,transcriber's ,notes ,obvious typographical errors have been silently corrected4 ,hyphenation and accents have been standardised1 but other variations remain unchanged4 ,footnotes are placed at the end of each chapter4 ,anchors for footnotes #add and #cfi have been added4 ,italics are represented thus italic4 ,,serpent-,,worship1 ,,and ,,other ,,essays ,,with ,a ,,chapter ,,on ,,totemism ,,by ,c4 ,,staniland ,,wake ,,london ,,george ,,redway ,,york ,,street ,,covent ,,garden #ahhh4 ,,contents4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,page4 ,,rivers ,,of ,,life #a ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,phallism ,,in ,,ancient ,,religions #h ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,the ,,origin ,,of ,,serpent-,,worship #ha ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,the ,,adamites #ajg ,,chapter ,v4 ,,the ,,descendants ,,of ,,cain #abh ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,sacred ,,prostitution #adi ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,marriage ,,among ,,primitive ,,peoples #afe ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,marriage ,,by ,,capture #ahj ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,development ,,of ,,the 8,,family0 #aib ,,chapter ,x4 ,,the ,,social ,,position ,,of ,,woman ,,as ,,affected ,,by 8,,civilisation0 #bai ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,spiritism ,,and ,,modern ,,spiritualism #bcc ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,totems ,,and ,,totemism #bdg ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,man ,,and ,,the ,,ape #bgh ,,chapter ,i4 ,,rivers ,,of ,,life4 ,the lines of development of the religious faiths of mankind have been aptly termed by ,major-,general ,forlong 8,rivers of ,life40 ,the streams of faiths are marvellously depicted by this writer in a chart which shows 8the rise and fall of the various religious ideas1 mythologies1 and rites which have at any time prevailed among nations40 ,this chart ingeniously shows1 moreover1 8the degrees of intensity manifested at stated periods by any particular wave of doctrine or worship1 and the mode in which the tributary streams of mythological or theological thought become in turn absorbed in the central ,river of ,life40 ,the views adopted by ,general ,forlong have much in common with those embodied in the works of ,godfrey ,higgins and some later writers1 but they have a special value as being based on personal observation4 ,the author of 8,rivers of ,life0 had the inestimable advantage of being admitted to shrines and of receiving instructions in sacred mysteries which are generally closed to ,european inquirers1 and of having made 8a diligent exploration of ruined temples1 pillars1 and mounds1 and all such traces of a primitive symbolism1 which lie scattered over the ,east and ,west1 as religious fossils underlying the superficial crust of theological strata40 ,rivers of religious life have a beginning1 like other streams1 and what are the sources to which man's primitive faiths may be traced8 ,the early 8symbolic objects of man's adoration0 are arranged by ,general ,forlong in the following order3 ,first1 ,tree2 #bnd1 ,phallic2 #crd1 ,serpent2 #dth1 ,fire2 #eth1 ,sun2 #fth1 ,ancestral4 ,the first 8breathings of the human soul0 were manifested under the sacred tree or grove1 whose refreshing shade is so highly valued in the ,east4 ,all nations1 particularly the ,aryan peoples1 have considered tree-planting a sacred duty1 and the grove was man's first temple1 8and became a sanctuary1 asylum1 or place of refuge1 and as time passed on1 temples came to be built in the sacred groves40 ,if tree-worship had such an origin as this1 its origin ought to be shown in the ideas associated with it4 ,what1 then1 are those ideas8 ,general ,forlong1 after referring to ,dr4 ,fergusson's statement that the tree and serpent are symbolised in every religious system which the world has known1 says that the two together are typical of the reproductive powers of vegetable and animal life4 ,the connection between tree and serpent-worship is often so intimate that we may expect one to throw light on the other4 ,the ,aryans generally may be called 8tree-worshippers10 and according to ,fergusson they as a rule destroyed serpents and serpent-worshipping races4 ,yet at ,athens and near ,rome both those faiths flourished together1 as they appear to have done also in many parts of ,western ,asia4 ,they are intimately associated with religious notions of many ,buddhist peoples4 ,this is shown curiously in the early legends of ,kambodia4 ,these are said by ,general ,forlong to present two striking features4 ,first1 a holy tree1 which the kingly race1 who came to this serpent country1 reposed under1 or descended from heaven by2 secondly1 that this tree-loving race are captivated by the dragon princess of the land4 ,it is the serpent king1 however1 who builds the city of ,nakon ,thom for his daughter and her stranger husband4 ,it is not improbable that ,buddhism originated among a people who were both tree and serpent-worshippers1 although the former became more intimately and at an earlier period associated with its founder4 ,let us now see what ideas are symbolised by the serpent4 ,we are told that he is 8an emblem of the ,sun1 ,time1 ,kronos1 and ,eternity40 ,the serpent was1 indeed1 the ,sun-,god1 or spirit of the sun1 and therefore ,power1 ,wisdom1 ,light1 and a fit type of creation and generative power4 ,dr4 ,donaldson came to the conclusion that the serpent has always a ,phallic significance1 a remark which exactly accords with ,general ,forlong's experience1 8founded simply upon close observation in ,eastern lands1 and conclusions drawn by himself1 unaided by books or teachers1 from thousands of stories and conversations with ,eastern priests and people40 ,the testimony of a competent and honest observer is all important1 and we must believe when we are told that the serpent1 or the constant early attendant on the ,lingam1 is the special symbol which veils the actual ,god4 ,the same may be said1 indeed1 of ,tree ,worship1 and as tree-worship and serpent-worship embrace the ,phallic faith1 the first three streams of faiths are represented by them4 ,it is evident1 however1 that ,phallic ideas are at the foundation of both tree and serpent-worship1 and the ,phallic stream of faith should be given the first place as the actual source of the ,rivers of ,life4 ,general ,forlong does1 indeed1 affirm that ,phallic worship enters so closely into union with all faiths to the present hour that it is impossible to keep it out of view4 ,we can well understand how this should be as to the tree1 serpent1 and solar cults1 but it is not so evident at first sight in relation to fire-worship4 ,if fire was1 however1 regarded as the servant of ,siva1 and all creating gods1 there is no difficulty in accepting the position4 ,the object of the worship offered to the sacred fire is consistent with that view4 ,thus ,greeks1 ,romans1 and ,hindoos 8besought ,agni by fervent prayers for increase of flocks and families1 for happy lives and serene old age1 for wisdom and pardon from sin40 ,general ,forlong appears to see in the worship of fire essentially a household faith1 and this was undoubtedly so if his explanation of the ,lares and ,penates is correct4 ,these symbols represented 8the past vital fire or energy of the tribe1 as the patriarch1 his stalwart sons and daughters did that of the present living fire the sacred hearth40 ,general ,forlong states1 indeed1 that everything relating to blood used to be connected with fire1 and he supposed1 therefore1 that agnatio may have been relation by fire1 for the agnati can only be those of the fire or father's side4 ,if the father derived his authority in the household from the sacred hearth-fire1 we can understand why ,general ,forlong has assigned to ancestor-worship the last place in his scheme4 ,he says1 moreover1 that ancestor-worship is 8a development and sequence of that idiosyncracy of man which has led him to worship and deify even the living--that which1 according to the teaching of ,euemerus1 accounts for all the mythological tales of the gods and god-like men of ,greece40 ,the ancestor was worshipped in the great chief1 the ,father of ,fathers1 each of whom was worshipped in the ,dii ,gentiles of his own class1 and this not only during the comparatively modern ,roman sway1 but during the ages of serpent1 fire1 and solar faiths4 ,in the still earlier faiths he was represented in the rude pillar1 as well as in the little ,lares and ,penates of the hearths4 ,in this case1 however1 ancestor-worship would seem to be entitled to stand on the same level as tree-worship and serpent-worship as a phase of the ,phallic faith4 ,in fact1 it is in a sense identified with serpent-worship4 ,general ,forlong remarks that among the ,greeks and ,romans 8the ancestor came to be honoured and worshipped only as the ,generator1 and so also the serpent as his symbol40 ,this agrees with the conclusion ,i have elsewhere endeavoured to establish1 that the serpent is really regarded as the representative of the ancestor1 in which case ancestor-worship is a very primitive faith1 although1 in a specialised form1 it may possibly1 as asserted by ,general ,forlong1 come later than fire-worship4 ,it can hardly now be doubted that the same ideas underlie all the early faiths4 ,this view is entertained by ,general ,forlong1 who says3 8,so imperceptibly arose the serpent on pure ,phallic faiths1 fire on these1 and sun on all1 and so intimately did all blend with one another1 that even in the ages of true history it was often impossible to descry the exact ,god alluded to40 ,the foundations of all those faiths1 and of ancestor-worship as allied to them1 must therefore be sought in the ideas entertained by mankind in the earliest times1 8when the races lived untaught1 herded with their cattle1 and had as their sole object in life the multiplication of these and of themselves40 ,the question arises1 however1 whether the simple faith which man then entertained was the earliest he had evolved4 ,general ,forlong answers this question in the negative1 for he says1 then referring to the serpent ,buddhism of ,kambodia1 that 8,fetish worship was the first worship1 and to a great extent is still the real faith of the ignorant1 especially about these parts40 ,he finds that nearly one quarter of the world yet deifies1 or at least reverences1 sticks and stones1 rams' horns and charms1 a practice not unknown even to later faiths4 ,the fundamental belief which furnishes the key to those phenomena1 as well as to the animal-worship which is so closely associated with one or other of the great faith streams1 should not be lost sight of4 ,jacob ,grimm pointed out1 in his 8,teutonic ,mythology10#a that all nature was thought of by the heathen ,germans as living4 ,gods and men transformed themselves into trees1 plants1 or beasts2 spirits and elements attained animal forms2 and therefore we cannot wonder at the heavenly bodies1 and even day and night1 summer and winter1 being actually personified4 ,these ideas lend themselves as well to fetishism as to sun-worship1 and all the ancient faiths alike may justly1 therefore1 be regarded as phases of one universal nature-worship4 ,mankind prays only for that which is thought good1 and if one man seeks to obtain his desire through the agency of a stick or a stone1 and another through a serpent or planetary god1 the difference between them is purely objective4 ,the prayers which were offered to the ,vedic gods would be equally appropriate in the mouth of a native of ,western ,africa4 ,they had relation simply to temporal needs1 and were1 says ,mr4 ,talboys ,wheeler1#b for plenty of rain1 abundant harvests1 and prolific cattle1 for bodily vigour1 long life1 numerous offspring1 and protection against all foes and robbers4 ,moreover1 the observances of the more advanced faiths have little practical difference from the fetishist4 ,all alike have for their object the compelling the good countenance1 or counteracting the evil designs1 of the gods or spirits1 and the real difference is to be sought in the symbols under which they are represented4 ,thus the ,vedic ,aryans regarded their deified abstractions as personified with human wants1 and invoked them with rites which 8may have formed an accompaniment to every meal1 and may have been regarded almost as a part of the cooking40 ,mr4 ,wheeler adds#c that 8,sometimes a deity is supposed to be attracted by the grateful sound of the stone and mortar by which the soma juice was expressed from the plant1 or by the musical noise of the churning sticks by which the wine was apparently stirred up and mixed with curds2 and the eager invokers implore the god not to turn aside to the dwelling of any other worshipper1 but to come to them only1 and drink the libation which they had prepared1 and reserve for them all his favours and benefits40 ,,footnotes3 #a ,eng4 ,trans41 vol4 ii41 p4 #fdg4 #b 8,the ,history of ,india10 vol4 i41 p4 #h4 #c ,ditto1 p4 #ac4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,phallism ,,in ,,ancient ,,religions4 ,dr4 ,faber1 when treating of the ancient mysteries in opposition to ,bishop ,warburton's views of their original purity1 says3 8,long before the time of ,apuleius1 whom he 7,warburton7 would describe as quitting the impure orgies of the ,syrian ,goddess for the blameless initiations of ,isis1 did the ,phallic processions1 if we may credit ,herodotus and ,diodorus1 form a most conspicuous and essential part1 not only of the mysteries in general1 but of these identical ,isiac or ,osiric mysteries in particular4 ,nor is there any reason to doubt their accuracy on this point4 ,the same detestable rites prevailed in ,palestine among the votaries of ,siton1 or ,adonis1 or ,baal-,peor1 long before the exodus of ,israel from ,egypt4 ,the same also1 anterior at least to the days of ,herodotus1 in ,babylonia1 ,cyprus1 and ,lydia4 ,the same likewise from the most remote antiquity in the mountains of ,armenia1 among the worshippers of the great mother ,anais2 and the same1 from the very first institution of their theological system1 as we may fairly argue from the uniform general establishment of this peculiar superstition1 among the ,celtic ,druids both of ,britain and of ,ireland4 ,nor do we find such orgies less prevalent in ,hindostan4 ,every part of the theology of that country 444 is inseparably blended with them1 and replete with allusions to their fictitious origin40#d ,it will not be necessary for me to give details of the rites by which the ,phallic superstition is distinguished1 as they may be found in the works of ,dulaure1#e ,richard ,payne ,knight1#f and many other writers4 ,i shall refer to them1 therefore1 only so far as may be required for the due understanding of the subject to be considered1 the influence of the ,phallic idea in the religions of antiquity4 ,the first step in the inquiry is to ascertain the origin of the superstition in question4 ,faber ingeniously referred to a primitive universal belief in a ,great ,father1 the curious connection seen to exist between nearly all non-,christian mythologies1 and he saw in ,phallic worship a degradation of this belief4 ,such an explanation as this1 however1 is not satisfactory1 since not only does it require the assumption of a primitive divine revelation1 but proof is still wanting that all peoples have1 or ever had1 any such notion of a great parent of mankind as that supposed to have been revealed4 ,and yet there is a valuable germ of truth in this hypothesis4 ,the ,phallic superstition is founded essentially in the family idea4 ,captain ,richard ,burton recognised this truth when he asserted that 8amongst all barbarians whose primal want is progeny1 we observe a greater or less development of the ,phallic worship40#g ,this view1 however1 is imperfect4 ,there must have been something more than a mere desire for progeny to lead primitive man to view the generative process with the peculiar feelings embodied in this superstition4 ,we are1 in fact1 here taken to the root of all religions--awe at the mysterious and unknown4 ,that which the uncultured mind cannot understand is viewed with dread or veneration1 as it may be1 and the object presenting the mysterious phenomenon may itself be worshipped as a fetish or the residence of a presiding spirit4 ,but there is nothing more mysterious than the phenomena of generation1 and nothing more important than the final result of the generative act4 ,reflection on this result would naturally cause that which led to it to be invested with a certain degree of superstitious significance4 ,the feeling generated would have a double object1 as it had a double origin--wonder at the phenomenon itself and a perception of the value of its consequences4 ,the former1 which is the most simple1 would lead to a veneration for the organs whose operation conduced to the phenomena1 hence the superstitious practices connected with the phallus and the yoni among primitive peoples4 ,in this1 moreover1 we have the explanation of numerous curious facts observed among ,eastern nations4 ,such is the respect shown by women for the generative organ of dervishes and fakirs4 ,such also is the ,semitic custom referred to in the ,hebrew ,scriptures as the putting of the hand under the thigh1 which is explained by the ,talmudists to be the touching of that part of the body which is sealed and made holy by circumcision2 a custom which was1 up to a recent date1 still in use among the ,arabs as the most solemn guarantee of truthfulness4#h ,the second phase of the ,phallic superstition is that which arises from a perception of the value of the consequences of the act of generation4 ,the distinction between this and the preceding phase is that1 while the one has relation to the organs engaged1 the other refers more particularly to the chief agent4 ,thus the father of the family is venerated as the generator1 and his authority is founded altogether on the act and consequences of generation4 ,we thus see the fundamental importance1 as well as the ,phallic origin1 of the family idea4 ,from this has sprung the social organisation of all primitive peoples4 ,an instance in point may be derived from ,mr4 ,hunter's account of the ,santals of ,bengal4 ,he says that the classification of this interesting people among themselves depends 8not upon social rank or occupation1 but upon the family basis40 ,this is shown by the character of the six great ceremonies in a ,santal's life1 which are1 8admission into the family2 admission into the tribe2 admission into the race2 union of his own tribe with another by marriage2 formal dismission from the living race by incremation2 lastly1 a reunion with the departed fathers40#i ,we may judge from this of the character of certain customs which are widespread among primitive peoples1 and the ,phallic origin of which has long since been lost sight of4 ,the value set on the results of the generative act would naturally make the arrival at the age of puberty an event of peculiar significance4 ,hence we find various ceremonies performed among primitive1 and even among civilised peoples1 at this period of life4 ,often when the youth arrives at manhood other rites are performed to mark the significance of the event4 ,marriage1 too1 derives an importance which it would not otherwise possess4 ,thus1 among many peoples1 it is attended with certain ceremonies denoting its object1 or at least marking it as an event of peculiar significance in the life of the individual or even in the history of the tribe4 ,the marriage ceremonial is especially fitted for the use of ,phallic rites or symbolism1 the former among semi-civilised peoples often being simply the act of consummation itself1 which appears to be looked on as part of the ceremony4 ,the symbolism we have ourselves retained to the present day in the wedding-ring1 which had undoubtedly a ,phallic origin1 if1 as appears probable1 it originated in the ,samothracian mysteries4#aj ,nor does the influence of the ,phallic idea end with life4 ,the veneration entertained for the father of the family1 as the 8generator10 led in time to peculiar care being taken of the bodies of the dead1 and finally to the worship of ancestors1 which1 under one form or another1 distinguished all the civilised nations of antiquity1 as it does even now most of the peoples of the heathen world4 ,there is one ,phallic rite which1 from its wide range1 is of peculiar importance4 ,i refer to circumcision4 ,the origin of this custom has not yet1 so far as ,i am aware1 been satisfactorily explained4 ,the idea that1 under certain climatic conditions1 circumcision is necessary for cleanliness and comfort1#aa does not appear to be well founded1 as the custom is not universal1 even within the tropics4 ,nor is the reason given by ,captain ,richard ,burton1 in his 8,notes connected with the ,dahoman10 for both circumcision and excision1 perfectly satisfactory4 ,the real origin of these customs has been forgotten by all peoples practising them1 and therefore they have ceased to have their primitive significance4 ,that circumcision at least had a superstitious origin may be inferred from the traditional history of the ,jews4 ,the old ,hebrew writers1 persistent in their idea that they were a peculiar people1 chosen by ,god for a special purpose1 asserted that this rite was instituted by ,jehovah as a sign of the covenant between ,him and ,abraham4 ,although we cannot doubt that this rite was practised by the ,egyptians and ,phnicians#ab long before the birth of ,abraham1 yet two points connected with the ,hebrew tradition are noticeable4 ,these are1 the religious significance of the act of circumcision--it is the sign of a covenant between ,god and man--and its performance by the head of the family4 ,these two things are indeed intimately connected2 since1 in the patriarchal age1 the father was always the priest of the family1 the officer of the sacrifices4 ,we have it on the authority of the ,veda that this was the case also among the primitive ,aryan people4#ac ,abraham1 therefore1 as the father and priest of the family1 performed the religious ceremony of circumcision on the males of his household4 ,circumcision1 in its inception1 is a purely ,phallic rite1#ad having for its aim the marking of that which from its associations is viewed with peculiar veneration1 and it connects the two phases of this superstition1 which have for their objects respectively the instrument of generation and the agent4 ,we are thus brought back to the consideration of the simplest form of ,phallic worship1 that which has for its object the generative organs1 viewed as the mysterious instruments in the realisation of that keen desire for children which distinguishes all primitive peoples4 ,this feeling is so nearly universal that it is a matter of surprise to find the act by which it is expressed stigmatised as sinful4 ,yet such is the case1 although the incidents in which the fact is embodied are so veiled in figure that their true meaning has long been forgotten4 ,clemens ,alexandrinus tells us that 8the bacchanals hold their orgies in honour of the frenzied ,bacchus1 celebrating their sacred frenzy by the eating of raw flesh1 and go through the distribution of the parts of butchered victims1 crowned with snakes1 shrieking out the name of that ,eva by whom error came into the world40 ,he adds that 8the symbol of the ,bacchic orgies is a consecrated serpent10 and that1 8according to the strict interpretation of the ,hebrew term1 the name ,hevia1 aspirated1 signifies a female serpent40#ae ,we have here a reference to the supposed fall of man from pristine 8innocence10 ,eve and the serpent being very significantly introduced in close conjunction1 and indeed becoming in some sense identified with each other4 ,in fact1 the ,arabic word for serpent1 hayyat1 may be said also to mean 8life10 and in this sense the legendary1 first human mother is called ,eve or ,chevvah1 in ,arabic hawwa4 ,in its relations1 as an asserted fact1 the question of the fall has an important bearing on the subject before us4 ,quite irrespective of the impossibility of accepting the ,mosaic ,cosmogony as a divinely-inspired account of the origin of the world and man--a cosmogony which1 with those of all other ,semitic peoples1 has a purely 8,phallic0 basis#af--the whole transaction said to have taken place in the ,garden of ,eden is fraught with difficulties on the received interpretation4 ,the very idea on which it is founded--the placing by ,god in the way of ,eve of a temptation which he knew she could not resist--is sufficient to throw discredit on the ordinary reading of the narrative4 ,the effect1 indeed1 that was to follow the eating of the forbidden fruit appears to an ordinary mind to furnish the most praiseworthy motive for not obeying the commandment to abstain4 ,that the 8eating of the forbidden fruit0 was simply a figurative mode of expressing the performance of the act necessary to the perpetuation of the human race--an act which in its origin was thought to be the source of all evil--is evident from the consequences which followed and from the curse entailed4#ag ,as to the curse inflicted on ,eve1 it has always been a stumbling block in the way of commentators4 ,for what connection is there between the eating of a fruit and sorrow in bringing forth children8 ,the meaning is evident1 however1 when we know that conception and child-bearing were the direct consequences of the act forbidden4 ,how far this meaning was intended by the compiler of the ,mosaic books we shall see further on4 ,the central feature of the ,mosaic legend of the 8fall0 is the reference to the tree of knowledge or wisdom4 ,it is now generally supposed that the forbidden fruit was a kind of citrus1#ah but certain facts connected with aborolatry clearly show this opinion to be erroneous4 ,among peoples in the most opposite regions of the world various species of the fig-tree are considered sacred4 ,in almost every part of ,africa the banyan is viewed with a special veneration4 ,livingstone noticed this among the tribes on the ,zambesi and the ,shire1#ai and he says that the banyan is looked upon with veneration all the way from the ,barotse to ,loanda1 and thought to be a preservative from evil4#bj ,du ,chaillu states that in almost every ,ishogo and ,ashango village he visited in ,western ,equatorial ,africa there was a large ficus 8standing about the middle of the main street1 and near the mbuiti or idol-house of the village40 ,the tree is sacred1 and if it dies the village is at once abandoned4#ba ,captain ,tuckey found the same thing on the ,congo1 where he says the ficus religiosa is considered sacred4#bb ,again1 according to ,cailli1 at ,mouriosso1 in ,western ,central ,africa1 the market was held under a tree1 which1 from his description1 must have been the banyan1 and he noticed the same thing in other towns4#bc ,it is evident from ,dr4 ,barth's 8,travels in ,central ,africa10 that superstitious regard for certain trees is found throughout the whole of the region he traversed1 and among some tribes the fig-tree occupies this position4 ,thus1 he says1 8the sacred grove of the village of ,isge was formed by magnificent trees1 mostly of the ficus tribe40#bd ,nor is this superstition unknown among other dark races of the ,southern ,hemisphere4 ,a species of the fig-tree is planted by the ,new ,zealanders close to the temples of their gods4 ,the superstition is traceable1 according to ,mr4 ,earle1 even among the aborigines of ,northern ,australia1 certain peculiar notions connected with the banyan tree being common to the inhabitants of the ,coburg ,peninsula and of the ,indian ,islands4#be ,mr4 ,marsden met with this superstition among the ,sumatrans1 and we learn from ,mr4 ,wallace that in one of the towns of ,eastern ,java the market is held under the branches of a tree allied to the sacred fig-tree4#bf ,if we turn to ,india1 we find that while the banyan is venerated by the ,brahmans1 it is the bo-tree which is held sacred by many of the followers of ,gautama ,buddha4 ,this may be because1 under the name of the ,pilpel1 it was the peculiar tree of the first recorded ,buddha1 of whom ,gautama was supposed by his disciples to be an incarnation4 ,both of these trees belong to the genus ficus1 and it is curious that1 although probably in consequence of ,semitic influence1 the ficus sycamorus was the sacred tree in ancient ,egypt1 of which it was the symbol1 its place appears ultimately to have been taken by the banyan 7ficus indica71#bg so highly venerated in other parts of ,africa4 ,now1 what is the explanation of the peculiar character ascribed to these trees by peoples who must1 on any hypothesis1 have been separated for thousands of years8 ,the bo-tree of the ,buddhists itself derived a more sacred character from its encircling the palm--the ,palmyra ,palm being the kalpa-tree1 or 8tree of life10 of the ,hindu paradise4#bh ,the ,buddhists term this connection 8the bo-tree united in marriage with the palm40 ,the ,phallic significance of the palm is well known1 and in its connection with the bo-tree we have the perfect idea of generative activity1 the combining of the male and female organs1 a combination intended by the ,hebrew legend when it speaks of the tree of life1 and also of 8the knowledge of good and evil40#bi 8,the palm-tree10 says ,dr4 ,inman1 8is figured on ancient coins alone1 or associated with some feminine emblem4 ,it typified the male creator1 who was represented as an upright stone1 a pillar1 a round tower1 a tree stump1 an oak-tree1 a pine-tree1 a maypole1 a spire1 an obelisk1 a minaret1 and the like40#cj ,as we have just seen1 the ,palmyra ,palm is the kalpa-tree1 or the 8tree of life0 of the ,hindu paradise1 and this was not the only kind of tree with which the idea of life was thus associated4 ,in the mythologies of more northern peoples the place of the palm is supplied by the more stately1 if less upright1 oak4 ,the patriarch ,jacob hid the idols of his household under the oak near ,shechem1#ca and his descendants afterwards made burnt offerings under every thick oak4#cb ,among the ,greeks and ,romans this tree was sacred to ,zeus1 or ,jupiter1 the ,father of ,gods and men4 ,with the ,russians1 the ,prussians1 and the ,germans1 the oak was equally sacred4 ,the sacred oak was the form under which the ,druids worshipped the ,supreme ,being ,hsus1 or ,mighty4 ,according to ,davies1#cc it was symbolised by the letter ,d1 which forms the consonantal sound of the word denoting ,god in many languages1 as it does of the name of the mythical father ,ad1 of the ,adamic stock of mankind4 ,in ,teutonic mythology the great oak forms the roof-tree of the ,volsung's hall1 spreading its branches far and wide in the upper air1 being the counterpart1 says ,mr4 ,cox1 of the mighty ,yggdrasil4#cd ,this is the gigantic ash-tree1 whose branches embrace the whole world1 and which is thought to be only another form of the colossal ,irminsul4 ,mr4 ,cox observes on this3 8,the tree and pillar are thus alike seen in the columns1 whether of ,herakles or of ,roland2 while the cosmogonic character of the myth is manifest in the legend of the primeval ,askr1 the offspring of the ash-tree1 of which ,virgil1 from the characteristic which probably led to its selection1 speaks as stretching its roots as far down into earth as its branches soar towards heaven40#ce ,the name of the ,teutonic ,askr is also that of the ,iranian ,meschia1#cf and the ash1 therefore1 must be identified with the tree from which springs the primeval man of the ,zarathustrian cosmogony4#cg ,so ,sigmund of the ,volsung ,tale is drawn from the trunk of a poplar tree1#ch which thus occupies the same position as the ash and the oak as a 8tree of life40 ,the poplar was1 indeed1 a sacred tree among many nations of antiquity4 ,this may1 doubtless1 be explained by reference to its 8habit10 which much resembles that of the sacred ,indian fig-tree1 with which the trembling movement1 as well as the shape1 of its leaves have caused it to be thus compared4 ,that the ideas symbolised by the various sacred trees of antiquity originated1 however1 with the fig-tree is extremely probable4 ,no other tree has been so widely venerated as this4 ,the sycamore 7ficus sycamorus7 was sacred to ,netpe1 the mother of ,osiris1 whose statue was generally made of its wood4 ,in relation to that subject1 ,sir ,gardner ,wilkinson says3#ci 8,the ,athenians had a holy fig-tree1 which grew on the #8sacred road1' where1 during the celebration of the ,eleusinian mysteries1 the procession which went from ,athens to ,eleusis halted4 ,this was on the sixth day of the ceremony1 called ,jacchus1 in honour of the son of ,jupiter and ,ceres1 who accompanied his mother in search of ,proserpine2 but the fig-tree of ,athens does not appear to have been borrowed from the sycamore of ,egypt1 unless it were in consequence of its connection with the mother of ,osiris and ,isis1 whom they supposed to correspond to ,ceres and ,bacchus40#dj ,according to ,plutarch1 a basket of figs formed one of the chief things carried in the processions in honour of ,bacchus1 and the sacred phallus1 like the statue of ,priapus1 appears to have been generally made of the wood of the fig-tree4#da ,these facts well show the nature of the ideas which had come to be connected with that tree4 ,to what has been already said may1 however1 be added the testimony of a ,french writer1 who1 after speaking of the lotus as one of the many symbols anciently used to represent the productive forces of nature1 continues3 8,il faut y joindre1 pour le rgne vgtal1 le figuier indien1 ou l'arbre des ,banians1 le figuier sacr ou religieux 7ficus indica1 bengalensis1 ficus religiosa1 c471 vata1 aswatha1 pipala1 et bien d'autres1 idaliss de bonne heure1 dans le mythologie des ,hindous1 sous la figure de l'arbre de vie1 arbre immense1 colonne de feu1 norme et orgueilleux phallus1 l'abord unique1 mais depuis devis et dispers1 et qui n'est peut-tre pas sans rapport1 soit avec l'arbre de la connaissance du bien et du mal1 soit avec d'autres symboles non moins fameux40#db ,that the ficus was the symbolical tree 8in the midst of the garden0 of the ,hebrew legend of the fall is extremely probable4 ,that notion would seem1 indeed1 to be required by reference to the fig leaves#dc as the covering used by ,adam and ,eve when1 after eating the forbidden fruit1 they found themselves to be naked4 ,the fig-tree1 moreover1 meets the difficulty in distinguishing between the tree of life and the tree of knowledge4 ,these1 according to the opinion above expressed1 as to the meaning of the 8fall10 would represent the male and female principles1 as do the bo-tree and palm1 8united in marriage10 of the ,buddhists1 the palm deriving more sacredness from being encircled by the ficus4 ,probably1 however1 the double symbol was of later introduction4 ,the banyan of itself would be sufficient to represent the dual idea1 when to the primitive one of 8knowledge0 was added that of 8life40 ,the stately trunk would answer to the 8tree of life10 while its fruit was the symbol of that which was more especially affected by the act of disobedience4 ,this was the eating of the fruit1 which1 as conveying the forbidden wisdom1 is evidently the essential feature of the legend1 and the fig had anciently just that symbolical meaning which would be required for the purpose4#dd ,throughout the ,east1 from the earliest historical period1 the fruit of the fig-tree was the emblem of virginity4 ,dr4 ,inman says3 8,the fruit of the tree resembles in shape the virgin uterus2 with its stem attached1 it symbolises the sistrum of ,isis4 ,its form led to the idea that it would promote fertility4 ,to this day1 in ,oriental countries1 the hidden meaning of the fig is almost as well known as its commercial value40#de ,that we have in the ,mosaic account of the 8fall0 a ,phallic legend1 is evident also from the introduction of the serpent on the scene1 and the position it takes as the inciting cause of the sinful act4 ,we are here reminded of the passage already quoted from ,clemens ,alexandrinus1 who tells us that the serpent was the special symbol of the worship of ,bacchus4 ,now this animal holds a very curious place in the religions of the civilised peoples of antiquity4 ,although1 in consequence of the influence of later thought1 it came to be treated as the personification of evil1 and as such appears in the ,hebrew legend of the fall1 yet originally the serpent was the special symbol of wisdom and healing4 ,in the latter capacity it appears even in connection with the ,exodus from ,egypt4 ,it is1 however1 in its character as a symbol of wisdom that it more especially claims our attention1 although these ideas are intimately connected--the power of healing being merely a phase of wisdom4 ,from the earliest times of which we have any historical notice the serpent has been connected with the gods of wisdom4 ,this animal was the especial symbol of ,thoth or ,taaut1 a primeval deity of ,syro-,egyptian mythology1#df and of all those gods1 such as ,hermes and ,seth1 who can be connected with him4 ,this is true also of the #crd member of the ,chaldean triad1 ,ha or ,hoa4 ,according to ,sir ,henry ,rawlinson1 the most important titles of this deity refer 8to his functions as the source of all knowledge and science40 ,not only is he 8the intelligent fish10 but his name may be read as signifying both 8life0 and a 8serpent10 and he may be considered as 8figured by the great serpent which occupies so conspicuous a place among the symbols of the gods on the black stones recording ,babylonian benefactions40#dg ,the serpent was also the symbol of the ,egyptian ,kneph1 who resembled the ,sophia of the ,gnostics1 the divine wisdom4 ,this animal1 moreover1 was the ,agatho-dmon of the religions of antiquity--the giver of happiness and good fortune4#dh ,it was in these capacities1 rather than as having a ,phallic significance1 that the serpent was associated with the sun-gods1 the ,chaldean ,bel1 the ,grecian ,apollo1 and the ,semitic ,seth4 ,but whence originated the idea of the wisdom of the serpent which led to its connection with the legend of the 8fall80 ,this may1 perhaps1 be explained by other facts1 which show also the nature of the wisdom here intended4 ,thus1 in the annals of the ,mexicans1 the first woman1 whose name was translated by the old ,spanish writers1 8the woman of our flesh10 is always represented as accompanied by a great male serpent4 ,this serpent is the sun-god ,tonacatle-coatl1 the principal deity of the ,mexican ,pantheon1 while the goddess-mother of primitive man is called ,cihua-,cohuatl1 which signifies 8woman of the serpent40#di ,according to this legend1 which agrees with that of other ,american tribes1 a serpent must have been the father of the human race4 ,this notion can be explained only on the supposition that the serpent was thought to have had at one time a human form4 ,in the ,hebrew legend the tempter speaks1 and 8the old serpent having two feet10 of ,persian mythology1 is none other than the evil spirit ,ahriman himself4#ej ,the fact is that the serpent was only a symbol1 or at most an embodiment of the spirit which it represented1 as we see from the belief of several ,african and ,american tribes1 which probably preserves the primitive form of this superstition4 ,serpents are looked upon by these peoples as embodiments of their departed ancestors1#ea and an analogous notion is entertained by various ,hindoo tribes4 ,no doubt the noiseless movement and the activity of the serpent1 combined with its peculiar gaze and marvellous power of fascination1 led to its being viewed as a spirit embodiment1 and hence also as the possessor of wisdom4#eb ,in the spirit character ascribed to the serpent1 we have the explanation of the association of its worship with human sacrifice noted by ,mr4 ,fergusson--this sacrifice being really connected with the worship of ancestors4 ,it is evident1 moreover1 that we find here the origin of the idea of evil sometimes associated with the ,serpent-,god4 ,the ,kafir and the ,hindu1 although he treats with respect any serpent which may visit his dwelling1 yet entertains a suspicion of his visitant4 ,it may perhaps be the embodiment of an evil spirit1 or for some reason or other it may desire to injure him4 ,mr4 ,fergusson states that 8the chief characteristic of the serpents throughout the ,east in all ages seems to have been their power over the wind and rain10 which they gave or withheld according to their good or ill-will towards man4#ec ,this notion is curiously confirmed by the title given by the ,egyptians to the ,semitic ,god ,seti or ,seth--,typhon1 which was the name of the ,phnician ,evil principle1 and also of a destructive wind1 thus having a curious analogy with the 8,typhoon0 of the ,chinese ,seas4#ed ,when the notion of a duality in nature was developed1 there would be no difficulty in applying it to the symbols or embodiments by which the idea of wisdom was represented in the animal world4 ,thus1 there came to be not only good1 but also bad serpents1 both of which are referred to in the narrative of the ,hebrew ,exodus1 but still more clearly in the struggle between the good and the bad serpents of ,persian mythology1 which symbolised ,ormuzd or ,mithra and the ,evil spirit ,ahriman4#ee ,so far as ,i can make out the serpent symbol has not a direct ,phallic reference1 nor is its attribute of wisdom the most essential4 ,the idea most intimately associated with this animal was that of life1 not present merely but continued and probably everlasting4#ef ,thus the snake ,bai was figured as ,guardian of the doorways of those chambers of ,egyptian ,tombs which represented the mansions of heaven4#eg ,a sacred serpent would seem to have been kept in all the ,egyptian temples1 and we are told that 8many of the subjects1 in the tombs of the kings at ,thebes1 in particular1 show the importance it was thought to enjoy in a future state40#eh ,crowns1 formed of the asp1 or sacred ,thermuthis1 were given to sovereigns and divinities1 particularly to ,isis1#ei and these1 no doubt1 were intended to symbolise eternal life4 ,isis was a goddess of life and healing1#fj and the serpent evidently belonged to her in that character1 seeing that it was the symbol also of other deities with the like attributes4 ,thus1 on papyri it encircles the figure of ,harpocrates1#fa who was identified with sculapius2 while not only was a great serpent kept alive in the temple of ,serapis1 but on later monuments this god is represented by a great serpent with or without a human head4#fb ,mr4 ,fergusson1 in accordance with his peculiar theory as to the origin of serpent-worship1 thinks that this superstition characterised the old ,turanian 7or let us rather say ,akkadian7 empire of ,chaldea1 while tree-worship was more a characteristic of the later ,assyrian ,empire4#fc ,this opinion is no doubt correct1 and it means really that the older race had that form of faith with which the serpent was always indirectly connected--adoration of the male principle of generation1 the principal phase of which was probably ancestor-worship2 while the latter race adored the female principle1 symbolised by the sacred tree1 the ,assyrian 8grove40 ,the 8tree of life10 however1 undoubtedly had reference to the male element1 and we may well imagine that originally the fruit alone was treated as symbolical of the opposite element4 ,there is still one important point connected with this legend which requires consideration as throwing light on another very widespread superstition4 ,baron ,bunsen says that the nature of the ,kerubim who were set to keep the way to the tree of life has not yet been satisfactorily explained4 ,he seems to think they have a volcanic reference1 although the usual supposition is that they were angels bearing 8flaming swords40 ,the latter opinion1 however1 could only have arisen from the association1 in other places1 of kerubim with seraphim1 who are also popularly supposed to be angelic spirits1 but whom ,bunsen thinks have reference to flame4 ,all these explanations1 however1 appear to me to be erroneous4 ,according to one opinion1 kerub is compounded of two words1 ke a particle of resemblance1 and rab1 signifying great1 powerful4 ,if this derivation be correct we may safely infer that the kerub was simply a representation of the strong deity himself1 of whom the flaming sword was also an emblem4 ,this notion is confirmed by the statement of the ,jewish ,targams that 8the glory of ,god dwelt between the two cherubim at the gate of ,eden1 just as it rested upon the two cherubim in the ,tabernacle40#fd ,it is curious that in the analogous ,greek myth of the ,garden of ,hesperides1 the golden apples were guarded by a serpent4 ,we have a closer resemblance to the ,hebrew ,kerubim in ,persian mythology4 ,delitzsch says 8the kerubs appear here as guards of ,paradise1 just as in the ,persian legend #ii1iii--;i4e41 innumerable attendants of the ,holy ,one keep watch against the attempts of ,ahriman over the tree ,hm1 which contains in itself the power of the resurrection4 ,much closer1 however1 lies the comparison of the winged lion-and-eagle-formed griffin1#fe which watch the gold-caves of the ,arimaspian metallic mountains1 and of the sometimes more or less hawk-formed1 sometimes only winged and otherwise man-formed-guardians1 upon the ,egyptian and ,assyrian monuments4 ,the resemblance of the symbols is surprisingly great2 and the comparison of the ,king of ,tyre1#ff to a protecting kerub with outspread wings1 who1 stationed on the holy mountain1 walked up and down in the midst of the stones of fire1 justifies us in assuming such a connection40#fg ,the real nature and origin of the ,hebrew kerub is apparent on reference to the language used by ,ezekiel in describing his vision of winged creatures4 ,dr4 ,faber shows clearly that these were the same as the kerubim in the ,holy of ,holies of the ,hebrew temple1 and he argues1 moreover1 with great justice1 that the latter must have agreed with those who were said to have been stationed before the tree of life in ,eden4 ,in fact1 the ,king of ,tyre is styled by ,ezekiel 8the anointed covering kerub of ,eden1 the garden of ,god40#fh ,now1 a curious difference is made by ,ezekiel in the two descriptions he gives of the creatures which appeared in his vision4 ,in the one case he describes them as having each four faces--that of a man1 that of a lion1 that of an ox1 and that of an eagle4#fi ,subsequently1 however1 they are described as having each the faces of a kerub1 of a man1 of an eagle1 and of a lion4#gj ,judging from this discrepancy1 the head of a kerub being substituted for that of an ox1 it has been suggested that the kerub and the ox are synonymous4 ,dr4 ,faber very justly observes on this difficulty1 that ,ezekiel 8would scarcely have called the head of the ox by way of eminence the head of a kerub1 unless the form of the ox so greatly predominated in the compound form of the kerub as to warrant the entire kerub being familiarly styled an ox40#ga ,this conclusion is the more probable when we consider that in the first vision the creatures are represented with feet like those of a calf4#gb ,in fact1 we have in this vision1 as in the kerubim of ,genesis1 animal representations of deity1 such as the ,persians and other ,eastern peoples delighted in1 the most prominent being that of the ox--or1 rather bull1 as it would be more properly rendered4 ,but what was the sacred bull of the religions of antiquity1 or rather what its mythological value8 ,dr4 ,faber says expressly on this subject3 8,there is perhaps no part of the ,gentile world in which the bull and the cow were not highly reverenced and considered in the light of holy and mysterious symbols40#gc ,he cites the traditional founder of the ,chinese empire1 ,fohi1 as having a son with a bull's head1 this personage being also venerated by the ,japanese under the title of the 8ox-headed prince of heaven40 ,according to ,mr4 ,doolittle1 a paper image of a domestic buffalo1 as large as life1 with smaller images in clay of this animal1 are carried in procession at the ,great ,chinese ,festival in honour of spring1 while a live buffalo accompanies the procession for some distance4#gd ,it is curious to find that at the other side of the ,europo-,asiatic continent the bull was considered sacred by the ,celtic ,druids1 it being reverenced by the ancient ,britons as the symbol of their ,great ,god ,hu4 ,thus also the ,kimbri 8adored their principal ,god under the form of a brazen bull20 as the ancient ,colchians worshipped brazen-footed bulls which were said to emit fire from their nostrils1 which has reference to the sacrifices with which they were propitiated4 ,dr4 ,faber says as to the ,great ,phnician ,god1 called by the ,greek translator of ,sanchoniatho ,agruerus1 from the circumstance of his being an agricultural ,god1 that he 8was worshipped by the ,syrians and their neighbours the ,canaanites1 under the titles of ,baal and ,moloch2 and1 as his shrine was drawn by oxen1 so he himself was represented by the figure of a man having the head of a bull1 and sometimes probably by the simple figure of a bull alone04 ,the ,persian ,mithra is also represented as a bull-god1 and it is highly suggestive that in one of the carved grottos near the ,campus ,marjorum he is figured under the symbol of the phallus surmounted by the head of a bull4 ,even among the ,hebrews themselves the golden calf was1 under the authority of ,aaron1 used as an object of worship1 a form of idolatry which was re-established by ,jeroboam1 if it had ever been abandoned4 ,dr4 ,faber1 indeed1 thinks that the calves worshipped at ,samaria were copies of the kerubim in the ,temple at ,jerusalem4 ,if we turn to peoples kindred to the ,hebrews1 we find that the ,phnician ,adonis was sometimes represented as a horned deity1 as were also ,dionysos and ,bacchus1 who were1 in fact1 merely the names under which ,adonis was worshipped in ,thrace and ,greece4 ,plutarch says that 8the women of ,elis were accustomed to invite ,bacchus to his temple on the seashore1 under the name of #8the heifer-footed divinity1' the illustrious bull1 the bull worthy of the highest veneration40 ,hence in the ceremonies1 during the celebration of the mysteries of ,bacchus and ,dionysos1 the bull always took a prominent place1 as it did also during the festivals of the allied deity of ,egypt--the bull ,apis being worshipped as an incarnation of ,osiris4 ,in ,india the bull is still held sacred by the ,brahmans1 and in ,hindu mythology it is connected with both ,siva and ,menu4#ge ,a superstitious veneration for this animal is in fact entertained by all pastoral or agricultural peoples who possess it4 ,to seek the explanation of this curious phenomenon in the traditional remembrance of the kerubic representations of deity which guarded the tree of life would be in the highest degree irrational4 ,these representations were merely copies of symbolical figures1 which1 like the story of the fall1 were borrowed from an ,eastern source4 ,the real explanation is found in the fact that the bull was an emblem of the productive force in nature4 ,the ,zend word gaya1 which means 8bull10 signifies also the 8soul0 or 8life10 as the same ,arabic word denotes both 8life0 and a 8serpent40 ,a parallel case is that of the ,zend word orour1 which means a 8tree0 as well as 8life0 or 8soul40#gf ,according to the cosmogany of the ,zend-,avesta1 ,ormuzd1 after he had created the heavens and the earth1 formed the first being1 called by ,zoroaster 8the primeval bull40 ,this bull was poisoned by ,ahriman1 but its seed was carried by the soul of the dying animal1 represented as an ized1 to the moon1 8where it is continually purified and fecundated by the warmth and light of the sun1 to become the germ of all creatures40 ,at the same time the material prototypes of all living things1 except perhaps man himself1 issued from the body of the bull4#gg ,this is but a developed form of the ideas which anciently were almost universally associated with this animal1 among those peoples who were addicted to sun-worship4 ,there is no doubt1 however1 that the superstitious veneration for the bull existed1 as it still exists1 quite independent of the worship of the heavenly bodies4#gh ,the bull1 like the goat1 must have been a sacred animal in ,egypt before it was declared to be an embodiment of the sun-god ,osiris4 ,in some sense1 indeed1 the bull and the serpent1 although both of them became associated with the solar deities1 were antagonistic4 ,the serpent was symbolical of the personal