,illustration3 ,plate #a4--;,a ,branch of ,coffea ,arabica1 with ,berries and ,flowers4 ,,coffee ,,and ,,chicory3 ,,their ,,culture1 ,,chemical ,,composition1 ,,preparation ,,for ,,market1 ,,and ,,consumption1 ,,with ,,simple ,,tests ,,for ,,detecting ,,adulteration1 ,,and ,,practical ,,hints ,,for ,,the ,,producer ,,and ,,consumer4 ,,by ,p4 ,l4 ,,simmonds1 ,,author ,,of 8,,the ,,commercial ,,products ,,of ,,the ,,vegetable ,,kingdom10 8,a ,,dictionary ,,of ,,trade ,,products10 c4 ,,with ,,numerous ,,illustrations4 ,illustration ,,london3 ,e4 ,f4 ,n4 ,,spon1 #af1 ,,bucklersbury4 #ahfd4 ,,preface4 ,a practical essay on the culture and preparation of coffee for market in the various producing countries of the world1 brought down to the present time1 has long been wanted1 especially as the sources of supply have changed so much of late years4 ,porter's 8,tropical ,agriculturist0 has long been out of print1 and my own work on 8,the ,commercial ,products of the ,vegetable ,kingdom0 is too expensive and too diffuse for ordinary reference4 ,the present hand-book deals with the subject in a popular form1 but1 at the same time1 supplies correct information on most points1 combined with the fullest descriptive and statistical details respecting every coffee-producing country4 ,for much of the information relating to coffee cultivation in ,ceylon1 ,i am indebted to a small treatise by ,mr4 ,g4 ,c4 ,lewis1 privately published in that island4 ,for the views of buildings and scenery1 ,i am under obligations to ,sir ,emerson ,tennent and ,messrs4 ,worms1 who kindly lent me original drawings and photographs--whilst the microscopic representations of pure and adulterated coffee and chicory are copied1 by permission1 from ,dr4 ,hassall's elaborate work on 8,food and its ,adulterations40 ,trusting that this little work may be found useful and interesting to a large class1 ,i send it forth as the pioneer of other hand-books on the great staples of commerce4 ,p4 ,l4 ,s4 #h1 ,winchester-street1 ,s4,w41 ,july1 #ahfd4 ,,contents4 ,,coffee4 ,,section ,i4 ,,page ,,botanical ,,description ,,of ,,the ,,coffee-,,tree 7with two illustrations7 #a ,,section ,,ii4 ,,history ,,of ,,its ,,introduction ,,and ,,distribution #f ,,section ,,iii4 ,,production ,,and ,,supply #ab ,,section ,,iv4 ,,commercial ,,varieties ,,of ,,coffee #ae ,,section ,v4 ,,chemical ,,analyses #bj ,,section ,,vi4 ,,coffee-,,leaf ,,tea1 ,c4 #bg ,,section ,,vii4 ,,adulterants 7with an illustration7 #bi ,,section ,,viii4 ,,culture ,,in ,,the ,,west ,,indies ,,and ,,america #cd ,,section ,,ix4 ,,culture ,,in ,,arabia #db ,,section ,x4 ,,cultivation ,,in ,,ceylon 7with an illustration7 #de ,,section ,,xi4 ,,buildings1 ,,planting1 ,c41 ,,in ,,ceylon 7with four illustrations7 #eb ,,section ,,xii4 ,,harvesting ,,the ,,crop1 ,,and ,,preparation ,,for ,,market 7with an illustration7 #ei ,,section ,,xiii4 ,,preparation ,,for ,,market1 ,,continued #fc ,,section ,,xiv4 ,,cultivation ,,in ,,southern ,,india #gc ,,section ,,xv4 ,,bourbon1 ,,java1 ,,and ,,the ,,east #gh ,,section ,,xvi4 ,,coffee ,,as ,a ,,beverage #ha ,,chicory4 ,,section ,i4 ,,introduction ,,into ,,england4 ,,continental ,,production ,,and ,,consumption #hh ,,section ,,ii4 ,,cultivation4 ,,harvesting ,,and ,,preparation ,,for ,,market #ic ,,section ,,iii4 ,,structure ,,and ,,chemical ,,composition 7with an illustration7 #ih ,,coffee ,,and ,,chicory4 ,,coffee4 ,,section ,i4 ,,botanical ,,description4 ,the coffee-tree--,coffea arabica1 ,linn4--is a plant belonging to the natural order ,cinchonace4 ,it is a large erect bush1 quite smooth in every part2 leaves oblong lanceolate1 acuminate1 shining on the upper side1 wavy1 deep green above1 paler below2 stipules subulate1 undivided4 ,peduncles axillary1 short1 clustered2 corollas white1 funnel-shaped1 sweet-scented1 with four or five oblong-spreading twisted lobes4 ,fruit a compressed drupe1 furrowed along the side1 crowned by the calyx4 ,seeds solitary1 plano-convex1 with a deep furrow along the flat side4 ,putamen like parchment4 ,the generic name given to the plant by ,linnus was taken1 it is said1 from ,coffee1 a province of ,narea1 in ,africa where it grows in abundance4 ,plate #a represents a branch of the coffee-tree in blossom and fruit1 and the lettered figures at the foot have reference to the dissection of the flower and fruit4 ,a--,the flower1 cut open1 to show the situation of the five filaments1 with their summits lying upon them4 ,b--,represents the flower cup1 with its four small indentations enclosing the germ or embryo seed-vessel1 from the middle of which arises the style1 terminated by the two reflexed spongy tops4 ,c--,the fruit entire1 marked at the top with a puncture like a navel4 ,d--,the fruit open1 to show that it consists ordinarily of two seeds1 which are surrounded by the pulp4 ,e--,the fruit cut horizontally1 to show the seeds as they are placed erect1 with their flat sides1 together4 ,f--,one of the seeds taken out1 with the membrane or parchment upon it4 ,g--,the same with the parchment torn open1 to give a view of the seed4 ,h--,the seed without the parchment4 ,lindley and ,paxton only enumerate two species3 ,c4 arabica1 native of ,yemen1 and ,c4 paniculata1 indigenous to ,guiana4 ,continental botanists1 however1 describe no less than eight other species3 four inhabiting ,peru1 ,c4 microcarpa1 ,c4 umbellata1 ,c4 acuminata1 and ,c4 subsessilis2 two indigenous to the ,west ,coast of ,africa1 ,c4 laurina and ,c4 racemosa2 and two natives of the ,east ,indies1 ,c4 bengalensis and ,c4 ,indica4 ,some of these are probably mere varieties4 ,whatever its origin may have been1 there can be no doubt that there are three kinds or species now grown1 differing materially from each other4 ,the ,arabian or ,mocha coffee is characterised by having a small and more brittle leaf1 with branches shorter1 and more upright than the ,jamaica and ,ceylon coffee2 and by its berry being almost always1 or at least very frequently1 single seeded1 and the seed cylindrical and plump4 ,the ,jamaica coffee-tree has a larger and more pliable leaf1 longer and more drooping branches1 and berries almost always containing two seeds4 7,the ,ethiopian47 ,the great difference now existing between the two kinds1 may possibly have originated in the change of soil1 climate1 and season1 operating through a series of years2 but this difference is so decided1 and so strongly marked1 that the veriest tyro can in a moment pronounce of either4 ,the ,east ,india or ,bengal coffee-tree differs much from all others1 but is in every respect a veritable coffee4 ,the leaf is smaller1 and lighter green1 than the foregoing variety2 its berry is infinitely smaller1 and when ripening1 turns black instead of blood-red4 ,coffee made from it is of excellent flavour1 and much liked4 ,within the tropics1 coffee thrives best at an elevation of #abjj to #cjjj feet1 and rarely grows above #fjjj feet4 ,it may be cultivated as far as #cf north latitude1 where the mean temperature is about #gj4 ,in the western hemisphere coffee is grown in many of the ,west ,india ,islands1 in ,central ,america1 the northern republics of ,south ,america1 ,berbice1 ,cayenne1 and ,brazil4 ,in ,africa it is grown in ,liberia and other parts of ,western ,africa1 at ,st4 ,helena1 in ,egypt1 and ,mozambique1 and a little in ,natal4 ,passing eastward we find it in ,arabia1 one of the oldest seats of culture1 the southern peninsula of ,india1 ,ceylon1 ,bourbon1 ,java1 ,clbes1 and other parts of the ,eastern ,archipelago1 ,siam1 and some of the ,pacific ,islands4 ,coffee-plants are able to bear an amount of cold which is little known or thought of4 ,the high and cold regions of ,jamaica near ,st4 ,catherine's ,peak1 and the foot of the ,great ,blue ,mountain ,peak1 both situated at some #fjjj feet above the level of the sea2 and1 again1 the mountains of ,arabia1 the ,neilgherries1 and ,ceylon1 furnish instances of the great degree of cold that the coffee-plant will endure4 ,more than this1 it is an established fact that it bears a larger1 plumper1 and far more aromatic berry at these altitudes than in a lower situation and in a warmer temperature4 ,the coffee produced on plantations near the foot of the ,blue ,mountain ,peak1 in ,jamaica1 is the finest in the world4 ,in ,arabia1 likewise1 the cold at night is sometimes intense2 yet who will dispute the goodness of ,mocha coffee8 ,nothing can exceed the beauty of the rows or walks planted with coffee-trees1 from their pyramidical shape and glossy dark leaves1 amongst which are hanging the ripe1 scarlet-coloured berries4 ,a writer1 in his 8,impressions of the ,west ,indies10 thus speaks3 8,anything in the way of cultivation more beautiful or more fragrant than a coffee-plantation ,i had not conceived1 and oft did ,i say to myself that if ever ,i became1 from health or otherwise1 a cultivator of the soil within the tropics1 ,i would cultivate the coffee-plant1 even though ,i did so irrespective altogether of the profit that might be derived from so doing4 ,much has been written1 and not without justice1 of the rich fragrance of an orange-grove1 and at home we ofttimes hear of the sweet odours of a bean-field4 ,i have1 too1 often enjoyed1 in the ,carse of ,stirling and elsewhere in ,scotland1 the balmy breezes as they swept over the latter1 particularly when the sun had burst out with unusual strength after a shower of rain4 ,i have likewise in ,martinique1 ,santa ,cruz1 ,jamaica1 and ,cuba1 inhaled the breezes wafted from the orangeries1 but not for a moment would ,i compare either with the exquisite aromatic odours from a coffee-plantation in full bloom1 when the hill-side--covered over with regular rows of the shrubs1 with their millions of jasmine-like flowers--showers down upon you as you ride up between the plants a perfume ,illustration3 ,plate #b4--;,a ,coffee ,plantation in ,jamaica4 of the most delicately delicious description4 ',tis worth going to the ,west ,indies to see the sight and inhale the perfume40 ,plate #b represents a coffee plantation in ,jamaica4 ,in the culture of the tree there is a singular difference in the western and eastern hemispheres1 inasmuch as in the former shade is considered injurious1 whilst in the latter it is held to be desirable1 if not absolutely necessary4 ,,section ,,ii4 ,,history ,,of ,,its ,,introduction ,,and ,,distribution4 ,coffee1 although taking its common and specific names from ,arabia1 is not a native plant of that country1 but of ,abyssinia1 where it is found both in the wild and cultivated state4 ,from that country it was brought to ,arabia1 in comparatively very recent times4 ,mr4 ,lane states that it was first used there about the year #adej4 ,it was not known to the ,arabs1 therefore1 for more than eight hundred years after the time of ,mahomed1 and was introduced only between forty and fifty years before the discovery of ,america4 ,the ,arabians called coffee khwh1 which is an old word in their language for wine4 ,the unlucky word gave rise to a dispute about the legality of its use among the ,mahomedan doctors1 who1 mistaking the word for the thing it represented1 denounced as a narcotic that which was anti-narcotic4 ,they were beaten1 and coffee has ever since become a legitimate and favourite potable of the ,arabs4 ,in a century its use spread to ,egypt and other parts of the ,turkish empire4 ,for two centuries from its introduction into ,arabia1 the use of coffee seems to have been confined to the ,mahomedan nations of ,western ,asia2 and1 considering its rapid spread and popularity among the ,european nations1 it is remarkable that it has not1 like tobacco1 extended to the ,hindus1 the ,hindu-,chinese1 the ,japanese1 or the tribes of the ,indian ,archipelago1 who no more use it than the ,europeans do the betel preparation4 ,the high price of coffee and the low cost of tobacco1 most likely afford the true solution of the difference4 ,one striking result of the use of coffee first1 and then of tobacco1 among the ,mahomedan nations is well deserving of notice4 ,these commodities have been in a great measure substituted for wine and spirits1 which had been largely1 although clandestinely1 used before1 and hence a great improvement in the sobriety of ,arabs1 ,persians1 and ,turks4 ,i give this interesting fact on the authority of ,mr4 ,lane1 who mentions it in the notes to his translation of the ,arabian ,nights4#a ,from ,turkey coffee found its way to ,europe4 ,it came in use in ,england before either tea or chocolate4 ,a ,turkey merchant of ,london1 of the name of ,edwards1 is said to have brought the first bag of coffee to ,england1 and his ,greek servant to have made the first dish of ,english coffee about #afeb4 ,but it is stated in the ,life of ,wood1 the antiquary1 that 8in #afea1 one ,jacob1 a ,jew1 opened a coffee-house at the ,angel1 in the parish of ,st4 ,peter-in-the-,east1 ,oxon2 and there it was1 by some who delighted in noveltie1 drunk4 ,when he left ,oxon1 he sold it in ,old ,southampton-buildings1 in ,holborne1 near ,london1 and was living there in #afga40 ,coffee-houses were soon after opened in various parts of the metropolis1 as also in other parts of the kingdom1 for vending it4 ,the excise officers visited the coffee-houses at fixed periods1 and took an account of the number of gallons of the liquid that were made1 upon which a duty of #d;d4 per gallon was charged until #afhi4 ,three years after the first introduction of coffee upon the statute books1 the increase of houses for its sale had become so great1 that by the ,act passed in #affc1 8,for the better ordering and collecting the duty of excise1 and preventing the abuses therein0 7#ae ,chas4 ,,ii41 cap4 #aa1 sect4 #ae71 express provision is made for the licensing of all coffee-houses at the quarter sessions1 under a penalty of #el4 for every month during which any person should retail coffee1 chocolate1 or tea1 without having first procured such license from the magistrates4 ,from that time to the revolution1 coffee-houses multiplied so rapidly that1 when ,ray published his 8,history of ,plants0 in #afhh1 he estimated that the coffee-houses in ,london were at that time as numerous as in ,cairo itself2 whilst similar places of accommodation were to be met with in all the principal cities and towns in ,england4 ,there are now in ,london alone more than #aejj coffee-houses1 besides confectioners' shops1 and other places where coffee is vended4 ,for half a century at least ,arabia furnished all the coffee that ,europe consumed1 which1 therefore1 must have been very trifling4 ,it was1 in fact1 long the luxury of a few fashionable people1 with whom1 however1 it must have been in general use sixty years after its introduction1 as we find from the well-known passage of the 8,rape of the ,lock10 published in #agab1 in which politicians are described as seeing through it 8with half-shut eyes40 ,le ,grand d',aussy1 in his 8,vie ,prive des ,franais10 gives a curious and interesting account of the first introduction of the use of coffee in ,france4 ,as early as #afeh some merchants of ,marseilles introduced the use of coffee into that city1 and ,thvenot1 after his return from his ,eastern travels1 about the year #afeh1 regaled his guests with coffee after dinner4 8,this1 however10 says ,le ,grand1 8was but the eccentricity of a traveller1 which would not come into fashion among such a people as the ,parisians4 ,to bring coffee into credit1 some extraordinary and striking circumstance was necessary4 ,this circumstance occurred on the arrival1 in #affi1 of an embassy from the ,grand ,seigneur ,mahomet ,,iv4 to ,louis ,,xiv4 ,soliman ,aga1 chief of the mission1 having passed six months in the capital1 and during his stay having acquired the friendship of the ,parisians by some traits of wit and gallantry1 several persons of distinction1 chiefly women1 had the curiosity to visit him at his house4 ,the manner in which he received them not only inspired a wish to renew the visit1 but induced others to follow their example4 ,he caused coffee to be served to his guests1 according to the custom of his country2 for since fashion had introduced the custom of serving this beverage among the ,turks1 civility demanded that it should be offered to visitors1 as well as that those should not decline partaking of it4 ,if a ,frenchman1 in a similar case1 to please the ladies1 had presented to them this black and bitter liquor1 he would be rendered for ever ridiculous4 ,but the beverage was served by a ,turk--a gallant ,turk--and this was sufficient to give it inestimable value4 ,besides1 before the palate could judge1 the eyes were seduced by the display of elegance and neatness which accompanied it1 by those brilliant porcelain cups into which it was poured1 by napkins with gold fringes1 on which it was served to the ladies2 add to this the furniture1 the dresses1 and the foreign customs1 the strangeness of addressing the host through the interpreter1 being seated on the ground1 on tiles1 c41 and you will allow that there was more than enough to turn the heads of ,french women4 ,leaving the hotel of the ambassador with an enthusiasm easily imagined1 they hastened to their acquaintances1 to speak of the coffee of which they had partaken2 and ,heaven only knows to what a degree they were excited40 ,the extravagant price of coffee1 notwithstanding that the fashion of drinking it was established1 prevented it from coming into general use4 ,it was only to be had1 according to ,le ,grand1 at ,marseilles1 and even there not in any quantity4 ,labat1 quoted by him1 states that the price at this time was the enormous one of forty crowns a pound4 ,in #afgb1 an ,armenian opened in ,paris the first coffee-house1 on the plan of those he had seen at ,constantinople4 ,pascal was followed by a crowd of imitators1 whose numbers became so great in #afgf1 that it was found necessary to form them into a society by statute4 ,as to the ,european names of coffee1 they are all1 observes ,mr4 ,crawfurd1 from the same source1 the old ,arabic word for wine1 khwh1 which is composed of a very guttural k1 unpronounceable by ,europeans1 except by an awkward effort1 of the labial w1 and of two short vowels 1 with an aspirate at the end of each syllable4 ,the ,turks have changed the labial w into v1 and the ,european nations1 who took the word directly from them1 have corrupted the word by converting the labial v into the labial f1 by substituting an ordinary k or hard c for the ,arabic guttural1 by omitting both the aspirates1 and by converting the last short into 1 or as with ourselves1 always the greatest corruptors of orthography1 changing both the vowels4 ,the ,mahomedans distinguish three kinds of khwh--wine1 or anything that inebriates2 the extract from the pulp which contains the coffee-berry2 and that from the berry itself4 ,the deep brown colour of the liquor occasioned its being called the syrup of the ,indian mulberry1 under which specious name it first became fashionable in ,europe2 and some who imported the pulp called it the 8flower of the coffee-tree10 but it failed in use4 ,coffee is used in vast quantities by the ,turks and ,arabians1 and with peculiar propriety1 as it counteracts the narcotic effects of opium1 to the use of which they are so much addicted4 ,the history of the cultivation of coffee by ,european nations in their colonies is singular4 ,the old ,dutch ,east ,india ,company carried on some traffic with the ,arabian ports in the ,red ,sea2 and about the year #afij1 the ,dutch ,governor-,general of ,india1 ,van ,hoorne1 caused some ripe coffee-seeds to be brought to ,java2 they were planted1 grew1 and produced fruit4 ,he sent a single plant home from4 ,batavia to ,nicholas ,witsen1 the ,governor of the ,east ,india ,company1 which arrived safe1 was planted in the ,botanic ,gardens of ,amsterdam1 where it prospered1 produced fruit1 and the fruit young plants4 ,from the ,amsterdam garden plants were sent to the ,dutch colony of ,surinam1 and the planters entered on the cultivation of coffee in #agah4 ,the authority for this is the celebrated physician and botanist1 ,boerhaave1 in his ,index of the ,leyden ,garden4 ,in ten years after its cultivation in ,surinam it was introduced from that colony by the ,english into ,jamaica4 ,it was sent to ,martinique from ,france in #agbj4 ,the first coffee-plant cultivated in ,brazil1 now the greatest producing country in the world1 was reared by a ,franciscan monk1 of the name of ,vellosa1 in the garden of the convent of ,san ,antonio1 near ,rio ,janeiro2 it throve1 and the monk presented its ripe fruit to the viceroy1 ,lavrado4 ,he judiciously distributed it to the planters1 who commenced its cultivation in #aggd4 ,from ,java the coffee-plant was conveyed to ,sumatra1 to ,clbes1 to the ,philippines1 and in our own times to ,malabar1 ,mysore1 and ,ceylon4 ,the few coffee-berries brought from ,mocha to ,batavia are the parents of the vast quantity now produced1 all the coffee now consumed 7exceeding #ejj1jjj1jjj lbs471 save the trifle yielded by ,arabia1 has the same origin1 and the great cultivation and commerce in coffee has all sprung up in less than one hundred and seventy-five years4 ,,section ,,iii4 ,,production ,,and ,,supply4 ,the changes in the sources of supply of coffee within the last quarter of a century are very remarkable4 ,the ,british possessions in the ,east1 where land and labour is cheap1 have taken the place which our ,western possessions formerly occupied4 ,the ,british ,west ,india ,islands and ,demerara have fallen off in their production of coffee from #cj1jjj1jjj lbs4 to #d1jjj1jjj lbs4 ,san ,domingo1 ,cuba1 and the ,french ,west ,india colonies are also gradually giving up coffee culture in favour of other staples4 ,it is chiefly ,brazil1 some of the ,central ,american republics1 ,java1 ,ceylon1 and ,british ,india1 that are able to render coffee a profitable crop4 ,at the close of the last century the consumption of