,transcrib]'s ,note ,! orig9al conta9s inconsi/5t hyph5ation2 ?is has be5 pres]v$4 ,obvi\s pr9t]'s errors h be5 correct$2 a full li/ is available at ! end ( ?is book4 - is us$ = a m9us sign4 ,william ,b4 ,:ite ,!ory & ,practice ( ,,piano ,,con/ruction ,) a ,detail$1 ,practical ,me?od = ,tun+ ,dov] ,publications1 ,inc4 ,new ,york ,publi%$ 9 ,canada by ,g5]al ,publi%+ ,company1 ,ltd41 #cj ,lesmill ,road1 ,don ,mills1 ,toronto1 ,ont>io4 ,publi%$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,k+dom by ,con/able & ,company1 ,ltd41 #aj ,orange ,/reet1 ,london ,,wc #b4 ,?is ,dov] edition1 fir/ publi%$ 9 #aige1 is an unabridg$ & unalt]$ republication ( ! "w orig9ally publi%$ by ,edw>d ,lyman ,bill1 ,publi%]1 ,new ,york1 9 #aijf "u ! title ,!ory & ,practice ( ,pian(orte ,build+4 ,int]national ,/&>d ,book ,numb]3 #j-dhf-bcaci-i ,libr>y ( ,congress ,catalog ,c>d ,numb]3 #gd-ghhaa ,manufactur$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ( ,am]ica ,dov] ,publications1 ,inc4 #ahj ,v>ick ,/reet ,new ,york1 ,n4,y4 #ajjad ,,cont5ts4 ,,page ,"s ,rem>ks by ! ,publi%] #e ,introductory ,rem>ks #i ,! ,evolution ( ! ,mod]n ,pian(orte #ac ,description ( ! ,mod]n ,pian(orte #bc ,ac\/ical ,laws ( ,s\nd+ ,/r+s #bh ,! ,musical ,scale & ,musical ,intonation #cf ,! ,equal ,temp]am5t #dd ,pian(orte ,/r+s & ,_! ,prop] ,dim5sions #dh ,resonance & ! ,resonance-,app>atus ( ! ,pian(orte #eh ,! ,cas+ & ,fram+ ( ! ,pian(orte #fg ,! ,iron ,frame ( ! ,pian(orte #gi ,! ,me*anism ( ,p]cussion #ib ,! ,t\* ,me*anism #if ,! ,regulation ( ,pian(orte ,t\*-,me*anism #aac ,tun+ & ,tone ,regulation ( ! ,pian(orte #abb ,! ,draught+ ( ! ,pian(orte ,scale #ace ,conclusion #aci ,app5dix ,a--,developm5t ( ,play] ,piano #add ,app5dix ,b--,! ,small ,gr& #aec ,,"s ,,rem>ks ,,by ,,! ,,publi%]4 ,= _m ye>s we h be5 receiv+ at ! (fice ( ,! ,music ,trade ,review con/ant inquiries = s\rces f :i* in=mation might be glean$ reg>d+ ! !ory & practice ( tone production z appli$ to ! piano4 ,x has !re=e be5 obvi\s to all :o h giv5 ?is subject ! slighte/ consid]ation t !re has be5 a lack ( book in=mation :i* %\ld be at ! h& ( ! /ud5t & ! seek] ( k reg>d+ scale draught+ & o!r ess5tials relat+ to piano con/ruction4 ,"s ye>s ago1 aft] c>eful consid]ation ( ?is subject1 special topics along ^! l9es 7 assign$ to ! au?or ( ?is "w1 :o 0 well fitt$ = ! task be=e him1 & z a result ( m ?an two ye>s ( consci5ti\s /udy & rese>*1 ! 8,!ory & ,practice ( ,pian(orte ,build+0 is put =? z repres5t+ 9 a concrete =m a "w ( te*nical k :i* hi!rto has be5 unobta9able to ! /ud5t4 ,! necessity ( acquir+ "s k ( ! pr9ciples ( me*anics be=e proce$+ to ! /udy ( scale design is admitt$4 ,su* k1 toge!r ) t ( ! pr9ciples ( ! ac\/ics z !y apply to musical s\nds produc$ by vibrat+ /r+s1 is ess5tial to a correct und]/&+ ( ! fundam5tal ideas und]ly+ true pian(orte design4 ,to "k a piano accurately "o mu/ und]/& ! laws gov]n+ tone quality1 & h[ ! propagation & transmission ( s\nd is produc$ z well z ! pit* & int5sity ( s\nd4 ,& !re are ?\s&s ( m5 to-day 9 ! v>i\s factories :o are anxi\s to obta9 s\rces ( in=mation f :i* to ga9 a m correct k ( a pr(ession :i* %\ld take high rank among indu/rial pursuits4 ,ow+ to ! gradual *anges :i* h be5 wr\ght 9 all indu/ries ?r\gh ! ab&onm5t ( ! appr5tice sy/em1 !re is m ne$ = in/ruction books ?an ev] be=e4 ,a factory op]ative1 accord+ to ! pres5t plan1 may "k ?or\ghly b "o dep>tm5t ( ! bus9ess1 b he c become m useful to himself & 8 employ]s :5 he possesses a k ( all bran*es4 ,9 ! piano trade p>ticul>ly !re mu/ be a correct k ( piano build+1 else !re c be no advance1 & ) our old piano mak]s rapidly pass+ away !re is ne$ = a heal?y s*ool ( new inv5tors1 s t :]ev] possible1 improvem5ts may be made & defects rem$i$4 ,^! c only be accompli%$ by ! possession ( a k ( all ! intricate pr9ciples involv$ 9 piano mak+4 ,we feel t 9 pres5t+ a "w ( ?is k9d we are (f]+ a volume :i* w meet ) ! approval ( ^? :o seek k1 = :ile !re are great trade & te*nical s*ools :i* are ! f\nta9s ( inspiration = v>i\s trades1 ! sci5ce ( piano mak+ is n includ$ z a bran* 9 any ( !m4 ,x is !re=e evid5t t k mu/ be ga9$ outside1 = piano s*ools !re are none4 ,to e m9d seek+ in=mation !re %\ld be k giv51 & we believe t a "w ( ?is k9d mu/ be ( value to an indu/ry :]e9 !re is su* a de>? ( reliable text books4 ,x w be se5 by exam9ation t all ( ! practical problems :i* are to be consid]$ by ! scale draughtsm5 h be5 fairly treat$ 9 ?is volume & yet ! desire ( ! au?or has be5 ?r\gh\t to avoid tiresome details4 ,cond5sation is "o ( ! recogniz$ laws ( our day1 & 9 produc+ ?is te*nical "w ! au?or has labor$ to create a volume ( conv5i5t size :i* %all be ( s]vice to ! /ud5t1 & to ! advanc$ ?9k] z well1 on acc\nt ( ! accuracy ) :i* ! subjects are treat$4 ,?is book is n 9 ! remote/ s5se a hi/ory ( piano build+ or developm5t1 & x %\ld n be s consid]$2 9 fact x has be5 deem$ wise to dip into hi/orical matt]s only to ! ext5t ( %[+ ! application ( an endur+ pr9ciple r ?an to give cr$it to a numb] ( des]v+ inv5tors :o h work$ along special l9es4 ,a treatm5t ( wor?y inv5tions w\ld require a mu* l>g] volume ?an ?is2 & :ile !re are _m inv5tors :o h giv5 to ! _w special devices ( value1 x has n be5 consid]$ timely to describe !m 9 ?is volume or to ent] into an expos ( _! m]its or dem]its4 ,we may say t ?is is n a critical "w b r "o :i* we tru/ may be em95tly practical 9 its mission z an in/ructive & an educational =ce4 ,we may add 9 clos+ t ! 8,!ory & ,practice ( ,pian(orte ,build+0 is ! only "w ( its k9d ev] put =? 9 ! ,engli% language1 & we h e confid5ce t x w f9d a gr[+ dem& among music trade p ev]y:]e4 ,,edw>d ,,lyman ,,bill4 ,editorial ,rooms1 ,! ,music ,trade ,review1 ,,new ,,york1 ,may1 #aijf4 ,,!ory ,,& ,,practice ,,( ,,pian(orte ,,build+4 ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,introductory ,,rem>ks4 ,! developm5t ( ! mod]n ,am]ican pian(orte pres5ts a mo/ int]e/+ /udy to ! practical memb] ( ! musical indu/ries z well z to ! piani/4 ,= x is possible to view ! subject ) equal facility f ! /&po9ts ( bo?4 ,desc5d$ ?r\gh a cle>ly def9$ l9e ( ance/ry f ! anci5t psalt]y1 & %[+ traces ( ! v>i\s /eps 9 its evolution ?r\gh\t its entire mod]n =m1 ! pian(orte ( to-day is ess5tially ! product ( all ! ages4 ,!re h n be5 want+ a suffici5t numb] ( writ]s ^u ! hi/ory & ance/ry ( ! in/rum5t2 b an exposition ( ! correct pr9ciples ( design has n hi!rto appe>$ 9 ! ,engli% language1 at lea/ 9 a =m t possesses p]man5t value to ! ,am]ican manufactur]4 ,! once classic "w ( ,rimbault is obsolete to-day1 ev5 9 ,europe2 :ile1 on ! o!r h&1 ! v>i\s ,g]man treatises h be5 difficult to obta9 & necess>ily limit$ 9 _! appeal to an ,engli% speak+ p1 nor h any satisfactory translations ( any ( !m yet be5 put =?4 ,fur!rmore1 ! evolution ( pian(orte build+ 9 ?is c\ntry has proce$$ along *>act]i/ically ,am]ican l9es & has result$ 9 ! exi/5ce to-day ( a peculi>ly national1 advanc$ & complex type4 ,am]ican pian(ortes are univ]sally ackn[l$g$ to /& among ! highe/ developm5ts ( appli$ musical craftsman%ip1 & arti/s ( e degree h will+ly giv5 _! ass5t to e claim t has be5 made = ! in/rum5ts4 ,:ile1 h[ev]1 ^! facts are easily demon/rable1 x w\ld be by no means correct to suppose t ! developm5t ( ! ,am]ican types ( pian(orte has be5 mat]ially assi/$ by ev5 a respectable m9ority ( ^? :o h be5 engag$ 9 con/ruct+ !m4 ,on ! contr>y1 ! magnific5t examples ( ! musical in/rum5t mak]'s art t grace ! homes ( musicians & p ( culture ?r\gh\t ! ,unit$ ,/ates owe _! pres5t high excell5ce to ! labors & skill ( a small b& ( en?usia/ic & clev] work]s4 ,! names ( ,william ,hawk9s1 ,jonas ,*ick]+1 & ,h5ry ,engelh>d ,/e9way %\ld be writt5 9 lett]s ( gold above ! doors ( all in/itutions devot$ to ! creation ( arti/ic pian(ortes4 ,= x is to ! e>ne/ labor & untir+ en?usiasm ( ^! m5 & a few o!rs1 work+ alone & unassi/$1 t ! mod]n ,am]ican in/rum5t owes its pres5t pr\d position4 ,& ?is /ate ( affairs has cont9u$ to exi/ until ! pres5t day4 ,!re are1 z !re h always be51 a few tal5t$ & skilful m5 :o h nev] be5 cont5t to re/ ^u _! laurels or to desi/ f cont9ual labor along ! l9es ( musical & me*anical bett]m5t2 b su* z !y /&1 & h always /ood1 alone4 ,! great majority h be5 glad to accept ! improvem5ts ( _! prec$+ or contemporane\s ma/]s aft] ! comm]cial value ( ! innovations has be5 demon/rat$2 b !y h always lack$ ! audacity or capability to /rike out into new fields & untrodd5 pa?ways4 ,we may1 h[ev]1 disc]n a suffici5t reason = ?is timidity on ! "p ( pian(orte mak]s4 ,! pr9ciples t und]ly ! design ( ! in/rum5t are prim>ily ac\/ical4 ,!y h nev] be5 v easily dige/$1 ei!r by ! me*anic or by ! man ( affairs4 ,& s9ce a k ( ac\/ics has be5 pr(\ndly develop$ only )9 ! la/ sixty ye>s or s1 x foll[s t its application to ! design ( musical in/rum5ts has naturally lagg$ beh9d ! progress ( ! sci5ce itself4 ,pian(orte mak]s are n usually pr(ess+ sci5ti/s or practical musicians2 & !y h disc]n$ little pr(it 9 attempt+ to keep up ) ! tr5d ( mod]n ac\/ical rese>*1 ev5 s f> z ?is has directly affect$ ! pr9ciples ( musical in/rum5t con/ruction4 ,! developm5t ( ! pian(orte has1 9 fact1 proce$$ empirically1 & has be5 prosecut$ inductively r ?an f any a priori notions4 ,& :ile we _c )hold our admiration f ! spl5did success t has att5d$ s mu* ( ?is empirical rese>*1 we _c be bl9d to ! fact t v _m mod]n pian(ortes exhibit cle>ly ! inh]5t defects ( su* me?ods4 ,! practical musical me*anician1 if he possess ! requisite k1 is (t5 able to rem$y exi/+ faults 9 tone quality & tone-production4 ,& :ile /udy+ ways & means = do+ ?is1 he _c b obs]ve innum]able cases ( neglect$ opportunities1 or ev5 ( positive mi/akes4 ,! pure empirical me?od mu/ always produce a l>ge numb] ( failures4 ,yet ! application ( ev5 ! elem5t>y pr9ciples ( ,appli$ ,ac\/ics w\ld frequ5tly prev5t ! commission ( s]i\s s9s 9 design4 ,x is n necess>y1 ( c\rse1 t e scale draughtsman or design] %\ld h ! results ( mod]n ac\/ical discov]y at 8 f+]s' ends2 b x is "h insi/$ t su* k1 9 s f> z x relates to musical in/rum5ts1 is ess5tial to ! correct con/ruction ( pian(ortes4 ,tone-production1 o!rwise ?an by ! human voice1 implies bo? sci5tific & me*anical problems4 ,especially is ?is true ( ! pian(orte1 :i*1 ) ! exception ( ! pipe organ1 may prop]ly be consid]$ ! mo/ complex ( artificial devices = ! p]=mance ( music4 ,recognition ( ?is tru? & a g5]al improvem5t 9 ! k ( ! ac\/ical & musical pr9ciples involv$ _c fail to ex]cise a mo/ b5eficial influ5ce ^u ! future ( ! ,am]ican pian(orte4 ,z has already be5 rem>k$1 !re is a de>? ( conv5i5t treatises 9 ! ,engli% language t c be said to possess a pres5t value to ! e>ne/ /ud5t ( pian(orte design4 ,! pres5t book is an attempt 9 ! direction ( supply+ ! defici5cy4 ,! au?or has aim$ at pres5t+ ! v>i\s problems p]ta9+ to ! art ( pian(orte con/ruction ) due reg>d bo? to _! ac\/ical & me*anical features4 ,no attempt has be5 made to delve pr(\ndly into ! my/]ies ( s\nd2 b ! elem5t>y & basic pr9ciples ( tone-production h be5 /at$1 & _! true application to ! v>i\s /ages ( pian(orte con/ruction expla9$4 ,ea* /ep 9 ! mak+ ( a pian(orte f beg9n+ to completion has be5 subject$ to analysis1 & ! correct pr9ciples po9t$ out4 ,! au?or believes t ! book may be read & compreh5d$1 ev5 by "o to :om ! v t]m ac\/ics has hi!rto be5 unfamili>4 ,:ile he does n expect t a /udy ( ?is book c make ! novice a full-fl$g$ scale draughtsman1 z x 71 ov]night1 he does expect1 on ! o!r h&1 to assi/ ^? :o h already inve/igat$1 or :o int5d to inve/igate ! :ole problem1 to a cle>] & broad] compreh5sion ( a beautiful art4 ,if ?is hope be gratifi$1 mu* w h be5 a*iev$1 & no "o :o has at he>t ! future ( musical indu/ry 9 ,am]ica c fail to be enc\rag$1 if no?+ else1 by ! appe>ance ( ?is cond5s$ "w4 ,! g5]al outl9e ( ! book c be expla9$ ) little detail4 ,recogniz+1 z has already be5 sugge/$1 ! dep5d5ce ( all "r pian(orte mak+ ^u ! obs]vance ( ! e/abli%$ pr9ciples ( ac\/ics1 ! au?or has ?\ght x well1 aft] a %ort hi/orical sket* ( ! pian(orte1 to make a g5]al /atem5t ( ! laws t gov]n ! propagation & transmission ( s\nd4 ,x is b a /ep f ?is to a concise explanation ( ! peculi>ities ( /ret*$ /r+s & _! behavior "u v>y+ conditions ( excitation1 & diff]+ phases ( t5sion1 etc4 ,?is leads u directly to ! discussion ( pian(orte /r+s1 _! dim5sions1 & ! mann] 9 :i* !y become ! ag5ts ( s\nd-production 9 ! in/rum5t4 ,cont9u+ our inve/igations1 we pass to ! subject ( resonance & come naturally to a discussion ( ! resonat+ app>atus ( ! pian(orte4 ,! fram+ t holds toge!r ^! two vital elem5ts is next subject$ to analysis & explanation1 & f9ally ! me*anisms ( p]cussion & t\* are br\ght "u our inquiry & _! peculi>ities not$ & exp\nd$4 ,! rem>ks ^u ! draught+ ( pian(orte scales1 t conclude ! volume1 are necess>ily broad & g5]al1 s9ce x is q impossible to indicate ) exactitude ! actual me?od to be employ$ 9 mak+ me*anical draw+s1 at lea/ )9 ! limits t ! relative importance ( ! subject imposes on u4 ,att5tion has be5 drawn m p>ticul>ly to ! calculations = %r9kage t are r5d]$ necess>y by ! vag>ies ( ca/ iron1 su* z is us$ 9 ! manufacture ( metal frames1 & to ! details ( hamm]-/roke po9ts & /r+ dim5sions1 ! pr9ciples ( :i* h be5 expla9$ 9 _! prop] places )9 ! body ( ! "w4 ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,! ,,evolution ,,( ,,! ,,pian(orte4 ,:ile ! pres5t "w is by no means int5d$ to s]ve z an elaborate analysis ( pian(orte developm5t1 x seems t a prop] compreh5sion ( ! v>i\s pr9ciples t are laid d[n 9 ! c\rse ( our argum5t w be facilitat$ by a %ort survey ( ! evolution ( ! in/rum5t1 und]tak5 f an hi/orical viewpo9t4 ,z we recognize 9 ! pian(orte ( to-day ! culm9ation ( ! musical-me*anical ef=t ( ages1 & z a complete /udy ( ! results t h be5 a*iev$ c be/ be introduc$ by a prelim9>y k ( ! mann] 9 :i* ! v>i\s /eps t[>ds latt]-day excell5ce h be5 atta9$1 x seems t we _c d bett] ?an make an attempt to survey ! field ( pian(orte evolution 9 a mann] broad & g5]al1 ?\gh necess>ily brief4 ,z 0 incid5tally rem>k$ 9 ! la/ *apt]1 we may prop]ly consid] ! mod]n pian(orte z ess5tially ! product ( all ! ages4 ,! orig9 ( /r+$ in/rum5ts is lo/ 9 ! mi/s ( antiquity1 b ,greek my?ology has suppli$ u ) a mo/ pleas+ leg5d to acc\nt = ! inv5tion ( t pione] ( all /ret*$-/r+ in/rum5ts1 ! classic lyre4 ,we are told t ,h]mes1 walk+ "o day along ! %ore1 f\nd ly+ at 8 feet ! %ell ( a dead tortoise4 ,! inte/9es ( ! animal _h be5 dri$ 9 ! sun & 7 /ret*$ along ! rim ( ! %ell s t :5 ,h]mes' foot /ruck aga9/ "o ( !m1 a musical s\nd 0 giv5 =? & ,lo6 ! lyre 0 born4 ,e>li] /ill are ! acc\nts1 9 ! %ape ( cunei=m or o!r inscriptions1 t %[ a =m ( lyre to h be5 9 use among ! ,assyrians4 ,! biblical descriptions ( v>i\s /r+$ in/rum5ts1 su* z ! psalt]y1 or ! h>p ( ,david1 are g5]ally famili>4 ,:ile d\btless we ne$ n consid] x illogical to trace ! beg9n+ ( mod]n /r+$ in/rum5ts1 :e!r !y be ( ! key-bo>d v>iety or o!rwise1 to su* mi/y & vague traditions1 we mu/ look to m mod]n times = a true und]/&+ ( ! causes t op]at$ to produce ! key-bo>d4 ,?is1 ! di/+ui%+ feature ( ! pian(orte family1 fir/ arose ?r\gh ! ne$ = a facile means ( accompany+ ! voice 9 ! !n newly beg9n+ art ( music :i* requir$ ! simultane\s s\nd+ ( diff]5t tones4 ,in/rum5ts ( ! organ type 7 e>li] 9 ! field1 = we h acc\nts ( ! wat]-organ 9 ! writ+s ( ! hi/orians ( ! lat] ,roman ,empire4 ,! e>lie/ =m ( key-bo>d seems to h be5 introduc$ 9 ,europe 9 ! latt] "p ( ! elev5? c5tury ,a4 ,d4 ,at ab\t ! same p]iod we he> ( a /r+$ in/rum5t call$ ! organi/rum1 hav+ ?ree /r+s1 "o ( :i* 0 9 connection ) a numb] ( tang5ts :i* 7 adapt$ to be pu%$ 9 ^u x s z to s\nd diff]5t segm5ts & produce diff]5t notes4 ,lat] we f9d t ! ecclesia/ical musicians 7 9 ! habit ( us+ m or less complicat$ mono*ords = ! purpose ( tra9+ _! pupils 9 ! pla9-*ants ( ! *ur*4 ,^! mono*ords gradually became m complex & f9ally 7 m\nt$ on a k9d ( s\nd bo>d 9 gr\ps & ?us became no long] mono*ords b tri*ords1 tetra*ords1 or poly*ords4 ,! next /ep 0 obvi\sly to furni% ! in/rum5t ) a set ( balanc$ key-lev]s borr[$ f ! organ & ) tang5ts to connect ! keys ) ! /r+s1 ^! latt] com+ f ! organi/rum4 ,?us we h at once ! fam\s clavi*ord4 ,b ?is 0 n ! only =m ( key$ in/rum5t t 0 ?us e>ly devis$4 ,we le>n t ! psalt]y _h contemporane\sly be5 fitt$ ) keys4 ,!re 7 two =ms ( ?is fam\s in/rum5t1 "o trapezoid & "o triangul>4 ,:5 bo? ( ^! _h be5 fitt$ ) keys !re 7 two m di/9ct =ms ( key$ in/rum5ts2 diff]5ces :i* _h a l>ge influ5ce ^u ! lat] developm5t ( ! type4 ,^! ?ree in/rum5ts 7 ?us develop$ into ! accept$ =ms t 7 9 g5]al use dur+ ! sev5te5? c5tury & lat]2 becom+ respectively ! clavi*ord1 h>psi*ord & sp9et4 ,x is f ^! t ! pian(orte is directly sprung4 ,! h>psi*ord1 z its "n implies1 resembl$ a h>p laid on its back & enclos$ 9 a case1 :ile ! /r+s 7 pluck$1 by quills set on jacks1 m\nt$ on ! keys4 ,! natural %ape ( ! h>psi*ord1 !re=e1 0 simil> to t ( ! mod]n gr& pian(orte & x d]iv$ ?is =m f its direct relation%ip to ! e>ly key$ =ms ( ! triangul> psalt]y4 ,! h>psi*ord _h be5 a favorite = a long "t :5 ,b>tolomeo ,cri/(ori1 a mak] ( ,flor5ce1 complet$ 9 #agji ! inv5tion ( a hamm] action to replace ! quill$ jack at ! end ( ! h>psi*ord key4 ,?us 0 made possible ! production ( dynamic effects1 ( :i* ! h>psi*ord action _h nev] be5 capable except ?r\gh ! employm5t ( v>i\s me*anical devices1 su* z swells & d\ble or triple banks ( keys ) jacks & quills to mat*4 ,! hamm]-action ( ,cri/(ori z complet$ by him 9 #agbf %[s a rem>kable simil>ity to ! me*anisms t are /ill to be f\nd 9 c]ta9 =ms ( squ>e pian(ortes4 ,he succe$$ 9 produc+ an acceptable =m ( escapem5t & a damp+ device z well1 al?\gh z ! date %[s1 n until aft] sev]al ye>s ( exp]im5t+ & improv+ ^u ! orig9al design4 ,exam9ation %[s t ,cri/(ori's action diff]s 9 no ess5tial respect f ! squ>e pian(orte actions t we h m5tion$4 ,!re is ! upp] & "u hamm]1 ! jack work+ on a groove 9 ! key1 ! escapem5t device to det]m9e ! travel ( ! jack1 ! back-*eck1 & ! damp]4 ,e feature t is ess5tial to provide escapem5t1 repetition & damp+ is f\nd "h4 ,cri/(ori 01 h[ev]1 oblig$ to make _m *anges 9 ! con/ruction ( 8 8gravicembalo col piano e =te0 to provide ! increas$ /iffness necessitat$ by ! diff]5t mann] ( excit+ ! /r+s4 ,8 "w1 curi\sly en\gh1 0 n tak5 up aft] 8 dea? by any o!r ,italian h>psi*ord mak]1 & x rema9$ = a ,g]man to cont9ue 8 exp]im5ts & br+ !m to a practical & comm]cial success4 ,only two pian(ortes by ,cri/(ori are kn[n to exi/1 & "o ( ^! is 9 ! ,metropolitan ,museum ( ,art1 ,new ,york4 ,gottfri$ ,silb]mann1 :o took up ! "w ( ,cri/(ori1 built sev]al gr& pian(ortes t[>ds ! end ( ! fir/ half ( ! eighte5? c5tury1 & !re /ill exi/ at ,potsdam "s ( ^! t 7 sold by him to ,fr$]ick ! ,great4 ,^! in/rum5ts appe> to be ess5tially f\nd$ ^u ! "w ( ,cri/(ori1 & ! sup]ior workman%ip & bett] adju/m5t ( !m d n s]ve to disguise ! evid5t fact t ,silb]mann1 :ile improv+ 9 details1 did n discov] any new pr9ciples ei!r 9 action or o!rwise4 ,some:at lat] we he> ( ,zumpe1 :o 0 app>5tly /ruck ) ! idea ( adapt+ ! pian(orte hamm] to ! squ>e-%ap$ clavi*ord1 :i* 0 n deep en\gh to take ! ,silb]mann action1 ?us produc+ a v]itable squ>e pian(orte4 ,zumpe's device conta9$ no provision = escapem5t1 :i* fault 0 aft]w>ds correct$ by ! celebrat$ inv5tor ,/e94 ,moz>t speaks ( ! m]its ( ,/e9 & joyfully describes h[ 8 me*anism prev5t$ ! block+ ( ! hamm]s4 ,moz>t us$ "o ( ,/e9's pian(ortes dur+ ! re/ ( 8 life4 ,! "n ( ,/e9 is ju/ly fam\s among ! e>ly pian(orte mak]s4 ,he 0 responsible1 ) ! able assi/ance ( 8 daught] ,nanette1 = ! ,vi5nese type ( pian(orte1 :i* 0 = long su* a favorite ov] ! heavi] & m solid ,engli% /yle on acc\nt ( its surpris+ delicacy & lightness ( t\*4 ,aft] h] m>riage1 ,nanette ,/e91 9 p>tn]%ip ) h] husb& ,/rei*]1 made _m o!r improvem5ts1 & h] pian(ortes 7 us$ by ,bee?ov5 & o!rs4 ,! firm ( ,/rei*] /ill exi/$ 9 ,vi5na a few ye>s ago4 ,at ?is po9t1 namely at ! beg9n+ ( ! n9ete5? c5tury1 we beg9 to he> ( ?ree revolution>y figures2 a ,fr5*man1 an ,engli%man & an ,am]ican4 ,^! are ,er>d1 ,broadwood & ,hawk9s4 ,pi]re ,seba/ian ,er>d settl$ 9 ,p>is dur+ ! latt] "p ( ! eighte5? c5tury z a mak] ( h>ps & h>psi*ords4 ,%ortly be=e ! break+ out ( ! ,fr5* revolution1 ,er>d came to ,london & began to make h>ps & pian(ortes4 ,9 ! meantime he 0 cont9ually work+ to improve 8 in/rum5ts & 0 responsible = _m useful inv5tions1 su* z ! up-be>+ to ! /r+s by means ( ! 8agraffe40 ,8 *ief claim to ! consid]ation ( pian(orte mak]s is due1 h[ev]1 to 8 inv5tion ( ! 8d\ble repetition0 action :i* 0 p]fect$ by him 9 #ahba1 aft] _m ye>s ( unsuccessful exp]im5t4 ,?is action1 ) slight modification1 is us$ at ! pres5t day 9 all gr& pian(ortes1 & its manifold excell5ces h nev] be5 yet surpass$4 ,er>d took out a l>ge numb] ( pat5ts1 :i* 7 put into use by 8 successors1 & ! h\se f\nd$ by him is /ill 9 exi/5ce & "o ( ! mo/ fam\s 9 ,france or inde$ 9 ! _w4 ,john ,broadwood1 ! great ,engli% inv5tor & manufactur]1 :o also has 8 "n p]petuat$ 9 ! cont9u$ & fl\ri%+ c>e] ( ! firm t he f\nd$1 0 orig9ally a workman 9 ! %op ( ,ts*udi or ,%udi1 a ,london h>psi*ord mak]4 ,he rose f an appr5tice%ip to ! head ( ! h\se ( ,%udi & f9ally turn$ 8 att5tion to ! improvem5t ( ! pian(orte4 ,he _h e>ly be5 ! recipi5t ( ! k ( ,back]s1 ! inv5tor ( ! s-call$ ,engli% action1 & :5 he came to build pian(ortes on 8 own acc\nt1 ?is exp]i5ce 0 made to be> practical fruit4 ,broadwood's fir/ a*ievem5t 0 9 ! re-design+ ( ! squ>e piano ( ,zumpe4 ,ab\t ! ye> #aghj he entirely alt]$ its con/ruction1 set ! tun+ p9s at ! back ( ! case1 & add$ damp]s & p$als4 ,he next set ab\t ! improvem5t ( ! gr&1 & divid$ ! bridge1 giv+ a sep>ate bass bridge & p]mitt+ ! /rik+ po9t ( ! hamm]s on ! /r+s to be adju/$ ) correctness1 some?+ t _h nev] be5 done be=e4 ,?is complet$ ! divorce ( ! pian(orte f ! h>psi*ord4 ,) ! addition ( ! action inv5t$ by ,back]s1 ,broadwood's pian(ortes became at once a /&>d ( quality & excell5ce & until ! introduction ( iron fram+ /ood alone4 ,we n[ come to ,hawk9s4 ,?is rem>kable man 0 an eng9e] ( ,philadelphia1 ,engli% by bir? b ,am]ican by adoption4 ,9 ! ye> #ahjj he produc$ an upright pian(orte1 ! fir/ ( its k9d4 ,?is in/rum5t1 ?\gh x 0 n a comm]cial success1 0 rem>kable = ! fact t ,hawk9s 9 x anticipat$ s _m ( ! ideas t h s9ce become ess5tial to mod]n in/rum5ts4 ,he _h an indep5d5t iron frame support+ ! s\nd-bo>d1 a me*anical tun+ device1 & metal action frames4 ,8 action1 too1 _h _m features t h s9ce be5 adopt$4 ,un=tunately1 ! tone 0 s poor t ! in/rum5t 0 a failure f ! />t4 ,8 ideas 9 reg>d to upright pian(orte con/ruction 7 n all[$ to langui%1 h[ev]1 & ! labors ( ,wornum1 :o foll[$ ,s\?well1 7 at la/ successful 9 produc+1 9 #ahbf1 a practical action :i* at once settl$ ! de/9y ( ! upright4 ,?is action _h z its peculi> feature ! 8bridle tape10 :i* is n[ su* a necess>y elem5t ( ! upright pian(orte4 ,he also introduc$ ! c5tre p9 & flange4 ,at ?is po9t we beg9 to come to ! great divid+ l9e betwe5 ! e>ly & ! mod]n pian(orte4 ,! introduction ( metal fram+ m>ks ?is division & x is f "h t ! ,am]ican in/rum5t beg9s its indep5d5t & extraord9>ily successful c>e]4 ,inde$1 ! developm5t ( ,am]ican in/rum5ts is b\nd up ) ! almo/ concurr5t progress ( ideas z to metal fram+4 ,al?\gh ! fir/ application ( metal to pian(ortes1 n consid]+ ! un=tunately abortive inv5tion ( ,hawk9s1 may be cr$it$ to ,william ,all51 an ,engli%man1 yet we mu/ look to ! ,unit$ ,/ates = ! pione] 9 ! mod]n conception ( metal brac+4 ,! man 9 "q1 ,alpheus ,babcock1 0 a ,bo/on mak] & _h be5 orig9ally an appr5tice ( ,crehore1 :o appe>s to h made ! fir/ ,am]ican pian(orte4 ,babcock appli$ 8 inv5tion 9 ,bo/on 9 ! =m ( a ca/ metal plate = a squ>e pian(orte ab\t ! ye> #ahbb & ?is date is mo/ memorable 9 t x m>ks ! epo* ( ! /rictly mod]n conception ( ! in/rum5t4 ,cont9u+ ! consid]ation ( ?is ,national s*ool ( design1 we f9d t ! celebrat$ ,jonas ,*ick]+ produc$1 9 #ahdj1 a ca/-iron plate = gr& pian(ortes1 hav+ ! /r+-plate1 agraffe-bridge & resi/ance-b>s ca/ solid 9 "o piece4 ,?is revolution>y inv5tion unque/ionably pav$ ! way = ! wond]ful ,am]ican productions ( lat] ye>s & at once plac$ ! ,am]ican pian(orte ^u a plane ( excell5ce t has nev] be5 altoge!r rea*$ by its competitors 9 o!r p>ts ( ! _w4 ,european mak]s 7 at fir/ sl[ to appreciate ! em95tly valuable nature ( ! inv5tion ( ,*ick]+1 & until lately ! solid ca/ plate 0 n ext5sively us$ 9 ,europe outside ( ,g]many4 ,! h\se ( ,coll>d & ,coll>d1 :i* _h ! s]vices ( ,/ew>t1 ! assi/ant ( ,*ick]+ = _m ye>s1 01 h[ev]1 mo/ progressive 9 ?is respect & = long 0 ! only ,london firm :i* made gr& pian(ortes ) ! iron plate ca/ 9 "o piece4 ,! celebrat$ h\se ( ,broadwood1 aft] mu* exp]im5t+1 produc$ a =m ( iron plate = gr&s t 0 some:at diff]5t 9 pr9ciple f t ( ,*ick]+4 ,9 ?is type1 ! body ( ! /ructure 0 ca/ complete1 b in/ead ( ! multiplicity ( braces1 we f9d only two4 ,"o ( ^! runs p>allel ) ! l9e ( ! v]tically-/rung bass /r+s at ! extreme bass end ( ! in/rum5t1 :ile ! o!r crosses ! plate 9 a diagonal direction f ne> ! middle ( ! agraffe-bridge to ! po9t ( greate/ t5sion4 ,bo? ( ^! b>s are ca/ sep>ate f ! body ( ! plate & secur$ to x by means ( bolts & nuts4 ,su* a me?od has usually be5 *>act]i/ic ( ,european z oppos$ to ,am]ican me?ods1 b ! ,broadwoods1 ab\t fifte5 ye>s ago1 br\ght out a decid$ novelty 9 _! 8,b>less ,gr&40 ,?is rem>kable in/rum5t has a plate ( ca/ /eel & is entirely )\t braces or b>s ( any k9d1 ! necess>y /iffness be+ ga9$ ?r\gh ! t5sile /r5g? ( ! metal employ$ & ! use ( a numb] ( turn$ up flanges along ! sides ( ! /ructure1 ^! be+ screw$ into ! case ( ! pian(orte at equal int]vals on its p]iph]y4 ,z to ! fur!r developm5t ( ! gr& pian(orte1 we may look to ! progress ( ! ,*ick]+s & ! ,/e9ways 9 ,am]ica & to ! ,broadwoods 9 ,engl&1 ! ,er>ds 9 ,france & ! ,be*/e9s & ,bl?n]s 9 ,g]many4 ,^! mak]s are consid]$ "h because !y h all contribut$ 9 no small degree to ! developm5t ( ! in/rum5t z an arti/ic product & because !y h all be5 responsible = "s radical improvem5t t has lat] become ess5tial to ! make-up ( a good pian(orte4 ,we ne$ only m5tion ! ,/e9way cupola plate1 fan-l disposition ( /r+s1 ov]/rung bass1 duplex scale & capo d'a/ro b> to give ! read] "s idea ( ! _m inv5tions t h sprung f ! f]tile bra9s ( ! memb]s ( ?is h\se4 ,! o!r h\ses1 notably t ( ,*ick]+ 9 ?is c\ntry1 & ,broadwood 9 ,engl&1 h be5 prolific 9 improvem5ts1 & ! developm5t ( ! gr& pian(orte has consequ5tly be5 rapid & successful f ! musical & sci5tific1 no less ?an f ! comm]cial view-po9t4 ,! hi/ory ( ! type 9 m rec5t ye>s is famili> to all1 h[ev]1 & x is unnecess>y to enl>ge ^u x "h4 ,if we h seem$1 hi!rto1 to h neglect$ prop] consid]ation ( ! upright & squ>e =ms ( pian(orte1 ! fault is m app>5t ?an real4 ,= !re are two good reasons :y discussion ( ^! types %\ld h be5 delay$4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 ! squ>e is already obsolesc5t if n obsolete1 :ile on ! o!r h& ! developm5t ( ! upright into a comm]cially successful & l>gely produc$ in/rum5t has only come ab\t 9 rec5t ye>s4 ,?is sket* w\ld1 ( c\rse1 be incomplete )\t brief consid]ation ( !m & we %all !re=e devote "s space to ?is end4 ,z has already be5 indicat$1 ! squ>e piano may be consid]$ z hav+ a g5esis q di/9ct f ! gr& or upright4 ,x 0 develop$1 z we "k1 by ,zumpe1 ^: purpose 0 to fit ! hamm] action to ! body ( a clavi*ord4 ,?us1 :5 we consid] ! diff]5t roots f :i* ! clavi*ord & sp9et-h>psi*ord types 7 !mselves evolv$1 & ! direct desc5t ( ! gr& pian(orte f ! latt]1 ! entirely sep>ate & di/9ct gr[? ( ! squ>e is easily disc]n$4 ,?is di/9ction is mo/ int]e/+ at ! pres5t day1 :5 ! glory ( ! squ>e has dep>t$ & its days are numb]$4 ,! evolution ( ! squ>e pian(orte 9 ,am]ica has be5 record$ ) fai?ful detail by ,spillane 9 8 8,hi/ory ( ! ,am]ican ,pian(orte10 & ! read] w f9d 9 t "w an abundance ( mat]ial to satisfy any curiosity t may possess him4 ,incid5tally x may be rem>k$ t ! idea ( cross-/r++ ! bass _h be5 appli$ to clavi*ords z e>ly z ! "t ( ,hndel2 s t ! ov]/r++ ( ! squ>e pian(orte came ab\t q naturally1 especially aft] ! improvem5ts ( ,john ,broadwood ! ,fir/4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ?is pr9ciple 0 = long ov]look$ 9 ! design ( ! o!r popul> types2 s mu* s1 9 fact1 t ,european gr&s & uprights are /ill to be f\nd 9 pl5ty ) /raight /r++ ?r\gh\t4 ,! *ief reasons = ! gradual decl9e 9 ! popul>ity ( ! squ>e may be trac$ almo/ z mu* to social & economic z to arti/ic & me*anical causes1 al?\gh ^! latt] _h ! great] influ5ce 9 %ap+ ! ultimate de/9y ( ! type4 ,! squ>e 0 develop$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates until ! native ,am]ican product left all imitators & rivals f> beh9d1 b ev5 at t ! fundam5tal defects ( con/ruction c\ld nev] be ov]come entirely4 ,! great gap 9 ! middle ( ! /ructure1 requir$ = ! passage ( ! hamm]s1 entail$ dang]\s weakness1 aga9/ :i* no reasonable weight ( iron brac+ has ev] seem$ to prevail4 ,aga91 ! fact t ! bass keys1 :]e ! /r5g? ( ! bl[ & ! lev]age ( ! action ne$ to be greate/1 7 ! %orte/ ( all1 :ile ! extreme treble keys 7 longe/1 always t5d$ to de/roy ! t\* proportions & entail$ mu* c\nt]-balanc+ & o!r op]ations :i* 71 h[ev]1 b make%ifts at ! be/4 ,moreov]1 ! developm5t ( ! gr& type l$ to rivalry among ^? mak]s :o conf9$ !mselves *iefly to ! squ>e1 ) ! result t ! latt] 0 made m & m heavy & cumbr\s 9 an ef=t to cat* up ) ! fundam5tal advantage :i* ! gr& pian(orte possess$ on acc\nt ( its sup]ior design4 ,besides1 ! squ>e 0 nev] a ?+ ( beauty1 & its increas+ size 0 by no means an advantage 9 ?is respect1 s t :5 ! rapidly gr[+ population ( ! great ,am]ican cities began to make liv+ room cont9ually m valuable1 ! claims ( ! small1 p[]ful1 elegant1 & mod]ate-pric$ upright soon 7 successfully ass]t$4 ,z a la/ consid]ation1 x %\ld be m5tion$ t ! mak]s ( squ>e pian(ortes 7 nev] able to apply to x a me*anism hav+ ! ela/icity & rapid repetition t belong to ! ,er>d gr& action or ! tape-*eck device ( ,wornum1 :i* is univ]sal 9 ! upright4 ,9 view ( all ^! disadvantages1 x is no long] a matt] = wond]m5t t ! upright pian(orte succe$$ ! squ>e z a bidd] = dome/ic favor1 :ile ! l>g] & m highly evolv$ gr& rema9$ ! *oice ( pr(essional musicians4 ,! comm]cial developm5t ( ! upright pian(orte1 z we h rem>k$1 began at a comp>atively rec5t p]iod4 ,9 ?is c\ntry1 ow+ to ! popul>ity ( ! squ>e1 we f9d t ! upright 0 late 9 com+ into favor4 ,its developm5t1 h[ev]1 _h be5 go+ on 9 ,europe s9ce ! beg9n+ ( ! n9ete5? c5tury4 ,! 8cab9et0 piano ( ,s\?well & ! 8upright gr&0 ( ,hawk9s 7 examples ( e>ly attempts 9 ?is l9e1 b x rema9$ = ! g5ius ( ,rob]t ,wornum to place ! upright in/rum5t on a truly practical foot+4 ,?is 0 accompli%$ ?r\gh 8 inv5tion ( 8! tape-*eck action10 :i* at once put ! upright pian(orte ^u an equal plane ( effici5cy ) ! prevail+ types & assur$ its rapid adoption4 ,by ! end ( ! fir/ half ( ! n9ete5? c5tury ! upright piano _h become firmly e/abli%$ z ! home in/rum5t ?r\gh\t ,europe1 & ab\t ! same "t began to appe> among ,am]ican products4 ,z soon z ,am]ican manufactur]s took hold ( x1 !y set ab\t mak+ va/ improvem5ts ^u ,european models2 & we may prop]ly date ! mod]n developm5t ( ! upright f ?is "t4 ,am]icans 7 responsible = ! adoption ( ov]/rung iron-fram$ scales1 & = ! increase 9 size & p[] :i* n[ makes our be/ in/rum5ts ( ?is class equal1 if n sup]ior1 to ! gr&s ( a few ye>s ago4 ,! lat] hi/ory ( ! upright1 n less ?an ( ! gr&1 is a simple record ( cont9u\s improvem5t 9 details ( workman%ip & mat]ial1 9 beauty ( case design & 9 sci5tific con/ruction ( scale4 ,x is n necess>y1 = ! purpose ( ?is %ort sket*1 to ent] into ! famili> mod]n hi/ory ( manufactur+ ! v>i\s types ( pian(orte1 ei!r 9 ?is c\ntry or abroad2 b we may note1 incid5tally1 t ,european mak]s h adopt$ m & m ,am]ican inv5tions & improvem5ts1 s t ! mod]n1 up-to-date pian(orte owes a great "p ( its pres5t effici5cy to ! g5ius ( ! great ,am]ican mak]s1 al?\gh ^!1 ( c\rse1 h work$ along ! great pr9ciples t ,broadwood1 ,*ick]+1 ,/e9way1 ,web]1 ,knabe1 ,er>d & o!rs laid d[n4 ,?us we h survey$1 ?\gh truly 9 a some:at hurri$ mann]1 ! int]e/+ hi/ory ( ! gr[? & developm5t ( ! pian(orte ( to-day4 ,! read] w =give ! brief & sket*y nature ( ?is bird's-eye view1 :5 he recollects t our purpose 9 ?is book is to lay d[n ! correct pr9ciples ( mod]n design1 r ?an to analyze ^? pr9ciples f an hi/orical /&po9t4 ,"s ( ! laws t we %all h occasion to exp\nd h already be5 not$ "h4 ,9 ! succe$+ *apt]s ^! & o!rs w be consid]$ 9 ! light ( _! sci5tific & practical application4 ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,description ,,( ,,! ,,mod]n ,,pian(orte4 ,! pian(orte ( to-day is ! mo/ complex & +5i\s ( musical in/rum5ts4 ,) ! possible exception ( ! pipe-organ1 !re is no exi/+ tone app>atus t comb9es )9 itself ! product ( s _m v>i$ indu/ries4 ,bo? z to ! raw mat]ial & ! f9i%$ p>ts1 ?is in/rum5t draws its tonal *>m1 9 ! ultimate analysis1 z mu* f ! saw-mill1 ! ma*9e %op & ! iron f\ndry z f ! =e/ & ! m9e4 ,trees ( ! =e/1 ore f ! m9es--ev5 ! wooly coats ( ! peaceful %eep--alike contribute _! %>e to ! completion ( ! wond]ful product ( musico-me*anical +5uity t we recognize 9 ! mod]n pian(orte4 ,9 su* circum/ances z ^!1 x is easy to und]/& t ! comm]cial production ( ^! in/rum5ts is a =midable und]tak+4 ,to ! musical & te*nical skill t is ess5tial mu/ n[ be add$ l>ge capital & a great manufactur+ plant4 ,! mod]ate prices at :i* x is at pres5t possible to sell pian(ortes w\ld n be ma9ta9$ = a mom5t )\t ?is mod]n sy/em ( productive conc5tration & di/ributive expansion4 ,! application ( su* bus9ess sy/ems to ! production ( an ess5tially arti/ic /ructure has _h ! d\ble effect ( *eap5+ ! sell+ price & improv+ ! quality4 ,?is is n ! place to g into details ( ! organization ( a mod]n pian(orte factory1 b we may v prop]ly devote "s mom5ts to a consid]ation ( ! ma9 po9ts ( con/ruction t are obs]vable 9 ! pian(ortes ( ! day4 ,critical analysis ( ^! po9ts w be 9 ord] lat] on 9 ! c\rse ( ! pres5t "w4 ,= ! mom5t we %all be cont5t ) obta9+ a bird's-eye view1 z x 71 ( t :i* we are lat] to dissect & criticise4 ,!re are to-day two di/9ct & prevail+ types ( pian(orte4 ,^! are ! 8upright0 & ! 8gr&40 ,( ! once popul> 8squ>e0 x is unnecess>y "h to d m ?an say t ! type has pass$ into a /ate ( obsolesc5ce & is fa/ dy+ out4 ,bo? /ructurally & tonally1 x 0 mo/ defective2 & its popul>ity 0 due r to ! imp]fect developm5t ( ! o!r types dur+ ! p]iod ( its vogue ?an to any inh]5t advantages ( its own4 ,x has well & fai?fully s]v$ its appo9t$ "t1 & we may prop]ly leave x to die 9 peace4 ,= ! la/ ?irty ye>s 9 ?is c\ntry & = consid]ably long] 9 ,europe1 ! upright1 succe$+ ! squ>e z a home in/rum5t1 has rema9$ victori\s4 ,its small size & great conv5i5ce1 toge!r ) ! surpris+ tonal capacity t has be5 develop$ 9 x 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 h univ]sally comm5d$ x1 & only ! developm5t ( ! v small gr& has lately seem$ to be ?reat5+ its long un*all5g$ supremacy4 ,! ext]ior =m ( an upright is famili> to all4 ,if we /rip f x all ! out] app5dages1 & !n remove ! action & keys1 we %all at once see t ! in/rum5t consi/s ess5tially ( a s\nd-bo>d & a frame1 ! latt] p>tly wood5 & p>tly metallic1 ^u :i* are /ret*$ /r+s ( regul>ly graduat$ l5g?s & ?icknesses4 ,atta*$ to ?is fram+ are two m or less ornate wood5 erections :i* are d5om9at$ ! 8sides0 ( ! in/rum5t1 :ile a horizontal wood5 %elf1 call$ ! 