,,an ,,account   ,,of   ,,the ,,late    
,,improvements   ,,in   ,,galvanism1    
,,with ,a ,,series ,,of ,,curious ,,and 
,,interesting   ,,experiments           
,,performed   ,,before ,,the            
,,commissioners ,,of ,,the ,,french     
,,national ,,institute1   ,,and         
,,repeated ,,lately ,,in ,,the          
,,anatomical ,,theatres ,,of ,,london4  
,,by ,,john ,,aldini1   ,,professor ,,of
 ,,experimental ,,philosophy ,,in ,,the 
,,university ,,of ,,bologna1   ,,member 
,,of ,,the ,,medical ,,and ,,galvanic   
,,societies ,,of ,,paris1 ,,of ,,the    
,,medical ,,society ,,of ,,london1      
,,etc4    ,,to ,,which ,,is ,,added1    
,,an ,,appendix1   ,,containing ,,the   
,,author',s ,,experiments   ,,on ,,the  
,,body ,,of ,a ,,malefactor ,,executed  
,,at ,,newgate4   c4 c4    ,,illustrated
 ,,with ,,engravings4    ,illustration3 
,medallions    ,,london3   ,,printed    
,,for ,,cuthell ,,and ,,martin1         
,,middle-,,row1 ,,holborn1   ,,and ,j4  
,,murray1 ,,no4 #cb1 ,,fleet-,,street1  

,,by ,,wilks ,,and ,,taylor1            
,,chancery-,,lane4   #ahjc4             
,,editor',s ,,preface4   ,few           
discoveries in modern times have excited
 so much curiosity as that of           
,galvanism4 ,ever since it was first    
made known by its celebrated ,author1 it
 has engaged the attention of the most  
eminent philosophers in ,europe2 and    
various researches have been undertaken 
to ascertain the principles on which it 
depends2 and the laws to which it is    
subject4  ,though some of its singular  
properties are fully established1 it    
must be allowed that the discovery is   
still in its infancy2 but enough of it  
is known to prove its importance1 and to
 induce philosophers to continue their  
researches1 which there is every reason 
to suppose may lead to some very curious
 results4  ,the experiments1 indeed1    
which have already been made1 seem to   
indicate that it may open a new field in
 the healing art2 and it appears by a   
late report presented to the ,class of  

the ,exact ,sciences of the ,academy of 
,turin1 that the medical application of 
it has been attended with the most      
beneficial effects in a case of         
confirmed hydrophobia4  ,while          
,galvanism1 independently of other      
advantages1 holds out such hopes of     
utility in regard to objects so         
interesting to mankind2 a work          
containing a full account of the late   
improvements which have been made in it1
 illustrated by a complete course of    
experiments1 cannot fail of being       
acceptable to the public in general1 and
 in particular to medical men1 to whose 
department1 in one point of view1 it    
more essentially belongs4  ,when        
,professor ,aldini left this country1   
the manuscript1 written in ,french1     
together with two printed ,latin        
,dissertations1 was put into the        
,editor's hands1 in order that they     
might be prepared for the press4 ,a     
translation of these forms the principal
 part of the work3 and an ,appendix has 

been added1 containing the author's     
experiments on the body of a malefactor 
executed at ,newgate2 experiments of a  
similar kind on the bodies of three     
criminals decapitated at ,bologna2 and  
an experiment lately made at ,calais1   
which seems to show that ,galvanism is  
susceptible of being conveyed to a very 
considerable distance through the water 
of the sea4  ,the ,editor thinks it     
necessary to observe1 that the principal
 experiments1 of which an account is    
given in this work1 are illustrated by  
proper engravings1 and that the title   
page is embellished with a              
representation of the gold medal        
presented to the ,author1 as a mark of  
their respect1 by the medical professors
 and pupils of ,guy's and ,st4 ,thomas's
 ,hospitals4    ,,london1   ,may #abth1 
#ahjc4       ,,contents4     ,,part ,i4 
,,page    ,,of ,,the ,,nature ,,and     
,,general ,,properties ,,of ,,galvanism4
    ,,proposition ,i4 ,muscular         
contractions are excited by the         

development of a fluid in the animal    
machine1 which is     conducted from the
 nerves to the muscles without the      
concurrence or action of metals         
#c    ,,prop4 ,,ii4 ,the ,galvanism     
excited1 in the preceding experiments1  
is not owing to the communication nor to
 the transfusion of     the general     
electricity1 but to an electricity      
peculiar to     animals1 which acts a   
very distinguished part in the animal   
economy                                 
#f    ,,prop4 ,,iii4 ,galvanism develops
 itself in a powerful manner1           
independently of metals1 by means of the
 human animal machine  #h    ,,prop4    
,,iv4 ,muscular contractions can be     
excited1 under certain     conditions1  
without establishing a continued arc    
from the     nerves to the muscles      
#aa    ,,prop4 ,v4 ,the effects of      
,galvanism1 in the preceding            
experiments1 do not depend on the action
 of any stimulant1     which occurs in  
performing the experiments1 and ought   

not to     be confounded with the       
effects of that action                  
#ab    ,,prop4 ,,vi4 ,galvanism is      
excited in the animal machine without   
any intermediate body1 and merely by the
 application of the     nerves to the   
muscles                                 
#ad    ,,prop4 ,,vii4 ,the heterogeneity
 of metals contributes1 in a great      
degree1 to excite muscular contractions 
with more facility1     but is not      
absolutely necessary to their production
           #ai    ,,prop4 ,,viii4 ,the  
,leyden flask1 the ,voltaic pile1 and   
animal     substances1 have the faculty 
of absorbing principles from the        
atmospheric air in an insulated plenum  
#ba    ,,prop4 ,,ix4 ,flame prevents the
 action of the ,leyden flask1 as        
well as that of the pile1 and also      
muscular contractions      #bg          
,,prop4 ,x4 ,certain fluids1 applied to 
the whole surface of the     pile1 or of
 animal parts1 do not prevent the action
 of     ,galvanism                      

#bi    ,,prop4 ,,xi4 ,mere              
electrization1 by means of the common   
kinds of     apparatus1 does not        
increase the action of ,galvanism       
#cb    ,,prop4 ,,xii4 ,the ,galvanic    
action is increased by employing as     
part of the arc the apparatus of ,volta1
 or the electrified     ,leyden flask   
#cd    ,,prop4 ,,xiii4 ,galvanism1 in   
animals and in the pile1 traverses      
large spaces with the same rapidity as  
the electric fluid     #cf    ,,prop4   
,,xiv4 ,the muscular contractions1      
which1 according to the     observations
 of ,galvani1 are produced by an        
electric     atmosphere whether natural 
or artificial1 correspond entirely      
with those produced by the pile1 or by  
similar kinds of     apparatus          
#cg    ,,prop4 ,,xv4 ,opium1 cinchona1  
and other stimulants of a similar       
kind1 which exercise a powerful action  
on the animal machine1     contribute   
also to excite the action of the pile   
#da    ,,prop4 ,,xvi4 ,if the general   

relation between ,galvanism and         
electricity be examined1 such a         
correspondence will be found     between
 them1 as tends to confirm the analogy  
already stated  #dd    ,,prop4 ,,xvii4  
,the hypothesis of an animal pile1      
analogous to     that formed            
artificially1 seems well calculated to  
explain     the sensations and          
contractions in the animal machine      
#dg     ,,part ,,the ,,second4    ,,on  
,,the ,,influence ,,which ,,galvanism   
,,has ,,on ,,the ,,vital ,,powers       
#ec    ,,section ,i4 ,galvanism applied 
to various quadrupeds1 birds1 and       
other warm-blooded animals              
#ed    ,,section ,,ii4 ,experiments made
 on human bodies after death       #fg  
,,part ,,the ,,third4    ,,on ,,the     
,,power ,,of ,,galvanism ,,as ,,applied 
,,to ,,medicine                 #ig     
,,sect4 ,i4 ,advantages which the       
medical administration of     ,galvanism
 has over that of common electricity    
#ii    ,,sect4 ,,ii4 ,application of    

,galvanism to the organs of hearing     
and of sight                            
#aja    ,,sect4 ,,iii4 ,application of  
,galvanism in cases of asphyxia and     
drowning                                
#aaj    ,,sect4 ,,iv4 ,galvanism applied
 to the cure of melancholy madness      
#aac    ,,sect4 ,v4 ,general reflections
 on the action and influence which      
,galvanism1 considered in a medical     
point of view1 exercises     on the     
animal conomy                           
#abc    ,,dissertation on animal        
electricity1 read in the ,institute of  
,bologna in the year #agic              
#acc    ,,second ,,dissertation on      
animal electricity1 read in the         
,institute of ,bologna in the year #agid
                        #aee            
,conclusion                             
#ahf     ,,appendix                     
#ahi    ,no4 ,i4 ,an account of the     
experiments performed1 by ,j4 ,aldini1  
on the body of a malefactor executed at 
,newgate ,jan4 #ag1     #ahjc           

ib4    ,no4 ,,ii4 ,report presented to  
the ,class of the ,exact ,sciences of   
the ,academy of ,turin1 #aeth ,august   
#ahjb1 in regard to the     ,galvanic   
experiments made by ,c4                 
,,vassali-,,eandi1 ,,giulio1 and        
,,rossi1 on the #ajth and #adth of the  
same month1 on the bodies     of three  
men a short time after their            
decapitation4 ,by ,c4     ,,giulio      
#bjd    ,no4 ,,iii4 ,account of an      
experiment made at ,calais1 on the      
transmission of ,galvanism through an   
arm of the sea          #bag     ,,an   
,,account  ,,of ,,the ,,late            
,,improvements ,,in ,,galvanism4   ,a   
just tribute of applause has been       
bestowed on the celebrated ,professor   
,volta for his late discovery2 and ,i   
have no desire to deprive him of any    
part of that honour to which he is so   
justly entitled2 but ,i am far from     
entertaining an idea that we ought1 on  
this account1 to neglect the first      
labours of ,galvani4 ,though these two  

philosophers pursued different routes1  
they concurred to throw considerable    
light on the same points of science2 and
 the question now is1 to determine which
 of them deduced the most just          
consequences from the facts he observed2
 and then to ascertain whether the facts
 established by ,galvani lead to the    
theory of ,volta1 or whether those      
discovered by ,volta are connected with 
the theory of ,galvani4 ,for my part1 ,i
 am of opinion that these two theories  
may serve in an eminent degree to       
illustrate each other4  ,last year      
,professor ,volta announced to the      
public the action of the metallic pile4 
,i here propose to exhibit1 according to
 the principles of ,professor ,galvani1 
the action of the animal pile4  ,such is
 the plan ,i have conceived in order to 
reconcile the systems of these two      
illustrious philosophers3 it forms the  
object of the present work1 which is    
divided into three parts4 ,in the first 
,i shall exhibit the action of          

,galvanism independently of metals1 and 
explain some of its general properties4 
,the second will contain experiments on 
the power of ,galvanism to excite the   
vital forces4 ,in the third ,i shall    
propose some useful applications of it  
to medicine1 and explain the principles 
on which the new medical administration 
of ,galvanism is founded4 ,to render the
 work as methodical as possible1 ,i have
 endeavoured to arrange the experiments 
in such a manner that they may serve as 
proofs to a series of general           
propositions1 which1 it is hoped1 will  
be of use to physiology and to the      
doctrine of the animal economy4         
,,part ,,the ,,first4  ,,of ,,the       
,,nature ,,and ,,general ,,properties   
,,of ,,galvanism4     ,,proposition ,i4 
,muscular contractions are excited by   
the development of a fluid in the animal
 machine1 which is conducted from the   
nerves to the muscles without the       
concurrence or action of metals4        
,,experiment ,i4  ,having provided the  

head of an ox1 recently killed1 ,i      
thrust a finger of one of my hands1     
moistened with salt water1 into one of  
the ears 7,plate ,i4 fig4 #a471 at the  
same time that ,i held a prepared frog  
in the other hand1 in such a manner that
 its spinal marrow touched the upper    
part of the tongue4 ,when this          
arrangement was made1 strong convulsions
 were observed in the frog2 but on      
separating the arc all the contractions 
ceased4  ,this experiment will succeed  
still better if the arc be conveyed from
 the tongue of the ox to the spinal     
marrow of the frog4 ,this method was    
found to be exceedingly convenient for  
trying the effect of ,galvanism on      
several calves4   ,,experiment ,,ii4    
,having provided the trunk of a calf1 ,i
 conveyed the arc from the muscles of   
the abdomen to the spinal marrow of a   
frog1 prepared and arranged in the usual
 manner4 ,the frog seemed much affected1
 and the contractions were exceedingly  
violent when the arc was composed of a  

chain of different persons1 united      
together by the hands moistened with    
salt water4   ,,experiment ,,iii4  ,i   
connected1 by means of one chain of     
moisture1 the heads of two or three     
calves1 and observed that by this       
combination the force of the ,galvanism 
was exerted with more energy3 a frog1   
which was not affected by touching one  
head1 experienced violent contractions  
when applied to a series of several     
heads connected together4   ,,experiment
 ,,iv4  ,i think it proper here to      
mention a very curious observation which
 ,i made lately at ,paris1 in company   
with professor ,huzzard1 and in the     
presence of the ,commissioners of the   
,national ,institute4 ,on applying the  
spinal marrow of a prepared frog to the 
cervical muscles of a horse's head1     
separated from the body1 no muscular    
convulsions took place2 but if1 at the  
same time1 another person touched with  
his hand1 moistened by a solution of    
muriate of soda1 the spinal marrow of   

the horse1 convulsions were always      
produced in the frog1 though there was  
no communication between the persons1   
except that formed by a floor on which  
they stood4     ,,proposition ,,ii4     
,the ,galvanism excited1 in the         
preceding experiments1 is not owing to  
the communication nor to the transfusion
 of the general electricity1 but to an  
electricity peculiar to animals1 which  
acts a very distinguished part in the   
animal economy4   ,,experiment ,i4      
,having placed the trunk of a calf      
7,plate ,i4 fig4 #b47 on an insulated   
table1 ,i made a longitudinal incision  
in the breast1 in order to obtain a long
 series of muscles uncovered4 ,i then   
arranged two insulated persons in such a
 manner that the one with a finger1     
moistened by salt water1 touched the    
spinal marrow of the calf1 while the    
other applied the spinal marrow of a    
frog to the muscles of the trunk4 ,every
 time this arc was formed1 muscular     
contractions were produced in the frog4 

,when the two persons let go each       
other's hands1 the contractions ceased4 
,i repeated this experiment1 with the   
same success1 on the insulated head of  
an ox1 conveying the arc from the spinal
 marrow of the frog to the tongue4      
,frogs were as violently affected when  
the experiment was made with the        
insulated trunks of different kinds of  
birds4  ,this experiment1 in my opinion1
 affords a decisive proof that the      
,galvanic fluid is peculiar to the      
animal machine1 independently of the    
influence of metals1 or of any other    
foreign cause4 ,in these experiments1   
indeed1 we have some animal machines1 so
 combined that the result is strong     
contractions in the frog4 ,all the      
bodies were insulated2 and1 therefore1  
it cannot be supposed that the          
contractions were occasioned by the     
direct influence of that general        
principle1 which pervades every body in 
nature4 ,hence it is evident1 whether it
 be ascribed to the action of the animal

 chain1 formed by the arms of the       
persons1 or to the animal pile1 formed  
by the trunk of the calf1 that we shall 
still be obliged to acknowledge the     
action of a principle which belongs to  
the organization of the animal machine1 
without having any dependence on metals4
         99     99     99     99     99 
,to prove in the animal body the        
existence of a principle which          
philosophers can by certain means excite
 and direct at pleasure in their        
experiments1 is a matter of the greatest
 importance2 though the manner in which 
it is put in action by nature1 however  
wonderful1 is unknown to us4 ,here then 
we have developed a very energetic      
fluid1 capable of transmission1 and     
deriving its origin from the action of  
the animal forces2 since the parts of   
bodies separated from the common        
reservoir of general electricity have   
still of themselves the faculty of      
reproducing it1 and of causing it to    
circulate in a manner proper for        

exciting muscular contractions4         
,,proposition ,,iii4   ,galvanism       
develops itself in a powerful manner1   
independently of metals1 by means of the
 human animal machine4   ,,experiment   
,i4  ,if you hold in your hand1         
moistened with salt water1 the muscles  
of a prepared frog1 and apply the crural
 nerves to the tip of your tongue1 you  
will immediately see violent            
contractions produced in the frog4 ,all 
suspicion of any stimulant exerting an  
action in this case1 may be removed by  
repeating the experiment with the frog  
held in the dry hand3 the muscular      
contractions will then cease1 unless the
 action of ,galvanism in the frog1 or in
 the animal machine1 be uncommonly      
powerful2 in which case contractions may
 be produced without establishing an arc
 from the nerves to the muscles4        
,,experiment ,,ii4  ,i held the muscles 
of a prepared frog in one of my hands1  
moistened by salt water1 and brought a  
finger of the other hand1 well          

moistened1 near to the crural nerves4   
,when the frog possessed a great deal of
 vitality the crural nerves gradually   
approached my hand1 and strong          
contractions took place at the point of 
contact4 ,this experiment proves the    
existence of a very remarkable kind of  
attraction1 observed not only by myself1
 but also by those whom ,i requested to 
repeat the experiment4   ,,experiment   
,,iii4  ,the above experiment requires  
great precision in the preparation1 and 
a considerable degree of vital power in 
the frog4 ,i have been informed by      
,professor ,fontana1 in a letter lately 
received from him1 that this phnomenon  
depends on very delicate circumstances1 
which he proposes to explain4 ,he       
assures me1 at the same time1 that he   
has twice seen the nerve attracted1 in  
this manner1 by the muscle4 ,being      
desirous to render this phnomenon more  
evident1 ,i formed the arc1 by applying 
one of my hands to the spinal marrow of 
a warm-blooded animal1 while ,i held a  

frog in the other1 in such a manner that
 the crural nerves were brought very    
near to the abdominal muscles4 ,by this 
arrangement the attraction of the nerves
 of the frog became very sensible4 ,i   
performed this experiment for the first 
time1 at ,oxford1 before ,sir           
,christopher ,pegge and ,dr4 ,bancroft1 
and repeated it in the anatomical       
theatres of ,st4 ,thomas's and ,guy's   
hospitals4   ,,experiment ,,iv4  ,i made
 the same observations on the body of a 
man as ,i had before made on the head   
and trunk of an ox4 ,having obtained the
 body of an executed criminal1 ,i formed
 an arc from the spinal marrow to the   
muscles1 a prepared frog being placed   
between1 and always obtained strong     
contractions without the aid of the     
pile1 and without the least influence   
from metals4 ,i obtained the same       
result1 in a certain degree1 from the   
bodies of men who had died a natural    
death4   ,,experiment ,v4  ,let four or 
more persons hold each other by the     

hands1 moistened by a solution of       
muriate of soda1 so as to form a long   
animal chain4 ,if the first hold in his 
hand the muscles of a prepared frog2 and
 if the last1 at the other end of the   
chain1 touch the spinal marrow or the   
crural nerves1 contractions will be     
produced3 if the animal chain be broken1
 the contractions will immediately      
cease4 ,i performed this experiment1    
making the animal chain to consist of   
two persons1 before the ,galvanic       
,society at ,paris1 and in ,mr4         
,wilson's anatomical theatre1           
,windmill-street4     ,,proposition     
,,iv4   ,muscular contractions can be   
excited1 under certain conditions1      
without establishing a continued arc    
from the nerves to the muscles4         
,,experiment4  ,having obtained the body
 of an executed criminal1 ,i caused the 
biceps muscle to be laid bare1 and      
brought near to it the spinal marrow of 
a prepared frog4 ,by these means        
contractions were produced in it much   

stronger than ,i had ever obtained in   
warm-blooded animals4 ,i repeated the   
experiment1 being myself insulated1 and 
observed no signs of contraction4 ,the  
same phnomena were exhibited with the   
head of an ox1 which possessed an       
extraordinary degree of vitality4       
,,proposition ,v4   ,the effects of     
,galvanism1 in the preceding            
experiments1 do not depend on the action
 of any stimulant1 which occurs in      
performing the experiments1 and ought   
not to be confounded with the effects of
 that action4   ,,experiment ,i4  ,in   
the experiment of the frog applied to   
the uncovered biceps muscle of the body 
of the malefactor1 if any other body be 
made to touch the frog it will remain   
motionless4 ,this proves that the       
contractions produced in the frog do not
 arise from the impulse of the mere     
contact of the spinal marrow with the   
muscle of the human animal machine4     
,,experiment ,,ii4  ,to remove still    
further all suspicion of the action of  

stimulants1 in the preceding            
experiments1 ,i prepared two frogs1 and 
connected the extremities of one with   
the spinal marrow of the other4 ,i then 
held in my hand the extremities of one  
of the frogs1 and applied the spinal    
marrow of the other to the uncovered    
muscles of the head of an ox1 which     
possessed a great degree of vitality4   
,by these means contractions were       
produced in both the frogs4 ,it is      
evident1 in this experiment1 that the   
force of the stimulant1 if there were   
any1 might act on the second frog1 but  
not on the first4     ,,proposition     
,,vi4  ,galvanism is excited in the     
animal machine without any intermediate 
body1 and merely by the application of  
the nerves to the muscles4   ,several   
philosophers have endeavoured to obtain 
this interesting result4 ,professor     
,volta1 in a letter which he addressed  
to me1 in ,brugnatelli's ,journal1      
observed1 8that various parts of animals
 can excite ,galvanism1 independently of

 metals40 ,galvani1 a short time before 
his death1 proposed two ingenious       
methods of obtaining this result1 and   
gave me a description of them4 ,this1   
however1 has not been able to destroy   
the incredulity of some philosophers1   
who hitherto have confounded ,galvanism 
with metallic electricity1 under an idea
 that all contractions proceed from     
irritation1 produced by the action of   
metals4 ,for this reason ,i have1 with  
confidence1 announced my method1 which  
enables any one to observe this         
important result4   ,,experiment ,i4    
,having prepared a frog in the usual    
manner1 ,i hold the spinal marrow in one
 hand 7,plate ,i4 fig4 #c471 and with   
the other form an angle with the leg and
 foot1 in such a manner that the muscles
 of the leg touch the crural nerves4 ,on
 this contact strong contractions1      
forming a real electrico-animal alarum  
7carillon71 which continue longer or    
shorter according to the degree of      
vitality1 are produced in the extremity 

left to itself4 ,in this experiment1 as 
well as in the following1 it is         
necessary that the frogs should be      
strong and full of vitality1 and that   
the muscles should not be overcharged   
with blood4   ,,experiment ,,ii4  ,by   
observing the directions already given1 
very strong convulsions will be         
obtained2 but they must not be ascribed 
to the impulse produced by bringing the 
nerve into contact with the muscle4 ,if 
the experiment be repeated1 covering the
 muscle1 at the place of contact1 with a
 non-conducting substance1 the          
contractions will entirely cease2 but   
they will be re-produced as soon as the 
nerve is made to touch the muscular     
substance4 ,in performing this          
experiment1 in public1 ,i obtained      
several times more than two hundred     
successive contractions2 but this was   
never the case when ,i formed the same  
contact with the muscle by means of a   
conducting substance1 and even with a   
plate of metal4  ,to ensure the success 

of this interesting experiment1 the     
nerves must be prepared as speedily as  
possible1 by disengaging them from every
 foreign substance4 ,it will be proper  
also to apply the nerves not to one but 
to several points of the muscle1        
throughout its whole length4 ,it is     
observed1 that the contact of the nerves
 with the tendinous parts which         
communicate with the muscles1 often     
serves to increase the muscular         
contractions4 ,i performed the above    
experiment before several able          
professors1 among whom were the         
celebrated ,brugnatelli and ,carcano1   
who1 with that modesty peculiar to them1
 made several ingenious observations on 
the precision which might be given to   
it4 ,professor ,brugnatelli was         
apprehensive that1 as ,i had            
accidentally touched some metals before 
,i performed the experiment1 metallic   
particles might have adhered to my      
fingers1 and thus have served1 in some  
measure1 as invisible arming1 sufficient

 of itself to excite muscular           
contractions4 ,this suspicion1 however1 
,i removed1 by immersing my hands in    
water1 to detach every foreign          
substance4 ,he then observed that animal
 moisture1 independently of the         
circulation of the ,galvanic fluid from 
the nerves to the muscles1 might also   
excite muscular contractions2 and he    
requested that the crural nerves might  
be washed in common water4 ,this was    
accordingly done2 and the humidity of   
the nerves being thus externally        
removed1 very strong contractions were  
still produced1 as the professor found1 
to his full conviction1 on repeating the
 experiment himself several times#a4    
#a ,it may not be improper here to      
observe1 that my           method of    
exciting muscular contractions1 without 
metals1 is very different from that     
proposed by others4           ,i do not 
know that convulsions have ever been    
obtained           in cold-blooded      
animals by means of warm-blooded4 ,from 

observations ,i have made1 ,i flatter   
myself with the           hope of being 
able to obtain contractions without     
metals1 even in the muscles of          
warm-blooded-animals4           ,but to 
ensure the certainty of this method     
would           require long practice1  
and a preparation attended with         
considerable difficulty4 ,i however     
propose to attempt           it on my   
return to ,italy4 ,some philosophers1   
indeed1           had conceived the idea
 of producing contractions in a         
frog without metals2 and ingenious      
methods proposed by           my uncle  
,galvani induced me to pay attention to 
the           subject1 in order that ,i 
might attain to greater                 
simplicity4 ,he made me sensible of the 
importance of           the experiment1 
and therefore ,i was long ago inspired  
with a desire of discovering that       
interesting process4           ,it will 
be seen in the ,opuscoli of ,milan1 that
 ,i           shewed publicly1 to the   

,institute of ,bologna1                 
contractions in a frog without the aid  
of metals1 so           far back as the 
year #agid4 ,the experiment1 as         
described           in a memoir         
addressed to ,m4 ,amorotti1 is as       
follows3 8,i           immersed a       
prepared frog in a strong solution of   
muriate of soda4 ,i then took it from   
the solution1 and1           holding one
 extremity of it in my hand1 ,i suffered
 the           other to hang freely     
down4 ,while in this situation1 ,i      
raised up the nerves with a small glass 
rod1 in such a           manner that    
they did not touch the muscles4 ,i then 
suddenly removed the glass rod1 and     
every time that the           spinal    
marrow and nerves touched the muscular  
parts1           contractions were      
excited4 ,any idea of a stimulus        
arising either from the action of the   
salt1 or from the           impulse     
produced by the fall of the nerves1 may 
be           easily removed4 ,nothing   

will be necessary but to apply          
the same nerves to the muscles of       
another prepared           frog1 not in 
a ,galvanic circle2 for1 in this case1  
neither the salt1 nor the impulse even  
if more violent1           will produce 
muscular motion4   ,,experiment ,,iii4  
,the ,commissioners of the ,french      
,national ,institute remarked1 that1 in 
order to give the greatest precision    
possible to these experiments1 it would 
be necessary to insulate entirely the   
nervous and muscular systems4 ,for this 
purpose1 ,i applied these parts to each 
other by means of glass rods1 and each  
time they were brought into contact ,i  
obtained muscular contractions4 ,the    
case was the same when an animal arc was
 applied to two insulated frogs3        
contractions were produced in them both4
 ,the apparatus employed for this       
purpose may be seen in ,plate ,i4 fig4  
#e and #f4   ,,experiment ,,iv4  ,having
 prepared a frog according to the usual 
method1 ,i cut one of its crural nerves 

in such a manner that the trunk was     
united to the spinal marrow by means of 
the other nerve1 which remained uncut1  
and also by a blood-vessel contiguous   
and parallel to the cut nerve4 ,i then  
repeated the above experiment2 and1     
though only one nerve was in contact    
with the muscles1 ,i obtained the same  
results4   ,,experiment ,v4  ,a ligature
 was placed loosely around the middle of
 the crural nerves1 and one of these    
nerves at the ligature applied to the   
corresponding muscles3 strong           
contractions ensued2 which1 however1 did
 not take place1 when the ligature was  
drawn tight1 at the insertion of the    
nerves into the muscles of the thigh4   
,,proposition ,,vii4  ,the heterogeneity
 of metals contributes1 in a great      
degree1 to excite muscular contractions 
with more facility1 but is not          
absolutely necessary to their           
production4   ,this proposition ,i could
 demonstrate in a direct manner1 by     
means of experiments1 which ,i published

 formerly1 on the contractions excited  
by very pure mercury1 and which were    
repeated1 in different ways1 by the     
celebrated ,humboldt4 ,i am1 however1   
happy to have an opportunity of         
examining the influence of arming with  
heterogeneous substances2 and ,i shall  
endeavour to prove that it cannot1 of   
itself1 produce the effect of muscular  
contractions4   ,,experiment ,i4  ,if   
several prepared frogs1 ten or more for 
example1 be placed on a table 7,plate   
,i4 fig4 #g471 and arranged parallel to 
each other1 in such a manner that the   
whole system of the nerves shall be at  
one end1 and that of the muscles at the 
other1--on applying two armatures and a 
metallic arc to the first of these      
frogs1 muscular convulsions will be     
immediately excited1 not only in the    
first frog1 but in all the rest4        
,,experiment ,,ii4  ,if the experiment  
be repeated with the frogs arranged in  
such a manner that the spinal marrow and
 muscles are not each at one end 7,plate

