,,bergson ,,and ,,his ,,philosophy  ,by 
,j4 ,alexander ,gunn1 ,m4 ,a41  ,fellow 
of ,the ,university ,of ,liverpool      
,with ,an ,introduction ,by ,alexander  
,mair1 ,m4 ,a41  ,professor of          
,philosophy in ,the ,university ,of     
,liverpool     ,,contents               
,,preface        ,,introduction     ,i4 
,,life ,,of ,,bergson    ,,ii4 ,,the    
,,reality ,,of ,,change   ,,iii4        
,,perception    ,,iv4 ,,memory     ,v4  
,,the ,,relation ,,of ,,soul ,,and      
,,body    ,,vi4 ,,time-,,true ,,and     
,,false   ,,vii4 ,,freedom ,,of ,,the   
,,will  ,,viii4 ,,evolution    ,,ix4    
,,the ,,gospel ,,of ,,intuition     ,x4 
,,ethical ,,and ,,political             
,,implications    ,,xi4 ,,relation ,,to 
,,religion ,,and ,,theology   ,,xii4    
,,reflections        ,,appendix3        
,,bibliography        ,,index           
,,preface  ,the aim of this little work 
is practical1 and it is put forth in the
 hope that it may be useful to the      
general reader and to the student of    

philosophy as an introduction and guide 
to the study of ,bergson's thought4 ,the
 war has led many to an interest in     
philosophy and to a study of its        
problems4 ,few modern thinkers will be  
found more fascinating1 more suggestive 
and stimulating than ,bergson1 and it is
 hoped that perusal of the following    
pages will lead to a study of the       
writings of the philosopher himself4    
,this is a work whose primary aim is the
 clear exposition of ,bergson's ideas1  
and the arrangement of chapters has been
 worked out strictly with that end in   
view4 ,an account of his life is        
prefixed4 ,an up-to-date bibliography is
 given1 mainly to meet the needs of     
,english readers2 all the works of      
,bergson which have appeared in ,england
 or ,america are given1 and the         
comprehensive list of articles is       
confined to ,english and ,american      
publications4 ,the concluding chapters  
endeavour to estimate the value of      
,bergson's thought in relation to       

,politics 7especially ,syndicalism71    
,ethics1 ,religion1 and the development 
of thought generally4  ,my thanks are   
due to ,professor ,mair1 ,professor of  
,philosophy in the ,university of       
,liverpool1 for having read the ,,ms4   
while in course of preparation1 for     
contributing an introduction1 for giving
 some helpful criticism and suggestions1
 and1 what is more1 for stimulus and    
encouragement given over several years  
of student life4  ,professor ,bergson   
has himself expressed his approval of   
the general form of treatment1 and ,i am
 indebted to him for information on a   
number of points4 ,to ,dr4 ,gillespie1  
,professor of ,philosophy at ,leeds1 ,i 
am indebted for a discussion of most of 
the ,,ms4 following the reading of it4  
,my thanks are also due to ,miss        
,margaret ,linn1 whose energetic and    
careful assistance in preparing the     
,,ms4 for the press was invaluable4 ,i  
wish also to acknowledge kindness shown 
in supplying information on certain     

points in connexion with the            
bibliography by ,mr4 ,f4 ,c4 ,nicholson1
 ,librarian of the ,university of       
,edinburgh1 by ,mr4 ,r4 ,rye1 ,librarian
 to the ,university of ,london1 and by  
the ,university of ,london ,press4 ,i am
 grateful to ,professor ,bergson and to 
the ,delegates of the ,oxford           
,university ,press for permission to    
quote from ,la ,perception du           
,changement1 the lectures given at      
,oxford4 ,further ,i must acknowledge   
permission accorded to me by the        
,english publishers of ,bergson's works 
to quote passages directly from these   
authorized translations--,to ,messrs4   
,geo4 ,allen  ,unwin1 ,ltd4 7,time and  
,free ,will and ,matter and ,memory71 to
 ,messrs4 ,macmillan  ,co41 ,ltd4       
7,creative ,evolution1 ,laughter1       
,introduction to ,metaphysics71 and to  
,t4 ,fisher ,unwin1 ,ltd4 7,dreams74    
,through the kindness of ,m4 ,louis     
,michaud1 the ,paris publisher1 ,i have 
been enabled to reproduce 7from his     

volume of selections1 ,henri ,bergson3  
,choix de textes et etude de systeme    
philosophique1 ,gillouin7 a photograph  
of ,bergson hitherto unpublished in this
 country4  ,j4,a4,g4  ,,the             
,,university1 ,,liverpool ,march1 #aibj 
,,introduction  ,the stir caused in the 
civilized world by the writings of      
,bergson1 particularly during the past  
decade1 is evidenced by the volume of   
the stream of exposition and comment    
which has flowed and is still flowing4  
,if the ,french were to be tempted to   
set up1 after the ,german manner1 a     
,bergson-,archiv they would be in no    
embarrassment for material1 as the      
,appendix to this book--limited though  
it wisely is--will show4 ,mr4 ,gunn1    
undaunted by all this1 makes a further1 
useful contribution in his unassuming   
but workmanlike and well-documented     
account of the ideas of the             
distinguished ,french thinker4 ,it is   
designed to serve as an introduction to 
,bergson's philosophy for those who are 

making their first approach to it1 and  
as such it can be commended4  ,the eager
 interest which has been manifested in  
the writings of ,m4 ,bergson is one more
 indication1 added to the many which    
history provides1 of the                
inextinguishable vitality of            
,philosophy4 ,when the man with some    
important thought which bears upon its  
problems is forthcoming1 the world is   
ready1 indeed is anxious1 to listen4    
,perhaps there is no period in recorded 
time in which the thinker1 with         
something relevant to say on the        
fundamental questions1 has had so large 
and so prepared an audience as in our   
own day4 ,the zest and expectancy with  
which men welcome and listen to him is  
almost touching2 it has its dangerous as
 well as its admirable aspects4 ,the    
fine enthusiasm for the physical and    
biological sciences1 which is so noble  
an attribute of the modern mind1 has far
 from exhausted itself1 but the almost  
boundless hope which for a time         

accompanied it has notably abated4 ,the 
study of the immediate problems centring
 round the concepts of matter1 life1 and
 energy goes on with undiminished1 nay1 
with intensified1 zeal1 but in a more   
judicious perspective4 ,it begins to be 
noticed that1 far from leading us to    
solutions which will bring us to the    
core of reality and furnish us with a   
synthesis which can be taken as the key 
to experience1 it is carrying the       
scientific enquirer into places in which
 he feels the pressing need of          
,philosophy rather than the old         
confidence that he is on the verge of   
abolishing it as a superfluity4 ,the    
former hearty and self-assured          
empiricism of science is giving way     
before the outcome of its own logic and 
a new and more promising spirit of      
reflection on its own categories is     
abroad4 ,things are turning out to be   
very far from what they seemed4 ,the    
physicists have come to a point where1  
it may be to their astonishment1 they   

often find themselves talking in a way  
which is suspiciously like that of the  
subjective idealist4 ,they have made the
 useful discovery that if you sink your 
shaft deep enough in your search for    
reality you come upon ,mind4 ,here they 
are in a somewhat unfamiliar region1 in 
which they may possibly find that other 
instruments and other methods than those
 to which they have been accustomed are 
required4 ,at any rate1 they and the    
large public which hangs upon their     
words show a growing inclination to be  
respectful to the philosopher and an    
anxiety 7sometimes an uncritical        
anxiety7 to hear what he has to say4    
,no one needs to be reminded of the     
ferment which is moving in the world of 
social affairs1 of the obscure but      
powerful tendencies which are forcing   
society out of its grooves and leaving  
it1 aspiring but dubious1 in new and    
uncharted regions4 ,this may affect     
different minds in different ways4 ,some
 regret it1 others rejoice in it2 but   

all are aware of it4 ,time-honoured     
political and economic formulae are     
become old clothes for an awakened and  
ardent generation1 and before the new   
garments are quite ready2 the blessed   
word reconstruction is often mentioned4 
,men are not satisfied that society has 
really developed so successfully as it  
might have done2 many believe that it   
finds itself in a cul-de-sac4 ,but what 
is to be done8 ,the experienced can see 
that many of the offered reforms are but
 the repetition of old mistakes which   
will involve us in the unhappy cycle of 
disillusion and failure4 ,it is not to  
be wondered at1 therefore1 if men       
everywhere are seeking for a sign1 a    
glimpse of a scheme of life1 a view of  
reality1 a hint of human destiny and the
 true outcome of human effort1 to be an 
inspiration and a guide to them in their
 pathetic struggle out of the morass in 
which they1 too obviously1 are plunged4 
,if ,philosophy has anything to say     
which is to the point1 then let         

,philosophy by all means say it4 ,they  
are ready to attend4 ,they may indeed   
expect too much from it1 as those who   
best grasp the measure of ,philosophy's 
task would be the first to urge4  ,this 
is the opportunity of the charlatan4    
,puzzled and half-desperate1 we strongly
 feel the influence of the need to      
believe1 are prone to listen to any     
gospel4 ,the greater its air of finality
 and assurance the stronger is its      
appeal4 ,but it is the opportunity also 
of the serious and competent thinker1   
and it is fortunate for the world that  
one of ,m4 ,bergson's quality is        
forthcoming4 ,he is too wise a man1 he  
knows the history of human thought too  
well1 he realizes too clearly the extent
 of the problem to pretend that his is  
the last word or that he has in his     
pocket the final solution of the puzzle 
of the universe and the one and only    
panacea for human distresses4 ,but he   
has one of the most subtle and          
penetrating intellects acting in and    

upon the world at this moment1 and is   
more worthy of attention than all the   
charlatans4 ,that he has obtained for   
himself so great an audience is one of  
the most striking and hopeful signs of  
the present time4  ,it is the more      
impressive inasmuch as ,bergson cannot  
be said to be an easy author4 ,the      
originality and sweep of his            
conceptions1 the fine and delicate      
psychological analysis in which he is so
 adept and which is necessary for the   
development of his ideas--e4g41 in his  
exposition of duree--make exacting      
demands upon those readers who wish to  
closely follow his thought4 ,an         
interesting fact is that this is        
realized most of all by those who come  
to ,bergson with a long process of      
philosophical discipline behind them4   
,it is not surprising when we remember  
what he is trying to do1 namely1 to     
induce philosophical thought to run in  
new channels4 ,the general reader has   
here an advantage over the other1       

inasmuch as he has less to unlearn4 ,in 
the old words1 unless we become as      
little children we cannot enter into    
this kingdom2 though it is true that we 
do not remain as little children once   
entry is made4 ,this is a serious       
difficulty for the hard-bitten          
philosopher who at considerable pains   
has formed conceptions1 acquired a      
technique1 and taken an orientation     
towards life and the universe which he  
cannot dismiss in a moment4 ,it says    
much for the charitable spirit of       
,bergson's fellow-philosophers that they
 have given so friendly and hospitable a
 reception to his disturbing ideas1 and 
so essentially humane a man as he must  
have been touched by this4 ,the         
,bahnbrecher has his troubles1 no doubt1
 but so also have those upon whose minds
 he is endeavouring to operate4         
,reinhold1 one of ,kant's earliest      
disciples1 ruefully stated1 according to
 ,schopenhauer's story1 that it was only
 after having gone through the ,critique

 of ,pure ,reason five times with the   
closest and most scrupulous attention   
that he was able to get a grasp of      
,kant's real meaning4 ,now1 after the   
lapse of a century and a half1 ,kant to 
many is child's play compared with      
,bergson1 who differs more fundamentally
 from ,kant than the ,scoto-,german     
thinker did from ,leibniz and ,hume4    
,but this need not alarm the general    
reader who1 innocent of any very        
articulate philosophical preconceptions1
 may indeed find in the very novelty of 
,bergson's teaching a powerful          
attraction1 inasmuch as it gives        
effective expression to thoughts and    
tendencies moving dimly and half-formed 
in the consciousness of our own epoch1  
felt rather than thought4 ,in this sense
 ,bergson may be said to have produced a
 philosophy for the times4 ,in one      
respect ,bergson has a marked advantage 
over ,kant1 and indeed over most other  
philosophers1 namely1 in his recognized 
masterly control over the instrument of 

language4 ,there is a minimum of jargon1
 nothing turgid or crabbed4 ,he reminds 
us most1 in the skill and charm of his  
expression1 of ,plato and ,berkeley     
among the philosophers4 ,he does not    
work with so fine and biting a point as 
his distinguished countryman and        
fellow-philosopher1 ,anatole ,france1   
but he has1 nevertheless1 a burin at    
command of remarkable quality4 ,he is a 
master of the succinct and memorable    
phrase in which an idea is etched out   
for us in a few strokes4 ,already1 in   
his lifetime1 a number of terms stamped 
with the impress of ,bergson's thought  
have passed into international currency4
 ,in this connexion1 has it been        
remarked that while an ,englishman gave 
to the ,french the term struggle for    
life1 a ,frenchman has given to us the  
term elan vital8 ,it is worthy of       
passing notice and gives rise to        
reflections on the respective national  
temperaments1 fanciful perhaps1 but     
interesting4 ,it is not1 however1 under 

the figure of the etcher's art or of the
 process of the mint that we can fully  
represent ,bergson's resources of style4
 ,these suggest staccato effects1 hard  
outlines1 and that does not at all      
represent the prose of this writer4 ,it 
is a fine1 delicately interwoven1       
tissue-like fabric1 pliant and supple4  
,if one were in the secret of ,m4       
,bergson's private thoughts1 it might be
 discovered that he does not admire his 
style so much as others do1 for his     
whole manner of thought must1 one       
suspects1 have led him often to attempt 
to express the inexpressible4 ,the ocean
 of life1 that fluide bienfaisant in    
which we are immersed1 has no doubt     
often proved too fluid even for him4    
,only the understanding has a language1 
he almost ruefully declares in          
,l',evolution creatrice2 and the        
understanding is1 for him1 compared with
 intuition peu de chose4 ,yet we can say
 that in what he has achieved his       
success is remarkable4 ,the web of      

language which he weaves seems to fit   
and follow the movements of his thought 
as the skin ripples over the moving     
muscles of the thoroughbred4 ,and this  
is not an accidental or trivial fact4   
,m4 ,bergson may possibly agree with    
,seneca that too much attention to style
 does not become a philosopher1 but the 
quality of his thought and temperament  
does not allow him to express himself   
otherwise than lucidly4 ,take this1     
almost at random1 as a characteristic   
example4 ,it must be given1 of course1  
in the original3  ,l'intelligence       
humaine1 telle que nous la representons1
 n'est point du tout celle que nous     
montrait ,platon dans l'allegorie de la 
caverne4 ,elle n'a pas plus pour        
fonction de regarder passer des ombres  
vaines que de contempler1 en se         
retournant derriere elle1 l'astre       
eblouissant4 ,elle a autre chose a      
faire4 ,atteles comme des boeufs de     
labour1 a une lourde tache1 nous sentons
 le jeu de nos muscles et de nos        

articulations1 le poids de la charrue et
 la resistance du sol3 agir et se savoir
 agir1 entrer en contact avec la realite
 et meme la vivre1 mais dans la measure 
seulement ou elle interesse l'oeuvre qui
 s'accomplit et le sillon qui se creuse1
 voila la fonction de l'intelligence    
humaine4  ,that is sufficiently clear2  
we may legitimately doubt whether it is 
an adequate account of the function of  
the human intelligence1 but we cannot be
 in any doubt as to what the view is2   
and more than that1 once we have become 
acquainted with it1 we are not likely to
 forget it4  ,for the student as yet    
unpractised in philosophical reflection1
 ,bergson's skill and clarity of        
statement1 his fertility in             
illustration1 his frequent and          
picturesque use of analogy may be a     
pitfall4 ,it all sounds so convincing   
and right1 as ,bergson puts it1 that the
 critical faculty is put to sleep4      
,there is peril in this1 particularly   
here1 where we have to deal with so bold

 and even revolutionary a doctrine4 ,if 
we are able to retain our independence  
of judgment we are bound sooner or      
later1 in spite of ,bergson's           
persuasiveness1 to have our misgivings4 
,after all1 we may begin to reflect1 he 
has been too successful1 he has proved  
too much4 ,in attempting to use1 as he  
was bound to do1 the intelligence to    
discredit the intelligence he has been  
attempting the impossible4 ,he has only 
succeeded in demonstrating the          
authority1 the magisterial power1 of the
 intelligence4 ,no step in ,philosophy  
can be taken without it4 ,what are      
,life1 ,consciousness1 ,evolution1 even 
,movement1 as these terms are employed  
by ,bergson1 but the symbolization of   
concepts which on his own showing are   
the peculiar products of the human      
understanding or intelligence8 ,it      
seems1 indeed1 on reflection1 the oddest
 thing that ,philosophy should be       
employed in the service of an           
anti-intellectual1 or as it would be    

truer to call it a supra-intellectual1  
attitude4 ,philosophy is a thinking view
 of things4 ,it represents the most     
persistent effort of the human          
intelligence to satisfy its own needs1  
to attempt to solve the problems which  
it has created3 in the familiar phrase1 
to heal the wounds which it has itself  
made4 ,the intellect1 therefore1 telling
 itself that it is incompetent for this 
purpose1 is a strange1 and not truly    
impressive1 spectacle4  ,we are not     
enabled to recover from the sense of    
impotency thus created by being referred
 to intuition4 ,bergson is not the first
 to try this way out4 ,it would be      
misleading1 no doubt1 to identify him   
with the members of the ,scottish       
,school of a hundred years ago or with  
,jacobi2 he reaches his conclusion in   
another way1 and that conclusion is     
differently framed2 nevertheless1 in    
essence there is a similarity1 and      
,hegel's comments ,footnote3 ,smaller   
,logic1 ,wallace's translation1 c4 v4 on

 ,bergson's forerunners will often be   
found to have point with reference to   
,bergson himself4  ,it is hardly        
conceivable that any careful observer of
 human experience would deny the        
presence and power of intuition in that 
experience4 ,the fact is too patent4    
,many who would not give the place to   
intuition which is assigned to it by    
,bergson would be ready to say that     
there may be more in the thrilling and  
passionate intuitive moments than       
,philosophy1 after an age-long and      
painful effort1 has been able to        
express4 ,all knowledge1 indeed1 may be 
said to be rooted in intuition4 ,many a 
thinker has been supported and inspired 
through weary years of inquiry and      
reflection by a mother-idea which has   
come to him1 if not unsought yet        
uncompelled1 in a flash of insight4 ,but
 that is the beginning1 not the end1 of 
his task4 ,it is but the raw material of
 knowledge1 knowledge in potentia4 ,to  
invert the order is to destroy          

,philosophy not to serve it1 is1 indeed1
 a mere counsel of desperation4 ,an     
intuitive ,philosophy so-called finds   
itself sooner or later1 generally       
sooner1 in a blind alley4 ,practically1 
it gives rise to all kinds of crude and 
wasteful effort4 ,it is not an accident 
that ,georges ,sorel in his ,reflexions 
sur la ,violence takes his philosophy   
from ,bergson or1 at least1 leans on    
him4 ,there are intuitions and          
intuitions1 as every wise man knows1 as 
,william ,james once ruefully admitted  
after his adventures with nitrous oxide1
 or as the eaters of hashish will       
confess4 ,to follow all our intuitions  
would lead us into the wildest dervish  
dance of thought and action and leave us
 spent and disheartened at the end4     
,agnosticism would be too mild a term   
for the result4 ,our intuitions have to 
be tried and tested2 there is a thorny  
and difficult path of criticism to be   
traversed before we can philosophically 
endorse them and find peace of mind4    

,what ,hoffding says is in a sense quite
 true3 ,when we pass into intuition we  
pass into a state without problems4 ,but
 that is1 as ,hoffding intends us to    
understand1 not because all problems are
 thereby solved1 but because they have  
not yet emerged4 ,if we consent to      
remain at that point1 we refuse to make 
the acquaintance of ,philosophy2 if we  
recognize the problems that are really  
latent there1 we soon realize that the  
business of ,philosophy is yet to be    
transacted4  ,the fact is that in this  
part of his doctrine--and it is an      
important part--the brilliant ,french   
writer1 in his endeavours to make       
philosophizing more concrete and        
practical1 makes it too abstract4       
,intuition is not a process over against
 and quite distinct from conceptual     
thought4 ,both are moments in the total 
process of man's attempt to come to     
terms with the universe1 and too great  
emphasis on either distorts and         
falsifies the situation in which we find

 ourselves on this planet4 ,the         
insistence on intuition is doubtless    
due1 at bottom1 to ,bergson's admiration
 for the activity in the creative       
artist4 ,the border-line between ,art   
and ,philosophy becomes almost an       
imaginary line with him4 ,in the one    
case as in the other we have1 according 
to him1 to get inside the object by a   
sort of sympathy4 ,true1 there is this  
difference1 he says1 that aesthetic     
intuition achieves only the             
individual--which is doubtful--whereas  
the philosophic intuition is to be      
conceived as a recherche orientee dans  
la meme sens que l'art1 indeed1 but qui 
prendrait pour objet la vie en general4 
,he fails to note1 it may be observed1  
that the expression of the aesthetic    
intuition1 that is to say1 ,art1 is     
always fixed and static4 ,this in view  
of other aspects of his doctrine is     
remarkable4 ,but apart from this attempt
 to practically identify ,art and       
,philosophy--a hopeless attempt--there  

is1 of course1 available as a means of  
explanation the well-known and not      
entirely deplorable tendency of the     
protestant and innovator to overstate   
his case1 to bring out by strong        
emphasis the aspect with which he is    
chiefly concerned and which he thinks   
has been unduly neglected4 ,this1 as    
hinted1 has its merits1 and not only or 
chiefly for ,philosophy1 but also1 and  
perhaps primarily1 for the conduct of   
life4 ,if he convinces men1 should they 
need convincing1 that they cannot be    
saved by the discursive reason alone1 he
 will have done a good service to his   
generation1 and to the philosophers     
among them who may 7though they ought   
not to7 be tempted to ignore the        
intuitive element in experience4  ,the  
same tendency to over-emphasis can be   
observed elsewhere4 ,it is noticeable1  
for instance1 in his discussions of     
,change1 which are so marked and        
important a feature in his writings4    
,his ,philosophy has been called1 with  

his approval apparently1 the ,philosophy
 of ,change1 though it might have been  
called1 still more truly and            
suggestively1 the ,philosophy of        
,creation4 ,it is this latter phase of  
it which has so enormously interested   
and stimulated the world4 ,as to his    
treatment of ,change1 it reveals        
,bergson in one of his happiest moods4  
,it is difficult to restrain one's      
praise in speaking of the subtle and    
resourceful way in which he handles this
 tantalizing and elusive question4 ,it  
is a stroke of genius4 ,the student of  
,philosophy1 of course1 at once thinks  
of ,heraclitus2 but ,bergson is not     
merely another ,heraclitus any more than
 he is just an echo of ,jacobi4 ,he     
places ,change in a new light1 enables  
us to grasp its character with a success
 which1 if he had no other claim to     
remembrance1 would ensure for him an    
honourable place in the ,history of     
,philosophy4 ,in the process he makes   
but a mouthful of ,zeno and his eternal 

puzzles4 ,but1 as ,mr4 ,gunn also points
 out1,footnote3 ,see p4 #adb4 ,change   
cannot be the last word in our          
characterization of ,reality4 ,pure     
,change is not only unthinkable--that   
perhaps ,bergson would allow--but it is 
something which cannot be experienced4  
,there must be points of reference--a   
starting point and an ending point at   
least4 ,pure ,change1 as is the way with
 pure anything1 turns into its          
contradictory4 ,paradoxical though it   
may seem1 it ends as static4 ,it becomes
 the ,one and ,indivisible4 ,this1 at   
least1 was recognized by ,heraclitus and
 is expressed by him in his figure of   
the ,great ,year4  ,it is not my        
purpose1 however1 to usurp the function 
of the author of this useful handbook to
 ,bergson4 ,the extent of my            
introductory remarks is an almost       
involuntary tribute to the material and 
provocative nature of ,bergson's        
discussions1 just as the frequent use by
 the author of this book of the actual  

words of ,bergson are a tribute to the  
excellence and essential rightness of   
his style4 ,the ,frenchman1 himself a   
free and candid spirit1 would be the    
last to require unquestioning docility  
in others4 ,he knows that thereby is the
 philosophic breath choked out of us4   
,if we read him in the spirit in which  
he would wish to be read1 we shall find1
 however much we may diverge from him on
 particular issues1 that our labour has 
been far from wasted4 ,he undoubtedly   
calls for considerable effort from the  
student who takes him1 as he ought to be
 taken1 seriously2 but it is effort well
 worth while4 ,he1 perhaps1 shines even 
more as a psychologist than as a        
philosopher--at least in the            
time-honoured sense4 ,he has an almost  
uncanny introspective insight and1 as   
has been said1 a power of rendering its 
result in language which creates in the 
reader a sense of excitement and        
adventure not to be excelled by the     
ablest romancer4 ,fadaises1 which are to

 be met with in philosophical works as  
elsewhere1 are not to be frequently     
encountered in his writings4 ,there is  
always the fresh breeze of original     
thought blowing here4 ,he is by nature  
as well as by doctrine the sworn foe of 
conventionality4 ,though he may not give
 us all we would wish1 in our haste to  
be all-wise1 let us yet be grateful to  
him for this1 that he has the purpose   
and also the power to shake us out of   
complacency1 to compel us to recast our 
philosophical account4 ,in this he is   
supremely serviceable to his generation1
 and is deserving of the gratitude of   
all who care for ,philosophy4 ,for1     
while ,philosophy cannot die1 it may be 
allowed to fall into a comatose         
condition2 and this is the unpardonable 
sin4  ,,alexander ,,mair  ,,liverpool   
,,university    ,this huge vision of    
time and motion1 of a mighty world which
 is always becoming1 always changing1   
growing1 striving1 and wherein the word 
of power is not law1 but life1 has      

captured the modern imagination no less 
than the modern intellect4 ,it lights   
with its splendour the patient          
discoveries of science4 ,it casts a new 
radiance on theology1 ethics and art4   
,it gives meaning to some of our deepest
 instincts1 our strangest and least     
explicable tendencies4 ,but above and   
beyond all this1 it lifts the awful     
weight which determinism had laid upon  
our spirits and fills the future with   
hope2 for beyond the struggle and       
suffering inseparable from life's flux1 
as we know it1 it reports to us1 though 
we may not hear them1 the thunder of new
 wings4  ,evelyn ,underhill             
,,chapter ,i  ,,life ,,of ,,bergson     
,birth and education--,teaches at       
,clermont-,ferrand--,les donnees        
immediates de la conscience--,matiere et
 ,memoire--,chair of ,greek ,philosophy1
 then of ,modern ,philosophy1 ,college  
de ,france--,l',evolution               
creatrice--,relations with ,william     
,james--,visits ,england and            

,america--,popularity--,neo-,catholics  
and ,syndicalists--,election to         
,academie francaise--,war-work--        
,l',energie spirituelle4   ,bergson's   
life has been the quiet and uneventful  
one of a ,french professor1 the chief   
landmarks in it being the publication of
 his three principal works1 first1 in   
#ahhi1 the ,essai sur les donnees       
immediates de la conscience1 then       
,matiere et ,memoire in #ahif1 and      
,l',evolution creatrice in #aijg4 ,on   
,october #ahth1 #ahei1 ,henri ,louis    
,bergson was born in ,paris in the ,rue 
,lamartine1 not far from the ,opera     
,house4,footnote3 ,he was not born in   
,england as ,albert ,steenbergen        
erroneously states in his work1 ,henri  
,bergsons ,intuitive ,philosophie1      
,jena1 #aiji1 p4 #b1 nor in #aheb1 the  
date given by ,miss ,stebbing in her    
,pragmatism and ,french ,voluntarism4   
,he is descended from a prominent       
,jewish family of ,poland1 with a blend 
of ,irish blood from his mother's side4 

,his family lived in ,london for a few  
years after his birth1 and he obtained  
an early familiarity with the ,english  
language from his mother4 ,before he was
 nine years old his parents crossed the 
,channel and settled in ,france1 ,henri 
becoming a naturalized citizen of the   
,republic4  ,in ,paris from #ahfh to    
#ahgh he attended the ,lycee ,fontaine1 
now known as the ,lycee ,condorcet4     
,while there he obtained a prize for his
 scientific work and also won a prize   
when he was eighteen for the solution of
 a mathematical problem4 ,this was in   
#ahgg1 and his solution was published   
the following year in ,annales de       
,mathematiques4 ,it is of interest as   
being his first published work4 ,after  
some hesitation over his career1 as to  
whether it should lie in the sphere of  
the sciences or that of the humanities1 
he decided in favour of the latter1 and 
when nineteen years of age1 he entered  
the famous ,ecole ,normale ,superieure4 
,while there he obtained the degree of  

,licencie-es-,lettres1 and this was     
followed by that of ,agrege de          
philosophie in #ahha4  ,the same year he
 received a teaching appointment at the 
,lycee in ,angers1 the ancient capital  
of ,anjou4 ,two years later he settled  
at the ,lycee ,blaise-,pascal in        
,clermont-,ferrand1 chief town of the   
,puy de ,dome department1 whose name is 
more known to motorists than to         
philosophers4 ,the year after his       
arrival at ,clermont-,ferrand he        
displayed his ability in the humanities 
by the publication of an excellent      
edition of extracts from ,lucretius1    
with a critical study of the text and   
the philosophy of the poet 7#ahhd71 a   
work whose repeated editions are        
sufficient evidence of its useful place 
in the promotion of classical study     
among the youth of ,france4 ,while      
teaching and lecturing in this beautiful
 part of his country 7the ,auvergne     
region71 ,bergson found time for private
 study and original work4 ,he was       

engaged on his ,essai sur les donnees   
immediates de la conscience4 ,this      
essay1 which1 in its ,english           
translation1 bears the more definite and
 descriptive title1 ,time and ,free     
,will1 was submitted1 along with a short
 ,latin ,thesis on ,aristotle1 for the  
degree of ,docteur-es-,lettres1 to which
 he was admitted by the ,university of  
,paris in #ahhi4 ,the work was published
 in the same year by ,felix ,alcan1 the 
,paris publisher1 in his series ,la     
,bibliotheque de philosophie            
contemporaine4  ,it is interesting to   
note that ,bergson dedicated this volume
 to ,jules ,lachelier1 then ministre de 
l'instruction publique1 who was an      
ardent disciple of ,ravaisson and the   
author of a rather important            
philosophical work ,du fondement de     
l',induction 7#ahga71 who in his view of
 things endeavoured to substitute       
everywhere force for inertia1 life for  
death1 and liberty for fatalism4        
,footnote3 ,lachelier was born in #ahcb1

 ,ravaisson in #ahac4 ,bergson owed much
 to both of these teachers of the ,ecole
 ,normale ,superieure4 ,cf4 his memorial
 address on ,ravaisson1 who died in     
#aijj4 7,see ,bibliography under #aijd47
  ,bergson now settled again in ,paris1 
and after teaching for some months at   
the ,municipal ,college1 known as the   
,college ,rollin1 he received an        
appointment at the ,lycee               
,henri-,quatre1 where he remained for   
eight years4 ,in #ahif he published his 
second large work1 entitled ,matiere et 
,memoire4 ,this rather difficult1 but   
brilliant1 work investigates the        
function of the brain1 undertakes an    
analysis of perception and memory1      
leading up to a careful consideration of
 the problems of the relation of body   
and mind4 ,bergson1 we know1 has spent  
years of research in preparation for    
each of his three large works4 ,this is 
especially obvious in ,matiere et       
,memoire1 where he shows a very thorough
 acquaintance with the extensive amount 

of pathological investigation which has 
been carried out in recent years1 and   
for which ,france is justly entitled to 
very honourable mention4  ,in #ahih     
,bergson became ,maitre de conferences  
at his ,alma ,mater1 ,l',ecole ,normale 
,superieure1 and was later promoted to a
 ,professorship4 ,the year #aijj saw him
 installed as ,professor at the ,college
 de ,france1 where he accepted the      
,chair of ,greek ,philosophy in         
succession to ,charles ,l',eveque4 ,the 
,college de ,france1 founded in #aecj1  
by ,francois ,i1 is less ancient1 and   
until recent years has been less        
prominent in general repute than the    
,sorbonne1 which traces back its history
 to the middle of the thirteenth        
century4 ,nevertheless1 it is one of the
 intellectual headquarters of ,france1  
indeed of the whole world4 ,while the   
,sorbonne is now the seat of the        
,university of ,paris1 the ,college is  
an independent institution under the    
control of the ,ministre de             

l',instruction publique4 ,the lectures  
given by the very eminent professors who
 fill its forty-three chairs are free   
and open to the general public1 and are 
attended mainly by a large number of    
women students and by the senior        
students from the ,university4 ,the     
largest lecture room in the ,college was
 given to ,bergson1 but this became     
quite inadequate to accommodate his     
hearers4  ,at the ,first ,international 
,congress of ,philosophy1 which was held
 in ,paris1 during the first five days  
of ,august1 #aijj1 ,bergson read a      
short1 but important1 paper1 ,sur les   
origines psychologiques de notre        
croyance a la loi de causalite4 ,in     
#aija ,felix ,alcan published in book   
form a work which had just previously   
appeared in the ,revue de ,paris        
entitled ,le ,rire1 one of the most     
important of his minor productions4     
,this essay on the meaning of the ,comic
 was based on a lecture which he had    
given in his early days in the          

,auvergne4 ,the study of it is essential
 to an understanding of ,bergson's views
 of life1 and its passages dealing with 
the place of the artistic in life are   
valuable4 ,in #aija he was elected to   
the ,academie des ,sciences morales et  
politiques1 and became a member of the  
,institute4 ,in #aijc he contributed to 
the ,revue de metaphysique et de morale 
a very important essay entitled         
,introduction a la metaphysique1 which  
is useful as a preface to the study of  
his three large books4  ,on the death of
 ,gabriel ,tarde1 the eminent           
sociologist1 in #aijd1 ,bergson         
succeeded him in the ,chair of ,modern  
,philosophy4 ,from the #dth to the #hth 
of ,september of that year he was at    
,geneva attending the ,second           
,international ,congress of ,philosophy1
 when he lectured on ,le ,paralogisme   
psycho-physiologique1 or1 to quote its  
new title1 ,le ,cerveau et la ,pensee3  
une illusion philosophique4 ,an illness 
prevented his visiting ,germany to      

attend the ,third ,congress held at     
,heidelberg4  ,his third large work--his
 greatest book--,l',evolution creatrice1
 appeared in #aijg1 and is undoubtedly1 
of all his works1 the one which is most 
widely known and most discussed4 ,it    
constitutes one of the most profound and
 original contributions to the          
philosophical consideration of the      
theory of ,evolution4 ,un livre comme   
,l',evolution creatrice1 remarks ,imbart
 de la ,tour1 n'est pas seulment une    
oeuvre1 mais une date1 celle d'une      
direction nouvelle imprimee a la pensee4
 ,by #aiah1 ,alcan1 the publisher1 had  
issued twenty-one editions1 making an   
average of two editions per annum for   
ten years4 ,since the appearance of this
 book1 ,bergson's popularity has        
increased enormously1 not only in       
academic circles1 but among the general 
reading public4  ,he came to ,london in 
#aijh and visited ,william ,james1 the  
,american philosopher of ,harvard1 who  
was ,bergson's senior by seventeen      

years1 and who was instrumental in      
calling the attention of the            
,anglo-,american public to the work of  
the ,french professor4 ,this was an     
interesting meeting and we find ,james' 
impression of ,bergson given in his     
,letters under date of ,october #d1     
#aijh4 ,so modest and unpretending a man
 but such a genius intellectually6 ,i   
have the strongest suspicions that the  
tendency which he has brought to a      
focus1 will end by prevailing1 and that 
the present epoch will be a sort of     
turning point in the history of         
philosophy4  ,as in some quarters       
erroneous ideas prevail regarding both  
the historical and intellectual relation
 between ,james and ,bergson1 it may be 
useful to call attention to some of the 
facts here4 ,as early as #ahhj ,james   
contributed an article in ,french to the
 periodical ,la ,critique philosophique1
 of ,renouvier and ,pillon1 entitled ,le
 ,sentiment de l',effort4,footnote3 ,cf4
 his ,principles of ,psychology1 ,vol4  

,,ii41 chap xxvi4 ,four years later a   
couple of articles by him appeared in   
,mind3 ,what is an ,emotion8,footnote3  
,mind1 #ahhd1 pp4 #ahh-bje4 and ,on some
 ,omissions of ,introspective           
,psychology4,footnote3 ,mind1 #ahhd1 pp4
 #a-bf4 ,of these articles the first two
 were quoted by ,bergson in his work of 
#ahhi1 ,les donnees immediates de la    
conscience4 ,in the following years     
#ahij-ia appeared the two volumes of    
,james' monumental work1 ,the           
,principles of ,psychology1 in which he 
refers to a pathological phenomenon     
observed by ,bergson4 ,some writers     
taking merely these dates into          
consideration1 and overlooking the fact 
that ,james' investigations had been    
proceeding since #ahgj1 registered from 
time to time by various articles which  
culminated in ,the ,principles1 have    
mistakenly assigned to ,bergson's ideas 
priority in time4,footnote3 ,for example
 ,a4 ,chaumeix3 ,william ,james 7,revue 
des ,deux ,mondes1 ,oct1 #aiaj71 and ,j4

 ,bourdeau3 ,nouvelles modes en         
philosophie1 ,journal de ,debats1 ,feb41
 #aijg4 ,cf4 ,flournoy3 ,la philosophie 
de ,william ,james4 7,eng4 ,trans4 ,holt
 and ,james1 pp4 #aih-bjf74 ,on the     
other hand insinuations have been made  
to the effect that ,bergson owes the    
germ-ideas of his first book to the     
#ahhd article by ,james ,on ,some       
,omissions of ,introspective            
,psychology1 which he neither refers to 
nor quotes4 ,this particular article    
deals with the conception of thought as 
a stream of consciousness1 which        
intellect distorts by framing into      
concepts4 ,we must not be misled by     
parallels4 ,bergson has replied to this 
insinuation by denying that he had any  
knowledge of the article by ,james when 
he wrote ,les donnees immediates de la  
conscience4,footnote3 ,relation a       
,william ,james et a ,james ,ward4 ,art4
 in ,revue philosophique1 ,aug41 #aije1 
lx41 p4 #bbi4 ,the two thinkers appear  
to have developed independently until   

almost the close of the century4 ,in    
truth they are much further apart in    
their intellectual position than is     
frequently supposed4,footnote3 ,the     
reader who desires to follow the various
 views of the relation of ,bergson and  
,james will find the following works    
useful4 ,kallen 7a pupil of ,james73    
,william ,james and ,henri ,bergson3 a  
study in contrasting theories of life4  
,stebbing3 ,pragmatism and ,french      
,voluntarism4 ,caldwell3 ,pragmatism and
 ,idealism 7last chap74 ,perry3 ,present
 ,philosophical ,tendencies4 ,boutroux3 
,william ,james 7,eng4 ,tr474 ,flournoy3
 ,la philosophie de ,james 7,eng4 ,tr474
 ,and ,j4 ,e4 ,turner3 ,an ,examination 
of ,william ,james' ,philosophy4 ,both  
have succeeded in appealing to audiences
 far beyond the purely academic sphere1 
but only in their mutual rejection of   
intellectualism as final is there real  
harmony or unanimity between them4 ,it  
will not do to press too closely        
analogies between the ,radical          

,empiricism of the ,american and the    
,doctrine of ,intuition of the          
,frenchman4 ,although ,james obtains a  
certain priority in point of time in the
 development and enunciation of his     
ideas1 we must remember that he         
confessed that he was baffled by many of
 ,bergson's notions4 ,james certainly   
neglected many of the deeper            
metaphysical aspects of ,bergson's      
thought1 which did not harmonize with   
his own1 and are even in direct         
contradiction4 ,in addition to this     
,bergson is no pragmatist1 for him      
utility1 so far from being a test of    
truth1 is rather the reverse1 a synonym 
for error4  ,nevertheless1 ,william     
,james hailed ,bergson as an ally very  
enthusiastically4 ,early in the century 
7#aijc7 we find him remarking in his    
correspondence3 ,i have been re-reading 
,bergson's books1 and nothing that ,i   
have read since years has so excited and
 stimulated my thoughts4 ,i am sure that
 that philosophy has a great future1 it 

breaks through old cadres and brings    
things into a solution from which new   
crystals can be got4 ,the most          
noteworthy tributes paid by him to      
,bergson were those made in the ,hibbert
 ,lectures 7,a ,pluralistic ,universe71 
which ,james gave at ,manchester        
,college1 ,oxford1 shortly after he and 
,bergson met in ,london4 ,he there      
remarked upon the encouragement he had  
received from ,bergson's thought1 and   
referred to the confidence he had in    
being able to lean on ,bergson's        
authority4 ,footnote3 ,a ,pluralistic   
,universe1 pp4 #bad-ae4 ,cf4 the whole  
of ,lecture ,v4 ,the ,compounding of    
,consciousness1 pp4 #aha-bba1 and       
,lecture ,,vi4 ,bergson and ,his        
,critique of ,intellectualism1 pp4      
#bbe-bgc4 ,open ,bergson1 and new       
horizons loom on every page you read4   
,it is like the breath of the morning   
and the song of birds4 ,it tells of     
reality itself1 instead of merely       
reiterating what dusty-minded professors

 have written about what other previous 
professors have thought4 ,nothing in    
,bergson is shop-worn or at second-hand4
 ,footnote3 ,lecture ,,vi41 p4 #bfe4    
,the influence of ,bergson had led him  
to renounce the intellectualist method  
and the current notion that logic is an 
adequate measure of what can or cannot  
be4 ,footnote3 ,a ,pluralistic          
,universe1 p4 #bab4 ,it had induced him1
 he continued1 ,,to ,,give ,,up ,,the   
,,logic1 squarely and irrevocably as a  
method1 for he found that reality1 life1
 experience1 concreteness1 immediacy1   
use what word you will1 exceeds our     
logic1 overflows1 and surrounds it4     
,footnote3 ,a ,pluralistic ,universe1 p4
 #bab4  ,naturally1 these remarks1 which
 appeared in book form in #aiji1        
directed many ,english and ,american    
readers to an investigation of          
,bergson's philosophy for themselves4 ,a
 certain handicap existed in that his   
greatest work had not then been         
translated into ,english4 ,james1       

however1 encouraged and assisted ,dr4   
,arthur ,mitchell in his preparation of 
the ,english translation of             
,l',evolution creatrice4 ,in ,august of 
#aiaj ,james died4 ,it was his          
intention1 had he lived to see the      
completion of the translation1 to       
introduce it to the ,english reading    
public by a prefatory note of           
appreciation4 ,in the following year the
 translation was completed and still    
greater interest in ,bergson and his    
work was the result4 ,by a coincidence1 
in that same year 7#aiaa71 ,bergson     
penned for the ,french translation of   
,james' book1 ,pragmatism1,footnote3 ,le
 ,pragmatisme3 ,translated by ,le ,brun4
 ,paris1 ,flammarion4 a preface of      
sixteen pages1 entitled ,verite et      
,realite4 ,in it he expressed           
sympathetic appreciation of ,james'     
work1 coupled with certain important    
reservations4  ,in ,april 7#eth to      
#aath7 ,bergson attended the ,fourth    
,international ,congress of ,philosophy 

held at ,bologna1 in ,italy1 where he   
gave a brilliant address on             
,l',intuition philosophique4 ,in        
response to invitations received he came
 again to ,england in ,may of that year1
 and has paid us several subsequent     
visits4 ,these visits have always been  
noteworthy events and have been marked  
by important deliverances4 ,many of     
these contain important contributions to
 thought and shed new light on many     
passages in his three large works1 ,time
 and ,free ,will1 ,matter and ,memory1  
and ,creative ,evolution4 ,although     
necessarily brief statements1 they are  
of more recent date than his books1 and 
thus show how this acute thinker can    
develop and enrich his thought and take 
advantage of such an opportunity to make
 clear to an ,english audience the      
fundamental principles of his           
philosophy4  ,he visited ,oxford and    
delivered at the ,university1 on the    
#bfth and #bgth of ,may1 two lectures   
entitled ,la ,perception du ,changement1

 which were published in ,french in the 
same year by the ,clarendon ,press4 ,as 
,bergson has a delightful gift of lucid 
and brief exposition1 when the occasion 
demands such treatment1 these lectures  
on ,change form a most valuable synopsis
 or brief survey of the fundamental     
principles of his thought1 and serve the
 student or general reader alike as an  
excellent introduction to the study of  
the larger volumes4 ,oxford honoured its
 distinguished visitor by conferring    
upon him the degree of ,doctor of       
,science4 ,two days later he delivered  
the ,huxley ,lecture at ,birmingham     
,university1 taking for his subject     
,life and ,consciousness4 ,this         
subsequently appeared in ,the ,hibbert  
,journal 7,oct41 #aiaa71 and since      
revised1 forms the first essay in the   
collected volume ,l',energie spirituelle
 or ,mind-,energy4 ,in ,october he was  
again in ,england1 where he had an      
enthusiastic reception1 and delivered at
 ,london ,university 7,university       

,college7 four lectures on ,la ,nature  
de l',ame4 ,in #aiac he visited the     
,united ,states of ,america1 at the     
invitation of ,columbia ,university1    
,new ,york1 and lectured in several     
,american cities1 where he was welcomed 
by very large audiences4 ,in ,february1 
at ,columbia ,university1 he lectured   
both in ,french and ,english1 taking as 
his subjects3 ,spiritualite et ,liberte 
and ,the ,method of ,philosophy4 ,being 
again in ,england in ,may of the same   
year1 he accepted the ,presidency of the
 ,british ,society for ,psychical       
,research1 and delivered to the ,society
 an impressive address3 ,fantomes des   
,vivants et ,recherche psychique4       
,meanwhile1 his popularity increased1   
and translations of his works began to  
appear in a number of languages1        
,english1 ,german1 ,italian1 ,danish1   
,swedish1 ,magyar1 ,polish and ,russian4
 ,in #aiad he was honoured by his       
fellow-countrymen in being elected as a 
member of the ,academie francaise4 ,he  

was also made ,president of the         
,academie des ,sciences morales et      
politiques1 and in addition he became   
,officier de la ,legion d',honneur1 and 
,officier de l',instruction publique4   
,he found disciples of many varied      
types1 and in ,france movements such as 
,neo-,catholicism or ,modernism on the  
one hand and ,syndicalism on the other1 
endeavoured to absorb and to appropriate
 for their own immediate use and        
propaganda some of the central ideas of 
his teaching4 ,that important           
continental organ of socialist and      
syndicalist theory1 ,le ,mouvement      
socialiste1 suggested that the realism  
of ,karl ,marx and ,prudhon is hostile  
to all forms of intellectualism1 and    
that1 therefore1 supporters of ,marxian 
socialism should welcome a philosophy   
such as that of ,bergson4 ,other        
writers1 in their eagerness1 asserted   
the collaboration of the ,chair of      
,philosophy at the ,college de ,france  
with the aims of the ,confederation     

