,,practical ,,stair ,,building ,,and    
,,handrailing       ,,practical         
,,stair ,,building ,,and ,,handrailing  
,,by ,,the   ,,square ,,section ,,and   
,,falling ,,line ,,system     ,,by   ,w4
 ,h4 ,,wood     ,illustration           
,london3   ,e4  ,f4 ,n4 ,,spon1 #abe    
,,strand    ,new ,york3   ,,spon        
,,chamberlain1 #ab ,,cortlandt ,,street 
#ahid     ,,preface4   ,the following   
book has been written to assist those   
who wish to acquire a knowledge of the  
most practical and systematic methods   
adopted in the execution of stair       
building and handrailing4  ,in compiling
 this work the author has kept steadily 
in view the absolute necessity of       
treating most fully the elementary      
parts4 ,therefore1 if to some the       
details should appear tedious1 he begs  
to say they have been written to assist 
those who1 being unable to obtain a     
correct knowledge of the methods        
adopted1 seldom advance beyond a certain
 and very unsatisfactory stage4  ,the   

plates on stairs will be found to       
contain much useful and valuable        
information1 all of which the author has
 practically tested1 some of them many  
times over1 and can therefore vouch for 
the accuracy of the various methods     
shown4  ,the ,plates #ab and #ac should 
be thoroughly understood before         
proceeding with the handrailing1 as the 
diagrams showing problems in solid      
geometry have been carefully selected1  
bearing directly on the subject1 and it 
should not be left until the 8why0 and  
8wherefore0 has been reasoned out4  ,the
 system of handrailing is somewhat new1 
but the author has continually put it to
 practical test for the last five years1
 and he is convinced that it is only    
required to be known to be appreciated4 
,w4 ,h4 ,,wood4     ,,contents4         
,,stair ,,building4  ,,plate            
,,page    #a  ,,elementary ,,problems   
#c     #b  ,,close ,,newelled ,,or      
,,dog-,,legged ,,stairs1 ,,the ,,setting
 ,,out ,,of         ,,rods1 ,c4         

#e     #c  ,,the ,,construction ,,of    
,,various ,,parts ,,of ,,stairs1        
,,showing ,,the         ,,application   
,,of ,,the ,,steel ,,square ,,for       
,,setting ,,out ,,strings1         ,c4  
#g     #d  ,,plan ,,and ,,elevation ,,of
 ,,open ,,newel ,,staircase1 ,,with     
,,spandril         ,,under ,,bottom     
,,flight                                
#aa     #e  ,,details ,,of              
,,construction                          
#ac     #f  ,,details ,,of ,a ,,newel   
,,stairs1 ,,starting ,,and ,,landing    
,,with         ,,winders                
#ae     #g  ,,half-,,space ,,landing1   
,,with ,a ,,straight ,,flight ,,above   
,,and ,,below1         ,,and ,a         
,,continued ,,rail1 ,,starting ,,with ,a
 ,,side ,,wreath ,,from ,a              
,,newel                                 
#ag     #h  ,,details ,,of              
,,construction                          
#ai     #i  ,,details ,,of              
,,construction                          
#bc    #aj  ,,details ,,of              

,,construction ,,showing ,,an           
,,apparatus ,,for ,,marking        ,,the
 ,,length ,,and ,,cuts ,,of ,,balusters 
,,around ,,the ,,circular ,,parts       
#be    #aa  ,,details ,,of              
,,construction                          
#bi                                     
,,handrailing4    #ab  ,,on ,,oblique   
,,planes ,,and ,,their ,,traces         
#cg    #ac  ,,on ,,projection ,,of      
,,oblique ,,planes1 ,c4                 
#da    #ad  ,,level ,,landing ,,wreath1 
,,or ,,half ,,twist                     
#dc    #ae  ,,level ,,landing ,,wreath1 
,,or ,,half ,,twist                     
#de    #af  ,,level ,,landing ,,wreath1 
,,or ,,half ,,twist                     
#dg    #ag  ,,half-,,space ,,landing1   
,,with ,,straight ,,flight ,,above ,,and
 ,,below        #di    #ah  ,,from ,,the
 ,,level ,,to ,,the ,,rake              
#ec    #ai  ,,from ,,the ,,level ,,to   
,,the ,,rake                            
#ee    #bj  ,,half-,,space ,,landing    
,,with ,,the ,,risers ,,in ,,the        

,,springing             #eg    #ba      
,,winders ,,in ,,the ,,half-,,space     
,,and ,,level ,,landing ,,at ,,top      
#ei    #bb  ,,winders ,,in ,,the        
,,half-,,space1 ,,with ,a ,,straight    
,,flight ,,above ,,and        ,,below1  
,,wreath ,,to ,,form ,,its ,,own        
,,easing                           #fa  
#bc  ,,quarter-,,space ,,landing1       
,,wreath ,,in ,,one ,,piece             
#fe    #bd  ,,quarter-,,space ,,landing1
 ,,wreath ,,in ,,two ,,pieces           
#fg    #be  ,,quarter-,,space ,,landing1
 ,,wreath ,,in ,,one ,,piece1 ,,to      
,,form ,,its ,,own        ,,easing      
,,into ,,the ,,straight ,,rail          
#fi    #bf  ,,winders ,,in ,,the        
,,quarter-,,space1 ,,wreath ,,in ,,one  
,,piece1 ,,to ,,form        ,,its ,,own 
,,easing ,,into ,,straight ,,rail       
#ga    #bg  ,,landing ,,in ,,an ,,obtuse
 ,,angle1 ,,the ,,wreath ,,to ,,form    
,,its ,,own        ,,easing ,,into ,,the
 ,,straight ,,rail                      
#gc    #bh  ,,half ,,twist ,,starting   

,,from ,a ,,scroll1 ,,and ,a ,,side     
,,wreath        ,,starting ,,from ,a    
,,newel                                 
#ge    #bi  ,,winders ,,starting ,,from 
,a ,,curtail ,,step                     
#gg    #cj  ,,winders ,,in ,,the        
,,quarter-,,space1 ,,starting ,,from ,a 
,,newel             #gi    #ca  ,,the   
,,plan ,,of ,,rail ,,forming ,,part ,,of
 ,,an ,,ellipse1 ,,starting ,,from      
,a ,,newel ,,over ,,winders             
#ha    #cb  ,,showing ,,the ,,moulding  
,,of ,,rails1 ,,and ,a ,,method ,,of    
,,proportionately ,,increasing ,,or     
,,decreasing ,,the ,,size ,,of ,,them   
#hc     ,,practical  ,,stair ,,building 
,,and ,,handrailing4     ,,stair        
,,building4   ,stairs are a succession  
of steps leading from one landing to    
another in a building4 ,each step       
comprises tread and riser1 the tread    
being horizontal and the riser vertical4
 ,the side pieces supporting the ends of
 steps are called strings3 that next to 
the wall1 the wall string2 the other1   

the front1 outside1 well1 cut1 open1 or 
close string4 ,when the steps are       
narrower one end than the other they are
 called winders4 ,the landing is a      
platform between the floors1 and it is  
sometimes arranged to give access to a  
door4 ,a succession of steps between    
each landing is called a flight4 ,it is 
not often that the stair builder is     
called upon to say how and where the    
stairs are to go1 that being the work of
 the architect2 but the former must do  
his best to carry out the wishes of the 
latter1 who will leave to him the       
placing of risers1 and all details      
necessarily belonging to the stair      
builder1 who will make the best possible
 job1 having all easings and falling    
lines as graceful as it is possible to  
make them4 ,an easing that is too long  
is almost as objectionable as one that  
is too short4  ,he will take the        
dimensions off on to his rods1 and from 
them set out the whole stairs1 showing  
all doorways1 landings1 headroom1 c41 to

 #a inch scale if possible4 ,all winders
 must be set out full size4             
,illustration3 ,,plate #a4  ,,plate ,i4 
,,elementary ,,problems4   ,fig4 #a4    
,draw a straight line1 equal in length  
to the semicircle ,a ,b ,c4 ,with ,a and
 ,c as centres1 and for radius ,a ,c1   
strike the two arcs to intersect each   
other in ,s4 ,join ,s ,a and ,s ,c      
extended1 to cut the line through ,b in 
,d and ,e4 ,then1 ,d ,e is the length of
 the required line1 and if this was bent
 around the semicircle it would reach   
from ,a to ,c4 ,this line throughout    
this work is termed the stretch-out of  
the semicircle4  ,fig4 #b4 ,given the   
length ,d ,e1 find the radius to strike 
a semi-99circle equal in length to it4  
,draw a line from ,e at #fj1 and from ,b
 at #de to ,d ,e1 to cross each other at
 ,c4 ,draw from ,b square to ,d ,e1 and 
from ,c parallel to ,d ,e to meet in ,o2
 then ,o ,b will be the required radius4
  ,figs4 #c1 #d and #e show how to      
bisect any given angle4 ,let ,a ,b ,c be

 the given angle4 ,with ,b as centre1   
strike the arc ,d ,d to any radius4     
,with ,d ,d as centres1 and for radius  
more than half the distance ,d ,d1      
describe arcs intersecting in ,e4 ,then1
 a line from ,b to ,e will bisect the   
angle4  ,figs4 #f1 #g and #h show how to
 ease any given angle1 that is to form a
 curve that will connect the two        
straight lines1 from any two given      
points1 on those lines4 ,let ,a ,b and  
,b ,c be the two lines forming the given
 angle1 and it is required to connect   
those lines from ,a to ,c4 ,divide ,a ,b
 and ,b ,c into any number of equal     
parts1 connect those parts1 and the     
curve will be formed if ,a ,b and ,b ,c 
has been divided into a sufficient      
number of parts4  ,fig4 #i shows a      
semi-ellipse1 ,a ,b being the semi-major
 axis1 and ,b ,d the semi-minor axis4   
,let ,a ,b and ,d ,b1 ,fig4 #aj1 equal  
,a ,b and ,d ,b1 ,fig4 #i4 ,to strike   
the curve1 move this rod around1 keeping
 ,d on the major axis1 and ,a on the    

minor axis1 and mark off points at the  
end of the rod all round4  ,fig4 #aa4   
,given a semi-ellipse1 draw a normal    
tangent4 ,determine the foci of the     
ellipse ,f ,f4 ,with ,d as centre1 and  
for radius ,a ,b strike arcs of circles 
at ,f ,f4 ,at any point on the curve1   
say at ,s1 draw lines to ,f ,f and      
bisect the angle4 ,now draw through ,s1 
square to this line that bisects the    
angle for the required normal tangent4  
,illustration3 ,,plate #b4  ,,plate     
,,ii4  ,,close ,,newelled ,,or          
,,dog-,,legged ,,stairs1 ,,the ,,setting
 ,,out ,,of ,,rods1 ,,etc4   ,fig4 #a   
shows the plan of a dog-legged stair4   
,the first thing to be done is to take  
off the sizes on a rod4 ,first take the 
rod1 marked ,fig4 #c4 ,cut this rod in  
between the brick walls1 taking care to 
try it between the walls where the two  
flights come together at risers #ab and 
#ac4 ,set off on each end of this rod   
the thickness of plaster2 now set off   
the face of wall strings so that they   

will be flush with the face of the      
skirting4 ,then set back from face of   
the string half an inch1 the depth of   
the housing1 this will be the end of the
 treads and risers4 ,next set off the   
centre of the rod1 draw the newel and   
string on the rod1 half their           
thicknesses on each side of the centre  
line4 ,then set back towards the centre 
from each face of the centre string1    
half an inch1 the depth of the housing4 
,this gives the length of the treads and
 risers2 and if ordinary care is taken  
in setting out this rod1 and working to 
it1 no mistake can be made4  ,the height
 rod is seen at ,fig4 #d4 ,set off on   
this rod the height from the top of the 
bottom floor to the top of the top      
floor4 ,now divide this height into as  
many parts as there are to be risers1   
and the distance from one division to   
another represents the height from the  
top of one tread to the top of the next4
 ,the number of risers and the height of
 them must be regulated by              

circumstances4 ,a few hints only can be 
thrown out here4 ,the rise should not be
 less than #f inches or more than #g    
inches1 while the going and the rise    
added together should not be less than  
#af inches or more than #ah inches4     
,thus1 it will be seen1 the going should
 be regulated by the rise4 ,for         
instance1 say the rise is #g inches1    
then the going should not exceed #aj    
inches2 this would make the going and   
rise added together #ah inches4 ,now1   
the stairs would be easier if the going 
was only #i1 as this would make the two 
#ag inches1 which is a better average   
than #ah inches4 ,these remarks are not 
laid down as a fixed and unaltered rule1
 but are intended as a guide in the     
setting out of stairs of any            
description4 ,mark off on the height rod
 the floors1 joist and ceiling of both  
landings1 as shown at ,fig4 #d4 ,in     
putting in the landing1 use the height  
rod to get the height of the joist1 but 
care must be taken to take the height   

from the proper floor level1 in case the
 floor is not down4  ,fig4 #e shows the 
going rod4 ,put one end of this rod     
against the back wall1 and mark on to it
 all doorways1 trimmer joists1 c4 ,the  
width of landing and the going must be  
regulated by circumstances1 but the     
risers1 newels and all joists must be   
marked on to the rod as shown4 ,in      
putting in these trimmers it is always  
as well to square them1 that is1 put    
them in square to the side walls1 then  
should the back wall be out of square   
the difference will be in the landing4  
,fig4 #f shows the pitch board4 ,these  
are best made of zinc4 ,make the rise   
equal the height of one rise on the     
height rod1 and the going equal the     
going of one step on the going rod4     
,fig4 #g shows the construction of one  
step4 ,a plan and elevation of the      
stairs should always be made to a scale 
of1 say1  of an inch to the foot1 or1 if
 possible1 to #a inch to the foot1 and  
all openings1 headroom1 c41 should be   

shown4 ,the line ,h ,h1 ,fig4 #b1 is    
drawn parallel to the line of nosings on
 the bottom flight1 and at a height     
above them of #g feet4 ,then the bottom 
edge of the top landing must be kept    
above this line to give sufficient      
headroom4 ,the setting out of the       
strings and glueing up of the steps1 c41
 will be seen on ,plate ,,iii4          
,illustration3 ,,plate #c4  ,,plate     
,,iii4  ,,the ,,construction ,,of       
,,various ,,parts ,,of ,,stairs1        
,,showing ,,the ,,application ,,of ,,the
 ,,steel ,,square ,,for ,,setting ,,out 
,,strings1 ,,etc4   ,fig4 #a shows a    
cradle for glueing up the steps4 ,let ,a
 be a piece of wood about #ah inches    
long by #f inches wide by #b inches     
thick1 and ,b should be a piece about #b
 feet #f inches long by #c inches wide  
by #b inches thick4 ,put a -inch mortise
 through ,b and tenon ,a into it4 ,well 
glue and wedge1 and pin as shown4 ,two  
of these should be made4 ,it will be    
noticed that ,e is cut out for the      

projection of the front edge of the     
tread past ,d1 which is the face of the 
riser1 and the mortise in ,b is kept    
back to ,e4 ,f is cut out to fit over   
the scotia4 ,the holes in the edges ,c  
and ,d are for pins to go in1 to wedge  
against when glueing up the steps4 ,the 
process of glueing up the steps is as   
follows3 first cut off treads1 risers1  
and scotia about #a inch or #a inch     
longer than their proper length4 ,now   
plane up the treads1 and shoot the front
 edges straight and square2 then plough 
the under side for the scotia to go in  
about  inch deep2 then plane up the     
scotia and gauge them to a width and    
thickness so as to fit tight into the   
groove4 ,these scotias should next be   
glued into the grooves and allowed to   
dry while the risers are being planed   
up4 ,plane up the face of the risers1   
and shoot the edge to go against the    
tread straight and square4 ,now fix the 
two cradles on the bench1 by screwing   
them through ,b into the top of the     

bench4 ,in fixing these1 try them with  
one of the treads so as to get them     
square2 keep them about #f inches from  
each end4  ,fig4 #b shows one of these  
cradles with a part of a step glued up4 
,lay the step on the cradle and stick a 
pin in one of the holes in ,b1 and put  
in a wedge between the pin and the back 
edge of the step to keep the step in its
 place4 ,now glue the tread for the edge
 of the riser1 also the back of the     
scotia2 well rub the riser to get the   
glue rubbed out1 and put in the wedge to
 keep the riser down1 as shown4 ,then   
put in two screws and three blocks as   
shown at ,fig4 #g1 ,plate ,,ii4 ,in     
putting on the blocks take care to well 
rub the glue out4  ,fig4 #c shows a part
 of the outer string housed out for the 
treads and risers4 ,the steel square is 
used to get the lines on the strings for
 the treads and risers1 as shown4 ,get a
 piece of stuff long enough1 marked ,f1 
and let it be about #b inches square2   
put a good thick saw cut in each end and