 ,i4 fig4 #h471 but disposed alternately
 so that the spinal marrow of one       
touches sometimes the muscles of        
another1 or vice versa1 convulsions will
 then be produced only in some of the   
frogs1 and not in the whole series4     
,this experiment proves that the effect 
does not1 in any manner1 depend on the  
action of metals2 because metallic      
electricity in the first experiment     
ought to exercise an action only on the 
first frog1 and not on the rest2 and1 in
 the second1 ought to cause them all to 
move together1 or to leave them         
motionless4  ,i shall now proceed to    
those experiments which appear to be    
best calculated to support the opinion  
of the great analogy between electricity
 and ,galvanism4     ,,proposition      
,,viii4  ,the ,leyden flask1 the        
,voltaic pile1 and animal substances1   
have the faculty of absorbing principles
 from the atmospheric air in an         
insulated plenum4   ,,experiment ,i4    
,by means of a metallic point1 ,i       

electrified the interior side of a glass
 jar1 which ,i inverted and placed on a 
plate of metal1 so as to form an        
insulated plenum4 ,in a little time1 ,i 
saw the water rise in the glass several 
lines2 and ,i then flattered myself with
 the hopes of obtaining some remarkable 
effects by another method4              
,,experiment ,,ii4  ,i provided for this
 experiment a ,leyden flask1 seven      
inches in height and about three in     
diameter1 coated in the usual manner    
with tin foil3 the exterior end of the  
wire terminated in a sharp point1 so    
that the electric fluid which escaped   
from it could easily combine with the   
principles of the atmospheric air1 with 
which it had a greater affinity4 ,i then
 electrified the jar1 and covered it    
with a glass receiver of such a size    
that its electricity could not be       
weakened by the sides of the latter4 ,i 
thus formed an insulated plenum1 and at 
the end of half an hour ,i saw the water
 ascend in the receiver in a very       

sensible manner4   ,,experiment ,,iii4  
,having made the wire to terminate1 not 
in a point1 but in a metallic knob1 as  
usual1 ,i again charged the jar1 and    
having placed it under a common         
receiver1 at the end of about half an   
hour ,i found that the elevation of the 
water was much greater4 ,to remove every
 suspicion that this might arise from   
the water employed in the preceding     
experiment1 to insulate the plenum1 ,i  
substituted mercury in its stead2 and   
though the elevations were less1 they   
were1 however1 analogous to those which 
had been observed a little before with  
water4 ,by repeating this experiment    
with a similar jar1 not electrified1 one
 may be easily convinced1 that the      
elevation of the water in the bell ought
 not to be ascribed to a difference in  
the temperature of the air within it4   
,,experiment ,,iv4  ,i placed under a   
bell-glass1 forming an insulated plenum1
 a pile consisting of fifty plates of   
silver and zinc4 ,next morning ,i       

observed that the water had risen some  
inches1 indicating that a great         
absorption of air had taken place4      
,having then introduced a taper into the
 receiver1 it was immediately           
extinguished4 ,the pile1 without being  
arranged anew1 was placed under the same
 receiver2 and on forming an insulated  
plenum1 ,i observed1 after twenty-four  
hours had elapsed1 a sensible absorption
 of air4 ,a taper was then introduced1  
and ,i obtained the same result4 ,i     
replaced the pile under the receiver1   
and found1 on the third and following   
days1 that the pile retained its        
moisture1 so that till the tenth day it 
gave analogous results4 ,i repeated the 
same experiment with oxygen gas1 and    
found1 six days after1 that the water in
 the bell had risen a foot4             
,,experiment ,v4  ,the same results may 
be obtained without employing large     
piles and large receivers4 ,in general1 
it will be sufficient to arrange1 in    
alternate strata1 some plates of        

heterogeneous metals4 ,if two plates of 
copper and zinc be placed under a bell  
an inch and a half in diameter1 and     
three inches in height1 and if an       
insulated plenum be then formed1 two    
days after the water will have risen    
about half an inch4 ,having repeated the
 experiment with different metals1 ,i   
found that a greater or less absorption 
of air had taken place1 according to the
 difference of their nature and         
combination4 ,this inspired me with the 
idea of making a series of experiments  
with different metals2 and ,i hope to be
 able1 at some future period1 to form a 
table of the different heights of the   
fluid1 which may serve to determine how 
far they are respectively susceptible of
 oxidation4 ,however1 to ascertain the  
oxidation of metals with precision1     
pieces of coin mixed with alloy ought   
not to be employed4 ,pure metals1 formed
 into small piles1 must be subjected to 
observation1 and ought to be placed     
under equal bells1 at the same          

temperature as that of the atmosphere4  
,until it be proved that the absorption 
of oxygen in the above experiments is   
merely a chemical effect1 altogether    
unconnected with the action of          
,galvanism1 ,i think ,i may be allowed  
to avail myself of it to prove the      
proposed analogy4   ,,experiment ,,vi4  
,the ingenious theory of ,girtanner1 who
 ascribes the cause of muscular         
contractions to oxygen1 the curious     
experiments by which ,professor         
,humboldt revives the muscular force1 by
 means of oxygenated muriatic acid1 and 
those made by the celebrated ,fourcroy  
on the same subject1 induced me to      
examine the effect resulting from a     
combination of oxygen with muscular     
fibres1 in a state of the greatest      
vitality4 ,for this purpose1 ,i adapted 
to a bell-glass a bent metallic wire1   
from which were suspended fourteen      
frogs1 prepared with the utmost         
dispatch1 and almost at the same        
instant1 by myself and several of my    

pupils2 and having formed an insulated  
plenum1 ,i found1 at the end of         
twenty-four hours1 that the water had   
risen in the bell to the height of about
 half an inch4   ,,experiment ,,vii4  ,i
 repeated this experiment1 with the same
 success1 on warm-blooded animals4 ,i   
provided1 for that purpose1 the         
extremities of different pullets from   
which the crural nerves had been        
previously separated1 and found that the
 elevations of the water1 in the        
insulated plenum1 were much less when ,i
 employed the fibres of these animals   
after their vitality had been weakened4 
,,experiment ,,viii4  ,having obtained  
the bodies of some executed criminals1  
,i exposed to the action of an insulated
 plenum the nervous and muscular fibres1
 and the substance of the brain4 ,the   
elevations of the water were remarkable1
 in consequence of the different        
substances subjected to experiment1     
which1 according to their different     
characters1 exercised a different action

 on the oxygen4 ,this fact ought to     
induce physiologists to undertake       
experiments of a similar kind with other
 gases1 to enable them to determine the 
strength of the affinity exerted by     
animal substances to combine with       
oxygen4   ,,experiment ,,ix4  ,as       
fishes1 and in particular the torpedo1  
furnish a large quantity of animal or   
,galvanic electricity1 ,i was inclined  
to think they would exhibit the         
before-mentioned effects in a very      
striking manner in an insulated plenum4 
,i mentioned to ,professor ,mojon of    
,genoa the experiment ,i proposed to    
make2 and1 in a letter which ,i lately  
received from him1 he informed me of the
 result1 as follows3       8,i took a   
strong torpedo1 and1 as soon as it was  
dead1 armed      its nerves with the    
usual armature4 ,having then placed it  
on      an insulating stool1 a little   
elevated above water1 ,i      covered it
 with a bell-glass the content of which 
was equal      to #dcb cubic inches4 ,at

 the end of some hours ,i observed1     
with great surprise1 that the water     
under the insulated      plenum began to
 rise progressively during about ten    
hours2      and at the end of           
forty-eight ,i found that it had risen  
an      inch2 so that it occupied a     
ninth part of the capacity of      the  
bell1 that is to say1 forty-eight cubic 
inches4 ,i      analysed the remaining  
air1 and found that the bell            
contained no more than #hj cubic inches 
of oxygen gas1 and      #cbd of azotic  
gas2 and that1 during the above period1 
more      than two-fifths of the oxygen 
gas contained in the bell had      been 
absorbed40  ,i propose going to the     
sea-coast1 in order that ,i may repeat  
the experiment on the torpedo without   
any armature2 and ,i shall embrace that 
opportunity of making various researches
 in regard to the new theory of         
,galvanism4 ,i think it necessary1 in   
general1 to submit to new experiments   
the different animal parts immersed in  

the different ariform fluids1 fixing    
their various combinations according to 
the degrees of ,galvanic force which    
they may possess4     ,,proposition     
,,ix4  ,flame prevents the action of the
 ,leyden flask1 as well as that of the  
pile1 and also muscular contractions4   
,,experiment ,i4  ,i placed a lighted   
taper on an insulating stool2 and having
 made the wire1 proceeding from the     
interior coating of a charged ,leyden   
flask1 to pass through the flame1 ,i    
found that1 without forming an arc1 it  
lost a portion of its electricity4 ,if  
the experiment be repeated in such a    
manner that the flame makes a part of   
the arc between the two coatings1 the   
flask is entirely discharged1 without   
the arms of the person who forms part of
 the arc experiencing the least shock4  
,,experiment ,,ii4  ,i adapted to the   
summit of the pile a circular brass     
vessel1 containing spirit of wine4 ,by  
these means the pile was made to        
terminate in a strong flame1 to which ,i

 applied a metallic conductor1 while    
with the other hand ,i touched the      
bottom of the pile4 ,the ,galvanic fluid
 still withstood my efforts2 and the    
case was the same when ,i substituted   
for the spirit of wine the flame of a   
common candle4 ,it is proper here to    
remark1 that the flame did not lessen   
the action of the ,galvanism when the   
conductor1 instead of being applied to  
the flame1 was applied to the plate at  
the summit of the pile4   ,,experiment  
,,iii4  ,i have already proved by a     
series of experiments1 addressed to ,c4 
,lacepede1 that flame made to form part 
of the arc applied to the nerves and    
muscles of a frog1 prevents muscular    
contractions4 ,i repeated the           
experiment1 with the same result1 on    
several warm-blooded animals4 ,i        
observed that the flame interposed in   
the arc1 which touched the back and     
belly of the torpedo1 prevented the     
electric shocks4     ,,proposition ,x4  
,certain fluids1 applied to the whole   

surface of the pile1 or of animal parts1
 do not prevent the action of           
,galvanism4   ,,experiment ,i4  ,two    
years ago1 ,i made various experiments  
on this subject at ,florence1 with the  
celebrated ,fontana2 and we found that a
 pile1 composed of a hundred plates of  
zinc and silver1 after being immersed   
some time in common water1 still        
exercised a very strong action4         
,professor ,fontana informs me1 in a    
letter1 that he has performed the same  
experiment several ways1 and always with
 the same success4   ,,experiment ,,ii4 
,being desirous to examine the nature of
 the element inhabited by the numerous  
family of fishes1 which are also subject
 to the influence of the ,galvanic      
processes1 ,i filled with sea-water     
thirty earthen vessels2 and having      
formed a communication between them1 by 
means of heterogeneous arcs1 composed of
 brass and zinc1 ,i obtained a shock1   
which appeared to me stronger than that 
obtained with artificial salt water4 ,by

 establishing an arc with only five of  
these vessels1 the action was very      
sensible4 ,a pile composed of pieces of 
pasteboard1 moistened with sea-water1   
and entirely immersed in the same water1
 gave1 when tried1 very strong shocks4  
,,experiment ,,iii4  ,i was able to     
prove the action of the ,galvanic pile  
and of metals under water1 by the       
following simple experiment3 ,i placed a
 plate of zinc at the bottom of a vessel
 filled with salt water1 7,plate ,,ii4  
fig4 #f474 ,a person then brought the   
spinal marrow of a frog into contact    
with the surface of the salt water2 and 
another person1 absolutely insulated1   
touched with a silvered copper wire the 
plate of zinc4 ,every time that the wire
 was brought into contact with the zinc1
 muscular contractions took place4 ,i am
 well aware1 that the advocates for     
metallic electricity will deduce from   
the plain statement of this fact1 an    
induction contrary to ,galvanism2 but my
 candour1 on this occasion1 will show   

how much ,i am attached to the cause of 
truth4   ,,experiment ,,iv4  ,among     
animal bodies1 the torpedo is one of    
those which produce the most powerful   
,galvanic action4 ,in the autumn of     
#ahja1 ,i made some experiments on this 
animal at ,genoa1 in conjunction with   
,professor ,mojon and his brother1 who  
gave me every assistance in their power4
 ,when ,i touched the torpedo1 under    
water1 at the moment when it gave the   
shock1 it contracted itself1 and two    
jets of water proceeded from the two    
holes in its head4 ,to obtain the shock1
 it was not necessary to touch two      
distinct parts of its body3 in many     
cases1 the application of the hand to   
the electric organ was sufficient4      
,,proposition ,,xi4  ,mere              
electrization1 by means of the common   
kinds of apparatus1 does not increase   
the action of ,galvanism4   ,,experiment
 ,i4  ,artificial electricity was       
communicated to an apparatus1 composed  
of a hundred cups1 care being first     

taken to insulate the table and the     
persons who were afterwards to receive  
the action of it4 ,if we suppose that   
the heterogeneous arcs were charged with
 different kinds of electricity1 it     
would seem that1 by communicating to    
them any electricity1 the electricity of
 the whole apparatus ought to have been 
reduced to the same kind2 consequently  
that no shock ought to have been        
produced4 ,the contrary1 however1 was   
the case4 ,we experienced very strong   
shocks1 very little different from those
 which would have been obtained without 
artificial electricity4 ,i observed the 
same result with the pile4              
,,experiment ,,ii4  ,an insulated       
torpedo being electrified1 the shocks it
 gave were not increased4 ,the torpedo  
was killed1 and then armed1 according to
 the method of ,galvani1 for the purpose
 of trying whether metallic electricity1
 in this case1 would have any influence 
over it4 ,after this arrangement was    
made1 every time that the conducting arc

 was applied to it strong contractions  
were produced2 but very little different
 from those remarked in other animals4  
,this observation is agreeable to those 
made at ,naples by the celebrated       
,abilgaard1 who1 having subjected the   
torpedo to the ,galvanic processes1     
found no extraordinary contractions4    
,,proposition ,,xii4  ,the ,galvanic    
action is increased by employing as part
 of the arc the apparatus of ,volta1 or 
the electrified ,leyden flask4          
,,experiment ,i4  ,in the hall of the   
,institute1 ,i placed on a large table a
 hundred glass cups1 and arranged them  
in such a manner as to form two         
rectangles1 each composed of fifty4 ,i  
established a communication between the 
first of these cups and the apparatus of
 ,volta1 by means of a metallic wire1   
which proceeded from one of the interior
 chambers of the ,cabinet de ,physique1 
and terminated at the place where the   
experiment was performed4 ,i then tried 
this arrangement several times2 and1    

however different opinions might be in  
regard to the precise increase of the   
action of the ,galvanism1 all constantly
 agreed in considering the shock as     
stronger4 ,some even went so far as to  
assert that it was increased a third4   
,it gave me great satisfaction to be    
able1 on this occasion1 to confirm the  
last discovery of ,professor ,volta1 as 
well as one of those which he had made  
before4 ,one observation1 well attested1
 which tends to establish the truth of  
this proposition1 is1 that if a person  
touch the summit and base of the pile   
with two large metallic conductors1 the 
shocks he receives will be much         
stronger4   ,,experiment ,,ii4          
,electricity1 concentrated in the       
,leyden flask1 contributes also to      
increase the action of ,galvanism4      
,having prepared a pile1 composed of    
fifty plates of copper and zinc1 ,i     
formed an arc by interposing a charged  
jar1 and obtained an explosion much     
stronger than that obtained by the      

,leyden flask charged with an equal     
quantity of the electric fluid1 and     
discharged independently of the pile4   
,,experiment ,,iii4  ,i took the same   
flask1 after it was discharged1 and     
having formed a portion of an arc1      
applied to the two extremities of the   
pile1 ,i observed that the ,galvanism   
refused to pass the obstacle presented  
to it by the stratum of glass interposed
 between the two coatings2 consequently 
,i received no shock4   ,,experiment    
,,iv4  ,i repeated the second           
experiment1 insulating the pile1 and at 
the same time the person who touched the
 pile with the charged flask4 ,by these 
means ,i obtained a much stronger       
explosion than could have been produced 
separately by the ,leyden flask or the  
pile4 ,in this experiment ,i observed   
that the repeated passage of the        
electricity of the flask throughout the 
whole extent of the pile1 did not       
deprive it of the property of exciting  
,galvanism4     ,,proposition ,,xiii4   

,galvanism1 in animals and in the pile1 
traverses large spaces with the same    
rapidity as the electric fluid4         
,,experiment4  ,i extended an iron wire1
 two hundred and fifty feet in length1  
around my chamber1 taking great care    
that it should not any where touch      
itself1 and made its extremities to     
terminate at a table which ,i had       
prepared for the experiment4 ,one of    
these extremities being brought into    
communication with a pile composed of   
fifty plates of copper and zinc1 ,i held
 the other in my left hand1 and with my 
right touched the summit of the pile4   
,the ,galvanism then proceeded from the 
bottom of the pile to the summit1       
traversing a portion of the arc formed  
by the animal machine4 ,by the effect of
 this passage1 we may therefore form    
some opinion of the celerity of the     
,galvanic current4 ,its rapidity was    
such1 that neither ,i nor any of those  
who repeated the experiment publicly1   
were able to determine the degree4 ,the 

truth of this proposition is confirmed  
by experiments lately made by the       
celebrated ,van ,marum1 who charged     
large batteries by means of ,galvanism4 
,,proposition ,,xiv4  ,the muscular     
contractions1 which1 according to the   
observations of ,galvani1 are produced  
by an electric atmosphere whether       
natural or artificial1 correspond       
entirely with those produced by the     
pile1 or by similar kinds of apparatus4 
,when a change of equilibrium takes     
place in those systems of bodies which  
communicate with the nerves and the     
muscles of the animal machine1 it is    
always sensible of this change1 and     
muscular contractions are produced4     
,,experiment ,i4  ,it is curious to see 
an animal1 placed at the extremity of an
 apartment1 experience a shock1 when the
 electric spark is extracted at a       
considerable distance4 ,i performed this
 experiment several times in the        
,cabinet de ,physique of the ,institute 
of ,bologna1 by means of a metal wire1  

not insulated1 which was at the distance
 of four feet from the conductor of a   
common electrical machine4 ,i repeated  
the experiment with crural nerves1      
having a ligature in the middle2 and on 
extracting the spark1 ,i observed       
violent contractions1 which ceased when 
the ligature was formed at the place of 
their insertion into the muscles4 ,i    
then performed with the new apparatus of
 ,volta the experiments which ,galvani  
had made with artificial electricity    
alone4 ,at first ,i employed several    
glass cups and piles of from one to two 
hundred plates of metal2 which proved to
 me that similar results might be       
obtained with the following simple      
apparatus4   ,,experiment ,,ii4  ,having
 placed upon a table two glass vessels  
filled with salt water1 7,plate ,,ii4   
fig4 #e47 which ,i connected by means of
 an arc composed of brass and zinc1 ,i  
applied to the surface of the water1 in 
one of the vessels1 the spinal marrow of
 a prepared frog1 the corresponding     

muscles of which ,i held in one of my   
hands4 ,another person with his hand1 or
 a plate of metal1 then touched the     
water contained in the other vessel1    
and1 at each contact1 the muscles       
experienced violent contractions4 ,to   
remove all idea of the contractions     
being produced by the action of the salt
 water1 ,i connected with the spinal    
marrow a part of the muscles of another 
animal1 which1 instead of the spinal    
marrow1 was made to touch the salt      
water1 and obtained the same result4    
,,experiment ,,iii4  ,the same apparatus
 being retained1 if either the person   
who touches the surface of the water in 
the first glass vessel1 or the part of  
the frog immersed in the second1 be     
insulated1 no muscular contractions are 
produced2 but they again take place when
 the insulation is removed4 ,the        
violence of the contractions is         
increased by increasing the number of   
the glass vessels4 ,if these vessels are
 made to communicate by means of arcs1  

formed of one homogeneous metal1 the    
results are not different from those    
observed when heterogeneous metals are  
employed4   ,,experiment ,,iv4  ,being  
desirous to confirm the theory of the   
,galvanic atmosphere1 ,i placed in it   
the body of an executed criminal4 ,i    
removed the pile to the distance of a   
foot from the trunk1 without the usual  
communication of metallic arcs2 and     
having made an incision in each ancle1  
two persons held two frogs prepared in  
the usual manner1 in such a position    
that the spinal marrow rested on the    
incisions4 ,when matters were thus      
arranged1 every time that a third person
 touched the summit of the pile1 both   
the frogs experienced violent           
contractions1 and to such a degree1     
that1 leaving free one of the           
extremities1 a real electrico-animal    
alarum was obtained1 perfectly similar  
in its effect and identity to that      
described by ,galvani in his            
,commentary4 ,when the metallic         

apparatus is employed1 if one of the    
persons who holds a frog be insulated1  
the frog will remain motionless1 while  
the other will experience the usual     
effect4 ,i had an opportunity of        
confirming the truth of this            
observation1 on the trunk of a dog1     
during a course of experiments made in  
the ,hpital de la ,charit1 at ,paris1   
and at ,st4 ,thomas's ,hospital1        
,london4     ,,proposition ,,xv4        
,opium1 cinchona1 and other stimulants  
of a similar kind1 which exercise a     
powerful action on the animal machine1  
contribute also to excite the action of 
the pile4   ,,experiment ,i4  ,in the   
last sitting of the ,institute of       
,bologna1 at which ,i was present1 ,i   
constructed two piles1 each composed of 
fifteen pieces of silver and zinc1      
employing for the one an extract of     
opium1 and for the other an infusion of 
cinchona in alcohol4 ,i covered the     
piles with two equal receivers2 formed  
an insulated plenum1 by pouring mercury 

around the bottoms of them2 and placed  
weights on the receivers sufficient to  
prevent the mercury from raising them4  
,at the end of some hours1 ,i found a   
remarkable elevation of the surface of  
the mercury1 so that the receivers      
remained fixed without requiring any    
weight to keep them down4 ,in the bell  
which covered the pile where extract of 
opium had been employed1 the mercury    
rose more than an inch2 but in that     
covering the other1 where cinchona had  
been used1 the elevation of the mercury 
was scarcely three lines4   ,,experiment
 ,,ii4  ,having successively introduced 
a taper into each of the two receivers  
before mentioned1 it was immediately    
extinguished in that containing the pile
 with the extract of opium2 but in the  
other containing the pile with the      
infusion of cinchona1 it continued      
burning for some time4 ,i found also    
that four of the plates1 at the bottom  
of the pile where ,i employed opium1 had
 suffered from the action of the        

mercury2 and that some others1 to the   
height of about three inches and a half1
 exhibited a few globules of that metal4
 ,the pile in which ,i employed infusion
 of cinchona showed scarcely any signs  
of the action of the mercury4           
,,experiment ,,iii4  ,as ,i concluded   
that the pile in which ,i had employed  
the alcoholic extract of opium possessed
 more activity than the other1 ,i       
examined it for four or five days       
successively4 ,i tried the flame of a   
taper with the same result as before1   
and assured myself that this pile       
retained the ,galvanic power1 though a  
little weakened1 even till the eighth   
day4 ,on the other hand1 twenty-four    
hours had scarcely elapsed1 when the    
pile in which alcohol and cinchona had  
been employed exhibited no signs of     
activity4   ,,experiment ,,iv4  ,i      
constructed two piles1 in the same      
manner1 with pieces of pasteboard       
interposed1 which had been previously   
moistened with strong solutions of      

camphor and of castor oil1 in pure      
alcohol4 ,in these two piles the        
,galvanic effects were much weaker in   
every respect than those observed in the
 preceding experiment2 for1 besides the 
explosion being less1 the elevation of  
water in the insulated plenum was very  
small1 and the alteration of the flame  
was scarcely sensible4   ,,experiment   
,v4  ,i was able to convince myself that
 the effects of the two piles1 before   
mentioned1 were the immediate result of 
the substances dissolved1 and not of the
 alcohol2 for1 having constructed a pile
 of thirty plates of silver and zinc1   
with pieces of pasteboard interposed1   
moistened with pure alcohol1 ,i observed
 no signs of ,galvanism2 and the case   
was the same when ,i employed a pile of 
zinc combined with copper and other     
metals4     ,,proposition ,,xvi4   ,if  
the general relation between ,galvanism 
and electricity be examined1 such a     
correspondence will be found between    
them1 as tends to confirm the analogy   

already stated4  ,to illustrate this    
proposition1 ,i shall here take a view  
of the particular properties of         
electricity and ,galvanism1 which1 if   
considered separately1 would not be     
sufficient for my object4 ,i am1        
however1 of opinion1 that when combined 
together they will serve to prove it in 
a satisfactory manner4  #ast1           
,galvanism1 like artificial electricity1
 emits sparks1 fuses metals1 and can    
even be employed to charge armed        
non-conducting bodies4 ,i have proved   
the last-mentioned property1 discovered 
by the celebrated ,van ,marum1 with a   
new apparatus1 composed of a pile with a
 hole in the middle1 in which ,i place  
the flask ,i intend to charge4  #b;dly1 
,the influence of artificial electricity
 tends to accelerate the putrefaction of
 animal parts2 and the same phnomenon   
may be produced by communication with   
the ,voltaic pile1 or by the first      
processes of ,galvani4  #c;dly1 ,the    
electricity of the ,leyden jar is       

renewed in part immediately after its   
discharge4 ,a similar phnomenon is      
exhibited by the pile2 and it is        
observed1 if the common ,galvanic       
armatures be employed1 that the vital   
force in animals is almost revived1 when
 the arcs are applied different times4  
#dthly1 ,as the action of common        
electricity and of the pile is          
suspended1 when the combination of the  
metallic pieces is changed2 in like     
manner1 in a system of several animal   
machines1 if their combination be       
changed1 muscular contractions entirely 
cease4  #ethly1 ,water may be decomposed
 by common electricity1 as well as by   
the ,galvanic pile1 according to the    
ingenious method proposed by ,dr4       
,wollaston4 ,i lately saw1 with the     
greatest pleasure1 experiments on this  
subject performed by himself with the   
utmost neatness and precision4 ,it is   
much to be wished1 that the same result 
could be obtained by animal ,galvanism  
alone2 as it might tend to throw great  

light on some important points in       
physiology4 ,for my part1 ,i entertain  
no doubt that1 after repeated trials1 it
 may one day be effected1 by means of   
large animals possessing a great        
abundance of animal electricity4  ,to   
conclude3 ,i think ,i may venture to    
assert1 that the correspondence between 
the properties of ,galvanism and common 
electricity might be carried to a much  
greater extent1 in confirmation of the  
analogy which ,i proposed to prove in   
this proposition4     ,,proposition     
,,xvii4  ,the hypothesis of an animal   
pile1 analogous to that formed          
artificially1 seems well calculated to  
explain the sensations and contractions 
in the animal machine4   ,it seems to be
 proved by the observations of ,mr4     
,davy1 ,professor in the ,royal         
,institution of ,great ,britain1 and    
those of ,m4 ,gautherot at ,paris1 that 
a pile may be composed without any      
metallic substances whatever4 ,we are   
therefore naturally led to suppose1 that

 one may be composed also of animal     
substances alone4 ,though this has never
 yet been obtained by art1 we behold it 
with admiration constructed by nature in
 various animals4 ,if we examine1       
indeed1 the structure of the regular    
bodies which succeed each other in the  
torpedo1 the electrical eel of ,surinam1
 and in the silurus1 we shall find them 
to be real animal piles1 differently    
arranged3 and if an animal pile1        
exceedingly strong1 be capable of       
communicating a shock1 why should not   
one of a more moderate nature excite    
that activity which is necessary to     
produce muscular convulsions8 ,i have   
already proved1 that the system of the  
nerves and that of the muscles possess  
different ,galvanic powers1 or1 as it   
were1 different kinds of electricity1 to
 which the animal moisture serves as a  
conductor4 ,in this point of view1 the  
discovery of the pile of the celebrated 
,volta1 instead of destroying the       
principle of ,galvanism1 tends rather in

 a powerful manner to support it4 ,the  
object of ,galvani's system is to prove 
the existence of an animal electricity1 
and then to explain how its action      
operates in producing muscular          
sensations and contractions4 ,the first 
part of his system rests upon facts1 the
 truth of which neither time1 nor the   
different experiments made by           
philosophers1 have been able to weaken4 
,the second presents an hypothesis      
which1 perhaps1 may be further          
illustrated when the physiology of the  
human body is better known4 ,galvani1 to
 explain the activity of animal         
electricity1 supposes the nerves and    
muscles to be like the ,leyden jar2 and 
this idea ,i confidently adopted4 ,but  
by the expression #8,leyden flask' he   
meant nothing else than that in the     
animal machine there are two opposite   
kinds of electricity1 resulting from the
 nervous and the muscular systems1 to   
which animal moisture continually serves
 as a vehicle4 ,it was in this sense    

that he announced his theory of the     
,leyden flask1 in his public lectures1  
and in his last works4 ,no better       
comparison was then known1 in the       
language of philosophy1 to express this 
action4 ,it however affords me great    
pleasure1 that ,i can now substitute for
 it the pile discovered by ,volta1 which
 is perfectly consistent with the system
 of ,galvani2 and since ,i am ready to  
allow that the invention of the metallic
 pile gives ,volta a title to the       
discovery of metallic electricity1 ,i   
hope the discovery of animal            
electricity1 properly so called1 will be
 allowed to ,galvani1 as similar        
phnomena are exhibited by the nervous   
and muscular systems1 independently of  
common electricity4  ,but some important
 questions in regard to ,galvanism still
 remain to be answered1 such as the     
following3 whether the action of        
chemical combinations be the cause of   
,galvanism1 or whether ,galvanism be the
 cause of chemical combinations4 ,in my 

opinion1 we have not yet a sufficient   
number of data to determine this point4 
,it may also be asked1 whether          
,galvanism be of the same nature as     
electricity1 but differently modified by
 the animal organization4 ,for my part1 
until their identity be proved by       
further researches1 ,i shall be         
contented with admitting that there is a
 great analogy between them4  ,but      
leaving these questions1 the discussion 
of which might be premature1 it will be 
better to deduce general corollaries    
from the series of experiments already  
detailed4   ,,corollary ,i4  ,it is     
found that there is a real attraction   
between certain parts of animals2 and   
this tends to confirm the idea of a sort
 of atmosphere peculiar to parts of     
animals1 as has been suggested by       
,humboldt4 ,by these means it will      
perhaps be one day possible to explain1 
with less difficulty1 the correspondence
 of some sensations in the animal       
machine4   ,,corollary ,,ii4  ,the      

action of ,galvanism on the ariform     
fluids may serve to explain its         
influence over the animal fluids by the 
oxidation of the humours1 and other     
phnomena which hitherto have been       
explained only in a hypothetical manner4
   ,,corollary ,,iii4  ,fishes1 and     
several amphibious animals which live   
under water1 sometimes approach the     
surface on certain changes of the       
atmosphere4 ,when the before-mentioned  
experiments on the ,galvanic atmosphere 
are considered1 we may easily explain1  
why those changes which take place in   
distant parts of the atmosphere are     
communicated to the element in which    
these animals reside4   ,,corollary     
,,iv4  ,it has been ascertained1 that   
water saturated with salts1 and in      
particular with muriate of soda1        
contributes a great deal to increase the
 effects of ,galvanism4 ,it is well     
known also1 that fishes1 as compared    
with other animals1 possess a very high 
degree of vitality2 and hence we have   

reason to admire the wisdom of nature in
 making the sea1 which is destined for  
the abode of fishes1 to be abundantly   
saturated with muriate of soda4         
,,corollary ,v4  ,as ,galvanism         
possesses great activity in chemical    
decompositions1 it cannot remain in a   
state of inaction2 but must necessarily 
produce great changes in the animal     
fluids and functions4   ,,corollary     
,,vi4  ,this principle1 to which some of
 the grand operations of nature have    
been entrusted1 is not hypothetical2    
since it has been proved1 that as there 
is a metallic arc and a metallic pile in
 the mineral kingdom1 there is also an  
animal arc and an animal circle in the  
animal kingdom2 which may one day throw 
great light on the progress of medicine1
 and be productive of considerable      
benefit to the human race4     ,,part   
,,the ,,second4  ,,on ,,the ,,influence 
,,which ,,galvanism ,,has ,,on ,,the    
,,vital ,,powers4   ,to conduct an      
energetic fluid to the general seat of  

all impressions2 to distribute its      
influence to the different parts of the 
nervous and muscular systems2 to        
continue1 revive1 and1 if ,i may be     
allowed the expression1 to command the  
vital powers2 such are the objects of my
 researches1 and such the advantages    
which ,i purpose to derive from the     
action of ,galvanism4  ,the discovery of
 the ,galvanic pile by the celebrated   
,volta has served as a guide to enable  
me to obtain the most interesting       
results2 and to these ,i have been      
conducted by numerous researches and a  
long series of experiments4 ,i have     
examined the whole range of nature1 and 
the grand family of animals has afforded
 me the means of making observations1   
highly interesting to physiology1 on the
 whole conomy of the vital powers4 ,my  
experiments on this subject ,i shall    
divide into two ,sections4     ,,section
 ,i4  ,galvanism applied to various     
quadrupeds1 birds1 and other            
warm-blooded animals4   ,,experiment ,i4

  ,the head of an ox1 recently killed1  
was subjected to the action of a pile   
7,plate ,,ii4 fig4 #a47 composed of     
fifty plates of copper and zinc1        
separated1 as usual1 by small pieces of 
pasteboard moistened with a solution of 
muriate of soda4 ,having moistened one  
of the ears with the same solution1 by  
means of a syringe1 ,i introduced into  
it one extremity of a metallic wire4 ,i 
then formed an arc with this wire to the
 summit of the pile1 and by means of    
another wire made a communication       
between the bottom of the pile and the  
nostrils4 ,when this apparatus was      
applied1 the eyes were seen to open1 the
 ears to shake1 the tongue to be        
agitated1 and the nostrils to swell1 in 
the same manner as those of the living  
animal1 when irritated and desirous of  
combating another of the same species4  
,i then moistened both the ears with    
salt water1 by the same method as       
before1 and inserted into each an       
extremity of one of the arcs4 ,when the 

,galvanism was communicated1 the        
movements already described were        
reproduced2 but they appeared to be much
 more violent4   ,,experiment ,,ii4  ,a 
pile composed of a hundred pieces of    
silver and zinc 7,plate ,,ii4 fig4 #b47 
being employed1 the tongue issued from  
the mouth four inches1 and re-entered it
 an inch1 on each application of the    
arc2 notwithstanding the resistance     
opposed by the teeth which pressed      
against it3 so that after four or five  
applications of the arc it was entirely 
restored to its usual situation4  ,i    
repeated this curious experiment several
 times at ,bologna and ,turin1 and      
lately at ,london before their ,royal   
,highnesses the ,prince of ,wales1 the  
,duke of ,york1 the ,duke of ,clarence1 
and the ,duke of ,cumberland1 who seemed
 to be much interested in my researches4
 ,i showed them that the tongue returned
 without being touched1 merely by       
forming an arc between distant parts1   
such as the spinal marrow and the       

cervical or nasal muscles4 ,a person who
 held the extremity of the tongue with a
 pair of pincers felt the effort it made
 to return every time that the          
,galvanism was applied4   ,,experiment  
,,iii4  ,with the same apparatus ,i     
suspended from the extremity of the     
conducting arc the posterior half of a  
frog1 by bending the iron wire at right 
angles into a small elbow2 and then1    
instead of making the tongue touch the  
extremity of the arc1 ,i brought it into
 contact with one of the paws of the    
frog1 while the other extremity of the  
wire rested on the summit of the pile4  
,when this arrangement was made1 ,i not 
only obtained the same contractions in  
the head of the ox1 but ,i observed also
 that when the paw of the frog ceased to
 be in contact with the tongue1 it was  
attracted by the latter1 which produced 
in it oscillations1 so that it formed a 
kind of ,galvanometer2 for the thighs of
 the small animal diverged more or less 
according to the intensity of the fluid 

which passed through them1 and were     
restored to their former position when  
the paw of the frog and the tongue of   
the ox were again brought into contact4 
,these oscillations continued about six 
minutes4  ,suspecting1 however1 that the
 crural nerves might have some share in 
these phnomena1 independently of the    
pile1 ,i cut these nerves1 and under    
similar conditions ,i obtained the same 
results4   ,,experiment ,,iv4  ,being   
desirous to repeat the above experiments
 on the heads of other oxen1 and on     
those of sheep and lambs1 varying the   
pile1 both in regard to its nature and  
the number of pieces1 ,i constructed    
three piles of twenty-five1 fifty1 and a
 hundred and twenty pieces of silver and
 zinc4 ,the results1 however1 differed  
from the preceding only in the greater  
or less intensity of the contractions1  
according as one or the other apparatus 
was applied to the same animals4 ,i     
remarked in particular1 that the        
combination most favourable to muscular 

contractions is obtained1 when the arc  
is established from the ears to the     
spinal marrow4 ,in this case the eye is 
so much affected1 that the eye-lids open
 entirely while the eye-ball turns      
round1 and projects somewhat from its   
socket1 as sometimes happens in the most
 violent madness4   ,,experiment ,v4    
,having provided an ox recently killed1 
the head of which was not cut off1 ,i   
formed an arc from one ear to the other1
 interposing the pile4 ,the immediate   
result was a commotion so violent in all
 the extremities of the animal1 that    
several of the spectators were much     
alarmed1 and thought it prudent to      
retire to some distance4 ,i then cut off
 the head1 and formed an arc from the   
spinal marrow1 first to the diaphragm1  
and then to the sphincter ani4 ,in the  
first case1 the diaphragm experienced   
violent contractions2 in the other ,i   
obtained a very strong action on the    
rectum1 which even produced an expulsion
 of the fces4   ,,experiment ,,vi4  ,to 

give more extent to my experiments1 ,i  
thought proper to repeat them on lambs1 
chickens1 and other warm-blooded        
animals2 and without enumerating such   
phnomena as are common1 ,i shall only   
observe1 that the tongue1 which was     
projected beyond the lips1 again        
returned into the cavity of the mouth1  
after several applications of the arc1  
as was the case in the second           
experiment4 ,the movements of the ears  
and eye-lids were stronger than in the  
other parts4 ,comparative anatomy must  
explain why this phnomenon1 so striking 
in animals of this kind1 is not observed
 in man4   ,,experiment ,,vii4  ,the    
observations which ,i had made on the   
,galvanism of the pile excited my       
curiosity so much1 that ,i was induced  
to try some comparative experiments by  
means of common electricity4 ,with this 
view ,i placed an iron wire in each ear 
of a lamb1 and discharged through it    
twice in succession a ,leyden flask1 the
 two coatings of which were in          

communication with the wires applied to 
the ears4 ,by these means ,i obtained   
contractions1 but weaker than those     
produced by the pile2 and ,i always     
observed the same result in other       
warm-blooded animals4   ,,experiment    
,,viii4  ,having repeated the same      
experiments on live chickens1 ,i found1 
to my great surprise1 notwithstanding   
the weakness of their organization1 that
 they sustained with firmness the       
strongest shocks1 communicated several  
times1 with a pile composed of fifty    
plates of silver and zinc4 ,though      
apparently dejected1 and almost on the  
point of expiring1--as soon as ,i       
interrupted the action of the pile1 they
 fluttered their wings1 and seemed to   
congratulate themselves on their escape 
from danger4  ,the curiosity natural to 
a philosopher induced me to subject     
these birds to anatomical dissection1   
that ,i might examine what effects had  
been produced on the animal machine by  
these convulsions4 ,the principal       

