,rockets1 ,missiles1 and ,spacecraft of the ,national ,air and ,space ,museum ,,smithsonian ,,institution ,,lynne ,c4 ,,murphy ,published by the ,smithsonian ,institution ,press1 ,washington1 ,d4,c41 #aigf ,illustration3 ,museum ,logo ,welcome to the ,national ,air and ,space ,museum1 part of the ,smithsonian family4 ,the flight of the ,wrights in #aijc opened the door to ever more rapid and powerful ascents into the third dimension4 ,this country1 putting its scientific and technical talents to work1 has produced an array of fascinating and complex machines4 ,fortunately1 nearly all of the most significant ones have been preserved1 and a sampling of them is included in this booklet4 ,i hope that you will enjoy it1 and that it will add to your understanding of what air and space progress has meant to all of us4 ,illustration3 ,michael ,collins ,michael ,collins ,director1 ,national ,air and ,space ,museum ,illustration3 ,viking #b--;bound for ,mars--is launched aboard ,titan ,centaur on ,september #i1 #aige4 ,library of ,congress ,cataloging in ,publication ,data ,national ,air and ,space ,museum4 ,rockets1 missiles1 and spacecraft of the ,national ,air and ,space ,museum1 ,smithsonian ,institution1 ,washington1 ,d4,c4 ,bibliography3 p4 #a4 ,astronautics--,united ,states--,exhibitions4 #b4 ,national ,air and ,space ,museum4 ,i4 ,murphy1 ,lynne ,c4 ,,ii4 ,title3 ,rockets1 missiles1 and spacecraft of the ,national ,air and ,space ,museum 444 ,,tl#ejf4,u#f,w#cgf #aigf #fbi4djigcjgdjaec #gf-fifa ,printed in the ,u4,s4,a4 ,designed by ,elizabeth ,sur ,negative numbers and photo credits #a1 ,a-#dbajc 7,,si72 #b1 #gd-;,h-#ajff 7,,nasa72 #c1 #gd-;,h-#abdd 7,,nasa72 #d1 ,a-#cgeg 7,,si72 #e1 #gb-hfgj 7,,si72 #f1 #eh-;,explorer ,i-#a 7,,nasa72 #g1 #fb-,mariner ,,ii-#cd 7,,nasa72 #h1 #fc-,mariner ,,ii-#bf 7,,nasa72 #i1 #fb-,,ma #f-gd 7,,nasa72 #aj1 #fb-,,ma#f-aaa 7,,nasa72 #aa1 #fe-;,h-#icd 7,,nasa72 #ab1 #fe-;,h-#icg 7,,nasa72 #ac1 #fi-;,h-#aaii 7,,nasa72 #ad1 #fi-;,h-#acfg 7,,nasa72 #ae1 #gf-dhhj-ha 7,,si72 #af1 ,p-#adjed 7,,jpl1 ,,nasa1 ,pasadena1 ,california72 #ag1 #gc-;,h-#iic 7,,nasa72 #ah1 #gd-;,h-#bci 7,,nasa72 #ai1 #ge-aeibf 7,,si72 #bj1 #gd-;,h-#abbj 7,,nasa72 #ba1 ,a-#ejdhc 7,,si72 #bb1 #fe-;,h-#hag 7,,nasa72 #bc1 #gf-agjf 7,,si72 #bd1 #gf-agje 7,,si72 #be1 #ga-;,h-#dac 7,,nasa72 #bf1 #fb-,,nc-#b 7,,nasa72 #bg1 #fc-;,,arcas-#a 7,,nasa72 #bh1 #ge-afjid 7,,si72 #bi1 #ge-afbbh 7,,si72 #cj1 #ge-afbgf 7,,si72 #ca1 #fa-;,,delta-#d-f 7,,nasa72 #cb1 #ff-;,h-#bbc 7,,nasa72 #cc1 ,,van-#aa 7,,nasa72 #cd1 #fg-;,h-#ajjh 7,,nasa72 #ce1 #ff-;,h-#bh 7,,nasa72 #cf1 #fj-,,tiros-#e 7,,nasa72 #cg1 #fi-;,h-#aiae 7,,nasa72 #ch1 #fh-;,h-#aaa 7,,nasa72 #ci1 #fb-,,relay-#ag 7,,nasa72 #dj1 #ga-;,h-#adad 7,,nasa72 #da1 #fi-;,h-#bhe 7,,nasa72 #db1 #ff-;,h-#hga 7,,nasa72 #dc1 #gf-;,h-#aahb 7,,nasa72 #dd1 #fi-;,h-#aihf 7,,nasa72 #de1 #gf-agjd 7,,si72 #df1 ,a-#deiiid 7,,si72 #dg1 ,a-#ebic 7,,si72 #dh1 ,a-#ajhe 7,,si72 #di1 #ge-aadhh 7,,si72 #ej1 ,a-#deed 7,,si72 #ea1 #gb-;,h-#abdj 7,,nasa72 #eb1 #fc-;,,centaur-#ae 7,,nasa72 #ec1 #ge-acgec 7,,si72 #ed1 #gf-bgef 7,,si72 #ee1 #gf-bfhg 7,,si72 #ef1 #ge-;,h-#dfa 7,,nasa72 #eg1 #gf-ddgi-f 7,,si72 #eh1 #fb-,,ma#f-aji 7,,nasa72 #ei1 #ga-;,h-#achj 7,,nasa72 #fj1 #fe-;,h-#ajba 7,,nasa72 #fa1 ,a-#ecfg 7,,si72 #fb1 #ge-ajbcb 7,,si72 #fc1 ,a-#ejgc 7,,si72 #fd1 #ge-afjia 7,,si72 #fe1 #gf-afbe-aa 7,,si72 #ff1 #gc-gcc 7,,si72 #fg1 ,,space-#ab 7,,nasa72 #fh1 #fg-;,h-#afji 7,,nasa72 #fi1 #fd-;,h-#bgie 7,,nasa72 #gj1 #fe-;,h-#fgd 7,,nasa72 #ga1 #gf-agjg 7,,si72 #gb1 #gf-agjh 7,,si72 #gc1 #gc-;,h-#ibh 7,,nasa72 #gd1 #ga-;,h-#cih 7,,nasa72 #ge1 #fh-;,h-#dbc 7,,nasa72 #gf1 #fh-;,h-#dbb 7,,nasa72 #gg1 #ge-;,h-#bdh 7,,nasa72 #gh1 #ge-;,h-#ajha 7,,nasa72 #gi1 #ge-;,h-#hia 7,,nasa72 #hj1 #ge-;,h-#ajgg 7,,nasa72 #ha1 #ga-;,h-#ebe 7,,nasa72 #hb1 #fa-,,mr#c-gf 7,,nasa72 #hc1 #fe-;,h-#bcee 7,,nasa72 #hd1 #gb-;,h-#gcd 7,,nasa72 #he1 #fb-;,f#a-b 7,,nasa72 #hf1 #fg-;,h-#abje 7,,nasa72 #hg1 #ga-;,h-#adaf 7,,nasa72 #hh1 #gj-;,h-#acib 7,,nasa72 #hi1 #ga-;,h-#cce 7,,nasa72 #ij1 #gd-;,h-#fc 7,,nasa72 #ia1 ,s-#ga-dedhj 7,,nasa1 ,johnson ,space ,center72 #ib1 #gb-;,h-#aega 7,,nasa74 ,contents ,introduction #f ,milestones of ,flight ,gallery #ajj ,robert ,h4 ,goddard's ,rockets3 ,march #af1 #aibf1 and #aida #g ,sputnik #a #h ,explorer #a #i ,mariner #b #aj ,friendship #g #aa ,gemini #d #ab ,apollo #aa ,command ,module1 ,columbia #ac ,life in the ,universe ,gallery #ajg ,ponnamperuma ,experiments #ad ,photomosaic ,globe of ,mars #ae ,mariner #aj #af ,u4,s4,s4 ,enterprise #ag ,satellites ,gallery #aaj ,goddard ,a-,series ,rocket1 #aice #ah ,,wac ,corporal #ai ,aerobee #aej #bj ,farside #ba ,nike-,cajun #bb ,,arcas #bc ,cricket #bd ,viking #ab #be ,,mouse #bf ,agena-,b #bg ,science ,satellites #bh ,meteorological ,satellites #cj ,communications ,satellites #cb ,east ,gallery ,gallery #aab ,lunar ,module #cd ,lunar ,orbiter #ce ,surveyor #cf ,rocketry and ,space ,flight ,gallery #aac ,goddard ,rockets3 ,may #aibf and 8,hoopskirt10 #aibh #cg #aith-,century ,rockets3 ,congreve and ,hale #ch ,american ,rocket ,society3 ,engines and ,parts #ci ,h-#a ,engine #dj ,,rl-#aj ,engine #da ,,jato ,units #db ,,lr-#hg ,engine #dc ,toward #bjgf3 ,the ,future of ,rocket ,propulsion #dd ,project ,orion #de ,space ,suits #df ,space ,hall ,gallery #aad ,v-#b 7,a-#d7 #dh ,v-#a #di ,german ,antiaircraft ,missiles #ej ,jupiter-,c #ea ,vanguard #eb ,scout #ec ,minuteman ,,iii #ed ,poseidon ,c-#c #ee ,skylab #ef ,apollo-,soyuz ,test ,project #eh ,m#b-;,f#c ,lifting ,body #fj ,apollo to the ,moon ,gallery #baj ,freedom #g #fa ,gemini #g #fb ,f-#a ,engine #fc ,lunar ,roving ,vehicle #fd ,apollo ,lunar ,tools and ,equipment #fe ,apollo ,command ,module3 ,skylab #d #ff ,moon ,rocks #fg ,suggested ,reading #fh ,introduction ,there is an obvious relationship between aeronautics and astronautics since the same principles of physics apply and many materials and techniques of construction are common4 ,nevertheless1 in the decades following ,world ,war ,,ii1 rocketry1 guided missiles1 and space flights were rapidly developing a complex history and lore quite different from that of aviation4 ,accordingly1 in #aife1 the ,museum established a ,department of ,astronautics parallel with a ,department of ,aeronautics4 ,at that time1 artifacts in categories of rocket propulsion1 guided missiles1 and space-flight programs were placed under curatorial control of the ,astronautics ,department4 ,in #aifg the ,smithsonian ,institution and the ,national ,aeronautics and ,space ,administration signed an agreement which provided for transfer of title to and custody of significant space artifacts by the ,museum after their technical need had passed4 ,through provisions of this instrument the preservation and exhibit of this country's most important spacecraft1 rocket engines1 launch vehicles1 and missiles has been assured for posterity4 ,with the construction of the new ,museum building on the ,mall literally dozens of exciting and fascinating astronautical artifacts have been acquired1 some just a few months before our opening in ,july #aigf4 ,all major artifacts on exhibit at the opening are described herein with brief historical summaries4 ,f4 ,c4 ,durant ,,iii ,assistant ,director1 ,astronautics ,january #ac1 #aigf ,robert ,h4 ,goddard's ,rockets3 ,march #af1 #aibf1 and #aida ,illustration3 #a4 ,robert ,h4 ,goddard beside his liquid-fuel rocket prior to launch on ,march #af1 #aibf4 ,illustration3 #b4 8,it looked almost magical as it rose1 without any appreciable greater noise or flame1 as if it said1 #8,i've been here long enough2 ,i think ,i'll be going somewhere else'44440--,robert ,h4 ,goddard4 ,illustration3 #c4 ,rocket with turbopumps on its assembly frame in the ,goddard shop at ,roswell1 ,new ,mexico1 #aidj4 ,robert ,h4 ,goddard contributed the first major astronautical breakthrough on our way to space exploration--a liquid-propellant rocket4 ,a replica of the first successful rocket of this type is displayed in this hall as is ,dr4 ,goddard's last sounding rocket design4 ,the first of ,dr4 ,goddard's successful rockets was launched on ,march #af1 #aibf4 ,it traveled to an altitude of #ab4e meters 7#da feet7 powered by liquid oxygen and gasoline4 ,its flight lasted #b4e seconds with an average speed in flight of about #if4f kilometers 7#fj miles7 per hour4 ,part of the rocket's nozzle was burned away during the flight1 and other parts were damaged by ground impact2 however1 pieces of the original rocket were reassembled and flown again on ,april #c1 #aibf4 ,the last and most advanced of ,dr4 ,goddard's liquid-propellant rockets were those tested between #aici and #aida4 ,this series incorporated most of the basic principles and elements later used in all long-range rockets and space boosters4 ,design improvements for this series included a fuel system that used turbopumps to force propellants from the tanks to the combustion chamber4 ,the rocket on display did not fly1 because a malfunction in the umbilical cord caused the engine to shut down shortly after ignition4 ,the ,march #af rocket replica is from the ,national ,aeronautics and ,space ,administration4 ,the #aida rocket is from ,mrs4 ,robert ,h4 ,goddard4 ,sputnik #a ,illustration3 #d4 ,model of ,sputnik #a1 the first man-made object to be placed in ,earth-orbit4 ,sputnik #a1 the first man-made object to be placed in orbit around ,earth1 was launched by the ,,ussr on ,october #d1 #aieg4 ,a #bi-meter 7#if-;foot7 rocket with #eaj1jcg kilograms 7#a1abd1ddj pounds7 of thrust boosted ,sputnik #a into orbit4 ,the satellite's orbital and radio data provided scientists with information on atmospheric and electron densities4 ,sputnik #a transmitted temperature data for #bb days before its batteries ran down4 ,the #hc4e-kilogram 7#ahd-pound7 satellite reentered the earth's atmosphere and burned up on ,january #d1 #aieh4 ,this ,sputnik model is from the ,,ussr ,academy of ,sciences4 ,explorer #a ,illustration3 #e4 ,trial firing of a full-size mockup of ,explorer #a on the third-stage assembly of the ,jupiter-,c launch vehicle4 ,illustration3 #f4 ,on the launch pad prior to sending the first ,american satellite into orbit4 ,explorer #a1 launched ,january #ca1 #aieh1 discovered the first two circular radiation belts surrounding the ,earth4 ,the ,international ,geophysical ,year 7#aieg-eh7 provided the impetus for the first official ,american satellite effort1 designated ,project ,vanguard in #aiee4 ,vanguard was a civilian effort that relied on a launch vehicle built especially for the project's purposes4 ,the launch by the ,soviet ,union of ,sputnik #a on ,october #d1 #aieg1 caused the work on ,project ,vanguard to go forward under great pressure4 ,when ,vanguard ,test ,vehicle #c1 carrying the first ,american earth satellite1 exploded on its launch pad on ,december #f1 #aieg1 ,united ,states prestige reached a low point4 ,on ,january #ca1 #aieh1 ,explorer #a became the first successful ,american satellite4 ,it originated in ,project ,orbiter1 a joint study program of the ,u4,s4 ,army and the ,office of ,naval ,research--a project that lapsed after the #aiee decision to designate ,vanguard as the official ,american satellite effort4 ,following the ,sputnik success1 the ,u4,s4 ,army ,ballistic ,missile ,agency was instructed to proceed with its satellite plans4 ,explorer #a's launch vehicle was a four-stage ,jupiter-,c rocket designed1 built1 and launched by the ,army ,ballistic ,missile ,agency team headed by ,wernher von ,braun4 ,the satellite's instrumentation was prepared by ,james ,van ,allen and ,george ,ludwig of the ,state ,university of ,iowa under project direction of the ,jet ,propulsion ,laboratory1 ,california ,institute of ,technology4 ,explorer #a measured three phenomena--cosmic ray and radiation levels 7data that led to the discovery of the earth's radiation belts71 the temperature in the vehicle 7important in the design of future spacecraft71 and the frequency of collisions with micrometeorites4 ,there was no provision for data storage1 and therefore the satellite transmitted its information continually4 ,explorer #a was not the only orbiting ,american satellite for long4 ,in spite of the early problems1 ,project ,vanguard succeeded in launching the second ,american earth satellite on ,march #ag1 #aieh4 ,the back-up ,explorer #a on exhibit is from the ,national ,aeronautics and ,space ,administration1 ,jet ,propulsion ,laboratory4 ,california ,institute of ,technology4 ,mariner #b ,illustration3 #g4 ,artist's conception of ,mariner #b as it flew by ,venus4 ,the first successful interplanetary spacecraft probed the environment of ,venus1 ,earth's closest neighbor4 ,mariner #b1 working flawlessly1 swept by the hot and cloudy planet at a closest approach of #cd1hcd kilometers 7#ba1fde miles7 on ,december #ad1 #aifb4 ,the journey began with lift-off on ,august #bg from ,cape ,canaveral atop an ,atlas ,agena-,b launch vehicle4 ,during the #aji-;day trip to the planet1 ,mariner's on-board instruments sampled the environment of interplanetary space and telemetered information to ,earth stations4 ,ground-based measurements of the ,venerian surface temperature were confirmed by the probe to be around #dbe ,c 7#hjj ,f74 ,mariner #b detected no measurable magnetic field or radiation belts1 indicating that ,venus may have a very different history than has ,earth4 ,mariner #b passed out of tracking range on ,january #d1 #aifc1 when the spacecraft was about #hg million kilometers 7#ed million miles7 from ,earth4 ,the probe is presently in orbit around the ,sun4 ,the back-up craft on display would have been launched toward ,venus if ,mariner #b had failed to reach the planet4 ,prime contractor for ,mariner #b was the ,jet ,propulsion ,laboratory1 ,california ,institute of ,technology4 ,mariner #b is from the ,national ,aeronautics and ,space ,administration4 ,illustration3 #h4 ,enlarged facsimile of coded ,mariner #b tape transmitted ,december #ad1 #aifb1 from the vicinity of ,venus4 ,encircled portions show microwave and infrared coding4 ,friendship #g ,illustration3 #i4 ,close-up of ,friendship #g atop ,atlas launch vehicle with escape tower4 ,illustration3 #aj4 ,launch of ,america's first man in orbit on ,february #bj1 #aifb1 from ,cape ,canaveral1 ,florida4 ,on the morning of ,february #bj1 #aifb1 a #bi-meter 7#ie-;foot7 ,mercury ,atlas launch vehicle rose from ,cape ,canaveral carrying ,john ,h4 ,glenn1 ,jr41 in his ,mercury spacecraft1 ,friendship #g4 ,this was the lift-off for the first ,u4,s4-manned orbital space flight4 ,in slightly more than #e minutes the ,atlas accelerated ,friendship #g to its orbital velocity of #bh1bcj kilometers per hour 7#ag1edj miles per hour74 ,astronaut ,glenn completed three orbits in #d hours1 #ee minutes4 ,from the orbital path1 which varied between #afj and #bfj kilometers 7#ajj and #afj miles7 above ,earth1 the first ,american in orbit described the four sunsets he saw and reported that he was able to distinguish a ship's wake on the ocean below4 ,mercury spacecraft had been used in two previous manned suborbital flights which proved that it was a safe vehicle for manned space flights4 ,later orbital ,mercury missions demonstrated that man could live and work in space4 ,friendship #g's flight tested the performance of the pilot in weightless conditions and the interaction of the human pilot with the various automatic systems in the spacecraft4 ,friendship #g reentered the earth's atmosphere and splashed into the ,atlantic ,ocean only #fd kilometers 7#dj miles7 from the planned site4 ,glenn and ,friendship #g were recovered by the ,u4,s4,s4 ,noa near ,grand ,turk ,island in the ,bahamas4 ,the ,mercury spacecraft consists of a conical pressure section topped by a cylindrical recovery-system section4 ,during flight1 the ,mercury spacecraft was equipped with three #ded-kilogram 7#ajjj-pound7 thrust solid-propellant retro-rockets mounted in a package on the heat shield4 ,after the three rockets were fired to slow the spacecraft1 the retro-rocket package was