male element1 or rather had especial reference to the man1#gi while the bull had relation to nature as a whole1 and was symbolical of the general idea of fecundity4 ,this antagonism was brought to an issue in the struggle between ,osiris and ,seti 7,seth71 which ended in the triumph of the god of nature1 although it was renewed even during the ,exodus1 when the golden calf of ,osiris or ,horus was set up in the ,hebrew camp4 ,the reference made to the serpent1 to the tree of wisdom1 and to the bull1 in the legend of the 8fall10 sufficiently proves its ,phallic character1 which was1 indeed1 recognised in the early ,christian church4#hj ,judging from the facts above referred to1 however1 we can hardly doubt that the legend was derived from a foreign source4 ,that it could not be original to the ,hebrews may1 ,i think1 be proved by several considerations4 ,the position occupied in the legend by the serpent is quite inconsistent with the use of this animal symbol by ,moses4#ha ,like ,satan himself even1 as the ,rev4 ,dunbar ,heath has shown1#hb the serpent had not1 indeed1 a wholly evil character among the early ,hebrews4 ,in the second place1 the condemnation of the act of generation was directly contrary to the central idea of patriarchal history4 ,the promise to ,abraham was that he should have seed 8numerous as the stars of heaven for multitude10 and to support this notion the descent of ,abraham is traced up to the first created man1 who is commanded to increase and multiply4 ,the legend of the fall is not unknown to ,hindu mythology1 but here the subject of the temptation is the divine ,brahma1 who1 however1 is not only mankind collectively1 but a man individually4#hc ,in human shape he is ,sivayambhuva1 and to try this progenitor of mankind1 ,siva1 as the ,supreme ,being1 8drops from heaven a blossom of the sacred vata1 or ,indian fig--a tree which has been always venerated by the natives on account of its gigantic size and grateful shadows1 and invested alike by ,brahman and by ,buddhist with mysterious significations1 as the tree of knowledge or intelligence 7bodhidruma74#hd ,captivated by the beauty of the blossom1 the first man 7,brahma7 is determined to possess it4 ,he imagines that it will entitle him to occupy the place of the ,immortal1 and hold converse with the ,infinite2 and on gathering up the blossom1#he he at once becomes intoxicated by this fancy1 and believes himself immortal and divine4 ,but ere the flush of exultation has subsided1 ,god ,himself appears to him in terrible majesty2 and the astonished culprit1 stricken by the curse of heaven1 is banished far from ,brahmapattana1 and consigned to an abyss of misery and degradation4 ,from this1 however1 adds the story1 an escape is rendered possible on the expiration of some weary term of suffering and of penance4 ,and the parallelism which it presents to sacred history is well-nigh completed when the legend tells us further that woman1 his own wife1 whose being was derived from his1 had instigated the ambitious hopes which led to their expulsion1 and entailed so many ills on their posterity40#hf ,that parallelism cannot well be the result of mere coincidence1 and the reference to the fig-tree in the ,hindu legend not only renders it highly probable that this was the tree of knowledge#hg of ,hebrew legend1 but confirms1 by the symbolical ideas connected with it1 the explanation of the nature of the 8fall0 given in the preceding pages4 ,the real meaning of the legend was well understood by the ,gnostics and ,manicheans1 and those ,christian ,fathers who were brought into contact with ,eastern ideas through them4#hh ,the ,persians1 who were indebted to the ,chaldeans for many of their religious ideas1 possessed the story of the fall in a form agreeing more closely with that which may have been the original of the ,hebrew legend4 ,according to the ,boundehesch1 one of the sacred books of the ,parsees1 a tree gave birth to the primeval man ,meschia4 ,the body of this androgynous being afterwards became divided1 one part being male and the other female--,meschia and ,meschiana1#hi as the man and woman were called--were at first pure and holy1 but seduced by ,ahriman1 who had metamorphosed himself into a serpent1 they rendered to the ,prince of ,darkness the worship which was due only to ,ormuzd1 the ,god of ,light4 ,meschia and ,meschiana thus lost their primitive purity1 which neither they nor their descendants could recover without the assistance of ,mithra1 the god who presided at the mysteries or at the initiations--that is to say1 at the way of rehabilitation which is opened before those who seek earnestly the salvation of their souls4#ij ,at the instigation of ,ahriman1 the man and woman had1 for the first time1 committed1 in thought1 word1 and deed1 the carnal sin1 and thus tainted with original sin all their descendants4#ia ,lajard1 referring to this legend1 adds in a note3 8,le triple caractre que presente ici le pch originel est trs nettement indiqu dans le passage cit du ,boundehesch4 ,il y est accompagn de dtails que font de ce passage un des morceaux les plus curieux de ce trait4 ,quelques-uns de ces dtails 444 rattache ce mme mot 7serpent7 ou sa racine la dnomination des parties sexuelles de la homme et de la femme40 ,the ,persian account of the fall and its consequences agrees so closely with the ,hebrew story when stripped of its figurative language that we cannot doubt that they refer to the same legend1#ib and the use of figurative language in the latter may well lead us to believe that it was of later date than the former4#ic ,in ,ahriman1 who was known to ,persian teaching as 8the old serpent having two feet10 we evidently have the origin of the speaking serpent of ,genesis1 while in 8the seed of the woman who shall bruise the serpent's head10 the follower of ,zarathustra would have seen a reference to ,mithra1 just as the ,christian finds there a prophecy of ,christ4 ,even the antagonism between the ,cherubim and the ,serpent can be found in ,persian teaching1 for it was to the malignant action of the ,serpent ,az that the death1 not only of the first man1 but of the 8primeval bull10 was due4#id ,the latter was formed by ,ormuzd after the creation of the heavens and the earth1 and that from which proceeded the material prototypes of all the beings 8who live in the water1 on the earth1 and in the air40#ie ,it is very probable1 however1 that when the legend was appropriated by the compiler of the ,hebrew ,scriptures it had a moral significance as well as a merely figurative sense4 ,the legend is divisible into two parts--the first of which is a mere statement of the imparting of wisdom by the serpent and by the eating of the fruit of a certain tree1 these ideas being synonymous1 or at least consistent1 as appears by the attributes of the ,chaldean ,ha4#if ,the nature of this wisdom may be found in the rites of the ,hindu ,sacti ,puja4#ig ,the second part of the legend1 which is probably of much later date1 is the condemnation of the act referred to1 as being in itself evil and as leading to misery1 and even to death itself4 ,the origin of this later notion must be sought in the esoteric doctrine taught in the mysteries of ,mithra1 the fundamental idea of which was the descent of the soul to earth and its re-ascent to the celestial abodes after it had overcome the temptations and debasing influences of the material life4#ih ,lajard shows that these mysteries were really taken from the secret worship of the ,chaldean ,mylitta1 but the reference to 8the seed of the woman who shall bruise the serpent's head10 is too ,mithraic for us to seek for an earlier origin for the special form of the ,hebrew myth4 ,the object of the myth evidently was to explain the origin of death1#ii from which man was to be delivered by a coming ,saviour1 and the whole idea is strictly ,mithraic1 the ,persian deity himself being a ,saviour ,god4#ajj ,the importance attached to virginity by the early ,christians sprang from the same source4 ,the ,avesta is full of reference to 8purity0 of life1 and there is reason to believe that in the secret initiations the followers of ,mithra were taught to regard marriage itself as impure4#aja ,the religious ideas which found expression in the legend of the fall were undoubtedly of late development1#ajb although derived from still earlier phases of religious thought4 ,the simple worship in symbol of the organs of generation1 and of the ancestral head of the family1 prompted by the desire for offspring and the veneration for him who produced it1 was extended to the generative force in nature4 ,the bull which1 as we have seen1 symbolised this force1 was not restricted to earth1 but was in course of time transferred to the heavens1 and as one of the constellations was thought to have a peculiar relation to certain of the planetary bodies4 ,this astral phase of the ,phallic superstition was not unknown to the ,mosaic religion4 ,a still earlier form of this superstition was1 however1 known to the ,hebrews1 probably forming a link between the worship of the symbol of personal generative power and that of the heavenly phallus2 as the worship of the bull connected the veneration for the human generator with that for the universal father4 ,one of the primeval gods of antiquity was ,hermes1 the ,syro-,egyptian ,thoth1 and the ,roman ,mercury4 ,kircher identifies him also with the god ,terminus4 ,this is doubtless true1 as ,hermes was a god of boundaries1 and appears1 as ,dulaure has well shown1 to have presided over the national frontiers4 ,the meaning of the word 8,thoth0--erecting--associates it with this fact4 ,the peculiar primitive form of ,mercury or ,hermes was 8a large stone1 frequently square1 and without either hands or feet4 ,sometimes the triangular shape was preferred1 sometimes an upright pillar1 and sometimes a heap of rude stones60#ajc ,the pillars were called by the ,greeks ,herm1 and the heaps were known as ,herman heaps--the latter being accumulated 8by the custom of each passenger throwing a stone to the daily-increasing mass in honour of the god40 ,sometimes the pillar was represented with the attributes of ,priapus4#ajd ,the identification of ,hermes or ,mercury with ,priapus is confirmed by the offices which the latter deity fulfilled4 ,one of the most important was that of protector of gardens and orchards1 and probably this was the original office performed by ,hermes in his character of 8a ,god of the country40#aje ,figures set up as charms to protect the produce of the ground would1 in course of time1 be used not only for this purpose1 but also to mark the boundaries of the land protected1 and these two offices being divided1 two deities would finally be formed out of one4 ,the ,greek ,hermes was connected also with the ,egyptian ,khem1 and no less1 if we may judge from the symbols used in his worship1 with the ,hebrew ,eloah4 ,thus1 in the history of the ,hebrew patriarchs1 we are told that when ,jacob entered into a covenant with his father-in-law1 ,laban1 a pillar was set up and a heap of stones made1 and ,laban said to ,jacob1 8,behold this heap and behold this pillar1 which ,i have cast betwixt me and thee2 this heap be witness1 and this pillar be witness1 that ,i will not pass over this heap to thee1 and that thou shall not pass over this heap and this pillar unto me for harm40#ajf ,we have here the ,herm and ,herman heap1 used by the ,greeks as landmarks and placed by them on the public roads4 ,in the linga of ,india we have another instance of the use of the pillar symbol4 ,the form of this symbol is sufficiently expressive of the idea which it embodies1 an idea which is more explicitly shown when the ,linga and the ,yoni are1 as is usually the case among the worshippers of the ,hindu ,siva1 combined to form the ,lingam4 ,the stone figure is not1 however1 itself a god1 but only representative of a spirit1#ajg who is thought to be able to satisfy the yearning for children1 so characteristic of many primitive peoples1 this probably having been its original object and the source of its use as an amulet for the protection of children against the influence of the evil eye4 ,in course of time1 however1 when other property came to be coveted equally with offspring1 the power to give this property would naturally be referred to the primitive ,phallic spirit1 and hence he became1 not merely the protector1 as above seen1 of the produce of the fields1 and the guardian of boundaries1 but also the ,god of wealth and traffic1 and even the patron of thieves1 as was the case with the ,mercury of the ,romans4 ,the ,hebrew patriarchs desired great flocks as well as numerous descendants1 and hence the symbolic pillar was peculiarly fitted for their religious rites4 ,it is related even of ,abraham1 the traditional founder of the ,hebrew people1 that he 8planted a grove#ajh 7eshel7 in ,beersheba1 and called there on the name of ,jehovah1 the everlasting ,elohim40#aji ,from the ,phallic character of the 8grove0 7ashera71#aaj said to have been in the ,house of ,jehovah1 we must suppose that the eshel of ,abraham also had a ,phallic reference4#aaa ,most probably the so-called 8grove0 of the earlier patriarch1 though perhaps of wood1 and the stone 8bethel0 of ,jacob had the same form1 and were simply the betylus1#aab the primitive symbol of deity among all the ,semitic and many ,hamitic peoples4 ,the participation of the ,hebrew patriarchs in the rites connected with the 8pillar-worship0 of the ancient world1 renders it extremely probable that they were not strangers to the later planetary worship4 ,many of the old ,phallic symbols were associated with the new superstition1 and ,abraham1 being a ,chaldean1 it is natural to suppose that he was one of its adherents4 ,tradition1 indeed1 affirms that ,abraham was a great astronomer1 and at one time at least a worshipper of the heavenly bodies1 and that he and the other patriarchs continued to be affected by this superstition is shown by various incidents related in the ,pentateuch4 ,thus1 in the description given of the sacrificial covenant between ,abraham and ,jehovah1 it is said that1 after ,abraham had divided the sacrificial animals1 a deep sleep fell upon him as the sun was going down1 and ,jehovah spoke with him4 8,then when the sun went down1 and it was dark1 behold a smoking furnace1 and a burning lamp1 that passed between those pieces40 ,the happening of this event at the moment of the sun's setting reminds us of the ,saban custom of praying to the setting sun1 still practised1 according to ,palgrave1 among the nomads of central ,arabia4 ,that some great religious movement1 ascribed by tradition to ,abraham1 did take place among the ,semites at an early date is undoubted4 ,what the object of this covenant was it is difficult to decide4 ,it should be remembered that the ,chaldeans worshipped a plurality of gods1 supposed to have been symbolised by the seven planets4 ,among these deities the sun-god held a comparatively inferior position--the moon-god ,hurki coming before him in the second triad4#aac ,it was at ,ur1 the special seat of the worship of the moon-god1#aad that ,abraham is said to have lived before he quitted it for ,haran4 ,this fact1 considered in the light of the traditions relating to the great patriarch1 may perhaps justify us in inferring that the reformation he endeavoured to introduce was the substitution of a simple sun-worship1 for the planetary cultus of the ,chaldeans1 in which the worship of the moon must to him have appeared to occupy an important place4 ,the new faith was1 indeed1 a return to the old ,phallic idea of a god of personal generation1 worshipped through the symbolical betylus1 but associated also with the adoration of the sun as the especial representative of the deity4 ,that ,abraham had higher notions of the relation of man to the divine being than his forerunners is very probable1 but his sojourn in ,haran proves that there was nothing fundamentally different between his religious faith and that of his ,syrian neighbours4 ,i am inclined1 indeed1 to believe that to the traditional ,abraham must be ascribed the establishment of sun-worship throughout ,phnicia and ,lower ,egypt in connection with the symbols of an earlier and more simple ,phallic deity4 ,tradition1 in fact1 declares that he taught the ,egyptians astronomy1#aae and we shall see that the religion of the ,phnicians1 as1 indeed1 that of the ,hebrews themselves1 was the worship of ,saturn1 the erect1 pillar-god who1 under different names1 appears to have been at the head of the pantheons of most of the peoples of antiquity4 ,the reference in ,hebrew history to the seraphim of ,jacob's family recalls the fact that ,abraham's father was ,terah1 a 8maker of images40 ,the teraphim were doubtless the same as the seraphim1 which were serpent images1#aaf and probably the household charms or idols of the ,semitic worshippers of the sun-god1 to whom the serpent was sacred4 ,little is known of the religious habits of the ,hebrews during their abode in ,egypt4 ,probably they differed little from those of the ,egyptians themselves1 and even in the religion of ,moses1 so-called1 which we may presume to have been a reformed faith1 there are many points of contact with the earlier cultus4 ,the use of the ark of ,osiris and ,isis shows the influence of ,egyptian ideas1 and the introduction of the new name for ,god1 ,jahve1 is evidence of contact with later ,phnician thought4 ,the ark was doubtless used to symbolise nature1 as distinguished from the serpent and pillar symbols1 which had relation more particularly to man4 ,the latter1 however1 were by far the most important1 as they were most intimately connected with the worship of the national deity1 who was the divine father1 as ,abraham was the human progenitor1 of the ,hebrew people4 ,that this deity1 notwithstanding his change of name1 retained his character of a sun-god1 is shown by the fact that he is repeatedly said to have appeared to ,moses under the figure of a flame4 ,the pillar of fire which guided the ,hebrews by night in the wilderness1 the appearance of the cloudy pillar at the door of the ,tabernacle1 and probably of a flame over the mercy seat to betoken the presence of ,jehovah1 and the perpetual fire on the altar1 all point to the same conclusion4 ,the notion entertained by ,ewald that the idea connected with the ,hebrew ,jahve was that of a 8,deliverer0 or a 8,healer0 7,saviour7#aag is quite consistent with the fact ,i have stated4 ,the primeval ,phenic deity ,el or ,cronus was not only the preserver of the world1 for the benefit of which he offered a mystical sacrifice1#aah but 8,saviour0 was a common title of the sun-gods of antiquity4 ,there is one remarkable incident which is said to have happened during the wanderings of the ,hebrews in the ,sinaitic wilderness which appears to throw much light on the character of the ,mosaic cultus and to connect it with other religions4 ,i refer to the use of the brazen serpent as a symbol for the healing of the people4 ,the worship of the golden calf may1 perhaps1 be said to be an idolatrous act in imitation of the rites of ,egyptian ,osiris worship1 although probably suggested by the use of the ark4 ,the other case1 however1 is far different1 and it is worth while repeating the exact words in which the use of the serpent symbol is described4 ,when the people were bitten by the 8fiery0 serpents1#aai ,moses prayed for them1 and we read that1 therefore1 8,jehovah said unto ,moses1 make thee a fiery serpent 7literally1 a seraph71 and set it upon a pole2 and it shall come to pass1 that every one that is bitten1 when he looketh upon it1 shall live4 ,and ,moses made a serpent of brass1 and put it upon a pole1 and it came to pass1 that if a serpent had bitten any man1 when he beheld the serpent of brass1 he lived40#abj ,it would seem from this account that the ,hebrew seraph was1 as before suggested1 in the form of a serpent2 but what was the especial significance of this healing figure8 ,at an earlier stage of our inquiry reference was made to the fact of the serpent being indirectly1 through its attribute of wisdom1 a ,phallic symbol1 but also directly an emblem of 8life10 and to the peculiar position it held in nearly all the religions of antiquity4 ,in later ,egyptian mythology the contest between ,osiris and the ,evil ,being1 and afterwards that between ,horus and ,typhon1 occupy an important place4 ,typhon1 the adversary of ,horus1 was figured under the symbol of a serpent1 called ,aphphis or the ,giant1#aba and it cannot be doubted that1 if not a form of1 he was identified with the god ,seth4 ,professor ,reuvens refers to an invocation of ,typhon-,seth1#abb and ,bunsen quotes the statement of ,epiphanius that 8the ,egyptians celebrate the festivals of ,typhon under the form of an ass1 which they call ,seth40#abc ,whatever may be the explanation of the fact1 it is undoubted that1 notwithstanding the hatred with which he was afterwards regarded1 this god ,seth or ,set was at one time highly venerated in ,egypt4 ,bunsen says that up to the thirteenth century ,b4,c4 ,set 8was a great god universally adored throughout ,egypt1 who confers on the sovereigns of the eighteenth and nineteenth dynasties the symbols of life and power4 ,the most glorious monarch of the latter dynasty1 ,sethos1 derives his name from this deity40 ,he adds3 8,but subsequently1 in the course of the twentieth dynasty1 he is suddenly treated as an evil demon1 inasmuch as his effigies and name are obliterated on all the monuments and inscriptions that could be reached40 ,moreover1 according to this distinguished writer1 ,seth 8appears gradually among the ,semites as the background of their religious consciousness20 and not merely was he 8the primitive god of ,northern ,egypt and ,palestine10 but his genealogy as 8the ,seth of ,genesis1 the father of ,enoch 7the man71 must be considered as originally running parallel with that derived from the ,elohim1 ,adam's father40#abd ,that ,seth had some special connection with the ,hebrews is proved1 among other things1 by the peculiar position occupied in their religious system by the ass--the first-born of which alone of all animals was allowed to be redeemed#abe--;and the red heifer1 whose ashes were to be reserved as a 8water of separation0 for purification from sin4#abf ,both of these animals were in ,egypt sacred to ,seth 7,typhon71 the ass being his symbol1 and red oxen being at one time sacrificed to him1 although at a later date objects of a red colour were disliked1 owing to their association with the dreaded ,typhon4#abg ,that we have a reference to this deity in the name of the ,hebrew lawgiver is very probable4 ,no satisfactory derivation of this name1 ,moses1 ,msheh 7,heb471 has yet been given4 ,its original form was probably ,am-a-ses or ,am-sesa1#abh which might become to the ,hebrews ,om-ses or ,mo-ses1 meaning only the 7god7 ,ses1 i4e41 ,set or ,seth4#abi ,on this hypothesis we may have preserved1 in the first book of ,moses 7so-called71 some of the traditional history said to have been contained in the sacred books of the ,egyptian ,thoth1 and of the records engraved on the pillars of ,seth4 ,it is somewhat remarkable that1 according to a statement of ,diodorus1 when ,antiochus ,epiphanes entered the temple at ,jerusalem1 he found in the ,holy of ,holies a stone figure of ,moses1 represented as a man with a long beard1 mounted on an ass1 and having a book in his hand4#acj ,the ,egyptian ,mythus of ,typhon actually said that ,set fled from ,egypt riding on a grey ass4#aca ,it is strange1 to say the least1 that ,moses should not have been allowed to enter the promised land1 and that he should be so seldom referred to by later writers until long after the reign of ,david1#acb and above all that the name given to his successor was ,joshua--i4e41 ,saviour4 ,it is worthy of notice that 8,nun10 the name of the father of ,joshua1 is the ,semitic word for fish1 the ,phallic character of the fish in ,chaldean mythology being undoubted4 ,nin1 the planet ,saturn1 was the fish-god of ,berosus1 and1 as may possibly be shown1 he is really the same as the ,assyrian national deity ,asshur1 whose name and office have a curious resemblance to those of the ,hebrew leader1 ,joshua4 ,but what was the character of the primitive ,semitic deity8 ,bunsen seems to think that ,plutarch in one passage alludes to the identity of ,typhon 7,seth7 and ,osiris4#acc ,this is a remarkable idea1 and yet curiously enough ,sir ,gardner ,wilkinson says that ,typhon-,seth may have been derived from the pigmy ,pthath-,sokari-,osiris1#acd who was clearly only another form of ,osiris himself4 ,in the ,egyptian ,book of the ,dead1 ,horus1 the son of ,osiris1 is declared to be at the same time ,set1 8by the distinction made between them by ,thoth40#ace ,however that may be1 the ,phallic origin of ,seth can be shown from other data4 ,thus it appears that the word ,set means1 in ,hebrew as in ,egyptian1 pillar1 and1 in a general sense1 the erect1 elevated1 high4#acf ,moreover1 in a passage of the ,book of the ,dead1 ,set1 according to ,bunsen1 is called ,tet1 a fact which intimates that ,thoth inherited many of the attributes of ,set4#acg ,they were1 however1 in some sense the same deities1 it being through ,thoth that ,set was identified with ,horus4 ,we have here an explanation of the statement that ,tet1 the ,phnician ,taaut1 was the snake-god1 ,esmun-,esculapius1 the serpent being the symbol of ,tet1 as we have seen it to have been that of ,seth also4 ,in this we have a means of identifying the ,semitic deity ,seth with the ,saturn of related deities of other peoples4 ,ewald says that 8the common name for ,god1 ,eloah1 among the ,hebrews1 as among all the ,semites1 goes back into the earliest times40#ach ,bryant goes further1 and declares that ,el was originally the name of the supreme deity among all the nations of the ,east4#aci ,this idea is confirmed1 so far as ,chaldea is concerned1 by later researches1 which show that ,il or ,el was at the head of the ,babylonian ,pantheon4 ,with this deity must be identified the ,il or ,ilus of the ,phnicians1 who was born the same as ,cronus1 who1 again1 was none other than the primeval ,saturn1 whose worship appears to have been at one period almost universal among ,european and ,asiatic peoples4 ,saturn and ,el were thus the same deity1 the latter1 like the ,semitic ,seth1 being1 as is well known1 symbolised by the serpent4#adj ,a direct point of contact between ,seth and ,saturn is found in the ,hebrew idol ,kiyun mentioned by ,amos1 the planet ,saturn being still called ,kevan by ,eastern peoples4 ,this idol was represented in the form of a pillar1 the primeval symbol of deity1 which was common undoubtedly to all the gods here mentioned4#ada ,these symbolical pillars were called betyli or betulia4 ,sometimes also the column was called ,abaddir1 which1 strangely enough1 ,bryant identifies with the serpent-god4#adb ,there can be no doubt that both the pillar and the serpent were associated with many of the sun-gods of antiquity4 ,notwithstanding what has been said it is undoubtedly true1 however1 that all these deities1 including the ,semitic ,seth1 became at an early date recognised as sun-gods1 although in so doing they lost nothing of their primitive character4 ,what this was is sufficiently shown by the significant names and titles they bore4 ,thus1 as we have seen1 ,set 7,seth7 itself meant the erect1 elevated1 high1 his name on the ,egyptian monuments being nearly always accompanied by a stone4#adc ,the name1 ,kiyun or ,kevan1 of this deity1 said by ,amos to have been worshipped in the wilderness1 signifies 8god of the pillar40 ,the idea expressed by the title is shown by the name ,baal ,tamar1 which means 8,baal as a pillar10 or 8,phallus10 consequently 8the fructifying god40 ,the title 8erect10 when given to a deity1 seems always to imply a ,phallic idea1 and hence we have the explanation of the ,s4 mou used frequently in the 8,book of the ,dead0 in relation to ,thoth or to ,set4#add ,there is doubtless a reference of the same kind in the ,phnician myth1 that 8,melekh taught men the special art of creating solid walls and buildings20 although ,bunsen finds in this myth 8the symbolical mode of expressing the value of the use of fire in building houses40#ade ,that these myths embody a ,phallic notion may be confirmed by reference to the ,phnician ,kabiri4 ,according to ,bunsen1 8the ,kabiri and the divinities identified with them are explained by the ,greeks and ,romans as #8the strong1' #8the great2'0 while in the book of ,job1 ,kabbr1 the strong1 is used as an epithet of ,god4 ,again1 ,sydyk1 the father of the ,kabiri1 is 8the ,just10 or1 in a more original sense1 the ,upright2 and this deity1 with his sons1 correspond to ,ptah1 the father of the ,phnician ,pataikoi4 ,ptah1 however1 seems to be derived from a root which signifies in ,hebrew 8to open10 and ,sydyk himself1 therefore1 may1 says ,bunsen1 be described as 8the ,opener0 of the ,cosmic ,egg4#adf ,the ,phallic meaning of this title is evident from its application to ,esmun-,esculapius1 the son of ,sydyk1 who1 as the snake-god1 was identical with ,tet1 the ,egyptian ,thoth-,hermes4 ,the peculiar titles given to these deities1 and their association with the sun1 led to their original ,phallic character being somewhat overlooked1 and instead of being the ,father-,gods of human-kind1 they became ,powerful ,gods1 ,lords of ,heaven4 ,this was not the special attribute taken by other sun-gods4 ,as was before stated1 ,hermes and his related deities were 8gods of the country10 personifying the idea of general natural fecundity4 ,among the chief gods of this description were the ,phnician ,sabazius1 the ,greek ,bacchus-,dionysos1 the ,roman ,priapus1 and the ,egyptian ,khem4 ,all these deities agree also in being sun-gods1 and as such they were symbolised by animals which were noted either for their fecundity or for their salaciousness4 ,the chief animals thus chosen were the bull and the goat 7with which the ram#adg was afterwards confounded71 doubtless because they were already sacred4 ,the ,sun appears to have been preceded by the ,moon as an object of worship1 but the moon-god was probably only representative of the primeval ,saturn1#adh who finally became the sun-god ,el or ,il of the ,syrian and ,semites and the ,ra of the ,babylonians4 ,the latter was the title also of the sun-god of ,egypt1 who was symbolised by the obelisk1 and who1 although his name was added to that of other ,egyptian gods1 is said to have been the tutelary deity of the stranger kings of the eighteenth dynasty1#adi whom ,pleyte1 however1 declares to have been ,set 7,sutech74#aej ,we are reminded here of the opposition of ,seth and ,osiris1 which has already been explained as arising from the fact that these deities originally represented two different ideas1 human fecundity and the fruitfulness of nature4 ,when1 however1 both of these principles became associated with the solar body1 they were expressed by the same symbols1 and the distinction between them was in great measure lost sight of4 ,a certain difference was1 nevertheless1 still observable in the attributes of the deities1 depending on the peculiar properties and associations of their solar representatives4 ,thus the powerful deity of ,phnicia was naturally associated with the strong1 scorching1 summer sun1 whose heat was the most prominent attribute4 ,in countries such as ,egypt1 where the sun1 acting on the moist soil left by inundations1 caused the earth to spring into renewed life1 the mild but energetic early sun was the chief deity4 ,when1 considering the sacred bull of antiquity1 the symbol of the fecundating force in nature1 ,osiris1 the national sun-god of the ,egyptians1 was referred to as distinguished from the ,semitic ,seth 7,set71 who was identified with the detested shepherd race4 ,the association of ,osiris with ,khem shows his ,phallic character1#aea and1 in fact1 ,plutarch asserts that he was everywhere represented with the phallus exposed4#aeb ,the ,phallic idea enters1 moreover1 into the character of all the chief ,egyptian deities4 ,bunsen says3 8,the mythological system obviously proceeded from #8the concealed god' ,ammon to the creating god4 ,the latter appears first of all as the generative power of nature in the ,phallic god ,khem1 who is afterwards merged in ,ammon-ra4 ,then sprung up the idea of the creative power in ,kneph4 ,he forms the divine limbs of ,osiris 7the primeval soul7 in contradiction to ,ptah1 who as the strictly demiurgic principle1 forms the visible world4 ,neith is the creative principle1 as nature represented under a feminine form4 ,finally1 her son ,ra1 ,helios1 appears as the last of the series1 in the character of father and nourisher of terrestrial beings4 ,it is he1 whom an ancient monument represents as the demiurgic principle1 creating the mundane egg40#aec ,the name of ,ammon has led to the notion that he was an embodiment of the idea of wisdom4 ,he certainly was distinguished by having the human form1 but his hieroglyphical symbol of the obelisk1 and his connection with ,khem1 show his true nature4 ,he undoubtedly represented the primitive idea of a generative god1 probably at a time when this notion of fecundity had not yet been extended to nature as distinguished from man1 and thus he would form a point of contact between the later ,egyptian sun-gods and the pillar gods of the ,semites and ,phnicians4#aed ,to the ,egyptians1 as to these other peoples1 the sun became the great source of deity4 ,his fecundating warmth or his fiery destroying heat were1 however1 not the only attributes deified4 ,these were the most important1 but the ,egyptians1 especially1 made gods out of many of the solar characters1#aee although the association of the idea of 8intellect0 with ,amun-re must have been of late date1 if the original nature of ,amun was what has been above suggested4 ,as man1 however1 began to read nature aright1 and as his moral and intellectual faculties were developed1 it was necessary that the solar deities themselves should become invested with co-relative attributes1 or that other gods should be formed to embody them4 ,the perception of light1 as distinguished from heat1 was a fertile source of such attributes4 ,in the ,chaldean mythology1 ,vul1 the son of ,anu1 was the god of the air1 but his power had relation to the purely atmospheric phenomena rather than to light4#aef ,the only reference to light found in the titles of the early deities is in the character ascribed to ,va-lua1 the later ,bur or ,nin-ip1 who is said to 8irradiate the nations like the sun1 the light of the gods40#aeg ,but this deity was apparently the distant planet ,saturn1 if not originally the moon1 and the perception of light as a divine attribute must be referred to the ,aryan mind4#aeh ,thus the ,hindu ,dyaus 7the ,greek ,zeus7 is the shining deity1 the god of the bright sky4 ,as such the sun-gods now also become the gods of intellectual wisdom1 an attribute which also appears to have originated with the ,aryan peoples1 among whom the ,brahmans were possessors of the highest wisdom1 as children of the sun1 and whose ,apollo and ,athen were noble embodiments of this attribute4 ,the ,chaldean gods1 ,ha and ,nebo1 were undoubtedly symbolised by the wedge or arrow-head1 which had especial reference to learning4 ,in reality1 however1 this symbol merely shows that they were the patrons of letters or writing1 and not of wisdom1 in its purely intellectual aspect4 ,if the form of the ,assyrian alphabetical character was of ,phallic origin1#aei we may have here the source of the idea of a connection between physical and mental knowledge embodied in the legend of the 8fall40 ,in the ,persian ,ahur-mazdo 7the wise spirit7 we have the purest representation of intellectual wisdom4 ,the book of ,zoroaster1 the ,avesta1 is literally the 8word10 the word or wisdom which was revealed in creation and embodied in the divine ,mithra1 who was himself the luminous sun-god4 ,the similarity between the symbols of the sun-gods of antiquity and the natural objects introduced into the ,mosaic myth of the fall has been already referred to1 and it is necessary now to consider shortly what influence the ,phallic principle there embodied had over other portions of ,hebraic theology4 ,the inquiries of ,dr4 ,faber have thrown great light on this question1 although the explanation given by him of the myth of ,osiris and of the kindred myths of antiquity is by no means the correct one4 ,finding a universal prevalence of ,phallic ideas and symbolism1 ,dr4 ,faber refers it to the degradation of a primitive revelation of the ,great ,father of the ,universe4 ,the truth thus taught was lost sight of1 and was replaced by the dual notion of a ,great ,father and a ,great ,mother--8the transmigrating ,noah and the mundane ,ark0 of the universal ,deluge4 ,noah was1 however1 only a reappearance of ,adam1 and the ark floating on the waters of the ,deluge was an analogue of the earth swimming in the ocean of space4#afj ,there is undoubtedly a parallelism between the ,adam and ,noah of the ,hebrew legends1 as there is between the analogous personages of other phases of these legends1 yet it is evident that1 if the ,deluge never happened1 a totally different origin from the one supposed by ,dr4 ,faber must be assigned to the great ,phallic myth of antiquity4 ,it is absolutely necessary1 therefore1 to any explanation 7other than the ,phallic one7 of the origin of this myth1 to establish the truth of the ,noahic ,deluge4#afa ,accordingly1 an ,american writer has framed an elaborate system of 8,arkite symbolism10 founded on the supposed influence of the great ,deluge over the minds of the posterity of those who survived its horrors4 ,mr4 ,lesley sees in this catastrophe the explanation of 8phallism10 which1 8converting all the older ,arkite symbols into illustrations of its own philosophical conceptions of the mystery of generation1 gave to the various parts and members of the human body those names which constitute the special vocabulary of obscenity of the present day40#afb ,but the priority of these symbols or conceptions is the question at issue4 ,did the development of 8,arkism0 precede or follow the superstitions referred to by ,mr4 ,lesley as ,ophism1 ,mithraism1 and ,phallism1 all of which have been shown to embody analogous ideas8 ,if the question of priority is to be determined by reference to the written tradition which furnishes the real ground of belief in a great ,deluge1 it must clearly be given to the ,phallic superstition2 for it is shown conclusively1 as ,i think1 that almost the first event in the life of man there related is purely ,phallic in its symbolism4 ,nor is the account of the fall the only portion of the ,mosaic history of primitive man which belongs to this category4 ,the ,garden of ,eden1 with its tree of life and the river which divided into four streams1 although it may have had a secondary reference to the traditional place of ,semitic origin to which the ,hebrews looked back with a regretful longing1 has undoubtedly a recondite ,phallic meaning4 ,it must be so1 if the explanation ,i have given of the myth of the fall be right1 since the two are intimately connected1 and the ,garden#afc is essential to the succeeding catastrophe4 ,that this opinion is correct can be proved moreover by reference to ,hindu mythology4 8,the ,hindu10 says ,dr4 ,creuzer1 8contemplates with love his mysterious ,merou1 a sacred mountain from whence the source of life spreads itself in the valleys and over the plains1 which separates day from night1 reunites heaven and earth1 and finally on which the sun1 the moon1 and the stars each repose40#afd ,but what is this mysterious mountain1 the sacred ,merou8 ,it is shown by ,dr4 ,creuzer's own explanation4 ,he says3 8,it is on the ,mount ,merou1 the central point of the earth 7which elevates itself as an immense phallus from the centre of an immense yoni amongst the islands with which the sea is sown71 that the grand popular deity who presides over the ,lingam1 ,siva or ,mahadeva1 the father and master of nature1 makes his cherished abode1 spreading life to every part under a thousand diverse forms which he incessantly renews4 ,near him is ,bhavani or ,parvati1 his sister and his wife1 the ,queen of the mountains1 the goddess of the ,yoni1 who carries in her bosom the germ of all things1 and brings forth the beings whom she has conceived by ,mahadeva4 ,we have here the two great principles of nature1 the one male and the other female1 generators and regenerators1 creators and at the same time destroyers2 but they destroy only to renew2 they only change the forms2 life and death succeed in a perfect circle1 and the substance remains in the midst of all these changes40 ,the sacred mountain is wanting to the ,mosaic legend1 but ,dr4 ,faber justly sees#afe in the ,mount ,merou1 where resides ,siva and ,bhavani1 the ,hebrew ,paradise1 and we find that the ,hindu myth affirms that the sacred river not only sprang from the roots of ,jambu1 a tree of a most extravagant size1 which is thought to convey knowledge and to effect the accomplishment of every human wish1 but also that1 after passing through 8the circle of the moon10 it divides it into 8four streams1 flowing towards the four cardinal points40 ,the priority of the ,phallic superstition over 8,arkism0 is further proved by the undoubted fact that1 even in the traditions of the race to whom we are indebted for the precise details of the incidents accompanying the ,deluge1 the ,phallic deities of the ,hamitico-,semites are genealogically placed long before the occurrence of this event4 ,the ,semitic deity ,seth is1 according to one fable1 the semi-divine first ancestor of the ,semites4 ,bunsen has shown clearly also that several of the antediluvian descendants of the ,semitic ,adam were among the ,phnician deities4 ,thus1 the ,carthaginians had a god ,yubal1 ,jubal1 who would appear to have been the sun-god sculapius1 called 8the fairest of the gods and so1 we read in a ,phnician inscription ,ju-,baal--i4e41 beauty of ,baal1 which ,movers ingeniously interprets sculapius--,asmun-,jubal40 ,here1 then1 adds ,bunsen1 8is another old ,semitic name attached to a descendant of ,lamekh1 together with ,adah1 ,zillah1 and ,naamah40#aff ,hadah1 the wife of ,lamekh1 as well of ,esau1 the ,phnician ,usov1 is identified with the goddess1 worshipped at ,babylon as ,hera 7,juno71 and1 notwithstanding ,sir ,gardner ,wilkinson's dictum to the contrary1 her names1 ,hera1 ,hadah1 point to a connection with the ,egyptian ,her ,her1 or ,hathor1 who was the daughter of ,seb and ,netpe1 as ,hera was the daughter of ,chronos and ,rhea4 ,the name of the god ,kiyun1 or ,kevan1 who was worshipped by the ,hebrews1 and who in ,syria was said to devour children1 seems1 from its connection with the root kun1 to erect1 to point to the antediluvian ,kain or ,kevan4 ,kon1 derived from the same root1 was1 according to ,bunsen1 a ,phnician designation of ,saturn4#afg ,even the great ,carthaginian sun-god ,melekh1 who was also 8held in universal honour throughout ,phnicia10 seems1 although ,bunsen does not thus identify him1 to be no other than ,lamekh1 the father of ,noah1 in one of the genealogies of ,genesis4 ,we may1 perhaps1 have in the sacrifices to the ,phnician deities1 when the first-born sons of the people were offered on his altars1 an explanation#afh of the passage in ,genesis which has so much puzzled commentators1 where ,lamekh is made to declare that he has 8slain a man for his wound1 and a youth for his hurt10 for which1 while ,cain was avenged seven times1 ,lamekh should be avenged seventy times seven times4#afi ,the ,phnicians had a tradition that ,kronos 7,saturn7 had sacrificed his own beloved son ,yadid1 and some ancient writers said that the human sacrifices to ,moloch were in imitation of this act4#agj ,this reason may not be the correct one for the use of human sacrifices1 but the seventy times seven times in which ,lamekh was avenged may well refer to the abundance of the victims offered on the altar of the ,phnician deity4 ,the priority of the ,phallic superstition over 8,arkism10 or rather the existence of that superstition before the formation of the ,deluge legend1 is proved1 moreover1 by its agreement with the myth of ,osiris and ,isis4 ,this agreement forms the central idea of the explanation of pagan idolatry given by ,faber1 and yet it conclusively proves that the ,noachian ,deluge was simply a myth1 having1 like that of ,osiris1 a ,phallic basis4 ,bunsen says 8the myth of ,osiris and ,typhon1 heretofore considered as primeval1 can now be authoritatively proved to be of modern date in ,egypt--that is to say1 about the thirteenth or fourteenth century ,b4,c40#aga ,but it is this version of the ,osirian myth which is said to be founded on the ,noachian catastrophe1 ,typhon or ,the ,evil ,being1 the persecutor of ,osiris1 being the ,waters of the ,deluge4 ,the very foundation of the ,hebrew legend is thus cut away1 and from the fact1 moreover1 that the ,egyptians had no tradition of a great flood1 we must seek for another origin for the legend of which different phases were held by so many of the peoples of antiquity4 ,the fact of ,typhon 7,seth7 having been venerated in ,egypt to so late a date as the thirteenth century ,b4,c4 is a proof that the myth1 according to which he was the cruel persecutor of his brother ,osiris1 must have been of a later origin4 ,the primitive form of the myth is easily recognised when it is known that both ,osiris and ,typhon 7,seth7 were sun-gods4 ,thus1 according to ,bunsen1 8the myth of ,osiris typifies the solar year1 the power of ,osiris is the sun of the lower hemisphere1 the winter solstice4 ,the birth of ,horus typifies the vernal equinox--the victory of ,horus1 the summer equinox--the inundation of the ,nile4 ,typhon is the autumnal equinox--,osiris is slain on the seventeenth of ,athyr 7,november74444 ,the rule of ,typhon lasts from the autumnal equinox to the middle of ,december4 ,he reigns twenty-eight years1 or lives as long40#agb ,thus the history of ,osiris is 8the history of the circle of the year10 and in his resurrection as ,horus we see the sun resuscitating itself after its temporary eclipse during the winter solstice4 ,here ,typhon is also a sun-god1 his rule being at the autumnal equinox when the sun has its full power4 ,this was the deity of the ,semites and of the inhabitants of ,lower ,egypt1 and his scorching force1 doubtless1 prepared the ,egyptians1 who venerated the milder ,osiris1 to look with abhorrence on ,typhon-,seth1 who had already1 probably under the same influence1 become a savage deity1 delighting in burnt offerings and human sacrifices4#agc ,no wonder1 therefore1 that when the worshippers of the ,semitic god were driven out of ,egypt1 the god himself was treated as an enemy4 ,thus we are told that the enemies of ,egypt and their gods contended with the gods of ,egypt1 who veiled themselves under the heads of animals in order to save themselves from ,typhon4 ,moreover1 when this ,semitic god was thus degraded and transformed into an ,evil ,being1 he would naturally come to be looked upon as the enemy of ,osiris1 seeing that he was already identified with the autumn sun1 which during the autumnal equinox triumphs over the sun of ,osiris2 and we can easily understand how1 if the myth of a ,deluge1 and the consequent destruction of all mankind but the father of the renewed human race1 was introduced1 ,typhon would be the destroying enemy and ,osiris the suffering and restored man-god4 ,if1 as ,dr4 ,faber supposes1 the ,egyptian myth was a form of that which relates to the ,noachian ,deluge1 we can only suppose them to have had a similar basis1 a basis which1 from the very circumstances of the case1 must be purely 8,phallic40 ,this explanation is the only one which is consistent with a peculiarity in the ,hebrew legend which is an insurmountable objection to its reception as the expression of a literal fact4 ,we are told by the ,mosaic narrative that ,jehovah directed ,noah to take with him into the ark 8of fowls after their kind1 and of cattle after their kind1 of every creeping thing of the earth after his kind1 two of every sort40 ,now1 according to the ordinary acceptation of the legend1 this passage expresses a simple absurdity1 even on the hypothesis of a partial ,deluge4 ,if1 however1 we read the narrative in a ,phallic sense1 and by the ark understand the sacred ,argha of ,hindu mythology1 the ,yoni of ,parvati1 which1 like the moon in ,zoroastrian teaching1 carries in itself the 8germs of all things10 we see the full propriety of what otherwise is incomprehensible4 ,the ,elohim 8created0 the heavens and the earth1 and on its destruction the seeds of all things were preserved in the ark to again cover the earth4 ,taken in this sense1 we see the reason of the curious analogy which exists in various points between the ,hebrew legends of the ,creation and of the ,deluge1 this analogy being one of the grounds on which the hypothesis of the ,great ,father as the central idea of all mythologies has been based4 ,thus1 the primeval ship1 the navigation of which is ascribed to the mythological being1 is not the ark of ,noah or ,osiris1 or the vessel of the ,phnician ,kabiri4 ,it was the moon1 the ship of the sun1 in which his seed is supposed to be hidden until it bursts forth in new life and power4 ,the fact that the moon was1 in early mythologies1 a male deity1 almost necessitates1 however1 that there should have been another origin for the sacred vessel of ,osiris4 ,this we have in the ,hastoreth-karnaim1 the cow-goddess1 whose horns represent the lunar ark1 and who1 without doubt1 was a more primitive deity than the moon-goddess herself4#agd ,the most primitive type of all1 however1 is that of the ,argha or ,yoni of the ,indian ,iswara1 which from its name was supposed to have been turned into a dove4#age ,thus1 in ,noah and the ark1 as in ,osiris and the moon1 we see simply the combination of the male and female elements as they are still represented in the ,hindu lingam4 ,the introduction of the dove into the myth is a curious confirmation of this view4 ,for this bird1 which1 as 8the emblem of love and fruitfulness10 was 8consecrated to ,venus1 under all her different names1 at ,babylon1 in ,syria1 ,palestine1 and ,greece2#agf which was the national banner-sign of the ,assyrians1 as of the earlier ,sythic empire1 whose founders1 according to ,hindu tradition1 took the name of ,jonim or ,yoniyas1 and which attended on ,janus1 a diluvian #8god of opening and shutting2' was simply a type of #8the ,yoni' or ,jonah1 or ,navicular feminine principle10 which was said to have assumed the form of a ship and a dove4#agg ,in bringing this essay to a close1 some mention should be made of what may be called the modern religions1 ,brahminism1 ,buddhism1 and ,christianity1 seeing that these still exist as the faiths of great peoples4 ,as to the first of these1 it may be thought that its real character cannot be ascertained from the present condition of ,hindu belief4 ,it is said that the religion of the ,vedas is very different from that of the ,puranas1 which have taken their place4 ,it should be remembered1 however1 that these books profess to reproduce old doctrine1 the word 8,purana0 itself meaning old1 and that ,puranas are referred to in one of the ,upanishads1 while the ,tantras1 which contain the principles of the ,sacti ,puja1 and which are as yet almost unknown to ,europeans1 are considered by the ,brahmins to be more ancient than the ,puranas themselves4#agh ,the origin of the ideas contained in these books is a difficult question4 ,the germs of both ,vishnu-worship and ,siva-worship appear to be found in the ,vedas1#agi and the worship of the linga is undoubtedly referred to the ,mahabharata4#ahj ,it is more probable1 as thought by ,mr4 ,fergusson and other late writers1 that they are only indirectly sprung from the primitive ,hinduism4 ,the similarity between ,siva-ism and the ,santal-worship of the ,great ,mountain pointed out by ,dr4 ,hunter is very remarkable1 and this analogy is strengthened by intermixture in both cases with river-worship4#aha ,there is no doubt that the ,great ,mountain is simply a name for the ,phallic emblem1 which is the chief form under which ,siva is represented in the numerous temples at ,benares dedicated to his honour4 ,considering the position occupied by the serpent as a symbol of life and indirectly of the male power1 we should expect to find its worship connected to some extent with that of ,siva4 ,mr4 ,fergusson1 however1 declares that it is not so1 and1 although this