coffee was under one million pounds2 the only descriptions then known in the ,london market were ,grenada1 ,jamaica1 and ,mocha--the two former averaging about #el4 per cwt41 and the latter #bjl4 per cwt4 ,grenada coffee is now unknown1 and ,ceylon1 ,java1 and ,brazil are the largest producers4 ,in #agfj the total quantity of coffee consumed in the ,united ,kingdom was #bfb1jjj lbs41 or three-quarters of an ounce to each person in the population4 ,from #ahja to #ahjd the average quantity of coffee consumed by each individual of the population was only about #a oz41 whilst #a lbs4 of tea per head was used4 ,from #ahje to #ahji the consumption of coffee was #c oz4 per head4 ,from #ahaj to #ahbd1 when the duty was reduced by about one-third1 the consumption was #h oz4 ,after this1 when the duty on ,british-grown coffee was further reduced to #i;d4 and #f;d4 the pound1 the consumption rose to #a lb41 and by #ahej to #a lbs4 ,but this consumption was not uniform for the ,united ,kingdom1 for while in ,england #a lb4 #ab oz4 was used1 in ,scotland only #f oz4 were consumed1 and in ,ireland but #b oz4 ,the quantities of coffee consumed in ,great ,britain in each decennial period1 comparing the consumption with the growth of the population1 and exhibiting the influence of high and low duties1 are shown by the following statement4 ,the figures up to #ahda are from ,porter's 8,progress of the ,nation40 ,those since are computed from official documents3 ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,no4 of lbs4 ,duty on ,population ,average consumed4 ,b4 ,p4 of consumption4 coffee4 ,great ,britain4 ---------------------------------------- -------------- s4 d4 lbs4 oz4 #ahja #gej1jjj #a #f #aj1idb1fdf #j #aji #ahaa #f1cij1abb #j #g #ab1eif1hjc #j #hab #ahba #g1cbg1bhc #a #j #ad1cia1fca #j #hja #ahca #ba1hfb1bfd #j #f #af1bfb1cja #a #edi #ahda #bg1bih1cbb #j #f #ah1ecb1cce #a #gee #ahea #cb1ejd1ede #j #c #ba1jjj1jjj #a #dih #ahfa #ce1bjd1jdj #j #c #bc1bff1gee #a #acc ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,it appears from the foregoing figures1 that1 when the duty amounted to #as4 #f;d4 per lb41 the use of coffee was confined altogether to the rich4 ,the quantity then used throughout the kingdom scarcely exceeded on the average one ounce for each inhabitant in the year4 ,although about a quarter of a century ago the average consumption rose to nearly #a lb41 it has since been gradually declining1 for last year 7#ahfc7 the total consumption was1 with an increased population1 #b million pounds below the quantity taken for consumption in #ahfa4 ,the following table shows the changes in our sources of supply of coffee even in the last ten years1 taking the quantities entered for consumption only4 ,,coffee ,,taken ,,for ,,consumption ,,in ,,the ,,united ,,kingdom4 #ahec4 #ahfb4 lbs4 lbs4 ,british ,india 7including ,ceylon7 #bd1ihj1cge #e1dbb1cfi ,ceylon -- #bc1hhf1jjg ,british ,west ,indies and ,guiana #b1gdb1iac #b1chj1fhc ,central ,america #d1idh1hdh #b1jhg1fch ,brazil #had1acc #bhj1hcg ,venezuela #a1jcc1jga -- ,hayti #hfb1bed #bj1gja ,java #aab1hib -- ,holland1 c4 #ddb1hfc #h1hfb ,egypt #aab1cfj #ij1icb ,united ,states #aab1fgc #cj1dgf ,new ,granada -- #acc1add ,chili #cgi1icj -- ,mauritius #fa1hhd -- ,portugal -- #bc1jeb ,philippine ,islands -- #hb1hbj ,other parts #dhg1egd #baf1fej ---------- ---------- #cg1jia1ggj #cd1ffd1ace ,exported on drawback #ajh1fdh #bab1cfi ---------- ---------- #cf1ihc1abb #cd1dea1gff ,there is imported into ,europe annually about #bgj1jjj1jjj pounds of coffee1 of which ,france consumes one-sixth1 the consumption there having increased fully fifty per cent4 within a very brief period4 ,,section ,,iv4 ,,commercial ,,varieties ,,of ,,coffee4 ,the coffee-berry of ,cayenne is rather convex1 irregular1 of a dull green1 covered with a slight pellicle4 ,it is analogous to ,mocha1 and of a pleasant aromatic flavour4 ,that of ,guadaloupe is elongated1 larger1 of a dark greyish green1 and nearly always without any pellicle4 ,the coffee-berry of ,martinique is also large1 oval1 flat on one side1 with the furrow deep and straight for the greater part of its length1 but diverging at the ends4 ,its odour is agreeable1 and the flavour strong when used alone1 but it is generally mixed with ,mocha4 ,the ,mocha berry is very variable in form1 size1 and colour1 but it is generally more round or compressed than other coffees2 its odour is strong and agreeable1 and very characteristic4 ,many of the seeds are often covered by the endocarp1 while others are without the pellicle4 ,a great number also are rounded1 and the involuted edges form a deep furrow1 differing from the ordinary one4 ,the form of these seeds is due to the abortion of the other half of the fruit1 which gives it this particular formation4 ,aden1 alias ,mocha1 coffee is1 along with the other coffees of the ,red ,sea1 sent first to ,bombay in ,arab ships1 where it is 8garbelled0 7picked71 previously to its being exported to ,england4 ,the bean is always broad and small1 and the climate of ,india is supposed to improve its flavour4 ,the seed of the ,berbera 7,abyssinian7 plant is usually called long-berried ,mocha4 ,the ,java and ,east ,indian1 next in quality1 are larger1 and of a paler yellow4 ,the ,ceylon berries are of irregular sizes1 ill-shaped1 and of a spotted dirty cream-colour4 ,the terms 8,plantation0 and 8,native0 coffees1 as applied to ,ceylon berries1 are distinctions arising from one being the cultivated coffee of the estates of the planters1 which are better attended to and prepared for market1 while the other is that grown in a wild or careless manner by the natives about their dwellings1 and more rudely prepared4 ,java coffee is chiefly prized in the market for its delicacy of flavour1 but in point of strength it falls short of the ,west ,indian4 ,of ,bourbon coffee there are in commerce two qualities1 fine and ordinary4 ,the first is in small seeds1 well selected for size1 of a variable colour1 yellow or green1 with little pellicle1 the furrow slightly indented1 and it has a sweet odour4 ,the second is badly assorted as regards form and colour1 and its odour less agreeable4 ,the ,jamaica coffee-berry is medium-sized1 of a greenish blue colour1 rather oblong1 and smooth to the touch4 ,it has a strong1 agreeable smell1 and excellent flavour1 and when carefully picked and sorted1 fetches about the highest price of any kind4 ,porto ,rico is a middle-sized coffee1 of a pure and agreeable flavour2 the colour of the better sorts is a bluish green2 and of the common1 yellow4 ,the ,west ,indian and ,brazilian coffees have a bluish or greenish-grey tint4 ,this grey-green shade of the ,western coffees is entirely deficient in those of ,asia4 ,the value of the berry in our wholesale markets is not1 therefore1 a fictitious quality1 as some imagine1 but is real1 and depends first upon the texture and form of the berry or seed1 secondly on the colour1 and thirdly the flavour4 ,the texture of the berry and form1 termed 8style0 by the coffee brokers1 is so well defined and palpable to the initiated1 that at one view they pronounce its value1 from one hundred and thirty shillings per cwt4 downwards1 according to the two other qualities1 colour and flavour4 ,the value of the coffees usually imported into this country stands in the following order3 ,mocha1 fine ,ceylon ,plantation1 ,jamaica1 ,costa ,rica1 ,java1 ,tellicherry1 and ,st4 ,domingo4 ,portugal produces coffee in several of her colonies4 ,ordinary description1 yellowish berry1 in ,st4 ,thomas2 tolerably good in the ,cape de ,verdes2 bad1 yellow1 in ,timor2 worse 7but curious from the very small size of the berry71 growing wild1 in ,mozambique2 good in ,angola2 and of excellent quality in ,madeira and ,porto ,santo1 but the production is limited4 ,much of the coffee which finds its way into ,england as genuine ,mocha is1 in reality1 ,malabar coffee1 sent to ports of the ,persian ,gulf from ,bourbon1 and when thus naturalised1 finding its way to ,europe4 ,but the coffee of ,india even now competes successfully with that of ,arabia1 in ,bussorah1 and other local markets1 which the latter had for centuries commanded as its own4 ,it is curious to watch the progress of ,english enterprise4 ,the energetic and ubiquitous ,anglo-,saxons hold ,india1 and here we see coffee from ,india triumphing over the famous berry of ,arabia4 ,the cultivation of tea also is rapidly spreading over #cj1jjj square miles of the ,sub-,himalayan ranges2 and who knows but that ,indian teas may yet compete with those of the flowery land in the markets of ,shanghae8 ,already the ,assam teas are held in high estimation by good judges of tea in this country1 whilst they fetch a high price in ,india for local consumption4 ,the colour of the berry is by no means a decisive criterion of excellence of quality2 in some parts the bluish berry is esteemed most highly1 in others the yellow4 ,the ,west ,indian coffees often change colour when kept a few years4 ,it is well known that the various sorts of coffee imported into ,europe from the several parts where the plant is cultivated differ widely in quality and flavour4 ,levantine or ,mocha still retains its old superiority in this respect1 though the best sorts imported from ,ceylon1 ,bourbon1 ,mauritius1 and other ,indian ,islands are now generally considered to come very near it4 ,this difference in quality and flavour of the various sorts of coffee is generally attributed to climatic and local causes and influences1 which are necessarily beyond the power of remedy4 ,this1 however1 is a great mistake4 ,the more or less advanced state of maturity to which the berry is allowed to attain before picking1 and1 more particularly still1 the degree of dryness1 and the longer or shorter period of time for which it is kept before being sent into the market1 exercise a most powerful influence upon the quality and flavour of the article4 ,berries gathered before they have attained maturity1 though they may be perfect in colour1 will always have a raw1 herbaceous taste4 ,if the drying berries are heaped too thickly or closely1 they are apt to heat and to contract an unpleasantly bitter and harsh taste1 and a disagreeable smell2 this will frequently occur also where artificial heat is had recourse to expedite the drying4 ,keeping tends to cure these serious defects in coffee4 ,there are instances on record where coffee of a most disagreeable flavour and smell has been brought near perfection by being kept for some years in a dry loft2 and though it may be going too far to assert1 as has been done by some high authorities on the subject1 that 8the worst coffee produced in the ,west ,indies will1 in a course of years not exceeding ten or fourteen1 be as good1 parch and mix as well1 and have as high a flavour as the best we have now from ,turkey10 still there can be no doubt that long keeping will most materially improve the quality of even the worst sorts4 ,unfortunately1 the difference of price between inferior and superior coffee is not sufficiently great to cover so many years' interest on the capital invested4 ,it is for the same reason that planters1 though they are perfectly aware that trees growing on a light soil1 and in dry and elevated spots1 produce smaller berries of very superior flavour to those grown in rich1 flat1 and moist soils1 yet prefer cultivating the latter1 simply because the production is double that of the better sort4 ,those who wish to improve the quality of their coffees by keeping1 must bear in mind that perfect dryness of the loft or warehouse1 moderate warmth1 and gentle ventilation are the indispensable conditions of success2 a strong draught of air is more particularly to be guarded against1 as it tends to bleach the berries4 ,great care must be taken1 also1 to keep all strong-flavoured wares1 such as pepper1 pimento1 ginger1 cod-fish1 herrings1 rum1 c41 as far as possible from the coffee1 which has a powerful attraction for these scents1 and gets thoroughly impregnated with them1 to the great deterioration1 of course1 of its quality4 ,this remark applies more particularly to the shipping of coffee from ,jamaica and the other ,west ,india ,islands4 ,want of proper ventilation in the holds in which a cargo of coffee is stowed on board ship1 is equally injurious to the quality of the article4 ,coffee which has suffered damage by sea-water1 or has been spoiled by the close vicinity of strong-scented wares1 may1 to some extent1 be reclaimed by 8rouncing0 or putting it in a tub1 pouring boiling water over it1 stirring for a few minutes1 then pouring the water off1 repeating the same operation a second1 or even a third time1 if necessary1 and most carefully drying the washed berries4 ,,section ,v4 ,,chemical ,,analysis4 ,coffee has been analysed by several chemists1 and though the results obtained differ in some slight degree1 yet it seems pretty clear that the principal constituents to which its hygienic and medicinal properties are due are caffeine1 a peculiar volatile oil generated in the roasting1 and a kind of tannic acid4 ,the alkaloid caffeine1 or theine1 is found in one or two other plants besides tea and coffee4 ,it occurs in the seeds of ,paullinia sorbilis1 a native of ,brazil1 and in the leaves of several species of holly1 natives of ,south ,america1 which furnish the ,paraguay tea1 or ,yerba mate1 so large an article of consumption in several of the ,south ,american republics4 ,the leaves and young shoots1 dried1 parched1 and pulverised1 are used for a hot infusion4 ,a kind of cake1 called ,guarana bread1 is made from the seeds of the ,paullinia1 which is highly esteemed in ,brazil and other countries when infused1 like chocolate1 for its nutritive and febrifuge properties1 and is sold generally as a necessary for travellers1 and as a cure for many diseases4 ,the nutritive and medicinal virtues of all these plants must certainly be attributed in a great degree to the presence of this chemical principle1 and to the tannic acid which they also contain4 ,the use of coffee as a beverage has been examined in a chemical and physiological point of view by ,professor ,lehmann4 ,the general results of his investigations are3 #a4 ,that a decoction of coffee exercises two principal actions upon the organism1 which are very diverse in character1 viz4 increasing the activity of the vascular and nervous system1 while at the same time it retards the metamorphosis of plastic constituents4 #b4 ,that the influence of coffee upon the vascular and nervous system1 its reinvigorating action1 and the production of a general sense of cheerfulness and animation1 is attributable solely to the mutual modification of the specific action of the empyreumatic oil and the caffeine contained in it4 #c4 ,that the retardation of the assimilative process brought about by the use of coffee is owing chiefly to the empyreumatic oil1 and is caused by caffeine only when taken in large quantities4 #d4 ,that increased action of the heart1 trembling1 headache1 c41 are effects of the caffeine4 #e4 ,that the increased activity of the kidneys1 relaxation of the bowels1 and an increased vigour of mental faculties1 passing into congestion1 restlessness1 and inability to sleep1 are effects of the empyreumatic oil4 ,professor ,lehmann considers it1 therefore1 necessary to regard the action of coffee1 and1 in a less degree1 that of tea1 cocoa1 alcohol1 c41 upon the organism1 as constituting an exception to the general law1 that increased bodily and mental activity involves increased consumption of plastic material4 ,caffeine1 on careful analysis1 has been found to contain in #ajj parts1 #dihj of carbon1 #ejh of hydrogen1 #bhhc of nitrogen1 and #afbi of oxygen4 ,it is inodorous1 but has a slightly bitter taste4 ,the proportion in which this principle is found to be present in coffee varies between lb4 and #a lbs4 in #ajj lbs4 of berries4 ,the peculiar essential oil which is generated in coffee in the process of roasting1 by the action of heat upon some yet unascertained principle contained in the berry1 is also very similar to the volatile oil in tea2 but the quantity of it in coffee appears to be comparatively very small2 for whilst #ajj lbs4 of tea-leaves contain #a lb4 of volatile oil1 it takes #ejj cwts4 of roasted coffee to give a similar quantity2 and yet it is upon the presence of this oil that the flavour and value of the several varieties of coffee mainly depend4 ,the tannic acid is1 by some chemists1 also said to be generated only in the process of roasting2 others maintain that it is present in the raw bean4 ,the chemical properties of the coffee-berry are altered by roasting1 and it loses about twenty per cent4 of weight1 but increases in bulk one-third or one-half4 ,its peculiar aroma1 and some of its other properties1 are due to a small quantity of essential oil1 only one five-thousandth part of its weight1 which would be worth about #ajjl4 an ounce in a separate state4 ,coffee is less rich in theine than tea1 but contains more sugar and a good deal of cheese 7casein74 ,schrader has analysed raw and roasted coffee1 with the following result3 raw4 roasted4 ,peculiar coffee principle #ageh #abej ,gum and mucilage #cfd #ajdb ,extractive #jfb #dhj ,resin #jda ,fatty oil #jeb #bjh ,solid residue #ffff #fhge ,loss #ajeg #ade ------------- #ajjjj 8,the examination of coffee10 observes ,dr4 ,f4 ,knapp1 8has led to interesting results1 although they are still defective in pointing out the quantitative composition of the berry40 ,the following is the composition of the ash according to ,levi3 ,potash #ejid ,soda #adgf ,lime #dcc ,magnesia #ajij ,oxide of iron #jff ,phosphoric acid #acei ,sulphuric acid trace ,chlorine #abb ,silicic acid #ceh ------ #iiih ,according to the analysis of ,payen1 the unroasted coffee-berry has the following composition3 ,moisture #abj ,glucose and dextrine #aee ,nitrogenous matters #acj ,chlorogenate of caffeine1 c4 #ce to #eh ,fatty substances #aj to #acj ,cellulose and woody fibre #cdj ,mineral substances in ash #fg ,essential oil #jjc ----- #ajjj ,or to define the per-centage more closely1 we may put it thus3 ,water #abjjj ,caffeine1 or theine #agej ,casein #acjjj ,aromatic oil #jjjb ,sugar #fejj ,gum #ijjj ,fat #abjjj ,potash1 with a peculiar acid #djjj ,woody fibre #cejdh ,mineral matter #fgjj ------- #ajjjjj ,in another form this shows us3 ,water #abjj ,flesh-formers #adge ,heat-givers #ffbe ,mineral matter #gjj ------ #ajjjj ,as gluten is only very sparingly soluble in boiling water1 in the usual way of making coffee the flesh-formers are thrown away with the dregs2 the addition of a little soda to the water partly prevents this waste4 ,the various components in one pound of coffee will be-- oz4 grs4 ,water #a #djg ,caffeine1 or theine #abb ,casein1 or cheese #b #ce ,aromatic oil #a ,gum #a #aib ,sugar #a #ag ,fat #a #djb ,potash #bhj ,woody fibre #e #bfb ,mineral matter #a #ca ,the part roasted is the albumen1 which is of a hard1 horny consistence2 and ,lindley remarks that it is probable that the seeds of other plants of this or the stellate order1 whose albumen is of the same texture1 would serve as a substitute4 ,this would not be the case with those with fleshy albumen4 ,coffee loses in weight by roasting1 but gains in bulk in proportion to the heat applied4 ,payen found the following amount of nitrogen in #ajj parts dried3 nitrogen4 ash4 ,martinique #bdf #ejj ,bourbon #bed #dff ,mocha #bdi #ghd ,the coffee from ,martinique lost #aaeh per cent4 of its weight by drying4 ,this description of coffee also afforded the following results3 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,unroasted4 ,slightly ,chesnut ,brown4 reddened4 brown4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,loss in roasting -- #ae per cent4 #bj per cent4 #be per cent4 ,increase in bulk -- #ac times #aec times -- ,extract #dj per cent4 #cg per cent4 #cga per ct4 #cibe per ct4 ,insoluble residue#dhe 8 -- -- -- ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,coffee1 as ordinarily prepared for beverage1 contains only two-sevenths of the nitrogenous or nutritive matter of the fresh bean1 but two-thirds of the roasted1 and the mineral ingredients are all present4 ,m4 ,lebreton 78,agriculteur praticien07 has estimated the loss of weight of coffee in roasting at #ah to #bj per cent4 in ,porto ,rico1 ,rio1 and ,martinique coffee2 and at #af to #ah per cent4 in ,malabar1 ,bourbon1 ,ceylon1 and ,guadaloupe coffees2 while in ,mocha coffee it amounts to only #ad or #af4 ,the loss of weight depends upon the time of roasting and the degree of heat4 ,damp or damaged coffee loses more than dry sound coffee4 ,he considers that these substances have the capability of rendering the individual insensible of a certain deficiency of food1 in virtue of their retardation of the assimilative process4 ,he thinks it probable1 likewise1 that these substances have a direct nutritive value1 especially coffee as drank by the ,turks and ,arabs with the grounds4 ,professor ,lehmann considers that the singular preference for one or other of these beverages by particular nations1 as well as the ,eastern custom of drinking coffee with the grounds1 are not accidental1 but have some deeper reason4 ,this reason1 he thinks1 is to be found in the different effects of the coffee1 tea1 c41 and the various requirements of the nations by whom they are used1 and instances the use of tea by the ,english1 and of coffee by the ,germans and ,french1 as in accordance with this view4 ,the diet of the former affords a larger supply of plastic material than that of the latter people2 and while1 consequently1 the retardation of the assimilative process is an important influence for the ,german1 the proportionately greater nervous stimulus caused by tea is more desirable for the former4 ,the use of coffee with its grounds has its analogue in the use of tea mixed with meal1 milk1 and butter among the ,mongols1 