jettisoned4 ,prime contractor for ,friendship #g was ,mc,donnell ,aircraft ,company4 ,friendship #g is from the ,national ,aeronautics and ,space ,administration4 ,gemini #d ,illustration3 #aa4 ,gemini #d lifts off1 ,june #c1 #aife4 ,illustration3 #ab4 ,well over #a4f million kilometers 7#a million miles7 later1 ,gemini #d is hoisted from the ,atlantic ,ocean4 ,floating at the end of a gold 8umbilical cord0 attached to the ,gemini #d spacecraft1 ,edward ,h4 ,white ,,ii became the first ,american to have only his space suit for protection from the space environment4 ,white directed his movements during the historic #bj-minute 8walk0 with a hand-held maneuvering device1 while command pilot ,james ,a4 ,mc,divitt took pictures from within the craft4 ,launched ,june #c1 #aife atop #c ,titan ,,ii booster1 the ,gemini #d spacecraft made #fb revolutions during the four-day flight4 ,although ,gemini #d failed to rendezvous with the ,titan ,,ii's second stage as planned1 because the stage fell away too rapidly to catch1 astronauts ,mc,divitt and ,white did demonstrate that the ,spacecraft could be moved in and out of its orbital plane with ease4 ,the crew also photographed the ,earth successfully4 ,the pictures brought back from ,gemini #d enhanced interest in photographic surveys of ,earth from space4 ,gemini #d splashed down in the ,atlantic at #ab3ab ,p4,m4 7,,est7 on ,june #g1 #aife4 ,mc,divitt and ,white were on the deck of recovery carrier ,u4,s4,s4 ,wasp in less than one hour4 ,the spacecraft frame is titanium and it is covered with steel and beryllium shingles4 ,displayed here is the basic spacecraft which includes the pressurized cabin vessel1 the heat shield at the base1 and the cylindrical reentry attitude-control system section on the nose4 ,the heat shield is a curved section of fiberglass honeycomb filled with a phenolic-epoxy resin4 ,during reentry1 the craft's kinetic energy was converted to heat by friction with the atmosphere4 ,the heat-shield material melted and vaporized and was blown away from the craft1 carrying the heat with it4 ,this process is called ablation4 ,the ,gemini was a true spacecraft1 capable of maneuvering widely in space1 changing its configuration for different phases of the flight1 and allowing the two-man crew to work both inside and outside the craft4 ,prime contractor for ,gemini #d was the ,mc,donnell ,aircraft ,company4 ,gemini #d is from the ,national ,aeronautics and ,space ,administration4 ,length #e4f m4 7#ah ft41 #d in47 in orbit2 #b4c m4 7#g ft41 #d in47 at splashdown ,base diameter ,adapter1 #c4a m4 7#aj ft472 spacecraft1 #b4c m4 7#g ft41 #f in47 ,apollo #aa ,command ,module1 ,columbia ,illustration3 #ac4 ,three inflated bags repositioned the spacecraft following splashdown4 ,the astronauts watch pararescue-man shut hatch during recovery4 8,that's one small step for a man1 one giant leap for mankind10 ,neil ,a4 ,armstrong radioed ,houston from ,tranquility ,base on the ,moon4 ,the first footprint had been left on the lunar surface4 ,it was #aj3ef ,p4,m4 7,,edt7 on ,july #bj1 #aifi4 ,neil ,armstrong was ,apollo #aa's commander1 ,michael ,collins was command-module pilot1 and ,edwin 8,buzz0 ,aldrin was the lunar-module pilot4 ,their journey began at #i3cj ,a4,m4 7,,edt7 when their ,saturn #e lifted off under #c4d million kilograms 7#g4e million pounds7 of thrust4 ,the three-man crew made the #chc1jjj-kilometer 7#bch1jjj-mile7 journey to the ,moon in three days1 traveling in command-module ,columbia4 ,at #a3df ,p4,m4 7,,edt71 on ,july #bj1 ,armstrong and ,aldrin separated the lunar module from the ,columbia and began the descent to the lunar plain4 ,during the #b hours and #dg minutes that the astronauts were out on the surface of the ,moon1 they collected samples1 deployed instruments1 took photographs1 and explored ,tranquility ,base around the lunar module4 ,after completing their tasks on the ,moon1 the astronauts rendezvoused with ,collins in the command module4 ,jettisoning the ascent stage1 they began the three-day journey back to ,earth4 ,splashdown occurred in the central ,pacific ,ocean on ,july #bd4 ,the astronauts climbed out of this command module and were recovered by helicopters that took them to the carrier ,u4,s4,s4 ,hornet4 ,prime contractor for ,apollo #aa's command module was ,north ,american ,rockwell ,corporation4 ,the ,columbia is from the ,national ,aeronautics and ,space ,administration4 ,illustration3 #ad4 ,view of the ,apollo #aa ,command ,module with ,astronaut ,collins aboard as seen from the ,lunar ,module4 ,terrain in background is the far side of the ,moon4 ,ponnamperuma ,experiments ,illustration3 #ae4 ,equipment for ,ponnamperuma ,experiments4 ,these experimental devices were constructed by ,cyril ,ponnamperuma and his colleagues to show that various forms of energy may be used to produce organic molecules of the type found in living organisms4 ,in one experiment1 electron beams were fired through a glass tube which contained a mixture of gases believed to resemble the atmosphere of primitive ,earth4 ,a number of organic molecules1 including amino acids1 the 8building blocks0 of life1 were formed as a result4 ,in another experiment--the apparatus on display--electric spark discharges were used to add energy to a mixture of gases and water vapor contained in the device's upper sphere4 ,the lower sphere contained a solution of water and salts1 a solution believed to resemble the slightly salty water of ancient seas4 ,when heat and sparks were added to the gases and salty water1 a number of complex organic molecules formed4 ,the results of these experiments supported the hypothesis that cosmic rays and other high-energy particles bombarding the primitive atmosphere could have been responsible for the origin of life on ,earth4 ,the experimental devices were constructed and donated by ,cyril ,ponnamperuma and the ,laboratory of ,chemical ,evolution1 ,university of ,maryland4 ,photomosaic ,globe of ,mars ,illustration3 #af4 ,photomosaic globe of ,mars made of more than #aejj computer-corrected pictures taken by ,mariner #i in #aiga and #aigb4 ,the residual ,north ,pole ice cap is at the top4 ,this #a4b-meter 7#d-;foot7 diameter globe of ,mars was assembled from photographs taken by ,mariner #i1 an unmanned spacecraft that orbited the planet from ,november #ad1 #aiga1 until ,october #bg1 #aigb4 ,this globe is the first such photomosaic ever made of a planet4 ,launched on ,may #cj1 #aiga1 ,mariner #i succeeded in photographing the entire surface of the planet4 ,in its #cdi days of orbit around ,mars1 ,mariner #i circled the planet #fih times and took more than #gcjj photographs4 ,in its highly elliptical orbit1 ,mariner #i obtained a sequence of overlapping wide-angle photographs4 ,these were processed by a computer to remove the known variations in ,mariner #i camera response and geometric distortions1 as well as to enhance surface detail4 ,the mosaic made from the processed photographs is a pictorial presentation of the ,martian surface which shows ridges and craters in the dark regions and on the bright polar caps with equal clarity4 ,surface features are in correct relationship and perspective1 with only a minimum of shading difference between individual photographs4 ,in assembling the photomosaic1 each picture was taped in place on the globe4 ,then1 the match of adjacent pictures was assessed to determine where to trim the edges so that sharp features would not be intersected4 ,the edges of each print were feathered so that when the prints were glued into place1 the lines between pieces were almost indistinguishable4 ,the complete globe received a thin protective coating4 ,this globe and copies of it enable scientists to study the geology and morphology of ,mars from a perspective never before possible4 ,the photomosaic globe was designed and assembled at the ,jet ,propulsion ,laboratory1 ,california ,institute of ,technology1 ,pasadena1 ,california4 ,the ,mars ,globe is on loan from the ,national ,aeronautics and ,space ,administration4 ,mariner #aj ,illustration3 #ag4 ,mariner #aj returned data and photographs from the vicinities of ,venus and ,mercury4 ,illustration3 #ah4 ,this computer-enhanced image of ,mercury's surface was returned by ,mariner #aj from #bjj1jjj kilometers 7#abd1jjj miles7 and #f hours away from closest approach to ,mercury on ,march #bi1 #aigd4 ,mariner #aj returned closeup pictures of the cloud cover around ,venus and of ,mercury's sunbaked surface4 ,mariner #aj was the first spacecraft to photograph ,mercury1 the innermost planet4 ,the spacecraft's instruments also measured particles1 fields1 and radiation from these planets4 ,mariner #aj flew by ,venus on ,february #e1 #aigd1 after a three-month1 #bdj-million-kilometer 7#aej-million-mile7 journey that took the ,spacecraft halfway around the ,sun4 ,mariner #aj swung around the planet1 taking a variety of measurements and photographs of the clouds that obscure the planet's face4 ,using the planet's gravity to 8bend0 its flight path1 ,mariner #aj flew on toward encounter with ,mercury4 ,on ,march #bi1 #aigd4 ,mariner sped across the night side of the little planet closest to the ,sun4 ,only #gjc kilometers 7#dcf miles7 above the rugged surface1 ,mariner's cameras captured the first closeup views of the planet's daylight hemisphere4 ,the pictures show craters1 scarps--cliffs nearly #c kilometers 7#b miles7 high and stretching as far as #ejj kilometers 7#cjj miles7 across the surface--basins1 and hilly furrowed terrain4 ,after providing our first glimpse of ,mercury's surface1 ,mariner raced on around the ,sun and back out across ,venus' orbit4 ,with some trajectory adjustments using on-board thrusters4 ,mariner returned to within #dh1jjj kilometers 7#cj1jjj miles7 of ,mercury on ,september #ba1 #agf days after the first encounter1 again returning pictures and data4 ,mariner's orbit brought it back to the planet for a third pass in another #agf days4 ,on-board propellant exhausted1 the spacecraft continues its orbit of the ,sun and innermost planet4 ,mariner #aj is the first complex spacecraft designed to travel to the inner reaches of the solar system4 ,at closest approach to the ,sun1 the spacecraft received five times as much light and heat as it did on leaving ,earth4 ,thus the solar panels1 which collect and convert solar radiation into electrical energy for the spacecraft's instruments and controls1 were designed to tilt more and more away from the sunlight as ,mariner approached the ,sun4 ,mariner could transmit much more information to ,earth than earlier flyby spacecraft4 ,this higher data rate enabled the craft to send back more live pictures of the planets as it flew by them4 ,some information was stored on magnetic tape for later transmission4 ,this capability permitted ,mariner to collect data when it was hidden from ,earth behind a planet1 and send the information when it emerged4 ,prime contractor for ,mariner #aj was ,hughes ,aircraft ,company4 ,mariner #aj is from the ,national ,aeronautics and ,space ,administration4 ,u4,s4,s4 ,enterprise ,illustration3 #ai4 ,the starship ,enterprise used in the filming of the 8,star ,trek0 television series4 ,this studio model of an interstellar space ship was used in the filming of the science-fiction television series1 8,star ,trek40 ,many of the series' #gh episodes dealt speculatively with the problems and results of human contacts with extraterrestrial life forms and civilizations4 ,the model of ,u4,s4,s4 ,enterprise was designed by ,walter ,m4 ,jeffries and ,gene ,roddenberry4 ,the model is from ,paramount ,television1 a division of ,paramount ,pictures4 ,length #c4d m4 7#aa ft41 #c in47 ,diameter of disc #a4e m4 7#e ft47 ,goddard ,a-,series ,rocket1 #aice ,illustration3 #bj4 ,dr4 ,goddard in his workshop at ,roswell1 ,new ,mexico1 ,october #aice4 ,robert ,hutchings ,goddard1 the ,american rocket pioneer1 was one of the first to suggest the use of the rocket to gather scientific information from high altitudes4 ,as seamen use sounding lines to measure the depth of unknown waters1 so scientists use sounding rockets to investigate the nature of our atmosphere4 ,as early as #aiag1 the ,smithsonian ,institution agreed to fund ,dr4 ,goddard's studies4 ,in #aibf1 he built and flew the world's first successful liquid-propellant rocket which rose to an altitude of #ab4e meters 7#da feet7 over a field in ,massachusetts4 ,after the scientist received substantial grants from the ,daniel and ,florence ,guggenheim ,foundation1 he established a facility near ,roswell1 ,new ,mexico1 where he built and tested a series of rockets and engines between #aicj and #aidb4 ,a-,series rockets--one on exhibit--were flown during the summer of #aice1 as part of ,dr4 ,goddard's program to develop methods of stabilizing his rockets in vertical flight4 ,the principles he pioneered in this area were among his greatest contributions to the field of rocketry4 ,the greatest height reached by an ,a-,series rocket was about #bacj meters 7#gjjj feet7 and the greatest speed in flight was more than #aacj kilometers per hour 7#gjj miles per hour74 ,the rocket on exhibit is from ,robert ,h4 ,goddard4 ,length #d4g m4 7#ae ft41 #f in47 ,diameter #ae4b cm4 7#f in47 ,fuel ,gasoline ,oxidizer ,liquid oxygen ,thrust about #ij kg4 7#bjj lb47 ,velocity #aacj km4 7#gjj mi47 per hr4 7 or -7 ,altitude #b4c km4 7#gfjj ft47 7 or -7 ,,wac ,corporal ,illustration3 #ba4 ,frank ,malina1 project leader in the development of the ,,wac ,corporal1 stands beside the high-altitude sounding rocket4 ,the ,,wac ,corporal was the first successful ,american sounding rocket to reach significant altitude4 ,the first ,,wac ,corporal1 launched in #aidd from ,white ,sands ,proving ,ground in ,new ,mexico1 reached a height of #ga1fjj meters 7#bce1jjj feet74 ,the fin-stabilized rocket was powered by a liquid-propellant engine that burned a self-igniting fuel and oxidizer combination4 ,use of these propellants eliminated the need for an ignition system4 ,by ,march #aidf1 these rockets had attained altitudes of over #gb4d kilometers 7#de miles7 with a booster4 ,the ,,wac ,corporal was later used as a second stage on a ,german ,v-#b rocket4 ,this ,u4,s4 program1 code-named 8,bumper10 tested techniques for ignition and separation of stages at high altitudes4 ,the ,,wac ,corporal was designed in #aidd by the staff of the ,jet ,propulsion ,laboratory1 ,california ,institute of ,technology4 ,the rocket on exhibit is from the ,california ,institute of ,technology4 ,length #d4i m4 7#af ft41 #b in47 as exhibited ,diameter #cj4e cm4 7#ab in47 ,fuel ,aniline-furfuryl alcohol ,oxidizer ,red-fuming nitric acid ,thrust #fhj kg4 7#aejj lb47 ,velocity #dejj km4 7#bhjj mi47 per hr4 at burnout ,altitude #gb km4 7#de mi47 with a #aa4c-kilogram 7#be-lb47 payload ,aerobee #aej ,illustration3 #bb4 ,a booster lifts ,aerobee #aej out of its launch rail4 ,the half-ton ,aerobee could carry a #de4d-kilogram 7#ajj-pound7 payload to an altitude of #abj4f kilometers 7#ge miles74 ,for many years1 the ,aerobee was the standard ,american sounding rocket due to its reliability and relatively low cost4 ,several versions of the original ,aerobee were produced4 ,the ,aerobee relied on a short-duration1 solid-fuel booster for launching1 after which the main-stage1 liquid-propellant engine ignited4 ,on display at the ,,nasm is an ,aerobee #aej1 a more sophisticated version of the rocket4 ,an ,aerobee #aej can lift a #fh4a-kilogram 7#aej-pound7 payload to an altitude of #bgd kilometers 7#agj miles74 ,payloads consisted of a variety of scientific experiments4 ,the ,aerobee concept originated early in #aidf when ,dr4 ,james ,van ,allen1 then of the ,applied ,physics ,laboratory at ,johns ,hopkins ,university1 suggested that the ,office of ,naval ,research contract for a rocket with these particular capabilities4 ,the ,aerojet ,general ,corporation 7then ,aerojet1 ,inc47 was awarded the contract1 with the ,douglas ,aircraft ,corporation subcontracting for aerodynamic studies on the nose1 fins1 and tail