phnomena which ,i observed were         
extravasated blood in the muscles2 a    
derangement of the humours in different 
parts2 the intestines removed from their
 usual seat1 and thrown towards the     
pelvis4 ,at some future period1 ,i      
purpose to examine how long these       
animals are capable of living under the 
continued action of ,galvanism1 applied 
to them in different ways4              
,,experiment ,,ix4  ,i applied the      
,galvanic action to a pullet just       
killed1 forming an arc from one of the  
ears to the other4 ,when this           
arrangement was made1 ,i observed       
contractions not only in the feet1 but  
also in the wings and the whole animal  
machine4 ,the same phnomena were        
produced by the same means in two other 
pullets4 ,i then combined the different 
parts of these three pullets in such a  
manner1 that the head of the second was 
joined to the foot of the first1 and the
 head of the third to the head of the   
second4 ,an arc being then formed to the

 two extremities of this chain of animal
 parts1 ,i was much pleased to see the  
three pullets move their wings and their
 feet at the same time4   ,,experiment  
,x4  ,the results of the preceding      
experiments led me to examine the power 
of an arc formed by animal moisture4    
,for this purpose1 having connected the 
heads of two oxen1 7,plate ,,ii4 fig4   
#c47 by bringing near each other the    
sections of the neck1 ,i established an 
arc from the summit of the pile to one  
of the ears of one head1 and another    
from the base of the pile to one of the 
ears of the other4 ,when this           
arrangement was made1 ,i observed that  
both the heads exhibited evident signs  
of muscular contractions4   ,,experiment
 ,,xi4  ,the trunks of two calves being 
united by the sections of the neck1 and 
an arc being established by the         
interposition of the pile from the anus 
of the one to that of the other1 both   
the trunks received1 at the same time1 a
 commotion1 but not very violent4 ,i    

repeated this experiment on the trunks  
of two lambs1 but with a more striking  
result1 as all the extremities and      
muscles experienced violent convulsions4
 ,a glass vessel1 employed for the      
experiments1 which stood on the table1  
was overturned by one of the            
extremities1 and thrown to the distance 
of about two feet4 ,i tried other       
combinations1 but the contractions were 
weaker4   ,,experiment ,,xii4  ,having  
sawn open the skull1 ,i directed the    
action of the pile to different parts of
 the brain1 in the same order as they   
occurred in the course of anatomical    
dissection4 ,all these parts appeared to
 be affected by the ,galvanic force2 but
 its action was stronger on the corpus  
callosum and the cerebellum4 ,the same  
result nearly was obtained1 when ,i     
repeated the experiment on the heads of 
different calves and lambs4             
,,experiment ,,xiii4  ,the heart of an  
ox1 removed from the body1 being exposed
 to the action of ,galvanism1 though the

 pile was very powerful1 exhibited no   
signs of muscular contraction4 ,i       
repeated the same experiment on the     
heart of an ox1 without removing it from
 the body1 and on the hearts of several 
dogs1 one arc being applied to the      
spinal marrow1 while the other touched  
sometimes the surface of the heart1 and 
sometimes penetrated into its substance2
 but with the same result3 no muscular  
convulsions were produced4              
,,experiment ,,xiv4  ,i prepared some   
frogs2 and having waited till the motion
 of the ventricles of the heart had     
become very slow1 and almost            
imperceptible1 ,i communicated to them  
the ,galvanic influence1 and it appeared
 to me that some movements were produced
 in the ventricles4 ,i repeated this    
experiment lately on the heart of a     
rabbit1 and with the same success4      
,having tried the hearts of several     
calves and dogs1 ,i could not observe   
any decided motion in the ventricles2   
but ,i remarked that the ,galvanic power

 exercised a strong action on the       
auricles4   ,,experiment ,,xv4  ,without
 taking into consideration the          
differences in the action of ,galvanism 
on the heart1 according to the different
 applications and the different kinds of
 animals subjected to experiment1 ,i    
observed1 that after this muscle has    
lost its susceptibility to the action of
 ,galvanism1 the other muscles still    
retain it in a very high degree4 ,this  
effect is very striking in regard to the
 heart and the muscles of oxen and dogs2
 and this corresponds with what has been
 stated by the ,commissioners of the    
,french ,national ,institute in their   
,report4 ,speaking of the anomalies     
found in this respect in the heart1 they
 conclude that it is at any rate certain
 that this organ loses1 in a very short 
time1 and much sooner than the other    
muscles1 the faculty of being agitated  
by ,galvanism4   ,,experiment ,,xvi4    
,all the observations ,i was able to    
make on the involuntary muscles will be 

found in the same ,report1 from which   
the following is an extract3 8,dr4      
,grapengiesser says1 that he saw the    
vermicular motion of the intestines     
increased by the action of ,galvanism in
 a living subject1 whose large          
intestines protruded beyond the abdomen1
 in consequence of a scrotal hernia4    
,professor ,aldini made us observe the  
same effect on the intestinal canal of a
 dog4 ,we perceived also very evident   
contractions in a portion of the        
stomach1 separated from the animal4 ,we 
saw the auricles of the heart contract2 
but never found this to be the case with
 the ventricles40   ,,experiment ,,xvii4
  ,as ,i found it difficult1 in the     
course of my travels1 to obtain large   
animals for my experiments1 a desire of 
prosecuting my researches induced me to 
be satisfied with such small animals as 
were easiest to be procured4 ,i         
therefore declared war against the dogs1
 which exhibited the same phnomena as   
oxen1 and with the greatest energy1 as  

may be seen by the following extract    
from the before-mentioned ,report of the
 ,commissioners of the ,french ,national
 ,institute3 8,the head of a dog being  
cut off1 ,aldini subjected it to the    
action of a strong pile1 by which means 
the most frightful convulsions were     
produced4 ,the mouth opened1 the teeth  
gnashed1 the eyes rolled in their       
orbits2 and1 if the imagination had not 
been restrained by reason and           
reflection1 one might have almost       
believed that the animal was restored to
 life1 and in a state of agony40        
,,experiment ,,xviii4  ,the head and    
trunk of a dog1 separated from each     
other1 and placed in such a manner as to
 leave an interval of about a foot      
between them 7,plate ,,ii4 fig4 #d471   
were made to move simultaneously by     
applying the ,galvanic action to one of 
the ears1 and to a small incision made  
in one of the extremities of the trunk4 
,i saw the same effect produced in a    
public sitting held at the ,hpital de la

 ,charit at ,paris4 ,in this case1 the  
distance between the head and trunk was 
a foot and a half4   ,,experiment ,,xix4
  ,in the preceding experiments1 it is  
always necessary that the part of the   
table which forms the interval between  
the head and trunk should be moistened  
with salt water1 or some other          
conducting fluid4 ,considered in this   
point of view1 the head and trunk       
mutually form an arc which conducts the 
,galvanic action2 so that the           
contractions excited at the same time do
 not depend on the particular           
organization of the animals subjected to
 experiment4 ,this ,i confirmed by      
producing simultaneous contractions in  
the trunk of a dog combined with the    
head of a rabbit1 and vice versa4       
,,experiment ,,xx4  ,at the ,school of  
,medicine at ,paris1 in presence of the 
,commissioners of the ,french ,national 
,institute1 and of ,professor ,huzzard1 
,i tried the action of ,galvanism on a  
horse which had been killed by the      

insufflation of air into the jugular    
veins4 ,the trunk exhibited no          
extraordinary motion2 but the head was  
violently agitated4 ,a very sensible    
gnashing of the teeth was produced1 and 
all the muscles performed1 in a         
surprising manner1 the same motion as is
 exerted during the time of mastication4
 ,there was even a visible excretion of 
the saliva4 ,of all the heads hitherto  
tried1 that of the horse exhibited the  
most violent motion by the action of    
,galvanism4   ,,experiment ,,xxi4       
,having performed this series of        
experiments1 it was necessary that a    
comparison should be made1 cteris       
paribus1 between the action of those    
stimulants proposed by the celebrated   
,haller1 and the means here used to     
excite the action of ,galvanism4 ,for   
this purpose ,i employed a head weakened
 to such a degree that it was no longer 
sensible to the action of the ,hallerian
 stimulants applied to the muscles and  
nerves1 and then to different parts of  

the brain laid bare1 and separated one  
from the other4 ,i tried the action of  
the sulphuric and nitric acids1 and the 
effect of the bistouri1 but without ever
 producing the smallest contraction in  
warm-blooded animals3 on the other hand1
 the action of ,galvanism1 on these     
parts1 in the above state1 occasioned   
very powerful muscular contractions4    
,,section ,,ii4  ,experiments made on   
human bodies after death4   ,from the   
experiments already described1 one might
 by analogy conjecture what effect the  
action of ,galvanism would produce on   
that noble being man1 the sole object of
 my researches4 ,but to enable          
philosophers to judge with more         
certainty respecting the effects of this
 wonderful agent1 it was necessary to   
adhere to certain conditions1 and to    
apply it immediately after death4 ,the  
bodies of persons who had died of       
disease were not proper for my purpose2 
because it is to be presumed1 that the  
development of the principle which      

occasions death destroys the elasticity 
of the fibres1 and that the humours are 
changed from their natural to a         
corrupted state4 ,it was therefore      
necessary to obtain the human body while
 it still retained1 after death1 the    
vital powers in the highest degree of   
preservation2 and hence ,i was obliged1 
if ,i may be allowed the expression1 to 
place myself under the scaffold1 near   
the axe of justice1 to receive the yet  
bleeding bodies of unfortunate          
criminals1 the only subjects proper for 
my experiments4 ,in consequence of an   
application made for that purpose1 ,i   
obtained from ,government the bodies of 
two brigands1 who were decapitated at   
,bologna in the month of ,january #ahjb4
 ,as both these individuals had been    
very young1 and of a robust             
constitution1 and as the parts exhibited
 the utmost soundness1 ,i entertained   
strong hopes of obtaining the happiest  
results from my proposed researches4    
,though accustomed to a more tranquil   

kind of operations in my closet1 and    
little acquainted with anatomical       
dissections1 the love of truth1 and a   
desire to throw some light on the system
 of ,galvanism1 overcame all my         
repugnance1 and ,i proceeded to the     
following experiments4   ,,experiment   
,,xxii4  ,the first of these decapitated
 criminals being conveyed to the        
apartment provided for my experiments1  
in the neighbourhood of the place of    
execution1 the head was first subjected 
to the ,galvanic action4 ,for this      
purpose ,i had constructed a pile       
consisting of a hundred pieces of silver
 and zinc4 ,having moistened the inside 
of the ears with salt water1 ,i formed  
an arc with two metallic wires1 which1  
proceeding from the two ears1 were      
applied1 one to the summit and the other
 to the bottom of the pile4 ,when this  
communication was established1 ,i       
observed strong contractions in all the 
muscles of the face1 which were         
contorted in so irregular a manner that 

they exhibited the appearance of the    
most horrid grimaces4 ,the action of the
 eye-lids was exceedingly striking1     
though less sensible in the human head  
than in that of the ox4   ,,experiment  
,,xxiii4  ,having established an arc    
from the top of the left ear1 and then  
from the bottom of that ear to the      
tongue1 drawn about an inch without the 
mouth1 contractions were observed in the
 face1 and the tongue sensibly returned 
into the mouth4 ,i then touched the     
upper or lower lips1 and obtained       
contractions1 which were remarkable     
chiefly in all the muscles of the left  
part of the face2 so that the mouth     
appeared as if distorted by a partial   
kind of palsy4 ,on the first application
 of the arc1 a small quantity of saliva 
was discharged from the mouth4          
,,experiment ,,xxiv4  ,i caused the head
 to be shaved exactly above the parietal
 protuberance on the right side2 and    
having moistened the integuments1 armed 
with silver and zinc1 ,i established a  

communication by means of the pile      
between the parietal bone and one of the
 ears4 ,i obtained contractions1 but    
weaker than those observed when the arcs
 were formed according to the different 
methods already described4              
,,experiment ,,xxv4  ,having formed an  
arc from the ears to different parts of 
the face1 moistened with a solution of  
muriate of soda1 such for example as the
 nose and forehead1 ,i always observed  
violent contractions4 ,but the          
contractions were stronger when1 instead
 of the first-mentioned pile1 ,i        
employed another consisting of fifty    
plates of copper and zinc4 ,i even still
 decreased the number of plates1 in     
order that ,i might try1 in the course  
of these experiments1 the different     
degrees of activity which the pile would
 exhibit4   ,,experiment ,,xxvi4  ,the  
head of the other criminal being brought
 to me after ,i had employed about half 
an hour in these experiments1 ,i        
repeated them on this second head1 and  

found the results to be analogous to    
those before obtained4 ,but the         
contractions produced in the second head
 were stronger in consequence of its    
greater vitality3 the vitality of the   
first seemed to have been nearly        
exhausted4   ,,experiment ,,xxvii4      
,being desirous to examine1 according to
 the principles of ,galvani1 the power  
of an arc of animal moisture in         
warm-blooded animals1 ,i recollected    
that ,i had several times observed      
simultaneous convulsions produced by    
these means in two frogs1 and recently  
in the heads of two oxen1 the arc being 
conveyed from the one to the other in   
different ways4  ,i placed the two heads
 in a straight line on a table1 in such 
a manner that the sections of the neck  
were brought into communication merely  
by the animal fluids4 ,when thus        
arranged1 ,i formed an arc from the pile
 to the right ear of one head1 and to   
the left ear of the other1 and saw with 
astonishment the two heads make horrid  

grimaces2 so that the spectators1 who   
had no suspicion of such a result1 were 
actually frightened4 ,it was however    
observed1 that the convulsions excited  
in the heads disposed in this manner1   
were not so strong as those produced    
when ,i performed the experiment on each
 head separately4 ,it is certain that1  
in this experiment1 the arc of animal   
moisture supplies the place of a        
continuation of the nervous and muscular
 fibres4   ,,experiment ,,xxviii4       
,having tried the effect of ,galvanism  
on the exterior part of the head1 ,i    
proceeded to examine the phnomena       
exhibited by the interior organs when   
treated in the same manner4 ,i therefore
 removed the upper part of the cranium  
by a section parallel to its base1      
uncovered the pia mater1 and established
 an arc from one of the ears to the     
medullary substance4 ,on the application
 of the arc strong convulsions were     
observed in the face4 ,while preparing  
the brain for my experiments1 ,i        

remarked that1 in dividing the muscles  
of the forehead1 at each stroke of the  
dissecting knife1 very strong           
contractions1 which continued after the 
dissection was finished1 were excited in
 the muscles of the face4 ,i was        
informed that this is an uncommon       
phnomenon in anatomical dissections2 and
 therefore ,i shall leave it to         
anatomists to determine whether it was  
occasioned1 either in whole or in part1 
by the preceding action of the pile4    
,,experiment ,,xxix4  ,having then      
separated the lobes of the brain1 ,i    
applied the arc to the corpus callosum1 
to the ears or to the lips1 and found   
that the whole osseous box and the      
muscles of the face were violently      
agitated4 ,some of the spectators even  
imagined that the corpus callosum itself
 was affected by a peculiar convulsion2 
but it is possible that this emotion was
 owing to a mechanical impulse which    
shook the whole head4 ,new experiments  
will1 therefore1 be necessary before any

 thing further can be said in regard to 
this observation4   ,,experiment ,,xxx4 
,having carried the dissection to the   
olfactory nerves1 and even to the       
crossing of the optic nerves1 ,i formed 
an arc from these parts to the lips and 
the eyes1 and obtained contractions1 but
 very weak in comparison of the         
preceding4 ,i observed that on touching 
the optic nerves with one of the arcs no
 sensible convulsions were produced in  
the eye-lids4   ,,experiment ,,xxxi4    
,this mutilated head1 which had been so 
long the subject of observation1 was    
united by the plane of the section to   
that of the other criminal1 which had   
not been subjected to anatomical        
dissection4 ,i then applied two arcs1   
making one of them to communicate with  
the summit of the pile and the right ear
 of one head1 and the other with the    
bottom of the pile and the left ear of  
the second head4 ,both heads experienced
 contractions similar to those described
 in the #bgth experiment2 but in the    

head which had already been employed    
they appeared to be weaker4             
,,experiment ,,xxxii4  ,after these     
experiments on the head1 ,i proceeded to
 the trunk of the second criminal1 which
 ,i conceived to be most proper for my  
purpose4  ,i think it necessary here to 
observe1 that the body had been exposed 
for about an hour1 in an open court1    
where the temperature was two degrees   
below zero4 ,the muscles of the fore-arm
 and the tendinous parts of the         
metacarpus being laid bare1 an arc was  
established from those muscles to the   
spinal marrow4 ,in consequence of this  
arrangement1 the fore-arm was raised1 to
 the great astonishment of those who    
were present4   ,,experiment ,,xxxiii4  
,having established an arc between the  
biceps muscle of each arm1 which ,i had 
laid perfectly bare1 ,i obtained similar
 contractions1 but somewhat weaker than 
in the preceding case4   ,,experiment   
,,xxxiv4  ,having laid bare the tendons 
of the fingers1 on the back of the hand1

 ,i established an arc between that     
region and the spinal marrow1 and       
obtained strong contractions in the     
fingers and in the whole hand4          
,,experiment ,,xxxv4  ,proceeding to the
 lower extremities1 ,i formed an arc    
from the spinal marrow to the vastus    
internus1 vastus externus1 sartorius1   
and other muscles1 and obtained strong  
contractions in all these muscles4      
,having removed the arcs and the pile1  
the muscles retained a small oscillatory
 motion1 which continued for ten        
minutes4 ,i observed the same phnomenon 
in the muscles of the neck1 when ,i     
established an arc between the spinal   
marrow and various other parts of the   
trunk4   ,,experiment ,,xxxvi4  ,having 
applied the arc to the spinal marrow and
 the uncovered muscles of the under part
 of the tarsus of the right foot1 the   
extensor muscles of all the toes1 and   
particularly of the great toe1          
experienced very sensible contractions4 
,i repeated the experiment with the arc 

applied1 not to the spinal marrow1 but  
to the uncovered muscles of the thigh1  
employed in the preceding experiment1   
and found the contractions excited to be
 much stronger4 ,in like manner1 the    
muscles of the soles of the feet1 when  
,i established an arc between them and  
the muscles of the thigh1 manifested    
much stronger contractions than when the
 arc extended to any other distant part4
   ,,experiment ,,xxxvii4  ,having      
examined the force of the contractions1 
when the arcs were applied to the       
surface of the muscles of the           
extremities1 ,i tried what effect would 
be produced by introducing them into    
their substance4 ,in this case1 the     
energy of the contractions was much     
increased4   ,,experiment ,,xxxviii4    
,after trying the action of ,galvanism  
on the extremities1 ,i resolved to      
examine the trunk4 ,with this view1     
having established an arc from the      
spinal marrow to the muscles of the     
diaphragm1 ,i obtained very sensible    

contractions every time the arc was     
applied4   ,,experiment ,,xxxix4  ,i    
then caused the thorax to be opened1    
that ,i might try the effects of        
,galvanism on the most important of all 
the muscles1 the heart4 ,the pericardium
 having been detached1 ,i applied the   
conductor to the principal organ of     
life1 and ,i even caused it to be       
opened1 to examine whether there existed
 in any of its folds some fibre         
susceptible of oscillation2 but my      
researches were fruitless4 ,this        
insensibility ought1 perhaps1 to be     
ascribed to the want of a certain degree
 of heat and of animal moisture1 not to 
be found in a body two hours after      
death4 ,it will1 therefore1 be proper to
 repeat this experiment1 taking care to 
observe all those conditions which may  
be necessary to ensure its success4     
,,experiment ,,xl4  ,in the preceding   
experiment ,i observed that the         
diaphragm contracted1 and that the      
blood1 which after this phnomenon ,i    

supposed to be coagulated1 flowed on the
 contrary from the vena cava inferior1  
and the jugular veins1 the moment the   
arc was applied1 and appeared of a      
bright red colour4 ,is there reason to  
conjecture that1 though great           
contractions cannot be produced1 it is  
possible to excite in the interior parts
 of the heart some oscillations         
analogous to those which ,i observed in 
the muscles of the thigh and neck8 ,this
 question can be determined only by new 
experiments4   ,,experiment ,,xli4  ,i  
observed in these experiments1 that the 
more the points of contact of the arc   
with the biceps muscle were multiplied1 
the more the motion of the arm was      
extended2 especially when care was taken
 to insulate the muscle by removing the 
integuments1 and surrounding it with the
 wire bent in the form of a ring4       
,having applied arcs to the biceps      
muscle of each arm1 ,i was much         
surprised to see the fore-arm and hand  
of the extremity1 where the             

before-mentioned ring was placed1 rise  
quickly to the height of about six      
inches4   ,,experiment ,,xlii4  ,i      
repeated the experiment1 forming the arc
 from the biceps muscle of the fore-arm 
to the spinal marrow4 ,by these means   
contractions so violent were excited1   
that the anterior part of the arm1 the  
whole of which lay extended in a        
horizontal position1 rose seven inches  
above the plane of the table4 ,having   
placed on the palm of the hand a        
metallic body1 such as a piece of money1
 the hand at first supported it for a   
little time2 but at a certain degree of 
elevation it projected it to some       
distance4 ,i then substituted for the   
piece of money a pair of iron pincers1  
about half a pound in weight2 the hand  
rose up and seemed to seize them2 but at
 the highest degree of elevation the    
contraction ceased1 and the pincers     
fell4 ,i observed that the weight with  
which the hand was loaded1 diminished   
the elevating power of the arm very     

little4 ,it may be proper to remark1    
that the last two experiments were      
performed an hour and a quarter after   
the execution1 and those on the lower   
extremities almost two hours4  ,if this 
experiment were speedily repeated1 in   
order to take advantage of the highest  
degree of vitality1 loading the hand    
with different weights in succession1   
till the motion of the hand should be   
totally impeded1 ,i am of opinion that  
an estimate might be formed of the      
elevating force1 according to the       
different degrees of vitality4  ,in the 
preceding experiments ,i have omitted   
certain observations1 which did not     
agree with those made on other          
warm-blooded animals4 ,but my silence   
deranges no theory2 and1 besides1 facts 
not sufficiently confirmed would have   
led me into physiological discussions of
 little utility1 as these points can be 
determined only by new experiments4  ,it
 is painful to a philosopher to reflect1
 that his doubts cannot be cleared up   

until new victims shall fall under the  
sword of justice2 but the hope that his 
researches may lead to some new         
discovery beneficial to mankind1 in a   
physiological point of view1 lessens in 
a certain measure the disagreeable      
sensations excited by these melancholy  
scenes4  ,an assassin decapitated at    
,bologna1 in the month of ,january      
#ahjb1 afforded me an opportunity of    
verifying the truth of my former        
observations4 ,in my first experiments  
on the human body1 the dura and pia     
mater had been so little affected1 that 
several of those present concluded that 
these parts were absolutely insensible  
to the action of the ,galvanic pile2 and
 this opinion was still further         
strengthened by the authority of several
 able anatomists4 ,on the other hand1   
many warm-blooded animals1 as will be   
seen hereafter1 afforded contrary       
results4 ,it is certain that nature1    
which is always consistent with itself  
in the action of that general principle 

which excites the muscular forces1 ought
 to exhibit in the human body the same  
phnomena as those which constantly occur
 in other warm-blooded animals4 ,i      
mentioned this anomaly to several of my 
colleagues1 and particularly to that    
able anatomist ,mondini1 who1 having    
made researches on this subject1        
communicated to me the result of them1  
and directed all the preparations       
necessary for the following experiments1
 modified according to the general views
 collected in the preceding             
observations4   ,,experiment ,,xliii4   
,the body of the criminal having been   
removed from the place of execution to a
 neighbouring apartment1 the trunk was  
placed on one table1 and the head on    
another4 ,on the latter stood a pile1   
composed of a hundred plates of zinc and
 copper1 and on the former1 a pile of a 
hundred plates of silver and zinc4 ,this
 apparatus tended greatly to facilitate 
the rapid performance of the            
experiments1 which were made at the same

 time on all the parts of the body1 and 
enabled us to take advantage of its     
great vitality4 ,i had with me a select 
company of young physicians and         
surgeons1 who1 being much interested in 
the progress of ,galvanism1 assisted me 
with great ardour4 ,they were divided   
into two parties1 each of which was     
stationed around one of the tables1 in  
order that the operations performed at  
the one might not interrupt those at the
 other4 ,to gratify ,professor ,mondini1
 who was desirous of seeing the muscular
 action in the whole head1 an arc was   
established from the spinal marrow to   
one of the ears1 the pile being         
interposed between them1 and strong     
contractions were produced in the whole 
face1 as had been the case in all the   
other animals4   ,,experiment ,,xliv4   
,having sawn through the scull with     
every possible precaution1 and an arc   
being established from the dura mater to
 one of the ears1 the usual contractions
 ensued4 ,the pia mater was then        

uncovered1 and1 by employing the same   
means1 the same results and the same    
effects were produced as had been       
obtained in other animals4              
,,experiment ,,xlv4  ,the cortical      
substance in the left hemisphere was    
uncovered1 and an arc being extended    
from it to the right ear1 the movements 
of the face were exceedingly sensible in
 the part opposite to the uncovered     
hemisphere4 ,i repeated the experiment  
different ways with the same results1   
and found1 as ,i suspected1 that this   
process put an end to the anomaly       
observed in regard to the membranes and 
cortical substance1 which at first      
seemed to withstand the general action  
of the ,galvanic fluid1 though it       
produced an effect on the other parts of
 the brain4 ,dr4 ,mondini took care to  
remove the superfluous moisture1 both   
from the membranes and cortical         
substance1 in order to prevent all      
suspicion that it might facilitate a    
communication1 in any manner1 with the  

medullary substance4   ,,experiment     
,,xlvi4  ,dr4 ,mondini1 with his usual  
ability1 having exposed in the brain the
 medullary substance1 the corpora       
striata1 the corpus callosum1 the       
thalami nervorum opticorum1 and the     
cerebellum1 and an arc being formed of  
all these parts1 we fully confirmed the 
results of the experiments which had    
been before made on the bodies of other 
criminals4   ,,experiment ,,xlvii4      
,having observed these phnomena in the  
head1 we proceeded to the trunk1 which  
gave us results no less interesting4    
,the body was sound and robust1 and     
indicated a constitution replete with   
vital energy4 ,by forming an arc from   
the spinal marrow to the biceps muscle1 
very strong movements were produced     
throughout the whole body1 and          
particularly in the arm1 which could not
 be bent without very great exertion4   
,,experiment ,,xlviii4  ,by again       
applying the arc1 according to the      
method detailed in the #dast experiment1

 the violence of the contractions was   
much increased4 ,the trunk was thrown   
into strong convulsions2 the shoulders  
were elevated in a sensible manner2 and 
the hands were so agitated that they    
beat against the table which supported  
the body4   ,,experiment ,,xlix4  ,a    
silver probe was inserted into the      
spinal marrow1 and one of the hands     
immersed in a solution of muriate of    
soda4 ,i then applied one extremity of  
the arc to the most distant part of the 
probe1 and the other to the surface of  
the water1 by which means the ,galvanism
 was made to exercise its action without
 any immediate contact of the animal    
parts4 ,when this arrangement was       
formed1 the arm1 which hung over the    
edge of the table1 moved towards the    
breast1 passing over the space of about 
a foot and a half4 ,by employing1 at the
 same time1 the two piles composed of a 
hundred plates of copper and zinc1 the  
contractions were much increased4 ,but  
this augmentation of force did not      

exactly follow the ratio of the combined
 activity of the two piles united4      
,,experiment ,l4  ,by forming an arc    
from the feet to the spinal marrow1     
first applying armatures1 and then      
employing a solution of muriate of soda 
as in the preceding experiments1 ,i     
obtained contractions1 but weaker than  
those in the upper extremities4 ,as     
there was reason to suspect that this   
diminution arose in part from the       
position of the trunk1 ,i placed the    
body in such a manner1 that1 while the  
thighs rested on the edge of the table1 
the legs1 which hung over it1 were at   
full liberty to move4 ,this difference  
in position produced a difference in the
 results2 and ,i intend to repeat the   
experiment1 according to this           
arrangement1 applying the arc directly  
to the crural nerves4   ,,experiment    
,,li4  ,a small portion of the great    
pectoral muscle being detached from the 
ribs1 and exposed to the action of the  
pile1 exhibited strong contractions1 and

 the motion of the diaphragm was also   
very remarkable4 ,the heart alone1      
though carefully subjected to all the   
operations detailed in the #dgth        
experiment1 remained perfectly          
motionless4   ,,experiment ,,lii4       
,having brought the separated head near 
to the neck of the trunk1 ,i established
 a communication between it and the     
trunk by means of the animal moisture   
alone2 and an arc being then formed from
 the head to different parts of the     
trunk1 sensible contractions were       
produced1 and particularly in the       
latter4 ,this observation seems still   
further to prove that an arc of moisture
 has power to excite muscular           
contractions4 ,in this1 as well as in   
the preceding experiments1 if any of the
 spectators1 while an arc was           
established by means of the pile1       
brought a frog prepared in the usual    
manner near to the human body1 the frog 
experienced strong contractions1 though 
at a distance from the place to which   

the action of the ,galvanism was        
determined4   ,,experiment ,,liii4      
,after three hours had been employed in 
these experiments1 ,i conceived the idea
 of trying the action of ,galvanism on  
some parts of the body separated from   
the trunk4 ,one of the legs1 therefore1 
was amputated six inches above the joint
 of the knee2 and an arc being          
established from a point in the plane of
 the section to the knee1 ,i obtained   
contractions similar to those which had 
been produced before the limb was       
separated from the body4 ,i then formed 
an arc of moisture1 by applying the     
amputated limb to the trunk2 and having 
determined the action of the pile to the
 spinal marrow and the foot1 ,i obtained
 very sensible contractions4 ,i         
observed1 on this occasion1 that a frog1
 prepared some time before1 and which   
was accidentally lying on the table1 at 
each application of the metallic arcs   
moved like an electrometer1 and thus    
confirmed the action of an arc of       

moisture4   ,,experiment ,,liv4  ,after 
a considerable time had been employed in
 the preceding experiment1 ,i           
endeavoured to revive the action of the 
,galvanism by moistening the muscles    
with a solution of opium4 ,by these     
means the contractions seemed to be     
increased2 and the case was the same in 
other warm-blooded animals4 ,a series of
 similar experiments1 if carefully made1
 would no doubt be attended with        
important results2 as they might enable 
us to ascertain the action of the       
different stimulants proposed by ,dr4   
,brown4 ,but ,i must1 in the mean time1 
observe1 that the before-mentioned      
effects of opium fully correspond with  
those long ago observed by ,galvani4    
,it results1 in general1 from my        
experiments1 that moisture performs a   
conspicuous part in producing           
contractions2 and that it is even of    
more importance than animal heat4 ,i    
indeed find that muscular contractions  
may be obtained after the body has      

thrown out a great deal of its heat1    
even when it has cooled for several     
hours1 and when it has been exposed to a
 temperature below zero2 for1 if        
,galvanism be communicated to a body in 
that state1 muscular contractions will  
be immediately excited2 but they soon   
cease by the privation of animal        
moisture4 ,if a muscle1 indeed1 which   
has been laid bare resists the ,galvanic
 influence1 its action may be speedily  
renewed by making an incision into it1  
or into some of the muscles which       
surround it4 ,i can assert1 that by this
 process partial contractions were      
produced in the human body five hours   
after death1 every time that the arcs   
were applied to the muscular fibres4    
,being worn out with this long series of
 experiments1 ,i found it necessary to  
abandon them2 but1 from the force of the
 contractions1 it could easily be seen  
that they might have been produced much 
longer4  ,having communicated these     
results to the celebrated ,caldani1     

,professor of ,anatomy in the           
,university of ,padua1 he requested that
 ,i would confirm the observations ,i   
had made by again applying ,galvanism to
 the membranes and to the cortical      
substance of the brain4 ,he was         
unwilling to give up the system of      
,haller without very positive proofs2   
and his doubts were to me of great      
utility1 as they induced me to establish
 the action of ,galvanism on these parts
 by the following experiments3          
,,experiment ,,lv4  ,as these doubts    
related to a delicate point1 which would
 have produced some variation in the    
theory of a celebrated physiologist1 ,i 
repeated the experiment on the head of  
an ox newly killed1 in the presence of  
,professor ,mondini1 who made the       
necessary preparations4 ,the dura mater 
was laid bare2 and the action of the    
,galvanism being conducted to it1 strong
 contractions were immediately produced4
 ,the same phnomenon took place when the
 cortical substance was brought into    

contact with one of the arcs4 ,i        
repeated this experiment with the same  
success on the heads of several oxen and
 lambs4   ,,experiment ,,lvi4  ,when ,i 
passed through ,turin1 ,professors      
,vassalli1 ,giulio1 and ,rossi requested
 me to perform1 in their presence1 my   
principal experiments1 and those in     
particular which related to the         
membranes and the cortical substance of 
the brain4 ,they observed1 at the same  
time1 that in uncovering the brain of an
 ox with a cleaver1 some derangement1 in
 consequence of the agitation1 might be 
effected in that organ1 which would     
perhaps produce an alteration in the    
results4 ,professors ,giulio and ,rossi 
proposed therefore to uncover the brain 
by the trepan1 which gave a greater     
degree of precision to the experiment4  
,the dura mater of an ox being uncovered
 in this manner1 it was subjected to the
 action of ,galvanism1 and even with    
this mode of preparation the muscular   
contractions every time the arc was     

applied were pretty strong4 ,the arc    
being determined to the cortical        
substance1 the force of the contractions
 seemed to be increased2 and in general 
they appeared to be more considerable in
 proportion as the arc was plunged to a 
greater depth into the substance of the 
brain4  ,these gentlemen1 in whose      
presence ,i performed my principal      
experiments1 having pursued my method   
after my departure1 made some           
observations which may be of great use  
to physiology4 ,they had before         
entertained strong doubts whether the   
heart was susceptible of the ,galvanic  
action1 by means of simple armatures    
applied to the different parts of that  
muscle2 and such irregularity had been  
observed in the results1 that it        
appeared difficult to determine the     
question4 ,i was therefore exceedingly  
happy that ,i had had an opportunity of 
exciting in others a desire to make new 
researches in regard to this point1 of  
so much importance4 ,professors         