 slip the square in the cuts as shown4  
,hold the hypothenuse of the pitch board
 against the fence ,f and set the blade 
to the going1 and the tongue of the     
square to the rise of the pitch board4  
,now to mark the string4 ,gauge the     
hypothenuse line about #b inches from   
the top edge of string1 and make the    
distance between ,a ,a on this line     
equal the hypothenuse of the pitch      
board4 ,slide the square along from ,a  
to ,a and mark both treads and risers4  
,to mark the housing on the back side of
 the treads and risers1 get two pieces  
of thin stuff and cut wedge-shaped1     
allowing them the wedge wider than the  
thickness of treads to mark the housing 
for the treads1 and the wedge wider than
 the thickness of the risers for the    
housing for the risers4 ,fig4 #d shows a
 section of the steps with bracketed    
carriages showing4 ,these carriages are 
only used in this description of stairs2
 they average from #b inches to #c      
inches thick2 they are put on with the  

grain running in the same direction as  
the strings1 they are screwed to the    
under side of the steps and to each     
other1 as shown1 and well blocked to    
treads and risers4 ,they are placed     
according to the width of the stairs1   
three under each flight4  ,fig4 #e shows
 a part of the wall string1 moulded to  
match the skirting1 and housed out for  
treads and risers4 ,in putting stairs of
 this sort together1 lay the wall string
 on the ground1 as shown1 taking care to
 get it straight and solid4 ,then place 
one end of the steps in the grooves of  
the wall string1 after all the steps    
have been placed in position1 then lay  
the outer string on the ends of steps1  
and after the steps have been got into  
the grooves4 ,well strut from the       
ceiling or any convenient place on to   
the outer string1 forcing the steps into
 all the grooves4 ,then put in the      
wedges1 glueing them before they are    
driven in4 ,after they have been screwed
 up and blocked the struts can be       

removed4  ,the nosing and scotia are    
worked after the steps have been glued  
up2 this is the best method of working  
in either a machine or a hand shop4     
,fit the nosing and scotia into the     
strings on the bench before putting     
together1 also get the rises to a width 
and number each step where it is to go4 
,fig4 #f shows how the strings are      
tenoned into the newel2 the dotted lines
 show the tenons and the haunching1 the 
tenon being #c inches deep and the      
haunching  inch deep2 this is shown at  
,fig4 #g4 ,the housing out of the newels
 is described later on where there are  
winders4  ,the thickness of treads1 c41 
varies according to the class of work1  
but the following may be taken as a good
 example4  ,treads1 #a inch thick4      
,project over risers1 #a inch4  ,risers1
 #a inch thick4  ,scotia1 #a inch by    
inch4  ,strings1 #a inch4               
,illustration3 ,,plate #d4  ,,plate     
,,iv4  ,,plan ,,and ,,elevation ,,of    
,,open ,,newel ,,staircase1 ,,with      

,,spandril ,,under ,,bottom ,,flight4   
,fig4 #a shows the plan of an open      
newelled stairs1 starting from a        
bull-nose step at bottom1 and having a  
short piece of rail along the top to    
give sufficient headroom4 ,the dotted   
lines show the joist4  ,fig4 #b shows   
the elevation1 with spandril and newels4
 ,after having taken the width1 height  
and going or run on to the rods1 set up 
an elevation to #a scale1 when the size 
of strings can be taken off2 newels1    
length of rails and spandril can all be 
set out4 ,draw the line ,h ,h parallel  
to the line of nosing and #g feet above4
 ,keep the bottom of facia crossing over
 the bottom flight above this line4     
,after having set out the stairs to this
 scale mark off the rods full size4     
,fig4 #c shows the width rod1 with the  
two newels marked on it4  ,fig4 #d is   
the going rod1 with newels1 face of     
risers1 joist1 c41 all marked on it4    
,fig4 #e shows the height rod4 ,mark on 
to this rod the two landings4  ,fig4 #f 

shows the newels on the half-space      
landing4 ,the newel ,a being the bottom 
one1 runs right down to the floor1 the  
bottom square on it being to receive the
 bottom handrail1 while the short level 
rail is above this4 ,the newel ,b1 the  
top square1 is to receive the top       
handrail1 and the short rail is below   
it4 ,thus it will be seen the twining on
 the top newel is shorter than on the   
bottom one marked ,a4  ,the details will
 be found on the following plate4       
,illustration3 ,,plate4 #e4  ,,plate ,v4
  ,,details ,,of ,,construction4   ,fig4
 #a shows the top rail of spandril1 with
 the tenon cut ready to go together4    
,fig4 #b is the middle rail tenoned and 
haunched ready to go together to fit    
into the stile4  ,fig4 #c shows the     
other end of the same rail ready to go  
into the top rail4  ,fig4 #d shows the  
bottom rail tenoned ready to go into the
 stile against the newel4  ,fig4 #e is  
the same rail tenoned ready to go into  
the top rail under the string4  ,fig4 #f

 shows a part of one panel with the     
moulding4 ,to cut the moulding in1      
bisect the two angles as ,a ,b and ,c   
,d2 this was shown on ,plate ,i4 ,make  
cuts in the mitre1 cut to ,a ,b and ,c  
,d1 and cut the mitres to it4 ,in       
putting the spandril together1 put all  
muntings1 rails1 panels1 top rail1      
bottom and middle rails first1 and the  
stile against the newel last4  ,fig4 #g 
shows a part section enlarged of the top
 rail of spandril1 string of stairs and 
capping4  ,fig4 #h shows a round-ended  
step4 ,this is got out in three         
thicknesses1 as shown at ,fig4 #i4 ,this
 block is prepared as shown2 the riser  
is cut to the thickness of a veneer1 it 
is glued and screwed at the back1 is    
well glued1 brought around and well     
wedged and screwed as shown2 the scotia 
is glued and screwed to the block1 and  
the tread is well glued and screwed from
 the bottom4 ,the newel is mortised into
 the step diagonally1 as shown4  ,fig4  
#aj shows the elevation of the trimmer  

at the top4  ,fig4 #aa shows the plans  
of the trimmer1 with wedge and method of
 jointing4  ,fig4 #ab shows the section 
of newel and a part of door1 frame and  
spandril4     ,illustration3 ,,plate #f4
  ,,plate ,,vi4  ,,details ,,of ,a      
,,newel ,,stairs1 ,,starting ,,and      
,,landing ,,with ,,winders4   ,in       
planning stairs of this description     
several things have to be considered4   
,first take off the height and going on 
a rod4 ,then decide how many steps there
 are to be4 ,draw a plan and elevation1 
as shown at ,figs4 #a and #b4 ,set off  
the width of the stairs and draw the two
 newels4 ,now draw the line of travel   
#ae inches from the centre of rail4     
,take the centre of newels for centre1  
and strike the quarter of circle top and
 bottom in continuation of this line1   
which divide into as many divisions as  
there are to be steps4 ,in drawing the  
winders keep the narrow ends as wide as 
possible1 and for this purpose they can 
be brought past the newels into the     

strings2 as we can have no sympathy with
 the system that crowds all the narrow  
ends of winders into the newels1 by that
 means making the stairs unnecessarily  
dangerous4 ,the dotted lines show the   
trimmers and joist2 care must be taken  
to have sufficient headroom4 ,it will be
 noticed that the wall string is jointed
 at both ends1 so as to get sufficient  
width4 ,when these strings are set out  
like this to a scale1 it is seen at once
 what there is to joint on4 ,fig4 #c    
shows the short string at the bottom1   
and ,fig4 #d that at the top4 ,these    
short strings must be made to ease into 
the long wall string at the same height1
 also to ease into the skirting4 ,to fix
 these stairs proceed as follows3 set   
the steps #a1 #b and #c at the bottom1  
and #ab1 #ac and #ad at the top1 out    
full size on a board1 with the wall     
strings and newels4 ,tongue and groove  
the strings together in the corners1    
having the tongue on the long string at 
the bottom4 ,mark the treads off the    

board to cut and not try to fit on the  
job4 ,if the rods have been set out     
correct in the first place1 and as      
correct can be worked to1 they can be   
cut in the shop for the bottom winders1 
but for the top ones the lines should be
 taken off the board out to them1 and   
cut when fixed4 ,put the flight         
together1 including step ,no4 #ab at the
 top and #c at the bottom1 then fix on  
the bottom newel1 after which step ,no4 
#b can be fixed in position4 ,then put  
the short string in its place1 also step
 ,no4 #a4 ,now let the stairs go down   
into their place and do all necessary   
blocking and screwing4 ,it will be      
understood that everything has been     
fitted before this1 also that these     
bottom winders are glued up4 ,next put  
on the long newel and glue and pin it2  
slip the short string at top into its   
place1 then fix in the risers #ac1 #ad  
and #ae1 and treads #ac and #ad and the 
nosing at top4 ,glue1 screw and block   
these after they are in4 ,before cutting

 the treads and risers at the top1 try  
with a rod to see if the lines on them  
taken off the board are correct1 and if 
there is any difference allow for it    
when cutting them in4  ,fig4 #e shows   
the plan and ,fig4 #g the elevation of  
the newel for the bottom1 with part of  
winders to #a inch scale4 ,in setting   
out the newels mark the position of     
risers on to them1 thus1 make #a1 #b1   
,fig4 #g1 equal to #a1 #b1 ,fig4 #e1 and
 set up the height of a rise1 and square
 out a line and make #b1 #c equal #b1   
#c1 ,fig4 #e2 this riser1 it will be    
seen1 comes on the edge2 again set up a 
rise1 as shown by #c1 #c4 ,from #c      
square out a line and make #c1 #d equal 
#c1 #d1 ,fig4 #e1 and set up the height 
of a rise4 ,the same process would be   
repeated as long as there were any      
risers striking the newel on plan4 ,of  
course the newel would be set out full  
size on the board that the winders were 
set out on4  ,fig4 #f shows the plan of 
newel1 and ,fig4 #h the elevation of a  

part of it4 ,repeat the process         
described at ,figs4 #e and #g4          
,illustration3 ,,plate #g4  ,,plate     
,,vii4  ,,half-,,space ,,landing1 ,,with
 ,a ,,straight ,,flight ,,above ,,and   
,,below1 ,,and ,a ,,continued ,,rail1   
,,starting ,,with ,a ,,side ,,wreath    
,,from ,a ,,newel4   ,fig4 #a shows the 
plan1 and ,fig4 #b the sectional        
elevation4 ,the previous plates have    
shown stairs with close strings--that   
is1 the outside strings are housed out  
for the treads and risers1 in the same  
way as the wall string1 and the top of  
the string is kept above the nosings1   
and a capping is fixed on the top of it1
 and the balusters are cut on1 or let   
into this capping1 according to the     
class of work4 ,but in this case is     
shown a cut or open string4 ,the treads 
and risers are housed into the wall     
string as before1 but the outside       
strings are cut so as to allow the      
treads and risers to pass right through1
 and the balusters are dovetailed into  

the ends of treads1 details of which are
 shown on ,plate ,,viii4 ,the carriages 
and the landing joist are shown by      
dotted lines on plan4 ,the carriages fit
 close up under the bottom edge of      
treads1 and rough brackets are nailed to
 the side of them1 and fit close up to  
the under side of treads1 and glued and 
blocked4 ,in this description of stairs 
it is usual to have four iron balusters1
 placed as follows1 one each on steps   
#g1 #ac1 #ah and #bd4 ,there should be a
 joist1 or good solid block let into    
them1 immediately under the newel1 so   
that a bolt can be let up into the      
centre of newel1 and through this block1
 or joist1 and screwed tight from the   
bottom4 ,the wall string should be well 
plugged and nailed to the wall4 ,if     
there is no spandril under the bottom   
flight1 the carriages should be         
stiffened by cutting pieces of the same 
stuff in between each carriage and let  
into the wall4 ,get a long bolt made to 
go through all the carriages1 and the   

pieces between them and into the wall1  
with a screw on the outside end to screw
 them all up tight together4 ,to bore   
them for the bolts3 ,after the carriages
 have been fitted in their place1 before
 they are fixed1 lay them together and  
bore them2 then bore the short pieces   
before putting them into their place4   
,fig4 #c shows the width rod4 ,care     
should always be taken to try this rod  
at the landing1 where the two flights   
are connected1 and allow for the stairs 
to fit in between the walls1 just slack 
enough to go in their place without any 
trouble4 ,they want1 in fact1 to drop   
into their place4 ,mark on each end of  
the rod the face of the skirting on the 
landings1 and let this be the face of   
the wall string4 ,mark the centre1 and  
set off on each side the centre line of 
rail1 also the string and brackets4 ,the
 face brackets will be the outside face 
of balusters4  ,fig4 #d is the going    
rod4 ,of course1 the going must be      
regulated by circumstances1 but this rod

 must have the face of all the risers   
marked on it1 also each springing1 as   
shown by ,s ,s ,s1 and the landings1    
doorways1 c4  ,fig4 #e is the height    
rod1 which must have landings1 c41      
marked on it as shown4 ,these rods      
should be used to put in the landing by4
 ,the pitch board will be taken off the 
rods1 as was before explained4          
,remember1 a little care in setting out 
and working to these rods is true       
economy4  ,fig4 #f shows how the        
carriages may be fastened to the floor4 
,let ,a be a fillet nailed well through 
the floor into the joist4  ,fig4 #g     
shows the top and bottom carriages      
bolted to the trimmers at the landing4  
,the short trimmer is sufficiently long 
to take the top carriages4 ,the dotted  
lines show how the bottom end of the top
 carriages is let into the short        
trimmer1 and bolted through4 ,the bottom
 carriages cut against the long trimmer1
 and bolted through1 as shown4 ,it      
sometimes happens the short trimmer has 

to be blocked out from the long one1 so 
as to receive the top carriages4 ,in    
that case it is packed out sufficiently 
and bolted together4  ,fig4 #h shows the
 carriages bolted to the trimmer on the 
top landing4     ,illustration3 ,,plate 
#h4  ,,plate ,,viii4  ,,details ,,of    
,,construction4   ,fig4 #a shows the    
plan1 and ,fig4 #b the elevation of a   
part of an open or cut string4 ,it will 
be seen the risers are cut like a bare  
face tenon #e_/af inch thick1 the same  
thickness as the ornamental brackets1   
and shouldered to fit against the inside
 of the string4 ,these brackets are     
glued and bradded to the outside face of
 the string1 and mitred to the ends of  
the risers4 ,that part of the string    
where the shoulder of the risers fits   
against1 should be gauged to an exact   
thickness4 ,the brackets fit close up   
under the ends of the treads1 which     
project the thickness of the brackets   
past the strings1 and mitred on the     
front edge to receive the return nosing 

and scotia1 which is mitred and returned
 into the string1 as shown at ,e1 ,fig4 
#a4 ,the best method to adopt is as     
follows3--,get the risers shouldered and
 mitred1 then plough the treads for the 
scotia2 now cut off the ends of the     
treads as far as the mitre1 which mark  
and cut in a little way1 finishing the  
cut after the nosing has been worked and
 the stairs are together4 ,cut in the   
dovetails for the balusters1 but not    
chop them out before the stairs are     
fixed4 ,now glue in the scotia1 and1    
when dry1 put the steps together1 the   
same as was explained in ,plate ,,iii4  
,then get the length of steps from the  
width rod1 and cut them off4 ,gauge the 
risers to a width with a gauge as seen  
at ,fig4 #d4 ,fit the steps in the wall 
string1 and cut out for nosing and      
scotia4 ,to put them together1 lay the  
wall string on the floor1 having it     
straight and solid2 put the steps into  
it1 and lay the outer string on1 and1   
with struts from the ceiling or any     

convenient place1 force the cut string  
on to the shoulders of the risers1 and  
the steps into the housing of the wall  
string4 ,see that the stairs are square 
before doing all necessary wedging1     
blocking1 screwing1 c4 ,then remove the 
struts and put on the brackets and      
return nosing1 glueing and bradding the 
former1 while the latter should only    
have two brads into the steps1 so that  
they can be easily removed to fix the   
balusters when the handrail is fixed1   
after which they can be permanently     
nailed4 ,the iron balusters are screwed 
to a block fixed for the purpose4 ,this 
block is marked ,a1 ,figs4 #a and #c4   
,the riser is reduced to allow the block
 to come forward1 so as to get the      
screws well into it2 it is stub-tenoned 
into the under side of the tread1 as    
shown by the dotted lines1 ,fig4 #c2 it 
is also screwed into the back of the    
next tread below1 and well glued and    
blocked4 ,there will have to be a       
special baluster turned1 out of pine1   

