,,bohn',s ,,classical ,,library         
,,diogenes ,,la,,rtius              ,g4 
,,bell ,,and ,,sons1 ,,ltd4             
,,london3 ,,portugal ,,st41 ,,kingsway  
,,cambridge3 ,,deighton1 ,,bell ,,and   
,,co4      ,,new ,,york3 ,,the          
,,macmillan ,,co4      ,,bombay3 ,a4 ,h4
 ,,wheeler ,,and ,,co4                  
,,the ,,lives ,,and ,,opinions ,,of     
,,eminent ,,philosophers                
,,by                                    
,,diogenes ,,la,,rtius4                 
,,literally ,,translated                
,,by ,c4 ,d4 ,,yonge1 ,m4,a41           
,fellow of the ,royal ,university of    
,london2              ,regius ,professor
 of ,english ,literature and ,modern    
,history1 ,queen's ,college1 ,belfast4  
,illustration                           
,,london                            ,g4 
,,bell ,,and ,,sons1 ,,ltd              
#aiae                      ,reprinted   
from ,stereotype plates4                
,,contents4                             
,,page4        ,,preface                

#a                    ,,book ,i4        
,,introduction                       #c 
,,thales                            #ad 
,,solon                             #bc 
,,chilo                             #cb 
,,pittacus                          #ce 
,,bias                              #ch 
,,cleobulus                         #da 
,,periander                         #dc 
,,anacharsis1 ,,the ,,scythian          
#df      ,,myson                        
#di      ,,epimenides                   
#ej      ,,pherecydes                   
#ec                   ,,book ,,ii4      
,,anaximander                       #eg 
,,anaximenes                        #eg 
,,archelaus                         #fb 
,,socrates                          #fc 
,,xenophon                          #ge 
,,schines                          #gi  
,,aristippus                        #ha 
,,ph,,do                             #if
      ,,euclides                        
#ig      ,,stilpo                       
#ajj      ,,crito                       

#ajc      ,,simon                       
#ajd      ,,glauco                      
#ajd      ,,simias                      
#aje      ,,cebes                       
#aje      ,,menedemus                   
#aje                   ,,book ,,iii4    
,,plato                            #aac 
,,book ,,iv4        ,,speusippus        
#aeb      ,,xenocrates                  
#aed      ,,polemo                      
#aeh      ,,crates                      
#afj      ,,crantor                     
#afa      ,,arcesilaus                  
#afc      ,,bion                        
#aga      ,,lacydes                     
#agf      ,,carneades                   
#agg      ,,clitomachus                 
#agh                    ,,book ,v4      
,,aristotle                        #aha 
,,theophrastus                     #aid 
,,strato                           #bjb 
,,lycon                            #bje 
,,demetrius                        #bji 
,,heraclides                       #bac 
,,book ,,vi4        ,,antisthenes       

#bag      ,,diogenes                    
#bbd      ,,monimus                     
#bdh      ,,onesicritus                 
#bdi      ,,crates                      
#bdi      ,,metrocles                   
#bec      ,,hipparchia                  
#bed      ,,menippus                    
#bef      ,,menedemus                   
#beg                   ,,book ,,vii4    
,,zeno                             #bei 
,,ariston                          #cah 
,,herillus                         #cbj 
,,dionysius                        #cba 
,,cleanthes                        #cbb 
,,sph,,rus                          #cbf
      ,,chrysippus                      
#cbg                  ,,book ,,viii4    
,,pythagoras                       #cch 
,,empedocles                       #cei 
,,epicharmus                       #cfh 
,,archytas                         #cfi 
,,alcm,,on                          #cga
      ,,hippasus                        
#cga      ,,philolaus                   
#cgb      ,,eudoxus                     

#cgb                   ,,book ,,ix4     
,,heraclitus                       #cgf 
,,xenophanes                       #chb 
,,parmenides                       #chd 
,,melissus                         #chf 
,,zeno1 ,,the ,,eleatic                 
#chf      ,,leucippus                   
#chh      ,,democritus                  
#cij      ,,protagoras                  
#cig      ,,diogenes1 ,,of ,,apollonia  
#djj      ,,anaxarchus                  
#djj      ,,pyrrho                      
#djb      ,,timon                       
#dbj                    ,,book ,x4      
,,epicurus                         #dbd 
,,preface4      ,diogenes1 the author of
 the following work1 was a native 7as is
 generally  believed7 of ,larte1 in     
,cilicia1 from which circumstance he    
derived the  cognomen of ,lartius4      
,little is known of him personally1 nor 
is even the  age in which he lived very 
clearly ascertained4 ,but as ,plutarch1 
,sextus  ,empiricus1 and ,saturninus are
 among the writers whom he quotes1 he is

  generally believed to have lived near 
the end of the second century of  our   
era3 although some place him in the time
 of ,alexander ,severus1 and  others as 
late as ,constantine4 ,his work consists
 of ten books1 variously  called3 ,the  
,lives of ,philosophers1 ,a ,history of 
,philosophy1 and ,the ,lives  of        
,sophists4 ,from internal evidence 7iii4
 #dg1 #bi71 we learn that he wrote  it  
for a noble lady 7according to some1    
,arria2 according to others1  ,julia1   
the ,empress of ,severus71 who occupied 
herself with the study of  philosophy1  
and especially of ,plato4    ,diogenes  
,lartius divides the philosophy of the  
,greeks into the ,ionic1  beginning with
 ,anaximander1 and ending with          
,theophrastus 7in which class1  he      
includes the ,socratic philosophy and   
all its various ramifications72  and the
 ,italian1 beginning with ,pythagoras1  
and ending with ,epicurus1 in  which he 
includes the ,eleatics1 as also         
,heraclitus and the ,sceptics4 ,from    

the minute consideration which he       
devotes to ,epicurus and his system1 it 
has been supposed that he himself       
belonged to that school4    ,his work is
 the chief source of information we     
possess concerning the  history of      
,greek philosophy1 and is the foundation
 of nearly all the  modern treatises on 
that subject2 some of the most important
 of which are  little more than         
translations or amplifications of it4   
,it is valuable1  as containing a       
copious collection of anecdotes         
illustrative of the life  and manners of
 the ,greeks2 but he has not always been
 very careful in  his selection1 and in 
some parts there is a confusion in his  
statements  that makes them scarcely    
intelligible4 ,these faults have led    
some critics  to consider the work as it
 now exists merely a mutilated          
abridgment of  the original4 ,breslus1  
who in the thirteenth century1 wrote a  
,treatise  on the ,lives and ,manners of
 the ,philosophers1 quotes many         

anecdotes and  sayings1 which seem to be
 derived from ,diogenes1 but which are  
not to be  found in our present text2   
whence ,schneider concludes that he had 
a very  different and far more complete 
copy than has come down to us4    ,the  
text used in the following translation  
is chiefly that of ,huebner1 as         
published at ,leipsic1 ,a4,d4 #ahbh4    
,,lives ,,and ,,opinions ,,of ,,eminent 
,,philosophers4          ,,book ,i4     
,,introduction4    ,i4 ,some say that   
the study of philosophy originated with 
the barbarians4  ,in that among the     
,persians there existed the ,magi1#a and
 among  the ,babylonians or ,assyrians  
the ,chaldi1#b among the ,indians the   
,gymnosophist1#c and among the ,celts   
and ,gauls men who were called          
,druids#d and ,semnothei1 as ,aristotle 
relates in his book on ,magic1  and     
,sotion in the twenty-third book of his 
,succession of ,philosophers4  ,besides 
those men there were the ,phnician      
,ochus1 the ,thracian  ,zamolxis1#e and 

the ,libyan ,atlas4 ,for the ,egyptians 
say that ,vulcan  was the son of ,nilus1
 and that he was the author of          
philosophy1 in which  those who were    
especially eminent were called his      
priests and prophets4    ,,ii4 ,from his
 age to that of ,alexander1 king of the 
,macedonians were  forty-eight thousand 
eight hundred and sixty-three years1 and
 during this  time there were three     
hundred and seventy-three eclipses of   
the sun1 and  eight hundred and         
thirty-two eclipses of the moon4        
,again1 from the time of the ,magi1 the 
first of whom was ,zoroaster  the       
,persian1 to that of the fall of ,troy1 
,hermodorus the ,platonic  philosopher1 
in his treatise on ,mathematics1        
calculates that fifteen  thousand years 
elapsed4 ,but ,xanthus the ,lydian says 
that the passage of  the ,hellespont by 
,xerxes took place six thousand years   
after the time of  ,zoroaster1#f and    
that after him there was a regular      
succession of ,magi  under the names of 

,ostanes and ,astrampsychos and ,gobryas
 and ,pazatas1  until the destruction of
 the ,persian empire by ,alexander4     
,,iii4 ,but those who say this1         
ignorantly impute to the barbarians the 
merits of the ,greeks1 from whom not    
only all philosophy1 but even the  whole
 human race in reality originated4 ,for 
,musus was born among the  ,athenians1  
and ,linus among the ,thebans2 and they 
say that the former1  who was the son of
 ,eumolpus1 was the first person who    
taught the system  of the genealogy of  
the gods1 and who invented the spheres2 
and that  he taught that all things     
originated in one thing1 and when       
dissolved  returned to that same thing2 
and that he died at ,phalerum1 and that 
this  epitaph was inscribed on his      
tomb3--        ,phalerum's soil beneath 
this tomb contains      ,musus dead1    
,eumolpus' darling son4    ,and it is   
from the father of ,musus that the      
family called ,eumolpid  among the      
,athenians derive their name4 ,they say 

too that ,linus was the  son of ,mercury
 and the ,muse ,urania2 and that he     
invented a system of  ,cosmogony1 and of
 the motions of the sun and moon1 and of
 the generation  of animals and fruits2 
and the following is the beginning of   
his poem1        ,there was a time when 
all the present world      ,uprose at   
once4    ,from which ,anaxagoras derived
 his theory1 when he said that all      
things  had been produced at the same   
time1 and that then intellect had come  
and  arranged them all in order4        
,they say1 moreover1 that ,linus died in
 ,euba1 having been shot with an  arrow 
by ,apollo1 and that this epitaph was   
set over him3--        ,the ,theban     
,linus sleeps beneath this ground1      
,urania's son with fairest garlands     
crown'd4    ,,iv4 ,and thus did         
philosophy arise among the ,greeks1 and 
indeed its very  name shows that it has 
no connection with the barbarians4 ,but 
those who  attribute its origin to them1
 introduce ,orpheus the ,thracian1 and  

say  that he was a philosopher1 and the 
most ancient one of all4 ,but if one    
ought to call a man who has said such   
things about the gods as he has  said1 a
 philosopher1 ,i do not know what name  
one ought to give to him who  has not   
scrupled to attribute all sorts of human
 feelings to the gods1  and even such   
discreditable actions as are but rarely 
spoken of among  men2 and tradition     
relates that he was murdered by women2#g
 but there  is an inscription at ,dium  
in ,macedonia1 saying that he was killed
 by  lightning1 and it runs thus3--     
,here the bard buried by the ,muses     
lies1        ,the ,thracian ,orpheus of 
the golden lyre2      ,whom mighty      
,jove1 the ,sovereign of the skies1     
,removed from earth by his dread        
lightn'ng's fire4    ,v4 ,but they who  
say that philosophy had its rise among  
the barbarians1  give also an account of
 the different systems prevailing among 
the  various tribes4 ,and they say that 
the ,gymnosophists and the ,druids      

philosophize1 delivering their          
apophthegms in enigmatical language1    
bidding men worship the gods and do no  
evil1 and practise manly virtue4        
,,vi4 ,accordingly ,clitarchus1 in his  
twelfth book1 says that the             
,gymnosophists despise death1 and that  
the ,chaldans study astronomy and  the  
science of soothsaying--that the ,magi  
occupy themselves about the  service to 
be paid to the gods1 and about          
sacrifices and prayers1 as  if they were
 the only people to whom the deities    
listen3 and that they  deliver accounts 
of the existence and generation of the  
gods1 saying that  they are fire1 and   
earth1 and water2 and they condemn the  
use of images1  and above all things do 
they condemn those who say that the gods
 are male  and female2 they speak much  
of justice1 and think it impious to     
destroy  the bodies of the dead by fire2
 they allow men to marry their mothers  
or  their daughters1 as ,sotion tells us
 in his twenty-third book2 they study   

the arts of soothsaying and divination1 
and assert that the gods reveal  their  
will to them by those sciences4 ,they   
teach also that the air is  full of     
phantoms1 which1 by emanation and a sort
 of evaporation1 glide  into the sight  
of those who have a clear perception2   
they forbid any  extravagance of        
ornament1 and the use of gold2 their    
garments are white1  their beds are made
 of leaves1 and vegetables are their    
food1 with cheese  and coarse bread2    
they use a rush for a staff1 the top of 
which they run  into the cheese1 and so 
taking up a piece of it they eat it4 ,of
 all kinds  of magical divination they  
are ignorant1 as ,aristotle asserts in  
his book  on ,magic1 and ,dinon in the  
fifth book of his ,histories4 ,and this 
writer  says1 that the name of          
,zoroaster being interpreted means1 a   
sacrifice to  the stars2 and ,hermodorus
 makes the same statement4 ,but         
,aristotle1 in  the first book of his   
,treatise on ,philosophy1 says1 that the

 ,magi are  more ancient than the       
,egyptians2 and that according to them  
there are two  principles1 a good demon 
and an evil demon1 and that the name of 
the one  is ,jupiter or ,oromasdes1 and 
that of the other ,pluto or ,arimanius4 
,and  ,hermippus gives the same account 
in the first book of his ,history of the
  ,magi2 and so does ,eudoxus in his    
,period2 and so does ,theopompus in the 
eighth book of his ,history of the      
,affairs of ,philip2 and this last      
writer  tells us also1 that according to
 the ,magi men will have a resurrection 
and be immortal1 and that what exists   
now will exist hereafter under its  own 
present name2 and ,eudemus of ,rhodes   
coincides in this statement4  ,but      
,hecatus says1 that according to their  
doctrines the gods also are  beings who 
have been born4 ,but ,clearchus the     
,solensian1 in his ,treatise  on        
,education says1 that the ,gymnosophists
 are descendants of the ,magi2  and some
 say that the ,jews also are derived    

from them4 ,moreover1 those  who have   
written on the subject of the ,magi     
condemn ,herodotus2 for they  say that  
,xerxes would never have shot arrows    
against the sun1 or have  put fetters on
 the sea1 as both sun and sea have been 
handed down by the  ,magi as gods1 but  
that it was quite consistent for ,xerxes
 to destroy the  images of the gods4    
,,vii4 ,the following is the account    
that authors give of the philosophy of  
the ,egyptians1 as bearing on the gods  
and on justice4 ,they say that the      
first principle is matter2 then that the
 four elements were formed out  of      
matter and divided1 and that some       
animals were created1 and that the  sun 
and moon are gods1 of whom the former is
 called ,osiris and the latter  ,isis1  
and they are symbolised under the names 
of beetles and dragons1 and  hawks1 and 
other animals1 as ,manetho tells us in  
his abridged account of  ,natural       
,philosophy1 and ,hecatus confirms the  
statement in the first book  of his     

,history of the ,philosophy of the      
,egyptians4 ,they also make images  of  
the gods1 and assign them temples       
because they do not know the form of    
,god4 ,they consider that the world had 
a beginning and will have an end1  and  
that it is a sphere2 they think that the
 stars are fire1 and that it  is by a   
combination of them that the things on  
earth are generated2 that  the moon is  
eclipsed when it falls into the shadow  
of the earth2 that the  soul is eternal 
and migratory2 that rain is caused by   
the changes of the  atmosphere2 and they
 enter into other speculations on points
 of natural  history1 as ,hecatus and   
,aristagoras inform us4    ,they also   
have made laws about justice1 which they
 attribute to ,mercury1  and they       
consider those animals which are useful 
to be gods4 ,they claim  to themselves  
the merit of having been the inventors  
of geometry1 and  astrology1 and        
arithmetic4 ,so much then for the       
subject of invention4    ,,viii4 ,but   

,pythagoras was the first person who    
invented the term  ,philosophy1 and who 
called himself a philosopher2 when he   
was conversing  at ,sicyon with ,leon1  
who was tyrant of the ,sicyonians or of 
the  ,phliasians 7as ,heraclides        
,ponticus relates in the book which he  
wrote  about a dead woman72 for he said 
that no man ought to be called wise1    
but only ,god4 ,for formerly what is now
 called philosophy 77 was  called wisdom
 771 and they who professed it were     
called wise men  771 as being endowed   
with great acuteness and accuracy of    
mind2 but  now he who embraces wisdom is
 called a philosopher 774    ,but the   
wise men were also called ,sophists4    
,and not only they1 but poets  also were
 called ,sophists3 as ,cratinus in his  
,archilochi calls ,homer and  ,hesiod1  
while praising them highly4    ,,ix4    
,now these were they who were accounted 
wise men4 ,thales1 ,solon1  ,periander1 
,cleobulus1 ,chilo1 ,bias1 ,pittacus4   
,to these men add ,anacharsis  the      

,scythian1 ,myson the ,chenean1         
,pherecydes the ,syrian1 and ,epimenides
  the ,cretan2 and some add1            
,pisistratus1 the tyrant3 ,these then   
are they  who were called the wise men4 
,x4 ,but of ,philosophy there arose two 
schools4 ,one derived from              
,anaximander1 the other from            
,pythagoras4 ,now1 ,thales had been the 
preceptor of ,anaximander1 and          
,pherecydes of ,pythagoras4 ,and the one
  school was called the ,ionian1 because
 ,thales1 being an ,ionian 7for he  was 
a native of ,miletus71 had been the     
tutor of ,anaximander2--but the  other  
was called the ,italian from            
,pythagoras1 because he spent the chief 
part of his life in ,italy4 ,and the    
,ionic school ends with ,clitomachus1   
and ,chrysippus1 and ,theophrastus2 and 
the ,italian one with ,epicurus2 for    
,anaximander succeeded ,thales1 and he  
was succeeded again by ,anaximenes1  and
 he by ,anaxagoras1 and he by           
,archelaus1 who was the master of       

,socrates1 who was the originator of    
moral philosophy4 ,and he was the       
master of the sect of the ,socratic     
philosophers1 and of ,plato1 who was    
the founder of the old ,academy2 and    
,plato's pupils were ,speusippus and    
,xenocrates2 and ,polemo was the pupil  
of ,xenocrates1 and ,crantor and        
,crates of ,polemo4 ,crates again was   
the master of ,arcesilaus1 the founder  
of the ,middle ,academy1 and his pupil  
was ,lacydes1 who gave the new  ,academy
 its distinctive principles4 ,his pupil 
was ,carneades1 and he in  his turn was 
the master of ,clitomachus4 ,and this   
school ends in this way  with           
,clitomachus and ,chrysippus4           
,antisthenes was the pupil of ,socrates1
 and the master of ,diogenes the        
,cynic2 and the pupil of ,diogenes was  
,crates the ,theban2 ,zeno the ,cittian 
was his2 ,cleanthes was his2 ,chrysippus
 was his4 ,again it ends with           
,theophrastus in the following manner3--
    ,aristotle was the pupil of ,plato1 

,theophrastus the pupil of ,aristotle2  
and in this way the ,ionian school comes
 to an end4    ,now the ,italian school 
was carried on in this way4 ,pythagoras 
was the  pupil of ,pherecydes2 his pupil
 was ,telauges his son2 he was the      
master  of ,xenophanes1 and he of       
,parmenides2 ,parmenides of ,zeno the   
,eleatic1  he of ,leucippus1 he of      
,democritus3 ,democritus had many       
disciples1 the  most eminent of whom    
were ,nausiphanes and ,nausicydes1 and  
they were the  masters of ,epicurus4    
,,xi4 ,now1 of ,philosophers some were  
dogmatic1 and others were inclined  to  
suspend their opinions4 ,by dogmatic1 ,i
 mean those who explain their  opinions 
about matters1 as if they could be      
comprehended4 ,by those who  suspend    
their opinions1 ,i mean those who give  
no positive judgment1  thinking that    
these things cannot be comprehended4    
,and the former class  have left many   
memorials of themselves2 but the others 
have never written  a line2 as for      

instance1 according to some people1     
,socrates1 and ,stilpo1  and ,philippus1
 and ,menedemus1 and ,pyrrho1 and       
,theodorus1 and ,carneades1  and        
,bryson2 and1 as some people say1       
,pythagoras1 and ,aristo of ,chios1     
except that he wrote a few letters4     
,there are some men too who have        
written one work only1 ,melissus1       
,parmenides1 and ,anaxagoras2 but ,zeno 
wrote many works1 ,xenophanes still     
more2 ,democritus more1 ,aristotle more1
  ,epicurus more1 and ,chrysippus more4 
,,xii4 ,again1 of philosophers some     
derived a surname from cities1 as1 the  
,elians1 and ,megaric sect1 the         
,eretrians1 and the ,cyrenaics4 ,some   
from  the places which they frequented1 
as the ,academics and ,stoics4 ,some    
from accidental circumstances1 as the   
,peripatetics2 or1 from jests1 as  the  
,cynics4 ,some again from their         
dispositions1 as the ,eudmonics2 some   
from an opinion1 as the ,elenctic1 and  
,analogical schools4 ,some from  their  

masters1 as the ,socratic and ,epicurean
 philosophers2 and so on4  ,the ,natural
 ,philosophers were so called from their
 study of nature2 the  ,ethical         
philosophers from their investigation of
 questions of morals  7  74 ,the        
,dialecticians are they who devote      
themselves to  quibbling on words4      
,,xiii4 ,now there are three divisions  
of philosophy4 ,natural1 ,ethical1 and  
,dialectic4 ,natural philosophy occupies
 itself about the world and the  things 
in it2 ,ethical philosophy about life1  
and the things which concern  us2       
,dialectics are conversant with the     
arguments by which both the others  are 
supported4    ,natural philosophy       
prevailed till the time of ,archelaus2  
but after the  time of ,socrates1       
,ethical philosophy was predominant2 and
 after the time  of ,zeno the ,eleatic1 
,dialectic philosophy got the upper     
hand4    ,ethical philosophy was        
subdivided into ten sects2 the          
,academic1 the  ,cyrenaic1 the ,elian1  

the ,megaric1 the ,cynic1 the ,eretrian1
 the ,dialectic1  the ,peripatetic1 the 
,stoic1 and the ,epicurean4 ,of the old 
,academic school  ,plato was the        
president2 of the middle1 ,arcesilaus2  
and of the ,new1  ,lacydes3--the        
,cyrenaic school was founded by         
,aristippus the ,cyrenian2 the  ,elian1 
by ,phdo1 of ,elis2 the ,megaric1 by    
,euclid1 of ,megara2 the ,cynic1  by    
,antisthenes1 the ,athenian2 the        
,eretrian1 by ,menedemus1 of ,eretria2  
the ,dialectic by ,clitomachus1 the     
,carthaginian2 the ,peripatetic1 by     
,aristotle1 the ,stagirite2 the ,stoic1 
by ,zeno1 the ,cittian2 the ,epicurean  
school derives its name from ,epicurus1 
its founder4    ,but ,hippobotus1 in his
 ,treatise on ,sects1 says that there   
are nine sects  and schools3 first1 the 
,megaric2 secondly1 the ,eretrian2      
thirdly1 the  ,cyrenaic2 fourthly1 the  
,epicurean2 fifthly1 the ,annicerean2   
sixthly1 the  ,theodorean2 seventhly1   
the sect of ,zeno and the ,stoics2      

eighthly1 that  of the ,old ,academy2   
and ninthly1 the ,peripatetic2--not     
counting either  the ,cynic1 or the     
,eliac1 or the ,dialectic school4 ,that 
also which is  called the ,pyrrhonean is
 repudiated by many writers1 on account 
of the  obscurity of its principles4    
,but others consider that in some       
particulars  it is a distinct sect1 and 
in others not4 ,for it does appear to be
 a  sect--for what we call a sect1 say  
they1 is one which follows1 or appears  
to follow1 a principle which appears to 
it to be the true one2 on which         
principle we correctly call the         
,sceptics a sect4 ,but if by the name   
sect  we understand those who incline to
 rules which are consistent with the    
principles which they profess1 then the 
,pyrrhonean cannot be called a  sect1   
for they have no rules or principles4   
,these1 then1 are the beginnings1 these 
are the successive masters1 these  are  
the divisions1 and schools of           
philosophy4    ,,xiv4 ,moreover1 it is  

not long ago1 that a new ,eclectic      
school was set  up by ,potamo1 of       
,alexandria1 who picked out of the      
doctrines of each  school what pleased  
him most4 ,and as he himself says1 in   
his ,elementary  ,instruction1 he thinks
 that there are certain criteria of     
truth3 first  of all the faculty which  
judges1 and this is the superior one2   
the  other that which is the foundation 
of the judgment1 being a most exact     
appearance of the objects4 ,and the     
first principles of everything he  calls
 matter1 and the agent1 and the quality1
 and the place4 ,for they  show out of  
what1 and by what1 and how1 and where   
anything is done4 ,the  end is that to  
which everything is referred2 namely1 a 
life made perfect  with every virtue1   
not without the natural and external    
qualities of the  body4    ,but we must 
now speak of the men themselves2 and    
first of all about  ,thales4      ,,life
 ,,of ,,thales4    ,i4 ,thales1 then1 as
 ,herodotus and ,duris and ,democritus  

say1 was the  son of ,euxamius and      
,cleobule2 of the family of the ,thelid1
 who are  ,phnicians by descent1 among  
the most noble of all the descendants of
  ,cadmus and ,agenor1 as ,plato        
testifies4 ,and he was the first man to 
whom  the name of ,wise was given1 when 
,damasius was ,archon at ,athens1 in    
whose  time also the seven wise men had 
that title given to them1 as ,demetrius 
,phalereus records in his ,catalogue of 
the ,archons4 ,he was enrolled as  a    
citizen at ,miletus when he came thither
 with ,neleus1 who had been  banished   
from ,phnicia2 but a more common        
statement is that he was a  native      
,milesian1 of noble extraction4    ,,ii4
 ,after having been immersed in state   
affairs he applied himself to           
speculations in natural philosophy2     
though1 as some people state1 he  left  
no writings behind him4 ,for the book on
 ,naval ,astronomy1 which is  attributed
 to him is said in reality to be the    
work of ,phocus the ,samian4  ,but      

,callimachus was aware that he was the  
discoverer of the ,lesser ,bear2  for in
 his ,iambics he speaks of him thus3    
,and1 he1 'tis said1 did first compute  
the stars      ,which beam in ,charles's
 wain1 and guide the bark      ,of the  
,phnician sailor o'er the sea4          
,according to others he wrote two books1
 and no more1 about the solstice  and   
the equinox2 thinking that everything   
else was easily to be  comprehended4    
,according to other statements1 he is   
said to have been the  first who studied
 astronomy1 and who foretold the        
eclipses and motions  of the sun1 as    
,eudemus relates in his history of the  
discoveries made in  astronomy2 on which
 account ,xenophanes and ,herodotus     
praise him greatly2  and ,heraclitus and
 ,democritus confirm this statement4    
,,iii4 ,some again 7one of whom is      
,chrilus the poet7 say that he was the  
first person who affirmed that the souls
 of men were immortal2 and he was  the  
first person1 too1 who discovered the   

path of the sun from one end  of the    
ecliptic to the other3 and who1 as one  
account tells us1 defined  the magnitude
 of the sun as being seven hundred and  
twenty times as great  as that of the   
moon4 ,he was also the first person who 
called the last  day of the month the   
thirtieth4 ,and likewise the first to   
converse about  natural philosophy1 as  
some say4 ,but ,aristotle and ,hippias  
say that he  attributed souls also to   
lifeless things1 forming his conjecture 
from the  nature of the magnet1 and of  
amber4 ,and ,pamphile relates that he1  
having  learnt geometry from the        
,egyptians1 was the first person to     
describe a  right-angled triangle in a  
circle1 and that he sacrificed an ox in 
honour  of his discovery4 ,but others1  
among whom is ,apollodorus the          
calculator1  say that it was ,pythagoras
 who made this discovery4 ,it was       
,thales also  who carried to their      
greatest point of advancement the       
discoveries which  ,callimachus in his  

iambics says were first made by         
,euphebus the ,phrygian1  such as those 
of the scalene angle1 and of the        
triangle1 and of other  things which    
relate to investigations about lines4   
,he seems also to have  been a man of   
the greatest wisdom in political        
matters4 ,for when ,crsus  sent to the  
,milesians to invite them to an         
alliance1 he prevented them  from       
agreeing to it1 which step of his1 as   
,cyrus got the victory1 proved  the     
salvation of the city4 ,but ,clytus     
relates1 as ,heraclides assures us1     
that he was attached to a solitary and  
recluse life4    ,,iv4 ,some assert that
 he was married1 and that he had a son  
named  ,cibissus2 others1 on the        
contrary1 say that he never had a wife1 
but that  he adopted the son of his     
sister2 and that once being asked why he
 did  not himself become a father1 he   
answered1 that it was because he was    
fond  of children4 ,they say1 too1 that 
when his mother exhorted him to marry1  

he said1 8,no1 by ,jove1 it is not yet  
time40 ,and afterwards1 when he was     
past his youth1 and she was again       
pressing him earnestly1 he said1 8,it is
  no longer time40    ,v4 ,hieronymus1  
of ,rhodes1 also tells us1 in the second
 book of his  ,miscellaneous ,memoranda1
 that when he was desirous to show that 
it was  easy to get rich1 he1 foreseeing
 that there would be a great crop of    
olives1 took some large plantations of  
olive trees1 and so made a great  deal  
of money4    ,,vi4 ,he asserted water to
 be the principle of all things1 and    
that the  world had life1 and was full  
of dmons3 they say1 too1 that he was the
  original definer of the seasons of the
 year1 and that it was he who  divided  
the year into three hundred and         
sixty-five days4 ,and he never had  any 
teacher except during the time that he  
went to ,egypt1 and associated  with the
 priests4 ,hieronymus also says that he 
measured the ,pyramids3  watching their 
shadow1 and calculating when they were  

of the same size  as that was4 ,he lived
 with ,thrasybulus the tyrant of        
,miletus1 as we are  informed by        
,minyas4    ,,vii4 ,now it is known to  
every one what happened with respect to 
the  tripod that was found by the       
fishermen and sent to the wise men by   
the  people of the ,milesians4 ,for they
 say that some ,ionian youths bought a  
cast of their net from some ,milesian   
fishermen4 ,and when the tripod was     
drawn up in the net there was a dispute 
about it2 until the ,milesians  sent to 
,delphi3 and the ,god gave them the     
following answer3--        ,you ask     
about the tripod1 to whom you shall     
present it2      ',tis for the wisest1  
,i reply1 that fortune surely meant it4 
,accordingly they gave it to ,thales1   
and he gave it to some one1 who again   
handed it over to another1 till it came 
to ,solon4 ,but he said that it  was the
 ,god himself who was the first in      
wisdom2 and so he sent it to  ,delphi4  
,but ,callimachus gives a different     

account of this in his ,iambics1  taking
 the tradition which he mentions from   
,leander the ,milesian2 for he  says    
that a certain ,arcadian of the name of 
,bathycles1 when dying1 left a  goblet  
behind him with an injunction that it   
should be given to the first  of the    
wise men4 ,and it was given to ,thales1 
and went the whole circle  till it came 
back to ,thales1 on which he sent it to 
,apollo ,didymus1  adding 7according to 
,callimachus17 the following distich3-- 
,thales1 who's twice received me as a   
prize1      ,gives me to him who rules  
the race of ,neleus4    ,and the prose  
inscription runs thus3--        ,thales 
the son of ,examius1 a ,milesian1 offers
 this to ,apollo      ,didymus1 having  
twice received it from the ,greeks as   
the      reward for virtue4    ,and the 
name of the son of ,bathycles who       
carried the goblet about from  one to   
the other1 was ,thyrion1 as ,eleusis    
tells us in his ,history of  ,achilles4 
,and ,alexander the ,myndian agrees with

 him in the ninth book of  his          
,traditions4 ,but ,eudoxus of ,cnidos1  
and ,evanthes of ,miletus1 say that  one
 of the friends of ,crsus received from 
the king a golden goblet1 for  the      
purpose of giving it to the wisest of   
the ,greeks2 and that he gave  it to    
,thales1 and that it came round to      
,chilo1 and that he inquired of  the    
,god at ,delphi who was wiser than      
himself2 and that the ,god replied1     
,myson1 whom we shall mention hereafter4
 7,he is the man whom ,eudoxus  places  
among the seven wise men instead of     
,cleobulus2 but ,plato inserts  his name
 instead of ,periander47 ,the ,god      
accordingly made this reply  concerning 
him3--        ,i say that ,myson1 the   
tan sage1      ,the citizen of ,chen1 is
 wiser far      ,in his deep mind than  
you4    ,the person who went to the     
temple to ask the question was          
,anacharsis2 but  again ,ddacus1 the    
,platonic philosopher1 and ,clearchus1  
state that the  goblet was sent by      

,crsus to ,pittacus1 and so was carried 
round to the  different men4 ,but       
,andron1 in his book called ,the        
,tripod1 says that the  ,argives offered
 the tripod as a prize for excellence to
 the wisest of the  ,greeks2 and that   
,aristodemus1 a ,spartan1 was judged to 
deserve it1 but  that he yielded the    
palm to ,chilo2 and ,alcus mentions     
,aristodemus in  these lines3--         
,and so they say ,aristodemus once      
,uttered a truthful speech in noble     
,sparta3      ',tis money makes the man2
 and he who's none1      ,is counted    
neither good nor honourable4    ,but    
some say that a vessel fully loaded was 
sent by ,periander to  ,thrasybulus the 
tyrant of the ,milesians2 and that as   
the ship was wrecked  in the sea1 near  
the island of ,cos1 this tripod was     
afterwards found  by some fishermen4    
,phanodicus says that it was found in   
the sea near  ,athens1 and so brought   
into the city2 and then1 after an       
assembly had  been held to decide on the

 disposal1 it was sent to ,bias--and the
 reason  why we will mention in our     
account of ,bias4 ,others say that this 
goblet  had been made by ,vulcan1 and   
presented by the ,gods to ,pelops1 on   
his  marriage2 and that subsequently it 
came into the possession of ,menelaus1  
and was taken away by ,paris when he    
carried off ,helen1 and was thrown  into
 the sea near ,cos by her1 as she said  
that it would become a cause  of battle4
 ,and after some time1 some of the      
citizens of ,lebedos having  bought a   
net1 this tripod was brought up in it2  
and as they quarrelled  with the        
fishermen about it1 they went to ,cos2  
and not being able to get  the matter   
settled there1 they laid it before the  
,milesians1 as ,miletus  was their      
metropolis2 and they sent ambassadors1  
who were treated with  neglect1 on which
 account they made war on the ,coans2   
and after each side  had met with many  
revolutions of fortune1 an oracle       
directed that the  tripod should be     

given to the wisest2 and then both      
parties agreed that  it belonged to     
,thales3 and he1 after it had gone the  
circuit of all the  wise men1 presented 
it to the ,didyman ,apollo4 ,now1 the   
assignation of  the oracle was given to 
the ,coans in the following words3--    
,the war between the brave ,ionian race 
,and the proud ,meropes will never      
cease1      ,till the rich golden tripod
 which the ,god1      ,its maker1 cast  
beneath the briny waves1      ,is from  
your city sent1 and justly given        
,to that wise being who knows all       
present things1      ,and all that's    
past1 and all that is to come4    ,and  
the reply given to the ,milesians was-- 
,you ask about the tripod3    and so on1
 as ,i have related it before4 ,and now 
we have said enough on  this subject4   
,but ,hermippus1 in his ,lives1 refers  
to ,thales what has been by some  people
 reported of ,socrates2 for he recites  
that he used to say that he  thanked    
fortune for three things3--first of all1

 that he had been born a  man and not a 
beast2 secondly1 that he was a man and  
not a woman2 and  thirdly1 that he was a
 ,greek and not a barbarian4    ,,viii4 
,it is said that once he was led out of 
his house by an old woman  for the      
purpose of observing the stars1 and he  
fell into a ditch and  bewailed himself1
 on which the old woman said to         
him--8,do you1 ,o ,thales1  who cannot  
see what is under your feet1 think that 
you shall understand  what is in        
heaven80 ,timon also knew that he was an
 astronomer1 and in his  ,silli he      
praises him1 saying3--        ,like     
,thales1 wisest of the seven sages1     
,that great astronomer4    ,and ,lobon  
of ,argos1 says1 that which was written 
by him extends to about  two hundred    
verses2 and that the following          
inscription is engraved upon  his       
statue3--        ,miletus1 fairest of   
,ionian cities1      ,gave birth to     
,thales1 great astronomer1      ,wisest 
of mortals in all kinds of knowledge4   

,,ix4 ,and these are quoted as some of  
his lines3--        ,it is not many     
words that real wisdom proves2          
,breathe rather one wise thought1       
,select one worthy object1      ,so     
shall you best the endless prate of     
silly men reprove4--    ,and the        
following are quoted as sayings of      
his3--8,god is the most ancient  of all 
things1 for he had no birth3 the world  
is the most beautiful of  things1 for it
 is the work of ,god3 place is the      
greatest of things1 for  it contains all
 things3 intellect is the swiftest of   
things1 for it runs  through everything3
 necessity is the strongest of things1  
for it rules  everything3 time is the   
wisest of things1 for it finds out      
everything40    ,he said also that there
 was no difference between life and     
death4 8,why1  then10 said some one to  
him1 8do not you die80 8,because10 said 
he1 8it  does make no difference40 ,a   
man asked him which was made first1     
night or  day1 and he replied1 8,night  

was made first by one day40 ,another man
 asked  him whether a man who did wrong1
 could escape the notice of the ,gods4  
8,no1 not even if he thinks wrong10 said
 he4 ,an adulterer inquired of him      
whether he should swear that he had not 
committed adultery4 8,perjury10  said   
he1 8is no worse than adultery40 ,when  
he was asked what was very  difficult1  
he said1 8,to know one's self40 ,and    
what was easy1 8,to advise  another40   
,what was most pleasant8 8,to be        
successful40 ,to the question1  8,what  
is the divinity80 he replied1 8,that    
which has neither beginning  nor end40  
,when asked what hard thing he had seen1
 he said1 8,an old man  a tyrant40 ,when
 the question was put to him how a man  
might most easily  endure misfortune1 he
 said1 8,if he saw his enemies more     
unfortunate  still40 ,when asked how men
 might live most virtuously and most    
justly1  he said1 8,if we never do      
ourselves what we blame in others40 ,to 
the  question1 8,who was happy80 he made

 answer4 8,he who is healthy in his     
body1 easy in his circumstances1 and    
well-instructed as to his mind40 ,he    
said that men ought to remember those   
friends who were absent as well as      
those who were present1 and not to care 
about adorning their faces1 but  to be  
beautified by their studies4 8,do not10 
said he1 8get rich by evil  actions1 and
 let not any one ever be able to        
reproach you with speaking  against     
those who partake of your friendship4   
,all the assistance that  you give to   
your parents1 the same you have a right 
to expect from your  children40 ,he said
 that the reason of the ,nile           
overflowing was1 that  its streams were 
beaten back by the ,etesian winds       
blowing in a contrary  direction4    ,x4
 ,apollodorus1 in his ,chronicles1 says1
 that ,thales was born in the  first    
year of the thirty-fifth ,olympiad2 and 
he died at the age of  seventy-eight    
years1 or according to the statement of 
,sosicrates1 at the  age of ninety1 for 

he died in the fifty-eighth ,olympiad1  
having lived in  the time of ,crsus1 to 
whom he promised that he would enable   
him to pass  the ,halys without a       
bridge1 by turning the course of the    
river4    ,,xi4 ,there have also been   
other men of the name of ,thales1 as    
,demetrius  of ,magnesia says1 in his   
,treatise on ,people and ,things of the 
same name2  of whom five are            
particularly mentioned1 an orator of    
,calatia of a very  affected style of   
eloquence2 a painter of ,sicyon1 a great
 man2 the third  was one who lived in   
very ancient times1 in the age of ,homer
 and ,hesiod  and ,lycurgus2 the fourth 
is a man who is mentioned by ,duris in  
his work  on ,painting2 the fifth is a  
more modern person1 of no great         
reputation1  who is mentioned by        
,dionysius in his ,criticisms4    ,,xii4
 ,but this wise ,thales died while      
present as a spectator at a  gymnastic  
contest1 being worn out with heat and   
thirst and weakness1 for  he was very   

old1 and the following inscription was  
placed on his tomb3--        ,you see   
this tomb is small--but recollect1      
,the fame of ,thales reaches to the     
skies4    ,i have also myself composed  
this epigram on him in the first book of
 my  epigrams or poems in various       
metres3--        ,o mighty sun1 our     
wisest ,thales sat        ,spectator of 
the games1 when you did seize upon him2 
,but you were right to take him near    
yourself1        ,now that his aged     
sight could scarcely reach to heaven4   
,,xiii4 ,the apophthegm1 8know          
yourself40 is his2 though ,antisthenes  
in  his ,successions1 says that it      
belongs to ,phemonoe1 but that ,chilo   
appropriated it as his own4    ,,xiv4   
,now concerning the seven1 7for it is   
well here to speak of them  all         
together17 the following traditions are 
handed down4 ,damon the  ,cyrenan1 who  
wrote about the philosophers1 reproaches
 them all1 but  most especially the     
seven4 ,and ,anaximenes says1 that they 

all applied  themselves to poetry4 ,but 
,dicarchus says1 that they were neither 
wise  men nor philosophers1 but merely  
shrewd men1 who had studied legislation4
  ,and ,archetimus1 the ,syracusian1    
wrote an account of their having a      
meeting at the palace of ,cypselus1 at  
which he says that he himself was       
present4 ,ephorus says that they all    
except ,thales met at the court of      
,crsus4 ,and some say that they also met
 at the ,pandionium1#h and at  ,corinth1
 and at ,delphi4 ,there is a good deal  
of disagreement between  different      
writers with respect to their           
apophthegms1 as the same one is         
attributed by them to various authors4  
,for instance there is the epigram3--   
,chilo1 the ,spartan sage1 this sentence
 said3      ,seek no excess--all timely 
things are good4    ,there is also a    
difference of opinion with respect to   
their number4  ,leander inserts in the  
number instead of ,cleobulus and ,myson1
 ,leophantus  ,gorsias1 a native of     

either ,lebedos or ,ephesus2 and        
,epimenides1 the  ,cretan2 ,plato1 in   
his ,protagoras1 reckons ,myson among   
them instead  of ,periander4 ,and       
,ephorus mentions ,anacharsis in the    
place of ,myson2  some also add         
,pythagoras to the number4 ,dicarchus   
speaks of four1 as  universally agreed  
upon1 ,thales1 ,bias1 ,pittacus1 and    
,solon2 and then  enumerates six more1  
of whom we are to select three1 namely1 
,aristodemus1  ,pamphilus1 ,chilo the   
,lacedmonian1 ,cleobulus1 ,anacharsis1  
and ,periander4  ,some add ,acusilaus of
 ,argos1 the son of ,cabas1 or ,scabras4
 ,but ,hermippus1  in his ,treatise on  
the ,wise ,men says that there were     
altogether  seventeen1 out of whom      
different authors selected different    
individuals  to make up the seven4      
,these seventeen were ,solon1 ,thales1  
,pittacus1 ,bias1  ,chilo1 ,myson1      
,cleobulus1 ,periander1 ,anacharsis1    
,acusilaus1 ,epimenides1  ,leophantus1  
,pherecydes1 ,aristodemus1 ,pythagoras1 

,lasus the son of  ,charmantides1 or    
,sisymbrinus1 or as ,aristoxenus calls  
him the son of  ,chabrinus1 a citizen of
 ,hermione1 and ,anaxagoras4 ,but       
,hippobotus in his  ,description of the 
,philosophers enumerates among them     
,orpheus1 ,linus1  ,solon1 ,periander1  
,anacharsis1 ,cleobulus1 ,myson1        
,thales1 ,bias1 ,pittacus1  ,epicharmus1
 and ,pythagoras4    ,,xv4 ,the         
following letters are preserved as      
having been written by ,thales3--       
,,thales ,,to ,,pherecydes4    ,i hear  
that you are disposed1 as no other      
,ionian has been1 to discourse  to the  
,greeks about divine things1 and perhaps
 it will be wiser of you to  reserve for
 your own friends what you write rather 
than to entrust it to  any chance       
people1 without any advantage4 ,if      
therefore it is agreeable to  you1 ,i   
should be glad to become a pupil of     
yours as to the matters about  which you
 write2 and if you invite me ,i will    
come to you to ,syros2 for  ,solon the  

,athenian and ,i must be out of our     
senses if we sailed to ,crete  to       
investigate the history of that country1
 and to ,egypt for the purpose  of      
conferring with the priests and         
astronomers who are to be found there1  
and yet are unwilling to make a voyage  
to you2 for ,solon will come  too1 if   
you will give him leave1 for as you are 
fond of your present  habitation you are
 not likely to come to ,ionia1 nor are  
you desirous of  seeing strangers2 but  
you rather1 as ,i hope1 devote yourself 
wholly to  the occupation of writing4   
,we1 on the other hand1 who write       
nothing1  travel over all ,greece and   
,asia4    ,,thales ,,to ,,solon4        
,,xvi4 ,if you should leave ,athens it  
appears to me that you would find  a    
home at ,miletus among the colonists of 
,athens more suitably than  anywhere    
else1 for here there are no annoyances  
of any kind4 ,and if you  are indignant 
because we ,milesians are governed by a 
tyrant1 7for you  yourself hate all     

despotic rulers71 still at all events   
you will find it  pleasant to live with 
us for your companions4 ,bias has also  
written to  invite you to ,priene1 and  
if you prefer taking up your abode in   
the city  of the ,prieneans1 then we    
ourselves will come thither and settle  
near you4      ,,life ,,of ,,solon4     
,i4 ,solon the son of ,execestides1 a   
native of ,salamis1 was the first       
person who introduced among the         
,athenians1 an ordinance for the        
lowering#i of debts2 for this was the   
name given to the release of the  bodies
 and possessions of the debtors4 ,for   
men used to borrow on the  security of  
their own persons1 and many became      
slaves in consequence of  their         
inability to pay2 and as seven talents  
were owed to him as a part  of his      
paternal inheritance when he succeeded  
to it1 he was the first  person who made
 a composition with his debtors1 and who
 exhorted the  other men who had money  
owing to them to do likewise1 and this  

ordinance  was called 2 and the reason  
why is plain4 ,after that he enacted    
his other laws1 which it would take a   
long time to enumerate2 and he  wrote   
them on wooden revolving tablets4       
,,ii4 ,but what was his most important  
act of all was1 when there had been  a  
great dispute about his native land     
,salamis1 between the ,athenians and    
,megarians1 and when the ,athenians had 
met with many disasters in war1  and had
 passed a decree that if any one        
proposed to the people to go to  war for
 the sake of ,salamis he should be      
punished with death1 he then  pretended 
to be mad and putting on a crown rushed 
into the market place1  and there he    
recited to the ,athenians by the agency 
of a crier1 the  elegies which he had   
composed1 and which were all directed to
 the subject  of ,salamis1 and by these 
means he excited them2 and so they made 
war  again upon the ,megarians and      
conquered them by means of ,solon4 ,and 
the  elegies which had the greatest     

influence on the ,athenians were        
these3--        ,would that ,i were a   
man of ,pholegandros1#aj      ,or small 
,sicinna1#aa rather than of ,athens3    
,for soon this will a common proverb be1
      ,that's an ,athenian who won't    
fight for ,salamis4    ,and another     
was3--        ,let's go and fight for   
lovely ,salamis1      ,and wipe off this
 our present infamy4    ,he also        
persuaded them to take possession of the
 ,thracian ,chersonesus1  and in order  
that it might appear that the ,athenians
 had got possession  of ,salamis not by 
force alone1 but also with justice1 he  
opened some  tombs1 and showed that the 
corpses buried in them were all turned  
towards  the east1 according to the     
,athenian fashion of sepulture2 likewise
 the  tombs themselves all looked east1 
and the titles of the boroughs to which 
the dead belonged were inscribed on     
them1 which was a custom peculiar to    
the ,athenians4 ,some also say that it  
was he who added to the catalogue of    

,homer1 after the lines3--        ,with 
these appear the ,salaminian bands1     
,whom ,telamon's gigantic son commands--
    ,these other verses3--        ,in   
twelve black ships to ,troy they steer  
their course1      ,and with the great  
,athenians join their force4#ab         
,,iii4 ,and ever after this time the    
people was willingly obedient to him1   
and was contented to be governed by him2
 but he did not choose to be  their     
ruler1 and moreover1 as ,sosicrates     
relates1 he1 as far as in him  lay1     
hindered also his relative ,pisistratus 
from being so1 when he saw  that he was 
inclined to such a step4 ,rushing into  
one of the assemblies  armed with a     
spear and shield1 he forewarned the     
people of the design  of ,pisistratus1  
and not only that but told them that he 
was prepared to  assist them2 and these 
were his words3 8,ye men of ,athens1 ,i 
am wiser  than some of you1 and braver  
than others4 ,wiser than those of you   
who do  not perceive the treachery of   

,pisistratus2 and braver than those who 
are  aware of it1 but out of fear hold  
their peace40 ,but the council1 being in
  the interest of ,pisistratus1 said    
that he was mad1 on which he spoke as   
follows3--        ,a short time will to 
all my madness prove1      ,when stern  
reality presents itself4    ,and these  
elegiac verses were written by him about
 the tyranny of  ,pisistratus1 which he 
foretold1        ,fierce snow and hail  
are from the clouds borne down1         
,and thunder after brilliant lightning  
roars2      ,and by its own great men a 
city falls1        ,the ignorant mob    
becoming slaves to kings4    ,,iv4 ,and 
when ,pisistratus had obtained the      
supreme power1 he1 as he would  not     
influence him1 laid down his arms before
 the chief council-house1  and said1 8,o
 my country1 ,i have stood by you in    
word and deed40 ,and then  he sailed    
away to ,egypt1 and ,cyprus1 and came to
 ,crsus4 ,and while at  his court being 
asked by him1 8,who appears to you to be

 happy80#ac ,he  replied1 8,tellus the  
,athenian1 and ,cleobis and ,biton10 and
 enumerated  other commonly spoken of   
instances4 ,but some people say1 that   
once ,crsus  adorned himself in every   
possible manner1 and took his seat upon 
his  throne1 and then asked ,solon      
whether he had ever seen a more         
beautiful  sight4 ,but he said1 8,yes1  
,i have seen cocks and pheasants1 and   
peacocks2  for they are adorned with    
natural colours1 and such as are ten    
thousand  times more beautiful40        
,afterwards leaving ,sardis he went to  
,cilicia1 and  there he founded a city  
which he called ,soli after his own     
name2 and he  placed in it a few        
,athenians as colonists1 who in time    
departed from the  strict use of their  
native language1 and were said to speak 
,solecisms2  and the inhabitants of that
 city are called ,solensians2 but those 
of ,soli  in ,cyprus are called         
,solians4    ,v4 ,and when he learnt    
that ,pisistratus continued to rule in  

,athens as a  tyrant1 he wrote these    
verses on the ,athenians3--        ,if  
through your vices you afflicted are1   
,lay not the blame of your distress on  
,god2      ,you made your rulers mighty1
 gave them guards1        ,so now you   
groan 'neath slavery's heavy rod--      
,each one of you now treads in foxes'   
steps1        ,bearing a weak1          
inconstant1 faithless mind1             
,trusting the tongue and slippery speech
 of man2        ,though in his acts     
alone you truth can find4    ,this1     
then1 he said to them4    ,,vi4 ,but    
,pisistratus1 when he was leaving       
,athens1 wrote him a letter in  the     
following terms3--    ,,pisistratus ,,to
 ,,solon4    ,i am not the only one of  
the ,greeks who has seized the          
sovereignty of  his country1 nor am ,i  
one who had no right whatever to do so1 
since ,i  am of the race of ,codrus2 for
 ,i have only recovered what the        
,athenians  swore that they would give  
to ,codrus and all his family1 and what 

they  afterwards deprived them of4 ,and 
in all other respects ,i sin neither    
against men nor against gods1 but ,i    
allow the ,athenians to live under the  
laws which you established amongst them1
 and they are now living in a  better   
manner than they would if they were     
under a democracy2 for ,i allow  no one 
to behave with violence3 and ,i1 though 
,i am the tyrant1 derive no  other      
advantage beyond my superiority in rank 
and honour1 being content  with the     
fixed honours which belonged to the     
former kings4 ,and every one  of the    
,athenians brings the tithe of his      
possessions1 not to me1 but to  the     
proper place in order that it may be    
devoted to the public sacrifices  of the
 city2 and for any other public         
purposes1 or for any emergencies of  war
 which may arise4    ,but ,i do not     
blame you for laying open my plans1 for 
,i know that you  did so out of regard  
for the city rather than out of dislike 
to me2 and  also because you did not    

know what sort of government ,i was     
about to  establish2 since1 if you had  
been acquainted with it1 you would have 
been  content to live under it and would
 not have fled4 ,now1 therefore1 return 
home again2 believing me even without my
 swearing to you that ,solon shall      
never receive any harm at the hands of  
,pisistratus2 know also that none  of my
 enemies have suffered any evil from me2
 and if you will consent to  be one of  
my friends1 you shall be among the      
first2 for ,i know that there  is no    
treachery or faithlessness in you4 ,or  
if you wish to live at ,athens  in any  
other manner1 you shall be allowed to do
 so2 only do not deprive  yourself of   
your country because of my actions4     
,thus wrote ,pisistratus4    ,,vii4     
,solon also said1 that the limit of     
human life was seventy years1  and he   
appears to have been a most excellent   
lawgiver1 for he enjoined1  8that if any
 one did not support his parents he     
should be accounted  infamous2 and that 

the man who squandered his patrimony    
should be equally  so1 and the inactive 
man was liable to prosecution by any one
 who choose  to impeach him40 ,but      
,lysias1 in his speech against ,nicias1 
says that  ,draco first proposed this   
law1 but that it was ,solon who enacted 
it4 ,he  also prohibited all who lived  
in debauchery from ascending the        
tribunal2  and he diminished the honours
 paid to ,athletes who were victorious  
in  the games1 fixing the prize for a   
victor at ,olympia at five hundred      
drachm1#ad and for one who conquered at 
the ,isthmian games at one  hundred2 and
 in the same proportion did he fix the  
prizes for the other  games1 for he     
said1 that it was absurd to give such   
great honours to  those men as ought to 
be reserved for those only who died in  
the wars2  and their sons he ordered to 
be educated and bred up at the public   
expense4 ,and owing to this             
encouragement1 the ,athenians behave    
themselves  nobly and valiantly in war2 

as for instance1 ,polyzelus1 and        
,cyngirus1  and ,callimachus1 and all   
the soldiers who fought at ,marathon1   
and  ,harmodius1 and ,aristogiton1 and  
,miltiades1 and numberless other heroes4
    ,but as for the ,athletes1 their    
training is very expensive1 and their   
victories injurious1 and they are       
crowned rather as conquerors of their   
country than of their antagonists1 and  
when they become old1 as ,euripides     
says3--        ,they're like old cloaks 
worn to the very woof4    ,,ix4 ,so     
,solon1 appreciating these facts1       
treated them with moderation4  ,this    
also was an admirable regulation of his1
 that a guardian of orphans  should not 
live with their mother1 and that no one 
should be appointed a  guardian1 to whom
 the orphans' property would come if    
they died4 ,another  excellent law was1 
that a seal engraver might not keep an  
impression of  any ring which had been  
sold by him1 and that if a person struck
 out the  eye of a man who had but one1 

he should lose both his own1 and that no
  one should claim what he had not      
deposited1 otherwise death should be his
  punishment4 ,if an archon was detected
 being drunk1 that too was a capital    
crime4 ,and he compiled the poems of    
,homer1 so that they might be recited   
by different bards1 taking the cue from 
one another1 so that where one  had left
 off the next one might take him up1 so 
that it was ,solon rather  than         
,pisistratus who brought ,homer to      
light1 as ,dieuchidas says1 in the      
fifth book of his ,history of ,megara1  
and the most celebrated of his  verses  
were3--        ,full fifty more from    
,athens stem the main4    ,and the rest 
of that passage--8,and ,solon was the   
first person who called  the thirtieth  
day of the month   40#ae ,he was the    
first person  also who assembled the    
nine archons together to deliver their  
opinions1  as ,apollodorus tells us in  
the second book of his ,treatise on     
,lawgivers4  ,and once1 when there was a

 sedition in the city1 he took part     
neither  with the citizens1 nor with the
 inhabitants of the plain1 nor with the 
men of the sea-coast4    ,x4 ,he used to
 say1 too1 that speech was the image of 
actions1 and that  the king was the     
mightiest man as to his power2 but that 
laws were like  cobwebs--for that if any
 trifling or powerless thing fell into  
them1  they held it fast2 but if a thing
 of any size fell into them1 it broke   
the meshes and escaped4 ,he used also to
 say that discourse ought to be  sealed 
by silence1 and silence by opportunity4 
,it was also a saying of  his1 that     
those who had influence with tyrants1   
were like the pebbles  which are used in
 making calculations2 for that every one
 of those  pebbles were sometimes worth 
more1 and sometimes less1 and so that   
the  tyrants sometimes made each of     
these men of consequence1 and sometimes 
neglected them4 ,being asked why he had 
made no law concerning parricides1  he  
made answer1 that he did not expect that

 any such person would exist4  ,when he 
was asked how men could be most         
effectually deterred from  committing   
injustice1 he said1 8,if those who are  
not injured feel as  much indignation as
 those who are40 ,another apophthegm of 
his was1 that  satiety was generated by 
wealth1 and insolence by satiety4       
,,xi4 ,he it was who taught the         
,athenians to regulate their days by the
  course of the moon2 and he also       
forbade ,thespis to perform and         
represent  his tragedies1 on the ground 
of falsehood being unprofitable2 and    
when  ,pisistratus wounded himself1 he  
said it all came of ,thespis's          
tragedies4    ,,xii4 ,he gave the       
following advice1 as is recorded by     
,apollodorus in  his ,treatise on the   
,sects of ,philosophers3--8,consider    
your honour1 as  a gentleman1 of more   
weight than an oath4--,never speak      
falsely4--,pay  attention to matters of 
importance4--,be not hasty in making    
friends2 and  do not cast off those whom

 you have made4--,rule1 after you have  
first  learnt to submit to              
rule4--,advise not what is most         
agreeable1 but what is  best4--,make    
reason your guide4--,do not associate   
with the wicked4--,honour  the gods2    
respect your parents40    ,,xiii4 ,they 
say also that when ,mimnermus had       
written3--        ,happy's the man who  
'scapes disease and care1      ,and dies
 contented in his sixtieth year         
,solon rebuked him1 and said3--         
,be guided now by me1 erase this verse1 
,nor envy me if ,i'm more wise than you4
      ,if you write thus1 your wish     
would not be worse1        ,may ,i be   
eighty ere death lays me low4    ,the   
following are some lines out of his     
poems3--        ,watch well each        
separate citizen1      ,lest having in  
his heart of hearts      ,a secret      
spear1 one still may come      ,saluting
 you with cheerful face1      ,and utter
 with a double tongue      ,the feigned 
good wishes of his wary mind4    ,as for

 his having made laws1 that is          
notorious2 he also composed speeches  to
 the people1 and a book of suggestions  
to himself1 and some elegiac  poems1 and
 five thousand verses about ,salamis and
 the constitution of the  ,athenians2   
and some iambics and epodes4    ,,xv4   
,and on his statue is the following     
inscription--        ,salamis that      
checked the ,persian insolence1         
,brought forth this holy lawgiver1 wise 
,solon4    ,he flourished about the     
forty-sixth ,olympiad1 in the third year
 of which  he was archon at ,athens1 as 
,sosicrates records2 and it was in this 
year  that he enacted his laws2 and he  
died in ,cyprus1 after he had lived     
eighty years1 having given charge to his
 relations to carry his bones to        
,salamis1 and there to burn them to     
ashes1 and to scatter the ashes on the  
ground4 ,in reference to which ,cratinus
 in his ,chiron represents him as       
speaking thus3--        ,and as men say1
 ,i still this isle inhabit1      ,sown 

o'er the whole of ,ajax' famous city4   
,there is also an epigram in the before 
mentioned collection of poems1 in       
various metres1 in which ,i have made a 
collection of notices of all the        
illustrious men that have ever died1 in 
every kind of metre and rhythm1  in     
epigrams and odes4 ,and it runs thus3-- 
,the ,cyprian flame devour'd great      
,solon's corpse        ,far in a foreign
 land2 but ,salamis      ,retains his   
bones1 whose dust is turned to corn4    
,the tablets of his laws do bear aloft  
,his mind to heaven4 ,such a burden     
light        ,are these immortal rules  
to th' happy wood4    ,,xvi4 ,he also1  
as some say1 was the author of the      
apophthegm--8,seek  excess in nothing40 
,and ,dioscorides1 in his ,commentaries1
 says1 that1  when he was lamenting his 
son1 who was dead 7with whose name ,i am
 not  acquainted71 and when some one    
said to him1 8,you do no good by        
weeping10  he replied1 8,but that is the
 very reason why ,i weep1 because ,i do 

no  good40    ,,xvii4 ,the following    
letters also are attributed to him3--   
,,solon ,,to ,,periander4    ,you send  
me word that many people are plotting   
against you2 but if you  were to think  
of putting everyone of them out of the  
way1 you would do  no good2 but some one
 whom you do not suspect would still    
plot against  you1 partly because he    
would fear for himself1 and partly out  
of dislike  to you for fearing all sorts
 of things2 and he would think1 too1    
that he  would make the city grateful to
 him1 even if you were not suspected4   
,it  is better1 therefore1 to abstain   
from the tyranny1 in order to escape    
from blame4 ,but if you absolutely must 
be a tyrant1 then you had better        
provide for having a foreign force in   
the city superior to that of the        
citizens2 and then no one need be       
formidable to you1 nor need you put any 
one out of the way4    ,,solon ,,to     
,,epimenides4    ,,xviii4 ,my laws were 
not destined to be long of service to   

the ,athenians1  nor have you done any  
great good by purifying the city4 ,for  
neither  can the ,deity nor lawgivers do
 much good to cities by themselves2 but 
these people rather give this power1    
who1 from time to time1 can lead  the   
people in any opinions they choose2 so  
also the ,deity and the laws1  when the 
citizens are well governed1 are useful2 
but when they are ill  governed1 they   
are no good4 ,nor are my laws or all the
 enactments that  ,i made1 any better2  
but those who were in power transgressed
 them1 and  did great injury to the     
commonwealth1 inasmuch as they did not  
hinder  ,pisistratus from usurping the  
tyranny4 ,nor did they believe me when  
,i  gave them warning beforehand4 ,but  
he obtained more credit than ,i did1    
who flattered the ,athenians while ,i   
told him the truth3 but ,i1 placing  my 
arms before the principal council-house1
 being wiser than they1 told  those who 
had no suspicion of it1 that            
,pisistratus was desirous to  make      

himself a tyrant2 and ,i showed myself  
more valiant than those who  hesitated  
to defend the state against him4 ,but   
they condemned the madness  of ,solon4  
,but at last ,i spoke loudly--8,o1 my   
country1 ,i1 ,solon1 here am  ready to  
defend you by word and deed2 but to     
these men ,i seem to be mad4  ,so ,i    
will depart from you1 being the only    
antagonist of ,pisistratus2 and  let    
these men be his guards if they please40
 ,for you know the man1 my  friend1 and 
how cleverly he seized upon the tyranny4
 ,he first began by  being a demagogue2 
then1 having inflicted wounds on        
himself1 he came to  the ,helia1 crying 
out1 and saying1 8,that he had been     
treated in this  way by his enemies40   
,and he entreated the people to assign  
him as guards  four hundred young men2  
and they1 disregarding my advice1 gave  
them to  him4 ,and they were all armed  
with bludgeons4 ,and after that he put  
down  the democracy4 ,they in vain hoped
 to deliver the poor from their state of

  slavery1 and so now they are all of   
them slaves to ,pisistratus4    ,,solon 
,,to ,,pisistratus4    ,i am well       
assured that ,i should suffer no evil at
 your hands4 ,for before  your          
assumption of the tyranny ,i was a      
friend of yours1 and now my case  is not
 different from that of any other       
,athenian who is not pleased  with      
tyranny4 ,and whether it is better for  
them to be governed by one  individual1 
or to live under a democracy1 that each 
person may decide  according to his own 
sentiments4 ,and ,i admit that of all   
tyrants you are  the best4 ,but ,i do   
not judge it to be good for me to return
 to ,athens1  lest any one should blame 
me1 for1 after having established       
equality of  civil rights among the     
,athenians1 and after having refused to 
be a tyrant  myself when it was in my   
power1 returning now and acquiescing in 
what you  are doing4    ,,solon ,,to    
,,cr,,sus4    ,,xx4 ,i thank you for    
your goodwill towards me4 ,and1 by      

,minerva1 if ,i did  not think it       
precious above everything to live in a  
democracy1 ,i would  willingly prefer   
living in your palace with you to living
 at ,athens1  since ,pisistratus has    
made himself tyrant by force4 ,but life 
is more  pleasant to me where justice   
and equality prevail universally4       
,however1  ,i will come and see you1    
being anxious to enjoy your hospitality 
for a  season4      ,,life ,,of ,,chilo4
    ,i4 ,chilo was a ,lacedmonian1 the  
son of ,damagetus4 ,he composed verses  
in elegiac metre to the number of two   
hundred3 and it was a saying of  his    
that a foresight of future events1 such 
as could be arrived at by  consideration
 was the virtue of a man4 ,he also said 
once to his brother1  who was indignant 
at not being an ephor1 while he himself 
was one1 8,the  reason is because ,i    
know how to bear injustice2 but you do  
not40 ,and he  was made ephor in the    
fifty-fifth ,olympiad2 but ,pamphila    
says that it  was in the fifty-sixth4   

,and he was made first ephor in the year
 of the  archonship of ,euthydemus1 as  
we are told by ,sosicrates4 ,chilo was  
also  the first person who introduced   
the custom of joining the ephors to the 
kings as their counsellors3 though      
,satyrus attributes this institution  to
 ,lycurgus4 ,he1 as ,herodotus says in  
his first book1 when ,hippocrates  was  
sacrificing at ,olympia1 and the        
cauldrons began to boil of their own    
accord1 advised him either to marry1 or1
 if he were married already1 to  discard
 his wife1 and disown his children4     
,,ii4 ,they tell a story1 also1 of his  
having asked sop what ,jupiter was      
doing1 and that sop replied1 8,he is    
lowering what is high1 and exalting     
what is low40 ,being asked in what      
educated men differed from those who    
were illiterate1 he said1 8,in good     
hopes40 ,having had the question put  to
 him1 ,what was difficult1 he said1 8,to
 be silent about secrets2 to  make good 
use of one's leisure1 and to be able to 

submit to injustice40  ,and besides     
these three things he added further1    
8,to rule one's tongue1  especially at a
 banquet1 and not to speak ill of one's 
neighbours2 for  if one does so one is  
sure to hear what one will not like40   
,he advised1  moreover1 8,to threaten no
 one2 for that is a womanly trick4 ,to  
be more  prompt to go to one's friends  
in adversity than in prosperity4 ,to    
make  but a moderate display at one's   
marriage4 ,not to speak evil of the     
dead4  ,to honour old age4--,to keep a  
watch upon one's self4--,to prefer      
punishment  to disgraceful gain2 for the
 one is painful but once1 but the other 
for  one's whole life4--,not to laugh at
 a person in misfortune4--,if one is    
strong to be also merciful1 so that     
one's neighbours may respect one  rather
 than fear one4--,to learn how to       
regulate one's own house well4--,not  to
 let one's tongue outrun one's          
sense4--,to restrain anger4--,not to    
dislike  divination4--,not to desire    

what is impossible4--,not to make too   
much haste  on one's road4--,when       
speaking not to gesticulate with the    
hand2 for that  is like a madman4--,to  
obey the laws4--,to love quiet40    ,and
 of all his songs this one was the most 
approved3--        ,gold is best tested 
by a whetstone hard1      ,which gives a
 certain proof of purity2      ,and gold
 itself acts as the test of men1        
,by which we know the temper of their   
minds4    ,,iii4 ,they say1 too1 that   
when he was old he said1 that he was not
  conscious of having ever done an      
unjust action in his life2 but that he  
doubted about one thing4 ,for that once 
when judging in a friend's cause  he had
 voted himself in accordance with the   
law1 but had persuaded a  friend to vote
 for his acquittal1 in order that so he 
might maintain the  law1 and yet save   
his friend4    ,,iv4 ,but he was most   
especially celebrated among the ,greeks 
for having  delivered an early opinion  
about ,cythera1 an island belonging to  

,laconia4  ,for having become acquainted
 with its nature1 he said1 8,i wish it  
had  never existed1 or that1 as it does 
exist1 it were sunk at the bottom of    
the sea40 ,and his foresight was proved 
afterwards4 ,for when ,demaratus was    
banished by the ,lacedmonians1 he       
advised ,xerxes to keep his ships at    
that island3 and ,greece would have been
 subdued1 if ,xerxes had taken the      
advice4 ,and afterwards ,nicias1 having 
reduced the island at the time of  the  
,peloponnesian war1 placed in it a      
garrison of ,athenians1 and did a  great
 deal of harm to the ,lacedmonians4     
,v4 ,he was very brief in his speech4   
,on which account ,aristagoras1 the     
,milesian1 calls such conciseness1 the  
,chilonean fashion2 and says that  it   
was adopted by ,branchus1 who built the 
temple among the ,branchid4  ,chilo was 
an old man1 about the fifty-second      
,olympiad1 when sop1 the  fable writer1 
flourished4 ,and he died1 as ,hermippus 
says1 at ,pisa1 after  embracing his    

son1 who had gained the victory in      
boxing at the ,olympic  games4 ,the     
cause of his death was excess of joy1   
and weakness caused  by extreme old age4
 ,all the spectators who were present at
 the games  attended his funeral1 paying
 him the highest honours4 ,and we have  
written  the following epigram on him3--
        ,i thank you1 brightest ,pollux1
 that the son        ,of ,chilo wears   
the wreath of victory2      ,nor need we
 grieve if at the glorious sight        
,his father died4 ,may such my last end 
be6    ,and the following inscription is
 engraved on his statue3--        ,the  
warlike ,sparta called this ,chilo son1 
,the wisest man of all the seven sages4 
,one of his sayings was1 8,suretyship1  
and then destruction40 ,the following   
letter of his is also extant3--         
,,chilo ,,to ,,periander4    ,you desire
 me to abandon the expedition against   
the emigrants1 as you  yourself will go 
forth4 ,but ,i think that a sole        
governor is in a slippery  position at  

home2 and ,i consider that tyrant a     
fortunate man who dies a  natural death 
in his own house4      ,,life ,,of      
,,pittacus4    ,i4 ,pittacus was a      
native of ,mitylene1 and son of         
,hyrradius4 ,but ,duris  says1 that his 
father was a ,thracian4 ,he1 in union   
with the brothers  of ,alcus1 put down  
,melanchrus the tyrant of ,lesbos4 ,and 
in the battle  which took place between 
the ,athenians and ,mitylenans on the   
subject  of the district of ,achilis1 he
 was the ,mitylenan general2 the        
,athenian  commander being ,phrynon1 a  
,pancratiast1 who had gained the victory
 at  ,olympia4 ,pittacus agreed to meet 
him in single combat1 and having a  net 
under his shield1 he entangled ,phrynon 
without his being aware of  it          
beforehand1 and so1 having killed him1  
he preserved the district in  dispute to
 his countrymen4 ,but ,apollodorus1 in  
his ,chronicles1 says1 that             
subsequently1 the ,athenians had a trial
 with the ,mitylenans about the         

district1 and that the cause was        
submitted to ,periander1 who decided it 
in favour of the ,athenians4    ,,ii4   
,in consequence of this victory the     
,mitylenans held ,pittacus in the       
greatest honour1 and committed the      
supreme power into his hands4 ,and  he  
held it for ten years1 and then1 when he
 had brought the city and  constitution 
into good order1 he resigned the        
government4 ,and he lived  ten years    
after that1 and the ,mitylenans assigned
 him an estate1 which  he consecrated to
 the ,god1 and to this day it is called 
the ,pittacian  land4 ,but ,sosicrates  
says that he cut off a small portion of 
it1 saying  that half was more than the 
whole2 and when ,crsus offered him some 
money  he would not accept it1 as he    
said that he had already twice as much  
as  he wanted2 for that he had succeeded
 to the inheritance of his brother1  who
 had died without children4    ,,iii4   
,but ,pamphila says1 in the second book 
of her ,commentaries1 that he  had a son

 named ,tyrrhus1 who was killed while   
sitting in a barber's  shop1 at ,cyma1  
by a brazier1 who threw an axe at him2  
and that the  ,cymans sent the murderer 
to ,pittacus1 who when he had learnt    
what had  been done1 dismissed the man1 
saying1 8,pardon is better than         
repentance40  ,but ,heraclitus says that
 the true story is1 that he had got     
,alcus into  his power1 and that he     
released him1 saying1 8,pardon is better
 than  punishment40 ,he was also a      
lawgiver2 and he made a law that if a   
man  committed a crime while drunk1 he  
should have double punishment2 in the   
hope of deterring men from getting      
drunk1 as wine was very plentiful in    
the island4    ,,iv4 ,it was a saying of
 his that it was a hard thing to be     
good1 and  this apophthegm is quoted by 
,simonides1 who says1 8,it was a saying 
of  ,pittacus1 that it is a hard thing  
to be really a good man40 ,plato also   
mentions it in his ,protagoras4 ,another
 of his sayings was1 8,even the  ,gods  

cannot strive against necessity40       
,another was1 8,power shows the  man40  
,being once asked what was best1 he     
replied1 8,to do what one is  doing at  
the moment well40 ,when ,crsus put the  
question to him1 8,what is  the greatest
 power80 8,the power10 he replied1 8of  
the variegated wood10  meaning the      
wooden tablets of the laws4 ,he used to 
say too1 that there  were some victories
 without bloodshed4 ,he said once to a  
man of ,phoca1  who was saying that we  
ought to seek out a virtuous man1 8,but 
if you seek  ever so much you will not  
find one40 ,some people once asked him  
what  thing was very grateful8 and he   
replied1 8,time40--,what was uncertain8 
8,the future40--,what was trusty8 8,the 
land40--,what was treacherous8 8,the    
sea40 ,another saying of his was1 that  
it was the part of wise men1 before     
difficult circumstances arose1 to       
provide for their not arising2 but that 
it was the part of brave men to make the
 best of existing circumstances4  ,he   

used to say too1 8,do not say before    
hand what you are going to do2  for if  
you fail1 you will be laughed at40 8,do 
not reproach a man with  his            
misfortunes1 fearing lest ,nemesis may  
overtake you40 8,if you have  received a
 deposit1 restore it40 8,forbear to     
speak evil not only of your  friends1   
but also of your enemies40 8,practise   
piety1 with temperance40  8,cultivate   
truth1 good faith1 experience1          
cleverness1 sociability1 and  industry40
    ,v4 ,he wrote also some songs1 of   
which the following is the most         
celebrated one3--        ,the wise will 
only face the wicked man1      ,with bow
 in hand well bent1      ,and quiver    
full of arrows--      ,for such a tongue
 as his says nothing true1              
,prompted by a wily heart      ,to utter
 double speeches4    ,he also composed  
six hundred verses in elegiac metre2 and
 he wrote a  treatise in prose1 on      
,laws1 addressed to his countrymen4     
,,vi4 ,he flourished about the          

forty-second ,olympiad2 and he died when
  ,aristomenes was ,archon1 in the third
 year of the fifty-second ,olympiad2    
having lived more than seventy years1   
being a very old man4 ,and on his  tomb 
is this inscription3--        ,lesbos   
who bore him here1 with tears doth bury 
,hyrradius' worthy son1 wise ,pittacus4 
,another saying of his was1 8,watch your
 opportunity40    ,,vii4 ,there was also
 another ,pittacus1 a lawgiver1 as      
,phavorinus tells us  in the first book 
of his ,commentaries2 and ,demetrius    
says so too1 in his  ,essay on ,men and 
,things of the same name4 ,and that     
other ,pittacus was  called ,pittacus   
the less4    ,,viii4 ,but it is said    
that the wise ,pittacus once1 when a    
young man  consulted him on the subject 
of marriage1 made him the following     
answer1  which is thus given by         
,callimachus in his ,epigrams4          
,hyrradius' prudent son1 old ,pittacus  
,the pride of ,mitylene1 once was asked 
,by an ,atarnean stranger2 8,tell me1   

sage1      ,i have two marriages        
proposed to me2      ,one maid my equal 
is in birth and riches2      ,the       
other's far above me2--which is best8   
,advise me now which shall ,i take to   
wife80      ,thus spoke the stranger2   
but the aged prince1      ,raising his  
old man's staff before his face1        
,said1 8,these will tell you all you    
want to know20      ,and pointed to some
 boys1 who with quick lashes      ,were 
driving whipping tops along the street4 
8,follow their steps10 said he2 so he   
went near them      ,and heard them say1
 8,let each now mind his own40--        
,so when the stranger heard the boys    
speak thus1      ,he pondered on their  
words1 and laid aside      ,ambitious   
thoughts of an unequal marriage4        
,as then he took to shame the poorer    
bride1      ,so too do you1 ,o reader1  
mind thy own4    ,and it seems that he  
may have here spoken from experience1   
for his own  wife was of more noble     
birth than himself1 since she was the   

sister  of ,draco1 the son of           
,penthilus2 and she gave herself great  
airs1 and  tyrannized over him4    ,,ix4
 ,alcus calls ,pittacus  and 1 because  
he was  splay-footed1 and used to drag  
his feet in walking1 he also called him 
1 because he had scars on his feet which
 were called 4  ,and 1 implying that he 
gave himself airs without reason4 ,and  
and 1 because he was fat4 ,he also      
called him 1 because  he had weak eyes1 
and 1 because he was lazy and dirty4 ,he
 used  to grind corn for the sake of    
exercise1 as ,clearchus1 the            
philosopher1  relates4    ,x4 ,there is 
a letter of his extant1 which runs      
thus3--    ,,pittacus ,,to ,,cr,,sus4   
,you invite me to come to ,lydia in     
order that ,i may see your riches2 but  
,i1 even without seeing them1 do not    
doubt that the son of ,alyattes is the  
richest of monarchs4 ,but ,i should get 
no good by going to ,sardis2 for ,i  do 
not want gold myself1 but what ,i have  
is sufficient for myself and my         

companions4 ,still1 ,i will come1 in    
order to become acquainted with you as  
a hospitable man4      ,,life ,,of      
,,bias4    ,i4 ,bias was a citizen of   
,priene1 and the son of ,teutamus1 and  
by ,satyrus  he is put at the head of   
the seven wise men4 ,some writers affirm
 that he  was one of the richest men of 
the city2 but others say that he was    
only  a settler4 ,and ,phanodicus says1 
that he ransomed some ,messenian maidens
  who had been taken prisoners1 and     
educated them as his own daughters1  and
 gave them dowries1 and then sent them  
back to ,messina to their  fathers4 ,and
 when1 as has been mentioned before1 the
 tripod was found  near ,athens by some 
fishermen1 the brazen tripod ,i mean1   
which bore the  inscription--8,for the  
,wise20 then ,satyrus says that the     
damsels 7but  others1 such as           
,phanodicus1 say that it was their      
father17 came into the  assembly1 and   
said that ,bias was the wise            
man--recounting what he had done  to    

them3 and so the tripod was sent to him4
 ,but ,bias1 when he saw it1  said that 
it was ,apollo who was 8the ,wise10 and 
would not receive the  tripod4    ,,ii4 
,but others say that he consecrated it  
at ,thebes to ,hercules1 because  he    
himself was a descendant of the         
,thebans1 who had sent a colony to      
,priene1 as ,phanodicus relates4 ,it is 
said also that when ,alyattes was       
besieging ,priene1 ,bias fattened up two
 mules1 and drove them into his  camp2  
and that the king1 seeing the condition 
that the mules were in1 was  astonished 
at their being able to spare food to    
keep the brute beasts so  well1 and so  
he desired to make peace with them1 and 
sent an ambassador  to them4 ,on this   
,bias1 having made some heaps of sand1  
and put corn on  the top1 showed them to
 the convoy2 and ,alyattes1 hearing from
 him what  he had seen1 made peace with 
the people of ,priene2 and then1 when he
 sent  to ,bias1 desiring him to come   
quickly to him1 8,tell ,alyattes1 from  

me0 he  replied1 8to eat onions20--which
 is the same as if he had said1 8go and 
weep40    ,,iii4 ,it is said that he was
 very energetic and eloquent when       
pleading  causes2 but that he always    
reserved his talents for the right side4
 ,in  reference to which ,demodicus of  
,alerius uttered the following          
enigmatical  saying--8,if you are a     
judge1 give a ,prienian decision40 ,and 
,hipponax says1  8,more excellent in his
 decisions than ,bias of ,priene40 ,now 
he died in  this manner3--    ,,iv4     
,having pleaded a cause for some one    
when he was exceedingly old1  after he  
had finished speaking1 he leaned back   
with his head on the  bosom of his      
daughter's son2 and after the advocate  
on the opposite side  had spoken1 and   
the judges had given their decision in  
favour of ,bias's  client1 when the     
court broke up he was found dead on his 
grandson's  bosom4 ,and the city buried 
him in the greatest magnificence1 and   
put over  him this inscription--        

,beneath this stone lies ,bias1 who was 
born      ,in the illustrious ,prienian 
land1      ,the glory of the whole      
,ionian race4    ,and we ourselves have 
also written an epigram on him--        
,here ,bias lies1 whom1 when the hoary  
snow      ,had crowned his aged temples1
 ,mercury      ,unpitying led to        
,pluto's darken'd realms4      ,he      
pleaded his friend's cause1 and then    
reclin'd      ,in his child's arms1     
repos'd in lasting sleep4    ,v4 ,he    
also wrote about two thousand verses on 
,ionia1 to show in what  matter a man   
might best arrive at happiness2 and of  
all his poetical  sayings these have the
 greatest reputation3--        ,seek to 
please all the citizens1 even though    
,your house may be in an ungracious     
city4      ,for such a course will      
favour win from all3      ,but haughty  
manners oft produce destruction4    ,and
 this one too3--        ,great strength 
of body is the gift of nature2      ,but
 to be able to advise whate'er      ,is 

most expedient for one's country's good1
      ,is the peculiar work of sense and
 wisdom4    ,another is3--        ,great
 riches come to many men by chance4     
,he used also to say that that man was  
unfortunate who could not support       
misfortune2 and that it is a disease of 
the mind to desire what was  impossible1
 and to have no regard for the          
misfortunes of others4 ,being  asked    
what was difficult1 he said--8,to bear a
 change of fortune for the  worse with  
magnanimity40 ,once he was on a voyage  
with some impious men1  and the vessel  
was overtaken by a storm2 so they began 
to invoke the  assistance of the ,gods2 
on which he said1 8,hold your tongues1  
lest they  should find out that you are 
in this ship40 ,when he was asked by an 
impious man what piety was1 he made no  
reply2 and when his questioner  demanded
 the reason of his silence1 he said1 8,i
 am silent because you are  putting     
questions about things with which you   
have no concern40 ,being  asked what was

 pleasant to men1 he replied1 8,hope40  
,it was a saying of  his that it was    
more agreeable to decide between enemies
 than between  friends2 for that of     
friends1 one was sure to become an enemy
 to him2  but that of enemies1 one was  
sure to become a friend4 ,when the      
question  was put to him1 what a man    
derived pleasure while he was doing1 he 
said1  8,while acquiring gain40 ,he used
 to say1 too1 that men ought to         
calculate  life both as if they were    
fated to live a long and a short time3  
and that  they ought to love one another
 as if at a future time they would come 
to  hate one another2 for that most men 
were wicked4 ,he used also to give  the 
following pieces of advice3--8,choose   
the course which you adopt with         
deliberation2 but when you have adopted 
it1 then persevere in it with           
firmness4--,do not speak fast1 for that 
shows folly4--,love prudence4--,speak   
of the ,gods as they are4--,do not      
praise an undeserving man because of    

his riches4--,accept of things1 having  
procured them by persuasion1  not by    
force4--,whatever good fortune befalls  
you1 attribute it to the                
gods4--,cherish wisdom as a means of    
travelling from youth to old age1 for   
it is more lasting than any other       
possession40    ,,vi4 ,hipponax also    
mentions ,bias1 as has been said before2
 and ,heraclitus  too1 a man who was not
 easily pleased1 has praised him2       
saying1 in ,priene  there lived ,bias   
the son of ,teutamus1 whose reputation  
is higher than  that of the others2 and 
the ,prienians consecrated a temple to  
him which  is called the ,teutamium4 ,a 
saying of his was1 8,most men are       
wicked40      ,,life ,,of ,,cleobulus4  
,i4 ,cleobulus was a native of ,lindus1 
and the son of ,evagoras2 but  according
 to ,duris he was a ,carian2 others     
again trace his family back  to         
,hercules4 ,he is reported to have been 
eminent for personal strength  and      
beauty1 and to have studied philosophy  

in ,egypt2 he had a daughter  named     
,cleobulina1 who used to compose enigmas
 in hexameter verse1 and she  is        
mentioned by ,cratinus in his play of   
the same name1 except that the  title is
 written in the plural number4 ,they say
 also that he restored the  temple of   
,minerva which had been built by        
,danaus4    ,,ii4 ,cleobulus composed   
songs and obscure sayings in verse to   
the number  of three thousand lines1 and
 some say that it was he who composed   
the  epigram on ,midas4        ,i am a  
brazen maiden lying here      ,upon the 
tomb of ,midas4 ,and as long      ,as   
water flows1 as trees are green with    
leaves      ,as the sun shines and eke  
the silver moon1      ,as long as rivers
 flow1 and billows roar1      ,so long  
will ,i upon this much wept tomb1       
,tell passers by1 8,midas lies buried   
here40    ,and as an evidence of this   
epigram being by him they quote a song  
of  ,simonides1 which runs thus3--      
,what men possessed of sense      ,would

 ever praise the ,lindian ,cleobulus8   
,who could compare a statue made by man 
,to everflowing streams1      ,to       
blushing flowers of spring1      ,to the
 sun's rays1 to beams o' the golden     
morn1      ,and to the ceaseless waves  
of mighty ,ocean8      ,all things are  
trifling when compared to ,god4         
,while men beneath their hands can crush
 a stone2      ,so that such sentiments 
can only come from fools4    ,and the   
epigram cannot possibly be by ,homer1   
for he lived many years1 as  it is said1
 before ,midas4    ,,iii4 ,there is also
 the following enigma quoted in the     
,commentaries of  ,pamphila1 as the work
 of ,cleobulus3--        ,there was one 
father and he had twelve daughters1     
,each of his daughters had twice thirty 
children4      ,but most unlike in      
figure and complexion2      ,for some   
were white1 and others black to view1   
,and though immortal they all taste of  
death4    ,and the solution is1 8the    
year40    ,,iv4 ,of his apophthegms1 the

 following are the most celebrated4     
,ignorance  and talkativeness bear the  
chief sway among men4 ,opportunity will 
be the  most powerful4 ,cherish not a   
thought4 ,do not be fickle1 or          
ungrateful4  ,he used to say too1 that  
men ought to give their daughters in    
marriage  while they were girls in age1 
but women in sense2 as indicating by    
this  that girls ought to be well       
educated4 ,another of his sayings was1  
that  one ought to serve a friend that  
he may become a greater friend2 and an  
enemy1 to make him a friend4 ,and that  
one ought to guard against giving  one's
 friends occasion to blame one1 and     
one's enemies opportunity of  plotting  
against one4 ,also1 when a man goes out 
of his house1 he should  consider what  
he is going to do3 and when he comes    
home again he should  consider what he  
has done4 ,he used also to advise men to
 keep their  bodies in health by        
exercise4--,to be fond of hearing rather
 than of  talking4--,to be fond of      

learning rather than unwilling to       
learn4--,to speak  well of people4--,to 
seek virtue and eschew vice4--,to avoid 
injustice4--,to  give the best advice in
 one's power to one's country4--,to be  
superior to  pleasure4--,to do nothing  
by force4--,to instruct one's           
children4--,to be  ready for            
reconciliation after quarrels4--,not to 
caress one's wife1 nor to  quarrel with 
her when strangers are present1 for that
 to do the one is a  sign of folly1 and 
to do the latter is downright           
madness4--,not to chastise  a servant   
while elated with drink1 for so doing   
one will appear to be  drunk one's      
self4--,to marry from among one's       
equals1 for if one takes a  wife of a   
higher rank than one's self1 one will   
have one's connexions  for one's        
masters4--,not to laugh at those who are
 being reproved1 for so  one will be    
detested by them4--,be not haughty when 
prosperous4--,be not  desponding when in
 difficulties4--,learn to bear the      

changes of fortune  with magnanimity4   
,v ,and he died at a great age1 having  
lived seventy years1 and this           
inscription was put over him3--         
,his country1 ,lindus1 this fair        
sea-girt city      ,bewails wise        
,cleobulus here entombed4    ,,vi4 ,one 
of his sayings was1 8,moderation is the 
best thing40 ,he also wrote  a letter to
 ,solon in these terms3--    ,,cleobulus
 ,,to ,,solon4    ,you have many        
friends1 and a home everywhere1 but yet 
,i think that ,lindus  will be the most 
agreeable habitation for ,solon1 since  
it enjoys a  democratic government1 and 
it is a maritime island1 and whoever    
dwells in  it has nothing to fear from  
,pisistratus1 and you will have friends 
flock  to you from all quarters4        
,,life ,,of ,,periander4    ,i4         
,periander was a ,corinthian1 the son of
 ,cypselus1 of the family of  the       
,heraclid4 ,he married ,lyside 7whom he 
himself called ,melissa71 the  daughter 
of ,procles the tyrant of ,epidaurus1   

and of ,eristhenea the  daughter of     
,aristocrates1 and sister of            
,aristodemus1 who governed nearly  all  
,arcadia1 as ,heraclides ,ponticus says 
in his ,treatise on ,dominion  and had  
by her two sons ,cypselus and           
,lycophron1 the younger of whom was     
clever boy1 but the elder was deficient 
in intellect4 ,at a subsequent  period  
he in a rage either kicked or threw his 
wife down stairs when  she was pregnant1
 and so killed her1 being wrought upon  
by the false  accusations of his        
concubines1 whom he afterwards burnt    
alive4 ,and the  child1 whose name was  
,lycophron1 he sent away to ,corcyra    
because he  grieved for his mother4     
,,ii4 ,but afterwards1 when he was now  
extremely old1 he sent for him back     
again1 in order that he might succeed to
 the tyranny4 ,but the ,corcyreans1     
anticipating his intention1 put him to  
death1 at which he was greatly  enraged1
 and sent their children to ,corcyra to 
be made eunuchs of2 and  when the ship  

came near to ,samos1 the youths1 having 
made supplications  to ,juno1 were saved
 by the ,samians4 ,and he fell into     
despondency and  died1 being eighty     
years old4 ,sosicrates says that he died
 forty-one  years before ,crsus1 in the 
last year of the forty-eighth ,olympiad4
  ,herodotus1 in the first book of his  
,history1 says that he was connected  by
 ties of hospitality with ,thrasybulus  
the tyrant of ,miletus4 ,and            
,aristippus1 in the first book of his   
,treatise on ,ancient ,luxury1 tells    
the following story of him2 that his    
mother ,cratea fell in love with  him1  
and introduced herself secretly into his
 bed2 and he was delighted2  but when   
the truth was discovered he became very 
oppressive to all his  subjects1 because
 he was grieved at the discovery4       
,ephorus relates that  he made a vow    
that1 if he gained the victory at       
,olympia in the chariot  race1 he would 
dedicate a golden statue to the ,god4   
,accordingly he  gained the victory2 but

 being in want of gold1 and seeing the  
women at  some national festival        
beautifully adorned1 he took away their 
golden  ornaments1 and then sent the    
offering which he had vowed4    ,,iii4  
,but some writers say that he was       
anxious that his tomb should not be     
known1 and that with that object he     
adopted the following contrivance4 ,he  
ordered two young men to go out by      
night1 indicating a particular road by  
which they were to go1 and to kill the  
first man they met1 and bury him2  after
 them he sent out four other men who    
were to kill and bury them4  ,again he  
sent out a still greater number against 
these four1 with similar  instructions4 
,and in this manner he put himself in   
the way of the first  pair1 and was     
slain1 and the ,corinthians erected a   
cenotaph over him with  the following   
inscription3--        ,the sea-beat land
 of ,corinth in her bosom1      ,doth   
here embrace her ruler ,periander1      
,greatest of all men for his wealth and 

wisdom4    ,we ourselves have also      
written an epigram upon him3--          
,grieve not when disappointed of a wish1
      ,but be content with what the     
,gods may give you--      ,for the great
 ,periander died unhappy1      ,at      
failing in an object he desired4        
,,iv4 ,it was a saying of his that we   
ought not to do anything for the sake   
of money2 for that we ought only to     
acquire such gains as are allowable4    
,he composed apophthegms in verse to the
 number of two thousand lines2  and said
 that those who wished to wield absolute
 power in safety1 should  be guarded by 
the good will of their countrymen1 and  
not by arms4 ,and  once being asked why 
he assumed tyrannical power1 he replied1
 8,because1  to abdicate it voluntarily1
 and to have it taken from one1 are both
  dangerous40 ,the following sayings    
also belong him3--,tranquillity is  a   
good thing4--,rashness is               
dangerous4--,gain is                    
disgraceful4--,democracy  is better than

 tyranny4--,pleasures are transitory1   
but honour is  immortal4--,be moderate  
when prosperous1 but prudent when       
unfortunate4--,be  the same to your     
friends when they are prosperous1 and   
when they  are unfortunate4--,whatever  
you agree to do1 observe4--,do not      
divulge  secrets4--,punish not only     
those who do wrong1 but those who intend
 to do  so4    ,v4 ,this prince was the 
first who had body-guards1 and who      
changed a  legitimate power into a      
tyranny2 and he would not allow any one 
who chose  to live in his city1 as      
,euphorus and ,aristotle tell us4       
,,vi4 ,and he flourished about the      
thirty-eighth ,olympiad1 and enjoyed    
absolute power for forty years4 ,but    
,sotion1 and ,heraclides1 and           
,pamphila1 in the fifth book of her     
,commentaries1 says that there were  two
 ,perianders2 the one a tyrant1 and the 
other a wise man1 and a native  of      
,ambracia4 ,and ,neanthes of ,cyzicus   
makes the same assertion1 adding1  that 

the two men were cousins to one another4
 ,and ,aristotle says1 that it  was the 
,corinthian ,periander who was the wise 
one2 but ,plato contradicts  him4 ,the  
saying--8,practice does everything10 is 
his4 ,he it was1 also1 who  proposed to 
cut through the ,isthmus4    ,,vii4 ,the
 following letter of his is quoted3--   
,,periander ,,to ,,the ,,wise ,,men4    
,i give great thanks to ,apollo of      
,delphi that my letters are able to     
determine you all to meet together at   
,corinth2 and ,i will receive you  all1 
as you may be well assured1 in a manner 
that becomes free citizens4  ,i hear    
also that last year you met at ,sardis1 
at the court of the ,king  of ,lydia4   
,so now do not hesitate to come to me1  
who am the tyrant of  ,corinth2 for the 
,corinthians will all be delighted to   
see you come to the  house of           
,periander4    ,,viii4 ,there is this   
letter too3--    ,,periander ,,to       
,,procles4    ,the injury of my wife was
 unintended by me2 and you have done    

wrong in  alienating from me the mind of
 my child4 ,i desire you1 therefore1    
either  to restore me to my place in his
 affections1 or ,i will revenge myself  
on  you2 for ,i have myself made        
atonement for the death of your         
daughter1 by  burning in her tomb the   
clothes of all the ,corinthian women4#af
    ,,ix4 ,thrasybulus also wrote him a 
letter in the following terms3--    ,i  
have given no answer to your messenger2 
but having taken him into a  field1 ,i  
struck with my walking-stick all the    
highest ears of corn1 and  cut off their
 tops1 while he was walking with me4    
,and he will report to  you1 if you ask 
him1 everything which he heard or saw   
while with me2 and  do you act          
accordingly if you wish to preserve your
 power safely1 taking  off the most     
eminent of the citizens1 whether he     
seems an enemy to you or  not1 as even  
his companions are deservedly objects of
 suspicion to a man  possessed of       
supreme power4      ,,life ,,of         

,,anacharsis1 ,,the ,,scythian4    ,i4  
,anacharsis the ,scythian was the son of
 ,gnurus1 and the brother of  ,caduides 
the king of the ,scythians2 but his     
mother was a ,grecian woman2  owing to  
which circumstance he understood both   
languages4    ,,ii4 ,he wrote about the 
laws existing among the ,scythians1 and 
also about  those in force among the    
,greeks1 urging men to adopt a temperate
 course  of life2 and he wrote also     
about war1 his works being in verse1 and
  amounting to eight hundred lines4 ,he 
gave occasion for a proverb1 because  he
 used great freedom of speech1 so that  
people called such freedom the          
,scythian conversation4    ,,iii4 ,but  
,sosicrates says that he came to ,athens
 in the forty-seventh  ,olympiad1 in the
 archonship of ,eucrates4 ,and          
,hermippus asserts that he  came to     
,solon's house1 and ordered one of the  
servants to go and tell  his master that
 ,anacharsis was come to visit him1 and 
was desirous to  see him1 and1 if       

possible1 to enter into relations of    
hospitality with  him4 ,but when the    
servant had given the message1 he was   
ordered by ,solon  to reply him that1   
8,men generally limited such alliances  
to their own  countrymen40 ,in reply to 
this ,anacharsis entered the house1 and 
told  the servant that now he was in    
,solon's country1 and that it was quite 
consistent for them to become connected 
with one another in this way4 ,on  this1
 ,solon admired the readiness of the    
man1 and admitted him1 and made  him one
 of his greatest friends4    ,,iv4 ,but 
after some time1 when he had returned to
 ,scythia1 and shown a  purpose to      
abrogate the existing institutions of   
his country1 being  exceedingly earnest1
 in his fondness for ,grecian customs1  
he was shot  by his brother while he was
 out hunting1 and so he died1 saying1   
8,that  he was saved on account of the  
sense and eloquence which he had brought
  from ,greece1 but slain in consequence
 of envy in his own family40  ,some1    

however1 relate that he was slain while 
performing some ,grecian  sacrificatory 
rites4 ,and we have written this epigram
 on him3--        ,when ,anacharsis to  
his land returned1      ,his mind was   
turn'd1 so that he wished to make       
,his countrymen all live in ,grecian    
fashion--      ,so1 ere his words had   
well escaped his lips1      ,a winged   
arrow bore him to the ,gods4    ,v4 ,he 
said that a vine bore three bunches of  
grapes4 ,the first the bunch  of        
pleasure2 the second1 that of           
drunkenness2 the third1 that of disgust4
  ,he also said that he marvelled that  
among the ,greeks1 those who were       
skilful in a thing contend together2 but
 those who have no such skill act  as   
judges of the contest4 ,being once asked
 how a person might be made not  fond of
 drinking1 he said1 8,if he always keeps
 in view the indecorous  actions of     
drunken men40 ,he used also to say1 that
 he marvelled how the  ,greeks1 who make
 laws against those who behave with     

insolence1 honour  ,athlet because of   
their beating one another4 ,when he had 
been informed  that the sides of a ship 
were four fingers thick1 he said1 8,that
 those  who sailed in one were removed  
by just that distance from death40 ,he  
used  to say that oil was a provocative 
of madness1 8because ,athlet1 when      
anointed in the oil1 attacked one       
another with mad fury40    8,how is it10
 he used to say1 8that those who forbid 
men to speak falsely1  tell lies openly 
in their vintners' shops80 ,it was a    
saying of his1 that  he 8marvelled why  
the ,greeks1 at the beginning of a      
banquet1 drink out of  small cups1 but  
when they have drunk a good deal1 then  
they turn to large  goblets40 ,and this 
inscription is on his                   
statues--8,restrain your tongues1  your 
appetites1 and your passions40 ,he was  
once asked if the flute was  known among
 the ,scythians2 and he said1 8,no1 nor 
the vine either40 ,at  another time1 the
 question was put to him1 which was the 

safest kind of  vessel8 and he said1    
8,that which is brought into dock40 ,he 
said1 too1  that the strangest things   
that he had seen among the ,greeks was1 
that  8,they left the smoke#ag in the   
mountains1 and carried the wood down to 
their cities40 ,once1 when he was asked1
 which were the more numerous1 the      
living or the dead8 he said1 8,under    
which head do you class those who are   
at sea40 ,being reproached by an        
,athenian for being a ,scythian1 he     
said1  8,well1 my country is a disgrace 
to me1 but you are a disgrace to your   
country40 ,when he was asked what there 
was among men which was both good  and  
bad1 he replied1 8,the tongue40 ,he used
 to say 8,that it was better  to have   
one friend of great value1 than many    
friends who were good for  nothing40    
,another saying of his was1 that 8,the  
forum was an established  place for men 
to cheat one another1 and behave        
covetously40 ,being once  insulted by a 
young man at a drinking party1 he said1 

8,o1 young man1 if  now that you are    
young you cannot bear wine1 when you are
 old you will  have to bear water40     
,,vi4 ,of things which are of use in    
life1 he is said to have been the       
inventor of the anchor1 and of the      
potter's wheel4    ,,vii4 ,the following
 letter of his is extant3--             
,,anacharsis ,,to ,,cr,,sus    ,o king  
of the ,lydians1 ,i am come to the      
country of the ,greeks1 in order  to    
become acquainted with their customs and
 institutions2 but ,i have  no need of  
gold1 and shall be quite contented if ,i
 return to ,scythia a  better man than  
,i left it4 ,however ,i will come to    
,sardis1 as ,i think it  very desirable 
to become a friend of yours4      ,,life
 ,,of ,,myson4    ,i4 ,myson1 the son of
 ,strymon1 as ,sosicrates states1       
quoting ,hermippus as  his authority1 a 
,chenean by birth1 of some tan or       
,laconian village1  is reckoned one of  
the seven wise men1 and they say that   
his father was  tyrant of his country4  

,it is said by some writers that1 when  
,anacharsis  inquired if any one was    
wiser than he1 the priestess at ,delphi 
gave the  answer which has been already 
quoted in the life of ,thales in        
reference  to ,chilo3--        ,i say   
that ,myson the tan sage1      ,the     
citizen of ,chen1 is wiser far      ,in 
his deep mind than you4    ,and that he1
 having taken a great deal of trouble1  
came to the village1  and found him in  
the summer season fitting a handle to a 
plough1 and he  addressed him1 8,o      
,myson1 this is not now the season for  
the plough40  8,indeed10 said he1 8it is
 a capital season for preparing one20   
but others  say1 that the words of the  
oracle are the ,etean sage1 and they    
raise  the question1 what the word      
,etean means4 ,so ,parmenides says1 that
 it is  a borough of ,laconia1 of which 
,myson was a native2 but ,sosicrates1 in
  his ,successions says1 that he was an 
,etean on his father's side1 and a      
,chenean by his mother's4 ,but          

,euthyphron1 the son of ,heraclides     
,ponticus1  says that he was a ,cretan1 
for that ,etea was a city of ,crete4    
,,ii4 ,and ,anaxilaus says that he was  
an ,arcadian4 ,hipponax also mentions   
him1 saying1 8,and ,myson1 whom ,apollo 
stated to be the most prudent of  all   
men40 ,but ,aristoxenus1 in his         
,miscellanies1 says that his habits were
  not very different from those of      
,timon and ,apemantus1 for that he was  
a misanthrope4 ,and that accordingly he 
was one day found in ,lacedmon  laughing
 by himself in a solitary place1 and    
when some one came up to him  on a      
sudden and asked him why he laughed when
 he was by himself1 he said1  8,for that
 very reason40 ,aristoxenus also says   
that he was not thought  much of1       
because he was not a native of any city1
 but only of a village1  and that too   
one of no great note2 and according to  
him1 it is on account  of this obscurity
 of his that some people attribute his  
sayings and  doings to ,pisistratus the 

tyrant1 but he excepts ,plato the       
philosopher1  for he mentions ,myson in 
his ,protagoras1 placing him among the  
wise men  instead of ,periander4        
,,iii4 ,it used to be a common saying of
 his that men ought not to seek for     
things in words1 but for words in       
things2 for that things are not made on 
account of words1 but that words are put
 together for the sake of things4       
,,iv4 ,he died when he had lived        
ninety-seven years4      ,,life ,,of    
,,epimenides4    ,i4 ,epimenides1 as    
,theopompus and many other writers tell 
us1 was the son  of a man named ,phdrus1
 but some call him the son of ,dosiadas2
 and others  of ,agesarchus4 ,he was a  
,cretan by birth1 of the city of        
,gnossus2 but  because he let his hair  
grow long1 he did not look like a       
,cretan4    ,,ii4 ,he once1 when he was 
sent by his father into the fields to   
look for a  sheep1 turned out of the    
road at mid-day and lay down in a       
certain cave  and fell asleep1 and slept

 there fifty-seven years2 and after     
that1 when  he awoke1 he went on looking
 for the sheep1 thinking that he had    
been  taking a short nap2 but as he     
could not find it he went on to the     
field  and there he found everything    
changed1 and the estate in another      
person's  possession1 and so he came    
back again to the city in great         
perplexity1  and as he was going into   
his own house he met some people who    
asked him  who he was1 until at last he 
found his younger brother who had now   
become an old man1 and from him he      
learnt all the truth4    ,,iii4 ,and    
when he was recognized he was considered
 by the ,greeks as  a person especially 
beloved by the ,gods1 on which account  
when the  ,athenians were afflicted by a
 plague1 and the priestess at ,delphi   
enjoined them to purify their city1 they
 sent a ship and ,nicias the son  of    
,niceratus to ,crete1 to invite         
,epimenides to ,athens2 and he1 coming  
there in the forty-sixth ,olympiad1     

purified the city and eradicated  the   
plague for that time2 he took some black
 sheep and some white ones  and led them
 up to the ,areopagus1 and from thence  
he let them wherever  they chose1 having
 ordered the attendants to follow them1 
and wherever  any one of them lay down  
they were to sacrifice him to the ,god  
who was  the patron of the spot1 and so 
the evil was stayed2 and owing to this  
one may even now find in the different  
boroughs of the ,athenians altars       
without names1 which are a sort of      
memorial of the propitiation of the     
,gods that then took place4 ,some said  
that the cause of the plague was  the   
pollution contracted by the city in the 
matter of ,cylon1 and that  ,epimenides 
pointed out to the ,athenians how to get
 rid of it1 and that in  consequence    
they put to death two young men1        
,cratinus and ,ctesibius1 and  that thus
 the pestilence was put an end to4      
,,iii4 ,and the ,athenians passed a vote
 to give him a talent and a ship to     

convey him back to ,crete1 but he would 
not accept the money1 but made a  treaty
 of friendship and alliance between the 
,gnossians and ,athenians4    ,,iv4 ,and
 not long after he had returned home he 
died1 as ,phlegon relates  in his book  
on long-lived people1 after he had lived
 a hundred and  fifty-seven years2 but  
as the ,cretans report he had lived two 
hundred and  ninety-nine2 but as        
,xenophones the ,colophonian1 states    
that he had heard  it reported1 he was a
 hundred and fifty-four years old when  
he died4    ,v4 ,he wrote a poem of five
 thousand verses on the ,generation and 
,theogony  of the ,curetes and          
,corybantes1 and another poem of six    
thousand five  hundred verses on the    
building of the ,argo and the expedition
 of ,jason to  ,colchis4    ,,vi4 ,he   
also wrote a treatise in prose on the   
,sacrifices in ,crete1 and  the ,cretan 
,constitution1 and on ,minos and        
,rhadamanthus1 occupying four  thousand 
lines4    ,,vi4 ,likewise he built at   

,athens the temple which is there       
dedicated to  the venerable goddesses1  
as ,lobon the ,augur says in his book on
 ,poets2  and he is said to have been   
the first person who purified houses and
  lands1 and who built temples4         
,,vii4 ,there are some people who assert
 that he did not sleep for the  length  
of time that has been mentioned above1  
but that he was absent  from his country
 for a considerable period1 occupying   
himself with the  anatomisation and     
examination of roots4    ,,viii4 ,a     
letter of his is quoted1 addressed to   
,solon the lawgiver1 in  which he       
discusses the constitution which ,minos 
gave the ,cretans4 ,but  ,demetrius the 
,magnesian1 in his treatise on ,poets   
and ,prose writers of  the same name as 
one another1 attempts to prove that the 
letter is a  modern one1 and is not     
written in the ,cretan but in the ,attic
 dialect1  and the new ,attic too4      
,,ix4 ,but ,i have also discovered      
another letter of his which runs thus3--

    ,,epimenides ,,to ,,solon4    ,be of
 good cheer1 my friend2 for if          
,pisistratus had imposed his laws on    
the ,athenians1 they being habituated to
 slavery and not accustomed to  good    
laws previously1 he would have          
maintained his dominion for ever1       
succeeding easily in enslaving his      
fellow countrymen2 but as it is1 he  is 
lording it over men who are no cowards1 
but who remember the precepts  of ,solon
 and are indignant at their bonds1 and  
who will not endure the  supremacy of a 
tyrant4 ,but if ,pisistratus does       
possess the city to-day1  still ,i have 
no expectation that the supreme power   
will ever descend to  his children4 ,for
 it is impossible that men who have     
lived in freedom and  in the enjoyment  
of most excellent laws should be slaves 
permanently2 but  as for yourself1 do   
not you go wandering about at random1   
but come and  visit me1 for here there  
is no supreme ruler to be formidable to 
you2 but  if while you are wandering    

about any of the friends of ,pisistratus
 should  fall in with you1 ,i fear you  
might suffer some misfortune4    ,he    
then wrote thus3--    ,x4 ,but          
,demetrius says that some writers report
 that he used to receive  food from the 
nymphs and keep it in a bullock's hoof2 
and that eating it  in small quantities 
he never required any evacuations1 and  
was never  seen eating4 ,and ,timus     
mentions him in his second book4        
,,xi4 ,some authors say also that the   
,cretans sacrifice to him as a god1 for 
they say that he was the wisest of men3 
and accordingly1 that when he  saw the  
port of ,munychia1#ah at ,athens1 he    
said that the ,athenians did  not know  
how many evils that place would bring   
upon them3 since1 if they  did1 they    
would tear it to pieces with their      
teeth2 and he said this a  long time    
before the event to which he alluded4   
,it is said also1 that he  at first     
called himself acus2 and that he        
foretold to the ,lacedmonians  the      

defeat which they should suffer from the
 ,arcadians2 and that he  pretended that
 he had lived several times4 ,but       
,theopompus1 in his ,strange  ,stories1 
says that when he was building the      
temple of the ,nymphs1 a voice  burst   
forth from heaven2--8,oh6 ,epimenides1  
build this temple1 not for the  ,nymphs 
but for ,jupiter40 ,he also foretold to 
the ,cretans the defeat of  the         
,lacedmonians by the ,arcadians1 as has 
been said before4 ,and1 indeed1  they   
were beaten at ,orchomenos4    ,,xii4   
,he pretended also1 that he grew old    
rapidly1 in the same number  of days as 
he had been years asleep2 at least1 so  
,theopompus says4 ,but  ,mysonianus1 in 
his ,coincidences1 says1 that the       
,cretans call him one  of the ,curetes4 
,and the ,lacedmonians preserve his body
 among them1 in  obedience to some      
oracle1 as ,sosibius the ,lacedmonian   
says4    ,,xiii4 ,there were also two   
other ,epimenides1 one the genealogist2 
the  other1 the man who wrote a history 

of ,rhodes in the ,doric dialect4       
,,life ,,of ,,pherecydes4    ,i4        
,pherecydes was a ,syrian1 the son of   
,babys1 and1 as ,alexander says1 in  his
 ,successions1 he had been a pupil of   
,pittacus4    ,,ii4 ,theopompus says    
that he was the first person who ever   
wrote among  the ,greeks on the subject 
of ,natural ,philosophy and the ,gods4  
,and there  are many marvellous stories 
told of him4 ,for it is said that he was
  walking along the sea-shore at ,samos1
 and that seeing a ship sailing  by with
 a fair wind1 he said that it would soon
 sink2 and presently it  sank before    
their eyes4 ,at another time he was     
drinking some water which  had been     
drawn up out of a well1 and he foretold 
that within three days  there would be  
an earthquake2 and there was one4 ,and  
as he was going  up to ,olympia1 and had
 arrived at ,messene1 he advised his    
entertainer1  ,perilaus1 to migrate from
 the city with all his family1 but that 
,perilaus  would not be guided by him2  

and afterwards ,messene was taken4      
,,iii4 ,and he is said to have told the 
,lacedmonians to honour neither gold    
nor silver1 as ,theopompus says in his  
,marvels2 and it is reported that       
,hercules laid this injunction on him in
 a dream1 and that the same night  he   
appeared also to the kings of ,sparta1  
and enjoined them to be guided  by      
,pherecydes2 but some attribute these   
stories to ,pythagoras4    ,,iv4 ,and   
,hermippus relates that when there was a
 war between the ,ephesians  and        
,magnesians1 he1 wishing the ,ephesians 
to conquer1 asked some one1 who  was    
passing by1 from whence he came8 and    
when he said1 8,from ,ephesus10  8,drag 
me now10 said he1 8by the legs1 and     
place me in the territory  of the       
,magnesians1 and tell your fellow       
countrymen to bury me there  after they 
have got the victory20 and that he went 
and reported that  ,pherecydes had given
 him this order4 ,and so they went forth
 the next day  and defeated the         

,magnesians2 and as ,pherecydes was     
dead1 they buried him  there1 and paid  
him very splendid honours4    ,v4 ,but  
some writers say that he went to        
,delphi1 and threw himself down  from   
the ,corycian hill2 ,aristoxenus1 in his
 ,history of ,pythagoras and  his       
,friends1 says that ,pherecydes fell    
sick and died1 and was buried by        
,pythagoras in ,delos2 ,but others say  
that he died of the lousy disease2  and 
when ,pythagoras came to see him1 and   
asked him how he was1 he put  his finger
 through the door1 and said1 8,you may  
see by my skin40 ,and  from this        
circumstance that expression passed into
 a proverb among the  philosophers1 when
 affairs are going on badly2 and those  
who apply it to  affairs that are going 
on well1 make a blunder4 ,he used to    
say1 also1  that the ,gods call their   
table 4    ,,vi4 ,but ,andron1 the      
,ephesian1 says that there were two men 
of the name of  ,pherecydes1 both       
,syrians3 one an astronomer and the     

other a writer on ,god  and the ,divine 
,nature2 and that this last was the son 
of ,babys1 who was  also the master of  
,pythagoras4 ,but ,eratosthenes asserts 
that there was  but one1 who was a      
,syrian2 and that the other ,pherecydes 
was an ,athenian1  a genealogist2 and   
the work of the ,syrian ,pherecydes is  
preserved1 and it  begins               
thus3--8,jupiter1 and ,time1 and ,chthon
 existed externally40 ,and the  name of 
,cthonia became ,tellus1 after ,jupiter 
gave it to her as a reward4  ,a sun-dial
 is also preserved1 in the island of    
,syra1 of his making4    ,,vii4 ,but    
,duris1 in the second book of his       
,boundaries1 says that this  epigram was
 written upon him3--        ,the limit  
of all wisdom is in me2      ,and would 
be1 were it larger4 ,but report      ,to
 my ,pythagoras that he's the first     
,of all the men that tread the ,grecian 
soil2      ,i shall not speak a         
falsehood1 saying this4    ,and ,ion1   
the ,chian1 says of him3--              

,adorned with valour while alive1 and   
modesty1        ,now that he's dead he  
still exists in peace2      ,for1 like  
the wise ,pythagoras1 he studied        
,the manners and the minds of many      
nations4    ,and ,i myself have composed
 an epigram on him in the ,pherecratean 
metre3--        ,the story is reported1 
,that noble ,pherecydes      ,whom      
,syros calls her own1      ,was eaten up
 by lice2      ,and so he bade his      
friends1      ,convey his corpse away   
,to the ,magnesian land1      ,that he  
might victory give      ,to holy        
,ephesus4      ,for well the ,god had   
said1      7,though he alone did know   
,th' oracular prediction71      ,that   
this was fate's decree4      ,so in that
 land he lies4      ,this then is surely
 true1      ,that those who're really   
wise      ,are useful while alive1      
,and e'en when breath has left them4    
,,viii4 ,and he flourished about the    
fifty-ninth ,olympiad4 ,there is a      
letter  of his extant in the following  

terms3--    ,,pherecydes ,,to ,,thales4 
,may you die happily when fate overtakes
 you4 ,disease has seized upon  me at   
the same time that ,i received your     
letter4 ,i am all over lice1  and       
suffering likewise under a low fever4   
,accordingly1 ,i have charged  my       
servants to convey this book of mine to 
you1 after they have buried  me4 ,and do
 you1 if you think fit1 after consulting
 with the other wise  men1 publish it2  
but if you do not approve of doing so1  
then keep it  unpublished1 for ,i am not
 entirely pleased with it myself4 ,the  
subject is  not one about which there is
 any certain knowledge1 nor do ,i       
undertake  to say that ,i have arrived  
at the truth2 but ,i have advanced      
arguments1  from which any one who      
occupies himself with speculations on   
the divine  nature1 may make a          
selection2 and as to other points1 he   
must exercise  his intellect1 for ,i    
speak obscurely throughout4 ,i1 myself1 
as ,i am  afflicted more severely by    

this disease every day1 no longer admit 
any  physicians1 or any of my friends4  
,but when they stand at the door1 and   
ask me how ,i am1 ,i put out my finger  
to them through the opening of the      
door1 and show them how ,i am eaten up  
with the evil2 and ,i desired them  to  
come to-morrow to the funeral of        
,pherecydes4    ,these1 then1 are they  
who were called wise men2 to which list 
some  writers add the name of           
,pisistratus4 ,but we must also speak of
 the  philosophers4 ,and we will begin  
first with the ,ionic philosophy1 the   
founder of which school was ,thales1 who
 was the master of ,anaximander4        
,,book ,,ii4      ,,life ,,of           
,,anaximander4    ,i4 ,anaximander1 the 
son of ,praxiadas1 was a citizen of     
,miletus4    ,,ii4 ,he used to assert   
that the principle and primary element  
of all  things was the ,infinity1 giving
 no exact definition as to whether he   
meant air or water1 or anything else4   
,and he said that the parts were        

susceptible of change1 but that the     
whole was unchangeable2 and that the    
earth lay in the middle1 being placed   
there as a sort of centre1 of a         
spherical shape4 ,the moon1 he said1 had
 a borrowed light1 and borrowed it  from
 the sun2 and the sun he affirmed to be 
not less than the earth1 and  the purest
 possible fire4    ,,iii4 ,he also was  
the first discoverer of the gnomon2 and 
he placed some  in ,lacedmon on the     
sun-dials there1 as ,phavorinus says in 
his ,universal  ,history1 and they      
showed the solstices and the equinoxes2 
he also made  clocks4 ,he was the first 
person1 too1 who drew a map of the earth
 and  sea1 and he also made a globe2 and
 he published a concise statement of    
whatever opinions he embraced or        
entertained2 and this treatise was met  
with by ,apollodorus1 the ,athenian4    
,,iv4 ,and ,apollodorus1 in his         
,chronicles1 states1 that in the second 
year  of the fifty-eighth ,olympiad1 he 
was sixty-four years old4 ,and soon     

after  he died1 having flourished much  
about the same time as ,polycrates1 the 
tyrant1 of ,samos4 ,they say that when  
he sang1 the children laughed2 and  that
 he1 hearing of this1 said1 8,we must   
then sing better for the sake of  the   
children40    ,v4 ,there was also       
another ,anaximander1 a historian2 and  
he too was a  ,milesian1 and wrote in   
the ,ionic dialect4      ,,life ,,of    
,,anaximenes4    ,i4 ,anaximenes1 the   
son of ,eurystratus1 a ,milesian1 was a 
pupil of  ,anaximander2 but some say    
that he was also a pupil of ,parmenides4
 ,he  said that the principles of       
everything were the air1 and the        
,infinite2  and that the stars moved not
 under the earth1 but around the earth4 
,he  wrote in the pure unmixed ,ionian  
dialect4 ,and he lived1 according to the
  statements of ,apollodorus1 in the    
sixty-third ,olympiad1 and died about   
the time of the taking of ,sardis4      
,,ii4 ,there were also two other persons
 of the name of ,anaximenes1 both       

citizens of ,lampsacus2 one an orator   
and the other a historian1 who was  the 
son of the sister of the orator1 and who
 wrote an account of the  exploits of   
,alexander4    ,,iii4 ,and this         
philosopher wrote the following         
letters3--    ,,anaximenes ,,to         
,,pythagoras4    ,thales1 the son of    
,euxamias1 has died in his old age1 by  
an unfortunate  accident4 ,in the       
evening1 as he was accustomed to do1 he 
went forth out  of the vestibule of his 
house with his maid-servant1 to observe 
the  stars3 and 7for he had forgotten   
the existence of the place7 while he    
was looking up towards the skies1 he    
fell down a precipitous place4 ,so  now1
 the astronomer of ,miletus has met with
 this end4 ,but we who were his  pupils 
cherish the recollection of the man1 and
 so do our children and  our own pupils3
 and we will lecture on his principles4 
,at all events1 the  beginning of all   
wisdom ought to be attributed to        
,thales4    ,,iv4 ,and again he         

writes3--    ,,anaximenes ,,to          
,,pythagoras4    ,you are more prudent  
than we1 in that you have migrated from 
,samos to  ,crotona1 and live there in  
peace4 ,for the descendants of acus     
commit  unheard-of crimes1 and tyrants  
never cease to oppress the ,milesians4  
,the  king of the ,medes too is         
formidable to us3 unless1 indeed1 we    
choose to  become tributary to him4 ,but
 the ,ionians are on the point of       
engaging  in war with the ,medes in the 
cause of universal freedom4 ,for if we  
remain quiet there is no longer any hope
 of safety for us4 ,how then can        
,anaximenes apply his mind to the       
contemplation of the skies1 while he is 
in perpetual fear of death or slavery8  
,but you are beloved by the people  of  
,crotona1 and by all the rest of the    
,italians2 and pupils flock to you1     
even from ,sicily4      ,,life ,,of     
,,anaxagoras4    ,i4 ,anaxagoras1 the   
son of ,hegesibulus1 or ,eubulus1 was a 
citizen of  ,clazomen4 ,he was a pupil  

of ,anaximenes1 and was the first       
philosopher  who attributed mind to     
matter1 beginning his treatise on the   
subject  in the following manner 7and   
the whole treatise is written in a most 
beautiful and magnificent style73 8,all 
things were mixed up together2  then    
,mind came and arranged them all in     
distinct order40 ,on which account  he  
himself got the same name of ,mind4 ,and
 ,timon speaks thus of him in his       
,silli3--        ,they say too that wise
 ,anaxagoras      ,deserves immortal    
fame2 they call him ,mind1              
,because1 as he doth teach1 ,mind came  
in season1      ,arranging all which was
 confus'd before4    ,,ii4 ,he was      
eminent for his noble birth and for his 
riches1 and still more  so for his      
magnanimity1 inasmuch as he gave up all 
his patrimony to his  relations2 and    
being blamed by them for his neglect of 
his estate1 8,why1  then10 said he1 8do 
not you take care of it80 ,and at last  
he abandoned it  entirely1 and devoted  

himself to the contemplation of subjects
 of natural  philosophy1 disregarding   
politics4 ,so that once when some said  
to him1  8,you have no affection for    
your country10 8,be silent10 said he1   
8for ,i  have the greatest affection for
 my country10 pointing up to heaven4    
,,iii4 ,it is said1 that at the time of 
the passage of the ,hellespont  by      
,xerxes1 he was twenty years old1 and   
that he lived to the age of             
seventy-two4 ,but ,apollodorus1 in his  
,chronicles says that he flourished  in 
the seventieth ,olympiad1 and that he   
died in the first year of the           
seventy-eighth4 ,and he began to study  
philosophy at ,athens1 in the           
archonship of ,callias1 being twenty    
years of age1 as ,demetrius ,phalereus  
tells us in his ,catalogue of the       
,archons1 and they say that he remained 
at ,athens thirty years4    ,,iv4 ,he   
asserted that the sun was a mass of     
burning iron1 greater than              
,peloponnesus2 7that some attribute this

 doctrine to ,tantalus71 and that  the  
moon contained houses1 and also1 hills  
and ravines3 and that the  primary      
elements of everything were similarities
 of parts2 for as we say  that gold     
consists of a quantity of grains        
combined together1 so too is  the       
universe formed of a number of small    
bodies of similar parts4 ,he  further   
taught that ,mind was the principle of  
motion3 and that of bodies  the heavy   
ones1 such as the earth1 occupied the   
lower situations2 and the  light ones1  
such as fire1 occupied the higher       
places1 and that the middle  spaces were
 assigned to water and air4 ,and thus   
that the sea rested  upon the earth1    
which was broad1 the moisture being all 
evaporated by  the sun4 ,and he said    
that the stars originally moved about in
 irregular  confusion1 so that at first 
the pole star1 which is continually     
visible1  always appeared in the zenith1
 but that afterwards it acquired a      
certain  declination4 ,and that the     

milky way was a reflection of the light 
of  the sun when the stars did not      
appear4 ,the comets he considered to be 
a  concourse of planets emitting rays3  
and the shooting stars he thought  were 
sparks as it were leaping from the      
firmament4 ,the winds he thought  were  
caused by the rarification of the       
atmosphere1 which was produced by  the  
sun4 ,thunder1 he said1 was produced by 
the collision of the clouds2  and       
lightning by the rubbing together of the
 clouds4 ,earthquakes1 he  said1 were   
produced by the return of the air into  
the earth4 ,all animals  he considered  
were originally generated out of        
moisture1 and heat1  and earthy         
particles3 and subsequently from one    
another4 ,and males he  considered were 
derived from those on the right hand1   
and females from  those on the left4    
,v4 ,they say1 also1 that he predicted a
 fall of the stones which fell near     
gospotami1 and which he said would fall 
from the sun3 on which account          

,euripides1 who was a disciple of his1  
said in his ,phaethon that the sun  was 
a golden clod of earth4 ,he went once to
 ,olympia wrapped in a leathern  cloak  
as if it were going to rain2 and it did 
rain4 ,and they say that he  once       
replied to a man who asked him whether  
the mountains at ,lampsacus  would ever 
become sea1 8,yes1 if time lasts long   
enough40    ,,vi4 ,being once asked for 
what end he had been born1 he said1     
8,for the  contemplation of the sun1 and
 moon1 and heaven40 ,a man once said to 
him1  8,you have lost the ,athenians20  
8,no10 said he1 8they have lost me40    
,when  he beheld the tomb of ,mausolus1 
he said1 8,a costly tomb is an image of 
a  petrified estate40 ,and he comforted 
a man who was grieving because he was   
dying in a foreign land1 by telling him1
 8,the descent to hell is the same  from
 every place40    ,,vii4 ,he appears to 
have been the first person 7according to
 the account  given by ,phavorinus in   
his ,universal ,history71 who said that 

the ,poem  of ,homer was composed in    
praise of virtue and justice3 and       
,metrodorus1 of  ,lampsacus1 who was a  
friend of his1 adopted this opinion1 and
 advocated  it energetically1 and       
,metrodorus was the first who seriously 
studied the  natural philosophy         
developed in the writings of the great  
poet4    ,,viii4 ,anaxagoras was also   
the first man who ever wrote a work in  
prose2 and ,silenus1 in the first book  
of his ,histories1 says1 that in  the   
archonship of ,lysanias a large stone   
fell from heaven2 and that  in reference
 to this event ,anaxagoras said1 that   
the whole heaven was  composed of       
stones1 and that by its rapid           
revolutions they were all held          
together2 and when those revolutions get
 slower1 they fall down4    ,,ix4 ,of   
his trial there are different accounts  
given4 ,for ,sotion1 in  his ,succession
 of the ,philosophers1 says1 that he was
 persecuted for  impiety by ,cleon1     
because he said that the sun was a fiery

 ball of iron4  ,and though ,pericles1  
who had been his pupil1 defended him1 he
 was1  nevertheless1 fined five talents 
and banished4 ,but ,satyrus1 in his     
,lives1  says that it was ,thucydides by
 whom he was impeached1 as ,thucydides  
was  of the opposite party to ,pericles2
 and that he was prosecuted not only    
for impiety1 but also for ,medism2 and  
that he was condemned to death  in his  
absence4 ,and when news was brought him 
of two misfortunes--his  condemnation1  
and the death of his children2          
concerning the condemnation  he said1   
8,nature has long since condemned both  
them and me40 ,but about  his children1 
he said1 8,i knew that ,i had become the
 father of mortals40  ,some1 however1   
attribute this saying to ,solon1 and    
others to ,xenophon4  ,and ,demetrius   
,phalereus1 in his treatise on ,old     
,age1 says that ,anaxagoras  buried them
 with his own hands4 ,but ,hermippus1 in
 his ,lives1 says that he  was thrown   
into prison for the purpose of being put

 to death3 but that  ,pericles came     
forward and inquired if any one brought 
any accusation  against him respecting  
his course of life4 ,and as no one      
alleged anything  against him3 8,i      
then10 said he1 8am his disciple3 do not
 you then be led  away by calumnies to  
put this man to death2 but be guided by 
me1 and  release him40 ,and he was      
released4 ,but1 as he was indignant at  
the insult  which had been offered to   
him1 he left the city4    ,but          
,hieronymus1 in the second book of his  
,miscellaneous ,commentaries1  says that
 ,pericles produced him before the      
court1 tottering and emaciated  by      
disease1 so that he was released rather 
out of pity1 than by any  deliberate    
decision on the merits of his case4 ,and
 thus much may be said  about his trial4
 ,some people have fancied that he was  
very hostile to  ,democritus1 because he
 did not succeed in getting admission to
 him for  the purposes of conversation4 
,x4 ,and at last1 having gone to        

,lampsacus1 he died in that city4 ,and  
it is  said1 that when the governors of 
the city asked him what he would like   
to have done for him1 he replied1 8,that
 they would allow the children to  play 
every year during the month in which he 
died40 ,and this custom is  kept up even
 now4 ,and when he was dead1 the        
citizens of ,lampsacus buried  him with 
great honours1 and wrote this epitaph on
 him3--        ,here ,anaxagoras lies1  
who reached of truth      ,the farthest 
bounds in heavenly speculations4    ,we 
ourselves also have written an epigram  
on him3--        ,wise ,anaxagoras did  
call the sun      ,a mass of glowing    
iron2 and for this      ,death was to be
 his fate4 ,but ,pericles      ,then    
saved his friend2 but afterwards he died
      ,a victim of a weak philosophy4   
,,xi4 ,there were also three other      
people of the name of ,anaxagoras2 none 
of  whom combined all kinds of          
knowledge2 ,but one was an orator and a 
pupil  of ,isocrates2 another was a     

statuary1 who is mentioned by           
,antigonus2  another is a grammarian1 a 
pupil of ,zenodotus4      ,,life ,,of   
,,archelaus4    ,i4 ,archelaus was a    
citizen of either ,athens or ,miletus1  
and his father's  name was ,apollodorus2
 but1 as some say1 ,mydon4 ,he was a    
pupil of  ,anaxagoras1 and the master of
 ,socrates4    ,,ii4 ,he was the first  
person who imported the study of natural
 philosophy  from ,ionia to ,athens1 and
 he was called the ,natural             
,philosopher1 because  natural          
philosophy terminated with him1 as      
,socrates introduced ethical            
philosophy4 ,and it seems probable that 
,archelaus too meddled in some  degree  
with moral philosophy2 for in his       
philosophical speculations he  discussed
 laws and what was honourable and just4 
,and ,socrates borrowed  from him2 and  
because he enlarged his principles1 he  
was thought to be  the inventor of them4
    ,,iii4 ,he used to say that there   
were two primary causes of generation1  

heat and cold2 and that all animals were
 generated out of mud3 and that  what   
are accounted just and disgraceful are  
not so by nature1 but only by  law4 ,and
 his reasoning proceeds in this way4 ,he
 says1 that water being  melted by heat1
 when it is submitted to the action of  
fire1 by which it  is solidified1       
becomes earth2 and when it is liquefied1
 becomes air4  ,and1 therefore1 the     
earth is surrounded by air and          
influenced by it1 and  so is the air by 
the revolutions of fire4 ,and he says   
that animals are  generated out of hot  
earth1 which sends up a thick mud       
something like  milk for their food4 ,so
 too he says that it produced men4      
,and he was the first person who said   
that sound is produced by the           
percussion of the air2 and that the sea 
is filtered in the hollows of  the earth
 in its passage1 and so is condensed2   
and that the sun is the  greatest of the
 stars1 and that the universe is        
boundless4    ,,iv4 ,but there were     

three other people of the name of       
,archelaus3 one1  a geographer1 who     
described the countries traversed by    
,alexander2 the  second1 a man who wrote
 a poem on objects which have two       
natures2 and the  third1 an orator1 who 
wrote a book containing the precepts of 
his art4      ,,life ,,of ,,socrates4   
,i4 ,socrates was the son of            
,sophroniscus1 a statuary1 and of       
,phnarete1 a  midwife2 as ,plato records
 in his ,thetetus1 he was a citizen of  
,athens1 of  the borough of ,alopece4   
,,ii4 ,some people believed that he     
assisted ,euripides in his poems2 in    
reference to which idea1 ,mnesimachus   
speaks as follows3--        ,the        
,phrygians are a new play of ,euripides1
      ,but ,socrates has laid the main  
foundation4#ai    ,and again he says3-- 
,euripides3 patched up by ,socrates4    
,and ,callias1 in his ,captives1 says3--
        ,a4 ,are you so proud1 giving   
yourself such airs8        ,b4 ,and well
 ,i may1 for ,socrates is the cause4    

,and ,aristophanes says1 in his         
,clouds3--        ,this is ,euripides1  
who doth compose      ,those            
argumentative wise tragedies4    ,,iii4 
,but1 having been a pupil of            
,anaxagoras1 as some people say1 but of 
,damon as the other story goes1 related 
by ,alexander in his ,successions1      
after the condemnation of ,anaxagoras1  
he became a disciple of ,archelaus1  the
 natural philosopher4 ,and1 indeed1     
,aristoxenus says that he was very      
intimate with him4    ,,iv4 ,but ,duris 
says that he was a slave1 and employed  
in carving stones4  ,and some say that  
the ,graces in the ,acropolis are his   
work2 and they are  clothed figures4    
,and that it is in reference to this    
that ,timon says1 in  his ,silli3--     
,from them proceeded the stone polisher1
      ,the reasoning legislator1 the    
enchanter      ,of all the ,greeks1     
making them subtle arguers1      ,a     
cunning pedant1 a shrewd ,attic         
quibbler4    ,v4 ,for he was very clever

 in all rhetorical exercises1 as        
,idomeneus also  assures us4 ,but the   
thirty tyrants forbade him to give      
lessons in the art  of speaking and     
arguing1 as ,xenophon tells us4 ,and    
,aristophanes turns  him into ridicule  
in his ,comedies1 as making the worse   
appear the better  reason4 ,for he was  
the first man1 as ,phavorinus says in   
his ,universal  ,history1 who1 in       
conjunction with his disciple schines1  
taught men how  to become orators4 ,and 
,idomeneus makes the same assertion in  
his essay  on the ,socratic ,school4    
,he1 likewise1 was the first person who 
conversed  about human life2 and was    
also the first philosopher who was      
condemned  to death and executed4 ,and  
,aristoxenus1 the son of ,spintharas1   
says that  he lent money in usury2 and  
that he collected the interest and      
principal  together1 and then1 when he  
had got the interest1 he lent it out    
again4  ,and ,demetrius1 of ,byzantium1 
says that it was ,criton who made him   

leave  his workshop and instruct men1   
out of the admiration which he conceived
  for his abilities4    ,,vi4 ,he then1 
perceiving that natural philosophy had  
no immediate bearing  on our interests1 
began to enter upon moral speculations1 
both in his  workshop and in the        
market-place4 ,and he said that the     
objects of his  search were--           
,whatever good or harm can man befall   
,in his own house4    ,and very often1  
while arguing and discussing points that
 arose1 he was  treated with great      
violence and beaten1 and pulled about1  
and laughed  at and ridiculed by the    
multitude4 ,but he bore all this with   
great  equanimity4 ,so that once1 when  
he had been kicked and buffeted about1  
and  had borne it all patiently1 and    
some one expressed his surprise1 he     
said1  8,suppose an ass had kicked me1  
would you have had me bring an action   
against him80 ,and this is the account  
of ,demetrius4    ,,vii4 ,but he had no 
need of travelling 7though most         

philosophers did  travel71 except when  
he was bound to serve in the army4 ,but 
all the rest  of his life he remained in
 the same place1 and in an argumentative
 spirit  he used to dispute with all who
 would converse with him1 not with the  
purpose of taking away their opinions   
from them1 so much as of learning  the  
truth1 as far as he could do so1        
himself4 ,and they say that ,euripides  
gave him a small work of ,heraclitus to 
read1 and asked him afterwards  what he 
thought of it1 and he replied1 8,what ,i
 have understood is good2  and so1 ,i   
think1 what ,i have not understood is2  
only the book requires  a ,delian diver 
to get at the meaning of it40 ,he paid  
great attention  also to the training of
 the body1 and was always in excellent  
condition  himself4 ,accordingly1 he    
joined in the expedition to ,amphipolis1
 and  he it was who took up and saved   
,xenophon in the battle of ,delium1 when
  he had fallen from his horse2 for when
 all the ,athenians had fled1 he        

retreated quietly1 turning round slowly1
 and watching to repel any one  who     
attacked him4 ,he also joined in the    
expedition to ,potida1 which was        
undertaken by sea2 for it was impossible
 to get there by land1 as the war       
impeded the communication4 ,and they say
 that on this occasion he remained  the 
whole night in one place2 and that      
though he had deserved the prize  of    
pre-eminent valour1 he yielded it to    
,alcibiades1 to whom ,aristippus1  in   
the fourth book of his treatise on the  
,luxury of the ,ancients1 says  that he 
was greatly attached4 ,but ,ion1 of     
,chios1 says1 that while he was  a very 
young man he left ,athens1 and went to  
,samos with ,archelaus4 ,and  ,aristotle
 says1 that he went to ,delphi2 and     
,phavorinus also1 in the first  book of 
his ,commentaries1 says that he went to 
the ,isthmus4    ,,viii4 ,he was a man  
of great firmness of mind1 and very much
 attached to  the democracy1 as was     
plain from his not submitting to        

,critias1 when he  ordered him to bring 
,leon of ,salamis1 a very rich man1     
before the thirty1  for the purpose of  
being murdered4 ,and he alone voted for 
the acquittal  of the ten generals2#bj  
and when it was in his power to escape  
out of  prison he would not do it2 and  
he reproved those who bewailed his fate1
  and even while in prison1 he delivered
 those beautiful discourses which  we   
still possess4    ,,ix4 ,he was a       
contented and venerable man4 ,and once1 
as ,pamphila says1 in  the seventh book 
of her ,commentaries1 when ,alcibiades  
offered him a large  piece of ground to 
build a house upon1 he said1 8,but if ,i
 wanted shoes1  and you had given me a  
piece of leather to make myself shoes1  
,i should  be laughed at if ,i took it40
 ,and often1 when he beheld the         
multitude of  things which were being   
sold1 he would say to himself1 8,how    
many things  are there which ,i do not  
want40 ,and he was continually repeating
 these  iambics3--        ,for silver   

plate and purple useful are      ,for   
actors on the stage1 but not for men4   
,and he showed his scorn of ,archelaus  
the ,macedonian1 and ,scopas the        
,cranonian1 and ,eurylochus of ,larissa1
 when he refused to accept their  money1
 and to go and visit them4 ,and he was  
so regular in his way of  living1 that  
it happened more than once when there   
was a plague at  ,athens1 that he was   
the only person who did not catch it4   
,x4 ,aristotle says1 that he had two    
wives4 ,the first was ,xanthippe1 by    
whom he had a son named ,lamprocles2 the
 second was ,myrto1 the daughter  of    
,aristides the ,just2 and he took her   
without any dowry1 and by her he  had   
two sons1 ,sophroniscus and ,menexenus4 
,but some say that ,myrto was  his first
 wife4 ,and some1 among whom are        
,satyrus1 and ,hieronymus1 of  ,rhodes1 
say that he had them both at the same   
time4 ,for they say that the            
,athenians1 on account of the scarcity  
of men1 passed a vote1 with the  view of

 increasing the population1 that a man  
might marry one citizen1  and might also
 have children by another who should be 
legitimate2 on  which account ,socrates 
did so4    ,,xi4 ,and he was a man able 
to look down upon any who mocked him4   
,and he  prided himself upon the        
simplicity of his way of life2 and never
 exacted  any pay from his pupils4 ,and 
he used to say1 that the man who ate    
with  the greatest appetite1 had the    
least need of delicacies2 and that he   
who  drank with the greatest appetite1  
was the least inclined to look for a    
draught which is not at hand2 and that  
those who want fewest things are        
nearest to the ,gods4 ,and thus much1   
indeed1 one may learn from the comic    
poets2 who1 without perceiving it1      
praise him in the very matters for      
which they ridicule him4 ,aristophanes  
speaks thus3--        ,prudent man1 who 
thus with justice long for mighty       
wisdom1      ,happiness will be your lot
 in ,athens1 and all ,greece too2       