,generale du ,travail and the           
,industrial ,workers of the ,world4 ,it 
was claimed that there is harmony       
between the flute of personal           
philosophical meditation and the trumpet
 of social revolution4 ,these statements
 are considered in the chapter dealing  
with the political implications of      
,bergson's thought4  ,while social      
revolutionaries were endeavouring to    
make the most out of ,bergson1 many     
leaders of religious thought1           
particularly the more liberal-minded    
theologians of all creeds1 e4g41 the    
,modernists and ,neo-,catholic ,party in
 his own country1 showed a keen interest
 in his writings1 and many of them      
endeavoured to find encouragement and   
stimulus in his work4 ,the ,roman       
,catholic ,church1 however1 which still 
believes that finality was reached in   
philosophy with the work of ,thomas     
,aquinas1 in the thirteenth century1 and
 consequently makes that mediaeval      
philosophy her official1 orthodox1 and  

dogmatic view1 took the step of banning 
,bergson's three books by placing them  
upon the ,index 7,decree of ,june #a1   
#aiad74  ,it was arranged by the        
,scottish ,universities that ,bergson   
should deliver in #aiad the famous      
,gifford ,lectures1 and one course was  
planned for the spring and another for  
the autumn4 ,the first course1          
consisting of eleven lectures1 under the
 title of ,the ,problem of ,personality1
 was delivered at ,edinburgh ,university
 in the ,spring of that year4  ,then    
came the ,war4 ,the course of lectures  
planned for the autumn months had to be 
abandoned4 ,bergson has not1 however1   
been silent during the conflict1 and he 
has given some inspiring addresses4 ,as 
early as ,november #dth1 #aiad1 he wrote
 an article entitled ,la force qui s'use
 et celle qui ne s'use pas1 which       
appeared in that unique and interesting 
periodical of the poilus1 ,le ,bulletin 
des ,armees de la ,republique           
,francaise4 ,a presidential address     

delivered in ,december1 #aiad1 to the   
,academie des sciences morales et       
politiques1 had for its title ,la       
,significance de la ,guerre4 ,this1     
together with the preceding article1 has
 been translated and published in       
,england as ,the ,meaning of the ,war4  
,bergson contributed also to the        
publication arranged by ,the ,daily     
,telegraph in honour of the ,king of the
 ,belgians1 ,king ,albert's ,book       
7,christmas1 #aiad74 ,in #aiae he was   
succeeded in the office of ,president of
 the ,academie des ,sciences morales et 
politiques by ,m4 ,alexandre ,ribot1 and
 then delivered a discourse on ,the     
,evolution of ,german ,imperialism4     
,meanwhile he found time to issue at the
 request of the ,minister of ,public    
,instruction a delightful little summary
 of ,french ,philosophy4 ,bergson did a 
large amount of travelling and lecturing
 in ,america during the war4 ,he was    
there when the ,french ,mission under   
,m4 ,viviani paid a visit in ,april and 

,may of #aiag1 following upon ,america's
 entry into the conflict4 ,m4 ,viviani's
 book ,la ,mission francaise en         
,amerique1 #aiag1 contains a preface by 
,bergson4  ,early in #aiah he was       
officially received by the ,academie    
francaise1 taking his seat among ,the   
,select ,forty as successor to ,m4      
,emile ,ollivier1 the author of the     
large and notable historical work       
,l',empire liberal4 ,a session was held 
in ,january in his honour at which he   
delivered an address on ,ollivier4  ,in 
the ,war1 ,bergson saw the conflict of  
,mind and ,matter1 or rather of ,life   
and ,mechanism2 and thus he shows us in 
action the central idea of his own      
philosophy4 ,to no other philosopher has
 it fallen1 during his lifetime1 to have
 his philosophical principles so vividly
 and so terribly tested4 ,we are too    
close to the smoking crucible of war to 
be aware of all that has been involved  
in it4 ,even those who have helped in   
the making of history are too near to it

 to regard it historically1 much less   
philosophically4 ,yet one cannot help   
feeling that the defeat of ,german      
militarism has been the proof in action 
of the validity of much of ,bergson's   
thought4  ,as many of ,bergson's        
contributions to ,french periodicals are
 not readily accessible1 he agreed to   
the request of his friends that these   
should be collected and published in two
 volumes4 ,the first of these was being 
planned when war broke out4 ,the        
conclusion of strife has been marked by 
the appearance of this delayed volume in
 #aiai4 ,it bears the title ,l',energie 
spirituelle3 ,essais et ,conferences4   
,the noted expounder of ,bergson's      
philosophy in ,england1 ,dr4 ,wildon    
,carr1 has prepared an ,english         
,translation under the title            
,mind-,energy4 ,the volume opens with   
the ,huxley ,memorial ,lecture of #aiaa1
 ,life and ,consciousness1 in a revised 
and developed form under the title      
,consciousness and ,life4 ,signs of     

,bergson's growing interest in social   
ethics and in the idea of a future life 
of personal survival are manifested4    
,the lecture before the ,society for    
,psychical ,research is included1 as is 
also the one given in ,france1 ,l',ame  
et le ,corps1 which contains the        
substance of the four ,london lectures  
on the ,soul4 ,the seventh and last     
article is a reprint of ,bergson's      
famous lecture to the ,congress of      
,philosophy at ,geneva in #aijd1 ,le    
paralogisme psycho-physiologique1 which 
now appears as ,le ,cerveau et la       
,pensee3 une illusion philosophique4    
,other articles are on the ,false       
,recognition1 on ,dreams1 and           
,intellectual ,effort4 ,the volume is a 
most welcome production and serves to   
bring together what ,bergson has written
 on the concept of mental force1 and on 
his view of tension and detension as    
applied to the relation of matter and   
mind4  ,it is ,bergson's intention to   
follow up this collection shortly by    

another on the ,method of ,philosophy1  
dealing with the problems of ,intuition4
 ,for this he is preparing an important 
introduction1 dealing with recent       
developments in philosophy4 ,this second
 volume will include the ,lectures on   
,the ,perception of ,change given at    
,oxford1 ,the ,introduction to          
,metaphysics1 and the brilliant paper   
,philosophical ,intuition4 ,in ,june1   
#aibj1 ,cambridge honoured him with the 
degree of ,doctor of ,letters4 ,in order
 that he may be able to devote his full 
time to the great new work he is        
preparing on ethics1 religion1 and      
sociology1 ,bergson has been relieved of
 the duties attached to the ,chair of   
,modern ,philosophy at the ,college de  
,france4 ,he still holds this chair1 but
 no longer delivers lectures1 his place 
being taken by his brilliant pupil      
,edouard ,le ,roy4 ,living with his wife
 and daughter in a modest house in a    
quiet street near the ,porte d',auteuil 
in ,paris1 ,bergson is now working as   

keenly and vigorously as ever4          
,,chapter ,,ii  ,,the ,,reality ,,of    
,,change   ,fundamental in ,bergson's   
philosophy4 ,we are surrounded by       
changes--we ourselves change--,belief in
 change--,simplicity of                 
change--,immobility is composite and    
relative--,all movement is indivisible4 
,the fallacy of states--,intellect loves
 the static--,life is dynamic--,change1 
the very stuff of life1 constitutes     
reality4   ,throughout the history of   
thought we find that the prevailing     
philosophies have always reflected some 
of the characteristics of their time4   
,for instance1 in those periods when1 as
 historians tell us1 the tendency       
towards unity1 conformity1 system1      
order1 and authority was strong1 we find
 philosophy reflecting these conditions 
by emphasizing the unity of the         
universe2 while in those periods in     
which established order1 system1 and    
authority were disturbed1 the philosophy
 of the time emphasizes the idea of     

multiplicity as opposed to the unity of 
the universe1 laying stress on freedom1 
creative action1 spontaneity of effort1 
and the reality of change4 ,there can be
 little doubt that this is the chief    
reason why ,bergson's philosophy has    
found such an amount of acceptance in a 
comparatively short period4 ,the        
response to his thought may be explained
 very largely by this1 that already his 
fundamental ideas existed1 although     
implicit1 unexpressed1 in the minds of a
 great multitude of thoughtful people1  
to whom the static conceptions of the   
universe were inadequate and false4  ,we
 must not1 on the other hand1 overlook  
the fact that ,bergson's statements have
 in their turn given an emphasis to all 
aspects of thought which take account of
 the reality of change and which realize
 its importance in all spheres4 ,a      
writer on world politics very aptly     
reminds us that life is change1 and a   
,league of ,peace that aimed at         
preserving peace by forbidding change   

would be a tyranny as oppressive as any 
,napoleonic dictatorship4 ,these        
problems called for periodic change4    
,the peril of our future is that1 while 
the need for change is instinctively    
grasped by some peoples as the          
fundamental fact of world-politics1 to  
perceive it costs others a difficult    
effort of thought4 ,footnote3 ,h4 ,n4   
,brailsford on ,peace and ,change1      
,chap4 #c of his ,book ,a ,league of    
,nations4 ,however difficult it may be  
for some individuals and for some       
nations to grasp it1 the great fact is  
there--the reality of change is         
undeniable4  ,bergson himself would give
 to his philosophy the title1 ,the      
,philosophy of ,change1 and this for a  
very good reason1 for the principle of  
,change and an insistence on its reality
 lies at the root of his                
thought4,footnote3 ,he suggested this as
 a sub-title to ,dr4 ,h4 ,wildon ,carr  
for his little work ,henri ,bergson     
7,people's ,books74 ,dr4 ,wildon ,carr's

 later and larger work bears this as its
 full title4 ,we know that everything   
changes1 we find him saying in his      
,london lectures1 but it is mere words4 
,from the earliest times recorded in the
 history of philosophy1 philosophers    
have never stopped saying that          
everything changes2 but1 when the moment
 came for the practical application of  
this proposition1 they acted as if they 
believed that at the bottom of things   
there is immobility and invariability4  
,the greatest difficulties of philosophy
 are due to not taking account of the   
fact that ,change and ,movement are     
universal4 ,it is not enough to say that
 everything changes and moves--we must  
believe it4 ,footnote3 ,second of the   
four lectures on ,la ,nature de l',ame  
delivered at ,london ,university1 ,oct4 
#ba1 #aiaa4 ,from report in ,the ,times 
for ,oct4 #bc1 #aiaa1 p4 #d4 ,in order  
to think ,change and to see it1 a whole 
mass of prejudices must be swept        
aside--some artificial1 the products of 

speculative philosophy1 and others the  
natural product of common-sense4 ,we    
tend to regard immobility as a more     
simple affair than movement4 ,but what  
we call immobility is really composite  
and is merely relative1 being a relation
 between movements4 ,if1 for example1   
there are two trains running in the same
 direction on parallel lines at exactly 
the same speed1 opposite one another1   
then the passengers in each train1 when 
observing the other train1 will regard  
the trains as motionless4 ,so1          
generally1 immobility is only apparent1 
,change is real4 ,we tend to be misled  
by language2 we speak1 for instance1 of 
'the state of things'2 but what we call 
a state is the appearance which a change
 assumes in the eyes of a being who1    
himself1 changes according to an        
identical or analogous rhythm4 ,take1   
for example1 says ,bergson1 a summer    
day4 ,we are stretched on the grass1 we 
look around us--everything is at        
rest--there is absolute immobility--no  

change4 ,but the grass is growing1 the  
leaves of the trees are developing or   
decaying--we ourselves are growing older
 all the time4 ,that which seems rest1  
simplicity itself1 is but a composite of
 our ageing with the changes which takes
 place in the grass1 in the leaves1 in  
all that is around us4 ,change1 then1 is
 simple1 while 'the state of things' as 
we call it1 is composite4 ,every stable 
state is the result of the co-existence 
between that change and the change of   
the person who perceives it4 ,footnote3 
,la ,nature de l',ame1 lecture #b4  ,it 
is an axiom in the philosophy of        
,bergson that all change or movement is 
indivisible4 ,he asserts this expressly 
in ,matter and ,memory1,footnote3       
,matter and ,memory1 p4 #bdf ff4 7,fr4  
p4 #bjg ff74 and again in the second    
lecture on ,the ,perception of ,change  
he deals with the indivisibility of     
movement somewhat fully1 submitting it  
to a careful analysis1 from which the   
following quotation is an extract--,my  

hand is at the point ,a4 ,i move it to  
the point ,b1 traversing the interval   
,,ab4 ,i say that this movement from ,a 
to ,b is a simple thing--each of us has 
the sensation of this1 direct and       
immediate4 ,doubtless1 while we carry   
our hand over from ,a to ,b1 we say to  
ourselves that we could stop it at an   
intermediate point1 but then that would 
no longer be the same movement4 ,there  
would then be two movements1 with an    
interval of rest4 ,neither from within1 
by the muscular sense1 nor from without1
 by sight1 should we have the same      
perception4 ,if we leave our movement   
from ,a to ,b such as it is1 we feel it 
undivided1 and we must declare it       
indivisible4 ,it is true that when ,i   
look at my hand1 going from ,a to ,b1   
traversing the interval ,,ab1 ,i say to 
myself 'the interval ,,ab can be divided
 into as many parts as ,i wish1         
therefore the movement from ,a to ,b can
 be divided into as many parts as ,i    
like1 since this movement covers this   

interval1' or1 again1 ',at each moment  
of its passing1 the moving object passes
 over a certain point1 therefore we can 
distinguish in the movement as many     
stopping-places as we wish--therefore   
the movement is infinitely divisible4'  
,but let us reflect on this for a       
minute4 ,how can the movement possibly  
coincide with the space which it        
traverses8 ,how can the moving coincide 
with the motionless8 ,how can the object
 which moves be said to 'be' at any     
point in its path8 ,it passes over1 or1 
in other words1 it could 'be' there4 ,it
 would 'be' there if it stopped there1  
but1 if it stopped there1 it is no      
longer the same movement with which we  
are dealing4 ,it is always at one bound 
that a trajectory is traversed when1 on 
its course1 there is no stoppage4 ,the  
bound may last a few seconds1 or it may 
last for weeks1 months1 or years1 but it
 is unique and cannot be decomposed4    
,only1 when once the passage has been   
made1 as the path is in space1 and space

 is infinitely divisible1 we picture to 
ourselves the movement itself as        
infinitely divisible4 ,we like to       
imagine it thus1 because1 in a movement 
it is not the change of position which  
interests us1 it is the positions       
themselves which the moving object has  
left1 which it will take up1 which it   
might assume if it were to stop in its  
course4 ,we have need of immobility1 and
 the more we succeed in presenting to   
ourselves the movement as coinciding    
with the space which it traverses1 the  
better we think we understand it4       
,really1 there is no true immobility1 if
 we imply by that1 an absence of        
movement4 ,footnote3 ,translated from   
,la ,perception du ,changement1 pp4     
#ai-bj4 ,this immobility of which we    
have need for the purposes of action and
 of practical life1 we erect into an    
absolute reality4 ,it is of course      
convenient to our sense of sight to lay 
hold of objects in this way2 as pioneer 
of the sense of touch1 it prepares our  

action on the external world4 ,but1     
although for all practical purposes we  
require the notion of immobility as part
 of our mental equipment1 it does not at
 all help us to grasp reality4 ,then we 
habitually regard movement as something 
superadded to the motionless4 ,this is  
quite legitimate in the world of        
affairs2 but when we bring this habit   
into the world of speculation1 we       
misconceive reality1 we create          
lightheartedly insoluble problems1 and  
close our eyes to what is most alive in 
the real world4 ,for us movement is one 
position1 then another position1 and so 
on indefinitely4 ,it is true that we say
 there must be something else1 viz41 the
 actual passing across the interval     
which separates those positions4 ,but   
such a conception of ,change is quite   
false4 ,all true change or movement is  
indivisible4 ,we1 by constructing       
fictitious states and trying to compose 
movement out of them1 endeavour to make 
a process coincide with a thing--a      

movement with an immobility4 ,this is   
the way to arrive at dilemmas1          
antinomies1 and blind-alleys of thought4
 ,the puzzles of ,zeno about ,achilles  
and the ,tortoise and ,the ,moving      
,arrow are classical examples of the    
error involved in treating movement as  
divisible4,footnote3 ,bergson in ,matter
 and ,memory examines ,zeno's four      
puzzles3 ,the ,dichotomy1 ,achilles and 
the ,tortoise1 ,the ,arrow and ,the     
,stadium4 ,if movement is not           
everything1 it is nothing1 and if we    
postulate1 to begin with1 that the      
motionless is real1 then we shall be    
incapable of grasping reality4 ,the     
philosophies of ,plato1 of ,aristotle1  
and of ,plotinus were developed from the
 thesis that there is more in the       
immutable than in the moving1 and that  
it is by way of diminution that we pass 
from the stable to the unstable4  ,the  
main reason why it is such a difficult  
matter for us to grasp the reality of   
continuous change is owing to the       

limitations of our intellectual nature4 
,we are made in order to act1 as much as
 and more than in order to think--or1   
rather1 when we follow the bent of our  
nature1 it is in order to act that we   
think4 ,footnote3 ,creative ,evolution1 
p4 #cac 7,fr4 p4 #cba74 ,intellect is   
always trying to carve out for itself   
stable forms because it is primarily    
fitted for action1 and is characterized 
by a natural inability to comprehend    
life and grasp ,change4,footnote3       
,creative ,evolution1 p4 #agd 7,fr4 p4  
#agi74 ,our intellect loves the solid   
and the static1 but life itself is not  
static--it is dynamic4 ,we might say    
that the intellect takes views across   
the ever-moving scene1 snapshots of     
reality4 ,it acts like the camera of the
 cinematograph operator1 which is       
capable only of producing photographs1  
successive and static1 in a series upon 
a ribbon4 ,to grasp reality1 we have to 
do what the cinematograph does with the 
film--that is1 introduce or rather1     

re-introduce movement4,footnote3        
,creative ,evolution1 pp4 #cbj-cbd 7,fr4
 pp4 #cbh-ccb74 ,the stiff photograph is
 an abstraction bereft of movement1 so1 
too1 our intellectual views of the world
 and of our own nature are static       
instead of being dynamic4 ,human life is
 not made up of childhood1 adolescence1 
manhood1 and old age as states1 although
 we tend to speak of it in this way4    
,life is not a thing1 nor the state of a
 thing--it is a continuous movement or  
change4 ,the soul itself is a movement1 
not an entity4 ,in the physical world1  
light1 when examined1 proves itself to  
be a movement4 ,even physical science1  
bound1 as it would seem1 to assert the  
fixity and rigidity of matter1 is now of
 the opinion that matter is not the     
solid thing we are apt to think it4 ,the
 experiments of ,kelvin and ,lodge and  
the discovery of radium1 have brought   
forward a new theory of matter2 the     
old-fashioned base1 the atom1 is now    
regarded as being essentially movement2 

matter is as wonderful and mysterious in
 its character as spirit4 ,further we   
must note that the researches of        
,einstein1 culminating in the           
formulation of his general ,theory of   
,relativity and his special ,theory of  
,gravitation1 which are arousing such   
interest at the present time1 threaten  
very seriously the older static views of
 the universe and seem to frustrate any 
efforts to find and denote any stability
 therein4,footnote3 ,consult on this    
,dr4 ,einstein's own work of which the  
translation by ,r4 ,w4 ,lawson is just  
published3 ,relativity3 ,the ,special   
and the ,general ,theory4 ,methuen1     
#aibj4 ,in the light of these           
discoveries1 ,bergson's views on the    
reality of ,change seem less paradoxical
 than they might formerly have appeared4
 ,the reality of ,change is1 for        
,bergson1 absolute1 and on this1 as a   
fundamental point1 he constructs his    
thought4 ,in conjunction with his study 
of ,memory1 it leads up to his          

discussions of ,real ,time 7la duree71  
of ,freedom1 and of ,creative           
,evolution4 ,we must then1 at the outset
 of any study of ,bergson's philosophy1 
obtain a grasp of this universal        
'becoming'--a vision of the reality of  
,change4 ,then we shall realize that    
,change is substantial1 that it         
constitutes the very stuff of life4     
,there are changes1 but there are not   
things that change2 change does not need
 a support4 ,there are movements1 but   
there are not1 necessarily1 constant    
objects which are moved2 movement does  
not imply something that is movable4    
,footnote3 ,translated from ,la         
,perception du ,changement1 ,lecture #b1
 p4 #bd4  ,to emphasize and to          
illustrate this point1 so fundamental in
 his thought1 ,bergson turns to music4  
,let us listen1 he says1 to a melody1   
letting ourselves be swayed by it2 do we
 not have the clear perception of a     
movement which is not attached to any   
mobility--of a change devoid of anything

 which changes8 ,the change is          
self-sufficient1 it is the thing itself4
 ,it avails nothing to say that it takes
 time1 for it is indivisible2 if the    
melody were to stop sooner1 it would not
 be any longer the same volume of sound1
 but another1 equally indivisible4      
,doubtless we have a tendency to divide 
it and to represent it to ourselves as a
 linking together of distinct notes     
instead of the uninterrupted continuity 
of the melody4 ,but why8 ,simply because
 our auditive perception has assumed the
 habit of saturating itself with visual 
images4 ,we hear the melody across the  
vision which the conductor of the       
orchestra can have of it in looking at  
his score4 ,we represent to ourselves   
notes linked on to notes on an imaginary
 sheet of paper4 ,we think of a keyboard
 on which one plays1 of the bow of a    
violin which comes and goes1 of the     
musicians1 each one of whom plays his   
part in conjunction with the others4    
,let us abstract these spatial images2  

there remains pure change1              
self-sufficing1 in no way attached to a 
'thing' which changes4 ,footnote3       
,translated from ,la ,perception du     
,changement1 pp4 #bd-be4  ,we must      
conceive reality as a continual flux1   
then immobility will seem a superficial 
abstraction hypostatized into states1   
concepts1 and substances1 and the old   
difficulties raised by the ancients1 in 
regard to the problem of ,change1 will  
vanish1 along with the problems attached
 to the notion of substance in modern   
thought1 because there is nothing       
substantial but ,change4 ,apart from    
,change there is no reality4 ,we shall  
see that all is movement1 that we       
ourselves are movement--part of an elan1
 a poussee formidable1 which carries    
with it all things and all creatures1   
and that in this eternity--not of       
immutability but of life and ,change--we
 live and move and have our being4      
,footnote3 ,la ,perception du           
,changement1 concluding paragraph1 p4   

#cg4     ,,chapter ,,iii  ,,perception  
,images as data--,nerves1 afferent and  
efferent1 cannot beget images1 nor can  
the brain give rise to                  
representations--,all our perception    
relative to action4 ,denial of this     
involves the fallacies of ,idealism or  
of ,realism--,perception and            
knowledge--,physiological data--,zone of
 indetermination--,pure                 
perception--,memory and ,perception4    
,from the study of ,change we are led on
 to a consideration of the problems     
connected with our perception of the    
external world1 which has its roots in  
change4 ,these problems have given rise 
to some very opposing views--the classic
 warfare between ,realism and ,idealism4
 ,bergson is of neither school1 but     
holds that they each rest on            
misconceptions1 a wrong emphasis on     
certain facts4 ,he invites us to follow 
him closely while he investigates the   
problems of ,perception in his own way4 
,we will assume for the moment that we  

know nothing of theories of matter and  
theories of spirit1 nothing of the      
discussions as to the reality or        
ideality of the external world4 ,here ,i
 am in the presence of images1 in the   
vaguest sense of the word1 images       
perceived when my senses are opened to  
them1 unperceived when they are closed4 
444 ,now of these images there is ,,one 
which is distinct from all the others1  
in that ,i do not know it only from     
without by perceptions1 but from within 
by affections2 it is my body4 ,footnote3
 ,matter and ,memory1 p4 #a 7,fr4 p4    
#a74 ,further examination shows me that 
these affections always interpose       
themselves between the excitations from 
without and the movement which ,i am    
about to execute4 ,footnote3 ,matter and
 ,memory1 p4 #a 7,fr4 p4 #a74 ,indeed   
all seems to take place as if1 in this  
aggregate of images which ,i call the   
universe1 nothing really new could      
happen except through the medium of     
certain particular images1 the type of  

which is furnished me by my body4       
,footnote3 ,matter and ,memory1 p4 #c   
7,fr4 p4 #b74 ,reference to physiology  
shows in the structure of human bodies  
afferent nerves which transmit a        
disturbance to nerve centres1 and also  
efferent nerves which conduct from other
 centres movement to the periphery1 thus
 setting in motion the body in whole or 
in part4 ,when we make enquiries from   
the physiologist or the psychologist    
with regard to the origin of these      
images and representations1 we are      
sometimes told that1 as the centrifugal 
movements of the nervous system can     
evoke movement of the body1 so the      
centripetal movements--at least some of 
them--give rise to the representation1  
mental picture1 or perception of the    
external world4 ,yet we must remember   
that the brain1 the nerves1 and the     
disturbance of the nerves are1 after    
all1 only images among others4 ,so it is
 absurd to state that one image1 say the
 brain1 begets the others1 for the brain

 is part of the material world1 but the 
material world is not part of the brain4
 ,eliminate the image which bears the   
name 'material world1' and you destroy1 
at the same time1 the brain and the     
cerebral disturbances which are parts of
 it4 ,suppose1 on the contrary1 that    
these two images1 the brain and the     
cerebral disturbance1 vanish2 ex        
hypothesi you efface only these1 that is
 to say1 very little--an insignificant  
detail from an immense picture--the     
picture in its totality1 that is to say1
 the whole universe remains4 ,to make of
 the brain the condition on which the   
whole image depends is a contradiction  
in terms1 since the brain is1 by        
hypothesis1 a part of this image4       
,footnote3 ,matter and ,memory1 p4 #d   
7,fr4 pp4 #c-d74 ,the data of perception
 are external images1 then my body1 and 
changes brought about by my body in the 
surrounding images4 ,the external images
 transmit movement to my body1 it gives 
back movement to them4 ,my body or part 

of my body1 i4e41 my brain1 could not   
beget a whole or part of my             
representation of the external world4   
,you may say that my body is matter or  
that it is an image--the word is of no  
importance4 ,if it is matter1 it is a   
part of the material world1 and the     
material world consequently exists      
around it and without it4 ,if it is an  
image--that image can give but what has 
been put into it1 and since it is1 by   
hypothesis1 the image of my body only1  
it would be absurd to expect to get from
 it that of the whole universe4 ,my     
body1 an object destined to move other  
objects1 is then a centre of action2 it 
cannot give birth to a representation4  
,footnote3 ,matter and ,memory1 p4 #e   
7,fr4 p4 #d74 ,the body1 however1 is    
privileged1 since it appears to choose  
within certain limits certain reactions 
from possible ones4 ,it exercises a real
 influence on other images1 deciding    
which step to take among several which  
may be possible4 ,it judges which course

 is advantageous or dangerous to itself1
 by the nature of the images which reach
 it4 ,the objects which surround my body
 reflect its possible action upon them4 
,all our perception has reference1      
primarily1 to action1 not to            
speculation4,footnote3 ,cf4 ,creative   
,evolution1 p4 #cac 7,fr4 p4 #cba74 ,the
 brain centres are concerned with motor 
reaction rather than with conscious     
perception1 the brain is an instrument  
of action and not of representation4    
,footnote3 ,matter and ,memory1 p4 #hc  
7,fr4 p4 #fi74 ,therefore1 in the study 
of the problems of perception1 the      
starting-point should be action and not 
sensation4 ,all the confusions1         
inconsistencies and absurdities of      
statement1 made in regard to our        
knowledge of the external world1 have   
here their origin4 ,many philosophers   
and psychologists show us a brain1      
analogous in its essence to the rest of 
the material universe1 consequently an  
image1 if the universe is an image4     

,then1 since they want the internal     
movements of this brain to create or    
determine the representation of the     
whole material world--an image          
infinitely greater than that of the     
cerebral vibrations--they maintain that 
these molecular movements1 and movement 
in general1 are not images like others1 
but something which is either more or   
less than an image--in any case is of   
another nature than an image--and from  
which representation will issue as by a 
miracle4 ,thus matter is made into      
something radically different from      
representation1 something of which1     
consequently1 we have no image2 over    
against it they place a consciousness   
empty of images1 of which we are unable 
to form any idea4 ,lastly1 to fill      
consciousness1 they invent an           
incomprehensible action of this formless
 matter upon this matterless thought4   
,footnote3 ,matter and ,memory1 p4 #i   
7,fr4 pp4 #g-h74  ,the problem at issue 
between ,realists and ,idealists turns  

on the fact that there are two systems  
of images in existence4 ,here is a      
system of images which ,i term 'my      
perception of the universe1' and which  
may be entirely altered by a very slight
 change in the privileged image--my     
body4 ,this image occupies the centre4  
,by it all the others are conditioned2  
at each of its movements everything     
changes as though by a turn of a        
kaleidoscope4 ,here1 on the other hand1 
are the same images1 but referred each  
one to itself1 influencing each other no
 doubt1 but in such a manner that the   
effect is always in proportion to the   
cause2 this is what ,i term the         
'universe4' ,footnote3 ,matter and      
,memory1 p4 #ab 7,fr4 p4 #aj74 ,the     
question is1 ,how is it that the same   
images can belong at the same time to   
two different systems--the one in which 
each image varies for itself and in the 
well-defined measure that it is patient 
of the real action of surrounding       
images--the other in which all change   

for a single image and in the varying   
measure that they reflect the eventual  
action of this privileged image8        
,footnote3 ,matter and ,memory1 p4 #ac  
7,fr4 p4 #aa74 ,we may style one the    
system of science1 the other the system 
of consciousness4 ,now1 ,realism and    
,idealism are both incapable of         
explaining why there are two such       
systems at all4 ,subjective ,idealism   
derives the system of science from that 
of consciousness1 while materialistic   
,realism derives the system of          
consciousness from that of science4     
,they have1 however1 this common        
meeting-place1 that they both regard    
,perception as speculative in           
character--for each of them to perceive 
is to know4 ,now this is just the       
postulate which ,bergson disputes4 ,the 
office of perception1 according to him1 
is to give us1 not knowledge1 but the   
conditions necessary for                
action4,footnote3 ,notre croyance a la  
loi de causalite 7,revue de metaphysique

 et de morale1 #aijj71 p4 #feh4 ,a      
little examination shows us that        
distance stands for the degree in which 
other bodies are protected1 as it were1 
against the action of my body against   
them1 and equally too for the degree in 
which my body is protected from         
them4,footnote3 ,le ,souvenir du present
 et la fausse reconnaissance in         
,l',energie spirituelle1 pp4 #aag-afa   
7,mind-,energy71 or ,revue              
philosophique1 #aijh1 pp4 #efa-eic4     
,perception is utilitarian in character 
and has reference to bodily action1 and 
we detach from all the images coming to 
us those which interest us practically4 
,bergson then examines the physiological
 aspects of the perceptual process4     
,beginning with reflex actions and the  
development of the nervous system1 he   
goes on to discuss the functions of the 
spinal cord and the brain4 ,he finds in 
regard to these last two that there is  
only a difference of degree--there can  
be no difference in kind--between what  

is called the perceptive faculty of the 
brain and the reflex functions of the   
spinal cord4 ,the cord transforms into  
movements the stimulation received1 the 
brain prolongs into reactions which are 
merely nascent1 but in the one case as  
in the other1 the function of the nerve 
substance is to conduct1 to co-ordinate1
 or to inhibit movements4,footnote3     
,matter and ,memory1 pp4 #aj-aa 7,fr4 p4
 #i74 ,as we rise in the organic series 
we find a division of physiological     
labour4 ,nerve cells appear1 are        
diversified and tend to group themselves
 into a system2 at the same time the    
animal reacts by more varied movements  
to external stimulation4 ,but even when 
the stimulation received is not at once 
prolonged into movement1 it appears     
merely to await its occasion2 and the   
same impression which makes the organism
 aware of changes in the environment1   
determines it or prepares it to adapt   
itself to them4 ,no doubt there is in   
the higher vertebrates a radical        

distinction between pure automatism1 of 
which the seat is mainly in the spinal  
cord1 and voluntary activity which      
requires the intervention of the brain4 
,it might be imagined that the          
impression received1 instead of         
expanding into more movements           
spiritualizes itself into consciousness4
 ,but as soon as we compare the         
structure of the spinal cord with that  
of the brain1 we are bound to infer that
 there is merely a difference of        
complication1 and not a difference in   
kind1 between the functions of the brain
 and the reflex activity of the         
medullary system4 ,footnote3 ,matter and
 ,memory1 pp4 #ag-ah 7,fr4 p4 #ae74 ,the
 brain is no more than a kind of central
 telephone exchange1 its office is to   
allow communication or to delay it4 ,it 
adds nothing to what it receives1 it is 
simply a centre where perceptions get   
into touch with motor mechanisms4       
,sometimes the function of the brain is 
to conduct the movement received to a   

chosen organ of reaction1 while at other
 times it opens to the movement the     
totality of the motor tracks4 ,the brain
 appears as an instrument of analysis in
 regard to movements received by it1 but
 an instrument of selection in regard to
 the movements executed4 ,in either     
case1 its office is limited to the      
transmission and division of movements4 
,in the lower organisms1 stimulation    
takes the form of immediate contact4    
,for example1 a jelly-fish feels a      
danger when anything touches it1 and    
reacts immediately4 ,the more immediate 
the reaction has to be1 the more it     
resembles simple contact4 ,higher up the
 scale1 sight and hearing enable the    
individual to enter into relation with a
 greater number of objects and with     
objects at a distance4 ,this gives rise 
to an amount of uncertainty1 a zone of  
indetermination1 where hesitation and   
choice come into play4 ,hence1 says     
,bergson3 ,perception is master of space
 in the exact measure in which action is

 master of time4 ,footnote3 ,matter and 
,memory1 p4 #bc 7,fr4 p4 #ai74  ,in the 
paper read before the ,first            
,international ,congress of ,philosophy 
at ,paris in #aijj1 on ,our ,belief in  
the ,law of ,causality1,footnote3 ,notre
 croyance a la loi de causalite 7,revue 
de metaphysique et de morale1 ,sept41   
#aijj1 pp4 #fee-ffj74 ,bergson showed   
that it has its root in the             
co-ordination of our tactile impressions
 with our visual impressions4 ,this     
co-ordination becomes a continuity which
 generates motor habits or tendencies to
 action4  ,there now comes up for       
consideration the question as to why    
this relation of the organism1 to more  
or less distinct objects1 takes the     
particular form of conscious perception1
 and further1 why does everything happen
 as if this consciousness were born of  
the internal movements of the cerebral  
substance8 ,to answer this question1 we 
must turn to perceptual processes1 as   
these occur in our everyday life4 ,we   

find at once that there is no perception
 which is not full of memories4 ,with   
the immediate and present data of our   
senses1 we mingle a thousand details out
 of our past experience4 ,footnote3     
,matter and ,memory1 p4 #bd 7,fr4 p4    
#bj74 ,to such an extent is this true   
that the immediate data of perception   
serve as a sign to bring much more to   
the mind4 ,psychological experiments    
have conclusively proved that we never  
actually perceive all that we imagine to
 be there4 ,hence arise illusions1      
examples of which may be easily thought 
of--incorrect proof-reading is one1     
while another common one is the mistake 
of taking one person for another because
 of some similarity of dress4 ,what is  
actually perceived is but a fraction of 
what we are looking at and acts normally
 as a suggestion for the whole4 ,now1   
although it is true that1 in practice1  
,perception and ,memory are never found 
absolutely separate in their purity1 yet
 it is necessary to distinguish them    

from one another absolutely in any      
investigation of a psychological nature4
 ,if1 instead of a perception           
impregnated with memory-images1 nothing 
survived from the past1 then we should  
have pure perception1 not coloured by   
anything in the individual's past       
history1 and so a kind of impersonal    
perception4 ,however unreal it may seem1
 such a perception is at the root of our
 knowledge of things and individual     
accidents are merely grafted on to this 
impersonal or pure perception4 ,just    
because philosophers have overlooked it1
 and because they have failed to        
distinguish it from that which memory   
contributes to it1 they have regarded   
,perception as a kind of interior and   
subjective vision1 differing from       
,memory only by its greater intensity   
and not differing in nature4 ,in        
reality1 however1 ,perception and       
,memory differ fundamentally4  ,our     
conscious perception is just our power  
of choice1 reflected from things as     

though by a mirror1 so that             
representation arises from the omission 
of that in the totality of matter which 
has no bearing on our needs and         
consequently no interest for us4 ,there 
is for images merely a difference of    
degree and not of kind between 'being'  
and 'being consciously perceived4'      
,footnote3 ,matter and ,memory1 p4 #cj  
7,fr4 p4 #be74 ,consciousness--in regard
 to external perception--is explained by
 this indeterminateness and this choice4
 ,but there is in this necessary poverty
 of conscious perception1 something that
 is positive1 that foretells spirit2 it 
is1 in the etymological sense of the    
word1 discernment4' ,footnote3 ,matter  
and ,memory1 p4 #ca 7,fr4 p4 #bf74 ,the 
chief difficulty in dealing with the    
problems of ,perception1 is to explain  
not how ,perception arises1 but how it  
is limited1 since it should be the image
 of the whole and is in fact reduced to 
the image of that which interests you4  
,footnote3 ,matter and ,memory1 p4 #cd  

7,fr4 p4 #bi74 ,we only make an         
insuperable difficulty if we imagine    
,perception to be a kind of photographic
 view of things1 taken from a fixed     
point by that special apparatus which is
 called an organ of perception--a       
photograph which would then be developed
 in the brain-matter by some unknown    
chemical and psychical process4         
,everything happens as though your      
perception were a result of the internal
 motions of the brain and issued in some
 sort from the cortical centres4 ,it    
could not actually come from them since 
the brain is an image like others1      
enveloped in the mass of other images1  
and it would be absurd that the         
container should issue from the content4
 ,but since the structure of the brain  
is like the detailed plan of the        
movements among which you have the      
choice1 and since that part of the      
external images which appears to return 
upon itself1 in order to constitute     
perception1 includes precisely all the  

points of the universe which these      
movements could affect1 conscious       
perception and cerebral movement are in 
strict correspondence4 ,the reciprocal  
dependence of these two terms is        
therefore simply due to the fact that   
both are functions of a third1 which is 
the indetermination of the ,will4       
,footnote3 ,matter and ,memory1 p4 #ce  
7,fr4 p4 #bi74  ,moreover1 we must      
recognize that the image is formed and  
perceived in the object1 not in the     
brain1 even although it would seem that 
rays of light coming from a point ,p are
 perceived along the path of the        
sensori-motor processes in the brain and
 are afterwards projected into ,p4      
,there is not1 however1 an unextended   
image which forms itself in             
consciousness and then projects itself  
into the position ,p4 ,really1 the point
 ,p1 and the rays which it emits1       
together with the retina and nervous    
elements affected in the process of     
perception1 all form a single whole4    

,the point ,p is an indispensable factor
 in this whole and it is really in ,p   
and not anywhere else that the image of 
,p is formed and perceived4,footnote3   
,cf4 ,matter and ,memory1 p4 #cg 7,fr p4
 #ca71 also paper entitled ,notre       
croyance a la loi de causalite in the   
,revue de metaphysique et de morale1    
#aijj1 p4 #feh4  ,in the field of pure  
perception1 that is to say1 perception  
unadulterated by the addition of        
memory-images1 there can arise no image 
without an object4 ,sensation is        
essentially due to what is actually     
present4 ,footnote3 ,le ,souvenir du    
present et la fausse reconnaissance1 p4 
#egi of ,revue philosophique1 ,dec41    
#aijh2 also ,l',energie spirituelle1 p4 
#ada 7,mind-,energy74 ,exactly how      
external stimuli1 such as rays of a     
certain speed and length1 come to give  
us a certain image1 e4g41 the sensation 
red or the sound of middle ,c1 we shall 
never understand4 ,no trace of the      
movements themselves can be actually    

perceived in the sensation which        
translates them4 ,footnote3 ,time and   
,free ,will1 pp4 #cd-ce 7,fr4 p4 #bf74  
,we only make trouble by regarding      
sensations in an isolated manner and    
attempting to construct ,perception from
 them4 ,our sensations are to our       
perceptions1 that which the real action 
of our body is to its possible or       
virtual action4 ,footnote3 ,matter and  
,memory1 p4 #eh 7,fr4 p4 #dh74 ,thus1   
everything happens as if the external   
images were reflected by our body into  
surrounding space4 ,this is why the     
surface of the body1 which forms the    
common limit of the external and        
internal1 is the only portion of space  
which is both perceived and felt4 ,just 
as external objects are perceived by me 
where they are1 in themselves and not in
 me1 so my affective states 7e4g4       
pains--which are local1 unavailing      
efforts7 are experienced where they     
occur1 in my body4 ,consider the system 
of images which we term the external    

world4 ,my body is one of them and      
around it is grouped the representation1
 i4e41 its eventual influence on others4
 ,within it occurs affection1 i4e41 its 
actual effort upon itself4 ,it is       
because of this distinction between     
images and sensations that we affirm    
that the totality of perceived images   
subsists1 even if our body disappears1  
whereas we cannot annihilate our body   
without destroying our sensations4 ,in  
practice1 our pure perception is        
adulterated with affection1 as well as  
with memories4 ,to understand           
,perception1 however1 we must--as       
previously insisted upon--study it with 
reference to action4 ,it is false to    
suppose that perception and sensation   
exist for their own sake2 the           
philosopher ascribes to them an entirely
 speculative function1 ,footnote3       
,matter and ,memory1 p4 #caa 7,fr p4    
#bfa74 a proceeding which gives rise to 
the fallacies of ,realism and ,idealism4
  ,it has been said that the choice of  

perceptions from among images in general
 is the effect of a discernment which   
foreshadows spirit4 ,but to touch the   
reality of spirit1 we must place        
ourselves at the point where an         
individual consciousness continues and  
retains the past in a present1 enriched 
by it4,footnote3 ,see ,chapter ,,vi on  
la duree4 ,time--,true and ,false4      
,perception we never meet in its pure   
state2 it is always mingled with        
memories4 ,the rose has a different     
scent for you from that which it has for
 me1 just because the scent of the rose 
bears with it all the memories of all   
the roses we have ever experienced1 each
 of us individually4,footnote3 ,time and
 ,free ,will1 pp4 #afa-afb 7,fr4 p4     
#abd74 ,memory1 however mingled with    
,perception1 is nevertheless            
fundamentally different in              
character4,footnote3 ,le ,souvenir du   
present et la fausse reconnaissance1    
,revue philosophique1 ,dec41 #aijh1 p4  
#ehj2 also ,l',effort intellectuel1     

,revue philosophique1 ,jan41 #aijb1 p4  
#bc2 ,l',energie spirituelle1 pp4 #ada  
and #aig 7,mind-,energy74 ,when we pass 
from 'pure' ,perception to ,memory1 we  
definitely abandon matter for spirit4   
,footnote3 ,matter and ,memory1 p4 #cac 
7,fr4 p4 #bfc74     ,,chapter ,,iv      
,,memory   ,definition--,two            
forms--memorizing power related to      
habit2 recalling power or pure memory4  
,is memory a function of the            
brain8--,pathological ,phenomena4       
,memory something other than merely a   
function of the brain4 ,the ,box        
theory--,memory records                 
everything--,dreams--,the well-balanced 
mind--,memory a manifestation of spirit4
   ,the importance of ,memory is        
recognized by all persons--whether      
psychologists or not4 ,at the present   
time there is a growing interest in     
systems of memory-training offered to   
the public1 which aim at mental         
efficiency as a means to success in     
life4 ,indeed1 from the tone of some    

advertisements seen in the press1 one   
might be prompted to think that ,memory 
itself was the sole factor determining  
success in either a professional or a   
business career4 ,yet1 although we are  
likely to regard this as a somewhat     
exaggerated statement1 nevertheless we  
cannot deny the very great importance of
 the power of ,memory4 ,how often1 in   
everyday life1 we hear people excuse    
themselves by remarking ,my memory      
failed me or played me false or1 more   
bluntly1 ,i forgot all about that4      
,without doubt1 ,memory is a most vital 
factor1 though not the only one in      
mental efficiency4,footnote3 ,the true  
ideal of mental efficiency must include 
power of ,will as well as of ,memory4   
,it is an element in mental life which  
puzzles both the specialist in          
psychology and the layman4 ,what is this
 wonderfully subtle power of mind8 ,how 
do we remember8 ,even the mind1         
untrained in psychological              
investigation1 cannot help asking such  

questions in moments of reflection2 but 
for the psychologist they are questions 
of very vital significance in his       
science4 ,for ,bergson1 as psychologist1
 ,memory is naturally1 a subject of     
great importance4 ,we must note1        
however1 that for ,bergson1 as          
metaphysician1 it plays an even more    
important role1 since his study of      
,memory and conclusions as to its nature
 lead him on to a discussion of the     
relation of soul and body1 spirit and   
matter4 ,his second large work1 which   
appeared in #ahif1 bears the title      
,matiere et ,memoire4 ,for him1 ,memory 
is a pivot on which turns a whole scheme
 of relationships--material and         
spiritual4 ,he wrote in #aiaj a new     
introduction for the ,english           
,translation of this work4 ,he there    
says that among all the facts capable of
 throwing light on the                  
psycho-physiological relation1 those    
which concern ,memory1 whether in the   
normal or the pathological state1 hold a

 privileged position4 ,footnote3        
,introduction to ,matter and ,memory1 p4
 xii4 ,let us then1 prior to passing on 
to the consideration of the problem of  
the relation of soul and body1 examine  
what ,bergson has to say on the subject 
of ,memory4  ,at the outset1 we may     
define ,memory as the return to         
consciousness of some experience1       
accompanied by the awareness that it has
 been present earlier at a definite time
 and place4,footnote3 ,the above is to  
be taken as a definition of the normal  
memory4 ,in a subtle psychological      
analysis in the paper entitled ,le      
,souvenir du present et la fausse       
reconnaissance in ,l',energie           
spirituelle1 pp4 #aag-afa               
7,mind-,energy71 ,bergson considers     
cases of an abnormal or fictitious      
memory1 coinciding with perception in   
rather a strange manner4 ,this does not1
 however1 affect the validity of the    
above definition4 ,bergson first of all 
draws attention to a distinction between

 two different forms of ,memory1 the    
nature of which will be best brought out
 by considering two examples4 ,we are   
fond of giving to children or young     
persons at school selections from the   
plays of ,shakespeare1 to be learned by 
heart1 as we say4 ,we praise the boy or 
girl who can repeat a long passage      
perfectly1 and we regard that scholar as
 gifted with a good memory4 ,to         
illustrate the second type of case1     
suppose a question to be put to that boy
 asking him what he saw on the last     
half-holiday when he took a ramble in   
the country4 ,he may1 or may not1 be    
able to tell us much of his adventures  
on that occasion1 for whatever he can   
recall is due to a mental operation of a
 different character from that which    
enabled him to learn his lesson4 ,there 
is here no question of learning by rote1
 of memorizing1 but of capacity to      
recall to mind a past experience4 ,the  
boy who is clever at memorizing a       
passage from ,shakespeare may not have a

 good memory at all for recalling past  
events4 ,to understand why this is so we
 must examine these two forms of ,memory
 more closely and refer to ,bergson's   
own words3 ,i study a lesson1 and in    
order to learn it by heart ,i read it a 
first time1 accentuating every line2 ,i 
then repeat it a certain number of      
times4 ,at each repetition there is     
progress2 the words are more and more   
linked together1 and at last make a     
continuous whole4 ,when that moment     
comes1 it is said that ,i know my lesson
 by heart1 that it is imprinted on my   
memory4 ,i consider now how the lesson  
has been learnt and picture to myself   
the successive phases of the process4   
,each several reading then recurs to me 
with its own individuality4 ,it is      
distinguished from those which preceded 
or followed it1 by the place which it   
occupied in time2 in short1 each reading
 stands out before my mind as a definite
 event in my history4 ,again it will be 
said that these images are              

recollections1 that they are imprinted  
on my ,memory4 ,the same words then are 
used in both cases4 ,do they mean the   
same thing8 ,the memory of the lesson   
which is remembered1 in the sense of    
learned by heart1 has ,,all the marks of
 a habit4 ,like a habit1 it is acquired 
by the repetition of the same effort4   
,like every habitual bodily exercise1 it
 is stored up in a mechanism which is   
set in motion as a whole by an initial  
impulse1 in a closed system of automatic
 movements1 which succeed each other in 
the same order and together take the    
same length of time4 ,the memory of each
 several reading1 on the contrary1 has  
,,none of the marks of a habit1 it is   
like an event in my life2 it is a case  
of spontaneous recollection as distinct 
from mere learnt recollection4 ,now a   
learnt recollection passes out of time  
in the measure that the lesson is better
 known2 it becomes more and more        
impersonal1 more and more foreign to our
 past life4 ,footnote3 ,matter and      