and other inhabitants of the ,central ,asiatic steppes4 ,m4 ,payen1 from elaborate experiments1 shows that coffee slightly roasted is that which contains the maximum of aroma1 weight1 and nutrition4 ,he declares coffee to be very nourishing1 as it contains a large quantity of nitrogen1 three times as much nutriment as tea1 and more than twice the nourishment of soup4 ,chicory contains only half the nutriment of coffee4 ,,section ,,vi4 ,,coffee-,,leaf ,,tea1 c4 ,attention was some time ago drawn to the subject of coffee-leaf tea1 which is used in ,sumatra and other parts of the ,east1 and a good deal of discussion ensued upon the matter1 after the leaves were shown for the purpose at the ,international ,exhibition of #ahea4 ,an infusion of roasted coffee-leaves is pronounced by those who have had an opportunity of tasting it1 as superior to ,bohea1 and by some enthusiastic admirers is said to rival the flavour of the most delicate ,pekoe4 ,that an infusion of roasted coffee-leaves should imitate the flavour of tea is not to be wondered at1 as the leaves of both shrubs contain in the main the same leading principles1 more particularly theine or caffeine4 ,there is no doubt that coffee-leaf tea would command a sale in ,england1 but the question is how much could be collected to make it profitable1 and it involves the necessity of apparatus and skilled labour for parching the leaves4 ,coffee-leaves are not quite so thick as those of ,vallambrosa1 and a ,malabar coolie would not in one day collect enough to pay the expense of picking1 drying1 packing1 cartage1 warehouse rent1 freight1 and other charges4 ,moreover1 no planter of any experience would think of stripping his trees of their breathing organs1 and the quantity that might be collected from the suckers and prunings1 c41 would never give more than a few bales1 even on large plantations4 ,even were the fallen leaves supposed to be available1 their removal would be as detrimental as the practice of raking away withered leaves in plantations1 or the application of the sugar-cane trash to the purposes of fuel4 ,the husks1 pulp1 and parchment in ,south ,america1 the ,west ,indies1 ,ceylon1 and the other ,indian islands1 are regarded as mere waste1 and thrown away4 ,in ,arabia and some parts of the ,east1 however1 this refuse is utilised1 as the 8miserables10 or husks of the cocoa-seed 7,theobroma cacao71 are in ,ireland and the ,continent4 ,with it is prepared the famous kisher1 or 8,caf la ,sultane10 a light-coloured1 bright infusion1 which has all the agreeable flavour of coffee1 with little of its strength and none of its bitterness2 this is partaken of by the humbler classes in incredible quantities4 ,when quite dry and ripe these husks are bruised1 and roasted in an earthen vessel over a charcoal fire1 not as coffee usually is1 but only until it assumes a light-brown colour4 ,while hot it is thrown into a pot of boiling water1 with a small proportion of the pellicle or parchment skin2 all is boiled together for a few minutes1 and then served hot and strong1 but without sugar4 ,sometimes a drop of essence of amber is put into each cup2 or cloves1 aniseed1 or cardamoms are boiled with it4 ,in ,brazil1 from the sweet pulp which envelopes the berry an excellent spirit has been made4 ,,section ,,vii4 ,,adulterants4 ,great as the consumption of coffee is in ,europe and the ,americas1 it has become so necessary in every household1 that the demand continues to increase1 and very full prices are maintained4 ,the largely extended plantations in ,brazil1 in ,ceylon1 in ,india1 in ,java1 and in other suitable localities1 profitably opened up every day1 altogether fail to keep down prices1 and will long continue to offer the strong inducement of large profits6 ,taking advantage of this great public want1 the unscrupulous and fraudulent trader foists upon the easily-duped masses of consumers vast quantities of unwholesome and pernicious stuff1 mixed in certain proportions with coffee2 and1 although the law has interposed in the case of chicory1 forbidding1 under penalties1 its being sold mixed with coffee1 unless especially so labelled and declared1 yet who can tell the thousand and one mixtures that are still made and sold with it8 ,it may be said that all this can be prevented by purchasing only unground coffee1 in a roasted state1 ready for grinding2 but there are those 7to be reckoned by hundreds of thousands of families7 who1 having no means of grinding this roasted coffee1 are compelled to buy that which is already ground1 or go without altogether4 ,what abominations do these 7in too many cases7 not drink1 then1 under the much abused name of coffee8 ,these reflections are forced upon my mind every time ,i enter a coffee-house1 and am called to put faith in the purity of the cup of coffee set before me4 ,visitors to the establishments of coffee-grinders speak of bags of the husks of peas1 and cobs of ,indian corn1 wheat1 sea-biscuits1 and other articles1 harmless enough in themselves1 and in their right places1 where1 indeed1 they may be useful2 but a coffee-mill is the wrong place for these otherwise objectionable articles of consumption4 ,it will not be denied that the husks of peas or the cobs of maize are appropriately placed in the trough from which our pigs feed2 they will even add to the delicacy and whiteness of the pork those very useful animals are intended to yield us1 but they are essentially out of place in our coffee-cup4 ,these1 and various other articles1 go to make what in the trade is termed 8,boston10 and this preparation the visitor1 who has been admitted to the arcana of the grinder1 will find mixed in a large bin ready for use4 ,one who has been thus favoured1 after describing the mill used for grinding the coffee1 speaks of another machine1 called the 8mixer40 ,the 8mixer0 is a wooden cylinder revolving on a spindle at an angle of #de1 and having internal arrangements to mix the coffee with such proportion of adulterating material as the ingenuity or impudence of the grinder may suggest4 ,here1 like ,macbeth's witches over their cauldron1 presides the genius of the place1 who casts in the ingredients which constitute the villanous compound1 which1 done up in tins1 is finally ornamented with labels such as this3 ,,finest ,,plantation ,,coffee1 ,roasted and ground on the most approved principle by ,,steam ,,machinery4 ,this coffee is with confidence highly recommended to the public1 as the fine aroma1 so much appreciated1 is entirely preserved by its being ,,packed ,,fresh ,,from ,,the ,,mill4 ,we need scarcely say that the amount of nourishment contained in this abominable olio is infinitesimally small4 ,the ,scientific ,american of ,new ,york1 of a recent date1 records the following fact3 8,the editor of the ,baltimore ,american lately visited the commissary department of one of the large military hospitals1 and noticed several barrels of dried coffee grounds1 the purpose whereof excited his curiosity4 ,the polite commissary informed him that they received twelve dollars a barrel for the grounds4 #8,but what is it purchased for8' he asked4 #8,well1' said the commissary1 hesitatingly1 #8it is re-aromatised by the transforming hand of modern chemistry1 and put up in pound papers1 which are decorated with attractive labels and high-sounding names4'0 ,about ten years ago1 when the question of coffee adulteration was much agitated1 ,i published a little treatise1 entitled1 8,coffee1 as it is and as it ought to be10 in which1 among other particulars1 ,i pointed out the various sophistications practised4 ,a compositor who was engaged in printing the work furnished me with a remarkable statement in confirmation of reports which ,i had previously heard4 ,he stated that in various parts of the metropolis1 but more especially in the east1 are to be found liver bakers4 ,these men take the livers of oxen and horses1 bake them1 and grind them into a powder1 which they sell to the low-priced coffee-shop keepers1 at from #d;d4 to #f;d4 per pound2 horse-liver coffee bearing the highest price4 ,this adulterant may be known by allowing the coffee to stand until cold1 when a thick pellicle or skin will be found on the top4 ,it goes farther than coffee1 and is generally mixed with chicory and other vegetable imitations of coffee4 ,according to the investigations of ,dr4 ,hassall 78,food and its ,adulterations071 the several adulterations of coffee may be distinguished by the following characters3 ,chicory1 by the size1 form1 and ready separation of the component cells of the root1 as well as by the presence of an abundance of spiral vessels of the dotted form4 ,roasted corn1 by the size1 form1 and other characters of the starch granules1 of which the grains are principally composed4 ,beans1 also1 by the form1 c41 of the constituent granules of starch4 ,potato1 by the large size1 rounded form1 and ready separation of the cells of the cellulose1 as well as by the fibrous markings on their surfaces4 ,plate #c shows a fragment of roasted coffee as seen under the microscope1 magnified #adj diameters1 and the structures in a sample of coffee adulterated with chicory4 ,dr4 ,normandy1 in his evidence before the ,parliamentary ,committee on the ,adulteration of ,food1 c41 stated that he had met with roasted corn in coffee to an extent of from #be to #cj per cent42 it is recognised by the size and character of the starch granules2 consists of barley and rye1 and is generally very easy to detect2 it floats up4 ,if coffee has been adulterated with roasted grain1 when you pour boiling water upon it you will see rising against the sides of the cup portions of the ground grain1 which you sometimes can separate in considerable quantities1 by capillary attraction4 ,if you pour such coffee from the coffee-pot1 some of those grains will fall with the liquid in the cup1 and they will climb up1 as it were1 the sides of the cup a quarter of an inch1 or something of that kind1 all round1 and you can collect them very easily4 ,dr4 ,r4 ,d4 ,thompson1 ,f4,r4,s41 another witness1 stated that a large cargo of lupins from ,egypt having been imported1 which could not be made any use of in consequence of their bitter taste1 he was asked to give a certificate in favour of their being equal to coffee1 but declined1 and recommended that1 after steeping1 to remove the bitter principle1 they should be sold for cattle4 ,he also added that he had seen an ingenious apparatus for making artificial coffee-berries from chicory and other substances2 it was something like a bullet-mould1 and patented by ,messrs4 ,duckworth of ,liverpool4 ,the chicory itself sold is not always pure4 ,the ,board of ,inland ,revenue have found1 on chemical examination in different samples1 beans1 rye1 oats 7roasted and ground71 caramel or burnt sugar1 oxide of iron and orange berries4 ,the principle contained in coffee1 remarks ,dr4 ,letheby1 may be considered as essential to life1 inasmuch as all nations ,illustration3 ,plate #c ,genuine ,ground ,coffee4 ,illustration3 ,coffee ,adulterated with ,chicory4 use it2 it prevents the wear and tear of the body4 ,now there is nothing in chicory which can do that4 ,chemically there is no difference between beetroot chicory and what is called real chicory2 microscopically you can discover the difference4 ,if genuine coffee is sprinkled upon the surface of a tumbler of water1 it remains a considerable time floating1 and when it sinks it only slightly colours the water2 chicory1 on the other hand1 sinks quickly1 and colours the water very deeply4 ,ground coffee is enveloped in an oily substance1 which prevents the water absorbing2 chicory has no such protection1 and sinks immediately4 ,mr4 ,phillips1 the chemist to the ,inland ,board of ,revenue1 states that the average per-centage of chicory to coffee1 when sold mixed1 was found to range from #bj to #af per cent4 ,at a recent meeting of the ,british ,association of ,science1 ,mr4 ,horsley called attention to the use of bi-chromate of potash1 in analysing adulterated samples of coffee4 ,with diluted solutions of pure coffee1 this salt produces an intense deep porter-brown coloration1 whilst upon decoctions of chicory no effect is produced4 ,he advised the following procedure3 ,take equal parts of chicory and coffee1 and decoct them in different quantities of water4 ,filter1 bottle1 and label the liquids4 ,take a teaspoonful of the chicory1 and dilute till it is of a brown sherry colour2 boil it in a porcelain dish1 with a fragment of crystallised bi-chrome4 ,the colour will be scarcely deepened4 ,if a similarly diluted solution of coffee is thus treated1 a deep-brown tinge is obtained4 ,by operating with mixed liquids a scale of colours may be obtained indicating the properties of the two substances4 ,if a few grains of the sulphate of copper be added1 both decoctions yield a precipitate2 that from chicory being a clay yellow1 and that from coffee a sepia brown4 ,mixed decoctions yield intermediate tints4 ,,section ,,viii4 ,,culture ,,in ,,the ,,west ,,indies ,,and ,,america4 ,in #agbj1 a small coffee-plant1 raised in the garden of the ,king at ,paris1 was transported to the ,antilles by ,captain ,declieux1 who1 during a long passage1 shared each day his small allowance of water with the young coffee plant4 ,from this tree have sprung all those since cultivated in ,martinique1 ,guadaloupe1 ,cayenne1 ,st4 ,domingo1 and the other islands4 ,the fall of ,st4 ,domingo1 in #aghi1 which formerly furnished #hj1jjj1jjj lbs41 the disfavour the culture has fallen into in ,martinique and ,guadaloupe islands1 which used to supply #af1jjj1jjj or #ag1jjj1jjj lbs41 together with the greater attention given to sugar cultivation in the ,west ,indies1 have transferred the production of coffee chiefly to ,brazil1 ,ceylon1 and ,java4 ,in #ahja1 #ebf1jjj cwts4 of coffee were imported into ,great ,britain from the ,west ,indies1 and the average annual imports in the six years ending #ahjf was #cfd1jjj cwts4 ,the decrease of production is shown by the following figures3 ---------------------------------------- ----------- #ahbi4 #ahej4 #ahfj4 ---------------------------------------- ----------- lbs4 lbs4 lbs4 ,jamaica #ah1fij1fed #d1aif1baj #f1ade1cfb ,british ,guiana #g1afc1jaf #ah1dgb -- ,trinidad #gc1ffg #if1cgf -- ,dominica #idb1aac #gib #aj1jjj ,st4 ,lucia #cjc1dii #ci -- ---------------------------------------- ----------- ,,jamaica4--,the coffee-plant is said to have been first introduced into ,jamaica by ,sir ,nicholas ,lawes1 in #agbh1 when it was cultivated on an estate called ,temple ,hall1 on the plains of ,liguanea1 not far from ,kingston4 ,in #ageb1 #f1jjj1jjj lbs4 of coffee were exported1 and in the three years ending #ahjg1 the average annual shipment was #bh1ejj1jjj lbs4 ,it was not until the island trade was injured by the dismemberment of ,honduras that the heavy duties on sugar1 and the competition of the ,french colonies1 induced the industrious planters to turn their attention to coffee4 ,they then petitioned for a protecting bounty1 and for a considerable time this was the only ,british colony where its cultivation was much attended to4 ,in #agia there were #fjg coffee-plantations in the island1 with #ba1jjj negroes employed on them4 ,in #ahdd1 there were #fga plantations1 and it was calculated that #bj1jjj1jjjl4 sterling was invested in them4 ,some of the finest and most productive plantations were at an elevation of #dgjj feet1 in the vicinity of the ,blue ,mountain ,peak4 ,whilst in #ahji1 #hc1bej1jjj lbs4 of coffee were shipped from ,jamaica1 the average export for ten years past has not exceeded #f1jjj1jjj lbs4 ,in the ,west ,indies and ,central ,america a nursery of young plants is usually raised from seed4 ,at the age of six months these are transplanted into the field in squares of #h to #i feet apart4 ,beyond keeping the field clear of weeds1 giving the plants a slight moulding1 and freeing them of suckers or sprouts1 they do not require any other attention for the first three years4 ,at the expiry of this time they commence to bear fruit1 and the coffee is cured either by drying the entire fruit in the sun1 or by passing the fruit through what is called a pulping mill1 which separates the outer pulp or covering from the beans4 ,the beans are then subjected to a washing in a tank full of water1 in order to remove the glutinous substance which adheres to them2 this causes them to cure or dry more rapidly4 ,they are then left in what is called the parchment husk1 and exposed to the action of the sun on platforms laid with tiles1 until they are perfectly dried1 and from this they are1 during crop time1 spread on the wooden floors of a building called a logie1 to the depth1 in a heavy crop1 of #ab to #ah inches4 ,whilst thus spread1 great attention is necessary to prevent the coffee getting heated and its colour destroyed1 by constantly turning it up1 and by the use of some dry lime or ashes sprinkled over it4 ,after this the beans are subjected to the operation of what is called a stamping mill1 which separates the parchment husk from the beans4 ,this stamping mill is merely two large solid wheels fixed on each end of a beam on an axle1 and worked by mules moving round in a circle--the wooden wheels working in a circular trough filled with the coffee beans4 ,after this the whole are submitted to the action of a winnowing machine1 which separates the chaff from the beans1 and subsequently the beans are passed through copper sieves to separate the perfect from the broken coffee1 and finally handpicked and put into bags or casks for shipment4 ,,british ,,guiana4--,coffee was for a length of time almost the only staple of ,berbice and ,demerara1 but the cultivation of the sugar-cane has been substituted for it4 ,the quantity of coffee1 the produce of ,british ,guiana1 exported in #ahcj was1 #i1dgb1gef lbs42 in #ahdj1 #c1ceg1cjj lbs42 in #ahdi1 #ajj1eej lbs42 and in #ahej1 #cj1jjj lbs42 since which it has almost ceased to be exported1 scarcely sufficient being produced to supply the demand in the colony4 ,at one time there were about two hundred coffee plantations in the small island of ,,dominica1 and four to five million of pounds of coffee were exported annually to ,great ,britain4 ,,porto ,,rico4--,in proportion to its extent1 this island is twice as productive as ,cuba1 and the quality of its coffee and other produce is of the highest class4 ,there were1 in #ahfb1 fifty-three coffee plantations on the island1 producing about #ajj1jjj cwt4 of coffee4 ,the exports of coffee were1 in lbs4 #ahee #aa1ejf1bhc #ahef #i1ice1jjj #aheg #h1bde1jjj #aheh #i1had1jjj #ahei #ac1deg1jjj ,the exports of coffee from the island of ,,cuba1 which were in #ahdj upwards of #b1jjj1jjj arrobas1 were in #aheh but #ba1jjj2 and in #ahei1 #ejjj or #fjjj4 ,,brazil4--,the coffee-plant has been known in ,brazil for many years2 it is but about fifty years1 however1 since the first regular plantation was made by ,mr4 ,moke1 a ,belgian1 who brought the cultivation of coffee to great perfection4 ,his plantation is still in the neighbourhood of the capital1 and is carried on by his son with much success4 ,it is astonishing to what an extent coffee has been cultivated since ,mr4 ,moke first made his plantation4 ,two millions of bags of #afj lbs4 each are annually exported from ,rio de ,janeiro1 taking the average of the last seven years2 #ahfb was1 however1 short of this about half a million bags4 ,at ,barahyba do ,sul1 which is within a few miles of ,rio1 there are plantations employing six and seven hundred slaves4 ,the best plantations are those owned and conducted by foreigners--chiefly ,english1 ,french1 and ,belgian--they have an air of neatness and comfort about them of which those owned by ,brazilians and ,portuguese are totally destitute4 ,the foreigners use improved machinery also in preparing the berry for market1 which the ,brazilians1 with some exceptions1 do not4 ,the coffee-berry contains two seeds1 covered with a gummy1 mucilaginous substance1 and enclosed in a skin which is thick1 sweet1 and dark and red when ripe4 ,the foreigners take off this skin by means of machinery1 and the beans are washed until they are divested of the mucilage which covers them4 ,they are then dried and put into bags ready for market4 ,the ,brazilians dry the beans with the skin on4 ,in the process of drying1 the skin first becomes dark1 and finally black1 and when crisp1 is rubbed off the bean1 which is then washed4 ,in this process1 however1 there is great danger of fermentation4 ,the skin contains a vast amount of saccharine matter1 and successful attempts have been made to extract from it sugar and spirit2 but either through poor machinery1 or other mismanagement1 it was found to be unprofitable1 and the experiment was abandoned4 ,the skin is exceedingly sweet1 almost as much so to the taste as the sugar-cane4 ,the coffee-plant can be propagated from the seed1 but the most prevalent method in ,brazil is by young plants1 which may be had by the thousand on old plantations4 ,the young shrub is taken up in ,august--generally when it is about two years old--and planted in good soil4 ,the fourth year it produces coffee1 and the fifth year it commences to bear regular crops1 the yield being from a pound and a half to three pounds per tree4 ,trees have been known to last for many years on good rich soil1 and some on ,mr4 ,moke's plantation are still bearing which were planted forty years ago2 on hill-sides1 however1 where the soil is light1 the plant decays in the course of eight or ten years4 ,the picking season commences in ,july1 and in the low lands generally concludes by the end of ,august2 among the hills1 however1 where there are frequent showers1 and where there is much shade1 the season does not close until some time in ,september4 ,the four coffee-growing provinces of ,brazil1 properly speaking1 are ,rio de ,janeiro1 ,san ,paulo1 ,minas1 and ,bahia4 ,in the