,tru/7 ,! foll[+ typographical transcription has be5 us$ = ?is e-text3 text repres5ts text pr9t$ 9 italics1 text repres5ts text 9 bold face1 & text repres5ts blacklett] text4 ,sup]script texts h be5 transcrib$ z text4 ,small capitals h be5 *ang$ to capitals4 ,t repres5ts a ,t %ape r ?an ! lett] ,t4 ,m ,transcrib]'s ,notes may be f\nd at ! end ( ! text4 ,,! ,,draughtsman',s ,,h&book ,,( ,,plan ,,& ,,map ,,draw+4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #a4 ,,plan ,,%ew+ ,,pr9cipal ,,*>act]s ,,( ,,"w ,,us$ ,,9 ,,mapp+4 ,b4 ,alex&]1 ,li?4 ,e4 ,f4 ,n4 ,spon4 ,london ,new ,york4 ,,! ,,draughtsman',s ,,h&book ,,( ,,plan ,,& ,,map ,,draw+1 ,,includ+ ,,in/ructions ,,= ,,! ,,prep>ation ,,( ,,eng9e]+1 ,,ar*itectural1 ,,& ,,me*anical ,,draw+s4 ,) ,num]\s ,illu/rations & ,col\r$ ,examples4 ,,by ,,george ,g4 ,,&r1 ,c4,e41 ,m4,s4,e4 ,illu/ration ,,london3 ,e4 ,f4 ,n4 ,,spon1 #dh1 ,,*>+ ,,cross4 ,,new ,,york3 #ddf1 ,,broome ,,/reet4 #ahgd4 ,,preface4 ,! ma9 purpose ( ! pres5t "w is to be a h&y book ( ref]5ce = draughtsm5 engag$ *iefly 9 ,topographical ,draw+s4 ,b to h limit$ its use to "o class ( draughtsm51 & especially to ! skill$ memb]s ( t class1 w\ld h necessitat$ ! discov]y ( m cog5t reasons = its publication ?an its au?or has yet be5 able to adduce4 ,works ( su* a "* exi/ already1 & ?\gh _! imp]fections are num]\s1 !y fulfil _! purpose 9 a fairly satisfactory mann]4 ,b _h ! field be5 cle> 9 ?is direction1 x is s re/rict$ 9 ext5t t to h ent]$ ^u x w\ld h be5 to und]take a lab\r t promis$ little fruit1 = su* a "w c\ld be only ( small utility ev5 to ^? = :om x 0 specially int5d$4 ,x 01 !re=e1 det]m9$ to make ! pres5t h&book g5]ally useful by giv+ x a mu* wid] scope4 ,& h5ce1 if ! int5tion has be5 effici5tly c>ri$ out1 x may claim a place 9 e draw+ (fice1 be x t ( ! ,topograph]1 ! ,hydrograph]1 ! ,surveyor1 ! ,milit>y1 ,civil1 or ,me*anical ,eng9e]1 or ! ,ar*itect4 ,:e!r or n ?is degree ( success has be5 a*iev$1 is n = ! au?or to judge4 ,b %\ld he h fail$ to rea* ! high m>k at :i* he has aim$1 he hopes1 ) "s degree ( confid5ce1 t he has at lea/ succe$$ 9 produc+ a book :i* ! exp]i5c$ draughtsman w f9d valuable z a book ( ref]5ce1 & :i* ! pupil may con/antly consult ) pr(it4 ,a want has long be5 felt by draughtsm5 = "s "w ( ?is k9d to :i* !y might ref] _! pupils 9 ! (fice1 & x may n be presumptive to suppose t ! pres5t "w has suppli$ t want4 ,to r5d] x conv5i5t = ?is tw(old purpose1 x has be5 divid$ into two p>ts4 ,9 ! fir/ "p ! pr9ciples & practices ( ! art h be5 cle>ly b briefly expla9$ & illu/rat$2 :ile 9 ! second "p1 ! application ( ! pr9ciples previ\sly le>n$ has be5 treat$ (1 & su* in=mation giv5 z relates directly to ! duties ( ! practition]4 ,( c\rse1 9 a "w ( ! pres5t "*1 orig9ality 9 ! matt] is nei!r to be expect$ nor desir$2 en\gh if ! mann] %[s "s novelty1 & is su* z to add value to ! matt]4 ,al?\gh ! prep>ation ( maps & plans has receiv$ ! *ief %>e ( att5tion1 eng9e]+1 ar*itectural1 & me*anical draw+s h be5 l>gely treat$ (4 ,projection1 or?ographic1 isometric & p]spective1 has be5 altoge!r omitt$ z beyond ! scope ( ! "w2 b ,col\r+ & ,%ad+ h be5 fully consid]$ & pr(usely illu/rat$4 ,! ,plates app5d$ z examples = ref]5ce are num]\s & v>i$ 9 "*2 !y h be5 specially prep>$ by ,b4 ,alex&]1 to :om ! au?or (f]s 8 w>me/ ?anks = ! truly admirable mann] 9 :i* he has execut$ ! "w entru/$ to him4 #af1 ,,crav5 ,,/reet1 ,,*>+ ,,cross1 ,septemb] #g?1 #ahgd4 ,,cont5ts4 ,,"p ,i4--,,! ,,ess5tial ,,elem5ts4 ,,section ,i4--,,! ,,draw+ ,,(fice ,,& ,,its ,,furni%+s4 ,,page ,! ,draw+ ,(fice #a ,in/rum5ts #b ,mat]ials #e ,precautions & ,rem>ks #i ,,section ,,ii4--,,geometrical ,,problems4 #ae ,,section ,,iii4--,,l9es1 ,,dots1 ,,& ,,_! ,,comb9ations4 ,/raight & ,curv$ ,l9es #bg ,l9es ( unev5 ?ickness #cj ,! ,brok5 ,l9e #cj ,! ,dott$ ,l9e #ca ,comb9ations ( ,/raight1 ,brok51 & ,dott$ ,l9es #ca ,! ,wavy ,l9e #cc ,grass-l& #cd ,swamps & ,m>%y ,gr\nd #ce ,s& & ,gravel #ce ,woodl& #cf ,uncultivat$ ,l& #cg ,cont\r ,l9es #cg ,,section ,,iv4--,,col\rs4 ,flat-t9ts #dj ,conv5tional ,col\rs #dd ,wat] #de ,grass-l& #de ,m>% #de ,s& & ,gravel #df ,mud #df ,woodl& #df ,cultivat$ ,l& #dg ,uncultivat$ ,l& #dg ,build+s #dg ,roads & ,/reets #dg ,f5ces #dg ,,section ,v4--,,%ad+4 ,application ( ,%ade ,l9es #dh ,cyl9drical ,surfaces #ej ,%ad+ ,l9es #ej ,%ad+ ,l9es on ,cyl9drical ,surfaces #ea ,%ad+ ,l9es 9 ,topographical ,draw+s #eb ,! ,v]tical ,sy/em ( ,%ad+ #eg ,%ad+ 9 ,col\rs #fc ,hill ,slopes #fc ,cyl9drical ,surfaces 9 ,me*anical ,draw+s #fd ,,"p ,,ii4--,,applications4 ,,section ,i4--,,lett]+1 ,,bord]+1 ,,& ,,nor? ,,po9ts4 ,lett]+ #ff ,bord]s #fi ,nor? ,po9ts #fi ,,section ,,ii4--,,scales4 ,scales ( ,di/ances #gj ,scales ( ,con/ruction #gd ,,section ,,iii4--,,plott+4 ,ref]5ce ,l9es & ,po9ts #gh ,plott$ ,po9ts #gh ,to ,plot ,ref]5ce ,l9es & ,po9ts #gh ,to ,plot ,trav]se ,ref]5ce ,l9es #hd ,to ,plot ,detail #hi ,to ,plot ,cont\rs #ij ,to ,plot ,s\nd$ ,po9ts 9 ,subm]g$ ,di/ricts #ij ,errors & ,error-%eets #ia ,to ,plot ,v]tical ,sections #ib ,to lay d[n ,gradi5ts #ie ,to ,plot a ,section f a ,cont\r ,map #if ,,section ,,iv4--,,civil ,,eng9e]s' ,,& ,,surveyors' ,,plans4 ,/&+ ,ord]s ( ,p>liam5t #ih ,docum5ts requir$ #ii ,plans #ajj ,book ( ,ref]5ce #aja ,sections #aja ,work+ ,sections #ajc ,regulations ( ,local ,gov]nm5t ,bo>d3-- ,b\nd>y ,maps #ajd ,maps = ,division into ,w>ds #ajd ,plans ( ,propos$ ,works #aje ,g5]al ,plan #aje ,detail$ ,plan #ajf ,m9+ ,plans #ajf ,e/ate & ,t[n ,plans #ajg ,,section ,v4--,,map ,,draw+4 ,s+le ,/roke ,/reams #aji ,d\ble ,l9e ,/reams & ,riv]s #aaj ,col\r+ ,/reams or ,riv]s #aaj ,isl&s & ,s&-banks1 ,s&y & ,pebbly ,b$s ( ,riv]s #aaj ,roads & ,pa?ways #aaa ,m\nta9 ,passes #aaa ,=ds & ,f]ries1 ,toll-gates #aaa ,telegraph ,l9es & ,/ations #aab ,railways1 ,/ations1 & ,t]m9i #aab ,size ( ,cities1 ,t[ns1 & ,villages #aab ,sket*+1 ,%ad+1 & ,copy+ ,hills #aac ,field ,sket*+ #aad ,exam9ation ( ,maps 9 ! ,field #aah ,,section ,,vi4--,,me*anical ,,& ,,ar*itectural ,,draw+s4 #aba ,,section ,,vii4--,,copy+ ,,& ,,r$uc+4 ,draw+ f ,copy #abg ,copy+ by ,trac+ #abh ,copy+ by ,transf] #abi ,r$uc+ & ,enl>g+ #acj ,! ,pantograph #aca ,! ,eidograph #acf ,draw+s = ,li?ograph]s & ,engrav]s #ada ,,trigonometrical ,,=mul #adb ,,incl9$ ,,measure #adc ,,curvature ,,& ,,refraction #adc ,,index #add ,,li/ ,,( ,,illu/rations4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,page4 ,plate4 ---------------------------- ,,alphabets1 examples ( 44 #d1 #e1 #f ,angle1 to bisect #af 44 ,angles1 to con/ruct #af1 #ag 44 ,ar*1 equilat]al #bc 44 ----1 horse-%oe #bd 44 ----1 lancet #bd 44 ----1 obtuse #bd 44 ----1 ogee #be 44 ----1 semi-elliptical #bc 44 ----1 ,tudor #bd 44 ,ar*itectural draw+s1 col\r+ (4 44 #bd ,,bord]s 44 #a1 #c1 #h1 #i1 #ac ,b\nd>ies1 p>i%1 c4 44 #c1 #ae ,,canal ,,locks 44 #a1 #aa ,*>t1 example ( 44 #ah ,c9quefoil1 ,go?ic #bf 44 ,circle1 to describe ?r\gh #ag 44 giv5 po9ts4 ----1 to f9d ! c5tre ( #ah 44 ,cliffs 44 #a1 #aa1 #ad ,col\r+ ar*itectural draw+s4 44 #bd ---- maps & plans 44 #a1 #c1 #ac1 #ag1 #bh1 #cc ---- me*anical draw+s 44 #bb1 #bc1 #bg ,copse 44 #a1 #aj ,corn]s 44 #a1 #c1 #h1 #i1 #ac ,cyl9d]s %ad$ #ea1 #eb 44 ,cyma recta #be 44 ---- rev]sa #be 44 ,,docks 44 #a1 #aa ,draw+s1 ar*itectural1 col\r+ (4 44 #bd ----1 isometrical 44 #bg ----1 me*anical1 col\r+ (4 44 #bb1 #bc1 #bg ,,eidograph 44 #bf ,ellipse1 to draw #bb 44 ,equilat]al triangle1 to con/ruct4 #af 44 ,,fl\ri%es 44 #be ,=tifications1 plans 44 #cb ----1 sections 44 #ca ,,geological ,,maps 44 #bh ---- sections1 col\r$ 44 #bj1 #ba ,grass #cd #a1 #ag ,gravel #ce #a ,,h>b\rs 44 #aa ,hexagon1 to describe #ba 44 ,hill %ad+ #ec1 #ee1 #ef1 44 #eh1 #fa1 #fb1 #fc ,hills 44 #a1 #ab1 #ad1 #ag ---- 9 col\r 44 #ab1 #ad ,,isometrical ,,draw+s 44 #bg ,,lakes 44 #a1 #c1 #aa1 #ag ,l&1 cultivat$ #cb #a1 #ac ----1 uncultivat$ #cg 44 ,lett]+1 examples ( 44 #d1 #e1 #f1 #g1 #h1 #be ,l9e1 to divide into equal p>ts4 #ae 44 ,l9es1 brok5 #cj 44 ----1 cont\r #cg 44 ----1 dott$ #ca 44 ----1 section #bi 44 ----1 %ade #di 44 ----1 to bisect #ae 44 ,,maps1 geological 44 #bh ----1 ,ordnance1 example (4 44 #ah ---- & plans1 col\r+ (4 44 #a1 #c1 #ac1 #ag1 #bh1 #cc ,m>% #ce #a1 #aj1 #aa ,me*anical draw+s1 col\r+ (4 44 #bb1 #bc1 #bg ,m9+ plans 44 #cc ,,nor? ,,po9ts 44 #i ,,oval1 to con/ruct #ah 44 ,,pantograph 44 #bf ,p>abola1 to draw #ba 44 ,p5tagon1 to describe #bj 44 ,p]p5dicul>1 to erect #ae 44 ,plans1 e/ate 44 #c1 #ag ----1 =tifications 44 #cb ----1 m9+ 44 #cc ----1 (fice 44 #b ----1 p>liam5t>y 44 #ac1 #ai ----1 r$uc+ or enl>g+ 44 #bf ----1 t[n improvem5ts 44 #ac ---- & maps1 col\r+ (4 44 #a1 #c1 #ac1 #ag1 #bh1 #cc ,plott+1 examples ( #hb1 #he1 #hf1 44 #hh1 #ic ,,qu>ries 44 #a ,quatrefoil1 ,go?ic #bf 44 ,,radii ,,( ,,circle1 to draw #ah 44 ,railways 44 #a1 #c ,rectangles1 simil>1 to con/ruct #bj 44 ,riv]s 44 #a1 #aa1 #ab1 #ag ----1 outl9es ( #cj 44 ,roads 44 #a1 #c1 #ab1 #ag ,rocks 44 #a1 #aa ,ro(s #cj 44 ,,s& #ce #a ---- banks 44 #a1 #aa ,scales #ga1 #ge1 #gf #b1 #c1 #h1 #i1 #ac ,section plott+1 example ( #ic 44 ,sections1 =tifications 44 #ca ----1 p>liam5t>y 44 #ai1 #ba ---- ( /rata1 examples ( col\r+4 44 #bj1 #ba ,%ade1 scales (1 = hills #ec1 #eh 44 ,signs1 v>i\s1 us$ 9 ,indian & 44 #bi1 #cj ,colonial maps4 ----1 ----1 us$ 9 maps1 plans1 c4 44 #ae1 #af ----1 ----1 us$ 9 milit>y maps & 44 #ca1 #cb =tifications4 ,s\nd+s 44 #aa1 #ah ,squ>e1 to con/ruct #ai 44 ----1 multiple (1 to con/ruct4 #ai 44 ,squ>es1 proportional1 to con/ruct4 #ai1 #bj 44 ,swamps & m>%y gr\nd4 #ce #a1 #aj ,,tang5t1 to draw #ah 44 ,titles1 examples ( 44 #c1 #g1 #h ,t[ns 44 #a1 #c1 #aa1 #ac ,trav]se plott+1 example (4 #he1 #hf1 #hh 44 ,trees #cf #a1 #c1 #aj1 #ac1 #ag ,trefoil1 ,go?ic #be 44 ,triangles1 to con/ruct #af1 #ag 44 ,,villages 44 #a ,,wat]1 fl[+ #cc #aa ----1 /&+ #bi #a1 #aa ---- 9 section #cj 44 ,wood-gra9+ #cb 44 ,wood 9 section #cb 44 ,woods #cf #a1 #c1 #aj1 #ag ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,,plan ,,& ,,map ,,draw+4 ,,"p ,i4--,,! ,,ess5tial ,,elem5ts4 ,,section ,i4--,,! ,,draw+ ,,(fice ,,& ,,its ,,furni%+s4 ,!re are few occupations s dep5d5t = _! correct p]=mance ^u m9ute matt]s ( detail z t ( ! draughtsman4 ,?+s app>5tly ! mo/ trivial are suffici5t to r5d] inaccurate or to m> ! appe>ance ( ! o!rwise mo/ c>efully & skilfully execut$ design1 & z ! value ( a draw+ dep5ds :olly ^u its accuracy & its appe>ance1 x is obvi\s t su* matt]s ( detail1 h[ev] trivial !y may be 9 !mselves1 dem& c>eful att5tion4 ,we h1 !re=e1 deem$ x desirable to preface our rem>ks on ,plan & ,map ,draw+ ) a brief description ( ! in/rum5ts & mat]ials requir$1 & ( ! mode ( us+ !m :i* exp]i5ce has %[n to be ! be/4 ,! ,draw+ ,(fice4--,! fir/ ess5tials ( a room = draw+ 9 are--t x %all be q free f damp & be well light$4 ,! position ( ! w9d[s is a matt] ( "s importance1 & ?\gh p]sons h l>gely to accommodate !mselves to circum/ances 9 ?is respect1 x is desirable to "k :at are ! mo/ suitable conditions1 9 ord] t !y may be compli$ ) z f> z circum/ances p]mit4 ,skylights are unsuitable1 because ! light ent]+ f above is liable to be int]cept$ by ! body1 & especially by ! h&s ( ! draughtsman2 besides :i*1 ! light f a skylight is seldom suffici5t4 ,= ! same reasons1 a w9d[ plac$ v high 9 ! room is objectionable4 ,:5 possible1 a we/]n aspect is to be pref]r$1 z ! light f ?is direction is less v>iable & la/s lat] 9 ! day ?an f o!r directions4 ,bl9ds ( "s k9d are necess>y to modify ! light :5 ! sun %9es directly ^u ! w9d[4 ,gaslights %\ld be situate ab\t #c feet above ! draw+ table1 & !re %\ld be two burn]s1 plac$ n less ?an #b feet ap>t1 z o!rwise ! h&s & ! in/rum5ts w ca/ %ad[s :i* w prev5t f9e l9es & po9ts f be+ se54 ,! draw+ table %\ld be plac$ "u ! w9d[2 x %\ld h a bread? ( ab\t #b feet #f in*es1 & its height %\ld be #c feet #h in*es at ! back & #c feet #f in*es at ! front4 ,! front edge %\ld be r\nd$ ov]4 ,du/]s & means = wa%+ ! h&s mu/ also be provid$1 z x is requisite to frequ5tly du/ ! pap] & ! in/rum5ts1 & to keep ! h&s p]fectly clean4 ,in/rum5ts4--,all draw+ in/rum5ts %\ld be ( ! be/ workman%ip1 = x is impossible to obta9 accuracy ) imp]fect tools1 & !y mu/ be kept 9 ord] by c>eful h&l+4 ,= all k9ds ( draw+1 compasses ( ?ree sizes are requir$1 ! ord9>y compass1 ! b[s1 & ! spr+ b[s4 ,! be/ compasses are ^? :i* are sector-jo9t$4 ,! po9ts %\ld be kept suffici5tly %>p n to slip on ! pap]1 b n s %>p z to readily p5etrate x4 ,x is also important t ! po9ts be ?9 & r\nd1 z o!rwise1 :5 sev]al arcs h to be /ruck f ! same c5tre1 ! compass leg is apt to make a l>ge hole1 :i* is utt]ly de/ructive ( accuracy4 ,! p5cil leg %\ld be kept exactly equal 9 l5g? to ! /eel leg1 = true circles _c be drawn :5 "o leg is %ort] ?an ! o!r4 ,9 remov+ ! movable leg1 c>e %\ld be tak5 to draw x /raight out1 z no?+ spoils ! in/rum5t s soon z wr5*+ ! leg f side to side4 ,9 us+ ! compasses1 ! in/rum5t %\ld be held lightly betwe5 ! ?umb & ! =ef+] only4 ,x %\ld n be press$ ^u ! pap]2 b x %\ld re/ equally ^u bo? po9ts4 ,if ! weight ( ! h& be ?r[n ^u ! in/rum5t ! po9ts w p5etrate ! pap]4 ,c>e %\ld also be tak5 to b5d ! jo9ts s z to keep bo? legs p]p5dicul> to ! pap]4 ,if att5tion be n giv5 to ?is matt]1 ! /eel leg w make a l>ge hole 9 ! pap]1 & ! ink leg w make a ragg$ l9e1 because only "o ( ! nibs w t\*4 ,next 9 importance to ! compass1 & ( m frequ5t use1 is ! draw+ p54 ,! draughtsman %\ld possess at lea/ two ( ^! in/rum5ts1 "o = f9e1 & ano!r = m$ium l9es4 ,:5 ! prop] op5+ ( ! nibs = f9e l9es has once be5 obta9$1 x is desirable n to *ange x2 ! p5 c always be clean$ by pass+ a piece ( draw+ pap] betwe5 ! nibs4 ,! clean+ ( ! p5 %\ld be c>efully att5d$ to2 x %\ld nev] be put away )\t hav+ e p>ticle ( dri$ ink remov$ f x2 & frequ5tly1 :ile 9 use1 x %\ld be wip$ out to remove ! du/1 :i* is con/antly settl+ 9 x1 z well z ! p>ticles ( lead t are tak5 up f ! pap]4 ,! ink is suppli$ by brea?+ betwe5 ! nibs & dipp+ !m 9 ! liquid1 or by means ( a camel's hair bru%4 ,:5 ! latt] me?od is adopt$1 c>e %\ld be tak5 to protect ! bru% f ! du/ float+ 9 ! atmosph]e ( ! room4 ,aft] consid]able we>1 ! draw+ p5 w require sett+4 ,! op]ation ( sett+ requires "s judgm5t & consid]able practice1 & is "o ( ^? me*anical niceties :i* x is difficult to describe4 ,g5]ally x w be f\nd advantage\s to h ! p5 set by an in/rum5t mak]4 ,z1 h[ev]1 ?is res\rce is n always at h&1 x is desirable t ! draughtsman %\ld be able to set 8 own p54 ,! foll[+ description ( ! op]ation giv5 by ,w4 ,b9ns1 9 8 admirable "w on ,projection1 is ! be/ we h se54 8,! nibs mu/ be precisely ( ! same l5g?1 r\nd$ 9 two directions1 & z %>p z x is possible to make !m )\t produc+ to ! t\* a s5sation ( cutt+1 & )\t scrat*+ ! surface ( ! pap] :5 draw+ a l9e1 :i* is g5]ally ! case :5 "o nib is long] ?an ! o!r4 ,?is irregul>ity may be detect$ by plac+ alt]nately ! sides ( ! p5 at an acute angle ) ! =ef+]1 & slipp+ ! edge ( ! nail ov] ! po9t1 :5 ! diff]5ce 9 l5g? w be at once p]ceiv$2 & x may be r$uc$ by draw+ a few l9es1 z x 71 on a turkey /one1 ) ! p5 appli$ to ! edge ( a set squ>e 9 ! same mann] z if draw+ l9es ^u pap]1 b ) ?is diff]5ce1 t dur+ ! longitud9al motion ( ! p5 ! h&le mu/ be turn$ ov] 9 a circul> mann]1 s z to give a r\nd$ =m to ! po9t ( ! p54 ,if ! p5 be n[ held ) ! po9t direct$ t[>ds ! eye1 & g5tly mov$ ab\t s z to cat* ! angle ( reflexion1 a bright speck on "o or bo? nibs w be obs]v$1 :i* mu/ be r$uc$ by rubb+ ! p5 to & fro ^u ! /one1 giv+ at ! same "t a slight rot>y motion to ! h&le1 :i* mu/ be held at an angle ( ab\t #bj ) ! face ( ! /one3 ! po9t ( ! p5 be+ exam9$ f "t to "t1 & ! process ( r$uc+ ! bright specks cont9u$ until ! po9t is z f9e z c be us$ )\t cutt+ or scrat*+ ! pap]4 ,if at ?is /age ! two nibs are ( ! same l5g?1 a p]fectly solid & f9e l9e c be drawn4 ,! beg9n]1 h[ev]1 mu/ n be disappo9t$ if sixty m9utes are ?us exp5d$ be=e he c produce a satisfactory result2 :]eas two m9utes 9 ! h&s ( a practition] w\ld suffice40 ,! in/rum5t mo/ frequ5tly 9 ! h&s ( ! draughtsman is ! lead p5cil4 ,^! are requir$ ( v>i\s degrees ( h>dness1 b = l9es t are to be rul$ an ,h ,h is ! be/4 ,! mo/ suitable qualities ( lead are ^? :i* are ! mo/ easily rubb$ out2 ^! qualities are sometimes gritty1 b ?is defect is m ?an comp5sat$ by ! facility ) :i* a l9e may be remov$ f ! pap]4 ,!re is "s art 9 cutt+ a p5cil prop]ly4 ,if ! po9t is int5d$ = sket*+1 x %\ld be cut equally f all sides1 s z to produce a p]fectly acute cone4 ,b = l9e-draw+ a flat or *isel po9t %\ld always be us$4 ,?is po9t is mu* /rong]1 & w la/ mu* long] ?an ! cone po9t4 ,to produce ! *isel po9t1 fir/ cut ! p5cil f two sides only ) a long slope1 & aft]w>ds cut ! o!r sides away only j suffici5tly to r\nd ! fir/ edge a little4 ,?is side wood is ne$$ bo? to af=d a support to ! lead1 & to %[ 9 :at direction ! po9t /&s4 ,to avoid break+ ! lead1 ! knife %\ld be held at an acute angle ) x4 ,a po9t cut 9 ?is mann] may be kept 9 ord] = "s "t by rubb+ x ^u a f9e file or ^u a piece ( glass-pap] or f9e s&/one4 ,( ! o!r in/rum5ts us$ 9 draw+1 no?+ ne$ be said 9 ?is "w1 z _! use pres5ts no difficulties4 ,x may1 h[ev]1 be well to rem>k t no /raight-edge employ$ = rul+ l9es %\ld be less ?an a f\rte5? ( an in* ?ick1 = if ! edge be v ?91 x w be impossible to prev5t ! ink f escap+ f ! p5 on to x4 ,mat]ials4--,! draw+ pap]s kn[n z ,:atman's are ! be/ prep>$ ( any obta9able1 & !y are almo/ univ]sally employ$4 ,( ^! !re are two k9ds1 ! smoo? & ! r\gh2 ! =m] is te*nically call$ n pap]1 & is ! m suitable = me*anical & ar*itectural draw+s2 ! r\gh is m effective = p]spectives & ,go?ic elevations4 ,a ?ird k9d is kn[n z ! hot-press$1 b z x does n take col\r s well z ! n & ! r\gh1 x is n (t5 us$4 ,! v>i\s sizes are indicat$ by _! names1 :i* are ! foll[+3-- ,antiqu>ian #ec #ca in*es4 ,atlas #cd #bf ,columbi] #cd #bc ,demy #bj #ae ,d\ble ,elephant #dj #bf ,elephant #bh #bc ,emp]or #fh #dh ,imp]ial #cj #bb ,m$ium #bb #ag ,royal #bd #ai ,sup] ,royal #bg #ai ,! sizes consid]$ be/1 & almo/ univ]sally us$ = eng9e]+ & ar*itectural draw+s1 are ! elephant1 ! d\ble elephant1 & ! imp]ial4 ,if small] sizes are requir$1 ! half or qu>t] %eet is us$4 ,antiqu>ian has g5]ally a good surface to draw ^u1 & x is pref]r$ by "s ar*itects4 ,! atlas is also a v good pap]4 ,besides ! =ego+1 !re is ! ma*9e-made or c>tridge pap]1 :i* is v commonly employ$ = detail draw+s4 ,x has n s good a surface z ! o!r k9ds1 nor is x s :ite2 its *ief advantage is f\nd 9 its dim5sions1 x be+ made uni=mly #ec in*es wide & cont9u\s4 ,h5ce ! exact l5g? requir$ may be obta9$4 ,= l>ge plans & competition draw+s1 ei!r c>tridge or emp]or pap] is us$4 ,pap] t is to receive an elaborate draw+ mu/ be /ret*$ & glu$ to ! bo>d4 ,?is op]ation is "o requir+ a little skill & "s practice to p]=m successfully4 ,! foll[+ is ! be/ mann] ( proce$+4 ,! %eet to be /ra9$ is laid face upw>d ^u ! bo>d1 & a wet sponge is pass$ rapidly along ! m>g9s1 & !n across ! face1 includ+ ! m>g9s1 until ! :ole surface is suffici5tly & uni=mly wett$4 ,! object ( wett+ ! m>g9s fir/ is to prev5t cockl+ by all[+ !m a long] "t to exp& 9 ?an ! middle ( ! pap]4 ,! %eet mu/ n[ be left = ab\t t5 m9utes1 or until ! wet gloss has entirely disappe>$4 ,! process ( glue+ to ! bo>d is z foll[s4 ,a /raight-edge is laid along "o end ( ! %eet1 & ab\t ( an in* ( ! m>g9 is turn$ up aga9/ x1 & glu$ by means ( a bru%4 ,! m>g9 is !n turn$ d[n & rubb$ quickly ) a knife-h&le or1 /ill bett]1 a pap]-knife4 ,! opposite end ( ! %eet is next pull$ outw>ds & glu$ 9 ! same way1 & ! same me?od is aft]w>ds appli$ to ! top & bottom m>g9s4 ,"s draughtsm5 pref] to glue d[n ! adjo9+ edges1 b g5]ally x w be f\nd t lay+ d[n successively opposite edges w give m satisfactory results4 ,! contraction ( ! pap] 9 dry+ %\ld leave ! face q flat & solid4 ,dur+ ! process ( dry+1 x is important to keep ! bo>d 9 a p]fectly horizontal position1 z o!rwise ! wat] w gravitate t[>ds ! l[] side & s(t5 ! glue1 & z ! %eet w dry unequally1 ! l[] edge w break away4 ,! ?9n] ! glue us$ ! bett]1 & = ?is reason ! be/ quality %\ld be obta9$1 & c>e %\ld be tak5 to keep ! wat] suppli$ t is lo/ by evaporation4 ,:5 x becomes necess>y to repl5i% ! glue-pot1 ! cake %\ld be soak$ 9 cold wat] = at lea/ eight h\rs4 ,! removal ( a draw+ f ! bo>d pres5ts no difficulty4 ,a p5cil l9e is drawn along ! m>g9 at a suffici5t di/ance f ! edge to be cle> ( ! glue1 & a p5-knife is guid$ along ?is l9e by a /raight-edge n us$ = draw+4 ,z duplicates ( draw+s1 especially if !y be work+ draw+s1 are usually trac+s1 trac+ pap] is an important mat]ial 9 e draw+ (fice4 ,x is too well kn[n to ne$ a description4 ,x is sold 9 v>i\s sizes1 & ( v>i\s prices1 b ! mo/ usual sizes are #cj #bj in*es1 & #dj #cj in*es1 ! price ( ! =m] be+ #c;d4 & t ( ! latt] #f;d4 a %eet4 ,x may also be pur*as$ 9 cont9u\s l5g?s ( #bd y>ds1 #db in*es wide1 = ab\t #hs41 or if extra /\t1 #afs4 ,a mu* less exp5sive mode ( obta9+ trac+ pap] is to make x "o's self4 ,common silk or tissue pap] may be pur*as$ 9 quantities at less ?an a halfp5ny a %eet ( ! ord9>y size4 ,?is may be prep>$ by plac+ a s+le %eet at a "t flat ^u a bo>d or o!r smoo? horizontal surface1 & apply+ a mixture ( boil$ l9se$ oil & turp5t9e4 ,?is mixture %\ld be compos$ ( "o "p ( oil to five ( turp5t9e1 & x %\ld be appli$ ) a small sponge4 ,"o coat+ is suffici5t1 & x %\ld n be put on too ?ickly4 ,ea* %eet z prep>$ %\ld be hung ov] a /r+ /ret*$ across ! room to dry1 & :5 all ! cle> oily m>ks h entirely disappe>$1 x w be ready = use4 ,five gills ( turp5t9e & "o ( oil is en\gh = two quires ( d\ble-cr[n tissue pap]4 ,t trac+ pap] is be/ :i* is t\ghe/1 mo/ transp>5t1 & mo/ free f greas9ess4 ,! cont9u\s pap]s are m economical ?an ^? 9 %eets1 because j ! quantity requir$ c always be tak5 f ! roll4 ,= durability1 trac+ clo? is to be recomm5d$2 x is sold 9 cont9u\s l5g?s ( #bd y>ds1 & x may be _h f #ah in*es to #da in*es 9 wid?4 ,t kn[n z 8,sag]'s vellum clo?0 is ( excell5t quality1 bo? = transp>5cy & /r5g?4 ,"s k9ds ( draw+s1 su* z specifications = ,lett]s ,pat5t1 plans ^u de$s1 c41 h frequ5tly to be made ^u p>*m5t4 ,special k9ds ( p>*m5t c be obta9$ = ^! purposes4 ,!re is a k9d made :i* is q transp>5t1 & :i* c be pur*as$ cut to ! ,pat5t ,(fice regulation size4 ,z p>*m5t has always a m or less greasy surface1 be=e comm5c+ to ink or to col\r1 x %\ld be p\nc$ ov] ) p\ncet ( f9ely-p[d]$ ,fr5* *alk4 ,besides ?is precaution1 x w be necess>y to add a little ox-gall to ! ink or col\r4 ,blacklead & c>bonic pap] are us$ to transf] a draw+4 ,! =m] is prep>$ by rubb+ ?9 pap] ov] ) a s(t block ( ,cumb]l& lead2 ! latt] by pa9t+ "o side ( ! pap] ) lamp-black gr\nd to p]fect f95ess 9 sl[ dry+ oil4 ,c>bonic pap] is us$ = co>s] "w ?an blacklead pap]4 ,bo? may be pur*as$1 prop]ly prep>$1 at a trifl+ co/4 ,! draw+ to be copi$ is laid ov] ! %eet ( pap] :i* is to receive ! copy1 ) a %eet ( ! blacklead or c>bonic pap] int]pos$1 & a trac] is pass$ ) a light pressure ov] ! l9es4 ,?is me?od is mo/ly us$ to reproduce a draw+ f a trac+1 to obta9 a f9i%$ copy f a r\gh draught t has become soil$ & m>k$ 9 design+1 or to avoid errors or small alt]ations 9 ! fir/ draw+4 ,a v conv5i5t k9d ( pap] = small work+ draw+s1 or = sket*+ to scale1 is t kn[n z sectional pap]4 ,?is is pap] rul$ into small squ>es to a giv5 scale ) pale ink4 ,! spaces 9 ord9>y use are 1 1 1 1 & in*4 ,?ick] l9es are drawn ei!r to m>k (f ! in*es or to c\nt ! spaces 9 t5s4 ,) ?is pap]1 ! scale may be disp5s$ )1 z ! eye is capable ( subdivid+ ! spaces ) suffici5t accuracy = practical purposes4 ,sectional pap] is mu* us$ = sections ( railway cutt+s & embankm5ts1 z x af=ds a ready means ( calculat+ ! cont5ts4 ,x is also made up into sket*+ books & ar*itects' pocket-books1 = :i* purposes x is peculi>ly conv5i5t4 ,indian ink is us$ = all k9ds ( geometrical draw+s4 ,be+ free f acid1 x does n corrode ! /eel po9ts ( ! in/rum5ts1 & x pres]ves its col\r un*ang$4 ,x is difficult to get ! g5u9e ink1 b ev5 t1 z x is import$ f ,*9a1 v>ies consid]ably 9 quality4 ,= l9e-draw+1 t is ! be/ quality :i* w wa% up lea/ :5 o!r col\rs are pass$ ov] x4 ,?is quality is asc]ta9$ 9 ! trade1 ?\gh n ) absolute c]ta9ty1 by break+ (f a small portion4 ,if x be ( ! "r quality1 x w %[ a v bright & almo/ prismatic-col\r$ fracture4 ,! ink is prep>$ = use by rubb+ x ) wat] on a slab or 9 a sauc]4 ,! sauc] %\ld be q smoo? inside1 s z n to abrade ! ink4 ,:5 mix$ to ! requisite ?ickness1 :i* may be asc]ta9$ by draw+ a l9e ) a common p51 x %\ld be cov]$ to protect x f ! p>ticles ( du/ float+ ab\t ! room4 ,ink %\ld be rubb$ up p]fectly black1 = pale ink makes ! bolde/ draw+ look weak4 ,b aft] x has become black1 any fur!r mix+ w only injure x by r5d]+ x viscid4 ,x is be/ to use x imm$iately aft] x is mix$1 = if re-dissolv$1 x becomes cl\dy & irregul> 9 tone4 ,! addition ( a little ox-gall w make x fl[ m freely f ! p54 ,= eras+ ,cumb]l& lead-p5cil m>ks1 native or bottle indi>ubb] is suffici5t2 b = o!r k9ds ( p5cils1 f9e vulcaniz$ indi>ubb] is bett]4 ,?is1 besides be+ a m p[]ful eras]1 possesses ! important quality ( keep+ clean1 z x frets away ) ! friction ( rubb+1 & ?us pres5ts a cont9ually r5ew$ surface4 ,vulcaniz$ rubb] is also v useful = clean+ (f draw+s4 ,precautions & ,rem>ks4--,x is ess5tial to ! good appe>ance ( a draw+ t ! pap] be pres]v$ p]fectly clean4 ,! h&s especially %\ld be kept z mu* z possible f re/+ on x1 z ! p]spiration makes x greasy1 & :5 once x has acquir$ ?is defect1 cle>1 %>p l9es become impossible4 ,a %eet ( clean pap] %\ld be con/antly int]pos$ betwe5 ! draughtsman's h&s & ! draw+ ^u :i* he is work+4 ,br[n or pr9t$ pap] is unfit = ?is purpose1 z ! =m] is ei!r greasy or t>ry1 & ! latt] is apt to soil f ! pr9t$ matt]4 ,:ite pap] c be _h ( l>ge size1 or1 if necess>y1 sev]al %eets may be pa/$ toge!r4 ,to prev5t risk ( sme>+ ! l9es :5 ink+ 91 x is well to beg9 at ! top ( ! draw+ & to "w d[nw>ds1 also f ! "r to ! left = v]tical l9es4 ,! ink slab or sauc] %\ld be kept on "o side & nev] 9 front ( ! draw+4 ,%\ld a draw+ get a grease spot1 x may be remov$ by ! application ( a hot smoo?+ iron to a piece ( clean blott+-pap] laid ov] ! spot1 b n suffici5tly to be col\r$ ov]4 ,great c>e %\ld be tak5 to correctly place ! c5tre l9es ( a draw+2 ^! l9es %\ld be drawn v f9e & di/9ct4 ,9 work+ draw+s ! c5tre l9es are ( great importance1 z ! dim5sions are always measur$ f !m2 9 su* cases x is cu/om>y to draw !m 9 r$ or blue col\r4 ,9 all cases :]e a plane figure is symmetrical ) respect to a giv5 l9e1 :e!r ! l9e exi/s 9 ! figure or may be consid]$ z exi/+ 9 x1 t l9e %\ld be drawn fir/1 & su* a l9e is kn[n z a c5tre l9e4 ,! c5tres ( all arcs %\ld be m>k$ = ! ink compasses at ! "t ! arc is /ruck by ! p5cil1 by plac+ a small h&-drawn circle ar\nd x4 ,x is also necess>y to m>k di/9ctly by %ort int]sect+ /raight l9es ! exact po9ts at :i* ! arc beg9s & ends4 ,:5 a numb] ( conc5tric circles h to be /ruck1 ! small] ones %\ld be /ruck fir/1 z x is m difficult :5 ! hole 9 ! pap] becomes enl>g$ to draw a small circle ?an a l>ge "o4 ,:5ev] x is practicable1 l9es %\ld be drawn f a giv5 po9t r ?an to x2 & if !re are sev]al po9ts 9 "o ( :i* two or m l9es meet1 ! l9es %\ld be drawn f t "o to ! o!rs2 ?us1 = example1 radii %\ld be drawn f ! c5tre to ! po9ts 9 ! circumf]5ce ( a circle4 ,:5 a po9t has to be det]m9$ by ! int]section ( circul> arcs or /raight l9es1 ^! %\ld n meet at an angle less ?an #cj4 ,9 divid+ a l9e into a numb] ( p>ts1 in/ead ( sett+ (f ! "p repeat$ly along ! l9e1 x is bett] to set (f a conv5i5t multiple ( ! giv5 "p1 & subdivide x2 t is1 to "w f ! :ole to ! p>ts1 r ?an f ! p>ts to ! :ole4 ,?is is an important pr9ciple 9 survey+ z well z 9 plan draw+1 & 9 ! con/ruction ( scales x ought always to be obs]v$4 ,ink l9es %\ld nev] be eras$ ) a knife1 nor %\ld an ink-eras] be us$1 especially if ! draw+ is to be col\r$4 ,a ne$le po9t w take out a %ort l9e 9 a way t leaves little trace ( ! error4 ,a v good means ( tak+ out a l9e is furni%$ by a piece ( ,oakey's ,no4 #a glass-pap] fold$ sev]al times until x pres5ts a r\nd edge2 ! application ( ?is leaves ! surface ( ! pap] 9 a mu* bett] condition = draw+ ^u ?an x is left 9 by ! knife4 ,:5 ! draw+ is to be col\r$1 x is be/ to wa% out a wrong l9e ) a small h>d bru%1 & to slightly sponge ov] ! place ?r\gh a hole ( ! requisite size cut 9 a scrap ( draw+ pap]1 to save ! o!r p>ts ( ! draw+4 ,:5 a l9e has be5 drawn a little beyond ! po9t at :i* x %\ld t]m9ate1 x w g5]ally be f\nd bett] to avoid erasure by lay+ a little ,*9ese :ite ov] ! l9e ) a f9e sable-bru%4 ,sometimes1 :5 erasures are unavoidable ^u a draw+ t is to be col\r$1 x w be f\nd exp$i5t to take ! surface (f ! :ole ( ! pap] ) glass-pap]1 ! col\r w !n fl[ equally4 ,9 copy+ f a trac+1 x is well to put a %eet ( draw+ pap] und]nea? ! trac+1 = x n only %[s up ! l9es m di/9ctly1 b x prev5ts ! divid]s f te>+ ! draw+ :ile tak+ (f measurem5ts4 ,be=e comm5c+ a draw+1 a cutt+-(f l9e %\ld be drawn all r\nd ! %eet cle> ( ! glu$ portion4 ,! portions outside ( ?is l9e are useful to try ! draw+ p5 ^u be=e draw+ a l9e1 or = try+ a t9t :5 col\r+4 ,c>e %\ld be tak5 n to leave too n>r[ a m>g91 = no?+ detracts m f ! appe>ance ( a good draw+4 ,= a draw+ occupy+ a space ( #a foot or #ae in*es squ>e ov] all1 !re %\ld be a m>g9 ( at lea/ #e in*es all r\nd1 ) ! bord] l9e f #a to #b in*es f ! cut-(f l9e4 ,o!r sizes %\ld be 9 proportion4 ,?is rule is giv5 by ,maxton 9 8 #8,eng9e]+ ,draw+1' :o also has ! foll[+ rem>ks on cutt+ (f & pres]v+ draw+s4 8,! opposite side %\ld nev] be cut fir/1 = if s cut1 ^u ne>ly complet+ ! cutt+ ( ! ?ird side ! pap] und]goes contraction1 & ! f\r? side pull+ aga9/ x1 is apt to snap (f ! rema9+ in* or s1 & g5]ally 9 t[>ds ! %eet1 seldom 9 ! m>g9 on ! outside ( ! cutt+-(f l9e4 ,! %eet %\ld be cut (f all r\nd1 tak+ c>e1 by apply+ ! knife-blade "u ! edge ( ! %eet1 t x is free f ! bo>d be=e proce$+ to cut (f ! side or end adjo9+4 ,:5 ! %eet has be5 remov$1 ! /rips ( draw+ pap] left on ! bo>d %\ld be simply spong$ ov] two or ?ree times1 & !y w peel (f easily4 8,= pres]v+ a roll$ draw+1 a common sub/itute = /r+1 & "o less likely to crease ! draw+1 is made z foll[s3--,take a /rip ( draw+ pap] f #a to #b in*es wide & an in* long] ?an ! circumf]5ce ( ! roll$ draw+4 ,ab\t half an in* f ea* end make incisions1 at "o end 9 ! middle & "o-?ird ( ! bread? across1 & at ! o!r end at ! sides1 ea* "o-?ird ( ! bread? across4 ,fold 9 ^! sides1 s t !y may pass ?r\gh ! incision 9 ! opposite end ( ! /rip2 on be+ op5$ aga9 aft] !y h pass$ ?r\gh1 ! :ole w =m a hoop1 :i*1 :5 slipp$ ov] ! draw+1 w keep x secure40 ,z c>tridge pap] is n always suitable1 x sometimes becomes necess>y to jo9 ! small] sizes end to end4 ,to d ?is neatly ! edges %\ld be cut /raight1 & a /raight-edge laid ^u ! pap]1 all[+ in* to project b5ea? x4 ,?is portion ( ! pap] %\ld !n be rubb$ d[n ) s& or glass-pap] until ! out] edge is q ?94 ,! edges ( bo? %eets to be jo9$ mu/ be treat$ 9 ?is way1 & cov]$ ) a ?9 coat+ ( gum4 ,hav+ plac$ ^! edges 9 contact1 a /rip ( pap] #a or #b in*es wide %\ld be laid ^u ! jo9t1 & well rubb$ ) ! h&le ( a pap]-knife4 ,if ! pap] ?us jo9$ has aft]w>ds to be /ret*$ on a bo>d1 x %\ld be done :ile ! jo9t is damp4 ,9 spong+ ! pap]1 c>e mu/ be tak5 n to g ov] ! jo9t4 ,9 jo9+ %eets ( trac+ pap]1 ! jo9t %\ld nev] be made m ?an in* broad4 ,! gum us$ = ?is purpose %\ld be v ?91 & a /rip ( draw+ pap] %\ld be plac$ ^u ea* side ( ! jo9t until x is q dry4 ,x is a good plan to roll ! jo9$ %eet ^u a roll] ) ! jo9t 9 a l9e ) ! roll] & ! /rips infold$ ov] ! jo9t4 ,:5 left to dry 9 ?is position1 ! jo9t w be p]fectly smoo?4 ,draw+s h frequ5tly to be m\nt$ on /ret*]s1 & ! op]ation ( m\nt+ is "o requir+ "s c>e & practice4 ,g5]ally x w be f\nd m conv5i5t to pur*ase ! /ret*] ready made complete2 b :5 ?is is n done1 c>e mu/ be tak5 to h ! frame made ( suffici5t /r5g? to resi/ ! t5sion ( ! pap] :5 dry4 ,! sides & ! ends ( a /ret*]1 #h or #i feet long1 %\ld be #d in*es broad & n less ?an in* ?ick1 & = any l5g? above #ah in*es !re %\ld be "o or m b>s across4 ,a frame #f feet long %\ld h two cross-b>s divid+ ! l5g? into ?ree equal p>ts1 & !y %\ld be ( su* a ?ickness z n to come up flu% ) ! sides & ends by ab\t in*4 ,! inn] edges on ! face ( ! latt] %\ld be r\nd$ d[n to ! level ( ! cross-b>s1 & ! same degree ( r\nd+ %\ld be giv5 to ! edges ( ! cross-b>s !mselves4 ,?is is necess>y to prev5t ! edges f %[+ a soil$ m>k on ! pap]4 ,:5 ! frame has be5 ?us prep>$1 ! l95 or calico %\ld be spread out on "s flat surface & ! frame laid ^u x face d[nw>ds4 ,! ends ( ! l95 %\ld !n be pull$ ov] & nail$ to ! back2 next1 ! middle ( ! sides %\ld be pull$ ov] & fix$ 9 ! same way4 ,! int]m$iate spaces are aft]w>ds tack$ d[n by plac+ a tack alt]nately on opposite sides1 c>e be+ tak5 to pull ! l95 tight & smoo? be=e ins]t+ ! tack4 ,x is a good plan to fold ! edge1 z ! d\ble ?ickness w hold ! tack+ bett] ?an if s+le4 ,to m\nt ! pap] on ! /ret*]1 x %\ld be laid face d[nw>ds ^u a clean flat surface1 :i* w be all ! bett] if cov]$ ) a clean clo?1 & spong$ ) clean wat]4 ,:5 ! wat] has soak$ 91 apply ) a flat bru% "s cold fl\r pa/e1 &1 if necess>y1 remove all knots or p>ticles ( gritty matt]1 z ^! w\ld prev5t ! pap] f ly+ close to ! l954 ,! addition ( a little alum to ! pa/e improves its adhesive prop]ty1 & also t5ds to make ! draw+ less /iff :5 dry4 ,:5 a good coat+ ( pa/e has be5 well di/ribut$ ov] ! pap]1 place ! /ret*] ^u ! pap] & rub ! back ( ! l95 well2 !n turn ! /ret*] ov] & rub d[n ! edges ( ! pap]4 ,air-bubbles betwe5 ! l95 & ! pap] may be got rid ( by punctur+ ! spot ) a f9e ne$le & rubb+ x d[n4 ,pap] ?us m\nt$ may be drawn ^u ne>ly z well z :5 /ret*$ on a bo>d4 ,to give an edge = ! ,t-squ>e1 a /rip ( wood ) p>allel edges may be tempor>ily nail$ on4 ,"s draw+s1 su* z l>ge plans ( e/ates1 h frequ5tly to be v>ni%$4 ,?is op]ation requires "s skill1 & c be satisfactorily accompli%$ only by a practis$ h&4 ,! process g5]ally adopt$ is to /ret* ! draw+ ^u a frame1 & to give x ?ree or f\r coats ( is+lass size ) a flat broad bru%1 tak+ c>e to well cov] x ea* "t1 & to all[ x "t to dry betwe5 ea* coat4 ,! be/ v>ni% is ,canada balsam1 dilut$ 9 oil ( turp5t9e4 ,?is requires to be put on ev5ly 9 a fl[+ coat ) a f9e flat bru%1 & to be left 9 a w>m room free f du/ until x is ?or\ghly dry4 ,! draw+ mu/ be 9 a p]fectly horizontal position :ile ! size & ! v>ni% are be+ appli$4 ,9 draw+s to be v>ni%$1 ?ick l9es1 su* z %ade l9es1 & *alky col\rs %\ld nev] be put on be=e siz+1 z !y are apt to blot dur+ ! process4 ,%\ld a fir draw+-bo>d get accid5tally d5t$1 an application ( wat] to ! "p w1 )9 c]ta9 limits1 br+ x up to its prop] level4 ,,section ,,ii4--,,geometrical ,,problems4 ,to bisect a giv5 ,/raight ,l9e4--,let ,a ,b 7,fig4 #a7 be ! giv5 l9e4 ,f ,a & ,b1 ) any radius great] ?an ,a ,b1 draw arcs cutt+ ea* o!r 9 ,c & ,d2 !n ! l9e jo9+ ,c ,d w bisect ! l9e ,a ,b z at ,e4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #a4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #b4 ,to erect a ,p]p5dicul> to a giv5 ,/raight ,l9e4--,let x be requir$ to erect a l9e p]p5dicul> to ! po9t ,b 7,fig4 #b7 9 ! l9e ,a ,b4 ,f any po9t ,c above ! l9e1 ) radius ,b ,c1 describe an arc z ,a ,b ,d2 jo9 ,a ,c & produce ! l9e until x cuts ! arc 9 ,d1 & jo9 ,d ,b2 !n w ,d ,b be p]p5dicul> to ,a ,b4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #c4 ,to divide a ,l9e into any numb] ( equal p>ts4--,let x be requir$ to divide ! l9e ,a ,b 7,fig4 #c7 into five equal p>ts4 ,f ,b1 at any angle1 draw ,b ,c1 & on ! l9e ,b ,c lay (f five equal p>ts1 #a1 #b1 #c1 #d1 #e2 !n take a set squ>e ,e1 & make "o ( ! sides conta9+ ! "r angle co9cide ) ! po9ts ,a & #e1 & to ! o!r side apply a /raight-edge ,d2 !n by pass+ ! set squ>e along ! edge ( ! /raight-edge & draw+ l9es f ! po9ts #d1 #c1 #b1 #a1 ?r\gh ! l9e ,a ,b1 we %all h ! l9e ,a ,b divid$ into five equal p>ts ?r\gh ! po9ts #a1 #b1 #c1 #d4 ,to draw a ,l9e mak+1 ) ano!r l9e1 a giv5 ,angle4--,let x be requir$ to draw a l9e mak+ ) ! l9e ,a ,b 7,fig4 #d7 an angle ( #ce4 ,f a scale ( *ords1 :i* w be f\nd on mo/ scales suppli$ ) a set ( in/rum5ts1 take (f #fj2 f ! po9t ,a1 ) ?is di/ance = radius1 describe an arc ,c ,d2 lay (f on ?is arc ! di/ance ( #ce tak5 f ! same scale ( *ords2 f ,a draw a l9e ?r\gh ?is po9t4 ,!n w ! l9e ,a ,e make ) ! l9e ,a ,b an angle ( #ce4 ,! same result may be m readily arriv$ at by means ( a protractor4 ,if ! c5tre po9t ( ! protractor be plac$ on ! po9t ,a & its base made to co9cide ) ! l9e ,a ,b1 we c f its circumf]5ce prick (f ! di/ance ( #ce1 & a l9e drawn f ,a ?r\gh ! po9t ?us f\nd w make1 ) ! l9e ,a ,b1 ! requir$ angle ( #ce4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #d4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #e4 ,to bisect an ,angle4--,let ,b ,a ,c 7,fig4 #e7 be ! angle :i* x is requir$ to bisect4 ,f ,a1 ) any radius1 describe an arc cutt+ ! l9es ,a ,b & ,a ,c 9 ,d & ,e2 f ,d & ,e1 ) ! same or any o!r radius1 describe arcs cutt+ ea* o!r 9 ,f1 & f ,a draw a l9e ?r\gh ,f2 ?is l9e w bisect ! angle z requir$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #f4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #g4 ,to con/ruct an ,equilat]al ,triangle on a giv5 base4--,let ,a ,b 7,fig4 #f7 be ! giv5 base4 ,f ,a & ,b1 ) radius ,a ,b1 describe arcs cutt+ ea* o!r 9 ,c2 jo9 ,a ,c & ,c ,b1 :i* w complete ! requir$ triangle4 ,to con/ruct a ,triangle1 ! l5g?s ( ! ,sides be+ giv54--,let x be requir$ to con/ruct a triangle ^: sides %all be equal respectively to #f1 #e1 & #d4 ,lay d[n ! base ,a ,b 7,fig4 #g71 mak+ x equal to #f divisions ( ! scale2 f ,a ) radius equal to #d divisions1 & f ,b ) radius ( #e divisions ( ! scale describe arcs cutt+ ea* o!r 9 ,c2 jo9 ,a ,c & ,c ,b1 :i* w complete ! requir$ triangle4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #h4 ,to con/ruct an ,angle equal to a giv5 angle4--,x is requir$ to draw a l9e mak+ ) ! l9e ,d ,e 7,fig4 #h7 an angle equal to t conta9$ by ! l9es ,b ,a ,c4 ,f ,a1 ) any radius1 draw an arc ,f ,g1 & f ,d1 ) ! same radius1 draw ! arc ,h ,i1 & make ,h ,i equal ,f ,g2 !n a l9e drawn f ,d ?r\gh ,i w make1 ) ! l9e ,d ,e1 an angle equal to ! angle ,b ,a ,c4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #i4 ,to con/ruct a ,triangle1 ! l5g? ( ! base & ! angles at ! base be+ giv54--,x is requir$ to con/ruct a triangle ^: base %all equal #a in*1 & ! angles at ! base be #cj & #de respectively4 ,hav+ made ! base ,a ,b 7,fig4 #i7 ( ! requir$ l5g?1 make ! angles at ,a & ,b ( ! requir$ magnitude 9 ! mann] already describ$ 7see ,fig4 #d71 & ! cont9uation ( ^! l9es meet+ 9 ! po9t ,g w complete ! con/ruction ( ! requir$ triangle4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aj4 ,to describe a ,circle :i* %all pass ?r\gh ?ree giv5 po9ts4--,let ,a ,b ,c 7,fig4 #aj7 be ! po9ts ?r\gh :i* x is requir$ to draw ! circle4 ,f ea* ( ^! po9ts1 ) any radius1 describe arcs cutt+ ea* o!r 9 ,d & ,e2 jo9 ! po9ts ,d & ,e1 & ! po9t :]e ^! l9es int]sect w be ! c5tre f :i* to describe ! circle :i* w pass ?r\gh ! po9ts ,a ,b ,c z requir$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aa4 ,to draw a ,tang5t to a circle4--,i4 ,let ,b 7,fig4 #aa7 be ! po9t f :i* x is requir$ to draw ! tang5t4 ,draw ! radius ,o ,b1 & at ,b erect a p]p5dicul> 7see ,fig4 #b72 !n w ! l9e ,b ,d be a tang5t to ! circle4 ,,ii4 ,x is requir$ to draw a tang5t f ! po9t ,e 9 ! same circle4 ,draw ! radius ,o ,e ext5d+ beyond ! circumf]5ce to ,f1 & make ,e ,g equal to ,e ,f4 ,f ,f & ,g1 ) any radius1 describe arcs cutt+ ea* o!r 9 ,h & ,i2 !n a l9e drawn ?r\gh ^! po9ts w be a tang5t to ! circumf]5ce at ,e4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ab4 ,to f9d ! ,c5tre ( a circle4--,f any po9t 9 ! circumf]5ce1 z ,b1 7,fig4 #ab71 describe an arc cutt+ ! circumf]5ce 9 ,a & ,c1 & f ,a & ,c1 ) ! same radius1 describe arcs cutt+ ! fir/ arc 9 two po9ts2 ?r\gh ! po9ts ( int]section draw l9es to ! int]ior ( ! circle1 & ! po9t ,o :]e ^! l9es int]sect w be ! c5tre ( ! circle4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ac4 ,to draw l9es :i* %all be ,radii ( a circle1 ! c5tre be+ inaccessible4--,hav+ laid (f on ! circumf]5ce ( ! arc1 ! di/ances ap>t ( ! radii1 z ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 c4 7,fig4 #ac71 f ea* ( ^! po9ts1 ) radius great] ?an a division1 describe arcs cutt+ ea* o!r z at a1 b1 c1 c41 jo9 ,a a1 ,b b1 ,c c1 c41 & ! l9es s drawn w be radii ( ! circle z requir$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ad4 ,to con/ruct an ,oval1 ! wid? be+ giv54--,draw ! l9e ,a ,b 7,fig4 #ad7 equal to ! wid?1 & bisect ,a ,b by ,c ,d 7see ,fig4 #a74 ,f ! po9t ( int]section ,e1 ) radius ,e ,a or ,e ,b1 describe ! circle ,a ,c ,b ,f1 & f ,a & ,b ?r\gh ,f1 draw ! l9es ,a ,g & ,b ,h4 ,f ,a1 ) radius ,a ,b1 describe ! arc ,b ,g1 & f ,b1 ) ! same radius1 describe ! arc ,a ,h2 also f ,f1 ) radius ,f ,g or ,f ,h1 describe ! arc ,g ,d ,h1 :i* w complete ! requir$ oval4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ae4 ,to con/ruct a ,squ>e on a giv5 l9e4--,let ,a ,b 7,fig4 #ae7 be ! giv5 l9e4 ,at ,a erect a p]p5dicul> 7see ,fig4 #b71 & f ,a1 ) radius ,a ,b1 describe an arc cutt+ ! p]p5dicul> 9 ,c2 also f ,b & ,c1 ) ! same radius1 describe arcs cutt+ ea* o!r 9 ,d2 jo9 ,c ,d & ,b ,d1 :i* w complete ! requir$ squ>e4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #af4 ,to con/ruct a squ>e t %all be a ,multiple ( any giv5 squ>e4--,let ,a ,b ,c ,d 7,fig4 #af7 be ! giv5 squ>e1 & let x be requir$ to con/ruct a squ>e t %all conta9 #b1 #c1 #d1 c41 times its surface4 ,draw ! diagonal ,b ,c1 !n ! squ>e describ$ on ,b ,c w be d\ble ! squ>e ,a ,b ,c ,d4 ,lay (f ,d ,e1 equal to ,b ,c1 & draw ,c ,e2 !n ! squ>e describ$ on ,c ,e w be ?ree times ! squ>e ,a ,b ,c ,d4 ,9 ! same mann] lay (f ,d ,f1 equal to ,c ,e1 & ! squ>e describ$ on ,c ,f w be f\r times ! squ>e ,a ,b ,c ,d2 & s = any multiple ( ! squ>e ,a ,b ,c ,d4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ag4 ,to con/ruct a squ>e t %all be equal to 1 1 c41 ( any giv5 squ>e4--,let ,a ,b ,c ,d 7,fig4 #ag7 be ! giv5 squ>e4 ,on ,a ,b1 z a diamet]1 describe ! semicircle ,a ,g ,b1 & erect at ! c5tre ,e ! p]p5dicul> ,e ,g4 ,draw ,g ,b1 :i* w be ! side ( a squ>e equal to "o-half ( ,a ,b ,c ,d4 ,lay (f ,b ,f1 equal to "o-f\r? ( ,a ,b1 & erect ! p]p5dicul> ,f ,h2 !n ! squ>e describ$ ^u ,h ,b w be equal to "o-f\r? ( ,a ,b ,c ,d4 ,9 ! same mann] a squ>e may be con/ruct$ equal to any "p ( ,a ,b ,c ,d4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ah4 ,to con/ruct a squ>e t %all be 9 any ,proportion to a giv5 squ>e4--,let ,a ,b ,c ,d 7,fig4 #ah7 be ! giv5 squ>e4 ,x is requir$ to con/ruct a squ>e :i* %all be to ,a ,b ,c ,d z #b is to #e4 ,^u ! side ,a ,b z a diamet] describe ! semicircle ,a ,f ,b1 & divide ! l9e ,a ,b into five equal p>ts4 ,at ! second po9t ( division erect ! p]p5dicul> ,e ,f & jo9 ,a ,f2 ! squ>e describ$ ^u ,a ,f w be to ! giv5 squ>e ,a ,b ,c ,d z #b is to #e4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ai4 ,to con/ruct1 ^u a giv5 base1 a ,rectangle1 :i* %all be simil> to a giv5 rectangle4--,let ,a ,e ,f ,g 7,fig4 #ai7 be ! giv5 rectangle4 ,x is requir$ to con/ruct ^u ! base ,a ,b1 "o t %all be simil> to ,a ,e ,f ,g4 ,produce ,a ,e & lay (f ! giv5 base f ,a to ,b2 draw ! diagonal ,a ,g & produce x indef9itely4 ,erect a p]p5dicul> to ,a ,b at ,b1 & f ! po9t ,d :]e x int]sects ! diagonal produc$1 draw ,d ,c p]p5dicul> to ,a ,f produc$4 ,!n ,a ,b ,c ,d w be simil> to ,a ,e ,f ,g4 ,all rectangles hav+ _! diagonals 9 ! same l9e are simil>4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bj4 ,to describe a regul> ,p5tagon on a giv5 l9e4--,let ,a ,b 7,fig4 #bj7 be ! giv5 l9e4 ,bisect ,a ,b at ,c1 draw ,c ,f p]p5dicul> to ,a ,b1 & make ,c ,d equal to ,a ,b4 ,draw ,a ,d & produce x indef9itely2 make ,d ,e equal to half ,a ,b4 ,f ,a z a c5tre1 ) ,a ,e z a radius1 describe an arc cutt+ ! p]p5dicul> ,c ,d 9 ,f2 & f ,a ,f & ,b z c5tres1 ) radius ,a ,b1 describe arcs cutt+ ea* o!r 9 ,g & ,h2 jo9 ,a ,g1 ,b ,h1 ,f ,g & ,f ,h2 !n ,a ,g ,f ,h ,b w be ! p5tagon requir$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ba4 ,to describe a regul> ,hexagon4--,) a radius equal to ! l5g? ( "o side ( ! requir$ hexagon1 describe a circle 7,fig4 #ba71 & set (f ! same radius r\nd ! circumf]5ce ( ! circle1 :i* w be ?us divid$ into six equal p>ts4 ,jo9 ! po9ts ?us f\nd1 & ! requir$ hexagon w be complet$ z ,a ,b ,c ,d ,e ,f4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bb4 ,to draw a ,p>abola1 ! base & height be+ giv54--,let ,c ,a 7,fig4 #bb7 equal half ! base1 & ,c ,d ! height4 ,f ! po9t ,d draw ,d ,e p>allel & equal to ,a ,c1 & f ! po9t ,a draw ,a ,e p>allel & equal to ,c ,d4 ,divide ,d ,e & ,a ,e simil>ly1 mak+ ! end ,e ( ,a ,e correspond to ! end ,d ( ,e ,d4 ,?r\gh #a1 #b1 c41 9 ,,de draw #a1 #a2 #b1 #b1 c41 p>allel to ,d ,c4 ,jo9 ,d to ! sev]al po9ts #a1 #b1 c41 9 ,a ,e4 ,! p>abola w pass ?r\gh ! po9ts ( int]sections ( ^! l9es ) ! v]ticals drawn f ,d ,e to ,c ,a4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bc4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bd4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #be a4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #be b4 ,to draw an ,ellipse4--,i4 ,by means ( a piece ( /r+ & p9s4 ,place ! diamet]s ,a ,b & ,c ,d 7,fig4 #bc7 at "r angles to ea* o!r1 & set (f f ,c half ! major axis at ,e & ,f2 !n w ,e & ,f be ! two foci 9 ! ellipse4 ,fix a p9 at ,e & ano!r at ,f2 take an endless /r+ equal 9 l5g? to ! ?ree sides ( ! triangle ,e ,f ,c & pass x r\nd ! p9s1 /ret* ! /r+ ) a p5cil ,g1 :i* w !n describe ! requir$ ellipse4 ,,ii4 ,f ! c5tre ,o 7,fig4 #bd7 describe a circle ( ! diamet] ( ! m9or axis ( ! requir$ ellipse4 ,f ! same c5tre1 describe ano!r circle ) a diamet] equal to its major axis4 ,divide ! inn] circle into any numb] ( equal p>ts z #a1 #b1 c41 & ?r\gh ^! po9ts draw radii cutt+ ! out] circle 9 #d1 #c1 c4 ,f #a1 #b1 c41 draw horizontals1 & f #c1 #d1 c41 draw p]p5dicul>s cutt+ ea* o!r 9 ,e ,f1 c42 ! curve trac$ f ,c ?r\gh ! po9ts ,c ,e ,f ,a1 c41 w complete ! curve ( ! requir$ ellipse4 ,,iii4 ,let ,a ,b 7,fig4 #be a7 be ! major & ,c ,d ! m9or axis ( ! requir$ ellipse4 ,on any conv5i5t "p ( ! pap] draw two l9es ,f ,g1 ,f ,h 7,fig4 #be b7 at any angle ) ea* o!r4 ,f ,f ) ! di/ance ,e ,c or ,e ,d1 ! semi-axis m9or1 describe an arc cutt+ ! l9es ,f ,g1 ,f ,h1 9 ,i & ,k2 & f ,f ) ! di/ance ,e ,a or ,e ,b1 ! semi-axis major1 describe ! arc ,l ,m4 ,jo9 ,i ,m1 & f ,l & ,k draw l9es p>allel to ,i ,m1 cutt+ ,f ,g1 ,f ,h1 9 ,n & ,o4 ,f ,a & ,b 7,fig4 #be a7 set (f ! di/ance ,f ,n 7,fig4 #be b7 9 po9ts ,n1 & f ^! po9ts z c5tres1 ) ,f ,n z radius1 describe an arc ( ab\t #ae on ea* side ( ! major axis4 ,f ,c & ,d 7,fig4 #be a7 set (f on ! m9or axial l9e ! di/ance ,,fo 7,fig4 #be b7 9 po9ts ,o1 & f ^! po9ts z c5tres1 ) radius ,,fo1 describe arcs ( ab\t #ae on ea* side ( ! axis ,c ,d4 ,to obta9 any numb] ( int]m$iate po9ts take a slip ( pap] 7,fig4 #be a7 & m>k ^u "o edge1 ) a %>p-po9t$ p5cil1 #a1 #c1 equal to ! semi-axis major1 & #b1 #c1 equal to ! semi-axis m9or4 ,if ! slip ( pap] be n[ appli$ to ! figure & mov$ ov] x 9 su* a mann] t ! po9t #b is always 9 contact ) ! major axis1 & ! po9t #a 9 contact ) ! m9or axis1 ! out] po9t #c w describe a p]fect ellipse1 any numb] ( po9ts 9 :i* c be m>k$ (f z ! 8trammel0 is mov$ into successive positions4 ,= ?is la/ me?od1 :i* 9 practice is by f> ! be/1 we are indebt$ to ,b9ns' #8,or?ographic ,projection4' ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bf4 ,to con/ruct a ,semi-,elliptical ,ar*4--,! span ,a ,b 7,fig4 #bf7 & rise ,c ,d be+ giv51 divide ,c ,a & ,c ,b into any numb] ( equal p>ts4 ,?r\gh ! po9t ,d1 draw ,e ,f p>allel to ,a ,b1 & f ! po9ts ,a & ,b erect ! p]p5dicul>s ,a ,e & ,b ,f4 ,divide ,a ,e & ,b ,f simil>ly to ,c ,a & ,c ,b4 ,produce ,c ,d & make ,c ,g equal ,c ,d4 ,f ,d draw l9es to ! po9ts #a1 #b1 #c1 c41 9 ! l9es ,a ,e & ,b ,f2 also f ,g draw l9es ?r\gh ! po9ts #a1 #b1 #c1 c41 9 ! l9e ,a ,b1 & produce ^! l9es until !y cut ^? drawn f ,d to ! correspond+ numb]s 9 ,a ,e & ,b ,f4 ,?r\gh ! po9ts ?us obta9$ draw ! curve ( ! ellipse4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bg4 ,to draw ! ,go?ic ,equilat]al ,ar*4--,f ! po9ts ,a & ,b 7,fig4 #bg71 ) radius ,a ,b equal to ! span1 describe ! arcs ,b ,c & ,a ,c4 ,by jo9+ ,c to ,a & ,b we obta9 an equilat]al triangle f :i* ?is ar* d]ives its "n4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bh4 ,to draw ! ,go?ic ,lancet ,ar*4--,9 ?is ar*1 ! c5tres ,e & ,d 7,fig4 #bh7 f :i* ! arcs are /ruck1 are situate outside ( & 9 a l9e ) ! po9ts ( spr++ ,a & ,b2 ?us x is con/ruct$ on an acute-angl$ triangle1 z w be se5 by jo9+ ,c to ,a & ,b4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bi4 ,to draw ! ,go?ic ,obtuse ,ar*4--,?is ar*1 call$ sometimes ! ,drop-,ar*1 is con/ruct$ on an obtuse-angl$ triangle2 ! c5tres ,e & ,d 7,fig4 #bi7 be+ situate bel[ & )9 ! po9ts ( spr++ ,a & ,b4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cj4 ,to draw ! ,go?ic ,tudor ,ar*4--,on ! l9e ( spr++ ,a ,b 7,fig4 #cj71 take any two po9ts z ,f & ,g1 s t ,a ,f is equal to ,g ,b4 ,draw ,f ,e & ,g ,d cutt+ ea* o!r on ! bisect+ l9e ?r\gh ,c2 f ,f & ,g1 ) radius ,f ,a or ,g ,b1 describe ! %ort arcs1 & f ,e & ,d1 ) radius ,e ,c or ,d ,c1 describe ! arcs meet+ 9 ,c4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ca4 ,to draw ! ,moori% ,horse-,%oe ,ar*4--,! c5tres ,e & ,d 7,fig4 #ca7 f :i* ! arcs =m+ ?is ar* are /ruck1 are situate above & )9 ! po9ts ( spr++ ,a & ,b4 ,"o ( ! mo/ graceful =ms ( ?is ar* is obta9$ :5 ! height ( ! po9ts ,e & ,d above ! l9e ( spr++ & _! di/ance f ! bisect+ l9e ?r\gh ,c are equal to "o-?ird ( ! span ,a ,b4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cb4 ,to draw ! ,go?ic ,ogee ,ar*4--,! mo/ pleas+ =m ( ?is ar* is t con/ruct$ on an equilat]al triangle1 9 ! foll[+ mann]4 ,hav+ drawn ! equilat]al triangle ,a ,b ,c 7,fig4 #cb71 draw ,f ,g p>allel to ,a ,b4 ,bisect ! sides ,a ,c & ,c ,b & produce ! bisect+ l9es to ,f ,g & ,h1 :i* w complete ! triangle ,f ,g ,h simil> & equal to ! triangle ,a ,b ,c4 ,f ,h1 ) radius ,h ,a or ,h ,b1 describe ! arcs ,a ,e & ,b ,d1 & f ,f & ,g1 ) ! same radius1 describe ! arcs ,e ,c & ,c ,d4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cc4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cd4 ,to draw ! ,roman ,cyma ,recta & ,cyma ,rev]sa4--,jo9 ,a ,b 7,fig4 #cc7 & bisect ,a ,b 9 ,c4 ,f ! po9ts ,c & ,b1 ) ! di/ance ,b ,c1 describe arcs cutt+ ea* o!r 9 ,e2 & f ,a & ,c1 ) ! same radius1 describe arcs cutt+ ea* o!r 9 ,d2 f ,d1 ) ! same radius1 describe ! arc ,a ,c1 & f ,e describe ! arc ,c ,b4 ,! projection ( ! upp] end ( ! curve ov] ! "u1 z ,f ,b1 is g5]ally equal to ! height1 ,a ,f1 ( ! m\ld+4 ,! same description applies to ! ,cyma ,rev]sa 7,fig4 #cd7 lett] = lett]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ce4 ,to draw ! ,go?ic ,trefoil4--,hav+ drawn ! equilat]al triangle ,a ,b ,c 7,fig4 #ce71 bisect ! angles & produce ! bisect+ l9es ,d ,e ,f :i* w bisect ! sides ( ! triangle 9 ,g ,h ,i4 ,f ,a ,b & ,c z c5tres1 ) radius ,a ,h or ,a ,i1 equal to half ! side ( ! triangle1 describe ! arcs ,k ,l ,m1 & ^? conc5tric ) !m1 & f ! c5tre ,o ( ! triangle describe ! out] circles & conc5tric arcs1 :i* w complete ! figure4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cf4 ,to draw ! ,go?ic ,quatrefoil4--,draw ! squ>e ,a ,b ,c ,d 7,fig4 #cf72 bisect ! sides ( ! squ>e at ,i ,k ,l ,m & produce ! bisect+ l9es to ,e ,f ,g ,h4 ,f ! angles ,a ,b ,c ,d ( ! squ>e z c5tres1 ) radius ,a ,i or ,a ,m equal to half ! side ( ! squ>e1 describe ! arcs ,p ,n ,r ,s1 & draw ! out] conc5tric arcs4 ,! circles1 complet+ ! figure1 are drawn f ! c5tre ,o ( ! squ>e4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cg4 ,to con/ruct ! ,go?ic ,c9quefoil4--,hav+ drawn ! regul> p5tagon ,a ,b ,c ,d ,e 7,fig4 #cg71 bisect ! angles & produce ! bisect+ l9es to ,f ,g ,h ,i ,k1 :i* w cut ! sides ( ! p5tagon 9 a1 b1 c1 d1 e4 ,f ,a ,b ,c ,d & ,e z c5tres1 ) radius ,a a or ,a b1 equal to "o-half ( ! side ( ! p5tagon1 describe ! arcs ,l ,m ,n ,p ,r1 & draw ! out] conc5tric arcs & ^? conc5tric ) !m4 ,! circles are drawn f ! c5tre ,o ( ! p5tagon1 z 9 ! prec$+ example4 ,,section ,,iii4--,,l9es1 ,,dots1 ,,& ,,_! ,,comb9ations4 ,all k9ds ( draw+s are made up ( l9es & dots2 ^! are ! con/itu5t p>ts1 ! mat]ials :i* ! draughtsman has to employ4 ,x is !re=e ess5tial t he %\ld make himself acqua9t$ ) _! v>i\s =ms & uses1 & famili> ) ^? means ( produc+ !m :i* exp]i5ce has %[n to be ! be/1 be=e comm5c+ ! /udy ( ! pr9ciples by :i* ! repres5tation ( an object is del9eat$4 ,& moreov]1 x is desirable t he %\ld acquire a famili>ity ) ! op]ations requir$ 9 ! del9eation ( isolat$ objects1 previ\sly to mak+ any attempt to place !m 9 comb9ation = ! purpose ( produc+ a complete draw+4 ,! /ud5t w1 !re=e1 d well to /udy c>efully & to practise dilig5tly ! =ms & examples giv5 9 ?is ,section4 ,/raight & ,curv$ ,l9es4--,all /raight l9es1 h[ev] %ort1 %\ld be rul$1 :e!r !y be drawn ) ! p5cil or ! p54 ,p5cil l9es1 :i* are int5d$ to s]ve m]ely z guides to ! p51 %\ld be drawn lightly1 z o!rwise x w be difficult to rub !m out )\t injur+ ! ink4 ,!y %\ld also be drawn a little beyond ! po9t at :i* ! l9e is requir$ to t]m9ate1 because ! int]section ( ! l9es at t po9t makes x m di/9ctly visible1 & !re is1 consequ5tly1 less dang] ( pass+ beyond t po9t or ( /opp+ %ort ( x :5 ink+ 94 ,x is v important n to /op %ort ( ! requir$ l5g? :5 rul+ a /raight l9e ) a p51 = x is extremely difficult to l5g!n ! l9e subsequ5tly )\t leav+ ! jo9 visible4 ,an accurate l9e _c be drawn unless ! po9t ( ! p5cil or ! p5 be kept close up to ! rule1 & to d ?is ! top %\ld be incl9$ a little outw>d4 ,be=e ink+ 9 a l9e t has be5 drawn 9 p5cil1 ! indi>ubb] %\ld be pass$ lightly ov] x1 to remove ! p>ticles ( lead adh]+ to ! pap]1 = if ^! p>ticles are all[$ to rema91 !y get betwe5 ! nibs ( ! p5 & prev5t ! ink f fl[+ freely4 ,! *ief difficulties 9 rul+ a /raight l9e ) ! p5 are1 to keep x ( a regul> ?ickness ?r\gh\t1 &1 :5 num]\s p>allel l9es h to be drawn1 to keep !m at equal di/ances ap>t4 ,to draw an ev5 l9e1 a fir/ requisite is t ! p5 be 9 good condition4 ,frequ5tly x w be f\nd :5 draw+ f9e l9es t ! p5 ceases to m>k be=e ! end ( ! l9e is rea*$1 & z we h already said1 x is v difficult to jo9 a l9e )\t leav+ visible traces ( ! op]ation4 ,to rem$y ?is defect1 ! p5 mu/ be reset z describ$ 9 ,section ,i4 ,if a v h>d p5cil has be5 us$1 or if ! p5cil has be5 press$ heavily ^u ! pap]1 ! p5cil l9e w lie 9 a groove 9 ! pap]1 & z ! nib ( ! p5 w n t\* ! bottom ( ?is groove1 ! l9e drawn w be ragg$4 ,ano!r cause ( unev5ness is unduly press+ ! p5 aga9/ ! rule2 ?is pressure closes ! nibs1 & besides produc+ an irregul>ity 9 ! ?ickness ( ! l9e1 is v apt to cause a blot by =c+ out ! ink1 :i* adh]es to ! rule :5 br\ght into contact ) x4 ,to prev5t ?is1 c>e %\ld be tak5 to press ! p5 v lightly aga9/ ! edge ( ! rule4 ,a p5 is manufactur$ by ,/anley1 ( ,holborn1 ,london1 :i* has ! back nib mu* /iff] ?an ! o!r1 s t all dang] ( defect f ?is cause is remov$ by ! con/ruction ( ! in/rum5t4 ,to ensure a good l9e1 ! p5 %\ld re/ lightly ^u ! pap]1 & ! h&le ( ! p5 %\ld make ! same angle ) ! pap] f ! beg9n+ to ! end ( ! l9e4 ,a consid]able am\nt ( practice is requir$ to accompli% ?is1 & to acquire ! habit1 ! same att5tion %\ld be giv5 to ! p5cil z to ! p54 ,! ability to draw a numb] ( p>allel l9es at equal di/ances ap>t )\t measur+ requires consid]able tra9+ ( ! eye1 & ?is tra9+ c be obta9$ f practice alone4 ,?is ability mu/ be acquir$ be=e any?+ fur!r is attempt$1 & ! /ud5t :o sp5ds a good deal ( "t 9 its acquisition may h ! satisfaction ( kn[+ t :ile he is go+ ?r\gh ?is some:at monoton\s practice1 besides ex]cis+ himself 9 draw+ accurate l9es1 he is acquir+ a correctness ( eye & a p[] ( h& t w be ( incalculable s]vice to him lat]4 ,! /raight l9e1 besides be+ us$ = ! outl9es ( regul> objects1 is employ$ conv5tionally = v>i\s purposes4 ,:5 x is requir$ to %[ an object 9 section1 ! "p 9 section is cov]$ ) /raight & p>allel l9es drawn at an angle ( #de & at equal di/ances ap>t1 z 9 ,fig4 #ch4 ,to repres5t /&+ wat]1 z ponds & lakes1 horizontal /raight l9es are drawn p>allel to ea* o!r & at equal di/ances ap>t ov] ! surface1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #ci4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ch4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ci4 ,curv$ l9es1 :5 arcs ( circles1 are drawn by ! compasses4 ,o!r curves are drawn by h& ?r\gh po9ts previ\sly f\nd4 ,to draw ! curve correctly ?r\gh ^! po9ts1 unless !y be v num]\s1 a k ( ! nature ( ! curve is necess>y1 :i* ! draughtsman %\ld 9 all cases endeav\r to obta94 ,:5 ! curv$ l9e is long1 x is usually ink$ 9 ) ! draw+ p51 ) ! aid ( an in/rum5t call$ ! ,fr5* curve1 or c>dbo>d m\lds cut = ! purpose2 b = %ort l9es an ord9>y f9e-po9t$ /eel-p5 po9t1 or bett]1 a good quill is us$4 ,9 g5]al1 all l9es drawn by h& %\ld be drawn t[>ds ! body1 z a bett] comm& ( ! p5 c be obta9$ 9 t direction ?an 9 any o!r4 ,9 ink+ 9 curves by ?is means1 ! draughtsman %\ld proce$ cont9u\sly along ! p5cil-drawn l9e by p>tly repeat$ t\*es ) ! p5 po9t1 s held t ! divid$ po9ts ( ! p5 may foll[ p>tly 9 ! same track4 ,ea* t\* %\ld be made ab\t "o-?irtie? ( an in* 9 l5g?1 & x %\ld beg9 & end f9e4 ,ea* succe$+ t\* mu/ beg9 half its l5g? back1 s t ! l9e is advanc$ by "o-sixtie? ( an in*4 ,9 map draw+ all irregul> l9es are drawn 9 ?is way4 ,trac+ maps w af=d ! /ud5t excell5t practice 9 ?is mode ( us+ ! p54 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dj4 ,l9es ( unev5 ?ickness4--,?\gh g5]ally a l9e is requir$ to be ( ev5 ?ickness ?r\gh\t1 cases sometimes occur 9 :i* a v>iation 9 ! ?ickness may be made to express "s feature or quality ( ! l&scape4 ,! usual application ( ?is k9d ( l9e is to m>k ! outl9e ( riv]s1 lakes1 & ponds1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #dj4 ,! draw+ ( su* a l9e pres5ts no difficulty2 ! increas$ ?ickness is produc$ by go+ ov] ^? p>ts ( ! l9e aga9 ) ! p54 ,c>e mu/1 h[ev]1 be tak5 n to make a sudd5 increase 9 ! bread? ( ! l9e1 b to beg9 & end imp]ceptibly4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #da4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #db4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dc4 ,! ,brok5 ,l9e4--,! brok5 l9e1 %[n 9 ,fig4 #da1 is ( frequ5t occurr5ce 9 all k9ds ( draw+s4 ,9 ar*itectural & eng9e]+ draw+s x is usually employ$ 9 ro(s1 z 9 ,fig4 #db1 & = wat] 9 sections1 z 9 ,fig4 #dc4 ,x is also us$ 9 comb9ation ) o!r l9es = v>i\s purposes4 ,9 draw+ a succession ( brok5 l9es1 c>e mu/ be tak5 n to all[ ! break 9 "o l9e to be imm$iately ov] t 9 ano!r4 ,! effect may be v>i$ consid]ably by increas+ or dim9i%+ ! ext5t ( ! break4 ,z 9 section l9+1 ! l9es %\ld be at regul> int]vals ap>t1 & be all ( ! same degree ( f95ess4 ,brok5 l9es are sometimes us$ ^u ! face ( /one build+s1 in/ead ( m>k+ 9 ! jo9ts & et*+ or col\r+4 ,9 su* a case ! breaks are long1 & ! l9es widely spac$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dd4 ,! ,dott$ ,l9e4--,( /ill m frequ5t occurr5ce is ! dott$ l9e4 ,!re are two k9ds ( dott$ l9es1 di/+ui%$ by ! %ape ( ! dot1 & kn[n z ! long & ! r\nd dott$ l9e4 ,^! are %[n 9 ,fig4 #dd1 z well z a comb9ation ( ! two4 ,! r\nd dott$ l9e is ( v g5]al application4 ,9 ar*itectural & me*anical draw+s1 x is us$ to di/+ui% hidd5 p>ts1 & to m>k ! pa? ( a mov+ piece 9 a ma*9e4 ,9 plans1 x is us$ to %[ ! position ( propos$ works1 to d5ote ! walks ?r\gh pleasure gr\nds & g>d5s1 to indicate l9es *a9$ ov] 9 survey+1 & frequ5tly = o!r purposes1 at ! pleasure ( ! draughtsman4 ,! long dott$ l9e is employ$ to m>k ! b\nd>ies ( a t[n%ip1 ! navigable *annel ( a riv] or creek1 & 9 l>ge-scale maps to %[ f>m & bridle roads1 footpa?s1 & ! divisions ( l& among diff]5t t5ants4 ,! comb9ation ( ! long & r\nd dott$ l9es is us$ = ! b\nd>ies ( a p>i%4 ,ano!r comb9ation ( two r\nd & "o long dots1 or sometimes ( ?ree r\nd & "o long1 is us$ to d5ote propos$ railways1 canals1 roads1 & o!r simil> works4 ,to draw a good dott$ l9e requires "s c>e4 ,! difficulty lies 9 keep+ ! dots at equal di/ances ap>t1 & 9 mak+ !m equal 9 size2 & unless bo? ^! conditions are fulfill$1 ! l9e w n pres5t a pleas+ appe>ance4 ,to obviate ?is difficulty1 an in/rum5t is sold by ma!matical in/rum5t mak]s1 call$ ! dott+ or :eel p54 ,b x requires v great c>e 9 us+1 z o!rwise x frequ5tly happ5s t ! ink escapes f x & spoils ! draw+4 ,= ?is reason1 its use has be5 g5]ally ab&on$ by draughtsm54 ,b if ! in/rum5t 7 bett] con/ruct$ & c>efully h&l$1 x might be made to d good s]vice4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #de4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #df4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dg4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dh4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #di4 ,comb9ations ( ,/raight1 ,brok51 & ,dott$ ,l9es4--,comb9ations ( ! =ego+ l9es are us$ = v>i\s purposes4 ,"s draughtsm5 employ alt]nate1 full1 & dott$ l9es1 to d5ote wood 9 section1 z 9 ,figs4 #de & #df2 :5 wood is us$ 9 comb9ation ) iron or o!r metal1 ?is is a v good way ( di/+ui%+ x4 ,wood-gra9+1 ?\gh n made up ( /raight1 brok51 or dott$ l9es1 yet p>takes some:at ( ! nature ( all ?ree k9ds1 & may !re=e be introduc$ "h4 ,oak-gra9+ is %[n 9 ,fig4 #dg1 & fir-gra9+ 9 ,fig4 #dh4 ,! =m] is execut$ ) ! draw+ p51 & requires "s c>e & practice2 ! latt] is mo/ readily done ) a common p5 or a cr[-quill4 ,end wood is gra9$ z %[n 9 ,fig4 #di4 ,! spr+ b[s are v suitable = draw+ 9 ! circles1 z a c]ta9 degree ( turn to ! nut w op5 ! ink leg to ! requir$ di/ance aft] draw+ ea* circle4 ,a few brok5 wavy l9es1 call$ %akes1 radiat+ f ! c5tre1 produce a good effect4 ,:5 sev]al pieces ( end wood come toge!r1 ! c5tres 9 ea* %\ld n be 9 ! same relative position4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ej4 ,cultivat$ l& is repres5t$ by alt]nate brok5 & dott$ l9es1 sugge/+ furr[s1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #ej4 ,= ! sake ( v>iety1 ^! l9es are put 9 9 sets1 & 9 diff]5t directions1 "o set be+ usually p>allel to "o side ( ! enclosure4 ,! l9es are fir/ rul$ 9 cont9u\sly ) ! p5cil1 & ! brok5 & dott$ l9es aft]w>ds drawn 9 ov] !m by h&4 ,! portions ( ! brok5 l9es mu/ 9 ?is case be %ort1 & ! breaks /ill %ort]4 ,! dots mu/ be f9e & close toge!r2 !y are made by t\*+ ! pap] ) ! po9t ( ! p51 & imm$iately lift+ x (f )\t dragg+ x ov] ! pap]4 ,all r\nd dots mu/ be made 9 ?is way4 ,! ,wavy ,l9e4--,! wavy l9e is v important 9 topographical draw+s1 z x is employ$ to repres5t runn+ wat]1 & frequ5tly l>ge bodies ( /&+ wat] to :i* motion is communicat$ by ! w9d1 z lakes & ! sea4 ,^! rippl$ l9es are int5d$ to repres5t ! ripples 9 ! wat]1 a purpose :i* !y fulfil 9 a v pleas+ mann]4 ,!y mu/1 h[ev]1 be well execut$1 or ! pleas+ effect w n be produc$4 ,! op]ation ( draw+ ^! l9es is usually reg>d$ by ! draughtsman z a t$i\s & an un9t]e/+ "o4 ,b su* ought n to be ! case1 = !re is ample scope 9 x = ! ex]cise ( ! ta/e & ! judgm5t1 & 9 proportion to ! ta/e display$ & ! judgm5t ex]cis$1 w be ! effect ( ! "w :5 execut$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ea4 ,fig4 #ea %[s ! mann] ( employ+ ^! l9es4 ,9 repres5t+ wat] by ?is means1 ! l9es %\ld be drawn f ! %ores t[>ds ! middle ( ! /ream or lake1 & nev] f ! middle outw>ds1 = if ! latt] mode ( proce$+ be adopt$1 ! prop] graduation ( ! spaces betwe5 ! l9es becomes impossible4 ,! %ore l9e1 or outl9e ( ! wat]1 %\ld be a mod]ately ?ick l9e1 & ( uni=m ?ickness ?r\gh\t4 ,! fir/ %ad+ l9e may be ( ne>ly ! same ?ickness z ! %ore l9e1 & x mu/ be drawn z ne> to x z possible4 ,also ?is %ade l9e1 z well z all subsequ5t ones1 mu/ foll[ exactly all ! w9d+s ( ! %ore l9e2 ?is is ess5tial to a correct expression4 ,to effect ?is ) accuracy1 c>e %\ld be tak5 to make ! space betwe5 ! %ore & ! %ade l9e a f9e :ite l9e4 ,! second %ade l9e mu/ be drawn a little f9] ?an ! fir/1 & at a slightly increas$ di/ance f x4 ,?is gradual dim9ution ( ! ?ickness ( ! l9es1 & increase ( ! spaces1 mu/ be cont9u$ to ! middle ( ! curr5t4 ,! la/ l9e 9 ! middle ( a piece ( wat] mu/ always return to itself4 ,:5 ! %ad+ l9es meet ! m>g9 ( ! draw+1 !y %\ld t]m9ate 9 x1 t is1 !y %\ld be drawn out to ! m>g9 z ?\gh !y _h be5 cont9u$ beyond & cut (f4 ,^! l9es require to be drawn clean1 & to d ?is ! h& mu/ be kept /eady4 ,?is /ead9ess may be obta9$ by tak+ a v %ort hold ( ! p51 & re/+ ! middle f+] ^u ! pap]4 ,! l9es1 z we h already said1 %\ld be drawn t[>ds ! body1 ! draw+ be+ turn$ ab\t z requir$ to facilitate ?is1 & ! la/ l9e drawn mu/ be always kept on ! left ( ! "o be+ drawn4 ,by ?is means ! la/ l9e & ! po9t ( ! p5 are kept con/antly 9 sight4 ,x is also important t ! l9es %\ld be complet$ successively1 r ?an t sev]al %\ld be c>ri$ on at once1 because if ! latt] mode ( work+ be adopt$1 ! eye is apt to become confus$ by ! diff]5t int]vals1 & an unev5 di/ribution ( ! l9es is ! result4 ,a pr9ciple to be att5d$ to is t e l9e %all return to itself1 spirals be+ altoge!r inadmissible4 ,! di/ance ( ! l9es ap>t & _! ?ickness are expressive ( ! "* ( ! object2 ?us1 9 a small pond1 = example1 !y w be f9e & close toge!r2 9 a l>ge pond or a lake !y w be ?ick] & m widely spac$2 & 9 ! op5 sea !y w be made to pres5t a bold appe>ance by increas+ /ill m _! ?ickness & ! di/ance betwe5 !m4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #eb4 ,grass-l&4--,v>i\s comb9ations ( l9es & dots are us$1 conv5tionally1 to repres5t c]ta9 natural features ( common occurr5ce4 ,z f> z conv5i5t execution w all[1 ^! signs are made to resemble ! objects d5ot$4 ,?us ! sign = grass-l& consi/s ( gr\ps ( %ort l9es1 arrang$ l tufts ( h]bage1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #eb4 ,ea* tuft is compos$ ( five or sev5 l9es conv]g+ t[>ds a po9t situate bel[ ! base1 ! middle l9e be+ ! longe/1 & ! outside ones m]e dots4 ,9 draw+ ^! gr\ps1 ! base mu/ be kept q /raight1 & p>allel to ! base ( ! draw+ :atev] ! %ape ( ! enclosure may be4 ,beg9n]s usually exp]i5ce consid]able difficulty 9 keep+ ! base /raight1 ! t5d5cy be+ to make x curv$4 ,great c>e is ne$$ to di/ribute ! gr\ps ev5ly ov] ! pap]1 & to avoid ! appe>ance ( be+ 9 r[s1 = ! latt] arrangem5t is de/ructive ( t natural aspect :i* ?is sign o!rwise possesses4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ec4 ,swamps & ,m>%y ,gr\nd4--,z ! surface ( m>%y gr\nd consi/s ( wat] & grass1 a comb9ation ( ! signs = ^! objects is employ$ to repres5t x4 ,an illu/ration ( ?is is giv5 9 ,fig4 #ec4 ,! l9es repres5t+ ! wat] %\ld always be rul$ p>allel to ! base ( ! draw+1 & !y %\ld be gr\p$ 9 an irregul> mann] s z to leave small isl&s int]sp]s$ ?r\gh\t ! locality4 ,^! isl&s %\ld be cov]$ ) grass1 & to %[ !m out m di/9ctly1 !re %\ld be no?