,memory1 pp4 #hi-ij 7,fr4 pp4 #ge-gf74  
,this quotation makes clear that of     
these two forms of ,memory1 it is the   
power of spontaneous recollection which 
is ,memory par excellence and           
constitutes real ,memory4 ,the other1 to
 which psychologists usually have       
devoted most of their attention in      
discussing the problem of ,memory1 is   
habit interpreted as ,memory1 rather    
than ,memory itself4 ,having thus made  
clear this valuable and fundamental     
distinction--one of the best things in  
,bergson ,footnote3 ,bertrand ,russell's
 remark in his ,philosophy of ,bergson1 
p4 #g4--;and having shown that in       
practical life the automatic memory     
necessarily plays an important part1    
often inhibiting pure ,memory1 ,bergson 
proceeds to examine and criticize       
certain views of ,memory itself1 and    
endeavours finally to demonstrate to us 
what he himself considers it to be4  ,he
 takes up the cudgels to attack the view
 which aims at blending ,memory with    

,perception1 as being of like kind4     
,memory1 he argues1 must be             
distinguished from ,perception1 however 
much we admit 7and rightly7 that        
memories enter into and colour all our  
perceptions4 ,they are quite different  
in their nature4 ,a remembrance is the  
representation of an absent object4 ,we 
distinguish between hearing a faint tap 
at the door1 and the faint memory of a  
loud one4 ,we cannot admit the validity 
of the statement that there is only a   
difference of intensity between         
,perception and ,recollection4 ,as our  
perception of a present object is       
something of that object itself1 our    
representation of the absent object1 as 
in ,memory1 must be a phenomenon of     
quite other order than ,perception1     
since between presence and absence there
 are no degrees1 no intermediate stages4
 ,footnote3 ,matter and ,memory1 p4 #cae
 7,fr4 p4 #bfd74 ,if we maintain that   
recollection is merely a weakened form  
of ,perception we must note the         

consequences of such a thesis4 ,if      
recollection is only a weakened         
,perception1 inversely1 ,perception must
 be something like an intenser ,memory4 
,now1 the germ of ,english ,idealism is 
to be found here4 ,this ,idealism       
consists in finding only a difference of
 degree and not of kind1 between the    
reality of the object perceived1 and the
 ideality of the object conceived4      
,footnote3 ,matter and ,memory1 p4 #cah 
7,fr4 p4 #bfg74 ,the maintenance of such
 a doctrine involves the further        
remarkable contention that we construct 
matter from our own interior states and 
that perception is only a true          
hallucination4 ,footnote3 ,matter and   
,memory1 p #cah 7,fr4 p4 #bfg74 ,such a 
theory will not harmonize with the      
experienced difference between          
,perceptions and ,memories4,footnote3   
,le ,souvenir du present et la fausse   
reconnaissance1 ,revue philosophique1   
,dec41 #aijh1 p4 #efh2 also ,l',energie 
spirituelle 7,mind-,energy74 ,we do not 

mistake the perception of a slight sound
 for the recollection of a loud noise1  
as has already been remarked4 ,the      
consciousness of a recollection never   
occurs as a weak state which we try to  
relegate to the past so soon as we      
become aware of its weakness4 ,how      
indeed1 unless we already possess the   
representation of a past1 previously    
lived1 could we relegate to it the less 
intense psychical states1 when it would 
be so simple to set them alongside of   
strong states as a present experience   
more confused1 beside a present         
experience more distinct8 ,footnote3    
,matter and ,memory1 p4 #cai 7,fr4 p4   
#bfh74 ,the truth is that ,memory does  
not consist in a regression from the    
present into the past1 but on the       
contrary1 in a progress from the past to
 the present4 ,memory is radically      
distinct from ,perception1 in its       
character4  ,bergson then passes on to  
discuss other views of ,memory1 and in  
particular1 those which deal with the   

nature of ,memory and its relation to   
the brain4 ,it is stated dogmatically by
 some that ,memory is a function of the 
brain4 ,others claim1 in opposition to  
this1 that ,memory is something other   
than a function of the brain4 ,between  
two such statements as these1 compromise
 or reconciliation is obviously         
impossible4 ,it is then for experience  
to decide between these two conflicting 
views4 ,this empirical appeal ,bergson  
does not shirk4 ,he has made a most     
comprehensive and intensive study of    
pathological phenomena relating to the  
mental malady known as aphasia4 ,this   
particular type of disorder belongs to a
 whole class of mental diseases known as
 amnesia4 ,now amnesia 7in ,greek1      
forgetfulness7 is literally any loss or 
defect of the ,memory4 ,aphasia 7in     
,greek absence of speech7 is a total or 
partial loss of the power of speech1    
either in its spoken or written form4   
,the term covers the loss of the power  
of expression by spoken words1 but is   

often extended to include both          
word-deafness1 i4e41 the                
misunderstanding of what is said1 and   
word-blindness--the inability to read   
words4 ,an inability to execute the     
movements necessary to express oneself1 
either by gesture1 writing1 or speech1  
is styled motor aphasia1 to distinguish 
it from the inability to understand     
familiar gestures and written or spoken 
words1 which is known as                
sensory-aphasia4 ,the commonest causes  
of this disease are lesions1 affecting  
the special nerve centres1 due to       
haemorrhage or the development of       
tumours1 being in the one case rapid1 in
 the other a gradual development4 ,of   
course any severe excitement1 fright or 
illness1 involving a disturbance of the 
normal circulation in the cerebral      
centres1 may produce asphasia4 ,during  
the war1 it has been one of the         
afflictions of a large number of the    
victims of shell-shock4 ,but1 whatever  
be the cause1 the patient is reduced    

mentally to an elementary state1        
resembling that of a child1 and needs   
re-educating in the elements of         
language4  ,now1 from his careful study 
of the pathological phenomena1          
manifested in these cases1 ,bergson     
draws some very important conclusions in
 regard to the nature of ,memory and its
 relation to the brain4 ,in #ahif1 when 
he brought out his work ,matiere et     
,memoire1 in ,paris1 the general view   
was against his conclusions and his     
opinions were ridiculed4 ,by #aiaj1 a   
marked change had come about and he was 
able to refer to this in the new        
introduction4,footnote3 ,see            
,bibliography1 p4 #aeh4 ,his view was no
 longer considered paradoxical4 ,the    
conception of aphasia1 once classical1  
universally admitted1 believed to be    
unshakeable1 had been considerably      
shaken in that period of fourteen years4
 ,localization1 and reference to centres
 would not1 it was found1 explain things
 sufficiently4,footnote3 ,the work of   

,pierre ,janet was largely influential  
also in bringing about this change of   
view4 ,this involved a too rigid and    
mechanical conception of the brain as a 
mere box1 and ,bergson attacks it very  
forcibly under the name of the box      
theory4 ,all the arguments1 he says1    
from fact which may be invoked in favour
 of a probable accumulation of memories 
in the cortical substance1 are drawn    
from local disorders of memory4 ,but if 
recollections were really deposited in  
the brain1 to definite gaps in memory   
characteristic lesions of the brain     
would correspond4 ,now in those forms of
 amnesia in which a whole period of our 
past existence1 for example1 is abruptly
 and entirely obliterated from memory1  
we do not observe any precise cerebral  
lesion2 and on the contrary1 in those   
disorders of memory where cerebral      
localization is distinct and certain1   
that is to say1 in the different types  
of aphasia1 and in the diseases of      
visual or auditory recognition1 we do   

not find that certain definite          
recollections are1 as it were1 torn from
 their seat1 but that it is the whole   
faculty of remembering that is more or  
less diminished in vitality1 as if the  
subject had more or less difficulty in  
bringing his recollections into contact 
with the present situation4 ,footnote3  
,matter and ,memory1 p4 #cae 7,fr4 pp4  
#bfd-bfe74 ,but as it is a fact that the
 past survives under two distinct forms1
 viz41 motor mechanisms and independent 
recollections1 we find that this        
explains why in all cases where a lesion
 of the brain attacks a certain category
 of recollections1 the affected         
recollections do not resemble each other
 by all belonging to the same period1 or
 by any logical relationship to one     
another1 but simply in that they are all
 auditive or all visual or all motor4   
,that which is damaged appears to be the
 various sensorial or motor areas1 or   
more often still1 those appendages which
 permit of their being set going from   

within the cortex rather than the       
recollections themselves4 ,footnote3    
,matter and ,memory1 p4 #cag 7,fr4 p4   
#bff74 ,going even further than this1 by
 the study of the recognition of words1 
and of sensory-aphasia1 ,bergson shows  
that recognition is in no way affected  
by a mechanical awakening of memories   
that are asleep in the brain4 ,it       
implies1 on the contrary1 a more or less
 high degree of tension in              
consciousness1 which goes to fetch pure 
recollections in pure memory1 in order  
to materialize them progressively1 by   
contact with the present perception4    
,footnote3 ,matter and ,memory1 p4 #cag 
7,fr4 p4 #bff74  ,in the face of all    
this mass of evidence and thoroughness  
of argument which ,bergson brings       
forward1 we are led to conclude that    
,memory is indeed something other than a
 function of the brain4 ,criticizing    
,wundt's view1,footnote3 ,as expressed  
in his ,grundzuge der physiologische    
psychologie1 vol4 ,i41 pp4 #cbj-cbg4    

,see ,matter and ,memory1 p4 #afd 7,fr4 
p4 #acg74;,bergson contends that no     
trace of an image can remain in the     
substance of the brain and no centre of 
apperception can exist4 ,there is not in
 the brain a region in which memories   
congeal and accumulate4 ,the alleged    
destruction of memories by an injury to 
the brain is but a break in the         
continuous progress by which they       
actualize themselves4 ,footnote3 ,matter
 and ,memory1 p4 #afj 7,fr4 p4 #acd74   
,it is then futile to ask in what spot  
past memories are stored4 ,to look for  
them in any place would be as           
meaningless as asking to see traces of  
the telephonic message upon the         
telephone wire4  ,memory1 it has been   
said1 is a faculty which loses nothing  
and records everything4 ,footnote3      
,ball1 quoted by ,rouillard1 ,les       
,amnesies1 ,paris1 #ahhe1 p4 #be2       
,matter and ,memory1 p4 #bja 7,fr4 p4   
#afh74 ,this is only too true1 although 
normally we do not recognize it4 ,but we

 can never be sure that we have         
absolutely forgotten anything4 ,illness1
 producing delirium1 may provoke us to  
speak of things we had thought were gone
 beyond recall and which perhaps we even
 wish were beyond recall4 ,a            
somnambulistic state or even a dream may
 show us memory extending far further   
back than we could ordinarily imagine4  
,the facing of death in battle1 we know1
 recalls to many1 with extreme          
vividness1 scenes of early childhood    
which they had deemed long since        
forgotten4 ,there is nothing1 says      
,bergson1 more instructive in this      
regard than what happens in cases of    
sudden suffocation--in men drowned or   
hanged4 ,the man1 when brought to life  
again1 states that he saw in a very     
short time all the forgotten events of  
his life1 passing before him with great 
rapidity1 with their smallest           
circumstances1 and in the very order in 
which they occurred4 ,footnote3 ,la     
,perception du ,changement1 pp4 #cj-ca1 

and ,matter and ,memory1 p #bjj 7,fr p  
#afh74 ,hence we can never be absolutely
 sure that we have forgotten anything   
although at any given time we may be    
unable to recall it to mind4 ,there is  
an unconscious memory4,footnote3 ,cf4   
,samuel ,butler's ,unconscious ,memory4 
,speaking of the profound and yet       
undeniable reality of the unconscious1  
,bergson says1,footnote3 ,matter and    
,memory1 pp #aha-ahb 7,fr4 pp4          
#aeb-aec74 ,see also ,le ,souvenir du   
present et la fausse reconnaissance1    
,revue philosophique1 ,dec41 #aijh1 p4  
#eib1 and ,l',energie spirituelle1 pp4  
#aei-afa 7,mind-,energy74 ,our          
unwillingness to conceive unconscious   
psychical states1 is due1 above all1 to 
the fact that we hold consciousness to  
be the essential property of psychical  
states1 so that a psychical state       
cannot1 it seems1 cease to be conscious 
without ceasing to exist4 ,but if       
consciousness is but the characteristic 
note of the present1 that is to say1 of 

the actually lived1 in short1 of the    
active1 then that which does not act may
 cease to belong to consciousness       
without therefore ceasing to exist in   
some manner4 ,in other words1 in the    
psychological domain1 consciousness may 
not be the synonym of existence1 but    
only of real action or of immediate     
efficacy2 limiting thus the meaning of  
the term1 we shall have less difficulty 
in representing to ourselves a psychical
 state which is unconscious1 that is to 
say1 ineffective4 ,whatever idea we may 
frame of consciousness in itself1 such  
as it would be if it could work         
untrammelled1 we cannot deny that in a  
being which has bodily functions1 the   
chief office of consciousness is to     
preside over action and to enlighten    
choice4 ,therefore it throws light on   
the immediate antecedents of the        
decision and on those past recollections
 which can usefully combine with it2 all
 else remains in shadow4 ,but we have no
 more right to say that the past effaces

 itself as soon as perceived than to    
suppose that material objects cease to  
exist when we cease to perceive them4   
,memory1 to use a geometrical           
illustration which ,bergson himself     
employs1 comes into action like the     
point of a cone pressing against a      
plane4 ,the plane denotes the present   
need1 particularly in relation to bodily
 action1 while the cone stands for all  
our total past4 ,much of this past1     
indeed most of it1 only endures as      
unconscious ,memory1 but it is always   
capable of coming to the apex of the    
cone1 i4e41 coming into consciousness4  
,so we may say that there are different 
planes of ,memory1 conic sections1 if we
 keep up the original metaphor1 and the 
largest of these contains all our past4 
,this may be well described as the plane
 of dream4 ,footnote3 ,see ,matter and  
,memory1 p4 #bbb 7,fr4 p4 #ahf7 and the 
paper ,l',effort intellectuel1 ,revue   
philosophique1 ,jan41 #aijb1 pp4 #b and 
#be1 ,l',energie spirituelle1 pp4 #afe  

and #aii 7,mind-,energy74  ,this        
connexion of ,memory with dreams is more
 fully brought out by ,bergson in his   
lecture before the ,institut            
psychologique international1 five years 
after the publication of ,matiere et    
,memoire1 entitled ,le ,reve4 ,footnote3
 ,delivered ,march #bf1 #aija4 ,see     
,bibliography1 p4 #aec4 ,the following  
is a brief summary of the view there set
 forth4 ,memories1 and only memories1   
weave the web of our dreams4 ,they are  
such stuff as dreams are made on4 ,often
 we do not recognize them4 ,they may be 
very old memories1 forgotten during     
waking hours1 drawn from the most       
obscure depths of our past1 or memories 
of objects we have perceived            
distractedly1 almost unconsciously1     
while awake4 ,they may be fragments of  
broken memories1 composing an incoherent
 and unrecognizable whole4 ,in a waking 
state our memories are closely connected
 with our present situation 7unless we  
be given to day-dreams674 ,in an animal 

memory serves to recall to him the      
advantageous or injurious consequences  
which have formerly arisen in a like    
situation1 and so aids his present      
action4 ,in man1 memory forms a solid   
whole1 a pyramid whose point is inserted
 precisely into our present action4 ,but
 behind the memories which are involved 
in our occupations1 there are others1   
thousands of others1 stored below the   
scene illuminated by consciousness4     
,yes1 ,i believe indeed1 says ,bergson1 
that all our past life is there1        
preserved even to the most infinitesimal
 details1 and that we forget nothing and
 that all that we have ever felt1       
perceived1 thought1 willed1 from the    
first awakening of our consciousness1   
survives indestructibly4 ,footnote3     
,dreams1 p4 #cg4 ,for this discussion in
 full1 see pages #cd-ci1 or see         
,l',energie spirituelle1 pp4 #ajj-ajc   
7,mind-,energy74 ,of course1 in action  
,i have something else to do than occupy
 myself with these4 ,but suppose ,i     

become disinterested in present         
action--that ,i fall asleep--then the   
obstacle 7my attention to action7       
removed1 these memories try to raise the
 trap-door--they all want to get        
through4 ,from the multitude which are  
called1 which will be chosen8 ,when ,i  
was awake1 only those were admitted     
which bore on the present situation4    
,now1 in sleep1 more vague images occupy
 my vision1 more indecisive sounds reach
 my ear1 more indistinct touches come to
 my body1 and more vague sensations come
 from my internal organs4 ,hence those  
memories which can assimilate themselves
 to some element in this vague mass of  
very indistinct sensations manage to get
 through4 ,when such union is effected1 
between memory and sensation1 we have a 
dream4  ,in order that a recollection   
should be brought to mind1 it is        
necessary that it should descend from   
the height of pure memory to the precise
 point where action is taking place4    
,such a power is the mark of the        

well-balanced mind1 pursuing a via media
 between impulsiveness on the one hand1 
and dreaminess on the other4 ,the       
characteristic of the man of action1    
says ,bergson in this connexion1 is the 
promptitude with which he summons to the
 help of a given situation all the      
memories which have reference to it4 ,to
 live only in the present1 to respond to
 a stimulus by the immediate reaction   
which prolongs it1 is the mark of the   
lower animals2 the man who proceeds in  
this way is a man of impulse4 ,but he   
who lives in the past1 for the mere     
pleasure of living there1 and in whom   
recollections emerge into the light of  
consciousness1 without any advantage for
 the present situation1 is hardly better
 fitted for action2 here we have no man 
of impulse1 but a dreamer4 ,between     
these two extremes lies the happy       
disposition of a memory docile enough to
 follow with precision all the outlines 
of the present situation1 but energetic 
enough to resist all other appeal4 ,good

 sense or practical sense1 is probably  
nothing but this4 ,footnote3 ,matter and
 ,memory1 p4 #aih 7,fr4 pp4 #aff-afg74  
,in the paper ,l',effort intellectuel1  
contributed in #aijb to the ,revue      
philosophique1 and now reprinted in     
,l',energie spirituelle1,footnote3 ,pp4 
#afc-bjb4 ,see also                     
,mind-,energy4,bergson gives an analysis
 of what is involved in intellectual    
effort4 ,there is at first1 he shows1   
something conceived quite generally1 an 
idea vague and abstract1 a schema which 
has to be completed by distinct images4 
,in thought there is a movement of the  
mind from the plane of the schema to the
 plane of the concrete image4 ,various  
images endeavour to fit themselves into 
the schema1 or the schema may adapt     
itself to the reception of the images4  
,these double efforts to secure         
adaptation and cooperation may both     
encounter resistance from the other1 a  
situation which is known to us as       
hesitation1 accompanied by the awareness

 of obstacles1 thus involving           
intellectual effort4  ,memory then1     
,bergson wishes us to realize1 in       
response to his treatment of it1 is no  
mere function of the brain2 it is       
something infinitely more subtle1       
infinitely more elusive1 and more       
wondrous4 ,our memories are not stored  
in the brain like letters in a filing   
cabinet1 and all our past survives      
indestructibly as ,memory1 even though  
in the form of unconscious memory4 ,we  
must recognize ,memory to be a spiritual
 fact and so regard it as a pivot on    
which turn many discussions of vital    
importance when we come to investigate  
the problem of the relation of soul and 
body4 ,for ,memory must be1 in          
principle1 a power absolutely           
independent of matter4 ,if then1 spirit 
is a reality1 it is here1 in the        
phenomenon of ,memory that we may come  
into touch with it experimentally4      
,footnote3 ,matter and ,memory1 p4 #ha  
7,fr4 p4 #fh74 ,memory1 he would remind 

us finally1 is just the intersection of 
mind and matter4 ,footnote3 ,matter and 
,memory1 ,introduction1 p4 xii4 ,a      
remembrance cannot be the result of a   
state of the brain4 ,the state of the   
brain continues the remembrance2 it     
gives it a hold on the present by the   
materiality which it confers upon it1   
but pure memory is a spiritual          
manifestation4 ,with ,memory1 we are1 in
 very truth1 in the domain of spirit4   
,footnote3 ,matter and ,memory1 p4 #cbj 
7,fr4 p4 #bfh74     ,,chapter ,v  ,,the 
,,relation ,,of ,,soul ,,and ,,body     
,the hypothesis of ,psycho-physical     
,parallelism--,not to be accepted       
uncritically--,bergson opposes it1 and  
shows the hypothesis to rest on a       
confusion of terms4 ,bergson against    
,epiphenomenalism--,soul-life unique and
 wider than the brain--,telepathy1      
subconscious action and psychical       
research--,souls and survival4   ,for   
philosophy in general1 and for          
psychology in particular1 the problem of

 the relation of soul and body has prime
 significance1 and moreover1 it is a    
problem with which each of us is        
acquainted intimately and practically1  
even if we know little or nothing of the
 academic discussions1 or of the        
technical terms representing various    
views4 ,it is very frequently the       
terminology which turns the plain man   
away from the consideration of          
philosophical problems2 but he has some 
conception1 however crude it may be1 of 
his soul or his mind and of his body4   
,these terms are familiar to him1 but   
the sight of a phrase like              
psycho-physical parallelism rather      
daunts him4 ,really1 it stands for quite
 a simple thing1 and is just the        
official label used to designate the    
theory commonly held by scientific men  
of all kinds1 to describe the relation  
of soul and body4 ,put more precisely1  
it is just the assertion that brain and 
consciousness work on parallel lines4   
,bergson does not accept the hypothesis 

of psycho-physical parallelism4 ,in the 
first of his four lectures on ,la       
,nature de l',ame1 given at ,london     
,university in #aiaa1 we find him       
criticizing the notion that             
consciousness has no independence of its
 own1 that it merely expresses certain  
states of the brain1 that the content of
 a fact of consciousness is to be found 
wholly in the corresponding cerebral    
state4 ,it is true that we should not   
find many physiologists or philosophers 
who would tell us now that the brain    
secretes thought as the liver secretes  
bile4 ,footnote3 ,cabanis 7#ageg-ahjh74 
,rapports du physique et du morale de   
l'homme1 #ahjb4 ,see quotation by       
,william ,james in ,human ,immortality4 
,note 7#d7 in his ,appendix4 ,but there 
was an idea that1 if we could see       
through the skull and observe what takes
 place in the brain1 if we had an       
enormously powerful microscope which    
would permit us to follow the movements 
of the molecules1 atoms1 electrons1 of  

the brain1 and if we had the key to the 
correspondence between these phenomena  
and the mind1 we should know all the    
thoughts and wishes of the person to    
whom the brain belonged--we should see  
what took place in his soul1 as a       
telegraph operator could read by the    
oscillation of his needles the meaning  
of a message which was sent through his 
instrument4 ,the notion of an equality  
or parallelism between conscious        
activity and cerebral activity1 was     
commonly adopted by modern physiology1  
and it was adopted without discussion as
 a scientific notion by the majority of 
philosophers4 ,yet the experimental     
basis of this theory is extremely       
slight1 indeed altogether insufficient1 
and in reality the theory is a          
metaphysical conception1 resulting from 
the views of the seventeenth century    
thinkers who had hopes of a universal   
mathematic4 ,the idea had been accepted 
that all was capable of determination in
 the psychical as well as the physical  

world1 inasmuch as the psychical was    
only a reflex of the physical4          
,parallelism was adopted by science     
because of its convenience4,footnote3   
,see ,the ,times of ,oct4 #ba1 #aiaa4   
,bergson1 however1 pointed out that     
philosophy ought not to accept it       
without criticism1 and maintained1      
moreover1 that it could not stand the   
criticism that might be brought against 
it4 ,relation of soul and body was      
undeniable1 but that it was a parallel  
or equivalent relation he denied most   
emphatically4 ,that criticism he had    
launched himself with great vigour in   
#aija at a ,meeting of the ,societe     
francaise de philosophie1,footnote3 ,see
 ,bibliography1 p4 #aec4 and on a more  
memorable occasion1 at the              
,international ,congress of ,philosophy 
at ,geneva in #aijd4;,footnote3 ,see    
,bibliography1 p4 #aed4 ,before the     
,philosophical ,society he lectured on  
,le ,parallelisme psycho-physique et la 
,metaphysique positive1 and propounded  

the following propositions3  #a4 ,if    
psycho-physical parallelism is neither  
rigorous nor complete1 if to every      
determined thought there does not       
correspond an absolutely determined     
state 7si a toute pensee determinee ne  
correspond pas un etat cerebral         
determine absolument71 it will be the   
business of experience to mark with     
increasing accuracy the precise points  
at which parallelism begins and ends4   
#b4 ,if this empirical inquiry is       
possible1 it will measure more and more 
exactly the separation between the      
thought and the physical conditions in  
which this thought is exercised4 ,in    
other words1 it will give us a          
progressive knowledge of the relation of
 man as a thinking being to man as a    
living being1 and therefore of what may 
be termed the meaning of ,life4  #c4 ,if
 this meaning of ,life can be           
empirically determined more and more    
exactly1 and completely1 a positive     
metaphysic is possible3 that is to say1 

a metaphysic which cannot be contested  
and which will admit of a direct and    
indefinite progress2 such a metaphysic  
would escape the objections urged       
against a transcendental metaphysic1 and
 would be strictly scientific in form4  
,after having propounded these          
propositions1 he defended them by       
recalling much of the data considered in
 his work ,matiere et ,memoire which he 
had published five years previously and 
which has been examined in the previous 
chapter4 ,the onus of proof lay1 said   
,bergson1 with the upholders of         
parallelism4 ,it is a purely            
metaphysical hypothesis unwarrantable in
 his opinion as a dogma4 ,he            
distinguishes between                   
correspondence--which he of course      
admits--and parallelism1 to which he is 
opposed4 ,we never think without a      
certain substratum of cerebral activity1
 but what the relation is precisely1    
between brain and consciousness1 is one 
for long and patient research3 it cannot

 be determined a priori and asserted    
dogmatically4 ,until such investigation 
has been carried out1 it behoves us to  
be undogmatic and not to allege more    
than the facts absolutely warrant1 that 
is to say1 a relation of correspondence4
 ,parallelism is far too simple an      
explanation to be a true one4 ,before   
the ,international ,congress1 ,bergson  
launched another attack on parallelism  
which caused quite a little sensation   
among those present4 ,says ,m4 ,e4      
,chartier1 in his report3 ,la lecture de
 ce memoire1 lecture qui commandait     
l'attention a provoque chez presque tous
 les auditeurs un mouvement de surprise 
et d'inquietude4 ,footnote3 ,the paper  
,le ,paralogisme psycho-physiologique is
 given in ,revue de metaphysique et de  
morale1 ,nov41 #aijd1 pp4 #hie-ijh4 ,the
 ,discussion in the ,congress is given  
on pp4 #ajbg-ajcg4 ,this was reissued   
under the title ,le ,cerveau et la      
,pensee3 une illusion philosophique in  
the collected volume of essays and      

lectures1 published in #aiai1           
,l',energie spirituelle1 pp4 #bjc-bbc   
7,mind-,energy74 ,he there set out to   
show that ,parallelism cannot be        
consistently stated from any point of   
view1 for it rests on a fallacious      
argument--on a fundamental              
contradiction4 ,to grasp ,bergson's     
points in this argument1 the reading of 
this paper in the original1 as a whole1 
is necessary4 ,it is difficult to       
condense it and keep its clearness of   
thought4 ,briefly1 it amounts to this1  
that the formulation of the doctrine of 
,parallelism rests on an ambiguity in   
the terms employed in its statement1    
that it contains a subtle dialectical   
artifice by which we pass               
surreptitiously from one system of      
notation to another ignoring the        
substitution3 logically1 we ought to    
keep to one system of notation          
throughout4 ,the two systems are3       
,idealism and ,realism4 ,bergson        
attempts to show that neither of these  

separately can admit ,parallelism1 and  
that ,parallelism cannot be formulated  
except by a confusion of the two--by a  
process of mental see-sawing as it were1
 which of course we are not entitled to 
perform1 ,idealism and ,realism being   
two opposed and contradictory views of  
reality4 ,for the ,idealist1 things     
external to the mind are images1 and of 
these the brain is one4 ,yet the images 
are in the brain4 ,this amounts to      
saying that the whole is contained in   
the part4 ,we tend1 however1 to avoid   
this by passing to a pseudo-realistic   
position by saying that the brain is a  
thing and not an image4 ,this is passing
 over to the other system of notation4  
,for the ,realist it is the essence of  
reality to suppose that there are things
 behind representations4 ,some ,realists
 maintain that the brain actually       
creates the representation1 which is the
 doctrine of ,epiphenomenalism3 while   
others hold the view of the             
,occasionalists1 and others posit one   

reality underlying both4 ,all however   
agree in upholding ,parallelism4 ,in the
 hands of the ,realist1 the theory is   
equivalent to asserting that a relation 
between two terms is equal to one of    
them4 ,this involves contradiction and  
,realism then crosses over to the other 
system of notation4 ,it cannot do       
without ,idealism3 science itself       
oscillates from the one system to the   
other4 ,we cannot admit ,parallelism as 
a dogma--as a metaphysical              
truth--however useful it may be as a    
working hypothesis4  ,bergson then      
proceeds to state and to criticize some 
of the mischievous ideas which arise    
from ,parallelism4 ,there is the idea of
 a brain-soul1 of a spot where the soul 
lives or where the brain thinks--which  
we have not quite abandoned since       
,descartes named the pineal gland as the
 seat of the soul4 ,then there is the   
false idea that all causality is        
mechanistic and that there is nothing in
 the universe which is not              

mathematically calculable4 ,there is the
 confusion of representations and of    
things4 ,there is the false notion that 
we may argue that if two wholes are     
bound together there must be an         
equivalent relation of the parts4       
,bergson points out in this connexion   
that the absence or the presence of a   
screw can stop a machine or keep it     
going1 but the parts of the screw do not
 correspond to the parts of the machine4
 ,in his new introduction to ,matiere et
 ,memoire1 he said1 ,there is a close   
connexion between a state of            
consciousness and the brain3 this we do 
not dispute4 ,but there is also a close 
connexion between a coat and the nail on
 which it hangs1 for if the nail is     
pulled out the coat falls to the ground4
 ,shall we say then that the shape of   
the nail gives us the shape of the coat 
or in any way corresponds to it8 ,no    
more are we entitled to conclude because
 the psychical fact is hung on to a     
cerebral state that there is any        

parallelism between the two series      
psychical and physiological4 ,footnote3 
,there must be an awkward misprint      
physical for psychical in the ,english  
translation1 p4 xi4 ,our observation and
 experience1 and science itself1        
strictly speaking1 do not allow us to   
assert more than that there exists a    
certain ,,correspondence between brain  
and consciousness4 ,the psychical and   
the physical are inter-dependent but not
 parallel4  ,bergson however has more to
 assert than merely the inadequacy and  
falsity of ,parallelism or              
,epiphenomenalism4 ,this last theory    
merely adds consciousness to physical   
facts as a kind of phosphorescent gleam1
 resembling1 in ,bergson's words1 a     
streak of light following the movement  
of a match rubbed along a wall in the   
dark4 ,footnote3 ,l',ame et le ,corps1  
pp4 #ab-ac1 in ,le ,materialisme actuel1
 or pp4 #ce-cf of ,l',energie           
spirituelle 7,mind-,energy74 ,he        
maintains1 as against all this1 the     

irreducibility of the mental1 our utter 
inability to interpret consciousness in 
terms of anything else1 the life of the 
soul being unique4 ,he further claims   
that this psychical life is wider and   
richer than we commonly suppose4 ,the   
brain is the organ of attention to life4
 ,what was said in regard to memory and 
the brain is applicable to all our      
mental life4 ,the mind or soul is wider 
than the brain in every direction1 and  
the brain's activity corresponds to no  
more than an infinitesimal part of the  
activity of the mind4 ,footnote3 ,l',ame
 et le ,corps1 ,le ,materialisme actuel1
 p4 #de1 ,l',energie spirituelle1 p4    
#fa4 ,this is expressed more clearly in 
his ,presidential ,address to the       
,british ,society for ,psychical        
,research at the ,aeolian ,hall1        
,london1 #aiac1 where he remarked1 ,the 
cerebral life is to the mental life what
 the movements of the baton of a        
conductor are to the symphony4          
,footnote3 ,the ,times1 ,may #bi1 #aiac4

 ,such a remark contains fruitful       
suggestions to all engaged in ,psychical
 ,research1 and to all persons          
interested in the fascinating study of  
telepathy4 ,bergson is of the opinion   
that we are far less definitely cut off 
from each other1 soul from soul1 than we
 are body from body4 ,it is space1 he   
says1 which creates multiplicity and    
distinction4 ,it is by their bodies that
 the different human personalities are  
radically distinct4 ,but if it is       
demonstrated that human consciousness is
 partially independent of the human     
brain1 since the cerebral life          
represents only a small part of the     
mental life1 it is very possible that   
the separation between the various human
 consciousnesses or souls1 may not be so
 radical as it seems to be4 ,footnote3  
,the ,times1 ,may #bi1 #aiac4 ,there may
 be1 he suggests1 in the psychical      
world1 a process analogous to what is   
known in the physical world as          
endosmosis4 ,pleading for an impartial  

and frank investigation of telepathy1 he
 pointed out that it was probable1 or at
 least possible1 that it was taking     
place constantly as a subtle and        
sub-conscious influence of soul on soul1
 but too feebly to be noticed by active 
consciousness1 or it was neutralized by 
certain obstacles4 ,we have no right to 
deny its possibility on the plea of its 
being supernatural1 or against natural  
law1 for our ignorance does not entitle 
us to say what may be natural or not4   
,if telepathy does not square at all    
well with our preconceived notions1 it  
may be more true that our preconceived  
notions are false than that telepathy is
 fictitious2 especially will this be so 
if our notion of the relation of soul   
and body be based on ,parallelism4 ,we  
must overcome this prejudice and seek to
 make others set it aside4 ,telepathy   
and the sub-conscious mental life       
combine to make us realize the wonder of
 the soul4 ,it is not spatial1 it is    
spiritual4 ,bergson insists strongly on 

the unity of our conscious life4 ,merely
 associationist theories are vicious in 
this respect3 they try to resolve the   
whole into parts1 and then neglect the  
whole in their concentration on the     
parts4 ,all psychological investigation 
incurs this risk of dealing with        
abstractions4 ,psychology1 in fact1     
proceeds like all the other sciences by 
analysis4 ,it resolves the self which   
has been given to it at first in a      
simple intuition1 into sensations1      
feelings1 ideas1 etc41 which it studies 
separately4 ,it substitutes then for the
 self a series of elements which form   
the facts of psychology4 ,but are these 
elements really parts8 ,that is the     
whole question1 and it is because it has
 been evaded that the problem of human  
personality has so often been stated in 
insoluble terms4 ,footnote3             
,introduction to ,metaphysics1 p4 #ba4  
,personality cannot be composed of      
psychical states even if there be added 
to them a kind of thread for the purpose

 of joining the states together4        
,footnote3 ,introduction to             
,metaphysics1 p4 #be4 ,we shall never   
make the soul fit into a category or    
succeed in applying concepts to our     
inner life4 ,the life of the soul is    
wider than the brain and wider than all 
intellectual constructions or moulds we 
may attempt to form4 ,it is a creative  
force capable of producing novelty in   
the world3 it creates actions and can1  
in addition1 create itself4  ,philosophy
 shows us the life of the body just     
where it really is1 on the road that    
leads to the life of the spirit2 our    
powers of sense impression and of       
intelligence are both instruments in the
 service of the will4 ,with a little    
will one can do much if one places the  
will in the right direction4 ,for this  
force of will which is the essence of   
the soul or personality has these       
exceptional characteristics1 that its   
intensity depends on its direction1 and 
that its quality may become the creator 

of quantity4 ,footnote3 ,see the        
lectures ,la ,nature de l',ame4 ,the    
brain and the body in general are       
instruments of the soul4 ,the brain     
orients the mind toward action1 it is   
the point of attachment between the     
spirit and its material environment4 ,it
 is like the point of a knife to the    
blade--it enables it to penetrate into  
the realm of action or1 to give another 
of ,bergson's metaphors1 it is like the 
prow of the ship1 enabling the soul to  
penetrate the billows of reality4 ,yet1 
for all that1 it limits and confines the
 life of the spirit2 it narrows vision  
as do the blinkers which we put on      
horses4 ,we must1 however1 abandon the  
notion of any rigid and determined      
parallelism between soul and body and   
accustom ourselves to the fact that the 
life of the mind is wider than the      
limits of cerebral activity4 ,and       
further1 there is this to consider--,the
 more we become accustomed to this idea 
of a consciousness which overflows the  

organ we call the brain1 then the more  
natural and probable we find the        
hypothesis that the soul survives the   
body4 ,for were the mental exactly      
modelled on the cerebral1 we might have 
to admit that consciousness must share  
the fate of the body and die with it4   
,footnote3 ,new ,york ,times1 ,sept4    
#bg1 #aiad4 ,but the destiny of         
consciousness is not bound up with the  
destiny of cerebral matter4 ,footnote3  
,creative ,evolution1 p4 #bhe 7,fr4 p4  
#bic74 ,although the data is not yet    
sufficient to warrant more than an      
affirmation of high probability1        
,footnote3 ,louis ,levine's interview   
with ,bergson1 ,new ,york ,times1 ,feb4 
#bb1 #aiad4 ,quoted by ,miller1 ,bergson
 and ,religion1 p4 #bfh4 yet it leaves  
the way open for a belief in a future   
life and creates a presumption in favour
 of a faith in immortality4 ,humanity1  
as ,bergson remarks1 may1 in its        
evolution1 overcome the most formidable 
of its obstacles1 perhaps even death4   

,footnote3 ,creative ,evolution1 p4 #bhf
 7,fr4 p4 #bid74 ,in ,life and          
,consciousness he says we may admit that
 in man at any rate ,consciousness      
pursues its path beyond this earthly    
life ,cf4 also conclusion to ,la        
,conscience el la ,vie in ,l',energie   
spirituelle1 p4 #bi1 and to ,l',ame et  
le ,corps1 in the same vol41 p4 #fc4    
,the great error of the spiritual       
philosophers has been the idea that by  
isolating the spiritual life from all   
the rest1 by suspending it in space1 as 
high as possible above the earth1 they  
were placing it beyond attack2 as if    
they were not1 thereby1 simply exposing 
it to be taken as an effect of mirage6  
,certainly they are right to believe in 
the absolute reality of the person and  
in his independence of matter3 but      
science is there which shows the        
inter-dependence of conscious life and  
cerebral activity4 ,when a strong       
instinct assures the probability of     
personal survival1 they are right not to

 close their ears to its voice2 but if  
there exist souls capable of an         
independent life1 whence do they come8  
,when1 how1 and why do they enter into  
this body which we see arise quite      
naturally from a mixed cell derived from
 the bodies of its two parents8         
,footnote3 ,creative ,evolution1 p4 #bhc
 7,fr4 p4 #bia74 ,at the close of the   
,lectures on ,la ,nature de l',ame1     
,bergson suggests1 by referring to an   
allegory of ,plotinus1 in regard to the 
origin of souls1 that in the beginning  
there was a general interpenetration of 
souls which was equivalent to the very  
principle of life1 and that the history 
of the evolution of life on this planet 
shows this principle striving until     
man's consciousness has been developed1 
and thus personalities have been able to
 constitute themselves4 ,souls are being
 created which1 in a sense1 pre-existed4
 ,they are nothing else but the little  
rills into which the great river of life
 divides itself1 flowing through the    

great body of humanity4 ,footnote3      
,creative ,evolution1 p4 #bhd 7,fr4 p4  
#bib74     ,,chapter ,,vi               
,,time--,,true ,,and ,,false   ,our     
ordinary conception of ,time false      
because it is spatial and               
homogeneous--,real ,time 7la duree7 not 
spatial or homogeneous--,flow of        
consciousness a qualitative             
multiplicity--,the real self and the    
external self4 ,la duree and the life of
 the self--,no repetition--,personality 
and the accumulation of                 
experience-,change and la duree as vital
 elements in the universe4   ,for any   
proper understanding of ,bergson's      
thought1 it is necessary to grasp his   
views regarding ,time1 for they are     
fundamental factors in his philosophy   
and serve to distinguish it specially   
from that of previous thinkers4 ,it is  
interesting to note however1 in passing1
 that ,dr4 ,ward1 in his ,realm of      
,ends1 claims to have anticipated       
,bergson's view of ,concrete ,time4 ,in 

discussing the relation of such ,time to
 the conception of ,god1 he says1 ,i    
think ,i may fairly claim to have       
anticipated him 7,bergson7 to some      
extent4 ,in #ahhf ,i had written a long 
paragraph on this topic4 ,footnote3 ,see
 ,the ,realm of ,ends' foot-note on pp4 
#cjf-g4 ,ward is referring to his famous
 article in the ,encyclopaedia          
,britannica1 eleventh edition1          
,psychology1 p4 #egg 7now revised and   
issued in book form as ,psychological   
,principles74 ,be this as it may1 no    
philosopher has made so much of this    
view of ,time as ,bergson4 ,one might   
say it is the corner-stone of his       
philosophy1 for practically the whole of
 it is built upon his conception of     
,time4 ,his first large work1 ,essai sur
 les donnees immediates de la           
conscience1 or1 to give it its better   
title1 in ,english1 ,time and ,free     
,will1 appeared in #ahhi4  ,our ordinary
 conception of ,time1 that which comes  
to us from the physical sciences1 is1   

,bergson maintains1 a false one4 ,it is 
false because so far from being temporal
 in character1 it is spatial4 ,we look  
upon space as a homogeneous medium      
without boundaries2 yet we look on ,time
 too1 as just such another medium1      
homogeneous and unlimited4 ,now here is 
an obvious difficulty1 for since        
homogeneity consists in being without   
qualities1 it is difficult to see how   
one homogeneity can be distinguished    
from another4 ,this difficulty is       
usually avoided by the assertion that   
homogeneity takes two forms1 one in     
which its contents co-exist1 and another
 in which they follow one another4      
,space1 then1 we say1 is that           
homogeneous medium in which we are aware
 of side-by-sideness1 ,time--that       
homogeneous medium in which we are aware
 of an element of succession4 ,but this 
surely we are not entitled to maintain1 
for we are then distinguishing two      
supposed homogeneities by asserting a   
difference of quality in them4 ,to do so

 is to take away homogeneity4 ,we must  
think again and seek a way out of this  
difficulty4 ,let us admit space to be a 
homogeneous medium without bounds4 ,then
 every homogeneous medium without bounds
 must be space4 ,what1 then1 becomes of 
,time8--for on this showing1 ,time      
becomes space4 ,yes1 says ,bergson1 that
 is so1 for our common view of ,time is 
a false one1 being really a hybrid      
conception1 a spurious concept due to   
the illicit introduction of the idea of 
space1 and to our application of the    
notion of space1 which is applicable to 
physical objects1 to states of          
consciousness1 to which it is really    
inapplicable4 ,objects occupying space  
are marked out as external to one       
another1 but this cannot be said of     
conscious states4 ,yet1 in our ordinary 
speech and conventional view of things1 
we think of conscious states as         
separated from one another and as spread
 out like things1 in a fictitious1      
homogeneous medium to which we give the 

name ,time4 ,bergson says1 ,at any rate1
 we cannot finally admit two forms of   
the homogeneous1 ,time and ,space1      
without first seeking whether one of    
them cannot be reduced to the other4    
,now1 externality is the distinguishing 
mark of things which occupy space1 while
 states of consciousness are not        
essentially external to one another and 
become so only by being spread out in   
,time regarded as a homogeneous medium4 
,if1 then1 one of these two supposed    
forms of the homogeneous1 viz41 ,time   
and ,space1 is derived from the other1  
we can surmise a priori that the idea of
 space is the fundamental datum4 ,time1 
conceived under the form of an unbounded
 and homogeneous medium1 is nothing but 
the ghost of space1 haunting the        
reflective consciousness4 ,footnote3    
,time and ,free ,will1 p4 #ih 7,fr4 p4  
#ge74 ,bergson remarks that ,kant's     
great mistake was to take ,time as a    
homogeneous medium4 ,footnote3 ,time and
 ,free ,will1 p4 #bcb 7,fr4 p4 #agh74   

,having asserted the falsity of the view
 of ,time ordinarily held1 ,bergson     
proceeds to make clear to us his view of
 what ,real ,time is--an undertaking by 
no means easy for him1 endeavouring to  
lay before us the subtleties of this    
problem1 nor for us who endeavour to    
interpret his language and grasp his    
meaning4 ,we are indeed here face to    
face with what is one of the most       
difficult sections of his philosophy4   
,an initial difficulty meets us in      
giving a definite name to the ,time     
which ,bergson regards as so real1 as   
opposed to the spatial falsity1         
masquerading as ,time1 whose true       
colours he has revealed4 ,in the        
original ,french text ,bergson employs  
the term duree to convey his meaning4   
,but for the translation of this into   
,english there is no term which will    
suffice and which will adequately convey
 to the reader1 without further         
exposition1 the wealth of meaning       
intended to be conveyed4 ,duration is   

usually employed by translators as the  
nearest approach possible in ,english4  
,the inadequacy of language is never    
more keenly felt than in dealing with   
fundamental problems of thought4 ,its   
chief mischief is its all-too-frequent  
ambiguity4 ,in the following remarks the
 original ,french term la duree will be 
used in preference to the ,english word 
,duration4  ,the distinction between the
 false ,time and true ,time may be      
regarded as a distinction between       
mathematical ,time and living ,time1 or 
between abstract and concrete ,time4    
,this living1 concrete ,time is that    
true ,time of which ,bergson endeavours 
to give us a conception as la duree4 ,he
 has criticized the abstract            
mathematical ,time1 his attack having   
been made to open up the way for a      
treatment of what he really considers   
,time to be4 ,now1 from the arguments   
previously mentioned1 it follows that   
,time1 ,real ,time1 which is radically  
different from space1 cannot be any     

homogeneous medium4 ,it is heterogeneous
 in character4 ,we are aware of it in   
relation to ourselves1 for it has       
reference not to the existence of a     
multiplicity of material objects in     
space1 but to a multiplicity of a quite 
different nature1 entirely non-spatial1 
viz41 that of conscious states4 ,being  
non-spatial1 such a multiplicity cannot 
be composed of elements which are       
external to one another as are the      
objects existing in space4 ,states of   
consciousness are not in any way        
external to one another4 ,indeed1 they  
interpenetrate to such a degree that    
even the use of the word state is apt to
 be misleading4 ,as we saw in the       
chapter on ,the ,reality of ,change1    
there can be strictly no states of      
consciousness1 for consciousness is not 
static but dynamic4 ,language and       
conventional figures of speech1 of which
 the word state itself is a good        
example1 serve to cut up consciousness  
artificially1 but1 in reality1 it is1 as