,vassalli1 ,giulio and ,rossi repeated  
and modified my experiments on the heart
 in such a manner1 that they obtained in
 man1 and warm-blooded animals1         
contractions similar to those which ,i  
had observed only in cold-blooded       
animals4 ,i wait for a detailed account 
of these experiments1 as well as of     
others made on decapitated criminals#b1 
which were subjected to my processes4   
,the bodies were removed to the large   
hospital2 and notwithstanding the long  
period which had elapsed between the    
time of the execution and that when the 
experiments were performed1 they        
observed almost the same phnomena4  ,the
 observation made on this criminal1 that
 the vital powers exist so long in the  
body after death1 induces me to hope    
that ,i shall be able to obtain similar 
results by the application of my method1
 in common cases of suspended animation4
 ,but when employed for this laudable   
purpose it should be modified in such a 
manner as to render unnecessary those   

operations which are so painful to      
humanity4 ,on this account1 ,i have     
invented a method by which muscular     
contractions may be produced without the
 least incision or separation of the    
muscles4 ,it is so combined1 that it    
cannot be rejected by the most rigorous 
medical jurisprudence4        #b ,some  
account of the latter1 from the ,journal
 de      ,physique1 will be found in the
 ,appendix4--,,trans4   ,,experiment    
,,lvii4  ,in order to try the vital     
force existing in the human body after  
death1 ,i immerse the hand in a solution
 of muriate of soda1 and establish an   
arc1 one of the extremities of which is 
made to pass round the fore-arm1 while  
the other is brought into contact with  
the bottom of the pile4 ,i adapt to the 
extremity of another arc an elastic     
probe1 which is applied to one of the   
ears1 moistened by means of a syringe   
with the same solution1 and connect the 
other extremity of the arc with the     
summit of the pile4 ,by this arrangement

 various contractions1 according to the 
different degrees of vitality in the    
bodies1 are observed1 sometimes in the  
fingers1 sometimes in the hand1 and     
sometimes in the whole arm4 ,the fingers
 bend1 and move in a sensible manner2   
and sometimes the whole of the fore-arm 
proceeds towards the breast4 ,the       
importance of this method for           
determining the duration of the vital   
powers after death may be readily       
comprehended4 ,should means be found    
hereafter to make further discoveries in
 regard to this interesting point1      
physiologists may then be able to       
determine with certainty those cases    
when interment ought to be retarded2 and
 those where the good of society        
requires that every possible means of   
resuscitation should be employed4 ,in   
the large hospital of ,bologna1 ,i made 
several observations on this subject2   
and remarked in particular1 how much the
 nature of the disease contributes1     
cteris paribus1 to produce a difference 

in the duration of the muscular         
contractions4 ,i tried the case of death
 produced by putrid fevers1 by          
pleurisies1 by wounds in the            
pericardium1 by the scurvy1 and by the  
consequences of parturition2 and ,i     
found a great difference in the degrees 
of vitality1 according to the           
circumstances of the disease1 the age   
and temperament of the individual2 which
 confirms me in the opinion ,i          
entertain1 that these experiments1 if   
long continued without intermission by  
able physiologists1 might be of the     
greatest benefit to medicine4  ,these   
researches are not an object of mere    
curiosity2 they seem to open an         
extensive field for promoting the       
welfare of the human race1 and may be of
 service in cases of apparent death1    
occasioned by an alteration of the      
brain1 and sometimes in cases of        
asphyxia4 ,various learned academies are
 entitled to great praise for having    
turned their attention to this subject1 

and for having already recommended      
different stimulants as proper for being
 used on such occasions4 ,but ,i must   
take the liberty of requesting that in  
similar cases the action of ,galvanism  
maybe tried1 by employing the new method
 here proposed4 ,it is of great         
importance that the means of affording  
relief to the sufferings of mankind     
should be multiplied1 and especially in 
cases in which the old system of        
medicine presents to us so few          
resources4 ,in the mean time ,i conceive
 it may be useful to make some trials on
 animals thrown into a state of asphyxia
 different ways4 ,these researches may  
lead to valuable discoveries1 and       
produce some light to direct us in our  
attempts to save the lives of men4 ,if  
the encouragement ,i have received from 
the medical and philosophical world1 in 
general1 induce others to pursue the    
same path1 it will give me great        
satisfaction4 ,galvanism is yet in its  
infancy2 and when we reflect on the slow

 progress which many other branches of  
science have made1 and how long they    
remained almost stationary before the   
full importance of them was known1 it   
would be presumption to set bounds to   
that which is the subject of the present
 work4 ,for my part1 ,i spared no pains 
during my short stay at ,paris to       
exhibit my method1 and to make it       
publicly known4 ,dr4 ,pinel assisted at 
my experiments with the utmost zeal1 and
 was witness to muscular contractions   
excited in the body of an old woman1 who
 had died of a malignant putrid fever4  
,the interest which he took in my       
researches induced me to communicate to 
him several plans ,i had formed for     
giving relief to some of those          
unfortunate beings committed to his     
skill and beneficent care in the ,hpital
 des ,foux4 ,i pointed out to him some  
particular cases where the individuals1 
in consequence of a deep rooted         
melancholy1 were reduced almost to a    
state of idiotism1 and in which         

,galvanism seemed likely to be attended 
with the greatest benefit4 ,in the last 
public sitting of the ,institute of     
,bologna1 at which ,i was present1 ,i   
announced the complete cure of two      
lunatics performed in the ,public       
,hospital1 in the presence of many of   
the medical pupils1 and with the        
assistance of the professors who        
superintend that establishment1 and who 
are now employed in confirming my method
 on other patients4 ,i am well aware    
that two cures are not sufficient to    
make operations of this kind be admitted
 as general remedies2 but they ought to 
encourage physicians to prosecute this  
subject in order to ascertain how far   
,galvanism can be considered as of      
utility in such cases1 and to endeavour 
by their labours to fill up the vacuity 
which still exists in this part of      
medicine4 ,i am ready to acknowledge    
that great caution ought to be employed 
in performing such experiments2 and for 
this reason ,i purpose1 in the third    

part of the present work1 to lay before 
the reader the reflections and          
observations of various ingenious men   
who have made this department of        
,galvanism an object of their           
researches4  ,but before ,i proceed     
further1 ,i think it necessary to deduce
 from what has been already said a few  
general corollaries4   ,,corollary ,i4  
,the muscles are affected by the action 
of the pile in a much more powerful     
manner when they are laid entirely bare1
 and when the arc is made to penetrate  
to a considerable depth in their        
substance4   ,,corollary ,,ii4  ,these  
convulsions are increased in proportion 
to the number of the points of contact  
between the arc and the muscle4         
,,corollary ,,iii4  ,in many cases1     
muscular contractions are obtained by   
forming an arc from one muscle to       
another4   ,,corollary ,,iv4  ,muscular 
contractions are almost always speedily 
obtained by the pile1 even when the     
means proposed by ,haller fail to       

produce them4   ,,corollary ,v4  ,the   
heart1 which1 according to ,haller's    
principle1 is the first muscle that     
receives life and the last to lose it1  
in comparison of the other muscles1 can 
with difficulty be made to feel the     
influence of the ,galvanic action2 while
 the other muscles always retain1 a long
 time after death1 that vital force     
which it has never been found possible  
to excite but by the impulse of         
,galvanism4   ,,corollary ,,vi4  ,the   
partisans of ,haller1 to excite these   
contractions1 often employ stimulants1  
which alter the texture of the muscular 
fibre1 and destroy its continuity2 an   
inconvenience which may be avoided by   
applying ,galvanism4   ,,corollary      
,,vii4  ,as the kinds of apparatus      
before mentioned are not applied to the 
spinal marrow alone1 but to the         
different nerves of the animal machine1 
they may afford to the anatomist an     
experimental myology2 by means of which 
he can render sensible to the eye the   

fixed and moveable points of the        
muscles1 and the real extent of their   
action4   ,,corollary ,,viii4  ,the     
experiments made on the bodies of       
persons who died a natural death1 are of
 the greatest importance to physiology4 
,i am strongly inclined to think that1  
by pursuing these researches more in    
detail1 they will one day make us better
 acquainted with the character of the   
vital powers1 and the difference of     
their duration1 according to diversity  
of sex1 age1 temperament and disease1   
and even according to diversity of      
climate and to the nature of the        
atmosphere4     ,,part ,,the ,,third4   
,,on ,,the ,,power ,,of ,,galvanism ,,as
 ,,applied ,,to ,,medicine4   ,if the   
doctrine of ,galvanism have thrown      
considerable light on various parts of  
philosophy and chemistry1 it gives us   
reason to hope that it may also be of   
benefit to medicine4 ,the labours indeed
 of ,galvani1 whose most ardent desire  
was that his discovery might be rendered

 useful to mankind1 were at length      
directed to this object1 and his wishes 
now begin to be realized2 but ,i must   
request the reader not to be too        
sanguine in his expectations1 or to     
imagine that ,i here mean to entertain  
him with a long series of wonderful or  
extraordinary cures performed by means  
of ,galvanism4 ,i have no intention to  
decorate the discovery of my late uncle 
with false glory4 ,though ,i possess    
neither the same depth of knowledge1 nor
 the same superiority of talents1 ,i    
have always endeavoured to imitate his  
moderation and prudence in the          
application of his theory4 ,i am fully  
convinced that much still remains to be 
done1 in order to discover the best     
methods of employing this new agent2 and
 that the facts respecting it1 though   
numerous1 have not been reduced to      
principles sufficiently certain and     
satisfactory4 ,there are1 nevertheless1 
some results and observations           
exceedingly curious1 which1 if confirmed

 by new experiments and researches1 may 
enable us to obtain convincing proofs of
 its utility4 ,new facts1 however       
surprising1 are not to be despised      
merely on account of their being        
different from any before observed4     
,those who reject them1 as some have    
done1 ought first to show that they are 
inconsistent with the principles of     
sound philosophy4 ,guided by these      
reflections1 and desirous of            
contributing1 as far as possible1       
towards the illustration of a new and   
very obscure subject1 ,i shall lay      
before the reader the result of my      
researches in the following articles4   
,,section ,i4  ,advantages which the    
medical administration of ,galvanism has
 over that of common electricity4       
,several reasons have induced me to     
prefer the medical administration of    
,galvanism by means of the pile1 to that
 of artificial electricity4 ,in regard  
to the action of the common electric    
machine1 the difficulty of calling it   

forth properly during damp weather2 the 
time required for exciting it2 the      
necessity of charging the jar every time
 it is applied to the patient1 are so   
many obstacles which render the         
administration of common electricity    
inconvenient2 and on this account it is 
now much less used than formerly4 ,on   
the other hand the pile1 according to   
the observations which ,i have had an   
opportunity of making1 acts in a uniform
 manner2 is not sensible to the effects 
of moisture2 and forms a sort of ,leyden
 flask1 which has a continued action    
that may be a long time employed4 ,it   
may be considered as an apparatus1 which
 in itself contains a series of jars    
charged in succession with different    
degrees of electricity4  ,i might here  
enumerate many differences which are    
found between the administration of     
,galvanism and that of electricity4 ,if 
electricity be administered to a patient
 directly from the conductor1 he        
receives very little of its action2 if a

 shock be given with the ,leyden flask1 
the action is exceedingly strong1 but   
not permanent4 ,on the other hand1 the  
pile has a strong and continued action1 
and occasions a powerful circulation of 
the ,galvanic matter1 which after some  
time produces very striking effects on  
the animal fluids4 ,i might here refer1 
by way of example1 to the experiments   
made with ,galvanism on the blood1 the  
bile1 and the urine1 which gave results 
,i was never able to obtain by common   
electricity4 ,i shall mention1 in the   
last place1 the great convenience of the
 pile1 and the short space of time in   
which ,galvanism may be administered by 
it to a great number of persons2 and    
this advantage is sufficient1 cteris    
paribus1 to render it preferable in this
 respect to common electricity4         
,,section ,,ii4  ,application of        
,galvanism to the organs of hearing and 
of sight4   ,by applying ,galvanism to  
different parts of the face1 a flash of 
light is excited in the eyes1 which is  

stronger or weaker according to the     
nature of the parts to which it is      
directed4 ,these organs1 though         
delicate1 are always affected in such a 
manner that the mechanism of the eye    
sustains no injury from the metallic    
arcs when they are made to communicate  
with only two plates of different       
metals4 ,i received an account of this  
phnomenon at ,milan1 several years ago1 
from the celebrated ,volta1 who produced
 it by applying a conductor of zinc in  
such a manner1 that one end of it       
touched the bulb of the eye1 and the    
other the tip of the tongue armed with a
 plate of tin4 ,in administering        
,galvanism for diseases of the eyes1 it 
is much better to employ the pile4 ,to  
excite the appearance of a flash of     
light1 it is not necessary that the eyes
 should be open2 it takes place even if 
they are shut1 and covered with a       
bandage in a darkened apartment4 ,some  
of the partisans of ,euler1 perhaps1 may
 here maintain1 that this phnomenon of  

,galvanism is a deception1 and that no  
light can be really excited in such     
cases1 as the production of light       
depends on the emanation of rays from a 
luminous body which penetrate into the  
interior part of the eye4 ,but without  
entering into the examination of this   
question1 which is foreign to my        
principal object1 ,i shall only observe1
 that long before the theory of         
,galvanism was known1 the celebrated    
,darwin had found that when the eyes are
 shut1 there are certain internal       
stimulants which are capable of         
producing the appearance of light and of
 colours4  ,in no case is the difference
 between ,galvanism and electricity more
 apparent than in the application of the
 former to the sight4 ,very little      
benefit had been obtained by means of a 
metallic point inclosed in a glass tube1
 which directed the electric charge from
 a jar to the cornea2 and besides1 the  
shock of a ,leyden jar applied directly 
to so delicate an organ as the eye could

 not but be attended with danger4       
,galvanism applied to the exterior part 
of the eye1 in the same place where a   
stream of electricity would have had no 
influence whatever1 has always produced 
a certain effect on the organ of sight1 
as is proved by the following           
experiments4   ,,experiment ,i4  ,if you
 touch with one hand the bottom of the  
pile1 and at the same time apply to the 
summit different parts of the face      
moistened with salt water1 a flash of   
light will be excited in the eyes4 ,the 
same result will be obtained1 if instead
 of touching the bottom of the pile with
 the hand you touch it with the sole of 
your foot4 ,no flash of light is        
observed when the ,leyden flask is      
employed in the same manner4            
,,experiment ,,ii4  ,having observed the
 preceding phnomenon in myself1 and     
excited it in others1 ,i was desirous of
 proving it in regard to several persons
 at the same time during the course of  
my public lectures1 and for that purpose

 ,i made use of the following apparatus4
 ,i arranged two metallic plates in a   
horizontal position1 at the distance of 
nine inches from each other1 so that six
 persons with their hands dipped in salt
 water could touch the lower plate1 and 
the upper one with the tips of their    
tongue4 ,a charged ,leyden flask placed 
between the two plates being then       
discharged1 the whole of the persons    
experienced a violent shock1 but        
perceived no flash of light4 ,it is well
 known however that1 when a similar arc 
is formed with the interposition of a   
very strong pile1 a flash of light is   
constantly observed2 though the force in
 the second case is much less than that 
excited by the explosion of the ,leyden 
flask4 ,the same result will be obtained
 by bringing the upper plate into       
contact with the nose4   ,,experiment   
,,iii4  ,as my pupils took much interest
 in this research1 some of them         
suspected that the light of the         
apartment might perhaps have effaced    

that excited by the electricity4 ,i     
therefore made the apartment entirely   
dark2 and one of them taking a ,leyden  
flask applied it to the point of the    
nose of another person with whom he was 
in communication1 by laying hold of him 
with the other hand4 ,by these means a  
very strong shock was given1 but no     
flash of light was observed4 ,this      
experiment was repeated1 making the     
person who received the shock of the    
,leyden flask to remain some time before
 in the dark1 that his eyes might be    
better enabled to perceive any faint    
light that might be excited3 but the    
result was still the same4 ,to those who
 refer ,galvanism to the common laws of 
electricity1 it will be difficult to    
comprehend the cause of the different   
action exercised by the latter on the   
organ of sight4 ,but as it is not my    
intention at present to enter into any  
discussion on this subject1 ,i shall    
leave it to philosophers to assign a    
reason for this phnomenon1 and only     

observe1 that the properties above      
indicated will be sufficient to         
authorize medical practitioners to      
prefer1 in certain cases1 the           
administration of ,galvanism by the pile
 to that of common electricity4  ,before
 ,i proceed directly to the medical     
administration of ,galvanism to the     
organ of sight1 ,i think it necessary to
 distinguish four classes of blind      
persons whose cases ought to be         
considered separately4  ,the first      
belongs to those who from their birth   
have been deprived of the valuable      
blessing of sight4  ,the second         
comprehends those become blind in       
consequence of some great lsion1 or some
 derangement in the solids or in the    
fluids which constitute the mechanism of
 the eye4  ,the third1 those who have   
become blind by some morbid action1     
though the mechanism of the eye has been
 little affected1 and though no         
impediment has occurred but in regard to
 the action of the optic nerve4  ,the   

fourth class comprehends those who1     
though not actually deprived of sight1  
have it much weakened in consequence of 
disease1 or of some other cause4  ,the  
administration of ,galvanism does not   
hold forth much hope of a cure to       
persons belonging to the first two      
classes4 ,i however resolved to attempt 
some experiments on this subject at     
,bologna2 but though there were a great 
many blind in that city1 ,i found that  
they had become so by the malignant     
influence of the small pox4 ,this       
observation will1 ,i hope1 be of service
 to the pursuits of the celebrated ,dr4 
,jenner1 and of all those who exert     
themselves to promote the beneficial    
practice of vaccine inoculation4  ,being
 deprived1 at ,bologna1 of any          
opportunity of trying the effects of    
,galvanism in cases of persons born     
blind1 ,i galvanised several who had    
lost their sight at a very early age4 ,i
 first applied the ,galvanism to the    
arms of five blind persons1 some of whom

 had lost their sight thirty1 and others
 forty years and even more4 ,by this    
method they were familiarised with the  
idea of its mechanical action1 and      
learned to distinguish it from every    
other sensation4 ,i then applied        
,galvanism to the lips1 and to the tip  
of the nose1 in a darkened apartment2   
but in three instances only the patients
 had a real perception of light1 to     
which they had been so long strangers4  
,i then applied it to cases of          
amaurosis1 and at first had confident   
expectation of effecting a perfect cure4
 ,one of my patients was a woman1 whom  
this disorder had deprived of the sight 
of one eye1 while that of the other was 
much weakened4 ,after administering the 
,galvanism different ways1 ,i observed  
that the eye totally blind began to have
 a perception of light1 and that the    
sight of the one which was weakened     
became much stronger4 ,i then took a    
book1 which ,i held at a considerable   
distance from her2 and removing it      

gradually further as the ,galvanism was 
administered1 ,i observed1 in           
consequence of this method1 that the    
patient's sight daily improved4 ,but ,i 
must freely confess that the success    
obtained1 though at first flattering1   
was not of long duration2 and that when 
the ,galvanism was discontinued a great 
deal of the benefit which had been      
obtained was again lost4 ,on this       
account1 ,i was discouraged from        
administering ,galvanism any more in    
such cases4 ,i am however of opinion1   
that by varying the method of           
administration it may be attended with  
some utility4 ,i shall here observe1    
that having once had occasion to        
administer common electricity in a      
similar case of amaurosis1 ,i was never 
able to excite the perception of a flash
 in the eyes of the patient1 though the 
electricity was applied directly to the 
eye itself4  ,i have had few            
opportunities of applying ,galvanism in 
diseases of the organs of hearing4      

,besides1 ,i thought it almost needless 
to try a method which had been already  
brought to a state of perfection by some
 of the most celebrated professors of   
,germany and ,berlin4 ,i admired in     
particular a very ingenious machine1    
invented for that purpose by a ,german  
philosopher1 and lately constructed in  
,england by ,mr4 ,john ,cuthbertson1 an 
eminent philosophical and mathematical  
instrument maker1 and celebrated for    
having constructed the large electrical 
machine of ,harlem4 ,the apparatus      
consists of a metal lever1 which by     
means of certain wheels and machinery   
rises and falls every minute or second1 
and at each time of falling forms a     
communication between certain parts of  
the patient and the pile4 ,in           
consequence of this arrangement1 the    
interrupted action of the ,galvanism is 
renewed every time that the             
communication between the patient and   
the pile is re-established4 ,before my  
departure from ,london1 ,i made several 

changes and improvements in the usual   
construction of this apparatus1 in order
 to give it as much simplicity as       
possible4 ,the following is the manner  
in which ,i caused it to be constructed 
lately for my own use4 ,one extremity of
 the lever which forms the communication
 7,plate ,,iii4 fig4 #a471 is fixed to  
the base or negative end of the pile1   
and the other terminates in a small     
hammer1 so placed as to strike a bell1  
which by means of a bason of water is in
 communication with certain parts of the
 patient1 while an arc extends from the 
patient to the summit or positive end of
 the pile4 ,in consequence of this      
arrangement1 every time that the small  
hammer strikes the bell the ,galvanic   
action of the pile is repeated4 ,in     
cases of deafness1 ,i cause the patient 
to hold in one hand an insulated        
metallic arc1 one end of which is       
brought into contact with the affected  
ear1 and the other with the positive end
 of the pile2 and to immerse the other  

hand in a bason of salt water placed    
above the bell4 ,when this disposition  
has been made1 the wheel-work is turned 
round1 which gives motion to the lever2 
and every time that the hammer strikes  
the bell1 a communication is formed     
between the positive and negative ends  
of the pile3 consequently there will    
then be a circulation of the fluid1 and 
the ,galvanism will exercise a direct   
action on the organ of hearing4 ,the    
apparatus1 constructed in this manner1  
appears to me to be reduced to great    
simplicity3 and therefore ,i propose to 
extend the use of it1 by employing it to
 administer medical ,galvanism to other 
diseased parts of the body4  ,before ,i 
conclude this article1 ,i must suggest a
 hint respecting the application of     
,galvanism to diseases of the teeth1    
founded on information communicated to  
me on this subject by ,mr4 ,fowler1 an  
eminent dentist of ,london4 ,when the   
caries is concealed from the sight1 ,mr4
 ,fowler employs the following method to

 discover the affected tooth4 ,he first 
insulates the patient2 and having put   
into his hand the electric chain1 he    
applies a small piece of wire to the    
dens sapienti1 drawing it gradually over
 its surface3 he then applies it to the 
next tooth1 repeating the operation1 and
 proceeds in like manner with the rest  
till he comes to the diseased tooth1    
which discovers itself by a violent pain
 producing an involuntary commotion in  
the body4 ,it is always remarked1 that  
when this tooth is extracted it exhibits
 a carious part not before visible4     
,this method1 therefore1 is of great    
importance1 as it frequently happens in 
such cases that the dentist1 not being  
able to distinguish the diseased tooth  
from the rest1 is obliged to draw some  
that are sound before he can discover   
it4     ,,section ,,iii4  ,application  
of ,galvanism in cases of asphyxia and  
drowning4   ,i mentioned in the second  
part of this work the great influence   
which ,galvanism has in cases of        

asphyxia1 and the preference which ought
 to be given to it in comparison of     
other stimulants4 ,though the           
observations offered in that part are   
sufficient to prove my proposition1 ,i  
shall add to them the following         
experiments3   ,,experiment ,i4  ,some  
dogs and cats were immersed in a large  
pond till they gave no external signs of
 respiration1 or of muscular motion2 and
 ,galvanism being immediately           
administered to them1 according to the  
methods already described1 they were    
sometimes restored to life4 ,i make use 
of the term #8sometimes1' because1 if   
animals are immersed in water for a     
longer period than their organization   
can bear1 and if the vital powers are   
really destroyed1 it is evident that it 
will be impossible to restore them to   
life by any physical process whatever4  
,i obtained the same results from to    
animals thrown into a state of asphyxia 
in different ways4   ,,experiment ,,ii4 
,having applied ,galvanism to the trunk 

of a dog1 in the ,hpital de la ,charit  
at ,paris1 air seemed to escape from the
 tracheal artery on every application of
 the arc4 ,being requested to repeat and
 confirm this interesting experiment1 ,i
 found myself under the necessity of    
sacrificing a new victim to my ,galvanic
 researches4 ,as it was necessary to    
examine the phnomenon while the body was
 in that state of vitality most proper  
for the observation1 ,i exposed the     
trunk of another dog recently killed to 
the ,galvanic action2 and having placed 
a taper near to the tracheal artery1 it 
was extinguished twice in succession by 
two applications of ,galvanism4 ,by     
repeating this experiment1 in ,mr4      
,wilson's anatomical theatre1 ,great    
,windmill-street1 and in the theatres of
 ,guy's and ,st4 ,thomas's ,hospital1   
,london1 ,i found that the taper could  
be extinguished a greater number of     
times4  ,these experiments give me      
sufficient reason to hope that          
,galvanism may be administered with some

 advantage in cases of drowning4 ,but as
 ,i never had an opportunity of trying  
the effects of this stimulant in such   
cases1 ,i have requested several medical
 practitioners to pay attention to this 
application of ,galvanism1 which may be 
of the utmost importance to the cause of
 humanity4 ,i have already mentioned    
that the method which ,i propose is     
exceedingly simple2 that no anatomical  
operation whatever is required2 that it 
is attended with no danger2 and that the
 possibility of saving the life is in   
every case respected4 ,nothing is       
necessary but to immerse in salt water  
one of the hands of the person subjected
 to the operation1 and then to apply the
 ,galvanic current to one of the ears   
and to the surface of the salt water4   
,dr4 ,lettsom1 a very zealous member of 
the ,humane ,society1 having been       
present at some of my experiments1 ,i   
requested that he would recommend the   
application of ,galvanism in cases of   
drowning4 ,he assured me that he would  

use his endeavours to cause my method to
 be tried1 and ,i had several           
conferences with him on the subject1    
that ,i might communicate to him such   
information as might tend to facilitate 
the application of it4 ,as the          
,galvanism in such cases ought to be    
administered with great promptitude1 we 
agreed that the apparatus of the trough 
is preferable to that of the pile2 and  
we contrived the plan of a portable box 
to contain a trough1 two arcs1 and a    
solution of common salt4 ,such an       
apparatus will be exceedingly           
convenient1 and may easily be employed  
in all cases of drowning and of         
asphyxia4     ,,section ,,iv4           
,galvanism applied to the cure of       
melancholy madness4   ,hospitals for    
lunatics present a spectacle which must 
excite compassion in every breast not   
void of humanity1 as they are in general
 crowded with unfortunate beings1       
useless to themselves and dangerous to  
others2 while little hope is left of    

their being ever restored to society4   
,this is the case in particular with    
persons subject to melancholy madness2  
on some of whom ,i tried last year the  
effects of ,galvanism4 ,in consequence  
of a long series of painful and         
disagreeable experiments made on myself1
 ,i was induced to entertain great hopes
 from this remedy4 ,i applied it to my  
ears and to different parts of the head1
 in order that ,i might form a just     
estimation of its power and influence on
 the brain4 ,it is well known that the  
strength and energy of the operations of
 the mind depend on the state of the    
functions of the brain4 ,it is well     
known also1 that a violent fall1 or     
strong impression on the head1 has often
 occasioned great variations in the     
intellectual faculties4 ,by such        
accidents some have entirely lost the   
power of imagination2 while1 on the     
other hand1 some have acquired very     
great talents1 or emerged from a state  
of complete stupidity4 ,these           

considerations gave me reason to hope   
that the power of ,galvanism might      
perhaps be able to produce a salutary   
change in the brain in cases of         
melancholy madness4 ,i communicated my  
thoughts on this subject to the         
physicians who superintend the hospital 
for lunatics at ,bologna4 ,they approved
 of my ideas1 and gave me every         
assistance in their power to enable me  
to prosecute my researches4 ,in their   
presence1 and under their direction1 ,i 
administered ,galvanism to several      
lunatics1 applying it different ways2   
and the result was the complete cure of 
two who had laboured under melancholy   
madness4 ,as the method ,i followed in  
both cases was nearly the same1 ,i shall
 here give a description of it1 as it   
may serve as a general rule for the     
administration of this remedy under     
similar circumstances4  ,louis          
,lanzarini1 of a phlegmatic temperament1
 twenty-seven years of age1 and a farmer
 by profession1 fell into a state of    

deep melancholy1 which first announced  
itself by an attack of fever2 in        
consequence of which he was conveyed to 
the public hospital of ,st4 ,ursula on  
the #agth of ,may #ahja4 ,when he       
arrived there1 he began to complain of  
the treatment he had received1 and to   
show great uneasiness2 by which means   
his melancholy increased so much1 that  
it at length degenerated into real      
stupidity4 ,while in this state1        
,professors ,gentilli and ,palazzi were 
so kind as to allow me to administer    
,galvanism to him2 which ,i did in the  
presence of these physicians1 and of    
several medical students who attended   
the hospital4  ,i had provided for this 
purpose a pile composed of eighty pieces
 of silver and zinc1 and ,i at first    
administered the ,galvanism gradually1  
forming the arc by means of the hands4  
,lanzarini1 in a state of the utmost    
dejection1 viewed the apparatus and the 
company present with his eyes fixed and 
motionless4 ,when interrogated by the   

physicians and myself in regard to the  
origin of his malady1 he gave laconic   
and confused answers1 which seemed to   
indicate a great degree of stupidity and
 derangement4 ,i first moistened his    
hands1 and formed an arc with the pile  
at different heights1 to accustom him to
 endure the action of the apparatus4 ,no
 change1 however1 was produced in the   
patient by this operation4 ,i then      
repeated the experiment1 placing his    
hands1 moistened with salt water1 at the
 bottom of the pile2 and conveying an   
arc from the summit of the pile to      
different parts of his face1 moistened  
with the same solution4 ,a change was   
soon observed in the patient's          
countenance1 and his whole demeanour    
seemed to indicate that the degree of   
his melancholy was somewhat lessened4   
,the experiment was repeated several    
times with the same success2 which seems
 to prove that ,galvanism absolutely    
exercises an action in such diseases4   
,the patient being interrogated next    

day1 asserted that he had felt no       
inconvenience from the application of   
the ,galvanism2 and this account was    
confirmed by the keepers1 who had been  
desired to give a report of the least   
change that might take place4 ,similar  
results were obtained by gradually      
administering the action of the pile    
with greater force for several days     
successively1 and we soon began to      
observe that it produced a very striking
 effect4 ,the patient1 on touching the  
apparatus1 seemed to acquire new        
spirits2 a smile appeared on his        
countenance1 and a complete change took 
place in his eyes as well as in every   
feature of his face4 ,instead of showing
 any aversion to the pile1 he readily   
obeyed whenever he was called to undergo
 the operation2 and his whole conduct   
indicated that he found relief from the 
influence of the unknown agent which it 
excited4 ,he began to converse with more
 readiness1 sometimes respecting the    
machine1 and sometimes on the flash of  

light which appeared in his eyes when   
the arc was applied2 and on that account
 we conceived the most flattering hopes 
of a complete cure4 ,the result of this 
operation induced me to administer the  
,galvanism even to the substance of the 
brain2 being convinced1 as ,i have      
already remarked1 that the ,galvanic    
fluid by this method of application     
exercises its action with greater       
energy4 ,i communicated my design to the
 ,professors of the hospital1 and with  
their approbation began to try the      
effects of a pile composed of fifteen   
plates of copper and zinc4 ,i formed an 
arc from one of the hands to one of the 
ears1 and then from one ear to another1 
having first moistened them with a      
solution of muriate of soda4 ,i         
increased the number of plates of which 
the pile was composed1 and found that   
the patient was always more or less     
affected with a momentary impression    
exceedingly painful1 which however      
seemed in the end to produce a good     

effect4 ,when ,galvanism was            
administered in this manner1 ,i did not 
neglect to continue the application of  
the other method at the same time2 and  
,i found that the progress of the cure  
became more rapid4 ,but as ,i observed  
that the action of ,galvanism on the    
ears was sometimes too violent1 we      
thought proper to apply it in a more    
moderate and less dangerous manner4     
,several persons having been induced    
through curiosity to try this action1   
the result1 besides a violent commotion 
of the whole substance of the brain     
against the skull1 was a state of       
watchfulness which continued several    
days running1 and which ,i experienced  
myself as well as others4 ,we then      
conceived the idea of shaving the head  
above the suture of the parietal bone   
7,plate ,,iii4 fig4 #c472 and having    
moistened the shaven part with salt     
water1 a piece of gold or silver coin   
was placed over it4 ,the patient then   
touched with one of his hands the bottom

 of the pile1 and at the same time an   
arc was established from the summit of  
the pile to the metallic armature placed
 on the head4 ,by this arrangement the  
action of the ,galvanism was rendered   
more moderate2 the patient endured it   
for a long time1 and seemed to be       
greatly relieved by it4 ,i have always  
united this method with external        
application to different parts of the   
face1 and have observed such sudden     
changes in the looks as seemed to       
announce a considerable abatement of the
 disease4 ,some of the physicians of    
,bologna1 ,professors ,brugnatelli and  
,zola of ,pavia1 and several other      
foreigners1 examined and confirmed the  
permanency of this effect4 ,the patient1
 therefore1 not only got the better of  
his melancholy1 but began to relish his 
food1 and at length recovered so much   
strength that the physicians of the     
hospital thought nothing further was    
necessary to complete the cure4  ,no    
other remedy besides ,galvanism was     

administered to him1 lest the effects   
should be so confounded as to render it 
impossible to tell to which the cure    
ought to be ascribed4 ,two days1        
however1 before he left the hospital a  
little blood was taken from him2 as it  
was conceived that this operation might 
contribute to render the cure more      
certain4  ,on his leaving the hospital  
,i carried him to my house1 that he     
might be fitted by proper nourishment   
for resuming his former occupations4 ,he
 remained with me eight days in the     
quality of a domestic1 during which time
 he was exceedingly tractable1 and      
performed his duty with great care and  
attention4 ,i had several conversations 
with him1 in the course of which ,i     
learned that his father1 ,fabian        
,lanzarini1 had been attacked by the    
same disease1 and that he had been      
admitted into the same hospital1 where  
he died on the #abth of ,june #agij4 ,by
 inspecting the registers of the        
hospital1 ,i found this account to be   

perfectly correct4  ,agreeably to the   
principles already established1 in      
regard to the treatment of madness1 ,i  
advised ,lanzarini to spend the rest of 
his life at a distance from his native  
country1 lest1 having continually before
 his eyes those objects which had       
occasioned his disease1 it might recur  
with double violence4 ,but though he had
 given me several proofs of his         
docility1 ,i found it impossible to     
persuade him to make this sacrifice4 ,a 
kind of nostalgia1 perhaps1 attached him
 to his former master1 to whom he       
returned1 after paying a visit to the   
cur of the parish4 ,the latter1 when he 
first saw him1 imagined he had run away 
from the hospital2 but by his           
conversation he was soon convinced of   
his being completely cured4 ,after this 
period1 ,i obtained a regular report    
respecting his behaviour and the state  
of his health1 from the above cur1 and  
from the person who had paid all the    
expenses of his residence in the        

hospital2 and ,i learned1 with great    
satisfaction1 that he continued to enjoy
 good health1 and to exercise his usual 
employment4  ,by the same treatment ,i  
cured1 of a similar disorder1 ,charles  
,bellini1 a labourer1 who was restored  
to society in a shorter space of time1  
because the affection was not so violent
 as in the preceding case4 ,the phnomena
 which took place when the patient was  
subjected to the action of the pile1    
when the ,galvanism was applied to the  
brain1 and during the whole progress of 
the cure1 were nearly the same4 ,i must1
 however1 freely acknowledge1 that two  
cures are not sufficient to establish   
the application of ,galvanism as an     
universal remedy in such cases4 ,but on 
this account it ought not to be         
rejected3 at any rate it deserves       
further examination2 for it is well     
known that all remedies require certain 
conditions before they can perform their
 effect4 ,i have therefore several times
 found it impossible to obtain the same 

result in other patients afflicted with 
melancholy madness1 to whom ,i          
administered ,galvanism2 and in cases of
 raving madness ,i have even found it   
dangerous4 ,in some instances1          
melancholy madness derives its origin   
from a certain general constitution of  
the animal machine1 or from some great  
alteration in the brain2 and it is      
evident that in such cases the action of
 ,galvanism would be of no avail4 ,but  
if the derangement of the intellectual  
functions depend only on some humour    
intercepted between the membranes and   
other parts of the brain1 there is      
reason to hope that ,galvanism1 if      
prudently administered1 may be attended 
with great benefit4 ,the real cases in  
which it may be administered with       
success1 can be ascertained only by     
experience4 ,i must observe also1 that  
the method of administering it is not   
yet reduced to that state of simplicity1
 which is necessary before it can be    
brought into regular use in large       

hospitals4 ,the physicians1 under whose 
care they are placed1 have in general a 
great deal of private practice1 and     
cannot conveniently attend to operations
 which require a continued labour for   
several months4 ,besides1 the novelty of
 the remedy is sufficient to excite a   
clamour against it1 and to awaken the   
prejudice of the assistants1 who will   
even wish to proscribe it before it has 
been tried4 ,for this reason1 ,i think  
it necessary here to request1 that those
 who preside over establishments        
destined for the reception of such      
patients would turn their attention to  
this subject1 and endeavour to reduce   
the method of applying ,galvanism to the
 utmost simplicity of which it is       
susceptible1 in order that it may be fit
 for being introduced into large        
hospitals4 ,as the patient often shows  
an aversion to this strange remedy1 it  
will be necessary to encourage him by   
every means possible4 ,sometimes on     
observing the flash of light1 when the  