,for you've a noble memory1 and plenty  
of invention1      ,and patience dwells 
within your mind1 and you are never     
tired1      ,whether you're standing    
still or walking2 and you care not for  
cold1      ,nor do you long for         
breakfast time1 nor e'er give in to     
hunger2      ,but wine and gluttony you 
shun1 and all such kind of follies4     
,and ,ameipsias introduces him on the   
stage in a cloak1 and speaks thus of    
him3--        ,o ,socrates1 among few   
men the best1      ,and among many      
vainest2 here at last      ,you come to 
us courageously--but where1      ,where 
did you get that cloak8 so strange a    
garment1      ,some leather cutter must 
have given you      ,by way of joke3 and
 yet this worthy man1      ,though ne'er
 so hungry1 never flatters any one4     
,aristophanes too1 exposes his          
contemptuous and arrogant disposition1  
speaking thus3--        ,you strut along
 the streets1 and look around you       
proudly1      ,and barefoot many ills   

endure1 and hold your head above us4    
,and yet1 sometimes he adapted himself  
to the occasion and dressed  handsomely4
 ,as1 for instance1 in the banquet of   
,plato1 where he is  represented as     
going to find ,agathon4    ,,xii4 ,he   
was a man of great ability1 both in     
exhorting men to1 and  dissuading them  
from1 any course2 as1 for instance      
having discoursed  with ,thetetus on the
 subject of knowledge1 he sent him away 
almost  inspired1 as ,plato says4 ,and  
when ,euthyphron had commenced a        
prosecution  against his father for     
having killed a foreigner1 he conversed 
with him  on the subject of piety1 and  
turned him from his purpose3 and by his 
exhortations he made ,lysis a most moral
 man4 ,for he was very ingenious  at    
deriving arguments from existing        
circumstances4 ,and so he mollified  his
 son ,lamprocles when he was very angry 
with his mother1 as ,xenophon  mentions 
somewhere in his works2 and he wrought  
upon ,glaucon1 the  brother of ,plato1  

who was desirous to meddle with affairs 
of state1 and  induced him to abandon   
his purpose1 because of his want of     
experience in  such matters1 as         
,xenophon relates4 ,and1 on the         
contrary1 he persuaded  ,charmidas to   
devote himself to politics1 because he  
was a man very well  calculated for such
 business4 ,he also inspired            
,iphicrates1 the general1  with courage1
 by showing him the gamecocks of ,midias
 the barber1 pluming  themselves against
 those of ,callias2 and ,glauconides    
said1 that the state  ought to keep him 
carefully1 as if he were a pheasant or a
 peacock4 ,he  used also to say1 that it
 was a strange thing that every one     
could easily  tell what property he had1
 but was not able to name all his       
friends1 or  even to tell their number2 
so careless were men on that subject4   
,once  when he saw ,euclid exceedingly  
anxious about some dialectic arguments1 
he  said to him1 8,o ,euclid1 you will  
acquire a power of managing sophists1   

but not of governing men40 ,for he      
thought that subtle hair-splitting on   
those subjects was quite useless2 as    
,plato also records in the ,euthydemus4 
,,xiii4 ,and when ,charmidas offered him
 some slaves1 with the view to his      
making a profit of them1 he would not   
have them2 and1 as some people say1  he 
paid no regard to the beauty of         
,alcibiades4    ,,xiv4 ,he used to      
praise leisure as the most valuable of  
possessions1  as ,xenophon tells us in  
his ,banquet4 ,and it was a saying of   
his that  there was one only good1      
namely1 knowledge2 and one only evil1   
namely1  ignorance2 that riches and high
 birth had nothing estimable in them1   
but  that1 on the contrary1 they were   
wholly evil4 ,accordingly1 when some one
  told him that the mother of           
,antisthenes was a ,thracian woman1     
8,did you  suppose10 said he1 8that so  
noble a man must be born of two         
,athenians80  ,and when ,phdo was       
reduced to a state of slavery1 he       

ordered ,crito to  ransom him1 and      
taught him1 and made him a philosopher4 
,,xv4 ,and1 moreover1 he used to learn  
to play on the lyre when he had time1   
saying1 that it was not absurd to learn 
anything that one did not know2  and    
further1 he used frequently to dance1   
thinking such an exercise good  for the 
health of the body1 as ,xenophon relates
 in his ,banquet4    ,,xvi4 ,he used    
also to say that the dmon foretold the  
future to him2#ba  and that to begin    
well was not a trifling thing1 but yet  
not far from  a trifling thing2 and that
 he knew nothing1 except the fact of his
  ignorance4 ,another saying of his was1
 that those who bought things out of    
season1 at an extravagant price1        
expected never to live till the proper  
season for them4 ,once1 when he was     
asked what was the virtue of a young    
man1 he said1 8,to avoid excess in      
everything40 ,and he used to say1 that  
it was necessary to learn geometry only 
so far as might enable a man to  measure

 land for the purposes of buying and    
selling4 ,and when ,euripides1  in his  
,auge1 had spoken thus of virtue3--     
',tis best to leave these subjects      
undisturbed2    he rose up and left the 
theatre1 saying that it was an absurdity
 to  think it right to seek for a slave 
if one could not find him1 but to  let  
virtue be altogether disregarded4 ,the  
question was once put to him  by a man  
whether he would advise him to marry or 
not8 ,and he replied1  8,whichever you  
do1 you will repent it40 ,he often said1
 that he wondered  at those who made    
stone statues1 when he saw how careful  
they were that  the stone should be like
 the man it was intended to represent1  
but how  careless they were of          
themselves1 as to guarding against being
 like the  stone4 ,he used also to      
recommend young men to be constantly    
looking in  the glass1 in order that1 if
 they were handsome1 they might be      
worthy  of their beauty2 and if they    
were ugly1 they might conceal their     

unsightly appearance by their           
accomplishments4 ,he once invited some  
rich  men to dinner1 and when ,xanthippe
 was ashamed of their insufficient      
appointments1 he said1 8,be of good     
cheer2 for if our guests are sensible   
men1 they will bear with us2 and if they
 are not1 we need not care about  them40
 ,he used to say1 8,that other men lived
 to eat1 but that he ate  to live40     
,another saying of his was1 8,that to   
have a regard for the  worthless        
multitude1 was like the case of a man   
who refused to take one  piece of money 
of four drachmas as if it were bad1 and 
then took a heap  of such coins and     
admitted them to be good40 ,when schines
 said1 8,i am a  poor man1 and have     
nothing else1 but ,i give you myself20  
8,do you not10 he  replied1 8perceive   
that you are giving me what is of the   
greatest value80  ,he said to some one1 
who was expressing indignation at being 
overlooked  when the thirty had seized  
on the supreme power1 8,do you1 then1   

repent of  not being a tyrant too80 ,a  
man said to him1 8,the ,athenians have  
condemned  you to death40 8,and nature10
 he replied1 8has condemned them40 ,but 
some  attribute this answer to          
,anaxagoras4 ,when his wife said to him1
 8,you  die undeservedly40 8,would you1 
then10 he rejoined1 8have had me deserve
  death80 ,he thought once that some one
 appeared to him in a dream1 and        
said3--        ,on the third day you'll 
come to lovely ,phthia4    ,and so he   
said to schines1 8,in three days ,i     
shall die40 ,and when he was  about to  
drink the hemlock1 ,apollodorus         
presented him with a handsome  robe1    
that he might expire in it2 and he said1
 8,why was my own dress good  enough to 
live in1 and not good enough to die in80
 ,when a person said to  him1 8,such an 
one speaks ill of you20 8,to be sure10  
said he1 8for he has  never learnt to   
speak well40 ,when ,antisthenes turned  
the ragged side of  his cloak to the    
light1 he said1 8,i see your silly      

vanity through the  holes in your       
cloak40 ,when some one said to him1     
8,does not that man abuse  you80 8,no10 
said he1 8for that does not apply to    
me40 ,it was a saying of  his1 too1     
8,that it is a good thing for a man to  
offer himself cheerfully  to the attacks
 of the comic writers2 for then1 if they
 say anything worth  hearing1 one will  
be able to mend2 and if they do not1    
then all they say  is unimportant40     
,,xvii4 ,he said once to ,xanthippe1 who
 first abused him and then threw  water 
at him1 8,did ,i not say that ,xanthippe
 was thundering now1 and  would soon    
rain80 ,when ,alcibiades said to him1   
8,the abusive temper of  ,xanthippe is  
intolerable20 8,but ,i10 he rejoined1   
8am used to it1 just  as ,i should be if
 ,i were always hearing the noise of a  
pulley2 and you  yourself endure to hear
 geese cackling40 ,to which ,alcibiades 
answered1  8,yes1 but they bring me eggs
 and goslings40 8,well10 rejoined       
,socrates1  8and ,xanthippe brings me   

children40 ,once1 she attacked him in   
the  market-place1 and tore his cloak   
off2 his friends advised him to keep her
  off with his hands2 8,yes1 by ,jove10 
said he1 8that while we are boxing  you 
may all cry out1 #8,well done1          
,socrates1 well done1 ,xanthippe4'0 ,and
  he used to say1 that one ought to live
 with a restive woman1 just as  horsemen
 manage violent-tempered horses2 8and as
 they10 said he1 8when  they have once  
mastered them1 are easily able to manage
 all others2 so ,i1  after managing     
,xanthippe1 can easily live with any one
 else whatever40    ,,xviii4 ,and it was
 in consequence of such sayings and     
actions as these1  that the priestess at
 ,delphi was witness in his favour1 when
 she gave  ,chrephon this answer1 which 
is so universally known3--              
,socrates of all mortals is the wisest4 
,in consequence of which answer1 he     
incurred great envy2 and he brought     
envy also on himself1 by convicting men 
who gave themselves airs of  folly and  

ignorance1 as undoubtedly he did to     
,anytus2 and as is shown in  ,plato's   
,meno4 ,for he1 not being able to bear  
,socrates' jesting1 first  of all set   
,aristophanes to attack him1 and then   
persuaded ,meletus to  institute a      
prosecution against him1 on the ground  
of impiety and of  corrupting the youth 
of the city4 ,accordingly ,meletus did  
institute  the prosecution2 and         
,polyeuctus pronounced the sentence1 as 
,phavorinus  records in his ,universal  
,history4 ,and ,polycrates1 the sophist1
 wrote the  speech which was delivered1 
as ,hermippus says1 not ,anytus1 as     
others say4  ,and ,lycon1 the demagogue1
 prepared everything necessary to       
support the  impeachment2 but           
,antisthenes in his ,successions of the 
,philosophers1 and  ,plato in his       
,apology1 say that these men brought the
 accusation3--,anytus1  and ,lycon1 and 
,meletus2 ,anytus1 acting against him on
 behalf of the  magistrates1 and because
 of his political principles2 ,lycon1 on

 behalf  of the orators2 and ,meletus on
 behalf of the poets1 all of whom       
,socrates  used to pull to pieces4 ,but 
,phavorinus1 in the first book of his   
,commentaries1 says1 that the speech of 
,polycrates against ,socrates is  not   
the genuine one2 for in it there is     
mention made of the walls having  been  
restored by ,conon1 which took place six
 years after the death of  ,socrates2   
and certainly this is true4    ,,xix4   
,but the sworn informations1 on which   
the trial proceeded1 were  drawn up in  
this fashion2 for they are preserved to 
this day1 says  ,phavorinus1 in the     
temple of ,cybele3--8,meletus1 the son  
of ,meletus1 of  ,pithus1 impeaches     
,socrates1 the son of ,sophroniscus1 of 
,alopece3 ,socrates  is guilty1 inasmuch
 as he does not believe in the ,gods    
whom the city  worships1 but introduces 
other strange deities2 he is also       
guilty1  inasmuch as he corrupts the    
young men1 and the punishment he has    
incurred  is death40    ,,xx4 ,but the  

philosopher1 after ,lysias had prepared 
a defence for him1  read it through1 and
 said--8,it is a very fine speech1      
,lysias1 but is not  suitable for me2   
for it was manifestly the speech of a   
lawyer1 rather  than of a philosopher40 
,and when ,lysias replied1 8,how is it  
possible1  that if it is a good speech1 
it should not be suitable to you80 he   
said1  8,just as fine clothes and       
handsome shoes would not be suitable to 
me40  ,and when the trial was           
proceeding1 ,justus1 of ,tiberias1 in   
his ,garland1  says that ,plato ascended
 the tribune and said1 8,i1 men of      
,athens1 being  the youngest of all     
those who have mounted the tribune '''0 
and that he  was interrupted by the     
judges1 who cried out 1 that is to say1 
#8,come down4'    ,,xxi4 ,so when he had
 been condemned by two hundred and      
eighty-one votes1  being six more than  
were given in his favour1 and when the  
judges were  making an estimate of what 
punishment or fine should be inflicted  

on him1  he said that he ought to be    
fined five and twenty drachmas2 but     
,eubulides  says that he admitted that  
he deserved a fine of one hundred4 ,and 
when  the judges raised an outcry at    
this proposition1 he said1 8,my real    
opinion is1 that as a return for what   
has been done by me1 ,i deserve a       
maintenance in the ,prytaneum for the   
rest of my life40 ,so they condemned    
him to death1 by eighty votes more than 
they had originally found him  guilty4  
,and he was put into prison1 and a few  
days afterwards he drank  the hemlock1  
having held many admirable conversations
 in the meantime1  which ,plato has     
recorded in the ,phdo4    ,,xxii4 ,he   
also1 according to some accounts1       
composed a pan which begins--           
,hail ,apollo1 ,king of ,delos1         
,hail ,diana1 ,leto's child4    ,but    
,dionysidorus says that this pan is not 
his4 ,he also composed a  fable1 in the 
style of sop1 not very artistically1 and
 it begins--        sop one day did this

 sage counsel give      ,to the         
,corinthian magistrates3 not to trust   
,the cause of virtue to the people's    
judgement4    ,,xxiii4 ,so he died2 but 
the ,athenians immediately repented#bb  
of their  action1 so that they closed   
all the palstr and gymnasia2 and they   
banished his accusers1 and condemned    
,meletus to death2 but they honoured    
,socrates with a brazen statue1 which   
they erected in the place where the     
sacred vessels are kept2 and it was the 
work of ,lysippus4 ,but ,anytus had     
already left ,athens2 and the people of 
,heraclea banished him from that  city  
the day of his arrival4 ,but ,socrates  
was not the only person who  met with   
this treatment at the hands of the      
,athenians1 but many other  men received
 the same3 for1 as ,heraclides says1    
they fined ,homer fifty  drachmas as a  
madman1 and they said that ,tyrtus was  
out of his wits4  ,but they honoured    
,astydamas1 before schylus1 with a      
brazen statue4 ,and  ,euripides         

reproaches them for their conduct in his
 ,palamedes1 saying--        ,ye have   
slain1 ye have slain1      ,o ,greeks1  
the all-wise nightingale1      ,the     
favourite of the ,muses1 guiltless all4 
,and enough has been said on this head4 
,but ,philochorus says that ,euripides  
died before ,socrates2 and he was  born1
 as ,apollodorus in his ,chronicles     
asserts1 in the archonship of           
,apsephion1 in the fourth year of the   
seventy-seventh ,olympiad1 on the  sixth
 day of the month ,thargelion1 when the 
,athenians purify their city1  and when 
the citizens of ,delos say that ,diana  
was born4 ,and he died in  the first    
year of the ninety-fifth ,olympiad1     
being seventy years of age4  ,and this  
is the calculation of ,demetrius        
,phalereus1 for some say that he  was   
but sixty years old when he died4       
,,xxiv4 ,both he and ,euripides were    
pupils of ,anaxagoras2 and ,euripides   
was  born in the first year of the      
seventy-fifth ,olympiad1 in the         

archonship  of ,calliades4 ,but         
,socrates appears to me to have also    
discussed  occasionally subjects of     
natural philosophy1 since he very often 
disputes  about prudence and foresight1 
as ,xenophon tells us2 although he at   
the  same time asserts that all his     
conversations were about moral          
philosophy4  ,and ,plato1 in his        
,apology1 mentions the principles of    
,anaxagoras and  other natural          
philosophers1 which ,socrates denies2   
and he is in reality  expressing his own
 sentiments about them1 though he       
attributes them all  to ,socrates4 ,and 
,aristotle tells us that a certain one  
of the ,magi came  from ,syria to       
,athens1 and blamed ,socrates for many  
parts of his conduct1  and also foretold
 that he would come to a violent death4 
,and we ourselves  have written this    
epigram on him--        ,drink now1 ,o  
,socrates1 in the realms of ,jove1      
,for truly did the ,god pronounce you   
wise1      ,and he who said so is       

himself all wisdom3      ,you drank the 
poison which your country gave1         
,but they drank wisdom from your godlike
 voice4    ,,xxv4 ,he had1 as ,aristotle
 tells us in the third book of his      
,poetics1  a contest with a man of the  
name of ,antiolochus of ,lemnos1 and    
with  ,antipho1 an interpreter of       
prodigies1 as ,pythagoras had with      
,cylon  of ,crotona2 and ,homer while   
alive with ,sagaris1 and after his death
  with ,xenophanes the ,colophonian2 and
 ,hesiod1 too1 in his lifetime with     
,cercops1 and after his death with the  
same ,xenophanes2 and ,pindar with      
,amphimenes of ,cos2 and ,thales with   
,pherecydes2 and ,bias with ,salarus of 
,priene2 and ,pittacus with             
,antimenides2 and ,alcus and ,anaxagoras
 with  ,sosibius2 and ,simonides with   
,timocreon4    ,,xxvi4 ,of those who    
succeeded him1 and who are called the   
,socratic school1  the chiefs were      
,plato1 ,xenophon1 and ,antisthenes3 and
 of the ten1 as they  are often called1 

the four most eminent were schines1     
,phdo1 ,euclides1  and ,aristippus4 ,but
 we must first speak of ,xenophon1 and  
after him of  ,antisthenes among the    
,cynics4 ,then of the ,socratic school1 
and so about  ,plato1 since he is the   
chief of the ten sects1 and the founder 
of the  first ,academy4 ,and the regular
 series of them shall proceed in this   
manner4    ,,xxvii4 ,there was also     
another ,socrates1 a historian1 who     
wrote a  description of ,argos2 and     
another1 a peripatetic philosopher1 a   
native of  ,bithynia2 and another a     
writer of epigrams2 and another a native
 of ,cos1  who wrote invocations to the 
,gods4      ,,life ,,of ,,xenophon4     
,i4 ,xenophon1 the son of ,gryllus1 a   
citizen of ,athens1 was of the borough  
of ,erchia2 and he was a man of great   
modesty1 and as handsome as can be      
imagined4    ,,ii4 ,they say that       
,socrates met him in a narrow lane1 and 
put his stick  across it1 and prevented 
him from passing by1 asking him where   

all kinds  of necessary things were     
sold4 ,and when he had answered him1 he 
asked him  again where men were made    
good and virtuous4 ,and as he did not   
know1 he  said1 8,follow me1 then1 and  
learn40 ,and from this time forth1      
,xenophon  became a follower of         
,socrates4    ,,iii4 ,and he was the    
first person who took down conversations
 as they  occurred1 and published them  
among men1 calling them memorabilia4 ,he
 was  also the first man who wrote a    
history of philosophers4    ,,iv4 ,and  
,aristippus1 in the fourth book of his  
treatise on ,ancient ,luxury1  says that
 he loved ,clinias2 and that he said to 
him1 8,now ,i look upon  ,clinias with  
more pleasure than upon all the other   
beautiful things which  are to be seen  
among men2 and ,i would rather be blind 
as to all the rest  of the world1 than  
as to ,clinias4 ,and ,i am annoyed even 
with night and  with sleep1 because then
 ,i do not see him2 but ,i am very      
grateful to the  sun and to daylight1   

because they show ,clinias to me40      
,v4 ,he became a friend of ,cyrus in    
this manner4 ,he had an acquaintance1 by
  name ,proxenus1 a ,botian by birth1 a 
pupil of ,gorgias of ,leontini1 and a   
friend of ,cyrus4 ,he being in ,sardis1 
staying at the court of ,cyrus1 wrote  a
 letter to ,athens to ,xenophon1        
inviting him to come and be a friend of 
,cyrus4 ,and ,xenophon showed the letter
 to ,socrates1 and asked his advice4    
,and ,socrates bade him go to ,delphi1  
and ask counsel of the ,god4 ,and       
,xenophon did so1 and went to the ,god2 
but the question he put was1 not        
whether it was good for him to go to    
,cyrus or not1 but how he should go2    
for which ,socrates blamed him1 but     
still advised him to go4 ,accordingly   
he went to ,cyrus1 and became no less   
dear to him than ,proxenus4 ,and all    
the circumstances of the expedition and 
the retreat1 he himself has             
sufficiently related to us4    ,,vi4    
,but he was at enmity with ,menon the   

,pharsalian1 who was the commander  of  
the foreign troops at the time of the   
expedition2 and amongst other           
reproaches1 he says that he was much    
addicted to the worst kind of           
debauchery4 ,and he reproaches a man of 
the name of ,apollonides with  having   
his ears bored4    ,,vii4 ,but after the
 expedition1 and the disasters which    
took place in  ,pontus1 and the         
violations of the truce by ,seuthes1 the
 king of the  ,odrys1 he came into ,asia
 to ,agesilaus1 the king of ,lacedmon1  
bringing  with him the soldiers of      
,cyrus1 to serve for pay2 and he became 
a very  great friend of ,agesilaus4 ,and
 about the same time he was condemned to
  banishment by the ,athenians1 on the  
charge of being a favourer of the       
,lacedmonians4 ,and being in ,ephesus1  
and having a sum of money in gold1  he  
gave half of it to ,megabyzus1 the      
priest of ,diana1 to keep for him  till 
his return2 and if he never returned1   
then he was to expend it upon  a statue1

 and dedicate that to the ,goddess2 and 
with the other half he  sent offerings  
to ,delphi4 ,from thence he went with   
,agesilaus into ,greece1  as ,agesilaus 
was summoned to take part in the war    
against the ,thebans4  ,and the         
,lacedmonians made him a friend of their
 city4    ,,viii4 ,after this he left   
,agesilaus and went to ,scillus1 which  
is a strong  place in the district of   
,elis1 at no great distance from the    
city4 ,and a  woman followed him1 whose 
name was ,philesia1 as ,demetrius the   
,magnesian  relates2 and his sons1      
,gryllus and ,diodorus1 as ,dinarchus   
states in the  action against           
,xenophon2#bc and they were also called 
,dioscuri4 ,and  when ,megabyzus came   
into the country1 on the occasion of    
some public  assembly1 he took back the 
money and bought a piece of ground1 and 
consecrated it to the ,goddess2 and a   
river named ,selinus1 which is the  same
 name as that of the river at ,ephesus1 
flows through the land4 ,and  there he  

continued hunting1 and entertaining his 
friends1 and writing  histories4 ,but   
,dinarchus says that the ,lacedmonians  
gave him a house  and land4 ,they say   
also that ,philopides1 the ,spartan1    
sent him there1 as  a present some      
slaves1 who had been taken prisoners of 
war1 natives of  ,dardanus1 and that he 
located them as he pleased4 ,and that   
the ,eleans1  having made an expedition 
against ,scillus1 took the place1 as the
  ,lacedmonians dawdled in coming to his
 assistance4    ,,ix4 ,but then his sons
 escaped privily to ,lepreum1 with a few
 servants2  and ,xenophon himself fled  
to ,elis before the place fell2 and from
 thence  he went to ,lepreum to his     
children1 and from thence he escaped in 
safety  to ,corinth1 and settled in that
 city4    ,x4 ,in the meantime1 as the  
,athenians had passed a vote to go to   
the  assistance of the ,lacedmonians1 he
 sent his sons to ,athens1 to join in   
the expedition in aid of the            
,lacedmonians2 for they had been        

educated  in ,sparta1 as ,diocles       
relates in his ,lives of the            
,philosophers4 ,diodorus  returned safe 
back again1 without having at all       
distinguished himself  in the battle4   
,and he had a son who bore the same name
 as his brother  ,gryllus4 ,but         
,gryllus1 serving in the cavalry1 7and  
the battle took place  at ,mantinea17   
fought very gallantly1 and was slain1 as
 ,ephorus tells us1  in his twenty-fifth
 book2 ,cephisodorus being the ,captain 
of the cavalry1  and ,hegesides the     
commander-in-chief4 ,epaminondas also   
fell in this  battle4 ,and after the    
battle1 they say that ,xenophon offered 
sacrifice1  wearing a crown on his head2
 but when the news of the death of his  
son  arrived1 he took off the crown2 but
 after that1 hearing that he had  fallen
 gloriously1 he put the crown on again4 
,and some say that he did  not even shed
 a tear1 but said1 8,i knew that ,i was 
the father of a mortal  man40 ,and      
,aristotle says1 that innumerable       

writers wrote panegyrics and  epitaphs  
upon ,gryllus1 partly out of a wish to  
gratify his father4 ,and  ,hermippus1 in
 his ,treatise on ,theophrastus1 says   
that ,isocrates also  composed a        
panegyric on ,gryllus4 ,but ,timon      
ridicules him in these words3--         
,a silly couplet1 or e'en triplet of    
speeches1      ,or longer series still1 
just such as ,xenophon      ,might      
write1 or ,meagre schines4    ,such1    
then1 was the life of ,xenophon4        
,,xi4 ,and he flourished about the      
fourth year of the ninety-fourth        
,olympiad2 and he took part in the      
expedition of ,cyrus1 in the archonship 
of ,xennetus1 the year before the death 
of ,socrates4 ,and he died1 as          
,stesiclides the ,athenian states in his
 ,list of ,archons and ,conquerors  at  
,olympia1 in the first year of the      
hundred and fifth ,olympiad1 in the     
archonship of ,callidemides2 in which   
year1 ,philip the son of ,amyntas  began
 to reign over the ,macedonians4 ,and he

 died at ,corinth1 as ,demetrius  the   
,magnesian says1 being of a very        
advanced age4    ,,xii4 ,and he was a   
man of great distinction in all points1 
and very fond  of horses and of dogs1   
and a great tactician1 as is manifest   
from his  writings4 ,and he was a pious 
man1 fond of sacrificing to the ,gods1  
and a  great authority as to what was   
due to them1 and a very ardent admirer  
and  imitator of ,socrates4    ,,xiii4  
,he also wrote near forty books2 though 
different critics divide  them          
differently4 ,he wrote an account of the
 expedition of ,cyrus1 to each  book of 
which work he prefixed a summary1 though
 he gave none of the  whole history4 ,he
 also wrote the ,cyropdia1 and a history
 of ,greece1 and  ,memorabilia of       
,socrates1 and a treatise called the    
,banquet1 and an essay  on conomy1 and  
one on ,horsemanship1 and one on        
,breaking ,dogs1 and one on  ,managing  
,horses1 and a ,defence of ,socrates1   
and a ,treatise on ,revenues1  and one  

called ,hiero1 or the ,tyrant1 and one  
called ,agesilaus2 one on  the          
,constitution of the ,athenians and     
,lacedmonians1 which1 however1          
,demetrius the ,magnesian says is not   
the work of ,xenophon4 ,it is said1     
also1 that he secretly got possession of
 the books of ,thucydides1 which  were  
previously unknown1 and himself         
published them4    ,,xiv4 ,he was also  
called the ,attic ,muse1 because of the 
sweetness of  his diction1 in respect of
 which he and ,plato felt a spirit of   
rivalry  towards one another1 as we     
shall relate further in our life of     
,plato4 ,and  we ourselves have composed
 an epigram on him1 which runs thus3--  
,not only up to ,babylon for ,cyrus     
,did ,xenophon go1 but now he's mounted 
up      ,the path which leads to ,jove's
 eternal realms--        ,for he1       
recounting the great deeds of ,greece1  
,displays his noble genius1 and he shows
        ,the depth of wisdom of his     
master ,socrates4    ,and another which 

ends thus3--        ,o ,xenophon1 if th'
 ungrateful countrymen        ,of       
,cranon and ,cecrops1 banished you1     
,jealous of ,cyrus' favour which he     
show'd you1        ,still hospitable    
,corinth1 with glad heart1              
,received you1 and you lived there      
happily1        ,and so resolved to stay
 in that fair city4    ,,xv4 ,but ,i    
have found it stated in some places that
 he flourished about  the eighty-ninth  
,olympiad1 at the same time as the rest 
of the disciples  of ,socrates4 ,and    
,ister says1 that he was banished by a  
decree of ,eubulus1  and that he was    
recalled by another decree proposed by  
the same person4    ,,xvi4 ,but there   
were seven people of the name of        
,xenophon4 ,first of  all1 this         
philosopher of ours2 secondly1 an       
,athenian1 a brother of  ,pythostratus1 
who wrote the poem called the ,theseid1 
and who wrote  other works too1         
especially the lives of ,epaminondas and
 ,pelopidas2 the  third was a physician 

of ,cos2 the fourth1 a man who wrote a  
history of  ,alcibiades2 the fifth1 was 
a writer who composed a book full of    
fabulous  prodigies2 the sixth1 a       
citizen of ,paros1 a sculptor2 the      
seventh1 a poet  of the ,old ,comedy4   
,,life ,,of ,,schines4    ,i4 schines   
was the son of ,charinus1 the           
sausage-maker1 but1 as some  writers    
say1 of ,lysanias2 he was a citizen of  
,athens1 of an industrious  disposition 
from his boyhood upwards1 on which      
account he never quitted  ,socrates4    
,,ii4 ,and this induced ,socrates to    
say1 the only one who knows how to pay  
us proper respect is the son of the     
sausage-seller4 ,idomeneus asserts1     
that it was he who1 in the prison1 tried
 to persuade ,socrates to make  his     
escape1 and not ,crito4 ,but that       
,plato1 as he was rather inclined to    
favour ,aristippus1 attributed his      
advice to ,crito4    ,,iii4 ,and schines
 was calumniated on more than one       
occasion2 and  especially by ,menedemus 

of ,eretria1 who states that he         
appropriated many  dialogues of         
,socrates as his own1 having procured   
them from ,xanthippe4  ,and those of    
them which are called 8headless10 are   
exceedingly slovenly  performances1     
showing nothing of the energy of        
,socrates4 ,and ,pisistratus1  of       
,ephesus1 used to say1 that they were   
not the work of schines4 ,there  are    
seven of them1 and most of them are     
stated by ,persus to be the work  of    
,pasiphon1 of ,eretria1 and to have been
 inserted by him among the works  of    
schines4 ,and he plagiarised from the   
,little ,cyrus1 and the ,lesser         
,hercules1 of ,antisthenes1 and from the
 ,alcibiades1 and from the ,dialogues   
of the other philosophers4 ,the         
,dialogues then of schines1 which       
profess  to give an idea of the system  
of ,socrates are1 as ,i have said1 seven
 in  number4 ,first of all1 the         
,miltiades1 which is rather weak2 the   
,callias1  the ,axiochus1 the ,aspasia1 

the ,alcibiades1 the ,telauges1 and the 
,rhino4  ,and they say that he1 being in
 want1 went to ,sicily1 to ,dionysius1  
and  was looked down upon by ,plato1 but
 supported by ,aristippus1 and that he  
gave ,dionysius some of his dialogues1  
and received presents for them4    ,,iv4
 ,after that he came to ,athens1 and    
there he did not venture to  practise   
the trade of a sophist1 as ,plato and   
,aristippus were in high  reputation    
there4 ,but he gave lectures for money1 
and wrote speeches  to be delivered in  
the courts of law for persons under     
prosecution4 ,on  which account1 ,timon 
said of him1 8,the speeches of schines  
which do  not convince any one40 ,and   
they say that when he was in great      
straights  through poverty1 ,socrates   
advised him to borrow of himself1 by    
deducting  some part of his expenditure 
in his food4    ,v4 ,and even           
,aristippus suspected the genuineness of
 some of his  ,dialogues2 accordingly1  
they say that when he was reciting some 

of them  at ,megara1 he ridiculed him1  
and said to him1 8,oh6 you thief2 where 
did  you get that80    ,,vi4 ,and       
,polycritus1 of ,menda1 in the first    
book of his ,history of  ,dionysius1    
says that he lived with the tyrant till 
he was deposed1 and  till the return of 
,dion to ,syracuse2 and he says that    
,carcinus1 the  tragedian1 was also with
 him4 ,and here is extant a letter of   
schines  addressed to ,dionysius4       
,,vii4 ,but he was a man well versed in 
rhetorical art1 as is plain from  the   
defence of his father ,phax1 the        
general2 and from the works which  he   
wrote in especial imitation of ,gorgias 
of ,leontini4 ,and ,lysias wrote  an    
oration against him entitling it1 ,on   
,sycophancy2 from all which             
circumstances it is plain that he was a 
skilful orator4 ,and one man is  spoken 
of as his especial friend1 ,aristotle1  
who was surnamed ,the ,table4    ,,viii4
 ,now ,pantius thinks that the          
,dialogues of the following disciples   

of the ,socratic school are all         
genuine1--,plato1 ,xenophon1            
,antisthenes1 and  schines2 but he      
doubts about those which go under the   
names of ,phdon1  and ,euclides2 and he 
utterly repudiates all the others4      
,,ix4 ,and there were eight men of the  
name of schines4 ,the first1 this       
philosopher of ours2 the second was a   
man who wrote a treatise on  ,oratorical
 ,art2 the third was the orator who     
spoke against ,demosthenes2  the fourth 
was an ,arcadian1 a disciple of         
,isocrates2 the fifth was a  citizen of 
,mitylene1 whom they used to call the   
,scourge of the ,orators2  the sixth was
 a ,neapolitan1 a philosopher of the    
,academy1 a disciple  and favourite of  
,melanthius1 of ,rhode2 the seventh was 
a ,milesian1 a  political writer2 the   
eighth was a statuary4      ,,life ,,of 
,,aristippus4    ,i4 ,aristippus was by 
birth a ,cyrenean1 but he came to       
,athens1 as schines  says1 having been  
attracted thither by the fame of        

,socrates4    ,,ii4 ,he1 having         
professed himself a ,sophist1 as        
,phanias1 of ,eresus1 the  ,peripatetic1
 informs us1 was the first of the pupils
 of ,socrates who  exacted money from   
his pupils1 and who sent money to his   
master4 ,and once  he sent him twenty   
drachmas1 but had them sent back again1 
as ,socrates  said that his dmon would  
not allow him to accept them2 for1 in   
fact1 he  was indignant at having them  
offered to him4 ,and ,xenophon used to  
hate  him2 on which account he wrote his
 book against pleasure as an attack     
upon ,aristippus1 and assigned the main 
argument to ,socrates4 ,theodorus  also1
 in his ,treatise on ,sects1 has        
attacked him severely1 and so has       
,plato in his book on the ,soul1 as we  
have mentioned in another place4        
,,iii4 ,but he was a man very quick at  
adapting himself to every kind of       
place1 and time1 and person1#bd and he  
easily supported every change of        
fortune4 ,for which reason he was in    

greater favour with ,dionysius than  any
 of the others1 as he always made the   
best of existing circumstances4  ,for he
 enjoyed what was before him pleasantly1
 and he did not toil to  procure himself
 the enjoyment of what was not present4 
,on which account  ,diogenes used to    
call him the king's dog4 ,and ,timon    
used to snarl at him  as too luxurious1 
speaking somewhat in this fashion3      
,like the effeminate mind of            
,aristippus1      ,who1 as he said1 by  
touch could judge of falsehood4    ,they
 say that he once ordered a partridge to
 be bought for him at the  price of     
fifty drachmas2 and when some one blamed
 him1 8,and would not  you10 said he1   
8have bought it if it had cost an obol80
 ,and when he said  he would1 8,well10  
replied ,aristippus1 8fifty drachmas are
 no more to  me40 ,dionysius once bade  
him select which he pleased of three    
beautiful  courtesans2 and he carried   
off all three1 saying that even ,paris  
did not  get any good by preferring one 

beauty to the rest4 ,however1 they say1 
that when he had carried them as far as 
the vestibule1 he dismissed them2  so   
easily inclined was he to select or to  
disregard things4 ,on which  account    
,strato1 or1 as others will have it1    
,plato1 said to him1 8,you are  the only
 man to whom it is given to wear both a 
whole cloak and rags40  ,once when      
,dionysius spit at him1 he put up with  
it2 and when some one  found fault with 
him1 he said1 8,men endure being wetted 
by the sea in  order to catch a tench1  
and shall not ,i endure to be sprinkled 
with wine  to catch a sturgeon80        
,,iv4 ,once ,diogenes1 who was washing  
vegetables1 ridiculed him as he passed  
by1 and said1 8,if you had learnt to eat
 these vegetables1 you would not  have  
been a slave in the palace of a tyrant40
 ,but ,aristippus replied1  8,and you1  
if you had known how to behave among    
men1 would not have been  washing       
vegetables40 ,being asked once what     
advantage he had derived from           

philosophy1 he said1 8,the power of     
associating confidently with every      
body40 ,when he was reproached for      
living extravagantly1 he replied1 8,if  
extravagance had been a fault1 it would 
not have had a place in the  festivals  
of the ,gods40 ,at another time he was  
asked what advantage  philosophers had  
over other men2 and he replied1 8,if all
 the laws should  be abrogated1 we      
should still live in the same manner as 
we do now40 ,once  when ,dionysius asked
 him why the philosophers haunt the     
doors of the  rich1 but the rich do not 
frequent those of the philosophers1 he  
said1  8,because the first know what    
they want1 but the second do not40      
,on one occasion he was reproached by   
,plato for living in an expensive  way2 
and he replied1 8,does not ,dionysius   
seem to you to be a good man80  ,and as 
he said that he did2 8,and yet10 said   
he1 8he lives in a more  expensive      
manner than ,i do1 so that there is no  
impossibility in a  person's living both

 expensively and well at the same time40
 ,he was asked  once in what educated   
men are superior to uneducated men2 and 
answered1  8,just as broken horses are  
superior to those that are unbroken40   
,on  another occasion he was going into 
the house of a courtesan1 and when one  
of the young men who were with him      
blushed1 he said1 8,it is not the going 
into such a house that is bad1 but the  
not being able to go out40 ,once  a man 
proposed a riddle to him1 and said1     
8,solve it40 8,why1 you silly  fellow10 
said ,aristippus1 8do you wish me to    
loose what gives us trouble1  even while
 it is in bonds80 ,a saying of his was1 
8that it was better to  be a beggar than
 an ignorant person2 for that a beggar  
only wants money1  but an ignorant      
person wants humanity40 ,once when he   
was abused1 he was  going away1 and as  
his adversary pursued him and said1     
8,why are you going  away80 8,because10 
said he1 8you have a license for        
speaking ill2 but  ,i have another for  

declining to hear ill40 ,when some one  
said that he  always saw the            
philosophers at the doors of the rich   
men1 he said1 8,and  the physicians also
 are always seen at the doors of their  
patients2 but  still no one would choose
 for this reason to be an invalid rather
 than a  physician40    ,once it        
happened1 that when he was sailing to   
,corinth1 he was overtaken  by a violent
 storm2 and when somebody said1 8,we    
common individuals are  not afraid1 but 
you philosophers are behaving like      
cowards20 he said1  8,very likely1 for  
we have not both of us the same kind of 
souls at  stake40 ,seeing a man who     
prided himself on the variety of his    
learning  and accomplishments1 he said1 
8,those who eat most1 and who take the  
most  exercise1 are not in better health
 than they who eat just as much as is   
good for them2 and in the same way it is
 not those who know a great many        
things1 but they who know what is useful
 who are valuable men40 ,an orator  had 

pleaded a cause for him and gained it1  
and asked him afterwards1  8,now1 what  
good did you ever get from ,socrates80  
8,this good10 said he1  8that all that  
you have said in my behalf is true40 ,he
 gave admirable  advice to his daughter 
,arete1 teaching her to despise         
superfluity4 ,and  being asked by some  
one in what respect his son would be    
better if he  received a careful        
education1 he replied1 8,if he gets no  
other good1 at  all events1 when he is  
at the theatre1 he will not be one stone
 sitting  upon another40 ,once when some
 one brought his son to introduce to    
him1 he  demanded five hundred drachmas2
 and when the father said1 8,why1 for   
such  a price as that ,i can buy a      
slave40 8,buy him then10 he replied1    
8and you  will have a pair40    ,it was 
a saying of his that he took money from 
his acquaintances not in  order to use  
it himself1 but to make them aware in   
what they ought to  spend their money4  
,on one occasion1 being reproached for  

having employed  a hired advocate in a  
cause that he had depending3 8,why not10
 said he2  8when ,i have a dinner1 ,i   
hire a cook40 ,once he was compelled by 
,dionysius  to repeat some philosophical
 sentiment2 8,it is an absurdity10 said 
he1  8for you to learn of me how to     
speak1 and yet to teach me when ,i ought
  to speak30 and as ,dionysius was      
offended at this1 he placed him at the  
lowest end of the table2 on which       
,aristippus said1 8,you wish to make    
this place more respectable40 ,a man was
 one day boasting of his skill  as a    
diver2 8,are you not ashamed10 said     
,aristippus1 8to pride yourself  on your
 performance of the duty of a dolphin80 
,on one occasion he was  asked in what  
respect a wise man is superior to one   
who is not wise2 and  his answer was1   
8,send them both naked among strangers1 
and you will find  out40 ,a man was     
boasting of being able to drink a great 
deal without  being drunk2 and he said1 
8,a mule can do the very same thing40   

,when a  man reproached him for living  
with a mistress1 he said1 8,does it make
  any difference whether one takes a    
house in which many others have lived   
before one1 or one where no one has ever
 lived80 and his reprover said1  8,no40 
8,well does it make any difference      
whether one sails in a ship which  ten  
thousand people have sailed before one1 
or whether one sails in  one in which no
 one has ever embarked80 8,by no means10
 said the other4  8,just in the same    
way10 said he1 8it makes no difference  
whether one  lives with a woman with    
whom numbers have lived1 or with one    
with whom  no one has lived40 ,when a   
person once blamed him for taking money 
from  his pupils1 after having been     
himself a pupil of ,socrates3 8,to be   
sure  ,i do10 he replied1 8for ,socrates
 too1 when some friends sent their corn 
and wine1 accepted a little1 and sent   
the rest back2 for he had the chief  men
 of the ,athenians for his purveyors4   
,but ,i have only ,eutychides1 whom  ,i 

have bought with money40 ,and he used to
 live with ,lais the courtesan1  as     
,sotion tells us in the ,second ,book of
 his ,successions4 ,accordingly1  when  
some one reproached him on her account1 
he made answer1 8,i possess  her1 but ,i
 am not possessed by her2 since the best
 thing is to possess  pleasures without 
being their slave1 not to be devoid of  
pleasures40 ,when  some one blamed him  
for the expense he was at about his     
food1 he said1  8,would you not have    
bought those things yourself if they had
 cost three  obols80 ,and when the other
 admitted that he would1 8,then10 said  
he1 8it  is not that ,i am fond of      
pleasure1 but that you are fond of      
money40 ,on  one occasion1 when ,simus1 
the steward of ,dionysius1 was showing  
him a  magnificent house1 paved with    
marble 7but ,simus was a ,phrygian1 and 
a  great toper71 he hawked up a quantity
 of saliva and spit in his face2  and   
when ,simus was indignant at this1 he   
said1 8,i could not find a more         

suitable place to spit in40             
,charondas1 or as some say1 ,phdon1     
asked him once1 8,who are the people    
who use perfumes80 8,i do10 said he1    
8wretched man that ,i am1 and the  king 
of the ,persians is still more wretched 
than ,i2 but1 recollect1 that  as no    
animal is the worse for having a        
pleasant scent1 so neither is a  man2   
but plague take those wretches who abuse
 our beautiful unguents40  ,on another  
occasion1 he was asked how ,socrates    
died2 and he made answer1  8,as ,i      
should wish to die myself40 ,when       
,polyxenus1 the ,sophist1 came to  his  
house and beheld his women1 and the     
costly preparation that was made  for   
dinner1 and then blamed him for all this
 luxury1 ,aristippus after a  while     
said1 8,can you stay with me to day80   
and when ,polyxenus consented1  8,why   
then10 said he1 8did you blame me8 it   
seems that you blame not the  luxury1   
but the expense of it40 ,when his       
servant was once carrying some  money   

along the road1 and was oppressed by the
 weight of it 7as ,bion  relates in his 
,dissertations71 he said to him1 8,drop 
what is beyond your  strength1 and only 
carry what you can40 ,once he was at    
sea1 and seeing  a pirate vessel at a   
distance1 he began to count his money2  
and then he  let it drop into the sea1  
as if unintentionally1 and began to     
bewail his  loss2 but others say that he
 said besides1 that it was better for   
the  money to be lost for the sake of   
,aristippus1 than ,aristippus for the   
sake of his money4 ,on one occasion1    
when ,dionysius asked him why he had    
come1 he said1 to give others a share of
 what he had1 and to receive a  share of
 what he had not2 but some report that  
his answer was1 8,when ,i  wanted       
wisdom1 ,i went to ,socrates2 but now   
that ,i want money1 ,i have come  to    
you40 ,he found fault with men1 because 
when they are at sales1 they  examine   
the articles offered very carefully1 but
 yet they approve of  men's lives       

without any examination4 ,though some   
attribute this speech  to ,diogenes4    
,they say that once at a banquet1       
,dionysius desired all the  guests to   
dance in purple garments2 but ,plato    
refused1 saying3--        8,i could not 
wear a woman's robe1 when ,i      ,was  
born a man1 and of a manly race40       
,but ,aristippus took the garment1 and  
when he was about to dance1 he said     
very wittily3--        8,she who is     
chaste1 will not corrupted be      ,by  
,bacchanalian revels40    ,he was once  
asking a favour of ,dionysius for a     
friend1 and when he could  not prevail1 
he fell at his feet2 and when some one  
reproached him for  such conduct1 he    
said1 8,it is not ,i who am to blame1   
but ,dionysius who  has his ears in his 
feet40 ,when he was staying in ,asia1   
and was taken  prisoner by ,artaphernes 
the ,satrap1 some one said to him1 8,are
 you still  cheerful and sanguine80     
8,when1 you silly fellow10 he replied1  
8can ,i have  more reason to be cheerful

 than now when ,i am on the point of    
conversing  with ,artaphernes80 ,it used
 to be a saying of his1 that those who  
had  enjoyed the encyclic course of     
education1 but who had omitted          
philosophy1  were like the suitors of   
,penelope2 for that they gained over    
,melantho  and ,polydora and the other  
maid-servants1 and found it easier to do
 that  than to marry the mistress4 ,and 
,ariston said in like manner1 that      
,ulysses  when he had gone to the shades
 below1 saw and conversed with nearly   
all  the dead in those regions1 but     
could not get a sight of the ,queen     
herself4    ,on another occasion1       
,aristippus being asked what were the   
most necessary  things for well-born    
boys to learn1 said1 8,those things     
which they will  put in practice when   
they become men40 ,and when some one    
reproached him  for having come from    
,socrates to ,dionysius1 his reply was1 
8,i went to  ,socrates because ,i wanted
 instruction 771 and ,i have come to    

,dionysius because ,i want diversion    
7740 ,as he had made money by  having   
pupils1 ,socrates once said to him1     
8,where did you get so much80  and he   
answered1 8,where you got a little40    
,when his mistress said to him1  8,i am 
in the family way by you10 he said1     
8,you can no more tell that1  than you  
could tell1 after you had gone through a
 thicket1 which thorn  had scratched    
you40 ,and when some one blamed him for 
repudiating his son1  as if he were not 
really his1 he said1 8,i know that      
phlegm1 and ,i know  that lice1 proceed 
from us1 but still we cast them away as 
useless40  ,one day1 when he had        
received some money from ,dionysius1 and
 ,plato had  received a book1 he said to
 a man who jeered him1 8,the fact is1   
money is  what ,i want1 and books what  
,plato wants40 ,when he was asked what  
it was  for which he was reproached by  
,dionysius1 8,the same thing10 said he1 
8for  which others reproach me40 ,one   
day he asked ,dionysius for some money1 

who  said1 8,but you told me that a wise
 man would never be in want20 8,give  me
 some10 ,aristippus rejoined1 8and then 
we will discuss that point20  ,dionysius
 gave him some1 8,now then10 said he1   
8you see that ,i do not want  money40   
,when ,dionysius said to him2--         
8,for he who does frequent a tyrant's   
court1#be      ,becomes his slave1      
though free when first he came30    ,he 
took him up1 and replied3--             
8,that man is but a slave who comes as  
free40    ,this story is told by        
,diocles1 in his book on the ,lives of  
the  ,philosophers2 but others attribute
 the rejoinder to ,plato4 ,he once      
quarrelled with schines1 and presently  
afterwards said to him1 8,shall we  not 
make it up of our own accord1 and cease 
this folly2 but will you wait  till some
 blockhead reconciles us over our cups80
 8,with all my heart10  said schines4   
8,recollect1 then10 said ,aristippus1   
8that ,i1 who am older  than you1 have  
made the first advances40 ,and schines  

answered1 8,you say  well1 by ,juno1    
since you are far better than ,i2 for ,i
 began the quarrel1  but you begin the  
friendship40 ,and these are the         
anecdotes which are told  of him4    ,v4
 ,now there were four people of the name
 of ,aristippus2 one1 the man  of whom  
we are now speaking2 the second1 the man
 who wrote the history  of ,arcadia2 the
 third was one who1 because he had been 
brought up by  his mother1 had the name 
of  given to him2 and he was the        
grandson of the former1 being his       
daughter's son2 the fourth was a        
philosopher of the ,new ,academy4       
,,vi4 ,there are three books extant1    
written by the ,cyrenaic philosopher1   
which are1 a history of ,africa1 and    
which were sent by him to ,dionysius2   
and there is another book containing    
twenty-five dialogues1 some written  in 
the ,attic1 and some in the ,doric      
dialect4 ,and these are the titles of   
the ,dialogues--,artabazus2 to the      
,shipwrecked ,sailors2 to the ,exiles2  

to  a ,beggar2 to ,lais2 to ,porus2 to  
,lais about her ,looking-glass2         
,mercury2  the ,dream2 to the ,president
 of the ,feast2 ,philomelus2 to his     
,domestics2  to those who reproached him
 for possessing old wine and mistresses2
 to  those who reproached him for       
spending much money on his eating2 a    
,letter  to ,arete his daughter2 a      
letter to a man who was training himself
 for  the ,olympic games2 a book of     
,questions2 another book of ,questions2 
a  ,dissertation addressed to           
,dionysius2 an ,essay on a ,statue2 an  
,essay on  the daughter of ,dionysius2 a
 book addressed to one who thought      
himself  neglected2 another to one who  
attempted to give him advice4 ,some say1
  also1 that he wrote six books of      
dissertations2 but others1 the chief  of
 whom is ,sosicrates of ,rhodes1 affirm 
that he never wrote a single  thing4    
,according to the assertions of ,sotion 
in his second book2 and  of ,pantius1 on
 the contrary1 he composed the following

 books1--one  concerning ,education2 one
 concerning ,virtue2 one called ,an     
,exhortation2  ,artabazus2 the          
,shipwrecked ,men2 the ,exiles2 six     
books of ,dissertations2  three books of
 ,apophthegms2 an essay addressed to    
,lais2 one to ,porus2  one to ,socrates2
 one on ,fortune4 ,and he used to define
 the chief good as  a gentle motion     
tending to sensation4    ,,vii4 ,but    
since we have written his life1 let us  
now speak of the  ,cyrenaics who came   
after him2 some of whom called          
themselves ,hegesiaci1  some ,annicerei1
 others ,theodorei4 ,and let us also    
enumerate the disciples  of ,phdo1 the  
chief of whom were the ,eretrians4 ,now 
the pupils of  ,aristippus were his own 
daughter ,arete1 and thiops of          
,ptolemais1 and  ,antipater of ,cyrene4 
,arete had for her pupil the ,aristippus
 who was  surnamed 1 whose disciple was 
,theodorus the atheist1 but  who was    
afterwards called 4 ,antipater had for a
 pupil ,epitimedes of  ,cyrene1 who was 

the master of ,parbates1 who was the    
master of ,hegesias1  who was surnamed  
7persuading to die71 and of ,anniceris  
who  ransomed ,plato4    ,,viii4 ,these 
men then who continued in the school of 
,aristippus1 and  were called           
,cyrenaics1 adopted the following       
opinions4--,they said that  there were  
two emotions of the mind1 pleasure and  
pain2 that the one1  namely pleasure1   
was a moderate emotion2 the other1      
namely pain1 a rough  one4 ,and that no 
one pleasure was different from or more 
pleasant than  another2 and that        
pleasure was praised by all animals1 but
 pain avoided4  ,they said also that    
pleasure belonged to the body1 and      
constituted  its chief good1 as ,pantius
 also tells us in his book on ,sects2   
but  the pleasure which they call the   
chief good1 is not that pleasure as  a  
state1 which consists in the absence of 
all pain1 and is a sort of              
undisturbedness1 which is what ,epicurus
 admits as such2 for the ,cyrenaics     

think that there is a distinction       
between the chief good and a life of    
happiness1 for that the chief good is a 
particular pleasure1 but that  happiness
 is a state consisting of a number of   
particular pleasures1  among which1 both
 those which are past1 and those which  
are future1 are  both enumerated4 ,and  
they consider that particular pleasure  
is desirable  for its own sake2 but that
 happiness is desirable not for its own 
sake1  but for that of the particular   
pleasure4 ,and that the proof that      
pleasure  is the chief good is that we  
are from our childhood attracted to it  
without any deliberate choice of our    
own2 and that when we have obtained  it1
 we do not seek anything further1 and   
also that there is nothing which  we    
avoid so much as we do its opposite1    
which is pain4 ,and they assert1  too1  
that pleasure is a good1 even if it     
arises from the most unbecoming  causes1
 as ,hippobotus tells us in his         
,treatise on ,sects2 for even if an     

action be ever so absurd1 still the     
pleasure which arises out of it is      
desirable1 and a good4    ,moreover1 the
 banishment of pain1 as it is called by 
,epicurus1 appears to  the ,cyrenaics   
not to be pleasure2 for neither is the  
absence of pleasure  pain1 for both     
pleasure and pain consist in motion2 and
 neither the  absence of pleasure nor   
the absence of pain are motion4 ,in     
fact1 absence  of pain is a condition   
like that of a person asleep4 ,they say 
also that  it is possible that some     
persons may not desire pleasure1 owing  
to some  perversity of mind2 and that   
all the pleasures and pains of the mind1
 do  not all originate in pleasures and 
pains of the body1 for that pleasure    
often arises from the mere fact of the  
prosperity of one's country1 or  from   
one's own2 but they deny that pleasure  
is caused by either the  recollection or
 the anticipation of good               
fortune--though ,epicurus asserted  that
 it was--for the motion of the mind is  

put an end to by time4 ,they  say1 too1 
that pleasure is not caused by simple   
seeing or hearing4  ,accordingly we     
listen with pleasure to those who give a
 representation  of lamentations2 but we
 are pained when we see men lamenting in
 reality4  ,and they called the absence 
of pleasure and of pain intermediate    
states2  and asserted that corporeal    
pleasures were superior to mental ones1 
and  corporeal sufferings worse than    
mental ones4 ,and they argued that it   
was  on this principle that offenders   
were punished with bodily pain2 for they
  thought that to suffer pain was hard1 
but that to be pleased was more in      
harmony with the nature of man1 on which
 account also they took more care  of   
the body than of the mind4    ,and      
although pleasure is desirable for its  
own sake1 still they admit  that some of
 the efficient causes of it are often   
troublesome1 and as  such opposite to   
pleasure2 so that they think that an    
assemblage of  all the pleasures which  

produce happiness1 is the most difficult
 thing  conceivable4 ,but they admit    
that every wise man does not live       
pleasantly1  and that every bad man does
 not live unpleasantly1 but that it is  
only a  general rule admitting of some  
exceptions4 ,and they think it          
sufficient  if a person enjoys a happy  
time in consequence of one pleasure     
which  befalls him4 ,they say that      
prudence is a good1 but is not desirable
 for  its own sake1 but for the sake of 
those things which result from it4 ,that
  a friend is desirable for the sake of 
the use which we can make of him2  for  
that the parts of the body also are     
loved while they are united to  the     
body2 and that some of the virtues may  
exist even in the foolish4  ,they       
consider that bodily exercise           
contributes to the comprehension of     
virtue2 and that the wise man will feel 
neither envy1 nor love1 nor             
superstition2 for that these things     
originate in a fallacious opinion4      

,they admit1 at the same time1 that he  
is liable to grief and fear1  for that  
these are natural emotions4 ,they said  
also that wealth is an  efficient cause 
of pleasure1 but that it is not         
desirable for its own  sake4 ,that the  
sensations are things which can be      
comprehended2 but they  limited this    
assertion to the sensations themselves1 
and did not extend  it to the causes    
which produce them4 ,they left out all  
investigation of  the subjects of       
natural philosophy because of the       
evident impossibility  of comprehending 
them2 but they applied themselves to the
 study of logic1  because of its        
utility4    ,meleager1 in the second    
book of his ,treatise on ,opinions and  
,clitomachus  in the first book of his  
,essay on ,sects says1 that they thought
 natural  philosophy and dialectics     
useless for that the man who had learnt 
to  understand the question of good and 
evil could speak with propriety1  and   
was free from superstition1 and escaped 

the fear of death1  without either4     
,they also taught that there was nothing
 naturally and  intrinsically just1 or  
honourable1 or disgraceful2 but that    
things were  considered so because of   
law and fashion4 ,the good man will do  
nothing  out of the way1 because of the 
punishments which are imposed on1 and   
the  discredit which is attached to1    
such actions3 and that the good man is a
  wise man4 ,they admit1 too1 that there
 is such a thing as improvement in      
philosophy1 and in other good studies4  
,and they say that one man feels  grief 
more than another2 and that the         
sensations are not always to be  trusted
 as faithful guides4    ,,ix4 ,but the  
philosophers who were called ,hegesiaci1
 adopted the same  chief goods1 pleasure
 and pain2 and they denied that there   
was any  such thing as gratitude1 or    
friendship1 or beneficence1 because we  
do  not choose any of those things for  
their own sake1 but on account of  the  
use of which they are1 and on account of

 these other things which  cannot       
subsist without them4 ,but they teach   
that complete happiness  cannot possibly
 exist2 for that the body is full of    
many sensations1 and  that the mind     
sympathizes with the body1 and is       
troubled when that is  troubled1 and    
also that fortune prevents many things  
which we cherished  in anticipation2 so 
that for all these reasons1 perfect     
happiness  eludes our grasp4 ,moreover1 
that both life and death are desirable4 
,they also say that there is nothing    
naturally pleasant or unpleasant1  but  
that owing to want1 or rarity1 or       
satiety1 some men are pleased and  some 
vexed2 and that wealth and poverty have 
no influence at all on  pleasure1 for   
that rich men are not affected by       
pleasure in a different  manner from    
poor men4 ,in the same way they say that
 slavery and freedom  are things        
indifferent1 if measured by the standard
 of pleasure1 and  nobility and baseness
 of birth1 and glory and infamy4 ,they  

add that1  for the foolish man it is    
expedient to live1 but to the wise man  
it  is a matter of indifference2 and    
that the wise man will do everything    
for his own sake2 for that he will not  
consider any one else of equal          
importance with himself2 and he will see
 that if he were to obtain ever  such   
great advantages from any one else1 they
 would not be equal to what  he could   
himself bestow4 ,they excluded the      
sensations1 inasmuch as they  had no    
certain knowledge about them2 but they  
recommended the doing of  everything    
which appeared consistent with reason4  
,they asserted also that errors ought to
 meet with pardon2 for that a man  did  
not err intentionally1 but because he   
was influenced by some external         
circumstance2 and that one ought not to 
hate a person who has erred1 but  only  
to teach him better4 ,they likewise said
 that the wise man would not  be so much
 absorbed in the pursuit of what is     
good1 as in the attempt to  avoid what  

is bad1 considering the chief good to be
 living free from all  trouble and pain2
 and that this end was attained best by 
those who looked  upon the efficient    
causes of pleasure as indifferent4      
,x4 ,the ,annicereans1 in many respects1
 agreed with these last2 but they       
admitted the existence in life of       
friendship and gratitude and respect    
for one's parents1 and the principle of 
endeavouring to serve one's  country4   
,on which principle1 even if the wise   
man should meet with some  annoyance1 he
 would be no less happy--even though he 
should have but few  actual pleasures4  
,they thought that the happiness of a   
friend was not to  be desired by us for 
its own sake2 for that in fact such     
happiness was  not capable of being felt
 by the person's neighbour2 and that    
reason  is not sufficient to give one   
confidence1 and to authorise one to look
  down upon the opinions of the         
multitude2 but that one must learn a    
deference for the sentiments of others  

by custom1 because the opposite  bad    
disposition being bred up with infirm   
and early age4 ,they also taught  that  
one ought not to like friends solely on 
account of the advantage  that we may   
derive from them1 and not discard them  
when these hopes or  advantages fail2   
but that we ought rather to cultivate   
them on account of  one's natural       
feelings of benevolence1 in compliance  
with which we ought  also to encounter  
trouble for their sakes1 so that though 
they consider  pleasure the chief good1 
and the deprivation of it an evil1 still
 they  think that a man ought           
voluntarily to submit to this           
deprivation out of  his regard for his  
friend4    ,,xi4 ,the ,theodoreans1 as  
they are called1 derived their name from
 the  ,theodorus who has been already   
mentioned1 and adopted all his          
doctrines4    ,,xii4 ,now ,theodorus    
utterly discarded all previous opinions 
about the  ,gods3 and we have met with a
 book of his which is entitled1 ,on     

,gods1  which is not to be despised2 and
 it is from that that they say that     
,epicurus derived the principal portions
 of his sentiments4 ,but ,theodorus  had
 been a pupil of ,anniceris1 and of     
,dionysius the ,dialectician1 as        
,antisthenes tells us in his            
,successions of ,philosophers4          
,,xiii4 ,he considered joy and grief as 
the chief goods3 and that the former    
resulted from knowledge1 and the latter 
from ignorance4 ,and he called  prudence
 and justice goods3 the contrary        
qualities evils1 and pleasure  and pain 
something intermediate4 ,he discarded   
friendship from his system1  because it 
could not exist either in foolish men or
 in wise men4 ,for  that1 in the case of
 the former1 friendship was at an end   
the moment  that the advantage to be    
derived from it was out of sight4 ,and  
that wise  men were sufficient for      
themselves1 and so had no need of       
friends4 ,he  used also to say that it  
was reasonable for a good man not to    

expose  himself to danger for the sake  
of his country1 for that he ought not to
  discard his own prudence for the sake 
of benefiting those who had none4  ,and 
he said that a wise man's country was   
the ,world4 ,he allowed that  a wise man
 might steal1 and commit adultery and   
sacrilege1 at proper  seasons3 for that 
none of these actions were disgraceful  
by nature1 if  one only put out of sight
 the common opinion about them1 which   
owes its  existence to the consent of   
fools4 ,and he said that the wise man   
would  indulge his passions openly1     
without any regard to circumstances3 on 
which principle he used to ask the      
following questions3 8,is a woman  who  
is well instructed in literature of use 
just in proportion to the  amount of her
 literary knowledge80 8,yes10 said the  
person questioned4  8,and is a boy1 and 
is a youth1 useful in proportion to his 
acquaintance  with literature80 8,yes40 
8,is not then1 also1 a beautiful woman  
useful  in proportion as she is         

beautiful2 and a boy and a youth useful 
in  proportion to their beauty80 8,yes40
 8,well1 then1 a handsome boy and  a    
handsome youth must be useful exactly in
 proportion as they are  handsome80     
8,yes40 8,now the use of beauty is1 to  
be embraced40 ,and when  this was       
granted he pressed the argument         
thus3--,if then a man embraces a  woman 
just as it is useful that he should1 he 
does not do wrong2 nor1  again1 will he 
be doing wrong in employing beauty for  
the purposes for  which it is useful4   
,and with such questions as these he    
appeared to  convince his hearers4      
,,xiv4 ,but he appears to have got the  
name of  from ,stilpo one day  asking   
him1 8,are you1 ,theodorus1 what you say
 you are80 ,and when he said  he was1   
8,and you said that you are 10 continued
 his questioner2 he  admitted that also4
 8,then10 continued the other1 8you are 
40 ,and as  he willingly received the   
title1 the other laughed and said1 8,but
 you1  wretched man1 according to this  

principle1 you would also admit that you
  were a raven1 or a hundred other      
things40 ,one day ,theodorus sat down by
  ,euryclides the hierophant1 and said  
to him1 8,tell me now1 ,euryclides1 who 
are they who behave impiously with      
respect to the mysteries80 ,and when    
,euryclides answered1 8,those who       
divulge them to the uninitiated20       
8,then10  said he1 8you also are        
impious1 for you divulge them to those  
who are not  initiated40    ,,xv4 ,and  
indeed he was very near being brought   
before the ,areopagus if  ,demetrius of 
,phalereus had not saved him4 ,but      
,amphicrates in his ,essay on           
,illustrious ,men1 says that he was     
condemned to drink hemlock4    ,,xvi4   
,while he was staying at the court of   
,ptolemy1 the son of ,lagus1  he was    
sent once by him to ,lysimachus as an   
ambassador4 ,and as he was  talking very
 freely1 ,lysimachus said to him1 8,tell
 me1 ,theodorus1 have  not you been     
banished from ,athens80 ,and he replied1

 8you have been  rightly informed2 for  
the city of the ,athenians could not    
bear me1 just  as ,semele could not bear
 ,bacchus2 and so we were both cast     
out40 ,and when  ,lysimachus said again1
 8,take care that you do not come to me 
again20 8,i  never will10 he replied1   
8unless ,ptolemy sends me40 ,and as     
,mythras1 the  steward of ,lysimachus   
was present1 and said1 8,you appear to  
me to be  the only person who ignores   
both ,gods and ,sovereigns20 8,how10    
rejoined  ,theodorus1 8can you say that 
,i ignore the ,gods1 when ,i look upon  
you as  their enemy80    ,,xvii4 ,they  
say also that on one occasion he came to
 ,corinth1 bringing  with him a great   
many disciples2 and that ,metrocles the 
,cynic1 who was  washing leeks1 said to 
him1 8,you1 who are a ,sophist1 would   
not have  wanted so many pupils1 if you 
had washed vegetables40 ,and ,theodorus1
  taking him up1 replied1 8,and if you  
had known how to associate with men1    
you would not have cared about those    

vegetables40 ,but this rejoinder1 as  ,i
 have said already1 is attributed both  
to ,diogenes and ,aristippus4           
,,xviii4 ,such was ,theodorus1 and such 
were his circumstances and opinions4    
,but at last he went away to ,cyrene1   
and lived there with ,megas1 being      
treated by him with the greatest        
distinction4 ,and when he was first     
driven away from ,cyrene1 he is reported
 to have said very pleasantly1  8,you do
 wrong1 ,o men of ,cyrene1 driving me   
from ,africa to ,greece40    ,,xix4 ,but
 there were twenty different people of  
the name of ,theodorus4 ,the  first was 
a ,samian1 the son of ,rhcus2 he it was 
who advised the putting  of coals under 
the foundations of the temple of ,diana 
at ,ephesus2 for as  the ground was very
 swampy1 he said that the coals1 having 
got rid of  their ligneous qualities1   
would retain their solidity in a way    
that could  not be impaired by water4   
,the second was a ,cyrenean1 a          
geometrician1  and had ,plato for one of

 his pupils4 ,the third was the         
philosopher whom  we have been          
describing4 ,the fourth was an author   
who wrote a very  remarkable treatise on
 the art of exercising the voice4 ,the  
fifth was a  man who wrote a treatise on
 ,musical ,composers1 beginning with    
,terpander4  ,the sixth was a ,stoic4   
,the seventh was the historian of ,rome4
 ,the eighth  was a ,syracusan1 who     
wrote an ,essay on ,tactics4 ,the ninth 
was a citizen  of ,byzantium1 who was a 
political orator4 ,the tenth was another
 orator1  who is mentioned by ,aristotle
 in his ,epitome of the ,orators4 ,the  
eleventh  was a ,theban1 a statuary4    
,the twelfth was a painter1 who is      
mentioned by  ,polemo4 ,the thirteenth  
was also a painter1 who is spoken of by 
,menodotus4  ,the fourteenth was an     
,ephesian1 a painter1 mentioned by      
,theophanes in his  ,essay on ,painting4
 ,the fifteenth was an epigrammatic     
poet4 ,the sixteenth  wrote an essay on 
,poets4 ,the seventeenth was a          

physician1 a pupil of  ,athenus4 ,the   
eighteenth was a ,chian1 a ,stoic       
philosopher4 ,the nineteenth  was a     
citizen of ,miletus1 another ,stoic4    
,the twentieth was a tragic poet4       
,,life ,,of ,,ph,,do4    ,i4 ,phdo the  
,elean1 one of the ,eupatrid1 was taken 
prisoner at the  time of the subjugation
 of his country1 and was compelled to   
submit to  the vilest treatment4 ,but   
while he was standing in the street1    
shutting  the door1 he met with         
,socrates1 who desired ,alcibiades1 or  
as some say1  ,crito1 to ransom him4    
,and after that time he studied         
philosophy as became  a free man4 ,but  
,hieronymus1 in his essay on suspending 
one's judgment1  calls him a slave4     
,,ii4 ,and he wrote dialogues1 of which 
we have genuine copies2 by              
name--,zopyrus1 ,simon1 and ,nicias 7but
 the genuineness of this one is         
disputed72 ,medius1 which some people   
attribute to schines1 and others  to    
,polynus2 ,antimachus1 or the ,elders   

7this too is a disputed one72 the       
,scythian discourses1 and these1 too1   
some attribute to schines4    ,,iii4    
,but his successor was ,plistanus of    
,elis2 and the next in succession  to   
him were ,menedemus of ,eretria1 and    
,asclepiades of ,phlius1 who came  over 
from ,stilpo4 ,and down to the age of   
these last1 they were called  the ,eliac
 school2 but after the time of          
,menedemus1 they were called the        
,eretrians4 ,and we will speak of       
,menedemus hereafter1 because he was the
  founder of a new sect4      ,,life    
,,of ,,euclides4    ,i4 ,euclides was a 
native of ,megara on the ,isthmus1 or of
 ,gela1  according to some writers1     
whose statement is mentioned by         
,alexander  in his ,successions4 ,he    
devoted himself to the study of the     
writings  of ,parmenides2 and his       
successors were called the philosophers 
of the  ,megaric school2 after that they
 were called the ,contentious school1   
and  still later1 the ,dialecticians1   

which name was first given to them by   
,dionysius the ,carthaginian2 because   
they carried on their investigations  by
 question and answer4 ,hermodorus says  
that after the death of ,socrates1      
,plato and the other philosophers came  
to ,euclides1 because they feared  the  
cruelty of the tyrants4    ,,ii4 ,he    
used to teach that the chief good is    
unity2 but that it is known  by several 
names2 for at one time people call it   
prudence2 at another  time ,god2 at     
another time intellect1 and so on4 ,but 
everything which was  contrary to good1 
he discarded1 denying its existence4    
,and the proofs  which he used to bring 
forward to support his arguments1 were  
not those  which proceed on assumptions1
 but on conclusions4 ,he also rejected  
all  that sort of reasoning which       
proceeds on comparison1 saying that it  
must be founded either on things which  
are like1 or on things which are        
unlike4 ,if on things which are like1   
then it is better to reason about  the  

things themselves1 than about those     
which resemble them2 and if on  things  
which are unlike1 then the comparison is
 quite useless4 ,and on  this account   
,timon uses the following language      
concerning him1 where he  also attacks  
all the other philosophers of the       
,socratic school3--        ,but ,i do   
care for none of all these triflers1    
,nor for any one else2 not for your     
,phdon1      ,whoever he may be2 not for
 the quarrelsome      ,euclides1 who bit
 all the ,megareans      ,with love of  
fierce contention4    ,,iii4 ,he wrote  
six dialogues--the ,lamprias1 the       
schines1 the ,phnix1 the  ,crito1 the   
,alcibiades1 and the ,amatory dialogue4 
,,iv4 ,next in succession to ,euclides1 
came ,eubulides of ,miletus1 who handed 
down a great many arguments in          
dialectics2 such as the ,lying one2 the 
,concealed one2 the ,electra2 the       
,veiled one2 the ,sorites2 the ,horned  
one2 the ,bald one4#bf ,and one of the  
,comic poets speaks of him in the       

following terms3--        ,eubulides1   
that most contentious sophist1          
,asking his horned quibbles1 and        
perplexing      ,the natives with his   
false arrogant speeches1      ,has gone 
with all the fluency of ,demosthenes4   
,for it seems that ,demosthenes had been
 his pupil1 and that being at first     
unable to pronounce the ,r1 he got rid  
of that defect4 ,eubulides had a        
quarrel with ,aristotle1 and was        
constantly attacking him4    ,v4 ,among 
the different people who succeeded      
,eubulides1 was ,alexinus of  ,elis1 a  
man very fond of argument1 on which     
account he was nicknamed  4#bg ,he had  
an especial quarrel with ,zeno2 and     
,hermippus  relates of him that he went 
from ,elis to ,olympia1 and studied     
philosophy  there2 and that when his    
pupils asked him why he lived there1 he 
said  that he wished to establish a     
school which should be called the       
,olympic  school2 but that his pupils   
being in distress1 through want of means

 of  support1 and finding the situation 
unhealthy for them1 left him2 and that  
after that ,alexinus lived by himself1  
with only one servant4 ,and after  that1
 when swimming in the ,alpheus1 he was  
pricked by a reed1 and the  injury      
proved fatal1 and he died4 ,and we have 
written an epigram on him  which runs   
thus3--        ,then the report1 alas6  
was true1        ,that an unhappy man1  
,while swimming tore his foot against a 
nail        ,for the illustrious sage1  
,good ,alexinus1 swimming in the        
,alpheus1        ,died from a hostile   
reed4    ,and he wrote not only against 
,zeno1 but he composed other works also1
  especially one against ,ephorus the   
historian4    ,,vi4 ,one of the school  
of ,eubulides was ,euphantus of         
,olynthus1 who wrote  a history of the  
events of his own time2 he also composed
 several  tragedies1 for which he got   
great distinction at the festivals4 ,and
 he  was the preceptor of ,antigonus1   
the king to whom he dedicated a treatise

  on ,monarchy1 which had an exceedingly
 high reputation4 ,and at last he  died 
of old age4    ,,vii4 ,there are also   
other pupils of ,eubulides1 among whom  
is ,apollonius  ,cronus1 who was the    
preceptor of ,diodorus of ,iasos1 the   
son of ,aminias2  and he too was        
surnamed ,cronus1 and is thus mentioned 
by ,callimachus in  his epigrams3--     
,momus himself did carve upon the walls1
      ,cronus is wise4    ,and he was a 
dialectician1 and1 as some believe1 he  
was the first  person who invented the  
,concealed argument1 and the ,horned    
one4 ,when  he was staying at the court 
of ,ptolemy ,soter1 he had several      
dialectic  questions put to him by      
,stilpo2 and as he was not able to solve
 them at  the moment1 he was reproached 
by the king with many hard words1 and   
among  other things1 he was nicknamed   
,cronus1 out of derision4 ,so he left   
the  banquet1 and wrote an essay on the 
question of ,stilpo1 and then died of   
despondency4 ,and we have written the   

following epigram on him3--        ,o   
,diodorus ,cronus1 what sad fate        
,buried you in despair8      ,so that   
you hastened to the shades below1       
,perplexed by ,stilpo's quibbles--      
,you would deserve your name of         
,cronus#bh better1        ,if ,c and r  
were gone4    ,,viii4 ,one of the       
successors of ,euclides was ,icthyas1   
the son of ,metellus1  a man of great   
eminence1 to whom ,diogenes the ,cynic  
addressed a dialogue4  ,and ,clinomachus
 of ,thurii1 who was the first person   
who ever wrote about  axioms and        
categorems1 and things of that kind4    
,and ,stilpo the ,megarian1  a most     
illustrious philosopher1 whom we must   
now speak of4      ,,life ,,of ,,stilpo4
    ,i4 ,stilpo1 a native of ,megara in 
,greece1 was a pupil of some of         
,euclides'  school4 ,but some say that  
he was a pupil of ,euclides himself4    
,and also of  ,thrasymachus1 the        
,corinthian1 who was a friend of        
,icthyas1 as ,heraclides  informs us4   

,,ii4 ,and he was so much superior to   
all his fellows in command of words  and
 in acuteness1 that it may almost be    
said that all ,greece fixed  its eyes   
upon him1 and joined the ,megaric       
school4 ,and concerning him  ,philippus 
of ,megara speaks thus1 word for        
word3--8,for he carried off from        
,theophrastus1 ,metrodorus the          
speculative philosopher1 and ,timagoras 
of  ,gela2 and ,aristotle the ,cyrenaic1
 he robbed of ,clitarchus and ,simias2  
and from the dialecticians' school also 
he won men over1 carrying off  ,poneius 
from ,aristides1 and ,diphilus of the   
,bosphorus from ,euphantus1  and also   
,myrmex of the ,venetes1 who had both   
come to him to argue against  him1 but  
they became converts and his disciples40
 ,and besides these  men1 he attracted  
to his school ,phrasidemus the          
,peripatetic1 a natural  philosopher of 
great ability2 and ,alcimus the         
rhetorician1 the most  eminent orator in
 all ,greece at that time2 and he won   

over ,crates1 and  great numbers of     
others1 and among them ,zeno the        
,phnician4    ,,iii4 ,and he was very   
fond of the study of politics4 ,and he  
was married4  ,but he lived also with a 
courtesan1 named ,nicarete1 as ,onetor  
tells us  somewhere4 ,and he had a      
licentious daughter1 who was married to 
a friend  of his named ,simias1 a       
citizen of ,syracuse4 ,and as she would 
not live in  an orderly manner1 some one
 told ,stilpo that she was a disgrace to
 him4  ,but he said1 8,she is not more a
 disgrace to me than ,i am an honour to 
her40    ,,iv4 ,ptolemy ,soter1 it is   
said1 received him with great honour2   
and when  he had made himself master of 
,megara1 he gave him money1 and invited 
him to sail with him to ,egypt4 ,but he 
accepted only a moderate sum of  money1 
and declined the journey proposed to    
him1 but went over to gina1  until      
,ptolemy had sailed4 ,also when         
,demetrius1 the son of ,antigonus  had  
taken ,megara1 he ordered ,stilpo's     

house to be saved1 and took care  that  
everything that had been plundered from 
him should be restored to  him4 ,but    
when he wished ,stilpo to give him in a 
list of all that he had  lost1 he said  
that he had lost nothing of his own2 for
 that no one had  taken from him his    
learning1 and that he still had his     
eloquence and his  knowledge4 ,and he   
conversed with ,demetrius on the subject
 of doing good  to men with such power1 
that he became a zealous hearer of his4 
,v4 ,they say that he once put such a   
question as this to a man1 about the    
,minerva of ,phidias3--8,is ,minerva the
 ,goddess the daughter of ,jupiter80    
,and when the other said1 8,yes20 8,but 
this10 said he1 8is not the child  of   
,jupiter1 but of ,phidias40 ,and when he
 agreed that it was so--8,this  then10  
he continued1 8is not a ,god40 ,and when
 he was brought before the  ,areopagus  
for this speech1 he did not deny it1 but
 maintained that he  had spoken         
correctly2 for that she was not a ,god  

77 but a ,goddess  772 for that ,gods   
were of the male sex only4#bi ,however  
the judges  of the ,areopagus ordered   
him to leave the city2 and on this      
occasion1  ,theodorus1 who was nicknamed
 1 said in derision1 8,whence did       
,stilpo  learn this8 and how could he   
tell whether she was a ,god or a        
,goddess80  ,but ,theodorus was in truth
 a most impudent fellow4 ,but ,stilpo   
was a most  witty and elegant-minded    
man4 ,accordingly when ,crates asked him
 if the  ,gods delighted in adoration   
and prayer2 they say that he answered1  
8,do  not ask these questions1 you      
foolish man1 in the road1 but in        
private40  ,and they say too that ,bion1
 when he was asked whether there were   
any  ,gods1 answered in the same        
spirit3--        8,will you not first1  
,o6 miserable old man1      ,remove the 
multitude80    ,,vi4 ,but ,stilpo was a 
man of simple character1 and free from  
all trick and  humbug1 and universally  
affable4 ,accordingly1 when ,crates the 

,cynic once  refused to answer a        
question that he had put to him1 and    
only insulted  his questioner--8,i      
knew10 said ,stilpo1 8that he would say 
anything rather  than what he ought40   
,and once he put a question to him1 and 
offered him  a fig at the same time2 so 
he took the fig and ate it1 on which    
,crates  said1 8,o ,hercules1 ,i have   
lost my fig40 8,not only that10 he      
replied1  8but you have lost your       
question too1 of which the fig was the  
pledge40  ,at another time1 he saw      
,crates shivering in the winter1 and    
said to him1  8,crates1 you seem to me  
to want a new dress10 meaning1 both a   
new mind  and a new garment2 and        
,crates1 feeling ashamed1 answered him  
in the  following parody3--             
8,there#cj ,stilpo too1 through the     
,megarian bounds1      ,pours out deep  
groans1 where ,typhon's voice resounds1 
,and there he oft doth argue1 while a   
school      ,of eager pupils owns his   
subtle rule1      ,and virtue's name    

with eager chase pursues40    ,and it is
 said that at ,athens he attracted all  
the citizens to such a  degree1 that    
they used to run from their workshops to
 look at him2 and  when some one said to
 him1 8,why1 ,stilpo1 they wonder at you
 as if you  were a wild beast10 he      
replied1 8,not so2 but as a real genuine
 man40    ,,vii4 ,and he was a very     
clever arguer2 and rejected the theory  
of species4  ,and he used to say that a 
person who spoke of man in general1 was 
speaking of nobody2 for that he was not 
speaking of this individual1  nor of    
that one2 for speaking in general1 how  
can he speak more of this  person than  
of that person8 therefore he is not     
speaking of this person  at all4        
,another of his illustrations was1      
8,that which is shown to me1  is not a  
vegetable2 for a vegetable existed ten  
thousand years ago1  therefore this is  
not a vegetable40 ,and they say that    
once when he was  conversing with       
,crates1 he interrupted the discourse to

 go off and buy  some fish2 and as      
,crates tried to drag him back1 and     
said1 8,you are  leaving the argument20 
8,not at all10 he replied1 8,i keep the 
argument1  but ,i am leaving you2 for   
the argument remains1 but the fish will 
be sold  to some one else40    ,,viii4  
,there are nine dialogues of his extant1
 written in a frigid style3  ,the       
,moschus2 the ,aristippus or ,callias2  
the ,ptolemy2 the ,chrecrates2  the     
,metrocles2 the ,anaximenes2 the        
,epigenes2 the one entitled ,to my      
,daughter1 and the ,aristotle4    ,,ix4 
,heraclides affirms that ,zeno1 the     
founder of the ,stoic school1 had  been 
one of his pupils4    ,x4 ,hermippus    
says that he died at a great age1 after 
drinking some wine1  in order to die    
more rapidly4 ,and we have written this 
epigram upon him3--        ,stranger1   
old age at first1 and then disease1     
,a hateful pair1 did lay wise ,stilpo   
low4      ,the pride of ,megara3 he     
found good wine      ,the best of       

drivers for his mournful coach1         
,and drinking it1 he drove on to the    
end4    ,and he was ridiculed by        
,sophilus the comic poet1 in his play   
called  ,marriages3--        ,the dregs 
of ,stilpo make the whole discourse of  
this ,charinus4      ,,life ,,of        
,,crito4    ,i4 ,crito was an ,athenian4
 ,he looked upon ,socrates with the     
greatest  affection2 and paid such great
 attention to him1 that he took care    
that  he should never be in want of     
anything4    ,,ii4 ,his sons also were  
all constant pupils of ,socrates1 and   
their names  were ,critobulus1          
,hermogenes1 ,epigenes1 and ,ctesippus4 
,,iii4 ,crito wrote seventeen dialogues1
 which were all published in one        
volume2 and ,i subjoin their            
titles3--,that men are not made good by 
,teaching2 on ,superfluity2 what is     
,suitable1 or the ,statesman2 on the    
,honourable2 on doing ill2 on ,good     
,government2 on ,law2 on the ,divine    
,being2 on ,arts2 on ,society2          

,protagoras1 or the ,statesman2 on      
,letters2  on ,political ,science2 on   
the ,honourable2 on ,learning2 on       
,knowledge2 on  ,science2 on what       
,knowledge is4      ,,life ,,of ,,simon4
    ,i4 ,simon was an ,athenian1 a      
leather-cutter4 ,he1 whenever ,socrates 
came  into his workshop and conversed1  
used to make memorandums of all his     
sayings that he recollected4    ,,ii4   
,and from this circumstance1 people have
 called his dialogues leathern  ones4   
,but he has written thirty-three which1 
however1 are all combined  in one       
volume3--,on the ,gods2 on the ,good2 on
 the ,honourable2 what the  ,honourable 
is2 the first ,dialogue on ,justice2 the
 second ,dialogue on  ,justice2 on      
,virtue1 showing that it is not to be   
taught2 the first  ,dialogue on         
,courage2 the second2 the third2 on     
,laws2 on the ,art of  ,guiding the     
,people2 on ,honour2 on ,poetry2 on     
,good ,health2 on ,love2 on             
,philosophy2 on ,knowledge2 on ,music2  

on ,poetry2 on what the ,honourable is2 
on ,teaching2 on ,conversation2 on      
,judgment2 on the ,existent2 on ,number2
 on  ,diligence2 on ,activity2 on       
,covetousness2 on ,insolence2 on the    
,honourable2  ,some also add to these   
dialogues2 on taking ,counsel2 on       
,reason or  ,suitableness2 on doing     
,harm4    ,,iii4 ,he is1 as some people 
say1 the first writer who reduced the   
conversations of ,socrates into the form
 of dialogues4 ,and when ,pericles      
offered to provide for him1 and invited 
him to come to him1 he said that  he    
would not sell his freedom of speech4   
,,iv4 ,there was also another ,simon1   
who wrote a treatise on ,oratorical     
,art4  ,and another1 who was a physician
 in the time of ,seleucus ,nicanor4 ,and
  another1 who was a statuary4          
,,life ,,of ,,glauco4    ,glauco was an 
,athenian2 and there are nine dialogues 
of his extant1  which are all contained 
in one volume4 ,the ,phidylus2 the      
,euripides2 the  ,amyntichias2 the      

,euthias2 the ,lysithides2 the          
,aristophanes2 the ,cephalus2  the      
,anaxiphemus2 the ,menexenus4 ,there are
 thirty-two others which go  under his  
name1 but they are spurious4      ,,life
 ,,of ,,simias4    ,simias was a        
,theban2 and there are twenty-three     
dialogues of his extant1  contained in  
one single volume4 ,on ,wisdom2 on      
,ratiocination2 on ,music2 on  ,verses2 
on ,fortitude2 on ,philosophy2 on       
,truth2 on ,letters2 on ,teaching2  on  
,art2 on ,government2 on what is        
,becoming2 on what is ,eligible1 and    
what  ,proper to be ,avoided2 on ,a     
,friend2 on ,knowledge2 on the ,soul2 on
 ,living  ,well2 on what is ,possible2  
on ,money2 on ,life2 on what the        
,honourable is2  on ,industry2 and on   
,love4      ,,life ,,of ,,cebes4        
,cebes was a ,theban1 and there are     
three dialogues of his extant4 ,the     
,tablet2 the ,seventh2 and the          
,phrynichus4      ,,life ,,of           
,,menedemus4    ,i4 ,this ,menedemus was

 one of those who belonged to the school
 of ,phdo2  and he was one of those who 
are called ,theopropid1 being the son of
  ,clisthenes1 a man of noble family1   
but a poor man and a builder4 ,and  some
 say that he was a tent-maker1 and that 
,menedemus himself learned  both trades4
 ,on which account1 when he on one      
occasion brought forward  a motion for  
some decree1 a man of the name of       
,alexinius attacked him1  saying that a 
wise man had no need to draw a tent nor 
a decree4    ,,ii4 ,but when ,menedemus 
was sent by the ,eretrians to ,megara1  
as one of  the garrison1 he deserted the
 rest1 and went to the ,academy to      
,plato2  and being charmed by him1 he   
abandoned the army altogether4 ,and when
  ,asclepiades1 the ,phliasian1 drew him
 over to him1 he went and lived  in     
,megara1 near ,stilpo1 and they both    
became his disciples4 ,and from  thence 
they sailed to ,elis1 where they joined 
,anchipylus and ,moschus1  who belonged 
to ,phdo's school4 ,and up to this time1

 as ,i have already  mentioned in my    
account of ,phdo1 they were called      
,eleans2 and they were  also called     
,eretrians1 from the native country of  
,menedemus1 of whom ,i am  now speaking4
    ,,iii4 ,now ,menedemus appears to   
have been a very severe and rigid man1  
on  which account ,crates1 parodying a  
description1 speaks of him thus3--      
,and ,asclepiades the sage of ,phlius1  
,and the ,eretrian bull4    ,and ,timon 
mentions him thus3--        ,rise up1   
you frowning1 bristling1 frothy sage4   
,and he was a man of such excessive     
rigour of principle1 that when          
,eurylochus1 of ,cassandrea1 had been   
invited by ,antigonus1 to come to him   
in company with ,cleippides1 a youth of 
,cyzicus1 he refused to go1 for  he was 
afraid lest ,menedemus should hear of   
it2 for he was very severe  in his      
reproofs1 and very free spoken4         
,accordingly1 when a young man  behaved 
with boldness towards him1 he did not   
say a word1 but took a bit  of stick and

 drew on the floor an insulting picture2
 until the young  man1 perceiving the   
insult that was meant in the presence of
 numbers  of people1 went away4 ,and    
when ,hierocles1 the governor of the    
,pirus1  attacked him in the temple of  
,amphiaraus1 and said a great deal about
  the taking of ,eretria1 he made no    
other reply beyond asking him what      
,antigonus's object was in treating him 
as he did4    ,on another occasion1 he  
said to a profligate man who was giving 
himself  airs1 8,do not you know that   
the cabbage is not the only plant that  
has  a pleasant juice1 but that radishes
 have it also80 ,and once1 hearing a    
young man talk very loudly1 he said1    
8,see whom you have behind you40  ,when 
,antigonus consulted him whether he     
should go to a certain revel1  he made  
no answer beyond desiring those who     
brought him the message1 to  tell him   
that he was the son of a king4 ,when a  
stupid fellow once said  something at   
random to him1 he asked him whether he  

had a farm2 and when  he said that he   
had1 and a large stock of cattle1 he    
said1 8,go then and  look after them2   
lest1 if you neglect them1 you lose     
them1 and that  elegant rusticity of    
yours with them40 ,he was once asked    
whether a good  man should marry1 and   
his reply was1 8,do ,i seem to you to be
 a good man1  or not80 and when the     
other said he did2 8,well10 said he1    
8and ,i am  married40 ,on one occasion a
 person said that there were a great    
many good  things1 so he asked him how  
many2 and whether he thought that there 
were  more than a hundred4 ,and as he   
could not bear the extravagance of one  
man  who used frequently to invite him  
to dinner1 once when he was invited  he 
did not say a single word1 but          
admonished him of his extravagance in   
silence1 by eating nothing but olives4  
,,iv4 ,on account then of the great     
freedom of speech in which he indulged1 
he was very near while in ,cyprus1 at   
the court of ,nicocreon1 being  in great

 danger with his friend ,asclepiades4   
,for when the king was  celebrating a   
festival at the beginning of the month1 
and had invited  them as he did all the 
other philosophers2 ,menedemus said1    
8,if the  assemblage of such men as are 
met here to-day is good1 a festival like
  this ought to be celebrated every day3
 but if it is not good1 even once  is   
too often40 ,and as the tyrant made     
answer to this speech1 8that he  kept   
this festival in order to have leisure  
in it to listen to the  philosophers10  
he behaved with even more austerity than
 usual1 arguing1  even while the feast  
was going on1 that it was right on every
 occasion  to listen to philosophers2   
and he went on in this way till1 if a   
flute-player had not interrupted their  
discussion1 they would have been  put to
 death4 ,in reference to which1 when    
they were overtaken by a storm  in a    
ship1 they say that ,asclepiades said1  
8that the fine playing of a             
flute-player had saved them1 but the    

freedom of speech of ,menedemus had     
ruined them40    ,v4 ,but he was1 they  
say1 inclined to depart a good deal from
 the usual  habits and discipline of a  
school1 so that he never regarded any   
order1  nor were the seats arranged     
around properly1 but every one listened 
to him while lecturing1 standing up or  
sitting down1 just as he might  chance  
to be at the moment1 ,menedemus himself 
setting the example of this  irregular  
conduct4    ,,vi4 ,but in other         
respects1 it is said that he was a      
nervous man1 and very  fond of glory2 so
 that1 as previously he and ,asclepiades
 had been fellow  journeymen of a       
builder1 when ,asclepiades was naked on 
the roof carrying  mortar1 ,menedemus   
would stand in front of him to screen   
him when he saw  any one coming4        
,,vii4 ,when he applied himself to      
politics he was so nervous that once1   
when setting down the incense1 he       
actually missed the incense burner4 ,and
  on one occasion1 when ,crates was     

standing by him1 and reproaching him for
  meddling with politics1 he ordered    
some men to put him in prison4 ,but he1 
even then1 continued not the less to    
watch him as he passed1 and to stand  on
 tiptoe and call him ,agamemnon and     
,hegesipolis4    ,,viii4 ,he was also in
 some degree superstitious4             
,accordingly1 once1 when  he was at an  
inn with ,asclepiades1 and had          
unintentionally eaten some  meat that   
had been thrown away1 when he was told  
of it he became sick1  and turned pale1 
until ,asclepiades rebuked him1 telling 
him that it was  not the meat itself    
which disturbed him1 but only the idea  
that he had  adopted4 ,but in other     
respects he was a high minded man1 with 
notions  such as became a gentleman4    
,,ix4 ,as to his habit of body1 even    
when he was an old man he retained  all 
the firmness and vigour of an athlete1  
with firm flesh1 and a ruddy            
complexion1 and very stout and fresh    
looking4 ,in stature he was of  moderate

 size2 as is plain from the statue of   
him which is at ,eretria1  in the ,old  
,stadium4 ,for he is there represented  
seated almost naked1  undoubtedly for   
the purpose of displaying the greater   
part of his body4    ,x4 ,he was very   
hospitable and fond of entertaining his 
friends2 and  because ,eretria was      
unhealthy1 he used to have a great many 
parties1  particularly of poets and     
musicians4 ,and he was very fond of     
,aratus and  ,lycophon the tragic poet1 
and ,antagoras of ,rhodes4 ,and above   
all he  applied himself to the study of 
,homer2 and next to him to that of the  
,lyric poets2 then to ,sophocles1 and   
also to ,achus1 to whom he assigned  the
 second place as a writer of satiric    
dramas1 giving schylus the  first4 ,and 
it is from ,achus that he quoted these  
verses against the  politicians of the  
opposite party3--        ,a speedy      
runner once was overtaken      ,by      
weaker men than he4 ,an eagle too1      
,was beaten by a tortoise in a race4    

,and these lines are out of the satiric 
play of ,achus1 called ,omphale2  so    
that they are mistaken who say that he  
had never read anything but  the ,medea 
of ,euripides1 which is found1 they add1
 in the collection of  ,neophron1 the   
,sicyonian4    ,,xi4 ,of masters of     
philosophy1 he used to despise ,plato   
and ,xenocrates1  and ,parbates of      
,cyrene2 and admired no one but ,stilpo4
 ,and once1 being  questioned about him1
 he said nothing more of him than that  
he was a  gentleman4    ,,xii4          
,menedemus was not easy to be           
understood1 and in his conversation  he 
was hard to argue against2 he spoke on  
every subject1 and had a  great deal of 
invention and readiness4 ,but he was    
very disputatious1 as  ,antisthenes says
 in his ,successions2 and he used to put
 questions of  this sort1 8,is one thing
 different from another thing80 8,yes40 
8,and is  benefiting a person something 
different from the good80 8,yes40 8,then
  the good is not benefiting a person40 

,and he1 as it is said1 discarded  all  
negative axioms1 using none but         
affirmative ones2 and of these he  only 
approved of the simple ones1 and        
rejected all that were not simple2      
saying that they were intricate and     
perplexing4 ,but ,heraclides says that  
in his doctrines he was a thorough      
disciple of ,plato1 and that he scorned 
dialectics2 so that once when ,alexinus 
asked him whether he had left off       
beating his father1 he said1 8,i have   
not beaten him1 and ,i have not left    
off20 and when he said further that he  
ought to put an end to the doubt  by    
answering explicitly yes or no1 8,it    
would be absurd10 he rejoined1 8to      
comply with your conditions1 when ,i can
 stop you at the entrance40    ,when    
,bion was attacking the soothsayers with
 great perseverance1 he  said that he   
was killing the dead over again4 ,and   
once1 when he heard  some one assert    
that the greatest good was to succeed in
 everything  that one desires2 he said1 

8,it is a much greater good to desire   
what  is proper40 ,but ,antigonus of    
,carystus1 tells us that he never wrote 
or  composed any work1 and never        
maintained any principle tenaciously4   
,but  in cross-questioning he was so    
contentious as to get quite black in the
  face before he went away4 ,but though 
he was so violent in his discourse1  he 
was wonderfully gentle in his actions4  
,accordingly1 though he used  to mock   
and ridicule ,alexinus very severely1   
still he conferred great  benefits on   
him1 conducting his wife from ,delphi to
 ,chalcis for him1 as  she was alarmed  
about the danger of robbers and banditti
 in the road4    ,,xiii4 ,and he was a  
very warm friend1 as is plain from his  
attachment  to ,asclepiades2 which was  
hardly inferior to the friendship of    
,pylades  and ,orestes4 ,but            
,asclepiades was the elder of the two1  
so that it was  said that he was the    
poet1 and ,menedemus the actor4 ,and    
they say that on  one occasion1         

,archipolis bequeathed them three       
thousand pieces of money  between them1 
they had such a vigorous contest as to  
which should take  the smaller share1   
that neither of them would receive any  
of it4    ,,xiv4 ,it is said that they  
were both married2 and that ,asclepiades
  was married to the mother1 and        
,menedemus to the daughter2 and when    
,asclepiades's wife died1 he took the   
wife of ,menedemus2 and ,menedemus1     
when he became the chief man of the     
state1 married another who was rich2    
and as they still maintained one house  
in common1 ,menedemus entrusted  the    
whole management of it to his former    
wife4 ,asclepiades died first at        
,eretria1 being of a great age2 having  
lived with ,menedemus with great        
economy1 though they had ample means4   
,so that1 when on one occasion1  after  
the death of ,asclepiades1 a friend of  
his came to a banquet1 and  when the    
slaves refused him admittance1          
,menedemus ordered them to admit  him1  

saying that ,asclepiades opened the door
 for him1 even now that  he was under   
the earth4 ,and the men who chiefly     
supported them were  ,hipponicus the    
,macedonian1 and ,agetor the ,lamian4   
,and ,agetor gave each of  them thirty  
min1 and ,hipponicus gave ,menedemus two
 thousand drachmas to  portion his      
daughters with2 and he had three1 as    
,heraclides tells us1 the  children of  
his wife1 who was a native of ,oropus4  
,,xv4 ,and he used to give banquets in  
this fashion3--,first of all1 he would  
sit at dinner1 with two or three        
friends1 till late in the day2 and then 
he would invite in any one who came to  
see him1 even if they had already       
dined2 and if any one came too soon1    
they would walk up and down1 and ask    
those who came out of the house what    
there was on the table1 and what        
o'clock it was2 and then1 if there were 
only vegetables or salt fish1  they     
would depart2 but if they heard it was  
meat1 they would go in4 ,and  during the

 summer1 mats of rushes were laid upon  
the couches1 and in  winter soft        
cushions2 and each guest was expected to
 bring a pillow for  himself4 ,and the  
cup that was carried round did not hold 
more than a  cotyla4 ,and the second    
course consisted of lupins or beans1 and
 sometimes  fruits1 such as pears1      
pomegranates1 pulse1 and sometimes1 by  
,jove1 dried  figs4 ,and all these      
circumstances are detailed by           
,lycophron1 in his  satiric dramas1     
which he inscribed with the name of     
,menedemus1 making  his play a panegyric
 on the philosopher4 ,and the following 
are some of  the lines3--        ,after 
a temperate feast1 a small-sized cup    
,is handed round with moderation due2   
,and conversation wise makes the        
dessert4    ,,xvi4 ,at first1 now1 he   
was not thought much of1 being called   
cynic and  trifler by the ,eretrians2   
but subsequently1 he was so much admired
 by  his countrymen1 that they entrusted
 him with the chief government of the   

state4 ,and he was sent on embassies to 
,ptolemy and ,lysimachus1 and was       
greatly honoured everywhere4 ,he was    
sent as envoy to ,demetrius2 and1 as    
the city used to pay him two hundred    
talents a year1 he persuaded him to     
remit fifty4 ,and having been falsely   
accused to him1 as having betrayed  the 
city to ,ptolemy1 he defended himself   
from the charge1 in a letter  which     
begins thus3--    8,menedemus to king   
,demetrius4--,health4 ,i hear that      
information has been  laid before you   
concerning us40 ''' ,and the tradition  
is1 that a man of the  name of schylus1 
who was one of the opposite party in the
 state1 was in  the habit of making     
these false charges4 ,it is well known  
too that he was  sent on a most         
important embassy to ,demetrius1 on the 
subject of ,oropus1  as ,euphantus      
relates in his ,history4    ,,xvii4     
,antigonus was greatly attached to him1 
and professed himself his  pupil2 and   
when he defeated the barbarians1 near   

,lysimachia1 ,menedemus  drew up a      
decree for him1 in simple terms1 free   
from all flattery1 which  begins thus3--
    8,the generals and councillors have 
determined1 since king ,antigonus has   
defeated the barbarians in battle1 and  
has returned to his own kingdom1  and   
since he has succeeded in all his       
measures according to his wishes1  it   
has seemed good to the council and to   
the people40 ''' ,and from these        
circumstances1 and because of his       
friendship for him1 as shown in other   
matters1 he was suspected of betraying  
the city to him2 and being  impeached by
 ,aristodemus1 he left the city1 and    
returned to ,oropus1 and  there took up 
his abode in the temple of ,amphiaraus2 
and as some golden  goblets which were  
there were lost1 he was ordered to      
depart by a general  vote of the        
,botians4 ,leaving ,oropus1 and being in
 a state of great  despondency1 he      
entered his country secretly2 and taking
 with him his  wife and daughters1 he   

went to the court of ,antigonus1 and    
there died of  a broken heart4    ,but  
,heraclides gives an entirely different 
account of him2 saying1 that  while he  
was the chief councillor of the         
,eretrians1 he more than once  preserved
 the liberties of the city from those   
who would have brought  in ,demetrius   
the tyrant2 so that he never could have 
betrayed the city  to ,antigonus1 and   
the accusation must have been false2 and
 that he went  to the court of          
,antigonus1 and endeavoured to effect   
the deliverance  of his country2 and as 
he could make no impression on him1 he  
fell  into despondency1 and starved     
himself for seven days1 and so he died4 
,and ,antigonus of ,carystus gives a    
similar account3 and ,persus was the    
only man with whom he had an implacable 
quarrel2 for he thought that  when      
,antigonus himself was willing to       
re-establish the democracy among  the   
,eretrians for his sake1 ,persus        
prevented him4 ,and on this account     

,menedemus once attacked him at a       
banquet1 saying many other things1 and  
among them1 8,he may1 indeed1 be a      
philosopher1 but he is the worst man    
that lives or that ever will live40     
,,xviii4 ,and he died1 according to     
,heraclides1 at the age of seventy-four4
  ,and we have written the following    
epigram on him3--        ,i've heard    
your fate1 ,o ,menedemus1 that of your  
own accord1          ,you starved       
yourself for seven days and died2       
,acting like an ,eretrian1 but not much 
like a man1          ,for spiritless    
despair appears your guide4    ,these   
men then were the disciples of          
,socrates1 and their successors2  but we
 must now proceed to ,plato1 who founded
 the ,academy2 and to his  successors1  
or at least to all those of them who    
enjoyed any reputation4          ,,book 
,,iii4      ,,life ,,of ,,plato4    ,i4 
,plato was the son of ,ariston and      
,perictione or ,potone1 and a citizen   
of ,athens2 and his mother traced her   

family back to ,solon2 for ,solon  had a
 brother named ,dropidas1 who had a son 
named ,critias1 who was  the father of  
,callschrus1 who was the father of that 
,critias who was  one of the thirty     
tyrants1 and also of ,glaucon1 who was  
the father of  ,charmides and           
,perictione4 ,and she became the mother 
of ,plato by her  husband ,ariston1     
,plato being the sixth in descent from  
,solon4 ,and ,solon  traced his pedigree
 up to ,neleus and ,neptune4 ,they say  
too that on the  father's side1 he was  
descended from ,codrus1 the son of      
,melanthus1 and  they too are said by   
,thrasylus to derive their origin from  
,neptune4 ,and  ,speusippus1 in his book
 which is entitled the ,funeral ,banquet
 of ,plato1  and ,clearchus in his      
,panegyric on ,plato1 and ,anaxilides in
 the second  book of his ,history of    
,philosophers1 say that the report at   
,athens was  that ,perictione was very  
beautiful1 and that ,ariston endeavoured
 to  violate her and did not succeed2   

and that he1 after he had desisted from 
his violence saw a vision of ,apollo in 
a dream1 in consequence of which  he    
abstained from approaching his wife till
 after her confinement4    ,,ii4 ,and   
,plato was born1 as ,apollodorus says in
 his ,chronicles1 in the  eighty-eighth 
,olympiad1 on the seventh day of the    
month ,thargelion1 on  which day the    
people of ,delos say that ,apollo also  
was born4 ,and he died1  as ,hermippus  
says1 at a marriage feast1 in the first 
year of the hundred  and eighth         
,olympiad1 having lived eighty-one      
years4 ,but ,neanthes says  that he was 
eighty-four years of age at his death4  
,he is then younger  than ,isocrates by 
six years2 for ,isocrates was born in   
the archonship of  ,lysimachus1 and     
,plato in that of ,aminias1 in which    
year ,pericles died4    ,,iii4 ,and he  
was of the borough of ,colytus1 as      
,antileon tells us in  his second book  
on ,dates4 ,and he was born1 according  
to some writers1  in gina1 in the house 

of ,phidiades the son of ,thales1 as    
,phavorinus  affirms in his ,universal  
,history1 as his father had been sent   
thither  with several others as a       
settler1 and returned again to ,athens  
when the  settlers were driven out by   
the ,lacedmonians1 who came to the      
assistance  of the ginetans4 ,and he    
served the office of choregus at        
,athens1 when  ,dion was at the expense 
of the spectacle exhibited1 as          
,theodorus relates  in the eighth book  
of his ,philosophical ,conversations4   
,,iv4 ,and he had brothers1 whose names 
were ,adimantus and ,glaucon1 and a     
sister called ,potone1 who was the      
mother of ,speusippus4    ,v4 ,and he   
was taught learning in the school of    
,dionysius1 whom he  mentions in his    
,rival ,lovers4 ,and he learnt gymnastic
 exercises under  the wrestler ,ariston 
of ,argos4 ,and it was by him that he   
had the name  of ,plato given to him    
instead of his original name1 on account
 of his  robust figure1 as he had       

previously been called ,aristocles1     
after the  name of his grandfather1 as  
,alexander informs us in his            
,successions4 ,but  some say that he    
derived this name from the breadth 77 of
 his  eloquence1 or else because he was 
very wide 77 across the forehead1  as   
,neanthes affirms4 ,there are some also1
 among whom is ,dicarchus in the  first 
volume on ,lives1 who say that he       
wrestled at the ,isthmian games4        
,,vi4 ,it is also said that he applied  
himself to the study of painting1 and   
that he wrote poems1 dithyrambics at    
first1 and afterwards lyric poems  and  
tragedies4    ,,vii4 ,but he had a very 
weak voice1 they say2 and the same fact 
is stated  by ,timotheus the ,athenian1 
in his book on ,lives4 ,and it is said  
that  ,socrates in a dream saw a cygnet 
on his knees1 who immediately put forth 
feathers1 and flew up on high1 uttering 
a sweet note1 and that the next  day    
,plato came to him1 and that he         
pronounced him the bird which he had    

seen4    ,,viii4 ,and he used to        
philosophize at first in the ,academy1  
and afterwards  in the garden near      
,colonus1 as ,alexander tells us in his 
,successions1  quoting the testimony of 
,heraclitus2 and subsequently1 though he
 was  about to contend for the prize in 
tragedy in the theatre of ,bacchus1     
after he had heard the discourse of     
,socrates1 he learnt his poems1         
saying3--        ,vulcan1 come here2 for
 ,plato wants your aid4    ,and from    
henceforth1 as they say1 being now      
twenty years old1 he became a  pupil of 
,socrates4 ,and when he was gone1 he    
attached himself to ,cratylus1  the     
disciple of ,heraclitus1 and to         
,hermogenes1 who had adopted the        
principles of ,parmenides4 ,afterwards1 
when he was eight and twenty years  of  
age1 as ,hermodorus tells us1 he        
withdrew to ,megara to ,euclid1 with    
certain others of the pupils of         
,socrates2 and subsequently1 he went to 
,cyrene to ,theodorus the mathematician2

 and from thence he proceeded to  ,italy
 to the ,pythagoreans1 ,philolaus and   
,eurytus1 and from thence he went  to   
,eurytus to the priests there2 and      
having fallen sick at that place1 he    
was cured by the priests by the         
application of sea water1 in reference  
to  which he said3--        ,the sea    
doth wash away all human evils4    ,and 
he said too1 that1 according to ,homer1 
all the ,egyptians were  physicians4    
,plato had also formed the idea of      
making the acquaintance of  the ,magi2  
but he abandoned it on account of the   
wars in ,asia4    ,,ix4 ,and when he    
returned to ,athens1 he settled in the  
,academy1 and that  is a suburban place 
of exercise planted like a grove1 so    
named from an  ancient hero named       
,hecademus1 as ,eupolis tells us in his 
,discharged  ,soldiers4        ,in the  
well-shaded walks1 protected well       
,by ,godlike ,academus4    ,and ,timon1 
with reference to ,plato1 says3--       
,a man did lead them on1 a strong stout 

man1      ,a honeyed speaker1 sweet as  
melody      ,of tuneful grasshopper1    
who1 seated high      ,on ,hecademus'   
tree1 unwearied sings4    ,for the word 
academy was formerly spelt with ,e4 ,now
 our philosopher  was a friend of       
,isocrates2 and ,praxiphanes composed an
 account of a  conversation which took  
place between them1 on the subject of   
poets1 when  ,isocrates was staying with
 ,plato in the country4    ,x4 ,and     
,aristoxenus says that he was three     
times engaged in military  expeditions2 
once against ,tanagra2 the second time  
against ,corinth1  and the third time at
 ,delium2 and that in the battle of     
,delium he  obtained the prize of       
pre-eminent valour4 ,he combined the    
principles of  the schools of           
,heraclitus1 and ,pythagoras and        
,socrates2 for he used  to philosophize 
on those things which are the subjects  
of sensation1  according to the system  
of ,heraclitus2 on those with which     
intellect is  conversant1 according to  

that of ,pythagoras2 and on politics    
according to  that of ,socrates4        
,,xi4 ,and some people1 7of whom        
,satyrus is one17 say that he sent a    
commission to ,sicily to ,dion1 to buy  
him three books of ,pythagoras from     
,philolaus for a hundred min2 for they  
say that he was in very easy            
circumstances1 having received from     
,dionysius more than eighty talents1  as
 ,onetor also asserts in his treatise   
which is entitled1 ,whether a wise  ,man
 ought to acquire ,gains4    ,,xii4 ,and
 he was much assisted by ,epicharmus the
 comic poet1 a great part  of whose     
works he transcribed1 as ,alcimus says  
in his essays addressed  to ,amyntas1 of
 which there are four4 ,and in the first
 of them he speaks  as follows3--8,and  
,plato appears to utter a great many of 
the sentiments  of ,epicharmus4 ,let us 
just examine4 ,plato says that that is  
an object  of sensation1 which is never 
stationary either as to its quality or  
its  quantity1 but which is always      

flowing and changing2 as1 for instance1 
if one take from any objects all number1
 then one cannot affirm that  they are  
either equal1 or of any particular      
things1 or of what quality  or quantity 
they are4 ,and these things are of such 
a kind that they  are always being      
produced1 but that they never have any  
invariable  substances40    ,but that is
 a subject for intellect from which     
nothing is taken1 and  to which nothing 
is added4 ,and this is the nature of    
things eternal1  which is always similar
 and the same4 ,and1 indeed1 ,epicharmus
 speaks  intelligibly on the subject of 
what is perceived by the senses and by  
the  intellect3--        ,a4 ,but the   
great ,gods were always present1 nor    
,did they at any moment cease to be2    
,and their peculiar likeness at all     
times           ,do they retain1 by the 
same principles4        ,b4 ,yet chaos  
is asserted to have been           ,the 
first existent ,deity4        ,a4       
,how can that be8           ,for 'tis   

impossible that we should find          
,any first principle arise from         
anything4        ,b4 ,is there then no  
first principle at all8        ,a4 ,nor 
second either in the things we speak of2
           ,but thus it is--if to an    
even number1           ,or e'en an odd  
one1 if you so prefer it1           ,you
 add a unit1 or if you deduct one1      
,say will the number still remain the   
same8        ,b4 ,certainly not4        
,a4                 ,so1 if you take a  
measure           ,a cubit long1 and add
 another cubit1           ,or cut a     
portion off1 the measure then           
,no longer is the same8        ,b4      
,of course it is not4        ,a4 ,now   
turn your eyes and thoughts upon        
mankind--           ,we see one grows1  
another perishes           ,so that they
 all exist perpetually           ,in a  
condition of transition4 ,that          
,whose nature changes must be different 
,at each successive moment1 from the    
thing           ,it was before4 ,so     

also1 you and ,i           ,are         
different people now from what we were  
,but yesterday2 and then1 again1        
to-morrow           ,we shall be        
different from what we're now2          
,so that1 by the same rule1 we're always
 different4    ,and ,alcimus speaks as  
follows3--8,the wise men say that the   
soul perceives  some things by means of 
the body1 as for instance1 when it hears
 and  sees2 but that it also perceives  
something by its own power1 without     
availing itself at all of the assistance
 of the body40 ,on which account        
existent things are divisible into      
objects of sensation and objects of     
understanding4 ,on account of which     
,plato used to say1 that those who      
wished to become acquainted with the    
principles of everything1 ought  first  
of all to divide the ideas as he calls  
them1 separately1 such as  similarity1  
and unity1 and multitude1 and magnitude1
 and stationariness1  and motion4 ,and  
secondly1 that they ought to form a     

notion of the  honourable and the good1 
and the just1 and things of that sort1  
by  themselves1 apart from other        
considerations4 ,and thirdly1 that they 
ought to ascertain the character of such
 ideas as are relative to one  another1 
such as knowledge1 or magnitude1 or     
authority2 considering that  the things 
which come under our notice from        
partaking of their nature1  have the    
same names that they have4 ,i mean that 
one calls that just which  partakes of  
the just2 and that beautiful which      
partakes of the beautiful4  ,and each of
 these primary species is eternal1 and  
is to be understood  by the intellect1  
and is not subject to the influence of  
external  circumstances4 ,on which      
account he says1 that ideas exist in    
nature as  models2 and that all other   
things are like them1 and1 as it were1  
copies  of them4 ,accordingly           
,epicharmus speaks thus about the good1 
and about the  ideas4        ,a4 ,tell  
me1 is flute-playing now a thing at all8

        ,b4 ,of course it is4        ,a4
                 ,is man then           
flute-playing8        ,b4 ,no1 nothing  
of the sort4        ,a4                 
,well1 let us see--           ,what is a
 flute-player8 what think you now       
,of him--is he a man1 or is he not8     
,b4 ,of course he is a man4        ,a4  
,think you not then           ,the case 
is just the same about the good4        
,that the good is something by itself1  
intrinsic           ,and he who's       
learnt1 does at once become             
,himself a good man8 just as he who's   
learnt           ,flute-playing is a    
flute-player2 or dancing1           ,a  
dancer2 weaving1 a weaver4 ,and in      
short1           ,whoever learns an art1
 does not become           ,the art     
itself1 but just an artist in it4       
,plato1 in his theory of ,ideas1 says1  
8,that since there is such a thing  as  
memory1 the ideas are in existent       
things1 because memory is only          
conversant about what is stable and     

enduring2 and that no other thing  is   
durable except ideas1 for in what way10 
he continues1 8could animals  be        
preserved1 if they had no ideas to guide
 them1 and if1 in addition  to them1    
they had not an intellect given to them 
by nature80 ,but as it  is they         
recollect similitudes1 and also their   
food1 so as to know what  kind of food  
is fit for them2 which they learn       
because the notion of  similarity is    
implanted naturally in every animal2    
owing to which notion  they recognize   
those of the same species as themselves4
 ,what is it then  that ,epicharmus     
says8        ,eumus' wisdom8--not a     
scanty gift      ,appropriated to one   
single being2      ,but every animal    
that breathes and lives1      ,has mind 
and intellect4--,so if you will         
,survey the facts attentively1 you'll   
find1      ,e'en in the common poultry  
yard1 the hen      ,brings not her      
offspring forth at first alive1         
,but sits upon her eggs1 and by her     

warmth1      ,cherishes them into life4 
,and all this wisdom      ,she does     
derive from nature's gift alone1        
,for nature is her only guide and       
teacher4    ,and in a subsequent passage
 he says3--        ,there is no wonder  
in my teaching this1      ,that citizens
 please citizens1 and seem      ,to one 
another to be beautiful3      ,and so   
one dog seems to another dog      ,the  
fairest object in the world2 and so     
,one ox seems to another1 ass to ass1   
,and swine to swine4    ,and these and  
similar speculations are examined and   
compared by ,alcimus  through four      
books1 where he shows how much          
assistance ,plato has derived  from     
,epicharmus4 ,and that ,epicharmus      
himself was not indisposed to           
appreciate his own wisdom1 one may learn
 from these lines1 in which he  predicts
 that there will arise some one to      
imitate him3--        ,but as ,i think1 
,i surely foresee this1      ,that these
 my words will be preserved hereafter   

,in many people's recollection4 ,and    
,another man will come1 who'll strip my 
reasons      ,of their poetic dress1    
and1 clothing them      ,in other       
garments and with purple broidery       
,will show them off2 and being          
invincible1      ,will make all rivals  
bow the knee to him4    ,,xiii4 ,plato  
also appears to have brought the books  
of ,sophron1 the  farce-writer1#ca to   
,athens1 which were previously          
neglected2 and to have  availed himself 
of them in his ,speculations on ,morals3
 and a copy of them  was found under his
 head4    ,,xiv4 ,and ,plato made three 
voyages to ,sicily1 first of all for the
 purpose  of seeing the island and the  
craters of volcanoes1 when ,dionysius1  
the  son of ,hermocrates1 being the     
tyrant of ,sicily1 pressed him earnestly
  to come and see him2 and he1          
conversing about tyranny1 and saying    
that  that is not the best government   
which is advantageous for one individual
  alone1 unless that individual is      

pre-eminent in virtue1 had a quarrel    
with ,dionysius1 who got angry1 and     
said1 8,your words are those of an old  
dotard40 ,and ,plato replied1 8,and your
 language is that of a tyrant40 ,and  on
 this the tyrant became very indignant1 
and at first was inclined to  put him to
 death2 but afterwards1 being appeased  
by ,dion and ,aristomenes1  he forebore 
to do that1 but gave him to ,pollis1 the
 ,lacedmonian1 who  happened to have    
come to him on an embassy just at that  
time1 to sell  as a slave4 ,and he took 
him to gina and sold him2 and           
,charmander1 the  son of ,charmandrides1
 instituted a capital prosecution       
against him1 in  accordance with the law
 which was in force1 in the island of   
gina1  that the first ,athenian who     
landed on the island should be put to   
death  without a trial2 and he himself  
was the person who had originally       
proposed that law1 as ,phavorinus says1 
in his ,universal ,history4 ,but when   
some one said1 though he said it only in

 joke1 that it was a philosopher  who   
had landed1 the people released him4    
,but some say that he was brought  into 
the assembly and watched2 and that he   
did not say a word1 but stood  prepared 
to submit to whatever might befall him2 
and that they determined  not to put him
 to death1 but to sell him after the    
fashion of prisoners  of war4 ,and it   
happened by chance that ,anniceris1 the 
,cyrenean1 was  present1 who ransomed   
him for twenty min1 or1 as others say1  
for thirty1  and sent him to ,athens1 to
 his companions1 and they immediately   
sent  ,anniceris his money3 but he      
refused to receive it1 saying that they 
were  not the only people in the world  
who were entitled to have a regard for  
,plato4 ,some writers again say1 that it
 was ,dion who sent the money1 and  that
 he did not refuse it1 but bought him   
the garden in the ,academy4 ,and  with  
respect to ,pollis it is said that he   
was defeated by ,chabrias1 and  that he 
was afterwards drowned in ,helice1 in   

consequence of the anger of  the deity  
at his treatment of this philosopher4   
,and this is the story  told by         
,phavorinus in the first book of his    
,commentaries4 ,dionysius1  however1 did
 not remain quiet2 but when he had heard
 what had happened he  wrote to ,plato  
not to speak ill of him1 and he wrote   
back in reply that  he had not leisure  
enough to think at all of ,dionysius4   
,,xv4 ,but he went a second time to     
,sicily to the younger ,dionysius1  and 
asked him for some land and for some men
 whom he might make live  according to  
his own theory of a constitution4 ,and  
,dionysius promised  to give him some1  
but never did it4 ,and some say that he 
was in danger  himself1 having been     
suspected of exciting ,dion and ,theotas
 to attempt  the deliverance of the     
island2 but that ,archytas1 the         
,pythagorean1 wrote  a letter to        
,dionysius1 and begged ,plato off and   
sent him back safe to  ,athens4 ,and the
 letter is as follows3--    ,,archytas  

,,to ,,dionysius1 ,,greeting4    8,all  
of us who are the friends of ,plato1    
have sent to you ,lamiscus  and         
,photidas1 to claim of you this         
philosopher in accordance with the      
agreement which you made with us4 ,and  
it is right that you should  recollect  
the eagerness which you had to see him1 
when you pressed us  all to secure      
,plato's visit to you1 promising to     
provide for him1 and  to treat him      
hospitably in every respect1 and to     
ensure his safety both  while he        
remained with you1 and when he departed4
 ,remember this too that  you were very 
delighted indeed at his arrival1 and    
that you expressed  great pleasure at   
the time1 such as you never did on any  
other occasion4  ,and if any            
unpleasantness has arisen between you1  
you ought to behave  with humanity1 and 
restore the man unhurt2 for by so doing 
you will act  justly1 and do us a       
favour40    ,,xvi4 ,the third time that 
he went to ,sicily was for the purpose  

of  reconciling ,dion to ,dionysius4    
,and as he could not succeed he returned
  back to his own country1 having lost  
his labour4    ,,xvii4 ,and in his own  
country he did not meddle with state    
affairs1  although he was a politician  
as far as his writings went4 ,and the   
reason was1 that the people were        
accustomed to a form of government  and 
constitution different from what he     
approved of4 ,and ,pamphile1 in  the    
twenty-fifth book of his ,commentaries1 
says that the ,arcadians  and ,thebans1 
when they were founding a great city1   
appointed him its  lawgiver2 but that   
he1 when he had ascertained that they   
would not  consent to an equality of    
rights1 refused to go thither4          
,,xviii4 ,it is said also1 that he      
defended ,chabrias the general1 when he 
was impeached in a capital charge2 when 
no one else of the citizens would       
undertake the task3 and as he was going 
up towards the ,acropolis with  his     
client1 ,crobylus the sycophant met him 

and said1 8,are you come to  plead for  
another1 not knowing that the hemlock of
 ,socrates is waiting  also for you80   
,but he replied1 8,and also1 when ,i    
fought for my country ,i  encountered   
dangers3 and now too ,i encounter them  
in the cause of justice  and for the    
defence of a friend40    ,,xix4 ,he was 
the first author who wrote treatises in 
the form of  dialogues1 as ,phavorinus  
tells us in the eighth book of his      
,universal  ,history4 ,and he was also  
the first person who introduced the     
analytical  method of investigation1    
which he taught to ,leodamus of ,thasos4
 ,he  was also the first person in      
philosophy who spoke of antipodes1 and  
elements1 and dialectics1 and actions   
771 and oblong numbers1  and plane      
surfaces1 and the providence of ,god4   
,he was likewise the first  of the      
philosophers who contradicted the       
assertion of ,lysias1 the son  of       
,cephalus1 setting it out word for word 
in his ,phdrus4 ,and he was  also the   

first person who examined the subject of
 grammatical knowledge  scientifically4 
,and as he argued against almost every  
one who had lived  before his time1 it  
is often asked why he has never         
mentioned ,democritus4    ,,xx4         
,neanthes of ,cyzicus says1 that when he
 came to the ,olympic games  all the    
,greeks who were present turned to look 
at him3 and that it was  on that        
occasion that he held a conversation    
with ,dion1 who was on  the point of    
attacking ,dionysius4 ,moreover1 in the 
first book of the  ,commentaries of     
,phavorinus1 it is related that         
,mithridates1 the ,persian1  erected a  
statue of ,plato in the ,academy1 and   
put on it this inscription1             
8,mithridates1 the son of ,rhodobates1 a
 ,persian1 consecrated an image of      
,plato to the ,muses1 which was made by 
,silanion40    ,,xxi4 ,and ,heraclides  
says1 that even while a young man1 he   
was so modest  and well regulated1 that 
he was never once seen to laugh         

excessively4    ,,xxii4 ,but though he  
was of such a grave character himself1  
he was  nevertheless ridiculed by the   
comic poets4 ,accordingly1 ,theopompus1 
in  his ,pleasure-seeker1 says3--       
,for one thing is no longer only one1   
,but two things now are scarcely one2 as
 says      ,the solemn ,plato4    ,and  
,anaxandrides in his ,theseus1 says3--  
,when he ate olives like our worthy     
,plato4    ,and ,timon speaks of him in 
this way1 punning on his name3--        
,as ,plato placed strange platitudes on 
paper4#cb    ,alexis says in his        
,meropis3--        ,you've come in time3
 since ,i've been doubting long1        
,and walking up and down some time1 like
 ,plato2      ,and yet have hit upon no 
crafty plan1      ,but only tir'd my    
legs4    ,and in his ,ancylion1 he      
says3--        ,you speak of what you do
 not understand1      ,running about    
like ,plato3 hoping thus1      ,to learn
 the nature of saltpetre and onions4    
,amphis says in his ,amphicrates3--     

,a4 ,but what the good is1 which you    
hope to get           ,by means of her1 
my master1 ,i no more           ,can    
form a notion of1 than of the good      
,of ,plato4        ,b4                  
,listen now4    ,and in his ,dexidemides
 he speaks thus3--        ,o ,plato6 how
 your learning is confined      ,to     
gloomy looks1 and wrinkling up your     
brows1      ,like any cockle4           
,cratinas in his ,pseudypobolimus1      
says3--        ,you clearly are a man1  
endued with sense1      ,and so1 as     
,plato says1 ,i do not know2      ,but  
,i suspect4    ,alexis1 in his          
,olympiodorus speaks thus3--        ,my 
mortal body became dry and withered3    
,but my immortal part rose to the sky4  
,is not this ,plato's doctrine8    ,and 
in his ,parasite he says3--        ,or  
to converse alone1 like ,plato4         
,anaxilas also laughs at him in his     
,botrylion1 and ,circe1 and his ,rich   
,women4    ,,xxiii4 ,and ,aristippus1 in
 the fourth book of his treatise upon   

,ancient  ,luxury1 says that he was much
 attached to a youth of the name of     
,aster1  who used to study astronomy    
with him2 and also to ,dion1 whom we    
have  already mentioned4 ,and some say  
that he was also attached to ,phdrus1   
and that the following epigrams which he
 wrote upon them are evidences of  the  
love he felt for them3--        ,my     
,aster1 you're gazing on the stars 771  
,would that ,i were the heavens1 that so
 ,i might      ,gaze in return with many
 eyes on thee4    ,another of his       
epigrams is3--        ,aster1 you while 
among the living shone1      ,the       
morning star4 ,but now that you are     
dead1      ,you beam like ,hesperus in  
the shades below4    ,and he wrote thus 
on ,dion3--        ,once1 at their      
birth1 the fates did destine tears      
,to be the lot of all the ,trojan women4
      ,and ,hecuba1 their ,queen--to    
you1 ,o ,dion1      ,as the deserved    
reward for glorious deeds1      ,they   
gave extensive and illustrious hopes4   

,and now you lie beneath your native    
soil2      ,honoured by all your        
countrymen1 ,o ,dion1      ,and loved by
 me with ardent1 lasting love4    ,and  
they say that this epigram is inscribed 
upon his tomb at ,syracuse4  ,they say1 
also1 that he was in love with ,alexis1 
and with ,phdrus1 as ,i  have already   
mentioned1 and that he wrote an epigram 
on them both1 which  runs thus3--       
,now when ,alexis is no longer aught1   
,say only how beloved1 how fair he was1 
,and every one does turn his eyes at    
once4      ,why1 my mind1 do you show   
the dogs a bone8      ,you're but       
preparing trouble for yourself3         
,have we not also lost the lovely       
,phdrus6    ,there is also a tradition  
that he had a mistress named            
,archianassa1 on  whom he wrote the     
following lines3--        ,i have a     
mistress fair from ,colophon1           
,archianassa1 on whose very wrinkles    
,sits genial love3 hard must have been  
the fate1      ,of him who met her      

earliest blaze of beauty1      ,surely  
he must have been completely scorched4  
,he also wrote this epigram on          
,agathon3--        ,while kissing       
,agathon1 my soul did rise1      ,and   
hover'd o'er my lips2 wishing perchance1
      ,o'er anxious that it was1 to     
migrate to him4    ,another of his      
epigrams is3--        ,i throw this     
apple to you4 ,and if you      ,love me 
who love you so1 receive it gladly1     
,and let me taste your lovely virgin    
charms4      ,or if that may not be1    
still take the fruit1      ,and in your 
bosom cherish it1 and learn      ,how   
fleeting is all gracefulness and beauty4
    ,and another3--        ,i am an     
apple1 and am thrown to you1      ,by   
one who loves you3 but consent1         
,xanthippe2      ,for you and ,i shall  
both with time decay4    ,they also     
attribute to him the following epigram  
on the ,eretrians who had  been         
surprised in an ambuscade3--        ,we 
were ,eretrians1 of ,euban race8        

,and now we lie near ,susa1 here        
entomb'd1      ,far from my native land4
    ,and this one also3--        ,thus  
,venus to the muses spoke3      ,damsels
 submit to ,venus' yoke1        ,or     
dread my ,cupid's arms4      ,those     
threats1 the ,virgins nine replied1     
,may weigh with ,mars1 but we deride    
,love's wrongs1 or darts1 or charms4    
,another is3--        ,a certain person 
found some gold1      ,carried it off1  
and in its stead      ,left a strong    
halter neatly roll'd4      ,the owner   
found his treasure fled2      ,and      
powerless to endure his fortune's wreck1
      ,fitted the halter to his hapless 
neck4    ,,xxiv4 ,but ,molon1 who had a 
great dislike to ,plato1 says 8,there is
 not  so much to wonder at in ,dionysius
 being at ,corinth1 as in ,plato's being
  in ,sicily40 ,xenophon1 too1 does not 
appear to have been very friendlily     
disposed towards him3 and accordingly   
they have1 as if in rivalry of  one     
another1 both written books with the    

same title1 the ,banquet1 the  ,defence 
of ,socrates1 ,moral ,reminiscences4    
,then1 too1 the one wrote the  ,cyropdia
 and the other a book on ,politics2 and 
,plato in his ,laws says1  that the     
,cyropdia is a mere romance1 for that   
,cyrus was not such a  person as he is  
described in that book4 ,and though they
 both speak so  much of ,socrates1      
neither of them ever mentions the other1
 except that  ,xenophon once speaks of  
,plato in the third book of his         
,reminiscences4 ,it  is said also1 that 
,antisthenes1 being about to recite     
something that he  had written1 invited 
him to be present2 and that ,plato      
having asked what  he was going to      
recite1 he said it was an essay on the  
impropriety of  contradicting4 8,how    
then10 said ,plato1 8can you write on   
this subject80  and then he showed him  
that he was arguing in a circle4 ,but   
,antisthenes  was annoyed1 and composed 
a dialogue against ,plato1 which he     
entitled  ,sathon2 after which they were

 always enemies to one another2 and they
 say  that ,socrates having heard ,plato
 read the ,lysis1 said1 8,o ,hercules6  
what  a number of lies the young man has
 told about me40 ,for he had set down a 
great many things as sayings of         
,socrates which he never said4    ,plato
 also was a great enemy of ,aristippus2 
accordingly1 he speaks ill  of him in   
his book on the ,soul1 and says that he 
was not with ,socrates  when he died1   
though he was in gina1 at no great      
distance4 ,he also had  a great rivalry 
with schines1 for that he had been held 
in great esteem  by ,dionysius1 and     
afterwards came to want1 and was        
despised by ,plato1 but  supported by   
,aristippus4 ,and ,idomeneus says1 that 
the speech which ,plato  attributes to  
,crito in the prison1 when he counselled
 ,socrates to make  his escape1 was     
really delivered by schines1 but that   
,plato attributed  it to ,crito because 
of his dislike to the other4 ,and ,plato
 never makes  the slightest mention of  

him in any of his books1 except in the  
treatise  on the ,soul1 and the ,defence
 of ,socrates4    ,,xxv4 ,aristotle     
says1 that the treatises of ,plato are  
something between  poems and prose2 and 
,phavorinus says1 when ,plato read his  
treatise on  the ,soul1 ,aristotle was  
the only person who sat it out1 and that
 all the  rest rose up and went away4   
,and some say that ,philip the ,opuntian
 copied  out the whole of his books upon
 ,laws1 which were written on waxen     
tablets  only4 ,some people also        
attribute the ,epinomis to him4         
,euphorion and  ,pantius have stated    
that the beginning of the treatise on   
the ,republic  was often altered and    
re-written2 and that very treatise1     
,aristoxenus  affirms1 was found almost 
entire in the ,contradictions of        
,protagoras2  and that the first book he
 wrote at all was the ,phdrus2 and      
indeed  that composition has a good many
 indications of a young composer4 ,but  
,dicarchus blames the whole style of    

that work as vulgar4    ,,xxvi4 ,a story
 is told1 that ,plato1 having seen a man
 playing at dice1  reproached him for   
it1 and that he said he was playing for 
a trifle2 8,but  the habit10 rejoined   
,plato1 8is not a trifle40 ,on one      
occasion he was  asked whether there    
would be any monument of him1 as of his 
predecessors  in philosophy8 and he     
answered1 8,a man must first make a     
name1 and the  monument will follow40   
,once1 when ,xenocrates came into his   
house1 he  desired him to scourge one of
 his slaves for him1 for that he himself
  could not do it because he was in a   
passion2 and that at another time  he   
said to one of his slaves1 8,i should   
beat you if ,i were not in a  passion40 
,having got on horseback he dismounted  
again immediately1 saying  that he was  
afraid that he should be infected with  
horse-pride4 ,he used  to advise people 
who got drunk to look in the glass1 and 
then they would  abandon their unseemly 
habit2 and he said that it was never    

decorous to  drink to the degree of     
drunkenness1 except at the festivals of 
the ,god  who had given men wine4 ,he   
also disapproved of much sleeping3      
accordingly  in his ,laws he says1 8,no 
one while sleeping is good for          
anything40  ,another saying of his was1 
8,that the pleasantest of all things to 
hear  was the truth20 but others report 
this saying thus1 8,that the sweetest of
  all things was to speak truth40 ,and  
of truth he speaks thus in his ,laws1   
8,truth1 my friend1 is a beautiful and a
 durable thing2 but it is not easy  to  
persuade men of this fact40    ,,xxvii4 
,he used also to wish to leave a        
memorial of himself behind1 either  in  
the hearts of his friends1 or in his    
books4    ,,xxviii4 ,he also used to    
travel a good deal as some authors      
inform us4    ,,xxix4 ,and he died in   
the manner we have already mentioned1 in
 the  thirteenth year of the reign of   
,philip of ,macedon1 as ,phavorinus     
mentions  in the third book of his      

,commentaries2 and ,theopompus relates  
that ,philip  on one occasion reproached
 him4 ,but ,myronianus1 in his          
,resemblances1 says  that ,philo        
mentions some proverbs that were in     
circulation about ,plato's  lice2       
implying that he had died of that       
disease4    ,,xxx4 ,he was buried in the
 ,academy1 where he spent the greater   
part of  his time in the practice of    
philosophy1 from which his was called   
the  ,academic school2 and his funeral  
was attended by all the pupils of that  
sect4 ,and he made his will in the      
following terms3--8,plato left these    
things1 and has bequeathed them as      
follows4--,the farm in the district of  
the ,hephstiades1 bounded on the north  
by the road from the temple of  the     
,cephisiades1 and on the south by the   
temple of ,hercules1 which is  in the   
district of the ,hephstiades2 and on the
 east by the estate of  ,archestratus   
the ,phrearrian1 and on the west by the 
farm of ,philip the  ,chollidian1 shall 

be incapable of being sold or alienated1
 but shall  belong to my son ,adimantus 
as far as possible4 ,and so likewise    
shall my  farm in the district of the   
,eiresides1 which ,i bought of          
,callimachus1  which is bounded on the  
north by the property of ,eurymedon the 
,myrrhinusian1 on the south by that of  
,demostratus of ,xypeta1 on the east  by
 that of ,eurymedon the ,myrrhinusian1  
and on the west by the ,cephisus2--,i   
also leave him three min of silver1 a   
silver goblet weighing a hundred  and   
sixty-five drachms1 a cup weighing      
forty-five drachms1 a golden ring1  and 
a golden ear-ring1 weighing together    
four drachms and three obols4  ,euclides
 the stone-cutter owes me three min4 ,i 
leave ,diana her liberty4  ,my slaves   
,tychon1 ,bictas1 ,apolloniades1 and    
,dionysius1 ,i bequeath to  my son2 and 
,i also give him all my furniture1 of   
which ,demetrius has  a catalogue4 ,i   
owe no one anything4 ,my executors shall
 be ,sosthenes1  ,speusippus1           

,demetrius1 ,hegias1 ,eurymedon1        
,callimachus1 and ,thrasippus40  ,this  
was his will4 ,and on his tomb the      
following epigrams were inscribed4      
,first of all3--        ,here1 first of 
all men for pure justice famed1         
,and moral virtue1 ,aristocles lies2    
,and if there e'er has lived one truly  
wise1        ,this man was wiser still2 
too great for envy4    ,a second is3--  
,here in her bosom does the tender earth
        ,embrace great ,plato's         
corpse4--,his soul aloft      ,has ta'en
 its place among the immortal ,gods4    
,ariston's glorious son--whom all good  
men1      ,though in far countries1 held
 in love and honour1        ,remembering
 his pure and god-like life4    ,there  
is another which is more modern3--      
,a4 ,eagle1 why fly you o'er this holy  
tomb8           ,or are you on your way1
 with lofty wing1           ,to some    
bright starry domicile of the ,gods8    
,b4 ,i am the image of the soul of      
,plato1           ,and to ,olympus now  

am borne on high2           ,his body   
lies in his own native ,attica4    ,we  
ourselves also have written one epigram 
on him1 which is as follows3--          
,if fav'ring ,phbus had not ,plato given
      ,to ,grecian lands1 how would the 
learned ,god      ,have e'er instructed 
mortal minds in learning8      ,but he  
did send him1 that as sculapius         
,his son's the best physician of the    
body1      ,so ,plato should be of the  
immortal soul4    ,and others1 alluding 
to his death3--        ,phbus1 to bless 
mankind1 became the father      ,of     
sculapius1 and of god-like ,plato2      
,that one to heal the body1 this the    
mind4      ,now1 from a marriage feast  
he's gone to heaven1      ,to realize   
the happy city there1      ,which he has
 planned fit for the realms of ,jove4   
,these then are the epigrams on him4    
,,xxxi4 ,his disciples were1 ,speusippus
 the ,athenian1 ,zenocrates of          
,chalcedon1 ,aristotle the ,stagirite1  
,philip of ,opus1 ,histius of           

,perinthus1 ,dion of ,syracuse1 ,amyclus
 of ,heraclea1 ,erastus and ,coriscus of
  ,sceptos1 ,timolaus of ,cyzicus1      
,eudon of ,lampsacus1 ,pithon and       
,heraclides  of mus1 ,hippothales and   
,callippus1 ,athenians1 ,demetrius of   
,amphipolis1  ,heraclides of ,pontus1   
and numbers of others1 among whom there 
were also  two women1 ,lasthenea of     
,mantinea1 and ,axiothea of ,phlius1 who
 used even  to wear man's clothes1 as we
 are told by ,dicarchus4 ,some say that 
,theophrastus also was a pupil of his2  
and ,chamlion says that ,hyperides  the 
orator1 and ,lycurgus1 were so likewise4
 ,polemo also asserts that  ,demosthenes
 was4 ,sabinus adds ,mnesistratus of    
,thasos to the number1  quoting         
authority for the statement in the      
fourth book of his ,meditative  ,matter2
 and it is not improbable4    ,,xxxii4  
,but as you1 ,o lady1 are rightly very  
much attached to ,plato1 and  as you are
 very fond of hunting out in every      
quarter all the doctrines  of the       

philosopher with great eagerness1 ,i    
have thought it necessary  to subjoin an
 account of the general character of his
 lectures1 and of  the arrangement of   
his dialogues1 and of the method of his 
inductive  argument2 going back to their
 elements and first principles as far as
  ,i could1 so that the collection of   
anecdotes concerning his life which  ,i 
have been able to make1 may not be      
curtailed by the omission of any        
statement as to his doctrines4 ,for it  
would be like sending owls to  ,athens1 
as the proverb is1 if ,i were to descend
 to particular details4    ,they say    
now1 that ,zeno1 the ,eleatic1 was the  
first person who composed  essays in the
 form of dialogue4 ,but ,aristotle1 in  
the first book of his  treatise on      
,poets1 says that ,alexamenus1 a native 
of ,styra1 or ,teos1  did so before him1
 as ,phavorinus also says in his        
,commentaries4 ,but it  seems to me that
 ,plato gave this kind of writing the   
last polish1 and  that he has therefore1

 a just right to the first honour1 not  
only as  the improver1 but also as      
inventor of that kind of writing4 ,now1 
the  dialogue is a discourse carried on 
by way of question and answer1 on  some 
one of the subjects with which          
philosophy is conversant1 or with  which
 statesmanship is concerned1 with a     
becoming attention to the  characters of
 the persons who are introduced as      
speakers1 and with a  careful selection 
of language governed by the same        
consideration4 ,and  dialectics is the  
art of conversing1 by means of which we 
either overturn  or establish the       
proposition contended for1 by means of  
the questions and  answers which are put
 in the mouths of the parties           
conversing4 ,now1 of  the ,platonic     
discourse there are two characteristics 
discernible on the  very surface2 one   
fitted for guiding1 the other for       
investigating4    ,the first of these   
has two subordinate species1 one        
speculative1 the  other practical2 and  

of these two again1 the speculative is  
divided into  the natural and the       
logical1 and the practical into the     
ethical and the  political4 ,again1 the 
kind fitted for investigating has also  
two primary  divisions with their       
separate characteristics1 one object of 
which is  simply practice1 the other    
being also disputatious3 and the first  
of  these two is again subdivided into  
two2 one of which may be compared  to   
the art of the midwife1 and the other is
 as it were tentative2  the disputatious
 one is also divided into the           
demonstrative and the  distinctive4     
,but we are not unaware that some       
writers distinguish the various         
dialogues in a different manner from    
what we do4 ,for they say that  some of 
them are dramatic1 and others narrative1
 and others of a mixed  nature4 ,but    
they1 in this division1 are classifying 
the dialogues in a  theatrical rather   
than in a philosophical manner4 ,some of
 the dialogues  also refer to subjects  

of natural philosophy1 such as the      
,timus4 ,of the  logical class1 there   
are the ,politics1 the ,cratylus1 the   
,parmenides1 and  the ,sophist4 ,of the 
ethical kind there is the defence of    
,socrates1 the  ,crito1 the ,phdo1 the  
,phdrus1 the ,banquet1 the ,menexenus1  
the ,clitophon1  the ,epistles1 the     
,philebus1 the ,hipparchus1 and the     
,rival ,lovers4 ,of  the political class
 there is the ,republic1 the ,laws1 the 
,minos1 the  ,epinomis1 and the         
,atlanticus4 ,of the midwife description
 we have the  two ,alcibiades's1 the    
,theages1 the ,lysis1 the ,laches4 ,of  
the tentative  kind1 there is the       
,euthyphro1 the ,meno1 the ,ion1 the    
,charmides1 and the  ,thetetus4 ,of the 
demonstrative description1 we have the  
,protagoras1  and of the distinctive    
class the ,euthydemus1 the two          
,hippias's1 and the  ,gorgias4 ,and this
 is enough to say about the dialogues as
 to what they  are1 and what their      
different kinds are4    ,,xxxiii4 ,but  

since there is also a great division of 
opinion respecting  them1 from some     
people asserting that in them ,plato    
dogmatizes in a  positive manner1 while 
others deny this1 we had better also    
touch upon  this part of the question4  
,now1 dogmatizing is laying down dogmas1
 just  as legislating is making laws4   
,but the word dogma is used in two      
senses2  to mean both that which we     
think1 and opinion itself4 ,now of      
these1  that which we think is the      
proposition1 and opinion is the         
conception  by which we entertain it in 
our minds4 ,plato then explains the     
opinions  which he entertains himself1  
and refutes false ones2 and about       
doubtful  matters he suspends his       
judgment4 ,his opinions of matters as   
they appear  to him he puts into the    
mouth of four persons1 ,socrates1       
,timus1 an  ,athenian poet1 and an      
,eleatic stranger4 ,but the strangers   
are not1 as  some people have supposed1 
,plato and ,parmenides1 but certain     

nameless  imaginary characters4 ,since  
,plato asserts as undeniable axioms all 
the  opinions which he puts into the    
mouth of ,socrates or ,timus4 ,but when 
he is refuting false propositions1 he   
introduces such characters as           
,thrasymachus1 and ,callicles1 and      
,polus1 and ,gorgias1 and ,protagoras1  
,hippias too1 and ,euthydemus1 and men  
of that stamp4 ,but when he is          
demonstrating anything1 then he chiefly 
uses the inductive form of  argument1   
and that too not of one kind only1 but  
of two4 ,for induction is  an argument1 
which by means of some admitted truths  
establishes naturally  other truths     
which resemble them4 ,but there are two 
kinds of induction2  the one proceeding 
from contraries1 the other from         
consequents4 ,now1  the one which       
proceeds from contraries1 is one in     
which from the answer  given1 whatever  
that answer may be1 the contrary of the 
principle  indicated in the question    
must follow4 ,as for instance4 ,my      

father is  either a different person    
from your father1 or he is the same     
person4  ,if now your father is a       
different person from my father1 then as
 he is  a different person from a       
father1 he cannot be a father4 ,if1 on  
the  other hand1 he is the same person  
as my father1 then1 since he is the     
same person as my father1 he must be my 
father4 ,and again1 if man be not  an   
animal1 he must be either a stone or a  
piece of wood2 but he is not  a stone or
 a piece of wood1 for he is a living    
animal1 and capable of  independent     
motion4 ,therefore1 he is an animal4    
,but1 if he is an animal1  and a dog or 
an ox is likewise an animal1 then man   
must be an animal1 and  a dog1 and an   
ox4--,this then is the method of        
induction in contradiction  and         
contention1 which ,plato was accustomed 
to employ1 not for the purpose  of      
establishing principles of his own1 but 
with the object of refuting  the        
arguments of others4    ,now1 the       

inductive kind of argument drawn from   
consequents is of a  twofold character4 
,the one proving a particular opinion by
 an admitted  fact of an equally        
particular nature2 or else going from   
particulars to  generals4 ,and the first
 of these two divisions is the          
oratorical one1  the second the         
dialectic one4 ,as for instance1 in the 
former kind the  question is whether    
this person has committed a murder2 the 
proof is that  he was found at the time 
covered with blood4 ,but this is the    
oratorical  method of employing the     
induction2 since oratory is conversant  
about  particulars1 and does not concern
 itself about generals4 ,for its object 
is not to ascertain abstract justice1   
but only particular justice4  ,the other
 is the dialectic kind1 the general     
proposition having been  established by 
particular ones4 ,as for instance1 the  
question is whether  the soul is        
immortal1 and whether the living consist
 of those who have  once been dead2 and 

this proposition ,plato establishes in  
his book on  the ,soul1 by a certain    
general proposition1 that contraries    
arise out  of contraries2 and this      
identical general proposition is        
established by  certain particular ones4
 ,as1 for instance1 that sleep follows  
on waking1  and waking from sleeping1   
and the greater from the less1 and      
reversely  the less from the greater4   
,and this kind of induction he used to  
employ  for the establishment of his own
 opinions4    ,,xxxiv4 ,anciently1 in   
tragedy1 it was only the chorus who did 
the whole  work of the play2 but        
subsequently1 ,thespis introduced one   
actor for the  sake of giving the chorus
 some rest1 and schylus added a second1 
and  ,sophocles a third1 and so they    
made tragedy complete4 ,so in the same  
manner1 philosophical discourse was     
originally uniform1 concerning itself   
solely about natural philosophy2 then   
,socrates added to it a second          
character1 the ethical3 and ,plato a    

third1 the dialectic3 and so he  brought
 philosophy to perfection4    ,,xxxv4   
,but ,thrasybulus says that he published
 his dialogues as the  dramatic poets   
published their tetralogies4 ,for1 they 
contended with  four plays1 7and at four
 festivals1 the ,dionysiac1 the ,lenan1 
the  ,panathenan1 and the ,chytri71 one 
of which was a satiric drama1 and  the  
whole four plays were called a          
tetralogy4 ,now1 people say1 the  whole 
of his genuine dialogues amount to      
fifty-six2 the treatise on the          
,republic being divided into ten books1 
7which ,phavorinus1 in the second  book 
of his ,universal ,history1 says may be 
found almost entire in the              
,contradictions of ,protagoras71 and    
that on ,laws into twelve4 ,and there   
are nine tetralogies1 if we consider the
 ,republic as occupying the place  of   
one book1 and the ,laws of another4 ,he 
arranges1 therefore1 the first          
tetralogy of these dialogues which have 
a common subject1 wishing to show  what 

sort of life that of the philosopher may
 have been4 ,and he uses two  titles for
 each separate book1 taking one from the
 name of the principal  speaker1 and the
 other from the subject4    ,this       
tetralogy then1 which is the first1 is  
commenced by the ,euthyphron1  or what  
is ,holy2 and that dialogue is a        
tentative one4 ,the second is the       
,defence of ,socrates1 a moral one4 ,the
 third is the ,criton1 or ,what is to   
be done1 a moral one4 ,the fourth is the
 ,phdo1 or the ,dialogue on the  ,soul1 
a moral one4    ,the second tetralogy is
 that of which the first piece is the   
,cratylus1 or  the correctness of names1
 a logical one4 ,the ,thetetus1 or      
,knowledge1 a  tentative one4 ,the      
,sophist1 or a dialogue on the          
,existent1 a logical one4  ,the         
,statesman1 or a dialogue of ,monarchy1 
a logical one4    ,the first dialogue in
 the third tetralogy is the ,parmenides1
 or a  dialogue of ,ideas1 a logical    
one4 ,the second is the ,philebus1 or on