statement requires some qualification1#ahb yet it is certain that the serpent is also intimately associated with ,vishnu4 ,in explanation of this fact1 ,mr4 ,fergusson remarks3 8,the ,vaishnava religion is derived from a group of faiths in which the serpent always played an important part4 ,the eldest branch of the family was the ,naga worship1 pure and simple2 out of that arose ,buddhism1 444 and on its decline two faiths--at first very similar to one another--rose from its ashes1 the ,jaina and the ,vaishnava40 ,the serpent is almost always found in ,jaina temples as an object of worship1 while it appears everywhere in ,vaishnava tradition4#ahc ,but elsewhere ,mr4 ,fergusson tells us that1 although ,buddhism owed its establishment to ,naga tribes1 yet its supporters repressed the worship of the serpent1 elevating tree-worship in its place4#ahd ,it is difficult to understand how the ,vaishnavas1 who are worshippers of the female power1#ahe and who hate the lingam1 can yet so highly esteem the serpent which has indirectly1 at least1 reference to the male principle4 ,perhaps1 however1 we may find an explanation in ,mr4 ,fergusson's own remarks as to the character and development of ,buddhism4 ,according to him1 ,buddhism was chiefly influential among ,naga tribes1 and 8was little more than a revival of the coarser superstitions of the aboriginal races1#ahf purified and refined by the application of ,aryan morality1 and elevated by doctrines borrowed from the intellectual superiority of the ,aryan races4#ahg0 ,as to its development1 the sculptures on the ,sanchi ,tope show that at about the beginning of the ,christian era1 although the dagoba1 the chakra or wheel1 the tree1 and other emblems1 were worshipped1 the serpent hardly appears2 while at ,amravati1 three centuries later1 this animal had become equal to ,buddha himself4#ahh ,moreover1 there can be no doubt that the lingam was an emblem of ,buddha1 as was also the lotus1 which represents the same idea--the conjunction of the male and female elements1 although in a higher sense perfect wisdom4#ahi ,the association of the same ideas is seen in the noted prayer ,om mani padmi hum 78,oh1 the ,jewel in the ,lotus071 which refers to the birth of ,padmipani from the sacred lotus flower1#aij but also1 there can be little doubt1 to the phallus and the yoni4 ,we may suppose1 therefore1 that whatever the moral doctrine taught by ,gautama1 he used the old ,phallic symbols1 although it may be with a peculiar application4 ,if the opinion expressed by ,mr4 ,fergusson as to the introduction into ,india of the ,vaishnava faith by an early immigrant race be correct1 it must have existed in the time of ,gautama1 and indeed the ,ion-ism of ,western ,asia is traditionally connected with ,india itself at a very early date1#aia although probably the early centre of ,ion-ism1 the worship of the ,dove or ,yoni1 was1 as ,bryant supposes1 in ,chaldea4#aib ,we see no trace1 however1 in ,buddhism proper of ,sacti ,puja1 and ,i would suggest that1 instead of abolishing either1 ,gautama substituted for the separate symbols of the linga and the yoni1 the association of the two in the lingam4 ,if this were so1 we can well understand how1 on the fall of ,buddhism1 ,siva-worship#aic may have retained this compound symbol1 with many of the old ,naga ideas1 although with little actual reference to the serpent itself1 other than as a symbol of life and power2 while1 on the other hand1 the ,vaishnavas may have reverted to the primitive worship of the female principle1 retaining a remembrance of the early serpent associations in the use of the ,sesha1 the heavenly naga with seven heads#aid figured on the ,amravati sculptures4 ,it is possible1 however1 that there may be another ground of opposition between the followers of ,vishnu and ,siva4 ,mr4 ,fergusson points out that1 notwithstanding the peculiarly ,phallic symbolism of the latter deity1 8the worship of ,siva is too severe1 too stern for the softer emotions of love1 and all his temples are quite free from any allusion to it40 ,it is far different with the ,vaishnavas1 whose temples 8are full of sexual feelings generally expressed in the grossest terms40#aie ,siva1 in fact1 is specially a god of intellect1 typified by his being three-eyed1 and although terrible as the resistless destroyer1 yet the recreator of all things in perfect wisdom2#aif while ,vishnu has relation rather to the lower type of wisdom which was distinctive of the ,assyrians1 among ancient peoples1 and which has so curious a connection with the female principle4 ,hence the shell or conch is peculiar to ,vishnu1 while the linga belongs to ,siva4#aig ,gautama combined the simpler feminine phase of religion with the more masculine intellectual type1 symbolising this union by the lingam and other analogous emblems4 ,the followers of ,siva have1 however1 adopted the combined symbol in the place of the linga alone1 thus approaching more nearly than the ,vaishnavas to the idea of the founder of modern ,buddhism4 ,gautama himself1 nevertheless1 was most probably only the restorer of an older faith1 according to which perfect wisdom was to be found only in the typical combination of the male and female principles in nature4 ,the real explanation of the connection between ,buddhism and ,siva-ism has perhaps1 however1 yet to be given#aih4 ,the worship of the serpent-god is not unknown1 even at the present day1 in the very stronghold of ,siva-ism1#aii reminding us of the early spread of ,buddhism among ,naga tribes4 ,in the 8crescent surmounted by a pinnacle similar to the pointed end of a spear10 which decorates the roofs of the ,tibetan monasteries1#bjj we undoubtedly have a reproduction of the so-called trident of ,siva4 ,this instrument is given also to ,sani1 the ,hindu ,saturn1 who is represented as encompassed by two serpents1#bja and hence the pillar symbol of this primeval deity we may well suppose to be reproduced in the linga of the ,indian ,phallic god4#bjb ,but the pillar symbol is not wanting to ,buddhism itself4 ,the columns said to have been raised by ,asoka have a reference to the pillars of ,seth4 ,the remains of an ancient pillar supposed to be a ,buddhist ,lat is still to be seen at ,benares1#bjc the word ,lat being merely another form of the name ,tet1 ,set1 or ,sat1 given to the ,phnician ,semitic or deity4 ,in the central pillar of the so-called ,druidical circles we have doubtless a reference to the same primitive superstition1 the idea intended to be represented being the combination of the male and female principles4#bjd ,in conclusion1 it must be said that ,christianity itself is certainly not without the ,phallic element4 ,reference may be made to the important place taken in ,christian dogma by the 8fall10 which has been shown to have had a purely ,phallic foundation1 and to the peculiar position assigned to ,mary1 as the ,virgin ,mother of ,god4#bje ,it must not be forgotten1 however1 that1 whatever may have been the primitive idea on which these dogmas are based1 it had received a totally fresh aspect at the hands of those from whom the founders of ,christianity received it4#bjf ,as to symbols1 too1 these were employed by the ,christians in the later signification given to them by the followers of the ancient faiths4 ,thus the fish and the cross symbols originally embodied the idea of generation1 but afterwards that of life1 and it was in this sense that they were applied to ,christ4#bjg ,the most evidently ,phallic representation used by the ,christian ,iconographers is undoubtedly the aureole1 or vesica piscis1 which is elliptical in form and contained the figure of ,christ--,mary herself1 however1 being sometimes represented in the aureole1 glorified as ,jesus ,christ4#bjh ,probably the nimbus also is of ,phallic significance1 for1 although generally circular1 it was sometimes triangular1 square1 c4#bji ,the name of ,jehovah is inscribed within a radiating triangle4#baj ,didron gives an illustration of ,st4 ,john the ,evangelist with a circular nimbus1 surmounted by two sun-flowers1 emblems of the sun1 an idea which1 says ,didron1 8reminds us of the ,egyptian figures1 from the heads of which two lotus-flowers rise in a similar manner40#baa ,there is also a curious representation in the same work of the ,divine hand with the thumb and two forefingers outstretched1 resting on a cruciform nimbus4#bab ,in ,egypt the hand having the fingers thus placed was a symbol of ,isis1 and1 from its accompaniments1 there can be no doubt1 notwithstanding the mesmeric character ascribed to it by ,ennemoser1#bac that it had an essentially ,phallic origin1 although it may ultimately have been used to signify life4 ,there can be no question1 however1 that1 whatever may be thought as to the nature of its symbols1#bad the basis of ,christianity is more emotional than that of any other religion now existing4 ,reference has been made to the presence in ,hebraic theology of an idea of ,god--that of a ,father--antagonistic to the ,phnician notion of the 8,lord of ,heaven40 ,we have the same idea repeated in ,christ's teaching1 its distinctive characteristic being the recognition of ,god as the ,universal ,father--the ,great ,parent of mankind1 who had sent ,his son into the world that he might reconcile it unto ,himself4 ,it is in the character of a forgiving parent that ,christians are taught to view ,god1 when ,he is not lost sight of in the presence of ,christ1 of whom the church is declared to be the bride4 ,in ,christianity we see the final expression of the primitive worship of the father as the head of the family--the generator--as the result of an instinctive reasoning process leading up from the particular to the universal--with which1 however1 the dogma of the 8fall0 and its consequences--deduced so strangely from a ,phallic legend--have been incorporated4#bae ,as a religion of the emotions1 the position of ,christianity is perfectly unassailable4 ,as a system of rational faith1 however1 it is otherwise2 and the tendency of the present age is just the reverse of that which took place among the ,hebrews--the substitution of a ,heavenly ,king for a ,divine ,father4 ,in fact1 modern science is doing its best to effect for primitive fetishism1 or demon-worship1 what ,christianity has done for ,phallic-worship--generalise the powers of nature and make of ,god a ,great ,unknowable ,being1 who1 like the ,elohim1 of the ,mosaic ,cosmogony1 in some mysterious manner1 causes all things to appear at a word4 ,this cannot1 however1 be the real religion of the future4 ,if ,god is to be worshipped at all1 the ,heavenly ,king and the ,divine ,father must be combined as a single term1 and ,he must be viewed1 not as the unknowable cause of being1 but as the great source of all being1 who may be known in nature--the expression of his life and energy1 and in man who was 8created0 in his own image4 99 99 99 99 99 ,note4--,m4 ,franois ,lenormant1 in the seventh edition of his 8,histoire ancienne de l',orient0 7,t4 i41 p4 #ia71 after considering the traditions of a great deluge preserved by various peoples1 concludes that 8the biblical deluge1 far from being a myth1 has been a real and historical fact1 which has struck the ancestors of at least the ,aryan or ,indo-,european1 the ,semitic or ,syro-,arab1 and the ,hamitic or ,kouschite races--that is1 the three great civilised races of the ancient world1 before the ancestors of these races were separated1 and in the ,asiatic country which they inhabited together40 ,the authority of ,m4 ,lenormant is great1 but preference must be given on this point to the arguments of ,m4 ,dupuis1 who1 in his 8,origine de tous des ,cultes0 7,t4 iii41 p4 #agf1 et seq471 has almost certainly proved the astronomical character of what he terms the 8fiction sacerdotale10 which1 however1 may have originated with the common ancestors of the three races referred to by ,m4 ,lenormant4 ,,footnotes3 #d 8,origin of ,pagan ,idolatry10 vol4 iii41 p4 #aag4 #e 8,histoire abrge de differens ,cultes10 vol4 ii4 #f 8,a ,discourse on the ,worship of ,priapus40 #g 8,memoirs of the ,anthropological ,society of ,london10 vol4 i41 p4 #cbj4 #h ,dulaure1 op4 cit41 vol4 ii41 #bai4 #i 8,rural ,bengal10 p4 #bjc4 #aj ,ennemoser's 8,history of ,magic0 7,bohn71 vol4 ii41 p4 #cc4 #aa ,dr4 ,fernand ,castelain1 in his work1 8,la ,circoncision est-elle utile80 comes to the conclusion 7p4 #ad7 that it is both hygienic and moral4 ,the value of circumcision may be admitted1 without ascribing its origin to a sanitary motive4 #ab ,herodotus1 8,euterpe10 sec4 #ajd4 #ac ,de ,coulanges1 8,la ,cit antique10 #fth ed41 pp4 #cf1 #ajj4 #ad ,m4 ,elie ,reclus1 in a remarkable paper presented in #ahgi to the ,anthropological ,institute1 affirms 7p4 #af1 et seq47 that circumcision is derived from the custom of emasculation practised on captives1 which is equivalent to death1 and that it is a substitute for human sacrifices4 ,he admits1 however 7p4 #cb71 that1 among the ,semites at least1 circumcision was a 8consecration of the sexual organ to a ,phallic divinity40 #ae 8,ante-,nicene ,christian ,library10 vol4 iv4 7,clement of ,alexandria71 p4 #bg4 #af ,the ,hebrew word bara translated 8created0 can be used in a different sense4 #ag 8,jashar10 by ,dr4 ,donaldson1 #bnd ed4 7#ahfj71 p4 #de1 et seq4 #ah ,smith's 8,dictionary of the ,bible0--,art41 8,apple-tree40 ,inman's 8,ancient ,faiths10 vol4 i41 p4 #bgd4 #ai 8,zambesi and its ,tribes10 p4 #ahh4 #bj 8,missionary ,travels in ,south ,africa10 p4 #die4 #ba 8,journey to ,ashango ,land10 p4 #bie4 #bb 8,river ,zaire10 p4 #aha4 #bc 8,travels through ,central ,africa10 p4 #cid1 #djg4 #bd 8,travels10 vol4 ii41 p4 #cia2 and vol4 iii41 p4 #ffe4 #be ,journal of ,r4 ,geog4 ,society1 vol4 xvi41 p4 #bdj4 #bf 8,the ,malayan ,archipelago10 vol4 i41 p4 #aeh4 #bg ,wilkinson1 vol4 iv41 p4 #bfj1 #cac4 #bh ,tennent's 8,ceylon10 vol4 ii41 p4 #ebj4 #bi ,m4 ,littr sees in the two trees of ,genesis only the soma1 which was introduced into the ,brahmanical ,sacrifices1 which1 with the ,iranians1 was transformed into two mystic trees4--,la ,philosophie ,positive1 #crd vol41 p4 #cda1 et seq4 #cj ,op4 cit41 vol4 ii41 p4 #ddh4 #ca ,gen41 xxxv4 #d4 #cb ,ezek41 vi4 #ac4 #cc 8,celtic ,researches10 p4 #ddf4 #cd 8,aryan ,mythology10 vol4 i41 p4 #bgdn4 #ce ,ditto1 vol4 ii41 p4 #ai4 #cf ,see ,grimm's 8,teutonic ,mythology10 p4 #ega1 et seq4 #cg ,cox1 op4 cit41 vol4 i41 p4 #bgdn4 #ch ,according to ,gen41 ii4 #bc1 the name isha 7woman7 was bestowed by ,adam on the first woman1 because she was taken out of man 7,ish7--terms which were used in reference to man and wife4 ,this is shewn by the subsequent reference to marriage 7v4 #bd74 ,see ,smith's 8,dictionary of the ,bible0--,art4 8,marriage40 #ci 8,ancient ,egyptians10 vol4 iv41 p4 #cac4 #dj ,ditto1 p4 #cac4 #da ,dulaure's 8,histoire abrege de differens ,cultes10 vol4 ii41 p4 #afi4 #db ,see ,guigniaut's 8,religions de l',antiquit0 7#ahbe71 vol4 i41 p4 #adi4 #dc ,see on this1 ,inman1 op4 cit41 vol4 ii41 p4 #dfb4 #dd ,the ,hindu legend expressly mentions the fig4 ,see infr4 #de ,op4 cit41 vol4 i41 p4 #ajh1 #ebg4 ,in the ,east the pomegranate symbolises the full womb4 #df ,see ,bunsen's 8,egypt10 vol4 iv41 p4 #bbe1 #bee1 #bhh4 #dg 8,history of ,herodotus10 vol4 i41 p4 #fjj4 #dh ,wilkinson's 8,ancient ,egyptians10 vol4 iv41 p4 #dab1 #dac2 and ,king's 8,gnostics10 p4 #ca4 ,see also ,bryant's 8,ancient ,mythology10 vol4 iv41 p4 #bja4 ,the last-named work contains most curious information as to the extension of serpent-worship4 #di ,see 8,the ,serpent ,symbol in ,america10 by ,e4,g4 ,squier1 ,m4,a4--8,american ,archological ,researches10 ,no4 #a 7#ahea71 p4 #afa1 et seq42 8,palenqu10 by ,m4 de ,waldeck and ,m4 ,brasseur de ,bourbourg 7#ahff71 p4 #dh4 #ej ,lajard--8,mmoires de l',institut ,royal de ,france0 7,acad4 des ,inscriptions et ,belles ,lettres71 ,t4 xiv41 p4 #hi4 #ea ,wood's 8,natural ,history of ,man10 vol4 i41 p4 #ahe2 also ,squier's 8,serpent ,symbol10 p4 #bbb1 et seq4 #eb ,i have a strong suspicion that in the primitive shape of the ,hebrew legend1 as in that of the ,mexicans1 both the father and mother of the human race had the serpent form4 #ec ,op4 cit41 p4 #df4 ,rudra1 the ,vedic form of ,siva1 the 8,king of ,serpents10 is called the father of the ,maruts 7winds74 ,see infr as to identification of ,siva with ,saturn4 #ed ,the idea of circularity appears to be associated with both these names4 ,see ,bryant1 op4 cit41 vol4 iii41 p4 #afd1 and vol4 ii41 p4 #aia1 as to derivation of ,typhon4 #ee ,lajard4 ,op4 cit41 p4 #ahb1 8,culte de ,mithra10 p4 #de2 also 8,mmoire sur l',hercule ,assyrien de ,m4 ,raoul-,rochette40 #ef ,mr4 ,j4 ,h4 ,rivett-,carnac suggests that the snake is a 8symbol of the phallus40 ,he adds1 8,the sun1 the invigorating power of nature1 has ever1 ,i believe1 been considered to represent the same idea1 not necessarily obscene1 but the great mystery of nature1 the life transmitted from generation to generation1 or1 as ,professor ,stephens puts it1 #8life out of death1 life everlasting4'0--,snake ,symbol in ,india 7reprinted from4 8,journal of ,as4 ,soc4 of ,bengal071 #ahgi1 p4 #ac4 #eg ,wilkinson1 op4 cit41 vol4 v41 p4 #fe #eh ,ditto1 p4 #bdc4 #ei ,ditto1 p4 #bci4 #fj ,see ,ennemoser's 8,history of ,magic0 7,bohn71 vol4 i41 p4 #bec4 #fa ,ditto1 p4 #bdc4 #fb ,guigniaut's 8,le ,dieu ,serapis10 p4 #ai4 #fc ,op4 cit41 p4 #ab4 #fd ,faber's 8,pagan ,idolatry10 vol4 #a1 p4 #dbdn4 #fe ,prof4 ,max ,mller derives cherubim from ,greek3 gryphes1 griffins1 the guardians of the ,soma in the ,veda and ,avesta4 8,chips from a ,german ,workshop10 #bnd ed41 i4 #aeg4 #ff ,ez41 c4 #bh1 v4 #ad-af4 #fg ,see ,colenzo's 8,pentateuch0 7#ahfe71 p4 #cda4 #fh ,see ,faber's 8,pagan ,idolatry10 vol4 iii41 p4 #fjf4 #fi ,c4 i41 v4 #aj4 #gj ,c4 x41 v4 #ad4 #ga ,op4 cit41 vol4 i41 p4 #dbb4 #gb ,ez41 c4 i41 v4 #g4 #gc ,op4 cit41 vol4 i41 p4 #djd4 #gd 8,chinese10 p4 #cgf4 #ge ,see ,faber1 op4 cit41 vol4 i41 pp4 #djd-daj4 #gf ,lajard1 8,le culte de ,mithra10 pp4 #ef1 #ei4 #gg ,lajard1 op4 cit41 p4 #ej2 infr1 p4 #ci4 #gh ,this superstition is found among peoples--the ,kafirs1 for instance--who do not appear to possess any trace of planetary worship4 #gi ,this is evident from the facts mentioned above1 notwithstanding the use of this animal as a symbol of wisdom4 #hj ,in connection with this subject1 see ,st4 ,jerome1 in his letter on 8,virginity0 to ,eustachia4 #ha ,the turning of ,aaron's rod into a serpent had1 no doubt1 a reference to the idea of wisdom associated with that animal4 #hb 8,the ,fallen ,angels0 7#aheg74 #hc ,moor's 8,hindu ,pantheon10 p4 #aja4 #hd ,the ,bo-tree4 ,see supr1 p4 #ah4 #he ,probably the fruit is really intended4 ,higgins refers to 8a peculiar property which the fig has of producing its fruit from its flowers1 contained within its own bosom1 and concealed from profane eyes10 as a reason why the leaves of the fig-tree were selected by ,adam and ,eve to cover their nakedness4 ,anacalypsis1 vol4 ii41 p4 #bec4 #hf ,hardwicke's 8,christ and other ,masters10 vol4 i41 p4 #cje-f4 #hg ,mr4 ,hardwicke states that the sacred ,indian fig is endowed by the ,brahmans and ,buddhists with mysterious significance1 as the tree of knowledge or intelligence4 #hh ,see ,beausobre's curious and learned work1 8,histoire de ,maniche et du ,manichisme10 ,liv4 vii41 ch4 iii42 ,gibbon's 8,fall and ,decline of the ,roman ,empire10 vol4 ii41 p4 #ahf4 #hi ,as already suggested1 these may be the ish and isha of ,genesis4 #ij ,lajard1 8,le culte de ,mithra10 p4 #eb4 #ia ,ditto1 p4 #fj4 #ib ,this is shown by ,mr4 ,gerald ,massey in his remarkable work1 8,the ,natural ,genesis10 and particularly the chapter entitled 8,typology of the ,fall in ,heaven and on ,earth40 #ic ,lajard1 op4 cit41 p4 #di4 #id 8,ormazd et ,ahriman10 by ,james ,darmesteter1 pp4 #aed1 #aei4 #ie ,it may be objected that the 8,boundehesch10 which gives the above details1 is comparatively a modern work4 ,it must be noted1 however1 that the destruction of purity in the world by the serpent ,dahka is mentioned in the #ith ,yana1 v4 #bg1 which is much earlier1 and that ,dr4 ,haug supposes the 8,boundehesch0 to have had a ,zend original 78,essays on the ,sacred ,language1 c41 of the ,parsees10 p4 #bi74 ,windischmann1 also1 says that 8a closer study of this remarkable and venerable book1 and comparing it with the original text preserved to us1 will induce us to form a much more favourable opinion of its antiquity and contents40 78,zoroastrische ,studien10 p4 #bhb74 ,the opinion of this latter writer is that1 notwithstanding the striking resemblance between the narrative of the fall of man contained in the 8,boundehesch0 and that in ,genesis1 the former is original1 although inferior in simplicity to the ,hebrew tradition 7idem1 p4 #bab74 ,the narratives are so much alike1 however1 that they can hardly have had independent origins1 and the very simplicity of the latter is a very strong argument against its priority4 #if ,see supr1 p4 #bd4 #ig ,memoirs of the ,anthropological ,society of ,london1 vol4 ii41 p4 #bfd1 et seq41 and compare with the ,gnostic personification of 8,truth10 for which see ,king's 8,gnostics and their ,remains10 p4 #ci4 #ih ,lajard1 op4 cit41 p4 #if4 #ii ,jehovah threatens death1 but the ,serpent impliedly promises life1 the former having relation to the individual1 the latter to the race4 #ajj ,lajard1 op4 cit41 p4 #fj1 note4 #aja ,some of the ,essenes1 who appear to have had connection with ,mithraism1 taught this doctrine4 #ajb ,it is well known to ,biblical writers that this legend formed no part of the earlier ,mosaic narrative4 #ajc ,faber's 8,pagan ,idolatry40 #ajd ,see ,dulaure1 op4 cit41 vol4 i41 as to the primeval ,hermes4 #aje ,smith's 8,dictionary of ,mythology0--,art41 8,hermes40 #ajf ,gen41 xxxi4 #de-ec4 #ajg ,linga means a 8sign0 or 8token40 ,the truth of the statement in the text would seem to follow1 moreover1 from the fact that the figure is sacred only after it has undergone certain ceremonies at the hands of a priest4 #ajh ,or tamarisk tree4 #aji ,gen41 xxi4 #cc4 #aaj ,dr4 ,inman suggests that ashera is the female counterpart of ,asher4 ,see under these names in 8,ancient ,faiths10 vol4 i4 #aaa ,even if the statement of this event be an interpolation1 the argument in the text is not affected4 ,the statement is not inconsistent with the form of worship traditionally assigned to ,abraham4 #aab ,btylia were 8stones having souls40 #aac ,rawlinson's 8,five ,ancient ,monarchies10 vol4 i41 p4 #fag2 vol4 ii41 p4 #bdg4 #aad ,dr4 ,alexander ,wilder says3 8,the later ,hebrews affected the ,persian religion1 in which the sun was the emblem of worship4 ,abraham evidently had a like preference1 being a reputed iconoclast4 ,the lunar religionists employed images in their worship40 #aae ,josephus' 8,antiquities of the ,jews10 ch4 viii4 #b4 #aaf ,the ,serpent-symbol of the ,exodus is called 8,seraph40 #aag 8,the ,history of ,israel0 7,eng4 ,trans471 vol i41 p4 #ecb4 #aah ,see 8,sanchoniatho0 7,cory1 op4 cit47 #aai ,much discussion has taken place as to the nature of these animals4 ,for an explanation of the epithet 8fiery10 see ,sanchoniatho1 8,of the ,serpent0 7,cory1 op4 cit47 #abj ,numbers1 xxi4 #h1 #i4 #aba ,wilkinson's 8,ancient ,egyptians10 vol4 iv41 p4 #dce4 #abb ,ditto1 p4 #dcd4 #abc ,egypt1 vol4 iii41 p4 #dbf4 #abd 8,god in ,history10 vol4 i41 pp4 #bcc-d4 #abe ,exodus1 xxxiv4 #bj4 #abf ,numbers1 xix4 #a-aj4 #abg ,as to the god ,seth1 see ,pleyte's 8,la ,religion des ,pr-,israelites0 7#ahfb74 #abh ,frst renders the name ,mo-cese1 8,son of ,isis10 ,inman's 8,ancient ,faiths10 vol4 ii41 p4 #cch4 #abi ,according to ,pleyte1 the ,cabalists thought that the soul of ,seth had passed into ,moses 7op4 cit41 p4 #abd74 ,it is strange that the name of the ,egyptian princess who is said to have brought up ,moses is given by ,josephus as ,thermuthis1 this being the name of the sacred asp of ,egypt 7see 8supr074 ,we appear also to have a reference to the serpent in the name ,levi1 one of the sons of ,jacob1 from whom the descent of ,moses was traced4 #acj 8,fragments40 ,book xxxiv4 7,see also in connection with this subject1 8,king's ,gnostics10 p4 #ia47 #aca ,bunsen's 8,god in ,history10 vol4 i41 p4 #bcd4 #acb ,ewald notices the fact4 7,see 8op4 cit41 vol4 i41 #ded407 #acc 8,egypt10 vol4 iii41 p4 #dcc4 #acd ,op4 cit41 vol4 iv41 p4 #dcd4 #ace 8,le ,livre des ,morts10 par ,paul ,pierret1 p4 #bei4 #acf ,bunsen's 8,egypt10 vol4 iv41 p4 #bjh4 #acg ,ditto1 vol4 iii41 p4 #dbg4 #ach ,op4 cit41 p4 #cai4 #aci ,op4 cit41 vol4 vi41 p4 #cbh4 #adj ,as to the use of this symbol generally1 see ,pleyte1 op4 cit41 pp4 #aji1 #aeg4 #ada ,on these points1 see ,m4 ,raoul-,rochette's ,memoir on the ,assyrian and ,phnician ,hercules1 in his 8,mmoires de l',institut ,national de ,france4 ,acadmie des ,inscriptions10 tom4 xvii41 p4 #dg1 et seq4 #adb ,op4 cit41 vol4 i41 p4 #fj2 vol4 ii41 p4 #bja4 #adc ,pleyte1 op4 cit41 p4 #agb4 #add ,bunsen's 8,egypt10 vol4 iv41 p4 #bdi4 #ade ,ditto1 p4 #bag4 #adf ,see ditto1 pp4 #bbf-i4 #adg ,the ram appears to have been the first month of the ,akkadian calendar4 8,law of ,kosmic ,order10 by ,mr4 ,rob4 ,brown1 jun41 #ahhb1 p4 #cf4 #adh ,rawlinson's 8,history of ,herodotus10 vol4 i41 p4 #fbj4 #adi ,rawlinson's 8,history of ,herodotus10 vol4 ii41 p4 #bia4 #aej ,op4 cit41 p4 #hi1 et seq4 #aea ,wilkinson1 op4 cit41 vol4 iv41 pp4 #cdb1 #bfj4 #aeb ,bunsen's 8,egypt10 vol4 i41 p4 #dbc4 #aec ,op4 cit41 vol4 i41 p4 #chh4 #aed ,in the temple of ,hercules at ,tyre were two symbolical steles1 one a pillar and the other an obelisk4 ,see ,raoul-,rochette1 op4 cit41 p4 #ea1 where is a reference to a curious tradition1 preserved by ,josephus1 connecting ,moses with the erection of columns at ,heliopolis4 #aee ,wilkinson1 op4 cit41 vol4 iv41 p4 #bii4 #aef ,rawlinson's 8,herodotus10 vol4 i41 p4 #fjh4 #aeg ,ditto1 p4 #fbj4 #aeh ,mau1 the name of the ,egyptian ,god of ,truth1 certainly signifies 8light10 but probably only in a figurative sense4 #aei ,the importance ascribed to the mechanical arts may perhaps lead us to look for the formal origin of this character in the 8wedge10 which was the chief mechanical power the ancients possessed4 #afj ,faber1 op4 cit41 vol1 ii41 p4 #bj4 #afa ,bryant1 in his 8,ancient ,mythology10 has brought together a great mass of materials bearing on this question4 ,the facts1 however1 are capable of quite a different interpretation from that which he has given to them4 #afb 8,origin and ,destiny of ,man10 p4 #cci4 #afc ,dr4 ,inman points out that1 in the ancient languages1 the term for 8garden0 is used as a metaphor for woman4 8,ancient ,faiths10 i4 #eb2 ii4 #eec4 #afd ,guigniaut's 8,religions de l',antiquit10 vol4 i41 p4 #adf4 #afe ,op4 cit41 i4 #cae4 #aff 8,egypt10 vol4 iv41 p4 #beg4 #afg 8,egypt10 vol4 iv41 p4 #bji4 #afh ,mr4 ,gerald ,massey appears to regard the crime of ,lamekh as the practice of abortion1 men not desiring to have children4 ,op4 cit41 ii4 #aai4 #afi ,gen41 iv4 #bc1 #bd4 #agj ,bunsen's 8,egypt10 vol4 iv41 pp4 #bhe-f4 #aga ,bunsen's 8,egypt10 vol4 iii41 p4 #dac4 #agb ,bunsen's 8,egypt10 vol4 iii41 p4 #dcg4 #agc ,ditto1 vol4 iv41 p4 #bhf4 #agd ,if space permitted1 we might trace to their source the developments which the primeval goddess of fecundity underwent4 ,to the ideas embodied in her may be referred nearly all the feminine deities of antiquity4 #age ,faber1 op4 cit41 vol4 ii41 p4 #bdf4 #agf ,kenrick's 8,phnicia10 p4 #cjg4 #agg ,see ,faber1 op4 cit42 also ,note at the end of this chapter4 #agh ,on this question1 see the 8,memoirs of the ,anthropological ,society of ,london10 vol4 ii41 p4 #bfe2 also 8,sketch of the ,religious ,sects of the ,hindus10 in the 8,asiatic ,researches10 vol4 xvii4 7#ahcb71 p4 #baf1 et seq4 #agi ,this question is fully considered by ,dr4 ,muir in his ,sanscrit ,texts1 part iv41 p4 #ed1 et seq4 #ahj ,ditto1 pp4 #afa1 #cdc4 #aha 8,rural ,bengal10 p4 #ahg1 et seq41 #aeb4 ,this association of the mountain and the river is found also in the ,persian ,khordah-,avesta4 ,see 7#e7 ,abun-yasht1 v4 #a-c4 #ahb ,see 8,tree and ,serpent ,worship10 p4 #gj2 also ,sherring's 8,benares10 pp4 #ge-hi4 ,here the serpent is evidently symbolical of life4 ,in the ,mahabharata1 ,mahadeva is described as having 8a girdle of serpents1 ear-rings of serpents1 a sacrificial cord of serpents1 and an outer garment of serpent's skin40 ,dr4 ,muir1 op4 cit41 part iv41 p4 #afj4 #ahc ,op4 cit41 p4 #gj4 #ahd ,ditto1 p4 #fb4 #ahe ,mr4 ,sellon1 in the 8,memoirs of the ,anthropological ,society of ,london10 vol4 ii41 p4 #bgc4 #ahf ,it should not be forgotten that the ,vedic religion was not that of all the ,aryan tribes of ,india 7see ,muir1 op4 cit41 part ii41 pp4 #cgg1 #cfh1 #chc71 and it is by no means improbable that some of them retained a more primitive faith--8,buddhism0 or 8,rudraism0--i4e41 ,siva-ism4 #ahg ,op4 cit41 p4 #fb4 ,to come to a proper conclusion on this important point1 it is necessary to consider the real position occupied by ,gautama in relation to ,brahmanism4 ,burnoux says that he differed from his adversaries only in the definition he gives of salvation 7du salut74 8,introduction l',histoire du ,buddhisme ,indien10 p4 #aee4 #ahh ,fergusson1 op4 cit41 pp4 #fg1 #bbb1 #bbc4 #ahi ,see ,guigniaut1 op4 cit41 vol4 i41 pp4 #bic1 #afj n4 #aij ,schlagenweit1 8,buddhism in ,tibet10 p4 #abj4 #aia ,higgins' 8,anacalypsis10 vol4 i41 p4 #ccb1 et seq4 ,see also p4 #cdb1 et seq4 #aib ,op4 cit41 vol4 i41 p4 #a1 et seq41 #be4 #aic ,dr4 ,hunter points out a connection between ,siva-ism and ,buddhism4 ,op4 cit41 p4 #aid4 #aid ,mr4 ,fergusson1 op4 cit41 p4 #gj4 ,the serpent is connected with ,vishnuism as a symbol of wisdom rather than of life4 #aie ,op4 cit41 p4 #ga4 #aif ,hence ,siva1 as ,sambhu1 is the patron deity of the ,brahman order1 and the most intellectual ,hindus of the present day are to be found among his followers4 ,see ,wilson1 op4 cit41 p4 #aga4 ,sherring's 8,sacred ,city of the ,hindus10 p4 #adf1 et seq4 #aig ,the bull of ,siva has reference to strength and speed rather than to fecundity1 while the ,rig-veda refers to ,vishnu as the former of the womb1 although elsewhere he is described as the fecundator4 ,muir1 op4 cit41 part iv41 pp4 #bdd1 #bib1 #hc1 #fd4 #aih ,this question has been considered by ,burnoux1 op4 cit41 p4 #edg1 et seq4 ,but see also ,hodgson's 8,buddhism in ,nepaul10 and paper in the 8,journal of the ,royal ,asiatic ,society10 vol4 xviii4 7#ahfj71 p4 #cie1 et seq4 #aii ,see ,herring1 op4 cit41 p4 #hi4 #bjj ,schlagenweit1 op4 cit41 p4 #aha4 #bja ,maurice's 8,indian ,antiquities10 vol4 vii41 p4 #eff4 #bjb ,as to the identity of ,siva and ,saturn1 see ,guigniaut1 op4 cit41 vol4 i41 p4 #afg n4 #bjc ,sherring1 op cit41 p4 #cje1 et seq4 #bjd ,it should be noted that many of the so-called 8circles0 are in reality elliptical4 #bje ,see1 on this subject1 ,higgins' 8,anacalypsis10 vol4 i41 p4 #cae1 et seq4 #bjf ,we must look to the esoteric teaching of ,mithraism for the origin and explanation of much of primitive ,christian dogma4 ,the doctrine of 8regeneration10 which is a spiritual application of the idea of physical generation1 was known to all the religious systems of antiquity1 and probably the ,phallic emblems generally used were regarded by the initiated as having a hidden meaning4 ,i may1 perhaps1 be allowed to refer to the second volume of my 8,evolution of ,morality0 for information on the subject of the 8re-birth40 #bjg ,the serpent elevated in the wilderness is said to be typical of ,christ4 ,a ,gnostic sect taught that ,christ was ,seth4 #bjh ,didron's 8,christian ,iconography0 7,bohn71 pp4 #bgb-bhf4 #bji ,it is a curious fact that ,buddhist saints are often represented in the ,vesica and with the nimbus4 ,see ,hodgson's figures 7,plates v4 and vi47 in the 8,journal of the ,royal ,asiatic ,society10 vol4 xvi4 #baj ,didron1 pp4 #bg1 #bca4 #baa ,ditto1 p4 #bi4 #bab ,ditto1 p4 #bae4 #bac 8,history of ,magic0 7,bohn71 vol4 i41 p4 #bec1 et seq4 #bad ,as to these1 see ,king's 8,gnostics and their ,remains10 p4 #gb4 #bae ,in the philosophy of ,st4 ,paul1 the death of ,christ was rendered necessary by the fall4 ,by the first man1 ,adam1 came death1 and in ,christ the second ,adam are all made alive4 ,mankind reverts to the position occupied by ,adam before he sinned2 and as in the ,new ,jerusalem there is no marriage1 so in the earthly paradise of the ,hebrew legend man was at first intended to live alone4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,the ,,origin ,,of ,,serpent-,,worship4 ,the subject to be discussed in the present chapter is one of the most fascinating that can engage the attention of anthropologists4 ,it is remarkable1 however1 that although so much has been written in relation to it1 we are still almost in the dark as to the origin of the superstition in question4 ,the student of mythology knows that certain ideas were associated by the peoples of antiquity with the serpent1 and that it was the favourite symbol of particular deities2 but why that animal rather than any other was chosen for the purpose is yet uncertain4 ,the facts being well known1 however1 ,i shall dwell on them only so far as may be necessary to support the conclusions based upon them4 ,we are indebted to ,mr4 ,fergusson for bringing together a large array of facts1 showing the extraordinary range which serpent-worship had among ancient nations4 ,it is true that he supposes it not to have been adopted by any nation belonging to the ,semitic or ,aryan stock2 the serpent-worship of ,india and ,greece originating1 as he believes1 with older peoples4 ,however this may be1 the superstition was certainly not unknown to either ,aryans or ,semites4 ,the brazen serpent of the ,hebrew exodus was destroyed in the reign of ,hezekiah1 owing to the idolatry to which it gave rise4 ,in the mythology of the ,chaldeans1 from whom the ,assyrians seem to have sprung1 the serpent occupied a most important position4 ,among the allied ,phnicians and ,egyptians it was one of the most divine symbols4 ,in ,greece1 ,hercules was said 8to have been the progenitor of the whole race of serpent-worshipping ,scythians1 through his intercourse with the serpent ,echidna20 and when ,minerva planted the sacred olive on the ,acropolis of ,athens1 she placed it under the care of the serpent-deity ,erechthonios4 ,as to the ,latins1 ,mr4 ,fergusson remarks that 8,ovid's #8,metamorphoses' are full of passages referring to the important part which the serpent performed in all the traditions of classic mythology40 ,the superstitions connected with that animal are supposed not to have existed among the ancient ,gauls and ,germans2 but this is extremely improbable1 considering that it appears to have been known to the ,british ,celts and to the ,gothic inhabitants of ,scandinavia4 ,in ,eastern ,europe there is no doubt that the serpent superstition was anciently prevalent1 and ,mr4 ,fergusson refers to evidence proving that 8both trees and serpents were worshipped by the peasantry in ,esthonia and ,finland within the limits of the present century1 and even with all the characteristics possessed by the old faith when we first became acquainted with it40 ,the serpent entered largely into the mythology of the ancient ,persians1 as it does into that of the ,hindus4 ,in ,india it is associated with both ,siva-ism and ,vishnuism1 although its actual worship perhaps belonged rather to the aboriginal tribes among whom ,buddhism is thought by recent writers to have originated4 ,the modern home of the superstition1 however1 is ,western ,africa1 where the serpent is not merely considered sacred1 but is actually worshipped as divine4 ,on the other side of the ,indian ,ocean traces of the same superstition are met with among the peoples of the ,indian islands and of ,polynesia1 and also in ,china4 ,the evidences of serpent-worship on the ,american ,continent have long engaged the attention of archologists1 who have found it to be almost universal1 under one form or another1 among the aboriginal tribes4 ,that animal was sculptured on the temples of ,mexico and ,peru1 and its form is said by ,mr4 ,squier to be of frequent occurrence among the mounds of ,wisconsin4 ,the most remarkable of the symbolic earthworks of ,north ,america is the great serpent mound of ,adam's county1 ,ohio1 the convolutions of which extend to a length of #a1jjj feet4 ,at the ,edinburgh meeting of the ,british ,association1 in #ahga1 ,mr4 ,phen gave an account of his discovery in ,argyllshire of a similar mound several hundred feet long1 and about fifteen feet high by thirty feet broad1 tapering gradually to the tail1 the head being surmounted by a circular cairn1 which he supposes to answer to the solar disc above the head of the ,egyptian urus1 the position of which1 with head erect1 answers to the form of the ,oban serpent-mound4 ,this discovery is of great interest1 and its author is probably justified in assuming that the mound was connected with serpent-worship4 ,it may be remarked1 in evidence of the existence of such structures in other parts of the old world1 that the hero of one of the ,yanas of the ,zend ,avesta is made to rest on what he thinks is a bank1 but which he finds to be a great green snake1 doubtless a serpent-mound4 ,another ancient reference to these structures is made by ,iphicrates1 who1 according to ,bryant1 8related that in ,mauritania there were dragons of such extent1 that grass grew upon their backs40 ,let us now see what ideas have been associated with the serpent by various peoples4 ,mr4 ,fergusson mentions the curious fact that 8the chief characteristic of the serpent throughout the ,east in all ages seems to have been their power over the wind and rain40 ,according to ,colonel ,meadows ,taylor1 in the ,indian ,deccan1 at the present day1 offerings are made to the village divinities 7of whom the ng1 or snake1 is always one7 at spring time and harvest for rain or fine weather1 and also in time of cholera or other diseases or pestilence4 ,so1 among the ,chinese1 the dragon is regarded as the giver of rain1 and in time of drought offerings are made to it4 ,in the spring and fall of the year it is one of the objects worshipped1 by command of the ,emperor1 by certain mandarins4 ,the ,chinese notion of the serpent or dragon dwelling above the clouds in spring to give rain reminds us of the ,aryan myth of ,vritra1 or ,ahi1 the throttling snake1 or dragon with three heads1 who hides away the rain-clouds1 but who is slain by ,indra1 the beneficent giver of rain4 8,whenever10 says ,mr4 ,cox1 8the rain is shut up in the clouds1 the dark power is in revolt against ,dyaus and ,indra4 ,in the rumblings of the thunder1 while the drought still sucks out the life of the earth1 are heard the mutterings of their hateful enemy4 ,in the lightning flashes which precede the outburst of the pent-up waters are seen the irresistible spears of the god1 who is attacking the throttling serpent in his den2 and in the serene heaven which shone out when the deluging clouds are passed away1 men beheld the face of the mighty deity who was their friend40 ,mr4 ,cox elsewhere remarks that ,vritra1 8the enemy of ,indra1 reappears in all the dragons1 snakes1 or worms slain by all the heroes of ,aryan mythology40 ,whether the great serpent be the giver or the storer of rain1 the ,aryans1 like all ,eastern peoples1 suppose it to have power over the clouds4 ,this1 however1 is only one of its attributes4 ,it is thought to have power over the wind as well as the rain1 and this also is confirmed by reference to ,aryan mythology4 ,mr4 ,cox has well shown that ,hermes is 8the air in motion1 or wind1 varying in degree from the soft breath of a summer breeze to the rage of the growing hurricane40 ,in these more violent moods he is represented by the ,maruts1 the 8crushers0 or 8grinders10 who are also the children of ,rudra1 the 8,father of the ,winds10 and himself the 8wielder of the thunderbolt0 and the 8mightiest of the mighty40 ,rudra is also 8the robber1 the cheat1 the deceiver1 the master thief10 and in this character both he and ,hermes agree with the cloud-thief ,vritra4 ,notwithstanding the fact that in the ,mahabharata1 ,rudra1 like ,hercules1 is described as the 8destroyer of serpents10 he is in the same poem identified with ,mahadeva1 and hence he is evidently the same as ,siva1 who has the title of ,king of ,serpents4 ,the primitive character of ,siva1 as the ,vedic ,rudra1 is now almost lost1 but the identity of the two deities may be supported by reference to an incident related in the myth of ,hermes and ,apollo4 ,it is said that1 in return for the sweet-sounding lyre1 ,apollo gave to ,hermes the magical 8three-leafed rod of wealth and happiness40 ,sometimes this rod was entwined with serpents instead of fillets1 and there is no difficulty in recognising in it the well-known emblem of ,siva1 which also is sometimes encircled by serpents4 ,it can be shown that the ,hindu deity is a form of ,saturn1 one of the ,semitic names for whom was ,set or ,seth4 ,it was the serpent-symbol of this ,god#baf which was said to have been elevated in the wilderness for the healing of the people bitten by serpents1 and curiously enough ,rudra 7,siva7 was called not only the bountiful1 the strong1 but the healer4 ,the later ,egyptian title of the god ,set was ,typhon1 of whom ,mr4 ,breal says that 8,typhon is the monster who obscures the heaven1 a sort of ,greek ,vritra40 ,the myth of ,indra and ,vritra is reproduced in ,latin mythology as that of ,hercules and ,ccus4 ,ccus also is analogous to ,typhon1 and as the former is supposed to have taken his name from1 or given it to1 a certain wind which had the power of clothing itself with clouds1 so the latter bore the same name as a very destructive wind which was much dreaded by the ,phnicians and ,egyptians4 ,moreover1 the name ,typhon was given by the ,egyptians to anything tempestuous1 and hence to the ocean2 and in ,hebrew the allied word 8,suph0 denotes a 8whirlwind40 ,there is another point of contact1 however1 between ,siva and the god ,set or ,typhon1 who was known to the ,egyptians also as the serpent ,aphphis1 or the giant4 ,an ancient writer states that one of the names of ,el1 or ,chronos1 was ,typhon1 and the serpent and pillar symbols of the ,phnician deity confirm the identification between ,set or ,saturn1 and the ,siva of the ,hindu ,pantheon4 ,one of the leading ideas connected with the serpent was1 as we have seen1 its power over the rain1 but another equally influential was its connection with health4 ,mr4 ,fergusson remarks that 8when we first meet with serpent-worship1 either in the wilderness of ,sinai1 the groves of ,epidaurus1 or in the ,sarmatian huts1 the serpent is always the ,agatho-dmon1 the bringer of health and good fortune40#bag ,the ,agatho-dmon1 which in ancient ,egypt presided over the affairs of men as the guardian spirit of their houses1#bah was the ,asp of ,rnno1 the snake-headed goddess who is represented as nursing the young princes4 ,that the idea of health was intimately associated with the serpent is shown by the crown formed of the asp1 or sacred ,thermuthis1 having been given particularly to ,isis1 a goddess of life and healing4 ,it was also the symbol of other deities with the like attributes4 ,thus on a papyri it encircles the figure of ,harpocrates1 who was identified with the serpent god sculapius2 while not only was a great serpent kept alive in the temple of ,serapis1 but on later monuments this deity is represented by a great serpent1 with or without a human head4 ,sanchoniathon says of that animal--8,it is long-lived1 and has the quality not only of putting off its old age and assuming a second youth1 but of receiving at the same time an augmentation of its size and strength40 ,the serpent1 therefore1 was a fit emblem of ,rudra1 8the healer20 and the gift which ,apollo presented to ,mercury could be entwined by no more appropriate object than the animal which was supposed to be able to give the health without which even ,mercury's magic-staff could not confer wealth and happiness4 ,it is remarkable that a ,moslem saint of ,upper ,egypt is still thought to appear under the form of a serpent1 and to cure the diseases which afflict the pilgrims to his shrine4 ,ramahavaly1 one of the four national idols of the ,malagasy1 bears a curious analogy to the serpent gods of wisdom and healing4 ,one of his titles is ,rabiby1 signifying 8animal10 and denoting 8the god of beasts20 and his emissaries are the serpents which abide in ,madagascar1 and are looked upon with superstitious fear by the inhabitants4 ,ramahavaly is1 moreover1 regarded as the ,physician of ,imerina1 and is thought to preserve from1 or expel1 epidemic diseases4 ,mr4 ,ellis says that he is sometimes described 8as god1 sacred1 powerful1 and almighty2 who kills and makes alive2 who heals the sick1 and prevents diseases and pestilence2 who can cause thunder and lightning to strike their victims or prevent their fatality2 can cause rain in abundance when wanted1 or can withhold it so as to ruin the crops of rice4 ,he is also celebrated for his knowledge of the past and future1 and for his capacity of discovering whatever is hidden or concealed40 ,it is probable that the association with the serpent of the idea of healing arose from the still earlier recognition of that animal as a symbol of life4 ,we have already referred to the representations in the ,egyptian temples of the young princes being nursed by a woman having the head of an asp4 ,it is interesting to find that in ,india at the present day serpent-worship is expressly resorted to on behalf of children1 and 8the first hair of a child which is shaved off when it has passed teething and other infantine ailments is frequently dedicated to a serpent40 ,this animal in both cases is treated as the guardian of life1 and therefore the crown given to ,egyptian sovereigns and divinities was very properly formed of the asp of ,rnno4 ,another snake-headed ,egyptian goddess has the name ,hih or ,hoh1 and ,sir ,gardner ,wilkinson mentions that the ,coptic word ,hof signifies the viper1 analogous to the hye of the ,arabs4 ,the ,arabic word hiya1 indeed1 means both life and a serpent4 ,this connection is supported by the association1 already pointed out1 between the serpent and the gods of the life-giving wind1 and by the fact that these also possess the pillar symbol of life4 ,this belongs as well to ,siva the destroyer1 the preserver1 and the creator1 as to ,set or ,saturn1 to ,thoth-,hermes1 and ,el or ,chronos4 ,both the serpent and the pillar were assigned also to many of the personifications of the sun1 the deified source of earthly life4 ,probably the well-known figure representing the serpent with its tail in its mouth was intended to symbolise endless life rather than eternity1 an idea which does not appear to have been associated with that animal by the ,egyptians4 ,agreeably with this view1 ,horapollo affirms that ,kneph-,agatho-dmon denoted immortality4 ,one of the best-known attributes of the serpent is wisdom4 ,the ,hebrew tradition of the fall speaks of that animal as the most subtle of the beasts of the field2 and the founder of ,christianity tells his disciples to be as wise as serpents1 though as harmless as doves4 ,among the ancients the serpent was consulted as an oracle1 and ,maury points out that it played an important part in the life of several celebrated ,greek diviners in connection with the knowledge of the language of birds1 which many of the ancients believed to be the souls of the dead4 ,the serpent was associated with ,apollo and ,athen1 the ,grecian deities of wisdom1 as well as with the ,egyptian ,kneph1#bai the ram-headed god from whom the ,gnostics are sometimes said to have derived their idea of the ,sophia4 ,this personification of divine wisdom is undoubtedly represented on ,gnostic gems under the form of the serpent4 ,in ,hindu mythology there is the same association between the animal and the idea of wisdom4 ,siva1 as ,sambhu1 is the patron of the ,brahmanic order1 and1 as shown by his being three-eyed1 is essentially a god possessing high intellectual attributes4 ,vishnu also is a god of wisdom1 but of the somewhat lower type which is distinctive of the worshippers of truth under its feminine aspect4 ,the connection between wisdom and the serpent is best seen1 however1 in the ,hindu legends as to the ,nagas4 ,mr4 ,fergusson remarks that 8the ,naga appears everywhere in ,vaishnava tradition4 ,there is no more common representation of ,vishnu#bbj than as reposing on the ,sesha1 the celestial seven-headed snake1 contemplating the creation of the world4 ,it was by his assistance that the ocean was churned and ,amrita produced1 ,he everywhere spreads his protecting hood over the god or his avatars2 and in all instances it is the seven-headed heavenly ,naga1 not the earthly cobra of ,siva40 ,the former animal1 no doubt1 is especially symbolical of wisdom1 and it is probably owing to his intellectual attributes1 rather than to his destructive or creative power1 that ,siva is sometimes styled the ,king of ,serpents4 ,the ,upanishads refer to the science of serpents1 by which is meant the wisdom of the mysterious ,nagas1 who1 according to ,buddhistic legend1 reside under ,mount ,mru1 and in the waters of the terrestrial world4 ,one of the sacred books of the ,tibetan ,buddhists is fabled to have been received from the ,nagas1 who1 says ,schlagentweit1 are 8fabulous creatures of the nature of serpents1 who occupy a place among the beings superior to man1 and are regarded as protectors of the law of the ,buddha4 ,to these spiritual beings ,skyamuni is said to have taught a more philosophical religious system than to men1 who were not sufficiently advanced to understand it at the time of his appearance40 ,so far as this has any historical basis1 it can mean only that ,gautama taught his most secret doctrines to the ,nagas1 or aboriginal serpent-worshippers1 who were the first to accept his teaching1 and whose religious ideas had probably much in common with those of ,gautama himself4 ,mr4 ,fergusson refers to the fact that a king of the ,naga race was reigning in ,magadha when ,buddha was born in #fbc ,b4,c42 and he adds that the dissemination of his religion 8is wholly due to the accident of its having been adopted by the low caste kings of ,magadha1 and to its having been elevated by one of them to the rank of the religion of the state40 ,it would appear1 indeed1 that according to a ,hindu legend1 ,gautama himself had a serpent lineage4 ,the 8serpent-science0 of ,hindu legend has a curious parallel in ,phnician mythology4 ,the invention of the ,phnician written character is referred to the god ,taaut or ,thoth1 whose snake-symbol bears his name ,tt1 and is used to represent the ninth letter of the alphabet 7teta71 which in the oldest ,phnician character has the form of the snake curling itself up4 ,philo thus explains the form of the letter theta1 and that the god from whom it took its name was designated by the ,egyptians as a snake curled up1 with its head turned inwards4 ,philo adds that the letters of the ,phnician alphabet 8are those formed by means of serpents2 afterwards1 when they built temples1 they assigned them a place in the adytums1 instituted various ceremonies and solemnities in honour of them1 and adored them as the supreme gods1 the rulers of the universe40 ,bunsen thinks the sense of this passage is 8that the forms and movements of serpents were employed in the invention of the oldest letters1 which represent the gods40 ,he says1 however1 that 8the alphabet does not tally at all with the ,phnician names10 and the explanation given by ,philo1 although curious as showing the ideas anciently associated with the serpent1 is reliable only so far as it confirms the connection between that animal and the inventor of the written characters4 ,according to another tradition1 the ancient theology of ,egypt was said to have been given by the ,agatho-dmon1 who was the benefactor of all mankind4 ,the account given of the serpent by ,sanchoniathon1 as cited by ,eusebius1 is worth repetition as showing the peculiar notions anciently current in connection with that animal4 ,the ,phnician writer says3 8,taautus first attributed something of the divine nature to the serpent and the serpent tribe1 in which he was followed by the ,phnicians and ,egyptians2 for this animal was esteemed by him to be the most inspired of all the reptiles1 and of a fiery nature1 inasmuch as it exhibits an incredible celerity1 moving by its spirit without either hands or feet1 or any of those external members by which other animals effect their motion1 and in its progress it assumes a variety of forms1 moving in a spiral course1 and darting forwards with whatever degree of swiftness it pleases4 ,it is1 moreover1 long-lived1 and