for a pattern1 and turned a little      
longer to allow for shrinkage in the    
casting1 which is about  inch to each   
foot4 ,the square parts must be made to 
draw out of the sand when cast--that is1
 they must be a trifle thicker in the   
middle on the sides shown at ,fig4 #c   
than they are at the edges1 as they are 
cast in two halves4 ,they will be       
drilled and countersunk for the screws  
after they are cast4  ,fig4 #e shows the
 side and ,fig4 #f the front elevation  
of a mitre shoot for shooting the mitres
 of the ends of risers4 ,the sides are  
two #i-;inch boards1 set up at #de1 and 
screwed to the bottom1 marked ,d1 and to
 the back1 marked ,h4 ,two ledges are   
screwed on the bottom1 marked ,n4 ,also 
a longer piece on the top1 in front1    
marked ,c1 for the trying plane to slide
 on when shooting the mitres4 ,a false  
bottom is put in1 and set up at #de1    
marked ,b1 this is screwed or nailed    
through the sides1 and kept  inch above 
,c1 as shown4 ,the triangular piece is  

put in1 and the bottom side ,s ,p is    
kept the thickness of a bracket above   
,b1 and ,s ,p must be the exact size of 
the thickness of the string where the   
risers fit against it4 ,the risers are  
put in with the shoulders against ,s ,r 
and shot off4 ,the brackets can be      
mitred in the same way4 ,this box will  
do for any job by having different      
triangular pieces4  ,fig4 #g shows how  
to get out the continuation of the      
brackets along the top landing1 and     
finish against the wall4 ,it often      
happens that the brackets require to be 
reduced in length for unders or         
diminished flyers1 or increased for a   
large well1 or where the risers are     
farther apart than on the straight      
flights4 ,figs4 #h and #i show methods  
of reducing or increasing the length of 
the brackets1 and each member           
proportionately4 ,it is only necessary  
to describe one1 as the method for both 
is the same4 ,let ,a be the given1 and  
,b the required bracket4 ,having drawn  

the bracket ,a1 set off ,c ,e at any    
angle1 the required length4 ,join ,d ,e1
 draw any number of lines on the bracket
 ,a1 square to ,c ,d1 draw these lines  
parallel to ,d ,e1 and from where they  
cut ,c ,e square outline1 and make them 
equal corresponding lines on the bracket
 ,a1 as #c1 #d and #e on ,b will equal  
#c1 #d and #e on ,a4 ,these brackets for
 the circular parts may be got out of   
wood2 in that case the grain should be  
vertical1 as the brackets are fixed4    
,but for painted work the best are two  
pieces of linoleum glued together4      
,fig4 #aj shows how the cut string1     
which is #ab inches wide1 may be got out
 of a #i-;inch board4 ,shoot the bottom 
edge1 then gauge a line on its face to  
equal ,s ,s1 ,fig4 #b4 ,then with the   
compasses set off on this line1 the     
hypothenuse of the pitch board as many  
times as is required1 as shown by ,n ,r 
,s ,h4 ,then with the steel square mark 
each going and rise1 which cut1 it will 
be found the board is not wide enough1  

but the pieces cut out of the corners   
can be glued on to make it out as shown 
by ,a and ,b4  ,in some cases1 where    
there are no ornamental brackets1 the   
ends of treads are cut off flush with   
the outside face of string1 except the  
mitre for the return nosing1 and the    
risers are mitred to the string4        
,illustration3 ,,plate #i4  ,,plate     
,,ix4  ,,details ,,of ,,construction4   
,fig4 #a is the plan of the well and the
 steps1 landing and starting1 at the    
half-space landing4 ,the lines marked ,c
 ,s are the direction of the cuts to be 
made through the circular or well string
 for the risers to mitre to4  ,fig4 #b  
shows a piece of thin stuff cut to a    
semicircle to fit the inside of the     
string4 ,this piece is laid on the plan1
 and the position and direction of the  
cuts for risers is marked on it as seen 
by ,c ,c4  ,fig4 #c shows a section of a
 staved well1 the joints being ploughed 
out and cross tongues put in as shown4  
,each joint must be well glued and      

rubbed and screwed through the back4 ,it
 will be noticed it is carried past the 
springing into the straight on both     
sides2 this makes a better job1 as a    
joint made in the springing always has a
 crippled appearance1 no matter how well
 the job may be done4  ,fig4 #d shows a 
falling mould for marking the treads and
 risers1 also the bottom edge of the    
well in a continuous line with the      
bottom edge of the two straight strings4
 ,take a thin lath and bend it around   
,fig4 #b1 and mark on it the springing  
and risers1 as shown by ,s ,s and ,r ,r4
 ,lay this lath on the piece of stuff   
the falling mould is to be cut out of1  
in a horizontal position1 as shown1 and 
mark the risers and springing4 ,set up a
 step above and below the springings1   
and set off ,s ,s to equal ,s ,s1 ,fig4 
#b1 ,plate ,,viii4 ,then draw the under 
side of straight strings and continue it
 across the well1 taking care to have   
the best possible falling line4 ,h ,h   
shows the length the pieces forming the 

well will require to be4 ,this falling  
mould may be made out of good stiff     
brown paper1 or any other suitable      
stuff4 ,now bend it around on the inside
 of the well1 and mark the treads and   
risers and the bottom edge4 ,keep the   
springing lines on the mould to the     
springing marked on the well4 ,to mark  
the springing on the well take ,fig4 #b 
and hold in the well1 and mark the      
springing top and bottom and finish it  
with a straight edge4 ,also mark the    
direction of the cuts as shown by the   
lines marked ,c4  ,fig4 #e shows how the
 well is fixed to the straight strings4 
,this must be all fitted in the shop    
ready to slide up in its place when the 
stairs are fixed1 when it should be well
 glued1 wedged and screwed4 ,the        
circular string for the starting and top
 landing of ,fig4 #a1 ,plate ,,vii41 may
 be got out and fixed in the same way4  
,these kind of wells answer the purpose 
for which they are used1 but they are   
not so strong as a veneered well1 which 

is shown on ,plate ,,xi4  ,fig4 #f shows
 the step starting from the half-space  
landing4 ,this step is slightly curved  
at the end to make it the same width on 
the end as the rest4 ,the risers1       
starting and landing are laid down to   
suit the rail1 as shown in ,plate       
,,xvii4  ,fig4 #g shows the return      
nosing for this step4  ,fig4 #h shows   
the landing step4 ,this is got out long 
enough to reach from wall to wall4 ,this
 step is glued up in the shop with the  
rest2 the nosing is worked on the solid 
and returned as far as ,e1 about #b or  
#c inches on4 ,the scotia is fixed      
around the circular part after all is   
fixed4  ,fig4 #i shows the top landing  
step4 ,this too goes from wall to wall1 
and is treated in the same way as ,fig4 
#h1 only the nosing is worked from end  
to end4     ,illustration3 ,,plate #aj4 
,,plate ,x4  ,,details ,,of             
,,construction1 ,,showing ,,an          
,,apparatus ,,for ,,marking ,,the       
,,length ,,and ,,cuts ,,of ,,balusters  

,,around ,,the ,,circular ,,parts4      
,fig4 #a shows part plan of stairs for a
 side wreath starting from a newel4 ,the
 farther out the newel stands1 within   
reason1 the better will be the          
appearance1 provided it does not        
obstruct the passage in any way4  ,fig4 
#b shows the construction of the curved 
steps4 ,let the pieces marked ,a be in  
two pieces1 as shown1 glued and screwed 
together1 with the grain crossing each  
other as much as possible4 ,the riser is
 reduced1 as shown1 as far as the work  
goes1 to within about #c inches of the  
end1 as shown by ,b4 ,the little piece  
of straight on the face of riser at ,b  
can be cleaned off in continuation of   
the curve after it is glued up4 ,screw  
through the blocks into the end of riser
 at ,b1 then bend the veneer around1 put
 on hand-screws to hold the riser and   
block together while wedging1 and before
 removing the hand-screws put in the    
screws as shown4 ,the scotia is screwed 
to the under side of the tread1 and     

holes bored in the bottom edge of riser 
so as to get a screw-99driver in1 and   
screw the riser on from the bottom1 the 
screws going through the scotia into the
 tread4  ,fig4 #c shows the block for a 
curtail step4 ,the step is struck from  
the same centres as the handrail1 which 
is explained on plate4 ,the block is got
 out in three thicknesses2 the grain of 
two pieces can run in the same direction
 as the riser1 and the middle pieces in 
the direction of ,s ,s4 ,the balusters  
will regulate the size of the block1 as 
shown4 ,this step is constructed on the 
same principle as ,fig4 #b1 the scotia  
being in the solid4 ,the nosing will be 
worked on the tread in the solid and    
returned at ,r through the string4 ,the 
piece marked ,h is a piece of -inch iron
 twisted so as to screw to the under    
side of the tread and to the inside of  
the string4 ,the last baluster on the   
step should be iron1 shouldered to fit  
on the top of the tread1 and a  pin on  
it to go through the step1 with a thread

 for a nut to screw it up tight from the
 bottom4 ,they are sometimes run in with
 sulphur instead of the nut2 in that    
case it can be fixed after the step is  
fixed1 but the nut makes the best job4  
,fig4 #d shows an apparatus for cutting 
up the balusters around the wreaths4 ,it
 is a very simple affair1 easily made   
and easily applied2 it makes a perfect  
fit1 and the saving of time is very     
great4 ,the box is made the size of the 
baluster on the inside1 the back ,c is  
#a inch thick1 and the sides  inch4 ,the
 pieces marked ,a are cut as shown1 and 
slotted1 a couple of screws are screwed 
into the sides with washers on1 for ,a  
to slide up and down4 ,b is a piece of  
zinc screwed on to ,a1 as shown1 with   
the head countersunk flush4 ,b must be  
about  inch narrower than the balusters1
 so as to go into the groove of the     
under side of handrail4 ,the screws in  
,b must be so that they can be turned   
either way with the fingers1 while those
 in the sides must be so that ,a will   

slide up and down easy4 ,the box will be
 about #b feet long1 cut off perfectly  
square at the bottom end4 ,to mark the  
balusters1 stand the box on the tread so
 that the inside of it will be          
immediately over where the baluster has 
to go4 ,slide up ,a on either side so   
that ,b will go into the groove of the  
under side of the handrail1 then turn ,b
 on both sides to fit the rail4 ,take it
 away and lay it down1 and lay the      
baluster in it1 and mark it top and     
bottom4 ,the dovetail has of course to  
be added4 ,the distance between the two 
pieces of zinc must be the same as the  
balusters and inside of the box1 and the
 centre of ,b must be in a line with the
 centre of the side of inside of box4   
,fig4 #e shows the plan1 and ,fig4 #f   
the sectional elevation1 of a part of   
stairs1 with winders in the quarter     
space1 and a quarter space landing to   
give access to a doorway4 ,the dotted   
lines show the carriages and landing4   
,the back edges of the treads are kept  

inch beyond the back of risers to form a
 ledge4 ,the cross piece ,g is fixed to 
receive the carriages1 as shown4 ,the   
pieces ,f are fixed1 as shown1 let into 
the wall one end1 and fixed to the back 
of the well the other4 ,these pieces are
 fixed under each tread flush with the  
back edge1 the width depends upon the   
well string2 they are kept so that the  
plaster will finish flush with the      
bottom of the well4 ,the short carriages
 ,c are cut tight in between ,f and ,f1 
and they must be wide enough to notch   
over the projection of the back edge of 
the treads1 as shown by ,e1 ,fig4 #f4   
,if these short carriages are cut in    
tight it makes a good sound job1 and    
rough brackets can be nailed on them1   
and blocked and glued as for the        
straight parts4 ,the laths will go from 
,f to ,f4 ,d is put in to take the      
laths1 as the distance here from ,f to  
,f is too much without them1 and ,e is  
to take the ends of laths along the     
wall4 ,the landing will be understood4  

,the joists ,k are put in to receive the
 floor and laths4  ,fig4 #g shows the   
joint of the two diagonal joists4  ,fig4
 #h shows the joints at the external    
angle of the landing1 the bolt going    
through the three1 ,j ,a ,h1 as shown4  
,illustration3 ,,plate #aa4  ,,plate    
,,xi4  ,,details ,,of ,,construction4   
,fig4 #a is an enlarged plan of ,fig4   
#a1 ,plate ,x4 ,the face of risers must 
be set off on the centre line of rail to
 suit the falling line of handrail1     
which should be ascertained first4 ,the 
line of travel is #ae inches from the   
centre line of rail1 and the winders are
 divided on this line4  ,fig4 #b shows  
the development4 ,cut a piece of thin   
board to fit the face of string around  
the zinc circle on plan1 as shown by    
,fig4 #c4 ,bend a thin lath around it1  
and mark the springing on to it and all 
risers between4 ,lay this lath on ,fig4 
#b1 and mark the springing and position 
of risers1 as shown4 ,the position of   
risers outside of the springing can of  

course be taken off the plan4 ,draw one 
or two full size steps top and bottom1  
and a part of the straight strings as   
shown4 ,continue the bottom edge of     
string to form a nice easy falling line 
connecting the straight parts1 as shown 
by the curved parts1 ,fig4 #b4  ,fig4 #d
 shows a cylinder made to fit the inside
 face of the circular string4 ,before   
the veneer is put on1 glue some paper   
all over the outside of this cylinder   
and let it dry4 ,then1 should any glue  
get between the veneer and cylinder1 it 
will pull the paper off instead of      
sticking to the wood1 and perhaps break 
the veneer2 the paper can be washed off4
 ,bend the lath around the cylinder on  
top of the paper1 and mark the          
springing1 as shown1 on both sides4 ,do 
this at both ends1 and mark the         
springing down the sides with a         
straight-edge4 ,now get a piece of      
veneer a full #a_/af inch thick1 the    
size shown by the straight dotted lines1
 ,fig4 #b4 ,cut the bottom edge to the  

curve ,s ,s4 ,mark the springing and    
each step on the veneer4 ,it is as well 
to mark these on both sides4 ,in putting
 this on the cylinder take care to have 
it the right hand4 ,fix on one side     
first with a hand-screw1 so that the    
springing on the veneer is on the       
springing on the cylinder1 then bend it 
around and fasten the other side        
temporarily4 ,then get two pieces of    
veneer1  inch thick and about #a inch   
wide1 cut to the shape of the curves ,s 
,s and ,n ,n4 ,now bend the two pieces  
around on the top of the first piece1   
keeping the edge ,s ,s flush with the   
bottom edge of the large veneer4 ,it    
will be seen that the three thicknesses 
of veneer will form the sinking in the  
string #e_/af inch deep4 ,next get a    
piece the exact thickness of the sinking
 #e_/af inch1 and cut it to the shape of
 the sinking1 as seen at ,fig4 #e4 ,put 
plenty of saw kerfs in the direction    
shown1 that is1 parallel to the         
springing4 ,let the kerfs go past the   

springing a bit on both ends4 ,now bend 
this around the cylinder with the kerfs 
next to it1 and the edge close up to the
 veneers4 ,now get the staves about #b  
inches by #b inches1 and bevel the edges
 to fit each other around the circle and
 hollow the under side to fit in the    
veneer1 also cut the ends out to fit    
over the sinking4 ,start one side first 
with straight pieces as far as the      
springing and screw it down1 then work  
from this piece and go right around1    
screwing each piece as it is fitted1    
until they are all on4 ,next start in   
the centre and take off one side1       
numbering each piece as it is taken off1
 lift up each of the three pieces of    
veneer and glue between them1 screw the 
staves on again except the centre one1  
take them off on the other side and glue
 in the same way1 after which screw on  
all the staves again4 ,to glue the      
staves1 again start in the centre and   
take off one1 well glue the bottom next 
to the veneer and screw it down tight4  