+ b wat] imm$iately ar\nd !m4 ,! division betwe5 ! l& & ! wat] %\ld be sket*$ 9 lightly be=e proce$+ to rule 9 ! l9es4 ,sometimes dott$ l9es are us$ = ! wat]1 b full l9es are to be pref]r$4 ,! addition ( a tree "h & !re improves ! appe>ance ( a draw+4 ,a di/9ction is frequ5tly made betwe5 a swamp & a m>% by wat]+ ! =m] m ext5sively ?an ! latt]4 ,9 draw+ 9 m>% l&1 c>e %\ld be tak5 to make ! f95ess ( ! l9es 9 accordance ) ! scale ( ! map1 z o!rwise an (f5sive appe>ance w be produc$4 ,?is caution applies equally to all signs4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ed4 ,s& & ,gravel4--,s& & gravel are repres5t$ by dots1 ! dots be+ made l>g] = ! latt] ?an = ! =m]1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #ed4 ,simple z ! op]ation ( fill+ 9 ^! dots is1 x is "o t requires "s degree ( c>e4 ,beg9n]s are apt to m> ! appe>ance ( _! draw+s by inatt5tion 9 ?is respect4 ,! dots %\ld be made 9 ! mann] already describ$ :5 speak+ ( ! dott$ l9e1 t is1 ! po9t ( ! p5 %\ld be br\ght sl[ly d[n ^u ! pap]1 & lift$ )\t dragg+ x2 & no dot %\ld be made )\t a delib]ate int5tion respect+ its position4 ,all arrangem5t 9 r[s mu/ be c>efully avoid$4 ,9 s&-hills1 ! slopes %\ld be made d>k] ?an ! level p>ts by plac+ ! dots clos] toge!r4 ,mud 9 tidal riv]s may be repres5t$ by v f9e dots plac$ close toge!r4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ee4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ef4 ,woodl&4--,trees are g5]ally %[n 9 plan 7z 9 ,fig4 #ee74 ,! outl9e is circul> 9 "*1 &1 to h a good effect1 x %\ld be made up ( simple curves firmly drawn2 small ind5tations %\ld be avoid$ z bad4 ,a few t\*es ( ! p5 are giv5 on ! int]ior & t[>ds ! %ad[4 ,! latt] is ca/ by p>allel rays ( light incl9$ #de to ! horizon1 & is deta*$ f ! outl9e ( ! tree4 ,:5 ! scale is l>ge1 ! %ad[ w be elliptical 9 =m1 b 9 small scales x w become a simple circle4 ,9 repres5t+ woodl&1 ! trees & masses ( trees %\ld be dispos$ 9 e possible v>iety ( position1 c>e be+ tak51 h[ev]1 to avoid all regul> figures & arrangem5ts 9 l9es4 ,9 p>ks & g>d5s1 :]e ! arrangem5t ( ! trees is artificial1 x is usual to repres5t a grove 9 a rectangul> =m4 ,or*>ds are %[n by plac+ s+le trees ) _! %ad[s at ! po9ts ( int]section ( two sets ( equidi/ant p>allel l9es drawn at "r angles to ea* o!r4 ,^! l9es are drawn 9 p5cil & aft]w>ds eras$4 ,"s draughtsm5 pref] to draw trees 9 elevation1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #ef4 ,?is me?od all[s ! v>i\s k9ds ( trees to be di/+ui%$ on ! plan1 & gives scope to arti/ic skill4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #eg4 ,uncultivat$ ,l&4--,uncultivat$ l&1 o!r ?an woodl&1 is repres5t$ by draw+ bu%es 9 plan1 simil> to trees1 b ( small] dim5sions1 & mix+ tufts ( grass ) !m1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #eg4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #eh4 ,cont\r ,l9es4--,suppose a cone ,a ,b ,c 7,fig4 #eh7 cut at regul> v]tical int]vals ap>t by a s]ies ( horizontal planes #a1 #b1 #c4 ,! int]sections ( ^! planes ) ! surface ( ! cone w give l9es ^u t surface2 & x is obvi\s t ! cone may be repres5t$ 9 plan by ! projection ( ^! l9es1 z %[n 9 ! figure4 ,to obta9 ?is projection1 draw ! horizontal l9e ,d ,e1 & f ! apex ( ! cone & f ! int]sections ( ! cutt+ planes let fall v]tical l9es4 ,f ! po9t :]e ! l9e f ! apex meets ! l9e ,d ,e z a c5tre1 ) radii equal to ! di/ances f ?is po9t to ^? :]e ! l9es f ! sections meet ,d ,e1 describe circles4 ,^! circles w be ! horizontal projections ( ! l9es on ! surface ( ! cone produc$ by ! cutt+ planes2 & ^! l9es are call$ cont\r l9es4 ,also x is obvi\s t1 f ! plan ( ! cone s obta9$1 we may z readily project ! elevation1 provid$ we "k ! v]tical di/ance ap>t ( ! sections d5ot$ by ! cont\r l9es4 ,to obta9 ! elevation1 we h only to draw horizontal l9es at ! giv5 di/ance ap>t1 & f ! po9ts 9 ,d ,e erect p]p5dicul>s to meet !m4 ,l9es drawn ?r\gh ! po9ts ( int]section w give ! elevation ( ! cone4 ,to f9d ! incl9ation ( ! surface ( ! cone1 ^u a b1 a portion ( ! normal ,d ,e1 z a base1 erect a p]p5dicul> b c1 equal 9 height to ! di/ance ( ! sections ap>t1 & jo9 a c4 ,! hypo!nuse a c !n repres5ts t portion ( ! surface ( ! cone :i* is includ$ betwe5 ! two cont\r l9es1 & ( :i* ! angle ( incl9ation is b a c4 ,! space betwe5 two cont\r l9es is call$ a horizontal zone4 ,! cone be+ a regul> figure1 its cont\r l9es are circles4 ,= irregul> figures1 ! cont\r l9es w be irregul> curves4 ,! regul> incl9ation ( ! surface ( ! cone causes ! projections ( ! cont\r l9es to be at equal horizontal di/ances ap>t4 ,b :5 ! incl9ation v>ies1 ! horizontal di/ance betwe5 ! cont\r l9es also v>ies1 ! di/ance decreas+ z ! incl9ation increases4 ,?us ! me?od ( repres5t+ objects 9 plan by cont\r l9es1 n only gives ! correct =m ( ! object1 b %[s ! relative incl9ation ( e portion ( its surface4 ,?is may be cle>ly se5 9 ,figs4 #ei & #fj1 ! =m] ( :i* is a repres5tation 9 plan by cont\r l9es ( an irregul>ly %ap$ object1 & ! latt] an elevation ( ! same object project$ f ! plan4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ei4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fj4 ,! sy/em ( repres5tation by cont\r l9es is g5]ally adopt$ by topograph]s to di/+ui% & def9e ! v>iation ( ! surface ( ! gr\nd 9 reg>d to hill1 valley1 & pla94 ,by int]sect+ a m\nta91 = example1 by a suffici5t numb] ( horizontal planes1 its correct =m may be del9eat$1 & ! declivity ( its surface accurately %[n4 ,! relative declivity ( any portion ( its surface is indicat$ by ! diff]5ce 9 ! horizontal di/ance ( ! curves ap>t2 & by con/ruct+ a triangle ^u a normal to ! upp] curve 9 ! mann] already describ$ = ! cone1 ! absolute slope at any po9t betwe5 any two curves may be readily det]m9$4 ,! gr\nd is suppos$ to slope uni=mly f "o curve or cont\r l9e to ! next4 ,su*1 h[ev]1 is r>ely ! case2 b provid$ ! curves are tak5 at frequ5t int]vals1 ! error is ( no practical importance4 ,holl[s are repres5t$ 9 ! same way2 & :e!r ! repres5tation is t ( a hill or a holl[1 is kn[n f ! o!r p>ts ( ! map4 ,?us1 if ,fig4 #ei repres5t a hill1 ! v]tical projection w be z %[n 9 ,fig4 #fj2 b if x d5ote a holl[1 ! out] curve mu/ be project$ highe/1 & ! v]tical section w be ,fig4 #fj inv]t$4 ,9 practice ! cont\r l9es are numb]$1 ! numb] ( any cont\r indicat+ its height above a plane ( ref]5ce call$ a datum plane4 ,! v]tical di/ance ( ! cont\r l9es ap>t v>ies ) ! "* ( ! gr\nd & ! object ( ! survey2 b x is seldom less ?an #be feet4 ,! l9es are obta9$ by ! surveyor by fix+ a numb] ( po9ts on ! same level by means ( in/rum5ts4 ,,section ,,iv4--,,col\rs4 ,! prec$+ ,section treats exclusively ( repres5tation by l9es & dots1 or t mode ( del9eat+ objects & natural features kn[n z l9e or p5 draw+4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 ano!r mode ( repres5tation by means ( col\rs t is fa/ com+ into g5]al use4 ,?is latt] mode is f> m expressive ?an ! =m]1 &1 besides af=d+ a wid] scope = arti/ic effect1 %[s ) great] di/9ctness & precision ! "* ( ! object repres5t$4 ,= ^! reasons x is almo/ always adopt$ = plans ( e/ates & geological sections1 & also v frequ5tly = o!r k9ds ( topographical z well z = eng9e]+ & me*anical draw+s4 ,! col\rs us$ = ?is purpose are n appli$ 9 ! way ! arti/ applies !m2 b !y are laid on 9 ?9 wa%es to produce a fa9t t9t r ?an a body ( col\r4 ,! process is call$ t9t+ or flat-wa%+1 & ?\gh x _c be describ$ z a "w ( art1 consid]able practice & skill are requisite to execute x prop]ly4 ,flat-t9ts4--,a draw+ to be col\r$ mu/ be previ\sly /ret*$ & gumm$ to ! bo>d1 9 ! mann] describ$ 9 ,section ,i4 ,unless ! pap] be prep>$ 9 ?is way1 x w rema9 bli/]$ aft] be+ wett$ by ! lay+ on ( ! t9ts4 ,! l9es ( ! draw+ mu/ be v f9e1 & ! ink1 ?\gh black1 %\ld n be ?ick4 ,great c>e %\ld be ex]cis$ 9 draw+ 9 ! outl9es1 t !re be always a piece ( clean pap] betwe5 ! h& & ! draw+1 = ! lea/ degree ( greas9ess w prev5t ! col\rs f work+ freely4 ,%\ld ! surface ( ! pap]1 h[ev]1 f inatt5tion to ?is matt]1 or f accid5t1 become slightly greasy1 ! defect may be p>tially rem$i$ by add+ a little prep>$ ox-gall to ! wat] ) :i* ! col\rs are mix$4 ,:5 all ! outl9es h be5 drawn 9 & ! p5cil l9es eras$1 ! draw+ is prep>$ = ! col\r+ by be+ wa%$4 ,! wa%+ is effect$ by pass+ a s(t sponge well saturat$ ) clean wat] g5tly & rapidly ov] ! surface4 ,! purpose ( ?is wa%+ is tw(old2 fir/1 to remove ^? portions ( ! ink :i* a wet bru% w\ld deta* f ! pap] 9 lay+ on ! col\rs1 & :i*1 by becom+ mix$ ) ! t9t1 w\ld injure its purity2 & second1 to damp ! surface ( ! pap] 9 ord] to prev5t ! col\r f dry+ too rapidly4 ,! latt] is an important matt]1 = if ! t9t :i* is be+ appli$ dries quickly1 x is impossible to unite ! edges prop]ly1 & ! t9t1 especially if ! surface be l>ge1 w h a cl\dy & blot*y appe>ance4 ,z ! op]ation ( wa%+ r5d]s ! pap] too wet to imm$iately receive ! col\r1 x mu/ be all[$ to rema9 9 a p]fectly horizontal position = a %ort "t to dry1 & dur+ ?is "t any t5d5cy to dry unequally mu/ be correct$ by means ( blott+-pap]4 ,:ile ! pap] is dry+1 ! t9ts may be prep>$4 ,to ensure satisfactory results1 c>e mu/ be tak5 9 ! prep>ation & pres]vation ( ! t9ts4 ,!y %\ld nev] be made by artificial light1 & a suffici5t quantity %\ld be made at fir/ to cov] all ! portions requir$1 z x is v difficult to mat* a t9t exactly4 ,:5 a draw+ is sev]al days 9 h&1 x is be/ to prep>e a fre% t9t = e coat1 = ! col\rs w *ange 9 ! c\rse ( a day or two1 ev5 if protect$ f ! light4 ,a few drops ( wat] %\ld be add$ n[ & !n1 to make up = ! loss by evaporation1 especially 9 w>m wea!r4 ,t9ts left to dry ^u ! palette %\ld nev] be wet up aga9 = use1 b !y %\ld be wa%$ clean out & a fre% t9t made2 if ?is precaution be n att5d$ to1 ! col\r w n be pure4 ,:5 a t9t is to be mix$1 ! end ( ! cake ( col\r %\ld be moi/5$ & all[$ to s(t5 = a m9ute or two1 z ?is w cause x to rub smoo? & free f fragm5ts4 ,! palette %\ld !n be moi/5$ & ! end ( ! cake rubb$ g5tly & ev5ly ^u x till a suffici5t quantity ( col\r has be5 obta9$1 :i* may be add$ to ! requisite quantity ( wat] by means ( a bru%4 ,a precaution necess>y to be obs]v$ is nev] to rub "o col\r d[n ^u ano!r1 z x w probably be laid aside to dry ) ! o!r col\r on x4 ,! bru% us$ %\ld be z l>ge z ! nature ( ! "w w all[1 & x %\ld be ( ! be/ sable hair2 ! quality is judg$ by ! l5g? ( ! hair1 ! longe/ & /iffe/ be+ ! be/4 ,draughtsm5 frequ5tly d all _! "w ) a c\ple ( sable bru%es atta*$ to "o hold]1 "o be+ = col\r & ! o!r = wat]2 9 ?is case ! bru%es %\ld be ( diff]5t col\rs to prev5t mi/akes4 ,! art ( lay+ on a flat-t9t consi/s 9 all[+ ! col\r$ wat] to fl[ equally ov] ! pap]1 :i* ?us becomes uni=mly t+$4 ,to facilitate ?is1 ! surface ( ! draw+ %\ld be incl9$ t[>ds ! draughtsman at an angle ( ab\t five degrees dur+ ! process ( lay+ on ! col\r4 ,hav+ tak5 z mu* col\r on ! bru% z x w safely c>ry )\t dropp+1 ! op]ation ( apply+ x %\ld be begun 9 ! upp] left-h& corn]1 ! bru% be+ c>ri$ along t[>ds ! "r1 s z to make ! col\r lie neatly along ! upp] outl9e4 ,! bru% %\ld !n be /ruck unhesitat+ly f "r to left & f left to "r alt]nately1 s z to br+ ! col\r d[n 9 horizontal b&s or /ripes1 tak+ c>e n to pass ! bru% a second "t ov] ! same surface dur+ ! same wa%1 & to control x neatly )9 ! prop] limits4 ,if ! surface ( ! pap] be 9 ?is way kept well wett$ ) ! col\r1 or if1 9 o!r words1 a fl[ ( col\r be kept 9 motion ) ! po9t ( ! bru%1 ! t9t c be c>ri$ on ) p]fect cont9uity4 ,x is important to keep z ne>ly z possible ! same quantity ( col\r 9 ! bru% until ! l[] outl9e is ne>ly rea*$1 :5 ! quantity mu/ be dim9i%$ s z to f9i% at ! l[] outl9e )\t a great excess ( t9t1 = ! excess mu/ be tak5 up by a damp bru%4 ,no accumulations %\ld be all[$ to take place any:]e1 z on dry+1 ^! places w\ld %[ a d>k] t9t4 ,:5 ! col\r has once fl[$ ov] ! surface1 ! t9t is f9i%$1 & mu/ n1 z we h said1 be t\*$ a second "t1 = any attempt to rem$y defects :ile ! col\r is dry+ w only make !m worse4 ,g5]ally x w be f\nd t ! m quickly a t9t is laid on1 ! bett] is its appe>ance4 ,a little practice w enable ! /ud5t to lay on a wa% 9 ! prop] mann]1 b to keep )9 ! outl9es is a matt] ( great] difficulty & "o t requires "s dext]ity 9 ! h&l+ ( ! bru%4 ,if ! b\nd>y %\ld be exce$$1 a f+] ( ! left h& %\ld be in/antly appli$ to bru% ! col\r back4 ,?\gh ! =ego+ directions c be foll[$ /rictly only on l>ge surfaces1 ! pr9ciples involv$ 9 !m mu/ 9 e case be obs]v$4 ,! alt]nate or d\ble t9t consi/s ( two col\rs appli$ alt]nately1 _! edges be+ made to bl5d into ea* o!r4 ,! application ( ! d\ble t9t involves no p>ticul> difficulty4 ,hav+ prep>$ two t9ts ( equal int5sity & provid$ a bru% = ea*1 lay on "o ( ! col\rs at ! upp] outl9e ( ! figure1 & be=e ?is dries1 take ! bru% *>g$ ) ! o!r col\r1 & run r\nd its edge1 all[+ !m to bl5d toge!r4 ,repeat ! fir/ t9t 9 ! same mann]1 & cont9ue ! t9ts alt]nately till ! surface is cov]$4 ,! =ms ( ! masses ( ea* col\r %\ld be v>i$1 & n made 9 /ripes or spots1 b irregul>ly cl\d$4 ,all flat-t9ts %\ld be made v light1 & int5sity ( col\r %\ld be produc$ by repeat+ ! wa%4 ,z e surface looks bett] ) two wa%es ?an ) only "o1 ! /r5g? ( ! t9t %\ld be su* z to all[ two coats to be laid ov] ! lighte/ p>ts4 ,if ! col\rs h be5 laid on too d>k1 or ! g5]al effect be unev5 & disagreeable1 ! defect may be rem$i$ by spong+4 ,?is op]ation %\ld be p]=m$ ) a close-gra9$ #f-;in* sponge1 & be comm5c$ at ! upp] end ( ! incl9$ bo>d4 ,a bas9 ( clean wat] hav+ be5 provid$1 & an empty bas9 to receive ! dirty wat] f ! sponge1 fir/ moi/5 all ! :ite surface ( ! pap] to prev5t ! t9t tak5 (f by ! sponge f adh]+ to x2 !n1 hav+ fill$ ! sponge ) wat]1 pass x g5tly to & fro across ! %eet4 ,press out ! dirty wat] into ! bas91 refill ! sponge1 & repeat ! op]ation until h>dly any t9t comes (f4 ,spong+ aft] five or six coats h be5 laid on g5]ally improves ! appe>ance ( a draw+2 x s(t5s d[n asp]ities1 & makes ! t9ts bl5d into ea* o!r2 ! surface ( ! pap] also takes ! t9ts m readily aft] spong+4 ,small defects may frequ5tly be rem$i$ by a process call$ /ippl+4 ,?is consi/s 9 mak+ a numb] ( dots ) ! po9t ( a bru% conta9+ an almo/ imp]ceptible quantity ( col\r4 ,! process1 ?\gh a t$i\s "o1 produces a v beautiful effect1 simil> to t ( dott$ engrav+s4 ,excesses beyond ! b\nd>y l9es may be wa%$ out ) ! wat]-bru%1 & ! /a9s remov$ by a piece ( clean blott+-pap]4 ,:ite spots left 9 a t9t may be fill$ up1 aft] ! t9t is dry1 ) ! po9t ( ! bru%2 b c>e mu/ be tak5 n to t\* beyond ! edges ( ! t9t1 z t w\ld d\ble ! int5sity at ! edges & produce a r+4 ,all flat surfaces 9 a draw+ %\ld be light] or d>k]1 9 accordance ) _! di/ance f ! eye4 ,9 lay+ on flat-t9ts :5 ! surface is n 9 %ade1 x mu/ be borne 9 m9d 7#a7 t all surfaces :i* are p>allel to ! plane ( ! picture1 & !re=e equally di/ant f ! eye1 %\ld receive a t9t ( uni=m int5sity2 7#b7 t ^? surfaces :i* are f>!/ f ! eye %\ld receive ! d>ke/ t9t2 & 7#c7 t surfaces :i* are incl9$ to ! plane ( ! draw+ %\ld receive a t9t ( v>y+ int5sity1 ! dep? ( ! t9t increas+ z ! surface rec$es f ! eye4 ,:5 ! surfaces are 9 %ade1 ! conv]se ( ^! rules holds good4 ,conv5tional ,col\rs4--,9 repres5t+ objects by means ( col\rs1 ! natural col\rs ( ! objects are 9 "s cases adh]$ to2 & 9 o!rs1 = ! sake ( great] di/9ctness1 a conv5tional col\r is adopt$4 ,9 eng9e]+1 ar*itectural1 & me*anical draw+s1 ! latt] mode is ne>ly always resort$ to1 :ile 9 plans ( e/ates ! =m] is v frequ5tly employ$4 ,un=tunately1 practice is n uni=m among draughtsm5 9 ! conv5tional use ( col\rs2 b ! foll[+ ,table %[s ! col\rs mo/ly employ$1 & repres5ts ! g5]al practice4 ,c>m9e or crimson lake ,= brickwork 9 plan or section to be execut$4 ,prussian blue ,fl9twork1 lead1 or p>ts ( brickwork to be remov$ by alt]ations4 ,v5etian r$ ,brickwork 9 elevation4 ,violet c>m9e ,granite4 ,raw si5na ,engli% timb]1 n oak4 ,burnt si5na ,oak1 teak4 ,indian yell[ ,fir timb]4 ,indian r$ ,mahogany4 ,sepia ,concrete works1 /one4 ,burnt umb] ,clay1 e>?4 ,payne's grey ,ca/ iron1 r\gh wr\ght iron4 ,d>k cadmium or orange ,gun metal4 ,gamboge ,brass4 ,indigo ,wr\ght iron--bright4 ,indigo1 ) a little lake ,/eel--bright4 ,hook]'s gre5 ,mead[ l&4 ,cobalt blue ,sky effects4 ,& "s few o!rs occasionally = special purpose4 ,sections are repres5t$ ei!r by l9es ( ! col\r drawn ) ! p5 or ! po9t ( ! bru%1 or by a d>k] %ade ( ! col\r4 ,9 me*anical draw+s1 sections are frequ5tly %[n by ink l9es drawn ov] ! col\r4 ,9 plans & maps1 z we h said1 "s attempt is made to give ! true appe>ance ( ?+s4 ,z ?is--:i* may be call$ ! natural mode ( repres5tation--all[s m scope = arti/ic skill ?an ! conv5tional1 a great deal mu/ be left to ! judgm5t & ! ta/e ( ! draughtsman4 ,b !re are g5]al pr9ciples & features t may be laid d[n & describ$1 & su* are ! foll[+3-- ,wat]4--,= wat]1 a flat-t9t ( pure indigo is us$4 ,to produce ! cle>1 transp>5t effect ( wat]1 !re %\ld be two coats ( ! t9t1 :i*1 to all[ ( ?is1 mu/ be v light col\r$4 ,grass-l&4--,= grass or cle>$ l&1 a flat-t9t ( gre5 is employ$4 ,?is t9t is compos$ ( indigo & gamboge1 & %\ld be ( a lively hue1 :i* may be produc$ by giv+ pr$om9ance to ! gamboge4 ,c>e mu/ always be tak5 9 prep>+ gre5s = maps & plans1 t ! blue be kept subord9ate to ! yell[2 = a pr$om9ance ( ! =m] col\r produces a cold quality1 :i* is utt]ly de/ructive ( t natural appe>ance x is int5d$ to give4 ,! int5sity ( ! t9t = ?is & = o!r purposes %\ld be su* z to di/+ui% x cle>ly f o!rs1 & to all[ some:at = fad+1 )\t mask+ any ( ! details ( ! draw+2 & x mu/ be cle> & transp>5t4 ,we may "h rem>k t all t9ts :i* are mu* ext5d$ %\ld be balanc$1 t is1 no "o %\ld obtrude itself ^u ! eye by its relatively too great int5sity4 ,m>%4--,m>% & swamp are repres5t$1 z 9 l9e draw+1 by a comb9ation ( ! signs = wat] & grass-l&4 ,! t9ts are laid on horizontally1 t is1 p>allel to ! base ( ! draw+4 ,!y are n1 h[ev]1 laid on 9 b&s or /rips across ! draw+1 b are made to project 9 irregul> po9ts f ea* side1 ) "h & !re a long & n>r[ pat* to repres5t an isl&4 ,! l& %\ld cov] a l>g] portion ( ! space ?an ! wat]1 & x %\ld be wa%$ 9 fir/1 c>e be+ tak5 to make ! :ite spaces left = ! blue col\r resemble ! gre5 9 =m1 :i* spaces %\ld project _! horizontal po9ts into ! gre5 z ! latt] projects its po9ts into ! :ite4 ,! out] limits ( a m>% %\ld consi/ ( an outl9e ( project+ gre5 po9ts4 ,! l& portion ( ! m>% is f9i%$ by draw+ a light %ad+ l9e ( indigo & burnt si5na along ! l[] edge ( ! gre54 ,?is l9e mu/ be drawn ^u ! edge & n aga9/ x ^u ! :ite space4 ,9 wa%+ 9 ! wat]1 c>e mu/ be tak5 n to ov]lay ! edges ( ! gre54 ,a good effect is produc$ by introduc+ a tree "h & !re ^u ! l&4 ,s& & ,gravel4--,s& is %[n by a flat-t9t ( yell[ o*re4 ,s& & gravel are repres5t$ by dott+ ! flat-t9t ) burnt si5na by means ( ! po9t ( ! bru% held 9 a v]tical position4 ,/ones & rocks 9 s& %\ld be fir/ outl9$ ) ! p5 9 burnt si5na & sepia 9 equal proportions1 & aft]w>ds fill$ 9 ) ! bru% ) ! same col\r4 ,mud4--,9 ! survey ( riv]s1 creeks1 & coa/s1 x frequ5tly becomes necess>y to %[ tracts ( mud betwe5 ! l9es ( high & l[ wat]4 ,= ?is purpose a flat-wa% ( sepia or ,indian ink may be us$ dott$ ) ,indian ink ( great] int5sity4 ,! dots 9 ?is case mu/ be v m9ute & ?9ly plac$1 & !y %\ld be ev5ly di/ribut$4 ,a f9e-po9t$ p5 w be f\nd m effective 9 putt+ 9 ^! dots ?an ! po9t ( ! bru%4 ,woodl&4--,to repres5t woodl&1 a flat-t9t ( gre5 is fir/ laid ov] ! gr\nd1 z = grass-l&4 ,! gr\ps & masses ( trees are next drawn 9 outl9e1 9 ! mann] describ$ 9 ! la/ ,section1 ) a h>d & %>p lead p5cil1 or ) a p5 & pale ink4 ,to fill 9 ^! outl9es1 a col\r made up ( indigo & gamboge 9 ! same proportions z ! gr\nd t9t1 b ( great] int5sity1 is laid on ! l[] & "r-h& portion ( ea* tree & mass ( foliage1 s z to occupy ab\t two-?irds ( ! figure4 ,! rema9+ portion1 :i* w be ! side t[>ds ! light1 is !n t\*$ ) an orange t9t compos$ ( gamboge & burnt si5na4 ,x only rema9s to add ! %ad[4 ,z ! light is suppos$ to ent] ! draw+ 9 p>allel rays f ! upp] left-h& corn]1 ! %ad[ ( e object w surr\nd its l[] & "r-h& outl9es4 ,x is laid close up to ! outl9e 9 masses ( foliage2 b = s+le trees1 z 9 or*>ds1 x is deta*$4 ,! =m ( ! %ad[ 0 describ$ 9 ! la/ ,section4 ,to produce ! %ad[1 ! same t9t is us$ z = ! gr\nd1 two or ?ree successive applications be+ suffici5t to increase ! int5sity to ! requisite degree2 or a neutral t9t may be us$1 compos$ ( indigo1 burnt si5na1 & a little lake4 ,aft] ! %ad[ has be5 put 91 ! outl9es on t side %\ld be /r5g!n$ by go+ ov] !m aga9 ) ! p54 ,by draw+ ! trees 9 elevation1 an opportunity is af=d$ = ! display ( arti/ic skill f> great] ?an ! =ego+ me?od admits (4 ,:5 drawn 9 ?is way1 ! "w p>takes some:at ( ! nature ( l&scape pa9t+4 ,cultivat$ ,l&4--,cultivat$ l& is repres5t$ by a flat-t9t ( burnt si5na4 ,uncultivat$ ,l&4--,uncultivat$ l& or bru%wood is repres5t$ by a d\ble t9t ( gre51 z = grass-l&1 & burnt si5na1 z = cultivat$ l&1 laid on 9 ! mann] already describ$ = ! d\ble t9t4 ,z ?is is ! only d\ble t9t us$1 x may be made1 if ?\ght desirable1 ) alt]nate gre5 & crimson lake4 ,build+s4--,build+s1 includ+ all /ructures ( masonry1 z bridges1 locks1 walls1 & su* l1 are col\r$ ) crimson lake1 & %ad[$ ) a neutral t9t compos$ ( indigo1 burnt si5na1 & a little lake1 z giv5 above = =e/ l&4 ,roads & ,/reets4--,roads & /reets1 & g5]ally all ^? portions ( a draw+ n p>ticul>ly describ$1 are t9t$ ) yell[ o*re4 ,f5ces4--,h$ges are repres5t$ by gre5 dots1 v>i$ 9 size = bu%es2 /one or brick walls1 by a l9e rul$ 9 r$2 & wood5 f5ces by l9es ( neutral t9t1 ei!r rul$ or drawn 9 by h&1 accord+ z ! l9e is to be /raight or o!rwise4 ,9 e case ! %ad[ mu/ be put 94 ,9 det]m9+ ! int5sity ( ! v>i\s t9ts employ$ on a topographical draw+1 c>e mu/ be tak5 t ev]y?+ be 89 keep+40 ,a c>d9al rule ( art is t no?+ %all unduly obtrude itself2 & 9 a col\r$ plan1 spott9ess1 z x is call$1 %\ld be /udi\sly avoid$4 ,=e/1 bru%wood1 & cultivat$ l&1 %\ld be repres5t$ by t9ts ( ab\t equal int5sity1 & ! same equality may be obs]v$ = grass-l&1 m>%1 wat]1 & s&1 b ! int5sity %\ld be less ?an 9 ! =m] case4 ,t9ts t are ( small ext5t may be a little exagg]at$ 9 int5sity = ! purpose ( giv+ !m great] di/9ctness1 especially :5 ! object repres5t$ is a build+4 ,g>d5s & or*>ds require a little exagg]ation 9 dep? ( t9t1 to di/+ui% !m f ! surr\nd+ c\ntry2 b c>e mu/ be tak5 n to make ! di/9ction too m>k$4 ,x w g5]ally be f\nd conducive to a ma9t5ance ( 8keep+10 to lay ! lighte/ t9ts on fir/4 ,,section ,v4--,,%ad+4 ,9 me*anical & ar*itectural draw+s1 %ade l9es mu/ be consid]$ r z embelli%m5ts ?an con/itu5t p>ts ( ! draw+4 ,!y are1 h[ev]1 frequ5tly employ$2 & z _! incorrect use may deceive ! eye ) respect to ! int5tion ( ! design]1 x becomes an important matt] to "k :5 to apply !m ) propriety4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fa4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fb4 ,application ( ,%ade ,l9es4--,z we h already expla9$1 ! light is suppos$ to fall ^u ! objects 9 a draw+ 9 p>allel rays f ! upp] left-h& corn] = elevations1 & f ! l[] left-h& corn] = plans4 ,to det]m9e :e!r or n a giv5 l9e %\ld be a %ade l9e1 we h only to asc]ta9 :e!r or n ! light1 introduc$ 9 su* a mann]1 falls ^u t edge ( ! object :i* ! l9e repres5ts4 ,all ^? p>ts ( a body ^u :i* ! rays ( light fall directly1 are said to be 9 light2 all ^? p>ts ^u :i* ! rays ( light d n fall directly1 are said to be 9 %ade2 & ^? p>ts ( a surface :i* are depriv$ ( light by ano!r body int]cept+ ! rays1 are said to be 9 %ad[4 ,^! def9itions %\ld be borne 9 m9d4 ,l9es repres5t+ ! b\nd>ies ( surfaces 9 light %\ld be f9e l9es1 & l9es repres5t+ ! b\nd>ies ( surfaces 9 %ade %\ld be ?ick or %ade l9es4 ,let x be requir$1 = example1 to det]m9e ! %ade l9es ( ! cube %[n 9 elevation 9 ,fig4 #fa4 ,! extreme rays ( light fall+ ^u ! cube meet ! edges 9 b & c2 h5ce ! surfaces a b1 a c1 are 9 light1 & ! surfaces d b1 d c1 are 9 %ade4 ,! =ego+ rule w ?us make a b & a c f9e l9es1 & d b & d c %ade l9es4 ,if ! cube 7 turn$ s t a b %\ld be at "r angles to ! rays ( light1 ! extreme rays w\ld fall on ! edges a & b1 & ! middle ray :i* n[ falls on a w\ld fall on ! middle ( ! l9e a b4 ,! rays imm$iately beyond ^? :i* are arre/$ by ! edges a & b1 may be consid]$ to pass along 9 contact ) ! surfaces a c & b d2 & ^! surfaces mu/1 !re=e1 be reg>d$ z 9 light4 ,?us we %all h 9 ?is case ! l9es a b1 a c1 & b d1 f9e l9es1 & ! l9e c d a %ade l9e4 ,x is ! practice ( "s draughtsm5 to make a c & b d 9 su* cases a m$ium l9e1 & ! practice has propriety to recomm5d x4 ,! =ego+ explanations ( ! %ade l9es 9 ! elevation ( ! cube1 r5d] any fur!r rem>ks conc]n+ ^? 9 ! plan1 ,fig4 #fb1 unnecess>y4 ,9 practice1 :e!r or n a surface is 9 light may be det]m9$ by plac+ ! set squ>e ( #de aga9/ x4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fc4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fd4 ,! same pr9ciples are obs]v$ 9 ! end elevation ( ! holl[ cyl9d]1 %[n 9 ,fig4 #fc4 ,! extreme rays meet ! circumf]5ce 9 ! po9ts a & b2 consequ5tly ! surface a c b is 9 light1 & ! surface a d b is 9 %ade4 ,! middle ray meets ! surface p]p5dicul>ly at ! po9t c1 :i* w be ! lighte/ "p ( t surface2 simil>ly1 d w be ! d>ke/ "p4 ,to %[ ?is1 ! %ade l9e mu/ be gradually increas$ 9 ?ickness t[>ds ! po9t d4 ,! %ad+ ( ! inn] circle w be ! conv]se ( ! out]4 ,fig4 #fd %[s a plan ( ! same object4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fe4 ,cyl9drical ,surfaces4--,let a b c d1 ,fig4 #fe1 be a plan1 & k l n m an elevation ( a cyl9d]4 ,! portion a c b is 9 light1 & ! portion a d b is 9 %ade1 ( :i* latt] portion a & b are ! edges4 ,f ! po9ts a & c draw v]tical l9es e f1 g h4 ,!n w e f be t "p ( ! cyl9d] ^u :i* ! light falls p]p5dicul>ly1 or ! lighte/ "p1 & g h ! edge ( ! surface 9 %ade1 or t portion ( ! surface ( ! cyl9d] t w\ld ca/ a %ad[ ^u ! plane ( projection4 ,h5ce ?is w be ! d>ke/ "p1 & consequ5tly x is obvi\sly improp] to make ! l9e k l a %ade l9e4 ,?is demon/ration1 :i* is giv5 by ,b9ns1 %[s t %ade l9es mu/ nev] be appli$ to cyl9drical surfaces4 ,if ?is pr9ciple be obs]v$1 cyl9drical may be readily di/+ui%$ f flat surfaces4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ff4 ,%ad+ ,l9es4--,%ade l9es are appli$ only to ! edges or b\nd>ies ( surfaces2 :5 l9es are put ^u a surface to %[ ! effects ( light & %ade1 !y are call$ %ad+ l9es4 ,! use ( ! latt] is det]m9$ by ! same pr9ciples z t ( ! =m]2 inde$1 a %ade l9e may be practically consid]$ z an end view ( a numb] ( %ad+ l9es4 ,9 ,fig4 #ff1 :i* is an elevation ( a hexagon1 ! surface c is 9 %ade1 & to repres5t ?is surface correctly1 x mu/ be made d>k] ?an ! o!rs4 ,?is d>k5+ ( ! surface is effect$ by draw+ ! %ad+ l9es heavi] or clos] toge!r1 or by bo? ( ^! means comb9$4 ,! surface b is 9 light1 b ! rays fall ^u x obliquely2 ! %ad+ l9es on ?is surface w !re=e be light] & m widely spac$ ?an on c4 ,! surface a is also 9 light1 & receives ! rays normally1 t is1 ! direction ( ! rays is normal to ! surface4 ,h5ce ?is surface w reflect mo/1 or1 9 o!r words1 w be ! lighte/4 ,?is is %[n by mak+ ! %ad+ l9es /ill light]1 & spac+ !m /ill m widely ?an ^? on b4 ,! greate/ c>e is ne$$ 9 apply+ %ad+ l9es to keep _! ?ickness & ! spac+ regul>1 z an error 9 ^! respects w frequ5tly produce an effect q oppos$ to :at is int5d$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fg4 ,%ad+ ,l9es on ,cyl9drical ,surfaces4--,if ! demon/ration previ\sly giv5 conc]n+ %ade l9es on cyl9drical surfaces be und]/ood1 ! application ( %ad+ l9es to ^! surfaces w pres5t no difficulty4 ,! d>ke/ & ! lighte/ "p ( ! cyl9d] hav+ be5 det]m9$1 & 9 practice ?is c be accompli%$ ) suffici5t exactness by ! eye1 ! %ad+ l9es are appli$ accord+ to ! pr9ciples expla9$ above ) respect to ! hexagon4 ,! fir/ %ad+ l9e is drawn ^u ! d>ke/ "p2 & ea* successive l9e on ea* side ( ?is fir/ l9e is drawn light] & spac$ m widely ?an ! prec$+4 ,at ! lighte/ "p1 a cle> space is left to repres5t ! reflexion ( ! rays t occurs /rongly !re1 & beyond ?is "p ! %ad+ is made equal to t ( ! correspond+ "p on ! o!r side4 ,! ?ick5+ ( ! l9es is effect$ by go+ ov] !m a suffici5t numb] ( times4 ,fig4 #fg %[s a v]tical & a horizontal cyl9d] %ad$ 9 ?is mann]4 ,9 outl9e draw+s ( ma*9]y1 ?is mode ( %ad+ ) p>allel l9es is frequ5tly resort$ to4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fh4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fi4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gj4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ga4 ,x w be evid5t1 on reflection1 t :5 ! cyl9drical body /&s p>allel ) ! direction ( ! rays ( light1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #fh1 ! lighte/ "p w be 9 ! middle1 & ! %ade w increase 9 int5sity z x approa*es ! edges4 ,! %ad+ ( ! int]ior ( a cyl9d] is1 z we h already rem>k$ :5 treat+ ( %ade l9es1 ! conv]se ( t ( ! ext]ior4 ,?is is %[n 9 ! sectional elevation1 ,fig4 #fi4 ,:5 p>allel ) ! direction ( ! rays ( light1 z 9 ,fig4 #gj1 ! int]nal %ad+ is ! same z ! ext]nal4 ,on bright circul> surfaces1 su* z t ( a circul> saw1 or ! poli%$ end ( a %aft1 ! light is radiat$ f ! c5tre1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #ga4 ,?is mode ( %ad+ is /rictly 9 accordance ) ! appe>ance pres5t$ by su* surfaces4 ,x may be rem>k$ "h1 t if1 ?r\gh inadv]t5ce1 any "p %\ld be made too d>k1 ! error may be correct$ by d>k5+ all ! o!r p>ts 9 a correspond+ degree4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gb4 ,%ad+ ,l9es 9 ,topographical ,draw+s4--,! %ad+ l9es put ^u me*anical draw+s are m]ely accessories us$ = purposes ( embelli%m5t4 ,b 9 topographical draw+s1 %ad+ l9es are appli$ to give expression1 & !y con/itute an ess5tial elem5t 9 ! repres5tation4 ,we h %[n h[ undulations ( ! gr\nd1 con/itut+ hill & valley1 are repres5t$ by cont\r l9es4 ,b x is obvi\s t ^! l9es furni% in=mation respect+ ! "* ( ! surface only at ^? po9ts ?r\gh :i* !y pass4 ,?us we are necess>ily left 9 ignorance ( ! irregul>ities exi/+ betwe5 any two successive cont\rs4 ,to supply ?is in=mation :i* ! cont\rs fail to give1 %ad+ is resort$ to4 ,ano!r important object ( hill %ad+ is to repres5t ! surface ( ! gr\nd conv5tionally 9 a mann] t w imm$iately af=d an idea ( its "* )\t ! aid ( regul> cont\rs4 ,! me?od adopt$ consi/s 9 employ+ l9es v>y+ 9 _! ?ickness & 9 _! int]vals ap>t accord+ to ! slope ( ! gr\nd to be repres5t$4 ,?is me?od is bas$ ^u ! pr9ciple ( ! horizontal cont\rs1 :i* is to give to ! same v]tical int]val ! same absolute am\nt ( %ade1 :atev] ! incl9ation ( ! gr\nd may be4 ,! %ad+ l9es are us$1 z we h said1 to fill 9 ! features ( ! gr\nd betwe5 cont\rs already fix$2 & to ensure accuracy & uni=mity 9 ! repres5tation1 a 8scale ( %ade0 is employ$4 ,! accompany+ ,fig4 #gb %[s ! /&>d scale ( %ade adopt$ by ! ,c\ncil ( ,milit>y ,education1 & made use ( = all ! ,gov]nm5t surveys4 ,! second & ! fif? columns ( ?is scale %[ ! spac+ ( ! ha*ures & _! ?ickness = diff]5t angles ( slope1 :ile ! fir/ & ! la/ columns %[ ! numb] ( ha*ures to be int]polat$ betwe5 cont\rs at e #be feet v]tical int]vals1 suppos+ ! slope to be uni=m4 ,! slope is d5ot$ bo? by ! numb] ( degrees 9 ! angle x makes ) ! horizontal1 & by a fraction %[+ ! ratio ( ! v]tical height to ! base 9 a "r-angl$ triangle1 ! hypo!nuse ( :i* is ! slope 9 "q4 ,! scale ( %ade is con/ruct$ = a horizontal scale ( six in*es to ! mile1 & ! am\nt ( %ade has be5 *os5 ) a view ( produc+ ! be/ possible arti/ic effect4 ,( c\rse1 ! mo/ satisfactory results1 bo? arti/ically & practically1 w be obta9$ :5 ! gr\nd is del9eat$ to ?is scale1 b x c be readily appli$ to any o!r scale4 ,= example1 ! horizontal int]val = a slope ( 1 correspond+ to a v]tical int]val ( #be feet1 w be #bj #be #ejj feet1 :i*1 on a scale ( six in*es to a mile1 w be repres5t$ by a l5g? equal to #f #jeff in*es4 ,9 ?is case1 !re=e1 suppos+ ! slope ( ! gr\nd to be uni=m betwe5 two giv5 cont\rs #be feet ap>t1 we %\ld repres5t x by means ( ! ha*ures %[n opposite a slope ( 1 cont9u$ ov] a space ( #jeff in*4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gc4 ,9 topographical draw+s1 ! light is suppos$ to fall v]tically ^u ! surface2 h5ce a level surface w reflect all ! light t falls ^u x1 :ile "o ( #de w n reflect any4 ,! draw+ ( ! ha*ures pres5ts c]ta9 difficulties ( execution t c be ov]come only by cont9u$ practice & c>eful att5tion to ! modes ( proce$+ :i* exp]i5ce has prov$ to be ! mo/ effectual4 ,?us an important rule is always to draw 8f left to "r & d[nw>ds40 ,to all[ ?is to be done1 ! draw+ mu/ be plac$ ) ! summit ( ! hill to ! left h&1 & be turn$ r\nd z ! "w progresses4 ,! ha*ures %\ld always be comm5c$ at ! cre/ ( ! hill1 work+ outw>ds t[>ds ! foot ( ! slope4 ,!y %\ld be drawn firmly1 & ( a l5g? v>y+ f in* to in*1 accord+ to ! wid? ( ! zone1 t is1 accord+ to ! great] or less degree ( ! slope1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #gc1 at a1 b1 c1 d4 ,:5 ! hill is /eep1 ! l9es are made %ort & ?ick1 & :5 ! declivity is less1 !y are made long] & light]1 becom+ f9e & clean z ! level is approximat$ to4 ,a difficulty ) beg9n]s is to press ^u ! p5 equally f ! beg9n+ to ! end ( ! /roke1 ! t5d5cy be+ to press m heavily t[>ds ! end1 ?us produc+ a :ip-l appe>ance q oppos$ to arti/ic effect1 & convey+ a false impression ( ! "* ( ! gr\nd4 ,a good effect is produc$ by imp>t+ a slightly tremul\s motion to ! p5 :5 draw+ ! ha*ures4 ,! =m ( ! hill be+ accurately def9$ by ! p5cil cont\r l9es1 x is n necess>y t ! accessory curves =m$ by ! %ad+ l9es %\ld be rigor\sly cont9u\s1 & inde$ a mu* bett] effect1 arti/ically1 is ga9$ by avoid+ su* a mann] ( draw+ !m4 ,! v>i\s sets ( l9es mu/ be plac$ toge!r1 end to end1 9 su* a way t ! gr\ps or sets %all n be sep>at$ by a vacant space1 nor ov]lap ea* o!r4 ,c>e mu/ be tak5 t ! junctions ( sets 9 two contigu\s zones d n =m a cont9u\s l9e f "o zone to ! o!r1 b ev]y:]e 8break jo9t40 ,ea* zone mu/ be fill$ 9 be=e ! next l[] "o is comm5c$1 ! draw+ be+ turn$ z ! "w progresses to all[ ! rule enunciat$ above ( 8f left to "r & d[nw>ds0 to be compli$ )4 ,! di/ance betwe5 ! %ad+ l9es mu/ be increas$ or dim9i%$ accord+ z ! wid? ( ! zone v>ies1 s z to divide ! space equally2 & on rea*+ ! "p :]e ! l9es 7 begun1 ! ends mu/ be br\ght neatly toge!r4 ,z ?is c be mo/ satisfactorily accompli%$ :]e ! l9es come close toge!r1 x is be/ to beg9 at ! /eepe/ "p ( ! slope4 ,9 tak+ a set ( ha*ures r\nd a %>p b5d1 z 9 ! case ( a spur or a rav9e1 a practical difficulty occurs1 :i* difficulty is increas$ z ! angle becomes m acute4 ,! mo/ effective way ( ov]com+ ?is difficulty is to draw a p5cil l9e d[n ! spur or re-ent]+ angle1 z %[n at ,a ,b & ,c ,d 9 ,fig4 #gd1 & to m>k (f on ?is l9e1 at ! prop] int]vals1 small arcs ( ! same radius1 z ne> z c be judg$ by ! eye1 z ! curve ( ! cont\r l9e4 ,! sets ( ha*ures on ea* side may !n be drawn to ^! arcs4 ,guid+ l9es1 z a b1 c d1 e f1 & g h1 %\ld be drawn at "r angles to ! g5]al direction ( ! cont\rs to ensure ! ha*ures be+ correctly plac$ be=e & aft] r\nd+ ! angle4 ,= ?is me?od ( c>ry+ a set ( ha*ures r\nd a %>p curve1 we are ma9ly indebt$ to ,lieut4 ,r4 ,pul=d's #8,!ory & ,practice ( ,draw+4' ,:5 ?is me?od is n employ$1 ! ha*ures mu/ be drawn on ea* side ( ! angle fir/1 & ^? = ! angle fill$ 9 sep>ately4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gd4 ,great c>e mu/ be tak5 9 fill+ 9 ! zones =m$ by ! cont\r l9es1 t ! draw+ :5 f9i%$ d n pres5t ! appe>ance ( sep>ate lay]s or b&s2 = su* an appe>ance is n only q oppos$ to arti/ic effect1 b x conveys a false notion ( ! "* ( ! gr\nd4 ,! successive zones are n sep>ate portions ( ! surface1 b ea* is a cont9uation ( ! "o adjo9+ x4 ,! great pr9ciple to be obs]v$ 9 ?is1 z 9 all matt]s ( hill %ad+1 is t *anges ( slope are gradual4 ,:5 ! cont\rs are only p5cill$ 9 z guide l9es to be aft]w>ds eras$1 ! above-m5tion$ defect may be avoid$ by draw+ ! ha*ures ov] !m1 )\t ref]5ce to exact spac+4 ,b :51 z is usually ! case 9 regul> surveys1 ! cont\rs are ink$ 9 9 dott$ l9es1 ! only means ( avoid+ x is to space ! ha*ures on ea* side ( a cont\r l9e at ! same di/ance ap>t4 ,! /ud5t ( map draw+ %\ld practise assidu\sly ?is sy/em ( %ad+ 9 deta*$ portions be=e und]tak+ ! del9eation ( a complete hill4 ,= su* ex]cises1 ei!r a s(t1 m$ium-po9t$ /eel p51 or a quill may be us$4 ,! ,v]tical ,sy/em ( ,%ad+4--,! =ego+ sy/em ( %ad+ is kn[n z ! ,horizontal1 & is n[ g5]ally employ$ 9 ?is c\ntry = all k9ds ( surveys4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 ano!r sy/em mu* us$ abroad1 & frequ5tly adopt$ "h = engrav$ maps4 ,9 ?is sy/em1 :i* is kn[n z ! v]tical1 ! %ad+ l9es are made to radiate f or conv]ge into ! curv$ p>ts ( a hill1 accord+ z !y project or re-ent]4 ,su* l9es are call$ l9es ( greate/ desc5t2 !y are suppos$ to describe ! same c\rse t wat] w\ld describe if all[$ to trickle 9 /reams d[n ! slopes1 & h5ce !y exhibit bo? ! direction & ! degree ( ! slope4 ,hav+ ! horizontal sections giv51 we may obta9 a complete k ( ! direction 9 :i* ! gr\nd slopes by draw+ p]p5dicul> to !m any numb] ( l9es ( greate/ desc5t2 ! degree ( declivity is express$ by purely conv5tional means4 ,! means adopt$ = ?is purpose are ( two k9ds4 ,"o dep5ds ^u ! pr9ciple ( v]tical illum9ation1 9 :i* ! maximum quantity ( light is reflect$ upw>ds to ! eye by a horizontal surface1 & a m9imum by a surface incl9$ #de to ! horizon4 ,?is is ! ,engli% & ,g]man conv5tion1 & x lays m /ress ^u ! proportions ( black to :ite 9 indicat+ ! degree ( slope1 ?an ^u ! di/ance betwe5 ! %ad+ l9es4 ,! o!r conv5tion1 :i* is ! ,fr5*1 on ! contr>y1 makes its expression dep5d m ^u ! di/ance betwe5 ! l9es ( greate/ desc5t ?an ^u ! %ade ( col\r produc$1 ?\gh 9 ?is also ! t9t is graduat$ f d>k to light1 accord+ to ! degree ( declivity4 ,a scale ( %ade is us$ = ?is sy/em1 f\nd$ ^u ! same pr9ciples z t already giv5 = ! horizontal sy/em4 ,! scale adopt$ is due orig9ally to ,major ,lehmann1 ( ! ,saxon ,infantry2 b x has receiv$ "s modification to adapt x to ! requirem5ts ( practice4 ,fig4 #ge %[s ,lehmann's scale4 ,x is con/ruct$ = e #e1 f a level up to a slope ( #de1 :i* is ! /eepe/ slope at :i* e>? w /&4 ,ea* division ( ! scale correspond+ to a giv5 slope is subdivid$ into n9e p>ts1 to %[ ! proportions ( black to :ite4 ,= a level1 ! :ole ( ^! spaces are left :ite2 = a slope ( #e1 ! proportion is "o black to eight :ite2 = a slope ( #aj1 two black to sev5 :ite2 & s on up to #de1 = :i* slope we h all black4 ,! longitud9al divisions ( ! scale bel[ t aga9/ ! out] edge ,a ,b conta9 ! same proportions ( black to :ite1 b equally di/ribut$ to %[ ! mode ( apply+ x4 ,?us1 9 ! division o p r s1 correspond+ to a slope ( #e1 ! s+le black space is1 9 ,e ,f ,g ,h1 divid$ into two equal p>ts & di/ribut$2 9 ,g ,h ,i ,k1 ^! two p>ts are aga9 equally divid$ & di/ribut$2 & s on ?r\gh\t ! o!r longitud9al divisions4 ,if n[ ! scale be cut (f along ! l9e ,l ,m1 ! "p ,l ,m ,c ,d w con/itute a scale1 ! graduat$ edge ,l ,m ( :i* w furni% u ) a means ( m>k+ (f ! di/ance betwe5 ! c5tres ( ! %ad+ l9es4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ge4 ,,lehmann',s ,,scale ,,( ,,%ade4 ,to f9d ! proportion ( black to :ite 9 ! =ego+ scale = any giv5 slope3--,subtract ! giv5 incl9ation f #de = a d5om9ator1 & put ! giv5 incl9ation = a num]ator4 ,9 ! scale1 z drawn 9 ! figure1 ! v>iations are by #e2 b x is obvi\s t a scale may be drawn 9 ! same mann] to m>k small] v>iations1 if ?