  ,pleasure1 a moral one4 ,the ,banquet1
 or on the ,good1 a moral one4 ,the     
,phdrus1 or on ,love1 a moral one4      
,the fourth tetralogy opens with the    
,alcibiades1 or a treatise on the       
,nature of ,man1 a midwife-like work4   
,the second ,alcibiades1 or on ,prayer1 
a piece of the same character4 ,the     
,hipparchus1 or on the ,love of ,gain1 a
  moral one4 ,the ,rival ,lovers1 or a  
treatise on ,philosophy1 a moral one4   
,the first dialogue in the fifth is the 
,theages1 or another treatise on        
,philosophy1 another midwife-like work4 
,the ,charmides1 or on ,temperance1  a  
tentative essay4 ,the ,laches1 or on    
,manly ,courage1 midwife-like4 ,the     
,lysis1 or a dissertation on            
,friendship1 also midwife-like4    ,the 
sixth tetralogy commences with the      
,euthydemus1 or the ,disputatious  ,man1
 a distinctive dialogue4 ,then comes the
 ,protagoras1 or the ,sophists1  a      
demonstrative one4 ,the ,gorgias1 or a  
dissertation on ,rhetoric1 another      

distinctive one4 ,and the ,meno1 or on  
,virtue1 a tentative dialogue4    ,the  
seventh begins with the two ,hippias's4 
,the first being a dissertation  on the 
,beautiful1 the second one on           
,falsehood1 both distinctive4 ,the      
third is the ,ion1 or a dissertation on 
the ,iliad1 a tentative one4 ,the       
fourth is the ,menexenus1 or the        
,funeral ,oration1 a moral one4    ,the 
first dialogue in the eighth is the     
,clitophon1 or the ,exhortation1  a     
moral piece4 ,then comes the ,republic1 
or the treatise on ,justice1 a          
political one4 ,the ,timus1 or a        
dissertation on ,nature1 a dialogue on  
,natural ,philosophy4 ,and the ,critias1
 or ,atlanticus1 a moral one4    ,the   
ninth begins with the ,minos1 or a      
treatise on ,law1 a political work4     
,the ,laws1 or a dissertation on        
,legislation1 another political work4   
,the  ,epinomis1 or the ,nocturnal      
,conversation1 or the ,philosopher1 a   
third  political one4    ,,xxxvi4 ,and  

this last tetralogy is completed by     
thirteen epistles1 all  moral2 to which 
is prefixed as a motto1  1 just as      
,epicurus  inscribed on his  1 and      
,cleon on his 4 ,they are1 one  letter  
to ,aristodemus1 two to ,archytas1 four 
to ,dionysius1 one to  ,hermeias1       
,erastus1 and ,coriscus1 one to         
,leodamas1 one to ,dion1 one to         
,perdiccas1 and two to the friends of   
,dion4    ,,xxxvii4 ,and this is the way
 in which some people divide his works4 
,but  others1 among whom is             
,aristophanes1 the grammarian1 arrange  
his dialogues  in trilogies2 and they   
make the first to consist of the        
,republic1 the  ,timus and the ,critias4
    ,the second of the ,sophist1 the    
,statesman1 the ,cratylus4    ,the third
 of the ,laws1 the ,minos1 the          
,epinomis4    ,the fourth of the        
,thetetus1 the ,euthyphro1 the ,defence 
of ,socrates4    ,the fifth of the      
,crito1 the ,phdo1 the ,epistles4       
,and the rest they arrange singly and   

independently1 without any regular      
order4 ,and some authors1 as has been   
said already1 place the ,republic at    
the head of his works3 others begin with
 the ,greater ,alcibiades3 others  with 
the ,theages2 some with the ,euthyphro1 
others with the ,clitophon2  some with  
the ,timus1 some with the ,phdrus1      
others again with the  ,thetetus4 ,many 
make the ,defence of ,socrates the first
 piece4    ,there are some dialogues    
attributed to him which are confessedly 
spurious4 ,the ,midon1 or the           
,horse-breeder2 the ,eryxias1 or        
,erasistratus2  the ,alcyon2 the        
,acephali1 or ,sisyphi2 the ,axiochus2  
the ,phacians2 the  ,demodorus2 the     
,chelidon2 the ,seventh2 the            
,epimenides4 ,of which the ,alcyon  is  
believed to be the work of a man named  
,leon2 as ,phavorinus tells us in  the  
seventh book of his ,commentaries4      
,,xxxviii4 ,but he employs a great      
variety of terms in order to render his 
philosophical system unintelligible to  

the ignorant4 ,in his phraseology  he   
considers wisdom as the knowledge of    
things which can be understood  by the  
intellect1 and which have a real        
existence3 which has the ,gods  for its 
object1 and the soul as unconnected with
 the body4 ,he also1 with  a peculiarity
 of expression1 calls wisdom also       
philosophy1 which he  explains as a     
desire for divine wisdom4 ,but wisdom   
and experience are  also used by him in 
their common acceptation2 as1 for       
instance1 when he  calls an artisan wise
 774 ,he also uses the same words in    
different  senses at different times4   
,accordingly he uses  in the sense of  1
 simple1 in which meaning also the word 
occurs in ,euripides1 in  the           
,licymonius1 where the poet speaks of   
,hercules in the following terms3--     
,mean looking 771 rude1 virtuous in     
great affairs1      ,measuring all      
wisdom by its last results1      ,a hero
 unrefined in speech4    ,but ,plato    
uses the word sometimes even for what is

 beautiful2 and  sometimes for small and
 insignificant2 and very often he uses  
different  words to express the same    
idea4 ,accordingly1 besides the word    
for  a class1 he uses also 1 and 1 and 1
 and 1 and  4 ,sometimes he uses        
opposite expressions for the same thing2
  accordingly1 he says that it is an    
object of sensation that exists1 while  
at other times he says it is that which 
does not exist2 speaking of it  as      
existing because of its origin1 and as  
non-existent with reference to  its     
continual changes4 ,then again1 he      
defines his  as something which  is     
neither moving nor stationary1 at one   
time calling the same thing1 at  another
 time one thing1 at a third time many   
things4 ,and he is in the  habit of     
doing this in many instances4    ,and   
the explanation of his arguments is     
three-fold4 ,for first of all1 it  is   
necessary to explain what each thing    
that is said is2 secondly1 on  what     
account it is said1 whether because of  

its bearing on the principal  point1 or 
figuratively1 and whether it is said for
 the purpose of  establishing an opinion
 of his own1 or of refuting the         
arguments brought  forward by the other 
party to the conversation2 and thirdly1 
whether it  has been said truly4        
,,xxxix4 ,but since there are some      
particular marks put in his books1 we   
must also say something about them4     
indicates peculiar expressions and      
figures of speech1 and generally any    
peculiarities of ,plato's style4 ,when  
doubled it points to the doctrines and  
peculiar opinions of ,plato2   when     
dotted all round1 points to some select 
bits of beautiful writing4  ,when       
doubled and dotted it indicates         
corrections of some passages4 ,a  dotted
 obelus indicates hasty disapprovals4   
,an inverted sigma dotted  all round    
points out passages which may be taken  
in a double sense1 and  transpositions  
of words4 ,the ,ceraunium#cc indicates a
 connection of  philosophical ideas4 ,an

 asterisk points out an agreement in    
doctrine4 ,and  an obelus marks the     
rejection of the expression or of the   
passage4 ,these  then are the marginal  
marks which occur1 and the writings of  
which ,plato  was the author3--which1 as
 ,antigonus the ,carystian says1 in his 
treatise  on ,zeno1 when they had been  
but lately published1 brought in some   
gain to  the possessors1 if any one else
 was desirous of reading them4    ,,xl4 
,these now were his chief opinions4 ,he 
affirmed that the soul was  immortal and
 clothed in many bodies successively1   
and that its first  principle was       
number1 and that the first principle of 
the body was  geometry4 ,and he defined 
it as an abstract idea of spirit        
diffused in  every direction4 ,he said  
also1 that it was self-moving and       
threefold4 ,for  that that part of it   
which was capable of reasoning was      
situated in the  head1 that that portion
 which was affected by passion was      
seated around  the heart1 and that which

 was appetitive was placed around the   
navel and  the liver4 ,and that it is   
placed in the middle of the body1 and   
embraces  it at the same time in all its
 parts1 and that it consists of         
elements2  and that when it is divided  
according to harmonic intervals it forms
  two connected circles2 of which the   
inner circle is divided into six        
portions1 and makes in all seven        
circles2 and that this is placed on the 
left hand of the diameter1 and situated 
in the interior4 ,but the other  is on  
the right hand of the same line2 on     
which account1 and because it  is one   
only1 it is the superior of the two4    
,for the other is divided  internally2  
and this too1 is the circle of that     
which is always the same2  the other1   
the circle of that which is changeable  
and different4 ,and the  one he says is 
the motion of the soul1 but the other is
 the motion of the  universe and of the 
planets4    ,on the other side1 the     
division of the circles from the centre 

to the  extremities1 being harmoniously 
appropriated to the essence of the soul1
  the one knows existing things and     
establishes harmony between them1       
because it is itself composed of        
harmonious elements4 ,the circle of what
  is changeable1 engenders opinion by   
its regular movements2 but the circle   
of that which is always the same        
produces knowledge4    ,,xli4 ,plato    
lays down two primary causes or         
principles of all things1 ,god  and     
matter1 which he also calls mind1 and   
the cause4 ,and he defines  matter as   
something without shape and without     
limitation1 and says that  from it all  
concretions arise4 ,he affirms also that
 as it was moving  about at random1 it  
was brought by ,god into one settled    
place1 as ,god  thought order better    
than disorder2 and that this nature is  
divided into  four elements1 fire1      
water1 air1 and earth1 of which the     
world itself and  everything in it was  
made4 ,but he says that the earth is the

 only thing  that is unchangeable1 as he
 considers the cause to be the          
difference of  the figures of which it  
is composed2 for he says that the       
figures of the  others are homogeneous2 
for that they are all composed equally  
of scalene  triangles4 ,the figure of   
the earth1 however1 is peculiar to      
itself2  for the element of fire is a   
pyramid2 of air1 an octagon2 of water1  
an  eicosagon2 and of the earth1 a cube2
 owing to which these things cannot  be 
changed into earth1 nor earth into them4
 ,he teaches also that these  elements  
are not separated so as to occupy each a
 peculiar and distinct  place2 for the  
spherical motion collects and compresses
 all the small  things towards the      
centre1 and the small things separate   
the great ones1  on which account the   
species1 as they change1 do also change 
their  positions4    ,moreover he       
asserts that the world is one1 and has  
been produced1  since it has been made  
by ,god1 in such a manner as to be an   

object  of sensation4 ,and he considers 
it endowed with life1 because that      
which is so endowed1 is superior to that
 which is not1 and it must be  the      
production of the most excellent        
producer4 ,it is also one1 and          
illimitable2 because the model after    
which it was made was one2 and it  is   
spherical1 because its creator was of   
that form2 for it also contains  all    
other animals1 and ,god who made it     
comprises all forms4 ,and it is  smooth1
 and has no instruments whatever all    
round it1 because it has no  need of    
any4 ,but the whole world remains       
imperishable1 because it cannot  be     
resolved into ,god2 and ,god is the     
cause of universal production1  because 
it is the nature of the good to be      
productive of good2 and the  best is the
 cause of the production of the heaven2 
for the best of all  productions can    
have no other cause than the best of all
 intelligible  existences4 ,and since   
,god is of that character1 and since    

heaven  resembles the best1 inasmuch as 
it is at least the most beautiful of all
  things1 it cannot be like anything    
else that is produced1 except ,god4     
,he also teaches that the world consists
 of fire1 water1 air1 and earth2  of    
fire1 in order that it may be visible2  
of earth1 in order that it may  be firm2
 of water and air1 that it may not be   
destitute of proportion2  for two middle
 terms are indispensable to keep the    
solid bodies in due  proportion to one  
another1 and to realize the unity of the
 whole4 ,in  short1 the world is formed 
of all the elements together1 in order  
that it  may be perfect and             
imperishable4    ,again1 time is the    
image of eternity2 eternity subsists for
 ever2 but the  motion of the heaven is 
time2 for day1 and night1 and the       
months1 and all  such divisions1 are    
parts of time1 on which account there   
could be no  such thing as time apart   
from the nature of the world2 for time  
existed  contemporaneously and          

simultaneously with the world4 ,and it  
was with  reference to time that the    
sun1 and the moon1 and the planets were 
made2  and it was in order that the     
number of the seasons might be manifest1
 and  that the animals might partake of 
number1 that ,god kindled the light of  
the sun2 and that the moon was above the
 circle of the earth1 and that  the sun 
was next to it1 and in the still higher 
circles were the planets4  ,and that the
 universe was animated1 because it was  
altogether bound up  in animated motion1
 and that the race of all other animals 
was produced  in order that the world   
might be made perfect1 and resembling an
 animal  such as could be comprehended  
by intellect4 ,since then ,god had life1
 the  heaven also must have life2 and   
the ,gods are to a great extent composed
  of fire4 ,and there are three other   
races of animals1 those which fly in    
the air2 those which live in the water2 
those which walk in the earth4  ,the    
oldest of all the deities in heaven is  

the ,earth2 she was formed in  order to 
be the dispenser of night and day2 and  
as she is placed in the  centre1 she is 
constantly in motion around the centre4 
,and since there are two efficient      
causes1 some things must1 he says1  be  
affirmed to exist in consequence of     
intellect1 and some from some  necessary
 cause4 ,now necessary causes are the   
air1 fire1 earth1 and  water1 these not 
being real elements1 but rather         
receptacles2 and  they too are formed of
 triangles in combination1 and are      
resolvable  into triangles2 and their   
elements are the scalene triangle and   
the  isosceles4 ,these two before       
mentioned elements are the principles   
and  causes of things1 of which the     
models are ,god and matter1 which last  
must  necessarily be destitute of form1 
as is the case of other receptacles4    
,and that the cause of these things was 
a necessary cause1 which1  receiving the
 ideas1 produced the substances1 and was
 moved by the  dissimilarity of its own 

power1 and again by its motion compelled
 those  things which were moved by it to
 move other things in their turn4       
,but all these things were formerly     
moved without any reason or order2  but 
after they began to form the world by   
their combination1 they then  received  
symmetry and regularity from ,god1      
according to the principles  applicable 
to them2 for the efficient causes1 even 
before the creation  of the heaven1 were
 two in number4 ,there was also a third1
 namely  production2 but these were not 
very evident1 but rather traces than    
actual things1 and quite devoid of      
regularity4 ,but after the world was    
made1 then they too assumed a regular   
form and arrangement2 but the  heaven   
was made of all existing bodies4 ,and   
,plato considers that ,god is           
incorporeal just as the soul is1 and    
that it is owing to that that he is  not
 affected by any destruction or external
 circumstances4 ,and ideas1 as  we have 
said before1 he defines as certain      

causes and principles1 owing  to which  
it is that such and such things are by  
nature what they are4    ,,xlii4 ,on the
 subject of good and evil1 these were   
his sentiments3 that  the end was to    
become like ,god2 and that virtue was   
sufficient of herself  for happiness1   
but nevertheless required the advantages
 of the body as  instruments to work    
with2 such as health1 strength1 the     
integrity of  the senses1 and things of 
that kind2 and also external advantages1
 such  as riches1 and noble birth1 and  
glory4 ,still that the wise man would be
  not the less happy1 even if destitute 
of these auxiliary circumstances2  for  
he would enjoy the constitution of his  
country1 and would marry1 and  would not
 transgress the established laws1 and   
that he would legislate  for his        
country1 as well as he could under      
existing circumstances1  unless he saw  
affairs in an unmanageable condition1 in
 consequence of  the excessive          
factiousness of the people4 ,he thinks  

too that the ,gods  superintend all the 
affairs of men1 and that there are such 
beings  as dmons4 ,and he was the first 
person who defined the notion of the    
honourable1 as that which borders on the
 praiseworthy1 and the logical1  and the
 useful1 and the becoming1 and the      
expedient1 all which things are         
combined with that which is suitable to1
 and in accordance with1 nature4        
,,xliii4 ,he also discussed in his      
dialogues the correctness of terms1 so  
that he was the first person who reduced
 the science of giving correct  answers1
 and putting correct questions to a     
system1 which he himself used  to       
satiety4    ,,xliv4 ,in his dialogues he
 used to speak of justice as a kind of  
law of  ,god1 as being of influence     
sufficient to excite men to act justly1 
in  order to avoid suffering punishment 
as malefactors after death4 ,owing  to  
which he appeared to some people rather 
fond of mythical stories1  as he mingled
 stories of this kind with his writings1

 in order by the  uncertainty of all the
 circumstances that affect men after    
their death1  to induce them to abstain 
from evil actions4 ,and these were his  
opinions4    ,,xlv4 ,he used too1 says  
,aristotle1 to divide things in this    
manner3--,of  good1 some have their     
place in the mind1 some in the body1 and
 some are  wholly external4 ,as1 for    
instance1 justice1 and prudence1 and    
manly  courage1 and temperance1 and     
qualities of that sort exist in the     
soul4  ,beauty1 and a good constitution1
 and health1 and strength exist in the  
body4 ,but friends1 and the prosperity  
of one's country1 and wealth1 are       
external goods4 ,there are then three   
species of goods1 some in the soul1     
some in the body1 and some external to  
either4    ,,xlvi4 ,there are also three
 species of friendship4 ,for one kind is
  natural1 another that which arises    
from companionship2 and the third  is   
that which is produced by ties of       
hospitality4 ,we call that natural      

friendship which parents feel towards   
their offspring1 and relations  towards 
one another2 and this is partaken of by 
other animals besides  men4 ,we call    
that the friendship of companionship    
which arises from a  habit of           
association1 and which has no reference 
to ties of blood1 such  as the          
friendship of ,pylades for ,orestes4    
,that which arises from ties  of        
hospitality is one which owes its origin
 to agreements1 and which is  carried on
 by means of letters between strangers4 
,there is1 therefore1  natural          
friendship1 and friendship between      
companions1 and between  strangers4     
,some also add a fourth kind1 namely1   
the friendship of love4    ,,xlvii4 ,of 
political constitutions there are five  
species4 ,there is one  kind which is   
democratical1 a second which is         
aristocratical1 a third is              
oligarchical1 a fourth monarchical1 and 
the fifth is tyrannical4 ,now1  the     
democratical form of constitution exists

 in those cities in which  the multitude
 has the chief power1 and elects        
magistrates1 and passes  laws at its own
 pleasure4 ,but an aristocracy is that  
form in which  neither the rich1 nor the
 poor1 nor the most illustrious men of  
the  city rule1 but the most nobly born 
have the chief sway4 ,and oligarchy is  
that constitution in which the          
magistracies are distributed according  
to some sort of rating3 for the rich are
 fewer in number than the poor4  ,the   
monarchical constitution is either      
dependent on law or on family4  ,that in
 ,carthage depends on law2 that in      
,lacdemon and ,macedonia on  family2 for
 they select their sovereign out of some
 particular family4  ,but a tyranny is  
that kind of government in which the    
people are either  cajoled or           
constrained into being governed by a    
single individual4 ,forms  of government
 then1 are divided into democracy1      
aristocracy1 oligarchy1  monarchy1 and  
tyranny4    ,,xlviii4 ,again1 of justice

 there are three species4 ,for there is 
one kind  which is conversant with the  
gods2 a second which has reference to   
men2  and a third1 which concerns the   
dead4 ,for they who sacrifice according 
to  the laws1 and who pay due respect to
 the temples1 are manifestly pious  to  
the gods4 ,and those who repay what has 
been lent to them1 and restore  what has
 been deposited with them1 act justly as
 to men4 ,and those who  pay due respect
 to the tombs1 clearly are pious towards
 the dead4 ,there  is1 therefore1 one   
justice towards the ,gods1 a second     
towards men1 and a  third towards the   
dead4    ,,xlix4 ,in the same way1 there
 are also three species of knowledge4   
,there  is one kind which is practical1 
a second which is productive1 a third   
which is theoretical4 ,for the science  
of building houses or ships1 is         
production4 ,for one can see the work   
which is produced by it4 ,political     
science1 and the science of playing the 
flute1 or the harp1 or such  things as  

that1 is practical2 for one cannot see  
any visible result which  has been      
produced by them1 and yet they are doing
 something4 ,for one man  plays the     
flute or plays the harp1 and another    
occupies himself with  state affairs4   
,again1 geometrical1 and harmonic1 and  
astronomical science  are all           
theoretical1 for they do nothing1 and   
produce nothing4 ,but the  geometrician 
theorizes as to what relation lines bear
 to one another2 and  the harmonist     
speculates about sounds1 and the        
astronomer about stars and  about the   
world4 ,accordingly1 of sciences some   
are theoretical1 others  productive1 and
 a third species is practical4    ,l4   
,of medical science there are five      
species3 one1 pharmaceutical2 a  second1
 manual2 a third1 conversant about the  
regulation of the manner  of life1 and  
the diet2 a fourth1 the business of     
which is to detect  diseases2 and the   
fifth is remedial4 ,the pharmaceutical  
relieves  infirmities by means of       

medicines2 the manual heals men by      
cutting and  cauterizing2 the one which 
attends to the diet1 gets rid of        
diseases  by altering and regulating the
 diet2 the fourth produces its effects  
by a thorough comprehension of the      
nature of the disease2 and the last     
relieves men from suffering by bringing 
prompt assistance at the moment4        
,medical science1 then1 is divided into 
the pharmaceutical1 the manual1  the    
dietetic1 the diagnostic1 and the       
remedial4    ,,li4 ,of law there are two
 divisions4 ,for there is a written and 
an  unwritten law4 ,the one by which we 
regulate our constitutions in our       
cities1 is the written law2 that which  
arises from custom1 is the  unwritten   
law4 ,as1 for instance1 for a man to    
come naked into the market  place1 or to
 wear woman's clothes1 are actions which
 are not prohibited  by any law1 and yet
 we never do them because they are      
forbidden by the  unwritten law4 ,law1  
therefore1 is divided into the written  

and the  unwritten law4    ,,lii4       
,discourse is divided into five heads2  
one of which heads is that  which       
statesmen employ when they speak in the 
public assemblies2 and  this is called  
political4 ,another division is that    
which orators use in  their written     
harangues1 and bring forward for the    
sake of display in  panegyrics or       
reproaches1 or impeachments4 ,and such a
 description of  discourse as this is   
the rhetorical4 ,a third class is that  
which private  individuals use when     
conversing with one another4 ,this is   
called private  discourse4 ,another kind
 is that which is employed when men     
converse  by means of putting short     
questions and giving brief answers to   
those  who question them4 ,this is      
called the dialectic kind of discourse4 
,the fifth division is that which       
artists adopt when conversing on  their 
own particular art1 and this is called  
professional discourse4  ,thus          
discourse1 then1 is divided into        

political1 rhetorical1 private1         
dialectic1 and professional4    ,,liii4 
,music again is divided into three      
species4 ,for there is the music  of the
 mouth alone1 such as song2 secondly1   
there is the music which is  performed  
by the hands and mouth together1 such as
 singing to the harp2  thirdly1 there is
 that which is executed by the hands    
alone1 such as harp  playing4 ,music1   
therefore1 is divided into music of the 
mouth1 music of  the mouth and hands1   
and music of the hands4    ,,liv4       
,nobleness of birth is divided into four
 species2 the first is when  one's      
ancestors are noble1 and valiant1 and   
just2 in which case they  say that their
 posterity are nobly born4 ,the second  
kind is when one's  ancestors have been 
princes and rulers of nations1 and their
 posterity  also we call noble4 ,another
 kind is when one's ancestors have been 
distinguished for personal renown1 such1
 for instance1 as is gained by          
generalship or by victory at the games4 

,for their offspring also we  address as
 nobly born4 ,and the last kind is when 
a man is himself noble  in his spirit1  
and magnanimous4 ,for that man also we  
call noble1 and this  is the last kind  
of nobility4 ,there is1 therefore1      
nobility arising from  virtuous         
ancestors1 from royal ancestors1 from   
illustrious ancestors1 and  from one's  
own excellent qualities4    ,,lv4       
,beauty also is divided into three      
kinds4 ,for there is one kind  which is 
praiseworthy1 as that of a beautiful    
face4 ,another which is  useful1 as an  
instrument or a house1 and things of    
that kind which are  beautiful1 with    
reference to our use of them4 ,there is 
also a beauty with  reference to laws1  
and habits1 and things of that kind1    
which is likewise  beautiful1 because of
 its utility4 ,so that beauty again is  
looked at in  three ways1 with reference
 to its praise1 its utility1 and to our 
use of  it4    ,,lvi4 ,the soul is      
divided into three parts2 for one part  

of it is capable  of reason1 another is 
influenced by appetite1 the third part  
is liable to  passion4 ,of these the    
reasoning part is the cause of          
deliberating1 and  reasoning1 and       
understanding1 and everything of that   
kind4 ,the appetite  part is that       
portion of the soul which is the cause  
of desiring to eat1  and to embrace and 
things of that kind4 ,the passionate    
part is the cause  of men feeling       
confidence and delight1 and grief and   
anger4 ,the soul  therefore is divided  
into the reasoning part1 the appetitive 
part1 and  the passionate part4         
,,lvii4 ,of perfect virtue there are    
four species4 ,one is prudence1 one is  
justice1 the third is manly gallantry1  
and the fourth is temperance4  ,of      
these1 prudence is the cause of a man   
acting rightly in affairs2  justice is  
the cause of his acting justly in       
partnerships and bargains2  manly       
gallantry is the cause of a man's not   
being alarmed amid dangers  and         

formidable circumstances1 but standing  
firm2 and temperance is the  cause of   
his subduing his appetites1 and being   
enslaved by no pleasure1  but living    
decorously4 ,so that virtue is divided  
into prudence1 justice1  manly          
gallantry1 and temperance4    ,,lviii4  
,rule is divided into five parts4 ,one  
is rule according to law2  another is   
rule according to nature2 a third kind  
is rule according to  custom2 a fourth  
division is rule with reference to      
family2 the fifth is  rule by force4    
,now when the rulers in cities are      
elected by the citizens1  then they rule
 according to law2 those who rule       
according to nature are  the males1 not 
only among men1 but also among all other
 animals2 for  everywhere we shall find 
it as a general rule that the male rules
 the  female2 the rule of him who rules 
according to custom is such as this1    
when schoolmasters rule their pupils1   
and teachers their disciples4 ,rule     
according to family is that which       

prevails in places like ,lacedmon1      
where hereditary sovereigns reign4 ,for 
the kingdom there belongs to a  certain 
family2 and in ,macedonia they rule on  
the same principle4 ,for  there1 too1   
the kingdom depends on family4 ,but     
those who rule by force1  only cajoling 
the citizens1 rule in spite of them2 and
 such a sway is  called rule by force4  
,so that there is rule by law1 and by   
nature1 and by  custom1 and by family1  
and by force4    ,,lix4 ,of rhetoric he 
speaks of six species4 ,for when orators
 exhort the  people to make war upon or 
to form alliances against any one1 this 
species of oratory is called            
exhortation4 ,when they persuade the    
people  not to make war1 or to form     
alliances1 but to keep quiet1 this kind 
of  rhetoric is called dissuasion4 ,the 
third species of rhetoric1 is when any  
one says that he has been injured by    
some one else1 and impeaches that       
person as guilty of many crimes2 for    
this species is called accusation4  ,the

 fourth kind of rhetoric is called      
defence1 when a man shows that he  has  
done no wrong1 and that he is not guilty
 of anything out of the way4  ,such a   
kind of speech they call a defence4 ,the
 fifth species of rhetoric1  is when any
 one speaks well of another1 and shows  
him to be virtuous and  honourable2 and 
this kind is called encomium4 ,the sixth
 species1 is when  any one shows that   
another person is worthless2 and this   
kind is called  blame4 ,so that rhetoric
 is divided into encomium and blame1    
exhortation  and dissuasion1 accusation 
and defence4    ,speaking correctly is  
divided under four heads4 ,one1 the     
saying what is  right2 one1 the saying  
as much as is right2 thirdly1 the saying
 it to the  proper people2 and fourthly1
 the saying it at the proper time4 ,now 
as to  the saying what is right1 that is
 the saying what will be advantageous   
both to the speaker and to the hearer4  
,the saying as much as is right1 is     
saying neither more nor less than what  

is sufficient4 ,the saying it to  the   
proper people1 is supposing one is      
speaking to one's elders who are        
mistaken in any point1 the using        
expressions proper to be addressed to   
those older than one's self2 or1 on the 
other hand1 if one is addressing  those 
younger1 then the using language such as
 is suitable to young  people4 ,the     
saying it at the proper time1 is        
speaking neither too soon  nor too late2
 for if one does1 one will err and speak
 improperly4    ,,lx4 ,beneficence is   
divided under four heads4 ,for it may be
 exerted  either in money1 or by        
personal exertion1 or by knowledge1 or  
by words4  ,in money when any one       
assists those who are in want1 so as to 
put them  at ease with respect to money4
 ,and men benefit one another by        
personal  exertion when they come upon  
those who are being beaten and assist   
them4  ,again1 those who instruct1 or   
heal1 or who teach any good thing1      
benefit  others by their knowledge2 and 

when one person comes down to the court 
of justice as an advocate for another1  
and delivers some speech full of  sense 
and good feeling in his behalf1 that man
 assists his friend by  words4 ,so that 
there is one beneficence which is       
displayed in money1  another in personal
 exertion1 a third by means of          
knowledge1 and the  fourth kind by      
words4    ,,lxi4 ,again1 ,plato divides 
the end of all affairs into four        
species4 ,an  affair has one end in     
accordance with law1 when a decree is   
passed1 and  when the law establishes   
it2 it has an end in accordance with    
nature1  when it is such a thing as a   
day1 or a year1 or the seasons4 ,it has 
an  end according to art1 when it is    
architecture for instance1 for a man    
builds a house2 or when it is           
ship-building1 for it makes a ship4 ,and
  affairs also come to an end by chance1
 when they turn out differently  from   
what any one expected4 ,so that an end  
of an affair is regulated  either by    

law1 or by nature1 or by art1 or by     
chance4    ,,lxii4 ,power again is      
divided into four species4 ,there is one
 power which  we possess by our ability 
to reason and form conceptions by means 
of our  intellect4 ,there is another    
power which we owe to the body1 such as 
the  power of walking1 or giving1 or    
taking1 and such like4 ,there is a third
  which we possess through the multitude
 of soldiers or riches1 on which        
account a king is said to have great    
power4 ,and the fourth division of      
power consists in the being well or ill 
treated1 and treating others well  or   
ill2 as1 for instance1 we may be sick1  
or we may be taught1 or we may  be in   
vigorous health1 and many more cases of 
that sort4 ,so that one kind  of power  
dwells in the intellect1 another in the 
body1 another in an army  and riches1   
and another in our capacity as agents or
 patients4    ,,lxiii4 ,of philanthropy 
there are three sorts4 ,one which is    
displayed  in addressing people1 when   

some persons address every one whom they
  meet1 and give them their right hand1 
and greet them heartily2 another        
species is when one is disposed to      
assist every one who is unfortunate4    
,the last kind is that sort of          
philanthropy which makes men pleasant   
boon companions4 ,so that there is one  
kind of philanthropy displayed in       
addressing people1 another in benefiting
 them1 and a third in feasting  and     
making merry with them4    ,,lxiv4      
,happiness is divided into five parts4  
,for one part of it is wisdom  in       
counsel2 another is a healthy condition 
of the sensations and general  health of
 body2 a third is good fortune in one's 
affairs2 a fourth kind  is good         
reputation among men2 a fifth is        
abundance of riches and of all  those   
things which are useful in life4 ,now   
wisdom in counsel arises from  good     
instruction1 and from a person's having 
experience of many things4  ,a healthy  
condition of the sensations depends on  

the limbs of the body2  as1 for         
instance1 when one sees with one's eyes1
 and hears with one's  ears1 and smells 
with one's nose1 and feels with one's   
body1 just what  one ought to see1 and  
hear1 and smell1 and feel4 ,such a      
condition as  this is a healthy         
condition4 ,and good fortune is when a  
man does rightly  and successfully what 
a good and energetic man ought to do4   
,and good  reputation is when a man is  
well spoken of4 ,and abundance of riches
 is  when a man has such a sufficiency  
of everything which relates to the uses 
of life1 that he is able to benefit his 
friends1 and to discharge all  public   
obligations in a splendid and liberal   
manner4 ,and the man who has  all these 
different parts of happiness1 is a      
perfectly happy man4 ,so  that happiness
 is made up of wisdom in counsel1 a good
 condition of the  sensations and health
 of body1 good fortune1 good reputation1
 and riches4    ,,lxv4 ,the arts are    
divided into three kinds4 ,the first1   

the second1 and  the third4 ,the first  
are those of working mines and cutting  
wood1 for  these are preparatory arts4  
,the second are such as working metals  
and  carpentry1 for they are alterative 
arts4 ,for working in metals makes arms 
out of iron2 and carpentry makes flutes 
and lyres out of wood4 ,the third  is   
the art which makes use of instruments2 
such as horsemanship1 which  uses       
bridles2 the military art1 which uses   
arms2 music1 which uses flutes  and     
lyres4 ,so that there are three species 
of art2 one of which is the  first1     
another the second1 and another the     
third4    ,,lxvi4 ,good is divided into 
four kinds4 ,one of which we mean when  
we speak  of a man endowed with private 
virtue1 as good2 another kind is that   
which  we indicate1 when we call virtue 
and justice1 good4 ,a third kind is that
  which we attribute to suitable food1  
and exercise1 and medicine4 ,the  fourth
 good1 is that which we mean1 when we   
speak of good flute playing1  good      

acting1 and things of that sort4 ,there 
are therefore four kinds of  good4 ,one 
the having virtue2 another1 virtue      
itself2 a third1 useful food  and       
exercise2 and fourthly1 we call skill in
 flute playing and acting1  good4       
,,lxvii4 ,of things existing1 some are  
bad1 some good1 and some neither  one   
thing nor the other4 ,of these1 we call 
those things bad1 which  are invariably 
capable of doing injury1 such as        
intemperance1 folly1  injustice1 and    
things of that sort4 ,and the opposites 
to these qualities  are good4 ,but those
 things1 which may at times be          
beneficial1 and at  times injurious1    
such as walking1 sitting down1 and      
eating2 or which have  absolutely no    
power in any case to benefit or injure  
any one2 these are  neither bad nor     
good4 ,of things existing then1 there   
are some bad1 and  some good1 and some  
of a neutral character1 neither bad nor 
good4    ,,lxviii4 ,a good state of     
affairs with reference to the laws1 is  

divided  under three heads4 ,one when   
the laws are good1 for that is a good   
state  of affairs2 so too is it1 when   
the citizens abide by the existing laws2
  and the third case is1 when although  
there are no positive laws1  still men  
are good citizens in deference to custom
 and to established  institutions2 and  
this is also called a good state of     
affairs4 ,so that  of these three heads1
 one depends on the laws being good1    
another on  obedience to existing laws1 
and the third on men yielding to good   
customs  and institutions4    ,so again1
 lawlessness is divided into three      
heads4 ,one of which is1  when the laws 
are bad1 both as concerns strangers1 and
 the citizens2  another1 when the       
citizens do not obey the laws that are  
established2 and  the third is when     
there is actually no law at all4 ,so    
that one kind of  lawlessness arises    
from bad laws1 another from disobedience
 to existing  laws1 and the third from  
the absence of laws4    ,,lxix4         

,contraries are of three sorts2 for     
instance1 we say that good  is contrary 
to evil1 as justice to injustice1 wisdom
 to folly1 and so  on4 ,again1 some     
evils are contrary to others1 as        
extravagance is to  stinginess1 and the 
being tortured with justice to the being
 tortured  with injustice4 ,and such    
evils as these are the contraries of    
other  evils4 ,again1 the heavy is      
contrary to the light1 the swift to the 
slow1  the black to the white2 so that  
some things which are of a neutral      
character1 neither good nor evil1 are   
contrary to other things of a  neutral  
character4 ,of contraries then1 there   
are some which are so1 as  what is good 
is contrary to what is evil2 others1 as 
one evil is contrary  to another2 and   
others again1 as neutral things are     
contrary to other  things of a neutral  
character4    ,,lxx4 ,of good things    
there are three kinds2 for there are    
some which can  be possessed2 others1   
which can be shared2 others1 which one  

realizes  in one's self4 ,those which   
can be possessed1 are those which it is 
possible for a person to have1 such as  
justice1 or good health2 those  can be  
shared1 which it is not possible for a  
person to have entirely  to himself1 but
 which he may participate in2 as for    
instance1 a person  cannot be the sole  
possessor of abstract good1 but he may  
participate in  it4 ,those again a      
person realizes in himself1 when they   
are such1 that  he cannot possess them  
himself1 or share them with others1 and 
yet they  ought to exist2 as for        
instance1 it is good to be virtuous and 
just1 but  yet a man does not possess   
the being virtuous1 or participate in   
it2  but the being virtuous and just    
ought to exist in him4 ,of good things1 
therefore1 there are those which are    
possessed1 those which are shared1  and 
those which ought to exist in a man4    
,,lxxi4 ,in the same manner1 good       
counsel is divisible into three kinds4  
,for there is one kind which is derived 

from past time1 another from the        
future1 another from the present4 ,that 
which is derived from past time is  made
 up of instances1 as for instance what  
the ,lacedmonians suffered by  trusting 
to such and such people4 ,that which    
relates to the present1 is  when what is
 wanted1 is to show that the            
fortifications are weak1 the men        
cowardly1 or the provisions scanty4     
,that which concerns the future1 is     
when the speaker urges that no injury   
ought to be offered to ambassadors1  in 
order that ,greece may not get an evil  
reputation2 and supports his  argument  
by instances4 ,so that good counsel has 
reference1 firstly to  what is past1    
secondly to what is present1 and thirdly
 to the future4    ,,lxxii4 ,voice is   
divided into two parts1 one of which is 
animated1 and the  other inanimate4     
,that is animated1 which proceeds from  
living animals1  while sounds and echoes
 are inanimate4 ,again1 animated voice  
may be  divided into that which can be  

indicated by letters1 and that which    
cannot2 that which can be so indicated  
being the voice of men1 and that  which 
cannot being the voice of animals2 so   
that one kind of voice is  animated1 the
 other inanimate4    ,,lxxiii4 ,of      
existing things1 some are divisible and 
some indivisible4  ,again1 those which  
are divisible1 consist either of similar
 or of  dissimilar parts4 ,those which  
are indivisible are such as have no     
separate parts1 and are not formed by   
any combination1 such as unity1  a      
point1 or a sound4 ,but those are       
divisible which are formed by some      
combination2 as1 for instance1          
syllables1 and symphonies1 and animals1 
and water1 and gold4 ,these too consist 
of similar parts1 which are made  up of 
particles resembling one another1 and of
 which the whole does  not differ from  
any part1 except in number4 ,as for     
instance1 water and  gold1 and          
everything which is fusible1 and so on4 
,and these consist of  dissimilar parts1

 which are made up of various things not
 resembling one  another2 as for        
instance1 a house1 and things of that   
sort2 so that of  existing things1 some 
are divisible and others indivisible4   
,and of those  which are divisible1 some
 consist of similar and others of       
dissimilar  parts4    ,,lxxiv4 ,again1  
of existing things1 some are spoken of  
as having an  independent1 and some only
 a relative existence4 ,those which are 
spoken  of as having an independent     
existence1 are those which require      
nothing  else to be added to them1 when 
we are explaining their nature2 as man1 
a  horse1 and the other animals2 for    
these have no need of any additional    
explanation4 ,but those things are said 
to have a relative existence which  do  
require some additional explanation4 ,as
 for instance1 that which is  greater   
than something else1 or less1 or        
swifter1 or more beautiful1  and so on4 
,for that which is greater1 is greater  
than something which  is less2 and that 

which is swifter1 is swifter than       
something else4 ,so  that1 of existing  
things1 some are spoken of as           
independently1 and other  relatively4   
,and thus he divided them at first1     
according to ,aristotle4    ,,lxxv4     
,there was also another man of the name 
of ,plato1 a philosopher of  ,rhodes1 a 
disciple of ,pantius1 as ,seleucus1 the 
grammarian says in the  first book of   
his treatise on ,philosophy2 and another
 was a ,peripatetic1  a pupil of        
,aristotle2 and there was a third1 a    
pupil of ,praxiphanes2 and  there was   
besides all these1 the poet of the ,old 
,comedy4          ,,book ,,iv4          
,,life ,,of ,,speusippus4    ,i4 ,the   
long account which ,i have given of     
,plato was compiled to the best  of my  
power1 and in it ,i collected with great
 zeal and industry all that  was        
reported of the man4    ,,ii4 ,and he   
was succeeded by ,speusippus1 the son of
 ,eurymedon1 and a  citizen of ,athens1 
of the ,myrrhinusian burgh1 and he was  

the son of  ,plato's sister ,potone4    
,,iii4 ,he presided over his school for 
eight years1 beginning to do so in  the 
hundred and eighth olympiad4 ,and he set
 up images of the ,graces in  the temple
 of the ,muses1 which had been built in 
the ,academy by ,plato4    ,,iv4 ,and he
 always adhered to the doctrines which  
had been adopted by  ,plato1 though he  
was not of the same disposition as he4  
,for he was a  passionate man1 and a    
slave to pleasure4 ,accordingly1 they   
say that  he once in a rage threw a     
puppy into a well2 and that for the sake
 of  amusement1 he went all the way to  
,macedonia to the marriage of           
,cassander4    ,v4 ,the female pupils of
 ,plato1 ,lasthenea of ,mantinea1 and   
,axiothea  of ,phlius1 are said to have 
become disciples of ,speusippus also4   
,and  ,dionysius1 writing to him in a   
petulant manner1 says1 8,and one may    
learn  philosophy too from your female  
disciple from ,arcadia2 moreover1 ,plato
  used to take his pupils without       

exacting any fee from them2 but you     
collect tribute from yours1 whether     
willing or unwilling40    ,,vi4 ,he was 
the first man1 as ,diodorus relates in  
the first book of his  ,commentaries1   
who investigated in his school what was 
common to the  several sciences2 and who
 endeavoured1 as far as possible1 to    
maintain  their connection with each    
other4 ,he was also the first who       
published  those things which ,isocrates
 called secrets1 as ,cneus tells us4    
,and the  first too who found out how to
 make light baskets of bundles of twigs4
    ,,vii4 ,but he became afflicted with
 paralysis1 and sent to ,xenocrates     
inviting him to come to him1 and to     
become his successor in his school4     
,,viii4 ,and they say that once1 when he
 was being borne in a carriage into  the
 ,academy1 he met ,diogenes1 and said1  
8,hail20 and ,diogenes replied1 8,i     
will not say hail to you1 who1 though in
 such a state as you are1 endure  to    
live40    ,,ix4 ,and at last in despair 

he put an end to his life1 being a man  
of a  great age4 ,and we have written   
this epigram on him3--        ,had ,i   
not known ,speusippus thus had died1    
,no one would have persuaded me that he 
,was e'er akin to ,plato2 who would     
never        ,have died desponding for  
so slight a grief4    ,but ,plutarch1 in
 his ,life of ,lysander1 and again in   
his ,life of ,sylla1  says that he was  
kept in a state of constant inflammation
 by lice4 ,for  he was of a weak habit  
of body1 as ,timotheus relates in his   
treatise on  ,lives4    ,x4 ,speusippus 
said to a rich man who was in love with 
an ugly woman1  8,what do you want with 
her8 ,i will find you a much prettier   
woman for ten  talents40    ,,xi4 ,he   
left behind him a great number of       
commentaries1 and many  dialogues2 among
 which was one on ,aristippus2 one on   
,riches2 one on  ,pleasure2 one on      
,justice2 one on ,philosophy2 one on    
,friendship2 one  on the ,gods2 one     
called the ,philosopher2 one addressed  

to ,cephalus2  one called ,cephalus2 one
 called ,clinomachus1 or ,lysias2 one   
called  the ,citizen2 one on the ,soul2 
one addressed to ,gryllus2 one called   
,aristippus2 one called the ,test of    
,art4 ,there were also ,commentaries by 
way of dialogues2 one on ,art2 and ten  
about those things which are alike  in  
their treatment4 ,there are also books  
of divisions and arguments  directed to 
similar things2 ,essays on the ,genera  
and ,species of ,examples2  an ,essay   
addressed to ,amartyrus2 a ,panegyric on
 ,plato2 ,letters to ,dion1  and        
,dionysius1 and ,philip2 an ,essay on   
,legislation4 ,there is also1 the       
,mathematician2 the ,mandrobulus2 the   
,lysias2 ,definitions2 and a series of  
,commentaries4 ,there are in all1       
forty-three thousand four hundred and   
seventy-five lines4    ,simonides       
dedicated to him the ,histories1 in     
which he had related the  actions of    
,dion and ,bion4 ,and in the second book
 of his ,commentaries1  ,phavorinus     

states that ,aristotle purchased his    
books for three talents4    ,,xii4      
,there was also another person of the   
name of ,speusippus1 a physician  of the
 school of ,herophilus1#cd a native of  
,alexandria4      ,,life ,,of           
,,xenocrates4    ,i4 ,xenocrates was the
 son of ,agathenor1 and a native of     
,chalcedon4 ,from  his early youth he   
was a pupil of ,plato1 and also         
accompanied him in his  voyages to      
,sicily4    ,,ii4 ,he was by nature of a
 lazy disposition1 so that they say that
 ,plato  said once1 when comparing him  
to ,aristotle1--8,the one requires the  
spur1  and the other the bridle40 ,and  
on another occasion1 he said1 8,what a  
horse and what an ass am ,i dressing    
opposite to one another60    ,,iii4 ,in 
other respects ,xenocrates was always of
 a solemn and grave  character1 so that 
,plato was continually saying to        
him1--8,xenocrates1  sacrifice to the   
,graces40 ,and he spent the greater part
 of his time in  the ,academy1 and      

whenever he was about to go into the    
city1 they say  all the turbulent and   
quarrelsome rabble in the city used to  
make way  for him to pass by4 ,and once1
 ,phryne the courtesan wished to try him
  and pretending that she was pursued by
 some people1 she fled and took  refuge 
in his house2 and he admitted her       
indeed1 because of what was  due to     
humanity2 and as there was but one bed  
in the room1 he1 at her  entreaty1      
allowed her to share it with him2 but at
 last1 in spite of  all her entreaties1 
she got up and went away1 without having
 been able  to succeed in her purpose2  
and told those who asked her1 that she  
had  quitted a statue and not a man4    
,but some say that the real story is1   
that  his pupils put ,lais into his bed1
 and that he was so continent1 that he  
submitted to some severe operations of  
excision and cautery4    ,,iv4 ,and he  
was a very trustworthy man2 so that1    
though it was not lawful  for men to    
give evidence except on oath1 the       

,athenians made an exception  in his    
favour alone4    ,v4 ,he was also a man 
of the most contented disposition2      
accordingly  they say that when         
,alexander sent him a large sum of      
money1 he took  three thousand ,attic   
drachmas1 and sent back the rest1       
saying1 that  ,alexander wanted most1 as
 he had the greatest number of mouths to
 feed4  ,and when some was sent him by  
,antipater1 he would not accept any of  
it1  as ,myronianus tells us in his     
,similitudes4 ,and once1 when he gained 
a  golden crown1 in a contest as to who 
could drink most1 which was offered  in 
the yearly festival of the ,choes by    
,dionysius1 he went out and placed  the 
crown at the feet of the statue of      
,mercury1 which was at the gate1  where 
he was also accustomed to deposit his   
garlands of flowers4 ,it is  said also1 
that he was once sent with some         
colleagues as an ambassador to  ,philip2
 and that they were won over by gifts1  
and went to his banquets  and conversed 

with ,philip2 but that he would do none 
of these things1  nor could ,philip     
propitiate him by these means2 on which 
account1 when  the other ambassadors    
arrived in ,athens1 they said that      
,xenocrates had  gone with them to no   
purpose2 and the people were ready to   
punish him2  but when they had learnt   
from him that they had now more need    
than ever  to look to the welfare of    
their city1 for that ,philip had already
 bribed  all their counsellors1 but that
 he had been unable to win him over by  
any  means1 then they say that the      
people honoured him with redoubled      
honour4  ,they add also1 that ,philip   
said afterwards1 that ,xenocrates was   
the only  one of those who had come to  
him who was incorruptible4 ,and when he 
went  as ambassador to ,antipater on the
 subject of the ,athenian captives at   
the  time of the ,samian war1 and was   
invited by him to a banquet1 he         
addressed  him in the following lines3--
        ,i answer1 ,goddess human1 is   

thy breast      ,by justice sway'd1 by  
tender pity prest8      ,ill fits it me1
 whose friends are sunk to beasts1      
,to quaff thy bowls1 or riot in thy     
feasts3      ,me would'st thou please1  
for them thy cares employ1      ,and    
them to me restore1 and me to joy8#ce   
,and ,antipater1 admiring the           
appropriateness of the quotation1       
immediately  released them4    ,,vi4 ,on
 one occasion1 when a sparrow was       
pursued by a hawk1 and flew into  his   
bosom1 he caressed it1 and let it go    
again1 saying that we ought  not to     
betray a suppliant4 ,and being ridiculed
 by ,bion1 he said that he  would not   
answer him1 for that tragedy1 when      
ridiculed by comedy1 did  not condescend
 to make a reply4 ,to one who had never 
learnt music1 or  geometry1 or          
astronomy1 but who wished to become his 
disciple1 he said1  8,be gone1 for you  
have not yet the handles of philosophy40
 ,but some say  that he said1 8,be gone1
 for ,i do not card wool here40 ,and    

when ,dionysius  said to ,plato that    
some one would cut off his head1 he1    
being present1  showed his own1 and     
said1 8,not before they have cut off    
mine40    ,,vii4 ,they say too that     
once1 when ,antipater had come to       
,athens and  saluted him1 he would not  
make him any reply before he had        
finished  quietly the discourse which he
 was delivering4    ,,viii4 ,being      
exceedingly devoid of every kind of     
pride1 he often used to  meditate with  
himself several times a day2 and always 
allotted one hour  of each day1 it is   
said1 to silence4    ,,ix4 ,and he left 
behind him a great number of writings1  
and books of  recommendation1 and       
verses1 which are these1--six books on  
,natural  ,philosophy2 six on ,wisdom2  
one on ,riches1 the ,arcadian2 one      
volume on  the ,indefinite2 one on a    
,child2 one on ,temperance2 one on the  
,useful2  one on the ,free2 one on      
,death2 one on the ,voluntary2 two on   
,friendship2  one on ,courtesy2 two on  

,contraries2 two on ,happiness2 one on  
,writing2  one on ,memory2 one on       
,falsehood2 the ,callicles one2 two on  
,prudence2 one  on conomy2 one on       
,temperance2 one on the ,power of ,law2 
one on ,political  ,constitutions2 one  
on ,piety2 one to show that ,virtue may 
be transmitted2  one about the          
,existent2 one on ,fate2 one on the     
,passions2 one on ,lives2  one on       
,unanimity2 two on ,pupils2 one on      
,justice2 two on ,virtue2 one on        
,species2 two on ,pleasure2 one on      
,life2 one on ,manly ,courage2 one on   
,the  ,one2 one on ,ideas2 one on ,art2 
two on the ,gods2 two on the ,soul2 one 
on  ,knowledge2 one on the ,statesman2  
one on ,science2 one on ,philosophy2 one
  on the ,school of ,parmenides2 one the
 ,archedemus1 or an essay on ,justice2  
one on the ,good2 eight of those things 
which concern the ,intellect2  ten      
essays in solution of the difficulties  
which occur respecting  ,orations2 six  
books on the study of ,natural          

,philosophy2 the ,principal1  one2 one  
treatise on ,genus and ,species2 one on 
the doctrines of the  ,pythagoreans2 two
 books of ,solutions2 seven of          
,divisions2 several volumes  of         
,propositions2 several also about the   
method of conducting ,discussions4      
,besides all this1 there are one set of 
fifteen volumes1 and another of         
sixteen1 on the subject of those studies
 which relate to ,speaking2 nine  more  
which treat of ,ratiocination2 six books
 on ,mathematics2 two more  books on    
subjects connected with the ,intellect2 
five books on ,geometry2  one book of   
,reminiscences2 one of ,contraries2 one 
on ,arithmetic2 one on  the             
,contemplation of ,numbers2 one on      
,intervals2 six on ,astronomy2 four of  
elementary suggestions to ,alexander1 on
 the subject of ,royal ,power2 one      
addressed to ,arybas2 one addressed to  
,hephstion2 two on ,geometry2 seven     
books of ,verses4    ,x4 ,but the       
,athenians1 though he was such a great  

man1 once sold him1  because he was     
unable to pay the tax to which the      
metics were liable4  ,and ,demetrius    
,phalereus purchased him1 and so        
assisted both parties1  ,xenocrates by  
giving him his freedom1 and the         
,athenians in respect of the  tax upon  
metics4 ,this circumstance is mentioned 
by ,myronianus of ,amastra1  in the     
first book of his chapters of           
,historical ,coincidences4    ,,xi4 ,he 
succeeded ,speusippus1 and presided over
 the school for twenty-five  years1     
beginning at the archonship of          
,lysimachides1 in the second year of    
the hundred and tenth olympiad4         
,,xii4 ,and he died in consequence of   
stumbling by night against a dish1      
being more than eighty-two years of age4
 ,and in one of our epigrams we  speak  
thus of him3--        ,he struck against
 a brazen pot1        ,and cut his      
forehead deep1      ,and crying cruel is
 my lot1        ,in death he fell       
asleep4      ,so thus ,xenocrates did   

fall1      ,the universal friend of all4
    ,,xiii4 ,and there were five other  
people of the name of ,xenocrates4 ,one 
was  an ancient tactician1 a fellow     
citizen1 and very near relation of the  
philosopher of whom we have been        
speaking2 and there is extant an oration
  of his which is scribed1 ,on ,arsinoe1
 and which was written on the death  of 
,arsinoe4 ,a third was a philosopher who
 wrote some very indifferent  elegiac   
poetry2 and that is not strange1 for    
when poets take to writing  in prose1   
they succeed pretty well2 but when prose
 writers try their hand  at poetry1 they
 fail2 from which it is plain1 that the 
one is a gift of  nature1 and the other 
a work of art4 ,the fourth was a        
statuary2 the fifth  a writer of songs1 
as we are told by ,aristoxenus4         
,,life ,,of ,,polemo4    ,i4 ,polemo was
 the son of ,philostratus1 an ,athenian1
 of the burgh of a4  ,and when he was   
young1 he was so very intemperate and   
profligate1 that  he used always to     

carry money about with him1 to procure  
the instant  gratification of his       
passions2 and he used also to hide money
 in the  narrow alleys1 for this        
purpose4 ,and once there was found in   
the ,academy  a piece of three obols1   
hidden against one of the columns1 which
 he had  put there for some purpose like
 that which ,i have indicated2 and on   
one  occasion he arranged beforehand    
with some young men1 and rushed1 adorned
  with a garland1 and drunk1 into the   
school of ,xenocrates4 ,but he took no  
notice of him1 and continued his        
discourse as he had begun it1 and it was
  in praise of temperance2 and the young
 man1 hearing it1 was gradually         
charmed1 and became so industrious1 that
 he surpassed all the rest of the       
disciples1 and himself became the       
successor of ,xenocrates1 in his school 
beginning in the hundred and sixteenth  
olympiad4    ,,ii4 ,and ,antigonus1 of  
,carystus1 says in his ,lives1 that his 
father had  been the chief man of the   

city1 and had kept chariots for the     
,olympic  games4    ,,iii4 ,he also     
asserts that ,polemo was prosecuted by  
his wife1 on the  charge of             
ill-treatment1 because he indulged in   
illicit pleasures1 and  despised her4   
,,iv4 ,but that when he began to devote 
himself to philosophy1 he adopted  such 
a rigorous system of morals1 that he for
 the future always continued  the same  
in appearance1 and never even changed   
his voice1 on which  account ,crantor   
was charmed by him4 ,accordingly1 on one
 occasion1 when a  dog was mad and had  
bitten his leg1 he was the only person  
who did not  turn pale2 and once1 when  
there was a great confusion in the city1
 he1  having heard the cause1 remained  
where he was without fleeing4 ,in the   
theatres too he was quite immoveable2   
accordingly1 when ,nicostratus the      
poet1 who was surnamed ,clytmnestra1 was
 once reading something to him  and     
,crates1 the latter was excited to      
sympathy1 he behaved as though he  heard

 nothing4 ,and altogether1 he was such  
as ,melanthius1 the painter1  describes 
in his treatise on ,painting2 for he    
says that some kind of  obstinacy and   
harshness ought to exist in works of art
 as in morals4    ,and ,polemo used to  
say that a man ought to exercise himself
 in action1  and not in dialectic       
speculations1 as if one had drunk in and
 dwelt  upon a harmonious kind of system
 of art1 so as to be admired for one's  
shrewdness1 in putting questions2 but to
 be inconsistent with one's self  in    
character4 ,he was1 then1 a well-bred   
and high-spirited man1 avoiding  what   
,aristophanes says of ,euripides1       
speeches of vinegar and assaftida1  such
 as he says himself3--        ,are base 
delights compared with better things8   
,v4 ,and he did not use to lecture on   
the propositions before him while       
sitting down2 but he would walk about1  
it is said1 and so discuss them4  ,and  
he was much honoured in the city because
 of his noble sentiments2  and after he 

had been walking about1 he would rest in
 his garden2 and  his pupils erected    
little cabins near it1 and dwelt near   
his school and  corridor4    ,,vi4 ,and 
as it seems1 ,polemo imitated           
,xenocrates in everything2 and          
,aristippus1 in the fourth book of his  
treatise on ,ancient ,luxury1 says  that
 ,xenocrates loved him2 at all events1  
,polemo used to be always  speaking of  
him1 and praising his guileless nature1 
and his rigorous  virtues1 and his      
chaste severity1 like that of a ,doric  
building4    ,,vii4 ,he was also very   
fond of ,sophocles1 and especially of   
those passages  where1 according to one 
of the comic poets1 he seemed to have   
had a  ,molossian hound for his         
colleague in composing his poems2 and   
when there  was1 to use the expression  
of ,phrynichus3--        ,no sweet or   
washy liquor1 but purest ,pramnian wine4
    ,and he used to say that ,homer was 
an epic ,sophocles1 and ,sophocles a    
tragic ,homer4    ,,viii4 ,and he died  

when he was very old1 of decline1 having
 left behind  him a great number of     
writings4 ,and there is this epigram of 
ours upon  him3--        ,do you not    
hear1 we've buried ,polemo1      ,whom  
sickness1 worst affliction of mankind   
,attacked1 and bore off to the shades   
below2      ,yet ,polemo lies not here1 
but ,polemo's body      ,and that he did
 himself place here on earth1           
,prepared in soul to mount up to the    
skies4      ,,life ,,of ,,crates4    ,i4
 ,crates was the son of ,antigenes1 and 
of the ,thriasian burgh1 and  a pupil   
and attached friend of ,polemo4 ,he was 
also his successor as  president of his 
school4    ,,ii4 ,and they benefited one
 another so much1 that not only did they
  delight while alive in the same       
pursuits1 but almost to their latest    
breath did they resemble one another1   
and even after they were both dead  they
 shared the same tomb4 ,in reference to 
which circumstance ,antagoras  has      
written an epigram on the pair1 in which

 he expresses himself thus3--           
,stranger1 who passest by1 relate that  
here        ,the ,god-like ,crates lies1
 and ,polemo2      ,two men of kindred  
nobleness of mind2        ,out of whose 
holy mouths pure wisdom flowed1         
,and they with upright lives did well   
display1        ,the strength of all    
their principles and teaching4    ,and  
they say too that it was in reference to
 this that ,arcesilaus1 when  he came   
over to them from ,theophrastus1 said   
that they were some gods1  or else a    
remnant of the golden race2 for they    
were not very fond of  courting the     
people1 but had a disposition in        
accordance with the saying  of          
,dionysodorus the flute player1 who is  
reported to have said1 with  great      
exultation and pride1 that no one had   
ever heard his music in a  trireme or at
 a fountain as they had heard ,ismenius4
    ,,iii4 ,antigonus relates that he   
used to be a messmate of ,crantor1 and  
that  these philosophers and ,arcesilaus

 lived together2 and that ,arcesilaus   
lived in ,crantor's house1 but that     
,polemo and ,crates lived in the house  
of one of the citizens1 named ,lysicles2
 and he says that ,crates was1  as ,i   
have already mentioned1 greatly attached
 to ,polemo1 and so was  ,arcesilaus to 
,crantor4    ,,iv4 ,but when ,crates    
died1 as ,apollodorus relates in the    
third book of  his ,chronicles1 he left 
behind him compositions1 some on        
philosophical  subjects and some on     
comedy1 and some which were speeches    
addressed to  assemblies of the people1 
or delivered on the occasion of         
embassies4    ,v4 ,he also left behind  
him some eminent disciples1 among whom  
were  ,arcesilaus1 about whom we shall  
speak presently1 for he too was a  pupil
 of his1 and ,bion of the ,borysthenes1 
who was afterwards called a             
,theodorean1 from the sect which he     
espoused1 and we shall speak of him     
immediately after ,arcesilaus4    ,,vi4 
,but there were ten people of the name  

of ,crates4 ,the first was a  poet of   
the old comedy2 the second was an orator
 of ,tralles1 a pupil of  ,isocrates2   
the third was an engineer who served    
under ,alexander2 the  fourth a ,cynic1 
whom we shall mention hereafter2 the    
fifth a ,peripatetic  philosopher2 the  
sixth the ,academic philosopher1 of whom
 we are speaking2  the seventh a        
grammarian of ,malos2 the eighth a      
writer in geometry2 the  ninth an       
epigrammatic poet2 the tenth was an     
,academic philosopher1 a  native of     
,tarsus4      ,,life ,,of ,,crantor4    
,i4 ,crantor1 a native of ,soli1 being  
admired very greatly in his own         
country1 came to ,athens and became a   
pupil of ,xenocrates at the same time   
with ,polemo4    ,,ii4 ,and he left     
behind him memorials1 in the shape of   
writings1 to the  number of #cj1jjj     
lines1 some of which1 however1 are by   
some writers  attributed to ,arcesilaus4
    ,,iii4 ,they say of him that when he
 was asked what it was that he was so   

charmed with in ,polemo1 he replied1    
8,that he had never heard him speak in  
too high or too low a key40    ,,iv4    
,when he was ill he retired to the      
temple of sculapius1 and there  walked  
about1 and people came to him from all  
quarters1 thinking that he  had gone    
thither1 not on account of any disease1 
but because he wished  to establish a   
school there4    ,v4 ,and among those   
who came to him was ,arcesilaus1 wishing
 to be  recommended by him to ,polemo1  
although he was much attached to him1 as
 we  shall mention in the life of       
,arcesilaus4 ,but when he got well he   
became a  pupil of ,polemo1 and was     
excessively admired on that account4 ,it
 is said1  also1 that he left his       
property to ,arcesilaus1 to the amount  
of twelve  talents2 and that1 being     
asked by him where he would like to be  
buried1  he said3--        ,it is a     
happy fate to lie entombed      ,in the 
recesses of a well-lov'd land4    ,,vi4 
,it is said also that he wrote poems1   

and that he sealed them up in  the      
temple of ,minerva1 in his own country2 
and ,thetetus the poet wrote  thus about
 him3--        ,crantor pleased men2 but
 greater pleasure still        ,he to   
the ,muses gave1 ere he aged grew4      
,earth1 tenderly embrace the holy man1  
,and let him lie in quiet undisturb'd4  
,and of all writers1 ,crantor admired   
,homer and ,euripides most2 saying that 
the hardest thing possible was to write 
tragically and in a manner to  excite   
sympathy1 without departing from nature2
 and he used to quote this  line out of 
the ,bellerophon3--        ,alas6 why   
should ,i say alas6 for we      ,have   
only borne the usual fate of man4       
,the following verses of ,antagoras the 
poet are also attributed to  ,crantor2  
the subject is love1 and they run       
thus3--        ,my mind is much         
perplexed2 for what1 ,o ,love1          
,dare ,i pronounce your origin8 ,may ,i 
,call you chiefest of the immortal      
,gods1      ,of all the children whom   

dark ,erebus      ,and ,royal ,night    
bore on the billowy waves      ,of      
widest ,ocean8 ,or shall ,i bid you     
hail1      ,as son of proudest ,venus8  
or of ,earth8      ,or of the untamed   
winds8 so fierce you rove1              
,bringing mankind sad cares1 yet not    
unmixed      ,with happy good1 so       
two-fold is your nature4    ,and he was 
very ingenious at devising new words and
 expressions2  accordingly1 he said that
 one tragedian had an unhewn 77 voice1  
all over bark2 and he said that the     
verses of a certain poet were full  of  
moths2 and that the propositions of     
,theophrastus had been written on  an   
oyster shell4 ,but the work of his which
 is most admired is his book on         
,mourning4    ,,vii4 ,and he died before
 ,polemo and ,crates1 having been       
attacked by the  dropsy2 and we have    
written this epigram on him3--          
,the worst of sicknesses has overwhelmed
 you1      ,o ,crantor1 and you thus did
 quit the earth1      ,descending to the

 dark abyss of ,hell4      ,now you are 
happy there2 but all the while      ,the
 sad ,academy1 and your native land     
,of ,soli mourn1 bereaved of your       
eloquence4      ,,life ,,of             
,,arcesilaus4    ,i4 ,arcesilaus was the
 son of ,seuthes or ,scythes1 as        
,apollodorus states in  the third book  
of his ,chronicles1 and a native of     
,pitane in olia4    ,,ii4 ,he was the   
original founder of the ,middle         
,academy1 and the first man  who        
professed to suspend the declaration of 
his judgment1 because of the            
contrarieties of the reasons alleged on 
either side4 ,he was likewise the  first
 who attempted to argue on both sides of
 a question1 and who also  made the     
method of discussion1 which had been    
handed down by ,plato1 by  means of     
question and answer1 more contentious   
than before4    ,,iii4 ,he met with     
,crantor in the following manner4 ,he   
was one of four  brothers1 two by the   
same father and two by the same mother4 

,of those  who were by the same mother  
the eldest was ,pylades1 and of those by
 the  same father the eldest was ,mreas1
 who was his guardian2 and at first he  
was a pupil of ,autolycus the           
mathematician1 who happened to be a     
fellow  citizen of his before he went to
 ,athens2 and with ,autolycus he        
travelled  as far as ,sardis4 ,after    
that he became a pupil of ,xanthus the  
musician1  and after that attended the  
lectures of ,theophrastus1 and          
subsequently  came over to the ,academy 
to ,crantor4 ,for ,mreas his brother1   
whom ,i have  mentioned before1 urged   
him to apply himself to rhetoric2 but he
 himself  had a preference for          
philosophy1 and when he became much     
attached to him  ,crantor asked him1    
quoting a line out of the ,andromeda of 
,euripides3--        ,o virgin1 if ,i   
save you1 will you thank me8    ,and he 
replied by quoting the next line to     
it3--        ,o take me to you1         
stranger1 as your slave1      ,or wife1 

or what you please4    ,and ever after  
that they became very intimate1 so that 
they say  ,theophrastus was much        
annoyed1 and said1 8,that a most        
ingenious and  well-disposed young man  
had deserted his school40    ,,iv4 ,for 
he was not only very impressive in his  
discourse1 and displayed  a great deal  
of learning in it1 but he also tried his
 hand at poetry1  and there is extant an
 epigram which is attributed to him1    
addressed to  ,attalus1 which is as     
follows3--        ,pergamus is not famed
 for arms alone1        ,but often hears
 its praise resound      ,for its fine  
horses1 at the holy ,pisa4        ,yet1 
if a mortal may declare1      ,its fate 
as hidden in the breast of ,jove1       
,it will be famous for its woes4        
,there is another addressed to          
,menodorus the son of ,eudamus1 who was 
attached to one of his fellow pupils3-- 
,phrygia is a distant land1 and so      
,is sacred ,thyatira1 and ,cadanade1    
,your country ,menodorus4 ,but from all1

      ,as the unvaried song of bards    
relates1      ,an equal road does lie to
 ,acheron1      ,that dark unmentioned  
river2 so you lie      ,here far from   
home2 and here ,eudamus raises          
,this tomb above your bones1 for he did 
love you1      ,though you were poor1   
with an undying love4    ,but he admired
 ,homer above all poets1 and always used
 to read a portion  of his works before 
going to sleep2 and in the morning he   
would say that  he was going to the     
object of his love1 when he was going to
 read him4  ,he said1 too1 that ,pindar 
was a wonderful man for filling the     
voice1 and  pouring forth an abundant   
variety of words and expressions4 ,he   
also1  when he was a young man1 wrote a 
criticism on ,ion4    ,v4 ,and he was a 
pupil likewise of ,hipponicus1 the      
geometrican whom  he used to ridicule on
 other points as being lazy and gaping2 
but he  admitted that in his own        
profession he was clear sighted enough1 
and said  that geometry had flown into  

his mouth while he was yawning4 ,and    
when he  went out of his mind1 he took  
him to his own house1 and took care of  
him  till he recovered his senses4      
,,vi4 ,and when ,crates died1 he        
succeeded him in the presidency of his  
schools1 a man of the name of ,socrates 
willingly yielding to him4    ,,vii4    
,and as he suspended his judgment on    
every point1 he never1 as it is  said1  
wrote one single book4 ,but others say  
that he was once detected  correcting   
some passages in a work of his2 and some
 assert that he  published it1 while    
others deny it1 and affirm that he threw
 it into the  fire4    ,,viii4 ,he seems
 to have been a great admirer of ,plato1
 and he possessed  all his writings4 ,he
 also1 according to some authorities1   
had a very high  opinion of ,pyrrho4    
,,ix4 ,he also studied dialectics1 and  
the discussions of the ,eretrian        
school2 on which account ,ariston said  
of him3--        ,first ,plato comes1   
and ,pyrrho last1        ,and in the    

middle ,diodorus4    ,and ,timon speaks 
thus of him3--        ,for having on    
this side the heavy load      ,of       
,menedemus plac'd beneath his breast1   
,he'll to stout ,pyrrho run1 or         
,diodorus4    ,and presently afterwards 
he represents him as saying3--          
,i'll swim to ,pyrrho1 or that crooked  
sophist      ,called ,diodorus4    ,x4  
,he was exceedingly fond of employing   
axioms1 very concise in his  diction1   
and when speaking he laid an emphasis on
 each separate word4    ,,xi4 ,he was   
also very fond of attacking others1 and 
very free spoken1 on  which account     
,timon in another passage speaks of him 
thus3--        ,you'll not escape all   
notice while you thus      ,attack the  
young man with your biting sarcasm4     
,once1 when a young man was arguing     
against him with more boldness than     
usual1 he said1 8,will no one stop his  
mouth with the knout80#cf ,and to  a man
 who lay under the general imputation of
 low debauchery1 and who  argued with   

him that one thing was not greater than 
another1 he asked  him whether a cup    
holding two pints was not larger than   
one which held  only one4 ,there was a  
certain ,chian named ,hemon1 exceedingly
 ugly1 but  who fancied himself good    
looking1 and always went about in fine  
clothes2  this man asked him one day1   
8,if he thought that a wise man could   
feel  attachment to him20 8,why should  
he not10 said he1 8when they love even  
those who are less handsome than you1   
and not so well-dressed either80  and   
when the man1 though one of the vilest  
characters possible1 said to            
,arcesilaus as if he were addressing a  
very rigid man3--        ,o1 noble man1 
may ,i a question put1      ,or must ,i 
hold my tongue8    ,arcesilaus          
replied3--        ,o wretched woman1 why
 do you thus roughen      ,your voice1  
not speaking in your usual manner8      
,and once1 when he was plagued by a     
chattering fellow of low extraction1  he
 said3--        ,the sons of slaves are 

always talking vilely4#cg    ,another   
time1 when a talkative man was giving   
utterance to a great  deal of nonsense1 
he said1 that 8,he had not had a nurse  
who was severe  enough40 ,and to some   
people he never gave any answer at all4 
,on one  occasion a usurer1 who made    
pretence to some learning1 said in his  
hearing that he did not know something  
or other1 on which he rejoined3--       
,for often times the passing winds do   
fill      ,the female bird1 except when 
big with young4#ch    ,and the lines    
come out of the nomaus of ,sophocles4   
,he once reminded a  certain            
dialectician1 a pupil of ,alexinus1 who 
was unable to explain  correctly some   
saying of his master1 of what had been  
done by ,philoxenus  to some            
brick-makers4 ,for when they were       
singing some of his songs very  badly he
 came upon them1 and trampled their     
bricks under foot1 saying1  8,as you    
spoil my works so will ,i spoil yours40 
,,xii4 ,and he used to be very indignant

 with those who neglected proper        
opportunities of applying themselves to 
learning2 and he had a peculiar  habit1 
while conversing1 of using the          
expression1 8,i think10 and 8,so and    
so10 naming the person1 8will not agree 
to this40 ,and this was imitated  by    
several of his pupils1 who copied also  
his style of expression and  everything 
about him4 ,he was a man very ready at  
inventing new words1 and  very quick at 
meeting objections1 and at bringing     
round the conversation  to the subject  
before him1 and at adapting it to every 
occasion1 and he  was the most          
convincing speaker that could be found1 
on which account  numbers of people     
flocked to his school1 in spite of being
 somewhat  alarmed at his severity1     
which however they bore with            
complacency1 for  he was a very kind    
man1 and one who inspired his hearers   
with abundant  hope1 and in his manner  
of life he was very affable and liberal1
 always  ready to do any one a service  

without any parade1 and shrinking from  
any expression of gratitude on the part 
of those whom he had obliged4           
,accordingly once1 when he had gone to  
visit ,ctesibius who was ill1 seeing    
him in great distress from want1 he     
secretly slipped his purse under his    
pillow2 and when ,ctesibius found it1   
8,this10 said he1 8is the amusement  of 
,arcesilaus40 ,and at another time he   
sent him a thousand drachmas4  ,he it   
was also who introduced ,archias the    
,arcadian to ,eumenes1 and who  procured
 him many favours from him4    ,,xiii4  
,and being a very liberal man and       
utterly regardless of money1 he  made   
the most splendid display of silver     
plate1 and in his exhibition  of gold   
plate he vied with that of ,archecrates 
and ,callicrates2 and he  was constantly
 assisting and contributing to the wants
 of others with  money2 and once1 when  
some one had borrowed from him some     
articles of  silver plate to help him   
entertain his friends1 and did not offer

 to  return them1 he never asked for    
them back or reclaimed them2 but some   
say  that he lent them with the purpose 
that they should be kept1 and that  when
 the man returned them1 he made him a   
present of them as he was a  poor man4  
,he had also property in ,pitana1 the   
revenues from which were  transmitted to
 him by his brother ,pylades4    ,,xiv4 
,moreover1 ,eumenes1 the son of         
,philetrus1 supplied him with many      
things1 on which account he was the only
 king to whom he addressed any of  his  
discourses4 ,and when many philosophers 
paid court to ,antigonus and  went out  
to meet him when he arrived1 he himself 
kept quiet1 not wishing  to make his    
acquaintance4 ,but he was a great friend
 of ,hierocles1 the  governor of the    
harbours of ,munychia and the ,pirus2   
and at festivals he  always paid him a  
visit4 ,and when he constantly          
endeavoured to persuade  him to pay his 
respects to ,antigonus1 he would not2   
but though he  accompanied him as far as

 his gates1 he turned back himself4 ,and
 after  the sea-fight of ,antigonus1    
when many people went to him and wrote  
him  letters to comfort him for his     
defeat1 he neither went nor wrote2 but  
still in the service of his country1 he 
went to ,demetrias as ambassador  to    
,antigonus1 and succeeded in the object 
of his mission4    ,,xv4 ,and he spent  
all his time in the ,academy1 and       
avoided meddling with  public affairs1  
but at times he would spend some days in
 the ,pirus of  ,athens1 discoursing on 
philosophical subjects1 from his        
friendship for  ,hierocles1 which       
conduct of his gave rise to unfavourable
 reports being  raised against him by   
some people4    ,,xvi4 ,being a man of  
very expensive habits1 for he was in    
this respect a  sort of second          
,aristippus1 he often went to dine with 
his friends4 ,he  also lived openly with
 ,theodote and ,philte1 two courtesans  
of ,elis2  and to those who reproached  
him for this conduct1 he used to quote  

the  opinions of ,aristippus4 ,he was   
also very fond of the society of young  
men1 and of a very affectionate         
disposition1 on which account ,aristo1  
the  ,chian1 a ,stoic philosopher1 used 
to accuse him of being a corrupter of   
the youth of the city1 and a profligate 
man4 ,he is said also to have been      
greatly attached to ,demetrius1 who     
sailed to ,cyrene1 and to ,cleochares of
  ,myrlea1 of whom he said to his       
messmates1 that he wished to open the   
door  to him1 but that he prevented him4
    ,,xvii4 ,demochares the son of      
,laches1 and ,pythocles the son of      
,bugelus1  were also among his friends1 
and he said that he humoured them in all
  their wishes because of his great     
patience4 ,and1 on this account1 those  
people to whom ,i have before alluded1  
used to attack him and ridicule him  as 
a popularity hunter and vain-glorious   
man4 ,and they set upon him very        
violently at an entertainment given by  
,hieronymus1 the ,peripatetic1 when  he 

invited his friends on the birthday of  
,alcyoneus1 the son of ,antigonus1  on  
which occasion ,antigonus sent him a    
large sum of money to promote the       
conviviality4 ,on this occasion1 as he  
avoided all discussion during the       
continuance of the banquet1 when        
,aridelus proposed to him a question    
which required some deliberation1 and   
entreated him to discourse upon it1  it 
is said that he replied1 8,but this is  
more especially the business of         
philosophy1 to know the proper time for 
everything40 ,with reference to  the    
charge that was brought against him of  
being a popularity hunter1  ,timon      
speaks1 among other matters1 mentioning 
it in the following manner3--        ,he
 spoke and glided quick among the crowd1
      ,they gazed on him as finches who 
behold      ,an owl among them4 ,you    
then please the people6      ,alas1 poor
 fool1 'tis no great matter that2       
,why give yourself such airs for such a 
trifle8    ,,xviii4 ,however1 in all    

other respects he was so free from      
vanity1 that  he used to advise his     
pupils to become the disciples of other 
men2 and  once1 when a young man from   
,chios was not satisfied with his       
school1 but  preferred that of          
,hieronymus1 whom ,i have mentioned     
before1 he himself  took him and        
introduced him to that philosopher1     
recommending him to  preserve his       
regularity of conduct4 ,and there is a  
very witty saying of  his recorded4 ,for
 when some one asked him once1 why      
people left other  schools to go to the 
,epicureans1 but no one left the        
,epicureans to join  other sects1 he    
replied1 8,people sometimes make eunuchs
 of men1 but no  one can ever make a man
 out of an eunuch40    ,,xix4 ,at last1 
when he was near his end1 he left all   
his property to his  brother ,pylades1  
because he1 without the knowledge of    
,mreas1 had taken  him to ,chios and had
 brought him from thence to ,athens4 ,he
 never married  a wife1 and never had   

any children4 ,he made three copies of  
his will1 and  deposited one in ,eretria
 with ,amphicritus1 and one at ,athens  
with some  of his friends1 and the third
 he sent to his own home to ,thaumasias1
 one  of his relations1 entreating him  
to keep it4 ,and he also wrote him the  
following letter3--    ,,arcesilaus ,,to
 ,,thaumasias4    8,i have given        
,diogenes a copy of my will to convey to
 you4 ,for1 because  ,i am frequently   
unwell and have got very infirm1 ,i have
 thought it  right to make a will1 that1
 if anything should happen to me ,i     
might not  depart with the feelings of  
having done you any injury1 who have    
been  so constantly affectionate to me4 
,and as you have been at all times the  
most faithful to me of all my friends1  
,i entreat you to preserve this  for me 
out of regard for my old age and your   
regard for me4 ,take care  then to      
behave justly towards me1 remembering   
how much ,i entrust to your  integrity1 
so that ,i may appear to have managed my

 affairs well1 as far  as depends on    
you2 and there is another copy of this  
will at ,athens1 in  the care of some of
 my friends1 and another at ,eretria1 in
 the hands of  ,amphicritus40    ,,xx4  
,he died1 as ,hermippus relates1 after  
having drunk an excessive  quantity of  
wine1 and then became delirious1 when he
 was seventy-five  years old2 and he was
 more beloved by the ,athenians than any
 one else had  ever been4 ,and we have  
written the following epigram on him3-- 
,o wise ,arcesilaus1 why didst thou     
drink      ,so vast a quantity of       
unmixed wine1      ,as to lose all your 
senses1 and then die8      ,i pity you  
not so much for your death1      ,as for
 the insult that you thus did offer     
,the ,muses1 by your sad excess in wine4
    ,,xxi4 ,there were also three other 
persons of the name of ,arcesilaus2 one 
a  poet of the old ,comedy2 another an  
elegiac poet2 the third a sculptor1 on  
whom ,simonides wrote the following     
epigram3--        ,this is a statue of  

chaste ,dian's self      ,the price two 
hundred ,parian drachmas fine1          
,stamp'd with the image of the wanton   
goat4      ,it is the work of wise      
,arcesilaus1      ,the son of           
,aristodicus3 a man1      ,whose hands  
,minerva guided in his art4    ,the     
philosopher of whom we have been        
speaking flourished1 as ,apollodorus    
tells us in his ,chronicles1 about the  
hundred and twentieth olympiad4         
,,life ,,of ,,bion4    ,i4 ,bion was a  
native of the country around the        
,borysthenes2 but as to who  his parents
 were1 and to what circumstances it was 
owing that he applied  himself to the   
study of philosophy1 we know no more    
than what he himself  told ,antigonus4  
,for when ,antigonus asked him3--       
,what art thou1 say6 from whence1 from  
whom you came1      ,who are your       
parents8 tell thy race1 thy name2#ci    
,he1 knowing that he had been           
misrepresented to the king1 said to him1
 8,my  father was a freedman1 who used  

to wipe his mouth with his sleeve10 7by 
which he meant that he used to sell salt
 fish74 8,as to his race1 he was  a     
native of the district of the           
,borysthenes2 having no countenance1 but
  only a brand in his face1 a token of  
the bitter cruelty of his master4  ,my  
mother was such a woman as a man of that
 condition might marry1 taken  out of a 
brothel4 ,then1 my father being in      
arrears to the tax-gatherers1  was sold 
with all his family1 and with me among  
them2 and as ,i was young  and good     
looking1 a certain orator purchased me1 
and when he died he left  me everything4
 ,and ,i1 having burnt all his books1   
and torn up all his  papers1 came to    
,athens and applied myself to the study 
of ,philosophy3--        ,such was my   
father1 and from him ,i came1      ,the 
honoured author of my birth and name4#dj
    ,this is all that ,i can tell you of
 myself3 so that ,persus and ,philonides
  may give up telling these stories     
about me3 and you may judge of me on my 

own merits40    ,,ii4 ,and ,bion was    
truly a man of great versatility1 and a 
very subtle  philosopher1 and a man who 
gave all who chose great opportunities  
of  practising philosophy4 ,in some     
respects he was of a gentle disposition1
  and very much inclined to indulge in  
vanity4    ,,iii4 ,and he left behind   
him many memorials of himself in the way
 of  writings1 and also many apophthegms
 full of useful sentiments4 ,as for     
instance1 once when he was reproved for 
having failed to charm a young  man1 he 
replied1 8,you cannot possibly draw up  
cheese with a hook before  it has got   
hard40 ,on another occasion he was asked
 who was the most  miserable of men1 and
 replied1 8,he who has set his heart on 
the greatest  prosperity40 ,when he was 
asked whether it was advisable to marry 
7for  this answer also is attributed to 
him71 he replied1 8,if you marry an ugly
  woman you will have a punishment 771  
and if a handsome woman you  will have  
one who is common0 774 ,he called old   

age a port to shelter  one from         
misfortune2 and accordingly1 he said    
that every one fled to it4  ,he said    
that glory was the mother of years2 that
 beauty was a good which  concerned     
others rather than one's self2 that     
riches were the sinews of  business4 ,to
 a man who had squandered his estate he 
said1 8,the earth  swallowed up         
,amphiaraus1 but you have swallowed up  
the earth40 ,another  saying of his was 
that it was a great evil not to be able 
to bear evil4  ,and he condemned those  
who burnt the dead as though they felt  
nothing1  and then mocked them as though
 they did feel4 ,and he was always      
saying  that it was better to put one's 
own beauty at the disposal of another1  
than to covet the beauty of others2 for 
that one who did so was injuring  both  
his body and his soul4 ,and he used to  
blame ,socrates saying1 that if  he     
derived no advantage from ,alcibiades he
 was foolish1 and if he never  derived  
any advantage from him he then deserved 

no credit4 ,he used to say  that the way
 to the shades below was easy2 and      
accordingly1 that people  went there    
with their eyes shut4 ,he used to blame 
,alcibiades1 saying that  while he was a
 boy he seduced husbands from their     
wives1 and when he had  become a young  
man he seduced the wives from their     
husbands4 ,while most  of the ,athenians
 at ,rhodes practised rhetoric1 he      
himself used to give  lectures on       
philosophical subjects2 and to one who  
blamed him for this he  said1 8,i have  
bought wheat1 and ,i sell barley40      
,it was a saying of his that the        
inhabitants of the shades below would be
  more punished if they carried water in
 buckets that were whole1 than in  such 
as were bored4 ,to a chattering fellow  
who was soliciting him for  aid1 he     
said1 8,i will do what is sufficient for
 you1 if you will send  deputies to me1 
and forbear to come yourself40 ,once    
when he was at sea  in the company of   
some wicked men1 he fell into the hands 

of pirates2  and when the rest said1    
8,we are undone1 if we are known40 8,but
 ,i10 said  he1 8am undone if we are not
 known40 ,he used to say that           
self-conceit  was the enemy of progress4
 ,of a rich man who was mean and        
niggardly1 he  said1 8,that man does not
 possess his estate1 but his estate     
possesses  him40 ,he used to say that   
stingy men took care of their property  
as if  it was their own1 but derived no 
advantage from it as if it belonged to  
other people4 ,another of his sayings   
was1 that young men ought to display    
courage1 but that old men ought to be   
distinguished for prudence4 ,and  that  
prudence was as much superior to the    
other virtues as sight was  to the other
 senses4 ,and that it was not right to  
speak of old age1 at  which every one is
 desirous to arrive4 ,to an envious man 
who was looking  gloomy1 he said1 8,i   
know not whether it is because some     
misfortune has  happened to you1 or some
 good fortune to someone else40 ,one    

thing that he  used to say was1 that a  
mean extraction was a bad companion to  
freedom of  speech4 ,for3--        ,it  
does enslave a man1 however bold        
,his speech may be4#da    ,and another  
was that we ought to keep our friends1  
whatever sort of  people they may be1 so
 that we may not seem to have been      
intimate with  wicked men1 or to have   
abandoned good men4    ,,iv4 ,very early
 in his career he abandoned the school  
of the ,academy1 and  at the same time  
became a disciple of ,crates4 ,then he  
passed over to the  sect of the ,cynics1
 taking their coarse cloak and wallet4  
,for what else  could ever have changed 
his nature into one of such apathy8     
,after that he  adopted the ,theodorean 
principles1 having become a disciple of 
,theodorus  the ,atheist1 who was used  
to employ every kind of reasoning in    
support  of his system of philosophy4   
,after leaving him1 he became a pupil of
  ,theophrastus1 the ,peripatetic4      
,v4 ,he was very fond of theatrical     

entertainments1 and very skilful in     
distracting his hearers by exciting a   
laugh1 giving things disparaging  names4
 ,and because he used to avail himself  
of every species of  reasoning1 they    
relate that ,eratosthenes said that     
,bion was the first  person who had     
clothed philosophy in a flowery robe4   
,,vi4 ,he was also very ingenious in    
parodying passages1 and adapting  them  
to circumstances as they arose4 ,as for 
instance1 ,i may cite the  following3-- 
,tender ,archytas1 born of tuneful lyre1
      ,whom thoughts of happy vanity    
inspire2      ,most skilled of mortals  
in appeasing ire4#db    ,and he jested  
on every part of music and geometry4    
,,vii4 ,he was a man of very expensive  
habits1 and on this account he used  to 
go from city to city1 and at times he   
would contrive the most amazing         
devices4    ,,viii4 ,accordingly1 in    
,rhodes1 he persuaded the sailors to put
 on the  habiliments of philosophical   
students and follow him about2 and then 

he  made himself conspicuous by entering
 the gymnasium with this train of       
followers4    ,,ix4 ,he was accustomed  
also to adopt young men as his sons1 in 
order to  derive assistance from them in
 his pleasures1 and to be protected by  
their affection for him4 ,but he was a  
very selfish man1 and very fond of      
quoting the saying1 8,the property of   
friends is common20 owing to which  it  
is that no one is spoken of as a        
disciple of his1 though so many  men    
attended his school4 ,and he made some  
very shameless2 accordingly1  ,betion1  
one of his intimate acquaintances1 is   
reported to have said once  to          
,menedemus1 8,so ,menedemus constantly  
spends the evening with ,bion1 and  ,i  
see no harm in it40 ,he used also to    
talk with great impiety to those  who   
conversed with him1 having derived his  
opinions on this subject from           
,theodorus4    ,x4 ,and when at a later 
period he became afflicted with disease1
 as the  people of ,chalcis said1 for he

 died there1 he was persuaded to wear   
amulets and charms1 and to show his     
repentance for the insults that he  had 
offered to the ,gods4 ,but he suffered  
fearfully for want of proper  people to 
attend him1 until ,antigonus sent him   
two servants4 ,and he  followed him in a
 litter1 as ,phavorinus relates in his  
,universal ,history4  ,and the          
circumstances of his death we have      
ourselves spoken of in the  following   
lines3--        ,we hear that ,bion the 
,borysthenite1      ,whom the ferocious 
,scythian land brought forth1      ,used
 to deny that there were ,gods at all4  
,now1 if he'd persevered in this        
opinion1      ,one would have said he   
speaks just as he thinks2      ,though  
certainly his thoughts are quite        
mistaken4      ,but when a lengthened   
sickness overtook him1      ,and he     
began to fear lest he should die2       
,this man who heretofore denied the     
,gods1      ,and would not even look    
upon a temple1      ,and mocked all     

those who e'er approached the ,gods     
,with prayer or sacrifice2 who ne'er1   
not even      ,for his own hearth1 and  
home1 and household table1      ,regaled
 the ,gods with savoury fat and incense1
      ,who never once said1 8,i have    
sinned1 but spare me40      ,then did   
this atheist shrink1 and give his neck  
,to an old woman to hang charms upon1   
,and bound his arms with magic amulets1 
,with laurel branches blocked his doors 
and windows1      ,ready to do and      
venture anything      ,rather than die4 
,fool that he was1 who thought      ,to 
win the ,gods to come into existence1   
,whenever he might think he wanted them4
      ,so wise too late1 when now mere  
dust and ashes1      ,he put his hand   
forth1 ,hail1 great ,pluto1 ,hail6      
,,xi4 ,there were ten people of the name
 of ,bion4 ,first of all1 the one  who  
flourished at the same time with        
,pherecydes of ,syros1 and who has  left
 two books behind him1 which are still  
extant2 he was a native  of             

,proconnesus4 ,the second was a         
,syracusan1 the author of a system of   
rhetoric4 ,the third was the man of whom
 we have been speaking4 ,the fourth  was
 a pupil of ,democritus1 and a          
mathematician1 a native of ,abdera1  who
 wrote in both the ,attic and ,ionic    
dialect4 ,he was the person who  first  
asserted that there were countries where
 there was night for six  months1 and   
day for six months4 ,the fifth was a    
native of ,soli2 who  wrote a history of
 thiopia4 ,the sixth was a rhetorician1 
who has left  behind him nine books1    
inscribed with the names of the ,muses1 
which are  still extant4 ,the eighth was
 a ,milesian statuary1 who is mentioned 
by  ,polemo4 ,the ninth was a tragic    
poet of the number of those who are     
called  ,tarsicans4 ,the tenth was a    
statuary1 a native of ,clazomen or      
,chios1 who  is mentioned by ,hipponax4 
,,life ,,of ,,lacydes4    ,i4 ,lacydes1 
the son of ,alexander1 was a native of  
,cyrene4 ,he it is who  was the founder 

of the ,new ,academy1 having succeeded  
,arcesilaus2 and he  was a man of great 
gravity of character and demeanour1 and 
one who had  many imitators4    ,,ii4   
,he was industrious from his very       
childhood1 and poor1 but very  pleasing 
and sociable in his manners4    ,,iii4  
,they say that he had a pleasant way of 
managing his house-keeping  affairs4    
,for when he had taken anything out of  
his store-chest1 he  would seal it up   
again1 and throw in his seal through the
 hole1 so  that it should be impossible 
for anything of what he had laid up     
there  to be stolen from him1 or carried
 off4 ,but his servants learning this   
contrivance of his1 broke the seal1 and 
carried off as much as they  pleased1   
and then they put the ring back through 
the hole in the same  manner as before2 
and though they did this repeatedly1    
they were never  detected4    ,,iv4     
,lacydes now used to hold his school in 
the ,academy in the garden  which had   
been laid out by ,attalus the king1 and 

it was called the  ,lacydeum1 after him4
 ,and he was the only man1 who1 while   
alive1 resigned  his school to a        
successor2 but he resigned this to      
,telicles and ,evander1  of ,phocis2 and
 ,hegesinus1 of ,pergamus1 succeeded    
,evander2 and he himself  was in his    
turn succeeded by ,carneades4    ,v4    
,there is a witty saying1 which is      
attributed to ,lacydes4 ,for they say   
that when ,attalus sent for him1 he     
answered that statues ought to be seen  
at a distance4 ,on another occasion1 as 
it is reported1 he was studying         
geometry very late in life1 and some    
said to him1 8,is it then a time for    
you to be learning now80 8,if it is     
not10 he replied1 8when will it be80    
,,vi4 ,and he died in the fourth year of
 the hundred and thirty-fourth          
,olympiad1 when he had presided over his
 school twenty-six years4 ,and his      
death was caused by paralysis1 which was
 brought on by drinking4 ,and we        
ourselves have jested upon him in the   

following language4        ',tis an odd 
story that ,i heard of you--            
,lacydes1 that you went with hasty      
steps1      ,spurred on by ,bacchus1 to 
the shades below4      ,how then1 if    
this be true1 can it be said1      ,that
 ,bacchus e'er trips up his votaries'   
feet      ',tis a mistake his being     
named ,lyus4#dc      ,,life ,,of        
,,carneades4    ,i4 ,carneades was the  
son of ,epicomus1 or ,philocomus1 as    
,alexander states  in his ,successions2 
and a native of ,cyrene4    ,,ii4 ,he   
read all the books of the ,stoics with  
great care1 and especially  those of    
,chrysippus2 and then he wrote replies  
to them1 but did it at the  same time   
with such modesty that he used to say1  
8,if ,chrysippus had not  lived1 ,i     
should never have existed40    ,,iii4   
,he was a man of as great industry as   
ever existed2 not1 however1  very much  
devoted to the investigation of subjects
 of natural philosophy1  but more fond  
of the discussion of ethical topics1 on 

which account he  used to let his hair  
and his nails grow1 from his entire     
devotion of  all his time to            
philosophical discussion4 ,and he was so
 eminent as a  philosopher1 that the    
orators would quit their own schools and
 come and  listen to his lectures4      
,,iv4 ,he was also a man of a very      
powerful voice1 so that the president of
  the ,gymnasium sent to him once1 to   
desire he would not shout so loudly4    
,and he replied1 8,give me then1 measure
 for my voice40 ,and the gymnasiarch    
again rejoined with great wit1 for he   
said1 8,you have a measure in your      
pupils40    ,v4 ,he was a very vehement 
speaker1 and one difficult to contend   
with in  the investigation of a point4  
,and he used to decline all invitations 
to  entertainments1 for the reasons ,i  
have already mentioned4    ,,vi4 ,on one
 occasion1 when ,mentor1 the ,bithynian1
 one of his pupils1 came  to him to     
attend his school1 observing that he was
 trying to seduce his  mistress 7as     

,phavorinus relates in his ,universal   
,history71 while he was  in the middle  
of his lecture1 he made the following   
parody in allusion to  him3--        ,a 
weak old man comes hither1 like in      
voice1      ,and gait1 and figure1 to   
the prudent ,mentor      ,i order him to
 be expelled this school4    ,and       
,mentor rising up1 replied3--           
,thus did they speak1 and straight the  
others rose4    ,,vii4 ,he appears to   
have been beset with fears of death2 as 
he was  continually saying1 8,nature1   
who has put this frame together1 will   
also  dissolve it40 ,and learning that  
,antipater had died after having taken  
poison1 he felt a desire to imitate the 
boldness of his departure1 and  said1   
8,give me some too40 ,and when they     
asked 8,what80 8,some mead10 said  he4  
,and it is said that an eclipse of the  
moon happened when he died1  the most   
beautiful of all the stars1 next to the 
sun1 indicating 7as any  one might say7 
its sympathy with the philosopher4 ,and 

,apollodorus1 in  his ,chronicles1 says 
that he died in the fourth year of the  
hundred and  sixty-second olympiad1     
being eighty-five years old4    ,,viii4 
,there are some letters extant addressed
 by him to ,ariarathes1 the  king of the
 ,cappadocians4 ,all the other writings 
which are attributed to  him were       
written by his disciples1 for he himself
 left nothing behind  him4 ,and ,i have 
written on him the following lines in   
logadical  ,archebulian metre4          
,why now1 ,o ,muse1 do you wish me      
,carneades to confute8      ,he was an  
ignoramus1 as he did not understand     
,why he should stand in fear of death3  
so once1 when he'd a cough1      ,the   
worst of all diseases that affect the   
human frame1      ,he cared not for a   
remedy2 but when the news did reach him1
      ,that brave ,antipater had ta'en  
some poison1 and so died1      8,give   
me1 said he1 some stuff to drink40      
8,some what80--8,some luscious          
mead40      ,moreover1 he'd this saying 

at all times upon his lips3             
8,nature did make me1 and she does      
together keep me still2      ,but soon  
the time will come when she will pull me
 all to pieces40      ,but still at last
 he yielded up the ghost3 though long   
ago      ,he might have died1 and so    
escaped the evils that befell him4      
,,ix4 ,it is said that at night he was  
not aware when lights were brought  in2 
and that once he ordered his servant to 
light the candles1 and when  he had     
brought them in and told him1 8,i have  
brought them20 8,well then10  said he1  
8read by the light of them40    ,x4 ,he 
had a great many other disciples2 but   
the most eminent of them was            
,clitomachus1 whom we must mention      
presently4    ,,xi4 ,there was also     
another man of the name of ,carneades1 a
 very  indifferent elegiac poet4        
,,life ,,of ,,clitomachus4    ,i4       
,clitomachus was a ,carthaginian4 ,he   
was called ,asdrubal1 and used to       
lecture on philosophy in his own country

 in his native language4    ,,ii4 ,but  
when he came to ,athens1 at the age of  
forty years1 he became  a pupil of      
,carneades2 and1 as he was pleased with 
his industry1 he  caused him to be      
instructed in literature1 and himself   
educated the  man carefully4 ,and he    
carried his diligence to such a degree1 
that he  composed more than four hundred
 books4    ,,iii4 ,and he succeeded     
,carneades in his schools2 and he       
illustrated his  principles a great deal
 by his writings2 as he himself had     
studied the  doctrines of their sects1  
the ,academic1 the ,peripatetic1 and the
 ,stoic4  ,timon attacks the whole      
school of ,academics1 as a body1 in     
these lines3--        ,nor the          
unprofitable chattering      ,of all the
 ,academics4    ,but now that we have   
gone through the philosophers of        
,plato's school1 let  us go to the      
,peripatetics1 who also derived their   
doctrines from ,plato2  and the founder 
of their sect was ,aristotle4           

,,book ,v4      ,,life ,,of ,,aristotle4
    ,i4 ,aristotle was the son of       
,nicomachus and ,phstias1 a citizen of  
,stagira2 and ,nicomachus was descended 
from ,nicomachus1 the son of  ,machaon1 
the son of sculapius1 as ,hermippus     
tells us in his treatise on  ,aristotle2
 and he lived with ,amyntas1 the king of
 the ,macedonians1 as  both a physician 
and a friend4    ,,ii4 ,he was the most 
eminent of all the pupils of ,plato2 he 
had a lisping  voice1 as is asserted by 
,timotheus the ,athenian1 in his work on
 ,lives4  ,he had also very thin legs1  
they say1 and small eyes2 but he used to
  indulge in very conspicuous dress1 and
 rings1 and used to dress his hair      
carefully4    ,,iii4 ,he had also a son 
named ,nicomachus1 by ,herpyllis his    
concubine1 as  we are told by           
,timotheus4    ,,iv4 ,he seceded from   
,plato while he was still alive2 so that
 they tell  a story that he said1       
8,aristotle has kicked us off just as   
chickens do  their mother after they    

have been hatched40 ,but ,hermippus says
 in his  ,lives1 that while he was      
absent on an embassy to ,philip1 on     
behalf of the  ,athenians1 ,xenocrates  
became the president of the school in   
the ,academy2  and that when he returned
 and saw the school under the presidency
 of some  one else1 he selected a       
promenade in the ,lyceum1 in which he   
used to walk  up and down with his      
disciples1 discussing subjects of       
philosophy till  the time for anointing 
themselves came2 on which account he was
 called  a ,peripatetic4#dd ,but others 
say that he got this name because once  
when ,alexander was walking about after 
recovering from a sickness1 he          
accompanied him and kept conversing with
 him4 ,but when his pupils became       
numerous1 he then gave them seats1      
saying3--        ,it would be shame for 
me to hold my peace1      ,and for      
,isocrates to keep on talking4    ,and  
he used to accustom his disciples to    
discuss any question which might  be    

proposed1 training them just as an      
orator might4    ,v4 ,after that he went
 to ,hermias the ,eunuch1 the tyrant of 
,atarneus1 who1  as it is said1 allowed 
him all kinds of liberties2 and some say
 that he  formed a matrimonial          
connection with him1 giving him either  
his daughter  or his niece in marriage1 
as is recorded by ,demetrius of         
,magnesia1 in his  essay on ,poets and  
,prose-writers of the same name4 ,and   
the same authority  says that ,hermias  
had been the slave of ,eubulus1 and a   
,bithynian by  descent1 and that he slew
 his master4 ,but ,aristippus1 in the   
first book  of his treatise on ,ancient 
,luxury1 says that ,aristotle was       
enamoured  of the concubine of ,hermias1
 and that1 as ,hermias gave his consent1
 he  married her2 and was so overjoyed  
that he sacrificed to her1 as the       
,athenians do to the ,eleusinian ,ceres4
 ,and he wrote a hymn to ,hermias1      
which is given at length below4    ,,vi4
 ,after that he lived in ,macedonia1 at 

the court of ,philip1 and was  entrusted
 by him with his son ,alexander as a    
pupil2 and he entreated him  to restore 
his native city which had been destroyed
 by ,philip1 and had  his request       
granted2 and he also made laws for the  
citizens4 ,and also he  used to make    
laws in his schools1 doing this in      
imitation of ,xenocrates1  so that he   
appointed a president every ten days4   
,and when he thought that  he had spent 
time enough with ,alexander1 he departed
 for ,athens1 having  recommended to him
 his relation ,callisthenes1 a native of
 ,olynthus2  but as he spoke too freely 
to the king1 and would not take         
,aristotle's  advice1 he reproached him 
and said3--        ,alas6 my child1 in  
life's primeval bloom1      ,such hasty 
words will bring thee to thy doom4#de   
,and his prophecy was fulfilled1 for as 
he was believed by ,hermolaus to  have  
been privy to the plot against          
,alexander1 he was shut up in an iron   
cage1 covered with lice1 and untended2  

and at last he was given to a  lion1 and
 so died4    ,,vii4 ,aristotle then     
having come to ,athens1 and having      
presided over  his school there for     
thirteen years1 retired secretly to     
,chalcis1  as ,eurymedon1 the hierophant
 had impeached him on an indictment for 
impiety1 though ,phavorinus1 in his     
,universal ,history1 says that his      
prosecutor was ,demophilus1 on the      
ground of having written the hymn to    
the beforementioned ,hermias1 and also  
the following epigram which was         
engraven on his statue at ,delphi3--    
,the tyrant of the ,persian archer race1
      ,broke through the laws of ,god to
 slay this man      ,not by the manly   
spear in open fight1      ,but by the   
treachery of a faithless friend4    ,and
 after that he died of taking a draught 
of aconite1 as ,eumelus says  in the    
fifth book of his ,histories1 at the age
 of seventy years4 ,and  the same author
 says that he was thirty years old when 
he first became  acquainted with ,plato4

 ,but this is a mistake of his1 for he  
did only live  in reality sixty-three   
years1 and he was seventeen years old   
when he  first attached himself to      
,plato4 ,and the hymn in honour of      
,hermias is as  follows3--        ,o    
,virtue1 won by earnest strife1         
,and holding out the noblest prize      
,that ever gilded earthly life1         
,or drew it on to seek the skies2       
,for thee what son of ,greece would     
,deem it an enviable lot1      ,to live 
the life1 to die the death1      ,that  
fears no weary hour1 shrinks from no    
fiery breath8        ,such fruit hast   
thou of heavenly bloom1        ,a lure  
more rich than golden heap1      ,more  
tempting than the joys of home1         
,more bland than spell of soft-eyed     
sleep4      ,for thee ,alcides1 son of  
,jove1      ,and the twin boys of ,leda 
strove1      ,with patient toil and     
sinewy might1      ,thy glorious prize  
to grasp1 to reach thy lofty height4    
,achilles1 ,ajax1 for thy love          

,descended to the realms of night2      
,atarneus' ,king thy vision drove1      
,to quit for aye the glad sun-light1    
,therefore1 to memory's daughters dear1 
,his deathless name1 his pure career1   
,live shrined in song1 and link'd with  
awe1      ,the awe of ,xenian ,jove1 and
 faithful friendship's law4#df    ,there
 is also an epigram of ours upon him1   
which runs thus3--        ,eurymedon1   
the faithful minister      ,of the      
mysterious ,eleusinian ,queen1      ,was
 once about t' impeach the ,stagirite   
,of impious guilt4 ,but he escaped his  
hands      ,by mighty draught of        
friendly aconite1      ,and thus        
defeated all his wicked arts4           
,phavorinus1 in his ,universal ,history1
 says that ,aristotle was the first     
person who ever composed a speech to be 
delivered in his own defence in a  court
 of justice1 and that he did so on the  
occasion of this prosecution1  and said 
that at ,athens3--        ,pears upon   
pear-trees grow2 on fig-trees1 figs4    

,apollodorus1 in his ,chronicles1 says  
that he was born in the first year  of  
the ninety-ninth olympiad1 and that he  
attached himself to ,plato1 and         
remained with him for twenty years1     
having been seventeen years of age  when
 he originally joined him4 ,and he went 
to ,mitylene in the archonship  of      
,eubulus1 in the fourth year of the     
hundred and eighth olympiad4 ,but as    
,plato had died in the first year of    
this same olympiad1 in the archonship   
of ,theophilus1 he departed for the     
court of ,hermias1 and remained there   
three years4 ,and in the archonship of  
,pythodotus he went to the court  of    
,philip1 in the second year of the      
hundred and ninth olympiad1 when        
,alexander was fifteen years old2 and he
 came to ,athens in the second year  of 
the hundred and eleventh olympiad1 and  
presided over his school in  the ,lyceum
 for thirteen years2 after that he      
departed to ,chalcis1 in the  third year
 of the hundred and fourteenth olympiad1

 and died1 at about the  age of         
sixty-three years1 of disease1 the same 
year that ,demosthenes died  in         
,calauria1 in the archonship of         
,philocles4    ,,viii4 ,it is said also 
that he was offended with the king1     
because of the  result of the conspiracy
 of ,callisthenes against ,alexander2   
and that the  king1 for the sake of     
annoying him1 promoted ,anaximenes to   
honour1 and  sent presents to           
,xenocrates4 ,and ,theocritus1 of       
,chios1 wrote an epigram  upon him to   
ridicule him1 in the following terms1 as
 it is quoted by  ,ambryon in his       
account of ,theocritus3--        ,the   
empty-headed ,aristotle rais'd          
,this empty tomb to ,hermias the        
,eunuch1      ,the ancient slave of the 
ill-us'd ,eubulus4      ,who1 for his   
monstrous appetite1 preferred      ,the 
,bosphorus to ,academia's groves4       
,and ,timon attacked him too1 saying of 
him3--        ,nor the sad chattering of
 the empty ,aristotle4    ,such was the 

life of the philosopher4    ,,ix4 ,we   
have also met with his will1 which is   
couched in the following  terms3--8,may 
things turn out well2 but if any thing  
happens to him1 in  that case ,aristotle
 has made the following disposition of  
his affairs4  ,that ,antipater shall be 
the general and universal executor4 ,and
  until ,nicanor marries my daughter1 ,i
 appoint ,aristomedes1 ,timarchus1      
,hipparchus1 ,dioteles1 and             
,theophrastus1 if he will consent and   
accept  the charge1 to be the guardians 
of my children and of ,herpyllis1 and   
the trustees of all the property ,i     
leave behind me2 and ,i desire them1    
when my daughter is old enough1 to give 
her in marriage to ,nicanor2 but  if any
 thing should happen to the girl1 which 
may ,god forbid1 either  before or after
 she is married1 but before she has any 
children1 then  ,i will that ,nicanor   
shall have the absolute disposal of my  
son1 and of  all other things1 in the   
full confidence that he will arrange    

them in a  manner worthy of me and of   
himself4 ,let him also be the guardian  
of my  daughter and son ,nicomachus1 to 
act as he pleases with respect to them1 
as if he were their father or brother4  
,but if anything should happen to       
,nicanor1 which may ,god forbid1 either 
before he receives my daughter in       
marriage1 or after he is married to her1
 or before he has any children  by her1 
then any arrangements which he may make 
by will shall stand4  ,but1 if          
,theophrastus1 in this case1 should     
choose to take my daughter in  marriage1
 then he is to stand exactly in the same
 position as ,nicanor4  ,and if not1    
then ,i will1 that my trustees1         
consulting with ,antipater  concerning  
both the boy and girl1 shall arrange    
everything respecting  them as they     
shall think fit2 and that my trustees   
and ,nicanor1  remembering both me and  
,herpyllis1 and how well she has behaved
 to me1  shall take care1 if she be     
inclined to take a husband1 that one be 

found  for her who shall not be unworthy
 of us2 and shall give her1 in addition 
to all that has been already given her1 
a talent of silver1 and three           
maidservants if she please to accept    
them1 and the handmaid whom she has     
now1 and the boy ,pyrrhus4 ,and if she  
likes to dwell at ,chalcis1 she  shall  
have the house which joins the garden2  
but if she likes to dwell in  ,stagira1 
then she shall have my father's house4  
,and whichever of these  houses she     
elects to take1 ,i will that my         
executors do furnish it with  all       
necessary furniture1 in such manner as  
shall seem to them and to  ,herpyllis to
 be sufficient4 ,and let ,nicanor be the
 guardian of the child  ,myrmex1 so that
 he shall be conducted to his friends in
 a manner worthy  of us1 with all his   
property which ,i received4 ,i also will
 that ,ambracis  shall have her liberty1
 and that there shall be given to her   
when her  daughter is married1 five     
hundred drachmas1 and the handmaid whom 

she now  has4 ,and ,i will that there be
 given to ,thales1 besides the          
handmaiden  whom she now has1 who was   
bought for her1 a thousand drachmas and 
another  handmaid4 ,and to ,timon1 in   
addition to the money that has been     
given to  him before for another boy1 an
 additional slave1 or a sum of money    
which  shall be equivalent4 ,i also will
 that ,tychon shall have his liberty    
when  his daughter is married1 and      
,philon1 and ,olympius1 and his son4    
,moreover1  of those boys who wait upon 
me1 ,i will that none shall be sold1 but
  my executors may use them1 and when   
they are grown up then they shall       
emancipate them if they deserve it4 ,i  
desire too1 that my executors will  take
 under their care the statues which it  
has been entrusted to ,gryllion  to     
make1 that when they are made they may  
be erected in their proper  places2 and 
so too shall the statues of ,nicanor1   
and of ,proxenus1 which ,i  was         
intending to give him a commission for1 

and also that of the mother  of         
,nicanor4 ,i wish them also to erect in 
its proper place the statue  of         
,arimnestus which is already made1 that 
it may be a memorial of her1  since she 
has died childless4 ,i wish them also to
 dedicate a statue of my  mother to     
,ceres at ,nemea1 or wherever else they 
think fit4 ,and wherever  they bury me1 
there ,i desire that they shall also    
place the bones of  ,pythias1 having    
taken them up from the place where they 
now lie1 as she  herself enjoined4 ,and 
,i desire that ,nicanor1 as he has been 
preserved1  will perform the vow which  
,i made on his behalf1 and dedicate some
  figures of animals in stone1 four     
cubits high1 to ,jupiter the saviour1   
and ,minerva the saviour1 in ,stagira40 
,these are the provisions of his will4  
,x4 ,and it is said that a great many   
dishes were found in his house2  and    
that ,lycon stated that he used to bathe
 in a bath of warm oil1 and  afterwards 
to sell the oil4 ,but some say that he  

used to place a leather  bag of warm oil
 on his stomach4 ,and whenever he went  
to bed1 he used to  take a brazen ball  
in his hand1 having arranged a brazen   
dish below it2  so that1 when the ball  
fell into the dish1 he might be awakened
 by the  noise4    ,,xi4 ,the following 
admirable apophthegms are attributed to 
him4    ,he was once asked1 what those  
who tell lies gain by it2 8,they gain   
this10  said he1 8that when they speak  
truth they are not believed40    ,on one
 occasion he was blamed for giving alms 
to a worthless man1 and he  replied1 8,i
 did not pity the man1 but his          
condition40    ,he was accustomed       
continually to say to his friends and   
pupils wherever  he happened to be1     
8,that sight receives the light from the
 air which  surrounds it1 and in like   
manner the soul receives the light from 
the  science40    ,very often1 when he  
was inveighing against the ,athenians1  
he would say  that they had invented    
both wheat and laws1 but that they used 

only the  wheat and neglected the laws4 
,it was a saying of his that the roots  
of education were bitter1 but the  fruit
 sweet4    ,once he was asked what grew 
old most speedily1 and he replied1      
8,gratitude40    ,on another occasion   
the question was put to him1 what hope  
is8 and his  answer was1 8,the dream of 
a waking man40    ,diogenes once offered
 him a dry fig1 and as he conjectured   
that if he did  not take it the cynic   
had a witticism ready prepared1 he      
accepted it1 and  then said that        
,diogenes had lost his joke and his fig 
too2 and another  time when he took one 
from him as he offered it1 he held it up
 as a child  does1 and said1 8,o great  
,diogenes20 and then he gave it to him  
back again4    ,he used to say that     
there were three things necessary to    
education2  natural qualifications1     
instruction1 and practice4    ,having   
heard that he was abused by some one1 he
 said1 8,he may beat me  too1 if he     
likes1 in my absence40    ,he used to   

say that beauty is the best of all      
recommendations1 but others  say that it
 was ,diogenes who gave this description
 of it2 and that  ,aristotle called     
beauty1 8,the gift of a fair            
appearance10 that ,socrates  called it  
8,a short-lived tyranny20 ,plato1 8,the 
privilege of nature20  ,theophrastus1   
8,a silent deceit20 ,theocritus1 8,an   
ivory mischief20  ,carneades1 8,a       
sovereignty which stood in need of no   
guards40    ,on one occasion he was     
asked how much educated men were        
superior to those  uneducated2 8,as     
much10 said he1 8as the living are to   
the dead40    ,it was a saying of his   
that education was an ornament in       
prosperity1 and  a refuge in adversity4 
,and that those parents who gave their  
children a  good education deserved more
 honour than those who merely beget     
them3 for  that the latter only enabled 
their children to live1 but the former  
gave  them the power of living well4    
,when a man boasted in his presence that

 he was a native of an illustrious      
city1 he said1 8,that is not what one   
ought to look at1 but whether one is    
worthy of a great city40    ,he was once
 asked what a friend is2 and his answer 
was1 8,one soul abiding  in two bodies40
    ,it was a saying of his that some   
men were as stingy as if they expected  
to live for ever1 and some as           
extravagant as if they expected to die  
immediately4    ,when he was asked why  
people like to spend a great deal of    
their time  with handsome people1       
8,that10 said he1 8is a question fit for
 a blind man  to ask40    ,the question 
was once put to him1 what he had gained 
by philosophy2 and  the answer he made  
was this1 8,that ,i do without being    
commanded1 what  others do from fear of 
the laws40    ,he was once asked what   
his disciples ought to do to get on2 and
 he  replied1 8,press on upon those who 
are in front of them1 and not wait for  
those who are behind to catch them40    
,a chattering fellow1 who had been      

abusing him1 said to him1 8,have not ,i 
been jeering you properly80 8,not that  
,i know of10 said he1 8for ,i have  not 
been listening to you40    ,a man on one
 occasion reproached him for having     
given a contribution to  one who was not
 a good man 7for the story which ,i have
 mentioned before  is also quoted in    
this way71 and his answer was1 8,i gave 
not to the man1  but to humanity40      
,the question was once put to him1 how  
we ought to behave to our friends2  and 
the answer he gave was1 8,as we should  
wish our friends to behave to  us40     
,he used to define justice as 8,a virtue
 of the soul distributive of what  each 
person deserved40    ,another of his    
sayings was1 that education was the best
 viaticum for old  age4    ,phavorinus1 
in the second book of his ,commentaries1
 says that he was  constantly repeating1
 8,the man who has friends has no       
friend40 ,and this  sentiment is to be  
found also in the seventh book of the   
,ethics4    ,these apophthegms then are 

attributed to him4    ,,xii4 ,he also   
wrote a great number of works2 and ,i   
have thought it worth  while to give a  
list of them1 on account of the eminence
 of their author  in every branch of    
philosophy4 ,four books on ,justice2    
three books on  ,poets2 three books on  
,philosophy2 two books of ,the          
,statesman2 one on  ,rhetoric1 called   
also the ,gryllus2 the ,nerinthus1 one2 
the ,sophist1 one2  the ,menexenus1 one2
 the ,erotic1 one2 the ,banquet1 one2 on
 ,riches1 one2  the ,exhortation1 one2  
on the ,soul1 one2 on ,prayer1 one2 on  
,nobility of  ,birth1 one2 on ,pleasure1
 one2 the ,alexander1 or an ,essay on   
,colonists1  one2 on ,sovereignty1 one2 
on ,education1 one2 on the ,good1 three2
 three  books on things in the ,laws of 
,plato2 two on ,political               
,constitutions2  on ,economy1 one2 on   
,friendship1 one2 on ,suffering1 or     
having ,suffered1  one2 on ,sciences1   
one2 on ,discussions1 two2 ,solutions of
 ,disputed  ,points1 two2 ,sophistical  

,divisions1 four2 on ,contraries1 one2  
on ,species  and ,genera1 one2 on       
,property1 one2 ,epicheirematic1 or     
,argumentative  ,commentaries1 three2   
,propositions relating to ,virtue1      
three2 ,objections1  one2 one book on   
things which are spoken of in various   
ways1 or a  ,preliminary ,essay2 one on 
the ,passion of ,anger2 five on ,ethics2
 three  on ,elements2 one on ,science2  
one on ,beginning2 seventeen on         
,divisions2  on ,divisible ,things1 one2
 two books of ,questions and ,answers2  
two on  ,motion2 one book of            
,propositions2 four of ,contentious     
,propositions2 one  of ,syllogisms2     
eight of the ,first ,analytics2 two of  
the second greater  ,analytics2 one on  
,problems2 eight on ,method2 one on the 
,better2 one on  the ,idea2 ,definitions
 serving as a preamble to the ,topics1  
seven2 two  books more of ,syllogisms2  
one of ,syllogisms and ,definitions2 one
 on  what is ,eligible1 and on what is  
,suitable2 the ,preface to the ,topics1 

one2 ,topics relating to the            
,definitions1 two2 one on the ,passions2
 one  on ,divisions2 one on             
,mathematics2 thirteen books of         
,definitions2 two  of ,epicheiremata1 or
 ,arguments2 one on ,pleasure2 one of   
,propositions2  on the ,voluntary1 one2 
on the ,honourable1 one2 of             
,epicheirematic or  ,argumentative      
,propositions1 twenty-five books2 of    
,amatory ,propositions1  four2 of       
,propositions relating to ,friendship1  
two2 of ,propositions  relating to the  
,soul1 one2 on ,politics1 two2          
,political ,lectures1 such as  that of  
,theophrastus1 eight2 on ,just ,actions1
 two2 two books entitled1 ,a            
,collection of ,arts2 two on the ,art of
 ,rhetoric2 one on ,art2 two on other   
,art2 one on ,method2 one1 the          
,introduction to the ,art of            
,theodectes2 two  books1 being a        
treatise on the ,art of ,poetry2 one    
book of ,rhetorical  ,enthymemes on     
,magnitude2 one of ,divisions of        

,enthymemes2 on ,style1  two2 on        
,advice1 one2 on ,collection1 two2 on   
,nature1 three2 on ,natural             
,philosophy1 one2 on the ,philosophy of 
,archytas1 three2 on the ,philosophy  of
 ,speusippus and ,xenocrates1 one2 on   
things taken from the doctrines of      
,timus and the school of ,archytas1 one2
 on ,doctrines of ,melissus1 one2  on   
,doctrines of ,alcmon1 one2 on the      
,pythagoreans1 one2 on the ,precepts  of
 ,gorgias1 one2 on the ,precepts of     
,xenophanes1 one2 on the ,precepts of   
,zeno1 one2 on the ,pythagoreans1 one2  
on ,animals1 nine2 on ,anatomy1 eight2  
one book1 a ,selection of ,anatomical   
,questions2 one on ,compound ,animals2  
one on ,mythological ,animals2 one on   
,impotence2 one on ,plants2 one on      
,physiognomy2 two on ,medicine2 one on  
the ,unit2 one on ,signs of ,storms2    
one on ,astronomy2 one on ,optics2 one  
on ,motion2 one on ,music2 one on       
,memory2 six on ,doubts connected with  
,homer2 one on ,poetry2 thirty-eight  of

 ,natural ,philosophy in reference to   
the ,first ,elements2 two of ,problems  
,resolved2 two of ,encyclica1 or        
,general ,knowledge2 one on ,mechanics2 
two  consisting of ,problems derived    
from the writings of ,democritus2 one on
  ,stone2 one book of ,comparisons2     
twelve books of ,miscellanies2 fourteen 
books of things explained according to  
their ,genus2 one on ,rights2 one  book1
 the ,conquerors at the ,olympic ,games2
 one1 the ,conquerors at the  ,pythian  
,games in the ,art of ,music2 one1 the  
,pythian2 one1 a ,list of the  ,victors 
in the ,pythian ,games2 one1 the        
,victories gained at the ,olympic       
,games2 one on ,tragedies2 one1 a ,list 
of ,plays2 one book of ,proverbs2 one   
on the ,laws of ,recommendations2 four  
books of ,laws2 one of ,categories2  one
 on ,interpretation2 a book containing  
an account of the ,constitutions  of a  
hundred and fifty-eight cities1 and also
 some individual democratic1            
oligarchic1 aristocratic1 and tyrannical

 ,constitutions2 ,letters to  ,philip2  
,letters of the ,selymbrians2 four      
,letters to ,alexander2 nine  to        
,antipater2 one to ,mentor2 one to      
,ariston2 one to ,olympias2 one to      
,hephstion2 one to ,themistagoras2 one  
to ,philoxenus2 one to ,democritus2  one
 book of ,poems beginning3--            
,hail6 holy1 sacred1 distant-shooting   
,god4    ,a book of ,elegies which      
begins3--        ,daughter of           
all-accomplish'd mother4    ,the whole  
consisting of four hundred and          
forty-five thousand two hundred  and    
seventy lines4    ,,xiii4 ,these then   
are the books which were written by him4
 ,and in them  he expresses the         
following opinions3--that there is in   
philosophy a  two-fold division2 one    
practical1 and the other theoretical4   
,again1 the  practical is divided into  
ethical and political1 under which last 
head  are comprised considerations      
affecting not only the state1 but also  
the  management1 of a single house4 ,the

 theoretical part1 too1 is subdivided   
into physics and logic2 the latter      
forming not a single division1  turning 
on one special point1 but being rather  
an instrument for every  art brought to 
a high degree of accuracy4 ,and he has  
laid down two  separate objects as what 
it is conversant about1 the persuasive  
and the  true4 ,and he has used two     
means with reference to each end2       
dialectics  and rhetoric1 with reference
 to persuasion2 analytical examination  
and  philosophy1 with reference to      
truth2 omitting nothing which can bear  
upon discovery1 or judgment1 or use4    
,accordingly1 with reference to         
discovery1 he has furnished us with     
topics and works on method1 which  form 
a complete armoury of propositions1 from
 which it is easy to provide  one's self
 with an abundance of probable arguments
 for every kind of  question4 ,and with 
reference to judgment1 he has given us  
the former and  posterior analytics2 and
 by means of the former analytics1 we   

may arrive  at a critical examination of
 principles2 by means of the posterior1 
we  may examine the conclusions which   
are deduced from them4 ,with reference  
to the use or application of his rules1 
he has given us works on  discussion1 on
 question1 on disputation1 on           
sophistical refutation1 on  syllogism1  
and on things of that sort4    ,he has  
also furnished us with a double         
criterion of truth4 ,one1 on the        
perception of those effects1 which are  
according to imagination2 the  other1   
the intelligence of those things which  
are ethical1 and which  concern         
politics1 and economy1 and laws4 ,the   
chief good he has defined  to be the    
exercise of virtue in a perfect life4   
,he used also to say1  that happiness   
was a thing made up of three kinds of   
goods4 ,first of  all1 the goods of the 
soul1 which he also calls the principal 
goods in  respect of their power2       
secondly1 the goods of the body1 such as
 health1  strength1 beauty1 and things  

of that sort2 thirdly1 external goods1  
such  as wealth1 nobility of birth1     
glory1 and things like those4 ,and he   
taught  that virtue was not sufficient  
of itself to confer happiness2 for that 
it had need besides of the goods of the 
body1 and of the external goods1  for   
that a wise man would be miserable if he
 were surrounded by distress1  and      
poverty1 and circumstances of that kind4
 ,but1 on the other hand1 he  said1 that
 vice was sufficient of itself to cause 
unhappiness1 even if  the goods of the  
body and the external goods were present
 in the greatest  possible degree4 ,he  
also asserted that the virtues did not  
reciprocally  follow one another1 for   
that it was possible for a prudent1 and 
just1  and impartial man1 to be         
incontinent and intemperate2 and he     
said1 that  the wise man was not        
destitute of passions1 but endowed with 
moderate  passions4    ,he also used to 
define friendship as an equality of     
mutual benevolence4  ,and he divided it 

into the friendship of kindred1 and of  
love1 and of  those connected by ties of
 hospitality4 ,and he said1 that love   
was  divided into sensual and           
philosophical love4 ,and that the wise  
man would  feel the influence of love1  
and would occupy himself in affairs of  
state1  and would marry a wife1 and     
would live with a king4 ,and as there   
were  three kinds of life1 the          
speculative1 the practical1 and the     
voluptuous1  he preferred the           
speculative4 ,he also considered the    
acquisition of  general knowledge       
serviceable to the acquisition of       
virtue4 ,as a natural  philosopher1 he  
was the most ingenious man that ever    
lived in tracing  effects back to their 
causes1 so that he could explain the    
principles of  the most trifling        
circumstances2 on which account he wrote
 a great many  books of commentaries on 
physical questions4    ,he used to teach
 that ,god was incorporeal1 as ,plato   
also asserted1 and  that his providence 

extends over all the heavenly bodies2   
also1 that he  is incapable of motion4  
,and that he governs all things upon    
earth with  reference to their sympathy 
with the heavenly bodies4 ,another of   
his  doctrines was1 that besides the    
four elements there is one other1 making
  the fifth1 of which all the heavenly  
bodies are composed2 and that this  one 
possesses a motion peculiar to itself1  
for it is a circular one4  ,that the    
soul is incorporeal1 being the first 2  
for it is  the  of a physical and       
organic body1 having an existence in    
consequence of a capacity for existence4
 ,and this is1 according to him1  of a  
twofold nature4 ,by the word 1 he means 
something which  has an incorporeal     
species1 either in capacity1 as a figure
 of ,mercury  in wax1 which has a       
capacity for assuming any shape2 or a   
statue in  brass2 and so the perfection 
of the ,mercury or of the statue is     
called  1 with reference to its habit4  
,but when he speaks of the  #dg of a    

natural body1 he does so because1 of    
bodies some are  wrought by the hands1  
as for instance1 those which are made by
 artists1  for instance1 a tower1 or a  
ship2 and some exist by nature1 as the  
bodies  of plants and animals4 ,he has  
also used the term with reference to an 
organic body1 that is to say1 with      
reference to something that is made1  as
 the faculty of sight for seeing1 or the
 faculty of hearing for the  purpose of 
hearing4 ,the capacity of having life   
must exist in the thing  itself4 ,but   
the capacity is twofold1 either in habit
 or in operation4 ,in  operation1 as a  
man1 when awake1 is said to have a soul2
 in habit1 as the  same is said of a man
 when asleep4 ,that1 therefore1 he may  
come under his  definition1 he has added
 the word capacity4    ,he has also     
given other definitions on a great many 
subjects1 which it  would be tedious to 
enumerate here4 ,for he was in every    
thing a man of  the greatest industry   
and ingenuity1 as is plain from all his 

works which  ,i have lately given a list
 of2 which are in number nearly four    
hundred1  the genuineness of which is   
undoubted4 ,there are1 also1 a great    
many  other works attributed to him1 and
 a number of apophthegms which he never 
committed to paper4    ,,xiv4 ,there    
were eight persons of the name of       
,aristotle4 ,first of all1 the          
philosopher of whom we have been        
speaking2 the second was an ,athenian   
statesman1 some of whose forensic       
orations1 of great elegance1 are  still 
extant2 the third was a man who wrote a 
treatise on the ,iliad2  the fourth1 a  
,siciliot orator1 who wrote a reply to  
the ,panegyric of  ,isocrates2 the fifth
 was the man who was surnamed ,myth1 a  
friend of  schines1 the pupil of        
,socrates2 the sixth was a ,cyrenean1   
who wrote a  treatise on ,poetry2 the   
seventh was a schoolmaster1 who is      
mentioned by  ,aristoxenus in his ,life 
of ,plato2 the eighth1 was an obscure   
grammarian1  to whom a treatise on      

,pleonasm is attributed4    ,,xv4 ,and  
the ,stagirite had many friends1 the    
most eminent of whom was  ,theophrastus1
 whom we must proceed to speak of4      
,,life ,,of ,,theophrastus4    ,i4      
,theophrastus was a native of ,eresus1  
the son of ,melantas1 a fuller1  as we  
are told by ,athenodorus in the eighth  
book of his ,philosophical              
,conversations4    ,,ii4 ,he was        
originally a pupil of ,leucippus1 his   
fellow citizen1 in his  own country2 and
 subsequently1 after having attended the
 lectures of  ,plato1 he went over to   
,aristotle4 ,and when he withdrew to    
,chalcis1 he  succeeded him as president
 of his school1 in the hundred and      
fourteenth  olympiad4    ,,iii4 ,it is  
also said that a slave of his1 by name  
,pomphylus1 was a  philosopher1 as we   
are told by ,myronianus of ,amastra1 in 
the first book  of ,similar ,historical 
,chapters4    ,,iv4 ,theophrastus was a 
man of great acuteness and industry1    
and1 as  ,pamphila asserts in the       

thirty-second book of her ,commentaries1
 he was  the tutor of ,menander1 the    
comic poet4 ,he was also a most         
benevolent man1  and very affable4      
,v4 ,accordingly ,cassander received him
 as a friend2 and ,ptolemy sent to      
invite him to his court4 ,and he was    
thought so very highly of at ,athens1   
that when ,agonides ventured to impeach 
him on a charge of impiety1 he  was very
 nearly fined for his hardihood4 ,and   
there thronged to his school  a crowd of
 disciples to the number of two         
thousand4 ,in his letter to  ,phanias1  
the ,peripatetic1 among other subjects  
he speaks of the court  of justice in   
the following terms3 8,it is not only   
out of the question  to find an assembly
 771 but it is not easy to find even a  
company 77 such as one would like2 but  
yet recitations produce  corrections of 
the judgment4 ,and my age does not allow
 me to put off  everything and to feel  
indifference on such a subject40 ,in    
this letter he  speaks of himself as one

 who devotes his whole leisure to       
learning4    ,and though he was of this 
disposition1 he nevertheless went away  
for a  short time1 both he and all the  
rest of the philosophers1 in consequence
  of ,sophocles1 the son of             
,amphiclides1 having brought forward and
 carried  a law that no one of the      
philosophers should preside over a      
school unless  the council and the      
people had passed a resolution to       
sanction their  doing so2 if they did1  
death was to be the penalty4 ,but they  
returned  again the next year1 when     
,philion had impeached ,sophocles for   
illegal  conduct2 when the ,athenians   
abrogated his law1 and fined ,sophocles 
five  talents1 and voted that the       
philosophers should have leave to       
return1  that ,theophrastus might return
 and preside over his school as before4 
,,vi4 ,his name had originally been     
,tyrtamus1 but ,aristotle changed it to 
,theophrastus1 from the divine character
 of his eloquence4#dh    ,,vii4 ,he is  

said also to have been very much        
attached to ,aristotle's son1           
,nicomachus1 although he was his master2
 at least1 this is stated by            
,aristippus in the fourth book of his   
treatise on the ,ancient ,luxury4       
,,viii4 ,it is also related that        
,aristotle used the same expression     
about  him and ,callisthenes1 which     
,plato1 as ,i have previously mentioned1
  employed about ,xenocrates and        
,aristotle himself4 ,for he is reported 
to  have said1 since ,theophrastus was a
 man of extraordinary acuteness1  who   
could both comprehend and explain       
everything1 and as the other was        
somewhat slow in his natural character1 
that ,theophrastus required a  bridle1  
and ,callisthenes a spur4    ,,ix4 ,it  
is said1 too1 that he had a garden of   
his own after the death of  ,aristotle1 
by the assistance of ,demetrius         
,phalereus1 who was an intimate  friend 
of his4    ,x4 ,the following very      
practical apophthegms of his are quoted4

 ,he used  to say that it was better to 
trust to a horse without a bridle than  
to a  discourse without arrangement4    
,and once1 when a man preserved a strict
  silence during the whole of a banquet1
 he said to him1 8,if you are an        
ignorant man1 you are acting wisely2 but
 if you have had any education1  you are
 behaving like a fool40 ,and a very     
favourite expression of his  was1 that  
time was the most valuable thing that a 
man could spend4    ,,xi4 ,he died when 
he was of a great age1 having lived     
eighty-five years1  when he had only    
rested from his labours a short time4   
,and we have  composed the following    
epigram on him3--        ,the proverb   
then is not completely false1      ,that
 wisdom's bow unbent is quickly broken2 
,while ,theophrastus laboured1 he kept  
sound1      ,when he relaxed1 he lost   
his strength and died4    ,they say that
 on one occasion1 when dying1 he was    
asked by his disciples  whether he had  
any charge to give them2 and he replied1

 that he had none  but that they should 
8remember that life holds out many      
pleasing deceits  to us by the vanity of
 glory2 for that when we are beginning  
to live1  then we are dying4 ,there is1 
therefore1 nothing more profitless than 
ambition4 ,but may you all be fortunate1
 and either abandon philosophy  7for it 
is a great labour71 or else cling to it 
diligently1 for then the  credit of it  
is great2 but the vanities of life      
exceed the advantage of  it4 ,however1  
it is not requisite for me now to advise
 you what you should  do2 but do you    
yourselves consider what line of conduct
 to adopt40 ,and  when he had said this1
 as report goes1 he expired4 ,and the   
,athenians  accompanied him to the      
grave1 on foot1 with the whole          
population of the  city1 as it is       
related1 honouring the man greatly4     
,,xii4 ,but ,phavorinus says1 that when 
he was very old he used to go about  in 
a litter2 and that ,hermippus states    
this1 quoting ,arcesilaus1 the          

,pitanan1 and the account which he sent 
to ,lacydes of ,cyrene4    ,,xiii4 ,he  
also left behind him a very great number
 of works1 of which ,i  have thought it 
proper to give a list on account of     
their being full of  every sort of      
excellence4 ,they are as follows3--     
,three books of the ,first ,analytics2  
seven of the ,second ,analytics2 one    
book of the ,analysis of ,syllogisms2   
one book1 an ,epitome of ,analytics2    
two books1 ,topics for referring things 
to ,first ,principles2 one book1  an    
,examination of ,speculative ,questions 
about ,discussions2 one on  ,sensations2
 one addressed to ,anaxagoras2 one on   
the ,doctrines of  ,anaxagoras2 one on  
the ,doctrines of ,anaximenes2 one on   
the ,doctrines of  ,archelaus2 one on   
,salt1 ,nitre1 and ,alum2 two on        
,petrifactions2 one on  ,indivisible    
,lines2 two on ,hearing2 one on ,words2 
one on the ,differences  between        
,virtues2 one on ,kingly ,power2 one on 
the ,education of a ,king2  three on    

,lives2 one on ,old ,age2 one on the    
,astronomical ,system of  ,democritus2  
one on ,meteorology2 one on ,images or  
,phantoms2 one on  ,juices1             
,complexions1 and ,flesh2 one on the    
,description of the ,world2 one  on     
,men2 one1 a ,collection of the ,sayings
 of ,diogenes2 three books of           
,definitions2 one treatise on ,love2    
another treatise on ,love2 one book  on 
,happiness2 two books on ,species2 on   
,epilepsy1 one2 on ,enthusiasm1  one2 on
 ,empedocles1 one2 eighteen books of    
,epicheiremes2 three books of           
,objections2 one book on the ,voluntary2
 two books1 being an ,abridgment of     
,plato's ,polity2 one on the ,difference
 of the ,voices of ,similar ,animals2   
one on ,sudden ,appearances2 one on     
,animals which ,bite or ,sting2 one on  
such ,animals as are said to be         
,jealous2 one on those which live on    
,dry  ,land2 one on those which ,change 
their ,colour2 one on those which live  
in ,holes2 seven on ,animals in         