 ,william ,james termed it1 a stream and
 herein lies the essence of ,bergson's  
duree--the ,real as opposed to the      
,false ,time4 ,pure ,duration 7la duree 
pure71 he says1 is the form which the   
succession of our conscious states      
assumes when our ,ego lets itself live1 
when it refrains from separating its    
present state from its former states4   
,for this purpose1 it need not be       
entirely absorbed in the passing        
sensation or idea1 for then1 on the     
contrary1 it would no longer 'endure4'  
,nor need it forget its former states2  
it is enough that in recalling these    
states1 it does not set them alongside  
its actual state as one point alongside 
another1 but forms both the past and the
 present states into an organic whole1  
as happens when we recall the notes of a
 tune1 melting1 so to speak1 into one   
another4 ,might it not be said that even
 if these notes succeed one another1    
yet1 we perceive them in one another1   
and that their totality may be compared 

to a living being whose parts1 although 
distinct1 permeate one another just     
because they are so closely connected8  
,footnote3 ,time and ,free ,will1 p4    
#ajj 7,fr4 p4 #gf74 ,such a duration is 
,real ,time4 ,unfortunately1 we1        
obsessed by the idea of space1 introduce
 it unwittingly and set our states of   
consciousness side by side in such a way
 as to perceive them alongside one      
another2 in a word1 we project them into
 space and we express duree in terms of 
extensity and succession thus takes the 
form of a continuous line or a          
chain--the parts of which touch without 
interpenetrating one another4 ,footnote3
 ,time and ,free ,will1 p4 #ajj 7,fr4 p4
 #gf74 ,thus is brought to birth that   
mongrel form1 that hybrid conception of 
,false ,time criticized above4 ,real    
,time1 la duree1 is not1 however1       
susceptible like ,false ,time to        
measurement1 for it is1 strictly        
speaking1 not quantitative in character1
 but is rather a qualitative            

multiplicity4 ,real ,duration 7la duree 
reele7 is just what has always been     
called ,time1 but it is ,time perceived 
as indivisible4 ,footnote3 ,la          
,perception du ,changement1 p4 #bf4 ,cf4
 the whole of the ,second ,lecture4     
,certainly pure consciousness does not  
perceive ,time as a sum of units of     
duration1 for1 left to itself1 it has no
 means and even no reason to measure    
,time1 but a feeling which lasted only  
half the number of days1 for example1   
would no longer be the same feeling for 
it4 ,it is true that when we give this  
feeling a certain name1 when we treat it
 as a thing1 we believe that we can     
diminish its duration by half1 for      
example1 and also halve the duration of 
all the rest of our history4 ,it seems  
that it would still be the same life    
only on a reduced scale4 ,but we forget 
that states of consciousness are        
processes and not things2 that they are 
alive and therefore constantly changing1
 and that1 in consequence1 it is        

impossible to cut off a moment from them
 without making them poorer by the loss 
of some impression and thus altering    
their quality4 ,footnote3 ,time and     
,free ,will1 p4 #aif 7,fr4 p4 #aej74 ,la
 duree appears as a wholly qualitative  
multiplicity1 an absolute heterogeneity 
of elements which pass over into one    
another4 ,footnote3 ,time and ,free     
,will1 p4 #bbi 7,fr4 p4 #agf74 ,such a  
time cannot be measured by clocks or    
dials but only by conscious beings1 for 
it is the very stuff of which life and  
consciousness are made4 ,intellect does 
not grasp ,real ,time--we can only have 
an intuition of it4 ,we do not think    
,real ,time--but we live it because life
 transcends intellect4  ,in order to    
bring out the distinctly qualitative    
character of such a conception of ,time1
 ,bergson says1 ,when we hear a series  
of blows of a hammer1 the sounds form an
 indivisible melody in so far as they   
are pure sensations1 and here again give
 rise to a dynamic progress2 but1       

knowing that the same objective cause is
 at work1 we cut up this progress into  
phases which we then regard as          
identical2 and this multiplicity of     
elements no longer being conceivable    
except by being set out in space--since 
they have now become identical--we are1 
necessarily1 led to the idea of a       
homogeneous ,time1 the symbolical image 
of la duree4 ,footnote3 ,time and ,free 
,will1 p4 #abe 7,fr4 pp4 #id-ie74       
,whilst ,i am writing these lines1 he   
continues1 the hour strikes on a        
neighbouring clock1 but my inattentive  
ear does not perceive it until several  
strokes have made themselves heard4     
,hence1 ,i have not counted them and yet
 ,i only have to turn my attention      
backwards1 to count up the four strokes 
which have already sounded1 and add them
 to those which ,i hear4 ,if1 then1 ,i  
question myself carefully on what has   
just taken place1 ,i perceive that the  
first four sounds had struck my ear and 
even affected my consciousness1 but that

 the sensations produced by each one of 
them1 instead of being set side by side1
 had melted into one another in such a  
way as to give the whole a peculiar     
quality1 to make a kind of musical      
phrase out of it4 ,in order1 then1 to   
estimate retrospectively1 the number of 
strokes sounded1 ,i tried to reconstruct
 this phrase in thought2 my imagination 
made one stroke1 then two1 then three1  
and as long as it did not reach the     
exact number1 four1 my feeling1 when    
consulted1 was qualitatively different4 
,it had thus ascertained1 in its own    
way1 the succession of four strokes1 but
 quite otherwise than by a process of   
addition and without bringing in the    
image of a juxtaposition of distinct    
terms4 ,in a word1 the number of strokes
 was perceived as a quality and not as a
 quantity2 it is thus that la duree is  
presented to immediate consciousness and
 it retains this form so long as it does
 not give place to a symbolical         
representation1 derived from extensity4 

,footnote3 ,time and ,free ,will1 pp4   
#abg-h 7,fr4 pp4 #if-ig74 ,in these     
words ,bergson endeavours to drive home 
his contention that la duree is         
essentially qualitative4 ,he is well    
aware of the results of the breach      
between quality and quantity1 between   
true duration and pure extensity4 ,he   
sees its implications in regard to vital
 problems of the self1 of causality and 
of freedom4 ,its specific bearing on the
 problems of freedom and causality we   
shall discuss in the following chapter4 
,as regards the self1 ,bergson          
recognizes that we have much to gain by 
keeping up the illusion through which we
 make our conscious states share in the 
reciprocal externality of outer things1 
because this distinctness and           
solidification enables us to give them  
fixed names in spite of their           
instability1 and distinct names in spite
 of their interpenetration4 ,above all  
it enables us to objectify them1 to     
throw them out into the current of      

social life4 ,but just for this very    
reason we are in danger of living our   
lives superficially and of covering up  
our real self4 ,we are generally content
 with what is but a shadow of the real  
self1 projected into space4             
,consciousness1 goaded on by an         
insatiable desire to separate1          
substitutes the symbol for the reality  
or perceives the reality only through   
the symbol4 ,as the self thus refracted 
and thereby broken in pieces1 is much   
better adapted to the requirements of   
social life in general1 and of language 
in particular1 consciousness prefers it 
and gradually loses sight of the        
fundamental self which is a qualitative 
multiplicity of conscious states        
flowing1 interpenetrating1 melting into 
one another1 and forming an organic     
whole1 a living unity or personality4   
,it is through a consideration of la    
duree and what it implies that ,bergson 
is led on to the distinction of two     
selves in each of us4  ,towards the     

close of his essay on ,time and ,free   
,will1 he points out that there are     
finally two different selves1 a         
fundamental self and a social self4 ,we 
reach the former by deep introspection  
which leads us to grasp our inner states
 as living things1 constantly becoming1 
never amenable to measure1 which        
permeate one another and of which the   
succession in la duree has nothing in   
common with side-by-sideness4 ,but the  
moments at which we thus grasp ourselves
 are rare2 the greater part of our time 
we live outside ourselves1 hardly       
perceiving anything of ourselves but our
 own ghost--a colourless shadow which is
 but the social representation of the   
real and largely concealed ,ego4 ,hence 
our life unfolds in space rather than in
 time4 ,we live for the external world  
rather than for ourselves1 we speak     
rather than think1 we are acted rather  
than act ourselves4 ,to act freely1     
however1 is to recover possession of    
one's real self and to get back into la 

duree reele4 ,footnote3 ,time and ,free 
,will1 p4 #bcb 7,fr4 p4 #agh74  ,real   
,time1 then1 is a living reality1 not   
discrete1 not spatial in character--an  
utter contrast to that fictitious ,time 
with which so many thinkers have busied 
themselves1 setting up as concrete      
reality the distinct moments of a ,time 
which they have reduced to powder1 while
 the unity which enables us to call the 
grains 'powder' they hold to be much    
more artificial4 ,others place          
themselves in the eternal4 ,but as their
 eternity remains1 notwithstanding1     
abstract since it is empty1 being the   
eternity of a concept which by          
hypothesis excludes from itself the     
opposing concept1 one does not see how  
this eternity would permit of an        
indefinite number of moments co-existing
 in it1 an eternity of death1 since it  
is nothing else than the movement       
emptied of the mobility which made its  
life4 ,footnote3 ,an ,introduction to   
,metaphysics1 pp4 #ea-ed4 ,the true view

 of ,time1 as la duree1 would make us   
see it as a duration which expands1     
contracts1 and intensifies itself more  
and more2 at the limit would be         
eternity1 no longer conceptual eternity1
 which is an eternity of death1 but an  
eternity of life and change--a living1  
and therefore still moving1 eternity in 
which our own particular duree would be 
included as the vibrations are in light1
 ,footnote3 ,speaking in ,matter and    
,memory on the ,tension of la duree1    
,bergson calls attention to the         
trillions of vibrations which give rise 
to our sensation of red light1 p4 #bgb  
7,fr4 p4 #bbi7 ,cf4 ,la ,conscience et  
la ,vie in ,l',energie spirituelle1 p4  
#af4 an eternity which would be the     
concentration of all duree4 ,altering   
the old classical phrase sub specie     
aeternitatis1 to suit his special view  
of ,time1 ,bergson urges us to strive to
 perceive all things sub specie         
durationis4 ,footnote3 ,la ,perception  
du ,changement1 p4 #cf4  ,finally1      

,bergson reminds us that if our         
existence were composed of separate     
states1 with an impassive ,ego to unite 
them1 for us there would be no duration1
 for an ,ego which does not change1 does
 not endure4 ,la duree1 however1 is the 
foundation of our being and is1 as we   
feel1 the very substance of the world in
 which we live4 ,associating his view of
 ,real ,time with the reality of change1
 he points out that nothing is more     
resistant or more substantial than la   
duree1 for our duree is not merely one  
instant replacing another--if it were   
there would never be anything but the   
present1 no prolonging of the past into 
the actual1 no growth of personality1   
and no evolution of the universe4 ,la   
duree is the continuous progress of the 
past which gnaws into the future and    
which swells as it advances1 leaving on 
all things its bite1 or the mark of its 
tooth4 ,this being so1 consciousness    
cannot go through the same state twice2 
history does never really repeat itself4

 ,our personality is being built up each
 instant with its accumulated           
experience2 it shoots1 grows1 and ripens
 without ceasing4 ,we are reminded of   
,george ,eliot's lines3       ,our past 
still travels with us from afar         
,and what we have been makes us what we 
are4  ,for our consciousness this is    
what we mean by the term exist4 ,for a  
conscious being1 to exist is to change1 
to change is to mature1 and to go on    
creating oneself endlessly4 ,footnote3  
,creative ,evolution1 p4 #h 7,fr4 p4    
#h74 ,real ,time has1 then1 a very vital
 meaning for us as conscious beings1    
indeed for all that lives1 for the      
organism which lives is a thing that    
endures4 ,wherever anything lives1 says 
,bergson1 there is a register in which  
,time is being inscribed4 ,this1 it will
 be said1 is only a metaphor4 ,it is of 
the very essence of mechanism in fact1  
to consider as metaphorical every       
expression which attributes to ,time an 
effective action and a reality of its   

own4 ,in vain does immediate experience 
show us that the very basis of our      
conscious existence is ,memory--that is 
to say1 the prolongation of the past    
into the present1 or in a word1 duree1  
acting and irreversible4 ,footnote3     
,creative ,evolution1 p4 #ag 7,fr4 pp4  
#ag-ah74 ,time is falsely assumed to    
have just as much reality for a living  
being as for an hour-glass4 ,but if     
,time does nothing1 it is nothing4 ,it  
is1 however1 in ,bergson's view1 vital  
to the whole of the universe4 ,he       
expressly denies that la duree is merely
 subjective2 the universe endures as a  
whole4 ,in ,time and ,free ,will it did 
not seem to matter whether we regarded  
our inner life as having duree or as    
actually being duree4 ,in the first     
instance1 if we have duree it is then   
only an aspect of reality1 but if our   
personality itself is duree1 then ,time 
is reality itself4 ,he develops this    
last point of view more explicitly in   
his later works1 and la duree is        

identified not only with the reality of 
change1 but with memory and with spirit4
 ,footnote3 ,la ,perception du          
,changement1 ,lecture #b4 ,in it he     
finds the substance of a universe whose 
reality is change4 ,god1 said ,plato1   
being unable to make the world eternal1 
gave it ,time--a moving image of        
reality4 ,bergson himself quotes this   
remark of ,plato1 and seems to have a   
vision like that of ,rosetti's ,blessed 
,damozel1 who        444444 saw         
,time like a pulse shake fierce         
,through all the worlds4  ,the more we  
study ,time1 the more we may grasp this 
vision ourselves1 and then we shall     
comprehend that la duree implies        
invention1 the creation of new forms1   
the continual elaboration of the        
absolutely new--in short1 an evolution  
which is creative4     ,,chapter ,,vii  
,,freedom ,,of ,,the ,,will   ,spirit of
 man revolts from physical and          
psychological determinism--,former      
examined and rejected--,the latter more 

subtle--,vice of                        
associationism--,psychology without a   
self4 ,condemnation of psychological    
determinism--,room for freedom--,the    
self in action--,astronomical           
forecasts--,foreseeableness of any human
 action impossible--,human wills centres
 of indetermination--,not all our acts  
free--,true freedom1 self-determination4
   ,before passing on to an examination 
of ,bergson's treatment of ,evolution1  
we must consider his discussion of the  
problem of ,freedom of the ,will4 ,few  
problems which have occupied the        
attention of philosophers have been more
 discussed or have given rise to more   
controversy than that of ,freedom4 ,this
 is1 of course1 natural as the question 
at issue is one of very great           
importance1 not merely as speculative1  
but also in the realm of action4 ,we ask
 ourselves3 ,are we really free8 ,can we
 will either of two or more             
possibilities which are put before us1  
or1 on the other hand1 is everything    

fixed1 predestined in such a way that an
 all-knowing consciousness could        
foretell from our past what course our  
future action would take8  ,the study of
 the physical sciences has led to a     
general acceptance of a principle of    
causality which is of such a kind that  
there seems no place in the universe for
 human freedom4 ,further1 there is a    
type of psychology which gives rise to  
the belief that even mental occurrences 
are as determined as those of the       
physical world1 thus leaving no room for
 autonomy of the ,will4 ,but even when  
presented with the arguments which make 
up the case for physical or             
psychological determinism1 the spirit of
 man revolts from it1 refuses to accept 
it as final1 and believes that1 in some 
way or other1 the case for ,freedom may 
be maintained4 ,it is at this point that
 ,bergson offers us some help in the    
solution of the problem1 by his ,essai  
sur les donnees immediates de la        
conscience1 better described by its     

,english title ,time and ,free ,will4   
,the arguments for physical determinism 
are based on the view that ,freedom is  
incompatible with the fundamental       
properties of matter1 and in particular1
 with the principle of the conservation 
of energy4 ,this principle has been     
assumed to admit of no exception2 there 
is not an atom either in the nervous    
system or in the whole of the universe  
whose position is not determined by the 
sum of the mechanical actions which the 
other atoms exert upon it4 ,and the     
mathematician who knew the position of  
the molecules or atoms of a human       
organism at a given moment1 as well as  
the position and motion of all the atoms
 in the universe1 capable of influencing
 it1 could calculate with unfailing     
certainty the past1 present1 and future 
actions of the person to whom this      
organism belonged1 just as one predicts 
an astronomical phenomenon4 ,footnote3  
,time and ,free ,will1 p4 #add 7,fr4 p4 
#aaj74 ,now1 it follows that if we admit

 the universal applicability of such a  
theory as that of the conservation of   
energy1 we are maintaining that the     
whole universe is capable of explanation
 on purely mechanical principles1       
inherent in the units of which the      
universe is composed4 ,hence1 the       
relative position of all units at a     
given moment1 whatever be their nature1 
strictly determines what their position 
will be in the succeeding moments1 and  
this mechanistic succession goes on like
 a ,juggernaut car with crushing        
unrelentlessness1 giving rise to a rigid
 fatalism3       ,the moving finger     
writes2 and having writ       ,moves on3
 nor all thy ,piety nor ,wit            
,shall lure it back to cancel half a    
line1       ,nor all thy tears wash out 
a ,word of it4  ,is there no way out of 
this cramping circle8 ,we feel vaguely1 
intuitively1 that there is4 ,bergson    
points out to us a way4 ,even if we     
admit1 he says1 that the direction and  
the velocity of every atom of matter in 

the universe 7including cerebral matter1
 i4e41 the brain1 which is a material   
thing7 are strictly determined1 it would
 not at all follow from the acceptance  
of this theorem that our mental life is 
subject to the same necessity4 ,for that
 to be the case1 we should have to show 
absolutely that a strictly determined   
psychical state corresponds to a        
definite cerebral state4 ,this1 as we   
have seen1 has not been proved4 ,it is  
admitted that to some psychical states  
of a limited kind certain cerebral      
states do correspond1 but we have no    
warrant whatever for concluding that1   
because the physiological and the       
psychological series exhibit some       
corresponding terms1 the two series are 
absolutely parallel4 ,to extend this    
parallelism to the series themselves1 in
 their totality1 is to settle a priori  
the problem of freedom4 ,footnote3 ,time
 and ,free ,will1 p4 #adg 7,fr4 pp4     
#aab-aac74 ,how far the two series do   
run parallel is a question--as we saw in

 the chapter on the relation of ,soul   
and ,body--for experience1 observation1 
and experiment to decide4 ,the cases    
which are parallel are limited1 and     
involve facts which are independent of  
the power of the ,will4  ,bergson then  
proceeds to an examination of the more  
subtle and plausible case for           
psychological determinism4 ,a very large
 number of our actions are due to some  
motive4 ,there you have it1 says the    
psychological determinist4 ,your        
so-called ,freedom of the ,will is a    
fiction2 in reality it is merely the    
strongest motive which prevails and you 
imagine that you freely willed it4 ,but 
then we must ask him to define          
strongest1 and here is the fallacy of   
his argument1 for there is no other test
 of which is the strongest motive1 than 
that it has prevailed4 ,such statements 
do not help to solve the difficulty at  
all1 for they avoid it and attempt to   
conceal it2 they are due to a conception
 of mind which is both false and        

mischievous1 viz41 ,associationism4     
,this view regards the self as a        
collection of psychical states4 ,the    
existing state of consciousness is      
regarded as necessitated by the         
preceding states4 ,as1 however1 even the
 associationist is aware that these     
states differ from one another in       
quality1 he cannot attempt to deduce any
 one of them a priori from its          
predecessors4 ,he therefore endeavours  
to find a link connecting the two       
states4 ,that there is such a link as   
the simple association of ideas ,bergson
 would not think of denying4 ,what he   
does deny however1 very emphatically1 is
 the associationist statement that this 
relation which explains the transition  
is the cause of it4 ,even when admitting
 a certain truth in the associationist  
view1 it is difficult to maintain that  
an act is absolutely determined by its  
motive1 and our conscious states by one 
another4 ,the real mischief of this view
 lies1 however1 in the fact1 that it    

misrepresents the self by making it     
merely a collection of psychical states4
 ,john ,stuart ,mill says1 in his       
,examination of ,sir ,william           
,hamilton's ,philosophy3 ,i could have  
abstained from murder if my aversion to 
the crime and my dread of its           
consequences had been weaker than the   
temptation which impelled me to commit  
it4 ,footnote3 ,quoted by ,bergson1     
,time and ,free ,will1 p4 #aei 7,fr4 p4 
#abb74 ,here desire1 aversion1 fear1 and
 temptation are regarded as clear cut   
phenomena1 external to the self which   
experiences them1 and this leads to a   
curious balancing of pain and pleasure  
on purely utilitarian lines1 turning the
 mind into a calculating machine such as
 one might find in a shop or            
counting-house1 and taking no account of
 the character of the self that wills4  
,there is1 really1 in such a system of  
psychology1 no room for self-expression1
 indeed1 no meaning left for the term   
self4 ,it is only an inaccurate         

psychology1 misled by language1 which   
tries to show us the soul determined by 
sympathy1 aversion1 or hate1 as though  
by so many forces pressing upon it from 
without4 ,these feelings1 provided that 
they go deep enough1 make up the whole  
soul2 in them the character of the      
individual expresses itself1 since the  
whole content of the personality or soul
 is reflected in each of them4 ,then my 
character is me4 ,to say that the soul  
is determined under the influence of any
 one of these feelings1 is thus to      
recognize that it is self-determined4   
,the associationist reduces the self to 
an aggregate of conscious states1       
sensations1 feelings1 and ideas4 ,but if
 he sees in these various states no more
 than is expressed in their name1 if he 
retains only their impersonal aspect1 he
 may set them side by side for ever     
without getting anything but a phantom  
self1 the shadow of the ,ego1 projecting
 itself into space4 ,if1 on the         
contrary1 he takes these psychical      

states with the particular colouring    
which they assume in the case of a      
definite person1 and which comes to each
 of them by reflection from all the     
others1 then there is no need to        
associate a number of conscious states  
in order to rebuild the person1 for the 
whole personality is in a single one of 
them1 provided that we know how to      
choose it4 ,and the outward             
manifestation of this inner state will  
be just what is called a free act1 since
 the self alone will have been the      
author of it and since it will express  
the whole of the self4 ,footnote3 ,time 
and ,free ,will1 pp4 #afe-aff 7,fr4 pp4 
#abf-abg74 ,there is then room in the   
universe for a ,freedom of the human    
,will1 a definite creative activity1    
delivering us from the bonds of grim    
necessity and fate in which the physical
 sciences and the associationist        
psychology alike would bind us4         
,freedom1 then1 is a fact1 and among the
 facts which we observe1 asserts        

,bergson1 there is none clearer4        
,footnote3 ,time and ,free ,will1 p4    
#bba 7,fr4 p4 #afi74 ,there are1        
however1 one or two things which bear   
vitally upon the question of ,freedom   
and which tend to obscure the issue4 ,of
 these1 the foremost is that once we    
have acted in a particular manner we    
look back upon our actions and try to   
explain them with particular reference  
to their immediate antecedents4 ,here is
 where the mischief which gives rise to 
the whole controversy has its origin4   
,we make static what is essentially     
dynamic in character4 ,we call a process
 a thing4 ,there is no such thing as    
,freedom2 it is a relation between the  
self and its action4 ,indeed1 it is only
 characteristic of a self ,,in ,,action1
 and so is really indefinable4 ,viewed  
after the action1 it presents a         
different aspect2 it has then become    
historical1 an event in the past1 and so
 we try to explain it as being caused by
 former events or conditions4 ,this     

casting of it on to a fixed1 rigid plan1
 gives action the appearance of having  
characteristics related to space rather 
than to time1 in the real sense4 ,as    
already shown in the previous chapter1  
this is due entirely to our intellectual
 habit of thinking in terms of space1 by
 mathematical time1 rather than in terms
 of living time or la duree4  ,another  
point which causes serious confusion in 
the controversy is the notion that      
because1 when an act has been performed1
 its antecedents may be reckoned up and 
their value and relative importance or  
influence assigned1 this is equivalent  
to saying the actor could not have acted
 in any other way than he did1 and1     
further1 that his final act could have  
been foretold from the events which led 
up to it4 ,it is a fact that in the     
realm of physical science we can        
foretell the future with accuracy4 ,the 
astronomer predicts the precise moment  
and place in which ,halley's comet will 
become visible from our earth4 ,it is   

also a fact that we say of men and women
 who are our intimate friends3 ,i knew  
he 7or she7 would do such and such a    
thing or ,it's just like him4 ,we base  
our judgment on our intimate            
acquaintance with the character of our  
friend1 but this1 as ,bergson points    
out1 is not so much to predict the      
future conduct of our friend as to pass 
a judgment on his present               
character--that is to say1 on his past4 
,footnote3 ,time and ,free ,will1 p4    
#ahd 7,fr4 p4 #adj74 ,for1 although our 
feelings and our ideas are constantly   
changing1 yet we feel warranted in      
regarding our friend's character as     
stable1 as reliable4 ,but1 as ,mill     
remarked in his ,logic3 ,there can be no
 science of human nature1 because1      
although we trust in the reliability of 
our friend1 although we have faith in   
his future actions1 we do not1 and can  
not1 know them4 ,tout comprendre c'est  
tout pardonner4 ,to say that1 if we knew
 all the conditions1 motives1 fears1 and

 temptations which led up to the actions
 of another1 we could foretell what he  
would do1 amounts to saying that1 to do 
so1 we should have actually to become   
that other person1 and so arrive at the 
point where we act as he did because we 
are him4 ,for ,paul to foretell ,peter's
 act1 ,paul would simply have to become 
,peter4 ,footnote3 ,time and ,free      
,will1 p4 #ahg 7,fr4 p4 #add74 ,the very
 reasons which render it possible to    
foretell an astronomical phenomenon are 
the very ones which prevent us from     
determining in advance an act which     
springs from our free activity4 ,for the
 future of the material universe1       
although contemporaneous with the future
 of a conscious being1 has no analogy to
 it4 ,the astronomer regards time from  
the point of view of mathematics4 ,he is
 concerned with points placed in a      
homogeneous time1 points which mark the 
beginning or end of certain intervals4  
,he does not concern himself with the   
interval in its actual duration4 ,this  

is proved by the fact that1 could all   
velocities in the universe be doubled1  
the astronomical formulae would remain  
unaffected1 for the coincidences with   
which that science deals would still    
take place1 but at intervals half as    
long4 ,to the astronomer as such1 this  
would make no difference1 but we1 in    
ourselves1 would find that our day did  
not give us the full experience4        
,situations which arose as a result of  
the introduction of summer time serve to
 make this point clear4 ,as then we find
 that time means two different things   
for the astronomer and the psychologist1
 the one being concerned with the points
 at the extremities of intervals1 and   
the other with the enduring reality of  
the intervals themselves1 we can see why
 astronomical phenomena are capable of  
prediction and see too that1 for the    
same reason1 events in the realm of     
human action cannot be so predicted and 
therefore the future is not             
predetermined but is being made4  ,upon 

exactly parallel lines lie the          
references to causality in the          
controversy4 ,in the physical realm     
events may recur1 but in the mental     
realm the same thing can never happen   
again because we are living in real1    
flowing time1 or la duree1 and our      
conscious states are changing4          
,admitting that there is that in        
experience which warrants the           
application of the principle of         
causality1 taking that principle as the 
statement that physical phenomena once  
perceived can recur1 and that a given   
phenomenon1 happening only after certain
 conditions1 will recur when those      
precise conditions are repeated1        
,footnote3 ,see the brief paper ,notre  
croyance a la loi de causalite1 ,revue  
de metaphysique et de morale1 #aijj4    
still it remains open whether such a    
regularity of succession is ever        
possible in the human consciousness1 and
 so the assertion of the principle of   
causality proves nothing against        

,freedom4 ,we may admit that the        
principle is based on experience--but   
what kind of experience8 ,consideration 
of this question leads us to assert that
 the principle of causality only tends  
to accentuate the difference between    
objects in a realm wherein regular      
succession may be observed and predicted
 and a realm where it may not be        
observed or predicted1 the realm of the 
self4 ,just because ,i endure and change
 ,i do not necessarily act to-day as ,i 
acted yesterday1 when under like        
conditions4 ,we do expect1 however1 that
 this will not be the case in the       
physical realm2 for example1 we expect  
that a flame applied to dry paper will  
always set it alight4 ,indeed1 the more 
we realize the causal relation as one of
 necessary determination1 we come to see
 that things do not exist as we do      
ourselves1 and distinction between      
physical and psychical events becomes   
clear4 ,we perceive that we1 in         
ourselves1 are centres of               

indetermination enjoying ,freedom1 and  
capable of creative activity4  ,we must1
 however1 be careful to observe that    
such ,freedom as we have is not absolute
 at all and that it admits of degrees4  
,all our acts are by no means free4     
,indeed1 ,free ,will is exceptional1 and
 many live and die without having known 
true ,freedom4 ,our everyday life       
consists in the performance of actions  
which are largely habitual or1 indeed1  
automatic1 being determined not by ,free
 ,will1 but by custom and convention4   
,our ,freedom is the exception and not  
the rule4 ,through sluggishness or      
indolence1 we jog on in the even tenor  
of a way towards which habit has        
directed us4 ,even at times when our    
whole personality ought to vibrate1     
finding itself at the cross-roads1 it   
fails to rise to the occasion4 ,but1    
says ,bergson1 it is at the great and   
solemn crises1 decisive of our          
reputation with others1 and yet more    
with ourselves1 that we choose in       

defiance of what is conventionally      
called a motive1 and this absence of any
 tangible reason1 is the more striking  
the deeper our ,freedom goes4 ,footnote3
 ,time and ,free ,will1 p4 #agj 7,fr4 p4
 #acj74 ,at such times the self feels   
itself free and says so1 for it feels   
itself to be creative4 ,all determinism 
will thus be refuted by experience1 but 
every attempt to define ,freedom will   
open the way to determinism4 ,footnote3 
,time and ,free ,will1 p4 #ccj 7,fr4 p4 
#agg74  ,it has been urged that1        
although ,bergson is a stanch upholder  
of ,freedom1 it is ,freedom of such a   
kind that it must be distinguished from 
,free ,will1 that is1 from the liberty  
of choice which indeterminists have     
asserted and which determinists have    
denied2 and that the ,freedom for which 
he holds the brief is not the feeling of
 liberty that we have when confronted   
with alternative courses of action1 or  
the feeling we have when we look back   
upon a choice made and an action        

accomplished1 that we need not have     
acted as we did1 and that we could have 
acted differently4 ,such ,freedom it has
 been further maintained1 is of little  
importance to us1 for it is merely a    
free1 creative activity which is the    
essence of life1 which we share with all
 that lives and so cannot be styled     
human ,freedom4 ,now1 although many of  
,bergson's expressions1 in regard to    
free1 creative activity in general1 lead
 to a connexion of this with the problem
 of human ,freedom1 such an             
identification would seem to be unfair4 
,this seems specially so when we read   
over carefully his remarks about the    
coup d'etat of the fundamental self in  
times of grave crisis4 ,we cannot equate
 this with a purely biological freedom  
or vitality1 or spontaneity4 ,but in the
 light of the criticism which has been  
made1 it will be well to consider1 in   
concluding this chapter1 the statements 
made by ,bergson in his article on      
,liberty in the work in connexion with  

the ,vocabulaire philosophique for the  
,societe francaise de philosophie3      
,footnote3 ,quoted by ,le ,roy in his   
,une nouvelle philosophie3 ,henri       
,bergson1 ,english ,translation         
7,benson71 ,williams and ,norgate1 p4   
#aib4 ,the word ,liberty has for me a   
sense intermediate between those which  
we assign1 as a rule1 to the two terms  
',liberty' and ',free ,will4' ,on one   
hand ,i believe that ',liberty' consists
 in being entirely oneself1 in acting in
 conformity with oneself2 it is then to 
a certain degree the 'moral liberty' of 
philosophers1 the independence of the   
person with regard to everything other  
than itself4 ,but that is not quite this
 ,liberty1 since the independence ,i am 
describing has not always a moral       
character4 ,further1 it does not consist
 in depending on oneself as an effect   
depends on the cause which1 of          
necessity1 determines it4 ,in this1 ,i  
should come back to the sense of ',free 
,will4' ,and yet1 he continues1 ,i do   

not accept this sense either1 since     
,free ,will1 in the usual meaning of the
 term1 implies the equal possibility of 
two contraries1 and1 on my theory1 we   
cannot formulate or even conceive1 in   
this case1 the thesis of the equal      
possibility of the two contraries1      
without falling into grave error about  
the nature of ,time4 ,the object of my  
thesis has been precisely to find a     
position intermediate between 'moral    
,liberty' and ',free ,will4' ,liberty1  
such as ,i understand it1 is situated   
between these two terms1 but not at     
equal distances from both2 if ,i were   
obliged to blend it with one of the two1
 ,i should select ',free-,will4' ,nor is
 ,liberty to be reduced to spontaneity4 
,at most1 this would be the case in the 
animal world where the psychological    
life is principally that of the         
affections4 ,but in the case of a man1 a
 thinking being1 the free act can be    
called a synthesis of feelings and      
ideas1 and the evolution which leads to 

it1 a reasonable evolution4 ,footnote3  
,matter and ,memory1 p4 #bdc 7,fr4 p4   
#bje74 ,in a word1 if it is agreed to   
call every act free1 which springs from 
the self1 and from the self alone1 the  
act which bears the mark of our         
personality is truly free1 for our self 
alone will lay claim to its paternity4  
,footnote3 ,time and ,free ,will1 p4    
#agb 7,fr4 p4 #acb74 ,it is interesting 
to compare with this the remark by      
,nietzsche in ,also sprach ,zarathustra1
 ,thus ,spake ,zarathustra1--,let your  
,ego be in relation to your acts that   
which the mother is in relation to the  
child4 ,the secret of the solution lies 
surely here1 and in the words given     
above3 ,liberty consists in being       
entirely oneself4 ,if we act rightly we 
shall act freely1 and yet be determined4
 ,yet here there will be no             
contradiction1 for we shall be          
self-determined4 ,it is only the man who
 is self-determined that can in any     
sense be said to know the meaning of    

human ,freedom4 ,we call free1 said     
,spinoza1 that which exists in virtue of
 the necessities of its own nature1 and 
which is determined by itself alone4    
,liberty is not absolute1 for then we   
ourselves would be at the beck and call 
of every external excitation1 desire1   
passion1 or temptation4 ,our salvation  
consists in self-determination1 so we   
shall avoid licence but preserve        
,freedom4 ,we can only repeat the       
,socratic maxim--,know thyself--and     
resolve to take to heart the appeal of  
our own ,shakespeare3      ,to thine own
 self be true6     ,,chapter ,,viii     
,,evolution   ,work of ,darwin and      
,spencer--,bergson's ,l',evolution      
creatrice--,life--,l'elan               
vital--,evolution not progress in a     
straight line--,adaptation an           
insufficient explanation--,falsity of   
mechanistic view--,finalist conception  
of reality as fulfilling a plan         
false--,success along certain lines     
only--,torpor1 ,instinct1 and           

,intelligence--,genesis of              
matter--,humanity the crown of          
evolution--,contingency and             
,freedom--,the ,future is being created4
   ,since the publication of ,darwin's  
famous work on ,the ,origin of ,species 
in #ahei1 the conception of ,evolution  
has become familiar and has won general 
acceptance in all thinking minds4       
,evolution is now a household word1 but 
the actual study of evolutionary process
 has been the work of comparatively few4
 ,science nowadays has become such a    
highly specialized affair1 that few men 
cover a large enough field of study to  
enable them to deal effectively with    
this tremendous subject4 ,what is more1 
those who shouted so loudly about       
,evolution as explaining all things have
 come to see that1 in a sense1          
,evolution explains nothing by itself4  
,mere description of facts undoubtedly  
does serve a very useful purpose and may
 help to demolish some of the stanchly  
conservative theories still held in some

 quarters by those who prefer to take   
,hebrew conceptions as a basis of their 
cosmology however irreconcilable with   
fact these may prove to be4 ,mere       
description1 however1 is not ultimate1  
some philosophy of ,evolution must be   
forthcoming4 ,nowadays1 remarks         
,hoffding1 every philosopher has to take
 up a position with respect to the      
concept of ,evolution4 ,it has now      
achieved its place among the categories 
or essential forms of thought by the    
fact of its providing indications whence
 new problems proceed4 ,we must ask     
regarding every event1 and every        
phenomenon1 by what stages it has passed
 into its actual state4 ,it is a special
 form of the general concept of cause4  
,a philosophy is essentially            
characterized by the position which it  
accords to this concept and by the way  
in which it applies it4 ,footnote3 ,the 
,philosophy of ,evolution--lecture ,,iv1
 of ,lectures on ,bergson1 in ,modern   
,philosophers1 ,translated by ,mason    

7,mac,millan71 p4 #bgj4  ,no one has    
done more to make familiar to ,english  
minds the notion of ,evolution than     
,herbert ,spencer4 ,his ,synthetic      
,philosophy had a grand aim1 but it was 
manifestly unsatisfactory4 ,the high    
hopes it had raised were followed by    
mingled disappointment and distrust4    
,the secret of the unsatisfactoriness of
 ,spencer is to be found in his method1 
which is an elaborate and plausible     
attempt to explain the evolution of the 
universe by referring the complex to the
 simple1 the more highly organized to   
the less organized4 ,his principle of   
,evolution never freed itself from      
bondage to mechanical conceptions4      
,bergson's ,creative ,evolution1 his    
largest and best known work1 appeared in
 #aijg4 ,it has been regarded not only  
as a magnificent book1 but as a date in 
the history of thought4 ,two of the     
leading students of evolutionary process
 in ,england1 ,professors ,geddes and   
,thomson1 refer to the book as one of   

the most profound and original          
contributions to the philosophical      
consideration of the theory of          
,evolution4 ,footnote3 ,in the          
,bibliography in their volume           
,evolution4  ,for some time there had   
been growing a need for an expression of
 evolutionary theory in terms other than
 those of ,spencer1 or of ,haeckel--the 
,german monistic philosopher4 ,the      
advance in the study of biology and the 
rise of ,neo-,vitalism1 occasioned by an
 appreciation of the inadequacy of any  
explanation of life in terms purely     
physical and chemical1 made the demand  
for a new statement1 in greater harmony 
with these views1 imperative4 ,to       
satisfy this demand is the task to which
 ,bergson has applied himself4 ,he      
sounds the note of departure from the   
older conceptions right at the          
commencement by his very title1         
',creative' ,evolution4 ,for this1 his  
views on ,change1 on ,time1 and on      
,freedom1 have in some degree prepared  

us4 ,we have seen set forth the fact of 
,freedom1 the recognition of human      
beings as centres of indetermination1   
not mere units in a machine1 a block    
universe where all is given1 but        
creatures capable of creative activity4 
,then by a consideration of ,time1 as la
 duree1 we found that the history of an 
individual can never repeat itself2 ,for
 a conscious being1 to exist is to      
change1 to change is to mature1 to      
mature is to go on creating oneself     
endlessly4 ,should the same be said1    
,bergson asks1 of existence in general8 
,footnote3 ,creative ,evolution1 p4 #h  
7,fr4 p4 #h74  ,so he proceeds to       
portray with a wealth of analogy and    
brilliance of style1 more akin to the   
language of a poet than a philosopher1  
the stupendous drama of ,evolution1 the 
mystery of being1 the wonders of life4  
,he makes the great fact of life his    
starting point4 ,is life susceptible to 
definition8 ,we feel that1 by the very  
nature of the case1 it is not4 ,a       

definition is an intellectual operation1
 while life is wider1 richer1 more      
fundamental than intellect4 ,indeed     
,bergson shows us that intellect is only
 one of the manifestations or           
adaptations of life in its progress4 ,to
 define life1 being strictly impossible1
 ,bergson attempts to describe it4 ,he  
would have us picture it as a great     
current emerging from some central      
point1 radiating in all directions1 but 
diverted into eddies and backwaters4    
,life is an original impetus1 une       
poussee formidable1 not the mere heading
 affixed to a class of objects which    
live4 ,we must not speak any longer of  
life in general as an abstraction or a  
category in which we may place all      
living beings4 ,life1 or the vital      
impulse1 consists in a demand for       
creation1 we might almost say a will to 
create4 ,it appears to be a current     
passing from one germ to another through
 the medium of a developed organism1 an 
internal push that has carried life by  

more and more complex forms1 to higher  
and higher destinies4 ,it is a dynamic  
continuity1 a continuity of qualitative 
progress1 a duration which leaves its   
bite on things4 ,footnote3 ,for these   
descriptions of life1 see ,creative     
,evolution1 pp4 #bg-bi and #ic-id 7,fr4 
pp4 #bh-cj and #ie-if74 ,we shall be    
absolutely wrong1 however1 if we attempt
 to view the evolutionary process as    
progressive in a straight line4 ,the    
facts contradict such a facile and      
shallow view4 ,some of the stock phrases
 of the earlier writers on ,evolution   
were3 adaptation to environment1        
selection and variation1 and a grave    
problem was presented by this last4 ,how
 are we to account for the variations of
 living beings1 together with the       
persistence of their type8 ,herein lies 
the problem of the origin of species4   
,three different solutions have been put
 forward4 ,there is the ,neo-,darwinian 
view which attributes variation to the  
differences inherent in the germ borne  

by the individual1 and not to the       
experience or behaviour of the          
individual in the course of his         
existence4 ,then there is the theory    
known as ,orthogenesis which maintains  
that there is a continual changing in a 
definite direction from generation to   
generation4 ,thirdly1 there is the      
,neo-,lamarckian theory which attributes
 the cause of variation to the conscious
 effort of the individual1 an effort    
passed on to descendants4 ,footnote3    
,concerning ,lamarck 7#agdd-ahbi7       
,bergson remarks in ,la ,philosophie    
7#aiae7 that without diminishing        
,darwin's merit ,lamarck is to be       
regarded as the founder of evolutionary 
biology4 ,now each one of these theories
 explains a certain group of facts1 of a
 limited kind1 but two difficulties     
confront them4 ,we find that on quite   
distinct and widely separated lines of  
,evolution1 exactly similar organs have 
been developed4 ,bergson points out to  
us1 in this connexion1 the ,pecten genus

 of molluscs1 which have an eye         
identical in structure with that of the 
eye of vertebrates4 ,footnote3 ,the     
common edible scallop 7,pecten maximus7 
has several eyes of brilliant blue and  
of very complex structure4 ,it is       
obvious1 however1 that the eye of this  
mollusc and the eye of the vertebrate   
must have developed quite independently1
 ages after each had been separated from
 the parent stock4 ,again1 we find that 
in all organic evolution1 infinite      
complexity of structure accompanies the 
utmost simplicity of function4 ,the     
variation of an organ so highly complex 
as the eye must involve the simultaneous
 occurrence of an infinite number of    
variations all co-ordinated to the      
simple end of vision4 ,such facts as    
these are incapable of explanation by   
reference to any or all of the three    
theories of adaptation and variation    
mentioned4 ,indeed they seem capable of 
explanation only by reference to a      
single original impetus retaining its   

direction in courses far removed from   
the common origin4 ,that adaptation to  
environment is the necessary condition  
of ,evolution we do not question for a  
moment4 ,it is quite evident that a     
species would disappear1 should it fail 
to bend to the conditions of existence  
which are imposed on it4 ,but it is one 
thing to recognize that outer           
circumstances are forces ,evolution must
 reckon with1 another to claim that they
 are the directing causes of ,evolution4
 ,footnote3 ,creative ,evolution1 p4    
#ajg 7,fr4 p4 #aaa74  ,the truth is that
 adaptation explains the sinuosities of 
the movement of ,evolution1 but not the 
general directions of the movement1     
still less the movement itself4 ,the    
road which leads to the town is obliged 
to follow the ups and downs of the      
hills2 it adapts itself to the accidents
 of the ground1 but the accidents of the
 ground are not the cause of the road   
nor have they given it its direction4   
,footnote3 ,creative ,evolution1 p4 #ajh

 7,fr4 p4 #aab74 ,the evolution of life 
cannot be explained as merely a series  
of adaptations to accidental            
circumstances4 ,moreover1 the           
mechanistic view1 where all is given1 is
 quite inadequate to explain the facts4 
,the finalist or teleological conception
 is not any more tenable1 for ,evolution
 is not simply the realization of a     
plan4 ,a plan is given in advance4 ,it  
is represented or at least              
representable1 before its realization4  
,the complete execution of it may be put
 off to a distant future or even        
indefinitely1 but the idea is none the  
less formulable at the present time1 in 
terms actually given4 ,if1 on the       
contrary1 ,evolution is a creation      
unceasingly renewed1 it creates as it   
goes on1 not only the forms of life but 
the ideas that enable the intellect to  
understand it4 ,its future overflows its
 present and cannot be sketched out     
therein1 in an idea4 ,there is the first
 error of finalism4 ,it involves another

 yet more serious4 ,if life realizes a  
plan it ought to manifest a greater     
harmony the further it advances1 just as
 the house shows better and better the  
idea of the architect as stone is set   
upon stone4 ,footnote3 ,creative        
,evolution1 p4 #ajh 7,fr4 p4 #aab74     
,such finalism is really reversed       
mechanism4 ,if1 on the contrary1 the    
unity of life is to be found solely in  
the impetus 7poussee formidable7 that   
pushes it along the road of ,time1 the  
harmony is not in front but behind4 ,the
 unity is derived from a vis a tergo3 it
 is given at the start as an impulsion1 
not placed at the end as an attraction1 
as a kind of       444 far-off divine   
event       ,to which the whole creation
 moves4  ,in communicating itself the   
impetus splits up more and more4 ,life1 
in proportion to its progress1 is       
scattered in manifestations which       
undoubtedly owe to their common origin  
the fact that they are complementary to 
each other in certain aspects1 but which

 are none the less mutually incompatible
 and antagonistic4 ,so that the discord 
between species will go on increasing4  
,there are species which are arrested1  
there are some that retrogress4         
,evolution is not only a movement       
forward2 in many cases we observe a     
marking-time1 and still more often a    
deviation or turning back4 ,thence      
results an increasing disorder4 ,no     
doubt there is progress1 if progress    
means a continual advance in the general
 direction determined by a first        
impulsion2 but this progress is         
accomplished only on the two or three   
great lines of ,evolution on which forms
 ever more and more complex1 ever more  
and more high1 appear2 between these    
lines run a crowd of minor paths in     
which deviations1 arrests1 and set-backs
 are multiplied4 ,footnote3 ,creative   
,evolution1 pp4 #ajg-aaj 7,fr4 pp4      
#aaa-aad74 ,evolution would be a very   
simple and easy process to understand if
 it followed one straight path4 ,to     

describe it1 ,bergson uses1 in one      
place1 this metaphor3 ,we are here      
dealing with a shell which has          
immediately burst into fragments1 which1
 being themselves species of shells1    
have again burst into fragments1        
destined to burst again1 and so on4     
,footnote3 ,creative ,evolution1 p4 #ajc
 7,fr4 p4 #ajg74  ,a study of the facts 
shows us three very marked tendencies   
which may be denoted by the terms       
,torpor1 ,instinct1 and ,intelligence4  
,these are1 in a sense terminal points  
in the evolutionary process4 ,hence     
arises the distinction of plant and     
animal1 one showing a tendency to       
unconscious torpor1 the other           
manifesting a tendency towards movement 
and consciousness4 ,then again arises   
another divergence which gives rise to  
two paths or tendencies1 one along the  
line of the arthropods1 at the end of   
which come the ants and the bees with   
their instincts1 and the other along the
 line of the vertebrates1 at the end of 

which is man with his intelligence4     
,these three1 ,torpor1 ,instinct1 and   
,intelligence1 must not1 however1 be    
looked upon as three successive stages  
in the linear development of one        
tendency1 but as three diverging        
directions of a common activity1 which  
split up as it went on its way4         
,instinct and ,intelligence are the two 
important terminal points in ,evolution4
 ,they are not two stages of which one  
is higher than the other1 they are at   
the end of two different roads4 ,the    
wonders of ,instinct are a commonplace  
to students of animal and insect life4  
,footnote3 ,see the interesting books by
 the ,french writer1 ,henri ,fabre4     
,men1 with their intellect1 make tools1 
while ,instinct is tied to its tool4    
,there is a wondrous immediacy1 however1
 about ,instinct1 in the way it achieves
 ends1 and its operations are often     
quite unconsciously performed4 ,the     
insect or animal could not possibly know
 all that was involved in its action4   