two former the agriculturists have for some time past directed their attention almost exclusively to this article4 ,in ,bahia its cultivation is steadily1 although slowly1 increasing4 ,coffee is grown in the provinces of ,maranham1 ,parana1 and ,st4 ,catherine's1 but only to a very small extent1 the amount produced being insufficient to meet the demand4 ,the cultivation of coffee is rapidly increasing in ,st4 ,paulo1 and is promoted by the railroad extending from ,santos to ,jundiahy4 ,the ,united ,states usually takes one-half of the crop of ,brazil coffee4 ,the following figures give the average quantity of coffee exported from the empire of ,brazil during the undermentioned years1 comprising a period previous and subsequent to the abolition of the slave trade in #ahea1 and showing a steady increase in the export since #ahdj3 ,annual average4 arrobas4 #ahdj-dc #e1ejg1cfg #ahdc-df #f1eai1chj #ahdf-di #i1cja1ifg #ahdi-eb #h1edb1ife #aheb-ee #aj1edi1hdg #ahee-eh #aa1dfe1gai #aheh-fa #aj1eja1ffe ,the yearly shipments from ,rio in the last four years have been as follows3 bags4 #ahei #b1jfd1hcg #ahfj #b1aej1ahh #ahfa #b1jhe1igd #ahfb #a1dgg1ijd besides #bjj1jjj to #cjj1jjj bags annually from ,santos4 ,the bags contain rather more than six arrobas1 or one cwt4 and a half4 ,,costa ,,rica4--,the quality of this coffee is recognised as excellent4 ,in order to place it in a proper degree of estimation in foreign markets1 some proprietors of plantations have not omitted getting it chemically analysed in ,europe2 the result of which examination has classed it in the third degree1 among those kinds generally esteemed as the best4 ,the following figures show the production of coffee in ,costa ,rica2 the bulk of the crop is sent to ,great ,britain3 cwts4 #ahed #gj1jjj #ahee #gj1gji #ahef #hc1jjj #aheg #ie1jjj ,,venezuela4--,within the last thirty years ,venezuela has made great progress in coffee culture4 ,the exports1 which were not more than #ac1jjj1jjj lbs4 in #ahcc1 had risen to #ae1jjj1jjj lbs4 in #ahej2 but since then the culture has been much interfered with by civil war4 ,the exports from ,la ,guayra were1 in #ahee1 #ag1cge1jjj lbs42 in #ahef1 #ab1ceg1jjj lbs42 and in #aheg1 #af1jca1jjj lbs4 ,washed coffee sells there at #hs4 per cwt4 higher than the unwashed4 ,in ,venezuela1 the plan followed in drying the coffee is this4 ,the berries are spread out upon hurdles in the sun1 where they undergo the vinous fermentation from fourteen to twenty days1 and then dry4 ,the beans are freed from the pulpy husk by a mill in two operations1 and from the parchment1 c41 by winnowing4 ,although a single tree may bear as much as #aj to #bj lbs41 the average in ,venezuela is under #b lbs4 ,an acre planted with #befj trees yields there an annual crop of about #aajj lbs4 of dry beans4 ,in ,,ecuador coffee has of late greatly engrossed the attention of planters1 from its superior quality and the increased demand2 it commands a higher price than any other product of the country in proportion4 ,as the people are everywhere dedicating themselves to its culture1 in a few years it is probable that this country will export a considerable quantity4 ,in #ahee1 #ggf cwt4 only were shipped2 in #ahfa1 although the harvest was exceedingly scanty1 the exports were #adhj cwt4 ,,guatemala4--,some twenty years ago considerable plantations of coffee were made in different parts of the republic of ,guatemala1 and had the undertaking been followed up with proper and steady constancy and attention1 it might1 perhaps1 by this time1 have become an important article of export4 ,unfortunately its culture was abandoned1 owing to the insurrections of the ,indian population4 ,some attempts have been made again to introduce its culture by making fresh plantations1 but hitherto not to any extent worthy of mention4 ,the exports of coffee in #ahfj were about #fc tons4 ,in the department of ,vera ,paz1 there are said to be now about half a million of coffee plants in bearing1 and nurseries of about a million more plants will soon be ready for transplanting4 ,the greater part of the plantations are situated in the neighbourhood of ,coban1 where the vicinity of ,teleman1 on the river ,polochec1 which disembogues into the gulf of ,dulce1 affords a convenient channel for shipping the produce4 ,,section ,,ix4 ,,culture ,,in ,,arabia4 ,the culture of coffee is principally carried on in ,yemen1 towards the districts of ,aden and ,mocha4 ,the nearest coffee plantations are about eighty miles from ,aden4 ,the coffee-growing country in the ,yemen is #cjj miles to the south of ,jeddah1 being the districts about ,tohira1 ,uodeida1 and ,tanaa4 ,of this1 the ,turks have but little1 their authority only extending over the narrow slip called the ,tehana1 in which is little coffee4 ,they had till lately the export dues of all the coffee grown in ,western ,arabia1 but they have lost a great part of them1 a large quantity of coffee being sent to ,aden for exportation4 ,mocha1 the ancient port and capital1 has completely fallen1 and is in ruins4 ,its place is taken by ,uodeida1 the seat of government of the ,yemen1 and a ,pashalic under ,jeddah4 ,in #ahfj1 coffee to the value of #ad1bfhl4 was imported into ,aden by sea1 of #ee1gajl4 was brought by land1 and #de1cddl4 was exported4 ,an enormous quantity is consumed in ,arabia4 ,very little genuine ,yemen coffee is procurable in ,europe4 ,it is difficult to obtain even in ,jeddah4 ,it is first mixed in the ,yemen with inferior ,abyssinian coffee1 then mixed at ,jeddah with damaged coffee1 and probably in ,egypt it is again mixed4 ,alexandria and ,cairo are notorious for bad coffee4 ,it has been understood for several years that much of the coffee which finds its way into ,england as genuine ,mocha is1 in reality1 ,malabar coffee1 sent to ports on the ,persian ,gulf from ,bombay1 and when thus naturalised1 finding its way to ,europe4 ,but the coffee of ,india is now competing successfully with that of ,arabia in markets which the latter had for centuries commanded as its own4 ,in a few years the ,indian article will entirely surpass the ,arabian4 ,it is the old story of enterprise originated and directed by ,europeans driving competition out of the market4 ,seeing that the ,arabs are in the habit of baking the cow-dung and cakes for food on the same wall1 they cannot be suspected of any violent antipathy to dirt per se4 ,but1 passionate lovers as they are of a good cup of coffee1 they can easily understand that an equal quantity of well-cleaned ,malabar coffee is cheaper than that brought in the buggalows of the ,nijd ,arabs1 and which is described as full of extraneous matter1 such as pieces of the coffee-husk1 c4 ,but the ,indian coffee is actually sold cheaper1 quantity for quantity4 ,the consumption of ,yemen coffee is now entirely confined to the wealthier chiefs2 the finest kind1 and that most sought after1 being the small1 of a light-green colour4 ,latterly1 the ,yemen coffee has been all sent to ,bagdad1 a compliment which the ancient city of the ,sultans cannot fail to appreciate at its true value4 ,it is too dear and too dirty for the poor ,arabs of ,bussorah1 while the flavour of the ,malabar kind is found closely to approximate to that of ,yemen4 ,the coffee is generally grown half way up the slopes of the hills1 but some is cultivated on lower ground1 surrounded by large trees for shade4 ,the harvest is gathered at three periods of the year1 the principal being in ,may4 ,cloths are spread under the trees1 which are shaken1 that the ripe fruit may drop4 ,the berries are then collected and exposed to the sun on mats to dry4 ,a heavy roller is afterwards passed over the berries1 to break the envelopes1 and the husk is winnowed away with a fan4 ,the berries are further dried before being stored4 ,arabian coffee was first cultivated by the ,dutch1 and some of their plants sent by the ,french to the ,west ,indies1 where it is now successfully cultivated4 ,so that one has a difficulty in deciding where it is indigenous1 as it is a much more important article of agriculture in the ,west ,indies1 ,java1 ,ceylon1 and ,southern ,india1 than in its native countries4 ,in ,syria the coffee-plant is of natural growth2 but as the ,european writers who were engaged in the ,crusades do not mention it1 it could not have been much used during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries4 ,bruce affirms that the qualities of it were well known in ,africa1 and that the ,gallae1 a wandering tribe1 which was obliged to traverse the deserts1 carried no other provision than balls compounded of coffee and butter1 one of which would keep them in health and spirits through a day's journey better than any other kind of food4 ,in the ,royal ,library at ,paris is an ,arabian manuscript1 containing a voluminous history of coffee1 in which it is said that ,gemaleddin-,ahou-,abdallah1 ,mufti of ,aden1 first introduced its use among the ,turks1 upon his return from ,persia1 where he had experienced the beneficial effects of it as a common beverage4 ,the effendi1 the kadi1 and all the inferior officers of the government1 followed the example of this chief of the law4 ,the use of coffee descended through the harem to the house of every merchant1 and the town of ,aden set the example to the rest of ,arabia4 ,,section ,x4 ,,cultivation ,,in ,,ceylon4 ,in #ahbd1 ,sir ,edward ,barnes and ,sir ,george ,bird commenced coffee-planting in ,ceylon on a large scale4 ,others followed gradually1 but the real rush for land dates from #ahcc4 ,there are now #bej1jjj acres owned by coffee-planters1 of which #ajj1jjj are cleared and cultivated4 ,in ,ceylon coffee succeeds best at an elevation from #abjj to #dhjj feet2 the quantity1 generally speaking1 lessening1 but the quality improving with the elevation4 ,by the natives a little of inferior description is grown in the low country4 ,in #ahee there were about #aej estates belonging to ,europeans1 comprising #cj1jjj acres of cultivated ground1 to which considerable additions have since been made4 #djj1jjj cwt4 was exported in #ahec1 and #ghc1cic cwt4 in #ahfc4 ,the railroad forming from ,colombo to ,kandy1 and the opening up of new roads1 have rendered more land accessible1 and the large clearances made in the forest at the high elevations will probably so improve the climate of those localities that a still further addition to the available land will be obtained4 ,it is1 therefore1 not too much to expect the export1 which in the last five years has on the average exceeded #fcj1jjj cwt4 per annum1 will in less than a quarter of a century be more than doubled4 ,in the fourteen years ending with #ahfb1 ,ceylon has sent into the markets of the world the following quantity of coffee3 cwts4 ,plantation #d1fbe1iie of the value of #aa1caj1eah ,native growth #a1ide1fbc 8 #c1dib1bij --------- ---------- #f1ega1fah #ad1hjb1hjh ,elevation must ever be an important consideration2 though we have no doubt that by the use of manures coffee might be made to do well and bear to a limited extent at the level of the sea in ,ceylon4 ,we believe this to be1 however1 so completely artificial1 that it will never again be tried whilst land is available from #aejj feet and upwards of elevation1 where the plant grows vigorously without more than ordinary care being bestowed4 ,the general effect of elevation may be described very shortly2 the lower ranges1 with fair soil1 produce the heaviest crops and the soonest after planting1 whilst the plantations on higher elevations produce smaller crops1 but a finer quality of produce1 and take a longer time to come into full bearing4 ,there are many circumstances which go to produce climate1 besides differences of elevation4 ,on a plantation formed in a large district of forest yet uncleared1 the climate will be colder and more moist than when the formation of other estates has cleared away the forest around it4 ,the proximity of a high mountain peak1 or being situated on the shoulder of a mountain which towers to a great elevation above the level of the plantation1 will also produce more cold and wet than if the garden were opened on a lower range and to the full height of such a position4 ,plate #d1 for instance1 shows such a locality in the view of ,konda-galla estate1 near ,neura-ellia1 ,ceylon4 ,at low elevations long continued dry weather is more frequent than on the higher ranges1 inasmuch as the clouds are frequently broken by the distant hills before they reach2 and when there is no rain about1 estates on the higher ranges are less parched1 and atmospherically enjoy a moisture of which the lower hills are destitute4 ,still these various conditions are only advantageous or hurtful under varying circumstances2 high elevation1 cold and wet1 and low elevation1 heat1 and drought1 are alike unfavourable as prevailing characteristics2 it is their due and seasonable admixture ,illustration3 ,plate #d4--,konda-galla ,estate1 near ,neura-ellia1 ,ceylon4 which is found most favourable to the profitable production of the coffee-plant4 ,perhaps the least favourable localities are those high positions where the natural vegetation is of the alpine character2 in such positions the plant will only struggle for an existence2 it therefore follows that the land selected should be well under these extreme elevations4 ,soil of all kinds has had its advocates1 and in turn been condemned by all4 ,depth and freeness are perhaps its most favourable states2 dark black mould is always good2 but wherever there is sufficiency of depth found beneath a virgin forest1 at the proper elevation and climate1 coffee has come on successfully4 ,the land which has by general opinion been condemned as unfit for continued production is that covered with small jungle after the original forest has been cut down1 and the land made to produce a rich crop for the natives4 ,perhaps it may be the exposure of the soil to the sun1 and exhaustion by the large weeds which it produces1 which are so injurious to it4 ,the modern system of manuring is rapidly equalising the value of all soils1 though deep lands on a limestone bottom1 or strewed with granite boulders1 are always considered highly favourable for coffee cultivation4 ,the proximity of land to roads is a point of great importance in its selection1 both as directly and indirectly affecting the outlay in forming a plantation1 and probably for a long time determining the large item of expense under the head of transport of produce4 ,felling and clearing1 as the name implies1 is cutting down the jungle and burning it off1 so as to leave the land clear for planting4 ,it is conducted as follows4 ,beginning from the lower part of the land and working upwards1 the undergrowth1 or small jungle1 is cut down with catties or bill-hooks1 leaving the forest trees free and open for the labours of the axemen4 ,likewise beginning from the lowest part of the field1 the labourers1 generally village ,singhalese1 who are extremely expert at this work1 cut the trees nearly through by notches at the lower and upper sides1 gradually retiring up the hill1 until a tree of larger dimensions is cut1 and being sent down1 crashes all the others beneath it4 ,when this is cleverly managed1 several acres will often be opened to the daylight at one time2 much1 however1 depends upon the steepness of the ascent and the heaviness of the forest4 ,on the highest elevations the trees are smallest1 and come down lightest1 and on the lower elevations it may frequently happen that for acres and acres the trees are of that immense size that every log has required four men to cut it from the stump4 ,not unfrequently some of these trees have such projecting roots that the axemen have to erect stages around them to reach the ordinary trunk1 which will each give employment for six hours to four men to cut through4 ,after the trees have been felled1 the lopping has to be attended to2 this is to cut off all the tops and branches1 and in some cases to cut the trunks across1 so that the mass cut down may lay compactly and dry1 as upon this depends much of the success of the burning1 and1 therefore1 the economy of the operation4 ,small or light forest is often the most expensive to lop1 from the lifeless fall of the trees1 and the comparatively greater quantity of head and branch2 whereas tall and heavy forest trees fly as it were under the axe from the stump1 and in falling break themselves and all beneath them2 in this manner some heavy forests cost less to clear than a lighter growth4 ,the clearing having been left from six weeks to about two months1 according to the weather1 is fired1 which is done generally by setting fire to it chiefly at the lower ends in several places2 by this means the fire is soon connected1 and burning in the dryest or first cut down portions1 unites in a sweeping flame1 rushes up the hill1 destroying all before it2 such is the power of the flame from below1 that when the burning is successful the part last cut1 probably many acres1 and yet lying green upon the ground1 is consumed with the rest4 ,after the flame has passed away1 nothing should be seen but the smoking black logs of the large trees1 which1 wherever they cross each other and do not lay upon the ground1 require to be cut across and brought down4 ,if the operation has been successfully managed1 the land is now in readiness for the next operation--,lining1 or staking out the positions of the intended plants4 ,this is performed in many ways1 but it is essential to have it done well1 that the plants should make perfect lines across the ground to be planted1 in order to maintain regularity in the plantation work1 and give the best possible appearance to the field2 therefore no expense necessary to ensure its correct and workmanlike performance should be grudged4 ,the simplest method is by means of a line1 with marks placed at equal distances for the spaces between the plants up the hill4 ,this carried by men at each end1 who respectively measure a distance with a rod for that purpose from the last peg1 and holding the line taught from end to end2 boys following with pegs ready cut put them in at the marks on the line4 ,this method is likely to lead to inaccuracy on a large feature1 in consequence of the irregularity of the ground1 and from the small inaccuracies accumulating in the measurement between each laying down of the line4 ,a better way is to lay out a feature in squares of the line1 and these into parallels across the feature1 and then drop the line between each peg on the parallels1 putting in the remaining pegs by the marks on the line4 ,some planters have an excellent plan of laying down a number of lines up and down the hill at measured distances1 and then two men with a shorter line measure distances upwards on the two outside lines1 and peg-men put in their sticks at the points where the lines cross each other4 ,we have seen some plantations laid out by the use of the theodolite1 but this is not an instrument to be found on many estates4 ,the object to be gained in lining is to carry the plants in straight lines parallel to each other1 at the same bearing over the whole estate1 and to make them cross each other at right angles2 by this means lines will be formed four ways1 at the two right angles and at the two diagonals4 ,when this has been successfully achieved1 there is1 under any circumstances1 a workmanlike character about the plantation2 vacancies in the planting are more easily detected1 the arrangements for weeding1 picking1 pruning1 and manuring are made without confusion4 ,diagonal lines across the features of land are said to be best1 inasmuch as the stems of the trees by this arrangement offer somewhat more resistance to the washing down of soil by the rains4 ,much argument has been held as to the proper distances at which coffee-trees should be planted2 and in visiting the various districts it will be seen that all distances and all forms have been resorted to4 ,the result of this extended experiment has produced a very general opinion in favour of close planting2 that is1 #f feet by #f feet1 or #e feet by #f feet1 or #d feet #i inches by #e feet4 ,the reasons in favour of close planting are these1 that the extra number of plants to the acre is followed in the first two crops at least by a proportionate increase of crop4 ,by close planting weeds are hindered from growing1 and1 what is of more consequence still1 the ground is sooner covered by the growing plants1 and therefore protected from the sun1 exposure to which is found to impoverish more than anything else the surface soil1 from which the plant chiefly seeks its nourishment4 ,with an average good soil1 and careful handling of the trees and manuring1 it is found that closely-planted coffee may be made to continue to bear highly2 that is1 in proportion to the extra number of plants to the acre4 ,close planting is serviceable in enabling the plants to outlive the effect of exposure to high winds1 which in some places are most destructive4 ,the next proceeding is holing 7which1 as its name implies1 is to make holes in preparation for planting the coffee1 at the distances staked out by the lining74 ,as coffee is planted in a virgin soil1 which cannot be cleared of roots1 rocks1 and logs1 for the operation of the plough1 and were it cleared of these the disturbance of the soil would probably cause it to be carried away by the heavy rains2 holes have to be made1 and the larger these are1 the nearer the approach is to that movement of the soil1 which in general sets at liberty its fertilising properties4 ,holes are made from #ah inches to #b feet every way1 into which before planting the surface soil is scraped with a hoe4 ,it is customary to contract for this work1 which ,i believe is generally performed now with a sort of crowbar having a spud blade at one end2 with these the roots of trees are cut through and rocks and stones taken out1 the loosened soil being removed