,take off the next one to it and glue   
the bottom and side going against the   
one already glued4 ,repeat this process 
until all are fixed1 but never glue more
 than one at a time4 ,it may be found   
necessary to steam the veneer4 ,this is 
sometimes done in a box made for the    
purpose1 where there is steam to be had1
 but failing that1 boiling in the       
glue-pot is used4 ,but this is not a    
good thing to do if it can be avoided1  
as the dryer it is put on the better for
 the job4  ,fig4 #f shows an enlarged   
section through the joint ,a ,b1 ,fig4  
#d4 ,f is a section of ,fig4 #e4  ,fig4 
#g shows the well in position4 ,if a    
-inch bead is used for the bottom edge1 
a piece of -inch cane can be bent around
 the well in continuation of the bead4  
,this work must be all fitted before it 
leaves the bench1 ready to go into its  
place when fixed4     ,,handrailing4    
,the handrail is that portion of the    
fence carried up on the outside of the  
stairs and supported by the balusters1  

which are let into the ends of the      
treads4 ,while these balusters form     
protection1 the rail is to assist in the
 ascent and descent of the stairs4 ,it  
is very evident the rail should be a    
uniform height over the line of nosings4
 ,this height should be #b feet #h      
inches1 measured vertically over the    
face of risers1 from the top side of    
tread to the top side of rail4 ,and it  
will be seen that the risers around the 
circular parts should be placed so as to
 have the best possible falling line of 
rail1 while the balusters should be1 if 
anything1 a trifle longer than on the   
straight parts4  ,the method adopted in 
this work is as follows3--,the plan of  
centre line of rail is first laid down1 
and the tangents and face of risers     
drawn4 ,next the centre line of rail is 
unfolded1 or developed1 on a board1 with
 position of risers thereon4 ,then the  
centre falling line of rail is drawn1   
resting on the corners of the full-size 
steps and continued across the well4    

,and here it is where good taste and    
judgment is required1 so as to get a    
good falling4 ,after the falling line   
has been drawn it will be seen at once  
if any improvement can be made in the   
position of the risers4 ,the development
 of tangents is next drawn to suit the  
falling line of rail4  ,the face moulds 
are next got out of some thin stuff4    
,the tangents on the moulds will equal  
the tangents developed in the elevation4
 ,this will be better understood by     
referring to the succeeding drawings4   
,two face moulds are used1 one for each 
side of the plank4 ,the tangents and    
sections are the same on each mould1 but
 as the width is on the inside of one   
mould and on the outside of the other1  
this gives the wreath the necessary     
twist4 ,the wreath having been cut out  
square through the plank and the joints 
made1 and the tangents squared across   
the joints1 the face moulds are then    
tacked on1 with the ends of both moulds 
flush with the joints1 and the tangents 

on both face moulds are put to the      
tangents squared across the joints of   
wreath1 there being no pushing or       
sliding the mould in any shape or form4 
,the inside and outside is now sawn off1
 the saw always being held in the same  
direction as the section lines on the   
face moulds4 ,a bevel is obtained for   
each section and set off on a board4    
,the width of rail is also drawn on the 
same board1 and where the bevel cuts the
 centre of width of rail1 is the centre 
of plank4 ,now as the face mould gives  
the height of the centre of plank at    
each section1 these heights are         
transferred to the elevation1 which     
shows at once if the falling line is    
any1 and how much1 out of the centre of 
plank4 ,then the sections of rail are   
drawn on the board above1 or below1     
where the bevel cuts the centre of width
 of rail1 according to what the falling 
line is out of the centre of plank at   
each section4 ,this shows what          
superfluous stuff there is to come off  

the top side of the wreath at each      
section1 which is marked on to the      
wreath before the face moulds are       
removed4 ,this superfluous stuff is then
 sawn off1 keeping the saw in the       
direction of the section lines1 after   
which the wreath is gauged to a         
thickness and the superfluous stuff sawn
 off the bottom4  ,i may say that this  
system has been put to practical test1  
and some of the very best examples of   
handrailing have been done by it with   
the very best results4 ,but it was found
 to be a great advantage to use a       
machine gig-saw3 they can be bought the 
same as any other saw1 and if it is     
fixed into a bow-saw frame1 or a frame  
made for it1 no difficulty will be      
experienced in sawing out any wreath    
shown in this book4  ,the advantages of 
this system are3--  #a4 ,the tangents   
are made to conform to the falling line 
of rail1 instead of the falling line    
having to conform to the tangents1 as is
 the case in most systems4  #b4 ,the    

wreath being sawn out to the section    
lines instead of vertical1 as is the    
case with cylindrical wreaths1 saves    
more than half the time in squaring4    
#c4 ,the wreath being straight across on
 the inside and outside in the direction
 of the section line1 instead of concave
 on the inside and convex on the        
outside1 as is the case with a          
cylindrical wreath1 is much easier to   
mould1 and has a much better appearance 
by far when finished4  #d4 ,it has all  
the advantages of falling moulds without
 the trouble of getting them out1 and it
 can always be ascertained what any part
 of the falling line is out of the      
centre of the plank4  #e4 ,it takes the 
minimum thickness of stuff1 as it can   
always be seen exactly what thickness   
will be required4  #f4 ,the system of   
bevelled joints does away with the short
 ramps1 and thereby saves both labour   
and material2 besides there is only one 
joint instead of three4  ,it will be    
seen that in no case in this book is    

extra thickness of stuff required4      
,illustration3 ,,plate #ab4  ,,plate    
,,xii4  ,,on ,,oblique ,,planes ,,and   
,,their ,,traces4   ,if the surface of a
 solid is neither horizontal or         
perpendicular it is oblique4  ,thus1 if 
we place a box on the table1 the top of 
the table represents the horizontal     
plane and the side of the box the       
vertical plane1 and the intersection of 
the box and the table is the ground     
line1 or ,x ,y4 ,draw a line out square 
from the box on the table1 marked ,n ,n1
 ,fig4 #a4 ,hold the end of a book on   
this line1 with its edge against the    
side of the box in an inclined position2
 mark a line on the side of the box3    
this line is the vertical trace1 because
 the oblique plane has cut the vertical 
plane on this line4 ,before moving the  
book mark a line on the table3 this is  
the horizontal trace1 for the same      
reason that the oblique plane has cut   
the horizontal plane on this line4      
,fig4 #b shows the horizontal trace     

inclined #fj to the vertical plane4     
,draw the dotted line ,n ,n on the      
table1 making an angle of #fj with the  
box4 ,place the end of a book on this   
line1 and while in an inclined position 
mark the vertical and horizontal traces 
the same as in ,fig4 #a4 ,to find the   
true inclination of the oblique plane   
take ,f for centre1 and for radius ,f   
,r1 strike the arc to cut ,x ,y in ,p2  
join ,e ,p1 which is the true length and
 inclination of a line on the oblique   
plane1 to stand vertically over ,f ,r4  
,all lines on the oblique plane parallel
 to the horizontal trace will be level1 
and all lines square to it will be the  
true inclination of the surface of the  
oblique plane4  ,fig4 #c4 ,it is        
required to cut a block of wood the size
 of the square ,a ,b ,c ,o1 its side ,a 
,b to be #e inches high1 and its top    
surface inclined #cj to the horizontal  
plane4 ,on the oblique surface project  
an ellipse that will stand vertically   
over the quarter of circle on plan4 ,let

 ,a ,b ,c ,o be the plan and ,b ,c ,r ,n
 the elevation4 ,project #g1 #h1 #i on  
to the oblique surface1 as shown by #a1 
#b1 #c4  ,fig4 #d shows a cuneiform     
sketch of the block4 ,make ,b ,n and ,c 
,r equal corresponding letters1 ,fig4   
#c2 join ,r ,n2 square out lines from ,n
 ,r2 make ,n ,a1 ,r ,o equal ,a ,b1     
,fig4 #c4 ,to complete the figure1 make 
,a ,a equal ,b ,n1 and ,o ,o equal ,c   
,r4 ,to draw the ellipse1 make ,n #a #b 
#c ,r equal ,n #a #b #c ,r1 ,fig4 #c4   
,make #a #g and #b #h and #c #i equal #d
 #g and #e #h and #f #i1 ,fig4 #c4      
,trace the curve through ,a #g #h #i ,r 
as shown4 ,if this block is cut out in a
 vertical direction to the ellipse on   
its surface it will stand correctly over
 the quarter of circle1 its plan4  ,fig4
 #e4 ,cut a block of wood so that its   
edge will stand vertically over ,a ,b ,c
 ,o4 ,the top of the block to be hard   
down at ,a4 ,from ,a to ,b rise #c      
inches1 and from ,b to ,c #d inches     
more4 ,make ,b ,f equal #c inches and ,c

 #e1 #g inches4 ,join #e1 ,f extended to
 cut ,x ,y in ,e4 ,join ,e ,a1 which is 
the horizontal trace1 and ,e ,f #e1 the 
vertical trace4 ,f #e will be the       
inclination of the edge of the block    
over ,b ,c4 ,to get the length and      
inclination of the edge over ,a ,b1 take
 ,b for centre and ,b ,a for radius1    
strike an arc to cut ,x ,y in ,h4 ,join 
,f ,h for the required edge4  ,the      
process of getting the lines on the     
oblique surface of this block1 as shown 
at ,fig4 #f1 is the same as most of the 
face moulds as laid down in this book1  
and let it be understood that if the    
problems on this and the following      
,plate are properly mastered1 the       
foundation upon which this system       
depends has been laid1 and all the      
plates that follow are purely a matter  
of detail4 ,let the instructions given  
here be carried out1 and cut the blocks 
of wood as described1 when the meaning  
and intention of every line will be     
clearly illustrated1 and the way cleared

 for further progress4  ,make ,e ,f #e  
equal ,e ,f #e1 ,fig4 #e4 ,take the     
distance ,f ,h1 ,fig4 #e1 in the        
compasses1 with ,f1 ,fig4 #f1 as centre1
 strike an arc at ,a4 ,with ,e ,a1 ,fig4
 #e1 as a radius1 and ,e1 ,fig4 #f1 as  
centre1 strike an arc to intersect the  
first one at ,a4 ,join ,e ,a for        
horizontal trace and ,f ,a for the top  
edge of the block over ,a ,b4 ,draw from
 #e parallel to ,f ,a1 and from ,a      
parallel to ,f #e4 ,then ,o will be the 
centre of the ellipse1 as it will be    
vertical over the centre on plan4 ,a    
line drawn on an oblique plane square to
 the horizontal trace and passing       
through its centre is the major axis1   
and a line drawn parallel to the ,h ,t  
and passing through its centre is the   
minor axis4 ,make #b #c #j #e equal #b  
#c #j #e1 ,fig4 #e4 ,make #c #f and #j  
#g equal #h #f and #j #g1 ,fig4 #e1 and 
trace the curve through ,a #f #g #e4    
,illustration3 ,,plate #ac4  ,,plate    
,,xiii4  ,,on ,,projection ,,of         

,,oblique ,,planes1 ,,etc4   ,should any
 part of a plan be a circle1 it will    
when projected on to an oblique plane be
 an ellipse4  ,thus1 take any one round 
piece of wood1 cut one end off square to
 its side1 this end will be a true      
circle4 ,cut the other end to any angle1
 which will then be an ellipse1 and when
 the piece is stood on end will be      
vertical over the circle1 its plan4     
,fig4 #a shows this4 ,and it will be    
seen1 no matter what angle the oblique  
plane may be1 the minor axis never      
changes1 it is always the same length as
 on plan1 as are all lines parallel to  
it2 but not so with the major axis1     
which always lengthens as the angle     
increases4  ,fig4 #b shows a quarter of 
a circle projected on to an oblique     
plane1 inclined #de to the horizontal   
plane4  ,fig4 #c shows a plank inclined 
#de to the horizontal plane1 with a     
quarter of an ellipse traced on its     
oblique surface4 ,at any point on the   
curve draw a section line and a normal  

tangent4 ,cut the plank square through  
to the section line4 ,draw a level line 
on the square cut1 and produce a bevel  
that will1 when the stock is held to the
 section line on the oblique surface1   
produce with its blade a line across the
 cut that will be perpendicular to the  
level line on the square cut4  ,at any  
point on the curve1 say at ,s1 draw a   
line square to1 and to cut the major    
axis in ,p2 draw the level line on the  
edge to cut the vertical line from the  
centre ,o in ,n2 draw ,r ,n square to   
the major axis4 ,join ,r ,s1 which is   
the section line2 draw the tangent      
square to it through ,s4 ,cut the plank 
through to the lines ,s ,r and ,r ,n2   
join ,n ,s after the cut is made4 ,to   
get the bevel1 draw ,a ,a parallel to1  
and at a distance away from ,o ,n1 equal
 to minor axis or radius of circle on   
plan4 ,take the compasses1 and for      
centre put one foot at ,o1 and for      
radius strike an arc just touching the  
tangent through ,s1 bring it around to  

cut ,a ,a in ,h1 join ,o ,h for the     
required bevel4 ,this bevel1 when       
applied across the cut1 will be square  
to the level line ,s ,n4                
,illustration3 ,,plate #ad4  ,,plate    
,,xiv4  ,,level ,,landing ,,wreath1 ,,or
 ,,half ,,twist4   ,fig4 #a shows the   
plan of the rail1 with the top riser    
placed in the springing and the level   
rail #d inches above the landing1 so    
that when the rail is raised to its     
proper height1 #b feet #h inches above  
the treads1 measured vertically over the
 face of the risers to the top of rail1 
it will be #c feet from the landing to  
top of level rail4 ,to get the radius of
 the centre line of rail1 make ,b ,h1   
,fig4 #c1 equal #d inches2 then ,a ,b   
will be the required radius4 ,at ,fig4  
#b set up one step and landing4 ,draw   
the centre falling line resting on the  
corners1 also draw the level rail #d    
inches above the landing4 ,make ,n ,c   
equal the stretch-out of the centre line
 of rail1 ,fig4 #a1 and complete the    

falling line from ,a to ,c1 as shown4   
,fig4 #d shows the face mould4 ,draw ,a 
,b ,c at right angles4 ,make ,a ,s equal
 ,a ,s1 ,fig4 #b1 and ,a ,b equal ,a ,h1
 ,fig4 #c1 and ,b ,c equal ,b ,c1 ,fig4 
#a1 and ,c ,p equal ,c ,p1 ,fig4 #b4    
,from ,a draw ,a ,o parallel to ,b ,c1  
and from ,c draw ,c ,o parallel to ,a   
,b4 ,then ,o will be the centre1 ,a ,o  
the semi-minor axis1 and ,o ,c the      
semi-major axis4 ,to get points in the  
curve and draw section lines1 take ,o   
,c1 ,fig4 #a1 for radius and ,c1 ,fig4  
#d1 for centre2 strike an arc on the    
left2 draw ,v ,l through the centre1 and
 tangent to this arc2 draw from ,c      
square to ,v ,l4 ,say there are to be   
two sections marked #e and #f1 ,fig4 #a4
 ,make ,c #b #a equal ,c #b #a1 ,fig4   
#a4 ,draw from #a and #b parallel to ,v 
,l to cut ,o ,c in #c and #d4 ,from #c  
and #d draw parallel to ,a ,o1 and make 
#d #e and #c #f equal #a #f and #b #e1  
,fig4 #a2 then #e and #f will be points 
in the curve4 ,from #c and #d draw      

square to and cut ,v ,l in #g and #h2   
from #g and #h draw square to and cut ,o
 ,c in #i and #aj2 join #i #e and #f #aj
 for section lines4 ,to get bevels1     
width of mould1 c3--,on a piece of board
 draw two parallel lines1 at a distance 
apart equal to radius of centre line of 
rail1 as shown by the lines ,r ,r1 ,fig4
 #e2 also draw the width of rail1 as    
shown by ,w ,w4 ,for the section at ,c1 
make #a #b1 ,fig4 #e1 equal ,o ,c1 ,fig4
 #d2 draw section of rail2 draw ,e ,f   
parallel to #a #b1 to cut the top corner
 of section of rail4 ,then ,o ,c will be
 half thickness of plank and ,e ,c ,f   
the width of mould4 ,for section #e1    
with ,o1 ,fig4 #d1 as centre1 strike an 
arc to just touch the tangent from #e2  
make #c1 #d1 ,fig4 #e1 equal this       
distance4 ,make ,o #e equal half        
thickness of plank and draw ,r ,n       
parallel to #c #d1 then ,r #e ,n will be
 width of mould on this section4 ,the   
process of getting bevel and width of   
mould for section #f is the same1 always

 squaring out the line from the centre  
of section of rail and setting off half 
thickness of plank1 and drawing the top 
or bottom side of plank parallel to the 
bevel line through the centre of        
section4 ,to complete the face mould    
make ,c ,e and ,c ,f equal ,c ,e and ,c 
,f1 ,fig4 #e4 ,for section #e make #e ,r
 and #e ,n equal #e ,r and #e ,n1 ,fig4 
#e4 ,for section #f make #f ,s and #f ,p
 equal #f ,s and #f ,p1 ,fig4 #e4 ,the  
section on the minor axis requires no   
bevel1 as was explained in ,plates      
,,xii4 and ,,xiii4 ,this line never     
exceeds its plan1 therefore on this line
 the face mould never exceeds the width 
of rail4 ,complete the face mould as    
shown4     ,illustration3 ,,plate #ae4  
,,plate ,,xv4  ,,level ,,landing        
,,wreath1 ,,or ,,half                   
,,twist--continued4   ,fig4 #a shows the
 plank from which the wreath is to be   
cut out4 ,lay the face mould on1 and    
transfer the tangents on the face of the
 stuff4 ,mark off each side of the      

tangent at ,p1 ,o ,h to equal ,c ,h1    
,fig4 #e1 ,plate ,,xiv41 and cut the    
wreath out square through the plank1 as 
shown by dotted lines1 taking care to   
have the wreath cut full on the minor   
axis at ,a1 and along the shank to ,s1  
as this part does not exceed the width  
of the rail4  ,fig4 #b shows the wreath 
after being cut out square through the  
plank4 ,plane one side perfectly true1  
then get it to its required thickness4  
,it is very important that the stuff    
should be got to the same thickness as  
drawn at the sections1 that is1 twice   
the thickness of ,o ,c1 ,fig4 #e1 ,plate
 ,,xiv4 ,now make the joints square to  
the face of stuff and square to the     
tangents1 applying the square as shown4 
,so much depends upon the trueness of   
the joints that too much care cannot be 
taken with them4  ,fig4 #c shows the    
face mould for the other side of the    
stuff4 ,lay the face mould1 ,fig4 #d1   
,plate ,,xiv41 on a thin piece of stuff1
 and mark off on to it the tangents ,s  