,instinct1 then1 is one form of         
adaptation1 while ,intellect is quite   
another4 ,in man--the grown             
man--,intellect is seen at its best4    
,yet we are not without ,instincts2 by  
them we are bound to the race and to the
 whole animal creation4 ,but in ants and
 bees and such like creatures1 ,instinct
 is the sole guide of life1 and it is   
often a highly organized life4 ,the     
following example clearly shows the     
contrast between ,instinct and          
,intelligence4 ,a cat knows how to      
manage her new-born kittens1 how to     
bring them up and teach them2 a human   
mother does not know how to manage her  
baby unless she is trained either       
directly or by her own quick observation
 of other mothers4 ,a cat performs her  
simple duties by ,instinct1 a human     
mother has to make use of her           
,intelligence in order to fulfil her    
very complex duties4 ,we must observe1  
however1 the relative value of ,instinct
 and ,intelligence4 ,each is a psychical

 activity1 but while ,instinct is far   
more perfect1 far more complete in its  
insight1 it is confined within narrow   
limits4 ,intelligence1 while far less   
perfect in accomplishing its work1 less 
complete in insight1 is not limited in  
such a way4 ,but while ,intellect is    
external1 looking on reality as         
different from life1 ,instinct is an    
inner sympathy with reality2 it is      
deeper than any intellectual bond which 
binds the conscious creature to reality1
 for it is a vital bond4  ,bergson now  
turns to a consideration of ,life and   
,matter in the evolutionary process1 and
 their precise relation to one another4 
,life is free1 spontaneous1             
incalculable1 not out of relation to    
,matter1 but its direction is not       
entirely determined by ,matter nor has  
its initial impulse ,matter as its      
source4 ,although ,bergson denies that  
,will and ,consciousness1 as we know    
them1 are mere functions of the material
 organism1 yet they do depend upon it as

 a workman depends upon his tool4 ,we   
are fond of insinuating that a bad      
workman always blames his tools4 ,a good
 workman1 however1 cannot be expected to
 do the best work with bad tools4 ,the  
tool1 although he uses it1 at the same  
time limits him4 ,so it is with the     
material organism at our disposal1 our  
body1 and so1 too1 with spirit and      
matter in general4 ,spirit and ,matter  
are not to be regarded as independent or
 as ranged against one another from all 
eternity4 ,matter is a product of       
,spirit or ,consciousness1 the          
underlying psychic force4 ,for want of a
 better word1 says ,bergson1 we have    
called it ,consciousness4 ,but we do not
 mean the narrowed consciousness that   
functions in each of us4 ,footnote3     
,creative ,evolution1 p4 #bej 7,fr4 p4  
#beh74 ,it is rather                    
super-,consciousness than a             
consciousness like ours4 ,matter is a   
flux rather than a thing1 but its flow  
is in the opposite direction to that of 

,spirit4 ,the flow of ,spirit shows     
itself in the creativeness of the       
evolutionary process2 ,matter is the    
inverse movement towards stability4     
,bergson adheres to the view of ,spirit 
as fundamental1 while ,matter1 he says1 
is due to a lessening of the tension of 
the spiritual force which is the initial
 elan4 ,now1 of course1 ,matter and     
,spirit have come to be two opposing    
forces1 for one is determined and the   
other free4 ,yet ,bergson has to make   
out that there must have been some      
indetermination in ,matter1 however     
small1 to give ,spirit an opening to    
insinuate itself into ,matter and thus  
use it for its own ends4 ,it always     
seems1 however1 as if ,spirit were      
trying to free itself from material     
limitations4 ,it evolved the ,intellect 
to cope with ,matter4 ,this is why      
,reason is at home1 not in life and     
freedom1 but in solid ,matter1 in       
mechanical and spatial distinctions4    
,there is thus an eternal conflict in   

progress between ,spirit and ,matter4   
,the latter is always tending to        
automatism1 to the sacrifice of the     
,spirit with its creative power4 ,in his
 little book on ,the ,meaning of the    
,war ,bergson claims that here we have  
an instance of ,life and ,matter in     
conflict--,germany representing a       
mechanical and materialistic force4 ,in 
quite another way he illustrates the    
same truth1 in his book on ,laughter1   
where he shows us that rigidity1        
automatism1 absent-mindedness1 and      
unsociability1 are all inextricably     
entwined1 and all serve as ingredients  
to the making up of the comic in        
character1 ,footnote3 ,laughter1 p4 #adg
 7,fr4 p4 #aea74 for the comic is that  
side of a person which reveals his      
likeness to a thing1 that aspect of     
human events which1 through its peculiar
 inelasticity1 conveys the impression of
 pure mechanism1 of automatism1 of      
movement without life4 ,footnote3       
,laughter1 p4 #hg 7,fr4 p4 #hi74        

,finally1 in reviewing the evolutionary 
process as a whole1 ,bergson asserts    
that it manifests a radical contingency4
 ,the forms of life created1 also the   
proportion of ,intuition to             
,intelligence1 in man1 and the physique 
and morality of man1 are all of them    
contingent4 ,life might have stored up  
energy in a different way through plants
 selecting different chemical elements4 
,the whole of organic chemistry would   
then have been different4 ,then1 too1 it
 is probable that ,life manifests itself
 in other planets1 in other solar       
systems also1 in forms of which we have 
no idea4 ,he points out that between the
 perfect humanity and ours one may      
conceive many possible intermediaries1  
corresponding to all the degrees        
imaginable of ,intelligence and         
,intuition4 ,another solution might have
 issued in a humanity either more       
intelligent or more intuitive4 ,man has 
warred like the other species1 he has   
warred against the other species4 ,if   

the evolution of life had been opposed  
by different accidents en route1 if the 
current of life had been divided        
otherwise1 we should have been1 in      
physique and in morality1 very different
 from what we are4 ,footnote3 ,creative 
,evolution1 pp4 #bhj-bhb 7,fr4 p4       
#bhh-bij74 ,we cannot regard humanity as
 prefigured in the evolutionary process1
 nor look on man as the ultimate outcome
 of the whole of ,evolution4 ,the rest  
of ,nature does not exist simply for the
 sake of man4 ,certainly man stands     
highest1 for only in man has            
consciousness succeeded1 but man has1 as
 it were1 lost much in coming to this   
position4 ,the whole process of         
,evolution ,,is ,,as ,,if ,a ,,vague    
,,and ,,formless ,,being1 ,,whom ,,we   
,,may ,,call1 ,,as ,,we ,,will1 man ,,or
 super-man1 ,,had ,,sought ,,to         
,,realize ,,himself ,,and ,,had         
,,succeeded ,,only ,,by ,,abandoning ,a 
,,part ,,of ,,himself ,,on ,,the ,,way4 
,footnote3 ,creative ,evolution1 p4 #bha

 7,fr4 p4 #bhi74 7,italics are          
,bergson's47  ,in the lectures on ,the  
,nature of the ,soul1 ,bergson referred 
to the ,pathway of the evolutionary     
process as being a ,way to ,personality4
 ,for on the line which leads to man    
liberation has been accomplished and    
thus personalities have been able to    
constitute themselves4 ,if we could view
 this line of evolution it would appear 
to resemble a telegraph wire on which   
has travelled a dispatch sent off as    
long ago as the first beginnings of     
life1 a message which was then confused1
 of which a part has been lost on the   
way1 but which has at last found in the 
human race the appropriate instrument4  
,humanity is one2 we are members one of 
another4 ,bergson insists on this       
solidarity of man1 and1 indeed1 of all  
living creatures4 ,as the smallest grain
 of dust is bound up with our entire    
solar system1 drawn along with it in    
that undivided movement of descent which
 is materiality itself1 so all organized

 beings1 from the humblest to the       
highest1 from the first origins of life 
to the time in which we are1 and in all 
places as in all times1 do but evidence 
a single impulsion1 the inverse of the  
movement of matter1 and in itself       
indivisible4 ,all the living hold       
together and all yield to the same      
tremendous push4 ,the animal takes its  
stand on the plant1 man bestrides       
animality1 and the whole of humanity1 in
 space and in time1 is one immense army 
galloping beside and before and behind  
each of us1 in an overwhelming charge1  
able to beat down every resistance and  
clear the most formidable obstacles1    
perhaps even death4 ,footnote3 ,creative
 ,evolution1 pp4 #bhe-bhf 7,fr4 pp4     
#bic-bid74     ,,chapter ,,ix  ,,the    
,,gospel ,,of ,,intuition               
,intelligence and ,intuition not        
opposed--,intellectual                  
sympathy--,synthesis and analysis4      
,understanding as one                   
loves--,concepts--,intellect not        

final--,man's spirit and                
intuitions--,joy1 creative power and    
art--,value of ,intuitive ,philosophy4  
,we now approach the grand climax of    
,bergson's philosophy1 his doctrine of  
,intuition1 which he preaches with all  
the vigour of an evangelist4 ,our study 
of his treatment of ,change1 of         
,perception1 of la duree1 and of        
,instinct1 has prepared us for an       
investigation of what he means by       
,intuition1 for in dealing with these   
subjects he has been laying the         
foundations of his doctrine of          
,intuition4 ,he pointed out to us that  
,life is ,change1 but that our intellect
 does not really grasp the reality of   
,change1 for it is adapted to solids and
 to concepts1 it resembles the          
cinematograph film4 ,then he has tried  
to show us that in ,perception there is 
really much more than we think1 for our 
intellect carves out what is of         
practical interest1 while the penumbra  
or vague fringes of perceptions which   

have no bearing on action are neglected4
 ,by his advocacy of a real             
psychological ,time1 in opposition to   
the physical abstraction which bears the
 name1 he again brought out the         
inadequacy of intellect to grasp ,life  
in its flow and has put before us the   
soul's own appreciation of ,time1 which 
is a valuation rather than a magnitude1 
an intuition of our consciousness4      
,then1 in examining the ,evolution of   
,instinct and ,intelligence1 we found   
that ,instinct1 however blind           
intellectually1 contained a wonderful   
and unique element of immediacy or      
direct insight4 ,these are just         
preparatory indications of the direction
 of ,bergson's thought all the time4    
,it is admittedly difficult to determine
 with very great definiteness what      
,bergson's view of ,intuition really is1
 for he has made many statements        
regarding it which appear at first sight
 irreconcilable and1 in his earlier     
writings1 has not been sufficiently     

careful when speaking of the distinction
 between ,intelligence and ,intuition4  
,some of his early statements are       
reactionary and crude and give the      
impression of a purely                  
anti-intellectualist position involving 
the condemnation of ,intellect and all  
its work4 ,footnote3 ,e4g41 the         
statement ,to philosophize is to invert 
the habitual direction of the work of   
thought--,introduction to ,metaphysics  
p4 #ei4 ,in his later work1 however1    
,bergson has made it more clear that he 
does not mean to throw ,intellect       
overboard2 it has its place1 but is not 
final1 nor is it the supreme human      
faculty which most philosophers have    
thought it to be4 ,it must be lamented1 
however1 that ,bergson's language was   
ever so ill defined as to encourage the 
many varied and conflicting views which 
are held regarding his doctrine of      
,intuition4 ,around this the greatest   
controversy has raged4 ,little is to be 
gained by heeding the shouts of either  

those who acclaim ,bergson as a         
revolutionary against all use of the    
,intellect1 or of those who regard him  
as no purely anti-intellectualist at    
all4 ,we must turn to ,bergson himself  
and study carefully what he has said and
 written1 reserving our judgment until  
we have examined his own statements4    
,what is this ,intuition8 ,in what is   
now a locus classicus ,footnote3        
,introduction to ,metaphysics1 p4 #g4 he
 says1 ,by ,intuition is meant the kind 
of ,,intellectual ,,sympathy by which   
one places oneself within an object in  
order to coincide with what is unique in
 it and consequently inexpressible4     
,analysis is the operation which reduces
 the object to elements already known1  
that is1 to elements common to it and   
other objects4 ,to analyse1 therefore1  
is to express a thing as a function of  
something other than itself4 ,all       
analysis is thus a translation1 a       
development into symbols1 a             
representation taken from successive    

points of view from which we note as    
many resemblances as possible between   
the new object which we are studying and
 others which we believe we know        
already4 ,in its eternally unsatisfied  
desire to embrace the object around     
which it is compelled to turn1 analysis 
multiplies without end the number of its
 points of view in order to complete its
 always incomplete representation1 and  
ceaselessly varies its symbols that it  
may perfect the always imperfect        
translation4 ,it goes on therefore to   
infinity4 ,but ,intuition1 if ,intuition
 be possible1 is a simple act4 ,it is an
 act directly opposed to analysis1 for  
it is a viewing in totality1 as an      
absolute2 it is a synthesis1 not an     
analysis1 not an intellectual act1 for  
it is an immediate1 emotional synthesis4
  ,two illustrations1 taken from the    
same essay1 may serve to make this point
 clearer4 ,a visitor in ,paris1 of an   
artistic temperament1 makes some        
sketches of the city1 writing underneath

 them1 by way of memento1 the word      
,paris4 ,as he has actually seen ,paris 
he is able1 with the help of the        
original ,intuition he has had of that  
unique whole which is ,paris itself1 to 
place his sketches therein1 and         
synthesize them4 ,but there is no way of
 performing the inverse operation4 ,it  
is impossible1 even with thousands of   
sketches1 to achieve the ,intuition1 to 
give oneself the impression of what     
,paris is like1 if one has never been   
there4 ,or again1 as a second           
illustration1 ,consider a character     
whose adventures are related to me in a 
novel4 ,the author may multiply the     
traits of his hero's character1 may make
 him speak and act as much as he        
pleases1 but all this can never be      
equivalent to the simple and indivisible
 feeling which ,i should experience if  
,i were able1 for an instant1 to        
identify myself with the person of the  
hero himself4 ,out of that indivisible  
feeling1 as from a spring1 all the      

words1 gestures1 and actions of the man 
would appear to me to flow naturally4   
,they would no longer be accidents      
which1 added to the idea ,i had already 
formed of the character1 continually    
enriched that idea without ever         
completing it4 ,the character would be  
given to me all at once1 in its         
entirety1 and the thousand incidents    
which manifest it1 instead of adding    
themselves to the idea and so enriching 
it1 would seem to me1 on the contrary1  
to detach themselves from it1 without1  
however1 exhausting it or impoverishing 
its essence4 ,all the things ,i am told 
about the man provide me with so many   
points of view from which ,i can observe
 him4 ,all the traits which describe him
 and which can make him known to me1    
only by so many comparisons with persons
 or things ,i know already1 are signs by
 which he is expressed more or less     
symbolically4 ,symbols and points of    
view1 therefore1 place me outside him2  
they give me only what he has in common 

with others1 and not what belongs to    
him1 and to him alone4 ,but that which  
is properly 'himself1' that which       
constitutes his essence1 cannot be      
perceived from without1 being internal  
by definition1 nor be expressed by      
symbols1 being incommensurable with     
everything else4 ,description1 history1 
and analysis leave me here in the       
relative4 ,coincidence with the person  
himself would alone give me the         
absolute4 ,footnote3 ,an ,introduction  
to ,metaphysics1 p4 #c4 ,this1 as       
,gaston ,rageot puts it1 is to          
understand in the fashion in which one  
loves4 ,this statement is of suggestive 
interest in considering the practical   
problem of how we may be said to know   
other people1 and has vital bearing on  
the revelation of one personality to    
another1 urging1 as it does1 the value  
and necessity of some degree of sympathy
 and indeed of love1 for the full       
understanding and knowledge of any      
personality4  ,in another place ,bergson

 says3 ,when a poet reads me his verses1
 ,i can interest myself enough in him to
 enter into his thought1 put myself into
 his feelings1 live over again the      
simple state he has broken into phrases 
and words4 ,i sympathize then with his  
inspiration1 ,i follow it with a        
continuous movement which is1 like the  
inspiration itself1 an undivided act4   
,if this sympathy could extend its      
object and so reflect upon itself1 it   
would give us the key to vital          
operations in the same way as           
,intelligence1 developed and corrected1 
introduces us into ,matter4             
,intelligence1 by the intermediary of   
science1 which is its work1 tells more  
and more completely the secret of       
physical operations2 of ,life it gives  
and pretends only to give an expression 
in terms of inertia4 ,we should be led  
into the very interior of ,life by      
,intuition1 that is1 by ,instinct become
 disinterested1 conscious of itself1    
capable of reflecting on its object and 

enlarging it indefinitely4  ,in         
proclaiming the gospel of ,intuition1   
,bergson's main point is to show that   
man is capable of an experience and a   
knowledge deeper than that which the    
,intellect can possibly give4 ,at       
intervals a soul arises which seems to  
triumph444 by dint of simplicity--the   
soul of an artist or a poet1 which1     
remaining near its source1 reconciles1  
in a harmony appreciable by the heart1  
terms irreconcilable by the intelligence
 ,footnote3 ,from the address on        
,ravaisson1 delivered before the        
,academie des ,sciences morales et      
politiques #aijd4 ,his point of view is 
here akin to that of an earlier ,french 
thinker1 ,pascal1 who said3 ,the heart  
hath reasons that the reason cannot     
know4 ,the ,intellect is1 by its nature1
 the fabricator of concepts1 and        
concepts are1 in ,bergson's view1       
mischievous4 ,they are static1 they     
leave out the flux of things1 they omit 
too much of experience1 they are framed 

at an expensive cost1 the expense of    
vital contact with ,life itself4 ,of    
course he admits a certain value in     
concepts1 but he refuses to admit that  
they help us at all to grasp reality in 
its flux4 ,metaphysics must transcend   
concepts in order to reach ,intuition4  
,certainly concepts are necessary to it1
 for all the other sciences work1 as a  
rule1 with concepts1 and ,metaphysics   
cannot dispense with the other sciences4
 ,but it is only truly itself when it   
goes beyond the concept1 or at least    
when it frees itself from rigid and     
ready-made concepts1 in order to create 
a kind very different from those which  
we habitually use2 ,i mean supple1      
mobile1 and almost fluid                
representations1 always ready to mould  
themselves on the fleeting forms of     
,intuition4 ,footnote3 ,an ,introduction
 to ,metaphysics1 p4 #ah4  ,the true    
instrument of ,metaphysics is intuition4
 ,we can only grasp ourselves1 ,bergson 
points out1 by a metaphysical           

,intuition1 for the soul eludes thought2
 we cannot place it among concepts or in
 a category4 ,intuition1 however1       
reveals to us ,real ,time 7la duree7 and
 our real selves1 changing and living as
 free personalities in a ,time which1 as
 it advances1 creates4  ,intuition is in
 no way mysterious1 ,bergson claims4    
,every one of us has had opportunities  
to exercise it in some degree1 and      
anyone1 for example1 who has been       
engaged in literary work1 knows         
perfectly well that after long study has
 been given to the subject1 when all    
documents have been collected and       
necessary drafts worked out1 one thing  
more is needful--an effort1 a travail of
 soul1 a setting of oneself in the heart
 of the subject2 in short1 the getting  
of inspiration4 ,metaphysical ,intuition
 seems to be of this nature1 and its    
relation to the empirical data          
contributed by the ,intellect is        
parallel to the relation between the    
literary man's inspiration and his      

collected material4 ,of course it is    
impossible to have an ,intuition of     
reality1 that is1 an intellectual       
sympathy1 with its innermost nature1    
unless its confidence has been won by a 
long comradeship with its external      
manifestation4 ,in his study of         
,lucretius ,footnote3 ,extraits de      
,lucrece avec etude sur la poesie1 la   
philosophie1 la physique le texte et la 
langue de ,lucrece 7#ahhd74 ,preface1 p4
 xx4 he remarks that the chief value of 
the ,latin poet-philosopher lay in his  
power of vision1 in his insight into the
 beauty of nature1 in his synthetic     
view1 while at the same time he was able
 to exercise his keenly analytic        
intellect in discovering all he could   
about the facts of nature in their      
scientific aspect4 ,at the same time1   
metaphysical ,intuition1 although only  
to be obtained through acquaintance with
 empirical data1 is quite other than the
 mere summary of such knowledge4        
,footnote3 ,see protest3 ,l',intuition  

philosophique in ,revue de metaphysique 
et de morale1 #aiaa1 p4 #hba4 ,it is    
distinct from these data1 as the motor  
impulse is distinct from the path       
traversed by the moving body1 as the    
tension of the spring is distinct from  
the visible movements of the pendulum4  
,in this sense ,metaphysics has nothing 
in common with a generalization of      
facts4 ,it might1 however1 be defined as
 integral experience4 ,nevertheless     
,intuition1 once attained1 must find a  
mode of expression in well-defined      
concepts1 for in itself it is           
incommunicable4 ,dialectic is necessary 
to put ,intuition to the proof1         
necessary also in order that ,intuition 
should break itself up into concepts and
 so be propagated to others4 ,but when  
we use language and concepts to         
communicate it1 we tend to make these in
 themselves mean something1 whereas they
 are but counters or symbols used to    
express what is their                   
inspiration--,intuition4 ,hence we often

 forget the metaphysical ,intuitions    
from which science itself has sprung4   
,what is relative in science is the     
symbolic knowledge1 reached by          
pre-existing concepts which proceed from
 the fixed to the moving4 ,a truly      
intuitive philosophy would bring science
 and metaphysics together4 ,modern      
science dates from the day when mobility
 was set up as an independent reality   
and studied as such by ,galileo4 ,but   
men of science have mainly fixed their  
attention on the concepts1 the residual 
products of ,intuition1 the symbols     
which have lent a symbolic character to 
every kind of science4 ,metaphysicians1 
too1 have done the same thing4 ,hence it
 was easy for ,kant to show that our    
science is wholly relative and our      
metaphysics entirely artificial4 ,for   
,kant1 science was a universal          
mathematic and metaphysics a practically
 unaltered ,platonism4 ,the synthetic   
,intuition was hidden by the analysis to
 which it had given rise4 ,for ,kant1   

,intuition was infra-intellectual1 but  
for ,bergson it is supra-intellectual4  
,kant's great error was in concluding   
that it is necessary for us1 in order to
 attain ,intuition1 to leave the domain 
of the senses and of consciousness4     
,this was because of his views of ,time 
and ,change4 ,if ,time and ,change      
really were what he took them to be1    
then ,metaphysics and ,intuition alike  
are impossible4 ,for ,bergson1 however1 
,time and ,change lead up to ,intuition2
 indeed it is by ,intuition that we come
 to see all things1 as he expresses it1 
sub specie durationis4 ,this is the     
primary vision which an intuitive       
philosophy supplies4 ,such a philosophy 
will not be merely a unification of the 
sciences4  ,in an article contributed to
 the ,revue de metaphysique et de morale
 in ,january of #aijh1 under the title  
,l',evolution de l'intelligence         
geometrique1 we find ,bergson remarking3
 ,nowhere have ,i claimed that we should
 replace intelligence by something else1

 or prefer instinct to it4 ,i have tried
 to show merely that when we leave the  
region of physical and mathematical     
objects for the realm of life and       
consciousness1 we have to depend on a   
certain sense of living1 which has its  
origin in the same vital impulse that is
 the basis of instinct1 although        
instinct1 strictly speaking1 is         
something quite different4  ,intellect  
and ,intuition1 ,bergson says very      
emphatically1 at the close of his       
,huxley ,lecture on ,life and           
,consciousness1 are not opposed to one  
another4 ,how could there be a          
disharmony between our ,intuitions and  
our ,science1 how1 especially1 could our
 ,science make us renounce our          
,intuition1 if these ,intuitions are    
something like ,instinct--an ,instinct  
conscious1 refined1 spiritualized--and  
if ,instinct is still nearer ,life than 
,intellect and ,science8 ,intuition and 
,intellect do not oppose each other1    
save where ,intuition refuses to become 

more precise by coming into touch with  
facts1 scientifically studied1 and where
 ,intellect1 instead of confining itself
 to ,science proper 7that is1 to what   
can be inferred from facts1 or proved by
 reasoning71 combines with this an      
unconscious and inconsistent metaphysic 
which in vain lays claim to scientific  
pretensions4 ,the future seems to belong
 to a philosophy which will take into   
account the whole of what is given4     
,footnote3 ,life and ,consciousness1 as 
reported in ,the ,hibbert ,journal1     
,vol4 ,x1 ,oct41 #aiaa1 pp4 #bd-dd4     
,intuition1 to be fruitful1 must        
interact with ,intellect4 ,it has the   
direct insight of ,instinct1 but its    
range is widened in proportion as it    
blends with ,intellect4 ,to imagine that
 the acceptance of the gospel of        
,intuition means the setting aside of   
all valuation in regard to the          
,intellect and its work would be        
preposterous4 ,bergson1 however         
unguarded his language at times has     

been1 does not mean this4 ,he does not  
mean that we must return to the         
standpoint of the animal or that we must
 assume that the animal view1 which is  
instinctive1 is higher than the view    
which1 through ,intellect1 gives it a   
meaning and value to the percipient4    
,that would involve the rejection of all
 that our culture has accumulated1 all  
our social heritage from the past1 the  
overthrow of our civilization1 the      
undoing of all that has developed in our
 world1 since man's ,intelligence came  
into it4 ,we cannot obtain ,intuition   
without intellectual labour1 for it must
 have an intellectual or scientific     
basis4 ,yet1 however valuable ,intellect
 is1 it is not final4 ,it is reality    
itself1 in the profoundest meaning of   
the word1 that we reach by the combined 
and progressive development of science  
and philosophy4 ,footnote3 ,creative    
,evolution1 p4 #baj 7,fr4 p4 #bag74 ,we 
need1 therefore1 if we are to get into  
touch with the deeper aspects of        

reality1 something more than bare       
science4 ,we cannot live on its dry     
bread alone2 we need philosophy--an     
intuitional philosophy4  ,in his        
brilliant paper ,l',intuition           
philosophique ,bergson shows us1 by a   
splendid study of ,berkeley and         
,spinoza1 that the great ,intuition     
underlying the thought of a philosopher 
is of more worth to the world than the  
logic and dialectic through the aid of  
which it is made manifest1 and          
elaborated4 ,footnote3 ,he makes this   
clear in a letter to ,dr4 ,mitchell in  
the latter's ,studies in ,bergson's     
,philosophy1 p4 #ca4 ,then in the       
,lectures ,la ,perception du ,changement
 and in his little work on ,laughter he 
sets forth the meaning of ,intuition in 
relation to ,art4 ,from time to time    
,nature raises up souls more or less    
detached from practical life1 seers of  
visions and dreamers of dreams1 men of  
,intuition1 with powers of great poetry1
 great music1 or great painting4 ,the   

clearest evidence of ,intuition comes to
 us from the works of these great       
artists4 ,what is it that we call the   
genius of great painters1 great         
musicians1 and great poets8 ,it is      
simply the power they have of seeing    
more than we see and of enabling us1 by 
their expressions1 to penetrate further 
into reality ourselves4 ,what makes the 
picture is the artist's vision1 his     
entry into the subject by sympathy or   
,intuition1 and however imperfectly he  
expresses this1 yet he reveals to us    
more than we could otherwise have       
perceived4  ,the original form of       
consciousness1 ,bergson asserts1 was    
nearer to ,intuition than to            
,intelligence4 ,but man has found       
,intellect the more valuable faculty for
 practical use and so has used it for   
the solution of questions it was never  
intended to solve1 by reason of its     
nature and origin4 ,yet ,intuition is   
there1 but vague and1 above all1        
discontinuous4 ,it is a lamp almost     

extinguished which only glimmers now and
 then for a few moments at most4 ,but it
 glimmers whenever a vital interest is  
at stake4 ,on our personality1 on our   
liberty1 on the place we occupy in the  
whole of ,nature1 on our origin1 and    
perhaps also on our destiny1 it throws a
 light1 feeble and vacillating1 but     
which1 none the less1 pierces the       
darkness of the night in which the      
,intellect leaves us4 ,footnote3        
,creative ,evolution1 p4 #bhb 7,fr4 p4  
#bij74  ,science promises us well-being1
 or1 at the most1 pleasure1 but         
philosophy1 through the ,intuition to   
which it leads us1 is capable of        
bestowing upon us ,joy4 ,the future     
belongs to such an intuitive philosophy1
 ,bergson holds1 for he considers that  
the whole progress of ,evolution is     
towards the creation of a type of being 
whose ,intuition will be equal to his   
,intelligence4 ,finally1 by ,intuition  
we shall find ourselves in--to invent a 
word--intunation with the elan vital1   

with the ,evolution of the whole        
universe1 and this absolute feeling of  
at-one-ment with the universe will      
result in that emotional synthesis which
 is deep ,joy1 which ,wordsworth        
describes as3                           
that blessed mood       ,in which the   
burthen of the mystery1       ,in which 
the heavy and the weary weight       ,of
 all this unintelligible world1         
,is lightened3--that serene and blessed 
mood1       ,in which the affections    
gently lead us on1--       ,until1 the  
breath of this corporeal frame          
,and even the motion of our human blood 
,almost suspended1 we are laid asleep   
,in body1 and become a living soul3     
,while with an eye made quiet by the    
power       ,of harmony and the deep    
power of joy       ,we see into the life
 of things4     ,,chapter ,x  ,,ethical 
,,and ,,political ,,implications        
,anti-intellectualism and the           
,state--,syndicalism--,class war1 direct
 action4 ,sorel advocates ,general      

,strike--,bergson cited in              
support--,unfair use of ,bergson's view 
of reality--,his ethic--,value of ,will 
and ,creativeness2 not a supporter of   
impulse4 ,development of personality4   
,intuitive mind of woman4 ,change and   
the moral life4   ,bergson has not      
written explicitly upon ,ethics4 ,in    
some quarters1 however1 so much has been
 made of ,bergson as a supporter of     
certain ethical tendencies and certain  
social movements1 that we must examine  
this question of ethical and political  
implications and try to ascertain how   
far this use of ,bergson is justified4  
,both ethical and political thought     
to-day are deriving fresh stimulation   
from the revision of many formulae1 the 
modification of many conceptions which  
the ,war has inevitably caused4 ,at the 
same time the keen interest taken in    
studies like social psychology and      
political philosophy combines with a    
growing interest in movements such as   
,guild ,socialism and ,syndicalism4 ,the

 current which in philosophy sets       
against intellectualism1 in the         
political realm sets against the ,state4
 ,this political anti-intellectualism   
shows a definite tendency to belittle   
the ,state in comparison with economic  
or social groups4 ,if social psychology 
tends to base the ,state as it is1 on   
other than intellectual grounds1        
,syndicalism is prone to expect that    
non-intellectual forces will suffice to 
achieve the ,state as it should be4     
,footnote3 ,ernest ,barker in his       
,political ,thought in ,england from    
,herbert ,spencer to the ,present ,day1 
p4 #bdh4 ,other tendencies of the same  
type are noticeable4 ,for example1 ,mr4 
,bertrand ,russell's work on ,the       
,principles of ,social ,reconstruction  
is based on the view that impulse is a  
larger factor in our social life than   
conscious purpose4  ,the ,syndicalists  
have been citing the philosophy of      
,bergson in support of their views1 and 
it is most interesting to see how       

skilfully at times sayings of ,bergson  
are quoted by them as authoritative1 as 
justification for their actions1 in a   
spirit akin to that of the devout man   
who quotes scripture texts as a guide to
 conduct4  ,in this country1            
,syndicalism has not been popular1 and  
when it did show its head the government
 promptly prosecuted the editor and     
printers of its organ1 ,the             
,syndicalist1 and suppressed the paper  
owing to its aggressive anti-militarism4
 ,footnote3 ,imprisonment of ,mr4 ,tom  
,mann ,english ,syndicalism has few     
supporters and it is a rather diluted   
form of ,french ,syndicalism4 ,to       
understand the movement1 we must turn to
 its history in ,france or in ,america4 
,its history in ,russia will be an      
object of research in the future1 when  
more material and more news are         
available from that distressful country4
 ,in ,france local unions or syndicats  
were legalized as early as #ahhd but    
#ahie is the important landmark1 being  

the date of the foundation with which   
,syndicalism is associated to-day1 the  
,confederation ,generale du ,travail1   
popularly known as the ,c4,g4,t41 the   
central trade-union organization in     
,france4 ,in the main1 ,syndicalism is  
an urban product1 and has not many      
adherents among the agricultural        
population4 ,in ,america a ,federation  
of ,labour was formed in #ahhf1 but the 
,syndicalist organization there is the  
body known as ,the ,industrial ,workers 
of the ,world4 ,in its declaration of   
policy1 it looks forward to a union     
which is to embrace the whole working   
class and to adopt towards the          
capitalist class an unending warfare1   
until the latter is expropriated4 ,the  
working class and the employing class1  
says the declaration1 have nothing in   
common4 ,between these two classes a    
struggle must go on until all the       
toilers come together on the industrial 
field and take and hold that which they 
produce by their labour4 ,among the     

leaders of ,syndicalist thought on the  
,continent may be mentioned the names of
 three prominent ,frenchmen1 ,berth1    
,lagardelle1 and ,sorel1 together with  
that of the young ,italian professor    
,labriola1 who is leading the           
increasingly active party in his own    
country4  ,in ,france1 ,italy1 and      
,america alike1 ,syndicalism stands for 
the class-war4 ,its central feature is  
the idea of a ,general ,strike4 ,it     
manifests a hatred of the ,state1 which 
makes it bitterly opposed to ,state     
,socialism1 which it regards as         
centralized and tyrannical1 or to a     
,labour-party of any kind in            
,parliament4 ,footnote3 ,attempts at    
carrying out a ,general ,strike1 in     
,france1 ,sweden1 ,italy1 and ,spain    
have failed4 ,the greatest ,strikes have
 been3 ,railwaymen in ,italy1 in #aijg2 
,postal ,workers in ,france1 in #aiji4  
,miners in ,new ,south ,wales1 in #aiji1
 and in ,sweden1 #aiji2 ,miners and     
,railwaymen in ,england2 ,textile       

,workers in ,massachusetts1 #aiab2      
,railwaymen in ,england1 #aiai1 in      
,france1 #aibj4 ,it regards the ,state  
as fixed1 rigid1 and intellectual1 and  
adopts all the ,bergsonian anathemas it 
can find which condemn intellectual     
constructions1 concepts1 and thought in 
general4 ,its war-cry is not only ,down 
with ,capitalism but also1 in a great   
number of cases1 ,down with             
,intellectualism6 ,instinct and impulse 
alone are to be guides4 ,syndicalism1   
unlike ,socialism1 has no programme--it 
does not believe in a prearranged plan4 
,reality1 it says1 quoting ,bersgon1 has
 no plan4 ,it says1 ,let us act1 act    
instinctively and impulsively against   
what we feel to be wrong1 and the future
 will grow out of our acting4 ,we find  
,georges ,sorel1 the philosopher of     
,syndicalism1 talking about what he     
terms the ,,intuition of ,socialism1 and
 he talks emphatically about the        
tremendous moral value of strikes1 apart
 from any material gain achieved by     

them4 ,he believes religiously in a     
,general ,strike as the great ideal1 but
 considers it a myth capable of rousing 
enthusiasm in the workers1 an ideal to  
which they must strive1 a myth as       
inspiring as the belief of the early    
,christians in the ,second ,coming of   
,christ1 which1 although quite a false  
belief1 contributed largely to the      
success of the early ,church4 ,strikes1 
says ,sorel1 have engendered in the     
proletariat the most noble1 the most    
profound1 the most moving sentiments    
they possess4 ,the ,general ,strike     
groups these in a composite picture1 and
 by bringing together1 gives to each its
 maximum intensity2 appealing to the    
most acute memories of particular       
conflicts1 it colours with an intense   
life all the details of the composition 
presented to the mind4 ,we obtain thus  
an intuition of ,socialism which        
language cannot clearly express and we  
obtain it in a symbol instantly         
perceived1 such as is maintained in the 

,bergsonian philosophy4 ,footnote3      
,quoted by ,c4 ,bougle1 in an           
interesting article ,syndicalistes et   
,bergsoniens1 ,revue du mois1 ,april    
#aj1 #aiji4 ,and by ,rev4 ,rhondda      
,williams in ,syndicalism in ,france and
 its ,relation to the ,philosophy of    
,bergson1 ,hibbert ,journal1 #aiad4     
,also by ,j4 ,w4 ,scott in his book     
,syndicalism and ,philosophical         
,realism1 #aiai1 pp4 #ci-dj1 and by     
,harley in ,syndicalism4 ,in ,england1  
although the idea of the ,general       
,strike has not been so prominent1 yet  
in recent years ,strikes have assumed an
 aspect different from those of former  
years4 ,workers who had struck before   
for definite objects1 for wages or      
hours1 or reformed workshop conditions1 
now seem to be seeking after something  
vaster--a fundamental alteration in     
industrial conditions or the total      
abolition of the present system4 ,the   
spirit of unrest is on the increase2 no 
doubt ,war conditions have1 in many     

cases1 intensified it1 but there is in  
the whole industrial world an           
instinctive impulse showing itself1     
which is issuing in ,syndicalist and    
,bolshevist ,footnote3                  
,bolshevik--simply the ,russian word for
 majority party as distinct from        
,mensheviks or minority4 activities of  
various kinds4 ,syndicalism is          
undoubtedly revolutionary4 ,there are   
,les ,syndicats rouges and ,les         
,syndicats jaunes1 of which the ,reds   
are by far the most revolutionary4      
,footnote3 ,see article ,des ,ouvriers  
syndiques et le ,syndicalisme jaune1    
,revue de metaphysique et morale1 #aiab 
,the ,c4,g4,t4 and the ,industrial      
,workers of the ,world are out for what 
they call direct action4 ,their anarchy 
is really an organization directed      
against organization1 at least against  
that organization we know as the modern 
,state4 ,they have no hope of salvation 
for themselves coming about through the 
,state in any way4 ,it has become       

somewhat natural for us to think of the 
social reformer as a ,member of         
,parliament and of the revolutionary    
socialist as a strike-agitator4 ,the    
cries of ,don't vote6 ,don't enlist6 are
 heard1 and care is taken to keep the   
workman from ceasing to quarrel with his
 employer4 ,any discussion of the rights
 or wrongs of any ,strike is condemned  
at once4 ,footnote3 ,ramsay ,mac,donald 
was condemned by the ,syndicalists for  
claiming that a strike ,,might be wrong4
 ,all ,strikes are regarded as right and
 as an approach to the ideal of the     
,general ,strike4 ,sorel cites ,bergson 
as calling us to turn from traditional  
thought1 to seek reality in the dynamic1
 rather than the static4 ,he claims that
 the ,professor of ,philosophy at the   
,college de ,france really co-operates  
with the ,c4,g4,t4 ,an unexpected       
harmony arises between the flute of     
personal meditation1 and the trumpet of 
social revolution1 and the workman is   
inspired by being made to feel that the 

elan ouvrier est frere de l'elan vital4 
,footnote3 ,quoted by ,c4 ,bougie in the
 article previously mentioned4 ,as      
,bergson speaks of all movement as      
unique and indivisible1 so the          
triumphant movement of the ,general     
,strike is to be regarded as a whole1 no
 analysis is to be made of its parts4   
,as the portals of the future stand wide
 open1 as the future is being made1 so  
,bergson tells us1 that is deemed an    
excuse by the ,syndicalists for having  
no prearranged plan of the conduct of   
the ,general ,strike1 and no conception 
of what is to be done afterwards4 ,it is
 unforeseen and unforeseeable4 ,all     
industries1 however1 are to be in the   
hands of those who work them1 the       
present industrial system is to be swept
 away4 ,the new order which is to follow
 will have entirely new moral codes4    
,sorel justifies violence to be used    
against the existing order1 but says he 
wishes to avoid unnecessary blood-shed  
or brutality4 ,footnote3 ,reflections on

 ,violence4 ,it is interesting to note  
that ,bergson refers briefly to ,sorel  
as an original thinker whom it is       
impossible to place in any category or  
class1 in ,la ,philosophie1 p4 #ac4 ,he 
remarks however1 in this connexion1 that
 ancient society1 with all its          
brutality1 compares favourably with     
modern society which has replaced       
ferocity by cunning4 ,the ancient       
peoples had less hypocrisy than we have2
 this1 in his opinion1 justifies        
violence in the overthrow of the modern 
system and the creation of a nobler     
ethic than that on which the modern     
,state is based4 ,for this reason1 he   
disagrees with most of his ,syndicalist 
colleagues1 and condemns sabotage and   
also the ca canny policy1 both of which 
are a kind of revenge upon the employer1
 based on the principle of bad work for 
bad pay4 ,he would have the workers     
produce well now1 and urges that moral  
progress is to be aimed at no less than 
material progress4  ,it certainly seems1

 however1 that the ,syndicalists are    
making an unfair use of ,bergson4 ,they 
have got hold of three or four points   
rather out of relation to their context1
 and are making the most of them4 ,these
 points are1 chiefly1 his remarks       
against the ,intellect1 his appreciation
 of ,instinct and ,intuition1 his       
insistence on ,freedom and on the       
,indeterminateness of the ,future4 ,in  
the hands of the ,syndicalists these    
become in effect3 ,never mind what you  
think1 rouse up your feeling intensely2 
act as you feel and then see what you   
think4 ,briefly this amounts to saying3 
,act on impulse1 behave instinctively   
and not rationally4 ,in too many cases1 
as we know1 this is equivalent to a     
merely selfish ,down tools if you feel  
like it4 ,now so far from ,bergson      
really giving any countenance to        
capricious behaviour1 or mere impulse1  
he expressly condemns such action4      
,although the future is being made1 he  
does not admit that it will be merely   

,,capriciously made1 and he condemns the
 man of mere impulse along with the     
dreamer1 in a fine passage where he     
speaks of the value of an intelligent   
memory in practical life4,footnote3 ,see
 p4 #dh of the present work4 ,when the  
,syndicalists assert that elan1         
instinct1 impulse1 or intuition are a   
better guide than intelligence and      
reasoned principles1 and cite ,bergson  
as their authority1 they omit an        
important qualification which upsets    
their theory entirely1 for ,bergson's   
anti-intellectualism is not at all of   
the type which they advocate4 ,he does  
not intend to rule ,intellect out of    
practical affairs4 ,indeed it is just   
the opposite that he asserts1 for1 in   
his view1 the ,intellect is             
pre-eminently fitted for practical life1
 for action1 and it is for this very    
reason that he maintains it does not    
give us insight into reality itself1    
which ,intuition alone can do4 ,he does 
not wish1 however1 to decrease the small

 element of rationality manifested in   
ethical and political life1 least of all
 to make men less rational1 in the sense
 that they are to become mere creatures 
of ,impulse4  ,nevertheless1 ,bergson's 
great emphasis on ,will and             
,creativeness condemns any laissez-faire
 type of political theory4 ,it would be 
wrong for us to accept the social order 
which is felt to be imperfect and unjust
 in so many ways1 simply because we find
 ourselves in it and fear we cannot work
 a way out4 ,,we ,,have ,,great ,,power 
,,of ,,creation1 ,,and ,,in ,,large     
,,measure ,,we ,,can ,,create ,,what    
,,we ,,will ,,in ,,the ,,world ,,of     
,,politics ,,and ,,social ,,life1 and it
 is good that men generally should be   
made to see this4 ,but it is of very    
vital importance that we should will the
 right thing4 ,this we are not likely to
 do impulsively and without reflection4 
,even if we admit ,mr4 ,russell's       
contention that impulse has more effect 
than conscious purpose in moulding men's

 lives ,footnote3 ,principles of ,social
 ,reconstruction1 ,preface1 p4 #e4 and  
agree that it is not the weakening of   
impulse that is to be desired1 but the  
direction of impulse toward life and    
growth1 ,footnote3 p4 #ah4 ,cf4 the     
whole of the first chapter on ,the      
,principle of ,growth4 yet1 we none the 
less assert that instinct is an         
insufficient guide in the determination 
of social behaviour1 and ask how the    
direction of impulse1 of which ,mr4     
,russell himself speaks1 is to be       
arrived at8 ,surely our only hope lies  
in striving to make men not less1 but   
more rational in order that they may    
grasp--however dimly--something of what 
is implied in ethical and political     
ideals1 that they may recognize in      
society some embodiment of will and     
purpose and come to look upon ,thought  
and ,reason as the unifying and         
organizing principles of human society4 
,we cannot help wishing that ,bergson   
had given us some contribution to the   

study of ,ethics4 ,in one of his letters
 to ,father de ,tonquedec regarding the 
relation of his philosophy to ,theology1
 we find him remarking that ,before     
these conclusions theological statements
 can be set out with greater precision1 
or considered at greater length1 certain
 problems of quite another kind would   
have to be attacked--the problems of    
,ethics4 ,i am not sure that ,i shall   
ever publish anything on this subject4  
,i shall do so only if ,i attain the    
results that appear to me as            
demonstrable or as clearly to be shown  
as those of my other books4 ,footnote3  
,in ,etudes 7,revue des ,peres de       
,jesus71 ,vol4 ,,cxxx1 pp4 #ead1 #eae1  
#aiab4 ,prior to the ,war1 however1 we  
know that ,bergson was taking up the    
problem of working out the implications 
of his philosophy in the sphere of      
social ethics1 with particular reference
 to the meaning of ,duty and the        
significance of ,personality4 ,although 
his investigations of these supremely   

important problems have not yet been    
completed or made public1 nevertheless  
certain ethical implications which have 
an important bearing on personal and    
social life seem to be contained in what
 he has already written4  ,in its       
application to social life1 ,bergson's  
philosophy would involve the laying of  
greater stress upon the need for all    
members of society having larger        
opportunities of being more fully       
themselves1 of being self-creative and  
having fuller powers of self-expression 
as free creative agents4 ,it would lay  
emphasis upon the value of the          
personality of the worker and would     
combat the systematic converting of him 
into a mere hand4 ,thus would be set in 
clearer light the claims of human       
personality to create and to enjoy a    
good life in the widest sense1 to enter 
into fuller sympathy and fellowship with
 other personalities1 and so develop a  
fuller and richer form of existence than
 is possible under present social and   

industrial conditions4 ,it would mean a 
transvaluation of all social values1 an 
esteeming of personality before         
property1 a recognition of material     
goods as means to a good life1 when     
employed in the social service of the   
spirit of man4 ,it would involve a      
denunciation of the enslavement of man's
 spirit to the production of material   
wealth4 ,each man would be a member of a
 community of personalities1 each of    
unique value1 treating each other1 not  
as means to their own particular selfish
 ends1 but as ends in themselves4 ,at   
the same time it would involve the      
putting of the personality of the       
citizen in the foremost place in our    
social and political life1 instead of a 
development of a purely class           
consciousness with its mischievous      
distinctions4  ,articles have been      
written dealing with ,bergson's message 
to ,feminism4 ,this point is not without
 its importance in our modern life4 ,it 
must be admitted that the present system

 of civilization with its scientific    
campaign of conquest of the material    
environment has been the work of man's  
intellect4 ,in the ruder stages of      
existence women's subordination to men  
may have been necessary and justifiable4
 ,but in the development of society it  
has become increasingly less necessary1 
and humanity is now at a stage where the
 contributions of women to society are  
absolutely vital to its welfare and     
progress4 ,woman is proverbially and    
rightly regarded as more intuitive than 
man4 ,this need not be taken to mean    
that1 given the opportunity of          
intellectual development 7until now     
practically denied to her71 woman would 
not show as great ability in this       
direction as man4 ,but it is an         
undeniable fact that woman has kept more
 closely to the forces of the great     
life-principle1 both by the fact that in
 her rests the creative power for the   
continuation of the human family and    
also by the fact that the development of

 the personalities of children has been 
her function4 ,the subjection in which  
women have been largely kept until now  
has not only hindered them from taking  
part in the work of society as a whole  
and from expressing their point of view1
 but has meant that many of them have   
little or no knowledge of their         
capacities and abilities in wider       
directions4 ,however1 with their        
increasing realization of their own     
powers1 with the granting of increased  
opportunities to them1 and an adequate  
recognition of their personality side by
 side with that of men1 achievements of 
supreme value for humanity as a whole   
may be expected from them4 ,in certain  
spheres they may be found much better   
adapted than are men to achieve a vision
 which will raise human life to a higher
 plane and give it greater worth4 ,more 
especially in the realms of ethical     
development1 of social science1 problems
 of sex1 of war and peace1 of child     
welfare1 health1 and education1 of      

religion and philosophy we may hope to  
have valuable contributions from the    
more intuitive mind of woman4 ,it is not
 in the fighting male of the race3 it is
 in ,woman that we have the future      
centre of ,power in civilization4       
,footnote3 ,benjamin ,kidd in ,the      
,science of ,power1 p4 #aie4 ,this is   
more fully shown in his chapters1 ,woman
 the ,psychic ,centre of ,power in the  
,social ,integration1 and ,the ,mind of 
,woman1 pp4 #aib-beg4 ,the wandering    
,dante required for his guidance not    
only the intellectual faculties of a    
,vergil but in addition the intuitive   
woman-soul of a ,beatrice to lead him   
upward and on4  ,in ,la ,conscience et  
la ,vie ,footnote3 ,l',energie          
spirituelle1 p4 #bg 7,mind-,energy74    
,bergson indicates slightly his views on
 ,,social evolution--c'est a la vie     
sociale que l'evolution aboutit1 comme  
si le besoin s'en etait fait sentir des 
le debut1 ou plutot comme si quelque    
aspiration originelle et essentielle de 

la vie ne pouvait trouver que dans la   
societe sa pleine satisfaction4 ,he     
seems inclined to turn his attention to 
the unity of life1 not simply as due to 
an identity of original impulse but to a
 common aspiration4 ,there is involved a
 process of subordination and initiative
 on the part of the individual4 ,the    
existence of society necessitates a     
certain subordination1 while its        
progress depends on the free initiative 
of the individual4 ,it is extremely     
dangerous for any society1 whether it be
 an ,international ,league1 a ,state1   
either ,communistic or ,capitalistic1 a 
,trade ,union1 or a ,church1 to suppress
 individual liberty in the interests of 
greater social efficiency or of         
increased production or rigid uniformity
 of doctrine4 ,with the sacrifice of    
individual initiative will go the loss  
of all soul1 and the result will be     
degeneration to a mechanical type of    
existence1 a merely stagnant institution
 expressing nothing of man's spirit4    