with the hand or with a cocoa-nut shell4 ,this tool is furnished to the ,singhalese because they prefer to sit down and work leisurely1 but where men can be employed at day-wages1 and provided with mattocks to break the soil and cut out the roots and stones1 and hoes to clear out the loosened earth1 the same work may be far more economically performed1 inasmuch as the labourers being on their feet give not only their arms1 but their whole body1 to the exertion1 and have not to raise themselves from a sitting position between each hole they have to make4 ,,section ,,xi4 ,,buildings1 ,,planting1 c41 ,,in ,,ceylon4 ,these comprise a bungalow for the manager1 lines1 or huts1 for the labourers1 and pulping-house and store for the preparation and reception of the crop4 ,plate #e shows the main works and buildings at ,messrs4 ,worms' estates1 ,puselawa1 ,ceylon4 ,the position of the pulping-house should influence the selection of the spots for the other buildings1 unless other circumstances determine it4 ,the bungalow should1 if possible1 be an easy distance from the store1 that the manager may without difficulty superintend the work1 which at crop time is going on often at night as well as in the daytime4 ,one set of lines for the labourers1 for the same reason1 should be near to the store1 another set may be erected more centrically with reference to the field labour of the estate4 ,with reference to lines and bungalow1 especially the latter1 they will be erected according to the manager's taste1 and in a great measure depend upon the material to be obtained in the particular locality for constructing them4 ,true economy will be practised in making permanent and substantial dwellings which will require only slight repairs occasionally4 ,the selection of the land for the pulping-house and stores and drying-ground is all important1 and should only be attempted by a resident manager to whom a long residence on the plantation has afforded an intimate acquaintance with every feature of the land4 ,the advantages which have to be ,illustration3 ,plate #e4--,main ,works at ,messrs4 ,worms' ,estates1 ,puselawa1 ,ceylon4 ,illustration3 ,plate #f4--,the ,pulping ,house1 ,messrs4 ,worms' ,estate1 ,puselawa4 sought and combined are1 availability of water power1 both to drive the machinery and for a water-course to the pulper1 on a site convenient to the fields from which the crop is to be brought1 and so level that it may be fitted for its purposes at the least possible expense4 ,water power is not always used1 nor is it available on every estate2 but as there may be often good reasons to adopt it afterwards1 it should always be considered in the primary arrangements4 ,it may be applied to so many economic objects--saw-mills1 drying apparatus1 c4--that it should always be applied1 if possible1 to everything undertaken on the estate requiring a moving power4 ,plate #f is an exterior view of a pulping-house on ,messrs4 ,worms' estates1 ,puselawa4 ,coffee when gathered from the tree fully ripe is like a rich scarlet cherry1 out of which on being squeezed two coffee-berries break forth1 each covered with a light skin resembling parchment1 and moist1 with a sweet mucilaginous fluid which rapidly decomposes4 ,the machine called a pulper is for the purpose of removing the cherry skin or husk2 this it does by passing it between a barrel armed with perforated copper1 forming a grater1 and a sharp-edged board called the chop1 which by means of wedges or screws is placed at the proper distance from the barrel to ensure the greater part of the coffee being pressed against it1 but not so close that any of the berries should be pricked through their parchment covering4 ,as coffee is seldom uniform in size1 much passes forward from which the husk1 or pulp1 as it is called1 has not been completely removed2 this1 being separated by a sieve worked by the machinery1 is returned by hand to the hopper4 ,the coffee1 deprived of its husk1 goes forward by a channel prepared for it into a cistern1 the pulps being thrown off behind2 these latter are now generally saved to be carried to the manure pit4 ,the coffee is left to soak in the cistern for the night1 or for that length of time which is sufficient to wash off the mucilage1 an operation which is facilitated by a slight fermentation--not1 however1 always conducted with safety to the future quality of the coffee4 ,pulping-houses are supplied with several cisterns1 into which the several pulpings may be run off that the work may not stand still4 ,plate #g gives a view of the interior lower floor of the pulping-house on ,messrs4 ,worms' estates1 ,puselawa4 ,in the pulping-house above the pulpers is a large floor called the cherry loft1 into which the coffee in cherry from the field is measured1 and from whence1 through holes1 it is made to fall into the pulpers1 from the pulpers it is carried to the cisterns1 and when washed is taken out by the labourers to be dried1 which brings us to speak of the store and drying apparatus4 ,before doing so we may mention that the pulper1 which is considered a very imperfect machine1 is generally driven by four men at two handles1 aided by a fly-wheel2 the power is immediately applied to turn the barrel1 to which is connected a large cog-wheel1 which moves a pinion attached1 to work a sieve or riddle4 ,pulpers turned by water power1 if properly erected to resist the strain of the connecting machinery1 work with more equality of motion1 and therefore do their work better than those worked by hand4 ,many improvements in the pulping-machine have been suggested without success2 the last1 which is now very generally adopted1 is called a crusher1 and consists in a kind of shield instead of a chop1 which presses the coffee against the barrel4 ,this machine is said to do as much work in a given time as the pulper1 and with less liability to cut or prick the berry4 ,it has been said that the pulper is an imperfect machine2 it is so in respect to the incompleteness with which it performs the work for which it is constructed4 ,the work ,illustration3 ,plate #g4--;,interior ,view of the ,pulping ,house of ,messrs4 ,worms' ,estates1 ,puselawa1 ,ceylon4 complete1 would be to pass forward the whole of the cherry coffee from the hopper1 as clean parchment coffee1 into the cistern1 and completely separate the pulp4 ,instead of this1 not only is there much coffee passed forward unpulped1 which has to be returned to the hopper1 but much pulp comes forward with the coffee into the cistern4 ,to overcome these imperfections1 many hands are required attending the process of pulping2 several with sieves receive all the coffee as it comes through the trough into the cistern1 and remove all the pulp in it4 ,the object of this is to please the sight by making the sample even1 and to take away a material which both1 renders the coffee difficult to dry1 and1 being decomposed vegetable matter of a saccharine nature1 is liable by fermentation to injure the quality of the coffee itself4 ,the coffee which is passed unpulped1 having been returned to the hopper as it accumulates at the end of the pulper riddle1 until the picking has all been pulped1 is sometimes passed through another pulper1 set closer1 and what then remains is dried separately in the husk4 ,the imperfections of the pulper have recently attracted much notice1 and improvements are making in it4 ,we now arrive at the crowning operation of all--,planting4 ,economy should be studied in every part of the work1 and to plant to the best advantage1 nothing is more conducive than having the traces of the roads and paths through the clearings already opened if possible1 so as to be available for bringing the plants from the nurseries4 ,plants and stumps are both used in forming plantations2 the first are seedlings1 reared in nurseries until they are about #h to #aj inches high1 or just crowned--that is1 after the appearance of their first lateral branches2 the second are the stock and roots of an older tree4 ,under varying circumstances there is much to be said in favour of each4 ,if the weather is dry and the season advanced1 stumps may be planted with less risk1 and in less time2 but if plants are to be had1 and the season favourable1 it is generally considered they are the best4 ,in putting them into the ground1 if practicable1 they should be removed from the nursery with balls of earth about their roots2 this is even the most economical1 as being almost an assurance against failure1 and the tree thus planted receives no check1 but begins to grow directly4 ,if1 on the other hand1 the plants are to be brought too far to carry them with balls of earth1 extreme care should be taken to place them with the tap root perpendicularly in the soil4 ,invariably the effect of a tap root not being placed perpendicularly in the hole is1 that when the tree is grown to two or three feet in height1 the upper shoot and branches take a paler colour to that of the healthy plant1 which is of very dark green1 the leaves also become small and elongated1 and occasionally somewhat mottled with a yellow tinge4 ,such plants will frequently spring into flower and fruit prematurely1 which generally turns out 8boll10 or empty in husk1 and as prematurely dies away4 ,this remark is not uncalled for1 as it requires extreme vigilance to prevent the labourers carelessly doubling up the tap as they place the plant in the earth4 ,the hole should be well filled up and the earth trodden in round the plant1 which should never be buried below the crown of the root4 ,nurseries of plants are variously made2 much contention has existed on the merits of shade and no shade4 ,shade is not required1 and the plants are best without it2 yet it happens most nurseries are in some respects subject to shade1 as they have to be formed frequently before any portion of the land is opened1 and should be protected by a belt of forest from the fire of the clearing2 the jungle being cleared off and carried to the sides of the ground selected4 ,the soil is dug with hoes and picks about two spits deep1 and the roots of the jungle carefully taken up1 as these would afterwards break the rootlets of the plants when taken up for transplanting4 ,the ground being laid out in beds1 is sometimes sown broadcast with coffee-seed1 which only requires to be most lightly covered with a little sifted mould1 or the seeds are pressed in1 in rows1 with the finger4 ,sometimes small seedlings1 with two leaves and the seed leaves1 are brought from another nursery1 or from beneath the coffee-bushes of a plantation or native garden1 and lined out into beds about six inches apart2 these make by far the best and hardiest plants for planting out into the fields4 ,we must not omit to notice the necessity for carefully replacing1 with as little delay as possible1 all failures in the planting4 ,the longer this is delayed the more difficult does it become to do it well2 and when neglected1 besides making the fields appear irregular and unsightly1 the gaps left become weed beds1 and so much of the bearing space of the acre being lost1 the crop is affected in proportion4 ,when stumps are planted1 a number of buds or suckers make their appearance on the root2 one of these only should be left1 and the others carefully rubbed off with the finger1 as often as the weeding party goes over the field4 ,the sprout from the bud which is left grows up and becomes the stem of a tree1 and throws out its laterals somewhat higher than the tree grown from a nursery plant4 ,the stump generally produces its first crop a little out of season2 for planting up failures stumps give the least trouble4 ,next to lining and careful planting1 nothing enhances the good appearance of a plantation so much as the workmanlike formation of the roads and buildings4 ,it is1 therefore1 desirable1 by the use of a theodolite1 to trace the roads accurately before cutting them out4 ,formerly it was frequently the practice to take the road by the eye from point to point1 evading the natural difficulties of rocks or large roots1 by taking the breakneck path above or below them4 ,roads on partial clearings should always have reference to the land which is afterwards to be felled and connected with the same set of works4 ,plate #h shows a coffee district near ,puselawa1 ,ceylon4 ,illustration3 ,plate #h4--;,coffee ,district near ,puselawa1 ,ceylon4 ,,section ,,xii4 ,,harvesting ,,the ,,crop ,,and ,,preparation ,,for ,,market4 ,the heavy blossom appears on the tree in ,august and ,september4 ,the principal crop is picked from ,april to ,july4 ,a small crop1 chiefly from young coffee1 is picked from ,september to ,december4 ,the produce is sent down to ,colombo1 the shipping port1 from ,april to ,september4 ,if the estate be close to a carriage road this is done by carts1 which can take from #fj to #hj bushels4 ,the cost of transport is sometimes enormous4 ,it is not unusual to see carts loaded with coffee lying at the bottom of a precipice1 while the bullocks which had brought them have died from exhaustion4 ,if not near a road1 carrying coolies are employed1 or pack bullocks1 which take a load of #c bushels1 to transport it either to a store1 from which a carriage will convey it to ,colombo1 or to the navigable point of one of the rivers4 ,of the various modes and facility1 or the want of it1 possessed by estates situated in different districts1 some idea may be formed in the expense varying from #as4 to #abs4 per cwt4 for bringing the produce to ,colombo4 ,there are now in ,colombo upwards of thirty establishments for the preparation of coffee for shipment1 ten or twelve of these employ steam power to drive the requisite machinery4 ,to most of them large barbecues for drying are attached1 and cooperages for the preparation of casks1 and in the season1 which lasts nearly three quarters of the year1 from #aj1jjj to #ae1jjj women and #ajjj to #bjjj men are employed in the process4 ,though the coffee has been sufficiently dried on the plantation to enable it to reach ,colombo in safety1 it is not sufficiently hard to part with the silver pellicle which envelops each berry under the parchment skin1 and to resist the pressure of the peeler1 without some additional drying in the more powerful sun at ,colombo4 ,it is1 therefore1 again exposed on the barbecue1 until it reaches a crisp dryness4 7,plate #i shows the barbecue or drying-floor on ,messrs4 ,worms' estate1 ,puselawa1 in ,ceylon1 and the native labourers spreading the coffee to dry47 ,it is next submitted to the pressure of the peeler1 which breaks the berry out of the parchment covering1 and sets the silver skin at liberty4 ,it may be noticed that the silver skin1 though perhaps not adding two ounces to the weight of #aab lbs41 gives the coffee an appearance considered to be unsightly in the ,london market1 and1 therefore1 depreciates its value2 its adherence to the coffee1 though the cause is not known in the market1 is supposed to be generally the result of bad drying on the plantation1 being allowed to remain too long wet1 or being permitted to heat after it is taken from the cisterns4 ,several processes have to be gone through before the article known in commerce as coffee is produced4 ,in the first place1 the pulpy exterior of the berry1 as we have seen1 has to be removed by the process of pulping1 which separates the seed and its thin covering1 called the parchment1 from the husk4 ,when this pulping process is completed1 we have the parchment by itself in a cistern1 and the next process consists in getting rid of the mucilage with which it is covered4 ,for this purpose the water is drained from the cistern1 and fermentation is allowed to take place1 which it readily does after a period of twenty-four hours1 or even less on a low estate1 where the climate is warm1 though forty-eight hours are generally required on the highest estates4 ,illustration3 ,plate #i4--,the ,barbecue1 or ,drying-,floor1 ,messrs4 ,worms' ,estates1 ,puselawa4 ,water is then admitted into the cistern1 and the coffee being agitated by wooden rakes1 the mucilage combines with the water and is drained off4 ,after this the washed parchment coffee has to be dried to a hard stage1 and as it frequently happens that during crop time there is a continuance of wet weather for weeks and months together1 the chief difficulties which a planter has to contend with now present themselves4 ,the peeler1 or machine for removing the parchment1 consists of a circular trough1 in which a wheel is made to travel2 this is generally made of wood1 and shod with copper sheeting1 and is turned by central pressure1 like the capstan of a ship1 either by hand or by the gearing of machinery attached to a steam-engine4 ,an improvement on this has been made by constructing the travelling wheels of iron1 and the trough of plates of the same metal2 these plates being serrated in one direction1 so as to present a rough surface to the coffee1 facilitate the fracture of the parchment4 ,two wheels are generally made to work in one trough1 each of which is provided with a kind of scraper1 to stir up the coffee in its path and cause it to present a new face to the pressure4 ,a coffee-peeler is usually made of durable wood or iron4 ,the circumference of the machine is #cf feet2 the breadth between the circles in the machine is #a foot4 ,the height of the wheel #f feet2 the thickness near the axle-tree #a foot1 and on the top #f inches2 twelve men or four bullocks can turn it4 ,if turned by men #bjj bushels of coffee1 and if worked by bullocks #adj bushels1 can be obtained in nine hours2 if by steam about #hjj or #ajjj bushels4 ,the cost of constructing a machine to be worked by men or bullocks is #bel41 by steam #fjjl4 ,after undergoing this process1 the coffee is passed into a winnower1 which removes nearly the whole of the parchment and silver skin4 ,it is now given to the women1 in quantities of a bushel each1 to be picked over by hand1 who take out all blacks1 broken berries1 triage1 or anything calculated to injure its even quality4 ,further to improve its appearance1 the coffee is passed through a sizing machine1 by which generally three sizes are separated3 the round1 or pea berry1 and a larger and smaller berry1 each of which from the separation is more even in appearance1 and as such preferred in the ,london market4 ,sizers are variously made of perforated sheet zinc or wire gauze1 with openings of three sizes1 increasing from the top in the form of a long pipe1 which1 being slightly inclined and made to revolve1 pass the coffee1 poured in above into the bins constructed to receive the different sizes4 ,the coffee1 now ready to be packed1 is at once put into casks1 containing #f or #g cwt4 each1 and sent away on board ship without delay4 ,these processes are constantly improving and are now thoroughly understood--a remark which would seem uncalled for1 but for the recollection of the bungling and conflicting systems which were in vogue a few years since4 ,,section ,,xiii4 ,,preparation ,,for ,,market--7,continued74 ,parchment ,coffee1 when in an unseasoned state1 is prone to enter into decomposition from the time at which it is withdrawn from the protection of the living organism until it is thoroughly seasoned by drying1 after which it may be kept for any length of time in a dry place4 ,the worth of coffee as an article of commerce is lessened in proportion to the extent to which these progressive changes are allowed to go on4 ,if heating has taken place1 the bean can never afterwards acquire the pellucid colour which is indicative of well-dried coffee1 but partakes more or less of a dingy appearance4 ,if mouldiness ensues1 the aromatic properties1 like those of tea1 give place to an insipid flavour2 and finally1 if the bean undergoes putrefaction1 it assumes a dull black colour1 and becomes totally destitute of every valuable property4 ,when the crops ripen1 they must be gathered and cured under all circumstances of weather2 and as it generally happens that this has to be done during the prevalence of the periodical rains1 the difficulties to be contended with are so much the greater4 ,the extensive nature of the operations has also to be taken into account in forming an estimate of the difficulties to be provided for4 ,during the busy season of crop upwards of #ajjj bushels of cherries are daily gathered from some plantations1 yielding an increase of #ejj bushels of parchment coffee to be daily added to that which has already accumulated in the store4 ,past experience having shown that coffee was most easily preserved in a sweet state when spread thinly on the floor1 large and commodious buildings were called into use1 notwithstanding the unusually heavy expense which attended their erection in situations remote from town1 where sufficiently skilful labour was only to be had at the time1 and with great difficulty4 ,on this account inadequate accommodation was provided on many plantations1 and the coffee accumulating to a considerable depth1 no amount of hand-turning could keep it from contracting a musty smell1 its proneness to decomposition increasing greatly in proportion to the extent of the accumulation4 ,some years ago it occurred to ,mr4 ,clerihew that it was possible1 by means of fanners1 working on the exhausting principle1 so to withdraw air from an enclosed space as to establish a current of air through masses of coffee spread on perforated floors forming the top and bottom of that space4 ,this plan he carried into execution at ,rathoongodde plantation1 and it has since been adopted by many planters4 ,the following is a detailed description of ,mr4 ,clerihew's invention1 a model of which was shown at the ,international ,exhibition of #ahea3 ,the water-wheel is an overshot one1 nine feet in diameter1 and is of much smaller dimensions than any wheel that has hitherto been employed for pulping4 ,it is1 however1 sufficient in power to work the fans and pulpers