cone1 and for the final assembly of the rocket4 ,the ,aerobee #aej is from the ,national ,aeronautics and ,space ,administration1 ,goddard ,space ,flight ,center4 ,farside ,illustration3 #bc4 ,artist's rendering of four-stage ,farside sounding rocket1 in launcher below balloon4 ,illustration3 #bd4 ,rocket was fired directly through the apex of the balloon4 ,drawing shows the first stage falling away as second-stage rocket takes over4 ,farside was a four-stage rocket launched from a balloon as an extremely high-altitude research vehicle4 ,achieving heights estimated at #fdjj kilometers 7#djjj miles74 ,farside's instrument payload was intended to study cosmic rays1 earth's magnetic field1 certain forms of electromagnetic radiation in space1 the presence of interplanetary gases1 and the nature of meteoric dust4 ,the #ijh-kilogram 7#bjjj-pound7 ,farside was lifted to an altitude of #cj4e kilometers 7#ai miles7 by a polyethylene balloon4 ,an aluminum structure suspended from the balloon carried the #g4c-meter 7#bd-;foot7 rocket to launch altitude4 ,positioned vertically in its casing1 ,farside was fired directly through the balloon4 ,six ,farsides were launched by the ,united ,states in #aieg from ,eniwetok ,atoll in the ,pacific4 ,farside's first stage consisted of four solid-fuel ,recruit rockets1 manufactured by ,thiokol ,chemical ,company4 ,a single ,recruit served as the second stage4 ,four ,arrow ,,ii solid-fuel rockets by the ,grand ,central ,rocket ,company constituted the third stage4 ,the final stage1 a single ,arrow ,,ii1 carried the instrument payload provided by ,s4 ,f4 ,singer of the ,university of ,maryland4 ,farside was developed by ,aeronutronics ,systems1 ,inc41 for the ,u4,s4 ,air ,force ,office of ,scientific ,research and ,development4 ,the rocket on exhibit is from the ,aeronutronics ,division1 ,ford ,motor ,company4 ,length #g4c m4 7#bd ft47 ,propellants ,solid ,thrust ,first stage #fh1bbj kg4 7#aej1djj lb47 ,second stage #ag1jee kg4 7#cg1fjj lb47 ,third state #dabj kg4 7#ijhj lb47 ,fourth stage #ajcj kg4 7#bbgj lb47 ,velocity #bi1jjj km4_/hr4 7#ah1jjj mi4_/hr47 ,altitude #cbbj-fddj km4 7#bjjj-djjj mi47 ,nike-,cajun ,illustration3 #be4 ,nike-,cajun ready for launch4 ,illustration3 #bf4 ,nike-,cajun launch4 ,the ,nike-,cajun was used extensively during ,international ,geophysical ,year 7#aieg-eh7 to perform a variety of research tasks4 ,these included weather photography1 studies of water-vapor distribution in the upper atmosphere1 and magnetic soundings in the ionosphere4 ,for photographic studies1 the instrument package separated from the nose cone at about #hj kilometers 7#ej miles7 and then coasted to a peak altitude of about #abj kilometers 7#ge miles71 during which time data was collected4 ,then parachutes opened1 lowering the cameras for recovery4 ,other data was radioed to ,earth4 ,the ,cajun rocket was developed by the ,pilotless ,aircraft ,division of the ,national ,advisory ,committee for ,aeronautics and the ,university of ,michigan4 ,the solid-fuel engine was designed and manufactured by ,thiokol ,chemical ,company4 ,the ,nike booster was also solid fuel4 ,the rocket on exhibit is from the ,national ,aeronautics and ,space ,administration4 ,length #g4i m4 7#bf ft472 ,cajun1 #d4a m4 7#ac4e ft47 ,diameter #da4i cm4 7#af4e in47 max2 ,cajun1 #ag4a cm4 7#f4ge in47 ,propellant ,solid ,thrust ,sustainer1 #dcfd kg4 7#ifbj lb47 ,velocity #fgfj km4_/ hr4 7#dbjj mi4_/hr47 ,altitude #afa km4 7#ajj mi47 with a #bc kg4 7#ej lb47 instrument package2 higher with a lighter payload ,,arcas ,illustration3 #bg4 ,loading ,,arcas into launcher4 ,all-purpose ,rocket for ,collecting ,atmospheric ,sounding 7,,arcas7 gathers local meteorological data helpful to weather forecasters4 ,its #e4d-kilogram 7#ab-pound7 payload may include instruments which measure temperature1 pressure1 humidity1 wind velocity and direction1 and magnetic conditions4 ,the single-stage ,,arcas vehicle reaches an altitude of #fd kilometers 7#dj miles71 propelled by a slow-burning solid-fuel engine which produces #ada4d kilograms 7#cab pounds7 of thrust4 ,when the ,,arcas is boosted by a ,sparrow or ,sidewinder missile engine1 it can reach altitudes of #ahb1hhj meters 7#fjj1jjj feet74 ,the #cb-kilogram 7#ga-pound7 ,,arcas is far less expensive than the larger two-stage weather rockets it has replaced4 ,it was developed and produced by the ,atlantic ,research ,corporation4 ,the ,,arcas is from the ,atlantic ,research ,corporation4 ,length #b4a m4 7#g ft47 ,diameter #aa4c cm4 7#d4de in47 ,propellant ,solid ,thrust #aei kg4 7#cej lb47 ,velocity #ceij km4_/hr4 7#bbcj mi4_/hr47 ,altitude #fd km4 7#dj mi47 with standard #e4d-kg4 7#ab-lb47 payload2 #ia4g km4 7#eg mi47 with a #b4c-kg4 7#e-lb47 instrument package ,cricket ,illustration3 #bh4 ,preparing ,cricket for launch4 ,the reusable ,cricket1 often called the 8meteorologist's handyman10 weighs only #b4e kilograms 7#e pounds71 #a4d kilograms 7#c pounds7 of which is propellant4 ,recovered by parachute after each flight1 ,cricket costs less than #aj to refuel4 ,the ,cricket's 4#cd-kilogram 7three-fourth pound7 instrument package zooms to #ige meters 7#cbjj feet7 in only #ab seconds1 gathering data on air temperature1 pressure and wind direction4 ,one of the rocket's most noteworthy features is that it uses 8cold0 propellants4 ,compressed carbon dioxide to which acetone is added is pumped into a storage tank in the rocket at a pressure of #ef4c kilograms per square centimeter 7#hjj pounds per square inch74 ,release of the pressurized mixture gives ,cricket its thrust4 ,cricket is fired from its launcher by a separate charge of carbon dioxide in order to preserve the rocket's fuel for flight4 ,this rocket was developed by ,texaco ,experiment1 ,inc41 for the ,u4,s4 ,air ,force's ,cambridge ,research ,laboratory4 ,the ,cricket is from ,texaco1 ,inc4 ,length #a4b m4 7#c ft41 #aj in47 ,diameter #aa cm4 7#d in47 ,propellant ,pressurized carbon dioxide and acetone ,thrust #bc kg4 max4 7#ej lb47 ,velocity #afh m4_/sec4 max4 7#eej ft4_/sec47 ,altitude #ige m4 7#cbjj ft47 ,viking #ab ,illustration3 #bi4 ,viking #ab lift-off4 ,the ,viking rocket family1 numbering #ad1 grew out of the ,navy's efforts to develop an upper atmosphere research program4 ,with enough time between launches to incorporate modifications suggested by experience with earlier ,vikings1 no two rockets of the series were exactly alike2 however1 there were two basic types of ,vikings4 ,the first seven rockets were taller1 thinner1 and had larger fins than those numbered #h-ad2 rockets in the second set were heavier1 with fuel capacity greatly increased1 and were designed either to go higher than the early ,vikings or to carry heavier payloads to the same altitude4 ,viking's highest altitude was #bed kilometers 7#aeh miles7 following a launch from ,white ,sands on ,may #bd1 #aied4 ,experiments flown on these rockets measured air temperature1 density1 pressure1 and composition1 as well as providing cosmic and solar radiation data4 ,one of the few failures in this program was ,viking #h1 the first rocket of the second set1 which unexpectedly tore loose from the launch stand while being test-fired4 ,viking was conceived at the ,naval ,research ,laboratory1 designed and produced by the ,glenn ,l4 ,martin ,company of ,baltimore1 ,maryland1 and powered by a liquid-propellant engine by ,reaction ,motors1 ,inc4 ,the rocket on exhibit is from the ,hayden ,planetarium and ,martin ,marietta ,aerospace4 ,length #ac4g m4 7#de ft47 ,diameter #a4a m4 7#c ft41 #i in47 ,propellant ,alcohol ,oxidizer ,liquid oxygen ,thrust #icjj kg4 7#bj1ejj lb47 ,velocity #fdhj km4 7#djbe mi47 per hr4 ,altitude #aic km4 7#abj mi47 with a #djb-kg4 7#hhg-lb47 payload ,,mouse ,illustration3 #cj4 ,,mouse model displays some of the earliest solar cells made 7under square cover on front74 ,the concept of artificial earth satellites was a logical extension of existing sounding-rocket programs4 ,the ,,mouse1 or ,minimum ,orbital ,unmanned ,satellite of ,earth1 was conceived in #aiea as the smallest possible orbital vehicle capable of performing scientific tasks4 ,while the ,,mouse was never built or flown1 it demonstrated what could be accomplished by an orbiting vehicle of modest size and weight4 ,the ,,mouse would have weighed #de4d kilograms 7#ajj pounds74 ,it was designed to study cosmic rays1 interplanetary dust1 and solar ultraviolet and ,x rays1 with the instruments attached to rods projecting from either end4 ,the satellite was to be powered by solar cells4 ,,mouse was conceived by ,kenneth ,w4 ,gatland1 ,anthony ,kunesch1 and ,alan ,dixon of ,england4 ,dr4 ,s4 ,f4 ,singer of the ,university of ,maryland designed the ,,mouse and constructed the model on exhibit4 ,the model displays some of the earliest solar cells produced by the ,bell ,telephone ,laboratories4 ,the ,,mouse is from ,s4 ,f4 ,singer4 ,agena-,b ,illustration3 #ca4 ,thor-,agena launch vehicle and its satellite payload before launch4 ,the ,agena launch vehicle has been an integral part of both unmanned and manned space programs4 ,flown as an upper stage on ,thor and ,atlas boosters1 ,agena orbited an impressive roster of spacecraft including the ,echo communications satellites1 the ,ranger and ,lunar ,orbiter ,moon probes1 and the ,mariner vehicles that traveled to ,venus and ,mars4 ,as the target for docking experiments during ,project ,gemini1 ,agena made substantial contributions to the eventual success of the ,apollo program4 ,the vehicle earned the distinction of being the first to place a payload in polar orbit1 and was also the first to achieve circular orbit4 ,the ,agena engine was the first which could be stopped and restarted in space4 ,the ,agena launch vehicle was developed and manufactured by the ,lockheed ,missiles and ,space ,company for the ,united ,states ,air ,force4 ,length #g4a m4 7#bc4be ft47 ,diameter #a4e m4 7#e ft47 ,weight ,empty #fgd kg4 7#adhd lb47 ,fuel ,unsymmetrical dimethylhydrazine ,oxidizer ,inhibited red-fuming nitric acid ,thrust #gbfj kg4 7#af1jjj lb47 ,the ,agena-,b is from the ,united ,states ,air ,force and the ,lockheed ,missile and ,space ,company4 ,illustration3 #cb4 ,the ,agena ,target ,docking ,vehicle seen from the ,gemini #h spacecraft during rendezvous approach4 ,science ,satellites ,illustration3 #cc4 ,vanguard #a1 second ,american satellite launched4 ,information from ,vanguard showed that the ,earth is not quite round4 ,the first artificial earth satellites were sometimes called 8long-playing rockets0 because they carried the same instruments and investigated the same problems as had the sounding rockets4 ,the great advantage of the satellite was its ability to provide a continuous flow of information for long periods of time4 ,the first science satellites were the forerunners of later vehicles that would demonstrate the direct benefits that satellites could offer to such varied fields as weather observation and communication4 ,the advent of the earth satellite provided scientists with a new and valuable research tool4 ,science satellites have been used for such tasks as solar and astronomical observations1 biology experiments1 or atmospheric investigation4 ,explorer #a 7launched ,january #ca1 #aieh7 and ,vanguard #a 7launched ,march #ag1 #aieh71 the first ,american earth satellites1 carried scientific payloads into space4 ,project ,vanguard's important contributions to ,america's space program were the creation of the minitrack tracking system1 the first use of silicon solar cells for electric power in a satellite1 as well as the discovery that ,earth is not quite round4 ,the ,vanguard program drew to a close with the #aiei launch of ,vanguard #c4 ,this satellite studied variations in solar and x-ray radiation and the earth's magnetosphere4 ,it also determined air density in the upper atmosphere4 ,the mysteries of the near-earth space environment drew ,explorer #f1 launched ,august #g1 #aiei4 ,explorer #f instruments measured radiation levels in the ,van ,allen radiation belts1 mapped the earth's magnetic field1 counted micrometeorites1 and studied the behavior of radio waves in space4 ,in addition1 ,explorer #f carried a scanning device which returned the first complete television cloud-cover picture of the earth's surface4 ,illustration3 #cd4 ,artist's concept of ,,imp-,e4 ,this satellite's primary mission is to study solar wind and the interplanetary magnetic field at lunar distance and their interaction with the ,moon4 ,explorer #aj1 launched on board a ,thor-,delta rocket on ,march #be1 #aifa1 confirmed the existence of the solar wind--the stream of particles that carries the ,sun's magnetic field beyond the orbit of ,earth4 ,during the satellite's planned #eb hours in orbit1 it relayed information on the relationship between terrestrial and interplanetary magnetic fields and the solar wind4 ,to continue the study of solar wind and interplanetary magnetic fields1 ,explorer #ab was orbited by a ,delta launch vehicle on ,august #af1 #aifa4 ,it was the first in a series of satellites to study energetic particles in space4 ,these electrons and protons constitute the earth's radiation belts and they affect weather and other phenomena on ,earth4 ,atmosphere ,explorer-,a was the first of ,,nasa's aeronomy satellites4 ,it was designed to remain in operation three months1 studying the composition1 density1 pressure1 and temperature of the upper atmosphere4 ,this satellite discovered a belt of neutral helium atoms around the ,earth4 ,deriving its name from a spirit in ,shakespeare's play1 ,the ,tempest1 ,ariel #a explored the ionosphere1 a region of electrically charged air which begins about #dj kilometers 7#be miles7 above the surface of the ,earth4 ,launched ,april #bf1 #aifb1 ,ariel was a cooperative venture between ,great ,britain and the ,united ,states4 ,it was both the first ,british satellite and ,,nasa's first international satellite4 ,the ,royal ,society's ,british ,national ,committee on ,space ,research coordinated the experimental program2 ,,nasa scientists and technicians built the craft4 ,two small scientific laboratories1 called ,interplanetary ,monitoring ,platforms1 were launched in #aifg to study the solar wind and other phenomena4 ,,imp-,e investigated interplanetary magnetic fields in the vicinity of the ,moon4 ,,imp-,f investigated the interplanetary magnetic field also1 in addition to the earth's magnetosphere and radiation levels in space4 ,interplanetary space between the ,earth and ,venus was the subject area for ,pioneer #e1 launched ,march #aa1 #aifj4 ,the satellite tested long-range communications systems1 developed methods for measuring astronomical distances1 studied the effects of solar flares1 and performed other tasks before it went into orbit around the ,sun4 ,with increasing interest in the earth's space environment1 a satellite was launched on ,september #g1 #aifg1 to investigate the impact of space on biological processes4 ,biosatellite #b was the second satellite in the program of three such vehicles4 ,frog eggs1 plants1 micro-organisms and insects were placed in orbit to enable scientists to study the combined effects of weightlessness1 artificially produced radiation1 and the absence of the normal day-night cycle on these organisms4 ,following two days in space1 the capsule containing the experimental package reentered the atmosphere and was caught in mid-air by an ,air ,force recovery aircraft4 ,vanguard #a is from ,john ,p4 ,hagan4 ,vanguard #c1 ,explorer #aj1 ,explorer #ab1 ,,ae-,a1 ,ariel #a1 ,,imp-,e ,f1 and ,biosatellite #b are from the ,national ,aeronautics and ,space ,administration4 ,the models of ,explorer #f and ,pioneer #e are from ,space ,technology ,laboratories4 ,meteorological ,satellites ,illustration3 #ce4 ,,tos satellite is covered with solar cells4 ,weather forecasts are important to everyone--in planning whether or not to carry an umbrella1 when to plant crops1 when to evacuate riverbank areas4 ,nineteenth-century ,american meteorologists relied on local weather observations