,a ,b ,c ,p and the section lines1 stick
 a bradawl through #e and #f1 and mark  
off on the section lines1 on each side  
of ,c #e and #f1 the width as shown     
opposite to the first face mould4 ,fig4 
#d shows the application of moulds4     
,illustration3 ,,plate #af4  ,,plate    
,,xvi4  ,,level ,,landing ,,wreath1 ,,or
 ,,half ,,twist--continued4   ,fig4 #a  
shows the same wreath after the inside  
and outside has been cut off1 so that a 
straightedge will touch both face moulds
 all round when held in the direction of
 the section lines1 as shown marked     
across the inside4  ,to cut the wreath  
out get a machine gig-saw and either    
make a frame for it or fit it into a    
bow-saw frame3 this saw will be found to
 be much better than the ordinary       
bow-saw1 as it is much stiffer and will 
not bend in the cut1 and being thick on 
the teeth and thin on its back edge1    
works free4  ,every wreath shown in this
 book can be squared with this saw1 and 
if care is taken in cutting the         

superfluous stuff off1 very little      
cleaning up is required4 ,the saw must  
always be held in the same direction as 
the section lines4 ,after the inside and
 outside has been cut off and cleaned   
up1 before taking the face moulds off   
mark down from the top on each section1 
inside and out1 the distances as shown  
by the shaded parts on each section at  
,fig4 #e1 ,plate ,,xiv41 and marked ,f  
,y1 ,r ,j1 ,s ,k1 c4 ,the shaded part at
 ,fig4 #a shows this2 the moulds can now
 be removed and the superfluous stuff   
cut off to the lines traced through ,e  
,j ,k on the inside and ,y ,a ,b on the 
outside4 ,the bottom can be gauged from 
the top with an ordinary gauge1 but     
should be sawn full and jointed to the  
straight rails before being cleaned up4 
,fig4 #b shows the same wreath1 only the
 rail is cut out of the top of the plank
 all round1 instead of the centre1 as at
 ,fig4 #a4 ,and this wreath has a much  
better appearance on the inside when    
finished4 ,the face moulds and their    

application are the same1 but as the    
rail is to come out of the top of the   
plank1 it will throw the level rail too 
high on the landing4 ,to obviate this   
the rising landing must be brought out  
from the springing4 ,make ,a ,b1 ,fig4  
#c1 equal ,a ,b1 ,fig4 #d1 draw section 
of rail at ,h as shown1 draw ,s ,s      
parallel to ,a ,h1 make ,p ,p equal half
 thickness of rail1 make ,b ,a ,n1 ,fig4
 #d1 equal ,b ,a ,n1 ,fig4 #c1 and draw 
riser as shown4     ,illustration3      
,,plate #ag4  ,,plate ,,xvii4           
,,half-,,space ,,landing1 ,,with        
,,straight ,,flight ,,above ,,and       
,,below4   ,fig4 #a shows the plan of   
rail with the risers landing and        
starting1 placed half a tread from ,c on
 each side along the centre line of     
rail4 ,by this arrangement we get two   
balusters on the landing the same       
distance apart as on the steps1 and the 
centre falling line straight4  ,draw    
plan of rail and enclose the centre line
 with tangents ,a ,b ,c ,d ,e4 ,mark off

 from ,c along centre line of rail on   
each side half a tread1 and draw face of
 risers landing and starting4  ,fig4 #b 
shows the elevation4 ,make ,a ,n equal  
stretch-out of centre line of rail4 ,set
 up two steps and landing1 taking care  
to draw the face of risers as they occur
 on the centre line of rail1 ,fig4 #a4  
,draw the falling line resting on the   
corners as shown4 ,for development of   
tangents make ,f ,d ,s equal ,e ,d ,c1  
,fig4 #a4 ,from ,d1 square up a line to 
cut the falling line in ,r1 then ,e ,r  
will be the pitch of the tangent over ,e
 ,d1 ,fig4 #a2 join ,r ,s for pitch of  
tangent over ,d ,c1 ,fig4 #a4 ,make ,e  
,d ,f1 ,fig4 #a1 equal ,f ,d ,c1 ,fig4  
#b1 join ,f ,c1 which is the horizontal 
trace4  ,fig4 #c shows the face mould4  
,make ,e ,d ,s equal ,e ,r ,c1 ,fig4 #b1
 with ,d for centre1 and ,r ,s1 ,fig4   
#b1 as radius2 strike an arc at ,c with 
,s as a centre1 and ,f ,c1 ,fig4 #a1 as 
radius2 strike an arc to intersect the  
first one at ,c1 join ,d ,c4 ,from ,c   

draw parallel to ,d ,e1 and from ,e draw
 parallel to ,d ,c2 these lines will    
meet at the centre ,o4 ,join ,s ,c1     
which is the horizontal trace4 ,draw the
 semi-major axis square to it through   
the centre and the semi-minor axis      
parallel4 ,with ,f as centre1 and ,o ,n1
 ,fig4 #a1 as radius1 strike an arc at  
,h2 draw ,v ,l through the centre and   
tangent to the arc4 ,say we have one    
section between the minor axis and ,c   
marked #a4 ,make ,h ,n equal ,o ,n1     
,fig4 #a4 ,draw ,n ,j parallel to ,v ,l4
 ,make ,j ,i equal ,n ,i1 ,fig4 #a4     
,draw ,j ,p square to ,v ,l and ,p ,r   
square to ,f ,o2 join ,r ,i for section 
line4 ,for bevels1 width of moulds1 c41 
take ,o for centre and for radius open  
the compasses to touch each tangent2    
transfer these distances to ,fig4 #d1   
always making the distance between the  
lines ,n ,r1 ,fig4 #d1 equal the radius 
of centre line of rail on plan4 ,draw   
the section of rail on each bevel and   
set off half thickness of plank1 and    

complete the sections as shown4 ,for    
width of mould make ,c ,i ,p and #a #c  
#d and ,e #f #e on section lines ,fig4  
#c equal ,c ,i ,p and #a #c #d and ,e #f
 #e at sections ,fig4 #d4 ,it will be   
noticed that1 while at sections ,c and  
,i the face mould has less stuff on the 
inside1 at section ,e1 on the other side
 of the minor axis1 it has more4  ,fig4 
#e shows the face mould for the other   
side of the plank4 ,to cut the wreath   
out1 lay either mould on and transfer   
the tangents on to the stuff1 and mark  
off on each side of face mould on the   
minor axis4 ,the stuff should be cut    
full on this line4 ,mark off on each    
side of the tangents at the joint ,c the
 distance ,c ,p as seen at the section1 
and on each side of ,e1 ,e ,y as seen at
 ,fig4 #d4 ,draw around roughly from ,p 
to the minor axis to ,y4 ,the stuff is  
cut square through the plank to this    
line inside and out4 ,plane the stuff   
true and gauge it to its proper         
thickness and make the joints square to 

face of stuff and to the tangents4 ,the 
application of the face moulds is seen  
at ,fig4 #f2 the tangents on both face  
moulds must lie on the tangents marked  
across both joints of the wreath4 ,now  
saw the inside and outside off as shown 
by the shaded parts at ,fig4 #f1 keeping
 the saw in the direction of the section
 lines4 ,clean up the wreath both inside
 and out1 always keeping the straight   
edge in the direction of the section    
lines4 ,before removing the moulds mark 
from the top side #bb1 #cc1 #dd1 #ee1   
#ff and #gg1 as shown by the shaded     
parts of sections at ,fig4 #d4 ,cut the 
superfluous stuff off the top to these  
lines1 after which1 gauge to a          
thickness1 set the gauge full so as to  
allow the wreaths being cleaned up after
 the pair are bolted together4 ,before  
they are bolted and dowelled together at
 the centre joint them to the straight  
rails1 and clean off any superfluous    
stuff there may be on the shanks in a   
line with the straight rails1 and mark  

the section of rail on the ends of      
shanks before removing the straight     
rail2 now joint the two together4  ,but 
before cleaning the pair off it would be
 well to test the correctness of the    
centre joint4 ,make ,n ,y1 ,fig4 #b1    
equal ,s ,y1 ,fig4 #a1 and join ,e ,y2  
now if the distance from the centre of  
the thickness of one wreath to the      
centre of the thickness of the other on 
the inside at the sections1 at the      
springing1 equals ,e ,y1 ,fig4 #b1 the  
joint will be correct4 ,having proved   
the joint in this way1 clean them off   
while together1 then take them apart    
before glueing up4 ,mark the pattern of 
rail on the joint and mould them2 use a 
handrail screw to bolt the joints       
together with and keep them as near as  
possible the centre of section of rail4 
,there should be two dowels in each     
joint to keep them from twisting1 placed
 according to pattern of rail4  ,in     
taking the length of straight rails1    
take the length of strings from         

springing to springing and allow for    
length of shanks of wreaths1 as measured
 from the joint to springing1 in a line 
with straight rails4     ,illustration3 
,,plate #ah4  ,,plate ,,xviii4  ,,from  
,,the ,,level ,,to ,,the ,,rake4   ,the 
principal thing to consider in planning 
stairs of this kind is to place the     
riser starting1 so as to get a good     
falling line4 ,fig4 #a shows the plan   
with the centre line enclosed with      
tangents ,a ,b ,c ,d ,e4  ,fig4 #b shows
 the elevation with the centre falling  
line and development of tangents4 ,make 
,r ,n ,s equal stretch-out of centre    
line of rail1 ,fig4 #a4 ,draw the       
landing and the level part of falling   
line #d inches above it to cut the      
centre line at ,h4 ,draw ,h ,e to pitch 
of pitch-board and complete the falling 
line from ,e to ,j2 set up the height of
 a riser above the landing on the right1
 and draw the top of step to cut the    
line ,h ,e for position of riser4 ,make 
,e ,p1 ,fig4 #a1 equal ,s ,p and draw   

face of riser starting on plan4 ,this   
riser must be slightly curved1 so as to 
get it the same width on the end as the 
others4 ,for development of tangents1   
make #a #b #c #d ,e equal ,a ,b ,c ,d   
,e1 ,fig4 #a4 ,from #d square down a    
line to cut ,h ,e in ,d2 from where the 
falling line cuts the centre line1      
square out a level line to cut #c in ,c2
 join ,d ,c extended to cut the line #b 
in ,b2 draw ,a ,b level4 ,then ,a ,b and
 ,b ,c will be the tangents for the     
bottom mould1 and ,c ,d and ,d ,e for   
the top mould2 make ,e ,f1 ,fig4 #a1    
equal ,w ,f1 ,fig4 #b1 and join ,f ,c   
for ,h trace4  ,fig4 #c shows the face  
mould for the upper wreath4 ,make ,e ,d 
,f equal ,e ,d ,f1 ,fig4 #b1 and ,f ,c  
equal ,f ,c1 ,fig4 #a1 and ,d ,c equal  
,d ,c1 ,fig4 #b4 ,draw the major axis   
through the centre square to ,f ,c4     
,with ,s as centre and ,o ,n1 ,fig4 #a1 
as radius1 strike an arc at ,n2 draw ,v 
,l through the centre and tangent to the
 arc4 ,for section marked #c1 make ,n ,h

 equal ,o ,h1 ,fig4 #a1 draw ,h ,j      
parallel to ,v ,l1 make ,j #c equal ,h  
#c1 ,fig4 #a4 ,draw ,j ,p parallel to ,s
 ,n1 and ,p ,l square to major axis1    
join ,l #c for section line4  ,fig4 #d  
shows the sections1 width of mould1 c4  
,the process of getting the bevels being
 the same in every case1 it would be    
useless repetition to describe it every 
time4 ,the shaded parts of sections show
 the superfluous stuff to come off the  
top side of wreath at each section4     
,fig4 #e shows the face mould for the   
other side of the wreath4 ,in applying  
these moulds care must be taken to get  
the twist the right way4  ,fig4 #f shows
 the face mould for the lower wreath4   
,as this one has only one pitch1 draw ,a
 ,b ,c at right angles and make ,a ,b   
and ,b ,c equal ,a ,b and ,b ,c1 ,fig4  
#b4 ,with ,a as centre and ,a ,o1 ,fig4 
#a1 as radius1 strike an arc1 draw ,v ,l
 through the centre and tangent to the  
arc2 make ,h ,s equal ,o ,s1 ,fig4 #a2  
draw ,s #d parallel to ,v ,l1 make #d #b

 equal ,s #b1 ,fig4 #a4 ,draw #d #e     
parallel to ,a ,h1 and #e #f square to  
major axis ,a ,o2 join #f #b for section
 line4  ,fig4 #g shows the sections for 
this wreath4 ,the section at the joint  
,c will be in the centre of plank1 but  
that at ,a and #b will be below the     
centre4 ,the difference between ,o ,h1  
,fig4 #f1 and ,y ,j1 ,fig4 #b1 is what  
the section on shank will be below the  
centre2 and that between ,o #e1 ,fig4   
#f1 and #e #f1 ,fig4 #b1 for section #b4
 ,draw the sections below the centre as 
shown at ,fig4 #g4  ,fig4 #h shows a    
sketch of the bottom wreath with the    
inside and outside worked4 ,the shaded  
parts show the superfluous stuff to come
 off top and bottom4     ,illustration3 
,,plate #ai4  ,,plate ,,xix4  ,,from    
,,the ,,level ,,to ,,the                
,,rake--continued4   ,the plan1         
elevation and falling line1 and position
 of risers in this case are the same as 
in ,plate ,,xvii41 but show a different 
way of getting out the wreaths4 ,this   

may not be such a correct method as the 
former one1 as the centre joint will be 
vertical instead of square to the       
tangent across the well as was the case 
there1 but nothing could be more simple 
than the method here described4 ,having 
the plan and elevation drawn1 square out
 a bevel line from ,c1 to cut the       
springing in ,r4 ,make ,r ,f equal ,e   
,d1 ,fig4 #a2 say the joint is to be at 
,s on the right1 join ,s ,f1 draw the   
joint ,s ,p square to the straight rail1
 and draw ,s ,n square to the tangent ,f
 ,e ,s4  ,fig4 #c shows the face mould4 
,draw ,s ,e ,d ,c at right angles1 make 
,s ,e ,d equal ,s ,e ,f1 ,fig4 #b1 and  
,c ,d equal ,c ,d1 ,fig4 #a4 ,to        
complete the mould1 make ,o ,n and ,c ,n
 equal ,e ,r and ,f ,r1 ,fig4 #b4 ,draw 
,v ,l through ,o ,n2 make ,c ,r and ,p  
,h equal ,c ,r and ,r ,h1 ,fig4 #a4 ,as 
will be seen1 the straight rail is not  
in a line with the tangent1 and as the  
joint must be square to the straight    
rail it cannot be square to the face of 