simultaneously1 the excess of its power over that of other wheels being gained by the diminution of friction consequent on there being no intervening shafting and gearing4 ,the entire wheel is constructed of wood1 with the exception of the shaft1 which is unusually light1 as it has merely to serve as a support to the wheel4 ,by means of a double band rim-bolted to the arms on each side1 motion is given to the pulpers from the one and to the fans from the other4 ,the floors of the curing-house are laid with laths #a inch square and #b inches apart2 these are covered with open coir matting2 being rather cheap and durable1 this material answers the purpose remarkably well4 ,the side walls of the curing-house are constructed in the manner of the country1 viz4 of wattled work filled in with clay and smoothed over so as to be air-tight4 ,to derive the full benefit of natural heat1 the roof is covered with felt or with sheet-iron1 so that in fine weather the temperature of the air in the upper floor is raised considerably by contact with the hot roof1 and its capacity for absorbing moisture much increased1 preparatory to its being drawn down through the mass of coffee in the upper floor4 ,even in the cool climate of the district of ,upper ,hewahette1 at an elevation of #dejj feet1 in a fine day the temperature of the air under a felt roof is #abj when the fans are not working1 so that a great drying power is thus made available at no expense4 ,the lower floor1 on the other hand1 is adapted for the application of artificial heat for the purpose of evaporating the surface water from each separate batch of coffee as it is taken from the washing cisterns preparatory to its being deposited in the upper floor4 ,in wet weather this is essential1 for the atmospheric air being then saturated with moisture1 no drying can take place until its capacity for absorbing moisture is increased by an increase of temperature4 ,one other reason for adopting this arrangement is1 that when the coffee is first taken wet from the washing cisterns the interstices of the beans are more or less occupied with water1 and thus present a medium less pervious to air than is the case when the surface water has been dried off4 ,consequently it is desirable that1 until this has been done1 the depth of the coffee should not exceed six inches1 and1 to be equal to every emergency1 the heating power ought to be sufficient in the wettest weather to evaporate the surface water from the produce of a day's picking 7within twenty-four hours71 so as to allow of its being removed into the upper floor4 ,the daily number of bushels picked from any1 or the same plantation1 is of course a variable quantity3 depending on the extent of the cultivation1 the quality of the trees1 the number of hands employed1 and the elevation of the land2 the latter1 when considerable1 having the effect of prolonging the picking season4 ,the stove is more than sufficient for a daily picking of #djj bushels of cherries4 ,the heating stove is square1 has a waggon head with a semicircular opening in the centre for the passage of air1 and is constructed of stout sheet-iron4 ,it is placed within an arch1 with a clearance of nine inches all round also for the passage of air1 the guiding principle in its construction being to adapt it to the burning of wood1 and to expose as much heating surface as possible to the air which flows past it into the air-chamber beneath the ground-floor4 ,the stove opening is the only one which admits air to the coffee on the ground-floor4 ,consequently1 when it is more or less closed by a damper1 the power of the fans is exerted either in part or altogether on the mass of coffee in the upper floor4 ,in these applications of natural and artificial heat to the curing of coffee1 the heat is conveyed by the air through the whole depth of coffee in such a manner that each bean feels its influence1 whilst the watery products elicited by the heat are at the same time1 and by the same means1 carried off4 ,it cannot be doubted that these applications are far more effectual than any of the modes hitherto in use2 in some cases stoves were employed in the apartment containing the coffee1 but it is obvious that their influence could not extend beyond the surface of the mass1 and that1 if the apartment was closed1 there was no provision for carrying off the air that had become loaded with moisture due to its temperature2 whilst1 if the apartment was open1 so as to afford a free draught of air1 the greater portion of the heat given out by the stove was carried out before the heated air could act on the coffee4 ,in other cases1 heating pipes of various kinds were used below the floors on which the coffee was placed4 ,this arrangement1 however1 has the effect of injuring the coffee1 by steaming it2 no provision being made for carrying off the excess of hot watery vapour which accumulates within the mass1 but1 on the other hand1 the natural processes of decomposition are assisted and promoted4 ,the construction of ,mr4 ,clerihew's heating apparatus is simple1 and a moderate supply of fuel has a considerable effect in raising the temperature of cold damp air before it is brought into contact with the coffee through which it is drawn by the aid of the fans4 ,this heated air becomes diffused throughout the whole of the chamber1 which extends beneath the ground-floor in such a manner that no portion of the coffee which is on that floor can be free from its influence4 ,the fans at ,rathoongodde are much more powerful than those in common use1 the peculiarity in the shape of the blade giving them a great advantage as air-moving machines1 in so far as the indraught is concerned1 whilst one-half of the periphery being open a ready exit is afforded for the discharge of air4 ,in the ordinary fan1 if a smoking match is applied to any part of the indraught opening1 the air will be seen to flow towards a neutral point in the centre of the fan1 following a spiral direction1 and thence in the periphery of the fan4 ,in ,mr4 ,clerihew's modification of the blade each film of air1 so to speak1 flows into the fan directly1 until it impinges on the curvilinear part of the blade1 and from that point is thrown at a right angle towards the periphery4 ,the column of air being thus less distorted in its progress1 there is not only a greater quantity discharged1 but much less power is consumed in effecting that discharge--in the common fan it is evident1 from the circumstance of the air flowing to an apex1 that a great amount of power is wasted in producing the increased velocity with which a column of air equal in volume to the two ingress openings of the fan must pass so contracted an area before it is discharged2 hence it is that the fan1 as an air-moving machine1 has been considered unequal to the screw4 ,the enclosed space of the coffee-curing house at ,rathoongodde has an area in the cross section of #ajj superficial feet1 it is #gj feet long1 and a pair of fans are placed at one end4 ,repeated experiments have shown that1 when the fans make #ajj revolutions per minute1 a cloud of smoke travels to them from the centre of the enclosed space 7a distance of #ce feet7 in precisely #ae seconds1 hence we have #ajj #ce #cejj cubic feet of air discharged in a quarter of a minute1 or #ad1jjj cubic feet per minute2 a screw of nearly seven feet in diameter would be required to discharge the same amount of air1 and the cost of it in ,england is #hd guineas1 whilst the pair of fans made and fitted up at ,rathoongodde cost under #il4 ,in the centre of the enclosed space1 with a depth of four feet of coffee in the upper floor1 the flame of a candle is blown to a right angle when the whole power of the fans is put on that floor2 near to the fans it is extinguished1 the air moving forward with a uniformly accelerated velocity from the farther end towards the fans1 owing to the constant accessions made by the air entering the enclosed space throughout its whole length4 ,it has already been mentioned that the only entrance of air into the air-chamber beneath the ground-floor is by the opening in which the stove is placed1 consequently1 when this opening is closed by a damper1 it is obvious that the whole power of the fans is exerted on the mass of coffee which is being cured on the upper floor1 and that the division of this power may be regulated at will by more or less obstructing the entrance of air to the air-chamber by the damper4 ,the upper floor is not supposed to be an air-tight apartment1 but as the chief entrance of air is by the two doors in the end1 its influx may be so far obstructed by closing them as to throw the greater part of the power of the fans on the coffee which is on the ground-floor1 when this is required4 ,again1 since it is obvious that1 in wet weather1 when the atmosphere is fully saturated with moisture proportionate to its temperature1 it becomes a desideratum to introduce a portion of the artificially heated air into the vacant space which is over the coffee in the upper floor1 so that the air which passes down through that coffee may have an absorbing tendency2 this is accomplished by shutting the doors of the upper floor and throwing open the top-covering of the fan4 ,by this means one-half of the air which is drawn from the stove is thrown in above the coffee in the upper floor1 whilst the other half is discharged altogether4 ,this infusion of heated air would on many occasions be attended with benefit1 but the advantage will naturally depend on the comparative state of dryness of the coffee on the two floors4 ,in having recourse to these practical modifications some little judgment and observation are of more service than precept4 ,it will be found1 for instance1 that if the coffee in the upper floor approaches the dry stage1 it is better in wet weather to shut the doors of that floor as well as the tops of the fans1 so that only a small flittering of air sufficient to ward off the first stages of decomposition may pass through that coffee1 whilst the wet coffee below has the full benefit of a more rapid circulation of absorbent air4 ,attention may now be directed to the practical results which these arrangements have afforded in the curing of coffee4 ,the coffee in the upper floor1 as the crop advanced1 gradually increased in depth until it stood at four feet all over the floor4 ,when at this depth1 with the fans making #ajj revolutions per minute1 the flow of air was quite sensible to the hand placed on the surface of the coffee1 and was rendered apparent by the smoke from a match following the direction of the air2 at the same time the rarefaction of the air within the enclosed space was so very slight as barely to be appreciable by a very delicate mountain barometer1 though it had the effect of causing the door to shut with a slam2 thus showing that a slight rarefaction of the air is sufficient to disturb the balance of atmospheric pressure1 even when acting through a medium of coffee of considerable depth4 ,the current of air thus established continued to flow without interruption until the fans were stopped4 ,a cold glass tumbler taken into the store in a warm day1 when the fans were not in motion1 became instantly dimmed and wet by the precipitation of moisture from the internal air4 ,when another glass was taken into the store1 one minute after the fans were put in motion1 it remained clear1 without a trace of moisture4 ,a very satisfactory result soon showed itself1 viz4 that whilst the temperature of the air as it entered the moist coffee was #hj in a warm day1 the temperature of the coffee itself1 as indicated by an immersed thermometer1 was only #eh2 the wet coffee being invariably coldest when the air that was made to pass through it was warmest4 ,this paradox admitted of easy explanation1 when it was considered that each bean of undried coffee was under similar circumstances to evaporating vessels of water placed in a draught of warm air for the purpose of cooling the water4 ,the cold thus produced was1 therefore1 the necessary concomitant of the evaporation that was going on1 and the difference between these temperatures afforded a measure of the drying power in different states of the weather4 ,the circumstance of the hot air lowering the temperature of the coffee was also favourable in another point of view1 seeing that it has been shown that heat is one of the conditions which promotes mouldiness1 or the germination of fungi4 ,every bushel of parchment coffee contains half a cubic foot of air1 a fact ascertained by a bushel which took thirty-three measures of water to fill it4 ,when full of newly-washed coffee it took thirteen of these measures of the water to displace the air from the interstices of the beans without overflowing1 so that we have #ac--cc of air in a bushel of coffee2 in other words1 half a cubic foot4 ,hence1 the fans in use are capable of giving a fresh atmosphere to #bh1jjj bushels of coffee every minute1 or in the same time four fresh atmospheres to #gjjj bushels4 ,during a continuance of nearly three months of wet weather which occurred at one crop time1 the coffee in the curing-house dried very slowly1 but was kept in a perfectly fresh and sweet state without the intervention of any manual labour1 further than in depositing each day's increase in the lower floor to dry off the surface water1 and removing that of each previous day to the upper floor1 where it was spread on the top of all the coffee that had previously accumulated4 ,these three months of wet weather were succeeded by a fortnight of very dry weather1 and1 on examining the coffee at the end of that period1 it was found to have reached the dry horny stage at which it is usual to despatch it from the estate to ,colombo1 for the purpose of being peeled and shipped4 ,on examining the beans they were found to be of that clear colour which distinguishes coffee carefully cured in small quantities1 with the advantage of the most favourable weather4 ,under like circumstances1 viz4 during such a continuation of wet weather1 it would have been impossible to preserve the coffee free from more or less mustiness of smell1 by manual labour employed in the usual way1 whilst at the same time the expense of storework would have been more than fourfold4 ,the whole expense of the storework1 viz4 pulping1 washing1 curing1 and storing the ,rathoongodde coffee1 amounted to #b;d4 per cwt41 and when it is considered that during crop time the value of every man's labour is greatly increased1 it is an object1 as far as possible1 to substitute mechanical contrivance for manual labour1 so that all hands may be employed in gathering the crop as it ripens4 ,every planter knows that when coffee is spread out in a single layer on the floor of his store1 it becomes dry after a time1 and is well cured without any further attention on his part2 but it is impossible to devote sufficient space for this purpose without incurring an expense which would be quite incompatible with his circumstances4 ,when1 however1 coffee is thus spread out in a single layer1 it is obvious that the reason why it requires no attention is1 because the beans being freely exposed to the atmosphere1 there is naturally a constant change of the air by which they are surrounded2 the same air is not sufficiently long in contact with the beans to excite the first action of decomposition1 and the absorption of oxygen is not accomplished4 ,presuming1 however1 that it were so1 the subsequent actions could not take place1 for the products of the first action1 viz4 carbonic acid1 heat and watery vapour1 would immediately make their escape and be dissipated by the atmosphere1 which is precisely what takes place when1 by mechanical means1 a draught of air is carried through a mass of coffee4 ,hence1 it is evident that the requirements of space are overcome by the adoption of this plan1 and that a great mass of coffee is placed under conditions similar to those by which a single layer is influenced when exposed to a natural draught of atmospheric air4 ,,section ,,xiv4 ,,cultivation ,,in ,,southern ,,india4 ,southern ,india is becoming as celebrated for its coffee1 as ,northern ,india for its tea4 ,we find that the exports of coffee from ,madras have increased considerably during the last five years1 and there is every reason for supposing that ,southern ,india will shortly become the chief coffee-producing country of the world4 ,we have no idea of the number of acres of land under coffee cultivation in the ,madras ,presidency1 but it must be very large1 for after its local wants have been supplied1 coffee to the value of half a million sterling is exported4 ,in #aheh-ei the shipments were #g1bhh1dba lbs4 to foreign ports1 and #d1jhc1iag lbs4 to ,indian ports4 ,in #ahfb-fc the shipments were #af1bib1bch lbs4 to foreign ports1 and #c1igf1gff lbs4 to ,indian ports4 ,though some parts of ,india are well adapted to the culture1 it is not yet so extensively cultivated as might have been expected from the vicinity of its ,arabian sites to the ,malabar coast4 ,there1 however1 some excellent coffee is grown1 as well as in the hilly regions of ,mysore and on the slopes of the ,neilgherries1 and some of these are of such good quality1 and so carefully prepared1 as to bring the same price as ,mocha coffee4 ,some very good specimens of coffee have also been produced in the interior of ,india1 as in the district of ,chota ,nagpore1 where the culture might apparently be greatly extended1 and be of great benefit for consumption in that part of the country4 ,according to local tradition1 the coffee-plant was introduced into ,mysore by a ,mussulman pilgrim1 named ,baba ,booden1 who came from ,arabia about two hundred years ago1 and took up his abode as a hermit in the uninhabited hills in the ,nuggur ,division named after him1 and where he established a college1 which still exists1 endowed by government4 ,it is said that he brought some coffee-berries from ,mocha1 which he planted near to his hermitage1 about which there are now to be seen some very old coffee-trees4 ,however this may be1 there is no doubt that the coffee-plant has been known in that neighbourhood from time immemorial1 but the berry has never come into general use among the people for a beverage4 ,it is only of late years that the coffee trade of these districts has become of any magnitude1 or that planting has been carried to any important extent4 ,the export of coffee from ,british ,india1 which in #ahea was only #cbci tons1 had increased in #ahfa to #hece tons2 about one-fourth of this is shipped from ,bombay1 and nearly all the remainder from ,madras4 ,more than thirty years ago a few ,europeans were engaged in coffee planting near ,chickmoogloor1 a few miles from the ,bababooden ,hills4 ,about twenty years ago the plantation producing the well-known coffee called 8,cannon's ,mysore10 and others1 on the ,memzera1 or 8,bad ,mountain10 was commenced by two enterprising gentlemen4 ,the success of these has induced many more ,europeans to plant coffee there1 and the consequence is that the coffee trade of ,mysore bids fair to emulate that of ,ceylon4 ,it has given1 also1 an example to other parts of ,india1 and the plant originally taken from the ,bababooden ,muth is now extending over tens of thousands of acres in ,coorg1 the ,wynaad district1 the ,neilgherry ,hills1 and along the ,western ,ghauts1 north and south4 ,in ,mysore the number of ,european coffee-planters has increased to about thirty1 while the number of native planters is estimated at between three and four thousand4 ,the average produce per acre in ,mysore is probably not half that of ,ceylon4 ,some attempts have been made to cultivate coffee in the open country1 but without success2 it seems to require forest land and considerable elevation and moisture4 8,cannon's ,mysore0 is grown on a range of hills from #cejj to #djjj feet above the sea1 having the benefit of the south-west monsoon1 which very seldom fails at all1 never entirely1 and of the tail-end of the north-east monsoon4 ,this elevation gives a pleasant climate1 well suited to ,europeans4 ,several species of the genus ,coffea 7,c4 alpestris1 ,c4 grumeloides1 and ,c4 ,wightiana7 are indigenous to the ,neilgherry ,hills4 ,a berry1 generally one which has itself fallen ripe from the tree1 is put into the ground1 usually in a nursery plot1 though some planters prefer to place the seed in the identical hole which is to be its future situation4 ,the nursery plan is1 however1 generally adopted1 and here the young plant1 which shoots up in about a month after it is sown1 is allowed to remain until about sixteen months old4 ,it1 or rather we will say they1 for hundreds and thousands are generally dealt with at once1 are transplanted to holes which have been carefully prepared for them on the soil which is to be their future location4 ,these holes are generally two feet cube1 and many good planters prefer them even deeper2 in this the plant is carefully placed and covered around1 and in eighteen months from that time1 i4e4 about three years from the time the berry was first planted1 our small coffee-tree begins to bear fruit1 the first crop being of course very scanty4 ,the berry is picked from ,november to the end of ,february1 by any number of men1 women1 and boys which can be collected1 and who are paid by the quantity they pick1 some expert hands earning a good deal4 ,the berry collected is carried to the house of the estate1 and there having been weighed1 is thrown into what is called a cherry loft1 a wooden chamber1 alongside of1 but a little higher1 than the place containing the pulper4 ,from this cherry loft to the pulper the coffee is washed by a stream of water1 which carries it along a trough so arranged as to catch and impede any stones or heavier materials from entering the pulping machine4 ,these heavier materials sink to the bottom of the trough1 and the buoyant coffee-berry1 