures bear a close resemblance to some of the sun signs4 ,see ,fig4 #cg4 ,they seem to show the orb partly below a line--the horizon--which would give as a rebus lamal kin1 the sunsetting2 enough to recall the day name4 ,illustration #f4 ,muluc4 ,the day sign muluc and the month sign mol have a resemblance1 as do the words4 ,the root mol or mul means a coming together1 or piling up4 ,the hurricane is called molay ik1 8the winds united20 the word for religion is umolay1 literally1 8a congregation or meeting40 ,both signs seem to portray one thing inside of another of the same kind1 with a probable reference to the sense of the root4 ,illustration ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fg4--;,a ,cartouche4 #g4 ,oc4 ,among its various meanings this word signifies 8a trail0 and 8footprints40 ,such seems the design in the first variant4 ,brasseur1 and1 following him1 ,seler1 think that the others portray the ears of a dog1 as in some ,mayan dialects the dog is called oc4 ,the full glyph is thus3 ,illustration ,it is of frequent occurrence in such a cartouche as shown in ,fig4 #fg1 where a is the strengthened pax2 7,see p4 #ib71 b1 the dog sign2 c1 the haunch of venison2 and d1 the monogram of ,xmucane with a vigesimal or personal prefix4 ,illustration #h4 ,chuen4 ,the figure is that of a mouth1 chi1 with fangs2 but as that was not very near in sound1 a calabash1 chu1 is sometimes portrayed at the bottom of the circle1 within4 ,the mouth of no particular animal is intended1 as is evident from allied designs2 though ,brasseur and ,seler claim that it is of a monkey1 ,schellhas1 of a snake1 etc4 ,the day name is close in sound to chun1 the first1 the beginning1 and appears occasionally as a numeral 7see above1 p4 #bc74 ,piles of chuen are shown as offerings1 e4 g41 ,cod4 ,dres41 pp4 #bf1 #db2 ,cod4 ,cort41 p4 #c4 ,do they mean 8first fruits80#ada ,illustration #i4 ,eb4 ,the face of an old man with a peculiar pointed ear mark4 ,the word eb means 8ladder20 ebtun1 a stone stairway2 ebzah1 to sharpen or point a flint2 this last may explain the sharpened ear and dots4 ,illustration #aj4 ,ben1 or ,been4 ,explained by ,brasseur as showing a path1 be2 by ,seler1 as a mat and a straw roof4 ,to me1 it looks like a be che1 a wooden bridge1 the two supports of which are shown and which was sometimes covered with a straw mat4 ,this rebus gives the first syllable of the name4 ,in ,tzental tradition ,been was the ancient hero who erected the inscribed stel 7piedras paradas7 at ,quixt1 near ,comitan1#adb which the natives still decorate at certain times with garlands of flowers1 etc4#adc #aa4 ,ix4 ,the usual figure contains a number of black dots4 ,these suggest the word xiix1 scattered grain husks4 ,seler thinks it shows 8the round hairy ear and spotted skin of the jaguar40 ,brasseur proposed that it conventionally portrays the feminine parts1 as ix is the feminine prefix in ,maya4 ,illustration ,illustration #ab4 ,men4 ,the head of an aged person1 supposed by ,brasseur and ,seler to be ,mother ,earth4 ,sometimes it is extended worm-like1 as in ,fig4 #dc1 ,no4 #c4 ,illustration #ac4 ,cib4 ,brasseur and ,seler believe the enclosed spiral represents the fermented liquor1 ci1 trickling down4 ,the 8pottery decoration0 7see p4 #eh7 certainly indicates a jar or vase4 ,illustration #ad4 ,caban4 ,the design is that of the 8cork-screw curl0 of a woman1 and stands for cab 7see p4 #ii74 ,illustration #ae4 ,ezanab4 ,the picture is of the sacrificial knife of flint1 which closely corresponds with the name4 ,illustration #af4 ,cauac4 ,the design shows a side face1 with pendent clouds for the eye1 the 8windcross0 for the ear1 and1 perhaps1 as ,seler thinks1 the hairy mouth of the moan bird4 ,on the other hand1 ,rosny explains it as 8the plan of a building10 and ,thomas as 8the sign for wood40 ,illustration #ag4 ,ahau4 ,usually considered to be the conventional drawing of a full face4 ,illustration #ah4 ,imix4 ,generally regarded as representing a mammary gland1 though it is not quite like those shown in the ,codices4 ,it is typical of prosperity and is often attached to the kan sign4 ,in the calendar it indicated the beginning of a time-period4#add ,illustration #ai4 ,ik4 ,the word means air1 wind1 breath1 spirit1 soul1 and life4 ,the design is a katun enclosing the sign of the four directions or four winds1 the 8wind-cross40 ,brasseur calls it a flower1 because it is sometimes shown with what looks like leaves emerging from it 7,cod ,tro41 pp4 #e991 #f991 etc474 ,this indicates1 however1 the spirit of life coming forth 7or1 as ,seler thinks1 is a sign of sacrifice2 the same superfix occurs on the kan1 ,cod4 ,cort41 p4 #cg1 etc474 ,illustration #bj4 ,akbal4 ,the word resembles akab1 night1 and is probably derived from it4 ,the design may be that of a mouth with teeth 7,brasseur1 ,seler71 or the rays of the sun after sinking below the horizon4 ,as a general glyph it is frequent with the signification of night and darkness1 not necessarily in a bad sense4 #f4 ,the ,hieroglyphs for the ,months4 ,these are more intricate than those of the days1 and show wider variation4 ,in the designs given below1 the first on the line is from ,landa's work1 the second and third are from the ,dresden ,codex4 ,illustration #a4 ,pop4 ,the word means 8a mat40 ,the principal element in the glyph is the south or yellow sign1 referring perhaps to the color of a mat1 with the alar subfix4 ,the prefix to the first variant shows the 8windcross40 ,illustration #b4 ,uo4 ,the usual meaning of this term is a prickly pear2 also1 a species of frog2 uooh1 a written character or letter4 ,the prefix indicating speech 7see p4 #ih7 seems to indicate the latter4 ,the chief element is the mol sign with the night sun as a subfix4 ,illustration #c4 ,zip4 ,the design shows the sun below the flint knife1 that is1 the slain or departed sun1 a play on the phrase1 zipik kin1 the sun set 7ponerse el sol1 ,dicc4 ,motul74 ,the idea is strengthened by the mac as a prefix1 signifying 8to extinguish40 ,illustration #d4 ,zodz4 ,the word means 8bat10 and the design shows the head of one with the kin as a superfix4 ,illustration #e4 ,zec1 or ,tzec4 ,the design is explained by ,brasseur as a death's head1 ,maya1 tzekel2 by others1 as an open mouth with teeth 7compare chuen1 p4 #aab74 ,the projecting curved lines above the head are supposed by ,schellhas to represent a peculiar mode of wearing the hair4 ,but as tzec means 8scorpion10 they may depict conventionally the claws of that animal4#ade ,illustration #f4 ,xul4 ,the three signs are quite unlike4 ,the first presents the conical bill of a bird of the finch or sparrow family2 the second1 the horned owl or the falcon 7872 the third1 a conventionalized bird's head4 ,the second may be ikonomatic for xulub1 horns4 ,the word xul means to end or to finish2 and1 the end1 limit1 or extremity4 ,illustration #g4 ,yaxkin4 ,this means 8new sun0 or 8strong sun40 ,the glyph expresses this by the yax sign1 8new0 or 8strong20 the kin 7sun7 sign and the dotted postfix1 ual1 month4 ,according