,galvanism is communicated1 he cries out
 and is frightened2 imagining that he   
sees a devouring fire ready to consume  
him1 and on this account refuses to     
submit again to the operation4 ,it will1
 therefore1 be proper to conceal from   
him the apparatus1 or to make a person  
show him the pile some time before as an
 object of amusement1 and in this manner
 to prepare him for receiving its       
action4 ,it will be of benefit also     
sometimes to modify the action of the   
pile1 and to render it more moderate by 
a different method of application4 ,in  
the case of female patients ,i have     
found the result the same1 when the     
,galvanism1 instead of being applied    
directly to the interior part of the    
ears1 was directed externally to the    
gold pendents 7,plate ,,iii4 fig4 #d474 
,by considering the course generally    
pursued in curing melancholy madness1   
hints may be suggested for an useful    
application of ,galvanism in that       
disease1 and data may be obtained       

sufficient to establish the different   
modes of application best fitted to the 
different cases4 ,these ideas have      
engaged a good deal of my attention2 and
 when ,i have finished the observations 
,i have been for some time collecting1  
,i flatter myself that ,i shall be able 
to communicate to the public some       
interesting information on the subject4 
,in some cases of madness1 as ,i found  
it impossible to apply ,galvanism to the
 hands1 which were confined1 ,i employed
 the action of an arc directed to the   
mouth 7,plate ,,iii4 fig4 #b471 while   
another proceeded to one of the ears2 or
 ,i applied a piece of money to the     
head1 and communicated the ,galvanism by
 the method already described 7,plate   
,,iii4 fig4 #c474  ,it will even be     
necessary to try the effect of the      
,galvanic current1 sometimes continued1 
and sometimes interrupted by means of   
the apparatus employed for diseases of  
the organs of hearing4 ,it will be      
proper1 in many cases1 to combine moral 

with physical treatment1 and not to     
neglect the other methods already known 
and practised1 which may be used as very
 convenient auxiliaries4     ,,section  
,v4  ,general reflections on the action 
and influence which ,galvanism1         
considered in a medical point of view1  
exercises on the animal conomy4   ,i    
shall not here speak of the variation in
 insensible perspiration1 and of the    
increase of circulation1 which1         
according to the observations of several
 physicians1 are found to be produced by
 ,galvanism4 ,similar phnomena1 as is   
well known1 take place during the       
administration of common electricity4 ,i
 shall therefore confine myself to those
 effects which hitherto have been       
produced only by the action of          
,galvanism4 ,i shall observe in the     
first place1 that ,galvanism1 as already
 shown in the ,experiments detailed in  
the ,second ,part1 is capable of        
effecting a separation of the fluids1   
and even sometimes of protruding the    

fcal matters from the body4 ,in the case
 of the decapitated malefactor1 ,i found
 that when the arc was applied to one   
ear and to the lips1 a very sensible    
portion of saliva was discharged from   
the mouth4 ,this observation was        
confirmed at ,genoa on the head of an   
ox1 and in several other places on the  
heads of sheep4 ,the phnomenon of the   
extrusion of the fcal matters from the  
trunk of an ox1 by means of ,galvanism1 
was observed also by ,professor ,mojon  
of ,genoa1 and his brother1 to take     
place in human bodies4 ,considering the 
animal fluids separately1 ,i have found 
that very great variations are produced 
in them by ,galvanism4 ,but before ,i   
give an account of the experiments which
 ,i made on this subject1 ,i shall      
describe the apparatus ,i employed4     
,the animal fluid destined to be exposed
 to the action of ,galvanism is put into
 a glass vessel 7,plate ,,iii4 fig4 #f47
 covered by a wooden lid1 having in it  
two holes equally distant from the      

centre4 ,two wires1 one of brass and the
 other of plated copper1 the upper      
extremities of which are bent into the  
form of a hook1 pass through these holes
 in such a manner1 that the lower       
extremities of them reach nearly to the 
bottom of the vessel1 where they are    
bent at right angles1 so that only a    
very small interval is left between     
them4 ,the upper extremity of one is    
made to communicate with the bottom of  
the pile1 and the other with the summit4
 ,in consequence of this arrangement the
 ,galvanic fluid is obliged to traverse 
the animal fluid1 by which means it     
exercises an action on it according to  
the distance of the wires1 and by its   
action separates from its different     
strata sometimes one principle and      
sometimes another2 and this secretion   
will be effected with more ease and in  
greater abundance1 according as the     
action of the pile is stronger1 and the 
capacity of the conductors more         
considerable4   ,,experiment ,i4        

,having put into glass vessels four     
ounces of blood recently drawn from the 
vein of a person in good health1 ,i left
 one of them exposed to the contact of  
the atmospheric air1 and subjected the  
other to the action of the pile4 ,in    
both these portions ,i observed a speedy
 coagulation of the crassamentum1 and at
 the end of twenty-four hours the serous
 part was separated4 ,the blood exposed 
to the action of the pile adhered so    
strongly to the two wires immersed in   
it1 that it was difficult to separate   
them from the clot which was thus       
suspended in the aqueous fluid1 but in  
the other vessel the clot remained at   
the bottom4   ,,experiment ,,ii4  ,i put
 two equal portions of bile1 still warm1
 taken from the gall-bladder of an ox1  
into two glass vessels1 exposed one of  
them to the contact of the air1 and     
subjected the other to the action of the
 pile4 ,after ten hours had elapsed1 ,i 
observed that the bile in the latter had
 become so opake as no longer to afford 

a passage to the light2 while the other 
portion1 exposed to the atmosphere1     
retained its transparency and colour4 ,i
 observed also a considerable           
disengagement of air1 the nature of     
which ,i have not yet had an opportunity
 of examining4   ,,experiment ,,iii4  ,i
 took four ounces of urine1 voided by a 
man in good health1 exposed it to the   
action of the pile1 and at the end of   
twenty-four hours found that the greater
 part of its constituent principles was 
separated4 ,a portion of them was       
collected around the wires in such a    
manner as to form cylindric bodies of a 
considerable diameter1 of which the     
wires were the axes4 ,as the mass of the
 attracted matters increased1 a portion 
fell to the bottom by its own weight4   
,the cylinders were soon entirely       
destroyed1 and the substances which     
formed them were precipitated by the    
least shock given to the vessel4 ,i     
repeated this experiment lately in ,mr4 
,wilson's anatomical theatre in         

,windmill-street2 and ,i observed1 at   
the end of eighteen hours1 a great      
quantity of the molecul furnished by the
 urine adhering to the two wires4 ,but  
at length1 not being able to withstand  
the effect of its gravitation1 it began 
to fall down1 forming a sort of wedge1  
the apex of which was at the surface of 
the urine1 and the base at the bottom of
 the vessel4   ,,experiment ,,iv4       
,instead of putting the urine into a    
common apparatus1 if a glass syphon with
 two platina wires be employed 7,plate  
,,iii4 fig4 #e471 the urine becomes     
limpid on the one side1 and turbid on   
the other4 ,the substance detached from 
the urine afterwards appears in the form
 of flakes1 which are attracted by the  
platina wires4 ,i observed this         
phnomenon for the first time in the     
company of those celebrated chemists    
,fourcroy and ,vauquelin1 while they    
were performing ,galvanic experiments in
 their own laboratory4   ,,experiment   
,v4  ,the substance above mentioned1    

which was precipitated to the bottom1   
when separated by filtration and dried1 
weighed about the fourth of a grain1 and
 the fluid separated from it was of a   
greenish colour4 ,on examining the      
earthy deposit of this urine1 we        
obtained sulphate of lime by adding to  
it sulphuric acid4   ,,experiment ,,vi4 
,having exposed to the action of the    
pile1 in the same manner1 four ounces of
 urine voided by a person with jaundice1
 ,i obtained an earthy sediment1 the    
weight of which was nearly equal to that
 above mentioned4 ,the liquor separated 
from it was transparent1 inclining a    
little to black4 ,by the same chemical  
process ,i obtained sulphate of lime1   
though the sediment of the urine was    
somewhat dark1 and afforded a portion of
 carbon and bile which inflamed in the  
fire4   ,,experiment ,,vii4  ,having    
repeated the above experiments with     
different kinds of urine1 ,i observed in
 general1 that ,galvanism1 by a peculiar
 attraction1 separates from urine the   

sulphates and muriates united to a      
portion of the bile1 and also to carbon1
 which in a great part are precipitated 
to the bottom of the vessel3 the other  
part1 which remains attached to the     
wires1 exhibits a regular saline        
crystallization1 of so singular a form  
that it seems worthy of becoming an     
object of further research to chemists4 
,the examination of urine voided by     
persons labouring under different kinds 
of disease1 seems to be an object       
sufficient to excite the curiosity of   
physicians4 ,to expose to the action of 
,galvanism artificial ariform fluids1   
analogous to those which act a part in  
the animal conomy1 might also be        
attended with advantage4 ,for this      
purpose it will be convenient to employ 
the apparatus represented in ,plate     
,,iii4 fig4 #g1 which was lately        
constructed1 with great precision1 by   
,m4 ,dumoutier at ,paris4 ,the whole    
artifice consists in a vertical metal   
tube1 which can be raised up or pushed  

down4 ,it is furnished with a stop-cock1
 and the tub in which the apparatus is  
placed has another4 ,if the inverted    
bell be filled with water1 and          
connected1 by means of the vertical     
tube1 with the apparatus which is to    
supply the gas1 on opening the lower    
cock1 the water will descend in the     
bell1 and its place be supplied by the  
gas intended to be subjected to         
experiment4  ,from all the observations 
hitherto made1 there seems to be reason 
to conclude1 that the effects produced  
on the animal conomy by common          
electricity and by the ,galvanic pile   
are different4 ,the phnomena of         
artificial ,galvanism give us some right
 to suppose1 that a similar action is   
exercised by the ,galvanic fluid        
circulating in the fluids and in the    
organs of living animals4 ,in this point
 of view ,galvanic researches may one   
day throw great light on the nature of  
secretion2 and it may perhaps be found  
necessary1 when remedies are            

administered1 to take its influence into
 consideration3 for it is possible that 
the action of these remedies in the     
animal conomy may depend on the         
establishment of such an arc between the
 system of the nerves and that of the   
muscles1 as may not alter the natural   
state of the ,galvanic fluid proper for 
the constitution of the individual to   
whom these remedies are administered4   
,all this however is mere conjecture1   
and must be classed with many other     
things in the theory of ,galvanism which
 are still involved in obscurity1 and   
which we can hope to see explained only 
by new researches and new experiments4  
,taking a general view of this ,third   
,part1 ,i must observe that the         
administration of ,galvanism1 when the  
above experiments are carefully         
examined1 seems to appear in a much more
 advantageous point of view than before4
 ,i have indeed proved3  #ast4 ,that    
,galvanism1 on many occasions1 exercises
 an influence different from that of    

common electricity1 and that it may be  
administered in various cases with great
 ease and safety4  #b;d4 ,that the      
action of ,galvanism manifests itself by
 a sensible attraction between the      
nervous and muscular parts2 which seems 
to confirm the hypothesis of ,humboldt1 
who supposes a ,galvanic atmosphere     
peculiar to these parts when in a state 
of perfect vitality4  #c;d4 ,that the   
strong impression made by ,galvanism on 
the brain seems to explain its power on 
the organ of hearing2 and therefore the 
physicians of ,berlin1 and other parts  
of ,germany1 are entitled to great      
praise for their researches on this     
subject4  #dth4 ,that though medicine is
 capable of affording considerable aid  
in cases of drowning and of asphyxia1 it
 presents us with no means so powerful  
as ,galvanism4 ,the experiments made at 
,london1 ,jan4 #ag1 #ahjc1 on the body  
of ,forster1 executed for murder1 have  
fully convinced me of the activity of   
this stimulant4  #eth4 ,that in cases of

 melancholy madness1 when other remedies
 fail1 ,galvanism may be employed with  
the greatest hopes of success1 provided 
the disease does not proceed from a     
vitiated constitution1 or a general     
derangement in the animal machine4      
#fth4 ,that the current of the ,galvanic
 fluid produces a great alteration in   
the animal fluids2 separates a great    
many of their principles1 and produces  
this effect in a particular manner in   
urine4  ,it is however much to be       
wished1 that in addition to the         
knowledge already acquired in regard to 
,galvanism1 some convenient method could
 be discovered of increasing or         
lessening its action on the animal      
fluids2 by which means the advantages of
 the medical administration of this     
subtle agent would be rendered more     
certain and more effectual4             
,,dissertation  ,,on  ,,animal          
,,electricity3  ,,read ,,in ,,the       
,,institute ,,of ,,bologna1  ,,in ,,the 
,,year #agic1c  ,,by ,j4 ,,aldini4   ,i4

 ,while our ,academy was congratulating 
itself on the progress made by the      
doctrine of animal electricity1 its     
exultation was in some measure checked  
by an objection brought against it1     
which did not attack any one part of it1
 but the whole theory4 ,if the          
contractions in animal bodies1 said its 
opponents1 are produced merely by the   
electricity of metals1 how degraded is  
that electricity which at first was     
supposed to reside in animal bodies1    
since it is now found to be subservient 
to the electricity borrowed from metals6
 ,i heard repeated objections of this   
kind while labouring under a severe     
indisposition2 but being restored to    
health by the skill and attention of    
,galvani1 ,i took the earliest          
opportunity to inquire after the success
 of his animal electricity1 and at the  
same time promised him every assistance 
in my power in the prosecution of his   
researches1 for which ,i always         
entertained a great fondness4 ,he       

accepted my offer2 and as ,i had now    
recovered my former strength and vigour1
 ,i was anxiously desirous to defend the
 cause of animal electricity1 attacked  
and almost exploded1 amidst a variety of
 contradictory opinions1 and with this  
view to undertake a new series of       
experiments4  ,,ii4 ,the theory of      
animal electricity had scarcely been    
proposed1 when a suspicion was          
entertained that it might be produced by
 some external agent excited by the     
arming or by the arc4 ,this suspicion   
,galvani endeavoured to obviate in      
various ways4 ,by using an insulated    
arc1 it was impossible that the person  
who performed the experiment could      
communicate any of his electricity to   
the animals4 ,in preparing the frogs he 
employed no conducting bodies2 he       
neither touched them with his fingers   
nor with a knife2 he uncovered the      
muscles and nerves with idio-electric   
bodies1 and still the usual contractions
 took place4 ,nay1 ,galvani carried his 

attention so far as to exclude even the 
air4 ,having immersed a frog with an    
insulated arc in a glass vessel filled  
with oil1 and having made a             
communication by means of an arc between
 the muscles and nerves1 muscular       
contractions were immediately produced4 
,this electricity1 the animal being thus
 surrounded by idio-electric bodies1    
could not certainly be furnished by the 
atmosphere1 from which it was entirely  
separated4 ,while engaged in these      
experiments1 the celebrated ,spallanzani
 stopped a few days at ,bologna on his  
way to ,pavia1 and during a short       
conversation which he had with ,galvani 
on his new system1 expressed some       
suspicion that the electricity observed 
in animals might be acquired from       
external bodies4 ,after some discussion 
however on this subject1 ,spallanzani   
acknowledged that the experiment made on
 the frog immersed in oil was so        
conclusive1 that nothing could be better
 calculated to satisfy all his doubts4  

,i mention this circumstance1 because   
the approbation of so eminent a man was 
of the utmost importance to the cause of
 the theory of animal electricity4      
,,iii4 ,having proposed the             
before-mentioned series of experiments1 
,i was led into various reflections on  
this subject4 ,as the same electricity  
exercises an extensive action in the    
different parts of animals--some        
becoming electric through an excess1 and
 others through a deficiency of it--,i  
could not comprehend why there should   
not be an electrical movement even when 
the end of a very long arc was covered  
by a non-conducting body2 and why the   
same arc touched by the same person1 in 
the same atmosphere1 should sometimes   
become charged with a very small        
quantity of electricity1 only capable of
 exciting motion in the legs of a frog1 
and sometimes with a large quantity     
sufficient to produce contractions in   
the leg of a lamb or a calf4 ,this      
circumstance appeared to me to be       

involved in a considerable degree of    
obscurity4 ,i conjectured also that     
internal electricity might have been    
implanted in animal bodies for the      
purpose of defending the animal conomy1 
and protecting it against any injury    
which it might sustain from an excess of
 the external atmospheric electricity4  
,were not this the case1 there might be 
reason to apprehend that the electricity
 of the clouds1 in the time of storms1  
might attack the human body and destroy 
it4  ,,iv4 ,but though the suspicion of 
electricity being communicated from the 
air1 or from the person who performed   
the experiment1 was lessened or removed1
 there were still some who thought that 
the objection in regard to metals could 
not be obviated in the same manner4 ,the
 idea generally entertained1 that all   
the contractions ascribed to animal     
electricity were to be ascribed only to 
external electricity1 proceeding from   
the armatures1 and not to any electric  
virtue in the animals1 seemed to be     

strengthened4 ,carradori1 who had made  
this objection1 afterwards altered his  
opinion1 and became a strenuous advocate
 for animal electricity2 but the        
celebrated ,volta still entertained     
great doubts4 ,these he communicated to 
me in a long letter1 and they were      
afterwards published in the ,pavian     
,journals4 ,all his doubts were founded 
on this circumstance3 heterogeneous     
metals are required to produce          
contractions2 one of which becomes      
charged positively and the other        
negatively2 and it is only in the act of
 restoring an equilibrium between them  
that muscular contractions are excited4 
,v4 ,this simple and ingenious idea was 
no doubt highly captivating2 but the    
experiments made by ,galvani and by     
myself prevented me from adopting it    
entirely2 for it is evident from        
,galvani's ,dissertation1 and from my   
own observations1 that if the muscles   
and nerves of a frog be immersed in two 
vessels filled with water1 contractions 

will be produced on the application of a
 metallic arc4 ,here then we have       
muscular contractions with one arc and  
with one metal4 ,living frogs subjected 
to the action of rarefied or of         
condensed air1 and afterwards dissected 
in the usual manner1 exhibit            
contractions without any armature1 and  
merely by a silver arc applied to the   
muscles and nerves2 and this is always  
the case1 whether the frogs be large and
 strong1 or small and weak4 ,while      
engaged with these experiments1 ,galvani
 informed our academy that he had       
obtained contractions in large and      
vigorous frogs1 which had been recently 
dissected1 without the help of the air  
pump and without armatures1 merely by   
the application of an arc4 ,the same    
thing occurred to ,carradori1 who1      
though he at first entertained doubts on
 this subject1 was afterwards convinced 
of the truth of the phnomenon4 ,it still
 however appeared to me1 notwithstanding
 the results obtained by ,galvani and   

,carradori1 that the animal electricity 
of frogs was excited in more abundance  
by the action of the air pump1 even     
without the application of armatures4   
,,vi4 ,but that the series of           
experiments ,i had undertaken might be  
better calculated to establish the      
theory of animal electricity1 and as it 
was difficult to find any of the solid  
metals homogeneous throughout1 ,i had   
recourse to mercury1 which1 by the help 
of chemistry1 may be brought to a very  
considerable degree of purity4 ,for the 
greater convenience in the employment of
 this substance1 ,i invented the        
following apparatus3--,two glass vessels
 are so arranged 7,plate ,,iv4 fig4 #a47
 that the one stands above the other3   
the upper one is filled with mercury1   
and the spinal marrow of a prepared frog
 is placed in it2 and by means of a hole
 in the bottom of it1 which may be      
opened at pleasure1 the mercury can be  
made to fall on any part of the muscles 
of the same animal placed in the lower  

vessel4 ,the stream of mercury occasions
 convulsive movements to take place in  
the muscles2 and yet in this case the   
mercury forms both the armature and the 
arc3 consequently the electricity in    
both is the same1 and can exercise no   
action4 ,when contractions therefore    
take place1 they cannot be ascribed to  
the electricity of the metal4 ,should it
 be said that the mercury as it runs    
down may excite electricity from the    
sides of the glass vessel1 as is the    
case with the mercury in the upper part 
of a barometer1 which1 when in the least
 agitated1 shines with an electric      
light1 any doubt on this subject may be 
easily removed by substituting vessels  
of wood instead of those of glass4      
,,vii4 ,when these vessels are used1    
care must be taken to pay attention to  
one circumstance1 which may prevent the 
success of the experiment4 ,as the      
spinal marrow is exceedingly light1 it  
will float on the surface of the        
mercury2 whereas it ought to be immersed

 in that metal4 ,it will be necessary   
therefore to press down the spinal      
marrow below the surface of the mercury1
 by means of a glass rod1 or any other  
non-conducting body1 so that it may be  
entirely immersed2 otherwise some       
irregularity may take place1 and the    
experiment fail4 ,to perform it with the
 greatest convenience1 provide a glass  
vessel consisting of two branches in the
 form of a syphon1 as represented in    
,plate ,,iv4 fig4 #b41 one of which is  
wide1 and has its edges reflected       
inwards1 so as to form an inverted cone1
 ending in an aperture that can be      
opened and shut at pleasure4 ,if mercury
 be poured into the narrower branch1 so 
as to fill the interior part of the     
vessel around the inverted cone1 it will
 not be able to rise up into the latter1
 until the aperture in its apex be      
opened4 ,when this arrangement has been 
made1 immerse the spinal marrow of a    
frog in the mercury contained in the    
smaller branch of the vessel1 and place 

the muscles in the conical part1 which  
is empty3 if the aperture be then       
opened1 the mercury1 endeavouring to    
bring itself into a state of            
equilibrium1 will come in contact with  
the muscles1 and contractions will be   
produced2 as an arc of quicksilver will 
thus be speedily formed between the     
nerves and the muscles4  ,,viii4 ,but   
the experiment may be performed in a    
manner still more simple4 ,provide a    
glass vessel 7,plate ,,iv4 fig4 #aj47   
filled with mercury1 and let the muscles
 of a prepared frog be laid to float on 
the surface of the metal2 then suspend  
the spinal marrow by a silk thread in   
such a manner1 that by letting down the 
thread the marrow can be made to touch  
the mercury at pleasure4 ,as soon as the
 spinal marrow is brought into contact  
with the surface of the metal1          
contractions will take place in the     
muscles2 and the same will be observed  
if a plate of gold or silver be         
substituted in the room of the mercury4 

,this phnomenon will be exhibited not   
only by a whole frog1 but by half a frog
 divided longitudinally2 which1 as soon 
as it touches the mercury1 by the method
 above described1 will be violently     
convulsed4 ,having mentioned these      
experiments to ,galvani1 to whom ,i     
often had recourse for instructions1 he 
regretted that ,i had confined my       
researches to frogs only1 and advised me
 to try warm-blooded animals4 ,i        
therefore took the leg of a lamb or a   
chicken1 and holding it in my hand in a 
vertical position1 in such a manner that
 the bare muscles were in communication 
with the mercury1 ,i then raised the    
crural nerve without any armature1 so   
that1 by being left to itself1 it could 
be made to touch the mercury at         
pleasure4 ,as soon as it did so1 ,i     
observed a violent agitation and        
contraction in the whole limb1 and      
likewise when ,i used the before        
described apparatus1 ,plate ,,iv4 fig4  
#b4  ,,ix4 ,while ,i made these         

experiments1 ,i was well aware that the 
contractions produced in the limb might 
by some be ascribed to the impulse of   
the mercury1 acting on it like a kind of
 stimulus1 or to electricity received   
from the surrounding bodies1 rather than
 to the innate electricity of animals4  
,i would advise those who entertain such
 an opinion to hold the hind legs of a  
frog in their hand1 in a vertical       
position1 and to press only the spinal  
marrow against the surface of the       
mercury4 ,let them immerse also the     
spinal marrow in salt water1 or in      
vinegar3 no contraction will take place1
 though in this case there is still a   
mechanical impulse2 and though the      
saline or acid quality of these liquids 
is exceedingly proper for acting as a   
stimulus4 ,to this ,i may add1 that in  
the apparatus already described 7,plate 
,,iv4 fig4 #b47 there is no impulse from
 the mercury1 which acquires only that  
gentle motion necessary to enable it to 
put itself into a state of equilibrium4 

,in a word1 ,i have observed 7,plate    
,,iv4 fig4 #a47 that when both the upper
 and lower vessels are filled with      
mercury1 if the aperture be opened so   
that the metal which falls down shall   
not strike against the muscles2 yet the 
same contractions take place3 which     
indeed ought to serve as a proof that   
mechanical impulse has no share in      
producing the effect4  ,x4 ,but ,i had  
no reason to apprehend the action of any
 stimulus1 as ,i had before found by    
experience1 that a very strong impulse  
applied to the nerves or to the muscles 
excited no contractions4 ,i made        
experiments for this purpose1 not on    
living but on dead animals1 when the    
irritability was feeble and almost      
extinct2 and ,i found that it could be  
excited neither by pricking with a      
needle1 by acids1 nor by the most       
powerful stimulants4 ,it seemed to be   
entirely dead2 but ,i observed both in  
cold and in warm-blooded animals1       
provided the experiment was performed   

within a certain period1 that the       
irritability was always obedient to the 
power of the ,galvanic arc1 though no   
effect was produced by any mechanical   
impulse4 ,as frogs were most convenient 
for my experiments1 ,i tried them with  
every possible kind of mechanical       
stimulants4 ,i immersed the spinal      
marrow or the nerves in acids2 pierced  
them with a needle2 cut the nerves1 and 
even sometimes scooped out the whole    
medullary substance from the vertebral  
canal2 still no motion was produced4    
,but the same nerves and muscles which  
had withstood such powerful mechanical  
stimulants1 when metallic armatures and 
an arc were applied in the gentlest     
manner1 immediately exhibited           
contractions4  ,,xi4 ,having obviated   
every objection that might be made in   
regard to the action of stimulants1 ,i  
shall now endeavour to remove any doubt 
that may remain of external electricity4
 ,provide a glass cylinder terminating  
in a neck1 and introduce into it a      

prepared frog with a little mercury2    
incline the cylinder in such a manner1  
that the mercury may occupy the lower   
part of it1 and form an armature to the 
muscles4 ,if the extremity of the neck  
of the cylinder be applied to an        
enameller's lamp1 and sealed            
hermetically1 all communication between 
the inclosed frog and the external air  
will be cut off4 ,now1 if the cylinder  
be removed from its inclined to a       
horizontal position1 the mercury1 which 
was in contact only with the muscles1   
must touch also the spinal marrow2 and a
 mercurial arc being thus formed1       
contractions will immediately follow4   
,if the experiment be repeated with the 
glass cylinder immersed in oil1 the same
 contractions will take place2 but in   
this case it will be necessary to remove
 the immersed cylinder a little from its
 position by means of a silk thread1 in 
order that you may be enabled to make   
the mercury flow from the nerves to the 
muscles at pleasure4  ,,xii4 ,there is  

no reason1 therefore1 in this case1 for 
ascribing the contractions either to the
 arc or to the armatures1 which1 as they
 consist of mercury alone1 cannot       
produce the two kinds of electricity    
necessary for exciting contractions4    
,but even if we should allow1 with those
 who form the most absurd suppositions1 
that mercury alone possesses both kinds 
of electricity1 one contraction only    
could be expected1 and not several in   
succession4 ,in a word1 there is no     
reason to apprehend that any external   
electricity is obtained either from the 
glass vessel which receives the mercury1
 or from the surrounding atmosphere1    
which is separated from the spinal      
marrow by three strata of non-conducting
 bodies2 namely1 air1 glass1 and oil4   
,the simplicity of this process may not 
be fully apparent to the reader2 but ,i 
can with truth assert1 that simplicity  
was an object which ,i had always in    
view4 ,having prepared a frog1 ,i laid  
it to float in mercury immersed in oil1 

and then endeavoured to excite          
contractions by the application of an   
insulated arc4 ,owing to some inaccuracy
 in the experiment1 however1 it did not 
succeed2 and my attachment to           
simplicity1 while endeavouring to       
discover the least complex method of    
exciting contractions1 was the cause of 
my not obtaining the desired result4    
,this want of success was perhaps owing 
to the mercury not being in proper      
contact with the nerves1 in consequence 
of the oil adhering to them4 ,that ,i   
might exclude all suspicion of          
atmospheric air having any share in the 
phnomenon1 ,i was obliged to adopt that 
method of performing the experiment     
which ,i have already described4        
,,xiii4 ,i however readily foresaw1 that
 the advocates of external metallic     
electricity might object1 that no       
contractions were obtained but by the   
application of armatures1 or1 when      
armatures were excluded1 by using in    
their stead an arc1 which is itself an  

armature4 ,and ,i must indeed           
acknowledge that we are as yet          
acquainted with no substances but metals
 capable of exciting animal electricity1
 though nature1 so abundant in          
resources1 may no doubt furnish a great 
many#d4 ,but ,i shall here observe that 
metals are not the cause of the         
contractions produced in animal bodies1 
but merely a condition requisite for    
calling forth the latent innate animal  
electricity which exists in them4 ,for  
though armatures are necessary to render
 non-conducting bodies electric1 there  
is no reason why the shock given by the 
,leyden flask should be ascribed to the 
arc or to the armatures2 as a charged   
magic square1 or a ,leyden flask1 when  
freed from the armatures1 exhibits a    
great quantity of electricity4 ,if you  
charge a ,leyden flask filled with      
water1 pour the water from it1 then pour
 in other water1 and form a             
communication by an arc between the     
opposite surfaces1 you will experience a

 shock4 ,this very simple experiment    
agrees with some made by ,mr4 ,wilson1  
,mr4 ,cavallo1 and others4 ,armatures1  
therefore1 have a powerful effect in    
attracting electricity1 and confining it
 in non-conducting bodies2 but they do  
not supply electricity themselves4      
,,xiv4 ,if this mode of reasoning be    
admitted in regard to common            
electricity1 it ought not to be rejected
 when applied to the phnomena of animal 
electricity4 ,for1 as an explosion is   
produced by a magic square1 or ,leyden  
flask1 even when the armatures are      
removed1 the case is the same in regard 
to the contractions in animals4 ,but to 
prove in a more evident manner that     
metals have no action in such cases1 the
 following experiment was made4 ,an     
insulated person1 holding in his hand a 
metallic arc1 and a prepared frog1      
furnished with heterogeneous armatures1 
was electrified1 as well as every thing 
about him1 by means of an electrical    
machine4 ,the person1 the frog1 the     

armatures1 and the arc1 being all       
electrified positively1 none of the     
metals employed in this experiment1 as  
their electricity was reduced to a state
 of equilibrium1 could produce          
contractions4 ,as these are produced    
only by applying the arc to the         
armatures1 they cannot be ascribed to   
external electricity1 but to the innate 
electricity of the frog4 ,if only one of
 the armatures be touched1 no           
contractions take place2 but if the arc 
be applied to both1 they are immediately
 produced2 which is a strong proof that 
the arc possesses the power of exciting 
the electricity inherent in animal      
bodies4 ,those philosophers would reason
 very incongruously who should ascribe  
the cause of these contractions to      
electricity communicated from the       
person1 since they would thus allow to  
the person that animal electricity which
 they deny to the frog2 a conclusion    
which few will admit4 ,but in attempting
 to remove every suspicion of           