,general2 one on ,pleasure according to 
the ,definition of ,aristotle2          
seventy-four books of ,propositions2 one
  treatise on ,hot and ,cold2 one essay 
on ,giddiness and ,vertigo and ,sudden  
,dimness of ,sight2 one on              
,perspiration2 one on ,affirmation and  
,denial2 the  ,callisthenes1 or an essay
 on ,mourning1 one2 on ,labours1 one2 on
 ,motion1  three2 on ,stones1 one2 on   
,pestilences1 one2 on ,fainting ,fits1  
one2 the  ,megaric ,philosopher1 one2 on
 ,melancholy1 one2 on ,mines1 two2 on   
,honey1  one2 a collection of the       
,doctrines of ,metrodorus1 one2 two     
books on  those ,philosophers who have  
treated of ,meteorology2 on             
,drunkenness1 one2  twenty-four books of
 ,laws1 in alphabetical order2 ten      
books1 being an  ,abridgment of ,laws2  
one on ,definitions2 one on ,smells2 one
 on ,wine and  ,oil2 eighteen books of  
,primary ,propositions2 three books on  
,lawgivers2  six books of ,political    
,disquisitions2 a treatise on           

,politicals1 with  reference to         
occasions as they arise1 four books2    
four books of ,political  ,customs2 on  
the best ,constitution1 one2 five books 
of a ,collection of  ,problems2 on      
,proverbs1 one2 on ,concretion and      
,liquefaction1 one2 on  ,fire1 two2 on  
,spirits1 one2 on ,paralysis1 one2 on   
,suffocation1 one2  on ,aberration of   
,intellect1 one2 on the ,passions1 one2 
on ,signs1 one2  two books of ,sophisms2
 one on the ,solution of ,syllogisms2   
two books of  ,topics2 two on           
,punishment2 one on ,hair2 one on       
,tyranny2 three on ,water2  one on      
,sleep and ,dreams2 three on            
,friendship2 two on ,liberality2 three  
on ,nature2 eighteen on ,questions of   
,natural ,philosophy2 two books1  being 
an ,abridgment of ,natural ,philosophy2 
eight more books on ,natural            
,philosophy2 one treatise addressed to  
,natural ,philosophers2 two books  on   
the ,history of ,plants2 eight books on 
the ,causes of ,plants2 five on         

,juices2 one on ,mistaken ,pleasures2   
one1 ,investigation of a proposition    
concerning the ,soul2 one on            
,unskilfully ,adduced ,proofs2 one on   
,simple  ,doubts2 one on ,harmonics2 one
 on ,virtue2 one entitled ,occasions or 
,contradictions2 one on ,denial2 one on 
,opinion2 one on the ,ridiculous2  two  
called ,soirees2 two books of           
,divisions2 one on ,differences2 one on 
,acts of ,injustice2 one on ,calumny2   
one on ,praise2 one on ,skill2 three    
books of ,epistles2 one on              
,self-produced ,animals2 one on         
,selection2 one  entitled the ,praises  
of the ,gods2 one on ,festivals2 one on 
,good ,fortune2  one on ,enthymemes2 one
 on ,inventions2 one on ,moral ,schools2
 one book of  ,moral ,characters2 one   
treatise on ,tumult2 one on ,history2   
one on the  ,judgment ,concerning       
,syllogisms2 one on ,flattery2 one on   
the ,sea2 one  essay1 addressed to      
,cassander1 ,concerning ,kingly ,power2 
one on ,comedy2  one on ,meteors2 one on

 ,style2 one book called a ,collection  
of ,sayings2  one book of ,solutions2   
three books on ,music2 one on ,metres2  
the ,megades1  one2 on ,laws1 one2 on   
,violations of ,law1 one2 a collection  
of the ,sayings  and ,doctrines of      
,xenocrates1 one2 one book of           
,conversations2 on an ,oath1  one2 one  
of ,oratorical ,precepts2 one on        
,riches2 one on ,poetry2 one being  a   
collection of ,political1 ,ethical1     
,physical1 and amatory ,problems2 one   
book of ,proverbs2 one book1 being a    
,collection of ,general ,problems2 one  
on ,problems in ,natural ,philosophy2   
one on ,example2 one on ,proposition    
and ,exposition2 a second treatise on   
,poetry2 one on the ,wise ,men2 one  on 
,counsel2 one on ,solecisms2 one on     
,rhetorical ,art1 a collection of       
sixty-one figures of ,oratorical ,art2  
one book on ,hypocrisy2 six books of  a 
,commentary of ,aristotle or            
,theophrastus2 sixteen books of         
,opinions on  ,natural ,philosophy2 one 

book1 being an ,abridgment of ,opinions 
on ,natural  ,philosophy2 one on        
,gratitude2 one called ,moral           
,characters2 one on ,truth  and         
,falsehood2 six on the ,history of      
,divine ,things2 three on the ,gods2    
four on the ,history of ,geometry2 six  
books1 being an ,abridgment of the  work
 of ,aristotle on ,animals2 two books of
 ,epicheiremes2 three books of          
,propositions2 two on ,kingly ,power2   
one on ,causes2 one on ,democritus2  one
 on ,calumny2 one on ,generation2 one on
 the ,intellect and ,moral  ,character  
of ,animals2 two on ,motion2 four on    
,sight2 two on ,definitions2  one on    
being given in ,marriage2 one on the    
,greater and the ,less2 one on  ,music2 
one on ,divine ,happiness2 one addressed
 to the ,philosophers of  the ,academy2 
one ,exhortatory ,treatise2 one         
discussing how a ,city may be  best     
,governed2 one called ,commentaries2 one
 on the ,crater of ,mount ,etna  in     
,sicily2 one on ,admitted ,facts2 one on

 ,problems in ,natural ,history2  one1  
,what are the ,different ,manners of    
,acquiring ,knowledge2 three on         
,telling ,lies2 one book1 which is a    
preface to the ,topics2 one addressed   
to schylus2 six books of a ,history of  
,astronomy2 one book of the ,history  of
 ,arithmetic relating to ,increasing    
,numbers2 one called the ,acicharus2    
one on ,judicial ,discourses2 one on    
,calumny2 one volume of ,letters to     
,astycreon1 ,phanias1 and ,nicanor2 one 
book on ,piety2 one called the ,evias2  
one on ,circumstances2 one volume       
entitled ,familiar ,conversations2 one  
on  the ,education of ,children2 another
 on the same subject1 discussed in a    
different manner2 one on ,education1    
called also1 a treatise on ,virtue1 or  
on ,temperance2 one book of             
,exhortations2 one on ,numbers2 one     
consisting  of ,definitions referring to
 the ,enunciation of ,syllogisms2 one on
 ,heaven2  two on ,politics2 two on     
,nature1 on ,fruits1 and on ,animals4   

,and these  works contain in all two    
hundred and thirty-two thousand nine    
hundred and  eight lines4    ,these1    
then1 are the books which ,theophrastus 
composed4    ,,xiv4 ,i have also found  
his will1 which is drawn up in the      
following  terms3--    ,may things turn 
out well1 but if anything should happen 
to me1 ,i make the  following           
disposition of my property4 ,i give     
everything that ,i have in my  house to 
,melantes and ,pancreon1 the sons of    
,leon4 ,and those things which  have    
been given to me by ,hipparchus1 ,i wish
 to be disposed of in the  following    
manner3--,first of all1 ,i wish         
everything about the ,museum#di  and the
 statue of the goddesses to be made     
perfect1 and to be adorned in  a still  
more beautiful manner than at present1  
wherein there is room for  improvement4 
,then ,i desire the statue of ,aristotle
 to be placed in the  temple1 and all   
the other offerings which were in the   
temple before4 ,then  ,i desire the     

colonnade which used to be near the     
,museum to be rebuilt in  a manner not  
inferior to the previous one4 ,i also   
enjoin my executors  to put up the      
tablets on which the maps of the earth  
are drawn1 in the  lower colonnade1 and 
to take care that an altar is finished  
in such a  manner that nothing may be   
wanting to its perfectness or its       
beauty4 ,i  also direct a statue of     
,nicomachus1 of equal size1 to be       
erected at the  same time2 and the price
 for making the statue has been already 
paid to  ,praxiteles2 and he is to      
contribute what is wanting for the      
expense4  ,and ,i desire that it shall  
be placed wherever it shall seem best to
  those who have the charge of providing
 for the execution of the other         
injunctions contained in this will4 ,and
 these are my orders respecting  the    
temple and the offerings4 ,the estate   
which ,i have at ,stagira1 ,i  give to  
,callinus1 and all my books ,i bequeath 
to ,neleus4 ,my garden1 and  my         

promenade1 and my houses which join the 
garden1 ,i give all of them  to any of  
the friends whose names ,i set down     
below1 who choose to hold  a school in  
them and to devote themselves to the    
study of philosophy1  since it is not   
possible for any one to be always       
travelling1 but ,i give  them on        
condition that they are not to alienate 
them1 and that no one is  to claim them 
as his own private property2 but they   
are to use them in  common as if they   
were sacred ground1 sharing them with   
one another in  a kindred and friendly  
spirit1 as is reasonable and just4 ,and 
those who  are to have this joint       
property in them are ,hipparchus1       
,neleus1 ,strato1  ,callinus1           
,demotimus1 ,demaratus1 ,callisthenes1  
,melantes1 ,pancreon1 and  ,nicippus4   
,and ,aristotle1 the son of ,metrodorus 
and ,pythias1 shall also be  entitled to
 a share in this property1 if he like to
 join these men in the  study of        
philosophy4 ,and ,i beg the older men to

 pay great attention to  his education  
that he may be led on to philosophy as  
much as possible4 ,i  also desire my    
executors to bury me in whatever part of
 the garden shall  appear most suitable1
 incurring no superfluous expense about 
my funeral  or monument4 ,and1 as has   
been said before1 after the proper      
honours have  been paid to me1 and after
 provision has been made for the        
execution  of my will as far as relates 
to the temple1 and the monument1 and the
  garden1 and the promenade1 then ,i    
enjoin that ,pamphylus1 who dwells in   
the garden1 shall keep it and everything
 else in the condition as it has  been  
in hitherto4 ,and those who are in      
possession of these things are to  take 
care of his interests4 ,i further       
bequeath to ,pamphylus and ,threptes1   
who have been some time emancipated1 and
 who have been of great service  to me1 
besides all that they have previously   
received from me1 and all  that they may
 have earned for themselves1 and all    

that ,i have provided  for being given  
them by ,hipparchus1 two thousand       
drachmas1 and ,i enjoin  that they      
should have them in firm and secure     
possession1 as ,i have  often said to   
them1 and to ,melantes and ,pancreon1   
and they have agreed  to provide for    
this my will taking effect4 ,i also give
 them the little  handmaid ,somatale2   
and of my slaves1 ,i ratify the         
emancipation of ,molon1  and ,cimon1 and
 ,parmenon which ,i have already given  
them4 ,and ,i hereby  give their liberty
 to ,manes and ,callias1 who have       
remained four years in  the garden1 and 
have worked in it1 and have conducted   
themselves in an  unimpeachable manner4 
,and ,i direct that my executors shall  
give ,pamphylus  as much of my household
 furniture as may seem to them to be    
proper1 and  shall sell the rest4 ,and  
,i give ,carion to ,demotimus1 and      
,donax to ,neleus4  ,i order ,eubius to 
be sold1 and ,i request ,hipparchus to  
give ,callinus  three thousand drachmas4

 ,and if ,i had not seen the great      
service that  ,hipparchus has been to me
 in former times1 and the embarrassed   
state of  his affairs at present1 ,i    
should have associated ,melantes and    
,pancreon  with him in these gifts4 ,but
 as ,i see that it would not be easy for
 them  to arrange to manage the property
 together1 ,i have thought it likely to 
be more advantageous for them to receive
 a fixed sum from ,hipparchus4          
,therefore1 let ,hipparchus pay to      
,melantes and to ,pancreon a talent     
a-piece2 and let him also pay to my     
executors the money necessary for  the  
expenses which ,i have here set down in 
my will1 as it shall require  to be     
expended4 ,and when he has done this1   
then ,i will that he shall be           
discharged of all debts due from him to 
me or to my estate4 ,and if any  profit 
shall accrue to him in ,chalcis1 from   
property belonging to me1  it shall be  
all his own4 ,my executors1 for all the 
duties provided for  in this will1 shall

 be ,hipparchus1 ,neleus1 ,strato1      
,callinus1 ,demotimus1  ,callisthenes1  
and ,ctesarchus4 ,and this my will is   
copied out1 and all  the copies are     
sealed with the seal-ring of me1        
,theophrastus2 one copy  is in the hands
 of ,hegesias the son of ,hipparchus2   
the witnesses thereto  are ,callippus of
 ,pallene1 ,philomelus of ,euonymus1    
,lysander of ,hybas1 and  ,philion of   
,alopece4 ,another copy is deposited    
with ,olympiodorus1 and the  witnesses  
are the same4 ,a third copy is under the
 care of ,adimantus1 and  it was        
conveyed to him by ,androsthenes1 his   
son4 ,the witnesses to that  copy are   
,arimnestus the son of ,cleobulus1      
,lysistratus of ,thasos1 the  son of    
,phidon2 ,strato of ,lampsacus1 the son 
of ,arcesilaus2 ,thesippus of  ,cerami1 
the son of ,thesippus2 ,dioscorides of  
the banks of the ,cephisus1  the son of 
,dionysius4--,this was his will4        
,,xv4 ,some writers have stated that    
,erasistratus1 the physician1 was a     

pupil of his2 and it is very likely4    
,,life ,,of ,,strato4    ,i4            
,theophrastus was succeeded in the      
presidency of his school by ,strato  of 
,lampsacus1 the son of ,arcesilaus1 of  
whom he had made mention in his  will4  
,,ii4 ,he was a man of great eminence1  
surnamed the ,natural ,philosopher1     
from his surpassing all men in the      
diligence with which he applied  himself
 to the investigation of matters of that
 nature4    ,,iii4 ,he was also the     
preceptor of ,ptolemy ,philadelphus1 and
 received from  him1 as it is said1     
eighty talents2 and he began to preside 
over the  school1 as ,apollodorus tells 
us in his ,chronicles1 in the hundred   
and  twenty-third olympiad1 and         
continued in that post for eighteen     
years4    ,,iv4 ,there are extant three 
books of his on ,kingly ,power2 three on
  ,justice2 three on the ,gods2 three on
 ,beginnings2 and one on each of the    
subjects of ,happiness1 ,philosophy1    
,manly ,courage1 the ,vacuum1 ,heaven1  

,spirit1 ,human ,nature1 the ,generation
 of ,animals1 ,mixtures1 ,sleep1        
,dreams1  ,sight1 ,perception1          
,pleasure1 ,colours1 ,diseases1         
,judgments1 ,powers1  ,metallic ,works1 
,hunger1 and ,dimness of ,sight1        
,lightness and ,heaviness1  ,enthusiasm1
 ,pain1 ,nourishment and ,growth1       
,animals whose ,existence is  ,doubted1 
,fabulous ,animals1 ,causes1 a ,solution
 of ,doubts1 a preface to  ,topics2     
there are1 also1 treatises on           
,contingencies1 on the ,definition1  on 
the ,more and ,less1 on ,injustice1 on  
,former and ,later1 on the ,prior       
,genus1 on ,property1 on the ,future4   
,there are1 also1 two books called the  
,examination of ,inventions2 the        
,genuineness of the ,commentaries       
attributed  to him1 is doubted4 ,there  
is a volume of ,epistles1 which begins  
thus3  8,strato wishes ,arsinoe         
prosperity40    ,v4 ,they say that he   
became so thin and weak1 that he died   
without  its being perceived4 ,and there

 is an epigram of ours upon him in the  
following terms3--        ,the man was  
thin1 believe me1 from the use      ,of 
frequent unguents2 ,strato was his name1
      ,a citizen of ,lampsacus2 he      
struggled long      ,with fell disease1 
and died at last unnoticed4    ,,vi4    
,there were eight people of the name of 
,strato4 ,the first was a pupil  of     
,isocrates2 the second was the man of   
whom we have been speaking2 the  third  
was a physician1 a pupil of             
,erasistratus1 or1 as some assert1 a    
foster-child of his2 the fourth was an  
historian1 who wrote a history of  the  
,achievements of ,philip and ,perses in 
their wars against the ,romans4'''  ,the
 sixth was an epigrammatic poet2 the    
seventh was an ancient physician1  as   
,aristotle tells us2 the eighth was a   
,peripatetic philosopher1 who  lived in 
,alexandria4    ,,vii4 ,but the will1   
too1 of this natural philosopher is     
extant1 and it  is couched in the       
following language3--8,if anything      

happens to me1 ,i  make this disposition
 of my property4 ,i leave all my        
property in my  house to ,lampyrion and 
,arcesilaus2 and with the money which ,i
 have at  ,athens1 in the first place1  
let my executors provide for my funeral 
and  for all other customary expenses2  
without doing anything extravagant1  or1
 on the other hand1 anything mean4 ,and 
the following shall be my  executors1   
according to this my will3 ,olympichus1 
,aristides1 ,mnesigenes1  ,hippocrates1 
,epicrates1 ,gorgylus1 ,diocles1 ,lycon1
 and ,athanes4 ,and my  school ,i leave 
to ,lycon1 since of the others some are 
too old1 and others  too busy4 ,and the 
rest will do well1 if they ratify this  
arrangement  of mine4 ,i also bequeath  
to him all my books1 except such as we  
have  written ourselves2 and all my     
furniture in the dining-room1 and the   
couches1 and the drinking cups4 ,and let
 my executors give ,epicrates five      
hundred drachmas1 and one of my slaves1 
according to the choice made by         

,arcesilaus4 ,and first of all1 let     
,lampyrion and ,arcesilaus cancel the   
engagements which ,daippus has entered  
into for ,irus4 ,and let him be         
acquitted of all obligation to          
,lampyrion or the heirs of ,lampyrion2  
and  let him also be discharged from any
 bond or note of hand he may have       
given4 ,and let my executors give him   
five hundred drachmas of silver1  and   
one of my slaves1 whichever ,arcesilaus 
may approve1 in order that1  as he has  
done me great service1 and co-operated  
with me in many things1  he may have a  
competency1 and be enabled to live      
decently4 ,and ,i give  their freedom to
 ,diophantus1 and ,diocles1 and ,abus4  
,simias ,i give to  ,arcesilaus4 ,i also
 give his freedom to ,dromo4 ,and when  
,arcesilaus  arrives1 let ,irus         
calculate with ,olympichus and          
,epicrates1 and the rest  of my         
executors1 the amount that has been     
expended on my funeral and on  other    
customary expenses4 ,and let the money  

that remains1 be paid over  to          
,arcesilaus by ,olympichus1 who shall   
give him no trouble1 as to the  time or 
manner of payment4 ,and ,arcesilaus     
shall discharge the engagements  which  
,strato has entered into with           
,olympichus and ,aminias1 which are     
preserved in writing in the care of     
,philocrates1 the son of ,tisamenus4    
,and with respect to my monument1 let   
them do whatever seems good to          
,arcesilaus1 and ,olympichus1 and       
,lycon40    ,this is his will1 which is 
still extant1 as ,aristo1 the ,chian1   
has  collected and published it4        
,,viii4 ,and this ,strato was a man1 as 
has been shown above1 of deservedly     
great popularity2 having devoted himself
 to the study of every kind  of         
philosophy1 and especially of that      
branch of it called natural  philosophy1
 which is one of the most ancient and   
important branches of  the whole4       
,,life ,,of ,,lycon4    ,i4 ,he was     
succeeded by ,lycon1 a native of the    

,troas1 the son of ,astyanax1  a man of 
great eloquence1 and of especial ability
 in the education of  youth4 ,for he    
used to say that it was fit for boys to 
be harnessed with  modesty and rivalry1 
as much as for horses to be equipped    
with a spur  and a bridle4 ,and his     
eloquence and energy in speaking is     
apparent1 from  this instance4 ,for he  
speaks of a virgin who was poor in the  
following  manner3--8,a damsel1 who1 for
 want of a dowry1 goes beyond the       
seasonable  age1 is a heavy burden to   
her father20 on which account they say  
that  ,antigonus said with reference to 
him1 that the sweetness and beauty of an
  apple could not be transferred to     
anything else1 but that one might see1  
in the case of this man1 all these      
excellencies1 in as great perfection  as
 on a tree2 and he said this1 because he
 was a surpassingly sweet  speaker4 ,on 
which account1 some people prefixed a   
to his name4#ej  ,but as a writer1 he   
was very unequal to his reputation4 ,and

 he used to  jest in a careless way1    
upon those who repented that they had   
not learnt  when they had the           
opportunity1 and who now wished that    
they had done so1  saying1 said that    
they were accusing themselves1 showing  
by a prayer  which could not possibly be
 accomplished1 their misplaced          
repentance for  their idleness4 ,he used
 also to say1 that those who deliberated
 without  coming to a right conclusion1 
erred in their calculations1 like men   
who  investigate a correct nature by an 
incorrect standard1 or who look at a    
face in disturbed water1 or a distorted 
mirror4 ,another of his sayings  was1   
that many men go in pursuit of the crown
 to be won in the forum1 but  few or    
none seek to attain the one to be gained
 at the ,olympic games4    ,,ii4 ,and as
 he in many instances gave much advice  
to the ,athenians1 he was  of           
exceedingly great service to them4      
,,iii4 ,he was also a person of great   
neatness in his dress1 wearing  garments

 of an unsurpassable delicacy1 as we are
 told by ,hermippus4  ,he was at the    
same time exceedingly devoted to the    
exercises of the  ,gymnasium1 and a man 
who was always in excellent condition as
 to his  body1 displaying every quality 
of an athlete 7though ,antigonus of     
,carystus1 pretends that he was bruised 
about the ears and dirty72 and in  his  
own country he is said to have wrestled 
and played at ball at the  ,ilian games4
    ,,iv4 ,and he was exceedingly       
beloved by ,eumenes and ,attalus1 who   
made him  great presents2 and ,antigonus
 also tried to seduce him to his court1 
but was disappointed4 ,and he was so    
great an enemy to ,hieronymus the       
,peripatetic1 that he was the only      
person who would not go to see him on   
the anniversary festival which he used  
to celebrate1 and which we have         
mentioned in our life of ,arcesilaus4   
,v4 ,and he presided over his school    
forty-four years1 as ,strato had left   
it to him in his will1 in the hundred   

and twenty-seventh olympiad4    ,,vi4   
,he was also a pupil of ,panthoides1 the
 dialectician4    ,,vii4 ,he died when  
he was seventy-four years of age1 having
 been a great  sufferer with the gout1  
and there is an epigram of ours upon    
him3--        ,nor shall wise ,lycon be 
forgotten1 who      ,died of the gout1  
and much ,i wonder at it4      ,for he  
who ne'er before could walk alone1      
,went the long road to hell in a single 
night4    ,,viii4 ,there were several   
people of the name of ,lycon4 ,the first
 was a  ,pythagorean2 the second was    
this man of whom we are speaking2 the   
third  was an epic poet2 the fourth was 
an epigrammatic poet4    ,,ix4 ,i have  
fallen in with the following will of    
this philosopher4 8,i make  the         
following disposition of my property2 if
 ,i am unable to withstand  this        
disease3--,all the property in my house 
,i leave to my brothers  ,astyanax and  
,lycon2 and ,i think that they ought to 
pay all that ,i owe  at ,athens1 and    

that ,i may have borrowed from any one1 
and also all the  expenses that may be  
incurred for my funeral1 and for other  
customary  solemnities4 ,and all that ,i
 have in the city1 or in gina1 ,i give  
to  ,lycon because he bears the same    
name that ,i do1 and because he has     
spent  the greater part of his life with
 me1 showing me the greatest affection1 
as it was fitting that he should do1    
since he was in the place of a son  to  
me4 ,and ,i leave my garden walk to     
those of my friends who like to  use it2
 to ,bulon1 and ,callinus1 and ,ariston1
 and ,amphion1 and ,lycon1  and ,python1
 and ,aristomachus1 and ,heracleus1 and 
,lycomedes1 and ,lycon  my nephew4 ,and 
,i desire that they will elect as       
president him whom they  think most     
likely to remain attached to the pursuit
 of philosophy1 and  most capable of    
holding the school together4 ,and ,i    
entreat the rest of  my friends to      
acquiesce in their election1 for my sake
 and that of the  place4 ,and ,i desire 

that ,bulon1 and ,callinus1 and the rest
 of my friends  will manage my funeral  
and the burning of my body1 so that my  
obsequies  may not be either mean or    
extravagant4 ,and the property which ,i 
have in  gina shall be divided by ,lycon
 after my decease among the young men   
there1 for the purpose of anointing     
themselves1 in order that the memory  of
 me and of him who honoured me1 and who 
showed his affection by useful          
presents1 may be long preserved4 ,and   
let him erect a statue of me2 and as    
for the place for it1 ,i desire that    
,diophantus and ,heraclides the son of  
,demetrius1 shall select that1 and take 
care that it be suitable for the        
proposed erection4 ,with the property   
that ,i have in the city let ,lycon  pay
 all the people of whom ,i have borrowed
 anything since his departure2  and let 
,bulon and ,callinus join him in this1  
and also in discharging  all the        
expenses incurred for my funeral1 and   
for all other customary  solemnities1   

and let him deduct the amount from the  
funds which ,i have  left in my house1  
and bequeathed to them both in common4  
,let him also  pay the physicians1      
,pasithemis and ,medias1 men who1 for   
their attention  to me and for their    
skill1 are very deserving of still      
greater honour4  ,and ,i give to the son
 of ,callinus my pair of ,thericlean    
cups2 and to his  wife ,i give my pair  
of ,rhodian cups1 and my smooth carpet1 
and my double  carpet1 and my curtains1 
and the two best pillows of all that ,i 
leave  behind me2 so that as far as the 
compliment goes1 ,i may be seen not to  
have forgotten them4 ,and with respect  
to those who have been my servants1  ,i 
make the following disposition3--,to    
,demetrius who has long been freed1  ,i 
remit the price of his freedom1 and ,i  
further give five min1 and a  cloak1 and
 a tunic1 that as he has a great deal of
 trouble about me1 he  may pass the rest
 of his life comfortably4 ,to ,criton1  
the ,chalcedonian1  ,i also remit the   

price of his freedom1 and ,i further    
give him four min4  ,micrus ,i hereby   
present with his freedom2 and ,i desire 
,lycon to maintain  him1 and instruct   
him for six years from the present time4
 ,i also give  his freedom to ,chares1  
and desire ,lycon to maintain him4 ,and 
,i further  give him two min1 and all my
 books that are published2 but those    
which  are not published1 ,i give to    
,callinus1 that he may publish them with
  due care4 ,i also give to ,syrus1 whom
 ,i have already emancipated1 four  min1
 and ,menodora2 and if he owes me       
anything ,i acquit him of the debt4     
,and ,i give to ,hilaras four min1 and a
 double carpet1 and two pillows1  and a 
curtain1 and any couch which he chooses 
to select4 ,i also hereby  emancipate   
the mother of ,micrus1 and ,noemon1 and 
,dion1 and ,theon1 and  ,euphranor1 and 
,hermeas2 and ,i desire that ,agathon   
shall have his freedom  when he has     
served two years longer2 and that       
,ophelion1 and ,poseideon1 my           

litter-bearers1 shall have theirs when  
they have waited four years more4  ,i   
also give to ,demetrius1 and ,criton1   
and ,syrus1 a couch a piece1 and        
coverlets from those which ,i leave     
behind me1 according to the selection   
which ,lycon is hereby authorised to    
make4 ,and these are to be their        
rewards for having performed the duties 
to which they were appointed  well4     
,concerning my burial1 let ,lycon do as 
he pleases1 and bury me  here or at     
home1 just as he likes2 for ,i am sure  
that he has the same  regard for        
propriety that ,i myself have4 ,and ,i  
give all the things herein  mentioned1  
in the confidence that he will arrange  
everything properly4  ,the witnesses to 
this my will are ,callinus of ,hermione1
 ,ariston of ,ceos1  and ,euphronius of 
,pania40    ,as he then was thoroughly  
wise in everything relating to          
education1  and every branch of         
philosophy1 he was no less prudent and  
careful in  the framing of his will4 ,so

 that in this respect too he deserves to
 be  admired and imitated4      ,,life  
,,of ,,demetrius4    ,i4 ,demetrius was 
a native of ,phalerus1 and the son of   
,phanostratus4 ,he  was a pupil of      
,theophrastus4    ,,ii4 ,and as a leader
 of the people at ,athens he governed   
the city for ten  years1 and was        
honoured with three hundred and sixty   
brazen statues1 the  greater part of    
which were equestrian2 and some were    
placed in carriages  or in pair-horse   
chariots1 and the entire number were    
finished within  three hundred days1 so 
great was the zeal with which they were 
worked at4  ,and ,demetrius1 the        
,magnesian1 in his treatise on ,people  
of the same ,name1  says that he began  
to be the leader of the commonwealth1   
when ,harpalus  arrived in ,athens1     
having fled from ,alexander4 ,and he    
governed his  country for a long time in
 a most admirable manner4 ,for he       
aggrandised  the city by increased      
revenues and by new buildings1 although 

he was a  person of no distinction by   
birth4    ,,iii4 ,though ,phavorinus1 in
 the first book of his ,commentaries1   
asserts  that he was of the family of   
,conon4    ,,iv4 ,he lived with a       
citizen of noble birth1 named ,lamia1 as
 his mistress1  as the same author tells
 us in his first book4    ,v4 ,again1 in
 his second book he tells us that       
,demetrius was the slave of  the        
debaucheries of ,cleon4    ,,vi4        
,didymus1 in his ,banquets1 says that he
 was called 1 or  ,beautiful ,eyed1 and 
,lampeto1 by some courtesan4    ,,vii4  
,it is said that he lost his eye-sight  
in ,alexandria1 and recovered  it again 
by the favour of ,serapis2 on which     
account he composed the pans  which are 
sung and spoken of as his composition to
 this day4    ,,viii4 ,he was held in   
the greatest honour among the           
,athenians1 but  nevertheless1 he found 
his fame darkened by envy1 which attacks
 every  thing2 for he was impeached by  
some one on a capital charge1 and as  he

 did not appear1 he was condemned4 ,his 
accusers1 however1 did not  become      
masters of his person1 but expended     
their venom on the brass1  tearing down 
his statues and selling some and        
throwing others into the  sea1 and some 
they cut up into chamber-pots4 ,for even
 this is stated4  ,and one statue alone 
of him is preserved which is in the     
,acropolis4  ,but ,phavorinus in his    
,universal ,history1 says that the      
,athenians  treated ,demetrius in this  
manner at the command of the king2 and  
they  also impeached him as guilty of   
illegality in his administration1 as    
,phavorinus says4 ,but ,hermippus says1 
that after the death of ,cassander1  he 
feared the enmity of ,antigonus1 and on 
that account fled to ,ptolemy  ,soter2  
and that he remained at his court for a 
long time1 and1 among  other pieces of  
advice1 counselled the king to make over
 the kingdom to  his sons by ,eurydice4 
,and as he would not agree to this      
measure1 but gave  the crown to his son 

by ,berenice1 this latter1 after the    
death of his  father1 commanded         
,demetrius to be kept in prison until he
 should come to  some determination     
about him4 ,and there he remained in    
great despondency2  and while asleep on 
one occasion1 he was bitten by an asp in
 the hand1  and so he died4 ,and he is  
buried in the district of ,busiris1 near
  ,diospolis1 and we have written the   
following epigram on him3--        ,an  
asp1 whose tooth of venom dire was full1
        ,did kill the wise ,demetrius4  
,the serpent beamed not light from out  
his eyes1        ,but dark and lurid    
hell4    ,but ,heraclides1 in his       
,epitome of the ,successions of ,sotion1
 says  that ,ptolemy wished to transmit 
the kingdom to ,philadelphus1 and that  
,demetrius dissuaded him from doing so  
by the argument1 8,if you give  it to   
another1 you will not have it yourself40
 ,and when ,menander1 the  comic poet1  
had an information laid against him at  
,athens 7for this is  a statement which 

,i have heard71 he was very nearly      
convicted1 for no  other reason but that
 he was a friend of ,demetrius4 ,he was1
 however1  successfully defended by     
,telesphorus1 the son-in-law of         
,demetrius4    ,,ix4 ,in the multitude  
of his writings and the number of lines 
which they  amount to1 he exceeded      
nearly all the ,peripatetics of his day1
 being a  man of great learning and     
experience on every subject4 ,and some  
of his  writings are historical1 some   
political1 some on poets1 some          
rhetorical1  some also are speeches     
delivered in public assemblies or on    
embassies2  there are also collections  
of sop's ,fables1 and many other books4 
,there  are five volumes on the         
,legislation of ,athens2 two on         
,citizens of ,athens2  two on the       
,management of the ,people2 two on      
,political ,science2 one on  ,laws2 two 
on ,rhetoric2 two on ,military ,affairs2
 two on the ,iliad2 four on  the        
,odyssey2 one called the ,ptolemy2 one  

on ,love2 the ,phdondas1 one2 the       
,mdon1 one2 the ,cleon1 one2 the        
,socrates1 one2 the ,artaxerxes1 one2   
the  ,homeric1 one2 the ,aristides1 one2
 the ,aristomachus1 one2 the            
,exhortatory1  one2 one on the          
,constitution2 one on his ,ten ,years'  
,government2 one on  the ,ionians2 one  
on ,ambassadors2 one on ,good ,faith2   
one on ,gratitude2 one  on ,futurity2   
one on ,greatness of ,soul2 one on      
,marriage2 one on ,opinion2  one on     
,peace2 one on ,laws2 one on ,studies2  
one on ,opportunity2 the  ,dionysius1   
one2 the ,chalcidean1 one2 the ,maxims  
of the ,athenians1 one2  on ,antiphanes1
 one2 a ,historic ,preface1 one2 one    
,volume of ,letters2 one  called an     
,assembly on ,oath2 one on ,old ,age2   
one on ,justice2 one volume of  sop's   
,fables2 one of ,apophthegms4 ,his style
 is philosophical1 combined  with the   
energy and impressiveness of an orator4 
,x4 ,when he was told that the          
,athenians had thrown down his statues1 

he  said1 8,but they have not thrown    
down my virtues1 on account of which    
they  erected them40 ,he used to say    
that the eyebrows were not an           
insignificant  part of a man1 for that  
they were able to overshadow the whole  
life4  ,another of his sayings was that 
it was not ,plutus alone who was blind1 
but ,fortune also1 who acted as his     
guide4 ,another1 that reason had as     
much influence on government1 as steel  
had in war4 ,on one occasion1 when  he  
saw a debauched young man1 he said1     
8,there is a square ,mercury with a     
long robe1 a belly1 and a beard40 ,it   
was a favourite saying of his1 that  in 
the case of men elated with pride one   
ought to cut something off their        
height1 and leave them their spirit4    
,another of his apophthegms was1 that   
at home young men ought to show respect 
to their parents1 and in the  streets to
 every one whom they met1 and in        
solitary places to themselves4          
,another1 that friends ought to come to 

others in good fortune only when        
invited1 but to those in distress of    
their own accord4    ,these are the     
chief sayings attributed to him4        
,,xi4 ,there were twenty persons of the 
name of ,demetrius1 of sufficient       
consideration to be entitled to mention4
 ,first1 a ,chalcedonian1 an  orator1   
older than ,thrasymachus2 the second1   
this person of whom we are  speaking2   
the third was a ,byzantine1 a           
,peripatetic philosopher2 the  fourth   
was a man surnamed ,graphicus1 a very   
eloquent lecturer1 and also  a painter2 
the fifth was a native of ,aspendus1 a  
disciple of ,apollonius1  of ,soli2 the 
sixth was a native of ,calatia1 who     
wrote twenty books about  ,asia and     
,europe2 the seventh was a ,byzantine1  
who wrote an account of  the crossing of
 the ,gauls from ,europe into ,asia1 in 
thirteen books1 and  the ,history of    
,antiochus and ,ptolemy1 and their      
,administration of the  ,affairs of     
,africa1 in eight more2 the eighth was a

 ,sophist who lived  in ,alexandria1 and
 who wrote a treatise on ,rhetorical    
,art2 the ninth  was a native of        
,adramyttium1 a grammarian1 who was     
nick-named ,ixion1  in allusion to some 
crime he had committed against ,juno2   
the tenth  was a ,cyrenean1 a           
grammarian1 who was surnamed            
,stamnus1#ea a very  distinguished man2 
the eleventh was a ,scepsian1 a rich man
 of noble  birth1 and of great eminence 
for learning4 ,he it was who advanced   
the  fortunes of ,metrodorus his fellow 
citizen2 the twelfth was a grammarian   
of ,erythr1 who was made a citizen of   
,lemnos2 the thirteenth was a           
,bithynian1 a son of ,diphilus the      
,stoic1 and a disciple of ,pantius of   
,rhodes2 the fourteenth was an orator of
 ,smyrna4 ,all of these were prose      
writers4    ,the following were         
poets3--,the first a poet of the ,old   
,comedy4 ,the second  an ,epic poet1 who
 has left nothing behind him that has   
come down to us1  except these lines    

which he wrote against some envious     
people3--        ,they disregard a man  
while still alive1      ,whom1 when he's
 dead1 they honour2 cities proud1       
,and powerful nations1 have with contest
 fierce1      ,fought o'er a tomb and   
unsubstantial shade    ,the third was a 
native of ,tarsus2 a writer of ,satires4
 ,the fourth was  a composer of         
,iambics1 a bitter man4 ,the fifth was a
 statuary1 who  is mentioned by ,polemo4
 ,the sixth was a native of ,erythr1 a  
man who  wrote on various subjects1 and 
who composed volumes of histories and   
relations4#eb      ,,life ,,of          
,,heraclides4    ,i4 ,heraclides was the
 son of ,euthyphron1 and was born at    
,heraclea1 in  ,pontus2 he was also a   
wealthy man4    ,,ii4 ,after he came to 
,athens1 he was at first a disciple of  
,speusippus1  but he also attended the  
schools of the ,pythagorean             
philosophers1 and  he adopted the       
principles of ,plato2 last of all he    
became a pupil of  ,aristotle1 as we are

 told by ,sotion in his book entitled   
the ,successions4    ,,iii4 ,he used to 
wear delicate garments1 and was a man of
 great size1 so  that he was nicknamed  
by the ,athenians ,pompicus#ec instead  
of ,ponticus4  ,but he was of quiet     
manners and noble aspect4    ,,iv4      
,there are several books extant by him1 
which are exceedingly good  and         
admirable4 ,they are in the form of     
dialogue2 some being ,ethical           
dialogues2 three on the subject of      
,justice2 one on ,temperance2 five on   
,piety2 one on ,manly ,courage2 one1 and
 a second which is distinct from it1  on
 ,virtue2 one on ,happiness2 one on     
,supremacy2 one on ,laws and questions  
connected with them2 one on ,names2 one 
called ,covenants2 one called ,the      
,unwilling ,lover2 and the ,clinias4    
,of the physical dialogues1 one is on   
the ,mind2 one on the ,soul2 one on  the
 ,soul1 and ,nature and ,appearances2   
one addressed to ,democritus2 one  on   
the ,heavenly ,bodies2 one on the ,state

 of ,things in the ,shades below2  two  
on ,lives2 one on the ,causes of        
,diseases2 one on the ,good2 one on the 
doctrines of ,zeno2 one on the          
,doctrines of ,metron4    ,of his       
grammatical dialogues1 there are two on 
the ,age of ,homer and  ,hesiod2 two on 
,archilochus and ,homer4    ,there are  
some on ,music too2 three on ,euripides 
and ,sophocles1 and two  on ,music4     
,there are also two volumes1 ,solutions 
of ,questions concerning  ,homer2 one on
 ,speculations2 one1 the ,three         
,tragedians2 one volume of  ,characters2
 one dialogue on ,poetry and the ,poets2
 one on ,conjecture2 one  on ,foresight2
 four1 being ,explanations of           
,heraclitus2 one1 ,explanations  with   
reference to ,democritus2 two books of  
,solutions of ,disputed  ,points2 one1  
the ,axiom2 one on ,species2 one book of
 ,solutions2 one of  ,suppositions2 one 
addressed to ,dionysius4    ,of         
rhetorical works1 there is the dialogue 
on the being an ,orator1 or the         

,protagoras4    ,of historical          
dialogues1 there are some on the        
,pythagoreans1 and on  ,inventions4 ,of 
these1 some he has drawn up after the   
manner of ,comic  writers2 as1 for      
instance1 the one about ,pleasure1 and  
that about  ,temperance4 ,and some in   
the style of the ,tragedians1 as1 for   
instance1  the dialogues on the ,state  
of ,things in the ,shades below2 and one
 on  ,piety1 and that on ,supremacy4    
,and his style is a conversational and  
moderate one1 suited to the characters  
of philosophers and men occupied  in the
 military or political affairs          
conversing together4 ,some of his  works
 also are on ,geometry1 and on          
,dialectics2 and in all of them he      
displays a very varied and elevated     
style2 and he has great powers of       
persuasion4    ,v4 ,he appears to have  
delivered his country when it was under 
the yoke of  tyrants1 by slaying the    
monarch1 as ,demetrius of ,magnesia     
tells us1 in  his treatise on ,people of

 the ,same ,name4    ,,vi4 ,and he gives
 the following account of him4 ,that he 
brought up a  young serpent1 and kept it
 till it grew large2 and that when he   
was at  the point of death1 he desired  
one of his faithful friends to hide his 
body1 and to place the serpent in his   
bed1 that he might appear to have       
migrated to the ,gods4 ,and all this was
 done2 and while the citizens  were all 
attending his funeral and extolling his 
character1 the serpent  hearing the     
noise1 crept out of his clothes and     
threw the multitude into  confusion4    
,and afterwards everything was revealed1
 and ,heraclides was  seen1 not as he   
hoped to have been1 but as he really    
was4 ,and we have  written an epigram on
 him which runs thus3--        ,you     
wish'd1 ,o ,heraclides1 when you died1  
,to leave a strange belief among        
mankind1      ,that you1 when dead1 a   
serpent had become4      ,but all your  
calculations were deceived1      ,for   
this your serpent was indeed a beast1   

,and you were thus discovered and       
pronounced another4    ,and ,hippobotus 
gives the same account4    ,but         
,hermippus says that once1 when a famine
 oppressed the land1 the  people of     
,heraclea consulted the ,pythian oracle 
for the way to get rid  of it2 and that 
,heraclides corrupted the ambassadors   
who were sent to  consult the oracle1   
and also the priestess1 with bribes2 and
 that she  answered that they would     
obtain a deliverance from their         
distresses1  if ,heraclides1 the son of 
,euthyphron1 was presented by them with 
a  golden crown1 and if when he was dead
 they paid him honours as a hero4       
,accordingly1 this answer was brought   
back from the oracle to ,heraclea1  but 
they who brought it got no advantage    
from it2 for as soon as  ,heraclides had
 been crowned in the theatre1 he was    
seized with apoplexy1  and the          
ambassadors who had been sent to consult
 the oracle were stoned1  and so put to 
death2 and at the very same moment the  

,pythian priestess  was going down to   
the inner shrine1 and while standing    
there was bitten  by a serpent1 and died
 immediately4 ,this then is the account 
given of his  death4    ,,vii4 ,and     
,aristoxenus the musician says1 that he 
composed tragedies1  and inscribed them 
with the name of ,thespis4 ,and         
,chamleon says1 that  he stole essays   
from him on the subject of ,homer and   
,hesiod1 and  published them as his own4
 ,and ,autodorus the ,epicurean         
reproaches him1  and contradicts all the
 arguments which he advanced in his     
treatise  on ,justice4 ,moreover1       
,dionysius1 called the ,deserter1 or as 
some say  ,spintharus1 wrote a tragedy  
called ,parthenopus1 and forged the name
  of ,sophocles to it4 ,and ,heraclides 
was so much deceived that he took  some 
passages out of one of his works1 and   
cited them as the words of  ,sophocles2 
and ,dionysius1 when he perceived it1   
gave him notice of the  real truth2 and 
as he would not believe it1 and denied  

it1 he sent him  word to examine the    
first letters of the first verses of the
 book1 and  they formed the name of     
,pancalus1 who was a friend of          
,dionysius4 ,and as  ,heraclides still  
refused to believe it1 and said that it 
was possible  that such a thing might   
happen by chance1 ,dionysius sent him   
back word  once more1 8,you will find   
this passage too3--        8,an aged    
monkey is not easily caught2      ,he's 
caught indeed1 but only after a time40  
,and he added1 8,heraclides knows       
nothing of letters1 and has no shame40  
,,viii4 ,and there were fourteen persons
 of the name of ,heraclides4 ,first1    
this man of whom we are speaking2 the   
second was a fellow citizen of his1  who
 composed songs for ,pyrrhic dances1 and
 other trifles2 the third was  a native 
of ,cum1 who wrote a history of the     
,persian war in five books2  the fourth 
was also a citizen of ,cum1 who was an  
orator1 and wrote a  treatise on his    
art2 the fifth was a native of ,calatia 

or ,alexandria1  who wrote a ,succession
 in six books1 and a treatise on ,ships1
 from which  he was called ,lembos2 the 
sixth was an ,alexandrian1 who wrote an 
account  of the peculiar habits of the  
,persians2 the seventh was a            
dialectician  of ,bargyleia1 who wrote  
against ,epicurus2 the eighth was a     
physician1 a  pupil of ,hicesius2 the   
ninth was a physician of ,tarentum1 a   
man of great  skill2 the tenth was a    
poet1 who wrote ,precepts2 the eleventh 
was a  sculptor of ,phoca2 the twelfth  
was an ,epigrammatic poet of            
considerable  beauty2 the thirteenth was
 a ,magnesian1 who wrote a history of   
the reign  of ,mithridates2 the         
fourteenth was an astronomer1 who wrote 
a treatise on  ,astronomy4              
,,book ,,vi4      ,,life ,,of           
,,antisthenes4    ,i4 ,antisthenes was  
an ,athenian1 the son of ,antisthenes4  
,and he was  said not to be a legitimate
 ,athenian2 in reference to which he    
said to  some one who was reproaching   

him with the circumstance1 8,the mother 
of  the ,gods too is a ,phrygian20 for  
he was thought to have had a ,thracian  
mother4 ,on which account1 as he had    
borne himself bravely in the battle  of 
,tanagra1 he gave occasion to ,socrates 
to say that the son of two  ,athenians  
could not have been so brave4 ,and he   
himself1 when disparaging  the          
,athenians who gave themselves great    
airs as having been born out of  the    
earth itself1 said that they were not   
more noble as far as that went  than    
snails and locusts4    ,,ii4 ,originally
 he was a pupil of ,gorgias the         
rhetorician2 owing to  which            
circumstance he employs the rhetorical  
style of language in  his ,dialogues1   
especially in his ,truth and in his     
,exhortations4 ,and  ,hermippus says1   
that he had originally intended in his  
address at the  assembly1 on account of 
the ,isthmian games1 to attack and also 
to praise  the ,athenians1 and ,thebans1
 and ,lacedmonians2 but that he         

afterwards  abandoned the design1 when  
he saw that there were a great many     
spectators  come from those cities4     
,afterwards1 he attached himself to     
,socrates1 and  made such progress in   
philosophy while with him1 that he      
advised all his  own pupils to become   
his fellow pupils in the school of      
,socrates4 ,and  as he lived in the     
,pirus1 he went up forty furlongs to the
 city every  day1 in order to hear      
,socrates1 from whom he learnt the art  
of enduring1  and of being indifferent  
to external circumstances1 and so became
 the  original founder of the ,cynic    
school4    ,,iii4 ,and he used to argue 
that labour was a good thing1 by        
adducing the  examples of the great     
,hercules1 and of ,cyrus1 one of which  
he derived  from the ,greeks and the    
other from the barbarians4    ,,iv4 ,he 
was also the first person who ever gave 
a definition of discourse1  saying1     
8,discourse is that which shows what    
anything is or was40 ,and  he used      

continually to say1 8,i would rather go 
mad than feel pleasure40  ,and1 8,one   
ought to attach one's self to such women
 as will thank one for  it40 ,he said   
once to a youth from ,pontus1 who was on
 the point of coming  to him to be his  
pupil1 and was asking him what things he
 wanted1 8,you  want a new book1 and a  
new pen1 and a new tablet20--meaning a  
new mind4  ,and to a person who asked   
him from what country he had better     
marry a  wife1 he said1 8,if you marry a
 handsome woman1 she will be common2#ed 
if an ugly woman1 she will be a         
punishment to you40 ,he was told once   
that ,plato spoke ill of him1 and he    
replied1 8,it is a royal privilege  to  
do well1 and to be evil spoken of40     
,when he was being initiated  into the  
mysteries of ,orpheus1 and the priest   
said that those who were  initiated     
enjoyed many good things in the shades  
below1 8,why1 then10 said  he 8do not   
you die80 ,being once reproached as not 
being the son of two  free citizens1 he 

said1 8,and ,i am not the son of two    
people skilled in  wrestling2           
nevertheless1 ,i am a skilful wrestler40
 ,on one occasion he was  asked why he  
had but few disciples1 and said1        
8,because ,i drove them away  with a    
silver rod40 ,when he was asked why he  
reproved his pupils with  bitter        
language1 he said1 8,physicians too use 
severe remedies for their  patients40   
,once he saw an adulterer running away1 
and said1 8,o unhappy  man6 how much    
danger could you have avoided for one   
obol60 ,he used to  say1 as ,hecaton    
tells us in his ,apophthegms1 8,that it 
was better to fall  among crows1#ee than
 among flatterers2 for that they only   
devour the  dead1 but the others devour 
the living40 ,when he was asked what was
 the  most happy event that could take  
place in human life1 he said1 8,to die  
while prosperous40    ,on one occasion  
one of his friends was lamenting to him 
that he had  lost his memoranda1 and he 
said to him1 8,you ought to have written

 them  on your mind1 and not on paper40 
,a favourite saying of his was1 8,that  
envious people were devoured by their   
own disposition1 just as iron is  by    
rust40 ,another was1 8,that those who   
wish to be immortal ought to live       
piously and justly40 ,he used to say    
too1 8,that cities were ruined when     
they were unable to distinguish         
worthless citizens from virtuous ones40 
,on one occasion he was being praised by
 some wicked men1 and said1 8,i  am     
sadly afraid that ,i must have done some
 wicked thing40 ,one of his  favourite  
sayings was1 8,that the fellowship of   
brothers of one mind was  stronger than 
any fortified city40 ,he used to say1   
8,that those things  were the best for a
 man to take on a journey1 which would  
float with  him if he were shipwrecked40
 ,he was once reproached for being      
intimate  with wicked men1 and said1    
8,physicians also live with those who   
are  sick2 and yet they do not catch    
fevers40 ,he used to say1 8that it was  

an absurd thing to clean a cornfield of 
tares1 and in war to get rid  of bad    
soldiers1 and yet not to rid one's self 
in a city of the wicked  citizens40     
,when he was asked what advantage he had
 ever derived from  philosophy1 he      
replied1 8,the advantage of being able  
to converse with  myself40 ,at a        
drinking party1 a man once said to him1 
8,give us a song10  and he replied1 8,do
 you play us a tune on the flute40 ,when
 ,diogenes asked  him for a tunic1 he   
bade him fold his cloak4 ,he was asked  
on one occasion  what learning was the  
most necessary1 and he replied1 8,to    
unlearn one's  bad habits40 ,and he used
 to exhort those who found themselves   
ill spoken  of1 to endure it more than  
they would any one's throwing stones at 
them4  ,he used to laugh at ,plato as   
conceited2 accordingly1 once when there 
was  a fine procession1 seeing a horse  
neighing1 he said to ,plato1 8,i think  
you too would be a very frisky horse30  
and he said this all the more1  because 

,plato kept continually praising the    
horse4 ,at another time1 he  had gone to
 see him when he was ill1 and when he   
saw there a dish in  which ,plato had   
been sick1 he said1 8,i see your bile   
there1 but ,i do not  see your conceit40
 ,he used to advise the ,athenians to   
pass a vote that  asses were horses2    
and1 as they thought that irrational1 he
 said1 8,why1  those whom you make      
generals have never learnt to be really 
generals1  they have only been voted    
such40    ,a man said to him one day1   
8,many people praise you40 8,why1 what  
evil10  said he1 8have ,i done80 ,when  
he turned the rent in his cloak outside1
  ,socrates seeing it1 said to him1 8,i 
see your vanity through the hole in     
your cloak40 ,on another occasion1 the  
question was put to him by some  one1 as
 ,phanias relates1 in his treatise on   
the ,philosophers of the  ,socratic     
school1 what a man could do to show     
himself an honourable and  a virtuous   
man2 and he replied1 8,if you attend to 

those who understand  the subject1 and  
learn from them that you ought to shun  
the bad habits  which you have40 ,some  
one was praising luxury in his hearing1 
and he  said1 8,may the children of my  
enemies be luxurious40 ,seeing a young  
man  place himself in a carefully       
studied attitude before a modeller1 he  
said1  8,tell me1 if the brass could    
speak1 on what would it pride itself80  
,and  when the young man replied1 8,on  
its beauty40 8,are you not then10 said  
he1  8ashamed to rejoice in the same    
thing as an inanimate piece of brass80  
,a young man from ,pontus once promised 
to recollect him1 if a vessel of  salt  
fish arrived2 and so he took him with   
him1 and also an empty bag1  and went to
 a woman who sold meal1 and filled his  
sack and went away2 and  when the woman 
asked him to pay for it1 he said1 8,the 
young man will pay  you1 when the vessel
 of salt fish comes home40    ,he it was
 who appears to have been the cause of  
,anytus's banishment1 and  of ,meletus's

 death4 ,for having met with some young 
men of ,pontus1 who  had come to        
,athens1 on account of the reputation of
 ,socrates1 he took  them to ,anytus1   
telling them1 that in moral philosophy  
he was wiser than  ,socrates2 and they  
who stood by were indignant at this1 and
 drove him  away4 ,and whenever he saw a
 woman beautifully adorned1 he would go 
off  to her house1 and desire her       
husband to bring forth his horse and his
  arms2 and then if he had such things1 
he would give him leave to indulge  in  
luxury1 for that he had the means of    
defending himself2 but if he had  them  
not1 then he would bid him strip his    
wife of her ornaments4    ,v4 ,and the  
doctrines he adopted were these4 ,he    
used to insist that  virtue was a thing 
which might be taught2 also1 that the   
nobly born and  virtuously disposed1    
were the same people2 for that virtue   
was of itself  sufficient for happiness1
 and was in need of nothing1 except the 
strength  of ,socrates4 ,he also looked 

upon virtue as a species of work1 not   
wanting  many arguments1 or much        
instruction2 and he taught that the wise
 man was  sufficient for himself2 for   
that everything that belonged to any one
  else belonged to him4 ,he considered  
obscurity of fame a good thing1 and     
equally good with labour4 ,and he used  
to say that the wise man would  regulate
 his conduct as a citizen1 not according
 to the established laws  of the state1 
but according to the law of virtue4 ,and
 that he would marry  for the sake of   
having children1 selecting the most     
beautiful woman for  his wife4 ,and that
 he would love her2 for that the wise   
man alone knew  what objects deserved   
love4    ,diocles also attributes the   
following apophthegms to him4 ,to the   
wise  man1 nothing is strange and       
nothing remote4 ,the virtuous man is    
worthy  to be loved4 ,good men are      
friends4 ,it is right to make the brave 
and  just one's allies4 ,virtue is a    
weapon of which a man cannot be         

deprived4  ,it is better to fight with a
 few good men against all the wicked1   
than  with many wicked men against a few
 good men4 ,one should attend to one's  
enemies1 for they are the first persons 
to detect one's errors4 ,one  should    
consider a just man as of more value    
than a relation4 ,virtue is  the same in
 a man as in a woman4 ,what is good is  
honourable1 and what is  bad is         
disgraceful4 ,think everything that is  
wicked1 foreign4 ,prudence  is the      
safest fortification2 for it can neither
 fall to pieces nor be  betrayed4 ,one  
must prepare one's self a fortress in   
one's own impregnable  thoughts4        
,,vi4 ,he used to lecture in the        
,gymnasium called ,cynosarges1 not far  
from  the gates2 and some people say    
that it is from that place that the sect
  got the name of ,cynics4 ,and he      
himself was called ,haplocyon 7downright
  dog74    ,,vii4 ,he was the first     
person to set the fashion of doubling   
his cloak1  as ,diocles says1 and he    

wore no other garment4 ,and he used to  
carry a  stick and a wallet2 but        
,neanthes says that he was the first    
person who  wore a cloak without folding
 it4 ,but ,sosicrates1 in the third book
 of his  ,successions1 says that        
,diodorus1 of ,aspendos1 let his beard  
grow1 and  used to carry a stick and a  
wallet4    ,,viii4 ,he is the only one  
of all the pupils of ,socrates1 whom    
,theopompus  praises and speaks of as   
clever1 and able to persuade whomsoever 
he  pleased by the sweetness of his     
conversation4 ,and this is plain1 both  
from his own writings1 and from the     
,banquet of ,xenophon4 ,he appears to   
have been the founder of the more manly 
,stoic school2 on which account         
,athenus1 the epigrammatist1 speaks thus
 of them3--        ,o ye1 who learned   
are in ,stoic fables1      ,ye who      
consign the wisest of all doctrines     
,to your most sacred books2 you say that
 virtue      ,is the sole good2 for that
 alone can save      ,the life of man1  

and strongly fenced cities4      ,but if
 some fancy pleasure their best aim1    
,one of the ,muses 'tis who has         
convinc'd them4    ,he was the original 
cause of the apathy of ,diogenes1 and   
the temperance  of ,crates1 and the     
patience of ,zeno1 having himself1 as it
 were1 laid the  foundations of the city
 which they afterwards built4 ,and      
,xenophon says1  that in his            
conversation and society1 he was the    
most delightful of men1  and in every   
respect the most temperate4    ,,ix4    
,there are ten volumes of his writings  
extant4 ,the first volume is  that in   
which there is the essay on ,style1 or  
on ,figures of ,speech2  the ,ajax1 or  
speech of ,ajax2 the ,defence1 of       
,orestes or the treatise  on ,lawyers2  
the ,isographe1 or the ,lysias and      
,isocrates2 the reply to  the work of   
,isocrates1 entitled the ,absence of    
,witnesses4 ,the second  volume is that 
in which we have the treatise on the    
,nature of ,animals2  on the            

,pro-creation of ,children1 or on       
,marriage1 an essay of an amatory       
character2 on the ,sophists1 an essay of
 a physiognomical character2 on         
,justice and ,manly ,virtue1 being three
 essays of an hortatory character2  two 
treatises on ,theognis4 ,the third      
volume contains a treatise on the       
,good2 on ,manly ,courage2 on ,law1 or  
,political ,constitutions2 on ,law1 or  
what is ,honourable and ,just2 on       
,freedom and ,slavery2 on ,good ,faith2 
on a ,guardian1 or on ,persuasion2 on   
,victory1 an economical essay4 ,the     
fourth volume contains the ,cyrus2 the  
,greater ,heracles1 or a treatise on    
,strength4 ,the fifth volume contains   
the ,cyrus1 or a treatise on ,kingly    
,power2 the ,aspasia4    ,the sixth     
volume is that in which there is the    
treatise ,truth2 another 7a             
disputatious one7 concerning ,arguing2  
the ,sathon1 or on ,contradiction1  in  
three parts2 and an essay on ,dialect4  
,the seventh contains a treatise  on    

,education1 or ,names1 in five books2   
one on the ,use of ,names1 or  the      
,contentious ,man2 one on ,questions and
 ,answers2 one on ,opinion and          
,knowledge1 in four books2 one on       
,dying2 one on ,life and ,death2 one on 
those who are in the ,shades below2 one 
on ,nature1 in two books2 two  books of 
,questions in ,natural ,philosophy2 one 
essay1 called ,opinions on  the         
,contentious ,man2 one book of          
,problems1 on the subject of ,learning4 
,the eighth volume is that in which we  
find a treatise on ,music2 one on       
,interpreters2 one on ,homer2 one on    
,injustice and ,impiety2 one on         
,calchas2  one on a ,spy2 one on        
,pleasure4 ,the ninth book contains an  
essay on the  ,odyssey2 one on the      
,magic ,wand2 the ,minerva1 or an essay 
on ,telemachus2  an essay on ,helen and 
,penelope2 one on ,proteus2 the         
,cyclops1 being an  essay on ,ulysses2  
an essay on the ,use of ,wine1 or on    
,drunkenness1 or  on the ,cyclops2 one  

on ,circe2 one on ,amphiaraus2 one on   
,ulysses and  ,penelope1 and also on    
,ulysses' ,dog4 ,the tenth volume is    
occupied by  the ,heracles1 or ,medas2  
the ,hercules1 or an ,essay on ,prudence
 or  ,strength2 the ,lord or the ,lover2
 the ,lord or the ,spies2 the           
,menexenus1  or an essay on ,governing2 
the ,alcibiades2 the ,archelaus1 or an  
essay on  ,kingly ,power4    ,these then
 are the names of his works4 ,and       
,timon1 rebuking him because of  their  
great number1 called him a universal    
chatterer4    ,x4 ,he died of some      
disease2 and while he was ill ,diogenes 
came to visit  him1 and said to him1    
8,have you no need of a friend80 ,once  
too he came  to see him with a sword in 
his hand2 and when ,antisthenes said1   
8,who can  deliver me from this         
suffering80 he1 pointing to the sword1  
said1 8,this  can20 ,but he rejoined1   
8,i said from suffering1 but not from   
life20 for  he seemed to bear his       
disease the more calmly from his love of

 life4 ,and  there is an epigram on him 
written by ourselves1 which runs thus3--
        ,in life you were a bitter dog1 
,antisthenes1      ,born to bite        
people's minds with sayings sharp1      
,not with your actual teeth4 ,now you   
are slain      ,by fell consumption1    
passers by may say1      ,why should he 
not1 one wants a guide to ,hell4        
,there were also three other people of  
the name of ,antisthenes4 ,one1 a       
disciple of ,heraclitus2 the second1 an 
,ephesian2 the third1 a historian  of   
,rhodes4 ,and since we have spoken of   
those who proceeded from the  school of 
,aristippus and ,phdon1 we may now go on
 to the ,cynics and  ,stoics1 who       
derived their origin from ,antisthenes4 
,and we will take them  in the following
 order4      ,,life ,,of ,,diogenes4    
,i4 ,diogenes was a native of ,sinope1  
the son of ,hicesius1 a money-changer4  
,and ,diocles says that he was forced to
 flee from his native city1 as his      
father kept the public bank there1 and  

had adulterated the coinage4 ,but       
,eubulides1 in his essay on ,diogenes1  
says1 that it was ,diogenes himself  who
 did this1 and that he was banished with
 his father4 ,and1 indeed1  he himself1 
in his ,pordalus1 says of himself that  
he had adulterated  the public money4   
,others say that he was one of the      
curators1 and was  persuaded by the     
artisans employed1 and that he went to  
,delphi1 or else  to the oracle at      
,delos1 and there consulted ,apollo as  
to whether he  should do what people    
were trying to persuade him to do2 and  
that1 as the  ,god gave him permission  
to do so1 ,diogenes1 not comprehending  
that the  ,god meant that he might      
change the political customs#ef of his  
country  if he could1 adulterated the   
coinage2 and being detected1 was        
banished1  as some people say1 but as   
other accounts have it1 took the alarm  
and  fled away of his own accord4 ,some 
again1 say that he adulterated the      
money which he had received from his    

father2 and that his father was  thrown 
into prison and died there2 but that    
,diogenes escaped and went  to ,delphi1 
and asked1 not whether he might tamper  
with the coinage1 but  what he could do 
to become very celebrated1 and that in  
consequence he  received the oracular   
answer which ,i have mentioned4    ,,ii4
 ,and when he came to ,athens he        
attached himself to ,antisthenes2 but as
  he repelled him1 because he admitted  
no one2 he at last forced his way  to   
him by his pertinacity4 ,and once1 when 
he raised his stick at him1  he put his 
head under it1 and said1 8,strike1 for  
you will not find any  stick hard enough
 to drive me away as long as you        
continue to speak40 ,and  from this time
 forth he was one of his pupils2 and    
being an exile1 he  naturally betook    
himself to a simple mode of life4       
,,iii4 ,and when1 as ,theophrastus tells
 us1 in his ,megaric ,philosopher1 he   
saw a mouse running about and not       
seeking for a bed1 nor taking care  to  

keep in the dark1 nor looking for any of
 those things which appear  enjoyable to
 such an animal1 he found a remedy for  
his own poverty4  ,he was1 according to 
the account of some people1 the first   
person who  doubled up his cloak out of 
necessity1 and who slept in it2 and who 
carried a wallet1 in which he kept his  
food2 and who used whatever place  was  
near for all sorts of purposes1 eating1 
and sleeping1 and conversing  in it4 ,in
 reference to which habit he used to    
say1 pointing to the  ,colonnade of     
,jupiter1 and to the ,public ,magazine1 
8that the ,athenians had  built him     
places to live in40 ,being attacked with
 illness1 he supported  himself with a  
staff2 and after that he carried it     
continually1 not  indeed in the city1   
but whenever he was walking in the      
roads1 together  with his wallet1 as    
,olympiodorus1 the chief man of the     
,athenians tells  us2 and ,polyeuctus1  
the orator1 and ,lysanias1 the son of   
schrion1 tell  the same story4    ,when 

he had written to some one to look out  
and get ready a small house  for him1 as
 he delayed to do it1 he took a cask    
which he found in the  ,temple of       
,cybele1 for his house1 as he himself   
tells us in his letters4  ,and during   
the summer he used to roll himself in   
the warm sand1 but  in winter he would  
embrace statues all covered with snow1  
practising  himself1 on every occasion1 
to endure anything4    ,,iv4 ,he was    
very violent in expressing his haughty  
disdain of others4 ,he  said that the   
7school7 of ,euclides was  7gall74 ,and 
he used  to call ,plato's  7discussions7
  7disguise74 ,it was  also a saying of 
his that the ,dionysian games were a    
great marvel to  fools2 and that the    
demagogues were the ministers of the    
multitude4 ,he  used likewise to say1   
8that when in the course of his life he 
beheld  pilots1 and physicians1 and     
philosophers1 he thought man the wisest 
of all animals2 but when again he beheld
 interpreters of dreams1 and            

soothsayers1 and those who listened to  
them1 and men puffed up with glory  or  
riches1 then he thought that there was  
not a more foolish animal than  man40   
,another of his sayings was1 8that he   
thought a man ought oftener to  provide 
himself with a reason than with a       
halter40 ,on one occasion1 when  he     
noticed ,plato at a very costly         
entertainment tasting some olives1 he   
said1 8,o you wise man6 why1 after      
having sailed to ,sicily for the sake of
  such a feast1 do you not now enjoy    
what you have before you80 ,and ,plato  
replied1 8,by the ,gods1 ,diogenes1     
while ,i was there ,i ate olives and all
  such things a great deal40 ,diogenes  
rejoined1 8,what then did you want to   
sail to ,syracuse for8 ,did not ,attica 
at that time produce any olives80  ,but 
,phavorinus1 in his ,universal ,history1
 tells this story of ,aristippus4  ,at  
another time he was eating dried figs1  
when ,plato met him1 and he  said to    
him1 8,you may have a share of these20  

and as he took some and  ate them1 he   
said1 8,i said that you might have a    
share of them1 not that  you might eat  
them all40 ,on one occasion ,plato had  
invited some friends  who had come to   
him from ,dionysius to a banquet1 and   
,diogenes trampled  on his carpets1 and 
said1 8,thus ,i trample on the empty    
pride of ,plato20  and ,plato made him  
answer1 8,how much arrogance are you    
displaying1 ,o  ,diogenes6 when you     
think that you are not arrogant at all40
 ,but1 as  others tell the story1       
,diogenes said1 8,thus ,i trample on the
 pride of  ,plato20 and that ,plato     
rejoined1 8,with quite as much pride    
yourself1 ,o  ,diogenes40 ,sotion too1  
in his fourth book1 states1 that the    
,cynic made  the following speech to    
,plato3 ,diogenes once asked him for    
some wine1  and then for some dried     
figs2 so he sent him an entire jar full2
 and  ,diogenes said to him1 8,will you1
 if you are asked how many two and two  
make1 answer twenty8 ,in this way1 you  

neither give with any reference to  what
 you are asked for1 nor do you answer   
with reference to the question  put to  
you40 ,he used also to ridicule him as  
an interminable talker4  ,when he was   
asked where in ,greece he saw virtuous  
men2 8,men10 said he1  8nowhere2 but ,i 
see good boys in ,lacedmon40 ,on one    
occasion1 when no  one came to listen to
 him while he was discoursing seriously1
 he began  to whistle4 ,and then when   
people flocked round him1 he reproached 
them  for coming with eagerness to      
folly1 but being lazy and indifferent   
about  good things4 ,one of his frequent
 sayings was1 8,that men contended with 
one another in punching and kicking1 but
 that no one showed any emulation  in   
the pursuit of virtue40 ,he used to     
express his astonishment at the         
grammarians for being desirous to learn 
everything about the misfortunes  of    
,ulysses1 and being ignorant of their   
own4 ,he used also to say1 8,that  the  
musicians fitted the strings to the lyre

 properly1 but left all the  habits of  
their soul ill-arranged40 ,and1 8,that  
mathematicians kept their  eyes fixed on
 the sun and moon1 and overlooked what  
was under their  feet40 8,that orators  
were anxious to speak justly1 but not at
 all about  acting so40 ,also1 8,that   
misers blamed money1 but were           
preposterously fond  of it40 ,he often  
condemned those who praise the just for 
being superior  to money1 but who at the
 same time are eager themselves for     
great riches4  ,he was also very        
indignant at seeing men sacrifice to the
 ,gods to procure  good health1 and yet 
at the sacrifice eating in a manner     
injurious to  health4 ,he often         
expressed his surprise at slaves1 who1  
seeing their  masters eating in a       
gluttonous manner1 still do not         
themselves lay hands  on any of the     
eatables4 ,he would frequently praise   
those who were about  to marry1 and yet 
did not marry2 or who were about to take
 a voyage1 and  yet did not take a      

voyage2 or who were about to engage in  
affairs of  state1 and did not do so2   
and those who were about to rear        
children1 yet  did not rear any2 and    
those who were preparing to take up     
their abode  with princes1 and yet did  
not take it up4 ,one of his sayings was1
 8,that  one ought to hold out one's    
hand to a friend without closing the    
fingers40    ,hermippus1 in his ,sale of
 ,diogenes1 says that he was taken      
prisoner and  put up to be sold1 and    
asked what he could do2 and he answered1
 8,govern  men40 ,and so he bade the    
crier 8give notice that if any one wants
 to  purchase a master1 there is one    
here for him40 ,when he was ordered not 
to  sit down2 8,it makes no difference10
 said he1 8for fish are sold1 be where  
they may40 ,he used to say1 that he     
wondered at men always ringing a dish   
or jar before buying it1 but being      
content to judge of a man by his look   
alone4 ,when ,xeniades bought him1 he   
said to him that he ought to obey him   

even though he was his slave2 for that a
 physician or a pilot would find  men to
 obey them even though they might be    
slaves4    ,v4 ,and ,eubulus says1 in   
his essay entitled1 ,the ,sale of       
,diogenes1 that he  taught the children 
of ,xeniades1 after their other lessons1
 to ride1 and  shoot1 and sling1 and    
dart4 ,and then in the ,gymnasium he did
 not permit  the trainer to exercise    
them after the fashion of athletes1 but 
exercised  them himself to just the     
degree sufficient to give them a good   
colour  and good health4 ,and the boys  
retained in their memory many sentences 
of poets and prose writers1 and of      
,diogenes himself2 and he used to  give 
them a concise statement of everything  
in order to strengthen  their memory2   
and at home he used to teach them to    
wait upon themselves1  contenting       
themselves with plain food1 and drinking
 water4 ,and he  accustomed them to cut 
their hair close1 and to eschew         
ornament1 and to  go without tunics or  

shoes1 and to keep silent1 looking at   
nothing except  themselves as they      
walked along4 ,he used1 also to take    
them out hunting2  and they paid the    
greatest attention and respect to       
,diogenes himself1 and  spoke well of   
him to their parents4    ,,vi4 ,and the 
same author affirms1 that he grew old in
 the household of  ,xeniades1 and that  
when he died he was buried by his sons4 
,and that while  he was living with him1
 ,xeniades once asked him how he should 
bury him2  and he said1 8,on my face20  
and when he was asked why1 he said1     
8,because1  in a little while1          
everything will be turned upside down40 
,and he said  this because the          
,macedonians were already attaining     
power1 and becoming  a mighty people    
from having been very inconsiderable4   
,once1 when a man  had conducted him    
into a magnificent house1 and had told  
him that he  must not spit1 after       
hawking a little1 he spit in his face1  
saying that  he could not find a worse  

place4 ,but some tell this story of     
,aristippus4  ,once1 he called out1     
8,holloa1 men40 ,and when some people   
gathered round  him in consequence1 he  
drove them away with his stick1 saying1 
8,i called  men1 and not dregs40 ,this  
anecdote ,i have derived from ,hecaton1 
in the  first book of his ,apophthegms4 
,they also relate that ,alexander said  
that  if he had not been ,alexander1 he 
should have liked to be ,diogenes4 ,he  
used to call  7cripples71 not those who 
were dumb and blind1 but  those who had 
no wallet 774 ,on one occasion he went  
half shaved into  an entertainment of   
young men1 as ,metrocles tells us in his
 ,apophthegms1  and so was beaten by    
them4 ,and afterwards he wrote the names
 of all those  who had beaten him1 on a 
white tablet1 and went about with the   
tablet  round his neck1 so as to expose 
them to insult1 as they were generally  
condemned and reproached for their      
conduct4    ,he used to say that he was 
the hound of those who were praised2 but

 that  none of those who praised them   
dared to go out hunting with him4 ,a man
  once said to him1 8,i conquered men at
 the ,pythian games30 on which he  said1
 8,i conquer men1 but you only conquer  
slaves40 ,when some people  said to him1
 8,you are an old man1 and should rest  
for the remainder of  your life20 8,why 
so80 replied he1 8suppose ,i had run a  
long distance1  ought ,i to stop when ,i
 was near the end1 and not rather press 
on80 ,once1  when he was invited to a   
banquet1 he said that he would not come3
 for  that the day before no one had    
thanked him for coming4 ,he used to go  
bare  foot through the snow1 and to do a
 number of other things which have been 
already mentioned4 ,once he attempted to
 eat raw meat1 but he could not  digest 
it4 ,on one occasion he found           
,demosthenes1 the orator1 dining in  an 
inn2 and as he was slipping away1 he    
said to him1 8,you will now be  ever so 
much more in an inn40#eg ,once1 when    
some strangers wished to  see           

,demosthenes1 he stretched out his      
middle finger1 and said1 8,this is  the 
great demagogue of the ,athenian        
people40 ,when some one had dropped  a  
loaf1 and was ashamed to pick it up     
again1 he1 wishing to give him a        
lesson1 tied a cord round the neck of a 
bottle and dragged it all through  the  
,ceramicus4 ,he used to say1 that he    
imitated the teachers of choruses1  for 
that they spoke too loud1 in order that 
the rest might catch the  proper tone4  
,another of his sayings1 was that most  
men were within a  finger's breadth of  
being mad4 ,if1 then1 any one were to   
walk along1  stretching out his middle  
finger1 he will seem to be mad2 but if  
he puts  out his fore finger1 he will   
not be thought so4 ,another of his      
sayings  was1 that things of great value
 were often sold for nothing1 and vice  
vers4 ,accordingly1 that a statue would 
fetch three thousand drachmas1  and a   
bushel of meal only two obols2 and when 
,xeniades had bought him1 he  said to   

him1 8,come1 do what you are ordered    
to40 ,and when he said--        8,the   
streams of sacred rivers now        ,run
 backwards to their source60            
8,suppose10 rejoined ,diogenes1 8you had
 been sick1 and had bought a  physician1
 could you refuse to be guided by him1  
and tell him--        8,the streams of  
sacred rivers now        ,run backwards 
to their source80    ,once a man came to
 him1 and wished to study philosophy as 
his pupil2 and  he gave him a saperda#eh
 and made him follow him4 ,and as he    
from shame  threw it away and departed1 
he soon afterwards met him and1         
laughing1  said to him1 8,a saperda has 
dissolved your friendship for me40 ,but 
,diocles tells this story in the        
following manner2 that when some one    
said  to him1 8,give me a commission1   
,diogenes10 he carried him off1 and gave
  him a halfpenny worth of cheese to    
carry4 ,and as he refused to carry it1  
8,see10 said ,diogenes1 8a halfpenny    
worth of cheese has broken off our      

friendship40    ,on one occasion he saw 
a child drinking out of its hands1 and  
so he threw  away the cup which belonged
 to his wallet1 saying1 8,that child has
 beaten  me in simplicity40 ,he also    
threw away his spoon1 after seeing a    
boy1 when  he had broken his vessel1    
take up his lentils with a crust of     
bread4 ,and  he used to argue           
thus1--8,everything belongs to the gods2
 and wise men  are the friends of the   
gods4 ,all things are in common among   
friends2  therefore everything belongs  
to wise men40 ,once he saw a woman      
falling  down before the ,gods in an    
unbecoming attitude2 he1 wishing to cure
 her  of her superstition1 as ,zoilus of
 ,perga tells us1 came up to her1 and   
said1 8,are you not afraid1 ,o woman1 to
 be in such an indecent attitude1  when 
some ,god may be behind you1 for every  
place is full of him80 ,he  consecrated 
a man to sculapius1 who was to run up   
and beat all these who  prostrated      
themselves with their faces to the      

ground2 and he was in the  habit of     
saying that the tragic curse had come   
upon him1 for that he was--             
,houseless and citiless1 a piteous exile
      ,from his dear native land2 a     
wandering beggar1      ,scraping a      
pittance poor from day to day4    ,and  
another of his sayings was that he      
opposed confidence to fortune1  nature  
to law1 and reason to suffering4 ,once1 
while he was sitting in  the sun in the 
,craneum1 ,alexander was standing by1   
and said to him1 8,ask  any favour you  
choose of me40 ,and he replied1 8,cease 
to shade me from  the sun40 ,on one     
occasion a man was reading some long    
passages1 and when  he came to the end  
of the book and showed that there was   
nothing more  written1 8,be of good     
cheer1 my friends10 exclaimed ,diogenes1
 8,i see  land40 ,a man once proved to  
him syllogistically that he had horns1  
so  he put his hand to his forehead and 
said1 8,i do not see them40 ,and in a   
similar manner he replied to one who had

 been asserting that there was  no such 
thing as motion1 by getting up and      
walking away4 ,when a man was  talking  
about the heavenly bodies and meteors1  
8,pray how many days10 said  he to him1 
8is it since you came down from heaven80
    ,a profligate eunuch had written on 
his house1 8,let no evil thing enter    
in40 8,where10 said ,diogenes1 8is the  
master of the house going80 ,after      
having anointed his feet with perfume1  
he said that the ointment from his  head
 mounted up to heaven1 and that from his
 feet up to his nose4 ,when  the        
,athenians entreated him to be initiated
 in the ,eleusinian mysteries1  and said
 that in the shades below the initiated 
had the best seats2 8,it  will10 he     
replied1 8be an absurd thing if         
,agesilaus and ,epaminondas are  to live
 in the mud1 and some miserable         
wretches1 who have been initiated1  are 
to be in the islands of the blest40     
,some mice crept up to his table1  and  
he said1 8,see1 even ,diogenes maintains

 his favourites40 ,once1 when he  was   
leaving the bath1 and a man asked him   
whether many men were bathing1  he said1
 8,no20 but when a number of people came
 out1 he confessed  that there were a   
great many4 ,when ,plato called him a   
dog1 he said1  8,undoubtedly1 for ,i    
have come back to those who sold me40   
,plato defined man thus3 8,man is a     
two-footed1 featherless animal10 and    
was much praised for the definition2 so 
,diogenes plucked a cock and  brought it
 into his school1 and said1 8,this is   
,plato's man40 ,on which  account this  
addition was made to the definition1    
8,with broad flat  nails40 ,a man once  
asked him what was the proper time for  
supper1 and he  made answer1 8,if you   
are a rich man1 whenever you please2 and
 if you are  a poor man1 whenever you   
can40 ,when he was at ,megara he saw    
some sheep  carefully covered over with 
skins1 and the children running about   
naked2  and so he said1 8,it is better  
at ,megara to be a man's ram1 than his  

son40  ,a man once struck him with a    
beam1 and then said1 8,take care40      
8,what10  said he1 8are you going to    
strike me again80 ,he used to say that  
the  demagogues were the servants of the
 people2 and garlands the blossoms of   
glory4 ,having lighted a candle in the  
day time1 he said1 8,i am looking  for a
 man40 ,on one occasion he stood under a
 fountain1 and as the  bystanders were  
pitying him1 ,plato1 who was present1   
said to them1 8,if  you wish really to  
show your pity for him1 come away20     
intimating that he  was only acting thus
 out of a desire for notoriety4 ,once1  
when a man had  struck him with his     
fist1 he said1 8,o ,hercules1 what a    
strange thing that  ,i should be walking
 about with a helmet on without knowing 
it60    ,when ,midias struck him with   
his fist and said1 8,there are three    
thousand  drachmas for you20 the next   
day ,diogenes took the cestus of a boxer
  and beat him soundly1 and said1       
8,there are three thousand drachmas for 

you40#ei ,when ,lysias1 the drug-seller1
 asked him whether he thought  that     
there were any ,gods3 8,how10 said he1  
8can ,i help thinking so1 when  ,i      
consider you to be hated by them80 but  
some attribute this reply to            
,theodorus4 ,once he saw a man purifying
 himself by washing1 and said to  him1  
8,oh1 wretched man1 do not you know that
 as you cannot wash away  blunders in   
grammar by purification1 so1 too1 you   
can no more efface the  errors of a life
 in that same manner80    ,he used to   
say that men were wrong for complaining 
of fortune2 for that  they ask of the   
,gods what appear to be good things1 not
 what are really  so4 ,and to those who 
were alarmed at dreams he said1 that    
they did not  regard what they do while 
they are awake1 but make a great fuss   
about  what they fancy they see while   
they are asleep4 ,once1 at the ,olympic 
games1 when the herald proclaimed1      
8,dioxippus is the conqueror of men20   
he said1 8,he is the conqueror of       

slaves1 ,i am the conqueror of men40    
,he was greatly beloved by the          
,athenians2 accordingly1 when a youth   
had  broken his cask they beat him1 and 
gave ,diogenes another4 ,and ,dionysius1
  the ,stoic1 says that after the battle
 of ,chronea he was taken prisoner  and 
brought to ,philip2 and being asked who 
he was1 replied1 8,a spy1 to  spy upon  
your insatiability40 ,and ,philip       
marvelled at him and let him  go4 ,once1
 when ,alexander had sent a letter to   
,athens to ,antipater1 by  the hands of 
a man named ,athlias1 he1 being present1
 said1 8,athlias from  ,athlius1 by     
means of ,athlias to ,athlius40#fj ,when
 ,perdiccas threatened  that he would   
put him to death if he did not come to  
him1 he replied1  8,that is nothing     
strange1 for a scorpion or a tarantula  
could do as  much3 you had better       
threaten me that1 if ,i kept away1 you  
should be  very happy40 ,he used        
constantly to repeat with emphasis that 
an easy  life had been given to man by  

the ,gods1 but that it had been overlaid
  by their seeking for honey1           
cheese-cakes1 and unguents1 and things  
of  that sort4 ,on which account he said
 to a man1 who had his shoes put on  by 
his servant1 8,you are not thoroughly   
happy1 unless he also wipes  your nose  
for you2 and he will do this1 if you are
 crippled in your  hands40 ,on one      
occasion1 when he had seen the          
hieromnemones#fa leading  off one of the
 stewards who had stolen a goblet1 he   
said1 8,the great  thieves are carrying 
off the little thief40 ,at another time1
 seeing a  young man throwing stones at 
a cross1 he said1 8,well done1 you will 
be  sure to reach the mark40 ,once1 too1
 some boys got round him and said1  8,we
 are taking care that you do not bite   
us20 but he said1 8,be of good  cheer1  
my boys1 a dog does not eat beef40 ,he  
saw a man giving himself  airs because  
he was clad in a lion's skin1 and said  
to him1 8,do not go  on disgracing the  
garb of nature40 ,when people were      

speaking of the  happiness of           
,callisthenes1 and saying what splendid 
treatment he received  from ,alexander1 
he replied1 8,the man then is wretched1 
for he is forced  to breakfast and dine 
whenever ,alexander chooses40 ,when he  
was in want of  money1 he said that be  
reclaimed it from his friends and did   
not beg for  it4    ,on one occasion he 
was working with his hands in the       
market-place1 and  said1 8,i wish ,i    
could rub my stomach in the same way1   
and so avoid  hunger40 ,when he saw a   
young man going with some satraps to    
supper1 he  dragged him away and led him
 off to his relations1 and bade them    
take  care of him4 ,he was once         
addressed by a youth beautifully        
adorned1 who  asked him some question2  
and he refused to give him any answer1  
till  he satisfied him whether he was a 
man or a woman4 ,and on one occasion1   
when a youth was playing the cottabus in
 the bath1 he said to him1 8,the  better
 you do it1 the worse you do it40 ,once 

at a banquet1 some of the  guests threw 
him bones1 as if he had been a dog2 so  
he1 as he went away1  put up his leg    
against them as if he had been a dog in 
reality4 ,he used  to call the orators1 
and all those who speak for fame        
7thrice men71 instead of  7thrice       
miserable74 ,he said that a  rich but   
ignorant man1 was like a sheep with a   
golden fleece4 ,when he  saw a notice on
 the house of a profligate man1 8,to be 
sold40 8,i knew10  said he1 8that you   
who are so incessantly drunk1 would soon
 vomit up  your owner40 ,to a young man1
 who was complaining of the number of   
people  who sought his acquaintance1 he 
said1 8,do not make such a parade of    
your  vanity40    ,having been in a very
 dirty bath1 he said1 8,i wonder where  
the people1  who bathe here1 clean      
themselves40 ,when all the company was  
blaming an  indifferent harp-player1 he 
alone praised him1 and being asked why  
he  did so1 he said1 8,because1 though  
he is such as he is1 he plays the harp  

and does not steal40 ,he saluted a harp 
player who was always left alone  by his
 hearers1 with1 8,good morning1 cock20  
and when the man asked him1  8,why so80 
he said1 8,because you1 when you sing1  
make every one get up40  ,when a young  
man was one day making a display of     
himself1 he1 having  filled the bosom of
 his robe with lupins1 began to eat     
them2 and when the  multitude looked at 
him1 he said1 8that he marvelled at     
their leaving the  young man to look at 
him40 ,and when a man1 who was very     
superstitious1  said to him1 8,with one 
blow ,i will break your head20 8,and    
,i10 he replied1  8with one sneeze will 
make you tremble40 ,when ,hegesias      
entreated him to  lend him one of his   
books1 he said1 8,you are a silly       
fellow1 ,hegesias1  for you will not    
take painted figs1 but real ones2 and   
yet you overlook  the genuine practice  
of virtue1 and seek for what is merely  
written40  ,a man once reproached him   
with his banishment1 and his answer was1

  8,you wretched man1 that is what made 
me a philosopher40 ,and when1 on        
another occasion1 some one said to him1 
8,the people of ,sinope condemned  you  
to banishment10 he replied1 8,and ,i    
condemned them to remain where  they    
were40 ,once he saw a man who had been  
victor at the ,olympic games1  feeding  
77 sheep1 and he said to him1 8,you have
 soon come across  my friend from the   
,olympic games1 to the ,nemean40 ,when  
he was asked why  athletes are          
insensible to pain1 he said1 8,because  
they are built up of  pork and beef40   
,he once asked for a statue2 and being  
questioned as to his reason for  doing  
so1 he said1 8,i am practising          
disappointment40 ,once he was begging   
of some one 7for he did this at first   
out of actual want71 he said1 8,if  you 
have given to any one else1 give also to
 me2 and if you have never  given to any
 one1 then begin with me40 ,on one      
occasion1 he was asked  by the tyrant1  
8,what sort of brass was the best for a 

statue80 and he  replied1 8,that of     
which the statues of ,harmodius and     
,aristogiton are  made40 ,when he was   
asked how ,dionysius treats his friends1
 he said1  8,like bags2 those which are 
full he hangs up1 and those which are   
empty  he throws away40 ,a man who was  
lately married put an inscription on his
  house1 8,hercules ,callinicus1 the son
 of ,jupiter1 lives here2 let no evil   
enter40 ,and so ,diogenes wrote in      
addition1 8,an alliance is made after   
the  war is over40 ,he used to say that 
covetousness was the metropolis of all  
evils4 ,seeing on one occasion a        
profligate man in an inn eating olives1 
he said1 8,if you had dined thus1 you   
would not have supped thus40 ,one of    
his apophthegms was1 that good men were 
the images of the ,gods2 another1  that 
love was the business of those who had  
nothing to do4 ,when he was  asked what 
was miserable in life1 he answered1 8,an
 indigent old man40 ,and  when the      
question was put to him1 what beast     

inflicts the worst bite1 he  said1 8,of 
wild beasts the sycophant1 and of tame  
animals the flatterer40    ,on one      
occasion he saw two ,centaurs very badly
 painted2 he said1 8,which  of the two  
is the worst80#fb ,he used to say that a
 speech1 the object of  which was solely
 to please1 was a honeyed halter4 ,he   
called the belly1  the ,charybdis of    
life4 ,having heard once that ,didymon  
the adulterer1  had been caught in the  
fact1 he said1 8,he deserves to be hung 
by his  name40#fc ,when the question was
 put to him1 why gold is of a pale      
colour1 he said1 8,because it has so    
many people plotting against it40  ,when
 he saw a woman in a litter1 he said1   
8,the cage is not suited to the         
animal40 ,and seeing a runaway slave    
sitting on a well1 he said1 8,my boy1   
take care you do not fall in40 ,another 
time1 he saw a little boy who  was a    
stealer of clothes from the baths1 and  
said1 8,are you going for  unguents1 7' 
71 or for other garments 7' ' 740       

,seeing some women hanging on olive     
trees1 he said1 8,i wish every tree     
bore similar fruit40 ,at another time1  
he saw a clothes stealer1 and  addressed
 him thus3--        8,what moves thee1  
say1 when sleep has clos'd the sight1   
,to roam the silent fields in dead of   
night8      ,art thou some wretch by    
hopes of plunder led1      ,through     
heaps of carnage to despoil the         
dead40#fd    ,when he was asked whether 
he had any girl or boy to wait on him1  
he said1  8,no40 ,and as his questioner 
asked further1 8,if then you die1 who   
will  bury you80 ,he replied1 8,whoever 
wants my house40 ,seeing a handsome     
youth  sleeping without any protection1 
he nudged him1 and said1 8,wake up3--   
8,mix'd with the vulgar shall thy fate  
be found1      ,pierc'd in the back1 a  
vile dishonest wound40#fe    ,and he    
addressed a man who was buying          
delicacies at a great expense3--        
8,not long1 my son1 will you on earth   
remain1      ,if such your dealings40#ff

    ,when ,plato was discoursing about  
his 8ideas10 and using the nouns        
8tableness0 and 8cupness20 8,i1 ,o      
,plato60 interrupted ,diogenes1 8see a  
table and a cup1 but ,i see no tableness
 or cupness40 ,plato made answer1       
8,that is natural enough1 for you have  
eyes1 by which a cup and a table  are   
contemplated2 but you have not          
intellect1 by which tableness and       
cupness are seen40    ,on one occasion1 
he was asked by a certain person1 8,what
 sort of a man1 ,o  ,diogenes1 do you   
think ,socrates80 and he said1 8,a      
madman40 ,another time1  the question   
was put to him1 when a man ought to     
marry8 and his reply  was1 8,young men  
ought not to marry yet1 and old men     
never ought to marry  at all40 ,when    
asked what he would take to let a man   
give him a blow on  the head8 he        
replied1 8,a helmet40 ,seeing a youth   
smartening himself up  very carefully1  
he said to him1 8,if you are doing that 
for men1 you are  miserable2 and if for 

women1 you are profligate40 ,once he saw
 a youth  blushing1 and addressed him1  
8,courage1 my boy1 that is the          
complexion of  virtue40 ,having once    
listened to two lawyers1 he condemned   
them both2  saying1 8,that the one had  
stolen the thing in question1 and that  
the  other had not lost it40 ,when asked
 what wine he liked to drink1 he said1  
8,that which belongs to another40 ,a man
 said to him one day1 8,many people     
laugh at you40 8,but ,i10 he replied1   
8am not laughed down40 ,when a man  said
 to him1 that it was a bad thing to     
live2 8,not to live10 said he1  8but to 
live badly40 ,when some people were     
advising him to make search  for a slave
 who had run away1 he said1 8,it would  
be a very absurd thing  for ,manes to be
 able to live without ,diogenes1 but for
 ,diogenes not to be  able to live      
without ,manes40 ,when he was dining on 
olives1 a cheese-cake  was brought in1  
on which he threw the olive away1       
saying3--        ,keep well aloof1 ,o   

stranger1 from all tyrants4#fg    ,and  
presently he added3--        ,he drove  
the olive off 7 ' 74#fh    ,when he was 
asked what sort of a dog he was1 he     
replied1 8,when hungry1  ,i am a dog of 
,melita2 when satisfied1 a ,molossian2 a
 sort which most of  those who praise1  
do not like to take out hunting with    
them1 because  of the labour of keeping 
up with them2 and in like manner1 you   
cannot  associate with me1 from fear of 
the pain ,i give you40 ,the question was
  put to him1 whether wise men ate      
cheese-cakes1 and he replied1 8,they eat
  everything1 just as the rest of       
mankind40 ,when asked why people give   
to beggars and not to philosophers1 he  
said1 8,because they think it  possible 
that they themselves may become lame and
 blind1 but they do not  expect ever to 
turn out philosophers40 ,he once begged 
of a covetous man1  and as he was slow  
to give1 he said1 8,man1 ,i am asking   
you for something  to maintain me 7 7   
and not to bury me 7 740 ,when some  one

 reproached him for having tampered with
 the coinage1 he said1 8,there  was a   
time when ,i was such a person as you   
are now2 but there never was  when you  
were such as ,i am now1 and never will  
be40 ,and to another person  who        
reproached him on the same grounds1 he  
said1 8,there were times when ,i  did   
what ,i did not wish to1 but that is not
 the case now40 ,when he went  to       
,myndus1 he saw some very large gates1  
but the city was a small one1  and so he
 said1 8,oh men of ,myndus1 shut your   
gates1 lest your city should  steal     
out40 ,on one occasion1 he saw a man who
 had been detected stealing  purple1 and
 so he said3--        ,a purple death1  
and mighty fate overtook him4#fi        
,when ,craterus entreated him to come   
and visit him1 he said1 8,i would       
rather lick up salt at ,athens1 than    
enjoy a luxurious table with            
,craterus40 ,on one occasion1 he met    
,anaximenes1 the orator1 who was a fat  
man1 and thus accosted him2 8,pray give 

us1 who are poor1 some of your  belly2  
for by so doing you will be relieved    
yourself1 and you will assist  us40 ,and
 once1 when he was discussing some      
point1 ,diogenes held up a  piece of    
salt fish1 and drew off the attention of
 his hearers2 and as  ,anaximenes was   
indignant at this1 he said1 8,see1 one  
pennyworth of salt  fish has put an end 
to the lecture of ,anaximenes40 ,being  
once reproached  for eating in the      
market-place1 he made answer1 8,i did1  
for it was in  the market-place that ,i 
was hungry40 ,some authors also         
attribute the  following repartee to    
him4 ,plato saw him washing vegetables1 
and so1  coming up to him1 he quietly   
accosted him thus1 8,if you had paid    
court  to ,dionysius1 you would not have
 been washing vegetables40 8,and10 he   
replied1 with equal quietness1 8if you  
had washed vegetables1 you would  never 
have paid court to ,dionysius40 ,when a 
man said to him once1 8,most  people    
laugh at you20 8,and very likely10 he   

replied1 8the asses laugh at  them2 but 
they do not regard the asses1 neither do
 ,i regard them40 ,once  he saw a youth 
studying philosophy1 and said to him1   
8,well done2 inasmuch  as you are       
leading those who admire your person to 
contemplate the beauty  of your mind40  
,a certain person was admiring the      
offerings in the temple at              
,samothrace1#gj and he said to him1     
8,they would have been much more        
numerous1 if those who were lost had    
offered them instead of those who  were 
saved20 but some attribute this speech  
to ,diagoras the ,melian4 ,once  he saw 
a handsome youth going to a banquet1 and
 said to him1 8,you will  come back     
worse 7720 and when he the next day     
after the banquet  said to him1 8,i have
 left the banquet1 and was no worse for 
it20 he  replied1 8,you were not        
,chiron1 but ,eurytion40#ga ,he was     
begging once  of a very ill-tempered    
man1 and as he said to him1 8,if you can
 persuade  me1 ,i will give you         

something20 he replied1 8,if ,i could   
persuade you1 ,i  would beg you to hang 
yourself40 ,he was on one occasion      
returning from  ,lacedmon to ,athens2   
and when some one asked him1 8,whither  
are you going1  and whence do you come80
 he said1 8,i am going from the men's   
apartments  to the women's40 ,another   
time he was returning from the ,olympic 
games1  and when some one asked him     
whether there had been a great multitude
  there1 he said1 8,a great multitude1  
but very few men40 ,he used to say  that
 debauched men resembled figs growing on
 a precipice2 the fruit of  which is not
 tasted by men1 but devoured by crows   
and vultures4 ,when  ,phryne had        
dedicated a golden statue of ,venus at  
,delphi1 he wrote upon  it1 8,from the  
profligacy of the ,greeks40    ,once    
,alexander the ,great came and stood by 
him1 and said1 8,i am  ,alexander1 the  
great king40 8,and ,i10 said he1 8am    
,diogenes the dog40 ,and  when he was   
asked to what actions of his it was     

owing that he was called  a dog1 he     
said1 8,because ,i fawn upon those who  
give me anything1 and bark  at those who
 give me nothing1 and bite the rogues40 
,on one occasion he  was gathering some 
of the fruit of a fig-tree1 and when the
 man who was  guarding it told him a man
 hung himself on this tree the other    
day4 8,i1  then10 said he1 8will now    
purify it40 ,once he saw a man who had  
been a  conqueror at the ,olympic games 
looking very often at a courtesan2      
8,look10  said he1 8at that warlike ram1
 who is taken prisoner by the first girl
 he  meets40 ,one of his sayings was1   
that good-looking courtesans were like  
poisoned mead4    ,on one occasion he   
was eating his dinner in the            
market-place1 and the  bystanders kept  
constantly calling out 8,dog20 but he   
said1 8,it is you  who are the dogs1 who
 stand around me while ,i am at dinner40
 ,when two  effeminate fellows were     
getting out of his way1 he said1 8,do   
not be  afraid1 a dog does not eat      

beetroot40 ,being once asked about a    
debauched  boy1 as to what country he   
came from1 he said1 8,he is a           
,tegean40#gb  ,seeing an unskilful      
wrestler professing to heal a man he    
said1 8,what  are you about1 are you in 
hopes now to overthrow those who        
formerly  conquered you80 ,on one       
occasion he saw the son of a courtesan  
throwing  a stone at a crowd1 and said  
to him1 8,take care1 lest you hit your  
father40 ,when a boy showed him a sword 
that he had received from one to  whom  
he had done some discreditable service1 
he told him1 8,the sword is  a good     
sword1 but the handle is infamous40 ,and
 when some people were  praising a man  
who had given him something1 he said to 
them1 8,and do not  you praise me who   
was worthy to receive it80 ,he was asked
 by some one  to give him back his      
cloak2 but he replied1 8,if you gave it 
me1 it is  mine2 and if you only lent it
 me1 ,i am using it40 ,a supposititious 
son  77 of somebody once said to him1   

that he had gold in his  cloak2 8,no    
doubt10 said he1 8that is the very      
reason why ,i sleep with  it under my   
head 7740 ,when he was asked what       
advantage he  had derived from          
philosophy1 he replied1 8,if no other1  
at least this1  that ,i am prepared for 
every kind of fortune40 ,the question   
was put to  him what countryman he was1 
and he replied1 8,a ,citizen of the     
world40  ,some men were sacrificing to  
the ,gods to prevail on them to send    
them  sons1 and he said1 8,and do you   
not sacrifice to procure sons of a      
particular character80 ,once he was     
asking the president of a society for  a
 contribution1#gc and said to him3--    
8,spoil all the rest1 but keep your     
hands from ,hector40    ,he used to say 
that courtesans were the queens of      
kings2 for that they  asked them for    
whatever they chose4 ,when the          
,athenians had voted that  ,alexander   
was ,bacchus1 he said to them1 8,vote1  
too1 that ,i am ,serapis40  ,when a man 

reproached him for going into unclean   
places1 he said1 8,the  sun too         
penetrates into privies1 but is not     
polluted by them40 ,when  supping in a  
temple1 as some dirty loaves were set   
before him1 he took  them up and threw  
them away1 saying that nothing dirty    
ought to come into  a temple2 and when  
some one said to him1 8,you philosophize
 without being  possessed of any        
knowledge10 he said1 8,if ,i only       
pretend to wisdom1 that  is             
philosophizing40 ,a man once brought him
 a boy1 and said that he was  a very    
clever child1 and one of an admirable   
disposition4 8,what1 then10  said       
,diogenes1 8does he want of me80 ,he    
used to say1 that those who utter       
virtuous sentiments but do not do them1 
are no better than harps1 for  that a   
harp has no hearing or feeling4 ,once he
 was going into a theatre  while every  
one else was coming out of it2 and when 
asked why he did so1  8,it is10 said he1
 8what ,i have been doing all my life40 

,once when he saw  a young man putting  
on effeminate airs1 he said to him1     
8,are you not  ashamed to have worse    
plans for yourself than nature had for  
you8 for she  has made you a man1 but   
you are trying to force yourself to be a
 woman40  ,when he saw an ignorant man  
tuning a psaltery1 he said to him1 8,are
 you  not ashamed to be arranging proper
 sounds on a wooden instrument1 and  not
 arranging your soul to a proper life80 
,when a man said to him1 8,i am  not    
calculated for philosophy10 he said1    
8,why then do you live1 if you  have no 
desire to live properly80 ,to a man who 
treated his father with  contempt1 he   
said1 8,are you not ashamed to despise  
him to whom you owe  it that you have it
 in your power to give yourself airs at 
all80 ,seeing  a handsome young man     
chattering in an unseemly manner1 he    
said1 8,are  you not ashamed to draw a  
sword cut of lead out of a scabbard of  
ivory80  ,being once reproached for     
drinking in a vintner's shop1 he said1  

8,i have  my hair cut1 too1 in a        
barber's40 ,at another time1 he was     
attacked for  having accepted a cloak   
from ,antipater1 but he replied3--      
8,refuse not thou to heed      ,the     
gifts which from the mighty ,gods       
proceed40#gd    ,a man once struck him  
with a broom1 and said1 8,take care10 so
 he struck  him in return with his      
staff1 and said1 8,take care40    ,he   
once said to a man who was addressing   
anxious entreaties to a  courtesan1     
8,what can you wish to obtain1 you      
wretched man1 that you  had not better  
be disappointed in80 ,seeing a man      
reeking all over with  unguents1 he said
 to him1 8,have a care1 lest the        
fragrance of your head  give a bad odour
 to your life40 ,one of his sayings was1
 that servants  serve their masters1 and
 that wicked men are the slaves of their
  appetites4 ,being asked why slaves    
were called 1 he replied1  8,because    
they have the feet of men 7  71 and a   
soul such  as you who are asking this   

question40 ,he once asked a profligate  
fellow  for a mina2 and when he put the 
question to him1 why he asked others for
  an obol1 and him for a mina1 he said1 
8,because ,i hope to get something  from
 the others another time1 but the ,gods 
alone know whether ,i shall  ever       
extract anything from you again40 ,once 
he was reproached for asking  favours1  
while ,plato never asked for any2 and he
 said3--        8,he asks as well as ,i 
do1 but he does it      ,bending his    
head1 that no one else may hear40       
,one day he saw an unskilful archer     
shooting2 so he went and sat down by    
the target1 saying1 8,now ,i shall be   
out of harm's way40 ,he used to say1    
that those who were in love were        
disappointed in regard of the pleasure  
they expected4 ,when he was asked       
whether death was an evil1 he replied1  
8,how can that be an evil which we do   
not feel when it is present80 ,when     
,alexander was once standing by him1 and
 saying1 8,do not you fear me80 ,he     

replied1 8,no2 for what are you1 a good 
or an evil80 ,and as he said that  he   
was good1 8,who1 then10 said ,diogenes1 
8fears the good80 ,he used to  say1 that
 education was1 for the young sobriety1 
for the old comfort1 for  the poor      
riches1 and for the rich an ornament4   
,when ,didymus the adulterer  was once  
trying to cure the eye of a young girl  
771 he said1 8,take  care1 lest when you
 are curing the eye of the maiden1 you  
do not hurt the  pupil40#ge ,a man once 
said to him1 that his friends laid plots
 against  him2 8,what then10 said he1   
8are you to do1 if you must look upon   
both  your friends and enemies in the   
same light80    ,on one occasion he was 
asked1 what was the most excellent thing
 among  men2 and he said1 8,freedom of  
speech40 ,he went once into a school1   
and  saw many statues of the ,muses1 but
 very few pupils1 and said1 8,gods1  and
 all my good schoolmasters1 you have    
plenty of pupils40 ,he was in  the habit
 of doing everything in public1 whether 

in respect of ,venus or  ,ceres2 and he 
used to put his conclusions in this way 
to people3 8,if  there is nothing absurd
 in dining1 then it is not absurd to    
dine in the  market-place4 ,but it is   
not absurd to dine1 therefore it is not 
absurd to  dine in the market-place40   
,and as he was continually doing manual 
work in  public1 he said one day1       
8,would that by rubbing my belly ,i     
could get rid  of hunger40 ,other       
sayings also are attributed to him1     
which it would take  a long time to     
enumerate1 there is such a multiplicity 
of them4    ,he used to say1 that there 
were two kinds of exercise3 that1       
namely1 of  the mind and that of the    
body2 and that the latter of these      
created in  the mind such quick and     
agile phantasies at the time of its     
performance1  as very much facilitated  
the practice of virtue2 but that one was
  imperfect without the other1 since the
 health and vigour necessary for  the   
practice of what is good1 depend equally

 on both mind and body4 ,and  he used to
 allege as proofs of this1 and of the   
ease which practice  imparts to acts of 
virtue1 that people could see that in   
the case of  mere common working trades1
 and other employments of that kind1 the
  artisans arrived at no inconsiderable 
accuracy by constant practice2  and that
 any one may see how much one flute     
player1 or one wrestler1 is  superior to
 another1 by his own continued practice4
 ,and that if these  men transferred the
 same training to their minds they would
 not labour  in a profitless or         
imperfect manner4 ,he used to say also1 
that there was  nothing whatever in life
 which could be brought to perfection   
without  practice1 and that that alone  
was able to overcome every obstacle2    
that1  therefore1 as we ought to        
repudiate all useless toils1 and to     
apply  ourselves to useful labours1 and 
to live happily1 we are only unhappy in 
consequence of most exceeding folly4    
,for the very contempt of pleasure1  if 

we only inure ourselves to it1 is very  
pleasant2 and just as they who  are     
accustomed to live luxuriously1 are     
brought very unwillingly to adopt  the  
contrary system2 so they who have been  
originally inured to that  opposite     
system1 feel a sort of pleasure in the  
contempt of pleasure4    ,this used to  
be the language which he held1 and he   
used to show in  practice1 really       
altering men's habits1 and deferring in 
all things  rather to the principles of 
nature than to those of law2 saying that
 he  was adopting the same fashion of   
life as ,hercules had1 preferring       
nothing  in the world to liberty2 and   
saying that everything belonged to the  
wise1  and advancing arguments such as  
,i mentioned just above4 ,for instance3 
every thing belongs to the ,gods2 and   
the ,gods are friends to the wise2  and 
all the property of friends is held in  
common2 therefore everything  belongs to
 the wise4 ,he also argued about the    
law1 that without it there  is no       

possibility of a constitution being     
maintained2 for without a  city there   
can be nothing orderly1 but a city is an
 orderly thing2 and  without a city     
there can be no law2 therefore law is   
order4 ,and he played  in the same      
manner with the topics of noble birth1  
and reputation1 and  all things of that 
kind1 saying that they were all veils1  
as it were1  for wickedness2 and that   
that was the only proper constitution   
which  consisted in order4 ,another of  
his doctrines was that all women ought  
to be possessed in common2 and he said  
that marriage was a nullity1 and  that  
the proper way would be for every man to
 live with her whom he  could persuade  
to agree with him4 ,and on the same     
principle he said1  that all people's   
sons ought to belong to every one in    
common2 and there  was nothing          
intolerable in the idea of taking       
anything out of a temple1  or eating any
 animal whatever1 and that there was no 
impiety in tasting  even human flesh2 as

 is plain from the habits of foreign    
nations2 and he  said that this         
principle might be correctly extended to
 every case and  every people4 ,for he  
said that in reality everything was a   
combination  of all things4 ,for that in
 bread there was meat1 and in vegetables
 there  was bread1 and so there were    
some particles of all other bodies in   
everything1 communicating by invisible  
passages and evaporating4    ,,vii4 ,and
 he explains this theory of his clearly 
in the ,thyestes1 if  indeed the        
tragedies attributed to him are really  
his composition1 and  not rather the    
work of ,philiscus1 of gina1 his        
intimate friend1 or  of ,pasiphon1 the  
son of ,lucian1 who is stated by        
,phavorinus1 in his  ,universal         
,history1 to have written them after    
,diogenes' death4    ,,viii4 ,music and 
geometry1 and astronomy1 and all things 
of that kind1 he  neglected1 as useless 
and unnecessary4 ,but he was a man very 
happy in  meeting arguments1 as is plain

 from what we have already said4        
,,ix4 ,and he bore being sold with a    
most magnanimous spirit4 ,for as he  was
 sailing to gina1 and was taken prisoner
 by some pirates1 under the  command of 
,scirpalus1 he was carried off to ,crete
 and sold2 and when  the crier asked him
 what art he understood1 he said1 8,that
 of governing  men40 ,and presently     
pointing out a ,corinthian1 very        
carefully dressed1  7the same ,xeniades 
whom we have mentioned before71 he said1
 8,sell me to  that man2 for he wants a 
master40 ,accordingly ,xeniades bought  
him and  carried him away to ,corinth2  
and then he made him tutor of his sons1 
and committed to him the entire         
management of his house4 ,and he behaved
  himself in every affair in such a     
manner1 that ,xeniades1 when looking    
over his property1 said1 8,a good genius
 has come into my house40 ,and          
,cleomenes1 in his book which is called 
the ,schoolmaster1 says1 that he  wished
 to ransom all his relations1 but that  

,diogenes told him that they  were all  
fools2 for that lions did not become the
 slaves of those who  kept them1 but1 on
 the contrary1 those who maintained     
lions were their  slaves4 ,for that it  
was the part of a slave to fear1 but    
that wild beasts  were formidable to    
men4    ,x4 ,and the man had the gift of
 persuasion in a wonderful degree2 so   
that he could easily overcome any one by
 his arguments4 ,accordingly1 it  is    
said that an ginetan of the name of     
,onesicritus1 having two sons1  sent to 
,athens one of them1 whose name was     
,androsthenes1 and that he1  after      
having heard ,diogenes lecture1 remained
 there2 and that after  that1 he sent   
the elder1 ,philiscus1 who has been     
already mentioned1  and that ,philiscus 
was charmed in the same manner4 ,and    
last of all1 he  came himself1 and then 
he too remained1 no less than his son1  
studying  philosophy at the feet of     
,diogenes4 ,so great a charm was there  
in the  discourses of ,diogenes4        

,another pupil of his was ,phocion1 who 
was  surnamed the ,good2 and ,stilpon1  
the ,megarian1 and a great many other   
men  of eminence as statesmen4    ,,xi4 
,he is said to have died when he was    
nearly ninety years of age1 but  there  
are different accounts given of his     
death4 ,for some say that he ate  an    
ox's foot raw1 and was in consequence   
seized with a bilious attack1  of which 
he died2 others1 of whom ,cercidas1 a   
,megalopolitan or ,cretan1  is one1 say 
that he died of holding his breath for  
several days2 and  ,cercidas speaks thus
 of him in his ,meliambics3--           
,he1 that ,sinopian who bore the stick1 
,wore his cloak doubled1 and in th' open
 air      ,dined without washing1 would 
not bear with life      ,a moment       
longer3 but he shut his teeth1      ,and
 held his breath4 ,he truly was the son 
,of ,jove1 and a most heavenly-minded   
dog1      ,the wise ,diogenes4          
,others say that he1 while intending to 
distribute a polypus to his dogs1  was  

bitten by them through the tendon of his
 foot1 and so died4 ,but  his own       
greatest friends1 as ,antisthenes tells 
us in his ,successions1  rather sanction
 the story of his having died from      
holding his breath4  ,for he used to    
live in the ,craneum1 which was a       
,gymnasium at the gates  of ,corinth4   
,and his friends came according to their
 custom1 and found  him with his head   
covered2 and as they did not suppose    
that he was  asleep1 for he was not a   
man much subject to the influence of    
night or  sleep1 they drew away his     
cloak from his face1 and found him no   
longer  breathing2 and they thought that
 he had done this on purpose1 wishing to
  escape the remaining portion of his   
life4    ,on this there was a quarrel1  
as they say1 between his friends1 as to 
who  should bury him1 and they even came
 to blows2 but when the elders and      
chief men of the city came there1 they  
say that he was buried by them at  the  
gate which leads to the ,isthmus4 ,and  

they placed over him a pillar1  and on  
that a dog in ,parian marble4 ,and at a 
later period his fellow  citizens       
honoured him with brazen statues1 and   
put this inscription on  them3--        
,e'en brass by lapse of time doth old   
become1      ,but there is no such time 
as shall efface      ,your lasting      
glory1 wise ,diogenes2      ,since you  
alone did teach to men the art      ,of 
a contented life3 the surest path       
,to glory and a lasting happiness4      
,we ourselves have also written an      
epigram on him in the proceleusmatic    
metre4        ,a4 ,tell me1 ,diogenes1  
tell me true1 ,i pray1           ,how   
did you die2 what fate to ,pluto bore   
you8        ,b4 ,the savage bite of an  
envious dog did kill me4    ,some1      
however1 say that when he was dying1 he 
ordered his friends to  throw his corpse
 away without burying it1 so that every 
beast might tear  it1 or else to throw  
it into a ditch1 and sprinkle a little  
dust over it4  ,and others say that his 

injunctions were1 that he should be     
thrown into  the ,ilissus2 that so he   
might be useful to his brethren4 ,but   
,demetrius1  in his treatise on ,men of 
the ,same ,name1 says that ,diogenes    
died in  ,corinth the same day that     
,alexander died in ,babylon4 ,and he was
 already  an old man1 as early as the   
hundred and thirteenth olympiad4        
,,xii4 ,the following books are         
attributed to him4 ,the dialogues       
entitled  the ,cephalion2 the ,icthyas2 
the ,jackdaw2 the ,leopard2 the ,people 
of the  ,athenians2 the ,republic2 one  
called ,moral ,art2 one on ,wealth2 one 
on  ,love2 the ,theodorus2 the ,hypsias2
 the ,aristarchus2 one on ,death2 a     
volume  of ,letters2 seven ,tragedies1  
the ,helen1 the ,thyestes1 the          
,hercules1 the  ,achilles1 the ,medea1  
the ,chrysippus1 and the dipus4    ,but 
,sosicrates1 in the first book of his   
,successions1 and ,satyrus1 in  the     
fourth book of his ,lives1 both assert  
that none of all these are the  genuine 

composition of ,diogenes4 ,and ,satyrus 
affirms that the tragedies  are the work
 of ,philiscus1 the ginetan1 a friend of
 ,diogenes4 ,but  ,sotion1 in his       
seventh book1 says that these are the   
only genuine works  of ,diogenes3 a     
dialogue on ,virtue2 another on the     
,good2 another on ,love2  the ,beggar2  
the ,tolmus2 the ,leopard2 the          
,cassander2 the ,cephalion2  and that   
the ,aristarchus1 the ,sisyphus1 the    
,ganymede1 a volume of  ,apophthegms1   
and another of ,letters1 are all the    
work of ,philiscus4    ,,xiii4 ,there   
were five persons of the name of        
,diogenes4 ,the first a native  of      
,apollonia1 a natural philosopher2 and  
the beginning of his treatise  on       
,natural ,philosophy is as follows3 8,it
 appears to me to be well for  every one
 who commences any kind of philosophical
 treatise1 to lay down  some undeniable 
principle to start with40 ,the second   
was a ,sicyonian1 who  wrote an account 
of ,peloponnesus4 ,the third was the man

 of whom we have  been speaking4 ,the   
fourth was a ,stoic1 a native of        
,seleucia1 but usually  called a        
,babylonian1 from the proximity of      
,seleucia to ,babylon4 ,the  fifth was a
 native of ,tarsus1 who wrote on the    
subject of some questions  concerning   
poetry which he endeavours to solve4    
,,xiv4 ,athenodorus1 in the eighth book 
of his ,conversations1 says1 that the   
philosopher always had a shining        
appearance1 from his habit of anointing 
himself4      ,,life ,,of ,,monimus4    
,i4 ,monimus was a ,syracusan1 and a    
pupil of ,diogenes1 but also a slave  of
 some ,corinthian money-changer1 as     
,sosicrates tells us4 ,xeniades1 who    
bought ,diogenes1 used often to come to 
him1 extolling the excellency of        
,diogenes both in actions and words1    
till he excited a great affection  for  
the man in the mind of ,monimus4 ,for he
 immediately feigned madness1  and threw
 about all the money and all the coins  
that were on the table1  until his      

master discarded him1 and then he       
straightway went to ,diogenes  and      
became his pupil4 ,he also followed     
,crates the ,cynic a good deal1 and     
devoted himself to the same studies as  
he did2 and the sight of this  conduct  
of his made his master all the more     
think him mad4    ,,ii4 ,and he was a   
very eminent man1 so that even          
,menander1 the comic  poet1 speaks of   
him2 accordingly1 in one of his plays1  
namely in the  ,hippocomus1 he mentions 
him thus3--        ,there is a man1 ,o  
,philo1 named ,monimus1      ,a wise    
man1 though but little known1 and one   
,who bears a wallet at his back1 and is 
not      ,content with one but three4   
,he never spoke      ,a single sentence1
 by great ,jove ,i swear1      ,like    
this one1 8,know thyself10 or any other 
,of the oft-quoted proverbs3 all such   
sayings      ,he scorned1 as he did beg 
his way through dirt2      ,teaching    
that all opinion is but vanity4    ,but 
he was a man of such gravity that he    

despised glory1 and sought only  for    
truth4    ,,iii4 ,he wrote some jests   
mingled with serious treatises1 and two 
essays  on the ,appetites1 and an       
,exhortation4      ,,life ,,of          
,,onesicritus4    ,i4 ,onesicritus is   
called by some authors an ginetan1 but  
,demetrius the  ,magnesian affirms that 
he was a native of ,astypala4 ,he also  
was one of  the most eminent of the     
disciples of ,diogenes4    ,,ii4 ,and he
 appears in some points to resemble     
,xenophon4 ,for ,xenophon  joined in the
 expedition of ,cyrus1 and ,onesicritus 
in that of ,alexander2  and ,xenophon   
wrote the ,cyropdia1 and ,onesicritus   
wrote an account of the  education of   
,alexander4 ,xenophon1 too1 wrote a     
,panegyric on ,cyrus1 and  ,onesicritus 
one on ,alexander4 ,they were also both 
similar to one another  in style1 except
 that a copyist is naturally inferior to
 the original4    ,,iii4 ,menander1 too1
 who was surnamed ,drymus1 was a pupil  
of ,diogenes1  and a great admirer of   

,homer3 and so was ,hegesus of ,sinope1 
who was  nicknamed ,clus1 and ,philiscus
 the ginetan1 as we have said before4   
,,life ,,of ,,crates4    ,i4 ,crates was
 a ,theban by birth1 and the son of     
,ascondus4 ,he also was one  of the     
eminent disciples of the ,cynic4 ,but   
,hippobotus asserts that he was  not a  
pupil of ,diogenes1 but of ,bryson the  
,achan4    ,,ii4 ,there are the         
following sportive lines of his         
quoted3--        ,the waves surround    
vain ,peres' fruitful soil1      ,and   
fertile acres crown the sea-born isle2  
,land which no parasite e'er dares      
invade1      ,or lewd seducer of a      
hapless maid2      ,it bears figs1      
bread1 thyme1 garlic's savoury charms1  
,gifts which ne'er tempt men to detested
 arms1      ,they'd rather fight for    
gold than glory's dreams4    ,there is  
also an account-book of his much spoken 
of1 which is drawn up in  such terms as 
these3--        ,put down the cook for  
minas half a score1      ,put down the  

doctor for a drachma more3      ,five   
talents to the flatterer2 some smoke    
,to the adviser1 an obol and a cloak    
,for the philosopher2 for the willing   
nymph1      ,a talent4    ,he was also  
nicknamed ,door-opener1 because he used 
to enter every house  and give the      
inmates advice4 ,these lines1 too1 are  
his3--        ,all this ,i learnt and   
pondered in my mind1      ,drawing deep 
wisdom from the ,muses kind1      ,but  
all the rest is vanity4    ,there is a  
line1 too1 which tells us that he gained
 from philosophy3--        ,a peck of   
lupins1 and to care for nobody4         
,this1 too1 is attributed to him3--     
,hunger checks love2 and should it not1 
time does4      ,if both should fail    
you1 then a halter choose4    ,,iii4 ,he
 flourished about the hundred and       
thirteenth olympiad4    ,,iv4           
,antisthenes1 in his ,successions1 says 
that he1 having once1 in a  certain     
tragedy1 seen ,telephus holding a date  
basket1 and in a miserable  plight in   

other respects1 betook himself to the   
,cynic philosophy2 and  having turned   
his patrimony into money 7for he was of 
illustrious  extraction71 he collected  
three hundred talents by that means1 and
  divided them among the citizens4 ,and 
after that he devoted himself  to       
philosophy with such eagerness1 that    
even ,philemon the comic poet  mentions 
him4 ,accordingly he says3--        ,and
 in the summer he'd a shaggy gown1      
,to inure himself to hardship3 in the   
winter      ,he wore mere rags4    ,but 
,diocles says that it was ,diogenes who 
persuaded him to discard all  his estate
 and his flocks1 and to throw his money 
into the sea2 and he  says further1 that
 the house of ,crates was destroyed by  
,alexander1 and  that of ,hipparchia    
under ,philip4 ,and he would very       
frequently drive away  with his staff   
those of his relations who came after   
him1 and endeavoured  to dissuade him   
from his design2 and he remained        
immoveable4    ,v4 ,demetrius1 the      

,magnesian1 relates that he deposited   
his money with  a banker1 making an     
agreement with him1 that if his sons    
turned out  ordinary ignorant people1 he
 was then to restore it to them2 but if 
they  became philosophers1 then he was  
to divide it among the people1 for that 
they1 if they were philosophers1 would  
have no need of anything4 ,and          
,eratosthenes tells us that he had by   
,hipparchia1 whom we shall mention      
hereafter1 a son whose name was         
,pasicles1 and that when he grew up1 he 
took him to a brothel kept by a female  
slave1 and told him that that was  all  
the marriage that his father designed   
for him2 but that marriages  which      
resulted in adultery were themes for    
tragedians1 and had exile and  bloodshed
 for their prizes2 and the marriages of 
those who lived with  courtesans were   
subjects for the comic poets1 and often 
produced madness  as the result of      
debauchery and drunkenness4    ,,vi4 ,he
 had also a brother named ,pasicles1 a  

pupil of ,euclides4    ,,vii4           
,phavorinus1 in the second book of his  
,commentaries1 relates a witty  saying  
of his2 for he says1 that once1 when he 
was begging a favour of  the master of a
 gymnasium1 on the behalf of some       
acquaintance1 he touched  his thighs2   
and as he expressed his indignation at  
this1 he said1 8,why1  do they not      
belong to you as well as your knees80   
,he used to say that it  was impossible 
to find a man who had never done wrong1 
in the same way as  there was always    
some worthless seed in a pomegranate4   
,on one occasion  he provoked           
,nicodromus1 the harp-player1 and       
received a black eye from  him2 so he   
put a plaster on his forehead and wrote 
upon it1 8,nicodromus  did this40 ,he   
used to abuse prostitutes designedly1   
for the purpose of  practising himself  
in enduring reproaches4 ,when ,demetrius
 ,phalereus sent  him some loaves and   
wine1 he attacked him for his present1  
saying1 8,i  wish that the fountains    

bore loaves20 and it is notorious that  
he was a  water drinker4    ,he was once
 reproved by the diles of the           
,athenians1 for wearing fine  linen1 and
 so he replied1 8,i will show you       
,theophrastus also clad in  fine linen40
 ,and as they did not believe him1 he   
took them to a barber's  shop1 and      
showed him to them as he was being      
shaved4 ,at ,thebes he was  once        
scourged by the master of the           
,gymnasium1 7though some say it was by  
,euthycrates1 at ,corinth71 and dragged 
out by the feet2 but he did not  care1  
and quoted the line3--        ,i feel1  
,o mighty chief1 your matchless might1  
,dragged1 foot first1 downward from th' 
ethereal height4#gf    ,but ,diocles    
says that it was by ,menedemus1 of      
,eretria1 that he was  dragged in this  
manner1 for that as he was a handsome   
man1 and supposed  to be very obsequious
 to ,asclepiades1 the ,phliasian1       
,crates touched his  thighs and said1   
8,is ,asclepiades within80 ,and         

,menedemus was very much  offended1 and 
dragged him out1 as has been already    
said2 and then ,crates  quoted the      
above-cited line4    ,,viii4 ,zeno1 the 
,cittian1 in his ,apophthegms1 says1    
that he once sewed  up a sheep's fleece 
in his cloak1 without thinking of it2   
and he was a  very ugly man1 and one who
 excited laughter when he was taking    
exercise4  ,and he used to say1 when he 
put up his hands1 8,courage1 ,crates1 as
 far as  your eyes and the rest of your 
body is concerned3--    ,,ix4 8,for you 
shall see those who now ridicule you1   
convulsed with  disease1 and envying    
your happiness1 and accusing themselves 
of  slothfulness40 ,one of his sayings  
was1 8,that a man ought to study        
philosophy1 up to the point of looking  
on generals and donkey-drivers in  the  
same light40 ,another was1 that those   
who live with flatterers1 are  as       
desolate as calves when in the company  
of wolves2 for that neither  the one nor
 the other are with those whom they     

ought to be1 or their own  kindred1 but 
only with those who are plotting against
 them4    ,x4 ,when he felt that he was 
dying1 he made verses on himself1       
saying3--        ,you're going1 noble   
hunchback1 you are going      ,to       
,pluto's realms1 bent double by old age4
    ,for he was humpbacked from age4    
,,xi4 ,when ,alexander asked him whether
 he wished to see the restoration  of   
his country1 he said1 8,what would be   
the use of it8 for perhaps some  other  
,alexander would come at some future    
time and destroy it again4        8,but 
poverty and dear obscurity1      ,are   
what a prudent man should think his     
country      ,for these e'en fortune    
can't deprive him of40    ,he also said 
that he was3--        ,a fellow         
countryman of wise ,diogenes1      ,whom
 even envy never had attacked4          
,menander1 in his ,twin-sister1 mentions
 him thus3--        ,for you will walk  
with me wrapped in your cloak1      ,as 
his wife used to with the ,cynic        

,crates4    ,,xii4 ,he gave his daughter
 to his pupils1 as he himself used to   
say3--        ,to have and keep on trial
 for a month4      ,,life ,,of          
,,metrocles4    ,i4 ,metrocles was the  
brother of ,hipparchia2 and though he   
had formerly  been a pupil of           
,theophrastus1 he had profited so little
 by his  instructions1 that once1       
thinking that1 while listening to a     
lecture  on philosophy1 he had disgraced
 himself by his inattention1 he fell    
into despondency1 and shut himself up in
 his house1 intending to starve  himself
 to death4 ,accordingly1 when ,crates   
heard of it1 he came to him1  having    
been sent for2 and eating a number of   
lupins1 on purpose1 he  persuaded him by
 numbers of arguments1 that he had done 
no harm2 for  that it was not to be     
expected that a man should not indulge  
his natural  inclinations and habits2   
and he comforted him by showing him that
 he1 in  a similar case1 would certainly
 have behaved in a similar manner4 ,and 

after that1 he became a pupil of        
,crates1 and a man of great eminence as 
a  philosopher4    ,,ii4 ,he burnt all  
his writings1 as ,hecaton tells us in   
the first book of  his ,apophthegms1 and
 said3--        ,these are the phantoms 
of infernal dreams2    ,as if he meant  
that they were all nonsense4 ,but some  
say that it was the  notes which he had 
taken of the lectures of ,theophrastus  
which he burnt1  quoting the following  
verse3--        ,vulcan1 draw near1 'tis
 ,thetis asks your aid4#gg    ,,iii4 ,he
 used to say that some things could be  
bought with money1 as for  instance a   
house2 and some with time and industry1 
as education2 that  wealth was          
mischievous1 if a man did not use it    
properly4    ,,iv4 ,he died at a great  
age1 having suffocated himself4    ,v4  
,his pupils were ,theombrotus and       
,cleomenes1 ,demetrius of ,alexandria1  
the son of ,theombrotus1 ,timarchus of  
,alexandria1 the son of ,cleomenes1  and
 ,echecles1 of ,ephesus4 ,not but what  

,echecles was also a pupil of           
,theombrotus2 and ,menedemus1 of whom we
 shall speak hereafter1 was his  pupil4 
,menippus1 of ,sinope1 too1 was a very  
eminent person in his school4           
,,life ,,of ,,hipparchia4    ,i4        
,hipparchia1 the sister of ,metrocles1  
was charmed among others1 by the        
doctrines of this school4    ,,ii4 ,both
 she and ,metrocles were natives of     
,maronea4 ,she fell in love with  both  
the doctrines and manners of ,crates1   
and could not be diverted from  her     
regard for him1 by either the wealth1 or
 high birth1 or personal  beauty1 of any
 of her suitors1 but ,crates was        
everything to her2 and she  threatened  
her parents to make away with herself1  
if she were not given  in marriage to   
him4 ,crates accordingly1 being         
entreated by her parents to  dissuade   
her from this resolution1 did all he    
could2 and at last1 as he  could not    
persuade her1 he rose up1 and placing   
all his furniture before  her1 he said1 

8,this is the bridegroom whom you are   
choosing1 and this  is the whole of his 
property2 consider these facts1 for it  
will not be  possible for you to become 
his partner1 if you do not also apply   
yourself  to the same studies1 and      
conform to the same habits that he      
does40 ,but  the girl chose him2 and    
assuming the same dress that he wore1   
went about  with him as her husband1 and
 appeared with him in public everywhere1
 and  went to all entertainments in his 
company4    ,,iii4 ,and once when she   
went to sup with ,lysimachus1 she       
attacked  ,theodorus1 who was surnamed  
the ,atheist2 proposing to him the      
following  sophism2 8,what ,theodorus   
could not be called wrong for doing1    
that same  thing ,hipparchia ought not  
to be called wrong for doing4 ,but      
,theodorus  does no wrong when he beats 
himself2 therefore ,hipparchia does no  
wrong  when she beats ,theodorus40 ,he  
made no reply to what she said1 but only
  pulled her clothes about2 but         

,hipparchia was neither offended nor    
ashamed1 as many a woman would have     
been2 but when he said to her3--        
8,who is the woman who has left the     
shuttle      ,so near the warp80#gh     
8,i1 ,theodorus1 am that person10 she   
replied2 8but do ,i appear to you to    
have come to a wrong decision1 if ,i    
devote that time to philosophy1 which   
,i otherwise should have spent at the   
loom80 ,and these and many other        
sayings are reported of this female     
philosopher4    ,,iv4 ,there is also a  
volume of letters of ,crates#gi extant1 
in which he  philosophizes most         
excellently2 and in style is very little
 inferior to  ,plato4 ,he also wrote    
some tragedies1 which are imbued with a 
very sublime  spirit of philosophy1 of  
which the following lines are a         
specimen3--        ',tis not one town1  
nor one poor single house1      ,that is
 my country2 but in every land          
,each city and each dwelling seems to   
me1      ,a place for my reception ready

 made4    ,and he died at a great age1  
and was buried in ,botia4      ,,life   
,,of ,,menippus4    ,i4 ,menippus was   
also a ,cynic1 and a ,phnician by       
descent1 a slave by  birth1 as ,achaicus
 tells us in his ,ethics2 and ,diocles  
informs us that  his master was a native
 of ,pontus1 of the name of ,baton2 but 
that  subsequently1 in consequence of   
his importunities and miserly habits1 he
  became rich1 and obtained the rights  
of citizenship at ,corinth4    ,,ii4 ,he
 never wrote anything serious2 but his  
writings are full of  ridiculous matter2
 and in some respects similar to those  
of ,meleager1 who  was his contemporary4
 ,and ,hermippus tells us that he was a 
man who lent  money at daily interest1  
and that he was called a usurer2 for he 
used  to lend on nautical usury1 and    
take security1 so that he amassed a very
  great amount of riches4    ,,iii4 ,but
 at last he fell into a snare1 and lost 
all his money1 and in a  fit of despair 
he hung himself1 and so he died4 ,and we

 have written a  playful epigram on     
him3--        ,this man was a ,syrian by
 birth1        ,and a ,cretan usurious  
hound1      ,as the name he was known by
 sets forth1        ,you've heard of him
 oft ,i'll be bound2      ,his name was 
,menippus--men entered his house1       
,and stole all his goods without leaving
 a louse1      ,when 7from this the     
dog's nature you plainly may tell7      
,he hung himself up1 and so went off to 
hell4    ,,iv4 ,but some say that the   
books attributed to him are not really  
his  work1 but are the composition of   
,dionysius and ,zopyrus the             
,colophonians1  who wrote them out of   
joke1 and then gave them to him as a man
 well able  to dispose of them4    ,v4  
,there were six persons of the name of  
,menippus2 the first was the man  who   
wrote a history of the ,lydians1 and    
made an abridgment of ,xanthus2  the    
second was this man of whom we have been
 speaking2 the third was a  sophist of  
,stratonice1 a ,carian by descent2 the  

fourth was a statuary2  the fifth and   
the sixth were painters1 and they are   
both mentioned by  ,apollodorus4        
,,vi4 ,the writings left by the ,cynic  
amount to thirteen volumes2 a           
,description of the ,dead2 a volume     
called ,wills2 a volume of ,letters  in 
which the ,gods are introduced2         
treatises addressed to the ,natural     
,philosophers1 and ,mathematicians1 and 
,grammarians2 one on the ,generations   
of ,epicurus1 and on the ,observance of 
the ,twentieth ,day by the  philosophers
 of his school2 and one or two other    
essays4      ,,the ,,life ,,of          
,,menedemus4    ,i4 ,menedemus was a    
disciple of ,colotes of ,lampsacus4     
,,ii4 ,he proceeded1 as ,hippobotus     
tells1 to such a great degree of        
superstition1 that he assumed the garb  
of a fury1 and went about saying  that  
he had come from hell to take notice of 
all who did wrong1 in order  that he    
might descend thither again and make his
 report to the deities  who abode in    

that country4 ,and this was his dress3 a
 tunic of a dark  colour reaching to his
 feet1 and a purple girdle round his    
waist1 an  ,arcadian hat on his head    
with the twelve signs of the zodiac     
embroidered  on it1 tragic buskins1 a   
preposterously long beard1 and an ashen 
staff in  his hand4    ,,iii4 ,these    
then are the lives of each of the       
,cynics2 and we shall also  subjoin some
 of the doctrines which they all held in
 common1 if indeed  it is not an abuse  
of language to call that a sect of      
philosophy at all1  instead of1 as some 
contend it should be termed1 a mere     
system of life4    ,they wished to      
abolish the whole system of logic and   
natural philosophy1  like ,aristo of    
,chios1 and thought that men should     
study nothing but  ethics2 and what some
 people assert of ,socrates was         
described by ,diocles  as a             
characteristic of ,diogenes1 for he said
 that his doctrine was1 that  a man     
ought to investigate--        ,only the 

good and ill that taketh place          
,within our houses4    ,they also       
discard all liberal studies4            
,accordingly1 ,antisthenes said that    
wise men only applied themselves to     
literature and learning for the sake  of
 perverting others2 they also wish to   
abolish geometry and music1 and         
everything of that kind4 ,accordingly1  
,diogenes said once to a person who  was
 showing him a clock2 8,it is a very    
useful thing to save a man from  being  
too late for supper40 ,and once when a  
man made an exhibition of  musical skill
 before him1 he said3--        8,cities 
are governed1 so are houses too1        
,by wisdom1 not by harp-playing and     
whistling40#hj    ,their doctrine is1   
that the chief good of mankind is to    
live according to  virtue1 as           
,antisthenes says in his ,hercules1 in  
which they resemble the  ,stoics4 ,for  
those two sects have a good deal in     
common with one another1  on which      
account they themselves say that        

cynicism is a short road to  virtue2 and
 ,zeno1 the ,cittian lived in the same  
manner4    ,they also teach that men    
ought to live simply1 using only plain  
food in  moderate quantities1 wearing   
nothing but a cloak1 and despising      
riches1  and glory1 and nobleness of    
birth2 accordingly some of them feed    
upon  nothing beyond herbs and cold     
water1 living in any shelter that they  
can  find1 or in tubs as ,diogenes did2 
for he used to say that it was the      
peculiar property of the ,gods to want  
nothing1 and that1 therefore1 when  a   
man wished for nothing he was like the  
,gods4    ,another of their doctrines   
is1 that virtue is a thing which may be 
taught1 as ,antisthenes affirms in his  
,heraclides2 and that when it has  once 
been attained it can never be lost4     
,they also say that the wise  man       
deserves to be loved1 and cannot commit 
error1 and is a friend to  every one who
 resembles him1 and that he leaves      
nothing to fortune4 ,and  everything    

which is unconnected with either virtue 
or vice they call  indifferent1 agreeing
 in this with ,aristo1 the ,chian4      
,these then were the ,cynics2 and now we
 must pass on to the ,stoics1 of  which 
sect the founder was ,zeno1 who had been
 a disciple of ,crates4          ,,book 
,,vii4      ,,life ,,of ,,zeno4    ,i4  
,zeno was the son of ,mnaseas1 or       
,demeas1 and a native of ,citium1 in    
,cyprus1 which is a ,grecian city1      
partly occupied by a ,phnician colony4  
,,ii4 ,he had his head naturally bent on
 one side1 as ,timotheus1 the           
,athenian1 tells us1 in his work on     
,lives4 ,and ,apollonius1 the ,tyrian1  
says that he was thin1 very tall1 of a  
dark complexion2 in reference  to which 
some one once called him an ,egyptian   
,clematis1 as ,chrysippus  relates in   
the first volume of his ,proverbs3 he   
had fat1 flabby1 weak  legs1 on which   
account ,persus1 in his ,convivial      
,reminiscences1 says that  he used to   
refuse many invitations to supper2 and  

he was very fond1 as it  is said1 of    
figs both fresh and dried in the sun4   
,,iii4 ,he was a pupil1 as has been     
already stated1 of ,crates4 ,after that1
  they say that he became a pupil of    
,stilpon and of ,xenocrates1 for ten    
years1 as ,timocrates relates in his    
,life of ,dion4 ,he is also said to have
  been a pupil of ,polemo4 ,but         
,hecaton1 and ,apollonius1 of ,tyre1 in 
the  first book of his essay on ,zeno1  
say that when he consulted the oracle1  
as to what he ought to do to live in the
 most excellent manner1 the ,god        
answered him that he ought to become of 
the same complexion as the dead1  on    
which he inferred that he ought to apply
 himself to the reading of the  books of
 the ancients4 ,accordingly1 he attached
 himself to ,crates in the  following   
manner4 ,having purchased a quantity of 
purple from ,phnicia1  he was           
shipwrecked close to the ,pirus2 and    
when he had made his way  from the coast
 as far as ,athens1 he sat down by a    

bookseller's stall1  being now about    
thirty years of age4 ,and as he took up 
the second book  of ,xenophon's         
,memorabilia and began to read it1 he   
was delighted with  it1 and asked where 
such men as were described in that book 
lived2 and  as ,crates happened very    
seasonably to pass at the moment1 the   
bookseller  pointed him out1 and said1  
8,follow that man40 ,from that time     
forth  he became a pupil of ,crates2 but
 though he was in other respects very   
energetic in his application to         
philosophy1 still he was too modest for 
the shamelessness of the ,cynics4 ,on   
which account1 ,crates1 wishing to  cure
 him of this false shame1 gave him a jar
 of lentil porridge to carry  through   
the ,ceramicus2 and when he saw that he 
was ashamed1 and that he  endeavoured to
 hide it1 he struck the jar with his    
staff1 and broke it2  and1 as ,zeno fled
 away1 and the lentil porridge ran all  
down his legs1  ,crates called after    
him1 8,why do you run away1 my little   

,phnician1  you have done no harm80 ,for
 some time then he continued a pupil of 
,crates1 and when he wrote his treatise 
entitled the ,republic1 some said1      
jokingly1 that he had written it upon   
the tail of the dog4    ,,iv4 ,and      
besides his ,republic1 he was the author
 also of the following  works3--a       
treatise on a ,life according to        
,nature2 one on ,appetite1 or the       
,nature of ,man2 one on ,passions2 one  
on the ,becoming2 one on ,law2 one on   
the usual ,education of the ,greeks2 one
 on ,sight2 one on the ,whole2 one  on  
,signs2 one on the ,doctrines of the    
,pythagoreans2 one on ,things in        
,general2 one on ,styles2 five essays on
 ,problems relating to ,homer2 one  on  
the ,bearing of the ,poets4 ,there is   
also an essay on ,art by him1 and  two  
books of ,solutions and ,jests1 and     
,reminiscences1 and one called the      
,ethics of ,crates4 ,these are the books
 of which he was the author4    ,v4 ,but
 at last he left ,crates1 and became the

 pupil of the philosophers  whom ,i have
 mentioned before1 and continued with   
them for twenty years4  ,so that it is  
related that he said1 8,i now find that 
,i made a prosperous  voyage when ,i was
 wrecked40 ,but some affirm that he made
 this speech in  reference to ,crates4  
,others say1 that while he was staying  
at ,athens he  heard of a shipwreck1 and
 said1 8,fortune does well in having    
driven us on  philosophy40 ,but as some 
relate the affair1 he was not wrecked at
 all1  but sold all his cargo at        
,athens1 and then turned to philosophy4 
,,vi4 ,and he used to walk up and down  
in the beautiful colonnade which is     
called the ,peisianactium1 and which is 
also called 1 from the  paintings of    
,polygnotus1 and there he delivered his 
discourses1 wishing  to make that spot  
tranquil2 for in the time of the thirty1
 nearly  fourteen hundred of the        
citizens had been murdered there by     
them4    ,,vii4 ,accordingly1 for the   
future1 men came thither to hear him1   

and from  this his pupils were called   
,stoics1 and so were his successors     
also1 who  had been at first called     
,zenonians1 as ,epicurus tells us in his
 ,epistles4  ,and before this time1 the 
poets who frequented this colonnade 77  
had  been called ,stoics1 as we are     
informed by ,eratosthenes1 in the eighth
  book of his treatise on the ,old      
,comedy2 but now ,zeno's pupils made the
  name more notorious4 ,now the         
,athenians had a great respect for      
,zeno1 so  that they gave him the keys  
of their walls1 and they also honoured  
him  with a golden crown1 and a brazen  
statue2 and this was also done by his   
own countrymen1 who thought the statue  
of such a man an honour to their  city4 
,and the ,cittians1 in the district of  
,sidon1 also claimed him as  their      
countryman4    ,,viii4 ,he was also much
 respected by ,antigonus1 who1 whenever 
he came to  ,athens1 used to attend his 
lectures1 and was constantly inviting   
him to  come to him4 ,but he begged off 

himself1 and sent ,persus1 one of his   
intimate friends1 who was the son of    
,demetrius1 and a ,cittian by birth1    
and who flourished about the hundred and
 thirtieth olympiad1 when ,zeno  was an 
old man4 ,the letter of ,antigonus to   
,zeno was as follows1 and it is         
reported by ,apollonius1 the ,syrian1 in
 his essay on ,zeno4    ,,king          
,,antigonus ,,to ,,zeno ,,the           
,,philosopher1 ,,greeting4    8,i think 
that in good fortune and glory ,i have  
the advantage of you2 but  in reason and
 education ,i am inferior to you1 and   
also in that perfect  happiness which   
you have attained to4 ,on which account 
,i have thought  it good to address you1
 and invite you to come to me1 being    
convinced  that you will not refuse what
 is asked of you4 ,endeavour1 therefore1
 by  all means to come to me1           
considering this fact1 that you will not
 be the  instructor of me alone1 but of 
all the ,macedonians together4 ,for he  
who  instructs the ruler of the         