floating on the surface1 is borne to its destination4 ,the object of the pulper is to remove the fleshy capsule from the berry1 and this being accomplished1 the coffee passes on in one direction1 whilst the pulp1 by a clever arrangement of the mechanism of the instrument1 is pushed away in another4 ,the berry is now thrown into a vat and allowed to ferment1 until the remaining mucilaginous substance adherent to the parchment covering is easily washed away by water4 ,this accomplished1 it is thrown on open exposed places1 called barbecues1 and allowed to dry in the sun4 ,this takes about twelve days1 when it is packed in gunny 7jute7 bags1 placed upon bullocks1 and despatched to the coast4 ,there it is what is called garbled1 that is1 having been once more exposed to the sun and thoroughly dried1 it is placed in circular troughs1 and over it large heavy wheels1 shod with iron nails1 are made to revolve4 ,this removes what is called the parchment skin1 leaving the berry now covered only with a beautifully fine coating1 the silver skin4 ,it is then1 by a number of women employed for the purpose1 carefully sized2 after this1 passed through a pea-berry mill1 the object being to separate the round pea-shaped berry from the flatter1 the former being much more prized1 and fetching a higher price in the market1 though why1 it is difficult to say1 as it makes no better coffee than the other2 and as it has to be deprived of its form by roasting and grinding before it comes to table1 the advantage of its pea-shaped figure is1 to say the least of it1 somewhat obscure4 ,there is likewise separated from the rest what is called 8triage10 the broken and otherwise defective beans1 which are also packed by themselves1 and which again1 we believe1 though selling more cheaply1 are found to make quite as good an infusion for a beverage as their more aristocratic friends the pea-berries4 ,however1 pea-berries1 flats1 and triage1 are all ultimately packed in square wooden boxes and shipped to ,england1 where it is sold1 roasted1 ground1 and drank4 ,in ,wynaad1 in the close of #ahfc1 there were #ic coffee estates1 covering #ej1jjj acres1 of which about #ae1jjj acres were planted2 #fajj acres had trees over two years old on them4 ,there were also about #cfjj acres under culture with coffee by the natives4 ,wynaad is an elevated plateau1 rising somewhat abruptly from the western or ,malabar side1 but sloping more towards the ,mysore or easterly side4 ,the quantity of coffee exported from ,tellicherry during the official year ending ,april1 #ahfb1 was #eh1ejj cwt41 of which about #cj1jjj cwt4 is supposed to have come from ,wynaad1 the rest from ,coorg4 #h cwt4 of coffee per acre is considered an average yield in ,wynaad1 #aj cwt4 a good crop4 ,,section ,,xv4 ,,bourbon1 ,,java1 ,,and ,,the ,,east4 ,it was from ,beit-el-,faguil1 the ,european factory near ,mocha1 that the coffee-tree was transported to the island of ,bourbon1 in the year #agah1 and it is remarkable that the islanders recognised the plant as natural to their own country1 and brought the astonished importers abundance from their native mountains4 ,in ,bourbon they distinguish four varieties of the coffee-plant4 #a4 ,the ,mocha1 which is very delicate1 for the plants degenerate and often perish after a good crop4 #b4 ,the ,levoy1 which is more hardy1 but the coffee is inferior in quality4 #c4 ,the ,myrtle1 a variety of the ,mocha1 very hardy1 and yielding abundant crops4 #d4 ,the ,marron1 or wild coffee1 with such bitter and narcotic properties that it can only be used by admixture with the berries of one of the other varieties4 ,,java4--,in ,java1 coffee is a government monopoly1 and the planters bring their coffee to a central government dept for sale at a fixed price4 ,the island exports about #a1bej1jjj cwts4 of coffee annually4 ,java coffee has lost much of its former repute from being largely saturated with moisture1 artificially to the extent of #ad per cent42 this increases the weight1 but must injure the quality in transport4 ,at the ,paris ,exhibition of #ahee1 the ,netherlands ,commercial ,association contributed a very varied collection of two dozen varieties of coffees from the ,dutch government possessions in ,java1 under the following classification3 ,brown1 clear brown1 deep yellow1 yellow1 yellowish1 white1 whitish1 pale of ,havana kind1 blue1 fine green1 handsome green1 green1 greenish1 mottled green1 deep green ,west ,india kind1 green ,west ,india kind1 pale green ,west ,india kind1 dark ,demerara kind1 green ,demerara kind1 deep grey1 triage1 common black1 greenish ,menado1 and white ,padang4 ,the ,netherlands ,society sell about #a1jjj1jjj bags or bales of coffee annually4 ,the following were the exports of coffee from ,java in #ahfb3 piculs4 ,to ,holland on private account #abh1jdg ,to other countries #afe1aaf ,by the ,netherlands ,trading ,company #hgg1bda --------- #a1agj1djd ,the position of the coffee trade of ,java is shown in the figures annexed1 for five years3 ,,export ,,and ,,value ,,of ,,coffee4 tons4 value4 #aheh #ff1ege #b1fad1eje #ahei #ei1gfi #b1efe1acg #ahfj #ed1fch #b1dhf1aae #ahfa #fa1ghc #b1hej1eah #ahfb #fc1bhf #c1dfe1gdg ,three kinds of ,java coffee are commonly brought to ,europe--,jacatra 7usually sold as ,java71 ,cheribou1 and ,samarang4 ,the first is the best1 the second is generally a little lighter colour and of somewhat inferior quality1 and the third has yellowish brown1 or green1 flattened beans4 ,what is generally sold in the ,dutch markets as ,samarang is1 however1 simply a kind of 8triage10 with black beans of a coarse flavour4 ,,siam4--,on the hilly districts of the east coast of the ,gulf of ,siam the cultivation of coffee is carried on to a limited extent1 and some very fine samples of ,siam coffee were shown at the ,international ,exhibition of #ahfb1 sent me by ,messrs4 ,markwold and ,co41 and by ,sir ,robert ,schomburgk1 the ,british ,consul-,general4 ,,sumatra is one of the worst kinds of coffee received from the ,eastern ,archipelago4 ,the beans are large1 dark yellow or brown1 and occasionally even black1 and the flavour varies considerably4 ,the production in ,sumatra averages about #e to #f1jjj1jjj lbs41 but has often been double that amount4 ,,celebes4--,with the exception of ,menado1 which has large beans of a pale greenish or yellow colour1 ,celebes coffee is greatly inferior to ,java1 and it is questionable whether the colour when brought to market is not given by artificial means4 ,the production is about #a1jjj1jjj lbs4 ,,philippines4--,manilla coffee is one of the best of the ,eastern kinds1 and quite equal to ,java4 ,the average production is about #c1jjj1jjj lbs4 ,the beans are medium-sized1 and of a pale greenish colour4 ,the coffee is shipped in bags of about #aej lbs41 or in cases or chests of #bjj lbs4 to #cjj lbs4 ,,other ,,sources4--,the cultivation of coffee is making rapid progress in the ,sandwich ,islands4 ,there are now considerably more than half a million trees in bearing on the island1 producing upwards of #b1jjj1jjj lbs4 annually--the largest proportion of which is shipped to ,california4 ,queensland and the northern districts of ,australia could raise large quantities of coffee4 ,it is much less laborious than cotton1 more fitted for women and children1 and1 being adapted to the mountain ranges of tropical climates1 of course more healthy and invigorating than the sultry plains4 ,the range of mountains varying from twenty-five to thirty miles from the northern coast of ,australia1 towards ,torres ,straits1 would be admirably suited to the culture4 ,,section ,,xvi4 ,,coffee ,,as ,a ,,beverage4 ,it is remarkable that1 much as coffee is used in this country1 the proper mode of preparing it as a beverage should be so little understood4 ,perhaps it is that most people consider coffee-making as too easy a process to need any pains at all2 and for this reason the coffee served at nine breakfast-tables out of ten1 throughout the kingdom1 is a miserable muddy infusion1 which people seem to drink only because1 as washerwomen say1 it is 8wet and warm40 ,the right way of making coffee is not less easy than the wrong one2 there is no mystery about it4 ,all that is required is the observance of a few simple rules3 #a4 ,the nature of coffee is such that it parts very easily with its aromatic1 stimulating1 and other properties2 a small quantity of water will draw out all the goodness quite as effectually as a large quantity1 and it will do this if the coffee-berries be only bruised or very coarsely ground4 ,it is a grave mistake to suppose that coffee should be ground to a fine powder2 extreme fineness is the great cause of 8thick coffee0 as prepared for breakfast4 ,in ,eastern countries1 where people know what good coffee means1 they always bruise the berries in a mortar4 ,in fact1 the goodness of coffee depends more on the roasting and the method of preparing afterwards1 than on the quality of the berry1 or any other particular4 #b4 ,buy your coffee ready roasted1 but not ground2 that is1 buy coffee-berries1 and always choose such as are fresh roasted1 in preference to stale4 ,observe1 also1 whether your grocer keeps the article properly shut up in tin canisters1 or lets it lie about in open tubs or trays4 #c4 ,if possible1 buy a coffee-mill1 one that will grind very coarsely4 ,the price varies from #bs4 #f;d4 to #es4 ,this article is so essential to a good cup of coffee1 that no one who can afford the outlay should hesitate to buy one4 ,those who have a pestle and mortar may try the method of bruising2 but whether a mill or a mortar1 no more should be ground or crushed than is wanted for use at the time4 #d4 ,coffee requires to be kept in a very dry place2 and1 as it readily takes up the flavour of other articles near which it may be placed1 it should be kept in an air-tight vessel4 ,if you buy tea and coffee at the same time1 do not pack them in one parcel or basket1 or carry them in the same packet1 for the true flavour of both will be injured4 ,we presume that no one will be so careless as to keep either tea or coffee in paper only2 a wooden box would be better than this1 but a bottle or porcelain jar is best of all4 #e4 ,have a clean1 dry coffee-pot2 it should always be rinsed out when put away1 and turned down to drain4 #f4 ,to every half pint of water1 allow half an ounce of coffee-powder2 have your kettle of water boiling1 put the necessary quantity of powder into the coffee-pot1 and pour in as much water from the kettle as you require4 ,set the pot on the fire for a few seconds1 but on no account let the contents boil up2 then pour about half a pint of the liquor into a cup1 and pour it back again into the pot1 and stand it on the hob or on the fender to settle4 ,if these directions have been properly followed1 there will be in three or four minutes a pot of coffee as clear and well-tasted as any one could wish to drink4 ,should it be too strong1 you have only to use less of the coffee-powder4 ,all the goodness is extracted with the first boiling2 and those who wish to drink good coffee must never boil the same grounds a second time4 #g4 ,the milk in all cases must be warmed1 and used as hot as possible2 and it should always be put into the cup with the sugar before the coffee is poured in4 ,when a cup of coffee is taken after dinner1 it should be drank without milk1 and with little or no sugar4 #h4 ,but of all the preparations of coffee there is none equal to the ,french1 known as caf au lait1 or milk coffee4 ,we have drank it constantly for several years1 and can pronounce it to excel all others as a breakfast beverage4 ,in this there is more milk than water1 and the coffee liquor is rather an essence than a decoction2 it will be almost black in colour4 ,the process to be followed is the same in most respects as described2 but1 instead of a quart or three pints1 not more than a third of your usual quantity of water is to be poured on the full quantity of coffee-powder4 ,after it has stood to settle1 pour it carefully off the grounds into a jug or pitcher1 which is to be kept hot by any convenient means4 ,in this way the liquor1 though black1 will be perfectly clear4 ,at the same time a quantity of milk1 according to the wants of your party1 must be heated in a saucepan with a spout or a lip4 ,when this is ready1 pour it into your breakfast-cups until they are three-parts full1 or rather more1 add the sugar1 and then fill up with coffee from the jug1 more or less1 according as you prefer it strong or weak4 ,coffee made in this way will be found more nutritious1 and to possess greater richness and smoothness1 than can be attained by any other means4 ,many persons are in the habit of keeping roasted coffee in vessels of tin1 closely secured2 this is a most improper mode1 and the consequences of doing so may be pointed out4 ,it is known that coffee contains gallic acid1 a principle which has the property of acting on iron or tin1 and it is therefore certain that in keeping coffee in these canisters the acid has such an effect in dissolving particles of the metal1 as not only to affect the taste1 but even the colour of the coffee4 ,to convince one's self of this1 it is only necessary to leave some freshly-roasted coffee in a tinned vessel for a time1 and it will soon be found to have imbibed a black colour and a most disagreeable taste4 ,it appears1 therefore1 to be necessary to avoid keeping coffee in these metal receptacles4 ,the best mode of properly preserving the article is by using vessels of porcelain1 or other similar material4 ,with regard to the description of coffee-pot to be used in preparing the article1 it should never be of tin or iron2 nothing will so soon and so surely destroy the fine flavour of the beverage as these descriptions of coffee-pots4 ,it has generally been the practice to make coffee either by boiling it1 or by pouring boiling water on the ground coffee placed on a filter4 ,both of these methods are bad4 ,experience has shown that boiling water destroys or sensibly alters the volatile parts of the berry1 and dissolves those which are bitter and unpleasant4 ,we ought not1 therefore1 to employ water heated to a greater temperature than to allow the finger being placed in it4 ,but difficult as it may be to believe1 there can be no doubt but that the best mode of preparing this beverage is with cold water4 ,coffee so made is not only more aromatic1 more limpid1 and more substantial1 but it is far stronger than any made with hot water4 ,the cold infusion takes from the coffee and communicates to the water all its aromatic qualities1 while it does not imbibe much1 if any1 of the gallic acid2 consequently this preparation is far less bitter than that which has been boiled1 in which process the most minute particles are acted upon4 ,coffee thus made is of a fine bright and dark colour2 it requires far less sugar and much less care1 because all that has to be done is to place the powder on the filter1 drop on it a little water1 and when well moistened to pour on it the proper quantity of water4 ,the filtration will be completed in a moderately short space of time1 and the liquor having run through1 may be again poured on the coffee1 so as to remove any further portion of flavour left in it2 and when this has been done1 the preparation will be so delicate and aromatic that those who taste it will adopt the mode in preference to any other4 ,when the coffee thus made is to be warmed for use1 it must not be heated to the boiling point1 and take care that the vessel in which it is warmed be quite full4 ,it may be here remarked that coffee thus made warm is always more pleasant than when drank at the time of its preparation1 provided it be not made to boil1 and that the coffee-pot be well closed4 ,it is equally necessary with the above that the berry should be well and thoroughly roasted1 and not ground in a mill or machine1 but pounded and sifted1 so as to secure the particles being of equal fineness4 ,to enter into an examination of the comparative merits and demerits of the several percolators and cafetires at present in use1 would extend these observations to too great a length2 but most of those generally adopted are worthless1 or complicated1 with the abominable bag-filter1 which is seldom kept clean4 ,there is ample room for inventors in the manufacture of a simple coffee-pot with a water-gauge at the side1 which shall effect what is not now done--a passage of the hot water once only through the coffee1 so as to have a bright infusion instead of a muddy decoction4 8,tea10 observes ,dr4 ,sigmond1 8as the morning beverage1 when breakfast forms a good substantial meal1 upon which the powers for the day of meeting the various chances and changes of life depend1 provided it be not strong1 is much to be recommended2 but when individuals eat little1 coffee certainly supports them in a more decided manner2 and1 besides this1 tea without a certain quantity of solid aliment1 is much more likely to influence the nervous system4 ,some persons1 if they drink tea in the morning and coffee at night1 suffer much in animal spirits and in power of enjoyment of the pleasure of society2 but if they reverse the system1 and take coffee in the morning and tea at night1 they reap benefit from the change2 for the coffee1 which to them in the morning is nutrition1 becomes a stimulus at night2 and the tea1 which acts as a dilutent at night1 gives nothing for support during the day40 ,the ,turks drink their coffee very hot and strong1 and without sugar2 occasionally they put in1 when boiling1 a clove or two bruised1 or a few seeds of star anise1 or a drop of essence of amber4 ,the following quotations from recent travellers give the ,turkish mode of making coffee3 8,the bruised or ground beans are thrown into a small brass or copper saucepan2 sufficient water1 scalding hot1 is poured upon them1 and1 after being allowed to simmer for a few seconds1 the liquid is poured into small cups1 without refining or straining4 ,persons unaccustomed to this way of making coffee find it unpalatable4 ,those who have overcome the first introduction prefer it to that made after the ,french fashion1 whereby the aroma is lost or deteriorated4 ,a well made cup of good ,turkish coffee is indeed the most delectable beverage1 that can be well imagined1 being grateful to the senses and refreshingly stimulant to the nerves4 ,those who have long resided in the ,east can alone estimate its merits40--,,white',s ,three ,years in ,constantinople4 8,the ,turkish way of making coffee produces a very different result from that to which we are accustomed4 ,a small conical saucepan1 with a long handle1 and calculated to hold about two table-spoonfuls of water1 is the instrument used4 ,the fresh roasted berry is pounded1 not ground1 and about a dessert-spoonful is put into the minute boiler2 it is then nearly filled with water1 and thrust among the embers2 a few seconds suffice to make it boil1 and the decoction1 grounds and all1 is poured into a small cup1 which fits into a brass socket much like the cup of an acorn1 and holding the china cup as that does the acorn itself4 ,the ,turks seem to drink this decoction boiling1 and swallow the grounds with the liquid4 ,we allow it to remain a minute1 in order to leave the sediment at the bottom4 ,it is always taken plain2 sugar or cream would be thought to spoil it2 and ,europeans1 after a little practice 7longer1 however1 than we had71 are said to prefer it to the clear infusion drunk in ,france4 ,in every hut you will see these coffee-boilers suspended1 and the means for pounding the roasted berry will be found at hand40--,,christmas',s ,shores and ,islands of the ,mediterranean4 8,a small vessel1 containing about a wine-glass of water1 is placed on the fire1 and1 when boiling1 a teaspoonful of ground coffee is put into it1 stirred up1 and it is suffered to boil and #8bubble' a few seconds longer1 when it is poured 7grounds and all7 into a cup about the size of an egg-shell1 encased in gold or silver filigree-work1 to protect the finger from the heat2 and the liquid1 in its scalding1 black1 thick1 and troubled state1 is imbibed with the greatest relish4 ,like smoking1 it must be quite an acquired taste40--,,maxwell',s ,shores of the ,mediterranean4 ,,chicory ,,section ,i4 ,,introduction ,,into ,,england4--,,continental ,,production ,,and ,,consumption4 ,the term chicory is an ,anglicised ,french word1 the original being chicore4 ,the plant is known to botanists by the name of ,cichorium ,intybus1 and belongs to the natural order ,composit1 tribe ,cichore4 ,it is an indigenous plant with a perennial root1 better known probably to most readers by its ,english appellation of wild succory4 ,the root is spindle-shaped1 with a single or double head2 externally it is whitish or greenish yellow2 internally1 whitish1 fleshy1 and milky4 ,the roots grown in this country are smaller1 and more woody or fibrous than those which are imported from the ,continent4 ,the cultivation and consumption of chicory have now attained a very great importance1 not only on the ,continent1 but also in the ,united ,kingdom4 ,dating its extended use chiefly from the system pursued by the first ,napoleon to substitute home-grown for colonial products1 it has gradually become approved and popularised for a beverage1 either used alone or more generally mixed with coffee1 in numerous countries1 where it can be sold far under the price of even the lowest grade coffees4 ,the manufacture of a factitious coffee from roasted chicory-root would seem to have originated in ,holland1 where it has been used for more than a century4 ,it remained a secret until #ahja1 when it was introduced into ,france by ,m4 ,orban of ,lige1 and ,m4 ,giraud of ,homing1 a short distance from ,valenciennes4 ,this root is not superior to many others which possess sweet and mucous principles1 but of all the plants which have been proposed as