telegraphed to the ,smithsonian ,institution in ,washington and then plotted on a large map of the nation from which forecasts were prepared4 ,when ,tiros-#a returned the first global cloud-cover picture in #aifj1 meteorologists were on their way to more accurate forecasts4 ,since the satellite pictures offered more comprehensive weather data over a larger geographic area1 the identification of weather patterns became more reliable4 ,while our knowledge of atmospheric conditions is still imperfect1 we have learned to make reasonably accurate regional weather forecasts and to identify and track violent storms and hurricanes based on satellite information4 ,the ,,tiros series 7,television ,infrared ,observations ,satellites7 were designed to test the feasibility of weather observation from orbit4 ,the ,,tiros satellite on exhibit was the prototype for the entire series of vehicles4 ,the prototype made eight trips to the launch stand at ,cape ,kennedy1 where it was used to check communications and handling procedures prior to the launch of the scheduled ,,tiros4 ,all #aj ,,tiros satellites were successful4 ,launched between ,april #a1 #aifj1 and ,july #a1 #aife1 they carried a variety of camera systems for experimental purposes4 ,nine ,,tiros ,operational ,satellites 7,,tos7 followed ,,tiros #a-aj4 ,except for the first ,,tos1 these satellites flew in pairs with one craft storing pictures on board for later transmission to major receiving centers1 while the other broadcast its photographs continuously to any ground station within range4 ,the satellite on display is of the latter type4 ,these vehicles were launched between #aiff and #aifi4 ,they were placed in near-polar orbits by reliable ,thor-,delta launch vehicles4 ,illustration3 #cf4 ,,tiros ,i photo showing a section of the ,east coast of the ,united ,states1 including the ,boston and ,new ,england area4 ,after launch1 ,,tos vehicles were referred to as ,,essa satellites4 ,,essa was an acronym both for ,environmental ,survey ,satellite and for the ,environmental ,science ,service ,administration1 the federal agency that operated the spacecraft4 ,this organization became a part of the ,national ,oceanic and ,atmospheric ,administration which currently has responsibility for operational meteorological satellite programs4 ,from about #acib kilometers 7#hfe miles7 above ,earth1 two wide-angle television cameras mounted on either side of the spacecraft took in #aj4d-million square kilometers 7#d-million square miles7 per photo4 ,the ,improved ,,tiros ,operational ,satellite 7,,itos7 opened the world of radiometric measurement to meteorologists--information about surface temperatures on the ground1 at sea level1 or at the cloud tops obtained by scanning devices sensitive to energy that is invisible to the naked eye4 ,,itos spacecraft could return accurate day or night surface and cloud-cover images4 ,seven of these satellites were launched between #aigj and #aigc4 ,,tiros was presented to the ,national ,air and ,space ,museum by the ,national ,aeronautics and ,space ,administration2 ,,tos is from the ,national ,oceanic and ,atmospheric ,administration2 ,,itos is from the ,astro-,electronics ,division of ,,rca1 ,inc4 ,illustration3 #cg4 ,artist's concept of ,,itos weather satellite illustrating how the weather eye takes night-time 7infrared7 cloud-cover pictures4 ,communications ,satellites ,illustration3 #ch4 ,ground inflation test on ,echo #a1 the world's first passive communications satellite4 ,communications satellites can be grouped into two broad categories4 ,passive vehicles reflect signals from one ground station to another4 ,active satellites accept ground signals and either amplify and rebroadcast them immediately or record messages for later transmission4 ,the ,echo satellite balloons typified the passive category of communications spacecraft4 ,these satellites 8bounced0 radio signals from one ground station to another4 ,uninflated ,echo payloads were carried into orbit packed in special storage containers4 ,when released in space1 the balloon was inflated by chemicals packed inside which subliminated to produce inflating gas4 ,the mylar plastic skin of the satellite was sandwiched between two layers of aluminum foil4 ,echo #b--on display--included a system for releasing gas over a long period of time to maintain the satellite's spherical shape4 ,launched ,january #be1 #aifd1 ,echo #b was the first satellite used for communication experiments between the ,united ,states and the ,soviet ,union4 ,project ,west ,ford1 launched ,may #i1 #aifc1 was a unique experiment in passive satellite communications4 ,it was not a solid vehicle1 but a series of #djj-million tiny individual copper filaments called dipoles4 ,the dipoles formed a reflective layer some #fd1cjj kilometers 7#dj1jjj miles7 long1 #cb kilometers 7#bj miles7 thick1 and #cb kilometers 7#bj miles7 wide4 ,the distance between the individual dipoles averaged #ecf meters 7one-third mile74 ,the ,west ,ford experiment proved disappointing1 and advances in the design of active communications satellites made further experiments of this nature unnecessary4 ,oscar #a 7,orbital ,satellite ,carrying ,amateur ,radio7 was conceived1 designed1 and constructed by ,american amateur radio 8hams40 ,launched as a 8piggyback0 satellite on ,december #ab1 #aifc1 ,oscar transmitted a series of ,morse code dots spelling 8hi40 ,the message was picked up by #ejjj operators in #bh nations during the #ah days of transmission4 ,oscar investigated radio propagation phenomena in space on that portion of the radio frequency spectrum allocated to amateur radio 7#add-adf megaherz74 ,testing the use of a 8delayed-repeater0 satellite in global military communications1 ,courier #a-;,b was placed in a high-altitude orbit on ,october #d1 #aifj4 ,the craft accepted and stored messages as it passed over one ground station1 then replayed them on command4 ,relay1 another active repeater satellite1 was placed in orbit on ,december #ac1 #aifb4 ,relay carried communications experiments to test a variety of relay equipment--including that for photofacsimile1 teleprinter1 and data transmission4 ,during its #be-month lifespan1 ,relay #a introduced the nations of the world to satellite communication4 ,a second1 improved ,relay was launched in #aifd4 ,illustration3 #ci4 ,the exterior of eight-sided ,relay is composed of honeycomb aluminum panels studded with #hbae solar cells4 ,the world's first commercial communications satellite was called 8,early ,bird10 or ,,intelsat #a4 ,built a decade ago by ,hughes ,aircraft ,company for ,communications ,satellite ,corporation 7,,comsat71 ,early ,bird could transmit simultaneously on #bdj two-way channels for telephone1 telegraph1 or data transmission4 ,transatlantic telephone circuit capability increased by #ej percent once ,early ,bird went into orbit on ,april #f1 #aife4 ,although the craft had a life expectancy of #ah months1 it operated satisfactorily in full-time service for more than three and one-half years4 ,,intelsat #b introduced multipoint communications between earth stations in the ,northern and ,southern hemispheres4 ,with almost twice the power of ,early ,bird1 ,,intelsat #b proved particularly important as communications support for the ,apollo missions to the ,moon4 ,,intelsat #b established a global network of three satellites that was effective in linking two-thirds of the world's people in one communications chain4 ,the first of the series was launched on ,january #aa1 #aifg4 ,these spacecraft were designed and manufactured by the ,hughes ,aircraft ,company for ,intelsat1 ,inc41 and had a design lifetime of three years4 ,,intelsat #c was a series of five communications satellites which provided global coverage for the first time4 ,this ,,intelsat had a capacity of #bdjj voice1 data1 facsimile1 and telegraph circuits1 plus four television channels and had a design lifetime of five years4 ,the satellite featured a de-spun antenna which remained pointed at a particular area of the globe1 while the body of the satellite spun around it4 ,it was the first commercial satellite capable of transmitting voice and television broadcasts simultaneously4 ,,intelsat #c satellites were manufactured by ,,trw ,systems1 ,inc41 for ,intelsat1 ,inc4 ,echo #b1 ,courier #a-;,b1 and ,relay are from the ,national ,aeronautics and ,space ,administration2 ,,oscar #a is from ,project ,oscar1 ,inc42 ,,intelsat #a1 ,,intelsat #b1 and ,,intelsat #c are from the ,international ,telecommunications ,satellite ,organization4 ,lunar ,module ,illustration3 #dj4 ,apollo #ae ,lunar ,module1 center1 on the ,moon4 ,astronaut ,irwin on left and ,lunar ,roving ,vehicle on right4 ,the lunar module is one of twelve built for the ,apollo moon-landing program4 ,although this one never flew because an earlier test flight was completely successful1 two-stage lunar modules like this one have been used for each manned moon landing4 ,lunar modules do not have to be streamlined for flights through the vacuum of space or to withstand reentry4 ,the lunar module 7,,lm7 lifts off from ,earth enclosed in a compartment of the ,saturn #e launch vehicle1 below the command-service module that houses the astronauts4 ,the command module pulls the ,,lm from its storage area once the spacecraft are on their way to the ,moon1 and the two travel together until they arrive in lunar orbit4 ,when the crew is ready to land1 two of the three astronauts enter the ,,lm and undock it1 leaving the third to pilot the command module4 ,after touchdown on the ,moon1 the astronauts exit through the door above the ladder4 ,the silver and black ascent stage1 containing the astronauts' pressurized compartment and the clusters of rockets that control the spacecraft1 fits on top of the shiny gold descent stage that actually touches down on the ,moon4 ,the descent stage contains a main1 centrally located rocket engine4 ,this segment of the craft remains on the ,moon as the crew lifts off in the ascent stage to rejoin the command module4 ,after the crew transfers to the command module1 the ascent stage is also left behind as the three crew members start their return journey4 ,the ,,lm is displayed just as it would look during a moon-landing mission4 ,the gold and black materials insulate the spacecraft's inner structure from temperature extremes and protect it from micrometeoroids4 ,thin sheets of both materials are used in 8blankets0 to accomplish the necessary protection in a foreign environment4 ,the black material is heat-resistant nickel-steel alloy4 ,each sheet is only 4#jjb millimeters 7#a_/ab1jjj of an inch7 thick4 ,these absorb heat and radiate it back into the blackness of space4 ,the shiny gold material on the descent stage is aluminum that is thinly coated over plastic film4 ,the thin sheets of plastic and aluminum are used in blankets of up to #be layers for protection and insulation of the spacecraft4 ,prime contractor for the lunar module was ,grumman ,aerospace ,corporation4 ,the lunar module on exhibit is from the ,national ,aeronautics and ,space ,administration4 ,height #g m4 7#bb ft41 #aa in471 legs extended ,diameter #i4d m4 7#ca ft47 diagonally across landing gear ,weight ,earth launch #ad1gjj kg4 7#cb1djj lb47 ,,lm 7dry7 #cijj kg4 7#hfjj lb47 ,volume ,pressurized #f4g cu4 m4 7#bce cu4 ft47 ,habitable #d4e cu4 m4 7#afj cu4 ft47 ,illustration3 #da4 ,lunar ,module ,center ,instrument ,panel in the ascent stage4 ,lunar ,orbiter ,illustration3 #db4 ,lunar ,orbiter4 ,directional ,antenna ,velocity ,control ,rocket ,engine ,fuel ,tank ,nitrogen ,gas ,reaction ,jets ,oxidizer ,tank ,lenses ,micrometeoroid ,detectors ,flight ,programmer ,photographic ,subsystem ,sun ,sensor 7located under equipment deck7 ,solar ,panel ,canopus ,star ,tracker ,inertial ,reference ,unit ,omni ,directional ,antenna ,the ,lunar ,orbiter project was initiated in #aifc as part of the ,u4,s4 ,apollo program to land men on the ,moon during the decade of the nineteen sixties4 ,lunar ,orbiter's primary mission was to take and transmit both wide-angle and closeup images of the ,moon4 ,lunar ,orbiters photographed many areas of scientific interest and provided general photographic coverage of much of the moon's surface4 ,these pictures were then used to select the best landing sites for the first manned lunar landings4 ,orbiters also showed that the moon's gravitational field permitted stable orbits4 ,lunar ,orbiter #a was launched atop an ,atlas-,agena ,d rocket on ,august #aj1 #aiff4 ,the last in the project1 ,lunar ,orbiter #e1 was launched on ,august #a1 #aifg4 ,all five missions were successful4 ,the first three missions were similar4 ,after each launch1 the ,agena stage's booster engine was fired to send the spacecraft on a #ij-;hour coasting trajectory to the ,moon1 about #chf1afj kilometers 7#bdj1jjj miles7 distant4 ,as the spacecraft neared the ,moon1 its on-board engine was fired as a retrorocket to slow the ,orbiter and permit it to go into orbit around the ,moon4 ,the closest approach to the ,moon in each orbit was about #de kilometers 7#bh miles71 and the spacecraft swung out to about #ahej kilometers 7#aaej miles7 from the ,moon4 ,photography was conducted while the ,orbiter was near the lunar surface4 ,lunar photography for the ,apollo ,program landing-site selection was completed by the first three ,lunar ,orbiters4 ,each was then intentionally crashed into the ,moon to prevent it from interfering with later missions4 ,the last two ,lunar ,orbiters were used for scientific photography of the ,moon4 ,both were placed into polar orbits so that they could photograph all of the sunlit areas of the ,moon4 ,each ,lunar ,orbiter carried a camera with both a telephoto and a wide-angle lens4 ,the telephoto lens was capable of resolving objects on the lunar surface as small as #ia4d centimeters 7three feet7 in diameter4 ,the wide-angle lens could resolve objects as small as #g4f meters 7#be feet7 in diameter4 ,the photographic images were converted to electrical signals for transmission to ,earth4 ,the ,lunar ,orbiter project was a complete success4 ,all spacecraft operated properly1 photographing a total of more than #cf-million square kilometers 7#ad-million square miles7 of the moon's surface4 ,prime contractor for the ,lunar ,orbiter program was the ,boeing ,company4 ,principal subcontractors were ,eastman ,kodak ,company and ,,rca4 ,the ,lunar ,orbiter in the ,national ,air and ,space ,museum's collection was used for thermal testing of spacecraft systems4 ,lunar ,orbiter is from the ,national ,aeronautics and ,space ,administration4 ,maximum span ,antenna booms #e4f m4 7#ah ft41 #f in47 ,solar panels #c4g m4 7#ab ft41 #b in47 ,height #a4fh m4 7#e ft41 #f in47 without panels ,weight #che4f kg4 7#hej lb47 ,power ,electrical2 four solar panels with a total area of just over #d4h sq4 m4 7#eh sq4 ft47 providing #cge w4 to nickel-cadmium batteries ,velocity control ,a #de4d kg 7#ajj lb47 thrust engine burning a system hydrazine mixture and nitrogen-tetroxide oxidizer ,surveyor ,illustration3 #dc4 ,surveyor4 ,high-gain ,antenna ,omnidirectional ,antenna ,a ,thermally ,controlled ,compartment ,a ,radar ,altitude - ,doppler ,velocity ,sensor ,vernier ,propellant ,tanks ,footpad #b ,crushable ,block ,attitude ,control ,gas ,tank 7,nitrogen7 ,solar ,panel ,,tv ,camera ,thermally ,controlled ,compartment ,b ,alpha ,scattering ,instrument ,electronics ,canopus ,star ,sensor ,omnidirectional ,antenna ,b ,footpad #c ,vernier ,engine #c ,vernier ,propellant ,pressurizing ,gas ,tank 7,helium7 ,alpha ,scattering ,instrument ,illustration3 #dd4 ,apollo #ab crewman examines ,surveyor #c1 which soft-landed on the ,moon on ,april #ai1 #aifg4 ,the ,apollo #ab 7#aifi7 ,lunar ,module is in the background4 ,the ,surveyor ,project1 begun in #aifj1 consisted of seven unmanned spacecraft which were launched between ,may #cj1 #aiff1 and ,january #f1 #aifh4 ,the craft were used to develop lunar soft-landing techniques1 to survey potential ,apollo landing sites1 and to improve