,macedonians1 and who leads him in the  
path of  virtue1 evidently marshals all 
his subjects on the road to happiness4  
,for  as the ruler is1 so is it natural 
that his subjects for the most part     
should be also40    ,and ,zeno wrote him
 back the following answer4    ,,zeno   
,,to ,,king ,,antigonus1 ,,greeting4    
8,i admire your desire for learning1 as 
being a true object for the wishes  of  
mankind1 and one too that tends to their
 advantage4 ,and the man who  aims at   
the study of philosophy has a proper    
disregard for the popular  kind of      
instruction which tends only to the     
corruption of the morals4  ,and you1    
passing by the pleasure which is so much
 spoken of1 which  makes the minds of   
some young men effeminate1 show plainly 
that you are  inclined to noble         
pursuits1 not merely by your nature1 but
 also by your  own deliberate choice4   
,and a noble nature1 when it has        
received even a  slight degree of       
training1 and which also meets with     

those who will teach  it abundantly1    
proceeds without difficulty to a perfect
 attainment of  virtue4 ,but ,i now find
 my bodily health impaired by old age1  
for ,i am  eighty years old3 on which   
account ,i am unable to come to you4    
,but ,i send  you some of those who have
 studied with me1 who in that learning  
which  has reference to the soul1 are in
 no respect inferior to me1 and in their
  bodily vigour are greatly my          
superiors4 ,and if you associate with   
them  you will want nothing that can    
bear upon perfect happiness40    ,so he 
sent him ,persus and ,philonides1 the   
,theban1 both of whom are  mentioned by 
,epicurus1 in his letter to his brother 
,aristobulus1 as being  companions of   
,antigonus4    ,,ix4 ,and ,i have       
thought it worth while also to set down 
the decree of the  ,athenians concerning
 him2 and it is couched in the following
 language4    8,in the archonship of    
,arrhenides1 in the fifth presidency of 
the tribe  ,acamantis1 on the           

twenty-first day of the month           
,maimacterion1 on the  twenty-third day 
of the aforesaid presidency1 in a duly  
convened  assembly1 ,hippo1 the son of  
,cratistoteles1 of the borough of       
,xypetion1  being one of the presidents1
 and the rest of the presidents1 his    
colleagues1 put the following decree to 
the vote4 ,and the decree was  proposed 
by ,thrason1 of ,anaca1 the son of      
,thrason4    8,since ,zeno the son of   
,mnaseas1 the ,cittian1 has passed many 
years  in the city1 in the study of     
philosophy1 being in all other respects 
a good man1 and also exhorting all the  
young men who have sought his  company  
to the practice of virtue1 and          
encouraging them in the practice  of    
temperance2 making his own life a model 
to all men of the greatest  excellence1 
since it has in every respect           
corresponded to the doctrines  which he 
has taught2 it has been determined by   
the people 7and may the  determination  
be fortunate71 to praise ,zeno1 the son 

of ,mnaseas1 the  ,cittian1 and to      
present him with a golden crown in      
accordance with the  law1 on account of 
his virtue and temperance1 and to build 
him a tomb in  the ,ceramicus1 at the   
public expense4 ,and the people has     
appointed by  its vote five men from    
among the citizens of ,athens1 who shall
 see to  the making of the crown and the
 building of the tomb4 ,and the scribe  
of  the borough shall enrol the decree  
and engrave it on two pillars1 and he   
shall be permitted to place one pillar  
in the ,academy1 and one in the         
,lyceum4 ,and he who is appointed to    
superintend the work shall divide the   
expense that the pillars amount to1 in  
such a way that every one may           
understand that the whole people of     
,athens honours good men both while     
they are living and after they are dead4
 ,and ,thrason of ,anaca1 ,philocles  of
 the ,pirus1 ,phdrus of ,anaphlystos1   
,medon of ,acharn1 ,micythus of         
,sypalettus1 and ,dion of ,pania1 are   

hereby appointed to superintend the     
building of the tomb40    ,these then   
are the terms of the decree4    ,x4 ,but
 ,antigonus1 of ,carystos1 says1 that   
,zeno himself never denied that  he was 
a native of ,cittium4 ,for that when on 
one occasion1 there was a  citizen of   
that town who had contributed to the    
building of some baths1  and was having 
his name engraved on the pillar1 as the 
countryman of ,zeno  the philosopher1 he
 bade them add1 8,of ,cittium40    ,,xi4
 ,and at another time1 when he had had a
 hollow covering made for some  vessel1 
he carried it about for some money1 in  
order to procure present  relief for    
some difficulties which were distressing
 ,crates his master4  ,and they say that
 he1 when he first arrived in ,greece1  
had more than a  thousand talents1 which
 he lent out at nautical usury4         
,,xii4 ,and he used to eat little loaves
 and honey1 and to drink a small        
quantity of sweet smelling wine4        
,,xiii4 ,he had very few youthful       

acquaintances of the male sex1 and he   
did  not cultivate them much1 lest he   
should be thought to be a misogynist4   
,and he dwelt in the same house with    
,persus2 and once1 when he brought in  a
 female flute-player to him1 he hastened
 to bring her back to him4    ,,xiv4    
,and he was1 it is said1 of a very      
accommodating temper2 so much so1  that 
,antigonus1 the king1 often came to dine
 with him1 and often carried  him off to
 dine with him1 at the house of         
,aristocles the harp-player2 but  when  
he was there1 he would presently steal  
away4    ,,xv4 ,it is also said that he 
avoided a crowd with great care1 so that
 he  used to sit at the end of a bench1 
in order at all events to avoid being   
incommoded on one side4 ,and he never   
used to walk with more than two or      
three companions4 ,and he used at times 
to exact a piece of money from all  who 
came to hear him1 with a view of not    
being distressed by numbers2 and  this  
story is told by ,cleanthes1 in his     

treatise on ,brazen ,money4 ,and  when  
he was surrounded by any great crowd1 he
 would point to a balustrade  of wood at
 the end of the colonnade which         
surrounded an altar1 and say1  8,that   
was once in the middle of this place1   
but it was placed apart  because it was 
in people's way2 and now1 if you will   
only withdraw from  the middle here1 you
 too will incommode me much less40      
,,xvi4 ,and when ,demochares1 the son of
 ,laches1 embraced him once1 and said   
that he would tell ,antigonus1 or write 
to him of everything which he  wanted1  
as he always did everything for him1    
,zeno1 when he had heard him  say this1 
avoided his company for the future4 ,and
 it is said1 that after  the death of   
,zeno1 ,antigonus said1 8,what a        
spectacle have ,i lost40 ,on  which     
account he employed ,thrason1 their     
ambassador1 to entreat of the           
,athenians to allow him to be buried in 
the ,ceramicus4 ,and when he was  asked 
why he had such an admiration for him1  

he replied1 8,because1 though  ,i gave  
him a great many important presents1 he 
was never elated1 and  never humbled40  
,,xvii4 ,he was a man of a very         
investigating spirit1 and one who       
inquired  very minutely into everything2
 in reference to which1 ,timon1 in his  
,silli1 speaks thus3--        ,i saw an 
aged woman of ,phnicia1      ,hungry and
 covetous1 in a proud obscurity1        
,longing for everything4 ,she had a     
basket      ,so full of holes that it   
retained nothing4      ,likewise her    
mind was less than a skindapsus4#ha     
,he used to study very carefully with   
,philo1 the dialectician1 and to  argue 
with him at their mutual leisure2 on    
which account he excited the  wonder of 
the younger ,zeno1 no less than         
,diodorus his master4    ,,xviii4 ,there
 were also a lot of dirty beggars always
 about him1 as ,timon  tells us1 where  
he says3--        ,till he collected a  
vast cloud of beggars1      ,who were of
 all men in the world the poorest1      

,and the most worthless citizens of     
,athens4    ,and he himself was a man of
 a morose and bitter countenance1 with a
  constantly frowning expression4 ,he   
was very economical1 and descended  even
 to the meanness of the barbarians1     
under the pretence of economy4    ,,xix4
 ,if he reproved any one1 he did it with
 brevity and without  exaggeration1 and 
as it were1 at a distance4 ,i allude1   
for instance1 to  the way in which he   
spoke of a man who took exceeding pains 
in setting  himself off1 for as he was  
crossing a gutter with great hesitation1
 he  said1 8,he is right to look down   
upon the mud1 for he cannot see himself 
in it40 ,and when some ,cynic one day   
said that he had no oil in his  cruise1 
and asked him for some1 he refused to   
give him any1 but bade him  go away and 
consider which of the two was the more  
impudent4 ,he was very  much in love    
with ,chremonides2 and once1 when he and
 ,cleanthes were both  sitting by him1  
he got up2 and as ,cleanthes wondered at

 this1 he said1  8,i hear from skilful  
physicians that the best thing for some 
tumours  is rest40 ,once1 when two      
people were sitting above him at table  
at a  banquet1 and the one next him kept
 kicking the other with his foot1 he    
himself kicked him with his knee2 and   
when he turned round upon him for  doing
 so1 he said1 8,why then do you think   
that your other neighbour is to  be     
treated in this way by you80    ,on one 
occasion he said to a man who was very  
fond of young boys1  that               
8,schoolmasters who were always         
associating with boys had no more       
intellect than the boys themselves40 ,he
 used also to say that the  discourses  
of those men who were careful to avoid  
solecisms1 and to  adhere to the        
strictest rules of composition1 were    
like ,alexandrine  money1 they were     
pleasing to the eye and well-formed like
 the coin1 but  were nothing the better 
for that2 but those who were not so     
particular  he likened to the ,attic    

tetradrachmas1 which were struck at     
random and  without any great nicety1   
and so he said that their discourses    
often  outweighed the more polished     
styles of the others4 ,and when         
,ariston1 his  disciple1 had been       
holding forth a good deal without much  
wit1 but still  in some points with a   
good deal of readiness and confidence1  
he said to  him1 8,it would be          
impossible for you to speak thus1 if    
your father had  not been drunk when he 
begat you20 and for the same reason he  
nicknamed  him the chatterer1 as he     
himself was very concise in his         
speeches4 ,once1  when he was in company
 with an epicure who usually left       
nothing for his  messmates1 and when a  
large fish was set before him1 he took  
it all as  if he could eat the whole of 
it2 and when the others looked at him   
with  astonishment1 he said1 8,what then
 do you think that your companions feel 
every day1 if you cannot bear with my   
gluttony for one day80    ,on one       

occasion1 when a youth was asking him   
questions with a pertinacity  unsuited  
to his age1 he led him to a             
looking-glass and bade him look at      
himself1 and then asked him whether such
 questions appeared suitable to  the    
face he saw there4 ,and when a man said 
before him once1 that in most  points he
 did not agree with the doctrines of    
,antisthenes1 he quoted to  him an      
apophthegm of ,sophocles1 and asked him 
whether he thought there  was much sense
 in that1 and when he said that he did  
not know1 8,are you  not then ashamed10 
said he1 8to pick out and recollect     
anything bad  which may have been said  
by ,antisthenes1 but not to regard or   
remember  whatever is said that is      
good80 ,a man once said1 that the       
sayings of the  philosophers appeared to
 him very trivial2 8,you say true10     
replied ,zeno1  8and their syllables too
 ought to be short1 if that is          
possible40 ,when  some one spoke to him 
of ,polemo1 and said that he proposed   

one question  for discussion and then   
argued another1 he became angry1 and    
said1 8,at  what value did he estimate  
the subject that had been proposed80    
,and he  said that a man who was to     
discuss a question ought to have a loud 
voice  and great energy1 like the       
actors1 but not to open his mouth too   
wide1  which those who speak a great    
deal but only talk nonsense usually do4 
,and  he used to say that there was no  
need for those who argued well to leave 
their hearers room to look about them1  
as good workmen do who want to  have    
their work seen2 but that1 on the       
contrary1 those who are listening  to   
them ought to be so attentive to all    
that is said as to have no  leisure to  
take notes4    ,once when a young man   
was talking a great deal1 he said1      
8,your ears have  run down into your    
tongue40 ,on one occasion a very        
handsome man was  saying that a wise man
 did not appear to him likely to fall in
 love2  8,then10 said he1 8,i cannot    

imagine anything that will be more      
miserable  than you good-looking        
fellows40 ,he also used often to say    
that most  philosophers were wise in    
great things1 but ignorant of petty     
subjects  and chance details2 and he    
used to cite the saying of ,caphesius1  
who1  when one of his pupils was        
labouring hard to be able to blow very  
powerfully1 gave him a slap1 and said1  
that excellence did not depend  upon    
greatness1 but greatness on excellence4 
,once1 when a young man was  arguing    
very confidently1 he said1 8,i should   
not like to say1 ,o youth1  all that    
occurs to me40 ,and once1 when a        
handsome and wealthy ,rhodian1  but one 
who had no other qualification1 was     
pressing him to take him as  a pupil1   
he1 as he was not inclined to receive   
him1 first of all made  him sit on the  
dusty seats that he might dirt his      
cloak1 then he put him  down in the     
place of the poor that he might rub     
against their rags1 and  at last the    

young man went away4 ,one of his sayings
 used to be1 that  vanity was the most  
unbecoming of all things1 and especially
 so in the  young4 ,another was1 that   
one ought not to try and recollect the  
exact  words and expressions of a       
discourse1 but to fix all one's         
attention on  the arrangement of the    
arguments1 instead of treating it as if 
it were a  piece of boiled meat1 or some
 delicate eatable4 ,he used also to say 
that  young men ought to maintain the   
most scrupulous reserve in their        
walking1  their gait1 and their dress2  
and he was constantly quoting the lines 
of  ,euripides on ,capaneus1 that--     
,his wealth was ample4      ,but yet no 
pride did mingle with his state1        
,nor had he haughty thought1 or         
arrogance      ,more than the poorest   
man4    ,and one of his sayings used to 
be1 that nothing was more unfriendly to 
the comprehension of the accurate       
sciences than poetry2 and that there    
was nothing that we stood in so much    

need of as time4 ,when he was asked     
what a friend was1 he replied1 8,another
 ,i40 ,they say that he was once        
scourging a slave whom he had detected  
in theft2 and when he said to  him1 8,it
 was fated that ,i should steal20 he    
rejoined1 8,yes1 and that  you should be
 beaten40 ,he used to call beauty the   
flower of the voice2  but some report   
this as if he had said that the voice is
 the flower of  beauty4 ,on one         
occasion1 when he saw a slave belonging 
to one of his  friends severely bruised1
 he said to his friend1 8,i see the     
footsteps  of your anger40 ,he once     
accosted a man who was all over unguents
  and perfumes1 8,who is this who smells
 like a woman80 ,when ,dionysius        
,metathemenus asked him why he was the  
only person whom he did not  correct1 he
 replied1 8,because ,i have no          
confidence in you40 ,a young man  was   
talking a great deal of nonsense1 and he
 said to him1 8,this is the  reason why 
we have two ears and only one mouth1    

that we may hear more and  speak less40 
,once1 when he was at an entertainment  
and remained wholly silent1 he was      
asked what the reason was2 and so he    
bade the person who found fault with    
him tell the king that there was a man  
in the room who knew how to hold  his   
tongue2 now the people who asked him    
this were ambassadors who had  come from
 ,ptolemy1 and who wished to know what  
report they were to make  of him to the 
king4 ,he was once asked how he felt    
when people abused him1  and he said1   
8,as an ambassador feels when he is sent
 away without an  answer40 ,apollonius  
of ,tyre tells us1 that when ,crates    
dragged him by the  cloak away from     
,stilpo1 he said1 8,o ,crates1 the      
proper way to take hold  of philosophers
 is by the ears2 so now do you convince 
me and drag me by  them2 but if you use 
force towards me1 my body may be with   
you1 but my  mind with ,stilpo40        
,,xx4 ,he used to devote a good deal of 
time to ,diodorus1 as we learn from     

,hippobotus2 and he studied dialectics  
under him4 ,and when he had made  a good
 deal of progress he attached himself to
 ,polemo because of his  freedom from   
arrogance1 so that it is reported that  
he said to him1  8,i am not ignorant1 ,o
 ,zeno1 that you slip into the          
garden-door and  steal my doctrines1 and
 then clothe them in a ,phnician dress40
 ,when a  dialectician once showed him  
seven species of dialectic argument in  
the  mowing argument1#hb he asked him   
how much he charged for them1 and when  
he said 8,a hundred drachmas10 he gave  
him two hundred1 so exceedingly  devoted
 was he to learning4    ,,xxi4 ,they say
 too1 that he was the first who ever    
employed the word duty  771 and who     
wrote a treatise on the subject4 ,and   
that he altered  the lines of ,hesiod   
thus3--        ,he is the best of all   
men who submits      ,to follow good    
advice2 he too is good1      ,who of    
himself perceives whate'er is fit4#hc   
,for he said that that man who had the  

capacity to give a proper hearing  to   
what was said1 and to avail himself of  
it1 was superior to him who             
comprehended everything by his own      
intellect2 for that the one had only    
comprehension1 but the one who took good
 advice had action also4    ,,xxii4     
,when he was asked why he1 who was      
generally austere1 relaxed at a  dinner 
party1 he said1 8,lupins too are bitter1
 but when they are soaked  they become  
sweet40 ,and ,hecaton1 in the second    
book of his ,apophthegms1  says1 that in
 entertainments of that kind1 he used to
 indulge himself  freely4 ,and he used  
to say that it was better to trip with  
the feet1 than  with the tongue4 ,and   
that goodness was attained by little and
 little1  but was not itself a small    
thing4 ,some authors1 however1 attribute
 this  saying to ,socrates4    ,,xxiii4 
,he was a person of great powers of     
abstinence and endurance2 and  of very  
simple habits1 living on food which     
required no fire to dress it1  and      

wearing a thin cloak1 so that it was    
said of him3--        ,the cold of      
winter1 and the ceaseless rain1         
,come powerless against him2 weak is the
 dart      ,of the fierce summer sun1 or
 fell disease1      ,to bend that iron  
frame4 ,he stands apart1      ,in nought
 resembling the vast common crowd2      
,but1 patient and unwearied1 night and  
day1      ,clings to his studies and    
philosophy4    ,,xxiv4 ,and the comic   
poets1 without intending it1 praise him 
in their very  attempts to turn him into
 ridicule4 ,philemon speaks thus of him 
in his  play entitled the               
,philosophers3--        ,this man adopts
 a new philosophy1      ,he teaches to  
be hungry2 nevertheless1      ,he gets  
disciples4 ,bread his only food1        
,his best desert dried figs2 water his  
drink4    ,but some attribute these     
lines to ,posidippus4 ,and they have    
become  almost a proverb4 ,accordingly  
it used to be said of him1 8,more       
temperate  than ,zeno the philosopher40 

,posidippus also writes thus in his ,men
  ,transported3--        ,so that for   
ten whole days he did appear      ,more 
temperate than ,zeno's self4    ,,xxv4  
,for in reality he did surpass all men  
in this description of virtue1  and in  
dignity of demeanour1 and1 by ,jove1 in 
happiness4 ,for he lived  ninety-eight  
years1 and then died1 without any       
disease1 and continuing in  good health 
to the last4 ,but ,persus1 in his       
,ethical ,school1 states that  he died  
at the age of seventy-two1 and that he  
came to ,athens when he  was twenty-two 
years old4 ,but ,apollonius says that he
 presided over his  school for          
forty-eight years4    ,,xxvi4 ,and he   
died in the following manner4 ,when he  
was going out of his  school1 he        
tripped1 and broke one of his toes2 and 
striking the ground  with his hand1 he  
repeated the line out of the ,niobe3--  
,i come3 why call me so8    ,and        
immediately he strangled himself1 and so
 he died4 ,but the ,athenians  buried   

him in the ,ceramicus1 and honoured him 
with the decrees which ,i  have         
mentioned before1 bearing witness to his
 virtue4 ,and ,antipater1 the           
,sidonian1 wrote an inscription for him1
 which runs thus3--        ,here        
,cittium's pride1 wise ,zeno1 lies1 who 
climb'd      ,the summits of ,olympus2  
but unmoved      ,by wicked thoughts    
ne'er strove to raise on ,ossa      ,the
 pine-clad ,pelion2 nor did he emulate  
,th' immortal toils of ,hercules2 but   
found      ,a new way for himself to th'
 highest heaven1      ,by virtue1       
temperance1 and modesty4    ,and        
,zenodotus1 the ,stoic1 a disciple of   
,diogenes1 wrote another3--        ,you 
made contentment the chief rule of life1
      ,despising haughty wealth1 ,o     
,god-like ,zeno4      ,with solemn look1
 and hoary brow serene1      ,you taught
 a manly doctrine2 and didst found      
,by your deep wisdom1 a great novel     
school1      ,chaste parent of unfearing
 liberty4      ,and if your country was 

,phnicia1      ,why need we grieve1 from
 that land ,cadmus came1      ,who gave 
to ,greece her written books of wisdom4 
,and ,athenus1 the ,epigrammatic poet1  
speaks thus of all the ,stoics in       
common3--        ,o1 ye who've learnt   
the doctrines of the ,porch1      ,and  
have committed to your books divine     
,the best of human learning2 teaching   
men      ,that the mind's virtue is the 
only good4      ,and she it is who keeps
 the lives of men1      ,and cities1    
safer than high gates or walls4         
,but those who place their happiness in 
pleasure1      ,are led by the least    
worthy of the ,muses4    ,and we also   
have ourselves spoken of the manner of  
,zeno's death1 in our  collection of    
poems in all metres1 in the following   
terms3--        ,some say that ,zeno1   
pride of ,cittium1      ,died of old    
age1 when weak and quite worn out2      
,some say that famine's cruel tooth did 
slay him2      ,some that he fell1 and  
striking hard the ground1      ,said1   

8,see1 ,i come1 why call me thus        
impatiently80    ,for some say that this
 was the way in which he died4 ,and this
 is enough  to say concerning his death4
    ,,xxvii4 ,but ,demetrius1 the       
,magnesian1 says1 in his essay on       
,people of  the ,same ,name1 that his   
father ,mnaseas often came to ,athens1  
as he was  a merchant1 and that he used 
to bring back many of the books of the  
,socratic philosophers1 to ,zeno1 while 
he was still only a boy2 and that1  from
 this circumstance1 ,zeno had already   
become talked of in his own  country2   
and that in consequence of this he went 
to ,athens1 where he  attached himself  
to ,crates4 ,and it seems1 he adds1 that
 it was he who  first recommended a     
clear enunciation of principles1 as the 
best remedy  for error4 ,he is said1    
too1 to have been in the habit of       
swearing 8,by  ,capers10 as ,socrates   
swore 8,by the ,dog40    ,,xxviii4      
,some1 indeed1 among whom is ,cassius   
the ,sceptic1 attack ,zeno  on many     

accounts1 saying first of all that he   
denounced the general  system of        
education in vogue at the time1 as      
useless1 which he did in  the beginning 
of his ,republic4 ,and in the second    
place1 that he used to  call all who    
were not virtuous1 adversaries1 and     
enemies1 and slaves1  and unfriendly to 
one another1 parents to their children1 
brethren to  brethren1 and kinsmen to   
kinsmen2 and again1 that in his         
,republic1 he  speaks of the virtuous as
 the only citizens1 and friends1 and    
relations1  and free men1 so that in the
 doctrine of the ,stoic1 even parents   
and  their children are enemies2 for    
they are not wise4 ,also1 that he lays  
down the principle of the community of  
women both in his ,republic and in  a   
poem of two hundred verses1 and teaches 
that neither temples nor courts  of law1
 nor gymnasia1 ought to be erected in a 
city2 moreover1 that he  writes thus    
about money1 8,that he does not think   
that men ought to coin  money either for

 purposes of traffic1 or of travelling40
 ,besides all  this1 he enjoins men and 
women to wear the same dress1 and to    
leave no  part of their person          
uncovered4    ,,xxix4 ,and that this    
treatise on the ,republic is his work we
 are assured  by ,chrysippus1 in his    
,republic4 ,he also discussed amatory   
subjects in the  beginning of that book 
of his which is entitled the ,art of    
,love4 ,and in  his ,conversations he   
writes in a similar manner4    ,such are
 the charges made against him by        
,cassius1 and also by ,isidorus1  of    
,pergamus1 the orator1 who says that all
 the unbecoming doctrines and           
assertions of the ,stoics were cut out  
of their books by ,athenodorus1  the    
,stoic1 who was the curator of the      
library at ,pergamus4 ,and that         
subsequently they were replaced1 as     
,athenodorus was detected1 and placed   
in a situation of great danger2 and this
 is sufficient to say about those       
doctrines of his which were impugned4   

,,xxx4 ,there were eight different      
persons of the name of ,zeno4 ,the first
  was the ,eleatic1 whom we shall       
mention hereafter2 the second was this  
man of whom we are now speaking2 the    
third was a ,rhodian1 who wrote a       
history of his country in one book2 the 
fourth was a historian who wrote  an    
account of the expedition of ,pyrrhus   
into ,italy and ,sicily2 and also  an   
epitome of the transactions between the 
,romans and ,carthaginians2 the  fifth  
was a disciple of ,chrysippus1 who wrote
 very few books1 but who  left a great  
number of disciples2 the sixth was a    
physician of ,herophila1  a very shrewd 
man in intellect1 but a very indifferent
 writer2 the  seventh was a grammarian1 
who1 besides other writings1 has left   
some  epigrams behind him2 the eighth   
was a ,sidonian by descent1 a           
philosopher  of the ,epicurean school1 a
 deep thinker1 and very clear writer4   
,,xxxi4 ,the disciples of ,zeno were    
very numerous4 ,the most eminent were1  

first of all1 ,persus1 of ,cittium1 the 
son of ,demetrius1 whom some call  a    
friend of his1 but others describe him  
as a servant and one of the  amanuenses 
who were sent to him by ,antigonus1 to  
whose son1 ,halcyoneus1  he also acted  
as tutor4 ,and ,antigonus once1 wishing 
to make trial of him1  caused some false
 news to be brought to him that his     
estate had been  ravaged by the enemy2  
and as he began to look gloomy at this  
news1 he  said to him1 8,you see that   
wealth is not a matter of indifference40
    ,the following works are attributed 
to him4 ,one on ,kingly ,power2 one     
entitled the ,constitution of the       
,lacedmonians2 one on ,marriage2 one  on
 ,impiety2 the ,thyestes2 an ,essay on  
,love2 a volume of ,exhortations2  one  
of ,conversations2 four of ,apophthegms2
 one of ,reminiscences2 seven           
treatises1 the ,laws of ,plato4    ,the 
next was ,ariston1 of ,chios1 the son of
 ,miltiades1 who was the  first author  
of the doctrine of indifference2 then   

,herillus1 who  called knowledge the    
chief good2 then ,dionysius1 who        
transferred this  description to        
pleasure2 as1 on account of the violent 
disease which he  had in his eyes1 he   
could not yet bring himself to call pain
 a thing  indifferent4 ,he was a native 
of ,heraclea2 there was also ,sphrus1 of
 the  ,bosphorus2 and ,cleanthes1 of    
,assos1 the son of ,phanias1 who        
succeeded him  in his school1 and whom  
he used to liken to tablets of hard wax1
 which  are written upon with           
difficulty1 but which retain what is    
written upon  them4 ,and after ,zeno's  
death1 ,sphrus became a pupil of        
,cleanthes4 ,and we  shall speak of him 
in our account of ,cleanthes4    ,these 
also were all disciples of ,zeno1 as we 
are told by ,hippobotus1                
namely3--,philonides1 of ,thebes2       
,callippus1 of ,corinth2 ,posidonius1 of
  ,alexandria2 ,athenodorus1 of ,soli2  
and ,zeno1 a ,sidonian4    ,,xxxii4 ,and
 ,i have thought it best to give a      

general account of all the  ,stoic      
doctrines in the life of ,zeno1 because 
he it was who was the  founder of the   
sect4    ,he has written a great many   
books1 of which ,i have already given a 
list1  in which he has spoken as no     
other of the ,stoics has4 ,and his      
doctrines  in general are these4 ,but we
 will enumerate them briefly1 as we have
 been  in the habit of doing in the case
 of the other philosophers4    ,,xxxiii4
 ,the ,stoics divide reason according to
 philosophy1 into three  parts2 and say 
that one part relates to natural        
philosophy1 one to  ethics1 and one to  
logic4 ,and ,zeno1 the ,cittian1 was the
 first who made  this division1 in his  
treatise on ,reason2 and he was followed
 in it by  ,chrysippus1 in the first    
book of his treatise on ,reason1 and in 
the first  book of his treatise on      
,natural ,philosophy2 and also by       
,apollodorus2 and  by ,syllus1 in the   
first book of his ,introduction to the  
,doctrines of the  ,stoics2 and by      

,eudromus1 in his ,ethical ,elements2   
and by ,diogenes1 the  ,babylonian2 and 
,posidonius4 ,now these divisions are   
called topics by  ,apollodorus1 species 
by ,chrysippus and ,eudromus1 and genera
 by all  the rest4 ,and they compare    
philosophy to an animal1 likening logic 
to the  bones and sinews1 natural       
philosophy to the fleshy parts1 and     
ethical  philosophy to the soul4 ,again1
 they compare it to an egg2 calling     
logic  the shell1 and ethics the white1 
and natural philosophy the yolk4 ,also  
to  a fertile field2 in which logic is  
the fence which goes round it1 ethics   
are the fruit1 and natural philosophy   
the soil1 or the fruit-trees4  ,again1  
they compare it to a city fortified by  
walls1 and regulated by  reason2 and    
then1 as some of them say1 no one part  
is preferred to  another1 but they are  
all combined and united inseparably2 and
 so they  treat of them all in          
combination4 ,but others class logic    
first1 natural  philosophy second1 and  

ethics third2 as ,zeno does in his      
treatise on  ,reason1 and in this he is 
followed by ,chrysippus1 and            
,archedemus1 and  ,eudromus4    ,for    
,diogenes of ,ptolemais begins with     
ethics2 but ,apollodorus places  ethics 
second2 and ,pantius and ,posidonius    
begin with natural philosophy1  as      
,phanias1 the friend of ,posidonius     
asserts1 in the first book of his       
treatise on the ,school of ,posidonius4 
,but ,cleanthes says1 that there are six
 divisions of reason according  to      
philosophy3 dialectics1 rhetoric1       
ethics1 politics1 physics1 and          
theology2 but others assert that these  
are not divisions of reason1  but of    
philosophy itself2 and this is the      
opinion advanced by ,zeno1 of  ,tarsus1 
among others4    ,,xxxiv4 ,some again   
say1 that the logical division is       
properly subdivided  into two sciences1 
namely1 rhetoric and dialectics2 and    
some divide  it also into definitive    
species1 which is conversant with rules 

and  tests2 while others deny the       
propriety of this last division         
altogether1  and argue that the object  
of rules and tests is the discovery of  
the  truth2 for it is in this division  
that they explain the differences of    
representations4 ,they also argue that1 
on the other side1 the science of       
definitions has equally for its object  
the discovery of truth1 since we  only  
know things by the intervention of      
ideas4 ,they also call rhetoric  a      
science conversant about speaking well  
concerning matters which admit  of a    
detailed narrative2 and dialectics they 
call the science of arguing  correctly  
in discussions which can be carried on  
by question and answer2  on which       
account they define it thus3 a knowledge
 of what is true1 and  false1 and       
neither one thing nor the other4        
,again1 rhetoric itself they divide into
 three kinds2 for one description  they 
say is concerning about giving advice1  
another is forensic1 and  the third     

encomiastic2 and it is also divided into
 several parts1  one relating to the    
discovery of arguments1 one to style1   
one to the  arrangement of arguments1   
and the other to the delivery of the    
speech4  ,and a rhetorical oration they 
divide into the exordium1 the narration1
  the reply to the statements of the    
adverse party1 and the peroration4      
,,xxxv4 ,dialectics1 they say1 is       
divided into two parts2 one of which has
  reference to the things signified1 the
 other to the expression4 ,that  which  
has reference to the things signified or
 spoken of1 they divide  again into the 
topic of things conceived in the fancy1 
and into those  of axioms1 of perfect   
determinations1 of predicaments1 of     
things alike1  whether upright or       
prostrate1 of tropes1 of syllogisms1 and
 of sophisms1  which are derived either 
from the voice or from the things4 ,and 
these  sophisms are of various kinds2   
there is the false one1 the one which   
states facts1 the negative1 the sorites1

 and others like these2 the  imperfect  
one1 the inexplicable one1 the          
conclusive one1 the veiled one1  the    
horned one1 the nobody1 and the mower4  
,in the second part of dialectics1 that 
which has for its object the            
expression1 they treat of written       
language1 of the different parts of a   
discourse1 of solecism and barbarism1 of
 poetical forms of expression1 of       
ambiguity1 of a melodious voice1 of     
music2 and some even add definitions1   
divisions1 and diction4    ,they say    
that the most useful of these parts is  
the consideration of  syllogisms2 for   
that they show us what are the things   
which are capable  of demonstration1 and
 that contributes much to the formation 
of our  judgment1 and their arrangement 
and memory give a scientific character  
to our knowledge4 ,they define reasoning
 to be a system composed of  assumptions
 and conclusions3 and syllogism is a    
syllogistic argument  proceeding on     
them4 ,demonstration they define to be a

 method by which  one proceeds from that
 which is more known to that which is   
less4  ,perception1 again1 is an        
impression produced on the mind1 its    
name  being appropriately borrowed from 
impressions on wax made by a seal2  and 
perception they divide into             
comprehensible and incomprehensible3    
,comprehensible1 which they call the    
criterion of facts1 and which  is       
produced by a real object1 and is1      
therefore1 at the same time  conformable
 to that object2 ,incomprehensible1     
which has no relation  to any real      
object1 or else1 if it has any such     
relation1 does not  correspond to it1   
being but a vague and indistinct        
representation4    ,dialectics itself   
they pronounce to be a necessary        
science1 and a virtue  which comprehends
 several other virtues under its        
species4 ,and the  disposition not to   
take up one side of an argument hastily1
 they defined  to be a knowledge by     
which we are taught when we ought to    

agree to a  statement1 and when we ought
 to withhold our agreement4 ,discretion 
they  consider to be a powerful reason1 
having reference to what is becoming1   
so as to prevent our yielding to an     
irrelevant argument4 ,irrefutability    
they define to be a power in an         
argument1 which prevents one from being 
drawn from it to its opposite4 ,freedom 
from vanity1 according to them1 is  a   
habit which refers the perceptions back 
to right reason4    ,again1 they define 
knowledge itself as an assertion or safe
  comprehension1 or habit1 which1 in the
 perception of what is seen1 never      
deviates from the truth4 ,and they say  
further1 that without dialectic         
speculation1 the wise man cannot be free
 from all error in his reasoning4  ,for 
that that is what distinguishes what is 
true from what is false1 and  which     
easily detects those arguments which are
 only plausible1 and those  which depend
 upon an ambiguity of language4 ,and    
without dialectics they  say it is not  

possible to ask or answer questions     
correctly4 ,they also  add1 that        
precipitation in denials extends to     
those things which are  done1 so that   
those who have not properly exercised   
their perceptions  fall into            
irregularity and thoughtlessness4       
,again1 without dialectics1  the wise   
man cannot be acute1 and ingenious1 and 
wary1 and altogether  dangerous as an   
arguer4 ,for that it belongs to the same
 man to speak  correctly and to reason  
correctly1 and to discuss properly those
 subjects  which are proposed to him1   
and to answer readily whatever questions
  are put to him1 all which qualities   
belong to a man who is skilful in       
dialectics4 ,this then is a brief       
summary of their opinions on logic4     
,,xxxvi4 ,and1 that we may also enter   
into some more minute details           
respecting them1 we will subjoin what   
refers to what they call their          
introductory science1 as it is stated by
 ,diocles1 of ,magnesia1 in his         

,excursion of ,philosophers1 where he   
speaks as follows1 and we will give  his
 account word for word4    ,the ,stoics 
have chosen to treat1 in the first      
place1 of perception  and sensation1    
because the criterion by which the truth
 of facts is  ascertained is a kind of  
perception1 and because the judgment    
which  expresses the belief1 and the    
comprehension1 and the understanding of 
a thing1 a judgment which precedes all  
others1 cannot exist without            
perception4 ,for perception leads the   
way2 and then thought1 finding vent  in 
expressions1 explains in words the      
feelings which it derives from          
perception4 ,but there is a difference  
between  and 4 ,for   is a conception of
 the intellect1 such as takes place in  
sleep2  but  is an impression1 1        
produced on the mind1 that is  to say1  
an alteration1 1 as ,chrysippus states  
in the twelfth  book of his treatise on 
the ,soul4 ,for we must not take this   
impression  to resemble that made by a  

seal1 since it is impossible to conceive
 that  there should be many impressions 
made at the same time on the same thing4
  ,but  is understood to be that which  
is impressed1 and formed1  and imprinted
 by a real object1 according to a real  
object1 in such a  way as it could not  
be by any other than a real object2 and1
 according  to their ideas of the 1 some
 are sensible1 and some are not4  ,those
 they call sensible1 which are derived  
by us from some one or more  senses2 and
 those they call not sensible1 which    
emanate directly from the  thought1 as  
for instance1 those which relate to     
incorporeal objects1 or  any others     
which are embraced by reason4 ,again1   
those which are sensible1  are produced 
by a real object1 which imposes itself  
on the intelligence1  and compels its   
acquiescence2 and there are also some   
others1 which are  simply apparent1 mere
 shadows1 which resemble those which are
 produced by  real objects4    ,again1  
these  are divided into rational and    

irrational2 those  which are rational   
belong to animals capable of reason2    
those which are  irrational to animals  
destitute of reason4 ,those which are   
rational  are thoughts2 those which are 
irrational have no name2 but are again  
subdivided into artificial and not      
artificial4 ,at all events1 an image is 
contemplated in a different light by a  
man skilful in art1 from that in  which 
it is viewed by a man ignorant of art4  
,by sensation1 the ,stoics understand a 
species of breath which proceeds  from  
the dominant portion of the soul to the 
senses1 whether it be a  sensible       
perception1 or an organic disposition1  
which1 according to  the notions of some
 of them1 is crippled and vicious4 ,they
 also call  sensation the energy1 or    
active exercise1 of the sense4          
,according to  them1 it is to sensation 
that we owe our comprehension of white  
and  black1 and rough and smooth3 from  
reason1 that we derive the notions      
which result from a demonstration1 those

 for instance which have for  their     
object the existence of ,gods1 and of   
,divine ,providence4 ,for all  our      
thoughts are formed either by indirect  
perception1 or by similarity1  or       
analogy1 or transposition1 or           
combination1 or opposition4 ,by a direct
  perception1 we perceive those things  
which are the objects of sense2 by      
similarity1 those which start from some 
point present to our senses2 as1  for   
instance1 we form an idea of ,socrates  
from his likeness4 ,we draw our         
conclusions by analogy1 adopting either 
an increased idea of the thing1  as of  
,tityus1 or the ,cyclops2 or a          
diminished idea1 as of a pigmy4 ,so1    
too1 the idea of the centre of the world
 was one derived by analogy  from what  
we perceived to be the case of the      
smaller spheres4 ,we use  transposition 
when we fancy eyes in a man's breast2   
combination1 when we  take in the idea  
of a ,centaur2 opposition1 when we turn 
our thoughts to  death4 ,some ideas we  

also derive from comparison1 for        
instance1 from a  comparison of words   
and places4    ,there is also nature2 as
 by nature we comprehend what is just   
and  good4 ,and privation1 when for     
instance1 we form a notion of a man     
without hands4 ,such are the doctrines  
of the ,stoics1 on the subject of       
phantasia1 and sensation1 and thought4  
,,xxxvii4 ,they say that the proper     
criterion of truth is the comprehension1
  2 that is to say1 one which is derived
 from a real object1 as  ,chrysippus    
asserts in the twelfth book of his      
,physics2 and he is followed  by        
,antipater and ,apollodorus4 ,for       
,boethus leaves a great many criteria1  
such as intellect1 sensation1 appetite1 
and knowledge2 but ,chrysippus  dissents
 from his view1 and in the first book of
 his treatise on ,reason1  says1 that   
sensation and preconception are the only
 criteria4 ,and  preconception is1      
according to him1 a comprehensive       
physical notion of  general principles4 

,but others of the earlier ,stoics admit
 right reason  as one criterion of the  
truth2 for instance1 this is the opinion
 of  ,posidonius1 and is advanced by him
 in his essay on ,criteria4             
,,xxxviii4 ,on the subject of logical   
speculation1 there appears to be  a     
great unanimity among the greater part  
of the ,stoics1 in beginning  with the  
topic of the voice4 ,now voice is a     
percussion of the air2 or1  as          
,diogenes1 the ,babylonian1 defines it1 
in his essay on the ,voice1  a sensation
 peculiar to the hearing4 ,the voice of 
a beast is a mere  percussion of the air
 by some impetus3 but the voice of a man
 is  articulate1 and is emitted by      
intellect1 as ,diogenes lays it down1   
and is  not brought to perfection in a  
shorter period than fourteen years4 ,and
  the voice is a body according to the  
,stoics2 for so it is laid down by      
,archedemus1 in his book on the ,voice1 
and by ,diogenes1 and ,antipater1 and   
also by ,chrysippus1 in the second      

volume of his ,physics4 ,for everything 
which makes anything1 is a body2 and the
 voice makes something when it  proceeds
 to those who hear from those who speak4
    ,a word 771 again1 is1 according to 
,diogenes1 a voice consisting of        
letters1 as 8,day40 ,a sentence 77 is a 
significant voice1 sent out by  the     
intellect1 as for instance1 8,it is     
day20 but dialect is a peculiar  style  
imprinted on the utterance of nations1  
according to their race2  and causes    
varieties in the ,greek language1 being 
a sort of local habit1  as for instance1
 the ,attics say 1 and the ,ionians say 
4  ,the elements of words are the       
twenty-four letters2 and the word letter
  is used in a triple division of sense1
 meaning the element itself1 the        
graphical sign of the element1 and the  
name1 as ,alpha4 ,there are seven       
vowels1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 six mutes1 1 1 1 1
 1 4 ,but voice  is different from a    
word1 because voice is a sound2 but a   
word is an  articulate sound4 ,and a    

word differs from a sentence1 because a 
sentence  is always significative of    
something1 but a word by itself has no  
signification1 as for instance1 4 ,but  
this is not the case with a  sentence4  
,again1 there is a difference between   
speaking and pronouncing2  the sounds   
are pronounced1 but what are spoken are 
things which are  capable of being      
spoken of4    ,,xxxix4 ,now of sentences
 there are five parts1 as ,diogenes     
tells us in his  treatise on ,voice2 and
 he is followed by ,chrysippus4 ,there  
is the noun1  the common noun1 the verb1
 the conjunction1 and the article4      
,antipater  adds also quality1 in his   
treatise upon ,words and the things     
expressed  by them4 ,and a common noun  
77 is1 according to ,diogenes1 a  part  
of a sentence signifying a common       
quality1 as for instance1 man1  horse4  
,but a noun is a part of a sentence     
signifying a peculiar quality1  such as 
,diogenes1 ,socrates4 ,a verb is a part 
of a sentence signifying  an uncombined 

categorem1 as ,diogenes 7 7 or1 as      
others define  it1 an element of a      
sentence1 devoid of case1 signifying    
something  compound in reference to some
 person or persons1 as1 8,i write10 8,i 
say40  ,a conjunction is a part of a    
sentence destitute of case1 uniting the 
divisions of the sentence4 ,an article  
is an element of a sentence1 having     
cases1 defining the genders of nouns and
 their numbers1 as 1 1 1 1  1 4    ,,xl4
 ,the excellences of a sentence are     
five1--good ,greek1 clearness1          
conciseness1 suitableness1 elegance4    
,good ,greek 77 is a  correct style1    
according to art1 keeping aloof from any
 vulgar form of  expression2 clearness  
is a style which states that which is   
conceived in  the mind in such a way    
that it is easily known2 conciseness is 
a style  which embraces all that is     
necessary to the clear explanation of   
the  subject under discussion2          
suitableness is a style suited to the   
subject2  elegance is a style which     

avoids all peculiarity of expression4   
,of the  vices of a sentence1 on the    
other hand1 barbarism is a use of words 
contrary to that in vogue among the     
well-educated ,greeks2 solecism is a    
sentence incongruously put together4    
,,xli4 ,a poetical expression is1 as    
,posidonius defines it in his           
introduction on ,style1 8,a metrical or 
rhythmical diction1 proceeding  in      
preparation1 and avoiding all           
resemblance to prose40 ,for instance1   
8,the vast and boundless earth10 8,th'  
expanse of heaven10 are rhythmical      
expressions2 and poetry is a collection 
of poetical expressions  signifying     
something1 containing an imitation of   
divine and human beings4    ,,xlii4 ,a  
definition is1 as ,antipater explains it
 in the first book of his  treatise on  
,definitions1 a sentence proceeding by  
analysis enunciated  in such a way as to
 give a complete idea2 or1 as           
,chrysippus says in his  treatise on    
,definitions1 it is the explanation of  

an idea4 ,description is  a sentence    
which1 in a figurative manner1 brings   
one to a knowledge of  the subject1 or  
it may be called a simpler kind of      
definition1 expressing  the power of a  
definition in plainer language4 ,genus  
is a comprehending  of many ideas       
indissolubly connected1 as animal2 for  
this one expression  comprehends all    
particular kinds of animals4 ,an idea is
 an imagination of  the mind which does 
not express actually anything real1 or  
any quality1  but only a quasi reality  
and a quasi quality2 such1 for instance1
 is  the idea of a horse when a horse is
 not present4 ,species is that which is 
comprehended under genus1 as man is     
comprehended under animal4    ,again1   
that is the most general genus which1   
being a genus itself1 has no  other     
genus1 as the existent4 ,and that is the
 most special species1 which  being a   
species has no other species1 as1 for   
instance1 ,socrates4    ,,xliii4 ,the   
division of genus is a dissection of it 

into the proximate  species2 as1 for    
instance1 8,of animals1 some are        
rational1 others  irrational40 ,contrary
 division is the dissection of genus    
into species on  the principle of the   
contrary2 so as to be by a sort of      
negation2 as1 for  instance1 8,of       
existent things1 some are good and some 
not good20 and1 8,of  things which are  
not good1 some are bad and some         
indifferent40 ,partition  is an         
arrangement of a genus with reference to
 place1 as ,crinis says1  for instance1 
8,of goods1 some have reference to the  
mind and some to the  body40    ,,xliv4 
,ambiguity 77 is an expression          
signifying two or more  things having an
 ordinary or a peculiar meaning1        
according to the  pronunciation1 in such
 a way that more things than one may be 
understood  by the very same expression4
 ,take1 for instance1 the words   4 ,for
 you may understand by them1 a house has
 fallen down three  times 7  71 or1 a   
female flute-player has fallen1 taking  

as synonymous with 4    ,,lv4           
,dialectics are1 as ,posidonius explains
 them1 the science of what is  true and 
false1 and neither one or the other1 and
 it is1 as ,chrysippus  explains it1    
conversant about words that signify and 
things that are  signified2 these then  
are the doctrines asserted by the       
,stoics in their  speculations on the   
subject of the voice4    ,,xlvi4 ,but in
 that part of dialectics which concerns 
things and ideas  signified1 they treat 
of propositions1 of perfect             
enunciations1 of  judgments1 of         
syllogisms1 of imperfect enunciations1  
of attributes and  deficiencies1 and of 
both direct and indirect categorems or  
predicaments4    ,,xlvii4 ,and they say 
that enunciation is the manifestation of
 the ideal  perception2 and these       
enunciations the ,stoics pronounce some 
to be  perfect in themselves1 and some  
to be defective2 now those are          
defective1  which furnish an incomplete 
sense1 as for instance1 8,he writes40   

,for  then we ask further1 8,who        
writes80 ,but those are perfect in      
themselves1  which give a sense entirely
 complete1 as for instance1 8,socrates  
writes40  ,accordingly1 in the defective
 enunciations1 categorems are applied2  
but  in those which are perfect in      
themselves1 axioms1 and syllogisms1 and 
questions1 and interrogations1 are      
brought into play4 ,now a categorem is  
something which is predicated of        
something else1 being either a thing    
which is added to one or more objects1  
according to the definition of          
,apollodorus1 or else a defective       
enunciation added to the nominative     
case1 for the purpose of forming a      
proposition4    ,now of categorems1 some
 are accidents '''#hd as for instance1  
8,the sailing  through a rock40 ''' ,and
 of categorems1 some are direct1 some   
indirect1  and some neither one nor the 
other4 ,now those are correct1 which are
  construed with one of the oblique     
cases1 in such a manner as to produce  a

 categorem1 as for instance1 8,he hears1
 he sees1 he converses40 ,and  those are
 indirect1 which are construed with the 
passive voice1 as for  instance1 8,i am 
heard1 ,i am seen40 ,and those which are
 neither one nor  the other1 are those  
which are construed in a neutral kind of
 manner1 as  for instance1 8,to think1  
to walk40 ,and those are reciprocal1    
which are  among the indirect ones1     
without being indirect themselves4      
,those are  effects1 1 which are such   
words as1 8,he is shaved20 for then1    
the man who is shaved1 implies himself4 
,the oblique cases1 are the genitive1   
the dative1 and the accusative4         
,,xlviii4 ,an axiom1 is that thing which
 is true1 or false1 or perfect  in      
itself1 being asserted1 or denied       
positively1 as far as depends  upon     
itself2 as ,chrysippus explains it in   
his ,dialectic ,definitions2  as for    
instance1 8,it is day10 8,dion is       
walking40 ,and it has received  the name
 of axiom1 1 because it is either       

maintained1 1  or repudiated4 ,for the  
man who says1 8,it is day10 appears to  
maintain  the fact of its being day4 ,if
 then it is day1 the axiom put before   
one  is true2 but if it is not day1 the 
axiom is false4 ,and an axiom1 a        
question1 and an interrogation1 differ  
from one another1 and so does an        
imperative proposition from one which is
 adjurative1 or imprecatory1  or        
hypothetical1 or appellative1 or false4 
,for that is an axiom which  we utter1  
when we affirm anything positively1     
which is either true or  false4 ,and a  
question is a thing complete in itself1 
as also is an axiom1  but which requires
 an answer1 as for instance1 8,is it    
day80 ,now this  is neither true nor    
false2 but1 as 8,it is day0 is an axiom2
 so is1 8,is  it day80 a question4 ,but 
an interrogation1 1 is a thing to which 
it is not possible to make an answer    
symbolically1 as in the case of a       
question1 1 saying merely 8,yes10 but we
 must reply1 8,he does live  in this    

place40    ,the imperative proposition  
is a thing which we utter when we give  
an  order1 as for instance this3--      
,do you now go to the sweet stream of   
,inachus4#he      '''    ,the           
appellative proposition is one which is 
used in the case in which1  when a man  
says anything1 he must address somebody1
 as for instance3--        ,atrides1    
glorious king of men1      ,most mighty 
,agamemnon4#hf    ,a false judgment is a
 proposition1 which1 while it has at the
 same time  the appearance of a real    
judgment1 loses this character by the   
addition1  and under the influence of1  
some particle1 as for instance3         
,the ,parthenon at least is beautiful4  
,how like the herdsman is to ,priam's   
sons4    ,there is also the dubitative  
proposition1 which differs from the     
judgment1 inasmuch as it is always      
uttered in the form of a doubt2 as for  
instance3--        ,are not1 then1 grief
 and life two kindred states8#hg    ,but
 questions1 and interrogations1 and     

things like these1 are neither  true nor
 false1 while judgments and propositions
 are necessarily one or  the other4     
,now of axioms1 some are simple1 and    
others are not simple2 as  ,chrysippus1 
and ,archedemus1 and ,athenodorus1 and  
,antipater1 and ,crinis1  agree in      
dividing them4 ,those are simple1 which 
consist of an axiom  or proposition1    
which is not ambiguous1 7or of several  
axioms1 or  propositions of the same    
character17 as for instance the         
sentence1 8,it is  day40 ,and those are 
not simple1 which consist of an axiom or
 proposition  which is ambiguous1 or of 
several axioms or propositions of that  
character4 ,of an axiom1 or proposition1
 which is ambiguous1 as 8,if it is      
day20 of several axioms1 or propositions
 of that character1 as1 8,if it is  day1
 it is light40    ,and simple           
propositions are divided into the       
affirmative1 the negative1  the         
privative1 the categorical1 the         
definite1 and the indefinite2 those     

which are not simple1 are divided into  
the combined1 and the adjunctive1  the  
connected and the disjunctive1 and the  
causal and the augmentative1  and the   
diminutive4 ,that is an affirmative     
proposition1 8,it is not day40  ,and the
 species of this is doubly affirmative4 
,that again is doubly  affirmative1     
which is affirmative of an affirmative1 
as for instance1 8,it  is not not day20 
for this amounts to1 8,it is day40 ,that
 is a negative  proposition1 which      
consists of a negative particle and a   
categorem1 as  for instance1 8,no one is
 walking40 ,that is a privative         
proposition which  consists of a        
privative particle and an axiom         
according to power1 as  8,this man is   
inhuman40 ,that is a categorical        
proposition1 which consists  of a       
nominative case and a categorem1 as for 
instance1 8,dion is walking40  ,that is 
a definite proposition1 which consists  
of a demonstrative  nominative case and 
a categorem1 as for instance1 8,this man

 is walking40  ,that is an indefinite   
one which consists of an indefinite     
particle1 or  of indefinite particles1  
as for instance1 8,somebody is walking10
 8,he is  moving40    ,of propositions  
which are not simple1 the combined      
proposition is1 as  ,chrysippus states1 
in his ,dialectics1 and ,diogenes1 too1 
in his ,dialectic  ,art2 that which is  
held together by the copulative         
conjunction 8if40  ,and this conjunction
 professes that the second member of the
 sentence  follows the first1 as for    
instance1 8,if it is day1 it is light40 
,that  which is adjunctive is1 as       
,crinis states in his ,dialectic ,art1  
an axiom  which is made to depend on the
 conjunction 8since0 771 beginning  with
 an axiom and ending in an axiom1 as for
 instance1 8,since it is  day1 it is    
light40 ,and this conjunction professes 
both that the second  portion of the    
proposition follows the first1 and the  
first is true4  ,that is a connected    
proposition which is connected by some  

copulative  conjunctions1 as for        
instance1 8,it both is day1 and it is   
light40 ,that  is a disjunctive         
proposition which is disconnected by the
 disjunctive  conjunction1 8or0 771 as  
for instance1 8,it is either day or     
night40  ,and this proposition professes
 that one or other of these propositions
  is false4 ,that is a causal           
proposition which is connected by the   
word1  8because20 as for instance1      
8,because it is day1 it is light40 ,for 
the  first is1 as it were1 the cause of 
the second4 ,that is an augmentative    
proposition1 which explains the greater1
 which is construed with an             
augmentative particle1 and which is     
placed between the two members of  the  
proposition1 as for instance1 8,it is   
rather day than night40 ,the  diminutive
 proposition is1 in every respect1 the  
exact contrary of the  preceding one2 as
 for instance1 8,it is less night than  
day40 ,again1 at  times1 axioms or      
propositions are opposed to one another 

in respect of  their truth and          
falsehood1 when one is an express denial
 of the other2 as  for instance1 8,it is
 day10 and1 8,it is not day40    ,again1
 a conjunctive proposition is correct1  
when it is such that the  opposite of   
the conclusion is contradictory of the  
premiss2 as for  instance1 the          
proposition1 8,if it is day1 it is      
light10 is true2 for1  8,it is not      
light10 which is the opposite to the    
conclusion expressed1 is  contradictory 
to the premiss1 8,it is day40 ,and a    
conjunctive proposition  is incorrect1  
when it is such that the opposite of the
 conclusion is not  inconsistent with   
the premiss1 as for instance1 8,if it is
 day1 ,dion is  walking40 ,for the fact 
that ,dion is not walking1 is not       
contradictory of  the premiss1 8,it is  
day40    ,an adjunctive proposition is  
correct1 which begins with a true       
premiss1  and ends in a consequence     
which follows of necessity1 as for      
instance1  8,since it is day1 the sun is

 above the earth40 ,but it is incorrect 
when  it either begins with a false     
premiss1 or ends with a consequence     
which  does not follow properly2 as for 
instance1 8,since it is night1 ,dion is 
walking10 for this may be said in the   
day-time4    ,a causal proposition is   
correct1 when it begins with a true     
premiss1 and  ends in a consequence     
which necessarily follows from it1 but  
yet does  not have its premiss          
reciprocally consequent upon its        
conclusion2 as for  instance1 8,because 
it is day1 it is light40 ,for the fact  
of its being  light1 is a necessary     
consequence of its being day2 but the   
fact of its  being day1 is not          
necessarily a consequence of its being  
light4 ,a causal  proposition is        
incorrect1 which either begins with a   
false premiss1 or  ends with a          
conclusion that does not follow from it1
 or which has a  premiss which does not 
correspond to the conclusion2 as for    
instance1  8,because it is night1 ,dion 

is walking40    ,a proposition is       
persuasive1 which leads to the assent of
 the mind1 as  for instance1 8,if she   
brought him forth1 she is his mother40  
,but still  this is a falsehood1 for a  
hen is not the mother of an egg4 ,again1
 there  are some propositions which are 
possible1 and some which are impossible2
  and some which are necessary1 and some
 which are not necessary4 ,that is      
possible1 which is capable of being     
true1 since external circumstances  are 
no hindrance to its being true2 as for  
instance1 8,diocles lives40 ,and  that  
is impossible which is not capable of   
being true2 as for instance1  8,the     
earth flies40 ,that is necessary which1 
being true1 is not capable  of being    
false2 or perhaps is intrinsically      
capable of being false1  but still has  
external circumstances which hinder its 
being false1 as  for instance1 8,virtue 
profits a man40 ,that again1 is not     
necessary1  which is true1 but which has
 a capacity of being false1 though      

external  circumstances offer no        
hindrance to either alternative2 as for 
instance1  8,dion walks40    ,that is a 
reasonable or probable proposition1     
which has a great  preponderance of     
opportunities in favour of its being    
true2 as for  instance1 8,i shall be    
alive to-morrow40 ,and there are other  
different  kinds of propositions and    
conversions of them1 from true to false1
 and  re-conversions again2 concerning  
which we must speak at some length4     
,,xlix4 ,an argument1 as ,crinis says1  
is that which is composed of a lemma  or
 major premiss1 an assumption or minor  
premiss1 and a conclusion2 as  for      
instance this1 8,if it is day1 it is    
light20 8,but it is day1 therefore  it  
is light40 ,for the lemma1 or major     
premiss1 is1 8,if it is day1 it is      
light40 ,the assumption1 or minor       
premiss1 is1 8,it is day40 ,the         
conclusion  follows1 8,therefore it is  
light40 ,the mode of a proposition is1  
as it  were1 a figure of an argument1 as

 for instance1 such as this1 8,if it is 
the first1 it is the second2 but it is  
the first1 therefore it is the  second40
    ,a conditional syllogism is that    
which is composed of both the preceding 
arguments2 as for instance1 8,if ,plato 
is alive1 ,plato breathes2 but the      
first fact is so1 therefore so is the   
second40 ,and this conditional          
syllogism has been introduced for the   
sake1 in long and complex  sentences1 of
 not being forced to repeat the         
assumption1 as it was a long  one1 and  
also the conclusion2 but of being able1 
instead1 to content  one's self with    
summing it up briefly thus1 8,the first 
case put is true1  therefore so is the  
second40    ,of arguments1 some are     
conclusive1 others are inconclusive4    
,those are  inconclusive which are such1
 that the opposite of the conclusion    
drawn  in them is not necessarily       
incompatible with the connection of the 
premisses4 ,as for instance1 such       
arguments as these1 8,if it is day1 it  

is light2 but it is day1 therefore1     
,dion is walking40 ,but of conclusive   
arguments1 some are called properly by  
the kindred name conclusions1  and some 
are called syllogistic arguments4 ,those
 then are syllogistic  which are either 
such as do not admit of demonstration1  
or such as are  brought to an           
indemonstrable conclusion1 according to 
some one or more  propositions2 such for
 instance as the following3 8,if ,dion  
walks1 then  ,dion is in motion40 ,those
 are conclusive1 which infer their      
conclusion  specially1 and not          
syllogistically2 such for instance1 as  
this1 8,the  proposition it is both day 
and night is false4 ,now it is day2     
therefore1  it is not night40    ,those 
again1 are unsyllogistic arguments which
 have an air of  probability about them1
 and a resemblance to syllogistic ones1 
but  which still do not lead to the     
deduction of proper conclusions4 ,as for
  instance1 8,if ,dion is a horse1 ,dion
 is an animal2 but ,dion is not a       

horse1 therefore1 ,dion is not an       
animal40    ,again1 of arguments1 some  
are true1 and some are false4 ,those are
 true  which deduce a conclusion from   
true premisses1 as1 for instance1 8,if  
virtue profits1 then vice injures40 ,and
 those are false which have  some       
falsehood in their premisses1 or which  
are inconclusive2 as1 for  instance1    
8,if it is day1 it is light2 but it is  
day1 therefore1 ,dion is  alive40       
,there are also arguments which are     
possible1 and others which are          
impossible2 some likewise which are     
necessary1 and others which are not     
necessary4 ,there are too1 some which   
are not demonstrated from their not     
standing in need of demonstration1 and  
these are laid down differently  by     
different people2 but ,chrysippus       
enumerates five kinds1 which serve  as  
the foundation for every kind of        
argument2 and which are assumed in      
conclusive arguments properly so called1
 and in syllogisms1 and in modes4       

,the first kind that is not             
demonstrated1 is that in which the whole
  argument consists of a conjunctive and
 an antecedent2 and in which  the first 
term repeats itself so as to form a sort
 of conjunctive  proposition1 and to    
bring forward as the conclusion the last
 term4 ,as1  for instance1 8,if the     
first be true1 so is the second2 but the
 first  is true1 therefore1 so is the   
second40 ,the second kind that is not   
demonstrated1 is that which1 by means of
 the conjunctive and the opposite  of   
the conclusion1 has a conclusion        
opposite to the first premiss4 ,as1  for
 instance1 8,if it be day1 it is light2 
but it is night1 therefore it  is not   
day40 ,for here the assumption arises   
from the opposite of the  conclusion1   
and the conclusion from the opposite of 
the first term4  ,the third kind that is
 not demonstrative1 is that which1 by a 
negative  combination1 and by one of the
 terms in the proposition1 produces the 
contradictory of the remainder2 as1 for 

instance1 8,plato is not dead and  alive
 at the same time but ,plato is dead2   
therefore1 ,plato is not alive40  ,the  
fourth kind that is not demonstrative1  
is that which1 by means of a            
disjunctive1 and one of those terms     
which are in the disjunctive1 has  a    
conclusion opposite to what remains2 as1
 for instance1 8,it is either  the      
first1 or the second2 but it is the     
first2 therefore1 it is not the         
second40 ,the fifth kind that is not    
demonstrative1 is that in which the     
whole argument consists of a disjunctive
 proposition1 and the opposite of  one  
of the terms1 and then one makes the    
conclusion identical with the           
remainder2 as1 for instance1 8,it is    
either day or night2 but it is not      
night2 therefore it is day40            
,according to the ,stoics1 truth follows
 upon truth1 as 8,it is light10  follows
 upon 8,it is day40 ,and falsehood      
follows upon falsehood2 as1  8,if it is 
false that it is night1 it is also false

 that it is dark40  ,sometimes too1     
truth follows from falsehood2 for       
instance1 though it is  false that 8the 
earth flies10 it is true that 8there is 
the earth40 ,but  falsehood does never  
follow from truth2 for1 from the fact   
that 8there is  the earth10 it does not 
follow 8that the earth flies40    ,there
 are also some arguments which are      
perplexed1 being veiled and  escaping   
notice2 or such as are called sorites1  
the horned one1 or the  nobody4 ,that is
 a veiled argument#hh which resembles   
the following one2  8two are not a few1 
nor three1 nor those1 nor four1 and so  
on to ten2 but  two are few2 therefore1 
so are ten few40    ,the nobody is a    
conjunctive argument1 and one that      
consists of the  indefinite and the     
definite1 and which has a minor premiss 
and a  conclusion2 as1 for instance1    
8,if any one is here1 he is not in      
,rhodes40    ,l4 ,such then are the     
doctrines which the ,stoics maintain on 
the subject  of logic1 in order as far  

as possible to establish their point    
that the  logician is the only wise man4
 ,for they assert that all affairs are  
looked at by means of that speculation  
which proceeds by argument1  including  
under this assertion both those that    
belong to natural and also  those which 
belong to moral philosophy3 for1 say    
they1 how else could one  determine the 
exact value of nouns1 or how else could 
one explain what  laws are imposed upon 
such and such actions8 ,moreover1 as    
there are two  habits both incidental to
 virtue1 the one considers what each    
existing  thing is1 and the other       
inquires what it is called4 ,these then 
are the  notions of the ,stoics on the  
subject of logic4    ,,li4 ,the ethical 
part of philosophy they divide into the 
topic of  inclination1 the topic of good
 and bad1 the topic of the passions1 the
  topic of virtue1 the topic of the     
chief good1 and of primary estimation1  
and of actions2 the topic of what things
 are becoming1 and of exhortation  and  

dissuasion4 ,and this division is the   
one laid down by ,chrysippus1  and      
,archedemus1 and ,zeno1 of ,tarsus1 and 
,apollodorus1 and ,diogenes1 and        
,antipater1 and ,posidonius4 ,for ,zeno1
 of ,cittium1 and ,cleanthes1 have1 as  
being more ancient they were likely to1 
adopted a more simple method of         
treating these subjects4 ,but these men 
divided logical and the natural         
philosophy4    ,,lii4 ,they say that the
 first inclination which an animal has  
is to  protect itself1 as nature brings 
herself to take an interest in it from  
the beginning1 as ,chrysippus affirms in
 the first book of his treatise on      
,ends2 where he says1 that the first and
 dearest object to every animal  is its 
own existence1 and its consciousness of 
that existence4 ,for that  it is not    
natural for any animal to be alienated  
from itself1 or even  to be brought into
 such a state as to be indifferent to   
itself1 being  neither alienated from   
nor interested in itself4 ,it remains1  

therefore1  that we must assert that    
nature has bound the animal to itself by
 the  greatest unanimity and affection2 
for by that means it repels all that  is
 injurious1 and attracts all that is    
akin to it and desirable4 ,but as  for  
what some people say1 that the first    
inclination of animals is to  pleasure1 
they say what is false4 ,for they say   
that pleasure1 if there  be any such    
thing at all1 is an accessory only1     
which1 nature1 having  sought it out by 
itself1 as well as those things which   
are adapted to its  constitution1       
receives incidentally in the same manner
 as animals are  pleased1 and plants    
made to flourish4    ,moreover1 say     
they1 nature makes no difference between
 animals and  plants1 when she regulates
 them so as to leave them without       
voluntary  motion or sense2 and some    
things too take place in ourselves in   
the same  manner as in plants4 ,but1 as 
inclination in animals tends chiefly to 
the  point of making them pursue what is

 appropriate to them1 we may say that   
their inclinations are regulated by     
nature4 ,and as reason is given to      
rational animals according to a more    
perfect principle1 it follows1 that  to 
live correctly according to reason1 is  
properly predicated of those  who live  
according to nature4 ,for nature is as  
it were the artist who  produces the    
inclination4    ,,liii4 ,on which       
account ,zeno was the first writer who1 
in his treatise  on the ,nature of ,man1
 said1 that the chief good was          
confessedly to live  according to       
nature2 which is to live according to   
virtue1 for nature  leads us to this    
point4 ,and in like manner ,cleanthes   
speaks in his  treatise on ,pleasure1   
and so do ,posidonius and ,hecaton in   
their essays  on ,ends as the ,chief    
,good4 ,and again1 to live according to 
virtue is  the same thing as living     
according to one's experience of those  
things  which happen by nature2 as      
,chrysippus explains it in the first    

book of  his treatise on the ,chief     
,good4 ,for our individual natures are  
all parts  of universal nature2 on which
 account the chief good is to live in a 
manner corresponding to nature1 and that
 means corresponding to one's  own      
nature and to universal nature2 doing   
none of those things which the  common  
law of mankind is in the habit of       
forbidding1 and that common law  is     
identical with that right reason which  
pervades everything1 being the  same    
with ,jupiter1 who is the regulator and 
chief manager of all existing  things4  
,again1 this very thing is the virtue of
 the happy man and the perfect          
happiness of life when everything is    
done according to a harmony  with the   
genius of each individual with reference
 to the will of the  universal governor 
and manager of all things4 ,diogenes1   
accordingly1 says  expressly that the   
chief good is to act according to sound 
reason in our  selection of things      
according to our nature4 ,and           

,archedemus defines it  to be living in 
the discharge of all becoming duties4   
,chrysippus again  understands that the 
nature1 in a manner corresponding to    
which we ought  to live1 is both the    
common nature1 and also human nature in 
particular2  but ,cleanthes will not    
admit of any other nature than the      
common one  alone1 as that to which     
people ought to live in a manner        
corresponding2  and repudiates all      
mention of a particular nature4 ,and he 
asserts  that virtue is a disposition of
 the mind always consistent and always  
harmonious2 that one ought to seek it   
out for its own sake1 without being     
influenced by fear or hope by any       
external influence4 ,moreover1 that it  
is in it that happiness consists1 as    
producing in the soul the harmony  of a 
life always consistent with itself2 and 
that if a rational animal  goes the     
wrong way1 it is because it allows      
itself to be misled by the  deceitful   
appearances of exterior things1 or      

perhaps by the instigation  of those who
 surround it2 for nature herself never  
gives us any but good  inclinations4    
,,liv4 ,now virtue is1 to speak         
generally1 a perfection in everything1  
as  in the case of a statue2 whether it 
is invisible as good health1 or         
speculative as prudence4 ,for ,hecaton  
says1 in the first book of his  treatise
 on ,virtues1 that the scientific and   
speculative virtues are  those which    
have a constitution arising from        
speculation and study1  as1 for         
instance1 prudence and justice2 and that
 those which are not  speculative are   
those which are generally viewed in     
their extension as a  practical result  
or effect of the former2 such for       
instance1 as health  and strength4      
,accordingly1 temperance is one of the  
speculative virtues1  and it happens    
that good health usually follows it1 and
 is marshalled  as it were beside it2 in
 the same way as strength follows the   
proper  structure of an arch4--,and the 

unspeculative virtues derive their name 
from the fact of their not proceeding   
from any acquiescence reflected by      
intelligence2 but they are derived from 
others1 are only accessories1  and are  
found even in worthless people1 as in   
the case of good health1  or courage4   
,and ,posidonius1 in the first book of  
his treaties on ,ethics1  says that the 
great proof of the reality of virtue is 
that ,socrates1 and  ,diogenes1 and     
,antisthenes1 made great improvement2   
and the great proof  of the reality of  
vice may be found in the fact of its    
being opposed to  virtue4    ,again1    
,chrysippus1 in the first book of his   
treatise on the ,chief ,good1  and      
,cleanthes1 and also ,posidonius in his 
,exhortations1 and ,hecaton1 all  agree 
that virtue may be taught4 ,and that    
they are right1 and that it  may be     
taught1 is plain from men becoming good 
after having been bad4 ,on  this account
 ,pantius teaches that there are two    
virtues1 one speculative  and the other 

practical2 but others make three kinds1 
the logical1 the  natural1 and the      
ethical4 ,posidonius divides virtue into
 four divisions2  and ,cleanthes1       
,chrysippus1 and ,antipater make the    
divisions more numerous  still2 for     
,apollophanes asserts that there is but 
one virtue1 namely1  prudence4    ,among
 the virtues some are primitive and some
 are derived4 ,the  primitive ones are  
prudence1 manly courage1 justice1 and   
temperance4  ,and subordinate to these1 
as a kind of species contained in them1 
are  magnanimity1 continence1 endurance1
 presence of mind1 wisdom in council4   
,and the ,stoics define prudence as a   
knowledge of what is good1 and bad1  and
 indifferent2 justice as a knowledge of 
what ought to be chosen1 what  ought to 
be avoided1 and what is indifferent2    
magnanimity as a knowledge  of          
engendering a lofty habit1 superior to  
all such accidents as happen  to all men
 indifferently1 whether they be good or 
bad2 continence they  consider a        

disposition which never abandons right  
reason1 or a habit  which never yields  
to pleasure2 endurance they call a      
knowledge or habit  by which we         
understand what we ought to endure1 what
 we ought not1 and  what is indifferent2
 presence of mind they define as a habit
 which is  prompt at finding out what is
 suitable on a sudden emergency2 and    
wisdom  in counsel they think a         
knowledge which leads us to judge what  
we are to  do1 and how we are to do it1 
in order to act becomingly4 ,and        
analogously1  of vices too there are    
some which are primary1 and some which  
are  subordinate2 as1 for instance1     
folly1 and cowardice1 and injustice1 and
  intemperance1 are among the primary   
vices2 incontinence1 slowness1 and      
folly in counsel among the subordinate  
ones4 ,and the vices are ignorance  of  
those things of which the virtues are   
the knowledge4    ,,lv4 ,good1 looked at
 in a general way1 is some advantage1   
with the more  particular distinction1  

being partly what is actually useful1   
partly  what is not contrary to utility4
 ,on which account virtue itself1 and   
the  good which partakes of virtue are  
spoken of in a threefold view of the    
subject4 ,first1 as to what kind of good
 it is1 and from what it ensues2  as1   
for instance1 in an action done         
according to virtue4 ,secondly1 as to   
the agent1 in the case of a good man who
 partakes of virtue4'''#hi    ,at       
another time1 they define the good in a 
peculiar manner1 as being what  is      
perfect according to the nature of a    
rational being as rational being4  ,and1
 secondly1 they say that it is          
conformity to virtue1 so that all       
actions which partake of virtue1 and all
 good men1 are themselves in some  sense
 the good4 ,and in the third place1 they
 speak of its accessories1  joy1 and    
mirth1 and things of that kind4 ,in the 
same manner they speak of  vices1 which 
they divide into folly1 cowardice1      
injustice1 and things of  that kind4    

,and they consider that those things    
which partake of vices1  and actions    
done according to vice1 and bad men1 are
 themselves in some  sense the evil2 and
 its accessories are despondency1 and   
melancholy1 and  other things of that   
kind4    ,,lvi4 ,again1 of goods1 some  
have reference to the mind1 and some are
  external2 and some neither have       
reference to the mind1 nor are external4
  ,the goods having reference to the    
mind are virtues1 and actions according 
to the virtues4 ,the external goods are 
the having a virtuous country1 a        
virtuous friend1 and the happiness of   
one's country and friend4 ,and those    
which are not external1 and which have  
no reference to the mind1 are  such as a
 man's being virtuous and happy to      
himself4 ,and reciprocally1  of evils1  
some have reference to the mind1 such as
 the vices and actions  according to    
them2 some are external1 such as having 
a foolish country1  or a foolish friend1
 or one's country or one's friend being 

unhappy4 ,and  those evils which are not
 external1 and which have no reference  
to the  mind1 are such as a man's being 
worthless and unhappy to himself4       
,,lvii4 ,again1 of goods1 some are      
final1 some are efficient1 and some are 
both final and efficient4 ,for instance1
 a friend1 and the services  done by him
 to one1 are efficient goods2 but       
courage1 and prudence1 and  liberty1 and
 delight1 and mirth1 and freedom from   
pain1 and all kinds of  actions done    
according to virtue1 are final goods4   
,there are too1 as ,i  said before1 some
 goods which are both efficient and     
final2 for inasmuch  as they produce    
perfect happiness they are efficient1   
and inasmuch as  they complete it by    
being themselves parts of it1 they are  
final4 ,and  in the same way1 of evils1 
some are final1 and some efficient1 and 
some  partake of both natures4 ,for     
instance1 an enemy and the injuries done
 to  one by him1 are efficient evils2   
fear1 meanness of condition1 slavery1   

want of delight1 depression of spirits1 
excessive grief1 and all actions  done  
according to vice1 are final evils2 and 
some partake of both  characters1 since1
 inasmuch as they produce perfect       
unhappiness1 they are  efficient2 and   
inasmuch as they complete it in such a  
way as to become  parts of it1 they are 
final4    ,,lviii4 ,again1 of the goods 
which have reference to the mind1 some  
are habits1 some are dispositions1 and  
some are neither habits nor             
dispositions4 ,dispositions are virtues1
 habits are practices1 and those  which 
are neither habits nor dispositions are 
energies4 ,and1 speaking  generally1 the
 following may be called mixed goods3   
happiness in one's  children1 and a     
happy old age4 ,but knowledge is a pure 
good4 ,and some  goods are continually  
present1 such as virtue2 and some are   
not always  present1 as joy1 or taking a
 walk4    ,,lix4 ,but every good is     
expedient1 and necessary1 and           
profitable1 and  useful1 and            

serviceable1 and beautiful1 and         
advantageous1 and eligible1  and just4  
,expedient1 inasmuch as it brings us    
things1 which by their  happening to us 
do us good2 necessary1 inasmuch as it   
assists us in  what we have need to be  
assisted2 profitable1 inasmuch as it    
repays all  the care that is expended on
 it1 and makes a return with interest to
  our great advantage2 useful1 inasmuch 
as it supplies us with what is of       
utility2 serviceable1 because it does us
 service which is much praised2         
beautiful1 because it is in accurate    
proportion to the need we have of  it1  
and to the service it does4             
,advantageous1 inasmuch as it is of such
 a  character as to confer advantage on 
us2 eligible1 because it is such that   
we may rationally choose it2 and just1  
because it is in accordance with  law1  
and is an efficient cause of union4     
,and they call the honourable the       
perfect good1 because it has naturally  
all the numbers which are required by   

nature1 and because it discloses  a     
perfect harmony4 ,now1 the species of   
this perfect good are four in  number3  
justice1 manly courage1 temperance1 and 
knowledge2 for in these  goods all      
beautiful actions have their            
accomplishment4 ,and analogously1  there
 are also four species of the           
disgraceful3 injustice1 and cowardice1  
and intemperance1 and folly4 ,and the   
honourable is predicated in one  sense1 
as making those who are possessed of it 
worthy of all praise2 and  in a second  
sense1 it is used of what is well       
adapted by nature for its  proper work2 
and in another sense1 when it expresses 
that which adorns a  man1 as when we say
 that the wise man alone is good and    
honourable4    ,the ,stoics also say1   
that the beautiful is the only good1 as 
,hecaton  says1 in the third book of his
 treatise on ,goods1 and ,chrysippus    
asserts  the same principle in his      
essays on the ,beautiful4 ,and they say 
that this  is virtue1 and that which    

partakes of virtue2 and this assertion  
is equal  to the other1 that everything 
good is beautiful1 and that the good is 
an  equivalent term to the beautiful1   
inasmuch as the one thing is exactly    
equal to the other4 ,for since it is    
good1 it is beautiful2 and it is        
beautiful1 therefore1 it is good4       
,,lx4 ,but it seems that all goods are  
equal1 and that every good is to be     
desired in the highest degree1 and that 
it admits of no relaxation1 and  of no  
extension4 ,moreover1 they divide all   
existing things into good1  bad1 and    
indifferent4 ,the good are the virtues1 
prudence1 justice1 manly  courage1      
temperance1 and the rest of the like    
qualities4 ,the bad are the  contraries1
 folly1 injustice1 and the like4 ,those 
are indifferent which  are neither      
beneficial nor injurious1 such as life1 
health1 pleasure1  beauty1 strength1    
riches1 a good reputation1 nobility of  
birth2 and their  contraries1 death1    
disease1 labour1 disgrace1 weakness1    

poverty1 a bad  reputation1 baseness of 
birth1 and the like2 as ,hecaton lays it
 down in  the seventh book of his       
treatise on the ,chief ,good2 and he is 
followed by  ,apollodorus1 in his       
,ethics1 and by ,chrysippus4 ,for they  
affirm that those  things are not good  
but indifferent1 though perhaps a little
 more near to  one species than to the  
other4    ,for1 as it is the property of
 the hot to warm and not to chill one1  
so  it is the property of the good to   
benefit and not to injure one4 ,now1    
wealth and good health cannot be said to
 benefit any more than to injure  any   
one3 therefore1 neither wealth nor good 
health are goods4 ,again1  they say that
 that thing is not good which it is     
possible to use both  well and ill4 ,but
 it is possible to make either a good or
 a bad use of  wealth1 or of health2    
therefore1 wealth and good health are   
not goods4  ,posidonius1 however1       
affirms that these things do come under 
the head of  goods4 ,but ,hecaton1 in   

the nineteenth book of his treatise on  
,goods1 and  ,chrysippus1 in his        
treatises on ,pleasure1 both deny that  
pleasure is a  good4 ,for they say that 
there are disgraceful pleasures1 and    
that nothing  disgraceful is good4 ,and 
that to benefit a person is to move him 
or to  keep him according to virtue1 but
 to injure him is to move him or to keep
  him according to vice4    ,they also  
assert1 that things indifferent are so  
spoken of in a twofold  manner2 firstly1
 those things are called so1 which have 
no influence in  producing either       
happiness or unhappiness2 such for      
instance1 as riches1  glory1 health1    
strength1 and the like2 for it is       
possible for a man to  be happy without 
any of these things2 and also1 it is    
upon the character  of the use that is  
made of them1 that happiness or         
unhappiness depends4  ,in another sense1
 those things are called indifferent1   
which do not  excite any inclination or 
aversion1 as for instance1 the fact of a

 man's  having an odd or an even number 
of hairs on his head1 or his putting    
out or drawing back his finger2 for it  
is not in this sense that the  things   
previously mentioned are called         
indifferent1 for they do excite         
inclination or aversion4 ,on which      
account some of them are chosen1 though 
there is equal reason for preferring or 
shunning all the others4    ,,lxi4      
,again1 of things indifferent1 they call
 some preferred 771  and others rejected
 774 ,those are preferred1 which have   
some  proper value 771 and those are    
rejected1 which have no value at all  7 
74 ,and by the term proper value1 they  
mean that quality  of things1 which     
causes them to concur in producing a    
well-regulated  life2 and in this sense1
 every good has a proper value4 ,again1 
they  say that a thing has value1 when  
in some point of view1 it has a sort  of
 intermediate power of aiding us to live
 conformably to nature2 and  under this 
class1 we may range riches or good      

health1 if they give any  assistance to 
natural life4 ,again1 value is          
predicated of the price  which one gives
 for the attainment of an object1 which 
some one1 who  has experience of the    
object sought1 fixes as its fair price2 
as if we  were to say1 for instance1    
that as some wheat was to be exchanged  
for  barley1 with a mule thrown in to   
make up the difference4 ,those goods    
then are preferred1 which have a value1 
as in the case of the mental  goods1    
ability1 skill1 improvement1 and the    
like2 and in the case of the  corporeal 
goods1 life1 health1 strength1 a good   
constitution1 soundness1  beauty2 and in
 the case of external goods1 riches1    
glory1 nobility of  birth1 and the like4
    ,rejected things are1 in the case of
 qualities of the mind1 stupidity1      
unskilfulness1 and the like2 in the case
 of circumstances affecting  the body1  
death1 disease1 weakness1 a bad         
constitution1 mutilation1  disgrace1 and
 the like2 in the case of external      

circumstances1 poverty1  want of        
reputation1 ignoble birth1 and the like4
 ,but those qualities  and circumstances
 which are indifferent1 are neither     
preferred nor  rejected4 ,again1 of     
things preferred1 some are preferred for
 their own  sakes1 some for the sake of 
other things1 and some partly for their 
own  sakes and partly for that of other 
things4 ,those which are preferred for  
their own sakes1 are ability1           
improvement1 and the like2 those which  
are  preferred for the sake of other    
things1 are wealth1 nobility of birth1  
and the like2 those which are preferred 
partly for their own sake1 and  partly  
for that of something else1 are         
strength1 vigour of the senses1         
universal soundness1 and the like2 for  
they are preferred1 for their own       
sakes1 inasmuch as they are in          
accordance with nature2 and for the sake
  of something else1 inasmuch as they   
are productive of no small number of    
advantages2 and the same is the case in 

the inverse ratio1 with those  things   
which are rejected4    ,,lxii4 ,again1  
they say that that is duty1 which is    
preferred1 and which  contains in itself
 reasonable arguments why we should     
prefer it2 as  for instance1 its        
corresponding to the nature of life     
itself2 and this  argument extends to   
plants and animals1 for even their      
nature is subject  to the obligation of 
certain duties4 ,and duty 7 7 had this  
name  given to it by ,zeno1 in the first
 instance1 its appellation being derived
  from its coming to1 or according to   
some people1      2 and its effect is   
something kindred to the preparations   
made by  nature4 ,now of the things done
 according to inclination1 some are     
duties1  and some are contrary to duty2 
and some are neither duties nor contrary
  to duty4 ,those are duties1 which     
reason selects to do1 as for instance1  
to honour one's parents1 one's brothers1
 one's country1 to gratify one's        
friends4 ,those actions are contrary to 

duty1 which reason does not  choose2 as 
for instance1 to neglect one's parents1 
to be indifferent to  one's brothers1 to
 shirk assisting one's friends1 to be   
careless about  the welfare of one's    
country1 and so on4 ,those are neither  
duties1 nor  contrary to duty1 which    
reason neither selects to do1 nor1 on   
the other  hand1 repudiates1 such       
actions1 for instance1 as to pick up    
straw1 to  hold a pen1 or a comb1 or    
things of that sort4    ,again1 there   
are some duties which do not depend on  
circumstances1 and  some which do4      
,these do not depend on circumstances1  
to take care of  one's health1 and of   
the sound state of one's senses1 and the
 like4 ,those  which do depend on       
circumstances1 are the mutilation of    
one's members1  the sacrificing of one's
 property1 and so on4 ,and the case of  
those  actions which are contrary to    
duty1 is similar4 ,again1 of duties1    
some  are always such1 and some are not 
always4 ,what is always a duty1 is to   

live in accordance with virtue2 but to  
ask questions1 to give answers1 to      
walk1 and the like1 are not always      
duties4 ,and the same statement holds   
good with respect to acts contrary to   
duty4    ,there is also a class of      
intermediate duties1 such as the duty of
 boys  obeying their masters4           
,,lxiii4 ,the ,stoics also say that the 
mind is divisible into eight parts2  for
 that the five organs of sensation1 and 
the vocal power1 and the  intellectual  
power1 which is the mind itself1 and the
 generative power1  are all parts of the
 mind4 ,but by error1 there is produced 
a perversion  which operates on the     
intellect1 from which many perturbations
 arise1 and  many causes of inconstancy4
 ,and all perturbation is itself1       
according  to ,zeno1 a movement of the  
mind1 or superfluous inclination1 which 
is  irrational1 and contrary to nature4 
,moreover1 of the superior class of     
perturbations1 as ,hecaton says1 in the 
second book of his treatise on  the     

,passions1 and as ,zeno also says in his
 work on the ,passions1 there  are four 
kinds1 grief1 fear1 desire1 and         
pleasure4 ,and they consider  that these
 perturbations are judgments1 as        
,chrysippus contends in his  work on the
 ,passions2 for covetousness is an      
opinion that money is a  beautiful      
object1 and in like manner drunkenness  
and intemperance1 and  other things of  
the sort1 are judgments4 ,and grief they
 define to be an  irrational contraction
 of the mind1 and it is divided into the
 following  species1 pity1 envy1        
emulation1 jealousy1 pain1 perturbation1
 sorrow1  anguish1 confusion4 ,pity is a
 grief over some one1 on the ground of  
his  being in undeserved distress4 ,envy
 is a grief1 at the good fortune of     
another4 ,emulation is a grief at that  
belonging to some one else1 which  one  
desires one's self4 ,jealousy is a grief
 at another also having what  one has   
one's self4 ,pain is a grief which      
weighs one down4 ,perturbation  is grief

 which narrows one1 and causes one to   
feel in a strait4 ,sorrow  is a grief   
arising from deliberate thought1 which  
endures for some  time1 and gradually   
increases4 ,anguish is a grief with     
acute pain4  ,confusion is an irrational
 grief1 which frets one1 and prevents   
one from  clearly discerning present    
circumstances4 ,but fear is the         
expectation  of evil2 and the following 
feelings are all classed under the head 
of  fear3 apprehension1 hesitation1     
shame1 perplexity1 trepidation1 and     
anxiety4 ,apprehension is a fear which  
produces alarm4 ,shame is a fear  of    
discredit4 ,hesitation is a fear of     
coming activity4 ,perplexity is a  fear1
 from the imagination of some unusual   
thing4 ,trepidation is a fear           
accompanied with an oppression of the   
voice4 ,anxiety is a fear of some       
uncertain event4    ,again1 desire is an
 irrational appetite2 to which head1 the
 following  feelings are referrible3    
want1 hatred1 contentiousness1 anger1   

love1  enmity1 rage4 ,want is a desire  
arising from our not having something   
or other1 and is1 as it were1 separated 
from the thing1 but is still            
stretching1 and attracted towards it in 
vain4 ,and hatred is a desire that  it  
should be ill with some one1 accompanied
 with a certain continual  increase and 
extension4 ,contentiousness is a certain
 desire accompanied  with deliberate    
choice4 ,anger is a desire of revenge1  
on a person who  appears to have injured
 one in an unbecoming way4 ,love is a   
desire not  conversant about a virtuous 
object1 for it is an attempt to         
conciliate  affection1 because of some  
beauty which is seen4 ,enmity is a      
certain  anger of long duration1 and    
full of hatred1 and it is a watchful    
passion1  as is shown in the following  
lines3--        ,for though we deem the 
short-liv'd fury past1      ',tis sure  
the mighty will revenge at last4#ij     
,but rage is anger at its commencement4 
,again1 pleasure is an irrational       

elation of the mind over something      
which appears to be desirable2 and its  
different species are enjoyment1        
rejoicing at evil1 delight1 and         
extravagant joy4 ,enjoyment now1 is a   
pleasure which charms the mind through  
the ears4 ,rejoicing at evil  771 is a  
pleasure which arises at the misfortunes
 of others4  ,delight 771 that is to say
 turning 771 is a certain turning  of   
the soul 7  71 to softness4 ,extravagant
 joy is the  dissolution of virtue4 ,and
 as there are said to be some sicknesses
  771 in the body1 as1 for instance1    
gout and arthritic  disorders2 so too   
are those diseases of the soul1 such as 
a fondness for  glory1 or for pleasure1 
and other feelings of that sort4 ,for an
   is a disease accompanied with        
weakness2 and a disease is an opinion of
  something which appears exceedingly   
desirable4 ,and1 as in the case of the  
body1 there are illnesses to which      
people are especially liable1 such as   
colds or diarrha2 so also are there     

propensities which the mind is under    
the influence of1 such as enviousness1  
pitifulness1 quarrelsomeness1 and  so   
on4    ,there are also three good       
dispositions of the mind2 joy1 caution1 
and  will4 ,and joy they say is the     
opposite of pleasure1 since it is a     
rational elation of the mind2 so caution
 is the opposite of fear1 being  a      
rational avoidance of anything1 for the 
wise man will never be afraid1  but he  
will act with caution2 and will1 they   
define as the opposite of  desire1 since
 it is a rational wish4 ,as therefore   
some things fall under  the class of the
 first perturbations1 in the same manner
 do some things  fall under the class of
 the first good dispositions4 ,and      
accordingly1  under the head of will1   
are classed goodwill1 placidity1        
salutation1  affection2 and under the   
head of caution are ranged reverence and
  modesty2 under the head of joy1 we    
speak of delight1 mirth1 and good       
spirits4    ,,lxiv4 ,they say also1 that

 the wise man is free from              
perturbations1  because he has no strong
 propensities4 ,but that this freedom   
from  propensities also exists in the   
bad man1 being1 however1 then quite     
another thing1 inasmuch as it proceeds  
in him only from the hardness and       
unimpressibility of his nature4 ,they   
also pronounce the wise man free  from  
vanity1 since he regards with equal eye 
what is glorious and what is            
inglorious4 ,at the same time1 they     
admit that there is another character   
devoid of vanity1 who1 however1 is only 
reckoned one of the rash men1  being in 
fact the bad man4 ,they also say that   
all the virtuous men are  austere1      
because they do never speak with        
reference to pleasure1 nor do  they     
listen to what is said by others with   
reference to pleasure4 ,at the  same    
time1 they call another man austere too1
 using the term in nearly  the same     
sense as they do when they speak of     
austere wine1 which is used  in         

compounding medicines1 but not for      
drinking4    ,they also pronounce the   
wise to be honest-hearted men1 anxiously
  attending to those matters which may  
make them better1 by means of some      
principle which conceals what is bad1   
and brings to light what is good4  ,nor 
is there any hypocrisy about them2 for  
they cut off all pretence in  their     
voice and appearance4 ,they also keep   
aloof from business2 for they  guard    
carefully against doing any thing       
contrary to their duty4 ,they  drink    
wine1 but they do not get drunk2 and    
they never yield to frenzy4             
,occasionally1 extraordinary            
imaginations may obtain a momentary     
power  over them1 owing to some         
melancholy or trifling1 arising not     
according to  the principle of what is  
desirable1 but contrary to nature4 ,nor1
 again1  will the wise man feel grief2  
because grief is an irrational          
contraction  of the soul1 as            
,apollodorus defines it in his ,ethics4 

,they are also1 as they say1 godlike2   
for they have something in them  which  
is as it were a ,god4 ,but the bad man  
is an atheist4 ,now there are  two kinds
 of atheists2 one who speaks in a spirit
 of hostility to1 and  the other1 who   
utterly disregards1 the divine nature2  
but they admit  that all bad men are not
 atheists in this last sense4 ,the good1
 on the  contrary1 are pious2 for they  
have a thorough acquaintance with the   
laws  respecting the ,gods4 ,and piety  
is a knowledge of the proper reverence  
and worship due to the ,gods4 ,moreover 
they sacrifice to the ,gods1 and  keep  
themselves pure2 for they avoid all     
offences having reference to  the ,gods1
 and the ,gods admire them2 for they are
 holy and just in all  that concerns the
 ,deity2 and the wise men are the only  
priests2 for they  consider the matters 
relating to sacrifices1 and the erection
 of temples1  and purifications1 and all
 other things which peculiarly concern  
the  ,gods4 ,they also pronounce that   

men are bound to honour their parents1  
and their brethren1 in the second place 
after the ,gods4 ,they also say  that   
parental affection for one's children is
 natural to them1 and is a  feeling     
which does not exist in bad men4 ,and   
they lay down the position  that all    
offences are equal1 as ,chrysippus      
argues in the fourth book of  his ,ethic
 ,questions1 and so say ,persus and     
,zeno4 ,for if one thing that  is true  
is not more true than another thing that
 is true1 neither is one  thing that is 
false more false than another thing that
 is false2 so too1  one deceit is not   
greater than another1 nor one sin than  
another4 ,for the  man who is a hundred 
furlongs from ,canopus1 and the man who 
is only one1  are both equally not in   
,canopus2 and so too1 he who commits a  
greater  sin1 and he who commits a less1
 are both equally not in the right path4
    ,heraclides of ,tarsus1 indeed1 the 
friend of ,antipater1 of ,tarsus1 and   
,athenodorus1 both assert that offences 

are not equal4    ,again1 the ,stoics1  
as for instance1 ,chrysippus1 in the    
first book of his  work on ,lives1 say1 
that the wise man will take a part in   
the affairs of  the state1 if nothing   
hinders him4 ,for that he will restrain 
vice1 and  excite men to virtue4 ,also1 
they say that he will marry1 as ,zeno   
says1  in his ,republic1 and beget      
children4 ,moreover1 that the wise man  
will  never form mere opinions1 that is 
to say1 he will never agree to anything 
that is false2 and that he will become a
 ,cynic2 for that ,cynicism is a  short 
path to virtue1 as ,apollodorus calls it
 in his ,ethics2 that he  will even eat 
human flesh1 if there should be         
occasion2 that he is the  only free man1
 and that the bad are slaves2 for that  
freedom is a power  of independent      
action1 but slavery a deprivation of the
 same4 ,that there  is besides1 another 
slavery1 which consists in subjection1  
and a third  which consists in          
possession and subjection2 the contrary 

of which is  masterhood1 which is       
likewise bad4    ,and they say1 that not
 only are the wise free1 but that they  
are also  kings1 since kingly power is  
an irresponsible dominion1 which can    
only  exist in the case of the wise man1
 as ,chrysippus says in his treatise  on
 the ,proper ,application of his ,terms 
made by ,zeno2 for he says that  a ruler
 ought to give decisions on good and    
evil1 and that none of the  wicked      
understand these things4 ,in the same   
way1 they assert that they  are the only
 people who are fit to be magistrates or
 judges1 or orators1  and that none of  
the bad are qualified for these tasks4  
,moreover1 that  they are free from all 
error1 in consequence of their not being
 prone to  any wrong actions4 ,also1    
that they are unconnected with injury1  
for that  they never injure any one     
else1 nor themselves4 ,also1 that they  
are not  pitiful1 and that they never   
make allowance for any one2 for that    
they do  not relax the punishments      

appointed by law1 since yielding1 and   
pity1 and  mercifulness itself1 never   
exist in any of their souls1 so as to   
induce  an affectation of kindness in   
respect of punishment2 nor do they ever 
think any punishment too severe4 ,again1
 they say that the wise man never       
wonders at any of the things which      
appear extraordinary2 as for instance1  
at the stories about ,charon1 or the    
ebbing of the tide1 or the springs  of  
hot water1 or the bursting forth of     
flames4 ,but1 say they further1  the    
wise man will not live in solitude2 for 
he is by nature sociable and  practical4
 ,accordingly1 he will take exercise for
 the sake of hardening  and invigorating
 his body4 ,and the wise man will pray1 
asking good things  from the ,gods1 as  
,posidonius says in the first book of   
his treatise on  ,duties1 and ,hecaton  
says the same thing in the thirteenth   
book of his  treatise on ,extraordinary 
,things4    ,they also say1 that        
friendship exists in the virtuous alone1

 on account  of their resemblance to one
 another4 ,and they describe friendship 
itself  as a certain communion of the   
things which concern life1 since we use 
our friends as ourselves4 ,and they     
assert that a friend is desirable for   
his own sake1 and that a number of      
friends is a good2 and that among the   
wicked there is no such thing as        
friendship1 and that no wicked man can  
have a friend4    ,again1 they say that 
all the foolish are mad2 for that they  
are not  prudent1 and that madness is   
equivalent to folly in every one of its 
actions2 but that the wise man does     
everything properly1 just as we say     
that ,ismenias can play every piece of  
flute-music well4 ,also1 they say  that 
everything belongs to the wise man1 for 
that the law has given them  perfect and
 universal power2 but some things also  
are said to belong to  the wicked1 just 
in the same manner as some things are   
said to belong  to the unjust1 or as a  
house is said to belong to a city in a  

different  sense from that in which a   
thing belongs to the person who uses it4
    ,,lxv4 ,and they say that virtues   
reciprocally follow one another1 and    
that  he who has one has all2 for that  
the precepts of them all are common1  as
 ,chrysippus affirms in the first book  
of his treatise on ,laws2 and           
,apollodorus1 in his ,natural           
,philosophy1 according to the ancient   
system2  and ,hecaton1 in the third book
 of his treatise on ,virtues4 ,for they 
say that the man who is endued with     
virtue1 is able to consider and  also to
 do what must be done4 ,but what must be
 done must be chosen1 and  encountered1 
and distributed1 and awaited2 so that if
 the man does some  things by deliberate
 choice1 and some in a spirit of        
endurance1 and some  distributively1 and
 some patiently2 he is prudent1 and     
courageous1 and  just1 and temperate4   
,and each of the virtues has a          
particular subject  of its own1 about   
which it is conversant2 as1 for         

instance1 courage is  conversant about  
the things which must be endured3       
prudence is conversant  about what must 
be done and what must not1 and what is  
of a neutral  or indifferent character4 
,and in like manner1 the other virtues  
are  conversant about their own peculiar
 subjects2 and wisdom in counsel and    
shrewdness follow prudence2 and good    
order and decorum follow temperance2    
and equality and goodness of judgment   
follow justice2 and constancy and       
energy follow courage4    ,another      
doctrine of the ,stoics is1 that there  
is nothing intermediate  between virtue 
and vice2 while the ,peripatetics assert
 that there is a  stage between virtue  
and vice1 being an improvement on vice  
which has not  yet arrived at virtue4   
,for the ,stoics say1 that as a stick   
must be either  straight or crooked1 so 
a man must be either just or unjust1 and
 cannot  be more just than just1 or more
 unjust than unjust2 and that the same  
rule applies to all cases4 ,moreover1   

,chrysippus is of opinion that virtue   
can be lost1 but ,cleanthes affirms that
 it cannot2 the one saying that it  can 
be lost by drunkenness or melancholy1   
the other maintaining that it  cannot be
 lost on account of the firm perceptions
 which it implants in  men4 ,they also  
pronounce it a proper object of choice2 
accordingly1 we  are ashamed of actions 
which we do improperly1 while we are    
aware that  what is honourable is the   
only good4 ,again1 they affirm that it  
is of  itself sufficient for happiness1 
as ,zeno says1 and he is followed in    
this  assertion by ,chrysippus in the   
first book of his treatise on ,virtues1 
and  by ,hecaton in the second book of  
his treatise on ,goods4    8,for if10   
says he1 8magnanimity be sufficient of  
itself to enable us to  act in a manner 
superior to all other men2 and if that  
is a part of  virtue1 then virtue is of 
itself sufficient for happiness1        
despising all  things which seem        
troublesome to it40 ,however1 ,pantius  

and ,posidonius  do not admit that      
virtue has this sufficiency of itself1  
but say that  there is also need of good
 health1 and competency1 and strength4  
,and  their opinion is that a man       
exercises virtue in everything1 as      
,cleanthes  asserts1 for it cannot be   
lost2 and the virtuous man on every     
occasion  exercises his soul1 which is  
in a state of perfection4    ,,lxvi4    
,again1 they say that justice exists by 
nature1 and not because  of any         
definition or principle2 just as law    
does1 or right reason1 as  ,chrysippus  
tells us in his treatise on the         
,beautiful2 and they think  that one    
ought not to abandon philosophy on      
account of the different  opinions      
prevailing among philosophers1 since on 
this principle one would  wholly quit   
life1 as ,posidonius argues in his      
,exhortatory ,essays4 ,another  doctrine
 of ,chrysippus is1 that general        
learning is very useful4    ,and the    
,school in general maintain that there  

are no obligations of  justice binding  
on us with reference to other animals1  
on account of  their dissimilarity to   
us1 as ,chrysippus asserts in the first 
book of his  treatise on ,justice1 and  
the same opinion is maintained by       
,posidonius  in the first book of his   
treatise on ,duty4 ,they say too1 that  
the wise  man will love those young men1
 who by their outward appearance1 show a
  natural aptitude for virtue2 and this 
opinion is advanced by ,zeno1 in  his   
,republic1 and by ,chrysippus in the    
first book of his work on ,lives1  and  
by ,apollodorus in his ,ethics4 ,and    
they describe love as an endeavour  to  
benefit a friend on account of his      
visible beauty2 and that it is an       
attribute not of acquaintanceship1 but  
of friendship4 ,accordingly1 that       
,thrasonides1 although he had his       
mistress in his power1 abstained from   
her1 because he was hated by her4 ,love1
 therefore1 according to them is a  part
 of friendship1 as ,chrysippus asserts  

in his essay on ,love2 and it is  not   
blameable4 ,moreover1 beauty is the     
flower of virtue4    ,and as there are  
three kinds of lives2 the theoretical1  
the practical1  and the logical2 they   
say that the last is the one which ought
 to be  chosen4 ,for that a logical1    
that is a rational1 animal was made by  
nature  on purpose for speculation and  
action4 ,and they say that a wise man   
will  very rationally take himself out  
of life1 either for the sake of his     
country or of his friends1 or if he be  
in bitter pain1 or under the  affliction
 of mutilation1 or incurable disease4   
,and they also teach that  women ought  
to be in common among the wise1 so that 
whoever meets with  any one may enjoy   
her1 and this doctrine is maintained by 
,zeno in his  ,republic1 and by         
,chrysippus in his treatise on ,polity1 
and by ,diogenes  the ,cynic1 and by    
,plato2 and then1 say they1 we shall    
love all boys  equally after the manner 
of fathers1 and all suspicion on the    

ground of  undue familiarity will be    
removed4    ,they affirm too1 that the  
best of political constitutions is a    
mixed one1  combined of democracy1 and  
kingly power1 and aristocracy4 ,and they
 say  many things of this sort1 and more
 too1 in their ,ethical ,dogmas1 and    
they  maintain them by suitable         
explanations and arguments4 ,but this   
may be  enough for us to say of their   
doctrines on this head by way of        
summary1  and taking them in an         
elementary manner4    ,,lxvii4 ,they    
divide natural philosophy into the      
topics of bodies1 and  of principles1   
and of elements1 and of ,gods1 and of   
boundaries1 and of  place1 and of the   
vacuum4 ,and they make these divisions  
according to  species2 but according to 
genera they divide them into three      
topics1  that of the world1 that of the 
elements1 and the third is that which   
reasons on causes4 ,the topic about the 
world1 they say1 is subdivided  into two
 parts4 ,for that in one point of view1 

the mathematicians also  have a share in
 it2 and according to it it is that they
 prosecute their  investigations into   
the nature of the fixed stars and the   
planets2 as1  for instance1 whether the 
sun is of such a size as he appears to  
be1 and  similarly1 whether the moon is2
 and in the same way they investigate   
the question of spherical motion1 and   
others of the same character4 ,the      
other point of view is that which is    
reserved exclusively for natural        
philosophers1 according to which it is  
that the existence and substance  of    
things are examined1 for instance1      
whether the sun and the stars  consist  
of matter and form1 and whether the sun 
is born or not born1  whether it is     
living or lifeless1 corruptible or      
incorruptible1 whether  it is regulated 
by ,providence1 and other questions of  
this kind4    ,the topic which examines 
into causes they say is also divisible  
into  two parts2 and with reference to  
one of its considerations1 the          

investigations of physicians partake of 
it2 according to which it is  that they 
investigate the dominant principle of   
the soul1 and the  things which exist in
 the soul1 and seeds1 and things of this
 kind4  ,and its other division is      
claimed as belonging to them also by the
  mathematicians1 as1 for instance1 how 
we see1 what is the cause of our        
appearance being reflected in a mirror1 
how clouds are collected1 how  thunder  
is produced1 and the rainbow1 and the   
halo1 and comets1 and  things of that   
kind4    ,,lxviii4 ,they think that     
there are two general principles in the 
universe1  the active and the passive4  
,that the passive is matter1 an         
existence  without any distinctive      
quality4 ,that the active is the reason 
which  exists in the passive1 that is to
 say1 ,god4 ,for that he1 being eternal1
  and existing throughout all matter1   
makes everything4 ,and ,zeno1 the       
,cittian1 lays down this doctrine in his
 treatise on ,essence1 and so does      

,cleanthes in his essay on ,atoms1      
,chrysippus in the first book of his    
,investigations in ,natural ,philosophy1
 towards the end1 ,archedemus in his    
work on ,elements1 and ,posidonius in   
the second book of his treatise on      
,natural ,philosophy4 ,but they say that
 principles and elements differ from    
one another4 ,for that the one had no   
generation or beginning1 and will  have 
no end2 but that the elements may be    
destroyed by the operation of  fire4    
,also1 that the elements are bodies1 but
 principles have no bodies  and no      
forms1 and elements too have forms4     
,now a body1 says ,apollodorus in his   
,natural ,philosophy1 is extended in  a 
threefold manner2 in length1 in breadth1
 in depth2 and then it is  called a     
solid body2 and the superficies is the  
limit of the body having  length and    
breadth alone1 but not depth4 ,but      
,posidonius1 in the third  book of his  
,heavenly ,phnomena1 will not allow a   
superficies either  any substantial     

reality1 or any intelligible existence4 
,a line is the  limit of a superficies1 
or length without breadth1 or something 
which  has nothing but length4 ,a point 
is the boundary of a line1 and is the   
smallest of all symbols4    ,they also  
teach that ,god is unity1 and that he is
 called ,mind1 and ,fate1  and ,jupiter1
 and by many other names besides4 ,and  
that1 as he was in the  beginning by    
himself1 he turned into water the whole 
substance which  pervaded the air2 and  
as the seed is contained in the produce1
 so too1 he  being the seminal principle
 of the world1 remained behind in       
moisture1  making matter fit to be      
employed by himself in the production of
 those  things which were to come after2
 and then1 first of all1 he made the    
four elements1 fire1 water1 air1 and    
earth4 ,and ,zeno speaks of these in    
his treatise on the ,universe1 and so   
does ,chrysippus in the first book of   
his ,physics1 and so does ,archedemus in
 some treatise on the ,elements4        

,,lxix4 ,now an element is that out of  
which at first all things which are  are
 produced1 and into which all things are
 resolved at last4 ,and the  four       
elements are all equally an essence     
without any distinctive quality1        
namely1 matter2 but fire is the hot1    
water the moist1 air the cold1 and      
earth the dry--though this last quality 
is also common to the air4 ,the  fire is
 the highest1 and that is called ther1  
in which first of all the  sphere was   
generated in which the fixed stars are  
set1 then that in which  the planets    
revolve2 after that the air1 then the   
water2 and the sediment  as it were of  
all is the earth1 which is placed in the
 centre of the rest4    ,,lxx4 ,they    
also speak of the world in a threefold  
sense2 at one time  meaning ,god        
himself1 whom they call a being of a    
certain quality1 having  for his        
peculiar manifestation universal        
substance1 a being imperishable1  and   
who never had any generation1 being the 

maker of the arrangement and  order that
 we see2 and who1 after certain periods 
of time1 absorbs all  substance in      
himself1 and then re-produces it from   
himself4 ,and this  arrangement of the  
stars they call the world1 and so the   
third sense  is one composed of both the
 preceding ones4 ,and the world is a    
thing  which is peculiarly of such and  
such a quality consisting of universal  
substance1 as ,posidonius affirms in his
 ,meteorological ,elements1 being a     
system compounded of heaven and earth1  
and all the creatures which exist  in   
them2 or it may be called a system      
compounded of ,gods and men1 and of  the
 things created on their account4 ,and  
the heaven is the most remote           
circumference of the world1 in which all
 the ,divine ,nature is situated4       
,again1 the world is inhabited and      
regulated according to intellect  and   
providence1 as ,chrysippus says1 in his 
works on ,providence1 and  ,posidonius  
in the thirteenth book of his treatise  

on ,gods1 since mind  penetrates into   
every part of the world1 just as the    
soul pervades us2  but it is in a       
greater degree in some parts1 and in a  
less degree in  others4 ,for instance1  
it penetrates as a habit1 as1 for       
instance1 into  the bones and sinews2   
and into some it penetrates as the mind 
does1 for  instance1 into the dominant  
principle4 ,and thus the whole world1   
being  a living thing1 endowed with a   
soul and with reason1 has the ther as   
its dominant principle1 as ,antipater1  
of ,tyre1 says in the eighth book  of   
his treatise on the ,world4 ,but        
,chrysippus1 in the first book of his   
essay on ,providence1 and ,posidonius in
 his treatise on ,gods1 say that the    
heaven is the dominant principle of the 
world2 and ,cleanthes attributes  this  
to the sun4 ,chrysippus1 however1 on    
this point contradicts himself2  for he 
says in another place1 that the most    
subtle portion of the ther1  which is   
also called by the ,stoics the first    

,god1 is what is infused in  a sensible 
manner into all the beings which are in 
the air1 and through  every animal and  
every plant1 and through the earth      
itself according to a  certain habit2   
and that it is this which communicates  
to them the faculty  of feeling4        
,they say too1 that the world is one and
 also finite1 having a spherical  form4 
,for that such a shape is the most      
convenient for motion1 as  ,posidonius  
says1 in the fifteenth book of his      
,discussions on ,natural  ,philosophy1  
and so says ,antipater also in his essay
 on the ,world4 ,and  on the outside    
there is diffused around it a boundless 
vacuum1 which is  incorporeal4 ,and it  
is incorporeal inasmuch1 as it is       
capable of being  contained by bodies1  
but is not so4 ,and that there is no    
such thing as  a vacuum in the world1   
but that it is all closely united and   
compact2  for that this condition is    
necessarily brought about by the concord
  and harmony which exist between the   

heavenly bodies and those of the  earth4
 ,and ,chrysippus mentions a vacuum in  
his essay on a ,vacuum1 and  also in the
 first book of his treatise on the      
,physical ,arts1 and so  does           
,apollophanes in his ,natural           
,philosophy1 and so does ,apollodorus1  
and so does ,posidonius in the second   
book of his discourses on ,natural      
,philosophy4 ,and they say that these   
things are all incorporeal1 and all     
alike4 ,moreover1 that time is          
incorporeal1 since it is an interval of 
the  motion of the world4 ,and that of  
time1 the past and the future are both  
illimitable1 but the present is limited4
 ,and they assert that the world  is    
perishable1 inasmuch as it was produced 
by reason1 and is one of the  things    
which are perceptible by the senses2 and
 whatever has its parts  perishable1    
must also be perishable in the whole4   
,and the parts of the  world are        
perishable1 for they change into one    
another4 ,therefore1 the  whole world is

 perishable4 ,and again1 if anything    
admits of a change for  the worse it is 
perishable2 therefore1 the world is     
perishable1 for it  can be dried up1 and
 it can be covered with water4    ,now  
the world was created when its substance
 was changed from fire to  moisture1 by 
the action of the air2 and then its     
denser parts coagulated1  and so the    
earth was made1 and the thinner portions
 were evaporated and  became air2 and   
this being rarefied more and more1      
produced fire4 ,and  then1 by the       
combination of all these elements1 were 
produced plants and  animals1 and other 
kinds of things4 ,now ,zeno speaks of   
the creation1 and  of the destruction of
 the world1 in his treatise on the      
,universe1 and so  does ,cleanthes1 and 
so does ,antipater1 in the tenth book of
 his treatise  on the ,world4 ,but      
,pantius asserts that the world is      
imperishable4    ,again1 that the world 
is an animal1 and that it is endued with
 reason1  and life1 and intellect1 is   

affirmed by ,chrysippus1 in the first   
volume  of his treatise on ,providence1 
and by ,apollodorus in his ,natural     
,philosophy1 and by ,posidonius2 and    
that it is an animal in this sense1  as 
being an essence endued with life1 and  
with sensation4 ,for that which  is an  
animal1 is better than that which is not
 an animal4 ,but nothing is  better than
 the world2 therefore the world is an   
animal4 ,and it is endued  with life1 as
 is plain from the fact of our own soul 
being as it were  a fragment broken off 
from it4 ,but ,boethus denies that the  
world is an  animal4    ,again1 that the
 world is one1 is affirmed by ,zeno1 in 
his treatise on  the ,universe1 and by  
,chrysippus1 and by ,apollodorus1 in his
 ,natural  ,philosophy1 and by          
,posidonius1 in the first book of his   
,discourses  on ,natural ,philosophy4   
,and by the term1 the universe1         
according to  ,apollodorus1 is          
understood both the world itself1 and   
also the whole of  the world itself1 and

 of the exterior vacuum taken together4 
,the world1  then1 is finite1 and the   
vacuum infinite4    ,,lxxi4 ,of the     
stars1 those which are fixed are only   
moved in connection  with the movements 
of the entire heaven2 but the planets   
move according  to their own peculiar   
and separate motions4 ,and the sun takes
 an oblique  path through the circle of 
the zodiac1 and in the same manner also 
does  the moon1 which is of a winding   
form4 ,and the sun is pure fire1 as     
,posidonius asserts in the seventh book 
of his treatise on the ,heavenly        
,bodies1 and it is larger than the      
earth1 as the same author informs us1   
in the sixteenth book of his            
,disclosures on ,natural ,philosophy4   
,also  it is spherical1 as he says in   
another place1 being made on the same   
principle as the world is4 ,therefore it
 is fire1 because it performs all  the  
functions of fire4 ,and it is larger    
than the earth1 as is proved by  the    
fact of the whole earth being           

illuminated by it1 and also the whole   
heaven4 ,also the fact of the earth     
throwing a conical shadow1 proves that  
the sun is greater than it1 and the sun 
is seen in every part1 because  of its  
magnitude4 ,but the moon is of a more   
earthy nature than the sun1  inasmuch as
 it is nearer the earth4    ,moreover1  
they say that all these fiery bodies1   
and all the other  stars1 receive       
nutriment2 the sun from the vast sea1   
being a sort of  intellectual appendage2
 and the moon from the fresh waters1    
being mingled  with the air1 and also   
near the earth1 as ,posidonius explains 
it in the  sixth book of his ,discourses
 on ,natural ,philosophy4 ,and all the  
other  stars derive their nourishment   
from the earth4 ,they also consider that
  the stars are of a spherical figure1  
and that the earth is immovable4 ,and   
that the moon has not a light of her    
own1 but that she borrows it from  the  
sun4 ,and that the sun is eclipsed1 when
 the moon runs in front of it  on the   

side towards us1 as ,zeno describes in  
his work on the ,universe2  for when it 
comes across it in its passage1 it      
conceals it1 and again it  reveals it2  
and this is a phenomenon easily seen in 
a basin of water4  ,and the moon is     
eclipsed when it comes below the shadow 
of the earth1 on  which account this    
never happens1 except at the time of the
 full moon2  and although it is         
diametrically opposite to the sun every 
month1 still  it is not eclipsed every  
month1 because when its motions are     
obliquely  towards the sun1 it does not 
find itself in the same place as the    
sun1  being either a little more to the 
north1 or a little more to the south4   
,when therefore it is found in the same 
place with the sun1 and with the  other 
intermediate objects1 then it takes as  
it were the diameter of the  sun1 and is
 eclipsed4 ,and its place is along the  
line which runs between  the crab and   
the scorpion1 and the ram and the bull1 
as ,posidonius tells  us4    ,,lxxii4   

,they also say that ,god is an animal   
immortal1 rational1 perfect1  and       
intellectual in his happiness1          
unsusceptible of any kind of evil1      
having a foreknowledge of the world and 
of all that is in the world2  however1  
that he has not the figure of a man2 and
 that he is the creator  of the         
universe1 and as it were1 the ,father of
 all things in common1 and  that a      
portion of him pervades everything1     
which is called by different  names1    
according to its powers2 for they call  
him  as being the person  7' 7          
everything is1 and 1 inasmuch as he is  
the cause of life1  7 71 or because he  
pervades life4 ,and 1 with reference to 
the  extension of his dominant power    
over the ther 7 74 ,and 1  on account of
 his extension through the air 7 74 ,and
 1  on account of his pervading fire1   
which is the chief instrument of art2   
and 1 as pervading moisture1 and 1 as   
pervading the  earth 774 ,and in the    
same way1 regarding some other of his   

peculiar  attributes1 they have given   
him other names4#ia    ,the substance of
 ,god is asserted by ,zeno to be the    
universal world1 and  the heaven2 and   
,chrysippus agrees with this doctrine1  
in his eleventh  book on the ,gods1 and 
so also does ,posidonius1 in the first  
book of his  treatise on the same       
subject4 ,antipater1 in the seventh book
 of his  treatise on the ,world1 says   
that his substance is arial4 ,and       
,boethus1  in his treatise on ,nature1  
calls the substance of ,god the sphere  
of the  fixed stars4    ,,lxxiii4 ,and  
his nature they define to be1 that which
 keeps the world  together1 and         
sometimes that which produces the things
 upon the earth4  ,and nature is a habit
 which derives its movements from       
itself1 perfecting  and holding together
 all that arises out of it1 according to
 the  principles of production1 in      
certain definite periods1 and doing the 
same  as the things from which it is    
separated4 ,and it has for its object1  

suitableness and pleasure1 as is plain  
from its having created man4    ,,lxxiv4
 ,but ,chrysippus1 in his treatise on   
,fate1 and ,posidonius1 in the  second  
book of his work on ,fate1 and ,zeno1   
and ,boethus1 in the eleventh  book of  
his treatise on ,fate1 say1 that all    
things are produced by fate4  ,and fate1
 771 is a connected 77 cause of existing
  things1 or the reason according to    
which the world is regulated4    ,,lxxv4
 ,they also say that divination has a   
universal existence1 since  ,providence 
has2 and they define it as an act on    
account of certain  results1 as ,zeno   
and ,chrysippus1 in the second book of  
his treatise on  ,divination1 and       
,athenodorus and ,posidonius1 in the    
twelfth book of his  discourses on      
,natural ,philosophy1 and in the fifth  
book of his treatise  on ,divination1   
all agree in saying2 for ,pantius denies
 that it has any  certain foundation4   
,,lxxvi4 ,and they say that the         
substance of all existing things is     

,primary  ,matter1 as ,chrysippus       
asserts in the first book of his        
,physics2 and  ,zeno says the same4 ,now
 matter is that from which anything     
whatever is  produced4 ,and it is called
 by a twofold appellation1 essence and  
matter2  the one as relating to all     
things taken together1 and the other to 
things  in particular and separate4 ,the
 one which relates to all things taken  
together1 never becomes either greater  
or less2 but the one relating to  things
 in particular1 does become greater or  
less1 as the case may be4    ,,lxxvii4  
,body is1 according to them1 a substance
 and finite2 as ,antipater  says1 in the
 second book of his treatise on         
,substance2 and ,apollodorus1  in his   
,natural ,philosophy1 agrees with him4  
,it is also subject to change1  as we   
learn from the same author2 for if it   
were immutable1 then the  things which  
have been produced out of it would not  
have been produced2  on which account he
 also says that it is infinitely        

divisible3 but  ,chrysippus denies that 
it is infinite2 for that nothing is     
infinite1  which is divisible at all4   
,,lxxviii4 ,he admits1 however1 that it 
is infinitely divisible1 and that  its  
concretions take place over the whole of
 it1 as he explains in the  third book  
of his ,physics1 and not according to   
any circumference or  juxtaposition2 for
 a little wine when thrown into the sea1
 will keep its  distinctness for a brief
 period1 but after that1 will be lost4  
,,lxxix4 ,they also say that there are  
some ,dmones1 who have a sympathy  with 
mankind1 being surveyors of all human   
affairs2 and that there are  heroes1    
which are the souls of virtuous men1    
which have left their bodies4    ,,lxxx4
 ,of the things which take place in the 
air1 they say that winter is  the effect
 of the air above the earth being       
cooled1 on account of the  retirement of
 the sun to a greater distance than     
before2 that spring is  a good          
temperature of the air1 according to the

 sun's approach towards  us2 that summer
 is the effect of the air above the     
earth being warmed by  the approach of  
the sun towards the north2 that autumn  
is caused by the  retreat of the sun    
from us ''' to those places from which  
they flow4#ib    ,,lxxxi4 ,and the cause
 of the production of the winds is the  
sun1 which  evaporates the clouds4      
,moreover1 the rainbow is the reflexion 
of the  sun's rays from the moist       
clouds1 or1 as ,posidonius explains it  
in his  ,meteorology1 a manifestation of
 a section of the sun or moon1 in a     
cloud  suffused with dew2 being hollow  
and continuous to the sight2 so that it 
is reflected as in a mirror1 under the  
appearance of a circle4 ,and that       
comets1 and bearded stars1 and meteors1 
are fires which have an existence  when 
the density of the air is borne upwards 
to the regions of the ther4    ,that a  
ray of light is a kindling of sudden    
fire1 borne through the air  with great 
rapidity1 and displaying an appearance  

of length2 that rain  proceeds from the 
clouds1 being a transformation of them  
into water1  whenever the moisture which
 is caught up from the earth or from the
 sea1  by the sun1 is not able to be    
otherwise disposed of2 for when it is   
solidified1 it is then called hoar      
frost4 ,and hail is a cloud congealed1  
and subsequently dispersed by the wind4 
,snow is moisture from a congealed      
cloud1 as ,posidonius tells us in the   
eighth book of his discourse on         
,natural ,philosophy4 ,lightning is a   
kindling of the clouds from their  being
 rubbed together1 or else broken asunder
 by the wind1 as ,zeno tells  us in his 
treatise on the ,universe2 and thunder  
is the noise made by them  on the       
occasion of their being rubbed together 
or broken asunder2 and  the thunderbolt 
is a sudden kindling which falls with   
great violence on  the earth1 from the  
clouds being rubbed together or broken  
asunder1 or1  as others say1 it is a    
conversion of fiery air violently       

brought down to  the earth4 ,a typhon is
 a vast thunderbolt1 violent and full of
 wind1 or  a smoky breath of a cloud    
broken asunder4 ,a  is a cloud rent by  
fire1 with wind1#ic ''' into the hollows
 of the earth1 or when the wind  is pent
 up in the earth1 as ,posidonius says in
 his eighth book2 and that  some of them
 are shakings1 others rendings1 others  
emissions of fire1 and  others1         
instances of violent fermentation4      
,,lxxxii4 ,they also think that the     
general arrangement of the world is in  
this fashion2 that the earth is in the  
middle1 occupying the place of the      
centre2 next to which comes the water1  
of a spherical form2 and having  the    
same centre as the earth2 so that the   
earth is in the water2 and next  to the 
water comes the air1 which has also a   
spherical form4    ,,lxxxiii4 ,and that 
there are five circles in the heaven2 of
 which the  first is the arctic circle1 
which is always visible2 the second is  
the  tropical summer circle2 the third  

is the equinoctial circle2 the fourth1  
the winter tropical circle2 and the     
fifth the antarctic1 which is not       
visible4 ,and they are called parallel1 
because they do not incline to one      
another2 they are drawn however around  
the same centre4 ,but the zodiac  is    
oblique1 cutting the parallel circles4  
,there are also five zones on  the      
earth2 the first is the northern one1   
placed under the arctic circle1         
uninhabitable by reason of the cold2 the
 second is temperate2 the third  is     
uninhabitable because of the heat1 and  
is called the torrid zone2 the  fourth  
is a temperate zone1 on the other side  
of the torrid zone2 the  fifth is the   
southern zone1 being also uninhabitable 
by reason of the  cold4#id    ,,lxxxiv4 
,another of their doctrines is that     
nature is an artificial fire  tending by
 a regular road to production1 which is 
a fiery kind of breath  proceeding      
according to art4 ,also1 that the soul  
is sensible1 and that  it is a spirit   

which is born with us2 consequently it  
is a body and  continues to exist after 
death2 that nevertheless it is          
perishable4 ,but  that the soul of the  
universe is imperishable1 and that the  
souls which  exist in animals are only  
parts of that of the universe4 ,but     
,zeno1 the  ,cittian1 and ,antipater1 in
 their treatise concerning the ,soul1   
and  ,posidonius also1 all say that the 
soul is a warm spirit2 for that by  it  
we have our breath1 and by it we are    
moved4 ,cleanthes1 accordingly1  asserts
 that all souls continue to exist till  
they are burnt up2 but  ,chrysippus says
 that it is only the souls of the wise  
that endure4 ,and  they further teach   
that there are eight parts of the soul2 
the five  senses1 and the generative    
faculties1 and voice1 and reason4 ,and  
we see  because of a body of luminous   
air which extends from the organ of     
sight  to the object in a conical form1 
as it is asserted by ,chrysippus1 in the
  second book of his ,natural           

,philosophy1 and also by ,apollodorus4  
,and the  apex of this cone is close to 
the eye1 and its base is formed by the  
object which is seen2 so that that which
 is seen is as it were reported  to the 
eye by this continuous cone of air      
extended towards it like a  staff4 ,in  
the same way1 we hear because the air   
between the speaker and  the hearer is  
struck in a spherical manner2 and is    
then agitated in  waves1 resembling the 
circular eddies which one sees in a     
cistern when a  stone is dropped into   
it4    ,sleep1 they say1 is produced by 
a relaxation of the sthetic energies    
with reference to the dominant part of  
the soul4 ,and the causes of the        
passions they explain to be the motions 
and conversions which take place  in    
connection with this spirit or soul4    
,,lxxxv4 ,seed1 they define as a thing  
of a nature capable of producing  other 
things of the same nature as the thing  
from which it has been  separated4 ,and 
the seed of man1 which man emits1 is1   

together with  moisture1 mixed up with  
the parts of the soul by that kind of   
mixture  which corresponds to the       
capacity of the parents4 ,and           
,chrysippus says1  in the second book of
 his ,natural ,philosophy1 that it is a 
spirit  according to substance2 as is   
manifest from the seeds which are       
planted  in the earth2 and which1 if    
they are old1 do not germinate1 because 
all  their virtue has evaporated4 ,and  
,sphrus says1 that seed proceeds from   
the entire body1 and that that is how it
 is that it produces all the  parts of  
the body4    ,they also say that the    
seed of the female is unproductive2 for1
 as  ,sphrus says1 it is devoid of tone1
 and small in quantity1 and watery4     
,,lxxxvi4 ,they also say that that is   
the dominant part of the soul which is  
its most excellent part2 in which the   
imaginations and the desires are        
formed1 and whence reason proceeds4 ,and
 this place is in the heart4    ,these  
then are the doctrines on the subject of

 natural philosophy  entertained by     
them1 which it seems sufficient for us  
to detail1 having  regard to the due    
proportions of this book4 ,and the      
following are the  points in which some 
of them disagreed with the rest4        
,,life ,,of ,,ariston4    ,i4 ,ariston  
the ,bald1 a native of ,chios1 surnamed 
the ,siren1 said1 that  the chief good  
was to live in perfect indifference to  
all those things  which are of an       
intermediate character between virtue   
and vice2 making  not the slightest     
difference between them1 but regarding  
them all on a  footing of equality4 ,for
 that the wise man resembles a good     
actor2 who1  whether he is filling the  
part of ,agamemnon or ,thersites1 will  
perform  them both equally well4        
,,ii4 ,and he discarded altogether the  
topic of physics1 and of logic1  saying 
that the one was above us1 and that the 
other had nothing to do  with us2 and   
that the only branch of philosophy with 
which we had any  real concern was      

ethics4    ,,iii4 ,he also said that    
dialectic reasonings were like cobwebs2 
which1  although they seem to be put    
together on principles of art1 are      
utterly  useless4    ,,iv4 ,and he did  
not introduce many virtues into his     
scheme1 as ,zeno did2  nor one virtue   
under a great many names1 as the        
,megaric philosophers did2  but defined 
virtue as consisting in behaving in a   
certain manner with  reference to a     
certain thing4    ,v4 ,and as he        
philosophized in this manner1 and       
carried on his discussions  in the      
,cynosarges1 he got so much influence as
 to be called a founder of  a sect4     
,accordingly1 ,miltiades1 and ,diphilus 
were called ,aristoneans4    ,,vi4 ,he  
was a man of very persuasive eloquence1 
and one who could adapt  himself well to
 the humours of a multitude4 ,on which  
account ,timon says  of him3--          
,and one who1 from ,ariston's wily race1
      ,traced his descent4    ,diocles1 
the ,magnesian1 tells us that ,ariston  

having fallen in with  ,polemo1 passed  
over to his school1 at a time when ,zeno
 was lying ill  with a long sickness4   
,the ,stoic doctrine to which he was    
most attached1  was the one that the    
wise man is never guided by opinions4   
,but ,persus  argued against this1 and  
caused one of two twin brothers to place
 a  deposit in his hands1 and then      
caused the other to reclaim it2 and thus
  he convicted him1 as he was in doubt  
on this point1 and therefore forced  to 
act on opinion4 ,he was a great enemy of
 ,arcesilaus4 ,and once1 seeing  a bull 
of a monstrous conformation1 having a   
womb1 he said1 8,alas6 here  is an      
argument for ,arcesilaus against the    
evidence of his senses40 ,on  another   
occasion1 when a philosopher of the     
,academy said that he did not           
comprehend anything1 he said to him1    
8,do not you even see the man who is    
sitting next to you80 ,and as he said   
that he did not1 he said3--        ,who 
then has blinded you1 who's been so     

harsh1      ,as thus to rob you of your 
beaming eyes8    ,,vii4 ,the following  
works are attributed to him4 ,two books 
of ,exhortatory  ,discourses2 ,dialogues
 on the ,doctrines of ,zeno2 six books  
of  ,conversations2 seven books of      
,discussions on ,wisdom2 ,conversations 
on  ,love2 ,commentaries on ,vain       
,glory2 twenty-five books of            
,reminiscences2  three books of         
,memorabilia2 eleven books of           
,apophthegms2 a volume  against the     
,orators2 a volume against the          
,rescripts of ,alexinus2 three          
treatises against the ,dialecticians2   
four books of ,letters to ,cleanthes4   
,but ,pantius and ,sosicrates say1 that 
his only genuine writings are his       
letters2 and that all the rest are the  
works of ,ariston the ,peripatetic4     
,,viii4 ,it is said that he1 being bald1
 got a stroke of the sun1 and so  died4 
,and we have written a jesting epigram  
on him in ,scazon iambics1 in  the      
following terms3--        ,why1 ,o      

,ariston1 being old and bald1      ,did 
you allow the sun to roast your crown8  
,thus1 in an unbecoming search for      
warmth1      ,against your will1 you've 
found out chilly ,hell4    ,,ix4 ,there 
was also another man of the name of     
,ariston2 a native of ,julii1  one of   
the ,peripatetic school4 ,and another   
who was an ,athenian musician4  ,a      
fourth who was a tragic poet4 ,a fifth1 
a native of ,ala1 who wrote a  treatise 
on the ,oratorical ,art4 ,a sixth was a 
peripatetic ,philosopher of             
,alexandria4      ,,life ,,of ,,herillus
    ,i4 ,herillus1 a native of          
,carthage1 said that the chief good was 
knowledge2 that is to say1 the always   
conducting one's self in such a way  as 
to refer everything to the principle of 
living according to knowledge1  and not 
been misled by ignorance4 ,he also said 
that knowledge was a habit  not         
departing from reason in the reception  
of perceptions4    ,on one occasion1 he 
said that there was no such thing as a  

chief good1  but that circumstances and 
events changed it1 just as the same     
piece of  brass might become a statue   
either of ,alexander or of ,socrates4   
,and that  besides the chief good or end
 7#ie71 there was a subordinate end  77 
different from it4 ,and that those who  
were not wise aimed at  the latter2 but 
that only the wise man directed his     
views to the former4  ,and all the      
things between virtue and vice he       
pronounced indifferent4    ,,ii4 ,his   
books contain but few lines1 but they   
are full of power1 and  contain         
arguments in opposition to ,zeno4       
,,iii4 ,it is said1 that when he was a  
boy1 many people were attached to  him2 
and as ,zeno wished to drive them away1 
he persuaded him to have his  head      
shaved1 which disgusted them all4       
,,iv4 ,his books are these4 ,one on     
,exercise2 one on the ,passions2 one on 
,opinion2 the ,lawgiver2 the ,skilful   
,midwife2 the ,contradictory ,teacher2  
the ,preparer2 the ,director2 the       

,mercury2 the ,medea2 a book of         
,dialogues2  a book of ,ethical         
,propositions4      ,,life ,,of         
,,dionysius    ,i4 ,dionysius1 the      
,deserter1 as he was called1 asserted   
that pleasure  was the chief good1 from 
the circumstance of his being afflicted 
with  a complaint in his eyes4 ,for1 as 
he suffered severely1 he could not      
pronounce pain a thing indifferent4     
,,ii4 ,he was the son of ,theophantus1  
and a native of ,heraclea4    ,,iii4 ,he
 was a pupil1 as we are told by         
,diocles1 first of all of  ,heraclides1 
his fellow citizen2 after that of       
,alexinus1 and ,menedemus2  and last of 
all of ,zeno4 ,and at first1 as he was  
very devoted to  learning1 he tried his 
hand at all kinds of poetry4            
,afterwards1 he  attached himself to    
,aratus1 whom he took for his model4    
,having left ,zeno1  he turned to the   
,cyrenaics1 and became a frequenter of  
brothels1 and in  other respects        
indulged in luxury without disguise4    

,,iv4 ,when he had lived near eighty    
years1 he died of starvation4    ,v4    
,the following books are attributed to  
him4 ,two books on ,apathy2 two  on     
,exercise2 four on ,pleasure2 one on    
,riches1 and ,favours1 and ,revenge2    
one on the ,use of ,men2 one on ,good   
,fortune2 one on ,ancient ,kings2 one on
  ,things which are ,praised2 one on    
,barbarian ,customs4    ,these now are  
the chief men who differed from the     
,stoics4 ,but the man who  succeeded    
,zeno in his school was ,cleanthes1 whom
 we must now speak of4      ,,life ,,of 
,,cleanthes    ,i4 ,cleanthes was a     
native of ,assos1 and the son of        
,phanias4 ,he was  originally a boxer1  
as we learn from ,antisthenes1 in his   
,successions4  ,and he came to ,athens1 
having but four drachmas1 as some people
 say1 and  attaching himself to ,zeno1  
he devoted himself to ,philosophy in a  
most  noble manner2 and he adhered to   
the same doctrines as his master4       
,,ii4 ,he was especially eminent for his

 industry1 so that as he was a  very    
poor man1 he was forced to undertake    
mercenary employments1 and  he used to  
draw water in the gardens by night1 and 
by day he used to  exercise himself in  
philosophical discussions2 on which     
account he was  called ,phreantles4#if  
,they also say that he was on one       
occasion brought  before a court of     
justice1 to be compelled to give an     
account what his  sources of income were
 from which he maintained himself in    
such good  condition2 and that then he  
was acquitted1 having produced as his   
witness  the gardener in whose garden he
 drew the water2 and a woman who was a  
mealseller1 in whose establishment he   
used to prepare the meal4 ,and the      
judges of the ,areopagus admired him1   
and voted that ten min should be  given 
to him2 but ,zeno forbade him to accept 
them4    ,they also say that ,antigonus 
presented him three thousand drachmas4  
,and once1 when he was conducting some  
young men to some spectacle1 it         

happened that the wind blew away his    
cloak1 and it was then seen that  he had
 nothing on under it2 on which he was   
greatly applauded by the  ,athenians1   
according to the account given by       
,demetrius1 the ,magnesian1  in his     
essay on ,people of the same ,name4 ,and
 he was greatly admired by  them on     
account of this circumstance4    ,they  
also say that ,antigonus1 who was a     
pupil of his1 once asked him why  he    
drew water2 and that he made answer1    
8,do ,i do nothing beyond drawing       
water8 ,do ,i not also dig1 and do ,i   
not water the land1 and do all sorts  of
 things for the sake of philosophy80    
,for ,zeno used to accustom him to      
this1 and used to require him to bring  
him an obol by way of tribute4#ig  ,and 
once he brought one of the pieces of    
money which he had collected in  this   
way1 into the middle of a company of his
 acquaintances1 and said1  8,cleanthes  
could maintain even another ,cleanthes  
if he were to choose2  but others who   

have plenty of means to support         
themselves1 seek for  necessaries from  
others2 although they only study        
philosophy in a very  lazy manner40     
,and1 in reference to these habits of   
his1 ,cleanthes was  called a second    
,heracles4    ,,iii4 ,he was then very  
industrious2 but he was not well endowed
 by nature1  and was very slow in his   
intellect4 ,on which account ,timon says
 of him3--        ,what stately ram thus
 measures o'er the ground1      ,and    
master of the flock surveys them round8 
,what citizen of ,assos1 dull and cold1 
,fond of long words1 a mouth-piece1 but 
not bold4#ih    ,and when he was        
ridiculed by his fellow pupils1 he used 
to bear it  patiently4    ,,iv4 ,he did 
not even object to the name when he was 
called an ass2 but  only said that he   
was the only animal able to bear the    
burdens which ,zeno  put upon him4 ,and 
once1 when he was reproached as a       
coward1 he said1  8,that is the reason  
why ,i make but few mistakes40 ,he used 

to say1 in  justification of his        
preference of his own way of life to    
that of the  rich1 8,that while they    
were playing at ball1 he was earning    
money by  digging hard and barren       
ground40 ,and he very often used to     
blame himself4  ,and once1 ,ariston     
heard him doing so1 and said1 8,who is  
it that you are  reproaching80 and he   
replied1 8,an old man who has grey hair1
 but no  brains40    ,when some one once
 said to him1 that ,arcesilaus did not  
do what he ought1  8,desist10 he        
replied1 8and do not blame him2 for1 if 
he destroys duty as  far as his words   
go1 at all events he establishes it by  
his actions40  ,arcesilaus once said to 
him1 8,i never listen to flatterers40   
8,yes10  rejoined ,cleanthes1 8,i       
flatter you1 when ,i say that though you
 say one  thing1 you do another40 ,when 
some one once asked him what lesson he  
ought  to inculcate on his son1 he      
replied1 8,the warning of ,electra30--  
,silence1 silence1 gently step4#ii      