,this personal power of initiative      
,bergson appeals to each one to         
maintain4 ,in an important passage of   
his little work on ,laughter he makes a 
personal moral appeal4  ,what life and  
society require of each of us is a      
constantly alert attention1 that        
discerns the outlines of the present    
situation1 together with a certain      
elasticity of mind and body to enable us
 to adapt ourselves in consequence4     
,footnote3 ,laughter1 p4 #ah 7,fr4 p4   
#ah74 ,the lack of tension and          
elasticity gives rise to mental         
deficiency and to grave inadaptability  
which produces misery and crime4        
,society demands not only that we live  
but that we live well4 ,this means that 
we must be truly alive2 for ,bergson1   
the moral ideal is to keep spiritually  
alert4 ,we must be our real1 living     
selves1 and not hide behind the social  
self of hypocrisy and habit4 ,we must   
avoid being the victims of mechanism or 
automatism4 ,we must avoid at all costs 

getting into a rut morally or           
spiritually4 ,change and vision are both
 necessary to our welfare4 ,where there 
is no vision1 no undying fire of        
idealism1 the people perish4            
,resistance to change is the sin against
 the ,holy ,spirit4 ,bergson is opposed 
to the conventional view of morality as 
equivalent to rigidity1 and grasps the  
important truth that if morality is to  
be of worth at all it must lie not in a 
fixed set of rules1 habits1 or          
conventions1 but in a spirit of living4 
,this is of very great ethical          
importance indeed1 as it means that we  
must revise many of our standards of    
character4 ,for example1 how often do we
 hear of one who1 holding an obviously  
false view long and obstinately1 is     
praised as consistent1 whereas a mind   
which moves and develops with the times1
 attempting always to adjust itself to  
changing conditions in its intellectual 
or material environment1 is             
contemptuously dubbed as changeable by  

the moralists of rigidity4 ,we must1    
however1 learn that consistency of      
character does not mean lack of change4 
,stanchness of character is too often   
mere obstinate resistance to change4 ,we
 must therefore be on our guard against 
those who would run ethics into rigid   
moulds1 and so raise up static concepts 
and infallible dogmas for beliefs or    
action4 ,change must be accepted as a   
principle which it is both futile and   
immoral to ignore1 even in the moral    
life4 ,this does not mean setting up    
caprice or impulsiveness1 for in so far 
as our change of character expresses the
 development of the single movement of  
our own inner life it will be quite     
other than capricious1 but it will be   
change1 and a change which is quite     
consistent1 a creative evolution of our 
personality4  ,no merely materialistic  
ethic can breathe in the atmosphere of  
,bergson's thought1 which sets human    
consciousness in a high place and       
insists upon the fact of ,freedom4 ,he  

maintains a point of view far removed   
from the old naturalistic ethic2 he does
 take some account of values1 freedom1  
creativeness1 and joy 7as distinct from 
pleasure74 ,he points out that ,matter1 
although to a degree the tool of        
,spirit1 is nevertheless the enemy who  
threatens us with a lapse into mere     
automatism which is only the parody of  
true life4 ,the eternal conflict of     
,matter and ,spirit in ,evolution       
demands that we place ourselves on the  
side of spiritual rather than merely    
material values4 ,we must not be like   
the man with the muck rake4 ,our        
conceptions of goodness must be not     
merely static but dynamic1 for the moral
 life is essentially an evolution--a    
growth in grace4 ,it means a constant   
putting on of the new man1 never        
counting oneself to have attained1 for  
spirituality is a progress to ever new  
creations1 the spiritual life is an     
unending adventure1 and is1 moreover1   
one which is hampered and crushed by all

 refusals to recognize that ,change is  
the fundamental feature of the universe4
 ,nothing can be more mischievous1 more 
detrimental to moral progress--which is 
ultimately the only progress of value   
and significance to humanity--than the  
deification of the status quo either in 
the individual or in society as a whole4
     ,,chapter ,,xi  ,,relation ,,to    
,,religion ,,and ,,theology   ,avoidance
 of theological terms--,intuition and   
faith--,god and ,change--,deity not     
omnipotent but creative and             
immanent--,god as ,creator of           
creators--,problem of                   
teleology--,stimulus to theology--,the  
need for restatements of the nature of  
,god--,men as products and instruments  
of divine activity--,immortality4   ,we 
have seen that ,bergson holds no special
 brief for science1 for1 as has been    
shown1 he opposes many of the hypotheses
 to which science clings4 ,consequently1
 some persons possessing only a         
superficial acquaintance with ,bergson1 

and having minds which still think in   
the exclusive and opposing terms of the 
conflict of science and religion of a   
generation past1 have enthusiastically  
hailed him as an ally of their religion4
 ,we must examine carefully how far this
 is justifiable4 ,it is perfectly       
natural and just that many people1      
unable to devote time or energy to the  
study of his works1 want to know1 in    
regard to ,bergson1 as about every other
 great thinker1 what is the bearing of  
his thought on their practical theory of
 life1 upon their ideals of existence1  
upon the courage1 faith1 and hope which 
enable them to work and live1 feeling   
that life is worth while4 ,we must1     
however1 guard against misuse of        
,bergson1 particularly such misuse of   
him as that made in another sphere1 by  
the ,syndicalists4 ,we find that in     
,france he has been welcomed by the     
,modernists of the ,roman ,catholic     
,church as an ally1 and by not a few    
liberal and progressive ,christian      

theologians in this country4  ,at the   
outset1 we must note that ,bergson      
avoids theological forms of expression1 
because he is well aware that           
these--especially in a philosophical    
treatise--may give rise to              
misconceptions4 ,he does not1 like      
,kant1 attack any specific or           
traditional argument for ,theism2 he    
does not enter into theological         
controversy4 ,he has not formulated1    
with any strictness1 his conception of  
,god2 for he has recognized that an     
examination of ,theism would be of      
little or no value1 which was not       
prefaced by a refutation of mechanism   
and materialism1 and by the assertion of
 some spiritual value in the universe4  
,it is to such a labour that ,bergson   
has applied himself2 it is only         
incidentally that we find him making    
remarks on religious or theological     
conceptions4 ,his whole philosophy1     
however1 involves some very important   
religious conceptions and theological   

standpoints4 ,in ,france1 ,bergson has  
had a considerable amount of discussion 
on the theological implications of his  
philosophy with the ,jesuit ,fathers1   
notably ,father de ,tonquedec4 ,these   
arise particularly from his views       
concerning ,change1 ,time1 ,freedom1    
,evolution and ,intuition4  ,bergson has
 been cited as a ,mystic because he     
preaches a doctrine of ,intuition4 ,but 
his metaphysical ,intuition bears no    
relation to the mysticism of the saint  
or of the fervid religious mind4 ,he    
expressly says1 ,the doctrine ,i hold is
 a protest against mysticism since it   
professes to reconstruct the bridge     
7broken since ,kant7 between metaphysics
 and science4 ,yet1 if by mysticism one 
means a certain appeal to the inner and 
profound life1 then his philosophy is   
mystical--but so is all philosophy4 ,we 
must beware of any attempts to run      
,bergson's thought into moulds for which
 it was never intended1 and guard       
against its being strained and falsely  

interpreted in the interests of some    
special form of religious belief4       
,intuition is not what the religious    
mind means by ,faith1 in the accepted   
sense of belief in a doctrine or a      
deity1 which is to be neither criticized
 nor reasoned about4 ,religion demands  
what passeth knowledge4 ,furthermore1 it
 seeks a reality that abides above the  
world of ,change1 ,the same yesterday1  
to-day1 and for ever1 to which it       
appeals4 ,the religious consciousness   
finds itself most reluctant to admit the
 reality of ,change1 and this1 we must  
remember1 is the fundamental principle  
of ,bergson's thought4 ,faber1 one of   
the noblest hymn writers1 well expresses
 this attitude3       ,o1 ,lord1 my     
heart is sick1          ,sick of this   
everlasting change1       ,and ,life    
runs tediously quick          ,through  
its unresting race and varied range4    
,change finds no likeness of itself in  
,thee1       ,and makes no echo in ,thy 
mute eternity4  ,for ,bergson1 ,god     

reveals ,himself in the world of ,time1 
in the very principle of ,change4 ,he is
 not a ,father of lights in ,whom is no 
variableness nor shadow of turning4  ,it
 has been said that the ,idea of ,god is
 one of the objects of philosophy1 and  
this is true1 if1 by ,god1 we agree to  
mean the principle of the universe1 or  
the ,absolute4 ,unity is essential to   
the ,idea of ,god4 ,for the religious   
consciousness1 of course1 ,god's        
existence is a necessary one1 not merely
 contingent4 ,it views ,him as eternal  
and unchangeable4 ,but if we accept the 
,bergsonian philosophy1 ,god cannot be  
regarded as timeless1 or as perfect in  
the sense of being eternal and complete4
 ,he is1 so to speak1 realizing ,himself
 in the universe1 and is not merely a   
unity which sums up the multiplicity of 
time existence4 ,further1 ,he must be a 
,god who acts freely and creatively and 
who is in time4 ,trouble has arisen in  
the past over the relation of temporal  
and eternal--the former being regarded  

as appearance4 ,for ,bergson1 this      
difficulty does not arise2 there is1 for
 him1 no such dualism4 ,his ,god is not 
exempt from ,change1 ,he is not to be   
conceived as existing apart from and    
independent of the world4 ,indeed1 for  
him1 ,god would seem to be merely a     
focus imaginarius of ,life and ,spirit1 
a hypostatization of la duree4 ,he      
cannot be regarded as the loving ,father
 of the human race whom ,he has begotten
 or created in order that intelligent   
beings may glorify ,him and enjoy ,him  
for ever4 ,bergson does not offer us a  
,god1 personal1 loving1 and redemptive1 
as the ,christian religious             
consciousness demands or imagines4 ,he  
does not1 and can not1 affirm ,christian
 ,theism1 for he considers that the     
facts do not warrant the positing of a  
self-conscious and personal ,individual 
in the only sense in which we1 from our 
experience1 can understand these words4 
,god is pure1 creative activity1 a      
flowing rather than a fountain head2 a  

continuity of emanation1 not a centre   
from which things emanate4 ,for         
,bergson1 ,god is anthropomorphic--as   
,he must necessarily be for us all--but 
,bergson's is anthropomorphism of a     
subtle kind4 ,his ,god is the duree of  
our own conscious life1 raised to a     
higher power4 ,dieu se fait in the      
evolutionary process4 ,he is absolutely 
unfinished1 not complete or perfect4 ,he
 is incessant life1 action1 freedom1 and
 creativeness1 and in so far as we      
ourselves manifest these 7seen1 above   
all1 in the creative joy of the         
inventor1 poet1 artist1 and mother7 each
 of us has the divine at work within4   
,for ,bergson1 ,god is a ,being immanent
 in the universe1 but ,he is ignorant of
 the direction in which ,evolution is   
progressing4 ,this is not the ,god of   
the ordinary religious consciousness1   
nor is it a conception of ,god which    
satisfies the limited notion which our  
own imagination both creates and craves 
to find real4 ,god1 it would seem1 must 

be greater than ,his works1 and ,he must
 know what ,he is doing4 ,it has been   
objected that a force1 even if a divine 
force 7one can hardly call it ,god in   
the ordinary meaning of that vague word7
 which urges on ,matter without knowing 
in what direction or to what end1 is no 
,god at all1 for it is merely           
personified chance4 ,this is due to what
 ,hegel calls the error of viewing ,god 
as free4 ,footnote3 ,logic1 ,wallace's  
translation1 first edition1 p4 #bac4    
,in reply to certain criticisms of his  
book ,l',evolution creatrice made by    
,father de ,tonquedec1 ,bergson wrote in
 #aiab3 ,i speak of ,god as the source  
whence issue successively1 by an effort 
of his freedom1 the currents or impulses
 each of which will make a world2 he    
therefore remains distinct from them1   
and it is not of him that we can say    
that 'most often it turns aside' or is  
'at the mercy of the materiality that it
 has been bound to adopt4' ,finally1 the
 reasoning whereby ,i establish the     

impossibility of 'nothing' is in no way 
directed against the existence of a     
transcendent cause of the world2 ,i     
have1 on the contrary1 explained that   
this reasoning has in view the          
,spinozist conception of ,being4 ,it    
issues in what is merely a demonstration
 that 'something' has always existed4   
,as to the nature of this 'something' it
 is true that nothing in the way of a   
positive conclusion is conveyed4 ,but   
neither is it stated in any fashion that
 what has always existed is the world   
itself1 and the rest of the book        
explicitly affirms the contrary4        
,footnote3 ,tonquedec3 ,dieu dans       
l',evolution creatrice 7,beauchesne71   
and ,annales de philosophie chretienne1 
#aiab4 ,now the considerations set forth
 in my ,essai sur les donnees immediates
 result in bringing to light the fact of
 freedom1 those of ,matiere et ,memoire 
point directly1 ,i hope1 to the reality 
of ,spirit1 those of ,l',evolution      
creatrice exhibit creation as a fact4   

,from all this emerges clearly the idea 
of a ,god1 creator and free1 the        
generator of both ,matter and ,life1    
whose work of creation is continued on  
the side of ,life by the evolution of   
species and the building up of human    
personalities4 ,from all this emerges a 
refutation of monism and of pantheism4  
,footnote3 ,tonquedec3 ,dieu dans       
l',evolution creatrice 7,beauchesne71   
and also ,etudes des ,peres de ,jesus1  
,vol4 ,,cxxx1 #aiab4 ,to this it was    
replied that1 for ,catholic theology1   
,god is not merely the source from which
 the river springs1 ,god does not       
develop ,himself to a world but ,he     
causes it to appear by a kind of        
creation quite different from that of   
,bergson4 ,bergson's ,god is not the    
,god of pantheism1 because1 for him1 the
 ,deity is immanent in nature1 not      
identifiable with it4 ,a true account of
 the ,absolute would1 for him1 take the 
form of history4 ,human history has a   
vital meaning for him4 ,god is not      

omnipotent2 ,he is a fighter who takes  
sides4 ,he is not a potter-,god with a  
clay world4 ,the world involves a       
limiting of ,god1 and theology has      
always found this its most difficult    
problem1 for the evils or defects       
against which the ,creator is waging war
 are evils and defects in a world of    
,his own creating4 ,speaking in #aiad1  
at the ,edinburgh ,philosophical        
,society1 ,bergson remarked that ,god   
might be looked upon as a ,creator of   
creators4 ,such a view1 more explicitly 
worked out1 might bring him into line   
with the religious attempt to reconcile 
the divine action with our own work and 
freedom4 ,our wills are ours1 but in    
some mystic way religion believes they  
may become ,his also1 and that we may be
 fellow-labourers together with ,god4   
,the religious view of the perfection of
 the ,divine1 its omniscience and       
omnipotence1 has always been hard to    
reconcile with free will4 ,christian    
theology1 when based on the perfection  

of the ,divine nature1 has always tended
 to be determinist4 ,indeed1 free will  
has been advocated rather as an         
explanation of the presence of evil 7our
 waywardness as in opposition to the    
will of ,god7 than as the privilege and 
necessary endowment of a spiritual      
being1 and so the really orthodox       
religious mind has been forced to seek  
salvation in self-surrender and has     
found consolation in reliance on the    
grace or active good will of ,god4 ,thus
 many theologians in an attempt to      
reconcile this with human freedom speak 
mystically1 nevertheless confidently1 of
 the interaction of ,grace and          
,free-,will4  ,the acceptance of        
,creative ,evolution involves the       
acceptance of a ,god who expresses      
,himself in creative action called forth
 by changing situations4 ,it cannot     
regard ,evolution as merely the         
unrolling in time of the eternally      
complete1 as in the view of monistic    
idealism4 ,we find in ,bergson1 however1

 two hints which suggest that some vague
 idealistic conception has been present 
to his mind4 ,for instance1 in speaking 
of ,time in relation to ,god1 we find   
him suggesting that the whole of history
 might be contained in a very short time
 for a consciousness at a higher degree 
of tension than our own1 which should   
watch the development of humanity while 
contracting it1 so to speak1 into the   
great phases of its evolution4          
,footnote3 ,matter and ,memory1 p4 #bge 
7,fr4 p4 #bca74 ,this remark seems an   
echo of the words of the old ,hebrew    
poet3       ,for a thousand years in    
,thy sight       ,are but as yesterday  
when it is past1       ,and as a watch  
in the night4  ,again1 in ,l',evolution 
creatrice we find him suggesting that in
 maternity and love may lie the secret  
of the universe4  ,the important point  
however1 in considering ,bergson in     
relation to ,religion and ,theology1 is 
his marked objection to teleology4 ,it  
is this which has led many to style his 

philosophy pessimistic4 ,religion does  
not live readily in a pessimistic       
atmosphere4 ,then religion regards ,life
 and the ,universe as valuable1 not     
because they yield to some single       
impulsion1 but because1 at every step1  
they manifest a meaning and significance
 interpreted by our conceptions of      
value4 ,bergson's view only favours     
religion as ordinarily comprehended1 in 
so far as it breaks away from a         
materialistic mechanism1 and asserts    
freedom and gives ,spirit some          
superiority over ,matter4 ,at first     
sight1 the term creative seemed very    
promising1 but can we stop where        
,bergson has left us8 ,why should he    
banish teleology8 ,his                  
super-consciousness is so indeterminate 
that it is not allowed to hamper itself 
with any purpose more definite than that
 of self-augmentation4 ,the course and  
goal of ,evolution are to it unknown and
 unknowable4 ,creation1 freedom1 and    
will are great things1 as ,mr4 ,balfour 

remarks1 but we cannot lastingly admire 
them unless we know their drift4 ,it is 
too haphazard a universe which ,bergson 
displays4 ,joy does not seem to fit in  
with what is so aimless4 ,it would be   
better to invoke ,god with a purpose    
than a supra-consciousness with none4   
,footnote3 ,creative ,evolution and     
,philosophic ,doubt1 ,hibbert ,journal1 
,oct41 #aiaa1 pp4 #a-bc4  ,in response  
to an international inquiry1 conducted  
by ,frederic ,charpin1 for the ,mercure 
de ,france1 formulated in the question1 
,assistons-nous a une dissolution ou a  
une evolution de l'idee religieuse et du
 sentiment religieux8 ,bergson wrote3 ,i
 feel quite unable to foretell what the 
external manifestation of the religious 
sense may be in time to come4 ,i can    
only say that it does not seem to me    
likely to be disintegrated4 ,only that  
which is made up of parts can be        
disintegrated4 ,now1 ,i am willing to   
admit that the religious sense has been 
gradually enriched and complicated by   

very diverse elements2 none the less it 
is in essence a simple thing1 sui       
generis2 and resembles no other emotion 
of the soul4 ,it may1 perhaps be urged  
that a simple element1 although it      
cannot be decomposed1 may yet disappear1
 and that the religious sense will      
inevitably vanish when it has no object 
to which it can attach itself4 ,but this
 would be to forget that the object of  
the religious sense is1 in part at      
least1 prior to that sense itself2 that 
this object is felt even more than it is
 thought and that the idea is1 in this  
case1 the effect of the feeling quite as
 much as its cause4 ,the progressive    
deepening of the idea may therefore make
 the religious sense clearer and ever   
clearer2 it cannot modify that which is 
essential in it1 still less effect its  
disappearance4 ,footnote3 ,charpin3 ,la 
,question religieuse1 #aijh1 ,paris4    
,we find ,bergson reported as believing 
that the individual cannot be guided    
solely by considerations of a purely    

moral character4 ,morality1 even social 
ethics1 is not enough in view of the    
longing for religious experience1 the   
yearning for at least a feeling of      
definite relationship between the       
individual human personality and the    
great spiritual source of life4 ,this is
 a feeling which he believes will grow4 
,footnote3 ,new ,york ,times1 ,feb4 #bb1
 #aiad4  ,bergson's philosophy has      
aroused a new interest in many          
theological questions4 ,the dogmas of   
theology1 philosophy holds itself free  
to criticize2 they are for it problems4 
,the teleological arguments of the older
 theologians have had to be left behind4
 ,we are fearfully and wonderfully made1
 no doubt1 but not perfectly1 and the   
arguments in favour of an intelligent   
contriver 7cf4 ,the ,bridgewater        
,treatises7 which showed the greatest   
plausibility1 were made meaningless by  
,darwin's work4 ,further1 ,evoluton     
knows no break4 ,we cannot believe in   
the doctrines of the fall or in original

 sin1 for ,evolution means a progress   
from lower to higher forms4 ,thus we see
 that many of the older forms of        
theological statement call for revision4
 ,bergson has done much to stimulate a  
keener and fresher theological spirit   
which will express ,god in a less static
 and less isolated form1 so that we     
shall not have the question asked1      
either by children or older folks1 ,what
 does ,god do8  ,it should be noted     
before closing this section that the    
religious consciousness is tempted to   
take ,bergson's views on ,soul and ,body
 to imply more than they really do4 ,the
 belief in ,immortality which ,western  
religion upholds is not a mere swooning 
into the being of ,god1 but a perfect   
realization of our own personalities4   
,it is only this that is an immortality 
worthy of the name4 ,to regard souls as 
,bergson does1 as merely rivulets into  
which the great stream of ,life has     
divided1 does not do sufficient justice 
to human individuality4 ,a ,nirvana1    

after death1 is not immortality in the  
sense of personal survival and in the   
sense demanded by the religious         
consciousness4  ,the influence of       
,bergson's thought upon religion and    
theology may be put finally as follows3 
,we must reject the notion of a ,god for
 whom all is already made1 to whom all  
is given1 and uphold the conception of a
 ,god who acts freely in an open        
universe4 ,the acceptance of ,bergson's 
philosophy involves the recognition of a
 ,god who is the enduring creative      
impulse of all ,life1 more akin perhaps 
to a ,mother-,deity than a              
,father-,deity4 ,this divine vital      
impetus manifests itself in continual   
new creation4 ,we are each part of this 
great ,divine ,life1 and are both the   
products and the instruments of its     
activity4 ,we may thus come to view the 
,divine ,life as self-given to humanity1
 emptying itself into mankind as a      
veritable incarnation1 not1 however1    
restricted to one time and place1 but   

manifest throughout the whole progress  
of humanity4 ,our conception will be    
that of a ,deity1 not external and      
far-off1 but one whose own future is    
bound up in humanity1 rejoicing in its  
joy1 but suffering1 by a kind of        
perpetual crucifixion1 through man's    
errors and his failures to be loyal to  
the higher things of the spirit4 ,thus  
we shall see that1 in a sense1 men's    
noble actions promote ,god's fuller     
being4 ,a ,norwegian novelist has       
recently emphasized this point by his   
story of the man who went out and sowed 
corn in his late enemy's field ,,that   
,,god ,,might ,,exist6 ,footnote3 ,the  
,great ,hunger1 by ,johan ,bojer4 ,but  
it is important to remember that in so  
far as we allow ourselves to become     
victims of habit1 living only a         
materialistic and static type of        
existence1 we retard the divine         
operations4 ,on the other hand1 in so   
far as our spirit finds joy in creative 
activity and in the furtherance of      

spiritual values1 to this extent we may 
be regarded as fellow-labourers together
 with ,god4 ,we cannot1 by intellectual 
searching find out ,god1 yet we may     
realize and express quite consistently  
with ,bergson's philosophy the truth    
that in ,him we live1 and move1 and have
 our being4     ,,chapter ,,xii         
,,reflections   ,bergson not            
systematic--,his style--,difficult to   
classify--,empirical and                
spiritual--,value of his ideas on       
,change1 the nature of ,mind1 of        
,freedom--,difficulties in his          
evolutionary theory--,ethical           
lack--,need for supplement-,emphasis on 
,will1 ,creativeness1 ,human ,progress  
and ,possibilities4   ,in concluding    
this study of ,bergson's philosophy1 it 
remains to sum up and to review its     
general merits and deficiencies4 ,we    
must remember1 in fairness to ,bergson1 
that he does not profess to offer us ,a 
,,system of philosophy4 ,in fact1 if he 
were to do so1 he would involve himself 

in a grave inconsistency1 for his       
thought is not of the systematic type4  
,he is opposed to the work of those     
individual thinkers who have offered    
systems to the world1 rounded and       
professedly complete constructions1     
labelled1 one might almost say1 the last
 word in ,philosophy4 ,bergson does not 
claim that his thought is final4 ,his   
ideal1 of which he speaks in his        
lectures on ,la ,perception du          
,changement--that excellent summary of  
his thought--is a progressive philosophy
 to which each thinker shall contribute4
 ,if we feel disappointed that ,bergson 
has not gone further or done more by    
attempting a solution of some of the    
fundamental problems of our human       
experience1 upon which he has not       
touched1 then we must recollect his own 
view of the philosophy he is seeking to 
expound4 ,all thinking minds must       
contribute their quota4 ,a philosophy   
such as he wishes to promote by         
establishing a method by his own works  

will not be made in a day4 ,unlike the  
philosophical systems properly so       
called1 each of which was the individual
 work of a man of genius1 and sprang up 
as a whole to be taken or left1 it will 
only be built up by the collective and  
progressive effort of many thinkers1 of 
many observers also1 completing1        
correcting1 and improving one another4  
,footnote3 ,introduction to ,creative   
,evolution1 p4 xiv4 7,fr4 p4 vii74 ,both
 science and the older kind of          
metaphysics have kept aloof from the    
vital problems of our lives4 ,in one of 
his curious but brilliant metaphors     
,bergson likens ,life to a river over   
which the scientists have constructed an
 elaborate bridge1 while the laborious  
metaphysicians have toiled to build a   
tunnel underneath4 ,neither group of    
workers has attempted to plunge into the
 flowing tide itself4 ,in the most      
brilliant of his short papers3          
,l',intuition philosophique1 he makes an
 energetic appeal that philosophy should

 approach more closely to practical     
life4 ,his thought aims at setting      
forth1 not any system of knowledge1 but 
rather a method of philosophizing2 in a 
phrase1 this method amounts to the      
assertion that ,life is more than       
,logic1 or1 as ,byron put it1 ,the tree 
of ,knowledge is not the tree of ,life4 
,it is because ,bergson has much to say 
that is novel and opposed to older      
conceptions that a certain lack of      
proportion occasionally mars his        
thought2 for he--naturally              
enough--frequently lays little emphasis 
on important points which he considers  
are sufficiently familiar1 in order to  
give prominent place and emphasis to    
some more novel point4 ,herein lies1 it 
would now appear1 the explanation of the
 seeming disharmony between ,intuition  
and ,intellect which was gravely        
distressing to many in his earlier      
writing on the subject4 ,later works1   
however1 make a point of restoring this 
harmony1 but1 as ,william ,james has    

remarked3 ,we are so subject to the     
philosophical tradition which treats    
logos1 or discursive thought generally1 
as the sole avenue to truth1 that to    
fall back on raw1 unverbalized life1 as 
more of a revealer1 and to think of     
concepts as the merely practical things 
which ,bergson calls them1 comes very   
hard4 ,it is putting off our proud      
maturity of mind and becoming again as  
foolish little children in the eyes of  
reason4 ,but1 difficult as such a       
revolution is1 there is no other way1 ,i
 believe1 to the possession of reality4 
,footnote3 ,lecture on ,bergson and his 
anti-intellectualism1 in ,a ,pluralistic
 ,universe4 ,it may be remarked here    
that1 although ,james hailed ,bergson as
 an ally1 ,bergson cannot be classed as 
a pragmatist4 ,his great assertion is   
that just because intellect is pragmatic
 it does not help us to get a vision of 
reality4 ,cf4 the interesting work on   
,william ,james and ,henri ,bergson1 by 
,w4 ,h4 ,kallen4  ,bergson's style of   

writing merits high praise4 ,he is no   
dry philosopher2 he is highly           
imaginative and picturesque2 many of his
 passages might be styled1 like those of
 ,macaulay1 purple1 for at times he     
rises to a high pitch of feeling and    
oratory4 ,yet this has been urged       
against him by some critics4 ,the ironic
 remark has been repeated1 in regard to 
,bergson1 which was originally made of  
,william ,james1 by ,dr4 ,schiller1 that
 his work was so lacking in the familiar
 philosophic catch-words1 that it may be
 doubted whether any professor has quite
 understood it4 ,there is in his works a
 beauty of style and a comparative      
absence of technical terms which have   
contributed much to his popularity4 ,the
 criticism directed against his poetic  
style1 accuses him of hypnotizing us by 
his fine language1 of employing         
metaphors where we expect facts1 and of 
substituting illustrations for proof4   
,sir ,ray ,lankester says3 ,he has      
exceeded the limits of fantastic        

speculation which it is customary to    
tolerate on the stage of metaphysics1   
and has carried his methods into the    
arena of sober science4 ,footnote3 ,in  
the preface to ,elliot's volume1 ,modern
 ,science and the ,illusions of         
,bergson1 p4 xvii4 ,another critic      
remarks that as far as ,creative        
,evolution is concerned1 his writing is 
neither philosophy nor science4         
,footnote3 ,mc,cabe3 ,principles of     
,evolution1 p4 #bed4 ,certainly his     
language is charming2 it called forth   
from ,william ,james the remark that it 
resembled fine silk underwear1 clinging 
to the shape of the body1 so well did it
 fit his thought4 ,but it does not seem 
a fair criticism to allege that he      
substitutes metaphor for proof1 for we  
find1 on examination of his numerous and
 striking metaphors1 that they are      
employed in order to give relief from   
continuous abstract statements4 ,he does
 not submit analogies as proof1 but in  
illustration of his points4 ,for        

example1 when he likens the elan vital  
to a stream1 he does not suggest that   
because the stream manifests certain    
characteristics1 therefore the life     
force does so too4 ,certainly that would
 be a highly illegitimate proceeding4   
,but he simply puts forward this to help
 us to grasp by our imaginative faculty 
what he is striving to make clear4 ,some
 critics are apt to forget the tense    
striving which must be involved in any  
highly philosophical mind dealing with  
deep problems1 to achieve expression1 to
 obtain a suitable vehicle for the      
thought--what wrestling of soul may be  
involved in attempting to make          
intuitions communicable4 ,metaphor is   
undoubtedly a help and those of ,bergson
 are always striking and unconventional4
 ,had ,kant1 in his ,critique of ,pure  
,reason1 given more illustrations1 many 
of his readers would have been more     
enlightened4  ,bergson's thought1       
although in many respects it is         
strikingly original and novel1 is1      

nevertheless1 the continuation1 if not  
the culmination1 of a movement in       
,french philosophy which we can trace   
back through ,boutroux1 ,guyau1         
,lachelier and ,ravaisson to ,maine de  
,biran1 who died in #ahbd4 ,qui sait1   
wrote this last thinker1 ,footnote3 ,in 
his ,pensees1 p4 #bac4 tout ce que peut 
la reflection concentree et s'il n'y a  
pas un nouveau monde interieur qui      
pourra etre decouvert un jour par       
quelque ,colomb metaphysicien4  ,many of
 the ideas contained in ,bergson's work 
find parallels in the philosophy of     
,schopenhauer1 as given in his work ,the
 ,world as ,will and ,idea 7,die ,welt  
als ,wille und ,vorstellung71           
particularly his ,voluntarism and his   
,intuitionism4 ,the ,german thinker     
regarded all great scientific           
discoveries as an immediate intuition1 a
 flash of insight1 not simply the result
 of a process of abstract reasoning4    
,schelling also maintained a doctrine of
 intuition as supra-rational4           

,ravaisson1 ,footnote3 ,ravaisson       
7#ahac-aijj7 wrote ,de l'habitude1      
#ahcb2 ,la metaphysique d',aristote1    
#ahcg2 and his ,rapport sur la          
philosophie en ,france au xix siecle1   
#ahfg4 ,see ,bergson's ,memoir1 #aijd4  
to whom ,bergson is indebted for much   
inspiration1 attended the lectures of   
,schelling at ,munich in #ahce4 ,this   
,french thinker1 ,ravaisson1 has had an 
important influence on the general      
development of thought in ,france during
 the latter half of the last century1   
and much of his work foreshadows        
,bergson's thought4 ,he upheld a        
spiritual activity1 manifesting itself  
most clearly in love and art1 while he  
allowed to matter1 to mathematics and   
logic only an imperfect reality4 ,he    
extolled synthetic views of reality     
rather than analytic ones4 ,we are      
prevented1 he said1 from realizing our  
true selves because of our slavery to   
habit4 ,to the ultimate reality1 or     
,god1 we can attain because of our      

kinship with that reality1 and by an    
effort of loving sympathy enter into    
union with it by an intuition which lies
 beyond and above the power of          
intellectual searching4 ,as ,maine de   
,biran foretold the coming of a         
metaphysical ,columbus1 so ,ravaisson1  
in his famous ,rapport sur la           
philosophic en ,france au xix siecle1   
published in #ahfg1 prophesied as       
follows3 ,many signs permit us to       
foresee in the near future a            
philosophical epoch of which the general
 character will be the predominance of  
what may be called spiritualistic       
realism or positivism1 having as        
generating principle the consciousness  
which the mind has of itself of an      
existence recognized as being the source
 and support of every other existence1  
being none other than its action4       
,lachelier1 a disciple of ,ravaisson1   
brought out--as has been already        
remarked ,footnote3 ,page #c4--the      
significance of the operations of vital 

forces and of liberty4 ,guyau1 whose    
brief life ended in #ahhh and whose     
posthumous work ,la ,genese de ,i',idee 
de ,temps was reviewed by ,bergson two  
years after the publication of his own  
,time and ,free ,will1 laid great stress
 on the intensification and expansion of
 life4 ,boutroux1 in his work1 has      
insisted upon the fact of contingency4  
,these forecasts of ,bergson's thought  
made by men to whom he owes much and for
 whom he personally has the greatest    
admiration are interesting1 but we are  
not yet able to look upon his work      
through the medium of historical        
perspective4 ,we can however see it as  
the culmination of various tendencies in
 modern ,french philosophy2 first1 the  
effort to bring philosophy into the open
 air of human nature1 into immediate    
contact with life and with problems     
vital to humanity2 secondly1 the        
upholding of contingency in all things1 
thus ensuring human freedom2 thirdly1 a 
disparagement of purely intellectual    

constructions as true interpretations of
 human life and all existence1 coupled  
with an insistence on an insight that   
transcends logical formulation4  ,as a  
thinker1 ,bergson is very difficult to  
classify4 ,all classification of        
philosophies is effected1 as a rule1    
either by their methods or by their     
results1 'empirical' and 'a priori' is a
 classification by methods2 'realist'   
and 'idealist' is a classification by   
results4 ,an attempt to classify        
,bergson's philosophy1 in either of     
these ways1 is hardly likely to be      
successful1 since it cuts across all the
 recognized divisions4 ,footnote3 ,mr4  
,bertrand ,russell's remark at the      
opening of his ,lecture on ,the         
,philosophy of ,bergson1 before ,the    
,heretics1 ,trinity ,college1           
,cambridge1 ,march #aa1 #aiab4 ,we find 
that ,bergson cannot be put in any of   
the old classes or schools1 or          
identified with any of the innumerable  
isms4 ,he brings together1 without being

 eclectic1 action and reflection1 free  
will and determinism1 motion and rest1  
intellect and intuition1 subjectivity   
and externality1 idealism and realism1  
in a most unconventional way4 ,his whole
 philosophy is destructive of a large   
amount of the vested interests of       
philosophy4 ,we are watching the rise of
 a new agnosticism1 remarked ,dr4       
,bosanquet4 ,a similar remark came from 
one of ,bergson's own countrymen1       
,alfred ,fouillee1 who1 in his work ,le 
,mouvement idealist et la reaction      
contre la science positive1 expressed   
the opinion that ,bergson's philosophy  
could but issue in le scepticisme et le 
nihilisme 7p4 #bjf74 ,bergson runs      
counter to so many established views    
that his thought has raised very wide   
and animated discussions4 ,the list of  
,english and ,american articles in the  
,bibliography appended to the present   
work shows this at a glance4 ,in his    
preface to the volume on ,gabriel       
,tarde1 his predecessor in the chair of 

,modern ,philosophy at the ,college de  
,france1 written in #aiji1 we find      
,bergson remarking3 ,on mesure la portee
 d'une doctrine philosophique a la      
variete des idees ou elle s'epanouit et 
a la symplicite du principe ou elle se  
ramasse4 ,this remark may serve us as a 
criterion in surveying his own work4    
,the preceding exposition of his thought
 is a sufficient indication of the      
wealth of ideas expressed4 ,bergson is  
most suggestive4 ,moreover1 no          
philosopher has been so steeped in the  
knowledge of both ,mind and ,matter1 no 
thinker has been at once so empirical   
and so spiritual4 ,his thought ranges   
from subtle psychological analyses and  
minute biological facts to the work of  
artists and poets1 all-embracing in its 
attempt to portray ,life and make       
manifest to us the reality of ,time and 
of ,change4 ,his insistence on ,change  
is directed to showing that it is the   
supreme reality1 and on ,time to        
demonstrating that it is the stuff of   

which things are made4 ,he is right in  
attacking the false conception of ,time1
 and putting before us la duree as more 
real2 right1 too1 in attacking the      
notion of empty eternity4 ,but although 
,change and ,development may be the     
fundamental feature of reality1 ,bergson
 does not convincingly show that it is  
literally ,,the ,reality1 nor do we     
think that this can be shown4 ,he does  
not admit that there is any ,,thing that
 changes or endures2 he is the modern   
,heraclitus2 all teaching which savours 
of the ,parmenidean one he opposes4 ,yet
 it would seem that these two old       
conceptions may be capable of a         
reconciliation and that if all reality  
is change1 there is a complementary     
principle that ,change implies something
 permanent4  ,then1 again1 we feel      
,bergson is right in exposing the errors
 which the idea of the line1 the        
trespassing of space1 causes2 but he    
comes very near to denying1 in his      
statements regarding duree pure1 any    

knowledge of the past as past2 he       
overlooks the decisive difference       
between the no more and the not yet     
feeling of the child's consciousness1   
which is the germ of our clear knowledge
 of the past as past1 and distinct from 
the future4  ,to take another of his    
pure distinctions1 we cannot see any    
necessity for his formulation of what he
 terms ,pure ,perception4 ,not only does
 it obscure the relation of ,sensation  
to ,perception1 but it seems to be quite
 unknown and unknowable and unnecessary 
as an hypothesis4 ,as to his ,pure      
,memory1 there is more to be said4 ,it  
stands on a different plane and seems to
 be the statement of a very profound    
truth which sheds light on many         
difficult problems attaching to         
personality and consciousness1 for it is
 the conservation of memories which is  
the central point in individuality4 ,his
 distinction between the habit of       
repeating and the pure memory is a very 
good and very necessary one4 ,in his    

study of the relation of ,soul and      
,body1 we find some of his most         
meritorious work--his insistence on the 
uniqueness of ,mind and the futility of 
attempts to reduce it to material terms4
 ,his treatment of this question is     
parallel to that of ,william ,james in  
the first part of his ,ingersoll        
,lecture at ,harvard in #ahih1 when he  
called attention to permissive or       
transmissive function of the brain4     
,bergson's criticisms of ,parallelism   
are very valuable4  ,no less so are his 
refutations of both physical and        
psychological ,determinism4 ,men were   
growing impatient of a science claiming 
so much and yet admittedly unable to    
explain the really vital factors of     
existence1 of which the free action of  
men is one of the most important4 ,the  
value placed on human freedom1 on the   
creative power of human beings to mould 
the future1 links ,bergson again with   
,james1 and it is this humanism which is
 the supremely valuable factor in the   

philosophies of both thinkers4 ,this has
 been pointed out in the consideration  
of the ethical and political            
implications of ,bergson's ,philosophy4 
,nevertheless1 although his insistence  
on ,freedom and ,creative ,evolution    
implies that we are to realize that by  
our choices and our free acts we may    
make or mar the issue1 and that through 
us and by us that issue may be turned to
 good1 the good of ourselves and of our 
fellows1 there is an ethical lack in    
,bergson's philosophy which is          
disappointing4 ,then1 as has been       
remarked in the chapter on ,religion1   
there is the lack of teleology in his   
conception of the ,universe2 his denial 
of ,,any purpose hardly seems to be in  
harmony with his use of the phrase the  
meaning of life4  ,much in ,bergson     
would point to the need for the addition
 of a philosophy of ,values4 ,this1     
however1 he does not give us4 ,he shirks
 the deeper problems of the moral and   
spiritual life of man4 ,he undervalues1 

indeed ignores1 the influence of        
transcendent ideas or ideals on the     
life-history of mankind4 ,the study of  
these might have led him to admit a     
teleology of some kind2 for in the      
thinking consciousness the order of     
growth is largely determined by choice2 
and choice is guided by valuation4 ,we  
are1 in general1 only partially aware of
 the ends that we pursue4 ,but we are   
more and more seeking to attain what is 
good1 true and beautiful1 and the order 
of human life becomes more and more     
guided by the consciousness of these    
ends4 ,footnote3 ,professor ,mackenzie3 
,elements of ,constructive ,philosophy1 
p4 #aaa4 ,bergson1 however1 will not    
ultimately be able to evade the work of 
attempting some reconciliation of moral 
ideas and ideals with their crude and   
animal origins and environment1 to which
 they are so opposed and to which they  
are actually offering a very strong     
opposition4 ,that he himself has seen   
this is proved by the attention he is   

now giving to the problems of social    
,ethics4  ,there are four problems which
 confront every evolutionary theory4    
,these concern the origin of3 ,matter1  
,life1 ,consciousness1 and ,conscience4 
,bergson finds it very difficult to     
account for the origin of ,matter1 and  
it is not clear from what he says why   
the original consciousness should have  
made ,matter and then be obliged to     
fight against it in order to be free4   
,then1 in speaking of the law of        
,thermodynamics1 he says3 ,any material 
system which should store energy by     
arresting its degradation to some lower 
level1 and produce effects by its sudden
 liberation1 would exhibit something in 
the nature of ,life4 ,this1 however1 is 
not very precise1 for this would hold   
true of thunder-clouds and of many      
machines4 ,in regard to ,instinct1 it   
has been pointed out by several experts 
that ,instinct is not so infallible as  
,bergson makes out4 ,of the mistakes of 
,instinct he says little4 ,dr4          

,mc,dougall in his great work ,body and 
,mind says1 when speaking of ,bergson's 
doctrine of ,evolution3 ,its recognition
 of the continuity of all ,life is the  
great merit of ,professor ,bergson's    
theory of ,creative ,evolution2 its     
failure to give any intelligible account
 of individuality is its greatest       
defect4 ,i venture to think1 he         
continues1 that the most urgent problem 
confronting the philosophic biologist is
 the construction of a theory of life   
which will harmonize the facts of       
individuality with the appearance of the
 continuity of all life1 with the theory
 of progressive evolution1 and with the 
facts of heredity and biparental        
reproduction4 ,footnote3 ,mc,dougall1   
,body and ,mind1 ,footnote to p4 #cgg4  
,in the light of such criticism it is   
important to note that ,bergson is now  
giving attention to the problem of      
personality which he made the subject of
 his ,gifford ,lectures4 ,it is a highly
 important problem for humanity1 and    

concentration on it seems the demand of 
the times upon those who feel the urgent
 need of reflection and who have the    
ability to philosophize4 ,can philosophy
 offer any adequate explanation of human
 personality1 its place and purpose in  
the cosmos8 ,why should individual      
systems of energy1 little worlds within 
the world1 appear inside the unity of   
the whole1 depending on their           
environment1 physical and mental1 for   
much1 but yet capable of freedom and    
unforeseen actions1 and of creative and 
progressive development8 ,further1 why  
should ideals concentrate themselves as 
it were round such unique centres of    
indeterminateness as these are8 ,on     
these problems of our origin and        
destiny1 in short1 on an investigation  
of human personality1 thinkers must     
concentrate4 ,humanity will not be      
satisfied with systems which leave no   
room for the human soul4 ,human         
personality and its experience must have
 ample place and recognition in any     

philosophy put forward in these days4   
,bergson's work is a magnificent attempt
 to show us how1 in the words of ,george
 ,meredith3 ,men have come out of       
brutishness4 ,his theory of evolution is
 separated from ,naturalism by his      
insistence on human freedom and on the  
supra-consciousness which is the origin 
of things2 on the other hand1 he is     
separated from the ,idealists by his    
insistence upon the reality of la duree4
 ,he contrasts profoundly with ,absolute
 ,idealism4 ,while in ,hegel1 ,mind is  
the only truth of ,nature1 in ,bergson1 
,life is the only truth of ,matter1 or  
we may express it--whereas for ,hegel   
the truth of ,reality is its ideality1  
for ,bergson the truth of ,reality is   
its vitality4  ,the need for            
philosophical thought1 as ,bergson      
himself points out1 ,footnote3 ,see the 
closing remarks in his little work on   
,french philosophy1 ,la ,philosophie4 is
 world-wide4 ,philosophy aims at        
bringing all discussion1 even that of   

business affairs1 on to the plane of    
ideas and principles4 ,by looking at    
things from a truly general standpoint  
we are frequently helped to approach    
them in a really generous frame of mind1
 for there is an intimate connexion     
between the large mind and the large    
heart4  ,bergson has rendered valuable  
service in calling attention to the need
 for man to examine carefully his own   
inner nature1 and the deepest worth and 
significance of his own experiences4    
,for the practical purposes of life1 man
 is obliged to deal with objects in     
space1 and to learn their relations to  
one another4 ,but this does not exhaust 
the possibilities of his nature4 ,he has
 himself the reality of his own         
self-consciousness1 his own spiritual   
existence to consider4 ,consequently1 he
 can never rest satisfied with any      
purely naturalistic interpretation of   
himself4 ,the step of realizing the     
importance of mental constructions to   
interpret the impressions of the        

external world1 and the applying them to
 practical needs1 was a great advance4  
,much greater progress1 however1 is     
there in man's realization of qualities 
within himself which transcend the      
ordinary dead level of experience1 the  
recognition of the spiritual value of   
his own nature1 of himself as a         
personality1 capable even amid the      
fluctuations of the world about him1 and
 the illusions of sense impressions1 of 
obtaining a foretaste of eternity by a  
life that has the infinite and the      
eternal as its inheritance2 ,he hath set
 eternity in the heart of man4 ,man     
craves other values in life than the    
purely scientific4 ,there are more      
things in heaven and earth than are     
dreamt of in the philosophies of the    
materialist or the naturalist4 ,bergson 
assures us that the future belongs to a 
philosophy which will take into account 
,,the ,,whole of what is given4         
,transcending ,body and ,intellect is   
the life of the ,spirit1 with needs     

beyond either bodily satisfaction or    
intellectual needs craving its          
development1 satisfaction and fuller    
realization4 ,the man who seeks merely  
bodily satisfaction lives the life of   
the animal2 even the man who poses as an
 intellectual finds himself entangled   
ultimately in relativity1 missing the   
uniqueness of all things--his own life  
included4 ,an intuitive philosophy      
introduces us to the spiritual life and 
makes us conscious1 individually and    
collectively1 of our capacities for     
development4 ,humanity may say3 ,it doth
 not yet appear what we shall be1 for   
man has yet something to cast off and   
something to become4     ,,appendix     
,,bibliography  ,note on                
,bibliographies4  ,,part ,,one4         
,bergson's own writings chronologically 
arranged4  ,,part ,,two4  ,section #a4  
,books directly on ,bergson3      7a7   
,french4      7b7 ,english and          
,american4      7c7 ,others4  ,section  
#b4 ,books indirectly on ,bergson3      