scientific understanding of the ,moon4 ,five of the seven ,surveyor spacecraft successfully landed on the ,moon and performed their tasks well4 ,they responded to #fjj1ede commands from ,earth and returned #hg1fcb television images of their lunar surroundings4 7,surveyors #b and #d crashed into the ,moon and were destroyed47 ,besides returning ,,tv images1 ,surveyors #c1 #e1 #f1 and #g carried a soil-sampling claw which could dig a trench1 and test soil hardness and other characteristics4 ,the soil-sampler tests showed that the lunar surface would bear the weight of an ,apollo ,lunar ,module4 ,surveyors #e1 #f1 and #g carried instruments capable of making simple chemical analyses of the lunar soil near the spacecraft4 ,this information told scientists that most lunar soil near the ,surveyors was basalt1 a common rock on ,earth as well4 ,the ,surveyor spacecraft on exhibit1 designated ,s-#aj1 was used in ground-based tests of on-board equipment1 and was not used on a mission4 ,s-#aj is exhibited as it would have appeared just before landing on the ,moon4 ,prime contractor for the ,surveyor spacecraft was the ,hughes ,aircraft ,company4 ,the project was managed by the ,national ,aeronautics and ,space ,administration1 ,jet ,propulsion ,laboratory1 ,california ,institute of ,technology1 ,pasadena1 ,california4 ,the spacecraft on exhibit is from the ,national ,aeronautics and ,space ,administration4 ,height #c m4 7#aj ft47 ,distance across #c4e m4 7#aa ft41 #f in47 footpads ,weight #ajjj kg4 7#bbjd lb47 at launch2 #bib kg4 7#fdd lb47 as exhibited ,electrical power ,one 4#hc sq4 m4 7#i sq4 ft47 solar panel providing #hi w4 to a silver-zinc battery ,landing vernier ,three throttleable liquid-propellant rockets rocket system each providing from #ad4f to #dg4b kg4 thrust 7#cj to #ajd lb4 thrust74 ,fuel--,monomethylhydrazine monohydrate2 oxidizer #ij nitrogen tetroxide and #aj nitric oxide4 ,goddard ,rockets3 ,may #aibf and 8,hoopskirt10 #aibh ,the ,american pioneer of astronautics1 ,robert ,h4 ,goddard 7#ahhb-aide7 not only outlined the physical principles that would govern space flight1 but he also constructed and tested many rocket engines1 airframes1 control devices1 and guidance mechanisms between #aibf and #aidb4 ,goddard held a doctorate in physics1 and was a professor at ,clark ,university1 ,worcester1 ,massachusetts4 ,the ,smithsonian ,institution began funding ,goddard's experiments as early as #aiag and published his first major work1 ,a ,method of ,reaching ,extreme ,altitudes1 in #aiai4 ,goddard was not only a trained scientist1 but a talented and ingenious engineer as well4 ,on ,march #af1 #aibf1 he launched the world's first liquid-propellant rocket4 ,by #aicj1 he had established a rocket test facility at ,mescalero ,ranch1 near ,roswell1 ,new ,mexico4 ,here1 he conducted research1 funded by the ,daniel and ,florence ,guggenheim ,foundation1 on rocket power plants1 pumps and fuel systems1 control mechanisms1 and other vital elements of the modern rocket4 ,the ,rocket of ,may #d1 #aibf ,this vehicle is the oldest surviving liquid-propellant rocket in the world4 ,built of parts employed in the first liquid-propellant rocket launched on ,march #af1 #aibf1 the engine was moved from the nose of the vehicle to the rear for the ,may #d trial4 ,other changes were introduced to reduce the weight of the rocket to #b4e kilograms 7#e4e pounds74 ,the motor burned gasoline and liquid oxygen4 ,the alcohol burner under the liquid oxygen tank was inadvertently not ignited1 causing the ,may #d attempted launch to fail4 ,a second test on ,may #e also proved unsuccessful4 ,however1 the rocket engine was fired on both occasions4 ,the ,may #d rocket is from ,mrs4 ,robert ,h4 ,goddard and the ,daniel and ,florence ,guggenheim ,foundation4 ,may #aibf rocket ,length #a4ie m4 7#f ft41 #d in47 ,weight #b4e kg4 7#e4e lb47 ,fuel ,gasoline ,oxidizer ,liquid oxygen ,the 8,hoopskirt0 ,rocket ,illustration3 #de4 ,dr4 ,goddard and the 8,hoopskirt40 ,propellant tanks are on legs of frame4 ,illustration3 #df4 ,the upper section of the 8,hoopskirt0 rocket4 ,developed by ,dr4 ,goddard during the late summer and early fall of #aibh1 the 8,hoopskirt0 rocket featured a small rocket engine mounted in the nose and a system of tanks and alcohol burners--to maintain fuel pressure--mounted on two legs4 ,on ,december #bf1 #aibh1 the rocket flew #fb4cc meters 7#bjd4e feet7 in #c4b seconds--its most successful flight4 ,like all ,goddard rockets1 the 8,hoopskirt0 burned gasoline and liquid oxygen4 ,the 8,hoopskirt0 rocket is from ,mrs4 ,robert ,h4 ,goddard4 8,hoopskirt0 ,height #d4e m4 7#ad ft41 #h in47 ,weight #ab4ic kg4 7#bh4e lb47 ,fuel ,gasoline ,oxidizer ,liquid oxygen #aith-,century ,rockets3 ,congreve and ,hale ,illustration3 #dg4 ,the ,bombardment of ,algiers1 #ahaf4 ,congreve rockets in use4 ,the rebirth of ,european interest in military rocketry can be traced to the ,english conquest of ,india during the late #ahth century4 ,william ,congreve1 an artillery expert1 was intrigued by the tactical success of the ,indian war rockets4 ,he began a research program in #ahjd that led to the development of a metal-cased1 stick-guided artillery rocket that could be fired in barrages against enemy troops4 ,the rocket carried incendiary or explosive warheads4 ,the #ad4e-kilogram 7#cb-pound7 ,congreve war rocket models on display show the early side-mounting of the stabilizing guide stick and the later 7#ahae7 design in which the guide stick was center-mounted to give greater accuracy4 ,congreve rockets played an important role during the ,napoleonic ,wars and the ,war of #ahab4 ,the experimental #de4d-kilogram 7#ajj-pound7 ,congreve incendiary rocket was developed as a siege weapon for use against fortresses or entrenched enemy positions1 although it is not known to have been used in combat4 ,the #f4g-meter 7#bb-;foot7 guide stick screwed together and fitted to the side of the projectile before firing4 ,like the smaller ,congreve rockets1 it could be launched from a frame or earthen embankment4 ,william ,hale was an ,english engineer and ordnance expert who made cumbersome guide sticks obsolete with the introduction of spin stabilization to rocketry4 ,hale's first design of a stickless1 or rotary1 rocket was patented in #ahdd4 ,although the #e4d-kilogram 7#ab-pound7 rocket was used during the ,mexican ,war 7#ahdf-ahdg7 and the ,civil ,war1 ,hale subsequently refined it because the rocket had a tendency to oscillate in the air following exhaustion of the propellant4 ,hale's intermediate pattern rocket of #ahfb--on display--was never produced1 giving way in #ahfe to a rocket weighing #aa kilograms 7#bd pounds7 with a maximum range of #bjab meters 7#bbjj yards7 when fired from a #d4f-meter 7#ae-;foot7 elevation4 ,the propellant burned for #e to #aj seconds1 producing an estimated maximum thrust of #acf kilograms 7#cjj pounds74 ,the ,american version of the ,hale rocket has two sets of gas nozzles4 ,the major aperture on the base of the case allowed the propellant gases to escape4 ,the smaller holes above the rocket's midpoint are angled2 the exhaust gases spin the projectile1 stabilizing it during flight4 ,hale rocket designs were employed by both sides during the ,civil ,war4 ,illustration3 #dh4 ,hale rocket with canted nozzles for spin-stabilization4 ,the ,congreve #ad4e-kilogram 7#cb-pound7 war rocket model was copied from the original at the ,royal ,artillery ,institution2 the experimental ,congreve incendiary rocket on display is a gift of that ,institution4 ,hale's #ahdd design rocket1 his #ahfb experimental rocket1 and the #ahfe rocket are on loan from the ,science ,museum1 ,london4 ,the ,american ,hale rocket is on loan from ,f4 ,c4 ,durant ,,iii4 ,american ,rocket ,society3 ,engines and ,parts ,illustration3 #di4 ,static test of liquid-fuel rocket engine on ,american ,rocket ,society ,test ,stand ,no4 #b4 ,illustration3 #ej4 ,two early types of liquid-fuel1 rocket motors4 ,left1 the original ,,ars motor2 right1 a four-nozzle motor for ,,ars ,no4 #d rocket4 ,thrust stud for fastening to rocket ,blast chamber ,fuel feed ,oxygen feed ,nozzle ,water jacket ,nozzles ,thrust and fuel column attached to rocket ,fuel feed ,oxygen feed ,the ,american ,rocket ,society 7,,ars7 was the first organization in the ,united ,states dedicated to rocket research4 ,the society was founded in ,new ,york ,city in ,march #aicj by ,g4 ,e4 ,pendray and ,david ,laser4 ,the first successful ,,ars rocket was launched on ,may #ac1 #aicc4 ,the group continued to build and test rocket engines until the outbreak of ,world ,war ,,ii4 ,after #aide1 the ,,ars became a professional society for engineers involved in astronautics4 ,the ,,ars joined with other aeronautical engineering groups to form the ,american ,institute of ,aeronautics and ,astronautics in #aifc4 ,the first liquid-propellant rocket engines built by the ,american ,rocket ,society were machined from blanks of heat-resistant1 cast-aluminum alloy4 ,engine ,no4 #a powered the first two rockets designed and constructed by the ,,ars4 ,it featured combustion chamber walls #ab4g millimeters 7 inch7 thick and burned liquid oxygen and gasoline to produce a thrust of #bg4bb kilograms 7#fj pounds74 ,liquid oxygen was pressurized by partial evaporation1 while bottled nitrogen forced gasoline from the tank to the engine4 ,,ars ,engine ,no4 #d1 like its predecessors1 was mounted in the nose1 rather than the tail1 of the rocket4 ,the engine featured a single combustion chamber and four nozzles4 ,the nozzles directed the jet gases to the rear and slightly away from the top of the gasoline tank on which the engine was mounted4 ,the rocket powered by this engine was tested on ,september #i1 #aicd4 ,it rose several hundred feet1 at which point one of the nozzles burned out1 bringing the flight to a close4 ,in #aich1 ,,ars member ,james ,wyld suggested a cooling system whereby propellants circulate through a jacket surrounding the combustion chamber4 ,engines using this system are termed 8regeneratively cooled40 ,the first ,wyld rocket motor tested developed #da kilograms 7#ij pounds7 of thrust for #ac seconds4 ,it proved so successful that ,wyld and other members of the ,,ars founded ,reaction ,motors1 ,inc41 to produce and sell rocket engines based on this design4 ,the performance of motors developed by the ,,ars prior to ,world ,war ,,ii was measured on a test stand with built-in fuel and oxidizer tanks and bottled nitrogen gas4 ,the engine was mounted on a carriage1 and connected to the stand's propellant tanks by flexible metal hoses4 ,thrust was indicated on a pressure gauge4 ,the stand was first used in #aich4 ,all ,american ,rocket ,society artifacts are from ,g4 ,e4 ,pendray and the ,american ,institute of ,aeronautics and ,astronautics4 ,h-#a ,engine ,illustration3 #ea4 ,a two-stage ,saturn #a;,b rocket powered by ,h-#a engine cluster lifts off carrying ,skylab #d astronauts1 ,november #af1 #aigc4 ,the ,h-#a liquid-propellant rocket engine was an outgrowth of the ,,lr-#gi which served as the basic power plant for the ,,usaf ,thor missile4 ,the ,h-#a was used in the #h-;engine cluster of the first stage of the ,saturn #a and #a;,b launch vehicles4 ,the ,h-#a burns liquid oxygen and a grade of aviation kerosene to produce a total thrust of #ib1ihf kilograms 7#bje1jjj pounds74 ,each engine functions as an independent unit1 with its own combustion chamber and turbopump1 but fuel is drawn from common tanks4 ,the ,saturn #a;,b was first launched on ,february #bf1 #aiff1 and most recently on ,july #ae1 #aige1 in the launch of the ,u4,s4 crew of the ,apollo-,soyuz ,test ,project4 ,it was developed by ,rocketdyne1 a division of ,north ,american ,rockwell ,corporation4 ,the engine on exhibit is from the ,national ,aeronautics and ,space ,administration4 ,,rl-#aj ,engine ,illustration3 #eb4 ,,rl-#aj engines used to power ,centaur launch vehicle4 ,the ,,rl-#aj is an upper stage propulsion system that can be stopped and restarted in space4 ,it is a regeneratively cooled engine which burns liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen to produce #fhjj kilograms 7#ae1jjj pounds7 of thrust4 ,,rl-#ajs pioneered the use of liquid hydrogen as a rocket fuel4 ,they powered the ,centaur launch vehicles that boosted such craft as ,surveyor and ,viking into space4 ,a six-engine cluster of ,,rl-#ajs was also used to propel the ,s#d stage of the ,saturn #a4 ,the ,,rl-#aj was developed by ,pratt ,whitney ,aircraft division of the ,united ,aircraft ,corporation4 ,the ,,rl-#aj engine is from the ,national ,aeronautics and ,space ,administration4 ,,jato ,units ,illustration3 #ec4 ,,jato-boosted ,martin ,mariner aircraft4 ,,jato 7,jet ,assisted ,take-,off7 rockets boost heavy aircraft from short runways or from high-altitude airports where long take-off runs are required4 ,the development of more powerful airplane engines has reduced the use of ,j,a,t,os in recent years4 ,the first ,american ,,jato units were tested at ,march ,field1 ,california1 on ,august #ab1 #aida4 ,six solid-propellant engines1 each developing #ab4h kilograms 7#bh pounds7 of thrust1 boosted a light plane piloted by ,capt4 ,homer ,boushey into the air on this occasion4 ,these motors were designed and built by staff members of the ,air ,corps ,jet ,propulsion ,research ,project of the ,guggenheim ,aeronautical ,laboratory of the ,california ,institute of ,technology4 ,during ,world ,war ,,ii1 work continued on ,,jato prototypes3 the ,m#ag;,g was developed by ,reaction ,motors1 ,inc41 to provide #eij kilograms 7#acjj pounds7 of thrust to assist the take-off of ,,pbm flying boats2 the ,m#ai;,g1 also built by ,reaction ,motors1 ,inc41 was fueled by gasoline with liquid oxygen as an oxidizer4 ,the liquid-propellant #be;,,ald#ajjj1 developed during ,world ,war ,,ii4 produced #dec kilograms 7#ajjj pounds7 of thrust and burned red-fuming nitric acid as an oxidizer and aniline as a fuel4 ,it was successfully used on a variety of aircraft1 including the ,b-#bd1 ,b-#be1 ,c-#dj1 and ,p-#ch4 ,after the war ended1 ,,jato engines were used on military aircraft such as the ,b-#dg and ,f-#hd in the ,united ,states1 while in ,britain the ,,jato ,super ,sprite became the first rocket engine to receive official type approval for quantity production4 ,the first ,u4,s4 ,,jato unit and the #be;,,ald#ajjj are gifts of the ,aerojet ,general ,division of the ,general ,tire and ,rubber ,company4 ,the ,m#ag;,g and ,m#ai;,g ,j,a,t,os are from the ,thiokol ,chemical ,corporation1 and ,rolls ,royce1 ,ltd41 provided the ,super ,sprite4 ,,lr-#hg ,engine ,illustration3 #ed4 ,,lr-#hg engine in ,titan on launch stand4 ,the ,,lr-#hg was a twin-chamber liquid-propellant rocket engine developed to power the ,titan ,i intercontinental ballistic missile4 ,the engine developed a total thrust of #acf1jgh kilograms 7#cjj1jjj pounds7 at sea level4 ,it burned liquid oxygen and a grade of aviation kerosene4 ,the combustion chambers were gimbal mounted to allow them to swivel1 controlling the missile trajectory during the powered phase of flight4 ,the engine was developed by ,aerojet ,general ,corporation4 ,illustration3 #ee4 ,,lr-#hg engine just after suspension in the museum4 ,the ,,lr-#hg on exhibit is from the ,u4,s4 ,air ,force4 ,toward #bjgf3 ,the ,future of ,rocket ,propulsion ,illustration3 #ef4 ,a #bast-century space colony in orbit between ,earth and the ,moon1 as suggested by ,dr4 ,gerard ,o',neill of ,princeton ,university4 ,this colony could accommodate #bjj1jjj persons1 using solar energy for power and lunar or asteroid materials for construction4 ,the teacup-shaped containers ringing the cylinder are agricultural stations1 and the mirrors would direct sunlight into the interior1 regulate the seasons1 and control the day-night cycle4 ,during the first twenty years of the space age1 all launch vehicles were propelled by solid or liquid chemical rockets2 however1 nuclear and electric rocket motors are needed to provide the higher thrusts and velocities required for possible future