\ght desirable4 ,9 apply+ ?is me?od 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates' ,coa/ ,survey1 x 0 rem>k$ t 8?is scale ( %ade does n repres5t slopes great] ?an #de1 !reby limit+ ! graphic capabilities & effect ( ! map4 ,x also makes ! slopes too d>k z !y approa* ! incl9ation ( #de1 & does n well repres5t slopes ( less ?an #e1 :i* latt] x is (t5 desirable & necess>y to express di/9ctly40 ,! foll[+ modification 0 !re=e made3-- ------------------------------ ,proportion ( ,slope4 ------------ ,black4,:ite4 ----------------------------- #b or #b #a #aj #e #f #b #i #aj #aa #c #h #ae #af #d #g #be #bf #e #f #ce #f #e #de #g #d #fj #h #c #ge #i #b ----------------------------- ,by ?is scale1 ! slight] slopes are repres5t$ di/9ctly4 ,= slopes less ?an #af1 ! %ades are d>k] ?an 9 ,lehmann's scale2 ?is makes _! diff]5ce m noticeable4 ,above #be ! %ades are light]4 ,a fur!r modification1 :i* = ord9>y purposes possesses ! advantages ( simplicity & facility ( application1 has be5 made 9 ,engl&1 & v g5]ally adopt$4 ,?is modification consi/s 9 fix+ ) accuracy only ?ree proportions ( black to :ite = ?ree m$ium slopes1 z foll[s3-- -------------------- ,proportion ( ,slope4------------ ,black4,:ite4 ------------------- ,level 44 all #ae #a #b #bb #a #a #cj #b #a #de all 44 ------------------- ,a scale ( %ade may at once be con/ruct$ f ?is ,table1 by assum+ ! ?ickness ( ! %ad+ l9e = ! m$ium slope ( #bb1 :i* ?ickness mu/ be suit$ to ! scale1 & to ! degree ( f95ess & f9i% x is int5d$ to give ! draw+4 ,g5]ally1 if ! l9es h su* a relation to ! scale ( ! draw+ z to pres5t a well-connect$ appe>ance1 x w be f\nd t few] %ad+ l9es & a r co>se texture w conduce m to cle>ness ( expression ?an a f9] texture1 :i* t5ds to produce a dryness ( /yle4 ,9 %ad+ to ?is scale1 x %\ld be appli$ to ! draw+ :]ev] ! slope corresponds to "o ( ! ?ree on ! scale4 ,int]m$iate slopes are indicat$ by graduat+ ! ?ickness ( ! %ad+ l9es4 ,9 all cases a good deal mu/ be left to correctness ( eye & skill ( h&4 ,9 ! ,fr5* me?od1 z we h said1 ! incl9ation is express$ by ! di/ances betwe5 ! c5tres ( ! l9es ( greate/ desc5t4 ,! limits ( ! slopes t c be repres5t$ by ?is me?od are1 or #de = ! greate/ & or #j #ec #dc = ! smalle/4 ,! l>ge/ scale t w admit ( conv5i5tly draw+ ! l9es ( greate/ desc5t is full size1 or ab\t #h feet to a mile4 ,! v]tical di/ance betwe5 ! horizontal sections is g5]ally tak5 z #a y>d4 ,h5ce to a scale ( ! lea/ wid? ( zone w be in*1 & ! greate/ #fd #c in*es4 ,! di/ance betwe5 ! %ad+ l9es is reckon$ f c5tre to c5tre1 & is det]m9$ by ! rule3--,to ! di/ance betwe5 ! upp] & ! l[] curves ( any zone add ( an in*2 a sixte5? "p ( ?is sum w be ! prop] int]val = ! %ad+ l9es4 ,! di/ance is measur$ along ! l9e ( greate/ desc5t4 ,?us1 if ! incl9ation be & ! scale 1 ! wid? ( zone w be #jf #fj #cfj in*es1 & by ! rule we h #cfj #c #ci --------- --- #jbdd in*4 #af #af ,ano!r rule is3--,to a f\r? ( ! di/ance betwe5 ! upp] & ! l[] curves ( any zone1 add ( an in*2 a f\r? "p ( ! sum w be equal to ! int]val4 ,! ?ickness or bread? ( ! l9es is made to v>y directly z ! incl9ation to assi/ 9 express+ ! declivity4 ,?is ?ickness is det]m9$ by ! foll[+ rule4 ,= a slope ( ! ?ickness ( ! %ad+ l9es is equal to ( ! di/ance betwe5 _! c5tres1 & ?is ?ickness w dim9i% ) ! incl9ation d[n to 1 :]e ! l9es w be z f9e z !y c be drawn4 ,9 a slope ( ?is rule w always make ! bread? ( ! %ad+ l9es twice t ( ! :ite space conta9$ betwe5 !m4 ,to repres5t declivities by ! v]tical sy/em ( %ad+ a consid]able am\nt ( practice is requir$4 ,?is practice %\ld be comm5c$ by draw+ repeat$ly ! scale ( %ade1 & gradually appli$1 z pr(ici5cy is atta9$1 to ! v>y+ incl9ations ( a hillside4 ,hav+ ! horizontal sections ( ! hill giv51 ! degree ( slope %\ld be writt5 ^u x 9 p5cil 9 z _m places z is necess>y4 ,! di/ances betwe5 ! c5tres ( ! %ad+ l9es may !n be m>k$ (f ^u ! upp] curve ( ! zone f ! scale ( %ade1 & ! l9es ( greate/ desc5t drawn ?r\gh ! po9ts ?us det]m9$4 ,! exact proportion ( black to :ite be+ !n adopt$1 ! col\r w express ! degree ( ! slope1 & ! l9e ( greate/ desc5t w %[ its direction4 ,! pr9ciple ( mak+ ! %ad+ l9es long] on a g5tle slope ?an on a /eep "o %\ld be adh]$ to g5]ally2 b 9 ?is matt] mu* mu/ be left to ! judgm5t & ! skill ( ! draughtsman4 ,frequ5tly on slight incl9ations x w be desirable to divide & subdivide ! zone by m$ial l9es1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #gf1 & on v /eep slopes ! %ad+ l9es may be drawn ov] two or m zones4 ,= ord9>y scales ! extremes ( l5g? may be fix$ at ( an in* on ! /eepe/ slopes1 & ( an in* on ! g5tle/4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gf4 ,x is n necess>y to repeat ! process ( con/ruction = e l9e1 su* a mode ( proce$+ w\ld be too labori\s & sl[4 ,x w be suffici5t to det]m9e ! l9es 9 ?is exact mann] at ^? p>ts :]e ! greate/ *anges ( slope occur4 ,?us a gr\p %\ld be con/ruct$ 9 ea* zone :]e ! slope is greate/ & ano!r :]e x is lea/1 aft] :i* a few int]m$iate ones may be put 94 ,! vacancies may !n be fill$ 91 tak+ c>e to graduate ! *anges 9 pass+ f gr\p to gr\p4 ,by ?is means we d n1 ( c\rse1 get a ma!matically exact repres5tation ( ! surface1 b x is suffici5tly accurate = practical purposes4 ,:5 ! prep>atory p5cil l9es h be5 drawn 9 & ! spaces = ! %ad+ l9es laid (f by dots1 ! %ad+ %\ld be comm5c$ at ! /eepe/ "p ( ! upp] zone4 ,! l9es %\ld be drawn firmly f curve to curve1 tak+ c>e to make ea* r[ t]m9ate ev5ly at ! l[] edge2 !y mu/ always be drawn d[nw>ds & f left to "r1 proce$+ 9 ?is direction r\nd ! zone till ! po9t ( sett+ out is rea*$1 :]e ! jo9+ mu/ be c>efully effect$4 ,?is c always be done mo/ neatly :]e ! l9es are ?icke/1 z we h previ\sly po9t$ out4 ,! succe$+ zones %\ld be fill$ up 9 ! same mann]4 ,z *anges mu/ be gradual 9 e direction1 c>e mu/ be tak5 to make ! contigu\s zones bl5d into ea* o!r4 ,:5 x is requir$ to pass f a light zone to a d>k] "o b5ea? x1 ! l[] ends ( ! l9es 9 ! light zone %\ld be ?ick5$ a little1 s z to meet ! upp] ends ( ! l9es 9 ! d>k zone ) ne>ly ! same col\r4 ,! upp] ends ( ^! latt] l9es %\ld also be slightly light5$4 ,! l9es ( "o zone mu/ n be cont9u$ into ^? ( ! next4 ,ev5 on a uni=m slope su* a prolongation ( ! l9es w\ld produce a h>d appe>ance1 :i* %\ld be avoid$4 ,b 9 ! case ( a conical hill1 l t %[n 9 ,fig4 #gg1 x w\ld give rise to an error 9 pr9ciple2 = soon aft] leav+ ! summit we %\ld h too few l9es ( desc5t4 ,:5 ! hill has be5 cov]$ ) %ad+ l9es1 ! base & ! summit mu/ be s(t5$ (f by tap]+ ! l[] end ( ea* l9e at ! base1 & ! upp] end ( ea* l9e at ! summit4 ,to give ! tap] to ! latt]1 ! draw+ %\ld be turn$ upside d[n4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gg4 ,:5 ! curves are p>allel or ne>ly s1 ! %ad+ l9es are /raight1 & also ne>ly p>allel4 ,b :5 ! curves dep>t widely f ea* o!r1 ! %ad+ l9es w !mselves h a slight curvature1 = be+ l9es ( greate/ desc5t1 !y mu/ be normal to ! curves4 ,9 su* cases1 a numb] ( normals %\ld be put 9 at %ort di/ances ) ! p5cil1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #gh1 to s]ve z guides to ! %ad+ l9es4 ,! =ego+ directions = %ad+ a hill apply equally to ! %ad+ ( a holl[1 ! %ad+ l9es 9 :i* are conv]g+4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gh4 ,occasionally %ort slopes /eep] ?an ! 8natural slope0 ( #de w be met )4 ,su* be+ exceptions to ! law ( slopes1 are m>k$ 9 an exceptional mann]4 ,:5 ! surfaces ( ^! slopes are ( e>?1 !y are %[n by black l9es drawn p>allel to ! horizontal curves1 & :5 ( rock1 by black l9es drawn 9 all directions1 n int]sect+1 b abutt+ abruptly ^u ea* o!r 9 %ort heavy masses1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #gh4 ,%ad+ 9 ,col\rs4--,frequ5tly 9 topographical draw+s1 & /ill m frequ5tly 9 me*anical draw+s1 col\r is resort$ to to produce ! effect ( %ad+ l9es4 ,z ! pr9ciples accord+ to :i* col\r is appli$ = ?is purpose are ! same z ^? :i* det]m9e ! use ( %ad+ l9es1 !re rema9s little to be said on ?is matt] beyond describ+ ! modes ( apply+ ! col\r4 ,hill ,slopes4--,9 repres5t+ slopes1 ! t9t employ$ to give ! effect ( t produc$ by ! ink l9es already describ$ is compos$ ( indigo & burnt si5na1 & is appli$ z a flat-wa%4 ,a little lake is add$ to neutralize ! gre5i% hue ( ?is t9t :5 x is to be laid ov] s& or cultivat$ gr\nd4 ,! diff]5t degrees ( int5sity requir$ to express ! incl9ation are produc$ by repeat+ ! wa% ov] ^? p>ts :i* are d>k] ?an ! re/4 ,to accompli% ?is neatly1 ! d>k] portions mu/ be wa%$ 9 fir/1 s t ! f9al wa%+s may cov] ! :ole surface1 & ! edges ( ea* successive wa% mu/ be s(t5$ (f or bl5d$ into ! next ) a bru% & clean wat]4 ,9 %ad+ hills1 ! pap] along ! cre/ ( ! slope %\ld be fir/ moi/5$ ) ! wat]-bru%1 & be=e x dries1 ! lay+ on ( ! col\r %\ld be begun on ! moi/5$ "p1 & proce$$ ) d[n ! slope4 ,! effect ( repres5t+ hills by ?is me?od1 :i* is a v exp$iti\s "o1 is mu* improv$ by add+ light %ad+ l9es ) ! p51 ei!r 9 pale ink1 or a mixture ( indigo & burnt si5na4 ,! gr\nd is always cov]$ ) its appropriate sign be=e ! %ad+ t9t is laid on4 ,cyl9drical ,surfaces 9 ,me*anical ,draw+s4--,9 %ad+ cyl9drical surfaces & draw+s g5]ally1 ?ree me?ods are employ$4 ,"o ( ^! is kn[n z s(t5+ (f1 & is employ$ on f9i%$ draw+s ( ma*9]y4 ,= %ad+ by ?is me?od1 a bru% call$ a s(t5] is requir$2 ?is has a bru% at ea* end ( ! h&le1 "o be+ l>g] ?an ! o!r4 ,hav+ moi/5$ ! pap]1 & fill$ ! small] bru% ) col\r & ! l>g] "o ) wat]1 a n>r[ /rip ( col\r is laid along ! d>ke/ "p ( ! cyl9d]1 & imm$iately aft]1 :ile ! col\r is q moi/1 ! wat]-bru% is drawn along "o edge ( ! /rip & !n 9 l mann] along ! o!r1 s z to cause ! col\r to fl[ ov] t portion ( ! surface :i* has be5 damp$4 ,! bru% is !n wip$ ^u a clo? & drawn lightly d[n ! edge to take up ! sup]flu\s wat]4 ,! col\r %\ld be light to beg9 )1 & ! quantity to be tak5 9 ! bru% mu/ be det]m9$ by exp]i5ce4 ,! same rem>k applies to ! wat]-bru%1 = if too little be us$ ! col\r w n spread suffici5tly1 & if too mu*1 ! col\r w be dilut$ & r5d]$ unev54 ,^! op]ations ( lay+ on ! col\r & s(t5+ (f are cont9u$ until ! cyl9drical appe>ance has be5 produc$4 ,ea* succe$+ coat %\ld be laid on be=e ! prec$+ "o is q dry1 z ! col\r w spread m ev5ly ov] a damp surface4 ,! previ\sly appli$ coat mu/1 h[ev]1 h be5 suffici5tly absorb$ n to wa% up1 or a cl\d$ appe>ance w be ! result4 ,ano!r me?od1 kn[n z ! ,fr5*1 consi/s 9 apply+ a n>r[ /rip ( col\r to ! d>ke/ "p1 & ov]lay+ ?is ) o!r /rips1 ea* wid] ?an ! "o previ\sly laid on4 ,to regulate ! bread? ( ! /rips1 a numb] ( m]idian l9es are drawn ^u ! cyl9d]4 ,:5 %ad$ 9 ?is mann]1 ! cyl9d] pres5ts ! appe>ance ( a polygon r ?an t ( a cyl9d]4 ,! ?ird me?od1 by reason ( ! facility x af=ds ( produc+ effect1 is v suitable = l>ge draw+s & diagrams = illu/rat+ pap]s & lectures4 ,9 %ad+ accord+ to ?is me?od1 a ?ick l9e or a n>r[ /rip ( v ?ick & black ,indian ink is laid on ! d>ke/ "p ( ! cyl9d] ) ! po9t ( ! bru%4 ,! bread? ( ! /rip w be regulat$ by ! diamet] ( ! object1 & x %\ld be previ\sly l9$ out 9 p5cil4 ,:5 dry1 a damp bru% is pass$ ov] x s z to remove ! %>p edges ( ! /rip1 & to cause ! ink to run slightly ov] ! moi/5$ surface ( ! pap]4 ,! flat col\r wa%es are !n appli$ z requir$1 ! wa%es be+ c>ri$ ov] ! black /rips1 :i* w be fur!r r$uc$ 9 tone by a portion ( ! ink mix+ ) ! col\r4 ,9 %ad+1 x w be f\nd conv5i5t to keep ! light side ( ! object next to ! op]ator1 z x is easi] to wa% t[>ds ! body ?an f x ) ! wat]-bru%4 ,! bru% %\ld be held 9 z ne>ly a v]tical position z possible1 z x is m easy1 :5 t position is obs]v$1 to keep )9 ! b\nd>y l9es4 ,,"p ,,ii4--,,applications4 ,,section ,i4--,,lett]+1 ,,bord]+1 ,,& ,,nor? ,,po9ts4 ,lett]+4--,! lett]+ ( a plan1 map1 or draw+ ( any k9d1 occupies a prom95t & conspicu\s position1 & may be consid]$ z =m+ an ess5tial "p ( ! draw+4 ,x is1 !re=e1 obvi\s t ! "* ( ! lett]+1 & ! degree ( f9i% introduc$ into its execution1 w h an important influ5ce on ! g5]al appe>ance ( ! draw+4 ,no?+ detracts m f ! value ( a map1 consid]$ z a "w ( art1 ?an a bad /yle ( lett]+1 :ile1 on ! o!r h&1 a well-*os5 & well-execut$ /yle is bo? pleas+ to ! eye1 & produces on ! m9d an impression ( accuracy 9 ! m important features ( ! "w4 ,h5ce x is n m]ely desirable1 b necess>y1 t ! draughtsman %\ld acquire ! ability to =m lett]s correctly & neatly1 especially if he be engag$ on topographical draw+s1 into :i* lett]+ ent]s v l>gely4 ,! =mation ( lett]s requires great att5tion & long practice4 ,x is n a matt] 9 :i* mu* assi/ance is to be d]iv$ f descriptions or writt5 in/ructions ( any k9d2 practice alone f good models w give ! requisite skill4 ,! difficulty ( =m+ ! lett]s correctly & ( uni=m dim5sions may1 h[ev]1 be consid]ably less5$ by us+ guide l9es drawn 9 p5cil1 to be aft]w>ds eras$4 ,su* l9es are call$ con/ruction l9es1 & ! mode ( employ+ !m is %[n 9 ,plate #d4 ,a c>eful /udy ( ?is ,plate w give ! /ud5t a cle> und]/&+ ( ! use ( ^! l9es1 :i* c\ld n be imp>t$ by pages ( description4 ,a ref]5ce to ! lett]s ,b1 ,e1 & ,t1 9 connection ) ! con/ruction l9es w %[ mo/ readily ! nature & ! degree ( assi/ance af=d$ by ! latt]4 ,9 mak+ capitals1 ea* lett] mu/ be sket*$ 9 p5cil2 ! outl9e mu/ !n be drawn 9 ink ) a firm & /eady l9e1 & aft]w>ds fill$ up ) ! p54 ,9 =m+ ! small roman & italic lett]s1 ?ree con/ruction l9es are drawn1 ! l[] two to limit ! height ( ! ord9>y lett]s1 & ! upp] "o to limit ! height ( su* lett]s z d & l1 & ! capitals4 ,! heavy p>ts ( ^! lett]s are made at once by a bold pressure ( ! p54 ,! curv$ portions %\ld be c>efully di/+ui%$ f ! /raight4 ,! lett]s a1 c1 g1 o1 s1 c41 = example1 are compos$ :olly ( curv$ l9es4 ,!y %\ld be drawn symmetrically1 & _! wid? %\ld be only a little less ?an _! height4 ,! r\nd portion ( ! g %\ld n q rea* to ! l[] l9e4 ,a p]fect regul>ity %\ld be ma9ta9$ ?r\gh\t ! lett]s1 z ! beauty ( _! appe>ance dep5ds greatly on ?is4 ,c>e mu/ also be tak51 9 italic writ+1 to keep ! incl9ation ! same ev]y:]e4 ,manuscript lett]+ %\ld be m ext5d$ ?an ! cle> roman or italic type1 = cr[d+ greatly m>s its appe>ance4 ,! "* ( ! lett]s employ$ %\ld be 9 accordance ) t ( ! draw+ ^u :i* !y are to appe>4 ,?us = eng9e]+ & me*anical draw+s1 !re is no?+ m suitable g5]ally ?an ! pla9 block lett]4 ,b on draw+s ( a m arti/ic & ornam5tal "*1 a m elaborate =m ( lett] may & %\ld be us$4 ,& ( ^! elaborate =ms1 !re w always be "o m suitable ?an ! re/ to ! p>ticul> "* ( ! draw+4 ,! *oice ( ?is =m is a matt] to be left entirely to ! judgm5t & ! ta/e ( ! draughtsman4 ,ano!r matt] on :i* ! draughtsman w h to ex]cise 8 judgm5t is ! size ( ! lett]s employ$4 ,?is mu/ manife/ly be 9 accordance1 fir/1 ) ! "* ( ! object d5ot$1 &1 second1 ) ! scale ( ! draw+4 ,) reg>d to ! =m] ( ^! conditions1 x is obvi\s t propriety w dem& a l>g] lett] = ! city ?an ! t[n1 = ! t[n ?an ! village1 = ! village ?an ! f>m1 & = ! mansion ?an ! gate-lodge4 ,?is propriety ( relative importance mu/ be ev]y:]e obs]v$4 ,! diff]5t types ( lett]+ are arrang$ 9 ! ord] ( importance z foll[s3--#a1 ,! upright capital2 #b1 ! incl9$ capital2 #c1 ! upright roman1 or ord9>y small type2 & #d1 ! small italic4 ,! draughtsman w h to ex]cise 8 judgm5t 9 suit+ ! size to ! scale ( ! map1 b ! foll[+ ,table may be tak5 z a g5]al guide3-- ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,scale4 ,height ( ,upright ,height ( ,small ,roman4 ,capitals4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- 1 or "o in* to fifty feet4 ,six-t5?s ( an in*4,twelve-hundr$?s ( an in*4 1 or two feet to a mile4 ,f\r ,eight 1 or "o foot to a mile4 ,?ree ,six 1 or f\r in*es to a mile4 ,two ,f\r ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,! ?ickness ( ! capital %\ld be "o-sev5? ( ! height4 ,z f> z practicable1 ! l9es ( lett]+ %\ld be p>allel to ! base ( ! draw+4 ,frequ5tly1 h[ev]1 cases w occur 9 :i* x w be desirable to lett] 9 o!r directions & 9 curv$ l9es4 ,9 writ+ along a curv$ or v irregul> outl9e1 ! c\rse ( a riv] or ! b\nd>y ( an e/ate1 = example1 an agreeable effect is produc$ by mak+ ! l9es ( lett]+ con=m 9 "s degree ) ! outl9es aga9/ :i* !y are writt54 ,! arrangem5t ( ! lett]s 9 titles & ! effective disposition ( ! words are also matt]s requir+ great c>e & "s ta/e4 ,! design & ! execution ( ! title af=d ano!r opportunity ( enhanc+ ! beauty ( a draw+ by a display ( /rik+ arrangem5t & appropriate ornam5tation4 ,plates #g & #h %[ "s useful models = plans1 & ,plate #be conta9s "s specim5s ( fl\ri%es :i* may frequ5tly be introduc$ ) pleas+ effect4 ,! =m :i* ! title %all assume & ! space :i* x %all occupy mu/ be det]m9$ be=e beg9n+ to put x ^u ! draw+4 ,to avoid erasures1 x is well to sket* r\ghly ^u a piece ( pap]1 a trial title1 em5dations 9 :i* c be easily made4 ,:5 f\nd satisfactory1 draw a v]tical c5tre l9e1 :i* %\ld pass ?r\gh ! middle lett] ( ea* l9e4 ,apply ?is c5tre l9e to ! c5tre l9e ( ! title on ! draw+1 & lightly m>k 9 ) ! p5cil ! position ( ea* lett]4 ,:5 ?is me?od is n adopt$1 ! middle lett]s %\ld be put 9 fir/ ^u ! c5tre l9e1 & ! o!rs aft]w>ds ins]t$ f left to "r1 & f "r to left4 ,9 maps1 ! title may be plac$ outside ! bord] if x consi/ ( "o l9e only1 b if x occupy m ?an "o l9e1 x %\ld be plac$ )9 ! bord]4 ,g5]ally1 x %\ld be plac$ 9 "o ( ! corn]s ( ! map1 & its size %\ld be> "s proportion to t ( ! map4 ,! lett]s compos+ ! "n ( ! locality1 :i* is usually ! mo/ important ^w1 %\ld n exce$ 9 height ?ree-hundr$?s ( ! l5g? ( ! %ort side ( ! bord]4 ,! lett]s ( ! o!r words w v>y 9 size accord+ to _! relative importance4 ,bord]s4--,pla9 bord]s usually consi/ ( two l9es1 ! out] "o heavy1 & ! inn] "o light4 ,! heavy l9e %\ld be equal 9 bread? to ! blank space betwe5 x & ! light l9e1 & ! total bread? ( ! bord]1 t is1 ( ! two l9es & ! space betwe5 !m1 %\ld be "o hundr$? "p ( ! l5g? ( ! %ort] side4 ,ornam5tal corn]s may be made to embelli% a draw+ consid]ably1 & !y af=d "s scope to ! fancy & ! ta/e ( ! draughtsman4 ,sev]al examples ( bord]s & ornam5tal corn]s w be f\nd 9 ! accompany+ ,plates4 ,nor? ,po9ts4--,! m]idian or nor? & s\? l9e is an indisp5sable adjunct to e topographical draw+4 ,:5 ! ext5t ( c\ntry repres5t$ is consid]able1 x is usual to make ! top ( ! map ! nor?1 & 9 su* a case ! side bord] l9es are m]idian l9es4 ,frequ5tly1 h[ev]1 9 plans1 ! %ape ( ! gr\nd does n admit ( ?is arrangem5t1 & !n x becomes necess>y to m>k a m]idian on "s "p ( ! map4 ,?is l9e is usually made a conspicu\s "o1 & its nor? extremity is (t5 ornam5t$ ) "s fanciful device4 ,! ornam5tation ( ! m]idian l9e %\ld be 9 keep+ ) ! re/ ( ! map4 ,plate #i conta9s sev]al examples :i* may be adopt$ or modifi$ z deem$ desirable4 ,,section ,,ii4--,,scales4 ,to all draw+s :i* d n %[ ! full size ( ! objects repres5t$1 x is necess>y to affix ! scale accord+ to :i* ! objects are drawn4 ,su* a scale is call$ a scale ( l5g?s or di/ances1 because1 by means ( x1 ! di/ance f "o po9t to ano!r is asc]ta9$4 ,! scale ( di/ances does n conta9 v m9ute subdivisions1 & consequ5tly is n suitable = use 9 con/ruct+ ! draw+4 ,= ! latt] purpose1 ano!r scale1 simil>ly b m m9utely divid$1 is employ$1 & is kn[n z ! scale ( con/ruction4 ,a famili>ity ) ! modes ( con/ruct+ bo? ( ^! scales %\ld be e>ly acquir$ by ! "y draughtsman4 ,scales ( ,di/ances4--,"o means ( d5ot+ ! scale ( a draw+ is furni%$ by :at is call$ its repres5tative fraction1 ! d5om9ator ( :i* %[s h[ _m times great] ! actual l5g? is ?an t 9 ! draw+4 ,?us a scale ( %[s t #a in* on ! draw+ repres5ts #bd in*es on ! object2 9 o!r words1 t ! object is tw5ty-f\r times l>g] ?an ! draw+4 ,b 9 addition to ?is repres5tative fraction1 x is usual to affix a graduat$ /raight l9e1 t]m$ a scale1 = ! purpose ( conv5i5tly measur+ di/ances ^u x4 ,x is manife/ t ! unit ( l5g? 9 ?is scale mu/ be> ! same ratio to ! real unit ( l5g? t a l9e 9 ! draw+ be>s to ! l9e :i* x repres5ts4 ,?us if ! repres5tative fraction be 1 #a in* on ! scale w repres5t #b feet4 ,scales ( di/ances are usually ( su* a l5g? z to be a multiple ( #aj l9e> units ( "s k9d1 z #ajj miles1 #ej *a9s1 #bj feet2 & ?is l5g? %\ld also be su* z to all[ ( long l9es be+ tak5 (f at "o measurem5t4 ,to con/ruct ! scale1 two light l9es %\ld be drawn at a suitable di/ance ap>t1 & bel[ ! l[] ( ^! l9es & at a di/ance f x equal to "o-?ird ( ! space betwe5 !m1 a ?ird & heavy l9e %\ld be drawn4 ,! prim>y divisions may !n be made ) ! compasses 9 ! foll[+ mann]4 ,suppos+ ! numb] ( divisions to be five1 op5 ! divid]s to :at appe>s to be ! fif? "p ( ! l9e1 & /ep ?is di/ance along ! l9e2 if ! fif? /ep exce$ or fall %ort ( ! end ( ! l9e1 close or op5 ! divid]s ( ! di/ance1 & repeat ! trial4 ,?is is ! quicke/ &1 = l>ge divisions1 ! mo/ accurate me?od ( divid+ a l9e4 ,to r5d] ! divisions m di/9ct1 draw a heavy l9e betwe5 ! two light l9es 9 alt]nate divisions4 ,! left-h& division mu/ be subdivid$ into ! units or less] measures ( :i* x is made up4 ,= example1 if ! prim>y divisions are ea* ( #aj feet1 ! subdivisions w be feet2 if !y repres5t feet1 ! subdivisions w be in*es1 & s on4 ,! subdivid+ %\ld be p]=m$ 9 ! foll[+ mann]4 ,hav+ erect$ a p]p5dicul> ( indef9ite l5g? f ! left-h& extremity ( ! scale1 take ) ! compasses f any scale ! numb] ( divisions into :i* x is requir$ to divide ! "p4 ,) ?is di/ance 9 ! compasses1 /rike1 f ! fir/ prim>y or z]o division1 an arc cutt+ ! p]p5dicul>1 & jo9 ! po9t ( int]section to ! c5tre f :i* ! arc is /ruck4 ,?us we %all h a "r-angl$ triangle =m$ ( ! fir/ prim>y division ( ! scale1 ! p]p5dicul> & ! radius1 ! latt] be+ ! hypo!nuse 7see ,fig4 #gi74 ,m>k on ! hypo!nuse ! divisions to :i* x 0 made equal1 & f ! po9ts ( division let fall p]p5dicul> l9es ^u ! scale4 ,^! w divide ! latt] into ! requir$ numb] ( equal p>ts4 ,! l5g? ( ! hypo!nuse %\ld be s *os5 z to make an angle n great] ?an #ej ) ! base4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gi4 ,! total l5g? ( ! scale w be det]m9$ by ! greate/ l5g? :i* x is requir$ to read (f at once1 & 9 ! foll[+ mann]4 ,?us1 let x be requir$ to con/ruct a scale ( 1 in* to ! foot1 to %[ #ab feet4 ,"h #e in* 3 x in*es 33 #a in* 3 #ab in*es2 :5ce x #ab #e #f in*es4 ,?is di/ance ( #f in*es mu/1 !re=e1 be set (f ^u ! l9es int5d$ = ! scale1 & divid$ 9 ! mann] describ$ above4 ,aga91 to con/ruct a scale ( 1 #f in*es to a mile1 to %[ #ajj *a9s4 ,s9ce #f in*es repres5ts #ebhj feet or #hj *a9s1 ! proportion becomes #f 3 x 33 #hj 3 #ajj2 :5ce x #g in*es4 ,if ! scale is #af in*es to a mile1 #e *a9s to an in*1 & ! di/ance to be %[n is #cj *a9s1 we h #a 3 x 33 #e 3 #cj2 or x #f in*es4 ,9 a scale ( #aj y>ds to ! in*1 = example1 ! repres5tative fraction is #aj #c #ab 4 ,s1 on ! contr>y1 #aj y>ds to ! in*4 ,sometimes x is requir$ to con/ruct a comp>ative scale1 t is1 a scale hav+ ! same repres5tative fraction1 b conta9+ o!r units4 ,?us suppose1 = example1 we h a ,russian plan on :i* is m>k$ a scale ( ar*9es measur+ a l5g? ( #ej ar*9es4 ,x is requir$ to draw ^u ?is plan a comp>ative scale ( y>ds1 ^u :i* a di/ance ( #ej y>ds may be measur$4 ,! ,russian ar*9e #ggg y>d4 ,h5ce we h ! proportion #ej 3 x 33 #ggg 3 #a1 :5ce x #fdce ar*9es4 ,measure (f ?is l5g? f ! ,russian scale1 & ^u x con/ruct ! ,engli% scale 9 ! mann] already describ$4 ,?is scale may !n be us$ to measure di/ances on ! plan4 ,among/ ,cont95tal nations1 decimal scales are usually employ$1 :i* are f> m conv5i5t 9 practice ?an ^? involv+ ! awkw>d ratios ( miles1 furlongs1 *a9s1 y>ds1 feet1 & in*es4 ,! decimal scale has also be5 adopt$ = ! ,unit$ ,/ates' ,coa/ ,survey1 ! smalle/ publication scale ( :i* is 2 ?is is also ! scale ( ! new map ( ,france4 ,9 *oos+ a scale1 reg>d mu/ be _h alike to ! purposes = :i* ! draw+ is int5d$1 & to ! nature & ! am\nt ( detail requir$ to be %[n4 ,?us a l>g] scale is requir$ 9 plans ( t[ns ?an 9 ^? ( ! op5 c\ntry2 & ! small] & m intricate ! build+s1 ! l>g] %\ld ! scale be4 ,also a plan to be us$ = ! sett+ out ( works %\ld be to a l>g] scale ?an "o made = p>liam5t>y purposes4 ,! foll[+ ,tables1 giv5 by ,rank9e 9 8 #8,civil ,eng9e]+1' enum]ate "s ( ! scales = plans mo/ commonly us$ 9 ,brita91 toge!r ) a /atem5t ( ! purposes to :i* !y are be/ adapt$4 ,,horizontal ,,scales4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,ord9>y ,designation ,fraction ,use4 ( ,scale4 ( real ,dim5- sions4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- #a4--a in* to a mile ,scale ( ! small] ,ordnance maps ( ,brita94 ,?is scale is well adapt$ = maps to be us$ 9 explor+ ! c\ntry4 #b4--d in*es to a mile ,smalle/ scale p]mitt$ by ! ,/&+ ,ord]s ( ,p>liam5t = ! deposit$ plans ( propos$ works4 #c4--f in*es to a mile ,scale ( ! l>g] ,ordnance maps ( ,great ,brita9 & ,irel&4 ,?is scale1 be+ j l>ge en\gh to %[ build+s1 roads1 & o!r important objects di/9ctly 9 _! true =ms & proportions1 & at ! same "t small en\gh to enable ! eye ( ! eng9e] to embrace ! plan ( a consid]able ext5t ( c\ntry at "o view1 is on ! :ole ! be/ adapt$ = ! selection ( l9es = eng9e]+ works1 & = p>liam5t>y plans & prelim9>y e/imates4 #d4--fcff in*es to a mile ,decimal scale possess+ ! same advantages4 #e4--djj feet to an in* ,smalle/ scale p]mitt$ by ! ,/&+ ,ord]s ( ,p>liam5t = 8enl>g$ plans0 ( build+s & ( l& )9 ! curtilage4 #f4--f *a9s to an in* ,scale answ]+ ! same purpose4 #g4--aehd in*es to a mile ,scales well suit$ = ! work+ surveys & l& plans ( great eng9e]+ works1 & = enl>g$ p>liam5t>y plans4 #h4--e *a9s to an in*1 7,scale #h is t prescrib$ 9 or #af in*es to a mile4 ! ,/&+ ,ord]s ( ,p>liam5t = 8cross sections0 ( propos$ railways1 %[+ alt]ations ( roads47 #i4--becdd in*es to a mile ,scale ( plans ( "p ( ! ,ordnance survey ( ,brita91 f :i* ! maps be=e m5tion$ are r$uc$4 ,well adapt$ = l& plans ( eng9e]+ works & plans ( e/ates4 #aj4--bjj feet to an in* ,scale suit$ = simil> purposes4 ,smalle/ scale prescrib$ by law = l& or contract plans 9 ,irel&4 #aa4--c *a9s to an in* ,scale ( ! ,ti! ,commission]s' plans4 ,suit$ = ! same purposes z ! above4 #ab4--ajj feet to an in* ,scale suit$ = plans ( t[ns1 :5 n v intricate4 #ac4--hh feet to an in*1 or ,scale ( ! ,ordnance plans ( #fj in*es to a mile4 ! less intricately built t[ns4 #ad4--fccf in*es to a mile ,decimal scale hav+ ! same prop]ties4 #ae4--dd feet to an in*1 or ,scale ( ! ,ordnance plans ( #abj in*es to a mile4 ! m intricately built t[ns4 #af4--abfgb in*es to a ,decimal scale hav+ ! same mile prop]ties4 #ag4--cj feet to an in* #ah4--bj feet to an in* ,scales = special purposes4 #ai4--aj feet to an in* ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,,v]tical ,,scales4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,ord9>y ,fraction ,horizontal ,scales,exagg]ation4 ,designation ( real ) :i* ! ,use4 ( ,v]tical ,height4 ,v]tical ,scale is ,scale4 usually comb9$4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- f #a4--ajj feet to #acb to #hh ,smalle/ scale to an in* p]mitt$ by ! ,/&+ ,ord]s ( ,p>liam5t = sections ( propos$ works4 #b4--dj feet to #aj to #hbe ,smalle/ scale to an in* p]mitt$ by ! ,/&+ ,ord]s ( ,p>liam5t = cross sections %[+ alt]ations ( roads4 #c4--cj feet to #aa to #ff ,scales to an in* suitable = #d4--bj feet to #afe to #ii work+ to an in* sections4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,! v]tical scale1 or scale ( heights1 is always mu* great] ?an ! horizontal scale or scale ( di/ances1 & ! proportion 9 :i* ! v]tical scale is great] ?an ! horizontal1 is call$ ! exagg]ation ( ! scale4 ,?is exagg]ation is necess>y1 because ! diff]5ces ( elevation betwe5 po9ts on ! gr\nd are 9 g5]al mu* small] ?an _! di/ances ap>t1 & w\ld !re=e1 )\t exagg]ation1 be unapp>5t1 & also because1 9 ! execution ( eng9e]+ works1 accuracy 9 levels is ( m importance ?an accuracy 9 horizontal positions4 ,scales ( ,con/ruction4--,scales ( con/ruction are int5d$ to af=d means ( measur+ m m9ute quantities ?an scales ( di/ances4 ,( ! =m] !re are two k9ds1 kn[n respectively z ! ,diagonal & ! ,v]ni] scale4 ,! diagonal is ! m frequ5tly employ$4 ,its con/ruction involves no peculi> difficulty1 z x consi/s simply ( an ord9>y scale ( di/ances1 ) ! addition ( a numb] ( p>allel l9es cross$ by o!r p>allel l9es drawn diagonally f ! small] po9ts ( division4 ,an example w be/ %[ ! con/ruction & mode ( us+ ?is scale4 ,suppose x to be requir$ to con/ruct a scale ( #aj miles to ! in*1 %[+ furlongs diagonally2 ! scale to measure #ej miles4 ,"h #a 3 #aj 33 x 3 #ej1 :5ce x #e in*es4 ,divide ?is l5g? ( #e in*es into five equal p>ts1 & ! fir/ "p into t5?s to %[ miles1 9 ! mann] already describ$ = scales ( di/ances4 ,!n1 s9ce x is requir$ to %[ furlongs or eigh?s ( a mile1 eight equidi/ant p>allel l9es mu/ be drawn above ! scale1 at a conv5i5t int]val ap>t1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #hj4 ,produce ! prim>y po9ts ( division to meet ! top p>allel2 & f ! la/ second>y po9t ( division draw a l9e to ! po9t 9 :i* ! extreme prim>y division meets ! top p>allel4 ,draw f ! o!r po9ts ( division1 l9es p>allel to ?is "o1 & ! scale w be complete4 ,x w be se5 t ! incl9$ l9es are ! diagonals ( ! rectangul> figures =m$ by ! top & bottom p>allels & v]tical l9es drawn f ! small] po9ts ( division4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hj4 ,to use ?is scale1 suppose a l5g? ( #bd miles #e furlongs is requir$4 ,place "o leg ( ! divid]s ^u ! po9t 9 :i* ! f\r? diagonal int]sects ! fif? p>allel1 & ext5d ! o!r to ! po9t 9 :i* ! prim>y division m>k$ #bj int]sects ! same p>allel4 ,9 l mann]1 if ! di/ance requir$ be #cc miles #c furlongs1 x mu/ be tak5 f ! int]section ( ! ?ird diagonal ) ! ?ird p>allel1 to ! int]section ( ! prim>y division m>k$ #cj ) ! same p>allel4 ,x is obvi\s t if a scale ( feet %[+ in*es diagonally be requir$1 twelve equidi/ant p>allel l9es mu/ be drawn in/ead ( eight z 9 ! =ego+ example :]e furlongs are requir$4 ,! diagonal scale possesses ! important advantages ( accuracy & di/9ctness ( division :i* r5d] x v suitable z a scale ( con/ruction4 ,ano!r practical advantage is t x is less rapidly defac$ by use ?an ! o!r k9ds1 9 consequ5ce ( ! measurem5ts be+ tak5 on s _m diff]5t l9es4 ,! con/ruction ( ! v]ni] scale is simil> to t ( ! graduat$ arcs ( survey+ & a/ronomical in/rum5ts4 ,! pr9ciple ( ! v]ni] is z foll[s4 ,if a l9e conta9+ n units ( measurem5t be divid$ into n equal p>ts1 ea* "p w1 ( c\rse1 repres5t "o unit2 & if a l9e conta9+ n #a ( ^! units be also divid$ into n p>ts1 ea* "p w be equal to 7n #a7_/n units2 & ! diff]5ce betwe5 "o division ( ! latt] & "o ( ! =m] w be 77x #a7_/n7 - #a #a_/n ( ! orig9al unit4 ,simil>ly1 ! diff]5ce betwe5 two divisions ( ! "o & two ( ! o!r w be #b_/n ( a unit1 betwe5 ?ree ( ! "o & ?ree ( ! o!r1 #c_/n1 & s on4 ,h5ce1 to obta9 a l5g? ( x_/n ( a unit1 we h only to make a division on "o scale co9cide ) "o on ! o!r scale2 ! space betwe5 ! two correspond+ x? divisions f ?is on bo? scales w be ! requir$ l5g? ( x_/n ( a unit4 ,! same reason+ w evid5tly hold good if a l5g? equal to n - #a be tak54 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ha4 ,to %[ h[ ! =ego+ pr9ciple is appli$ 9 practice1 we w take an example4 ,x is requir$ to con/ruct a scale ( to %[ feet & t5?s ( a foot4 ,con/ruct a scale 9 ! ord9>y way1 & subdivide x ?r\gh\t its :ole l5g?1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #ha2 !n ea* division w %[ "o foot4 ,above ! fir/ prim>y division1 draw a l9e p>allel to ! scale & t]m9at+ at ! z]o po9t4 ,f ! z]o po9t1 set (f on ?is l9e t[>ds ! left a di/ance equal to elev5 subdivisions1 & divide ?is di/ance into t5 equal p>ts4 ,n[1 z elev5 divisions ( ! pla9 scale h be5 divid$ into t5 equal p>ts on ! v]ni]1 ea* division on ! latt] w repres5t #aa ( t on ! =m]2 & z ! divisions ( ! pla9 scale repres5t feet1 ^? ( ! v]ni] w repres5t #aa foot4 ,consequ5tly1 ! di/ances f ! z]o ( ! scale to ! successive divisions on ! v]ni] are #aa1 #bb1 #cc1 #dd1 #ee1 #ff1 #gg1 #hh1 #ii1 & #aa feet4 ,x w be se5 t ! divisions ( ! two scales are made to co9cide at ! z]o po9t4 ,! mode ( us+ ?is scale w be se5 f ! foll[+ example4 ,let x be requir$ to take (f a di/ance ( #bfg feet4 ,f z]o to ! #g? division ( ! v]ni] is1 z we h se51 #gg feet4 ,!re=e1 to asc]ta9 h[ f> to ! "r ( z]o we mu/ g to obta9 ! di/ance ( #bfg feet1 we mu/ subtract #gg f t di/ance1 :i* gives #ai4 ,?us to take (f ! di/ance1 "o leg ( ! divid]s mu/ be plac$ on ! #g? division ( ! v]ni]1 & ! o!r on ! #ai? division ( ! pla9 scale4 ,if ! di/ance to be tak5 7 #bgf feet1 "o leg ( ! divid]s w\ld h to be plac$ on ! #f? division ( ! v]ni]1 & ! o!r on ! 