,when a ,lacedmonian once said in his   
hearing1 that labour was a good  thing1 
he was delighted1 and addressed him3--  
,oh1 early worth1 a soul so wise and    
young      ,proclaims you from the sage 
,lycurgus sprung4#ajj    ,hecaton tells 
us in his ,apophthegms1 that once when a
 young man said1  8,if a man who beats  
his stomach  then a man who slaps his   
thigh  10 he replied1 8,do you stick to 
your 40 ,but analogous  words do not    
always indicate analogous facts4 ,once  
when he was conversing  with a youth1 he
 asked him if he felt2 and as he said   
that he did1 8,why  is it then10 said   
,cleanthes1 8that ,i do not feel that   
you feel80    ,when ,sositheus1 the     
poet1 said in the theatre where he was  
present3--        ,men whom the folly of
 ,cleanthes urges2    ,he continued in  
the same attitude2 at which the hearers 
were surprised1  and applauded him1 but 
drove ,sositheus away4 ,and when he     
expressed his  sorrow for having abused 
him in this manner1 he answered him     

gently1  saying1 8,that it would be a   
preposterous thing for ,bacchus and     
,hercules  to bear being ridiculed by   
the poets without any expression of     
anger1 and  for him to be indignant at  
any chance attack40 ,he used also to    
say1 8,that  the ,peripatetics were in  
the same condition as lyres1 which      
though they  utter sweet notes1 do not  
hear themselves40 ,and it is said1 that 
when  he asserted that1 on the          
principles of ,zeno1 one could judge of 
a man's  character by his looks1 some   
witty young men brought him a profligate
  fellow1 having a hardy look from      
continual exercise in the fields1 and   
requested him to tell them his moral    
character2 and he1 having hesitated  a  
little1 bade the man depart2 and1 as he 
departed1 he sneezed1 8,i have  the     
fellow now10 said ,cleanthes1 8he is a  
debauchee40    ,he said once to a man   
who was conversing with him by himself1 
8,you are  not talking to a bad man40   
,and when some one reproached him with  

his old  age1 he rejoined1 8,i too wish 
to depart1 but when ,i perceive myself  
to  be in good health in every respect1 
and to be able to recite and read1 ,i   
am content to remain40 ,they say too1   
that he used to write down all that  he 
heard from ,zeno on oyster shells1 and  
on the shoulder-blades of oxen1  from   
want of money to buy paper with4    ,v4 
,and though he was of this character1   
and in such circumstances1 he  became so
 eminent1 that1 though ,zeno had many   
other disciples of high  reputation1 he 
succeeded him as the president of his   
,school4    ,,vi4 ,and he left behind   
him some excellent books1 which are     
these4 ,one  on ,time2 two on ,zeno's   
,system of ,natural ,philosophy2 four   
books of the  ,explanations of          
,heraclitus2 one on ,sensation2 one on  
,art2 one addressed  to ,democritus2 one
 to ,aristarchus2 one to ,herillus2 two 
on ,desire2 one  entitled ,archology2   
one on the ,gods2 one on the ,giants2   
one on ,marriage2  one on ,poets2 three 

on ,duty2 one on ,good ,counsel2 one on 
,favour2 one  called ,exhortatory2 one  
on ,virtues2 one on ,natural ,ability2  
one on  ,gorgippus2 one on ,enviousness2
 one on ,love2 one on ,freedom2 one     
called  the ,art of ,love2 one on       
,honour2 one on ,glory2 ,the ,statesman2
 one on  ,counsel2 one on ,laws2 one on 
,deciding as a ,judge2 one on the ,way  
of ,life2  three on ,reason2 one on the 
,chief ,good2 one on the ,beautiful2 one
 on  ,actions2 one on ,knowledge2 one on
 ,kingly ,power2 one on ,friendship2 one
 on  ,banquets2 one on the ,principle   
that ,virtue is the same in ,man and    
,woman2  one on the ,wise ,man          
,employing ,sophisms2 one on            
,apophthegms2 two books  of             
,conversations2 one on ,pleasure2 one on
 ,properties2 one on ,doubtful  ,things2
 one on ,dialectics2 one on ,modes2 one 
on ,categorems4    ,,vii4 ,these are his
 writings4    ,and he died in the       
following manner4 ,his gums swelled very
 much2 and1  at the command of his      

physicians1 he abstained from food for  
two days4  ,and he got so well that his 
physicians allowed him to return to all 
his  former habits2 but he refused1 and 
saying that he had now already gone     
part of the way1 he abstained from food 
for the future1 and so died2  being1 as 
some report1 eighty years old1 and      
having been a pupil of ,zeno  nineteen  
years4 ,and we have written a playful   
epigram on him also1 which  runs thus3--
        ,i praise ,cleanthes1 but praise
 ,pluto more2      ,who could not bear  
to see him grown so old1      ,so gave  
him rest at last among the dead1        
,who'd drawn such loads of water while  
alive4      ,,life ,,of ,,sph,,rus4     
,i4 ,sphrus1 a native of the ,bosphorus1
 was1 as we have said before1 a  pupil  
of ,cleanthes after the death of ,zeno4 
,,ii4 ,and when he made a considerable  
advance in philosophy he went to        
,alexandria1 to the court of ,ptolemy   
,philopater4 ,and once1 when there  was 
a discussion concerning the question    

whether a wise man would allow  himself 
to be guided by opinion1 and when       
,sphrus affirmed that he would  not1 the
 king1 wishing to refute him1 ordered   
some pomegranates of wax  to be set     
before him2 and when ,sphrus was        
deceived by them1 the king  shouted that
 he had given his assent to a false     
perception4 ,but ,sphrus  answered very 
neatly1 that he had not given his assent
 to the fact that  they were            
pomegranates1 but to the fact that it   
was probable that they  might be        
pomegranates4 ,and that a perception    
which could be comprehended  differed   
from one that was only probable4        
,once1 when ,mnesistratus accused him of
 denying that ,ptolemy was a king1  he  
said to him1 8,that ,ptolemy was a man  
with such and such qualities1 and  a    
king40#aja    ,,iii4 ,he wrote the      
following books4 ,two on the ,world2 one
 on the ,elements  of ,seed2 one on     
,fortune2 one on the ,smallest ,things2 
one on ,atoms and  ,phantoms2 one on the

 ,senses2 five ,conversations about     
,heraclitus2 one on  ,ethical           
,arrangement2 one on ,duty2 one on      
,appetite2 two on the ,passions2  one on
 ,kingly ,power2 on the ,lacedmonian    
,constitution2 three on ,lycurgus  and  
,socrates2 one on ,law2 one on          
,divination2 one volume of ,dialogues on
  ,love2 one on the ,eretrian           
,philosophers2 one on ,things ,similar2 
one on  ,terms2 one on ,habits2 three on
 ,contradictions2 one on ,reason2 one on
  ,riches2 one on ,glory2 one on ,death2
 two on the ,art of ,dialectics2 one on 
,categorems2 one on ,ambiguity2 and a   
volume of ,letters4      ,,life ,,of    
,,chrysippus4    ,i4 ,chrysippus was the
 son of ,apollonius1 and a native of    
either ,soli or  ,tarsus1 as ,alexander 
tells us in his ,successions2 and he was
 a pupil of  ,cleanthes4 ,previously he 
used to practise running as a public    
runner2  then he became a pupil of ,zeno
 or of ,cleanthes1 as ,diocles and the  
generality of authors say1 and while he 

was still living he abandoned  him1 and 
became a very eminent philosopher4      
,,ii4 ,he was a man of great natural    
ability1 and of great acuteness in      
every way1 so that in many points he    
dissented from ,zeno1 and also  from    
,cleanthes1 to whom he often used to say
 that he only wanted to  be instructed  
in the dogmas of the school1 and that he
 would discover  the demonstrations for 
himself4 ,but whenever he opposed him   
with any  vehemence1 he always repented1
 so that he used frequently to say3--   
,in most respects ,i am a happy man1    
,excepting where ,cleanthes is          
concerned2      ,for in that matter ,i  
am far from fortunate4    ,and he had   
such a high reputation as a             
dialectician1 that most people  thought 
that if there were such a science as    
dialectics among the ,gods2  it would be
 in no respect different from that of   
,chrysippus4 ,but though  he was so     
eminently able in matter1 he was not    
perfect in style4    ,,iii4 ,he was     

industrious beyond all other men2 as is 
plain from his  writings2 for he wrote  
more than seven hundred and five books4 
,and he  often wrote several books on   
the same subject1 wishing to put down   
everything that occurred to him2 and    
constantly correcting his previous      
assertions1 and using a great abundance 
of testimonies4 ,so that1 as in  one of 
his writings he had quoted very nearly  
the whole of the ,medea of  ,euripides1 
and some one had his book in his hands2 
this latter1 when he  was asked what he 
had got there1 made answer1 8,the ,medea
 of ,chrysippus40  ,and ,apollodorus1   
the ,athenian1 in his ,collection of    
,dogmas1 wishing to  assert that what   
,epicurus had written out of his own    
head1 and without  any quotations to    
support his arguments1 was a great deal 
more than all  the books of ,chrysippus1
 speaks thus 7,i give his exact words71 
8,for if  any one were to take away from
 the books of ,chrysippus all the       
passages  which he quotes from other    

authors1 his paper would be left empty40
    ,these are the words of             
,apollodorus2 but the old woman who     
lived with him1  as ,diocles reports1   
used to say that he wrote five hundred  
lines every  day4 ,and ,hecaton says1   
that he first applied himself to        
philosophy1 when  his patrimony had been
 confiscated1 and seized for the royal  
treasury4    ,,iv4 ,he was slight in    
person1 as is plain from his statue     
which is in the  ,ceramicus1 which is   
nearly hidden by the equestrian statue  
near it2 in  reference to which         
circumstance1 ,carneades called him     
,crypsippus4#ajb  ,he was once          
reproached by some one for not attending
 the lectures of  ,ariston1 who was     
drawing a great crowd after him at the  
time2 and he  replied1 8,if ,i had      
attended to the multitude ,i should not 
have been a  philosopher40 ,and once1   
when he saw a dialectician pressing hard
 on  ,cleanthes1 and proposing          
sophistical fallacies to him1 he said1  

8,cease  to drag that old man from more 
important business1 and propose these   
questions to us who are young40 ,at     
another time1 when some one wishing to  
ask him something privately1 was        
addressing him quietly1 but when he saw 
a multitude approaching began to speak  
more energetically he said to him3--    
,alas1 my brother6 now your eye is      
troubled2      ,you were quite sane just
 now2 and yet how quickly      ,have you
 succumbed to frenzy4#ajc    ,and at    
drinking parties he used to behave      
quietly1 moving his legs about  however1
 so that a female slave once said1 8,it 
is only the legs of  ,chrysippus that   
are drunk40 ,and he had so high an      
opinion of himself1  that once1 when a  
man asked him1 8,to whom shall ,i       
entrust my son80 he  said1 8,to me1 for 
if ,i thought that there was any one    
better than myself1  ,i would have gone 
to him to teach me philosophy40 ,in     
reference to which  anecdote they report
 that people used to say of him3--      

,he has indeed a clear and subtle head1 
,the rest are forms of empty ther       
made4#ajd    ,and also3--        ,for if
 ,chrysippus had not lived and taught1  
,the ,stoic school would surely have    
been nought4    ,,vi4 ,but at last1 when
 ,arcesilaus and ,lacydes1 as ,sotion   
records in  his eighth book1 came to the
 ,academy1 he joined them in the study  
of  philosophy2 from which circumstance 
he got the habit of arguing for and     
against a custom1 and discussed         
magnitudes and quantities1 following the
  system of the ,academics4    ,,vii4   
,hermippus relates1 that one day1 when  
he was teaching in the ,odeum1  he was  
invited to a sacrifice by his pupils2   
and1 that drinking some  sweet unmixed  
wine1 he was seized with giddiness1 and 
departed this life  five days           
afterwards1 when he had lived           
seventy-three years2 dying in the       
hundred and forty-third olympiad1 as    
,apollodorus says in his ,chronicles4   
,and we have written an epigram on      

him3--        ,chrysippus drank with    
open mouth some wine      ,then became  
giddy1 and so quickly died4      ,too   
little reck'd he of the ,porch's weal1  
,or of his country's1 or of his own dear
 life2      ,and so descended to the    
realms of ,hell4    ,but some people say
 that he died of a fit of immoderate    
laughter4 ,for  that seeing his ass     
eating figs1 he told his old woman to   
give the ass  some unmixed wine to drink
 afterwards1 and then laughed so        
violently that  he died4    ,,viii4 ,he 
appears to have been a man of exceeding 
arrogance4 ,accordingly1  though he     
wrote such numbers of books1 he never   
dedicated one of them  to any sovereign4
 ,and he was contented with one single  
old woman1 as  ,demetrius tells us1 in  
his ,people of the same ,name4 ,and when
 ,ptolemy  wrote to ,cleanthes1 begging 
him either to come to him himself or to 
send  him some one1 ,sphrus went to him1
 but ,chrysippus slighted the           
invitation4    ,,ix4 ,however1 he sent  

for the sons of his sister1 ,aristocreon
 and  ,philocrates1 and educated them2  
and he was the first person who ventured
  to hold a school in the open air in   
the ,lyceum1 as the before mentioned    
,demetrius relates4    ,x4 ,there was   
also another ,chrysippus1 a native of   
,cnidos1 a physician1  from whom        
,erasistratus testifies that he received
 great benefit4 ,and  another also who  
was a son of his1 and the physician of  
,ptolemy2 who1  having had a false      
accusation brought against him1 was     
apprehended and  punished by being      
scourged4 ,there was also a fourth who  
was a pupil of  ,erasistratus2 and a    
fifth was an author of a work called    
,georgics4    ,,xi4 ,now this           
philosopher used to delight in proposing
 questions of this  sort4 ,the person   
who reveals the mysteries to the        
uninitiated commits  a sin2 the         
hierophant reveals them to the          
uninitiated2 therefore the  hierophant  
commits sin8 ,another was1 that which is

 not in the city1 is  also not in the   
house2 but a well is not in the city1   
therefore1 there is  not a well in the  
house4 ,another was1 there is a certain 
head2 that head  you have not got2 there
 is then a head that you have not got2  
therefore1  you have not got a head4    
,again1 if a man is in ,megara1 he is   
not in  ,athens2 but there is a man in  
,megara1 therefore1 there is not a man  
in  ,athens4 ,again1 if you say         
anything1 what you say comes out of your
 mouth2  but you say 8a waggon10        
therefore a waggon comes out of your    
mouth4  ,another was1 if you have not   
lost a thing1 you have it2 but you have 
not  lost horns2 therefore1 you have    
horns4 ,though some attribute this      
sophism  to ,eubulides4    ,,xii4 ,there
 are people who run ,chrysippus down as 
having written a great  deal that is    
very shameful and indecent4 ,for in his 
treatise on the  ,ancient ,natural      
,historians1 he relates the story of    
,jupiter and ,juno  very indecently1    

devoting six hundred lines to what no   
one could repeat  without polluting his 
mouth4 ,for1 as it is said1 he composes 
this story1  though he praises it as    
consisting of natural details1 in a way 
more  suitable to street walkers than to
 ,goddesses2 and not at all resembling  
the ideas which have been adopted or    
cited by writers in paintings4 ,for     
they were found neither in ,polemo1 nor 
in ,hypsicrates1 nor in ,antigonus1  but
 were inserted by himself4 ,and in his  
treatise on ,polity1 he allows  people  
to marry their mothers1 or their        
daughters1 or their sons4 ,and  he      
repeats this doctrine in his treatise on
 those things which are not  desirable  
for their own sake1 in the very opening 
of it4 ,and in the third  book of his   
treatise on ,justice1 he devotes a      
thousand lines to bidding  people devour
 even the dead4    ,in the second book  
of his treatise on ,life and ,means of  
,support1 where he  is warning us to    
consider beforehand1 how the wise man   

ought to provide  himself with means1 he
 says1 8,and yet why need he provide    
himself with  means8 for if it is for   
the sake of living1 living at all is a  
matter  of indifference2 if it is for   
the sake of pleasure1 that is a matter  
of  indifference too2 if it is for the  
sake of virtue1 that is of itself       
sufficient for happiness4 ,but the      
methods of providing one's self with    
means are ridiculous2 for instance1 some
 derive them from a king2 and  then it  
will be necessary to humour him4 ,some  
from friendship2 and  then friendship   
will become a thing to be bought with a 
price4 ,some  from wisdom2 and then     
wisdom will become mercenary2 and these 
are the  accusations which he brings40  
,but since he has written many books of 
high reputation1 it has seemed  good to 
me to give a catalogue of them1         
classifying them according to  their    
subjects4 ,they are the following3--    
,books on ,logic2 ,propositions2        
,logical ,questions2 a book of the      

,contemplations of the ,philosopher2 six
 books of ,dialectic ,terms addressed   
to ,metrodorus2 one on the ,technical   
,terms used in ,dialectics1 addressed   
to ,zeno2 one called the ,art of        
,dialectics1 addressed to ,aristagoras2 
four  books of ,probable ,conjunctive   
,reasons1 addressed to ,dioscorides4    
,the first set of treatises on the      
,logical ,topics1 which concern things1 
contains3 one essay on ,propositions2   
one on those ,propositions which are    
not simple2 two on the ,copulative      
,propositions1 addressed to ,athenades2 
three on ,positive ,propositions1       
addressed to ,aristagoras2 one on       
,definite  ,propositions1 addressed to  
,athenodorus2 one on ,privative         
,propositions1  addressed to ,thearus2  
three on the ,best ,propositions1       
addressed to ,dion2  four on the        
,differences between ,indefinite        
,propositions2 two on those             
,propositions which are enunciated with 
a reference to time2 two on  ,perfect   

,propositions4    ,the second set       
contains1 one essay on a ,disjunctive   
,true ,propositions1  addressed to      
,gorgippides2 four on a ,conjunctive    
,true ,proposition1 also  addressed to  
,gorgippides2 one called1 the ,sect1    
addressed to ,gorgippides2  one on the  
argument of ,consequents2 one on        
questions touched upon in the  three    
preceding treatises1 and now            
re-examined1 this also is addressed  to 
,gorgippides2 one on what is ,possible1 
addressed to ,clitus2 one on the        
treatise of ,philo1 on ,signification2  
one on what it is that ,falsehood       
consists in4    ,the third set contains1
 two treatises on ,imperative           
,propositions2 two  on ,interrogation2  
four on ,examination2 an epitome of the 
subject of  ,interrogation and          
,examination2 four treatises on ,answer2
 an abridgment on  ,answer2 two essays  
on ,investigation4    ,the fourth set   
contains ten books on ,categorems1      
addressed to ,metrodorus2  one treatise 

on what is ,direct and ,indirect1       
addressed to ,philarchus2 one  on       
,conjunctions1 addressed to             
,apollonides2 four on ,categorems1      
addressed  to ,pasylus4    ,the fifth   
set contains1 one treatise on the ,five 
,cases2 one on ,things  defined         
according to the ,subject2 two on       
,enunciation1 addressed to  ,stesagoras2
 two on ,appellative ,nouns4    ,the    
next class of his writings refers to    
rules of ,logic1 with reference  to     
words1 and speech which consists of     
words4    ,the first set of these       
contains1 six treatises on ,singular and
 ,plural  ,enunciations2 five on ,words1
 addressed to ,sosigenes and ,alexander2
 four  on the ,inequality of ,words1    
addressed to ,dion2 three on the        
,sorites  which refer to ,words2 one on 
,solecisms in the ,use of ,words1       
addressed to  ,dionysius2 one entitled  
,discourses1 contrary to ,customs2 one  
entitled  ,diction1 and addressed to    
,dionysius4    ,the second set contains1

 five treatises on the ,elements of     
,speech and of  ,phrases2 four on the   
,arrangement of ,phrases2 three on the  
,arrangement1  and on the ,elements of  
,phrases1 addressed to ,philip2 one on  
the ,elements  of ,discourse1 addressed 
to ,nicias2 one on ,correlatives4       
,the third set contains1 two treatises  
against those who do not admit          
,division2 four on ,ambiguous           
,expressions1 addressed to ,apollos2    
one1  ,ambiguity in ,modes2 two on the  
,ambiguous ,use of ,figures1 in         
,conjunctive  ,propositions2 two on the 
essay on ,ambiguous ,expressions1 by    
,panthoides2  five on the ,introduction 
to the ,ambiguous ,expressions2 one1    
being an  abridgment of the ,ambiguous  
,expressions1 addressed to ,epicrates2  
and a  collection of instances to serve 
as an ,introduction to the ,ambiguous   
,expressions1 in two books4    ,the next
 class is on the subject of that part of
 logic which is  conversant about       
reasonings and modes4    ,the first set 

of works in this class1 contains1 the   
,art of ,reasoning  and of ,modes1 in   
five books1 addressed to ,dioscorides2 a
 treatise on  ,reasoning1 in three      
books2 one on the ,structure of ,modes1 
addressed to  ,stesagoras1 in five      
books2 a comparison of the ,elements of 
,modes2 a  treatise on ,reciprocal and  
,conjunctive ,reasonings2 an essay to   
,agathon1  called also an essay on      
,problems1 which follow one another2 a  
treatise1  proving that ,syllogistic    
,propositions suppose one or more other 
terms2  one on ,conclusions1 addressed  
to ,aristagoras2 one essay1 proving that
  the same reasoning can affect several 
figures2 one against those who  deny    
that the same reasoning can be expressed
 by syllogism1 and without  syllogism1  
in two books2 three treatises against   
those who attack the  resolution of     
,syllogisms2 one on the treatise on     
,modes1 by ,philo1  addressed to        
,timostratus2 two treatises on ,logic1  
in one volume1  addressed to ,timocrates

 and ,philomathes2 one volume of        
questions on  ,reasonings and ,modes4   
,the second set contains1 one book of   
,conclusive ,reasonings1 addressed  to  
,zeno2 one on ,primary ,syllogisms1     
which are not demonstrative2 one on  the
 resolution of ,syllogisms2 one1 in two 
books1 on ,captious ,reasonings1        
addressed to ,pasylus2 one book of      
,considerations on ,syllogisms2 one book
  of ,introductory ,syllogisms1         
addressed to ,zeno2 three of            
,introductory  ,modes1 addressed also to
 ,zeno2 five of ,false ,figures of      
,syllogism2 one  of a ,syllogistic      
,method1 for the resolution of          
arguments1 which are not  demonstrative2
 one of ,researches into the ,modes1    
addressed to ,zeno and  ,philomathes    
7but this appears to be an erroneous    
title74    ,the third set contains1 one 
essay on ,incidental ,reasonings1       
addressed to  ,athenades 7this again is 
an incorrect title72 three books of     
,incidental  ,discourses on the ,medium 

7another incorrect title72 one essay on 
the  ,disjunctive ,reasons of ,aminias4 
,the fourth set contains1 a treatise on 
,hypothesis1 in three books1  addressed 
to ,meleager2 a book of hypothetical    
reasonings on the ,laws1  addressed also
 to ,meleager2 two books of hypothetical
 reasoning to serve  as an              
,introduction2 two books of hypothetical
 reasonings on ,theorems2 a  treatise in
 two books1 being a resolution of the   
,hypothetical ,reasonings  of ,hedylus2 
an essay1 in three books1 being a       
resolution of the  ,hypothetical        
,reasonings of ,alexander 7this is an   
incorrect title72 two  books of         
,expositions1 addressed to ,leodamas4   
,the fifth set contains1 an introduction
 to ,fallacy1 addressed to              
,aristocreon2 an introduction to ,false 
,reasonings2 a treatise in six  books1  
on ,fallacy1 addressed to ,aristocreon4 
,the sixth set contains1 a treatise     
against those who believe ,truth and    
,falsehood to be the same thing4 ,one1  

in two books1 against those who have    
recourse to division to resolve the     
,fallacy1 addressed to ,aristocreon2 a  
demonstrative essay1 to prove that it is
 not proper to divide indefinite  terms2
 an essay1 in three books1 in answer to 
the objections against  the non-division
 of ,indefinite ,terms1 addressed to    
,pasylus2 a solution1  according to the 
principles of the ancients1 addressed to
 ,dioscorides2 an  essay on the         
,resolution of the ,fallacy1 addressed  
to ,aristocreon1 this is  in three      
books2 a resolution of the ,hypothetical
 ,arguments of ,hedylus1  in one book1  
addressed to ,aristocreon and ,apollos4 
,the seventh set contains1 a treatise   
against those who contend that  the     
premisses on the ,fallacy1 are false2 a 
treatise on ,negative  ,reasoning1      
addressed to ,aristocreon1 in two books2
 one book of ,negative  ,reasonings1    
addressed to ,gymnasias2 two books of a 
treatise on ,reasoning  by ,progression1
 addressed to ,stesagoras2 two books of 

,reasonings by  ,interrogation1 and on  
the ,arrest1#aje addressed to ,onetor2  
an essay1 in  two books1 on the         
,corrected ,argument1 addressed to      
,aristobulus2 another  on the           
,non-apparent ,argument1 addressed to   
,athenades4    ,the eighth set contains1
 an essay on the ,argument ,outis1 in   
eight books1  addressed to ,menecrates2 
a treatise1 in two books1 on ,arguments 
composed  of a finite term1 and an      
indefinite term1 addressed to ,pasylus2 
another  essay on the ,argument ,outis1 
addressed to ,epicrates4    ,the ninth  
set contains1 two volumes of ,sophisms1 
addressed to ,heraclides1  and ,pollis2 
five volumes of ,dialectic ,arguments1  
which admit of no  solution1 addressed  
to ,dioscorides2 an essay1 in one book1 
against the  ,method of ,arcesilaus1    
addressed to ,sphrus4    ,the tenth set 
contains1 a treatise in six books1      
against ,custom1  addressed to          
,metrodorus2 and another1 in seven      
books1 on ,custom1  addressed to        

,gorgippides4    ,there are1 therefore1 
works on ,logic1 in the four grand      
classes which we  have here enumerated1 
embracing various questions1 without any
 connection  with one another1 to the   
number of thirty nine sets1 amounting in
 the  whole to three hundred and eleven 
treatises on ,logic4    ,the next       
division comprises those works which    
have for their object1 the  explanation 
of ,moral ,ideas4    ,the first class of
 this division1 contains an essay1      
giving a description  of ,reason1       
addressed to ,theosphorus2 a book of    
,ethical questions2 three  books of     
,principles1 to serve as the foundation 
of ,dogmas1 addressed  to ,philomathes2 
two books of definitions of             
,good-breeding1 addressed  to           
,metrodorus2 two books of definitions of
 the ,bad1 addressed to  ,metrodorus2   
two books of definitions of ,neutral    
,things1 addressed also  to ,metrodorus2
 seven books of definitions of ,things1 
according to their  genera1 addressed to

 ,metrodorus2 and two books of          
,definitions1 according  to other       
systems1 addressed to ,metrodorus4      
,the second set contains1 a treatise on 
,things ,similar1 in three books1       
addressed to ,aristocles2 an essay on   
,definitions1 in seven books1  addressed
 to ,metrodorus4    ,the third set      
contains1 a treatise1 in seven books1 on
 the ,incorrect  ,objections made to    
,definitions1 addressed to ,laodamas2   
two books of  ,probable ,arguments      
bearing on ,definitions1 addressed to   
,dioscorides2  two books on ,species and
 ,genus1 addressed to ,gorgippides2 one 
book on  ,divisions2 two books on       
,contraries1 addressed to ,dionysius2 a 
book of  ,probable ,arguments relating  
to ,divisions1 and ,genera1 and         
,species2 a book  on ,contraries4       
,the fourth set contains1 a treatise1 in
 seven books1 on ,etymologies1          
addressed to ,diocles2 another1 in four 
books1 on the same subject1  addressed  
to the same person4    ,the fifth set   

contains1 a treatise in two books1 on   
,proverbs1 addressed  to ,zenodotus2 an 
essay on ,poems1 addressed to           
,philomathes2 an essay1 on  ,how one    
,ought to ,listen to ,poems1 in two     
books2 an essay1 in reply to  ,critics1 
addressed to ,diodorus4    ,the next    
division refers to ,ethics1 looked at in
 a general point of view1  and to the   
different systems arising out of them1  
and to the ,virtues4    ,the first set  
contains1 an essay against ,pictures1   
addressed to ,timonax2  an essay on the 
,manner in which we express ourselves   
about1 and form our  ,conceptions of1   
each separate thing2 two books of       
,thoughts1 addressed to  ,laodamas2 an  
essay1 in three books1 on ,conception1  
addressed to ,pythonax2  an essay1 that 
the ,wise ,man is not ,guided by        
,opinion2 an essay1 in five  books1 on  
,comprehension1 and ,knowledge1 and     
,ignorance2 a treatise on  ,reason1 in  
two books2 a treatise on the ,employment
 of ,reason1 addressed  to ,leptines4   

,the second set contains1 a treatise1   
that the ,ancient ,philosophers         
approved of ,logic1 with ,proofs to     
support the ,arguments1 in two books1   
addressed to ,zeno2 a treatise on       
,dialectics1 in four books1 addressed   
to ,aristocreon2 an answer to the       
,objections urged against ,dialectics1  
in three books2 an essay on ,rhetoric1  
in four books1 addressed to             
,dioscorides4    ,the third set         
contains1 a treatise on ,habit1 in three
 books1 addressed  to ,cleon2 a treatise
 on ,art and ,want of ,art1 in four     
books1 addressed to  ,aristocreon2 a    
treatise1 in four books1 on the         
,difference between the  ,virtues1      
addressed to ,diodorus2 a treatise1 to  
show that all the ,virtues  are ,equal2 
a treatise on the ,virtues1 in two      
books1 addressed to ,pollis4    ,the    
next division refers to ,ethics1 as     
relating to ,good and ,evil4    ,the    
first set contains1 a treatise in ten   
books1 on the ,honourable1 and  on      

,pleasure1 addressed to ,aristocreon2 a 
demonstration1 that ,pleasure is  not   
the ,chief ,good of ,man1 in four books2
 a demonstration that ,pleasure  is not 
a ,good at all1 in four books2 a        
treatise on what is said by '''#ajf     
,,book ,,viii4      ,,life ,,of         
,,pythagoras4    ,i4 ,since we have now 
gone through the ,ionian philosophy1    
which was  derived from ,thales1 and the
 lives of the several illustrious men   
who  were the chief ornaments of that   
school2 we will now proceed to treat  of
 the ,italian ,school1 which was founded
 by ,pythagoras1 the son of             
,mnesarchus1 a seal engraver1 as he is  
recorded to have been by ,hermippus2  a 
native of ,samos1 or as ,aristoxenus    
asserts1 a ,tyrrhenian1 and a  native of
 one of the islands which the ,athenians
 occupied after they  had driven out the
 ,tyrrhenians4 ,but some authors say    
that he was the  son of ,marmacus1 the  
son of ,hippasus1 the son of            
,euthyphron1 the son of  ,cleonymus1 who

 was an exile from ,phlias2 and that    
,marmacus settled in  ,samos1 and that  
from this circumstance ,pythagoras was  
called a ,samian4  ,after that he       
migrated to ,lesbos1 having come to     
,pherecydes with letters  of            
recommendation from ,zoilus1 his uncle4 
,and having made three silver  goblets1 
he carried them to ,egypt as a present  
for each of the three  priests4 ,he had 
brothers1 the eldest of whom was named  
,eunomus1 the  middle one ,tyrrhenus1   
and a slave named ,zamolxis1 to whom the
 ,get  sacrifice1 believing him to be   
the same as ,saturn1 according to the   
account of ,herodotus4#ajg    ,,ii4 ,he 
was a pupil1 as ,i have already         
mentioned1 of ,pherecydes1 the  ,syrian2
 and after his death he came to ,samos1 
and became a pupil of  ,hermodamas1 the 
descendant of ,creophylus1 who was by   
this time an old man4    ,,iii4 ,and as 
he was a young man1 and devoted to      
learning1 he quitted his  country1 and  
got initiated into all the ,grecian and 

barbarian sacred  mysteries4            
,accordingly1 he went to ,egypt1 on     
which occasion ,polycrates  gave him a  
letter of introduction to ,amasis2 and  
he learnt the ,egyptian  language1 as   
,antipho tells us1 in his treatise on   
those men who have been  conspicuous for
 virtue1 and he associated with the     
,chaldans and with the  ,magi4          
,afterwards he went to ,crete1 and in   
company with ,epimenides1 he descended  
into the ,idan cave1 7and in ,egypt too1
 he entered into the holiest  parts of  
their temples17 and learned all the most
 secret mysteries that  relate to their 
,gods4 ,then he returned back again to  
,samos1 and finding  his country reduced
 under the absolute dominion of         
,polycrates1 he set  sail1 and fled to  
,crotona in ,italy4 ,and there1 having  
given laws to the  ,italians1 he gained 
a very high reputation1 together with   
his scholars1  who were about three     
hundred in number1 and governed the     
republic in  a most excellent manner2 so

 that the constitution was very nearly  
an  aristocracy4    ,,iv4 ,heraclides   
,ponticus says1 that he was accustomed  
to speak of himself  in this manner2    
that he had formerly been thalides1 and 
had been  accounted the son of ,mercury2
 and that ,mercury had desired him to   
select  any gift he pleased except      
immortality4 ,and that he accordingly   
had  requested that1 whether living or  
dead1 he might preserve the memory of   
what had happened to him4 ,while1       
therefore1 he was alive1 he recollected 
everything2 and when he was dead1 he    
retained the same memory4 ,and at a     
subsequent period he passed into        
,euphorbus1 and was wounded by          
,menelaus4  ,and while he was           
,euphorbus1 he used to say that he had  
formerly been  thalides2 and that he had
 received as a gift from ,mercury the   
perpetual  transmigration of his soul1  
so that it was constantly transmigrating
  and passing into whatever plants or   
animals it pleased2 and he had also     

received the gift of knowing and        
recollecting all that his soul had      
suffered in hell1 and what sufferings   
too are endured by the rest of the      
souls4    ,but after ,euphorbus died1 he
 said that his soul had passed into     
,hermotimus2 and when he wished to      
convince people of this1 he went into   
the territory of the ,branchid1 and     
going into the temple of ,apollo1 he    
showed his shield which ,menelaus had   
dedicated there as an offering4  ,for he
 said that he1 when he sailed from      
,troy1 had offered up his  shield#ajh   
which was already getting worn out1 to  
,apollo1 and that  nothing remained but 
the ivory face which was on it4 ,and    
when ,hermotimus  died1 then he said    
that he had become ,pyrrhus1 a fisherman
 of ,delos2 and  that he still          
recollected everything1 how he had been 
formerly thalides1  then ,euphorbus1    
then ,hermotimus1 and then ,pyrrhus4    
,and when ,pyrrhus died1  he became     
,pythagoras1 and still recollected all  

the circumstances that ,i  have been    
mentioning4    ,v4 ,now1 some people say
 that ,pythagoras did not leave behind  
him a single  book2 but they talk       
foolishly2 for ,heraclitus1 the natural 
philosopher1  speaks plainly enough of  
him1 saying1 8,pythagoras1 the son of   
,mnesarchus1  was the most learned of   
all men in history2 and having selected 
from  these writings1 he thus formed his
 own wisdom and extensive learning1  and
 mischievous art40 ,and he speaks thus1 
because ,pythagoras1 in the  beginning  
of his treatise on ,natural ,philosophy1
 writes in the following  manner3 8,by  
the air which ,i breathe1 and by the    
water which ,i drink1 ,i  will not      
endure to be blamed on account of this  
discourse40    ,and there are three     
volumes extant written by ,pythagoras4  
,one on  ,education2 one on ,politics2  
and one on ,natural ,philosophy4 ,but   
the  treatise which is now extant under 
the name of ,pythagoras is the work of  
,lysis1 of ,tarentum1 a philosopher of  

the ,pythagorean ,school1 who fled to   
,thebes1 and became the master of       
,epaminondas4 ,and ,heraclides1 the son 
of  ,sarapion1 in his ,abridgment of    
,sotion1 says that he wrote a poem in   
epic  verse on the ,universe2 and       
besides that a sacred poem1 which begins
 thus2--        ,dear youths1 ,i warn   
you cherish peace divine1      ,and in  
your hearts lay deep these words of     
mine4    ,a third about the ,soul2 a    
fourth on ,piety2 a fifth entitled      
,helothales1  which was the name of the 
father of ,epicharmus1 of ,cos2 a sixth 
called  ,crotona1 and other poems too4  
,but the mystic discourse which is      
extant  under his name1 they say is     
really the work of ,hippasus1 having    
been  composed with a view to bring     
,pythagoras into disrepute4 ,there were 
also many other books composed by       
,aston1 of ,crotona1 and attributed to  
,pythagoras4    ,aristoxenus asserts    
that ,pythagoras derived the greater    
part of his  ethical doctrines from     

,themistoclea1 the priestess at ,delphi4
 ,and ,ion1  of ,chios1 in his          
,victories1 says that he wrote some     
poems and attributed  them to ,orpheus4 
,they also say that the poem called the 
,scopiad is by  him1 which begins       
thus3--        ,behave not shamelessly  
to any one4    ,,vi4 ,and ,sosicrates1  
in his ,successions1 relates that he1   
having being  asked by ,leon1 the tyrant
 of the ,phliasians1 who he was1        
replied1 8,a  philosopher40 ,and adds1  
that he used to compare life to a       
festival4 8,and  as some people came to 
a festival to contend for the prizes1   
and others  for the purposes of traffic1
 and the best as spectators2 so also in 
life1  the men of slavish dispositions10
 said he1 8are born hunters after glory 
and covetousness1 but philosophers are  
seekers after truth40 ,and thus he      
spoke on this subject4 ,but in the three
 treatises above mentioned1 the         
following principles are laid down by   
,pythagoras generally4    ,he forbids   

men to pray for anything in particular  
for themselves1  because they do not    
know what is good for them4 ,he calls   
drunkenness an  expression identical    
with ruin1 and rejects all superfluity1 
saying1  8,that no one ought to exceed  
the proper quantity of meat and drink40 
,and on the subject of venereal         
pleasures1 he speaks thus3--8,one ought 
to sacrifice to ,venus in the winter1   
not in the summer2 and in autumn  and   
spring in a lesser degree4 ,but the     
practice is pernicious at every  season1
 and is never good for the health40 ,and
 once1 when he was asked  when a man    
might indulge in the pleasures of love1 
he replied1 8,whenever  you wish to be  
weaker than yourself40    ,,vii4 ,and he
 divides the life of man thus4 ,a boy   
for twenty years2 a  young man 77 for   
twenty years2 a middle-aged man 77 for  
twenty years2 an old man for twenty     
years4 ,and these different ages        
correspond proportionably to the        
seasons3 boyhood answers to spring2     

youth to summer2 middle age to autumn2  
and old age to winter4 ,and he uses     
here as equivalent to 1 and  as         
equivalent to  4    ,,viii4 ,he was the 
first person1 as ,timus says1 who       
asserted that the  property of friends  
is common1 and that friendship is       
equality4 ,and his  disciples used to   
put all their possessions together into 
one store1 and  use them in common2 and 
for five years they kept silence1 doing 
nothing  but listen to discourses1 and  
never once seeing ,pythagoras1 until    
they  were approved2 after that time    
they were admitted into his house1 and  
allowed to see him4 ,they also abstained
 from the use of cypress coffins1       
because the sceptre of ,jupiter was made
 of that wood1 as ,hermippus tells  us  
in the second book of his account of    
,pythagoras4    ,,ix4 ,he is said to    
have been a man of the most dignified   
appearance1 and  his disciples adopted  
an opinion respecting him1 that he was  
,apollo  who had come from the          

,hyperboreans2 and it is said1 that once
 when he  was stripped naked1 he was    
seen to have a golden thigh4 ,and there 
were  many people who affirmed1 that    
when he was crossing the river ,nessus  
it  addressed him by his name4    ,x4   
,timus1 in the tenth book of his        
,histories1 tells us1 that he used to   
say that women who were married to men  
had the names of the ,gods1 being       
successively called virgins1 then       
nymphs1 and subsequently mothers4       
,,xi4 ,it was ,pythagoras also who      
carried geometry to perfection1 after   
,mris had first found out the principles
 of the elements of that  science1 as   
,aristiclides tells us in the second    
book of his ,history  of ,alexander2 and
 the part of the science to which       
,pythagoras applied  himself above all  
others was arithmetic4 ,he also         
discovered the numerical  relation of   
sounds on a single string3 he also      
studied medicine4  ,and ,apollodorus1   
the logician1 records of him1 that he   

sacrificed a  hecatomb1 when he had     
discovered that the square of the       
hypothenuse of a  right-angled triangle 
is equal to the squares of the sides    
containing the  right angle4 ,and there 
is an epigram which is couched in the   
following  terms3--        ,when the    
great ,samian sage his noble problem    
found1      ,a hundred oxen dyed with   
their life-blood the ground4    ,,xii4  
,he is also said to have been the first 
man who trained athletes on  meat2 and  
,eurymenes was the first man1 according 
to the statement of  ,phavorinus1 in the
 third book of his ,commentaries1 who   
ever did submit  to this diet1 as before
 that time men used to train themselves 
on dry  figs and moist cheese1 and      
wheaten bread2 as the same ,phavorinus  
informs  us in the eighth book of his   
,universal ,history4 ,but some authors  
state1  that a trainer of the name of   
,pythagoras certainly did train his     
athletes  on this system1 but that it   
was not our philosopher2 for that he    

even  forbade men to kill animals at    
all1 much less would have allowed his   
disciples to eat them1 as having a right
 to live in common with mankind4  ,and  
this was his pretext2 but in reality he 
prohibited the eating of  animals1      
because he wished to train and accustom 
men to simplicity of  life1 so that all 
their food should be easily procurable1 
as it would be1  if they ate only such  
things as required no fire to dress     
them1 and if  they drank plain water2   
for from this diet they would derive    
health of  body and acuteness of        
intellect4    ,the only altar at which  
he worshipped was that of ,apollo the   
,father1 at  ,delos1 which is at the    
back of the altar of ,ceratinus1 because
 wheat1 and  barley1 and cheese-cakes   
are the only offerings laid upon it1    
being not  dressed by fire2 and no      
victim is ever slain there1 as          
,aristotle tells us  in his             
,constitution of the ,delians4 ,they    
say1 too1 that he was the first  person 

who asserted that the soul went a       
necessary circle being changed  about   
and confined at different times in      
different bodies4    ,,xiii4 ,he was    
also the first person who introduced    
measures and weights  among the ,greeks2
 as ,aristoxenus the musician informs   
us4    ,,xiv4 ,parmenides1 too1 assures 
us1 that he was the first person who    
asserted the identity of ,hesperus and  
,lucifer4    ,,xv4 ,and he was so       
greatly admired1 that they used to say  
that his friends  looked on all his     
sayings as the oracles of ,god4#aji ,and
 he himself  says in his writings1 that 
he had come among men after having spent
 two  hundred and seven years in the    
shades below4 ,therefore the ,lucanians 
and the ,peucetians1 and the            
,messapians1 and the ,romans1 flocked   
around  him1 coming with eagerness to   
hear his discourses2 but until the time 
of  ,philolaus there were no doctrines  
of ,pythagoras ever divulged2 and he was
  the first person who published the    

three celebrated books which ,plato     
wrote to have purchased for him for a   
hundred min4 ,nor were the number  of   
his scholars who used to come to him by 
night fewer than six hundred4  ,and if  
any of them had ever been permitted to  
see him1 they wrote of it  to their     
friends1 as if they had gained some     
great advantage4    ,the people of      
,metapontum used to call his house the  
temple of ,ceres2 and  the street       
leading to it they called the street of 
the ,muses1 as we are  told by          
,phavorinus in his ,universal ,history4 
,and the rest of the ,pythagoreans used 
to say1 according to the account  given 
by ,aristoxenus1 in the tenth book of   
his ,laws on ,education1 that  his      
precepts ought not to be divulged to all
 the world2 and ,xenophilus1  the       
,pythagorean1 when he was asked what was
 the best way for a man to  educate his 
son1 said1 8,that he must first of all  
take care that he was  born in a city   
which enjoyed good laws40               

,pythagoras1 too1 formed many excellent 
men in ,italy1 by his precepts1  and    
among them ,zaleucus1#aaj and           
,charondas1#aaa the lawgivers4    ,,xvi4
 ,for he was very eminent for his power 
of attracting friendships2 and  among   
other things1 if ever he heard that any 
one had any community of  symbols with  
him1 he at once made him a companion and
 a friend4    ,,xvii4 ,now1 what he     
called his symbols were such as these4  
8,do not stir  the fire with a sword40  
8,do not sit down on a bushel40 8,do not
 devour  your heart40 8,do not aid men  
in discarding a burden1 but in          
increasing  one40 8,always have your bed
 packed up40 8,do not bear the image of 
a ,god  on a ring40 8,efface the traces 
of a pot in the ashes40 8,do not wipe a 
seat with a lamp40 8,do not make water  
in the sunshine40 8,do not walk in  the 
main street40 8,do not offer your right 
hand lightly40 8,do not cherish         
swallows under your roof40 8,do not     
cherish birds with crooked talons40     

8,do not defile2 and do not stand upon  
the parings of your nails1 or the       
cuttings of your hair40 8,avoid a sharp 
sword40 8,when you are travelling       
abroad1 look not back at your own       
borders40 ,now the precept not to stir  
fire with a sword meant1 not to provoke 
the anger or swelling pride  of powerful
 men2 not to violate the beam of the    
balance meant1 not to  transgress       
fairness and justice2 not to sit on a   
bushel is to have an  equal care for the
 present and for the future1 for by the 
bushel is meant  one's daily food4 ,by  
not devouring one's heart1 he intended  
to show  that we ought not to waste away
 our souls with grief and sorrow4 ,in   
the  precept that a man when travelling 
abroad should not turn his eyes back1   
he recommended those who were departing 
from life not to be desirous to  live1  
and not to be too much attracted by the 
pleasures here on earth4  ,and the other
 symbols may be explained in a similar  
manner1 that we may  not be too prolix  

here4    ,,xviii4 ,and above all things1
 he used to prohibit the eating of the  
erythinus1 and the melanurus2 and also1 
he enjoined his disciples to  abstain   
from the hearts of animals1 and from    
beans4 ,and ,aristotle informs  us1 that
 he sometimes used also to add to these 
prohibitions paunches  and mullet4 ,and 
some authors assert that he himself used
 to be contented  with honey and        
honeycomb1 and bread1 and that he never 
drank wine in the  day time4 ,and his   
desert was usually vegetables1 either   
boiled or raw2  and he very rarely ate  
fish4 ,his dress was white1 very clean1 
and his  bed-clothes were also white1   
and woollen1 for linen had not yet been 
introduced into that country4 ,he was   
never known to have eaten too much1  or 
to have drunk too much1 or to indulge in
 the pleasures of love4 ,he  abstained  
wholly from laughter1 and from all such 
indulgences as jests  and idle stories4 
,and when he was angry1 he never        
chastised any one1  whether slave or    

freeman4 ,he used to call admonishing1  
feeding storks4    ,he used to practise 
divination1 as far as auguries and      
auspices go1 but  not by means of burnt 
offerings1 except only the burning of   
frankincense4  ,and all the sacrifices  
which he offered consisted of inanimate 
things4  ,but some1 however1 assert that
 he did sacrifice animals1 limiting     
himself  to cocks1 and sucking kids1    
which are called 1 but that he very     
rarely offered lambs4 ,aristoxenus1     
however1 affirms that he permitted  the 
eating of all other animals1 and only   
abstained from oxen used in             
agriculture1 and from rams4    ,,xix4   
,the same author tells us1 as ,i have   
already mentioned1 that he  received his
 doctrines from ,themistoclea1 at       
,delphi4 ,and ,hieronymus  says1 that   
when he descended to the shades below1  
he saw the soul of  ,hesiod bound to a  
brazen pillar1 and gnashing its teeth2  
and that of  ,homer suspended from a    
tree1 and snakes around it1 as a        

punishment for  the things that they had
 said of the ,gods4 ,and that those     
people also  were punished who refrained
 from commerce with their wives2 and    
that on  account of this he was greatly 
honoured by the people of ,crotona4     
,but ,aristippus1 of ,cyrene1 in his    
,account of ,natural ,philosophers1     
says that ,pythagoras derived his name  
from the fact of his speaking  77 truth 
no less than the ,god at ,delphi 7 74   
,it is said that he used to admonish his
 disciples to repeat these lines  to    
themselves whenever they returned home  
to their houses3--        ,in what have 
,i transgress'd8 ,what have ,i done8    
,what that ,i should have done have ,i  
omitted8    ,and that he used to forbid 
them to offer victims to the ,gods1     
ordering  them to worship only at those 
altars which were unstained with blood4 
,he  forbade them also to swear by the  
,gods2 saying1 8,that every man ought   
so to exercise himself1 as to be worthy 
of belief without an oath40 ,he  also   

taught men that it behoved them to      
honour their elders1 thinking  that     
which was precedent in point of time    
more honourable2 just as in the  world1 
the rising of the sun was more so than  
the setting2 in life1 the  beginning    
more so than the end2 and in animals1   
production more so than  destruction4   
,another of his rules was that men      
should honour the ,gods above the       
dmones1 heroes above men2 and of all men
 parents were entitled to the  highest  
degree of reverence4 ,another1 that     
people should associate with  one       
another in such a way as not to make    
their friends enemies1 but to  render   
their enemies friends4 ,another was that
 they should think nothing  exclusively 
their own4 ,another was to assist the   
law1 and to make  war upon lawlessness4 
,not to destroy or injure a cultivated  
tree1 nor  any animal either which does 
not injure men4 ,that modesty and       
decorum  consisted in never yielding to 
laughter1 and yet not looking stern4    

,he taught that men should avoid too    
much flesh1 that they should in         
travelling let rest and exertion        
alternate2 that they should exercise    
memory2 that they should never say or do
 anything in anger2 that they  should   
not pay respect to every kind of        
divination2 that they should  use songs 
set to the lyre2 and by hymns to the    
,gods and to eminent men1  display a    
reasonable gratitude to them4    ,he    
also forbade his disciples to eat beans1
 because1 as they were  flatulent1 they 
greatly partook of animal properties he 
also said that  men kept their stomachs 
in better order by avoiding them2 and   
that such  abstinence made the visions  
which appear in one's sleep gentle and  
free  from agitation4 ,alexander also   
says1 in his ,successions of            
,philosophers1  that he found the       
following dogmas also set down in the   
,commentaries of  ,pythagoras3--        
,that the monad was the beginning of    
everything4 ,from the monad proceeds  an

 indefinite duad1 which is subordinate  
to the monad as to its cause4  ,that    
from the monad and the indefinite duad  
proceed numbers4 ,and from  numbers     
signs4 ,and from these last1 lines of   
which plane figures consist4  ,and from 
plane figures are derived solid bodies4 
,and from solid bodies  sensible bodies1
 of which last there are four elements2 
fire1 water1  earth1 and air4 ,and that 
the world1 which is endued with life1   
and  intellect1 and which is of a       
spherical figure1 having the earth1     
which  is also spherical1 and inhabited 
all over in its centre1 results from a  
combination of these elements1 and      
derives its motion from them2 and also  
that there are antipodes1#aab and that  
what is below1 as respects us1 is  above
 in respect of them4    ,he also taught 
that light and darkness and cold and    
heat1 and dryness and  moisture1 were   
equally divided in the world2 and that1 
while heat was  predominant it was      
summer2 while cold had the mastery it   

was winter2 when  dryness prevailed it  
was spring2 and when moisture           
preponderated1 winter4  ,and while all  
these qualities were on a level1 then   
was the loveliest  season of the year2  
of which the flourishing spring was the 
wholesome  period1 and the season of    
autumn the most pernicious one4 ,of the 
day1 he  said that the flourishing      
period was the morning1 and the fading  
one the  evening2 on which account that 
also was the least healthy time4        
,another of his theories was1 that the  
air around the earth was  immoveable1   
and pregnant with disease1 and that     
everything in it was  mortal2 but that  
the upper air was in perpetual motion1  
and pure and  salubrious2 and that      
everything in that was immortal1 and on 
that account  divine4 ,and that the sun1
 and the moon1 and the stars1 were all  
,gods2  for in them the warm principle  
predominates which is the cause of life4
  ,and that the moon derives its light  
from the sun4 ,and that there is a      

relationship between men and the ,gods1 
because men partake of the divine       
principle2 on which account also1 ,god  
exercises his providence for our        
advantage4 ,also1 that fate is the cause
 of the arrangement of the world  both  
generally and particularly4 ,moreover1  
that a ray from the sun  penetrated both
 the cold ther and the dense ther2 and  
they call the air  771 the cold ther 7  
71 and the sea and moisture they call   
the dense ther 7 74 ,and this ray       
descends into the depths1  and in this  
way vivifies everything4 ,and everything
 which partakes of  the principle of    
heat lives1 on which account also plants
 are animated  beings2 but that all     
living things have not necessarily      
souls4 ,and that  the soul is a         
something torn off from the ther1 both  
warm and cold1 from  its partaking of   
the cold ther4 ,and that the soul is    
something different  from life4 ,also1  
that it is immortal1 because that from  
which it has been  detached is immortal4

    ,also1 that animals are born from   
one another by seeds1 and that it is    
impossible for there to be any          
spontaneous production by the earth4    
,and that seed is a drop from the brain 
which contains in itself a warm  vapour2
 and that when this is applied to the   
womb1 it transmits virtue1  and         
moisture1 and blood from the brain1 from
 which flesh1 and sinews1 and  bones1   
and hair1 and the whole body are        
produced4 ,and from the vapour is       
produced the soul1 and also sensation4  
,and that the infant first becomes  a   
solid body at the end of forty days2    
but1 according to the principles  of    
harmony1 it is not perfect till seven1  
or perhaps nine1 or at most ten  months1
 and then it is brought forth4 ,and that
 it contains in itself all  the         
principles of life1 which are all       
connected together1 and by their  union 
and combination form a harmonious whole1
 each of them developing  itself at the 
appointed time4    ,the senses in       

general1 and especially the sight1 are a
 vapour of  excessive warmth1 and on    
this account a man is said to see       
through air1  and through water4 ,for   
the hot principle is opposed by the cold
 one2  since1 if the vapour in the eyes 
were cold1 it would have the same       
temperature as the air1 and so would be 
dissipated4 ,as it is1 in some  passages
 he calls the eyes the gates of the sun4
 ,and he speaks in a  similar manner of 
hearing1 and of the other senses4    ,he
 also says that the soul of man is      
divided into three parts2 into          
intuition 771 and reason 771 and mind   
771 and that the first  and last        
divisions are found also in other       
animals1 but that the middle  one1      
reason1 is only found in man4 ,and that 
the chief abode of the soul  is in those
 parts of the body which are between the
 heart and the brain4  ,and that that   
portion of it which is in the heart is  
the mind 772  but that deliberation 771 
and reason 771 reside in the brain4#aac 

,moreover1 that the senses are drops    
from them2 and that the reasoning  sense
 is immortal1 but the others are mortal4
 ,and that the soul is  nourished by the
 blood2 and that reasons are the winds  
of the soul4  ,that it is invisible1 and
 so are its reasons1 since the ther     
itself is  invisible4 ,that the links of
 the soul are the veins1 and the        
arteries1  and the nerves4 ,but that    
when it is vigorous1 and is by itself in
 a  quiescent state1 then its links are 
words and actions4 ,that when it  is    
cast forth upon the earth it wanders    
about1 resembling the body4  ,moreover1 
that ,mercury is the steward of the     
souls1 and that on this  account he has 
the name of ,conductor1 and ,commercial1
 and ,infernal1  since it is he who     
conducts the souls from their bodies1   
and from earth1  and sea2 and that he   
conducts the pure souls to the highest  
region1 and  that he does not allow the 
impure ones to approach them1 nor to    
come  near one another2 but commits them

 to be bound in indissoluble fetters  by
 the ,furies4 ,the ,pythagoreans also   
assert1 that the whole air is full  of  
souls1 and that these are those which   
are accounted dmones1 and  heroes4      
,also1 that it is by them that dreams   
are sent among men1 and  also the tokens
 of disease and health2 these last too1 
being sent not  only to men1 but to     
sheep also1 and other cattle4 ,also1    
that it is they  who are concerned with 
purifications1 and expiations1 and all  
kinds of  divination1 and oracular      
predictions1 and things of that kind4   
,they also say1 that the most important 
privilege in man is1 the being  able to 
persuade his soul to either good or bad4
 ,and that men are happy  when they have
 a good soul2 yet1 that they are never  
quiet1 and that they  never retain the  
same mind long4 ,also1 that an oath is  
justice2 and that  on that account1     
,jupiter is called ,jupiter of ,oaths   
774 ,also1 that  virtue is harmony1 and 
health1 and universal good1 and ,god2 on

 which  account everything owes its     
existence and consistency to harmony4   
,also1  that friendship is a harmonious 
equality4    ,again1 they teach that one
 ought not to pay equal honours to ,gods
  and to heroes2 but that one ought to  
honour the ,gods at all times1          
extolling them with praises1 clothed in 
white garments1 and keeping one's  body 
chaste2 but that one ought not to pay   
such honour to the heroes  till after   
midday4 ,also1 that a state of purity is
 brought about by  purifications1 and   
washings1 and sprinklings1 and by a     
man's purifying  himself from all       
funerals1 or concubinage1 or pollution  
of every kind1  and by abstaining from  
all flesh that has either been killed or
 died of  itself1 and from mullets1 and 
from melanuri1 and from eggs1 and from  
such  animals as lay eggs1 and from     
beans1 and from other things which are  
prohibited by those who have the charge 
of the mysteries in the temples4    ,and
 ,aristotle says1 in his treatise on    

,beans1 that ,pythagoras enjoined  his  
disciples to abstain from beans1 either 
because they resemble some  part of the 
human body1 or because they are like the
 gates of hell 7for  they are the only  
plants without parts72 or because they  
dry up other  plants1 or because they   
are representatives of universal nature1
 or  because they are used in elections 
in oligarchical governments4 ,he also   
forbade his disciples to pick up what   
fell from the table1 for the sake  of   
accustoming them not to eat             
immoderately1 or else because such      
things  belong to the dead4    ,but     
,aristophanes says1 that what falls     
belongs to the heroes2 saying1 in  his  
,heroes3--        ,never taste the      
things which fall      ,from the table  
on the floor4    ,he also forbade his   
disciples to eat white poultry1 because 
a cock of  that colour was sacred to    
,month1 and was also a suppliant4 ,he   
was also  accounted a good animal2#aad  
and he was sacred to the ,god ,month1   

for he  indicates the time4    ,the     
,pythagoreans were also forbidden to eat
 of all fish that were sacred2  on the  
ground that the same animals ought not  
to be served up before both  ,gods and  
men1 just as the same things do not     
belong to freemen and to  slaves4 ,now1 
white is an indication of a good nature1
 and black of a bad  one4 ,another of   
the precepts of ,pythagoras was1 that   
men ought not to  break bread2 because  
in ancient times friends used to        
assemble around one  loaf1 as they even 
now do among the barbarians4 ,nor would 
he allow men to  divide bread which     
unites them4 ,some think that he laid   
down this rule in  reference to the     
judgment which takes place in hell2 some
 because this  practice engenders       
timidity in war4 ,according to others1  
what is alluded  to is the ,union1 which
 presides over the government of the    
universe4    ,another of his doctrines  
was1 that of all solid figures the      
sphere was  the most beautiful2 and of  

all plane figures1 the circle4 ,that old
  age and all diminution were similar1  
and also increase and youth were        
identical4 ,that health was the         
permanence of form1 and disease the     
destruction of it4 ,of salt his opinion 
was1 that it ought to be set  before    
people as a reminder of justice2 for    
salt preserves everything  which it     
touches1 and it is composed of the      
purest particles of water  and sea4     
,these are the doctrines which          
,alexander asserts that he discovered in
 the  ,pythagorean treatises2 and       
,aristotle gives a similar account of   
them4    ,,xv4 ,timon1 in his ,silli1   
has not left unnoticed the dignified    
appearance  of ,pythagoras1 when he     
attacks him on other points4 ,and his   
words are  these3--        ,pythagoras1 
who often teaches      ,precepts of     
magic1 and with speeches      ,of long  
high-sounding diction draws1      ,from 
gaping crowds1 a vain applause4    ,and 
respecting his having been different    

people at different times1  ,xenophanes 
adds his evidence in an elegiac poem    
which commences thus3--        ,now ,i  
will on another subject touch1      ,and
 lead the way4    ,and the passage in   
which he mentions ,pythagoras is as     
follows3--        ,they say that once1  
as passing by he saw      ,a dog        
severely beaten1 he did pity him1       
,and spoke as follows to the man who    
beat him3--      8,stop now1 and beat   
him not2 since in his body1      ,abides
 the soul of a dear friend of mine1     
,whose voice ,i recognized as he was    
crying40    ,these are the words of     
,xenophanes4    ,cratinus also ridiculed
 him in his ,pythagorean ,woman2 but in 
his  ,tarentines1 he speaks thus3--     
,they are accustomed1 if by chance they 
see      ,a private individual abroad1  
,to try what powers of argument he has1 
,how he can speak and reason3 and they  
bother him      ,with strange antithesis
 and forced conclusions1      ,errors1  
comparisons1 and magnitudes1      ,till 

they have filled and quite perplex'd his
 mind4    ,and ,mnesimachus says in his 
,alcmon3--        ,as we do sacrifice to
 the ,phbus whom      ,pythagoras       
worships1 never eating aught      ,which
 has the breath of life4    ,aristophon 
says in his ,pythagorean3--        ,a4  
,he said that when he did descend below 
,among the shades in ,hell1 he there    
beheld           ,all men who e'er had  
died2 and there he saw1           ,that 
the ,pythagoreans differ'd much         
,from all the rest2 for that with them  
alone           ,did ,pluto deign to    
eat1 much honouring           ,their    
pious habits4        ,b4                
,he's a civil ,god1           ,if he    
likes eating with such dirty fellows4   
,and again1 in the same play he says3-- 
,they eat      ,nothing but herbs and   
vegetables1 and drink      ,pure water  
only4 ,but their lice are such1         
,their cloaks so dirty1 and their       
unwash'd scent      ,so rank1 that no   
one of our younger men      ,will for a 

moment bear them4    ,,xxi4 ,pythagoras 
died in this manner4 ,when he was       
sitting with some of  his companions in 
,milo's house1 some one of those whom he
 did not think  worthy of admission into
 it1 was excited by envy to set fire to 
it4 ,but  some say that the people of   
,crotona themselves did this1 being     
afraid  lest he might aspire to the     
tyranny4 ,and that ,pythagoras was      
caught as  he was trying to escape2 and 
coming to a place full of beans1 he     
stopped  there1 saying that it was      
better to be caught than to trample on  
the  beans1 and better to be slain than 
to speak2 and so he was murdered  by    
those who were pursuing him4 ,and in    
this way1 also1 most of his  companions 
were slain2 being in number about forty2
 but that a very few  did escape1 among 
whom were ,archippus1 of ,tarentum1 and 
,lysis1 whom ,i  have mentioned before4 
,but ,dicarchus relates that ,pythagoras
 died afterwards1 having escaped  as far
 as the temple of the ,muses1 at        

,metapontum1 and that he died there  of 
starvation1 having abstained from food  
for forty days4 ,and ,heraclides  says1 
in his abridgment of the life of        
,satyrus1 that after he had buried      
,pherecydes in ,delos1 he returned to   
,italy1 and finding there a superb      
banquet prepared at the house of ,milo1 
of ,crotona1 he left ,crotona1 and  went
 to ,metapontum1 and there put an end to
 his life by starvation1 not  wishing to
 live any longer4 ,but ,hermippus says1 
that when there was war  between the    
people of ,agrigentum and the           
,syracusans1 ,pythagoras went out  with 
his usual companions1 and took the part 
of the ,agrigentines2 and  as they were 
put to flight1 he ran all round a field 
of beans1 instead  of crossing it1 and  
so was slain by the ,syracusans2 and    
that the rest1  being about             
five-and-thirty in number1 were burnt at
 ,tarentum1 when they  were trying to   
excite a sedition in the state against  
the principal  magistrates4             

,hermippus also relates another story   
about ,pythagoras4 ,for he says that    
when he was in ,italy1 he made a        
subterraneous apartment1 and charged his
  mother to write an account of         
everything that took place1 marking the 
time of each on a tablet1 and then to   
send them down to him1 until he  came up
 again2 and that his mother did so2 and 
that ,pythagoras came up  again after a 
certain time1 lean1 and reduced to a    
skeleton2 and that  he came into the    
public assembly1 and said that he had   
arrived from the  shades below1 and then
 he recited to them all that had        
happened during  his absence4 ,and they1
 being charmed by what he told them1    
wept and  lamented1 and believed that   
,pythagoras was a divine being2 so that 
they  even entrusted their wives to him1
 as likely to learn some good from him2 
and that they too were called           
,pythagoreans4 ,and this is the story of
  ,hermippus4    ,,xxii4 ,and           
,pythagoras had a wife1 whose name was  

,theano2 the daughter of  ,brontinus1 of
 ,crotona4 ,but some say that she was   
the wife of ,brontinus1  and only a     
pupil of ,pythagoras4 ,and he had a     
daughter named ,damo1 as  ,lysis        
mentions in his letter to ,hipparchus2  
where he speaks thus of  ,pythagoras3   
8,and many say that you philosophize in 
public1 as ,pythagoras  also used to do2
 who1 when he had entrusted his         
,commentaries to ,damo1  his daughter1  
charged her to divulge them to no person
 out of the house4  ,and she1 though she
 might have sold his discourses for much
 money1 would  not abandon them1 for she
 thought poverty and obedience to her   
father's  injunctions more valuable than
 gold2 and that too1 though she was a   
woman40    ,he had also a son1 named    
,telauges1 who was the successor of his 
father  in his school1 and who1         
according to some authors1 was the      
teacher of  ,empedocles4 ,at least      
,hippobotus relates that ,empedocles    
said3--        8,telauges1 noble youth1 

whom in due time1      ,theano bore to  
wise ,pythagoras40    ,but there is no  
book extant1 which is the work of       
,telauges1 though  there are some       
extant1 which are attributed to his     
mother ,theano4 ,and  they tell a story 
of her1 that once1 when she was asked   
how long a woman  ought to be absent    
from her husband to be pure1 she said1  
the moment she  leaves her own husband1 
she is pure2 but she is never pure at   
all1 after  she leaves any one else4    
,and she recommended a woman1 who was   
going to  her husband1 to put off her   
modesty with her clothes1 and when she  
left  him1 to resume it again with her  
clothes2 and when she was asked1 8,what 
clothes80 she said1 8,those which cause 
you to be called a woman40    ,,xxiii4  
,now ,pythagoras1 as ,heraclides1 the   
son of ,sarapion1 relates1 died  when he
 was eighty years of age2 according to  
his own account of his age1  but        
according to the common account1 he was 
more than ninety4 ,and we have  written 

a sportive epigram on him1 which is     
couched in the following  terms3--      
,you're not the only man who has        
abstained      ,from living food1 for so
 likewise have we2      ,and who1 ,i'd  
like to know did ever taste      ,food  
while alive1 most sage ,pythagoras8     
,when meat is boil'd1 or roasted well   
and salted1      ,i don't think it can  
well be called living4      ,which1     
therefore1 without scruple then we eat  
it1      ,and call it no more living    
flesh1 but meat4    ,and another1 which 
runs thus3--        ,pythagoras was so  
wise a man1 that he      ,never eat meat
 himself1 and called it sin4      ,and  
yet he gave good joints of beef to      
others4      ,so that ,i marvel at his  
principles2      ,who others wronged1 by
 teaching them to do      ,what he      
believed unholy for himself4    ,and    
another1 as follows3--        ,should   
you ,pythagoras' doctrine wish to know1 
,look on the centre of ,euphorbus'      
shield4      ,for he asserts there lived

 a man of old1      ,and when he had no 
longer an existence1      ,he still     
could say that he had been alive1       
,or else he would not still be living   
now4    ,and this one too3        ,alas6
 alas6 why did ,pythagoras hold         
,beans in such wondrous honour8 ,why1   
besides1      ,did he thus die among his
 choice companions8      ,there was a   
field of beans2 and so the sage1        
,died in the common road of ,agrigentum1
      ,rather than trample down his     
favourite beans4    ,,xxiv4 ,and he     
flourished about the sixtieth olympiad2 
and his system  lasted for nine or ten  
generations4 ,and the last of the       
,pythagoreans1  whom ,aristoxenus knew1 
were ,xenophilus1 the ,chalcidean1 from 
,thrace2 and  ,phanton1 the ,phliasian1 
and ,echecrates1 and ,diodes1 and       
,polymnestus1 who  were also            
,phliasians1 and they were disciples of 
,philolaus and ,eurytus1  of ,tarentum4 
,,xxv4 ,and there were four men of the  
name of ,pythagoras1 about the same     

time1 at no great distance from one     
another4 ,one was a native of ,crotona1 
a man who attained tyrannical power2 the
 second was a ,phliasian1 a  trainer of 
wrestlers1 as some say2 the third was a 
native of ,zacynthus2  the fourth was   
this our philosopher1 to whom they say  
the mysteries of  philosophy belong1 in 
whose time that proverbial phrase1      
8,ipse dixit10  was introduced into     
ordinary life4 ,some also affirm1 that  
there was  another man of the name of   
,pythagoras1 a statuary of ,rhodes2 who 
is  believed to have been the first     
discoverer of rhythm and proportion2 and
  another was a ,samian statuary2 and   
another an orator1 of no reputation2    
and another was a physician1 who wrote a
 treatise on ,squills2 and also  some   
essays on ,homer2 and another was a man1
 who wrote a history of the  affairs of 
the ,dorians1 as we are told by         
,dionysius4    ,but ,eratosthenes says1 
as ,phavorinus quotes him1 in the eighth
 book of  his ,universal ,history1 that 

this philosopher1 of whom we are        
speaking1  was the first man who ever   
practised boxing in a scientific manner1
 in  the forty-eighth olympiad1 having  
his hair long1 and being clothed in a   
purple robe2 and that he was rejected   
from the competition among boys1  and   
being ridiculed for his application1 he 
immediately entered among the  men1 and 
came off victorious4 ,and this statement
 is confirmed among other  things1 by   
the epigram which ,thetetus composed3-- 
,stranger1 if e'er you knew ,pythagoras1
      ,pythagoras1 the man with flowing 
hair1      ,the celebrated boxer1 erst  
of ,samos2      ,i am ,pythagoras4 ,and 
if you ask      ,a citizen of ,elis of  
my deeds1      ,you'll surely think he  
is relating fables4    ,phavorinus says1
 that he employed definitions1 on       
account of the  mathematical subjects to
 which he applied himself4 ,and that    
,socrates  and those who were his       
pupils1 did so still more2 and that they
 were  subsequently followed in this by 

,aristotle and the ,stoics4    ,he too1 
was the first person1 who ever gave the 
name of  to the  universe1 and the first
 who called the earth round2 though     
,theophrastus  attributes this to       
,parmenides1 and ,zeno to ,hesiod4 ,they
 say too1  that ,cylon used to be a     
constant adversary of his1 as ,antidicus
 was  of ,socrates4 ,and this epigram   
also used to be repeated1 concerning    
,pythagoras the athlete3--              
,pythagoras of ,samos1 son of ,crates1  
,came while a child to the ,olympic     
games1      ,eager to battle for the    
prize in boxing4    ,,xxvi4 ,there is a 
letter of this philosopher extant1 which
 is couched in  the following terms3--  
,,pythagoras ,,to ,,anaximenes4    8,you
 too1 my most excellent friend1 if you  
were not superior to  ,pythagoras1 in   
birth and reputation1 would have        
migrated from ,miletus  and gone        
elsewhere4 ,but now the reputation of   
your father keeps you  back1 which      
perhaps would have restrained me too1 if

 ,i had been like  ,anaximenes4 ,but if 
you1 who are the most eminent man1      
abandon the cities1  all their ornaments
 will be taken from them1 and the       
,median power will  be more dangerous to
 them4 ,nor is it always seasonable to  
be studying  astronomy1 but it is more  
honourable to exhibit a regard for one's
  country4 ,and ,i myself am not always 
occupied about speculations of my own   
fancy1 but ,i am busied also with the   
wars which the ,italians are waging     
against one another40    ,but since we  
have now finished our account of        
,pythagoras1 we must also  speak of the 
most eminent of the ,pythagoreans4      
,after whom1 we must  mention those who 
are spoken of more promiscuously in     
connection with  no particular school2  
and then we will connect the whole      
series of  philosophers worth speaking  
of1 till we arrive at ,epicurus1 as we  
have  already promised4    ,now         
,telauges and ,theano we have mentioned2
 and we must now speak of  ,empedocles1 

in the first place1 for1 according to   
some accounts1 he was a  pupil of       
,pythagoras4      ,,life ,,of           
,,empedocles4    ,i4 ,empedocles1 as    
,hippobotus relates1 was the son of     
,meton1 the son of  ,empedocles1 and a  
citizen of ,agrigentum4 ,and ,timus1 in 
the fifteenth  book of his ,histories1  
gives the same account1 adding that     
,empedocles1  the grandfather of the    
poet1 was also a most eminent man4 ,and 
,hermippus  tells the same story as     
,timus2 and in the same spirit          
,heraclides1 in  his treatise on        
,diseases1 relates that he was of an    
illustrious family1  since his father   
bred a fine stud of horses4             
,erastothenes1 in his ,list  of the     
,conquerors at the ,olympic ,games1     
says1 that the father of ,meton  gained 
the victory in the seventy-first        
olympiad1 quoting ,aristotle as  his    
authority for the assertion4    ,but    
,apollodorus1 the grammarian1 in his    
,chronicles1 says that he was the  son  

of ,meton2 and ,glaucus says that he    
came to ,thurii when the city was  only 
just completed4 ,and then proceeding a  
little further1 he adds3--        ,and  
some relate that he did flee from       
thence1      ,and came to ,syracuse1 and
 on their side      ,did fight in horrid
 war against th' ,athenians2      ,but  
those men seem to me completely wrong-- 
,for by this time he must have been     
deceased1      ,or very old1 which is   
not much believed2      ,for ,aristotle1
 and ,heraclides too1      ,say that he 
died at sixty years of age4    ,but     
certainly the person who got the victory
 with a single horse in the             
seventy-first olympiad was a namesake of
 this man1 and that it is which         
deceived ,apollodorus as to the age of  
this philosopher4    ,but ,satyrus1 in  
his ,lives1 asserts1 that ,empedocles   
was the son of  ,exnetus1 and that he   
also left a son who was named ,exnetus4 
,and  that in the same ,olympiad1 he    
himself gained the victory with the     

single horse2 and his son1 in wrestling1
 or1 as ,heraclides says in  his        
,abridgment1 in running4 ,but ,i have   
found in the ,commentaries of           
,phavorinus1 that ,empedocles           
sacrificed1 and gave as a feast to the  
spectators of the games1 an ox made of  
honey and flour1 and that he had a      
brother named ,callicratidas4    ,but   
,telauges1 the son of ,pythagoras1 in   
his letters to ,philolaus1 says  that   
,empedocles was the son of ,archinomus2 
and that he was a citizen of            
,agrigentum1 he himself asserts at the  
beginning of his ,purifications4        
,friends1 who the mighty citadel        
inhabit1      ,which crowns the golden  
waves of ,acragas4    ,and this is      
enough to say about his family4    ,,ii4
 ,timus1 in his ninth book1 relates that
 he was a pupil of ,pythagoras1  saying 
that he was afterwards convicted of     
having divulged his doctrines1  in the  
same way as ,plato was1 and therefore   
that he was forbidden from  thenceforth 

to attend his school4 ,and they say that
 ,pythagoras himself  mentions him when 
he says3--        ,and in that band     
there was a learned man      ,of        
wondrous wisdom2 one1 who of all men    
,had the profoundest wealth of          
intellect4    ,but some say that when   
the philosopher says this1 he is        
referring to  ,parmenides4    ,neanthes 
relates1 that till the time of          
,philolaus and ,empedocles1 the         
,pythagoreans used to admit all persons 
indiscriminately into their  school2 but
 when ,empedocles made their doctrines  
public by means of his  poems1 then they
 made a law to admit no ,epic poet4 ,and
 they say that  the same thing happened 
to ,plato2 for that he too was excluded 
from the  school4 ,but who was the      
teacher of the ,pythagorean school that 
,empedocles  was a pupil of1 they do not
 say2 for1 as for the letter of         
,telauges1 in  which he is stated to    
have been a pupil of ,hippasus and      
,brontinus1 that  is not worthy of      

belief4 ,but ,theophrastus says that he 
was an imitator  and a rival of         
,parmenides1 in his poems1 for that he  
too had delivered  his opinions on      
natural philosophy in epic verse4       
,hermippus1 however1 says that he was an
 imitator1 not of ,parmenides1  but of  
,xenophanes with whom he lived2 and that
 he imitated his epic  style1 and that  
it was at a later period that he fell in
 with the  ,pythagoreans4 ,but          
,alcidamas1 in his ,natural ,philosophy1
 says1 that ,zeno  and ,empedocles were 
pupils of ,parmenides1 about the same   
time2 and that  they subsequently       
seceded from him2 and that ,zeno adopted
 a philosophical  system peculiar to    
himself2 but that ,empedocles became a  
pupil of  ,anaxagoras and ,pythagoras1  
and that he imitated the pompous        
demeanour1  and way of life1 and        
gestures of the one1 and the system of  
,natural  ,philosophy of the other4     
,,iii4 ,and ,aristotle1 in his ,sophist1
 says that ,empedocles was the first    

person who invented rhetoric1 and ,zeno 
the first person who invented           
dialectics4 ,and in his book on ,poetry1
 he says1 that ,empedocles was a  man of
 ,homeric genius1 and endowed with great
 power of language1 and  a great master 
of metaphor1 and a man who employed all 
the successful  artifices of poetry1 and
 also that when he had written several  
poems1 and  among them one on the       
passage of the ,hellespont1 by ,xerxes1 
and also the  promium of a hymn to      
,apollo1 his daughter subsequently burnt
 them1 or1  as ,hieronymus says1 his    
sister1 burning the promium             
unintentionally1  but the ,persian poem 
on purpose1 because it was incomplete4  
,and speaking  generally1 he says that  
he wrote tragedies and political        
treatises4    ,but ,heraclides1 the son 
of ,sarapion1 says that the tragedies   
were the  work of some other            
,empedocles2 and ,hieronymus says that  
he had met with  forty-three4 ,neanthes1
 too1 affirms that when he was a young  

man1 he  wrote tragedies1 and that he   
himself had subsequently met with them2 
and  ,satyrus1 in his ,lives1 states    
that he was a physician1 and also a most
  excellent orator4 ,and accordingly1   
that ,gorgias1 of ,leontini1 was his    
pupil1 a man of the greatest eminence as
 a rhetorician1 and one who left  behind
 him a treatise containing a complete   
system of the art2 and who1  as we are  
told by ,apollodorus1 in his            
,chronicles1 lived to the age of a      
hundred and nine years4    ,,iv4        
,satyrus tells us that he used to say   
that he had been present when           
,empedocles was practising magic2 and   
that he professes this science1 and     
many others too in his poems when he    
says3--        ,and all the drugs which 
can relieve disease1      ,or soften the
 approach of age1 shall be              
,revealed to your inquiries2 ,i do know 
them1      ,and ,i to you alone will    
them disclose4      ,you shall restrain 
the fierce unbridled winds1      ,which1

 rushing o'er the earth1 bow down the   
corn1      ,and crush the farmer's      
hopes4 ,and when you will1      ,you    
shall recall them back to sweep the     
land3      ,then you shall learn to dry 
the rainy clouds1      ,and bid warm    
summer cheer the heart of men4          
,again1 at your behest1 the drought     
shall yield      ,to wholesome show'rs3 
when you give the word      ,hell shall 
restore its dead4    ,v4 ,and ,timus1 in
 his eighteenth book1 says1 that this   
man was held in  great esteem on many   
accounts2 for that once1 when the       
etesian gales  were blowing violently1  
so as to injure the crops1 he ordered   
some asses  to be flayed1 and some      
bladders to be made of their hides1 and 
these he  placed on the hills and high  
places to catch the wind4 ,and so1 when 
the  wind ceased1 he was called         
wind-forbidder 774 ,and ,heraclides1  in
 his treatise on ,diseases1 says that he
 dictated to ,pausanias the  statement  
which he made about the dead woman4 ,now

 ,pausanias1 as both  ,aristippus and   
,satyrus agree1 was much attached to    
him2 and he dedicated  to him the works 
which he wrote on ,natural ,philosophy1 
in the following  terms3--        ,hear1
 ,o ,pausanias1 son of wise ,anchites4  
,he also wrote an epigram upon him3--   
,gela1 his native land1 does boast the  
birth      ,of wise ,anchites' son1 that
 great physician1      ,so fitly named  
,pausanias1#aae from his skill2      ,a 
genuine son of sculapius1      ,who has 
stopped many men whom fell disease      
,marked for its own1 from treading those
 dark paths      ,which lead to         
,proserpine's infernal realms4    ,,vi4 
,the case of the dead woman above       
mentioned1 ,heraclides says1 was        
something of this sort2 that he kept her
 corpse for thirty days dead1  and yet  
free from corruption2 on which account  
he has called himself a  physician and a
 prophet1 taking it also from these     
verses3--        ,friends who the mighty
 citadel inhabit1      ,which crowns the

 golden waves of ,acragas      ,votaries
 of noble actions1 ,hail to ye2      ,i1
 an immortal ,god1 no longer mortal1    
,now live among you well revered by all1
      ,as is my due1 crowned with holy  
fillets      ,and rosy garlands4 ,and   
whene'er ,i come      ,to wealthy       
cities1 then from men and women         
,due honours meets me2 and crowds follow
 me1      ,seeking the way which leads  
to gainful glory4      ,some ask for    
oracles1 and some entreat1      ,for    
remedies against all kinds of sickness4 
,,vii4 ,and he says that ,agrigentum was
 a very large city1 since it had  eight 
hundred thousand inhabitants2 on which  
account ,empedocles1 seeing  the people 
immersed in luxury1 said1 8,the men of  
,agrigentum devote  themselves wholly to
 luxury as if they were to die          
to-morrow1 but they  furnish their      
houses as if they were to live for      
ever40    ,,viii4 ,it is said that      
,cleomenes1 the rhapsodist1 sung this   
very poem1  called the ,purifications1  

at ,olympia2 at least this is the       
account given  by ,phavorinus1 in his   
,commentaries4    ,,ix4 ,and ,aristotle 
says1 that he was a most liberal man1   
and far removed  from anything like a   
domineering spirit2 since he constantly 
refused  the sovereign power when it was
 offered to him1 as ,xanthus assures us 
in his account of him1 showing plainly  
that he preferred a simple style  of    
living4 ,and ,timus tells the same      
story1 giving at the same time the      
reason why he was so very popular4 ,for 
he says that when on one occasion1  he  
was invited to a banquet by one of the  
magistrates1 the wine was  carried      
about1 but the supper was not served up4
 ,and as every one else  kept silence1  
he1 disapproving of what he saw1 bade   
the servants bring in  the supper2 but  
the person who had invited him said that
 he was waiting  for the secretary of   
the council4 ,and when he came he was   
appointed  master of the feast1 at the  
instigation of the giver of it1 and then

 he  gave a plain intimation of his     
tyrannical inclinations1 for he ordered 
all the guests to drink1 and those who  
did not drink were to have the  wine    
poured over their heads4 ,empedocles    
said nothing at the moment1  but the    
next day he summoned them before the    
court1 and procured the  execution of   
both the entertainer and the master of  
the feast4    ,and this was the         
beginning of his political career4 ,and 
at another  time1 when ,acron1 the      
physician1 asked of the council a place 
where he  might erect a monument to his 
father1 on account of his eminence as a 
physician1 ,empedocles came forward and 
opposed any such grant1 adducing  many  
arguments on the ground of equality1 and
 also putting the following             
question3--8,and what elegy shall we    
inscribe upon it8 ,shall we say3--      
8  '             40#aaf    ,but some    
give the second line thus3--            
4    ,and others assert that it is the  
composition of ,simonides4    ,but      

afterwards ,empedocles abolished the    
assembly of a thousand1 and  established
 a council in which the magistrates were
 to hold office for  three years1 on    
such a footing that it should consist   
not only of rich  men1 but of those who 
were favourers of the interests of the  
people4  ,timus1 however1 in his first  
and second book 7for he often mentions  
him71 says that he appeared to entertain
 opinions adverse to a republic4  ,and1 
as far as his poetry goes1 any one may  
see that he was arrogant and            
self-satisfied4 ,accordingly1 he says3--
                          ,hail to ye1  
,i1 an immortal ,god1 no longer mortal1 
,now live among you3    ,and so on4     
,but when he went to the olympic games  
he was considered a worthy object  of   
general attention2 so that there was no 
mention made of any one else  in        
comparison of ,empedocles4    ,x4       
,afterwards1 indeed1 when ,agrigentum   
was settled1 the descendants  of his    
enemies opposed his return2 on which    

account he retired to  ,peloponnesus1   
where he died4 ,and ,timon has not let  
even ,empedocles  escape1 but satirises 
him in this style1 saying3--        ,and
 then ,empedocles1 the honeyed speaker  
,of soft forensic speeches2 he did take 
,as many offices as he was able1        
,creating magistrates who wanted        
helpers4    ,but there are two accounts 
of the manner of his death4    ,,xi4    
,for ,heraclides1 relating the story    
about the dead woman1 how  ,empedocles  
got great glory from sending away a dead
 woman restored to  life1 says that he  
celebrated a sacrifice in the field of  
,pisianax1 and  that some of his friends
 were invited1 among whom was           
,pausanias4 ,and  then1 after the       
banquet1 they lay down1 some going a    
little way off1 and  some lying under   
the trees close by in the field1 and    
some wherever they  happened to choose4 
,but ,empedocles himself remained in the
 place where he  had been sitting4 ,but 
when day broke1 and they arose1 he alone

 was not  found4 ,and when he was sought
 for1 and the servants were examined and
  said that they did not know1 one of   
them said1 that at midnight he had      
heard a loud voice calling ,empedocles2 
and that then he himself rose up  and   
saw a great light from heaven1 but      
nothing else4 ,and as they were all     
amazed at what had taken place1         
,pausanias descended and sent some      
people  to look for him2 but afterwards 
he was commanded not to busy himself    
about the matter1 as he was informed    
that what had happened was deserving  of
 thankfulness1 and that they behoved to 
sacrifice to ,empedocles as to  one who 
had become a ,god4    ,hermippus says   
also1 that a woman of the name of       
,panthea1 a native of  ,agrigentum1 who 
had been given over by the physicians1  
was cured by him1  and that it was on   
this account that he celebrated a       
sacrifice2 and that  the guests invited 
were about eighty in number4 ,but       
,hippobotus says that  he rose up and   

went away as if he were going to mount  
tna2 and that when  he arrived at the   
crater of fire he leaped in1 and        
disappeared1 wishing  to establish a    
belief that he had become a ,god4 ,but  
afterwards the truth  was detected by   
one of his slippers having been dropped4
 ,for he used to  wear slippers with    
brazen soles4 ,pausanias1 however1      
contradicts this  statement4#aag    ,but
 ,diodorus1 of ,ephesus1 writing about  
,anaximander1 says that ,empedocles     
imitated him2 indulging in a tragic sort
 of pride1 and wearing  magnificent     
apparel4 ,and when a pestilence attacked
 the people of  ,selinus1 by reason of  
the bad smells arising from the adjacent
 river1 so  that the men died and the   
women bore dead children1 ,empedocles   
contrived  a plan1 and brought into the 
same channel two other rivers at his own
  expense2 and so1 by mixing their      
waters with that of the other river1 he 
sweetened the stream4 ,and as the       
pestilence was removed in this way1 when

  the people of ,selinus were on one    
occasion holding a festival on the bank 
of the river1 ,empedocles appeared among
 them2 and they rising up1 offered  him 
adoration1 and prayed to him as to a    
,god4 ,and he1 wishing to confirm  this 
idea which they had adopted of him1     
leaped into the fire4    ,but ,timus    
contradicts all these stories2 saying   
expressly1 that he  departed into       
,peloponnesus1 and never returned at    
all1 on which account  the manner of his
 death is uncertain4 ,and he especially 
denies the  tale of ,heraclides in his  
fourth book2 for he says that ,pisianax 
was  a ,syracusan1 and had no field in  
the district of ,agrigentum2 but that   
,pausanias erected a monument in honour 
of his friend1 since such a  report had 
got about concerning him2 and1 as he was
 a rich man1 made it  a statue and      
little chapel1 as one might erect to a  
,god4 8,how then10  adds ,timus1 8could 
he have leaped into a crater1 of which1 
though they  were in the neighbourhood1 

he had never made any mention8 ,he died 
then  in ,peloponnesus2 and there is    
nothing extraordinary in there being no 
tomb of his to be seen2 for there are   
many other men who have no tomb         
visible40 ,these are the words of       
,timus2 and he adds further1 8,but      
,heraclides is altogether a man fond of 
strange stories1 and one who would      
assert that a man had fallen from the   
moon40    ,hippobotus says1 that there  
was a clothed statue of ,empedocles     
which  lay formerly in ,agrigentum1 but 
which was afterwards placed in front of 
the ,senate ,house of the ,romans       
divested of its clothing1 as the ,romans
  had carried it off and erected it     
there4 ,and there are traces of some    
inscriptions or reliefs still           
discernible on it4    ,neanthes of      
,cyzicus1 who also wrote about the      
,pythagoreans1 says1 that  when ,meton  
was dead1 the seeds of tyrannical power 
began to appear2 and  that then         
,empedocles persuaded the ,agrigentines 

to desist from their  factious disputes1
 and to establish political equality4   
,and besides1 as  there were many of the
 female citizens destitute of dowry1 he 
portioned  them out of his own private  
fortune4 ,and relying on these actions  
of  his1 he assumed a purple robe and   
wore a golden circlet on his hand1 as   
,phavorinus relates in the first book of
 his ,commentaries4 ,he also wore       
slippers with brazen soles1 and a       
,delphian garland4 ,his hair was let    
grow very long1 and he had boys to      
follow him2 and he himself always       
preserved a solemn countenance1 and a   
uniformly grave deportment4 ,and  he    
marched about in such style1 that he    
seemed to all the citizens1 who  met him
 and who admired his deportment1 to     
exhibit a sort of likeness to  kingly   
power4 ,and afterwards1 it happened that
 as on the occasion of some  festival he
 was going in a chariot to ,messene1 he 
was upset and broke his  thigh2 and he  
was taken ill in consequence1 and so    

died1 at the age of  seventy-seven4 ,and
 his tomb is in ,megara4    ,but as to  
his age1 ,aristotle differs from this   
account of ,neanthes2  for he asserts   
that he died at sixty years of age2     
others again say1  that he was a hundred
 and nine when he died4 ,he flourished  
about the  eighty-fourth olympiad4      
,demetrius1 of ,trzen1 in his book      
against the  ,sophists1 reports that1 as
 the lines of ,homer say3--        ,he  
now1 self-murdered1 from a beam depends1
      ,and his mad soul to blackest hell
 descends4#aah    ,but in the letter of 
,telauges1 which has been mentioned     
before1 it is  said that he slipped down
 through old age1 and fell into the sea1
 and so  died4    ,and this is enough to
 say about his death4    ,there is also 
a jesting epigram of ours upon him1 in  
our collection of  ,poems in all        
,metres1 which runs thus3--        ,you 
too1 ,empedocles1 essayed to purge      
,your body in the rapid flames1 and     
drank      ,the liquid fire from the    

restless crater2      ,i say not that   
you threw yourself at once      ,into   
the stream of tna's fiery flood4        
,but seeking to conceal yourself you    
fell1      ,and so you met with         
unintended death4    ,and another3--    
',tis said the wise ,empedocles did fall
      ,out of his chariot1 and so broke 
his thigh3      ,but if he leapt into   
the flames of tna1      ,how could his  
tomb be shown in ,megara8    ,,xii4 ,the
 following were some of his doctrines4  
,he used to assert that  there were four
 elements1 fire1 water1 earth1 and air4 
,and that that  is friendship by which  
they are united1 and discord by which   
they are  separated4 ,and he speaks thus
 on this subject3--        ,bright      
,jove1 life-giving ,juno1 ,pluto dark1  
,and ,nestis1 who fills mortal eyes with
 tears4    ,meaning by ,jove fire1 by   
,juno the earth1 by ,pluto the air1 and 
by ,nestis  water4 ,and these things1   
says he1 never cease alternating with   
one  another2 inasmuch as this          

arrangement is perpetual4 ,accordingly1 
he says  subsequently3--                
,sometimes in friendship bound they     
coalesce1      ,sometimes they're parted
 by fell discord's hate4    ,and he     
asserts that the sun is a vast          
assemblage of fire1 and that it is      
larger than the moon4 ,and the moon is  
disk-shaped2 and that the heaven  itself
 is like crystal2 and that the soul     
inhabits every kind of form of  animals 
and plants4 ,accordingly1 he thus       
expresses himself4        ,for once ,i  
was a boy1 and once a girl4      ,a     
bush1 a bird1 a fish who swims the sea1 
,,xiii4 ,his writings on ,natural       
,philosophy and his ,purifications      
extend  to five thousand verses2 and his
 ,medical ,poem to six hundred2 and his 
,tragedies we have spoken of previously4
      ,,life ,,of ,,epicharmus4    ,i4  
,epicharmus was a native of ,cos1 the   
son of ,helothales2 he also was  a pupil
 of ,pythagoras4 ,when he was three     
months old he was brought to  ,megara1  

in ,sicily1 and from thence he came to  
,syracuse1 as he himself  tells us in   
his writings4 ,and on his statue there  
is the following  inscription4          
,as the bright sun excels the other     
stars1      ,as the sea far exceeds the 
river streams3      ,so does sage       
,epicharmus men surpass1      ,whom     
hospitable ,syracuse has crowned4       
,,ii4 ,he has left behind him           
,commentaries in which he treats of     
natural  philosophy1 and delivers       
apophthegms1 and discusses medicine4 ,he
 has  also added brief notes to many of 
his commentaries1 in which he declares  
plainly that he is the author of the    
works4    ,,iii4 ,he died at the age of 
ninety years4      ,,life ,,of          
,,archytas4    ,i4 ,archytas was a      
native of ,tarentum1 and the son of     
,mnesagoras2 or1 as  ,aristoxenus       
relates1 of ,histius4    ,,ii4 ,he also 
was a ,pythagorean2 and he it was who   
saved ,plato's life  by means of a      
letter1 when he was in danger of being  

put to death by  ,dionysius4    ,,iii4  
,he was a man held in very general      
esteem on account of his universal      
virtue2 and he was seven times appointed
 general of his countrymen1 when  no one
 else had ever held the office for more 
than one year1 as the law  forbade it to
 be held for a longer period4    ,,iv4  
,plato wrote his letters to him2 as he  
had begun the correspondence by  writing
 himself to ,plato1 which he did in the 
following manner3--    ,,archytas ,,to  
,,plato1 ,,greeting4    8,i am very glad
 that you have recovered from your      
delicate state of  health2 for you      
yourself have sent me word of your      
recovery1 and ,lamiscus  gives the same 
account4 ,i have been much occupied with
 some commentaries1  and have been among
 the ,lucanians1 and have met with the  
descendants of  ,ocellus4 ,i have now in
 my possession1 and ,i send to you the  
treatises on  ,law1 and ,kingly ,power1 
and ,piety1 and the ,creation of the    
,universe4 ,as  for the rest1 ,i have   

not been able to find them1 but whenever
 ,i do find  any1 ,i will send them to  
you40    ,thus wrote ,archytas4 ,and    
,plato sent him an answer in the        
following terms3--    ,,plato ,,to      
,,archytas1 ,,greeting4    8,i was      
exceedingly glad to receive the         
,commentaries which came from you1  and 
,i have admired their author in the     
greatest possible degree2 and he  seems 
to us to be a man worthy of his ancient 
ancestors4 ,for they are  said to have  
been originally natives of ,myra2 and to
 have been among the  ,trojans1 whom    
,laomedon took with him1 gallant men1 as
 the story handed  down by tradition    
attests4 ,as for my ,commentaries which 
you ask me for1  they are not yet       
completed1 but such as they are ,i send 
them to you4 ,and  on the propriety of  
taking care of such things we are both  
agreed1 so  that ,i have no need to     
impress anything on you on that head4   
,farewell40    ,these then are the      
letters which these philosophers wrote  

to one another4    ,v4 ,there were four 
people of the name of ,archytas4 ,the   
first1 this man  of whom we are         
speaking4 ,the second was a ,mytilenean1
 a musician4 ,the  third wrote a        
treatise on ,agriculture4 ,the fourth   
was an epigrammatic  poet4 ,some writers
 also make mention of a fifth1 who was  
an architect2  and there is a book on   
mechanics extant which is attributed to 
him2 which  begins in this way3--       
8,this is what ,i heard from ,teucer1   
the ,carthaginian40    ,and concerning  
the musician1 the following story is    
told3 ,that once he  was reproached for 
not making himself heard1 and he        
replied1 8,my organ  contends on my     
behalf1 and speaks40    ,,vi4           
,aristoxenus says1 that this            
,pythagorean was never once defeated    
while  acting as general4 ,but that as  
he was attacked by envy1 he once gave up
  his command1 and his army was         
immediately taken prisoner4    ,,vii4   
,he was the first person who applied    

mathematical principles to  mechanics1  
and reduced them to a system2 and the   
first also who gave a  methodical       
impulse to descriptive geometry in      
seeking1 in the sections of  a          
demicylinder for a proportional mean1   
which should enable him to find  the    
double of a given cube4 ,he was also the
 first person who ever gave  the        
geometrical measure of a cube1 as ,plato
 mentions in his ,republic4      ,,life 
,,of ,,alcm,,on4    ,i4 ,alcmon was a   
citizen of ,crotona2 he also was a pupil
 of ,pythagoras4  ,and the chief part of
 his writings are on medical subjects2  
but he also  at times discusses points  
of natural philosophy1 and asserts that 
the  greater part of human affairs have 
two sides4 ,he appears to have been the 
first person who wrote a treatise on    
,natural ,philosophy1 as ,phavorinus    
affirms1 in his ,universal ,history2 and
 he used to argue that the moon had  the
 same nature for ever which she had at  
that moment4    ,,ii4 ,he was the son of

 ,pirithus1 as he himself states at the 
beginning of  his treatise1 where he    
says1 8,alcmon1 of ,crotona1 the son of 
,pirithus1  says this to ,brontinus1 and
 ,leon1 and ,bathyllus4 ,about things   
invisible1  and things mortal1 the ,gods
 alone have a certain knowledge2 but men
 may  form conjectures4'''0 ,and so on4 
,he used also to say that the soul was  
immortal1 and that it was in a  state of
 perpetual motion in the same way as the
 sun4      ,,life ,,of ,,hippasus4      
,i4 ,hippasus was a citizen of          
,metapontum1 and a pupil of ,pythagoras4
    ,,ii4 ,he used to say that the time 
of the changes of the world was         
definite1 and that the universe also was
 finite1 and in a state of  perpetual   
motion4    ,,iii4 ,demetrius1 in his    
treatise on ,people of the same ,name1  
says that he  left no writings behind   
him4    ,,iv4 ,there were two people of 
the name of ,hippasus2 this man1 and    
another  who wrote an account of the    
,constitution of the ,lacedmonians1 in  

five  books4 ,and he was himself a      
,lacedmonian4      ,,life ,,of          
,,philolaus4    ,i4 ,philolaus was a    
native of ,crotona1 and a pupil of      
,pythagoras1 it was  from him that      
,plato wrote to ,dion to take care and  
purchase the books of  ,pythagoras4     
,,ii4 ,and he died under suspicion of   
having designed to seize on the         
tyranny2 and we have written an epigram 
on him3--        ,i say that all men    
ought above all things      ,to guard   
against suspicion4 ,for1 though         
innocent1      ,still if you are        
suspected1 you're unfortunate4      ,and
 thus his native city of ,crotona       
,slew ,philolaus2 for the jealous       
citizens      ,thought that his house   
betrayed a tyrant's purpose4    ,,iii4  
,his theory was1 that everything was    
produced by harmony and  necessity4 ,and
 he was the first person who affirmed   
that the earth moved  in a circle2      
though some attribute the assertion of  
this principle to  ,icetas of ,syracuse4

    ,,iv4 ,he wrote one book1 which     
,hermippus reports1 on the authority of 
some  unknown writer1 that ,plato the   
philosopher purchased when he was in    
,sicily 7having come thither to the     
court of ,dionysius71 of the relations  
of ,philolaus1 for forty ,alexandrian   
min of silver2 and that from this  book 
he copied his ,timus4 ,but others say   
that ,plato received it as a  present1  
after having obtained his liberty for a 
young man1 one of the  disciples of     
,philolaus1 who had been arrested by    
,dionysius4 ,demetrius1  in his treatise
 on people of the same name1 says that  
he was the first  of the ,pythagoreans  
who wrote a treatise on ,natural        
,philosophy2 and it  begins thus3--     
8,but nature in the world has been      
composed of bodies infinite and finite1 
and so is the whole world and all that  
is in it40      ,,life ,,of ,,eudoxus4  
,i4 ,eudoxus was the son of schines1 and
 a native of ,cnidus4 ,he was an        
astronomer1 a geometrician1 a physician1

 and a lawgiver4 ,in geometry he  was a 
pupil of ,archytas1 and in medicine of  
,philistion1 the ,sicilian1  as         
,callimachus relates in his ,tablets2   
and ,sotion1 in his ,successions1       
asserts that he was likewise a pupil of 
,plato2 for that1 when he was           
twenty-three years of age1 and in very  
narrow circumstances1 he came to        
,athens with ,theomedon the physician1  
by whom he was chiefly supported1  being
 attracted by the reputation of the     
,socratic school4 ,some say that  his   
attachment to ,theomedon was cemented by
 nearer ties4 ,and when he  had arrived 
at ,pirus1 he went up to the city every 
day1 and when he  had heard the         
,sophists lecture he returned4 ,and     
having spent two months  there1 he      
returned home again2 and being again    
aided by the contributions  of his      
friends1 he set sail for ,egypt1 with   
,chrysippus the physician1  bearing     
letters of introduction from ,agesilaus 
to ,nectanabis1 and that he  recommended

 him to the priests4    ,,ii4 ,and      
having remained there a year and four   
months1 he shaved his  eyebrows after   
the manner of the ,egyptian priests1 and
 composed1 as it is  said1 the treatise 
called the ,octaeteris4 ,from thence he 
went to ,cyzicus1  and to the           
,propontis1 in both of which places he  
lived as a ,sophist2 he  also went to   
the court of ,mausolus4 ,and then1 in   
this manner1 he returned  again to      
,athens1 having a great many disciples  
with him1 for the sake1  as some say1 of
 annoying ,plato1 because he had        
originally discarded him  from his      
school4 ,some say1 that when ,plato gave
 an entertainment on one  occasion1     
,eudoxus1 as the guests were very       
numerous1 introduced the  fashion of    
sitting in a semicircle4    ,nicomachus1
 the son of ,aristotle1 affirms that he 
used to say1 that  pleasure was the     
good4    ,,iii4 ,he was received in his 
own country with great honours1 as the  
decree that was passed respecting him   

shows4 ,he was also accounted  very     
illustrious among the ,greeks1 having   
given laws to his own fellow  citizens1 
as ,hermippus tells us in the fourth    
book of his account of  the ,seven ,wise
 ,men2 and having also written treatises
 on ,astronomy and  ,geometry1 and      
several other considerable works4    ,he
 had three daughters1 ,actis1 ,philtis1 
and ,delphis4 ,and ,eratosthenes        
asserts1 in his books addressed to      
,baton1 that he also composed dialogues 
entitled ,dialogues of ,dogs2 others say
 that these were written by some        
,egyptians1 in their own language1 and  
that ,eudoxus translated them1 and      
published them in ,greece4 ,one of his  
pupils was ,chrysippus1 of ,cnidos1  son
 of ,erineus1 who learnt of him all that
 he knew about the ,gods1  and the      
world1 and the heavenly bodies2 and who 
learnt medicine from  ,philistion the   
,sicilian4 ,he also left some very      
admirable ,reminiscences4    ,,iv4 ,he  
had a son of the name of ,aristagoras1  

who was the teacher of  ,chrysippus1 the
 son of ,athlius2 he was the author of a
 work on ,remedies  for the ,eyes1 as   
speculations on natural philosophy had  
come very much  under his notice4    ,v4
 ,there were three people of the name of
 ,eudoxus4 ,the first1 this man  of whom
 we are speaking2 the second1 a         
,rhodian1 who wrote histories2 the      
third1 a ,siciliot1 a son of            
,agathocles1 a comic poet1 who gained   
three  victories at the ,dionysia in the
 city1 and five at the ,lena1#aai as    
,apollodorus tells us in his            
,chronicles4 ,we also find another1 who 
was a  physician of ,cnidos1 who is     
mentioned by this ,eudoxus1 in his      
,circuit of  the ,world1 where he says  
that he used to warn people to keep     
constantly  exercising their limbs in   
every kind of exercise1 and their senses
 too4    ,,vi4 ,the same author says1   
that the ,cnidean ,eudoxus flourished   
about the  hundred and third olympiad2  
and that he was the inventor of the     

theory  of crooked lines4 ,and he died  
in his fifty-third year4 ,but when he   
was  in ,egypt with ,conuphis1 of       
,heliopolis1 ,apis licked his garment2  
and so  the priests said that he would  
be short-lived1 but very illustrious1 as
  it is reported by ,phavorinus in his  
,commentaries4 ,and we have written an  
epigram on him1 that runs thus3--       
',tis said1 that while at ,memphis wise 
,eudoxus      ,learnt his own fate from 
th' holy fair-horned bull2      ,he said
 indeed no word1 bulls do not speak     
,nor had kind nature e'er calf ,apis    
gifted      ,with an articulately       
speaking mouth4      ,but standing on   
one side he lick'd his cloak1           
,showing by this most plainly--in brief 
time      ,you shall put off your life4 
,so death came soon1      ,when he had  
just seen three and fifty times         
,the ,pleiads rise to warn the mariners4
    ,and instead of ,eudoxus1 they used 
to call him ,endoxus1#abj on account  of
 the brilliancy of his reputation4 ,and 

since we have gone through  the         
illustrious ,pythagoreans1 we must now  
speak of the ,promiscuous  philosophers1
 as they call them4 ,and we will first  
of all speak of  ,heraclitus4           
,,book ,,ix4      ,,life ,,of           
,,heraclitus4    ,i4 ,heraclitus was the
 son of ,blyson1 or1 as some say1 of    
,heracion1 and a  citizen of ,ephesus4  
,he flourished about the sixty-ninth    
olympiad4    ,,ii4 ,he was above all men
 of a lofty and arrogant spirit1 as is  
plain from  his writings1 in which he   
says1 8,abundant learning does not form 
the  mind2 for if it did1 it would have 
instructed ,hesiod1 and ,pythagoras1    
and likewise ,xenophanes1 and ,hecatus4 
,for the only piece of real wisdom  is  
to know that idea1 which by itself will 
govern everything on every  occasion40  
,he used to say1 too1 that ,homer       
deserved to be expelled from  the games 
and beaten1 and ,archilochus likewise4  
,he used also to say1  8,it is more     
necessary to extinguish insolence1 than 

to put out a fire40  ,another of his    
sayings was1 8,the people ought to fight
 for the law1 as  for their city40 ,he  
also attacks the ,ephesians for having  
banished his  companion ,hermodorus1    
when he says1 8,the ,ephesians deserve  
to have all  their youth put to death1  
and all those who are younger still     
banished  from their city1 inasmuch as  
they have banished ,hermodorus1 the best
 man  among them1 saying1 #8,let no one 
of us be pre-eminently good2 and if     
there  be any such person1 let him go to
 another city and another people4'0     
,and when he was requested to make laws 
for them1 he refused1 because the  city 
was already immersed in a thoroughly bad
 constitution4 ,and having  retired to  
the temple of ,diana with his children1 
he began to play  at dice2 and when all 
the ,ephesians flocked round him1 he    
said1 8,you  wretches1 what are you     
wondering at8 is it not better to do    
this1 than to  meddle with public       
affairs in your company80    ,,iii4 ,and

 at last1 becoming a complete           
misanthrope1 he used to live1  spending 
his time in walking about the mountains2
 feeding on grasses  and plants1 and in 
consequence of these habits1 he was     
attacked by the  dropsy1 and so then he 
returned to the city1 and asked the     
physicians1 in  a riddle1 whether they  
were able to produce a drought after wet
 weather4  ,and as they did not         
understand him1 he shut himself up in a 
stable for  oxen1 and covered himself   
with cow-dung1 hoping to cause the wet  
to  evaporate from him1 by the warmth   
that this produced4 ,and as he did      
himself no good in this way1 he died1   
having lived seventy years2 and  we have
 written an epigram upon him which runs 
thus3--        ,i've often wondered much
 at ,heraclitus1      ,that he should   
chose to live so miserably1      ,and   
die by such a miserable fate4      ,for 
fell disease did master all his body1   
,with water quenching all the light of  
his eyes1      ,and bringing darkness   

o'er his mind and body4    ,but         
,hermippus states1 that what he asked   
the physicians was this1 whether  any   
one could draw off the water by         
depressing his intestines8 and  when    
they answered that they could not1 he   
placed himself in the sun1  and ordered 
his servants to plaster him over with   
cow-dung2 and being  stretched out in   
that way1 on the second day he died1 and
 was buried  in the market-place4 ,but  
,neanthes1 of ,cyzicus says1 that as he 
could  not tear off the cow-dung1 he    
remained there1 and on account of the   
alteration in his appearance1 he was not
 discovered1 and so was devoured  by the
 dogs4    ,,iv4 ,and he was a wonderful 
person1 from his boyhood1 since1 while  
he was  young1 he used to say that he   
knew nothing but when he had grown up1  
he  then used to affirm that he knew    
everything4 ,and he was no one's pupil1 
but he used to say1 that he himself had 
investigated every thing1 and  had      
learned everything of himself4 ,but     

,sotion relates1 that some people       
affirmed that he had been a pupil of    
,xenophanes4 ,and that ,ariston1 stated 
in his account of ,heraclitus1 that he  
was cured of the dropsy1 and died  of   
some other disease4 ,and ,hippobotus    
gives the same account4    ,v4 ,there is
 a book of his extant1 which is about   
nature generally1 and it  is divided    
into three discourses2 one on the       
,universe2 one on ,politics2  and one on
 ,theology4 ,and he deposited this book 
in the temple of ,diana1  as some       
authors report1 having written it       
intentionally in an obscure  style1 in  
order that only those who were able men 
might comprehend it1  and that it might 
not be exposed to ridicule at the hands 
of the common  people4 ,timon attacks   
this man also1 saying3--        ,among  
them came that cuckoo ,heraclitus       
,the enigmatical obscure reviler        
,of all the common people4              
,theophrastus asserts1 that it was out  
of melancholy that he left some  of his 

works half finished1 and wrote several1 
in completely different  styles2 and    
,antisthenes1 in his ,successions1      
adduces as a proof of his  lofty spirit1
 the fact1 that he yielded to his       
brother the title and  privileges of    
royalty4#aba ,and his book had so high a
 reputation1 that  a sect arose in      
consequence of it1 who were called after
 his own name1  ,heracliteans4    ,,vi4 
,the following may be set down in a     
general manner as his main  principles3 
that everything is created from fire1   
and is dissolved into  fire2 that       
everything happens according to destiny1
 and that all existing  things are      
harmonized1 and made to agree together  
by opposite tendencies2  and that all   
things are full of souls and dmones4 ,he
 also discussed all  the passions which 
exist in the world1 and used also to    
contend that the  sun was of that       
precise magnitude of which he appears to
 be4 ,one of his  sayings too was1 that 
no one1 by whatever road he might       

travel1 could  ever possibly find out   
the boundaries of the soul1 so deeply   
hidden are  the principles which        
regulate it4 ,he used also to call      
opinion the sacred  disease2 and to say 
that eye-sight was often deceived4      
,sometimes1 in his  writings1 he        
expresses himself with great brilliancy 
and clearness2 so  that even the most   
stupid man may easily understand him1   
and receive an  elevation of soul from  
him4 ,and his conciseness1 and the      
dignity of his  style1 are incomparable4
    ,in particulars1 his doctrines are  
of this kind4 ,that fire is an  element1
 and that it is by the changes of fire  
that all things exist2  being engendered
 sometimes by rarity1 some times by     
density4 ,but he  explains nothing      
clearly4 ,he also says1 that everything 
is produced by  contrariety1 and that   
everything flows on like a river2 that  
the universe  is finite1 and that there 
is one world1 and that that is produced 
from  fire1 and that the whole world is 

in its turn again consumed by fire at   
certain periods1 and that all this      
happens according to fate4 ,that of the 
contraries1 that which leads to         
production is called war and contest1   
and  that which leads to the            
conflagration is called harmony and     
peace2 that  change is the road leading 
upward1 and the road leading downward2  
and  that the whole world exists        
according to it4    ,for that fire1 when
 densified becomes liquid1 and becoming 
concrete1  becomes also water2 again1   
that the water when concrete is turned  
to  earth1 and that this is the road    
down2 again1 that the earth itself      
becomes fused1 from which water is      
produced1 and from that everything  else
 is produced2 and then he refers almost 
everything to the evaporation  which    
takes place from the sea2 and this is   
the road which leads upwards4  ,also1   
that there are evaporations1 both from  
earth and sea1 some of which  are bright
 and clear1 and some are dark2 and that 

the fire is increased  by the dark ones1
 and the moisture by the others4 ,but   
what the space  which surrounds us is1  
he does not explain4 ,he states1        
however1 that  there are vessels in it1 
turned with their hollow part towards   
us2 in  which all the bright            
evaporations are collected1 and form    
flames1 which  are the stars2 and that  
the brightest of these flames1 and the  
hottest1  is the light of the sun2 for  
that all the other stars are farther off
  from the earth2 and that on this      
account1 they give less light and       
warmth2 and that the moon is nearer the 
earth1 but does not move through  a pure
 space2 the sun1 on the other hand1 is  
situated in a transparent  space1 and   
one free from all admixture1 preserving 
a well proportioned  distance from us1  
on which account it gives us more light 
and more heat4  ,and that the sun and   
moon are eclipsed1 when the             
before-mentioned vessels  are turned    
upwards4 ,and that the different phases 

of the moon take place  every month1 as 
its vessel keeps gradually turning      
round4 ,moreover1 that  day and night1  
and months and years1 and rains and     
winds1 and things  of that kind1 all    
exist according to1 and are caused by1  
the different  evaporations4    ,for    
that the bright evaporation catching    
fire in the circle of the sun  causes   
day1 and the predominance of the        
opposite one causes night2 and  again1  
from the bright one the heat is         
increased so as to produce summer1  and 
from the dark one the cold gains        
strength and produces winter2 and  he   
also explains the causes of the other   
phenomena in a corresponding  manner4   
,but with respect to the earth1 he does 
not explain at all of what  character it
 is1 nor does he do so in the case of   
the vessels2 and these  were his main   
doctrines4    ,,vii4 ,now1 what his     
opinion about ,socrates was1 and what   
expressions he  used when he met with a 
treatise of his which ,euripides brought

 him1  according to the story told by   
,ariston1 we have detailed in our       
account  of ,socrates4 ,seleucus1 the   
grammarian1 however1 says that a man of 
the  name of ,croton1 in his ,diver1    
relates that it was a person of the name
  of ,crates who first brought this book
 into ,greece2 and that he said that  he
 wanted some ,delian diver who would not
 be drowned in it4 ,and the book  is    
described under several titles2 some    
calling it the ,muses1 some a  treatise 
on ,nature2 but ,diodotus calls it--    
,a well compacted helm to lead a man    
,straight through the path of life4     
,some call it a science of morals1 the  
arrangement of the changes#abb of  unity
 and of everything4    ,,viii4 ,they say
 that when he was asked why he preserved
 silence1 he said1  8,that you may      
talk40    ,,ix4 ,darius was very        
desirous to enjoy his conversation2 and 
wrote thus to  him3--    ,,king         
,,darius1 ,,the ,,son ,,of ,,hystaspes1 
,,addresses ,,heraclitus ,,of ,,ephesus1

 ,,the  ,,wise ,,man1 ,,greeting ,,him4 
8,you have written a book on ,natural   
,philosophy1 difficult to understand    
and difficult to explain4 ,accordingly1 
if in some parts it is explained        
literally1 it seems to disclose a very  
important theory concerning the         
universal world1 and all that is        
contained in it1 as they are placed in a
  state of most divine motion4 ,but     
commonly1 the mind is kept in suspense1 
so that those who have studied your work
 the most1 are not able precisely  to   
disentangle the exact meaning of your   
expressions4 ,therefore1 king  ,darius1 
the son of ,hystaspes wishes to enjoy   
the benefit of hearing you  discourse1  
and of receiving some ,grecian          
instruction4 ,come1 therefore1  quickly 
to my sight1 and to my royal palace2 for
 the ,greeks1 in  general1 do not accord
 to wise men the distinction which they 
deserve1  and disregard the admirable   
expositions delivered by them1 which    
are1  however1 worthy of being seriously

 listened to and studied2 but with me   
you shall have every kind of distinction
 and honour1 and you shall enjoy  every 
day honourable and worthy conversation1 
and your pupils' life shall  become     
virtuous1 in accordance with your       
precepts40    ,,heraclitus1 ,,of        
,,ephesus1 ,,to ,,king ,,darius1 ,,the  
,,son ,,of ,,hystaspes1 ,,greeting4     
8,all the men that exist in the world1  
are far removed from truth and  just    
dealings2 but they are full of evil     
foolishness1 which leads them  to       
insatiable covetousness and             
vain-glorious ambition4 ,i1 however1    
forgetting all their worthlessness1 and 
shunning satiety1 and who wish  to avoid
 all envy on the part of my countrymen1 
and all appearance of  arrogance1 will  
never come to ,persia1 since ,i am quite
 contented with a  little1 and live as  
best suits my own inclination40    ,x4  
,this was the way in which the man      
behaved even to the king4 ,and          
,demetrius1 in his treatise on ,people  

of the same ,name1 says that he also    
despised the ,athenians1 among whom he  
had a very high reputation4 ,and  that  
though he was himself despised by the   
,ephesians1 he nevertheless  preferred  
his own home4 ,demetrius ,phalereus also
 mentions him in his  ,defence of       
,socrates4    ,,xi4 ,there were many    
people who undertook to interpret his   
book4 ,for  ,antisthenes and            
,heraclides1 ,ponticus1 and ,cleanthes1 
and ,sphrus the  ,stoic2 and besides    
them ,pausanias1 who was surnamed       
,heraclitistes1 and  ,nicomedes1 and    
,dionysius1 all did so4 ,and of the     
grammarians1 ,diodotus  undertook the   
same task2 and he says that the subject 
of the book is not  natural philosophy1 
but politics2 and that all that is said 
in it about  natural philosophy1 is only
 by way of illustration4 ,and           
,hieronymus tells  us1 that a man of the
 name of ,scythinus1 an iambic poet1    
attempted to  render the book into      
verse4    ,,xii4 ,there are many        

epigrams extant which were written upon 
him1 and this  is one of them3--        
,i who lie here am ,heraclitus1 spare me
      ,ye rude unlettered men3 ',twas   
not for you      ,that ,i did labour1   
but for wiser people4      ,one man may 
be to me a countless host1      ,and an 
unnumbered multitude be no one2         
,and this ,i still say in the shades    
below4    ,and there is another         
expressed thus3--        ,be not too    
hasty1 skimming o'er the book      ,of  
,heraclitus2 'tis a difficult road1     
,for mist is there1 and darkness hard to
 pierce4      ,but if you have a guide  
who knows his system1      ,then        
everything is clearer than the sun4     
,,xiii4 ,there were five people of the  
name of ,heraclitus4 ,the first  was    
this philosopher of ours4 ,the second a 
lyric poet1 who wrote a  panegyrical    
hymn on the ,twelve ,gods4 ,the third   
was an ,elegiac poet1 of                
,halicarnassus2 on whom ,callimachus    
wrote the following epigram3--        ,i

 heard1 ,o ,heraclitus1 of your death1  
,and the news filled my eyes with       
mournful tears1      ,when ,i remembered
 all the happy hours      ,when we with 
talk beguiled the setting sun4      ,you
 now are dust2 but still the honeyed    
voice      ,of your sweet converse doth 
and will survive2      ,nor can fell    
death1 which all things else destroys1  
,lay upon that his ruthless conquering  
grasp4    ,the fourth was a ,lesbian1   
who wrote a history of ,macedonia4 ,the 
fifth was  a man who blended jest with  
earnest2 and who1 having been a         
harp-player1  abandoned that profession 
for a serio-comic style of writing4     
,,life ,,of ,,xenophanes4    ,i4        
,xenophanes was the son of ,dexius1 or1 
as ,apollodorus says1 of  ,orthomenes4  
,he was a citizen of ,colophon2 and is  
praised by ,timon4  ,accordingly1 he    
says3--        ,xenophanes1 not much a  
slave to vanity1      ,the wise reprover
 of the tricks of ,homer4    ,he1 having
 been banished from his own country1    

lived at ,zancle1 in ,sicily1  and at   
,catana4    ,,ii4 ,and1 according to the
 statements made by some people1 he was 
a pupil  of no one2 but1 as others say1 
he was a pupil of ,boton the ,athenian2 
or1  as another account again affirms1  
of ,archelaus4 ,he was1 if we may       
believe  ,sotion1 a contemporary of     
,anaximander4    ,,iii4 ,he wrote poems 
in hexameter and in elegiac verse2 and  
also he wrote  iambics against ,hesiod  
and ,homer1 attacking the things said in
 their  poems about the ,gods4 ,he also 
used to recite his own poems4 ,it is    
said  likewise1 that he argued against  
the opinions of ,thales and ,pythagoras1
  and that he also attacked ,epimenides4
 ,he lived to an extreme old age2 as  he
 says somewhere himself3--              
,threescore and seven long years are    
fully passed1      ,since first my      
doctrines spread abroad through ,greece3
      ,and 'twixt that time and my first
 view of light      ,six lustres more   
must added be to them3      ,if ,i am   

right at all about my age1      ,lacking
 but eight years of a century4    ,his  
doctrine was1 that there were four      
elements of existing things2 and  an    
infinite number of worlds1 which were   
all unchangeable4 ,he thought  that the 
clouds were produced by the vapour which
 was borne upwards from  the sun1 and   
which lifted them up into the           
circumambient space4 ,that the  essence 
of ,god was of a spherical form1 in no  
respect resembling man2  that the       
universe could see1 and that the        
universe could hear1 but could  not     
breathe2 and that it was in all its     
parts intellect1 and wisdom1 and        
eternity4 ,he was the first person who  
asserted that everything which is       
produced is perishable1 and that the    
soul is a spirit4 ,he used also to  say 
that the many was inferior to unity4    
,also1 that we ought to associate  with 
tyrants either as little as possible1 or
 else as pleasantly as  possible4       
,when ,empedocles said to him that the  

wise man was undiscoverable1 he         
replied1 8,very likely2 for it takes a  
wise man to discover a wise  man40 ,and 
,sotion says1 that he was the first     
person who asserted that  everything is 
incomprehensible4 ,but he is mistaken in
 this4    ,xenophanes wrote a poem on   
the ,founding of ,colophon2 and also1 on
 the  ,colonisation of ,elea1 in ,italy1
 consisting of two thousand verses4 ,and
 he  flourished about the sixtieth      
olympiad4    ,,iv4 ,demetrius           
,phalereus1 in his treatise on ,old     
,age1 and ,phentius the  ,stoic1 in his 
essay on ,cheerfulness1 relate that he  
buried his sons  with his own hands1 as 
,anaxagoras had also done4 ,and he seems
 to have  been detested#abc by the      
,pythagoreans1 ,parmeniscus1 and        
,orestades1 as  ,phavorinus relates in  
the first book of his ,commentaries4    
,v4 ,there was also another ,xenophanes1
 a native of ,lesbos1 and an iambic     
poet4    ,these are the ,promiscuous or 
unattached philosophers4      ,,life    

,,of ,,parmenides4    ,i4 ,parmenides1  
the son of ,pyres1 and a citizen of     
,velia1 was a pupil of  ,xenophanes4    
,and ,theophrastus1 in his ,abridgment1 
says that he was also a  pupil of       
,anaximander4 ,however1 though he was a 
pupil of ,xenophanes1 he  was not       
afterwards a follower of his2 but he    
attached himself to ,aminias1  and      
,diochaetes the ,pythagorean1 as ,sotion
 relates1 which last was a poor  but    
honourable and virtuous man4 ,and he it 
was whose follower he became1  and after
 he was dead he erected a shrine1 or 1  
in his honour4 ,and  so ,parmenides1 who
 was of a noble family and possessed of 
considerable  wealth1 was induced1 not  
by ,xenophanes but by ,aminias1 to      
embrace the  tranquil life of a         
philosopher4    ,,ii4 ,he was the first 
person who asserted that the earth was  
of a  spherical form2 and that it was   
situated in the centre of the universe4 
,he also taught that there were two     
elements1 fire and earth2 and that one  

of them occupies the place of the maker1
 the other that of the matter4  ,he also
 used to teach that man was originally  
made out of clay2 and that  they were   
composed of two parts1 the hot and the  
cold2 of which1 in fact1  everything    
consists4 ,another of his doctrines was1
 that the mind and the  soul were the   
same thing1 as we are informed by       
,theophrastus1 in his  ,natural         
,philosophy1 when he enumerates the     
theories of nearly all the  different   
philosophers4    ,he also used to say   
that philosophy was of a twofold        
character2 one kind  resting on certain 
truth1 the other on opinion4 ,on which  
account he says  some where3        ,and
 'twill be needful for you well to know1
      ,the fearless heart of            
all-convincing truth3      ,also the    
opinions1 though less sure1 of men1     
,which rest upon no certain evidence4   
,,iii4 ,parmenides too philosophizes in 
his poems2 as ,hesiod and ,xenophanes1  
and ,empedocles used to4 ,and he used to

 say that argument was the test  of     
truth2 and that the sensations were not 
trustworthy witnesses4  ,accordingly1 he
 says3--        ,let not the common     
usages of men      ,persuade your better
 taught experience1      ,to trust to   
men's unsafe deceitful sight1      ,or  
treacherous ears1 or random speaking    
tongue3      ,reason alone will prove   
the truth of facts4    ,on which account
 ,timon says of him3--        ,the      
vigorous mind of wise ,parmenides1      
,who classes all the errors of the      
thoughts      ,under vain phantasies4   
,plato inscribed one of his dialogues   
with his name--,parmenides1 or an  essay
 on ,ideas4 ,he flourished about the    
sixty-ninth ,olympiad4 ,he appears  to  
have been the first person who          
discovered that ,hesperus and ,lucifer  
were the same star1 as ,phavorinus      
records1 in the fifth book of his       
,commentaries4 ,some1 however1 attribute
 this discovery to ,pythagoras4 ,and    
,callimachus asserts that the poem in   

which this doctrine is promulgated  is  
not his work4    ,,iv4 ,he is said also 
to have given laws to his               
fellow-citizens1 as  ,speusippus        
records1 in his account of the          
,philosophers4 ,he was also the  first  
employer of the question called the     
,achilles1#abd as ,phavorinus  assures  
us in his ,universal ,history4    ,v4   
,there was also another ,parmenides1 an 
orator1 who wrote a treatise on  the art
 of ,oratory4      ,,life ,,of          
,,melissus4    ,i4 ,melissus was a      
,samian1 and the son of ,ithagenes4 ,he 
was a pupil  of ,parmenides2 but he also
 had conversed with ,heraclitus1 when he
  recommended him to the ,ephesians1 who
 were unacquainted with him1 as         
,hippocrates recommended ,democritus to 
the people of ,abdera4    ,,ii4 ,he was 
a man greatly occupied in political     
affairs1 and held in  great esteem among
 his fellow citizens2 on which account  
he was elected  admiral4 ,and he was    
admired still more on account of his    

private virtues4    ,,iii4 ,his doctrine
 was1 that the ,universe was infinite1  
unsusceptible of  change1 immoveable1   
and one1 being always like to itself1   
and complete2  and that there was no    
such thing as real motion1 but that     
there only  appeared to be such4 ,as    
respecting the ,gods1 too1 he denied    
that there  was any occasion to give a  
definition of them1 for that there was  
no  certain knowledge of them4    ,,iv4 
,apollodorus states that he flourished  
about the eighty-fourth  olympiad4      
,,life ,,of ,,zeno1 ,,the ,,eleatic4    
,i4 ,zeno was a native of ,velia4       
,apollodorus1 in his ,chronicles1 says  
that  he was by nature the son of       
,teleutagoras1 but by adoption the son  
of  ,parmenides4    ,,ii4 ,timon speaks 
thus of him and ,melissus3--            
,great is the strength1 invincible the  
might      ,of ,zeno1 skilled to argue  
on both sides      ,of any question1 th'
 universal critic2      ,and of         
,melissus too4 ,they rose superior      

,to prejudice in general2 only yielding 
,to very few4    ,and ,zeno had been a  
pupil of ,parmenides1 and had been on   
other accounts  greatly attached to him4
    ,,iii4 ,he was a tall man1 as ,plato
 tells us in his ,parmenides1 and the   
same writer1 in his ,phdrus1 calls him  
also the ,eleatic ,palamedes4    ,,iv4  
,aristotle1 in his ,sophist1 says that  
he was the inventor of  dialectics1 as  
,empedocles was of rhetoric4 ,and he was
 a man of the  greatest nobleness of    
spirit1 both in philosophy and in       
politics4 ,there  are also many books   
extant1 which are attributed to him1    
full of great  learning and wisdom4     
,v4 ,he1 wishing to put an end to the   
power of ,nearches1 the tyrant 7some1   
however1 call the tyrant ,diomedon71 was
 arrested1 as we are informed by        
,heraclides1 in his abridgment of       
,satyrus4 ,and when he was examined1 as 
to his accomplices1 and as to the arms  
which he was taking to ,lipara1 he      
named all the friends of the tyrant as  

his accomplices1 wishing to make  him   
feel himself alone4 ,and then1 after he 
had mentioned some names1  he said that 
he wished to whisper something privately
 to the tyrant2  and when he came near  
him he bit him1 and would not leave his 
hold till  he was stabbed4 ,and the same
 thing happened to ,aristogiton1 the    
tyrant  slayer4 ,but ,demetrius1 in his 
treatise on ,people of the same ,name1  
says  that it was his nose that he bit  
off4    ,moreover1 ,antisthenes1 in his 
,successions1 says that after he had    
given  him information against his      
friends1 he was asked by the tyrant if  
there was any one else4 ,and he replied1
 8,yes1 you1 the destruction of  the    
city40 ,and that he also said to the    
bystanders1 8,i marvel at your          
cowardice1 if you submit to be slaves to
 the tyrant out of fear of such  pains  
as ,i am now enduring40 ,and at last he 
bit off his tongue and spit  it at him2 
and the citizens immediately rushed     
forward1 and slew the  tyrant with      

stones4 ,and this is the account that is
 given by almost every  one4    ,but    
,hermippus says1 that he was put into a 
mortar1 and pounded to death4  ,and we  
ourselves have written the following    
epigram on him3--        ,your noble    
wish1 ,o ,zeno1 was to slay      ,a     
cruel tyrant1 freeing ,elea      ,from  
the harsh bonds of shameful slavery1    
,but you were disappointed2 for the     
tyrant      ,pounded you in a mortar4 ,i
 say wrong1      ,he only crushed your  
body1 and not you4    ,,vi4 ,and ,zeno  
was an excellent man in other respects1 
and he was also  a despiser of great men
 in an equal degree with ,heraclitus2   
for he1  too1 preferred the town which  
was formerly called ,hyele1 and         
afterwards  ,elea1 being a colony of the
 ,phocans1 and his own native place1 a  
poor  city possessed of no other        
importance than the knowledge of how to 
raise  virtuous citizens1 to the pride  
of the ,athenians2 so that he did not   
often visit them1 but spent his life at 

home4    ,,vii4 ,he1 too1 was the first 
man who asked the question called       
,achilles1#abe though ,phavorinus       
attributes its first use to ,parmenides1
  and several others4    ,,viii4 ,his   
chief doctrines were1 that there were   
several worlds1 and that  there was no  
vacuum2 that the nature of all things   
consisted of hot and  cold1 and dry and 
moist1 these elements interchanging     
their substances  with one another2 that
 man was made out of the earth1 and that
 his soul  was a mixture of the         
before-named elements in such a way that
 no one of  them predominated4    ,,ix4 
,they say that when he was reproached1  
he was indignant2 and that  when some   
one blamed him1 he replied1 8,if when ,i
 am reproached1 ,i am not  angered1 then
 ,i shall not be pleased when ,i am     
praised40    ,x4 ,we have already said  
in our account of the ,cittian1 that    
there were  eight ,zenos2 but this one  
flourished about the seventy-ninth      
olympiad4      ,,life ,,of ,,leucippus4 

,i4 ,leucippus was a native of ,velia1  
but1 as some say1 of ,abdera2 and1 as   
others report1 of ,melos4    ,,ii4 ,he  
was a pupil of ,zeno4 ,and his principal
 doctrines were1 that all  things were  
infinite1 and were interchanged with one
 another2 and that  the universe was a  
vacuum1 and full of bodies2 also that   
the worlds were  produced by bodies     
falling into the vacuum1 and becoming   
entangled with  one another2 and that   
the nature of the stars originated in   
motion1  according to their increase2   
also1 that the sun is borne round in a  
greater circle around the moon2 that the
 earth is carried on revolving  round   
the centre2 and that its figure         
resembles a drum2 he was the first      
philosopher who spoke of atoms as       
principles4    ,,iii4 ,these are his    
doctrines in general2 in particular     
detail1 they are  as follow3 he says    
that the universe is infinite1 as ,i    
have already  mentioned2 that of it1 one
 part is a plenum1 and the other a      

vacuum4 ,he  also says that the         
elements1 and the worlds which are      
derived from them1  are infinite1 and   
are dissolved again into them2 and that 
the worlds are  produced in this manner3
 ,that many bodies1 of various kinds and
 shapes1  are borne by amputation from  
the infinite1 into a vast vacuum2 and   
then1  they being collected together1   
produce one vortex2 according to which  
they1 dashing against one another1 and  
whirling about in every direction1  are 
separated in such a way that like       
attaches itself to like4    ,but as they
 are all of equal weight1 when by reason
 of their number they  are no longer    
able to whirl about1 the thin ones      
depart into the outer  vacuum1 as if    
they bounded through1 and the others    
remain behind1 and  becoming entangled  
with one another1 run together1 and     
produce a sort of  spherical shaped     
figure4    ,this subsists as a kind of  
membrane2 containing within itself      
bodies of  every kind2 and as these are 

whirled about so as to revolve according
 to  the resistance of the centre1 the  
circumambient membrane becomes thin1    
since bodies are without ceasing1       
uniting according to the impulse given  
by the vortex2 and in this way the earth
 is produced1 since these bodies  which 
have once been brought to the centre    
remain there4    ,on the other side1    
there is produced another enveloping    
membrane1 which  increases incessantly  
by the accretion of exterior bodies2 and
 which1 as  it is itself animated by a  
circular movement1 drags with it1 and   
adds to  itself1 everything it meets    
with2 some of these bodies thus         
enveloped  re-unite again and form      
compounds1 which are at first moist and 
clayey1  but soon becoming dry1 and     
being drawn on in the universal movement
 of  the circular vortex1 they catch    
fire1 and constitute the substance of   
the  stars4 ,the orbit of the sun is the
 most distant one2 that of the moon is  
the nearest to the earth2 and between   

the two are the orbits of the other     
stars4    ,all the stars are set on fire
 by the rapidity of their own motion2   
and  the sun is set on fire by the      
stars2 the moon has only a slight       
quantity  of fire2 the sun and the moon 
are eclipsed in '''#abf in consequence  
of  the inclination of the earth towards
 the south4 ,in the north it always     
snows1 and those districts are cold1 and
 are often frozen4    ,the sun is       
eclipsed but seldom2 but the moon       
frequently1 because her  orbits are     
unequal4    ,leucippus admits also1 that
 the production of worlds1 their        
increase1  their diminution1 and their  
destruction1 depend on a certain        
necessity1  the character of which he   
does not precisely explain4      ,,life 
,,of ,,democritus4    ,i4 ,democritus   
was the son of ,hegesistratus1 but as   
some say1 of  ,athenocrites1 and1       
according to other accounts1 of         
,damasippus4 ,he was  a native of       
,abdera1 or1 as it is stated by some    

authors1 a citizen of  ,miletus4        
,,ii4 ,he was a pupil of some of the    
,magi and ,chaldans1 whom ,xerxes had   
left with his father as teachers1 when  
he had been hospitably received  by him1
 as ,herodotus informs us2#abg and from 
these men he1 while still  a boy1       
learned the principles of astronomy and 
theology4 ,afterwards1 his  father      
entrusted him to ,leucippus1 and to     
,anaxagoras1 as some authors  assert1   
who was forty years older than he4 ,and 
,phavorinus1 in his  ,universal         
,history1 says that ,democritus said of 
,anaxagoras1 that his  opinions about   
the sun and moon were not his own1 but  
were old theories1  and that he had     
stolen them4 ,and that he used also to  
pull to pieces his  assertions about the
 composition of the world1 and about    
mind1 as he was  hostile to him1 because
 he had declined to admit him as a      
pupil4 ,how then  can he have been a    
pupil of his1 as some assert8 ,and      
,demetrius in his  treatise on ,people  

of the same ,name1 and ,antisthenes in  
his ,successions1  both affirm that he  
travelled to ,egypt to see the priests  
there1 and  to learn mathematics of     
them2 and that he proceeded further to  
the  ,chaldans1 and penetrated into     
,persia1 and went as far as the ,persian
  ,gulf4 ,some also say that he made    
acquaintance with the ,gymnosophists in 
,india1 and that he went to thiopia4    
,,iii4 ,he was one of three brothers who
 divided their patrimony among them2    
and the most common story is1 that he   
took the smaller portion1 as it was  in 
money1 because he required money for the
 purpose of travelling2 though  his     
brothers suspected him of entertaining  
some treacherous design4 ,and           
,demetrius says1 that his share amounted
 to more than a hundred talents1  and   
that he spent the whole of it4    ,,iv4 
,he also says1 that he was so           
industrious a man1 that he cut off for  
himself a small portion of the garden   
which surrounded his house1 in  which   

there was a small cottage1 and shut     
himself up in it4 ,and on one  occasion1
 when his father brought him an ox to   
sacrifice1 and fastened it  there1 he   
for a long time did not discover it1    
until his father having  roused him1 on 
the pretext of the sacrifice1 told him  
what he had done  with the ox4    ,v4   
,he further asserts1 that it is well    
known that he went to ,athens1 and  as  
he despised glory1 he did not desire to 
be known2 and that he became  acquainted
 with ,socrates1 without ,socrates      
knowing who he was4 8,for ,i  came10    
says he1 8to ,athens1 and no one knew   
me40 8,if10 says ,thrasylus1  8the      
,rivals is really the work of ,plato1   
then ,democritus must be the  anonymous 
interlocutor1 who is introduced in that 
dialogue1 besides  nopides and          
,anaxagoras1 the one ,i mean who1 in the
 conversation with  ,socrates1 is       
arguing about philosophy1 and whom the  
philosopher tells1  that a philosopher  
resembles a conqueror in the            

,pentathlum40 ,and he was  veritably a  
master of five branches of philosophy4  
,for he was thoroughly  acquainted with 
physics1 and ethics1 and mathematics1   
and the whole  encyclic system1 and     
indeed he was thoroughly experienced and
 skilful in  every kind of art4 ,he it  
was who was the author of the saying1   
8,speech  is the shadow of action40 ,but
 ,demetrius ,phalereus1 in his ,defence 
of  ,socrates1 affirms that he never    
came to ,athens at all4 ,and that is a  
still stranger circumstance than any1 if
 he despised so important a  city1 not  
wishing to derive glory from the place  
in which he was1 but  preferring rather 
himself to invest the place with glory4 
,,vi4 ,and it is evident from his       
writings1 what sort of man he was4  8,he
 seems10 says ,thrasylus1 8to have been 
also an admirer of the  ,pythagoreans40 
,and he mentions ,pythagoras himself1   
speaking of him with  admiration1 in the
 treatise which is inscribed with his   
name4 ,and he  appears to have derived  

all his doctrines from him to such a    
degree1 that  one would have thought    
that he had been his pupil1 if the      
difference  of time did not prevent it4 
,at all events1 ,glaucus1 of ,rhegium1  
who  was a contemporary of his1 affirms 
that he was a pupil of some of the      
,pythagorean school4    ,and            
,apollodorus1 of ,cyzicus1 says that he 
was intimate with ,philolaus2  8,he used
 to practise himself10 says             
,antisthenes1 8in testing perceptions   
in various manners2 sometimes retiring  
into solitary places1 and spending  his 
time even among tombs40    ,,vii4 ,and  
he further adds1 that when he returned  
from his travels1 he  lived in a most   
humble manner2 like a man who had spent 
all his property1  and that on account  
of his poverty1 he was supported by his 
brother  ,damasus4 ,but when he had     
foretold some future event1 which       
happened  as he had predicted1 and had  
in consequence become famous1 he was for
  all the rest of his life thought      

worthy of almost divine honours by  the 
generality of people4 ,and as there was 
a law1 that a man who had  squandered   
the whole of his patrimony1 should not  
be allowed funeral  rites in his        
country1 ,antisthenes says1 that he1    
being aware of this  law1 and not       
wishing to be exposed to the calumnies  
of those who envied  him1 and would be  
glad to accuse him1 recited to the      
people his work  called the ,great      
,world1 which is far superior to all his
 other writings1  and that as a reward  
for it he was presented with five       
hundred talents2  and not only that1 but
 he also had some brazen statues erected
 in his  honour4 ,and when he died1 he  
was buried at the public expense2 after 
having attained the age of more than a  
hundred years4 ,but ,demetrius says1    
that it was his relations who read the  
,great ,world1 and that they were       
presented with a hundred talents only2  
and ,hippobotus coincides in this       
statement4    ,,viii4 ,and ,aristoxenus1

 in his ,historic ,commentaries1 says   
that ,plato  wished to burn all the     
writings of ,democritus that he was able
 to  collect2 but that ,amyclas and     
,cleinias1 the ,pythagoreans1 prevented 
him1  as it would do no good2 for that  
copies of his books were already in many
  hands4 ,and it is plain that that was 
the case2 for ,plato1 who mentions      
nearly all the ancient philosophers1    
nowhere speaks of ,democritus2 not  even
 in those passages where he has occasion
 to contradict his theories1  evidently1
 because he said that if he did1 he     
would be showing his  disagreement with 
the best of all philosophers2 a man whom
 even ,timon  praises in the following  
terms3--        ,like that ,democritus1 
wisest of men1      ,sage ruler of his  
speech2 profound converser1      ,whose 
works ,i love to read among the first4  
,,ix4 ,but he was1 according to the     
statement made by himself in the ,little
  ,world1 a youth when ,anaxagoras was  
an old man1 being forty years younger   

than he was4 ,and he says1 that he      
composed the ,little ,world seven       
hundred  and thirty years after the     
capture of ,troy4 ,and he must have been
 born1  according to the account given  
by ,apollodorus in his ,chronicles1 in  
the  eightieth olympiad2 but1 as        
,thrasylus says1 in his work entitled   
the  ,events1 which took place before   
the reading of the books of ,democritus1
  in the third year of the              
seventy-seventh olympiad1 being1 as it  
is there  stated1 one year older than   
,socrates4 ,he must therefore have been 
a  contemporary of ,archelaus1 the pupil
 of ,anaxagoras1 and of nopides1  for he
 makes mention of this letter4 ,he also 
speaks of the theories of  ,parmenides  
and ,zeno1 on the subject of the ,one1  
as they were the men of  the highest    
reputation in histories1 and he also    
speaks of ,protagoras of  ,abdera1 who  
confessedly lived at the same time as   
,socrates4    ,x4 ,athenodorus tells us1
 in the eighth book of his              