8key-b$10 s]ves to jo9 ! sides & support ! keys & _! frame4 ,! /r+s ( an upright are arrang$ v]tically f ! top to ! bottom ( ! fram+ already describ$1 ) ! exception ( ^? :i* s]ve ! bass notes4 ,^! are /rung diagonally ov] ! treble /r+s4 ,x w also be obs]v$ t ! /r+s become progressively %ort] z ! scale asc5ds until ! speak+ l5g?s at ! highe/ notes are two in*es or less4 ,! ?ickness also v>ies directly z ! l5g?4 ,! mat]ial ( :i* ! /r+s are made is ca/-/eel wire1 & ! ov]/rung bass /r+s are1 9 addition1 cov]$ ) copp] or iron wire4 ,^! /r+s1 9 ord] t !y may be ma9ta9$ at ! prop] t5sions & 9 ! correct positions1 mu/ be support$ by suitable fram+4 ,! dem&s ( mod]n con/ruction require t ! fram+ be mo/ massive4 ,we h already ca/ a hurri$ glance at x1 & may n[ proce$ to describe x 9 m detail4 ,fir/ ( all1 h[ev]1 x is necess>y to inve/igate ! app>atus t amplifies ! s\nd waves project$ f ! /r+s & trans=ms !m into ! pleas+ tones ( ! pian(orte4 ,we mu/1 9 %ort1 exam9e ! s\nd-bo>d4 ,we %all h occasion lat]1 critically to exam9e & discuss ! resonance app>atus ( ! pian(orte4 ,x is suffici5t1 !re=e1 t we glance briefly at x "h1 s z to famili>ize ourselves ) its g5]al =m & con/ruction4 ,! s\nd-bo>d is usually con/ruct$ ( a %eet ( spruce fir ( v>y+ ?ickness & ar*$ inw>ds t[>ds ! /r+s1 ! cr[n ( ! ar* be+ at its middle portion4 ,x c>ries wood5 bridges1 ov] :i* pass ! /r+s & ^u :i* ! vibrations ( ^! /r+s are impress$ & :i* s]ve to limit _! speak+ l5g?s4 ,! side ( ! s\nd-bo>d1 remote f ! /r+s1 is /r5g!n$ by ! addition ( a s]ies ( /rips ( h>d wood call$ 8ribs10 :i* are tightly glu$ on to x4 ,all ( ?is app>atus is fitt$ into a wood5 frame te*nically call$ ! 8back40 ,x consi/s ( two horizontal beams1 situat$ at ! top & bottom ( ! in/rum5t & jo9$ toge!r ) a numb] ( v]tical wood5 po/s ( great /r5g?4 ,into ?is /ructure ! s\nd-bo>d is secur$ 9 su* a mann] z to produce ! ar*$ %ape above describ$1 & 9 su* a mann] also z to leave ne>ly ! :ole ( its surface free to vibrate4 ,! top beam ( ! back is cov]$ ) ! 8wre/-plank10 a wood5 block built up ( cross$ /rips ( h>d maple into :i* are driv5 ! tun+ p9s1 or 8wre/-p9s0 z !y us$ to be call$4 ,! :ole /ructure is !n cov]$ by ! 8iron plate10 :i* is a massive affair ca/ 9 "o piece & bolt$ all r\nd to ! sides ( ! s\nd-bo>d & back1 & to ! wre/ plank at ! top & ! bottom beam at ! bottom4 ,?is plate conta9s ! 8hit*-p9s10 ov] :i* are loop$ ! wa/e ends ( ! /r+s1 & also ! iron bridge1 :i* limits ! upp] ext5sion ( _! speak+ l5g?s4 ,! /r+s are arrang$ ^u ?is elaborate f\ndation1 loop$ ov] ! hit*-p9s1 pass$ ov] ! s\nd-bo>d--or 8belly0--bridges1 & !nce ?r\gh ! be>+-b>1 up to ! tun+-p9s4 ,to ! sides ( ?is /ructure are glu$ ! ext]nal walls4 ,a wood5 b$ = ! keys is provid$1 & ! action is secur$ p>tly to ! iron plate & p>tly to ! key-b$4 ,! p$als are plac$ ^u ! bottom bo>d1 :i* is secur$ betwe5 ! ext]nal walls or sides1 & ! p$als are connect$ ) ! prop] p>ts ( ! action4 ,:5 ?is has be5 done ! con/ruction ( ! in/rum5t is ess5tially complet$4 ,! v>i\s k9ds ( upright pian(orte d n v>y greatly 9 size4 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ! popul> sizes v>y betwe5 ! extremes ( f\r feet t5 in*es & f\r feet 9 height1 ) suffici5t wid? to accommodate ! eighty-eight notes t make up ! mod]n compass ( sev5 octaves & a m9or ?ird4 ,! multitude ( diff]5t scale arrangem5ts ne$ n be discuss$ "h at all1 nor is x necess>y to ent] into any inve/igation ( ! v>i\s individual arrangem5ts & devices t diff]5t manufactur]s fit to _! in/rum5ts4 ,all ^! ?+s w be treat$ 9 _! prop] ord]4 ,! gr& pian(orte has always be5 ! favorite ( ! compos] & ! int]pretative arti/4 ,9 ?is type alone has x be5 possible to comb9e ! highe/ qualities ( tonal beauty & me*anical +5uity4 ,to-day ! conc]t gr&s ( our mo/ em95t mak]s /& unsurpass$1 bo? z me*anical /ructures & z musical in/rum5ts4 ,! mo/ obvi\s dissimil>ity betwe5 ! gr& & ! upright is1 ( c\rse1 se5 9 ! diff]5ce ( _! planes4 ,! gr& might prop]ly be call$ ! horizontal pian(orte4 ,its /r+s are /ret*$ p>allel to ! plane ( ! floor & ! hamm]s /rike upw>ds at !m f bel[4 ,! second conspicu\s diff]5ce is 9 ! function ( ! ext]ior cas+4 ,we h already not$ t ?is "p ( ! upright is *iefly requir$ to complete ! ext]ior ornam5tation ( ! /ructure1 & second>ily to support ! keys & action4 ,! case ( ! gr&1 on ! o!r h&1 is an ess5tial "p ( ! resonant body ( ! in/rum5t4 ,x consi/s ( a rim1 b5t to suitable %ape & built up ( cont9u\s v5e]s1 runn+ all r\nd 9 "o piece & glu$ toge!r at cross$ gra9 until ! desir$ numb] ( lay]s & ! prop] ?ickness are ?us obta9$4 ,! :ole ( :at corresponds to ! upright back fram+1 z well z ! s\nd-bo>d & iron plate1 are rigidly built into ?is cont9u\s b5t rim1 & ?us ! :ole /ructure =ms "o complete resonant entity1 entirely unifi$ & int]dep5d5t4 ,! rim is made deep en\gh to p]mit ( ! ins]tion ( action & keys 9 ! front portion1 & a gap 9 ! fram+ is left = ! hamm]s to /rike upw>ds at ! /r+s4 ,! wre/-plank is plac$ on "o side ( ! gap & ! s\nd-bo>d occupies ! rema9d] ( ! space on ! o!r side4 ,! iron plate cov]s ! entire /ructure1 wre/-plank includ$1 & su/a9s ! same relations to ! in/rum5t z 9 ! upright4 ,its %ape1 z also t ( ! s\nd-bo>d1 is adapt$ to ! peculi> outl9e ( ! gr&1 :i* is s aptly impli$ 9 ! ^w 8fluegel0 7w+71 us$ 9 ,g]many to designate ! entire gr& type4 ,until a comp>atively rec5t p]iod ! l>ge conc]t size gr& 0 practically ! only type ( ^! in/rum5ts4 ,! revolution>y improvem5ts initiat$ by ! ,/e9ways 9 ! middle ( ! n9ete5? c5tury pav$ ! way1 h[ev]1 = ! g5]al introduction ( small] /yles4 ,x 0 f\nd possible to reta9 ! *>act]i/ically full & ri* tone ( ! l>ge gr&--at lea/ to a great ext5t--:ile its inh]5t advantages 9 ! matt] ( t\* & action all comb9$ to assure ! popul>ity ( ! small] in/rum5t among ! m critical & discrim9at+ ( ! public4 ,d\btless1 also1 ! rem>kable *ange 9 ! h\s+ ( urban populations t has be5 s conspicu\s dur+ ! la/ tw5ty ye>s _h mu* to d ) ! g5]al desire = an in/rum5t t %\ld be less common ?an ! ord9>y upright & t %\ld at ! same "t be less cumb]some ?an ! full-siz$ gr&4 ,a p[]ful inc5tive 0 !re=e giv5 to manufactur]s to /rive t[>ds ! p]fect+ ( ! small types1 & we _c d5y t !y h succe$$ 9 a rem>kable mann]4 ,x is true t !re exi/s today a t5d5cy to cut ! size ( ^! small gr&s d[n to really impossible proportions4 ,!re is a limit to ! cutt+ d[n process2 & x is app>5t to ! obs]v] t m ?an "o mak] is endeavor+ to obta9 a true gr& tone f a s\nd-bo>d area & f /r+ l5g?s t are su* z entirely to prohibit ! atta9m5t ( ?is desirable goal4 ,( c\rse1 x may be retort$ t ! t]m 8true gr& tone0 is subject to v>iations ( def9ition4 ,x may ev5 be plausibly said t tone ( any k9d is too intangible a ?+ to be limit$ by any def9itions4 ,nev]!less1 x w\ld seem t !re is a v decid$ limit1 & t :5 we arrive at ! po9t :]e x is no long] possible to obta9 ! fullness1 ri*ness & volume ( tone t we are accu/om$ to accept z ! di/+ui%+ *>act]i/ic ( ! gr& pian(orte1 !n1 inde$1 we no long] h a true gr&4 ,o!r in/rum5ts may h ! outl9e & ! action ( a gr&1 b if !y h n ! prop] s\nd-bo>d area & /r+ l5g?1 !n !y are m]ely 7if we may p]petrate a bull7 8horizontal uprights40 ,! v g5]al description t we h ?us giv5 ( ! two prevail+ types ( pian(orte has n be5 int5d$ to s]ve z m ?an :at x s obvi\sly is--a rapid bird's-eye view ( ! in/rum5ts z !y appe> to ! casual obs]v]4 ,! read] may ?us prep>e himself = ! m def9ite & critical inve/igation t is n[ ab\t to be begun4 ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,,ac\/ical ,,laws ,,( ,,s\nd+ ,,/r+s4 ,s\nd is an impression produc$ ^u ! bra9 ?r\gh ! e> by ! motion ( air p>ticles excit$ by an ext]nal body4 ,9 ! transmission ( s\nd f ! vibrat+ or 8sonor\s0 body to ! e> x is motion t is transf]r$ & n ! sub/ance ( ! air itself4 ,9 ! same way !re c be no s5sation ( s\nd )\t ! int]position ( an ela/ic fluid su* z air or wat]1 & ! production ( s\nd 9 a vacuum is1 !re=e1 impossible4 ,s\nd1 9 %ort1 has no objective exi/5ce4 ,we "k x simply z a s5sation1 prim>ily caus$ by c]ta9 physical processes1 ! nature ( :i* is comp>atively famili> to u4 ,we are aw>e ( all t goes on betwe5 a s\nd+ body & ! e>1 b we "k no?+ ( ! processes :]eby ^! physical motions are trans=m$ until !y become1 )9 ! bra91 s5sations ( musical s\nd or ( noise4 ,:ile s mu* ( my/]y cl\ds our conception ( ! nature ( s\nd1 we may take com=t 9 ! k t to p5etrate ! enigma is by no means necess>y4 ,n ev5 ! musician requires su* transc5d5t k4 ,to ! /ud5t ( musical craftsman%ip x is equally non-ess5tial4 ,x is well1 h[ev]1 to recognize ! fact t z soon z we leave ! sure gr\nd ( physical inve/igation1 we become lo/ 9 imp5etrable my/]y & f9d ourselves face to face ) ! anci5t1 yet ev] new1 que/ions ( our orig9 & de/9ation4 ,:5 we reflect ^u ! ess5tially spiritual & une>?ly influ5ce ( music1 we _c b feel t1 9 ! mak+ ( in/rum5ts to s]ve ?is art1 we are ourselves assi/+1 h[ev] bl9dly1 at a m ?an ,eleus9ian my/]y4 ,! e> easily di/+ui%es betwe5 musical & non-musical s\nds4 ,nor does x fail to recognize diff]5ces 9 relative l\dness or s(tness ( any giv5 musical s\nd4 ,aga91 ! relative degree ( acut5ess or gravity is di/+ui%$1 &1 la/ly1 ! quality ( ! same musical note :5 play$ ^u two diff]5t in/rum5ts or :5 sung by two diff]5t voices is no less easily obs]v$4 ,n[ we h fir/ to ask ourselves 9 :at ! diff]5ce betwe5 musical & non-musical s\nds consi/s4 ,we may say t a musical s\nd is produc$ by regul>ly recurr+ motions ( ! s\nd+ body communicat$ to ! air2 or1 m te*nically1 a musical s\nd may be def9$ z a s\nd produc$ by p]iodical vibrations4 ,?is may be prov$ by hold+ a piece ( c>dbo>d aga9/ a rapidly revolv+ too!d :eel4 ,z long z ! revolutions ( ! :eel are p]=m$ at a comp>atively sl[ spe$ ! noise produc$ by ! impact ( ! c>dbo>d is brok5 & disjo9t$2 b z ! :eel is caus$ to revolve ) great] rapidity ! noise becomes gradually cont9u\s & assumes a def9ite pit*4 ,by increas+ ! spe$ ( ! :eel we cause a high] pit*$ musical s\nd to be produc$4 ,n[1 if we arrange a second c>d & :eel & cause !m to be set 9 motion toge!r ) ! fir/ we %all f9d t :5 ! two :eels are revolv$ at ! same spe$1 !y produce s\nds ( ! same pit*4 ,?us x is app>5t t ! pit* ( a musical s\nd dep5ds ^u ! spe$ ( vibration1 or ^u ! numb] ( vibrations p] second4 ,)\t go+ too deeply into te*nicalities x may be said t simil> exp]im5ts h enabl$ inve/igators to det]m9e ! behavior ( sonor\s bodies 9 ref]5ce to all ! o!r conditions t p]ta9 to !m4 ,?us1 9 ! case ( /r+s su* z are us$ 9 ! pian(orte1 we are 9 possession ( facts t make x possible = u to /ate accurately ! pit*es t w p]ta9 to /r+s ( giv5 l5g?s1 d5sities & ?icknesses1 :i* are /ret*$ at giv5 t5sions4 ,x is unnecess>y to g into details ( ! precise me?ods employ$ to demon/rate ^! laws1 & x w be q suffici5t to quote ! laws !mselves4 ,! read] is !re=e invit$ to note c>efully t3 #a4 ,! numb] ( vibrations ( a /r+ is inv]sely proportional to ! l5g? ( ! /r+4 #b4 ,! pit* ( a musical s\nd is proportional to ! numb] ( vibrations p] second2 ! great] ! numb] ( vibrations1 ! high] ! pit*4 #c4 ,! numb] ( vibrations p] second ( a /r+ is proportional to ! squ>e root ( its t5sion4 ,t is to say1 if a /r+ is /ret*$ ) a weight ( "o p\nd x w give =? a s\nd "o octave l[] ?an ! s\nd t x w\ld emit if /ret*$ ) a weight ( f\r p\nds4 #d4 ,! numb] ( vibrations ( a /r+ v>ies inv]sely z ! ?ickness ( ! /r+4 ,s t if !re are two /r+s ( ! same mat]ial & l5g? & subject$ to ! same t5sion1 & if ! diamet] ( ! fir/ is twice ! diamet] ( ! second1 ! fir/ w produce "o-half z _m vibrations z ! second4 #e4 ,! numb] ( vibrations p] second ( a /r+ v>ies inv]sely z ! squ>e root ( its d5sity4 ,?us1 if "o /r+ has f\r times ! d5sity ( ano!r1 ! fir/ w produce "o-half z _m vibrations z ! second4 ,9 addition to ^! valuable laws1 !re are c]ta9 o!rs :i* h ref]5ce to ! actual musical s\nds produc$ by /r+s4 ,by means ( !m we "k ! relative proportions ( ! /r+s t w1 o!r ?+s be+ equal1 give ! v>i\s notes ( ! musical scale4 ,if a p]fect musical /r+ be /ret*$ & excit$ into vibration x w be f\nd t an exact octave above ! note t ! :ole /r+ gives out may be produc$ by divid+ ! /r+ at its precise middle po9t & caus+ "o ( ! halves to vibrate4 ,n[ we h already not$ t ! numb] ( vibrations ( a /r+ is proportional to its l5g?1 & x is !re=e obvi\s t ! halves ( ! giv5 /r+ ea* h d\ble ! numb] ( vibrations ( ! :ole1 & t1 consequ5tly1 ! octave to a note is produc$ by ei!r twice or half ! numb] ( vibrations t suffice to produce ! giv5 note4 ,c>ry+ ! exp]im5t fur!r1 we may1 by divid+ ! giv5 /r+ at o!r po9ts on its surface1 obta9 all ! o!r notes ( ! musical scale4 ,x w n be necess>y to repeat ! explanation 9 ea* case1 & ! read] w h no difficulty 9 compreh5d+ ! foll[+ table1 :i* gives ! relative /r+ l5g? requir$ to produce ! eight notes ( ! diatonic scale ( ,c major1 tak+ ! l5g? ( ! complete /r+ t gives ! keynote z #a1 & consid]+ all o!r p]t95t conditions to rema9 equal3 ,c ,d ,e ,f ,g ,a ,b ,c #a #h_/i #d_/e #c_/d #b_/c #c_/e #h_/ae #a_/b ,keynote #b;d #c;d #d? #e? #f? #g? ,octave ,at fir/ sight x might appe> t ! above data ought to give u all necess>y in=mation 9 reg>d to ! ph5om5a ( vibrat+ /r+s4 ,und\bt$ly1 ! difficulties t surr\nd ! pian(orte design] w\ld h little p[] to cause worry if !re 7 no?+ m to le>n4 ,our tr\bles1 h[ev]1 are b j n[ beg9n+1 & ! difficulties t /ill exi/ are great] ?an any t we h yet inve/igat$4 ,^! difficulties h _! orig9 9 ! nature ( ! s\nds t are emitt$ by musical /r+s4 ,:ile we h be5 inve/igat+ ! relative vibration spe$s & pit*es t p]ta9 to ! /r+s "u v>i\s conditions1 we h n z yet paid att5tion to any o!r difficulties t might h _! orig9 "u entirely diff]5t circum/ances4 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 c]ta9 highly important ph5om5a :i* are det]m9$ by ! nature ( ! /r+s !mselves1 irrespective ( all o!r conditions4 ,^! ph5om5a affect ! con/itution ( su* s\nds z any musical /r+ may produce4 ,s\nds produc$ ?r\gh ! ag5cy ( musical /r+s are n & _c be simple s\nds4 ,& ?is peculi>ity arises f ! fact t su* /r+s 9 common ) mo/ o!r ag5cies = ! production ( musical s\nds are incapable ( p]=m+ p]fectly simple vibrations4 ,if a /r+ vibrat$ z a :ole uni=mly & all ! "t1 its motions might be comp>$ to ! rhy?mic sw+ ( a p5dulum1 & ! s\nds t x emitt$ w\ld be absolutely simple & absolutely pure4 ,! fact1 h[ev]1 is t ?is nev] occurs4 ,no /r+ ev] vibrates z a :ole )\t simultane\sly vibrat+ 9 segm5ts1 :i* are aliquot p>ts ( ! :ole4 ,^! segm5ts1 :5 ?us vibrat+1 give out ! s\nds t p]ta9 to !m accord+ to _! relative l5g?s2 :ile ! vibration ( ! :ole l5g? ( ! /r+1 at ! same "t1 causes ! production ( ! s\nd prop] to x1 :i* is call$ ! 8prime0 or 8fundam5tal0 tone4 ,! s\nds produc$ by ! simultane\sly vibrat+ segm5ts are call$ 8p>tial tones0 or 8upp] p>tials40 ,9 ! case ( s\nd+ /r+s1 su* z we are n[ inve/igat+1 ! p>tials foll[ ea* o!r 9 ari?metical progression & are produc$ by ! vibrat+ ( segm5ts ! proportions ( :i* may be express$ by ! h>monic s]ies #a1 #a_/b1 #a_/c1 #a_/d1 #a_/e1 #a_/f1 #a_/g1 #a_/h1 #a_/i1 & s on ad inf9itum4 ,n[1 if we exam9e ?is s]ies we %all see t ! l[] ( ! p>tial tones t are repres5t$ by ! v>i\s fractions mu/ be> di/9ct h>monic relations to ! fundam5tal tone4 ,x w simultane\sly be obs]v$1 h[ev]1 t z ! s]ies is cont9u$1 ! fractional quantities become uni=mly small]1 & ! diff]5ce betwe5 any pair ( !m 7= ! same reason7 is small] z ! position ( ! giv5 pair is m remote f unity4 ,naturally1 ?is means t ! p>tial tones repres5t$ by su* fractional quantities are sep>at$ by cont9ually decreas+ int]vals4 ,if ! process is c>ri$ f> en\gh1 ! "t comes :5 ! int]val ( sep>ation is less ?an a semitone4 ,cle>ly1 !n1 p>tial tones 9 ?is condition c be> no prop] h>monic relation to ! fundam5tal tone4 ,!y are1 9 fact1 dissonant4 ,"h1 !n1 we come ^u a fact t has a v wide be>+4 ,x is a demon/rat$ ac\/ical tru? t tone quality dep5ds ^u ! numb] & int5sity ( ! p>tial tones t accompany ! fundam5tal dur+ ! s\nd+ ( any musical note4 ,if1 ?r\gh any cause1 ^! high & dissonant p>tials are excit$ into undue prom95ce1 !y may1 & d1 ex]cise a pr(\nd & malefic5t influ5ce ^u ! quality ( musical s\nds4 ,we %all lat] h occasion to confirm ! tru? ( ?is /atem5t1 & we %all le>n1 9 ! c\rse ( our inve/igation1 fully to appreciate its importance 9 ! practical problems ( pian(orte design4 ,= ! purpose ( assi/+ ! read] 9 ! compreh5sion ( ! above argum5t1 ! foll[+ table is giv51 %[+ ! ord] ( succession & pit* ( ! p>tial tones ( ! note ,c 7second l9e bel[ ! /aff 9 ! bass clef74 ,tak+ ! pit* ( ! octave above middle ,c1 = conv5i5ce ( calculation1 z #eab vibrations p] second1 ?is gives u #fd = ! ,c 9 "q4 ,illu/ration3 ,,"n ,,( ,,note ,,ord] ,,( ,,succession ,,vibration ,,p] ,,second ,c#a #a #fd ,c#b #b #abh ,g#b #c #aib ,c#c #d #bef ,e#c #e #cbj ,g#c #f #chd ,b-flat#c #g #ddh ,c#d #h #eab ,d#d #i #egf ,e#d #aj #fdj ,f-%>p#d #aa #gjd ,g#d #ab #gfh ,a#d #ac #hcb ,b-flat#d #ad #hif ,b-natural#d #ae #ifj ,c#e #af #ajbd ,x %\ld be obs]v$ t ! sev5?1 elev5? & f\rte5? p>tials & _! multiples _c m ?an approximately be indicat$ 9 musical notation1 z !y d n exactly correspond to ! notes t are writt5 to repres5t !m4 ,we are oblig$ to be cont5t ) an approximation to ! true pit* ( ^! p>tials & ! notation giv5 "h is z ne> z x is possible to approa*4 ,a brief consid]ation ( ! facts ?us pres5t$ w conv9ce ! read] t a comb9ation ( any fundam5tal tone ) its fir/ eight p>tials w produce a relatively h>moni\s effect4 ,at ! same "t we mu/ obs]ve t ?is h>moni\sness is m & m oblit]at$ z ! high] p>tials are p]mitt$ to s\nd simultane\sly ) ! o!rs4 ,9 fact1 x may be said t1 al?\gh we c n & mu/ n elim9ate ! dissonant p>tials altoge!r1 we %\ld attempt to cause ! /r+s to vibrate ) entire fre$om only z f> z conc]ns ! fir/ eight p>tials1 & less freely z f> z conc]ns ! o!rs4 ,n[1 9 :at mann] c ?is desirable end be atta9$8 ,to answ] ?is "q we mu/ fir/ discov] :at pre-dispos+ causes1 if any1 exi/ t[>ds ! favor+ ( any comb9ation ( p>tials at ! exp5se ( any o!r4 ,9 speak+ ( ! automatic sub-division ( a /r+ into vibrat+ segm5ts1 we omitt$1 at ! "t1 to make m5tion ( a fact :i* %\ld1 h[ev]1 be obvi\s to ! read]2 namely1 t ! v>i\s po9ts at :i* ! sub-division occur are !mselves motionless4 ,x w\ld be m correct1 p]haps1 to say 8app>5tly motionless02 =1 ( c\rse1 if ^! divid+ po9ts or 8nodes10 z !y are call$1 7 entirely )\t motion1 ! =mation ( ! vibrat+ segm5ts w\ld be impossible4 ,9 mo/ cases1 h[ev]1 ! 8amplitude0 or l5g? ( sw+ ( ! nodes :5 9 motion is v mu* small] ?an ! amplitude ( vibration ( ! segm5ts4 ,consequ5tly1 z ! vibration ( ! segm5ts ( a /r+ is itself ord9>ily invisible1 ! motion ( ! nodes may be consid]$ z inappreciable4 ,n[1 ^! nodes ex]cise consid]able influ5ce ^u ! problems t we are consid]+4 ,= example1 accord+ to ! rese>*es ( ,"y1 x appe>s t :5 a /r+ is /ruck at any po9t all ^? p>tials are oblit]at$ t h _! nodes at t po9t4 ,curi\sly en\gh1 h[ev]1 x has s9ce be5 f\nd 9 ! case ( ! pian(orte1 t ^? upp] p>tials are n necess>ily elim9at$ t h _! nodes at ! /rik+ po9t4 ,und\bt$ly1 h[ev]1 a prop]ly *os5 node provides ! be/ possible /rik+ po9t1 s9ce its selection p]mits ! op]ation ( its t5d5cy to suppress ^? p>ticul> p>tials t h _! nodes at ! same place4 ,a consid]ation ( ! ph5om5a already obs]v$ has caus$ u to p]ceive t ! highe/ p>tials ( ! comp\nd tone produc$ by a musical /r+ d n be> precise h>monic relations to ! prime tone4 ,z ! successive sub-divisions ( ! /r+ approa* clos] & clos] to ea* o!r1 ! tones ?us g5]at$ are se5 to be di/ant by proportionately less int]vals1 until at l5g? !y cease to h a close simil>ity to any tone ( ! musical scale4 ,consequ5tly1 z 0 said be=e1 !y ex]cise a g5]ally h>% & dissonant influ5ce ^u ! nature ( ! comp\nd tone4 ,we h already conclud$ t1 broadly speak+1 we %\ld aim to elim9ate ^! dissonant p>tials &1 conv]sely1 to favor ! prom95ce ( ^? :i* are m ne>ly h>monic4 ,! reason+ :i* has s]v$ to lead u to ?is conclusion may pr(itably be c>ri$ a /ep fur!r4 ,if ! highe/ p>tials are non-h>monic1 x is obvi\s t _! pres5ce or abs5ce1 _! prom95ce or ! rev]se1 mu/ necess>ily ex]cise mu* influ5ce ^u ! actual quality ( a musical s\nd2 ^u ! individual color :i* diff]5t g5]at+ ag5cies imp>t to ! same musical note2 9 effect1 ^u all ! num]\s gradations ( :at we are accu/om$ to call h>%ness1 holl[ness or mell[ness ( tonal quality4 ,?is inevitable conclusion has be5 fully sub/antiat$ by ! results ( exp]im5t4 ,! labors ( ,helmholtz & ,ko5ig h demon/rat$ conclusively t ! quality ( a musical s\nd dep5ds ^u ! numb] & int5sity ( ! p>tial tones t accompany ! fundam5tal4 ,?us ! my/]y ( ! individual tone color+ t di/+ui%es ! voices ( diff]5t musical in/rum5ts or ( diff]5t p]sons is transf]r$ f ! realm ( psy*ology to t ( sci5ce4 ,9 f9e1 x becomes cle> t if we c gov]n ! numb] ( ! segm5ts into :i* a vibrat+ /r+ divides itself1 & if we c also control ! amplitude ( vibration ( ^! segm5ts1 we %all f9d x possible to alt] ! tone quality ( a musical in/rum5t at our pleasure4 ,x has already be5 obs]v$ t ! g5]ation ( c]ta9 p>tial tones is assi/$ or ret>d$ z ! position ( ! /rik+ po9t on a /r+ is *ang$4 ,x may n be out ( place to note t ! v>i\s o!r me?ods ( excit+ a /r+1 su* z pluck+1 b[+1 etc41 p]mit ! production ( equally v>iable effects z ! po9ts at :i* !y op]ate are *ang$4 ,our inquiry1 h[ev]1 is conf9$ to ! pian(orte1 & we %all !re=e cont9ue to limit ourselves to ! cases ( pian(orte /r+s z /ruck by ! usual hamm]s4 ,! matt] ( *oos+ a prop] /rik+ po9t 0 fir/ sy/ematically inve/igat$ by ,john ,broadwood1 f\nd] ( ! celebrat$ h\se ( t "n1 9 ! e>ly "p ( ! n9ete5? c5tury4 ,until t "t ! pian(orte mak]s _h1 app>5tly1 paid no att5tion to ?is important problem & _h be5 cont5t to foll[ 9 ! /eps ( ! build]s ( h>psi*ords & sp9ets4 ,exam9ation ( any ( ! in/rum5ts t are direct ance/ors ( ! pian(orte w %[ t ! /r+s are /ruck1 indiff]5tly1 at any po9t f "o-t5? to "o-half ( ! speak+ l5g?4 ,! only exceptions appe> to be ^? clavi*ords 9 :i* ! /r+s are all ( ! same l5g? & 9 :i* ! tang5ts on ! keys imp+e ^u ! /r+s at diff]5t fix$ po9ts to give ! correspond+ notes ( ! scale4 ,s9ce ! "t ( ,broadwood1 h[ev]1 ! va/ importance ( correctness 9 ?is p>ticul> has come to be recogniz$ ) m or less unanimity4 ,! inve/igations und]tak5 by ?is em95t mak] conv9c$ him t ! ideal /rik+ po9t lay betwe5 "o-sev5? & "o-n9? ( ! speak+ l5g? ( ! /r+4 ,n[1 our inve/igations h %[n u t ! mo/ h>moni\s & agreeable comp\nd tone is t :i* is =m$ by ! comb9ation ( ! fir/ eight p>tials4 ,x w\ld seem1 !re=e1 t "o-eigh? ( ! speak+ l5g? w\ld be m correct ?an ! approximation t 0 arriv$ at by ,broadwood4 ,!oretically1 inde$1 ! latt] is ne>] to ! ideal po9t2 is1 9 fact1 ! ideal po9t4 ,= obvi\s me*anical reasons1 h[ev]1 x is usually impossible to hit ?is po9t ) exactitude1 & ! approximation sugge/$ & us$ by ,broadwood has be5 prov$1 by ! practice ( ! be/ mak]s1 to (f] ! ne>e/ practical solution4 ,we may1 !n1 lay x d[n z a rule to be foll[$ t a po9t z ne>ly z possible midway betwe5 "o-sev5? & "o-n9? ( ! speak+ l5g? ( ! /r+ %\ld be *os5 & adh]$ to z ! prop] place :]e ! bl[ ( ! hamm] %\ld be /ruck4 ,if ?is rule be fai?fully foll[$ ! greate/ ob/acle to purity ( tone is remov$ & ! mo/ h>moni\s & agreeable comb9ation ( p>tials is 9 a fair way to be secur$4 ,nev]!less1 x is necess>y to make an exception = ! highe/ notes on ! piano4 ,practical exp]i5ce has %[n t "o-t5? is a bett] /rik+ po9t = ! v highe/ & %orte/ /r+s4 ,?us we h be5 able to enunciate & discuss ! pr9cipal laws t gov]n ! activities ( s\nd+ /r+s1 p>ticul>ly ^? ( ! pian(orte4 ,z ! argum5t is develop$1 x w (t5 appe> t ! !oretical exactitude ( ! rules "h laid d[n mu/ be modifi$ 9 practice4 ,su* a condition is always inevitable z betwe5 a body ( laws & ! application !re(4 ,x w be f\nd1 h[ev]1 t ! v>iations to be record$ are n g5]ally v important1 & ! read] w be well advis$ to make ! rules enunciat$ 9 ?is *apt] 8 cont9ual lean+ po/ & guide4 ,! mo/ conspicu\s diff]5ce is1 p]haps1 t :i* exi/s betwe5 ! !oretical & practical results ( halv+ /r+ l5g?s to obta9 octaves4 ,9 practice x is f\nd t pian(orte /r+s g5]ally s\nd a little flat ( ! octave :5 divid$ at exactly ! middle po9t4 ,b ! v>iation is ! fault ( ! /eel wire & n ( ! rule4 ,,*apt] ,v4 ,,! ,,musical ,,scale ,,& ,,musical ,,intonation4 ,we h n[ consid]$ z mu* ( ! ph5om5a ( musical s\nds z may be consid]$ to h a be>+ ^u ! purpose ( our inve/igations4 ,we may !n devote "s space to ! matt] ( ! expression ( musical ideas1 & ! intonation :i* has be5 devis$ 9 ord] to r$uce ! m5tal products ( compos]s to ! limitations ( musical in/rum5ts4 ,music is express$ ?r\gh ! m$ium ( a scale ( tones1 all ( :i* be> def9ite relations to ea* o!r z to pit*4 ,! 8diatonic scale10 :i* is ! f\ndation ( musical intonation1 is compos$ ( a s]ies ( eight tones :i* are nam$ aft] lett]s ( ! alphabet1 ! la/ tone hav+ ! same "n z1 & be+ ! octave to1 ! fir/4 ,! frequ5cies ( ^! tones always be> ! same ratios1 "o to ano!r1 :atev] may be _! positions )9 ! compass ( any in/rum5t4 ,n[1 consid]+ ! frequ5cy ( ! fir/ tone to be unity1 ! frequ5cies ( ! o!rs are 9 ! foll[+ proportions3 ,c ,d ,e ,f ,g ,a ,b ,c #a #i_/h #e_/d #d_/c #c_/b #e_/c #ae_/h #b ,if we n[ divide ^! proportionate numb]s ea* by ! o!r we h ! proportionate int]vals t sep>ate !m4 ,do+ ?is1 we h ! foll[+ result3 ,c ,d ,e ,f ,g ,a ,b ,c #i_/h #aj_/i #af_/ae #i_/h #aj_/i #i_/h #af_/ae ,n[1 x w be obs]v$ t we h 9 ! above table ?ree diff]5t k9ds ( int]val repres5t$ by ! ?ree ratios1 #i_/h1 #aj_/i & #af_/ae4 ,! fir/ ( ^! is call$ ! major tone & ! second ! m9or tone1 :ile ! ?ird is kn[n z ! diatonic semitone4 ,foll[+ out ^! ratios1 we may obta9 ! frequ5cies ( any diatonic s]ies4 ,we %all *oose ! scale ( :i* ,c #ebh is ! key-note4 ,its frequ5cies are z foll[s3 ,c ,d ,e ,f ,g ,a ,b ,c #a #i_/h #e_/d #d_/c #c_/b #e_/c #ae_/h #b_/a #ebh #eid #ffj #gjd #gib #hhj #iij #ajef ,kn[+ z we d ! ratios & frequ5cies already calculat$1 x is obvi\s t we may simil>ly calculate ! ratios & frequ5cies = ! diatonic scale1 ( :i* any giv5 tone is ! tonic or key-note4 ,be=e do+ ?is1 h[ev]1 x is well = u to rememb] t ! diatonic scale is n adequate to all ! requirem5ts ( music4 ,musicians h f\nd x necess>y to int]polate o!r s\nds 9 betwe5 ^? :i* =m ! diatonic progression4 ,! reason = ?is is t music1 9 ord] t x may h ! greate/ possible fre$om ( expression1 mu/ be writt5 9 a l>g] numb] ( keys1 & mu/ conta9 m di/9ct s\nds ?an ! diatonic scale is able to af=d4 ,= ^! & o!r cognate reasons ! *romatic scale 0 introduc$4 ,! addition ( five *romatic semitones1 obta9$ by tak+ ! diff]5ce betwe5 a m9or tone & a diatonic semitone1 gives ! *romatic scale ?irte5 semitones f key-note to octave4 ,un=tunately1 h[ev]1 ! same numb] ( keys ^u ! pian(orte _c provide u ) ?irte5 pure *romatic s\nds 9 e key4 ,?is may be demon/rat$ z foll[s3 ,! ratio ( a *romatic semitone is #be_/bd4 ,! %>p ( ,c #ebh is1 !re=e1 #eej4 ,b 9 ! diatonic scale ( ,d 7! major second 9 scale ( ,c71 ,c %>p has a frequ5cy ( #aaac-c_/d4 ,! octave bel[ ?is latt] s\nd is ! ,c %>p1 :i* is "o *romatic semitone above ,c #ebh4 ,we "k ! frequ5cy ( ! latt] to be #eej4 ,! frequ5cy ( ! octave bel[ ,c %>p1 #aaac-c_/d1 ought1 !re=e1 to be #eej4 ,b we "k t ! octave bel[ any giv5 note has a frequ5cy t is "o-half t ( ! giv5 note4 ,n[1 "o-half ( #aaac-c_/d is #eef-g_/h4 ,!re=e1 we see t !re is a diff]5ce ( #f-g_/h vibrations p] second betwe5 ! ,c %>p t is a *romatic semitone above ,c #ebh & ! ,c %>p t is ! octave bel[ ! major sev5? ( ! scale ( ,d1 & :i* ought to be ! same s\nd1 z x is 9 ! same position on ! key-bo>d z ! =m]4 ,by c>ry+ ! same inve/igation fur!r we are enabl$ to p]ceive t s\nds ( ! same "n are n id5tical :5 play$ 9 diff]5t keys1 or1 r1 t ! same "n does n imply t ! s\nd s d5ot$ means ! same ?+ :5 x is consid]$ 9 its relation to any tonic diff]5t to t to :i* x 0 fir/ relat$4 ,!re is ano!r difficulty also t confronts u 9 ! problem ( play+ pure s\nds ^u ! pian(orte2 t in/rum5t1 z we "k1 does n provide u ) diff]5t keys = ! %>p ( "o s\nd & ! flat ( ! s\nd next above x4 ,!re is a g5]al belief t ,c %>p1 = example1 & ,d flat are id5tical4 ,b ?is is n s4 ,! flat ( ,d is a *romatic semitone bel[ t note1 :ile ! %>p ( ,c is ! same int]val above ! latt]4 ,by ref]r+ to our =m] calculations x w be se5 t ! *romatic semitone ratio is #be_/bd4 ,! %>p ( ,c is1 !re=e1 obta9$ by multiply+ ! frequ5cy ( ,c by #be_/bd1 & ! flat ( ,d is likewise evolv$ by an inv]se process1 namely1 by divid+ ! frequ5cy ( ,d by ! same ratio4 ,?is is equival5t to add+ a *romatic semitone to ,c & subtract+ ! same f ,d4 ,if we take ! notes ,c & ,d f ! scale ( ,c #ebh1 we h ! frequ5cies ( ,c & ,d z #ebh & #eid respectively4 ,effect+ ! multiplication & division z above we see t ,c %>p has a frequ5cy ( #eej1 :ile t ( ,d flat is #egj-f_/be4 ,t is to say t ^! two notes diff] by no less ?an #bj-f_/be vibrations p] second4 ,x ?us becomes obvi\s t ! expression ( all ! s\nds )9 ! compass ( an octave1 9 su* a mann] t absolutely correct s\nds 9 e key may be obta9$1 is a problem t calls = m s\nds ?an are provid$ by ! pian(orte4 ,z a correct und]/&+ ( ?is mo/ important subject is ess5tial1 a some:at elaborate treatm5t ( x w be giv5 "h4 ,! read] :o takes ! pa9s to ma/] ! true inw>dness ( ! problem ( musical intonation w h an insight into ! matt] :i* few pian(orte mak]s or musicians possess4 8,j intonation0 is ! "n giv5 to t sy/em :]eby we are enabl$ to comm& ! expression ( all ! s\nds t are requir$ to be he>d )9 ! compass ( an octave 9 ord] t ! degrees ( ea* & e possible scale may be correctly & exactly r5d]$4 ,x is n difficult to see t p]=m]s ^u in/rum5ts :i* d n h fix$ tones %\ld h no difficulty 9 adju/+ ! intonation ( e tone to correspond ) ! v>iations 9 pit* requir$ by ! diff]5t positions 9 ! scale t su* tones may occupy4 ,exp]im5ts h1 9 fact1 be5 c>ri$ out ) viol9i/s & x has be5 %[n t arti/s ^u ?is in/rum5t d naturally play ! true diatonic & *romatic int]vals :5 left to !mselves & :5 n =c$ to adju/ _! intonation to t ( fix$ tone in/rum5ts4 ,9 ord] to %[ ) accuracy ! total numb] ( diff]5t s\nds t are requir$ to produce 8j intonation0 9 e possible key ! read] is invit$ to consid] ! foll[+ table1 :i* %[s ! smalle/ possible numb] ( s\nds t w give ! true diatonic int]vals 9 twelve keys4 ,! fir/ note 9 ea* r[ is ! key-note & ! la/ ! octave !reto4 ,! frequ5cies ( ^? key-notes t are n repres5t$ 9 ! fir/ scale 7t ( ,c7 h be5 calculat$ z foll[s3 ,! key-note to scale ( ,b-flat is ! p]fect f\r? to key-note ( scale ,f4 ,! key-note to scale ( ,e-flat is ! p]fect f\r? to key-note ( scale ,b-flat ,! key-note to scale ( ,f-%>p is ! octave bel[ major sev5? ( scale ,g4 ,! key-note to scale ( ,g-%>p is ! octave bel[ major sev5? ( scale ,a4 ,! key-note to scale ( ,c-%>p is ! octave bel[ major sev5? ( scale ,d4 ,we !re=e h ! foll[+ results3 ,c ,d ,e ,f ,g ,a ,b ,c #ebh #eid #ffj #gjd #gib #hhj #iij #ajef ,c-%>p ,d-%>p ,e-%>p ,f-%>p ,g-%>p ,a-%>p ,b-%>p ,c-%>p #eef-g_/h #fbf-c_/fd #fif-c_/cb #gdb-a_/b #hce-e_/af #ibh-a_/h #ajdd-i_/fd #aaac-c_/d ,d ,e ,f-%>p ,g ,a ,b ,c-%>p ,d #eid #ffh-a_/d #gdb-a_/b #gib #hha #iij #aaac-c_/d #aahh ,e-flat ,f ,g ,a-flat ,b-flat ,c ,d ,e-flat #fbe-d_/i #gjc-de_/gb #gha-cd_/cf #hcc- #ich-a_/ah #ajdb- #aagb- #abej-h_/i #be_/bg #aa_/bg #ei_/gb ,e ,f-%>p ,g-%>p ,a ,b ,c-%>p ,d-%>p ,e #ffj #gdb-a_/b #hbe #hhj #iij #aajj #abcg-a_/b #acbj ,f ,g ,a ,b-flat ,c ,d ,e ,f #gjd #gib #hhj #ich-b_/c #ajef #aagc-a_/c #acbj #adjh ,f-%>p ,g-%>p ,a-%>p ,b ,c-%>p ,d-%>p ,e-%>p ,f-%>p #gdb-a_/b #hce-e_/af #ibh-a_/h #iij #aaac-c_/d #abcg-a_/c #acib-c_/ae #adib ,g ,a ,b ,c ,d ,e ,f-%>p ,g #gjd #gib #hhj #ich #ajef #aagc #acbj #adjh ,g-%>p ,a-%>p ,b-%>p ,c-%>p ,d-%>p ,e-%>p ,fx ,g-%>p #hbe #ibh-a_/h #ajca-c_/d #aajj #abcg-a_/b #acge #aedf-a_/h #afej ,a ,b ,c-%>p ,d ,e ,f-%>p ,g-%>p ,a #hhj #iij #aajj #aagc-a_/c #acbj #adff-b_/c #afej #agfj ,b-flat ,c ,d ,e-flat ,f ,g ,a ,b-flat #ich-b_/c #ajef #aagc-a_/f #abeh-h_/i #adjh #aefd-d_/i #agfj #ahgg-a_/c ,b ,c-%>p ,d-%>p ,e ,f-%>p ,g-%>p ,a-%>p ,b #iij #aaac-c_/d #abcg-a_/b #acbj #adhe #afej #ahef-a_/d #aihj ,9 ord] t ! diff]5t s\nds may m easily be sep>at$1 !y h be5 collat$ 9 l9e> progression1 toge!r ) _! frequ5cies & ! scales 9 :i* !y or _! octaves appe>3 #a4 ,! s\nd ,c #ebh _/ ,c1 ,f1 ,g1 ,b-flat4 #b4 ,c #eba-aa_/ed ,e-flat #c4 ,c-%>p #eef-g_/h ,a ,d1 ,b1 ,f-%>p1 ,c-%>p #d4 ,c-%>p #eej p ,a1 ,e1 ,g-%>p #e4 ,d #eid p ,c-,g #f4 ,d #ehf-b_/c e ,a1 ,f1 ,b-flat1 ,e-flat #g4 ,d-%>p #fah-c_/d a ,e1 ,b1 ,f-%>p1 ,g-%>p #h4 ,d-%>p #fbf-ca_/fd r ,c-%>p4 #i4 ,e-flat #fbe-d_/i s ,b-flat #aj4 ,e #ffj ,c1 ,g1 ,a1 ,e1 ,b-flat #aa4 ,e #ffh-a_/d i ,d #ab4 ,e-%>p #fif-c_/cb n ,f-%>p1 ,c-%>p #ac4 ,e-%>p #fhg-a_/b ,g-%>p4 #ad4 ,f #gjd t ,c1 ,f1 ,b-flat #ae4 ,f-%>p #gdb-a_/b h ,g1 ,d1 ,e1 ,b1 ,f-%>p1 ,c-%>p #af4 ,f-%>p #gec-a_/c e ,a #ag4 ,g #gib ,c1 ,d1 ,f1 ,g #ah4 ,g #ghb-d_/ac s ,b-flat #ai4 ,g #gha-cd_/cf c ,e-flat #bj4 ,fx #ggc-f_/af a ,g-%>p #ba4 ,g-%>p #hbe l ,a1 ,e1 ,b1 ,g-%>p #bb4 ,g-%>p #hce-e_/af e ,f-%>p1 ,c-%>p #bc4 ,a-flat #hcc-be_/bg s ,e-flat #bd4 ,a #hhj ,c1 ,e1 ,f1 ,a #be4 ,a #hha o ,d #bf4 ,a #hia f ,g #bg4 ,a-%>p #ibh-a_/h ,b1 ,f-%>p1 ,c-%>p1 ,g-%>p #bh4 ,b-flat #ich-b_/c ,f1 ,b-flat1 ,e-flat #bi4 ,b #iij ,c1 ,g1 ,d1 ,a1 ,e1 ,b1 ,f-%>p #cj4 ,b-%>p #ajca-a_/d ,g-%>p #ca4 ,b-%>p #ajdd-h_/fd _/ ,c-%>p ,?us we see t ?irty-"o diff]5t s\nds are requir$ to give ! true diatonic int]vals 9 only twelve keys4 ,b x is n necess>y to rem9d ! read] t !re are m keys ?an ^! us$ 9 music4 ,we h1 9 fact1 n yet consid]$ ! keys ( ,a flat1 ,d flat & ,g flat4 ,! frequ5cies ( ! keynotes ( ^! scales h be5 calculat$ z foll[s3 ,a-flat is ! p]fect f\r? to ,e-flat1 :i* z calculat$ above #fbe !re=e ,a-flat #hcc-be_/bg4 ,d-flat is ! p]fect f\r? to ,a-flat1 :i* z calculat$ above #hcc-be_/bg !re=e ,d-flat #eee-aed_/afb4 ,g-flat is ! p]fect f\r? to ,d-flat1 :i* z calculat$ above #eee-aed_/afb !re=e ,g-flat #gda-acj_/dhf4 ,we are !re=e able to con/ruct ^! foll[+ additional scales3 ,a-flat ,b-flat ,c ,d-flat ,e-flat ,f ,g ,a-flat #hcc- #ich- #ajdb- #aaaa- #abej- #achi- #aefc- #afff- #be_/bg #bf_/caf #gc_/bcf #gc_/ha #h_/i #ba_/eb #acb_/baf #ej_/ed ,d-flat ,e-flat ,f ,g-flat ,a-flat ,b-flat ,c ,d-flat #eee- #fbd- #fid- #gda- #hcc- #ibf- #ajdb- #aaaa- #aed_/afb #fdj_/abij #cfe_/fdh #acj_/dhf #aej_/afb #bhd_/dhf #ebh_/abif #adf_/aeb ,g-flat ,a-flat ,b-flat ,c-flat ,d-flat ,e-flat ,f ,g-flat #gda- #hbc- #ibf- #ihh- #aaaa- #abhe- #achi- #adhb- #acj_/dhf #cfjj_/chhh #aacf_/aidd #ebj_/adeh #cjh_/def #fej_/adeh #adjh_/cjhh #bfj_/dhf ,by exam9+ ! la/ table ! read] w p]ceive t we h obta9$ f\rte5 new s\nds4 ,!y are %[n graphically 9 ?is mann]3 ,9 ! scale ( ,a-flat ! new s\nds are ,b-flat1 ,c1 ,d-flat1 ,f & ,g4 ,9 ! scale ( ,d-flat ! new s\nds are ,e-flat1 ,f1 ,g-flat1 & ,a-flat4 ,9 ! scale ( ,g-flat ! new s\nds are ,a-flat1 ,c-flat1 ,d-flat1 ,e-flat & ,f4 ,none ( ^! s\nds _h be5 obta9$ 9 ! scales giv5 be=e &1 consequ5tly1 we h to consid] t !re are f\rte5 m s\nds to be add$ to ! ?irty-"o t we h already f\nd4 ,! above calculations w\ld suffice to provide u ) ! diatonic int]vals 9 all ! keys t are us$ 9 music4 ,h>mony dem&s1 h[ev]1 c]ta9 o!r int]vals4 ,^! are m9or ?irds1 m9or sev5?s1 dom9ant sev5?s & m9or six?s4 ,accord+ly1 if we desire to probe ! matt] ( j intonation to its dep?s1 we mu/ calculate ! s\nds t are requir$ to make up ^! int]vals 9 su* scales z are n[ )\t !m4 ,exam9+ ! tables already prep>$1 we f9d t !re are want+ ! foll[+ memb]s3 ,m9or ?irds to ! key-notes ( ! scales ,c1 ,d1 ,e-flat1 ,f1 ,g1 ,b-flat1 ,a-flat1 ,d-flat1 ,g-flat4 ,m9or six?s to ! key-notes ( ! scale ,c1 ,e-flat1 ,b-flat1 ,a-flat1 ,g-flat1 & ,d-flat4 ,dom9ant sev5?s to ! key-notes ( ! scales ,e-flat1 ,f & ,b-flat4 ,m9or sev5?s to ! key-notes ( ! scales ,a-flat1 ,d-flat1 & ,g-flat4 ,we %all h no difficulty 9 calculat+ ! frequ5cies ( ! requir$ notes by ! same processes t we h foll[$ h]et(ore4 ,m9or ,m9or ,dom9ant ,m9or ,key-notes-- ?irds-- six?s-- sev5?s-- sev5?s-- #f_/e ,ratio #h_/e ,ratio #af_/i ,ratio #i_/e ,ratio ,c ,e-flat ,a-flat #ebh #fcc-c_/e #hda-d_/e ,d ,f #eid #gab-d_/e ,e-flat ,g-flat ,c-flat ,d-flat #fbe-d_/i #gej-d_/ee #ajjj-cb_/de #aaaa-hj_/ha ,f ,a-flat ,e-flat #gjd #hdd-d_/e #abea-e_/i ,g ,b-flat #gib #iej-b_/e ,b-flat ,d-flat ,g-flat ,a-flat #ich-b_/c #aabe-aa_/ae #aeja-ac_/ae #affh-bj_/bg ,a-flat ,c-flat ,f-flat ,g-flat #hcc-be_/bg #ajjj-ajf_/ace #ffg-ch_/bgf #gda-fd_/bdc ,d-flat ,f-flat ,b d\ble flat ,c-flat #eee-adf_/aeb #ffg-ff_/haj #hhi-ceh_/haj #ihh-cei_/haj ,g-flat ,b d\ble flat ,e d\ble flat ,f-flat #gda-abd_/dhf #hhi-accj_/bdcj #eic-aj_/bdjj #feh-bijh_/dcgd ,! result ( ^! calculations may n[ be collat$ & summ>iz$4 ,we f9d t !re are no less ?an sixty-six sep>ate s\nds requir$ = ! production ( ! necess>y int]vals 9 all ! possible scales4 ,^! s\nds are ?us classifi$3 ,diff]5t s\nds 9 twelve diatonic scales #ca ,s\nds want+ to complete ! diatonic scales ( ,a-flat1 ,d-flat1 ,g-flat #ad ,m9or ?irds want+ 9 scales ( ,c1 ,e-flat1 ,f1 ,g1 ,b-flat #f ,m9or six?s want+ 9 scales ( ,c1 ,e-flat1 & ,b-flat #c ,dom9ant sev5?s want+ 9 scales ( ,e-flat1 ,f & ,b-flat #c ,m9or ?irds want+ 9 scales ( ,a-flat1 ,d-flat & ,g-flat #c ,m9or six?s want+ 9 scales ( ,a-flat1 ,d-flat & ,g-flat #c ,m9or sev5?s want+ 9 scales ( ,a-flat1 ,d-flat & ,g-flat #c -- ,total numb] ( s\nds 9 an octave #ff ,n[ ! obvi\s conclusion to be drawn f ?is analysis is t ! true s\nds ( ! j musical scales are v diff]5t f any t we he> ^u ! pian(orte4 ,inde$1 we may prop]ly c>ry ! reason+ a /ep fur!r4 ,if ! expression ( all ! degrees ( ! true musical scales requires ?is =midable array ( s\nds1 !n surely1 ! s\nds t are produc$ ^u ! piano are n all ( ! requir$ true s\nds1 b are totally unlike any ( !m4 ,= x is evid5t t if ! sixty-six true s\nds )9 ! compass ( an octave h to be r$uc$ to ! ?irte5 t are f\nd ^u ! pian(orte1 ! process ( compression to :i* ! =m] mu/ be subject$ w =ce ! latt] into ! position ( s _m compromises4 ,9 fact1 ) ! exception ( ! /&>d tone f :i* all calculations & all tun+ mu/ />t1 & its octaves1 !re is no tone ^u ! piano1 z x is n[ tun$1 :i* is id5tical ) any s\nd ( ! ju/ly tun$ scale4 ,! process to :i* we h allud$1 & :i* is necess>y to secure to ! piano & all o!r in/rum5ts ) fix$ tones ! ability to p]=m music 9 all keys :i* are desir$ = ! prop] expression ( ! compos]s' ideas1 is call$ temp]am5t4 ,^u ! skill & cunn+ ) :i* ?is compromise ) natural laws is effect$ dep5ds ! :ole beauty (1 & ! :ole ( our pleasure 91 music z we are accu/om$ to he> x4 ,x w\ld be va9 to pret5d t temp]$ intonation is pref]able to t :i* is pure & j1 b x is equally va9 & fooli% to decry ! accept$ sy/em ( temp]am5t until ! me*anical skill ( manufactur]s ( musical in/rum5ts & ! ta/e ( p]=m]s h ris5 to ! po9t ( appreciat+ ! beauties ( pure intonation & ( devis+ me*anical means ( atta9+ x4 ,until t "t arrives we mu/ fa9 be cont5t to accept :at we h & make ! be/ ( x4 ,!re h1 ( c\rse1 be5 attempts to provide in/rum5ts t c\ld be us$ to give ! pure int]vals 9 e key1 b !y h be5 inv>iably failures4 ,mo/ ( !m h be5 =c$ to dep5d ^u temp]$ intonation to a c]ta9 ext5t1 :ile o!rs h be5 me*anically impossible4 ,9 any case we mu/ rememb] t ! pian(orte1 z at pres5t con/ruct$ & play$1 dep5ds entirely ^u an equally temp]$ intonation4 ,s /rongly has ! pian(orte entr5*$ itself 9 popul> favor1 inde$1 t music & temp]$ intonation h become1 to mo/ p1 exactly synonym\s4 ,x is prop] t we %\ld be able to draw true di/9ctions1 h[ev]1 z ! practical "w ( piano build+ ought to be l>gely guid$ by ! consid]ations induc$ f ! necessity & fact ( temp]am5t4 ,,*apt] ,,vi4 ,,! ,,equal ,,temp]am5t4 ,z 0 sugge/$ 9 ! la/ *apt]1 x becomes necess>y to effect a compromise betwe5 ! dem&s ( true musical intonation & ! limitations ( musical in/rum5ts1 9 ord] t ! p]=mance ( music may be made practicable4 ,! equal temp]am5t1 n[ univ]sally employ$1 has only ris5 to its pres5t comm&+ position )9 ! la/ c5tury4 ,x seems to h be5 fir/ us$ by ,johann ,seba/ian ,ba*4 ,hndel did n "k x1 & x /ruggl$ ?r\gh\t ! :ole ( ! eighte5? c5tury ) ! mean-tone sy/em4 ,temp]am5t sy/ems 71 h[ev]1 inv5t$ & us$ long be=e ?is p]iod4 ,py?agoras1 ! ,greek pre-,*ri/ian philosoph]1 0 "o ( ! e>lie/ exp]im5t]s along ^! l9es4 ,! me?od t he devis$ has come d[n to u1 & we are ?us able to see :]e9 lies ! diff]5ce betwe5 x & ! mod]n diatonic scale4 ,)\t go+ into too mu* detail1 we may note t ! ,py?agorean sy/em recognizes only two int]vals2 namely1 ! tone & semitone4 ,! diatonic scale1 z we "k1 has a major tone1 a m9or tone & a diatonic semitone4 ,! ,py?agorean scale contemplates p]fect fif?s & %>p$ ?irds1 & is incapable ( ! effects ( mod]n h>mony4 ,! next attempt to adapt ! necess>y compromise 9 ! int]e/s ( practical music 0 introduc$ aft] ! mod]n diatonic scale _h become ! /&>d me?od ( octave-division2 t is to say1 "s "t 9 ! fifte5? c5tury4 ,x has be5 v>i\sly call$ ! 