the plank4 ,therefore1 the face mould   
for the top side will require to be a   
trifle longer1 while the mould for the  
bottom side must be the same distance   
shorter4 ,to find out how much the joint
 will require to be bevelled1 mark off  
along ,s ,n1 ,fig4 #b1 ,s ,j to equal   
half thickness of plank2 then the       
distance between the two lines ,s ,p and
 ,s ,n at ,j is what the joint will be  
out of square to face of plank through  
half its thickness4 ,the shank of top   
face mould must be increased1 and that  
of the bottom reduced to this amount as 
shown by the shaded parts4 ,the face    
mould shown at ,fig4 #c1 being for the  
under side1 is reduced4  ,fig4 #e shows 
the application of the face moulds2 as  
there is no bevel on the shank ,e ,s the
 joint will only be out of square to    
face of plank and not to the tangent4   
,fig4 #f shows the bottom half2 this    
having no twist can be struck with the  
compasses1 the same as the plan4 ,it    
must be the distance ,c ,h1 ,fig4 #b1   

thicker than the rail4 ,the shaded part 
shows how the superfluous stuff must be 
taken off top and bottom4  ,fig4 #g     
shows the pair in position after being  
squared4     ,illustration3 ,,plate #bj4
  ,,plate ,,xx4  ,,half-,,space         
,,landing1 ,,with ,,the ,,risers ,,in   
,,the ,,springing4   ,fig4 #a shows the 
plan of a half-space landing with the   
centre line of rail struck with a       
#i-;inch radius1 and the risers starting
 and landing placed in the springing4   
,as the steps are only #aj inches it is 
very evident that if the tangents ,a ,b 
and ,d ,e were the same pitch as the    
straight rail the tangent across the    
well would pitch the wrong way1 which of
 course would not do4 ,to obviate this  
the tangent ,a ,b must only rise half a 
riser over ,b1 and the tangent ,d ,e    
only fall half a riser over ,d1 and the 
tangent across the well level and the   
joint on the end of shanks must be      
bevelled so as to joint square to the   
straight rail4  ,fig4 #a shows the plan 

with the risers in the springing4  ,fig4
 #b shows the elevation4 ,make ,s ,n    
equal stretch-out of centre line of     
rail4 ,set up one step above and below  
and draw landing2 also draw the centre  
falling as shown1 this line must pass   
through the centre at the height of half
 a riser above the landing1 and make a  
good easing into the straight rail above
 and below the springing4 ,for          
development of tangents make ,f ,b equal
 ,a ,b1 ,fig4 #a1 and draw from ,b to   
the joint below the springing2 draw ,r  
,p square to the straight rail1 which   
will be the joint1 and ,r ,n square to  
the tangent ,a ,b4  ,fig4 #c shows the  
face moulds4 ,as the tangent ,b ,c is   
level draw ,a ,b ,c at right angles2    
make ,r ,a ,b equal ,r ,a ,b1 ,fig4 #b1 
and ,b ,c equal ,b ,c1 ,fig4 #a1 and    
complete the mould as usual4 ,it will be
 seen that the sections will be in the  
centre of the plank at both joints4 ,for
 section ,p1 make ,f ,h1 ,fig4 #b1 equal
 ,a ,p1 ,fig4 #a1 and ,h ,j1 ,fig4 #b1  

equal ,h ,j1 ,fig4 #c4 ,the difference  
between ,j and the falling line is what 
the section is out of the centre of     
plank as shown at ,fig4 #d4 ,the        
difference between the tangent ,a ,b and
 the falling line at the springing shows
 that the section ,a is out of the      
centre4 ,the stuff must be thick enough 
to get this section out as required4    
,make ,r ,y1 ,fig4 #b1 equal half       
thickness of plank4 ,add ,y ,c to the   
end of shank of one face mould and      
reduce the other to the same amount1 as 
shown by the shaded parts4              
,illustration3 ,,plate #ba4  ,,plate    
,,xxi4  ,,winders ,,in ,,the            
,,half-,,space ,,and ,,level ,,landing  
,,at ,,top4   ,fig4 #a shows the plan   
with the centre line enclosed with      
tangents4 ,having laid down the risers  
on plan1 keeping the narrow ends of     
winders as near as possible half a step1
 then with one baluster on each they    
will be the same distance apart as on   
the square steps which have two4 ,this  

is not intended as a fixed rule but     
merely as a guide4 ,the risers must be  
placed so as to get a good falling line1
 and this can only be ascertained by    
developing or unfolding the centre line 
and tangents on a board4  ,fig4 #b shows
 the development of centre line and     
tangents4 ,set up all the treads and    
risers as they occur on the centre line 
of rail1 ,fig4 #a4 ,draw the springing  
through ,a and ,e4 ,draw the centre     
falling line resting on the corners of  
square step at bottom and #d inches     
above the landing at top4 ,it is better 
for the falling line to be a little     
higher over the winders1 especially near
 the top4 ,to develop the tangents make 
the distance between the lines #a #b #c 
,d ,e equal ,a ,b ,c ,d ,e1 ,fig4 #a4   
,draw ,d ,e level4 ,from the centre     
joint on the falling line square out a  
line to cut the line #c at ,c1 join ,d  
,c extended to cut the line #b in ,b4   
,from where the falling line cut the    
lower springing1 square out a line to   

cut the line #a in ,a2 join ,a ,b2 then 
,a ,b ,c will be the tangents for the   
lower wreath and ,c ,d ,e for the top4  
,decide where the joint is to be below  
the springing1 and draw a line parallel 
to the tangent ,a ,b1 and tangent to the
 curve of the falling line where the    
joint is to be4 ,the joint must be      
square to this line4 ,it will be        
necessary to have a ramp here to ease   
into the straight rail1 this is shown by
 the dotted lines4 ,in the next plate is
 shown a method of easing the wreath    
into the straight rail without the aid  
of a ramp4  ,fig4 #c shows the bottom   
face mould4 ,make ,c ,b ,f and ,b ,a    
equal ,c ,b ,a and ,b ,a1 ,fig4 #b1 and 
,f ,a equal ,f ,a1 ,fig4 #a1 and        
complete the mould as usual4 ,to find   
what each section is out of the centre  
of the plank1 make ,w #d #e1 ,fig4 #b1  
equal ,c #d #e on the centre line of    
rail1 ,fig4 #a2 make #d #d and #e #e1   
,fig4 #b1 equal ,n ,o and ,n ,h1 ,fig4  
#c4 ,the difference between the falling 

line and #d is what the section #d on   
the minor axis is above the centre2 and 
that between #e and the falling line is 
what the section #e is out of the       
centre4 ,the section at both joints is  
in the centre1 but at the springing ,a  
the falling line is a little above the  
centre1 as it cut the springing above   
the level line ,a ,w1 which is the      
height of the centre of the plank there4
 ,get out the mould for the opposite    
side of the plank in the usual way1 by  
laying ,fig4 #c on a thin piece of      
stuff1 and transfer the tangents and    
section lines on to it4 ,stick a bradawl
 through ,a #e #d ,c and mark off out to
 it ,a #g #e #h and #e #i1 and ,c #aj   
and ,c #aa1 only on the opposite side4  
,work the inside and outside off first  
with a gig-saw1 as before described4    
,the shaded parts of sections at ,fig4  
#d show the superfluous stuff there is  
to come off the top side4  ,fig4 #e     
shows the face mould for the top half4  
,draw ,c ,d ,e at right angles1 and to  

equal ,c ,d ,e1 ,fig4 #b4 ,to see what  
the sections are out of the centre1 make
 ,e #c #b1 ,fig4 #b1 equal ,e #c #b on  
centre line of rail1 ,fig4 #a4 ,make #b 
#b and #c #c1 ,fig4 #b1 equal ,s ,r and 
,s ,l4 ,the difference between #b and   
the falling line is what the section #b 
is below the centre of plank1 and that  
between #c and the falling line is what 
the section #c is below the centre4 ,and
 that between ,e and the falling line is
 what it is below there4  ,fig4 #f shows
 the sections1 and the shaded part shows
 the superfluous stuff there is to come 
off the top at each section1 after the  
inside and outside have been cut off4   
,fig4 #g shows the wreath after the     
inside and outside have been cut off2   
the dotted lines show the wreath cut    
square through the plank4               
,illustration3 ,,plate #bb4  ,,plate    
,,xxii4  ,,winders ,,in ,,the           
,,half-,,space1 ,,with ,a ,,straight    
,,flight ,,above ,,and ,,below1 ,,wreath
 ,,to ,,form ,,its ,,own ,,easing4      

,fig4 #a shows the plan with face of    
risers laid down4 ,it will be noticed   
that the winders commence at the        
springing at the top1 while they are    
brought past the springing at the       
bottom2 this causes the rail to be high 
at ,e and1 therefore1 safer for any one 
coming down the stairs with their hand  
on the rail2 and by bringing the winders
 below the springing it makes a better  
easing into the straight rail4 ,this    
will be understood by referring to ,fig4
 #b1 where the centre line and tangents 
are developed4 ,set up the treads and   
risers as they occur on the centre line 
of rail1 ,fig4 #a2 also draw the        
springing and the centre line ,w4 ,draw 
the centre falling line resting on the  
corners of square steps top and bottom1 
and continue it up over the winders as  
shown by the dotted line4 ,to develop   
the tangents make the distance between  
#a #b #c #d #e equal ,a ,b ,c ,d ,e1    
,fig4 #a4 ,from where the falling line  
cuts the centre line square out a level 

line to cut the line #c at ,c4 ,continue
 the top tangent down in a line with the
 straight rail to cut the line #d in ,d4
 ,join ,d ,c extended to cut the line #b
 in ,b4 ,now make the joint below the   
springing1 as near to it as possible1 so
 that it will be clear of the easing4   
,there being no ramp on the straight    
rail1 the joint should be well clear of 
the easing and into the straight so as  
to avoid any signs of a cripple when the
 wreath is jointed to the straight rail1
 which there would be if the joint was  
made in the easing4 ,square out a level 
line from the joint ,p1 and make ,p ,r  
equal the distance between the line #a  
and the springing4 ,join ,r ,b1 this has
 cut the line #a at ,a4 ,from ,a draw ,a
 ,w level4 ,from ,r draw the joint      
square to the straight rail1 and ,r ,p  
square to the tangent ,a ,b ,r4 ,make ,d
 ,f1 ,fig4 #a1 equal #d ,f1 ,fig4 #b1   
and join ,f ,e for the horizontal trace 
of the top wreath4 ,make ,b ,s1 ,fig4   
#a1 equal #f ,s1 ,fig4 #b1 and join ,s  

,a for the horizontal trace of the      
bottom wreath4  ,fig4 #c shows the face 
mould for the top wreath4 ,make ,c ,d ,f
 equal ,c ,d ,f and ,d ,e equal ,d ,e1  
,fig4 #b1 and ,f ,e equal ,f ,e1 ,fig4  
#a4 ,draw from ,e parallel to ,d ,c and 
from ,c parallel to ,d ,e to meet at the
 centre ,o4 ,draw the major axis square 
to the horizontal trace ,f ,e4 ,with ,m 
as centre and ,o ,m1 ,fig4 #a1 as radius
 strike an arc at ,n2 draw ,v ,l through
 the centre and tangent to the arc1 and 
complete the mould as usual2 ,m ,s will 
equal ,m ,s1 and ,t ,j will equal ,s ,j1
 ,fig4 #a4  ,fig4 #d shows the sections4
 ,s ,s will equal the radius of centre  
line of rail1 ,fig4 #a1 and for bevels  
place one foot of the compasses on the  
centre ,o1 ,fig4 #c1 and open out to    
touch each tangent1 then transfer these 
distances to each section1 ,fig4 #d4 ,to
 find what each section is out of the   
centre of the plank1 make ,e ,j ,k1     
,fig4 #b1 equal ,e ,j ,k on the centre  
line of rail1 ,fig4 #a4 ,make ,j ,j and 

,k ,k1 ,fig4 #b1 equal ,n ,h and ,n ,o1 
,fig4 #c4 ,now the difference between ,e
 and the falling line is what the       
section is below the centre at the      
springing1 and that between ,j and the  
falling line is what the section is     
below the centre1 and that between ,k   
and the falling line is what the section
 on the minor axis ,k is above the      
centre2 the sections at both joints are 
in the centre of the plank4  ,fig4 #e   
shows the bottom face mould4 ,r ,a ,b   
will equal ,r ,a ,b1 and ,s ,b ,c will  
equal ,s ,b ,c1 ,fig4 #b1 and ,a ,s will
 equal ,a ,s1 ,fig4 #a4 ,proceed as     
usual to get bevels1 sections and width 
of mould4 ,now1 as the tangent ,a ,b is 
not in a line with the straight rail1   
and the joint being square to the       
latter1 the end of shank must be        
bevelled so as to joint correctly to the
 straight rail4 ,draw ,p ,p1 ,fig4 #g1  
to the same bevel as that for the shank 
marked ,o ,o1 ,fig4 #f4 ,draw ,c ,d1    
,fig4 #g1 square to ,p ,p1 make ,c ,n   

equal #b #b at section ,a1 ,fig4 #f1    
draw the level line through ,n to cut ,p
 ,p in ,e and ,c ,d in ,d4 ,now1 at     
,fig4 #b mark off along ,r ,p1 ,r ,s to 
equal #b #b or #a #a1 ,fig4 #f4 ,make ,c
 ,s and ,c ,s1 ,fig4 #g1 equal ,s ,s1   
,fig4 #b1 and join ,s ,e and ,s ,d for  
bevels ,t and ,s4 ,apply the bevel ,t as
 shown and ,s as shown at ,fig4 #h4 ,the
 face mould for the under side will be  
,s ,s1 ,fig4 #b1 longer1 and that for   
the top side the same amount shorter4   
,illustration3 ,,plate #bc4  ,,plate    
,,xxiii4  ,,quarter-,,space ,,landing1  
,,wreath ,,in ,,one ,,piece4   ,fig4 #a 
shows plan of centre line of rail       
enclosed with tangent ,a ,b ,c4 ,draw   
risers1 landing1 and starting half a    
tread from ,b4 ,this will cause the     
tangents on face moulds to be the same  
pitch as the straight rail4 ,this       
arrangement answers very well if the    
rail is small1 but if the rail is a wide
 one1 say #d inches or more1 the inside 
has a crippled and awkward appearance4  

,fig4 #b4 ,make ,r ,s equal stretch-out 
of the quadrant1 ,fig4 #a4 ,set up one  
tread and riser above and below1 as they
 occur on the centre line of rail1 ,fig4
 #a4 ,for development of tangents make  
,c #b #a equal ,a ,b ,c1 ,fig4 #a4      
,square out a level line from the       
springing at ,s to cut the line #a at   
,a4 ,join ,a ,c for tangents1 which will
 be the same pitch as the straight rail4
  ,fig4 #c shows face mould4 ,make ,c ,b
 ,s equal ,c ,b ,a and ,b ,c equal ,b   
,c1 ,fig4 #b1 and ,s ,c equal the       
diagonal of the square on plan4 ,draw ,c
 ,o and ,b ,o parallel to ,a ,b and ,b  
,c4 ,draw sine major axis and sine minor
 through ,o4 ,notice the major axis is  
parallel to the diagonal from ,a to ,c1 
and the minor axis is the other         
diagonal4 ,both pitches being the same  
throws the horizontal trace parallel to 
the diagonal from the centre to ,b4 ,one
 bevel will do for both shanks1 as the  
pitches are the same4 ,the falling line 
will be in the centre of plank at both  

ends and at the minor axis4  ,fig4 #d   
shows the section1 which is the same for
 both ends1 only of course the reverse  
hand4   ,,side ,,wreath ,,starting      
,,from ,a ,,newel4  ,fig4 #f shows the  
plan of centre line of rail of a side   
wreath starting from a newel4 ,lay down 
the tangents ,a ,b and ,b ,c equal in   
length and to the required angle1       
according to circumstances1 the size of 
the hall1 c4 ,the farther it stands out 
into the hall the better it will look1  
but it must not obstruct the passage or 
be out of proportion to the size of the 
stairs4 ,b should be in front of the    
second riser1 or it will make the rail  
too high at the newel4 ,a will be the   
face of the newel4 ,draw from ,a square 
to ,a ,b1 and from ,c square to ,c ,b to
 meet in ,o4 ,then ,o ,a will be the    
radius of the centre line of rail1 which
 draw4 ,then ,a ,b being level will be  
the horizontal trace4  ,fig4 #g shows   
the elevation4 ,set up a tread and      
risers and draw the springing ,c as it  

occurs on the plan4 ,make ,c #c equal ,c
 ,b1 ,fig4 #f1 and draw ,b ,c ,s resting
 on the corners4  ,fig4 #h shows the    
face mould4 ,draw the line ,a ,p1 and   
make ,a ,d ,p equal ,a ,d ,o1 ,fig4 #f4 
,draw ,v ,l through ,p at right angles  
to ,a ,p4 ,draw ,d #h parallel to ,v ,l1
 make ,d #h equal ,b #c1 ,fig4 #g2 join 
,a #h extended to cut ,v ,l in ,o2 then 
,o will be the centre4 ,make ,a ,b and  
#h ,c equal ,a ,b and ,d ,c1 ,fig4 #f4  
,the completion of the mould will be    
understood4 ,the tangent ,c ,b will     
equal ,c ,b1 ,fig4 #g1 if the drawing is
 correct4  ,fig4 #i shows the sections  
which will be in the centre of plank all
 round4     ,illustration3 ,,plate #bd4 
,,plate ,,xxiv4  ,,quarter-,,space      
,,landing1 ,,wreath ,,in ,,two ,,pieces4
   ,it was said in a previous case that 
with a wide rail and the tangents on the
 same pitch as the straight rail1 the   
inside of rail has a crippled           
appearance4 ,this can be remedied by    
having the wreath in two pieces4  ,fig4 