manned journeys to other planets4 ,robert ,h4 ,goddard1 the ,american rocket pioneer1 was the first to suggest the possibility of electric rocket motors1 but it was not until #aifd that electric rockets were actually tested in space4 ,two types of ion engines represent the most fully developed electric propulsion systems4 ,in contact ion engines1 a propellant gas 7mercury or cesium1 for example7 is ionized1 or given an electrical charge1 by passage through a hot porous metal4 ,the resulting ions are accelerated out of the engine by an electrical field4 ,the charged ions are neutralized as they approach the nozzle to form an exhaust beam that imparts the thrust4 ,bombardment ion engines rely on the bombardment of the propellant gas by electrons from a cathode1 or negative electrode1 to create ions4 ,the ions are accelerated from the engine in the same manner as in the contact ion engine4 ,a ,cesium ,ion ,rocket ,engine ,this small contact ion engine produces 4#jjji kilogram 74#jjb pound7 of thrust by passing vaporized cesium through hot tungsten4 ,on ,earth this amount of power is scarcely enough to lift a one-carat jewel an inch off a table1 but in the frictionless vacuum of space1 it is sufficient to provide attitude control for satellites4 ,it can also accelerate a spacecraft to high interplanetary velocities by operating continuously for thousands of hours4 ,an ion engine of this type was first tested in space in #aifd4 ,on that occasion1 it provided 4#jjji kilogram 74#jjb pound7 of thrust for #b hours1 #aj minutes4 ,it was able to control the attitude of the attached instrument package4 ,this ion engine is a gift from ,electro-,optical ,systems1 ,inc41 the company that developed it4 ,project ,orion ,illustration3 #eg4 ,the ,project ,orion test vehicle was used to explore the feasibility of a unique type of propulsion which utilized successive nuclear explosions behind the rear pusher plate4 ,project ,orion was an attempt to solve the problems of propulsion for long-term manned journeys to other planets by creating an engine that would use successive nuclear explosions to propel very large space vehicles4 ,the ,orion spacecraft was designed to carry many small nuclear explosive systems which would be ejected sequentially from the rear of the vehicle4 ,these units would explode some distance behind the spacecraft4 ,the expanding debris1 in the form of high-velocity1 high-density plasma1 would strike a pusher plate at the rear of the ,orion vehicle4 ,work on ,project ,orion was halted in #aifc when the ,limited ,nuclear ,test ,ban ,treaty1 which prohibited atmospheric tests of the propulsion system1 was signed4 ,the ,project ,orion ,test ,vehicle--on display--demonstrated the basic principle of intermittent thrust from explosive charges4 ,test data provided by this model would have assisted engineers in developing the full-scale spacecraft4 ,the test vehicle carried five high-explosive plastic charges which were ejected from the rear of the craft4 ,compressed nitrogen powered the ejection system4 ,each charge was attached to the vehicle by a 4#i-meter 7#c-;foot7 cord4 ,a microswitch exploded the individual packages4 ,the ,project ,orion ,test ,vehicle was first flown successfully in ,october #aiei4 ,from the ,gulf ,energy and ,environmental ,systems1 ,inc4 ,the ,plug-,nozzle ,rocket ,engine ,although this engine is a liquid-propellant rocket1 it substitutes a series of small combustion chambers and nozzles for the traditional single large chamber and nozzle to achieve additional thrust4 ,this innovative combustion system features chambers and nozzles mounted on an annular ring at the base of the engine4 ,thrust is derived from the expansion of the exhaust gases against a large segmented plug in the center of the engine4 ,flight control is achieved by varying the amount of propellant introduced into the individual chamber sections4 ,the engine on exhibit burned liquid oxygen and kerosene to provide a thrust of #bb1fhj kilograms 7#ej1jjj pounds74 ,the plug-nose rocket engine was developed at the ,general ,electric ,company's ,malta ,test ,station in #aifa4 ,the engine on exhibit is from the ,new ,york ,state ,atomic and ,space ,authority4 ,space ,suits ,illustration3 #eh4 ,astronaut ,john ,glenn is assisted with his suiting-up4 ,modern space suits are direct descendants of the simple 8pressure suits0 designed as early as #aijg for deep-sea divers4 ,in #aiaa an ,english respiratory physiologist1 ,j4 ,s4 ,haldane1 proposed the use of an oxygen pressurized suit for ascent to high altitudes4 ,the first ,u4,s4 patent was granted for a pressure suit in #aiah4 ,through the early #aifjs1 all such suits were pressure containers4 ,project ,mercury astronauts wore suits adapted from the ,u4,s4 ,navy ,,mk-,,iv pressure suit4 ,it consisted of an inner layer of neoprene-coated fabric and a restraint layer of aluminized nylon fabric4 ,the garment design provided a fair degree of mobility1 although the suit could not bend with the full hinge motion of the human elbow or knee because it folded in at the joints1 reducing overall volume and increasing internal pressure4 ,the ,mercury suit would have been pressurized only if spacecraft cabin pressure had been lost4 ,space suits require a great deal of sophistication4 ,they must meet many vital criteria1 including low leakage1 thermal control1 comfort1 stowage1 and protection from micrometeoroid strikes4 ,gemini #d was the first ,american mission to explore the problems of man functioning outside his spacecraft1 with only his space suit for protection4 ,this extravehicular activity required the space suit to be a prime system rather than a precautionary measure4 ,illustration3 #ei4 ,apollo space suit4 ,designed and created primarily for moon-walking1 the #bh4f-kilogram 7#fc-pound7 ,apollo space suits1 with backpack environmental and communication systems1 enabled the lunar astronauts to dispense with the tether used on the ,gemini 8spacewalks40 ,the suit's #ba layers are materials such as teflon fabric1 nonwoven dacron1 and aluminized mylar4 ,these alternating layers of specialized materials protected the astronauts from the extreme temperatures of space and possibility of micrometeroids striking4 ,boots and gloves contain a stainless steel cloth to protect against abrasion4 ,suits had to fit the wearers so precisely that #fg anthropometric measurements were required of each astronaut4 ,illustration3 #fj4 ,astronaut ,white takes the first 8spacewalk0 with only his suit for protection from the space environment4 ,when the astronauts ventured outside the spacecraft and explored the lunar surface1 the following equipment was worn under the suit3 a fecal containment system for emergency containment of solid-waste material2 a liquid-cooling garment2 a bio-belt assembly1 urine collection and transfer system4 ,together with a portable life-support system1 this constituted the complete ,environmental ,mobility ,unit 7,,emu74 ,the liquid-cooling garment consists of an outer layer of nylon spandex material1 a network of polyvinyl-chloride tubing1 and a nylon-chiffon comfort liner4 ,even spacing of the plastic tubing permitted the efficient transfer of body heat to the cooling liquid 7water7 as it circulated through the suit4 ,the bio-belt assembly1 worn over the liquid-cooling garment1 contains preamplifiers for sensors placed next to the skin4 ,the sensors acquired electrical signals which determined respiration rate and electrocardiograms of the astronauts4 ,the preamplifiers relayed the signals to the spacecraft telemetry system for transmission to ,earth4 ,the urine collection and transfer assembly provided for emergency containment of liquid waste when spacecraft facilities were not available4 ,liquid waste was subsequently transferred from the collection assembly to the spacecraft waste-management system4 ,the portable life-support system 7,,plss7 created and maintained a livable atmosphere inside an astronaut's space suit during activity on the lunar surface4 ,worn as a backpack1 the ,,plss could be used for as long as four hours at a time4 ,the ,,plss supplied oxygen for breathing purposes1 suit pressurization1 and ventilation4 ,it also removed contaminants from oxygen circulating through the suit and supplied water and oxygen for body cooling4 ,conversion of exhaled carbon dioxide into oxygen was accomplished through a lithium-hydroxide cartridge also contained in the ,,plss4 ,an emergency supply of oxygen was contained in the oxygen purge system mounted on top of the ,,plss4 ,when fully charged1 the pack weighs #ch kilograms 7#hd pounds7 on ,earth or #f4c kilograms 7#ad pounds7 on the ,moon4 ,the space suit on exhibit is from the ,national ,aeronautics and ,space ,administration4 ,v-#b 7,a-#d7 ,illustration3 #fa4 ,british-supervised postwar launch of ,v-#b in ,germany4 ,illustration3 #fb4 ,v-#b4 ,the ,german ,v-#b1 originally designated ,a-#d1 represents the beginning of modern rocketry4 ,the ,v-#b was the first proof that large rockets of the sort described by the space-flight pioneers of the early twentieth century could be successfully built and flown4 ,it was also the forerunner of the intercontinental ballistic missile system4 ,developed by a team of engineers working under the direction of ,dr4 ,wernher von ,braun at ,peenemunde1 ,germany1 the ,v-#b work laid the foundation for the ,redstone missile through the ,saturn series of space launch vehicles4 ,four-thousand ,v-#bs were fired against ,allied targets in ,england and on the continent in #aidd and #aide4 ,after ,world ,war ,,ii1 captured ,v-#b rockets were used to train ,american technicians in missile launch procedures and to carry the first payloads of scientific instruments into the upper atmosphere in the ,united ,states4 ,the operational ,v-#b rocket structure consisted of three sections4 ,the nose housed the warhead and control mechanisms4 ,the fuel tanks carried liquid oxygen and alcohol propellants4 ,the rocket engine1 turbopumps1 and control surfaces were contained in the tail section4 ,jet deflector vanes positioned in the stream of exhaust gases and external vanes maintained attitude and directional control during the powered portion of flight4 ,length #ad m4 7#df ft41 #a in47 ,diameter #a4f m4 7#e ft41 #e in47 ,propellants ,alcohol and liquid oxygen ,thrust #be1djj kg4 7#ef1jjj lb47 ,velocity #efcc km4_/hr4 7#cejj mi4_/hr47 ,altitude ,peak of operational trajectory1 #hi km4 7#ee mi47 ,v-#a ,illustration3 #fc4 ,illustration from ,world ,war ,,ii intelligence report4 ,,german ,,pilotless ,,aircraft ,warhead3 approx4 #ajjj kg4 ,fuel filler cap ,lifting lug ,fuel tank4 7,capacity #acj galls4 petrol7 ,wirebound spherical compressed air bottles ,grill incorporation shutters petrol injection jets ,impulse duct engine ,light alloy nose fairing probably containing compass ,launching rail ,steel tubular main spar passing through fuel tank ,pressed steel wing ribs ,sheet steel wing covering ,automatic pilot3 #c airdriven gyros3 height range setting controls ,pneumatic servo mechanism operating rudder elevators ,the ,german-developed ,v-#a was an automatically controlled pilotless aircraft for use against ,allied cities during ,world ,war ,,ii4 ,the missile was launched from ground ramps4 ,once in the air1 automatic controls on board the craft took over4 ,the ,v-#a climbed to a predetermined altitude1 followed a compass course1 and dove to the ground after a preset distance had been covered4 ,this mid-wing monoplane was powered by a unique pulsejet engine above the rear portion of the fuselage4 ,the relatively low speed of the missile made it easy prey for antiaircraft guns or fighters4 ,the ,v-#a on exhibit is from the ,u4,s4 ,air ,force1 ,park ,ridge ,depot4 ,german ,antiaircraft ,missiles ,illustration3 #fd4 ,rheintochter ,r-,i 7,rhine ,maiden74 ,rheintochter ,i ,the ,rheintochter ,i 7,rhine ,maiden7 was intended for use against ,allied bomber formations late in ,world ,war ,,ii4 ,the ,german ground-to-air rocket was fin-stabilized1 and controlled by radio4 ,the flight of the two-stage vehicle was controlled by the four movable vanes on the nose of the craft4 ,the first stage carried the missile away from the launching rail1 while the second stage brought the missile up to full speed and propelled it to the target4 ,both the booster and sustainer engines used solid fuel4 ,after a six-tenths of a second burn1 the booster dropped off and the sustainer motor ignited4 ,the missile warhead was housed at the rear of the sustainer stage4 ,exhaust gases were expelled through six nozzles located between the main fins4 ,the program was abandoned in ,december #aidd1 after #hb ,rheintochter ,i rockets had been test fired4 ,by then it had become apparent that the missile could not reach the operational altitude of modern bomber aircraft4 ,hs-#bih ,illustration3 #fe4 ,hs-#bih4 ,the ,hs-#bih was designed to combat the ,allied bomber threat to wartime ,germany4 ,this air-to-air missile could be launched from either fighter or bomber aircraft and was in quantity production early in #aide4 ,it carried #de4d kilograms 7#ajj pounds7 of high explosives that were detonated by proximity fuse when the missile was within #i4a meters 7#cj feet7 of an enemy airplane4 ,x-#d ,illustration3 #ff4 ,x-#d4 ,the fin-stabilized ,x-#d air-to-air missile was guided to its target by means of electrical impulses which passed through two wires connecting the rocket to the launch aircraft until detonation4 ,once the missile was on its way to the target bomber1 the fighter pilot directed its course with a separate small control stick in his cockpit4 ,because the control wires streamed out ahead of the launching aircraft1 the pilot was prevented from evasive maneuvering4 ,launched from ,german fighter aircraft1 usually a ,,fw-#aij1 the ,x-#d was powered by either a solid-propellant engine or a bi-propellant liquid-rocket engine4 ,it carried a #bj-kilogram 7#dd-pound7 warhead4 ,jupiter-,c ,illustration3 #fg4 ,jupiter-,c launches the first ,american satellite1 ,january #ca1 #aieh4 ,jupiter-,c carried the first successful ,american artificial earth satellite1 ,explorer #a1 into orbit on ,january #ca1 #aieh4 ,jupiter-,c launched additional ,explorer satellites on ,march #bf and ,july #bf1 #aieh4 ,jupiter-,c1 or ,juno #a1 is a modified version of the ,redstone ,ballistic ,missile and a direct descendant of the ,v-#b 7,a-#d7 rocket developed in ,germany during the second ,world ,war4 ,the vehicle's main stage is powered by a rocket engine burning liquid oxygen and a hydrazine mixture4 ,the second and third stages are contained in the 8tub0 on the nose of the rocket4 ,both use scaled-down ,sergeant solid-propellant rockets3 eleven in the second stage and three in the third4 ,a final ,sergeant motor is attached to the base of the satellite to provide the velocity necessary to place the vehicle in orbit4 ,an electric motor spun the entire 8tub0 prior to launch and during the climb into space in order to stabilize the satellite4 ,the ,jupiter-,c was built by the ,u4,s4 ,army ,ballistic ,missile ,agency4 ,vanguard ,illustration3 #fh4 ,three-stage ,vanguard launch vehicle boosts the second ,american satellite into ,earth-orbit1 ,march #ag1 #aieh4 ,standing #ba4f meters 7#gj4h feet7 high and weighing more than #aj1jjj kilograms 7#bj1jjj pounds71 the ,vanguard launch vehicle successfully orbited three satellites4 ,the first was ,vanguard #a1 launched on ,march #ag1 #aieh4 ,the rocket has three stages4 ,the first-stage motor1 burning kerosene and liquid oxygen1 operated for #b minutes and #bj seconds4 ,the second stage carried the vehicle to an altitude of #baj kilometers 7#acj miles71 propelled by white-fuming nitric acid and unsymmetrical dimethylhydrazine 7,,udmh74 ,with propellants exhausted1 the upper stages then coasted to #dhj kilometers 7#cjj miles7 above the surface of the ,earth where the solid-propellant third-stage motor fired to place the satellite into orbit4 ,the ,vanguard was designed and built by the ,martin ,company for the ,u4,s4 ,naval ,research ,laboratory4 ,scout ,illustration3 #fi4 ,four-stage ,scout vehicle launches satellite from the ,western ,test ,range1 ,california4 ,illustration3 #gj4 ,scout in vertical position prior to the launch of an ,explorer science satellite1 ,april #bi1 #aife4 ,on ,february #af1 #aifa1 ,scout became the first solid-propellant vehicle to orbit a satellite 7,explorer #i74 ,it is a four-stage launch vehicle that can perform a variety of space and reentry research tasks4 ,its relatively low cost has made it a popular choice for many satellite programs1 including ,transit navigation satellites1 the ,small ,astronomy and ,small ,scientific ,satellites1 the ,beacon ,explorer1 ,hawkeye1 ,micrometeoroid1 ,meteoroid ,technology1 and ,solrad satellites4 ,the rocket has also been used extensively to launch foreign satellites4 ,,ans-,a 7,netherlands71 ,,grp-,a 7,germany71 ,,uk-#e 7,england71 ,eole 7,france71 ,san ,marco #e 7,italy71 and the ,,esro satellites for the ,european ,space ,research ,organization 7now ,european ,space ,agency7 have all gone aloft aboard ,scout launch vehicles4 ,the satellite in the nose of the ,scout on exhibit is an ,,injun_/,air ,density ,explorer identical to that launched from ,wallops ,island1 ,virginia1 on ,august #h1 #aifh4 ,scout was built by the ,,ltv ,aerospace ,corporation for the ,national ,aeronautics and ,space ,administration and the ,department of ,defense4 ,the ,scout is from the ,national ,aeronautics and ,space ,administration and ,,ltv ,aerospace ,corporation4 ,minuteman ,,iii ,illustration3 #ga4 ,minuteman ,,iii launch from ,vandenberg ,,afb1 ,california4 ,the ,minuteman ,,iii is the standard ,u4,s4 land-based intercontinental ballistic missile4 ,this three-stage solid-propellant missile is launched from underground silos that are #bd4d meters 7#hj feet7 deep and #c4g meters 7#ab feet7 in diameter4 ,these missiles can be launched either from underground control centers or by an airborne launch control center installed in ,,kc-#ace aircraft4 ,minuteman ,,iii was first test-fired on ,august #af1 #aifh1 and has since replaced earlier ,minuteman series ,i,c,b,ms in the operational system4 ,this missile was designed by ,boeing for the ,air ,force ,strategic ,air ,command4 ,this missile is from the ,,us4 ,air ,force and ,boeing ,aerospace ,corporation4 ,poseidon ,c-#c ,illustration3 #gb4 ,launch of ,poseidon from nuclear-powered submarine4 ,this two-stage solid-propellant ,fleet ,ballistic ,missile is launched underwater from nuclear-powered submarines4 ,the ,poseidon is launched by compressed air1 with first-stage ignition just after the missile is clear of the hull4 ,poseidon carried the ,mk-#c ,multiple ,independently targeted ,reentry ,vehicles 7,,mirv7--thermonuclear weapons which enable a single missile to cover a number of targets4 ,the first successful test flight of ,poseidon was from ,cape ,canaveral on ,august #af1 #aifh1 and the first submarine launch was from the ,u4,s4,s4 ,james ,madison on ,august #c1 #aigj4 ,the ,poseidon ,c-#c is from the ,u4,s4 ,navy and ,lockheed ,aircraft ,corporation4 ,skylab ,illustration3 #gc4 ,closeup view of ,skylab space-station cluster photographed against a black-sky background from the ,skylab #c ,command ,module during the 8fly around0 inspection prior to docking4 ,launched into earth orbit on ,may #ad1 #aigc1 ,skylab was a research center that housed three-man crews on three different visits to the space station4 ,the longest mission lasted nearly three months4 ,equipment and experiments on board the orbiting station were designed to accommodate four areas of research3 earth observation to further knowledge of natural resources and the earth's environment2 solar observation to increase understanding of solar processes and influences on earth's environment2 study of the effects of long duration weightlessness on man1 basic biological processes and adaptability to space flight conditions2 and experiments in processing of materials under the unique conditions of weightlessness and vacuum environment of space4 ,all missions were highly successful in obtaining data and photographs4 ,skylab consisted of four major components3 the ,orbital ,work ,shop 7,,ows71 ,airlock ,module 7,,am74 ,multiple ,docking ,adapter 7,,mda71 and the ,apollo ,telescope ,mount 7,,atm74 ,the cylindrical ,orbital ,work ,shop is #ae meters 7#dh feet7 in length and #f4e meters 7#bb feet7 in diameter4 ,the workshop is divided into two major areas by an open-grid partition4 ,by wearing special shoes1 the astronauts can use this grid to anchor themselves in the weightlessness of space4 ,the lower portion contains the crew quarters1 food preparation and dining areas1 washroom1 and waste processing and disposal facilities4 ,illustration3 #gd4 ,orbital ,workshop crew-quarters installations4 ,i ,m#aca chair control ,sleep compartment #gj sq ft ,,ii ,head #cj sq ft ,wardroom #ig sq ft ,,iii ,m#ejg gravity substitute work bench ,experiment compartment #aha sq ft ,m#aga gas analyzer ,m#aga helmet stowage ,,ess ,,iv ,m#jib ,,lbnpd ,electric power control console ,m#aca rotating chair ,the upper portion contains a large work-activity area1 water-storage tanks1 food freezers1 film vaults1 and experiment equipment4 ,the ,airlock ,module enabled spacesuited crew members to make excursions outside the ,skylab to replace or adjust equipment1 change film1 or carry out other extra-vehicular activities4 ,this capability was vital to emergency repairs by the astronauts on the first mission4 ,the ,airlock ,module was attached to the ,,ows and passage to the module was accomplished through a hatch which connected the module to the interior of the workshop4 ,when an astronaut entered the module1 he would vent the atmosphere of the module into space4 ,when the pressure in the airlock reached zero1 the crew member could open the outer hatch and float out into space4 ,illustration3 #ge4 ,airlock ,module4 ,the ,multiple ,docking ,adapter 7,,mda7 was used by crews arriving or departing from the ,skylab workshop4 ,the ,apollo command_/service modules delivered crews to the ,,mda from which the astronauts could enter ,skylab through the hatch in the docking port4 ,in an emergency1 two command_/service modules could dock at the ,,mda4 ,the ,,mda also held equipment for earth resources multispectral photography1 materials processing1 and astronomy4 ,the ,apollo ,telescope ,mount 7,,atm7 was on top of and controlled by the ,,mda4 ,it contained six astronomical instruments to obtain information about the ,sun4 ,illustration3 #gf4 ,multiple ,docking ,adapter4 ,solar energy is the prime source of electric power on ,skylab4 ,two systems of solar electric-cell arrays--one wing on the ,,ows and four panels on the ,,atm--deployed after the ,skylab reached orbit4 ,principal contractors3 ,,ows--,mc,donnell ,douglas ,astronautics ,company2 ,,am--,mc,donnell ,douglas ,astronautics ,company2 ,,mda--,martin ,marietta ,aerospace4 ,the ,skylab components on display were presented to the museum by the ,national ,aeronautics and ,space ,administration4 ,apollo-,soyuz ,test ,project ,illustration3 #gg4 ,artist conception of the ,apollo-,soyuz ,test ,project rendezvous4 ,on ,may #bd1 #aigb1 ,president ,richard ,nixon and ,aleksey ,kosygin1 ,chairman of the ,,ussr ,council of ,ministers1 signed an agreement 8concerning cooperation in the exploration and use of outer space for peaceful purposes40 ,the signing represented a formal endorsement of negotiations that had been held between the two nations over several years4 ,the agreement established the ,apollo-,soyuz ,test ,project 7,,astp7 to develop and fly a standardized docking system 8to enhance the safety of manned flight in space and to provide the opportunity for conducting joint scientific missions in the future40 ,on ,july #ae1 #aige1 the afternoon countdown for the ,soviet launch was completed and ,soyuz lifted off from the ,baykonur complex near ,tyuratum in ,central ,asia1 some #cbjj kilometers 7#bjjj miles7 southeast of ,moscow4 ,soyuz carried cosmonauts ,alexey ,leonov and ,valeriy ,kubasov4 ,taking advantage of ,apollo's larger fuel supply for maneuvering1 ,apollo followed ,soyuz into orbit #g hours later4 ,apollo was launched atop a ,saturn #a;,b from ,kennedy ,space ,center1 ,florida4 ,after careful maneuvering1 the two craft linked up around noon on ,july #ah4 ,some #bbe kilometers 7#adj miles7 above ,earth1 the astronauts and cosmonauts visited each other's craft1 performed joint experiments1 and made further tests of the new docking system4 ,following the undocking ,saturday1 ,apollo fired its engines briefly and moved away from ,soyuz4 ,soyuz descended from orbit and landed in the south-central ,,ussr early ,monday morning1 ,july #ba4 ,astronauts ,stafford1 ,slayton1 and ,brand remained in orbit conducting research and making science demonstrations4 ,splashdown into the ,pacific ,ocean occurred in late afternoon on ,thursday1 ,july #bd4 ,the historic ,,astp mission was accomplished by using existing systems and a new docking module4 ,the ,apollo spacecraft was made available when the lunar-landing program was curtailed4 ,since the command module was built with a docking system designed to work only with ,u4,s4 spacecraft1 a method of incorporating the new docking system had to be devised4 ,a second important problem was the difference between the spacecraft atmospheres4 ,the ,apollo used a pure oxygen atmosphere at about one-third of the atmospheric pressure on earth's surface2 ,soyuz used a nitrogen-oxygen mixture at normal atmospheric pressure4 ,to permit crews to pass from ,soyuz to ,apollo without suffering from the 8bends0 7a painful condition experienced when nitrogen gas bubbles form in the body fluids71 engineers had to design an airlock to equalize the pressure4 ,illustration3 #gh4 ,the ,soviet ,soyuz atop a three-stage launch vehicle lifts off ,july #ae1 #aige1 to begin the joint ,,us-,,ussr space mission4 ,illustration3 #gi4 ,overhead view of ,soyuz in orbit1 photographed from the ,apollo spacecraft during the joint mission4 ,the three major components of the ,soyuz are the spherical ,orbital ,module1 the bell-shaped ,descent ,vehicle1 and the cylindrical ,instrument-,assembly ,module from which two solar panels protrude4 ,illustration3 #hj4 ,view of ,apollo spacecraft as seen in ,earth-orbit from ,soyuz4 ,the ,command_/,service ,module and ,docking ,module are contrasted against a black-sky background and the horizon of the ,earth is below4 ,the docking module1 #c meters long and #a4e meters in diameter 7#aj feet long and #e feet in diameter71 also solved the problem of incompatible docking mechanisms by carrying the new docking system on one end and a system compatible with ,apollo on the other4 ,prime contractor for ,apollo ,command ,module1 ,service ,module1 and ,docking ,module was ,rockwell ,international4 ,the ,apollo hardware is from the ,national ,aeronautics and ,space ,administration1 and the ,soyuz spacecraft is on loan from the ,,ussr ,academy of ,sciences4 ,apollo ,command module ,base diameter #c4ij m4 7#ab4h ft47 ,length #c4ff m4 7#ab ft47 ,weight #ehif kg4 7#ac1jjj lb47 ,service module ,diameter #c4i m4 7#ab4h ft47 ,length #f4ga m4 7#bb ft47 ,weight at launch #bd1idg kg4 7#ee1jjj lb47 ,docking module ,diameter #a4eb m4 7#e ft47 ,length #c4je m4 7#aj ft47 ,weight #ahhb kg4 7#daee lb47 ,soyuz ,orbital module ,diameter #b4bi m4 7#g4e ft47 ,length #b4fe m4 7#h4g ft47 ,weight #abbd kg4 7#bgjj lb47 ,descent module ,diameter #b4bi m4 7#g4e ft47 ,length #b4bj m4 7#g4b ft47 ,weight #bhjb kg4 7#fbjj lb47 ,instrument module ,diameter #b4gg m4 7#i4ge ft47 ,length #b4bi m4 7#g4e ft47 ,weight #bfed kg4 7#ehej lb47 ,m#b-;,f#c ,lifting ,body ,illustration3 #ha4 ,three chase planes salute the ,m#b-;,f#c wingless lifting body following one of its rocket-powered flights4 ,the blunt-nosed ,m#b-;,f#c achieves its aerodynamic lift from the shape of its body4 ,this wingless craft is called a lifting body1 because it derives its lift from the fuselage rather than from wings4 ,removing the wings reduces the weight of the craft1 but adds significant control problems4 ,the lifting body concept was developed early in the last decade to explore the problems of aerodynamic heating and vehicle control during reentry from earth orbit4 ,these are the problems that will be especially critical in the space shuttle of the #aihjs4 ,the ,m#b-;,f#c tested flight behavior of wingless craft over a wide range of speeds4 ,the ,m#b-;,f#c's forerunner1 the ,m#b-;,f#b1 made #af flights--all unpowered--between ,july #aiff and ,may #aifg4 ,on ,may #aj1 it crashed on landing1 partly due to control instability4 ,the craft was rebuilt1 and the center fin was added4 ,this modification effectively solved the control problem1 and the new craft1 designated ,m#b-;,f#c1 logged #bg more flights by ,december #aigb4 ,some of the ,m#b-;,f#c's flights were powered by a #cfcj-kilogram 7#hjjj-pound7 thrust rocket which boosted the craft to a higher altitude4 ,the ,m#b-;,f#c was launched from a ,b-#eb bomber at a height of about #ac1cjj meters 7#de1jjj feet7 and a usual speed of #gcj kilometers 7#dej miles7 per hour4 ,the maximum altitude achieved was #ba1hjj meters 7#ga1ejj feet74 ,the ,m#b-;,f#c's record speed was #agah kilometers 7#ajff miles7 per hour4 ,the ,m#b-;,f#c was built by ,northrop4 ,the craft on exhibit is from the ,national ,aeronautics and ,space ,administration4 ,length #f4h m4 7#bb ft41 #b in47 ,span #b4i m4 7#i ft41 #g in47 ,height #b4e m4 7#h ft41 #aj in47 ,weight #bgbj kg4 7#fjjj lb47 empty2 #dedj kg4 7#aj1jjj lb47 fueled ,speed #agah km4 per hr4 7#ajff m4 per hr47 max4 achieved ,altitude #ba1hjj m4 7#ga1ejj ft47 max4 achieved ,mach number #a4e max4 achieved ,freedom #g ,illustration3 #hb4 ,marine helicopter hovers over ,freedom #g after the spacecraft carried the first ,american into space4 ,astronaut ,shepard dangles in body harness as he is hoisted to helicopter4 ,on ,may #e1 #aifa1 ,alan ,b4 ,shepard1 ,jr41 became the first ,american in space4 ,he flew this ,mercury spacecraft1 ,freedom #g1 through a #ae-minute1 #bb-second sub-orbital1 or ballistic1 space flight4 ,a ,redstone booster1 burning liquid oxygen and hydrazine-base fuel1 lifted ,freedom #g from the launch pad at ,cape ,canaveral4 ,the vehicle's single engine developed #ce1chj kilograms 7#gh1jjj pounds7 of thrust4 ,the structure of the ,mercury is titanium1 covered with steel and beryllium shingles4 ,the heat shield at the base of the spacecraft is of beryllium4 ,the heat shield served as a 8heat sink0 by storing the heat created by the spacecraft's reentry into the earth's atmosphere4 ,the spacecraft reached the ocean before the heat could penetrate the interior of the craft4 7,later flights used ablative heat shields1 which protected the spacecraft by vaporizing and burning away during reentry47 ,freedom #g traveled at a maximum speed of #hcce kilometers 7#eahj miles7 per hour1 going #dhe kilometers 7#cjb miles7 downrange4 ,the maximum altitude was #ahg kilometers 7#aaf miles74 ,prime contractor for ,mercury was the ,mc,donnell ,aircraft ,company4 ,the ,freedom #g is from the ,national ,aeronautics and ,space ,administration4 ,diameter #b m4 7#f ft41 #f in47 max4 ,length #b4h m4 7#i ft41 #b in47 at launch ,weight #affj kg4 7#cfej lb47 at launch2 #aajj kg4 7#bdbb lb47 as exhibited ,gemini #g ,illustration3 #hc4 ,this photo of ,gemini #g was taken through the hatch window of the ,gemini #f spacecraft during rendezvous maneuvers #bfj kilometers 7#afj miles7 above ,earth4 ,gemini #g was launched on ,december #d1 #aife1 carrying astronauts ,frank ,borman and ,james ,lovell1 ,jr41 into a two-week flight4 ,gemini #f and #g accomplished the first manned rendezvous in space4 ,it was an historic flight for the ,united ,states' manned space program and an important step in the preparation for the ,apollo lunar flights4 ,the story of the ,gemini #g_/f mission had begun two months earlier4 ,the ,october launch of ,gemini #f had to be delayed when ,gemini #f's ,agena target