substitutes for coffee1 and which1 when roasted and steeped in boiling water1 yield an infusion resembling the berry1 it is the only one which has maintained its ground4 ,the ,french1 not satisfied with chicory1 have recently introduced acorn coffee and roasted beetroot4 ,the beet1 it is asserted1 besides communicating its hygienic qualities1 also helps to sweeten the beverage4 ,this new coffee is called 8caf de betterave10 as the old was called 8caf chicore40 ,these distinctions will soon become as puzzling as those in ,america1 which led the ,irish waiter to ask if the gentleman would have coffee-tay or tay-tay4 ,mr4 ,george ,phillips1 when giving evidence before ,mr4 ,scholefield's ,parliamentary ,committee on ,adulteration1 in #ahee1 stated that1 prior to the year #ahcb1 little was heard of the use of chicory in this country1 but in the subsequent three years its use had gradually so increased that the ,board of ,inland ,revenue was obliged to take steps against the sale4 8,i have no doubt 7he adds71 from my own experience1 that a very large bulk of the public prefer the mixture4 ,that1 however1 is a matter of taste4 ,the trade contend that good coffee1 mixed with one-eighth part of chicory1 and sold at a moderate price1 makes a better beverage than ordinary coffee would do at the same price1 and the great mass of the public prefer it4 ,chicory sold as coffee yields a certain profit1 but probably it equalises itself in the general competition of trade4 ,there is a large quantity of chicory sold by itself1 and drank as a beverage in the neighbourhood of ,manchester and ,liverpool4 ,i believe the price of a pound of the cheapest kind of coffee1 purchased by the bulk of the poor people1 and a pound of the mixture1 is about the same4 ,the trade say1 when we use a portion of chicory we use a better coffee4 ,i do not know the fact of my own knowledge4 ,whether the coffee sold in mixtures is of a superior quality to that sold as a pure article would be very difficult to ascertain2 it depends upon the question of taste and aroma4 ,the chicory itself is not always pure40 ,on the first introduction of chicory into ,great ,britain a nominal duty of #bj per cent4 was levied on it1 which1 owing to the representations of the coffee-planters1 was afterwards increased to the same rate as that then payable on ,british plantation coffee4 ,the high duty thus levied on foreign-grown chicory soon led to its cultivation in ,england1 but so little was known of the plant that the farmers required the rent to be paid in advance for the use of their land4 ,in the autumn of #ahec we find chicory grown in ,kent1 ,surrey1 and ,essex1 where the article was prepared1 and met with a large sale4 ,with the increasing demand for the root1 its culture spread to ,bedford1 ,norfolk1 ,suffolk1 ,cambridgeshire1 ,leicestershire1 ,cheshire1 and ,yorkshire4 ,at first the price realised was as high as #ejl4 per ton ground1 and #bjl4 per ton in the root4 ,but as the growth extended the price receded4 ,the admission1 duty free1 of foreign-grown chicory1 in #ahed1 led to the abandonment of much of the home culture4 ,in #ahdb1 ,mr4 ,mc,culloch assumed the growth and consumption of chicory in the ,united ,kingdom to be #f million pounds2 in #ahej1 from careful inquiries ,i instituted1 ,i estimated the consumption then to be double that amount4 ,mr4 ,braithwaite ,poole1 in his 8,statistics of ,commerce10 published in #aheb1 rated the actual production of chicory-root1 made into powder in ,england and ,guernsey1 then as high as #ad1jjj tons1 worth1 at #bbl4 per ton1 #cjh1jjjl4 ,the gradually increasing imports of foreign-grown replaces much formerly produced at home1 but the changes in legislative enactments have much interfered with the consumption of chicory here1 and hence the import is not so remunerative4 ,from #ahef to #ahei the imports of foreign chicory in the root rose from #ha1gba cwts4 to #bfg1jjj cwts41 but there has since been a gradual decline to #de1efc cwts4 in #ahfb4 ,the value has ranged from #fs4 to #ajs4 #f;d4 per cwt4 ,the largest quantity comes from ,belgium1 the next from ,holland1 and a little from ,hamburg and other quarters4 ,there are also some considerable imports of roasted and ground chicory1 which is chiefly re-exported2 #gf1bjf lbs4 of chicory-powder were imported in #ahfb4 ,roasted and reduced to powder chicory is the most universal substitute for coffee in the chief continental countries1 especially in ,france1 ,switzerland1 ,germany1 ,belgium1 ,holland1 ,denmark1 ,russia1 and other ,northern ,states4 ,in ,germany1 the ground chicory is made up into cakes1 and sold in that form4 ,denmark and the ,duchies consume about #c1jjj1jjj lbs4 annually4 ,a few years ago the annual import of chicory-root into ,hamburg was #bd1fjj cwts41 and of ground chicory and other coffee substitutes #ac1jjj cwts4 ,belgium exports #f1jjj1jjj or #g1jjj1jjj lbs4 yearly4 ,the quantity of the dried root consumed in ,france is about #af1jjj1jjj lbs4 a year4 ,formerly they were able to export #a1jjj1jjj or #b1jjj1jjj lbs41 but now enough is not produced for home consumption4 ,in #ahfj1 about #aj1jjj1jjj lbs4 of chicory-root was imported into ,france1 chiefly from ,belgium1 and about #ffj1jjj lbs4 of chicory in powder was exported1 chiefly to ,algeria4 ,till within a few years the cultivation was carried on principally near ,valenciennes1 but lately manufactories have sprung up in several localities1 especially at ,arras1 ,cambray1 ,lille1 ,paris1 ,senlis1 in ,normandy1 ,brittany1 c4 ,in some parts of ,germany the women are becoming regular chicory-topers1 making of it an important part of their daily sustenance4 ,,section ,,ii4 ,,cultivation1 ,,harvesting1 ,,and ,,preparation ,,for ,,market4 ,there are many varieties of this plant1 the greater part of which have blue flowers2 some are white1 and others red4 ,in ,brunswick they only grow the broad-leaved1 or native kind1 or the small-leaved1 which has long roots1 and is a native of ,magdeburg4 ,the former is1 however1 preferred1 on account of its being the richest4 ,in ,altona they grow a medium variety1 which has neither very narrow nor very broad leaves4 ,the plant thrives in all soils that will grow carrots2 indeed1 the mode of cultivating one is much like that of the other4 ,the roots seem1 however1 to grow best upon a loamy soil1 with a clayey subsoil1 dry1 deep1 and rich4 ,it very seldom thrives in heavy clay land1 and never in sand or wet land4 ,it requires much manure4 ,in preparing the land deep ploughing is recommended2 but1 unless the soil is very deep1 it is probable that subsoil ploughing will answer better4 ,the surface must be well worked2 indeed1 it cannot be reduced to too fine a mould4 ,as the plants are a long time in coming up1 generally five or six weeks from the time of sowing the seed1 it is necessary that the land should be very clean1 or the weeds 7particularly chickweed7 are liable to overtop and smother the young plants4 ,the time of sowing varies in different districts2 in the midland and eastern counties of ,england1 the second or third week in ,may is considered best1 for if sown earlier1 many of the plants will run to seed1 in which case they are called 8runners0 or 8trumpeters10 and must be carefully dug out and destroyed when the time for taking up has arrived1 because if allowed to become mixed with the bulk1 they will spoil the sample4 ,the best crops have been obtained when the seed has been sown broadcast2 but the preference is usually given to drilling1 the crop being more easily hoed and cleansed4 ,the rows are generally from #i to #ab inches apart1 and about #c or #d lbs4 of seed per acre is the quantity used4 ,most of the cultivators of chicory single out the plants so as to leave spaces between them in the rows1 each about #f or #h inches long2 but there are many who do not do this1 fancying that four or five small plants produce more weight of root than one large plant2 the expediency of this1 however1 is very questionable1 as it does not allow of the land being nearly so well cleaned as when the practice of singling is adopted4 ,in ,october or ,november1 the work of taking up the roots may be commenced1 and continued during the winter 7if the crop cannot be previously secured71 until it is finished4 ,although the roots penetrate a long way downwards1 they become too thin below #ad or #ae inches to be useful1 and the utmost care is also required in order to get up that portion of the root which will prove profitable4 ,in some cases chicory has been ploughed up1 about #ab inches deep1 with a strong cast-iron plough drawn by six horses1 having men to fork each furrow to pieces with common potato-forks before a second furrow is ploughed upon it1 and women and children following to pick up the roots and cut off the tops4 ,but the best method is found to be that of digging up the roots with double-pronged strongly-made iron forks1 the blades being about #ad inches in length1 and each fork1 with shaft and handle complete1 weighing about #h lbs4 ,the plan of ploughing is liable to bring too much of the subsoil to the surface1 and costs quite as much1 if not more1 than digging4 ,the advantage which is looked for in ploughing1 is to ensure getting the roots up from a greater depth than can be done by digging1 as a great number break off about #h or #i inches long1 unless a boy is employed to assist the diggers1 and is very careful to pull the top at the precise time that the man presses the root upward with his fork4 ,when dug1 the tops should be neatly cut off1 and the roots conveyed to the washing-house to be cleaned4 ,sometimes they are earthed in pits1 but1 generally speaking1 they are taken to the washing-house immediately after being dug up4 ,in the former case1 on the ,continent1 the roots1 with the leaves cut off1 are thrown1 in heaps of from four to six feet in length1 width1 and height1 on the surface of the ground2 some straw and then some earth are put around4 ,but generally the growers deliver the roots to the manufacturers from the latter end of ,august to ,november1 by whom they are immediately dried4 ,the root is from #b to #d inches thick1 #c to #g inches long1 and occasionally1 in a good soil1 #c lbs4 in weight4 ,in ,brunswick they obtain from #d to #f tons of root per ,brunswick acre4 ,the weight of the crop depends entirely upon the richness or poverty of the soil1 the tillage and manure it has received1 and other circumstances4 ,the fault in ,england is the striving to grow as heavy a crop as possible1 to the very great detriment of the quality of the root for powder4 ,in ,brunswick the price of the root in the original state varies from #bjs4 to #djs4 per ton1 according as the crops have been good or bad1 and an acre will realise from #el4 to #gl4 ,the cost for cultivation is from #cl4 #aes4 to #dl4 #ajs42 #a to #b tons is about an average crop4 ,mr4 ,william ,strickney1 who has grown and prepared chicory for the manufacturer to a very great extent1 on a large farm near ,hull1 estimates the expense of the cultivation of chicory there at #dl4 #es4 #f;d4 per acre1 and if we add to this #bl4 #ajs4 for rent1 manure1 c41 it gives #fl4 #aes4 #f;d4 ,the produce on suitable land he states to be from #h to #ab tons per acre1 and it requires #d tons of green root to make #a ton of dried4 ,in the dried state the root is worth from #abl4 to #bdl4 per ton4 ,take #aj tons per acre1 at #bl4 #ajs4 per ton1 and this would leave a profit per acre of #ahl4 #ds4 #f;d4 ,another competent agricultural authority states that the price of #b tons of dry root for the acre1 at #abl4 per ton1 would be #bgl42 deducting #gl4 for rent1 labour1 and other expenses1 this would leave a profit of #bjl4 per acre4 ,the roots are cut into small pieces of about half-inch or three-quarter inch lengths by a turnip-cutter1 or by hand1 the object being to have the pieces of as uniform a size as possible4 ,the slices are then dried in a kiln3 this process wasting the chicory from #ge to #hj per cent4 ,it is then marketable1 and is usually sold to the drysalters and grocers1 who roast and grind it as they do coffee4 ,in the ground state it may be kept for years1 but it soon cakes4 ,the roasted root is emptied into iron vessels1 and1 after cooling1 is crushed in vertical stone mills1 or between iron cylinders4 ,the dried roots cut are roasted in this country like coffee4 ,the loss during roasting is from #be to #cj per cent4 ,the roasters generally introduce into the roasting machine about #b lbs4 of lard for every cwt4 of chicory4 ,some say this is to give the chicory a better face1 others state that it renders the powder less hygrometric4 ,inferior kinds of chicory are alleged to be coloured with ,venetian red4 ,chicory is occasionally adulterated with roasted pulse 7called ,hambro' powder71 damaged corn1 and coffee husks 78coffee flights10 as they are technically termed74 ,we have also heard of parsnips having been roasted1 ground1 and mixed with chicory4 ,dr4 ,hassall gives a long list of other substances which have been found as adulterants of coffee4 ,treacle is sometimes introduced into fictitious chicory1 to give the caramel or saccharine odour possessed by real chicory4 ,dr4 ,hassall says the roasted chicory root yields from #de to #fe per cent4 of soluble extractive4 ,its solution in water is acid1 and it does not possess the peculiar bitter taste of the raw root2 but the taste of the liquid is more like that of burnt sugar4 ,the copper test shows the presence of from #aj to #ac per cent4 of sugar4 ,,section ,,iii4 ,,structure ,,and ,,chemical ,,composition4 ,the following analysis represents the per-centage composition of chicory root in its different conditions3 ,raw root4 ,kiln dried4 ,hygroscopic moisture #ggj #aej ,gummy matter 7like pectine7 #ge #bjh ,glucose1 or grape sugar #aa #aje ,bitter extractive #dj #aic ,fatty matter #jf #ai ,cellulose1 inuline1 and woody matter #ij #bie ,ash #jh #cj ----- ----- #ajjj #ajjj ,the composition of the roasted root was as follows3 #ast species4 #bnd species4 ,hygroscopic moisture #ade #abh ,gummy matter #ie #adi ,glucose #abb #ajd ,matter like burnt sugar #bia #bdd ,fatty matter #bj #bb ,brown or burnt woody matter #bhd #bhe ,ash #dc #fh ----- ----- #ajjj #ajjj ,dr4 ,hassall gives the following results of trials instituted to determine the effect of chicory on the human frame4 ,three persons partook of a chicory breakfast4 ,the infusion was dark-coloured1 thick1 destitute of the agreeable and refreshing aroma so characteristic of coffee1 and was of a bitter taste4 ,each individual experienced for some time after drinking this infusion a sensation of heaviness1 drowsiness1 a feeling of weight at the stomach1 and great indisposition to exertion2 in two headache set in1 and in the third the bowels were relaxed4 ,in second and third trials of the chicory breakfast the same feelings of drowsiness1 weight of the stomach1 and want of energy were experienced1 but no headache or diarrha4 ,several other trials were subsequently made1 with nearly similar results4 ,but chicory1 it will be said1 is seldom taken alone in this country1 and when mixed with coffee these effects are not produced4 ,two persons partook1 for a considerable period1 twice a day1 of an article denominated coffee1 costing #as4 #f;d4 a pound1 and largely adulterated with chicory2 during nearly the whole of this time they both suffered more or less from diarrha4 ,from the results of these trials1 therefore1 we are warranted in concluding that at least some doubt is attached to the assertion of the wholesome properties of chicory-root as an article of diet4 ,several characters1 sufficiently simple and easily recognised for general application1 have been indicated in different works for detecting the addition of roasted chicory to coffee in the roasted and ground state1 but the application of chemical reagents for detecting the presence of the colouring matter of roasted chicory1 when added to infusion of coffee1 has not yet proved successful4 ,the brownish-yellow colouring matter which is developed in chicory-root by the process of roasting1 when dissolved in water by infusion or decoction1 retains its colour1 or becomes a little deeper by the action of persalts of iron1 without giving rise to any precipitation4 ,the brown colouring matter of roasted coffee1 on the other hand1 acquires1 from the same reagent1 a green colour1 and a brownish-green flocculent precipitate is formed4 ,these two different reactions may be applied1 not only for distinguishing the pure infusion of coffee and of chicory1 but also those which contain a mixture of the soluble principles of the two alimentary substances4 ,infusion of pure coffee acquires a green colour1 more or less intense1 on the addition of some drops of persulphate of iron4 ,infusion of pure chicory1 under similar circumstances1 retains its brownish-yellow colour1 which becomes more intense1 and acquires a slight greenish tint4 ,a mixture of the two infusions1 containing one-half1 a fourth1 or a fifth of its volume of infusion of chicory1 may be recognised by its brownish-yellow colour1 which remains after the deposition of the precipitate produced by the salt of iron1 together with part of the colouring matter of the coffee4 ,this separation may be expedited by rendering the coloured liquor slightly alkaline by the addition of a small quantity of weak solution of ammonia1 and allowing it to stand in tubes closed at one end4 ,the supernatant liquor1 after the precipitate has deposited1 will possess a brownish-yellow tint by refracted light1 which will be deeper in proportion to the quantity of chicory present4 ,if the experiment be first made with infusion of pure coffee of a certain strength1 and afterwards with additions of known quantities of chicory1 keeping these for comparison1 the quantity of chicory in a mixed sample may be thus determined4#b ,a simple means of detecting the chicory in ground coffee is as follows3 ,throw about a tea-spoonful of the suspected coffee in a wine-glass of water1 and stir the mixture with a spoon4 ,if ,illustration3 ,plate #aj4 ,fragment of ,roasted ,chicory4 ,illustration3 ,a ,fragment of ,roasted ,coffee1 being magnified #adj diameters4 the coffee be pure1 it for the most part floats1 becomes very slowly moistened1 even when shaken up with the water1 and communicates scarcely any colour to the liquid2 very gradually it imbibes water2 the liquid acquires a very pale sherry tint2 and at the end of several hours the greater part of the powder is found to have fallen to the bottom of the glass4 ,if1 however1 it be chicorised1 the presence of chicory 7genuine or spurious7 will be readily detected1 by a portion of the suspected powder rapidly sinking and communicating to the liquid a reddish-brown tint1 which will be more or less deep according to the amount of chicory present4 ,if the coffee be adulterated with what is called ,hambro' powder 7roasted and ground peas1 c41 coloured with ,venetian red7 or roasted corn1 we have a further test in iodine1 which communicates a purplish or bluish-red tint to the water to which either of these substances has been added4 ,the preceding test is sufficiently delicate and valuable1 in all ordinary cases1 for detecting chicory in coffee2 but to those familiar with microscopic investigations1 the microscope furnishes another mode of proceeding3 fragments of dotted ducts being found in chicory1 but not in pure coffee4 ,they are not met with1 however1 in great abundance2 and some patience and care1 therefore1 are requisite in searching for them4 ,the starch grains of ,hambro' powder are readily detected by the microscope1 as also the blackening effect of a solution of iodine on them4 ,plate #aj represents the structure and character of genuine ground roasted coffee1 and of a fragment of roasted chicory-root1 showing the dotted or interrupted spiral vessels which pass in bundles through the central parts of the root1 magnified #adj diameters2 copied1 by permission1 from ,dr4 ,hassall's work on 8,food and its ,adulterations40 ,in the raw chicory-root three parts or structures may be distinguished with facility1 cells1 dotted vessels1 and vessels of the latex4 ,these vessels afford useful means of distinguishing chicory from some other roots employed in the adulteration of coffee4 ,the chief part of the root is made up of little utricles or cells4 ,these are generally of a rounded form1 but sometimes they are narrow and elongated4 ,the former occur when the pressure is least and the root soft1 the latter in the neighbourhood of the vessels4#c ,there are four characters by which adulterated chicory may be distinguished from the genuine4 #ast4 ,it yields to cold water a much whiter colour4 ,in using this test it is necessary to have a sample of genuine chicory for comparison4 #bndly4 ,a decoction of chicory containing either roasted grain or pulse1 yields when cold a purplish or bluish-black colour1 with a solution of iodine2 whereas a corresponding decoction of genuine chicory is merely coloured brown by iodine4 #crdly4 ,the microscope detects in adulterated chicory the torrefied starch grains of either corn or pulse4 ,that they are starch grains is shown by the action of a solution of iodine1 which blackens them4 #dthly4 ,the odour and flavour will sometimes detect adulterations4 ,roasted and ground chicory attracts water from the air1 and thereby increases in weight and becomes clammy4 ,the grinders are accustomed to return as much by weight of ground chicory as they receive of the unground root1 for the loss which the root suffers by grinding is more than compensated by the absorption of water from the air4 ,,the ,,end4 ,c4 ,,whiting1 ,,beaufort ,,house1 ,,strand4 ,,footnotes3 #a3 ,mr4 ,j4 ,crawfurd on the ,history of ,coffee1 in the ,statistical ,society's ,journal1 vol4 xv4 p4 #ea4 #b3 ,m4 ,lassaigne1 in 8,journal de ,chimie ,mdicale40 #c3 8,food and its ,adulterations40