8mean-tone10 8mesotonic0 & 8vulg>0 temp]am5t4 ,9 ?is me?od ! tone is a mean or av]age betwe5 ! major & m9or tones ( ! diatonic scale4 ,! fif?s are all flatt5$1 :ile ! ?irds are ju/ly tun$4 ,su* a sy/em possesses bo? advantages & disadvantages4 ,on ! "o h&1 ! ne>] & m frequ5tly us$ scales are pur] & m agreeable2 on ! o!r h&1 ! remot] scales are exce$+ly dissonant2 s mu* s1 9 fact1 t !y _c be employ$ ) pleasure to ei!r ! p]=m] or ! he>]4 ,s long1 h[ev]1 z ! music is writt5 9 ! common] scales ! mean-tone temp]am5t1 possess+ ! great advantage ov] o!r me?ods ( hav+ pure ?irds1 is f> m agreeable to ! e>4 ,9 fact1 up till a few ye>s ago x 0 n uncommon to f9d organs 9 village *ur*es 9 ,europe t 7 /ill tun$ accord+ to ?is sy/em4 ,! mean-tone sy/em fir/ made h>mony1 z we und]/& x1 practicable1 b z ! k & imag9ation ( compos]s wid5$1 ! desire naturally arose to take advantage ( ! great] p[]s = h>mony t c\ld alone be af=d$ by ! unre/rict$ possession ( all possible scales4 ,a sub/itute = ! mean-tone sy/em _h1 !re=e1 to be f\nd1 & ?us arose ! mod]n & accept$ me?od1 univ]sally kn[n z ! ,equal ,temp]am5t4 ,by ?is me?od1 :i* is at ! pres5t "t univ]sal1 ! octave is divid$ into ?irte5 equally di/ant semitones or half-/eps4 ,all di/9ctions betwe5 major & m9or tones & diatonic & *romatic semitones are swept away1 & x is assum$ t ! s\nd betwe5 any two s\nds 9 ! scale is equally %>p & flat respectively to ! s\nd imm$iately prec$+ & foll[+ x4 ,?is me?od1 ( c\rse1 implies a re>rangem5t ( ! :ole scale1 = x is necess>y to alt] ! precise pit* ( e s\nd )9 ! compass ( ! octave 9 ord] t ! equalization may be effect$4 ,?us x comes ab\t t ! equally temp]$ scale has only "o int]val tun$ purely4 ,?is int]val naturally is ! octave4 ,all ! o!rs require to be %>p$ or flatt$ 9 v>y+ degrees4 ,e *ord1 e int]val1 ) "o exception1 !re=e1 is m or less out ( tune4 ,! effect ( ?is sy/em ( temp]+ _c v well be not$ accurately ^u ! pian(orte1 ow+ to ! evanesc5ce ( t in/rum5t's tone2 b ! organ (t5 %[s ! dissonance ( c]ta9 int]vals & *ords 9 a mo/ di/ress+ mann]4 ,p]haps ! wor/ ( ! defects ( ! ,equal ,temp]am5t are exhibit$ 9 ! inability cle>ly to di/+ui% betwe5 true consonances & true dissonances4 ,:]e ! actual di/9ctions betwe5 ! true int]vals are fus$ toge!r x is impossible t !re %\ld be su* di/9ctions betwe5 !m z ! true scale %[s1 &1 consequ5tly1 we (t5 are oblig$ to miss _m delicate %ades ( comp>ative consonance or dissonance t w\ld be cle>ly exhibit$ 9 a scale 9 :i* ! int]vals 7 repres5t$ ) fidelity4 ,we already "k1 h[ev]1 t no su* me?od is at pres5t possible1 & we mu/ fa9 resign ourselves to ! compromise t we h1 & hope = bett] ?+s 9 ! future4 ,b at ! same "t1 ! ,equal ,temp]am5t possesses n a few positive virtues4 ,z expla9$ above1 !re c be no diff]5ce betwe5 ! %>p ( a giv5 temp]$ s\nd & ! flat ( ! temp]$ s\nd "o :ole /ep above ! =m]4 ,9 o!r words1 ! %>p ( ,c 9 ! ,equal ,temp]am5t mu/ be ! same z ! flat ( ,d1 = ^! two s\nds are assum$ to be equally di/ant f ! s\nd :i* is betwe5 !m1 & ! ?ree are simply "p ( a s]ies ( equal semitones4 ,?is be+ ! case1 ! ambiguity t arises f ! id5tity ( ^! s\nds is v (t5 f\nd to be invaluable = ! purposes ( quick & conv5i5t modulation4 ,!re are in/ances 9 :i* ! connect+ l9k betwe5 two modulations w\ld entirely be lo/ )\t ! peculi> intonation t is af=d$ by equally temp]$ s\nds4 ,x seems1 9 %ort1 t ! equal temp]am5t1 imp]fect & artificial z x is1 _c easily be replac$ 9 ! exi/+ /ates ( our ac\/ical k & ( ! me*anical musical indu/ries4 ,9 ord] t ! read] may m cle>ly realize ! actual effects ( ! ,equal ,temp]am5t ^u musical intonation1 ! foll[+ table has be5 prep>$1 %[+ ! diff]5ces ( frequ5cy betwe5 ! true s\nds ( ! j *romatic scale & ! correspond+ temp]$ s\nds3 7,we are already famili> ) ! id5tity1 9 temp]$ intonation1 ( ! %>ps & flats ( adjac5t degrees ( ! scale47 ,c #ebh 7,philh>monic ,pit*74 ,true ,scale4 ,equally ,temp]$ ,scale4 ,c #ebh ,c #ebh ,b #die ,b #dih-g_/cb ,b flat #dge-a_/e ,b flat--,a %>p #dgj-g_/bj ,a %>p #deh-a_/c ,a #ddj ,a #ddj ,a flat--,g %>p #dag-a_/bj ,a flat #dbb-b_/e ,g #cia-aa_/bj ,g %>p #dab-a_/b ,g flat--,f %>p #cgc-g_/bj ,g #cif ,f #cdb-d_/aj ,g flat #chj-d_/be ,e #ccb-ag_/bj ,f %>p #cff-b_/c ,e flat--,d %>p #cac-ai_/bj ,f #ceb ,d #bif-g_/bj ,e #ccj ,d flat--,c %>p #bgi-ad_/bj ,e flat #caf-d_/e ,c #bfd ,d %>p #cji-aa_/bd ,d #big ,d flat #bhe-c_/be ,c %>p #bge ,c #bfd ,x w\ld be )\t ! prov9ce ( our imm$iate purpose to ent] into any special discussion ( ! possibility ( manufactur+ pian(ortes t %all give pure intonation1 z di/+ui%$ f ! temp]$ s\nds t we h ?us exhibit$4 ,we h already _h occasion to m5tion t ! ,equal ,temp]am5t has become s /rongly & intimately b\nd up ) ! p]=mance ( music1 t ! majority ( musicians are probably incapable ( di/+ui%+ betwe5 ! idea ( pure z oppos$ to t ( temp]$ musical s\nds4 ,we h already po9t$ out1 & ref]5ce to ! v>i\s tables w confirm ! ass]tion1 t ! ,equal ,temp]am5t imposes excessive r\ghness ( intonation ^u v few ( ! musical int]vals4 ,?us ! octave is pure1 ! f\r?s & fif?s ne>ly s1 & only ! seconds1 ?irds1 six?s & sev5?s are s r\gh z to be noticeable to o!r e>s ?an ^? ( ! pr(essional pian(orte tun]4 ,inde$ x is v d\btful :e!r ! musical public c\ld ev] be univ]sally educat$ to ! po9t ( appreciat+ ! diff]5ces betwe5 pure & equally-temp]$ f\r?s & fif?s2 :ile at ! same "t x mu/ be rememb]$ t ! second & sev5?1 at lea/1 are dissonances :e!r purely inton$ or n4 ,we may prop]ly "q ! actual advantage t ! me*anical atta9m5t ( j pian(orte intonation w\ld produce2 we may ask ourselves :at w\ld be ga9$ !reby = ! cause ( art1 & ! answ] does n appe> to be o!r ?an t any conceivable b5efit mu/ be s slight z to be practically negligible4 ,,*apt] ,,vii4 ,,pian(orte ,,/r+s ,,& ,,_! ,,prop] ,,dim5sions4 ,! /r+s ( a mod]n pian(orte are made ( ca/ /eel & possess a relatively great ?ickness & /iffness4 ,t is to say1 !y enjoy ^! *>act]i/ics to a f> great] degree ?an d ! /r+s ( any o!r musical in/rum5ts t employ su* ag5ts = ! purpose ( g5]at+ musical s\nds4 ,! /r+s ( any memb] ( ! viol family1 = example1 are s totally unlike ^? ( ! pian(orte t no comp>ison ( _! respective behavior :5 subject$ to t5sion c be ( int]e/ to any save ! sci5ti/4 ,9 deal+ ) ! /r+s ( ! pian(orte !n1 we face an isolat$ & unusual problem :i* we %all h to consid] at "s l5g?4 ,we %all inve/igate ! peculi> effects produc$ by ! high t5sion1 great ?ickness & great /iffness ( ! /r+s1 z well z ! s+ul> ph5om5a exhibit$ 9 ! case ( ! cov]$ bass /r+s4 ,we %all note t ! /r+s are responsible = _m unpleasant ?+s ( :i* !y are seldom accus$1 & t _! proportions z to l5g? & t5sion d n compreh5d 9 !mselves ! :ole problem t ! scal+ ( !m pres5ts to ! design]4 ,?is matt] ( ! int]nal nature ( ! /eel & o!r wire has n1 unhappily1 receiv$ t att5tion to :i* its importance ju/ly entitles x4 ,no treatm5t ( ! pr9ciples ( pian(orte design c\ld be consid]$ complete1 h[ev]1 )\t "s discussion ( ! ph5om5a ?us pres5t$4 ,! inve/igation :i* we %all und]take w lead u to ! developm5t ( m ( ^? g5]al pr9ciples t we are n[ engag$ 9 enunciat+1 & we %all !n be able to =mulate c]ta9 rules ( wide application :i* may be employ$ 9 ! practical consid]ation ( ! problems ) :i* ! :ole matt] ( pian(orte design ab\nds4 ,z is g5]ally kn[n1 ! /r+s t are *>g$ ) ! duty ( emitt+ ! s\nds compreh5d$ )9 ! two l[e/ octaves on ! pian(orte are cu/om>ily con/ruct$ ( a comb9ation ( /eel wire & "s o!r1 usually copp] or iron4 ,! latt] is w\nd ov] a core ( ! =m] wire1 & ?is w9d+ is graduat$1 z to ! am\nt & ?ickness ( ! mat]ial employ$1 accord+ to ! pit* to :i* x is desir$ t ea* /r+ %all be tun$4 ,!re is an obvi\s reason = ?is proc$ure4 ,=1 z we h already %[n1 two /r+s ^: l5g?s are z #b3a w1 o!r ?+s be+ equal1 emit musical s\nds sep>at$ by ! int]val ( an octave4 ,consequ5tly1 "u p]fect me*anical conditions1 ! l5g? ( ea* /r+ ( a pian(orte %\ld con=m to ! rule ?us indicat$1 & %\ld be "o-half or d\ble ! l5g? ( t :i* produces ! octave above or bel[ x2 ! absolute application ( ?is rule1 h[ev]1 be+ subject to c]ta9 practical modifications ?r\gh\t ! entire compass4 ,^! w be discuss$ lat]4 ,ev5 9 ! abs5ce ( su* consid]ations1 h[ev]1 ?is ideal condition c\ld n be atta9$4 ,! me*anical difficulties pres5t$ w\ld always op]ate to =bid ! c>ry+ out ( su* an arrangem5t ?r\gh\t ! :ole compass ( ! in/rum5t4 ,=1 to foll[ ! rule ) entire consi/5cy w\ld necessitate a l5g? ( #bef in*es = ! l[e/ ,c1 on an assum$ l5g? ( #b in*es = ! highe/ note ( ! same d5om9ation4 ,z ?is w\ld imply a l5g? or height ( ! in/rum5t ( ne>ly #bd feet x is n difficult to see t su* con/ruction is impossible4 ,fur!rmore1 ev5ness ( tone quality w\ld be s]i\sly h9d]$ if ! l[e/ /r+s 7 ( any su* dim5sions4 ,to secure equality ( tonal result x is necess>y1 z has be5 not$ above1 t we %\ld be able to equalize1 z f> z possible1 ! p>ticul> =ms ( vibration t p]ta9 to ea* /r+4 ,obvi\sly1 ! nature ( ! bl[ t w\ld produce a giv5 =m ( vibration 9 a /r+ ( #bef in*es 9 l5g? mu/ be v diff]5t f t :i* w\ld produce simil> =ms 9 a /r+ only "o-t5? z long4 ,aga91 to ma9ta9 su* long /r+s at ! requir$ t5sion involves me*anical problems t savor m ( eng9e]+ ?an ( pian(orte build+4 ,= ^! & cognate reasons1 !re=e1 ! practice has aris5 ( artificially sl[+ ! rate ( vibration 9 ! bass /r+s by wrapp+ !m ) brass1 iron or copp] wire4 ,naturally1 ! =m ( ! vibrations excit$ 9 ^! wrapp$ /r+s is entirely diff]5t f any t ! pla9 /eel wire is capable ( produc+4 ,! iron or copp] wire is itself ?r[n into vibration bo? indep5d5tly ( & toge!r ) ! cord ( /eel1 s t we h ! ph5om5on ( "o /r+ emitt+ two sep>ate s]ies ( vibrations1 ) resultant dis>rangem5t ( ! g5]at$ upp] p>tials & concomitant production ( beats 9 a m or less appreciable quantity4 ,n[ if1 9 addition1 ! bass /r+s are n scal$ ) approximate correctness z to _! relative l5g?s1 ?icknesses1 & o!r dim5sions1 x foll[s t !re w be two di/9ct & diff]5t causes ( dissonance & unev5ness ( tone-quality1 ei!r ( :i* is suffici5t1 9 itself1 to produce v unpleasant tonal results4 ,x is cle>1 !n1 t p>ticul> att5tion mu/ be paid to ! design+ ( ! /r+ arrangem5t1 if excell5ce ( tone-quality is to be any:]e approa*$4 ,x is1 =tunately1 possible to give q precise directions = ! calculat+ ( /r+ dim5sions4 ,z a prelim9>y1 we mu/ rem9d ! read] ( ! rules t 7 laid d[n 9 ,*apt] ,,iv1 relat+ to ! behavior ( /ret*$ /r+s4 ,x w be recall$ t we _h occasion to obs]ve t ^! rules w\ld require c]ta9 modifications 9 practice1 z !y ref]r$ only to ideal musical /r+s :i* are ( p]fect flexibility & p]fect uni=mity1 & are /ret*$ at an absolutely con/ant t5sion4 ,! fir/ modification t appe>s ^u inve/igation has ref]5ce to ! division ( /r+-l5g?s4 ,x has already be5 po9t$ out t1 9 practice1 we _c obta9 ! octave above ! fundam5tal tone ( a giv5 pian(orte /r+ by divid+ x exactly 9 ! middle4 ,conv]sely1 an exact d\bl+ ( ! l5g? does n produce ! exact octave bel[ ! giv5 fundam5tal tone4 ,?is discrepancy occurs on acc\nt ( ! fact t ! %ort5+ or l5g!n+ ( a giv5 /r+ causes a correspond+ *ange 9 ! t5sion at :i* x is ma9ta9$ & 9 ! d5sity ( adhesion ( its molecules4 ,n[ if we d\ble ! l5g? ( a /r+ 9 ord] to obta9 ! octave bel[ its fundam5tal tone1 we decrease its t5sion1 & ?is causes a sl[+ ( ! frequ5cy ( vibration4 ,!n aga91 ! increas$ resili5cy ( ! /r+ br\ght ab\t by ! l5g!n+ t5ds also to decrease ! frequ5cy4 ,! frequ5cies ( vibration ( a /r+ v>y directly z ! squ>e root ( ! t5sion1 inv]sely z ! ?ickness1 & directly also z ! /iffness4 ,^! axioms be+ admitt$1 we obs]ve t to obta9 an octave l[] ?an a giv5 fundam5tal tone1 we mu/ obta9 "o-half ! frequ5cy t produces ! fundam5tal4 ,!re=e1 z we see f above1 ! d\ble l5g? mu/ be decreas$ by "o-f\r? to all[ = ! automatic decrease ( /iffness :i* v>ies directly z ! frequ5cy4 ,& ?is modification mu/ itself be modifi$ to comp5sate = ! increase 9 frequ5cy produc$ by ! v act ( %ort5+4 ,!re=e we mu/ consid] ! t5sion1 & we f9d t to r$uce ?is t5ds aga9 to decrease ! /iffness 9 exactly ! same proportions z x 0 be=e increas$4 ,b frequ5cy ( vibration v>ies z ! squ>e root ( ! t5sion2 !re=e we take ! squ>e root ( "o-f\r?1 :i* 0 ! fraction fir/ arriv$ at4 ,?is root is "o-sixte5? & is ! diff]5tial factor t mu/ be subtract$ f ! ideal octave l5g?s1 9 ord] to obta9 ! practical l5g?s4 ,x w be f\nd ( c\rse1 z mu/ be app>5t to ! read]1 t ! diff]5tial factor "h sugge/$ does n provide a complete solution to ! problem ( all[+ = ! exhibit$ diff]5ces betwe5 !ory & practice4 ,x does1 h[ev]1 provide a true guide to ! l5g?s4 ,!re is ( c\rse a diff]5ce ( produc$ frequ5cy to be all[$ = yet4 ,=tunately1 h[ev]1 ?is is provid$ = by ! graduat$ ?icknesses ( pian(orte wire4 ,by tak+ advantage ( ?is almo/ geometrically proportion$ graduation ( diamet] we are able to calculate a /r++ scale t1 if adh]$ to1 w give ! ne>e/ possible approximation to complete h>mony betwe5 !ory & practice4 ,t is to say1 we c proce$ ) a /r+-l5g? calculation bas$ ^u ! diff]5tial factor already obta9$1 & !n by arrang+ ! di/ribution ( ! /r+ ?icknesses accord+ to ! diamet]s t are provid$ by ! manufactur]s ( music wire1 we may obta9 a true e/imation1 n only z to ! ?ickness ( wire to be us$ at ea* place1 b also z to ! l5g?s prop] to ea* /r+4 ,( c\rse ! read] w rememb] t ! matt] ( pit* is ( consid]able importance 9 all calculations ( ?is k9d4 ,a diff]5ce 9 pit* implies diff]5ce ( t5sion :5 ! o!r factors rema9 equal1 & we !re=e h calculat$ ! foll[+ tables on ! assumption t ! pit* to be us$ is t kn[n z ! ,int]national or ,c #eag4 ,att5tion is1 !re=e1 direct$ to ! foll[+ ,,table ,,%[+ ,,true ,,l5g?s ,,( ,,octave ,,/r+s ,,f ,,! ,,highe/ ,c ,,/r+ ,,to ,,! ,,la/ ,c ,,/r+ ,,t ,,is ,,usually ,,left ,,unwrapp$4 ,c #b4jdh 94 #b-a_/be 444 ,approx4 ,c #b4jdh #a4icge #c4ifh 94 #c-bd_/be 444 ,c #c4ifh #a4icge #g4fhh 94 #g-ag_/be 444 ,c #g4fhh #a4icge #ad4hge 94 #ad-g_/h 444 ,c #ad4hge #a4icge #bh4hbj 94 #bh-d_/e 444 ,c #bh4hbj #a4icge #ee4hbh 94 #ee-d_/e 444 ,,note4--,! l5g? ( ! fir/ /r+ is *os5 arbitr>ily1 b z giv5 is a v close approximation to ! practice ( ! be/ ,am]ican mak]s4 ,! vulg> fractions are calculat$ f ! decimals & ! error 9 no case exce$ ab\t "o-fiftie? ( an in*4 ,! diff]5tial factor is1 z we "k1 #a_/af4 ,!re=e we multiply by 7#b - #a_/af7 or #a-ae_/af2 9 decimals #a4icge4 ,! above table1 !n1 af=ds u a reliable guide to ! scal+ ( ! unwrapp$ /r+s4 ,at ! same "t1 h[ev]1 x is n by any means complete1 = ! reason t !re is no me?od %[n z yet = ! calculation ( ! o!r & int]m$iate /r+-l5g?s4 ,we are1 h[ev]1 able to accompli% ?is task by ! aid ( a v +5i\s rule propos$ by ! late ,pr(essor ,pole1 ,f4,r4,s4 ,x is z foll[s3 ,! prop] l5g? ( any /r+ may be det]m9$ f t ( any o!r /r+1 provid$ t ! l5g? & frequ5cy ( ! second /r+ be kn[n4 ,giv5 ^! factors3 ,!n1 7#a7 ,take ! log>i?m ( ! l5g? ( ! kn[n /r+4 7#b7 ,multiply ! numb] 4#jbejhf by ! numb] ( semitones t ! s\nd to be giv5 by ! requir$ /r+ l5g? is above or bel[ ! s\nd produc$ by ! giv5 /r+4 7#c7 ,if ! requir$ /r+ is bel[ ! giv5 /r+1 add toge!r ! two numb]s obta9$2 if x be above1 subtract ! second numb] f ! fir/2 ! result 9 bo? cases is ! log>i?m ( ! requir$ l5g?4 ,= example1 we h calculat$ already ! prop] l5g? ( ,c4 ,9 hundr$?s ( an in* ?is l5g? is express$ z #bhhb4 ,! log4 ( ?is numb] is #deidc4 7,?is may be v]ifi$ by any table ( log>i?ms47 ,x is requir$ to obta9 ! l5g? ( ! /r+ t1 caet]is p>ibus1 w produce "o semitone above ,c4 #deidc log4 ( #bhhb #jbejh 7#f7 4#jbejh 7#f7 ! numb] 7#a7 ( semitones t requir$ /r+ s\nds above giv5 /r+ ------------- ,by subtraction1 #dcdce log4 ( #bgah l5g? ( requir$ /r+ 9 hundr$?s ( an in* ,requir$ l5g? = ,c-%>p #bg-ah_/ajj in*es ,by rev]s+ ! process describ$ above1 & add+ in/ead ( subtract+1 ! prop] l5g?s = ! semitone bel[ & all o!rs 9 desc5d+ progression may be calculat$ ) accuracy4 ,hav+ ?us settl$ ! matt] ( /r+ l5g?s1 we may proce$ to consid] ! que/ions ( diamet]4 ,b x is fir/ ( all necess>y to w>n ! read] t ! l5g?s t h "h be5 calculat$ ref] only to su* pian(ortes z are capable1 by reason ( _! size1 ( tak+ ! ideal /r+-l5g?s4 ,v small uprights1 = example1 _c be br\ght )9 t classification1 except z reg>ds ! highe/ ( _! /r+s4 ,9 all pian(ortes1 no matt] :at _! size1 ! high] /r+s are practically id5tical 9 l5g?2 b x w be f\nd t %ortness ( height 9 an upright or ( l5g? 9 a gr& beg9s1 t[>ds ! middle ( ! scale1 disa/r\sly to affect ! /r+ proportions4 ,z already po9t$ out1 !re are only two ways 9 :i* ^! disproportions c be ov]come4 ,^! are ?r\gh alt]ations 9 ! t5sion or 9 ! ?ickness4 ,b su* alt]ations necess>ily di/urb ! :ole tonal balance2 & "h we f9d a v /rong reason = ! poor tone t ! av]age atrophi$ gr& or upright possesses4 ,moreov]1 x mu/ n be =gott5 t disproportionate ?ickness or unduly slack5$ t5sion affect ! actual nature ( ! vibrations t are set up )9 ! /r+4 ,& ! affections are op]ative bo? z to frequ5cy & to =m4 ,!re=e1 naturally1 bad tone & inability to /& 9 tune4 ,?is is n int5d$ z an argum5t aga9/ ! small pian(orte2 b x is desir$ "h to %[ t ^! little in/rum5ts1 :e!r horizontal or v]tical1 mu/ n be expect$ to p]=m impossibilities4 ,if we are oblig$ to build small in/rum5ts1 we mu/ revise our calculations & tabulate ! /r+-l5g?s accord+ to a diff]5t basis ( apportionm5t4 ,= ! purpose ( ! pres5t "w1 h[ev]1 ! calculations h be5 made on ! assumption t ! /&>d size ( pian(orte is to be design$4 ,turn we !n to ! consid]ation ( /r+ diamet]s4 ,! ca/ /eel wire t is us$ = ! pian(orte /r+s is suppli$ 9 def9itely numb]$ & grad$ ?icknesses4 ,! numb]s t are us$ g5]ally run f ,no4 #ac to ,no4 #bd4 ,accord+ to ! te/s made at ! ,*icago ,_w's ,fair by ! aid ( ,riehle ,bros4' te/+ ma*9e1 ! wire ( ^! numb]s 0 ( ! foll[+ diamet]s & broke at ! foll[+ /ra9s4 ,! wire manufactur$ by ! firm ( ,moritz ,poehlmann1 ,nuremb]g1 ,g]many1 has be5 select$ f among ! v>i\s products t 7 subject$ to ^! te/s1 on acc\nt ( its sup]ior durability & ev5ness ( gradation4 ,numb] ,diamet] 9 fractions ( an in* ,broke at /ra9 ( #ac 4#jcj #cbe lbs4 #ad 4#jca #cce #ae 4#jcb #cej #af 4#jce #djj #ag 4#jcg #dae #ah 4#jdj #ai 4#jdb #bj 4#jdd ,n[ x is a well kn[n fact1 &1 inde$1 obvi\s f :at has already be5 said1 t ! proportional relations z to l5g?1 t5sion1 diamet] & break+ /ra9 d n p]mit any o!r arrangem5t = ! scal+ ( wire ?an t :i* is univ]sally accept$ by piano mak]s4 ,t is to say1 ! %orte/ wires are tak5 f ! ?9ne/ numb]s1 & vice-v]sa1 ! :ole scal+ be+ s arrang$ z to secure = ea* tone t its /r+s %all be /ret*$ at approximately ! same t5sion4 ,exp]i5ce & ! obs]vations ( ! mo/ em95t manufactur]s seem to h e/abli%$ t ! /ra9 ^u ea* ( ! uncov]$ /r+s %\ld be ma9ta9$1 z ne>ly z possible1 at #afj lbs4 ,if ?is be done x w be f\nd t a pian(orte s con/ruct$ w produce ! prop] pit* at ea* /r+ :5 ! l5g?s are z calculat$ 9 ! tables ref]r$ to4 ,x w1 ( c\rse1 be necess>y to arrange ) due proportion ! numb] ( /r+s t are to be tak5 f ! wire ( ea* numb]4 ,x w be f\nd t ! be/ practice takes into acc\nt ! half sizes n %[n "h & /r+s ! in/rum5t ) an av]age ( five tones to ea* ?ickness ( wire1 beg9n+ at #ac or #ac-a_/b & cont9u+ d[n to ! end ( ! unwrapp$ /r+s accord+ to ! g5]al directions sugge/$4 ,exp]i5ce & ! individual ideas ( ! design]1 assi/$ by su* k z ?is "w aims to imp>t1 are ! be/ guides t c be foll[$4 ,empirical induction1 bas$ ^u obs]vation & exp]i5ce1 provides ! only possible & practical means = arriv+ at ! true & prop] arrangem5ts to be made = ea* individual in/rum5t4 ,?is empiricism ext5ds ) p>ticul> =ce to all /r+ arrangem5ts & is se5 n[h]e s conspicu\sly z 9 ! v>iety ( me?ods t are adopt$ by manufactur]s 9 det]m9+ ! numb] ( /r+s )9 ! unwrapp$ sections ( ! scale4 ,?us1 c]ta9 mak]s c>ry ! wrapp+ ov] to ! beg9n+ ( ! treble /r+s & h two or ?ree /r+-gr\ps provid$ ) wrapp$ wire be=e ! ov]/r++ is begun4 ,! idea "h is ei!r to correct orig9al defects ( scale design or to %ade d[n ! break 9 tone t s (t5 occurs at ! po9t :]e ! ov]/r++ usually beg9s4 ,f obs]vation ( ! practice ( ! be/ mak]s1 x may be said t ! tone ,c bel[ middle ,c is usually ! fir/ ov]/rung tone4 ,( c\rse1 :5 ! in/rum5t is v small x w (t5 be f\nd t x is impossible to give ! la/ unwrapp$ /r+s _! prop] l5g?s4 ,9 ?is case ^! (f5d+ /r+s may ei!r be cov]$ ) light wrapp+ or may be put bodily ov] into ! ov]/rung portion ( ! scale1 9 :i* latt] case !y w be wrapp$ anyway4 ,suppos+ !n t ! matt] ( ! numb] ( ov]/rung /r+s has be5 det]m9$1 we may proce$ to ! consid]ation ( ! dim5sions1 numb] & cov]+ ( ! /r+s t are to s]ve "h4 ,we are oblig$ to confess t ! problem ( atta9+ to good tone 9 ! bass is1 inde$1 difficult4 ,x is by no means hopeless1 h[ev]1 z ! success ( m ?an "o em95t mak] has already demon/rat$4 ,! simple/1 mo/ obvi\s1 & easie/ way out ( ! inh]5t difficulties ( ! scal+ ( bass /r+s is to be f\nd 9 ! consid]ation ( _! prop] l5g?s4 ,x does n require v mu* ?\ght to p]ceive ! tru? t ! long] ! /r+s ! less weight ne$ be impos$ ^u !m4 ,if1 9 fact1 we make ! bass /r+s to approa* z f> z may be to ! l5g?s t !y w\ld require to h if unwrapp$1 we %all be able to r$uce proportionally ! am\nt ( artificial control t has to be ex]cis$ ov] ! vibration spe$4 ,n only ?is1 b ! great] l5g? ?us atta9$ implies great] t5sion4 ,t is to say t1 z we saw be=e1 ! t5sion at :i* a /r+ is /ret*$ acts to ov]come ! sl[ness ( vibration-spe$ induc$ by its great] l5g?1 &1 consequ5tly1 t5ds to g5]ate a m regul> progression ( ! upp] p>tials 7z exp]im5t has demon/rat$71 ) resultant t5d5cy to great] purity ( tone-quality4 ,we may1 9 fact1 accept x z an axiom t ! bass /r+s %\ld be z long &1 simultane\sly1 z lightly weight$ z possible1 & t ! weight ( !m %\ld be /rictly proportion$ to ! pit* ( ! musical tone t !y are desir$1 at a giv5 t5sion1 to emit4 ,z f> z ! second clause ( ^! conditions is conc]n$ x is well to rem9d ! read] t limitations ( space )9 ! body ( a piano usually det]m9e ! possible l5g?s ( ! bass /r+s4 ,s mu* s is ?is ! case1 inde$1 t x is n (t5 possible to make any great diff]5ce 9 _! respective l5g?s4 ,! be/ mak]s appe> to be agre$ 9 a me?od ( treat+ ! problem t is at once simple & effective4 ,!y recognize ! great advantage ( scal+ ! bass /r+s at ! greate/ possible l5g?1 & !n !y take c>e t ! desc5d+ increase ( l5g? is no great] ?an to make ! l[e/ bass /r+ "o-fif? long] ?an ! highe/4 ,at ! same "t !y s graduate ! weight ( ! wrapp+ mat]ial t ! same results are atta9$ z w\ld naturally foll[ if !y 7 z accurately scal$1 9 proportionate l5g?1 z are ! pla9 wire /r+s4 ,?is equalization is1 ( c\rse1 only approximate4 ,= ! =ms ( vibration excit$ 9 two /r+s ( ! same pit* w be diff]5t :5ev] ! v>i\s factors t gov]n ! emission ( s\nd by !m are v>iable4 ,?us :5 ! factor ( l5g? is v>i$1 no c\nt]-adju/m5t ( t5sion1 ?ickness or d5sity c re/ore to ! /r+ s modifi$ ! exact =m ( vibration t x may h orig9ally possess$4 ,consequ5tly x becomes impossible to induce f artificially weight$ /r+s precisely ! same s]ies ( p>tial tones t a pla9 wire filam5t w emit1 ev5 :5 ! tones g5]at$ by ! two /r+s are ( ! same pit*4 ,! lesson ( ?is is pla94 ,z p]fection ( tonal quality c only be atta9$ 9 "p1 x especially behooves u to pay /rict att5tion to su* scal+ ( ! bass /r+s z w furni% a complem5t ( s\nd produc+ ag5cies t may be reli$ ^u to induce z ne>ly z possible ! same successions ( p>tials z are habitually emitt$ ?r\gh\t ! high] sections ( ! piano4 ,?us x becomes evid5t t ! greate/ practicable l5g? & ! lea/ practicable weight are ! *ief factors t mu/ gov]n ! design] 9 lay+ out ! scale = ! bass /r+s4 ,! relative d5sities ( ! wrapp+ mat]ial employ$ 9 ! manufacture ( bass /r+s h be5 ! subject ( consid]able /udy4 ,brass1 :i* 0 ! e>lie/ object ( exp]im5t1 has long be5 sup]s$$ by ei!r copp] or iron4 ,z to ! relative advantages possess$ by ^! two mat]ials1 x c be said at once t ! *ief & almo/ ! only advantage pres5t$ by ! latt] lies 9 its relative *eapness4 ,ac\/ically1 h[ev]1 copp] =ms by all means ! mo/ suitable mat]ial = ! w9d+ ( bass /r+s1 & ?is = ! foll[+ reasons3 ,! specific gravity ( copp] is #h4gh1 :ile t ( iron is b #g4gh4 ,aga91 ! =m] metal1 :ile inf]ior 9 t5acity to ! latt]1 possesses1 on ! o!r h&1 ! great advantage ( high] ductility1 s t its ela/ic qualities are v m>k$4 ,x is ?us evid5t t copp] is a m suitable mat]ial = ! g5]ation ( musical s\nd ?an is iron1 & ! qualities :i* we h j not$ z p]ta9+ to x are precisely ^? mo/ useful 9 ! production ( h>monic progressions ( p>tial tones4 ,x is !re=e cle> t z betwe5 copp] & iron all ! advantages lie ) ! =m]4 ,! ?icke/ wire us$ = ! uncov]$ /r+s is g5]ally ,no4 #bd4 ,9 beg9n+ ! scal+ ( ! bass /r+s1 h[ev]1 we *oose ,no4 #ag or ,no4 #ah = ! notes ne>e/ to ! treble4 ,! cov]+ is usually f ,no4 #be to ,no4 #bh 7/&>d1 n music1 wire gauge7 accord+ to ! size ( ! piano & ! practicable /r+-l5g?4 ,( c\rse1 long] /r+s may be cov]$ ) light] wire4 ,! fir/ cov]$ /r+ is g5]ally approximately "o-six? %ort] ?an ! /r+ imm$iately above x4 ,?is proportion1 z sugge/$ above1 may1 h[ev]1 be pr(itably disreg>d$1 if x !reby be possible to l5g!n ! bass /r+s4 ,!re are always two ( ^! /r+s to ea* tone & ! ?ickness ( cov]+ wire mu/ be progressively increas$ z ! scale desc5ds4 ,a desc5d+ increase ( "o numb] 9 ?ickness ( ! cov]+ wire = ea* pair ( /r+s may prop]ly be all[$1 unless ! l5g?s are too closely alike1 or vice-v]sa1 9 :i* cases suitable modifications may be made4 ,b assum+ t ! desc5d+ l5g?s are arrang$ 9 ari?metical progression ) a mean ( #c_/d ( an in*1 & suppos+ ! highe/ cov]$ /r+ to be #de in*es long2 !n ! sugge/$ increase ( ?ickness %\ld "u all circum/ances hold good4 ,x may (t5 be f\nd1 h[ev]1 t ! space limitations ( an in/rum5t or o!r practical consid]ations make x impossible to foll[ out ^! rules ) exactitude4 ,9 any case1 we mu/ rememb] t all su* rules are !mselves ! fruit ( empirical obs]vation & to su* obs]vations we mu/ look1 :5 x becomes necess>y to revise !m 9 ord] to satisfy ! requirem5ts ( "s p>ticul> situation4 ,,*apt] ,,viii4 ,,resonance ,,& ,,! ,,resonance-,,app>atus ,,( ,,! ,,pian(orte4 ,we h n[ made a some:at l5g?y & ?or\gh inve/igation into ! nature & behavior ( ! v>i\s mat]ials & sub/ances t are employ$ 9 ! con/ruction ( pian(orte /r+s4 ,f ?is inquiry we h be5 able to d$uce a set ( rules :i*1 :5 practically appli$1 w furni% u ) a guide to ! solution ( _m p]plex+ problems :i* take _! root 9 ! conditions impos$ ^u ! design] by ! limitations ( space & ! o!r me*anical conditions ( pian(orte con/ruction4 ,x w\ld n be prop]1 h[ev]1 to proce$ =?) to ! practical que/ions ( support = ! /r+s4 ,= we mu/ /ill f9d ! correct solutions ( ano!r s]ies ( problems t spr+1 n f ! /r+s !mselves1 b f _! important & necess>y accessories1 ! s\nd-bo>d & belly bridges4 ,! belly-bridge is ! m$ium ( connection betwe5 ! /r+s & ! s\nd-bo>d4 ,?r\gh x ! vibrations excit$ 9 ! /r+s are convey$ to ! freely vibrat+ surface ( ! s\nd-bo>d1 & ! sonority ( ! g5]at$ s\nds is !reby enorm\sly increas$4 ,?is is ! process 9 b>e outl9e1 b1 9 ord] to obta9 a prop] view ( ! matt] "u discussion x w be necess>y to exam9e ! ph5om5a to :i* ! juxtaposition ( /r+s1 bridge & s\nd-bo>d give rise4 ,we mu/1 9 fact1 make ano!r brief excursion into ! realms ( ac\/ics4 ,! prop]ty :i* ! s\nd-bo>d possesses ( re9=c+ & emphasiz+ ! s\nds g5]at$ by ! /r+s is call$ 8resonance40 ,important z ?is prop]ty ( sonor\s bodies is to musicians & ! mak]s ( musical in/rum5ts1 ! fact rema9s t x is a matt] v little und]/ood by ! mass ( !m4 ,?is is ! m rem>kable :5 "o consid]s t1 )\t resonant prop]ties1 no musical in/rum5ts w\ld be possible4 ,= x is n difficult to p]ceive t music1 z we "k x1 c\ld n exi/ 7 ! means ( express+ x limit$ to ! actual & imm$iate bodies t p]=m ! motions :i* are ! direct causes ( musical s\nds4 ,?is fact is mo/ cle>ly illu/rat$ 9 ! case ( ! pian(orte4 ,! unaid$ s\nd ( a pian(orte /r+ is ridicul\sly feeble2 9 fact1 x is q inaudible at ! di/ance ( a few feet4 ,yet we are all famili> ) ! wond]fully h>moni\s & p[]ful s\nds t ! same /r+ w be ! means ( produc+ :5 aid$ by ! s\nd-bo>d4 ,resonance may be def9$ z ! prop]ty :i* "o sonor\s body possesses ( impress+ its vibrations ^u ano!r sonor\s body4 ,! exi/5ce ( ?is p[] may be demon/rat$ 9 a v>iety ( ways4 ,! mo/ simple pro(s are af=d$ by ! pian(orte itself4 ,= example1 if we /rike any key ^u ! in/rum5t & at ! same "t g5tly press d[n ! correspond+ key "o octave high]1 s z to raise ! damp] )\t at ! same "t rais+ ! hamm]1 we %all f9d t if ! fir/ key be releas$ :ile ! o!r is held op51 ! /r+ correspond+ to ! latt] w cont9ue to give its prop] s\nd4 ,9 ?is case ! vibrations excit$ 9 ! fir/ /r+ travel along ! belly-bridge until !y rea* ! ne>e/ op5 /r+ ^: vibration rate is syn*ron\s ) t ( ! orig9al s\nd+ /r+4 ,:5 su* a /r+ is rea*$ x is imm$iately impress$ ) ! motions excit$ 9 ! =m] /r+1 ) ! results above describ$4 ,?is is a case ( resonance ( two atta*$ bodies4 ,peculi> z x may seem1 h[ev]1 x is n ess5tial z a prelim9>y condition to ! exi/5ce ( resonance betwe5 !m t two sonor\s bodies be tangibly connect$4 ,= in/ance1 ! =ego+ exp]im5t may be v>i$ by employ+ two pian(ortes & *oos+ "o ( ! s\nds f ea*4 ,! result w be precisely ! same4 ,x w1 h[ev]1 be not$ t only su* s\nds z h ei!r syn*ron\s or ne>ly syn*ron\s rates ( vibration w exhibit ! ph5om5a ( resonance :5 sep>at$ f ea* o!r4 ,:]e !y are connect$1 h[ev]1 especially :5 ! connect+ body is a s\nd-bo>d prep>$ = ! purpose1 syn*ronism is n necess>y4 ,9 fact1 x is a matt] ( common obs]vation t ! s\nd-bo>d ( ! pian(orte1 9 conjunction ) ! belly-bridge1 op]ates to set up m or less int5se vibration 9 e /r+ )9 ! compass ( ! in/rum5t :5 ! damp]s are rais$1 ev5 if only "o /r+ be /ruck4 ,:5 ! damp] p$al is rais$ 9 play+1 e /r+ ?r\gh\t ! in/rum5t is imm$iately ?r[n into a /ate ( vibration1 & beg9s to s\nd4 ,! result is a l>ge augm5tation ( ! total volume ( s\nd produc$4 ,( c\rse1 ! s\nd ( any "o /r+ ?us sympa!tically excit$ is relatively feeble1 b ! total volume is consid]able1 ) especial /r5g? 9 ! p>ticul> p>tials ( ea* /r+ t are m or less syn*ron\s1 z to _! vibration rates1 ) ! s\nds orig9ally produc$ by /rik+ ! keys4 ,:5 ! damp]s are p]mitt$ to re/ 9 _! normal positions1 on ! o!r h&1 ! s\nd-bo>d ex]cises its resonant p[]s 9 a diff]5t mann]4 ,:5ev] a /r+ or gr\p ( /r+s are /ruck1 ! bo>d is ?r[n into a /ate ( vibration :i* affects only itself & n ! /r+s t rema9 damp$4 ,! result ( ?is excitem5t is to expose a relatively great vibrat+ surface to ! atmosph]e1 ) ! imm$iate consequ5ce t ! quantity ( air impell$ into a /ate ( p]iodic motion is multipli$ _m times4 ,?us ! size ( ! impell$ lay]s ( air1 & ! resultant sonor\s waves is augm5t$ until we obta9 s\nds ( ! int5sity & ri*ness :i* we are accu/om$ to associate ) ! pian(orte4 ,n[1 f :at we h already le>n$ ( ! laws ( tone-quality1 x is obvi\s t ! resonant m$ium mu/ be capable ( re9=c+ n only ! fundam5tal b ! p>tials ( all ! tones :i* x influ5ces4 ,to ?is end we mu/ provide a sub/ance t comb9es ela/icity ) ! fre$om ( vibration t is1 ( c\rse1 ess5tial4 ,x is n possible to employ metal on acc\nt ( its excessive /iffness & consequ5t resi/ance to ! influ5ce ( impress$ vibrations2 :ile on ! o!r h& a wood5 body w n be suffici5tly /iff & rigid unless artificially /r5g!n$4 ,= ?is reason x is cu/om>y to con/ruct s\nd-bo>ds ( a freely-vibrat+ wood 7! spruce-fir is g5]ally employ$ = ?is purpose7 & to /r5g!n !m by fa/5+ to "o side b>s ( h>d wood call$ 8ribs40 ,9 ?is mann] ! requisite /iffness is imp>t$ to ! bo>d1 :i* at ! same "t is suffici5tly susceptible to ! impress$ vibrations f ! /r+s4 ,x is a fact t ?is accept$ & univ]sal =m ( resonance table is ess5tially simil> to t :i* 0 us$ 9 ! anci5t h>psi*ord & sp9et4 ,:ile !re has be5 mu* exp]im5tation along ^! l9es1 x does n appe> t any la/+ improvem5ts h be5 devis$ z yet1 at lea/ 9 ! gov]n+ pr9ciples ( s\nd-bo>d con/ruction4 ,we may !n conf9e ourselves to a description ( ! accept$ /yles4 ,! wood us$ 9 ! con/ruction ( s\nd-bo>ds is ! spruce-fir1 :i*1 z /at$ above1 has be5 f\nd to be ! be/ possible = ! purpose4 ,x is prep>$ 9 a %eet ( suitable size1 & is arrang$ s t ! gra9 runs approximately at "r angles to ! plane ( ! belly-bridge4 ,x c easily be und]/ood t ! ?ickness ( ! bo>d mu/ v>y accord+ to ! dim5sions ( ! /r+s t act ^u x4 ,9 o!r words1 we c p]ceive t m resonat+ p[] is requir$ = ! relatively weak] treble /r+s ?an = ! relatively /rong] bass /r+s4 ,! actual ?icknesses v>y ) individual mak]s4 ,f #c_/h in* 9 ! treble to #a_/d ( an in* 9 ! bass may be reg>d$ z a fair approximation4 ,nev]!less1 x is necess>y to be> 9 m9d t ^! dim5sions are subject to modification accord+ to ! v>iations 9 ! total am\nt ( t5sion t ! in/rum5t is made to be>4 ,o!r ?