communicated electricity1 it was        
necessary that the experiments          
undertaken should be free from all      
influence of artificial electricity4    
,,xv4 ,i therefore endeavoured to obtain
 an equilibrium in the armatures by     
mutual contact4 ,this simple method was 
borrowed from the principles adopted by 
philosophers1 who1 while they endeavour 
to produce an equilibrium1 are          
accustomed to apply a body electric by  
excess to one in a contrary state4      
,immerse in water the spinal marrow of a
 prepared frog1 without armature1 and   
let the muscles rest on a non-conducting
 body4 ,the vessel must be somewhat in  
the form of a syphon1 and the spinal    
marrow introduced into the smaller      
branch must not float on the liquid1 but
 be totally immersed in it3 this        
arrangement is of great importance in   
regard to the success of the experiment3
 a small piece of tin foil must be made 
to float on the surface of the water at 
a considerable distance from the spinal 

marrow3 if you then touch the muscles   
with one of your hands moistened a      
little with water1 and with the other   
apply a silver arc to the tin foil1 a   
contraction will immediately take place4
 ,while struck with the constancy of    
this phnomenon1 ,i could not help       
reasoning in the following manner3      
,muscular motion is produced though the 
frog is in contact with no metallic     
body3 every thing metallic is separated 
from the frog2 and even if it possessed 
contrary kinds of electricity1 they are 
in a state of equilibrium4 ,what then is
 the external agent which produces      
contractions in the frog8 ,though the   
metals1 while they acquire an           
equilibrium1 come into contact1 which is
 followed by contractions1 there        
certainly can be no fear of external    
electricity from them4 ,this is         
sufficiently proved by the metals       
themselves being brought into           
equilibrium before the contractions take
 place4 ,if you touch the muscles with  

one hand moistened with water1 and with 
the other immerse into water a piece of 
gold coin1 a small part of which is     
covered with tin foil1 contractions will
 immediately ensue4 ,yet both the       
metals1 before the contraction1 were    
brought to a state of equilibrium by    
being in contact3 they can therefore    
have no share in the contractions1 which
 must arise from innate electricity4 ,if
 salt water1 milk1 serum1 or the        
crassamentum of the blood1 be           
substituted for common water1 there will
 still be contractions2 and the case    
will be the same if a bit of gold1      
silver1 or brass1 or even iron1 covered 
with tin foil be employed4 ,here then we
 have tin brought into a state of       
equilibrium with various metals before  
the contractions take place1 without    
these contractions being impeded4 ,nor  
is it of any consequence that the metals
 be touched with the hand4 ,for1 if the 
tin foil be applied to the tip of the   
tongue1 or to the lips1 and if a piece  

of silver wire be made to touch the tin 
foil on the one side1 and the spinal    
marrow covered by no metal on the other1
 contractions will be produced as often 
as an arc is made to the muscles by     
means of the moistened hand4  ,,xvi4    
,the object of our researches hitherto  
has been muscular motion2 we shall now  
direct them to the phnomena of the      
senses4 ,let an insulated person be     
electrified by means of a common        
electrical machine1 and let him apply a 
silver arc to the tip of his tongue     
covered with tin foil4 ,the armature and
 the arc will both become electrified by
 this new accession of electric matter4 
,we cannot therefore suppose one        
armature to be positively and the other 
negatively so2 and for this reason no   
transmission of electricity1 and no     
sensation of taste1 can be expected4 ,as
 the tongue1 however1 experiences a     
sensation of acidity1 it must have been 
excited not by the armatures or by the  
arc1 but by the innate electricity of   

the muscles and nerves4 ,but the        
necessity of an internal arc1 which     
appears in the above phnomena1 is an    
argument in favour of innate            
electricity4 ,in order1 however1 to     
excite the taste by animal electricity1 
the application of different metals to  
the tongue is not sufficient3 the arc   
must be conveyed to the muscles of the  
tongue1 or to others at a distance from 
it4 ,when ,i first made this experiment1
 it gave me no small pleasure to find   
that it was confirmed and enriched with 
new observations by the celebrated      
,volta#e4  ,,xvii4 ,that the phnomena   
already mentioned arise from an interior
 arc1 will be proved1 in my opinion1 by 
the following experiment3 ,if an        
insulated metallic arc1 or a piece of   
charcoal1 be applied to the tip of the  
tongue with the moistened hand1 no taste
 will be produced2 but if the same hand 
be applied to the same metallic arc or  
charcoal1 a taste will be experienced4  
,in both cases of this experiment       

dissimilar armatures were brought into  
contact1 and reduced to that state of   
equilibrium to which they tended4 ,why  
then should the result of the experiment
 be so different8 ,when the metals or   
charcoal touch the moistened hand1 a    
speedy and uninterrupted communication  
is formed even between the remote       
muscles and the nerves of the tongue1   
which when intercepted by the           
non-conducting body prevents all        
sensation of taste4 ,it may therefore be
 established as a principle1 that to    
excite a sensation of taste1 it is      
necessary besides the application of    
external armatures to have an internal  
arc1 which may bring the internal       
electricity to a state of equilibrium4  
,this observation is confirmed by       
,carradori1 who1 while endeavouring to  
excite a sensation of taste in two      
persons at the same time1 found that it 
was necessary to establish an arc       
between them1 either by making them join
 hands1 or by moistening the plane on   

which they stood#f4  ,,xviii4 ,i shall  
conclude this dissertation with an      
account of some later experiments on    
this subject4 ,volta1 in a letter which 
,i received from him1 requested ,i would
 try to produce contractions without any
 metallic application1 and recommended  
charcoal1 which in his first experiments
 he had found to be the best armature   
for animal electricity4 ,i therefore    
took the earliest opportunity of        
attempting to produce contractions in   
the beforementioned manner without the  
aid of metals4 ,i was encouraged in this
 design by ,aloysius ,laghi1 professor  
of chemistry2 who having analysed our   
fossil coal in consequence of a public  
decree for that purpose1 was desirous   
that chemical processes might be made   
subservient to my researches4 ,it was   
well known1 that every kind of vegetable
 charcoal formed the best armature1 so  
that when this coal was used there was  
no need for metallic armatures4 ,hence1 
in that ,galvanic experiment called the 

animal alarum1 a charcoal plane         
substituted for one of silver produced  
the same effect3 charcoal arcs also were
 used instead of metallic4 ,the coal    
employed in this manner was vegetable   
coal3 but the ,english fossil coal1 and 
that dug up in our territories1 did not 
produce the same effect4 ,i employed the
 different principles extracted from our
 fossil coal1 namely1 calcareous earth  
saturated with the acetous acid1        
siliceous earth semi-vitrified by fixed 
alkali1 and argillaceous earth4 ,all    
these1 however1 formed bad armatures for
 animal electricity2 and the case was   
the same with the ashes of our fossil   
coal1 and of the ,english coal4  ,,xix4 
,none of these phnomena1 however1       
afforded any grounds for objecting      
against the theory of electricity in    
general2 as that bituminous substance   
which is always found combined with     
fossil coal1 deprives it of the power of
 being a conductor of animal            
electricity4 ,this conjecture was       

confirmed by experience2 for1 having    
employed our own fossil coal and the    
,english in the state of coke1 they     
formed excellent armatures1 as by the   
action of the fire they had been freed  
from those idio-electric principles     
which opposed the development of animal 
electricity1 ,a phnomenon in the mean   
time occurred1 which tended to throw    
great light on the nature of this       
electricity4 ,having placed the spinal  
marrow upon a piece of coke1 and formed 
an arc from the muscles to the coke1    
contractions always took place in       
certain parts1 while in others there was
 no appearance of them4 ,the reason of  
this seemed to be1 that the action of   
the fire had made some parts of the same
 coal conductors1 and left others       
idio-electric1 in consequence of the    
large quantity of the bituminous        
principle which they contained4 ,but    
though torrified fossil coal acquired a 
conducting property1 vegetable charcoal 
was still found to be much fitter for   

conveying animal electricity4 ,hence ,i 
conceived a hope1 that ,i should be able
 to excite contractions1 in the manner  
before described1 without any metallic  
arc1 and by the application of charcoal 
alone4 ,for these new experiments1 ,i   
employed the largest frogs1 and ,i      
selected on purpose such pieces of      
charcoal as seemed the least fitted for 
being conductors of animal electricity4 
,i placed the prepared muscles of a frog
 on the charcoal1 and suspended the     
unarmed spinal marrow1 by a silk thread1
 in such a manner that the marrow could 
be made to touch the charcoal at        
pleasure4 ,when large frogs were        
employed1 contractions always took      
place2 and ,galvani found the case to be
 same in his experiments4 ,here then we 
have contractions produced without the  
intervention of any metallic substances3
 why then ascribe to the different power
 of metals1 effects which can be        
produced by bodies which certainly have 
nothing of the metallic quality8 ,if the

 spinal marrow or muscles be made to    
communicate separately with the         
charcoal1 there will be no contraction2 
and it appears that to produce          
contractions1 the arc and the armature  
must consist of homogeneous charcoal4   
,having given an account of my          
experiments1 it remains that ,i should  
collect in a few words the inferences   
which may be deduced from them4  ,,xx4  
,in the first place1 it is certain that 
to produce contractions it is not       
necessary to employ two different kinds 
of metal1 and that one is sufficient4   
,in vigorous animals this result may be 
obtained by silver1 and particularly by 
gold4  #b;d4 ,if any suspicion of       
heterogeneity should arise1 in regard to
 the solid metals1 this difficulty may  
be easily obviated by employing a fluid 
metal1 that is to say1 mercury purified 
by chemical means4  #c;d4 ,contractions 
are excited when one of the armatures   
and the arc consist of mercury1 by      
making the mercury to run down on the   

muscles placed below it4 ,there is no   
reason here to suspect that the stimulus
 produced by the impulse of the mercury 
has any share in the phnomenon1 as it is
 sufficiently proved by experiments that
 this is not the case4  #dth4 ,that when
 there is no reason to suppose a want of
 equilibrium in the electricity of the  
armatures and of the arc1 animal        
electricity is excited1 and produces    
contractions4  #eth4 ,that when the     
armatures and arc are formed of         
charcoal1 the same results will be      
obtained2 which evidently proves that   
the animal electricity is not produced  
by the metals4        #c ,the title of  
the work from which this and the        
following      dissertation are         
translated is1 ,joannis ,aldini de      
,animali      ,electricitate            
,dissertationes du4 ,bononi #agid4      
#d ,there seems here to be some mistake1
 as the author says1      towards the   
end of this ,dissertation1 that he      
produced      contractions in a frog by 

employing coals1 both as an arc      and
 as armature4 ,t4       #e ,the         
celebrated ,volta1 in a letter which ,i 
received from      him1 announcing that 
he had observed the same phnomena as    
those described in my ,dissertation1    
published the preceding      year1      
xxii4 p4 #ai4 added the following       
remarks3 8,the best      and easiest    
method of performing this experiment1 is
 to      immerse in a large earthen or  
glass vessel1 filled with      water1 a 
silver dish1 in such a manner that a    
part of it      remains above the       
surface of the water2 to apply to the   
tip      of the tongue a small bit of   
tin foil1 so that part of it      shall 
hang out of the mouth2 to bring this tin
 foil into      contact with the silver 
vessel1 either immediately or by        
means of a third piece of metal2 lastly1
 to immerse the hand      in the same   
water gradually1 if you are desirous of 
perceiving gradually on the tongue the  
acid taste2 or      suddenly1 and at    

once1 if you are desirous of perceiving 
it      at once and in the highest      
degree4 ,a silver spoon half            
immersed in the water1 or instead of the
 dish1 if not too      small1 will      
produce nearly the same effect as ,i    
have already      mentioned4 ,the case  
is not the same with a slender silver   
rod or wire1 which if gradually immersed
 will scarcely      produce any taste at
 all4 ,if the vessel which contains the 
water be itself of silver1 a dish or    
spoon will then be      unnecessary4    
,this vessel forms the best armature for
 the      water2 and to perceive the    
taste very strongly1 it will be         
sufficient to immerse the hand in the   
water1 or to bring the      tin foil    
which hangs from the mouth into contact 
with the      vessel4       #f ,as      
convulsions are excited in two frogs1   
when one end of      an arc is made to  
touch the uncovered crural nerves of the
      one1 while the other end of the   
arc is applied to the crural      nerves

 of the other1 covered by an armature2  
,i have observed      that the sensation
 of two tastes1 one acid and the other  
alkaline1 can be excited at the same    
time in the tongues of      two persons1
 one of which is armed with tin foil1   
and the      other with silver1 if a    
communication be formed between the     
two armatures4 ,it is necessary1        
however1 that a      communication also 
should exist between the two persons4   
,if      the floor on which they stand  
be wet1 and their shoes moist1      this
 will be sufficient4 ,sig4 ,dottore     
,giovachino ,carradori      ,lettera    
quinta sull ,ellettricit ,animale1      
diretta al      ,chiarissimo ,sig4 ,cav4
 ,felice ,fontana4     ,,second         
,,dissertation  ,,on  ,,animal          
,,electricity3  ,,read ,,in ,,the       
,,institute ,,of ,,bologna1  ,,in ,,the 
,,year #agid1  ,by ,j4 ,,aldini4   ,i4  
,the philosophers of the present period 
are so sanguine in their expectations1  
that when a new theory is proposed1     

unless it be presented to them perfect  
and fully proved1 they either attack it 
in part1 or entirely reject it4 ,such   
has been the case with animal           
electricity1 discovered by ,galvani4 ,it
 is urged against it by its opponents1  
that it is subject to variations2 and   
because they do not find it obedient to 
all those laws established by the       
laborious researches of a ,franklin1 a  
,beccaria and an pinus1 they assert     
either that it has no foundation1 or    
that it is contrary to nature4 ,it has  
therefore been conceived that an        
accurate comparison of animal and common
 electricity1 in order to ascertain     
whether there be any difference between 
them1 might be the best means of        
obviating such objections4 ,for this    
purpose ,i made various experiments in  
animal electricity under the air pump1  
employing proper conductors1 and ,i     
compared its phnomena with those        
exhibited by the ,leyden flask4 ,in a   
word1 while ,i endeavoured to pursue my 

researches agreeably to the general     
theory of common electricity1 my        
principal object was to prove the       
constancy of animal electricity1 by     
discovering1 if possible1 an agreement  
in the physical laws of both4  ,,ii4 ,as
 it had been proved by a great many     
experiments1 that common electricity    
could be obtained from non-conducting   
bodies in the most perfect vacuum       
possible to be formed by means of an air
 pump1 experiments were undertaken in   
order to ascertain whether the same     
phnomenon was common also to animal     
electricity1 and with this view attempts
 were made to excite the latter in      
vacuo#g4 ,muscati indeed had deprived   
animals of life in vacuo1 and afterwards
 found them susceptible of ,galvanism in
 the open air2 but he made no attempt to
 determine whether the animal           
electricity could be manifested in      
vacuo4 ,i employed for my experiments a 
glass vessel2 ,plate ,,iv4 fig4 #f41    
furnished with a metallic rod1 which    

could be1 raised up or pushed down at   
pleasure4 ,to the extremity of the rod1 
within the receiver1 was affixed at     
right angles a metallic wire1 from one  
end of which an armed frog was suspended
 by the muscles1 and from the other a   
small metallic chain a little longer    
than the frog1 a plate of silver being  
placed below both the frog and the      
chain4 ,when as perfect a vacuum as     
possible had been obtained1 the metallic
 rod was pushed down1 so that the small 
chain and the spinal marrow of the      
suspended frog were made to touch the   
silver plate1 and by these means the    
latter formed an arc in the exhausted   
receiver4 ,in this experiment1 the power
 of ,galvanism was found to be the same 
as in the open air1 so that as often as 
the rod was pushed down contractions    
were excited in the frog4 ,by this      
method it was easy to ascertain what    
repeated contact could produce by       
forming new arcs3 for though the small  
chain and the extremity of the spinal   

marrow touched the silver plate2 yet1   
when removed from that position ever so 
little1 by moving the rod new           
contractions took place1 which could not
 have been expected unless new contact  
on moving the rod had produced as it    
were new arcs4 ,this kind of apparatus  
seemed the most convenient for          
performing in vacuo all those           
experiments which ,galvani had performed
 in the open air4  ,,iii4 ,but it was as
 yet difficult to determine1 whether the
 contractions which took place were     
stronger in rarefied than in common air2
 for the difference between the         
electricity was so small1 that it was   
impossible to say which was the more    
powerful4 ,i therefore resolved to clear
 up this point by other experiments4    
,for this purpose1 having cut in two a  
prepared frog1 ,i placed in vacuo one   
part of it1 by means of the above       
apparatus1 and after a short period drew
 it out1 and compared it with the half  
which had not been subjected to the     

action of a vacuum4 ,on applying an arc1
 the one exhibited strong and the other 
faint contractions2 from which it       
appeared that the vacuum had occasioned 
some loss of the animal electricity2 as 
the muscular and nervous parts subjected
 to experiment belonged to the same     
frog1 this evidently showed that the    
whole difference arose from the action  
of the vacuum4  ,,iv4 ,it is well known 
that a vacuum absorbs common            
electricity2 and therefore it need not  
excite any wonder that in the present   
experiment it should have dispersed some
 of the animal electricity4 ,as this    
loss took place by insensible degrees1  
strong contractions were not to be      
expected2 and the case is nearly the    
same in a ,leyden flask loaded with     
aqueous vapours1 which produces no      
remarkable explosion4 ,but though       
convinced of the truth of this          
circumstance1 ,i resolved to confirm it 
by a new experiment4 ,i therefore       
charged two ,leyden flasks armed in the 

same manner1 applying them at the same  
time to the same conductor1 and by the  
same number of turns of the machine4    
,one of these flasks was introduced into
 the glass receiver of the air-pump1 and
 the other was exposed to the           
atmosphere4 ,at the end of five minutes 
after the air had been exhausted as much
 as possible1 the flask in the receiver 
was taken out1 and1 being discharged by 
a metallic arc1 emitted a weak spark1   
while the other flask exhibited strong  
signs of electricity4 ,i again charged  
two flasks by the same turns of the     
machine till the electrometer indicated 
in both the same degree of electricity1 
and kept one of them for half an hour   
beneath the receiver4 ,when the latter  
was taken out1 it afforded a weak and   
almost exhausted spark2 while the other1
 which had remained in the open air1    
emitted a strong one4 ,had the first    
flask remained longer under the         
receiver1 it would no doubt have        
entirely lost its electricity2 while the

 other without the machine retained that
 with which it was charged4  ,v4 ,in    
this experiment every possible care was 
taken to observe the variations produced
 by the vacuum4 ,the receiver which     
covered the ,leyden flask was of a large
 size1 and the flask1 being placed in   
the middle of it1 was at a considerable 
distance from its sides3 the receiver   
was well fitted to the plate of the     
machine1 and not by means of moist      
leather1 as is usual1 so that all       
communication with the external air was 
prevented2 and therefore there is no    
reason to suppose that any aqueous      
vapour introduced into the machine1 when
 the pressure of the air was withdrawn1 
could perform the office of an arc4     
,that the electricity might not         
immediately bring itself to a state of  
equilibrium1 the conductor of each flask
 terminated in a ball3 had not this been
 the case1 the whole electricity would  
soon have been dispersed2 for1 when the 
conductors terminate in a point1 if the 

chamber be darkened1 coruscations of    
light will every where be seen on the   
glass receiver1 and afford a most       
agreeable spectacle4 ,a conductor       
terminating in a ball seemed therefore  
to be most convenient for my purpose1   
that1 by rendering it more difficult for
 the electricity to bring itself to an  
equilibrium1 ,i might be able to produce
 a greater imitation of the intimate    
manner in which animal electricity      
adheres to the animals4 ,but though in  
the above experiments ,i ascribe some   
part of the phnomena to the animal      
electricity being weakened in vacuo1 ,i 
am of opinion that more is to be        
ascribed to the violent perturbation of 
the principles which the vacuum must    
have excited in the muscular and nervous
 parts4  ,,vi4 ,as it was now           
established1 that animal electricity    
could be excited in vacuo1 ,i           
endeavoured to ascertain whether that   
excited without the vacuum1 and conveyed
 to the receiver1 could be made to pass 

through a very small space in vacuo4    
,for this purpose ,i placed the metallic
 rod at a small distance from a silver  
plate resting on the bottom of the air  
pump3 the limbs of a chicken or lamb1   
prepared in the usual manner1 were then 
deposited near it2 and the muscles1 by  
means of a metallic chain1 were made to 
communicate with the plate of the       
machine1 while an armed nerve was made  
to communicate by means of an insulated 
arc with the metallic rod4 ,the air     
being exhausted1 the rod was pushed     
down1 and gradually brought as near as  
possible to the plate without coming    
into actual contact with it4 ,in this   
state no contractions were produced2 but
 they immediately took place when the   
rod was brought into contact with the   
plate4 ,it appears therefore that animal
 electricity is considerably impeded in 
its progress by a vacuum2 and that1 like
 artificial electricity1 it does not    
readily suffer itself to be dissipated1 
unless transmitted through good         

conducting bodies4 ,for1 when a small   
quantity of the electric fluid is       
accumulated in the ,leyden flask1 either
 none of it proceeds from the metallic  
wire to a less perfect conductor1 or1 if
 any is transmitted1 it must be with    
difficulty1 and with great violence4    
,common electricity1 indeed1 is seen to 
pass quietly through metals or water    
separately2 but a strong electric spark1
 in proceeding from one metallic        
conductor to another1 if it pass through
 water interposed between them1 does so 
with such violence1 that the glass      
vessel which contains the water is in   
danger of being broken to pieces4 ,that 
electricity1 therefore1 may be conveyed 
from a conducting body1 to one less     
endowed with that property1 it must be  
in such abundance as to be able to      
overcome the resistance of the body     
through which it has to pass3 hence1 it 
need excite no surprise1 that the small 
quantity of electricity which produces  
contractions should not be able to pass 

over a very small space in vacuo4 ,here 
then we have a proof that animal        
electricity is not only subject to the  
laws of non-conducting bodies1 but that 
it is affected different ways by the    
smallest obstacles of conducting bodies1
 and by different kinds of them4 ,it is 
indeed so evident that a vacuum from its
 nature is unfit for conveying          
electricity1 that1 even if one be       
produced1 not by the usual method1 which
 is always attended with some defects1  
but in the most accurate manner         
possible1 it is totally improper for    
being a conductor of the electric fluid4
 ,this is sufficiently proved by the    
following experiment of ,walsh3 ,if two 
barometers be joined1 and the upper part
 or bend be carefully deprived of air1  
when one of these barometers is         
electrified1 the electric fluid will not
 be communicated to the other1 in       
consequence of the resistance opposed by
 the intervening vacuum4 ,adams1        
however1 exhibited by means of a single 

barometer the same phnomenon as ,walsh  
did with a double one#h2 for1 having    
extracted the air entirely from the     
upper part of the barometer1 no electric
 light was observed2 but on introducing 
a very small quantity of air the whole  
barometer became luminous4 ,these       
observations are sufficient to show that
 animal electricity1 in regard to the   
property of not being able to pass      
through a small space in vacuo1 is      
subservient to the general laws of      
common electricity4 ,but let us proceed 
to other phnomena respecting animal     
electricity excited in vacuo4  ,,vii4   
,if a prepared frog1 furnished with two 
armatures1 be placed in a horizontal    
position on a non-conducting body1 under
 a glass receiver1 7,plate ,,iv4 fig4   
#aa47 and if an arc be formed by pushing
 down a rod1 so as to join both the     
armatures without touching the frog1    
contractions will immediately take      
place2 but if the smallest              
non-conducting body intervene1 none will

 be produced4 ,i found it no very       
difficult matter to exhibit in vacuo1 by
 an apparatus somewhat similar1 what may
 be called an animal alarum4 ,a         
horizontal arm fixed to a vertical      
moveable rod 7,plate ,,iv4 fig4 #e47 was
 adapted to the inside of a glass       
receiver1 in such a manner that1 when   
the receiver was exhausted1 any body    
resting on the horizontal arm could be  
made to fall down4 ,the leg of a        
prepared frog was then fixed to the     
vertical rod2 while the other rested on 
the horizontal arm1 and the spinal      
marrow1 with an armature of tin foil1   
touched a silver plate in the bottom of 
the receiver4 ,the horizontal arm being 
turned round a little1 by means of the  
vertical rod1 the leg of the frog       
resting on the arm fell down on the     
plate below3 an arc being thus formed1  
contractions immediately took place1 and
 were incessantly repeated1 until all   
the animal electricity was restored to  
an equilibrium4  ,,viii4 ,these         

experiments were made on dead frogs2 but
 ,i shall here show that living ones    
also may be made to exhibit signs of    
electricity under the same              
circumstances4 ,a piece of tin foil was 
applied to the back of a frog tied to a 
silver plate by means of silk strings1  
7,plate ,,iv4 fig4 #d47 and two metallic
 chains were suspended in such a manner1
 that by pushing down the rod the       
extremity of the one chain could be made
 to touch the silver plate1 and the     
extremity of the other the tin armature3
 when an arc was by these means formed1 
contractions instantly took place4 ,the 
frog began to breathe with difficulty1  
to be agitated with convulsive          
movements1 and to be seized with an     
universal tremor1 so that its last      
moment seemed to be approaching2 but on 
air being admitted into the receiver1 it
 recovered and appeared as lively and   
active as before4 ,on examining more    
closely the changes which had taken     
place in the animal while in this state1

 which was certainly contrary to nature1
 ,i found the muscles red with a        
superabundance of blood3 but when       
dissected in the usual manner1 they     
exhibited strong signs of animal        
electricity2 for1 on applying an arc to 
the nerves or muscles1 without any      
armature1 violent contractions were     
produced1 and continued for a long time1
 provided care was taken that there     
should be no deficiency of animal       
moisture4 ,that such a quantity of      
electricity should be excited1 will not 
seem astonishing to those who have seen 
more violent electric commotions excited
 in the animal machine by the action of 
a needle4 ,this indeed has been placed  
beyond all doubt by an observation of   
,gardini1 who says 8that having made    
some experiments with a large torpedo1  
he remarked that stronger convulsions   
were produced when the animal was       
subjected to great pain by any means1   
such as pricking it with a needle#i40   
,the phnomena exhibited by a vacuum or  

rarefied air1 were exhibited also by    
condensed air1 so that very powerful    
contractions were produced by one       
homogeneous arc4 ,for1 if the same      
apparatus described in ,plate ,,iv4 fig4
 #d4 be adapted to a condensing machine1
 a dead frog introduced into it will    
readily be contracted4 ,live frogs also1
 after being kept for half an hour or a 
whole hour in air twice as dense as that
 of the atmosphere1 exhibited strong    
signs of electricity without any        
armature1 and merely by the application 
of a silver arc to the nerves and       
muscles4  ,,ix4 ,having made these      
experiments in vacuo and condensed air1 
it was of some importance to try also   
what effect would be produced on animal 
electricity by the action of the ariform
 fluids4 ,the apparatus employed for    
this purpose was as follows3 ,i provided
 a glass vessel 7,plate ,,iv4 fig4 #c471
 terminating at the upper extremity in a
 neck1 to which could be closely fitted1
 when necessary1 a metallic cover1      

having a perforation in the centre to   
receive a moveable rod1 which was       
connected with a transverse metal       
conductor supporting a frog prepared in 
the usual manner4 ,having filled the    
vessel with water1 or mercury1 which was
 still better1 ,i placed it on the shelf
 of a pneumatic tub1 and introduced into
 it1 according to ,priestley's method1  
any particular gas4 ,some water or      
mercury was put into the dish to which  
it was afterwards removed2 and the metal
 cover1 having a frog suspended from it1
 being then fitted to the neck of the   
vessel1 the frog by means of this       
apparatus could be immersed at pleasure 
in carbonic acid gas1 hydrogen1 or any  
other kind of gas2 so that the constancy
 of animal electricity might be tried in
 either4 ,it is evident that1 by letting
 down the spinal marrow of the frog1 and
 the end of the conductor to the surface
 of the water or mercury1 by means of   
the rod1 an arc will be formed1 and that
 muscular contractions must then be     

produced4 ,the same experiment may be   
performed by means of a bottle 7,plate  
,,iv4 fig4 #f47 furnished with a cover  
like the former4 ,after being filled    
with water or mercury1 it is inverted on
 the shelf of the pneumatic tub1 and the
 gas is then introduced in the usual    
manner2 but care must be taken not to   
displace the whole of the water or      
mercury1 as a portion must be left to   
cover the bottom when the jar is turned 
up4 ,this experiment ,i tried only with 
oxygen gas1 reserving the other kinds of
 air till a more convenient opportunity4
  ,x4 ,to give more weight to these     
experiments in vacuo1 ,i endeavoured to 
prevent all those errors which arose1 or
 might be suspected to arise1 from the  
introduction of air2 for ,i supposed    
that some opponent of the theory of     
animal electricity1 while endeavouring  
to find out objections against it1 since
 there was no foundation for asserting  
that the vacuum afforded any electricity
 to the animals1 might pretend that1 the

 plate of the pneumatic machine being   
metal1 according to custom1 some        
electricity from the atmosphere might be
 attracted by it1 and be thus conveyed  
even through a vacuum to the animals4   
,on this account it was necessary that a
 vacuum should be formed1 without       
placing the receiver on a metallic      
plate2 without the contact of any       
conducting bodies1 and in such a manner 
as to show that the electricity excited 
was that really existing in the animals4
 ,i therefore employed a glass receiver 
7,plate ,,iv4 fig4 #i47 cut into two    
parts above its middle1 between which   
was placed a horizontal partition1 in   
order that the upper part might be      
filled with oil1 or some non-conducting 
body4 ,the partition was perforated with
 a large aperture1 the superior edges of
 which projected a little upwards2 and  
the lower1 projecting downwards1 were   
furnished with small circular grooves1  
so that the hole could be shut by a     
piece of bladder tied over it with      

thread4 ,a sharp-pointed rod was placed 
over the hole1 so that1 being let down  
by a non-conducting handle1 it could be 
made to pierce the bladder4 ,this1      
however1 was to be done only when the   
lower part of the receiver was exhausted
 of air2 for the oil1 when the air is   
withdrawn1 speedily falls down3 by these
 means a vacuum is formed in the upper  
part1 and1 in consequence of the        
interposed stratum of the oil1 remains  
insulated1 as it can receive no         
electricity from the metallic plate of  
the machine1 nor from other conducting  
bodies4 ,but it will be in vain to      
attempt to form a vacuum in this manner1
 unless the parts of the cut glass be so
 fitted as to prevent entirely the      
admission of external air4 ,a very      
simple and ingenious apparatus1 for the 
same purpose1 was invented by ,f4       
,borelli3 in order to stop the efflux of
 the oil at pleasure1 he adapted to the 
hole a glass cone1 by which means he was
 enabled to produce an insulated vacuum 

of greater or less capacity in the upper
 part of the receiver4 ,here then ,i had
 a vacuum every where surrounded with   
non-conducting bodies1 so that1 if      
animal electricity were excited in it1  
there could be no reason for ascribing  
it to electricity borrowed from the     
atmosphere4  ,,xi4 ,i adapted to a glass
 rod1 in a longitudinal direction1 a    
metallic plate1 7,plate ,,iv4 fig4 #g47 
which at the upper extremity was bent   
into a right angle1 and supported the   
spinal marrow of a frog1 so that it     
might be considered as a lengthened     
conductor of the nerves4 ,this plate was
 inserted into a glass receiver1 so as  
to move in it with ease2 and by means of
 a screw could be fixed at any altitude 
whatever4 ,an accurate representation of
 this apparatus1 with the glass rod     
annexed1 is seen in ,plate ,,iv4 fig4   
#h4 ,iron hooks fixed to the feet of the
 suspended frog acted the part of a     
conductor to the muscles2 and the upper 
part of the receiver being exhausted of 

air1 as above described1 a stratum of   
oil was still left to separate the frog 
from the partition4 ,to guard against   
all danger from the action of any       
internal metallic body1 a strong magnet 
was applied to the iron conductor of the
 muscles1 which1 immediately obeying the
 power of attraction1 fell upon the     
conductor of the nerves2 and thus a     
circuit of animal electricity from the  
muscles to the nerves being speedily    
effected#aj1 contractions were          
immediately produced4 ,when ,i          
communicated this experiment to the     
,institute1 ,i was extremely desirous   
that the apparatus ,i had here invented 
for the purposes of animal electricity  
might be of some advantage to the       
science of philosophy in general1 of    
which ,i was always fond1 and which     
formed the chief object of my study4    
,but it is necessary that ,i should     
mention to what ,i more particularly    
allude4  ,,xii4 ,such bodies as had     
hitherto been put into the air pump were

 gradually subjected to the action of a 
vacuum4 ,hence it appeared that the     
apparatus above described might be      
attended with a considerable degree of  
utility2 as in future1 any body         
whatever1 whether solid or fluid1 might 
be subjected to this action at once4    
,for1 the lower part of the receiver    
being deprived of its internal air1 if  
the bladder be burst by means of the    
glass rod1 the fluid will run down and  
occupy the space emptied of air1 leaving
 a vacuum in the upper part4 ,when the  
fluid has thus fallen to the lower part 
of the receiver1 solid bodies even1 if  
any were immersed in it while in the    
upper part of the receiver1 will also   
experience the action of the vacuum4    
,but liquid bodies are of such a nature1
 that they have united with them certain
 ariform fluids1 which1 when the        
pressure of the air is removed1 readily 
expand4 ,a fluid1 therefore1 when it has
 fallen to the lower part of the        
receiver1 being agitated and thrown into

 a state of perturbation by the motion1 
its most subtle principles will be      
extricated1 and fill the capacity of the
 bell4 ,the vacuum will then be         
disturbed by the evaporation1 which1    
acting on the mercury in the barometer  
connected with the air pump1 will cause 
it to fall4 ,but every one acquainted   
with the principles of philosophy must  
know1 that the depression of the mercury
 in the barometer will be greater1      
according as a greater quantity of      
ariform fluids has been disengaged in   
the receiver2 and if the degree of      
pressure in the barometer varies        
according to the variety of ariform     
principles1 it may be readily seen1 that
 this method may be employed to         
determine the quantity of them1 or their
 elasticity1 since they are cut off from
 all communication with the surrounding 
atmosphere1 though it still exercises   
its pressure upon them4  ,,xiii4 ,the   
vacuum here obtained in the upper part  
of the bell1 seems to be far superior to

 that produced in the lower part1       
according to the usual method4 ,for it  
has long been a complaint among         
philosophers1 that by working the air   
pump the air is only rarefied1 till it  
no longer possesses elasticity capable  
of raising the valve1 so that it is     
impossible to produce a complete vacuum 
by this method4 ,if we can credit the   
followers of ,euler1 that subtle fluid1 
which they call ether1 and which        
permeates every thing1 still remains2   
for1 adopting the opinion of the antient
 ,peripatetics1 they consider a vacuum  
as beneath the dignity of nature4 ,but1 
setting aside this question1 ,i shall   
only observe1 that if a vacuum be formed
 in the upper part of the receiver1 by  
the method above described1 it does not 
appear that it can be disturbed by any  
thing from without1 and the gravity of  
the falling fluid will not suffer itself
 to be overcome by the subtle ether1 if 
any really exists4 ,should it be        
apprehended that the air contained in   

the oil may be disengaged1 and disturb  
the vacuum1 you may substitute in its   
stead mercury or water1 which can be    
deprived of air either by boiling or by 
long exposure to the action of a vacuum4
 ,but before any thing certain on this  
subject can be said1 new and repeated   
experiments will be necessary4 ,as every
 objection that could be made in regard 
to a vacuum seems now to be obviated1   
since a space perfectly free from common
 air can be produced1 and cut off from  
all communication with the atmosphere1  
or with conducting bodies1 ,i shall     
return to animal electricity1 from which
 ,i was led by a desire of contributing 
towards the improvement of natural      
philosophy in general4  ,,xiv4 ,those   
who attempt to determine the velocity of
 the nervous fluid in a given time1     
undertake a matter of great difficulty1 
respecting which nothing certain can be 
known4 ,haller rejected the suppositions
 of those who1 comparing the tenuity of 
the nervous tubes of the heart with the 

large branch of the aorta1 were of      
opinion1 that the velocity of the       
nervous fluid must be two thousand eight
 hundred and eighty times greater than  
that of the blood4 ,this celebrated     
physician1 distrusting hypothesis1 had  
recourse to experiment1 and found that  
the velocity of the nervous fluid would 
be no less than nine thousand feet in   
the first minute4 ,but in this          
determination of the velocity of the    
nervous fluid there seems to be some    
difficulty1 which perhaps ought to be   
ascribed rather to the period when that 
celebrated man lived1 than to his want  
of sagacity or accuracy4 ,had ,haller   
possessed the means of conveying the    
nervous fluid with his own hands to     
different parts at pleasure1 he would no
 doubt have given us some more certain  
ideas respecting its rapid motion4 ,i   
resolved1 therefore1 not to neglect     
those advantages with which the modern  
philosophy has been enriched1 and to    
employ very long metallic arcs1 by which