has the quality not only of putting off its old age1 and assuming a second youth1 but of receiving at the same time an augmentation of its size and strength1 and when it has fulfilled the appointed measure of its existence it consumes itself1 as ,taautus has laid down in the sacred books2 upon which account this animal is introduced in the sacred rites and mysteries40 ,in ,india at the present day some ,brahmans always keep the skin of a ng1 or snake1 in one of their sacred books1 probably from some idea connected with the casting by the serpent of its skin referred to in the preceding passage4 ,we have now seen that the serpent was anciently the symbol of wisdom1 life1 and healing1 and also that it was thought to have power over the wind and rain4 ,this last attribute is easily understood when the importance of rain in the east is considered1 and the ideas associated by the ancients with the air and moisture are remembered4 ,the ,hebrew tradition which speaks of the creative spirit moving over the face of the waters embodies those ideas1 according to which the water contains the elements of life and the wind is the vivifying principle4 ,the attribute of wisdom cannot so easily be connected with that of life4 ,the power of healing is certainly an evidence of the possession of wisdom1#bba but as it is only one phase of it1 probably the latter attribute was antecedent to the former1 or at least it may have had an independent origin4 ,what this origin was may perhaps be explained by reference to certain other ideas very generally entertained in relation to the serpent4 ,among various ,african tribes this animal is viewed with great veneration1 under the belief that it is often the re-embodiment of a deceased ancestor4 ,this notion appears to be prevalent also among the ,hindus1 who1 like the ,kafirs1 will never kill a serpent1 although it is usually regarded with more dislike than veneration4 ,mr4 ,squier remarks that 8many of the ,north ,american tribes entertain a superstitious regard for serpents1 and particularly for the rattlesnake4#bbb ,though always avoiding they never destroy it1 #8lest1' says ,barham1 #8the spirit of the reptile should excite its kindred to revenge4'0 ,mr4 ,squier adds that1 8according to ,adair1 this fear was not unmingled with veneration4 ,charlevoix states that the ,natchez had the figure of a rattlesnake1 carved from wood1 placed among other objects upon the altar of their temple1 to which they paid great honour4 ,heckwelder relates that the ,linni ,linape called the rattlesnake #8grandfather1' and would on no account allow it to be destroyed4 ,hemy states that the ,indians around ,lake ,huron had a similar superstition1 and also designated the rattlesnake as their #8grandfather4' ,he also mentions instances in which offerings of tobacco were made to it1 and its parental care solicited for the party performing the sacrifice4 ,carver also mentions an instance of similar regard on the part of a ,menominee ,indian1 who carried a rattlesnake constantly with him1 #8treating it as a deity1 and calling it his great father4'0 ,the most curious notion1 however1 is that of the ,mexicans1 who always represented the first woman1 whose name was translated by the old ,spanish writers 8the woman of our flesh10 as accompanied by a great male serpent4 ,the serpent is the sun-god ,tonacatle-coatl1 the principal deity of the ,mexican ,pantheon1 and his female companion1 the goddess mother of mankind1 has the title cihua-cohuatl1 which signifies 8woman of the serpent40 ,with the ,peruvians1 also1 the principal deity was the serpent-sun1 whose wife1 the female serpent1 gave birth to a boy and a girl from whom all mankind were said to be descended4 ,it is remarkable that the serpent origin thus ascribed to the human race is not confined to the aborigines of ,america4 ,according to ,herodotus1 the primeval mother of the ,scyths was a monster1 half woman and half serpent4 ,this reminds us of the serpent parentage ascribed to various personages of classical antiquity4#bbc ,among the ,semites1 ,zohk1 the traditional ,arabian conqueror of ,central ,asia1 is represented as having two snakes growing at his back2 and ,mr4 ,bruce mentions that the line of the ,abyssinian kings begins with 8,the ,serpent10 ,arwe1 who is said to have reigned at ,axum for #djj years1 showing that the royal descent was traced from this animal4 ,from the position assigned to the dragon in ,china1 it probably was formerly thought to stand in a similar relation to the ,emperor1 of whom it is the special symbol4 ,the facts cited prove that the serpent superstition is intimately connected with ancestor-worship1 probably originating among uncultured tribes1 who1 struck by the noiseless movement and the activity of the serpent1 combined with its peculiar gaze and power of casting its skin1 viewed it as a spirit embodiment4 ,as such1 it would be supposed to have the superior wisdom and power ascribed to the denizens of the invisible world1 and from this would originate also the ascription to it of the power over life and health1 and over the moisture on which those benefits are dependent4 ,the serpent-spirit may1 however1 have made its appearance for a good or a bad purpose1 to confer a benefit or to inflict punishment for the misdeeds of the living4 ,the notion of there being good and evil serpent-spirits would thus naturally arise4 ,among ancestor-worshipping peoples1 however1 the serpent would be viewed as a good being who busied himself about the interests of the tribe to which he had once belonged4 ,when the simple idea of a spirit-ancestor was transformed into that of the ,great ,spirit1 the father of the race1 the attributes of the serpent would be enlarged4 ,the common ancestor would be relegated to the heavens1 and that which was necessary to the life and well-being of his people would be supposed to be under his care4 ,hence the great serpent was thought to have power over the rain and the hurricane1 with the latter of which he was probably often identified4 ,when the serpent was thus transferred to the atmosphere1 and the superstition lost its simple character as a phase of ancestor-worship1 its most natural association would be with the solar cult4 ,it is not surprising1 therefore1 to find that ,quetzalcoatl1 the divine benefactor of the ,mexicans1 was an incarnation of the serpent-sun ,tonacatlcoatl1 who thus became the great father1 as the female serpent ,cihua-coatl was the great mother1 of the human race4 ,it is an interesting inquiry how far the sun-gods of other peoples partook of this double character4 ,bunsen has a remarkable passage bearing on the serpent nature of those deities4 ,he says that 8,esmun-,esculapius is strictly a ,phnician god4 ,he was especially worshipped at ,berytus4 ,at ,carthage he was called the highest god1 together with ,astart and ,hercules4 ,at ,babylon1 according to the above genealogy of ,bel1 ,apollo corresponded to him4 ,as the snake-god he must actually be ,hermes1 in ,phnician ,tt1 ,taautes4444 ,in an earlier stage of cosmogonical consciousness he is ,agatho-dmon-,ss1 whom ,lepsius has shown to be the third god in the first order of the ,egyptian ,pantheon40 ,the serpent deity who was thus known under so many forms was none other than the sun-god ,set or ,saturn1 who has already been identified with ,siva and other deities having the attributes usually ascribed to the serpent4 ,bunsen asserts that ,set is common to all the ,semites and ,chaldeans1 as he was to the ,egyptians1 but that 8his supposed identity with ,saturn is not so old as his identity with the sun-god1 as ,sirius 7,sthis71 because the sun has the greatest power when it is in ,sirius40 ,elsewhere the same writer says that 8the ,oriento-,egyptian conception of ,typhon-,set was that of a drying-up parching heat4 ,set is considered as the sun-god when he has reached his zenith1 the god of the summer sun40 ,the solar#bbd character of the serpent-god appears therefore to be placed beyond doubt4 ,but what was the relation in which he was supposed to stand to the human race8 ,bunsen1 to whose labours ,i am so much indebted1 remarks that ,seth 8appears gradually among the ,semites as the background of their religious consciousness10 and not merely was he 8the primitive god of northern ,egypt and ,palestine10 but his genealogy as 8the ,seth of ,genesis1 the father of ,enoch 7the man71 must be considered as originally running parallel with that derived from the ,elohim1 ,adam's father40 ,seth is thus the divine ancestor of the ,semites1 a character in which1 but in relation to other races1 the solar deities generally agree with him4 ,the kings and priests of ancient peoples claimed this divine origin1 and 8children of the sun0 was the title of the members of the sacred caste4 ,when the actual ancestral character of the deity is hidden he is regarded as 8the father of his people0 and their divine benefactor4 ,he is the introducer of agriculture1 the inventor of arts and sciences1 and the civiliser of mankind2 8characteristics10 says ,faber1 8which every nation ascribed to the first of their gods or the oldest of their kings40 ,this was true of ,thoth1 ,saturn1 and other analogous deities1 and the ,adam of ,hebrew tradition was the father of agriculture1 as his representative ,noah was the introducer of the vine4 ,elsewhere ,i have endeavoured to show that the name of the great ancestor of ,hebrew tradition has been preserved by certain peoples who may thus be classed together as ,adamites4 ,he appears1 indeed1 to be the recognised legendary ancestor of the members of that division of mankind whose primeval home we can scarcely doubt was in ,central ,asia1 answering in this respect to the ,seth of the ,semites4 ,according to the tradition1 however1 as handed down to us by the ,hebrews1 ,seth himself was the son of ,adam4 ,from this1 it would seem to follow that1 as ,seth was the serpent sun-god 7the ,agatho-dmon71 the legendary ancestor of the ,adamites must himself have partaken of the same character4 ,strange as this idea may appear it is not without warrant4 ,we have already seen that the ,mexicans ascribed that nature to ,tonacatlcoatl and his wife1 the mother of mankind1 and that a similar notion was entertained by various peoples of the old world4 ,the ,chaldean god ,ha who1 as the 8teacher of mankind10 and the 8lord of understanding10 answers exactly to the divine benefactor of the race before referred to1 was 8figured by the great serpent which occupies so conspicuous a place among the symbols of the gods on the black stones recording ,babylonian benefactions40 ,the name of the god is connected with the ,arabic ,hiya1 which signifies a serpent as well as life1 and ,sir ,henry ,rawlinson says that 8there are very strong grounds indeed for connecting him with the serpent of ,scripture1 and with the ,paradisaical traditions of the tree of knowledge and the tree of life40 ,the god ,ha was1 therefore1 the serpent revealer of knowledge1 answering in some respects to the serpent of the fall4 ,he was1 however1 the ,agatho-dmon1 and in the earlier form of the legend doubtless answered to the great human ancestor himself4 ,it is curious that1 according to ,rabbinical tradition1 ,cain was the son1 not of ,adam1 but of the serpent-spirit ,asmodeus1 who is the same as the ,persian ,ahriman1 8the great serpent with two feet40#bbe ,in the name of ,eve1 the mother of mankind1 we have1 indeed1 direct reference to the supposed serpent-nature of our first parents4 ,clemens ,alexandrinus long since remarked that the name ,hevia1 aspirated1 signifies a female serpent4 ,the name ,eve is evidently connected with the same ,arabic root as that which we have seen to mean both 8life0 and 8a serpent10 and the ,persians appear to have called the constellation ,serpens 8the little ,ava10 that is ,eve1 a title which is still given to it by the ,arabs4 ,but if ,eve was the serpent mother1 ,adam must have been the serpent father4 ,in the old ,akkad tongue ,ad signifies 8a father10 and the mythical personages with whom ,adam is most nearly allied1 such as ,seth or ,saturn1 ,taaut or ,thoth1 and others1 were serpent deities4 ,such would seem to have been the case also with the deities whose names show a close formal resemblance to that of ,adam4 ,thus the original name of ,hercules was ,sandan or ,adanos1 and ,hercules1 like the allied god ,mars1 was undoubtedly often closely associated with the serpent4 ,this notion is confirmed by the identification of ,adonis and ,osiris as ,azar or ,adar1 according to ,bunsen the later ,egyptian ,sar-,apis1 who is known to have been represented as a serpent4 ,the ,abaddon of ,st4 ,john1 the old dragon ,satan1 was probably intended for the same serpent-god4 ,it is interesting to compare the ideas entertained as to the great dragon in the ,book of ,revelation and those held by the ,chinese in relation to probably the same being4 ,mr4 ,doolittle says3 8,the dragon holds a remarkable position in the history and government of ,china4 ,it also enjoys an ominous eminence in the affections of the ,chinese people4 ,it is frequently represented as the greatest benefactor of mankind4 ,it is the dragon which causes the clouds to form and the rain to fall4 ,the ,chinese delight in praising its wonderful properties and powers4 ,it is the venerated symbol of good40 ,this was probably the view originally taken by the ,egyptians1 who were all followers of the serpent cult4 ,in ,egypt two kinds of serpents were the objects of peculiar veneration1 and of an almost universal worship4 ,all the gods were more or less symbolised or crowned by serpents1 while all the goddesses were hieroglyphically represented by serpents4 ,the animal used for these purposes was the cobra de copello1 or urus1 which1 according to ,mr4 ,w4 ,r4 ,cooper1#bbf 8from its dangerous beauty1 and in consequence of ancient tradition asserting it to have been spontaneously produced by the rays of the sun10 was universally assumed as the 8emblem of divine and sacro-regal sovereignty40 ,the urus appears to be always represented on the ,egyptian monuments1 in the feminine form1 and it was used as a symbol of fecundity1 agreeably to which idea the generative power of the solar beams is typified by pendent uri4 ,the urus1 moreover1 symbolised life and the power of healing1 and it was the emblem of immortality4 ,mr4 ,cooper remarks that in the ,egyptian religious system the principle of good was typically represented by a serpent1 while under the form of an entirely different serpent was figured a monstrous personal evil being who maintained a constant spiritual warfare with the spirit of good4 ,the serpent embodiment of the principle of evil was called ,hof1 ,rehof1 or ,aphphis1 and it was a species of coluber of large size4 ,it is described as 8the destroyer1 the enemy of the gods1 and the devourer of the souls of men20 and it was thought to dwell in the depths of 8that mysterious ocean upon which the ,baris1 or boat of the sun1 was navigated by the gods through the hours of day and night1 in the celestial regions40 ,the idea of an antagonism between the giant serpent ,aphphis and the good serpent1 as the 8soul of the world10 constantly occurs in the ,ritual of the ,dead1 and the aid of every divinity in turn is sought by the deceased in his conflict with the evil being4 ,it is remarkable that the 8soul of the world10 ,chnuphis1 or ,bait1 is represented as a coluber1 and that it appears to be identified with ,aphphis in one chapter of the ,ritual4 ,mr4 ,cooper states that1 although a large coluber which is figured as being worshipped resembles ,aphphis1 it cannot be him1 as there is no example of direct worship paid to ,aphphis1 8unless1 indeed1 we identify it with ,sutekh1 as the ,shepherd ,kings1 the last but one of whom was named ,aphphis1 appear to have done40 ,the serpent ,aphphis is sometimes represented with the crown of ,lower ,egypt upon his head1 and at one period he was identified with ,set or ,seth1 the national deity of the ,hyksos or ,shepherd tribes4 ,all traces of the worship of ,set was obliterated from the ,egyptian monuments1 but one representation has been preserved in which ,set is figured with ,horus1 united as one divinity1 between the triple serpent of good4 ,this shows that ,set1 and probably1 therefore1 his serpent emblem1 was originally not considered evil4 ,lower ,egypt was largely populated by ,semitic peoples1 whose national deity was their legendary ancestor ,seth1 and the detestation with which the ,egyptians regarded ,set and the serpent ,aphphis identified with him was probably the result of national enmity4 ,mr4 ,cooper points out that the serpent of good is always represented by the ,egyptians as upright and the serpent of evil as crawling1 this being generally the only distinction made4 ,the god ,chnuphis1 the 8soul of the world10 is usually figured as a ,serpent 7,coluber7 walking upon two human legs1 and curiously enough this is the form taken by the evil principle of ,persian mythology1 the great serpent walking on two feet4 ,a similar inversion of ideas occurs in the religious mythology of the ,naga peoples of the ,east4 ,near the ruined temples of ,cambodia1 as on the ,buddhist ,topes of ,india1 are sculptured gigantic serpents with voluminous folds supported by human figures1 as the gigantic ,aphphis is represented on the ,egyptian monuments4 ,there must have been some special reason why the great serpent was regarded so differently by various peoples1 and this was probably the result of race antagonism4 ,it is remarkable that one of the most ancient people of whom we have any written record--the primitive inhabitants of ,chaldea--not only bore the name of the traditional father of mankind1 but were especially identified with the serpent4 ,the predecessors of the ,akkad1 in ,chaldea1 were the ,medes1 or ,mad1 of ,berosus1 and the distinctive title of at least the later ,medes was ,mr1 which in ,persian means 8a snake40 ,this ,sir ,henry ,rawlinson supposes to have given rise 8not only to the ,persian traditions of ,zohk and his snakes1 but to the ,armenian traditions1 also1 of the dragon dynasty of ,media40 ,the ,medes of ,berosus belonged almost certainly to the old ,scythic stock of ,central ,asia1 to whom the ,chaldeans1 the ,hebrews1 and the ,aryans have alike been affiliated by different writers4 ,when1 therefore1 ,mr4 ,fergusson says that serpent-worship characterised the old ,turanian ,chaldean ,empire1 he would seem to trace it to the old ,asiatic centre4 ,probably to the same source must be traced the serpent tradition of the ,abyssinian kings4 ,bryant long since asserted that that superstition originated with the ,amonians or ,hamites1 who also would seem to have been derived from the ,scythic stock4 ,the facts brought together in the preceding pages far from exhaust the subject1 but they appear to justify the following conclusions3-- ,first1 ,the serpent has been viewed with awe or veneration from primeval times1 and almost universally as a re-embodiment of a deceased human being1 and as such there were ascribed to it the attributes of life and wisdom1 and the power of healing4 ,secondly1 ,the idea of a simple spirit re-incarnation of a deceased ancestor gave rise to the notion that mankind originally sprang from a serpent1 and ultimately to a legend embodying that idea4 ,thirdly1 ,this legend was connected with nature--or rather sun-worship--and the sun was1 therefore1 looked upon as the divine serpent-father of man and nature4 ,fourthly1 ,serpent-worship1 as a developed religious system1 originated in ,central ,asia1 the home of the great ,scythic stock1 from whom all the civilised races of the historical period sprang4 ,fifthly1 ,these peoples are the ,adamites1 and their mythical ancestor was at one time regarded as the ,great ,serpent1 his descendants being in a special sense serpent-worshippers4 99 99 99 99 99 ,note4--,at page #hh1 the ,malagasy idol ,ramahavaly is spoken of as still existing4 ,as a fact1 however1 in #ahfi all the ,malagasy national idols were1 by order of the ,government1 publicly burned4 ,many other idols and charms were at the same time destroyed by their owners4--,madagascar and its ,people1 by the ,rev4 ,james ,sibree1 ,jun41 p4 #dha4 ,,footnotes3 #baf ,theodoret did not distinguish between an ,egyptian sect called ,sethians and the ,gnostic ,ophites or serpent-worshippers4 #bag ,the heavenly serpent1 ,danh1 of the ,dahomans1 is said by ,captain ,burton to be the god of wealth4 8,his earthly representative is esteemed the supreme bliss and general good40 ,the ,slavonian ,morlacchi still consider that the sight of a snake crossing the road is an omen of good fortune4--,wilkinson's 8,dalmatia and ,montenegro10 vol4 ii41 p4 #afj4 #bah ,mr4 ,lane states that each quarter of ,cairo is supposed to have its guardian genius1 or ,agatho-dmon1 in the form of a serpent4--,vol4 i41 p4 #bhi4 #bai ,warburton supposes that the worship of the ,one ,god ,kneph was changed into that of the dragon or winged-serpent ,knuphis4 #bbj ,vishnu is often identified with ,kneph4 #bba ,according to ,gaelic and ,german folklore1 the white snake when boiled has the faculty of conferring medicinal wisdom4 ,the white snake is venerated as the king of serpents by the ,scottish ,highlanders as by certain ,arab tribes1 and it would appear also by the ,singhalese of ,ceylon4 #bbb ,the snake is one of the ,indian tribal totems4 #bbc ,pausanias1 iv41 #ad1 mentions ,aristodama1 the mother of ,aratus1 as having had intercourse with a serpent1 and the mother of the great ,scipio was said to have conceived by a serpent4 ,such was the case also with ,olympias1 the mother of ,alexander1 who was taught by her that he was a god1 and who in return deified her4--,le ,mythe de la ,femme et du ,serpent1 par ,ch4 ,schoebel1 #ahgf1 p4 #hd4 #bbd ,mr4 ,robert ,brown1 jun41 says that the serpent has six principal points of connection with ,dionysos3--#a1 ,as a symbol of1 and connected with1 wisdom2 #b1 ,as a solar emblem2 #c1 ,as a symbol of time and eternity2 #d1 ,as an emblem of the earth-life2 #e1 ,as connected with fertilising moisture2 #f1 ,as a ,phallic emblem4--,the ,great ,dionysiak ,myth1 #ahgh1 ii41 #ff4 #bbe ,mr4 ,cooper states 7loc4 cit41 p4 #cij7 that prominent in the ,egyptian religious system was the belief in a monstrous personal evil being typically represented as a serpent1 and that the principle of good was there likewise represented by an entirely different serpent1 a constant spiritual warfare being maintained between the two4 #bbf 8,the ,serpent ,myths of ,ancient ,egypt10 published in the 8,transactions of the ,victoria ,institute10 vol4 vi41 #ahgb4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,the ,,adamites4 ,much has from time to time been written as to the distinction between the ,adamites and the pre-,adamites1 although little has been done to identify the members of the two great divisions into which the human race has been thus divided4 ,those who accept the ,deluge of ,noah as a historical fact1 stated however in terms too wide1 may say generally that all the descendants of this patriarch are1 as such1 ,adamites1 while the pre-,adamites comprise the peoples of the primitive area inhabited by the dark races1 supposed by some writers to be referred to in the ,hebrew ,scriptures under the term ish1 8the sons of man10 as distinguished from the sons of ,adam4 ,little value1 however1 can be attached to such a general statement as this4 ,supposing ,noah to have been a second common father of the race1 we are still ignorant as to what peoples are to be classed among his descendants4 ,no doubt the ,toldoth ,beni ,noah of ,genesis throws considerable light on the question4 ,according to that genealogical table the whole earth was divided after the ,flood among the families of the three sons of ,noah--,shem1 ,ham1 and ,japheth4 ,it is not necessary here to identify the peoples described as the descendants of these patriarchs4 ,it will suffice to say that ,professor ,rawlinson1 who differs only in one or two particulars from other recent authorities1 writes as to the distribution of those peoples3 8,whereas the ,japhetic and ,hamitic races are geographically contiguous1 the former spread over all the northern regions known to the genealogist--,greece1 ,thrace1 ,scythia1 most of ,asia ,minor1 ,armenia1 and ,media2 the latter over all the south and the south-west1 ,north ,africa1 ,egypt1 ,nubia1 ,ethiopia1 ,southern and ,southeastern ,arabia1 and ,babylonia--so the ,semitic races are located in what may be called one region1 that region being the central one1 lying intermediate between the ,japhetic region upon the north and the ,hamitic one upon the south40 ,supposing the ,toldoth to give an exact statement of the descendants of the three sons of ,noah1 it by no means follows that the peoples there referred to are alone entitled to be classed as ,adamites1 and ,i propose1 therefore1 to see whether the latter can be identified by other evidence4 ,almost intuitively we turn1 in the first place1 to that region known as ,chaldea1 which has furnished in our own days material so important for the reconstruction of the annals of civilised man in the earliest historical period4 ,professor ,rawlinson1 indeed1 at the ,liverpool meeting of the ,british ,association1 held in #ahgj1 sought to establish that the ,garden of ,eden of the ,hebrew writers was none other than ,babylonia2 a hypothesis which certainly agrees with ,sir ,henry ,rawlinson's statement that ,ha1 the third member of the primitive ,chaldean triad1 may be connected with the ,paradisaical traditions of the tree of knowledge and the tree of life4 ,this would point to ,chaldea as the original home of the ,adamites1 unless1 indeed1 the traditions were derived from a still earlier centre1 and it will be well to ascertain whether there is anything in the history of ,babylon which directly connects its people with the ,adamic stock4 ,if we were to accept with ,chwolson the great antiquity of 8,the ,book of ,nabathan ,agriculture10 there would be no difficulty in assigning such a position to the ,chaldeans4 ,for this book not only expressly declares that they were the descendants of ,adam1 but in it ,adam appears as the founder of agriculture in ,babylon1 acting the part of a civiliser1 and hence named 8,the ,father of ,mankind40 ,this agrees well with the ,old ,testament account of ,adam as the first cultivator of the ground4 ,m4 ,renan1 however1 would seem to have conclusively established the late date of the so-called ,nabathan work1 showing that it contains legends as to ,adam1 ,seth1 ,enoch1 ,noah1 and ,abraham1 8analogous to those which they have in the apocryphal writings of the ,jews and ,christians1 and subsequently in those of the ,mussulmans10 ,adam being known to all the ,moslem ,east as 8,the ,father of ,mankind40 ,we must seek1 therefore1 for some more reliable record of early ,chaldean history2 and this we have in the stone monuments on which its annals were engraved4 ,sir ,henry ,rawlinson1 on their authority1 says of the ,chaldeans of ,babylonia that they were 8a branch of the great ,hamitic race of ,akkad1 which inhabited ,babylonia from the earliest times4 ,with this race originated the art of writing1 the building of cities1 the institution of a religious system1 the cultivation of all science1 and of astronomy in particular40 ,the race affinity of the ,akkad is hardly yet settled1 but some information as to this point may be gained from the name by which they were designated4 ,this appears to be composed of two words ,ak7k7-,ad1 the latter of which may be identified with the first syllable of the name ,adam4 ,as to the word ,ak1 some light may probably be thrown on its meaning by reference to the ,celtic languages4 ,baldwin1 without seeing its full bearing1 makes the remark that the ,dravidians of ,southern ,india use ,mag1 as the ,berbers and ,gaels use ,mac 7,mach71 the former word denoting 8kindred0 in all the ,teutonic languages4 ,now1 it could be proved by many examples that the letter ,m1 which is found at the beginning of certain words in various eastern languages1 is often simply a prefix4 ,this is especially the case in ,hebrew and ,arabic1 and1 therefore1 probably in the more ancient languages with which they are allied4 ,such1 at least1 must be the case with the initial letter of the word mach1 8son10 as in ,erse the m is wanting1 and in ,welsh the related word1 having the sense of 8a root or stem1 lineage10 is also simply ach4 ,thus ,ak7k7-,ad may well be 8the sons or lineage of ,ad20 as ,mac-,adam in ,gaelic is a son of ,adam4 ,that the first syllable of this word had the signification here assigned to it is rendered extremely probable by another circumstance4 ,it is well known that the ,welsh equivalent for ,mach1 in the sense of 8son10 is ,ap2 and so also we find that in ,hebrew 8son0 is rendered by ben 7the ,assyrian ban71 while in ,arabic it is ibn4 ,in these words the b is the root sound1 and if son was expressed by ak in the old ,akkad tongue1 this would bear the same relation to the ,semitic languages as the ,welsh does to the ,gaelic and ,erse--ak and ben in the one class answering to ach and ap in the other4 ,nor is this view without positive support4 ,the ,hebrew has a word ach which expresses1 not only the sense of 8a brother10 but also 8one of the same kindred40 ,in ,assyrian uk means a 8people10 while ak signifies a 8,creator20 these words being connected with the old ,egyptian uk1 and also ahi1 8to live40 ,nor is the idea that the ,chaldean ,akkad were literally 8the sons of ,ad0 without historical basis4 ,according to ,berosus1 the first ,babylonian dynasty was ,median4 ,what people were referred to by this name is still undecided4 ,professor ,rawlinson supposes that they were really the same as the so-called ,aryan ,medes of later history1 while ,sir ,henry ,rawlinson1 although treating the later ,medes as ,aryan1 yet considers those of ,bersosus to have belonged to a ,turanian1 or at least a mixed ,scytho-,aryan1 stock4 ,elsewhere ,professor ,rawlinson seems inclined to identify the ,chaldean ,akkad with these ,medes1 as a ,turanian people who at a very early date conquered the ,babylonian ,kushites and mixed with them4 ,this is1 in fact1 the conclusion which appears to be required by other considerations4 ,the name by which the ,medes are first noticed on the ,assyrian monuments is ,mad4 ,but if the initial labial is removed1 this name is reduced to the more simple form ,ad2 and1 supposing the explanation given of the primitive name of the ,chaldean race to be correct1 the 7,m7ad who preceded them would really be the parent stock from which the ,akkad1 or ,chaldeans1 were derived4 ,confirmation of this notion may be supplied from another source4 ,among their ,aryan neighbours the later ,medes had the distinctive title of ,mr4 ,this1 ,sir ,henry ,rawlinson supposes to have given rise1 8not only to the ,persian traditions of ,zohk and his snakes1 but to the ,armenian traditions also of the dragon dynasty of ,media1 the word ,mr having in ,persian the signification of a snake40 ,but this must have been through ignorance of the real origin of the title1 which had reference rather to the lion than to the snake4 ,the ,arab historian1 ,massoudi1 in accounting for the application to the city of ,babylon of the name of ,iran-,sheher1 observes that1 8according to some1 the true orthography should be ,arian-,sheher10 which signifies in ,nabathan1 8the city of ,lions10 and that 8this name of ,lion designated the kings of ,assyria1 who bore the general title of ,nimrud40 ,sir ,henry ,rawlinson thinks that the title ,mr is ,scythic1 and1 if so1 there can be little doubt of its signification4 ,the primitive meaning of ,ar was 8fire10 from which the lion1 as the symbol of the ,sun-god was called ari1 the ,sun-god himself having a name ,ra4 ,strictly1 therefore1 ,mr would denote 8fire-worshippers10 a title which1 as is well-known1 was especially applicable to the ancient ,medes4 ,the ,aryans generally appear to have been ,sun-or ,fire-worshippers1 and probably they received their name from this fact4 ,this would seem to be much more probable than the ordinary derivation of the name ,aryan from the root ar1 8to plough20 and it would include the sense of 8noble0 preferred by ,mr4 ,peile1 8children of the ,sun0 being usually a special title of the priestly or royal caste4 ,connected with this question is that of the origin of the name of the ,greek god ,ares 7the ,latin ,mars74 ,among other grounds for inferring the ,asiatic origin of this deity is his connection with ,herakles4 ,the ,latin myth of ,hercules and ,cacus would seem1 moreover1 to require the identification of the former with ,mars4 ,such would appear to be the case also in ,chaldean mythology4 ,the ,babylonian ,mars was called ,nergal1 which is probably the same name as 8,hercules10 and ,sir ,henry ,rawlinson suggests that the only distinction to be made between that deity and ,nin1 or ,hercules1 as gods of war and hunting1 is that the former is more addicted to the chase of animals and the latter to that of mankind4 ,that ,hercules1 or ,herakles1 was of ,phnician or ,assyrian origin has been fully established by the learned researches of ,m4 ,raoul-,rochette1 who has shown1 moreover1 that the proper name of that deity was ,sandan or ,adanos 7,adan71 a name which not only reminds us of ,aduni1 supposed by ,professor ,rawlinson to be a primeval ,chaldean deity1 but also recalls that of the ,median ,ad1 and even of the ,hebrew ,adam4 ,a remark made by ,lajard strongly confirms the idea that the ,latin war-god was derived from a similar source4 ,this learned ,french writer accounts for the rapidity with which ,mazdism1 better known as the worship of ,mithra1 spread among the ,romans1 by supposing that it was in some way connected with their national worship4 ,probably a key to this connection may be found in the curious figures of ,mithra which appear to have been peculiar to the ,roman phase of ,mazdism4 ,these figures1 which are encircled by a serpent1 unite to the human body and limbs1 the head of the lion1 and they might well be taken to represent ,mars himself1 since the title ,mr1 which was distinctive of the ,medes1 not only conveyed the idea of a serpent1 but was also1 and more intimately1 associated with the lion symbol of the ,sun-god4 ,if the alliance thus sought to be established1 through the title ,mr1 between the ,medes or ,mad1 and the other peoples of the so-called ,aryan stock be correct1 we may expect to find traces among some1 at least1 of these peoples of the primeval ,ad4 ,nor will such expectation be disappointed4 ,the ,parsis of ,bombay have a book called the 8,desatir10 the first part of which is entitled 8the ,book of the ,great ,abad10 who is declared to have been the first ancestor of mankind4 ,the authenticity of this book has been denied1 as ,mr4 ,baldwin thinks1 however1 on insufficient grounds4 ,it is certainly strange1 on the assumption of its being apocryphal1 that such a name as ,abad should have been given to the mythical head of the race4 ,the meaning of the name is evidently 8,father ,ad0 and there is nothing improbable in the ,persians preserving a tradition of the mythical ancestor1 whose memory was retained in the national name of the ,medes1 a people with whom they were so closely connected4 ,it simply confirms the conclusion before arrived at1 that they also must be classed among the ,adamites4 ,the ,hindus themselves would seem not to be without a remembrance of the mythical ancestor of the ,adamic stock4 ,the ,puranas1 which1 notwithstanding their modern form1 doubtless retain many old legends1 refers to the reign of ,king ,it or ,ait1 as an avatar of ,mahadeva 7,siva71 who is a form of ,saturn4 ,assuming that the information given to ,wilford as to the reign of this king in ,egypt ought to be rejected2 yet1 as ,aetus is mentioned by ,greek writers as a ,hindu1 we must suppose such information to have been founded on actual statements contained in the ,puranas4 ,these certainly refer to the ,yduvas1 descendants of ,yadu1 supposed emigrants to ,abyssinia1 whose character1 as described in the ,puranas1 agrees well1 says ,wilford1 with that ascribed 8by the ancients to the genuine ,ethiopians1 who are said by ,stephanus of ,byzantium1 by ,eusebius1 by ,philostratus1 by ,eustathius1 and others1 to have come originally from ,india under the guidance of ,aetus or ,ytu10 whom they believed to be the same as ,king ,ait4 ,nor do the ,celtic peoples appear to be without a traditional remembrance of the mythical ancestor4 ,the leading ,celtic people of ,gaul1 in the time of ,csar1 were the din1 and ,davies thought that their name was derived from ,aedd the ,great1 whom he finds referred to in the ,welsh triads1 and whom he identifies with ,aides or ,dis4 ,csar1 indeed1 says that the god ,dis was the mythical ancestor of the ,gauls4 ,the position occupied by this deity in the traditions of the ,celtic race is very remarkable1 when we consider that a divine person bearing the same name was known1 not only to the ,greeks1 but apparently also to the ,babylonians4 ,sir ,henry ,rawlinson points out that ,dis should be one of the names of ,anu1 the first member of the leading ,chaldean triad1 and the deity who answered to ,hades or ,pluto4 ,warka or ,urka1 the great necropolis of ,babylon1 was especially dedicated to ,anu1 and ,sir ,henry ,rawlinson remarks on this3 8,can the coincidence then be merely accidental between ,dis1 the ,lord of ,urka1 the ,city of the ,dead1 and ,dis1 the ,king of ,orcus or ,hades80 ,most certainly not1 as it is only one of many circumstances which prove the close connection of the ,greeks and other ,aryan peoples with the ancient ,babylonians4 ,the original character of ,dis1 8,lord of the ,dead10 was probably the same as that of the ,gallic ,dis1 i4e41 the mythical ancestor of the race4 ,a similar change of character has been undergone by the ,hindu ,yama4 ,it is very probable that in the divine ancestor ,dis1 as in the mythical ,king ,it of the ,hindus1 we have reference to the primeval ,ad4#bbg ,a common relationship as ,adamites may be shown1 as well by association with the ,medes1 through their title ,mr1 as by preservation of a tradition of the common ancestor4 ,the result1 so far1 is that not only the ,persians1 ,greeks1 and ,romans1 and probably the ,hindus1 but also the ,celtic peoples1 have been connected with the ,medes or ,mad1 and through them with the ,akkad4 ,but among the peoples supposed to be still more nearly allied to the ,chaldeans1 we may expect to find references to the mythical ancestor of the ,adamic division of mankind4 ,according to old tradition1 indeed1 ,ad himself was the primeval father of the original ,arab stock4 ,moreover1 the dialect of ,mahrah1 where pure ,arab blood is supposed still to exist1 is called the language of ,ad4 ,it can hardly be doubted that a reference to the same mythical personage is also contained in the name of the great deity of the ,syrians1 ,adad1 8,king of ,kings10 whose title implies the idea of 8fatherhood40 ,nor are there wanting traces of the primeval ,ad among the ,egyptians4 ,mr4 ,william ,osburn states that the name of the local god of ,on or ,heliopolis 8is written on the monuments with the characters representing the sound a1 t1 m40 ,this ,god was associated with the setting sun1 and he was placed with the gods of the other cities of the ,delta1 a distinction he received1 says ,osburn1 8for the triple reason1 that he was the local god of the capital city1 that he was the father of mankind1 and that he was the ruler and guide of the sun1 the common dispenser of earthly blessings to all men40 ,atum thus becomes identified with the ,hebrew ,adam1 and although the description given by ,osburn of the ,egyptian deity may require some qualification1 yet that identification is strengthened rather than weakened by other considerations4 ,bunsen says that the office of ,atum in the lower world is that of a judge1 and he supposes from this that at one time he may have been a ,dispater4 ,he does1 indeed1 bear much the same relation to man as ,dis himself4 ,in the ,ritual of the ,dead1 the souls call him father1 and he addresses them as children4 ,sir ,gardner ,wilkinson says that ,atum1 or ,atmoo1 is always figured with a human head and painted of a red colour4 ,this seems to confirm the idea derived from his name1 that this deity was related to the ,hebrew ,adam1 with whom the idea of ruddiness was undoubtedly associated4 ,the human form of the ,egyptian ,atum shows1 moreover1 that he was considered as peculiarly connected with man4 ,it has now been shown that not only are the people mentioned in the ,toldoth ,beni ,noah rightly classed as descendants of the mythical ,ad1 but that the ,asiatic ,aryans1 with the allied peoples of ,europe to the furthest limits of the ,celtic area1 may also well be thus described4 ,the ancient ,mad belonged1 however1 to the great ,scythic stock1 and hence all the ,turanian peoples1 including the ,chinese1 may doubtless be classed among the ,adamites4 ,there is some ground1 therefore1 for asserting that the ,adamites include all the so-called ,turanian and ,aryan peoples of ,asia and ,europe1 with the ,hamitic and ,semitic peoples of ,western ,asia and ,northern ,africa--in fact1 the yellow1 the red1 and the white races1 as distinguished from the darker peoples of the tropics4 ,but even these limits may perhaps be extended4 ,one of the solar heroes of the ,volsung ,tale is ,atli1 who becomes the second husband of ,gudrun1 the widow of ,sigurd1 ,sigurd himself being the slayer of the dragon ,fafnir1 who symbolises the darkness or cold of a northern winter--the ,vritra of ,hindu mythology4 ,this dragon enemy of ,indra was also called ,ahi1 the strangling snake1 who appears again as ,atri1 and ,mr4 ,cox supposes that the name ,atri may be the same as the ,atli of the ,volsung ,tale4 ,atli1 who in the ,nibelung song is called ,etzel1 overpowers the chieftains of ,niflheim1 who refused to give up the golden treasures which ,sigurd had won from the dragon1 and he throws them into a pit full of snakes4 ,the connection of the ,teutonic hero with the serpent is remarkable2 for in the ,mexican mythology we meet with a divinity having almost the same name1 and associated with the same animal4 ,humboldt tells us that the ,great ,spirit of the ,toltecks was called ,teotl2 and ,hardwicke says that ,teotl was the only ,god of ,central ,america4 ,if so1 however1 he was a serpent deity1 for the temples of ,yucatan were undoubtedly dedicated to a deity of that nature4 ,it is not improbable1 however1 that ,teotl was really a generic term1 agreeing in this respect1 as curiously enough in its form1 with the ,phnician ,taaut 7,thoth74 ,the ,god to whom the temples of ,yucatan were really dedicated appears to be ,quetzalcoatl1 by some writers called the feathered serpent1 a title belonging rather to his serpent-father ,tonacatlcoatl4 ,this ,quetzalcoatl was the mysterious stranger who1 according to tradition1 founded the civilisation of ,mexico1 agreeing thus in his character of a god of wisdom with the ,egyptian ,thoth2 reminding us of the resemblance of the name of this deity to that of the ,toltecan ,teotl4 ,but the first part of the name of the ,mexican ,quetzalcoatl no less resembles that borne by the ,teutonic deity1 ,etzel4 ,co-atl signifies the 8serpent10 while quetzal would seem to have reference to the male principle2 and thus the idea expressed in the name of the ,mexican god is the male principle represented as a serpent4 ,quetzalcoatl1 moreover1 is said to be an incarnation of ,tonacatlcoatl1 who is the male-serpent1 his wife being called ,cihua-coatl1 meaning1 literally1 the 8woman of the serpent10 or 8female serpent40 ,in the identification1 then1 of ,atli or ,etzel1 who consigns his enemies to the pit of serpents1 with the great serpent ,ahi himself1 we have a ground of identification of the ,teutonic deity with the ,mexican serpent-god ,quetzalcoatl4 ,this view loses none of its probability if the latter is1 as ,mr4 ,squire asserts1 an incarnation of the serpent-sun1 or rather a serpent incarnation of the sun-god1 since ,ahi himself is a solar deity4 ,in the religious symbols used by the ,mexicans1 we have another point of contact with the ,asiatic deities4 ,the sacred ,tau of antiquity has its counterpart on the ,mexican monuments4 ,the ,mexican symbol perfectly represents the cross form of the ,tau1 but it is composed of two serpents entwined1 somewhat as in the caduceus of ,mercury4 ,that the ,tau itself had such an origin we can well believe1 seeing that the name of the letter ,tet 77 of the ,phnician alphabet specially associated with ,thoth1 of whom the ,tau is a symbol1 is that of the ,god himself1 as well as meaning 8serpent40 ,if the comparison thus made between the ,mexican and ,teutonic mythologies is correct1 the further analogies pointed out by ,m4 ,brasseur de ,bourbourg may be well founded4 ,thus the ,mexican ,votan or ,odon1 supposed to be the same as ,quetzalcoatl1 may be in reality none other than the ,scandinavian ,odin1 ,woden1 or ,wuotan1 who1 if not a sun-god1 was the sky-god1 whose eye was the sun 7,grimm's 8,teutonic ,mythology10 translated by ,stallybrass1 p4 #gjc74 ,the snake is intimately associated with ,odin in ,norse mythology 7,grimm1 p4 #fhe7 as it is with ,votan1 and both these personages have been identified with the ,indian ,buddha god4#bbh ,nor is there wanting confirmative evidence of such an affinity between the peoples of the ,old and the ,new ,worlds as that supposed4 ,mr4 ,tylor1 in his work on 8,primitive ,culture10 points out that the ,roman game of bucca-bucca1 referred to in a passage of ,petronius1 is still retained as the old nursery game1 8,buck1 buck1 how many horns do ,i hold up80 ,the meaning of this formula is not given1 but1 from the fact that the witch's devil of the middle ages was represented as a buck or goat1 we can hardly doubt that the buck or bucca of the game referred to the evil spirit4 ,the devil was1 indeed1 called by the ,cornish ,celts bucka 7,welsh bwg71 a hobgoblin1 a name which is evidently connected with the ,russian buka1 a sprite1 and with the ,bog of ,slavonic and other allied languages4 ,we have1 no doubt1 the same word in the name of the ,finnic sky-god ,ukko4 ,of this again we seem to have traces1 not only in the ,kalmuck ,brkhan and the ,mantchoo ,ab-ka1 but also in the ,hottentot ,teqoa 7,kafir1 ,tixo71 the ,supreme ,god2 and in the word yakko1 demon1 the name given to the aborigines of ,ceylon by their ,hindu conquerors4 ,but the root of this word is met with again among the ,american tribes4 ,the ,hurons believe the sky to be an oki1 or demon1 this name being also that by which the natives of ,virginia knew their chief god4 ,the same word appears to enter into the name of the ,algonquin god of the ,north ,wind1 ,kabibon-okka1 as also of the ,muyscan ,moon goddess1 ,huyth-aca4 ,whether the ,algonquin ,great ,spirit1 ,kitchi-,manitu1 has preserved the same word1 is questionable2 but it is noticeable that in the mythology of ,kamtschatka the first man is called ,haetsh1 and he is the son of ,kutka1 the ,creator1 whose name1 by the allowable change of t for k1 becomes almost the same as the ,finnic ,ukko4 ,the word oki may1 moreover1 be found1 with merely the vowel change1 among the ,islanders of the ,pacific4 ,thus the ,polynesian fire-god is ,mahu-ika1 the last syllable of which is doubtless connected with akua1 meaning1 like the ,american oki1 spirit1 or demon4 ,the same root is met with again in ,tiki1 the ,rarotongan form of ,maui1 the divine ancestor of the ,new ,zealanders1 and the ,tii of the ,society ,islands2 also in ,akea1 the name of the mythical first king of ,hawaii4 ,tiki is probably only another form of ,ta-ata1 with the change of k for t 7as in akua for atua72 and it is remarkable that this name of the ,polynesian ,first ,man is really that of the mythical ancestor of the ,adamites1 reversed1 however1 and with the addition of the word ata 7aka71 spirit1 which we have shown to be connected with the name for ,god among so many independent races4 ,mr4 ,fornander identifies the ,polynesian word aitu or iku1 spirit1 with the name of the great 8,kushite0 king ,it or ,ait1 and he states that the idea of royalty or sovereignty attached to that word is observed in old ,hawaiian tradition4--8,the ,polynesian ,race10 #ahgh1 vol4 i41 pp4 #dd1 #ed4 ,these mythological coincidences are1 indeed1 so strongly supported by similarity of customs and linguistic affinities1 that there can be no difficulty in classing the ,mexicans and kindred ,american peoples1 and even the lighter ,polynesians1 with the ,adamites4 ,this being so1 a still broader generalisation than any yet attempted may be made as to the peoples to be included in the ,adamic division of the human race4 ,the simplest classification of mankind1 according to cranial conformation1 is that of ,retzius into dolichocephali1 or long heads1 and brachycephali1 or short heads4 ,the ,mexicans1 and other peoples of the western part of the ,american ,continent1 belong to the latter category1 as do also the inhabitants of the greater part of the area of ,asia and ,europe4 ,in ,china1 and in the southern part of ,asia as well as of ,europe1 the various peoples are chiefly long-headed1 and this is the case with the ,hamitic population of ,northern ,africa4 ,the latter are1 however1 certainly much mixed with the native ,african element1 which is purely dolichocephalic1 exhibiting traces of its prognathism2 and it is far from improbable that originally they were brachycephalic1 like the allied peoples of ,western ,asia4 ,such also may have been the case with the ,chinese and the lighter ,polynesians1 who are now nearly dolichocephalic4#bbi ,throughout all the regions where these peoples are found there would appear to have been an indigenous long-headed stock1 which has more or less nearly absorbed the brachycephalic element1 which was introduced long ages ago from the vast regions of ,central ,asia1 and which1 for want of a better term1 may be called ,scythic4 ,subject to this qualification1 it may probably be said that ,adamic and short-headed are synonymous terms1 and that among the descendants of ,father ,ad may1 therefore1 be classed all the peoples who are embraced in the great brachycephalic division of mankind1 or who would have belonged to it1 if they had not been physically modified by contact with peoples of the more primitive dolichocephalic area4 ,how far the ,adamites have trespassed on this area it is difficult to determine4 ,that they have become mixed with the peoples of the ,african ,continent to a much larger extent than is usually supposed may be believed4 ,the ,hottentots1 at its extremest limit1 are no doubt a residual deposit of such intermixture2 while the great family to which the ,kafirs belong furnish evidence of it in various particulars4 ,the ,adamites appear also to have spread throughout the archipelagos of the ,pacific1 furnishing an explanation of the many customs and myths in which the ,polynesian ,islanders agree with ,asiatic peoples4 ,nor are the ,adamites much less widely spread throughout the ,american ,continent4 ,apart from what ,professor ,busk affirms1 that a broad type of head is to be met with on the coast all round ,south ,america1 peoples allied to those of ,mexico and ,central ,america would seem to have occupied many of the ,west ,indian ,islands1 and to have penetrated through the central portion of ,north ,america to the ,great ,lakes4 ,wherever the ,adamites have come into contact with the long-headed pre-,adamitic stock1 they have either made these to disappear1 or1 while having their physical structure somewhat modified by intermixture1 they have established a supremacy due to their greater vigour and mental energy4 ,it is difficult1 indeed1 to say where the descendants of ,ad are not now to be met with1 or where the pre-,adamite is to be found uninfluenced by contact with them4 ,in conclusion1 it will be well to endeavour to ascertain the origin of the tradition as to ,adam or father ,ad4 ,according to usually received teaching1 ,adam and ,eve were the actual first parents of the human race1 or1 at all events1 of the ,adamic portion of it4 ,whether or not this idea is correct need not be further considered here1 beyond stating that if1 as ,bunsen suggests1 the existence of other antediluvian patriarchs be mythical1 so also must be that of ,adam from whom they are said to have sprung4 ,the ,semitic word ,a,da,m conveys several ideas4 ,in the form ,adamah or ,adami it has reference to the earth or soil1 but its primary sense was either 8red0 or 8man40 ,probably a double meaning was