,conversations1 that  once1 when        
,hippocrates came to see him1 he ordered
 some milk to be  brought2 and that1    
when he saw the milk1 he said that it   
was the milk  of a black goat1 with her 
first kid2 on which ,hippocrates        
marvelled at  his accurate knowledge4   
,also1 as a young girl came with        
,hippocrates1 on  the first day1 he     
saluted her thus1 8,good morning1 my    
maid20 but on the  next day1 8,good     
morning1 woman20 for1 indeed1 she had   
ceased to be a maid  during the night4  
,,xi4 ,and ,hermippus relates1 that     
,democritus died in the following       
manner3  he was exceedingly old1 and    
appeared at the point of death2 and his 
sister was lamenting that he would die  
during the festival of the              
,thesmophoria1#abh and so prevent her   
from discharging her duties to the      
,goddess2 and so he bade her be of good 
cheer1 and desired her to bring  him hot
 loaves every day4 ,and1 by applying    
these to his nostrils1 he kept  himself 

alive even over the festival4 ,but when 
the days of the festival  were passed   
7and it lasted three days71 then he     
expired1 without any  pain1 as          
,hipparchus assures us1 having lived a  
hundred and nine years4  ,and we have   
written an epigram upon him in our      
collection of poems in  every metre1    
which runs thus3--        ,what man was 
e'er so wise1 who ever did      ,so     
great a deed as this ,democritus8       
,who kept off death1 though present for 
three days1      ,and entertained him   
with hot steam of bread4    ,such was   
the life of this man4    ,,xii4 ,now his
 principal doctrines were these4 ,that  
atoms and the vacuum  were the beginning
 of the universe2 and that everything   
else existed  only in opinion4 ,that the
 worlds were infinite1 created1 and     
perishable4  ,but that nothing was      
created out of nothing1 and that nothing
 was  destroyed so as to become nothing4
 ,that the atoms were infinite both  in 
magnitude and number1 and were borne    

about through the universe in  endless  
revolutions4 ,and that thus they        
produced all the combinations  that     
exist2 fire1 water1 air1 and earth2 for 
that all these things are  only         
combinations of certain atoms2 which    
combinations are incapable of  being    
affected by external circumstances1 and 
are unchangeable by reason  of their    
solidity4 ,also1 that the sun and the   
moon are formed by such  revolutions and
 round bodies2 and in like manner the   
soul is produced2  and that the soul and
 the mind are identical3 that we see by 
the falling  of visions across our      
sight2 and that everything that happens1
 happens of  necessity4 ,motion1 being  
the cause of the production of          
everything1 which  he calls necessity4  
,the chief good he asserts to be        
cheerfulness2 which1  however1 he does  
not consider the same as pleasure2 as   
some people1 who  have misunderstood    
him1 have fancied that he meant2 but he 
understands by  cheerfulness1 a         

condition according to which the soul   
lives calmly and  steadily1 being       
disturbed by no fear1 or superstition1  
or other passion4  ,he calls this state 
1 and 1 and several other names4        
,everything which is made he looks upon 
as depending for its existence on       
opinion2 but atoms and the vacuum he    
believes exist by nature4 ,these were   
his principal opinions4    ,,xiii4 ,of  
his books1 ,thrasylus has given a       
regular catalogue1 in the same  way that
 he has arranged the works of ,plato1   
dividing them into four  classes4       
,now these are his ethical works4 ,the  
,pythagoras2 a treatise on the          
,disposition of the ,wise ,man2 an essay
 on those in the ,shades ,below2 the    
,tritogeneia 7this is so called because 
from ,minerva three things are  derived 
which hold together all human affairs72 
a treatise on ,manly  ,courage or       
,valour2 the ,horn of ,amalthea2 an     
essay on ,cheerfulness2 a  volume of    
,ethical ,commentaries4 ,a treatise     

entitled1 ,for ,cheerfulness1  77 is not
 found4    ,these are his writings on   
natural philosophy4 ,the ,great ,world  
7which  ,theophrastus asserts to be the 
work of ,leucippus72 the ,little ,world2
 the  ,cosmography2 a treatise on the   
,planets2 the first book on ,nature2 two
  books on the ,nature of ,man1 or on   
,flesh2 an essay on the ,mind2 one on   
the  ,senses 7some people join these two
 together in one volume1 which they     
entitle1 on the ,soul72 a treatise on   
,juices2 one on ,colours2 one on the    
,different ,figures2 one on the ,changes
 of ,figures2 the ,cratynteria 7that  is
 to say1 an essay1 approving of what has
 been said in preceding ones72  a       
treatise on ,phnomenon1 or on           
,providence2 three books on             
,pestilences1  or ,pestilential ,evils2 
a book of ,difficulties4 ,these are his 
books on  natural philosophy4    ,his   
miscellaneous works are these4 ,heavenly
 ,causes2 ,arial ,causes2 ,causes       
affecting ,plane ,surfaces2 ,causes     

referring to ,fire1 and to what is in   
,fire2 ,causes affecting ,voices2       
,causes affecting ,seeds1 and ,plants1  
and  ,fruits2 three books of ,causes    
affecting ,animals2 ,miscellaneous      
,causes2 a  treatise on the ,magnet4    
,these are his miscellaneous works4     
,his mathematical writings are the      
following4 ,a treatise on the           
,difference  of ,opinion1 or on the     
,contact of the ,circle and the ,sphere2
 one on  ,geometry2 one on ,numbers2 one
 on ,incommensurable ,lines1 and        
,solids1  in two books2 a volume called 
,explanations2 the ,great ,year1 or the 
,astronomical ,calendar2 a discussion on
 the ,clepsydra2 the ,map of the        
,heavens2 ,geography2 ,polography2      
,actinography1 or a discussion on ,rays 
of  ,light4 ,these are his mathematical 
works4    ,his works on music are the   
following4 ,a treatise on ,rhythm and   
,harmony2  one on ,poetry2 one on the   
beauty of ,epic ,poems2 one on          
,euphonious and  ,discordant ,letters2  

one on ,homer1 or on ,propriety of      
,diction#abi and  ,dialects2 one on     
,song1 one on ,words2 the ,onomasticon4 
,these are his  musical works4    ,the  
following are his works on art4         
,prognostics2 a treatise on the ,way  of
 ,living1 called also ,ditetics1 or the 
,opinions of a ,physician2 ,causes      
relating to ,unfavourable and           
,favourable ,opportunities2 a treatise  
on  ,agriculture1 called also the       
,georgic2 one on ,painting2 ,tactics1   
and  ,fighting in heavy ,armour4 ,these 
are his works on such subjects4    ,some
 authors also give a list of some       
separate treatises which they  collect  
from his ,commentaries4 ,a treatise on  
the ,sacred ,letters seen at  ,babylon2 
another on the ,sacred ,letters seen at 
,meroe2 the ,voyage round  the ,ocean2 a
 treatise on ,history2 a ,chaldaic      
,discourse2 a ,phrygian  ,discourse2 a  
treatise on ,fever2 an essay on those   
who are attacked with  ,cough after     
illness2 the ,principles of ,laws2      

,things made by ,hand1 or  ,problems4   
,as to the other books which some       
writers ascribed to him1 some are merely
  extracts from his other writings1 and 
some are confessedly the work of        
others4 ,and this is a sufficient       
account of his writings4    ,,xiv4      
,there were six people of the name of   
,democritus4 ,the first was this  man of
 whom we are speaking2 the second was a 
musician of ,chios1 who  lived about the
 same time2 the third was a sculptor who
 is mentioned by  ,antigonus2 the fourth
 is a man who wrote a treatise on the   
,temple at  ,ephesus1 and on the city of
 ,samothrace2 the fifth was an          
epigrammatic  poet1 of great perspicuity
 and elegance2 the sixth was a citizen  
of  ,pergamus1 who wrote a treatise on  
,oratory4      ,,life ,,of ,,protagoras4
    ,i4 ,protagoras was the son of      
,artemon1 or1 as ,apollodorus says      
7which  account is corroborated by      
,deinon1 in his ,history of ,persia71 of
 ,mander4  ,he was a native of ,abdera1 

as ,heraclides ,ponticus tell us1 in his
  treatise on ,laws2 and the same       
authority informs us that he made laws  
for the ,thurians4 ,but1 according to   
the statement of ,eupolis1 in his       
,flatterers1 he was a native of ,teos2  
for he says3--        ,within you'll    
find ,protagoras1 of ,teos4    ,he1 and 
,prodicus of ,ceos1 used to levy        
contributions for giving their          
lectures2 and ,plato1 in his            
,protagoras1 says that ,prodicus had a  
very  powerful voice4    ,,ii4          
,protagoras was a pupil of ,democritus4 
,and he was surnamed ,wisdom1 as        
,phavorinus informs us in his ,universal
 ,history4    ,,iii4 ,he was the first  
person who asserted that in every       
question there  were two sides to the   
argument exactly opposite to one        
another4 ,and he  used to employ them in
 his arguments1 being the first person  
who did so4  ,but he began something in 
this manner3 8,man is the measure of all
 things3  of those things which exist as

 he is2 and of those things which do not
  exist as he is not40 ,and he used to  
say that nothing else was soul except   
the senses1 as ,plato says1 in the      
,thetetus2 and that everything was      
true4 ,and another of his treatises he  
begins in this way3 8,concerning the    
,gods1 ,i am not able to know to a      
certainty whether they exist or whether 
they do not4 ,for there are many things 
which prevent one from knowing1         
especially the obscurity of the subject1
 and the shortness of the life of  man40
 ,and on account of this beginning of   
his treatise1 he was banished  by the   
,athenians4 ,and they burnt his books in
 the market-place1 calling  them in by  
the public crier1 and compelling all who
 possessed them to  surrender them4     
,he was the first person who demanded   
payment of his pupils2 fixing  his      
charge at a hundred min4 ,he was also   
the first person who gave a  precise    
definition of the parts of time2 and who
 explained the value of  opportunity1   

and who instituted contests of argument1
 and who armed the  disputants with the 
weapon of sophism4 ,he it was too who   
first left facts  out of consideration1 
and fastened his arguments on words2 and
 who was  the parent of the present     
superficial and futile kinds of         
discussion4 ,on  which account ,timon   
says of him3--        ,protagoras1 that 
slippery arguer1      ,in disputatious  
contests fully skilled4    ,he too1 it  
was1 who first invented that sort of    
argument which is called  the ,socratic1
 and who first employed the reasonings  
of ,antisthenes1 which  attempt to      
establish the point that they cannot be 
contradicted2 as ,plato  tells us in his
 ,euthydemus4 ,he was also the first    
person who practised  regular           
discussions on set subjects1 as         
,artemidorus1 the dialectician1  tells  
us in his treatise against ,chrysippus4 
,he was also the original  inventor of  
the porter's pad for men to carry their 
burdens on1 as we  are assured by       

,aristotle1 in his book on ,education2  
for he himself was a  porter1 as        
,epicurus says somewhere or other4 ,and 
it was in this way that  he became      
highly thought of by ,democritus1 who   
saw him as he was tying up  some sticks4
    ,he was also the first person who   
divided discourse into four parts2      
entreaty1 interrogation1 answer1 and    
injunction3 though some writers  make   
the parts seven2 narration1             
interrogation1 answer1 injunction1      
promise1 entreaty1 and invocation2 and  
these he called the foundations of      
discourse3 but ,alcidamas says that     
there are four divisions of discourse2  
affirmation1 denial1 interrogation1 and 
invocation4    ,v4 ,the first of his    
works that he ever read in public was   
the treatise  on the ,gods1 the         
beginning of which we have quoted above1
 and he read  this at ,athens in the    
house of ,euripides1 or1 as some say1 in
 that  of ,megaclides2 others say that  
he read it in the ,lyceum2 his pupil1   

,archagoras1 the son of ,theodotus1     
giving him the aid of his voice4 ,his   
accuser was ,pythodorus1 the son of     
,polyzelus1 one of the four hundred2    
but ,aristotle calls him ,evathlus4     
,,vi4 ,the writings of his which are    
still extant are these3 a treatise on   
the ,art of ,contention2 one on         
,wrestling2 one on ,mathematics2 one on 
a  ,republic2 one on ,ambition2 one on  
,virtues2 one on the ,original          
,condition  of ,man2 one on those in the
 ,shades ,below2 one on the ,things     
which are not  done properly by ,men2   
one volume of ,precepts2 one essay      
entitled ,justice  in ,pleading for     
,hire2 two books of ,contradictions4    
,these are his books4    ,plato also    
addressed a dialogue to him4    ,,vii4  
,philochorus relates that1 as he was    
sailing to ,sicily his ship was         
wrecked1 and that this circumstance is  
alluded to by ,euripides in his  ,ixion2
 and some say that he died on his       
journey1 being about ninety years  old4 

,but ,apollodorus states his age at     
seventy years1 and says that he  was a  
sophist forty years1 and that he        
flourished about the eighty-fourth      
,olympiad4 ,there is an epigram upon him
 written by myself1 in the  following   
terms3--        ,i hear accounts of you1
 ,protagoras1      ,that1 travelling far
 from ,athens1 on the road1      ,you1  
an old man1 and quite infirm1 did die4  
,for ,cecrops' city drove you forth to  
exile2      ,but you1 though 'scaping   
dread ,minerva's might1      ,could not 
escape the outspread arms of ,pluto4    
,,viii4 ,it is said that once1 when he  
demanded of ,evathlus his pupil  payment
 for his lessons1 ,evathlus said to him1
 8,but ,i have never been  victorious in
 an argument20 and he rejoined1 8,but if
 ,i gain my cause1  then ,i should      
naturally receive the fruits of my      
victory1 and so would  you obtain the   
fruits of yours40    ,,ix4 ,there was   
also another ,protagoras1 an astronomer1
 on whom ,euphorion  wrote an elegy2 and

 a third also1 who was a philosopher of 
the ,stoic  sect4      ,,life ,,of      
,,diogenes1 ,,of ,,apollonia4    ,i4    
,diogenes was a native of ,apollonia1   
and the son of ,apollothemis1  a natural
 philosopher of high reputation2 and he 
was1 as ,antisthenes  reports1 a pupil  
of ,anaximenes4 ,he was also a          
contemporary of ,anaxagoras1  and       
,demetrius ,phalereus says1 in his      
,defence of ,socrates1 that he was  very
 unpopular at ,athens1 and even in some 
danger of his life4    ,,ii4 ,the       
following were his principal doctrines2 
that the air was an  element2 that the  
worlds were infinite1 and that the      
vacuum also was  infinite2 that the air1
 as it was condensed1 and as it was     
rarified1  was the productive cause of  
the worlds2 that nothing can be produced
  out of nothing2#acj and that nothing  
can be destroyed so as to become        
nothing2 that the earth is round1 firmly
 planted in the middle of the  universe1
 having acquired its situation from the 

circumvolutions of the  hot principle   
around it1 and its consistency from the 
cold4    ,the first words of his        
treatise are3--    8,it appears to me   
that he who begins any treatise ought to
 lay down  principles about which there 
can be no dispute1 and that his         
exposition  of them ought to be simple  
and dignified40      ,,life ,,of        
,,anaxarchus4    ,i4 ,anaxarchus was a  
native of ,abdera4 ,he was a pupil of   
,diogenes1 of  ,smyrna2 but1 as some    
say1 of ,metrodorus1 of ,chios2 who said
 that he was  not even sure that he knew
 nothing2 and ,metrodorus was a pupil of
 ,nessus1  of ,chios2 though others     
assert that he was a disciple of        
,democritus4    ,,ii4 ,anaxarchus too   
enjoyed the intimacy of ,alexander1 and 
flourished  about the hundred and tenth 
olympiad4 ,he had for an enemy          
,nicocreon1 the  tyrant of ,cyprus4 ,and
 on one occasion1 when ,alexander1 at a 
banquet1  asked him what he thought of  
the entertainment1 he is said to have   

replied1 8,o king1 everything is        
provided very sumptuously2 and the only 
thing wanting is to have the head of    
some satrap served up20 hinting  at     
,nicocreon4 ,and ,nicocreon did not     
forget his grudge against him for  this2
 but after the death of the king1 when  
,anaxarchus1 who was making a  voyage1  
was driven against his will into        
,cyprus1 he took him and put him  in a  
mortar1 and commanded him to be pounded 
to death with iron pestles4  ,and then  
they say that he1 disregarding this     
punishment1 uttered that  celebrated    
saying1 8,beat the bag of ,anaxarchus1  
but you will not beat  ,anaxarchus      
himself40 ,and then1 when ,nicocreon    
commanded that his tongue  should be cut
 out1 it is said that he bit it off1 and
 spit it at him4 ,and  we have written  
an epigram upon him in the following    
terms3--        ,beat more and more2    
you're beating but a bag2      ,beat1   
,anaxarchus is in heav'n with ,jove4    
,hereafter ,proserpine will rack your   

bones1      ,and say1 ,thus perish1 you 
accursed beater4    ,,iii4 ,anaxarchus1 
on account of the evenness of his temper
 and the  tranquillity of his life1 was 
called the ,happy4 ,and he was a man to 
whom it was very easy to reprove men and
 bring them to temperance4              
,accordingly1 he produced an alteration 
in ,alexander who thought himself  a    
,god1 for when he saw the blood flowing 
from some wound that he had  received1  
he pointed to him with his finger1 and  
said1 8,this is blood1  and not3--      
8,such stream as issues from a wounded  
,god2      ,pure emanation1 uncorrupted 
flood1      ,unlike our gross1 diseas'd1
 terrestrial blood40#aca    ,but        
,plutarch says that it was ,alexander   
himself who quoted these lines to  his  
friends4    ,they also tell a story that
 ,anaxarchus once drank to him1 and then
 showed  the goblet1 and said3--        
,shall any mortal hand dare wound a     
,god8      ,,life ,,of ,,pyrrho4    ,i4 
,pyrrho was a citizen of ,elis1 and the 

son of ,pleistarchus1 as ,diocles       
informs us1 and1 as ,apollodorus in his 
,chronicles asserts1 he was  originally 
a painter4    ,,ii4 ,and he was a pupil 
of ,bryson1 the son of ,stilpon1 as we  
are told  by ,alexander in his          
,chronicles4 ,after that he attached    
himself to  ,anaxarchus1 and attended   
him everywhere2 so that he even went as 
far as  the ,gymnosophists1 in ,india1  
and the ,magi4    ,,iii4 ,owing to which
 circumstance1 he seems to have taken a 
noble line in  philosophy1 introducing  
the doctrine of incomprehensibility1 and
 of the  necessity of suspending one's  
judgment1 as we learn from ,ascanius1 of
  ,abdera4 ,for he used to say that     
nothing was honourable1 or disgraceful1 
or just1 or unjust4 ,and on the same    
principle he asserted that there  was no
 such thing as downright truth2 but that
 men did everything in  consequence of  
custom and law4 ,for that nothing was   
any more this than  that4 ,and his life 
corresponded to his principles2 for he  

never shunned  anything1 and never      
guarded against anything2 encountering  
everything1  even waggons for instance1 
and precipices1 and dogs1 and everything
 of  that sort2 committing nothing      
whatever to his senses4 ,so that he used
  to be saved1 as ,antigonus the        
,carystian tells us1 by his friends who 
accompanied him4 ,and nesidemus says    
that he studied philosophy on the       
principle of suspending his judgment on 
all points1 without however1 on  any    
occasion acting in an imprudent manner1 
or doing anything without due           
consideration4 ,and he lived to nearly  
ninety years of age4    ,,iv4 ,and      
,antigonus1 of ,carystus1 in his account
 of ,pyrrho1 mentions the  following    
circumstances respecting him2 that he   
was originally a person  of no          
reputation1 but a poor man1 and a       
painter2 and that a picture of  some    
camp-bearers1 of very moderate          
execution1 was preserved in the         
,gymnasium at ,elis1 which was his work2

 and that he used to walk out into  the 
fields and seek solitary places1 very   
rarely appearing to his family  at home2
 and that he did this in consequence of 
having heard some ,indian  reproaching  
,anaxarchus for never teaching any one  
else any good1 but for  devoting all his
 time to paying court to princes in     
palaces4 ,he relates  of him too1 that  
he always maintained the same demeanour1
 so that if any  one left him in the    
middle of his delivery of a discourse1  
he remained  and continued what he was  
saying2 although1 when a young man1 he  
was of a  very excitable temperament4   
,often too1 says ,antigonus1 he would go
 away  for a time1 without telling any  
one beforehand1 and taking any chance   
persons whom he chose for his           
companions4 ,and once1 when ,anaxarchus 
had  fallen into a pond1 he passed by   
without assisting him2 and when some    
one blamed him for this1 ,anaxarchus    
himself praised his indifference and    
absence of all emotion4    ,on one      

occasion he was detected talking to     
himself1 and when he was  asked the     
reason1 he said that he was studying how
 to be good4 ,in his  investigations he 
was never despised by any one1 because  
he always spoke  explicitly and straight
 to the question that had been put to   
him4 ,on  which account ,nausiphanes was
 charmed by him even when he was quite  
young4 ,and he used to say that he      
should like to be endowed with the      
disposition of ,pyrrho1 without losing  
his own power of eloquence4 ,and  he    
said too1 that ,epicurus1 who admired   
the conversation and manners of         
,pyrrho1 was frequently asking him about
 him4    ,v4 ,he was so greatly honoured
 by his country1 that he was appointed  
a priest2 and on his account all the    
philosophers were exempted from         
taxation4 ,he had a great many imitators
 of his impassiveness2 in  reference to 
which ,timon speaks thus of him in his  
,python1 and in his  ,silli3--          
,now1 you old man1 you ,pyrrho1 how     

could you      ,find an escape from all 
the slavish doctrines      ,and vain    
imaginations of the ,sophists8      ,how
 did you free yourself from all the     
bonds      ,of sly chicane1 and artful  
deep persuasion8      ,how came you to  
neglect what sort of breeze      ,blows 
round your ,greece1 and what's the      
origin      ,and end of everything8     
,and again1 in his ,images1 he says3--  
,these things1 my heart1 ,o ,pyrrho1    
longs to hear1      ,how you enjoy such 
ease of life and quiet1      ,the only  
man as happy as a ,god4    ,and the     
,athenians presented him with the       
freedom of their city1 as  ,diocles     
tells us1 because he had slain ,cotys1  
the ,thracian4    ,,vi4 ,he also lived  
in a most blameless manner with his     
sister1 who was a  midwife1 as          
,eratosthenes relates1 in his treatise  
on ,riches and ,poverty2  so that he    
himself used to carry poultry1 and pigs 
too if he could get  any1 into the      
market-place and sell them4 ,and he used

 to clean all the  furniture of the     
house without expressing any annoyance4 
,and it is said  that he carried his    
indifference so far that he even washed 
a pig4 ,and  once1 when he was very     
angry about something connected with his
 sister  7and her name was ,philista71  
and some one took him up1 he said1 8,the
  display of my indifference does not   
depend on a woman40 ,on another         
occasion1 when he was driven back by a  
dog which was attacking him1 he  said to
 some one who blamed him for being      
discomposed1 8,that it was a  difficult 
thing entirely to put off humanity2 but 
that a man ought to  strive with all his
 power to counteract circumstances with 
his actions if  possible1 and at all    
events with his reason40 ,they also tell
 a story that  once1 when some medicines
 of a consuming tendency1 and some      
cutting and  cautery was applied to him 
for some wound1 that he never even      
contracted  his brow4 ,and ,timon       
intimates his disposition plainly enough

 in the  letters which he wrote to      
,python4 ,moreover1 ,philo1 the         
,athenian1 who was  a friend of his1    
said that he was especially fond of     
,democritus2 and next  to him of ,homer2
 whom he admired greatly1 and was       
continually saying3--        ,but as the
 race of falling leaves decay1          
,such is the fate of man4#acb    ,he    
used also1 as it is said1 to compare men
 to wasps1 and flies1 and  birds1 and to
 quote the following lines3--           
,die then1 my friend1 what boots it to  
deplore8      ,the great1 the good      
,patroclus is no more4      ,he1 far thy
 better1 was foredoom'd to die2         
,and thou1 doest thou bewail            
mortality8#acc    ,and so he would quote
 anything that bore on the uncertainty  
and emptiness  and fickleness of the    
affairs of man4 ,posidonius tells the   
following  anecdote about him3 that when
 some people who were sailing with him  
were looking gloomy because of a storm1 
he kept a calm countenance1  and        

comforted their minds1 exhibiting       
himself on deck eating a pig1 and       
saying that it became a wise man to     
preserve an untroubled spirit in that   
manner4 ,numenius is the only writer who
 asserts that he used to deliver        
positive dogmas4    ,,vii4 ,he had many 
eminent disciples1 and among them       
,eurylochus1 of whom  the following     
defective characteristic is related2    
for1 they say1 that he  was once worked 
up to such a pitch of rage that he took 
up a spit with  the meat on it1 and     
chased the cook as far as the           
market-place4 ,and once  in ,elis he was
 so harassed by some people who put     
questions to him in the  middle of his  
discourses1 that he threw down his cloak
 and swam across  the ,alpheus4 ,he was 
the greatest possible enemy to the      
,sophists1 as ,timon  tells us4 ,but    
,philo1 on the contrary1 was very fond  
of arguing2 on which  account ,timon    
speaks of him thus3--        ,avoiding  
men to study all devoted1      ,he      

ponders with himself1 and never heeds   
,the glory or disputes which harass     
,philo4    ,besides these disciples1    
,pyrrho also had ,hecateus of ,abdera1  
and ,timon  the ,phliasian1 who wrote   
the ,silli1 and whom we shall speak of  
hereafter2  and also ,nausiphanes1 of   
,teos1 who1 as some say1 was the master 
of  ,epicurus4    ,,viii4 ,all these men
 were called ,pyrrhoneans from their    
master2 and also  doubters1 and         
sceptics1 and ephectics1 or suspenders  
of their judgment1  and investigators1  
from their principles4 ,and their       
philosophy was called  investigatory1   
from their investigating or seeking the 
truth on all  sides2 and sceptical from 
their being always doubting 771 and     
never finding2 and ephectic1 from the   
disposition which they encouraged  after
 investigation1 ,i mean the suspending  
of their judgment 772  and doubting1    
because they asserted that the dogmatic 
philosophers only  doubted1 and that    
they did the same4 ,and they were called

 ,pyrrhoneans  from ,pyrrho himself4    
,but ,theodosius1 in his ,chapters on   
,scepticism1 contends1 that we ought    
not to call the ,pyrrhonean school      
sceptical2 for since1 says he1 the      
motion and agitation of the mind in each
 individual is incomprehensible  to     
others1 we are unable to know what was  
the disposition of ,pyrrho2 and  if we  
do not know it we ought not to be called
 ,pyrrhoneans4 ,he also  adds that      
,pyrrho was not the original inventor of
 ,scepticism1 and that  he had no       
particular dogma of any kind2 and that1 
consequently1 it can  only be called    
,pyrrhonism from some similarity4 ,some 
say that ,homer was  the original       
founder of this school2 since he at     
different times gives  different        
accounts of the same circumstance1 as   
much as any one else ever  did2 and     
since he never dogmatizes definitively  
respecting affirmation2  they also say  
that the maxims of the seven wise men   
were sceptical2  such as that1 8,seek   

nothing in excess10 and that1           
8,suretyship is near  calamity20 which  
shows that calamity follows a man who   
has given positive  and certain surety2 
they also argue that ,archilochus and   
,euripides were  ,sceptics2 and         
,archilochus speaks thus3--        ,and 
now1 ,o ,glaucus1 son of ,leptines1     
,such is the mind of mortal man1 which  
changes      ,with every day that       
,jupiter doth send4    ,and ,euripides  
says3--        ,why then do men assert  
that wretched mortals      ,are with    
true wisdom gifted2 for on you      ,we 
all depend2 and we do everything        
,which pleases you4    ,moreover1       
,xenophanes1 and ,zeno the ,eleatic1 and
 ,democritus were also  ,sceptics2 of   
whom ,xenophanes speaks thus3--         
,and no man knows distinctly anything1  
,and no man ever will4    ,and ,zeno    
endeavours to put an end to the doctrine
 of motion by saying3  8,the object     
moved does not move either in the place 
in which it is1 or  in that in which it 

is not40 ,democritus1 too1 discards the 
qualities1  where he says3 what is cold 
is cold in opinion1 and what is hot is  
hot  in opinion2 but atoms and the      
vacuum exist in reality4 ,and again he  
says3 8,but we know nothing really2 for 
truth lies in the bottom40 ,plato1  too1
 following them1 attributes the         
knowledge of the truth to the ,gods  and
 to the sons of the ,gods1 and leaves   
men only the investigation of           
probability4 ,and ,euripides says3--    
,who now can tell whether to live may   
not      ,be properly to die4 ,and      
whether that      ,which men do call to 
die1 may not in truth      ,be but the  
entrance into real life8    ,and        
,empedocles speaks thus3--        ,these
 things are not perceptible to sight1   
,nor to the ears1 nor comprehensible    
,to human intellect4    ,and in a       
preceding passage he says3--            
,believing nothing1 but such            
circumstances      ,as have befallen    
each4    ,heraclitus1 too1 says1 8,let  

us not form conjectures at random1 about
  things of the greatest importance40   
,and ,hippocrates delivers his opinion  
in a very doubtful manner1 such as      
becomes a man2 and before them all      
,homer has said3--        ,long in the  
field of words we may contend1          
,reproach is infinite and knows no end4 
,and immediately after3--        ,armed1
 or with truth or falsehood1 right or   
wrong4      7,so voluble a weapon is the
 tongue71      ,wounded we wound1 and   
neither side can fail1      ,for every  
man has equal strength to rail3#acd     
,intimating the equal vigour and        
antithetical force of words4 ,and the   
,sceptics persevered in overthrowing all
 the dogmas of every sect1 while  they  
themselves asserted nothing             
dogmatically2 and contented themselves  
with expressing the opinions of others1 
without affirming anything  themselves1 
not even that they did affirm nothing2  
so that even discarded  all positive    
denial2 for to say1 8,we affirm         

nothing10 was to affirm  something4     
8,but we10 said they1 8enunciate the    
doctrines of others1 to  prove our own  
perfect indifference2 it is just as if  
we were to express  the same thing by a 
simple sign40 ,so these words1 8,we     
affirm nothing10  indicate the absence  
of all affirmation1 just as other       
propositions1  such as1 8,not more one  
thing than another10 or1 8,every reason 
has a  corresponding reason opposed to  
it10 and all such maxims indicate a     
similar idea4 ,but the phrase1 8,not    
more one thing10 c41 has sometimes  an  
affirmative sense1 indicating the       
equality of certain things1 as for      
instance1 in this sentence1 8,a pirate  
is not worse than a liar40 ,but  by the 
sceptics this is said not positively1   
but negatively1 as for  instance1 where 
the speaker contests a point and says1  
8,it was not  ,scylla1 any more than it 
was ,chimra40 ,and the word 8more10     
itself1 is  sometimes used to indicate a
 comparison1 as when we say1 8,that     

honey is  more sweet than grapes40 ,and 
at other times it is used positively1   
and at  the same time negatively1 as    
when we say1 8,virtue profits us more   
than  hurts us20 for in this phrase we  
intimate that virtue does profit1 and   
does not hurt us4 ,but the ,sceptics    
abolish the whole expression1 8,not     
more than it20 saying1 that 8,prudence  
has not existence1 any more than it  has
 no existence40 ,accordingly1 then1     
expression1 as ,timon says in his       
,python1 indicates nothing more than an 
absence of all affirmation1 or of  all  
assent of the judgment4    ,also the    
expression1 8,every reason has a        
corresponding reason10 c41 does  in the 
same manner indicate the suspension of  
the judgment2 for if1 while  the facts  
are different1 the expressions are      
equipollent1 it follows that  a man must
 be quite ignorant of the real truth4   
,besides this1 to this assertion there  
is a contrary assertion opposed1  which1
 after having destroyed all others1     

turns itself against itself1  and       
destroys itself1 resembling1 as it were1
 those cathartic medicines  which1 after
 they have cleansed the stomach1 then   
discharge themselves1  and are got rid  
of4 ,and so the dogmatic philosophers   
say1 that all these  reasonings are so  
far from overturning the authority of   
reason that they  confirm it4 ,to this  
the ,sceptics reply1 that they only     
employ reason as  an instrument1 because
 it is impossible to overturn the       
authority of  reason1 without employing 
reason2 just as if we assert that there 
is  no such thing as space1 we must     
employ the word 8space10 but that not   
dogmatically1 but demonstratively2 and  
if we assert that nothing exists        
according to necessity1 it is           
unavoidable that we must use the word   
8necessity40 ,the same principle of     
interpretation did they adopt2 for  they
 affirmed that facts are not by nature  
such as they appear to be1 but  that    
they only seem such2 and they said1 that

 what they doubt is not what  they      
think1 for their thoughts are evident to
 themselves1 but the reality  of the    
things which are only made known to them
 by their sensations4    ,the           
,pyrrhonean system1 then1 is a simple   
explanation of appearances1 or  of      
notions of every kind1 by means of      
which1 comparing one thing with  another
 one arrives at the conclusion1 that    
there is nothing in all  these notions1 
but contradiction and confusion2 as     
nesidemus says in  his ,introduction to 
,pyrrhonism4 ,as to the contradictions  
which are found  in those speculations1 
when they have pointed out in what way  
each fact  is convincing1 they then1 by 
the same means1 take away all belief    
from  it2 for they say that we regard as
 certain1 those things which always     
produce similar impressions on the      
senses1 those which are the offspring   
of habit1 or which are established by   
the laws1 and those too which give      
pleasure or excite wonder4 ,and they    

prove that the reasons opposite to      
those on which our assent is founded are
 entitled to equal belief4    ,,ix4 ,the
 difficulties which they suggest1       
relating to the agreement  subsisting   
between what appears to the senses1 and 
what is comprehended  by the intellect1 
divide themselves into ten modes of     
argument1 according  to which the       
subject and object of our knowledge is  
incessantly changing4  ,and these ten   
modes ,pyrrho lays down in the following
 manner4    ,the first relates to the   
difference which one remarks between the
  sentiments of animals in respect of   
pleasure1 and pain1 and what is         
injurious1 and what is advantageous2 and
 from this we conclude1 that  the same  
objects do not always produce the same  
impressions2 and that  the fact of this 
difference ought to be a reason with us 
for suspending  our judgment4 ,for there
 are some animals which are produced    
without  any sexual connexion1 as those 
which live in the fire1 and the ,arabian

  ,phnix1 and worms4 ,others again are  
engendered by copulation1 as men  and   
others of that kind2 and some are       
composed in one way1 and others  in     
another2 on which account they also     
differ in their senses1 as for          
instance1 hawks are very keen-sighted2  
dogs have a most acute scent4 ,it  is   
plain1 therefore1 that the things seen  
produce different impressions  on those 
animals which differ in their power of  
sight4 ,so1 too1 young  branches are    
eagerly eaten by the goat1 but are      
bitter to mankind2 and  hemlock is      
nutritious for the quail1 but deadly to 
man2 and pigs eat  their own dung1 but a
 horse does not4    ,the second mode    
refers to the nature and idiosyncracies 
of men4 ,according  to ,demophon1 the   
steward of ,alexander used to feel warm 
in the shade1  and to shiver in the sun4
 ,and ,andron1 the ,argive1 as          
,aristotle tells us1  travelled through 
the dry parts of ,libya1 without once   
drinking4 ,again1  one man is fond of   

medicine1 another of farming1 another of
 commerce2  and the same pursuits are   
good for one man1 and injurious to      
another2 on  which account1 we ought to 
suspend our opinions4    ,the third     
mode1 is that which has for its object  
the difference of the  organs of sense4 
,accordingly1 an apple presents itself  
to the sight as  yellow1 to the taste as
 sweet1 to the smell as fragrant2 and   
the same  form is seen1 in very         
different lights1 according to the      
differences of  mirrors4 ,it follows1   
therefore1 that what is seen is just as 
likely to be  something else as the     
reality4    ,the fourth refers to the   
dispositions of the subject1 and the    
changes in  general to which it is      
liable4 ,such as health1 sickness1      
sleep1 waking1  joy1 grief1 youth1 old  
age1 courage1 fear1 want1 abundance1    
hatred1  friendship1 warmth1 cold1      
easiness of breathing1 oppression of the
  respiratory organs1 and so on4 ,the   
objects1 therefore1 appear different  to

 us according to the disposition of the 
moment2 for1 even madmen are  not in a  
state contrary to nature4 ,for1 why are 
we to say that of them  more than of    
ourselves8 ,for we too look at the sun  
as if it stood still4  ,theon1 of       
,tithora1 the ,stoic1 used to walk about
 in his sleep2 and a  slave of          
,pericles' used1 when in the same state1
 to walk on the top of  the house4      
,the fifth mode is conversant with laws1
 and established customs1 and  belief in
 mythical traditions1 and the           
conventions of art1 and dogmatical      
opinions4 ,this mode embraces all that  
relates to vice1 and to honesty2 to  the
 true1 and to the false2 to the good1   
and to the bad2 to the ,gods1 and  to   
the production1 and destruction of all  
visible objects4 ,accordingly1  the same
 action is just in the case of some     
people1 and unjust in that  of others4  
,and good in the case of some1 and bad  
in that of others4 ,on  this principle  
we see that the ,persians do not think  

it unnatural for a  man to marry his    
daughter2 but among the ,greeks it is   
unlawful4 ,again1  the ,massaget1 as    
,eudoxus tells us in the first book of  
his ,travels over  the ,world1 have     
their women in common2 but the ,greeks  
do not4 ,and the  ,cilicians delight in 
piracy1 but the ,greeks avoid it4 ,so   
again1 different  nations worship       
different ,gods2 and some believe in the
 providence of  ,god1 and others do not4
 ,the ,egyptians embalm their dead1 and 
then bury  them2 the ,romans burn them2 
the ,ponians throw them into the lakes4 
,all  these considerations show that we 
ought to suspend our judgment4    ,the  
sixth mode has reference to the         
promiscuousness and confusion of        
objects2 according to which nothing is  
seen by us simply and by itself2  but in
 combination either with air1 or with   
light1 or with moisture1 or  with       
solidity1 or heat1 or cold1 or motion1  
or evaporation or some other  power4    
,accordingly1 purple exhibits a         

different hue in the sun1 and in  the   
moon1 and in a lamp4 ,and our own       
complexions appear different when  seen 
at noonday and at sunset4 ,and a stone  
which one cannot lift in the  air1 is   
easily displaced in the water1 either   
because it is heavy itself  and is made 
light by the water1 or because it is    
light in itself and is  made heavy by   
the air4 ,so that we cannot positively  
know the peculiar  qualities of         
anything1 just as we cannot discover oil
 in ointment4    ,the seventh mode has  
reference to distances1 and position1   
and space1 and  to the objects which are
 in space4 ,in this mode one establishes
 the fact  that objects which we believe
 to be large1 sometimes appear small2   
that  those which we believe to be      
square1 sometimes appear round2 that    
those  which we fancy even1 appear full 
of projections2 those which we think    
straight1 seem bent2 and those which we 
believe to be colourless1 appear  of    
quite a different complexion4           

,accordingly1 the sun1 on account of its
  distance from us1 appears small4 ,the 
mountains too1 at a distance1#ace       
appear airy masses and smooth1 but when 
beheld close1 they are rough4  ,again1  
the sun has one appearance at his rise1 
and quite a different one  at midday4   
,and the same body looks very different 
in a wood from what  it does on plain   
ground4 ,so too1 the appearance of an   
object changes  according to its        
position as regards us2 for instance1   
the neck of a dove  varies as it turns4 
,since then1 it is impossible to view   
these things  irrespectively of place   
and position1 it is clear that their    
real nature  is not known4    ,the      
eighth mode has respect to the          
magnitudes or quantities of things2 or  
to the heat or coldness1 or to the speed
 or slowness1 or to the paleness  or    
variety of colour of the subject4 ,for  
instance1 a moderate quantity of  wine  
when taken invigorates1 but an excessive
 quantity weakens4 ,and the  same is the

 case with food1 and other similar      
things4    ,the ninth depends upon the  
frequency1 or rarity1 or strangeness of 
the  thing under consideration4 ,for    
instance1 earthquakes excite no wonder  
among those nations with whom they are  
of frequent occurrence2 nor does  the   
sun1 because he is seen every day4      
,the ninth mode is called by            
,phavorinus1 the eighth1 and by ,sextus 
and  nesidemus1 the tenth2 and ,sextus  
calls the tenth the eighth1 which       
,phavorinus reckons the tenth as the    
ninth in order4    ,the tenth mode      
refers to the comparison between one    
thing and another2  as1 for instance1   
between what is light and what is heavy2
 between  what is strong and what is    
weak2 between what is greater and what  
is  less2 what is above and what is     
below4 ,for instance1 that which is on  
the right1 is not on the right          
intrinsically and by nature1 but it is  
looked upon as such in consequence of   
its relation to something else2  and if 

that other thing be transposed1 then it 
will no longer be on the  right4 ,in the
 same way1 a man is spoken of as a      
father1 or brother1 or  relation to some
 one else2 and day is called so in      
relation to the sun3  and everything has
 its distinctive name in relation to    
human thought3  therefore1 those things 
which are known in relation to others1  
are  unknown of themselves4    ,and     
these are the ten modes4    ,x4 ,but    
,agrippa adds five other modes to them4 
,one derived from the  disagreement of  
opinions2 another from the necessity of 
proceeding ad  infinitum from one       
reasoning to another2 a third from      
relation2 a fourth  from hypothesis2 and
 the last from the reciprocal nature of 
proofs4    ,that which refers to the    
disagreement of opinions1 shows that all
 the  questions which philosophers      
propose to themselves1 or which people  
in  general discuss1 are full of        
uncertainty and contradiction4    ,that 
which is derived from the necessity of  

proceeding incessantly from  one        
reasoning to another1 demonstrates that 
it is impossible for a man  ever1 in his
 researches1 to arrive at undeniable    
truth2 since one truth  is only to be   
established by another truth2 and so on1
 ad infinitum4    ,the mode which is    
derived from relation rests on the      
doctrine that no  object is ever        
perceived independently and entirely by 
itself1 but always  in its relation to  
something else2 so that it is impossible
 to know its  nature correctly4    ,that
 which depends on hypothesis is directed
 against those arguers who  pretend that
 it is necessary to accept the          
principles of things taken  absolutely1 
and that one must place one's faith in  
them without any  examination1 which is 
an absurdity1 for one may just as well  
lay down the  opposite principles4      
,the fifth mode1 that one namely which  
arises from the reciprocal nature  of   
proofs1 is capable of application       
whenever the proof of the truth  which  

we are looking for supposes1 as a       
necessary preliminary1 our belief  in   
that truth2 for instance1 if1 after we  
have proved the porosity of  bodies by  
their evaporations1 we return and prove 
the evaporations by the  porosity4      
,,xi4 ,these ,sceptics then deny the    
existence of any demonstration1 of  any 
test of truth1 of any signs1 or causes1 
or motion1 or learning1  and of anything
 as intrinsically or naturally good or  
bad4 ,for every  demonstration1 say     
they1 depends either on things which    
demonstrate  themselves1 or on          
principles which are indemonstrable4 ,if
 on things  which demonstrate           
themselves1 then these things themselves
 require  demonstration2 and so on ad   
infinitum4 ,if on principles which are  
indemonstrable1 then1 the very moment   
that either the sum total of these      
principles1 or even one single one of   
them1 is incorrectly urged1 the  whole  
demonstration falls instantly to pieces4
 ,but if any one supposes1  they add1   

that there are principles which require 
no demonstration1 that  man deceives    
himself strangely1 not seeing that it is
 necessary for him  in the first place  
to establish this point1 that they      
contain their proof  in themselves4 ,for
 a man cannot prove that there are four 
elements1  because there are four       
elements4    ,besides1 if particular    
proofs are denied in a complex          
demonstration1 it  must follow that the 
whole demonstration is also incorrect4  
,again1 if we  are to know that an      
argument is really a demonstrative      
proof1 we must  have a test of truth2   
and in order to establish a test1 we    
require a  demonstrative proof2 and     
these two things must be devoid of every
 kind of  certainty1 since they bear    
reciprocally the one on the other4      
,how then is any one to arrive at       
certainty about obscure matters1 if one 
is ignorant even how one ought to       
attempt to prove them8 ,for what one is 
desirous to understand is not what the  

appearance of things is1 but what  their
 nature and essence is4    ,they show1  
too1 that the dogmatic philosophers act 
with great simplicity2  for that the    
conclusions which they draw from their  
hypothetical  principles1 are not       
scientific truths but mere suppositions2
 and  that1 in the same manner1 one     
might establish the most improbable     
propositions4 ,they also say that those 
who pretend that one ought not to  judge
 of things by the circumstances which   
surround them1 or by their  accessories1
 but that one ought to take their nature
 itself as one's  guide1 do not perceive
 that1 while they pretend to give the   
precise  measure and definition of      
everything1 if the objects present such 
and  such an appearance1 that depends   
solely on their position and relative   
arrangement4 ,they conclude from thence1
 that it is necessary to say that       
everything is true1 or that everything  
is false4 ,for if certain things  only  
are true1 how is one to recognize them4 

,evidently it will not be  the senses   
which judge in that case of the objects 
of sensation1 for  all appearances are  
equal to the senses2 nor will it be the 
intellect1  for the same reason4 ,but   
besides these two faculties1 there does 
not  appear to be any other test or     
criterion at all4 ,so1 say they1 if we  
desire to arrive at any certainty with  
respect to any object which comes  under
 either sense or intellect1 we must     
first establish those opinions  which   
are laid down previously as bearing on  
those objects4 ,for some  people have   
denied this doctrine1 and others have   
overturned that2 it  is therefore       
indispensable that they should be judged
 of either by the  senses or by the     
intellect4 ,and the authority of each of
 these faculties  is contested2 it is   
therefore impossible to form a positive 
judgment of  the operations of the      
senses and of the intellect2 and if the 
contest  between the different opinions1
 compels us to a neutrality1 then the   

measure which appeared proper to apply  
to the appreciation of all those        
objects is at the same time put an end  
to1 and one must fix a similar          
valuation on everything4    ,perhaps our
 opponent will say1 8,are then          
appearances trustworthy or              
deceitful80#acf ,we answer that1 if they
 are trustworthy1 the other side  has   
nothing to object to those to whom the  
contrary appearance presents  itself4   
,for1 as he who says that such and such 
a thing appears to him is  trustworthy1 
so also is he who says that the contrary
 appears to him4 ,and  if appearances   
are deceitful1 then they do not deserve 
any confidence  when they assert what   
appears to them to be true4 ,we are not 
bound then  to believe that a thing is  
true1 merely because it obtains assent4 
,for  all men do not yield to the same  
reasons2 and even the same individual   
does not always see things in the same  
light4 ,persuasion often depends on     
external circumstances1 on the authority

 of the speaker1 on his ability1  on the
 elegance of his language1 on habit1 or 
even on pleasure4    ,they also1 by this
 train of reasoning1 suppress the       
criterion of truth4  ,either the        
criterion has been decided on1 or it has
 not4 ,and if it has  not1 it does not  
deserve any confidence1 and it cannot be
 of any use at  all in aiding us to     
discern truth from falsehood4 ,if1 on   
the other hand1  it has been decided on1
 it then enters into the class of       
particular  things which require a      
criterion1 and in that case to judge and
 to be  judged amount to the same thing2
 the criterion which judges is itself   
judged of by something else1 that again 
by a third criterion1 and so on  ad     
infinitum4 ,add to this1 say they1 the  
fact that people are not even  agreed as
 to the nature of the criterion of      
truth2 some say that man is  the        
criterion1 others that it is the senses 
which are so3 one set places  reason in 
the van1 another class rely upon        

cataleptic perception4    ,as to man    
himself1 he disagrees both with himself 
and with others1 as  the diversity of   
laws and customs proves4 ,the senses are
 deceivers1 and  reason disagrees with  
itself4 ,cataleptic perception is judged
 of by the  intellect1 and the intellect
 changes in various manners2            
accordingly1 we  can never find any     
positive criterion1 and in consequence1 
truth itself  wholly eludes our search4 
,they also affirm that there are no such
 things as signs2 for if there  are     
signs1 they argue they must be such as  
are apprehended either by the  senses or
 by the intellect4 ,now1 there are none 
which are apprehended by  the senses1   
for everything which is apprehended by  
the senses is general1  while a sign is 
something particular4 ,moreover1 any    
object which is  apprehended by the     
senses has an existence of its own1     
while signs are  only relative4 ,again1 
signs are not apprehended by the        
intellect1 for  in that case they would 

be either the visible manifestation of a
 visible  thing1 or the invisible       
manifestation of an invisible thing1 or 
the  invisible sign of a visible thing2 
or the visible sign of an invisible     
thing4 ,but none of all these cases are 
possible2 there are therefore no  such  
things as signs at all4    ,there is    
therefore no such thing as a visible    
sign of a visible thing2  for that which
 is visible has no need of a sign4 ,nor1
 again1 is there any  invisible sign of 
an invisible thing2 for when anything is
 manifested by  means of another thing1 
it must become visible4 ,on the same    
principle  there is no invisible sign of
 a visible object2 for that which aids  
in  the perception of something else    
must be visible4 ,lastly1 there is no   
visible manifestation of an invisible   
thing2 for as a sign is something       
wholly relative1 it must be perceived in
 that of which it is the sign2  and that
 is not the case4 ,it follows1          
therefore1 that none of those  things   

which are not visible in themselves     
admit of being perceived2 for  one      
considers signs as things which aid in  
the perception of that which  is not    
evident by itself4    ,they also wholly 
discard1 and1 as far as depends on them1
 overturn the  idea of any cause1 by    
means of this same train of reasoning4  
,cause is  something relative4 ,it is   
relative to that of which it is the     
cause4 ,but  that which is relative is  
only conceived1 and has no real         
existence4  ,the idea of a cause then is
 a pure conception2 for1 inasmuch as it 
is a  cause1 it must be a cause of      
something2 otherwise it would be no     
cause  at all4 ,in the same way as a    
father cannot be a father1 unless there 
exists some being in respect of whom one
 gives him the title of father2  so too 
a cause stands on the same ground4 ,for1
 supposing that nothing  exists         
relatively to which a cause can be      
spoken of2 then1 as there is no         
production1 or destruction1 or anything 

of that sort1 there can likewise  be no 
cause4 ,however1 let us admit that there
 are such things as causes4  ,in that   
case then1 either a body must be the    
cause of a body1 or that  which is      
incorporeal must be the cause of that   
which is incorporeal4 ,now1  neither of 
these cases is possible1 therefore1     
there is no such thing  as cause4 ,in   
fact1 one body cannot be the cause of   
another body1 since  both bodies must   
have the same nature2 and if it be said 
that one is the  cause1 inasmuch as it  
is a body1 then the other must be a     
cause for the  same reason4 ,and in that
 case one would have two reciprocal     
causes2 two  agents without any passive 
subject4    ,again1 one incorporeal     
thing cannot be the cause of another    
incorporeal  thing for the same reason4 
,also1 an incorporeal thing cannot be   
the  cause of a body1 because nothing   
that is incorporeal can produce a body4 
,nor1 on the other hand1 can a body be  
the cause of anything incorporeal1      

because in every production there must  
be some passive subject matter2  but1 as
 what is incorporeal is by its own      
nature protected from being  a passive  
subject1 it cannot be the object of any 
productive power4  ,there is1 therefore1
 no such thing as any cause at all4     
,from all which  it follows1 that the   
first principles of all things have no  
reality2  for such a principle1 if it   
did exist1 must be both the agent and   
the  efficient cause4    ,again1 there  
is no such thing as motion4 ,for        
whatever is moved1 is moved  either in  
the place in which it is1 or in that in 
which it is not4 ,it  certainly is not  
moved in the place in which it is1 and  
it is impossible  that it should be     
moved in the place in which it is not2  
therefore1 there  is no such thing as   
motion at all4    ,they also denied the 
existence of all learning4 ,if1 said    
they1 anything  is taught1 then either  
that which does exist is taught in its  
existence  or that which does not exist 

is taught in its non-existence2 but that
  which does exist is not taught in its 
existence 7for the nature of all        
existent things is visible to all men1  
and is known by all men72 nor is  that  
which does not exist taught in its      
non-existence1 for nothing can  happen  
to that which does not exist1 so that to
 be taught cannot happen  to it4    ,nor
 again1 say they1 is there any such     
thing as production4 ,for that  which   
is1 is not produced1 for it exists      
already2 nor that which is not1  for    
that does not exist at all4 ,and that   
which has no being nor existence  at    
all1 cannot be produced4    ,another of 
their doctrines is1 that there is no    
such thing as any natural  good1 or     
natural evil4 ,for if there be any      
natural good1 or natural evil1  then it 
must be good to everyone1 or evil to    
everyone2 just as snow is  cold to      
everyone4 ,but there is no such thing as
 one general good or evil  which is     
common to all beings2 therefore1 there  

is no such thing as any  natural good1  
or natural evil4 ,for either one must   
pronounce everything  good which is     
thought so by anyone whatever1 or one   
must say that it does  not follow that  
everything which is thought good is     
good4 ,now1 we cannot  say that         
everything which is thought good is     
good1 since the same thing  is thought  
good by one person 7as1 for instance1   
pleasure is thought good  by ,epicurus7 
and evil by another 7as it is thought   
evil by ,antisthenes72  and on this     
principle the same thing will be both   
good and evil4 ,if1  again1 we assert   
that it does not follow that everything 
which is thought  good is good1 then we 
must distinguish between the different  
opinions2  which it is not possible to  
do by reason of the equality of the     
reasons  adduced in support of them4 ,it
 follows that we cannot recognize       
anything  as good by nature4    ,and we 
may also take a view of the whole of    
their system by the  writings which some

 of them have left behind them4 ,pyrrho 
himself has  left nothing2 but his      
friends ,timon1 and nesidemus1 and      
,numenius1 and  ,nausiphanes1 and others
 of that class have left books4 ,and the
 dogmatical  philosophers arguing       
against them1 say that they also adopt  
spurious and  pronounce positive dogmas4
 ,for where they think that they are    
refuting  others they are convicted1 for
 in the very act of refutation1 they    
assert  positively and dogmatize4 ,for  
when they say that they define nothing1 
and that every argument has an opposite 
argument2 they do here give a  positive 
definition1 and assert a positive dogma4
 ,but they reply to these  objectors2 as
 to the things which happen to us as    
men1 we admit the truth  of what you    
say2 for we certainly do know that it is
 day1 and that we are  alive2 and we    
admit that we know many other of the    
phnomena of life4  ,but with respect to 
those things as to which the dogmatic   
philosophers  make positive assertions1 

saying that they are comprehended1 we   
suspend  our judgment on the ground of  
their being uncertain2 and we know      
nothing  but the passions2 for we       
confess that we see1 and we are aware   
that we  comprehend that such a thing is
 the fact2 but we do not know how we    
see1  or how we comprehend4 ,also1 we   
state in the way of narrative1 that this
  appears white1 without asserting      
positively that it really is so4 ,and   
with respect to the assertion1 8,we     
define nothing10 and other sentences  of
 that sort1 we do not pronounce them as 
dogmas4 ,for to say that is a  different
 kind of statement from saying that the 
world is spherical2  for the one fact is
 not evident1 while the other statements
 are mere  admissions4    ,while1       
therefore1 we say that we define        
nothing1 we do not even say that  as a  
definition4    ,again1 the dogmatic     
philosophers say that the ,sceptics     
overthrow all  life1 when they deny     
everything of which life consists4 ,but 

the ,sceptics  say that they are        
mistaken2 for they do not deny that they
 see1 but that  they do not know how it 
is that they see4 ,for1 say they1 we    
assert what  is actually the fact1 but  
we do not describe its character4       
,again1 we  feel that fire burns1 but we
 suspend our judgment as to whether it  
has  a burning nature4 ,also1 we see    
whether a person moves1 and that a man  
dies2 but how these things happen we    
know not4 ,therefore1 say they1 we  only
 resist the uncertain deductions which  
are put by the side of evident  facts4  
,for when we say that an image has      
projections1 we only state  plainly what
 is evident2 but when we say that it has
 not projections1 we  no longer say what
 appears evident1 but something else4   
,on which account  ,timon1 in his       
,python1 says that ,pyrrho does not     
destroy the authority of  custom4 ,and  
in his ,images he speaks thus3--        
,but what is evidently seen prevails1   
,wherever it may be4    ,and in his     

treatise on the ,senses1 he says1 8,the 
reason why a thing  is sweet ,i do not  
declare1 but ,i confess that the fact of
 sweetness  is evident40 ,so too1       
nesidemus1 in the first book of his     
,pyrrhonean  ,discourses1 says that     
,pyrrho defines nothing dogmatically1 on
 account  of the possibility of         
contradiction1 but that he is guided by 
what is  evident4 ,and he says the same 
thing in his book against ,wisdom1 and  
in  his treatise on ,investigation4     
,in like manner1 ,zeuxis1 a friend of   
nesidemus1 in his treatise on  ,twofold 
,arguments1 and ,antiochus1 of          
,laodicea1 and ,apellas1 in his         
,agrippa1 all declare nothing beyond    
what is evident4 ,the criterion         
therefore1 among the ,sceptics1 is that 
which is evident2 as nesidemus  also    
says2 and ,epicurus says the same thing4
    ,but ,democritus says1 that there is
 no test whatever of appearances1  and  
also that they are not criteria of      
truth4 ,moreover1 the dogmatic          

philosophers attack the criterion       
derived from appearances1 and say that  
the same objects present at times       
different appearances2 so that a town   
presents at one time a square1 and at   
another a round appearance2 and  that   
consequently1 if the ,sceptic does not  
discriminate between different          
appearances1 he does nothing at all4    
,if1 on the contrary1 he determines  in 
favour of either1 then1 say they1 he no 
longer attaches equal value  to all     
appearances4 ,the ,sceptics reply to    
this1 that in the presence of  different
 appearances1 they content themselves   
with saying that there  are many        
appearances1 and that it is precisely   
because things present  themselves under
 different characters1 that they affirm 
the existence of  appearances4          
,lastly1 the ,sceptics say1 that the    
chief good is the suspension of the     
judgment which tranquillity of mind     
follows1 like its shadow1 as ,timon  and
 nesidemus say2 for that we need not    

choose these things1 or avoid  those1   
which all depend on ourselves3 but as to
 those things which do not  depend upon 
us1 but upon necessity1 such as hunger1 
thirst1 and pain1  those we cannot      
avoid2 for it is not possible to put an 
end to them by  reason4    ,but when the
 dogmatic philosophers object that the  
,sceptic1 on his  principles1 will not  
refuse to kill his own father1 if he is 
ordered  to do so2 so that they answer1 
that they can live very well without    
disquieting themselves about the        
speculations of the dogmatic            
philosophers2 but1 suspending their     
judgment in all matters which do not    
refer to living and the preservation of 
life4 ,accordingly1 say they1 we  avoid 
some things1 and we seek others1        
following custom in that2 and we  obey  
the laws4    ,some authors have         
asserted1 that the chief good of the    
,stoics is  impassibility2 others say   
that it is mildness and tranquillity4   
,,life ,,of ,,timon4    ,i4             

,apollonides1 of ,nica1 a philosopher of
 our school1 in the first  book of his  
,commentaries on the ,silli1 which he   
dedicated to ,tiberius  ,csar1 says that
 ,timon was the son of ,timarchus1 and a
 ,phliasian by  birth4 ,and then1 when  
he was young1 he studied dancing1 and   
afterwards  he renounced that study1 and
 went to ,megara to ,stilpo4 ,and having
 spent  some time there1 he returned    
home again and married4 ,then he came   
with his wife to ,elis1 to see ,pyrrho1 
and there he remained while his         
children were born2 the elder of whom1  
he called ,xanthus1 and taught him      
medicine1 and left him his successor in 
his sect of philosophy4 ,and he  was a  
man of considerable eminence1 as ,sotion
 tells us in his eleventh  book4        
,afterwards1 being in difficulty as to  
his means1 he departed to  the          
,hellespont and the ,propontis2 and     
living at ,chalcedon as a ,sophist1  he 
earned a very high reputation and great 
popularity2 from thence he  departed1   

after having made a considerable        
fortune1 and went to ,athens1  and      
remained there till his death1 going    
across once for a short time  to        
,thebes4 ,he was also acquainted with   
king ,antigonus1 and with ,ptolemy      
,philadelphus1 as he himself testifies  
in his ,iambics4    ,,ii4 ,he was1 says 
,antigonus1 fond of drinking1 and he at 
times occupied  himself with works quite
 inconsistent with philosophy2 for he   
wrote lyric  and epic poems1 and        
tragedies and satiric dramas1 and thirty
 comedies1  and sixty tragedies and     
,silli1 and amatory poems4    ,there are
 works of his also enumerated in a      
regular catalogue1 extending  to twenty 
thousand verses1 which are mentioned by 
,antigonus1 of ,carystos1  who also     
wrote his life4 ,of the ,silli1 there   
are three volumes2 in which  he attacks 
every one as if he were a ,sceptic1 and 
especially he lampoons  the dogmatic    
philosophers under the form of parodies4
 ,the first volume  of these ,silli     

contains a long uninterrupted narration2
 but the second  and third are in the   
form of dialogues4 ,he is represented in
 them1 as  interrogating ,xenophanes1   
the ,colophonian1 about every thing1 and
 he  utters a long continued discourse2 
in his second book he speaks of the     
more ancient philosophers2 and in his   
third of the more modern ones2  on which
 account some people have given the last
 book the name of the  epilogue4    ,but
 the first book contains the same       
subjects1 with this difference1 that  in
 that it is all confined to one single  
person and its first line begins        
thus3--        ,come hither1 all you    
over-busy ,sophists    ,,iii4 ,he died  
when he was nearly ninety years old1 as 
,antigonus tells us2  and ,sotion1 in   
his eleventh book1 makes the same       
statement4 ,i have heard  it said that  
he had only one eye1 and1 indeed1 he    
used to call himself  ,cyclops4    ,,iv4
 ,there was also another ,timon1 the    
misanthrope4    ,v4 ,now this           

philosopher was very fond of a garden1  
and also of solitude1  as we are told by
 ,antigonus4 ,accordingly it is         
reported1 that ,hieronymus1  the        
,peripatetic1 said of him1 as among the 
,scythians1 both they who  fly1 and they
 who pursue shoot with the bow1 so in   
the case of the  philosophers1 those who
 pursue and those who fly both hunt for 
pupils1 as  ,timon for instance4        
,,vi4 ,he was a man of very acute       
perceptions1 and very quick at seeing   
the ridiculous side of any question3 he 
was also very fond of learning1  and a  
very clever man at devising plots for   
poets1 and at composing  dramas4 ,and he
 used to associate with himself1 in the 
composition of his  tragedies1 two other
 poets1 named ,alexander and ,homer2 and
 whenever he  was disturbed by his      
maid-servants or by the dogs1 he paid no
 attention  to them1 studying above all 
things to live in tranquillity4 ,they   
tell a  story1 that ,aratus asked him   
how he could procure an entire and      

correct  copy of ,homer's poetry1 and he
 answered1 8,if he could fall in with an
 old  manuscript which had never been   
corrected40 ,and all his works used to  
lie about at random1 and at times half  
eaten by mice2 so that once when  he was
 reading them to ,zopyrus1 the orator1  
and unrolling a volume1 he  read        
whatever passages came first1 and when  
he got to the middle of the  book he    
found a great gap1 which he had not     
previously perceived1 so very           
indifferent was he about such matters4  
,his constitution was so vigorous1 that 
he could easily go without his  dinner4 
,and they say1 that once when he saw    
,arcesilaus passing through  the forum  
of the ,cercopes1 he said1 8,what are   
you doing here1 where we  freemen are80 
,and he used constantly to quote to     
those who invoked the  testimony of     
their intellects to judge of the        
senses3--        ,attagas and ,numenius 
are met4#acg    ,and this jesting manner
 was habitual with him4 ,accordingly he 

once said  to a man1 who was surprised  
at everything1 8,why do you not wonder  
that  we three men have only four eyes  
between us80 for he himself had only    
one eye1 no more had ,dioscorides1 his  
pupil2 but the man to whom he was       
speaking had his sight unimpaired4 ,on  
another occasion1 he was asked by       
,arcesilaus1 why he had come from       
,thebes1 and he said1 8,to laugh at you 
all when ,i see you face to face40 ,but 
though he attacked ,arcesilaus in  his  
,silli1 he has praised him in the book  
entitled the ,funeral ,banquet of       
,arcesilaus4    ,,vii4 ,he had no       
successor1 as ,menodotus tells us2 but  
his school ceased1  till ,ptolemy the   
,cyrenean re-established it4 ,according 
to the account  given to us by          
,hippobotus and ,sotion1 he had as      
pupils1 ,dioscorides  of ,cyprus1 and   
,nicolochus of ,rhodes1 and ,euphranor  
of ,seleucia1 and  ,praylus of the      
,troas1 who was a man of such constancy 
of mind that1 as  ,phylarchus relates in

 his ,history1 he allowed himself to be 
punished  as a traitor wholly           
undeservedly1 not uttering one word of  
complaint  against his fellow citizens2 
and ,euphranor had for his pupil1       
,eubulus1 of  ,alexandria1 who was the  
master of ,ptolemy1 who was the master  
of ,sarpedon  and ,heraclides4 ,and     
,heraclides was the master of nesidemus1
 of ,cnossus1  who wrote eight books of 
,pyrrhonean discourses2 he was also the 
master  of ,zeuxippus ,polites1 who was 
the master of ,zeuxis ,goniopus1 who was
 the  master of ,antiochus1 of          
,laodicea1 in ,lycia4 ,antiochus again1 
was the  master of ,menodotus1 of       
,nicomedia1 a skilful physician1 and of 
,theodas1  of ,laodicea2 and ,menodotus 
was the master of ,herodotus1 of        
,tarsus1 the  son of ,arieus2 ,herodotus
 was the master of ,sextus ,empiricus1  
who left ten  books of ,sceptic ,maxims1
 and other excellent works2 and ,sextus 
was the  master of ,saturninus          
,cythenas1 who was also an empiric4     

,,book ,x4      ,,life ,,of ,,epicurus4 
,i4 ,epicurus was an ,athenian1 and the 
son of ,neocles and ,chrestrate1 of  the
 burgh of ,gargettus1 and of the family 
of the ,philaid1 as ,metrodorus  tells  
us in his treatise on ,nobility of      
,birth4 ,some writers1 and among  them  
,heraclides1 in his ,abridgment of      
,sotion1 say1 that as the ,athenians    
had colonised ,samos1 he was brought up 
there1 and came to ,athens in his       
eighteenth year1 while ,xenocrates was  
president of the ,academy1 and          
,aristotle at ,chalcis4 ,but after the  
death of ,alexander1 the ,macedonian1   
when the ,athenians were driven out of  
,samos by ,perdiccas1 ,epicurus went  to
 ,colophon to his father4    ,,ii4 ,and 
when he had spent some time there1 and  
collected some disciples1  he again     
returned to ,athens1 in the time of     
,anaxicrates1 and for some  time studied
 philosophy1 mingling with the rest of  
the philosophers2  but subsequently1 he 
some how or other established the school

 which  was called after his name2 and  
he used to say1 that he began to study  
philosophy1 when he was fourteen years  
of age2 but ,apollodorus1 the           
,epicurean1 in the first book of his    
account of the life of ,epicurus1  says1
 that he came to the study of           
philosophy1 having conceived a great    
contempt for the grammarians1 because   
they could not explain to him the       
statements in ,hesiod respecting ,chaos4
    ,but ,hermippus tells us1 that he   
himself was a teacher of grammar1 and   
that afterwards1 having met with the    
books of ,democritus1 he applied        
himself with zeal to philosophy1 on     
which account ,timon says of him3--     
,the last of all the natural            
philosophers1      ,and the most        
shameless too1 did come from ,samos1    
,a grammar teacher1 and the most        
ill-bred      ,and most unmanageable of 
mankind4    ,and he had for his         
companions in his philosophical studies1
 his three  brothers1 ,neocles1         

,chredemus1 and ,aristobulus1 who were  
excited by his  exhortations1 as        
,philodemus1 the ,epicurean1 relates in 
the tenth book of  the ,classification  
of ,philosophers4 ,he had also a slave1 
whose name was  ,mus1 as ,myronianus    
tells us in his ,similar ,historical    
,chapters4    ,,iii4 ,but ,diotimus1 the
 ,stoic1 was very hostile to him1 and   
calumniated  him in a most bitter       
manner1 publishing fifty obscene        
letters1 and  attributing them to       
,epicurus1 and also giving him the      
credit of the  letters1 which generally 
go under the name of ,chrysippus4 ,and  
,posidonius1  the ,stoic1 and ,nicolaus1
 and ,sotion1 in the twelfth of these   
books1 which  are entitled the          
,refutations of ,diocles1 of which there
 are altogether  twenty-four volumes1   
and ,dionysius1 of ,halicarnassus1 have 
also attacked  him with great severity2 
for they say that he used to accompany  
his  mother when she went about the     
small cottages1 performing              

purifications1  and that he used to read
 the formula1 and that he used also to  
keep a  school with his father at very  
low terms4 ,also1 that he1 as well as   
one  of his brothers1 was a most        
profligate man in his morals1 and that  
he  used to live with ,leontium1 the    
courtesan4 ,moreover1 that he claimed   
the  books of ,democritus on ,atoms1 and
 that of ,aristippus on ,pleasure1 as   
his  own2 and that he was not a         
legitimate citizen2 and this last fact  
is  asserted also by ,timocrates1 and by
 ,herodotus1 in his treatise on the     
,youth of ,epicurus4    ,they also say  
that he used to flatter ,mithras1 the   
steward of ,lysimachus1  in a           
disgraceful manner1 calling him in his  
letters ,pan1 and ,king2 and  also that 
he flattered ,idomeneus1 and ,herodotus1
 and ,timocrates who had  revealed all  
his secret practices1 and that he       
flattered them on this  very account4   
,and in his letters to ,leontium1 he    
says1 8,o king ,apollo1  my dear        

,leontium1 what transports of joy did ,i
 feel when ,i read your  charming       
letter40 ,and to ,themista1 the wife of 
,leonteus1 he writes1 8,i am  ready and 
prepared1 if you do not come to me1 to  
roll myself to wherever  you and        
,themista invite me40 ,and he addresses 
,pythocles1 a beautiful  youth1 thus1   
8,i will sit quiet10 says he1 8awaiting 
your longed for and  god-like approach40
 ,and at another time1 writing to       
,themista1 he says1  8,that he had      
determined to make his way with her10 as
 ,theodorus tells us  in the fourth book
 of his treatises against ,epicurus4    
,he also wrote to many other courtesans1
 and especially to ,leontium1  with whom
 ,metrodorus also was in love4 ,and in  
his treatise on the ,chief  ,good1 he   
writes thus1 8,for ,i do not know what  
,i can consider good1 if  ,i put out of 
sight the pleasures which arise from    
favours1 and those  which are derived   
from amatory pleasures1 and from music1 
and from the  contemplation of beauty40 

,and in his letter to ,pythocles1 he    
writes1  8,and1 my dear boy1 avoid all  
sorts of education40    ,epictetus also 
attacks him as a most debauched man1 and
 reproaches him  most vehemently1 and so
 does ,timocrates1 the brother of       
,metrodorus1 in  his treatise entitled  
the ,merry ,guests1 and this ,timocrates
 had been a  disciple in his school1    
though he afterwards abandoned it2 and  
he says  that he used to vomit twice a  
day1 in consequence of his intemperance2
  and that he himself had great         
difficulty in escaping from this        
nocturnal  philosophy1 and that mystic  
kind of re-union4 ,he also accuses      
,epicurus  of shameful ignorance in his 
reasoning1 and still more especially in 
all matters relating to the conduct of  
life4 ,and says that he was in a        
pitiable state of health1 so that he    
could not for many years rise up  from  
his sofa2 and that he used to spend a   
min a day on his eating1  as he himself 
states in his letter to ,leontium1 and  

in that to the  philosophers at         
,mitylene4 ,he also says that many      
courtesans used to  live with him and   
,metrodorus2 and among them ,marmarium1 
and ,hedea1 and  ,erotium1 and          
,nicidium4    ,,iv4 ,and in the         
thirty-seven books which he wrote about 
natural  philosophy1 they say that he   
says a great many things of the same    
kind  over and over again1 and that in  
them he writes in contradiction of other
  philosophers1 and especially of       
,nausiphanes1 and speaks as follows1    
word  for word3 8,but if any one else   
ever was afflicted in such a manner1    
then certainly this man had a continual 
labour1 striving to bring forth  the    
sophistical boastfulness of his mouth1  
like many other slaves40 ,and  ,epicurus
 also speaks of ,nausiphanes in his     
letters1 in the following  terms3       
8,these things led him on to such       
arrogance of mind1 that he  abused me   
and called me a schoolmaster40 ,he used 
also to call him ,lungs1  and           

,blockhead1 and ,humbug1 and            
,fornicator4 ,and he used to call       
,plato's  followers ,flatterers of      
,dionysius1 but ,plato himself he called
 ,golden4  ,aristotle he called a       
debauchee and a glutton1 saying that he 
joined the  army after he had squandered
 his patrimony1 and sold drugs4 ,he used
  also to call ,protagoras a porter1 and
 the secretary of ,democritus1 and  to  
say that he taught boys their letters in
 the streets4 ,heraclitus1  he called a 
disturber2 ,democritus1 he nicknamed    
,lerocritus2#ach and  ,antidorus1       
,snidorus2#aci the ,cynics he called    
enemies of ,greece2 and  the            
,dialecticians he charged with being    
eaten up with envy4 ,pyrrho1 he  said1  
was ignorant and unlearned4    ,v4 ,but 
these men who say this are all wrong1   
for there are plenty of  witnesses of   
the unsurpassable kindness of the man to
 every body2 both  his own country which
 honoured him with brazen statues1 and  
his friends  who were so numerous that  

they could not be contained in whole    
cities2  and all his acquaintances who  
were bound to him by nothing but the    
charms  of his doctrine1 none of whom   
ever deserted him1 except ,metrodorus1  
the  son of ,stratoniceus1 who went over
 to ,carneades1 probably because he  was
 not able to bear with equanimity the   
unapproachable excellence of  ,epicurus4
 ,also1 the perpetual succession of his 
school1 which1 when every  other school 
decayed1 continued without any falling  
off1 and produced  a countless number of
 philosophers1 succeeding one another   
without  any interruption4 ,we may also 
speak here of his gratitude towards his 
parents1 and his beneficence to his     
brothers1 and his gentleness to his     
servants 7as is plain from his will1 and
 from the fact too1 that they  united   
with him in his philosophical studies1  
and the most eminent of  them was the   
one whom ,i have mentioned already1     
named ,mus72 and his  universal         
philanthropy towards all men4    ,his   

piety towards the ,gods1 and his        
affection for his country was quite     
unspeakable2 though1 from an excess of  
modesty1 he avoided affairs of  state4  
,and though he lived when very difficult
 times oppressed ,greece1 he  still     
remained in his own country1 only going 
two or three times across  to ,ionia to 
see his friends1 who used to throng to  
him from all quarters1  and to live with
 him in his garden1 as we are told by   
,apollodorus4 7,this  garden he bought  
for eighty min47    ,,vi4 ,and ,diocles1
 in the third book of his ,excursion1   
says that they all  lived in the most   
simple and economical manner2 8,they    
were content10 says  he1 8with a small  
cup of light wine1 and all the rest of  
their drink was  water40 ,he also tells 
us that ,epicurus would not allow his   
followers to  throw their property into 
a common stock1 as ,pythagoras did1 who 
said  that the possessions of friends   
were held in common4 ,for he said that  
such a doctrine as that was suited      

rather for those who distrusted one     
another2 and that those who distrusted  
one another were not friends4 ,but  he  
himself in his letters1 says that he is 
content with water and plain  bread1 and
 adds1 8,send me some ,cytherean cheese1
 that if ,i wish to have a  feast1 ,i   
may have the means40 ,this was the real 
character of the man who  laid down the 
doctrine that pleasure was the chief    
good2 whom ,athenus  thus mentions in an
 epigram3--        ,o men1 you labour   
for pernicious ends2      ,and out of   
eager avarice1 begin      ,quarrels and 
wars4 ,and yet the wealth of nature     
,fixes a narrow limit for desires1      
,though empty judgment is insatiable4   
,this lesson the wise child of ,neocles 
,had learnt by heart1 instructed by the 
,muses1      ,or at the sacred shrine of
 ,delphi's ,god4    ,and as we advance  
further1 we shall learn this fact from  
his dogmas1 and  his apophthegms4       
,,vii4 ,of all the ancient philosophers 
he was1 as we are told by ,diocles1     

most attached to ,anaxagoras 7although  
in some points he argued against  him72 
and to ,archelaus1 the master of        
,socrates4 ,and he used1 ,diocles  adds1
 to accustom his pupils to preserve his 
writings in their memory4  ,apollodorus1
 in his ,chronicles1 asserts that he was
 a pupil of  ,nausiphanes1 and          
,praxiphanes2 but he himself does not   
mention this2 but  says in his letter to
 ,euridicus1 that he had been his own   
instructor4 ,he  also agreed with       
,hermarchus in not admitting that       
,leucippus deserved to  be called a     
philosopher2 though some authors1 among 
whom is ,apollodorus1  speak of him as  
the master of ,democritus4 ,demetrius1  
the ,magnesian1 says  that he was a     
pupil of ,xenocrates also4    ,,viii4   
,he uses in his works plain language    
with respect to anything he  is speaking
 of1 for which ,aristophanes1 the       
grammarian1 blames him1  on the ground  
of that style being vulgar4 ,but he was 
such an admirer  of perspicuity1 that   

even in his treatise on ,rhetoric1 he   
aims at and  recommends nothing but     
clearness of expression4 ,and in his    
letters1  instead of the usual civil    
expressions1 8,greeting10 8,farewell10  
and so  on1 he substitutes1 8,may you   
act well10 8,may you live virtuously10  
and  expressions of that sort4 ,some of 
his biographers assert that it was he   
who composed the treatise entitled the  
,canon1 in imitation of the ,tripod  of 
,nausiphanes1 whose pupil they say that 
he was1 and add that he was  also a     
pupil of ,pamphilus1 the ,platonist1 at 
,samos4    ,,ix4 ,they further tell us  
that he began to study philosophy at    
twelve  years of age1 and that he       
presided over his school thirty-two     
years4  ,and he was born as we are told 
by ,apollodorus1 in his ,chronicles1 in 
the third year of the hundred and ninth 
olympiad1 in the archonship of          
,sosigenes1 on the seventh day of the   
month ,gamelion1 seven years after  the 
death of ,plato4 ,and when he was       

thirty-two years of age1 he first  set  
up his school at ,mitylene1 and after   
that at ,lampsacus2 and when he  had    
spent five years in these two cities1 he
 came to ,athens2 and he died  there in 
the second year of the hundred and      
twenty-seventh olympiad1 in  the        
archonship of ,pytharatus1 when he had  
lived seventy-two years4 ,and           
,hermarchus1 the son of ,agemarchus1 and
 a citizen of ,mitylene1 succeeded  him 
in his school4    ,he died of the stone1
 as ,hermarchus mentions in his letters1
 after having  been ill a fortnight2 and
 at the end of the fortnight1 ,hermippus
 says  that he went into a brazen bath1 
properly tempered with warm water1 and  
asked for a cup of pure wine and drank  
it2 and having recommended his  friends 
to remember his doctrines1 he expired4  
,and there is an epigram of  ours on    
him1 couched in the following           
language3--        ,now1 fare-ye-well1  
remember all my words2      ,this was   
the dying charge of ,epicurus3          

,then to the bath he went1 and drank    
some wine1      ,and sank beneath the   
cold embrace of ,pluto4    ,such was the
 life of the man1 and such was his      
death4    ,x4 ,and he made his will in  
the following terms3--    8,according to
 this my will1 ,i give all my           
possessions to ,amynomachus1 of  ,bate1 
the son of ,philocrates1 and to         
,timocrates1 of ,potamos1 the son of    
,demetrius2 according to the deed of    
gift to each1 which is deposited  in the
 temple of ,cybele2 on condition that   
they make over my garden  and all that  
is attached to it to ,hermarchus1 of    
,mitylene1 the son of  ,agemarchus2 and 
to those who study philosophy with him1 
and to whomsoever  ,hermarchus leaves as
 his successors in his school1 that they
 may abide  and dwell in it1 in the     
study and practice of philosophy2 and ,i
 give it  also to all those who         
philosophize according to my doctrines1 
that they  may1 to the best of their    
ability1 maintain my school which exists

 in my  garden1 in concert with         
,amynomachus and ,timocrates2 and ,i    
enjoin their  heirs to do the same in   
the most perfect and secure manner that 
they can2  so that they also may        
maintain my garden1 as those also shall 
to whom  my immediate successors hand it
 down4 ,as for the house in ,melita1    
that  ,amynomachus and ,timocrates shall
 allow ,hermarchus that he may live in  
it  during his life1 together with all  
his companions in philosophy4    8,out  
of the income which is derived from that
 property1 which is here  bequeathed by 
me to ,amynomachus and ,timocrates1 ,i  
will that they1  consulting with        
,hermarchus1 shall arrange in the best  
manner possible  the offerings to the   
manes in honour of the memory of my     
father1 and  mother1 and brothers1 and  
myself1 and that my birth-day may be    
kept as  it has been in the habit of    
being kept1 on the tenth day of the     
month  ,gamelion2 and that the re-union 
of all the philosophers of our school1  

established in honour of ,metrodorus and
 myself1 may take place on the          
twentieth day of every month4 ,they     
shall also celebrate1 as ,i have been   
in the habit of doing myself1 the day   
consecrated to my brothers1 in the      
month ,poseideon2 and the day           
consecrated to the memory of ,polynus1  
in  the month ,metageitnion4            
8,amynomachus and ,timocrates1 shall be 
the guardians of ,epicurus1 the  son of 
,metrodorus1 and of the son of ,polynus1
 as long as they study  philosophy      
under1 and live with1 ,hermarchus4 ,in  
the same way also1 they  shall be the   
guardians of the daughter of            
,metrodorus1 and when she is  of        
marriageable age1 they shall give her to
 whomsoever ,hermarchus shall  select of
 his companions in philosophy1 provided 
she is well behaved  and obedient to    
,hermarchus4 ,and ,amynomachus and      
,timocrates shall1 out  of my income1   
give them such a sum for their support  
as shall appear  sufficient year by     

year1 after due consultation with       
,hermarchus4 ,and  they shall associate 
,hermarchus with themselves in the      
management of my  revenues1 in order    
that everything may be done with the    
approval of that  man who has grown old 
with me in the study of philosophy1 and 
who is  now left as the president of all
 those who have studied philosophy with 
us4 ,and as for the dowry for the girl  
when she is come to marriageable  age1  
let ,amynomachus and ,timocrates arrange
 that1 taking for the purpose  such a   
sum from my property as shall seem to   
them1 in conjunction with  ,hermarchus1 
to be reasonable4 ,and let them also    
take care of ,nicanor1  as we ourselves 
have done2 in order that all those who  
have studied  philosophy with us1 and   
who have assisted us with their means1  
and who  have shown great friendship for
 us1 and who have chosen to grow old    
with  us in the study of philosophy1 may
 never be in want of anything as far as 
our power to prevent it may extend4     

8,i further enjoin them to give all my  
books to ,hermarchus2 and1 if  anything 
should happen to ,hermarchus before the 
children of ,metrodorus  are grown up1  
then ,i desire that ,amynomachus and    
,timocrates1 shall take  care that1     
provided they are well behaved1 they    
shall have everything  that is necessary
 for them1 as far as the estate which ,i
 leave behind me  shall allow such      
things to be furnished to them4 ,and the
 same men shall  also take care of      
everything else that ,i have enjoined2  
so that it may  all be fulfilled1 as far
 as the case may permit4    8,of my     
slaves1 ,i hereby emancipate ,mus1 and  
,nicias1 and ,lycon3 ,i also  give      
,phdrium her freedom40    ,and when he  
was at the point of death1 he wrote the 
following letter to  ,idomeneus3--      
8,we have written this letter to you on 
a happy day to us1 which is  also the   
last day of our life4 ,for strangury has
 attacked me1 and also  a dysentery1 so 
violent that nothing can be added to the

 violence of  my sufferings4 ,but the   
cheerfulness of my mind1 which arises   
from the  recollection of all my        
philosophical contemplations1           
counterbalances  all these afflictions4 
,and ,i beg you to take care of the     
children of  ,metrodorus1 in a manner   
worthy of the devotion shown by the     
youth to me1  and to philosophy40       
,such then as ,i have given it1 was his 
will4    ,,xi4 ,he had a great number of
 pupils1 of whom the most eminent were  
,metrodorus1 the ,athenian1 and         
,timocrates1 and ,sandes1 of ,lampsacus2
 who1  from the time that he first      
became acquainted with him1 never left  
him1  except once when he went home for 
six months2 after which he returned to  
him4 ,and he was a virtuous man in every
 respect1 as ,epicurus tells us  in his 
,fundamental ,principles4 ,and he also  
bears witness to his virtue  in the     
third book of his ,timocrates4 ,and     
being a man of this character1  he gave 
his sister ,batis in marriage to        

,idomeneus2 and he himself had          
,leontium1 the ,attic courtesan1 for his
 concubine4 ,he was very unmoved  at all
 disturbances1 and even at death2 as    
,epicurus tells us1 in the  first book  
of his ,metrodorus4 ,he is said to have 
died seven years before  ,epicurus      
himself1 in the fifty-third year of his 
age4 ,and ,epicurus  himself1 in the    
will which ,i have given above1 gives   
many charges about  the guardianship of 
his children1 showing by this that he   
had been dead  some time4 ,he also had a
 brother whom ,i have mentioned before1 
of the  name of ,timocrates1 a trifling1
 silly man4    ,the writings of         
,metrodorus are these4 ,three books     
addressed to the  ,physicians2 one essay
 on the ,sensations2 one addressed to   
,timocrates2  one on ,magnanimity2 one  
on the ,illness of ,epicurus2 one       
addressed to the  ,dialecticians2 one   
against the ,nine ,sophists2 one on the 
,road to ,wisdom2  one on ,change2 one  
on ,riches2 one against ,democritus2 one

 on ,nobility of  ,birth4    ,,xii4     
,likewise ,polynus1 of ,lampsacus1 the  
son of ,athenodorus1 was a man  of mild 
and friendly manners1 as ,philodemus    
particularly assures us4    ,,xiii4 ,and
 his successor was ,hermarchus1 of      
,mitylene1 the son of  ,agemarchus1 a   
poor man2 and his favourite pursuit was 
rhetoric4 ,and the  following excellent 
works of his are extant4 ,twenty-two    
books of letters  about ,empedocles2 an 
essay on ,mathematics2 ,a treatise      
against ,plato2  another against        
,aristotle4 ,and he died of paralysis1  
being a most eminent  man4    ,,xiv4    
,there was also ,leonteus1 of           
,lampsacus1 and his wife ,themista1 to  
whom ,epicurus wrote4    ,,xv4 ,there   
were also ,colotes and ,idomeneus2 and  
these also were natives  of ,lampsacus4 
,and among the most eminent philosophers
 of the school of  ,epicurus1 were      
,polystratus1 who succeeded ,hermarchus1
 and ,dionysius who  succeeded him1 and 
,basilides who succeeded him4 ,likewise 

,apollodorus1  who was nicknamed the    
tyrant of the gardens 771 was a very    
eminent man1 and wrote more than four   
hundred books4 ,and there were the  two 
,ptolemies of ,alexandria1 ,ptolemy the 
,black1 and ,ptolemy the ,fair4 ,and    
,zeno1 of ,sidon1 a pupil of            
,apollodorus1 a very voluminous author2 
and  ,demetrius1 who was surnamed the   
,lacedmonian2 and ,diogenes1 of ,tarsus1
  who wrote the ,select ,dialogues2 and 
,orion1 and others whom the genuine     
,epicureans call ,sophists4    ,,xvi4   
,there were also three other persons of 
the name of ,epicurus2 first1  the son  
of ,leonteus and ,themista2 secondly1 a 
native of ,magnesia2 and  lastly1 a     
,gladiator4    ,,xvii4 ,and ,epicurus   
was a most voluminous author1 exceeding 
all men in  the number of his books2 for
 there are more than three hundred      
volumes  of them2 and in the whole of   
them there is not one citation from     
other  sources1 but they are filled     
wholly with the sentiments of ,epicurus 

himself4 ,in the quantity of his        
writings he was rivalled by ,chrysippus1
  as ,carneades asserts1 who calls him a
 parasite of the books of ,epicurus2    
for if ever this latter wrote anything1 
,chrysippus immediately set his  heart  
on writing a book of equal size2 and in 
this way he often wrote  the same thing 
over again2 putting down whatever came  
into his head2 and  he published it all 
without any corrections1 by reason of   
his haste4 ,and  he quotes such numbers 
of testimonies from other authors1 that 
his books  are entirely filled with them
 alone2 as one may find also in the     
works of  ,aristotle and ,zeno4    ,such
 then1 and so numerous are the works of 
,epicurus2 the chief of which  are the  
following4 ,thirty-seven treatises on   
,natural ,philosophy2 one  on ,atoms1   
and the ,vacuum2 one on ,love2 an       
abridgment of the ,arguments  employed  
against the ,natural ,philosophers2     
,doubts in ,contradiction of  the       
,doctrines of the ,megarians2           

,fundamental ,propositions2 a treatise  
on ,choice and ,avoidance2 another on   
the ,chief ,good2 another on the        
,criterion1 called also the ,canon2 the 
,chredemus1 a treatise on the  ,gods2   
one on ,piety2 the ,hegesianax2 four    
essays on ,lives2 one on ,just          
,dealing2 the ,neocles2 one essay       
addressed to ,themista2 the ,banquet2   
the  ,eurylochus2 one essay addressed to
 ,metrodorus2 one on ,seeing2 one on the
  ,angle in an ,atom2 one on ,touch2 one
 on ,fate2 ,opinions on the ,passions2  
one treatise addressed to ,timocrates2  
,prognostics2 ,exhortations2 a  treatise
 on ,spectres2 one on ,perceptions2 the 
,aristobulus2 an essay on  ,music2 one  
on ,justice and the other ,virtues2 one 
on ,gifts and ,gratitude2  the          
,polymedes2 the ,timocrates1 a treatise 
in three books2 the ,metrodorus1  in    
five books2 the ,antidorus1 in two      
books2 ,opinions about the ,south       
,winds2 a treatise addressed to         
,mithras2 the ,callistolas2 an essay on 

,kingly ,power2 the ,anaximenes2        
,letters4    ,,xviii4 ,and ,i will      
endeavour to give an abridgment of the  
doctrines  contained in these works1 as 
it may be agreeable1 quoting three      
letters  of his1 in which he has made a 
sort of epitome of all his philosophy4  
,i  will also give his fundamental and  
peculiar opinions1 and any apophthegms  
which he uttered which appear worthy of 
being selected4 ,so that you  may be    
thoroughly acquainted with the man1 and 
may also judge that ,i  understand him4 
,now the first letter is one that he    
wrote to ,herodotus1 on the subject of  
,natural ,philosophy2 the second is one 
that he wrote to ,pythocles1 which  is  
about the ,heavenly ,bodies2 the third  
is addressed to ,menceus1 and in  that  
there are contained the discussions     
about lives4    ,we must now begin with 
the first1 after having said a little by
 way of  preface concerning the         
divisions of philosophy which he        
adopted4    ,,xix4 ,now he divides      

philosophy into three parts4 ,the       
canonical1 the  physical1 and the       
ethical4 ,the canonical1 which serves as
 an introduction  to science1 is        
contained in the single treatise which  
is called the  ,canon4 ,the physical    
embraces the whole range of speculation 
on subjects  of natural philosophy1 and 
is contained in the thirty-seven books  
on  nature1 and in the letters again it 
is discussed in an elementary manner4   
,the ethical contains the discussions on
 ,choice and ,avoidance2 and is         
comprised in the books about lives1 and 
in some of the ,letters1 and in  the    
treatise on the ,chief ,good4           
,accordingly1 most people are in the    
habit  of combining the canonical       
division with the physical2 and then    
they  designate the whole under the     
names of the criterion of the truth1 and
 a  discussion on principles1 and       
elements4 ,and they say that the        
physical  division is conversant about  
production1 and destruction1 and nature2

  and that the ethical division has     
reference to the objects of choice and  
avoidance1 and lives1 and the chief good
 of mankind4    ,,xx4 ,dialectics they  
wholly reject as superfluous4 ,for they 
say that  the correspondence of words   
with things is sufficient for the       
natural  philosopher1 so as to enable   
him to advance with certainty in the    
study  of nature4    ,now1 in the       
,canon1 ,epicurus says that the criteria
 of truth are the  senses1 and the      
preconceptions1 and the passions4 ,but  
the ,epicureans1 in  general1 add also  
the perceptive impressions of the       
intellect4 ,and he  says the same thing 
in his ,abridgment1 which he addresses  
to ,herodotus1  and also in his         
,fundamental ,principles4 ,for1 says he1
 the senses are  devoid of reason1 nor  
are they capable of receiving any       
impressions of  memory4 ,for they are   
not by themselves the cause of any      
motion1 and when  they have received any
 impression from any external cause1    

then they can  add nothing to it1 nor   
can they subtract anything from it4     
,moreover1 they  are out of the reach of
 any control2 for one sensation cannot  
judge of  another which resembles       
itself2 for they have all an equal      
value4 ,nor can  one judge of another   
which is different from itself2 since   
their objects  are not identical4 ,in a 
word1 one sensation cannot control      
another1 since  the effects of all of   
them influence us equally4 ,again1 the  
reason cannot  pronounce on the senses2 
for we have already said that all       
reasoning has  the senses for its       
foundation4 ,reality and the evidence of
 sensation  establish the certainty of  
the senses2 for the impressions of sight
 and  hearing are just as real1 just as 
evident1 as pain4    ,it follows from   
these considerations that we ought to   
judge of things  which are obscure by   
their analogy to those which we perceive
 directly4  ,in fact1 every notion      
proceeds from the senses1 either        

directly1 or in  consequence of some    
analogy1 or proportion1 or combination4 
,reasoning  having always a share in    
these last operations4 ,the visions of  
insanity  and of sleep have a real      
object1 for they act upon us2 and that  
which has  no reality can produce no    
action4    ,,xxi4 ,by preconception1 the
 ,epicureans mean a sort of             
comprehension as  it were1 or right     
opinion1 or notion1 or general idea     
which exists in  us2 or1 in other words1
 the recollection of an external object 
often  perceived anteriorly4 ,such for  
instance1 is this idea3 8,man is a being
  of such and such a nature40 ,at the   
same moment that we utter the word  man1
 we conceive the figure of a man1 in    
virtue of a preconception which  we owe 
to the preceding operations of the      
senses4 ,therefore1 the first  notion   
which each word awakens in us is a      
correct one2 in fact1 we could  not seek
 for anything if we had not previously  
some notion of it4 ,to  enable us to    

affirm that what we see at a distance is
 a horse or an ox1  we must have some   
preconception in our minds which makes  
us acquainted  with the form of a horse 
and an ox4 ,we could not give names to  
things1 if  we had not a preliminary    
notion of what the things were4         
,,xxii4 ,these preconceptions then      
furnish us with certainty4 ,and with    
respect to judgments1 their certainty   
depends on our referring them to  some  
previous notion1 of itself certain1 in  
virtue of which we affirm  such and such
 a judgment2 for instance1 8,how do we  
know whether this  thing is a man80     
,the ,epicureans call opinion 77 also   
supposition 774 ,and  say that it is at 
times true1 and at times false2 for     
that1 if it is  supported by testimony1 
and not contradicted by testimony1 then 
it is  true2 but if it is not supported 
by testimony1 and is contradicted by    
testimony1 then it is false4 ,on which  
account they have introduced the        
expression of 8waiting10 as if1 before  

pronouncing that a thing seen is a      
tower1 we must wait till we come near1  
and learn what it looks like when  we   
are near it4    ,,xxiii4 ,they say that 
there are two passions1 pleasure and    
pain1 which  affect everything alive4   
,and that the one is natural1 and the   
other  foreign to our nature2 with      
reference to which all objects of choice
  and avoidance are judged of4 ,they say
 also1 that there are two kinds of      
investigation2 the one about facts1 the 
other about mere words4 ,and this  is as
 far as an elementary sketch can        
go--their doctrine about division1  and 
about the criterion4    ,,xxiv4 ,let us 
now go to the letter3--    ,,epicurus   
,,to ,,herodotus1 ,,wishing ,,he ,,may  
,,do ,,well4    8,for those1 ,o         
,herodotus1 who are not able accurately 
to comprehend  all the things which ,i  
have written about nature1 nor to       
investigate  those larger books which ,i
 have composed on the subject1 ,i have  
made an  abridgment of the whole        

discussion on this question1 as far as  
,i thought  sufficient to enable them to
 recollect accurately the most          
fundamental  points2 that so1 on all    
grave occasions1 they might be able to  
assist  themselves on the most important
 and undeniable principles2 in          
proportion  as they devoted themselves  
to speculations on natural philosophy4  
,and  here it is necessary for those who
 have made sufficient progress in  their
 view of the general question1 to       
recollect the principles laid  down as  
elements of the whole discussion2 for we
 have still greater  need of a correct  
notion of the whole1 than we have even  
of an accurate  understanding of the    
details4 ,we must1 therefore1 give      
preference to the  former knowledge1 and
 lay up in our memory those principles  
on which we  may rest1 in order to      
arrive at an exact perception of things1
 and at a  certain knowledge of         
particular objects4    8,now one has    
arrived at that point when one has      

thoroughly embraced the  conceptions1   
and1 if ,i may so express myself1 the   
most essential forms1  and when one has 
impressed them adequately on one's      
senses4 ,for this  clear and precise    
knowledge of the whole1 taken together1 
necessarily  facilitates one's          
particular perceptions1 when one has    
brought one's  ideas back to the        
elements and simple terms4 ,in short1 a 
veritable  synthesis1 comprising the    
entire circle of the phnomena of the    
universe1  ought to be able to resume in
 itself1 and in a few words1 all the    
particular facts which have been        
previously studied4 ,this method being  
useful even to those who are already    
familiarised with the laws of the       
universe1 ,i recommend them1 while still
 pursuing without intermission  the     
study of nature1 which contributes more 
than anything else to the  tranquillity 
and happiness of life1 to make a concise
 statement or  summary of their         
opinions4    8,first of all1 then1      

,herodotus1 one must determine with     
exactness the  notion comprehended under
 each separate word1 in order to be able
 to  refer to it1 as to a certain       
criterion1 the conceptions which emanate
  from ourselves1 the ulterior          
researches and the difficulties2        
otherwise  the judgment has no          
foundation4 ,one goes on from           
demonstration to  demonstration ad      
infinitum2 or else one gains nothing    
beyond mere  words4 ,in fact1 it is     
absolutely necessary that in every word 
we should  perceive directly1 and       
without the assistance of any           
demonstration1 the  fundamental notion  
which it expresses1 if we wish to have  
any foundation  to which we may refer   
our researches1 our difficulties1 and   
our personal  judgments1 whatever in    
other respects may be the criterion     
which we  adopt1 whether we take as our 
standard the impressions produced on our
  senses1 or the actual impression in   
general2 or whether we cling to the     

idea by itself1 or to any other         
criterion4    8,we must also note       
carefully the impressions which we      
receive in the  presence of objects1 in 
order to bring ourselves back to that   
point in  the circumstances in which it 
is necessary to suspend the judgment1 or
  even when the question is about       
things1 the evidence of which is not    
immediately perceived4    8,when these  
foundations are once laid we may pass to
 the study of those  things1 the        
evidence of which is not immediate4     
,and1 first of all1 we  must admit that 
nothing can come of that which does not 
exist2 for1 were  the fact otherwise1   
then every thing would be produced from 
everything1  and there would be no need 
of any seed4 ,and if that which         
disappeared  were so absolutely         
destroyed as to become non-existent1    
then every thing  would soon perish1 as 
the things with which they would be     
dissolved would  have no existence4     
,but1 in truth1 the universal whole     

always was such as  it now is1 and      
always will be such4 ,for there is      
nothing into which it  can change2 for  
there is nothing beyond this universal  
whole which can  penetrate into it1 and 
produce any change in it40    7,and     
,epicurus establishes the same          
principles at the beginning of the      
great ,abridgment2 and in the first book
 of his treatise on ,nature47#adj  8,now
 the universal whole is a body2 for our 
senses bear us witness in  every case   
that bodies have a real existence2 and  
the evidence of the  senses1 as ,i have 
said before1 ought to be the rule of our
 reasonings  about everything which is  
not directly perceived4 ,otherwise1 if  
that  which we call the vacuum1 or      
space1 or intangible nature1 had not a  
real  existence1 there would be nothing 
on which the bodies could be contained1 
or across which they could move1 as we  
see that they really do move4 ,let  us  
add to this reflection that one cannot  
conceive1 either in virtue of           

perception1 or of any analogy founded on
 perception1 any general quality        
peculiar to all beings which is not     
either an attribute1 or an accident  of 
the body1 or of the vacuum40    7,the   
same principles are laid down in the    
first1 and fourteenth1  and fifteenth   
book of the treatise on ,nature2 and    
also in the ,great  ,abridgment47       
8,now1 of bodies1 some are combinations1
 and some the elements out of  which    
these combinations are formed4 ,these   
last are indivisible1 and  protected    
from every kind of transformation2      
otherwise everything would  be resolved 
into non-existence4 ,they exist by their
 own force1 in the  midst of the        
dissolution of the combined bodies1     
being absolutely  full1 and as such     
offering no handle for destruction to   
take hold of4  ,it follows1 therefore1  
as a matter of absolute necessity1 that 
the  principles of things must be       
corporeal1 indivisible elements4        
8,the universe is infinite4 ,for that   

which is finite has an extreme1 and     
that which has an extreme is looked at  
in relation to something else4          
,consequently1 that which has not an    
extreme1 has no boundary2 and if it  has
 no boundary1 it must be infinite1 and  
not terminated by any limit4  ,the      
universe then is infinite1 both with    
reference to the quantity of  bodies of 
which it is made up1 and to the         
magnitude of the vacuum2 for  if the    
vacuum were infinite1 the bodies being  
finite1 then1 the bodies  would not be  
able to rest in any place2 they would be
 transported about1  scattered across   
the infinite vacuum for want of any     
power to steady  themselves1 or to keep 
one another in their places by mutual   
repulsion4  ,if1 on the other hand1 the 
vacuum were finite1 the bodies being    
infinite1  then the bodies clearly could
 never be contained in the vacuum4      
8,again3 the atoms which form the       
bodies1 these full elements from which  
the combined bodies come1 and into which

 they resolve themselves1 assume  an    
incalculable variety of forms1 for the  
numerous differences which  the bodies  
present cannot possibly result from an  
aggregate of the same  forms4 ,each     
variety of forms contains an infinity of
 atoms1 but there is  not for that      
reason an infinity of atoms2 it is only 
the number of them  which is beyond all 
calculation40    7,epicurus adds1 a     
little lower down1 that divisibility1 ad
 infinitum1  is impossible2 for1 says   
he1 the only things which change are the
  qualities2 unless1 indeed1 one wishes 
to proceed from division to  division1  
till one arrives absolutely at infinite 
littleness47    8,the atoms are in a    
continual state of motion40    7,he     
says1 farther on1 that they move with an
 equal rapidity from all  eternity1     
since the vacuum offers no more         
resistance to the lightest than  it does
 to the heaviest47    8,among the atoms1
 some are separated by great distances1 
others come very  near to one another in

 the formation of combined bodies1 or at
 times are  enveloped by others which   
are combining2 but in this latter case  
they1  nevertheless1 preserve their own 
peculiar motion1 thanks to the nature   
of the vacuum1 which separates the one  
from the other1 and yet offers  them no 
resistance4 ,the solidity which they    
possess causes them1 while  knocking    
against one another1 to re-act the one  
upon the other2 till at  last the       
repeated shocks bring on the dissolution
 of the combined body2  and for all this
 there is no external cause1 the atoms  
and the vacuum  being the only causes40 
7,he says1 further on1 that the atoms   
have no peculiar quality of their  own1 
except from magnitude and weight4 ,as to
 colour1 he says in the  twelfth book of
 his ,principia1 that it varies         
according to the position  of the atoms4
 ,moreover1 he does not attribute to the
 atoms any kind of  dimensions2 and1    
accordingly1 no atom has ever been      
perceived by the  senses2 but this      

expression1 if people only recollect    
what is here said1  will by itself offer
 to the thoughts a sufficient image of  
the nature of  things47    8,but1 again1
 the worlds also are infinite1 whether  
they resemble this one  of ours or      
whether they are different from it4     
,for1 as the atoms are1  as to their    
number1 infinite1 as ,i have proved     
above1 they necessarily  move about at  
immense distances2 for besides1 this    
infinite multitude of  atoms1 of which  
the world is formed1 or by which it is  
produced1 could  not be entirely        
absorbed by one single world1 nor even  
by any worlds1  the number of which was 
limited1 whether we suppose them like   
this world  of ours1 or different from  
it4 ,there is1 therefore1 no fact       
inconsistent  with an infinity of       
worlds4    8,moreover1 there are images 
resembling1 as far as their form goes1  
the  solid bodies which we see1 but     
which differ materially from them in    
the thinness of their substance4 ,in    

fact it is not impossible but that      
there may be in space some secretions of
 this kind1 and an aptitude to  form    
surfaces without depth1 and of an       
extreme thinness2 or else that  from the
 solids there may emanate some particles
 which preserve the  connection1 the    
disposition1 and the motion which they  
had in the body4  ,i give the name of   
images to these representations2 and1   
indeed1 their  movement through the     
vacuum taking place1 without meeting any
 obstacle or  hindrance1 perfects all   
imaginable extent in an inconceivable   
moment of  time2 for it is the meeting  
of obstacles1 or the absence of         
obstacles1  which produces the rapidity 
or the slowness of their motion4 ,at all
  events1 a body in motion does not find
 itself1 at any moment imaginable1  in  
two places at the same time2 that is    
quite inconceivable4 ,from  whatever    
point of infinity it arrives at some    
appreciable moment1 and  whatever may be
 the spot in its course in which we     

perceive its motion1  it has evidently  
quitted that spot at the moment of our  
thought2 for  this motion which1 as we  
have admitted up to this point1         
encounters no  obstacle to its rapidity1
 is wholly in the same condition as that
 the  rapidity of which is diminished by
 the shock of some resistance4    8,it  
is useful1 also1 to retain this         
principle1 and to know that the  images 
have an incomparable thinness2 which    
fact indeed is in no respect            
contradicted by sensible appearances4   
,from which it follows that their       
rapidity also is incomparable2 for they 
find everywhere an easy passage1  and   
besides1 their infinite smallness causes
 them to experience no shock1  or at all
 events to experience but a very slight 
one1 while an infinite  multitude of    
elements very soon encounter some       
resistance4    8,one must not forget    
that the production of images is        
simultaneous with  the thought2 for from
 the surface of the bodies images of    

this kind are  continually flowing off  
in an insensible manner indeed1 because 
they are  immediately replaced4 ,they   
preserve for a long time the same       
disposition1  and the same arrangement  
that the atoms do in the solid body1    
although1  notwithstanding1 their form  
may be sometimes altered4 ,the direct   
production of images in space is equally
 instantaneous1 because these  images   
are only light substances destitute of  
depth4    8,but there are other manners 
in which natures of this kind are       
produced2  for there is nothing in all  
this which at all contradicts the       
senses1 if  one only considers in what  
way the senses are exercised1 and if one
 is  inclined to explain the relation   
which is established between external   
objects and ourselves4 ,also1 one must  
admit that something passes  from       
external objects into us in order to    
produce in us sight and the  knowledge  
of forms2 for it is difficult to        
conceive that external objects  can     

affect us through the medium of the air 
which is between us and them1  or by    
means of rays1 whatever emissions       
proceed from us to them1 so as  to give 
us an impression of their form and      
colour4 ,this phenomenon1 on  the       
contrary1 is perfectly explained1 if we 
admit that certain images of  the same  
colour1 of the same shape1 and of a     
proportionate magnitude pass  from these
 objects to us1 and so arrive at being  
seen and comprehended4  ,these images   
are animated by an exceeding rapidity1  
and1 as on the other  side1 the solid   
object forming a compact mass1 and      
comprising a vast  quantity of atoms1   
emits always the same quantity of       
particles1 the  vision is continued1 and
 only produces in us one single         
perception which  preserves always the  
same relation to the object4 ,every     
conception1 every  sensible perception  
which bears upon the form or the other  
attributes  of these images1 is only the
 same form of the solid perceived       

directly1  either in virtue of a sort of
 actual and continued condensation of   
the  image1 or in consequence of the    
traces which it has left in us4         
8,error and false judgments always      
depend upon the supposition that  a     
preconceived idea will be confirmed1 or 
at all events will not be  overturned1  
by evidence4 ,then1 when it is not      
confirmed1 we form our  judgment in     
virtue of a sort of initiation of the   
thoughts connected1  it is true with the
 perception1 and with a direct          
representation2 but  still connected    
also with a conception peculiar to      
ourselves1 which is  the parent of      
error4 ,in fact the representations     
which intelligence  reflects like a     
mirror1 whether one perceives them in a 
dream1 or by any  other conceptions of  
the intellect1 or of any other of the   
criteria1 can  never resemble the       
objects that one calls real and true1   
unless there  were objects of this kind 
perceived directly4 ,and1 on the other  

side1  error could not be possible if we
 did not receive some other motion      
also1 a sort of initiative of           
intelligence connected2 it is true with 
direct representation1 but going beyond 
that representative4 ,these  conceptions
 being connected with the direct        
perception which produces the           
representation1 but going beyond it1 in 
consequence of a motion peculiar  to the
 individual thought1 produces error when
 it is not confirmed  by evidence1 or   
when it is contradicted by evidence2 but
 when it is  confirmed1 or when it is   
not contradicted by evidence1 then it   
produces  truth4    8,we must carefully 
preserve these principles in order not  
to reject the  authority of the         
faculties which perceive truth directly2
 and not1 on the  other hand1 to allow  
what is false to be established with    
equal firmness1  so as to throw         
everything into confusion4              
8,moreover1 hearing is produced by some 
sort of current proceeding from         

something that speaks1 or sounds1 or    
roars1 or in any manner causes  any sort
 of audible circumstance4 ,and this     
current is diffused into  small bodies  
resembling one another in their parts2  
which1 preserving  not only some kind of
 relation between one another1 but even 
a sort  of particular identity with the 
object from which they emanate1 puts    
us1 very frequently1 into a             
communication of sentiments with this   
object1 or at least causes us to become 
aware of the existence of some  external
 circumstance4 ,if these currents did   
not carry with them some  sort of       
sympathy1 then there would be no such   
perception4 ,we must not  therefore     
think that it is the air which receives 
a certain form1 under  the action of the
 voice or of some other sound4 ,for it  
is utterly  impossible that the voice   
should act in this manner on the air4   
,but the  percussion produced in us when
 we1 by the utterance of a voice1 cause 
a  disengagement of certain particles1  

constitutes a current resembling a      
light whisper1 and prepares an acoustic 
feeling for us4    8,we must admit that 
the case of smelling is the same as that
 of hearing4  ,there would be no sense  
of smell if there did not emanate from  
most  objects certain particles capable 
of producing an impression on the       
smell4 ,one class being ill-suited to   
the organ1 and consequently  producing a
 disordered state of it1 the other being
 suited to it1 and  causing it no       
distress4    8,one must also allow1 that
 the atoms possess no one of the        
qualities of  sensible objects1 except  
form1 weight1 magnitude and anything    
else is  unavoidably inherent in form2  
in fact1 every quality is changeable1   
but  the atoms are necessarily          
unchangeable2 for it is impossible but  
that  in the dissolution of combined    
bodies1 there must be something which   
continues solid and indestructible1 of  
such a kind1 that it will not  change   
either into what does not exist1 or out 

of what does not exist2  but that it    
results either from a simple            
displacement of parts1 which  is the    
most usual case1 or from the addition or
 subtraction of certain  particles4 ,it 
follows from that1 that that which does 
not admit of any  change in itself1 is  
imperishable1 participates in no respect
 in the  nature of changeable things1   
and in a word1 has its dimensions and   
forms  immutably determined4 ,and this  
is proved plainly enough1 because even  
in  the transformations which take place
 under our eyes1 in consequence of  the 
retrenchment of certain parts1 we can   
still recognise the form of  these      
constituent parts2 while those          
qualities1 which are not constituent    
parts1 do not remain like the form1 but 
perish in the dissolution of the        
combination4 ,the attributes which we   
have indicated1 suffice to explain  all 
the differences of combined bodies2 for 
we must inevitably leave  something     
indestructible1 lest everything should  

resolve itself into  non-existence4     
8,however1 one must not believe that    
every kind of magnitude exists in       
atoms1 lest we find ourselves           
contradicted by phnomena4 ,but we must  
admit that there are atoms of different 
magnitude1 because1 as that is  the     
case1 it is then more easy to explain   
the impressions and sensations2  at all 
events1 ,i repeat1 it is not necessary  
for the purpose of  explaining the      
differences of the qualities1 to        
attribute to atoms every  kind of       
magnitude4    8,we must not suppose     
either1 that an atom can become visible 
to us2  for1 first of all1 one does not 
see that that is the case1 and besides1 
one cannot even conceive1 how an atom is
 to become visible2 besides1 we  must   
not believe1 that in a finite body there
 are particles of every  sort1 infinite 
in number2 consequently1 one must not   
only reject the  doctrine of infinite   
divisibility in parcels smaller and     
smaller1 lest  we should be reducing    

everything to nothing1 and find         
ourselves forced  to admit1 that in a   
mass composed of a crowd of elements1   
existence can  reduce itself to         
non-existence4 ,but one cannot even     
suppose that a finite  object can be    
susceptible of transformations ad       
infinitum1 or even of  transformation   
into smaller objects than itself2 for   
when once one has  said that there are  
in an object particles of every kind1   
infinite in  number1 there is absolutely
 no means whatever of imagining that    
this  object can have only a finite     
magnitude2 in fact1 it is evident that  
these particles1 infinite in number1    
have some kind of dimension or  other1  
and whatever this dimension may be in   
other respects1 the objects  which are  
composed of it will have an infinite    
magnitude2 in presenting  forms which   
are determined1 and limits which are    
perceived by the senses1  one conceives1
 easily1 without its being necessary to 
study this last  question directly1 that

 this would be the consequence of the   
contrary  supposition1 and that         
consequently1 one must come to look at  
every object  as infinite4    8,one must
 also admit1 that the most minute       
particle perceptible to the  sense1 is  
neither absolutely like the objects     
which are susceptible  of               
transformation1 nor absolutely different
 from them4 ,it has some                
characteristics in common with the      
object which admit of transformation1   
but it also differs from them1 inasmuch 
as it does not allow any distinct  parts
 to be discerned in it4 ,when then1 in  
virtue of these common  characteristics1
 and of this resemblance1 we wish to    
form an idea of the  smallest particle  
perceptible by the senses1 in taking the
 objects which  change for our terms of 
comparison1 it is necessary that we     
should seize  on some characteristic    
common to these different objects4 ,in  
this way1 we  examine them successively1
 from the first to the last1 not by     

themselves1  nor as composed of parts in
 juxtaposition1 but only in their       
extent2 in  other words1 we consider the
 magnitudes by themselves1 and in an    
abstract  manner1 inasmuch as they      
measure1 the greater a greater extent1  
and the  smaller a smaller extent4 ,this
 analogy applies to the atom1 as far as 
we  consider it as having the smallest  
dimensions possible4 ,evidently by its  
minuteness1 it differs from all sensible
 objects1 still this analogy is         
applicable to it2 in a word1 we         
establish by this comparison1 that the  
atom really has some extent1 but we     
exclude all considerable dimensions1    
for the sake of only investing it with  
the smallest proportions4#ada    8,we   
must also admit1 in taking for our      
guide1 the reasoning which  discourses  
to us things which are invisible to the 
senses1 that the most  minute           
magnitudes1 those which are not compound
 magnitudes1 and which  from the limit  
of sensible extent1 are the first       

measure of the other  magnitudes which  
are only called greater or less in their
 relation to the  others4 ,for these    
relations which they maintain with these
 particles1  which are not subject to   
transformation1 suffice to give them    
this  characteristic of first measure4  
,but they cannot1 like atoms1 combine   
themselves1 and form compound bodies in 
virtue of any motion belonging to       
themselves4    8,moreover1 we must not  
say 7while speaking of the infinite71   
that such  or such a point is the       
highest point of it1 or the lowest4 ,for
 height  and lowness must not be        
predicated of the infinite4 ,we know1 in
 reality1  that if1 wishing to determine
 the infinite1 we conceive a point above
 our  head1 this point1 whatever it may 
be1 will never appear to us to have the 
character in question3 otherwise1 that  
which would be situated above the  point
 so conceived as the limit of the       
infinite1 would be at the same  moment1 
and by virtue of its relation to the    

same point1 both high and  low2 and this
 is impossible to imagine4    8,it      
follows that thought can only conceive  
that one single movement of             
transference1 from low to high1 ad      
infinitum2 and one single movement  from
 high to low4 ,from low to high1 when   
even the object in motion1 going  from  
us to the places situated above our     
heads1 meets ten thousand times  with   
the feet of those who are above us2 and 
from high to low1 when in  the same way 
it advances towards the heads of those  
who are below us4  ,for these two       
movements1 looked at by themselves and  
in their whole1  are conceived as really
 opposed the one to the other1 in their 
progress  towards the infinite4         
8,moreover1 all the atoms are           
necessarily animated by the same        
rapidity1  when they move across the    
vacuum1 or when no obstacle thwarts     
them4 ,for  why should heavy atoms have 
a more rapid movement than those which  
are  small and light1 since in no       

quarter do they encounter any obstacle8 
,why1  on the other hand1 should the    
small atoms have a rapidity superior to 
that of the large ones1 since both the  
one and the other find everywhere  an   
easy passage1 from the very moment that 
no obstacle intervenes to  thwart their 
movements8 ,movement from low to high1  
horizontal movement to  and fro1 in     
virtue of the reciprocal percussion of  
the atoms1 movement  downwards1 in      
virtue of their weight1 will be all     
equal1 for in whatever  sense the atom  
moves1 it must have a movement as rapid 
as the thought1  till the moment when it
 is repelled1 in virtue of some external
 cause1 or  of its own proper weight1 by
 the shock of some object which resists 
it4    8,again1 even in the compound    
bodies1 one atom does not move more     
rapidly  than another4 ,in fact1 if one 
only looks at the continued movement of 
an  atom which takes place in an        
indivisible moment of time1 the briefest
  possible1 they all have a movement    

equally rapid4 ,at the same time1 an    
atom has not1 in any moment perceptible 
to the intelligence1 a continued        
movement in the same direction2 but     
rather a series of oscillating          
movements from which there results1 in  
the last analysis1 a continued  movement
 perceptible to the senses4 ,if then1   
one were to suppose1 in  virtue of a    
reasoning on things invisible1 that1 in 
the intervals of time  accessible to    
thought1 the atoms have a continued     
movement one would  deceive one's self1 
for that which is conceived by the      
thought is true as  well as that which  
is directly perceived4    8,let us now  
return to the study of the affections1  
and of the sensations2  for this will be
 the best method of proving that the    
soul is a bodily  substance composed of 
slight particles1 diffused over all the 
members  of the body1 and presenting a  
great analogy to a sort of spirit1      
having  an admixture of heat1 resembling
 at one time one1 and at another time   

the other of those two principles4      
,there exists in it a special part1     
endowed with an extreme mobility1 in    
consequence of the exceeding  slightness
 of the elements which compose it1 and  
also in reference to  its more immediate
 sympathy with the rest of the body4    
,that it is which  the faculties of the 
soul sufficiently prove1 and the        
passions1 and the  mobility of its      
nature1 and the thoughts1 and1 in a     
word1 everything1 the  privation of     
which is death4 ,we must admit that it  
is in the soul most  especially that the
 principle of sensation resides4 ,at the
 same time1 it  would not possess this  
power if it were not enveloped by the   
rest of the  body which communicates it 
to it1 and in its turn receives it from 
it1  but only in a certain measure2 for 
there are certain affections of the     
soul of which it is not capable4    8,it
 is on that account that1 when the soul 
departs1 the body is no longer          
possessed of sensation2 for it has not  

this power1 7that of sensation  namely7 
in itself2 but1 on the other hand1 this 
power can only manifest  itself in the  
soul through the medium of the body4    
,the soul1 reflecting  the              
manifestations which are accomplished in
 the substance which environs  it1      
realises in itself1 in a virtue or power
 which belongs to it1 the  sensible     
affections1 and immediately communicates
 them to the body in  virtue of the     
reciprocal bonds of sympathy which unite
 it to the body2  that is the reason why
 the destruction of a part of the body  
does not  draw after it a cessation of  
all feeling in the soul while it resides
 in  the body1 provided that the senses 
still preserve some energy2 although1   
nevertheless1 the dissolution of the    
corporeal covering1 or even of any  one 
of its portions1 may sometimes bring on 
with it the destruction of  the soul4   
8,the rest of the body1 on the other    
hand1 even when it remains1 either  as a
 whole1 or in any part1 loses all       

feeling by the dispersion of  that      
aggregate of atoms1 whatever it may be1 
that forms the soul4 ,when  the entire  
combination of the body is dissolved1   
then the soul too is  dissolved1 and    
ceases to retain those faculties which  
were previously  inherent in it1 and    
especially the power of motion2 so that 
sensation  perishes equally as far as   
the soul is concerned2 for it is        
impossible to  imagine that it still    
feels1 from the moment when it is no    
longer in the  same conditions of       
existence1 and no longer possesses the  
same movements  of existence in         
reference to the same organic system2   
from the moment1 in  short1 when the    
things which cover and surround it are  
no longer such1  that it retains in them
 the same movements as before4          
7,epicurus expresses the same ideas in  
other works1 and adds that the  soul is 
composed of atoms of the most perfect   
lightness and roundness2  atoms wholly  
different from those of fire4 ,he       

distinguishes in it the  irrational part
 which is diffused over the whole body1 
from the rational  part which has its   
seat in the chest1 as is proved by the  
emotions of  fear and joy4 ,he adds that
 sleep is produced when the parts of the
 soul  diffused over the whole of the   
body concentre themselves1 or when they 
disperse and escape by the pores of the 
body2 for particles emanate from  all   
bodies47    8,it must also be observed1 
that ,i use the word incorporeal 77 in  
the usual acceptation of the word1 to   
express that which is in itself         
conceived as such4 ,now1 nothing can be 
conceived in itself as incorporeal      
except the vacuum2 but the vacuum cannot
 be either passive or active2 it  is    
only the condition and the place of     
movement4 ,accordingly1 they who        
pretend that the soul is incorporeal1   
utter words destitute of sense2  for1 if
 it had this character1 it would not be 
able either to do or to  suffer         
anything2 but1 as it is1 we see plainly 

enough that it is liable  to both these 
circumstances4    8,let us then apply   
all these reasonings to the affections  
and sensations1  recollecting the ideas 
which we laid down at the beginning1 and
 then we  shall see clearly that these  
general principles contain an exact     
solution  of all the particular cases4  
8,as to forms1 and hues1 and magnitudes1
 and weight1 and the other  qualities   
which one looks upon as attributes1     
whether it be of every  body1 or of     
those bodies only which are visible and 
perceived by  the senses1 this is the   
point of view under which they ought to 
be  considered3 they are not particular 
substances1 having a peculiar  existence
 of their own1 for that cannot be       
conceived2 nor can one say  any more    
that they have no reality at all4 ,they 
are not incorporeal  substances inherent
 in the body1 nor are they parts of the 
body4 ,but  they constitute by their    
union the eternal substance and the     
essence  of the entire body4 ,we must   

not fancy1 however1 that the body is    
composed of them1 as an aggregate is    
formed of particles of the smallest     
dimensions of atoms or magnitudes1      
whatever they may be1 smaller than  the 
compound body itself2 they only         
constitute by their union1 ,i repeat1   
the eternal substance of the body4 ,each
 of these attributes has ideas  and     
particular perceptions which correspond 
to it2 but they cannot be  perceived    
independently of the whole subject taken
 entirely2 the union of  all these      
perceptions forms the idea of the body4 
,bodies often possess  other attributes 
which are not eternally inherent in     
them1 but which1  nevertheless1 cannot  
be ranged among the incorporeal and     
invisible  things4 ,accordingly1 it is  
sufficient to express the general idea  
of the  movement of transference to     
enable us to conceive in a moment       
certain  distinct qualities1 and those  
combined beings1 which1 being taken in  
their totality1 receive the name of     

bodies2 and the necessary and eternal   
attributes without which the body cannot
 be conceived4    8,there are certain   
conceptions corresponding to these      
attributes2 but1  nevertheless1 they    
cannot be known abstractedly1 and       
independently  of some subjects2 and    
further1 inasmuch as they are not       
attributes  necessarily inherent in the 
idea of a body1 one can only conceive   
them in  the moment in which they are   
visible2 they are realities             
nevertheless2  and one must not refuse  
them being an existence merely because  
they  have neither the characteristic of
 the compound beings to which we give   
the name of bodies1 nor that of the     
eternal attributes4 ,we should be       
equally deceived if we were to suppose  
that they have a separate and           
independent existence2 for that is true 
neither of them nor of the  eternal     
attributes4 ,they are1 as one sees      
plainly1 accidents of the body2         
accidents which do not of necessity make

 any part of its nature2 which  cannot  
be considered as independent substances1
 but still to each of  which sensation  
gives the peculiar character under which
 it appears to us4    8,another         
important question is that of time4     
,here we cannot apply any  more the     
method of examination to which we submit
 other objects1 which  we study with    
reference to a given subject2 and which 
we refer to the  preconceptions which   
exist in ourselves4 ,we must seize1 by  
analogy1 and  going round the whole     
circle of things comprised under this   
general  denomination of time--we must  
seize1 ,i say--that essential character 
which  causes us to say that a time is  
long or short4 ,it is not necessary for 
that purpose to seek for any new forms  
of expression as preferable to  those   
which are in common use2 we may content 
ourselves with those by  which time is  
usually indicated4 ,nor need we1 as     
certain philosophers do1  affirm any    
particular attribute of time1 for that  

would be to suppose  that its essence is
 the same as that of this attribute4 ,it
 is sufficient  too seek for the        
ingredients of which this particular    
nature which we  call time is composed1 
and for the means by which it is        
measured4 ,for  this we have no need of 
demonstration2 a simple exposition is   
sufficient4  ,it is1 in fact1 evident1  
that we speak of time as composed of    
days and  nights1 and parts of days and 
nights2 passiveness and impassibility1  
movement and repose1 are equally        
comprised in time4 ,in short1 it is     
evident that in connection with these   
different states1 we conceive a         
particular property to which we give the
 name of time4    7,epicurus lays down  
the same principles in the second book  
of his  treatise on ,nature1 and in his 
great ,abridgment47    8,it is from the 
infinite that the worlds are derived1   
and all the finite  aggregates which    
present numerous analogies with the     
things which we  observe under our own  

eyes4 ,each of these objects1 great and 
small1 has  been separated from the     
infinite by a movement peculiar to      
itself4 ,on  the other hand1 all these  
bodies will be successively destroyed1  
some  more1 and others less rapidly2    
some under the influence of one cause1  
and  others because of the agency of    
some other4    7,it is evident1 after   
this1 that ,epicurus regards the worlds 
as perishable1 since he admits that     
their parts are capable of              
transformation4 ,he also says in other  
places1 that the earth rests  suspended 
in the air47    8,we must not believe   
that the worlds have of necessity all   
one identical  form4    7,he says1 in   
fact1 in the twelfth book of his        
treatise on the ,world1  that the worlds
 differ from one another2 some being    
spherical1 other  elliptical1 and others
 of other shapes47    8,nevertheless1   
there are not worlds of every possible  
form and shape4    8,let us also beware 
of thinking that animals are derived    

from the  infinite2 for there is no one 
who can prove that the germs from which 
animals are born1 and plants1 and all   
the other objects which we  contemplate1
 have been brought from the exterior in 
such a world1 and  that this same world 
would not have been able to produce them
 of itself4  ,this remark applies       
particularly to the earth4    8,again1  
we must admit that in many and various  
respects1 nature is both  instructed and
 constrained by circumstances           
themselves2 and that reason             
subsequently makes perfect and enriches 
with additional discoveries  the things 
which it has borrowed from nature2 in   
some cases rapidly1  and in others more 
slowly4 ,and in some cases according to 
periods and  times greater than those   
which proceed from the infinite2 in     
other  cases according to those which   
are smaller4 ,so1 originally it was only
  in virtue of express agreements that  
one gave names to things4 ,but men      
whose ideas and passions varied         

according to their respective nations1  
formed these names of their own accord1 
uttering divers sounds produced  by each
 passion1 or by each idea1 following the
 differences of the  situations and of  
the peoples4 ,at a later period one     
established in each  nation1 in a       
uniform manner1 particular terms        
intended to render the  relations more  
easy1 and language more concise4        
,educated men introduced  the notion of 
things not discoverable by the senses1  
and appropriated  words to them when    
they found themselves under the         
necessity of uttering  their thoughts2  
after this1 other men1 guided in every  
point by reason1  interpreted these     
words in the same sense4    8,as to the 
heavenly phnomena1 such as the motion   
and course of the  stars1 the eclipses1 
their rising and setting1 and all other 
appearances  of the same kind1 we must  
beware of thinking that they are        
produced by  any particular being which 
has regulated1 or whose business it is  

to  regulate1 for the future1 the order 
of the world1 a being immortal and      
perfectly happy2 for the cares and      
anxieties1 the benevolence and the      
anger1 far from being compatible with   
felicity1 are1 on the contrary1  the    
consequence of weakness1 of fear1 and of
 the want which a thing has  of         
something else4 ,we must not fancy      
either that these globes of fire1  which
 roll on in space1 enjoy a perfect      
happiness1 and give themselves1  with   
reflection and wisdom1 the motions which
 they possess4 ,but we must  respect the
 established notions on this subject1   
provided1 nevertheless1  that they do   
not all contradict the respect due to   
truth2 for nothing is  more calculated  
to trouble the soul than this strife of 
contradictory  notions and principles4  
,we must therefore admit that from the  
first  movement impressed on the        
heavenly bodies since the organization  
of the  world there is derived a sort of
 necessity which regulates their course 

to this day4    8,let us be well assured
 that it is to physiology that it       
belongs to  determine the causes of the 
most elevated phnomena1 and that        
happiness  consists1 above all things1  
in the science of the heavenly things   
and  their nature1 and in the knowledge 
of analogous phnomena which may aid  us 
in the comprehension of the ethics4     
,these heavenly phnomena admit  of      
several explanations2 they have no      
reason of a necessary character1  and   
one may explain them in different       
manners4 ,in a word1 they have no       
relation--a moment's consideration will 
prove this by itself--with those        
imperishable and happy natures which    
admit of no division and of no          
confusion4 ,as for the theoretical      
knowledge of the rising and setting  of 
the stars1 of the movement of the sun   
between the tropics1 of the  eclipses1  
and all other similar phnomena1 that is 
utterly useless1 as  far as any         
influence upon happiness that it can    

have4 ,moreover1 those  who1 though     
possessed of this knowledge1 are        
ignorant of nature1 and  of the most    
probable causes of the phnomena1 are no 
more protected  from fear than if they  
were in the most complete ignorance2    
they even  experience the most lively   
fears1 for the trouble1 with which the  
knowledge of which they are possessed   
inspires them1 can find no issue1  and  
is not dissipated by a clear perception 
of the reasons of these  phnomena4      
8,as to us1 we find many explanations of
 the motions of the sun1 of the  rising 
and setting of the stars1 of the        
eclipses and similar phnomena1  just as 
well as of the more particular phnomena4
 ,and one must not think  that this     
method of explanation is not sufficient 
to procure happiness  and tranquillity4 
,let us content ourselves with examining
 how it is that  similar phnomena are   
brought about under our own eyes1 and   
let us apply  these observations to the 
heavenly objects and to everything which

 is  not known but indirectly4 ,let us  
despise those people who are unable  to 
distinguish facts susceptible of        
different explanations from others      
which can only exist and be explained in
 one single way4 ,let us disdain  those 
men who do not know1 by means of the    
different images which result  from     
distance1 how to give an account of the 
different appearances of  things2 who1  
in a word1 are ignorant what are the    
objects which can  excite any trouble in
 us4 ,if1 then1 we know that such a     
phnomenon can be  brought about in the  
same manner as another given phnomenon  
of the same  character which does not   
inspire us with any apprehension2 and   
if1 on the  other hand1 we know that it 
can take place in many different        
manners1 we  shall not be more troubled 
at the sight of it than if we knew the  
real  cause of it4    8,we must also    
recollect that that which principally   
contributes to  trouble the spirit of   
men is the persuasion which they cherish

 that the  stars are beings imperishable
 and perfectly happy1 and that then     
one's  thoughts and actions are in      
contradiction to the will of these      
superior  beings2 they also1 being      
deluded by these fables1 apprehend an   
eternity  of evils1 they fear the       
insensibility of death1 as that could   
affect  them4 ,what do ,i say8 ,it is   
not even belief1 but inconsiderateness  
and  blindness which govern them in     
every thing1 to such a degree that1 not 
calculating these fears1 they are just  
as much troubled as if they had  really 
faith in these vain phantoms4 ,and the  
real freedom from this  kind of trouble 
consists in being emancipated from all  
these things1  and in preserving the    
recollection of all the principles which
 we have  established1 especially of the
 most essential of them4 ,accordingly1  
it  is well to pay a scrupulous         
attention to existing phnomena and to   
the  sensations1 to the general         
sensations for general things1 and to   

the  particular sensations for          
particular things4 ,in a word1 we must  
take  note of this1 the immediate       
evidence with which each of these       
judicial  faculties furnishes us2 for1  
if we attend to these points1 namely1   
whence confusion and fear arise1 we     
shall divine the causes correctly1  and 
we shall deliver ourselves from those   
feelings1 tracing back the  heavenly    
phnomena to their causes1 and also all  
the others which present  themselves at 
every step1 and inspire the common      
people with extreme  terror4    8,this1 
,herodotus1 is a kind of summary and    
abridgment of the whole  question of    
natural philosophy4 ,so that1 if this   
reasoning be allowed to  be valid1 and  
be preserved carefully in the memory1   
the man who allows  himself to be       
influenced by it1 even though he may not
 descend to a  profound study of its    
details1 will have a great superiority  
of character  over other men4 ,he will  
personally discover a great number of   

truths  which ,i have myself set forth  
in my entire work2 and these truths     
being  stored in his memory1 will be a  
constant assistance to him4 ,by means of
  these principles1 those who have      
descended into the details1 and have    
studied the question sufficiently1 will 
be able1 in bringing in all  their      
particular knowledge to bear on the     
general subject1 to run over  without   
difficulty almost the entire circle of  
the natural philosophy2  those1 on the  
other hand1 who are not yet arrived at  
perfection1 and who  have not been able 
to hear me lecture on these subjects1   
will be able in  their minds to run over
 the main of the essential notions1 and 
to derive  assistance from them for the 
tranquillity and happiness of life40    
,this then is his letter on physics4    
,,xxv4 ,about the heavenly bodies he    
writes thus3--    ,,epicurus ,,to       
,,pythocles1 ,,wishing ,,he ,,may ,,do  
,,well4    8,cleon has brought me your  
letter1 in which you continue to evince 

towards me an affection worthy of the   
friendship which ,i have for you4  ,you 
devote all your care1 you tell me1 to   
engraving in your memory those  ideas   
which contribute to the happiness of    
life2 and you entreat me at  the same   
time to send you a simple abridgment and
 abstract of my ideas on  the heavenly  
phnomena1 in order that you may without 
difficulty preserve  the recollection of
 them4 ,for1 say you1 what ,i have      
written on this  subject in my other    
works is difficult to recollect1 even   
with continual  study4    8,i willingly 
yield to your desire1 and ,i have good  
hope1 that in  fulfilling what you ask1 
,i shall be useful too to many others1  
especially  to those who are as yet     
novices in the real knowledge of nature1
 and to  those to whom the perplexities 
and the ordinary affairs of life leave  
but  little leisure4 ,be careful then to
 seize on those precepts thoroughly1    
engrave them deeply in your memory1 and 
meditate on them with the  abridgment   

addressed to ,herodotus1 which ,i also  
send you4    8,know then1 that it is    
with the knowledge of the heavenly      
phnomena1 both  with those which are    
spoken of in contact with one another1  
and of those  which have a spontaneous  
existence1 as with every other science2 
it has  no other aim but that freedom   
from anxiety1 and that calmness which is
  derived from a firm belief4    8,it is
 not good to desire what is impossible1 
and to endeavour to  enunciate a uniform
 theory about everything2 accordingly1  
we ought not  here to adopt the method1 
which we have followed in our researches
 into  ,ethics1 or in the solution of   
problems of natural philosophy4 ,we     
there  said1 for instance1 that there   
are no other things1 except bodies and  
the vacuum1 that the atoms are the      
principles of things1 and so of the     
rest4 ,in a word1 we gave a precise and 
simple explanation of every fact1       
conformable to appearances4    8,we     
cannot act in the same way with respect 

to the heavenly phnomena3  these        
productions may depend upon several     
different causes1 and we may  give many 
different explanations on this subject1 
equally agreeing with  the impressions  
of the senses4 ,besides1 it is not here 
a question about  reasoning on new      
principles1 and of laying down1  priori1
 rules for  the interpretation of       
nature2 the only guides for us to follow
 are the  appearances themselves2 for   
that which we have in view is not a set 
of  systems and vain opinions1 but much 
rather a life exempt from every kind  of
 disquietude4    8,the heavenly phnomena
 do not inspire those who give different
  explanations of them1 conformable with
 appearances1 instead of explaining     
them by hypothesis1 with any alarm4 ,but
 if1 abandoning hypothesis1 one at  the 
same time renounces the attempt to      
explain them by means of analogies      
founded on appearances1 then one is     
placing one's self altogether at a      
distance from the science of nature1 in 

order to fall into fables4    8,it is   
possible that the heavenly phnomena may 
present some apparent  characters which 
appear to assimilate them to those      
phnomena which we  see taking place     
around ourselves1 without there being   
any real analogy  at the bottom4 ,for   
the heavenly phnomena may depend for    
their production  on many different     
causes2 nevertheless1 we must observe   
the appearances  presented by each1 and 
we must distinguish the different       
circumstances  which attach to them1 and
 which can be explained in different    
manners by  means of analogous phnomena 
which arise under our eyes4    8,the    
world is a collection of things embraced
 by the heaven1 containing  the stars1  
the earth1 and all visible objects4     
,this collection1 separated  from the   
infinite1 is terminated by an extremity1
 which is either rare1  or dense1 or    
revolving1 or in a state of repose1 or  
of a round1 or  triangular1 or of some  
shape or other in fact1 for it may be of

 any  shape1 the dissolution of which   
must bring the destruction of everything
  which they embrace4 ,in fact1 it can  
take place in every sort of way1  since 
there is not one of those things which  
are seen which testifies  against this  
world in which we cannot detect any     
extremity2 and that  such worlds are    
infinite in number is easily seen1 and  
also that such  a world can exist both  
in the world and in the 1 as we call    
the space between the worlds1 being a   
huge space made up of plenum and        
vacuum1 but not1 as some philosophers   
pretend1 an immensity of space          
absolutely empty4 ,this production of a 
world may be explained thus3 seeds      
suitably appropriated to such an end may
 emanate either from one or from        
several worlds1 or from the space that  
separates them2 they flow towards  a    
particular point where they become      
collected together and organized2  after
 that1 other germs come to unite them   
together in such a way as  to form a    

durable whole1 a basis1 a nucleus to    
which all successive  additions unite   
themselves4    8,one must not content   
one's self in this question with saying1
 as one  of the natural philosophers has
 done1 that there is a re-union of the  
elements1 or a violent motion in the    
vacuum under the influence of           
necessity1 and that the body which is   
thus produced increases until it  comes 
to crash against some other2 for this   
doctrine is contrary to  appearances4   
8,the sun1 the moon1 and the other      
stars1 were originally formed           
separately1 and were afterwards         
comprehended in the entire total of the 
world4 ,all the other objects which our 
world comprises1 for instance1  the     
earth and the sea1 were also formed     
spontaneously1 and subsequently  gained 
size by the addition and violent        
movement of light substances1  composed 
of elements of fire and air1 or even of 
these two principles at  once4 ,this    
explanation1 moreover1 is in accordance 

with the impressions  of the senses4    
8,as to the magnitude of the sun and of 
the other stars1 it is as far as  we are
 concerned1 such as it appears to us to 
be40    7,this same doctrine is         
reproduced1 and occurs again in the     
eleventh book  of his treatise on       
,nature2 where he says1 8,if the        
distance has made it  lose its size1    
fortiori1 it would take away its        
brilliancy2 for  colour has not1 any    
more than size1 the property of         
traversing distance  without            
alteration407    8,but1 considered by   
itself1 the sun may be a little greater 
or a little  smaller than it appears2 or
 it may be just such as it looks2 for   
that is  exactly the case with the fires
 of common occurrence among men1 which  
are perceived by the senses at a        
distance4 ,besides1 all the difficulties
  on this subject will be easily        
explained if one attends to the clear   
evidence of the perceptions1 as ,i have 
shown in my books about ,nature4        

8,the rising and setting of the sun1 of 
the moon1 and of the stars1  may depend 
on the fact of their becoming lighted   
up1 and extinguished  alternately1 and  
in the order which we behold4 ,one may  
also give other  reasons for this       
phnomenon1 which are not contradicted by
 any sensible  appearances2 accordingly1
 one might explain them by the passage  
of the  stars above and below the earth1
 for the impressions of the senses agree
  also with this supposition4    8,as to
 their motion1 one may make that depend 
on the circular movement  of the entire 
heaven4 ,one may also suppose that the  
stars move1 while  the heaven itself is 
immoveable2 for there is nothing to     
prevent the  idea that originally1      
before the formation of the world1 they 
may have  received1 by the appointment  
of fate1 an impulse from east to west1  
and  that now their movement continues  
in consequence of their heat1 as the    
fire naturally proceeds onwards in order
 to seek the aliment which suits  it4   