#a shows the plan laid down so as to    
make the inside falling line of rail a  
straight line2 and the risers landing   
and starting placed in the springing4   
,to find the radius of centre line of   
rail1 ,fig4 #a4 ,make ,s ,n1 ,fig4 #g1  
equal one step4 ,from ,n draw ,n ,r at  
#de with ,s ,n1 and from ,s draw a line 
at #fj with ,s ,n to meet the line from 
,n in ,r1 from ,r draw square to and cut
 ,s ,n in ,p2 then ,r ,p will be the    
radius for the inside of the rail on    
plan4  ,fig4 #b shows the development4  
,make ,h ,r equal stretch-out of centre 
line of rail on plan4 ,set up one tread 
and risers above and below1 with the    
risers in the springing4 ,draw the      
centre falling line1 resting on the     
corners and passing through the centre1 
at the height of half a riser above the 
landing4 ,to develop tangents1 make ,c  
,s ,r ,fig4 #b1 equal ,c ,b ,a1 ,fig4   
#a1 and complete tangents as shown4 ,to 
draw the horizontal trace at ,fig4 #a1  
make ,a ,b ,f1 ,fig4 #a1 equal ,r ,s ,f1

 ,fig4 #b4 ,join ,f ,c for the required 
trace4 ,draw ,n ,o square to it4  ,fig4 
#c shows the face mould4 ,make ,a ,b ,f 
equal ,a ,b ,f and ,b ,c equal ,b ,c1   
,fig4 #b1 and ,f ,c equal ,f ,c1 ,fig4  
#a4 ,make ,c ,p equal ,c ,n1 ,fig4 #a4  
,draw the major axis from ,n square to  
,n ,c ,f4 ,draw from ,a parallel to ,f  
,c ,p to cut major axis in #g4 ,now if  
the drawing is correct ,a #g will equal 
,a ,r1 ,fig4 #a4 ,with ,p as centre and 
,n ,r1 ,fig4 #a1 as radius1 strike an   
arc at ,s2 again1 with #g as centre and 
,a ,r1 ,fig4 #b1 as radius1 strike an   
arc to intersect the first one in ,s4   
,join #g ,s and ,p ,s extended1 and ,p  
,n equal ,o ,n1 ,fig4 #a4 ,draw from ,n 
parallel to #g ,s to cut the major axis 
in ,o1 then ,o will be the centre4      
,fig4 #d shows the sections and bevels4 
,make ,n ,n equal radius of centre line 
of rail1 ,fig4 #a1 with ,o as centre1   
and for radius just touching each       
tangent1 which distances transfer to    
,fig4 #d4 ,all the sections in this case

 will be in the centre of the plank4    
,fig4 #e shows the face mould for the   
other side of the plank4  ,fig4 #f shows
 the application of the face moulds to  
the stuff4  ,both joints are square to  
tangents and face of plank in this case4
     ,illustration3 ,,plate #be4        
,,plate ,,xxv4  ,,quarter-,,space       
,,landing1 ,,wreath ,,in ,,one ,,piece1 
,,to ,,form ,,its ,,own ,,easing ,,into 
,,the ,,straight ,,rail4   ,fig4 #a     
shows the plan laid down exactly the    
same as in ,plate ,,xxiii4  ,fig4 #b    
shows the elevation4 ,make ,y ,y equal  
the stretch-out of centre line of rail1 
,fig4 #a1 and set up one step above and 
below as shown4 ,draw the centre falling
 line resting on the corners and passing
 through the centre at the height of    
half a riser above the landing4 ,for    
development of tangents1 make #a1 #b1 #c
 equal ,a ,b ,c1 ,fig4 #a4 ,square out a
 level line from the lower joint ,h1 and
 make ,h ,r equal the distance between  
the line #a and the springing2 join ,r  

,n2 then ,a ,b ,c will be the tangents  
of face mould4 ,from ,r draw the joint  
line square to the straight rail1 and ,r
 ,p square to the tangents4  ,fig4 #c   
shows the face mould4 ,make ,r ,a ,b ,s 
equal ,r ,a ,b ,c1 ,fig4 #b1 and ,s ,c  
equal the diagonal on plan1 and ,b ,c   
equal ,b ,c1 ,fig4 #b4 ,draw ,c ,o and  
,a ,o parallel to ,a ,b and ,b ,c1 make 
,c ,n equal ,c ,n1 ,fig4 #b4 ,the bevel 
,a and ,c will be the same1 as both     
pitches are the same4  ,fig4 #d shows   
the sections at the two joints1 and the 
section on the minor axis will be in the
 centre of the plank4 ,but section ,a   
will be above1 and that at ,c below the 
centre4 ,the distance between ,c and the
 falling line is what the section at ,c 
will be below1 and ,a above the centre4 
,it will be seen one corner of the rail 
is cut off at these sections2 this makes
 no difference so long as the moulding  
of the rail will work it out4  ,fig4 #e 
shows the bevels for the joints to be   
worked off to1 so as to make them joint 

to the straight rail4 ,draw ,p ,p to the
 same pitch as ,o ,o1 ,fig4 #d2 draw ,c 
,h square to ,p ,p2 make ,c ,n equal #d 
#d1 ,fig4 #d4 ,at ,fig4 #b mark along ,r
 ,p1 ,r ,s to equal #d #d1 ,fig4 #d2    
make ,c ,s and ,c ,s equal ,s ,s1 ,fig4 
#b1 and draw ,s ,e for the bevel ,t to  
be applied across the end of shank and  
along the tangent4 ,join ,s ,d for the  
bevel ,s1 to be applied through the end 
of shank and along the surface of the   
stuff2 this bevel must be held parallel 
to the tangent across the joint1 that   
is1 square through the plank4 ,notice   
that in all these bevel joints if the   
tangent is steeper than the straight    
rail1 the bevel ,t is applied so that   
the ends of shank diminish towards the  
inside1 while if the tangent is flatter1
 the end of shank will diminish towards 
the outside4 ,this will be understood by
 referring to ,fig4 #c in this plate1   
and ,fig4 #e1 ,plate ,,xxi4  ,fig4 #f   
shows the face mould for the under side2
 the shaded part ,n ,s shows the extra  

length required2 this will equal ,s ,s1 
,fig4 #b1 the other end ,r ,s will be   
the same amount shorter4 ,this mould is 
reverse to ,fig4 #c4  ,fig4 #g shows the
 wreath cut out square through the      
plank1 before the moulds are put on4    
,the application of the bevels is seen  
here4     ,illustration3 ,,plate #bf4   
,,plate ,,xxvi4  ,,winders ,,in ,,the   
,,quarter-,,space1 ,,wreath ,,in ,,one  
,,piece1 ,,to ,,form ,,its ,,own        
,,easing ,,into ,,straight ,,rail4      
,fig4 #a shows plan with face of risers 
laid1 and centre line of rail enclosed  
with tangents ,a ,b ,c4  ,fig4 #b shows 
the development4 ,make ,y ,y equal      
stretch-out of centre of rail1 ,fig4 #a4
 ,set up treads and risers1 placing the 
risers as they occur on the centre line 
of rail1 ,fig4 #a2 draw the centre      
falling line as shown4 ,to development  
tangents make #a #b ,c equal ,a ,b ,c1  
,fig4 #a4 ,continue the tangent ,c ,b in
 a line with straight rail2 make ,h ,r  
equal the distance between the line #a  

and springing2 join ,r ,b extended to   
cut the level line in ,f4 ,draw the     
joint line square to the straight rail1 
and ,r ,p square to the tangent2 mark   
off along ,r ,p1 ,r ,s to equal half    
thickness of plank4  ,fig4 #c shows the 
face mould for the top side of the      
plank4 ,make ,r ,a ,b ,f and ,b ,c equal
 corresponding letters1 ,fig4 #b1 and ,f
 ,c equal ,f ,c1 ,fig4 #a2 draw ,c ,o   
and ,a ,o parallel to ,a ,b and ,b ,c2  
draw the major axis ,o ,m square to ,f  
,c through the centre1 with ,m as centre
 and ,m ,o1 ,fig4 #a1 as radius strike  
an arc at ,p2 draw ,v ,l through the    
centre and tangent to the arc4 ,make ,m 
,h equal ,m ,h1 ,fig4 #a2 draw ,y ,j    
parallel to ,v ,l2 make ,y ,e equal ,h  
,e1 ,fig4 #a4 ,draw ,y ,j parallel to ,m
 ,p1 and ,j ,k square to major axis2    
join ,k ,e for section line2 draw the   
short tangent from ,e square to ,k ,e4  
,fig4 #d shows bevels1 width of mould1  
thickness of plank4 ,get the levels by  
taking ,o1 ,fig4 #c1 as centre1 and for 

radius open out to touch each tangent2  
transfer these distances to ,fig4 #d for
 each bevel as shown1 and complete the  
sections as usual2 the section at each  
joint will be in the centre1 but each of
 the others will be below4 ,make ,c ,e  
,d1 ,fig4 #b1 equal ,c ,e ,d1 ,fig4 #a4 
,make ,e ,e and ,d ,d equal ,p ,j and ,p
 ,o1 ,fig4 #c4 ,then the difference     
between ,k ,d ,e and ,c and the falling 
line1 is what each section will be out  
of the centre of plank4  ,fig4 #e shows 
the bevels for the bevelled joint at ,r4
 ,draw ,p ,p to the same bevel as the   
bevel for the shank1 marked ,o ,o1 ,fig4
 #d2 draw ,c ,h square to ,p ,p4 ,make  
,c ,n equal #a #a1 ,fig4 #d1 make ,c ,s 
and ,c ,s equal ,s ,s1 ,fig4 #b1 and    
join ,s ,e and ,s ,p for bevels ,t and  
,s4 ,cut the wreath out square through  
the plank as usual1 except at this      
joint1 which is worked across the top   
and bottom to the bevel ,t1 the bevel ,s
 being for the sides4 ,if the joint is  
worked true to these bevels1 it will    

joint correctly to the straight rail4 ,s
 ,s1 ,fig4 #b1 is what the face mould   
will require to be longer for the under 
side2 this is shown by the shaded part  
on end of shank1 ,fig4 #f1 while ,r ,s  
on the shank of the top face mould1     
,fig4 #c1 shows the same amount shorter4
 ,it is presumed that the method of     
squaring the wreath is fully understood1
 and needs no further explaining here1  
as it can only be a repetition of what  
was described in the first few plates4  
,illustration3 ,,plate #bg4  ,,plate    
,,xxvii4  ,,landing ,,in ,,an ,,obtuse  
,,angle1 ,,the ,,wreath ,,to ,,form     
,,its ,,own ,,easing ,,into ,,the       
,,straight ,,rail4   ,fig4 #a is the    
plan with the risers placed in the      
springing1 and the rail drawn with a    
radius so as to make the inside falling 
line nearly a straight line4 ,draw the  
centre line of rail to the angle1 and   
bisect it from ,b4 ,set off on each side
 half a tread marked #b #b and #c #c4   
,now draw the inside of rail to cut     

these two lines in #d and #e2 draw      
through #d and #e square to the centre  
line of rail to meet in ,o1 then ,o will
 be the centre and ,a ,o the radius4    
,complete the plan as shown4 ,the       
elevation is shown at ,fig4 #b4 ,make ,s
 ,s equal the centre line of rail1 ,fig4
 #a1 from ,a to ,c4 ,set up one step    
above and below and draw the falling    
line4 ,to develop tangents1 make #a #b  
,c equal ,a ,b ,c1 ,fig4 #a4 ,make the  
joints at ,n and ,h4 ,make ,h ,r equal  
the distance between the line #a and the
 springing4 ,join ,r ,n for development 
of tangents4 ,draw the joint line square
 to the straight rail1 and ,r ,p square 
to the tangents4 ,mark off along ,r ,p1 
,r ,s to equal #a #a or #d #d1 ,fig4 #d4
 ,make ,b ,f1 ,fig4 #a1 equal #b ,c1    
,fig4 #b1 and join ,f ,c4 ,fig4 #c is   
the face mould4 ,make ,r ,a ,b ,f equal 
,r ,a ,b ,c1 ,fig4 #b1 and ,b ,c equal  
,b ,c1 ,fig4 #b1 and ,f ,c equal ,f ,c1 
,fig4 #a4 ,draw the minor axis from ,b  
parallel to ,f ,c1 and make ,b ,o equal 

,b ,o1 ,fig4 #a4 ,draw the major axis   
square to it4 ,the sections are seen at 
,fig4 #d4 ,make ,r ,r equal radius of   
centre line of rail on plan2 make ,o ,o 
equal ,o ,o1 ,fig4 #c1 and complete     
sections as usual4 ,the difference      
between ,c and the falling line at ,fig4
 #b is what the section at ,c will be   
below the centre1 and that at ,a above2 
the sections at the joints and at the   
minor axis will be in the centre of     
plank4  ,fig4 #e shows the face mould   
for the under side of the plank4  ,fig4 
#f shows the wreath worked inside and   
out ready for squaring4  ,fig4 #g shows 
the bevels for the bevelled joints on   
both ends of wreath4 ,they will be      
applied the same as in ,plate ,,xxv4    
,illustration3 ,,plate #bh4  ,,plate    
,,xxviii4  ,,half ,,twist ,,starting    
,,from ,a ,,scroll1 ,,and ,a ,,side     
,,wreath ,,starting ,,from ,a ,,newel4  
,fig4 #a shows the plan of a stair      
starting with a scroll4 ,make ,d ,e     
equal about #d times the width of rail1 

which divide into #i equal parts2 make  
,d ,i equal #e of these parts2 this will
 be the radius for the largest quadrant 
of the rail4 ,to find the radius for    
each of the remaining quadrants1 make ,d
 #a1 ,fig4 #e1 equal ,d #a1 ,fig4 #a2   
make #a #b equal one of the #i parts1   
with ,d as centre and ,d #a as radius2  
strike an arc from #b2 square up a line 
to cut the arc in ,a2 join ,a ,d with ,d
 as centre and ,d #b as radius2 strike  
an arc to cut ,a ,d in ,b2 from ,b draw 
,b #c square to ,d #a4 ,continue the    
process as far as required to complete  
the scroll1 ,d #b will strike the second
 quadrant and ,d #c the third1 and so   
on4 ,the face mould is seen at ,fig4 #c4
 ,draw ,c ,b ,a at right angles and make
 ,c ,b equal ,c ,b1 ,fig4 #b1 and ,a ,b 
equal ,a ,b1 ,fig4 #a4 ,make ,a ,r equal
 radius of centre line of rail ,c #a1   
,fig4 #a1 and complete the mould as     
usual4 ,the scroll itself will only     
require to be the thickness of the rail1
 as it is level4 ,all the sections in   