+s be+ equal1 an increas$ t5sion load implies a ?ick] bo>d1 & vice-v]sa4 ,aft] ! dim5sions & mat]ial ( ! bo>d are ?us det]m9$1 x rema9s to consid] ! bridg+1 ! re9=cem5t1 & ! adju/m5t ( ! bo>d4 ,we %all consid] ^! 9 _! natural ord]1 z giv5 above4 ,! belly-bridges are plac$ ^u ! surface ( ! bo>d1 z we "k1 = ! purpose ( convey+ to ! latt] ! m9ute bl[s t are inflict$ by ! vibrat+ /r+s1 9 ord] t ! vibrations may be impress$ ^u ! bo>d & !re amplifi$ & int5sifi$ z describ$ at ! beg9n+ ( ?is *apt]4 ,a second>y duty is t ( delimit+ ! l[] b\nd>ies ( ! speak+ l5g? ( ! /r+s4 ,! bridges mu/ naturally be con/ruct$ ) a curv$ outl9e t is det]m9$ dur+ ! draught+ ( ! scale4 ,! actual %ape ( ?is curve has no effect p] se1 ^u ! activities ( ! bridge1 b has to d entirely ) ! /r+ l5g?s4 ,! bridge :i* c>ries ! ov]/rung portion ( ! scale may be consid]$ z be+ simil>ly affect$1 z to outl9e1 by ! exig5cies ( ! bass /r+ dim5sions4 ,! bridges are made ( h>d wood1 & _! sizes are usually f "o in* & "o-qu>t] to "o in* & "o-half high1 & 9 wid? ab\t "o-eigh? ( an in* less all r\nd4 ,! v>iations occur pr9cipally on acc\nt ( ! necessity :i* arises ( giv+ a be>+ to ! /r+s z !y cross ov] ! bridges4 ,x is necess>y t ! /r+s be rais$ at ! bridges 9 ord] t !y may be firmly held at ! po9ts ( contact by means ( ! /ra9 impos$ by !m on ! surface ( ! bridge :5 !y are /ret*$ at prop] t5sion4 ,( c\rse x is mo/ ess5tial t ?is be>+ be n too high1 z 9 t case ! /ra9 becomes too mu* = ! bo>d to be> ) facility & its durability is !reby impair$4 ,! necess>y immobility ( ! portions ( ! /r+s t lie ^u ! bridge is secur$ by div]t+ ! l9e ( travel1 & caus+ !m to be> aga9/ p9s plac$ on ei!r edge ( ! bridge1 s z to slant ! l9e ( ! /r+ z x passes ov]4 ,! wa/e ends %\ld run p>allel to ! speak+-l5g? aft] ! bridge has be5 cross$4 ,x may be fur!r prop]ly rem>k$ t !re are int]e/+ & complicat$ problems to be ov]come 9 *oos+ ! mat]ial & ! exact me?od ( build+ ! belly-bridges4 ,x is desir$ to comb9e extreme facility ( vibration ) ! requisite resi/+ p[]4 ,9 o!r words1 ! bridge mu/ all[ ! fulle/ possible scope to ! impress$ vibrations f ! /r+s &1 at ! same "t1 mu/ possess su* /r5g? t x c successfully resi/ ! torsions impos$ ^u x by ! pull ( ! /r+s4 ,! only me?od t appe>s to be ?or\ghly practical &1 at ! same "t1 ac\/ically correct is "o :i* mo/ manufactur]s h already _h ! acut5ess to adopt4 ,! bridge1 accord+ to ?is me?od1 is built up ( a numb] ( lay]s ( h>d wood 7g5]ally maple7 :i* are glu$ toge!r 9 su* a way t ! gra9 ( ea* lay] crosses t ( ! o!r4 ,9 ?is way bo? ! requisite /r5g? & m or less facility ( vibration are obta9$4 ,b x has rema9$ = "o di/+ui%$ piano mak] to g a /ep fur!r1 & to apply ?or\ghly sci5tific me?ods to ! design ( ! belly-bridges4 ,9 ! in/rum5ts made by him1 he has built ! bridges 9 su* a way t ! impress$ vibrations w travel 9 ! l9e ( ! gra9 in/ead ( across x4 ,! bridges1 9 fact1 are built ( end-gra9 & n1 z is g5]al1 ( cross-gra9 wood4 ,?is +5i\s & simple device facilitates ! passage ( ! impress$ vibrations &1 9 consequ5ce1 t5ds to imp>t a great] cl>ity to ! v>i\s p>tials ( ! comp\nd tones4 ,"s exi/+ pian(ortes might be greatly improv$ z to _! cl>ity ( spee* if a simil> device = increas+ ! p[] ( resonance 7 fitt$ to !m4 ,!re is ano!r po9t to be emphasiz$ 9 ref]5ce to ! bridges4 ,9 "s makes ( pianos ! l9e ( ! bridge con/ruction is p]mitt$ to be brok5 :]ev] !re is a correspond+ break 9 ! hamm] l9e caus$ by ! int]position ( ! v>i\s braces ( ! iron frame4 ,! obvi\s result ( su* a me?od ( con/ruction is t ! resonance ( ! bo>d is mu* int]f]$ ) & ! consequ5t tonal effici5cy ( ! in/rum5t less5$4 ,= x is easy to see t if ! bridge l9e be brok5 at any po9t1 ! vibrations t are c>ri$ f any s\nd+ /r+ along ! bridge to ! surface ( ! s\nd-bo>d w be /opp$ at ! break & w be unable to rea* ^? p>ts ( ! bo>d t are remote f its pa?1 ) rapidity & ease4 ,inconte/ably1 !re=e1 ! bridge l9e %\ld1 if possible1 be cont9u\s4 ,_m manufactur]s1 h[ev]1 :ile app>5tly recogniz+ ! =ce ( ?is proposition1 seem to be afraid to foll[ x out to its logical conclusion4 ,!y are will+ to make ! l9e ( bridge cont9u\s until ! end ( ! pla9 wire /r+s is rea*$4 ,aft] t po9t !y seem to ?9k t x is no long] necess>y t cont9uity ( communication betwe5 ! v>i\s s\nd+ memb]s ( ! scale %\ld subsi/4 ,?is idea is1 ( c\rse1 q fallaci\s4 ,! bass /r+s are simply a cont9uation ( ! high] ones1 & are1 9 fact1 precisely simil> except 9 reg>d to ! details ( ?ickness & l5g?4 ,moreov]1 x is q z important t ! portions ( ! bo>d ov] :i* ! bass bridge ex]cises control %\ld be made freely resonant1 z x is t ?is process %\ld be appli$ to ! o!rs4 ,! bass bridge ought inv>iably1 !re=e1 to be connect$ ) ! bridges t s]ve ! re/ ( ! /r+s4 ,! re9=cem5t ( ! bo>d is accompli%$ by glu+ ribs ( wood across its back surface 9 a direction cross+ ! gra9 ( ! bo>d4 ,^! ribs are usually made ab\t "o in* squ>e 9 ! middle portions4 ,?is size is cont9u$ until ne> ! edge ( ! bo>d on ea* side1 :5 !y are gradually p>$ d[n 9 a graceful curve until at ! actual edge ! ?ickness is no m ?an ab\t "o-?irty-second ( an in*4 ,accord+ to ! mo/ approv$ mod]n practice x is f\nd advisable to pocket ^! ribs into ! wood5 fram+ ( ! in/rum5t1 by cont9u+ !m pa/ ! edge ( ! s\nd bo>d & mak+ suitable ap]tures 9 ! fram+1 into :i* ! ext5sions are adju/$ & fa/5$4 ,?is has ! effect ( hold+ ! bo>d m firmly 9 its fa/5+s & also ( prev5t+ ! e>ly loos5+ ( ! ribs f _! places2 an occurr5ce :i* causes mu* rattl+1 & complete impairm5t ( tonal quality4 ,x is usual to h twelve ribs ^u ! surface ( ! bo>d1 b ! numb] may be v>i$ :5ev] x is consid]$ necess>y4 ,if x is requir$ to give specially ample support to ! bo>d on acc\nt ( unusually great /ra91 or = any o!r reason1 ! numb] may be increas$1 b su* proc$ure mu/ be tak5 ) caution1 z too _m ribs weight ! bo>d to su* an ext5t z to dead5 its p[] ( molecul> & undulatory vibration4 ,?is mu/ at all co/s be avoid$4 ,x is usual to glue ! ribs ^u ! surface ( ! bo>d fir/--t is be=e ! bridges--& good practice dictates t ! surface ( ! bo>d be dri$ out 9 a hot-box = at lea/ #bd h\rs be=e ei!r ( ^! processes take place4 ,if ?is be c>ri$ out prop]ly1 ! resultant %r9k+ ( ! wood w be tak5 up aft] ! bo>d has become ?or\ghly cool$1 & if ! process is repeat$ :5 ! bo>d is glu$ into ! fram+ ( ! in/rum5t1 ! result w be to end[ x ) a natural 8cr[n10 or ar*1 caus$ by ! re-active swell+ t takes place aft] ! artificially induc$ %r9k+4 ,al?\gh ! above me?ods ( ribb+ are to be consid]$ ! be/ & z repres5t+ ! mo/ advanc$ practice1 yet x w be f\nd t "s mak]s dispose ! ribs 9 a fan-l mann]1 hav+ ! div]g+ po9ts ( ! fan at ! upp] end ( ! bo>d1 :ile o!rs adopt an oblique disposition & arrange !m z be=e describ$4 ,also1 we f9d a /raight up-&-d[n arrangem5t :]eby ! ribs are glu$ p>allel to ! plane ( ! treble /r+s4 ,we t]m ^! ?ree /yles ! fan =m1 ! oblique =m1 & ! v]tical =m respectively4 ,z = ! comp>ative advantages ( ! ?ree types ( con/ruction ?us describ$1 x may be said t !y all repres5t individual features t are m or less b5eficial4 ,= example1 ! fan-l disposition gives a great] numb] ( long ribs1 :ile ! oblique =m provides m ( sep>ate units4 ,! v]tical sy/em may be consid]$ z a mean betwe5 ! o!r two4 ,9 g5]al1 we %all be well advis$ 9 rememb]+ t ! prime function ( ribb+ is to increase ! t5sion ( ! bo>d & its ela/icity1 & ?us to promote ! p[] ( resonance4 ,a second>y function is t ( provid+ extra resi/+ p[]4 ,n[ x is obvi\s t bo? ( ^! duties c be bett] p]=m$ by a multiplicity ( ribs1 & consequ5tly a sy/em is to be recomm5d$ t p]mits ! employm5t ( ! l>ge/ total area ( ribb+4 ,at ! same "t unduly long ribs are n good1 = !y h a great] t5d5cy to become loose & to spr+ up f ! surface ( ! bo>d1 ) dire results to tone & durability4 ,x w\ld !re=e seem t ! oblique disposition has m to recomm5d x ?an ! o!rs1 s9ce x provides en\gh total ribb+ area )\t impos+ inconv5i5tly long ribb+ units ^u ! surface ( ! bo>d4 ,:5 ! ribb+ ( ! s\nd-bo>d & ! fix+ ( ! bridges has be5 accompli%$1 x rema9s to adju/ ! complet$ /ructure )9 ! wood5 back-fram+ ( ! in/rum5t4 ,x is necess>y t ! bo>d be s secur$ t x %all acquire a position analog\s to t ( a /ret*$ membrane--at lea/ z f> z conc]ns ! rigidity ) :i* its edges are fix$ to ! fram+4 ,!re are sev]al me?ods = obta9+ ! requir$ rigidity ( ! edges ( ! bo>d4 ,! natural or artificial cr[n+ ( ! bo>d's surface is be/ atta9$ ?r\gh ! m$ium ( p>ticul>ly rigid edge fa/5+2 & ! adoption ( a cont9u\s clos+ rim = ! bo>d1 z 9 c]ta9 gr& pian(ortes1 toge!r ) ! use ( a sy/em ( screw compression1 alike indicate ! v>i\s directions 9 :i* ! ideas ( exp]im5t]s h l$ !m4 ,! und]ly+ notion 9 all ^! devices is to end[ ! vibrat+ surface ) bo? ela/icity & durability to an ext5t t c\ld n be atta9$ ) ! unaid$ wood4 ,! glu+ ( ! s\nd-bo>d to ! fram+ is a process t dem&s ! greate/ skill & c>e4 ,x is ess5tial t ! bo>d be w>m$1 & t ! glue :i* is us$ be 9 j ! prop] condition2 nei!r too ?ick nor too ?91 &1 above all1 boil+ hot4 ,if ! fa/5+ be done :5 ! bo>d is 9 ! %runk5 condition describ$ above1 & ) ! requir$ skill & c>e1 x w be f\nd t ! fibres ( ! wood h be5 squeez$ toge!r s z to raise ! c5t] "p ( ! bo>d some:at above ! level ( ! edges4 ,?is gives :at we h d5om9at$ ! 8cr[n10 & is important z affect+ ! durability & resi/+ p[] ( ! entire bo>d4 ,x mu/ be rememb]$ t by reliev+ ! s\nd-bo>d ( z mu* z possible ( ! /ra9 impos$ by ! /r+s1 we are able to increase its durability & to pres]ve its tone-produc+ quality m surely ?an is o!rwise possible4 ,bo>ds t are n s protect$ mu/ inevitably become entirely flatt5$ out 9 ! c\rse ( a few ye>s4 ,:5 ?is happ5s ! level ( ! belly-bridge s9ks & ! be>+ ( ! /r+s ^u ! latt] is de/roy$4 ,h5ce an imm$iate & inevitable det]ioration ( tone quality4 ,= ! alt]+ ( ! level 9 ?is mann] affects ! impression ( ! vibrations ( ! /r+s ^u ! bridges & h5ce ^u ! bo>d itself4 ,if ! height ( ! bridges be too great1 ! be>+ ( ! /r+s ^u !m w likewise be excessive1 & ! bo>d w be cru%$ d[n 9 ! same mann]4 ,if1 h[ev]1 ! directions z to bridg+1 ribb+ & adju/m5t t h be5 giv5 are foll[$ ) discretion1 ! tr\bles outl9$ "h are likely at lea/ to be m9imiz$4 ,( c\rse1 ! lat] c>e ( ! pian(orte aft] x is sold has mu* to d ) ! manifold tr\bles t occur )9 ! entire resonance app>atus4 ,^! ?+s _c be =ese51 & x is1 !re=e1 mo/ ess5tial to gu>d aga9/ !m z mu* z possible by c>eful att5tion to ! details ( con/ruction & adju/m5t4 ,la/ly1 we may obs]ve t ! practice ( screw+ ! bridges d[n on to ! bo>d by screws driv5 9 f ! re> is to be condemn$4 ,:ile x is und\bt$ly advantage\s to take "s measure to increase ! p]man5cy ( ! fa/5+1 x w be f\nd t x is f> bett]1 ac\/ically1 to provide ! bridge ) wood5 d[els & glue ^! into suitable holes 9 ! bo>d4 ,?us ! conduct+ p[] ( ! bridge is increas$ & ! vibrat+ surface ( ! s\nd-bo>d is n brok5 up by ! ins]tion ( =eign metallic sub/ances4 ,ano!r & concomitant advantage is ! abs5ce ( ! wood5 wa%]s "u ! heads ( ^! bridge-screws4 ,su* devices are too (t51 z !y become loose1 a s\rce ( rattl+ & j+l+4 ,x is well to be rid ( !m1 z ( all possible ?+s t are likely to be simil>ly affect$ by we> or atmosph]ic conditions4 ,,*apt] ,,ix4 ,,! ,,case ,,& ,,fram+ ,,( ,,! ,,pian(orte4 ,! gr& pian(orte is di/+ui%$ conspicu\sly f ! upright1 z f> z conc]ns ! pr9ciples ( its con/ruction1 by ! diff]5t function :i* its ext]ior cas+ ex]cises4 ,z 0 /at$ 9 ,*apt] ,,iii1 ! ext]ior walls ( ! upright h no "p 9 ! be>+ or resi/+ "w t ! iron & wood5 fram+ p]=ms4 ,!y exi/ *iefly = ! purpose ( giv+ support to ! key-bo>d & action1 & ( af=d+ a f\ndation :]eon may be con/ruct$ ! elaborate ar*itectural & decorative /ructure t1 9 its entirety1 is d5om9at$ ! pian(orte case4 ,! synonym\s portions ( ! gr& pian(orte1 on ! contr>y1 h a f> m important duty to fulfill4 ,:ile !y are equally *>g$ ) ! support ( ! key-frame & action1 !y are also an ess5tial "p ( ! wood5 fram+1 are "o & homog5e\s ) x1 &1 9 fact1 occupy mu* ! same position z :at is kn[n z ! 8back0 ( ! upright1 z well z be+ ! ext]nal & decorative cov]+s ( ! in/rum5t4 ,! case ( ! gr& is con/ruct$ ( a s]ies ( cont9u\s v5e]s1 glu$ "o ^u ano!r1 & ea* ext5d+ completely ar\nd ! p]iph]y ( ! case4 ,^! v5e]s are glu$ at cross gra9 to prev5t splitt+ & are appli$ to ! pian(orte & b5t into %ape :5 9 a heat$ /ate4 ,! complete outl9e ?us obta9$ is d5om9at$ ! 8cont9u\s b5t rim0 & is a di/+ui%+ feature ( ! mod]n gr& pian(orte z made 9 ,am]ica4 ,sev]al em95t ,g]man mak]s1 z ,be*/e91 also employ simil> means ( con/ruct+ ! ext]nal walls4 ,9 ,engl&1 on ! contr>y1 ! case is usually made out ( "o ?ickness ( wood b5t into ! requir$ %ape by /eam & jo9$ 9 sev]al places4 ,?is sy/em provides = sep>ate mold+s = ! b5t & /raight sides & = ! re> portion4 ,! advantage claim$ = ! cont9u\s b5t rim is t ! :ole case1 by ?is means1 becomes s closely b\nd up ) ! re/ ( ! /ructure z to become "p ( "o homog5e\s resonant :ole1 ?us improv+ ! g5]al resonance & imp>t+ a so/5uto & cantabile t c 9 no o!r mann] be atta9$4 ,:ile data are lack+ = ! precise inve/igation ( ?is claim1 x is significant t ! b5t rim me?od has n only become univ]sal among ,am]ican mak]s--by "o ( !m x 0 fir/ devis$--b has ev5 made its way into ,european favor4 ,! case1 aft] x has be5 b5t 9 ?is mann] into ! prop] %ape1 has to be decoratively v5e]$ accord+ to ! /yle ( ornam5tation t is int5d$ = x4 ,! "w ( v5e]+ ^! cases1 :e!r = uprights or gr&s1 ne$ n be gone into "h 9 detail4 ,!re are s _m speciali/s 9 ?is dep>tm5t :o conf9e !mselves to ! turn+ out ( su* v5e]$ cases1 & ! :ole matt] is s f> away f ! pr9ciples ( pian(orte con/ruction1 t x is n consid]$ necess>y to g into x "h4 ,x is1 ( c\rse1 requir$ to provide ! case ( ! gr& pian(orte ) a sy/em ( wood5 /ruts :i* b9d x toge!r & give x /r5g? & resi/+ p[]4 ,^! /ruts are set into ! case 9 ! g5]al =m ( ! lett] ,a1 hav+ ! apex at ! =w>d end ( ! case4 ,at ?is apex !y are cross$ by ano!r wood5 /rut runn+ p>allel to ! key-bo>d1 :i* s]ves to b9d !m toge!r & to m>k ! limit ( ! space to be occupi$ by ! s\nd-bo>d4 ,^! /ruts are n1 z we may ?us see1 c>ri$ into ! v front ( ! case1 b are conf9$ to t portion :i* is directly und]nea? ! s\nd-bo>d4 ,9 front ( ?is space is left ! gap ?r\gh :i* ! action is lat] to /rike1 & und]nea? is provid$ a key-b$ to c>ry ! action & keys4 ,! key-b$ jo9s ! front portions ( ! b5t rim & closes ! cas+ 9 ! front1 ?us provid+ a def9ite & uni=m /ructure4 ,above ! key-b$ & 9 front ( ! gap is "o ( ! mo/ important p>ts ( ! entire in/rum5t4 ,x is call$ ! 8wre/-plank10 & is situat$ at ! =emo/ portion ( ! case4 ,?is wre/-plank is built ( a s]ies ( h>d wood5 lay]s1 glu$ toge!r at cross gra9 & adapt$ to be bor$ ) holes 9 :i* are plac$ ! 8wre/-p9s10 or tun+-p9s1 t control ! t5sion ( ! /r+s4 ,?is block or plank mu/ necess>ily be ( great solidity & be capable ( hold+ ! p9s frictionally1 s t !y w n pull r\nd "u ! imm5se /ra9s t are impos$ ^u !m4 ,illu/ration3 ,,mod]n ,,me?od ,,( ,,gr& ,,pian(orte ,,case ,,con/ruction4 ,a4 ,cont9u\s b5t rim4 ,b4 ,wood5 /ruts4 ,c4 ,iron %oe hold+ /ruts & connect+ ) iron plate4 ,d4 ,ma9 beam4 ,! gap :i* is necess>y 9 ! gr& pian(orte betwe5 ! s\nd-bo>d & ! tun+-p9s makes x impossible to jo9 ! =m] to ! wre/-plank4 ,?is /ate ( affairs und\bt$ly con/itutes a weakness inh]5t 9 ! gr& &1 besides1 exce$+ly un=tunate4 ,= an int]ruption ( ! cont9uity ( communication betwe5 ! v>i\s s\nd-conduct+ mat]ials ( :i* ! in/rum5t is con/ruct$ entails a correspond+ loss ( resonance4 ,! tone ( ! pian(orte is inevitably fleet+ & evanesc5t2 lack ( cont9uity 9 ! con/ruction only increases ?is fault4 ,x has some:]e be5 /at$ t ! con/ruction ( ! gr& pian(orte implies great] resi/+ /r5g? ( ! wre/-plank on acc\nt ( its be+ entirely support$ by ! iron frame & n dep5d5t ^u a wood5 back z 9 ! upright4 ,?is view seems to be incorrect4 ,a prop]ly support$ back on an upright af=ds a v /rong support to ! wre/-plank & 9 comb9ation ) ! iron frame supplies all necess>y rigidity1 & 9 a mann] m direct & effici5t4 ,b ! wre/-plank ( ! gr& pian(orte may & %\ld possess a suffici5t /r5g?4 ,v>i\s mak]s h adopt$ sev]al diff]5t me?ods to secure ?is /r5g?4 ,"o v good device supplies a re> truss to ! l[] surface ( ! wre/-plank by means ( a d[nw>d project+ %\ld] ca/ 9 ! iron frame4 ,!re are o!r me?ods m or less simil>4 ,! arrangem5t ( ! tun+-p9s )9 ! body ( ! wre/-plank also requires consid]able c>e4 ,( c\rse1 _! disposition dep5ds ultimately ^u ! /r+ arrangem5t1 b !re are problems to be consid]$ 9 connection ) ! mann] 9 :i* !y are arrang$ ) relation to _! mutual positions z consid]$ ap>t f ! /r+s4 ,= example1 x is mo/ important t !y %\ld be s plac$ t ! /r+s d no rub aga9/ ea* o!r 9 _! passage betwe5 ! p9s & ! agraffes4 ,! frequ5t neglect ( ?is matt] is a cause = regret4 ,mu* loss ( tonal purity w\ld be avoid$ & ! tun]'s "w greatly simplifi$ if all design]s took ! prop] am\nt ( c>e 9 ?is important matt]4 ,fur!r1 x may be rem>k$ t ! be/ practice accords ) ?is sugge/ion 9 e respect4 ,x w also be f\nd t a slight tilt+ back ( ! p9s 9 a direction t is remote f ! /r+s t5ds to light5 ! pull ( ! latt] & to assi/ ! resi/+ p[] ( ! wre/-plank4 ,:5 ! iron plate is fa/5$ ov] ! entire /ructure1 x is fix$ on to ! wre/-plank by means ( heavy iron bolts t %\ld be suffici5tly long to g entirely ?r\gh x & be clos$ ) a nut on ! o!r side4 ,by ?is means ! wre/-plank is secur$ aga9/ lack ( rigidity1 & its durability imm5sely increas$4 ,! h>de/ k9d ( maple %\ld be us$ 9 ! con/ruction ( ! wre/-plank4 ,no o!r wood appe>s to h s _m ( ! requir$ qualities1 & its use = ?is purpose has become1 9 ,am]ica at lea/1 univ]sal4 ,! g5]al details ( ! ext]nal case ( ! gr& pian(orte are n unfamili>4 ,! /&>d full size ( n9e feet & ! m9iature ( six feet or less1 z well z int]m$iate p>lor sizes1 are famili> to all4 ,! %ape ( ! fall-bo>d t cov]s ! keys is well kn[n1 & ! design ( ! lid & support+ legs suffici5tly common to make fur!r description sup]flu\s4 ,x is prop]1 h[ev]1 to note briefly ! g5]al *ange t has come ab\t 9 ! conception ( ! decorative function ( ! gr& pian(orte case4 ,=m]ly1 ! aim ( pian(orte manufactur]s 0 entirely diff]5t f t ( ! e>ly h>psi*ord & sp9et mak]s4 ,in/ead ( do+ _! utmo/ to improve ! ext]nal /hetic value ( _! in/rum5ts1 !y seem$ too mu* occupi$ 9 provid+ means = int]nal improvem5t to pay prop] att5tion to appe>ance4 ,?us we see t ! sombre & hide\s decorative ideas :i* prevail$ 9 ! furniture ( ! la/ g5]ation 7 long fai?fully imitat$ 9 ! ext]nal design ( ! gr& pian(orte4 ,! ugly & cumb]some c>v$ legs1 ! in>ti/ic curv+ ( ! lid & arms1 & ! g5]al look ( pond]osity & hug5ess all comb9$ to give to ! in/rum5t ( t era ! g5]al appe>ance ( a hyp]trophi$ c(f9 on legs4 ,mod]n mak]s1 h[ev]1 animat$ by a tru] appreciation ( decorative values1 & recogniz+ ! ref9+ influ5ce ( beautiful ?+s1 9 !mselves1 & ap>t f _! o!r prop]ties1 h gone f> t[>ds consign+ ! m crude & hide\s designs to ! limbo ( obscurity4 ,x has become g5]ally recogniz$ t ! c(f9-l look ( ! conc]t gr& may be l>gely modifi$1 if n :olly remov$4 ,by alt]+ ! design ( ! legs & by reg>d+ !m r z a "p ( ! case ?an z m]e supports1 x has be5 possible to comb9e ! proportions ( legs & case s z to make !m appe> "o h>moni\s entity4 ,( c\rse1 ! actual me?od ( atta9+ to ?is end has v>i$ l>gely among diff]5t mak]s1 &1 likewise1 ! great] numb] ( successful ef=ts 9 ! direction sugge/$ h be5 made ^u gr& pian(ortes design$ to ord] to fit ! furni%+s & decorative s*emes ( music rooms 9 ! homes ( ! weal?y4 ,nev]!less x is a heal?y sign ( ! g5]al /hetic developm5t ( ! ,am]ican p t ! numb] ( ^! specially ord]$ & design$ cases increases ye>ly4 ,9 ?is way we are go+ back to ! ideals t possess$ ! anci5t mak]s ( ! virg9als1 clavi*ords & o!r in/rum5ts1 :o 7 wont to call 9 ! s]vices ( ! mo/ fam\s arti/s 9 color & ! mo/ cunn+ c>v]s 9 wood to compass _! beautiful & co/ly designs4 ,x is true t ! /ock /yles ( gr& pian(orte cases are usually pla9 z to cont\r & decoration1 b no "o n[ c d5y to !m grace & purity ( outl9e or beauty & ri*ness ( mat]ial4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! practice increases ye>ly ( keep+ 9 /ock cases made 9 su* /yles z ! ,*ipp5dale1 ! ,%]aton & ! ,empire1 to say no?+ ( ! p]5nial & truly ,am]ican ,colonial designs4 ,! fact t ^! num]\s v>ieties all f9d pur*as]s is a /rik+ comm5t>y on ! gr[+ ta/e & ref9em5t ( ! g5]al public4 ,9 consid]+ ! case con/ruction ( ! upright pian(orte1 we are l$ to obs]ve t ?is type exhibits1 9 ^! matt]s1 c]ta9 important advantages ov] ! gr&4 ,x is true t ! case is n s homog5e\sly fitt$ into ! resonant /ructure1 & x is equally true t ! gr& has hi!rto _h mu* ! bett] ( x 9 ! fight = tonal quality & volume4 ,nev]!less1 consid]+ ! upright 9 ! light ( its own peculi> fitness = popul> use1 we are b\nd to obs]ve1 9 consid]+ ! con/ruction ( its case & back-fram+1 ! special advantages ov] ! gr& t we m5tion$ z exi/+4 ,! *ief & mo/ obvi\s ( ! inh]5t advantages ( ! upright pian(orte lies 9 ! position :i* ! in/rum5t takes up4 ,! hamm]s /rike 9 front ( ! /r+s & t5d to =ce !m d[n ^u ! bridges1 s t ! full en]gy ( ! bl[ is impress$ ^u !m4 ,fur!r1 !re is none ( t t5d5cy ( ! /r+s to fly (f f ! belly bridge :i* is always pres5t 9 ! squ>e & to a c]ta9 ext5t 9 ! gr&4 ,aga9 ! v]tical position ( ! s\nd-bo>d w\ld seem to be m favorable to ! free vibration ( ! wood5 fibres ( :i* x is compos$2 :ile ! simplicity ( ! g5]al outl9e ( ! upright p]mits ! employm5t ( a l>g] s\nd-bo>d area ?an is possible ) ei!r ! squ>e or ! small gr&4 ,la/ly1 ! wre/-plank is greatly /r5g!n$ by ! omission ( ! gap betwe5 x & ! s\nd-bo>d1 :i* p]mits ! use ( light] fram+ & a consequ5t ga9 9 portability4 ,:ile recogniz+ ^! facts1 h[ev]1 we are b\nd to recognize _m o!r features t g f> to de/roy ! great initial advantage "h describ$4 ,x _c be d\bt$ t today ! upright is pre-em95tly ! popul> type4 ,:e!r ?is fact is entirely a matt] = congratulation is d\btful1 = ! upright =m l5ds itself readily to *eap & tra%y production4 ,! conditions ( mod]n dome/ic life are su*1 on ! o!r h&1 t ! portability & conv5i5ce ( ! popul> type1 no less ?an ! possibility ( produc+ x *eaply1 h giv5 x a hold ^u ! public fancy :i* its own inh]5t & und\bt$ advantages might nev] h secur$ = x4 ,! upright =m is capable ( ! highe/ arti/ic & me*anical developm5t1 & !re is no good reason :y x %\ld n be s improv$ z to produce tones equal 9 volume1 purity & ri*ness to ^? ( ! gr&4 ,9 consid]+ ! details ( back & case con/ruction 9 ! upright1 we are compell$ to obs]ve in/ances ( faulty me?od4 ,= example1 x is usual to fa/5 ! sides ( ! case to ! back by glu+ aft] ! latt] has be5 fitt$ ) ! s\nd-bo>d1 iron frame & /r+s4 ,?is me?od is obvi\sly faulty4 ,x is n difficult to und]/& t1 al?\gh ! back p>tially su/a9s ! t5sions impos$ by ! /r+s1 ! sides :5 glu$ to ! =m] are con/antly subject$ to a modification ( ^! t5sions4 ,n[1 glu+1 :ile conv5i5t1 is n ! be/ possible process to give to ! sides ! necess>y /r5g? to be> su* /ra9s1 = x is a famili> fact t pian(ortes t are n ( ! highe/ class inv>iably develop 9 ! c\rse ( a few ye>s1 m or less s]i\s cracks & breaks 9 ! cont9uity ( ! jo9s betwe5 ! glu$ surfaces4 ,:5 ?is happ5s1 ! equilibrium ( ! in/rum5t is di/urb$ & its /r5g? dim9i%$4 ,9 addition1 ! breaks 9 cont9uity h1 ( c\rse1 a s]i\s effect ^u ! p[] ( resonance4 ,fur!rmore1 ! glue me?od is subject to v>i\s me*anical defects4 ,x is absolutely necess>y t ! surfaces t are to be unit$ %\ld be ma9ta9$1 dur+ ! process ( glu+1 at an absolutely uni=m temp]ature4 ,& ?is temp]ature mu/ be high4 ,consequ5tly x is n h>d to see t 9 ! ha/e & confusion ( con/ruction 9 ! factory1 ! l>ge sides & backs may n be s c>efully h&l$ z to insure ! cont9ual ma9t5ance ( ! ideal temp]ature conditions4 ,if1 9 %ort1 ! surfaces to be glu$ toge!r are p]mitt$ to become cold1 x is obvi\s t ! adhesion w be imp]fect1 t ! we> & te> ( con/ant usage w complete :at c>elessness 9 ! factory began1 & t ! value ( ! in/rum5t w be p]man5tly impair$4 ,be=e sugge/+ a rem$y = ^! regrettable conditions1 or a sub/itute = ! faulty me?ods describ$1 x w be well to exam9e c>efully ! pr9ciples t und]lie ! con/ruction ( ! upright pian(orte back4 ,x w ?us become less difficult to f9d "s bett] me?od ( unit+ ! sides & back1 s z bett] to cons]ve ! /r5g? & durability ( ! in/rum5t4 ,! back ( ! upright pian(orte might almo/ be consid]$ z ! f\ndation ( ! in/rum5t4 ,inde$1 be=e ! g5]al introduction ( iron fram+1 ?is "p ( ! con/ruction des]v$ su* a description4 ,its position1 h[ev]1 is n[ some:at subord9ate1 s9ce ! wood5 fram+ ( :i* x is compos$ is q inadequate to ! task ( support+ ! t5sion ( ! /r+s4 ,z g5]ally built1 ?is back consi/s ( a numb] 7usually six7 ( wood5 po/s arrang$ 9 an upright position & jo9$ at ! top & bottom by braces1 also ( wood & ( simil> dim5sions4 ,?us is provid$ a compact frame t may be made to possess great /r5g? & resi/+ p[]4 ,b1 9 ord] to accompli% prop]ly ! duties = :i* x is design$1 ! con/ruction ( ?is frame mu/ be v c>efully plann$ & c>ri$ out4 ,at its upp] end x mu/ give prop] support to ! wre/-plank & ! s\nd-bo>d mu/ re/ easily & securely )9 its embrace4 ,! iron frame mu/ !n be fa/5$ ^u & ov] ! /ructure4 ,x w\ld be absurd to suppose t ! back is n subject$ to modifications ( ! /ra9s impos$ ^u ! s\nd-bo>d1 wre/-plank1 & iron frame1 & x is equally c]ta9 t c>elessness 9 work+ out ! details ( con/ruction w t5d mat]ially to r$uce ! coeffici5t ( resi/ance4 ,an important detail is ! jo9+ ( ! upright po/s to ! top & bottom rails4 ,if ^! rails are made cont9u\s & ! po/s are t5on$ into !m1 ! frame w possess ! maximum ( /r5g? t is possible to su* a /ructure1 & if1 9 addition1 ! jo9ts are at all places made m secure by ! use ( screws & o!r devices z supplem5ts to ! glu+1 !n we may consid] t we h a prop]ly made back4 ,un=tunately1 h[ev]1 exam9ation ( any consid]able numb] ( pian(ortes ( v>i\s makes w soon conv9ce ! read] t ^! details ( con/ruction are seldom giv5 en\gh att5tion4 ,_m in/rum5ts w be f\nd to h ! back po/s jo9$ at top & bottom by %ort pieces ( wood :i* d n ext5d fur!r ?an ! two po/s :i* ea* unites4 ,su* a me?od ( con/ruction1 especially :5 comb9$ ) c>eless glu+ & an abs5ce ( o!r fa/5+s1 provides a frame t possesses none ( ! desid]ata ( homog5eity1 compactness & /r5g?4 ,illu/ration3 ,,back ,,view ,,( ,,upright ,,pian(orte1 ,,knabe ,,pat5ts1 ,,%[+ ,,ribb+ ,,( ,,s\nd-,,bo>d ,,& ,,con/ruction ,,( ,,back ,,fram+4 ,! upright wre/-plank diff]s some:at f ! synonym\s /ructure us$ 9 ! gr&4 ,x does n suff] "u ! disadvantage ( an involunt>y & inevitable sep>ation f ! s\nd-bo>d & ! l[] portion ( ! back1 b1 :5 con/ruct$ ) a due reg>d = correct pr9ciples1 =ms "o homog5e\s & uni=m /ructure4 ,! upright wre/-plank %\ld1 !re=e1 possess rigidity & resi/+ p[] ( ! highe/ ord]1 & %\ld =m an unyield+ support = ! tun+-p9s4 ,! g5]al con/ruction ( su* a wre/-plank w n diff] mat]ially f t :i* has already be5 discuss$ 9 ref]5ce to ! gr& pian(orte4 ,t is to say1 ! build+ up ( ! body ( ! /ructure f cross$ lay]s ( h>d maple & ! bolt+ ( x into ! iron frame 7:5 ! latt] is made s z to ext5d ov] ! :ole surface ( ! back frame7 w be done 9 ! same way4 ,b ! upright wre/-plank d]ives f ! peculi> =m ( con/ruction t is prop] to ! upright pian(orte a fur!r elem5t ( /r5g? t is lack+ 9 ! gr&4 ,= x is 9 direct & solid connection ) ! s\nd-bo>d & ! o!r p>ts ( ! back-fram+1 & ?us obta9s a consid]able addition ( /r5g?4 ,inde$1 ! wre/-plank %\ld be s con/ruct$ z to =m an integral "p ( ! top rail ( ! back1 & %\ld be1 9 fact1 ! front portion ( ?is rail4 ,fur!r1 its connection ) ! re/ ( ! back-frame %\ld be z close & b9d+ z possible1 & x is mo/ ess5tial t a suffici5t numb] ( lag screws %\ld be driv5 into ! wre/-plank & ?r\gh ! latt] into ! fur!r & remote p>ts ( ! back-frame top-rail4 ,hav+ ?us analyz$ ! con/ruction ( ! back 9 all its p>ts & divisions1 we may return to ! discussion ( ! sides ( ! case & ! be/ me?ods ( unit+ !m ) ! back4 ,! read] has n[ a good work+ k ( ! con/ruction1 prior to ! putt+ on ( ! sides1 & he _c h fail$ to come to ! conclusion t glu+ is a poor me?od = jo9+ heavy sides to ! elaborate /ructure kn[n z ! back4 ,nor does !re seem to be any good practical reason :y "s o!r me?od %\ld n be sub/itut$ = ! antiquat$ glu+4 ,!re is no good me*anical reason :y a sy/em ( screws %\ld n be devis$ t w\ld n only n m> ! out] appe>ance ( ! case1 b also af=d a m c]ta9 & secure mann] ( unit+ ! sides to ! re/ ( ! in/rum5t4 ,moreov]1 su* a me?od w\ld l>gely increase portability by mak+ possible ! removal ( ! sides :5 conditions ( transport requir$ ?is4 ,manufactur]s might pr(itably sp5d a little "t 9 e/imat+ ! sav+ t a deta*able side w\ld enable !m & ! deal]s to effect 9 _! annual %ipp+ & truck+ bills4 ,! v>i\s sizes ( upright pian(ortes t are cu/om>ily f\nd range f ne>ly five feet 9 height d[n to ab\t t5 in*es less4 ,"s v small models are made no m ?an f\r feet high4 ,b ! public appe>s to pref] ! l>g] /yles1 & 9 ?is !y are entirely "r4 ,= ! v small pian(ortes1 no matt] h[ cunn+ly !y be scal$1 _c be equipp$ ) /r+s ( ! prop] l5g?s1 nor ) s\nd-bo>ds ( suffici5t area4 ,h5ce _! tonal possibilities are v limit$4 ,! full siz$ upright1 on ! o!r h&1 approa*es closely to ! tonal excell5ce ( ! gr&4 ,! /yles ( case decoration t are & h be5 appli$ to ! upright are ev5 m /rik+ & v>i$ ?an ^? ( ! gr&4 ,= ! upright l5ds itself m readily to t k9d ( decorative treatm5t t consid]s ! :ole case z "o s+le entity1 & ?us h>moni\sness ( design & unity ( treatm5t are m easily obta9$4 ,at ! same "t1 we are b\nd to confess t ! outl9e ( ! upright is ess5tially box-l1 & t ?is defect op]ates cont9ually to nullify ! ef=ts ( ! design] to conceal x4 ,x is a fact t ov]-elaboration ( decorative treatm5t is usually accompani$ by mo/ un=tunate effects2 :ile ! l>g] /yles at lea/ are little adapt$ to su/a9 ! burd5 ( m]etrici\s ext]ior adornm5t4 ,9 fact1 we may well say t ! upright is decoratively at its be/ 9 ! small sizes4 ,s9ce1 h[ev]1 !re is a public dem& = l>ge models1 :i* are inde$ me*anically & ac\/ically sup]ior1 we mu/ be cont5t to obs]ve ! progress ( decorative ideas z appli$ to ! beautify+ ( ^!4 ,"o ( ! mo/ /rik+ features ( ! mod]n decorative movem5t1 z appli$ to furniture1 is se5 9 ! great popul>ity ( r>e & beautiful woods4 ,^! are mu* priz$1 & x has come to be popul> to f9i% !m 9 su* a mann] z pla9ly to exhibit ! natural figur+s & m>k+s4 ,we h ev5 se5 a craze = pla9 rubb+ ) wax1 :i* leaves ! wood 9 absolutely its natural appe>ance4 ,r$ & ,:ite ,mahogany1 ,burl$ & ,circassian ,walnut1 ,sat9 ,wood1 ,bird's-,eye ,maple1 ,gold5 & ,flemi% ,oak1 & _m o!r beautiful & co/ly v>ieties are con/antly made up into ri* & elaborate pieces ( furniture4 ,9 ?is developm5t ! upright has _h a l>ge "p4 ,:ile ! l>ge size & great fir/ co/ ( ! gr& has made ! pur*as+ ( specially decorat$ cases a matt] to be avoid$ by all except ! weal?y1 ! same ob/acle has n s l>gely exi/$ to fright5 away ! arti/ic w\ld-be-pur*as] ( an upright4 ,9 fact1 ! decorative movem5t has %[n its be/ manife/ations ?r\gh ! m$ium ( ! upright pian(orte1 & ?is 9 spite ( ! un=tunate outl9e ( ! in/rum5t t resi/s all ef=ts to conceal its excessive crudity4 ,models ( ! ,engli% s*ools h be5 produc$ ) great success1 & ! inlay+ ( ri* woods1 aft] ! mann] ( ,*ipp5dale1 has result$ 9 "s v beautiful specim5s ( ?is p>ticul> art4 ,aga91 we f9d ! s-call$ ,r5aissance1 ! ,colonial1 ! ,empire 7m elaborate ?an ! o!r two71 ! ,doric 7sev]ely simple71 & la/ b n lea/1 ! ,mission4 ,! latt]1 extraord9>y p]v]sion ( ! h&icraft ( ! ,spani% fa!rs z x usually is f\nd to be1 has nev]!less be5 ! cause ( "o great good4 ,x has begun to popul>ize ! dull f9i%1 & to tea* ! public t ! high1 glassy1 fragile1 & unreliable v>ni% f9i% is n ! only possible way ( putt+ a surface ^u wood4 ,! ,mission craze has taught _m p to admire ! natural figure & m>k+s ( a f9e v5e] or piece ( lumb]1 )\t reg>d to ! fact t x is or is n cov]$ ) a mirror-l f9i% t cracks z soon z ! room becomes cold4 ,9 fact we may disc]n ! enc\rag+ signs ( a gr[+ sanity & ref9em5t 9 ! dem& =1 & production (1 suitable designs = ! decorative treatm5t ( pian(orte cases4 ,x has come to be recogniz$ t a truly *a/e & beautiful ext]ior is ! fitt+ complem5t to ri*ness & nobility ( tone4 ,! gr[? ( ?is feel+ des]ves ! highe/ enc\ragem5t f all4 ,am]ican mak]s may well congratulate !mselves ^u be+ ! =emo/ expon5ts ( ?is movem5t4 ,,*apt] ,x4 ,,! ,,iron ,,frame ,,( ,,! ,,pian(orte4 ,9 ! hi/orical portion ( ! pres5t "w1 ample ref]5ce has be5 made to ! g5esis & e>ly developm5t ( metallic fram+ 9 ! con/ruction ( pian(ortes4 ,we took occasion to po9t out t ! indep5d5t developm5t ( ! ,am]ican pian(orte is intimately connect$ ) ! rise & improvem5t ( ! sy/em4 ,x is a matt] ( no little pride to recall t 9 ! univ]sal recognition ( ! value ( metallic adjuncts to ! fram+ devices ( ! mod]n pian(orte1 ! ,am]icans1 z became _! traditions1 blaz$ ! trail4 ,x is unnecess>y to repeat ! obs]vations t 7 made 9 ,*apt] ,,ii z to ! controv]sies t h rag$ ov] ! "q ( priority ( inv5tion4 ,x is suffici5t to ref] ! read] back to t portion ( ! pres5t "w :]e ^! que/ions h be5 treat$ 9 a suffici5tly copi\s mann]4 ,we may !re=e proce$ directly to ! task ( inve/igat+ ! nature ( ! univ]sal metallic fram+ t has be5 demon/rat$ to be s ess5tial 9 mod]n con/ructional sy/ems4 ,foll[+ ! plan t we h adopt$ ?r\gh\t1 we %all fir/ consid] ! nature & application ( ?is k9d ( fram+ to ! gr& pian(orte4 ,z to ! =m1 !n1 ( ! iron fram+1 its weight & size4 ,ev] s9ce ! fir/ gr& pian(orte 0 produc$ ) an iron plate ca/ 9 "o piece1 design]s h be5 busy ) attempts to improve ^u ! orig9al inv5tion4 ,!y h met ) b mod]ate success4 ,!re h be5 multif>i\s *anges 9 ! details ( brac+ & ( fitt+ ! plate to ! case1 b ! g5]al =m ( ! orig9al design rema9s ! same4 ,x may be describ$ 9 g5]al t]ms z foll[s3 ,a plate ( iron ca/ 9 "o piece1 :i* foll[s ! outl9e ( ! in/rum5t & is s arrang$ t x may be secur$ to ! case & to ! wood5 fram+ t und]lies & knits toge!r ! latt] & ! s\nd-bo>d4 ,a gap is left 9 ?is plate at ! po9t :]e ! hamm]s /rike ! /r+s1 & ! resultant weakness is ov]come by a sy/em ( brac+ by means ( resi/ance b>s1 also ( iron & ca/ 9 ! same piece ) ! ma9 body4 ,at its front end1 ne>e/ to ! key-bo>d1 ! plate is ext5d$ s z to cov] ! wre/-plank 9 :i* are driv5 ! tun+-p9s2 & at ! end remote f ! key-bo>d x is provid$ ) a numb] ( hit*-p9s1 to :i* are secur$ ! wa/e ends ( ! /r+s4 ,?is plate1 fur!r1 is s arrang$ t ! s\nd-bo>d is n cov]$ by x except at ! edges1 & at ! place :]e ! bass bridge is con/ruct$ ano!r gap is left 9 its surface4 ,illu/ration3 ,,jonas ,,*ick]+',s ,,full ,,solid ,,ca/ ,,gr& ,,metal ,,plate4 ,! above g5]al description compreh5ds 9 b>e outl9e ! ess5tial features ( ! iron fram+4 ,!re are1 ( c\rse1 _m v>iations ( detail1 & 9 seek+ = ! be/ me?ods ( design+ ?is important "p ( ! pian(orte we %all h occasion to exam9e ! great] numb] ( ^! ) "s c>e4 ,illu/ration3 ,,sket* ,,( ,,iron ,,plate ,,= ,,conc]t ,,gr&1 ,,%[+ ,,g5]al ,,arrangem5t ,,( ,,braces1 ,,belly-,,bridges ,,& ,,sy/em ,,( ,,bolts ,,= ,,fa/5+ ,,to ,,case4 ,a--,b4 ,hamm] l9e4 #a4 ,body ( plate4 #b4 ,bass bridge4 #c4 ,cont9u\s treble bridge4 #d4 ,agraffes4 #e4 ,capo d'a/ro b>4 ,plate is ca/ 9 "o piece & scale is ov]/rung4 ,( ! v>i\s diff]5ces ( detail t design]s h effect$ 9 ! con/ruction ( iron fram+1 "o ( ! mo/ important is pres5t$ 9 ! s-call$ 8cupola0 /yle ( con/ruction4 ,9 ?is =m ! surface ( ! plate is rais$ at ! edges ( ! case 9 su* a mann] z to give ! g5]al outl9e ( a cupola or semi-dome4 ,! result ( ?is me?od is to increase ! resonance ( ! fram+ &1 at ! same "t1 greatly to enhance ! t5sile /r5g? ( ! :ole con/ruction4 ,! 