8,the intertropical movements of the sun
 and moon may depend1 either on  the    
obliquity impressed by fate on the      
heaven at certain determined  epochs1 or
 on the resistance of the air1 or on the
 fact that these  ignited bodies stand  
in need of being nourished by a matter  
suitable  to their nature1 and that this
 matter fails them2 or finally1 they    
may depend on the fact of their having  
originally received an impulse  which   
compels them to move as they do         
describing a sort of spiral  figure4    
,the sensible evidence does not in the  
least contradict these  different       
suppositions1 and all those of the same 
kind which one can  form1 having always 
a due regard to what is possible1 and   
bringing  back each phnomenon to its    
analogous appearances in sensible facts1
  without disquieting one's self about  
the miserable speculations of the       
astronomers4    8,the evacuations and   
subsequent replenishings of the moon may
 depend  either on a conversion of this 

body1 or on the different forms which   
the  air when in a fiery state can      
adopt1 or perhaps to the interposition  
of  another body1 or lastly1 to some one
 of the causes by which one gives       
account of the analogous phnomena which 
pass under our eyes4 ,provided1         
however1 that one does not obstinately  
adopt an exclusive mode of  explanation2
 and that1 for want of knowing what is  
possible for a man to  explain1 and what
 is inaccessible to his intelligence2   
one does not throw  one's self into     
interminable speculations4    8,it may  
also be possibly the case that the moon 
has a light of her own1  or that she    
reflects that of the sun4 ,for we see   
around us many objects  which are       
luminous of themselves1 and many others 
which have only a  borrowed light4 ,in a
 word1 one will not be arrested by any  
of the  celestial phnomena1 provided    
that one always recollects that there   
are  many explanations possible2 that   
one examines the principles and reasons 

which agree with this mode of           
explanation1 and that one does not      
proceed  in accounting for the facts    
which do not agree with this method1 to 
suffer one's self to be foolishly       
carried away1 and to propose a separate 
explanation for each phnomenon1         
sometimes in one way1 and sometimes in  
another4    8,the appearance of a face  
in the orb of the moon1 may depend      
either on a  displacement of its parts1 
or on the interposition of some         
obstacle1 or  on any other cause capable
 of accounting for such an appearance4  
,for one  must not neglect to apply this
 same method to all the heavenly        
phnomena2  for1 from the moment when one
 comes to any point of contradiction to 
the evidence of the senses1 it will be  
impossible to possess perfect           
tranquillity and happiness4    8,the    
eclipses of the sun and moon may depend 
either on the fact that  these stars    
extinguish themselves1 a phnomenon which
 we often see  produced under our eyes1 

or on the fact of other bodies1 the     
earth1 the  heaven1 or something else of
 the same kind interposing1 between them
  and us4 ,besides1 we must compare the 
different modes of explanation          
appropriate to phnomena1 and recollect  
that it is not impossible that  many    
causes may at one and the same time     
concur in their production4    7,he says
 the same thing in the twelfth book of  
his treatise on ,nature2  and adds that 
the eclipses of the sun arise from the  
fact that it  penetrates into the shade 
of the moon1 to quit it again presently2
 and  the eclipses of the moon from the 
fact of its entering into the shade  of 
the earth4 ,we also find the same       
doctrine asserted by ,diogenes1 the     
,epicurean1 in the first book of his    
,select ,opinions47    8,the regular and
 periodical march of these phnomena has 
nothing in it  that ought to surprise   
us1 if we only attend to the analogous  
facts which  take place under our eyes4 
,above all things let us beware of      

making the  ,deity interpose here1 for  
that being we ought to suppose exempt   
from all  occupation and perfectly      
happy2 otherwise we shall be only giving
 vain  explanations of the heavenly     
phnomena1 as has happened already to a  
crowd of authors4 ,not being able to    
recognize what is really possible1  they
 have fallen into vain theories1 in     
supposing that for all phnomena  there  
was but one single mode of production1  
and in rejecting all other  explanations
 which are founded on probability2 they 
have adopted the most  unreasonable     
opinions1 for want of placing in the    
front the study of  the heavenly        
phnomena1 and of sensible facts1 which  
ought to serve to  explain the first4   
8,the differences in the length of      
nights and days may arise from the fact 
that the passage of the sun above the   
earth is more or less rapid2 and  more  
or less slow1 according to the length of
 the regions which it has  to pass      
through4 ,or1 again1 to the fact that   

certain regions are passed  through more
 rapidly than others1 as is seen to be  
the case by our own  eyes1 in those     
things to which we can compare the      
heavenly phnomena4 ,as  to those who on 
this point admit only one explanation as
 possible1 they  put themselves in      
opposition to facts1 and lose sight of  
the bounds set  to human knowledge4     
8,the prognostics which are derived from
 the stars may1 like those which  we    
borrow from animals1 arise from a simple
 coincidence4 ,they may also  have other
 causes1 for example1 some change in the
 air2 for these two  suppositions both  
harmonize equally with facts2 but it is 
impossible to  distinguish in what case 
one is to attribute them to the one     
cause or to  the other4    8,the clouds 
may be formed either by the air         
condensed under the pressure  of the    
winds1 or by the agency of atoms set    
apart for that end1 or by  emanations   
from the earth and waters1 or by other  
causes4 ,for there are  a great number  

which are all equally able to produce   
this effect4 ,when  the clouds clash    
with one another1 or undergo any        
transformation1 they  produce showers2  
and the long rains are caused by the    
motion of the  clouds when moved from   
places suitable to them through the air1
 when a  more violent inundation than   
usual takes place1 from collections of  
some  masses calculated to produce these
 effects4    8,thunder possibly arises  
from the movement of the winds revolving
 in the  cavities of the clouds2 of     
which we may see an image in vessels in 
our  own daily use4 ,it may also arise  
from the noise of fire acted upon by the
  wind in them1 and from the tearings   
and ruptures of the clouds when they    
have received a sort of crystaline      
consistency4 ,in a word1 experience     
drawn from our senses1 teaches us that  
all these phnomena1 and that one  in    
particular1 may be produced in many     
different manners4    8,one may also    
assign different causes to the          

lightning2 either the shock  and        
collision of the clouds produce a fiery 
appearance1 which is followed  by       
lightning2 or the lighting up of the    
clouds by the winds1 produces  this     
luminous appearance2 or the mutual      
pressure of the clouds1 or that  of the 
wind against them1 disengages the       
lightning4 ,or1 one might say1  that the
 interception of the light diffused from
 the stars1 arrested for  a time in the 
bosom of the clouds1 is driven from them
 subsequently by  their own movements1  
and by those of the winds1 and so       
escapes from their  sides2 that the     
lightning is an extremely subtile light 
that evaporates  from the clouds2 that  
the clouds which carry the thunder are  
collected  masses of fire2 that the     
lightning arises from the motion of the 
fire1  or from the conflagration of the 
wind1 in consequence of the rapidity    
and continuousness of its motion4 ,one  
may also attribute the luminous         
appearance of lightning to the rupture  

of the clouds under the action of  the  
winds1 or to the fall of inflammable    
atoms4 ,lastly1 one may easily  find a  
number of other explanations1 if one    
applies to sensible facts1  in order to 
search out the analogies which they     
present to the heavenly  phnomena4      
8,lightning precedes thunder1 either    
because it is produced at the same      
moment that the wind falls on the cloud1
 while the noise is only heard  at the  
instant when the wind has penetrated    
into the bosom of the cloud2  or1       
perhaps1 the two phnomena being         
simultaneous1 the lightning arrives     
among us more rapidly than the noise of 
the thunder-bolt1 as is in fact         
remarked in other cases when we see at a
 distance the clash of two  objects4    
8,the thunderbolt may be produced either
 by a violent condensation of  the      
winds1 or by their rapid motion and     
conflagration4 ,it may arise  from the  
fact of the winds meeting in places     
which are too dense1 in  consequence of 

the accumulation of clouds1 and then a  
portion of the  current detaches itself 
and proceeds towards the lower          
situations2 or  else it may be caused by
 the fire which is contained in the     
bosom of the  clouds precipitating      
itself downwards4 ,as one may suppose   
that an immense  quantity of fire being 
accumulated in the clouds dilates1      
violently  bursting the substance which 
envelops it1 because the resistance of  
the  centre hinders it from proceeding  
further4 ,this effect is especially     
produced in the neighbourhood of high   
mountains2 and1 accordingly1 they  are  
very frequently struck with the         
thunderbolts4 ,in short1 one may give  a
 number of explanations of the          
thunderbolt2 but we ought1 above all    
things1 to be on our guard against      
fables1 and this one will easily be1  if
 one follows faithfully the sensible    
phnomena in the explanation of  these   
things1 which are not perceived1 except 
indirectly4    8,hurricanes 77 may be   

caused either by the presence of a      
cloud1 which a violent wind sets in     
motion and precipitates with a  spiral  
movement towards the lower regions1 or  
by a violent gust which  bears a cloud  
into the neighbourhood of some other    
current1 or else by  the mere agitation 
of the wind by itself1 when air is      
brought together  from the higher       
regions and compressed without being    
able to escape on  either side1 in      
consequence of the resistance of the air
 which surrounds  it2 when the hurricane
 descends towards the earth1 then there 
result  whirlwinds in proportion to the 
rapidity of the wind that has produced  
them2 and this phnomenon extends over   
the sea also4    8,earthquakes may arise
 from the wind penetrating into the     
interior of the  earth1 or from the     
earth itself receiving incessantly the  
addition of  exterior particles1 and    
being in incessant motion as to its     
constituent  atoms1 being in consequence
 disposed to a general vibration4 ,that 

which  permits the wind to penetrate is 
the fact that falls take place in the   
interior1 or that the air being         
impressed by the winds insinuates itself
  into the subterraneous caverns4 ,the  
movement which numberless falls and  the
 re-action of the earth communicate to  
the earth1 when this motion  meets      
bodies of greater resistance and        
solidity1 is sufficient to explain  the 
earthquakes4 ,one might1 however1 give  
an account of them in several  other    
ways4    8,winds are caused1 either by  
the successive and regular addition of  
some  foreign matter1 or else by the    
re-union of a great quantity of water2  
and  the differences of the winds may   
arise from the fact that some portions  
of this same matter fall into the       
numerous cavities of the earth1 and are 
divided there4    8,hail is produced by 
an energetic condensation acting on the 
ethereal  particles which the cold      
embraces in every direction2 or1 in     
consequence  of a less violent          

condensation acting however on aqueous  
particles1 and  accompanied by division1
 in such a manner as to produce1 at the 
same  time1 the re-union of certain     
elements and of the collective masses2  
or  by the rupture of some dense and    
compact mass which would explain at  the
 same time1 the numerousness of the     
particles and their individual          
hardness4 ,as to the spherical form of  
the hail1 one may easily account  for   
that by admitting that the shocks which 
it receives in every  direction make all
 the angles disappear1 or else that at  
the moment when  the different fragments
 are formed1 each of them is equally    
embraced on  all sides by aqueous or    
ethereal particles4    8,snow may be    
produced by a light vapour full of      
moisture which the clouds  allow to     
escape by passages intended for that    
end1 when they are pressed1  in a       
corresponding manner1 by other clouds1  
and set in motion by the  wind4         
,subsequently1 these vapours become     

condensed in their progress  under the  
action of the cold which surrounds the  
clouds in the lower  regions4 ,it may   
also be the case that this phnomenon is 
produced by  clouds of a slight density 
as they become condensed4 ,in this case 
the  snow which escapes from the clouds 
would be the result of the contact1 or  
approximation of the aqueous particles1 
which in a still more condensed  state  
produce hail4 ,this effect is most      
especially produced in the  air4 ,snow1 
again1 may result from the collection of
 clouds previously  condensed and       
solidified2 or from a whole army of     
other causes4    8,dew proceeds from a  
re-union of particles contained in the  
air  calculated to produce this moist   
substance4 ,these particles may be  also
 brought from places which are moist or 
covered with water 7for  in those       
places1 above all others1 it is that dew
 is abundant74 ,these  then re-unite1   
again resume their aqueous form1 and    
fall down4 ,the same  phnomenon takes   

place in other cases before our own eyes
 under many  analogies4    8,hoar-frost 
is dew congealed by the influence of the
 cold air that  surrounds it4    8,ice  
is formed either by the detrition of    
round atoms contained in the  water1 and
 the re-union at scalene and acute      
angles of the atoms which  exist in the 
water1 or by an addition from without of
 these latter  particles1 which         
penetrating into the water1 solidify it 
by driving away  an equal amount of     
round atoms4    8,the rainbow may be    
produced by the reflection of the solar 
rays on the  moist air2 or it may arise 
from a particular property of light and 
air1  in virtue of which these          
particular appearances of colour are    
formed1  either because the shades which
 we perceive result directly from this  
property1 or because1 on the contrary1  
it only produces one single shade1      
which1 reflecting itself on the nearest 
portions of the air1 communicates  to   
them the tints which we observe4 ,as to 

the circular form of the  rainbow1 that 
depends either on the fact of the sight 
perceiving an equal  distance in every  
direction1 or the fact of the atoms     
taking this form  when re-uniting in the
 air2 or it may be caused by its        
detaching from the  air which moves     
towards the moon1 certain atoms which1  
being re-united in  the clouds1 give    
rise to this circular appearance4       
8,the lunar halo arises from the fact of
 the air1 which moves towards the  moon 
from all quarters1 uniformly            
intercepting the rays emitted by this   
star1 in such a way as to form around it
 a sort of circular cloud which         
partially veils it4 ,it may also arise  
from the fact of the moon uniformly     
rejecting from all quarters1 the air    
which surrounds it1 in such a  manner as
 to produce this circular and opaque    
covering4 ,and perhaps this  opaqueness 
may be caused by some particles which   
some current brings from  without2      
perhaps also1 the heat communicates to  

the moon the property of  emitting by   
the pores in its surface1 the particles 
by which this effect  is produced4      
8,comets arise either from the fact1    
that in the circumstances already       
stated1 there are partial conflagrations
 in certain points of the heaven2  or1  
that at certain periods1 the heaven has 
above our heads a particular  movement  
which causes them to appear4 ,it may    
also be the case1 that being  themselves
 endowed with a peculiar movement1 they 
advance at the end of  certain periods  
of time1 and in consequence of          
particular circumstances1  towards the  
places which we inhabit4 ,the opposite  
reasons explain their  disappearance4   
8,certain stars return to the same point
 in accomplishing their  revolutions2   
and this arises1 not only as has been   
sometimes believed1  from the fact of   
the pole of the world1 around which they
 move1 being  immoveable1 but also from 
the fact that the gyrations of the air  
which  surrounds them1 hinder them from 

deviations like the wandering stars4    
,perhaps also1 this may be caused by the
 fact1 that except in the route  in     
which they move1 and in which we        
perceive them1 they do not find any     
material suitable to their nature4 ,one 
may also explain this phnomenon  in many
 other manners1 reasoning according to  
sensible facts2 thus1 it is  possible   
that certain stars may be wandering     
because that is the nature  of their    
movements1 and1 for the same reason1    
others may be immoveable4  ,it is also  
possible1 that the same necessity which 
has originally given  them their        
circular movement1 may have compelled   
some to follow their  orbit regularly1  
and have subjected others to an         
irregular progress2 we  may also suppose
 that the uniform character of the      
centre which certain  stars traverse    
favour their regular march1 and their   
return to a certain2  and that in the   
case of others1 on the contrary1 the    
differences of the  centre produce the  

changes which we observe4 ,besides1 to  
assign one  single cause to all these   
phnomena1 when the experience of our    
senses  suggests us several1 is folly4  
,it is the conduct of ignorant          
astronomers  covetous of a vain         
knowledge1 who1 assigning imaginary     
causes to facts1  wish to leave wholly  
to the ,deity the care of the government
 of the  universe4    8,some stars      
appear to be left behind by others in   
their progress2 this  arises either from
 the fact of their having a slower      
motion1 though  traversing the same     
circle2 or1 because1 though they are    
drawn on by the  same propelling power1 
they have1 nevertheless1 a movement     
proper to  themselves in a contrary     
direction2 or it may be caused by the   
fact that1  though all are placed in the
 same sphere of movement1 still some    
have  more space to traverse1 and others
 less4 ,to give one uniform and positive
  explanation of all these facts1 is not
 consistent with the conduct of any     

people but those who love to flash      
prodigies in the eyes of the multitude4 
8,falling stars may be particles        
detached from the stars1 or fragments   
resulting from their collision2 they may
 also be produced by the fall  of       
substances which are set on fire by the 
action of the wind2 by the  re-union of 
inflammable atoms which are made to come
 together so as to  produce this effect 
by a sort of reciprocal attraction2 or  
else by the  movement which is produced 
in consequence of the re-union of atoms 
in the  very place where they meet4 ,it 
may also happen that the light vapours  
re-unite and become condensed under the 
form of clouds1 that they then  take    
fire in consequence of their rotatory   
motion1 and that1 bursting  the         
obstacles which surround them1 they     
proceed towards the places  whither the 
force by which they are animated drags  
them4 ,in short1 this  phnomenon also   
may admit of a great number of          
explanations4    8,the presages which   

are drawn from certain animals arise    
from a  fortuitous concourse of         
circumstances2 for there is no necessary
  connection between certain animals and
 winter4 ,they do not produce it2  nor  
is there any divine nature sitting aloft
 watching the exits of these  animals1  
and then accomplishing signs of this    
kind4 ,nor can such folly as  this occur
 to any being who is even moderately    
comfortable1 much less to  one which is 
possessed of perfect happiness4         
8,imprint all these precepts in your    
memory1 ,o ,pythocles1 and so you will  
easily escape fables1 and it will be    
easy for you to discover other  truths  
analogous to these4 ,above all1 apply   
yourself to the study of  general       
principles1 of the infinite1 and of     
questions of this kind1 and  to the     
investigation of the different criteria 
and of the passions1 and  to the study  
of the chief good1 with a view to which 
we prosecute all  our researches4 ,when 
these questions are once resolved1 all  

particular  difficulties will be made   
plain to you4 ,as to those who will not 
apply  themselves to these principles1  
they will neither be able to give a good
  explanation of these same questions1  
nor to reach that end to which all  our 
researches tend40    ,,xxvi4 ,such are  
his sentiments on the heavenly phnomena4
 ,but concerning  the rules of life1 and
 how we ought to choose some things1 and
 avoid  others1 he writes thus4 ,but    
first of all1 let us go through the     
opinions  which he held1 and his        
disciples held about the wise man4      
,he said that injuries existed among    
men1 either in consequence of hatred1   
or of envy1 or of contempt1 all which   
the wise man overcomes by reason4       
,also1 that a man who has once been wise
 can never receive the contrary         
disposition1 nor can he of his own      
accord invent such a state of things  as
 that he should be subjected to the     
dominion of the passions2 nor can  he   
hinder himself in his progress towards  

wisdom4 ,that the wise man1  however1   
cannot exist in every state of body1 nor
 in every nation4 ,that  even if the    
wise man were to be put to the torture1 
he would still be  happy4 ,that the wise
 man will only feel gratitude to his    
friends1 but  to them equally whether   
they are present or absent4 ,nor will he
 groan  and howl when he is put to the  
torture4 ,nor will he marry a wife whom 
the laws forbid1 as ,diogenes says1 in  
his epitome of the ,ethical ,maxims  of 
,epicurus4 ,he will punish his servants1
 but also pity them1 and show           
indulgence to any that are virtuous4    
,they do not think that the wise  man   
will ever be in love1 nor that he will  
be anxious about his burial1  nor that  
love is a passion inspired by the ,gods1
 as ,diogenes says in  his twelfth book4
 ,they also assert that he will be      
indifferent to the  study of oratory4   
,marriage1 say they1 is never any good  
to a man1 and we  must be quite content 
if it does no harm2 and the wise man    

will never  marry or beget children1 as 
,epicurus himself lays it down1 in his  
,doubts  and in his treatises on        
,nature4 ,still1 under certain          
circumstances of  life1 he will forsake 
these rules and marry4 ,nor will he ever
 indulge in  drunkenness1 says          
,epicurus1 in his ,banquet1 nor will he 
entangle himself  in affairs of state   
7as he says in his first book on        
,lives74 ,nor will he  become a tyrant4 
,nor will he become a ,cynic 7as he says
 in his second  book about ,lives74 ,nor
 a beggar4 ,and even1 though he should  
lose his  eyes1 he will still partake of
 life 7as he says in the same book74    
,the wise man will be subject to grief1 
as ,diogenes says1 in the fifth  book of
 his ,select ,opinions2 he will also not
 object to go to law4 ,he  will leave   
books and memorials of himself behind   
him1 but he will not be  fond of        
frequenting assemblies4 ,he will take   
care of his property1 and  provide for  
the future4 ,he will like being in the  

country1 he will resist  fortune1 and   
will grieve none of his friends4 ,he    
will show a regard for a  fair          
reputation to such an extent as to avoid
 being despised2 and he will  find more 
pleasure than other men in speculations4
    ,all faults are not equal4 ,health  
is good for some people1 but a matter   
of indifference to others4 ,courage is a
 quality which does not exist by        
nature1 but which is engendered by a    
consideration of what is suitable4      
,friendship is caused by one's wants2   
but it must be begun on our side4  ,for 
we sow the earth2 and friendship arises 
from a community of1 and  participation 
in1 pleasures4 ,happiness must be       
understood in two senses2  the highest  
happiness1 such as is that of ,god1     
which admits of no  increase2 and       
another kind1 which admits of the       
addition or abstraction  of pleasures4  
,the wise man may raise statues if it   
suits his inclination1  if it does not  
it does not signify4 ,the wise man is   

the only person who  can converse       
correctly about music and poetry2 and he
 can realise poems1  but not become a   
poet4    ,it is possible for one wise   
man to be wiser than another4 ,the wise 
man  will also1 if he is in need1 earn  
money1 but only by his wisdom2 he will  
propitiate an absolute ruler when       
occasion requires1 and will humour him  
for the sake of correcting his habits2  
he will have a school1 but not  on such 
a system as to draw a crowd about him2  
he will also recite in a  multitude1 but
 that will be against his inclination2  
he will pronounce  dogmas1 and will     
express no doubts2 he will be the same  
man asleep and  awake2 and he will be   
willing even to die for a friend4       
,these are the ,epicurean doctrines4    
,,xxvii4 ,we must now proceed to his    
letter3--    ,,epicurus ,,to            
,,men,,ceus1 ,,greeting    8,let no one 
delay to study philosophy while he is   
young1 and when he is  old let him not  
become weary of the study2 for no man   

can ever find the  time unsuitable or   
too late to study the health of his     
soul4 ,and he who  asserts either that  
it is not yet time to philosophize1 or  
that the hour  is passed1 is like a man 
who should say that the time is not yet 
come  to be happy1 or that it is too    
late4 ,so that both young and old should
  study philosophy1 the one in order    
that1 when he is old1 he may be young   
in good things through the pleasing     
recollection of the past1 and the  other
 in order that he may be at the same    
time both young and old1 in  consequence
 of his absence of fear for the future4 
8,it is right then for a man to consider
 the things which produce  happiness1   
since1 if happiness is present1 we have 
everything1 and when  it is absent1 we  
do everything with a view to possess it4
 ,now1 what ,i  have constantly         
recommended to you1 these things ,i     
would have you do and  practise1        
considering them to be the elements of  
living well4 ,first of  all1 believe    

that ,god is a being incorruptible and  
happy1 as the common  opinion of the    
world about ,god dictates2 and attach to
 your idea of him  nothing which is     
inconsistent with incorruptibility or   
with happiness2  and think that he is   
invested with everything which is able  
to preserve  to him this happiness1 in  
conjunction with incorruptibility4 ,for 
there  are ,gods2 for our knowledge of  
them is indistinct4 ,but they are not of
  the character which people in general 
attribute to them2 for they do not  pay 
a respect to them which accords with the
 ideas that they entertain  of them4    
,and that man is not impious who        
discards the ,gods believed in  by the  
many1 but he who applies to the ,gods   
the opinions entertained  of them by the
 many4 ,for the assertions of the many  
about the ,gods are  not anticipations  
771 but false opinions 774 ,and in      
consequence of these1 the greatest evils
 which befall wicked men1 and  the      
benefits which are conferred on the     

good1 are all attributed to the  ,gods2 
for they connect all their ideas of them
 with a comparison of human  virtues1   
and everything which is different from  
human qualities1 they  regard as        
incompatible with the divine nature4    
8,accustom yourself also to think death 
a matter with which we are not  at all  
concerned1 since all good and all evil  
is in sensation1 and  since death is    
only the privation of sensation4 ,on    
which account1 the  correct knowledge of
 the fact that death is no concern of   
ours1 makes  the mortality of life      
pleasant to us1 inasmuch as it sets     
forth no  illimitable time1 but relieves
 us for the longing for immortality4    
,for  there is nothing terrible in      
living to a man who rightly comprehends 
that  there is nothing terrible in      
ceasing to live2 so that he was a silly 
man  who said that he feared death1 not 
because it would grieve him when it  was
 present1 but because it did grieve him 
while it was future4 ,for it is  very   

absurd that that which does not distress
 a man when it is present1  should      
afflict him when only expected4         
,therefore1 the most formidable of  all 
evils1 death1 is nothing to us1 since1  
when we exist1 death is not  present to 
us2 and when death is present1 then we  
have no existence4 ,it  is no concern   
then either of the living or of the     
dead2 since to the one  it has no       
existence1 and the other class has no   
existence itself4 ,but  people in       
general1 at times flee from death as the
 greatest of evils1  and at times wish  
for it as a rest from the evils in life4
 ,nor is the  not living a thing feared1
 since living is not connected with it3 
nor  does the wise man think not living 
an evil2 but1 just as he chooses food1  
not preferring that which is most       
abundant1 but that which is nicest2 so  
too1 he enjoys time1 not measuring it as
 to whether it is of the greatest       
length1 but as to whether it is most    
agreeable4 ,and he who enjoins a  young 

man to live well1 and an old man to die 
well1 is a simpleton1  not only because 
of the constantly delightful nature of  
life1 but also  because the care to live
 well is identical with the care to die 
well4 ,and  he was still more wrong who 
said3--        8',tis well to taste of  
life1 and then when born      ,to pass  
with quickness to the shades below4#adb 
8,for if this really was his opinion why
 did he not quit life8 for it was       
easily in his power to do so1 if it     
really was his belief4 ,but if he was   
joking1 then he was talking foolishly in
 a case where it ought not to be        
allowed2 and1 we must recollect1 that   
the future is not our own1 nor1 on  the 
other hand1 is it wholly not our own1 ,i
 mean so that we can never  altogether  
await it with a feeling of certainty    
that it will be1 nor  altogether despair
 of it as what will never be4 ,and we   
must consider that  some of the passions
 are natural1 and some empty2 and of the
 natural ones  some are necessary1 and  

some merely natural4 ,and of the        
necessary ones  some are necessary to   
happiness1 and others1 with regard to   
the exemption  of the body1 from        
trouble2 and others with respect to     
living itself2 for  a correct theory1   
with regard to these things1 can refer  
all choice and  avoidance to the health 
of the body and the freedom from        
disquietude of  the soul4 ,since this is
 the end of living happily2 for it is   
for the sake  of this that we do        
everything1 wishing to avoid grief and  
fear2 and when  once this is the case1  
with respect to us1 then the storm of   
the soul is1  as ,i may say1 put an end 
to2 since the animal is unable to go as 
if to  something deficient1 and to seek 
something different from that by which  
the good of the soul and body will be   
perfected4    8,for then we have need of
 pleasure when we grieve1 because       
pleasure is  not present2 but when we do
 not grieve1 then we have no need of    
pleasure2  and on this account1 we      

affirm1 that pleasure is the beginning  
and end  of living happily2 for we have 
recognized this as the first good1 being
  connate with us2 and with reference to
 it1 it is that we begin every  choice  
and avoidance2 and to this we come as if
 we judged of all good by  passion as   
the standard2 and1 since this is the    
first good and connate  with us1 on this
 account we do not choose every         
pleasure1 but at times  we pass over    
many pleasures when any difficulty is   
likely to ensue from  them2 and we think
 many pains better than pleasures1 when 
a greater  pleasure follows them1 if we 
endure the pain for a time4    8,every  
pleasure is therefore a good on account 
of its own nature1 but  it does not     
follow that every pleasure is worthy of 
being chosen2 just  as every pain is an 
evil1 and yet every pain must not be    
avoided4 ,but  it is right to estimate  
all these things by the measurement and 
view of  what is suitable and           
unsuitable2 for at times we may feel the

 good as an  evil1 and at times1 on the 
contrary1 we may feel the evil as good4 
,and1  we think1 contentment a great    
good1 not in order that we may never    
have  but a little1 but in order that1  
if we have not much1 we may make use  of
 a little1 being genuinely persuaded    
that those men enjoy luxury most        
completely who are the best able to do  
without it2 and that everything  which  
is natural is easily provided1 and what 
is useless is not easily  procured4 ,and
 simple flavours give as much pleasure  
as costly fare1 when  everything that   
can give pain1 and every feeling of     
want1 is removed2  and corn and water   
give the most extreme pleasure when any 
one in need  eats them4 ,to accustom    
one's self1 therefore1 to simple and    
inexpensive  habits is a great          
ingredient in the perfecting of health1 
and makes a  man free from hesitation   
with respect to the necessary uses of   
life4  ,and when we1 on certain         
occasions1 fall in with more sumptuous  

fare1 it  makes us in a better          
disposition towards it1 and renders us  
fearless  with respect to fortune4      
,when1 therefore1 we say that pleasure  
is a  chief good1 we are not speaking of
 the pleasures of the debauched man1  or
 those which lie in sensual enjoyment1  
as some think who are ignorant1  and who
 do not entertain our opinions1 or else 
interpret them perversely2  but we mean 
the freedom of the body from pain1 and  
of the soul from  confusion4 ,for it is 
not continued drinkings and revels1 or  
the enjoyment  of female society1 or    
feasts of fish and other such things1 as
 a costly  table supplies1 that make    
life pleasant1 but sober contemplation1 
which  examines into the reasons for all
 choice and avoidance1 and which puts   
to flight the vain opinions from which  
the greater part of the confusion       
arises which troubles the soul4         
8,now1 the beginning and the greatest   
good of all these things is  prudence1  
on which account prudence is something  

more valuable than  even philosophy1    
inasmuch as all the other virtues spring
 from it1  teaching us that it is not   
possible to live pleasantly unless one  
also  lives prudently1 and honourably1  
and justly2 and that one cannot live    
prudently1 and honestly1 and justly1    
without living pleasantly2 for  the     
virtues are connate with living         
agreeably1 and living agreeably  is     
inseparable from the virtues4 ,since1   
who can you think better than  that man 
who has holy opinions respecting the    
,gods1 and who is utterly  fearless with
 respect to death1 and who has properly 
contemplated the end  of nature1 and who
 comprehends that the chief good is     
easily perfected  and easily provided2  
and the greatest evil lasts but a short 
period1 and  causes but brief pain4 ,and
 who has no belief in necessity1 which  
is set  up by some as the mistress of   
all things1 but he refers some things to
  fortune1 some to ourselves1 because   
necessity is an irresponsible power1    

and because he sees that fortune is     
unstable1 while our own will is  free2  
and this freedom constitutes1 in our    
case1 a responsibility which  makes us  
encounter blame and praise4 ,since it   
would be better to follow  the fables   
about the ,gods than to be a slave to   
the fate of the natural  philosopher2   
for the fables which are told give us a 
sketch1 as if we  could avert the wrath 
of ,god by paying him honour2 but the   
other presents  us with necessity who is
 inexorable4    8,and he1 not thinking  
fortune a goddess1 as the generality    
esteem her  7for nothing is done at     
random by a ,god71 nor a cause which no 
man can  rely on1 for he thinks that    
good or evil is not given by her to men 
so  as to make them live happily1 but   
that the principles of great goods or   
great evils are supplied by her2        
thinking it better to be unfortunate in 
accordance with reason1 than to be      
fortunate irrationally2 for that those  
actions which are judged to be the best1

 are rightly done in consequence  of    
reason4    8,do you then study these    
precepts1 and those which are akin to   
them1 by  all means day and night1      
pondering on them by yourself1 and      
discussing  them with any one like      
yourself1 and then you will never be    
disturbed by  either sleeping or waking 
fancies1 but you will live like a ,god  
among  men2 for a man living amid       
immortal ,gods1 is in no respect like a 
mortal  being40    ,in other works1 he  
discards divination2 and also in his    
,little ,epitome4  ,and he says         
divination has no existence2 but1 if it 
has any1 still we  should think that    
what happens according to it is nothing 
to us4    ,these are his sentiments     
about the things which concern the life 
of man1  and he has discussed them at   
greater length elsewhere4    ,,xxviii4  
,now1 he differs with the ,cyrenaics    
about pleasure4 ,for they do  not admit 
that to be pleasure which exists as a   
condition1 but place it  wholly in      

motion4 ,he1 however1 admits both kinds 
to be pleasure1 namely1  that of the    
soul1 and that of the body1 as he says  
in his treatise on  ,choice and         
,avoidance2 and also in his work on the 
,chief ,good2 and in  the first book of 
his treatise on ,lives1 and in his      
,letter against  the ,mitylenian        
,philosophers4 ,and in the same spirit1 
,diogenes1 in the  seventeenth book of  
his ,select ,discourses1 and            
,metrodorus1 in his  ,timocrates1 speak 
thus4 8,but when pleasure is understood1
 ,i mean both  that which exists in     
motion1 and that which is a state4'''0  
,and ,epicurus1  in his treatise on     
,choice1 speaks thus3 8,now1 freedom    
from disquietude1  and freedom from     
pain1 are states of pleasure2 but joy   
and cheerfulness  are beheld in motion  
and energy40    ,,xxix4 ,for they make  
out the pains of the body to be worse   
than those of  the mind2 accordingly1   
those who do wrong1 are punished in the 
body4  ,but he considers the pains of   

the soul the worst2 for that the flesh  
is  only sensible to present affliction1
 but the soul feels the past1 the       
present1 and the future4 ,therefore1 in 
the same manner1 he contends that  the  
pleasures of the soul are greater than  
those of the body2 and he uses  as a    
proof that pleasure is the chief good1  
the fact that all animals  from the     
moment of their birth are delighted with
 pleasure1 and are  offended with pain  
by their natural instinct1 and without  
the employment  of reason4 ,therefore1  
too1 we1 of our own inclination1 flee   
from pain2 so  that ,hercules1 when     
devoured by his poisoned tunic1 cries   
out3--        ,shouting and groaning1   
and the rocks around      ,re-echoed his
 sad wails1 the mountain heights        
,of ,locrian lands1 and sad ,euba's     
hills4#adc    ,,xxx4 ,and we choose the 
virtues for the sake of pleasure1 and   
not on  their own account2 just as we   
seek the skill of the physician for the 
sake of health1 as ,diogenes says1 in   

the twentieth book of his ,select       
,discourses1 where he also calls virtue 
a way of passing one's life  774 ,but   
,epicurus says1 that virtue alone is    
inseparable from  pleasure1 but that    
every thing else may be separated from  
it as mortal4    ,,xxxi4 ,let us1       
however1 now add the finishing stroke1  
as one may say1 to  this whole treatise1
 and to the life of the philosopher2    
giving some of  his fundamental maxims1 
and closing the whole work with them1   
taking that  for our end which is the   
beginning of happiness4    #a4 8,that   
which is happy and imperishable1 neither
 has trouble itself1 nor  does it cause 
it to anything2 so that it is not       
subject to the feelings  of either anger
 or gratitude2 for these feelings only  
exist in what is  weak4    7,in other   
passages he says that the ,gods are     
speculated on by reason1  some existing 
according to number1 and others         
according to some  similarity of form1  
arising from the continual flowing on of

 similar  images1 perfected for this    
very purpose in human form47    #b4     
8,death is nothing to us2 for that which
 is dissolved is devoid of  sensation1  
and that which is devoid of sensation is
 nothing to us4    #c4 8,the limit of   
the greatness of the pleasures is the   
removal of  everything which can give   
pain4 ,and where pleasure is1 as long as
 it  lasts1 that which gives pain1 or   
that which feels pain1 or both of them1 
are absent4    #d4 8,pain does not abide
 continuously in the flesh1 but in its  
extremity  it is present only a very    
short time4 ,that pain which only just  
exceeds  the pleasure in the flesh1 does
 not last many days4 ,but long diseases 
have in them more that is pleasant than 
painful to the flesh4    #e4 8,it is not
 possible to live pleasantly without    
living prudently1  and honourably1 and  
justly2 nor to live prudently1 and      
honourably1 and  justly1 without living 
pleasantly4 ,but he to whom it does not 
happen to  live prudently1 honourably1  

and justly1 cannot possibly live        
pleasantly4    #f4 8,for the sake of    
feeling confidence and security with    
regard to men1  and not with reference  
to the nature of government and kingly  
power being  a good1 some men have      
wished to be eminent and powerful1 in   
order that  others might attain this    
feeling by their means2 thinking that so
 they  would secure safety as far as men
 are concerned4 ,so that1 if the life of
  such men is safe1 they have attained  
to the nature of good2 but if it is  not
 safe1 then they have failed in         
obtaining that for the sake of which    
they originally desired power according 
to the order of nature4#add    #g4 8,no 
pleasure is intrinsically bad3 but the  
efficient causes of some  pleasures     
bring with them a great many            
perturbations of pleasure4    #h4 8,if  
every pleasure were condensed1 if one   
may so say1 and if each  lasted long1   
and affected the whole body1 or the     
essential parts of it1  then there would

 be no difference between one pleasure  
and another4    #i4 8,if those things   
which make the pleasures of debauched   
men1 put an end  to the fears of the    
mind1 and to those which arise about the
 heavenly  bodies1 and death1 and pain2 
and if they taught us what ought to be  
the  limit of our desires1 we should    
have no pretence for blaming those who  
wholly devote themselves to pleasure1   
and who never feel any pain or  grief   
7which is the chief evil7 from any      
quarter4    #aj4 8,if apprehensions     
relating to the heavenly bodies did not 
disturb  us1 and if the terrors of death
 have no concern with us1 and if we had 
the courage to contemplate the          
boundaries of pain and of the desires1  
we  should have no need of physiological
 studies4    #aa4 8,it would not be     
possible for a person to banish all fear
 about those  things which are called   
most essential1 unless he knew what is  
the nature  of the universe1 or if he   
had any idea that the fables told about 

it  could be true2 and therefore1 it is1
 that a person cannot enjoy unmixed     
pleasure without physiological          
knowledge4    #ab4 8,it would be no good
 for a man to secure himself safety as  
far as men  are concerned1 while in a   
state of apprehension as to all the     
heavenly  bodies1 and those under the   
earth1 and in short1 all those in the   
infinite4    #ac4 8,irresistible power  
and great wealth may1 up to a certain   
point1  give us security as far as men  
are concerned2 but the security of men  
in  general depends upon the            
tranquillity of their souls1 and their  
freedom  from ambition4    #ad4 8,the   
riches of nature are defined and easily 
procurable2 but vain  desires are       
insatiable4    #ae4 8,the wise man is   
but little favoured by fortune2 but his 
reason  procures him the greatest and   
most valuable goods1 and these he does  
enjoy1 and will enjoy the whole of his  
life4    #af4 8,the just man is the     
freest of all men from disquietude2 but 

the  unjust man is a perpetual prey to  
it4    #ag4 8,pleasure in the flesh is  
not increased1 when once the pain       
arising  from want is removed2 it is    
only diversified4    #ah4 8,the most    
perfect happiness of the soul depends on
 these reflections1  and on opinions of 
a similar character on all those        
questions which cause  the greatest     
alarm to the mind4    #ai4 8,infinite   
and finite time both have equal         
pleasure1 if any one  measures its      
limits by reason4    #bj4 8,if the flesh
 could experience boundless pleasure1 it
 would want to  dispose of eternity4#ade
    #ba4 8,but reason1 enabling us to   
conceive the end and dissolution of the 
body1 and liberating us from the fears  
relative to eternity1 procures  for us  
all the happiness of which life is      
capable1 so completely that  we have no 
further occasion to include eternity in 
our desires4 ,in this  disposition of   
mind1 man is happy even when his        
troubles engage him  to quit life2 and  

to die thus1 is for him only to         
interrupt a life of  happiness4    #bb4 
8,he who is acquainted with the limits  
of life knows1 that that which  removes 
the pain which arises from want1 and    
which makes the whole of  life perfect1 
is easily procurable2 so that he has no 
need of those  things which can only be 
attained with trouble4    #bc4 8,but as 
to the subsisting end1 we ought to      
consider it with all the  clearness and 
evidence which we refer to whatever we  
think and believe2  otherwise1 all      
things will be full of confusion and    
uncertainty of  judgment4    #bd4 8,if  
you resist all the senses1 you will not 
even have anything left  to which you   
can refer1 or by which you may be able  
to judge of the  falsehood of the senses
 which you condemn4    #be4 8,if you    
simply discard one sense1 and do not    
distinguish between the  different      
elements of the judgment1 so as to know 
on the one hand1 the  induction which   
goes beyond the actual sensation1 or1 on

 the other1 the  actual and immediate   
notion2 the affections1 and all the     
conceptions of  the mind which lean     
directly on the sensible representation1
 you will be  imputing trouble into the 
other sense1 and destroying in that     
quarter  every species of criterion4    
#bf4 8,if you allow equal authority to  
the ideas1 which1 being only  inductive1
 require to be verified1 and to those   
which bear about them  an immediate     
certainty1 you will not escape error2   
for you will be  confounding doubtful   
opinions with those which are not       
doubtful1 and true  judgments with those
 of a different character4    #bg4 8,if1
 on every occasion1 we do not refer     
every one of our actions to  the chief  
end of nature1 if we turn aside from    
that to seek or avoid some  other       
object1 there will be a want of         
agreement between our words and our     
actions4    #bh4 8,of all the things    
which wisdom provides for the happiness 
of the  whole life1 by far the most     

important is the acquisition of         
friendship4    #bi4 8,the same opinion  
encourages man to trust that no evil    
will be  everlasting1 or even of long   
duration2 as it sees that1 in the space 
of life allotted to us1 the protection  
of friendship is most sure and          
trustworthy4    #cj4 8,of the desires1  
some are natural and necessary1 some    
natural1 but  not necessary1 and some   
are neither natural nor necessary1 but  
owe their  existence to vain opinions40 
7,epicurus thinks that those are natural
 and necessary which put an end to      
pains1 as drink when one is thirsty2 and
 that those are natural but not         
necessary which only diversify pleasure1
 but do not remove pain1 such as        
expensive food2 and that these are      
neither natural nor necessary1 which    
are such as crowns1 or the erection of  
statues47    #ca4 8,those desires which 
do not lead to pain1 if they are not    
satisfied1  are not necessary4 ,it is   
easy to impose silence on them when they

 appear  difficult to gratify1 or likely
 to produce injury4    #cb4 8,when the  
natural desires1 the failing to satisfy 
which is1  nevertheless1 not painful1   
are violent and obstinate1 it is a proof
 that  there is an admixture of vain    
opinion in them2 for then energy does   
not  arise from their own nature1 but   
from the vain opinions of men4    #cc4  
8,natural justice is a covenant of what 
is suitable1 leading men to  avoid      
injuring one another1 and being injured4
    #cd4 8,those animals which are      
unable to enter into an argument of this
  nature1 or to guard against doing or  
sustaining mutual injury1 have no  such 
thing as justice or injustice4 ,and the 
case is the same with those  nations1   
the members of which are either         
unwilling or unable to enter  into a    
covenant to respect their mutual        
interests4    #ce4 8,justice has no     
independent existence2 it results from  
mutual  contracts1 and establishes      
itself wherever there is a mutual       

engagement  to guard against doing or   
sustaining mutual injury4    #cf4       
8,injustice is not intrinsically bad2 it
 has this character only  because there 
is joined with it a fear of not escaping
 those who are  appointed to punish     
actions marked with that character4     
#cg4 8,it is not possible for a man who 
secretly does anything in  contravention
 of the agreement which men have made   
with one another1 to  guard against     
doing1 or sustaining mutual injury1 to  
believe that he  shall always escape    
notice1 even if he have escaped notice  
already ten  thousand times2 for1 till  
his death1 it is uncertain whether he   
will not  be detected4    #ch4 8,in a   
general point of view1 justice is the   
same thing to every one2  for there is  
something advantageous in mutual        
society4 ,nevertheless1 the  difference 
of place1 and divers other              
circumstances1 make justice vary4       
#ci4 8,from the moment that a thing     
declared just by the law is generally   

recognized as useful for the mutual     
relations of men1 it becomes really     
just1 whether it is universally regarded
 as such or not4    #dj4 8,but if1 on   
the contrary1 a thing established by law
 is not really  useful for the social   
relations1 then it is not just2 and if  
that which  was just1 inasmuch as it was
 useful1 loses this character1 after    
having  been for some time considered   
so1 it is not less true that1 during    
that time1 it was really just1 at least 
for those who do not perplex  themselves
 about vain words1 but who prefer1 in   
every case1 examining and  judging for  
themselves4    #da4 8,when1 without any 
fresh circumstances arising1 a thing    
which has  been declared just in        
practice does not agree with the        
impressions of  reason1 that is a proof 
that the thing was not really just4 ,in 
the same  way1 when in consequence of   
new circumstances1 a thing which has    
been  pronounced just does not any      
longer appear to agree with utility1 the

  thing which was just1 inasmuch as it  
was useful to the social relations  and 
intercourse of mankind1 ceases to be    
just the moment when it ceases  to be   
useful4    #db4 8,he who desires to live
 tranquilly without having any thing to 
fear  from other men1 ought to make     
himself friends2 those whom he cannot   
make  friends of1 he should1 at least1  
avoid rendering enemies2 and if that is 
not in his power1 he should1 as far as  
possible1 avoid all intercourse  with   
them1 and keep them aloof1 as far as it 
is for his interest to do so4    #dc4   
8,the happiest men are they who have    
arrived at the point of having  nothing 
to fear from those who surround them4   
,such men live with one  another most   
agreeably1 having the firmest grounds of
 confidence in one  another1 enjoying   
the advantages of friendship in all     
their fulness1 and  not lamenting1 as a 
pitiable circumstance1 the premature    
death of their  friends40               
,,footnotes      #a 8,the religion of   

the ancient ,persians was the worship of
 fire or  of the elements1 in which fire
 was symbolical of the ,deity4 ,at a    
later  period1 in the time of the       
,greeks1 the ancient worship was changed
 into  the adoration of the stars       
7,sabism71 especially of the sun and of 
the  morning star4 ,this religion was   
distinguished by a simple and majestic  
character4 ,its priests were called     
,magi40--,tenneman's ,manual of the     
,history of ,philosophy1 ,introd4  #gj4 
#b 8,the ,chaldans were devoted to the  
worship of the stars and to  astrology2 
the nature of their climate and country 
disposing them to it4  ,the worship of  
the stars was revived by them and widely
 disseminated even  subsequently to the 
,christian era40--,ibid4  #ga4    #c    
8,cicero speaks of those who in ,india  
are accounted philosophers1  living     
naked and enduring the greatest severity
 of winter without  betraying any       
feeling of pain1 and displaying the same
 insensibility when  exposed to the     

flames40--,tusc4 ,qust4 v4 #bg4    #d   
8,the religion of the ,britons was one  
of the most considerable parts  of their
 government1 and the ,druids who were   
their priests1 possessed  great         
authority among them4 ,besides          
ministering at the altar1 and  directing
 all religious duties1 they presided    
over the education of  youth2 they      
possessed both the civil and criminal   
jurisdiction1 they  decided all         
controversies among states as well as   
among private persons1  and whoever     
refused to submit to their decree was   
exposed to the most  severe penalties4  
,the sentence of excommunication was    
pronounced against  him2 he was         
forbidden access to the sacrifices of   
public worship2 he was  debarred all    
intercourse with his fellow citizens    
even in the common  affairs of life3 his
 company was universally shunned as     
profane and  dangerous1 he was refused  
the protection of law1 and death itself 
became  an acceptable relief from the   

misery and infamy to which he was       
exposed4  ,thus the bonds of government1
 which were naturally loose among that  
rude  and turbulent people1 were happily
 corroborated by the terrors of their   
superstition4    8,no species of        
superstition was ever more terrible than
 that of the  ,druids2 besides the      
several penalties which it was in the   
power of the  ecclesiastics to inflict  
in this world1 they inculcated the      
eternal  transmigration of souls1 and   
thereby extended their authority as far 
as the fears of their timorous votaries4
 ,they practised their rites in  dark   
groves or other secret recesses1 and in 
order to throw a greater  mystery over  
their religion1 they communicated their 
doctrines only to  the initiated1 and   
strictly forbade the committing of them 
to writing1  lest they should at any    
time be exposed to the examination of   
the profane  and vulgar4 ,human         
sacrifices were practised among them2   
the spoils of  war were often devoted to

 their divinities1 and they punished    
with the  severest tortures whoever     
dared to secrete any part of the        
consecrated  offering4 ,these treasures 
they kept secreted in woods and forests1
  secured by no other guard than the    
terrors of their religion2 and their    
steady conquest over human avidity may  
be regarded as more signal than  their  
prompting men to the most extraordinary 
and most violent efforts4  ,no          
idolatrous worship ever attained such an
 ascendant over mankind  as that of the 
ancient ,gauls and ,britons4 ,and the   
,romans after their  conquest1 finding  
it impossible to reconcile those nations
 to the laws  and institutions of their 
masters while it maintained its         
authority1  were at last obliged to     
abolish it by penal statutes1 a violence
 which  had never in any other instance 
been resorted to by those tolerating    
conquerors40--,hume's ,history of       
,england1 chap4 #a4  #a4    #e          
8,zamolxis1 or ,zalmoxis1 so called from

 the bear-skin 77 in  which he was      
wrapped as soon as he was born1 was a   
,getan1 and a slave of  ,pythagoras at  
,samos2 having been emancipated by his  
master1 he travelled  into ,egypt2 and  
on his return to his own country he     
introduced the ideas  which he had      
acquired in his travels on the subject  
of civilisation1  religion1 and the     
immortality of the soul4 ,he was made   
priest of the  chief deity among the    
,get1 and was afterwards himself        
worshipped as a  divine person4 ,he was 
said to have lived in a subterraneous   
cavern for  three years1 and after that 
to have re-appeared among his           
countrymen40  ,herodotus1 however1 who  
records these stories 7iv4 #ie71        
expresses his  disbelief of them1       
placing him before the time of          
,pythagoras by many  years1 and seems to
 incline to the belief that he was an   
indigenous ,getan  deity4    #f ,the    
real time of ,zoroaster is1 as may be   
supposed1 very uncertain1  but he is    

said by some eminent writers to have    
lived in the time of  ,darius           
,hystaspes2 though others1 apparently on
 better grounds1 place  him at a very   
far earlier date4 ,he is not mentioned  
by ,herodotus at  all4 ,his native      
country too is very uncertain4 ,some    
writers1 among whom  are ,ctesias and   
,ammian1 call him a ,bactrian1 while    
,porphyry speaks  of him as a ,chaldan1 
and ,pliny as a native of               
,proconnesus2--,niebuhr  considers him a
 purely mythical personage4 ,the great  
and fundamental  article of the system  
7of the ,persian theology7 was the      
celebrated  doctrine of the two         
principles2 a bold and injudicious      
attempt of ,eastern  philosophy to      
reconcile the existence of moral and    
physical evil with  the attributes of a 
beneficent ,creator and governor of the 
world4 ,the  first and original being1  
in whom1 or by whom the universe exists1
 is  denominated1 in the writings of    
,zoroaster1 ,time without bounds4'''    

,from  either the blind or the          
intelligent operation of this infinite  
,time1  which bears but too near an     
affinity to the ,chaos of the ,greeks1  
the two  secondary but active principles
 of the universe were from all eternity 
produced2 ,ormusd and ,ahriman1 each of 
them possessed of the powers of         
creation1 but each disposed by his      
invariable nature to exercise them  with
 different designs2 the principle of    
good is eternally absorbed  in light1   
the principle of evil is eternally      
buried in darkness4 ,the  wise          
benevolence of ,ormusd formed man       
capable of virtue1 and abundantly       
provided his fair habitation with the   
materials of happiness4 ,by his         
vigilant providence the motion of the   
planets1 the order of the seasons1  and 
the temperate mixture of the elements   
are preserved4 ,but the maker  of       
,ahriman has long since pierced         
,ormusd's ,egg1 or in other words1  has 
violated the harmony of his works4      

,since that fatal irruption1 the  most  
minute articles of good and evil are    
intimately intermingled and  agitated   
together2 the rankest poisons spring up 
among the most salutary  plants2        
deluges1 earthquakes1 and conflagrations
 attest the conflict  of nature1 and the
 little world of man is perpetually     
shaken by vice  and misfortune4 ,while  
the rest of mankind are led away        
captives in the  chains of their        
infernal enemy1 the faithful ,persian   
alone reserves his  religious adoration 
for his friend and protector ,ormusd1   
and fights  under his banner of light1  
in the full confidence that he shall1 in
 the  last day1 share the glory of his  
triumph4 ,at that decisive period1 the  
enlightened wisdom of goodness will     
render the power of ,ormusd superior  to
 the furious malice of his rival2       
,ahriman and his followers1 disarmed    
and subdued1 will sink into their native
 darkness1 and virtue will  maintain the
 eternal peace and harmony of the       

universe4''' ,as a legislator1          
,zoroaster 8discovered a liberal concern
 for the public and private  happiness  
seldom to be found among the visionary  
schemes of superstition4  ,fasting and  
celibacy1 the common means of purchasing
 the divine favour1  he condemns with   
abhorrence1 as a criminal rejection of  
the best gifts of                       
,providence40--,gibbon1 ,decline and    
,fall of the ,roman ,empire1 c4 viii4   
#g ,this is the account given by        
,virgil--          ,spret ,ciconum quo  
munere matres      ,inter sacra ,dem    
nocturnique orgia ,bacchi1              
,discerptum latos juvenem sparsere per  
agros4--,,georg4 iv4 #ebj4    ,which    
,dryden translates--        ,the        
,thracian matrons who the youth accus'd1
      ,of love disdain'd and marriage   
rites refus'd2      ,with furies and    
nocturnal orgies fir'd1      ,at length 
against his sacred life conspir'd2      
,whom ev'n the savage beasts had spar'd 
they kill'd1      ,and strew'd his      

mangled limbs about the field4    #h    
,this was the temple of the national    
deity of the ,ionians1 ,neptune         
,heliconius1 on ,mount ,mycale4--,vide  
,smith1 ,dict4 ,gr4 and ,rom4 ,antiq4   
#i ,vide ,thirlwall1 ,hist4 of ,greece1 
ii4 p4 #cd4    #aj ,one of the          
,sporades4    #aa ,an island near       
,crete4    #ab ,hom4 ,il4 #b4 #fga4     
,dryden's ,version4    #ac ,vide ,herod4
 lib4 #a4 c4 #cj-cc4    #ad ,a drachma  
was something less than ten pence4      
#ae 8   the last day of the month3      
elsewhere 4 ,so  called for this reason4
 ,the old ,greek year was lunar2 now the
 moon's  monthly orbit is twenty-nine   
and a half days4 ,so that if the first  
month  began with the sun and moon      
together at sunrise1 at the month's end 
it  would be sunset2 and the second     
month would begin at sunset4 ,to prevent
  this irregularity1 ,solon made the    
latter half day belong to the first     
month2 so that this thirtieth day       
consisted of two halves1 one belonging  

to the old1 the other to the new moon4  
,and when the lunar month fell  into    
disuse1 the last day of the calendar    
month was still called    40--,l4  ,s4  
,greek ,lexicon1 in v4 4    #af         
,herodotus mentions the case of         
,periander's children1 iii4 #ej1 and    
the death of his wife1 and his burning  
the clothes of all the ,corinthian      
women1 v4 #ib4    #ag ,some propose to  
read 1 fruit1 instead of 1 smoke1  here2
 others explain this saying as meaning  
that the ,greeks avoided  houses on the 
hills in order not to be annoyed with   
the smoke from the  low cottage1 and yet
 did not use coal1 but wood1 which would
 make more  smoke4    #ah ,this refers  
to the result of the war which          
,antipater1 who became  regent of       
,macedonia on the death of ,alexander   
the ,great1 carried on  against the     
confederacy of ,greek states1 of which  
,athens was the head2  and in which1    
after having defeated them at ,cranon1  
he compelled the  ,athenians to abolish 

the democracy1 and to admit a garrison  
into ,munychia4    #ai 1 sticks or      
faggots4    #bj ,after the battle of    
,arginus4    #ba 8,this is not quite    
correct4 ,socrates believed that the    
dmon which  attended him1 limited his   
warnings to his own conduct2 preventing 
him  from doing what was wrong1 but not 
prompting him to do right40--,see       
,grote's admirable chapter on ,socrates4
 ,hist4 of ,greece1 vol4 v4    #bb      
,grote gives good reasons for           
disbelieving this4    #bc ,the ,greek   
is1     --8 1  an action against a      
freedman for having forsaken or slighted
 his  40--,l4  ,s4    #bd ,this is      
exactly the character that ,horace gives
 of him3--        ,omnis ,aristippum    
decuit color et status et res2          
,tentantem majora1 fere prsentibus      
equum4--                                
,ep4 i4 #bc1 #bd4    #be ,plutarch1 in  
his life of ,pompey1 attributes these   
lines to  ,sophocles1 but does not      
mention the play in which they occurred4

    #bf ,the ,french translator gives   
the following examples1 to show what is 
meant by these several kinds of         
quibbling arguments3--    ,the lying one
 is this3--,is the man a liar who says  
that he tells lies4  ,if he is1 then he 
does not tell lies2 and if he does not  
tell lies1 is he  a liar8    ,the       
concealed one3--,do you know this man   
who is concealed8 ,if you do  not1 you  
do not know your own father2 for he it  
is who is concealed4    ,the veiled one 
is much the same as the preceding4      
,the electra is a quibble of the same   
kind as the two preceding ones3         
,electra sees ,orestes3 she knows that  
,orestes is her brother1 but does not   
know that the man she sees is ,orestes2 
therefore she does know1 and does  not  
know1 her brother at the same time4     
,the ,sorites is universally known4     
,the bald one is a kind of ,sorites2    
pulling one hair out of a man's head    
will not make him bald1 nor two1 nor    
three1 and so on till every hair in  his

 head is pulled out4    ,the horned     
one3--,you have what you have not lost4 
,you have not lost  horns1 therefore you
 have horns4    #bg ,from 1 to confute4 
#bh 1 take away 4 41 leaves 1 an ass4   
#bi ,the quibble here is that  is       
properly only masculine1 though it  is  
sometimes used as feminine4    #cj ,the 
,greek is a parody on the descriptions  
of ,tantalus and ,sisyphus4  ,hom4 ,od4 
ii4 #eha1 #eib4 ,see also1 ,dryden's    
,version1 ,b4 ii4 #gai4    #ca ,the     
,greek is  4 8,a mime was a kind of     
prose drama1  intended as a familiar    
representation of life and character1   
without any  distinct plot4 ,it was     
divided into   and 1 also  into   and   
40--,l4 4 ,s4 in voc4 4    #cb ,the     
,greek is1      4    #cc ,this figure   
was like a barbed arrow1 according to   
,zevort4    #cd ,herophilus was one of  
the most celebrated physicians of       
antiquity1  who founded the ,medical    
,school at ,alexandria1 in the time of  
the first  ,ptolemy4    #ce ,hom4 ,od4  

x4 #chg4 ,pope's ,version1 #dej4    #cf 
,perhaps there is a pun here2  means not
 only a knout  composed of small bones  
strung together1 but also a die4    #cg 
,this is a quotation from some lost play
 of ,euripides1 slightly  altered1 the  
line1 as printed in the ,variorum       
,edition1 vol4 vii41 ,mc4  ,trag4 cxxx4 
is--          1  4    #ch ,there is a   
pun here which is untranslateable4 ,the 
,greek is     1 meaning usury1 and also 
offspring or delivery4    #ci ,hom4 ,od4
 x4 #cce4 ,pope's ,version1 #chg4    #dj
 ,hom4 ,il4 vi4 #baa4 ,pope's ,version1 
#bed4    #da ,this is a quotation from  
the ,hippolytus of ,euripides1 v4 #dbd4 
#db ,i doubt if the wit of these        
parodies will be appreciated by the     
modern reader4 ,the lines of ,homer1    
which they are intended to parody1      
are3--          1 1 4--,il4 #c1 #ahb4   
1  ' 4--,il4 v4 #adf4    ,the first of  
which is translated by ,pope3--         
,oh1 blest ,atrides1 born of prosperous 
fate1      ,successful monarch of a     

mighty state6    ,the ,greek parody in  
the text is3--          1 1           ' 
4    #dc ,from 1 solvo1 to relax or     
weaken the limbs4    #dd ,from 1 8to    
walk about40    #de ,il4 #ah1 #ie4      
#df ,this very spirited version ,i owe  
to the kindness of my brother1 the      
,rev4 ,j4 ,e4 ,yonge1 of ,eton ,college4
    #dg 81 the actuality of a thing1 as 
opposed to simple  capability or        
potentiality 772 a philosophic word     
invented by  ,aristotle4-- ''' quite    
distinct from 1 though ,cicero 7,tusc4  
i4  #aj17 confounded them40--,l4  ,s4 in
 voc4    #dh ,from  divine1 and         
diction4    #di ,this was a temple of   
the ,muses which he had built for a     
school4    #ej ,so as to make it appear 
connected with 1 sweet4    #ea 1 means  
an earthenware jar for wine4    #eb ,the
 foregoing account hardly does justice  
to ,demetrius1 who was a  man of real   
ability1 and of a very different class  
to the generality  of those whom the    
ancients dignified with the title of    

philosophers4  ,he was called           
,phalereus1 to distinguish him from his 
contemporary  ,demetrius ,poliorcetes4  
,his administration of the affairs of   
,athens was  so successful1 that ,cicero
 gives him the praise of having         
re-established  the sinking and almost  
prostrate power of the republic4 7,cic4 
de ,rep4 ii4  #a47 ,as an orator1 he is 
spoken of by the same great authority   
with the  highest admiration4 ,cicero   
calls him 8a subtle disputer1 not       
vehement1  but very sweet1 as a pupil of
 ,theophrastus might be expected to be40
  7de ,off4 i4 #c47 ,in another place he
 praises him as possessed of great      
learning1 and as one who 8rather        
delighted than inflamed the ,athenians40
  7de ,clav4 ,orat4  #cg47 ,and says1   
8that he was the first person who       
endeavoured to soften eloquence1 and who
 made it tender and gentle2  preferring 
to appear sweet1 as indeed he was1      
rather than vehement40  7,ibid4  #ch47  
,in another place he says1 8,demetrius  

,phalereus the most  polished of all    
those orators0 7he has been mentioning  
,demosthenes1  ,hyperides1 ,lycurgus1   
schines1 and ,dinarchus7 8in my         
opinion40 7de  ,orat4 ii4 #bc47 ,and he 
praises him for not confining his       
learning to the  schools1 but for       
bringing it into daily use1 and         
employing it as one  of his ordinary    
weapons4 7de ,leg4 iii4 #ad47 ,and asks 
who can be found  besides him who       
excelled in both ways1 so as to be      
pre-eminent at the  same time as a      
scholar1 and a governor of a state4     
7,ibid47 ,he mentions  his death in the 
oration for ,rabirius ,postumus1  #i4   
,he appears to have  died about ,b4,c4  
#bhb4    #ec ,from 1 a procession4      
#ed ,there is a play on the similarity  
of the two sounds1 1 common1  and 1     
punishment4    #ee ,the ,greek is1  1   
which was a proverb for utter           
destruction4    #ef ,the passage is not 
free from difficulty2 but the thing     
which misled  ,diogenes appears to have 

been that 1 the word here used1 meant   
both 8a coin1 or coinage10 and 8a       
custom40    #eg ,this line is from      
,euripides1 ,medea1 #daa4    #eh ,the   
saperda was the coracinus 7a kind of    
fish7 when salted4    #ei ,this is      
probably an allusion to a prosecution   
instituted by  ,demosthenes against     
,midias1 which was afterwards           
compromised by ,midias  paying          
,demosthenes thirty min1 or three       
thousand drachm4 ,see ,dem4 ,or4  cont4 
,midias4    #fj ,this is a pun upon the 
similarity of ,athlias's name to the    
,greek  adjective 1 which signifies     
miserable4    #fa ,the  were the sacred 
secretaries or recorders sent by  each  
,amphictyonic state to the council along
 with their 1 7the  actual deputy or    
minister74 ,l4  ,s4 ,gr4  ,eng4 ,lex41  
in voc4    #fb ,there is a pun here4  is
 the word used for worse4 ,chiron was   
also the most celebrated of the         
,centaurs1 the tutor of ,achilles4      
#fc ,there is a pun intended here2 as   

,diogenes proposed ,didymus a fate      
somewhat similar to that of the beaver4 
,cupiens evadere damno                  
,testiculorum4    #fd ,this is taken    
from ,homer1 ,il4 4 #chg4 ,pope's       
,version1 #dee4    #fe ,this is also    
from ,homer1 ,il4 4 #ie4 ,pope's        
,version1 #abj4    #ff ,this is a parody
 on ,homer1 ,il4 4 #ie1 where the line  
ends '  --8if such is your language10   
which ,diogenes here changes to '  1 if 
you buy such things4    #fg ,this is a  
line of the ,phniss of ,euripides1 v4   
#dj4    #fh ,the pun here is on the     
similarity of the noun 1 an olive1 to   
the verb 1 to drive2 the words  '  are  
of frequent  occurrence in ,homer4      
#fi ,this line occurs1 ,hom4 ,il4 4 #hc4
    #gj ,the ,samothracian ,gods were   
,gods of the sea1 and it was customary  
for  those who had been saved from      
shipwreck to make them an offering of   
some  part of what they had saved2 and  
of their hair1 if they had saved nothing
  but their lives4    #ga ,eurytion was 

another of the ,centaurs1 who was killed
 by ,hercules4    #gb ,this is a pun on 
the similarity of the sound1 ,tegea1 to 
1 a  brothel4    #gc ,the ,greek is     
1-- was  not only a subscription or     
contribution for the support of the     
poor1 but  also a club or society of    
subscribers to a common fund for any    
purpose1  social1 commercial1 or        
charitable1 or especially political4''' 
,on the  various 1 v4 ,bckh1 ,p4 ,e4 i4 
#cbh4 ,att4 ,process4 p4 #edj1 s4 #ii4  
,l4   ,s4 in voc4 4    #gd ,hom4 ,il4 4 
#fe4    #ge ,there is a pun here2  means
 both 8a girl0 and 8the pupil of the    
eye40 ,and 1 8to destroy10 is also      
especially used for 8to seduce40    #gf 
,this is a parody on ,homer4 ,il4 #eia4 
,pope's ,version1 #gfj4    #gg ,hom4    
,il4 4 #cie4 ,pope's version1 #dfj4     
#gh ,this line is from the ,bacch of    
,euripides1 v4 #abbh4    #gi ,from this 
last paragraph it is inferred by some   
critics1 that  originally the preceding 
memoirs of ,crates1 ,metrocles1 and     

,hipparchia  formed only one chapter or 
book4    #hj ,this a parody on two lines
 in the ,antiope of ,euripides3         
1       '   '    4    ,which may be     
translated3--        ,wisdom it is which
 regulates both cities1      ,and       
private citizens1 and makes their lot   
,secure and happy2 nor is her influence 
,of less account in war4    #ha ,a sort 
of guitar or violin4    #hb ,the ,greek 
is1    1 a species of argument so       
called1  because he who used it mowed or
 knocked down his adversaries4--,aldob4 
#hc ,the ,greek in the text is3--       
1       '      4    ,the lines in       
,hesiod are3--                     '    
4--,op4 ,e4 ,di4 #bic4        ,that man 
is best1 whose unassisted wit           
,perceives at once what in each case is 
fit4      ,and next to him1 he surely is
 most wise1      ,who willingly submits 
to good advice4    #hd ,huerner thinks  
7as indeed is evident7 that something is
 lost here2  and proposes to read the   
sentence thus3--          1   1         

4 ,with reference to which passage1     
,liddell and ,scott1  ,gr4 ,eng4 ,lex4  
voc4 1 thus speak3 8 ''' as a           
philosophical  term of the ,stoics  1 a 
complete predicament such as is an      
intransitive verb3 e4g4  2 while an     
imperfect verb was  regarded as an      
incomplete predicament2 e4g4  1 and     
called  1 or 40    #he ,this line is    
from the ,inachus of ,sophocles 7one of 
his lost plays74    #hf ,homer1 ,iliad  
,,ii4 #dhd4    #hg ,this line is from   
the ,citharista of ,menander4    #hh ,it
 would appear that there is a           
considerable hiatus here2 for  the      
instance following is a sorites1 and not
 a specimen of the veiled  argument4    
,and there is no instance given of the  
concealed1 or of the  horned one4       
,still1 the mere fact of the text being 
unintelligible1  is far from proving    
that we have not got it as ,diogenes    
wrote it2 as  though in the language of 
the writer in ,smith's ,biographical    
,dictionary1  vol4 i4 pp4 #ajbb1 #ajbc1 

8the work contains a rich store of      
living  features1 which serve to        
illustrate the private life of the      
,greeks10 it  is equally clear that the 
author 8was unequal to writing a history
 of  ,greek philosophy4 ,his work in    
reality is nothing but a compilation of 
the most heterogeneous and often        
contradictory accounts4''' ,the traces  
of carelessness and mistakes are very   
numerous2 much in the work is  confused1
 and there is also much that is quite   
absurd4 ,and as far  as philosophy      
itself is concerned1 ,diogenes very     
frequently did not  know what he was    
talking about when he abridged the      
theories of the  philosophers40    #hi  
,the third point of view is wanting2 and
 those that are given appear  to be ill 
selected4 ,the ,french translator1      
following the hint of ,huebner1  gives  
the following passage from ,sextus      
,empiricus 7a physician of the  ,sceptic
 school1 about ,b4,c4 #bej71 in his work
 against the ,philosophers1  which he   

says may serve to rectify and complete  
the statement of  ,diogenes ,lartius4   
8,good is said in one sense of that     
which produces  the useful1 or from     
which the useful results2 that is1 the  
good par  excellence1 virtue4 ,for      
virtue is as it were the source from    
which all  utility naturally flows4 ,in 
another sense it is said of that which  
is  accidentally the cause of utility2  
under this point of view we call good   
not only virtue1 but also those actions 
which are conformable to virtue1  for   
they are accidentally useful4 ,in the   
third and last place1 we call  good     
everything that possibly can be useful1 
comprehending under this  definition    
virtue1 virtuous actions1 friends1 good 
men1 the ,gods1 c41  c40    #ij ,hom4   
,il4 ,i4 #ha4 ,pope's ,version1 l4 #aje4
    #ia ,it is hardly necessary to      
remark that  is the name of ,minerva1   
not of ,jupiter2 1 of ,juno2 1 of       
,vulcan2 1 of ,neptune1  and 1 of       
,ceres4  is properly derived from 1 to  

shine2  has some affinity with 1 to     
drink4  is only a  dialectic variation  
of  4    #ib ,there is a hiatus in the  
text here4 ,casaubon supplies the       
meaning by  a reference to ,plutarch's  
,treatise on the opinions of the        
,philosophers1  iii4 #g1 8that the winds
 are a flowing of the air1 and that they
 have  various names with reference to  
the countries from which they flow40    
#ic ,something is evidently wanting     
here2 probably some mention of an       
earthquake4    #id ,this is similar to  
,virgil's description4        ,quinque  
tenent clum zon1 quarum una corusco     
,semper ,sole rubens1 et torrida semper 
ab igni3      ,quam circum extrem dextr 
lvque trahuntur4      ,crule glacie     
concret atque imbribus atris4      ,has 
inter mediamque du mortalibus gris      
,munere concess ,divm1 et via secta per 
ambas1      ,obliquus qua se signorum   
verteret ordo4--,,georg4 ,i4 #bcc4      
,there is no part of ,dryden's          
translation superior to that of this    

passage4        ,five girdles bind the  
skies2 the torrid zone      ,glows with 
the passing and repassing sun2      ,far
 on the right and left1 th' extremes of 
heaven1      ,to frosts1 and snows1 and 
bitter blasts are given2      ,betwixt  
the midst4 ,and there the ,gods assigned
      ,four habitable seats for human   
kind1      ,and1 cross their limits cut 
a sloping way1      ,which the twelve   
signs in beauteous order sway4 l4 #cbb4 
#ie 81 a name given by ,herillus in     
,diogenes ,lartius to a man's  natural  
talents1 c41 which ought all to be      
subordinate to the attainment  of the   
chief good40--,l4  ,s4 in voc4    #if   
,from 1 a well1 and  to draw water4     
#ig ,the ,greek used is 2 which was a   
term especially applied to  the money   
which slaves let out to hire paid to    
their master4    #ih ,this is a parody  
on ,hom4 ,il4 iii4 #aif4 ,pope's        
version1 i4 #bfj4 ,the  word  means the 
mouth piece of a flute4    #ii ,taken   
from the ,orestes of ,euripides1 i4     

#adj4    #ajj ,this is parodied from    
,hom4 ,od4 iv4 #faa4 ,pope's version1 l4
 #hca4    #aja ,this is referring to the
 ,stoic doctrine ridiculed by ,horace3  
,si dives qui sapiens est1      ,et     
sutor bonus1 et solus formosus1 et est  
,rex      ,cur optas quod habes8--,hor4 
,sat4 i4 #acj4    ,which may be         
translated3--        ,if every man is   
rich who's wise1      ,a cobbler too    
beyond all price2      ,a handsome man1 
and eke a king2      ,why thus your vows
 at random fling8    #ajb ,from 1 to    
hide1 and 1 a horse4    #ajc ,these     
lines are from the ,erestes of          
,euripides1 v4 #bdg4    #ajd ,this is a 
quotation from ,homer1 ,od4 x4 #die4    
,pope's ,version1 #ehf4  ,the ,greek    
here is1  4 ,the line in ,homer stands3 
1--sc3  4    #aje ,the argument by      
progression is the sorites4 8,the       
arrest0 is the  method of encountering  
the sorites1 by taking some particular  
point at  which to stop the admissions  
required by the sorites4    #ajf ,the   

remainder of the life of ,chrysippus is 
lost4    #ajg ,see ,herod4 iv4 #ic4     
#ajh ,this resembles the account which  
,ovid puts into the mouth of            
,pythagoras1 in the last book of his    
,metamorphoses1 where he makes him      
say3--        ,morte carent anim1       
semperque priore relicta      ,sede1    
novis domibus habitant vivuntque recept2
      ,ipse ego1 nam memini1 ,trojani   
tempora belli1      ,panthorides        
,euphorbus eram1 cui pectore quondam    
,hsit in adverso gravis hasta minoris   
,atrid3      ,agnovi ,clypeum lv        
gestamina nostr      ,nuper ,abantes    
templo ,junonis in ,argis4    ,which may
 be translated3--        ,death has no  
pow'r th' immortal soul to slay2        
,that1 when its present body turns to   
clay1      ,seeks a fresh home1 and with
 unminish'd might      ,inspires another
 frame with life and light4      ,so ,i 
myself1 7well ,i the past recall7       
,when the fierce ,greeks begirt ,troy's 
holy wall1      ,was brave ,euphorbus2  

and in conflict drear1      ,poured     
forth my blood beneath ,atrides' spear3 
,the shield this arm did bear ,i lately 
saw      ,in ,juno's shrine1 a trophy of
 that war4    #aji ,this passage has    
been interpreted in more ways than one4 
,casaubon  thinks with great probability
 that there is a hiatus in the text4 ,i 
have  endeavoured to extract a meaning  
out of what remains4 ,compare ,samuel   
ii4  #af1 #bc4 8,and the counsel of     
,ahitophel1 which he counselled in those
 days1  was as if a man had enquired at 
the oracle of ,god2 so was all the      
counsel  of ,ahitophel both with ,david 
and with ,absalom40    #aaj ,zaleucus   
was the celebrated lawgiver of the      
,epizephyrian ,locrians1  and is said to
 have been originally a slave employed  
by a shepherd1 and  to have been set    
free and appointed lawgiver by the      
direction of an  oracle1 in consequence 
of his announcing some excellent laws1  
which he  represented ,minerva as having
 communicated to him in a dream4        

,diogenes1  is wrong however1 in calling
 him a disciple of ,pythagoras 7see     
,bentley on  ,phalaris71 as he lived    
about a hundred years before his time2  
his true  date being #ffj ,b4,c4 ,the   
code of ,zaleucus is stated to have been
 the first  collection of written laws  
that the ,greeks possessed4 ,their      
character  was that of great severity4  
,they have not come down to us4 ,his    
death is  said to have occurred thus4   
,among his laws was one forbidding any  
citizen  to enter the senate house in   
arms1 under the penalty of death4 ,but  
in  a sudden emergency1 ,zaleucus       
himself1 in a moment of forgetfulness1  
transgressed his own law3 on which he   
slew himself1 declaring that he  would  
vindicate his law4 7,eustath4 ad4 ,il4  
i4 p4 #fj74 ,diodorus1 however1  tells  
the same story of ,charondas4    #aaa   
,charondas was a lawgiver of ,catana1   
who legislated for his own city  and the
 other towns of ,chalcidian origin in   
,magna ,grecia1 such as ,zancle1        

,naxos1 ,leontini1 ,euba1 ,myl1 ,himera1
 ,callipolis1 and ,rhegium4 ,his laws   
have not been preserved to us1 with the 
exception of a few judgments4  ,they    
were probably in verse1 for ,athenus    
says that they were sung in  ,athens at 
banquets4 ,aristotle tells us that they 
were adapted to an  aristocracy4 ,it is 
much doubted whether it is really true  
that he was a  disciple of ,pythagoras1 
though we are not sure of his exact     
time1 so that  we cannot pronounce it as
 impossible as in the preceding case4   
,he must  have lived before the time of 
,anaxilaus1 tyrant of ,rhegium1 who     
reigned  from ,b4,c4 #did to ,b4,c4     
#dgf1 because he abolished the laws of  
,charondas1  which had previously been  
in force in that city4 ,diodorus gives a
 code of  laws which he states that     
,charondas gave to the city of ,thurii1 
which was  not founded till ,b4,c4 #ddc1
 when he must certainly have been dead a
 long  time4 ,there is one law of his   
preserved by ,stobus1 which is probably 

authentic1 since it is found in a       
fragment of ,theophrastus2 enacting that
  all buying and selling shall be       
transacted by ready money only4    #aab 
,this doctrine is alluded to doubtfully 
by ,virgil1 ,georg4 i4 #bdg4            
,illic1 ut perhibent1 aut intempesta    
silet nox      ,semper1 et obduct       
densantur nocte tenebr2      ,aut redit 
a nobis ,aurora1 diemque reducit2       
,nosque ubi primus equis oriens afflavit
 anhelis1      ,illic sera rubens       
accendit lumina ,vesper4    ,thus       
translated by ,dryden1 l4 #cch3--       
,there1 as they say1 perpetual night is 
found1      ,in silence brooding o'er   
th' unhappy ground4      ,or when       
,aurora leaves our northern sphere1     
,she lights the downward heav'n and     
rises there2      ,and when on us she   
breathes the living light      ,red     
,vesper kindles there the tapers of the 
night4    #aac  appears1 in a division  
like this1 to be the deliberative part  
of the mind2 1 the rational part of the 

intellect3 1 that part  with which the  
passions are concerned4    #aad ,there  
is a great variety of suggestions as to 
the proper reading  here4 ,there is     
evidently some corruption in the text4  
#aae ,from 1 to cause to cease1 1       
sorrow4    #aaf ,it is impossible to    
give the force of this epigram in any   
other  language4 ,it is a pun on 1  and 
4 ,the last word meaning  not only high1
 lofty1 but also eminent1 very skilful4 
,the plain  ,english would be3--8,the   
lofty height of a most eminent country  
conceals  ,acron1 a skilful physician of
 ,acragas1 the son of a skilful father40
 ,the  variation would be3--8,a high    
tomb on a very high summit1 conceals10  
c4    #aag ,this story is mentioned by  
,horace3--                              
,siculique poet1      ,narrabo          
interitum2 deus immortalis haberi1      
,dum cupit ,empedocles ardentem frigidus
 tnam1      ,insiluit4 ,a4 ,p4 #dff4    
#aah ,this is slightly parodied from    
,homer4 ,od4 xi4 #bgh4 ,pope's ,version1

  #ccg4    #aai ,there were three       
festivals of ,bacchus at ,athens at     
which dramatic  contests took place1 the
  ' 1 or1 8in the fields20 the   or   1 
or 8the marshes10 a part of the city    
near the  ,acropolis1 in which was      
situated the 1 an enclosure dedicated to
  ,bacchus2 and the   1 8in the city10  
or   4 ,the  comic contests usually took
 place at the second or ,lenan          
festivals4  ,sometimes also at the      
,great ,dionysia4    #abj 1 glorious4   
#aba ,according to ,strabo1 the         
descendants of ,androclus1 the founder  
of  ,ephesus 7of which family           
,heraclitus came71 bore the title of    
king1 and  had certain prerogatives and 
privileges attached to the title4       
#abb ,there is probably some corruption 
in the text here4    #abc ,there is     
great obscurity and uncertainty of the  
text here4 ,the  reading translated is  
that of ,huebner1 4 ,some read 1  he    
seems to have abandoned the             
,pythagoreans4 ,others propose 4  ,the  

,french translator renders1--,he had for
 enemies the ,pythagoreans4    #abd ,see
 the account of ,zeno the ,cittian4     
#abe ,see the life of ,parmenides4      
#abf ,there is evidently a considerable 
gap in the text here4    #abg ,as there 
is no such passage in ,herodotus1       
,valckenr conjectures  that we ought    
here to read ,metrodorus4    #abh ,the  
,thesmophoria was a festival in honour  
of ,ceres1 celebrated  in various parts 
of ,greece2 and only by married women2  
though girls  might perform some of the 
ceremonies4 ,herodotus says1 that it was
  introduced into ,greece from ,egypt1  
by the daughters of ,danaus4 ,the ,attic
  ,thesmophoria lasted probably three   
days1 and began on the eleventh day of  
the month ,pyanession2 the first day was
 called 1 or 1 from  the women going in 
procession to ,eleusis2 the second 1 or 
fasting2  the third was called 1 as on  
that day ,ceres was invoked under  that 
name1 and it was the day of merriment of
 the festival4    #abi ,namely1         

reasoning well1 expressing one's self   
well1 and acting well4    #acj ,this is 
thus embodied by ,lucretius3--          
,nam nihil e nihilo1 in nihilum nl posse
 reverti4    #aca ,hom4 ,il4 v4 #cdj4   
,pope's version1 #dbb4    #acb ,il4 vi4 
#adf4    #acc ,il4 xxi4 #ajf4 ,pope's   
version1 #aae4    #acd ,homer1 ,il4 xx4 
#bdh4 ,pope's version1 #bid4    #ace    
,there is too remarkable a similarity in
 this to ,campbell's lines3--           
',tis distance lends enchantment to the 
view1      ,and robes the mountains in  
their azure hue3    to allow one to pass
 it over without pointing it out4       
#acf 8,diogenes here appears 7though1 he
 gives no intimation of his doing  so17 
to be transcribing the reasonings of    
some one of the ,sceptics40  ,french    
,transl4    #acg ,that is to say1 the   
harmony between intellect and the senses
 will  not last long4 ,attagas and      
,numenius were two notorious brigands4  
#ach ,that is1 8trifler10 from 1 to     
judge2 and 1 nonsensical  talk4    #aci 

,that is1 flattering for gifts2 from 1  
to wag the tail as a  dog1 to caress2   
and 1 a gift4    #adj ,this sentence is 
a remark of ,diogenes himself4 ,there   
are several  more of his observations in
 parentheses as we proceed4    #ada     
,this is the argument in its completed  
form3 8,we can only form an  idea of an 
atom by analogy1 and analogy            
demonstrates to us that it is  not of   
infinite littleness4 ,in fact1 let us   
compare it to the smallest  particles   
recognisable by sense1 and then let us  
endeavour to form an  idea of these     
last4 ,to do this we must take a term of
 comparison in  complex objects1 which  
are composed of various parts4          
,abstracting from  these all other      
characteristics but that of extent1 we  
see that these  objects have dimensions1
 some greater and some less1 measuring  
an extent  which is greater or less as  
the case may be4 ,the smallest sensible 
particle will then have its dimensions2 
it will measure the smallest  possible  

sensible extent1 that is to say1 it will
 not be infinitely  small4 ,applying    
this analogy to an atom1 one comes to   
conceive it as  measuring the smallest  
extent possible1 but not as having no   
extent at  all1 which was what ,epicurus
 wished to prove40--,french ,translator4
    #adb ,this is a quotation from      
,theognis4    #adc ,from the ,trachini  
of ,sophocles1 #aghd4    #add ,there is 
some hopeless corruption in the text    
here4 ,nor has any one  succeeded in    
making it intelligible4 ,the ,french    
translator divides it  into two maxims4 
#ade ,there in some great corruption    
here again4 ,the ,french translator     
takes #ai1 #bj1 and #ba all as one4     
,,index4       ,the ,roman numerals     
refer to the sections1 the ,arabic      
figures to the  pages4      ,,schines1 a
 rhetorician1 vii4 #hj4                 
calumniated1 iii4 #gi4      lectured at 
,athens1 iv4 #hj4      son of a sausage 
seller1 i4 #gi4      ,,alcm,,on1        
,crotona1 his view of the soul1 #cga4   

,,anacharsis1 inventions of1 ii4 #dh4   
letter to ,crsus1 #di4      received by 
,solon1 iii4 #dg4      return to        
,scythia1 iv4 #dg4      sayings of1 v4  
#dg4      one of the wise1 #df4         
,,anaxagoras1 called ,,mind1 i4 #ei4    
epigrams on1 x4 #fb4      first prose   
writer1 viii4 #fa4      opinions of1    
iii4 #ei4      prosecuted for impiety1  
ix4 #fa4      ,,anaxarchus1 called      
,,happy1 iii4 #dja4      intimate with  
,alexander1 #djj4      ,nicocreon1 his  
enemy1 #dja4      ,,anaximander1 the    
astronomer1 #eg4      ,,anaximenes1     
letters to ,pythagoras1 #eh4            
,annicereans1 their opinions1 x4 #ib4   
,,antisthenes1 doctrines of1 v4 #bbj4   
founds a manly ,stoic school1 viii4     
#bba4      love of life1 x4 #bbc4       
pupil of ,gorgias1 ii4 #bag4            
sayings of1 iv4 #bah4      writings of1 
ix4 #bbb4      ,,arcesilaus1 a favourite
 of ,eumenes and ,hierocles1 xiv4 #afh4 
an admirer of ,plato1 viii4 #afe4      a
 poet1 iv4 #afd4      axiomatic and     

free-spoken1 x4 #afe4      death from   
excess1 x4 #agj4      disliked          
talkativeness1 #aff4      founder of the
 ,middle ,academy1 ii4 #afc4      goes  
to ,crantor1 iii4 #afc4      letter to  
,thaumasias1 xix4 #agj4      liberal    
with money1 xiii4 #afg4      vices of1  
xvi4 #afh4      ,,archelaus1 #fb4      a
 natural philosopher1 ii4 #fb4          
opinions on heat and cold1 c4 iii4 #fc4 
---- production of animals1 iii4 #fc4   
,,archytas1 general at ,tarentum1 #cfi4 
letter to ,plato and reply1 iv4 #cfi4   
mathematician1 vii4 #cgj4               
,,aristippus1 a favourite of ,dionysius1
 iii4 #ha4      opinions of1 on pain and
 pleasure1 #ij4      retorts1 iv4 #hb4  
school of philosophy1 viii4 #hi4        
sycophancy1 iv4 #hb4      teaches for   
money1 ii4 #ha4      wealth1 iv4 #hb4   
writings1 vi4 #hh4      ,,ariston1 the  
bald1 called ,,siren1 i4 #cah4      an  
eloquent philosopher1 vi4 #cai4      his
 writings1 vii4 #cai4      ,,aristotle1 
apophthegms1 xi4 #ahg4      death from  

poison1 vii4 #ahb4      hymn to         
,hermias1 #ahc4      leaves ,plato1 iv4 
#aha4      lived in ,philip's court1 vi4
 #ahb4      opinions1 criterion of      
truth1 #aib4      ---- friendship1 #aib4
      ---- ,god1 #aic4      ----        
philosophy1 #aia4      ,plato's most    
eminent pupil1 ii4 #aha4                
peripatetic1 why so called1 iv4 #aha4   
scheme for early waking1 x4 #ahf4       
school at ,athens1 vii4 #ahb4      will 
of1 ix4 #ahe4      writings1 many1 xii4 
#ahi4        ,,bias1 the wise1 #ch4     
declines the tripod1 i4 #ch4      death 
of1 in court1 iv4 #ci4      eloquent and
 just as a lawyer1 iii4 #ci4      a     
poet1 v4 #ci4      sayings of1 v4 #ci4  
stratagem to save ,priene1 his native   
city1 ii4 #ci4      ,,bion1 apophthegms 
of1 iii4 #agb4      change of schools1  
iv4 #agc4      fear of death1 x4 #age4  
fond of theatre1 v4 #agd4      poverty  
of1 i4 #aga4      selfishness of1 ix4   
#agd4        ,,carneades1 his letters1  
viii4 #agh4      well read in ,stoic    

lore1 ii4 #agg4      industry of1 iii4  
#agh4      his fear of death1 vii4 #agh4
      ,,cebes1 the ,theban1 #aje4       
,,charondas1 account of1 note1 #cde4    
,,chilo1 the wise one of1 #cb4          
brief in speech1 v4 #cd4      death of1 
through joy1 v4 #cd4      letter to     
,periander1 v4 #cd4      opinion as to  
,cythera1 iv4 #cc4      saying about    
suretyship1 v4 #cd4      sayings of1 ii4
 #cc4      ,,chrysippus1 his abilities1 
ii4 #cbg4      his books1 xii4 #cca4    
his industry1 iii4 #cbh4      his       
questions1 xi4 #ccj4      a pupil of    
,cleanthes1 i4 #cbg4      his           
self-esteem1 iv4 #cbi4      said to be  
an indecent writer1 xii4 #cca4          
,,cleanthes1 a boxer1 #cbb4      books  
of1 ii4 #cbe4      called an ass1 iv4   
#cbc4      poor and industrious1 ii4    
#cbb4      slow of intellect1 iii4 #cbc4
      starved himself1 vii4 #cbf4       
wrote on oyster shells1 c4 for want of  
paper1 iv4 #cbc4      ,,cleobulus1 one  
of the wise men1 #da4      apophthegms  

of1 iv4 #db4      letter to ,solon1 vi4 
#dc4      ,,clitomachus1 disciple and   
successor of ,carneades1 #agi4          
,,crantor1 a poet1 vi4 #afb4      a     
pupil of ,polemo1 iii4 #afa4            
retires to temple of sculapius1 iv4     
#afa4      ,,crates1 a pupil of ,polemo1
 #afj4      lived with ,crantor1 iii4   
#afj4      writings of1 and disciples1  
iv4 #afa4      ,,crates1 a ,theban      
cynic1 #bdi4      his disposal of       
property1 iv4 #bej4      his jesting    
with death1 x4 #beb4      his           
indifference to public opinion1 viii4   
#beb4      his sayings1 ix4 #bhb4       
,,crito1 the ,athenian1 #ajc4           
,cynics1 doctrines of1 iii4 #beg4       
discard liberal studies1 #beg4          
prefer ethics to logic1 #beg4           
simplicity in living1 #beh4      virtue1
 the chief good1 #beh4      ---- may be 
taught1 #beh4      ,cyrenaics1 a sect of
 the school of ,aristippus1 viii4 #hi4  
,,demetrius1 governor of ,athens1 ii4   
#bji4      honoured and envied1 viii4   

#bji4      his reported blindness and   
restoration of sight1 vii4 #bji4        
statues erected to him1 ii4 #bji4       
sayings of1 x4 #baa4      writings of1  
ix4 #baj4      ,,democritus1 pupil of   
the magi1 #cij4      death1 xi4 #cij4   
disregard of glory1 v4 #cia4      ----  
of wealth1 vii4 #cib4      doctrines of1
 xii4 #cid4      lowly life1 vii4 #cib4 
,plato's dislike of him1 viii4 #cic4    
sagacity1 stories of1 x4 #cid4          
writings of1 xiii4 #cie4                
,dialectics1 the ,stoics' doctrine of1  
xxxv4 #bge4      ,,diogenes1 accounts of
 his death1 xi4 #bdf4      anecdotes of 
him1 vi4 #bbh4      cynical sayings1    
#bbf4      lived in a cask1 #bbe4       
money changer1 #bbd4      ---- corrupted
 by him1 i4 #bbd4      neglect of music1
 vii4 #bde4      persuader1 a skilful1  
x4 #bde4      poverty of1 reconciled to1
 iii4 #bbd4      pride and haughtiness  
of1 iv4 #bbe4      pupil of             
,antisthenes1 ii4 #bbd4      sold as a  
slave1 ix4 #bde4      writings of1 xii4 

#bdg4      ,,diogenes of ,apollonia1    
#djj4      his chief doctrines1 ii4     
#djj4      ,,dionysius1 a pupil of      
,zeno1 #cba4      writings of1 v4 #cba4 
,druids1 account of1 note #c4           
,egyptian philosophy1 vii4 #i4          
,,empedocles1 accused of pride1 xi4     
#cff4      doctrines of1 xii4 #cfh4     
inventor of rhetoric1 iii4 #cfa4        
liberality of1 ix4 #cfc4      pacifies  
the ,agrigentines1 xi4 #cff4            
political career1 ix4 #cfc4      retires
 to ,peloponnesus1 x4 #cfd4      story  
of his wonder working1 xi4 #cfe4        
why called1 wind-forbidder1 v4 #cfb4    
,,epicharmus1 inscription on his statue1
 #cfh4      ,,epicurus1 an ,athenian1   
#dbd4      his character1 v4 #dbg4      
criteria of truth1 #dce4      said to be
 debauched1 iii4 #dbf4      rejected    
dialectics1 #dce4      ,diotimus1 a     
,stoic1 opposes him1 iii4 #dbe4         
doctrines1 his1 on affections1 #ddg4    
---- atoms1 #dci4      ---- clouds1     
thunder1 c4 #dfj4      ---- comets1     

#dfd4      ---- faults among men1 #dfg4 
---- forms and attributes1 #ddi4        
---- grief1 #dfg4      ---- heaven's    
phenomena1 #deb1 #deh4      ----        
injuries among men1 #dff4      ----     
meteorological1 #dfa4      ---- opinion 
and supposition1 #dcf4      ----        
passions1 pleasure1 and pain1 #dcf4     
---- pleasure1 #dga1 #dgc4      ----    
production of things1 #dda4      ----   
self-production1 #dea4      ---- stars1 
#dfd4      ---- study of philosophy1    
#dfh4      ---- universe1 #dci4         
flattered ,mithras1 iii4 #dbe4          
fundamental maxims of1 xxxi4 #dgd4      
letter of1 to ,herodotus1 xxiv4 #dcf4   
---- ,menceus1 xxvii4 #dfh4      ----   
,pythocles1 xxv4 #dee4      manner of   
his death1 ix4 #dbi4      plain         
language1 his1 viii4 #dbh4      pupils1 
his1 xi4 #dca4      virtue1 why to be   
chosen1 xxx4 #dgc4      voluminous      
writings1 xvii4 #dhc4      will1 his    
last1 x4 #dbi4      writings on natural 
philosophy1 iv4 #dbf4      youthful     

student1 a1 ix4 #dbi4      ,,epimenides1
 one of the wise men1 #ej4      built a 
temple at ,athens1 vi4 #eb4             
honoured as a deity1 xi4 #ec4           
letter to ,solon1 ix4 #eb4      long    
life1 his1 story of1 iv4 #ea4      long 
sleep1 his1 story of1 ii4 #ej4          
poems1 and other writings1 v4 #ea4      
stays the plague at ,athens1 iii4 #ea4  
,ethical philosophy1 what1 xiii4 #ab4   
subdivisions1 xiii4 #ab4                
,,euclides1 his followers1 iv4 #ig4     
opinions1 ii4 #ig4      protector of    
,socrates1 i4 #ig4      ,,eudoxus1      
astronomer1 geometrician1 and lawgiver1 
#cgc4      inventor of theory of crooked
 lines1 vi4 #cgd4      writings of1 iii4
 #cgc4        ,fate1 ,stoics' view of1  
lxxiv4 #cah4        ,gymnosophist1 what 
and who1 i4 #c4      ,,god1 ,stoics'    
view of1 lxxii4 #cab4        ,hegesiaci1
 a sect of the school of ,aristippus1   
their opinions1 ix4 #ia4                
,,heraclides1 a ,peripatetic1           
,pythagorean1 and ,platonist1 by turns1 

ii4 #bac4      remarkable attempt to    
deceive at his death1 ii4 #bae4         
surnamed ,pompicus from his dress and   
size1 iii4 #bac4      writings of1 iv4  
#bac4      ,,heraclitus1 book on nature1
 v4 #cgg4      epigrams on him1 xii4    
#cha4      esteemed by ,darius          
,hystaspes1 letters between them1 ix4   
#chj4      lofty and arrogant1 #cgf4    
misanthropic1 iii4 #cgf4                
,,hipparchia1 a female philosopher1 in  
love with ,crates the ,cynic1 #bed4     
,her contest with ,theodorus1 iii4 #bee4
      ,,hippasus1 a disciple of         
,pythagoras1 #cga4        ,ionian school
 of philosophy1 x4 #aj4      ,italian   
school of philosophy1 x4 #aj4           
8,know thyself10 the apophthegm1 xiii4  
#ba4        ,,lacydes1 founder of the   
,new ,academy1 i4 #agf4      his death  
from excess1 vi4 #agg4      his         
industry1 ii4 #agf4      ,,leucippus1   
his chief doctrines1 ii4 #chh4          
pupil of ,zeno the ,eleatic1 #chh4      
,,lycon1 an eloquent instructor of      

youth1 i4 #bje4      delicacy in dress1 
iii4 #bjf4      favourite of ,eumenes   
and ,attalus1 iv4 #bjf4      his will1  
ix4 #bjf4        ,magi1 what and who1   
note1 #c4      ,,melissus1 his doctrine 
of universe1 #chf4      ,,menedemus1 his
 banquets1 xv4 #aaj4      his character1
 vi4 #ajg4      his death1 xviii4 #aab4 
despised ,plato1 c41 xi4 #aji4          
disciple of ,phdo1 #aje4      endangered
 by his free speech1 iv4 #ajg4          
friend of ,antigonus1 xvii4 #aaa4       
invention and readiness1 xii4 #aji4     
regardlessness of appearances1 v4 #ajg4 
severe and rigid1 iii4 #ajf4      sent  
to ,megara1 but deserts1 ii4 #aje4      
thought highly of by his countrymen1    
xvi4 #aaa4      ,,menedemus1 a          
superstitious ,cynic1 #bfg4             
,,menippus1 a ,cynic1 #bec4      hangs  
himself1 iii4 #bef4      writer of low  
ridicule1 ii4 #bef4      writings1 vi4  
#bef4      ,,metrocles1 pupil of ,crates
 the ,cynic1 #bec4      destroys        
himself1 #bed4      ,mind1 ,stoics1     

doctrine of1 lxxiii4 #bii4              
,,monimus1 feigned madness1 i4 #bdh4    
a pupil of ,diogenes1 #bdh4             
,,myson1 one of the wise men1 #di4      
,natural philosophy1 what so called1    
xiii4 #aa4      ,stoics' account of1    
lxvii4 #cjg4        ,,orpheus1 not a    
philosopher1 iv4 #g4      ,,onesicritus1
 a pupil of ,diogenes1 #bdi4            
,,parmenides1 first to speak of the     
earth as a sphere1 ii4 #chd4            
philosophized in poems1 iii4 #che4      
,,periander1 one of the wise men1 his   
domestic crimes1 #dc4      his letter to
 ,procles1 viii4 #df4      ---- to the  
wise men1 vii4 #de4      ---- from      
,thrasybulus1 ix4 #df4      sayings of1 
v4 #de4      wish to conceal his grave1 
iii4 #dd4      ,,ph,,do1 founder of the 
,eliac school1 #if4      ,,pherecydes1  
one of the wise men1 #ec4      epigrams 
on1 vii4 #ee4      first writer on      
natural philosophy1 ii4 #ed4      grave 
of1 at ,ephesus1 iv4 #ed4      letter to
 ,thales1 viii4 #ef4      makes a       

sun-dial1 vi4 #ee4      ,,philolaus1 a  
pupil of ,pythagoras1 #cgb4      aims at
 regal power1 ii4 #cgb4      book1 his  
one1 iv4 #cgb4      first to describe   
the earth's movement in a circle1 iii4  
#cgb4      ,philosophers1 names of their
 sects1 xii4 #aa4      who did not      
write1 xi4 #aa4      ,philosophy1 arose 
among ,greeks1 iii4 #f4      divisions  
of1 xiii4 #aa4      earliest study of1  
i4 #c4      two schools of1 x4 #aj4     
various kinds of1 xi4 #aa4              
,,pisistratus1 his letter to ,solon1 vi4
 #bj4      ,,pittacus1 one of the wise  
men1 #ce4      advice about marrying1   
viii4 #cg4      death of1 vi4 #cf4      
forbearance of1 iii4 #ce4      a general
 and soldier1 i4 #ce4      honoured by  
his country1 ii4 #ce4      lameness of1 
ix4 #ch4      letter to ,crsus1 x4 #ch4 
a poet1 v4 #cf4      sayings of1 iv4    
#cf4      ,,plato1 academy1 his1 ix4    
#aae4      account of his opinions1 by  
,alcimus1 #aag4      aided by           
,epicharmus1 a comic poet1 xii4 #aaf4   

attachments1 xxiii4 #abc4      ---- to  
writings of ,sophron1 #aai4      birth  
and early abode1 ii4 #aac4      danger  
from ,dionysius1 xv4 #abj4      defends 
,chabrias1 xviii4 #aba4      descent of1
 i4 #aac4      dialogues of1 xxxv4 #acc4
      disciples of1 xxxi4 #abi4         
disliked ,aristippus1 #abf4             
disliked by ,xenophon1 xxiv4 #abe4      
education1 his1 v4 #aad4      epigrams  
on his tomb1 #abh4      epistles1 his1  
xxxvi4 #acd4      marks in his books1   
xxxix4 #acf4      method of his         
argument1 xxxii4 #abi4      opinions on 
arts1 beauty1 #add4      beneficence1   
#adf4      contraries1 #adi4            
discourse1 #adc4      entities divisible
 and undivisible1 #aej4      ----       
independent and relative1 #aej4      end
 of affairs1 #adf4      friendships1    
#ada4      ,god and matter1 #acg4       
good and evil1 #adj4      good counsel1 
#aej4      good laws and lawlessness1   
#adh4      the good1 #adh4      good    
things1 #adi4      happiness1 #adg4     

justice1 #adb4      knowledge1 #adb4    
law1 #adc4      medical science1 #adc4  
music1 #adc4      noble birth1 #add4    
philanthropy1 #adg4      political      
constitutions1 #ada4      power1 #adg4  
rhetoric1 #ade4      rule1 #ade4        
the soul1 #add4      things existing1   
#adh4      virtue perfect1 #add4        
voice1 #aej4      opinions on his       
writings1 xxv4 #abf4      refuses       
appointments from ,arcadia and ,thebes1 
xvii4 #aba4      ridiculed1 xxii4 #aba4 
,socrates' dream of him1 vii4 #aad4     
system1 his1 made difficult on purpose1 
xxxviii4 #ace4      theory of ideas1    
#aah4      valiant soldier1 a1 x4 #aae4 
visits ,sicily1 volcanoes1 xiv4 #aai4   
what he taught1 xix4 #abb4      where he
 first taught1 viii4 #aad4      will1   
his last1 xxx4 #abg4      ,,polemo1 his 
calmness1 iv4 #aeh4      epigram1 viii4 
#afj4      fond1 of ,sophocles1 vii4    
#aei4      imitated ,xenocrates1 vi4    
#aei4      intemperate and profligate1  
#aeh4      much honoured1 iv4 #aeh4     

rigorous system of morals1 iv4 #aeh4    
,,potamo and his school1 xiv4 #ac4      
,potter's wheel1 invented by            
,anacharsis1 viii4 #dh4                 
,,protagoras1 method of arguing1 his1   
iii4 #cig4      taught at a fixed price1
 #cih4      works1 his1 v4 #cih4        
wrecked in his way to ,sicily1 vii4     
#cii4      ,,pyrrho1 originally a       
painter1 #djb4      account of him1 by  
,antigonus1 #djb4      arguing1 ten     
modes of1 ix4 #dji4      arguing1 five  
others added by ,agrippa1 x4 #dab4      
attached to ,anaxarchus1 ii4 #djb4      
certainty not attainable1 #dad4         
disciples1 vii4 #dje4      ---- called  
,sceptics from their doubting every     
thing1 viii4 #dje4      eloquent1 #djc4 
fortitude and economy1 vi4 #djd4        
good1 natural1 or natural evil1 none1   
#dag4      honoured by his country1     
#djc4      impassiveness1 vi4 #djd4     
learning1 no such thing1 #dag4      left
 no writings1 #dah4      motion1 none1  
#dag4      production1 none1 #dag4      

signs1 invisible of visible things1     
#daf4      signs1 visible of visible    
things1 none1 #dae4      system learned 
from his disciples1 #dah4      travelled
 to ,india1 #djb4      ,,pythagoras1    
accounted a son of ,mercury1 iv4 #cci4  
his works1 v4 #cdj4      community of   
property with friends1 viii4 #cdb4      
division of life1 vii4 #cdb4            
doctrine of monads1 xix4 #cdh4          
founder of ,italian philosophy1 i4 #cch4
      geometrician1 xi4 #cdb4           
greatly admired1 xv4 #cdb4              
initiated into mysteries1 iii4 #cch4    
introduced weights and measures to      
,greece1 xiii4 #cdd4      letter to     
,anaximenes1 xxvi4 #ceh4      manner of 
his death1 xxi4 #ced4      opinions on  
nature1 xix4 #cdi4      practised       
divination1 xviii4 #cdf4      precepts1 
vi4 #cda4      ---- as to worship1 xix4 
#cdg4      prohibition as to food1      
xviii4 #cdf4      ridiculed by ,timon1  
xv4 #cec4      symbols1 his1 xvii4 #cde4
      wife and son1 xxii4 #cee4         

worship of ,apollo1 xii4 #cdc4          
,schools of philosophy1 xiii4 #ab4      
,seven wise men1 the1 xiv4 #ba4         
,,simias1 the ,theban1 #aje4            
,,simon1 the ,athenian leather cutter1  
#ajd4      ,,socrates1 an artificer1    
#fd4      character1 his1 viii4 #ff4    
contests1 his1 xxv4 #gd4      counsels  
and sayings1 xvi4 #fi4      dmon        
warnings1 xvi4 #fi4      executed for   
opinions1 the first philosopher who was1
 v4 #fd4      lamented by the           
,athenians1 xxiii4 #gc4      persuasive 
power1 xii4 #fh4      ransoms ,phdo and 
teaches him philosophy1 xiv4 #fh4       
school1 his1 xxvi4 #gd4      saves      
,xenophon's life1 vii4 #fe4      serves 
in ,xenophon's army1 vii4 #fe4          
slaves1 would not have1 xiii4 #fh4      
wives1 his1 xvii4 #gj4      ,,solon1 the
 wise1 life of1 #bc4      apophthegms1  
his1 xvi4 #cj4      counsels1 his1 xii4 
#bi4      death of1 xv4 #bi4            
escapes from ,athens1 iv4 #be4          
excites ,athens against ,salamis1 ii4   

#bc4      inscription on his statue1 xv4
 #bi4      laws as to debts1 i4 #bc4    
laws1 vii4 #bf4      letter to ,crsus1  
xx4 #eb4      ---- ,epimenides1 xviii4  
#cj4      ---- ,periander1 xvii4 #cj4   
---- ,pisistratus1 xix4 #ca4      means 
of preventing injustice1 x4 #bh4        
opposes ,pisistratus1 iii4 #bd4         
poems1 his1 xiii4 #bi4      taught time 
by moon1 xi4 #bh4      ,,speusippus1 a  
basket-maker1 vi4 #aeb4                 
commentaries1 his1 xi4 #aec4            
passionate and voluptuous1 #aeb4        
,plato's successor1 #aeb4      puts an  
end to his life1 ix4 #aec4              
,,sph,,rus1 at ,alexandria1 #cbf4       
his books1 iii4 #cbg4      ,stars1      
,stoics1 doctrine of1 lxxi4 #caa4       
,,stilpo1 his acuteness1 ii4 #ajj4      
his dialogues1 viii4 #ajb4      his end1
 x4 #ajc4      opinions on statues1 v4  
#aja4      politician1 a1 iii4 #ajj4    
rejects theory of species1 vii4 #ajb4   
his simplicity1 vi4 #aja4      visits   
,ptolemy ,soter1 iv4 #aja4      ,stoics1

 doctrines of1 xxxiii4 #bgd4            
,,strato1 the natural philosopher1 ii4  
#bjb4      ,ptolemy ,philadelphus1 his  
pupil1 iii4 #bjb4      successor of     
,theophrastus1 #bjb4      will1 his     
last1 vii4 #bjc4      writings1 his1 iv4
 #bjc4        ,,thales1 the wise1       
astronomical science studied and taught 
by him1 ii4 #ad4      death of1 xii4    
#bj4      letter to ,pherecydes1 xv4    
#bb4      ---- ,solon1 xvi4 #bb4        
sayings of1 ix4 #ah4      star-gazing   
and falling into the ditch1 viii4 #ah4  
tripod awarded to him1 vii4 #af4        
views of the soul1 his1 iii4 #ae4       
,theodoreans1 their opinions1 xi4 #ic4  
,,theodorus1 a disciple of ,aristippus1 
xv4 #id4      banished for his opinions1
 xvi4 #ie4      ,,theophrastus1         
,aristotle's pupil and friend1 #aid4    
character of1 iv4 #aid4      name1      
symbolic1 vi4 #aie4      will1 his last1
 xiv4 #bjj4      writings1 his1 xiii4   
#aif4      ,thesmophoria1 what1 note1   
#cid4      ,,timon1 of ,phliasis1 #dbj4 

acuteness of1 ii4 #dbb4      delighted  
in a garden1 v4 #dbb4      fond of      
drinking1 ii4 #dba4      a jester1 vi4  
#dbb4      his pupils1 vii4 #dbc4       
,virtue and vice1 ,stoics' doctrine of1 
lxv4 #cjd4        ,water1 the principle 
of all things1 vi4 #ae4      ,wise man1 
the ,stoics'1 lxiv4 #cja4      ,wise    
men1 the1 who1 ix4 #aj4                 
,,xenocrates1 accidental death1 xii4    
#aeg4      a grave and solemn man1 iii4 
#aed4      habit of meditation1 viii4   
#aef4      kind to a sparrow1 vi4 #aef4 
pupil of ,plato1 #aed4      self-denial 
of1 v4 #aee4      sold for his taxes1 x4
 #aeg4      writings1 his1 ix4 #aef4    
,,xenophanes1 banished1 #chb4           
buried his sons with his own hands1 iv4 
#chd4      doctrines1 his1 iii4 #chc4   
wrote poems1 iii4 #chc4      ,,xenophon1
 banished by the ,athenians1 vii4 #gf4  
called the ,attic muse1 xiv4 #gh4       
conduct on death of his son1 x4 #gg4    
escape to ,corinth1 ix4 #gg4      first 
writer of memorabilia1 iii4 #ge4        

follower of ,socrates1 ii4 #ge4         
friend of ,cyrus1 v4 #ge4      love of  
,clinias1 iv4 #ge4      writings1 his1  
xiii4 #gh4        ,,zaleucus1 account   
of1 note1 #cde4      ,,zeno1 the ,stoic1
 his abstinence1 c4 xxiii4 #bfi4        
admires ,diodorus1 xx4 #bff4            
anecdotes of him1 xix4 #bff4            
,antigonus respects him1 viii4 #bfa4    
,athenians crown him1 ix4 #bfc4         
disciples and works1 xxxi4 #bgc4        
doctrines1 xxxii4 #bgc4      kills      
himself1 xxvi4 #bgj4      lectures in   
the ,stoa or porch1 vii4 #bfa4          
manner of reproving1 xix4 #bfe4         
personal appearance1 ii4 #bei4          
pupil of ,crates1 iii4 #bei4            
retiring disposition1 xv4 #bfd4         
republic1 his1 xxviii4 #bga4      turn  
for investigation1 xvii4 #bfd4      his 
vices1 xiii4 #bfc4      writes about    
duty1 xxi4 #bfi4      writings1 iv4     
#bfj4      ,,zeno1 the ,eleatic1 adopted
 son of ,parmenides1 #chf4      arrested
 for treason against ,nearches1 v4 #chg4

      chief doctrines1 viii4 #chh4      
invented dialectics1 iv4 #chg4          
pounded to death in a mortar1 v4 #chg4  
,,zoroaster1 his philosophy1 note1 #e4  
,,london3 ,,printed ,,by ,,william      
,,clowes ,,and ,,sons1 ,,limited1 ,,duke
 ,,street1  ,,stamford ,,street1 ,s4,e41
 ,,and ,,great ,,windmill ,,street1 ,w4 
,transcriber's ,note      ,the original 
of this text was not edited as carefully
 as it could have  been4 ,as a result1  
for this e-text quite a number of       
changes have been  made4 ,these are     
based on comparison with other editions 
of the same work  and with the original 
,greek text4    ,list of changes made3  
,table of ,contents1 swapped positions  
of 8,preface0 and 8,introduction0       
,table of ,contents1 8,zenophon0 changed
 to 8,xenophon0    ,page #g1            
8apophthegmns0 changed to 8apophthegms0 
7apophthegms in  enigmatical language7  
,page #ab1 8,pyhrronean0 changed to     
8,pyrrhonean0 7the ,pyrrhonean is       
repudiated by many writers7    ,page    

#ad1 8,focus0 changed to 8,phocus0      
7,phocus the ,samian7    ,page #af1     
8,bathydes0 changed to 8,bathycles0     
twice 7of the name of  ,bathycles _/ the
 son of ,bathycles7    ,page #ca1       
8ursurping0 changed to 8usurping0 7from 
usurping the tyranny7    ,page #ce1     
8his0 changed to 8her0 7,pamphila says1 
in the second book of her               
,commentaries7    ,page #cg1            
8,favorinus0 changed to 8,phavorinus0   
7as ,phavorinus tells us7    ,page #df1 
8,anacharis0 changed to 8,anacharsis0   
7,anacharsis the ,scythian was  the son 
of ,gnurus7    ,page #ea1 8,ctesilius0  
changed to 8,ctesibius0 7,cratinus and  
,ctesibius7    ,page #ea1               
8,rhodamanthus0 changed to              
8,rhadamanthus0 7on ,minos and          
,rhadamanthus7    ,page #ec1 8,sosilius0
 changed to 8,sosibius0 7as ,sosibius   
the ,lacedmonian  says7    ,page #ee1   
8wiih0 changed to 8with0 7,adorned with 
valour while alive7    ,page #eg1 plus  
in #bb other places throughout the book1

 8,pharorinus0  changed to 8,phavorinus0
    ,page #eg1 missing words 8,ionic    
dialect40 added 7and wrote in the ,ionic
  dialect47    ,page #fj1 8,phalerius0  
changed to 8,phalereus0 7as ,demetrius  
,phalereus tells  us7    ,page #fa1     
8,metro0 changed to 8,metrodorus0 7and  
,metrodorus1 of ,lampsacus7    ,page    
#fa1 8,medison0 changed to 8,medism0    
7but also for ,medism7    ,page #fc1    
8becaused0 changed to 8because0 7because
 he enlarged his  principles7    ,page  
#fc1 8,metetus0 changed to 8,thetetus0  
7as ,plato records in his  ,thetetus7   
,page #fc1 8,moresimachus0 changed to   
8,mnesimachus0 7to which idea1          
,mnesimachus speaks7    ,page #fe1      
8,delian0 changed to 8,delium0 7saved   
,xenophon in the battle of  ,delium7    
,page #ff1 8,crononian0 changed to      
8,cranonian0 7,scopas the ,cranonian7   
,page #fg1 repeated word 8and0 removed  
7and all such kind of follies7    ,page 
#fh1 8,glauson0 changed to 8,glaucon0   
7he wrought upon ,glaucon7    ,page #fh1

 8,glauernides0 changed to              
8,glauconides0 7and ,glauconides said1  
that7    ,page #fi1 repeated word 8it0  
removed 7that it was not absurd to      
learn7    ,page #fi1 8,augur0 changed to
 8,auge0 7,euripides1 in his ,auge7     
,page #ga and following pages1          
8,melitus0 changed to 8,meletus0 #g     
times    ,page #gb1 8,pittea0 changed to
 8,pithus0 7the son of ,meletus1 of     
,pithus7    ,page #gc1 8,iystus0 changed
 to 8,tyrtus0 7they said that ,tyrtus   
was out  of his wits7    ,page #gd1     
8,cereops0 changed to 8,cercops0 7in his
 lifetime with ,cercops7    ,page #gd1  
8,aphimenes0 changed to 8,amphimenes0   
7,amphimenes of ,cos7    ,page #gd1     
8,salamis0 changed to 8,salarus0        
7,salarus of ,priene7    ,page #gd1     
8,cellus0 changed to 8,alcus0 7,alcus   
and ,anaxagoras7    ,page #gd1          
8,sosibrius0 changed to 8,sosibius0     
7,anaxagoras with ,sosibius7    ,page   
#gd1 8,timocrea0 changed to 8,timocreon0
 7,simonides with ,timocreon7    ,page  

#hj1 8,jelanges0 changed to 8,telauges0 
7the ,telauges1 and the ,rhino7    ,page
 #hj1 8,caramis0 changed to 8,carcinus0 
7,carcinus1 the tragedian7    ,page #hb1
 8prefering0 changed to 8preferring0 7by
 preferring one beauty to  the rest7    
,page #hd1 8,aretes0 changed to 8,arete0
 7his daughter ,arete7    ,page #hd1    
repeated word 8a0 removed 7whether one  
takes a house7    ,page #he1 8reproched0
 changed to 8reproached0 7when some one 
reproached  him7    ,page #hi1          
8,annicerci0 changed to 8,annicerei0    
7some ,annicerei1 others  ,theodorei7   
,page #hi1 8,pyrbates0 changed to       
8,parbates0 7the master of ,parbates7   
,page #hi1 8,partius0 changed to        
8,pantius0 7as ,pantius also tells us7  
,page #ic1 8,theodereans0 changed to    
8,theodoreans0 7,the ,theodoreans1 as   
they  are called7    ,page #ie1 8so0    
changed to 8to0 7,metrocles the ,cynic1 
who was washing  leeks1 said to him7    
,page #ie1 8,rhus0 changed to 8,rhcus0  
7a ,samian1 the son of ,rhcus7    ,page 

#ie1 8,musicial0 changed to 8,musical0  
7a treatise on ,musical ,composers7     
,page #if1 8,athenas0 changed to        
8,athenus0 7a physician1 a pupil of     
,athenus7    ,page #if1 8,phistamus0    
changed to 8,plistanus0 7his successor  
was ,plistanus  of ,elis7    ,page #if1 
8,philias0 changed to 8,phlius0         
7,asclepiades of ,phlius7    ,page #ig1 
8may0 changed to 8many0 7a great many   
arguments7    ,page #ih1 8preplexing0   
changed to 8perplexing0 7,asking his    
horned  quibbles1 and perplexing7       
,page #ih1 8,c0 changed to 8,r0 7unable 
to pronounce the ,r7    ,page #ajj1     
8,therium0 changed to 8,thurii0         
7,clinomachus of ,thurii7    ,page #ajj1
 8,dippilus0 changed to 8,diphilus0     
7,diphilus of the ,bosphorus7    ,page  
#ajj1 8,venites0 changed to 8,venetes0  
7,myrmex of the ,venetes7    ,page #ajb1
 8,syphon0 changed to 8,typhon0 7where  
,typhon's voice resounds7    ,page #ajb1
 8,cnistippus0 changed to 8,aristippus0 
7the ,aristippus or ,callias7    ,page  

#ajc1 8,sophibus0 changed to 8,sophilus0
 7,sophilus the comic poet7    ,page    
#ajc1 8dicourse0 changed to 8discourse0 
7the whole discourse of this  ,charinus7
    ,page #ajc1 8,polititical0 changed  
to 8,political0 7on ,political ,science7
    ,page #ajd1 8,minexenus0 changed to 
8,menexenus0 7the ,cephalus2 the        
,anaxiphemus2 the ,menexenus7    ,page  
#aje1 8,simeas0 changed to 8,simias0    
7,simias was a ,theban7    ,page #aje1  
8,theoprobid0 changed to 8,theopropid0  
7one of those who are  called           
,theopropid7    ,page #ajf1 8,cassandra0
 changed to 8,cassandrea0 7,eurylochus1 
of ,cassandrea7    ,page #ajg1          
8,nicorreon0 changed to 8,nicocreon0 7at
 the court of ,nicocreon7    ,page #aaj1
 8,hyporicus0 changed to 8,hipponicus0  
7,hipponicus the ,macedonian7    ,page  
#aaj1 8,hipporicus0 changed to          
8,hipponicus0 7,hipponicus gave         
,menedemus  two thousand drachmas7      
,page #aac1 8,petone0 changed to        
8,potone0 7the son of ,ariston and      

,perictione  or ,potone7    ,page #aac1 
8,diopidas0 changed to 8,dropidas0 7had 
a brother named ,dropidas7    ,page     
#aad1 8,conservations0 changed to       
8,conversations0 7the eighth book of    
his ,philosophical ,conversations7      
,page #aad1 8,petone0 changed to        
8,potone0 7a sister called ,potone7     
,page #aaf1 8,alcinus0 changed to       
8,alcimus0 7as ,alcimus says in his     
essays7    ,page #aag1 8,alcinus0       
changed to 8,alcimus0 7,and ,alcimus    
speaks as follows7    ,page #aai1       
8,alcinus0 changed to 8,alcimus0        
7compared by ,alcimus through  four     
books7    ,page #abj1 8,deni0 changed to
 8,dion0 twice 7being appeased by ,dion 
_/ it was  ,dion who sent the money7    
,page #abj1 8,aristimenes0 changed to   
8,aristomenes0 7being appeased by ,dion 
and ,aristomenes7    ,page #abj1        
8,helia0 changed to 8,helice0 7drowned  
in ,helice7    ,page #aba1 8,thetas0    
changed to 8,theotas0 7suspected of     
exciting ,dion and  ,theotas7    ,page  

#abc1 8,mesopis0 changed to 8,meropis0  
7,alexis says in his ,meropis7    ,page 
#abc1 8,analion0 changed to 8,ancylion0 
7,and in his ,ancylion1 he says7        
,page #abc1 8,pseudripobolimus0 changed 
to 8,pseudypobolimus0 7,cratinas in  his
 ,pseudypobolimus1 says7    ,page #abf1 
8,sothon0 changed to 8,sathon0 7which he
 entitled ,sathon7    ,page #abg1       
8,mysonianus0 changed to 8,myronianus0  
7,but ,myronianus1 in his               
,resemblances7    ,page #abh1           
8,cephiciades0 changed to 8,cephisiades0
 7the temple of the  ,cephisiades7      
,page #abh1 8,phreanian0 changed to     
8,phrearrian0 7,archestratus the        
,phrearrian7    ,page #abh1             
8,challidian0 changed to 8,chollidian0  
7,philip the ,chollidian7    ,page #abh1
 8,ademantus0 changed to 8,adimantus0   
7shall belong to my son  ,adimantus7    
,page #abh1 8,sychon0 changed to        
8,tychon0 7,my slaves ,tychon1 ,bictas7 
,page #abh1 8,tozthenes0 changed to     
8,sosthenes0 7,my executors shall be    

,sosthenes7    ,page #acj1 8,alexander0 
changed to 8,alexamenus0 7,alexamenus1 a
 native of  ,styra7    ,page #acj1 8at0 
changed to 8as0 7the other is as it were
 tentative7    ,page #aca1 8,clitiphon0 
changed to 8,clitophon0 7the ,menexenus1
 the  ,clitophon1 the ,epistles7        
,page #aca1 8,hippiastro0 changed to    
8,hippias too0 7and ,protagoras1        
,hippias  too7    ,page #acd1 8,metetus0
 changed to 8,thetetus0 7,the ,thetetus1
 or ,knowledge7    ,page #ace1          
8,aristodemns0 changed to 8,aristodemus0
 7one letter to  ,aristodemus7    ,page 
#ace1 8,chilidon0 changed to 8,chelidon0
 7the ,demodorus2 the ,chelidon2  the   
,seventh27    ,page #aci1 8lives0       
changed to 8live0 7those which live in  
the water7    ,page #adb1 8,lacdemon0   
changed to 8,lacedmon0 7in ,lacedmon and
 ,macedonia7    ,page #aeb1 8aud0       
changed to 8and0 7paralysis1 and sent   
to7    ,page #aec1 8,amartynus0 changed 
to 8,amartyrus0 7an ,essay addressed to 
,amartyrus7    ,page #aee1 8,myornianus0

 changed to 8,myronianus0 7as           
,myronianus tells us in  his            
,similitudes7    ,page #aef1            
8,archidemus0 changed to 8,archedemus0  
7the ,archedemus1 or an  essay on       
,justice7    ,page #aeg1 8,spuesippus0  
changed to 8,speusippus0 7,he succeeded 
,speusippus7    ,page #afb1 8,metetus0  
changed to 8,thetetus the poet wrote    
thus about him0  7,thetetus the poet    
wrote thus about him7    ,page #afg1    
8,aleximes0 changed to 8,alexinus0 7a   
certain dialectician1 a  pupil of       
,alexinus7    ,page #afg1 8,callecrates0
 changed to 8,callicrates0 7that of     
,archecrates and  ,callicrates7    ,page
 #afh1 8,aristi0 changed to 8,aristo0   
7,aristo1 the ,chian7    ,page #afh1    
8,mydea0 changed to 8,myrlea0           
7,cleochares of ,myrlea7    ,page #afi1 
8,alcymeus0 changed to 8,alcyoneus0 7the
 birthday of ,alcyoneus7    ,page #agd1 
8,eretosthenes0 changed to              
8,eratosthenes0 7they relate that       
,eratosthenes said7    ,page #agf1      

8,proconnesas0 changed to 8,proconnesus0
 7he was a native of  ,proconnesus7     
,page #agi1 8logodical0 changed to      
8logadical0 7lines in logadical         
,archebulian metre7    ,page #ahc1      
8,demophelus0 changed to 8,demophilus0  
7his prosecutor was  ,demophilus7       
,page #ahd1 8,calumia0 changed to       
8,calauria0 7,demosthenes died in       
,calauria7    ,page #ahd1 8,calisthenes0
 changed to 8,callisthenes0 7the        
conspiracy of  ,callisthenes against    
,alexander7    ,page #ahf1 8,aubracis0  
changed to 8,ambracis0 7,ambracis shall 
have her  liberty7    ,page #ahf1       
8where-ever0 changed to 8wherever0      
7wherever else they think  fit7    ,page
 #ahh1 8is0 changed to 8his0 7and his   
answer was7    ,page #aic1 8incoporeal0 
changed to 8incorporeal0 7something     
which has an  incorporeal species7      
,page #aid1 8his0 changed to 8her0 7as  
,pamphila asserts in the  thirty-second 
book of her ,commentaries7    ,page     
#aid1 8,menandar0 changed to 8,menander0

 7he was the tutor of ,menander7        
,page #aie1 8,tyrtanius0 changed to     
8,tyrtamus0 7,his name had originally   
been  ,tyrtamus7    ,page #aif1         
8,phalerius0 changed to 8,phalereus0 7by
 the assistance of  ,demetrius          
,phalereus7    ,page #aii1 repeated word
 8,natural0 removed 7,problems in       
,natural ,history7    ,page #aii1       
8,astyceron0 changed to 8,astycreon0    
7,letters to ,astycreon1  ,phanias1 and 
,nicanor7    ,page #bjj1 8,callenus0    
changed to 8,callinus0 7,neleus1        
,strato1 ,callinus1  ,demotimus7        
,page #bja1 8,donar0 changed to 8,donax0
 7and ,donax to ,neleus7    ,page #bja1 
8,eulius0 changed to 8,eubius0 7,i order
 ,eubius to be sold7    ,page #bjb1     
8,thrasos0 changed to 8,thasos0         
7,lysistratus of ,thasos7    ,page #bjb1
 8dilligence0 changed to 8diligence0 7in
 the diligence with  which he applied   
himself7    ,page #bjd1 8,innesigenes0  
changed to 8,mnesigenes0 7,aristides1   
,mnesigenes1  ,hippocrates7    ,page    

#bjd1 8,olympicus0 changed to           
8,olympichus0 7let ,irus calculate with 
,olympichus7    ,page #bjd1 8,ausinias0 
changed to 8,aminias0 7with ,olympichus 
and ,aminias7    ,page #bjd1            
8,philoreatos0 changed to 8,philocrates0
 7,philocrates1 the son of  ,tisamenus7 
,page #bje1 8saying0 changed to         
8sayings0 7,another of his sayings was7 
,page #bjf1 repeated word 8in0 removed  
7all that ,i have in the city7    ,page 
#bjg1 8,amplicon0 changed to 8,amphion0 
7and ,ariston1 and ,amphion1 and        
,lycon7    ,page #bjh1 8,micras0 changed
 to 8,micrus0 twice 7,micrus ,i hereby  
present  with his freedom _/ ,i also    
hereby emancipate the mother of ,micrus7
    ,page #bjh1 8,menedora0 changed to  
8,menodora0 7four min1 and ,menodora7   
,page #bjh1 8to0 changed to 8too0 7in   
this respect too he deserves7    ,page  
#baa1 8,antiphones0 changed to          
8,antiphanes0 7on ,antiphanes1 one27    
,page #bab1 8,colatia0 changed to       
8,calatia0 7the sixth was a native of   

,calatia7    ,page #bab1 8,euthyr0      
changed to 8,erythr0 7the twelfth was a 
grammarian of  ,erythr7    ,page #bab1  
8,bythinian0 changed to 8,bithynian0    
7the thirteenth was a  ,bithynian7      
,page #bab1 8,pamotus0 changed to       
8,pantius0 7,pantius of ,rhodes7        
,page #bab1 8unsubtantial0 changed to   
8unsubstantial0 7,fought o'er a tomb    
and unsubstantial shade7    ,page #bae1 
8,aretodorus0 changed to 8,autodorus0   
7,autodorus the ,epicurean  reproaches  
him7    ,page #bae1 8,spentharus0       
changed to 8,spintharus0 7as some say   
,spintharus7    ,page #baf1 8,panculus0 
changed to 8,pancalus0 7they formed the 
name of  ,pancalus7    ,page #baf1      
8,nisius0 changed to 8,hicesius0 7a     
physician1 a pupil of  ,hicesius7       
,page #bai1 8,philosphers0 changed to   
8,philosophers0 7his treatise on the    
,philosophers7    ,page #bbc1 missing   
word 8an0 added 7an essay on            
,telemachus7    ,page #bbd1 8,tresius0  
changed to 8,hicesius0 7the son of      

,hicesius1 a  money-changer7    ,page   
#bbd1 8,perdalus0 changed to 8,pordalus0
 7he himself1 in his ,pordalus7    ,page
 #bbe1 8,polymeter0 changed to          
8,polyeuctus0 7,polyeuctus1 the orator7 
,page #bbe1 8schorion0 changed to       
8schrion0 7,lysanias1 the son of        
schrion7    ,page #bca1 8gesilaus0      
changed to 8,agesilaus0 7if ,agesilaus  
and  ,epaminondas are7    ,page #bcc1   
8,calisthenes0 changed to               
8,callisthenes0 7the happiness of       
,callisthenes7    ,page #bci1 8,thelian0
 changed to 8,melian0 7,diagoras the    
,melian7    ,page #bdd1 8belong0 changed
 to 8belongs0 7everything belongs to the
 wise7    ,page #bde1 8,philistus0      
changed to 8,philiscus0 7not rather the 
work of  ,philiscus7    ,page #bde1     
8,circe0 changed to 8crier0 7when the   
crier asked him7    ,page #bdg1 missing 
word 8art0 added 7,since you alone did  
teach to men the  art7    ,page #bdg1   
8dippus0 changed to 8dipus0 7the        
,chrysippus1 and the dipus7    ,page    

#bdg1 8,solmus0 changed to 8,tolmus0    
7the ,beggar2 the ,tolmus2 the          
,leopard7    ,page #bdh1 8,sicymian0    
changed to 8,sicyonian0 7,the second was
 a ,sicyonian7    ,page #bdi1           
8,osnesicritus0 changed to              
8,onesicritus0 7,onesicritus is called  
by some authors7    ,page #bdi1         
8,clocus0 changed to 8,clus0 7,hegesus  
of ,sinope1 who was  nicknamed ,clus7   
,page #bed1 8,theomentus0 changed to    
8,theombrotus0 7,his pupils were        
,theombrotus and ,cleomenes7    ,page   
#beg1 8,celotes0 changed to 8,colotes0  
7a disciple of ,colotes of  ,lampsacus7 
,page #bei1 8,innaseas0 changed to      
8,mnaseas0 7,zeno was the son of        
,mnaseas7    ,page #bfj1                
8,priscanactium0 changed to             
8,peisianactium0 7colonnade which is    
called the ,peisianactium7    ,page     
#bfb1 8,innaseas0 changed to 8,mnaseas0 
7,since ,zeno the son of ,mnaseas7      
,page #bfc1 8,innaseas0 changed to      
8,mnaseas0 7,zeno1 the son of ,mnaseas1 

the  ,cittian7    ,page #bfc1 8,acharns0
 changed to 8,acharn0 7,medon of        
,acharn7    ,page #bfc1 8,mecythus of   
,sypalyttas0 changed to 8,micythus of   
,sypalettus0  7,micythus of ,sypalettus1
 and ,dion7    ,page #bfd1 8simdapsus0  
changed to 8skindapsus0 7,likewise her  
mind was less  than a skindapsus47      
,page #bfe1 8coni0 changed to 8coin0    
7well-formed like the coin7    ,page    
#bfe1 8tessedrachmas0 changed to        
8tetradrachmas0 7he likened to the      
,attic tetradrachmas7    ,page #bfh1    
8perssn0 changed to 8person0 7why he was
 the only person7    ,page #bfi1        
8entertaiments0 changed to              
8entertainments0 7in entertainments  of 
that kind7    ,page #bgj1 8sumits0      
changed to 8summits0 7,the summits of   
,olympus7    ,page #bga1 8,innaseas0    
changed to 8,mnaseas0 7his father       
,mnaseas often came  to ,athens7        
,page #bgb1 8,hesophila0 changed to     
8,herophila0 7the sixth was a physician 
of ,herophila71 although it is possible 

8a ,herophilean physician01 i4e4 a      
follower of ,herophilus1 is intended    
here4    ,page #bgc1 8,halcymeus0       
changed to 8,halcyoneus0 7to whose son1 
,halcyoneus1  he also acted7    ,page   
#bgc1 8,theles0 changed to 8,thebes0    
7,philonides1 of ,thebes7    ,page #bgd1
 8,posidorus0 changed to 8,posidonius0  
7,diogenes1 the ,babylonian2  and       
,posidonius7    ,page #bgd1             
8,archidemus0 changed to 8,archedemus0  
7,chrysippus1 and  ,archedemus1 and     
,eudromus7    ,page #bge1 8coversant0   
changed to 8conversant0 7which is       
conversant with  rules and tests7       
,page #bgi1 8,boethius0 changed to      
8,boethus0 7,for ,boethus leaves a great
  many criteria7    ,page #bgi1         
8,archidemus0 changed to 8,archedemus0  
7so it is laid down by  ,archedemus7    
,page #bhb1 8deificiences0 changed to   
8deficiencies0 7of attributes and       
deficiencies7    ,page #bia1            
8,archidemus0 changed to 8,archedemus0  
7,and ,archedemus defines it7    ,page  

#big1 8exite0 changed to 8excite0 7do   
not excite any inclination7    ,page    
#cjf1 8,chrysyppus0 changed to          
8,chrysippus0 7,another doctrine of     
,chrysippus7    ,page #cjf1             
8,thrasmides0 changed to 8,thrasonides0 
7,accordingly1 that  ,thrasonides7      
,page #caf1 8sone0 changed to 8some0    
7some of them are shakings7    ,page    
#cah1 8,scion0 changed to 8,siren0      
7surnamed the ,siren7    ,page #cbj1    
8,scayon0 changed to 8,scazon0 7a       
jesting epigram on him in  ,scazon      
iambics7    ,page #cbf1 8,innesistratus0
 changed to 8,mnesistratus0 7,once1 when
  ,mnesistratus accused him7    ,page   
#cbh1 8,dioles0 changed to 8,diocles0   
7as ,diocles reports7    ,page #cbh1    
8,cryxippus0 changed to 8,crypsippus0   
7,carneades called him  ,crypsippus7    
,page #ccj1 8,aristocrea0 changed to    
8,aristocreon0 7the sons of his sister1 
,aristocreon and ,philocrates7    ,page 
#ccj1 8heirophant0 changed to           
8hierophant0 7the hierophant reveals    

them7    ,page #cca1 repeated word 8a0  
removed 7there is then a head that you  
have  not got7    ,page #ccc1           
8,sosigines0 changed to 8,sosigenes0    
7addressed to ,sosigenes and            
,alexander7    ,page #ccc1              
8,panthorides0 changed to 8,panthoides0 
7,ambiguous ,expressions1  by           
,panthoides7    ,page #ccc1 8,agatha0   
changed to 8,agathon0 7an essay to      
,agathon7    ,page #ccd1 8,meliager0    
changed to 8,meleager0 twice 7addressed 
to ,meleager _/  addressed also to      
,meleager7    ,page #ccd1               
8hyopthethical0 changed to              
8hypothetical0 7of hypothetical         
reasoning to serve as an ,introduction7 
,page #ccd1 missing word 8to0 added 7an 
introduction to ,fallacy1 addressed  to 
,aristocreon7    ,page #cce1 8,oretis0  
changed to 8,outis0 7an essay on the    
,argument ,outis7    ,page #cdj1 8maner0
 changed to 8manner0 7writes in the     
following manner7    ,page #cda1        
8,scopead0 changed to 8,scopiad0 7the   

poem called the ,scopiad7    ,page #cdc1
 8then0 changed to 8them0 7allowed his  
disciples to eat them7    ,page #cec1   
8,innesimachus0 changed to              
8,mnesimachus0 7,and ,mnesimachus says  
in his ,alcmon7    ,page #cec1          
8,austophon0 changed to 8,aristophon0   
7,aristophon says in his  ,pythagorean7 
,page #ced1 8,cortona0 changed to       
8,crotona0 7at the house of ,milo1 of   
,crotona7    ,page #cef1 8,sarapian0    
changed to 8,sarapion0 7,heraclides1 the
 son of  ,sarapion7    ,page #cef1      
8,phythagoras0 changed to 8,pythagoras0 
7,should you ,pythagoras'  doctrine wish
 to know7    ,page #ceg1 8,echurates0   
changed to 8,echecrates0 7and           
,echecrates1 and ,diodes7    ,page #cei1
 8,jelanges0 changed to 8,telauges0     
7,now ,telauges and ,theano we  have    
mentioned7    ,page #cfj1 8,jelanges0   
changed to 8,telauges0 twice 7,but      
,telauges1 the son  of ,pythagoras _/   
the letter of ,telauges7    ,page #cfb1 
missing section number 8,,vi40 added in 

what seemed to be the  appropriate place
 for it 7,,vi4 ,the case of the dead    
woman7    ,page #cfd1 80 changed to 80 7
     47    ,page #cfi1 8,innesagoras0   
changed to 8,mnesagoras0 7the son of    
,mnesagoras7    ,page #cfi1 8,orellus0  
changed to 8,ocellus0 7the descendants  
of ,ocellus7    ,page #cgc1             
8,octacteris0 changed to 8,octaeteris0  
7the treatise called the  ,octaeteris7  
,page #cgc1 8,mansolus0 changed to      
8,mausolus0 7he also went to the court  
of  ,mausolus7    ,page #cgc1           
8,nichomachus0 changed to 8,nicomachus0 
7,nicomachus1 the son of  ,aristotle7   
,page #cgd1 8,sicilist0 changed to      
8,siciliot0 7the third1 a ,siciliot1 a  
son  of ,agathocles7    ,page #cgf1     
8,heraceon0 changed to 8,heracion0 7the 
son of ,blyson1 or1 as  some say1 of    
,heracion7    ,page #cha1 8,phaleruus0  
changed to 8,phalereus0 7,demetrius     
,phalereus also  mentions him7    ,page 
#cha1 8,scythenus0 changed to           
8,scythinus0 7,scythinus1 an iambic     

poet7    ,page #chb1 8,zande0 changed to
 8,zancle0 7lived at ,zancle1 in        
,sicily7    ,page #chc1 8,anaxemander0  
changed to 8,anaximander0 7a            
contemporary of  ,anaximander7    ,page 
#chd1 8,diochartes0 changed to          
8,diochaetes0 7and ,diochaetes the      
,pythagorean7    ,page #chf1            
8,ithageses0 changed to 8,ithagenes0 7a 
,samian1 and the son of  ,ithagenes7    
,page #chf1 8,telentagoras0 changed to  
8,teleutagoras0 7he was by nature the   
son of ,teleutagoras7    ,page #cif1    
8,artmography0 changed to               
8,actinography0 7,actinography1 or a    
discussion on ,rays of ,light7    ,page 
#chi1 8resistence0 changed to           
8resistance0 7according to the          
resistance of the centre7    ,page #cif1
 8,rythm0 changed to 8,rhythm0 7,a      
treatise on ,rhythm and ,harmony7       
,page #cig1 8,prodicas0 changed to      
8,prodicus0 twice 7,he1 and ,prodicus of
  ,ceos _/ ,prodicus had a very powerful
 voice7    ,page #cih1 8,allidomas0     

changed to 8,alcidamas0 7but ,alcidamas 
says that7    ,page #dje1 8,memenius0   
changed to 8,numenius0 7,numenius is the
 only writer  who asserts7    ,page     
#dje1 8,epianus0 changed to 8,epicurus0 
7was the master of ,epicurus7    ,page  
#djg1 8antethetical0 changed to         
8antithetical0 7antithetical force of   
words7    ,page #dji1 8,phyrrho0 changed
 to 8,pyrrho0 7,pyrrho lays down in the 
following manner7    ,page #dad1        
8iotellect0 changed to 8intellect0      
7either sense or intellect7    ,page    
#dad1 8dawn0 changed to 8down0 7those   
opinions which are laid down            
previously7    ,page #dbb1 8,cercipes0  
changed to 8,cercopes0 7through the     
forum of the  ,cercopes7    ,page #dbc1 
8,nilolochus0 changed to 8,nicolochus0  
7,nicolochus of ,rhodes7    ,page #dbc1 
8,pracylus0 changed to 8,praylus0       
7,praylus of the ,troas7    ,page #dbc1 
8,xeuxippus0 changed to 8,zeuxippus0    
7,zeuxippus ,polites7    ,page #dbc1    
8,gonicpus0 changed to 8,goniopus0      

7,zeuxis ,goniopus7    ,page #dbc1      
8,theodos0 changed to 8,theodas0        
7,theodas1 of ,laodicea7    ,page #dbd1 
8had ,colonis and0 changed to 8had      
colonised0 7as the ,athenians  had      
colonised ,samos7    ,page #dbe1 8,inus0
 changed to 8,mus0 7a slave1 whose name 
was ,mus7    ,page #dbe1 repeated word  
8as0 removed 7well as one of his        
brothers7    ,page #dbe1 8,leontius0    
changed to 8,leonteus0 7,themista1 the  
wife of  ,leonteus7    ,page #dbf1      
8,marmaricem0 changed to 8,marmarium0   
7and among them ,marmarium7    ,page    
#dbg1 8nicnamed ,lerocrates0 changed to 
8nicknamed ,lerocritus0  7,democritus1  
he nicknamed ,lerocritus7    ,page #dbg1
 8friend0 changed to 8friends0 7his     
friends who were so numerous7    ,page  
#dbg1 8,inus0 changed to 8,mus0 7the one
 whom ,i have mentioned already1  named 
,mus7    ,page #dbh1 8his0 changed to   
8is0 7among whom is ,apollodorus7       
,page #dcj1 8sucessors0 changed to      
8successors0 7my immediate successors   

hand it down7    ,page #dca1 8,inus0    
changed to 8,mus0 7,of my slaves1 ,i    
hereby emancipate ,mus7    ,page #dcb1  
8,bates0 changed to 8,batis0 7he gave   
his sister ,batis in  marriage7    ,page
 #dcb1 8,leontius0 changed to           
8,leonteus0 7,there was also ,leonteus1 
of  ,lampsacus7    ,page #dcc1          
8,chridemus0 changed to 8,chredemus0    
7the ,chredemus1 a  treatise on the     
,gods7    ,page #dcc1 8,hegesiana0      
changed to 8,hegesianax0 7the           
,hegesianax2 four  essays on ,lives7    
,footnote #h1 8diety0 changed to 8deity0
 7the national deity of the ,ionians7   
,footnote #ca1 80 changed to 80 7,the   
,greek is   47    ,footnote #ca1 80     
changed to 80 7 7    ,footnote #hj1     
8,euripid0 changed to 8,euripides0 7the 
,antiope of ,euripides7    ,footnote    
#hb1 8adversariese0 changed to          
8adversaries0 7knocked down his         
adversaries7    ,footnote #ajh1 missing 
word 8of0 added 7which ,ovid puts into  
the mouth of  ,pythagoras72 8,jononis0  

changed to 8,junonis0 7templo ,junonis  
in ,argis7    ,footnote #aaa1           
8,challidian0 changed to 8,chalcidian0  
7towns of ,chalcidian  origin7          
,footnote #aai1 8,linan0 changed to     
8,lenan0 7the second or ,lenan          
festivals7    ,footnote #abg1           
8,valchenr0 changed to 8,valckenr0      
7,valckenr conjectures7    ,footnote    
#adc1 8,trachin0 changed to 8,trachini0 
7the ,trachini of  ,sophocles7    ,index
 entry1 8,alemon0 changed to 8,alcmon0  
,index entry under ,ariston1 8,scion0   
changed to 8,siren0    ,index entry1    
8,arnicereans0 changed to 8,annicereans0
 and moved to the  correct alphabetical 
position    ,index entry under ,bias1   
8,priam0 changed to 8,priene0    ,index 
entry1 8,clido0 changed to 8,chilo0     
,index entry1 8,endoxus0 changed to     
8,eudoxus0    ,index entry1             
8,gynosophist0 changed to               
8,gymnosophist0    ,index entry under   
,plato1 8,alcinus0 changed to 8,alcimus0
    ,index entry1 8,thesmopheria0       

changed to 8,thesmophoria0    ,index    
entry1 8,zaleneus0 changed to           
8,zaleucus0    ,greek 1 when not at the 
end of a word1 has been normalised to 4 
,punctuation and accents have been      
amended without note as have _/         
ligature substitutions4 ,where there was
 any doubt the text is left as  printed2
 any remaining errors are as they       
appeared in the original4