conveyed in the name of the ,egyptian god ,atum1 whose representation was that of a red man4 ,it must be noted1 however1 that the traditional ancestor is usually styled1 not ,adam but simply ,ad2 and this primitive root may have had some other signification1 analogous perhaps to that of ,eve 7,hhavvh71 8the mother of all living40 ,this word1 which denotes 8life10 is from hhayh1 to live1 to give life--the allied word in ,arabic being haywn1 and the ,arabic name for ,eve becoming hawwa4 ,now1 in the ,celtic dialects ad forms the root of words denoting vegetable vitality4 ,in ,welsh1 moreover1 tad is a father2 the base1 ta1 denoting1 among allied senses1 8a supreme one10 reminding us of the ,chinese ta1 great2 and connected with it being tras1 kindred1 affinity4 ,turning1 however1 to ,eastern languages1 we find that the old ,egyptian had a word ti1 with a sense analogous to that of the ,welsh ta1 and also a verb ta1 to give1 which is found in ,hebrew1 as 'athah1 to come1 and in ,arabic as ata1 to give1 or to bring forth4 ,it is evident that the primitive root1 consisting of the dental t or d1 preceded or followed by a vowel sound1 had associated with it the idea of activity1 and probably of paternity4 ,in the old ,akkad speech1 indeed1 ad itself signifies a 8father10 and we are justified1 therefore1 in supposing that when this word was used as the name of the mythical common ancestor1 it had a sense analogous to that which 8,eve0 expressed1 i4e41 8the father of life1 or of all living40 ,in ,adam and ,eve1 therefore1 we may have a reference to the male and female principles which1 in the philosophy of the ancients1 as in that of the ,chinese and some other ,eastern peoples1 pervade all nature1 and originate all things1 applied particularly1 however1 to the human race4 ,but ,adam was not the name given at first to this mystical father of the race4 ,the ,egyptian ,atum was originally a cosmogonic deity4 ,bunsen states that the name of this god may be resolved into ,at-,mu1 meaning 8,creator of the mother or night40 ,the sense of this1 however1 is not very apparent1 and it may be suggested that the term ,adam 7in ,egyptian ,atum7 was formed by the combination of the primitive akkad words ,ad1 father1 and ,dam1 mother4 ,it would thus originally express a dual idea1 agreeably to the statement in ,gen4 v4 #b1 that male and female were called 8,adam40 ,this agrees perfectly with the ,persian tradition which made the first human being androgynous4 ,when the dual idea expressed in the name was forgotten1 ,adam became the ,great ,father1 the ,great ,mother receiving the name of ,eve 7,hhavvh71 i4e41 living or life1 although ,adam in the generic sense of 8,mankind10 denoted both male and female4 99 99 99 99 99 ,note4--,the ,turanian or rather ,altaic affinity of the ,akkad1 referred to at page #aji above1 appears to have been established by ,m4 ,lenormant1 who states that their name means 8,mountaineers10 from ,akkad1 a mountain4 ,it is possible1 however1 that the word may have had a more primitive signification4 ,as the name of a country and not of a people1 ,akkad did not come into use until the ,assyrian epoch1 8,when the ,accadian had become a dead language1 and the tradition of the real meaning of the word was consequently quite lost40 7,chaldean ,magic and ,sorcery1 p4 #djd47 ,as to the aboriginal ,arab people referred to at page #aag1 it may be mentioned that ,m4 ,lenormant 7,hist4 ,anc4 de l',orient1 #ith ,ed4 ,i4 t4 prem4 p4 #cac71 points out that the name1 ,adah1 of the mother of the two sons of ,lameckh1 who were chiefs of pastoral races1 is only the feminine form of that of the people of ,ad4 ,,footnotes3 #bbg ,adonai1 8,our ,lord10 was converted by the ,greeks into ,adoneus1 as a synomym of ,pluto1 i4e41 ,dis4 7,king's 8,gnostics10 p4 #aja74 ,through his name1 ,sandan or ,adanos1 these deities are connected with ,hercules1 and hence with ,ares 7,mars74 #bbh ,le ,mythe de ,votan1 by ,h4 de ,charencey1 #ahga1 pp4 #ie1 #ajc4 ,gautama was only the last of the ,boudhas1 and the identification of ,woden is therefore not necessarily with ,gautama4 ,dr4 ,brinton1 8in order to put a stop to such visionary etymologies0 as those which connect ,votan with ,wodan and ,buddha1 derives ,votan from a ,maya radical 7,american ,hero-,myths1 #ahhb1 p4 #bag74 ,it must be noted1 however1 that the ,maya meaning of ,votan 7heart fig4 spirit7 closely agrees with that of ,wodan 7mind7 and ,buddha 7knowledge74 #bbi ,m4 de ,ujfalvy has found that even the purest ,iranian type of ,central ,asia is brachycephalic4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,the ,,descendants ,,of ,,cain4 ,in various parts not only of the old world continents1 but also of ,america1 and even on some of the ,islands of the ,pacific1 are the ruins of stone buildings which1 from their general character1 are well called 8,kyklopean40 ,the style of architecture varies in different countries according to the uses for which the buildings were designed1 or the local influences among which they were erected4 ,whatever their form1 all those ancient buildings agree in the massive character of their structure1 and most of them in the fact that the stones are put together without mortar or cement4 ,kyklopean architecture proper 7in which large unhewn blocks are rudely put together with small stones to fill up the interstices7 differs1 however1 from the ,polygonal or ,pelasgian1 and from the ,horizontal or ,etruscan1 which1 in addition1 has the courses scrupulously level1 with joints vertical1 and fitting accurately4 ,general ,forlong1 the author of 8,rivers of ,life1 or ,faiths of ,man in all ,ages10 while pointing out that distinction1 remarks that those several styles do not denote different ages1 and that the builders were evidently of the same race4 ,this opinion is confirmed by the fact that all the three styles are found in the ruins of ,peru1 whose ,kyklopean structures1 moreover1 are not restricted to those of rectangular formation1 but sometimes take the form of round towers4 ,general ,forlong identifies the great building race of antiquity with the ,kushites or ,aithiopians of the ,greek historians1 and with ,mr4 ,fergusson1 he supposes them to have belonged to the ,turanian family of peoples4 ,the distinguished architect and archologist affirms1 indeed1 that not only were the ,turanians the great architects and builders of remote antiquity1 but that they were the inventors of all the arts1 as well as the religions and mythologies1 which were afterwards developed by the later ,shemites and ,aryans4 ,but how far does this conclusion agree with actual facts8 ,m4 ,georges ,perrot1 in his important work on the 8,history of ,art10 says that the ancient ,oriental world has seen the birth of three great civilisations1 that of ,egypt1 that of ,chaldea1 and that of ,china1 all of which have features in common1 although each preserves its own proper character4 ,chaldea was the ,sennaar of the author of the ,book of ,genesis1 the land in which were built the ancient cities of ,babel1 ,erech1 ,accad1 and ,calneh4 ,the mighty hunter or warrior ,nimrod1 to whom the erection of those cities is ascribed1 was the son of ,kush and the grandson of ,cham1 and he is thus placed by the sacred writer in the same family as the ,egyptians1 ,aithiopians1 and the ,libyans1 as also the ,canaanites and ,phnicians4 ,the ,kushites1 of whom ,nimrod is the representative in ,genesis1 were located by the poets and classical historians in ,susiana rather than in ,chaldea4 ,both of these countries1 however1 adjoin the ,valley of the ,tigris1 and the name ,aithiopians applied by those writers to the inhabitants of the shores of the ,persian ,gulf and the sea of ,oman agrees with the relationship which1 according to the genealogists of the ,hebrew ,scriptures1 subsisted between the ,kushites of ,asia and those of ,africa4 ,it is to the shores of the ,persian ,gulf that the development1 if not the origin1 of the ,chaldean civilisation has been traced4 ,m4 ,perrot calls ,egypt 8the ancestor of civilised nations10 and he affirms that1 in grouping the great peoples of antiquity to determine the part taken by each in the work of progress1 it is necessary to commence with ,egypt as the point of departure of all the forces which operate to that end4 ,the ,egyptians were not1 however1 indigenous to the ,valley of the ,nile4 ,it is now almost universally acknowledged that they belonged to the white or ,caucasian stock of ,europe and ,western ,asia1 from which they reached ,egypt by the isthmus of ,suez4 ,their ,caucasian origin is confirmed by their language1 which1 with the other ,hamitic idioms1 had1 as ,m4 ,lenormant shows1 a relationship to the ,semitic languages1 the two families having a common mother language1 the native country of which was in ,asia at the east of the basin of the ,euphrates and ,tigris4 ,we are thus taken to the region where the old ,chaldean civilisation flourished for the place of origin of the ,egyptians2 but did they belong to the same ,kushite stock8 ,in endeavouring to answer this question1 it is necessary to remember that before the foundation of the ,empire by ,menes ,egypt had comprised two kingdoms1 that of ,lower ,egypt or the country of the north1 and that of ,upper ,egypt or the country of the south4 ,these kingdoms must have existed a considerable period1 judging from the fact that the later ,monarchs carried two crowns to indicate the dominion exercised over the two great divisions of the ,empire1 and probably it represented some race difference in their inhabitants4 ,the ,aryan character described by ,m4 ,l4 ,page ,renouf to the ,egyptian mythology1 and the features of many of the figures represented on the tombs of the fourth ,dynasty1 might lead us to suppose that the earliest ,egyptians belonged to the ,aryan stock4 ,this opinion is1 perhaps1 confirmed by the consideration that the earliest and most sacred towns of the ,egyptians were situate in ,upper ,egypt4 ,m4 ,lenormant thinks that the descendants of ,mizraim settled in ,egypt at different epochs1 and that the earliest settlers1 the ,anamim of the ,old ,testament and the ,anou of the hieroglyphic inscriptions1 were driven by the later ones into different parts of ,egypt1 but principally into ,nubia4 ,the former may1 therefore1 have been pure ,aryans1 the southern country being referred to as the home of the race2 although the ,empire was first established in ,lower ,egypt1 its chief centre being ,memphis1 from which its culture gradually overspread the whole country4 ,the early inhabitants of the ,delta region were represented at a later date by the ,hyksos1 who have been identified by ,professor ,duncker with the ,philistines of the ,syrian ,coast4 ,this people are spoken of in the ,book of ,genesis as descendants of ,mizraim1 and their neighbours1 the ,phnicians1 stood in the same relation to the northern ,egyptians as did the ,kushites of ,chaldea4 ,like the latter peoples1 the ,phnicians were great builders4 ,the remains of vast structures still exist throughout ,phnicia1 which was known to the ancient ,babylonians as ,martu1 8the west40 ,among modern writers1 ,m4 ,renan is of opinion that 8singular relations exist between the ethnographic1 historic1 and linguistic position of ,yemen and that of ,phnicia10 as showing that there was a close relationship between the latter and the ancient people of ,southern ,arabia4 ,mr4 ,baldwin accepts both these views1 and comes to the conclusion that the first great civilisers and builders of antiquity were the ,kushites or ,aithiopians of ,southern ,arabia1 and that they colonised or civilised ,chaldea1 ,phnicia1 and ,egypt4 ,tradition speaks of ,kepheus as one of the great sovereigns of ancient ,aithiopia1 whose kingdom extended from the ,mediterranean to the ,persian ,gulf1 and whose capital was ,joppa1 one of the most ancient cities of ,phnicia4 ,we may well believe that this very early ,kushite kingdom comprised part of ,northern ,africa1 and therefore that it included the ,delta of the ,nile with the great city1 ,memphis1 of the ,egyptian pyramid builders4 ,the similarity in many features of the ,phnician and ,egyptian architecture points to a close connection between those peoples1 and a portion of the ,kushite race which peopled ,phnicia doubtless settled in the ,delta1 from whence its culture would easily spread throughout the ,nile ,valley4 ,it is certain that ,southern ,arabia was the seat of a very primitive civilisation1 which influenced all the regions around4 ,phnicia1 however1 would seem to have been most intimately allied with ,chaldea1 the origin of whose civilisation1 although ascribed to the fish-god ,oannes1 can hardly be traced to ,arabia4 ,according to the ,biblical writer1 ,kush was the eldest son of ,ham1 who was also the father of ,mizraim1 ,phut1 and ,canaan4 ,all these peoples were great builders1 and it is very probable1 therefore1 that they1 as well as the ,kushites1 derived their knowledge from a common source4 ,in this case1 and even if ,mizraim1 ,canaan1 and ,phut were the descendants rather than the brethren of ,kush1 the civilisation with which the ,kushites are accredited was1 in reality1 that of the earlier ,hamites4 ,the probability is that all the peoples belonging to the ,hamitic stock possessed the elements of a very ancient civilisation1 which was handed down in the most direct line through the ,kushites of ,chaldea4 ,m4 ,perrot accepts the opinion of ,m4 ,oppert1 that when the primitive ,chaldeans first settled in the plains of ,sennaar they already had a national organisation1 and that they possessed writing1 the most necessary industries1 a religion1 and a complete legislation4 ,if this was so we shall have to seek a very primitive source for the ,kushite or ,hamitic civilisation4 ,what was its origin can only be ascertained when the race ancestry of the ,hamites is known4 ,in relation to this point it must not be forgotten that ,ham was the brother of ,shem and ,japhet1 and therefore that they were all members of a common family4 ,as the descendants of ,noah1 they all alike belonged to the great white or ,caucasian stock4 ,m4 ,lenormant1 while endorsing this view1 says that anciently1 as in the present day1 there was an anthropological distinction between the ,hamites and the ,shemites1 which he accounts for by supposing the former to have become intermixed with a dark or black race1 which they found already established in the country to which they spread1 while the ,shemites1 who stayed behind1 preserved the purity of the white race4 ,the facts of linguistic science and anthropology can thus be made to agree1 but ,m4 ,lenormant has to admit that the ,eastern ,kushites cannot be brought within that theory1 as from the earliest historical period they have spoken a language radically distinct from those of the ,shemites and the other ,hamitic peoples4 ,he adds that the coast between the ,persian ,gulf and the ,indus appears to have been1 from a remote antiquity1 the point of meeting and fusion of two distinct races having brown complexions1 but inclining more or less to pure black4 ,the ,eastern ,kushites are thus confounded by a gradual series of transitions with the ,dravidians of ,india4 ,this reference to the ,dravidians is perfectly just1 as there is no doubt1 whatever may be the case now1 that originally they partook of the high qualities possessed by the peoples of the ,kushite stock4 ,as a race they were noted for their love of art and commerce1 and ,general ,forlong1 after having examined minutely most of the famous shrines of ,india1 came to the conclusion 8that there is nothing to equal those of ,dravidia1 save some small ones in ,western ,india1 which1 in their completeness1 form1 and conception1 denote the same master builders who1 as ,jainas1 c41 learned in ,mysore and the ,south under those great architects40 ,there is indeed reason to believe that the marvellous temples of ,cambodia and ,java1 of which the ruins still exist1 were erected by ,dravidians from ,india4 ,m4 ,moura1 the learned author of a history of ,cambodia1 has established that the great architects of that kingdom were the peoples to whom the name of ,khmerdoms is given by their descendants1 the ,khmers4 ,they were of ,hindoo origin1 and emigrated from the neighbourhood of ,delhi in the fifth century before ,christ4 ,whether the original ,khmers were of pure ,aryan stock is1 however1 very doubtful1 and it is extremely probable that they were ,hinduised ,dravidians4 ,the ,hindoos1 to whom the civilisation of ,java is ascribed1 are spoken of as coming from ,kling1 by which is meant the ,dravidian ,telinga4 ,if1 as ,m4 ,lenormant supposes1 the ,eastern ,kushites became fused with a brown or black race1 it does not follow that this race was originally black1 or that it belonged to a negroid stock4 ,all the ,hamites1 and especially the ,kushites1 were of a more or less dark complexion1 but the black hue may have been acquired through natural influences operating during a vast period of time4 ,the ,dravidians have1 at least from a linguistic standpoint1 ,turanian affinities1 and it is now almost universally admitted that the earliest civilised inhabitants of ,chaldea belonged to the great ,turanian family of peoples who are usually spoken of as the yellow race4 ,there is no doubt that a yellow race1 whose languages had an affinity on the one side with the languages of the ,altaic peoples1 and on the other side with the ,dravidian dialects1 and who preceded the ,shemitic and ,japhetic peoples in material civilisation1 existed in ,eastern ,asia alongside of the white race4 ,m4 ,ujfalvy supposes the ,eastern ,turanians to have descended the first from the plateau of the ,altai2 to be followed by the ,western ,turanians1 who occupied ,northern ,europe from time immemorial2 the children of ,noah being the last to quit the primeval home4 ,if this was so we can well understand that the average ,turanian physical type must present peculiarities which distinguish it easily from that of the ,caucasian races4 ,what we have now to do with is the origin of primitive civilisation1 and everything points to the early ,turanians as the people among whom it was developed4 ,we have already seen that if the primitive ,chaldeans did not belong to the ,turanian stock they were intimately associated with ,turanian peoples to whom they are thought to have been indebted for much of their culture4 ,the great western division of the ,turanian race appears to have possessed an advanced civilisation long before its ,aryan neighbours4 ,the ,tchoudes1 who are described by ,ujfalvy as the most ancient people of the ,altaic race1 were noted metallurgists1 while the ,permians and the ,finns are supposed to have taught art and agriculture to the ,slavs and ,scandinavians of ,northern ,europe4 ,m4 ,reclus remarks that1 not only did the ,turanians teach their neighbours the use of iron and other metals1 but they have the glory of having given to us most of our domestic animals1 and probably also the greater part of our most useful cultured plants4 ,finally1 the ,turanians were1 says ,m4 ,lenormant1 8the constructors of the first towns1 and the inventors of metallurgy and of the first rudiments of the principal arts of civilisation40 ,he adds that they were 8addicted to rites which were reproved by ,yahveh1 and were viewed with as much hatred as superstitious terror by the populations still in the pastoral state whom they had preceded in the path of material progress and invention1 but who remained morally more pure and elevated40 ,this description1 applied by ,m4 ,lenormant to the ,turanians1 has reference primarily to the ,cainites1 and it carries the origin of material civilisation much farther back in time than would have been thought possible a few years ago4 ,the facts mentioned in connection with ,cain and his descendants strikingly confirm the opinion that the ,kushite civilisation was handed down from a period which1 in relation to the ,deluge of ,genesis1 may be called antediluvian4 ,the tradition of the ,deluge is a primitive belief of the three white races1 the ,aryan1 the ,semitic1 and the ,hamitic4 ,it appears to have been originally limited to the peoples of the ,caucasian stock1 and this fact requires that the ,turanians should be excluded from the effect of the supposed catastrophe4 ,the yellow race1 therefore1 may claim an 8antediluvian0 descent1 and as ,noah1 the progenitor of the white races1 belonged to the ,sethite stock1 the common ancestor of the ,turanian peoples must have been a ,cainite4 ,the first public event recorded in the life of ,cain after his exile was the building of a town1 which he called ,enoch1 after his first-born son4 ,this town has been identified with the city of ,khotan1 which is situate in the region where ,cain is thought to have fixed his abode4 ,according to ,abel ,rmusat the traditions of that city1 preserved in the native chronicles and referred to by the ,chinese historians1 go back to a much earlier period than those of any other city of ,central ,asia4 ,baron d',eckstein has1 moreover1 shown that ,khotan was the centre of a district in which the art of metallurgy has been practised from the remotest antiquity4 ,this is important1 for ,tubal ,cain1 the youngest son of ,lamekh1 the descendant of ,cain1 is said in ,genesis to have been 8an instructor of every artificer in brass and iron40 ,the ancestors of the present ,chinese appear not to have been acquainted with the blacksmith's art when they first descended into the plains1 although it was practised by the neighbouring ,tibetan tribes1 who1 we can hardly doubt1 were allied to the ,kolarian population of ,eastern ,india1 if not also to the ,dravidians of the south and west4 ,the relationship of the ,dravidians to the peoples of the ,altaic stock1 and the practice of metallurgy by the latter particularly1 would tend1 however1 to prove that the ,jabal were not1 as supposed by ,m4 ,ujfalvy1 ,turanians who settled in ,northern ,asia and ,europe4 ,those facts would rather support the view of ,knobel1 which identifies the ,jabal and the ,jubal as a musical and pastoral race1 as distinguished from a settled metallurgic race to whom the name of ,tubal ,cain was given4 ,the opinion that the ancestors of the ,turanian peoples were ,cainites may be confirmed by reference to certain social and religious phenomena4 ,in the story of the slaying by ,cain of his brother ,abel there is evident reference to antagonism between a pastoral and an agricultural people4 ,m4 ,lenormant1 who sees a connection between the fratricide and the founding of the first city1 has arrived at the conviction that the ,chaldo-,babylon tradition concerning the primitive days of the human race included a reference to those two actions of ,cain4 ,he says1 however1 8there are certain reasons for suspecting that the ,chaldeans took the part of the murderer ,cain against ,abel1 as the ,romans did that of ,romulus against ,remus40 ,the preference of the ,chaldeans for the murderer agrees with the ,cainite origin ascribed to their ,turanian ancestors1 among whom the polygamy and revenge attributed to ,lamekh were no doubt as prevalent as among some of their descendants at the present day4 ,the ,french writer sees in the fourth chapter of ,genesis a condemnation of ,lamekh as the prototype of fierce vengeance1 and at the same time of polygamy4 ,the whole pre-,deluge history of man1 as given in ,genesis1 would seem to imply the existence of an hereditary opposition between the descendants of ,cain and those of ,seth1 who was regarded as standing in a special relation to the ,shemites4 ,it was evidently written in the same spirit as that which saw in the enmity between the ,iranians and ,turanians a constant conflict between light and darkness4 ,the race of ,cain are referred in the ,biblical narrative as 8sons of men10 a title which implies a condition of religious or moral inferiority1 as compared with the 8sons of ,god0 descended from ,seth4 ,that narrative says1 further1 that in the time of ,enoch men began to call on the name of ,jehovah4 ,this statement1 which has reference only to the ,sethites1 supposes that the ,cainites invoked some other god1 and in the ,shamanism of the ,dravidians and various ,turanian peoples we have no doubt a phase of the religious worship prevalent among their ,cainite ancestors4 ,another point in connection with religious ideas1 which is of great importance in relation to the above subject1 is the origin of serpent-worship4 ,m4 ,lenormant remarks that 8the ,arcadians made the serpent one of the principal attributes and one of the forms of ,ha40 ,this deity1 who closely resembles ,wanamonen1 one of the three principal gods of the ,finns1 occupied a very important position in the ,pantheon of the ancient ,chaldeans4 ,ha1 like the ,finnish god1 was 8not only king of the waters and the atmosphere1 he was also the spirit whence all life proceeded1 the master of favourable spells1 the adversary and conqueror of all personifications of evil1 and the sovereign possessor of all science40 ,the worship of serpent-gods is a practice to which many of the primitive ,turanian tribes have been addicted4 ,this accounts for the curious association of serpent-worship with ,buddhism and ,siva-ism4 ,both of these faiths1 as exhibited in the marvellous sculptures of the ruined temples of ,cambodia1 are intimately connected with serpent-worship4 ,this cult was no doubt very prevalent among the native populations before the arrival of the ,hindoos1 as legend states that the banished ,indian ,prince1 for whom the city of ,nakon-,thom was built1 married a daughter of the ,king of the ,nagas or ,serpents1 and became the sovereign of the country4 ,serpent-worship1 indeed1 would seem to have been prevalent throughout ,northern ,india4 ,the territory of the king of the serpent city ,taxila reached nearly to ,delhi1 and it probably extended over ,kashmere and part of ,afghanistan4 ,here was a very important centre of serpent-worship4 ,general ,forlong states that in ,kashmere this cult appears everywhere1 8and the records of the country point to its beautiful lake and mountain fastnesses as the earliest historic seats which we have of the faith40 ,it is remarkable that a ,king of the ,naga race was reigning in ,magadha when ,gautama was born in #fbf ,b4,c41 and1 according to a ,hindoo legend1 even the ,buddha himself had a serpent lineage4 ,if this was so1 it is not surprising that his teachings should be accepted by the ,naga races1 who no doubt belonged to the pre-,aryan stock4 ,the constant introduction of the serpent1 especially of the sacred ,cobra1 into the sculptures of the ,cambodian temples1 is remarkable4 ,m4 ,moura states that the ancient ,khmers of ,cambodia recognised both good and evil serpents1 the former of which lived in the water and the latter inhabited the land4 ,the ,buddhists of ,india and ,indo-,china had the same idea1 and ,m4 ,moura supposes that the good serpents represented the human ,nagas who became ,buddhists1 and the bad serpents those who refused to abandon their native serpent-worship4 ,this explanation1 however1 is not necessary1 as the ancient ,egyptians entertained analogous ideas4 ,no other people1 except1 perhaps1 the ,hindoos and allied races1 were more thoroughly imbued with the serpent superstition than the ,egyptians4 ,mr4 ,cooper1 in his 8,observations on the ,serpent ,myths of ,ancient ,egypt10 remarks that 8the reverence paid to the snake was not merely local1 or even limited to one period of history1 but prevailed alike in every district of the ,pharian ,empire1 and has left its indelible impress upon the architecture and the archology of both ,upper and ,lower ,egypt40 ,the ,cobra di ,capello of the ,hindoos and ,cambodians was the sacred ,urus of the ,egyptians4 ,with the latter it was used as the symbol of fecundity and immortality1 and was also universally assumed as the 8emblem of divine and sacro-regal sovereignty40 ,the ,urus was always represented in the female form1 and all the ,egyptian goddesses were adorned with it1 as the images of the ,hindoo gods were often surmounted with the sacred ,naga4 ,among the ,egyptians another kind of serpent was also held in universal veneration4 ,it was a gigantic species of ,coluber1 which from the earliest ages was regarded as 8the representative of spiritual1 and occasionally physical1 evil40 ,this was the great snake of the celestial waters1 the adversary of the gods with which the soul had to contend after death4 ,the ,egyptians had thus a good and an evil serpent1 the former of which was small and the latter large4 ,among the ,cambodians the reverse was the case1 as the small serpent was the representative of evil1 and the great serpent1 the ,naga-,naga1 of good4 ,we have already seen that the cobra occupies an important place in the ,buddhist sculpture1 and that the great serpent with its human supporters was represented at both ,amravati and ,angkor ,wat4 ,curiously enough a similar idea to this is represented on certain ,egyptian monuments4 ,on the sarcophagus of ,oime-nepthah ,i4 is sculptured a long serpent1 which1 says ,mr4 ,robert ,sewell1 is doubled into folds just like the roll of the ,buddhist frieze1 and having a god standing on each fold in the places occupied by the sacred emblems of the ,buddhist faith at ,amravati4 ,he supposes the long roll of the ,amravati frieze to be intended to represent a serpent1 and to have had its origin in ,western ,asian or ,egyptian ideas4 ,i had already1 before meeting with this observation1 been struck with the similarity between the ,egyptian and the ,buddhist representations1 especially when considered in the light of the ,cambodian sculptures which undoubtedly represent the ,naga-,naga4 ,the gigantic serpent of the celestial ocean of ,egyptian mythology is ,aphphis1 the spirit of evil1 and in the contest between him and ,horus we have1 according to ,m4 ,le ,page ,renouf1 a form of the ,indra and ,vritra myth4 ,an ,accadian text speaks of 8the enormous serpent with seven heads10 the 8serpent which beats the waves of the sea 444 extending his power over heaven and earth40 ,this is supposed to refer to ,ha1 and it reminds us of the heavenly ,naga-,naga of ,hindoo mythology1 which1 like the ,accadian serpent deity1 was representative of the good principle4 ,such was also the case among all the old ,turanian nations1 and it was only when1 as remarked by ,m4 ,lenormant1 8the ,iranian traditions were fused with the ancient beliefs of the ,proto-,medic religion1 the serpent-god naturally became identified with the representative of the dark and bad principle40 ,it cannot be doubted that this was the later notion1 and that the ,turanian belief which associated with the serpent ideas of goodness was of earlier date4 ,thus1 the ,dragon1 says ,mr4 ,doolittle1 8enjoys an ominous eminence in the affections of the ,chinese people4 ,it is frequently represented as the greatest benefactor of mankind4444 ,the ,chinese delight in praising its wonderful prospects and powers4 ,it is the venerated symbol of good40 ,the veneration of the serpent must have been of very early origin to occupy so strong a hold over the ,chinese1 whose spoken language1 according to ,m4 ,terrien de ,lacouperie1 forms a link between the ,accadian and the ,ugro-,finnish divisions of the ,ural-,altaic languages4 ,the art of metallurgy was practised by the peoples belonging to both these divisions1 and yet1 according to ,m4 ,lenormant1 it was not known to the early ,chinese4 ,we must thus suppose that the latter left the common home before the invention of metallurgy1 and1 therefore1 that they represent a very early condition of the stock from which the ,turanian peoples sprang4 ,we seem1 indeed1 to be carried back to the very earliest period of the legendary history of the ,cainite race1 and possibly to that of the legendary ancestor of the race4 ,according to the tradition preserved in ,genesis1 there was a peculiar association between ,adam and the serpent4 ,this animal is there the tempter ,satan1 but according to another view ,adam1 or rather ,ad1 who was apparently the traditional ancestor of a portion at least of the old ,turanian stock1 was himself the serpent4 ,a rabbinical tradition makes ,cain the son1 not of ,adam1 but of the serpent-spirit ,asmodeus4 ,the name ,eve is connected with an ,arabic root which means both 8life0 and 8a serpent10 and if ,eve was the serpent mother1 ,ad must have been the serpent father of the race4 ,there is reason for believing that ,adam was the legendary ancestor of the ,cainites1 as distinguished from the descendants of ,seth4 ,the name ,adam1 no doubt1 signifies in the ,semitic languages 8the man10 but it has been pointed out that the name borne by the son of ,seth1 and therefore the ancestor of ,noah1 that is ,enoch1 is in ,hebrew the exact synonym of ,adam1 and also signifies 8the man40 ,there is1 moreover1 almost an exact parallel between the descendants of ,adam1 through ,cain on the one hand1 and those of ,seth through ,enoch on the other1 and each line is terminated by three heads of races1 that of the ,cainites by the sons of ,lamekh and that of the ,enocides by the grandsons of ,lamekh4 ,in the latter there is the insertion of one additional generation1 that of ,noah1 between ,lamekh and the division of the family into three branches4 ,this is1 however1 capable of explanation4 ,m4 ,lenormant shows1 by a comparison of the various legends referring to the primitive age of mankind1 that the number #g or #aj was used by all the ancient nations as a round number for the antediluvian ancestors of the race4 ,tradition seemed to float between these two numbers until the influence of the ,chaldo-,babylonians caused the number #aj1 which is that of the generations of the ,sethites1 to dominate over the number #g1 that of the ,cainites4 ,it is to that influence we would ascribe the existence among the descendants of ,seth of the legendary ancestor of the three ,caucasian races4 ,the ,chaldean ,noah was ,khasisatra1 whose vessel was saved during the ,flood by the god ,ha4 ,this god himself was1 however1 supposed to have a vessel in which he sailed over the celestial ocean4 ,he was1 in fact1 the fish-god ,oannes1 from whom the ,chaldeans were said to have derived their civilisation1 and we probably have in ,oannes the point of identification between ,ha and ,noah himself4 ,the ,caucasian races1 whose fathers had been saved from the ,deluge1 could not have a better legendary ancestor than the divine teacher who1 issuing from the ,egyptian sea1 was the god ,ha1 not only the soul of the watery element but the source of all generation4 ,if ,noah1 then1 be a mythological being1 introduced into the ,sethite genealogy under ,chaldean influence1 ,lamekh becomes the direct ancestor of the ,caucasian stock as he is of the ,turanian peoples4 ,an argument in favour of this view is furnished by the ,scripture account itself4 ,among the sons of ,noah a peculiar position is occupied by ,ham4 ,he and his son ,canaan are cursed1 in like manner as ,cain was cursed4 ,the sins were different1 and therefore the punishments were different1 but there appears to be a kind of parallelism between ,cain and ,canaan for which a good reason probably existed in the mind of the writer of ,genesis4 ,we have seen that the ,hamites were intimately connected with peoples belonging to the ,turanian stock1 and they were the special recipients of the old ,cainite civilisation4 ,it is1 indeed1 far from improbable that they were more ,cainite than ,sethite4 ,the three sons of ,noah would seem to answer to the three sons of ,adam1 and as ,ham or ,canaan is a reproduction of ,cain1 so ,japheth and ,shem are reproductions of ,abel and ,seth4 ,in either case the elder brothers were put on one side or cursed1 that the youngest brother might enjoy the inheritance4 ,perhaps an explanation of this conduct may be found in the race relationships of the ,semites4 ,that they had a closer affinity to the ,hamites than had the ,japhethites is unquestionable1 and it can hardly be less doubted that the latter were the purest branch of the ,caucasian stock4 ,the ,semites were1 indeed1 a mixed race1 but as the ,hebrews professed to be the chosen people it was necessary that the ,hamite and ,japhethite races should be put on one side1 as ,abel and ,cain had been1 that their ancestor ,shem might take the chief place4 ,the ,semites thus became the representative ,caucasian people who1 as children of light1 stand in opposition to the ,turanian ,hamites1 in like manner as the sons of ,seth were opposed to the descendants of ,cain4 ,we have been led to believe that the civilisation of the ancient world originated among the ,cainites1 of whom the ,turanians are the line of descendants4 ,we have seen reason1 moreover1 for supposing that the particular branch of the ,turanian stock1 among whom the development of the art of metallurgy first took place1 was the ,ural-,altaic1 to which the earliest inhabitants of ,chaldea belonged1 and whom ,dr4 ,topinard supposes to be the connecting-link between the fair types of ,europe and the brachycephalic types of ,asia4 ,the building art was one of the earliest to be developed1 as is evident from the reference in ,genesis to the building of a city by ,cain4 ,the erection of the first city is connected with the slaying of ,abel1 and therefore the origin of architecture may be referred back to almost the earliest period of human culture1 and we may well suppose that some of the least cultured ,turanian tribes represent a still earlier stage of ,cainite civilisation4 ,m4 ,lenormant objects to ,herr ,knobel's theory that the ,chinese and the ,mongolian peoples are ,cainites1 that 8the geographical horizon of the traditions of ,genesis did not extend far enough to include them40 ,if1 however1 when the ,chinese first descended into the plains they were still in the stone age1 they may have been true ,cainites1 the more so as their immediate ancestors were located much nearer than are their descendants to the primeval home of ,adamite man4 ,the remarkable influence which the veneration for the serpent has obtained among the ,chinese1 a superstition which was developed no less remarkably among the peoples belonging to the ,western branch of the ,turanian family1 and through them among the ,hamitic peoples1 would seem to prove that it was of primeval origin4 ,the arts of metallurgy and architecture appear to have had a later development1 and to have originated among the ,turanian ,aithiopians or ,kuths1 to whom the civilisation of the ancient world was ascribed4 ,after leaving their home in ,west-,central ,asia they settled in ,chaldea1 from whence they gradually spread throughout ,western ,asia1 ,northern ,africa1 and ,europe1 where1 in later years1 they came in contact with the ,caucasian races1 who gave a higher tone to their intellectual culture and their religious ideas1 the latter being especially observable in the position assigned to the great serpent as the embodiment of evil4 99 99 99 99 99 ,note4--,the legend of the slaying of ,abel by his brother ,cain referred to at page #ach1 is met with in the ,mythologies of some of the ,american tribes4 ,see ,monographie des ,dn ,dindji1 by ,c4 ,r4 ,e4 ,petitot1 pp4 #fb-hd1 and for a similar legend of the ,aztecs1 see ,american ,hero-,myths1 by ,daniel ,g4 ,brinton1 pp4 #fd-fh4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,sacred ,,prostitution4 ,mr4 ,darwin1 in his work entitled 8,the ,descent of ,man0 7vol4 ii41 p4 #cfa71 seems to endorse the opinion that the high honour bestowed in ancient times on women who were utterly licentious is intelligible only 8if we admit that promiscuous intercourse was the aboriginal and therefore the long revered custom of the tribe10#bcj and ,i propose1 in the present chapter1 to show that the fact referred to has nothing at all to do with the custom sought to be supported by it4 ,the examples on which ,sir ,john ,lubbock relies have been taken from ,dulaure's work on ancient religions1 but they are more fully detailed in the 8,histoire de la ,prostitution0 by ,m4 ,pierre ,dufour1 and they certainly form one of the most remarkable chapters in the history of morals4 ,according to ,herodotus1#bca every woman born in ,babylonia was obliged by law1 once in her life1 to submit to the embrace of a stranger4 ,those who were gifted with beauty of face or figure soon completed this offering to ,venus1 but of the others some had to remain in the sacred enclosure for several years before they were able to obey the law4 ,this statement of ,herodotus is confirmed by the evidence of ,strabo1 who says the custom dated from the foundation of the city of ,babylon4 ,the compulsory prostitution of ,babylonia was connected with the worship of ,mylitta1 and wherever this worship spread it was accompanied by the sexual sacrifice4 ,strabo relates#bcb that in ,armenia the sons and daughters of the leading families were consecrated to the service of ,anatis for a longer or shorter period4 ,their duty was to entertain strangers1 and those females who had received the greatest number were on their return home the most sought after in marriage4 ,the ,phnician worship of ,astart was no less distinguished by sacred prostitution1 to which was added a promiscuous intercourse between the sexes during certain religious ftes1 at which the men and women exchanged their garments4 ,the ,phnicians carried the custom to the ,isle of ,cyprus1 where the worship of their great goddess1 under the name of ,venus1 became supreme4 ,according to a popular legend the women of ,amathonte1 afterwards noted for its temple1 were originally known for their chastity4 ,when1 therefore1 ,venus was cast by the waves naked on their shores1 they treated her with disdain1 and as a punishment they were commanded to prostitute themselves to all comers1 a command which they obeyed with so much reluctance that the goddess changed them into stone4 ,with their worship of ,astart or ,venus1 the ,phnicians introduced sacred prostitution into all their ,colonies4 ,st4 ,augustine says that1 at ,carthage1 there were three ,venuses rather than one3 one of the virgins1 another of the married women1 and a third of the courtesans1 to the last of whom it was that the ,phnicians sacrificed the chastity of their daughters before they were married4 ,it was the same in ,syria4 ,at ,byblos during the ftes of ,adonis1 after the ceremony which announced the resurrection of the ,god1 every female worshipper had to sacrifice to ,venus either her hair or her person4 ,those who preferred to preserve the former adjourned to the sacred enclosures1 where they remained for a whole day for the purpose of prostituting themselves4 ,the same curious custom appears to have been practised in ,media and ,persia1 and among the ,parthians4 ,the ,lydians were particularly noted for the zeal with which they practised the rites of ,venus4 ,they did not limit their observance to occasional attendance at the sacred ftes1 but1 says ,herodotus1 they devoted themselves to the goddess1 and practised1 for their own benefit1 the most shameless prostitution4 ,it is related that a magnificent monument to ,alyattes1 the father of ,crsus1 was built by the contributions of the merchants1 the artisans1 and the courtesans1 and that the portion of the monument erected with the sum furnished by the courtesans much exceeded both the other parts built at the expense of the artisans and merchants4 ,some writers deny that sacred prostitution was practised in ,egypt1 but the great similarity between the worship of ,osiris and ,isis and that of ,venus and ,adonis renders the contrary opinion highly probable4 ,on their way to the ftes of ,isis at ,bubastis the female pilgrims executed indecent dances when the vessels passed the villages on the banks of the river4 8,these obscenities10 says ,dufour1 8were only such as were about to happen at the temple1 which was visited each year by seven hundred thousand pilgrims1 who gave themselves up to incredible excesses40 ,strabo asserts that a class of persons called pellices 7harlots7 were dedicated to the service of the patron deity of ,thebes1 and that they 8were permitted to cohabit with anyone they chose40 ,it is true that ,sir ,gardner ,wilkinson#bcc treats this account as absurd1 on the ground that the women1 many of whom were the wives and daughters of the noblest families1 assisted in the most important ceremonies of the temple4 ,this fact is1 however1 quite consistent with ,strabo's statement1 which may have referred to an inferior class of female servitors1 and considering the customs of allied peoples1 it is more likely to be true than the reverse4 ,the testimony of ,herodotus is certainly opposed to that of ,strabo4 ,but the former acknowledges that he did not reveal all that he knew of the secrets of ,egyptian worship1 and we must1 therefore1 receive with some hesitation his assertion that 8the ,egyptians are the first who1 from a religious motive1 have forbidden commerce with women in the sacred places1 or even entrance there after having known them1 without being first cleansed40 ,the ,greek historian adds--8,almost all other peoples1 except the ,egyptians and the ,greeks1 have commerce with women in the sacred places2 or1 when they rise from them1 they enter there without being washed40 ,whatever may be the truth as to the inhabitants of ancient ,egypt1 at the present day the dancing girls of that country1 who are also prostitutes1 attend the religious festivals just as the ancient devotees of ,astart are said to have done4 ,if we test the value of ,herodotus' evidence on the matter in question by what is known of ,grecian customs1 it will have little weight4 ,sacred prostitution at ,athens was under the patronage of ,venus ,pandemos1 who is said to have been the first divinity that ,theseus caused the people to adore1 or1 at least1 to whom a statue was erected on the public place4 ,the ftes of that goddess were celebrated on the fourth day of each month1 a chief part in them being assigned to the prostitutes1 who then exercised their calling only for the profit of the goddess1 and they expended in offerings the money which they had gained under her auspices4 ,at the height of its prosperity the temple of ,venus at ,corinth had1 according to ,strabo1 one thousand courtesans4 ,it was a common custom in ,greece to consecrate to ,venus a certain number of young girls1 when it was desired to render the goddess favourable1 or when she had granted the prayers addressed to her4 ,the ordinary ,athenian prostitutes appear to have been dedicated to the public service1 and they were forbidden to leave the country without the consent of the ,archons1 who often accorded it only on having a guarantee that they would return4 ,there would seem even to have been a ,college of ,prostitutes1 which was declared useful and necessary to the state4 ,the story of the social influence of the heter during the palmiest days of ,greece is too well known to need repetition1 and it will be found fully detailed in the pages of ,dufour4 ,the majority of the heter1 however1 were far from being in the position of ,aspasia1 ,las1 and others1 who were the friends1 and even instructors1 of statesmen and philosophers4 ,although they were allowed some of the rights of citizenship1 they were often treated with implacable rigour by the ,areopagus1 and their children were condemned to the same ignominy as themselves4 ,curiously enough1 the chief accusation against the prostitutes was their irreligion1 and although they were priestesses in some temples1 from others they were rigidly excluded4 ,among the ,romans the prostitute class held a much lower position in public opinion than with the ,greeks1 and for a long time its members were treated as below the attention of legislators1 and were left to the arbitrary regulation of the police4 ,they were classed with the slave population as civilly dead1 and1 having once become 8infamous10 the moral stain was indelible4 ,dufour says1 as to the religious character of ,latin prostitution--8,the courtesans at ,rome were not1 as in ,greece1 kept at a distance from the altars4 ,on the contrary1 they frequented all the temples1 in order1 no doubt1 to find their favourable chances of gain2 they showed their gratitude to the divinity who had been propitious to them1 and they brought to his sanctuary a portion of the gain which they believed they owed to him4 ,religion closed its eyes to this impure source of revenue and offerings2 civil legislation did not intermeddle with these details of false devotion1 which concerned only religion2 and1 thanks to that tolerance1 or rather the systematic abstention from judicial and religious control1 sacred prostitution preserved at ,rome nearly its primitive features1 with this difference1 nevertheless1 that it was always confined to the class of courtesans1 and that1 instead of being an integral part of worship1 it was a foreign accessory to it40 ,according to some ,roman writers1 however1 ,acca ,laurentia 7the foster-mother of ,romulus and ,remus71 in whose honour the ,lupercales were instituted1 was a prostitute1 and the ftes of ,flora had a similar origin4 ,the goddess of flowers was originally a courtesan1 who made an enormous fortune1 which she left to the state4 ,her legacy was accepted1 and the ,senate1 in gratitude1 decreed that the name of ,flora should be inscribed in the fastes of the state1 and that solemn ftes should perpetuate the memory of her generosity4 ,these ftes always preserved a remembrance of their origin1 and were accompanied by the most scandalous scenes1 which were publicly enacted in the circus4 ,the religious prostitutes of antiquity find their counterparts in the dancing girls attached to the ,hindoo temples4 ,these 8female slaves of the idol0 are girls who have been dedicated to the temple service1 often by their own parents1 and they act both as dancing girls and courtesans4 ,notwithstanding their calling1 they are treated with great respect1 and such would seem always to have been the case1 if we may judge by the ancient legend which relates that ,gautama was entertained at ,vesali by a lady of high rank who had the title of 8,chief of the ,courtesans40#bcd ,no doubt the attention paid to the appearance and education of the temple prostitutes has much to do with the respect with which they are treated1 the position accorded by the ancient ,greeks to the superior class of heter being due to an analogous cause4 ,bishop ,heber says1 in relation to the ,bayadres of ,southern ,india1 that they differ considerably from the ,nautch girls of the ,northern ,provinces1 8being all in the service of different temples1 for which they are purchased young1 and brought up with a degree of care which is seldom bestowed on the females of ,india of any other class4 ,this care not only extends to dancing and singing1 and the other allurements of their miserable profession1 but to reading and writing4 ,their dress is lighter than the bundle of red cloth which swaddles the figurant of ,hindostan1 and their dancing is more indecent2 but their general appearance and manner seemed to me far from immodest1 and their air even more respectable than the generality of the lower classes of ,india4444 ,the money which they acquire in the practice of their profession is hallowed to their wicked gods1 whose ministers are said to turn them out without remorse1 or with a very scanty provision1 when age or sickness renders them unfit for their occupation4 ,most of them1 however1 die young40 ,the ,bishop adds1 8,i had heard that the ,bayadres were regarded with respect among the other classes of ,hindoos1 as servants of the gods1 and that1 after a few years' service1 they often marry respectably4 ,but1 though ,i made several inquiries1 ,i cannot find that this is the case2 their name is a common term of reproach among the women of the country1 nor could any man of decent caste marry one of their number40#bce ,the courtesans of ,hindostan do not appear to be attached to the temples1 but ,tavernier relates that they made offerings to certain idols1 to whom they surrendered themselves when young to bring good fortune4 ,the chief facts connected with religious prostitution have now been given1 and it remains only to show that this system has nothing to do with any custom of communal marriage1 or promiscuous intercourse between the sexes1 such as it is thought to give evidence of4 ,sir ,john ,lubbock says that the life led by the courtesans attached to the ,hindoo temples is not considered shameful1 because they continue the old custom of the country under religious sanction4 ,this statement1 however1 is wholly inaccurate1 as the former existence of the custom referred