7a7 ,french4      7b7 ,english and      
,american4  ,section #c4 ,articles3     
,english and ,american4      7a7        
,signed1 under author4      7b7         
,unsigned1 under date4  ,section #d4    
,english ,translations of ,bergson4     
,,bibliography  ,a ,,note ,,on          
,,bibliographies  ,the books and        
articles which have appeared1 dealing   
with ,bergson's thought1 are truly      
legion4 ,three bibliographies have      
already been compiled1 one in each of   
the countries3 ,england1 ,america and   
,germany1 which are of value and merit  
attention4  ,in #aiaj1 ,mr4 ,f4 ,l4     
,pogson1 ,m4,a41 prefixed to ,time and  
,free ,will 7the ,english translation of
 the ,essai sur les donnees immediates  
de la conscience7 a comprehensive       
bibliography1 giving a list of          
,bergson's own published works1 and     
numerous articles contributed to various
 periodicals1 and in addition1 lists of 
articles in ,english1 ,american1        
,french1 ,german and other foreign      

reviews upon ,bergson's philosophy4     
,this bibliography was partly reprinted 
in ,france two years later as an        
appendix to the little work on ,bergson 
by ,m4 ,joseph ,desaymard1 ,la ,pensee  
de ,henri ,bergson 7,paris1 ,mercure de 
,france1 pp4 #hb1 #aiab74  ,then in     
#aiac1 when ,bergson paid his visit to  
,america1 ,mr4 ,w4 ,dawson ,johnston1   
the ,librarian of the ,columbia         
,university1 ,new ,york1 presented him  
with a copy of a little work of         
fifty-six pages entitled ,a             
,contribution to a ,bibliography of     
,henri ,bergson4 ,this exhaustive work  
was prepared under the direction of     
,miss ,isadore ,g4 ,mudge1 the          
,reference ,librarian1 and includes all 
books published and all periodical      
literature of value by or on ,bergson1  
complete up to #aiac4 ,the bibliography 
includes 7to quote the ,preface7 #ij    
books and articles by ,professor        
,bergson 7including translations of his 
works71 and #dag books and articles     

about him4 ,these #dag items represent  
#aa different languages divided as      
follows3 ,french1 #agj2 ,english1 #aei2 
,german1 #dj2 ,italian1 #ai2 ,polish1   
#e2 ,dutch1 #c2 ,spanish1 #c2           
,roumanian1 #b2 ,swedish1 #b2 ,russian1 
#b2 ,hungarian1 #a4 ,for this work      
,professor ,john ,dewey wrote an        
introduction4 ,it was published by the  
,columbia ,university ,press in #aiac1  
and is the best evidence of the         
world-wide popularity of ,bergson and   
the international interest aroused by   
his writings4  ,a more recent           
compilation1 however1 which contains    
later books and articles1 is a ,german  
one1 which appeared during the war4 ,it 
is the work of ,walter ,meckauer and    
forms a valuable part of his book ,der  
,intuitionismus und seine ,elemente bei 
,henri ,bergson1 published in ,leipsig  
in #aiag 7,verlag ,felix ,meiner74  ,the
 bibliography which follows gives more  
up-to-date lists of works than those    
mentioned1 bringing the list of         

,bergson's writings up to #aiai1 and it 
includes books and articles on ,bergson 
which have appeared in the current year 
7#aibj74 ,all the important books in    
,french1 ,english1 or ,german on        
,bergson are given4 ,as the present work
 is designed mainly to meet the needs of
 ,english readers1 lists of foreign     
articles are not given1 but in order to 
show the wide interest aroused by       
,bergson's thought in the ,english      
speaking world1 and for purposes of     
reference1 a comprehensive list of      
articles which have appeared in ,english
 and ,american periodicals is appended4 
,finally1 a list of the ,english        
,translations of ,bergson's works is    
given in full under their publishers'   
names4    ,,part ,,one  ,,bergson',s    
,,own ,,writings ,,chronologically      
,,arranged  #ahgh ,,solution ,,of ,a    
,,mathematical ,,problem4    ,this1 his 
first published work1 appeared when he  
was      nineteen years of age in       
,annales de ,mathematiques4             

7,brisse et ,gerono47 ,it is of         
interest1 as it shows us an      early  
ability in the study of this science4   
#ahhb ,,la ,,specialite4    ,discours au
 ,lycee d',angers--a publication of     
sixteen      pages2 address given at the
 prize-giving in ,august      of that   
year4 ,angers3 ,imprimerie ,lacheze et  
,dolbeau4  #ahhd ,,extraits ,,de        
,,lucrece avec un commentaire1 des      
notes et une tude sur la posie1 la      
philosophie1 la      physique1 le texte 
et la langue de ,lucrce4      ,published
 ,delagrave1 ,paris1 #ahhd4 ,by #aiad   
ten editions      had appeared4 ,this   
work is of interest in showing      his 
ability in classical scholarship4 ,pp4  
xlvii l#ei4  #ahhe ,,la ,,politesse4    
,another address4 ,this one was given at
 ,clermont-      ,ferrand1 and was      
published on ,august #e1 #ahhe1 in the  
local paper ,moniteur du ,puy de ,dome4 
,it is of interest      because in it is
 to be found his original view of ,grace
      which he developed later in the   

,essai sur les donnees      immidiates  
de la conscience 7#ahhi74  #ahhf ,,la   
,,simulation ,,inconsciente ,,dans      
,l',,etat ,d',,hypnotisme4    ,his first
 contribution to the ,revue             
philosophique 7,vol4      ,,xxii1 pp4   
#ebe-ca74 ,it is interesting to note    
that correspondence      following the  
appearance of this article led      to  
the inclusion in ,myers' ,human         
,personality and its      ,survival of  
,bodily ,death of a case cited by       
,bergson      7see ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #ddg71  
#aija4  #ahhi ,,quid ,,aristoteles ,,de 
,,loco ,,senserit4    ,a ,latin thesis1 
presented along with the following      
,french      thesis1 for the degree of  
,docteur-es-,lettres4 ,published        
,alcan1 ,paris1 pp4 #hb4  #ahhi ,,essai 
,,sur ,,les ,,donnees ,,immediates ,,de 
,,la ,,conscience4    ,french thesis1   
presented along with the above ,latin   
thesis1 for the degree of               
,docteur-es-,lettres4 ,published      by
 ,alcan1 ,paris1 same year1 in ,la      

,bibliotheque de philosophie            
contemporaine 7pp viii-#ahe7 ,eighteen  
editions      called for by #aibj4      
,english ,translation3 ,time and ,free  
,will1 by ,f4 ,l4 ,pogson1      ,m4,a4  
,published in #aiaj by ,swan            
,sonnenschein      7now ,george ,allen  
,unwin7 in ,library of ,philosophy4     
#ahia ,,la ,,genese ,,de ,l',,idee ,,de 
,,temps4    ,a review1 published in the 
,revue philosophique 7,vol4 for         
#ahia1 pp #ahe-aij71 of the book by     
,jean ,mane ,guyau1      ,la ,genese de 
l',idee de ,temps1 with an introduction 
by      ,alfred ,fouillee which appeared
 posthumously in #ahij1      two years  
after ,guyau's death4  #ahie ,,le ,,bon 
,,sens ,,et ,,les ,,etudes ,,classiques4
    ,discours au concours general des   
lycees et colleges1 #ahie--      another
 prize-giving address4 ,published in    
,revue      scientifique1 #dth ,ser41   
,no4 #ae1 pp4 #gje-gac1 ,june1 #aija1   
and by ,delalain1 ,paris1 #ahie4  #ahif 
,,matiere ,,et ,,memoire4      ,essai   

sur la relation du corps avec l'esprit4 
,bergson's second notable work          
,published by ,alcan1      ,paris1 in   
,bibliotheque de philosophie            
contemporaine1      pp iii-#bhj4        
,thirteen editions by #aiai4    ,english
 ,translation3 ,matter and ,memory1 by  
,nancy      ,margaret ,paul and ,w4 ,s4 
,palmer4 ,published #aiaa1      ,swan   
,sonnenschein 7now ,george ,allen       
,unwin71 in      the ,library of        
,philosophy4  #ahig ,,principes ,,de    
,,metaphysique ,,et ,,de ,,psychologie  
,d',,apres ,,monsieur ,,paul ,,janet4   
,a critical review in ,revue            
philosophique 7,vol4 ,,xliv1      ,nov41
 #ahig1 pp4 #ebe-eea74  #aijj ,,le      
,,rire4    ,essai sur la signification  
du comique4    ,first published as two  
articles in ,revue de ,paris1 #aijj     
7,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #eab-ede and pp4         
#gei-gia74 ,book form1      ,paris      
7,alcan71 #aija1 ,bibliotheque de       
philosophie contemporaine1      pp4     
vii-#bje4 ,by #aiai1 seventeen editions4

    ,english ,translation3              
,laughter--,an ,essay on the ,meaning   
of the ,comic1 by ,brereton and         
,rothwell4 ,published      #aiaa1       
,macmillan4    ,this essay is based on a
 lecture given by ,bergson while      at
 ,clermont-,ferrand1 on ,feb #ah1 #ahhd1
 a report of which      appeared in the 
local paper ,moniteur du ,puy de ,dome1 
,feb4 #ba1 #ahhd4  #aijj ,,notes ,,sur  
,,les ,,origines ,,psychologies ,,de    
,,notre ,,croyance ,a ,,la ,,loi ,,de   
,,causalite4    ,short paper of fifteen 
pages1 read at the ,first ,international
      ,congress of ,philosophy1 held in 
,paris1 ,august #a to #e1      #aijj    
,published in ,bibhotheque du ,congres  
,international      de ,philosophie1    
being special numbers of the      ,revue
 de metaphysique et de morale4 ,paris   
7,armand      ,colin74 ,discussion      
reported in the ,revue1 ,sept1 #aijj1   
,vol ,,viii1 pp #fee-ffj4  #aija ,,le   
,,reve4    ,confrence a l',institut     
psychologique international4      ,march

 #bf1 #aija ,published1 ,pans1 ,bulletin
 de l',institut1      ,may1 #aija2      
,revue scientifique1 ,june #h1 #aija1   
and      abridged1 ,revue de            
philosophie1 #aija4 ,as ,book1 ,alcan1  
#aija4    ,reprinted in the volume of   
collected papers ,l',energie            
spiriuelle1 #aiai1 pp #ia-aaf4          
,english ,translation3 ,dreams1 by ,dr  
,edwin ,e ,slosson4      ,published     
first as articles in the ,independent of
 ,oct #bc      and #cj1 #aiac ,book form
 #aiad ,fisher ,unwin4    ,reissued in  
#aibj in ,mind-,energy1 ,english        
,translation of      ,l',energie        
spirituelle4  #aija ,,le ,,parallelisme 
,,psycho-,,physique ,,et ,,la           
,,metaphysique      ,,positive4         
,bergson's first contribution to the    
,bulletin de la ,societe      franaise  
de philosophie1 ,june1 #aija4 ,the      
important      lecture in which he      
defended the propositions set forth     
on pages #ec-ed of this present work4   
#aija ,l',,inconscient ,,dans ,,la ,,vie

 ,,mentale4    ,article in the ,bulletin
 de la ,socit franaise de philosophie4  
#aija ,,le ,,vocabulaire ,,technique    
,,et ,,critique ,,de      ,,la          
,,philosophie4    ,article in the       
,bulletin de la ,socit franaise de      
philosophie4  #aijb ,l',,effort         
,,intellectuel4    ,article in the      
,revue philosophique1 ,jan1 #aijb1 ,vol 
,,xliii1      pp #a-bg4 ,this article   
supplements parts of the larger         
work ,matire et ,mmoire4    ,reprinted  
in #aiai in the volume of collected     
essays1      ,l',energie spintuelle1 pp 
#afc-bjb ,english ,translation      in  
#aibj in volume ,mind-,energy           
7,macmillan74  #aijb ,l',,intellect ,,et
 ,,la ,,volonte    ,discours au ,lyce   
,voltaire1 ,july1 #aijb ,published      
,imprimerie ,quelquejeu  #aijb ,,le     
,,vocabulaire ,,philosophique4          
,collaboration ,bulletin de la ,societ  
franaise de philosophie1      ,july1    
#aijb4  #aijc ,,rapport ,,sur ,,la      
,,fondation ,,carnot 7#aijb74           

,published in ,jan1 #aijc1 in ,seances  
et travaux de l',academie      des      
sciences morales et pohtiques4 ,also    
,memoires de      l',academie des       
sciences morales et politiques1 #aijd4  
#aijc ,,introduction ,a ,,la            
,,metaphysique4    ,article in ,revue de
 mtaphysique et de morale4 ,paris1      
,jan1 #aijc4    ,english ,translation3  
,an ,introduction to ,metaphysics1 by   
,t4 ,e4 ,hulme ,published in #aiac1     
,macmillan4    ,valuable as an          
independent statement of his doctrine of
      ,intuition4 ,not to be regarded as
 a mere epitome of the      larger      
works1 although it makes a good preface 
to them4    ,to be included in          
forthcoming volume of collected essays  
and lectures4  #aijc ,,la ,,place ,,et  
,,le ,,caractere ,,de ,,la ,,philosophie
      ,,dans ,l',,enseignement          
,,secondaire4    ,article in the        
,bulletin de la ,societ franaise de     
philosophie1      ,feb41 #aijc1 p4 #dd4 
,an address delivered before the        

,societ in ,dec41 #aijb4  #aijc ,,la    
,,notion ,,de ,,la ,,liberte ,,morale4  
,article in the ,bulletin de la ,societ 
franaise de philosophie1      ,april1   
#aijc1 p4 #aja4  #aijc ,,rapport ,,sur  
,,le ,,prix ,,halphen4    ,seances de   
l',academie des sciences morales et     
politiques1      ,july1 #aijc4 ,also    
,memoir es de l',academie des sciences  
morales et politiques1 #aijd4  #aijc    
,,la ,,philosophie ,,sociale ,,de       
,,cournot4    ,article in the ,bulletin 
de la ,societ franaise de philosophie1  
,aug1 #aijc1 p4 #bbi4  #aijd ,,rapport  
,,sur ,,un ,,ouvrage ,,de ,,ruskin ,,la 
,,bible ,d',,amiens4    ,traduction     
francaise de ,m4 ,proust1 ,seances de   
l',acadimie      des sciences morales et
 politiques1 #aijd4  #aijd ,,notice     
,,sur ,,la ,,vie ,,et ,,sur ,,les       
,,oeuvres ,,de      ,,felix             
,,ravaisson-,,mollien1 ,lue dans les    
seances      du #bj et #bg fevrier1     
#aijd1 de l',academie des sciences      
morales et politiques4     ,published in

 ,seances et travaux de l',academie des 
sciences      morales et politiques1    
,paris1 #aijd1 and in ,memoires de      
l',academie des sciences morales et     
politiques1 in #aijg4  #aijd ,,le       
,,paralogisme ,,psycho-,,physiologique4 
,lecture given at the ,second           
,international ,congress of             
,philosophy held at ,geneva from ,sept4 
#d to #h1 #aijd4      ,published in     
,revue de metaphysique et de morale1    
numero exceptionel 7,nov1 #aijd74       
,reprinted in #aiai in the volume of    
collected essays      ,l',energie       
spirituelle1 pp4 #bjc-bbc1 under new    
title      ,le ,cerveau et la pensee3   
une illusion philosophique4             
,english ,translation1 #aibj in volume3 
,mind-,energy4  #aijd ,,les ,,courbes   
,,respiratoires ,,pendant ,l',,hypnose  
,article contributed to the ,bulletin de
 l',institut general      psychologique4
  #aijd ,,preface de la ,psychologie    
,rationelle1 d',emile ,lubac4           
,published at ,paris1 ,alcan4 ,four     

pages on ,intuition4  #aijd ,,rapport   
,,sur ,,un ,,ouvrage ,,de ,m4 ,,mortet  
,notes sur le texte des ',institutiones'
 de ,cassiodore4    ,seances de         
l',academie des sciences morales et     
politiques4  #aijd ,,vision ,,de        
,,lueurs ,,dans ,l',,obscurite ,,par    
,,les      ,,sensitifs4    ,bulletin de 
l',institut general psychologique1      
,jan41 #aijd4  #aijd ,,les ,,radiations 
,n4    ,bulletin de l',institut general 
psychologiques1 ,jan41 #aijd4  #aije    
,,esprit ,,et ,,matiere4    ,article in 
the ,bulletin de la ,societe francaise  
de philosophie4  #aije ,,theorie ,,de   
,,la ,,perception4    ,article in the   
,bulletin de la ,societe francaise de   
philosophie1      ,march1 #aije1 pp4    
#id-ie4 ,an address given in ,dec41     
#aijd4  #aije ,,reponse ,a ,,monsieur   
,,rageot4    ,article in ,revue         
philosophique1 ,vol ,,lx1 p #bbi4       
,criticism      by ,monsieur ,rageot    
appears on p4 #hd4 ,see ,ward on        
this point4 ,realm of ,ends1 p4 #cjg4   

#aije ,,rapport ,,sur ,,un ,,ouvrage    
,,de ,m4 ,,ossip ,,lourie      7now     
,professeur a l',universite nouvelle de 
,bruxelles74    ,le ,bonheur et         
l'intelligence1 published by ,alcan in  
#aijd4      ,seances de l',academie des 
sciences morales et politiques4  #aije  
,,relation ,a ,,william ,,james ,,et ,a 
,,james ,,ward4    ,a ,letter on la     
duree in the ,revue philosophique1      
,aug41      #aije4 ,vol4 ,,lx1 pp4      
#bbi-bcj  #aijf ,,rapport ,,sur ,,le    
,,concours ,,pour ,,le ,,prix           
,,bordin 7#aije74    ,ayant pour sujet  
,maine de ,biran4 ,seances de           
l',academie      des sciences morales et
 politiques1 #aijf3 also ,memoires      
de l',academie des sciences morales et  
politiques1 #aijg4  #aijf ,,rapport     
,,sur ,,un ,,ouvrage ,,de ,m4 ,,bardoux4
    ,essai d'une psychology de          
l',angleterre contemporaine             
7premiere partie74    ,seances de       
l',academie des sciences morales et     
politiques4  #aijf ,,rapport ,,sur ,,un 

,,ouvrage ,,de ,m ,,luquet1             
entitule3--    ,idees generales de      
psychologie4    ,seances de l',academie 
des sciences morales et politiques4     
#aijf ,,rapport ,,sur ,,un ,,ouvrage    
,,de ,m4 ,,gaultier1      entitule3--   
,le ,sens de l'art1 avec une preface de 
,m4 ,emile ,boutroux4    ,sances de     
l',academie des sciences morales et     
politiques4  #aijg ,l',,evolution       
,,creatrice4    ,published by ,alcan1   
,paris1 in ,la ,bibliothque de          
philosophie      contemporaine1 #aijg   
7pp viii   #d,o#c74 ,by #aiah the work  
was in its twenty-first edition4        
,english ,translation3 ,creative        
,evolution1 by ,arthur      ,mitchell1  
,ph4,d4 ,published in #aiaa1 ,macmillan4
    ,this is ,bergson's third large     
work1 and his most important1      being
 one of the most profound and original  
contributions      to the philosophieal 
consideration of the theory      of     
,evolution4      ,un livre comme        
,l',evolution cratrice n'est pas        

seulement      une oeuvre mais une date 
celle d'une direction      nouvelle     
imprime a la pense4 ,pierre ,imbart de  
la      ,tour--in ,le ,pangermanisme et 
la philosophie de l'histoire4  #aijg    
,,article ,,sur ,l',,evolution          
,,creatrice4    ,revue du ,mois1 ,sept41
 #aijg1 pp4 #cea-ced4 ,bergson's reply  
to a critic1 ,m4 ,le ,dantec4  #aijg    
,,vocabulaire ,,philosophique4          
,collaboration4 ,bulletin de la ,societ 
franaise de philosophie1      ,aug41    
#aijg4  #aijg ,,rapport ,,sur ,,le      
,,concours ,,pour ,,le ,,prix      ,,le 
,,dissez ,,de ,,penanrun4    ,seances de
 l',academie des sciences morales et    
politiques1      #aijg4 ,,pp4 #ia-ajb4  
,also in ,memoires de l',academie des   
sciences morales et politiques1 #aiji4  
#aijg ,,rapport ,,sur ,,un ,,ouvrage    
,,de ,m4 ,,bardoux4    ,psychologie de  
l',angleterre contemporaine 7,deuxieme  
partie74    ,seances de l',academie des 
sciences morales et politiques4  #aijh  
,,reponse ,a ,,une ,,enquete            

,,internationale      ,,sur ,,la        
,,question ,,religieuse4    ,arranged by
 the ,mercure de ,france1 and published 
in ,paris      in the book ,la ,question
 ,religieuse1 by ,frederic ,charpin4    
,bergson's answer is less than a page4  
#aijh ,l',,influence ,,de ,,sa          
,,philosophie ,,sur ,,les      ,,eleves 
,,des ,,lycees4    ,article in the      
,bulletin de la ,societe francaise de   
philosophie1      ,jan41 #aijh ,address 
delivered before the ,societ in      the
 previous ,nov4  #aijh ,,lettre ,,sur   
,l',,influence ,,de ,,sa ,,philosophie  
,,sur ,,les ,,eleves ,,des ,,lycees     
,appended to ,binet's ,l',evolution de  
l'ensignement philosophique1      in    
,l',anne psychologique1 #aijh1 pp4      
#bcj-bca4  #aijh ,,le ,,souvenir ,,du   
,,present ,,et ,,la ,,fausse            
,,reconaissance4    ,article in the     
,revue philosophique1 ,dec1 #aijh1 pp   
#efa-      #eic4    ,reprited in #aiai  
in the volume of collected essays       
,l',energie spirituelle1 pp #aag-afa    

,english ,translation      in volume3   
,mind-,energy4 ,macmillan1 #aibj4  #aijh
 ,l',,evolution ,,de ,l',,intelligence  
,,geometrique4    ,article in the ,revue
 de metaphysique et de morale1 ,jan1    
#aijh1 pp4 #bh-cc4 ,another reply to a  
critic1 ,monsieur      ,borel4  #aijh   
,,vocabulaire ,,philosophique4          
,collaboration4 ,bulletin de la ,societe
 francaise de philosophie1      ,aug1   
#aijh4 ,on the words immediat and       
inconnaissable  #aijh ,,rapport ,,sur   
,,un ,,ouvrage ,,de ,m4 ,,merlant1      
ayant pour sujet ,senancour    ,seances 
de l',academie des sciences morales et  
politiques4  #aijh ,,rapport ,,sur ,,un 
,,ouvrage ,,de ,m4 ,,bazaillas1         
entitule3--    ,musique et inconscience4
    ,seances de l',academie des sciences
 morales et politiques4  #aijh ,,rapport
 ,,sur ,,un ,,ouvrage ,,de ,m4 ,,boirac1
      entitule3--    ,la psychologie    
inconnue4    ,seances de l',academie des
 sciences morales et politiques4  #aijh 
,,rapport ,,sur ,,un ,,ouvrage ,,de ,m4 

,,nayrac4    ,la ,fontaine4    ,seances 
de l',academie des sciences morales et  
politiques4  #aiji ,,preface ,a         
,,gabriel ,,tarde    ,a volume of the   
collection ,les ,grands ,philosophes1   
published      by ,louis ,michaud1      
,paris4    ,this book was written by    
,tarde's sons4 ,it is interesting       
to note that ,tarde was ,bergson's      
predecessor in the      ,chair of       
,modern ,philosophy at the ,college de  
,france4    ,the ,preface 7pp4 #e and   
#f7 treats of ,causality    ,a volume of
 this same series devoted to ,bergson   
himself      appeared in #aiaj1 by ,rene
 ,gillouin4  #aiji ,,rapport ,,sur ,,un 
,,ouvrage ,,de ,m4 ,,meyerson1          
entitule3--    ,identiti et realite4    
,seances de l',academie des sciences    
morales et politiques4  #aiji ,,rapport 
,,sur ,,un ,,ouvrage ,,de ,m4 ,,henri   
,,delacroix4    ,etudes d'histoire et de
 psychologie du mysticisme4    ,seances 
de l',academie des sciences morales et  
politiques4  #aiji ,l',,organisation    

,,des ,,congres ,,de ,,philosophie4     
,article in the ,bulletin de la ,societe
 francaise de philosophie1      ,jan41  
#aiji4  #aiji ,,vocabulaire             
,,philosophique4    ,collaboration      
,bulletin de la ,societe francaise de   
philosophie1      ,aug41 #aiji4  #aiaj  
,,rapport ,,sur ,,un ,,ouvrage ,,de ,m4 
,,wendell4    ,la ,france d'aujourd hui4
    ,seances de l',academie des sciences
 morales et politques4  #aiaj ,,rapport 
,,sur ,,le ,,concours ,,pour ,,les      
,,prix      ,,charles ,l',,eveque4      
,seances de l',academie des sciences    
morales et politiques4  #aiaj ,,james   
,,et ,,bergson4    ,remarques a propos  
d'un article de ,mr4 ,w4 ,b4 ,pitkin1   
intitule ,james and ,bergson1 or1 ,who  
is against ,intellect8    ,mr4 ,pitkin's
 article appeared in the ,journal of    
,philosophy1      ,psychology1 and      
,scientific ,methods on ,april #bh1     
#aiaj4      ,bergson's reply appeared in
 the same journal on ,july      #gth of 
the same year4  #aiaj ,,new             

,,introduction ,,written ,,in ,,english 
,,for      ,,the ,,english ,,translation
 ,,of ,,matiere      ,,et ,,memoire4    
,this new introduction was subsequently 
translated      into ,french and        
prefaced to the next ,french edition of 
,matiere et ,memoire which appeared4    
,this was the      seventh edition4 ,the
 ,english translation by ,nancy         
,margaret ,paul and ,w4 ,scott ,palmer  
was published in      #aiaa 7see note   
under date #ahif74    ,the new          
introduction called attention mainly to 
the      change in orthodox opinion     
regarding aphasia which      had come   
about since the original publication of 
the      work in ,french in #ahif--;a   
change of view which only      served to
 make ,bergson's opinions appear less   
novel and      more probable4  #aiaj    
,,rapport ,,sur ,,un ,,ouvrage ,,de ,m4 
,,dauriac4    ,le musicien-poete        
,wagner3 etude de psychologie musicale4 
,seances de l',academie des sciences    
morales et politiques4  #aiaj ,,rapport 

,,sur ,,un ,,ouvrage ,,de ,m4           
,,joussain4      entitule3--    ,le     
,fondement psychologique de la morale4  
,seances de l',academie des sciences    
morales et politiques4  #aiaj           
,l',,inconscient ,,dans ,,la ,,vie      
,,mentale    ,remarques a propos d'une  
these soutenue par ,m4                  
,dwelshauvers 7,now ,belgian            
,professor47 ,an address      delivered 
to the ,societe in the previous         
,november4      ,published in the       
,bulletin de la ,societe francaise de   
philosophie1 ,feb41 #aiaj4 ,here        
,bergson has another encounter      with
 a critic4 ,as far back as #aija        
,bergson contributed to      this same  
periodical an article bearing this      
title4 ,m4      ,georges ,dwelshauvers  
criticized ,bergson's views in his      
articles--     ,raison et ,intuition1   
tude sur la philosophie de ,m4 ,bergson1
      in ,la ,belgique artistique et    
litteraire1 ,nov4-,dec41 #aije1      and
 ,april1 #aijf4     ,bergson et la      

methode intuitive1 in the ,revue des    
,mois1      ,sept41 #aijg4     ,de      
l'intuition dans l'acte de l'esprit1 in 
the ,revue de      mtaphysique et de    
morale1 ,jan41 #aijh4   #aiaa           
,l',,intuition ,,philosophique4         
,paper read at the ,fourth              
,international ,congress of ,philosophy1
      held at ,bologna1 ,april #e to    
#aa1 #aiaa4 ,published in ,nov4 in      
,revue de mtaphysique et de morale      
7,numero exceptionel71      pp4         
#hji-hbg4 ,to reappear in forthcoming   
second volume of      collected papers4 
#aiaa ,,la ,,perception ,,du            
,,changement4    ,deux confrences faites
 a l',universit d',oxford1 les #bf et   
#bg ,mai1 #aiaa4      ,published in     
original ,french by the ,clarendon      
,press1      ,oxford1 in #aiaa4 7,out of
 print now47 ,to reappear in            
forthcoming second volume of collected  
essays and lectures4  #aiaa ,,life ,,and
 ,,consciousness4    ,the ,huxley       
,lecture delivered at ,university of    

,birmingham1      ,may #bi1 #aiaa4      
,published in ,the ,hibbert ,journal    
for ,oct41 #aiaa1 ,vol ,x1 pp4 #bd-dd1  
and also in the volume      ,huxley     
,memorial ,lectures in #aiad4    ,in a  
revised and somewhat developed form this
 appeared      in #aiai in the volume of
 collected essays and lectures          
,l',energie spirituelle1 pp4 #a-bi      
7,mind-,energy1 #aibj74   #aiaa ,,verite
 ,,et ,,realite    ,introduction of     
sixteen pages written for the ,french   
,translation of ,william ,james'        
,pragmatism4 ,translated      by ,le    
,brun4 ,published ,flammarion1 ,paris4  
#aiaa ,,les ,,realites ,,que ,,la       
,,science ,n',,atteint ,,pas4           
,article in ,foi et ,vie 7,french       
,protestant ,review74  #aiaa ,,la       
,,nature ,,de ,l',,ame4    ,four        
lectures delivered at the ,university of
 ,london1 ,oct41      #aiaa4 ,up to the 
time of writing1 these lectures have    
not been published ,reports are to be   
found1 however1      in ,the ,times1    

,oct #ba1 #bc1 #bh and #cj1 #aiaa 7,for 
definite      information regarding     
these lectures1 ,i am indebted      to  
,mr4 ,reginald ,rye1 ,librarian of the  
,university of      ,london1 to the     
,university of ,london ,press1 and to   
,professor ,bergson himself47  #aiab    
,l',,ame ,,et ,,le ,,corps4             
,confrence faite pour la ,societ ,foi et
 ,vie4 ,published      in ,le           
,matrialisme actuel1 ,paris1 #aiac1     
,flammarion4    ,during the year #aiab1 
the ,paris ,review ,foi et ,vie arranged
      a series of lectures on           
,materialism4 ,these were given      in 
,paris1 alternating with a series on    
,pascal1 likewise      arranged by ,foi 
et ,vie1 under the direction of in ,paul
      ,doumergue1 chief editor ,this was
 the sixth year in      which such      
courses of lectures had been arranged by
      this ,review4 ,the most of these  
lectures were subsequently              
published in the ,review itself1 but the
 #aiab      lectures on ,materialism    

were issued separately in a      volume 
entitled ,le ,materialisme actuel1      
published in      the ,bibliotheque de  
philosophie scientifique1 with a preface
      by in ,paul ,doumergue4 ,two      
illustrious names headed      the list  
of lecturers--those of ,henri ,bergson  
and the      late ,henri ,poincare4     
,bergson's lecture bears the title      
,l',ame et le ,corps1 pp4 #g-dh4 7,i am 
told by ,prof4      ,bergson that it is 
a ,summary of the four unpublished      
,london lectures47    ,this was         
reprinted in #aiai in ,l',energie       
spirituelle1 pp4      #ca-fc            
7,mind-,energy1 #aibj74  #aiab ,,preface
 written for the ,french ,translation of
 ,eucken's      ,der ,sinn und der ,wert
 des ,lebens    ,le sens et la valeur de
 la vie--translated by ,m4 ,a4          
,hullet and ,a4 ,leicht4 ,published1    
,paris1 ,alcan4  #aiab ,,letter ,,on    
,,his ,,philosophy ,,in ,,relation ,,to 
,,theology4    ,written to ,father de   
,tonquedec1 ,s ,j1 in the ,jesuit       

periodical      ,les ,etudes of ,feb    
#bj1 #aiab1,vol ,,cxxx1 pp #ead-eae4    
,father de ,tonquedec had criticized    
,bergson's philosophy      from the     
point of view of ,roman ,catholic       
,theology4      ,the following are      
amongst his criticisms3    ,la ,notion  
de la veritt dans la philosophie        
nouvelle1 ,paris1      #aijh4           
,comment interpreter l'ordre du monde   
a-propos du dernier      ouvrage de in  
,bergson1 ,paris1 ,beauchesne1 #aijh4   
,bergson est-il moniste8 ,article in    
,les ,annales de      philosophie       
chretienne1 ,march1 #aiab4    ,dieu dans
 l',evolution cratrice1 ,beauchesne1    
#aiab1 which      gives two letters from
 ,bergson  #aiac ,,fantomes ,,de        
,,vivants ,,et ,,recherche ,,psychique  
,presidential address to the ,british   
,society for ,psychical      ,research4 
,delivered at the ,aeolian ,hall1       
,london1      ,may #bh1 #aiac4          
,published report in the ,times1 ,may   
#bi1      #aiac2 and of the ,new ,york  

,times1 ,sept #bg1aiad1                 
,proceedings of the ,society1 ,vol      
#aiad-ae1 pp #aeg-age4      ,this       
address was reprinted in #aiai in       
,l',energie      spirituelle1 pp #fe-hi4
 ,english ,translation3 ,mind-          
,energy1 #aibj4  #aiad ,,letter ,,to    
,,le ,,figaro4    ,letter on his        
,philosophy generally1 ,march #g1 #aiad4
  #aiad ,,the ,,problem ,,of            
,,personality4    ,the ,gifford         
,lectures at ,edinburgh ,university ,one
      course of eleven lectures1 given  
in the ,spring4 ,the      ,autumn course
 was abandoned owing to the ,war4       
,these lectures have not yet been       
published4 7,for information            
regarding them ,i am indebted to ,mr4   
,f4 ,c4      ,nicholbon1 ,librarian of  
the ,university of ,edinburgh1      and 
to ,prof4 ,bergson himself47  #aiad ,,la
 ,,force ,,qui ,s',,use ,,et ,,celle    
,,qui ,,ne ,s',,use ,,pas4    ,article  
written for the famous organ of the     
poilus4 ,bulletin      des ,armees de la

 ,republique francaise1 ,nov4 #d1 #aiad4
  #aiad ,,hommage ,,au ,,roi ,,albert   
,,et ,,au ,,peuple ,,belge4             
,contribution to ,king ,albert's ,book1 
issued by the      ,daily ,telegraph4   
#aiae ,,la ,,signification ,,de ,,la    
,,guerre    ,collection of ,war speeches
 and writings in the series      ,pages 
actuelles1 #aiad-ae4 ,published by      
,bloud et ,gay1      ,paris1 #aiae4     
,small volume of #dg pages ,contains3   
#a4 ,discours prononce a l',academie des
 ,sciences morales      et politiques le
 #ab dec1 #aiad1 pp #g-bi4 ,this was a  
,presidential address ,la ,signification
 de la ,guerre4    #b4 ,allocution      
prononcee a l',academie le #af ,jan1    
#aiae1      a l'occasion de             
l'installation de ,m4 ,alexandre ,ribot 
au fauteuil de la presidence 7in        
succession to ,bergson74      ,reported 
only in part1 pp #cc-ce4    #c4 ,la     
force qui s'use et celle qui ne s'use   
pas1 pp #ci-db4      ,reprinted from the
 pages of the ,bulletin des ,armees     

de la1 ,republique francaise1 ,nov4 #d1 
#aiad4    #d4 ,hommage au ,roi ,albert  
et au ,peuple ,belge1 pp #de-df4        
,reprinted from ,king ,albert's ,book1  
,war publication of      ,daily         
,telegraph4    ,items ,nos #a and #c    
have been translated into ,english      
as ,the ,meaning of the ,war1 with      
preface by ,dr4 ,h4      ,wildon ,carr4 
,published #aiae1 ,fisher ,unwin4 ,no4  
#a      appeared in ,the ,hibbert       
,journal in ,english1 as ,life      and 
,matter at ,war1 ,april1 #aiae1 pp4     
#dfe-dge2 and in the      ,american     
paper ,the ,living ,age on ,july #ca1   
#aiae1 pp4 #bei-bfd  #aiae ,,autour ,,de
 ,,la ,,guerre    ,a discourse on the   
,evolution of ,german ,imperialism1     
delivered before the ,academie des      
,sciences morales et      politiques4   
,published in ,la ,revue1 ,feb4-,march1 
#aiae1      pp4 #cfi-cgg4  #aiae ,,la   
,,philosophie4    ,ouvrage publi sous   
les auspices du ministre de             
l',instruction publique4 ,a delightful  

little work of #bg pages4               
,reprinted from ,la ,scienc franaise1   
,tome ,i4    ,published in the series of
 that name by ,larousse1 ,pans1      and
 costing fifty centimes4 ,it is a review
 of ,french      ,philosophy1 and       
contains a bibliography1 and portraits  
of the philosophers1 ,descartes1        
,malebranche1 ,pascal1      and         
,renouvier4  #aiaf ,,lettre ,a ,,prof4  
,,hoffding4    ,published in the        
original ,french in the ,french edition 
of the ,danish ,professor's ,lectures on
 ,bergson2 ,la      ,philosophie de     
,bergson expose et critique par ,h4     
,hoffding1 ,professeur a l',universit de
 ,copenhague4      ,traduit d'aprs      
l'dition danoise avec un avant-         
propos par ,jacques de ,coussange et    
suivi d'une lettre      de ,m4 ,bergson 
l'auteur4 ,alcan1 ,paris4 ,the letter1  
pp4      l#eg-afe4  #aiag ,,preface ,a  
,,la ,,mission ,,francaise ,,en         
,,amerique #bd ,,avril-#ac ,,mai1 #aiag4
    ,compiled by ,m4 ,r4 ,viviani1      

published1 ,flammarion1      ,paris1    
#aiag1 pp #bfd4 ,bergson's ,preface is  
seven pages4  #aiah ,,discours ,,de     
,,reception4    ,bergson's address on   
being received by the ,academy4      ,on
 ,m4 ,ollivier4 ,published by ,perrin1  
,paris4 ,seance de      l',academie     
francaise1 ,jan4 #bd1 #aiah1 pp4 #dd4   
7,the work      also contains the reply 
to ,bergson by the ,director of      the
 ,academy1 ,m4 ,rene ,doumic1 pp4       
#de-ge47  #aiai ,l',,energie            
,,spirituelle 7,essais et ,conferences74
    ,felix ,alcan's ,bibliotheque de    
philosophie contemporaire1      pp4     
#bbg4    ,this is a volume of collected 
essays and lectures of which      three 
editions appeared in #aiai4 ,it deals   
with the      concept of mental force1  
with problems of the interaction      of
 mind and body1 and with ,bergson's view
 of tension      and detension in       
relation to matter and mind4    ,with a 
brief foreword1 explaining that this is 
the first of a      couple of volumes of

 collected essays1 there are seven      
papers3        #a4 ,la ,conscience et la
 ,vie1 pp4 #a-bi4 ,a revised and        
developed version of ,life and          
,consciousness1 the          ,huxley    
,lecture of #aiaa4        #b4 ,l',ame et
 le ,corps1 pp4 #ca-fc4 ,reprinted from 
,le ,materialisme actuel4 ,lecture given
 in #aiab4        #c4 ,fantomes de      
,vivants et ,recherche ,psychique1      
pp4 #fe-hi4 ,presidential address of    
#aiac4        #d4 ,le ,reve1 pp4        
#ia-aaf4 ,the lecture of #aija4         
#e4 ,le ,souvenir du present et la      
fausse reconnaissance1          pp4     
#aag-afa4 ,reprint from ,revue          
philosophique of          article of    
#aijh4        #f4 ,l',effort            
intellectuel1 pp4 #afc-bjb4 ,reprint    
from          ,revue philosophique of   
article of #aijb4        #g4 ,le        
,cerveau et la ,pensee3 une illusion    
philosophique1          pp4 #bjc-bbc4   
,the ,lecture given at the              
,international          ,congress at    

,geneva1 formerly printed in the ,revue 
de          metaphysique et de morale as
 ,le ,paralogisme psycho-               
physiologique4        ,english          
,translation3 ,,mind-,,energy1 by ,dr4  
,wildon ,carr4          ,macmillan1     
#aibj4     ,the forthcoming second      
volume of collected essays on ,the      
,method of ,intuitional ,philosophy will
 contain inter alia3      ,introduction 
on ,method4    ,reprint of ,l',intuition
 philosophique4 ,introduction a la      
metaphysique1 ,la ,perception du        
,changement4  ,three articles1 bearing  
the titles ,memoire et reconaissance1   
,perception et matiere and ,l',idee de  
neant1 which appeared respectively in   
,revue philosophique 7#ahif71 ,revue de 
metaphysique et de morale 7#ahif7 and   
,revue philosophique 7#aijf7 have been  
omitted from their places in the above  
list because they were subsequently     
incorporated into the larger works      
,matiere et ,memoire and ,l',evolution  
creatrice4    ,,bibliography  ,,part    

,,two  ,,books ,,and ,,articles ,,on    
,,bergson  ,section ,i4 ,books directly 
on ,bergson  7a7 ,french ,publications4 
,,benda1 ,julien4  ,le ,bergsonisme ou  
une ,philosophie de la ,mobilit4 ,paris1
 ,mercure    de ,france4 #aiab4   ,une  
,philosophie pathtique4 ,cahiers de la  
,quinzaine4 ,paris1    #aiac1 ,ser4 #ae1
 ,cah #b4   ,sur le succes du           
,bergsonisme4 #aiad4 ,incorporates ,une 
,philosophie pathtique4  ,,berthelot1   
,r4  ,un ,romantisme ,utilitaire4       
,paris1 #aiaa4 ,vol4 #b1 ,le            
,pragramatisme    chez ,bergson4   ,le  
pragmatisme de ,bergson4 ,paris1 ,alcan1
 #aiac4  ,,coignet1 ,clarisse4  ,de     
,kant a ,bergson4 ,reconciliation de la 
religion et de la science    dans un    
spiritualisme nouveau4 ,paris1 #aiaa    
7,alcan74    ,concluding #fj pages deal 
with ,bergson4  ,,desaymard1 ,joseph4   
,la ,pensee d',henri ,bergson4 ,in      
series ,les ,hommes et les ,idees4      
,paris1 #aiab4 ,mercure de ,france4 ,pp4
 #hb4 ,with portrait    and bibliography

 7reprint of ,mr4 ,pogson's list74      
,,dwelshauvers1 ,georges4  ,raison et   
intuition4 ,etudes sur la philosophie de
 ,bergson1 #aijf4  ,,farges4  ,theorie  
fondamentale de l',acte et de la        
,puissance avec la critique    de la    
philosophie nouvelle de ,,mm4 ,bergson  
et ,le ,roy4 ,paris1    #aiji4 7,etudes 
philosophiques1 ,no4 #a47   ,la         
philosophie de ,m4 ,bergson4 ,expose et 
critique4 ,paris1 #aiab4  ,,fouillee1   
,alfred4  ,la ,pensee et les nouvelles  
ecoles anti-intellectuelles4 ,paris1    
#aiaj4  ,,gagnebin1 ,s4  ,la philosophie
 de l'intuition4 #aiab4 ,saint ,blaise1 
',foyer    ,solidariste4 ,pp4 #bdj4     
,mainly on ,le ,roy1 ,bergson's         
disciple1 but a    third of the book    
deals with the master4  ,,gillouin1     
,rene4  ,bergson3 ,choix de textes1     
etudes sur l',o,euvre1 notices          
biographiques    et bibliographiques4   
,paris1 #aiaj1 ,michaud4 ,series ,les   
,grands ,philosophes4 ,illustrated4 ,pp4
 #bbj4   ,essay of #cj pages on         

,bergson's philosophy4 ,extracts from   
,bergson's works4 ,pp4 #ci-bbj4   ,la   
,philosophie de ,m4 ,bergson4 ,paris1   
#aiaa1 ,grasset4 ,pp4 #ahg4             
,,grandjean1 ,f4  ,une revolution dans  
la philosophie1 ,la ,doctrine de        
,bergson4    ,atar1 ,geneva1 #bnd ed41  
#aiaf4  ,,le ,,roy1 ,edouard4  ,une     
,philosophie nouvelle3 ,henri ,bergson4 
,paris1 #aiab4    ,english ,translation3
 ,a ,new ,philosophy3 ,henri ,bergson1  
by    ,vincent ,benson4 #aiac4 ,williams
 and ,norgate4 ,pp4 #bce4    ,the author
 of this work is ,bergson's famous      
pupil1 who now    lectures in his place 
at the ,college de ,france4  ,,maritain1
 ,j4  ,la philosophie bergsonienne4     
,paris1 ,riviere1 #aiad4 ,pp4 #dgg4     
,,meunier1 ,d4  ,lecon de ,bergson4     
#aiad4  ,,peguy1 ,charles4  ,note ,sur  
,m4 ,bergson et la philosophie          
bergsonienne4 ,paris4    7,bourgeois74  
,cahiers de la ,quinzaine4 ,pp4 #aja4   
,,penido1 ,dr4 ,m4 ,t4 ,l4  ,la methode 
intuitive de ,bergson4 ,essai critique4 