8cupola0 /yle 0 ! subject ( a pat5t by ,/e9way ,sons ( ,new ,york "s ye>s ago1 b has be5 ext5sively copi$ s9ce t "t4 ,! same celebrat$ h\se 0 ! orig9ator ( ano!r v>iation ^u ! classic mann] ( plate build+4 ,in/ead ( arrang+ ! /r+s 9 ! usual mann]1 a fan-l disposition 0 adopt$1 ) ! result ( di/ribut+ ! /ra9 m ev5ly ?r\gh\t ! entire surface & ?us improv+ ! t5sile qualities ( ! :ole plate4 ,all ^! me?ods ( con/ruction1 h[ev]1 h fail$ to avoid t break+ up ( ! scale :i* is made necess>y by ! int]position1 betwe5 ! /r+ gr\ps1 ( b>s & brac+s4 ,x has appe>$ impossible to obta9 ! requisite resi/+ p[] )\t ! assi/ance ( a numb] ( heavy iron braces ca/ into ! plate & design$ to increase ! t5sile /r5g?1 :i* is weak5$ by ! gap at ! /rik+ po9ts ( ! hamm]s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,arrangem5t ,,( ,,iron ,,plate1 ,,braces ,,& ,,scale ,,( ,,p>lor ,,size ,,gr& ,,pian(orte4 ,!re has1 h[ev]1 appe>$ an inv5tion :i* w\ld seem to ov]come1 9 an effective mann]1 ! objections to a multiplication ( brac+s4 ,! inv5tor is a memb] ( ! celebrat$ h\se ( ,broadwood1 & 8 device is call$ ! 8,b>less0 or 8op5 scale0 gr& pian(orte4 ,by ?is inv5tion ! b>r$ iron frame is replac$ by a plate ( mild /eel1 :i* is entirely free f brac+s1 is con/ruct$ ) a cont9u\s turn$-up flange & is bolt$ 9 ! usual mann] into ! bottom fram+4 ,?is flange provides ! necess>y t5sile /r5g? & app>5tly su/a9s ! t5sion ( ! /r+s 9 a p]fectly satisfactory mann]4 ,! advantages pres5t$ by a me?od ( con/ruction t avoids ! break+ up ( ! /r+ gr\ps into ?ree or f\r divisions are obvi\s & ne$ n be expla9$ 9 detail4 ,x may be /at$1 h[ev]1 t ! pr9cipal & conspicu\s advantage pres5t$ by ?is me?od ( con/ruction is f\nd 9 ! fact t ! abs5ce ( ! usual b>r+ & brac+ t5ds to subdue ! metallic & t9kl+ quality ( tone t is s (t5 f\nd to be induc$ by ! pres5ce ( heavy masses ( ca/ iron4 ,at ! same "t1 ! mat]ial employ$ is s mu* m ela/ic ?an iron t !re is no p]ceptible loss ( resonance1 nor is ! t5sile /r5g? less5$ to any appreciable degree4 ,no "o :o has te/$ ! pian(ortes ?us con/ruct$ has fail$ to be delight$ ) ! s+ul>ly beautiful tone-quality & rem>kable ev5ness t is %[n ?r\gh\t ! :ole compass4 ,x is inde$ a mo/ difficult task to ov]come ! t5d5cy to production ( unduly prom95t dissonant p>tials 9 ^? p>ts ( ! scale :]e ! brac+ is especially heavy1 p>ticul>ly 9 ! l[] portions1 & consequ5tly we mu/ reg>d ) admiration s successful an attempt to d away ) ^! difficulties by remov+ _! cause4 ,x may be not$ at ?is po9t t ! em95t firm ref]r$ to be=e z hav+ introduc$ ! 8cupola0 =m ( con/ruction1 also employ /eel 9 ! mak+ ( _! metal frames1 & x seems curi\s t ?is example has n be5 m g5]ally foll[$4 ,! two types ?us describ$ are ! mo/ radical exceptions to ! common /yle ( metal fram+4 ,x is a matt] ( regret t manufactur]s 9 g5]al h be5 cont5t to foll[ s closely 9 ! foot/eps ( ! pione]s1 & h n exp]im5t$ m en]getically ) a view to effect+ o!r improvem5ts 9 ! accept$ me?ods4 ,! problem ( su/a9+ ! necess>y t5sions w\ld und\bt$ly be simplifi$ by ! adoption1 at lea/ 9 "p1 ( ! ideas ( ! em95t firms :o h already be5 m5tion$4 ,9 ord] ?or\ghly to und]/& ! actual advantages & disadvantages ( ! v>i\s /yles ( fram+ t h be5 describ$1 we mu/ consid] h[ great are ! t5sions t !y are compell$ to be>4 ,a conc]t gr& pian(orte ( a /&>d ,am]ican make is s con/ruct$ t x be>s a total /ra91 :5 tun$ at conc]t pit*1 ( n less ?an #cj tons4 ,! requirem5ts ( increas$ tone & ! weight & bulk ( /r+s t5d con/antly to augm5t r ?an to decrease ^! trem5d\s /ra9s1 & at ! same "t m & m to induce ! production ( ^? dissonant p>tials t h su* a malefic5t influ5ce ^u tone-quality4 ,obvi\sly1 !n1 if we are to satisfy ! popul> dem& = great] volume1 & at ! same "t to ma9ta9 ! highe/ /&>ds ( quality1 we mu/ seek = "s me?od t w obviate ! employm5t ( yet heavi] masses ( ca/ iron & at ! same "t pres]ve ! necess>y /r5g? & rigidity4 ,! me?ods ( con/ruction t h be5 notic$ at "s l5g? above seem to pres5t manifold advantages ov] ! old] /yles4 ,/eel has great] t5sile /r5g? ?an iron1 & consequ5tly a small] bulk ( x is requir$4 ,aga91 its ela/icity is high] & ! vibrations impress$ ^u x trav]se its surface ) great] facility & 9 a %ort] p]iod ( "t4 ,:e!r1 !re=e1 we pref] ! b>less or ! cupola /yle ( con/ruction1 we mu/ recognize ! fact t /eel is a bett] mat]ial ?an iron 9 any =m4 ,=emo/ among ! requirem5ts ( a successful fram+ sy/em are t x %all su/a9 its burd5 ) su* rigidity t ! /r+s %all /& 9 tune & ! wood5 case ( ! in/rum5t %all n be twi/$ out ( %ape4 ,ev5 if ! mat]ial be ! be/ possible1 a faulty me?od ( secur+ ! metal frame to ! case w n only prev5t ! consummation ( ^! desires1 b w t5d to weak5 ! s\nd-bo>d & ha/5 its splitt+4 ,x is ess5tial1 9 fact1 t ! bo>d %\ld be reliev$ ( /ra91 & great c>e mu/ !re=e be ex]cis$ 9 fitt+ ! fram+4 ,! approv$ me?od is z foll[s3 ,! fram+ is connect$ ) ! sy/em ( wood5 po/s t ext5d bel[ ! s\nd-bo>d & b9d toge!r ! sides ( ! case4 ,! latt] connection is made by means ( long bolts t ext5d ?r\gh ! brac+s ( ! frame & are sunk into ! po/s at conv5i5t places4 ,! s\nd-bo>d is secur$ to ! sides ( ! case by means ( its ribs1 :i* are cont9u$ beyond its edges & pocket$ into ! sides & ! po/s1 & also by be+ glu$ to ! bottom surface ( ! case & to ! sy/em ( po/s4 ,la/ly1 ! frame is connect$ bo? ) ! bo>d & ! po/s1 by a s]ies ( heavy screws t pass ?r\gh ! bo>d & into ! po/s at regul> int]vals along its out] edges4 ,?is me?od ( secur+ ! frame & s\nd-bo>d to ! case ensures t ! =m] %all be incorporat$ )9 ! body ( ! in/rum5t z rigidly z is possible1 & t ! latt] %all h ! fulle/ protection aga9/ ^? twi/+ /ra9s t ! metal frame alone ought to be>4 ,) su* a me?od z has be5 describ$ we c f9d no great fault4 ,x %\ld be not$1 h[ev]1 t 9 ! b>less or op5 scale con/ruction ! bolts t 7 describ$ z pass+ ?r\gh ! braces into ! po/s bel[ are omitt$1 & ! :ole frame is support$ )9 ! case by a s]ies ( bolts driv5 ?r\gh ! turn$-up /eel flange at equal int]vals 9 its surface4 ,hav+ ?us consid]$ ! =ms ( fram+ t are employ$ by v>i\s mak]s we may turn our att5tion to ! matt] ( susp5d+ ! /r+s across ! frame & ov] ! s\nd-bo>d4 ,! upw>d /roke ( ! hamm] ( ! gr& pian(orte t5ds to drive ! /r+ away f its bridge & ?us to less5 ! en]gy ) :i* ! vibrations imp>t$ to ! /r+ are impress$ ^u ! latt]4 ,we may note t all mak]s are agre$ 9 giv+ to ! /r+s ( a gr& pian(orte an upw>d ?ru/ or 8be>+0 9 ord] t ! bl[ ( ! hamm] may ?r[ ! /r+s aga9/ ! upp] surface ( ! be>+-bridge in/ead ( away f x4 ,!re are two devices t are g5]ally employ$ = ?is purpose4 ,!y are kn[n z ! 8agraffe0 & ! 8capo d'a/ro b>40 ,! fir/ ( ^! 0 ! inv5tion ( ! celebrat$ ,er>d ( ,p>is4 ,x consi/s ( a brass /ud screw$ into ! iron fram+ 7or into ! wre/-plank :]e ! plate does n ext5d ov] ! latt]71 at ! beg9n+ ( ! speak+ l5g? ( ea* /r+ or gr\p ( /r+s4 ,?is /ud is bor$ ) ! requir$ numb] ( holes--"o = ea* /r+ 9 ! gr\p4 ,^! holes are bor$ at su* an angle t ! ends ne>e/ to ! tun+-p9s are high] ?an ! o!r ends1 :ile ! p9s are plac$ at a high] elevation ?an ! agraffes4 ,9 ?is mann] ! /r+ is giv5 an upw>d ?ru/ z x proce$s t[>d ! tun+-p91 & ! bl[s ( ! hamm] =ce x aga9/ ! upp] surface ( ! agraffe1 :i*1 be+ solid1 conveys ! impress$ vibrations ?r\gh ! m$ium ( its own surface to ! fram+4 ,! 8capo d'a/ro b>0 p]=ms ! same functions 9 a slightly diff]5t mann]4 ,x is practically a cont9u\s 8agraffe10 & consi/s ( a metal b> :i* is ca/ into ! metal frame at ! beg9n+ ( ! speak+ l5g? ( ! /r+s4 ,x is fitt$1 accord+ to ! be/ practice1 ) an "u edge ( tool /eel1 & ! /r+s are caus$ to pass und]nea? x on _! way t[>d ! tun+-p9s1 :i* are high] ?an ! b>1 z be=e4 ,! up-be>+ is ?us imp>t$ to ! /r+s 9 a mann] simil> to t :i* is foll[$ 9 ! case ( ! agraffes4 ,z to ! advantages ( ! two sy/ems1 x may be said t ! 8capo d'a/ro0 und\bt$ly ov]comes ^? objections to agraffes :i* are bas$ ^u _! t5d5cy to pull out f _! places4 ,x provides an absolutely rigid resi/ance1 & is !re=e /rong] & m reliable4 ,on ! o!r h&1 h[ev]1 ! mass ( metal employ$ is consid]ably great] ?an 9 ! 8agraffe0 me?od1 & ! resultant influ5ces ^u tone-quality are cle>ly disadvantage\s4 ,fur!r1 ! "w ( tun+ is r5d]$ m difficult by reason ( ! fact t ! /r+s _c s readily & correctly be pull$ ?r\gh ! space int]v5+ betwe5 ! b> & ! tun+-p94 ,x is debatable :e!r ! great] rigidity & resonance (f]$ by ! 8capo d'a/ro0 me?od are n too de>ly b\ght at ! co/ ( inconv5i5ce 9 tun+ & det]ioration ( tone-quality4 ,x is notewor?y t mo/ manufactur]s conf9e ! 8capo d'a/ro0 b> to ! high treble regi/] ( _! in/rum5ts1 :]e brilliancy & a some:at metallic quality ( tone are a desid]atum4 ,! iron fram+ ( an upright piano foll[s ! same g5]al l9es ( con/ruction z h already be5 not$ 9 ! previ\s discussion ( ! gr&4 ,! functions ( ! frame are precisely ! same & its con/ruction diff]s outw>dly b little4 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 c]ta9 div]g5cies f ! gr& =ms t mu/ be not$ c>efully4 ,= example1 x w be rememb]$ t ! =m ( ! upright pian(orte is su* t ! fram+ has no direct & positive connection ) ! outside case4 ,x is ?us impracticable to consid] ! sides ( ! iron plate z homog5e\s ) ! sides ( ! case1 nor is x possible to give to x t consi/5cy ( =m t1 9 ! gr&1 results f ! %ap+ ( ! plate to correspond ) ! curv$ outl9e ( ! case4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 is no reason :y ! upright iron plate %\ld n be z /rong & secure z t ( ! gr&4 ,illu/ration3 ,,iron ,,plate ,,= ,,upright ,,pian(orte ,,fitt$ ,,) ,,capo ,d',,a/ro ,,b>4 ,among ! v>i\s diff]5ces ( detail t we obs]ve to exi/ betwe5 ^! two =ms ( plate is ! device adopt$ to secure ! be>+ & rigidity ( ! /r+s at _! upp] end des]ves notice4 ,! practice is entirely diff]5t 9 ?is respect z reg>ds ! upright1 & we are !re=e introduc$ to a new feature3 ! 8pressure b>40 ,?is device has sup]s$$ bo? ! old-fa%ion$ p9n$ be>+ bridge & ! lat] agraffe =ms4 ,x consi/s1 ess5tially1 ( a b> ( heavy metal t is screw$ into ! wre/-plank ?r\gh ! metal plate & is plac$ s t ! /r+s pass "u x on ! way to ! tun+ p9s4 ,9 fact x occupies ! same position z d ! agraffes or capo d'a/ro b> on ! gr&4 ,its function is also simil>2 namely1 accurately to delimit ! speak+ l5g?s ( ! /r+s at ! upp] end & to assi/ 9 ! =mation ( a ?ru/ or be>+ :]eby ! latt] may m advantage\sly be secur$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,iron ,,plate ,,= ,,upright ,,pian(orte ,,) ,,agraffes 7,,mehl9 ,,pat5ts74 ,?is =m ( build+ ! be>+ bridge possesses important advantages4 ,x does n require to be ca/ into ! plate1 nor is x weak5$1 z 9 ! agraffe sy/em1 by be+ brok5 up into a l>ge numb] ( units4 ,moreov]1 ! be>+ = ! /r+s is =m$ mu* m smoo?ly & easily betwe5 ! pressure b> & its att5dant ribs on ! plate ?an is possible :5 ei!r ! agraffes or ! capo d'a/ro b> are us$4 ,?is is an important po9t1 = su* con/ruction t5ds to make ! task ( tun+ mu* m rapid & correct4 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 sev]al po9ts to be consid]$ 9 ! design+ ( pressure b>s4 ,z a g5]al ?+1 x is impracticable to apply ?is =m to ! bass /r+s on acc\nt ( ! fact t ! ov]/r++ requires ( !m a slant+ direction4 ,on ?is acc\nt ! pressure b> _c be made prop]ly to ma9ta9 ! obliquely-runn+ /r+s 9 _! respective places4 ,x is !re=e usual to build ! bass bridge aft] ! old p9n$ type & ?us to secure ! bass /r+s by mu* ! same device z is employ$ 9 ! belly bridges4 ,z f> z ! design+ ( pressure b>s is conc]n$1 x w be f\nd t c>e %\ld be ex]cis$ 9 arrang+ ! space t ! b> mu/ occupy & its position ) reg>d to ! scale ribs t are plac$ on ea* side ( x & t support ! /r+s be=e & aft] _! passage "u x4 ,9 g5]al x may be said t ! pressure b> mu/ be screw$ 9 su* a position t its l[] curv$ surface is l[] ?an ! upp] surfaces ( ! scale ribs by ab\t "o-half ( ! height ( ! latt]4 ,x mu/ also describe a curve t corresponds to ! dip or angle ( ! scale & mu/ be secur$ by en\gh screws 7"o betwe5 ea* ?ree /r+-gr\ps is usual71 to ensure t ! pull ( ! /r+s w h no injuri\s effect ^u its rigidity4 ,x is also ess5tial t ! curve into :i* ! /r+ is b5t dur+ its passage "u ! pressure-b> & ov] ! scale-ribs be n too deep or sudd54 ,! be>+ surface ( ! b> %\ld be g5tly r\nd$ until v ne> its middle po9t :]e ! /r+ ex]cises its greate/ pull+ /ra94 ,"h ! surface mu/ be curv$ a little m %>ply4 ,! iron plate ( ! upright is ! *ief support] ( ! /ra9s impos$ ^u ! /ructure by ! /r+s4 ,x is necess>y1 z 9 ! gr&1 t x %\ld be built s z to h absolute rigidity "u ^! /ra9s1 & t x %\ld be always capable ( )/&+ any o!rs t may by any *ance be impos$ ^u x4 ,rememb]+ ?is1 :at %all we say ( ! designs t we sometimes see :]e ! iron is cut & %av$ away at e possible po9t 9 ord] to save a few p\nds ( weight8 ,!re are pian(ortes 9 exi/5ce :]e ! iron fram+ is s mu* cut d[n t ! treble c nev] be dep5d$ ^u to /ay 9 tune = a reasonable l5g? ( "t1 & :]e ! unev5ness ( ! di/ribution ( metal ?r\gh\t ! body ( ! frame has caus$ a w>p+ ( ! :ole in/rum5t out ( its prop] %ape4 ,all ?is is unnecess>y1 b x w cont9ue s long z manufactur]s are will+ to effect small sav+s at ! exp5se ( ! future reliability ( _! product4 ,x is c]ta9ly mu* bett] to h ! plate ( ! upright pian(orte s arrang$ t ! total volume ( iron1 if x is to be decreas$1 may h ?is process appli$ ev5ly & all ?r\gh4 ,! mo/ correct design w\ld consid] a mod]ately heavy plate ( iron1 or bett]1 ( /eel4 ,?is plate w\ld be s arrang$ t ! hit*-p9 plate 7! portion :i* c>ries ! hit*-p9s7 cov]s ! entire surface ( ! in/rum5t at its bottom end & is bolt$ into ! back ) z _m & z heavy bolts z are employ$ at ! o!r end4 ,! upp] portion ( ! propos$ plate ne$ n ext5d ov] ! surface ( ! wre/-plank1 = su* a con/ruction c add little to ! resi/+ p[] ( ! frame1 :ile x inevitably t5ds1 = reasons t h already be5 describ$1 to ! production ( dissonant p>tials & ! consequ5t emission ( a metallic tone4 ,if x is desirable1 = any reason1 to cut d[n ! weight ( a frame1 x c bett] be done at ! upp] end ?an at ! l[]1 :]e dim9ution ( ! resi/+ p[] ( ! frame is mo/ sev]ely felt4 ,we may1 !n1 contemplate a =m ( iron frame :i* cov]s t portion ( ! back-fram+ :]eon ! edges ( ! s\nd-bo>d are glu$1 & t is n cont9u$ up & ov] ! wre/-plank4 ,x w be cut away 9 ! c5tre1 z 9 ! gr&1 & w ?us expose a l>ge "p ( ! s\nd-bo>d to view4 ,x w be provid$ ) a c]ta9 numb] ( brac+s = ! purpose ( tak+ up ! /ra9s t are impos$ ^u ! /ructure at ! po9ts ( greate/ resi/ance1 su* z ^? :]e ! ov]-/r++ beg9s & ends1 & ^? ar\nd ! middle regi/]s ( ! scale4 ,!re mu/ n be m ( ^! brac+s1 h[ev]1 ?an is necess>y1 z x is v important t ! scale %\ld be brok5 up into ! lea/ possible numb] ( divisions4 ,! brac+s w be s design$ t no "o ( !m int]f]es ) ! true curve ( ! belly-bridge4 ,! :ole /ructure w be solidly bolt$ into ! back-fram+ ?r\gh ! s\nd-bo>d by a s]ies ( long & heavy screws & bolts t w be ins]t$ at frequ5t int]vals along ! edges4 ,we _c conclude ?is survey ( plate-con/ruction )\t tak+ note ( a prop]ty t is common to all ca/-iron /ructures4 ,we ref] to %r9kage4 ,! calculations ( ! design]1 no matt] h[ c>efully work$ out1 mu/ take into consid]ation ! fact t ca/-iron %r9ks l>gely 9 ! cool+4 ,x mu/ be not$ t ! design = ! iron plate is ! *ief portion ( ! "w ( scale draught+4 ,z w be expla9$ lat] on1 ?is "w is fir/ done on pap] & !n transf]r$ to a wood5 patt]n4 ,f ?is patt]n ! ca/+ is made4 ,aft] ! fir/ ca/+ is ?us complet$ x is tak5 9 h& by ! design]1 :o m>ks & pun*es x = ! bor+ & p9n+ & corrects x :]e necess>y4 ,! correct$ ca/+ is !n us$ z a model = ! future plates t are to be turn$ out = ! same scale4 ,b ^! also %r9k2 s t we are compell$ to take into acc\nt bo? %r9kages1 & all[ = ea*4 ,=tunately1 h[ev]1 !re is no difficulty 9 arrang+ ?is4 ,! me?od is z foll[s3 ,aft] ! /r+-l5g?s h be5 calculat$ & ! size ( ! iron plate ?us det]m9$1 a complete draw+ is made1 %[+ ! exact dim5sions1 %ape1 & o!r features ( ! propos$ plate4 ,?is is to be us$ z ! guide = ! wood5 templet4 ,b ?is diff]5ce exi/s betwe5 ! two pap] draw+s2 namely1 t ! second is multipli$ z to e dim5sion ( ! plate by a quantity t repres5ts ! am\nt ( %r9kage t is kn[n to occur 9 ! two ca/+s4 ,! av]age %r9kage ( ca/-iron 9 ! =m ( pian(orte plates is e/imat$ at ab\t "o p] c5t4 ,consequ5tly to acc\nt = ! d\ble %r9kage x becomes necess>y to multiply by ! squ>e ( #aja_/ajj2 t is approximately #ea_/ej4 ,a great deal ( tr\ble w be avoid$ if ! %r9kage is c>efully work$ out 9 ?is mann]4 ,e dim5sion ( ! plate is affect$1 & ! greate/ c>e mu/ be tak5 to ensure t ! correct$ calculations are accurate4 ,only ?us w x be possible = ! ideas ( ! design] to be br\ght out 9 ! complet$ in/rum5t z he expects to see !m4 ,,*apt] ,,xi4 ,,! ,,me*anism ,,( ,,p]cussion4 ,! pian(orte hamm] is p]haps ! mo/ /rik+ ( ! _m & v>i\s features ( t in/rum5t4 ,al?\gh x is a comp>atively simple device1 its hi/orical & musical int]e/ is supreme4 ,= :ile ! /r+s1 ! fram+1 & ev5 ! action t we see 9 ! in/rum5ts ( today are b ! mod]n developm5ts ( _! clavi*ord & h>psi*ord ance/ors1 ! hamm]1 on ! contr>y1 is ! "o revolution>y device t1 at a s+le /ep1 sep>at$ ! pian(orte f all o!r /r+$ in/rum5ts & end[$ x ) its own peculi> & p[]ful attributes4 ,x 0 ! hamm]1 9 fact1 t made ! pian(orte4 ,z soon z x 0 fitt$ into a h>psi*ord1 ! pian(orte 0 born1 & no ref9em5t ( /r++ or fram+ c\ld h effect$ ! fundam5tal nature ( key-bo>d in/rum5ts 9 ! same mann]4 ,= we mu/ recognize ! fact1 sometimes ov]look$1 t ! pian(orte is ess5tially an in/rum5t ( p]cussion4 ,x is necess>y t !re be a m or less viol5t bl[ f ! hamm] to excite ! s\nd-produc+ vibrations ( ! /r+s4 ,! tone ( ! in/rum5t1 "u ! mo/ favorable circum/ances1 _c fail to p>take ( ! "* peculi> to s\nds produc$ 9 ?is mann]4 ,! importance ( ! hamm] z a tone-produc] _c1 !n1 be und]e/imat$4 ,x /&s ^u a plane ( importance equal to t occupi$ by ! scale-design+1 ! /r++ & ! resonance app>atus4 ,we are !re=e ju/ifi$ 9 devot+ space to consid]ation ( ! con/ruction ( ?is ess5tial feature4 ,we _c say ) absolute surety :at 0 ! nature ( ! mat]ial ) :i* ! hamm]s ( ,cri/(ori's orig9al inv5tion 7 cov]$4 ,b we may presume t x 0 lea!r4 ,we "k t ! hamm]s 7 exce$+ly small & app>5tly all ( ! same size4 ,nei!r ,silb]mann nor ,zumpe c be said to h p]fect$ any special improvem5ts 9 ! =m ( hamm] con/ruction1 & we f9d t ! revolution>y g5ius1 ,john ,broadwood ! ,fir/1 & also ,seba/ian ,er>d1 7 ! pione]s 9 ! "w ( adapt+ ! hamm]s to ! m /r5u\s /yles ( play+ t ! improv$ t\* me*anism inv5t$ by !m p]mitt$ & enc\rag$4 ,broadwood1 :o fir/ p]ceiv$ ! necessity ( adopt+ a sci5tifically correct /rik+ po9t1 likewise began to fit 8 pian(ortes ) hamm]s graduat$ 9 size1 & "u him ! lea!r-cov]$ hamm] arriv$ at its full developm5t4 ,b lea!r z a cov]+ mat]ial soon began to be decri$4 ,x 0 discov]$ t ! k9d ( tone dem&$ by ! ris+ pian(orte ma/]s c\ld n be obta9$ f su* mat]ial4 ,aft] mu* exp]im5t on ! "p ( pian(orte mak]s1 ! ,g]man-,fr5*man1 ,pape1 ( ,p>is1 tri$ ! use ( felt4 ,8 success 0 imm$iate & conspicu\s1 & x 0 discov]$ t n only did ?is k9d ( cov]+ produce f9] tone quality1 b !re 0 little difficulty 9 regulat+ t quality ?r\gh ! hamm]s )9 c]ta9 well-def9$ limits4 ,nev]!less1 we f9d squ>e pian(ortes to-day 9 :i* ! felt cov]+ ^u ! high] hamm]s is ov]laid ) /rips ( bucksk94 ,?is practice1 h[ev]1 repres5t$ ! la/ dy+ /ruggles ( ! lea!r-cov]$ hamm]1 & n[ we use x no long]4 ,x is true t ! use ( felt is n unatt5d$ ) conspicu\s disadvantages4 ,x we>s out rapidly1 & unless con/antly kept 9 good condition by use ( ! felt-ne$les1 ! iron1 & ! s&-pap] file1 soon comes to produce a h>% & unpleasant tone-quality4 ,?is defect arises f ! fact t z usually con/ruct$1 ! cont9ual p\nd+ ( ! hamm] head ^u ! /r+s causes ! felt on ! cr[n ( ! hamm] head to become tightly pack$ & compress$1 & ! %ap+ ( ! head to be lo/4 ,z w be expla9$ lat]1 ?is *ange 9 ! mann] 9 :i* ! head is orig9ally made up causes a modification 9 ! nature ( ! vibrations set up 9 ! /r+s1 &1 z we h already le>n$1 ?is *ange 9 ! nature ( ! produc$ excitem5t is ! cause ( unpleasant tone-quality4 ,nev]!less1 & 9 spite ( ^! real disadvantages1 ! use ( felt z a cov]+ mat]ial = pian(orte hamm]s is n[ univ]sal4 ,nor does x seem at pres5t t we are v likely to f9d a sup]ior sub/itute4 ,z we %all %ortly see1 h[ev]1 a simple *ange 9 ! mann] ( secur+ ! felt to ! wood5 f\ndation ( ! hamm]-head may be dep5d$ ^u to add l>gely to ! durability & effici5cy ( ! :ole /ructure1 bo? z a tone-produc+ m$ium & z a me*anical device4 ,z w be surmis$ by ! read]1 e>ly cov]+ ( pian(orte hamm]s ) felt 0 a t$i\s op]ation4 ,! mat]ial 0 cut up sep>ately = ea* hamm]1 & glu$ on to ! wood5 head by h&4 ,b ?is me?od suff]$ "u ! grave disadvantage ( af=d+ no correct guide to ! true ?icknesses & no means o!r ?an furni%$ by h&-cutt+1 ( graduat+ ^! ?icknesses ) exact ev5ness4 ,x rema9$ = an ,am]ican 7or ,am]icaniz$ ,g]man7 inv5tor to devise a ma*9e t %\ld glue up & f9i% an entire set ( hamm]s f "o cont9u\s %eet ( felt1 ( :i* ! ?ickness 0 graduat$ 9 ! mak+ & :i* c\ld be reli$ ^u to conta9 ! correct am\nt ( felt1 ( any desir$ total weight1 ! :ole graduat$ ) great ev5ness4 ,n m]ely 0 ?is s1 b ! me?ods ( manufactur+ felt = o!r special purposes connect$ ) ! manufacture ( pian(ortes has be5 entirely revolutioniz$1 s t today we h damp]s1 pun*+s1 & _m o!r p>ts ( ! me*anism ( pian(ortes successfully manufactur$ out ( v>i\s k9ds ( felt1 :i* v>y greatly 9 consi/5cy1 ?ickness1 & o!r prop]ties4 ,to return1 h[ev]1 to ! special case ( hamm]-felt4 ,we f9d t ! orig9al me?ods ( work+ toge!r ! lay]s ( c>d$ wool has be5 mu* improv$1 *iefly ?r\gh ! ef=ts ( ! inv5tor m5tion$ above4 ,x is n[ a matt] ( slight difficulty to turn out %eets ( felt = ! mak+ ( piano hamm]s t %all h any desir$ weight1 size & graduation ( ?ickness4 ,! weight ( ! %eets ( felt v>ies l>gely accord+ to ! nature ( ! hamm]s t are to be produc$4 ,?us x is cu/om>y1 z may be guess$1 to provide full-size conc]t gr&s ) hamm]s ( great] ?ickness1 :ile ! small] /yles ( in/rum5t h progressively small] hamm]s4 ,! actual weights v>y accord+ to ! caprice or calculation ( manufactur]s & design]s4 ,an av]age weight ( felt = hamm]s suitable to be plac$ 9 a n9e-foot conc]t gr& is f #af to #ah lbs4 p] %eet4 ,?is does n include ! 8und]felt10 :i* is glu$ directly to ! wood5 head ( ! hamm] & is us$ to give great] resili5cy to ! l[] hamm]s4 ,x is g5]ally omitt$ at ! high] treble end4 ,upright pian(ortes frequ5tly are hamm]$ ) felt weigh+ n m ?an #h lbs4 to ! %eet1 b ?is seems to be too light = really effici5t results4 #aj lbs4 is q light en\gh 9 mo/ cases4 ,z has already be5 indicat$1 ! f\ndation ( ! hamm] is a wood5 mold+4 ,ov] ?is is glu$1 9 ! ma*9e1 a /rip ( 8und]felt10 :i* is long en\gh to cov] ab\t five & a half or six octaves ( hamm]s1 c\nt+ f ! bass end upw>ds4 ,! ma9 felt+ is !n laid ov] ?is1 ! ?icke/ end be+ at ! l[e/ bass4 ,by means ( ! ma*9es1 n[ s g5]ally us$1 x is possible to glue ! entire und]felt & also ! topfelt1 9 "o piece4 ,! mold+s are !n sep>at$ & ! op]ation is complete4 ,x is cu/om>y to ins]t a small piece ( wire1 d\bl$ ov] 9 a loop1 ?r\gh ea* hamm]1 9 ord] to ensure fur!r /r5g? to ! fa/5+4 ,z may well be imag9$1 ! details ( manufacture1 ( ! quality ( ! felt+1 & ( ! dim5sions ( ! complet$ hamm]s1 require mu* c>e 9 _! execution4 ,long practice1 /udy1 & exp]i5ce h comb9$ to r5d] ! speciali/s1 :o devote !mselves to ! prep>ation ( hamm]s & hamm]-felt1 mo/ excell5tly fitt$ to place ^u ! m>ket ! v f9e/ productions ( ?is k9d4 ,!re h be5 attempts made at v>i\s times to provide a hamm] head1 & a me?od ( felt+ x1 t w\ld obviate ! some:at rapid det]ioration caus$ by ! p\nd+ ( ! glu$ & compress$ felt aga9/ ! /iff /eel wire /r+s4 ,! felt1 :i* requires to be compress$ be=e x is glu$ on to ! wood5 mold+1 rapidly becomes altoge!r too h>d4 ,moreov]1 ! fa/5+ ( ! felt to ! mold+ is by no means really p]man5t4 ,x has be5 sugge/$ t ! felt might prop]ly be conta9$ )9 a wood5 %ell :i* w\ld ext5d z f> along ! sides ( ! felt z ! wood5 mold+ n[ rea*es )9 x4 ,! compress$ %eet ( felt w\ld be =c$ into ?is %ell & fa/5$ !re9 s t x w\ld always be protect$ by an out] wood5 cov]+4 ,?us1 n only w\ld ! fa/5+ ( ! felt to ! wood be r$uc$ m secure1 b ! p\nd+ ^u ! /r+s w\ld n s rapidly assure ! undue h>d5+ ( ! felt4 ,= !re w\ld n be ! h>d wood5 base betwe5 :i* ! /r+s & ! felt is cont9ually subject$ to compression4 ,! idea is good & und\bt$ly w yet be recogniz$4 ,details ( ! adju/m5t ( ! hamm]s to ! re/ ( ! action & ( ! prep>ation ( !m by ! tone-regulator1 = ! bett] production ( good & ev5 tone1 w be dealt ) 9 ! *apt]s ^u action-& tone-regulat+4 ,,*apt] ,,xii4 ,,! ,,t\* ,,me*anism4 ,z ! hamm]-idea evolv$ itself 9 ! m9d ( ,cri/(ori & ! o!r exp]im5t]s :o 7 contemporane\sly b5d+ _! ef=ts t[>ds ! improvem5t ( ! dynamic possibilities ( key$ in/rum5ts1 we may be c]ta9 t mu* p]plexity 0 caus$ !m by ! problem ( provid+ "s me*anism t %\ld =m ! connect+ l9k betwe5 ! hamm] & ! key4 ,we may und]/& h[ ! +5i\s ,italian mu/ h labor$1 ) ! picture ( ! dulcim] & its play] cont9ually 9 8 m9d1 to obta9 an effici5t me*anical sub/itute = ! unc]ta9 /roke ( ! h& op]at$ dulcim]-hamm]1 z well z ! dynamically incapable h>psi*ord jack & quill4 ,x is surpris+ to note1 inde$1 h[ e>ly ! pres5t rul+ pr9ciples ( action-me*anism 7 elaborat$ by ^! pione] work]s4 ,cri/(ori1 z we h already m5tion$1 obta9$1 ere he di$1 a complete *eck to ! reb\nd ( ! hamm] & a =m ( escapem5t t may be se5 unalt]$ 9 ess5tials 9 surviv+ squ>e pian(ortes ( ! 8,engli% action0 v>iety4 ,we may fur!r reflect t ! inv5tion ( ,back]s1 z improv$ by ,john ,broadwood ! ,fir/1 rema9s today ! approv$ me*anism ( _m ,engli% & o!r ,european gr&s4 ,n only is ?is s1 b until ! g5]al adoption ( ! ,/e9way ov]/rung model1 !re exi/$ ,g]man mak]s :o 7 cont5t to fit _! mod]ate pric$ gr&s ) a slightly modifi$ =m ( ! ,vi5nese action inv5t$ by t rem>kable woman ,nanette ,/e91 aft]w>ds ,madame ,/rei*]1 ! conspicu\s feature ( :i* 0 ! mobility ( ! hamm]-butt & ! /ation>y condition ( ! jack4 ,! fact t ^! e>ly me*anisms rema9$ satisfactory to p]=m]s until rec5t ye>s is ! be/ pro( ( ! ?or\gh & sure me*anical basis ^u :i* !y 7 design$4 ,x is n necess>y to g into elaborate detail 9 describ+ ^! e>ly actions4 ,ref]5ce to ! accompany+ cuts w be suffici5t to lay b>e _! actuat+ pr9ciples4 ,we may1 h[ev]1 obs]ve t ! radical diff]5ce ( t\* betwe5 ! ,vi5nese 7,/rei*]7 models & ^? ( ,broadwood 7kn[n z ! ,engli% gr& action7 cont9u$ to be a s\rce ( annoyance to p]=m]s until ! increas+ te*nical dem&s ( ! mod]n virtuoso s*ool & ! improvem5ts 9 wire-draw+ & iron ca/+ made inevitable ! sup]session ( ! v light ,/rei*] action by ! heavi]1 m durable & m effici5t ,broadwood ,engli% model1 :i* cont9u$ 9 favor until )9 rec5t ye>s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,cri/(ori',s ,,action ,,9 ,,its ,,f9al ,,=m4 #a4 ,key4 #b4 ,jack4 #c4 ,jack-op]at+ spr+4 #d4 ,cu%ion limit+ reb\nd ( jack4 #e4 ,"u-hamm]4 #f4 ,hamm]-butt4 #g4 ,h+e ( hamm]-butt4 #h4 ,hamm]-%ank4 #i4 ,hamm] head4 #aj4 ,*eck4 #aa4 ,damp]-lift]4 #ab4 ,damp]-head4 #ac4 ,action-beam4 #ad4 ,wre/-plank4 #ae4 ,tun+ p9s4 #af4 ,be>+-bridge4 #ag4 ,/r+4 ,illu/ration3 ,,action ,,by ,,&reas ,,& ,,nanette 7,,/e971 ,,/rei*] ,,vi5nese ,,escapem5t 7#agid74 #a4 ,key4 #b4 ,jack4 #c4 ,jack-op]at+ spr+4 #d4 ,cu%ion limit+ reb\nd ( jack4 #e4 ,button & screw regulat+ escapem5t ( hamm]4 #f4 ,hamm]-butt & op]at+ face4 #g4 ,hamm]-butt pivot4 #h4 ,hamm]-%ank4 #i4 ,hamm]-head4 #aj4 ,*eck4 #aa4 ,damp]-lift]4 #ab4 ,damp]-head4 #ac4 ,action-rails4 ,illu/ration3 ,,engli% ,,direct ,,lev] ,,gr& ,,action1 ,,develop$ ,,by ,,broadwood ,,f ,,back]s 7#ahhd74 #a4 ,key4 #b4 ,jack4 #c4 ,jack op]at+ spr+4 #d4 ,rail & cu%ion limit+ travel ( jack4 #e4 ,button & screw regulat+ escapem5t ( hamm]4 #f4 ,hamm]-butt ) op]at+ not*4 #g4 ,hamm]-butt flange4 #h4 ,hamm]-%ank4 #i4 ,hamm]-head4 #aj4 ,*eck4 #ac4 ,action-rails4 ,illu/ration3 ,,d\ble ,,repetition ,,action ,,( ,,seba/ian ,,er>d ,,z ,,us$ ,,by ,s4 ,p4 ,,er>d1 ,,p>is4 #a4 ,key4 #b4 ,wipp54 #c4 ,jack4 #d4 ,escapem5t lev]4 #e4 ,hamm]-%ank4 #f4 ,roll]4 #g4 ,hamm]-head4 #h4 ,jack regulat+ button4 #i4 ,regulat+ button to limit rise ( escapem5t lev]4 #aj4 ,hamm]-butt4 #aa4 ,*eck4 #ab4 ,felt cu%ion to engage ) *eck4 #ac4 ,/ick] connect+ key & wipp54 #ad4 ,action-rails4 #ae4 ,damp]-head4 #af4 ,damp] op]at+ device4 #ag4 ,device to limit travel ( jack4 #ah4 ,/r+4 #ai4 ,spr+ 7v-%ap$7 = escapem5t lev] & jack4 ,%ortly be=e ! g5]al adoption ( ! ,broadwood model1 h[ev]1 !re 0 br\ght =w>d a new type ( gr& action1 :i* 0 de/9$ 9 its turn entirely to sup]s$e ! !n favorite ,engli% type4 ,?is 0 ! inv5tion ( ,seba/ian ,er>d1 ( ,p>is1 f\nd] ( ! /ill exi/+ h\se ( ,s4 ,p4 ,er>d4 ,8 new action 0 t]m$ ! 8d\ble repetition action10 & x fully des]ves ! "n4 ,by ! use ( ?is device ! lev]age t exi/s betwe5 ! hamm] & ! key is s manipulat$ t ! v slighte/ t\* ^u ! keys is suffici5t to cause ! hamm] to deliv] a bl[4 ,x w be obs]v$ by ref]5ce to ! cut t ! ,er>d action diff]s v l>gely f t ( ,broadwood4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 we obs]ve t ! hamm] heel is no long] provid$ ) a not* 9 :i* ! jack works1 b t ?is heel is r$uc$ to ! smalle/ dim5sions & acts m]ely z a pivot4 ,^u ! %ank ( ! hamm] is fa/5$ a felt-cov]$ roll]4 ,! jack acts ^u ?is roll]4 ,betwe5 ! jack & ! roll]1 h[ev]1 we obs]ve a long lev]1 "o end ( :i* has a slot ?r\gh :i* ! jack passes1 :ile ! o!r end is pivot$ on to a rail project+ f ! wipp54 ,?is is ! 8escapem5t0 or repetition lev]1 & =ms ! ma9 improvem5t ( ,er>d4 ,x w be obs]v$ t ! repetition lev] be>s aga9/ ! roll]1 & inde$ lifts x be=e ! jack c come into engagem5t ) x4 ,! jack1 work+ ?r\gh ! slott$ portion ( ! lev]1 is n br\ght into play until ! lev] has rais$ ! hamm] a little way4 ,! long1 d\ble spr+ t acts bo? ^u ! lev] & ! jack gives !m _! motions1 & ! result ( ! depression ( ! key is t ! repetition lev] is always 9 engagem5t1 & :5 ! angul> key-motion is n suffici5t to br+ ! jack into play1 ! "w w be done by aid ( ! lev]4 ,fur!rmore1 ! lev] op]ates to ma9ta9 ! hamm]-%ank 9 precisely ! prop] position = /rik+1 at all times1 & )\t ref]5ce to ! angul> position ( ! key4 ,x c easily be und]/ood t su* a vital *ange 9 action me*anism did n become popul> at once4 ,_m piani/s object$ to d\ble escapem5t4 ,notable among ^! 7 ,*op9 & ,kalkbr5n]2 ^! two be+ ! greate/ piani/s ( _! day 9 ,p>is4 ,*op9 pref]r$ pian(ortes fitt$ ) ! ,broadwood action4 ,illu/ration3 ,,! ,,er>d ,,gr& ,,action ,,modifi$ ,,by ,,h]z4 #a4 ,key4 #b4 ,wipp54 #c4 ,jack4 #d4 ,escapem5t lev]4 #e4 ,hamm]-%ank4 #f4 ,hamm]-butt not*4 #g4 ,hamm]-head4 #h4 ,jack regulat+ button4 #i4 ,regulat+ button to limit rise ( escapem5t lev]4 #aj4 ,hamm]-butt4 #aa4 ,*eck4 #ab4 ,mold$ tail ( hamm]-head to engage ) *eck4 #ac4 ,cap/an-screw connect+ key & wipp54 #ad4 ,action-rails4 #ae4 ,damp]-head4 #af4 ,damp]-op]at+ device4 #ag4 ,device to limit travel ( jack4 #ah4 ,regulat+ device = escapem5t lev]4 #ai4 ,spr+s 7#b7 = escapem5t lev] & jack4 #bj4 ,/r+4 #ba4 ,flange4 ,nev]!less1 ! m]its ( ,er>d's inv5tion cont9u$ to impress !mselves ^u ! musical _w1 al?