to cannot be established4 ,the social phenomena which are thought to establish that mankind has passed through a stage of promiscuity in the intercourse between the sexes are capable of totally different interpretation4 ,the ease with which any doctrine or practice1 however absurd or monstrous1 will be accepted1 if it possesses a religious sanction1 would alone account for the respect entertained for religious prostitutes4 ,but among a people who1 like the ,hindoos1 view sexual immorality for personal gain with abhorrence1 such a calling1 if it were based on so barbarous a custom as communal marriage1 would inevitably lessen rather than increase that sentiment4 ,on the other hand1 if the religious position accorded to the temple prostitutes is connected with ideas which have a sacredness of their own1 the respect will be greatly increased4 ,and thus1 in fact1 it is4 ,probably no custom is more widely spread than the providing for a guest a female companion1 who is usually a wife or daughter of the host4 ,such a connection with a stranger is permitted even among peoples who are otherwise jealous preservers of female chastity4 ,this custom of sexual hospitality is said to have been practised by the ,babylonians in the time of ,alexander1 although1 according to the ,roman historian1 parents and husbands did not decline to accept money in return for the favours thus accorded4 ,eusebius asserts that the ,phnicians prostituted their daughters to strangers1 and that this was done for the greater glory of hospitality4 ,so1 also1 we find that at ,cyprus the women who devoted themselves to the good goddess walked about the shores of the island to attract the strangers who disembarked4 ,in the earliest phase of what is called sacred prostitution it was not every man who was entitled to enjoy its privileges4 ,the ,babylonian women1 who were compelled to make a sacrifice of their persons once in their lives1 submitted to the embraces only of strangers4 ,in ,armenia1 also1 strangers alone were entitled to seek sexual hospitality in the sacred enclosures at the temple of ,anatis1 and it was the same in ,syria during the ftes of ,venus and ,adonis4 ,dufour was struck by this fact1 and1 speaking of it1 he says1 8,it may be thought surprising that the inhabitants of the country were so impressed with a worship in which their women had all the benefit of the mysteries of ,venus40 ,he adds1 however1 that the former were not less interested than the latter in these mysteries4 8,the worship of ,venus was in some sort stationary for the women1 nomadic for the men1 seeing that these could visit in turn the different ftes and temples of the goddess1 profiting everywhere1 in these sensual pilgrimages1 by the advantages reserved to guests and to strangers40 ,besides hospitality1 the practice of which is1 under ordinary circumstances1 an almost sacred duty with uncultured peoples1 there was another series of ideas associated with the system of sacred prostitution4 ,in the ,east1 the great aim of woman's life is marriage and bearing children4 ,we have a curious reference to this fact in the lament of the ,hebrew women for ,jephthah's daughter1 which appears to have been occasioned less by her death than by the recorded fact that 8she knew no man40 ,when she heard of the vow made by her father1 she said to him1 8,let me alone two months1 that ,i may go up and down upon the mountains and bewail my virginity1 ,i and my fellows40 ,the desire of the wife1 however1 is not merely for children1 but for a man-child1 the necessity for which has given rise to the practice of adoption2 another custom which ,sir ,john ,lubbock believes to support his favourite doctrine of communal marriage4 ,in ,india adoption is practised when a man has no son of his own1 and it has a directly religious motive4 ,sir ,thomas ,strange shows that the ,hindoo law of inheritance cannot be understood without reference to the belief that a man's future happiness depends 8upon the performance of his obsequies and the payment of his spiritual debts40 ,he who pays these debts is his heir2 and1 as 8offerings from sons are more effectual than offerings from other persons1 sons are first in order of succession40 ,hence to have a son is to the ,hindoo a sacred duty1 and when his wife bears no children1 or only daughters1 he is compelled by his religious belief to adopt one4 ,we can understand how anxious for a son women must be where those ideas prevail1 and this anxiety has given rise to various curious ceremonies having for their object to prevent or cure sterility4 ,some of these1 which have been described by ,dulaure and other writers1 existed in ,europe down to a comparatively recent period4 ,in ,india1 and probably in some other ,eastern countries1 they are still practised both by wives who have continued childless and by newly-married women1 the latter offering to the ,linga the sacrifice of their virginity4 ,this desire for children led to offerings being made to ensure the coveted blessing1 and to vows to be performed on its being obtained4 ,the nature of the vow would undoubtedly have some reference to the thing desired2 and1 as related by an old ,arabian traveller in ,india1 8when a woman has made a vow for the purpose of having children1 if she brings into the world a pretty daughter1 she carries it to ,bod 7so they call the idol which they adore71 and leaves it with him40 ,the craving for children was anciently as strong among ,eastern peoples as it is at the present day1 and it is much more probable that this1 rather than a habit of licentiousness1 either of the women themselves or of the priests1 led to the sacrifice at the shrine of ,mylitta4 ,if we are to believe ,herodotus1 the ,babylonian women were in his time noted for their virtue1 although at a later period they would seem to have lost that characteristic4 ,the desire for children is directly opposed to the feeling which would operate in the case of communal marriage1 where parents and children1 having no special relation1 no one would have any particular interest in preserving the issue of such intercourse4 ,among the uncultured peoples of the present era who the most nearly approach in their sexual relations to a state of communal marriage1 the indifference to children is often apparent4 ,infanticide is very general1 and abortion is often practised by the women to enable them to retain the favour of their husbands4 ,the sacred prostitution1 which is intimately connected with the craving for children1 must1 therefore1 have originated at a time when a considerable advance had been made in social culture4 ,it would not be surprising if the ancient ,babylonish custom had1 of itself1 resulted in a system of sacred prostitution4 ,the act of sexual intercourse was in the nature of an offering to the ,goddess of ,fecundity1 and a life of prostitution in the service of the goddess might well come to be viewed as pleasing to her and as deserving of respect at the hands of her worshippers4 ,we have an analogous phase of thought in the ,japanese notion1 that a girl who enters the ,yoshiwara for the purpose of thus supporting her parents performs a highly meritorious act4 ,in ,armenia1 as we have seen1 children were devoted by their parents to the service of the great goddess for a term of years1 and those who had received the most numerous favours from strangers were the most eagerly sought after in marriage on the expiration of that period4 ,that dedication was in pursuance of a vow1 which no doubt1 like the vows of ,indian women at the present day1 would at first have relation to some sexual want1 although thank-offerings of the same character would afterwards come to be presented by the worshippers of the goddess for blessings of any description4 ,thus ,xenophon consecrated fifty courtesans to the ,corinthian ,venus1 in pursuance of the vow which he had made when he besought the goddess to give him the victory in the ,olympian games4 ,pindar makes ,xenophon thus address these slaves of the goddess3 8,oh1 young damsels1 who receive all strangers and give them hospitality1 priestesses of the goddess ,pitho in the rich ,corinth1 it is you who1 in causing the incense to burn before the images of ,venus and in invoking the mother of love1 often merit for us her celestial aid1 and procure for us the sweet moments which we taste on the luxurious couches where is gathered the delicate fruit of beauty40 ,the legitimate inference to be made from what has gone before is that sacred prostitution sprang from the primitive custom of providing sexual hospitality for strangers1 the agents by which it was carried out being supplied by the votaries of the deity under whose sanction the custom was placed4 ,assuming its existence1 and the strong desire on the part of married women for children1 which led them to sacrifice their own virginity as an offering to the ,goddess of ,fecundity1 or to dedicate their daughters to her service1 we have a perfect explanation of the custom of sacred prostitution4 ,the duty of these 8servants of the idol0 would include the furnishing of hospitality to the strangers who visited the shrines and ftes of the deity4 ,these pilgrims became the guests of the deity1 and she was bound to furnish them with the same hospitality as that which they would have met with if they had been entertained by private individuals4 ,the piety of her worshippers enabled her to do this1 either by devoting their daughters for a limited period to this sacred service1 in return for which the reward of fecundity would be looked for1 or by presenting them absolutely to the goddess in return for favours received at her hands4 ,it is not surprising that among peoples having such notions1 the temple courtesans were regarded with great respect1 nor that those who had acted in that capacity with success were eagerly sought after as wives4 ,it is more difficult to understand how sexual hospitality should have come to be placed under divine sanction4 ,the difficulty vanishes1 however1 when the light in which the process of generation is viewed in the ,east is considered4 ,that which by us is looked upon as due to a passionate impulse1 was anciently 7except among certain religious sects71 and is still to the ,eastern mind1 an act of mysterious significance4 ,the male organ of generation was the symbol of creative power1 and the veneration in which it was held led to practices which to a modern ,european are nothing but disgusting1 although to the ,semite they partake of a purely religious character4 ,to pursue this subject further would be to enter upon the wide field of ,phallic worship4 ,sufficient has1 however1 already been said to prove that sacred prostitution is only remotely connected1 if at all1 with communal marriage4 ,the only apparent connection between them is the sexual hospitality to strangers which the former was established to supply2 but the association is only apparent1 as the providing of that hospitality is perfectly consistent with the recognition of the value of female chastity1 and is quite independent of any ideas entertained as to marriage4 ,in conclusion1 ,i may add that the opinion expressed by ,sir ,john ,lubbock1#bcf that the ,grecian hetr were more highly esteemed than the married women1 because the former were originally countrywomen and relations1 and the latter captives and slaves1 is not consistent with the facts of the case4 ,any one conversant with the social customs of ancient ,greece will be able to give a totally different explanation of that phenomenon4 ,marriage with foreign women was forbidden1 and thus captives and slaves furnished the ,greeks with concubines and prostitutes1 while their wives were taken from among their own countrywomen4 ,even such was the case in the earliest heroic ages1 when1 says ,mr4 ,gladstone1 the intercourse between husband and wife was 8thoroughly natural1 full of warmth1 dignity1 reciprocal deference1 and substantial1 if not conventional delicacy40 ,the same writer says3 8,the relations of youth and maiden generally are indicated with extreme beauty and tenderness in the ,iliad2 and those of the unmarried woman to a suitor1 or probable spouse1 are so portrayed1 in the case of the incomparable ,nausicaa1 as to show a delicacy and freedom that no period of history or state of manners can surpass40#bcg ,,footnotes3 #bcj ,sir ,john ,lubbock's 8,origin of ,civilisation10 #crd ed41 p4 #if4 #bca ,clio1 sec4 #aii4 #bcb ,bk4 ii41 ,melpom41 #agb4 #bcc 8,ancient ,egyptians10 iv41 #bjd4 #bcd ,mrs4 ,spier's 8,life in ,ancient ,india10 p4 #bha4 #bce 8,journey10 iii41 #bai4 #bcf ,op4 cit41 p4 #abj4 #bcg 8,juventus ,mundi10 pp4 #djh1 #daa4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,marriage ,,among ,,primitive ,,peoples4 ,the usual idea associated with the term 8marriage0 is the union in domestic life of a single pair of individuals1 and with few exceptions this is the only marriage recognised by ,christian peoples4 ,we learn from the ,old ,testament ,scriptures that the ,hebrews had different ideas on that subject4 ,they not only considered it allowable for a man to have more than one wife1 but apparently they thought he might have as many wives as he chose4 ,this system of marriage1 to which the term polygamy has been usually applied1 is still prevalent in most countries outside of the ,european area4 ,the monogamous and polygamous forms of marriage are1 however1 by no means the only possible ones4 ,instead of a man and a woman living together1 a number of individuals may thus associate1 and in lieu of a man having several wives a woman may conceivably have more than one husband4 ,moreover1 marriage may be subject to varying regulations or restrictions1 causing the same system to present dissimilar features in different localities4 ,that which is possible in social life may reasonably be expected to occur somewhere or other on the earth's surface2 and1 as a fact1 all the types of marriage referred to are to be found among peoples of the ,eastern ,hemisphere4 ,it can hardly be doubted that the most civilised races1 of which we may call the modern world1 have1 with the exception of the ,chinese1 belonged to the two great branches of the ,caucasian stock1 the ,aryan and the ,semitic-speaking peoples4 ,those races1 and especially such of them as inhabit the ,western part of the ,old ,continent1 have shown a preference for monogamy or polygamy1 the former being almost restricted to ,europeans1 the latter being nearly universal among the ,asiatic portion of the ,caucasian stock4 ,the inferior races1 however1 possess the least advanced systems of marriage4 ,the natives of the ,australian ,continent are usually regarded as the most uncivilised of mankind1 and among them there has been developed a system which some persons would probably consider not entitled to the name of marriage4 ,in it individuals give place theoretically to groups1 between whom the marriage relation is supposed to be formed1 the individuals being treated only as members of a group4 ,the existence of this peculiar system has been established by the inquiries of the ,rev4 ,lorimer ,fison1 who has shown1 moreover1 that ,australian marriage 8is something more than the marriage of group to group1 within a tribe4 ,it is an arrangement1 extending across a ,continent1 which divides many widely-scattered tribes into intermarrying classes1 and gives a man of one class marital rites over women of another class in a tribe a thousand miles away1 and speaking a language other than his own4 ,it seems to be strong evidence of the common origin of all the ,australian tribes among whom it prevails2 and it is a striking illustration of how custom remains fixed while language changes40#bch ,an ,american writer1 ,mr4 ,lewis ,morgan1 who was the first to point out the prevalence among the less cultured races of mankind of relationship which he terms 8classificatory10 in opposition to the descriptive relationships of the superior races1 states that1 according to ,australian marriage1 8a group of males distinguished by the same class name are the born husbands of a group of females bearing another class name2 and whenever a male of this class meets a female of the other class1 they recognise each other as husband and wife1 and their right to live in this relation is regarded by the tribe to which they belong40 ,the peculiarity of this system is1 not that each individual is entitled to take a wife or husband out of a particular group1 but that1 in theory1 every individual is from birth the husband or wife of all the members of a special group4 ,mr4 ,fison remarks further that the idea of marriage under that system is founded on the rights neither of the woman nor of the man4 ,it is based 8on the rights of the tribe1 or rather of the classes into which the tribe is divided4 ,class marriage is not a contract entered into by two parties4 ,it is a natural state into which both parties are born1 and they have to be content with that state whereunto they are called40 ,but what is the nature of the social organisation to which the system of group marriage belongs8 ,at the present time nearly all the existing ,australian tribes are divided into four classes1 into one of which every individual is born4 ,the members of each class are supposed to trace their descent to the same common female ancestor1 they are treated as of the same degrees of kinship to each other1 and they are not allowed to intermarry4 ,there is reason to believe that originally1 perhaps when the ancestors of all the existing tribes resided in the same neighbourhood1 each tribe consisted of only two classes4 ,in this case1 the law of group marriage1 under the regulations as to marriage and descent just mentioned1 would require that all the members of each class should be real or tribal brothers and sisters of each other1 and the husbands and wives of all the members of the other class4 ,the theoretical result would be1 that all the men of each class would have their wives in common1 and all the women of each class their husbands in common4 ,whether the number of individuals in each group was large or small1 the result would be the same4 ,in practice1 the exercise of the extended marriage right would be restricted to a few individuals1 but that its existence is generally understood is shown by the statement of a native servant1 who had travelled far and wide in ,australia1 that 8he was furnished with temporary wives by the various tribes with whom he sojourned in his travels2 that his right to those women was recognised as a matter of course2 and that he could always ascertain whether they belonged to the division into which he could legally marry1 though the places were a thousand miles apart1 and the languages quite different40 ,this particular case might1 perhaps1 be explained as an extreme example of the granting of sexual hospitality2 but ,mr4 ,fison refers to several facts which prove the reality of the relationships arising out of group marriage1 and therefore of this system itself4 ,he states that an ,australian 8has the rights of a brother1 and he acknowledges the duties of a brother1 towards every man of his own group2 and he can no more marry a woman of a group which is #8sister' to his own than we can marry our own sister40 ,among the ,australians1 as among some other races who are supposed to have had at one time a similar marriage system1 a mother-in-law and a son-in-law mutually avoid each other4 ,this conduct is based on the fact that the mother-in-law belongs to the class of women over whom the son-in-law has a marital right1 but as she is specially forbidden to him they must keep out of each other's way4 ,again1 the incidents attendant on adoption are in accordance with the reality of group relationships4 ,a person who is adopted into a gens or family 8forthwith abandons all the relationships of his own gens1 and takes those of the gens into which he is adopted10 a result which is due to the fact that relationship is conceived1 not between individual and individual1 but between group and group4 ,extraordinary as is the ,australian system at the present time1 when each class1 or intermarrying group1 embraces so many individuals1 it would not appear so strange if1 as was originally the case1 each group consisted only of the immediate descendants of the common female ancestor4 ,in this case all the males in any particular generation of each family group would be the husbands of all the females in the same generation of the other family2 in other words1 all the men of each group would have their wives in common and all the women their husbands in common4 ,moreover1 the actual practice of the ,australian tribes differs from the theory4 ,every man and every woman is permanently married to an individual of the opposite sex1 and often this connection is formed at an early age by arrangement between the parents of the persons concerned4 ,in addition1 however1 each of these persons may be allotted by the great council of the tribe as an 8accessory spouse10 or pirauru1 to some other individual4 ,the ,australian system1 therefore1 presents a mixture of individual marriage and group marriage1 the latter of which is evidently closely connected with the right of sexual hospitality1 which is considered by the savage mind as natural and of great importance4 ,australian marriage is thus based on what may be theoretically termed the natural marriage between two groups of individuals whose wishes are never consulted in the matter4 ,the same arrangement might1 of course1 be made among the individuals themselves1 and1 curiously enough1 a form of group marriage1 much restricted in its operation1 was at one time fully recognised among the ,polynesian ,islands of the ,pacific4 ,this system was known as punalua1 and it consisted in two or more brothers having their wives1 or two or more sisters having their husbands1 in common4 ,here1 brothers and sisters form one group1 and the wives of the one with the husbands of the other1 themselves being brothers and sisters 7actual or tribal71 form another group answering to the intermarrying classes of the ,australians4 ,the ,polynesian punalua and the ,australian group marriage are1 therefore1 fundamentally the same4#bci ,the ,australian system is much the more comprehensive1 however1 as it affects all the members of a class1 while the ,polynesian affects only the persons immediately concerned4 ,each punaluan group appears to be formed independently1 with the consent of all the parties to the arrangement1 and without conferring any sexual right on the children belonging to it4 ,this is totally unlike the ,australian practice1 which recognises individuals only as members of particular groups1 standing to each other in a certain marital relation and perpetuated by descent through their female members4 ,the latter may be described as hereditary punalua1 as distinguished from the ,polynesian system1 which is purely personal4 ,mr4 ,morgan points out that punalua may be of two forms1 one founded on the brotherhood of the husbands1 and the other on the sisterhood of the wives1 the men of each group being polygamous and the women polyandrous4 ,both forms of that marriage arrangement are said to have existed among the natives of ,america1 although1 when discovered by ,europeans1 the family with them was founded on marriage between single pairs1 but without exclusive cohabitation4 ,thus1 it was not uncommon for a man who married an eldest daughter to claim all his wife's sisters1 and he appears to have occasionally allowed his brothers to participate in the matrimonial privileges4 ,in other cases1 a man married the sister of his deceased wife as a matter of course1 but he did not take her in his wife's lifetime4 ,similar customs exist in some parts of ,australia1 where the old system of marriage has been almost forgotten4 ,the polyandrous form of punalua was known to the ,australians either as a feature of the group right1 or in the course of its decadence4 ,thus1 every woman had accessory husbands or paramours who associated with her temporarily1 notwithstanding that she had a recognised husband with whom she habitually cohabited4 ,mr4 ,t4 ,e4 ,lance mentions a tribe in which most of the women are nominally the wives of elderly men1 who are1 however1 obliged to lend them on stated occasions to the younger men of the allowed classes4 ,it is evident that circumstances may favour the development of either the polyandrous or the polygamous form of punalua to the exclusion of the other4 ,a scarcity of women would tend to the establishment of the former system1 as we see in the case of the ,todas of ,southern ,india4 ,this fine race of hillmen were inveterate practisers of female infanticide down to a recent date1 and it was almost the universal practice for a family of near relations to live together in one hut1 having wife1 children1 and cattle in common4#bdj ,the continued formation of such alliances appears to have led to a result much resembling the group marriage of the ,australians4 ,as ,colonel ,marshall states1 8the family come to be represented mainly by a knot of brothers1 half-brothers1 and cousins1 married to closely related kinswomen in nearly equal numbers2 the men being the common fathers of all the progeny2 each woman1 however1 the mother of her own children only40#bda ,the ,todas have1 under ,british influence1 given up the practice of infanticide1 but they have fewer female than male children1 owing to a preponderance of male births1 and polyandry is still customary among them4 ,a woman is at first married with her own consent to one man1 who pays the dowry4 ,afterwards1 however1 8if the husband has brothers1 or very near relatives1 all living together1 they may each1 if both she and he consent1 participate in the right to be considered her husband also1 on making up a share of the dowry that has been paid40#bdb ,notwithstanding the example of the ,todas1 it must not be thought that a scarcity of women is essential to the existence of polyandry4 ,in ,tibet this system of marriage is universal1 and it has been so from time immemorial4 ,nevertheless1 unmarried women are numerous1 and infanticide is not practised4 ,mr4 ,andrew ,wilson defined ,tibetan polyandry as the marriage of one woman to two or more brothers1 and these are actual brothers1 although at one time probably they may also have been tribal4 ,the choice of a wife is the right of the elder brother1 and ,mr4 ,wilson states#bdc that 8among the ,tibetan-speaking people it universally prevails that the contract he makes is understood to involve a marital contract with all the brothers1 if they choose to avail themselves of it40 ,moreover1 all the children of the marriage belong to the eldest brother1 as the head of the family group4 ,in ,ladak1#bdd however1 the consent of the younger brothers is required to the marital partnership1 although on the death of the eldest brother his authority1 with his property and his widow1 devolve upon his next brother1 whether or not there has been a polyandrous arrangement4 ,mr4 ,wilson observes#bde that ,tibetan polyandry had the effect 8of checking the increase of population in regions from which emigration is difficult1 and where it is also difficult to increase the means of subsistence40 ,it is due to an artificial scarcity of wives1 rather than of women1 in which it differs from the polyandry of the ,todas1 which is the consequence of an actual scarcity of females1 caused originally by the practice of infanticide1 and afterwards by a preponderance of male births4 ,both the ,tibetans and the ,todas trace descent through the male line--that is1 take the family or gentile name of the father2 but some peoples of ,southern ,india1 who practice polyandry1 prefer the female line4 ,this is not surprising1 when we find1 as among the ,nairs of ,malabar1 that not only has a woman several husbands1 but a man 8may be one in several combinations of husbands40 ,such unions1 which are governed by certain restrictions as to tribe and caste1 closely resemble the ,australian group marriage4 ,in ,ceylon1 where polyandry is very prevalent among the ,kandyans1 marriage is of two forms1 one termed deega1 in which the wife goes to live in the house and village of her husband or husbands1 the other1 termed beena1 in which the husband or husbands come to reside with her in the house of her birth4 ,the ,tibetan polyandry may be a form of the deega marriage1 and the ,nair polyandry a form of the beena marriage1 although it is possible that the latter may be a 8mere freak10 if it be true 7as ,mr4 ,wilson affirms7 that the ,nairs are nominally married to girls of their own caste1 but never have any intercourse with their wives1 who may have as many lovers as they please1 provided they are ,brahmins or ,nairs1 other than the husband4 ,these lovers answer to the paramours of the ,australian system1 but1 whereas the latter occupy a secondary place1 among the ,nairs it is the husband who is in that position4 ,this custom may not improbably be explained by the remarks of a ,mohammedan writer1 who says1#bdf with regard to the marriages of the ,brahmins of ,malabar1 8when there are several brothers in one family1 the eldest of them alone enters into the conjugal state 7except in cases where it is evident that he will have no issue71 the remainder refraining from marriage1 in order that heirs may not multiply to the confusion of inheritance4 ,the younger brothers1 however1 intermarry with women of the ,nair caste without entering into any compact with them1 thus following the custom of the ,nairs1 who have themselves no conjugal contract4 ,in the event of any children being born from these connections1 they are excluded from the inheritance2 but should it appear evident that the elder brother will not have issue1 then another brother1 the next to him in age1 will marry40 ,the irregular marriages with the ,nair women were1 perhaps1 introduced by the ,brahmins to provide wives for the brothers of their caste who were not allowed to marry4 ,the original ,nair polyandry may have been similar to that of the carpenters1 ironsmiths1 painters1 and other ,malabar castes1 who 7says the same writer7 8cohabit1 two or more together1 with one woman1 but not unless they are brothers1 or in some way related1 lest confusion should ensue in the inheritance of property40 ,it is thought1 from certain facts mentioned in the ,mah ,bhrata1 that polyandry was a recognised institution among the early ,hindus1 and that the eldest brother had the right1 as now among the ,tibetans1 to choose a wife for the family4 ,some writers have gone so far even as to assert that all the peoples of the primitive ,aryan stock1 and our own ,british ancestors amongst them1 practised the same custom or some form of group marriage4 ,mr4 ,j4 ,f4 ,m',lennan regarded the ,hebrew law of the ,levirate1 which required a younger son to take his elder brother's widow if he had died childless1 as having been derived from the practice of polyandry4 ,whether this was so1 or whether it was merely a regulation to prevent the elder branch of a stock from becoming extinct1 traces of polyandry have undoubtedly been met with among peoples of the ,semitic stock4 ,it would seem1 however1 to have been most prevalent among the tribes of ,southern ,arabia1 and it was probably due1 chiefly to the poverty of the people1#bdg as among the ,tibetans1 who may have directly influenced the development of polyandry in ,arabia4 ,the true marriage system of the ,semitic peoples was punalua of the polygamous form1 in which several sisters had a husband in common4 ,we have an instance of it in the marriage of ,jacob with the sisters ,leah and ,rachel4 ,at a later period1 however1 when blood or even tribal relationship between the wives was not required1 the practice of polygamy became fully established4 ,this system has attained its chief development among the ,semitic races and those ,african peoples who are allied to them by blood4 ,the most widely-spread forms of marriage now existing are polygamy and monogamy1 and while the former may be traced to the polygamous phase of punalua or group marriage1 it is not improbable that the latter is traceable to the polyandrous phase4 ,at all events1 monogamy has been established chiefly among those races who are supposed1 formerly1 to have been polyandrous4 ,the ,australians1 among whom group marriage has reached so full a development1 are said to show a tendency to the introduction of individual marriage4 ,descent through the female line1 which was1 at one time1 universal among them1 is giving place to descent through males1 where residence has become fixed and property accumulated4 ,the change is accompanied by a weakening of the group right1 and the gradual introduction of marriage 8by gifts1 by exchange1 by capture1 and by elopement1 one or other of these predominating40 ,the rights of the individual are thus substituted for those of the group1 and individual marriage is recognised4 ,strange as are the various marriage systems we have referred to1 they are based on the very simple principle that every individual has a sexual right4 ,the conditions under which this right may be exercised vary among different peoples1 their operation giving rise to the peculiar married arrangements in question4 ,among the ,australians1 almost the only restriction on sexual unions appears to be that arising from consanguinity4 ,their marriage regulations have evidently been formed with the intention of absolutely prohibiting unions between persons near of kin4 ,although marriage with a sister of the half-blood is often permitted1 and for special reasons marriage with a full sister may be allowed1 the objection to consanguineous unions may be declared to be universal among peoples of a low degree of culture4 ,their marriage regulations1 however1 are generally intended to have certain positive results4 ,the chief result aimed at would seem to be the prevention of over-population4 ,this fact1 combined with the recognition of the sexual rights of man1 accounts for the polyandry of the ,tibetans and the ,hindus1 and the attainment of it is in many cases aided by the practice of infanticide4 ,polygamy1 on the other hand1 has no apparent relation to the question of population4 ,it is connected rather with the rights of the gens or family to which the women belong1 the man having1 in many cases1 certain duties to perform before he can obtain his wife or wives4 ,the development of polygamy is1 moreover1 attended with an invasion of the sexual rights of individuals2 as the appropriation of the women by the rich or powerful often renders the obtaining of wives by the poor or weak difficult1 if not impossible4 ,the objection entertained by peoples of a low degree of culture to the marriage of persons near of kin is a strong ground of objection to ,mr4 ,morgan's theory that consanguineous unions were the earliest to be formed2 in other words1 that 8promiscuous intermarriage between brothers and sisters and others of the closest kin0 was1 at one time1 customary4 ,mr4 ,fison refers to various practices which he thinks point to the former existence of such a state of things among the ,australians4 ,in reality1 however1 they are merely incidents of the group marriage which has been developed by that race1 or at most1 the result of temporary suspension under special circumstances of the restrictions which that system enforces4 ,they are1 indeed1 cases of licentiousness similar to what is often met with among many peoples during religious and other festivals4 ,the occurrence of a temporary condition of lawlessness on various occasions1 such as the death of a chief or the celebration of an important event1 is not unknown even to civilised nations4 ,mr4 ,morgan's opinion as to the former prevalence of consanguineous marriages derives no real support from the fact mentioned by ,mr4 ,fison1 and as ,i have elsewhere#bdh shown1 marriages of that character are not required to account for the phenomena exhibited in the classificatory system of relationship which exists among the primitive races of mankind4 ,,footnotes3 #bch 8,kamilaroi and ,kurnai10 p4 #ed4 #bci ,mr4 ,fison alludes to the ,new ,zealand practice of a woman's suitors wrestling for her1 which is called punarua4 ,this word1 he says1 is the ,hawaiian punalua1 which denotes the common-right of tribal brothers to certain women 7note1 p4 #aec74 #bdj 8,a ,phrenologist among the ,todas10 by ,col4 ,william ,e4 ,marshall1 p4 #bac4 #bda ,ditto1 p4 #bbf4 #bdb 8,a ,phrenologist among the ,todas10 by ,col4 ,william ,e4 ,marshall1 p4 #dc4 #bdc 8,the ,abode of ,snow10 p4 #bcc4 #bdd 8,ancient ,society10 by ,j4 ,f4 ,m',lennan1 p4 #aeh4 #bde ,op4 cit41 p4 #bcd4 #bdf 8,tohful-ul-,mujahideen10 p4 #fc4 #bdg 8,kinship and ,marriage in ,early ,arabia10 pp4 #abh1 #bce4 #bdh 8,journal of the ,anthropological ,institute10 vol4 viii4 7#ahgi71 p4 #add1 et seq4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,marriage ,,by ,,capture4 ,various attempts have been made to account for the prevalence among peoples of all degrees of culture of what has been called 8marriage by capture10 or of rites which furnish evidence of its former existence4 ,mr4 ,m',lennan traces it to infanticide1 which by 8rendering women scarce1 led at once to polyandry within the tribe1 and the capturing of women from without40 ,on the other hand1 ,sir ,john ,lubbock ascribes the origin of 8marriage by capture0 to a desire on the part of individuals to acquire women for themselves1 8without infringing on the general rights of the tribe40 ,according to this view1 communal marriage was replaced by special connections1 accompanied by the introduction of a foreign element1 giving rise to the practice of exogamy4 ,the reference to this practice 7the necessity for which must1 if ,mr4 ,m',lennan's idea is correct1 have preceded 8marriage by capture10 instead of the latter originating it7 unnecessarily complicates the question under discussion4 ,although exogamy is often associated with forcible marriage1 the two things are perfectly distinct1 and they have had totally different origins4 ,mr4 ,morgan very justly connects the former with certain ideas entertained by primitive peoples with regard to blood relationship1 and it can be explained most simply and rationally as marriage out of the clan1 it having sprang from the belief that all the members of a clan are related by blood1 and therefore incapable of being united in marriage4 ,this view is confirmed by the fact that tribes which are endogamous in relation to other tribes are exogamous in the sense that they comprise several clans1 the members of none of which can intermarry among themselves4 ,we have a curious example of this limited exogamy in the ,chinese1 among whom persons bearing the same family name are not permitted to intermarry4 ,true endogamy would seem to exist among very few peoples1 and when it is practised the custom is probably due to special circumstances1 which1 giving prominence to a particular clan1 have enabled them to claim a caste privilege1 or it may be owing to a necessity arising from the complete severance of the members of a clan from their fellows4 ,the scarcity of women1 whether occasioned by infanticide or polygamy1 may have rendered exogamy more requisite1 and it may have been complicated by forcible marriage1 but none of these have any real bearing on its origin4 ,it could be shown without difficulty that the opinion entertained by the writers ,i have referred to1 that the primitive condition of man was one of communal marriage1 is untenable1 and if ,i am correct in this conclusion1 there will be no occasion to consider the argument that 8marriage by capture0 depended on such a social condition4 ,the idea that 8marriage by capture0 originated in the necessity for exogamy1 arising from infanticide or some other practice1 is more plausible1 and such an explanation of the custom may be accepted where it is not universal in a tribe1 but resorted to only in particular cases or under special conditions4 ,the capture of wives among the ,australian aborigines is expressly accounted for by ,oldfield as being due to the scarcity of women4 ,but where forcible marriage can be traced to the action of individual caprice it must be treated as exceptional1 and some other explanation must be sought for the widespread practices which are supposed to prove the former prevalence of that custom4 ,from this standpoint ,mr4 ,m',lennan's explanation is far from satisfactory1 as may be shown by analysis of the incidents attendant on 8marriage by capture10 as practised by different peoples4 ,it is true that sometimes the carrying off of the bride is resisted by her friends1 and is attended in some cases1 as among the ,welsh down to a comparatively recent period1 by a sham fight between them and the friends of the bridegroom2 although among other peoples1 as with the ,khonds of ,india1 the protection of the bride is left to her female companions4 ,in the great majority of cases cited by ,sir ,john ,lubbock1 however1 the suitor forcibly removes the bride without any hindrance from her friends4 ,occasionally1 as with the ,tunguses1 the ,new ,zealanders1 and the ,mandingos1 she strongly resists4 ,among other peoples1 as with the ,esquimaux1 the resistance is usually only pretended1 and is thus analogous to the sham fight already referred to4 ,in all these cases alike1 however1 it is the girl only who has to be conquered1 and if the resistance were real it would depend on herself whether or not she should be captured4 ,there are other incidents of this forcible marriage which have more significance than has hitherto been attached to them4 ,among the ,new ,zealanders1 if the girl who is being carried off can break away from her captor and regain her father's house1 the suitor loses all chance of ever obtaining her in marriage4 ,so1 also1 among the ,fijians1 if a woman does not approve of the man who has taken her by force to his house1 she leaves him for some one who can protect her4 ,among the ,fuegians the girl who is not willing to accept her would-be husband does not wait to be carried off1 but hides herself in the woods1 and remains concealed until he is tired of looking for her4 ,according to ,mongol custom1 the bride hides herself with some of her relations1 and the bridegroom has to search for and find her4 ,something like the ,fuegian custom is practised by the ,aitas1 among whom the bride has to conceal herself in a wood1 where the suitor must find her before sunset4 ,in these cases the will of the bride-elect is a very important element1 and it is equally so in those cases where she is captured and carried off only after a prolonged chase4 ,thus1 with the ,kalmucks1 according to ,dr4 ,clarke1 the girl gallops away at full speed1 pursued by her suitor1 and if she does not wish to marry him she always effects her escape4 ,an analogous custom is found among the uncultured tribes of the ,malayan ,peninsula4 ,here1 however1 the chase is on foot1 and generally round a circle1 although sometimes in the forest1 and1 as ,bourien 7quoted by ,sir ,john ,lubbock7 says1 the pursuer is successful only if he 8has had the good fortune to please the intended bride40 ,a similar custom is found among the ,koraks of ,north,eastern ,asia4 ,here the ceremony takes place within a large tent containing numerous separate compartments 7pologs71 arranged in a continuous circle around its inner circumference4 ,mr4 ,kennan 7in his 8,tent ,life in ,siberia07 gives an amusing and instructive description of such a ceremony4 ,the women of the encampment1 armed with willow and alder rods1 stationed themselves at the entrances of the pologs1 the front curtains of which were thrown up4 ,then1 at a given signal1 8the bride darted suddenly into the first polog1 and began a rapid flight around the tent1 raising the curtains between the pologs successively1 and passing under4 ,the bridegroom instantly followed in hot pursuit1 but the women who were stationed in each compartment threw every possible impediment in his way1 tripping up his unwary feet1 holding down the curtains to prevent his passage1 and applying the willow and alder switches unmercifully to a very susceptible part of his body as he stooped to raise them4444 ,with undismayed perseverance he pressed on1 stumbling headlong over the outstretched feet of his female persecutors1 and getting constantly entangled in the ample folds of the reindeer-skin curtains1 which were thrown with the skill of a matador over his head and eyes4 ,in a moment the bride had entered the last closed polog near the door1 while the unfortunate bridegroom was still struggling with his accumulated misfortunes about half way round the tent4 ,i expected10 says the traveller1 8to see him relax his efforts and give up the contest when the bride disappeared1 and was preparing to protest strongly on his behalf against the unfairness of the trial2 but1 to my surprise1 he still struggled on1 and with a final plunge1 burst through the curtain of the last polog1 and rejoined his bride10 who had waited for him there4 ,mr4 ,kennan adds that 8the intention of the whole ceremony was evidently to give the woman an opportunity to marry the man or not1 as she chose1 since it was obviously impossible for him to catch her under such circumstances1 unless she voluntarily waited for him in one of the pologs40 ,judging only from the element of force observable in what are termed 8marriages by capture10 the explanation of them given by ,mr4 ,m',lennan appears reasonable4 ,but1 although capture may be an incident of exogamy1 the customs under consideration are really connected with endogamy1 in the sense that the parties to them belong to a common tribe4 ,moreover1 those customs are wanting in another of the elements which would be necessary to justify their being classed as 8survivals0 of an earlier practice of forcible exogamy4 ,this pre-supposes the absence of consent on the part of the relatives of the bride1 but the so-called marriage by capture is nearly always preceded by an arrangement with them4 ,the only exception among the various examples of such marriages mentioned by ,sir ,john ,lubbock is that of the inhabitants of ,bali1 where the man is said to forcibly carry off his bride to the woods1 and to afterwards effect reconciliation with her 8enraged0 friends4 ,it is not improbable1 however1 that rage may be simulated in this case as in others1 and that the capture is arranged beforehand with them4 ,sir ,john ,lubbock himself explains an apparent act of lawless violence among the ,mandingos as an incident of 8marriage by capture10 on the ground that the bride's relatives 8only laughed at the farce1 and consoled her by saying that she would soon be reconciled to her situation20 and it appears that her mother had previously given her consent to the proceeding4 ,a mere general understanding1 if universally recognised1 would indeed be as efficacious as a special consent1 and whether the consent of the parent has to be obtained previously to overcoming the opposition of the bride1 or whether this has to be overcome as a condition precedent to the consent being given1 is practically of no importance4 ,we seem to have an example of the latter in the marriage customs of the ,afghans as described by ,elphinstone4 ,among this people wives are always purchased1 and the necessity for paying the usual price is not done away with1 although a man is allowed to make sure of his bride by cutting off a lock of her hair1 snatching away her veil1 or throwing a sheet over her1 if he declares at the same time that she is his affianced wife4 ,the facts just mentioned lead to the conclusion that the 8capture0 which forms the most prominent incident in the marriage customs under discussion1 has a totally different significance from that which is connected with exogamy in the sense supposed by ,mr4 ,m',lennan and ,sir ,john ,lubbock4 ,in the latter case force is resorted to to prevent the possibility of opposition by the tribe to whom the victim of the violence belongs2 but in the former1 as the consent of the woman's relatives had already been given1 expressly or by implication1 the force must be to overcome the possible opposition of the woman herself1 whether this may arise from bashfulness or from an actual dislike to the suitor4 ,we have here an important distinction1 and it points to a state of society where women have acquired a right to exercise a choice in the matter of marriage4 ,before this right could be fully established the suitor would be allowed to obtain her compliance by force1 if necessary1 as with the ,greenlanders1 among whom1 according to ,crantz1 the bride1 if1 after she has been captured by the old women who negotiated the marriage1 she cannot be persuaded by kind and courteous treatment1 is 8compelled by force1 nay1 sometimes by blows1 to change her state40 ,but even among the ,greenlanders1 if a girl had great repugnance to her suitor1 she could escape marriage by betaking herself to the mountains4 ,a still more efficacious plan is the cutting off of her hair1 which frees her from all importunity1 as it is accepted as a sure sign that she has determined never to marry4 8,marriage by capture0 has thus relation not to the tribe but to the individual immediately concerned1 and it is based on her power to withhold her consent to the contract made between her suitor and her relatives4 ,among some uncultured peoples the opposition of the bride-elect is effectually overcome by force1 but it is seldom that she is not allowed the opportunity of escaping a marriage which she dislikes4 ,when once it has become usual for the bride to show a real or simulated opposition to the proposed marriage1 as might easily be the case among peoples who1 although uncultured1 esteem chastity before marriage1 it would in course of time be firmly established as a general custom4 ,thus1 when a ,greenland young woman is asked in marriage she professes great bashfulness1 tears her ringlets1 and runs away4 ,when the show of opposition had become a matter of etiquette1 it would1 notwithstanding that the marriage had been previously arranged1 be joined in by the friends of the bride1 who1 by a fiction1 is being carried off against her will4 ,hence the customs of having a sham fight before the bridegroom is allowed to gain possession of his prize1 and the placing of impediments in the way of his catching her in the chase1 neither of which has any relation to a supposed primitive practice of forcible abduction from a hostile tribe4 ,it will be said1 however1 if the relations of the bride have consented to her marriage1 why do they oppose the carrying into effect of their agreement8 ,much light is thrown on this point by the description given by ,colonel ,dalton of the customs of the hill-tribes of ,bengal4#bdi ,with many of the aboriginal peoples of ,india1 and with some ,sudra castes1 one of the most important ceremonies of marriage is the application of the ,sindur to the forehead of the bride2 this consists in the bridegroom making1 usually with vermilion1 a red mark between her eyes4 ,in some places1 however1 particularly in ,singhbum1 among the ,hos1 the bridegroom and bride mark each other with blood1 signifying that by marriage they become one4 ,colonel ,dalton supposes this to be the origin of the ,sindrahan1 a custom which is as singular as it is widespread4 ,with the ,oraons1 a ,dravidian tribe1 the same ceremony is practised1 but in secret4 ,a veil is cast over the bridal pair1 who are then covered with another piece of stuff held by some of their male relations1 while others mount guard1 fully armed1 as though to kill any one who might approach to interfere with the ceremony4 ,in the ,singhbum villages the ceremony is modified1 and the engaged couple drink beer from the same vessel4 ,this signifies that they form only one body1 belong to the same kili--in other words1 that the woman is admitted to the clan of her husband4 ,dr4 ,hunter1 in his admirable work entitled 8,annals of ,rural ,bengal10 says the great event of the life of a ,santal is the union of his 8tribe0 with another 8tribe0 in marriage4 ,no individual can marry a member of his own clan1 and the woman in marrying abandons the clan of her father1 as well as his gods1 to adopt the clan and the gods of her husband4 ,the ceremony by which the ,santals express this separation is different from that adopted by the ,hos4 ,the husband's clansmen knot together the garments of the bridegroom and the bride1 after which the women of the bride's clan bring lighted charcoal1 crush it with a pestle to indicate the breaking of the old family tie1 and then extinguish it with water to indicate the definitive separation of the bride from her own clan4 ,as we have seen1 this