to the ,dicc4 ,motul1 the phrase dze yax kin was applied by the ,mayas to the hottest part of the summer4 ,illustration #h4 ,mol4 ,see remarks on the day sign muluc1 p4 #aaa4 ,dr4 ,frstemann suggests that the above designs represent either 7#a7 a snail in its shell1 or 7#b7 an egg with its yolk1 or 7#c7 the sun after setting4 ,seler holds that it shows the heart1 ,maya1 ol1 within the body1 making a rebus for mol4 ,illustration #i4 ,ch'en4 ,this means a spring or well of water4 ,the second sign shows a water jar bearing the sign of fluid1 with reference to the sense of the word4 ,the first is more complex4 ,the main element is a face with a moan mouth1 referring to water2 for an eye the infix u1 for month2 and two prefixes1 the sign of union 7see p4 #ajj71 and above it what may be a variant of ben 7see4 #aac74 ,illustration #aj4 ,yax4 ,the feather sign yax 7see p4 #id7 is the superfix to the cauac sign1 which carries the postfix ual1 month4 ,illustration #aa4 ,zac4 ,this word means 8white10 and this is here expressed by the cauac sign carrying as a superfix the north directive sign 7see p4 #aji71 as white was the color sacred to the ,north4 ,illustration #ab4 ,ceh4 ,the meaning of ceh is 8deer10 and the design shows the flint knife used in slaughtering that animal1 placed as a superfix to the cauac sign4 ,illustration #ac4 ,mac4 ,the first glyph represents the cover of a jar1 the name of which in ,maya is mac1 thus making a perfect rebus4#adf ,the second1 not plain1 is a variant of the kan or imix1 with the 8comb0 subfix4 ,in this month was celebrated the important rite of tupp kak1 8the extinguishing of the fire10 the aim of which was to secure rain for the growing crops4 ,the figure may refer to this4 ,illustration #ad4 ,kan kin4 ,this expression means 8the yellow sun40 ,the first glyph is a perfect rebus1 showing the sun sign1 kin1 and the south directive sign 7see ,fig4 #fe71 which means 8yellow40 ,the second glyph is the sign for a breast-bone1 a shield1 or dog 7see p4 #abe74 ,illustration #ae4 ,muan4 ,the head of the muan bird1 the crested falcon1 with his ears or horns1 see p4 #gd4 ,illustration #af4 ,pax4 ,the only or main element is the drum1 pax che1 above explained 7see p4 #ia74 ,illustration #ag4 ,kayab4 ,the main element was recognized by ,schellhas as the head of a turtle4 ,in ,landa's alphabet this has the value a or ak4 ,it is applied as a rebus to recall the first syllable of the name4 ,illustration #ah4 ,cum ku4 ,the glyph in one case combines kan and cum1 with prefixes of cauac and cib4 ,dr4 ,frstemann fancifully explains it as portraying 8from one point two flashes of lightning or sun's rays striking the maize field40 ,rather1 we have here the rebus cum kan1 recalling the name1 and the cauac sign1 which is repeated in a number of the month signs4 #g4 ,the ,hieroglyphs of the ,deities4 ,i have already mentioned that in the texts the gods are severally represented by their signs or monograms4 ,the credit of defining these in a clear and satisfactory manner is due almost entirely to ,dr4 ,schellhas1 and ,i shall here present the results of his careful studies1 retaining his alphabetic nomenclature1 which has in some degree been accepted by ,dr4 ,frstemann and others4 ,a4 ,the god of ,death4 ,illustration ,his signs are clearly established and vary but little1 ,nos4 #a-d4 ,two of them are usually written4 ,the prefix to #a and #c has been already referred to 7see p4 #hd74 ,the bean 7or flint7 appears as a prefix in ,no4 #b1 as a subfix in ,no4 #c4 ,frequently associated with his monogram is ,no4 #e1 which ,seler explains as the sign of the owl4 ,no4 #f1 from ,cod4 ,dres41 p4 #ej1 with a skull for a head-dress1 may be a priest of this divinity2 ,no4 #g1 from ,dres41 p4 #bb1 may also be a priest or a companion4 ,b4 ,itzamna1 or 8the god with the snake-like tongue40 ,illustration ,his hieroglyphs are1 beyond mistake1 ,nos4 #h and #i4 ,the directive sign1 ,no4 #aj1 is occasionally associated with his monogram4 ,in ,cod4 ,dres41 p4 #cc1 one of his attributes is shown in ,no4 #aa1 the hand closing on the rattles of the crotalus4 ,the food symbols1 ,nos4 #ab1 #ac1 #ad1 #ae1 are often connected with him4 ,some regard them as the four elements1 etc4 ,c4 ,the ,north ,star1 or 8the god with the ornamental face40 ,illustration ,it is easy to recognize his monogram1 ,nos4 #af1 #ag1 #ah1 #ai1 #ba4 ,i have already explained the 8pottery decoration0 7above1 p4 #eh74 ,as prefixes1 we find the bean1 ,no4 #bj2 the crescent1 as in #ba2 the number #ac1 indicating completeness or perfection2 and the vase1 as in #af and #ag4 ,d4 ,cuculcan1 8the moon god1 or night god40 ,illustration ,the complete hieroglyph is ,no4 #bb1 generally followed by ,no4 #bc4 ,he is 8the old man god10 with one tooth1 as in ,no4 #bd2 sometimes connected with the moon symbol as in ,no4 #be2 and often holds in his hand the aspersorium1 shown in ,nos4 #bf and #bg4 ,see p4 #aje4 ,e4 ,ghanan1 8a male maize god40 ,illustration ,his usual monogram is ,no4 #bh4 ,no4 #bi is a picture of the maize plant from ,cod4 ,tro41 p4 #bi1 from which ,dr4 ,schellhas argues that the head-dresses of this divinity1 as shown in ,nos4 #cj-cd1 are conventional designs for growing maize4 ,my own collations persuade me that the maize should here be understood as a general symbol for vegetable growth1 fertility1 and the harvests4 ,f4 ,the god of ,war1 or1 8a companion of the god of death40 ,illustration ,his hieroglyphs1 shown in ,nos4 #ce-da1 often contain the number #aa4 ,the black line is characteristic4 ,his signs appear in connection with all four cardinal points4 ,g4 ,kin ich1 8the sun god40 ,illustration ,his monogram is uniform ,no4 #db4 ,it is the sun with the ben ik superfix and alar postfix4 7,see p4 #ij74 ,his nose ornament1 ,no4 #dc1 and the 8flower10 ,no4 #dd1 are usually distinctive of his portraits4#adg ,i4 8,the serpent goddess40 ,her signs are not distinct4 ,dr4 ,schellhas believes them to be ,nos4 #di-ea2 but ,i cannot accept that they are intended for the same individual4 ,h4 8,the serpent god40 ,illustration ,the hieroglyph and the personage1 ,no4 #de1 are doubtful4 ,he is supposed to be shown in ,cod4 ,dres41 pp4 #aa1 #ab1 #bj1 etc4 ,nos4 #df and #dg1 from ,cod4 ,tro41 p4 #ag1 are also assigned him4 ,the rattle1 ,no4 #dh1 appears as a hieroglyph in ,cod4 ,dres41 p4 #fa1 and elsewhere4 ,i doubt this deity4 ,k4 8,the god with the ornamented nose40 ,the hieroglyph is ,no4 #eb1 often accompanied by the 8dog0 sign1 ,no4 #ec4 ,i have already expressed the belief that this is merely one of the manifestations of ,itzamna4 7,see p4 #ed47 ,l4 ,ical ,ahau1 8a black god40 ,illustration ,dr4 ,schellhas distinguishes between a divinity whose sign is ,no4 #ed1 and 8,m10 8a second black god10 whose hieroglyph is ,no4 #ee1 #ef1 and whose face is shown ,no4 #eg4 ,he appears in ,cod4 ,dres41 pp4 #ac1 #af1 #dc1 and is common in the ,cod4 ,tro4 ,the sign ,no4 #eh is occasionally associated1 as in ,cod4 ,tro41 p4 #e1 and ,cod4 ,cort41 p4 #bh4 ,n4 8,a god with the features of an old man40 ,illustration ,his sign