\gh ,pi]re ,er>d1 :o _h pat5t$ 8 uncle's inv5tion 9 #ahba1 0 oblig$ to obta9 an ext5sion ( ! ,engli% pat5t 9 #ahce1 on ! gr\nd ( ! loss occasion$ 9 work+ x4 ,x did n become g5]ally adopt$1 ev5 aft] ! expiration ( ! ext5d$ pat5t1 until modifi$ & simplifi$ by ,h5ri ,h]z1 ! fam\s piani/ & pian(orte manufactur]4 ,!n its m]its1 9 ! modifi$ =m1 7 s g5]ally recogniz$ t x is n[ 9 use by ,/e9way1 ,*ick]+1 ,knabe & all manufactur]s ( gr& pian(ortes 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates2 by ,broadwood1 ,coll>d ,coll>d1 ,br9smead1 & o!rs 9 ,engl&2 by ,be*/e9 ,blu?n] 9 ,g]many1 & by mo/ ,fr5* mak]s ( em95ce ) ! sole exception ( ! h\se ( ,er>d itself4 ,?is em95t firm cont9ues to employ ! pure & orig9al =m ( action z pat5t$ 9 #ahba1 ) improvem5ts only 9 details ( workman%ip & mat]ial4 ,:atev] we may say z to ! g5]al adoption ( ! ,er>d action only aft] x _h be5 consid]ably modifi$1 we mu/ n )hold admiration f ! ,er>ds1 ^: g5ius & c\rage gave to u ! endur+ d\ble-escapem5t pr9ciple t has nev] yet be5 sup]s$$4 ,! ma9 features ( ! ,h]z-,er>d me*anism may be se5 at a glance4 ,! roll] is replac$ by ! not*1 once m re/or$ to favor1 & ! repetition lev] is made m effective by be+ pivot$ c5trally ) two free ends1 & by hav+ means provid$ to limit its up & d[n motion4 ,moreov]1 ! wipp5 is %ort5$ & made /raight1 ! s+le spr+ is replac$ by two1 & ! damp] is once m p]mitt$ to fall d[n on ! /r+s by its own weight )\t rec\rse to artificial spr+s4 ,! ,h]z-,er>d action has be5 tak5 up by ,am]ican mak]s1 b we f9d t !y h modifi$ x aga91 aft] _! own ideas4 ,= example1 if we look at ! accompany+ cut %[+ a mod]n ,am]ican gr& action ( ! highe/ class1 we %all obs]ve t ! orig9al roll] ( ,er>d is re/or$1 ! damp] me*anism simplifi$ & additional means ( controll+ ! movem5ts ( ! jack introduc$4 ,^! two latt] improvem5ts comb9e to make ! pres5t ,am]ican gr& action mo/ p]fect1 & ! a*ievem5ts ( ! speciali/ action mak]s mu/ ev] comm& our respectful admiration4 ,! read] has n[ be5 able to take a comp>atively complete survey ( ! progress ( inv5tion 9 gr& pian(orte action me*anism4 ,we %all !re=e turn to a critical exam9ation ( ! mod]n /&>d gr& action "h illu/rat$1 9 ord] t ! adju/m5t ( x )9 ! in/rum5t may be und]/ood4 ,illu/ration3 ,,/&>d ,,mod]n ,,am]ican ,,gr& ,,action4 #a4 ,key4 #b4 ,wipp54 #c4 ,jack4 #d4 ,escapem5t lev]4 #e4 ,hamm]-%ank4 #f4 ,roll]4 #g4 ,hamm]-head4 #h4 ,jack-regulat+ button4 #i4 ,regulat+ button to limit rise ( escapem5t lev]4 #aj4 ,hamm]-butt4 #aa4 ,*eck4 #ab4 ,mold$ tail ( hamm]-head to engage ) *eck4 #ac4 ,key-rock] & /ick] connect+ wipp5 & key4 #ad4 ,action-rails4 #ae4 ,damp]-head4 #af4 ,damp] op]at+ device4 #ag4 ,device to limit travel ( jack4 #ah4 ,regulat+ device = escapem5t lev]4 #ai4 ,sep>ate spr+s = jack & escapem5t lev]4 #bj4 ,/r+4 #ba4 ,flanges4 ,x w be obs]v$ t ! key 7#a7 is support$ ^u a key-frame1 "p ( :i* is cle>ly %[n 9 ! draw+4 ,?is frame is provid$ ) a clo? /rip at its re> end1 also %[n1 & ) a 8balance rail0 ^u :i* ! key is pivot$ by means ( a p94 ,! position ( ?is balance rail mu/ be su* t ! divisions ( ! key ?us made are to "o ano!r z #c3b4 ,! "p ne>e/ to ! play]'s f+] is ! long]4 ,b su* a proportion z ?is holds good only = ! actual op]ative l5g?s ( ! keys f ! front to ! po9t :]e ! /ick]1 or cap/an screw is plac$4 ,= o!rwise we h a di/9ct *ange 9 ! me*anical relations ( ! p>ts ( ! lev]-sy/em1 & ?is1 ( c\rse1 entails a correspond+ *ange 9 ! =ces t are br\ght into op]ation4 ,x is !re=e necess>y to h a /&>d l5g? ( key1 z betwe5 ! po9ts m5tion$1 & ?is l5g? is plac$ at #ae-c_/d in*es4 ,b1 9 ord] to ma9ta9 ! me*anical relations betwe5 ! dim5sions ( ! lev] we mu/ also consid] ! dep? to :i* ! key s9ks 9 front1 & also ! height to :i* x rises at ! back4 ,if1 !n1 we arrange t ! dep? 9 front %all be #c_/h-;in* full & ! rise 9 ! re> #a_/d-;in* full1 we %all be able to ma9ta9 ! position ( ! balance p9 z already calculat$4 ,su* a proportion supplies ! v be/ arrangem5t4 ,9 ord] to fix ! proportions 9 ! read]'s m9d we repeat !m 9 tabul> =m1 z foll[s3 ,in*es ,l5g? betwe5 front ( key & balance p9 #i-i_/bj ,l5g? betwe5 balance p9 & cap/an or /ick] #f-c_/aj ,total l5g? ( key betwe5 front & cap/an or /ick] #ae-c_/d ,dep? ( fall ( front portion ( key #c_/h full ,height ( rise ( back portion ( key #a_/d full ,! front portion ( ! key is m\nt$ ^u a rail ( ! key-frame :i* is provid$ ) a p94 ,?is p9 works 9 a mortise cut 9 ! bottom ( ! front portion ( ! key & bu%$ ) clo?4 ,! p9 is oval 9 =m & adapt$ to be turn$ s z p>tially to increase ! am\nt ( space occupi$ by x :5ev] we> or age t5d unduly to enl>ge ! size ( ! mortise4 ,! exact size ( all ! v>i\s action p>ts t are m\nt$ above & 9 connection ) ! keys dep5ds l>gely ^u ! exact int]ior dim5sions ( ! gr& pian(orte case4 ,s t x becomes necess>y c>efully to measure ! height f ! key-b$ to ! level ( ! /r+s1 & also ! di/ance f ! front ( ! keys to ! l9e ( damp] lift] wires1 & f !re to ! extreme re> end ( ! key-b$4 ,likewise ! exact position ( ! middle /r+ ( ea* ?ree-/r+ gr\p1 ! middle po9t ( ea* two-/r+ gr\p & ! position ( ea* s+le /r+ mu/ be m>k$ ^u a /ick = ! guidance ( ! action-mak]4 ,! latt] w !n be able to effect ! correct alignm5t ( ! hamm]s1 ! rise ( ! escapem5t lev] & jack1 & ! exact position1 9 ref]5ce to ^!1 ( ! o!r p>ts ( ! action4 ,x w1 ( c\rse1 be und]/ood t ! proportionate dim5sions ( all ! action p>ts dep5d ^u ! measurem5ts t we m5tion$ j n[1 z well z ^u ! dim5sions ( ! keys4 ,! greate/ c>e is !re=e necess>y 9 mak+ ^! measurem5ts4 ,illu/ration3 ,,gr& ,,pian(orte ,,action ,,) ,,metallic ,,action ,,& ,,damp] ,,frames1 ,,so/5uto ,,p$al ,,device ,,& ,,hamm] ,,sw++ ,,s(t ,,p$al ,,atta*m5t4 #bb4 ,so/5uto p$al-rod4 #bc4 ,atta*m5t to damp]-lev] engag+ ) so/5uto p$al-rod4 #bd4 ,metallic action & damp]-brackets4 #be4 ,hamm] sw+-rail & cu%ion4 #bf4 ,hamm] sw+-rail rod4 #bg4 ,hamm] sw+-rail lift]4 #bh4 ,lift]-rod4 #bi4 ,lo/ motion comp5sat+ lev]s4 #cj4 ,lo/ motion comp5sat+ lev]s4 ,! junction ( ^! p>ts ) ! damp] me*anism lies )9 ! prov9ce ( ! action f9i%] & regulator & w !re=e be treat$ 9 ! *apt] on action regulation4 ,x w be obs]v$ !n1 to return to ! consid]ation ( ! action 9 its actual movem5ts1 t ! depression ( ! key causes ! wipp5 to rise at its =w>d end4 ,?is br+s ! escapem5t lev] 7#d7 to be> ^u ! roll] 7#f71 ) :i* x is 9 cont9ual contact1 & raises ! hamm]-%ank & hamm]-head 7#e7 & 7#g74 ,at ! same "t ! jack 7#c7 is rais$ & its tail end is br\ght ne>] to ! button 7#h71 :i* x f9ally t\*es4 ,z soon z ?is happ5s ! jack is tripp$ up & its head comes out ( contact ) ! roll]4 ,! latt] 9 ! meantime1 hav+ be5 rais$ away f ! escapem5t lev] by ! action ( ! jack1 falls back into contact ) ! =m] & is !n borne up on ! lev] s t ! hamm] is ma9ta9$ 9 position ne> to ! /r+s4 ,! result ( ?is is t s long z ! f+] is held on ! front ( ! key1 ! :ole action is cont9ually 9 prop] position to actuate ! hamm]4 ,! jack is n p]mitt$ to fall away1 = ! roll] is ma9ta9$ 9 ! "r place by ! escapem5t lev] & x ?us happ5s t a v small angul> motion ( ! key obta9$ by slightly rais+ & depress+ ! f+]1 is suffici5t to cause ! :ole action to be set 9 motion1 & ! op]ation ( actuat+ ! hamm] to be gone ?r\gh z (t5 & z rapidly z requir$4 ,! p$al motions ( ! gr& action are simple4 ,! :ole action & keys1 z we "k1 are m\nt$ ^u ! key-frame toge!r1 & ?us =m a homog5e\s /ructure4 ,! 8piano0 p$al is caus$ to %ift ?is frame s t ! hamm]s ea* /rike only two ( ! memb]s ( ea* ?ree-/r+ gr\p & only "o ( ea* two-/r+ gr\p4 ,?is is effect$ by ! use ( a heavy spr+ t is set 9 ! side ( ! int]ior case & be>s aga9/ ! key-frame1 & by a lev] t op]ates f a hole cut 9 ! bottom ( ! key-b$ & engages ) "o ( ! b>s ( ! key-frame4 ,! p$al is connect$ ) ?is iron lev] s z to %ift ! key-frame1 & ! spr+ op]ates to pu% ! key-frame back into place :5ev] ! foot-pressure is remov$ f ! p$al4 ,! 8=te0 p$al simply pu%es up ! :ole l9e ( damp] lev]s 7#af7 ea* ( :i* is pivot$ on flanges 7#ba7 = t purpose4 ,! lift+ is effect$ by means ( a rod connect+ ) ! p$al :i* is project$ ?r\gh ! bottom ( ! key-b$ & engages ) a rail set "u ! l9e ( damp] lev]s & adapt$ to raise !m :5 op]at$ by ! p$al-rod4 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 two v>iations to ! p$al me*anism ( gr& pian(ortes t require "s att5tion on acc\nt ( _! me*anical int]e/4 ,^! are cle>ly illu/rat$ & describ$ 9 ! cut & specifications %[n on adjo9+ page4 ,! work+ ( ! so/5uto p$al & ( ! new s(t p$al device w be readily compreh5d$ by ref]5ce to ! cut4 ,x w be not$1 9 ! fir/ place1 t ! metallic action brackets :i* 7 omitt$ 9 ! previ\s draw+ = ! sake ( exhibit+ ! work+ p>ts m cle>ly1 are n[ %[n4 ,! 8so/5uto p$al0 is devis$ to p]mit ! su/a9+ ( a *ord :ile ! f+]s ( ! p]=m]1 = ! purpose ( cont9u+ ! melody1 are )drawn f ! keys4 ,x w be obs]v$ t ! action is provid$ ) a rod 7#bb7 :i* is connect$ ) a p$al & is adapt$ to be br\ght into contact ) an additional damp]-lev] 7#bc74 ,?is additional lev] is provid$ ) a tongue ( felt1 & :5 ! rod is turn$ on its axis1 ?is tongue engages ) a simil> metallic device on ! rod1 ?us hold+ ! damp] up z long z ! rod is kept 9 ! position ( contact4 ,:5 ! key is press$ d[n1 ! damp] rises to cle> ! /r+1 & br+s ! additional lev] up ) x1 s t1 if ! rod is n[ caus$ to revolve1 ! tongues on ea* engage "o ) ano!r & ! damp] is held up z long z ! p$al is press$ d[n & irrespective ( ! position ( ! key4 ,provid$ t ! keys are fir/ depress$1 ! p$al w always hold up z _m ( ! damp]s z are ?us rais$4 ,! result is to su/a9 ! s\nd ( ! /r+s aft] ! h& has be5 remov$ f ! key4 ,?is gives a m p]man5t "* to ! h>monization ( a melody1 )\t ! dissonance t comes f ! releas+ ( all ! damp]s by ! ord9>y 8=te0 p$al4 ,! 8so/5uto p$al0 is g5]ally situat$ betwe5 ! o!rs 9 ! lyre or p$al case at ! level ( ! play]'s feet4 ,! second device is also mo/ int]e/+4 ,x consi/s ( a me?od = s(t5+ ! s\nd ( ! /r+1 by a me?od simil> to t :i* is employ$ 9 ! upright4 ,x is claim$1 & ) "s ju/ice1 t ! use ( ! %ift+ key-frame is att5d$ ) v>i\s complications1 & t ! motion t5ds to h9d] ! adju/m5t ( ! action to ! /r+s4 ,moreov] ! hamm]s become unev5ly worn by be+ cont9ually caus$ to /rike two1 in/ead ( ?ree1 /r+s & ?is op]ates to cause loss ( directness 9 ! hamm]-/rokes4 ,9 ?is new device1 ! hamm] is provid$ ) a sw+-rail 7#be71 hav+ a cu%ion = ! hamm]-reb\nd simil> to ! ord9>y cu%ion t is support$ ^u ! wipp5 9 mo/ actions1 & a rod 7#bf7 = pivot+ x to ! metallic action frame 7#bd74 ,! sw+-rail also is fitt$ ) a lift] 7#bg71 :i* is op]at$ by ! s(t p$al ?r\gh a lift]-rod 7#bh74 ,s f> ! process is simple4 ,! effect ( ! motion ( ! sw+-rail is to br+ ! hamm] clos] to ! /r+ & to s(t5 ! tone4 ,b ?is is only accompli%$ at ! co/ ( lo/ motion betwe5 ! cap/an-screw & ! key4 ,to avoid ! loss ( t\* ?us br\ght ab\t1 ! lift]-rod is connect$ ) two comp5sat+ lev]s 7#bi7 & 7#cj71 :i* are s adju/$ t !y =m a cont9u\s l9k betwe5 ! p>ts :]e ! lo/ motion w\ld occur1 & ?us pres]ve ! cont9uity ( t\* & ! weight t is lo/ by ! diff]5t actuat+ positions ( ! hamm]4 ,! +5uity ( ?is device comm5ds x to ! /ud5t ( pian(orte me*anism1 & ! mak]s are entitl$ to great praise = ! successful a*ievem5t ( ?is important modification4 ,we may conclude our survey by giv+ a li/ ( ! mat]ials ( :i* gr& actions are con/ruct$4 ,v>i\s ,woods-- ,pe> tree ,damp] heads4 ,holly ,jacks & o!r small p>ts4 ,sycamore ,jacks & o!r small p>ts4 ,ebony ,tops ( black keys4 ,maple ,hamm] mold+s & %anks4 ,mahogany ,hamm] mold+s1 buttons1 etc4 ,:ite p9e ,key-frames4 ,felts & ,clo?s-- ,baize ,on key-frames1 hamm]-rails1 etc4 ,baize ,pun*+s4 ,flannel clo? ,bu%+ c5tre p9 holes1 damp] lift] holes1 etc4 ,tone felt ,upp] & "u felt = hamm]4 ,h>d felt ,bass damp] w$ges4 ,s(t felt ,treble damp]s1 etc4 ,flannel ,sundry action p>ts4 ,lea!rs & ,sk9s-- ,doesk9 ,bucksk9 ,v>i\s p>ts ( action1 op]at+ faces ( ,elksk9 hamm]-butts1 etc4 ,ivory ,tops ( :ite keys4 ,celluloid ,fronts ( :ite keys4 ,graphite ,lubrication ( work+ p>ts4 ,iron ,action frames1 screws1 etc4 ,brass ,c5tre p9s1 spr+s1 p$al-feet1 etc4 ,illu/ration3 ,,/&>d ,,am]ican ,,upright ,,action4 #a4 ,key-rock]4 #b4 ,ab/ract4 #c4 ,ab/ract-lev]4 #d4 ,flange4 #e4 ,action-rail4 #f4 ,wipp54 #g4 ,jack4 #h4 ,jack-spr+4 #i4 ,*eck4 #aj4 ,*eck-wire4 #aa4 ,bridle-wire4 #ab4 ,tip ( bridle-tape4 #ac4 ,bridle-tape4 #ad4 ,back-/op4 #ae4 ,regulat+ rail4 #af4 ,regulat+ button4 #ag4 ,regulat+ screw4 #ah4 ,hamm]-butt4 #ai4 ,hamm]-%ank4 #bj4 ,hamm]-mold+4 #ba4 ,hamm]-head4 #bb4 ,hamm]-rail4 #bc4 ,hamm]-butt spr+4 #bd4 ,hamm]-spr+ rail4 #be4 ,damp]-spoon4 #bf4 ,damp]-lift+ rod4 #bg4 ,damp]-lev]4 #bh4 ,damp]-lev] spr+4 #bi4 ,damp]-wire4 #cj4 ,damp]-block4 #ca4 ,damp]-head4 #cb4 ,/r+4 #cc4 ,cont9u\s brass hamm]-butt flange4 ,we are n[ able to turn our att5tion to ! action me*anism ( ! upright pian(orte4 ,! hi/orical *apt] ( ?is "w conta9s a %ort description ( ! e>ly hi/ory ( ! upright =m4 ,( c\rse1 x w at once be se5 t ! only real me*anical difficulty 9 design+ a v]tical type ( pian(orte 0 to be f\nd 9 ! dep>tm5t ( t\*-me*anism4 ,! problem 0 inde$ prim>ily ( ! action4 ,z su* x is int]e/+ to note ! ef=ts ( ,hawk9s1 ,s\?well & ,l\d1 to produce an action t w\ld approa* 9 effici5cy t ( ! gr&4 ,x 0 ,rob]t ,wornum1 h[ev]1 :o f\nd ! solution1 ?\gh n until ne>ly ! end ( ! fir/ qu>t] ( ! n9ete5? c5tury4 ,! pr9ciple appli$ by ,wornum possess$ su* value t x has nev] be5 sup]s$$1 & rema9s today ! di/+ui%+ feature ( ! upright action4 ,we ref]1 ( c\rse1 to ! tape4 ,z appli$ to ! action ( uprights1 ?is device has become univ]sal1 & all upright actions 9 consequ5ce h = ye>s be5 ev]y:]e simil> z to g5]al design4 ,?us we d n f9d ^? radical diff]5ces ( actuat+ pr9ciple t to ?is day di/+ui% ,am]ican f c]ta9 ,european gr& pian(ortes4 ,?is is p>tly due to ! fact t ! great battles _h already be5 f\ght out :5 ! fir/ successful upright actions 7 made4 ,at pres5t1 ! only rema9+ types ( ! anci5t 8/ick]0 lea!r-h+$ action are to be f\nd 9 old-fa%ion$ & obsolete ,european pian(ortes ( ! *eap] grade4 ,none are made n[1 h[ev]1 except 9 ! case ( a v few wor?less comm]cial ,engli% in/rum5ts4 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ! 8/ick]0 action has h>dly be5 he>d (4 ,?us x seems unnecess>y to give detail$ draw+s ( any b ! accept$ type ( upright action4 ,! read]'s att5tion is imm$iately call$1 !re=e1 to ! draw+ h]e) giv54 ,! me?od ( op]ation may be se5 v cle>ly4 ,depression ( ! key1 to :i* is screw$ ! key-rock] 7#a71 causes ! ,ab/ract 7#b7 & ! ,wipp5 7#f7 to rise4 ,?is br+s ! ,jack 7#g7 to be> aga9/ ! butt 7#ah71 :i* is rais$1 =c+ ! hamm] 7#bj7 & 7#ba7 ?r\gh ! %ank 7#ai7 aga9/ ! /r+ 7#cb74 ,z ! hamm] /rikes1 ! rise ( ! jack has br\ght its tail aga9/ ! regulat+-button 7#af71 :i* trips x up s t x falls t[>ds ! back-/op 7#ad74 ,! butt1 be+ ?us left free1 drops back1 assi/$ by ! pull ( ! tape 7#ac71 until ! back-/op is caught & held by ! *eck 7#i71 ?us leav+ "t = ! jack to get back "u ! hamm] butt ?r\gh ! aid ( ! spr+ 7#h74 ,repetition ( ! hamm] is ?us assur$1 & :ile ! rapidity ( /roke _c be s great z t ( ! gr&1 x is suffici5tly s to satisfy ord9>y us]s4 ,sometimes a spr+ is fa/5$ to ! front ( ! jack 9 connection ) a silk loop & cord :i* /ret*es back & engages ) ! hamm] spr+ 7#bc74 ,! latt] is !n fa/5$ to ! hamm] butt in/ead ( to a rail 7#bd74 ,?is arrangem5t gives a f> m rapid repetition to ! action & causes x to approa* ! delicacy ( ! d\ble escapem5t ( ! gr&4 ,illu/ration3 ,,upright ,,action ,,%[+ ,,lo/-,,motion ,,device1 ,,metallic ,,regulat+ ,,rail ,,support1 ,,cap/an ,,screw1 ,,jack ,,regulat+ ,,rail ,,& ,,metallic ,,action ,,brackets4 #cd4 ,hamm]-rail lift]-wire4 #ce4 ,hamm]-rail sw+-lev]4 #cf4 ,hamm]-rail lift] rod4 #cg4 ,lift]-rod lev]4 #ch4 ,comp5sation-lev]4 #ci4 ,cap/an-screw4 #dj4 ,rail = limit+ return movem5t ( jack4 #da4 ,metallic regulat+ rail support4 ,! p$al me*anism is ! same z 9 ! gr&4 ,! 8piano0 effect is obta9$ by pu%+ =w>d ! hamm]-rail 7#bb71 s t ! hamm]s approa* ne>] to ! /r+s4 ,! 8=te0 p$al effect is obta9$ by use ( ! damp] lift+ rod 7#bf7 :i* is turn$ re>w>ds & =ces back ! :ole l9e ( damp] heads s t !y leave ! /r+s4 ,! lo/ motion t occurs 9 ! action :5 ! 8piano0 p$al is us$ has be5 ov]come 9 a mo/ +5i\s mann]1 & by means simil> to ^? already describ$ 9 ! discussion ( ! gr& action4 ,! tr\ble to be ov]come is ! same1 namely ! lift+ up ( ! ab/ract f ! rock] or cap/an screw caus$ by ! =c+ ( ! hamm]s t[>ds ! /r+s4 ,?is causes loss ( t\* & is v irritat+ to ! p]=m]4 ,! draw+ giv5 h]e) also %[s ! metallic action bracket = support+ ! action & ! cap/an screw t is us$ z an alt]nate to ! key-rock]4 ,! lo/ motion atta*m5t op]ates ?r\gh ! rod 7#cf7 :i* lifts ! hamm] rail & at ! same "t br+s into play ! comp5sation lev] 7#ch71 :i* takes up ! space betwe5 ! ab/ract & ! key t w\ld o!rwise int]v5e4 ,?us ! t\* rema9s true irrespective ( ! position ( ! hamm]4 ,! mat]ials t are requir$ = ! manufacture ( ! upright action d n diff] f ^?1 :i* we h already classifi$ z p]ta9+ to ! gr&4 ,! adju/m5t ( ! upright action requires t ! same precautions be tak5 9 ! measurem5t ( ! key-b$1 ( ! height ( ! action betwe5 ! keys & /rik+-po9t ( hamm]s1 ! di/ance ( hamm] f /r+s :5 at re/ & s on4 ,all ^! assi/ ! action mak] to adju/ ! alignm5t ( ! hamm]s & ! height ( ! ab/racts4 ,! size ( ! pian(orte sometimes requires ! omission ( ! ab/racts1 9 :i* case ! bottom ( ! wipp5 is felt$ & br\ght into contact ) ! cap/an or rock] direct4 ,all ^! details are att5d$ to by ! action mak] :5 ! prop] measurem5ts are giv54 ,! m>k+ on a /ick ( ! run ( ! /r+s is done j z 0 sugge/$ = ! gr& scale4 ,9 conclusion1 x may be m5tion$ t mu* simil>ity exi/s betwe5 c]ta9 p>ts ( ! action ( bo? types ( in/rum5t4 ,x has become cu/om>y to make ! l5g? ( ! hamm] %ank & hamm] butt1 :5 fitt$ toge!r1 ab\t five in*es1 c\nt+ f ! c5t] p9 ( ! butt to ! middle ( ! hamm] mold+4 ,?is measurem5t w be f\nd correct = bo? gr&s & uprights4 ,! l5g? ( ! hamm] bl[ is always z ne>ly z possible #a-bd_/be in*es = ! bass end1 graduat+ to #a-i_/aj scant 9 ! treble4 ,^! dim5sions %\ld be ma9ta9$ at all co/s4 ,! key l5g?s t we gave be=e are applicable to all =ms ( uprights4 ,:5 provid$ ) ^! data ! action mak] w be able to put out a me*anism t w fulfill ! individual requirem5ts ( ea* k9d ( in/rum5t4 ,,*apt] ,,xiii4 ,,regulation ,,( ,,pian(orte ,,t\* ,,me*anism4 ,we may presume t ! read] is by ?is "t q famili> ) ! appe>ance & use ( ! v>i\s p>ts ( ! gr& & upright pian(orte action1 bo? z assembl$ & deta*$4 ,we may !re=e proce$ to give g5]al in/ructions = ! adju/m5t ( ^! )9 ! in/rum5t & ! regulation ( ! v>i\s work+ p>ts into prop] h>mony ) "o ano!r4 ,we say 8g5]al in/ructions0 advis$ly2 = x is q out ( ! "q to tea* action f9i%+ & regulat+ by means ( writt5 directions4 ,exp]i5ce & ! practical r\t9e ( ! %op mu/ be gone ?r\gh by anyone :o hopes to be able to d ?is k9d ( "w well4 ,= !re are few dep>tm5ts ( me*anical endeavor t dem& su* skill1 c>e1 & pati5ce z ! regulation ( pian(orte me*anism4 ,nev]!less ! directions t we %all give 9 ?is *apt] w be suffici5t to make him :o reads & dige/s !m a v effici5t critic4 ,x is mu* to ! employ] to be able to e/imate correctly ! value ( ea* practical detail ( ! con/ruction1 & ! correctness ( ! mann] 9 :i* x is execut$4 ,?is *apt] is int5d$ to provide z mu* ( ?is k z may be imp>t$ by means ( writt5 words4 ,we %all beg9 ) ! gr& action1 foll[+ ! me?od t has be5 pursu$ ?r\gh\t ?is "w4 ,! fir/ /ep 9 ! regulat+ & adju/m5t ( ! gr& action is tak5 by ! 8action-f9i%]40 ,he receives ! action & keys sep>ately4 ,! =m] is )\t hamm]s or damp]s & ! latt] )\t rock]s or cap/an screws4 ,! action has to be plac$ )9 ! space de/9$ = x 9 ! in/rum5t & ! prop] position = x not$4 ,if ! action has be5 well made !re %\ld be no difficulty 9 see+ t x fits its place correctly4 ,! action is screw$ on to ! key-frame ?r\gh its metallic brackets & ! cap/an screws are put into ! keys at ! prop] po9ts s t !y engage ) ! cu%ions on ! bottom ( ! wipp5s4 ,:5 ?is has be5 done ! weight ( ! action ^u any "o ( ! keys %\ld be not$ & ! action may !n be remov$4 ,a piece ( lead %\ld !n be tak5 & fa/5$ to ! back ( ea* key4 ,?is lead mu/ h ! same weight z ! action has ^u ea* key4 ,! keys w !n rema9 9 _! prop] positions :5 ! action is remov$1 & ! "w ( level+ !m may !n be begun4 ,rememb]+ ! dep? ( t\* t 0 prescrib$ 9 ! la/ *apt]1 let ! extreme bass & treble keys be adju/$ to an equival5t height by wood5 blocks ?r\gh _! front rail p9s4 ,!n run a /raight edge ov] ! keys & proce$ to adju/ _! levels by means ( ! ?9 pap] pun*+s t are provid$ = ! purpose4 ,^! come 9 v>i\s ?icknesses & are laid ov] ! balance rail p9s & "u ! clo? pun*+s t mu/ fir/ h be5 plac$ 9 position bo? on ! balance rail & ! front rail4 ,:5 ! level+ is accompli%$ let ! action be screw$ on aga94 ,!n let ! hamm]s be glu$ on4 ,! /rik+ po9t ( ! hamm]s mu/ be c>efully measur$ & ! directions already giv5 z to ! /rik+ ( ! highe/ hamm] mu/ be obs]v$4 ,x w be rememb]$ t "o-t5? ( ! /r+ 0 recomm5d$ = ! highe/ hamm]s1 graduat+ d[n to ! ideal "o-n9? & "o-eigh?4 ,! scale draughtsman w prep>e a m>k+ /ick %[+ ! true hamm] l9e4 ,! hamm]s are glu$ on absolutely at "r angles to ! plane ( ! /r+s4 ,aft] !y are dry1 !y mu/ be adju/$ to ! prop] position by ! cap/an screws or rock]s4 ,!y mu/ lie j ov] & n q t\*+ ! wipp5 cu%ions4 ,let !m also be align$ to ea* o!r1 horizontally1 ) great exactness4 ,be sure t ! keys "w easily & t ! dep? ( t\* is r\ghly adju/$ z already provid$ =4 ,x next becomes necess>y to fix ! damp] me*anism4 ,?is is *iefly situat$ 9 ! back ( ! action & ! damp] lev]s are to be s adju/$ t !y re/ a little above ! backs ( ! keys1 ready to be engag$ ) !m :5 ! fronts ( ! keys are depress$4 ,! damp]s mu/ fit on to ! /r+s /raight & mu/ drop ) suffici5t =ce to effect an in/antane\s damp+4 ,! damp] lev]s are lead$ = ?is purpose4 ,! in/rum5t is !n tak5 9 h& by ! action regulator4 ,8 "w is mo/ important4 ,he fir/ sees t ! level ( ! keys is p]fect & t !y are prop]ly balanc$ :5 susp5d$ )\t ! action4 ,if any defects are f\nd "h !y are rem$i$ by *anges 9 ! lead+4 ,! keys %\ld be s lead$ t !y balance :5 te/$ on a scale & ! weight ( t\* ) ! action fitt$ mu/ n be m ?an two & "o-qu>t] ounces4 ,! alignm5t ( ! hamm]s is !n correct$ & ! l5g? ( ! hamm] /roke1 z laid d[n 9 ,*apt] ,,xii1 is adju/$ by means ( ! cap/an screw or rock]4 ,! jack is s regulat$ by its button & screw t ! trip up ( ! jack occurs :5 ! hamm] is #e_/cb ( an in* f ! /r+4 ,! *ecks mu/ cat* ! hamm]s :5 !y h fall5 ?ree-qu>t]s ( an in* away f ! /r+s4 ,! tails ( ! hamm]-mold+s mu/ be r\gh5$ & ! *ecks be s slant$ t ! cat* is sure & tight4 ,! escapem5t lev] is !n consid]$4 ,! spr+ t gov]ns x requires adju/m5t4 ,x mu/ be suffici5tly /rong to cause ! hamm] to dance & jump a little on ! lev] :5 ! key is releas$4 ,! escapem5t lev] mu/ also be regulat$ by means ( ! hook t is f\nd at its re> end4 ,!re mu/ be space en\gh betwe5 ! hook & ! lev] to ensure t ! cat* ( ! hamm] by ! *eck is at all times free4 ,! screw t regulates ! rise ( ! escapem5t lev] mu/ also be att5d$ to4 ,x is necess>y t ! movem5t ( ! lev] be arre/$ be=e ! hamm] has q ris5 to ! po9t ( ! trip up ( ! jack4 ,! aft]-t\* "u ! front ( ! keys is regulat$ by means ( pap] pun*+s4 ,if en\gh pun*+s are plac$ "u ! keys to make v h>d pressure necess>y to =ce a release ( ! hamm]1 !n pun*+s ( #a_/cb ( an in* 9 ?ickness mu/ be remov$ to make ! aft] t\* correct4 ,! keys mu/ also be made to desc5d ev5ly z judg$ f ! top4 ,unev5ness is correct$ also by ! judici\s use ( pun*+s4 ,9 regulat+ ! damp]s !re are _m small details to be wat*$4 ,! lift]-wires mu/ "w freely 9 ! bu%+s & ! heads mu/ lie /raight ^u ! /r+s4 ,?is is especially important z reg>ds ! bass w$ge-damp]s4 ,!re mu/ be a small space betwe5 ! damp] lev]s & ! felt$ backs ( ! keys & ! rise ( ! damp] heads :5 ! lev]s are lift$ mu/ be ev5 & facile4 ,! height ( asc5t ( ! damp] heads mu/ n exce$ "o-fif? ( an in*1 & a little m :5 ! :ole ( !m are lift$ by ! p$al-rod4 ,! so/5uto rod mu/ also be adju/$ s t ! damp] lev] tongues are caught :5 ! rod is revolv$4 ,c>e mu/ be tak5 t ! rod does n cat* ! tongues :5 ! p$al is n 9 use4 ,! p$al me*anism is simple4 ,x is ess5tial to see t ! feet "w 9 ! lyre )\t scrap+2 h5ce lubrication ) graphite & tall[ is necess>y4 ,! rods t connect ) ! action lev]s mu/ s engage z to be j 9 contact )\t be>+ too mu*4 ,! s(t 8piano0 p$al mu/ engage ) ! %ift+ lev] s z to all[ a small space betwe5 x & ! po9t ( contact ) ! key-frame4 ,! /r5g? ( ! reaction spr+ 9 ! case mu/ be arrang$ s t ! key-bo>d is pu%$ back ) promptness ^u ! release ( ! p$al4 ,! 8=te0 p$al mu/ be adju/$ s t its connect+ rod is 9 contact ) ! damp] lev] lift+ rail1 b n en\gh to op]ate )\t ! depression ( ! p$al4 ,! so/5uto p$al requires to be arrang$ to revolve ! so/5uto rod in/antly4 ,"h ! rod has to be revolv$ its entire di/ance be=e x op]ates & ! adju/m5t may !re=e be made q close4 ,^! directions w enable "o at lea/ to be sure t ! regulation ( a gr& pian(orte action has be5 prop]ly done2 al?\gh x is n to be expect$ t ! innum]able small details ( practical "w are to be le>n$ o!r ?an practically4 ,x mu/ especially be borne 9 m9d t ! use ( tools & facility 9 h&l+ !m & mak+ def9ite adju/m5ts ) !m is a matt] ( long & pati5t practice4 ,! above in/ructions are int5d$ m]ely to set ! r\t9e me?od be=e ! read]1 s t he may approa* ! subject ) a correct k ( pr9ciples4 ,! regulation & adju/m5t ( ! upright action is precisely simil> z to pr9ciples4 ,! diff]5ces occur ?r\gh ! some:at dissimil> me?od :]eby repetition is atta9$ & ! great v>iation 9 ! g5]al position ( ! p>ts ) ref]5ce to ! /r+s4 ,! action ( ! upright is fa/5$1 by means ( ! metallic brackets1 to iron bolts :i* are set up 9 ! key-b$4 ,! height ( ^! bolts dep5ds ^u ! dim5sions ( ! in/rum5t & ! /rik+ po9t ( ! /r+s4 ,9 sett+ ! action 9 place great c>e mu/ be ex]cis$ 9 see+ t ! hamm] l9e lies truly 9 reg>d to ! run ( ! /r+s4 ,errors 9 ! ca/+ ( ! plate (t5 lead to a di/ortion ( ! true /r+-l9e & ! action f9i%] mu/ take c>e to set ! action ) due reg>d to ^! matt]s4 ,:5 ! action1 :i* is m9us hamm]s & damp]s1 is ?us set 91 ! keys may be plac$ "u x = ! purpose ( m>k+ ! po9ts :]e ! cap/an screws or rock]s mu/ be set4 ,! hamm]s & damp]s are !n glu$ 9 & adju/$ = position ) reg>d to ! /r+s4 ,if ! action & keys are truly proportion$1 x is always possible to make ! l5g? ( ! key j z recomm5d$ 9 ! la/ *apt]4 ,sometimes ! size ( ! pian(orte makes impossible ! employm5t ( cap/ans or rock]s ) ab/racts4 ,9 ?is case x is cu/om>y ei!r to use a d[el prop or to lay ! wipp5 directly ^u ! key4 ,:5 ! d[el prop is us$ x is driv5 firmly into ! key1 & its upp] end1 :i* is a wood5 rod into :i* ! l[] spike is screw$1 imp+es aga9/ ! wipp54 ,9 lay+ ! place = ! d[el to be driv51 x mu/ be rememb]$ t x is necess>y = ! head ( ! d[el to hit ! bottom ( ! wipp5 squ>ely4 ,b ! d[el describes a curve at its head :5 ! key is mov+1 & ! wipp5 has to be provid$ ) a felt$ foot1 curv$ s z to accommodate ?is circul> motion ( ! d[el4 ,?is motion mu/ be obs]v$ c>efully1 s t ! d[el does n lay too f> =w>d or back ( ! wipp5 foot :5 ! key is at ei!r ( its extreme positions4 ,! regulation prop] n[ beg9s4 ,ab/racts1 or d[els1 are always regulat$ by a screw4 ,?is is ei!r 9 ! =m ( a cap/an or ( a rock]1 or ( ! movable "p ( ! d[el itself4 ,! adju/m5t mu/ be made ) ref]5ce to ! position ( ! jack "u ! hamm] butt4 ,x is necess>y t ! jack be j 9 contact ) ! not*$ heel ( ! butt4 ,aft] ! hamm]s & damp]s h be5 put 9 & _! positions ) ref]5ce to ! keys adju/$1 x becomes necess>y to regulate ! escape ( ! hamm] by means ( ! regulat+ buttons & ! jacks4 ,! directions giv5 = gr&s apply "h4 ,! hamm] spr+s mu/ be put 9 place & ! fall ( ! hamm]s not$4 ,if !y /ick1 ! bu%+s are too tight or "s cognate tr\ble exi/s :i* c be easily rem$i$ ) a drop ( oil on ! affect$ "p4 ,! *ecks mu/ be adju/$ to ! back-/ops & made to /& squ>e to !m & !y mu/ also be arrang$ to cat* ! back-/ops :5 ! hamm] has recov]$ ab\t two-?irds ( an in* f ! /r+4 ,we "k t ! l5g? ( ! hamm] bl[ %\ld be f #a-bd_/be ( an in* 9 ! bass to #a-i_/aj ( an in* 9 ! treble4 ,! tapes mu/ be adju/$ s t !y beg9 to ex]cise _! pull :5 ! hamm] is />t$ away f ! /r+s4 ,!y mu/ n be /ra9$ too tight1 b %\ld be left j a little loose1 s t :5 ! s(t p$al pu%es ! hamm]s t[>ds ! /r+s ! ab/racts or d[els d n at once leave ! keys4 ,! damp]s are adju/$1 z to position1 l ^? ( ! gr&--t is1 !y mu/ lie squ>e on ! /r+s & be 9 a /raight l9e ) "o ano!r4 ,_! movem5ts are direct$ by ! spoons & ^! mu/ be s b5t t ! damp] beg9s to move :5 ab\t "o-?ird ( ! angul> motion ( ! key has tak5 place4 ,:5 actuat$ by ! p$al1 !y mu/ fall aga9/ ! back ( ! hamm] spr+ rail1 :i* is felt$ = ! purpose1 & _! motion mu/ be in/antane\s :5 ! p$al is depress$4 ,! p$al me*anism is conceal$ beh9d ! bottom frame ( ! case & w be f\nd to be precisely simil> to t ( ! gr&1 except z reg>ds ! m\nt+ & pivot+ ( ! lev]s4 ,^! mu/ be kept lubricat$ ) graphite & tall[ to prev5t squeak+4 ,! connection ( ! s(t p$al ) ! hamm] rail mu/ be close s t in/antane\s action results :5 ! p$al is op]at$4 ,! motion ( ! p$al may pu% ! hamm]s "o-half ( _! /roke l5g? t[>ds ! /r+s1 n m4 ,! level+ ( ! keys & ! regulation ( t\* h already be5 describ$2 no?+ fur!r ne$ be said except t ^! op]ations are m easily p]=m$ 9 ! upright ow+ to ! op5 way 9 :i* ev]y?+ is set 94 ,x is unnecess>y to g fur!r into detail 9 reg>d to ! regulation ( actions4 ,en\gh has be5 said to lay b>e ! g5]al pr9ciples1 &1 z 0 /at$ be=e1 ! re/ comes f exp]i5ce only4 ,a text-book c nev] replace an appr5tice%ip1 b we _c d5y its value 9 lay+ d[n correct pr9ciples = ! man :o wants to "k h[ ?+s %\ld be done4 ,z a fitt+ conclusion to ! pres5t discussion1 we may n[ note ! ord] ( ! v>i\s processes :i* comb9e to make up ! manufacture ( a pian(orte1 f ! cutt+ ( ! lumb] to ! f9al tun+ 9 ! w>]oom4 ,! v>i\s k9ds ( lumb] t are to be us$ are expos$1 aft] cutt+ & r\gh dress+1 9 a lumb]-y>d4 ,"h !y rema9 f ?ree to t5 ye>s accord+ to ! k9d ( wood & ! degree ( c>e t is tak5 by ! manufactur]4 ,! be/ mak]s take ! greate/ c>e 9 season+ _! lumb]4 ,! fir/ op]ations to be consid]$ are ^? ( ! saw-mill4 ,"h ! r\gh "w = ! case-mak+ is done1 & ! mold+s = actions & cases are turn$ out4 ,! r\gh cases are !n s5t to ! case dep>tm5t & made up into %ape4 ,! b5t rims are !re glu$ toge!r = ! gr&s1 & ! sides & frames ( ! uprights are %ap$4 ,! back fram+1 wre/-planks & o!r p>ts ( ! case & back con/ruction are also put toge!r 9 ! case dep>tm5t4 ,9 ! meantime1 ! ma*9e "w has gone 9 ! r\gh f ! saw-mill to ! 8action dep>tm5t10 :]e x is cut1 %ap$ & made up into ! delicate action p>ts4 ,^! h to be lea!r$1 felt$1 provid$ ) brackets1 spr+s & ! o!r accessories & assembl$4 ,! hamm]s are cov]$1 damp]s1 prep>$1 & ! :ole ( ! action "w is ?us made ready aga9/ ! "t :5 ! case %all be 9 condition to receive x4 ,?is action & hamm] "w is g5]ally done by speciali/s1 :o supply _m diff]5t mak]s ) actions accord+ to _! p>ticul> scales & patt]ns4 ,mean:ile ! cases h be5 s5t to ! v>ni% room & are "h prep>$ ) fill] & /a9 to receive ! v>ni% f9i%4 ,! be/ in/rum5ts h _! cases left ab\t f\r mon?s 9 ! v>ni% room1 receiv+ eight or t5 coats at int]vals ( t5 days or m4 ,:ile ?is is go+ on1 ! s\nd-bo>d dep>tm5t is occupi$ 9 prep>+ ! %eets ( spruce = manufacture into s\nd-bo>ds4 ,"h great c>e & skill are necess>y to obta9 ! prop] gradation ( ?ickness at all p>ts ( ! bo>d's surface4 ,:5 ! bo>ds are f9i%$1 !y are put into dry+ rooms1 to rema9 until want$ = ribb+1 bridg+ & ins]tion )9 ! in/rum5ts4 ,! fir/ op]ation 9 ! assembl+ ( ! p>ts is p]=m$ by ! 8bellyman40 ,he takes ! s\nd-bo>d1 ribs x & affixes ! bridges accord+ to patt]n1 bores ! tun+ p9 holes 9 ! wre/-plank1 & fa/5s on ! iron plate1 :i* 0 ca/ to patt]n 9 ! iron f\ndry1 to ! back1 ^u :i* ! complet$ s\nd-bo>d has by ?is "t be5 glu$4 ,!n ! 8/r+]0 receives ! belli$ back1 puts on ! /r+s & pressure b> 7if ! latt] is us$ in/ead ( agraffes74 ,! fir/ r\gh approximation to pit* is !n made by ! 8*ipp]10 :o pulls ! /r+s up r\ghly two or ?ree times 9 succession at int]vals ( ab\t tw5ty-f\r h\rs4 ,! case is !n turn$ ov] to ! 8side-glu]10 if ! in/rum5t be an upright4 ,! case ( ! gr& is incorporat$ ) ! back & is put toge!r be=e ! belly+4 ,! side-glu] affixes ! sides & key-b$ ( ! upright & also ! bottom-bo>d1 :i* conta9s ! trap-"w = ! p$al me*anism4 ,if ! in/rum5t be a gr& ?is dep>tm5t conf9es itself to ! fitt+ & adju/m5t ( ! lyre4 ,aft] ! sides are ?us affix$ ! case is return$ to ! 8fl[+-room10 :]e ! f9al coat ( 8fl[+0 v>ni% is c>efully appli$4 ,?is requires t5 days to dry h>d4 ,! case is n[ ready = ! 8action f9i%]40 ,8 "w ( sett+ 9 ! action & keys & putt+ ! in/rum5t into r\gh play+ condition has be5 describ$ 9 detail4 ,! pian(orte is !n giv5 its fir/ r\gh tun+ by ! 8r\gh-tun]10 :o surr5d]s x 9 turn to ! 8fly-f9i%]40 ,9 ?is dep>tm5t ! top & bottom frames1 fall-bo>d1 panels1 key-blocks1 "n-bo>d1 key-slip1 h+es1 music desk & o!r p>ts ( ! cab9et "w are adju/$ & fitt$4 ,aft] fitt+ !y are remov$ f ! case & s5t to ! 8poli%+ dep>tm5t0 to be made ready = ! f9al sett+ up4 ,! next op]ation is p]=m$ by ! 8action regulator40 ,8 "w1 :i* includes ! f9i%+ t\*es to ! adju/m5ts made by ! action-f9i%] & side-glu]1 has already be5 gone ov] 9 detail4 ,! in/rum5t is by ?is "t ready = ano!r & some:at m c>eful tun+4 ,"h appe>s ! 8second tun]40 ,! in/rum5t !n is p]mitt$ to rema9 9 its exi/+ condition until two m tun+s h be5 giv5 at int]vals ( a week4 ,! 8f9e-regulator0 next takes ! in/rum5t & proce$s to review ! "w ( ! action-regulator & correct any defici5cies 9 t\* or repetition t may h be5 effect$ by ! p\nd+ ( ! r\gh tun]s4 ,! 8tone-regulator0 is next call$ ^u1 & 8 delicate "w is ne$$ to give to ! pian(orte ev5ness ( tone ?r\gh\t & an agreeable quality4 ,!n ! poli%]s rub d[n ! sides1 ! small] p>ts be+ already poli%$ z not$ be=e1 & give to ! in/rum5t its glossy & mirror-l f9i%4 ,! 8sett]-up0 !n puts ! v>i\s cab9et "w p>ts toge!r & ! 8f9e-tun]0 gives ! f9al tun+4 ,la/ly1 ! sup]9t5d5t looks ov] ! :ole "w1 & woe betide ! unlucky wight :o has slurr$ or skimp$ 8 "p4 ,! details li/$ above are1 ( c\rse1 subject to v>iations 9 ! ord] 9 :i* !y are p]=m$4 ,! v>iations are accord+ to ! practice ( individual %ops4 ,( c\rse1 x may at any "t be requir$ to give m tun+s1 especially if ! pian(orte is left on ! floor ( ! factory v long4 ,b !re %\ld nev] be less ?an f\r or five4 ,:5 ! in/rum5t is s5t to ! w>]oom or %ipp$ to ! deal] extra tun+s are giv5 accord+ to ! caprice or k ( bo?4 ,,*apt] ,,xiv4 ,,tun+ ,,& ,,tone ,,regulation ,,( ,,! ,,pian(orte4 ,! art ( tun+ ! pian(orte is "o ( consid]able complexity & obscurity4 ,dur+ all ! "t t has elaps$ s9ce ! key-bo>d in/rum5t fir/ came into be+1 controv]sies innum]able h rag$ ov] ! multif>i\s que/ions t ! practice ( ! art implies4 ,?is di/ress+ /ate ( affairs is prim>ily due to ! fact t a sy/em ( 8temp]+0 ! s\nds produc$ by key-bo>d in/rum5ts is necess>y1 9 ord] t play+ 9 m ?an "o key may be possible4 ,! :ole matt] ( musical intonation 0 treat$ ) "s complet5ess 9 ! e>ly "p ( ?is "w1 & ! read] may be expect$ to compreh5d ! pr9ciples ( ! ,equal ,temp]am5t ^u :i* ! tun+ ( ! pian(orte & ( all o!r fix$ tone in/rum5ts is n[ univ]sally bas$4 ,x is n )9 our prov9ce1 9 ! c\rse ( a treatise ^u ! pr9ciples ( pian(orte con/ruction1 to v5ture too deeply into ! quagmires t surr\nd ! aspirant = ! honors ( ! tun]4 ,! discussion ( musical intonation & ! ,equal ,temp]am5t 0 made = ! pr9cipal purpose ( acqua9t+ ! /ud5t ) ! reason = ! peculi> con/ruction ( scales1 z to _! /r+ l5g?s1 & to make cle> ! raison d'etre ( ! frequ5t div]g5ces f !oretical proportions ( /r+s & tones t we h be5 oblig$ to note4 ,! scale design] is bett] equipp$ = 8 task1 h[ev]1 if he possess a work+ k ( ! pr9ciples ^u :i* ! sci5ce & art ( tun+ are bas$4 ,?is is ! ju/ification = ! space & "t devot$ to ! exhibition ( c]ta9 ( ^! pr9ciples 9 ! e>li] portion ( ?is book4 ,z a fur!r contribution to ?is useful body ( k1 we %all po9t out "h ! g5]al s*eme :]eby ! tun] proce$s to ! execution ( 8 important1 inde$ ess5tial1 portion ( ! :ole "w4 ,! practical "w ( tun+ is p]=m$ by ! aid ( c]ta9 ac\/ical ph5om5a :i* enable ! tun] to di/+ui% betwe5 s\nds t are v ne>ly 9 unison4 ,z ! ,equal ,temp]am5t requires ! slight r\gh5+ ( all ! int]vals ) ! exception ( ! unison & octave1 x is cle> t !re is great value 9 a me?od ( e/imat+1 n only ! unisonal or non-unisonal condition ( two s\nds1 b also ! exact am\nt ( diff]5ce t may occur betwe5 !m4 ,! ph5om5a m5tion$ are call$ 8beats10 & x is well t _! physical basis %\ld be describ$ "h4 ,f :at has be5 said be=e1 x is cle> t musical s\nds1 g5]at$ z !y are by ! p]iodic agitation ( ! air accord+ to fix$ laws1 are b ! audible manife/ations ( a peculi> =m ( air-motion4 ,! p>ticul> =m ( air-motion c be/ be describ$ z a wave4 ,:5ev] a sonor\s body is excit$ into vibration x causes ! surr\nd+ atmosph]e to make motions t correspond to its own4 ,a vibrat+ body su* z we h describ$ 7toge!r ) ! segm5ts !re(7 p>takes ( a motion t may be comp>$ to t ( a p5dulum4 ,!re is a rhy?mic sw++ back & =? ( ! body & its segm5ts1 ) ! result t ! imm$iately adjac5t lay]s ( air are excit$ into alt]nate /ates ( compression & expansion2 or1 m correctly1 ( cond5sation & r>efaction4 ,?is rhy?mic motion is imp>t$ by ! lay]s ( air adjac5t to ! sonor\s body to ! next adjac5t lay]s1 & s on4 ,! result ( ?is is t a wave is =m$1 ! l5g? ( :i* v>ies inv]sely z ! numb] ( vibrations p]=m$ by ! sonor\s body4 ,?is wave is call$ a sonor\s wave4 ,n[ we "k t s\nds are at ! same pit* :5 !y are g5]at$ by sonor\s bodies hav+ ! same spe$ ( vibration1 & x is easy to p]ceive t1 if two su* bodies are s\nd+ toge!r1 ! cond5sations & r>efactions ( ! lay]s ( air w syn*ronize ) ea* o!r1 s t bo? w be excit+ cond5sations at ! same in/ant & likewise w g5]ate r>efactions simultane\sly4 ,& ev5 if ! two bodies h n exactly ! same spe$1 ! result w be equally simple z long z _! spe$s be> simple ratios to ea* o!r4 ,?us two bodies :i* are emitt+ s\nds at ! int]val ( an octave or ( a fif? or f\r? w g5]ate cond5sations & r>efactions 9 su* a mann] t !y w n int]f]e "o ) ano!r4 ,b ! case is diff]5t :]e two s\nds are sep>at$ by diff]5ces 9 pit* t _c be express$ by simple ratios4 ,= example1 if "o s\nd be "o vibration p] second high] ?an ano!r1 x is cle> t by ! "t t ! fir/ s\nd+ body has complet$ its giv5 numb] ( vibrations 9 "o second1 ! o!r w be "o vibration beh9d4 ,:51 !re=e1 ! vibrations ( ! fir/ body are cont9u$ into ! next second ! cond5sation ( "o wave w be completely syn*ron\s ) nei!r ! cond5sation nor ! r>efaction ( ! o!r4 ,! obvi\s result is t at a c]ta9 po9t ! cond5sations ( ea* wave concur :ile at ano!r po9t ! cond5sation ( "o crosses ! r>efaction ( ! o!r4 ,9 ! fir/ case we h a consid]able augm5tation ( s\nd & 9 ! o!r case a complete sil5ce4 ,z ! waves ?us approa* & rec$e !re is a gradual dim9ution ( s\nd foll[$ by a complete cessation = a small fraction ( a second1 & !n a gradual increase until ! po9t ( greate/ augm5tation occurs4 ,?is latt] happ5s :5 ! two cond5sations concur1 & ! gradual rise & fall ( ! s\nd correspond to ! gradual approa* ( ?is concurr5ce 9 ! fir/ case & to ! simil> advance ( ! po9t ( cross+ 9 ! second4 ,?is ph5om5on ( alt]nate augm5tation & dim9ution ( s\nd sep>at$ by an almo/ inappreciable int]val ( sil5ce occurs :5ev] two s\nds ( ne>ly ! same pit* are he>d simultane\sly4 ,^! peculi> *anges 9 ! int5sity ( a s\nd are d5om9at$ 8beats40 ,?is description ( ! physical nature ( 8beats0 w be suffici5t to make cle> to u h[ a recognition ( !m is ( value to ! tun]4 ,f :at we h j said1 x w be obs]v$ t ! numb] ( beats t may be set up betwe5 any two s\nds dep5ds ^u ! diff]5ce 9 ! frequ5cy ( ! two sonor\s bodies4 ,s t ! numb] ( beats =m a true guide to ! exact am\nt ( diff]5ce betwe5 s\nds t are ne>ly 9 consonance4 ,?us1 if x becomes a matt] ( tun+ a c]ta9 int]val a little flat or %>p1 9 ord] to comply ) ! requirem5ts ( ,equal ,temp]am5t1 ! op]ation may be readily p]=m$ by obs]v+ ! numb] ( beats t are he>d betwe5 ! two s\nds :5 "o ( !m is %>p5$ or flatt5$4 ,s t all s*emes ( tun+ mu/ necess>ily be f\nd$ ^u a recognition ( ?is important ph5om5on4 ,at ?is po9t x w be well to reit]ate ! fact t ! ,equal ,temp]am5t owes its popul>ity & long preval5ce to ! wond]ful facility ( modulation :i* x possesses4 ,:ile x c]ta9ly involves discords & di%>monics t ! mesotonic sy/em1 = in/ance1 avoid$1 yet ! fact t x does n limit ! expression ( musical ideas to a few scales1 b p]mits ! compos] to roam at w ?r\gh ! :ole field ( tonalities1 has giv5 to x a deeply f\nd$ popul>ity t has n yet be5 s]i\sly *all5g$4 ,we mu/ be> 9 m9d t ! ,equal ,temp]am5t is ! fir/ fact1 ! 