7#bgf7 - 7#ff7 #ba/ division ( ! pla9 scale4 ,to con/ruct a scale to %[ feet & in*es1 make ! v]ni] equal to ?irte5 divisions ( ! pla9 scale & divide x into twelve equal p>ts4 ,ea* ( ^! divisions w !n repres5t #a ( a foot4 ,scales ( con/ruction may be pur*as$ ^u box-wood or ivory1 b :]e great accuracy is important1 x is be/ to lay d[n ! scale ^u "s "p ( ! draw+1 z 9 su* a case x exp&s & contracts ) ! draw+ "u ! influ5ce ( moi/ure4 ,examples ( scales ( di/ances w be f\nd on ,plates #h & #i4 ,,section ,,iii4--,,plott+4 ,! transf]5ce ( ! measurem5ts det]m9$ by ! survey f ! field-book to ! pap] is t]m$ plott+4 ,! op]ations ( plott+ are v simple1 & ! ability to p]=m !m prop]ly may be acquir$ ) a little practice4 ,b _! due p]=mance dem&s ! same extreme c>e & att5tion z t ( ! op]ations 9 ! field1 = x is obvi\s t ! precautions tak5 to ensure accuracy 9 ! latt] may be r5d]$ nugatory by inaccurate plott+4 ,! angul> in/rum5t us$ 9 plott+ is ! protractor1 & to ensure correct results ?is in/rum5t mu/ be accurately divid$4 ,:51 h[ev]1 ! survey has be5 made )\t ! aid ( an angul> in/rum5t1 ! protractor is n requir$ 9 lay+ d[n ! results4 ,9 su* a case1 :i* frequ5tly occurs 9 surveys ( small ext5t1 ! l9es1 hav+ all be5 *a9$ & regi/]$ 9 ! field-book1 are laid d[n directly f ! scale by means ( an ord9>y /raight-edge & a pair ( compasses4 ,! sev]al me?ods ( plott+ & ! v>i\s op]ations involv$ h n[ to be consid]$4 ,ref]5ce ,l9es & ,po9ts4--,! l9es *a9$ ov] 9 a survey & record$ 9 ! field-book are n usually ! actual l9es exi/+ on ! gr\nd1 b imag9>y /raight l9es *os5 = ! purpose ( ref]r+ o!r l9es & po9ts to !m4 ,!y are1 !re=e1 appropriately t]m$ ref]5ce l9es1 & all po9ts situate 9 !m to :i* o!r l9es are ref]r$1 9 o!r words1 all po9ts 9 a ref]5ce l9e 9 :i* o!r ref]5ce l9es int]sect x1 are t]m$ ref]5ce po9ts4 ,ref]5ce l9es are g5]ally made to =m triangles = facility ( computation1 & ^! triangles enclose ! area to be survey$4 ,b to det]m9e ! details includ$ )9 !m1 x is necess>y to =m o!r & small] triangles )9 ! l>g] ones fir/ laid d[n4 ,! latt] are1 !re=e1 di/+ui%$ z ,prim>y & ! =m] z ,second>y triangles1 & ! l9es ( :i* !y are compos$ are call$ prim>y & second>y ref]5ce l9es4 ,plott$ ,po9ts4--,9 lay+ d[n a l9e ( def9ite l5g? ^u pap]1 ! positions ( its extremities are det]m9$ & m>k$ by p5cil dots2 su* dots1 or r ! po9ts indicat$ by su* dots1 are t]m$ plott$ po9ts4 ,! l9e is drawn by jo9+ ! plott$ po9ts4 ,to ,plot ,ref]5ce ,l9es & ,po9ts4--,to plot a ref]5ce l9e ( a giv5 l5g? :5 ! position ( nei!r ( its extremities is giv51 a light dot mu/ be made ^u ! pap] 9 a conv5i5t "p to indicate ! position ( "o extremity4 ,! p5cil-po9t m>k %\ld be z light & well def9$ z possible1 & h5ce x is ess5tial t ! p5cil us$ %\ld be h>d1 & always kept p>$ to a f9e conical po9t4 ,! scale mu/ !n be appli$1 9 ! direction ( ! l9e to be drawn1 ) its z]o po9t co9cid5t ) ! plott$ po9t4 ,! scale %\ld be lightly b firmly held 9 ?is position ) ! left h&4 ,! di/ance ( ! o!r extremity ( ! l9e mu/ !n be f\nd ^u ! scale1 & ! eye plac$ directly ov] ! l9e ( ! graduation2 ?is is necess>y to ! correct plac+ ( ! po9t1 & x is well to tra9 ! eye to trace accurately ! prolongation ( ! l9e ( graduation ^u ! pap]4 ,a dot mu/ be plac$ 9 ! prolongation ( ?is l9e & close to ! edge ( ! scale1 to m>k ! position ( ! o!r extremity4 ,! ref]5ce l9e is !n to be drawn betwe5 ^! two plott$ po9ts ) a %>p *isel-po9t$ p5cil4 ,ref]5ce l9es1 l ref]5ce po9ts1 %\ld be well def9$1 b drawn z f9e & light z possible4 ,! degree ( f95ess & lightness %\ld be su* t :5 ! detail is f9ely b firmly outl9$1 ! ref]5ce l9es & po9ts may n be visible1 except on a close inspection ( ! surface4 ,to plot second>y ref]5ce l9es1 z1 = example1 a numb] ( (fset l9es1 apply ! scale s t its edge may be p>allel to & almo/ ov] ! p5cil trace ( ! prim>y l9e & its z]o po9t co9cid5t ) ! po9t at :i* ! l9e beg9s4 ,c>e mu/ always be tak5 to place ! z]o ( ! scale at ! beg9n+ ( ! l9e1 & n at ! end ( x4 ,at ! di/ances record$ 9 ! field-book z ^? at :i* ! (fsets 7 tak51 plot ^u ! l9e1 9 ! mann] describ$ above1 ! po9ts indicat+ ! extremities ( ! (fset l9es4 ,all o!r po9ts1 su* z /ations & int]section ( f5ces1 roads1 & /reams1 %\ld be plott$ at ! same "t4 ,ar\nd all /ations1 a light1 h&-drawn circle %\ld be plac$1 & int]sections m>k$ by small cross l9es4 ,?is be+ done1 place ! (fset scale s t ! z]o may co9cide ) ! plott$ po9t 9 ! ref]5ce l9e & ! edge be p]p5dicul> to ! l9e4 ,to br+ ! edge into ?is position1 ! end ( ! scale %\ld be plac$ p>allel to ! ref]5ce l9e2 ?is is1 ( c\rse1 assum+ ! scale to be p]fectly rectangul>1 z x ought to be4 ,! o!r extremities ( ! l9es may !n be plott$ 9 ! same mann] z ^? ( ! prim>y l9es4 ,to illu/rate ! =ego+ rem>ks1 let x be requir$ to plot ! foll[+ portion ( a field-book4 ------ #jj #acdf or #jjj ,l9e #a4 #ge #aagj #if #ajjj #aje #fej #ff #djj #jj #jjj ------ ,l9e #c4 ,f #aidf la/4 ------ ------ #aidf #jj #adbj #hh #abjj #add #ajjj #aaj #fjj #ge #ebj #ej #jjj #jj ------ ,l9e #b4 ,f #bejd la/4 ------ ------ #bejd #jj #bjjj #fe #agij #ie #afaj #aae #addj #hg #abbj #aaj #ajjj #hej #bh #dbj #ajj ,l9e #a4 #jjj #jj or #acdf ,l9e #c4 ------ ,beg9 at s\? corn] & range ,n4 ,hav+ laid d[n 9 a conv5i5t "p ( ! pap] ! beg9n+ ( ,l9e #a1 place ! edge ( ! scale s t ! z]o may co9cide ) ! plott$ po9t & ! edge be p>allel to "o ( ! m]idians4 ,hold+ ! scale firmly 9 ?is position1 plot ! di/ance #bejd l9ks1 & jo9 ! plott$ po9ts4 ,!n1 )\t remov+ ! scale1 plot ^u ?is ref]5ce l9e ! di/ances at :i* ! second>y or (fset l9es 7 tak51 t is at #dbj1 #hej1 #abbj1 #addj1 #afaj1 #agij1 & #bjjj l9ks4 ,9 ?is case we h no?+ b (fsets2 _h !re be5 /ations or int]sections ( f5ces1 roads1 or /reams1 ^! w\ld h _h to be plott$ at ! same "t1 & di/+ui%$ by an appropriate m>k4 ,l9e #b beg9s at ! end ( ,l9e #a1 & returns on ! left at an acute angle1 z indicat$ by ! arr[ 9 ! field-book4 ,b z ! magnitude ( ?is angle is n kn[n1 ! survey hav+ be5 tak5 ) ! *a9 alone1 ! exact direction ( ,l9e #b mu/ be asc]ta9$ 9 ! foll[+ mann]4 ,take ! l5g? ( ! l9e 9 ! compasses1 & ) ?is di/ance z a radius1 /rike an arc f ! end ( ,l9e #a4 ,also ) ! l5g? ( ,l9e #c z a radius1 /rike an arc f ! beg9n+ ( ,l9e #a1 at :i* po9t ,l9e #c closes1 int]sect+ ! =m]4 ,! po9t ( int]section w be ! end ( ,l9e #b4 ,jo9 ?is po9t to ! end ( ,l9e #a1 & plot ! (fset ref]5ce po9ts ^u ?is l9e 9 ! mann] already describ$ = ,l9e #a4 ,l9e #c beg9s at ! end ( ,l9e #b1 & t]m9ates at ! beg9n+ ( ,l9e #a2 h5ce bo? extremities be+ det]m9$1 we h only to jo9 ^! po9ts1 & to plot ! (fset ref]5ce po9ts z be=e4 ,_h a split l9e be5 tak5 = ! sake ( accuracy f ! angle ,a ,c ,b to ! base ,l9e #a1 ! int]section ( ?is l9e %\ld h be5 plott$ ^u ,l9e #a1 & ! position ( ! end ( ,l9e #b f\nd by /rik+ an arc f ?is po9t also ) a radius equal to ! l5g? ( ! split l9e4 ,if ! di/ances h be5 correctly measur$ 9 ! field & correctly tak5 f ! scale1 ! ?ree arcs w int]sect at ! same po9t4 ,if !y d n s int]sect1 ! error mu/ be not$ 9 an error-%eet1 & correct$ 9 ! field be=e proce$+ fur!r4 ,x may be rem>k$ "h t on acc\nt ( ! irregul>ities ( ! surface *a9$ ov]1 all measur$ l9es are liable to be record$ a little too long4 ,"o l9k 9 t5 *a9s may be all[$ = ?is s\rce ( error4 ,assum+1 h[ev]1 t ! prim>y ref]5ce l9es 8close0 prop]ly1 ! (fset l9es may be plott$ 9 ! mann] already describ$1 & ! detail or b\nd>y l9es drawn 91 :i* 9 ! pres5t in/ance are h$ges4 ,fig4 #hb %[s ! survey z laid d[n 9 ! =ego+ notes4 ,:5 ! survey has be5 made ) ! aid ( an angul> in/rum5t1 ! me?od ( plott+ ! prim>y ref]5ce l9es diff]s some:at f ! =ego+4 ,9 ?is case1 ! pap] %\ld be fir/ cov]$ ) a numb] ( p>allel /raight l9es rul$ ab\t an in* & a half ap>t to repres5t magnetic m]idians4 ,! fir/ /ation may !n be m>k$ ^u "o ( ^! m]idians 9 a conv5i5t "p ( ! pap]4 ,to lay d[n ! fir/ ref]5ce l9e1 apply ! protractor to ?is m]idian ) its c5tre po9t co9cid5t ) ! plott$ po9t1 & f ! be>+ record$ 9 ! field-book1 lay (f ! giv5 angle4 ,jo9 ! two plott$ po9ts & produce ! l9e indef9itely2 & ^u ?is l9e lay (f a di/ance equal to ! l5g? ( ! measur$ l9e4 ,! second ref]5ce l9e mu/ be drawn 9 ! same mann]1 f ! end ( ! fir/1 by lay+ (f f t po9t ! record$ angle4 ,b z ! end ( ! fir/ l9e w probably n fall ^u a m]idian1 ! protractor w h to be mov$ up to ! po9t by means ( a p>allel rul] adju/$ to ! ne>e/ m]idian4 ,a m conv5i5t & a m accurate me?od1 h[ev]1 is to make ! left ( ! draw+ repres5t ! nor? :ile plott+1 & to use ! ,t-squ>e in/ead ( ! p>allel rul]4 ,all subsequ5t l9es are plott$ 9 ! same way4 ,in/ead ( cov]+ ! pap] ) m]idians be=e comm5c+ to plot1 x may1 9 "s cases1 be f\nd m conv5i5t to draw ) ! set & ,t squ>es a %ort m]idian ?r\gh ! po9t z requir$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hb4 ,to lay d[n ,fig4 #hb 9 ?is mann]1 hav+ fix$ ! fir/ /ation ,a1 ! l5g? ( ! fir/ prim>y ref]5ce l9e ,a ,b may be laid (f ^u ! m]idian1 because 9 ?is case ! be>+ be+ due nor?1 ! ref]5ce l9e w be co9cid5t ) ! m]idian4 ,?is done1 ! protractor is to be plac$ ov] ! plott$ po9t ,b & ! second be>+ laid d[n4 ,hav+ plott$ ! l5g? ( ?is l9e 9 ! po9t ,c1 ! ?ird ref]5ce l9e ,c ,a w be det]m9$ bo? 9 l5g? & direction by ! plott$ po9ts ,c ,a1 :i* %\ld be jo9$ & ! l9e measur$ to asc]ta9 :e!r its l5g? corresponds ) ! measur$ di/ance4 ,if ^! d n correspond1 ! angle mu/ be replott$ & ! l5g?s laid (f anew to discov] ! s\rce ( ! error4 ,assum+1 h[ev]1 t ! l9es close prop]ly1 ! (fsets & o!r second>y po9ts may be next plott$ 9 ! mann] previ\sly describ$4 ,angles may be m accurately laid d[n by means ( a table ( natural s9es & cos9es & a l9e> scale ?an by means ( a protractor4 ,?is is especially true :5 ! angles are subt5d$ by long l9es1 z1 = example1 l9es ( #c1 #d1 & ev5 #f feet4 ,9 su* cases1 a protractor is ( little use4 ,?is mode ( lay+ d[n angles is also conv5i5t 9 "s cases :]e angles h be5 tak51 b "s ( ! sides n measur$4 ,9 us+ ! table1 x mu/ be rememb]$ t ! radius ( ! s9es & cos9es is tak5 z unity2 !re=e1 to f9d ! s9e & cos9e = any o!r radius1 ! s9e & cos9e 9 ! tables mu/ be multipli$ by t radius4 ,to lay d[n ! angle ,a ,b ,c 9 ,fig4 #hb1 ! r$uc$ cos9e ( ! angle %\ld be plott$ f ,b 9 ! po9t a1 accord+ to "s scale4 ,! scale l5g? ( ! r$uc$ s9e %\ld !n be scrib$ f a1 & ! scale l5g? ( ! radius scrib$ f ,b4 ,a l9e drawn f ,b ?r\gh ! po9t ( int]section ( ! scribes w lay d[n ! angle correspond+ to ! s9e & cos9e 9 ! table4 ,suppose ! radius *os5 to be #e *a9s1 ! angle be+ #cb #cj4 ,! cos9e ( #cb #cj is #hdcd1 :i* multipli$ by #e1 ! assum$ radius1 #dbagj4 ,lay (f ?is di/ance f ,b on ! base ,a ,b4 ,! s9e ( #cb #cj is #ecgc1 :i* multipli$ by #e1 #bfhfe4 ,f ! po9t a1 :i* is di/ant #dbagj *a9s f ,b1 ) a radius equal to #bfhfe *a9s1 describe an arc2 & f ! po9t ,b1 ) a radius equal to #e *a9s1 describe ano!r arc4 ,f ,b draw a l9e ?r\gh ! int]section ( ^! arcs1 & lay (f ^u x ! measur$ l5g? ( #aidf l9ks z record$ 9 ! field-book4 ,if only ! l5g? ( ! base ,a ,b & ! magnitudes ( ! angles ,a ,b ,c & ,b ,a ,c 7 giv51 ! l5g?s ( ! sides ,b ,c & ,a ,c w\ld h to be calculat$ by trigonometrical =mul4 ,?is me?od ( calculat+ ! l5g?s ( ! sides ( triangles & plott+ !m ) ! beam compasses1 l *a9$ triangles1 is ! mo/ accurate = lay+ d[n ! great or prim>y triangles ( a survey4 ,:5 x is requir$ to plot accord+ to ?is pr9ciple a solit>y angle1 z1 = example1 t betwe5 a /ation l9e & ! m]idian1 a circle %\ld be drawn ) z l>ge a radius z practicable r\nd ! /ation at :i* ! angle is to be laid d[n4 ,! di/ance betwe5 ! po9ts at :i* ! two l9es enclos+ ! angle cut t circle is !n f\nd by multiply+ ! radius by ! *ord ( ! angle1 t is1 by twice ! s9e ( half ! angle4 ,x sometimes happ5s1 p>ticul>ly 9 ext5sive surveys1 t all ! angul> po9ts ( "s triangles _c be plott$ ^u ! same %eet ( pap]4 ,9 su* cases1 ! plot ( ! outly+ po9ts & ! sides ( ! triangles may be laid d[n 9 ! foll[+ mann]4 ,plot ! int]sect$ triangles indep5d5tly & trace !m on trac+ pap]4 ,!n1 hav+ drawn a f9e l9e ^u bo? %eets to repres5t ! %eet edge1 lay ! po9ts on ! trace correspond+ to ^? already plott$ on ! fir/ %eet d[n ^u1 & make !m to co9cide )1 ! latt]4 ,secure ! trace 9 ?is position & trace ! %eet edge l9e ^u x4 ,! int]sect$ l9es may n[ be plott$ on ! fair %eet ) a prick] at po9ts outside ! %eet edge l9e4 ,next apply ! trace to ! second %eet & make ! %eet edge l9es co9cide4 ,hav+ secur$ ! trace 9 ?is position1 ! po9ts & ! int]sect$ l9es on ?is second %eet may be plott$ ^u ! fair pap] by means ( ! prick]4 ,to ,plot ,trav]se ,ref]5ce ,l9es4--,9 plott+ a trav]se survey 9 :i* ! angles h be5 measur$ f a fix$ l9e ( direction1 ! magnetic m]idian1 ! direction ( ! l9es may be all laid d[n at ! fir/ angul> po9t4 ,an example w be/ %[ ! me?od employ$ 9 ?is case4 ,x is requir$ to lay d[n ! trav]se %[n 9 ,fig4 #hc4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hc4 ,9 a conv5i5t "p ( ! pap] draw ! /raight l9e ,n ,s to repres5t ! magnetic m]idian1 & plot ^u x ! fir/ /ation ,a4 ,set ! protractor ) its c5tre accurately plac$ ov] ?is po9t & its #cfj? & #ahj? divisions co9cid+ ) ! m]idian4 ,hold+ ! in/rum5t securely 9 ?is position1 lay (f ar\nd x all ! be>+s z ent]$ 9 ! field-book1 numb]+ !m 9 ! ord] 9 :i* !y 7 tak54 ,aga9/ ea* ( ^! numb]s x is well to place ! page ( ! field-book on :i* ! measurem5t ( ! angle & ! survey ( ! l9e are ent]$4 ,! plott+ mu/ n[ be comm5c$ by lay+ d[n ! fir/ l9e ?r\gh ! fir/ be>+ & det]m9+ its l5g? f ! record$ measurem5ts4 ,! direction ( ! second l9e has next to be transf]r$ f ! fir/ /ation ,a to ! extremity ( ! fir/ l9e1 or ! second /ation ,b4 ,?is is accompli%$ by means ( ! p>allel rul]1 by plac+ ! edge ( ! rul] ?r\gh ! plott$ po9t & ! po9t m>k$ z be>+ #b1 & ext5d+ x till ! same edge int]sects ! po9t ,b4 ,a l9e is !n to be drawn f ?is po9t & its l5g? laid (f f ! field-book z be=e4 ,! direction ( ! ?ird l9e w !n be transf]r$ f ! fir/ angul> po9t to ! end ( ! second l9e1 or /ation ,c1 9 ! same mann]4 ,?is w be cont9u$ = all ! l9es 9 ! trav]se1 & if all ! measurem5ts h be5 correctly laid d[n1 n only w ! la/ l9e pass ?r\gh ! po9t ,a1 b x w be ( ! same l5g? z ! *a9$ l9e4 ,also ! be>+s tak5 f ,a to ,e & ,h w pass ?r\gh ^! latt] /ations4 ,^! pro( l9e be>+s %\ld be laid d[n at ! same "t z ! ref]5ce l9e be>+s1 f :i* !y %\ld be di/+ui%$ by "s sign4 ,! directions ( ! ref]5ce l9es %\ld be consecutively transf]r$1 & ! l5g? ( ea* l9e %\ld be plott$ 9 its prop] place be=e ! direction ( ! next is transf]r$4 ,to ensure ! "w clos+ prop]ly1 great c>e mu/ be tak5 to plot ! po9ts accurately & to draw ! p5cil l9es f9e4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hd4 ,! degree ( accuracy to be atta9$ w dep5d 9 a great measure ^u ! ext5t ( ! trav]se4 ,) long l9es ! difficulties increase1 & ) a great numb] ( angles ! *ances ( error are multipli$4 ,if ! angles are c>efully tak51 x is probable t seconds h be5 read (f 9 sev]al in/ances1 & ^! if neglect$1 especially ^u long *a9 l9es1 may lead to an error ( "s importance4 ,also :5 ! l9es are long1 ! p>allel rul] becomes practically useless1 & "s o!r sy/em has to be adopt$4 ,"o way ( ov]com+ ^! difficulties is to draw a p>allel to ! fir/ m]idian ?r\gh e ?ird or f\r? angle2 9 su* a case1 great c>e mu/ be obs]v$ 9 draw+ ! p>allels4 ,a m easily practicable me?od1 h[ev]1 is to use ! ,t-squ>e 9 ! mann] already describ$4 ,if ! left-h& edge ( ! draw+ bo>d be made ! nor?1 ! blade w det]m9e m]idional l9es1 & by lay+ ! /raight side ( a semicircul> protractor aga9/ ! edge ( ! blade1 its z]o w be adju/$ to ! fix$ l9e ( direction4 ,! fir/ be>+ hav+ be5 laid d[n1 ! l9e is drawn & made ! scale l5g? ( ! *a9 l9e2 ! blade ( ! squ>e is !n pu%$ to ! /ation ?us f\nd1 & ! next be>+ set (f4 ,?is op]ation is repeat$ until all ! l9es h be5 laid d[n4 ,if ! "w closes prop]ly1 ! plott+ ( ! second>y l9es may be proce$$ )4 ,! mo/ accurate me?od ( plott+ a trav]se is by rectangul> co-ord9ates1 or1 z x is usually t]m$1 ,nor?+s1 ,s\?+s1 ,ea/+s1 & ,we/+s1 because ! position ( ea* /ation is plott$ indep5d5tly1 & is n affect$ by ! errors committ$ 9 plott+ previ\s /ations4 ,?is me?od consi/s 9 assum+ two fix$ l9es or axes cross+ ea* o!r at "r angles at a fix$ po9t1 comput+ ! p]p5dicul> di/ances or co-ord9ates ( ea* /ation f ^? two axes1 & plott+ ! position ( ea* /ation by means ( ! ,t & set squ>es & a l9e> scale4 ,! m]idian is usually made to repres5t "o ( ! axes1 & 9 ?is case ! co-ord9ates p>allel to "o axis w be ! di/ances ( ! /ations to ! nor? or s\? ( ! fix$ po9t1 & ^? p>allel to ! o!r axis w be _! di/ances to ! ea/ or we/ ( ! same po9t4 ,let ,n ,s1 ,fig4 #hd1 repres5t ! m]idian1 & ,a ,b ! fir/ be>+ tak51 & ! fir/ l9e measur$4 ,! angle 9 ?is case is ,n ,a ,b 4 ,if is an acute angle1 ! second /ation ,b is to ! nor? ( ! fir/ /ation ,a2 if x is an obtuse angle1 ,b is to ! s\? ( ,a4 ,if ! angle lies to ! "r ( ! m]idian1 ,b is to ! ea/ ( ,a2 if to ! left1 to ! we/4 ,?us x w be se5 t if ! nor!rnly & ea/]nly directions are consid]$ positive1 ! s\!rnly & we/]nly directions w be negative4 ,f ! =ego+ x is manife/ t ! co-ord9ates ( ,b are z foll[s3-- ,nor?+ ,a a b ,b 7or if negative1 s\?+7 ,a ,b cos4 4 ,ea/+ ,a b a ,b 7or if negative1 we/+7 ,a ,b s94 4 ,to plot ! po9t ,b1 draw ?r\gh ! po9t ,a1 ) ! aid ( ! ,t-squ>e1 a horizontal l9e4 ,multiply ! *a9$ l5g? ( ! l9e ,a ,b by ! s9e ( ! angle ,n ,a ,b z ent]$ 9 ! field-book1 & set (f ?is di/ance along ! horizontal l9e4 ,f ! po9t ?us det]m9$1 erect1 ) ! aid ( ! set squ>e1 a p]p5dicul>1 :i* w be p>allel to ! m]idian4 ,multiply ! *a9$ l5g? ( ,a ,b by ! cos9e ( ! angle ,n ,a ,b1 & set (f ?is di/ance along ! p]p5dicul> l9e4 ,! po9t ?us det]m9$ w be ! position ( ! second /ation ,b1 :i* may !n be jo9$ to ,a by a /raight l9e4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #he4 ,! mode ( lay+ d[n ! survey 9 ,fig4 #he w n[ be obvi\s4 ,hav+ det]m9$ ! position ( ! second /ation ,b 9 ! mann] j describ$1 draw a horizontal l9e ?r\gh ,b & det]m9e ! ?ird /ation ,c 9 ! same way4 ,! f\r? /ation ,d be+ to ! left ( ! m]idian pass+ ?r\gh ,c1 c d is a we/+ & is to be consid]$ z negative4 ,!re=e ! horizontal l9e ?r\gh ,c mu/ be drawn to ! left ( t /ation1 & ! /ation ,d det]m9$ 9 ! same mann] z ! prec$+ /ations4 ,! results ( all ^! calculations %\ld be ent]$ 9 a book1 9 f\r columns1 = nor?+s1 s\?+s1 ea/+s & we/+s respectively4 ,also 9 f\r o!r columns %\ld be ent]$ ! total nor?+ or s\?+1 & ea/+ or we/+1 ( ea* /ation f ! fir/ /ation1 comput$ by add+ all ! successive nor?+s & subtract+ ! s\?+s made 9 trav]s+ to ! /ation1 ! result be+ a nor?+ if positive1 & a s\?+ if negative4 ,! same treatm5t is appli$ to ! ea/+s & we/+s4 ,?is af=ds a means ( te/+ ! accuracy ( ! "w4 ,x is also obvi\s t ! position ( ! la/ or any /ation may be det]m9$ by ?is means )\t plott+ ! int]m$iate /ations4 ,let x be obs]v$ t bo? & s94 are positive or negative accord+ z t angle lies to ! ea/ or to ! we/ ( ! m]idian2 & t ! cos9es ( obtuse angles are negative4 ,to ,plot ,detail4--,by 8detail0 is meant outl9es or objects :e!r natural or artificial1 su* z f5ces1 walls1 riv]s1 canals1 roads1 lakes1 wat] m>g9s1 bea* m>ks1 seas1 or imag9>y b\nd>y l9es4 ,9 plott+ f ! entries ( measurem5ts = detail1 ^! measurem5ts %\ld be laid d[n ^u ! pap] 9 ! ord] & mann] indicat$ 9 ! field-book4 ,! mode ( plott+ ! p]p5dicul> ref]5ce l9es by means ( :i* ! position ( ! detail is fix$ has already be5 fully describ$ & illu/rat$4 ,! prop] connections = detail1 z %[n by ! field-book1 %\ld be made by draw+ a firm p5cil l9e ?r\gh ! detail po9ts ) ! aid ( an (fset scale adju/$ successively to ! adjac5t po9ts4 ,all su* connections %\ld be cle>ly & elegantly made4 ,:5 all b\nd>ies1 roads1 & /reams h be5 drawn & ink$ 91 trac+s %\ld be tak5 9 small portions ( all t has be5 laid d[n = ! use ( ! 8exam9]40 ,! duties ( ! exam9] are to make on ! gr\nd ! necess>y corrections = omissions & detail 9 error2 to give1 9 position & "*1 woods1 wat]1 m>%1 commons1 vegetable & geological features1 & p]man5t artificial /ructures2 & to furni% ! descriptive names ( places & ?+s1 or any o!r desirable in=mation4 ,! topographical "* ( m\nta9s1 m>%es1 bogs1 r\gh pa/ure1 woods & wat]1 %\ld be drawn 9 "* on trace & t9t$4 ,if requir$1 hill sket*+ %\ld also be suppli$ on ! exam9]'s trace4 ,on be+ return$ to ! (fice1 ! plott] %\ld replot f ! field notes ! detail correct$1 & transf] ! details f ! trace to ! map4 ,to ,plot ,cont\rs4--,! /ud5t :o has made himself famili> ) ! me?ods ( lay+ d[n angles1 & plott+ ref]5ce l9es & po9ts1 w f9d no difficulty 9 lay+ d[n cont\r traces4 ,:5 ! cont\r po9ts h be5 survey$ ) ! *a91 ! cont\r is obta9$ by draw+ a free l9e ( feature ?r\gh ! plott$ po9ts4 ,b :5 ! cont\r po9ts h be5 survey$ by measur+ magnetic angles to kn[n po9ts1 su* angles mu/ be laid d[n at ^! po9ts1 & produc$ to meet 9 ! cont\r po9t4 ,! draw+ ( cont\rs diff]s f ! draw+ ( ord9>y detail insomu* z ea* cont\r po9t is %[n by a small dot1 & ea* c>ry+ po9t by a simil> dot surr\nd$ by a small h&-drawn circle to di/+ui% x4 ,! =m] %\ld be s plott$ z to be di/+ui%able 9 ! trace or cont\r l9e1 :i* %\ld be readily traceable1 b n conspicu\s4 ,! l9e jo9+ adjac5t po9ts %\ld be true l9es ( feature4 ,col\r is usually employ$ = ^! l9es1 & x is well to give !m a brok5 or some:at undef9$ "*4 ,:5 ! ,fr5* sy/em is adopt$1 cont\r l9es are drawn cont9u\s1 a broad b fa9t l9e ( col\r4 ,to ,plot ,s\nd$ ,po9ts 9 ,subm]g$ ,di/ricts4--,:5 ! angles h be5 measur$ on dry l& ) ! !odolite1 ^! angles %\ld be laid d[n at ! dry-l& po9ts1 & ! l9es produc$ to meet 9 ! s\nd$ po9t4 ,b :5 ! angles h be5 measur$ on ! wat] ) a sextant1 a /ation po9t] is requir$4 ,! arcs ( ! po9t] %\ld be adju/$ to read ! measur$ angles1 & ! in/rum5t appli$ to ! plott$ po9ts ( ! obs]v$ objects s z to br+ ! hair l9es accurately to _! respective object po9ts4 ,! s\nd$ po9t may !n be correctly plott$ ?r\gh ! c5tre ( ! po9t]4 ,if ! angles h be5 measur$ by ! magnetic compass1 t is1 if ! angles are ^? made ) ! magnetic m]idian1 ! angles %\ld be laid d[n at ! plott$ po9ts ( ! obs]v$ l& objects1 & ! l9es produc$ to meet 9 ! s\nd$ po9t4 ,in/ead ( ! /ation po9t]1 a piece ( trac+ pap] may be us$ 9 ! foll[+ mann]4 ,draw ?ree /raight l9es radiat+ f "o po9t s z to make ) ea* o!r angles equal to ! measur$ angles4 ,lay ! pap] on ! plan & move x ab\t till ! ?ree l9es trav]se ! obs]v$ objects4 ,! po9t f :i* !y div]ge w !n m>k ! position ( ! s\nd$ po9t1 :i* may be plott$ by be+ prick$ (f4 ,! s\nd$ po9t det]m9$ by angles measur$ ) ! sextant may also be plott$ by describ+ circles on ! l&-object l9es z *ords1 to conta9 segm5tal angles equal to ! measur$ angles4 ,su* circles w int]sect 9 ! common l&-object po9t & ! s\nd$ po9t4 ,to plot ! s\nd$ po9t 9 ?is mann]1 requires ! solution by con/ruction ( ! problem1 8to describe on a giv5 l9e a segm5t ( a circle t %all conta9 a giv5 angle40 ,b ?is me?od is g5]ally f\nd too t$i\s 9 practice4 ,errors & ,error-%eets4--,!re is a t5d5cy1 z we h previ\sly rem>k$1 = ! measur$ l5g?s ( l9es to be a little too long1 by reason ( ! irregul>ities ( ! surface4 ,x is usual to all[ = ?is s\rce ( error #a 9 #ajjj 9 fair op5 c\ntry1 & #a 9 #ajjj 9 close c\ntry4 ,:5 ! measurem5ts diff] by an am\nt exce$+ ^! limits1 ! p5cil trace %\ld n be drawn betwe5 ! ref]5ce po9ts1 b ! l9e %\ld be ent]$ on an 8(fice error-%eet40 ,! error-%eet %\ld %[ ! numb] ( ! plot-%eet1 ! triangle1 ! book & page 9 :i* ! measurem5ts are ent]$1 & ! scale & measur$ l5g?s ( ! l9e4 ,to asc]ta9 ! s\rce ( ! error1 o!r l9es ref]5c$ to ! ref]5ce po9t or po9ts ( ! l9e 9 error %\ld be plott$1 & ! app>5t s\rce %\ld be ent]$ on ! error-%eet4 ,if ! l9es ref]r$ to ! same po9t be f\nd to plot to ano!r po9t 9 ! ref]5ce l9e1 ! scale measurem5t ( ?is po9t %\ld also be ent]$4 ,& if ! ref]5ce po9t 9 error be n directly survey$ 9 ! survey ( _! respective l9es1 ! measurem5ts = ref]5ce & ! ari?metical r$uctions w h to be exam9$4 ,besides ! (fice error-%eet1 !re %\ld be a field error-%eet = ea* book & triangle1 ^u :i* %\ld be ent]$ ! book1 ! page1 & ! l9e 9 error1 & "s indication ( ! s\rce ( ! error4 ,?is %eet w be =w>d$ ) ! field-book to ! surveyor = correction4 ,! foll[+ are examples ( a common & v good =m ( error-%eet1 b x may be v>i$ 9 _m ways if ?\ght desirable3-- ,,(fice ,,error-,,%eet4 ,plott]'s ,"n ,date ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,book4,l9es4 ,scale ,ref]5ce,app>5t,triangles4 ,obs]vations4 ----- ,measure- ,po9ts ,correc- ,page4 m5t4 ( ,l9es4 tions4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- #bjj #aaahaeea #afea ,exam9e ref]5ce ----- #aiec #aijg ---------------- po9t & l9e4 #bc #bjiddjbj #djbj #bjj #bhadacjh ,illus- ----- #cjjj #cjef -------- #cjef tra- ,exam9e l9e4 #bh #djbjcjhb tion #bjj #aeea #he #afea ,exam9e ref]5ce ----- #acad #acbc ---------------- po9t & l9e4 #db #djbjcjbh #djbj ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,,field ,,error-,,%eet4 ,to ,a4 ,b41 ,surveyor4 ,date ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,book4,l9es4,triangles4 ,obs]vations4 ----- ,page4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,exam9e ref]5ce po9ts & l9e4 #bjj #afea ----- #aiec ---- ,ref]5ce po9t 7,augu/ #aj?1 #ahgd74 #bc #djbj #bjj ,illus- ----- #cjjj tra- ,exam9e l9e4 ,l9e #cjef 7,augu/ #aj?1 #ahgd74 #bh tion ,exam9e ref]5ce po9ts & l9e4 #bjj #afea ----- #acad ---- 7,augu/ #ab?1 #ahgd74 #db #djbj ,correct$ 9 ! field1 ,a4 ,b4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,to ,plot ,v]tical ,sections4--,9 plott+ a v]tical section1 a f9e & firm horizontal l9e is fir/ drawn to repres5t ! datum l9e4 ,! ref]5ce po9ts are !n plott$ ^u ?is l9e f ! level-book by means ( a l9e> scale1 9 ! mann] already describ$ = plott+ su* po9ts4 ,! ref]5ce po9ts to be plott$ ^u ! datum l9e are ! *a9 l5g?s ent]$ 9 ! field-book 9 ! column head$ ,di/ances4 ,^! di/ances are ! po9ts at :i* ! levels 7 tak51 & betwe5 !m1 unless o!rwise /at$ 9 ! field-book1 ! gr\nd is suppos$ to slope uni=mly4 ,moreov]1 ^! di/ances are assum$ to be measur$ horizontally1 & !re=e c>e mu/ be tak5 to asc]ta9 :e!r or n !y 7 s measur$ 9 ! field2 if n1 !y mu/ be r$uc$ be=e plott+1 or ! section w be too long4 ,hav+ plott$ ! ref]5ce po9ts on ! datum l9e1 a p]p5dicul> mu/ be erect$ f ea* ( !m1 & a l5g? laid (f ^u ?is p]p5dicul> equal to ! v]tical height above ! datum l9e indicat$ by ! entry 9 ! column ( ! level-book head$ ,r$uc$ ,levels aga9/ ! di/ance to :i* ! p]p5dicul> corresponds4 ,to r5d] ! diff]5ces ( altitude m app>5t1 ^! v]tical di/ances are plott$ to a mu* l>g] scale ?an ! horizontal1 z expla9$ 9 a prec$+ ,section4 ,to erect ! p]p5dicul>s1 ! ,t & set squ>e furni% ! mo/ conv5i5t means4 ,! detail po9ts ?us det]m9$ ^u ! p]p5dicul>s repres5t ! po9ts 9 ! surface ( ! gr\nd at :i* ! levels 7 tak51 & by jo9+ ^! po9ts we obta9 ! surface l9e4 ,an example w cle>ly %[ ! me?od pursu$4 ,let x be requir$ to lay d[n ! section f ! foll[+ level-book3-- ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,back ,=e ,rise4,fall4,r$uc$ ,dis- ,rem>ks4 ,sights4,sights4 ,levels4tances4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- feet4 feet4 feet4feet4 feet4 *a9s4 #ajjjj 44 ,b4,m4 nor?-we/ corn] ( *ur* t[]4 #afda #icg #gjd 44 #ajgjd #bcj #aicf #ajdc #hic 44 #aaeig #dfe #afdb #aicf 44 #bid #aacjc #fdj #hcf #adcf 44 #fjj #ajgjc #gid #icg #abdi 44 #cab #ajcia #ajcj #aafd #aigf 44 #hab #iegi #abjj #aidf #icbajad 44 #ajeic #aefd #agfd #acfb #djb 44 #ajiie 44 ,c5tre ( road at #abc l9ks4 #ahgf #abfd #fab 44 #aafjg #ahbc #aihd #afib #bib 44 #aahii #aifd #aigf #aafd #hab 44 #abgaa #bajj ,=w>d /ation at corn] ( wood4 #agfd #aigb 44 #bjh #abejc #bbej #igc #ahfd 44 #hia #aafab #bcgf #hfd #agfd 44 #ijj #ajgab #beij #ahgf #afbd #beb 44 #ajifd #bgjj ------------------------ #bcagi #bbbaedihadjag #bbbae #djag #ajjjj ------- ----- ------- ,diff]5ce betwe5 datum & #ifd #ifd #ifdla/ r$uc$ level1 or height ( ,b above ,a4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hf4 ,draw ! datum l9e ,d ,l1 ,fig4 #hf1 & set (f along x ! di/ances #bcj1 #dfe1 #fdj1 #gid1 c41 l9ks2 ^! po9ts w be ! ref]5ce po9ts = ! p]p5dicul>s4 ,erect a p]p5dicul> f ea* ( ^! po9ts1 & lay (f1 to a suitable scale1 ^u ^! l9es successively ! v]tical heights #ajj1 #ajgjd1 #aaeig1 #aacjc1 #ajgjc1 c4 ,! po9ts ?us det]m9$ w be ! surface detail po9ts1 & by jo9+ ^! we %all obta9 ! surface l9e4 ,!n w ,a ,d ,l ,b repres5t a section ( ! gr\nd betwe5 ,a & ,b4 ,a description ( objects on ! surface wor?y ( notice %\ld be writt5 ov] su* objects4 ,9 work+ sections1 :]e great accuracy is requir$1 l>g] scales are employ$1 & ! levels are tak5 at m frequ5t int]vals4 ,?us1 9 a railway work+ section1 = example1 ! levels are tak5 at e *a9's l5g?1 & also ov] e little undulation 9 ! surface ( ! gr\nd4 ,9 prep>+ su* sections1 v]tical l9es are drawn 9 blue at e *a9's l5g? up to ! surface ( ! gr\nd f ! datum l9e1 & on ea* v]tical is writt5 ! r$uc$ height above datum f ! column ( r$uc$ levels 9 ! level-book4 ,sections1 especially work+ sections1 are usually drawn ^u rul$1 or1 z x is call$1 8section0 pap]1 ! nature ( :i* we h already describ$4 ,?is me?od1 :i* 0 introduc$ by ,mr4 ,brunel1 possesses _m practical advantages1 inasmu* z x obviates ! necessity ( plott+ ! 8di/ances0 & erect+ p]p5dicul>s1 ! latt] already exi/+4 ,x also greatly facilitates ! computation ( ! cont5ts ( a giv5 section4 ,its *ief defect lies 9 ! difficulty ( mak+ ! horizontal l9es co9cide :5 jo9+ ! %eets end to end4 ,( c\rse scales are n requir$ ^u section pap]4 ,to lay d[n ,gradi5ts4--,! me?od ( lay+ d[n ! gradi5ts ( railways & roads usually adopt$ 9 practice consi/s 9 apply+ "o end ( an ext5d$ silk5 ?read to ! section at ! po9t 9 :i* ! road comm5ces1 & ! o!r end 9 su* a position t ! ?read may cut ! pr(ile ( ! e>?'s surface s z to leave equal portions ( space above & bel[ ! ?read1 z ne>ly z c be judg$ by ! eye4 ,! cutt+s f ! p>ts above ! ?read w !n furni% suffici5t mat]ials to =m ! embankm5ts 9 ! spaces bel[4 ,?is is call$ 8balanc+0 ! cutt+s & embankm5ts4 ,:5 ! fir/ gradi5t has be5 det]m9$ 9 ?is way1 x may be f\nd unfav\rable to ! second 9 respect to ! ext5t ( cutt+s & embankm5ts2 9 su* a case x mu/ be modifi$ to suit ! requirem5ts ( ! latt]4 ,9 ?is way ! gradi5ts mu/ be modifi$ successively until ! comp\nd result evid5tly gives a m9imum ( cutt+s & embankm5ts1 due reg>d1 ( c\rse1 be+ _h to ! limits impos$ by ! nature ( ! case1 bo? ) respect to ! rul+ gradi5t & ! prop] heights = bridges4 ,to ,plot a ,section f a ,cont\r ,map4--,! mode ( plott+ a section f a cont\r$ plan 0 expla9$ :5 treat+ ( cont\r l9es4 ,! cont\r map us$ = ?is purpose %\ld give ! features ( ! surface configuration 9 suffici5t detail )\t s]i\s error4 ,hav+ drawn a l9e ( section on ! map & a datum l9e ^u ! fair pap] = ! v]tical section1 ! po9ts 9 :i* ! section l9e int]sects ! cont\rs %\ld be measur$ on ! scale ( ! map f a z]o po9t 9 t l9e1 & ! measurem5ts plott$ ^u ! datum l9e4 ,p]p5dicul>s %\ld !n be drawn ?r\gh ^! plott$ po9ts1 & on ^! p]p5dicul>s ! r$uc$ altitudes ( _! respective cont\r po9ts %\ld be plott$4 ,a l9e drawn ?r\gh ^! surface plott$ po9ts w be ! surface l9e4 ,:5 ! horizontal scales ( ! map & ! section are ! same1 ! cont\r plane l9es may be drawn on ! pap] = ! section p>allel to ! section l9e on ! map1 & p]p5dicul>s rais$ to int]sect !m f ! po9ts on ! map 9 :i* ! section l9e int]sects ! cont\rs1 9 ! mann] previ\sly describ$4 ,! po9ts ( int]section ) ! p>allel l9es w be ! surface cont\r po9ts 9 ! v]tical section4 ,= practical purposes1 ! p>allel l9es & ! p]p5dicul>s are only tempor>ily drawn 9 p5cil until ! surface trace %all h be5 obta9$ & drawn 9 ink1 ) ! datum l9e4 ,,section ,,iv4--,,civil ,,eng9e]s' ,,& ,,surveyors' ,,plans4 ,9 ! prec$+ ,sections ! mann] ( lay+ d[n plans has be5 fully describ$ & ! pr9ciples involv$ 9 ! op]ations m9utely expla9$4 ,x n[ only rema9s1 !re=e1 to direct att5tion to c]ta9 matt]s relat+ to ! prep>ation ( plans1 :i* are necessitat$ by ! circum/ances ( p>ticul> cases4 ,civil eng9e]s' plans usually consi/1 if we except h>b\r surveys1 ( a repres5tation1 to a r l>ge scale1 ( long & n>r[ tracts ( c\ntry ?r\gh :i* x is propos$ to con/ruct a means ( communication1 su* z a railway1 a road1 or a canal4 ,!y d n diff] ess5tially f o!r plans1 ! survey be+ tak5 9 ! ord9>y way1 & ! plan laid d[n accord+ to "o or o!r ( ! me?ods describ$ 9 ! prec$+ ,section4 ,! wid? ( railway surveys v>ies f five to tw5ty *a9s1 at ! option ( ! eng9e]4 ,an important matt] dem&+ c>eful att5tion is to survey1 plot1 & numb] all fields & o!r enclosures1 h\ses & o!r build+s situate )9 ! limits ( deviation1 t is1 ! b\nd>ies ( ! space beyond :i* x is n propos$ to deviate ! l9e ( railway4 ,! object ( numb]+ e sep>ate enclosure1 road1 build+1 or o!r object on ! plan1 is t !y may be ! m readily describ$ 9 a book prep>$ = t purpose & call$ ! ,ref]5ce ,book4 ,p>i% & c\nty b\nd>ies are %[n by dott$ l9es1 z expla9$ 9 a =m] ,section4 ,frequ5tly x is necess>y1 9 consequ5ce ( ! smallness ( ! scale adopt$ = ! plan1 to give enl>g$ draw+s ( c]ta9 portions4 ,9 ^! cases1 :5ev] practicable1 ! enl>g$ plan %\ld be plac$ directly "u or ov] ! small plan to :i* x ref]s1 z su* an arrangem5t is n only m pleas+ to ! eye1 b is f> m conv5i5t = ref]5ce ?an "o 9 :i* !re is no relation ( position betwe5 ! two plans4 ,! propos$ railway %\ld be repres5t$ by a full & heavy l9e1 & ! limits ( deviation %[n by /rong dott$ l9es4 ,! names ( ! diff]5t p>i%es ?r\gh :i* ! l9e passes %\ld be conspicu\sly writt51 & ! "n ( ! c\nty plac$ at ! top ( ea* %eet2 ! %eets also %\ld be di/9ctly numb]$4 ,x is n usual to di/+ui% diff]5t k9ds ( f5ces on plans ( eng9e]+ projects1 z on e/ate plans to a l>ge scale2 on ! =m] x is suffici5t to di/+ui% betwe5 f5c$ & unf5c$ l9es ( division ( l&1 m>k+ ! =m] by pla91 & ! latt] by dott$ l9es4 ,x is almo/ ne$less to rem>k t a scale ( di/ances %\ld accompany e plan4 ,! section %\ld be drawn to ! same horizontal scale z ! plan1 & ! exagg]ation ( ! v]tical scale %\ld be su* z to %[ di/9ctly ! irregul>ities ( ! surface4 ,! horizontal datum l9e ( ! section %\ld h m>k$ on x a scale ( di/ances correspond+ ) ^? m>k$ along ! c5tre l9e ( ! plan1 9 ord] t correspond+ po9ts on ! plan & ! section may be readily f\nd1 & great c>e %\ld be tak5 t horizontal di/ances on ! plan & on ! section exactly agree4 ,cross sections are longitud9al sections ( exi/+ l9es ( communication :i* ! propos$ "w w cross2 !y may cross ! c5tre l9e ( ! propos$ "w ei!r at "r angles or obliquely4 ,cross sections may also be requir$ :]e ! gr\nd slopes sideways2 9 g5]al !y %\ld be rang$ accurately at "r angles to ! c5tre l9e1 & !y %\ld be plott$ )\t exagg]ation1 t is1 _! v]tical & horizontal scales %\ld be ! same z ! v]tical scale ( ! longitud9al section4 ,all cross sections %\ld be plott$ z se5 by look+ =w>d t[>ds !m along ! c5tre l9e4 ,to di/+ui% ! nature ( ! soils pass$ ?r\gh1 sections are frequ5tly col\r$1 z %[n 9 ,plate #ba4 ,! in=mation giv5 by ?is means conc]n+ ! "* ( ! /rata is ( v great value to ! eng9e] or to ! contractor1 inasmu* z x enables !m to pr$icate ) "s degree ( c]ta9ty ! am\nt ( lab\r t w be requir$ 9 execut+ ! propos$ "w4 ,x is1 !re=e1 highly important t ! draughtsman correctly repres5t ! "* ( ! /rata4 ,! conv5tional modes ( repres5t+ ^! features are %[n on ,plate #bj1 :i* %\ld be c>efully /udi$ & copi$4 ,x is necess>y t ! eng9e]+ draughtsman %\ld be acqua9t$ ) ! 