is ,no4 #ei1 which may be translated 8#e ,zac10 and may refer to his festival on that date 7,seler74 ,his face and peculiar head-dress1 with the pax sign1 are shown ,no4 #fj4 ,these do not strike me as representing divinity1 but simply 8old age40 ,o4 8,a goddess with features of an old woman0 7,xmucane874 ,her hieroglyphs are shown ,nos4 #fa1 #fb2 the latter is more frequent4 ,p4 8,a figure with features of an old man40 ,it is seen ,cod4 ,dres41 p4 #ba1 with the sign ,no4 #fc4 ,it is doubtful if a deity is intended4 ,q4 8,an isolated deity40 ,shown ,cod4 ,dres41 p4 #bj1 with the signs ,nos4 #fd and #fe2 probably a mere personage4 ,illustration ,r4 ,the moan bird4 ,he is often associated with the god of death1 and bears the hieroglyphs ,nos4 #ff-fi1 sometimes with the #ac4 ,s4 ,no4 #gj is the usual hieroglyph of the dog1 and ,t1 ,no4 #ga1 is that of the vulture4 ,u4 ,no4 #gb is the sign of the jaguar1 as seen in ,cod4 ,tro41 p4 #ag1 and in ,cod4 ,dres41 pp4 #h1 #bf4 ,illustration ,v4 ,the turtle or tortoise4 ,its monogram is seen ,nos4 #gc1 #gd1 #ge4 ,it is the a of ,landa's alphabet4 ,there is no doubt but that the turtle's head and not that of the parrot is intended1 though some have thought otherwise4 ----- ,footnote #aja3 8,the ,ancient ,phonetic ,alphabet of ,yucatan10 in the ,american ,historical ,magazine1 for #ahgj4 ,footnote #ajb3 ,a notable exception to this1 commented on by de ,rosny1 is seen on pages #ah and #ai of the ,codex ,peresianus4 ,why the rule should be reversed in those sections is still a problem4 ,footnote #ajc3 ,study of the ,,ms4 ,troano1 ,preface1 p4 viii4 ,footnote #ajd3 ,alfredo ,chavero1 ,antiguedades ,mexicanas1 p4 xi 7,mexico1 #ahib74 ,the ,codex ,porfirio ,diaz must be read from right to left4 ,footnote #aje3 ,d4 ,g4 ,brinton1 8,the ,alphabets of the ,berbers0 in ,proceedings of the ,oriental ,club of ,philadelphia1 p4 #fd 7,philadelphia1 #ahid74 ,footnote #ajf3 ,for instances1 the numerals in connection with the snakes in ,cod4 ,dres41 pp4 #fa-fd1 and #fi-gc1 are to be read from right to left1 and from below upward1 beginning at the last page of the series1 and proceeding toward the left on the extended sheet4 ,frstemann1 ,entzifferung1 ,no4 ,,ii1 #ahia4 ,footnote #ajg3 ,in the ,archives de la ,socit ,amricaine de ,france1 for #ahhg1 pp4 #bg1 #bh1 #aac1 etc4 ,footnote #ajh3 ,in this connection ,i would call the especial attention of students to the article by ,dr4 ,schellhas1 8,vergleichende ,studien auf dem ,felde der ,maya-,alterthmer10 in the ,internationales ,archiv fr ,ethnographie1 #ahij4 ,he there illustrates their methods of tattooing1 wearing the hair1 personal ornaments1 costumes1 utensils1 etc41 as shown in the ,codices and other remains4 ,footnote #aji3 ,on the interpretation of these and allied signs the student should consult ,garrick ,mallery1 ,sign ,language among the ,north ,american ,indians1 in ,rep4 of the ,bureau of ,ethnology1 ,vol4 #a1 and ,w4 ,p4 ,clark1 ,the ,indian ,sign ,language 7,philadelphia1 #ahhe74 ,it is not possible for me here to give more than the most meager details on this important topic4 ,footnote #aaj3 ,bird's wing in ,maya is xik4 ,close in sound is xikal1 queen 7seora principal1 ,dicc4 ,motul74 ,the first wing feather was also called 8a knife0 7la primera pluma de la ala del halcon se llama 8cuchillo maestre10 8u cicil ulum40 ,dicc4 de ,san ,francisco74 ,footnote #aaa3 ,in the museum of the ,university of ,pennsylvania there is a beautiful vase from ,guatemala1 with a vitrified surface2 on it a face and head1 with a necklace entirely of this sign1 repeated in a pattern4 ,footnote #aab3 8,tup2 ciertas arracadas de palo antiguas2 y llamanse ahora las arracadas zarcillos40 ,dicc4 ,motul4 ,footnote #aac3 ,in ,maya a comb is xel4 ,this as a verb means 8to cut in two20 and as a numeral prefix it divides in half unities less than #bj2 as xel u yox kinbe1 8two-and-a-half-day journeys40 ,ikonomatically1 the comb sign may have these significations4 ,landa gives it as the sign for ca1 perhaps1 as ,valentini suggests1 for cac1 to pull out hair4 ,footnote #aad3 ,uil also means anything favorable or advantageous--8cosa provechosa10 ,dic4 ,motul4 ,the word u never means 8vase10 as ,prof4 ,thomas has repeatedly stated1 following the unreliable ,brasseur4 ,footnote #aae3 8,los navajones para los sacrificios1 de los quales tenian buen recaudo los sacerdotes10 p4 #ajg1 ,ed4 ,madrid4 ,footnote #aaf3 ,relacion de la ,villa de ,valladolid 7#aegi71 ,chap4 ,,xiv4 ,i am aware that some variants of this glyph have a striking resemblance to a penis flaccidus cum testiculis2 but after close comparison ,i have rejected this rendering4 ,thomas sees in the two shells 8tortillas40 ,footnote #aag3 ,cosas de ,yucatan1 p4 #aab 7,ed4 ,madrid74 ,what looks like the kan sign below it is the strap which fastens it4 ,footnote #aah3 ,mr4 ,marshall ,h4 ,saville1 in a paper published in the ,journal of ,american ,folk-lore1 ,september1 #ahid1 and stated to have been read before the ,american ,association the preceding month1 entitled 8,a ,comparative ,study of the ,graven ,glyphs of ,copan and ,quirigua10 observes of the design of the paxche that it 8is probably a drum40 ,no expression to this effect was in the paper as read before the ,association1 and in the following number of the ,journal ,mr4 ,saville concedes that ,i was the first to offer this identification4 ,footnote #aai3 ,duran3 ,hist4 de las ,indias1 ,trat4 ,i1 ,lam4 #bi2 ,trat4 ,,ii1 ,lam4 #f4 ,footnote #abj3 ,i quote the explanation from the ,dicc4 de ,motul1--8,paxaan3 cosa que esta quebrada1 como vasija1 cabeza1 barco1 etc42 cosa que esta desparecida2 paaxan in cab1 huido se me han mis abejas2 paaxan in cuchtel1 paaxan in cahal1 despoblado se me ha el pueblo1 ido se me ha mi gente4 ,y asi se puede decir de muchachos1 de hormigas1 humo1 niebla1 nublados1 dolor de cabeza1 de la voluntad1 etc41 anadiendose al paaxan el nombre de la cosa40 ,in a similar sense the phrases paaxal yit caan1 8the edge of the sky is broken10 paaxal u chun caan1 8the beginning of the sky is broken10 are translated1 8reir el alba1 venir el dia1 amanecer asi40 ,footnote #aba3 ,in the ,tzental dialect the drum entirely of wood was called culinte2 that with a skin stretched across it1 cayob4 ,lara1 ,vocabulario ,tzental1 ,,ms4 ,footnote #abb3 ,a similar design is found on ,mexican shields1 e4 g41 ,lienzo de ,tlascala1 plate #ab1 ,cod4 ,porf4 ,diaz41 lam4 s4 and on the curious sculptures at ,monte ,alvan1 ,oaxaca1 figured in ,captain ,dupaix's ,second ,expedition1 plate #ba1 in ,kingsborough's ,mexican ,antiquities4 ,footnote #abc3 ,probably the 8morriones de madera10 to which early writers allude as part of the armor of a ,maya warrior4 ,footnote #abd3 8,torcer hilo con huso2 chich kuch4 ,hilo torcido2 chichin bil kuch40 ,dicc4 de ,motul4 ,meanings of chich1 are3 8strong1 swift1 hard1 violent10 also 8grandmother40 ,footnote #abe3 ,father ,ximenes speaks of the 8asiento del rey20 8tenia un docel de pluma2 sobre el guarda polvo1 tenia cielos de diversos colores1 tres1 dos1 etc40 ,origen de los ,indios de ,guatemala1 p4 #aif4 ,the symbol is therefore one of power and authority1 rather than of a mere inanimate object4 ,footnote #abf3 ,see ,antonio ,peafiel1 ,nombres ,geograficos de ,mexico2 ,estudio ,jeroglifico1 passim 7,mexico1 #ahhe74 ,i would especially recommend this easily obtainable work to the student who would familiarize himself with the method of 8ikonomatic0 writing as it was used by the ancient ,mexicans4 ,another series of admirable examples are in the 8,lienzo de ,tlascala10 published by the ,junta ,colombina 7,mexico1 #ahib71 under the editorship of the distinguished antiquary1 ,don ,alfredo ,chavero4 ,footnote #abg3 ,nagualism2 a ,study in ,native ,american ,folk-lore and ,history1 p4 #bj1 note4 ,sometimes water was used1 when the word in ,maya is puhaa1 8to blow water10 and is translated in the dictionaries1 8rociar con la boca40 ,footnote #abh3 ,mallery3 ,picture ,writing of the ,american ,indians1 p4 #gjj4 ,the double curves that we see on the snake1 ,cod4 ,cort41 p4 #ae1 etc41 ,i construe as the sign of the sky4 ,the expression in ,maya was u nak caan1 8la boveda del cielo20 literally1 the 8belly0 of the sky4 ,footnote #abi3 ,the transformation of the human into the arboreal form and its opposite are frequently referred to in the myths and pictography of the red race4 ,some interesting observations upon this point1 by the ,rev4 ,s4 ,d4 ,peet1 may be found in the ,american ,antiquarian1 for ,september1 #ahid4 ,footnote #acj3 ,see the ,codex ,borgia1 plates #h1 #af1 #ag1 #ah1 #ai2 ,cod4 ,vaticanus1 plate #fe2 ,cod4 ,colomb41 ,lam4 #e1 #ag2 ,cod4 ,vienna1 pp4 #ah1 #cg1 etc42 and consult ,pousse in ,arch4 de la ,soc4 ,amer41 #ahhg1 p4 #ajb2 ,schellhas1 ,zeitschrift fr ,ethnologie1 #ahhf1 p4 #ec4 ,footnote #aca3 ,dr4 ,harrison ,allen3 ,an ,analysis of the ,life ,form in ,art1 p4 #cg 7,philadelphia1 #ahge72 ,a4 ,p4 ,maudslay3 ,biol4 ,cent4 ,amer4 ,archology1 ,part ,,ii1 plate #bc1 etc4 ,footnote #acb3 ,mr4 ,e4 ,p4 ,dieseldorff1 in a description of a very beautiful decorated vase from the vale of ,cham1 ,guatemala1 says that fans were not in use among the natives1 and that the object in the paintings usually identified as such is a 8soplador10 or fire-blower1 made of woven palm leaves1 and still found in every house4 ,verhand4 der ,berliner ,anthrop4 ,gesell41 #ahid1 p4 #cgd4 ,footnote #acc3 8,tenian cierto azofar blando y con alguna poca mezcla de oro1 de que hazian las hachuelas de fundicion y unos cascabelejos con que vaylavan y una cierta manera de escoplillos con que hazian los idolos40 ,relacion de ,yucatan1 p4 #ajg4 7,madrid edition47 ,footnote #acd3 ,u hadz muyal1 literally1 8its blow1 the cloud40 ,another figure which seems to indicate the same is the broad1 pointed object seen in the hands of deities4 ,cod4 ,cort41 p4 #bh2 ,cod4 ,tro41 pp4 #bi1 #cj1 #ch1 #ci4 ,it is the same as the ,nahuatl tlauitequiliztli1 portrayed in the hands of ,tlaloc1 in plate #gj1 of ,boban's ,catalogue ,raisonn of the ,goupil collection4 ,footnote #ace3 ,the name is from lil1 to sprinkle1 haa1 water1 and bal1 the instrumental termination4 ,the ,relacion de la ,villa de ,valladolid1 #aegi1 cap4 xiv1 says3 8el ahkin llevaba un hisopo1 atado en el muchas colas de vibora y culebras ponzoosas40 ,footnote #acf3 ,the ,atlatl or ,spear ,thrower of the ,ancient ,mexicans4 ,by ,zelia ,nuttall 7,cambridge1 ,mass41 #ahia74 ,footnote #acg3 ,see ,cod4 ,dres41 p4 #ej4 ,precisely the same design recurs in the 7,mexican7 ,codex ,borgia1 published in ,kingsborough's ,mexican ,antiquities4 ,no4 #aa is also a ,mexican calendar sign 7,gama74 ,footnote #ach3 ,i hesitated some time to assign the flint knife to the ,east1 but believe the evidence is in its favor4 ,as ,chavero has pointed out 7,antiguedades ,mexicanas1 p4 xxxv71 in ,mexican symbolism1 the tecpatl belongs decidedly to the ,west4 ,footnote #aci3 ,the ,native ,calendar of ,mexico and ,central ,america1 p4 #d 7,philadelphia1 #ahic74 ,footnote #adj3 8,kan3 cuzcas piedras que servian los indios de moneda y de adorno al cuello40 ,dicc4 de ,motul4 ,i owe this identification to my late friend1 ,dr4 ,c4 ,h4 ,berendt1 a profound ,maya scholar4 ,its correctness will be confirmed by examining ,cod4 ,cort41 p4 #ab4 ,cod4 ,dres41 p4 #dh1 etc4 ,this circulating medium of the ,mayas is mentioned in the ,relacion de ,valladolid1 #aegi1 cap4 #cc4 ,in purchasing a wife the expression was ah coy kan1 8he who must pay kans10 as these were the consideration4 7,dicc4 ,motul47 ,other meanings of kan are3 yellow1 and hence ripe fruit1 the yolk of an egg1 cooked maize1 etc42 anything precious or valuable2 a measure of length2 a set task2 a net1 and to fish or hunt with one4 ,footnote #ada3 ,variants of the chuen are extremely frequent in the mural inscriptions1 and its correct interpretation1 therefore1 highly important4 ,as stated in the text1 ,i believe they generally stand for chun1 which means 8the foundation1 the beginning1 the first1 the cause40 ,we find such expressions as tu chun che1 8at the foot of the tree20 tu chun uitz1 8at the base of the hill10 etc4 ,in ,tzental1 chu is the teat or mamma1 chunel1 to suck the teat4 ,in many inscriptions the position of the chun is antithetic to the pax1 the one indicating the beginning1 the other the end of a series4 ,footnote #adb3 ,nuez de la ,vega1 ,constituciones ,diocesanas1 p4 #aj4 ,the story was that ,been inscribed his own name upon them4 ,i have not ascertained that this locality has been examined by modern travelers4 ,it might offer valuable material4 ,footnote #adc3 ,e4 ,pineda1 ,descripcion ,geografica de ,chiapas1 pp4 #g1 #h4 ,footnote #add3 ,see ,frstemann1 ,entzifferung1 ,,iv1 ,s4 #ae4 ,footnote #ade3 ,seler observes1 on doubtful premises1--8,tzec scheint der ,zermalmer zu bedeuten40 ,footnote #adf3 8,mac1 tapa de vasija40 ,the opinion of ,allen that the sign represents the extended arms1 the 8great span10 is inappropriate4 ,the measure called mac was much greater 7doce brazas1 ,pio ,perez74 ,another meaning of mac is the sea turtle and its shell 7galapago y concha del74 ,footnote #adg3 ,dr4 ,seler1 in ,zeitschrift fr ,ethnologie1 #ahia1 p4 #aaa1 gives another monogram for ,kin ich--the cauac1 with the 8blowing0 prefix 7see p4 #ih7 and the 8machete0 subfix4 ,v4 ,specimens of ,texts4 ,in the selection of the following texts ,i have been guided principally by the desire to illustrate ,mayan palography as presented on different surfaces1 paper1 stone1 earthenware1 etc41 and as it is found in the various regions occupied by tribes of ,mayan culture and affinity4 ,some of the examples have not been previously published1 and for this reason have a special value4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fh4--,the ,god of ,time brings in the ,dead ,year4 7,from the ,dresden ,codex47 ,fig4 #fh ,i would explain as the god of time bringing in the dead year4 ,it is part of the ceremonies depicted as belonging to the close of the year4 ,that the wolf-headed figure represents time1 the ,devourer1 ,i infer from its relations in the early pages of