8prius10 ! 8proton hem910 z x 71 ( musical p]=mance4 ,obvi\sly1 !re=e1 ! importance ( a prop] & close adh]5ce to ?is sy/em 9 ! tun+ ( fix$-tone in/rum5ts _c be insi/$ ^u too /rongly4 ,! read] has already _h occasion to exam9e a comp>ative table :i* %[$ ! pit*es ( a true & ( a correspond+ temp]$ scale4 ,he w h not$ t ! temp]$ scale errs v greatly 9 respect to c]ta9 int]vals4 ,! task ( equaliz+ ! ?irte5 s\nds :i* a fix$-tone in/rum5t all[s to ! octave1 involves 9 ea* int]val a great] or less div]g5ce f purity1 accord+ to ! ratio ( su* int]val4 ,?us we f9d t ! error ( a temp]$ ?ird is great] ?an t ( a fif?1 & s on4 ,n[1 if ! f\r m9or ?irds )9 ! compass ( an octave be consid]$1 x w be f\nd t ! octave to ! tonic :i* is produc$ f ! la/ ( ^! is a good deal %>p] ?an ! octave tak5 direct f ! tonic4 ,aga9 ! octave produc$ f ! build+ up ( ! ?ree major ?irds )9 ! same compass is v mu* flatt] ?an ! octave tak5 direct f ! tonic4 ,aga91 x w be rememb]$ t !re are twelve fif?s )9 ! compass ( sev5 octaves4 ,! la/ s\nd 9 ?is progression ( fif?s is consid]ably %>p] ?an ! s\nd t is produc$ by tak+ a s]ies ( sev5 octaves f ! tonic4 ,)\t go+ into figures1 we may give ! diff]5ces ?us not$ concisely z foll[s3 ,9 ! cases above consid]$ ! octaves obta9$ by build+ up int]vals diff] f ! /raight octave 9 ! foll[+ proportions3 ,! octave produc$ f m9or ?irds is %>p] 9 ! ratio #abif3abej4 ,! octave produc$ f major ?irds is flatt] 9 ! ratio #abe3abh4 ,! octave produc$ f fif?s is %>p] 9 ! ratio #ecadda3ebdbhh4 ,obvi\sly1 !re=e1 x w be necess>y to tune all ! m9or ?irds1 )9 an octave1 flat by "o-f\r? ea* ( ! ratio giv5 = !m4 ,x w also be necess>y to tune ea* ( ! major ?irds %>p by "o-?ird ( ! ratio prop] to ^? int]vals4 ,likewise ea* ( ! p]fect fif?s mu/ be made flat by "o-twelf? ( ! ratio giv5 above = fif?s4 ,we are ?us able to und]/& j h[ great div]g5cies f purity are involv$ 9 ! ,equal ,temp]am5t ( major ?irds1 m9or ?irds & fif?s4 ,z f> z ! o!r int]vals are conc]n$1 x is obvi\s t if ! ?irds & fif?s are equally temp]$ & ! octaves tun$ q purely1 ! o!r int]vals w be subject$ simultane\sly & automatically to a simil> process ( temp]4 ,n[ f :at we le>n$ ( ! ph5om5a ( beats1 we mu/ conclude t ! temp]+ process :5 appli$ to ^! int]vals w g5]ate beats betwe5 ! s\nds t compose ea* int]val4 ,we "k t beats mu/ occur :5 ! s\nds t =m any consonant int]val are n q 9 tune ) "o ano!r4 ,we also "k t ! frequ5cy ( ! beats dep5ds ^u ! diff]5ce 9 frequ5cy ( ! g5]at+ s\nds4 ,we c1 !re=e1 easily see t ^? int]vals t are subject$ to ! greate/ am\nt ( temp]+ w produce ! greate/ numb] ( beats4 ,& fur!r1 z ! actual frequ5cies ( ! s\nds increase accord+ to _! pit*1 x is equally obvi\s t ! temp]+ w result 9 great] diff]5ces z to actual frequ5cy betwe5 ! true & ! correspond+ temp]$ int]vals4 ,!re=e ! numb] ( beats t any temp]$ int]val g5]ates v>ies directly z ! pit* ( ! s\nds t =m ! int]val4 ,! high] ! pit*1 ! great] ! numb] ( beats4 ,conv]sely1 ! l[] ! pit*1 ! small] ! numb] ( beats4 ,n[ we h already not$ t ! ph5om5a ( beats af=d an absolutely precise te/ = ! consonance or o!rwise ( an int]val4 ,if we c e/imate ! numb] ( beats t %\ld occur betwe5 ! s\nds ( any giv5 equally temp]$ int]val1 we c always tune su* an int]val 9 ! ,equal ,temp]am5t by not+ ! numb] ( beats & adju/+ ?is to ! !oretical numb] 9 ! calculations4 ,x is n possible accurately to foll[ ! numb] ( beats t are suppos$ to be betwe5 any giv5 int]vals 9 ,equal ,temp]am5t ev5 :5 ! pit* ( ! tonic ( ! int]val t is be+ tun$ is precisely simil> to ! correspond+ s\nd 9 ! calculations4 ,x is n possible1 !re=e1 9 practice1 to tune ) su* accuracy z !ory w\ld dem&1 b an approximation may be obta9$4 ,if we c\ld secure an absolute /&>dization ( pit* = ! pian(orte x w\ld be possible to con/ruct tables t w\ld %[ ! exact numb] ( beats t ought to occur betwe5 all ! equally temp]$ s\nds )9 ! :ole compass4 ,9 default ( su* a me?od1 x is necess>y to resort to a v>iety ( te/s & to prove ! correctness ( ! temp]+ ( ea* int]val by comp>ison ( ! diff]5t int]vals ( v>i\s k9ds t to :i* ea* s\nd1 z x is complet$1 gives rise4 ,if1 = example1 we f9d t any giv5 s\nd1 :5 tun$1 gives ! same numb] ( beats ) ! t5? bel[ z x does ) ! ?ird bel[1 :i* is "o octave above ! t5?1 !n we h "s assurance t ! s\nd 9 "q is prop]ly temp]$4 ,if ?is assurance is confirm$ by a complete abs5ce ( beats betwe5 ! giv5 s\nd & its octave1 above or bel[1 !n we h an almo/ absolute assurance z to ! correctness ( ! "w4 ,x is !n ^u ! ph5om5a ( beats t ! tun] dep5ds = a guide to ! correctness ( ! "w 9 :i* he is engag$4 ,by not+ ! frequ5cy ( ! beats at "s places1 or _! abs5ce at o!rs1 he is able to judge mo/ accurately :e!r any int]val is tun$ too %>p or too flat1 or :e!r any octave is tun$ purely or ! rev]se4 ,all good tun+ dep5ds entirely ^u su* e/imation ( ! beats1 & ! greate/ difficulty t ! tun] enc\nt]s lies 9 ! fact t he mu/ try to equalize ! frequ5cies ( ! beats betwe5 all ! int]vals ( ! same k9d )9 ! compass ( ea* octave4 ,if ?is "w is well & truly done x prop]ly des]ves ! "n ( art1 &1 inde$1 f9e tun+ is a f9e art1 "o to be acquir$ by ! pa9ful & sl[ processes ( manual practice & m5tal application4 ,he :o ov]comes all ob/acles to success & ma/]s ?or\ghly ! pr9ciples & practice ( tun+ is an arti/ 9 ! true/ s5se4 ,9 apply+ ^! pr9ciples to ! tun+ ( ! pian(orte1 ! problem t confronts u is to devise a rapid & simple means ( temp]+ ea* s\nd )9 ! sev5 odd octaves ( ! in/rum5t1 & to d ?is 9 su* a mann] t ! deviation f purity %all be ! same = all simil> int]vals )9 ! compass ( ea* octave4 ,n[ x foll[s1 f :at has gone be=e1 t ! temp]+ ( ea* sep>ate int]val1 by itself1 & )\t ref]5ce to any o!r1 w\ld be a v t$i\s & inaccurate process4 ,x w\ld1 9 fact1 be q impracticable to employ su* means = int]vals t require relatively l>ge deviations f purity1 especially 9 ! high] pit*$ regi/]s4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 a me?od t l>gely obviates ^! difficulties4 ,! middle octave ( ! in/rum5t1 :i* runs f ,f bel[ middle ,c to ,f above x1 is *os51 & ! int]vals )9 ?is octave are s tun$ t ! ?irte5 semitones :i* x conta9s become equally temp]$ s\nds4 ,! s\nds )9 ! next octave above or bel[ are !reupon tun$ f ! =m]1 ea* to its octave above or bel[1 & ?is process is cont9u$ until all ! s\nds ^u ! key-bo>d h be5 tun$4 ,x is easy to see t su* a me?od possesses _m & great advantages4 ,all ! difficult temp]+ ( int]vals t require l>ge deviations f purity is conf9$ to t portion ( ! piano :]e beats are mo/ easily e/imat$2 :ile ! re/ ( ! in/rum5t is tun$ by means ( octave int]vals1 9 :i* ! te/ ( purity is abs5ce ( beats1 r ?an ! e/imation ( any numb] ( !m4 ,! temp]+ ( ! int]vals 9 ! middle octave is call$ 8lay+ ! be>+s0 & is ! mo/ difficult1 z x is ! mo/ important1 ( ! v>i\s processes incid5t to ! practice ( pian(orte tun+4 ,! 8accumulation ( ins5sible into almo/ intol]able errors10 z ,mr4 ,ellis aptly t]ms x1 cont9ually besets ! pa? ( ! tun]1 especially if 8 prelim9>y k be imp]fect4 ,! true e/imation ( beats1 z g5]at$ by v>i\s int]vals1 is an art t is b sl[ly & pa9fully acquir$1 by long practice & tra9+ ( ! e>4 ,exam9ation ( ! pian(orte key-bo>d %[s u ?irte5 s\nds )9 ! compass ( an octave4 ,9 proce$+ to ! conv]sion ( ^! into equally temp]$ s\nds1 we h m ?an "o me?od pres5t$ to u4 ,we %all1 ( c\rse1 *oose ! octave :i*1 z /at$ above1 runs f ,f bel[ middle ,c to ,f above x1 & %all use1 = our purposes1 su* adjac5t s\nds z we may consid] necess>y4 ,x is usual to take f a tun+-=k ! pit* ( ! s\nd f :i* ! tun+ is begun4 ,^! in/rum5ts are tun$ ei!r to ,c1 or ,a next above middle ,c4 ,x is usual1 9 ?is c\ntry1 to tune f ,c1 & we %all1 !re=e1 adopt t me?od4 ,n[ !re are v>i\s ways ( sett+ ab\t ! 8lay+ ( ! be>+s40 ,"s tun]s "w by ?irds1 o!rs by f\r?s & fif?s2 o!rs aga9 use a s]ies or circle ( fif?s jo9$ by octaves4 ,:atev] int]vals are tun$1 ! idea is to include all ! ?irte5 s\nds )9 ! octave & to use1 z f> z possible1 only "o or two k9ds ( int]vals4 ,( all ^! me?ods1 ! %orte/1 easie/ & mo/ accurate is t :i* employs f\r?s & fif?s only4 ,x is us$ 9 su* a mann] t1 by tun+ a circle ( fif?s & f\r?s1 ! la/ s\nd tun$ provides ! octave to ! fir/1 ?us complet+ ! circle & ! octave ( temp]$ s\nds4 ,illu/ration3 tun+ music notation ,9 ?is me?od we proce$ z foll[s3 #a4 ,pit* ,c is tun$ by ! tun+ =k4 #b4 ,f bel[ pit* ,c is tun$1 be+ a temp]$ fif?4 #c4 ,g bel[ pit* ,c is tun$1 be+ a temp]$ f\r?4 #d4 ,d above ,g is tun$1 be+ a temp]$ fif?4 #e4 ,a bel[ ,d is tun$1 be+ a temp]$ f\r?4 #f4 ,e above ,a is tun$1 be+ a temp]$ fif?4 #g4 ,b bel[ ,e is tun$1 be+ a temp]$ f\r?4 #h4 ,f %>p bel[ ,b is tun$1 be+ a temp]$ f\r?4 #i4 ,c %>p above ,f %>p is tun$1 be+ a temp]$ fif?4 #aj4 ,g %>p bel[ ,c %>p is tun$1 be+ a temp]$ f\r?4 #aa4 ,d %>p above ,g %>p is tun$1 be+ a temp]$ fif?4 #ab4 ,a %>p bel[ ,d %>p is tun$1 be+ a temp]$ f\r?4 #ac4 ,f above ,a %>p is tun$1 be+ a temp]$ f\r?4 ,?is la/ ,f is ! octave to ! fir/ ,f tun$1 & %\ld co9cide exactly ) ! latt]4 ,! read] w1 ( c\rse1 realize t ! temp]+ ( ^! v>i\s int]vals mu/ be te/$ by means ( ! g5]at$ beats4 ,helmholtz1 9 8,die ,lehre d] ,tonempf9dung510 calculates t ! temp]$ fif?s %\ld av]age 4#f ( a beat p] second at /&>d pit* )9 ! octave t we are treat+4 ,?is is equival5t to ?ree beats 9 five seconds4 ,b x is impracticable to measure ! g5]at$ beats ^u ! pian(orte 9 ?is mann]4 ,! tone ( ! in/rum5t is too evanesc5t & fleet+4 ,we may1 h[ev]1 atta9 to a v fair approximation4 ,if1 = example1 ea* fif? be tun$ s t two di/9ct beats are he>d be=e ! s\nd dies away1 x w be f\nd t ! beat-rate is a ne> approximation to ! calculat$ av]age4 ,! two beats t we speak ( occur 9 ab\t ?ree seconds1 :ile ! ,helmholtz rate is ?ree & "o-?ird seconds = two beats4 ,aga9 ,helmholtz gives an av]age beat-rate = temp]$ f\r?s 9 ! same octave2 namely1 "o p] second4 ,if we tune ! f\r?s s t we he> ?ree di/9ct beats we %all likewise obta9 a v fair approximation to ! calculat$ beat-rate4 ,we %[$ above t ! la/ s\nd produc$ by ! build+ up ( a progression ( twelve fif?s is %>p] ?an ! s\nd produc$ by ! pil+ up ( sev5 octaves f ! same tonic4 ,! two s\nds ?us produc$ ought to co9cide1 = ! compass ( twelve fif?s & ( sev5 octaves is ! same4 ,we conclud$1 !re=e1 t ! ,equal ,temp]am5t requir$ ! flatt5+ ( all ! fif?s4 ,! mean+ ( ! discussion is1 !re=e1 t ! fif?s )9 ! octave :]e ! 8be>+s0 are be+ laid mu/ ea* be tun$ flat by two beats4 ,or1 r1 t ! high] s\nd ( e fif? mu/ be flatt] by two beats ?an if x 7 9 consonance ) ! l[] s\nd4 ,aga91 if we tune ! ,f bel[ middle ,c two beats %>p ( ! latt] 7:i* is equival5t to tun+ ! fix$ pit* s\nd ,c two beats flat ( ,f7 we %all obta9 a prop]ly temp]$ fif?4 ,n[1 if ! octave above ?is ,f be tak5 x w be f\nd to =m a %>p f\r? ) middle ,c4 ,= example1 if ! pit* ( middle ,c be #bfd1 !n ! pit* ( ,f bel[ x1 9 pure intonation1 is two-?irds or #agf4 ,assum+ t ! ,f be !n temp]$ s z to be %>p by two vibrations1 x w h a frequ5cy ( #agh4 ,! octave to ?is is #cef ,b ?is latt] is a f\r? above ,c #bfd & %\ld1 !re=e1 be #ceb ,consequ5tly we see t ! f\r?s 9 ,equal ,temp]am5t are to be tun$ %>p asc5d+1 or conv]sely1 flat desc5d+4 ,z already expla9$1 ! beat-rate 9 ! 8be>+s0 %\ld be ne>ly "o p] second or ?ree beats1 :ile ! s\nd ( ! int]val rema9s audible4 ,:5 ! deviations f purity are z slight z 9 ! cases t we h be5 consid]+1 x is by no means easy to det]m9e1 at all times1 :e!r ! note t is be+ tun$ is %>p or flat ( its tonic4 ,= ! beats occur simil>ly 9 ei!r case & few e>s c det]m9e ! relative %>p+ or flatt+ )\t "s extrane\s aid4 ,=tunately1 h[ev]1 we h a v>iety ( te/s op5 to u1 :i* = complet5ess & accuracy leave no?+ to be desir$4 ,to take a concrete example1 dur+ ! 8lay+ ( ! be>+s0 we fir/ tune ! ,f bel[ middle ,c1 !n ! ,g bel[ middle ,c1 & !n ! ,d above ,g4 ,:5 we rea* ?is la/ note1 we f9d t a six? has be5 obta9$2 namely1 ,f--,d4 ,n[ if ! notes already tun$ h be5 temp]$1 s z to be too flat1 ! resultant six? w beat too sl[ly1 &1 conv]sely1 if ! tun$ notes be too %>p ! six? w beat too fa/4 ,?is te/ may be amplifi$ :5 we proce$ to ! next int]val1 ,d--,a4 ,:5 ?is latt] note has be5 tun$1 we h ! triad ,f--,a--,c4 ,f--,a is a major ?ird1 & by ref]r+ to previ\s calculation we see t z su* x mu/1 :5 prop]ly temp]$1 be consid]ably %>p4 ,by not+ ! beats ( ! major ?ird & likewise ! beats ( ! six? we may correct ! tun+ ( all ! s\nds ) :i* we h hi!rto dealt4 ,! same process is1 ( c\rse1 c>ri$ on ?r\gh\t ! :ole process ( 8lay+ ! be>+s40 ,! major ?irds & six?s are te/$ cont9ually z ! tun+ proce$s1 & ?us is provid$ a sure guide to ! correctness ( ! f\r?s & fif?s4 ,! correct beat-rates = ! major ?irds may be /at$ z ab\t eight p] second1 :ile t = ! major six?s is approximately elev5 9 ! same p]iod4 ,( c\rse1 z already /at$1 ^! rates p] second _c be measur$ ) accuracy1 b ) practice "o soon discov]s by e> ! prop] r\ghness 9 ea* case1 & is ?us enabl$ to e/imate ! beat rates )\t mu* tr\ble4 ,e opportunity ( exam9+ ! "w ( good tun]s %\ld be tak5 by ! obs]v]1 :o %\ld note c>efully ! beat-rates :i* !y assign to ea* k9d ( int]val4 ,9 ?is way he w provide himself ) practical examples ( temp]+ ( int]vals :i* w be ( great value to him4 ,hav+ ?us det]m9$ ! prop] beat-rates = ea* ( ! int]vals t are us$ 9 ! 8lay+ ( ! be>+s10 we may proce$ to ! fur!r consid]ation ( t conv5i5t me?od = tun+ ! middle octave t has already be5 demon/rat$4 ,9 ord] to facilitate compreh5sion ( ! argum5t1 ! foll[+ table is giv51 %[+ graphically ! s\nds t are tun$ 9 lay+ ! be>+s & ! te/s & trial *ords-- ,! :ite notes are ^? to be tun$4 ,! black notes are ^? already tun$4 ,! k9d ( deviation f purity ( int]val & ! beat-rates are z foll[s3 ,upp] notes ( fif?s mu/ be tun$ flat s z to give two di/9ct beats4 ,l[] notes ( f\r?s mu/ be tun$ flat s z to give ?ree di/9ct beats4 ,upp] notes ( major ?irds mu/ be %>p s z to give approximately eight beats p] second4 ,upp] notes ( major six?s mu/ be %>p s z to give approximately elev5 beats p] second4 ,if ! lay+ ( ! be>+s has be5 accurately p]=m$1 ! *ords t are produc$ by ! comb9ation ( ! v>i\s s\nds w be f\nd to h v ne>ly ! same r\ghness & to g5]ate approximately ! same numb] ( beats4 ,! be/ "w is t :i* mo/ closely approa*es ?is /&>d4 ,aft] ! be>+s h ?us be5 laid1 x is necess>y to cont9ue ! tun+ ( ! in/rum5t above & bel[ ! octave already treat$4 ,n[1 s9ce ! octave to any giv5 s\nd has exactly d\ble ! frequ5cy ( ! =m]1 & s9ce octaves are to be tun$ purely1 x foll[s t we ne$ only tune ! rema9d] ( ! in/rum5t by octaves up & d[n f ! 8be>+s40 ,! consonance ( an octave is det]m9$ by ! abs5ce ( beats1 &1 consequ5tly1 we h only to foll[ ?is rule to reproduce1 9 all p>ts ( ! piano1 deviations f purity relatively ! same z ^? :i* we h be5 at su* pa9s to secure4 ,( c\rse1 ! actual numb] ( beats 9 any giv5 int]val v>ies z ! frequ5cies1 &1 consequ5tly1 ! frequ5cy ( ! beats increases regul>ly 9 ! high] regi/]s1 :ile x simil>ly decreases 9 ! l[] portions4 ,?us ! deviations f purity become mu* great] 9 ! high] portions ( ! compass & incorrect lay+ ( ! be>+s is1 !re=e1 productive ( m & m disagreeable results z ! scale asc5ds4 ,on ! contr>y1 9 ! l[] regi/] ^! inaccuracies are less productive ( irritation1 z ! frequ5cies ( ! beats become cont9ually less4 ,su*1 !n1 is ! process ( tun+ ! pian(orte 9 ,equal ,temp]am5t4 ,we h made no attempt to g into ^? practical details t are conc]n$ ) ! e>-tra9+1 ! manipulation ( ! hamm]1 or o!r cognate matt]s4 ,^! are entirely 8ex prov9cia0 ( ?is "w4 ,nev]!less ! p]son :o dige/s ! =ego+ /atem5t ( ! laws & me?ods ( ! art w be well equipp$ to pass ^u ! correctness ( tun+1 & ?is is suffici5t = our purpose4 ,! "w ( tone-regulation op5s up v>y+ b n entirely dissimil> fields ( rese>*4 ,! mat]ial ( :i* ! pian(orte hamm] is con/ruct$ has an important influ5ce ^u ! color+ ( ! s\nd t x draws f ! /r+4 ,9 ord] t ! influ5ce ( ! pian(orte hamm] 9 tone-color+ may be und]/ood cle>ly1 we %all inve/igate ! matt] ) "s complet5ess4 ,we h already inve/igat$ ! comp\nd nature ( ! s\nds excit$ by ! pian(orte /r+s4 ,we "k t ! nature ( ^! s\nds v>ies z ! me?od ( excitem5t & z ! nature ( ! resonance app>atus t surr\nds ! /r+s4 ,n[ ! pian(orte /r+s are excit$ by be+ /ruck1 & we h already not$ t ! po9t ( /rik+ mu/ be c>efully *os54 ,fur!r1 we "k t ! am\nt ( metal fram+1 ! mann] ( adju/+ ! bridges1 ! nature ( ! s\nd-bo>d & innum]able o!r details mu/ be tak5 into consid]ation4 ,b by ! "t t ! pian(orte comes into ! h&s ( ! tone-regulator1 x is out ( 8 p[] to affect ! con/ruction 9 any fundam5tal po9ts4 ,he is able to *ange only two ?+s4 ,^! are ! /rik+ po9t & ! condition ( ! hamm]-heads4 ,ev5 ! =m] _c be *ang$ to any great ext5t4 ,9 ! highe/ treble1 h[ev]1 x (t5 becomes necess>y to b5d ! hamm]-%anks slightly 9 ord] t a m correct /rik+ po9t may be obta9$4 ,b ?is mu/ be done ) great discretion & caution4 ,! object ( tone-regulation is to ensure an agreeable tone & p]fect ev5ness ( quality ?r\gh\t4 ,obvi\sly1 ?is is s intimately b\nd up ) ! :ole con/ruction t x may be said t ! tone-regulation beg9s ) ! draw+ ( ! scale & is nev] f9i%$ until ! pian(orte itself is complet$4 ,?is w\ld be a p]fectly prop] /atem5t1 b we h "h to consid] ! f9al t\*es1 z x 71 t ! tone-regulator may give to ! tonal equipm5t4 ,:5 ! in/rum5t comes into 8 h&s ! hamm]s are /ill cov]$ ) ! h>d out] sk9 ( ! felt head4 ,?is mu/ be remov$ ) a s&-pap] file4 ,x !n is necess>y to s\nd ea* tone sl[ly & c>efully1 fir/ l\dly1 & !n less s4 ,x w be f\nd t "s ( ! hamm]s produce a h>% & disagreeable timbre1 :ile o!rs may be too s(t & mu%y4 ,"u all circum/ances x is f> bett] to end[ ! in/rum5t1 z f> z is possible1 ) a quality t %all be comp>atively mell[ & r\nd4 ,brilliancy _c be =c$ artificially )\t spoil+ ! :ole quality & imp>t+ a ?9ness & r\ghness t is mo/ disagreeable4 ,if ! hamm]s are too h>d at ! cr[n1 !y h ! ac\/ical effect ^u ! /r+s ( excit+ ! upp] dissonant p>tials to undue prom95ce4 ,?is occurs f ! fact t :5 ! head is h>d x reb\nds in/antly f ! /r+1 & ?us does n damp any ( ! dissonant p>tials4 ,on ! o!r h&1 if ! head be s(t1 ! felt cl+s = a fraction ( a second long] to ! /r+s & effects ! damp+ to a great] or less degree1 accord+ to ! relative s(tness or h>dness ( ! head4 ,x is ?us possible1 by discreet manipulation ( ! felt1 to influ5ce ! "* ( ! s\nds to no small degree4 ,! me?od is to pick up ! felt1 :5 x is to be s(t5$1 ) a set ( felt ne$les m\nt$ 9 a h&le = ! purpose4 ,x is ess5tial to note :e!r ! s\nd is ! same :5 ! hamm] /rikes ) great =ce z x is :5 x /rikes g5tly4 ,if1 = example1 a g5tle pressure on ! key gives an agreeable quality1 b h>d] /rokes on ! key de/roy ?is1 !n we see t ! cr[n ( ! hamm] head is s(t en\gh1 b ! felt cu%ion und]nea? is too h>d4 ,f9e ne$les are1 !re=e1 employ$ to dig into ! l[] cu%ion ( felt1 :ile di/urb+ ! consi/5cy ( ! upp] cr[n z little z possible4 ,on ! o!r h&1 :5 ! quality ( s\nd is h>d "u all conditions1 ! upp] surface ( ! hamm]-head mu/ be treat$ by pick+ x ) heavi] ne$les4 ,h>d5+ ( ! felt may also be und]tak5 by cov]+ ! hamm]-head ) a damp clo? & !n apply+ a hot iron4 ,! :ole "w is prim>ily "o ( practice & exp]i5ce4 ,no directions c d m ?an give an outl9e ( ! processes & ! physical reasons = !m4 ,x is well1 h[ev]1 to lay d[n ! laws t und]ly ^! processes1 9 ord] t practice may be supplem5t$ & improv$ ) !ory4 ,,*apt] ,,xv4 ,,! ,,draught+ ,,( ,,! ,,pian(orte ,,scale4 ,al?\gh1 = obvi\s reasons1 we speak ( x ?us late1 yet x is true t ! fir/ & mo/ important /ep 9 ! design+ ( a pian(orte is ! draught+ ( ! scale4 ,?is process includes a complete plann+ ( ! iron plate & ( ! bridges1 9 fact ( ! :ole arrangem5ts = /ret*+ ! /r+s & ma9ta9+ _! t5sion4 ,?is plan mu/ indicate v cle>ly ! exact l5g? bo? ( ! vibratory portion & ( ! wa/e ends ( ea* /r+2 x mu/ %[ ! place on ea* /r+ :]e ! /roke ( ! hamm] is to be direct$1 :ile ! exact positions ( ea* tun+-p9 & hit*-p9 mu/ be laid d[n ) equal c]titude4 ,fur!r1 ! place ( ! belly-bridges1 _! dim5sions & mann] ( p9n+1 h to be %[n on ! draw+4 ,la/ly1 ! fa/5+ ( ! iron plate by screws & bolts mu/ be indicat$2 toge!r ) ! precise position ( ea* individual screw1 bolt & p94 ,:5 ?is plan is 9 all respects complete1 x has to be transf]r$ to a wood5 patt]n4 ,! inevitable %r9kage ( pap] always makes ! ret5tion ( ! prop] measurem5ts a matt] ( difficulty4 ,?is may be ov]come by mak+ ! fir/ draw+ ^u a %eet ( wood1 v>ni%$ to give a cle> surface4 ,if ! draw+ be made ) ,india ink in/ead ( ) p5cil1 we %all h a complete & p]man5t record obta9$ 9 a sup]ior mann]4 ,:5 ! wood5 templet is to be made f su* a draw+1 x w n be f\nd t !re has be5 ! %r9k+ or swell+ caus$ by ! use ( pap]1 & ! fir/ draw+1 if made aft] ! me?od describ$1 may be laid aside = any l5g? ( "t4 ,let u suppose t x is desir$ to draught ! scale ( an upright pian(orte4 ,hav+ select$ ! size ( pian(orte t is to be design$ & ! wood5 8table0 :i* is to s]ve = ! draw+ surface1 we proce$ z foll[s3 ,fir/ lay d[n ! l9e :]eon all ! hamm]s are to /rike ! /r+s4 ,f ?is l9e z base we plot out ! /r+ l5g?s & ! direction 9 :i* ea* runs2 also ! di/ance ( ea* gr\p f ! imm$iately adjac5t gr\ps4 ,hav+ laid d[n ! /rik+ po9t l9e1 we next proce$ to indicate ^u x1 by suitable l9es1 ! middle /r+ ( ea* ?ree-/r+ gr\p4 ,= ! two-/r+ gr\ps a l9e is tak5 9 ! middle ( ! two /r+s4 ,we call ^! l9es 8runn+ l9es40 ,!n ! /r+ dim5sions mu/ be tak5 into consid]ation & calculat$ accord+ to ! rules laid d[n already4 ,! highe/ treble /r+s run at "r angles to ! /rik+ po9t l9e1 & ! runn+ l9es indicat+ ! positions ( ! gr\ps are to be plac$ accord+ly4 ,! di/ance betwe5 ! runn+ l9es %\ld be a %ade m ?an "o-half ( an in* at ! highe/ portions ( ! scale4 ,x is f\nd necess>y to draw ! runn+ l9es ) increas+ obliquity z _! l5g? increases1 until at ! end ( ! treble sections !y are runn+ at an angle ( ab\t #aaj degrees c\nt+ f ! treble end or #gj degrees c\nt+ f ! bass end ( ! /rik+ po9t l9e4 ,! l5g?s ( ! /r+s z det]m9$ by previ\s calculations m>k ! l9e ( ! belly-bridge4 ,! b>s t are to be ca/ 9 ! plate mu/ be all[$ = 9 plott+ ! /r+ plan4 ,x is usual to place "o ( ^! at ab\t ,f & ano!r at ,c1 :]e ! ov]-/r++ cu/om>ily beg9s4 ,! v>iations ( individual scales & ! requirem5ts ( p>ticul> sizes ( in/rum5ts sometimes cause *anges 9 ?is reg>d4 ,?is is "o ( ! po9ts t ! design] mu/ decide = himself4 ,! space betwe5 ! runn+ l9es increases gradually z ! l5g? ( !m1 on acc\nt ( _! oblique direction & ! necessity = provid+ suffici5t space = ! damp]s & hamm]s4 ,! actual l5g? ( ! /r+s z calculat$ mu/ be laid d[n ) ref]5ce to ! /rik+ po9t l9e4 ,z has be5 po9t$ out1 x is f\nd bett] 9 practice to h ! hamm]s /rike ! v high /r+s a little above ! !oretical place4 ,a good av]age w\ld contemplate "o-t5? ( ! l5g? = ! six highe/ /r+s1 graduat+ d[n to "o-n9? = ! re/ ( ! highe/ octave & ! next bel[ x4 ,be=e ! l[e/ /r+ ( ?is la/-nam$ octave 7,c7 is rea*$1 ! /rik+ po9t is gradually l[]$ & two or ?ree /r+s bel[ ,c x becomes "o-eigh?4 ,if we foll[ out ?is s*eme we obta9 ! place :]e ! scale rib int]v5es at ! pressure b> by tak+ "o-t5?1 "o-n9? or "o-eigh?1 z ! case may be1 ( ! l5g? ( ea* /r+4 ,! rema9+ fraction ( ! l5g? repres5ts ! correct di/ance betwe5 ! /rik+ po9t l9e & ! ne>e/ p9 on ! belly-bridge4 ,?us ! belly-bridge & pressure b> l9es are automatically =m$ z we g along4 ,illu/ration3 ,,me?od ,,( ,,plott+ ,,/r+ ,,plan ,,by ,,means ,,( ,,/rik+ ,,po9t ,,l9e ,,& ,,runn+ ,,l9es4 ,! sket* is int5d$ m]ely z a g5]al guide to ! me?od outl9$ above1 & only a few ( ! runn+ l9es are %[n4 ,! d>k l9es %[ ! direction & position ( ! b>s4 ,:5 ! scale rib & pressure b> l9e has be5 obta9$1 x is necess>y to make provision = ! tun+ p9s1 & p>ticul> c>e mu/ be tak5 t ! /r+s %all n rub aga9/ ea* o!r ow+ to incorrect plac+ ( ! p9s4 ,:5 ! draw+ has ?us be5 complet$1 we may take up ! design ( ! iron plate4 ,x w be rememb]$ t we calculat$ a comp5sation factor = ! %r9kage4 ,?is factor is #ea_/ej1 & all dim5sions :]e %r9kage may h effect mu/ be multipli$ by ?is am\nt4 ,su* dim5sions are ^? ( ! height & wid? ( ! plate4 ,h5ce ! l5g?s ( ! b>s1 ! di/ances betwe5 !m1 & ! positions ( ! bolts & screws z well z ! /r+ l5g?s mu/ all be modifi$ accord+ to ! %r9kage factor4 ,! wood5 templet may be tak5 directly f ! wood5 table draw+ by fill+ 9 ! outl9es & details ( ! iron plate on ! latt] & !n copy+ ^! on to ! templet subject to ! %r9kage modifications requir$4 ,x is well to reg>d "o top side & also t at ! treble z immovable1 & to consid] ! %r9kage z com+ f ! bottom to ! top & f ! bass to ! treble4 ,:5 ! dim5sions ( ! propos$ plate are ?us laid out on ! surface ( ! templet1 ! b>s1 screw-sockets & bolt holes mu/ be copi$ 9 wood & laid on ! templet 9 ! exact places t !y w occupy 9 ! f9i%$ plate4 ,?us we gradually evolve a complete wood5 model ( ! iron plate1 s t ! iron f\nd]s may readily obta9 a correct ca/+4 ,:5 ! fir/ ca/+ comes back f ! f\ndry1 x %\ld be c>efully pun*$ = ! tun+-p91 bolt & screw holes4 ,! fir/ ca/+ mu/ be consid]$ 9 ref]5ce to ! fact t x repres5ts only "o %r9kage4 ,aft] ! second ca/+ is made f ! fir/1 ! correctness ( ! calculations may be judg$4 ,b n until ! fir/ pian(orte is turn$ out accord+ to ! new scale c ! design] f9d out h[ well 8 ef=ts h be5 rew>d$4 ,( c\rse1 ! =ego+ directions are b outl9es ( ! me?od4 ,! true inw>dness ( scale draught+ _c be expla9$ "h1 or1 inde$1 o!rwise ?an by practical exp]i5ce4 ,a c]ta9 facility 9 me*anical draughtsman%ip is ess5tial1 & also close att5tion to ! me?ods t h be5 laid d[n 9 reg>d to /rik+ po9ts1 numb] ( cov]$ /r+s1 numb] & place ( b>s1 comp5sation = %r9kage1 & ! v>i\s o!r po9ts t h be5 m5tion$4 ,= ! conv5i5ce ( ! plate-f9i%]1 wood5 patt]ns are provid$1 %[+ ! position ( hit*-p9s1 tun+-p9 holes1 screw-holes & bolt holes1 correct$ = %r9kage4 ,! belly-man mu/ h patt]ns = ! position ( ! bridges & = ! bridge-p9 bor+4 ,a wood5 patt]n is also requir$ = ! pressure b>4 ,:5 ^! details are complet$1 ! draughtsman mu/ possess himself 9 pati5ce until 8 complet$ in/rum5t is turn$ out4 ,if ! rules s c>efully demon/rat$ ?r\gh\t ?is treatise are fully dige/$1 ! design] w be f> on ! way t[>ds correct scale draught+4 ,8 native cunn+1 h[ev]1 mu/ be reli$ ^u to c>ry him ?r\gh :5 writt5 directions fail4 ,,*apt] ,,xvi4 ,,conclusion4 ,if ! pres5t treatise has conv9c$ ! read] t ! mak+ ( pian(ortes is a v s]i\s matt]1 & "o n to be attack$ 9 a _s ( levity1 !n "o ( its imm$iate objects has be5 atta9$4 ,inde$ !re has be5 an abid+ fe> 9 ! brea/ ( ! au?or t he might pres5tly be *>g$ ) pil+ on ! agony too /rongly & se>*+ ) excessive zeal = sci5tific causes & rules :5 ! %orte/ solutions may be f\nd by empirical me?ods4 ,?is is n really ! case1 h[ev]1 = ! :ole problem ( ! con/ruction ( pian(ortes is naturally ac\/ical4 ,:ile x is d\btless true t _m pian(ortes h be5 & are cont9ually made1 n m]ely ) indiff]5ce to1 b 9 defiance (1 e law t has be5 exp\nd$ 9 ^! pages1 x nev]!less rema9s t none ( ^! h be5 good pian(ortes4 ,( ! mak+ ( ?ump-boxes !re is no end4 ,un=tunately = ! public1 musical ignorance is well-nigh univ]sal1 & ! impo/or f9ds x easy to palm (f %oddy 9 place ( ! real article4 ,( c\rse1 x is q true t bad pian(ortes are soon f\nd out1 b :5 ! inevitable discov]y comes1 ! mis*ief has be5 done & ! pur*as] is1 z usual1 ! victim4 ,a /ud5t ( ! con/ruction ( good in/rum5ts _c fail to be a/oni%$ t anyone %\ld wi% to turn out any?+ b ! be/4 ,=1 z "o cont9ues to inve/igate ! multif>i\s problems t are cont9ually sugge/$1 ! desire to ov]come !m & to produce p]fect in/rum5ts becomes almo/ irresi/ible4 ,p]haps ?is is :y ! clev] design]1 if left to himself1 (t5 develops into a crank4 ,&1 inde$1 !re is n an indu/ry on ! face ( ! globe t has produc$ m cranks4 ,! files ( ! pat5t (fice are full ( ! ideas ( unrew>d$ g5ius t has sp5t its "t1 its money & its en?usiasm 9 ! un5viable task ( produc+ innovations 9 pian(ortes4 ,no feature ( con/ruction has be5 left unimprov$2 yet h[ _m ( ^! inv5tions ev] see ! light8 ,few1 inde$2 & ! fact is a sad comm5t>y on ! unpractical nature ( g5ius 9 g5]al4 ,^! reflections lead "o to ! feel+ t a fitt+ conclusion to a treatise on pian(orte con/ruction may be made by giv+ p>ticul>s ( "s ( ! mo/ fam\s & revolution>y inv5tions t at "o "t & ano!r h be5 laun*$ ^u ! unfeel+ _w ( piano-mak+4 ,n all ( ^! by any means c be d5om9at$ freaks2 inde$ !re are ! g]ms ( mo/ valuable developm5ts 9 _m ( !m4 ,we %all consid] a few ( ! really valuable ideas at lea/4 ,among ^! primacy mu/ be giv5 to ! screw-/r++ device ( ,mason ,haml94 ,?is inv5tion 0 int5d$ to sub/itute a positive me*anical fa/5+ = ! tun+-p91 9 place ( ! wood5 wre/-plank4 ,x consi/$ ( a screw1 ?read$ v]tically 9 a socket1 :i* 0 cut 9 a project+ %\ld] on ! iron-plate4 ,z x ext5d$ bel[ its socket1 x 0 provid$ ) an univ]sal jo9t :i* end$ 9 a hook4 ,on ?is hook ! /r+ 0 w\nd1 & 0 !n free to pass on to ! agraffe4 ,a small ,t-hamm] suffic$ to turn ! screw & ! /r+ 0 tight5$ or slack5$ z ! screw turn$ 9 ! ?read$ socket4 ,! action 0 sl[ b sure1 & ! /r+s _h ! curi\s prop]ty ( %>p+ "u a te/ bl[ in/ead ( ! opposite1 z is usual4 ,! me?od ( tun+ 0 ! same except t ! screw turn$ 9 ! opposite direction to ! ord9>y /yle & requir$ mu* m turn+ to br+ ! /r+ to ! desir$ po9t4 ,on ! o!r h&1 h[ev]1 sett+ ! p9 0 unnecess>y1 & ! evils eng5d]$ by bad wre/-planks & /ick+ or twi/+ p9s 7 unkn[n4 ,moreov]1 ! turn+ ( ! screw involv$ v slight ef=t4 ,) all ^! advantages1 h[ev]1 ! rev]se motion & ! sl[ness ( action 7 fatal2 & aft] sev]al ye>s ( ef=t ,mason ,haml9 gave up ! attempt to popul>ize _! inv5tion1 & let x drop4 ,x is1 inde$1 un=tunate t ?is device did n become m popul>1 z 9 t case its _m inh]5t advantages w\ld d\btless h be5 emphasiz$ & ! bad po9ts 9 x elim9at$4 ,prejudice & ! tun]s1 h[ev]1 7 aga9/ x1 & x di$4 ,! well-kn[n h\se ( ,br9smead 9 ,london has also exp]im5t$ ) a simil> device1 b x is n kn[n ) :at success4 ,"o ( ! advantages held out by ! mak]s ( su* /r+ devices 0 ! suppos$ facilitation ( ! "w ( tun+--t is to say1 x 0 alleg$ t e musician c\ld become 8 own tun] z soon z he _h le>n$ ! !oretical pr9ciples ( ! ,equal ,temp]am5t4 ,! hope 0 delusive1 h[ev]4 ,p]haps ! pr(essional tun]s att5d$ to ?is po9t4 ,ano!r simil> b m successful device is be+ manufactur$ by ! ,wegman ,piano ,co4 ,?is is 9 ! =m ( a fa/5+ = ! p9 9 ! iron plate4 ,! appe>ance ( ! plate & p9 is n diff]5t f ! usual design1 b ! tap]$ end is done away ) & ! p91 in/ead ( be+ driv5 into ! wood5 wre/-plank1 is fa/5$ 9 ! plate by means ( ! friction set up betwe5 ! peculi>ly bor$ hole & ! back ( ! p94 ,a special twi/ is ne$$ to fa/5 ! p9 :5 a /r+ is drawn up to pit*1 b o!rwise ! me?od ( op]ation is n unusual4 ,! device appe>s to be ( value4 ,! s\nd-bo>d has ev] af=d$ a f]tile field = inv5tive g5ius4 ,x has be5 alt]$ 9 e conceivable mann]1 b ! old /yle cont9ues to fl\ri% ) all its pri/9e activity4 ,?is is n to say t x is ideal & insusceptible ( improvem5t4 ,on ! contr>y1 "o _c d5y t _m praisewor?y ideas h be5 pat5t$ = ! purpose ( improv+ x4 ,! ribb+ has be5 ! subject ( mu* att5tion f inv5tors4 ,x is true t ?is me?od ( giv+ /r5g? & t5sion to ! bo>d is by no means p]fect4 ,yet we f9d t ! v>i\s devices propos$ = ! abolition ( ribb+ h almo/ uni=mly fail$4 ,a l>ge numb] ( ^! failures owe _! conditions to ! lack ( ac\/ical k ( ! inv5tors4 ,x has (t5 be5 suppos$ t ! enorm\s relative resonance p[] ( ! viol9 belly 0 connect$ 9 "s way ) ! duplicate nature ( ! resonance table & ! consequ5t holl[ %ape ( ! resonat+ body4 ,?is has be5 conclusively disprov$1 h[ev]1 = x has be5 %[n t ! viol9's special %ape is giv5 to x m]ely = ! purpose ( be>+ ! /ra9 ( its /r+s4 ,moreov]1 ! tone & resonance ( a viol9 h be5 reproduc$ by means ( a vibrat+ diaphragm & a horn4 ,?is device1 kn[n aft] its inv5tor z ! ,/roh viol91 satisfactorily disproves _m *]i%$ !ories 9 reg>d to viol9 resonance4 ,9 spite ( ^! facts we f9d t sev]al pat5ts h be5 tak5 out = pian(orte s\nd-bo>ds1 ( :i* ! guid+ pr9ciples h be5 +5i\s applications ( ! viol9 idea4 ,! 8equilibre0 pian(orte ( ,fr$]ic ,ma?u%ek 0 an example ( ?is type4 ,x seems pass+ /range t exp]im5t]s h n all become aw>e long ago ( ! ess5tial diff]5ces betwe5 ! resonance app>atus requir$ = /ruck & = b[$ /r+s4 ,!re h be5 o!r & san] v>iations ( s\nd-bo>d con/ruction4 ,x has be5 sugge/$ t ! use ( a d\ble bo>d compos$ ( two cross-gra9$ ?icknesses glu$ to ea* o!r w\ld obviate ! necessity ( ribb+ & increase ! p[] ( resonance4 ,!re seems to be little d\bt t !re is ! g]m ( a valuable idea 9 ?is1 & if ! notion is prop]ly work$ out1 x w v likely produce valuable additions to our k ( ! ph5om5a ( resonance4 ,unusual ideas h be5 less frequ5t 9 ! doma9 ( action-mak+4 ,!re h be5 sev]al praisewor?y attempts to get rid ( ! tr\blesome1 b hi!rto necess>y1 tape 9 ! upright action4 ,! pat5t ( ,leo ,battalia is "o ( ^!4 ,he aboli%es ! tape & bridle wire1 & sub/itutes a two-bran*$ spr+ =k project+ f ! jack4 ,"o bran* works 9 a slot cut 9 ! hamm] butt & ! o!r be>s aga9/ ! back *eck4 ,! back /op is done away ) & excell5t repetition is assur$1 sup]ior to t :i* is obta9$ by ord9>y me?ods4 ,9 ! doma9 ( pure scale design1 we note ! ev] pres5t & p]5nial notion ( sympa!tic /r+s4 ,?is idea has tak5 v>i\s =ms4 ,! mo/ conv5tional developm5t is1 ( c\rse1 ! 8duplex scale0 ( ,/e9way & o!rs4 ,?is utilizes ! wa/e ends ( ! /r+s & scales (f l5g?s ( !m t correspond to aliquot p>ts ( ! vibrat+ l5g? ( ea* /r+1 ?us obta9+ ! advantage ( sympa!tic p>tial tones4 ,mo/ ( ! ideas 9 ?is direction h gone fur!r ?an ?is1 h[ev]4 ,"s mak]s h gone s f> z to h a f\r? /r+ tun$ to ! octave ( e ?ree-/r+ gr\p4 ,b ?is is surely unnecess>y :5 we consid] t ! octave is1 on ! pian(orte1 ! /ronge/ p>tial tone ( any musical s\nd1 & lea/ ( all ne$s adv5titi\s aid4 ,!re are _m o!r simil> devices us$ & unus$ t we %\ld wa/e our "t 9 consid]+4 ,9 any case ! true te/ ( ! utility ( an inv5tion is use1 & ea* "o ( ^! unusual notions t h be5 put on ! m>ket w\ld h be5 univ]sal long ago _h !y be5 uni=mly practical & valuable4 ,we _c close ?is ha/y survey )\t m5tion ( ! rem>kable innovation 9 action me*anism devis$ by ,mr4 ,morris ,/e9]t4 ,"h ! =cible hamm]-bl[ is sup]s$$ by a gradual pu% on ! hamm] at ! /r+s1 execut$ ?r\gh ! int]position ( an articulat$ d\ble lev] betwe5 ! hamm] & ! jack4 ,! result is to produce a diff]5t =m ( hamm] attack & a noticeable modification 9 ! color+ ( ! tone produc$ f ! /r+4 ,:ile ! claims ( ! inv5tor are some:at exagg]at$1 !re is no d\bt t ,mr4 ,/e9]t has hit ^u a valuable v>iation 9 ! me?od ( actuat+ ! hamm]1 & 8 inv5tion op5s up new prospects ( pleasure to ! piani/4 ,if all ^! & ! innum]able o!rs h no o!r value1 !y at lea/ tea* t inv5tive g5ius & ! hung] = improvem5t d n entirely sleep2 t ! pian(orte is cont9ually be+ improv$1 & t _m are sp5d+ _! "t 9 f9d+ new ways ( improvem5t4 ,x %[s t ! value ( ! pian(orte to ! community is suffici5tly great to cause ! exp5diture ( mu* valuable ?