separation is effected among the ,oraons in the presence of the members of the two clans1 and the sham combat by which the marriage ceremonies commence is evidently intended to show that it is indispensable to obtain the consent1 not only of the bride1 but also of the family group to which she belongs1 before the ties which bind her to the clan can be broken4 ,after offering a pretended resistance1 the clansmen of the bride express their consent in joining with the relations of the bridegroom to celebrate the formation of the fresh family tie4 ,at first sight1 it might be thought that there is little difference between this explanation of 8marriage by capture0 and that given by ,sir ,john ,lubbock1 but in reality they differ completely4 ,sir ,john ,lubbock supposes a violent capture from another tribe without any reference to the question of clanship4 ,on the other hand1 in the explanation above proposed1 there is a change in the position of the woman1 but it is brought about by arrangement1 the pretended combat having relation to the rights of the clan1 but having no reference to the wider organisation of the tribe4 ,the sham-fight is simply a phase of the ceremonies1 destined to show the objection entertained by a family group to part with one of its members1 and1 what is of still greater importance1 to give up the interest they possess in the future offspring of the woman who is to be cut off from the clan4 ,the essentially pacific character of the sham-fight is shown by the manner in which1 as described by ,colonel ,dalton1 it is conducted in ,gondwana4 ,among the ,muasi of this district1 when the cavalcade of the bridegroom approaches the house of the bride1 there issues from it a merry troop of young girls1 who are headed by the mother of the bride1 bearing on her head a vessel full of water1 surmounted by a lighted lamp4 ,when the girls come near the bridegroom's friends they throw at them balls of boiled rice1 after which they beat a retreat4 ,the young men pursue them to the door of the house1 which1 however1 they cannot enter until they have made presents to its female defenders4 ,the fact that among nearly all the peoples who have 8marriage by combat10 the children belong to the clan of their father1 confirms the truth of the conclusion ,i have sought to establish1 that the ceremony in question has relation to the clan1 and not to the bride4 ,among the primitive peoples to whom it would be necessary1 on the hypothesis of ,sir ,john ,lubbock1 to trace the origin of that curious custom1 the children usually belong to the family group of their mother4 ,the sham-fight could be introduced when a change has taken place in the condition of women2 but this would imply a phase of civilisation much more recent than that of the ,australians and other barbarous tribes1 to whose practice of stealing women for wives1 which is mere forcible marriage1 has been wrongly traced the origin of 8marriage by capture40 ,,footnotes3 #bdi ,the ,ethnology of ,bengal4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,development ,,of ,,the 8,,family40 ,mr4 ,m',lennan has remarked1 in relation to the curious customs of capturing women for wives found among peoples in all parts of the world1 that 8in almost all cases the form of capture is the symbol of a group-act--of a siege1 or a pitched battle1 or an invasion of a house by an armed band1 while in a few cases only1 and these much disintegrated1 it represents a capture by an individual4 ,on the one side are the kindred of the husband2 on the other the kindred of the wife40#bej ,whatever may be the true explanation of the origin of exogamy1 with which the custom referred to is connected1 there can be no doubt of the truth of the statement that the wife-capture is now usually1 although it sometimes has relation solely to the individual1 the symbol of a group-act4 ,this may not be in the sense intended by ,mr4 ,m',lennan1 who looks upon exogamy and polyandry as referable to one and the same cause1 and who regards 8all the exogamous races as having originally been polyandrous40#bea ,the phenomena of wife-capture prove conclusively1 however1 that the family group to which the woman belonged possessed1 or thought themselves entitled to1 certain rights over her--rights of which they resisted the invasion1 whether by an individual alone1 or by a group of persons1 or by an individual aided by the other members of a group4 ,it is important to notice that the groups in question appear to consist1 not of strangers to each other1 or to the man or woman more immediately concerned1 but of persons bound together by certain ties of blood4 ,this is shown to be so by the fact that the capture is atoned for by the payment to the relations of the woman of the marriage-price1 if this has not been agreed on beforehand4#beb ,it is required1 moreover1 by the conclusion arrived at by ,mr4 ,m',lennan1 that the tribes among whom the system of wife-capture prevails are chiefly those whose marriages are governed by the law of exogamy4#bec ,by exogamy is meant the practice of marrying out of the tribe or group of kindred1#bed and it is founded on a prejudice against marriage with kinsfolk4#bee ,there is some uncertainty as to the nature of ,m',lennan's primitive group1 but1 judging from his statement that 8promiscuity1 producing uncertainty of fatherhood1 led to the system of kinship through mothers only10#bef we may suppose that it consisted of a number of persons1 all of whom1 as the result of promiscuity1 were related by blood4 ,the first division into which he classes uncultured peoples1 according to their marriage-rules1 is that where tribes are separate1 and all the members of the tribes are1 or feign themselves to be1 of the same blood4#beg ,mr4 ,morgan very properly criticises this definition1 which1 he says1 8might answer for a description of a gens2 but the gens is never found alone1 separate from other gentes4 ,there are several gentes intermingled by marriage in every tribe composed of gentes10#beh a fact which would seem to distinguish the primitive group of ,m',lennan1 although consisting of consanguinei1 from a gens or clan proper4 ,moreover1 as ,mr4 ,morgan shows1 exogamy has relation to a rule or law of a gens1 considered as 8the unit of organisation of a social system10 and therefore the gens 7of which1 as an institution1 the rules are prohibition of intermarriage in the gens1 and limitation of descent in the female line#bei71 or rather the family from which it has sprung1 may be regarded as the earliest social group of which we have any knowledge4 ,it is of the greatest importance to the discovery of the nature of the primitive human family to understand the origin of the gens or clan4 ,as defined by ,morgan1 it is 8a body of consanguinei descended from the same common ancestor1 distinguished by a gentile name1 and bound together by affinities of blood40 ,mr4 ,morgan affirms that the gens originated in three principal conceptions1 8the bond of kin1 a pure lineage through descent in the female line1 and non-intermarriage in the gens40#bfj ,the most essential feature is that of tracing kinship through females only1 and the discovery of the origin of this custom will throw light on that of the clan-institution itself1 and therefore on the nature of the primitive family4 ,mr4 ,m',lennan finds the origin of kinship through females only in the uncertainty of paternity1 arising from the fact that1 in primitive times1 a woman was not appropriated to a particular man for his wife1 or to men of one blood as wife4#bfa ,the children1 although belonging to the horde1 remain attached to their mothers1 and the blood tie observed between them would1 as promiscuity gave place to polyandry of the ruder kind in which the husbands are strangers in blood to each other1 become developed into the system of kinship through females4#bfb ,an earlier writer1 ,bachofen1 was so much struck with certain social phenomena among the ancients1 that he believed women to have1 at an early period1 been supreme1 not only in the family but in the state4 ,he supposed that woman revolted against the primitive condition of promiscuity1 and established a system of marriage1 in which the female occupied the first place as the head of the family1 and as the person through whom kinship was to be traced4 ,this movement1 which had a religious origin1 was followed by another resulting from the development of the idea that the mother occupied a subordinate position in relation to her children1 of whom the father was the true parent4 ,mr4 ,m',lennan very justly objects to this theory that1 if marriage was1 from the beginning1 monogamous1 kinship would have been traced through fathers from the first4#bfc ,he adds that 8those signs of supremacy on the woman's part were the direct consequences 7#a7 of marriage not being monogamous1 or such as to permit of certainty of fatherhood2 and 7#b7 of wives not as yet living in their husband's houses1 but apart from them1 in the homes of their own mothers40#bfd ,the meaning of this is1 that the phenomena referred to by ,bachofen were due to the former prevalence of a system of polyandry1 such as still exists among the ,nairs of ,southern ,india4 ,it is very improbable1 however1 that kinship through the female only could have had the origin supposed by ,mr4 ,m',lennan4 ,according to him one cause of the supremacy of woman referred to by ,bachofen was the fact of wives living apart from their husbands in the homes of their own mothers4 ,this custom must1 therefore1 have preceded the supremacy of woman1 assuming this to have existed1 and the tracing of kinship through females which gave rise to it4 ,we must believe that originally women lived alone with their daughters 7and their sons also1 until these set up a separate establishment for themselves1 taking with them probably their favourite sisters1 as with the ,nairs at the present day71#bfe there being no male head of the family4 ,if1 however1 we trace our steps back in thought to the most primitive period of human existence1 we shall see that such a domestic state as that here supposed cannot have been the original one4 ,among savages there is never that subordination of the man to the woman which we should have to assume4 ,we cannot suppose that the primeval group of mankind consisted of a woman and her children1 and if the woman had a male companion we cannot doubt1 judging from what we know of savage races1 that he would be the head and chief of the group4 ,the very notion1 however1 of the family group having a male as well as a female head is inconsistent with ,mr4 ,m',lennan's theory1 and we must trace the origin of female kinship as a system to a different source from the polyandry to which he ascribed it4 ,the idea of a special relationship subsisting between a woman and her children might no doubt be originated during the period when the men of a group1 8in the spirit of indifference1 indulged in savage promiscuity10#bff if such a condition of things ever existed1 but that alone would not be sufficient to establish kinship through females only4 ,it may be questioned1 indeed1 whether there ever was a time when the uncertainty of paternity1 which ,mr4 ,m',lennan's whole theory requires1 was so pronounced as to prevent kinship through males being acknowledged4 ,mr4 ,morgan agrees with ,mr4 ,m',lennan so far as to say that1 8prior to the gentile organisation1 kinship through females was undoubtedly superior to kinship through males1 and was doubtless the principal basis upon which the lower tribal groups were organised40 ,he affirms truly1 however1 that 8descent in the female line1 which is all that #8kinship through females only' can possibly indicate10 is only the rule of a gens1 and that relationship through the father is recognised as fully as that through the mother4#bfg ,i have elsewhere1 however1 given reasons for believing that this statement does not go far enough1 and that the earliest forms of the classificatory system of relationships1 on which ,mr4 ,morgan bases his special theory1 require actual kinship1 and not relationship merely1 through the male quite as fully as through the female4 ,it is surprising that ,mr4 ,morgan says little as to the origin of descent in the female line4 ,he says3 8,the gens1 though a very ancient social organisation founded upon kin1 does not include all the descendants of a common ancestor4 ,it was for the reason that1 when the gens came in1 marriage between single pairs was unknown1 and descent through males could not be traced with certainty4 ,kindred were linked together chiefly through the bond of their maternity40#bfh ,we have here apparently two reasons stated for the establishment of kinship through females1 the absence of marriages between single pairs1 and the uncertainty of paternity4 ,both of these conditions are found by ,mr4 ,morgan to exist in the consanguine family groups which he supposes to have been formed when promiscuity ceased4 ,the ,polynesian peoples1 among whom he finds traces of the consanguine family1 have preserved the recollection of female kinship1 although1 according to ,mr4 ,morgan1 the gens is unknown to them4#bfi ,the classificatory system of relationships1 the origin of which he traces to the consanguine family1 can1 however1 receive a totally different interpretation1 and the existence of that family itself is very doubtful4 ,further1 the difficulty of tracing descent through males1 which ,mr4 ,morgan supposes1 is the result only of the polyandrous unions his theory requires1 and if they ever really existed they could supply no further explanation of the origin of female kinship than the polyandry of the ,nairs4 ,he would have done better to have sought to connect it1 as ,mr4 ,m',lennan does1 with the special relation supposed to exist between a mother and her child4 ,mr4 ,herbert ,spencer shows how this idea may have arisen4 ,unlike the other writers ,i have referred to1 he does not think that promiscuity in the relation of the sexes ever existed in an unqualified form4#bgj ,he thinks1 indeed1 that monogamy must have preceded polygamy1 although1 owing to the extension of promiscuity1 and the birth of a larger number of children to unknown fathers than to known fathers1 a habit would arise of thinking of maternal kinship rather than of paternal1 and where paternity was manifest children would come to be spoken of in the same way4#bga ,mr4 ,spencer adds1 that the habit having arisen1 the resulting system of kinship in the female line would be strengthened by the practice of exogamy4#bgb ,the defect of this explanation lies in its requiring uncertain paternity1 and ,i shall show that the system of female kinship has not arisen from the simple association in thought of a child with its mother in preference to its father4 ,it is1 moreover1 inconsistent with the fact mentioned by ,mr4 ,spencer himself1 that where the system of female kinship now subsists 8male parentage is habitually known40#bgc ,it is true that he supposes male kinship to be disregarded1 but this conclusion appears to me not to be supported by sufficient evidence4 ,that there may have been a short period of barbarism in which the intercourse between the sexes was unrestrained by any law of marriage is possible4 ,probably1 as female chastity before marriage is even now but slightly regarded among most uncultured peoples1 all sexual alliances were allowable1 so long as the rule as to consanguinity was not infringed1 and so long as no offspring resulted from the alliance1#bgd where this was entered into without the consent of parents4 ,this consent would be necessary in all cases where such alliances were formed by females for marital purposes1 and the sanction required would be that of the family head at the early period we are treating of4 ,judging from what we observe among modern savages we cannot doubt that self-interest chiefly would govern the father in connection with his daughter's marriage4 ,he would make certain requisitions as the price of his consent4 ,whether the marriage was to be a permanent or a terminable engagement1 the father would stipulate that his daughter should continue to live with or near him1 and that her children should belong to the family group of which he is the head4 ,in this case not only would the children form part of the family to which their mother belonged1 but the husband himself would become united to it1 and would be required to labour for the benefit of his father-in-law4 ,a custom still prevalent among the ,new ,zealanders may be cited in illustration4 ,the ,reverend ,richard ,taylor says3 8,sometimes the father simply told his intended son-in-law he might come and live with his daughter2 she was thenceforth considered his wife1 he lived with his father-in-law1 and became one of his tribe or hapu to which his wife belonged1 and in case of war was often obliged to fight against his own relatives40 ,mr4 ,taylor adds1 that so common is the custom of the bridegroom going to live with his wife's family1 that it frequently occurs2 when he refuses to do so1 she will leave him1 and go back to her relatives4#bge ,when the wife left her father's house to reside with her husband he had to purchase the privilege by giving her father and other relations handsome presents4#bgf ,as among the ,new ,zealanders1 children belonged to their father's family1 the fact of the wife going to reside among her husband's relations meant the loss by her father's family of the children4 ,the presents may1 therefore1 be supposed to represent the price given by a man for his wife's offspring to her relations4 ,this opinion is confirmed by reference to the marriage customs of a ,west ,african people4 ,mr4 ,john ,kizell1 in his correspondence with ,governor ,columbine1 respecting his negotiations with the chiefs in the ,river ,sherbro1 says3 8,the young women are not allowed to have whom they like for a husband2 the choice rests with the parents4 ,if a man wishes to marry the daughter1 he must bring to the value of twenty or thirty bars to the father and mother2 if they like the man1 and the brother likes him1 then they will call all their family together1 and tell them1 #8we have a man in the house who wishes to have our daughter2 it is that which makes us call the family together1 that they may know it4' ,then the friends inquire what he has brought with him8 the man tells them4 ,they then tell him to go and bring a quantity of palm wine4 ,when he returns1 they again call the family together2 they all place themselves on the ground1 and drink the wine1 and then give him his wife4 ,in this case1 all the children he has by her are his1 but if he gives nothing for his wife1 then the children will all be taken from him1 and will belong to the woman's family2 he will have nothing to do with them40#bgg ,mr4 ,taylor says that the ancient and most general way of obtaining a wife among the ,new ,zealanders was 8for the gentleman to summon his friends1 and make a regular taua1 or fight1 to carry off the lady by force1 and ofttimes with great violence40#bgh ,a fight also took place if1 when a girl was given in marriage1 the friends of another man thought he had a greater right to her1 or if she eloped with some one contrary to her father's or brother's wish4 ,even if all were agreeable1 8it was still customary for the bridegroom to go with a party1 and appear to take her away by force1 her friends yielding her up after a feigned struggle2 a few days afterwards1 the parents of the lady1 with all her relatives1 came upon the bridegroom for his pretended abduction2 after much speaking and apparent anger1 it ended with his making a handsome present of fine mats1 c41 and giving an abundant feast40#bgi ,in this case the affair ended in the same manner as the ,african marriage already referred to1 and the idea was no doubt the same in both--the giving of compensation to the parents and relations of the woman for the loss sustained by them through her offspring being removed from the family group2 probably the widespread custom of pretended forcible marriage was originally connected with the rights of the woman's relations1 although sometimes the capture is due to the desire to obtain for nothing what could otherwise be acquired only by a purchase fee4 ,what those rights are may be ascertained from the information given us by ,mr4 ,morgan as to the privileges and obligations associated with the membership of a gens4 ,among them is an obligation not to marry in the gens1 mutual rights of inheritance of the property of deceased members1 and reciprocal obligations of help1 defence1 and redress of injuries4 8,the functions and attributes of the gens10 says ,morgan1 8gave vitality as well as individuality to the organisation1 and protected the personal rights of its members10#bhj who1 as being connected by the ties of blood relationship1 may be regarded as forming an enlarged family group1 or rather a fraternal association based on kinship4 ,the gens would1 however1 form too large a group for ordinary social purposes1 and a smaller group would be composed of those more immediately allied by blood4 ,thus1 although theoretically the effects of a deceased person were distributed among his gentile relations1 yet ,morgan admits that 8practically they were appropriated by the nearest of kin40#bha ,among the ,iroquois1 if a man died leaving a wife and children1 his property was distributed among his gentiles in such a manner that his sisters and their children1 and his maternal uncles1 would receive the most of it4 ,his brothers might receive a small portion4 ,an analogous rule prevailed when a woman died4 ,the property remained in the gens in either case1#bhb although its division was restricted to a small number of gentiles4 ,it could not have been otherwise where the members of the gens are numerous or widely distributed4 ,the same principle would apply in relation to rights over children1 who in a low social stage are looked upon in the light of property4 ,among the aborigines of ,america each gens had personal names that were used by it alone1 and1 says ,morgan1 a gentile name conferred of itself gentile rights4 ,now1 although a child was not fully christened until its birth and name had been announced to the council of the tribe1 its name was selected by its mother with the concurrence of her nearest relatives4 ,morgan says nothing of any right of the gens over the marriage of its members1 and it would seem not to have any voice in the matter4 ,the formation of the alliance is usually left to the two individuals more immediately concerned or to their near relations1#bhc and the marriage price belongs to the parents and near kin of the wife4 ,this1 in the absence of the marriage price1 would be the case also with the children born of her marriage1 on the principle that 8children are the wealth of savages40 ,reference to the custom of blood revenge confirms the view that1 for certain purposes1 a smaller family group than the gens is recognised by the peoples having that organisation4 ,mr4 ,morgan thinks the practice of blood revenge had 8its birthplace in the gens10 which was bound to avenge the murder of one of its members4 ,he says further that it was 8the duty of the gens of the slayer1 and of the slain1 to attempt an adjustment of the crime before proceeding to extremities40 ,it rested1 however1 with the gentile kindred of the slain person to decide whether a composition for the crime should be accepted1 showing that they were considered the persons more immediately concerned4 ,the crime of murder is1 as ,mr4 ,morgan says1 8as old as human society1 and its punishment by the revenge of kinsmen is as old as the crime itself40#bhd ,this is hardly consistent with the preceding statement that the practice of blood revenge had its birthplace in the gens4 ,it preceded the development of the gens1 and originated with the smaller family group which1 as we have seen1 is more immediately connected with property and children and the marriage of its female members4 ,those who are liable to the obligations of the law of blood revenge in any particular case must be identified1 and1 as they can hardly comprise all the members of the gens1 we must suppose them to be restricted to the smaller group consisting of near blood relations4 ,judging from what we know of the habits of the ,australian aborigines in relation to the lex talionis1 we cannot doubt that the persons subject to retaliation in any particular case are well defined4 ,the example of the ,polynesian ,islanders1 who are said not to have risen to the conception of the gens1 shows that before this was developed1 not only was the lex talionis recognised1 but the law of marriage and the rights of parents over their children were fully established4 ,these are1 therefore1 not dependent on the gens1 but are incidental to a simpler group of blood relations--that on which the gens itself is based4 ,the idea of 8brotherhood0 is at the foundation of all these early social organisations4 ,mr4 ,morgan says1 in relation to the ,iroquois phratry1 that 8the phratry is a brotherhood1 as the term imports1 and a natural growth from the organisation into gentes4 ,it is an organic union or association of two or more gentes of the same tribe for certain common objects4 ,these gentes were usually such as had been formed by the segmentation of an original gens40#bhe ,so also1 a gens forms a fraternal association1 as it consists of 8a body of consanguinei descended from the same common ancestor1 distinguished by a gentile name1 and bound together by affinities of blood40#bhf ,if we trace the ascent until we come to the common ancestor1 we shall have a group of kinsmen who compose the simplest form of 8brotherhood10 that of a parent and his or her children4 ,originally this would be a mother and her daughters1 as when the sons formed marriage associations the daughters only and their children would be left under the parental roof4 ,it is evident1 therefore1 that the primitive family cannot have originated within the gens or clan4 ,on the contrary1 the clan was based on the family or group of kinsmen1 without which it could not have existed4 ,moreover1 it by no means follows that1 because the common ancestor of the members of the gens or clan was a female1 the primitive group of kinsmen had not a male as well as a female head4 ,considered as a 8fraternal association10 the father may have been excluded1 but for the purposes of the brotherhood it was of no importance whether paternity was certain or uncertain4 ,the result would have been the same in either case4 ,for other than brotherhood purposes kinship to the father may have been fully recognised4 ,the obligations of the lex talionis1 the right to property1 and the control of children in marriage1 may have concerned only the kinsmen by the mother's side1 but those on the father's side may have been equally affected by the law of marriage4 ,that such was the case ,i have sought to establish elsewhere1 as evidenced by the classificatory system of relationships1 and that view is confirmed by various facts showing that kinship by the male side is fully recognised among savages4 ,i have already had occasion to refer to ,mr4 ,m',lennan's admission that1 if 8marriage was1 from its beginning1 monogamous1 kinship would certainly 7human nature being as it now is7 have been traced through fathers1 if not indeed through fathers only1 from the first40#bhg ,mr4 ,herbert ,spencer1 although apparently thinking that promiscuity in the relations of the sexes was originally extensive1 yet supposes that it was accompanied by monogamic connections of a limited duration4 ,he says that 8always the state of having two wives must be preceded by the state of having one10 and he looks upon the preference for the maternal kinship rather than paternal kinship as a habit1 arising from the fact that the former is observed in all cases1 whilst the latter is inferable only in some cases4#bhh ,mr4 ,spencer's admission that where the system of female kinship now subsists1 8male parentage is habitually known1 though disregarded10 greatly weakens his position1 the more so as we are not told why or when it is disregarded4#bhi ,mr4 ,morgan goes far towards supplying an explanation of the fact1 although his theory is defective4 ,he affirms that gentile kin were superior to other kin only because it conferred the rights and privileges of a gens1 and not because no other kin was recognised4 8,whether in or out of the gens1 a brother was recognised as a brother1 a father as a father1 a son as a son1 and the same term was applied in either case without discrimination between them40#bij ,mr4 ,morgan does not1 however1 admit of certainty of paternity1 although he states that 8they did not reject kinship through males because of uncertainty1 but gave the benefit of the doubt to a number of persons--probable fathers being placed in the category of real fathers1 probable brothers in that of real brothers1 and probable sons in that of real sons40#bia ,this explanation is plausible but insufficient1 if1 as ,mr4 ,morgan says1 descent in the female line is only a rule of a gens4#bib ,in this case1 female descent cannot have existed before the gens1 and recognition of kinship through the father may have subsisted prior to the formation of the gens1 together with that of the relationship between mother and child on which such descent is founded4 ,this would seem to be required by the facts mentioned by ,mr4 ,morgan in relation to the social institutions of the ,american aborigines4 ,he says 8an ,indian tribe is composed of several gentes developed from two or more1 all the members of which are intermingled by marriage1 and all of them speak the same dialect4 ,to a stranger the tribe is visible and not the gens40#bic ,originally1 therefore1 the tribe consisted of two gentes1 that is of the descendants from two female common ancestors1 and1 as the gentes are not visible to a stranger1 we must suppose that the tribe originally represented the male head of the primitive family group to which the female common ancestors belonged4 ,on this supposition the primitive group consisted of a male and two females1 the former being the recognised representative of the group1 although the descent of its members is traced through the latter4 ,this view is quite consistent with the explanation ,i have elsewhere given of the classificatory system of relationship1 which undoubtedly requires the full recognition for certain purposes of blood relationship through both the father and the mother4 ,the conclusion thus arrived at is confirmed by what we know of the opinions entertained by peoples among whom the gentile organisation is fully developed4 ,carver1 as quoted by ,sir ,john ,lubbock1 states that among the ,hudson's ,bay ,indians1 children always take the name of their mother4 ,the reason they give for this is1 8that as their offspring are indebted to the father for their souls1 the invisible part of their essence1 and to the mother for their corporal and apparent part1 it is more rational that they should be distinguished by the name of the latter1 from whom they indubitably derive their being1 than by that of the father1 to which a doubt might arise whether they are justly entitled40#bid ,the reason given by the ,hudson's ,bay ,indians why children are called after their mothers shows that the system of female kinship is quite consistent with the recognition of kinship through the male4 ,no doubt the mother is regarded by savages as having a closer physical relationship to her child than their father1 but it is incredible to suppose that the latter could ever be looked upon as having no closer relationship to it than a stranger in blood4 ,if the mother had several husbands the actual paternity may not be certain1 but1 as the father must be one of several well-ascertained individuals1 the paternity is only rendered less certain1 and the child may be regarded as having several fathers1 and claim kinship through them all4 ,if they are sons of the same father1 that kinship will be with the same persons as though its mother had but one husband4 ,under the conditions ,i have supposed1 however1 where a woman takes1 as her husband1 a man who lives with her among her own relations1 there would not be any uncertainty as to paternity1 and therefore the stronger relationship supposed between mother and child must have originated in the close physical connection observed to subsist between them4 ,this does not1 however1 explain the origin of clan relationship based on kinship through females only1 which is connected with the fact of the members of a woman's clan possessing certain rights over her and her children4 ,these rights would not be affected1 even if the primitive custom of the woman continuing to live among her relations after marriage were departed from4 ,before this took place1 the system of female kinship would have become firmly established1 and it would be confirmed1 although it could not be originated1 by the idea that1 as the wife may not be faithful to her husband1 there is more certainty about maternity than paternity4 ,the fact that a man's heirs are usually his sister's children1 shows that consanguinity is of great importance in the eyes of uncultured peoples1 and what has been advanced is quite sufficient to account for that fact without assuming the existence of a state of promiscuity in the relations between the sexes4 ,such a state is not consistent with the abhorrence which even savages show to the marriage of persons of near blood relationship1 and it has no support at all in the observed phenomena of savage life4 ,the punalua custom of the ,polynesian ,islanders1 which has its counterpart among the ,todas of the ,neilgherries1 and traces of which may perhaps be found1 on the one hand1 in the fraternal polyandry of the ,tibetans1 and1 on the other hand1 in the sororal polygamy of the ,north ,american aborigines1 is neither promiscuous nor incestuous in the proper sense of these words4 ,the possession by several brothers of wives in common1 who may themselves be sisters1 or by several sisters of husbands in common1 who may be brothers1 may1 as ,i have elsewhere suggested1 have originally been due to the feeling that marriage has a spiritual as well as a physical significance4 ,punalua was really an application of the idea of brotherhood to marriage1 and it is not surprising that1 among uncultured peoples1 the having wives or husbands in common should be considered a high mark of friendship4 ,it is important to notice that among the peoples who have developed or perfected the gentile institution1 a rule of which is descent in the female line1 the husband is the head of the household1 and the wife little more than a servant1 so long as they continue to live together4 ,it is true1 as ,lahontan states1#bie that the wife has the same power of divorce as the husband1 but so long as she remains in his cabin she is treated by him as a drudge and a mere child-bearer4 ,as women they have some influence in the tribe1 but this is only when they have children to give them dignity4 ,the ,polynesian ,islanders not having risen to the conception of a gens1 it is1 perhaps1 not surprising that woman is usually regarded by them as an inferior creature4 ,her position as a woman is1 however1 better than that of a wife1 in which capacity she is cared for as little as among the ,american aborigines4 ,her condition is mitigated only under the influence of the ,areoi ,institution1 and where she enters into the punaluan engagement4 ,if it is true1 as ,mr4 ,morgan states1 that 8the ,australians rank below the ,polynesians1 and far below the ,american aborigines10 we cannot wonder that the position of woman among the ,australian aborigines is one of great inferiority4 ,in fact1 among them wives are considered as articles of property1 and not only do they suffer great privations1 but they are most barbarously treated4 ,the last-named people practice the simplest form of obtaining wives1 that of capture by cunning and personal violence1 but in most of their tribes descent is in the female line1 and the gens or clan is developed more or less perfectly4 ,and yet the ,australian aborigines possess marriage regulations which seem formed for the express purpose of preventing the intermarriage of blood relations1 and which fully recognise kinship by the male line4 ,a modern ,french writer of great authority1 ,fustel de ,coulanges1 affirms that the ancient family was constituted chiefly by religion1 the first institution of which was marriage4 ,the family gives rise to the gens1 and 8with its elder and younger branches1 its servants and dependents1 formed possibly a very numerous group of persons40 ,such a family1 says de ,coulanges1 8thanks to the religion which maintained its unity1 thanks to its special privileges which rendered it indivisible1 thanks to the laws of protection which retained its dependents1 formed in time a widespread society under an hereditary chief40#bif ,this view of the primitive family possesses much truth1 although it leaves out of sight one of the most essential features of the family among uncultured peoples4 ,the same may be said in relation to the patriarchal family of ,sir ,henry ,maine4 ,this writer says that 8the earliest tie which knitted men together in communities was consanguinity or kinship10 and that 8there was no brotherhood recognised by our savage forefathers1 except actual consanguinity regarded as a fact40#big ,he adds1 that 8kinship1 as the tie1 binding communities together1 tends to be regarded as the same thing with subjection to a common authority40 ,the notions of power and consanguinity are blended1 a mixture of ideas which is seen 8in the subjection of the smallest group1 the family1 to its patriarchal head40#bih 8,this group10 says ,sir ,henry ,maine1 8consists of animate and inanimate property1 of wife1 children1 slaves1 land and goods1 all held together by subjection to the despotic authority of the eldest male of the eldest ascending line1 the father1 grandfather1 or even more remote ancestor4 ,the force which binds the group together is power4 ,a child adopted into the patriarchal family belongs to it as perfectly as the child naturally born into it1 and a child who severs his connection with it is lost to it altogether40 ,the patriarchal family of ,maine thus differs from the ancient family of de ,coulanges in its binding force1 which in the one case is power1 and in the other religion1 forces which are1 nevertheless1 reconciled by the fact that the chief element in this religion is the ancestral idea which is at the base of the patriarchal family4 ,this view of the nature of the ancient family would be complete if it provided for the fact1 revealed by the study of primitive institutions as now exhibited among uncultured peoples1 that descent was originally traced by the female line in preference to the male line4 ,the defect thus revealed will1 however1 be removed if it can be shown1 as ,i have endeavoured to do1 that descent through the male is1 for certain purposes1 recognised equally with that through the female4 ,mr4 ,herbert ,spencer1 in his 8,principles of ,sociology10 refers1#bii as follows1 to a suggestion made by ,mr4 ,fiske1 which contains an important truth bearing on the subject of this paper3 8,postulating the general law that1 in proportion as organisms are complex1 they evolve slowly1 he infers that the prolongation of infancy which accompanied development of the less intelligent primates into the more intelligent ones1 implied greater duration of parental care4 ,children1 not so soon capable of providing for themselves1 had to be longer nurtured by female parents1 to some extent indeed by male parents1 individually or jointly2 and hence resulted a bond holding together parents and offspring for longer periods1 and tending to initiate the family4 ,that this has been a co-operating factor in social evolution is very probable40 ,the bond thus formed shows its influence even among the lowest savages1 in the natural affection which subsists between a mother and her children1 when these escape the not unusual fate of infanticide4 ,natural affection is less operative with male parents1 but there are other feelings which have relation chiefly to male children which tend to form an equally binding tie4 ,mr4 ,spencer remarks that 8to the yearnings of natural affection are added1 in early stages of progress1 certain motives1 partly personal1 partly social1 which help to secure the lives of children1 but which1 at the same time1 initiate differences of status between children of different sexes4 ,there is the desire to strengthen the tribe in war2 there is the wish to have a future avenger on individual enemies2 there is the anxiety to leave behind one who shall perform the funeral rites and continue oblations at the grave40#cjj ,these motives must have been influential from the earliest period at which mankind consisted of more than a few small and isolated groups1 and1 therefore1 we must assume that in these groups the male element was equally as strong as the female element1 if1 indeed1 they had not a male head4 ,mr4 ,spencer remarks further that those motives1 8strengthening as societies passed through the earlier stages1 gradually gave a certain authority to the claims of male children1 though not to those of females40#cja ,these ideas are quite inconsistent with the notion that the family group ever consisted only of a female ancestor and her children1 or that the woman was originally the head of1 and supreme in1 the family4 ,the custom of tracing descent by the female line shows1 however1 that for certain purposes the woman occupied an important position1 although it may1 when the practice of wives going to reside among their husband's relations become established1 have tended to confirm that of female infanticide1 as the children would be lost to the mother's family group4 ,one of the motives referred to by ,mr4 ,spencer would1 after the idea of special kinship through females had become established1 affect more especially the persons bound together by a maternal tie4 ,where the gentile organisation is established the duty of revenging private injuries is confined to the other members of the common gens4 ,the duty of defence against the external enemy belongs1 however1 to the tribe1 which here undoubtedly stands in the place of the original family group1 in which both male and female kinship1 with their special duties1 was recognised1 represented by its male head4 ,this group we must suppose1 therefore1 had much in common with ,sir ,henry ,maine's patriarchal family4 ,under the head of the oldest living male ancestor1 it embraced wife or wives1 children and dependents4 ,the repugnance to marriages between blood relations1 which seems almost instinctive to man1 would prevent such alliances between the members of the group4 ,the male children1 when they reached the age of manhood1 would leave the paternal roof1 and obtain wives from other groups1 with which they would become associated on the principle of adoption1 while1 on the other hand1 young men from other groups would take their places as the husbands of the female children4 ,it would be during this primitive period that the idea of a special relationship subsisting between a mother and her children1 on which the custom of tracing descent through the female is founded1 would become formed1 as already mentioned4 ,the importance attached to female kinship would be increased by the development of a fraternal feeling among the children of the same mother1 a feeling which would be strengthened if1 as would probably not seldom be the case1 men1 after some years of cohabitation with their wives1 left their children solely to the mother's care4 ,under the influence of these various ideas and circumstances the custom of tracing kinship for certain purposes in the female line would be developed by the time that the habit had been formed of wives leaving their parents to reside among their husband's family4 ,as when this took place1 the custom would be firmly established under the influence of polygamy1 the development of the gentile organisation would almost necessarily follow4 ,the primitive idea of kinship through the father would1 however1 still remain in full force with the attributes which originally appertained to it--namely1 the headship in the family group of the eldest male ancestor1 whose authority is practically represented by the tribe1 and the non-intermarriage of those thus connected4 ,,footnotes3 #bej 8,studies in ,ancient ,history10 p4 #ddd4 #bea ,ditto1 p4 #aha4 #beb 8,studies in ,ancient ,history10 pp4 #ed1 #eg4 #bec ,ditto1 pp4 #ajd1 #aaj4 #bed ,ditto1 p4 #agd4 #bee ,ditto1 p4 #aab4 #bef ,ditto1 p4 #aci4 #beg ,ditto1 p4 #aac4 #beh 8,ancient ,society10 p4 #eab4 #bei ,ditto1 p4 #eaa4 #bfj ,ditto1 p4 #fi4 #bfa 8,ancient ,history10 p4 #abd4 #bfb ,ditto1 p4 #aci4 #bfc ,loc4 cit41 p4 #dah4 #bfd ,loc4 cit41 p4 #dai4 #bfe ,m',lennan1 p4 #aej4 #bff ,m',lennan1 p4 #acd4 #bfg 8,ancient ,society10 p4 #eaf4 #bfh 8,ancient ,society10 p4 #fg4 #bfi ,ditto1 p4 #fj4 #bgj 8,principles of ,sociology10 vol4 i41 p4 #ffb4 #bga ,ditto1 p4 #ffe4 #bgb ,ditto1 p4 #fff4 #bgc ,ditto1 p4 #ffg4 #bgd ,lahontan1 8,mmoires10 ii41 pp4 #add1 et seq4 #bge 8,te ,ika ,a ,maui10 p4 #ceg4 #bgf ,ditto1 p4 #ccg4 #bgg 8,sixth ,report of the ,directors of the ,african ,institution0 7#ahab71 p4 #abh4 #bgh ,op4 cit41 p4 #ccf4 #bgi ,ditto1 p4 #ecf4 #bhj 8,ancient ,society10 p4 #ga4 #bha 8,ancient ,society10 p4 #ge1 #ebh4 #bhb ,ditto1 p4 #ecj4 #bhc ,see ,lafitau 8,les ,murs des ,sauvages10 ii41 p4 #efd1 et seq4 #bhd ,see ,lafitau1 ii41 p4 #gg1 et seq4 #bhe 8,ancient ,society10 p4 #hh4 #bhf ,ditto1 p4 #fc4 #bhg 8,ancient ,history10 p4 #dah4 #bhh 8,types of ,sociology10 pp4 #ffe1 #ffi4 #bhi ,ditto1 p4 #ffg4 #bij 8,ancient ,society10 p4 #eaf4 #bia ,ditto1 p4 #eae4 #bib ,ditto1 p4 #eaf4 #bic 8,ancient ,society10 p4 #ajc4 #bid 8,travels in ,northern ,america10 p4 #cgh4 #bie 8,memoirs10 ii41 p4 #aej4 #bif 8,la ,cit ,antique0 7#fth ,ed471 #ahgf1 p4 #acc4 #big 8,early ,history of ,institutions10 pp4 #fd1 #fe4 #bih ,ditto1 p4 #fh4 #bii ,p4 #fcj1 note4 #cjj 8,principles of ,sociology10 p4 #gfi4 #cja ,ditto1 p4 #gga4 ,,chapter ,x4 ,,the ,,social ,,position ,,of ,,woman ,,as ,,affected ,,by 8,,civilisation40 ,the legend which teaches that the first woman was formed out of one of the ribs of the first man must surely be true1 seeing that it agrees perfectly with the position which woman holds among all primitive peoples6 ,with few rights1 if any1 in this life1 it is not surprising that her subordination is continued in the spirit world1 and that if she gains admittance at all into the native heaven1 it is usually under peculiar circumstances4 ,thus1 the ,fijian women are voluntarily strangled or buried alive at the funerals of their husbands1 from the belief that in their company alone 8can they reach the realms of bliss20 to which is added the idea that she 8who meets her death with the greatest devotedness will become the favourite wife in the abode of spirits40 ,what becomes after death of the women who do not die with their husbands is1 perhaps1 uncertain1 but there is reason to believe that among many uncultured peoples as little thought is given to the future state of such unfortunates as to that of animals killed for food4 ,in fact1 among the ,papuan tribes1 and with many of the natives of ,australia1 women are highly prized for cannibal purposes4 ,judging from this fact1 we shall not expect to find that1 during life1 they are much cared for1 unless it be on the principle which sometimes leads cannibals to fatten their victims before preying on them4 ,this is not the case1 however1 with the natives of ,australia1 and women among them not only have to endure many privations1 but are most barbarously treated4 ,wilkes states that they are considered as articles of property4 ,among few peoples is the lot of woman so cruel as with the aborigines of ,australia4 ,in this respect1 however1 there is little difference with any uncultured race4 ,marriages of affection are unknown to the ,fijians1 and women remain faithful to their husbands from fear rather than from love4 8,like other property10 says ,admiral ,wilkes1 8wives may be sold at pleasure1 and the usual price is a musket4 ,those who purchase them may do with them as they please1 even to knocking them on the head40 ,thus1 among the ,fijians1 women are1 in the true sense of the word1 8property10 and marriage is a matter of bargain and sale4 ,this remark is applicable to peoples less savage than the untamed ,papuan4 ,among the pastoral tribes of ,east ,africa1 and also the black tribes of ,madagascar1 women are1 if anything1 thought less of than cattle4 ,the ,kafirs1 indeed1 value them in cattle1 and girls pride themselves on the price they fetch4 ,the condition of the ,kafir wife agrees with the estimation in which she is held4 ,woman occupies much the same position with the true ,negro tribes1 and even among the ,north ,african peoples who have embraced ,mohamedanism the woman is subject absolutely to the will of her husband4 ,wives do not appear to be treated with cruelty1 however1 and1 according to ,mr4 ,winwood ,reade1 they often1 by force of a certain public opinion1 exercise a peculiar influence over the men in domestic affairs4 ,among the ,wahuma of ,east ,africa1 women1 curiously enough1 are not regarded exactly as property1 and their condition is probably1 on the whole1 superior to what it is among the ,negro or ,kafir tribes4 ,women occupy among the ,american aborigines a position of1 on the whole1 greater hardship4 ,they are generally considered as inferior beings1 and their lives are spent in the lowest and most laborious drudgery4 ,throughout both ,north and ,south ,america1 with few exceptions1 a wife is treated as the property of her husband1 who will lend her to a friend with as little compunction as he would a hatchet4 ,moreover1 as amongst most uncultured peoples1 she is always liable to instant divorce4 ,this arbitrary treatment1 and the hardships which women suffer1 have probably much to do with the prevalence of infanticide1 especially of female children4 ,the condition of woman among the ,eskins appears to be more bearable than with the true ,american tribes4 ,this is shown by the existence between husband and wife of a certain attachment1 which sometimes ripens into real affection2 and yet1 according to ,sir ,john ,ross1 the ,eskino women are considered merely as property or furniture4 ,it is not far otherwise with the ,greenlanders4 ,crantz declares that1 from their twentieth year1 the life of their women is a mixture of fear1 indigence1 and lamentation4 ,among some of the ,polynesian ,islanders1 and particularly the ,samoans1 woman is more esteemed than with others1 but usually she is treated in the same manner as with most uncultured peoples4 ,as shown by many of their customs1 she is looked upon as an inferior creature4 ,captain ,king remarked that at the ,sandwich ,islands1 when these were first discovered1 less respect was shown to women than at any of the other ,pacific ,islands which ,captain ,cook's expedition had visited4 ,all the best kinds of food were forbidden them4 ,in domestic life they lived almost entirely by themselves1 and although no instance of positive ill-treatment was actually observed1 yet it was evident that 8they had little regard or attention paid them40 ,the facts stated sufficiently establish that1 among primitive peoples1 woman is regarded as 8property40 ,usually female children are thought little of by their parents1 and they are cared for only as having a certain exchange value4 ,in the more advanced stage represented by the pastoral peoples they are more highly prized1 because1 although a man may prefer his cattle to his daughters1 these1 if successfully reared1 will bring a certain addition to his stock4 ,a curious relic of this primitive idea of the exchange value of woman is yet extant in ,afghanistan1 where crimes are atoned for by fines estimated1 partly in young women1 and partly in money4 ,it is not surprising that the man who has purchased his wife should look upon her in the same light as any other chattel which he has acquired1 and this property notion is at the foundation of most of the social habits of savage life4 ,it must not be thought that women1 even among the most uncultured peoples1 are altogether without influence1 if not over their own condition1 yet over the minds of other4 ,the wars1 if such they can be called1 waged by the ,australian aborigines1 are generally due to the old women1 who incite the men with the most passionate language to revenge any injury to the tribe1 and they perform the same office among other uncivilised