the ,ferjevary ,codex1 where it is shown eating a string of days1 etc4 7in ,kingsborough's ,mexican ,antiquities74 ,these ceremonies are represented in the ,cod4 ,troano1 pp4 #bj-bc1 and the ,cod4 ,dres41 pp4 #be-bh4 ,the recognition of their significance is principally due to ,prof4 ,cyrus ,thomas4 ,the god arrives in the vase of the heavenly waters4 ,in his left hand he holds the rattle1 in his right the magic wand1 or magician's staff1 caluac1 and the medicine bag 7,maya chimil1 ,nahuatl1 xiquipilli72 around his waist is the broad carrying-band1 in the loop of which he has the dying year1 kan4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fi4--;,a ,sacrifice at the ,close of the ,year4 7,from the ,dresden ,codex47 ,in ,fig4 #fi is another scene from the same ceremonies4 ,the person on the right is the celebrant1 holding a beheaded fowl in his right hand1 while his left strews grain4 ,before him is a haunch of venison and a turkey4 ,above the latter is the moon symbol with the number #ae4 ,to the left of these stands the statue of ,mam1 the ,grandfather1 a log folded in a robe and surmounted by the leaves of the ,tree of ,life4#adh ,in front are seen the serpent's head1 the sign of ,time2 below this are footprints1 to indicate that time is gone2 and beneath the form of the god is the sign pax1 with the meaning1 8it is ended40 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gj4--,symbolic ,representation of the ,close of one ,time-,period and the ,beginning of another4 7,from the ,cortesian ,codex47 ,in interesting contrast to these two is ,fig4 #gj1 showing the beginning of a time-period4 ,on the left1 two dogs1 back to back beneath the same canopy1 indicate the closing of one period and the beginning of another4 ,on the right1 the serpent of time1 resting on the earth1 brings to the heavens the new sun4 ,the youthful god between the serpent's jaws carries the world-sign for an eye1 and holds in his hand the symbol yax kin1 8new sun40 ,above are appropriate hieroglyphs1 the tenor of which the diligent student of my previous pages will have little difficulty in catching4 ,in ,fig4 #ga the ,god of ,growth and ,fertility holds an elaborate caluac surmounted by a bird1 its apertures filled with shells4 ,behind him is seated the ,god of ,death1 his caluac tipped with a formidable spear-head4 ,the ,god of ,growth has not his own monogram1 but that of the old ,cuculcan4 ,when we recall that the shell is the sign for 8nought10 the indication seems that the ,god of ,death with his spear will bring to nought the efforts of the ,god of ,fertility4 ,we see in ,fig4 #gb the ,north ,star in a series of relations to other celestial bodies or divinities4 ,beginning at the left1 he is seated on his own sign which is surrounded by rays2 next1 he is upon the sign of the four winds and four quarters of the earth2 in the third he is suspended in a sling from the 8constellation band0 between the sun and a planet2 and fourth1 he is above the clouds1 which rest upon a canopy protecting a pile of kans1 money or food emblems4 ,the three figures in ,fig4 #gc present the beneficent deities1 each bearing in the hand the food symbol1 kan4 ,the group copied in ,fig4 #gd1 show the ,god of ,death followed by ,kin ich1 who seems remonstrating with him1 who in turn is followed by the ,god of ,war with a wrathful visage4 ,the positions of the hands are especially noteworthy4 ,the sign mol leads each of the cartouches4 ,in ,fig4 #ge ,cuculcan is making fire from the friction of two pieces of wood4 ,on his head is the moan symbol1 on his thigh the kin4 ,each of the three cartouches begins with the drum sign4 ,his own monogram is the third member of the second cartouche4 ,in ,fig4 #gf the text is the same in each of the three cartouches except the monograms of the three divinities represented4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ga4--,the ,god of ,growth and the ,god of ,death4 7,from the ,cortesian ,codex47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gb4--;,auguries from the ,north ,star4 7,cortesian ,codex47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gc4--;,itzamna1 the ,serpent ,goddess1 and ,kin ich4 7,dresden ,codex47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gd4--,the ,god of ,death1 ,kin ich1 and the ,god of ,war4 7,dresden ,codex47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ge4--;,cuculcan ,makes ,new ,fire4 7,codex ,troano47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gf4--,the ,gods of ,death1 of ,growth1 and the ,north ,star4 7,dresden ,codex74 ,in ,fig4 #gg each cartouche begins with mol1 and is immediately followed by the monogram of the god4 ,the lower glyphs differ materially4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gg4--,the ,god of ,growth1 ,kin ich1 and ,itzamna4 7,dresden ,codex47 ,all the above specimens of texts have been photographed from the ,codices1 without restoration4 ,they show1 therefore1 not only the general character of those documents1 but also their state of preservation4 ,in many instances the pages have been defaced1 and portions of the inscriptions upon them injured4 ,sometimes it is possible to restore the obliterations by a comparison of parallel passages1 and this has been done successfully by various scholars4 ,the extracts have been selected also with the object of showing the representations of the most prominent deities1 ,itzamna1 ,kin ich1 ,cuculcan1 the ,god of ,death1 etc41 in the manner in which we find them in the ,codices4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gh4--,the ,inscription of ,kabah4 ,in this interesting inscription from ,central ,yucatan1 we recognize familiar signs1 as the medicine-drum and the cloud-signs at the bottom1 and cauac1 chikin1 yax1 etc41 within the square area4 ,it is sufficient to prove that at ,kabah the same writing was in use4#adi ,there is some reason to suppose1 however1 that in this part of the ,mayan territory there had been a development of this writing until it had become conventionalized into a series of lines and small circles enclosed in the usual square or oval of the katun4 ,i have seen several examples of this remarkable script1 and give one1 ,fig4 #gi1 part of an inscription on a vase from ,labna1 ,yucatan1 now in the ,peabody ,museum4#aej ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gi4--,linear ,inscription from ,yucatan4 ,the tablets at ,palenque are too extensive a study for me to enter upon in the present work4 ,the engraving1 ,fig4 #hj1 is merely to show the character of the writing and to present the 8initial glyphs10 upon which1 in ,copan and elsewhere1 ,mr4 ,maudslay lays so much stress 7see above1 p4 #bc74 ,incidentally1 they seem to me to prove that the proper reading of the tablet is to begin at the top of the two right-hand columns1 read them together downward 7as ,thomas suggested71 then the next two to the left in a similar manner2 but the last two on the left1 those headed by the great pax1 should be read from below upward4 ,this differs from any scheme yet proposed1 but alone