 ,i could direct the animal electricity 
as ,i pleased4 ,a staircase which       
reached from the top to the bottom of   
the house1 with many windings1 presented
 me with an iron plate1 exceedingly     
convenient for the transmission of      
animal electricity4 ,a metal wire1      
brought down from the top of the        
staircase1 was connected with the iron  
plate1 and by these means ,i obtained an
 arc1 the length of which was above one 
hundred and fifty feet4 ,when this      
arrangement was made1 the two           
extremities of this very long arc were  
applied to the armed nerves and muscles 
of a frog2 and the animal electricity   
being thus excited1 instantly proceeded 
with so much velocity from the one      
extremity of the arc to the other1 that 
no difference could be perceived between
 the time when the frog touched the arc1
 and that when it began to be agitated4 
,but to show that this result was not   
owing entirely to the metallic          
conductor1 ,i employed long ropes dipped

 in salt water1 and always with the same
 effect4 ,this circumstance seems to    
prove1 in a striking manner1 a great    
similarity between the nervous fluid and
 common electricity1 and to overturn the
 opinion of ,haller1 who1 according to  
his calculations1 makes the nervous     
fluid require a second for passing over 
the space of #aej feet4  ,,xv4          
,according to ,beccaria1 a celebrated   
observer of the propagation of the      
electric fluid1 there are two ways of   
its being transmitted2 one when it flows
 through conducting bodies only1 and the
 other when1 being collected in         
non-conducting bodies1 it proceeds from 
the coating electric by excess to that  
which is in the contrary state4 ,in the 
one case1 ,beccaria establishes a       
certain time for its passage2 in the    
other he allows none4 ,this celebrated  
man observed1 that the electric matter  
was conveyed from the conductor of a    
machine1 along a metallic wire #ejj feet
 in length1 in the course of a second2  

in its passage along a hempen rope of   
the same length1 it employed seven      
seconds2 but when the rope was moistened
 with water1 it required only two or    
nearly three vibrations of a pendulum4  
,when he discharged a ,leyden flask by  
the longest conductor1 he was never able
 to observe the least interval of time4 
,the same thing was remarked by         
,jallabert1 ,sigaud de la ,fond1 and    
other philosophers1 who performed their 
experiments1 not in an apartment but in 
the open air2 and conveyed the electric 
fluid in this manner for a considerable 
distance along the banks of large       
rivers4 ,monnier extended two iron      
wires#aa in an open field1 parallel to  
each other1 for the distance of #eajg   
feet2 and a man placed between them held
 in his hands the extremity of the      
conductors1 keeping them at a little    
distance from his body4 8,but the man1  
who was in the middle of the arc10 says 
the author1 8while he saw the spark     
issue from the jar1 received the shock3 

he could have distinguished the smallest
 interval of time between the explosion 
and the shock2 and if it had amounted to
 the fourth part of a second1 it could  
have easily been remarked40  ,,xvi4     
,while reflecting on these facts1 ,i    
formed a conjecture from the great      
celerity with which animal electricity  
is conveyed1 respecting the manner in   
which it is evolved4 ,if the animal     
electricity were conveyed from a muscle 
to a nerve1 or vice versa1 in the same  
manner as the common electric fluid is  
conveyed from the machine by the chain1 
it would have been observed to employ   
some time1 however small1 in its        
passage4 ,as ,i at first ascribed this  
to the shortness of the conductor ,i had
 used1 ,i extended it to more than #bej 
,parisian feet1 and applied the nerves  
and muscles of a frog to this new       
conductor in the manner above described1
 without observing the least obstacle to
 the passage of the electric fluid4 ,as 
this arc formed a half of that employed 

by ,beccaria1 the space of half a second
 would have been required1 if we        
consider in this passage only one kind  
of electricity4 ,but the half second    
required according to the observations  
of ,beccaria was not observed3 it       
therefore appears1 that this propagation
 of animal electricity ought not to be  
referred to the first-mentioned case1   
but to that where equilibrium is        
restored between the negative and       
positive state4  ,,xvii4 ,this rapid    
conveyance of animal electricity1       
however1 is entirely stopped1 if the    
metallic arc be intercepted1 not only by
 non-conducting but by certain          
conducting bodies4 ,here then we have   
again occasion for the action of two    
contrary kinds of electricity4 ,for the 
electric matter1 whether positive or    
negative1 when conveyed from the machine
 to the chain1 pervades all bodies in   
the same manner1 provided they be       
conductors4 ,thus the metallic conductor
 of the machine1 the insulated person1  

and all other bodies that may be        
connected with it1 become electric in   
the same manner4 ,but the same electric 
matter collected in non-conducting      
bodies requires1 before it can be       
discharged1 certain conditions in the   
conducting bodies by which it is        
discharged4 ,when the metallic arc is   
interrupted by a little water1 the      
,leyden flask1 if it contain a moderate 
quantity of electricity1 cannot be      
discharged2 for the two contrary kinds  
of electricity to be discharged require 
that every part of the arc should be    
equally endowed with the property       
necessary for conducting the electric   
fluid4 ,but in the case of only one kind
 of electricity1 it would pass with     
great readiness either through water or 
metal4 ,let us now apply these phnomena 
of general electricity to the theory of 
animal electricity4 ,in the experiment  
mentioned in the sixth section1 if only 
one kind of electricity proceeded from  
the nerves or the muscles1 it would be  

immediately conveyed from the nerve to  
the metal1 then to the vacuum back to   
the metal1 and thence to the muscle1 as 
being the place from which it issued4   
,besides1 the electricity propagated in 
this manner would have produced         
contractions1 which however were not    
observed4 ,the progress of the animal   
electricity1 therefore1 experienced     
considerable obstacles1 not only from   
non-conducting but also from conducting 
bodies2 which affords a strong proof    
that electricity exists and is collected
 in the muscular fibre1 in the same     
manner as in non-conducting bodies4 ,but
 the remarkable quickness of the        
progress of animal electricity leads me 
to the ,leyden flask2 and therefore ,i  
shall here say a few words respecting   
the analogy between the phnomena it     
exhibits1 and those of animal           
electricity2 and give an account of the 
reasons which first induced me to enter 
on this comparison4  ,,xviii4 ,when     
public meetings were held at the house  

of ,galvani1 for the purpose of         
discussing the theory of animal         
electricity1 great doubts were          
entertained respecting two contrary     
kinds of electricity acting in animals4 
,the reasoning on this subject1 which   
displays acuteness and ingenuity1 was as
 follows3 ,if two kinds of electricity1 
one positive and the other negative1    
prevailed in the nerves and muscles of  
animals1 on applying the muscles of one 
frog to the armed nerve of another1 we  
should observe contractions2 which      
however is not found to be the case4    
,the proposed doubt1 however1 gave me   
considerable uneasiness1 as the dispute 
on that subject seemed to lay a         
foundation for many objections against  
the theory of animal electricity4 ,but  
the novelty of this event will excite no
 astonishment in those who consider the 
subject with attention3 nay1 it would   
rather seem astonishing if the matter   
were otherwise4 ,the phnomena in the    
above experiment are perfectly agreeable

 to the laws of general electricity1 and
 to the theory of the new animal ,leyden
 flask4 ,for1 if we suppose the muscles 
of the frog furnished with nerves to    
represent so many ,leyden flasks1 no    
contractions ought to be expected from  
them1 in circumstances under which      
,leyden flasks themselves would produce 
no explosion4 ,this we always observe in
 two electric jars1 neither of which is 
discharged when the arc is established  
between the exterior coating of the one 
and the interior coating of the other4  
,if the muscles1 therefore1 in the above
 experiment1 represent ,leyden flasks1  
in cases in which no explosion could    
take place in the latter no contractions
 can be observed in the former4  ,,xix4 
,for the sake of illustrating the       
proposed analogy1 it will be proper that
 ,i should here explain the conditions  
under which contractions are produced by
 the application of two frogs to each   
other1 and compare them with the        
phnomena of the ,leyden flasks4 ,i shall

 therefore show1 in a few words1 the    
different methods in which several frogs
 are made to contract at the same time1 
and in which ,leyden jars are           
discharged4 ,place on a glass plate two 
frogs1 one of which has its spinal      
marrow armed1 and let a communication be
 established between its muscles and the
 spinal marrow of another frog1 by means
 of a small metallic chain4 ,if the arc 
be formed from the armed spinal marrow  
of the one frog to the muscles of the   
other1 contractions will be produced in 
both4 ,let us now apply to ,leyden      
flasks the arrangement followed with the
 frogs4 ,if two electric ,leyden jars   
stand on a glass plate1 when an arc is  
applied1 some electricity will be       
elicited2 but an absolute explosion will
 never be produced4 ,if one extremity of
 a metallic wire1 however1 be brought in
 contact with the inside of one of the  
,leyden jars1 and the other with the    
exterior coating of the other1 on       
applying an arc to the other two        

coatings1 which have no communication   
with the metallic wire that has been    
added1 an explosion will take place1 and
 both the jars will be discharged4 ,but 
the above contractions may be produced  
in a manner still simpler4 ,if the      
spinal marrow of one frog be united to  
the muscles of another1 as soon as an   
arc is formed from the spinal marrow of 
the armed frog to the remote muscles of 
the other1 strong contractions will be  
produced in both4 ,the analogy between  
animal and artificial electricity1 which
 is the object of our research1 will    
always be apparent in this experiment4  
,two charged ,leyden flasks1 suspended  
in such a manner from the conductor of  
the machine that the exterior coating of
 the one is connected with the interior 
coating of the other1 form a very happy 
representation of the frogs2 for1 the   
same arc being applied1 and in the same 
manner1 both to the frogs and the       
,leyden flasks1 when an explosion is    
produced by the latter contractions will

 take place in the former4  ,,xx4       
,hitherto the contractions have been    
produced by establishing the arc from   
the nerve of one frog to the muscles of 
another3 but contractions will take     
place in both1 if the arc be conveyed   
from the armed spinal marrow of the one 
to the armed spinal marrow of the other1
 provided care be taken that            
corresponding muscles communicate       
alternately with the conducting body4   
,but it is much more difficult to       
reconcile this phnomenon than the former
 to the general laws of electricity4    
,this difficulty1 however1 may be       
obviated1 if we suppose that the one    
frog1 in consequence of its natural     
moisture1 forms an arc to the other4    
,this indeed was first confirmed by the 
experiments of ,galvani2 for1 having    
divided a frog lengthwise1 both parts   
were connected merely by their          
moisture#ab4 ,yet1 when the arc touched 
one of the separated parts1 the other   
was immediately contracted4 ,as this    

explanation is so obvious1 nothing      
further needs be said on the subject4   
,but ,i was unwilling to leave in a     
state of uncertainty the analogy between
 the phnomena of animal electricity and 
those of the ,leyden flask1 the         
wonderful agreement of which had so much
 excited my astonishment3 and indeed ,i 
had no cause to repent of my            
perseverance2 for1 though it did not    
enable me to attain to what ,i proposed1
 it conducted me to some general        
phnomena of electricity1 which no one   
perhaps had before made an object of    
research4 ,i discovered that one ,leyden
 flask may be applied as an arc to      
another4 ,i provided two insulated      
,leyden jars of the same capacity1 one  
of them charged and the other uncharged1
 and established a communication between
 the exterior coating of both1 by means 
of a conducting body2 and having then   
formed an arc from the interior coating 
of the one to that of the other1 there  
was an immediate transmission of the    

electricity with an explosion2 and at   
the same time the flask which at first  
was uncharged became charged4 ,if ,i    
formed an arc with my arms and hands1 ,i
 experienced a considerable shock during
 the passage of the electric fluid4     
,when ,i observed this effect1 ,i       
conceived it was not contrary to the    
principles of philosophy to suppose that
 the one frog1 in respect to the other1 
represented a ,leyden flask1 and at the 
same time acted the part of an arc4     
,,xxi4 ,some1 perhaps1 will object to   
this analogy1 that in the above         
experiments the flask destitute of      
electricity forms the arc2 while1 on the
 contrary1 both flasks ought to be      
charged to represent properly the       
muscles and nerves of frogs1 which both 
possess electricity4 ,but the very same 
phnomenon is observed in two charged    
flasks1 provided one of them is charged 
with more electricity than the other4   
,hence1 in support of our analogy1 we   
need only assume1 that the quantity of  

electricity in the one frog is a little 
different from that of the other2 a     
supposition which1 in forming an        
hypothesis1 the severest philosopher may
 allow4 ,i shall say nothing of the     
great variety and connection of the     
elements of which animal bodies are     
composed1 and which on this account     
require a difference in the quantity of 
the animal electricity4 ,it appears by  
some late experiments of ,valli#ac1 that
 animal electricity is discharged in the
 same manner as that which is collected 
in non-conducting bodies4 ,it is        
likewise proved1 that the same arc and  
the same armatures1 according to the    
various consensus and connection of the 
nerves1 and according to the different  
positions in which they are applied1    
elicit a larger or smaller quantity of  
electricity1 and sometimes none at all4 
,those indeed who consider these        
observations will hardly think it       
possible1 when animal ,leyden flasks    
consist of so many different parts1 that

 there should not be some difference in 
the electricity collected4 ,but there is
 no need of employing conjecture in     
regard to a point1 which is confirmed   
not only in regard to animals1 but in   
all conducting bodies1 by the ingenious 
observations of ,coulomb#ad2 for it is  
fully established that the electric     
matter is communicated and accumulated  
different ways on the surface of        
conducting bodies4 ,but if this         
phnomenon takes place in conducting     
bodies the parts of which are           
homogeneous1 there is no reason to deny 
that it may appear in animals in which  
provident nature has so intermixed      
conducting with non-conducting parts1 in
 order that the action of animal        
electricity might not be short and      
transient1 but constant and durable4    
,,xxii4 ,but if the diversity in the    
structure of animal bodies require that 
the force and power of the animal       
electricity1 collected in the           
corresponding muscles1 should be        

different1 a singular agreement will    
appear between the phnomena of the      
,leyden flask and those of animal       
electricity4 ,if an insulated person    
touch two flasks containing equal       
quantities of electricity1 however      
great1 he will experience no shock2 but 
if one of the flasks contain a greater  
charge than the other1 he will receive a
 shock according to the ratio of the    
difference of the electricity of the    
flasks4 ,though the frogs therefore     
represent two ,leyden flasks1 one of    
them may act the part of an arc1 and    
produce an equilibrium1 provided it be  
allowed that there is a difference      
between the quantities of the           
electricities collected4 ,i have here   
endeavoured to establish the proposed   
analogy1 not because ,i suppose the     
muscles to be so many ,leyden flasks1   
such as they are exhibited to us by the 
ingenuity of philosophers1 but in order 
to show that many phnomena are common to
 both2 nor have ,i applied animal       

electricity to explain all the phnomena 
of muscular motion1 with a view of      
obtaining applause from those who are   
zealous advocates for this theory4 ,i   
must also observe1 that if in the       
prosecution of this object ,i have met  
with any anomalies1 ,i do not on that   
account despise the agreement of the    
laws of philosophy which have been      
established by so much labour4 ,several 
of the phnomena observed by ,galvani and
 others have served me as a foundation  
for the proposed analogy1 and induced me
 to extend1 if possible1 its boundaries4
 ,but going back to the origin of animal
 electricity1 since it belongs to the   
subject1 ,i shall here take a general   
view of the whole1 and express the      
substance of it in a few corollaries4   
,,xxiii4 ,the corollaries ,i propose    
will follow the order of time in which  
they arose1 and therefore will express  
the gradual improvement of animal       
electricity4  #a4 ,animal electricity   
passes freely through bodies which      

possess nearly the same degree of       
conducting power1 but it does not pass  
through non-conducting bodies4  #b4 ,it 
is affected by the obstacles which      
occur1 not only in non-conducting but in
 conducting bodies1 as well as by their 
varieties2 and if these obstacles be    
numerous1 its passage is stopped3 but if
 it be possible to overcome them1 the   
impediment causes it to make a more     
powerful effort to attain to a state of 
equilibrium4 ,hence1 unlike armatures   
and arcs are of great effect in exciting
 a moderate degree of electricity1 when 
the same electricity resists the power  
of a homogeneous metal4  #c4 ,animal    
electricity obeys the law of            
equilibrium2 for1 when the muscles have 
been brought to a state of equilibrium  
with the corresponding nerves1 no       
contractions are produced by the        
application of an arc2 but if that which
 produces the equilibrium be removed1   
the contractions immediately take place4
  #d4 ,poisons1 mephitic air1 ariform   

fluids1 and condensed air1 do not       
prevent animal electricity from being   
excited4  #e4 ,the influence of a vacuum
 on animal electricity is various4 ,in  
dead animals1 if kept a long time in    
vacuo1 the animal electricity is        
weakened3 in living animals it is       
considerably increased4  #f4 ,though a  
vacuum does not prevent the electricity 
from being excited1 it will not serve as
 a conductor of it when it has been     
excited3 if an arc from the nerves to   
the muscles be intercepted by the       
smallest vacuum1 no contractions take   
place4  #g4 ,as metallic armatures are  
of great effect in attracting and       
collecting artificial electricity1 the  
case is the same with animal            
electricity2 but care must be taken not 
to ascribe to them that electricity     
which the muscles naturally possess4    
#h4 ,though unlike armatures have a     
great effect in calling forth animal    
electricity1 we have reason to conclude 
from several experiments1 that they do  

not contain two kinds of electricity    
capable of producing muscular motion4   
#i4 ,as natural electricity issues with 
great force from sharp-pointed bodies1  
and proceeds to them more readily than  
to others1 the case is the same in      
regard to animal electricity1 as it     
issues more readily from the pointed    
parts of the metallic arming applied to 
the nerves and muscles4  #aj4 ,the      
nervo-electric fluid is propagated with 
that rapidity which is required in      
restoring to an equilibrium two opposite
 kinds of electricity4  #aa4 ,the same  
conditions which cause two flasks to be 
discharged when an arc is established   
from the exterior coating of the one to 
the interior coating of the other1      
excite contractions in two frogs1 when  
an arc is formed from the nerve of one  
to the muscles of the other4  #ab4 ,the 
arc applied as above mentioned to the   
interior coating of two phials1 and to  
the nerves of two frogs1 seems to give  
more force to the proposed analogy2 for 

the electric explosions have a great    
similarity to the muscular motions      
excited in the frogs4  ,i might have    
enlarged the number of these            
corollaries1 had not the well-known fate
 of various opinions1 now consigned to  
oblivion1 rendered me more timid in     
hazarding conjectures4 ,i1 however1 did 
not allow myself to think that ,i ought 
so far to give way to my timidity as to 
check the spirit of inquiry1 or to      
abandon the hope of one day attaining to
 the truth4 ,but it would be            
unreasonable to expect in animal        
electricity1 which is yet in its        
infancy1 that precision and those       
satisfactory results which can be the   
work only of time1 and of the continued 
labour of philosophers4        #g ,as   
this term is improperly used by         
philosophers1 ,i must      here observe1
 that ,i shall in future understand by  
it air      highly rarefied by the usual
 means4       #h ,in the description of 
a new air-pump of his invention1        

where he shows that electricity cannot  
pass through a      vacuum1 he adds3    
8,there can be little doubt1 from the   
above      experiment1 of the           
non-conducting power of a perfect       
vacuum2      and this fact is still more
 strongly confirmed by the              
phnomena1 which appear upon the         
admission of a very minute      particle
 of air into the inside of the gauge4   
,in this case1      the whole becomes   
immediately luminous upon the slightest 
application of electricity2 and a charge
 takes place1 which      continues to   
grow more and more powerful1 in         
proportion as      fresh air is         
admitted1 till the density of the       
conducting      medium arrives at its   
maximum4 ,an ,essay on ,electricity1    
explaining the ,theory and ,practice of 
that useful ,science4      ,third edit4 
,london1 #aghg4       #i ,josephi       
,gardini de ,electrici ,ignis ,natura   
,dissertatio1      ,regi ,scientiarum   
,academi ,mantuan exhibita1 ,mantu      

#agib1      p4 #ajj4       #aj ,this may
 be accomplished in a much more simple  
manner1      without the aid of a       
magnet1 by connecting a wire with the   
lower part of the nerves1 and applying  
the wire to the      muscles by turning 
the rod round4       #aa ,prcis         
historique et exprimental des ,phnomnes 
lectriques1 par ,m4 ,sigaud de la ,fond1
 ,paris #agha1 sect4 i4      art4 #d4   
#ab ,aloysii ,galvani de ,viribus       
,electricitatis in ,motu      musculari 
,commentarius1 ,mutin iterum editus1 p4 
#bi4       #ac ,m4 ,valli ,cinquime et  
,huitime ,lettre sur l',electricit      
,animale1 dans ,observations sur la     
,physique1 par ,m4 l',abb      ,rozier1 
tom4 xlii4 ,paris1 #agib4       #ad     
,recherches sur la ,distribution de     
,fluide ,electrique      entre plusieurs
 ,corps ,conducteurs1 et la             
,dtermination de la      ,densit        
,electrique dans les diffrens ,parties  
de la ,surface      de ces ,corps4 ,mem4
 de l',acad4 ,royale des ,sciences1 ,an4

      #aghh4     ,,conclusion4   ,i     
publish my experiments respecting       
muscular contractions produced by one   
metal with the greater confidence1 as   
they were repeated different ways by the
 celebrated ,humboldt1 who has adopted  
my opinion4 ,in his work on ,galvanism1 
under the head which he entitles        
8,answer to the ,objections made by     
,volta to the ,experiments of ,aldini10 
he says1 8,j4 ,aldini of ,bologna       
invented a very ingenious apparatus1 by 
means of which he was enabled to refute 
the supposition of ,professor ,volta4   
,for this purpose he had recourse to    
mercury3 every thing relating to his    
experiments is very well represented in 
the plate which accompanies his memoir4 
,volta1 in reply to these experiments1  
observes1 that they can impose only on  
those who have not thoroughly examined  
them4 ,he denies the facts related by   
,aldini1 and persists in his opinion    
that the phnomena of ,galvanism may all 
be referred to the laws of              

heterogeneity4 ,in regard to the        
experiments made with mercury1 he says  
that there is a great difference between
 the surface of this metal and the      
interior of its mass2 because the       
surface becomes oxidated by the contact 
of the atmospheric air2 that            
consequently1 in the experiment of      
,aldini1 the conducting arc is not      
really but apparently homogeneous1 the  
organs being immersed to different      
depths in the metal3 besides1 that the  
mercury in these experiments produces a 
shock2 and that1 as this shock is not   
the same at both extremities of the arc1
 the result is an unequal development of
 electricity4 ,volta1 therefore1 opposes
 to the phnomena described by ,aldini   
nothing but hypothesis4 ,we might reply 
in the same manner2 but as it is much   
better in philosophical disputes to have
 recourse to experiments1 ,i undertook  
some researches for the purpose of      
removing all doubt in regard to this    
subject4       8,i purified mercury by  

all the known means employed for that   
purpose4 ,i strained it several times   
through a piece of      chamois leather2
 ,i washed it with water and soap1 with 
vinegar and with alcohol4 ,it appeared  
to me that it      contained neither    
lead nor tin2 and that it was free from 
oily particles and dust3 it was         
perfectly fluid1 and divided      itself
 into small1 very round globules1 which 
did not adhere      to each other1 and  
which left behind them no traces4 ,its  
surface was as brilliant as that of     
glass1 without any      pellicle or     
spot2 and a small quantity of it being  
stirred      in a mortar with water1 did
 not communicate to it any      sensible
 colour4 ,it dissolved in nitric acid   
without      sensible effervescence1 and
 without giving any precipitate4      ,a
 large quantity of mercury thus purified
 was poured into      three porcelain   
vessels2 and as ,i was aware that1 if ,i
      performed several experiments with
 the same quantity of      mercury1 it  

might be objected1 that the metal had   
contracted      some impurity by the    
mere contact of the animal substances1  
,i made only one experiment with the    
mercury in each of the      vessels4    
8,i prepared several legs of frogs in   
such a manner that a      portion of the
 crural nerve and a part of the muscle  
of the      same length were left       
dependent4 ,i placed a glass tube in a  
horizontal direction above a vessel     
containing mercury2 made      fast to it
 two silk threads1 and suspended from it
 the thigh      of the leg in such a    
manner that the nerve and muscle could  
be made to descend at pleasure4 ,i      
brought the leg of the      frog within 
two lines of the vessel1 and then       
lengthened the      thread till the     
nerve touched the surface of the metal4 
,no      contractions took place2 but as
 soon as the nerve also was      brought
 into contact with the metal1 by        
lengthening the silk      thread1 the   
whole limb experienced a convulsive     

shock4 ,i      repeated this experiment 
with the same precaution1 employing     
the two other vessels1 and the same     
results were obtained4       8,the      
muscle and nerve touched the mercury    
only at the      surface2 they were in  
no manner immersed in the metal2 and    
care had been taken to lower them so    
gently1 that it was      impossible to  
suspect there could be any impulse1 as  
in the      experiment where ,aldini had
 caused the mercury to flow down      by
 employing a vessel shaped somewhat like
 a syphon40     ,,appendix4     ,no4 ,i4
    ,an ,account of the ,experiments    
performed by ,j4 ,aldini on the ,body of
      a ,malefactor executed at ,newgate
 ,jan4 #agth #ahjc4   ,,introduction4   
,the unenlightened part of mankind are  
apt to entertain a prejudice against    
those1 however laudable their motives1  
who attempt to perform experiments on   
dead subjects2 and the vulgar in general
 even attach a sort of odium to the     
common practice of anatomical           

dissection4 ,it is1 however1 an         
incontrovertible fact1 that such        
researches in modern times have proved a
 source of the most valuable            
information1 in regard to points highly 
interesting to the knowledge of the     
human frame1 and have contributed in an 
eminent degree to the improvement of    
physiology and anatomy4 ,enlightened    
legislators have been sensible of this  
truth2 and therefore it has been wisely 
ordained by the ,british laws1 which are
 founded on the basis of humanity and   
public benefit1 that the bodies of those
 who during life violated one of the    
most sacred rights of mankind1 should   
after execution be devoted to a purpose 
which might make some atonement for     
their crime1 by rendering their remains 
beneficial to that society which they   
offended4  ,in consequence of this      
regulation1 ,i lately had an opportunity
 of performing some new experiments1 the
 principal object of which was to       
ascertain what opinion ought to be      

formed of ,galvanism as a mean of       
excitement in cases of asphyxia and     
suspended animation4 ,the power which   
exists in the muscular fibre of animal  
bodies some time after all other signs  
of vitality have disappeared1 had before
 been examined according to the         
illustrious ,haller's doctrine of       
irritability2 but it appeared to me that
 muscular action might be excited in a  
much more efficacious manner by the     
power of the ,galvanic apparatus4  ,in  
performing these experiments1 ,i had    
another object in view4 ,being favoured 
with the assistance and support of      
gentlemen eminently well skilled in the 
art of dissection1 ,i proposed1 when the
 body should be opened1 to perform some 
new experiments which ,i never before   
attempted1 and to confirm others which  
,i had made above a year ago on the     
bodies of two robbers decapitated at    
,bologna4  ,to enlarge on the utility of
 such researches1 or to point out the   
advantages which may result from them1  

is not my object at present4 ,i shall   
here only observe1 that as the bodies of
 valuable members of society are often  
found under similar circumstances1 and  
with the same symptoms as those observed
 on executed criminals2 by subjecting   
the latter to proper experiments1 some  
speedier and more efficacious means than
 any hitherto known1 of giving relief in
 such cases1 may1 perhaps1 be           
discovered4 ,in a commercial and        
maritime country like ,britain1 where so
 many persons1 in consequence of their  
occupations at sea1 on canals1 rivers1  
and in mines1 are exposed to drowning1  
suffocation1 and other accidents1 this  
object is of the utmost importance in a 
public view1 and is entitled to every   
encouragement4  ,forster1 on whose body 
these experiments were performed1 was   
twenty-six years of age1 seemed to have 
been of a strong1 vigorous constitution1
 and was executed at ,newgate on the    
#agth of ,january #ahjc4 ,the body was  
exposed for a whole hour in a           

temperature two degrees below the       
freezing point of ,fahrenheit's         
thermometer2 at the end of which long   
interval it was conveyed to a house not 
far distant1 and1 in pursuance of the   
sentence1 was delivered to the ,college 
of ,surgeons4 ,mr4 ,keate1 master of    
that respectable society1 having been so
 kind as to place it under my direction1
 ,i readily embraced that opportunity of
 subjecting it to the ,galvanic         
stimulus1 which had never before been   
tried on persons put to death in a      
similar manner3 and the result of my    
experiments ,i now take the liberty of  
submitting to the public4   ,before ,i  
conclude this short introduction1 ,i    
consider it as my duty to acknowledge my
 obligations to ,mr4 ,,carpue1 lecturer 
on anatomy1 and ,mr4 ,,hutchins1 a      
medical pupil1 for the assistance they  
afforded me in the dissection4 ,i was   
also much indebted to ,mr4              
,,cuthbertson1 an eminent mathematical  
instrument maker1 who directed and      

arranged the ,galvanic apparatus4       
,encouraged by the aid of these         
gentlemen1 and the polite attention of  
,mr4 ,,keate1 ,i attempted a series of  
experiments1 of which the following is a
 brief account4   ,,experiment ,i4  ,one
 arc being applied to the mouth1 and    
another to the ear1 wetted with a       
solution of muriate of soda 7common     
salt71 ,galvanism was communicated by   
means of three troughs combined         
together1 each of which contained forty 
plates of zinc1 and as many of copper4  
,on the first application of the arcs   
the jaw began to quiver1 the adjoining  
muscles were horribly contorted1 and the
 left eye actually opened4              
,,experiment ,,ii4  ,on applying the arc
 to both ears1 a motion of the head was 
manifested1 and a convulsive action of  
all the muscles of the face3 the lips   
and eyelids were also evidently         
affected2 but the action seemed much    
increased by making one extremity of the
 arc to communicate with the nostrils1  

the other continuing in one ear4        
,,experiment ,,iii4  ,the conductors    
being applied to the ear1 and to the    
rectum1 excited in the muscles          
contractions much stronger than in the  
preceding experiments4 ,the action even 
of those muscles furthest distant from  
the points of contact with the arc was  
so much increased as almost to give an  
appearance of re-animation4             
,,experiment ,,iv4  ,in this state1     
wishing to try the power of ordinary    
stimulants1 ,i applied volatile alkali  
to the nostrils and to the mouth1 but   
without the least sensible action3 on   
applying ,galvanism great action was    
constantly produced4 ,i then            
administered the ,galvanic stimulus and 
volatile alkali together2 the           
convulsions appeared to be much         
increased by this combination1 and      
extended from the muscles of the head1  
face1 and neck1 as far as the deltoid4  
,the effect in this case surpassed our  
most sanguine expectations1 and vitality

 might1 perhaps1 have been restored1 if 
many circumstances had not rendered it  
impossible4   ,,experiment ,v4  ,i next 
extended the arc from one ear to the    
biceps flexor cubiti1 the fibres of     
which had been laid bare by dissection4 
,this produced violent convulsions in   
all the muscles of the arm1 and         
especially in the biceps and the coraco 
brachialis even without the intervention
 of salt water4   ,,experiment ,,vi4    
,an incision having been made in the    
wrist1 among the small filaments of the 
nerves and cellular membrane1 on        
bringing the arc into contact with this 
part1 a very strong action of the       
muscles of the fore-arm and hand was    
immediately perceived4 ,in this1 as in  
the last experiment1 the animal moisture
 was sufficient to conduct the ,galvanic
 stimulus without the intervention of   
salt water4   ,,experiment ,,vii4  ,the 
short muscles of the thumb were         
dissected1 and submitted to the action  
of the ,galvanic apparatus1 which       