vehicle failed to reach orbit4 ,it was then decided that ,gemini #f would attempt to rendezvous with ,gemini #g4 ,eight days after the launch of ,gemini #g1 ,gemini #f was ready4 ,but once again1 the launch had to be delayed--this time an electrical plug became detached from the ,titan booster prematurely1 shutting down the engines4 ,finally1 on ,december #ae1 ,gemini #f's ,titan ,,ii launch vehicle lifted off4 ,gemini #f began a #f-;hour chase to catch ,gemini #g1 which was in a near-circular orbit #cjj kilometers 7#ahf miles7 high4 ,gemini #f's launch put it #aage kilometers 7#gcj miles7 behind ,gemini #g in an orbit which varied from #afa to #bgb kilometers 7#ajj to #afi miles7 in height4 ,by flying in a lower altitude orbit1 ,gemini #f astronauts ,wally ,schirra and ,thomas ,stafford circled the ,earth at a higher velocity1 slowing down as they moved to match speed with ,gemini #g at the higher orbit4 ,finally1 ,schirra jockeyed the ,gemini #f spacecraft to within #cj centimeters 7#a foot7 from ,gemini #g4 ,they stayed in formation for four revolutions while all four pilots practiced maneuvering4 ,then ,gemini #f broke off and reentered1 splashing down on ,december #af1 #aife4 ,gemini #g went on to complete its #ad-;day mission which set a record for the longest ,u4,s4-manned space flight which stood until the first ,skylab mission4 ,gemini #g splashed down on ,december #ah4 ,prime contractor for ,gemini was the ,mc,donnell ,aircraft ,company4 ,gemini #g is from the ,national ,aeronautics and ,space ,administration4 ,illustration3 #hd4 ,the ,gemini spacecraft4 ,rendezvous and ,recovery ,section ,ejection ,seat ,adapter ,equipment ,section ,reaction ,control ,system ,section ,cabin ,retrograde ,section ,f-#a ,engine ,illustration3 #he4 ,thrust chambers of the ,f-#a rocket engine on the manufacturing line4 ,five ,f-#a engines powered the first stage of the ,saturn #e launch vehicle that launched the manned ,apollo spacecraft to the ,moon4 ,these engines developed a total thrust of #c4e million kilograms 7#g4f million pounds74 ,they burn liquid oxygen and a form of kerosene at a rate of #ac1dge liters 7#cefj gallons7 per second4 ,the propellants are supplied to the thrust chambers by turbopumps driven by gas generators that use a fuel-rich mixture ratio of the same propellants used in the engine4 ,the ,f-l was developed and produced by ,rocketdyne1 a division of ,rockwell ,international1 under the technical direction of the ,national ,aeronautics and ,space ,administration1 ,marshall ,space ,flight ,center1 ,huntsville4 ,alabama4 ,the engine on exhibit is from the ,national ,aeronautics and ,space ,administration4 ,function ,cluster of five providing #c4d million kg4 7#g4e million lb47 of thrust for ,saturn #e first stage ,thrust #fij1jjj kg4 7#a1ebb1jjj lb47 ,propellants ,kerosene 7fuel7 and liquid oxygen 7oxidizer7 ,length #e4h m4 7#ai ft47 with nozzle extension ,diameter #c4h m4 7#ab ft41 #d4 in47 with nozzle extension ,illustration3 #hf4 ,the first ,apollo_/,saturn #e space vehicle on its way to the launch pad4 ,lunar ,roving ,vehicle ,illustration3 #hg4 ,the ,apollo #ae ,lunar ,roving ,vehicle was the first motor vehicle on the ,moon4 ,the ,lunar ,roving ,vehicle 7,,lrv7 is a spacecraft designed to carry two astronauts1 their life-support systems1 scientific equipment1 and lunar samples on the airless1 low-gravity surface of the ,moon4 ,lunar ,roving ,vehicles were used on ,apollo missions #ae1 #af1 and #ag and were driven a total of #ij kilometers 7#ef miles7 on the ,moon4 ,the crew of ,apollo #ae1 the first to use an ,,lrv1 drove their vehicle #bg4i kilometers 7#ag4c miles7 at speeds up to #ai-ba kilometers 7#ab-ac miles7 per hour4 ,in comparison the ,apollo #ad astronauts traveled only #d4b kilometers 7#b4f miles7 on foot4 ,l,r,vs enabled the astronauts to carry heavy1 bulky equipment and to place scientific instruments at considerable distances from the lunar module4 ,an ,,lrv could carry two astronauts as far as #ia4e kilometers 7#eg miles7 across the lunar surface or operate for up to #gh hours4 ,each ,,lrv was transported to the ,moon in a compartment of the descent stage of a lunar module4 ,four ,l,r,vs were built by the ,boeing ,company4 ,three were used on the ,moon2 the ,,lrv on display was used in tests4 ,the ,,lrv on exhibit is from the ,national ,aeronautics and ,space ,administration4 ,weight ,on ,earth #baj kg4 7#dfb lb47 ,on ,moon #cd kg4 7#gf lb47 ,payload ,on ,earth #dij kg4 7#ajhj lb47 ,on ,moon #hj kg4 7#agh lb47 ,length #c4a m4 7#aj ft41 #b in47 ,width #a4h m4 7#f ft47 ,wheel base #b4c m4 7#g ft41 #f in47 ,turning radius #c m4 7#aj ft47 ,drive ,one h4p4 motor in each wheel2 total #a h4p4 ,power source ,two #cf-v4 silver-zinc batteries ,apollo ,lunar ,tools and ,equipment ,illustration3 #hh4 ,the ,apollo ,lunar ,hand ,tool ,carrier holds #cb kilograms 7#gj pounds7 of equipment1 including a trenching tool1 two geology scoops1 four rock bags1 a portable magnetometer1 and five cameras4 ,penetrometer ,tongs ,extension handle ,core tube caps assy4 ,color chart traverse map ,core tubes #afmm camera ,camera staff #ce-;bag dispenser ,core tubes ,scoop ,hammer ,lens_/brush ,gnomon ,most tools and other pieces of equipment used by ,apollo astronauts on the ,moon were left behind as the astronauts departed to return to the ,earth4 ,this was done to conserve weight in the lunar module ascent stage so that the maximum quantity of samples of lunar soil and rocks could be brought back to the ,earth4 ,some tools and pieces of equipment1 however1 were returned to the ,earth4 ,these include such items as a lunar hammer1 a #af-mm camera1 film cassettes1 lunar sample return containers1 parts of a lunar roving vehicle fender1 and parts of the unmanned spacecraft ,surveyor #c visited by ,apollo #ab astronauts4 ,in addition1 astronauts carried small mementos with them when they landed on the ,moon4 ,other lunar tools and instruments on exhibit were backup1 prototype1 or used by the astronauts in pre-flight training4 ,the lunar hammer is on loan from ,alan ,l4 ,bean2 other tools and instruments are from the ,national ,aeronautics and ,space ,administration4 ,illustration3 #hi4 ,an ,apollo lunar sample return container4 ,in this view1 the rock box contains sample material and core tubes4 ,apollo ,command ,module3 ,skylab #d ,illustration3 #ij4 ,skylab #d ,command ,module is hoisted aboard the ,u4,s4,s4 ,new ,orleans after completing #abad orbits4 ,the ,skylab #d command module ferried the crew of the last ,skylab mission--astronauts ,gerald ,p4 ,carr1 ,edward ,g4 ,gibson1 and ,william ,r4 ,pogue4 ,the ,skylab #d crew lived in the ,skylab for #hd days1 from ,november #af1 #aigc1 to ,february #h1 #aigd4 ,in flight1 the ,apollo command module operated with a service module--an equipment section1 #g4d meters 7#bd feet7 long and #d meters 7#ac feet7 in diameter--attached to the command module4 ,the service module provided electrical power1 oxygen1 and water for the command module for most of a typical flight4 ,in addition1 the service module contained the #icjj-kilogram 7#bj1ejj-pound7 thrust ,service ,propulsion ,system1 an engine capable of being throttled and restarted4 ,during ,apollo lunar flights1 the engine provided thrust for mid-course trajectory changes and boosted the command_/service module combination out of lunar orbit and back to ,earth4 ,the service module was jettisoned just before reentry into the earth's atmosphere4 ,during reentry1 the command module's exterior was subjected to temperatures of around #bhjj;,c 7#ejjj;,f74 ,the command module is covered with an ablative heat shield composed of a phenolic epoxy resin in a fiberglass honeycomb structure4 ,as friction with the earth's atmosphere caused the heat shield to char and vaporize1 the heat was carried away from the spacecraft4 ,the heat shield varies in thickness from #g centimeters 7#b4ge inches7 at the base to 4#f centimeter 74#be inch7 at the forward section4 ,total weight of the heat shield is about #adjj kilograms 7#cjjj pounds74 ,the prime contractor for the ,apollo ,command ,module was ,north ,american ,rockwell ,corporation4 ,the command module is from the ,national ,aeronautics and ,space ,administration4 ,diameter #c4i m4 7#ab ft41 #aj in47 max4 ,length #c4b m4 7#aj ft41 #g in47 ,moon ,rocks ,illustration3 #ia4 ,a sample of vesicular basalt1 produced by lunar volcanism #c4g billion years ago1 in the ,lunar ,receiving ,laboratory4 ,devices record size and orientation of the rock4 ,the cavities in this sample were formed by gases escaping from the still-molten rock4 ,this sample is #ac4e centimeters 7#e4e inches7 long4 ,a fragment of this lunar rock is on display in the 8,apollo to the ,moon0 gallery4 ,during the six ,apollo program moon landings1 astronauts collected and returned to ,earth samples of the lunar surface4 ,the samples were collected both from the flat maria regions--great basins created by ancient meteoric impacts and later filled with lava from the moon's interior--and from the highland regions4 ,subsequent analysis of the samples has indicated that the moon's surface is largely composed of three kinds of rock4 ,basalt1 the rock of the maria regions1 was formed as lavas from the interior of the ,moon welled to the surface1 filled the great meteoric impact basins1 and then cooled4 ,anorthosite1 the highland rock1 is believed by many scientists to have formed when the original crust of the ,moon cooled and solidified4 ,according to this theory1 a light mineral1 plagioclase1 floated to the surface of the ,moon and formed the anorthosite4 ,breccia1 the shocked rock1 is composed of large and small fragments of rocks which were shattered and redistributed on the lunar surface by meteoric impacts4 ,subsequently1 the fragments were recombined into new rocks by heat and pressure4 ,lunar soils are largely composed of fragments of the three types of rocks and their minerals1 and glass produced by meteoric impacts and volcanic eruptions4 ,lunar rock samples are on loan from the ,national ,aeronautics and ,space ,administration4 ,illustration3 #ib4 ,astronaut ,schmitt collects samples with the lunar rake1 a hand tool used to collect rocks and rock chips ranging in size from #a4c centimeter 7 inch7 to #b4e centimeters 7#a inch74 ,suggested ,reading ,historical and ,general ,background ,clarke1 ,arthur ,c4 ,the ,promise of ,space4 ,new ,york3 ,harper ,row1 #aifh4 ,dornberger1 ,walter4 ,v-#b4 ,new ,york3 ,viking ,press1 #aied4 ,durant ,,iii1 ,frederick ,c42 and ,george ,s4 ,james1 eds4 ,first ,steps ,towards ,space 7,smithsonian ,annals of ,flight1 ,no4 #aj74 ,washington1 ,d4,c43 ,smithsonian ,institution ,press1 #aigd4 ,available through the ,superintendent of ,documents1 ,u4,s4 ,government ,printing ,office1 ,washington1 ,d4,c4 #bjdjb 7stock no4 #dgje-jjjaa74 ,emme1 ,eugene1 ed4 ,the ,history of ,rocket ,technology4 ,detroit3 ,wayne ,state ,press1 #aifd4 ,ley1 ,willy4 ,rockets1 ,missiles1 and ,men in ,space4 ,new ,york3 ,viking ,press1 #aifh4 ,stoiko1 ,michael4 ,soviet ,rocketry3 ,past1 ,present and ,future4 ,new ,york3 ,holt1 ,reinhart ,winston1 #aigj4 ,von ,braun1 ,w42 and ,f4 ,i4 ,ordway4 ,history of ,rocket and ,space ,travel4 ,new ,york3 ,t4 ,y4 ,crowell1 #aige4 ,biographical ,lehman1 ,milton4 ,this ,high ,man4 ,new ,york3 ,farrar1 ,straus ,giroux1 #aifc4 ,thomas1 ,shirley1 ed4 ,men of ,space4 #h vols4 ,philadelphia3 ,chilton ,book ,co41 #aifc4 ,popular ,cortright1 ,edgar ,m4 ,exploring ,space with a ,camera4 ,washington1 ,d4,c43 ,u4,s4 ,government ,printing ,office1 #aifh4 ,davis1 ,merton2 and ,bruce ,c4 ,murray4 ,view ,from ,space3 ,photographic ,exploration of the ,planets4 ,new ,york3 ,columbia ,university ,press1 #aiga4 ,gatland1 ,kenneth4 ,spacecraft and ,boosters4 ,fallbrook1 ,california3 ,aero ,publications1 #aifd4 ----4 ,the ,robot ,explorers4 ,new ,york3 ,macmillan1 #aigb4 ,moore1 ,patrick4 ,space4 ,london3 ,burke ,publishing ,co41 #aifh4 ,sharpe1 ,mitchell ,r4 ,living in ,space4 ,new ,york3 ,doubleday1 #aifi4 ,technical ,corliss1 ,william ,r4 ,space ,probes and ,planetary ,exploration4 ,princeton1 ,n4,j43 ,van ,nostrand1 #aife4 ,glasstone1 ,samuel4 ,sourcebook on the ,space ,sciences4 ,new ,york3 ,d4 ,van ,nostrand ,co41 ,inc41 #aife4 ,purser1 ,paul ,e42 ,maxime ,a4 ,faget2 and ,norman ,f4 ,smith1 eds4 ,manned ,spacecraft4 ,new ,york3 ,fairchild ,publications1 ,inc41 #aifd4 ,ruppe1 ,harry ,o4 ,introduction to ,astronautics4 #b vols4 ,campbell1 ,california3 ,academy ,press1 #aiff-aifg4 ,apollo ,moon ,landings ,collins1 ,michael4 ,carrying the ,fire4 ,new ,york3 ,farrar1 ,straus ,giroux1 #aigd4 ,cortright1 ,edgar ,m41 ed4 ,apollo ,expeditions to the ,moon4 ,washington1 ,d4,c43 ,u4,s4 ,government ,printing ,office1 #aige 7stock no4 #jcc-jjj-jjfcj-f74 ,lewis1 ,richard ,s4 ,appointment on the ,moon4 ,new ,york3 ,viking ,press1 #aifi4 ----4 ,voyages of ,apollo4 ,chicago3 ,quadrangle ,books1 #aigd4 ,wilford1 ,john ,n4 ,we ,reach the ,moon4 ,rev4 ed4 ,chicago3 ,w4 ,w4 ,norton ,co41 #aiga4 ,speculative ,sagan1 ,carl4 ,the ,cosmic ,connection4 ,new ,york3 ,doubleday1 #aigc4 ,shkolvskii1 ,i4 ,s42 and ,carl ,sagan4 ,intelligent ,life in the ,universe4 ,new ,york3 ,holden-,day1 #aiff4 ,strong4 ,j4 ,g4 ,flight to the ,stars3 ,an ,inquiry into the ,feasibility of ,interstellar ,flight4 ,new ,york3 ,hart ,publishing ,co41 #aife4 ,sullivan1 ,walter4 ,we ,are ,not ,alone3 ,the ,search for ,intelligent ,life on ,other ,worlds4 ,new ,york3 ,mc,graw-,hill1 #aifd4 ,illustration3 ,,first ,,floor ,,plan #ajc ,vertical ,flight #ajb ,air ,transportation #aja ,museum ,shop #ajj ,milestones of ,flight #aae ,theater ,entrance #aad ,space ,hall #aac ,rocketry ,space ,flight #aje ,general ,aviation #ajf ,exhibition ,flight #ajg ,life in the ,universe #ajh ,south ,lobby #aji ,flight ,testing #aaj ,satellites #aaa ,benefits ,from ,flight ,illustration3 ,,second ,,floor ,,plan #bjc ,sea-,air ,operations #bja ,spacearium #bae ,theater #bac ,flight ,technology #bje ,world ,war ,,ii ,aviation #bjf ,balloons and ,airships #bjg ,air ,traffic ,control #bjh ,special ,exhibits #bji ,world ,war ,i ,aviation #baj ,apollo to the ,moon #baa ,flight and the ,arts ,front ,cover3 ,illustration3 ,lift-off of an ,atlas ,centaur carrying ,,intelsat payload1 ,august #bc1 #aigc4 ,illustration3 ,earth from space photographed by the ,apollo #af crew4 ,illustration3 ,astronaut ,white performs first spacewalk from ,gemini #d4 ,illustration3 ,apollo #ab astronaut with ,united ,states flag on lunar surface4 ,back ,cover3 ,illustration3 ,main parachutes lower the ,skylab #c command module to the ,pacific ,ocean4 ,illustration3 ,solid rocket motors being jettisoned during launch of ,geostationary ,operational ,environmental ,satellite-#a4 ,illustration3 ,view from right-hand seat of ,gemini #h spacecraft when docked with ,agena target vehicle4 ,illustration3 ,artist's conception of ,viking ,mars lander as it heads for touch down4 ,illustration3 ,agena target vehicle seen from ,gemini #aa after tether drop4 ,illustration3 ,view of ,skylab ,orbital ,workshop photographed by ,skylab #b crew4 ,illustration3 ,viking #b--;bound for ,mars--is launched aboard ,titan ,centaur on ,september #i1 #aige4 ,illustration3 ,paul ,calle's interpretation of ,saturn #e launch4 ,illustration3 ,new ,york to ,norfolk composite photo from the ,earth ,resources ,technology ,satellite-#a4 ,illustration3 ,photomicrograph of thin section of lunar rock4 ,illustration3 ,color enhancement of far ultraviolet photo of the ,earth taken from space4 ,illustration3 ,,nasa's ,wallops ,island ,test ,station in ,virginia4 7,all photographs from the ,national ,aeronautics and ,space ,administration47 ,illustration3 ,back ,cover ,transcriber's ,notes --,retained publication information from the printed edition3 this e,book is public-domain in the country of publication4 --,silently corrected a few palpable typos4 --,moved captions nearer the relevant images2 tweaked image references within captions accordingly4 --,in the text versions only1 text in italics is delimited by underscores4