corresponds with the natural sequences of the groups of glyphs4 ,the terminal 7upper left7 glyph shows the pax surmounted by the xihuitl and this by the 8trinal0 signs4 ,the student of the preceding pages will not be at a loss to explain their purport4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hj4--,the 8,initial ,series0 of the ,tablet of the ,cross1 ,palenque4 ,i have already referred 7above1 p4 #ed7 to the singular 8bas-reliefs of ,chiapas40 ,they are covered with elaborate designs carved in low relief on the argillaceous slate of which they consist4 ,nearly all have hieroglyphics of a decorative ,mayan character4 ,for the sake of comparison ,i add ,fig4 #ha1 a tracing of the four glyphs which are placed in front of the tapir on the 8tapir tablet40 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ha4--;,inscription on the 8,tapir ,tablet10 ,chiapas4 ,the interesting group1 ,fig4 #hb1 is the most complete example of the ancient writing ,i know of1 from the region of the ,zotzils4 ,the original1 formerly in the possession of ,don ,secundino ,orantes1 in the city of ,chiapas1 measures #bf by #ag inches4 ,the front is badly injured1 but the back well preserved4 ,we find in this cartouche of twenty glyphs enough familiar forms to convince us of the identity of the graphic method4 ,pax1 chuen1 the iguana1 etc41 are soon recognized4 ,the copy was made by the late ,dr4 ,c4 ,h4 ,berendt4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hb4--;,inscription on a ,tablet from ,tonin1 ,chiapas4 ,tonin is about #hj miles south of ,palenque and near ,ococingo1 whence ,mr4 ,squier obtained the amulet bearing the neat inscription shown in ,fig4 #hc4 ,the original is now in the ,american ,museum of ,natural ,history1 ,new ,york ,city4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hc4--;,inscription on an ,amulet from ,ococingo1 ,chiapas4 ,the beautiful inscription1 ,fig4 #hd1 hitherto unpublished1 is on a burial vase from the ,quiche district of ,guatemala1 near ,huehuetenango4 ,it is not only the longest and most perfect example known of ,quiche palography1 but it is also the most extensive inscription ,i have seen on pottery from any part of the ,mayan territory4 ,the original1 a vase of high artistic merit1 is in the ,museum of the ,university of ,pennsylvania4 ,again we see familiar signs1 the imix1 the pax1 the numerals1 the bean subfix1 etc4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hd4--;,inscription on a ,vase from a ,quiche ,tomb1 ,guatemala4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the limits which ,i have prescribed for this work do not permit me to add further comparisons in ,mayan palography4 ,fortunately1 the student can find ready access to abundant examples4 ,the inscriptions of ,copan and ,quirigu1 of ,chichen ,itza1 and ,palenque1 are or will be represented with admirable fidelity in ,mr4 ,maudslay's work already referred to2 others from ,tikal have been made accessible by the labors of ,berendt1 ,charnay and de ,rosny2 and we are justified in believing that before many years the intelligent explorations of competent archologists will add hundreds of texts from the relics in stone1 clay1 and wood which still exist to attest the character of ancient ,mayan literature4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the most urgent duty resting upon the present generation of students interested in this subject is to collect and accurately reproduce as many of these texts as possible1 before they are destroyed or lost4 ,extended comparisons will ultimately reveal their meaning1 as will readily be seen from the advances in that direction chronicled in the preceding pages4 ----- ,footnote #adh3 ,see ,cogolludo3 ,historia de ,yucatan1 ,tom4 ,i1 p4 #cag4 ,footnote #adi3 ,this inscription1 painted on stucco1 was copied by ,h4 ,f4 ,becker and printed in the ,archives de la ,socit ,amricaine de ,france4 ,see de ,rosny1 ,l',interpretation des anciens ,textes ,mayas1 p4 #ab41 note 7,paris1 #ahge74 ,footnote #aej3 ,another example is in the ,thompson collection1 and a third1 somewhat similar1 also from a vase from ,yucatan 7now in ,berlin71 has been published by ,dr4 ,schellhas1 ,internat4 ,archiv4 fr ,ethnographie1 #ahij 7p4 #c of his separatum74 ,i4 ,,index-,,vocabulary ,,of ,,maya ,,words4 7,t4 signifies the ,tzental dialect47 ac1 a tortoise1 or turtle1 #ce1 #gd acan1 mead1 #db ac ek1 a constellation1 #ce aghan1 ,t41 young ear of maize1 #fb ahau1 ruler1 lord1 #da2 a day name1 #aae ahau can1 rattlesnake1 #fh1 #ge ahau can mai1 chief priest1 #fh ahau katun1 #bb ahau tzab can1 the rattlesnake1 #ge ah-caluac1 the staff bearer1 the mayordomo1 #eb ah-ch'om1 a vulture1 #gc ah-chun can1 high priest1 #fh ah-coy-can1 v4 p4 #aaj1 note ah-cunal than1 word-conjurer1 #fh ah-kin1 priest1 #fh ah-kin-mai1 chief priest1 #fh ah koh-keuel1 a masked priest1 #fi ahlo1 the macaw1 #gc ah-mac ik1 wind conjurer1 #fh ah-poou1 the milky way1 #ce ah-pul1 a conjurer1 #fh ah-uai-chac1 rain conjurer1 #fh ah-uai xibalba1 conjurer of departed souls1 #fh ah-zahcab1 ,venus1 #cd akbal1 night1 darkness1 #ef2 a day name1 #aaf alau 7#fd1jjj1jjj71 #ai anhel1 to stand erect1 #df bacab1 #dj bac-baquetic1 a numeral1 #ai balam1 the jaguar1 #gb bak1 four hundred1 #ai bat1 an axe2 hail1 #ajd batab1 a chief1 #ajd batul1 to fight1 #ajd be1 footprints1 #hh be che1 a bridge1 #aac ben1 or been1 a day name1 #ia1 #aac ben-ik1 a graphic sign1 #ij1 #abc bolon1 nine1 #be bolon paxche1 a large drum1 #ib budz ek1 a comet1 #ce bul1 a bean2 all1 the whole1 #hi bulcabal1 a destruction1 #df caan1 the sky1 #eb cab1 down1 downward1 etc41 #fj1 #ii1 #aad caban1 a day name1 #aad cac1 to pull out1 #hf calab 7#afj1jjj71 #ai calacal1 perforated1 #eb caluac1 the 8staff of office10 #eb1 #abh1 #acj camach1 a jaw bone1 #he canan1 a sentinel1 guardian1 #cd canan chulchan1 ,venus1 #cd canzicnal1 serpent being1 #da cauac1 a day name1 #aae cayob1 ,t41 a drum1 #ic ceh1 a deer2 a month name1 #aai chaam1 the 7molar7 teeth1 #dc chac1 red1 strong2 water1 etc41 #cd1 #dj1 #aji chac ek1 ,venus1 #cd chacal ik1 strong wind1 #dj cham1 a jaw bone1 #he chamal dzutan1 shooting stars1 #ce che1 tree1 wood1 #de chebel1 to paint2 a paint brush1 #db chel1 the rainbow1 #dj ch'en1 a month name2 a well1 #aah chi1 to bite1 #hi2 a mouth1 #aab chibil kin1 a solar eclipse1 #cf chibil u1 a lunar eclipse1 #cf chicchan1 a day name1 #aaa chich1 strong1 powerful1 swift1 hard1 #if chich kuch1 to twist thread1 #if chimal1 shield1 #cd chimal ek1 the north star1 #cd chimal ik1 the north wind1 #cd chimil1 a medicine bag1 #abh chinax1 ,t41 a knife1 #hi chu1 a calabash1 #aab chuen1 a day name1 #bc1 #aab chulchan1 the sky or heavens1 #cd chun1 the first1 the beginning1 #bc1 #aac ci1 to trickle1 #aad cib1 a day name1 #aad cicil1 a knife1 #hd cimi1 a day name1 #aaa coz1 an owl1 #gc cuceb1 a squirrel1 #aji cucul1 covered2 revolving1 #ef1 #aji culinte1 ,t41 a drum of wood1 #ic cum1 a vase1 #da1 #dh cum ku1 a month name1 #aba cun1 to conjure1 #dd cuzaan1 or cuzam1 a swallow1 #db dzacab1 a generation1 #be dzacah1 to heal by magic