induced a forcible effort to clench the 
hand4   ,,experiment ,,viii4  ,the      
effects of ,galvanism in this experiment
 were compared with those of other      
stimulants4 ,for this purpose1 the point
 of the scalpel was applied to the      
fibres1 and even introduced into the    
substance of the biceps flexor cubiti   
without producing the slightest motion4 
,the same result was obtained from the  
use of caustic volatile alkali and      
concentrated sulphuric acid4 ,the latter
 even corroded the muscle1 without      
bringing it into action4   ,,experiment 
,,ix4  ,having opened the thorax and the
 pericardium1 exposing the heart in     
situ1 ,i endeavoured to excite action in
 the ventricles1 but without success4   
,the arc was first applied upon the     
surface1 then in the substance of the   
fibres1 to the carne column1 to the     
septum ventriculorum1 and lastly1 in the
 course of the nerves by the coronary   
arteries1 even with salt water          
interposed1 but without the slightest   

visible action being induced4           
,,experiment ,x4  ,in this experiment   
the arc was conveyed to the right       
auricle1 and produced a considerable    
contraction1 without the intervention of
 salt water1 but especially in that part
 called the appendix auricularis3 in the
 left auricle scarcely any action was   
exhibited4   ,,experiment ,,xi4         
,conductors being applied from the      
spinal marrow to the fibres of the      
biceps flexor cubiti1 the gluteus       
maximus1 and the gastrocnemius1         
separately1 no considerable action in   
the muscles of the arm and leg was      
produced4   ,,experiment ,,xii4  ,the   
sciatic nerve being exposed between the 
great trochanter of the femur and the   
tuberosity of the ischium1 and the arc  
being established from the spinal marrow
 to the nerve divested of its theca1 we 
observed1 to our astonishment1 that no  
contraction whatever ensued in the      
muscles1 although salt water was used at
 both extremities of the arc4 ,but the  

conductor being made to communicate with
 the fibres of the muscles and the      
cellular membrane1 as strong an action  
as before was manifested4   ,,experiment
 ,,xiii4  ,by making the arc to         
communicate with the sciatic nerve and  
the gastrocnemius muscle1 a very feeble 
action was produced in the latter4      
,,experiment ,,xiv4  ,conductors being  
applied from the sciatic to the peronal 
nerve1 scarcely any motion was excited  
in the muscles4   ,,experiment ,,xv4    
,the sciatic nerve being divided about  
the middle of the thigh1 on applying the
 conductors from the biceps flexor      
cruris to the gastrocnemius1 there      
ensued a powerful contraction of both4  
,i must here observe that the muscles   
continued excitable for seven hours and 
a half after the execution4 ,the troughs
 were frequently renewed1 yet towards   
the close they were very much exhausted4
 ,no doubt1 with a stronger apparatus we
 might have observed muscular action    
much longer2 for1 after the experiments 

had been continued for three or four    
hours1 the power of a single trough was 
not sufficient to excite the action of  
the muscles3 the assistance of a more   
powerful apparatus was required4 ,this  
shows that such a long series of        
experiments could not have been         
performed by the simple application of  
metallic coatings4 ,i am of opinion     
that1 in general1 these coatings1       
invented in the first instance by       
,galvani1 are passive4 ,they serve      
merely to conduct the fluid pre-existent
 in the animal system2 whereas1 with the
 ,galvanic batteries of ,volta1 the     
muscles are excited to action by the    
influence of the apparatus itself4      
99     99     99     99     99  ,from   
the above experiments there is reason to
 conclude3   ,i4  ,that ,galvanism      
exerts a considerable power over the    
nervous and muscular systems1 and       
operates universally on the whole of the
 animal conomy4   ,,ii4  ,that the power
 of ,galvanism1 as a stimulant1 is      

stronger than any mechanical action     
whatever4   ,,iii4  ,that the effects of
 ,galvanism on the human frame differ   
from those produced by electricity      
communicated with common electrical     
machines4   ,,iv4  ,that ,galvanism1    
whether administered by means of        
troughs1 or piles1 differs in its       
effects from those produced by the      
simple metallic coatings employed by    
,galvani4   ,v4  ,that when the surfaces
 of the nerves and muscles are armed    
with metallic coatings1 the influence of
 the ,galvanic batteries is conveyed to 
a greater number of points1 and acts    
with considerably more force in         
producing contractions of the muscular  
fibre4   ,,vi4  ,that the action of     
,galvanism on the heart is different    
from that on other muscles4 ,for1 when  
the heart is no longer susceptible of   
,galvanic influence1 the other muscles  
remain still excitable for a certain    
time4 ,it is also remarkable that the   
action produced by ,galvanism on the    

auricles is different from that produced
 on the ventricles of the heart1 as is  
demonstrated in ,experiment the tenth4  
,,vii4  ,that ,galvanism affords very   
powerful means of resuscitation in cases
 of suspended animation under common    
circumstances4 ,the remedies already    
adopted in asphyxia1 drowning1 c4 when  
combined with the influence of          
,galvanism1 will produce much greater   
effect than either of them separately4  
99     99     99     99     99  ,to     
conclude this subject1 it may be        
acceptable to the reader to have a short
 but accurate account of the appearances
 exhibited on the dissection of the     
body1 which was performed with the      
greatest care and precision by ,mr4     
,carpue4       8,the blood in the head  
was not extravasated1 but several       
vessels were prodigiously swelled1 and  
the lungs entirely      deprived of air2
 there was a great inflammation in the  
intestines1 and the bladder was fully   
distended with urine4      ,in general1 

upon viewing the body1 it appeared that 
death      had been immediately produced
 by a real suffocation40  ,it may be    
observed1 if credit can be given to some
 loose reports1 which hitherto it has   
not been in our power to substantiate1  
that after this man had been for some   
time suspended1 means were employed with
 a view to put an end to his sufferings4
  ,from the preceding narrative it will 
be easily perceived1 that our object in 
applying the treatment here described   
was not to produce re-animation1 but    
merely to obtain a practical knowledge  
how far ,galvanism might be employed as 
an auxiliary to other means in attempts 
to revive persons under similar         
circumstances4  ,in cases when suspended
 animation has been produced by natural 
causes1 it is found that the pulsations 
of the heart and arteries become totally
 imperceptible2 therefore1 when it is to
 be restored1 it is necessary to        
re-establish the circulation throughout 
the whole system4 ,but this cannot be   

done without re-establishing also the   
muscular powers which have been         
suspended1 and to these the application 
of ,galvanism gives new energy4  ,i am  
far from wishing to raise any objections
 against the administration of the other
 remedies which are already known1 and  
which have long been used4 ,i would only
 recommend ,galvanism as the most       
powerful mean hitherto discovered of    
assisting and increasing the efficacy of
 every other stimulant4  ,volatile      
alkali1 as already observed1 produced no
 effect whatever on the body when       
applied alone2 but1 being used          
conjointly with ,galvanism1 the power of
 the latter over the nervous and        
muscular system was greatly increased3  
nay1 it is possible that volatile       
alkali1 owing to its active powers      
alone1 might convey the ,galvanic fluid 
to the brain with greater facility1 by  
which means its action would become much
 more powerful in cases of suspended    
animation4 ,the well known method of    

injecting atmospheric air ought not to  
be neglected2 but here1 likewise1 in    
order that the lungs may be prepared for
 its reception1 it would be proper      
previously to use ,galvanism1 to excite 
the muscular action1 and to assist the  
whole animal system to resume its vital 
functions4 ,under this view1 the        
experiments of which ,i have just given 
an account1 may be of great public      
utility4  ,it is with heartfelt         
gratitude that ,i recall to mind the    
politeness and lively interest shown by 
the members of the ,college of ,surgeons
 in the prosecution of these            
experiments4 ,mr4 ,keate1 the master1 in
 particular proposed to make comparative
 experiments on animals1 in order to    
give support to the deductions resulting
 from those on the human body4 ,mr4     
,blicke observed that on similar        
occasions it would be proper to immerse 
the body in a warm salt bath1 in order  
to ascertain how far it might promote   
the action of ,galvanism on the whole   

surface of the body4 ,dr4 ,pearson      
recommended oxygen gas to be substituted
 instead of the atmospheric air blown   
into the lungs4 ,it gives me great      
pleasure to have an opportunity of      
communicating these observations to the 
public1 in justice to the eminent       
characters who suggested them1 and as an
 inducement to physiologists not to     
overlook the minutest circumstance which
 may tend to improve experiments that   
promise so greatly to relieve the       
sufferings of mankind4     ,no4 ,,ii4   
,report presented to the ,class of the  
,exact ,sciences of the ,academy      of
 ,turin1 #aeth ,august #ahjb1 in regard 
to the ,galvanic ,experiments      made 
by ,c4 ,,vassali-,,eandi1 ,,giulio1 and 
,,rossi1 on the #ajth and      #adth of 
the same ,month1 on the ,bodies of three
 ,men a short ,time      after their    
,decapitation4 ,by ,c4 ,,giulio4   ,the 
,first ,consul1 in a letter to ,chaptal1
 in which he announced to that minister 
the two prizes he had founded to        

encourage philosophers to make new      
researches in regard to ,galvanism1     
says1 8,galvanism1 in my opinion1 will  
lead to great discoveries40 ,this       
observation was just and profound3 great
 discoveries have already been made2    
,galvani and ,volta have immortalized   
their names1 and several celebrated     
philosophers and physiologists have     
rendered themselves illustrious in this 
branch of science1 so abundant in       
astonishing phnomena3 yet it is only in 
its infancy1 and there can be no doubt  
that many important discoveries still   
remain to be made4  ,vassali1 ,rossi1   
and myself1 have for several years been 
employed in researches on this subject4 
,while the first examined the ,galvanic 
fluid in every point of view1 for the   
purpose of illustrating its nature by   
means of a great number of ingenious    
experiments1 performed with that care   
and exactness for which he is           
distinguished1 ,rossi and ,i attempted  
to explain the action of the ,galvanic  

fluid on the different organs of the    
animal conomy4  ,sometimes ,i was       
obliged to interrupt my researches by   
unfortunate circumstances1 and at others
 by my administrative functions3 but ,i 
have now resumed them2 and though       
success has not yet crowned our efforts 
by any brilliant discovery1 we trust1   
and with confidence1 that we shall be   
able to add some valuable facts to the  
history of the animal conomy2 to rectify
 others2 to confirm facts already       
received2 and to extend the domain of an
 inexhaustible agent fertile in wonders4
  ,volta had announced that the         
involuntary organs1 such as the heart1  
the stomach1 the intestines1 the bladder
 and vessels1 are insensible to the     
,galvanic action#ae3 but we have fully  
refuted this great physiological error4 
,unfortunately1 however1 the ,latin     
memoir containing the decisive          
experiments which we made on            
cold-blooded and warm-blooded animals in
 #agib1 presented to the ,academy soon  

after1 and which1 according to ,sue1 in 
his ,history of ,galvanism#af1 8are     
curious1 and contain very interesting   
observations10 did not appear till      
#ahja1 when it was printed in the last  
volume of the ,transactions of the      
,academy4  ,in that interval            
,grapengiesser found1 as we had done1   
that ,galvanism1 by means of zinc and   
silver#ag1 has an influence on the      
peristaltic motion4 ,humboldt           
ascertained the ,galvanic action on the 
hearts of frogs1 lizards1 toads1 and    
fishes4 ,smuch observed the excitability
 of the heart by the ,galvanic fluid2   
and ,fowler changed the pulsations of   
the heart without the immediate         
application to it of armatures1 and only
 by adapting them in warm-blooded       
animals to the recurrent nerve by means 
of the sympathetic#ah4  ,it is chiefly  
in regard to the experiments of these   
learned ,germans that the historian of  
,galvanism states#ai1 that the          
involuntary vermicular motion of the    

intestines1 according to the            
acknowledgment of all physiologists1    
obeys metallic irritation2 whence it    
follows1 says he1 that the ,italian     
philosophers have advanced an error when
 they said that ,galvanism exercises no 
action but on the muscles1 which depend 
on the will4 ,as an accurate and        
impartial historian1 how can ,sue accuse
 the ,italian philosophers              
indiscriminately of such an error1 since
 he had our memoir before him when      
employed on the second volume of his    
,history of ,galvanism1 and since he    
gave a short account of my experiments  
in his first volume8 ,nay1 ,i gave an   
account of my experiments in a small    
work published in ,italian in #agib4    
,but as ,italian works are not much read
 in ,france1 and were less so at that   
period1 ,i should not have reproached   
,c4 ,sue with this act of injustice1 and
 his incorrectness in regard to the     
,italian philosophers1 had not my ,latin
 memoir been known to him1 as it had    

appeared in the ,transactions of the    
,academy4  ,though we made a great many 
experiments before we attempted to      
combat a philosopher so justly          
celebrated as ,volta1 and to establish  
the influence of ,galvanism on the      
involuntary organs2 and though          
,grapengiesser1 ,humboldt1 ,smuch1      
,fowler1 c4 ascertained this influence  
in certain cold-blooded and even        
warm-blooded animals2 an object of so   
much importance to physiology required  
to be extended and confirmed1 especially
 in man1 by new experiments4 ,we have   
been the more sensible of the necessity 
of establishing this fact in an         
incontestable manner1 either in regard  
to the involuntary organs in general1 or
 more particularly the heart1 as the    
celebrated ,aldini1 professor at        
,bologna1 in an ,italian work replete   
with new facts and valuable experiments 
made on the bodies of decapitated       
criminals1 has been obliged to          
acknowledge that he was not able to     

obtain any contraction in that organ by 
means of the electro-motor of ,volta1   
which is so powerful4  ,we shall give an
 account1 in particular memoirs1 of the 
experiments we have already made1 and of
 those which we propose to perform4 ,in 
regard to the stomach1 the large and the
 small intestines1 and the bladder1 we  
shall say only1 in a general manner1    
that by armature of the different       
nervous branches we obtained            
contractions analogous to those         
described in regard to animals4 ,the    
,galvanic action on the heart and       
arteries is the object of the present   
paper1 as it is of the utmost importance
 to physiology1 and deserves1 under     
every point of view1 to excite our      
attention and occupy our reflections4   
,our experiments on the different parts 
of the head and trunk of the decapitated
 criminals were begun1 on the #ajth of  
,august1 in a hall of the large hospital
 of ,st4 ,john1 and resumed and         
continued yesterday in the anatomical   

theatre of the university1 before a     
great number of spectators4  ,we tried  
the influence of ,galvanism on the heart
 in three different ways3  #ast1 ,in    
arming the spinal marrow by means of a  
cylinder of lead introduced into the    
canal of the cervical vertebr1 and then 
conveying one extremity of a silver arc 
over the surface of the heart1 and the  
other to the arming of the spinal       
marrow4 ,the heart of the first         
individual subjected to our experiments 
immediately exhibited very visible and  
very strong contractions4 ,these        
experiments were made without the       
intervention of any kind of pile1 and   
without any armature applied to the     
heart4 ,it is very remarkable1 that when
 the former is touched first1 and then  
the arming and spinal marrow1 the       
contractions of the heart which follow  
are more instantaneous1 and stronger1   
than when the arming of the spinal      
marrow is first touched1 and then the   
heart4 ,in a memoir on ,galvanism1 read 

in the last public sitting of the       
academy1 ,i gave an account of a great  
number of experiments1 made especially  
on frogs1 which exhibited a similar     
phnomenon4 ,in these animals ,i         
observed1 a great number of times1 that 
when the arming of the crural nerves was
 touched first1 and then the muscles of 
the thigh1 there were no contractions1  
or the contractions were exceedingly    
weak2 and1 on the other hand1 that when 
the muscles of the thighs were first    
touched1 and then the arming of the     
crural nerves1 as long as the least     
vitality remained in the organs1 the    
contractions of the muscles were        
constant and violent4 ,in the memoir    
already mentioned ,i have endeavoured to
 account for this phnomenon1 to which ,i
 shall recur1 when it has been          
ascertained by a sufficient number of   
trials1 that it is as general in men as 
,i found it in frogs and other          
cold-blooded animals4  ,the second      
manner in which we tried the influence  

of ,galvanism on the heart was by arming
 the par vagum and the great sympathetic
 nerve4 ,the object of these experiments
 will be readily comprehended by        
anatomists acquainted with the details  
of neurology4 ,in these1 as well as in  
the first and other experiments where we
 armed the cardiac nerves themselves1 we
 obtained contractions in the heart4 ,in
 this1 as in the former case1 the       
contractions took place when the heart  
was first touched1 and then the arming  
of the nerves1 were much stronger than  
when the arming of the nerves was       
touched first1 and then the heart4 ,in  
this method we even observed that the   
,galvanic experiments sometimes failed4 
,the third kind of experiments on the   
heart were performed by means of the    
pile4 ,the pile employed on the #ajth of
 ,august1 for the experiments on the    
first decapitated criminal1 was composed
 of fifty plates of silver and as many  
of zinc1 with pasteboard moistened by a 
strong solution of muriate of soda4 ,the

 silver was mixed with a tenth part of  
copper4 ,this is the proportion which we
 found most favourable to the intensity 
of the signs of ,galvanism3             
,metre4   ,the diameter of the silver   
plates was       #jjcf   ,their         
thickness                               
#jjjae    ,the dimensions of the pieces 
of pasteboard were the same4            
,metre4   ,the diameter of the zinc     
plates was         #jjdb   ,their       
thickness                               
#jjjce  ,the pile employed for the      
experiments on the #aeth of ,august was 
composed of fifty plates of pure silver1
 and twice that number of plates of zinc
 and pieces of pasteboard2 the latter   
moistened in a solution of muriate of   
soda4                                   
,metre4   ,the diameter of the silver   
plates was       #jjch   ,their         
thickness                               
#jjja    ,the dimensions of the pieces  
of pasteboard were the same4            
,metre4   ,the diameter of the zinc     

plates was         #jjd   ,their        
thickness                               
#jjja  ,by making the negative extremity
 of the pile to communicate1 by means of
 respective conductors1 with the spinal 
marrow1 or merely with the muscles of   
the back or breast1 laid bare1 and the  
positive extremity immediately with the 
heart1 instantaneous and violent        
contractions were obtained2 and the     
contractions were produced also when the
 heart was made to communicate with the 
negative extremity of the pile1 and the 
spinal marrow with the positive         
extremity4  ,we shall observe1 in regard
 to contractions of the heart1 that of  
all its parts the apex is the most      
susceptible of motion1 and the most     
sensible to the ,galvanic influence3 we 
must observe also1 that the contractions
 produced by communication with the pile
 were not only strong1 but that they    
continued a long time even after the    
communication was destroyed4  ,a very   
remarkable circumstance is1 that the    

heart1 which of all the muscles retains 
longest1 in general1 its contractility  
in regard to mechanical stimulants1 is  
the first to become insensible to the   
,galvanic influence4 ,the muscles of the
 arms1 and those of the back and breast1
 continue to be excitable by ,galvanism 
for whole hours2 and the heart had lost 
its excitability about forty minutes    
after death4   ,the experiments made    
yesterday in the anatomical theatre     
exhibited nearly the same results in    
regard to the heart as those already    
mentioned4 ,the great arteries1 such as 
the aorta and some of its branches1     
being injected with water raised nearly 
to the same temperament as that of the  
blood in the living individual1 and     
subjected to the ,galvanic action1      
exhibited contractions4 ,but it is      
probable that they will appear stronger 
when trials of this kind shall be made  
on bodies endowed with a higher degree  
of vitality than those of yesterday1 and
 when the interval between the period of

 decapitation and that of the           
experiments shall be less4 ,with this   
view1 indeed1 we have provided a hall   
much nearer to the place of execution2  
for the results which we obtained in the
 man decapitated on the #ajth of        
,august1 in which case the experiments  
were begun five minutes after the       
decapitation1 were all comparatively    
more striking1 and stronger1 than those 
obtained in the experiments of          
yesterday1 which were begun more than   
twenty minutes after decapitation1 and  
which were performed1 as appears1 on    
bodies endowed with a much less degree  
of vitality4  ,in the experiments made  
on the arteries1 we armed the nervous   
plexuses1 which envelop the trunks of   
the cliac and mesenteric arteries1      
several branches of which are even      
interwoven around the aorta3 a          
communication was established between   
the positive or negative extremity of   
the pile and the aortic artery itself4  
,it was by these means that we obtained 

visible contractions4  ,if the effects  
of ,galvanism on arterial contractions  
be constant1 as ,i suppose them to be1  
all those discussions which have been   
agitated so long1 and with so much      
violence1 in regard to the irritability 
of the arteries1 which does not manifest
 itself by the action of different      
mechanical and chemical stimulants1 will
 at length be terminated in a positive  
and irrefragable manner2 all doubts will
 at length be removed2 and we shall be  
indebted to the ,galvanic fluid1 which  
is the most energetic of all agents     
applied to the animal fibre1 for having 
fixed the opinions of physiologists on a
 point of so much importance to the     
animal conomy4  ,whence comes it that   
,aldini1 even with the help of the most 
powerful electro-motors1 was not able to
 obtain contractions in the heart of    
man1 which we so evidently obtained by  
the same means which always withstood   
his efforts8 ,how happens it that we    
obtained contractions by means much     

weaker8  ,the first experiments of      
,aldini on the human heart were begun an
 hour and a half after death#bj4 ,the   
trunk had been exposed a long time to   
the open air1 the temperature of which  
was no more than  #b4 ,it is probable   
that the cold1 and the long interval    
between the period of death and that of 
the experiment1 had already annihilated 
the irritability of the heart#ba4 ,in   
the fifty-third experiment1 the heart of
 another executed criminal constantly   
remained motionless and insensible to   
the ,galvanic current4 ,but in this     
experiment1 before trying the heart1 a  
considerable time was employed in making
 trials on the voluntary organs1 the    
sensibility of which to ,galvanism had  
already been acknowledged4 ,but the very
 reverse of this method ought to be     
followed2 for ,i will here repeat1 that 
excitability1 by means of the ,galvanic 
fluid1 is extinguished in the heart a   
long time before it becomes extinct in  
the voluntary muscles4 ,this is so      

certain1 that while no part of the      
heart1 tried externally and internally1 
presented any sign of contractions1 the 
diaphragm1 and the muscles of the upper 
and lower extremities1 gave very strong 
ones4  ,in our experiments which were   
begun five minutes after death1 the     
heart ceased to be sensible to the      
,galvanic agent about the fortieth      
minute2 and this was the case in the    
temperature of  #be2 while the voluntary
 muscles retained their ,galvanic       
excitability for hours4 ,in other       
experiments made by ,aldini1 the        
contractility of the voluntary muscles  
existed three hours1 and even five      
hours1 after death4  ,in the oxen       
subjected to ,galvanic experiments by   
,aldini1 the excitability of the heart  
must have been extinguished sooner1     
since the action of the ,galvanic fluid 
of the pile produced no contractions1   
though applied immediately after death4 
,if contractions were observed in the   
voluntary muscles under the same        

circumstances1 it was because these     
muscles1 which lose much sooner than the
 heart their excitability in regard to  
mechanical stimulants1 retain it much   
longer than that organ in regard to the 
,galvanic agent4 ,what then is the cause
 of this diversity1 which seems contrary
 to every analogy1 and which1 however1  
is proved by facts8 ,it is still        
involved in much obscurity3 but it is   
not yet time to tear the dark veil which
 conceals it2 we are not yet enlightened
 by a sufficient number of facts2 and   
the few scattered data which we have    
been able to collect1 cannot yet be     
connected in a manner capable of        
encouraging us to attempt to rend the   
veil at present4  ,we shall not here    
speak of the astonishment with which the
 spectators were struck when they saw   
the contractions of the frontal muscles1
 those of the eye-lids1 the face1 the   
lower jaw1 and the tongue2 when they    
beheld the convulsions of the muscles of
 the arms1 the breast1 and of the back1 

which raised the trunk some inches from 
the table2 the contractions of the      
pectoral muscles1 and the exterior and  
interior intercostal muscles1 which     
diminished the intervals between all the
 ribs1 and made them approach each other
 with violence1 raising the inferior    
ones towards the superior1 and the      
latter towards the first rib and the    
clavicle2 the contractions of the arms1 
which1 when the uncovered biceps muscle 
was touched1 as well as its tendon1 were
 so speedy and violent1 that complete   
flexion of the fore-arm on the arm took 
place1 and that the hand raised weights 
of some pounds fifty minutes after      
decapitation4 ,similar experiments may  
be seen in the work of ,aldini3 our     
object in this report was merely to     
speak of the ,galvanic influence on the 
heart and arteries of man1 which had not
 yet been observed4  ,these new and     
important results1 which we obtained in 
regard to the heart and arteries of man1
 will be confirmed by other trials4 ,we 

shall repeat our experiments as soon as 
an opportunity occurs1 and we shall take
 care to give you an early account of   
the most remarkable observations we     
shall make4        #ae ,mezzini1 ,volta1
 ,valli1 ,klein1 ,pfaff1 ,berhends1 have
      denied that the heart could be    
moved by the ,galvanic fluid4           
,hist4 du ,galvanisme1 part i4 p4 #ade4 
,bichat could obtain      no            
contractions either in the heart of man 
or that of the      dog4 ,see ,rcherches
 ,physiologiques sur la ,vie et la      
,mort4       #af ,towards the end of the
 ,first ,part4       #ag ,see ,histoire 
du ,galvanisme1 vol4 ii4 p4 #ha4        
#ah ,ibid4 vol4 ii4 p4 #hd4       #ai   
,vol4 ii4 p4 #hc4       #bj ,saggio di  
,sperienze sul ,galvanismo di ,giovani  
,aldini2      ,bolonia #ahjb1 p4 #ad1   
esp4 #bh4       #ba ,if the celebrated  
,bichat failed in his experiments on    
the human heart1 as well as ,aldini1 it 
was1 perhaps1 owing      to the same    
causes4 ,the temperature was cold1 and  

the      interval between the time of   
execution and that of the               
experiment too long4 8,i was            
authorized10 says ,bichat1 8in      the 
winter of the year #g1 to make various  
trials on the      bodies of unfortunate
 persons who had been guillotined4 ,i   
had them at my disposal from thirty to  
forty minutes after      execution4 ,it 
was always impossible for me to produce 
the      least motion by arming either  
the spinal marrow and the      heart1 or
 the latter organ and the nerves which  
it receives      from the ganglions by  
the sympathetic1 or from the brain by   
the par vagum40     ,no4 ,,iii4         
,account of an experiment made at       
,calais1 on the transmission of         
,galvanism through an arm of the sea4   
,by ,j4 ,,aldini4   ,the experiments    
made at the ,lake of ,geneva by ,mr4 de 
,luc and his brother1 and those made in 
,england on the banks of the ,thames1 by
 which it has been proved that common   
electricity is susceptible of           

transmission through a considerable     
space of water1 induced me to try some  
analogous experiments in regard to      
,galvanism by endeavouring to make it   
traverse a certain extent of sea4  ,some
 philosophers1 to whom ,i communicated  
this project1 seemed to entertain doubts
 on the subject1 as they conceived that 
a considerable extent of sea water might
 perhaps destroy or impede the action of
 the ,galvanic fluid4 ,my late passage  
at ,calais afforded me an opportunity of
 removing all these doubts by an        
experiment which was attended with      
complete success4  ,m4 ,sept-,fontaines1
 distinguished by his philosophical     
knowledge1 was desirous of assisting me 
in my proposed researches2 ,m4 ,cheely1 
chemist of the military hospital1       
prepared the necessary instruments2 and 
,m4 ,debaudre1 the port engineer1       
conducted the arrangement of the        
,galvanic arcs4  ,on the #bgth of       
,february1 the sky being serene1 and the
 sea calm1 every thing seemed to be     

favourable for the experiment4 ,a gentle
 south-west wind prevailed at the time2 
the temperature of the water of the sea 
was #dgd of ,fahrenheit1 that of the    
atmosphere #did1 and the barometer stood
 at #cjcg inches4  ,fort ,rouge and the 
,west ,mole afforded me two fixed points
 proper for my purpose4 ,a ,galvanic    
pile consisting of eighty plates of     
silver and zinc was constructed on the  
,west ,mole on an insulated stool1 and  
the animals destined to be exposed to   
the ,galvanic action were placed at     
,fort ,rouge4 ,the ,galvanic chain was  
composed of the arm of the sea which    
separates ,fort ,rouge from the ,western
 ,mole1 and of three wires disposed in  
the following manner4  ,the first wire  
proceeded from the base of the pile1    
and1 being supported by an insulator1   
fell vertically into the sea to the     
depth of about three fathoms4  ,the     
second wire1 insulated in the same      
manner1 proceeded from the summit of the
 pile1 and was conveyed in a horizontal 

direction at the height of from six to  
nine feet above the surface of the sea1 
as far as the platform of ,fort ,rouge4 
,a third wire1 also insulated1 and      
placed at one corner of the platform1   
descended perpendicularly into the sea  
in the same manner as the first4  ,when 
this arrangement was made1 if a person  
on the platform touched the extremities 
of the second and third wires1 and thus 
completed the ,galvanic circle1 he      
always experienced a shock2 and when    
animals recently killed were substituted
 in the room of the person1 they were   
thrown into strong convulsions4 ,we     
therefore concluded that the portion of 
sea water between the pile and the      
animal subjected to its action formed a 
part of the ,galvanic circle3 such was  
the consequence we thought ourselves    
authorised to deduce from this          
experiment4 ,the breadth of the water   
was about #bjj feet4  ,i must freely    
confess1 that in repeating these        
experiments1 we found1 that to receive  

the shock1 it was not absolutely        
necessary that the person should hold in
 his hands the two conductors1 and that 
it was sufficient to touch the wire     
alone which proceeded from the summit of
 the pile4 ,this apparent anomaly       
deranged at first the result of my      
researches2 and we suspected that the   
shocks before received had been         
transmitted without the intervention of 
the water of the sea4 ,it was therefore 
necessary that this doubt should be     
cleared up by new observations4  ,i     
tried separately1 on the platform1 the  
action of the two conducting wires1 and 
found that by touching the wire which   
fell into the sea no shock was produced4
 ,i then took in my hand the other wire1
 which proceeded from the summit of the 
pile2 and having thus brought its action
 into equilibrium1 ,i experienced a     
shock3 which shows that the ,galvanic   
fluid took its course from the bottom of
 the pile traversing the sea4 ,m4       
,sept-,fontaines proposed that we should

 lower to the level of the sea the wire 
which proceeded from the summit of the  
pile1 and which was extended to ,fort   
,rouge4 ,the action of the ,galvanism   
was then checked1 but was immediately   
restored by placing the conductor in its
 former position4 ,thus1 notwithstanding
 the large extent of water by which the 
metallic conductors were separated2 and 
notwithstanding the agitation produced  
by the sea1 the ,galvanism found no     
obstacle to its propagation1 and pursued
 its usual direction4  ,hence it may be 
readily perceived1 that though the      
experiments here described are analogous
 to those formerly made with the ,leyden
 flask on lakes and rivers1 they are new
 of their kind1 and may contribute to   
establish the similarity between the    
properties of common electricity and of 
,galvanism4 ,i will even venture to     
assert1 that these experiments1 if      
pursued and varied1 may lead to some    
interesting discoveries in natural      
philosophy4  ,after making these        

observations at ,fort ,rouge1 ,i        
repaired in company with ,m4            
,sept-,fontaines to the ,west ,mole1 to 
try the power of the pile unconnected   
with the sea4 ,having formed an arc1 we 
found that the action of the pile1 in   
this case1 was stronger2 which induced  
us to conclude1 that the ,galvanic power
 in traversing the sea had been in some 
measure weakened4 ,there is reason to   
suppose1 that by transmitting the       
,galvanic influence gradually to greater
 distances through the sea1 the point of
 the minimum of its action1 that is1 a  
distance at which it will no longer be  
sensible1 may be discovered4 ,this      
distance remains to be determined1 and  
also the difference between the         
propagation of common electricity in    
fresh water1 and that of ,galvanism in  
salt water4  ,i observed that the sea   
shore1 still moist after the water      
retires in consequence of the reflux1 is
 endowed with the power of conveying    
,galvanism to very great distances4 ,i  

made several experiments on this subject
 with ,m4 ,bastide1 physician of        
,calais1 who acknowledged that he had   
received very strong shocks1 the effects
 of which were sensible the day         
following4   ,,the ,,end4       ,wilks  
and ,taylor1   ,printers1               
,chancery-lane4   ,illustration3 ,pl4 #a
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#hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 boards4  ,morgagni on 
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vols4 #dto4 boards1 #al4 #afs4  ,monro's
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,theoretical and ,practical4 ,translated
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#agid and ,april #agif1 #hvo4 boards1   
#es4  ,fontana's ,treatise on the ,venom
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which are annexed ,observations on the  
primitive ,structure of the ,animal     
,body1 different ,experiments on the    
,reproduction of the ,nerves1 and a     
,description of a new ,canal of the     
,eye1 with ,ten descriptive ,plates4    
,translated by ,skinner1 #b vols4 #abs4 
boards4  ,fourcroy's ,system of         
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,cullen1 neatly printed in #hvo4 boards1
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to which are added1 ,an ,account of a   
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appeared in ,canada2 and ,a ,pharmacopia
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new ,edition1 in #a vol4 #hvo4 boards1  
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#cs4 #f;d4  ,chemical ,vocabulary and   
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,lavoisier1 ,berthollet1 and ,fourcroy1 
boards1 #ds4  ,bergman's ,physical and  
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#d vols4 #hvo4 boards1 #bl4 #bs4        
,transcriber's ,note3  ,words and       
phrases in italics are surrounded by    
underscores1 like this4 ,dialect1       
obsolete and alternative spellings were 
left unchanged4 #8,economy' is spelled  
without an  twice in the ,contents2     
elsewhere it appears as #8conomy4'      
,footnotes were renumbered sequentially 
and moved to the end of the section in  
which related anchors occur4  ,obvious  
printing errors1 such as backwards1     
upside down1 unprinted1 or partially    

printed letters1 were corrected4 ,final 
stops missing at the end of             
abbreviations and sentences were added4 
,the following items were changed3      
,added missing page number 7#c7 to first
 entry of ,table of ,contents4   ,added 
missing close quote to footnote #ba4    
,changed comma to stop #8444printed in  
#hvo4 boards1444'