\ght ^u its me*anical & musical bett]m5t4 ,! fact t ^! ?+s happ5 %\ld console anyone :o has ev] ?\ght t ! limit ( me*anical excell5ce _h be5 rea*$4 ,! design+ ( a pian(orte is art ) a big ,a4 ,x dem&s ( its practition]s ! temp]am5t ( an arti/ & ! skill ( an excell5t me*anic4 ,!re is no great] pleasure & no nobl] "w ?an ! con/ruction ( an in/rum5t equipp$ to give =? lovely tone & to int]pret ! inspir$ works ( ! ma/]s ( music4 ,may ! advanc+ ye>s br+ ! pian(orte z mu* m ( me*anical & musical excell5ce z ! la/ two c5turies h s ri*ly imp>t$4 ,& n[ our task is done4 ,x has be5 a labor ( love to place ! results ( long /udy & mu* practical exp]i5ce be=e ^? to :om ?is exposition ( ! pr9ciples ( pian(orte con/ruction might be expect$ to appeal4 ,x has be5 f> f easy to put into really intelligible & concise ,engli% an explanation ( c]ta9 ( ^! laws2 & if ! read] f9ds "h aught ( vagu5ess or obscurity1 may he blame ! subject r ?an ! au?or4 ,! latt] has1 z be/ he might1 laid d[n ! pr9ciples t und]ly ! "r build+ ( ! noble/ musical in/rum5t t man has yet devis$4 ,& 9 ! contemplation ( ^! pr9ciples he may prop]ly be cont5t to leave 8 pati5t read]s4 ,,!ory ,,& ,,practice ,,( ,,pian(orte ,,build+4 ,,app5dix ,a4 ,,! ,,developm5t ,,( ,,! ,,play]-,,piano4 ,ev5ts are mov+ quickly 9 ^! latt] days1 & ! cons]vative pian(orte trade is feel+ ! effect ( ! extraord9>ily active _s ( con/ructive comm]cialism t is s pron\nc$ a feature ( ! contempor>y indu/rial movem5t4 ,:5 ! fir/ *apt]s ( ! pres5t "w 7 9 c\rse ( prep>ation1 "s two ye>s ago1 ! pian(orte equipp$ ) an int]ior play+ me*anism 0 j beg9n+ to be he>d (2 to-day its manufacture & m>ket+ are recogniz$ features 9 ! policy ( ne>ly all pian(orte h\ses4 ,x w\ld !re=e be unwise to conclude ! pres5t treatise )\t c]ta9 obs]vations on ! play]-piano "q1 al?\gh a truly philosophic temp] w\ld probably pref] t "s fur!r "t elapse be=e any feature ( ! play]-piano problem be consid]$ 9 a "w ( ! same scope & "* z ?is4 ,ab&on+ ! /rict sci5tific view ( our duty 9 ?is matt]1 h[ev]1 we may bett] adopt a m popul> po9t d'appui & r\nd (f ?is "w ) a few obs]vations on ! m important & ess5tial und]ly+ problems connect$ ) ?is new & rem>kable movem5t 9 ! pian(orte _w4 ,_h ! ext]ior type ( pian(orte play+ device--! s-call$ cab9et-play]1 9 fact--rema9$ alone & supreme 9 ! t]ritory t x fir/ op5$ to exploration & developm5t1 ?is "w w\ld conta9 no notice ( any me*anism ( ! k9d4 ,b s9ce ! movem5t has spread until x compreh5ds ! pian(orte itself1 s9ce1 9 ! nature ( ?+s1 su* a developm5t mu/ pr(\ndly affect ! solution ( ! problems t confront ! pian(orte mak] 9 ! con/ruction ( 8 in/rum5t1 x seems to be n only natural1 b imp]ative1 t we %\ld devote "s space to c]ta9 notes on ! play]-piano problem & its relation to ! application ( su* ac\/ical & me*anical pr9ciples z are g]mane to ! !ory ( pian(orte con/ruction4 ,we are "u no obligation to delve into ! hi/ory ( ^! +5i\s devices4 ,! plan ( ?is "w requires no?+ ( ! sort4 ,we may say1 h[ev]1 t ! fir/ impetus t[>ds ! production ( a piano play+ me*anism came ab\t ?r\gh ! success ( ! self-play+ organ :i* began to appe> ab\t fifte5 ye>s ago4 ,mean:ile v>i\s inv5tors _h exp]im5t$ ) electrical devices & _h succe$$ 9 produc+ a me*anism t c\ld be plac$ )9 ! case ( ! in/rum5t )\t entail+ any great di/ortion ( =m4 ,su* devices1 h[ev]1 71 ) "s exceptions1 exce$+ly me*anical 9 effect1 & did little to %[ ! possibility ( adequately r5d]+ pian(orte music ?r\gh artificial means4 ,x 01 h[ev]1 ?r\gh ! successful developm5t ( me*anism = ! automatic op]ation ( organs t ! true pr9ciples = piano-play] con/ruction began to come to light4 ,two lead+ manufactur]s _h bo? produc$ re$ organs ( a v sup]ior k9d1 equipp$ ) me*anical play+ devices4 ,! pr9ciple 0 pneumatic1 & 0 appli$ ?r\gh ! m$ium ( compress$ air4 ,! organs !mselves 7 also op]at$ on ?is pr9ciple1 ?is be+ a return to ! old =ce bell[s sy/em1 adopt$ 9 ! ,european h>monium1 & always us$ 9 connection ) ! pipe organ4 ,:5 develop$ to _! highe/ po9t1 ^! pneumatic self-play+ organs produc$ sup]ior musical effects1 s t !y became1 & /ill are1 well kn[n & popul>4 ,! late/ /yles1 inde$1 rival ! or*e/ra 9 _! v]satility & color+1 especially :5 op]at$ by a skillful musician4 ,! pneumatic pr9ciple ?us appli$1 & ! success ( ! attempts to adapt x to ! organ1 l$ exp]im5t]s to emulate1 & if possible improve ^u1 ! e>ly attempts at ! practical manufacture ( pian(orte-play+ me*anism4 ,)\t go+ too mu* into details1 x may be record$ t ! two conc]ns previ\sly ref]r$ to 7 ne>ly ready 9 #ahif to come out ) su* an in/rum5t1 & pat5ts 7 grant$ 9 #ahig = a complete piano-play] ( ! cab9et /yle1 atta*able to any piano1 & easily deta*able !refrom4 ,o!r pat5ts soon foll[$1 & o!r manufactur]s fell into l9e1 ) ! result t ! great piano-play] movem5t _h soon begun 9 e>ne/4 ,! productions ( ! diff]5t firms1 ( c\rse1 v>i$ 9 details1 b only two widely sep>at$ s*ools h develop$1 & inasmu* z bo? ( ^! employ ! pneumatic pr9ciple1 :i* has triumph$ ov] all o!rs1 & is n[ adapt$ unanim\sly by manufactur]s :o desire to r5d] possible an approximation to arti/ic r5dition ( pian(orte music1 x w be unnecess>y to treat ( any in/rum5ts con/ruct$ on o!r l9es4 ,9 ! meantime x w be well to note t ! above %ort sket* ( ! prelim9>y skirmi%+1 z x 71 is int5d$ to be no?+ m ?an an outl9e1 z ! policy adopt$ ?r\gh\t ?is entire "w has be5 to avoid ! hi/orical view-po9t1 z mu* z possible1 & to conf9e ourselves /rictly to ! bus9ess 9 h&2 namely1 con/ructional pr9ciples & _! application4 ,! pneumatic pr9ciple has be5 adopt$ 9 all ! piano-play]s t we h occasion to survey1 & its application has be5 9 all cases ess5tially simil>4 ,inde$1 ! two s*ools ( con/ruction diff]1 n 9 ! application ( ! pneumatic pr9ciple1 b 9 c]ta9 details ( con/ruction1 :i* are important b n vital4 ,"o g5]al description w be q suffici5t to acqua9t ! read] ) ! make-up ( ^! in/rum5ts1 & x w be easy to und]take any fur!r explanations ( important v>iations4 ,! und]ly+ idea1 ^u :i* ! :ole play] is built1 may be describ$ z aris+ f ! k t a bag or bell[s ( suitable mat]ial w collapse :5ev] ! air is exhau/$ f x1 & become inflat$ aga9 :5 ! air is p]mitt$ to ru% into x1 :i* happ5s z soon z ! vacuum is de/roy$4 ,n[ x is obvi\s t "h1 9 ^! two processes1 we h ! possibility ( produc+ a reciprocat+ motion1 & ! value ( ?is is evid5t :5 x is rememb]$ t ! process ( pian(orte play+1 :5 r$uc$ to its l[e/ t]ms1 is ess5tially ! comb9ation ( ! alt]nate manual motions requir$ to depress & release a key4 ,consequ5tly1 ! matt] ( design+ a pian(orte-play+ ma*9e is r$uc$ to ! problem ( plac+ a bell[s ov] a key1 or 9 me*anical connection ) x1 9 su* a way t ! inflation & deflation ( ! bell[s w op]ate lev]s to depress & release ! key4 ,?us f>1 x may be und]/ood1 we are deal+ ) elem5t>y me*anical pr9ciples4 ,b ! que/ions aris+ f consid]ation ( ! control ( ^! bell[s are f> m delicate1 & require = _! solution a high degree ( me*anical tal5t4 ,let u see h[ ! problem has be5 work$ out4 ,a musical composition :i* is to be p]=m$ on ! pian(orte by means ( "o ( ^! 8play]s10 z !y are call$ colloquially1 is fir/ r$uc$ to a s]ies ( p]=ations on a long %eet1 ! p]=ations be+ ( uni=m wid?1 b v>y+ 9 l5g? accord+ to ! duration ( ! musical tone = :i* ea* /&s4 ,! %eet is !n w\nd ^u a spool & is connect$ ) motor me*anism :i* is adapt$ to draw x across a 8track]-bo>d0 pi]c$ ) holes1 ea* ( :i* corresponds to "s hole 9 ! %eet4 ,! latt]1 :5 s drawn across ! plane ( ! 8track]-bo>d10 is w\nd up on ano!r spool1 & ! motor me*anism ( ! play] is s arrang$ t ! %eet c be re-w\nd on to its own spool :5 ! :ole composition has be5 play$1 s t x may be )drawn f ! 8play]10 & ano!r sub/itut$ 9 its place4 ,! actual process ( op]ation is z foll[s3 ,! 8play]0 is provid$ ) foot p$als1 :i* op]ate exhau/ bell[s1 & ?us ma9ta9 a res]voir bell[s 9 a /ate ( exhau/1 on ! same pr9ciple z 9 ! re$ organ4 ,z long z ! exhau/ bell[s are op]at$1 & ! res]voir is kept 9 a /ate ( vacuum1 x is possible to ma9ta9 an 8exhau/ *amb]0 )9 ! 8play]0 also 9 a /ate ( vacuum4 ,?is exhau/ *amb] communicates ) a 8diaphragm *amb]10 9 connection ) ! 8track]-bo>d0 hole1 & ) an 8inflation & deflation *annel0 9 connection ) ! /rik+ pneumatic or bell[s :i* depresses ! pian(orte key4 ,! connection ) ! 8diaphragm *amb]0 is by means ( a v small hole pi]c$ 9 a lea!r diaphragm :i* is /ret*$ betwe5 ! 8exhau/ *amb]0 & ! 8diaphragm *amb]10 s t ! latt] w be 9 a /ate ( p>tial vacuum4 ,re/+ on ! lea!r diaphragm is a button1 atta*$ to an upright sp9dle :i* /ret*es ?r\gh an orifice into ! inflation & deflation *amb]1 & !re op]ates a poppett valve :i*1 9 "o position ( ! sp9dle1 w close ! *amb] aga9/ ! exhau/ *e/1 :ile op5+ itself & !re=e also ! pneumatic to ! out] air1 & 9 ano!r position w rev]se ! process1 op5+ ! *amb] to ! p[] ( ! vacuum 9 ! exhau/ & simultane\sly clos+ itself & !re=e ! pneumatic to ! vacuum1 :i* w cause ! latt] to collapse1 & ?us br+ d[n ! key4 ,n[1 :5 a hole 9 ! p]=at$ %eet comes opposite a hole 9 ! 8track]-bo>d10 an atmosph]ic communication is op5$ ) ! 8diaphragm *amb]10 & air w imm$iately ru% d[n into ! 8diaphragm *amb]0 & at once de/roy ! p>tial vacuum :i* exi/$ !re4 ,z a consequ5ce ( ?is1 ! lea!r diaphragm w imm$iately rise to its fulle/ ext5t1 influ5c$ by ! vacuum 9 ! *amb] above x1 & w !re=e pu% up ! poppett valve4 ,?is action w op5 communication betwe5 ! exhau/ & inflation & deflation *amb]s & w expose ! latt] to ! vacuum1 :ile %utt+ (f ! out] air :i* has kept ! pneumatic inflat$4 ,?us ! pneumatic w collapse1 & ! piano key w be held d[n until ! clos+ ( ! 8track]-bo>d0 hole once m re/ores ! p>tial vacuum 9 ! 8diaphragm *amb]10 ?us p]mitt+ ! poppett valve to s9k1 & reop5+ ! connection betwe5 ! pneumatic & ! out] air1 :i* re-inflates x & releases ! key4 ,z w h be5 anticipat$1 !re are endless small v>iations ( detail 9 ! con/ruction ( diff]5t 8play]s10 b !y all "w on ! same pr9ciple1 & ! above description w be suffici5t to give an idea ( :at goes on inside ! 8play]0 :5 ! p]=at$ %eet is put into position & drawn ov] ! 8track]-bo>d40 ,v>iations on ! me*anical c>ry+ out ( ^! pr9ciples are dep5d5t ^u ! ideas ( ! diff]5t mak]s4 ,x c easily be und]/ood t !re is pl5ty ( room = endless *anges 9 details1 & t e mak] ( 8play]s0 has 8 own special notions on ! subject4 ,we h spok5 above ( ! motor me*anism design$ to move ! p]=at$ %eet across ! 8track]-bo>d10 & to rew9d x :5 requir$4 ,x is cle> t su* a motor device mu/ be v s5sitive to *anges 9 spe$ control1 v light & v easily op]at$4 ,9 ! se>* = ! ideal device manufactur]s h gradually sep>at$ !mselves into two s*ools ( practice1 ea* be+ *ampions ( "o p>ticul> type ( motor4 ,^! two s*ools ( op9ion & practice h adopt$ respectively ! pneumatic & ! clock-"w motors4 ,bo? h virtues2 nei!r are free f vices4 ,x is no "p ( our plan to ent] into didactic discussion ( ! relative m]its & dem]its ( ! two /yles1 b we %all conf9e ourselves to an exposition ( ! me?od :]eby ea* is adapt$ to its requir$ "w1 & %all po9t out ! m obvi\s ( ! good & bad features ( bo?4 ,! pneumatic motor has ! initial advantage ( simplicity & lightness4 ,x consi/s ( a numb] ( bell[s1 usually ?ree or five1 :i* are arrang$ 9 s]ies on a bo>d & connect$ by passages ) ! exhau/ *e/4 ,!y are adapt$ to be collaps$ & inflat$ alt]nately by means ( ! exhau/ f ! bell[s ( ! 8play]10 & are gov]n$ by valves s arrang$ z to cause "o bell[s to be op5 to ! atmosph]ic air1 & !re=e inflat$1 :ile ! next to x is simultane\sly clos$ to ! atmosph]ic air & expos$ to ! vacuum f ! w9d-*e/1 & !re=e collaps$4 ,?is alt]nate process produces a motion :i* c1 ( c\rse1 easily be transf]r$ by means ( connect+ rods to a crank-%aft1 :i* by reciprocation produces a rot>y motion1 & also p]mits ! take-up spool ( ! 8play]0 to be connect$ ) x by suitable ge>+4 ,! controll+ valves are g5]ally connect$ ) ! crank-%aft some:at aft] ! mann] ( ! valves ( a /eam cyl9d]1 & are op]at$ by ! motion ( ! %aft ?r\gh suitable connect+ rods4 ,! rev]se motion ( ! spool1 = rew9d+1 is accompli%$ by ge>+ betwe5 ! motor & spool1 & ! rev]s+ lev]1 :ile op]at+ ?is ge>1 also closes ! valve betwe5 ! exhau/ res]voir bell[s & exhau/ *amb] s z to p]mit ! full p[] ( ! exhau/ to be ex]cis$ on ! motor :5 ! rew9d+ is requir$4 ,! spe$ control ( ! pneumatic motor is gov]n$ by ano!r f+] lev] adapt$ to op]ate a valve :i* c entirely close ! passage betwe5 ! exhau/ *e/ & motor bo>d1 ! gradual op5+ or clos+ ( :i* increases or dim9i%es ! p[] ( ! exhau/ ^u ! motor bell[s & h5ce ! rapidity ) :i* !y collapse & re9flate4 ,?is spe$ control comb9es simplicity & effectiv5ess4 ,9 consid]+ ! less agreeable qualities ( ! pneumatic motor we h to note t a great deal ( ! alleg$ defici5cy ( ! type arises f ! fact t its op]ation dep5ds ^u ! same ag5cy z is employ$ = ! /rik+ pneumatics2 namely1 ! exhau/ion ( air f ! exhau/ bell[s res]voir4 ,?is means1 ( c\rse1 t ! /rik+ pneumatics & ! motor are artificially br\ght into relations :i* w\ld nev] naturally subsi/ betwe5 !m4 ,9 consequ5ce1 !re is a cont9ual t5d5cy on ! "p ( "o ( ! elem5ts to monopolize ! p[] res]ve1 to ! detrim5t ( ! o!r4 ,?us1 a =tissimo passage w t5d to use up s mu* p[] t ! motor w be sl[$ d[n2 :ile1 contr>iwise1 ! latt]1 :5 driv5 at its highe/ spe$1 w take too mu* p[] f ! pneumatics & prev5t ! expression ( _! highe/ dynamic =ces4 ,"h we t\* ^u ! mo/ s]i\s defect ( ! pneumatic motor1 & :ile we f9d ! practical work+s ( ^! devices q excell5t1 !re is no d\bt t !y w\ld be f> m responsive & f> light] 9 op]ation if ^! fundam5tal defects did n exi/4 ,! clock-"w motor1 on ! o!r h&1 is entirely sep>at$ f ! /rik+ me*anism1 except z f> z x is sometimes connect$ ) ! p$als = ! purpose ( w9d+ ! spr+4 ,ev5 ?is1 h[ev]1 is n a real int]f]5ce ) ! /rik+ pneumatics4 ,! *ief advantages ( ! clock-"w motor are t x is built ( /eel & brass1 in/ead ( wood & lea!r2 t x is indep5d5t ( ! re/ ( ! play]1 & !re=e always self-conta9$ & free f extrane\s influ5ces2 t rew9d+ is effect$ by ! res]ve p[] ( ! spr+1 & t ! use ( ! p$als z 9 ! pneumatic motor1 is !re=e n necess>y4 ,its disadvantages1 z alleg$ by its critics1 may be consid]$ z foll[s3 ,t x requires oil+ & clean+ frequ5tly1 & t if neglect$ w rapidly become impair$2 t x is sometimes sl[ 9 accel]ation & ret>d+2 t x is heavy & complicat$1 & t ! w9d+1 :5 done by p$als1 is wa/eful1 & :5 effect$ by a h&le1 is tiresome4 ,! above tables ( vices inh]5t 9 bo? types are by no means z t]rible z !y look1 h[ev]1 & exp]i5ce seems to %[ t _m ( !m d n appe> 9 practical "w4 ,on ! :ole1 ! clock-"w motor seems to h mu* 9 its favor1 al?\gh ! "q /ill rema9s op51 & "t alone c %[ :i* is practically bett]4 ,x is nei!r necess>y nor pr(itable to g into any consid]able detail z to ! pian(orte p$al op]at+ devices1 ! s(t /ops1 or o!r details ( ! sort4 ,we may bett] employ ! space at our comm& 9 a %ort discussion ( ! movem5t :i* has result$ 9 incorporat+ ! me*anism describ$ above into ! case ( ! pian(orte itself4 ,?is movem5t is1 ( c\rse1 a natural outcome ( ! successful introduction ( ! ext]ior 8play]40 ,! public soon began to f9d fault ) ! latt] on acc\nt ( ! space x occupi$1 & also because ( ! annoyance incid5tal to its removal f ! in/rum5t = manual play+4 ,x 0 n long be=e ! mak]s ( 8play]s0 7 exp]im5t+1 ) a view to us+ ! wa/e space 9 ! upright pian(orte = ! purpose ( includ+ ! 8play]0 !re94 ,! advantages ( su* a plan are obvi\s1 provid$ t ! actual me*anical difficulties c be ov]come4 ,^! difficulties prov$ v /ubborn at fir/1 & x is n to be suppos$ t all are entirely ov]come1 ev5 n[4 ,x has be5 v h>d1 inde$1 to arrange ! me*anism 9 su* a mann] z to make all p>ts accessible = adju/m5t & repair4 ,! results ( any neglect ( ?is important requisite are v s]i\s4 ,mak]s %\ld b5d _! fir/ en]gies to ! removal ( all difficulties incid5tal to ! obta9+ ( access to ! play+ me*anism or to ! re/ ( ! pian(orte1 be=e !y consid] any?+ else4 ,= example1 x %\ld be possible to remove ! action or keys ( ! pian(orte )\t hav+ to deta* pipes & tubes4 ,nor %\ld x be difficult to disconnect ! pump+ app>atus1 or "s individual valve or pneumatic :i* may ne$ att5tion4 ,aga91 ! mann] 9 :i* ! pneumatics /rike ! keys or action is v important4 ,! e>li] play]-pianos g5]ally _h ! pneumatics plac$ bel[ ! key-b$1 s t !y op]at$ f ! re> end ( ! latt]1 /rik+ !m upw>ds4 ,?is _h ! d\ble disadvantage ( inflict+ a h>d1 rigid k9d ( bl[1 & ( mak+ ! pneumatics v inaccessible4 ,a bett] plan has lately be5 devis$1 :i* puts ! pneumatics ov] ! keys1 s t !y op]ate at ! front ends1 j back ( ! ivories4 ,"s su* me?od z ?is is excell5t always1 s9ce x p]mits a consid]able conc5tration ( ! me*anism & a consequ5t curtailm5t ( ! inconv5i5tly long tubes lead+ f ! 8track]-bo>d0 to ! valve *amb]s4 ,all ^! matt]s1 h[ev]1 are 9 process ( practical developm5t1 & ! future holds ! key to ! ultimate solution ( any su* problems4 ,9 consid]+ ! influ5ce ( ! 8play]0 me*anism ^u ! pian(orte itself1 we may note t ! g5]al adoption ( ^! devices1 if x occurs1 w inevitably produce c]ta9 modifications 9 ! action me*anism1 z well z 9 ! g5]al design4 ,!re is no d\bt t ! ord9>y action me*anism ( ! pian(orte w n prove /rong en\gh to endure ! furi\s onslaught ( ! 8play]10 & x is que/ionable :e!r pian(ortes con/ruct$ on ! old plan w n m rapidly det]iorate :5 expos$ to ?is we> & te>4 ,! precise direction 9 :i* ?is modification is likely to come may n n[ be accurately det]m9$1 b x is probable t a g5]al /r5g!n+ ( c5tres & flanges w be ! fir/ result4 ,z = ! di/ortion ( ! pian(orte case1 ?is1 z f> z x n[ exi/s1 may v easily be correct$4 ,b x w n be easy to arrange ! play+ me*anism s z to avoid int]f]5ce ) ! ac\/ical or me*anical =ces ( ! pian(orte4 ,= "o ?+1 !re is a great deal ( ma*9]y to put into a v small space1 & = ano!r !re are c]ta9 p>ts ( ! pian(orte t mu/ "u no circum/ances be t\*$4 ,?us ! s\nd-bo>d1 ! /r+s & ! iron plate mu/ be left sev]ely alone4 ,b ! elim9ation ( ! ,bo/on or d\ble-roll+ fall-bo>d1 & its replacem5t by some?+ t w take less room1 w provide a suffici5t space to h\se ! pneumatics & exhau/ *amb] above ! keys4 ,?is is :]e !y ought to be1 & ! only possible place :]e !y c be rea*$ )\t tr\ble or damage4 ,! pump+ app>atus mu/ be kept away f ! s\nd-bo>d1 & plac$ :]e x w d no h>m2 "u ! key-b$1 necess>ily1 b n s z to int]f]e ) ! piano p$als or ! resonance app>atus4 ,"s portion ( ! bottom frame c usually be elim9at$ ) advantage1 & ?is w assi/ 9 provid+ ! necess>y space4 ,! position ( ! motor %\ld be su* t ! m9imum ( wa/e occurs betwe5 ! crank-%aft & ! take-up spool4 ,?us1 if possible1 ! motor ought to be above ! key-b$4 ,if x be ( ! clock-"w type1 x c h>dly be plac$ any:]e else4 ,la/ly1 ! :ole ( ! ext]ior app>atus1 su* z lev]s1 p$als1 spool1 etc41 %\ld be arrang$ to fold away or be cov]$ up out ( sight :5 ! in/rum5t is 9 use = manual play+4 ,:ile x has only be5 possible 9 ?is app5dix to give ! b>e/ outl9e ( ! play]-piano problem1 ! read] is bes\ght to recollect t ! indu/ry is /ill new1 & t ! 8pres5t /ate ( ! art0 h>dly admits ( any didactic ass]tions on pr9ciples ( con/ruction4 ,we d n ev5 "k1 today1 :e!r ! pneumatic pr9ciple w cont9ue to prevail1 or :e!r "s new ref9em5t ( electric me*anism w n ev5tually surpass e device n[ kn[n1 bo? 9 responsiv5ess & conv5i5ce4 ,,app5dix ,b4 ,,! ,,small ,,gr&4 ,x is a curi\s fact1 b none ! less *>act]i/ic ( t mo/ curi\s ( indu/ries--! pian(orte craft--t 9 x ! developm5t hypo!sis1 s famili> to all o!r bran*es ( human endeavor "h1 appe>s n to be fully applicable4 ,:ile ! aim ( ! pres5t treatise has be5 to sy/ematize & codify1 z x 71 ! laws t und]ly all "r con/ructional me?ods1 we h be5 =c$ to recognize t !re is no appe>ance ( any accurate & uni=m g5]alization :i* may be applicable to ! future guidance ( pian(orte build]s 9 _! ef=ts to atta9 to ! greate/ p]fection 9 lat] types4 ,al?\gh we h succe$$ 9 lay+ d[n ! broad & univ]sal pr9ciples t gov]n intellig5t practice ( ! art1 yet we _c fail to note t a progressive evolution is n yet possible4 ,t is to say1 !re is no progressive syn!sis 9 ! art :i* %all c>ry u cont9ually fur!r f ! orig9al types1 s t ! anci5t models %all become 9 "t q unrecognizable 9 ! light ( mod]n improvem5t4 ,r w\ld x seem t ! c\rse ( improvem5t is lead+ u back to rev]sions t[>ds ! orig9al types1 & ( ?is t5d5cy ! rise ( ! small gr& pian(orte is "o ( ! mo/ /rik+ illu/rations4 ,x is n to be suppos$ t ?is rev]sion>y movem5t is to be tak5 z imply+ a dissatisfaction ) ! me?ods t h gr[n up 9 ! c\rse ( ! la/ hundr$ ye>s1 & ! sy/ematization ( :i* has be5 our task 9 ! pres5t "w2 x is r t ! t5d5cy today is 9 ! direction ( utiliz+ ! mo/ mod]n me?ods 9 ! resuscitation & fur!r developm5t ( ! type ( pian(orte t 0 e>lie/ 9 ! field4 ,9 o!r words1 z ! read] well kn[s1 ! la/ few ye>s h se5 a g5]al t5d5cy t[>ds a revival ( ! gr&1 9 =ms suitable = mod]n ways ( life1 & ) ! advantages c>ri$ by ! weal? ( exp]i5ce & practice on :i* ! mod]n pianomak] c make unlimit$ drafts4 ,?is resuscitation has n tak5 ! =m ( any attempt to br+ ! l>ge-siz$ conc]t in/rum5t into m popul> use1 b x has r be5 a matt] ( evolv+ a new type out ( ! old1 & ( develop+ ?is latt] along comp>atively orig9al l9es4 ,) ! comm]cial success ( su* an exp]im5t we are n "h imm$iately conc]n$1 b we h great & lively int]e/ 9 ! "q ( its con/ructional value & 9 ! possibilities t are impli$ 9 its future developm5t4 ,)\t ent]+ into we>isome detail1 x may be /at$ t ! la/ five ye>s h se5 a mo/ sy/ematic attempt on ! "p ( lead+ manufactur]s to con/ruct & popul>ize a v small /yle ( gr& pian(orte1 & to end[ ?is new in/rum5t1 z f> z possible1 ) ! musical advantages possess$ by ! l>g] & old] horizontal =ms4 ,! dim5sions ( ! 8small gr&10 z x has come to be kn[n1 range f a l5g? ( five feet to "o ( six1 ) wid? 9 proportion1 & ! smalle/ sizes are cont9ually attract+ great] att5tion on ! "p ( exp]ts4 ,! idea is to r$uce ! dim5sions to ! v l[e/ po9t compatible ) some?+ approa*+ to gr& pian(orte tone1 & to make ! g5]al outl9e z beautiful to ! eye z possible4 ,! latt] ( ^! desires is easi] ( consummation ?an ! =m]1 & x has !re=e appe>$ t "s ( ! mak]s ( ^! in/rum5ts h be5 some:at apt to ov]look truly musical results 9 def]5ce to a public s5tim5t 9 favor ( some?+ t is graceful1 if no?+ else4 ,9 fact1 :5 consid]+ ! small gr& we are oblig$ to note t x has be5 develop$1 & is n[ be+ produc$ r to appeal to t portion ( ! pian(orte-buy+ public t dem&s some?+ = its homes m beautiful ?an ! upright & less bulky ?an ! l>ge p>lor or conc]t gr& ?an 9 answ] to any g5]al cry = ! bett] musical developm5t ( ! in/rum5t itself4 ,if we be> ?is fact 9 m9d1 & its tru? is obvi\s to ! /ud5t ( pian(orte hi/ory1 we c ! m easily und]/& & appreciate ! ess5tial features ( ?is late/ developm5t4 ,! small gr& has be5 produc$1 we repeat1 to please ! public1 & ! public at l>ge is n exclusively compos$ ( musicians4 ,b ev5 :ile ackn[l$g+ ! probability ( ?is /atem5t1 we ne$ n conceal f ourselves t ! small gr& c ?us fulfill a v useful function4 ,r$uc$ to its l[e/ t]ms1 x rema9s a gr& pian(orte1 ) ! action & t\* s ess5tially associat$ ) ! horizontal =m1 & s immeasurably sup]ior to any?+ t is f\nd 9 ev5 ! be/ uprights4 ,& "h ! small gr& has an enorm\s advantage1 nor does x appe> t its truly musical & tonal developm5t ne$ be p]man5tly /ation>y1 if only ! limitations ( ! in/rum5t be appreciat$1 & "w on x be direct$ ) especial ref]5ce to its own size1 & )\t dep5d5ce ^u ! traditions t h support$ ! build+ ( l>g] =ms4 ,9 a ^w1 ! build]s ( small gr&s h ! opportunity1 if !y c>e to avail !mselves ( x1 to produce a =m ( m9iature horizontal pian(orte t %all possess all ! advantages ( ! l>ge conc]t in/rum5ts1 ) ! exception ( ! great tonal volume peculi> to ! latt]1 & none ( ! disadvantages ( bulk9ess & ungracefulness4 ,!y c nev] hope to obta9 ! same tonal results f a #e-;foot z f a #i-;foot in/rum5t2 b !y h ! opportunity to popul>ize a t\* & te*nique t is impossible ( a*ievem5t = play]s ( ! upright1 & a quality ( tone t is equally unatta9able on v]tical in/rum5ts4 ,"u all circum/ances1 x mu/ be borne 9 m9d t ! results ( small gr& build+1 ev5 :5 mo/ c>efully & skilfully execut$1 are ess5tially diff]5t f any?+ t has yet be5 produc$ 9 ! tonal developm5t ( ! pian(orte1 & t no attempt to imitate ! tonal prop]ties ( ! l>ge gr& c be successful4 ,! action & ! t\* are fit subjects = ?is k9d ( imitation1 b su* tonal quality z is susceptible ( developm5t is entirely orig9al & indig5\s to ! m9iature gr&4 ,! only legitimate field ( inquiry along ^! l9es1 !n1 is t :i* has ref]5ce to ! developm5t & con/ructional pr9ciples ( ! small gr& consid]$ z a di/9ct type1 & ne$+ p>ticul> & def9itely diff]5tiat$ pr9ciples & me?ods4 ,assum+ ! correctness ( ^! premises 7& _! tru? w\ld appe> to be obvi\s71 we h to ask ourselves :at is ! exact nature ( ! problem :i* is set = solution1 & :]e9 x diff]s f any t we h _h to consid] z yet4 ,be>+ 9 m9d t we are deal+ ) :at is kn[n z ! 8small gr&10 al?\gh x is m>ket$ "u v>i\s o!r names select$ by diff]5t manufactur]s1 we c /ate ! con/ructional problem 9 fairly def9ite & exact t]ms4 ,x is requir$ to build a pian(orte 9 horizontal =m1 ( :i* ! extreme l5g? %all pref]ably n exce$ five feet & six in*es1 & :i* %all be comp5sat$ = %ort5+ by means ( extra wid5+2 :i* %all h ! l9es ( a l>g] gr&1 ref9$ to ! highe/ degree1 & )9 :i* ! greate/ possible tonal value %all be conta9$4 ,view$ ?us1 x appe>s t ! pr9cipal factors to be consid]$ are /r+-l5g? & s\nd-bo>d area4 ,x is obvi\s t ! dim9ution ( ! =m] & re/riction ( ! latt] are inevitable2 & ! net result mu/ be se5 9 a radical alt]ation1 if n det]ioration1 ( ! tonal prop]ty ( ! in/rum5t4 ,x rema9s to be se5 h[ we %all set ab\t to trans=m ?is disadvantage\s condition into "o t %all "w = u1 & 9 accordance ) our desires4 ,9 o!r words1 z we _c get a s\nd-bo>d conta9+1 say 8n0 squ>e feet ( sup]ficial area into a case t only conta9s #c_/d 8n0 squ>e feet ( space1 we mu/ resign ourselves to ! inevitable1 & se>* = ways & means :]eby ! difficulty ( putt+ into a qu>t bottle m ?an x w hold may be evad$1 if n expla9$ away4 ,& fir/1 !n1 let x be rememb]$ t ! only l9e :]e-f we c safely base any calculation is t :i* leads 9 ! direction ( a cont9ual ref9em5t ( ! means ( apply+ s\nd-bo>d con/ruction to ! in/rum5t4 ,we mu/ utilize e in* ( ! sup]ficies2 we mu/ discov] & apply me?ods = op5+ up ! vibratory area to ! impressions receiv$ f ! /r+s 9 a mann] sup]ior to t :i* has be5 deem$ suffici5t :5 space has be5 at a disc\nt4 ,we mu/ arrange bridges & be>+-b>s s t ! /r+-l5g?s may be /ret*$ to ! utmo/1 &1 la/ly1 we mu/ use su* m9ute c>e 9 ! treatm5t ( ! hamm]-/rik+ l9e t ! inevitable 8breaks0 9 ! tone %all be m9imiz$4 ,! intellig5t read] w n fail to obs]ve t we h put =? "h a tol]ably difficult set ( requirem5ts4 ,b he w likewise be equally quick to note t ultimate success 9 small gr& design+ dep5ds entirely ^u ! mann] 9 :i* ^! conditions are met4 ,if !y are slight$ or slurr$1 if ! design] attempts to ignore !m1 he w f9d t failure w surely foll[4 ,on ! o!r h&1 x w\ld be too mu* to say t ev5 ! mo/ fai?ful & consci5ti\s ef=t appli$ to ! elucidation ( ! problem w "u all circum/ances h ! desir$ effect4 ,! conditions are unusual2 9 "s cases !y d n admit ( any direct & positive settlem5t4 ,b 9 s f> z ^! conditions c be met1 9 s f> z !y are susceptible ( solution1 ! design+ ( ! small gr& c prop]ly be made successful4 ,x mu/ be recollect$ t ! 8/rik+-po9t0 ( ! hamm]s is a vitally important elem5t 9 ! success ( pian(orte build+4 ,x is ! "o factor t _c be trifl$ )1 & 9 treat+ :i* !re mu/ be rigid adh]5ce to rule4 ,n[ x is well kn[n t ! correct /rik+ di/ance has be5 asc]ta9$ 7z %[n 9 ! body ( ?is "w7 to be at a po9t betwe5 "o-sev5? & "o-n9? ( ! speak+ l5g? ( ! /r+1 ! exact place = ea* /r+ be+ calculat$ ) ref]5ce to ! actual speak+ l5g?4 ,z work$ out 9 ! be/ practice1 ! %orte/ & highe/ pit*$ /r+s h _! /rik+ po9ts at ab\t "o-t5? ( ! speak+ l5g?s1 :ile ! long] & l[] pit*$ elem5ts fur!r d[n ! scale are made to con=m m closely to rule4 ,n[ x is obvi\s t ! application ( ?is law to ! v mu* %ort5$ /r+s ( a small gr& w result 9 di/9ctly unsatisfactory quantity & quality ( tone4 ,b x w n d = u arbitr>ily to *ange ! actual /rik+ po9t1 = t w\ld *ange ! position ( ! hamm] l9e1 & exp]i5ce has amply demon/rat$ t no su* idea w "w4 ,inasmu*1 !re=e1 z we are e/opp$ f int]f]+ ) ! /rik+ po9t1 z f> z conc]ns ! actual hamm] l9e1 x becomes necess>y to discov] "s means = obta9+ a some:at great] l5g? ( /r+ 9 proportion to ! dim5sions ( case4 ,c>eful measurem5t w %[ t ! high] /r+s d n fall "u ! classification ( 8dang]\s40 ,x is only :5 we approa* ! po9t :]e ! ov]/r++ beg9s t ! disadvantage ( decreas$ case l5g? becomes app>5t4 ,! treble /r+-l5g?s at or ne> ?is place w be too great1 if c>ri$ out accord+ to ! well-kn[n & practic$ laws ( scale design+2 :ile1 if !y are unduly %ort5$1 ! t5sions & ?icknesses w require to be submitt$ to su* radical alt]ation z to make mo/ unpleasant *anges 9 ! tonal quality & volume4 ,b :ile an absolute solution is out ( ! "q1 !re is no d\bt t we are able to f9d a fairly satisfactory sub/itute4 ,!re are two c\rses op5 to u4 ,we are n p]mitt$ to make any great *ange 9 ! t5sion1 b1 )9 c]ta9 limits1 we may weight ! /r+1 & we may ev5 /ret* out its l5g?1 if we be v c>eful & wat* out = e in*4 ,! fir/ me?od mu/ always be us$ ) caution4 ,x is susceptible1 & v easily1 too1 ( improp] application1 & :5 abus$ becomes an enemy r ?an a fri5d4 ,9 fact1 ! weight+ ( treble /r+s ) iron or copp] wire %\ld be und]tak5 ) ! greate/ caution1 & only indulg$ 9 :5 ! design] is absolutely unable 9 any o!r mann] to obta9 a prop] vibrat+ l5g?4 ,! la/ two or ?ree /r+s above ! ov]/rung portion ( ! pian(orte may usually be wrapp$ )\t tr\blesome complications1 b "u no circum/ances %\ld ! highe/ ( ^! h a frequ5cy great] ?an #abh4 ,on ! o!r side1 :]e ! bass /r+s beg91 ?is condition does n apply1 = x is possible by means ( susp5sion belly bridges1 to increase ! actual speak+ l5g?s sev]al in*es4 ,^! susp5sion or ext5sion bridges1 z !y are call$1 may also be us$1 ?\gh ) caution1 = ! l[e/ treble /r+s4 ,we h nev] advocat$ ! splitt+ up ( bridges1 b !re are cases1 su* z ^!1 :]e unusual me?ods are q unavoidable4 ,9 ! sev]al ways ?us sket*$ out1 ! design] ( small gr&s may d some?+ to ov]come ! manife/ difficulties ( 8 task4 ,he may likewise take he>t ( grace :5 he approa*es ! matt] ( s\nd-bo>d area1 = 9 treat+ ! /r+-l5g?s !re appe>s a p>tial solution ( ! latt] problem4 ,9 speak+ ( ! use ( susp5sion bridges we omitt$ to note t ! position ( ^! may be modifi$ s z to give great] l5g? to ! speak+ portions ( ! /r+s1 by increas+ ! obliquity ( ! angle ( ! ov]/r++4 ,( c\rse1 ?is w\ld be obvi\s1 b x is p]haps n q s cle> t su* adaptation w result 9 an op5+ out ( spaces on ! s\nd-bo>d t are usually left sev]ely alone4 ,moreov]1 if ! necess>y splitt+ up ( ! bridges be avoid$ by means ( connect+ /rips ( ! same mat]ial1 x is cle> t ! op5+ up ( ! s\nd-bo>d may ?us be c>ri$ up to ! highe/ possible value4 ,along su* l9es z ^!1 x w\ld seem1 mu/ ! c\rse ( small gr& design+ be laid1 at lea/ z f> z conc]ns ! vital elem5ts ( /r+-l5g? & s\nd-bo>d area4 ,!re rema9s ! "q ( ! metal plate1 & ?is des]ves sep>ate treatm5t4 ,we h tak5 pa9s already to insi/ ^u ! necessity = compromise 9 ! build+ ( small gr&s4 ,reg>d+ ! iron plate1 we h to obs]ve t great c>e mu/ be tak5 to avoid undue massiv5ess1 = ?is w entirely spoil ! tone quality1 z ! o!r dim5sions are n capable ( support+ a l>ge mass ( metal )\t tonal det]ioration4 ,on ! o!r h&1 x is equally c]ta9 t we c af=d to sacrifice no?+ 9 ! way ( /r5g?1 z we purpose to h ! highe/ t5sions & ! greate/ l5g?s possible )9 ! space limitations ( our in/rum5t4 ,! ord9>y =m ( plate1 copi$ f ! l>ge gr&1 may v advantage\sly be modifi$ by ! adoption ( a truss or ar* con/ruction1 :i* w enable a l>ge am\nt ( metal to be cut away f ! treble sides )\t sacrific+ any /r5g?4 ,along su* l9es1 z we h already said1 ! design ( small gr&s mu/ ( necessity proce$4 ,we feel t x w\ld n be improp] to repeat our =m]ly express$ op9ion z to ! nature & functions ( ! small gr&4 ,x has come into exi/5ce 9 answ] to a public dem& = some?+ diff]5tiat$ f ! upright1 possess+ great beauty ( outl9e1 & yet adapt$ to ! conf9$ surr\nd+s ( contempor>y dome/ic life4 ,x is n & _c be a rival ( l>g] horizontal =ms2 x is physically e/opp$ f ! realization ( su* ambitions4 ,b x has a place 9 ! economy ( ! musical _w1 & su* a place z no?+ else w\ld satisfactorily fill4 ,wield+ ! mighty influ5ce ( ! "n 8gr& pian(orte0 & ) ! initial advantages ov] ! upright t its =m1 t\* & action imply1 x w\ld inde$ be rem>kable if ! production ( ! small gr& did n become m & m a "p ( ! regul> r\t9e ( all pian(orte manufactur+ e/abli%m5ts4 ,! design ( its case w always1 surely1 be above criticism4 ,x is out ( our prov9ce to enl>ge ^u ! details ( case ar*itecture1 b x may be po9t$ out t su* details z graceful trusses1 well-design$ lyre1 & c>efully mold$ curves d mu* to make or m> ! future ( a small gr&1 entirely ap>t f ! excell5ce ( its scale4 ,! g5]al effect %\ld be t ( lightness & grace2 a t\* ( frivolity ev5 w n be out ( place4 ,! little in/rum5t is likely to f9d its way into homes :]e money is n always an object1 & :]e ! ability to enjoy ! be/ t life conta9s is usually pres5t4 ,! design] w make no mi/ake if he keeps ?is 9 m9d4 ,,unusual ,,me?ods ,,( ,,con/ruction4 ,z ! read] is well aw>e1 ! great] "p ( ! pres5t "w has be5 devot$ to an exposition ( ! broad pr9ciples und]ly+ all "r me?ods ( pian(orte con/ruction4 ,we h devot$ little space !re=e to ! elaboration ( features )\t ?is classification1 or to ! consid]ation ev5 ( su* ideas & me?ods z d n fall )9 ! l9es laid d[n 9 ! !oretical portion ( ?is treatise4 ,busily occupi$1 z we h be51 ) ! developm5t ( ac\/ical & me*anical pr9ciples & _! application along ! mo/ obvi\s & natural l9es1 we h be5 =c$ to neglect "o ( ! mo/ int]e/+ /udies t c be tak5 up by ! inve/igator2 to wit3 ! ideas1 inv5tions & devices t h sprung f ! bra9s ( ! num]\s me*anical & ac\/ical g5iuses :o h illum9at$ ! c\rse ( pian(orte hi/ory & developm5t4 ,_m ( ^! ideas h prov$ impracticable "u ! /ress ( use2 o!rs1 aga91 h be5 %[n to be comm]cially unpr(itable2 a /ill l>g] numb] h fl\ri%$ dur+ a long] or %ort] p]iod or h be5 neglect$ by all o!rs ?an _! orig9al inv5tors4 ,! true place = a /udy ( ^! neglect$ *ildr5 ( en?usia/ic1 if n always practical1 bra9s is 9 a hi/ory ( ! pian(orte r ?an 9 a te*nical treatise on con/ruction4 ,,! ,,end4 ,! foll[+ corrections h be5 made to pr9t]'s errors 9 ?is text3 ,page ,correction ,location 9 ,text #bj ,h&el to ,hndel "t ( ,hndel2 #bj pian=te to pian(orte :i* ! gr& pian(orte #bg beg9 to begun n[ ab\t to be begun4 #cb clos+ p>5?isis ins]t$ /aff 9 ! bass clef7 #cb ,b-%>p to ,b-,natural note #ae 9 h>monic s]ies table #da ,b d\ble ,f-flat to ,b d\ble flat m9or six?s table #db clasisfi$ to classifi$ ,^! s\nds are ?us classifi$3 #di ( to or imply a l5g? or height ( #ec asumption to assumption made on ! assumption #fh ve5]$ to v5e]$ turn+ out ( su* v5e]$ cases1 #gg miss+ comma ins]t$ 7m elaborate ?an ! o!r two71 #hf homog5\s to homog5e\s plate z homog5e\s ) ! sides #hg is to x ,9 fact x occupies #ii ,,repetiton to ,,repetition ,,d\ble ,,repetition ,,action #aji f\gh to f\ght already be5 f\ght out #aac any "o to anyone ?r\gh by anyone :o hopes #abc syn*romize to syn*ronize w syn*ronize ) ea* o!r1 #abd mesontonic to mesotonic t ! mesotonic sy/em1 #abe p]iod add$ 9 ! ratio #abif3abej4 #aca turn$ to tun$ conv]sely1 if ! tun$ notes #adh clos+ quote add$ vacuum 9 ! 8diaphragm *amb]10 #aed ,wtih\t to ,)\t ,)\t ent]+ into we>isome detail1 #aed posses$ to possess$ musical advantages possess$ #aee circu/ances to circum/ances ,"u all circum/ances1