rites1 #ic dzacatan1 a medicine drum1 #ic dzicnial1 #ci dzip1 to skin animals1 #db dziz1 coolness1 cold1 #db eb1 a day name1 #aac eb-che1 a ladder1 #gg ebtun1 a stone stairway1 #aac ebzah1 to sharpen1 #aac ek1 star2 black1 #cd2 dyewood1 fat1 #aji ek chuh1 scorpion1 #fg ezanab1 a day name1 #aad ghan1 ,t41 maize1 #fb haycabal1 a destruction1 #df hobnil1 hollow2 the belly1 #dj hozan1 disembowelled1 #da hub1 a snail1 #ge hun1 one1 #be hunab1 only1 sole1 #cg hunbalan u1 the moon in conjunction1 #cf ibach1 an armadillo1 #gb ical1 or ic1 ,t41 black1 #fg ich1 an eye2 a face2 twins1 #hd ik1 wind1 breath1 life1 soul1 etc41 #ej1 #aae ik1 a day name1 #ia1 #aae ikomne1 a comet1 #ce imix1 a day name1 #aae itz1 fluid1 #eb ix1 feminine prefix1 #dj ix-bouat1 a prophetess1 #fh ix chel1 the rainbow1 #dj ix-cunal than1 a conjuress1 #fh ix kan leom1 a spider-web1 #dj ix kin1 priestess1 #fh ix nuc1 old woman1 #dc kaax1 a knot2 a harvest-field1 #da kab1 a hand1 arm1 finger1 juice1 sap1 tears1 #hc kaba1 a name1 #hc kabil1 his hand1 #ch kak1 fire1 #db1 #abj kak mo1 a bird1 #ci kal1 twenty1 #ai kan1 money1 food1 etc41 #aji kan kin1 a month name1 #abj katun1 #aa1 #bb1 #bh kax or kaax1 a knot1 #ia kax pol1 the tress of the hair1 #ia kaxala1 to rain2 the rain1 #ia kayab1 a month name1 #abj kin katun1 #bh kin1 kinal1 see p4 #hg kinam1 kinchil 7#c1bjj1jjj71 #ai kin ich 7deriv471 #ci koh1 a mask1 #fi ku1 a god2 divine1 #cg kuch1 a vulture1 #df1 #gc kul1 divine1 #ie kukum1 a feather1 #ie kup1 to sacrifice1 to cut1 #fi lakin chan 7deriv471 #ch lamat1 a day name1 #aaa licil dzicil1 a knife1 #hi lilbal1 a sprinkler1 #ajd lom1 a lance1 #dc lum1 the earth1 #dh maax1 a monkey1 #gb mac1 to extinguish2 a cover2 a turtle2 a month name1 #aai mach1 to grasp1 #hc mai or maay1 dust1 smoke1 fume1 #be1 #fh mam1 a numeral1 #ai2 grandfather1 #abh manik1 a day name1 #ci1 #aaa matzab1 antenn1 rays1 #ih mechun1 a numeral1 #ai mehen ek1 a constellation1 #ce men1 a day name1 #aad miatz1 a scholar1 #be moan1 see muan mol1 a month name1 #aah molay ik1 a hurricane1 #aab moo1 the macaw1 #gc moxic1 ,t41 a day name1 #ci muan1 a falcon1 cloudy1 #gd2 also1 a month name1 #abj muc1 to cover1 to bury1 #fa much1 a frog1 #ge mucul canan1 ,venus1 #cd mucul mam1 a numeral1 #ai mucul u1 the waning moon1 #fa muluc1 a day name1 #aaa muyal1 clouds1 #dh1 #eb1 #gd muyan1 see muan nak caan1 the sky1 #ii na1 a house1 #cg nen1 a mirror1 #aje noh1 great1 strong2 right hand1 #cd noh ek1 great star1 #cd nohnial1 #ci nuc1 old1 #dc nech1 provisions1 #db oc1 to enter2 a day name1 #aab ol1 the soul or spirit1 #dh oxlahun1 thirteen1 #be paakal1 to frighten1 #dd pacat1 face1 #dd pax1 a musical instrument1 #ib2 a month name1 #abj paxan1 completed1 finished1 #ib1 #abe1 #abi pax che1 a wooden drum1 #ib pec1 to rattle1 to thunder1 #fc1 #ga pec chac1 thunder1 #fc pechhec hol1 flat-headed1 #fb pek1 a dog1 #ga pic1 eight thousand1 #ai picit1 a fan1 #aje pixan1 the soul1 #be pocam1 a cleansing1 #ee pop1 a mat2 a month name1 #aaf ppeta1 to perform religious rites2 to cry with pain1 #fi ppua1 dew1 #db pputum1 small1 #dc ppuz1 bent over1 #dc puch1 to spoil1 to undo1 to destroy1 #dd puhaa1 to blow forth water from the mouth1 #ih puy1 a shell1 #ai ta1 a knife2 excrement1 #hi tah1 a dramatic representation1 #hi tab1 cord1 twenty #ai1 #db tamacaz1 the milky way1 #ce tan kukul1 before the gods1 #dd tankul1 a drum1 #ic tem1 an altar of stone1 #dh tixl 7,cak471 the tapir1 #ee tub1 to spit1 #db tun1 a stone1 a jewel1 #db tunkul1 see tankul tup1 to stop up1 to extinguish2 also1 ear-rings1 #he1 #abj tupul u uich kin1 a solar eclipse1 #cf tzab1 rattles of the rattlesnake2 the ,pleiades1 #ce1 #fc tza ec1 a comet1 #ce tzapa1 short1 #dc tzec1 a scorpion2 a month name1 #aag tzekel1 a death's head1 #aag tzimin1 the tapir1 #ee tzotzceh 7#c1bjj1jjj71 #ai tzuc1 a five-day period1 #bh ,u1 the moon42 a necklace2 his2 #cf1 #hf1 #hg ua or ual1 a dot1 #ig2 a fan1 #aje uac1 six1 #dc ual1 month1 #aah u nupptanba1 the moon in opposition1 #cf uil1 food2 advantageous1 #hf uinal1 month2 twenty1 #hg uinic1 a man1 #dc1 #hg uo1 a frog1 #ge2 a month name1 #aaf uooh1 a book2 a letter1 #aaf ut1 a snail1 #ge xamach1 a platter1 #eh xaman1 north1 #cd xaman ek1 the north star1 #cd xanab xux1 a bee1 #fj xel1 a comb1 etc41 #hf xicin1 an ear2 a shell1 #he xik1 wing of a bird1 #hd xikal1 a queen1 #hd xiix1 bran1 husks of grain1 #ig xoc1 to sing1 to chant1 #db xoc1 the breech clout1 #ia xul1 a planting stick1 #aje2 to end2 a month name1 #aag xulab1 an ant1 #cf xulub1 horns1 #aah xux1 a wasp1 #fj xux ek1 ,venus1 #fj yax1 green2 blue2 fresh2 strong2 virile2 early1 #ie2 a month name1 #aai yax che1 green tree1 #de1 #dh yax kin1 a month name1 #aah1 #abi yax kukul1 a feather ornament1 #ie y1 to appear1 to show oneself1 #dc yetal1 and1 #ajj yum1 father1 ruler1 #da zac1 white1 east1 v4 pp4 #aji1 #aaj2 a month name1 #aai zacal1 to weave1 #aji zacan1 bread1 #aji zac ik1 east wind1 #da zac nohol ik1 southeast wind1 #da zac xaman ik1 northeast wind1 #da zac zini1 white being1 #da zaztal ek1 ,venus1 #cd zec1 a month name1 #aag zin1 to stretch out1 #ge zinaan1 a scorpion1 #ge zinaan ek1 a constellation1 #ge zinil1 the earth1 #ge zip1 a month name1 #aag zipik kin1 the sunset1 #aag zodz1 a bat2 a month name1 #aag zuhuy1 a virgin1 #db ,,ii4 ,,index ,,of ,,authors4 ,aguilar1 #bf1 #de ,allen1 ,h41 #hf1 #ie1 #ajc1 #aai1 etc4 ,baeza1 ,p41 #ic ,becker1 ,h4 ,f41 #acg ,beltran de ,santa ,rosa1 #dd ,berendt1 ,c4 ,h41 #dh1 #gd1 #ic1 #aaj1 #ach ,boas1 ,f41 #fb ,boban1 ,e41 #ajd ,brasseur1 ,abb1 #ac1 #ad1 #ae1 #bc1 #ea1 #hc1 #hf1 #ij1 #aab1 etc4 ,carrillo1 ,c41 #fb ,charencey1 ,h4 de1 #ab ,charnay1 ,d41 #aa1 #adc ,chavero1 ,a41 #ed1 #gi1 #ig1 #aji ,chilan ,balam1 ,books of1 #df1 #dg1 #aji ,clarke1 ,w4 ,p41 #hc ,cresson1 ,h4 ,t41 #ac1 #ae ,cogolludo1 ,p41 #ci1 #dg1 #ea ,culin1 ,s41 #bd ,cushing1 ,f4 ,h41 #dh ,dieseldorff1 ,e4 ,p41 #ajd ,dupaix1 ,c41 #ie ,duran1 ,d41 #ff1 #ib ,fewkes1 ,j4 ,w41 #da1 #ee1 #eg1 #gj ,frstemann1 ,e4 ,w41 #ab1 #ac1 #ah1 #bi1 #cc1 #gd1 etc4 ,hernandez1 ,p4 ,r41 #cg ,herrera1 ,a41 #ci ,holden1 ,e4 ,s41 #aa1 #ac ,kingsborough1 ,lord1 #ab1 #ie ,landa1 ,d4 de1 #ad1 #bf1 #ce1 #ci1 #dc1 #ed1 #fh1 #ajd1 #aaf ,lara1 ,d41 #fj1 #ic ,las ,casas1 ,b41 #cg ,leon1 ,m41 #bf ,lizana1 ,p41 #cg ,mallery1 ,g41 #hc1 #ii ,maudslay1 ,a4 ,p41 #aa1 #ab1 #ba1 #bc1 #ajb1 #acf ,motul1 ,dicc41 #cg ,nuez1 de la ,vega1 #be1 #ci1 #fb1 #fg1 #fh1 #aac ,nuttall1 ,z41 #bf1 #cb1 #aje ,orantes1 ,s41 #ach ,parry1 ,f41 #ej ,peet1 ,s4 ,d41 #aja ,peafiel1 ,a41 #ig ,perrin1 ,p41 #ab ,pineda1 ,e41 #aac ,pineda1 ,v41 #ai ,pio ,perez1 #da1 #aai ,plongeon1 ,dr4 ,le1 #aa1 #ae1 #ie ,popol ,vuh1 #dh1 #ej1 #fa ,pousse1 ,a41 #ab1 #ba1 #ca1 #gi1 #hj1 #aja ,putnam1 ,f4 ,w41 #aa ,rada y ,delgado1 ,j4 ,d41 #ad ,rau1 ,c41 #ac ,rochefoucauld1 ,f4 ,a41 #af ,rosny1 ,l4 de1 #ab1 #ad1 #he1 #aae1 #acg ,saville1 ,m4 ,h41 #ib ,schellhas1 ,p41 #ab1 #dc1 #ej1 #ea1 #fb1 #ga1 #ha1 #aba1 #acf1 etc4 ,schrader1 ,dr41 #bf ,schultz-,sellack1 ,dr41 #da ,seler1 ,e41 #aj1 #be1 #cb1 #dc1 #dd1 #de1 #ga1 #hc1 #hf1 #abd1 etc4 ,squier1 ,e4 ,g41 #ada ,stephens1 ,j4 ,l41 #aa ,stone1 ,w41 #gb ,thomas1 ,c41 #ac1 #af1 #bd1 #bi1 #cb1 #cd1 #ej1 #ea1 #gf1 #hf1 #abh1 etc4 ,thompson1 ,e4 ,c41 #acf ,valentini1 ,f41 #hf ,waldeck1 ,f41 #ed ,ximenes1 ,f41 #ej1 #if ,,iii4 ,,general ,,index4 ,acan1 #db ,acat1 #dc ,ah chuy kak1 #dd cun can1 #dd dziz1 #db kak nech1 #db kin xoc1 #db ppua1 #db puch1 #dd1 #fd ,ahulane1 #dd ,ah zakik ual1 #db ,alphabets1 of ,landa1 #ad2 of other writers1 #ae-ag ,anum1 the first man1 #df ,armadillo1 the1 #gb ,aspersorium1 the1 #aje1 #abc ,atlatl1 the1 #aje ,bacabs1 the1 #dj ,baptism1 native1 #gf ,baton of office1 #eb1 #abh1 #acj ,bean symbol1 #hi1 #aba1 #abb sign1 #hi ,beards1 on images1 #ci1 #eg ,bee god1 the1 #ei-fa1 #ih ,bells1 as ornaments1 #fd1 #hc ,ben1 or ,been1 myths of1 #aac ,ben-ik sign1 #ia1 #abc ,birds1 figures of1 #gb ,bissextile years1 #bf ,black gods1 #ff1 #abd ,calendar signs1 #bb systems1 #bf-bi ,canopies1 #if ,canzicnal1 #da ,cardinal points1 the1 #dj1 #da1 #ajh ,centeotl1 #fb ,ceremonial circuit1 the1 #da ,chac mool1 #ie ,chacs1 the1 #dj ,chamay bac1 #dd ,chiapas1 #cg1 #ach ,chichen ,itza1 #ch ,chilan ,balam1 ,books of1 #ad1 #ai ,cit bolon tun1 #db ,cloud balls1 #ih ,codices1 the1 #aa2 as time-counts1 #ah ,colors1 symbolism of1 #dj1 #da signs for1 #aji ,comb sign1 #hf ,comets1 #ce ,conjurers1 #fh ,constellation band1 the1 #ajf ,copan1 inscriptions1 #ba1 #ajg1 #acf ,cork-screw curl1 #ih ,cosmic sign1 the1 #bd1 #ej ,cosmogony of ,mayas1 #df ,cross hatching1 #bd1 #if ,cross1 ,tablet of1 #fb1 #acg ,crotalean curve1 #ajb ,cuculcan1 #ch1 #di1 #ee-eg1 #fa ,cum ahau1 #da ,days1 hieroglyphs of1 #aji ,death1 god of1 #dd1 #fd1 #aba signs for1 #hd1 #ig ,deers1 #gb1 #aai ,directive signs1 #hh1 #ajh ,dogs1 figures of1 #ga1 #abi signs for1 #hi1 #ie1 #aab1 #abe as food animals1 #ij ,dots1 their meanings1 #ig ,drum signs1 #ia4 ,see pax ,dwarfs1 #dc ,ear rings1 #he ,earth-goddess1 the1 #fa1 #fd1 #ia1 #ie1 #ajj ,eclipses1 #cf ,ek ahau1 #ff1 #fg chua1 #db1 #ff1 #fg ,epochs of the ,universe1 #df ,evening ,star1 the1 #fa1 #fd ,evil1 gods of1 #dc ,eye1 signs for1 #hc-he ,falcon1 the crested1 #gd ,fans1 #ajd1 #aje ,feather balls1 #ie signs1 #hd1 #id ,female divinities1 #dj-dd ,fish1 #ij 8,fish and oyster0 sign1 #hi ,flatheads1 #fb ,flint-knife1 the1 #hh1 #aji ,folk-lore of ,yucatan1 #dc ,food offerings1 the1 #ij sign for1 #hf ,frog1 the1 #ge ,gemini1 #ce ,ghanan1 #fb1 #abc ,gukumatz1 #ch1 #fa ,hand1 the1 as deity1 #ch the closing1 #ajb signs for1 #hb ,hex chun chan1 #dd ,hobnil1 #dj ,holy water1 #ajd ,house1 signs for1 #hh ,hozan ek1 #da ,huastecan1 #aj ,hunab ku1 #cg ,hun ahau1 #dd pic tok1 #dd ,ical ahau1 #fg1 #abd ,iguana1 the1 #ij1 #abb ,ikonomatic writing1 #ac1 #hb1 #ig 8,initial series0 of glyphs1 #bd1 #ib1 #ic1 #acf ,itzamna1 #cg1 #ea-ee1 #aja1 #abb1 #abd ,ix chebel yax1 #db chel1 #dj1 #fd hun y1 #dc hun yeta1 #dc kan leom1 #dj nuc1 #dc tabai1 #db tub tun1 #db ,jade1 jewels of1 #hh ,jaguar1 the1 #gb1 #abf ,jupiter1 planet1 #ajf ,kabah1 inscription of1 #eb1 #ace ,kabil1 #ch1 #ea ,kak u pacat1 #dd 8,keys0 to the hieroglyphs1 #af1 #ag ,kin ich1 #ci1 #eg1 #abc1 #abd ahau ,itzamna1 #dj ,kin sign1 the1 #hh ,knife signs1 #hh1 #aji ,knives1 sacrificial1 #hi ,knots1 #ajj ,labna1 #acf ,lakin chan1 #ch1 #ea ,life1 symbol of1 #di1 #aae tree of1 #di1 #ec1 #ei1 #fb1 #aja1 #abh ,lightning1 symbols1 #ga1 #gd1 #hi1 #ajd ,lorillard ,city1 #bi ,lunar years1 #bf ,macaw1 the1 #gc ,machete1 the1 #ajb ,maize god1 the1 #fb1 #abc ,mam1 the god1 #abh ,man1 the first1 #df signs for1 #hf1 #ig ,mars1 planet1 #ajf ,masks1 use of1 #ed1 #ee ,mayan1 meaning of1 #aj ,medicine drum1 #ic rattle1 #ajd bag1 #abh ,menche1 #bi ,mercury1 planet1 #ajf ,metals1 use of1 #ajd ,mexican writing1 #aj1 #gi ,mimosa1 the1 #aje ,mirrors1 #ajd1 #aje ,mitna1 #dd ,mixcoatl1 #ci ,milky ,way1 the1 #ce ,moan bird1 the #gd1 #abe ,money1 the native1 #aaj ,monkey1 the1 #gb ,monograms of gods1 #aba ,months1 signs for1 #hh ,moon1 words for1 #cf signs for1 #hg ,mother ,earth1 sign for1 #ia1 #ie1 #ajj ,mugeres1 ,isla de1 #db ,nagualism1 #ih ,necklace1 sign for1 #hf ,north ,star1 the1 #cd1 #eg-ei ,numbers1 sacred and symbolic1 #bd1 #be ,ococingo1 #aci ,orion1 #ce ,owl1 the1 #gc ,pakoc1 #dd ,palography1 ,mayan1 #abg ,palenque inscriptions1 #ac1 #af1 #ba1 #ed1 #fb1 #ie1 #acf1 #acg ,pelican1 the1 #gd ,phallic emblems1 #bd1 #ij1 #ie ,picture writing1 #ih ,pleiades1 the1 #ce1 #fc ,pole star1 the1 #eg-ei ,pottery decoration1 #eh1 #abb ,ppiz lim tec1 #db ,priesthood1 the1 #fh ,pucugh1 #dd ,quetzal bird1 #gc ,quetzalcoatl1 #ci ,quiches1 #dd1 #adj ,quirigua1 #ba ,rainbow goddess1 #dj ,rain signs1 #ia-id symbols1 #gb1 #gd1 #ge ,rattlesnake1 the1 #ge ,rays1 signs for1 #ih ,rebus writing1 #ac ,rhetorical use of numbers1 #bd ,rubrication of codices1 #gi ,sacred numbers1 #be ,sastanquiqui1 ruins of1 #ajf ,saturn1 planet1 #ajf ,scorpion symbol1 #fg1 #ge1 #aag ,serpent eye1 the1 #hd goddess1 the1 #fc1 #abd gods1 #ch1 #abd1 #abh the feathered1 #ch1 #ef1 #eg wand1 #ajc ,shells1 symbolism of1 #ai1 #ij ,shield1 the heavenly1 #ajg star1 the1 #eh ,shields1 designs on1 #ie ,shooting stars1 #ce ,smoke1 sign for1 #ig ,solstice1 symbol of1 #gd ,souls1 fate of1 #dd 8,spectacles0 sign1 #he ,speech1 sign for1 #ig1 #ih ,spider-web goddess1 #dj ,sun god1 the1 #ci1 #eg1 #abc signs1 #hg ,tableau des ,bacabs1 #dh1 #fd ,tancucula1 #dd ,tapir1 the1 #ed1 #ach ,tel cuzaan1 #db ,terrestrial ,paradise1 #df ,textile signs1 #if ,thirteen1 as symbolic1 #be ,thunder1 personified1 #fc ,tikal1 #bi ,time1 symbols of1 #gf1 #abg1 #abh ,tlaloc1 #ea1 #ee ,tomahawk1 the1 #ajd ,tonalamatl1 the1 #bg1 #bi1 #ca ,tongue1 piercing1 #gf ,tonin1 #aci ,tree of life1 #dh1 #ec1 #ei1 #fb1 #aja1 #abh 8,trinal0 emblem1 #ie1 #acf ,turkey1 the1 #gd1 #ij ,turtle1 the1 #gd1 #aai1 #abf ,tzental dialect1 #ai1 #ce1 #aac ,tzentals1 #cg1 #ch1 #aac ,uac lom chaam1 #dc ,underworld1 the1 #dd ,union1 signs for1 #ajj ,venus1 the planet1 #cc1 #cd1 #ajf sign for1 #hh1 #ajf ,vigesimal system1 #ah ,vultures1 #gc1 #abe ,war1 gods of1 #dd1 #fe1 #abc ,water deities1 #dj1 #da ,wind cross1 the1 #aae1 #aaf ,world-sign1 the1 #abi ,writing1 direction of1 #gi ,xabalba1 #dd ,xaman ek1 the ,north ,star1 #eg ,xibilba1 #dd ,xipe1 #ff ,xiuhmolpilli1 the1 #ca ,xnuc1 see ,ix nuc ,xmucane1 #di1 #ej1 #fa1 #fc1 #aab1 #abe ,xoc bitum1 #db ,xpiyacoc1 #fa ,xux ,ek1 ,venus1 #fj ,yax coc ah-mut1 #ch ,yellow1 sign for1 #hh ,yucatan1 #i1 #cg1 #db1 etc4 ,yum chac1 #da cimil1 #dd kaax1 #da ,zac chamay ,bac1 #dd ,zac zini1 #da ,zotzils1 #ab1 #ach ,zuhuy dzip1 #db ,zuhuy kak1 #db ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,transcriber',s ,,notes #a4 ,changed 8plainly visibly0 to 8plainly visible0 on p4 #dc4 #b4 ,changed 8presented ,fig4 #cj0 to 8presented in ,fig4 #cj0 on p4 #hc4 #c4 ,changed 8,fig4 ,no4 #b0 to 8,fig4 #db ,no4 #b0 on p4 #ic4 #d4 ,changed 8ths divinity2 ,no4 #g1 fromi0 to 8this divinity2 ,no4 #g1 from0 on p4 #abb4 #e4 8,dicc4 ,motul0 is frequently referred to as 8,dic4 ,motul04 ,did not change4 #f4 ,silently corrected typographical errors4 #g4 ,retained anachronistic and non-standard spellings as printed4 #h4 ,enclosed italics font in underscores4