8,/&+ ,ord]s0 ( ,p>liam5t relat+ to ! prep>ation ( plans & sections1 9 ord] t he may fulfil ! conditions !re9 laid d[n4 ,& z mo/ ( ! important details involv$ by ! exig5cies ( practice 9 ! prep>ation ( su* plans & sections are prescrib$ by ^! ,/&+ ,ord]s1 we w give s mu* ( !m z relates directly to ! matt]s "u consid]ation2 by s do+1 ! details w be cle>ly & fully describ$1 & ! requirem5ts ( ! law conc]n+ !m au?oritatively made kn[n4 ,nature ( ! ,docum5ts requir$4--8,9 cases ( bills relat+ to eng9e]+ works1 a plan & also a duplicate !re(1 toge!r ) a book ( ref]5ce !reto1 & a section & also a duplicate !re(1 z h]e9aft] describ$1 %all be deposit$ = public inspection at ! (fice ( ! cl]k ( ! peace = e c\nty1 rid+ or division 9 ,engl& or ,irel&1 or 9 ! (fice ( ! pr9cipal %]iff cl]k ( e c\nty 9 ,scotl&1 & :]e any c\nty 9 ,scotl& is divid$ into di/ricts or divisions1 !n also 9 ! (fice ( ! pr9cipal %]iff cl]k 9 or = ea* di/rict or division 9 or ?r\gh :i* ! "w is propos$ to be made1 ma9ta9$1 v>i$1 ext5d$ or enl>g$1 or 9 :i* su* l&s or h\ses are situate1 on or be=e ! #cj? day ( ,novemb] imm$iately prec$+ ! application = ! bill40 8,9 ! case ( railway bills1 ! ordnance map1 on ! scale ( "o in* to a mile1 or :]e !re is no ordnance map1 a publi%$ map1 to a scale ( n less ?an half an in* to a mile1 or 9 ,irel&1 to a scale ( n less ?an a qu>t] ( an in* to a mile1 ) ! l9e ( railway del9eat$ !reon1 s z to %[ its g5]al c\rse & direction1 %all1 on or be=e ! #cj? day ( ,novemb]1 be deposit$ at ! (fice ( ! cl]k ( ! peace1 or %]iff cl]k1 toge!r ) ! plans1 sections1 & book ( ref]5ce40 8,9 cases :]e ! "w %all be situate on tidal l&s )9 ! ord9>y spr+ tides1 a copy ( ! plans & sections %all1 on or be=e ! #cj? day ( ,novemb]1 be deposit$ at ! (fice ( ! ,h>b\r ,dep>tm5t1 ,bo>d ( ,trade1 m>k$ #8,tidal ,wat]s1' & on su* copy all tidal wat]s %all be col\r$ blue1 & if ! plans include any bridge across tidal wat]s ! dim5sions z reg>ds span & headway ( ! ne>e/ bridge1 if any1 above & bel[ ! propos$ new bridge1 %all be m>k$ !reon1 & 9 all su* cases su* plans & sections %all be accompani$ by a publi%$ map or ordnance %eet ( ! c\ntry1 ov] :i* ! works are propos$ to ext5d1 or are to be c>ri$1 ) _! position & ext5t1 or r\te accurately laid d[n !reon40 8,9 ! case ( railway bills1 a copy ( all plans1 sections1 & books ( ref]5ce1 & ! a=em5tion$ publi%$ map ) ! l9e ( railway del9eat$ !reon s z to %[ its g5]al c\rse & direction1 is requir$ to be deposit$ at ! (fice ( ! ,bo>d ( ,trade1 & at ! ,private ,bill ,(fice ( ! ,h\ses ( ,p>liam5t2 & 9 cases :]e any portion ( ! "w is situate )9 ! limits ( ! ,metropolis1 a copy ( s mu* ( ! plans & sections z relates to su* portion ( ! "w is requir$ to be deposit$ at ! (fice ( ! ,metropolitan ,bo>d ( ,works4 ,also a copy ( s mu* ( ! plans & sections z relates to ea* p>i% 9 or ?r\gh :i* ! "w is int5d$ to be made1 or 9 :i* any l&s or h\ses int5d$ to be tak5 are situate1 toge!r ) a copy ( s mu* ( ! book ( ref]5ce z relates to su* p>i%1 is requir$ to be deposit$ ) ! p>i% cl]k ( ea* su* p>i% 9 ,engl&1 ) ! s*ool-ma/] ( ea* su* p>i% 9 ,scotl&1 & ) ! cl]k ( ! union )9 :i* su* p>i% is includ$ 9 ,irel&40 ,plans4--8,e plan requir$ to be deposit$ %all be drawn to a scale ( n less ?an f\r in*es to a mile1 & %all describe ! l9e or situation ( ! :ole ( ! "w 7no alt]native l9e or "w be+ 9 any case p]mitt$71 & ! l&s 9 or ?r\gh :i* x is to be made1 ma9ta9$1 v>i$1 ext5d$ or enl>g$1 or ?r\gh :i* e communication to or f ! "w %all be made2 & :]e x is ! int5tion ( ! p>ties to apply = p[]s to make any lat]al deviation f ! l9e ( ! propos$ "w1 ! limits ( su* deviation %all be def9$ ^u ! plan1 & all l&s includ$ )9 su* limits %all be m>k$ !reon2 & unless ! :ole ( su* plan %all be ^u a scale ( n less ?an a qu>t] ( an in* to e "o hundr$ feet1 an enl>g$ plan %all be add$ ( any build+s1 y>d1 c\rty>d or l& )9 ! curtilage ( any build+1 or ( any gr\nd cultivat$ z a g>d51 ei!r 9 ! l9e ( ! propos$ "w or includ$ )9 ! limits ( ! said deviation1 ^u a scale ( n less ?an a qu>t] ( an in* to e "o hundr$ feet40 8,9 all cases :]e x is propos$ to make1 v>y1 ext5d or enl>ge any cut1 canal1 res]voir1 aqu$uct or navigation1 ! plan %all describe ! brooks & /reams to be directly div]t$ into su* int5d$ cut1 canal1 res]voir1 aqu$uct or navigation1 or into any v>iation1 ext5sion or enl>gem5t !re( respectively1 = supply+ ! same ) wat]40 8,9 all cases :]e x is propos$ to make1 v>y1 ext5d or enl>ge any railway1 ! plan %all exhibit !reon ! di/ances 9 miles & furlongs f "o ( ! t]m9i2 & a memor&um ( ! radius ( e curve n exce$+ "o mile 9 l5g? %all be not$ on ! plan 9 furlongs & *a9s2 & :]e tunnell+ z a sub/itute = op5 cutt+ is int5d$1 su* tunnell+ %all be m>k$ by a dott$ l9e on ! plan40 8,if x is int5d$ to div]t1 wid5 or n>r[ any turnpike road1 public c>riage road1 navigable riv]1 canal or railway1 ! c\rse ( su* div]sion1 & ! ext5t ( su* wid5+ or n>r[+ %all be m>k$ ^u ! plan40 8,:5 a railway is int5d$ to =m a junction ) an exi/+ or au?oriz$ l9e ( railway1 ! c\rse ( su* exi/+ or au?oriz$ l9e ( railway %all be %[n on ! deposit$ plan = a di/ance ( eight hundr$ y>ds on ei!r side ( ! propos$ junction1 on a scale ( n less ?an f\r in*es to a mile40 ,book ( ,ref]5ce4--8,! book ( ref]5ce to e su* plan %all conta9 ! names ( ! own]s or reput$ own]s1 lessees or reput$ lessees1 & occupi]s ( all l&s & h\ses 9 ! l9e ( ! propos$ "w1 or )9 ! limits ( deviation z def9$ ^u ! plan1 & %all describe su* l&s & h\ses respectively40 ,sections4--8,! section %all be drawn to ! same horizontal scale z ! plan1 & to a v]tical scale ( n less ?an "o in* to e "o hundr$ feet1 & %all %[ ! surface ( ! gr\nd m>k$ on ! plan1 ! int5d$ level ( ! propos$ "w1 ! height ( e embankm5t & ! dep? ( e cutt+1 & a datum horizontal l9e1 :i* %all be ! same ?r\gh\t ! :ole l5g? ( ! "w1 or any bran* !re( respectively1 & %all be ref]r$ to "s fix$ po9t 7/at$ 9 writ+ on ! section71 ne> "s portion ( su* "w1 & 9 ! case ( a canal1 cut1 navigation1 turnpike or o!r c>riage road or railway1 ne> ei!r ( ! t]m9i40 8,9 cases ( bills = improv+ ! navigation ( any riv]1 !re %all be a section :i* %all specify ! levels ( bo? banks ( su* riv]2 & :]e any alt]ation is int5d$ to be made !re91 x %all describe ! same by feet & in*es1 or decimal p>ts ( a foot40 8,9 e section ( a railway1 ! l9e ( ! railway m>k$ !reon %all correspond ) ! upp] surface ( ! rails40 8,di/ances on ! datum l9e %all be m>k$ 9 miles & furlongs1 to correspond ) ^? on ! plan2 a v]tical measure f ! datum l9e to ! l9e ( ! railway %all be m>k$ 9 feet & in*es1 or decimal p>ts ( a foot1 at ea* *ange ( ! gradi5t or incl9ation2 & ! proportion or rate ( incl9ation betwe5 ea* su* *ange %all also be m>k$40 8,:]ev] ! l9e ( ! railway is int5d$ to cross any turnpike road1 public c>riage road1 navigable riv]1 canal or railway1 ! height ( ! railway ov] or dep? "u ! surface !re(1 & ! height & span ( e ar* ( all bridges & viaducts by :i* ! railway w be c>ri$ ov] ! same1 %all be m>k$ 9 figures at e cross+ !re(2 & :]e ! roadway w be c>ri$ across any su* turnpike road1 public c>riage road or railway1 on ! level !re(1 su* cross+ %all be s describ$ on ! section2 & x %all also be /at$ if su* level w be unalt]$40 8,if any alt]ations be int5d$ 9 ! wat] level ( any canal1 or 9 ! level or rate ( incl9ation ( any turnpike road1 public c>riage road or railway1 :i* w be cross$ by ! l9e ( railway1 !n ! same %all be /at$ on ! said section1 & ea* alt]ation %all be numb]$2 & cross sections 9 ref]5ce to ! said numb]s1 on a horizontal scale ( n less ?an "o in* to e ?ree hundr$ & ?irty feet1 & on a v]tical scale ( n less ?an "o in* to e =ty feet1 %all be add$1 :i* %all %[ ! pres5t surface ( su* canal1 road or railway1 & ! int5d$ surface !re( :5 alt]$2 & ! greate/ ( ! pres5t & int5d$ rates ( incl9ation ( su* road or railway %all also be m>k$ 9 figures !reon2 & :]e any public c>riage road is cross$ on ! level1 a cross section ( su* road %all also be add$2 & all su* cross sections %all ext5d = two hundr$ y>ds on ea* side ( ! c5tre l9e ( ! railway40 8,:]ev] ! extreme height ( any embankm5t1 or ! extreme dep? ( any cutt+1 %all exce$ five feet1 ! extreme height ov] or dep? "u ! surface ( ! gr\nd %all be m>k$ 9 figures ^u ! section2 & if any bridge or viaduct ( m ?an ?ree ar*es %all int]v5e 9 any embankm5t1 or if any tunnel %all int]v5e 9 any cutt+1 ! extreme height or dep? %all be m>k$ 9 figures on ea* ( ! p>ts into :i* su* embankm5t or cutt+ %all be divid$ by su* bridge1 viaduct or tunnel40 8,:]e tunnell+1 z a sub/itute = op5 cutt+1 or a viaduct z a sub/itute = solid embankm5t1 is int5d$1 ! same %all be m>k$ on ! section40 8,:5 a railway is int5d$ to =m a junction ) an exi/+ or au?oriz$ l9e ( railway1 ! gradi5t ( su* exi/+ or au?oriz$ l9e ( railway %all be %[n on ! deposit$ section1 & 9 connection !re)1 & on ! same scale z ! g5]al section1 = a di/ance ( eight hundr$ y>ds on ei!r side ( ! po9t ( junction40 ,besides ! in=mation ?us writt5 on ! plan1 x is useful to ! eng9e]1 ?\gh n prescrib$1 to h ! levels ( important po9ts ei!r writt5 or %[n by means ( cont\r l9es1 especially :5 ! plan is to be us$ 9 select+ a l9e ( railway4 ,! results ( trial pits & bor+s may also be writt5 on ! plan1 & ! e/imat$ co/ ( ea* "p ( ! "w plac$ opposite to its position on ! pap]4 ,work+ ,sections4--,= work+ sections ! horizontal scale adopt$ is usually ?ree or f\r *a9s to ! in*1 & ! v]tical scale #cj or #dj feet to ! in*4 ,a work+ section %\ld %[ ! level ( ! gr\nd1 ! level ( ! propos$ "w1 & ! height ( embankm5t or dep? ( cutt+ at e po9t ( ! gr\nd :]e ! level has be5 tak51 ^! quantities be+ f\nd by calculation1 n by measurem5t on ! pap]4 ,! position & levels ( all 8b5* m>ks0 %\ld also be cle>ly indicat$4 ,at e cross+ ( road1 riv] or /ream ( any k9d1 %\ld be ins]t$ "s rem>k respect+ ! "w to be con/ruct$1 ) a ref]5ce to ! numb] ( ! work+ draw+ prep>$4 ,! latt] may be a special draw+1 z = a bridge1 or a g5]al draw+1 z = a level cross+ & gates4 ,! results ( bor+ %\ld also be %[n on ! work+ section4 ,z soon z ! works ( con/ruction h be5 det]m9$ ^u1 notes %\ld be ins]t$ f ! work+ draw+s1 or o!r s\rces1 ( ! angles ( skew at :i* ! l9e crosses roads or /reams1 ! spans ( ar*es on ! squ>e & on ! skew1 ! rise ( ! ar*1 ! dep? ( ! ar* /ones1 & ( ! puddle1 if any be us$1 &1 if ! works be on an incl9$ plane1 ! rise or fall f c5tre to c5tre ( ! pi]s4 ,simil> memor&a %\ld also be made ( gird] bridges1 culv]ts1 & o!r works occurr+ along ! l9e4 ,to all work+ draw+s ! act+ eng9e] always affixes 8 signature4 ,besides an acqua9tance ) ! 8,/&+ ,ord]s10 ! eng9e]+ & surveyor's draughtsman %\ld possess a k ( ! ,regulations ( ! ,local ,gov]nm5t ,bo>d1 = ^! h to be compli$ ) 9 ! prep>ation ( plans relative to ma9 sew]age1 dra9age1 & wat]-supply4 ,^! ,regulations are z foll[s4 ,b\nd>y ,maps4--,9 cases 9 :i* a special di/rict is propos$ to be =m$ = ! adoption ( ! ,local ,gov]nm5t ,act1 a map mu/ be submitt$1 accompani$ by a writt5 description ( ! propos$ b\nd>y1 designat$ by lett]s f po9t to po9t1 comm5c+ f a fully & cle>ly def9$ po9t on ! nor? side ( ! map m>k$ by ! lett] ,a & a writt5 description1 !n proce$+ ea/w>d by natural or o!r well-def9$ features1 until ! description closes ^u ! po9t />t$ f4 ,! "n ( ! propos$ di/rict mu/ be pr9t$ on ! map1 ) ! area 9 acres4 ,! population & ! numb] ( h\ses1 ) ! rate ( increase z asc]ta9$ at ! two la/ dec5nial p]iods ^u :i* ! c5sus 0 tak51 mu/ be giv51 & a duplicate or trac+ ( ! map furni%$4 ,maps = ,division into ,w>ds4--,a map ( ! entire di/rict mu/1 9 ?is case1 be submitt$1 ) ! ma9 b\nd>y di/9ctly def9$1 & ! "n ( ! di/rict cle>ly pr9t$ !reon4 ,! propos$ division into w>ds mu/ be by l9es1 cle>ly def9$ on ! map ( ! di/rict2 brooks1 roads1 footwalks1 /reets1 f5ces1 or o!r easily recognizable l9es ( division may be adopt$4 ,su* l9es mu/ be def9$ on ! map by a m>g9 ( col\r4 ,! propos$ b\nd>y-l9es mu/ be describ$ 9 ! same mann] z 9 ! b\nd>y map1 & ! "n or numb] ( ! w>d1 ) ! relative areas1 population1 & rateable value mu/ be giv54 ,a duplicate map or a trac+ mu/ be deposit$ at ! ,local ,gov]nm5t ,act ,(fice = future ref]5ce4 ,plans ( ,propos$ ,works4--,x is 9 all cases necess>y1 ^u application be+ made by ,local ,bo>ds = ! ,secret>y ( ,/ate's sanction to a loan = ! execution ( works1 t plans1 sections1 detail$ e/imates1 & specifications be submitt$ ) ! application1 accompani$ ) ! in=mation relative to area1 population1 numb] ( h\ses1 & rateable value ( ! di/rict requir$ = b\nd>y maps4 ,trac+s ( su* plans & sections1 & copies ( ! e/imates & specifications mu/ be s5t 9 = fil+ at ! ,local ,gov]nm5t ,act ,(fice4 ,g5]al ,plan4--,a g5]al plan exhibit+ ! area :i* w be affect$ by ! propos$ works mu/ be laid d[n to a scale ( n less ?an two feet to a mile4 ,x %\ld h figur$ ^u x ! levels ( ! c5tres ( all ! /reets & roads at _! int]sections & angles1 & at e *ange ( incl9ation2 also1 :]e a di/rict is ne> ! sea1 x %\ld %[ ! high & ! l[ tide level ( ! sea1 & :]e !re is a riv]1 ! summ] & ! flood-wat] levels %\ld be record$4 ,p]man5t b5* m>ks hav+ ref]5ce to ! surface levels %\ld be cut on public build+s1 or o!r p]man5t & suitable objects1 ?r\gh\t ! di/rict1 & cle>ly m>k$ on ! plan4 ,sections %\ld accompany ?is plan1 ^u :i* ! levels ( ! cell>s %\ld be %[n4 ,su* a plan may be us$ = %[+ ! l9es ( ma9-sew]s & dra9s1 l9es ( wat]-pipes1 & gas-ma9s4 ,! l9es ( ma9-sew]s & dra9s %\ld h ! cross-sectional dim5sions & ! gradi5ts di/9ctly m>k$ ^u !m4 ,! dim5sions ( wat] & gas pipes %\ld also be %[n 9 figures or 9 writ+4 ,detail$ ,plan4--,a detail$ plan = ! purposes ( h\se-dra9age1 pav+1 ! sale & pur*ase ( prop]ty1 or o!r purposes ( a l "*1 mu/ be con/ruct$ to a scale ( n less ?an t5 feet to a mile4 ,^u ?is plan mu/ be exhibit$ all h\ses & o!r build+s1 b5* m>ks1 ! levels ( /reets & roads1 ( cell>s1 ( ! sea at high & l[ tide level1 & ! summ] & ! flood level ( riv]s4 ,?ree feet by two feet w be a conv5i5t size = ! %eets ( ?is plan1 & by repres5t+ ! m>g9al l9es ( ! %eets ^u ! g5]al plan1 & numb]+ ! %eets to correspond1 ! g5]al plan w become a v useful index4 ,z x may occasionally be desir$ to c>ry out works piecemeal1 ) a view to save ! "t :i* w\ld be occupi$ 9 ! prep>ation ( a complete plan f actual survey1 x is suffici5t 9 ! fir/ in/ance to furni% a g5]al plan ( /reets & roads only1 ) ! surface levels & ^? ( ! deepe/ cell>s1 & ! propos$ s*eme ( works %[n !reon1 aft] :i* ! works c proce$ 9 sections4 ,b ) ea* sep>ate application = sanction to a loan1 a correct plan & section or sections %\ld be submitt$1 accompani$ by detail$ e/imates & specifications4 ,x mu/1 h[ev]1 be und]/ood t ! complete plan ( ! entire di/rict mu/ be proce$$ )1 s t1 :5 ! works are f9i%$1 ! ,local ,bo>d & ! (fice ( ! ,local ,gov]nm5t ,act may possess a prop] record4 ,m9+ ,plans4--,! plott+ ( m9+ surveys is p]=m$ 9 ! same mann] z ! surface trav]se surveys already describ$4 ,be=e proce$+ to lay d[n ! plan1 x is well to divide ! pap] into squ>es ( #aj *a9s side1 or #aj acres area1 by two sets ( l9es cross+ ea* o!r at "r angles1 "o ( :i* sets %\ld repres5t m]idians4 ,?is op]ation %\ld be p]=m$ ) scrupul\s c>e2 & to ensure accuracy1 beam compasses %\ld be us$ to lay (f ! divisions4 ,! l9es %\ld be f9ely drawn 9 col\r to di/+ui% !m f o!r l9es to be put ^u ! draw+4 ,c>e mu/ be tak5 to get ! plan fairly ^u ! pap]1 s t ! con=mation ( ! outl9e or b\nd>y to ! edges ( ! pap] may h a pleas+ effect to ! eye2 & ! direction ( ! m]idians mu/ be det]m9$ accord+ to ?is condition4 ,by hav+ ! plan ?us divid$ into squ>es ( #aj acres ea*1 ! quantity ( gr\nd work$ out may be approximatively e/imat$ at any "t by inspection1 & ! total quantity may be readily comput$ 9 ! same mann]4 ,besides divid+ ! plan itself 9 ?is way1 x w be f\nd extremely useful to h a %eet ( trac+ pap]1 or bett]1 trac+ clo?1 divid$ into squ>es ( #cafbbh l9ks side1 or #a acre area1 9 black l9es2 ea* ( su* squ>es be+ subdivid$ into #d by l9es 9 col\r1 to %[ qu>t]s ( an acre4 ,to f9d ! area ( any portion ( exhau/$ or ( unwork$ gr\nd1 x is only necess>y to lay ?is divid$ %eet ov] su* portion & to c\nt ! squ>es & qu>t]s includ$ 9 x4 ,by reason ( ! v>iations ( ! magnetic m]idian1 ! date ( a survey %\ld always be writt5 on ! plan2 & z ! plan ( und]gr\nd work+s is laid d[n piecemeal z ! work+s progress1 (t5 ext5d+ ov] a p]iod ( _m ye>s1 c>e mu/ be tak5 to r$uce all be>+s to ! orig9al m]idian4 ,unless ^! matt]s are /rictly obs]v$1 s]i\s errors may result4 ,:5 two or m ve9s ( m9]al are be+ work$ "o above ! o!r1 & are plac$ ^u ! same plan1 !y are di/+ui%$ by means ( col\r4 ,x matt]s n :at col\rs are employ$ = ! sev]al sep>ate work+s s long z !y are di/9ct f ea* o!r4 ,also ! mode ( apply+ ! col\r1 :e!r ) ! bru% or ) ! p51 is entirely a "q ( ta/e4 ,x may1 h[ev]1 be obs]v$ t z m9+ plans are con/antly be+ add$ to1 x is v difficult to avoid a pat*y appe>ance :5 ! col\r is laid on ) ! bru%4 ,plate #cc %[s ! mann] 9 :i* m9+ plans are got up4 ,e/ate & ,t[n ,plans4--,plans ( e/ates & t[ns1 includ+ z !y d only a limit$ area & requir+ great di/9ctness ( detail1 are laid d[n to a l>ge scale2 = ! =m & "* ( ! detail are1 on su* plans1 ( equal importance ) its position4 ,) su* a scale z is requir$ 9 ^! cases1 x is possible1 n only to cle>ly di/+ui% natural & artificial features1 b to introduce means ( produc+ pictorial effect into _! repres5tation4 ,! nature ( ^! means may be se5 9 ! examples ( plans app5d$ to ?is "w4 ,! mann] ( %[+ ! v>i\s k9ds ( f5ces has be5 already describ$4 ,trees are usually %[n 9 elevation = ! sake ( arti/ic effect2 b c>e mu/ be tak5 to give !m su* dim5sions z w accord ) ! scale ( ! draw+4 ,h\ses & o!r build+s are %[n 9 plan ( ! correct =m1 & wa%$ = di/9ction 9 light r$ = dwell+-h\ses1 d>k grey = ou?\ses1 & light grey = public build+s4 ,d>k grey is also us$ = all wood5 & iron build+s to di/+ui% !m f ^? con/ruct$ ( ! ord9>y mat]ials1 brick & /one4 ,b besides su* di/9ctions1 o!rs are ne$$ to indicate ! "* ( natural features & artificial con/ructions4 ,^! are obta9$ ei!r by %[+ ! object r\ghly 9 elevation1 or by "s purely conv5tional means4 ,! signs ( ?is "* t are likely to be frequ5tly requir$ on e/ate plans are %[n on ,plate #ae4 ,! mann] ( repres5t+ wat]1 :i* has be5 describ$ 9 a prec$+ ,section1 w be f\nd illu/rat$ 9 detail on ,plate #aa4 ,plates #aj & #ad %[ v>i\s k9ds ( trees2 9 ?is =m !y may be introduc$ v effectively into plans ( e/ates4 ,! sev]al /ages :i* a plan passes ?r\gh 9 ! (fice are %[n on ,plate #b4 ,if ! plan is to be col\r$1 ! col\r+ mu/ be done be=e ! lett]+ is put on4 ,plate #c %[s a plan lightly col\r$1 z us$ by surveyors1 solicitors1 & o!rs2 & ,plate #ag %[s a f9i%$ plan 9 col\r4 ,! me?ods ( lay+ on ! col\rs & ! pr9ciples involv$ 9 ! op]ations h be5 fully describ$ & expla9$ 9 a =m] ,section4 ,9 ,plate #ac is giv5 a t[n plan %[+ a propos$ /reet improvem5t4 ,su* a plan mu/ be laid d[n to a l>ge scale1 & ! details 9 & ne> ! "p affect$ mu/ be drawn 9 cle>ly & accurately4 ,! uncol\r$ portion repres5ts ! plan z prep>$ = li?ograph+4 ,:5 p9k col\r is us$ to %[ ! propos$ /reet1 ! build+s %\ld be col\r$ 9 black by a light wa% ( ,indian ink4 ,yell[ or any o!r bright t9t may be us$ = ! propos$ /reet1 ! object be+ m]ely to di/+ui% x cle>ly4 ,exi/+ /reets %\ld be col\r$ 9 yell[ o*re1 except :5 t col\r is us$ = ! propos$ /reet1 9 :i* case burnt si5na may be us$4 ,! ,plates relat+ to ?is ,section are ,nos4 #b1 #c1 #aj1 #aa1 #ac1 #ad1 #ae1 #ag1 #ai1 #bj1 #ba1 & #cc4 ,,section ,v4--,,map ,,draw+4 ,! pr9ciples & practice ( map draw+1 be+ 9 ! ma9 id5tical ) ^? ( ord9>y plan draw+1 h be5 g5]ally expla9$ & describ$ 9 ! prec$+ ,sections4 ,9 ! pres5t ,section1 !re=e1 we h only to direct att5tion to su* details z belong especially to ! =m] class ( topographical repres5tations4 ,^! details relate *iefly to ! select+ ( objects & features on ! surface ( ! gr\nd ^: "* entitles !m to special notice1 & !re=e to di/9ct del9eation2 to ! practical me?ods ( sket*+ su* objects & features 9 ! field1 & to ! means & ! mann] ( reproduc+ !m on ! f9i%$ map4 ,! fir/ & ! la/ ( ^! que/ions h be5 treat$ by ,mr4 ,james 9 8 ,h&book ( ,topography1 & ! second by ,lieut4 ,r4 ,s4 ,smi? ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates' ,army1 9 s concise & yet s complete a mann] t we h n hesitat$ to avail ourselves ( _! lab\rs r ?an attempt to (f] any in/ructions ( our own4 ,! foll[+ is1 !re=e1 wor?y ( respectful att5tion4 ,s+le ,/roke ,/reams4--,9 ink+ 9 /reams1 beg9 at ! s\rce & draw d[nw>ds t[>ds y\rself1 increas+ ! pressure on ! p5 z y desc5d4 ,! use ( ! /eel p5 9 draw+ s+le /roke /reams is v objectionable4 ,ev5 s(t /eel p5s are apt to cut ! surface ( ! pap]1 & 9 %>p b5ds x is q impossible to ensure an ev5 wid? ( l9e ) ! be/ yet made2 by re-ink+1 mu* "t is lo/1 & frequ5tly a r\gh jagg$ l9e is ! result4 ,! common quill p5 f9ely po9t$ w "w well on any sort ( pap]4 ,d\ble ,l9e ,/reams & ,riv]s4--,9 maps ( a small scale f #h to #cb miles to ! in*1 x is usual to d>k5 ! nor?-we/]n bank1 suppos+ ! light to fall f ! ,n4,w4 corn] ( ! map2 b on maps ( a l>ge scale x is usual to att5d /rictly to ! height ( ! banks1 & ! draughtsman %\ld c>efully repres5t ! exact nature ( ea* bank on 8 field-sket* or plane-table %eet4 ,col\r+ ,/reams or ,riv]s4--,s+le /roke /reams may be ink$ 9 ) ei!r a d>k l9e ( ,prussian blue1 or a light l9e 9 ,indian ink may fir/ be drawn & a /reak ( ,prussian blue or cobalt run neatly along x4 ,cobalt is mu* us$ bo? 9 s+le & d\ble /roke /reams--x is c]ta9ly ! prettie/ & mo/ la/+ blue we h1 & ! pref]5ce %\ld be giv5 x1 z x imp>ts a high f9i% to ,,ms4 maps4 ,9 maps :i* conta9 mu* hilly gr\nd1 ! /reams %\ld be drawn 9 ) light ink & a v f9e p5 at fir/1 & be re-drawn ) d>k ink or d>k blue aft] ! %ad+ ( ! hills4 ,l>ge riv]s on all maps publi%$ 9 ,engl& are n[ col\r$ ) a flat-wa% ( cobalt or ,prussian blue4 ,"s draughtsm5 pref] %ad+ riv]s accord+ to b5ds1 & keep+ ! %ade z fall+ f ! ,n4,w41 b ?is sy/em _c be c>ri$ out on maps ( a l>ge scale1 :]e ! height ( ! bank is correctly repres5t$4 ,isl&s & ,s&-banks1 ,s&y & ,pebbly ,b$s ( ,riv]s4--,isl&s :i* are only visible at l[ wat]1 on well-col\r$ maps1 are usually fir/ wa%$ ov] ) a light %ade ( burnt or raw si5na1 or a mixture ( raw si5na & light r$2 ! la/-m5tion$ col\r does n easily mix ) wat]1 & %\ld n be us$ if any o!r c be sub/itut$4 ,aft] ! t9t is dry1 dot f9ely ) light ,indian ink or d>k burnt si5na4 ,s&-banks are col\r$ 9 ! same way4 ,s&y b$s may be simil>ly treat$1 omitt+ ! dott+ if press$ = "t4 ,pebbly b$s %\ld fir/ be t9t$ ) a mixture ( burnt or raw si5na1 !n dip into a d>k %ade ( burnt si5na any co>se camel-hair bru%1 & splitt+ ! bru% by draw+ x betwe5 ! =ef+] & ?umb1 dot 9 ! t9t$ portions4 ,c>e mu/ be tak5 to avoid hav+ too mu* col\r 9 ! bru%1 or ! dots w run into ea* o!r & make ugly daubs4 ,ano!r v easy & successful me?od ( dott+ 9 s& or pebbly b$s is ) a too?-bru%4 ,fir/1 on trac+ or any o!r ?9 pap]1 trace out exactly ! limit ( ! t9t$ portion requir+ dott+1 cut out ^! portions f ! trace & place x correctly ov] ! orig9al1 dip a too?-bru% lightly into a sauc] ( col\r ( ! requir$ dep? ( t9t1 & hold+ x 9 ! left h& ov] ! uncov]$ portions1 ) ! =ef+] ( ! "r h& or ! blade ( a p5-knife1 g5tly splutt] ! col\r f ! bru%2 :5 x is necess>y to cov] a l>ge space ) dots1 ?is w be f\nd ! simple/ & mo/ spe$y way ( do+ x4 ,roads & ,pa?ways4--,! ma9 or trunk roads 9 any c\ntry %\ld be v di/9ctly repres5t$ by d\ble & p]fectly p>allel ink l9es1 col\r$ betwe5 ! l9es ) lake or c>m9e4 ,di/rict roads metall$1 or ^? made betwe5 *ief t[ns1 %\ld be %[n by a s+le l9e col\r$ ) lake or c>m9e4 ,unmetall$ roads & pa?s by only a s+le l9e 9 burnt si5na4 ,! same sy/em %\ld be c>ri$ out 9 roads 9 a m\nta9\s c\ntry1 & ! draughtsman %\ld give1 ei!r on ! map or 9 ! column ( rem>ks1 su* in=mation reg>d+ roads z is likely to be useful to travell]s or milit>y au?orities4 ,m\nta9 ,passes4--,on l>ge scale maps ^! %\ld be di/9ctly m>k$1 & ! w9d+s ( ! road correctly %[n4 ,along ! ,pass1 write ! "n 9 small lett]+1 & /ate :e!r x is practicable = horses1 or fit only = m5 on foot4 ,on maps ( a small scale1 x w be suffici5t to %[ ! pass by a zigzag l9e across ! holl[1 ) a note z above4 ,=ds & ,f]ries1 ,toll-gates4--,=ds %\ld be c>efully not$ & ! "n & dep? ( wat] dur+ ! ra9y & dry seasons giv51 if possible4 ,! numb] ( boats at e f]ry %\ld be correctly asc]ta9$1 & not$ on ! map4 ,toll-gates may be %[n on roads ) a light l9e drawn across ! road1 & ! words 8,toll-gate0 be cle>ly writt5 on ! side ( ! road4 ,encamp+ ,gr\nds1 ,mile ,/ones1 ,wells1 ,spr+s & ,tanks1 %\ld be correctly %[n & nam$ on all maps4 ,telegraph ,l9es & ,/ations mu/ be %[n on all maps drawn to a scale ( f\r miles to an in* & upw>ds1 by ! usual symbol4 ,on maps ( a small scale1 %[ by dots or a ?9 l9e ( yell[1 giv+ a ref]5ce "u ! title4 ,! ,/ations are ( ! fir/ importance1 & %\ld be repres5t$ by ! symbol4 ,railways1 ,/ations1 & ,t]m9i4--,railways are repres5t$ by a /rong black l9e1 ) or )\t ?9 l9es drawn at "r angles to ! ma9 l9e4 ,!y %\ld ( c\rse be v c>efully & accurately laid d[n1 z !y =m ! *ief feature 9 any c\ntry4 ,/ations are %[n by well-def9$ circles1 & ! "n giv5 9 pla9 lett]+4 ,t]m9i are be/ %[n by blocks repres5t+ ! size ( ! build+s accord+ to ! scale ( ! map4 ,except on maps ( a v l>ge scale1 jungle %\ld n be %[n ov] hilly gr\nd4 ,repres5t+ su* objects z trees1 jungle or bru%wood1 ov] pla9s or flat l&s1 on all ord9>y scale maps1 is v necess>y1 & ! exact limits ( ! jungle or wa/e %\ld be survey$ & correctly giv5 by a dott$ l9e1 b ov] hilly gr\nd x w\ld be impossible to d s )\t impair+ ! beauty & hid+ ! features ( ! hill draw+4 ,if x is actually necess>y to make x kn[n t ! hills h jungle on !m1 let a foot-note to ! effect be ins]t$ among/ ! rem>ks or "u ! title ( ! map4 ,"u ! head ( rem>ks or notes1 x is always v necess>y to /ate ! k9d ( jungle :i* exi/s 9 ! survey$ tracts1 = ! in=mation ( speculators & timb] m]*ants1 & = ! guidance ( ! li?ograph] or engrav]4 ,notes on maps1 :e!r /ati/ical or geographical1 c nev] be too full2 !y are useful 9 supply+ at once in=mation :i* c\ld be obta9$ only f read+ reports1 & frequ5tly !y r5d] topographical details intelligible :]e !re might o!rwise be d\bt or misconception4 ,!y c be record$ 9 any sp>e corn] or blank space on ! map4 ,size ( ,cities1 ,t[ns & ,villages1 & ! diff]5t ways ( repres5t+ !m4--,x is ( ! utmo/ importance t all maps ( a l>ge scale %\ld %[ ! size accurately ( cities1 t[ns & villages4 ,if ! scale admits ( x1 ! sev]al blocks or gr\ps ( h\ses ) ! roads betwe5 !m %\ld be correctly drawn4 ,sket*+1 ,%ad+1 & ,copy+ ,hills4--,9 sket*+ hills1 always beg9 by fix+--#a/4 ,! dra9age2 #bnd4 ,^? features :i* are mo/ prom95t1 su* z peaks1 rocks1 l$ges ( rock runn+ ) ! /rata ( ! hills1 trees rem>kable = "s peculi>ity 9 %ape or size s z to be recogniz$ f v>i\s positions1 & any o!r objects likely to help ! eye 9 fill+ 9 ! details2 & la/ly1 sket* ! details1 beg9n+ always ) ! gr\nd ne>e/ y\rself4 ,endeav\r to portray y\r gr\nd fai?fully--#a/4 ,by pres]v+ ! direction & b5d ( /reams z 9 nature2 #bnd4 ,by giv+ ! run ( ! ridges correctly2 #crd4 ,by fix+ ! peaks1 l$ges ( rock1 precipit\s falls & flats c>efully2 #d?4 ,by %[+ ! saddles or depressions betwe5 peaks1 :i* c only be done by giv+ ! peaks on ei!r side suffici5t relief 9 %ad+2 #e?4 ,by att5d+ /rictly to ! true bread? ( valleys2 #f?4 ,by suppress+ all holl[s ) a suitable dep? ( t9t2 #g?4 ,by c>eful repres5tation ( ! banks ( /reams 9 ! valleys2 & la/ly1 by f9i%+ %ades & t\*es1 9 :i* is compreh5d$ ! ret\*+ ) bru% or p5 "w ! entire piece1 /r5g!n+ ! %ade ( ! high] ridges & peaks to %[ _! relative heights1 & suppress+ ! :ite t9t along ! ridges4 ,_m excell5t draughtsm5 are 9 ! habit ( leav+ ! ridge ( m\nta9 ranges q :ite2 ?is is evid5tly a mi/ake1 =1 unless ! ridge ( any range ( hills is ( "o uni=m height f end to end1 x _c correctly be left :ite4 ,?us a wrong impression is convey$ ( ! surface ( ! ridge1 ! :ite /reaks look h>% & are displeas+ to ! eye1 & a /iff & un>ti/ic look is giv5 to ! f9i% ( ! draw+4 ,! means ( communication1 :e!r by roads or m9or tracks1 are important1 bo? = civil & milit>y purposes1 & %\ld be c>efully ins]t$ 9 ! map4 ,?is c g5]ally be done ) facility 9 a hilly c\ntry1 z ! fix$ m>ks w be visible 9 suffici5t numb] along ! road1 s t ! latt] may be drawn 9 at once by plane-table op]ations along ! l9e ( communication to be survey$4 ,9 flat c\ntries1 or :]e ! view is circumscrib$1 x may be necess>y to resort to measurem5ts & plott+2 b %\ld any case occur :]e ! fix$ po9ts ( ref]5ce are f> ap>t1 ! trav]se sy/em mu/ be resort$ to1 & ! road %\ld be plott$ f comput$ co-ord9ates4 ,field ,sket*+4--,field sket*es are made ) ! lead p5cil1 & may be drawn ^u e page ( ! compass-book1 or ^u ! alt]nate pages1 at ! option ( ! topograph]4 ,9 ! =m] case1 ! be>+s & di/ances are record$ ^u ! draw+2 9 ! latt]1 ! record occupies ! left-h& page1 & ! sket* ! opposite "o4 ,! page = sket*+ %\ld be rul$ 9 squ>es1 ) blue or r$ ink1 =m+ ?us an indet]m9ate scale1 ! l5g? ( ! sides ( ! squ>es be+ assum$ at pleasure1 accord+ to ! nature ( ! gr\nd4 ,bo? ! record & ! sket* are read f ! bottom ( ! page upw>d4 ,suppose ! /ations ( ! survey to be #ajj feet ap>t2 !n1 assum+ ! side ( ! squ>e to be #ajj feet1 comm5ce ! sket* at ! bottom ( ! page--9 ! c5tre1 if ! survey promises to be tol]ably /raight2 if o!rwise1 at "s po9t to ! "r or left ( ! c5tre1 ! reason = :i* w be expla9$ directly4 ,let ! be>+ f ! fir/ /ation1 ! />t+ po9t or z]o1 be ,n4 #aj ,e4 ,draw a l9e f ! bottom ( ! page upw>d2 ! side ( ! squ>e be+ assum$ #ajj feet1 numb] ! /ations ^u ! squ>es z f> z ! l9e is run1 say #cbe feet1 & write ! compass angle d[n along ?is l9e4 ,let ! be>+ f ! second /ation1 or ,no4 #a1 be ,n4 #a ,w42 draw a l9e1 mak+1 z ne>ly z c be judg$ by ! eye1 ! prop] angle ) ! la/ be>+1 & proce$ z be=e4 ,:5 ! page is exhau/$1 comm5ce ) a v]tical l9e at ! bottom ( ! next "o1 m>k+ ^u x ! rema9d] ( ! old be>+1 & mak+1 by ! eye1 a new s]ies ( approximate protractions z be=e4 ,if x c be =ese51 z 9 mo/ cases x c1 t ! l9e ( survey w be v crook$1 b5d+1 = example1 f left to "r1 !n comm5ce ! be>+ at ! bottom ( ! page accord+ly1 beg9n+ at a po9t on ! extreme "r1 & runn+ x diagonally to ! left1 s z to make due all[ance = ! great deflection anticipat$ 9 ! next be>+4 ,su* cases may be =ese5 9 runn+ ar\nd an inclosure1 or 9 foll[+ a curv+ /ream or ridge4 ,! advantages ( ! sy/em ( squ>es 9 sket* books completely ov]balance ! "o disadvantage1 :i* is1 t ! diagonal be>+s w n make exact di/ances ^u ! squ>es1 :ile ! v]tical & horizontal ones w4 ,x w be rememb]$ t ! survey+ book is design$ to be exact only 9 its record & ! g5]al features ( ! gr\nd1 & t a slight *ange ( scale is n mat]ial1 z x c be made exact :5 ! survey is protract$ ^u ! map4 ,by ^! approximate protractions1 any page ( ! book ( survey conveys a v j notion ( ! be>+s & di/ances1 & ( ! relative positions ( ! g5]al features ( ! gr\nd4 ,! fir/ /ation be+ at ! bottom ( ! page1 note d[n1 9 ! space betwe5 x & ! second "o1 all ! features ( ! gr\nd pass$ ov] by ! l9e ( survey2 z to :e!r x is cultivat$1 =e/1 m>%1 c42 :e!r x is cross$ by /reams1 dit*es1 c41 & _! wid?2 if x rises or falls2 ab\t :at degree ( slope1 c4 ,on bo? sides ( ! l9e introduce1 accord+ to ! scale1 & _! di/ances1 z judg$ by ! eye1 all topographical objects )9 sight1 su* z build+s1 roads1 /reams1 hills1 c41 c41 draw+ !m to ! scale if possible1 & if !y _c be got ^u ! page1 describ+ briefly _! nature & position4 ,9 sket*+ hills endeav\r to project z _m horizontal curves z possible1 :i* %\ld be lightly put 91 & !n ! %ad+ l9es may be drawn ov] !m4 ,! degree ( slope %\ld be frequ5tly writt5 d[n 9 numb]s ^u ! sket*4 ,! names ( localities1 /reams1 hills1 f>ms1 c41 %\ld also be ent]$4 ,?us f> we h suppos$ a measur$ l9e ^u ! gr\nd1 to :i* ! situation & dim5sions ( objects might be ref]r$4 ,x is mu* m difficult to embody ! relative positions & dim5sions1 :]e all is left to ! eye4 ,"h a cultivat$ judgm5t is ( ! greate/ value4 ,practice alone c make a good sket*] "u su* circum/ances4 ,rules mu/1 f ! nature ( ! case1 be few & g5]al4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 all objects )9 ! field ( vision are pres5t$ to ! eye 9 p]spective1 :]eas ! sket* is to be a plan4 ,! app>5t dim9ution ( dim5sions 9 di/ant objects mu/ !re=e be correct$ on ! plan4 ,= example1 ! w9d+s ( a crook$ /ream1 or a road1 9 p]spective1 are mu* exagg]at$ 9 retir+ into ! di/ance2 !y mu/ !re=e be /raight5$ out 9 ! sket* m & m1 z !y are m remov$4 #bnd4 ,9 look+ at v>i\sly plac$ hills f a some:at elevat$ /ation1 ! eye w 9 "s cases look directly1 or p]p5dicul>ly1 at ! face ( "s slopes1 :ile 9 o!rs1 ! surface ( ! slope1 if prolong$1 w pass ?r\gh ! eye1 & w n be se5 9 its true dim5sions1 ?\gh its incl9ation may be judg$4 ,9 sket*+ ! %apes ( hills1 bodies ( wat]1 masses ( =e/1 c41 ^! facts mu/ be tak5 into consid]ation1 & to ensure skill1 eye sket*es ( a small portion ( gr\nd hav+ well-m>k$ features mu/ be frequ5tly made1 & comp>$ ) measurem5ts ( ! same features4 ,9 sket*+ a s+le hill1 ! be/ /ation is at ! summit4 ,fir/ endeav\r to repres5t ! l[e/ horizontal curve ( its surface2 !n a m$ial "o2 !n ! =m ( ! level space at ! summit1 or ! highe/ horizontal curve4 ,o!rs may !n be introduc$ betwe5 ^!1 until ! gr\nd is suffici5tly express$4 ,! angles ( incl9ation %\ld be frequ5tly not$ d[n 9 numb]s2 all accid5ts ( gr\nd1 su* z rav9es1 rocks1 c41 %\ld be c>efully plac$1 & all o!r objects1 su* z h\ses1 f5ces1 trees1 c41 %\ld be put d[n 9 _! prop] relative positions & dim5sions4 ,hav+ ?us prep>$ a skeleton ( horizontal curves1 numb]$ z to incl9ation & heights1 ! sket* w always s]ve a useful purpose )\t any l9es ( greate/ desc5t4 ,aft] suffici5t practice 9 ?is me?od1 ! eye w become s cultivat$ z to enable ! draughtsman to express ! =m ( gr\nd by l9es ( desc5t at once1 ! m9d conceiv+ ! position ( ! horizontal curves1 & ?us supply+ ! necess>y data = ! %ad+ l9es1 ! relative ?ickness & l5g? ( :i* = ! diff]5t slopes is a matt] v easy ( acquirem5t4 ,b ?is %\ld n be attempt$ until ! me?od by horizontal sections is ?or\ghly ma/]$4 ,x is easy ?us to make a sket* ( a s+le hill1 b :5 !re are _m1 & ! g5]al face ( ! c\ntry is slop+ also1 ! difficulties ( repres5t+ ! connection ( ! diff]5t hills at _! bases are consid]able4 ,9 su* cases ! direction & l5g?s ( ! valleys1 or wat]-c\rses if !re are any1 mu/ fir/ be not$1 be>+ 9 m9d ! illusions ( p]spective 9 bo? its effects1 previ\sly m5tion$4 ,!n e/abli% ! positions ( ! diff]5t summits1 m>k+ d[n _! relative heights1 aft] :i* put 9 ! o!r objects to be repres5t$1 su* z roads1 trees1 build+s1 c41 ref]r+ _! positions to ea* o!r1 & correct+ !m :]e !y are f\nd to disagree4 ,horizontal curves pres5t ! readie/ means to ! beg9n] 9 sket*+ declivities4 ,:51 aft] "s practice1 ! =m ( a body sugge/s1 z x always w1 its horizontal sections1 !n x w be "t to resort at once to ! l9es ( greate/ desc5t4 ,! greate/ difficulties to be ov]come 9 ! practice ( eye-sket*+ are1 #a/1 t ( conv]t+ a p]spective view into a plan1 9 all its true proportions2 & #bnd1 9 =m+ a j conception ( ! int]sections ( diff]5t slopes at _! bases4 ,h5ce ! rule1 to project fir/ ^u ! sket*1 all ! l[e/ l9es1 or wat]-c\rses1 & !n ! highe/ p>ts or summits4 ,!n ! middle l9es & objects may be plac$1 & ! sket* fill$ up by ref]r+ all o!rs to ^? ?ree gr\ps :i* may be reg>d$ z det]m9$4 ,! lead p5cil = field draw+ %\ld be mod]ately h>d1 & ! g5]al tone ( ! draw+ %\ld be r light4 ,! %ad+ ( slopes ought n to ov]p[] by its dep? ! di/9ctness ( o!r objects1 & ! p5cil %\ld be s us$ & ( su* a quality z n to be easily defac$ by rubb+4 ,we h already describ$ "s ( ! duties ( ! 8exam9]0 9 v]ify+ & supply+ detail 9 ! field4 ,! foll[+ full] exposition ( ^? duties & ! me?ods ( p]=m+ !m is tak5 f an excell5t little treatise on ,l& ,survey+1 by ,john ,a4 ,smi?1 ,c4,e4 ,exam9ation ( ,maps 9 ! ,field4--,= ! purpose ( ! exam9ation1 ! 8exam9]0 %\ld be furni%$ ) an elegant & accurate trace1 ink copy1 ( ! plott$ detail ( ! di/rict1 & he %\ld be provid$ ) a suitable sket* case1 l9$ ) prep>$ ass sk91 p5cil1 l9e> scale1 *a91 c41 & lab\r]s4 ,! trace copy1 9 "o %eet1 %\ld be 9 ext5t n m ?an c be conv5i5tly secur$ 9 ! sket* case4 ,x is desirable t ! m>g9al detail on ! trace copy %all be common to ! adjo9+ %eets = exam9ation4 ,if ! di/rict be ext5sive1 & if !re be no m ?an "o exam9] engag$ on ! exam9ation1 adjo9+ %eets %\ld n be giv5 to ! same exam9]1 t ! "* ( ! exam9]'s "w may be asc]ta9$ by indep5d5t exam9ations ( ! same m>g9al detail4 ,9 ! exam9ation ( ! detail repres5tation on a map ! 