the wreath will be in the centre of the 
plank4  ,fig4 #f shows the plan1 and    
,fig4 #g the elevation of a side wreath 
starting from a newel4 ,make ,a ,p1     
,fig4 #h1 equal the radius of centre    
line of rail1 ,fig4 #f1 and draw ,v ,l  
through ,p square to ,a ,p4 ,make ,a ,e 
equal ,a ,e1 ,fig4 #f1 draw ,e #h square
 to ,a ,e1 and make ,e #h equal ,b ,d1  
,fig4 #g4 ,join ,a #h extended to cut ,v
 ,l in ,o2 then ,o will be the centre   
and ,a ,o the major axis4 ,make ,a ,b   
and #h ,c equal ,a ,b and ,e ,c1 ,fig4  
#f4 ,join ,c ,b1 which is the tangent1  
and if the drawing is correct1 this will
 equal ,c ,b1 ,fig4 #g4 ,the tangent ,a 
,b being level is of course the same    
length as on plan4 ,all the sections    
will be in the centre of the plank2     
these are seen at ,fig4 #i4 ,the short  
shank ,a ,n is to let into the newel2 ,a
 being the face of newel4               
,illustration3 ,,plate #bi4  ,,plate    
,,xxix4  ,,winders ,,starting ,,from ,a 
,,curtail ,,step4   ,fig4 #a shows the  

plan of a scroll1 and wreath to stand   
over the curtail step and winders4      
,divide ,n ,n into #i equal parts4 ,make
 ,n #a equal #e of these parts and draw 
the largest quadrant4 ,to draw the      
remainder make ,n #a1 ,fig4 #g1 equal ,n
 #a1 ,fig4 #a2 with ,n as centre and ,n 
#a as radius1 strike the arc4 ,make #a  
#b equal #a of the #i parts2 from #b    
erect a perpendicular to cut the arc in 
#g4 ,join #g ,n4 ,now with ,n as centre 
and ,n #b as radius1 strike the second  
arc to cut ,n #g in #h2 draw #h #c      
parallel to #g #b4 ,again1 with ,n as   
centre and ,n #c as radius1 strike the  
arc to cut ,n #g in #i2 draw #i #d      
parallel to #h #c4 ,this process can be 
continued as far as required4 ,n #a will
 strike the largest quadrant1 ,n #b the 
next1 and ,n #c the next1 and so on     
until the scroll is completed4 ,the     
centre and inside lines of rail will be 
struck from the same centres4 ,make the 
joint at ,a1 and draw the radius line   
from #b1 which is the centre of this    

part of the scroll2 draw the tangent ,a 
,b square to it4  ,fig4 #b shows the    
elevation4 ,set up the treads and risers
 as they occur on the centre line of    
rail1 ,fig4 #a1 and draw the centre     
falling line so that it will finish     
level1 about on the line ,n ,n1 and at a
 height of about #a or #b inches above  
the top of the first step4 ,make #c #g  
equal the stretch-out of the centre line
 of rail1 ,fig4 #a from ,a to ,c4 ,draw 
the level line through the falling line 
at #g1 and make #c #h and #h ,a equal ,c
 ,b and ,b ,a1 ,fig4 #a1 and complete   
the development of tangents as shown4   
,draw the joint at #g square to the     
tangent ,a ,b4 ,the scroll must be the  
distance ,s ,s thicker than the         
thickness of rail1 and the joint worked 
to the bevel as shown4  ,fig4 #c is the 
face mould for the top side of the      
plank4 ,make ,b ,f1 ,fig4 #a1 equal #h  
,f1 ,fig4 #b1 and at ,fig4 #c make ,c ,b
 ,f equal ,c ,b ,f and ,b ,a equal ,b   
,a1 ,fig4 #b1 and ,f ,a equal ,f ,a1    

,fig4 #a4 ,draw ,c #aa and ,a #e        
parallel to the horizontal trace ,f ,a1 
and make ,a #e and ,c #aa equal ,a #e   
and ,c #g1 ,fig4 #a1 and draw the major 
axis through #e and #aa4 ,with #e as    
centre and #e #g1 ,fig4 #a1 as radius1  
strike an arc at #g2 draw a line through
 #aa and tangent to the arc4 ,now1 if   
the drawing is correct1 #g #aa will     
equal the height #c ,c1 ,fig4 #b4 ,make 
#e #d #c #a #f #g equal corresponding   
figures1 ,fig4 #a1 and complete the     
mould as usual4 ,notice ,o will be the  
centre for sections ,d ,e ,r and ,c1 and
 ,s ,s1 ,fig4 #d1 will equal the radius 
#a ,d1 ,fig4 #a4 ,but for the section at
 the joint ,a1 #b will be the centre and
 ,s ,s1 ,fig4 #e1 will equal the radius 
#b ,a1 ,fig4 #a4 ,the bevels1 c41 are   
got as usual4 ,make #c #d #e #f #g1     
,fig4 #b1 equal ,c ,r ,e ,d ,a1 ,fig4   
#a4 ,make #d #d and #e #e and #f #f1    
,fig4 #b1 equal #a ,s and #a ,o and #a  
,w1 ,fig4 #c4 ,now1 the difference      
between #d #e and #f and the falling    

line is what each section is out of the 
centre of plank4  ,fig4 #f is the face  
mould for the under side of the plank4  
,illustration3 ,,plate #cj4  ,,plate    
,,xxx4  ,,winders ,,in ,,the            
,,quarter-,,space1 ,,starting ,,from ,a 
,,newel4   ,fig4 #a shows the plan4     
,there will be one baluster on the      
bottom step1 and the remainder placed as
 shown4 ,in planning stairs of this kind
 care must be taken not to let the newel
 obstruct the passage4 ,no fixed rule   
can be laid down for the position of the
 newel2 circumstances alone must        
regulate that2 but the further the newel
 is brought round the more graceful will
 be the falling line of rail4  ,fig4 #b 
is the elevation4 ,make ,c ,a equal the 
stretch-out of centre line of rail from 
,c to ,a1 ,fig4 #a1 and ,c ,d equal ,c  
,b1 ,fig4 #a4 ,let ,b be #ab inches     
above the floor line2 now draw the      
centre falling line from the joint at ,r
 at the top1 and to strike the face of  
the newel level at the height of ,b1 as 

shown by the dotted lines4 ,join ,r ,b  
for pitch of tangent ,b ,c4 ,the tangent
 ,a ,b will be level1 therefore the same
 length as on plan4 ,draw the joint at  
,r square to the straight rail1 and ,r  
,p square to the tangent4 ,mark off     
along ,r ,p1 ,r ,s to equal #e #e1 ,fig4
 #d4  ,fig4 #c is the face mould for the
 top side of the plank4 ,draw the lines 
,a ,e and ,n ,e at right angles1 and    
make ,a ,e equal ,a ,e1 ,fig4 #a1 and ,n
 ,e equal ,b ,d1 ,fig4 #b2 join ,a ,n1  
which is the major axis2 make ,c ,r     
equal ,c ,r above the springing at ,fig4
 #b2 add ,s ,s1 ,fig4 #b1 on to the end 
of shank1 as shown by shaded part4 ,the 
completion of the face mould will be    
understood4  ,fig4 #d shows the         
sections4 ,it will be noticed that the  
sections ,s and ,r are above the centre 
of plank4 ,make ,f ,s ,r1 ,fig4 #b1     
equal ,a ,s ,r on the centre line of    
rail1 ,fig4 #a1 and make ,s ,s and ,r ,r
 below the falling at ,fig4 #b equal ,r 
,f and ,r ,o1 ,fig4 #c4 ,the difference 

between ,s and the falling line is what 
the section at ,s is above the centre of
 plank1 while that between ,r and the   
falling line is what the section at ,r  
on the minor axis is above the centre of
 plank4  ,fig4 #e shows the bevels for  
the bevelled joint at ,r4 ,draw ,h ,h to
 the same pitch as the bevel for the    
section ,c and draw ,c ,e square to ,h  
,h and ,c ,n vertical2 draw ,e ,d level 
through ,n2 make ,c ,s and ,c ,s equal  
,s ,s1 ,fig4 #b1 and join ,s ,d and ,s  
,e for bevels ,t and ,s4 ,to cut out the
 wreath1 lay the face mould on the      
stuff1 transfer the tangents on to it1  
mark off on each side of the tangent at 
,a ,a #a1 and on each side of the       
tangent at ,c ,c ,n1 and on each side of
 ,r on the minor axis1  of an inch more 
than half width of rail1 marked ,p ,p1  
,fig4 #d4 ,trace around through ,i ,p ,n
 inside and outside4 ,cut the wreath out
 square through the plank4 ,before      
bevelling the wreath1 work the joint to 
the bevels ,t and ,s4 ,the bevel ,t to  

be applied across the top and bottom1   
while the bevel ,s will be applied on   
the sides4 ,s ,s is the extra length of 
stuff required on end of shank1 as shown
 by shaded part on end of face mould4   
,to get out the face mould for the under
 side1 lay ,fig4 #c on a thin piece of  
stuff and transfer the tangents and     
section lines on to it1 and stick a     
bradawl through ,a ,s ,r ,c and mark off
 on each section the width of mould on  
the opposite side to ,fig4 #c4 ,the     
shank will be the same amount shorter   
that ,fig4 #c is longer4                
,illustration3 ,,plate #ca4  ,,plate    
,,xxxi4  ,,the ,,plan ,,of ,,rail       
,,forming ,,part ,,of ,,an ,,ellipse1   
,,starting ,,from ,a ,,newel ,,over     
,,winders4   ,fig4 #a shows the plan of 
rail with the risers in position4 ,the  
line ,o ,c is the minor axis1 and ,o ,d 
the major axis of the ellipse on plan2  
and as the tangent ,a ,b is level1 it is
 of course the ,h ,t4 ,from the foci ,p 
,p draw to ,a1 and bisect the angle1 as 

shown by ,a ,y2 this will be the face of
 the newel on plan4 ,draw the tangent ,a
 ,b square to it4 ,draw ,f ,s through   
the centre ,o ,v square to ,a ,b4 ,draw 
,o ,e parallel to ,a ,b2 this line will 
be the minor axis on the face mould4    
,fig4 #b shows the elevation4 ,a ,s will
 equal the stretch-out of the centre    
line of rail from ,a to ,c1 ,fig4 #a2   
and ,s ,b will equal ,c ,b1 ,fig4 #a4   
,draw the falling line as shown so as to
 strike the face of newel level1 at a   
height of #ab inches above the floor4   
,square out ,a ,b from ,a and join ,b ,r
 for pitch of tangent4 ,draw the joint  
line square to the straight rail and ,r 
,p square to the tangent4  ,fig4 #c     
shows the face mould for the under side4
 ,draw ,f ,s and ,s ,p at right angles1 
and make ,f ,s equal ,f ,s1 ,fig4 #a2   
and ,s ,p equal the height ,s ,c1 ,fig4 
#b4 ,join ,f ,p for the major axis of   
face mould4 ,make ,f ,r equal ,f ,o1    
,fig4 #a4 ,draw ,r ,o parallel to ,s ,p4
 ,draw ,o ,e square to the major axis ,f

 ,p2 then ,o ,e is the minor axis1 and  
,o ,r is the same line as is marked ,v  
,l in previous plates4 ,make ,o #e ,e #f
 equal ,o #e ,e #f1 ,fig4 #a4 ,make ,f  
,n equal ,f ,n1 ,fig4 #a1 and draw ,n ,y
 parallel to ,r ,o1 and ,y ,d square to 
major axis4 ,make ,y ,d equal ,n ,d1    
,fig4 #a1 and complete the section as   
usual4 ,also make ,p ,c equal ,s ,c1 and
 ,f ,a ,b equal ,f ,a ,b1 ,fig4 #a4     
,join ,c ,b extended1 and make ,c ,r    
equal ,c ,r1 ,fig4 #b4 ,now if the      
drawing is correct ,c ,b will equal ,c  
,b1 ,fig4 #b4  ,fig4 #d shows the bevel 
and section ,a4 ,make ,a ,b equal ,o ,f1
 ,fig4 #a2 and ,b ,c equal ,o ,f1 ,fig4 
#c4 ,draw the section of rail1 and draw 
,a #b to cut the top corner parallel to 
,b ,c4 ,then ,a ,o will be half         
thickness of plank and ,a #b width of   
mould here4  ,fig4 #e shows bevel and   
section ,d4 ,make ,a ,b equal ,o ,d1    
,fig4 #a4 ,with ,o as centre for radius1
 open out the compasses to touch the    
tangent from ,d2 transfer this distance 

to ,fig4 #e1 as shown by ,b ,c4 ,now    
make ,a ,d ,e ,s1 ,fig4 #b1 equal ,a ,d 
,e ,s on the centre line of rail1 ,fig4 
#a4 ,make ,d ,n and ,e ,h1 ,fig4 #b1    
equal ,n ,y and ,r ,o1 ,fig4 #c4 ,the   
difference between ,n and the falling   
line shows that the latter is nearly in 
the centre of plank at the section ,d4  
,make ,d #c and ,d #d1 ,fig4 #c1 equal  
,d #c and ,d #d at the section4  ,fig4  
#f shows the section on the minor axis1 
which of course requires no bevel4 ,the 
difference between #d and the falling   
line at ,fig4 #b shows what this section
 is out of the centre of the plank4     
,fig4 #g shows bevel and section ,c4    
,make ,a ,b equal ,o ,c1 ,fig4 #a1 and  
with ,o as centre1 and for radius a     
distance to just touch the tangent1 ,c  
,b1 ,fig4 #c4 ,transfer this to ,fig4 #g
 as shown by ,b ,d1 and complete the    
section as usual4  ,fig4 #h shows the   
bevels for the bevelled joint at ,r4    
,the method of getting them and their   
application will be understood4  ,fig4  

#i shows the face mould for the top     
side4 ,the difference between this mould
 and ,fig4 #c is that ,a #b and ,d #d   
and ,c #g is on the inside of ,a ,d and 
,c1 instead of the outside1 as at ,fig4 
#c4 ,in sawing around on the inside1    
leave the stuff full on the section ,d1 
and gauge to a width after the moulds   
have been removed4     ,illustration3   
,,plate #cb4  ,,plate ,,xxxii4          
,,showing ,,the ,,moulding ,,of ,,rails1
 ,,and ,a ,,method ,,of                 
,,proportionately ,,increasing ,,or     
,,decreasing ,,the ,,size ,,of ,,them4  
,figs4 #a and #b show pattern of rails  
full size1 both of which look well when 
finished1 and nice to handle4 ,the      
shaded parts at ,fig4 #a show how the   
rail should be worked out before it is  
moulded4 ,it will be seen that ,fig4 #a 
has three dowels1 while ,fig4 #b has    
two4  ,at ,fig4 #b is seen a method by  
which a rail may be proportionately     
increased or decreased to any size4 ,let
 ,s be the given rail and ,r the        

required one4 ,make ,a ,b equal the     
width of ,s1 and ,a ,e the thickness of 
,r2 from ,e draw square to ,a ,b1 and   
make ,e ,f equal the thickness of ,s2   
join ,a ,b4 ,from ,a square out a line  
and make ,a ,d equal the width of the   
required rail ,r4 ,from ,b and ,d square
 out lines to meet in ,c2 join ,a ,c4   
,from each member in ,s draw ordinates  
to cut ,a ,c and ,a ,f1 and where these 
meet again in ,r will be the same member
 in the required rail4  ,fig4 #c shows a
 handrail screw1 ,a being a round nut1 a
 section of which is seen at ,fig4 #d1  
and ,b a square one2 ,w is a round      
washer4 ,these screws are let into about
 the centre of the section of rail at   
the joints4 ,a hole is cut in the under 
side of each piece for the nuts to go   
in1 and a small bent chisel1 made for   
the purpose1 is used to turn the nut ,a4
     ,,london3    ,,printed ,,by        
,,william ,,clowes ,,and ,,sons1        
,,limited1 ,,stamford ,,street   ,,and  
,,charing ,,cross4     ,transcriber's   

,notes   ,punctuation and spelling were 
made consistent when a predominant      
preference was found in this book2      
otherwise they were not changed4        
,simple typographical errors were       
corrected2 occasional unbalanced        
quotation marks retained4  ,ambiguous   
hyphens at the ends of lines were       
retained2 occurrences of inconsistent   
hyphenation have not been changed4      
,each 8,figure0 reference is to a       
portion of the ,plate illustration      
immediately preceding the text4  ,the   
captions of all illustrations included  
this credit line3      ,thos4 ,kell     
,son1 ,lith4  which have been omitted in
 this e,book4  ,the right-side edges of 
several illustrations were missing or   
illegible4  ,page #dc3 ,two occurrences 
of 8sime0 were changed to 8semi-0 to    
conform with the rest of the book4