,atar1 ,geneva1    and ,alcan1 ,paris1  
#aiah1 pp4 #bbj4  ,,segond1 ,j4         
,l',intuition bergsonienne4 ,alcan1     
,paris1 #aiab and #aiac4 ,pp4 #aeg4     
7b7 ,english and ,american ,publications
  ,,balsillie1 ,david4  ,an ,examination
 of ,professor ,bergson's ,philosophy4  
#aiab4 ,williams    and ,norgate4 ,pp4  
#bbh4  ,,carr1 ,dr4 ,h4 ,wildon4  ,henri
 ,bergson3 ,the ,philosophy of ,change1 
#aiab4 ,jack1    ,the ,people's ,books4 
,pp4 #ia4 ,good brief sketch4 #aiai4    
,jack and ,nelson4 ,second revised      
edition4 ,pp4 #abf4   ,the ,philosophy  
of ,change3 ,a study of the ,fundamental
 ,principle    of the ,philosophy of    
,bergson4 #aiad4 ,macmillan4 ,pp4 #baf4 
,time and ,history in ,contemporary     
,philosophy1 with special    reference  
to ,bergson and ,croce4 ,proceedings of 
,british    ,academy1 #aiah4 ,pp4 #bj4  
,separately1 ,oxford ,university ,press4
  ,,cunningham1 ,gustave ,w41 ,dr4      
,study in the ,philosophy of ,bergson4  
#aiaf4 ,longman4 ,new    ,york4 ,pp4    

#bab4  ,,dodson1 ,g4 ,r41 ,dr4  ,bergson
 and the ,modern ,spirit4 ,an ,essay in 
,constructive    ,thought4 #aiad4       
,lindsey ,press4 ,pp4 #bie4  ,,elliot1  
,hugh ,s4 ,r4  ,modern ,science and the 
,illusions of ,professor ,bergson4      
#aiab4    ,preface by ,sir ,ray         
,lankester4 ,longman1 ,new ,york1 and   
#aiac1 ,longman1 ,london4 ,pp4 #beg4    
,very hostile to ,bergson1    indeed    
contemptuously or bitterly so4          
,,gerrard1 ,father ,thomas4  ,bergson3  
an ,exposition and ,criticism from the  
point of view of    ,saint ,thomas      
,aquinas4 #aiac4 ,sands  ,co4 ,pp4 #bjh4
  ,,hermann1 ,mrs4 ,e4  ,bergson and    
,eucken4 ,their significance for        
,christian ,thought4    #aiab4 ,james   
,clark  ,co4 ,pp4 #bbd4  ,,hoffding1    
,prof ,harald4  ,six ,lectures on       
,bergson4 ,delivered #aiac4 ,published  
in the    volume ,modern ,philosophers1 
,macmillan1 #aiae4 ,pp4 #bbg-cjb4       
,translated by ,alfred ,c4 ,mason4      
,,hough1 ,dr4 ,lynn ,h4  ,the ,quest of 

,wonder4 ,studies in ,bergson and       
,theology4  ,,johnston1 ,w4 7with ,,miss
 ,i4 ,,mudge74  ,a ,contribution to a   
,bibliography of ,henri ,bergson4 #aiac4
    ,columbia ,university ,press1 ,new  
,york4 ,pp4 #ef4 ,for this    pamphlet1 
,professor ,john ,dewey has written an  
introduction4  ,,kallen1 ,h4 ,m4        
,william ,james and ,henri ,bergson3 ,a 
,study of ,contrasting    ,theories of  
,life4 #aiad4 ,chicago ,university      
,press4 ,pp4 #bdh4  ,,kitchin1 ,darcy   
,b4  ,bergson for ,beginners3 ,a        
,summary of his ,philosophy4 #aiac4     
,geo4 ,allen and ,unwin4 ,pp4 #cji4     
,,le ,,roy1 ,edouard4  ,a ,new          
,philosophy3 ,henri ,bergson4 #aiac4    
,williams and ,norgate4    ,english     
,translation by ,v4 ,benson of ,une     
,nouvelle    philosophie4 ,pp4 #bce4    
,,libby1 ,m4 ,f4  ,the ,continuity of   
,bergson's ,thought4 #aiab4 ,university 
of    ,colorado ,studies1 ,vol4 #i1 ,no4
 #d4 ,pp4 #adg-bjb4  ,,lindsay1 ,a4 ,d4 
,the ,philosophy of ,bergson4 #aiaa4    

,dent4 ,pp4 #bdg4  ,,lovejoy4  ,bergson 
and ,romantic ,evolutionism4 #aiad4     
,university of    ,california ,press1   
,berkeley4 ,pp4 #fa4  ,,miller1 ,lucius 
,hopkins4  ,bergson and ,religion4      
#aiaf4 ,holt  ,co41 ,new ,york4 7,out of
    print47  ,,mitchell1 ,dr4 ,arthur4  
,studies in ,bergson's ,philosophy4     
#aiad4 ,kansas ,university              
,humanistic ,studies1 ,vol4 #a1 ,no4 #b4
 ,pp4 #aae4  ,,peckham1 ,g4 ,w4  ,the   
,logic of ,bergson's ,philosophy4 7,time
 and ,free ,will    compared with       
,matter and ,memory47 #aiag4 ,archives  
of ,philosophy1    ,columbia ,university
 ,press1 ,new ,york1 ,no4 #h4 ,pp4 #fh4 
,,ruhe ,,and ,,paul4  ,henri ,bergson3  
,an ,account of his ,life and           
,philosophy4 #aiad4    ,macmillan4 ,pp4 
#bde 7,with portrait47  ,,russell1 ,hon4
 ,bertrand4  ,the ,philosophy of        
,bergson4 #aiad4 ,london1 ,macmillan for
 ,bowes1    ,cambridge4 ,pp4 #cf4       
,lecture to ,the ,heretics1 ,cambridge1 
,march #aa1 #aiab4 ,contains reply by   

,dr4 ,wildon ,carr1 and    rejoinder by 
,mr4 ,russell4  ,,sait1 ,bernard ,una4  
,the ,ethical ,implications of          
,bergson's ,philosophy4 #aiad4 ,columbia
    ,university ,contributions to       
,philosophy and ,psychology4 ,new       
,york ,science ,press4 ,pp4 #ahc4       
,,sewell1 ,frank1 ,dr4  ,is the         
,universe ,self-,centred or             
,god-,centred8 #aiac4 ,examination    of
 the systems of ,eucken and ,bergson4   
,presidential ,address to ,swedenborg   
,scientific ,association1               
,philadelphia1 ,,usa4 ,published by the 
,association4 ,pp4 #ac4  ,,shastri1     
,prabhu ,datta4  ,the ,conception of    
,freedom in ,hegel1 ,bergson1 and       
,indian    ,philosophy4 #aiad4 ,address 
before the ,calcutta ,philosophical     
,society1 ,march #ad1 #aiac4 ,published 
,albion ,press1 ,calcutta4    ,pp4 #bf4 
,,solomon1 ,joseph4  ,bergson4 #aiaa4   
,constable1 in ,series ,philosophies    
,ancient and    ,modern4 ,pp4 #abh4     
,,stewart1 ,dr4 ,j4 ,m',kellar4  ,a     

,critical ,exposition of ,bergson's     
,philosophy4 #aiaa4 ,macmillan    ,pp4  
#bie4  ,,wilm1 ,emil ,c4  ,henri        
,bergson3 ,a ,study in ,radical         
,evolution4 7#aiad47 ,sturgis           
,,hoogvild1 ,j4,e4,h4,j4  ,de ,niewe    
,wysbegeerte3 ,een studie over ,h4      
,bergson4 #aiaa4  ,,jacobson1 ,malte4   
,henri ,bergson's ,intuitionsfilosofi4  
,,levi1 ,a4  ,la filosofia della        
contingenza4 ,firenze1 ,seeber1 #aije4  
,in    ,l'indeterminismo nella          
filosofita francese contemporanea4      
,,larsson1 ,prof4 ,hans4                
,intuitionsprobleme4  ,,olgiati1 ,f4    
,la ,filosofia di ,enrico ,bergson1     
#aiad4  ,,papini1 ,giovanni4            
,stroncature4 ,firenze1 #aiah4 ,libreria
 della voce4 ,section on    ,bergson and
 ,croce 7in ,french71 written in #aiad4 
,pp4 #ea-ef4  ,,ruhe1 ,algot4  ,henri   
,bergson3 ,tankesattet4 #aiad4 ,swedish 
volume 7similar to    his ,english work 
in conjunction with ,miss ,paul74       
,stockholm4   ,section ,,ii4 ,books     

dealing ,indirectly with ,bergson  7a7  
,french ,publications  ,,chaumeix1 ,a4  
,pragmatisme et ,modernisme4 ,paris1    
,alcan1 #aiji  ,,dwelshauvers1 ,georges4
  ,la ,synthse mentale4 ,alcan1 ,paris1 
#aijh4  ,,fouillee1 ,alfred4  ,le       
,mouvement idaliste et la ,raction      
centre la ,science positive1    #ahif4  
,paris1 ,alcan4  ,,imbart ,,de ,,la     
,,tour1 ,pierre4  ,le ,pangermanisme et 
la ,philosophie de ,l',histoire4 ,letter
 to    ,bergson1 published in book form1
 #aiaf4 ,reprinted from ,pour    la     
verite1 #aiad-ae4 ,perrin4 ,pp4 #ge4    
,this letter was occasioned    by       
,bergson's writings on the ,war4        
,,lanessan1 ,j4 de4  ,transformation et 
,crationisme4 #aiad4 ,paris1 ,alcan4    
,,piat1 ,clodius4  ,insuffisance des    
,philosophies de ,l',intuition4 #aijh4  
,paris1    ,plon-,nourrit4 ,pp4 #cai4   
,,sorel1 ,georges4  ,reflexions sur la  
,violence4 ,this has been translated    
into ,english    by ,t4,e4 ,hulme1 and  
published by ,geo4 ,allen and ,unwin1   

,reflections on ,violence4    ,les      
,illusions du ,progres4    ,le          
,mouvement socialists4 ,collected       
volumes of the periodical4  ,,wilbois4  
,devoir et ,dure4 #aiab4 ,paris1 ,alcan4
 ,pp4 #djh4  7b7 ,english and ,american 
,publications  ,,aliotta4  ,the         
,idealistic ,reaction against ,science  
#aiad4 ,macmillan4    ,english          
translation from ,italian by ,w4 ,agnes 
,mc,caskill4  ,,bennett1 ,w4  ,the      
,ethical ,aspects of ,evolution         
,regarded as the ,parallel ,growth    of
 ,opposite ,tendencies4 #aijh4          
,clarendon ,press1 ,oxford4  ,,bjorkman1
 ,edwin4  ,voices of ,tomorrow4         
,critical studies of the ,new ,spirit in
    ,literature4 ,london1 ,grant        
,richards4 ,see ,section ,the ,new      
,mysticism1 ,part #c1 ,its ,philosopher1
 ,henri ,bergson1 pp4 #bje-bbc4         
,,bosanquet1 ,b4  ,the ,principle of    
,individuality and ,value4 #aiab4       
,macmillan4    ,the ,gifford ,lectures  
for #aiaa4 ,the ,value and ,destiny of  

the ,individual4 ,gifford ,lectures1    
#aiab4  ,,burns1 ,delisle4  ,political  
,ideals4 ,clarendon ,press1 ,oxford     
,discusses in    concluding pages the   
rational element in politics4           
,,caldwell1 ,dr4 ,wm4  ,pragmatism and  
,idealism #aiac4 ,macmillan1 ,new ,york1
 and    ,a4 and ,c4 ,black1 ,london4    
,chap4 7#i7 is entitled ,pragmatism     
and ,idealism in the ,philosophy of     
,bergson1 pp4 #bcd-bfa4  ,,carr1 ,h4    
,wildon4  ,the ,problem of ,truth4      
,jack4 ,people's ,books4  ,,drever1 ,dr 
,james4  ,instinct in ,man4 #aiag4      
,cambridge ,university ,press4  ,,freud4
  ,wit and its ,relation to the         
,unconscious4 ,fisher ,unwin4           
,remarks on ,bergson's ,le ,rire1 pp4   
#cja and #cfj4  ,,grubb4  ,the ,religion
 of ,experience4 ,chapter ,,iv4 ,bergson
 and ,intuition4  ,,harley1 ,j4 ,h4     
,syndicalism4 ,people's ,books4         
,,harper1 ,dr4 ,j4 ,wilson4  ,christian 
,ethics and ,social ,progress4 #aiab4   
,contains chapter    on ,bergson4       

,,hocking4  ,meaning of ,god in ,human  
,experience4 ,yale ,university ,press4  
#aiab4  ,,hugel1 ,baron ,frednch von4   
,eternal ,life3 its ,implications and   
,applications4 ,t4 and ,t4    ,clark4   
#aiab4 ,deals with ,bergson's view of   
duree and of    ,liberty1 pp4 #bhh-cjb4 
,,hunt1 ,harriet ,e4  ,the ,psychology  
of ,auto-,education4 ,based on the      
interpretation    of ,intellect1 given  
by ,bergson in his ,creative ,evolution 
,illustrated in the work of ,maria      
,montessori4 #aiab4 ,bardeen1           
,syracuse1 ,new ,york4  ,,inge1 ,very   
,rev ,dr ,w4,r4  ,the ,philosophy of    
,plotmus4 ,gifford ,lectures1 published 
#aiai4    ,these lectures on the great  
,neo-platonist to whom ,bergson    owes 
not a little1 contain important         
discussions of ,bergson's    views on   
,time1 ,consciousness and ,change4      
,,jacks1 ,l4,p4  ,alchemy of ,thought4  
,holt  ,co1 ,new ,york4 #aiaa4  ,,james1
 ,william  ,a ,pluralistic ,universe    
7,hibbert ,lectures7 #aiji4 ,lectures #e

    and #f1 pp #aha-bgc4  ,,jevons1 ,dr 
,f4,b4  ,personality4 ,methuen1 #aiac4  
,especially ,chap4 #c on ,bergson1    pp
 #gh-abd4  ,,johnson1 ,f4,h4  ,god in   
,evolution4 ,a ,pragmatic ,study of     
,theology44 ,longman4 #aiaa4            
,,johnstone1 ,dr ,james  ,the           
,philosophy of ,biology4 #aiad4         
,cambridge ,university ,press4  ,,jones1
 ,prof4 ,tudor4  ,the ,spiritual ,ascent
 of ,man4 #aiaf4 ,university of ,london 
,press1    ,chapter 7#d7 ,intellect and 
,intuition4  ,,laird1 ,john  ,problems  
of the ,self4 ,shaw ,lectures at        
,edinburgh for #aiad4    #aiag4         
,macmillan4  ,,lodge1 ,sir ,oliver4     
,modern ,problems4 ,methuen1 #aiab4     
,balfour and ,bergson1 pp4    #ahi-baj  
7,chap4 #ah74 ,reprint of ,article in   
,hibbert ,journal    7#aiab74           
,,mackenzie1 ,prof4  ,elements of       
,constructive ,philosophy4 #aiah4 ,geo  
,allen  ,unwin4  ,,marshall             
,consciousness4 ,on ,revival and        
,memory4 ,p4 #dcf4  ,,mellor1 ,dr       

,stanley ,a4  ,religion as ,affected by 
,modern ,science and ,philosophy4 #aiad4
    ,lindsey ,press4 ,devotes a section 
to the consideration of    ,bergson and 
,religion1 pp #adg-aff4  ,mc,c,a,b,e1   
,joseph4  ,principles of ,evolution4    
,collins--,nation's ,library4 ,very     
hostile to ,bergson1 pp #bdg-bec4       
,mc,d,o,u,g,a,l,l1 ,william4  ,body and 
,mind #aiaa4 ,methuen  ,co4  ,,morgan1  
,c4 ,lloyd4  ,instinct and ,experience4 
,methuen4 #aiab4  ,,perry1 ,r4,b4       
,present ,philosophical ,tendencies4    
#aiab4 ,longmans4 ,u4,s4,a4             
,,pringle-,,pattison1 ,a4,s4  ,the ,idea
 of ,god4 ,gifford ,lectures1 #aiab-ac4 
,lecture 7#ai7 on    ,bergson1 pp4      
#cff-che4  ,,russell1 ,bertrand  ,our   
,knowledge of the ,external ,world4     
#aiad4 ,open ,court ,publishing    ,co4 
,chapter 7#h7 on ,cause and ,free ,will1
 criticizes ,bergson1    pp4 #bbi-bdb4  
,the ,principles of ,social             
,reconstruction4 ,geo4 ,allen  ,co4     
#aiag4    ,shows ,impulse to be greater 

than conscious purpose in    our social 
life4  ,mysticism and ,logic4 #aiah4    
,longman4  ,roads to ,freedom4 ,on      
,socialism1 ,anarchism and ,syndicalism4
    ,geo4 ,allen  ,co4 #aiah4           
,,santayana1 ,prof4 ,george4  ,winds of 
,doctrine44 ,scribner1 ,u4,s4,a4        
,,sarolea1 ,prof4 ,charles4  ,the       
,french ,renascence4 #aiaf4 ,allen and  
,unwin4 ,chapter on     ,bergson1 pp4   
#bga-bhd1 with portrait4  ,,scott4      
,j4,w4  ,syndicalism and ,philosophical 
,realism4 #aiai4 ,a4 ,c4 ,black4    ,for
 ,bergson1 pp4 #gj-afj4  ,,slosson1 ,dr4
 ,e4  ,major ,prophets of ,to-day4      
#aiad4 ,little1 ,boston1 ,u4,s4,a4      
,pp4 #dd-ajc4 7,portrait47  ,,smith1    
,norman ,kemp1 ,d4 ,phil4  ,commentary  
to ,kant's ,critique of ,pure ,reason4  
#aiah4 ,macmillan4  ,,sorley1 ,dr4      
,w4,r4  ,moral ,values and the ,idea of 
,god4 ,cambridge ,university    ,press1 
#aiah4 ,gifford ,lectures1 #aiad-ae4    
,discusses ,intuition    and ,vital     
,impulse4  ,,stebbing1 ,l4 ,susan1      

,m4,a4  ,pragmatism and ,french         
,voluntarism with ,special ,reference to
    the ,notion of ,truth in the        
,development of ,philosophy from ,maine 
de ,biran to ,bergson4 ,m4,a4 7,london47
 ,thesis1 #aiab4 ,cambridge             
,university ,press1 #aiad4 ,girton      
,college ,studies1 ,no #f4  ,,underhill1
 ,evelyn4  ,mysticism4 ,a ,study in the 
,nature and development of man's        
spiritual consciousness4 ,dutton1       
,u4,s4,a4 #aiab4  ,,wallas1 ,graham4    
,the ,great ,society4 ,error on p4 #bcf1
 where he has #aiab for #aiaa1    as    
date of ,bergson's ,lectures at ,london 
,university4  ,,ward1 ,prof4 ,james4    
,the ,realm of ,ends4 7,pluralism and   
,theism47 ,cambridge    ,university     
,press4 ,cf4 pp4 #cjf-g4  ,,wardell1    
,r4,j4  ,contemporary ,philosophy4      
,contains careless blunders4 ,the       
date of the publication of ,l',evolution
 creatrice in ,paris is    given as     
#aija instead of #aijg4 ,this is on page
 #gd4 ,then on    page #ie1 ,lectures   

given at ,london ,university are        
referred    to as having been given at  
,oxford4 ,the whole section of #bh      
pages1 devoted to ,bergson1 tends to be 
somewhat misleading4  ,,webb1 ,c4,c4,j4 
,god and ,personality4 ,gifford         
,lectures1 #aiah-ai4 ,geo4 ,allen    and
 ,unwin4  ,,woodbridge1 ,f4,j4,e4  ,the 
,purpose of ,history4 ,reflections on   
,bergson1 ,dewey and    ,santayana4     
#aiaf4 ,columbia ,university ,press4    
,section ,,iii4 ,english and ,american  
,articles  7a7 ,signed ,articles        
,,abbott4 ,philosophy of ,progress4     
,outlook1 ,feb1 #aiac4  ,,akely4        
,bergson and ,science4 ,philosophical   
,review1 ,may1 #aiae4  ,,alexander1     
,h4,b4 ,socratic ,bergson4 ,mid-,west   
,quarterly1 ,oct41 #aiac4  ,,alexander1 
,s4 ,matire et ,mmoire4 ,mind1 ,oct1    
#ahig4  ,,armstrong4 ,bergson1 ,berkeley
 and ,intuition4 ,philosophical ,review1
 #aiad4  ,,babbitt4 ,bergson and        
,rousseau4 ,nation1 ,nov41 #aiab4       
,,baldwin4 ,intuition4 ,american ,year  

,book1 #aiaa4  ,,balfour4 ,creative     
,evolution and ,philosophic ,doubt4     
,hibbert ,journal1 ,oct1 #aiaa2 and     
,living ,age1 ,dec4 #b1 #aiaa4          
,,balsillie4 ,bergson on ,time and ,free
 ,will4 ,mind1 #aiaa4  ,,barr4 ,the     
,dualism of ,bergson4 ,philosophical    
,review1 #aiad4  ,,beyer4 ,creative     
,evolution and the ,woman's ,question4  
,educational ,review1 ,jan1 #aiad4      
,,bjorkman4 ,the ,philosopher of        
,actuality4 ,forum1 ,sept1 #aiaa4 ,is   
there ,anything ,new8 ,forum4 ,bergson3 
,philosopher or ,prophet8 ,review of    
,reviews1 ,aug1 #aiaa4  ,,blacklock4    
,bergson's ,creative ,evolution4        
,westminster ,review1 ,mar41 #aiab4     
,,bode ,l',evolution creatrice4         
,philosophical ,review1 #aijh4 ,creative
 ,evolution4 ,american ,journal of      
,psychology1 ,april1 #aiab4             
,,bosanquet4 ,prediction of ,human      
,conduct4 ,international ,journal of    
,ethics1 ,oct1 #aiaj4  ,,boyd4          
,l',evolution cratrice4 ,review of      

,theology and ,philosophy1 ,oct1 #aijg4 
,,brown4 ,philosophy of ,bergson4       
,church ,quarterly ,revtew1 ,april1     
#aiab4  ,,burns4 ,criticism of          
,bergson's ,philosophy4 ,north ,american
 ,review1 ,march1 #aiac4  ,,burroughs4  
,the ,prophet of the ,soul4 ,atlantic   
,monthly1 ,jan41 #aiad4  ,,bush4        
,bergson's ,lectures4 ,columbia         
,university ,quarterly1 #aiac4          
,,calkins4 ,bergson3 ,personalist4      
,philosophieal ,review1 #aiab-ac4 ,no4  
7#f74  ,,carr ,philosophy of ,bergson   
,hibbert ,journal1 ,july1 #aiaj4        
,creative ,evolution ,proc4             
,aristotelian ,soc1 ,vol4 #i and #aj4   
,bergson's ,theory of ,instinct ,proc4  
,aristotelian ,soc1 ,vol #aj4 ,bergson's
 ,theory of ,knowledge4 ,proc4          
,aristotelian ,soc1 ,vol #i             
,psycho-physical ,parallelism as a      
working hypothesis in ,psychology4      
,proc4 ,aristotelian ,soc1 ,vol4        
#aiaj-aa4 ,the ,philosophy of ,bergson4 
,mind1 ,oct1 #aiaa4 ,science and        

,bergson ,mind1 ,oct1 #aiab4 ,on ,mr    
,russell's ,reasons for supposing that  
,bergson's ,philosophy   is not true    
,cambridge ,magazine1 ,april1 #aiac4    
,the ,concept of ,mind-,energy4 ,mind1  
,jan41 #aibj4  ,,carus4 ,the            
,anti-intellectual movement of to-day4  
,monist1 ,july1 #aiab4  ,,cockerell4    
,the ,new ,voice in ,philosophy4 ,dial1 
,oct41 #aiaa4  ,,cooke4 ,ethics and ,new
 ,intuitionists4 ,mind1 #aiac4          
,,corrance4 ,bergson and the ,idea of   
,god4 ,hibbert ,journal1 ,feb1 #aiad4   
,,cory4 ,bergson's ,intellect and       
,matter4 ,philosophical ,review1 ,may1  
#aiad4 ,answer to ,mr4 ,bertrand        
,russell's ,philosophy of ,bergson4     
,monist1 ,jan1 #aiad4  ,,costelloe      
7,mrs4 ,,adrian ,,stephen74 ,what       
,bergson means by ,inter-penetration    
,proc4 ,aristotelian   ,soc1 ,vol4      
#aiac-ad4 ,complexity and ,synthesis3   
,data and ,methods of ,russell and      
,bergson4 ,proc4 ,aristotelian ,soc41   
#aiad-ae4  ,,cox4 ,bergson's ,message to

 ,feminism4 ,forum1 ,may1 #aiac4        
,,cunningham4 ,bergson's ,conception of 
,duration4 ,philosophical ,review1      
#aiad-ae4 ,bergson's ,conception of     
,finality4 ,philosophical ,review1      
#aiad-ae4  ,,dimnet4 ,meaning of        
,bergson's ,success4 ,saturday ,review1 
#aiad4  ,,dolson4 ,philosophy of        
,bergson4 ,i4 ,philosophical ,review1   
,nov41 #aiaj4 ,philosophy of ,bergson4  
,,ii4 ,philosophical ,review1 ,jan41    
#aiaa4  ,,douglas4 ,christ and ,bergson4
 ,north ,american ,review1 ,april1      
#aiac4  ,,dubray4 ,philosophy of        
,bergson4 ,bulletin of ,catholic        
,university of   ,washington1 ,april1   
#aiad4  ,,durban4 ,philosophy of        
,bergson4 ,homiletic ,review1 ,jan41    
#aiab4  ,,ewald4 ,philosophy in ,germany
 in #aiaa4 ,trans4 from ,german by      
,hammond4 ,philosophieal ,review1       
,sept41 #aiab4  ,,fawcett4 ,matter and  
,memory4 ,mind1 ,april1 #aiab4          
,,ferrar4 ,l',evolution cratrice4       
,commonwealth1 ,dec41 #aiji4  ,,foster4 

,henri ,bergson4 ,overland1 ,april1     
#aiah4  ,,gardiner4 ,memoire et         
,reconnaissance4 ,psychological ,review1
 #ahif4  ,,gerrard4 ,bergson's          
,philosophy of ,change4 ,catholic       
,world1 ,jan1 #aiac4 ,bergson1 ,newman  
and ,aquinas4 ,catholic ,world1 ,mar41  
#aiac4 ,bergson and ,freedom4 ,catholic 
,world1 ,may1 #aiac4 ,bergson and       
,finahsm4 ,catholic ,world1 ,june1      
#aiac4 ,bergson and ,divine ,fecundity4 
,catholic ,world1 ,aug41 #aiac4         
,,gibson4 ,the ,intuitiomsm of ,bergson4
 ,the ,quest1 ,jan41 #aiaa1  ,,goetz4   
,bergson1 ,a poem4 ,open ,court1 ,sept41
 #aiab4  ,,gould4 ,balfour and ,bergson4
 ,literary ,guide and ,rationalist      
,review1   ,nov41 #aiaa4  ,,gunther4    
,bergson1 ,pragmatism and ,schopenhauer4
 ,monist1 ,vol4 #bb4  ,,hicks4 ,recent  
,bergson ,literature4 ,hibbert ,journal1
 ,jan41 #aiaa4                          
#aiab4  ,,hocking4 ,significance of     
,bergson ,yale ,review1 #aiad4          
,,hookham4 ,bergson as ,critic of       

,darwin4 ,national ,review1 ,mar1 #aiab4
 ,further ,notes on ,bergson4 ,national 
,review1 ,april1 #aiab4  ,,hulme4 ,the  
,new ,philosophy4 ,new ,age1 ,july1     
#aiji4  ,,huneker4 ,the ,playboy of     
,western ,philosophy4 ,forum1 ,march1   
,,husband4 ,l',evolution creatrice4     
,international ,journal of ,ethics1     
,july1 #aiab4  ,,james4 ,philosophy of  
,bergson4 ,hibbert ,journal1 ,april1    
#aiji4 ,bradley or ,bergson8 ,journal of
 ,philosophy1 ,psychology1   and        
,scientific ,methods1 ,jan1 #aiaj4 ,a   
,great ,french ,philosopher at ,harvard4
 ,nation 7,u4 ,s71 ,march1 #aiaj4       
,,johnston4 ,where ,bergson ,stands4    
,harper's ,weekly1 ,march1 #aiac4       
,,johnstone4 ,bergson's ,philosophy of  
the ,organism4 ,proc4 of ,liverpool     
,biological ,society1 #aiac4  ,,jordan4 
,kant and ,bergson4 ,monist1 #aiac4     
,,jourdain4 ,logic1 ,bergson and ,h4 ,g4
 ,wells4 ,hibbert ,journal1 ,vol4 #aj4  
,,kallen4 ,james1 ,bergson and ,mr      
,pitkin4 ,journal of ,philosophy1       

,psychology and ,scientific ,methods1   
,june1 #aiaj4 ,james1 ,bergson and      
,traditional ,metaphysics ,mind1 #aiad4 
,laughter ,journal of ,philosophy1      
,psychology and ,scientific   ,methods1 
,may1 #aiab4  ,,keeffe4 ,bergson's      
,critical ,philosophy4 ,irish           
,theological ,studies1 ,april1 #aiac4   
,,khoroshko4 ,bergson's ,philosophy from
 a ,physician's ,point of ,view4        
,russkaya ,misl41 ,feb1 #aiae4          
,,lalande4 ,philosophy in ,france in    
#aije4 ,philosophieal ,rev41 ,may1      
#aijf4 ,philosophy in ,france in #aijg4 
,philosophieal ,rev41 ,may1 #aijh4      
,philosophy in ,france in #aiab4        
,philosophieal ,rev41 ,april1 #aiad4    
,,leighton ,on ,continuity and          
,discreteness4 ,journal of ,philosophy1 
,psychology and ,scientific ,methods1   
,april1 #aiaj4  ,,lewis4 ,bergson and   
,contemporary ,thought4 ,university of  
,california   ,chronicle1 #aiad4        
,,licorish ,bergson's ,creative         
,evolution and the ,nervous ,system   in

 ,organic ,evolution ,lancet1 ,vol4     
#ahb4  ,,lippmann ,the most ,dangerous  
,man in the ,world4 ,everybody's        
,magazine1   ,july1 #aiab4 ,bergson's   
,philosophy ,new ,york ,times ,book     
,review1 ,nov1 #aiab4  ,,lodge          
,bergson's ,intuitional ,philosophy     
,justified4 ,current ,literature1       
,april1 #aiab4 ,balfour and ,bergson    
,hibbert ,journal1 ,jan41 #aiab4        
,,loveday4 ,l',evolution creatrice      
,mind1 #aijh4  ,,lovejoy4 ,the          
,metaphysician of the ,life ,force      
,nation1 ,sept1 #aiji ,the ,problem of  
,time in ,recent ,french ,philosophy1   
7,,iii74   ,bergson s ,temporalism and  
,anti-intellectualism ,philosophical    
,review1 ,may1 #aiab ,practical         
,tendencies of ,bergsonism              
,international ,journal of   ,ethics1   
#aiac ,some ,antecedents of ,bergson's  
,philosophy ,mind1 #aiac4 ,bergson and  
,romantic ,evolutionism4 ,university of 
,california   ,chronicle1 #aiad4  ,,low4
 ,mr ,balfour in the ,study4 ,edinburgh 

,review1 ,oct1 #aiab4  ,,martin4        
,bergson's ,creative ,evolution         
,pnnceton ,theological ,review1 ,jan41  
#aiab4  ,,mason4 ,bergson's ,principle  
,nation1 ,july1 #aiaa4 ,bergson's       
,method ,confirmed ,north ,american     
,review1 ,jan1 #aiac4  ,mc,c,a,b,e4 ,the
 ,anti rationalism of ,bergson4         
,literary ,guide and   ,rationalist     
,review1 ,oct #d-aiaa4  ,,macaskill4    
,intellect and ,intuition ,footnote to  
,bergson and ,bradley4   ,contemporary  
,review1 ,july1 #aiae4  ,,macdonald     
,l',effort itellectuel ,philosophical   
,review1 ,july1 #aijb4                  
,mc,g,i,l,v,a,r,y4 ,philosophy of       
,bergson ,philosophical ,review1 ,sept1 
#aiab4  ,,mackintosh4 ,bergson and      
,religion ,biblical ,world1 ,jan1 #aiac 
,,meredith4 ,critical ,side of          
,bergson's ,philosophy4 ,westminster    
,review1   ,feb1 #aiab4  ,,miller4      
,bergson and ,religion4 ,biblical       
,world1 ,nov41 #aiae4  ,,mitchell4      
,l',evolution creatrice ,journal of     

,philosophy1 ,psychology and            
,scientific ,methods1 ,oct1 #aijh4      
,studies on ,bergson4 ,bulletin of      
,university of ,kansas1 #aiae4  ,,moore4
 ,a4 ,w4 ,bergson and ,pragmatism4      
,philosophical ,review1 #aiab4  ,,moore1
 ,c4 ,l ,return of the ,gods4 ,the      
,dial1 ,nov1 #aiab4  ,,mories4 ,bergson 
and ,mysticism ,westminster ,review1    
,june1 #aiab4  ,,morrison4 ,the         
,treatment of ,history by ,philosophers4
   ,proc ,aristotelian ,soc1 ,vol4      
#aiac-ad4  ,,muirhead4 ,creative        
,evolution ,hibbert ,journal1 #aiaa4    
,matter and ,memory ,hibbert ,journal1  
#aiaa4 ,time and ,free ,will4 ,hibbert  
,journal1 #aiaa4  ,,mulford4 ,what is   
,intuition 8 ,monist1 ,vol4 #bf1 #aiaf4 
,,overstreet4 ,mind and ,body4          
,psychological ,bulletin1 ,jan41 #aiab4 
,,palmer4 ,thought and ,instinct        
,nation1 ,june1 #aiji ,life and the     
,brain ,contemporary ,review1 ,oct1     
#aiji4 ,presence and ,omni-presence4    
,contemporary ,review1 ,june1 #aijh     

,,paulhan4 ,contemporary ,philosophy in 
,france4 ,philosophical ,review1 ,jan1  
#aijj4  ,,perry4 ,philosophy of         
,bergson4 ,journal of ,philosophy1      
,psychology and   ,scientific ,methods1 
#aiaa4  ,,pitkin ,james and ,bergson1   
or1 ,who is against ,intellect 8        
,journal   of ,philosophy1 ,psychology  
and ,scientific ,methods1 ,april1 #aiaj 
,,poulton4 ,darwin and ,bergson on      
,evolution4 ,bedrock1 ,april1 #aiab4    
,,quick ,creative ,evolution and the    
,individual4 ,mind1 #aiac4              
,,radhakrishnan4 ,bergson's ,idea of    
,god ,quest1 ,oct1 #aiaf4 ,bergson and  
,absolute ,idealism #a4 ,mind1 ,jan1    
#aiai4 ,bergson and ,absolute ,idealism 
#b4 ,mind1 ,july1 #aiai4  ,,robinson    
,the ,philosophy of ,bergson4           
,churchman1 ,march1 #aiab4  ,,ross ,a   
,new ,theory of ,laughter ,nation1 ,nov1
 #aijh4 ,the ,philosophy of ,vitalism   
,nation1 ,march1 #aiji4  ,,roosevelt4   
,the ,search for ,truth in a ,reverent  
,spirit4 ,outlook1 ,dec1 #aiaa4         

,,royce4 ,the ,reality of the ,temporal 
,international ,journal of ,ethics1     
,april1 #aiaj4  ,,russell1 ,b4          
,philosophy of ,bergson4 ,monist1 ,july1
 #aiab4 ,mr ,carr's ,defence of         
,bergson4 ,cambridge ,magazine1 ,april1 
#aiac4  ,,russell1 ,j4 ,e4 ,bergson's   
,anti-,intellectualism4 ,journal of     
,philosophy1   ,psychology and          
,scientific ,methods1 #aiab4  ,,sanborn4
 ,bergson3 ,his ,personality1           
,philosophy and ,influence4   ,century  
,review1 ,dec1 #aiab4 ,bergson2 ,creator
 of a ,new ,philosophy4 ,outlook1 ,feb1 
#aiac4  ,,sauvage4 ,the ,new ,philosophy
 in ,france ,catholic ,university       
,bulletin1   ,washington1 ,april1 #aijf1
 and ,march1 #aijh4  ,,scott ,pessimism 
of ,bergson ,hibbert ,journal1 ,oct1    
#aiab2   ,international ,journal of     
,ethics1 ,jan1 #aiad2 ,mind1 ,july1     
#aiac4  ,,shepherd4 ,le ,souvenir du    
present et la fausse reconnaissance4    
,psychological ,bulletin1 ,sept41 #aiaj4
  ,,shimer4 ,bergson's ,view of ,organic

 ,evolution4 ,popular ,science          
,monthly ,feb41 #aiac4  ,,shotwell      
,bergson's ,philosophy4 ,political      
,science ,quarterly1 ,march1 #aiac4     
,,slater4 ,vision of ,bergson4 ,forum1  
,dec41 #aiad4  ,,slosson4 ,major        
,prophets of ,to-day ,independent1      
,june1 #aiaa4 ,recent ,developments of  
,bergson's ,philosophy4 ,independent1   
,june1 #aiac4  ,,smith ,subjectivism and
 ,realism in ,modern ,philosophy4       
,philosophical ,review1 ,april1 #aijh4  
,,solomon4 ,bergson's ,philosophy4      
,mind1 ,jan1 #aiaa1 also ,fortnightly   
,review1 ,dec1 #aiaa ,creative          
,evolution4 ,mind1 ,july1 #aiaa4        
,,stebbing4 ,notion of ,truth in        
,bergson's ,theory of ,knowledge4 ,proc4
   ,aristotelian ,soc1 ,vol #aiab-ac4   
,,stork4 ,bergson and his ,philosophy4  
,lutheran ,quarterly1 #aiac4  ,,stout4  
,free ,will and ,determinism4 ,speaker1 
,may1 #ahij4  ,,strange4 ,bergson's     
,theory of ,intuition4 ,monist1 #aiae4  
,,symons ,bergson's ,theory of          

,intellect and ,reality4 ,scientific    
,american ,supplement1 ,dec1 #aiaf4     
,,taylor4 ,henri ,bergson4 ,quest1      
#aiab4  ,,taylor1 ,a4,e4 ,matter and    
,memory4 ,international ,journal of     
,ethics1 ,oct41 #aiaa4 ,creative        
,evolution4 ,international ,journal of  
,ethics1 ,july1 #aiab4  ,,thomson       
,biological ,philosophy of ,bergson4    
,nature1 ,oct41 #aiaa4  ,,titchener4    
,laughter4 ,american ,journal of        
,psychology1 ,jan41 #aiab4  ,,townsend4 
,bergson and ,religion4 ,monist1 ,july1 
#aiab4  ,,tufts4 ,humor4 ,psychological 
,review1 #aija4  ,,tuttle ,bergson on   
,life and ,consciousness4 ,philosophical
 ,review1 ,jan41 #aiab4  ,,tyrrell1 ,g4 
,creative ,evolution4 ,hibbert ,journal1
 ,jan41 #aijh4  ,,tyrrell1 ,h4 ,bergson4
 ,a ,poem4 ,art ,world1 ,sept41 #aiag4  
,,underhill ,bergson and the ,mystics4  
,living ,age1 ,march1 #aiab1 and        
,english ,review1 ,feb41 #aiab4         
,,waterlow4 ,philosophy of ,bergson4    
,quarterly ,review1 ,jan41 #aiab4       

,,white4 ,bergson and ,education4       
,educational ,review1 ,may1 #aiad4      
,,whittaker1 ,a4,l4 ,bergson3 ,first    
,aid to ,common-sense4 ,forum1 ,march1  
#aiad4  ,,whittaker1 ,t4 ,les donnees   
immediates de la conscience4 ,mind1     
,april1 #ahij4  ,,willcox4 ,impressions 
of ,m4 ,bergson4 ,harper's ,weekly1     
,march1 #aiac4 ,implications of         
,bergson's ,philosophy4 ,north ,american
   ,review1 ,march1 #aiad4  ,,williams4 
,syndicalism in ,france and ,its        
,relation to the ,philosophy of         
,bergson4 ,hibbert ,journal1 ,feb41     
#aiad4  ,,wilm ,bergson and ,philosophy 
of ,religion ,biblical ,world1 ,nov41   
#aiac4  ,,wolf4 ,natural ,realism and   
,present ,tendencies in ,philosophy     
,proc ,aristotelian ,soc1 ,vol1 #aijh-i4
 ,philosophy of ,bergson4 ,jewish       
,review1 ,sept1 #aiaa4  ,,wolff4        
,balfour on ,teleology and ,bergson's   
,creative ,evolution4   ,hibbert        
,journal1 ,jan1 #aiab4  ,,wyant ,bergson
 and ,his ,philosophy4 ,bookman1 ,march1

 #aiae4   7b7 ,unsigned ,articles  #aiji
 ,sept4 ,creative ,evolution4 ,nation4  
#aiji ,dec4  ,creative ,evolution4      
,current ,literature4 #aiji ,dec4       
,bergson's ,new ,idea ,current          
,literature4  #aiaj ,sept4 ,bergson on  
,free ,will ,spectator4 #aiaj ,oct4     
,time and ,free ,will4 ,athenaeum4 #aiaj
 ,oct4  ,time and ,free ,will4 ,saturday
 ,review4 #aiaj ,nov4  ,time and ,free  
,will4 ,nation 7,,usa7  #aiaa ,april    
,creative ,evolution ,athenaeum #aiaa   
,may   ,bergson's ,wonder-working       
,philosophy4 ,current ,literature4      
,bergson and ,others ,spectator4 #aiaa  
,june  ,creative ,evolution ,saturday   
,review4 #aiaa ,june  ,bergson in       
,english ,nation4 #aiaa ,aug4  ,latest  
of ,philosophers ,new ,york ,times4     
#aiaa ,aug4  ,new ,conception of ,god as
 ,creative ,evolution4                  
,current ,literature #aiaa ,oct4        
,creative ,evolution ,bookman4 #aiaa    
,oct4  ,creative ,evolution ,dial4 #aiaa
 ,oct4  ,creative ,evolution ,nature4   

#aiaa ,oct4  ,matter and ,memory4       
,international ,journal of ,ethics4     
#aiaa ,dec4  ,balfour's ,objections to  
,bergson's ,philosophy4                 
,current ,literature4  #aiab ,jan4      
,bergson and ,balfour discuss           
,philosophy4 ,review             of     
,reviews4 #aiab ,jan4  ,the ,soul       
,educational ,review #aiab ,feb4  ,is   
the ,philosophy of ,bergson that of a   
,charlatan8             ,current        
,literature #aiab ,feb4  ,bergson on    
,comedy ,living ,age #aiab ,aprl        
,bergson's ,intuitional ,philosophy     
justified by ,sir             ,oliver   
,lodge4 ,current ,literature4 #aiab     
,aprl ,laughter ,edinburgh ,review #aiab
 ,aprl ,bergson ,criticized4 ,london    
,quarterly ,review #aiab ,june          
,laughter4 ,north ,american ,review4    
,modern ,science and ,bergson4          
,contemporary ,review4      ,july       
,creative ,evolution4 ,international    
,journal of ,ethics4                    
,pressing ,forward into ,space4 ,nation4

            ,balfour and ,bergson4      
,westminster ,review4      ,sept4 ,prof4
 ,henri ,bergson4 ,open ,court4         
,laughter4 ,dublin ,review4  #aiac ,feb4
  ,eucken and ,bergson4 ,independent4   
,bergson's ,lectures4 ,outlook4         
,march ,bergson's ,new ,idea of         
,evolution4 ,literary ,digest4          
,bergson's ,reception in ,america4      
,current ,opinion4            ,visiting 
the ,french ,philosopher4 ,literary     
,digest4            ,the ,jewishness of 
,bergson4 ,literary ,digest4            
,bergson at the ,city ,college4         
,outlook4 #aiac ,march ,the ,spiritual  
,philosopher4 ,review of ,reviews4      
,april ,introduction to ,metaphysics4   
,contemporary ,review4                  
,bergson and ,eucken under ,fire4       
,current ,opinion4      ,oct4  ,such    
,stuff as ,dreams are ,made ,on4        
,independent4            ,the ,birth of 
a ,dream4 ,independent4                 
,bergson on ,psychical ,research4       
,educational ,review4  #aiad ,march     

,portrait of ,bergson4 ,american        
,magazine4      ,may   ,threatened      
,collapse of ,bergson boom in ,france4  
,current ,opinion4      ,july  ,the     
,banning of ,bergson4 ,independent4     
,dec4  ,bergson ,looking ,backward4     
,literary ,digest4            ,bergson  
on ,germany's ,moral ,force4 ,literary  
,digest4  #aiae ,jan4  ,mr4 ,kallen on  
,bergson4 ,north ,american ,review4     
,april                                  
,nation4            ,mr4 ,wildon ,carr  
and ,philosophy of ,change4 ,quest4     
#aiag ,may   ,bergson and the ,art      
,world4 ,art ,world4      ,sept4 ,are   
,americans ,money ,worshippers8         
,bergson's ,opinion4                    
,outlook4      ,dec4  ,bergson thanks   
,america4 ,new ,republic4  #aiai ,dec4  
,french ,ideals in ,education and the   
,american ,student4             ,living 
,age4    ,section ,,iv4 ,the ,english   
,translations of ,bergson's ,works  ,as1
 in the foregoing lists1 the ,english   
,translations of ,bergson's ,works are  

given separately under the heading of   
the date and title of the original work1
 they are here set forth together under 
the title of the publishers with        
translators' names and the published    
prices for convenience of reference for 
,english readers or students4  ,,george 
,,allen ,,and ,,unwin1 ,,ltd4   ,time   
and ,free ,will4 ,translator--,f4 ,l4   
,pogson1 ,m4,a4 ,pp4     xxiii#beb      
7#ab_/f74    ,matter and ,memory4       
,translators--,nancy ,margaret ,paul and
     ,w4 ,scott ,palmer4 ,pp4 xx#cci    
7#ab_/f74    ,both of these are in ,the 
,library of ,philosophy4  ,,macmillan   
,,and ,,co41 ,,ltd4   ,creative         
,evolution4 ,translator--,arthur        
,mitchell1 ,ph4,d4 ,pp4     xv#djg      
7#ab_/f74    ,laughter3 ,an ,essay on   
the ,meaning of the ,comic1             
,translators--     ,cloudesley ,brereton
 ,l4-es-,l41 ,m4,a41 and ,fred          
,rothwell1 ,b4,a4     ,pp4 vi#bjj       
7#d_/f74    ,an ,introduction to        
,metaphysics4 ,translator--,t4 ,e4      

,hulme4     ,pp4 vi#gi 7#c_/;e74        
,mind-,energy4 ,translator4 ,dr4 ,wildon
 ,carr4 7,announced47  ,t4 ,,fisher     
,,unwin1 ,,ltd4   ,dreams4              
,translator--,dr4 ,slosson4 ,pp4 #fb    
7#b_/f74    ,the ,meaning of the ,war4  
,editor1 ,dr4 ,carr4 ,pp4 #dg 7#a_/f74  
,the above are all the ,english         
,translations which have appeared up to 
now4 ,the ,oxford ,university ,press    
published in the original ,french the   
lectures given at ,oxford1 ,la          
,perception du ,changement4 ,these are  
now out of print1 but will be included  
in the forthcoming volume of ,essays4