8exam9]0 %\ld be ma9ly guid$ by a few lead+ consid]ations2 ^! are3-- #a4 ,! position ( a /raight l9e1 or detail1 on ! map w be correct :5 its actual & plott$ position on ! gr\nd & map makes equal angles ) ano!r kn[n l9e & int]sects x 9 a kn[n po9t1 ! position ( :i* l9e & po9t on ! gr\nd has be5 previ\sly asc]ta9$ to be correctly repres5t$ on ! map4 #b4 ,! l9e1 or detail1 w be correctly laid d[n--giv5 9 magnitude & position--:5 its position & l5g? on ! gr\nd & map are asc]ta9$ to correspond accurately4 ,f #a & #b x w be se5-- a4 ,t ! po9t ( int]section ( two giv5 /raight l9es on ! gr\nd1 & ! correspond+ po9t on ! map1 w be a giv5 po9t on ! map1 if ! correspond+ l9es on ! map be asc]ta9$ to be correctly laid d[n 9 position4 ,&1 b4 ,t any two po9ts be+ giv5 or correctly det]m9$1 ! /raight l9e t]m9at+ 9 !m w be a giv5 l9e4 ,fur!r1 c4 ,t a /raight l9e trac$ or drawn ?r\gh giv5 po9ts1 is giv5 9 position4 ,x %\ld be kept 9 view t l9es may be m accurately trac$1 & to a great] di/ance1 ) ! nak$ eye1 :5 ! p>ty trac+ is r above ?an bel[ ! level ( ! field on :i* ! trace %all be made4 ,x may be also se5 t a po9t on ! map :i* is ! common po9t ( int]section ( ?ree /raight l9es drawn ?r\gh well-def9$ po9ts 9 ! detail w be a giv5 po9t1 if l9es trac$ ?r\gh ! correspond+ detail po9ts on ! gr\nd be f\nd to h a common po9t ( int]section4 ,& fur!r1 t ! correct det]m9ation ( two su* po9ts on ! map det]m9es1 z already /at$1 ! position ( a /raight l9e ?r\gh ^! po9ts4 ,! det]m9ation1 9 ! above mann]1 ( ?ree su* common po9ts ( int]section correctly det]m9es ! repres5tation ( a giv5 triangle4 ,9 ! exam9ation ! sides ( ! triangle det]m9$ by int]sections1 z above1 %\ld be measur$ on ! gr\nd1 to asc]ta9 & v]ify ! accuracy ( ! det]m9ations ( ! angul> po9ts on ! trace or map4 ,! production ( detail l9es1 & l9es trac$ ?r\gh plott$ po9ts1 %\ld be tak5 up 9 ! *a9 measurem5ts ( ! sides ( ?is triangle4 ,?r\gh ^! v]ifi$ po9ts /raight l9es %\ld be trac$1 & drawn 9 p5cil1 to well-def9$ po9ts 9 ! detail1 su* z ! buttals ( f5ces1 ! corn]s ( h\ses & walls1 gate pi]s1 c4 ,on ^! l9es ! int]sect$ & neighb\r+ detail %\ld be exam9$ by *a9 & scale measurem5ts4 ,9 ! measurem5t ( ! l9es ! int]nal & adjac5t ext]nal detail %\ld be v c>efully exam9$1 & correct$ on ! map :]e f\nd 9 error4 ,! exam9ation ( ! detail %\ld be c>ri$ =w>d by ! production & int]section ( giv5 l9es1 & also by *a9 measurem5ts f giv5 po9ts1 to v]ify ! position ( ! detail or o!r po9ts on ! map4 ,?is exam9ation %\ld be cont9u$ to ! limits ( ! trace %eet4 ,9 remote p>ts ( ! trace & di/rict1 l9es ( v]ification %\ld be drawn1 trac$ on ! gr\nd & measur$ ) ! *a9 to v]ify ! scale measurem5ts by ! exam9ation4 ,^! l9es %\ld be long1 & 9 situations af=d+ few facilities = ! accurate det]m9ation on ! map ( ! position ( ! plott$ detail by o!r modes ( exam9ation4 ,! /raight l9e pass+ ?r\gh ! extremities1 or o!r well-def9$ po9ts 9 curv$ detail1 %\ld be reg>d$ z a detail l9e1 & ! position ( ! int]m$iate curv$ detail v]ifi$ by ord9ates or tang5ts4 ,build+s & adjac5t detail %\ld be c>efully exam9$ by productions1 c41 because ( ! great] difficulties ^! details usually pres5t to ! surveyor & plott]1 & ! consequ5t liability to small errors 9 ! position ( "s ( ! plott$ po9ts1 :i* affect ! direction ( l9es det]m9$ on !m4 ,among ! ,plates app5d$ to ?is "w w be f\nd sev]al examples ( map draw+ suitable = ref]5ce4 ,plate #af %[s ! signs us$ on ord9>y maps & *>ts4 ,plates #bi & #cj conta9 signs us$ *iefly ^u ,indian & colonial maps2 & ,plates #ca & #cb give ! signs employ$ ^u milit>y maps1 ) a section & a plan ( =tifications4 ,^! signs %\ld be neatly drawn & _! dim5sions suit$ to ! scale ( ! map1 ! same rem>k apply+ to ^! z to trees 9 elevation4 ,plate #a is a plan %[+ ! pr9cipal *>act]s ( "w us$ 9 mapp+4 ,?is plan has be5 v c>efully compil$ & drawn to r5d] x suitable z a plan ( ref]5ce4 ,plate #ab illu/rates ! con/ruction & col\r+ ( hills accord+ to ! sev]al me?ods describ$ 9 ! prec$+ ,sections4 ,o!r examples1 ) rocky cliffs1 w be f\nd on ,plate #ad4 ,plate #ah conta9s a piece ( ! ,ordnance map drawn to a scale ( "o in* to ! mile1 & furni%es an example ( f9i%$ "w4 ,^u ! same ,plate w be f\nd a piece ( *>t %[+ s\nd+s1 int5d$ z a ref]5ce = hydrograph]s & o!rs engag$ 9 m>9e surveys4 ,& ,plate #bh %[s ! mann] 9 :i* geological maps are prep>$4 ,! :ole ( ^! examples w be f\nd wor?y ( c>eful /udy z specim5s ( ! draughtsman's art4 ,! ,plates relat+ to ?is ,section are ,nos4 #a1 #aj1 #ab1 #ad1 #ah1 #bh1 #bi1 #cj1 #ca1 & #cb4 ,,section ,,vi4--,,me*anical ,,& ,,ar*itectural ,,draw+s4 ,x is n )9 ! scope ( ! pres5t "w to expla9 & to illu/rate ! pr9ciples accord+ to :i* me*anical draw+s are execut$4 ,^! mu/ be /udi$ 9 special treatises on ,projection4 ,! sev]al me?ods ( giv+ expression & embelli%m5t to ?is class ( draw+s h1 h[ev]1 be5 fully describ$1 & ! pr9ciples ^u :i* ^! me?ods are f\nd$ c>efully expla9$4 ,x n[ rema9s = u to add a few g5]al rem>ks & "s detail$ in/ructions on ! practical application ( ^! pr9ciples & me?ods4 ,be=e comm5c+ ! del9eation ( any ma*9e1 ! draughtsman %\ld make himself ?or\ghly acqua9t$ ) its "*2 t is1 he %\ld asc]ta9 ! nature ( ! "w x is design$ to p]=m1 ! means by :i* x p]=ms t "w1 & ! mann] ( its con/ruction4 ,?is prelim9>y /udy is necess>y to enable him to obta9 a good g5]al idea ( ! m important p>ts1 :i* he w h to give prom95ce to 9 ! draw+1 & to und]/& ! nature ( ! v>i\s connections betwe5 ! num]\s pieces ( :i* ! ma*9e is compos$4 ,! dim5sions ( ! sev]al p>ts mu/ be c>efully tak51 & :5 draw+ f actual ma*9]y1 r\gh sket*es %\ld be made to s]ve z a guide 9 gett+ out ! complete draw+4 ,! dim5sions %\ld be cle>ly m>k$ ^u su* sket*es4 ,z a g5]al rule1 x is be/ to beg9 ) ! gr\nd l9e & position ( ma9 driv+ %afts1 f :i* dim5sions may be tak5 9 e direction4 ,! mann] ( writ+ ! dim5sions1 :e!r ^u ! r\gh sket* or ^u ! complete draw+1 %\ld always be ?us #b #f = lat]al1 & ?us #e = v]tical dim5sions4 ,to enable ! draughtsman to take ^! ) accuracy1 he %\ld be provid$ ) a pair ( callip]s = measur+ ! diamet]s ( %afts1 a plumb-l9e = obta9+ lat]al di/ances :5 ! objects are n 9 ! same horizontal plane1 & a two-foot rule4 ,! *ief po9t to be att5d$ to 9 comm5c+ ! draw+ ( a ma*9e is to obta9 ! correct positions ( ! c5tre l9es ( its pr9cipal compon5t p>ts1 especial reg>d be+ _h to ! c5tres ( motion4 ,^! c5tre l9es h be5 expla9$ 9 a =m] ,section4 ,hav+ laid d[n ^! l9es accurately 9 _! relative positions1 sep>ate sket*es may be made on a l>ge scale ( ea* "p ( ! ma*9e1 & ! details ( ea* "p con/ruct$ ^u ea* correspond+ c5tre l9e 9 succession1 until ! :ole ma*9e is built up4 ,! c5tre l9es %\ld be drawn 9 r$1 & ! dim5sions %\ld be laid (f on ea* side ( !m4 ,x w frequ5tly be necess>y to take a c>eful section1 to obta9 suffici5t in=mation f :i* to draw ! plan & ! elevation4 ,) respect to ! writt5 dim5sions on a draw+1 x may be rem>k$ t !y _c be too full or too num]\s4 ,inde$1 )\t complete writt5 dim5sions a draw+ is almo/ useless2 = ?\gh a scale may & %\ld 9 all cases be atta*$1 great lab\r w\ld be requir$ to make use ( ! draw+ by means ( ! scale only4 ,e dim5sion :i* an eng9e] is likely to require to "k %\ld1 !re=e1 be pla9ly writt54 ,nor is x suffici5t to give a dim5sion once only1 z on ! plan1 = example1 & to omit x on ! elevation or on ! section4 ,x %\ld nev] be necess>y to ref] to ano!r draw+ to f9d a dim5sion4 ,! lett]+ %\ld be cle>ly execut$1 & ! direction ( ! lett]+ %\ld be ! same z t ( ! figur+1 an example ( :i* has be5 giv52 t is1 x %\ld read f ! front or f ! "r-h& side ( ! draw+4 ,if a draw+ is to be col\r$1 ! lett]+1 & all d>k l9es1 su* z %ade l9es1 mu/ be left till aft] ! col\r has be5 appli$4 ,on all col\r$ draw+s ! draughtsman %\ld endeav\r to obta9 a bright1 cle> t9t by repeat+ ! wa%es a suffici5t numb] ( times4 ,9 prep>+ a flat-wa% ! t9t %\ld be mix$ up slightly d>k] ?an is requir$1 & ! solid col\r+ matt] all[$ to settle be=e us+4 ,! solution1 be+ p\r$ (f )\t di/urb+ ! s$im5t1 w give a p]fectly cle> & pure t9t4 ,t9ts = col\r+ p]spective draw+s %\ld always be prep>$ 9 ?is mann]4 ,! me?ods ( lay+ on flat-wa%es & ( %ad+ by col\rs h be5 describ$ 9 =m] ,sections4 ,! foll[+ additional rem>ks on col\r %ad+ are tak5 f ,wor!n's #8,cyclopdia ( ,draw+4' ,a means ( add+ consid]ably to ! def9it5ess ( a col\r$ me*anical draw+1 & ( promot+1 9 a rem>kable degree1 its effective appe>ance1 is obta9$ by leav+ a v n>r[ m>g9 ( light on ! edges ( all surfaces1 no matt] :at may be ! angles !y =m ) ! surfaces t jo9 !m4 ,?is %\ld be done inv>iably2 we d n ev5 except ^? edges :i* happ5 to h %ad[s fall+ ^u !m4 ,9 su* cases1 h[ev]1 ?is m>g91 in/ead ( be+ left q :ite1 %\ld be slightly subdu$4 ,! difficulty ( a*iev+ ?is effect ( imp>t+ a cle>1 regul>1 unbrok5 appe>ance to ^! l9es ( light seems v =midable1 &1 inde$1 almo/ insup]able4 ,! h& ( ! col\ri/ may be z /eady & confid5t z a h& c be1 & yet fail to guide ! bru%1 at an almo/ inappreciable di/ance f a /raight or a circul> l9e1 ) t precision & %>pness s requisite = ! production ( ?is beautiful effect4 ,we %all1 h[ev]1 expla9 a novel & an effective me?od ( arriv+ at ?is mo/ desirable result4 ,suppose ! object ab\t to receive ! col\r to be ! elevation ( a long flat rod or lev]1 on ! edge ( :i* a l9e ( light is to be left4 ,fill ! draw+ p51 z full z x w conv5i5tly hold1 ) t9t1 & draw a broad l9e j )91 b n t\*+1 ! edge ( ! lev] expos$ to ! light4 ,z x is ess5tial to ! successful accompli%m5t ( ! op]ation t ?is l9e ( col\r %\ld n dry1 ev5 p>tially1 be=e ! t9t on ! :ole side ( ! lev] has be5 laid on1 x w be well to draw ! p5 a second "t v lightly along ! l9e1 s z to deposit z mu* t9t z possible4 ,imm$iately ?is has be5 done1 ! bru%1 fill$ ) ! same t9t1 %\ld be pass$ along s z to jo9 ! inn] edge ( ?is l9e ( col\r & ! :ole surface ( ! lev] to be fill$ 94 ,by ?is means a di/9ct & regul> l9e ( light is obta9$ )\t sacrifice ( "t4 ,a /ill m exp$iti\s way ( col\r+ su* surfaces is to draw a second l9e ( col\r along & 9 contact ) ! opposite edge ( ! lev] or o!r object1 & to fill 9 ! int]m$iate space betwe5 ! two wet l9es ) ! bru%4 ,9 ?is way a cle>1 uni=m outl9e to ! t9t is obta9$4 ,! blades ( ! draw+ p5 mu/ n be %>p1 & c>e mu/ be tak5 n to press heavily ^u x1 z o!rwise ! blades w leave _! c\rse visible--an unsightly betrayal ( me*anical means to obta9 su* regul>ity 9 ! col\r+4 ,flat circul> surfaces may be treat$ 9 ! same way1 by us+ ! p5 compass in/ead ( ! draw+ p54 ,:5 su* surfaces are l>ge x w be judici\s to col\r !m 9 halves or 9 quadrantal spaces1 b great c>e mu/ be tak5 to jo9 ! p>ts neatly4 ,! l9es ( junction may be oblit]at$ by slightly wa%+ !m1 or by lay+ a v light t9t ov] ! :ole surface1 tak+ c>e 9 cross+ ! l9es ( junction to rub !m lightly ) ! bru%4 ,! l9e ( light ^u cyl9drical objects may be beautifully produc$ by ! same means4 ,to indicate ?is l9e ) p]fect regul>ity is highly important1 = if /rict uni=mity be n ma9ta9$ ?r\gh\t its l5g?1 ! object w appe> crook$ or di/ort$4 ,hav+ m>k$ 9 p5cil ! position ( ! light1 & fill$ ! draw+ p5 ) a j p]ceptible t9t1 draw a l9e ( col\r on "o side ( ! l9e ( light4 ,!n1 ) ! bru% fill$ ) ! same t9t1 fill up ! space unoccupi$ by ! %ade t9t1 )9 :i* ! v light col\r 9 ! bru% w disappe>4 ,! portion ( ! surface on ! o!r side ( ! l9e ( light be+ treat$ 9 ! same way1 ! desir$ effect1 ( a /ream ( light1 cle> & ma!matically regul>1 w be obta9$4 ,! effectiv5ess & exp$iti\sness ( ?is me?od w be mo/ noticeable on long circul> rods ( small diamet]1 :]e a want ( accuracy is m imm$iately p]ceptible4 ,! extreme dep? ( %ade1 z well z ! l9e ( light1 may1 on su* rods1 be m>k$ by fill+ ! p5 ) d>k %ade t9t1 & draw+ x exactly ov] ! l9e repres5t+ ! deepe/ "p ( ! %ade4 ,on ei!r side1 & jo9+ ?is /rip ( d>k col\r1 ano!r1 compos$ ( light] t9t1 is to be drawn4 ,o!rs successively light] %\ld foll[1 until1 on "o side1 ! l9e ( ! rod is jo9$1 &1 on ! o!r1 ! lighte/ "p ( ! rod is ne>ly rea*$4 ,! l9e ( light is !n to be %[n1 & ! fa9t t9t us$ at ?is "p ( ! op]ation spread ) ! bru% lightly ov] ! :ole ( t portion ( ! rod situate on ei!r side ( ?is l9e1 ?us bl5d+ into smoo? rotundity ! graduat$ /rips ( t9t drawn ) ! p54 ,= ! correct repres5tation ( a build+1 plans1 sections1 & elevations are requir$4 ,! plan is usually a horizontal section ( ! build+ close above ! gr\nd floor4 ,! position & ! dim5sions ( ! walls & ! rooms ( a h\se are %[n by ?is means4 ,z ! walls are %[n 9 section 9 ! plan1 sections ( ! v>i\s walls mu/1 ( c\rse1 be suppli$ be=e ! plan c be drawn4 ,x is usual to col\r ! section ( ! walls 9 a gr\nd plan2 b n unfrequ5tly a d>k wa% ( ,indian ink is pref]r$ to col\r4 ,! numb] ( sections requir$ w dep5d ^u ! regul>ity ( ! build+2 b g5]ally x w be f\nd t two half-sections are suffici5t4 ,^! two half-sections are usually plac$ side by side1 sep>at$ by a s+le l9e4 ,! l9es on :i* !y are con/ruct$ mu/ be drawn di/9ctly on ! plan1 & lett]$4 ,! section is !n describ$ z 8,section0 or 8,half-section0 on ,a ,b1 c4 ,usually ! l9e ( section is brok5 9 plan1 & ! section is !n said to be on ,a ,b1 ,c ,d1 "o half be+ on ,a ,b & ! o!r half on ,c ,d4 ,sep>ate sections to l>g] scales are requir$ = ! details ( con/ruction1 su* z jo9ts ( raft]s1 m\ld+s to w9d[s1 & o!r p>ts ne$+ di/9ct repres5tation4 ,elevations g5]ally repres5t ! :ole ( "o side ( ! build+1 & e side t diff]s f ! re/ mu/ h its own elevation4 ,su* elevations are t]m$ ,front1 ,back1 & ,end ,elevations1 or ,nor?1 ,s\?1 ,ea/1 & ,we/ ,elevations4 ,9 ord] to %[ ! f\ndations1 a section ( ! gr\nd is sometimes giv5 ) an elevation2 9 su* a case ! level ( ! gr\nd %\ld be %[n by a di/9ct l9e4 ,sometimes ! portions ( ! /ructure bel[ ! gr\nd are %[n by dott$ l9es4 ,su* portions %\ld n be col\r$4 ,9 gett+ out ! draw+s ! plan %\ld fir/ be drawn1 !n ! sections1 & f9ally ! elevations4 ,! col\r+ ( elevations w af=d ! /ud5t an opportunity ( apply+ ! k he may h acquir$ f a =m] ,section ( ?is "w1 & ( display+ 8 arti/ic ta/e4 ,9 ! accompany+ ,plates w be f\nd examples ( col\r+ me*anical & ar*itectural draw+s4 ,^! %\ld be /udi$ 9 conjunction ) ! ,section on col\r+ 9 ! fir/ "p ( ?is "w4 ,plate #bb %[s a piece ( m>9e eng9e c>efully col\r$ to indicate ! mat]ial ( :i* ! sev]al p>ts are made1 & ,plate #bc conta9s a piece ( p]man5t way1 consi/+ ( wr\ght-iron rail & bolt1 ca/-iron *air & wood5 sleep] & block1 & an elevation ( a skew bridge1 accurately col\r$ & %ad$ 9 accordance ) ! pr9ciples already expla9$4 ,x is n )9 ! scope ( ?is "w to treat ! subject ( projection1 :e!r or?ographic1 isometrical1 or p]spective2 b we h giv5 examples ( ea* ( ^! = ! purpose ( illu/rat+ ! rem>ks & in/ructions on col\r+ giv5 9 ! ,section ref]r$ to above4 ,?us ,plate #bd is a p]spective draw+1 su* z are frequ5tly made by ar*itects1 requir+ a high degree ( skill & ta/e on ! "p ( ! col\ri/4 ,& ,plate #bg conta9s two isometrical views ( a build+4 ,^! examples are int5d$ to s]ve z models ( f9i%$ col\r+4 ,! ,plates relat+ to ?is ,section are ,nos4 #bb1 #bc1 #bd1 & #bg4 ,,section ,,vii4--,,copy+ ,,& ,,r$uc+4 ,duplicates ( draw+s are v frequ5tly requir$2 s frequ5tly1 inde$1 & 9 su* numb]s1 t _! production con/itutes a l>ge portion ( ! "w execut$ 9 e draw+ (fice4 ,g5]ally1 ^! duplicates are requir$ to ! same scale z ! orig9al draw+2 b (t5 x becomes necess>y to r$uce or to enl>ge ! scale to r5d] ! draw+ suitable to ! purpose = :i* x is int5d$4 ,! v>i\s means & me?ods by :i* su* duplicates are produc$ are1 !re=e1 important matt]s to ! draughtsman1 & especially to ! "y draughtsman1 ^: lab\rs 9 ! draw+ (fice w = a long "t be conf9$ almo/ exclusively to _! employm5t4 ,^! means & me?ods w n[ be describ$4 ,draw+ f ,copy4--,draw+ f copy is r>ely resort$ to = ! purpose ( obta9+ duplicates1 ! process be+ too sl[ = practical requirem5ts4 ,b x con/itutes ! pr9cipal means1 aft] ! /udy ( projection1 by :i* pupils 9 ! (fice are initiat$ into ! art ( produc+ draw+s4 ,a few h9ts conc]n+ ! be/ modes ( proce$+ 9 ^! op]ations w1 !re=e1 be s]viceable1 bo? to ! in/ructor & ! in/ruct$4 ,fir/ draw a horizontal & a v]tical l9e ?r\gh ! middle1 ea* way1 ( ! %eet ^u :i* ! copy is to be made2 draw also simil> l9es ^u ! copy4 ,z ^! l9es divide ! pap] equally1 !y may1 = ! sake ( di/9ction1 be call$ 8divisional l9es40 ,if ! c5tre l9es are n %[n on ! copy1 ^! mu/ next be drawn 9 lightly ) ! p5cil1 great c>e be+ tak5 to place !m correctly4 ,! position ( ^! c5tre l9es relatively to ! divisional l9es may !n be transf]r$ by means ( ! divid]s f ! copy to ! fair %eet1 ^u :i* !y mu/ be drawn f9ely b di/9ctly4 ,sometimes x w be necess>y to draw o!r l9es ^u ! copy1 & to transf] !m 9 l mann] to ! fair %eet4 ,! details may !n be drawn 9 ^u ^! c5tre l9es1 by transf]r+ to !m ! measurem5ts tak5 f ! c5tre l9es ( ! copy4 ,9 tak+ measurem5ts f a c5tre l9e ?r\gh an object t has bo? sides alike1 ! divid]s %\ld be turn$ ov] to asc]ta9 :e!r ! di/ance on ! o!r side ( ! c5tre l9e is ! same1 s z to prove ! accuracy ( ! draw+ ) respect to ! c5tre l9e4 ,all measurem5ts mu/ be tak5 9 ! exact direction ( ! di/ance to be measur$1 & be transf]r$ 9 ! same direction1 or an obvi\sly incorrect di/ance w be ! result4 ,9 mak+ ! m>k1 ! po9t ( ! divid]s %\ld n be pu%$ into ! pap]1 a j visible m>k be+ all t is requir$2 c>e mu/ also be tak51 :5 us+ ! compasses1 n to press ! leg into ! pap]1 z ! holes ?us made r5d] circles & arcs inaccurate1 are unsightly at all times1 & completely de/roy ! unbrok5 appe>ance ( a t9t on a col\r$ draw+ by reta9+ ! col\r4 ,:5 draw+ 9 circul> details ) ! p5cil1 x w be well to place a small h&-drawn circle ar\nd ! c5tre = ref]5ce :5 ink+ 92 also1 :5 a curve is /ruck f sev]al c5tres1 a tempor>y p5cil l9e to repres5t ! radii %\ld be drawn f ! c5tres to _! respective arcs4 ,:5 two or m views ( ! same objects are giv51 !y %\ld be work$ ^u simultane\sly2 because1 hav+ once drawn 9 ! c5tre l9es1 "o measurem5t may be appli$ to ! correspond+ "p 9 ea* view1 & s "t & tr\ble sav$4 ,9 copy+ maps & plans by ?is me?od ( draw+ f copy1 bo? ! copy & ! fair %eets are divid$ up into small squ>es1 by draw+ a numb] ( o!r l9es p>allel to ! divisional l9es describ$ above4 ,! int]section ( detail ) ^! l9es may !n be readily & correctly transf]r$ f ! copy to ! fair %eet4 ,copy+ by ,trac+4--,trac+ furni%es ! mo/ exp$iti\s means ( multiply+ draw+s4 ,:5 a trac+ is requir$ 9 outl9e only1 ! usual way is to fa/5 ! %eet ( trac+ pap] ) ord9>y draw+ p9s ov] ! draw+ to be trac$2 ! %eet ( trac+ pap] %\ld be suffici5tly l>ge to all[ ! p9s to be cle> ( ! draw+4 ,if ! %eet is n l>ge en\gh = ?is1 /rips ( ?9 pap]1 ) "o edge gumm$ to ! trac+ pap] & ! o!r to ! bo>d1 may be us$4 ,:5 ?is me?od is n practicable1 ! p9 holes may be effac$ to "s ext5t by turn+ ! draw+ upside d[n1 & press+ back ! edges ( ! holes ) ! flat end ( a p5cil1 aft] ! trac+ has be5 remov$4 ,if ! trac+ is to be col\r$1 x mu/ be /ret*$ on ! bo>d1 or x w nev] lie flat aft] be+ moi/5$2 & if ! col\r+ is to be appli$ be=e ! trac+ is remov$ f ! draw+1 x is ess5tial t ! trac+ pap] be l>g] ?an ! draw+1 s t x may be cut (f )\t injury to ! latt]4 ,:5 !re is n suffici5t "t to /ret* ! trac+ pap]1 ! t5d5cy to buckle up :5 dry+ may be greatly less5$ by plac+ weights ar\nd any "p imm$iately aft] ! col\r+ has be5 laid on4 ,if ! trac+ is to be m\nt$1 ! col\r+ %\ld be appli$ aft] m\nt+4 ,:5 trac+ clo? is us$1 a mu* bett] appe>ance w be produc$ by apply+ ! col\r to ! back ( ! trac+4 ,9 p]=m+ ! /ret*+ process1 ! sponge mu/ n be appli$ directly to ! trac+ pap]1 b to a piece ( clean :ite pap] laid ov] x2 suffici5t moi/ure w pass ?r\gh to ! trac+ pap] 9 a few seconds4 ,sometimes1 :5 ! %eet is small1 m]ely brea?+ ^u x w be f\nd suffici5tly effective4 ,z trac+ pap] is ?us greatly affect$ by ! brea?1 x has be5 recomm5d$ to entirely f9i% bo? circles & l9es )9 a small area at a "t1 :5 copy+ a draw+1 z if all ! circles 7 put 9 fir/1 z on a draw+1 _m ( !m might be out ( position be=e ! l9es c\ld be drawn4 ,?is recomm5dation is1 h[ev]1 ( d\btful value4 ,:5 trac+ f ano!r trac+1 a piece ( :ite pap] %\ld be plac$ b5ea? ! copy to r5d] ! l9es di/9ct4 ,a trac+ may be made ^u ord9>y draw+ pap] by means ( ! glass draw+ bo>d4 ,?is consi/s ( a %eet ( plate glass let into a wood5 frame ab\t #c in*es wide flu% ) ! face1 ! inn] edges ( ! frame be+ rebat$ = ?is purpose4 ,?is copy+ bo>d is plac$ on a table 9 front ( a w9d[1 & support$ at an angle ( ab\t #be1 s z to get a /rong light b5ea?1 :i* light may be increas$ by plac+ a %eet ( :ite pap] ^u ! table to reflect upw>ds4 ,! orig9al draw+ be+ p9n$ d[n to ?is bo>d ) a %eet ( draw+ pap] or p>*m5t ov] x1 ! f9e/ l9es w be pla9ly visible1 & ! draw+ may be trac$ 9 ! same mann] z ^u trac+ pap]4 ,to alt] ! light1 ! angle ( ! bo>d may be *ang$4 ,?is me?od1 :i* is com+ ext5sively into use1 is a v conv5i5t "o = copy+ plans & maps4 ,copy+ by ,transf]4--,copy+ by transf] has sup]s$$ ! me?od already describ$ z 8draw+ f copy40 ,transf] pap]1 z employ$ = ?is purpose1 may be made 9 ! foll[+ mann]4 ,take half an imp]ial %eet ( v ?9 pap]1 su* z tissue pap]1 & hav+ /ret*$ x ^u a bo>d1 rub "s common blacklead p[d] well into x4 ,!n1 hav+ remov$ ! du/ & sup]flu\s blacklead1 well rub ! %eet ) a cotton rag to prev5t its soil+ ! pap] :5 us$ = transf]r+ a draw+4 ,a %eet ( transf]r+ pap] prep>$ 9 ?is way w la/ = ye>s4 ,r$ transf] pap]1 :i* is pr9cipally us$ by li?ograph]s1 is prep>$ 9 ! same mann] ) r$ o*re4 ,to transf] a draw+1 ! %eet ( transf] pap] is laid ) its prep>$ face ^u ! pap] :i* is to receive ! draw+1 & ov] ?is is plac$ a trac+ ( ! draw+ to be copi$1 c>efully p9n$ d[n4 ,! /raight l9es ( ! trac+ may !n be transf]r$ to ! draw+ pap] bel[ by go+ ov] !m ) a /yle or o!r po9t$ in/rum5t t w n cut ! trac+4 ,= ! regul> curves & circles1 x w be suffici5t to m>k ! c5tres by a small cross1 ?us1 1 & ! radii by %ort l9es4 ,o!r curves may be transf]r$ by means ( ! ,fr5* curve4 ,by ?is means a copy ( ! orig9al draw+ is obta9$ 9 black or r$ l9es1 :i* may be aft]w>ds ink$ 94 ,?\gh ?ree di/9ct op]ations are requir$ 9 ?is process1 mak+ ! trac+1 transf]r+1 & ink+ 91 a draw+ c be mu* m rapidly copi$ by means ( x1 ?an by measur+ (f ) ! divid]s1 z 9 draw+ f copy4 ,r$uc+ & ,enl>g+4--,x is evid5t t 9 draw+ f copy1 ! draw+ may be r$uc$ or enl>g$ at pleasure1 s9ce x is only necess>y to take half or twice ! dim5sions z requir$4 ,usually proportional compasses are employ$ = ?is purpose4 ,:5 r$uc+ by scales1 x is obvi\sly n ess5tial to use ! same scale z t to :i* ! orig9al is made2 ! dim5sions on "o scale may be readily transf]r$ to any o!r1 & ! /ud5t w d well to make himself famili> ) ! op]ation4 ,= r$uc+ or enl>g+ plans1 sev]al means are employ$3 "o ( ^! is kn[n z ! me?od ( squ>es1 & is illu/rat$ on ,plate #bf4 ,9 ! prec$+ rem>ks on draw+ f copy1 x 0 %[n h[ 9 copy+ to ! same scale1 bo? ! copy & ! fair %eet 7 divid$ into squ>es ( equal size1 & h[ ! int]sections ( ! detail ) ! l9es =m+ ^! squ>es on ! copy 7 transf]r$ by measurem5t to correspond+ po9ts on ! fair %eet4 ,x is obvi\s1 !re=e1 t if ! squ>es on ! latt] be l>g] or small] ?an ^? on ! =m]1 z ! int]sections w be transf]r$ to ! same relative positions on ! fair %eet z !y occupy on ! copy1 ! plan1 or o!r draw+1 w be enl>g$ or r$uc$ accord+ly4 ,?is is ! pr9ciple ^u :i* draw+s are r$uc$ by ?is me?od4 ,proportional compasses are requir$ 9 ! op]ations4 ,draw+s may also be rapidly r$uc$ or enl>g$ by means ( in/rum5ts call$ ! ,pantograph & ! ,eidograph4 ,bo? ( ^! in/rum5ts are %[n on ,plate #bf4 ,! foll[+ v complete description ( ! pantograph & ! eidograph is giv5 9 an excell5t "w on #8,ma!matical ,draw+ ,in/rum5ts1' by ,w4 ,f4 ,/\ley1 ( ,holborn1 ,london4 8,! pantograph1 z repres5t$ on ! plate1 consi/s ( f\r rules ( /\t brass1 :i* are jo9t$ toge!r 9 pairs1 "o pair ( rules be+ ab\t d\ble ! l5g? ( ! o!r4 ,! free ends ( ! %ort] pair are aga9 jo9t$ to ! long] 9 ab\t ! c5tre4 ,x is important t ! di/ance ( ! jo9ts on ea* ( ! %ort rules %\ld exactly correspond ) ! di/ance ( ! jo9ts on ! opposite long] rules1 s t ! inscrib$ space %\ld be a true p>allelogram4 ,to enable ! in/rum5t to "w freely & correctly1 all ! jo9ts %\ld be p]fectly v]tical1 & ) d\ble axes4 ,"u ! jo9ts ca/]s are plac$ to support ! in/rum5t1 & to all[ x to move lightly ov] ! pap]4 ,"o ( ! long rules has a socket fix$ ne> ! end1 :i* c>ries a trac+ po9t :5 ! in/rum5t is us$ = r$uc+4 ,! o!r long rule1 & "o ( ! %ort] rules1 h ea* a slid+ head fitt$ ^u x1 :i* is simil> to "o ( ! heads ( a pair ( beam compasses4 ,ea* head has a screw to clamp x 9 any "p ( ! rule1 & c>ries a p]p5dicul> socket1 :i* is plac$ ov] ! edge ( ! rule 9 a true l9e ) ! jo9ts4 ,ea* socket is adapt$ to hold ei!r a p5cil hold]1 trac+ po9t1 or fulcrum p91 z may be requir$4 ,! rules ^u :i* ! heads slide are divid$ ) a scale ( proportions3 #a--b1 #aa--ab1 #i--aj1 c41 :i* indicate z "o is to two1 z elev5 are to twelve1 z n9e are to t51 c4 8,a load$ brass weight1 :i* firmly supports a p9 t fits exactly into ei!r ( ! sockets1 =ms ! fulcrum ^u :i* ! :ole in/rum5t moves :5 9 use4 8,! p5cil hold] is con/ruct$ ) a small cup at ! top1 :i* may be load$ ) co9 or %ot to cause ! p5cil to m>k ) ! requir$ di/9ctness4 8,arrangem5t is made to raise ! p5cil hold] (f ! draw+4 ,?is is effect$ by a groove d[n "o side ( ! p5cil hold]1 9 :i* a cord is fix$1 pass+ f ! p5cil along ! rules1 turn+ ! angles ov] small pulleys1 & rea*+ ! trac+ po9t1 :]e x may be readily pull$ by ! h& to raise ! p5cil4 ,?is w be f\nd especially conv5i5t :5 ! p5cil is requir$ to pass ov] any "p ( ! copy n int5d$ to be reproduc$4 8,! pantograph is set to r$uce draw+s 9 two ways1 t]m$ te*nically ! erect mann] & ! rev]se mann]4 ,x w be necess>y to give full details ( ea* mann]1 p>ticul>ly 9 relation to ! scales engrav$ ^u ! in/rum5t1 :i* are n v intelligible2 inde$ comp>atively few pr(essional m5 are suffici5tly acqua9t$ ) !m to avail !mselves ( _! full value4 8,by ! erect mann] ( sett+ ! pantograph1 ! r$uc$ copy w appe> erect2 t is1 ! same way z 9 ! orig9al4 ,! g5]al position ( ! p>ts ( ! in/rum5t set 9 ?is mann] is %[n 9 ! plate1 :]e x w be se5 t ! fulcrum p9 is plac$ 9 ! socket ( ! slid+ head ^u ! outside long rule1 & ! p5cil hold] 9 ! socket ^u ! %ort c5tral rule4 ,by ?is me?od ( sett+ ! in/rum5t1 x w r$uce 9 any ( ! giv5 proportions n exce$+ half-size1 te*nically f #a--b4 ,! scales engrav$ ^u ! rules t accord ) ! erect mann] ( sett+ are ^? :i* h #a = ! fir/ proportion2 z #a--b1 #a--c1 #a--d1 c4 ,! o!r scales may be us$1 b w n accord ) ! read+1 except ?r\gh ari?metical d$uctions1 ! results ( :i* may be giv5 m cle>ly by ! foll[+ complete ,table ?an by rules ) exceptions4 ,,table ,,( ,,r$uctions ,,by ,,! ,,pantograph ,,9 ,,! ,,erect ,,mann]1 ,,! ,,fulcrum ,,be+ ,,plac$ ,,9 ,,! ,,socket ,,^u ,,! ,,outside ,,rule1 ,,& ,,! ,,p5cil ,,^u ,,! ,,c5tral ,,rule4 ---------------------------------- ,read+ giv5 ^u,r$uces 9 ! ! ,scales4 ,proportion ( ---------------------------------- #a--b #a to #b #a--c #a #c #a--d #a #d #a--e #a #e #a--f #a #f #a--g #a #g #a--h #a #h #a--i #a #i #a--aj #a #aj #a--aa #a #aa #b--c #b #e #c--d #c #g #d--e #d #i #e--f #e #aa #f--g #f #ac #g--h #g #ae #h--i #h #ag #i--aj #i #ai #aj--aa #aj #ba #aa--ab #aa #bc ---------------------------------- 8,9 ! above ,table ! read+s :i* are giv5 ) ! proportions are giv5 to %[ cle>ly :i* proportions agree ) ! erect scales2 _m ( ^? t d n agree ) ! read+ are v useful1 z #b--c1 :i* is (t5 requir$ to r$uce a draw+ f a scale ( #bj to "o ( #ej4 8,9 ! rev]se mann] ( sett+ ! pantograph1 ! r$uc$ copy appe>s rev]s$1 or upside d[n1 to ! orig9al4 ,! fulcrum p9 is plac$ 9 ! socket ^u ! %ort c5tral rule1 & ! p5cil hold] is plac$ 9 ! socket ^u ! outside rule4 ,?is is g5]ally ! mo/ conv5i5t way ( us+ ! pantograph = l>ge draw+s1 z ! orig9al & copy come edge to edge1 & ne$ n ov]lap ea* o!r1 :i* is (t5 compulsory 9 ! erect mann]2 ! range ( scale is also mu* great]1 z ! proportions include ! unit proportions ( ! erect scale1 & cont9ue 9 ratios up to full size4 8,! foll[+ ,table w give ! read+s ( ! in/rum5t :i* accord ) ! rev]se sett+1 & ^? :i* may be us$ to ?is sett+1 obta9$ by calculation4 ,,table ,,( ,,r$uctions ,,by ,,! ,,pantograph ,,9 ,,! ,,rev]se ,,mann]1 ,,! ,,fulcrum ,,be+ ,,plac$ ,,9 ,,! ,,socket ,,on ,,! ,,c5tral ,,rule1 ,,& ,,! ,,p5cil ,,9 ,,! ,,socket ,,^u ,,! ,,outside ,,rule4 ------------------------------------ ,read+ giv5 ^u ,r$uces 9 ! ! ,scales4 ,proportion ( ------------------------------------ #a--b #a to #a full size #a--c #a #b #a--d #a #c #a--e #a #d #a--f #a #e #a--g #a #f #a--h #a #g #a--i #a #h #a--aj #a #i #a--aa #a #aj #b--c #b #c #c--d #c #d #d--e #d #e #e--f #e #f #f--g #f #g #g--h #g #h #h--i #h #i #i--aj #i #aj #aj--aa #aj #aa #aa--ab #aa #ab ------------------------------------ 8,! above ,table & ! previ\s "o give ! proportions = r$uctions1 ! trac+ po9t be+ 9 e in/ance consid]$ ^u ! outside rule4 ,if x 7 requir$ to produce an enl>g$ copy1 :i* ! pantograph w d b v imp]fectly1 ! p5cil & trac] w\ld h to *ange places2 ! proportions ( c\rse w\ld read ! same4 8,9 us+ ! pantograph "s c>e is requir$ 9 sett+ ! fulcrum weight 9 ! be/ position to all[ easy action ( ! in/rum5t ov] ! space requir$4 ,x %\ld always be r\ghly tri$ ov] ! b\nd>y be=e comm5c+ ! copy4 8,! ord9>y pantograph w 9 no in/ance "w ov] a l>ge draw+ at "o op]ation1 b x may be %ift$ ab\t z requir$1 us+ c>e1 & te/+ ! copy aft] ! fulcrum is mov$1 to see t ! trac] & p5cil correspond 9 ^? p>ts already produc$1 t ! pantograph w rea* 9 its %ift$ position4 ,! fulcrum weight be+ g5]ally made ) ne$le po9ts to atta* x to ! draw+ w be f\nd v difficult to %ift s %ort a di/ance z is frequ5tly requir$4 ,?is may be easily rem$i$ by atta*+ ) gum a piece ( indi>ubb] ov] ea* ( ! %>p po9ts1 :5 x is requir$ to be us$ = l>ge draw+s4 ,! rubb] w hold ! pap] suffici5tly if ! pantograph "w freely 9 ! jo9ts & ca/]s1 z x %\ld d4 8,9 copy+ ! build+s :i* frequ5tly occur 9 plans ( e/ates1 c41 a /raight slip ( transp>5t horn w be f\nd v conv5i5t to guide ! trac+ po9t4 ,"s draughtsm5 h ! horn cut ) an int]nal angle1 by :i* "o side & "o end ( a build+ may be trac$ )\t %ift+ ! horn4 8,ar*itects & me*anical eng9e]s seldom use ! pantograph2 h[ev]1 x may p]haps be sometimes us$ ) advantage = trac+ 9 ! mo/ difficult & t$i\s p>ts ( a draw+ ) a precision impossible by h&4 ,?is applies p>ticul>ly to su* p>ts z are frequ5tly repeat$1 z capitals1 trusses1 bosses1 trac]y1 c41 ^u draw+s to v small scales4 ,9 ^! in/ances x is only necess>y to make a detail sket*1 say six times ! size requir$1 & to place ! fulcrum weight 9 su* position t ! p5cil w pass ov] ! p>ts requir$ to be fill$ 91 ! trac] at ! same "t re/+ on a correspond+ "p ( ! detail sket*1 :i* may be plac$ 9 position "u ! trac+ po9t1 & be held suffici5tly by two lead weights4 ,= a second ornam5t on ! same draw+1 ! detail may be %ift$ )\t mov+ ! fulcrum4 8,to foll[ ! outl9e ( any object ( ! ornam5tal class1 or = ! r$uction ( me*anical draw+s to a size suitable = wood or o!r engrav+s1 ! /rip ( horn w be f\nd p>ticul>ly useful2 inde$1 to obta9 any degree ( precision1 x w be bett]1 g5]ally1 to let ! trac] foll[ a guid+ edge plac$ ov] ! orig9al = t purpose4 ,fr5* curves are p>ticul>ly useful1 al?\gh p]haps only a small piece may be available at once4 ,! trac] may re/ on ! surface until ano!r "p ( ! curve is f\nd to correspond ) ! cont9uation ( ! l9e4 8,9 "s old pantographs a guide is fix$ to ! trac+ po9t4 ,! guide is a k9d ( h&le simil> to a draw+ p5cil1 ! po9t ( :i* is h+$ to ! po9t ( ! trac]4 ,?is gives a conv5i5t & firm hold ( ! po9t1 & appe>s to ! au?or a useful app5dage4 8,pantographs h be5 made 9 _m %apes unnecess>y to describe1 z !y are all ( "o pr9ciple--t ( a p>allelogram jo9t$ at ! f\r corn]s2 ! pr9cipal diff]5ce be+ 9 ! position ( ! po9ts & fulcrum 9 relation to ! p>allelogram4 ,"o ?+ is ess5tial 9 e con/ruction1--t is1 t ! fulcrum1 trac]1 & p5cil %\ld always be 9 a true l9e :5 ! in/rum5t is set = use4 ,! p>allelogram may be 9 any position on ! in/rum5t1 to ! fancy ( ! mak]4 8,! ,eidograph 0 inv5t$ by ,pr(essor ,willis 9 #ahba4 ,x is a mo/ +5i\s & exact in/rum5t1 = _m purposes sup]ior to ! pantograph1 )9 ! range ( its work+ p[]s1 :i*1 h[ev]1 may be consid]$ to be limit$ to r$uc+ or copy+ (f1 betwe5 ! full size ( ! orig9al & "o-?ird ( ! size2 = great] r$uctions1 ! balance ( ! v>i\s p>ts is ?r[n s f> out t x appe>s clumsy to use1 & is really inf]ior to ! pantograph4 ,! great m]it ( ! eidograph is1 t )9 its range x r$uces conv5i5tly & exactly 9 all proportions2 = in/ance1 we may r$uce 9 ! proportion ( #i to #be z readily z #a to #b4 ,x is also 9 e way sup]ior to ! pantograph 9 fre$om ( action1 !re be+ no s5sible friction on ! s+le fulcrum ( support1 & 9 its movem5t x cov]s a great] surface ( r$uction4 8,x is some:at curi\s t an in/rum5t ( su* great m]it %\ld be little kn[n 9 ! pr(ession1 :]e its uses w\ld be s con/antly conv5i5t4 ,?is may p>tly be attribut$ to ! v few publi%$ descriptions :i* are to be f\nd 9 works treat+ on ma!matical in/rum5ts4 ,x is n int5d$1 h[ev]1 to inf] t !re are n _m eidographs 9 use1 b t ! writ] presumes !y are comp>atively little kn[n1 f 8 p]sonal acqua9tance ) pr(essional m51 & f ! numb] ( l>ge pantographs t are made & sold to p]=m "w t c\ld be done s mu* m exactly & conv5i5tly by ! eidograph4 ,?is rem>k w n apply to ! small pantograph1 :i* is less exp5sive ?an a small eidograph1 & answ]s p]fectly = ! r$uction ( small plans--z1 = in/ance1 ^? frequ5tly atta*$ to leases & conveyances4 8,! details ( ! con/ruction ( ! eidograph are z foll[s3--,! po9t ( support is a heavy1 solid1 lead5 weight1 :i* is entirely cov]$ ) brass2 f ! "u side ( ! weight ?ree or f\r ne$le po9ts project1 to keep x 9 firm contact ) ! draw+4 ,^u ! upp] side ( ! weight a p91 t]m$ a fulcrum1 is erect$1 ^u :i* ! :ole in/rum5t moves4 ,a socket is gr\nd accurately to fit ! fulcrum1 & atta*$ to a slid+ box1 :i* fits & slides ^u ! c5tre beam ( ! in/rum5t4 ,! slid+ box may be clamp$ to any "p ( ! beam by a clamp+ screw atta*$4 ,"u ! ends ( ! beam are plac$ a pair ( pulley :eels1 :i* %\ld be ( exactly equal diamet]2 ! c5tre p9s ( ^! revolve 9 deep socket fitt+s ^u ! ends ( ! beam4 ,! action ( ! two :eels is s connect$ z to give !m exact & simultane\s motion4 ,?is is effect$ by means ( two /eel b&s1 :i* are atta*$ to ! :eels4 ,! b&s h screw adju/m5t to %ort5 or l5g!n !m1 or to br+ !m to any degree ( t5sion4 ,^u ! "u side ( ea* ( ! pulley :eels is fix$ a box1 ?r\gh :i* "o ( ! arms ( ! in/rum5t slides1 & is clamp$ :]e requir$4 ,at ! end ( "o ( ! arms a socket is fix$ to c>ry a trac+ po9t1 at ! end ( ! o!r arm a simil> socket is fix$ = a p5cil4 ,! p5cil socket may be rais$ by a lev] atta*$ to a cord1 :i* passes ov] ! c5tres ( ! in/rum5t to ! trac+ po9t4 ,! two arms & beam are g5]ally made ( squ>e brass tubes1 & are divid$ exactly alike into #bjj equal p>ts1 :i* are figur$ s z to read #ajj ea* way f ! c5tre1 or by ! v]ni] cut 9 ! boxes ?r\gh :i* ! arms & beam slide !y may be read to #ajjj4 8,!re is a loose lead5 weight :i* fits ^u any "p ( ! c5tre beam1 pack$ 9 ! box ) ! in/rum5t4 ,! weight is us$ to keep ! in/rum5t 9 pleasant balance :5 x is set to proportions :i* w\ld o!rwise t5d to ov]balance ! fulcrum weight4 8,9 ! above details x w be p>ticul>ly obs]v$ t ! pulley :eels mu/ be ( exactly equal diamet]s4 ,x is ^u ?is t *iefly dep5ds ! accuracy ( ! in/rum5t1 ! p]iph]y ( ^! :eels be+ ! equival5t to ! p>allelogram1 :i* has be5 already describ$ z ! ess5tial feature ( ! pantograph4 ,! adju/m5t ( ! :eels to size1 by turn+ 9 ! la!1 is1 p]haps1 ! reason ! results ( ! eidograph are m exact ?an ^? ( ! pantograph1 :i* has no equival5t comp5sation = ! always possible inaccuracy ( workman%ip4 8,f ! details j giv51 ! g5]al pr9ciple ( ! eidograph may be easily compreh5d$4 ,?us1 ! :eels at ea* end ( ! beam be+ ( equal size1 ! /eel b&s connect+ !m be+ adju/able1 s z to br+ ! :eels into any requir$ relative position1 x foll[s1 t if ! arms fix$ to ! :eels be br\ght into exact p>allelism1 !y w rema9 p>allel ?r\gh all ! evolutions or movem5ts ( ! :eels ^u _! c5tres2 consequ5tly1 if ! ends ( ! arms be set at simil> di/ances f ! c5tres ( ! :eels1 any motion or figure trac$ by ! end ( "o arm w be communicat$ to ! end ( ! o!r1 provid$ ! fulcrum ( support be plac$ also at a simil> di/ance f ! c5tre ( "o ( ! :eels4 8,to adju/1 or asc]ta9 if ! eidograph is 9 adju/m5t1 is v simple1 f ! reason t :5 ! arms are p>allel ! adju/m5t is p]fect = all proportions4 ,! mann] ( asc]ta9+ ?is is z foll[s3 place all ! v]ni]s at z]o1 :i* w br+ !m to ! exact c5tres ( ! arms & ! beam1 place ! arms at ab\t "r angles ) ! beam1 !n m>k simultane\sly ) ! trac] & p5cil po9t1 turn ! in/rum5t r\nd ^u its fulcrum1 s t ! p5cil po9t be br\ght into ! m>k made by ! trac]2 !n1 if ! trac] fall into ! m>k made by ! p5cil ! in/rum5t is 9 adju/m5t4 ,if x %\ld n fall into ! same m>k1 ! diff]5ce %\ld be bisect$1 & ! adju/+ screws on ! b&s %\ld be mov$ until ! trac] fall exactly into ! bisection1 :i* w be p]fect adju/m5t4 8,:5 ! eidograph is 9 adju/m5t1 if ! ?ree v]ni]s be set to ! same read+ on any "p ( _! scale1 ! p5cil po9t1 fulcrum1 & trac] w be 9 a true l9e4 ,if x %\ld n be s1 x w %[ ! divid+ ( ! in/rum5t to be inaccurate4 ,?us we h a simple way ( te/+ ! eidograph 9 e important p>ticul>4 8,! divisions ^u ! eidograph d n positively indicate ! r$uctions requir$ to be p]=m$ by ! in/rum5t1 b m]ely give a scale1 :i*1 ) ! assi/ance ( ! v]ni]1 divides ! beam & arms into #ajjj p>ts4 ,to obta9 ! quantity to :i* ! v]ni]s are to be set1 x is necess>y ei!r to apply to a table ( proportions relative to divisions1 or to simple ari?metic1 z w be %[n4 ,a pr9t$ table is v g5]ally plac$ inside ! lid ( ! box 9 :i* ! in/rum5t is pack$1 :i* conta9s "p ( ! foll[+ proportions3 ,,table ,,= ,,r$uc+ ,,or ,,enl>g+ ,,proportions4 --------------------- ,proportions4,divisions on ,b>s4 --------------------- ,z #a is to #b #ccccc #a #c #ej #a #d #fj #a #e #fffff #a #f #gadbh #a #g #ge #a #h #ggggg #a #i #hj #a #aj #hahah #b #c #bj #b #e #dbheg #c #d #adbhe #c #e #be #d #e #aaaaa #e #f #iji --------------------- 8,! table "h giv5 answ]s = ! g5]al purposes ( r$uc+1 su* z ! br++ ( a plan f "o *a9 scale to ano!r1 ! quantities ( :i* are f\nd by ! foll[+ rule3 8,to f9d ! quantity equal to any giv5 proportion = ! sett+ ( ! eidograph4--,subtract "o sum ( ! proportion f ! o!r1 & multiply ?is diff]5ce by #ajj = a divid5d2 add ! two sums ( ! proportion toge!r = a divisor3 ! quoti5t f ! work+ ( ?is w give ! numb] to :i* ! arms & beam are to be set4 8,= in/ance1 let x be requir$ to r$uce a draw+ 9 ! proportion ( #c to #e4 #e - #c #b #ajj --- #e #c #h7 #bjj 7#be 8,! c5tre beam is to be set to #be on ! side ne>e/ ! p5cil po9t1 ! p5cil arm is also set to ! #be ne>e/ ! p5cil po9t1 & ! trac] arm is set to ! #be f>!/ f ! trace4 ,if x 7 requir$ to enl>ge 9 ! same proportion1 ea* side w\ld h to be set at ! opposite #be4 8,to cle>ly illu/rate ! subject1 x may be well to give ano!r example4 ,let x be requir$ to r$uce an ordnance plan ( five feet to ! mile to a scale ( ?ree *a9s to ! in*4 ,fir/1 we mu/ h l t]ms1 !re=e to r$uce bo? proportions to feet to ! in* w1 9 ?is in/ance1 be ! mo/ simple way2 ?us3 #e feet to ! mile #hh feet to ! in*4 #c *a9s to ! in* #aih #aih - #hh #aaj #ajj ----- #aih #hh #bhf7 #aajjj 7#chdfa 8,if ! slides ( ! in/rum5t be set to #chdf1 x w be1 practically1 suffici5tly ne>40 ,photography is also frequ5tly resort$ to = ! purpose ( r$uc+ & enl>g+ draw+s4 ,! results are satisfactory )9 c]ta9 limits ( size2 = x is obvi\s t :5 ! draw+ is l>ge1 ! p>allel l9es w conv]ge 9 ! photograph1 = reasons :i* w be und]/ood f ! laws ( p]spective4 ,= enl>g+ small & intricate draw+s1 photography is v useful4 ,9 prep>+ draw+s = r$uction by ?is process1 all l9es & %ad[s %\ld be put 9 9 ,indian ink only4 ,= optical reasons1 col\r _c be reproduc$ by photography1 & z c]ta9 col\rs produce an effect :i* might n be anticipat$ by ! inexp]i5c$1 x w be well to w>n su* aga9/ ^! effects1 to prev5t disappo9tm5t at ! results obta9$4 ,?us blue1 = in/ance1 %[s v indi/9ctly1 & yell[ surfaces 9 col\r$ draw+s come out v d>k4 ,draw+s = ,li?ograph]s & ,engrav]s4--,! draw+s requir$ by ! li?ographic draughtsman are simply outl9e draw+s or trac+s1 ) ! %ad$ draw+ = ref]5ce :5 su* is requir$4 ,! %ad$ draw+ %\ld be trac$ :5 9 outl9e only ) a f9e-po9t$ p5cil1 n too h>d4 ,! engrav] pref]s su* a trac+ to ! draw+ itself1 unless he c h ! latt] be=e x is %ad$4 ,he w1 h[ev]1 require ! %ad$ draw+ z a guide 9 copy+ 9 ! %ad[s4 ,z ! draw+ always gets soil$ "u su* circum/ances1 unless protect$1 x is prud5t to place x ^u a bo>d ( ! exact size1 ) a glass ov] x to fit1 ! glass be+ kept 9 its place by a /rip ( pap] pa/$ r\nd ! edge4 ,! draw+ w n be requir$ at all if only an outl9e engrav+ is to be made4 ,9 t case1 ! l9es t are to be %ade l9es mu/ be indicat$ on ! p5cil trac+2 a dot 9 r$ ink on ea* ( su* l9es w be suffici5t4 ,a scale %\ld always be put ^u li?ographs & engrav+s1 in/ead ( m]ely /at+ t x is drawn to "s p>ticul> scale1 because ! pap] j be=e receiv+ ! impression is damp$1 & consequ5tly exp&s4 ,= ?is reason1 no engrav+ is ( ! same size z ! orig9al draw+2 & z ! degree ( moi/ure v>ies1 no two engrav+s f ! same plate ev] are exactly equal 9 size4 ,h5ce ! necessity = draw+ ! scale is obvi\s4 ,! ,plate relat+ to ?is ,section is ,no4 #bf4 ,,trigonometrical ,,=mul4 ,to compute ! ,sides ( ,triangles4--,let ,a ,b ,c be ! angles ( a plane triangle1 & a b c ! sides opposite4 ,!n1 = "r-angl$ triangles1 we h b a s94 ,b b c tan4 ,b or b c cot4 ,c c a cos4 ,b c b cot4 ,b c b tan4 ,c & = oblique-angl$ triangles we h a s94 ,b b ----------1 s94 ,a a s94 ,c c ----------4 s94 ,a ,to compute ! ,areas ( ,triangles4--,:5 two sides & ! includ$ angle are kn[n1 a & b repres5t+ ! two sides & ! includ$ angle1 a b s94 ,a --------------4 #b ,to f9d by log>i?ms ! area 9 acres & decimals ( an acre1 ,log4 ,a log4 a log4 b log4 s94 - #aecjajc4 ,:5 two angles & ! includ$ side are kn[n1 & be+ ! angles & a ! includ$ side1 a s94 s94 ,a ------------------4 #b s94 7 7 ,to f9d by log>i?ms ! area 9 acres & decimals ( an acre1 ,log4 ,a #b log4 a log4 s94 log4 s94 - log4 s94 7 7 - #aecjajc4 ,:5 ! ?ree sides are kn[n1 a b c be+ ! ?ree sides & s _! half sum1 ,a 7s7s - a77s - b77s - c774 ,to f9d by log>i?ms ! area 9 acres & decimals ( an acre1 ,log4 ,a log4 s log4 7s - a7 log4 7s - b7 log4 7s - c7 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- - #e4 #b ,,incl9$ ,,measure4 ,,table ,,%[+ ,,! ,,r$uction ,,9 ,,l9ks ,,& ,,decimals ,,( ,a ,,l9k ,,to ,,be ,,made ,,p] ,,*a9 ,,= ,,e ,,half ,,degree ,,( ,,incl9ation ,,f #c ,,to #cj4 7#ajj v]s$ s9e ( ! incl9ation47 ---------------- ,angle4,r$uction4 ---------------- #c #j #jae #c #cj #jai #d #j #jbd #d #cj #jca #e #j #jch #e #cj #jdf #f #j #jee #f #cj #jfd #g #j #jge #g #cj #jhf #h #j #jig #h #cj #aaj #i #j #abc #i #cj #acg #aj #j #aec #aj #cj #afg #aa #j #ahd #aa #cj #bja #ab #j #bai #ab #cj #bcg #ac #j #bef #ac #cj #bgf #ad #j #big #ad #cj #cai #ae #j #cda #ae #cj #cfd #af #j #chg #af #cj #dab #ag #j #dcg #ag #cj #dfc #ah #j #dhi #ah #cj #eag #ai #j #ede #ai #cj #egd #bj #j #fjc #bj #cj #fcc #ba #j #ffd #ba #cj #fif #bb #j #gbh #bb #cj #gfa #bc #j #gie #bc #cj #hbi #bd #j #hfe #bd #cj #ija #be #j #icg #be #cj #igd #bf #j #ajac #bf #cj #ajea #bg #j #ajij #bg #cj #aacj #bh #j #aaga #bh #cj #abaa #bi #j #abec #bi #cj #abif #cj #j #acdj ---------------- ,,curvature ,,& ,,refraction4 ,,table ,,( ,,corrections ,,9 ,,feet ,,& ,,decimals ,,( ,a ,,foot4 ---------------------------------------- ----- ,di/ance ,curvature4,refraction4,correction = ,9 ,miles4 ,curvature & ,refraction4 ---------------------------------------- ----- #jd #ja #jc #ag #jb #ae #cg #je #cb #a #fg #ji #eh #a #aej #ba #abi #b #bfg #ch #bbi #b #dag #fj #ceg #c #fjj #hf #ead #c #hag #aag #gjj #d #ajfg #aeb #iae #d #acee #aic #aafb #e #affg #bch #adbi #e #bjah #bhh #agcj #f #bdja #cdc #bjeh #f #bhah #djc #bdae #g #cbfh #dfg #bhja #g #cgeb #ecf #cbaf #h #dbfi #faj #cfei #h #dhai #fhh #daca #i #edjb #ggb #dfcj #i #fjbj #hfj #eafj #aj #ffgj #iec #egag ---------------------------------------- ----- ,,index4 ,a4 ,angle1 to bisect1 #af ----1 to con/ruct1 equal to a giv5 angle1 #ag ----1 to draw a l9e mak+ a giv51 #ae ---- ( light 9 me*anical draw+s1 #dh ---- ---- 9 topographical draw+s1 #ed ,ar*1 ,go?ic1 equilat]al1 to draw1 #bc ----1 ---- lancet1 to draw1 #bd ----1 ---- obtuse1 to draw1 #bd ----1 ---- ogee1 to draw1 #be ----1 ---- ,tudor1 to draw1 #bd ----1 ,moori% horse-%oe1 to draw1 #bd ----1 semi-elliptical1 to con/ruct1 #bc ,ar*itectural draw+s1 #aba ,arcs1 c5tres (1 to be m>k$1 #aj ,areas to triangles1 to compute1 #adb ,b4 ,bisect+ an angle1 #af ,blacklead pap]1 #h ,book ( ref]5ce1 #ig1 #aja ,books = field sket*+1 #aae ,bord]s & corn]s1 #fi ,bor+s1 #ajd ,bottle indi>ubb]1 #i ,b\nd>y maps1 #ajd ,b[s1 #b ----1 spr+1 #b ,brok5 l9es1 #cj ,bru%es = t9t+1 #da ,build+s--plans1 sections1 & elevations1 position (1 on draw+1 #abe ,c4 ,c>bonic pap]1 #h ,c>tridge pap]1 #f ,c5tre l9es1 #aj ---- ----1 c>e to be tak5 9 plac+ correctly1 #aj ,c5tre ( circle1 to f9d !1 #ah ,c5tres ( arcs to be m>k$1 #aj ,c9quefoil1 ,go?ic1 to draw1 #bf ,circle1 to describe1 ?r\gh ?ree giv5 po9ts1 #ag ----1 to draw a tang5t to1 #ag ----1 to draw radii (1 ! c5tre be+ inaccessible1 #ah ----1 to f9d ! c5tre (1 #ah ,circles1 conc5tric draw+1 #aj ,cities1 to repres5t size (1 #aab ,civil eng9e]s' plans1 #if ,clean+ draw+ p51 #c ,clean+ (f draw+s1 #i ,cleanl9ess1 importance (1 #i ----1 precautions to be tak5 to ensure1 #i ,clo?1 trac+1 #g ----1 ----1 ,sag]'s vellum1 #g ----1 ----1 sizes (1 #g ,col\r = build+s1 #dg ---- = cultivat$ l&1 #dg ---- = f5ces1 #dg ---- = grass-l&1 #de ---- = gravel1 #df ---- = m>%1 #de ---- = mud1 #df ---- = roads1 #dg ---- = s&1 #df ---- = /reets1 #dg ---- = wat]1 #de ---- = woodl&1 #df ---- = uncultivat$ l&1 #dg ,col\r+ cyl9drical objects1 #abd ---- draw+s1 #aa1 #abb ---- riv]s & /reams1 #aaj ,col\rs1 #ci ----1 conv5tional1 ,table (1 #dd ---- = sections1 #dd ,compasses1 #b ----1 mann] ( us+1 #b ----1 p5cil leg (1 #b ----1 po9ts (1 #b ----1 remov+ movable leg1 #b ,competition draw+s1 pap] =1 #f ,conc5tric circles1 draw+1 #aj ,con/ruction ( scales1 #aa ,cont9u\s c>tridge pap]1 #f ---- trac+ pap]1 #g ,cont\r l9es1 #cg ,cont\rs1 to plot1 #ij ,conv5tional col\rs1 ,table (1 #dd ,copy+ by trac+1 #abh ---- by transf]1 #abi ---- draw+s1 #aa1 #abf ---- f trac+1 #aa ,corn]s & bord]s1 #fi ,cross sections1 #ih1 #ajb ,cultivat$ l&1 to repres5t1 #cb ,curvature & refraction1 ,table = correction (1 #adc ,curv$ l9es1 #bi ---- ----1 to draw1 #bi ,cutt+ (f draw+s1 #g1 #aa1 #ab ,cyl9d]s1 v>i\s me?ods ( %ad+1 #fd ,cyl9drical objects1 to col\r1 #abd ---- surfaces1 %ade l9es1 #ej ---- ----1 %ad+ l9es1 #ea ,cyma recta1 to draw1 #be ---- rev]sa1 to draw1 #be ,d4 ,d5t$ draw+-bo>d1 to rem$y1 #ad ,detail plott+1 #hi ,dim5sions ( draw+ table1 #b ---- to be writt5 on draw+s1 #abb ,di/ances1 scales (1 #gj ,divid+ a l9e into equal p>ts1 #aj ,dott$ l9es1 #ca ,dott+ p51 #ca ----1 regul>1 to produce1 #aaa ,draw+1 copy+ & r$uc+1 #abf ----1 ink+ 9 to comm5ce f top (1 #aj ----1 /ret*+ pap] =1 #f ,draw+ conc5tric circles1 #aj ---- f copy1 #abg ---- l9es1 #aj ,draw+ bo>d1 d5t$1 to rem$y1 #ad ---- (fice1 ess5tials (1 #a ---- ----1 gaslights1 #b ---- ----1 position ( w9d[s1 #a ---- ----1 skylights unsuitable1 #a ---- pap]1 sectional1 #h ---- ----1 to jo9 %eets (1 #ab ---- pap]s1 #e ---- ----1 sizes (1 #e ---- p51 #c ---- ----1 clean+1 #c ---- ----1 m ?an "o requir$1 #c ---- ----1 sett+1 #c ---- ----1 supply+ ) ink1 #c ---- table1 dim5sions (1 #b ---- ----1 position (1 #b ,draw+s1 clean+ (f1 #i ----1 competition1 pap] =1 #f ----1 col\r+1 #aa ----1 cutt+ (f1 #g1 #aa1 #ab ----1 ink =1 #h ----1 m>g9 to be left1 #aa ----1 me*anical & ar*itectural1 #aba ----1 p>*m5t =1 #h ----1 to col\r1 #abb ----1 to pres]ve roll$1 #ab ----1 to r$uce or enl>ge1 #acj ----1 to remove grease spots f1 #aj ----1 to v>ni%1 #ad ---- = li?ograph]s & engrav]s1 #ada ---- = specifications = lett]s pat5t1 #h ,du/]s1 #b ,e4 ,eidograph1 #acf ----1 me?od ( sett+1 #aci ----1 table = sett+1 #aci ----1 to adju/1 #ach ,elevation ( trees1 #cf ,ellipse1 to draw1 #ba ,elliptical ar*1 to con/ruct a semi-1 #bc ,encamp+ gr\nds1 #aab ,engrav]s1 draw+s =1 #ada ,enl>g+ by in/rum5ts1 #aca ---- by scales1 #acj ---- by squ>es1 #acj ,equal p>ts1 to divide a l9e into1 #ae ,equidi/ant & p>allel l9es1 to draw1 #bh ,equilat]al ar*1 to draw1 #bc ---- triangle1 to con/ruct1 on a giv5 base1 #af ,erasure ( ink l9es1 #aa ---- ( p5cil m>ks1 #i ,error-%eets1 #ia ----1 examples (1 #ib ,errors1 #ia ,ess5tials ( draw+ (fice1 #a ,e/ate plans1 #ajg ,exam9ation ( maps & plans1 #aag ,f4 ,f]ries1 #aaa ,field-book1 example (1 #hj ,field sket*+1 #aad ,fir-gra9+1 #cb ,flat-t9ts1 #dj ,=mul1 trigonometrical1 #adb ,g4 ,gaslights 9 draw+ (fice1 #b ,glass-pap] to erase ink l9es1 #aa ,glue = m\nt+ pap]1 #f ,go?ic c9quefoil1 to draw1 #bf ---- equilat]al ar*1 to draw1 #bc ---- lancet ar*1 to draw1 #bd ---- obtuse ar*1 to draw1 #bd ---- ogee ar*1 to draw1 #be ---- quatrefoil1 to draw1 #bf ---- trefoil1 to draw1 #be ---- ,tudor ar*1 to draw1 #bd ,gradi5ts1 to lay d[n1 #ie ,gra9+1 fir1 #cb ----1 oak1 #cb ----1 wood1 #cb ,grass-l&1 to repres5t1 #cd ,gravel1 to repres5t1 #ce ,grease spot1 to remove f draw+1 #aj ,h4 ,hexagon1 to describe a regul>1 #ba ,hills1 repres5tation (1 #ch ----1 s&1 to repres5t1 #cf ----1 %ad+1 horizontal sy/em1 #ec ----1 ----1 v]tical sy/em1 #eg ----1 sket*+1 %ad+1 & copy+1 #aac ,horizontal zones1 #ch ,horse-%oe ar*1 to draw1 #bd ,i4 ,importance ( cleanl9ess1 #i ,incl9$ measure1 ,table = correction (1 #adc ,indian ink1 #h ---- ----1 prep>ation (1 = draw+1 #i ---- ----1 quality (1 #i ,indi>ubb]1 native or bottle1 #i ----1 vulcaniz$1 #i ,ink = draw+s1 #h ----1 ,indian1 #h ----1 prep>ation (1 #i ----1 quality (1 #i ---- l9es1 erasure (1 #aa ---- ----1 to avoid sme>+1 #aj ---- slab or sauc]1 position (1 :5 9 use1 #aj ,ink+ 9 to comm5ce at top ( ! draw+1 #aj ,in/rum5ts1 #b ----1 quality (1 #b ,isl&s1 #aaj ,j4 ,jo9+ %eets ( pap]1 #ab1 #ac ,jungle1 #aab ,l4 ,lakes1 outl9e (1 #cj ,lancet ar*1 to draw1 #bd ,l&1 cultivat$1 to repres5t1 #cb ----1 uncultivat$1 to repres5t1 #cg ,lead-p5cil m>ks1 erasure (1 #i ,lett]+1 #ff1 #abb ----1 position (1 on plans & maps1 #fi ,lett]s1 arrangem5t (1 9 titles1 c41 #fh ----1 k9ds to employ1 #fg ----1 me*anical con/ruction (1 #ff ----1 size (1 #fg ,level-book1 example (1 #id ,l9e1 divid+ into equal p>ts1 #aj ----1 regul> p5tagon on a giv51 #bj ----1 to bisect a giv5 /raight1 #ae ----1 to con/ruct a squ>e on a giv51 #ai ----1 to divide a1 into equal p>ts1 #ae ----1 to draw a1 mak+ a giv5 angle1 #ae ----1 to erect a p]p5dicul> to1 #ae ,l9es1 draw+1 #aj ----1 brok51 #cj ----1 c5tre1 #aj1 #abb ----1 comb9ations (1 #ca ----1 curv$1 to draw1 #bi ----1 curv$ & /raight1 #bg ----1 cont\r1 #cg ----1 dott$1 #ca ----1 ink1 to avoid sme>+1 #aj ----1 p>allel & equidi/ant1 to draw1 #bh ----1 ref]5ce1 #gh ----1 section1 #bi ----1 ----1 to draw1 #bh ----1 %ade1 application (1 #dh ----1 %ad+1 #ej ----1 ----1 9 topographical draw+s1 #eb ----1 /raight1 difficulties 9 rul+1 #bg ----1 ----1 to draw1 #bg ----1 wavy1 #cc ---- ( greate/ desc5t1 #eg ---- ( unev5 ?ickness1 #cj ,li?ograph]s1 draw+s =1 #ada ,local ,gov]nm5t ,bo>d1 regulations (1 #ajd ,m4 ,ma*9e-made pap]1 #f ,ma*9]y1 r\gh sket*es (1 #aba ,mann] ( us+ compasses1 #b ,map draw+1 #aji ,maps1 b\nd>y1 #ajd ----1 field1 exam9ation (1 #aah ----1 signs us$ 91 #abj ---- = division into w>ds1 #ajd ,m>g9 to draw+s1 wid? (1 #aa ,m>%y gr\nd1 to repres5t1 #ce ,me*anical draw+s1 #aba ,mile /ones1 #aab ,m9+ plans1 #ajf ,moori% horse-%oe ar*1 to draw1 #bd ,m ?an "o draw+ p5 requir$1 #c ,m\nta9 passes1 #aaa ,m\nt+ pap]1 glue =1 #f ---- ---- on /ret*]s1 #ac ---- trac+s1 #abi ,mud 9 riv]s1 to repres5t1 #cf ,n4 ,native indi>ubb]1 #i ,ne$le to erase ink l9es1 #aa ,nor? po9ts1 #fi ,nor?+s & s\?+s1 #hg ,o4 ,oak-gra9+1 #cb ,obtuse ar*1 to draw1 #bd ,ogee ar*1 to draw1 #be ,or*>ds1 to repres5t1 #cf ,outl9e ( lakes1 #cj ---- ( ponds1 #cj ---- ( riv]s1 #cj ,oval1 to con/ruct1 ! wid? be+ giv51 #ah ,p4 ,pantograph1 #aca ----1 me?ods ( sett+1 #acb ----1 tables = sett+1 #acc1 #acd ----1 to use1 #acd ,pap]1 blacklead1 #h ----1 c>bonic1 #h ----1 c>tridge1 #f ----1 cont9u\s c>tridge1 #f ----1 draw+1 #e ----1 ----1 to jo91 #ab ----1 ----1 sizes (1 #e ----1 glue = m\nt+1 #f ----1 ma*9e-made1 #f ----1 sectional1 #h ----1 /ret*+ = draw+1 #f ----1 trac+1 #g ----1 ----1 cont9u\s1 #g ----1 ----1 prep>ation (1 #g ----1 ----1 sizes (1 #g ----1 ----1 to jo91 #ac ----1 transf]1 #h ----1 ----1 prep>ation (1 #abi ----1 to jo9 %eets (1 #ab ----1 to m\nt on /ret*]s1 #ac ---- = competition draw+s1 #f ---- = l>ge plans1 #f ,p>abola1 to draw1 base & height be+ giv51 #ba ,p>allel & equidi/ant l9es1 to draw1 #bh ,p>*m5t = draw+s1 #h ,p>liam5t>y plans & sections1 #ajj ---- /&+ ord]s1 #ih ,pa/e1 #ad ,pat5t1 draw+s = specifications1 #h ,pa?ways1 #aaa ,p51 dott+ or :eel1 #ca ,p5cil m>ks1 erasure (1 #i ---- leg ( compasses1 #b ,p5cils1 #d ----1 po9t+1 #d ---- = field sket*+1 #aae ,p5tagon1 to describe1 on a giv5 l9e1 #bj ,p]p5dicul>1 to erect a1 #ae ,plan ( trees1 #cf ,plans1 civil eng9e]s' & surveyors'1 #if ----1 e/ate & t[n1 #ajg ----1 l>ge1 pap] =1 #f ----1 m9+1 #ajf ----1 railway1 #ig ----1 p>liam5t>y1 #ajj ,plott+1 #gg ---- angul> surveys1 #ha ---- cont\rs1 #ij ---- detail1 #hi ---- s\nd$ po9ts 9 subm]g$ di/ricts1 #ij ---- trav]se ref]5ce l9es1 #hd ---- v]tical sections1 #ib ,po9t+ p5cils1 #d ,po9ts ( compasses1 #b ,ponds1 outl9e (1 #cj ,position ( draw+ table1 #b ---- ( ink slab or sauc] :5 9 use1 #aj ---- ( w9d[s 9 draw+ (fice1 #a ,precautions to be tak5 to ensure cleanl9ess1 #i ,prep>ation ( col\rs = t9t+1 #dj ---- ( ink = draw+1 #i ---- ( /ret*]s1 #ac ---- ( trac+ pap]1 #g ---- ( transf] pap]1 #abi ,pres]v+ draw+s1 roll$1 #ab ,q4 ,quality ( ,indian ink1 #i ---- ( in/rum5ts1 #b ,quatrefoil1 ,go?ic1 to draw1 #bf ,r4 ,radii ( circle1 to draw1 ! c5tre be+ inaccessible1 #ah ,railway plans1 #ig ---- sections1 #ajb ---- /ations & t]m9i1 #aab ,railways1 #aab ,rectangle1 to con/ruct1 simil> to a giv5 rectangle1 #bj ,rectangul> co-ord9ates1 to plot by1 #hg ,r$uc+ & enl>g+ draw+s1 #abf1 #acj ---- by in/rum5ts1 #aca ---- by scales1 #acj ---- by squ>es1 #acj ,ref]5ce1 book (1 #ig1 #aja ---- l9es & po9ts1 #gh ---- l9es1 second>y1 #gi ,refraction & curvature1 ,table = correction (1 #adc ,regulations ( ,local ,gov]nm5t ,bo>d1 #ajd ,remov+ movable leg ( compasses1 #b ,riv]s1 b$s (1 #aaj ----1 mud 91 to repres5t1 #cf ----1 outl9e (1 #cj ---- & /reams1 col\r+1 #aaj ---- ----1 ink+ 91 #aji ,roads1 #aaa ,roll$ draw+s1 to pres]ve1 #ab ,roman cyma recta & cyma rev]sa1 to draw1 #be ,ro(s1 to draw1 #cj ,r\gh sket*es ( ma*9]y1 #aba ,rul+ /raight l9es1 difficulties 91 #bg ,runn+ wat]1 to repres5t1 #cc ,s4 ,sag]'s vellum trac+ clo?1 #g ,s&1 to repres5t1 #ce ---- banks1 #aaj ---- hills1 to repres5t1 #cf ,scales1 #gj ----1 *oice (1 #gb ----1 con/ruction (1 #aa1 #gj1 #ge1 #gf ----1 diagonal1 #ge ----1 v]ni]1 #ge ----1 ,tables (1 #gc1 #gd ---- ( con/ruction1 #gd ---- ( di/ances1 #gj ---- ( %ade1 ,engli%1 #ei ---- ----1 ,lehmann's1 #eg ---- ----1 /&>d1 #ec ---- ----1 ,unit$ ,/ates'1 #ei ,sectional draw+ pap]1 #h ,section l9es1 #bi ---- ( wat]1 to repres5t1 #cj ,sections1 col\rs =1 #dd ----1 cross1 #ih1 #ajb ----1 p>liam5t>y1 #aja ----1 railway1 #ajb ----1 to plot1 f cont\r map1 #if ----1 work+1 #id1 #ajc ---- ( wood1 #cb ----1 v]tical1 to plot1 #ib ,semi-elliptical ar*1 to con/ruct1 #bc ,sett+ draw+ p51 #c ,%ade l9es1 application (1 #dh ---- ----1 cyl9drical surfaces1 #ej ,%ad+1 #dh ---- cyl9d]s1 v>i\s me?ods1 #fd ---- hills1 horizontal sy/em1 #ec ---- ----1 v]tical sy/em1 #eg ---- ----1 r\nd+ curves1 #ee ---- l9es1 #ej ---- ----1 cyl9drical surfaces1 #ea ---- ---- 9 topographical draw+s1 #eb ---- 9 col\rs1 #fc ---- ----1 cyl9drical surfaces1 #fd ---- ----1 hill slopes1 #fc ,sides ( triangles1 to compute1 #adb ,sizes ( draw+ pap]s1 #e ---- ( trac+ clo?1 #g ---- ( trac+ pap]1 #g ,sket*es1 r\gh1 ( ma*9]y1 #aba ,sket*+1 field1 #aad ,skylights unsuitable = draw+ (fice1 #a ,s\nd$ po9ts1 to plot1 #ij ,specifications = lett]s pat5t1 draw+s =1 #h ,spr+ b[s1 #b ,spr+s1 #aab ,squ>e1 to con/ruct1 equal to 1 1 c41 ( a giv5 squ>e1 #ai ----1 to con/ruct1 9 any proportion to a giv5 squ>e1 #bj ----1 to con/ruct1 on a giv5 l9e1 #ai ----1 to con/ruct1 :i* %all be a multiple ( a giv5 squ>e1 #ai ,/&+ ord]s ( ,p>liam5t1 #ih ---- wat]1 to repres5t1 #bi ,/ations1 railway1 #aab ----1 telegraph1 #aab ,/raight-edge1 ?ickness (1 #e ,/raight l9e1 to bisect a1 #ae ---- l9es1 difficulties 9 rul+1 #bg ---- ----1 to draw1 #bg ---- & curv$ l9es1 #bg ,/ret*]s1 m\nt+ pap] on1 #ac ----1 prep>ation (1 #ac ,/ret*+ pap] = draw+1 #f ---- ----1 glue =1 #f ,supply+ draw+ p5 ) ink1 #c ,surveyors' plans1 #if ,swamps1 to repres5t1 #ce ,t4 ,table1 draw+1 position (1 #a ----1 ----1 size (1 #a ,table = correction ( curvature & refraction1 #adc ---- = correction ( incl9$ measure1 #adc ---- = sett+ eidograph1 #aci ---- ( conv5tional col\rs1 #dd ,tables = sett+ pantograph1 #acc1 #acd ,tang5t1 to draw1 to a circle1 #ag ,telegraph l9es & /ations1 #aab ,?ickness ( /raight-edge1 #e ,t9t+1 #ci ,t9ts1 art ( apply+1 #dj1 #da1 #dc ----1 bru%es = apply+1 #da ----1 d\ble or alt]nate1 #db ----1 flat1 #dj ----1 prep>ation (1 #dj ,toll-gates1 #aaa ,topographical draw+s1 %ad+ l9es 91 #eb ,to remove grease spots f draw+s1 #aj ,t[n plans1 #ajg ,t[ns1 to repres5t size (1 #aab ,trac+1 copy+ f1 #aa ----1 to copy by1 #abh ---- clo?1 #g ---- ----1 ,sag]'s vellum1 #g ---- ----1 sizes (1 #g ----- pap]1 #g ---- ----1 cont9u\s1 #g ---- ----1 prep>ation (1 #g ---- ----1 sizes (1 #g ---- ----1 to jo9 %eets (1 #ac ,trac+s1 to m\nt1 #abi ,transf] pap]1 #h ---- ----1 prep>ation (1 #abi ,transf]r+1 to copy by1 #abi ,trav]se plott+ by rectangul> co-ord9ates1 #hg ---- ref]5ce l9es1 to plot1 #hd ,trees 9 plan1 #cf ---- 9 elevation1 #cf ----1 to repres5t1 #cf ,trefoil1 ,go?ic1 to draw1 #be ,triangle1 equilat]al1 to con/ruct1 #af ----1 to con/ruct1 ! l5g? ( base & angles at base be+ giv51 #ag ----1 to con/ruct1 ! l5g?s ( ! sides be+ giv51 #af ,triangles1 prim>y & second>y1 #gh ----1 to compute ! areas (1 #adb ----1 to compute ! sides (1 #adb ,trigonometrical =mul1 #adb ,tudor ar*1 to draw1 #bd ,u4 ,uncultivat$ l&1 to repres5t1 #cg ,v4 ,v>ni%+ draw+s1 #ad ,vellum trac+ clo?1 ,sag]'s1 #g ,v]tical sections1 to plot1 #ib ,villages1 to repres5t size (1 #aab ,vulcaniz$ indi>ubb]1 #i ,w4 ,wa%es1 art ( apply+1 #dj1 #da1 #dc ----1 bru%es =1 #da ----1 d\ble or alt]nate1 #db ,wat]1 runn+1 to repres5t1 #cc ----1 /&+1 to repres5t1 #bi1 #cc ---- 9 section1 to repres5t1 #cj ,wavy l9es1 #cc ,wells1 #aab ,:atman's draw+ pap]s1 #f ,:eel p51 #ca ,wid? ( m>g9 to draw+s1 #aa ,w9d[s1 position (1 9 draw+ (fice1 #a ,wood-gra9+1 #cb ,wood sections1 #cb ,woodl&1 to repres5t1 #cf ,work+ sections1 #ajc ,z4 ,zones1 horizontal1 #ch ,,! ,,end4 ,,london3 ,,pr9t$ ,,by ,,william ,,cl[es ,,& ,,sons1 ,,/am=d ,,/reet ,,& ,,*>+ ,,cross4 ,,plates4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #b4 ,,plan ,,s5t ,,to ,,be ,,copi$ ,,plan ,,trac$ ,,by ,,junior ,,h& ,,plan ,,%ew+ ,,writ+ ,,gaug$ ,,plan ,,f9i%$ ,b4 ,alex&]1 ,li?4 ,e ,f4 ,n4 ,spon4 ,london ,new ,york4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #c4 ,,plan ,,( ,,e/ate ,,at ,,hasl+ton1 ,,bucks4 #ahgd4 ,b4 ,alex&]1 ,li?4 ,e ,f4 ,n4 ,spon4 ,london ,new ,york4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #d4 ,,roman ,,capitals ,,italic ,,capitals ,angle #fj degrees ,,r\nd ,,h& ,angle #ec degrees ,,me*anical ,,con/ruction ,,( ,,lett]s c4 #h ,l9es #f ,l9es #d ,l9es #c ,l9es #b ,l9es ,b4 ,alex&]1 ,li?4 ,e ,f4 ,n4 ,spon4 ,london ,new ,york4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #e4 ,,op5 ,,/one ,,lett]s ,d4 ,d4 ,,) ,,ornam5t ,,ornam5tal ,,lett]s4 ,,egyptian ,,) ,,ornam5t ,,roman ,,) ,,ornam5t ,d4 ,,small ,,) ,,ornam5t ,,old ,,engli% ,,) ,,ornam5t ,d4 ,,small ,,) ,,ornam5t ,,figures ,,) ,,ornam5t ,b4 ,alex&]1 ,li?4 ,e ,f4 ,n4 ,spon4 ,london ,new ,york4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #f4 ,,alphabets4 ,,old ,,engli% ,capitals4 ,d4 ,d4 ,small4 ,,g]man ,,text ,capitals4 ,d4 ,d4 ,small4 ,,go?ic ,capitals4 ,d4 ,small4 ,,*ur* ,,text ,capitals4 ,d4 ,d4 ,small4 ,b4 ,alex&]1 ,li?4 ,e4 ,f4 ,n4 ,spon4 ,london ,new ,york4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #g4 ,,plan ,,( ,,an ,,e/ate ,,call$ ,,! ,,l[] ,,c$>s ,,ne> ,,! ,,t[n ,,( ,,birm+ham #ahgd4 ,,plan ,,( ,,prop]ty ,situate 9 ! ,p>i% ( ,,hamm]smi?1 ,,middlesex4 ,plan ( a ,valuable ,freehold ,e/ate kn[n z ,,frognal ,,ne> ,,hamp/ead ,,hea?4 ,b4 ,alex&]1 ,li?4 ,e4 ,f4 ,n4 ,spon4 ,london ,new ,york4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #h4 ,,plan ,,( ,,l& ,,to ,,be ,,laid ,,out ,,9 ,,build+ ,,plots ,,belong+ ,,to ,,! ,,late ,,sir ,,joseph ,,paxton1 ,,9 ,,leases ,,( #ii ,,ye>s1 ,,subject ,,to ,,! ,,annex$ ,,condition4 ,scale ( ,*a9s4 ,scale #f ,*a9s to an ,in* ,scale ( ,feet4 ,b4 ,alex&]1 ,li?4 ,e4 ,f4 ,n4 ,spon4 ,london ,new ,york4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #i4 ,scale ( ,*a9s4 ,scale ( ,feet4 ,b4 ,alex&]1 ,li?4 ,e4 ,f4 ,n4 ,spon4 ,london ,new ,york4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #aj4 ,,ord9>y ,,bee*4 ,,wood4 ,,firs4 ,,light ,,bru%wood4 ,,firs ,,o!r ,,trees4 ,,cocoa ,,palm ,,trees ,= ,colonial ,plans4 ,,swamp4 ,,m>%4 ,b4 ,alex&]1 ,li?4 ,e4 ,f4 ,n4 ,spon4 ,london ,new ,york4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #aa4 ,b4 ,alex&]1 ,li?4 ,e4 ,f4 ,n4 ,spon4 ,london ,new ,york4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #ab4 ,,con/ruction ,,( ,,hills4 ,,f9i%$ ,,hills4 ,,cont\r ,,hills4 ,,f9i%$ ,,hills ,,9 ,,color4 ,,cont\r ,,hills ,,9 ,,color4 ,,hills ,,9 ,,*alk4 ,,brok5 ,,hilly ,,c\ntry4 ,,hills ,,9 ,,color4 ,b4 ,alex&]1 ,li?4 ,e4 ,f4 ,n4 ,spon4 ,london ,new ,york4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #ac4 ,,plan ,,%ew+ ,,propos$ ,,new ,,/reet4 ,half ,black = ,li?ography ,half ,color = ,pap]4 ,b4 ,alex&]1 ,li?4 ,e4 ,f4 ,n4 ,spon4 ,london ,new ,york4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #ad4 ,,a% ,,bee* ,,bir* ,,c$> ,,cypress ,,elm ,,fir ,,m\nta9 ,,a% ,,oak ,,plantation ,,=e/ ,,p9e ,,popl> ,,sycamore ,,?orn ,,weep+ ,,will[ ,,yew ,,m\nta9s ,,rocky ,,cliff ,d4 ,,9 ,,color ,d4 ,,9 ,,color ,b4 ,alex&]1 ,li?4 ,e4 ,f4 ,n4 ,spon4 ,london ,new ,york4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #ae4 ,,signs ,,us$ ,,9 ,,plans4 ,f5ce ,f>m ,build+s ,f5ce ) ,bank ,*ur*es ,f5ce ) ,h$ge ,w9dmills ,footpa? ,wat] ,mills ,bridle ,pa?s ,lime ,kiln ,occupation ,road ,sunk ,road ,public ,road ,rais$ ,road ,wall ,qu>ry ,p>i% ,b\nd>y ,inn ,hamlet ,b\nd>y ,s& ,pits ,c\nty ,b\nd>y ,rocks ,p>i% ,c\nty ,b\nd>y ,mud ,railway ,gas ,works ,tramway ,glass ,works ,/ream ,iron ,works ,brook ,column ,dit* ,old ,ca/le ,m9]al ,wat]s ,cov]$ ,passage ,canal ,saw ,mill ,riv] ,/one ,w9dmill ,ponds ,wood5 ,w9dmill ,lake ,cotton factory ,wood5 ,f5ce ,wooll5 ,factory ,po/ & ,rail or ?us ,well ,*a9s ,po/ ,dry ,well ,hurdle ,f5ce ,salt ,works ,gates ,field ,wall ,b4 ,alex&]1 ,li?4 ,e4 ,f4 ,n4 ,spon4 ,london ,new ,york4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #af4 ,,signs ,,us$ ,,9 ,,maps ,,& ,,*>ts4 ,=tress ,rocks always cov]$ ,citadel ,reef ( ,rocks ,=tifi$ ,ca/le ,s& nev] cov]$ ,wall$ ,t[n ,s& sometimes cov]$ ,op5 ,t[n ,%oals always cov]$ ,c\ntry ,t[n ,mud ,bank ,bea* dry at ,l[ ,wat] ,little ,t[n ,rocky ,l$ges :i* cov] & uncov] ,city ,s&y ,bea* dry at ,l[ ,wat] ,episcopal ,city ,ligh?\ses 7position (7 ,bor\gh or ,corporation ,c ,buoys ,light ,%ip ,nun ,buoys ,light ,h\se ,moor+ ,buoy ,an*orage = ,%ips ,buoys ) ,beacons ,d = ,coa/]s ,coral ,reefs ,wreck ,kelp ,/opp+ ,places ,fi% ,weir ,head ( ,navigation ,swampy ,l& ,float+ ,light ,vessel ,rocks ,h>b\r ,rocks dry at ,l[ ,wat] ,telegraph ,viaduct ,signal ,h\se ,tunnel ,buoys ,railway ,bridge ,*annel ,m>ks ,bridge ov] ,/ream ,no ,curr5t ,pontoon ,bridge ,direction ( ,curr5t ,bridge 7,brick or ,/one7 ,rocks sometimes cov]$ ,foot ,bridge ,rocks nev] cov]$ ,t[ns ,b4 ,alex&]1 ,li?4 ,e4 ,f4 ,n4 ,spon4 ,london ,new ,york4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #ag4 ,plan ,,( ,,melton ,,hall ,,e/ate ,situate 9 ! ,,c\nty ,,( ,,l9coln1 #ahgd4 ,b4 ,alex&]1 ,li?4 ,e4 ,f4 ,n4 ,spon4 ,london ,new ,york4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #ah4 ,,piece ,,( ,,ordnance ,,map4 ,,piece ,,( ,,*>t ,,%ew+ ,,s\nd+s1 c4 ,b4 ,alex&]1 ,li?4 ,e4 ,f4 ,n4 ,spon4 ,london ,new ,york4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #ai4 ,b4 ,alex&]1 ,li?4 ,e4 ,f4 ,n4 ,spon4 ,london ,new ,york4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #bj4 ,,s& ,,gravel4 ,,r$ ,,s&/one4 ,,clay ,,gravel4 ,,lime/one4 ,,bog4 ,,clay ,,slate4 ,,mill/one4 ,,granite4 ,,s&/one ,,coal4 ,,spoil ,,bank4 ,,pure ,,gravel4 ,,clay ,,calc>e\s4 ,,peat ,,clay4 ,,s&/one4 ,,%ell ,,m>l4 ,,lime/one ,,) ,,bog ,,) ,,timb]4 ,,s&/one ,,) ,,gypsum4 ,,m9]al ,,ve9s4 ,,mud4 ,,s&/one ,,co>se ,,clay ,,slate ,,) ,,m9]al ,,f9e4 ,,ve9s4 ,,comb9ation ,,( ,,! ,,above4 ,spoil ,bank ,clay ,clay ,calc>e\s ,lime/one ,s& ,yell[ ,clay ,bog ,gravel ,rock ,r$ ,s&/one ,b4 ,alex&]1 ,li?4 ,e4 ,f4 ,n4 ,spon4 ,london ,new ,york4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #ba4 ,,p>liam5t>y ,,railway ,,section4 ,,ditto1 ,,%ew+ ,,geological ,,/rata4 ,b4 ,alex&]1 ,li?4 ,e4 ,f4 ,n4 ,spon4 ,london ,new ,york4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #bb4 ,,piece ,,( ,,m>9e ,,eng9e ,,( ,h4 ,m4 ,s4 ,s4 8,,rese>*04 ,b4 ,alex&]1 ,li?4 ,e4 ,f4 ,n4 ,spon4 ,london ,new ,york4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #bc4 ,,skew ,,bridge4 ,,p]man5t ,,way4 ,b4 ,alex&]1 ,li?4 ,e4 ,f4 ,n4 ,spon4 ,london ,new ,york4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #bd4 ,b4 ,alex&]1 ,li?4 ,e4 ,f4 ,n4 ,spon4 ,london ,new ,york4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #be4 ,ornam5tal ,writ+4 ,london ,b4 ,alex&]1 ,li?4 ,e4 ,f4 ,n4 ,spon4 ,london ,new ,york4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #bf4 ,,me?ods ,,( ,,r$uc+ ,,or ,,enl>g+4 ,,by ,,squ>es ,,by ,,eidograph ,,by ,,engli% ,,p5tagraph ,,by ,,fr5* ,,p5tagraph & by ,photography4 ,b4 ,alex&]1 ,li?4 ,e4 ,f4 ,n4 ,spon4 ,london ,new ,york4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #bg4 ,,isometrical ,,view ,,( ,,build+4 ,,ext]ior4 ,,int]ior4 ,b4 ,alex&]1 ,li?4 ,e4 ,f4 ,n4 ,spon4 ,london ,new ,york4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #bh4 ,deposit>y ,rocks4 #a-ah ,igne\s ,rocks4 a-b ,b4 ,alex&]1 ,li?4 ,e4 ,f4 ,n4 ,spon4 ,london ,new ,york4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #bi4 ,,signs ,,us$ ,,9 ,,indian ,,colonial ,,plans4 ,telegraph ,hills ) ,peaks ,trunk ,road 7,metall$7 ,do4 9 ,cont\r ,di/rict ,do4 ,sc>p$ ,face ( ,hill ,do4 ,unmetall$ ,rav9e ,=d ,g>d5 ,nullah or ,khall ,paun ,g>d5 ,bund or ,embankm5t ,village ,old ,bank ( ,riv] ,f]ry ,h$ges ) ,trees ,fly+ ,bridge ,riv] ) ,isl&s ,haut or ,baz> ,riv] ) ,s& ,bank ,mud ,=t ,/one ,sluice ,gate ,pucka ,=t ,lake or ,tank ,des]t$ ,village ,salt ,pans ,pr9cipal ,survey ,/ations ,cultivat$ ,gr\nd ,second>y ,do4 ,burial ,gr\nd ,flag = ,survey+ ,s& ,hills ,ridge ( ,hills ,high ,gr\nd ,b4 ,alex&]1 ,li?4 ,e4 ,f4 ,n4 ,spon4 ,london ,new ,york4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #cj4 ,,signs ,,us$ ,,9 ,,indian ,,colonial ,,plans4 ,salt ,golah ,jh[ ,jungle ,salt ,*[key ,jheel ,silk ,factory ,tam>9d ,trees ,indigo ,factory ,bamboo ,jungle ,sug> ,factory ,salt ,wa/e ,po/ ,(fice ,salt ,wa/e ) ,jungle ,dak ,bungal[ ,mangoe ,tope ,police or ,?ana ,/an4 ,cocoa ,nut ,trees ,magi/rate's ,kut*]ry ,betel ,nut ,trees ,/one or ,pucka ,h\ses ,trees g5]ally ,mahom$an ,mosque ,date ,trees ,h9doo ,temple ,palm or ,t> ,trees ,telegraph ,t[] ,mangrove ,signal ,/aff ,brides ,b\nd>y ,pill> ,rail ,road ,wood5 ,b\nd>y ,po/ ,pucka ,well ,ku*a ,well ,=e/ ,jungles ,l[ ,jungles ,grass ,jungles ,b4 ,alex&]1 ,li?4 ,e4 ,f4 ,n4 ,spon4 ,london ,new ,york4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #ca4 ,,milit>y ,,signs ,,& ,,=tifications4 ,tte du ,pont ,passable = ,troops ,v$ettes ,infantry ,engag$ ,milit>y ,pits ,cavalry ,encamp$ ,m9es ,village ,inundat$ ,infantry ,encamp$ ,s& ,bags ,village ,burnt ,intr5*m5t ,caltrop or ,cr[s ,feet ,cannon ,tr5*es ,cavalry ,engag$ ,p>k ,palisades ,b>ri] ,mort> ,%ells ,block ,h\se ,field ,piece & ,limb] ,ammunition ,waggon & ,limb] ,,section ,,( ,,glacis1 ,,dit*1 ,,ramp>t1 ,c4 ,b4 ,alex&]1 ,li?4 ,e4 ,f4 ,n4 ,spon4 ,london ,new ,york4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #cb4 ,,milit>y ,,signs ,,& ,,=tifications4 ,infantry ,column ,impassible = ,artill]y ,cavalry ,l9e ,abatis ,*evaux de frise ,r$\bt ,mort> ,batt]y ,cavalry ,column ,impassible = ,cavalry ,guns on ,m>* ,ga9$ ,gun ,batt]y ,field ( ,battle ,lo/ ,impassible = ,infantry ,s5t9el ,baggage ,waggons ,infantry ,l9e ,=tifi$ ,ca/les ,guns 9 ,position ,clos$ ,palisades ,r$an or ,fle*e ,rifle ,pits ,,gabions ,,fasc9es ,,plan ,,( ,,ba/ion$ ,,=t ,,) ,,lunettes4 ,b4 ,alex&]1 ,li?4 ,e ,f4 ,n4 ,spon4 ,london ,new ,york4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #cc4 ,,portion ,,( ,,m9+ ,,plan ,,%ew+ ,,pill> ,,work+s4 ,,z ,,%ewn ,,by ,,h& ,,on ,,pap]4 ,,z ,,%ewn ,,by ,,engrav+ ,,or ,,li?ography4 ,b4 ,alex&]1 ,li?4 ,e4 ,f4 ,n4 ,spon4 ,london ,new ,york4 ,transcrib]'s ,notes ,inconsi/5cies 9 spell+1 hyph5ation1 lay-out1 ! use ( quote m>ks1 diacriticals & acc5ts1 etc4 h be5 reta9$4 ,dep5d+ on ! h>d- & s(tw>e us$ to read ?is docum5t1 "s elem5ts may n display z int5d$4 ,! br[s] v]sion ( ?is docum5t 7available f www4gut5b]g4org7 gives be/ results1 & conta9s l>g] v]sions ( sev]al illu/rations4 ,! m9or diff]5ces betwe5 ! ,table ( ,cont5ts & ! head+s 9 ! text h n be5 /&>dis$4 ,sev]al plates h be5 pr9t$ ) poor col\r ov]lays1 ?is has n be5 rem$i$4 ,"s d\ble-page plates h be5 re-comb9$1 b ! area betwe5 ! pages may n be exactly z pr9t$ 9 ! orig9al "w4 ,page #acf1 ,pr(essor ,willis3 %\ld be ,pr(essor 7,william7 ,wallace2 ,pr(essor 7,rob]t7 ,willis inv5t$ o!r draw+ tools4 ,plate #bf1 p5tagraph 7#b73 z pr9t$ 9 ! s\rce docum5t4 ,*anges made3 ,"s miss+ punctuation has be5 add$ sil5tly1 "s m9or typographical errors h be5 correct$ sil5tly4 ,"s tables1 calculations1 =mulas1 etc4 h be5 re-arrang$ = bett] readability4 ,page #ae3 apply a /raight-edge ,f *ang$ to apply a /raight-edge ,d ,page #ge1 ,fig4 #ge3 ,lehman's ,scale *ang$ to ,lehmann's ,scale ,page #hc3 ! ?ird ref]5ce l9e ,c ,d *ang$ to ! ?ird ref]5ce l9e ,c ,a ,page #acb3 ! erect mann] & ! rev]se mann] *ang$ to ! erect mann] & ! rev]se mann]4 ,head+ ,,plates add$ aft] ,index4