peoples4 ,it is well-known what influence over the conduct of such peoples is exercised by the sorcerers or wizard doctors1 and in many parts of both ,africa and ,america women as well as men exercise that calling24 ,it is not often that among the more warlike races women attain to the position of chief1 but such a state of things is not unknown to the ,african tribes2 and in ,madagascar and the ,polynesian ,islands woman is as competent as man to occupy the throne4 ,with the ,american tribes who trace descent through females1 women have great influence in the election of the chiefs4 ,nor is woman exactly without rights among uncultured peoples4 ,at first these relate to the disposition of her own person before marriage1 and the existence of such a right is implied in the widespread customs which have been thought to give evidence of the primitive social phase described as 8marriage by capture40 ,mr4 ,darwin1 in his work1 8,the ,descent of ,man10 well points out that among uncultured peoples girls have more choice in the matter of marriage than is usually supposed4 ,it by no means follows that the position of a woman is1 among uncultured peoples1 more bearable because she has managed to marry the man whom she prefers4 ,where the marriage has been preceded by actual attachment1 no doubt it usually is so2 and in that case1 especially if she has much intelligence1 a wife may have great influence over her husband4 ,it is probable that polygamy has been an important instrument in improving the condition of the married woman4 ,with most uncultured peoples who practise polygamy1 a first wife is the head wife1 and all the succeeding ones are under her control4 ,the former thus occupies a position of influence in the household2 she is less roughly treated by her husband1 and she gradually acquires certain rights4 ,mr4 ,shooter says that1 among the ,kafirs1 all the cows which a man possesses at the time of his earliest marriage are regarded as the property of his first wife1 and after the birth of her first son they are called his cattle4 ,theoretically1 the husband can neither sell nor dispose of them without his wife's consent4 ,cattle are assigned to each of the wives whom the husband subsequently takes1 and the wife who furnishes the cattle to purchase and endow a new wife1 is entitled to her services1 and calls her 8my wife40 ,these rights of property are1 however1 in reality of very slight value4 ,on the death of the husband1 the women of his household descend to the son who is entitled to the cattle belonging to each family division1 and if he dies without direct heirs1 to the next male relative1 who is nevertheless bound to provide for them4 ,it is difficult to conceive that the improvement in the position of woman witnessed among civilised peoples1 can have been much affected by any change that could take place in the relation between husband and wife1 so long as the latter is treated as mere property4 ,i am disposed1 therefore1 to trace that improvement to another source1 and to look upon it as springing from the maternal relationship4 ,stern as may be the treatment experienced by a wife1 it is seldom that a mother is not honoured4 ,this is especially the case among the ,african tribes4 ,the same feeling is not unknown to the ,arabs1 whose sacred book declares that 8a son gains ,paradise at the feet of his mother40 ,inconsistent as it is with our ideas1 there can be little doubt that the curious custom of strangling parents1 or burying them alive1 when they have become old and helpless1 is looked upon as a mark of respect and regard4 ,wilkes was assured by the missionaries that the ,fijians were kind and affectionate to their parents1 and that they considered the strangling custom as so great a proof of affection that none but children could be found to perform it4 ,the ,chinese have preserved the germs of the primitive idea1 according to which woman is a kind of property1 and among them still a wife may be sold1 although only with her own consent1 and as a wife and not as a slave4 ,these restrictions show a great advance1 which is evidenced also by the fact that wives possess equal rank with their husbands4 ,moreover1 mothers are allowed a certain degree of influence over their sons1 who are1 indeed1 obliged at particular seasons to pay homage to them1 the ,emperor himself not being exempt from performing the ceremonies of the kotow before his mother4 ,where the filial piety is so strong1 it is not surprising that ancestral-worship extends to the mother as well as the father1 and that the memory of women celebrated for their virtues is perpetuated4 ,nevertheless1 ,chinese women are almost absolutely in the power of their fathers1 husbands and sons1 to whom they owe obedience as the representatives of heaven4 ,in some of their customs the ,romans bore considerable resemblance to the ,chinese4 ,with the former1 as among the latter1 the father was absolute within his family1 and originally a woman1 as part of her husband's familia1 could be sold or put to death by him without interference by the ,state4 ,this was not so if the wife was only uxor and retained her own familia1 in which case1 however1 her children belonged to her husband4 ,the latter form of marriage1 or the custom known as 8breaking the usus of the year10 gradually came to be the most usual1 and it resulted in the emancipation of women from the control to which they had before been subjected4 ,the old ,roman1 ,cato the elder1 complained of their having much power in political matters1 and statues were even then erected in the provinces to ,roman ladies4 ,unfortunately the emancipation of woman among the ,romans was attended with a license which had the most deplorable results1 both moral and social4 ,in ,greece the peculiar institutions established by ,lycurgus gave the ,spartan women much influence1 and they were even said by the other ,greeks to have brought their husbands under the yoke4 ,on the other hand1 among the ,athenians1 women were generally viewed as inferior to men1 and wives were treated rather as household drudges than as companions4 ,before marriage girls were kept in strict seclusion1 a habit which1 in the middle and higher classes1 was long retained after marriage1 wives seeing little even of their husbands or fathers4 ,it would appear1 however1 to have been different during the heroic age1 when the intercourse between husband and wife1 says ,mr4 ,gladstone1 was 8thoroughly natural1 full of warmth1 dignity1 reciprocal deference1 and substantial1 if not conventional1 delicacy40 ,it is to the development of the emotion of love that the full recognition of the true position to which woman is united must be traced4 ,the parent has influence because he or she is respected1 and love induces the same feeling in relation to the wife and woman in general4 ,thus1 at least1 it would seem to be with ,eastern peoples1 who probably closely agree in social habits with the ancient ,greeks4 ,among the ,bedouins1 in whose manners we may doubtless trace those of the early ,hebrews1 women enjoy a considerable degree of liberty2 and hence marriages1 although accompanied by the incidents of wife-purchase1 are often governed by choice1 and husbands make real companions of their wives4 ,the respect paid to them is so great that1 if a homicide can succeed in concealing his head under the sleeve of a woman and cry fyardhk1 8under thy protection10 his safety is insured4 ,pallas mentions an analogous custom as existing among the ,circassians1 who also highly esteem woman4 ,the same may be said of the ,afghans1 among whom1 although marriage is still a matter of purchase1 love-matches are by no means rare4 ,wives often exercise great influence in ,afghan households1 the husband sometimes sinking into a secondary place4 ,how far the condition of women has been mitigated among the ,bedouins and other races by ,mohammedanism is an open question4 ,according to the ,koran1 the ,arabs were accustomed to treat them with great cruelty1 while one of the chief features of ,mohammed's teaching is the high position accorded to them4 ,in permitting polygamy1 ,mohammedan law accommodates itself to the habits of an earlier stage of social progress1 and tends to perpetuate many of its objectionable features4 ,as remarked by ,lord ,kames1 polygamy is intimately connected with the treatment of woman as a slave to be purchased even in marriage4 ,but1 great as are the evils attending that custom1 they depend in great measure on special circumstances1 and they are capable1 as ,mohammedan teaching shows1 of considerable mitigation4 ,probably the practice of polygamy has never1 among a civilised people1 been accompanied by more baneful results than it exhibits in modern ,egypt1 if we can accept the testimony of ,miss ,martineau4 ,this lady somewhat unjustly remarks that1 8if we are to look for a hell upon earth1 it is where polygamy exists2 and that1 as polygamy runs riot in ,egypt1 ,egypt is the lowest depth of this hell40 ,polygamy has not in ,india so degrading an effect1 but1 of the six qualities ascribed to woman by the code of so-called ,gentoo laws1 all are bad ones4 ,a really good wife is1 however1 so highly esteemed that1 if a man forsake her of his own accord1 he is to receive the punishment of a thief4 ,perhaps the scarcity of such wives accounts for the fact mentioned by ,bishop ,heber1 that throughout ,india anything is thought good enough for women1 and that 8the roughest words1 the poorest garments1 the scantiest alms1 the most degrading labour1 and the hardest blows1 are generally of their portion40 ,no doubt women of the lower castes are here referred to1 and it cannot be supposed that all women are thus treated4 ,the ,abb ,dubois1 indeed1 affirms that among the ,hindoos the person of a woman is sacred1 and that1 however abject her condition1 she is always addressed by every one by the term 8mother40 ,if we may believe the ,abb1 who lived for thirty years among the natives1 the position of ,hindoo women is far superior to what ,europeans in general believe4 ,he says1 8,to them belong the entire management of their household1 the care of their children1 the superintendence over the menial servants1 the distribution of alms and charities4 ,to them are generally entrusted the money1 jewels1 and other valuables of the family2 to them belong the care of procuring provisions and providing for all expenses2 it is they also who are charged1 almost to the exclusion of their husbands1 with the most important affairs of procuring wives for their sons1 and husbands for their daughters1 and in doing it they evince a nicety of attention and wisdom which are not certainly surpassed in any other country2 while in the management of their domestic business1 they in general show a shrewdness1 a savingness1 and a foresight1 which would do honour to the best housekeepers in ,europe4444 ,in short1 although exposed outwardly in public to the forbidden frowns of an austere husband1 they cannot be considered in any other view than as perfect mistresses in the house4 ,the influence of the ,hindoo females on the welfare of families is so well known1 that the successes or misfortunes of the ,hindoo are almost entirely attributed to the good or bad management of the former2 when a person prospers in the world1 it is the custom to say that he has the happiness to possess an intelligent wife1 and when any one runs to ruin1 it is the custom to say that he has the misfortune to have a bad wife for a partner40 ,judging from the ,abb's description1 the properties of a good wife1 according to the compiler of the 8,book of ,proverbs10 would doubtless meet with the perfect approval of the ,hindoo4 ,much as the emancipation of woman is aided by the development of love between the sexes1 she is indebted to religion for its completion4 ,the description given by ,tacitus of the high honour in which women were held by the ancient ,germans1 as being in some sense holy and as having the gift of prophecy1 may be somewhat exaggerated2 but if it is true that the safest mode of binding that people to their political engagements was to require as hostages women of noble birth1 we may well believe that their regard for the female sex had a religious basis4 ,tacitus adds1 that the care of house and lands and of the family affairs1 was usually committed to the women1 while the men spent their time in feasting1 fighting1 and sleeping4 ,a happy commentary this on the question whether the former is capable of managing her own affairs6 ,the true position of woman1 however1 is not that assigned to her by the ancient ,germans1 who gave her a fictitious superiority based on superstition4 ,we must look to the peoples among whom have flourished the religions which have permanently influenced the world1 for evidences of the continued improvement of that position4 ,that which has had the most striking and lasting effect over the social status of women in the ,east is undoubtedly ,buddhism4 ,gautama preached salvation to all human beings alike1 rich and poor1 male and female1 and some of his first converts were women4 ,his teaching went to the root of the prejudice so powerful in the ,east1 which leads man to consider woman his inferior1#cjb and she was at once raised to a level with him4 ,hence1 in most ,buddhist countries1 women are treated as man's companions1 and not as his slaves4 ,the fact that the former are allowed to take monastic vows reveals the true source of female emancipation4 ,it is a recognition of the capability of woman to attain to the spiritual re-birth1 and1 as a consequence1 not only to escape from the material life with its continued evils1 but to secure supreme bliss in another state4 ,the idea of the spiritual re-birth was at the foundation of the ancient mysteries1 and therefore the admission to them of woman was a sign of her emancipation4 ,the ,zend-,avesta places men and women on the same footing1 and among the ancient ,persians the latter sometimes occupied even high sacerdotal positions4 ,she was1 moreover1 freely admitted to the secret mysteries4 ,m4 ,lajard says that the monuments show us women not only admitted as neophytes to the celebration of the mysteries1 but performing there sometimes the part of god-mother 7marraine71 sometimes that of priestess and arch-priestess4 ,in these two characters they assist the initiating priest1 and they themselves preside at the initiation1 assisted by a priest or an arch-priest4 ,the learned ,french writer concludes1 therefore1 that 8women among the peoples endowed with the institution of the mysteries found themselves thus placed in a condition of equality with man40 ,that which had been begun by ,buddhism and ,mazdaism was continued by ,christianity1 which knows no distinction of sex or position1 however much its principles may from time to time have suffered at the hands of ignorant or irrational legislators4 ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,spiritism ,,and ,,modern ,,spiritualism4 ,whether what is known as ,modern ,spiritualism is true or false1 it must have an equal influence on those who believe it to be true4 ,as being1 then1 influential for good or for evil over the lives of thousands of people1 its phenomena are deserving of most careful attention4 ,for the same reason the analogous phenomena which have been from time to time observed among uncultured peoples are also worthy of study4 ,there is little doubt that nearly everything which has been done by modern ,spiritualists has been performed from time immemorial by the ,shamans1 or sorcery doctors1 of the ,turanian and allied tribes of the ,american and ,african ,continents4 ,the two great essentials required in either case are the existence of disembodied spirits and mediums through whom they can communicate with man4 ,as to the former1 it is doubtful whether there is any race of uncivilised men who are not firm believers in the existence of spirits or ghosts4 ,in most cases1 and probably in all originally1 these are the spirits of dead men1 who are thought1 for a time at least1 to wander about the scenes of their material life1 and occasionally to make their presence known by sounds or by a visible appearance4 ,so great is the dread of ghosts among many of such peoples that they will hardly venture out of their huts after dark1 and when any person is compelled to do so he invariably carries a light1 although he would not have the slightest difficulty in finding his way without its aid4 ,nor is the medium wanting among the uncivilised races4 ,the most influential man in the tribe is the sorcery doctor1 except where he is merely a tool in the hands of the chief1 and all his influence is due to his supposed control over1 or1 at least1 communication with1 the denizens of the spirit world4 ,by their aid he is able to bewitch his own enemies or those of the persons who seek the exercise of his natural power1 and1 on the other hand1 to discover the origin of the disease under which the sick man is wasting away1 and to remove it from him should the spirits be propitious4 ,the sorcery doctor of an ,african tribe1 like the ,shaman of the ,mongol1 is in fact a very oracle through his supposed power of receiving communications from his immaterial assistants4 ,moreover1 the means by which he becomes en rapport with the spirit world are exactly the same as those employed by the ,spiritualist1 although the mode in which the mediumistic condition is induced may often be very different4 ,whether arrived at by a process of mesmerism1 or by means of a ceremony attended with great physical and mental excitement1 or1 on the other hand1 induced by extreme exhaustion1 or whether it is caused by a kind of intoxication1 the condition required is one of trance4 ,the most simple mode of attaining it is probably the self-mesmerism of the ,zulus of ,natal1 an intense concentration and abstraction of the mind1 giving the clairvoyant faculty4 ,canon ,calloway states that this process of 8inner divination0 is commonly practised by herd boys for the purpose of finding cattle which have strayed2 and it is even used as a means of escape by those who are threatened with destruction by a jealous chief4 ,this clairvoyant power1 which is intimately connected with ,spiritualism1 is by some peoples ascribed to spirit communication4 ,thus1 says ,scheffer1 among the ,laplanders1 8,when the devil takes a liking to any person1 in his infancy1 he haunts him with several apparitions4444 ,those who are taken thus a second time see more visions and gain great knowledge4 ,if they are seized a third time they arrive to the perfection of this art1 and become so knowing1 that without the drum 7the magic drum which answers to the tambourine of the ,mongol and the rattle of the ,american ,indian71 they can see things at the greatest distances1 and are so possessed by the devil1 that they see them even against their will40 ,scheffer adds that on his complaining against a ,lapp on account of his drum1 the ,lapp brought it to him1 8and confessed with tears that1 though he should part with it1 and not make him another1 he should have the same visions as formerly and he instanced the traveller himself1 giving him 8a true and particular relation0 of whatever had happened to him in his journey to ,lapland40 ,he complained1 moreover1 that 8he knew not how to make use of his eyes1 since the things altogether distant were presented to them40 ,according to ,olaus ,magnus1 the ,lapland ,shaman 8falls into an ecstacy and lies for a short time as if dead2 in the meanwhile his companion takes great care that no gnat or other living creature touch him1 for his soul is carried by some ill genius into a foreign country1 from whence it is brought back1 with a knife1 ring1 or some other token of his knowledge of what is done in those parts4 ,after his rising up he relates all the circumstances belonging to the business that was inquired after40 ,among the special spiritualistic phenomena which are recognised among uncultured peoples are spirit-rapping1 spirit-voices1 and the cord-unloosening1 which1 when first exhibited1 created in ,england so much astonishment4 ,the last-named phenomenon is not unknown to the ,north ,american ,indians1 and is practised by the ,greenlanders and by some of the ,siberian ,shamans4 ,thus1 among the ,samoyedes1 8,the ,shaman places himself on the ground upon a dry reindeer skin4 ,then he allows himself to be firmly bound1 hands and feet4 ,the windows are closed1 and the ,shaman calls upon the spirits1 when suddenly a noise is heard in the darkened room4 ,voices are heard within and outside the court2 but upon the dry reindeer skin there is regular rhythmical beating4 ,bears growl1 serpents hiss1 and squirrels seem to jump about4 ,at last the noise ceases4 ,the windows are opened1 and the ,shaman enters the court free and unbound4 ,no one doubts that the spirits have made the noise and set the ,shaman free1 and carried him secretly out of the court40 ,we have here the noises1 voices1 and rope untying which are so common in spiritualistic sances4 ,these find a still closer parallel in the curious rites of ,greenland ,shamanism1 the object of which is to enable the spirits of the sorcerer to visit heaven or hell as occasion may require4 ,the historian ,crantz thus describes the ceremony3-- 8,first the devotee drums awhile1 making all manner of distorted figures1 by which he enervates his strength and works up his enthusiasm4 ,then he goes to the entry of the house1 and there gets one of his pupils to tie his head between his legs1 and his hands behind his back with a string2 then all the lamps in the house must be put out and the windows shut up4 ,for no one must see the interview between him and the spirit2 no one must stir1 not so much as to scratch his head1 that the spirit may not be hindered1 or rather that he may not be detected in his knavery4444 ,after he has begun to sing1 in which all the rest join with him1 he begins to sigh and puff and foam with great perturbation and noise1 and calls out for his spirit to come to him1 and has often great trouble before he comes4 ,but if the spirit is still deaf to his cries1 and comes not1 his soul flies away to fetch him4 ,during this dereliction of his soul he is quiet1 but1 by-and-by1 he returns again with shouts of joy--nay1 with a certain rustling1 so that a person who has been several times present assured me that it was exactly as if he heard several birds come flying1 first over the house1 and afterwards into it4 ,but if the ,torngak 7or spirit7 comes voluntarily1 he remains without in the entry4 ,there an ,angekok 7or magician7 discourses with him about anything that the ,greenlanders want to know4 ,two different voices are distinctly heard1 one as without and one as within4 ,the answer is always dark and intricate4 ,the hearers interpret the meaning among themselves1 but if they cannot agree in the solution1 they beg the ,torngak to give the ,angekok a more explicit answer4 ,sometimes another comes who is not the usual ,torngak1 in which case neither the ,angekok nor his company understand him4444 ,but if this communication extends still further1 he soars aloft with his ,torngak on a long string to the realm of souls1 where he is admitted to a short conference with the ,angekut poglit1 i4e41 the fat or the famous wise ones1 and learns there the fate of his sick patient1 or even brings him back a new soul4 ,or else he descends to the goddess of hell1 and sets the enchanted creatures free4 ,but back he comes presently again1 cries out terribly1 and begins to beat his drum2 for1 in the meantime1 he has found means to disengage himself from his bonds1 at least1 by the help of his scholars1 and then1 with the air of one quite jaded with his journey1 tells a long story of all that he had seen and heard4 ,finally1 he tunes up a song1 and goes round1 and imparts his benediction to all present by a touch4 ,then they light up the lamps1 and see the poor ,angekok wan1 fatigued1 and harassed1 so that he can scarce speak40 ,except that the civilised medium attains to a state of trance without so much excitement1 and does not1 while in that state1 take so distant a journey1 the account given by ,crantz would almost answer for a description of a spiritual sance4 ,most of the occasions in which the sorcerer is consulted would seem to be cases of sickness4 ,illness is usually supposed to be caused by the agency of spirits1 who are annoyed at something having been done or omitted1 and the mission of the sorcerer is to ascertain whether the sick man will live or die1 and1 if the former1 what offering must be given to propitiate his tormentors4 ,among the ,zulus1 the diviners who eat impepo medicine answer1 in a measure1 to the ,mongolian ,shaman1 although they do not profess to have intercourse with supernatural agents4 ,this is reserved1 apparently1 for the diviners having familiar spirits4 ,these people do nothing of themselves1 sit quite still1 and the answers to the questions put by inquirers are given by voices at a distance from them4 ,canon ,calloway gives two curious instances of this mode of divining4 ,in one of them a young child1 belonging to a family from another kraal which had settled in a village of the ,amahlongwa1 was seized with convulsions1 and some young men1 its cousins1 were sent to consult a woman who had familiar spirits4 ,they found the woman at home1 but it was not until they had waited a long time that a small voice proceeding from the roof of the hut saluted them4 ,they were1 of course1 much surprised at being addressed from such a place1 but soon a regular conversation was carried on between them and the voices1 in the course of which the spirits minutely described the particulars connected with the child's illness--a case of convulsions4 ,they then told the young man that 8the disease was not properly convulsions1 but was occasioned by the ancestral spirits1 because they did not approve of them living in their relative's kraal1 and that1 on their return home1 they were to sacrifice a goat 7which was particularly described71 and pour its gall over the child1 giving it at the same time ,itongo medicine40 ,this took place in the day time1 and the woman did nothing but occasionally ask the spirits if they were speaking the truth4 8,the young men returned home10 says ,calloway1 8sacrificed the goat1 poured the gall on the child1 plucked for him ,itongo medicine1 and gave him the expressed juice to drink20 and the child had no return of the convulsions1 and is still living4 ,the statement that1 during the interview1 the woman did nothing but occasionally ask the spirits if they were speaking the truth1 is somewhat suspicious1 but1 whatever the explanation of the case1 one thing seems certain--the young men had not seen the woman before1 as she lived on the coast1 a day and a half's journey from them4 ,in the other instance referred to1 the ultimate result was not so favourable1 as the sickness was not removed1 but it was attended with an incident by which we are again reminded of the phenomena of ,spiritualism4 ,the spirits promised to dig up and bring to the diviner the secret poison which they said was causing the sickness inquired about4 ,at the time appointed for the poison to be exhibited the old people assembled in the diviner's hut1 and1 after arranging themselves in a line at the request of the spirits1 they soon heard1 first one thing fall on the floor1 and then another1 until at length each person was told to take up what belonged to him and throw it into the running stream1 when the disease would be carried away4 ,on examining the things 8some found their beads which they had lost long ago2 some found earth bound up2 others found pieces of some old garment2 others shreds of something they had worn2 all found something belonging to them40 ,in this case1 also1 the voices came from above2 but among some peoples the spirit enters into the body of the diviner1 in like manner as with spiritualistic mediums4 ,this is so in ,china1 where the spirit of the dead talks with the living through the male or female medium1 as the case may be--and with all uncultured peoples1 in fact1 who look upon their priests1 or sorcery doctors1 as oracles4 ,there are two phenomena known to spiritualists which we can expect to find only among cultured peoples4 ,one of these1 the so-called spirit writing1 has been practised by the ,chinese probably from time immemorial1 and is effected by means of a peculiarly-shaped pen held by two men and some sand4 ,the presence of the spirit is shown by a slow movement of the point of the pen tracing characters in the sand4 ,after writing a line or two on the sand the pen ceases to move1 and the characters are transferred to paper4 ,after this1 if the response is unfinished1 another line is written1 and so on1 until the pen entirely ceases its motion1 which signifies that the spirit of the divinity has taken its departure from the pen4 ,like the spirit drawings of modern mediums1 the meaning of the figures thus obtained is often very difficult to make out4 ,the other phenomenon is the rising and floating in the air1 in which ,mr4 ,home was so great an adept4 ,this in all ages has been the privilege of the saints1 ,asiatic or ,european1 ,buddhist or ,christian1 who have attained to a state of spiritual ecstacy4 ,at the beginning of this ,essay it was said that1 so long as the phenomena of ,spiritualism are believed to be true1 they have equal influence1 whether true or false4 ,on the other hand1 it must not be thought that1 because they are accepted as true by uncultured people1 therefore they are false1 as being merely due to fraud or superstition4 ,to those even who believe in a spirit world1 the question of spirit action in connection with the phenomena is one of the utmost difficulty2 and a possible explanation may be suggested of the most remarkable of them1 based on physical facts recorded by spiritualists themselves1 without the necessity of seeking spirit agency4 ,it has been noticed that the faces which appear at the openings of the cabinet in which the ,spiritualist mediums sit are usually at first1 if not ultimately1 much like the mediums themselves1 and yet it seems to be absolutely impossible1 considering how they are secured1 that such could be the case4 ,it may1 however1 only be impossible under the ordinary conditions of physical life4 ,if certain phenomena said to have been observed were so in reality1 the apparent difficulty is removed4 ,it has frequently been noticed that colouring matter placed on a spirit hand has afterwards been found on the hand or body of the medium4 ,this has been established by experiments tried for the purpose4 ,further1 it is stated that occasionally1 when a light has been suddenly struck1 a long hand and arm have been seen swiftly drawn in towards the medium4 ,moreover1 the body itself of the medium1 absurd as such a thing appears to be1 has been seen to elongate1 if we are to believe the statement of ,mrs4 ,corner1 made through the ,spiritualist1 in connection with the medium1 ,miss ,cook4 ,the familiar spirit of this medium has been seen rising from her body1 and some ,spiritualists believe that the spirits usually1 if not always1 rise out of their mediums4 ,in the instance just mentioned the spirit was said to have been visibly connected with the medium by cloudy1 faintly luminous threads4 ,if we accept these statements as true1 most of the phenomena of ,spiritualism are explainable without reference to the agency of spirits4 ,they would show that the human body must contain within itself an inner form1 be it material or immaterial1 which1 under proper conditions1 is able to disengage itself either wholly or partly from its outer covering4 ,the spirit hands which appear1 and which are able to move heavy weights and convey them long distances through the air1 would really be those of the medium4 ,the faces and full length figures which show themselves1 holding conversations1 and allowing themselves to be touched1 and even permitting their robes to be cut1 become the faces and figures of the mediums4 ,this view receives confirmation from the ,spiritualist standpoint1 from the fact 7if such it be7 that the 8doubles0 of well-known mediums have sometimes been recognised in the presence of the originals1 and 7seeing that ,spiritualists believe the body to be capable of elongation7 it is not inconsistent with what has been observed that the spirit figure is sometimes much taller than the medium4 ,it is consistent1 moreover1 with the facts1 that the distance from the medium within which the spirit figures can appear is limited1 and that if the hands of the medium be held closely from the first1 many of the manifestations cannot be produced4 ,this point has been insisted upon as proof of imposture2 but assuming1 for the sake of argument1 the truth of what is said as to the human 8double10 it simply shows how intimately associated are the external covering and the inner form which has to become disengaged to show itself4 ,the more the subject is studied the more evident does it become that most of the phenomena in question are dependent solely on the medium himself4 ,the evidence of ,mrs4 ,everitt1 given in the ,spiritualist1 seems to furnish the key to all such phenomena as that of the appearance of 8,katie ,king40 ,mrs4 ,everitt stated that1 when entranced1 she had seen her own body#cjc in a chair1 and been struck with the circumstance2 and she added1 that in the case of such a temporary separation between the spirit and the body1 these are united by a magnetic cord4 ,we have only to imagine that when ,mrs4 ,everitt was entranced1 her spirit became visible to the persons at the sance1 and we should have the exact phenomenon produced at ,miss ,cook's sances4 ,moreover1 the fact of the so-called spirit and the body of the medium being visible at the same time1 which has been thought to prove that they are perfectly distinct persons1 thus loses its apparent significance4 ,if ,mrs4 ,everitt's spirit and the body which she saw belonged to the same person1 so may the spirit seen at ,miss ,cook's sances belong to ,miss ,cook herself2 an inference which is supported by the fact1 that when the former disappeared1 it was absorbed into ,miss ,cook's own organism4 ,the magnetic cord which ,mrs4 ,everitt referred to as uniting the spirit and body while these are temporarily separated exists also1 so far as can be judged from the published reports of the sances of ,katie and ,miss ,cook4 ,a remarkable confirmation of the above theory#cjd is given in a recent work by ,col4 ,olcott1 who1 in #ahgd1 at the ,eddy homestead1 in ,vermont1 ,u4,s41 witnessed the appearance of upwards of five hundred materialised figures1 of the reality of which he was convinced1 although they could be accounted for as proceeding from the medium himself1 and not as due to the agency of departed spirits4#cje ,while offering the above explanation of many of the most important phenomena vouched for by the advocates of ,spiritualism1 it is simply to show that such phenomena1 according to the evidence of ,spiritualists themselves1 do not require the intervention of spirit agency1 although this has an important bearing on the past history of mankind4 ,spiritism has a marvellous influence over the mind of uncultured man1 and it has retained its influence almost unimpaired through most of the phases of human progress4 ,a late ,french writer1 after stating that superstition was supreme in the ,roman ,empire at the commencement of the ,christian era1 declares that magic was universally practised1 with the object of acquiring1 by means of 8demons0--the spirits of the dead--power to benefit the person using it1 or to injure those who were obnoxious to him4 ,it is thus evident that the phenomena to which the modern term 8,spiritualism0 has been applied are of great interest to the ,anthropologist1 and1 indeed1 of the utmost importance for a right understanding of some of the chief problems with which he has to deal4 ,they constitute an element in the life-history of past generations which cannot be left out of consideration when their mental and moral condition are being studied2 and modern ,spiritualism may1 therefore1 be studied with great advantage as a key to what is more properly called ,spiritism4 ,not that the former can be considered as an instance of 8survival10 in the proper sense of this phrase4 ,apart from such isolated instances as that of ,swedenborg1 ,spiritualism is of quite recent introduction1 and it appears to have had no direct connection with its earlier prototype4 ,it is worthy of note1 however1 that it sprang up among the people who have long been in contact with primitive tribes1 over whom ,spiritism has always had a powerful influence4 ,it is possible that intermixture of ,indian blood with that of the ,european settlers in ,north ,america may have had something to do with the appearance of ,spiritualism1 which would thus be an example of intellectual reversion1 analogous to the physical divergence to the ,indian type which has by some writers been ascribed to the descendants of those settlers4 ,or the former may be merely a resemblance1 instead of a reversion1 dependent on the change in the physical organism4 ,in either case1 it is somewhat remarkable that many of the so-called 8spirits10 which operate through ,spiritualist mediums1 claim to have had an ,american 7,indian7 origin4 ,,footnotes3 #cjb ,i have not forgotten the so-called ,mutterrecht4 ,whatever the influence of woman1 as head of the family or household1 however1 her position in society was a secondary one1 except under the conditions referred to in the chapter on 8,sacred ,prostitution40 ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,totems ,,and ,,totemism4 ,after treating of the nature of totems1 ,i propose to explain the object of totemism as a system1 and to show its origin4 ,i am not aware that this has yet been attempted in an adequate manner1 although the subject has been referred to1 as ,i shall have occasion to show1 by several writers of authority4 ,the late ,dr4 ,j4 ,f4 ,m',lennan1 who first dealt with the subject of totemism1 which indeed he made his own1 did not profess to explain its origin1 notwithstanding certain remarks bearing on this question made in the course of his inquiries4 ,the first point to be considered is the nature of a 8totem10 and this is shown by the meaning of the name itself4 ,the word is taken from the language of the ,ojibwas1 a tribe of the widespread ,algonkin stock1 living near ,lake ,superior1 in ,north ,america4 ,it signifies the symbol or device of a gens or tribal division1 that by which it is distinguished from all other such divisions4 ,the kind of objects used as totems by the aborigines of ,north ,america may be seen from the names of the gentes into which the ,ojibwa tribe is divided4 ,these are twenty-three in number1 and the totemic devices belonging to them comprise nine quadrupeds 7the chief of which are the ,wolf1 the ,bear1 the ,beaver1 and the ,turtle71 eight birds1 five fishes1 and one reptile1 the snake4 ,there are numerous other totems among the ,american tribes1 and they are not taken from the animal kingdom only4 ,thus1 there are gentes with vegetable totems1 such as ,corn1 ,potatoe1 ,tobacco-,plant1 and ,reed-,grass4 ,natural objects1 such as ,sun1 ,earth1 ,sand1 ,salt1 ,sea1 ,snow1 ,ice1 ,water1 and ,rain1 give names to other tribal divisions4 ,among natural phenomena1 ,thunder is widely spread as the name of a gens1 while ,wind is used among the ,creek ,indians2 and the ,omahas have a name meaning ,many ,seasons4 ,medicine1 ,tent1 ,lodge1 ,bonnet1 ,leggings1 and ,knife1 have given titles to other gentes1 and so also has colour4 ,thus1 we have ,black and ,red ,omahas1 and ,blue and ,red-,paint ,cherokees4 ,names denoting qualities have been taken by some gentes1 such as ,beloved ,people of the ,choctas2 ,never ,laugh1 ,starving1 ,half-,dead1 ,meat1 ,fish-,eaters1 and ,conjurers of the ,blackfeet2 and the ,non-,chewing of the ,delawares4 ,how some of those ideas could be represented pictorially as totems is not very apparent1 and ,mr4 ,lewis ,morgan very properly suggests1 in relation to some of the terms1 that nicknames for gentes may have superseded the original names2 to which may be added that probably many of the totems are of comparatively modern origin4 ,the natives of ,australia make the same use of totems as the ,americans4 ,the former have divisions of the tribe answering to the gentes of the latter1 distinguished by a common device or totem2 and the ,australian totemic divisions are usually1 like the ,american gentes1 named after animals4 ,thus1 the ,kamilaroi tribes have ,kangaroo1 ,opossum1 ,iguana1 ,emu1 ,bandicoot1 and ,blacksnake totems4 ,eaglehawk and ,crow are widely spread throughout ,eastern ,australia as names of ,class divisions4 ,totems taken from the vegetable kingdom appear to be uncommon1 as only two are mentioned in the ,rev4 ,lorimer ,fison's work on the ,kamilaroi4 ,the ,rev4 ,george ,taplin names two others among the totems of the ,south ,australian tribes1 each of which has a 8tutelary genius10 or 8tribal symbol10 in the shape of some bird1 beast1 fish1 reptile1 insect1 or substance4 ,the divisions of a tribe in ,western ,victoria take their totems from natural features1 such as ,water1 ,mountain1 ,swamp1 and ,river1 and in ,north-,western ,victoria the totemic divisions include ,hot-,wind and ,belonging-to-the-,sun4 ,although no such developed totemic system as that in use by the natives of ,australia and ,north ,america is known now to exist elsewhere1 yet there are traces of the use of totems by many other peoples4 ,thus1 among the ,bechuanas of ,south ,africa1#cjf each tribe takes its name from an animal or plant1 and its members are known as 8men of the crocodile10 8men of the fish10 8men of the monkey10 8men of the buffalo10 8men of the wild vine10 c4 ,the head of the family1 which holds the first rank in the tribe1 receives the title of 8great man0 of the animal whose name it bears1 and no one belonging to the tribe will eat the flesh1 or clothe himself with the skin1 of its protecting animal1 who is regarded as the father of the tribe4 ,many of the ,arab tribes take their names from animals1 such as the ,lion1 the ,panther1 the ,wolf1 the ,bear1 the ,dog1 the ,fox1 the ,hyena1 the ,sheep1 and many others4#cjg ,professor ,robertson ,smith1 who has endeavoured to establish the existence of totemism among the early ,arabs1 states that the totem animal was not used as ordinary food by those connected with it4 ,again1 some of the ,kolarian tribes of ,india are divided into clans named after animals1 and we find the ,heron1 ,hawk1 ,crow1 and ,eel clans among the ,oraon and ,munda tribes of ,chota-,nagpur4 ,a totem origin may probably be ascribed to the animal ancestry claimed by a chief or his tribe4 ,thus1 it is said by ,m4 ,m4 ,valikhanof#cjh that 8a characteristic feature in ,central ,asiatic traditions is the derivation of their origin from some animal40 ,the ,kastsch1 or ,tele people1 are said to have sprung from the marriage of a wolf and a beautiful ,hun ,princess4 ,the ,tugas professed to be descended from a she-wolf1 and the ,tufans1 or ,tibetans1 from a dog4 ,the ,chinese affirmed1 moreover1 that ,balach1 the hereditary chief of the ,mongol ,khans1 was the son of a blue wolf#cji and a white hind4 ,traces of the use of totems by the ,chinese themselves are not wanting4 ,their expression for the people is ,pih-sing1 meaning 8the hundred family names40 ,as a fact1 there are about four hundred such names in ,china1 and the intermarriage of persons having the same family name is absolutely forbidden4 ,the importance of this prohibition will be apparent when we come to consider the incidents of totemism4 ,mr4 ,robert ,hart states#caj that some of the ,chinese surnames have reference to animals1 fruits1 metals1 natural objects1 c41 such as ,horse1 ,sheep1 ,ox1#caa ,fish1 ,bird1 ,flower1 ,rice1 ,river1 ,water1 ,cloud1 ,gold1 c41 c4 ,he adds1 8,in some parts of the country large villages are met with1 in each of which there exists but one family name2 thus1 in one district will be found1 say1 three villages1 each containing two or three thousand people1 the one of the #8,horse1' the second of the #8,sheep1' and the third of the #8,ox' family name40 ,according to the rule that a man cannot marry a woman of his own family name1 a #8,horse' cannot marry a #8,horse1' but must marry a #8,sheep1' or an #8,ox1' and we may suppose that these animals were originally the totems or devices of particular family groups2 in like manner1 as the ,wolf1 the ,bear1 and the ,beaver are1 among the ,american aborigines1 totems of the groups of kin to which the term gens is applied4 ,the former use of totems may probably be assumed also when animal names are applied1 not to tribal divisions1 but to the tribes themselves1 as we have seen is the case with the ,arabs4 ,thus1 when the great ,hindu ,epic1#cab in describing the adventures of ,arjuna1 one of the ,pandavan ,princes1 says that the ,nagas or ,serpents were defeated with the aid of ,peacocks1 we must understand that a people known as ,peacocks1 from their totemic device1 defeated a people whose badge was a serpent4 ,the ,peacock was indeed the heraldic device of the ,tambouk ,kings of ,orissa4 ,probably the existence of the ,singhs or ,lions1 the warrior caste of the tribes of ,north-,western ,india1 may be accounted for in the same way4 ,dr4 ,m',lennan#cac refers to numerous facts to prove that many animals1 among others the ,serpent1 the ,horse1 the ,bull1 the ,lion1 the ,bear1 the ,dog1 and the ,goat gave names to ancient tribes1 who used the animals after whom they were called as badges4 ,he goes further than this1 and supposes that all the ancient nations passed through a totem stage1 in which they had animals and plants for gods4 ,this question1 however1 we shall have occasion to refer to later on4 ,the nature of totems having been shown1 the object of totemism as a system has now to be explained4 ,the ,rev4 ,george ,taplin remarks that each ,narrinyeri tribe is regarded as a family1 every member of which is a blood relation1 and the totem borne by the ,australian tribe1 or rather tribal division1 is thus the symbol of a family group1 in like manner as the ,american totem is the device of a gens4 ,the first question asked of a stranger by the ,dieyerie tribe of ,cooper's ,creek1 in ,central ,australia1 is 8,of what family 7murdoo7 are you80 ,each murdoo is distinguished by a special name1 being that of some object which1 according to a tribal legend1 may be animate or inanimate1 such as a dog1 mouse1 emu1 iguana1 rain1 c4#cad ,it is evident that the ,australian totemic device is equivalent to a family name1 a name which belongs to all the members of a particular group1 and which cannot be held by any person not belonging by birth or adoption to that group1 so that it is aptly termed by the ,rev4 ,lorimer ,fison#cae a 8badge of fraternity40 ,this badge answers to the 8device of a gens10 as the token of the ,american tribes is defined1 and its possession by any person is proof that he belongs to a particular gens or tribal division1 and that he is entitled or subject to all the rights1 privileges1 and obligations of its members4 ,schoolcraft very properly terms the gens the totemic institution1 and as the rights1 privileges1 and obligations of the gens are attached to the totem1 a consideration of them will throw much light on the subject of this paper4 ,according to ,mr4 ,morgan1#caf the gens came into being upon three principal conceptions1 the bond of kin1 a pure lineage through descent in the female line1 and non-intermarriage in the gens4 ,leaving out of view for the present the question of descent1 the other conceptions give rise to obligations of great importance4 ,the bond of kin assumes the positive obligation of mutual help1 defence1 and redress of injuries among the members of the gens2 while the third conception implies the negative obligation which prevents the intermarriage of persons belonging to a common totem4 ,the negative obligation is1 however1 no less than the positive obligation1 based on the conception of kinship1 and the totem device of the gens is1 therefore1 well described as the badge of a fraternal group4 ,the obligation of mutual aid and defence implies the co-relative duty of doing nothing to injure a fellow member of the gens1 in accordance with which all individuals of the same totem must treat each other as brethren4 ,this applies not only to human beings1 but also to the totem objects1 although these may be killed and eaten by persons not belonging to the fraternal group1 by which they are regarded as sacred4 ,sir ,george ,grey says1#cag in relation to the kobongs or totems of the ,western ,australians1 8a certain mysterious connection exists between the family and its kobong1 so that a member of the family will never kill an animal of the species to which his kobong belongs1 should he find it asleep2 indeed1 he always kills it reluctantly1 and never without affording it a chance of escape40 ,he adds3 8,this arises from the family belief1 that some one individual of the species is their nearest friend1 to kill whom would be a great crime1 and to be carefully avoided4 ,similarly a native who has a vegetable for his kobong may not gather it under certain circumstances1 and at a particular period of the year40 ,so1 also1 the aborigines of ,north ,america will not hunt1 kill1 or eat any animal of the form of their own totem4 ,where1 therefore1 we find particular animals forbidden for food to a class of individuals we may assume that such animals have a totemic character4 ,thus1 ,bosman relates#cah that1 on the ,gold ,coast of ,guinea1 each person 8is forbidden the eating of one sort of flesh or other2 one eats no mutton1 another no goats'-flesh1 beef1 swines'-flesh1 wild fowl1 c40 ,he points out that this restraint is not for a limited time1 but for the whole of life2 and as a son never eats what his father is restrained from1 or a daughter that which her mother cannot eat1 the forbidden object partakes of the nature of a totem4 ,it is doubtful whether the ,islanders of the ,pacific ever possessed systematic totemism1 although traces of the use of totems may1 perhaps1 be found in the names taken from plants met with in some of the islands1 and even in the word 8,samoa10 which is said by the ,rev4 ,wyatt ,gill#cai to mean 8the family or clan of the ,moa10 the ,polynesian term for fowl4 ,the ,samoans entertained ideas as to particular animals1 such as the eel1 the shark1 the turtle1 the dog1 the owl1 and the lizard1 similar to the notions associated with the totems of other peoples4 ,they supposed those animals to be incarnations of household deities1 and no man dare injure or eat the animal which was the incarnation of his own god1 although he could eat freely of the incarnation of another man's god4#cbj ,notions of the same kind were prevalent throughout the islands of the ,pacific4#cba ,thus1 the ,fijians supposed every man to be under the protection of a special god1 who resided in or was symbolised by some animal1 or other natural object1 such as a rat1 a shark1 a hawk1 a tree1 c4 ,no one would eat the particular animal associated with his own god2#cbb which explains the fact that cannibalism was not quite universal among the ,fijians1 as some gods were believed to reside in human bodies4 ,the heathen ,fijians allow souls not only to all mankind1 but to animals and plants1 and even to houses1 canoes1 and all mechanical contrivances4 ,as soon as their parents die they are enrolled among the family gods1 whose protecting care is firmly believed in4#cbc ,it is very probable that these gods1 who answer to the household deities of the ,samoans1 are regarded as being incarnate in the sacred animals1 c41 of the tribe1 towards whom1 as being re-embodiments of deceased ancestors1 they necessarily stand in a fraternal relation4 ,these ideas show a close connection between animal-worship and ancestor-worship1 and they have an important bearing on the origin of totemism4 ,we have seen that the obligations of the totemic institution are based on the conception of kinship4 ,this is also essential to ancestor-worship1 which1 like totemism1 rests on the obligation of mutual aid and protection4 ,the worshippers make the offerings and perform the rites required by their deceased ancestors1 who in return give their protection and assistance to their descendants4 ,this mutual obligation is associated with the superstitious regard for certain animals and other objects4 ,the venerated animals are not killed or eaten by those who are connected with them by superstitious ties1 and they are supposed1 on their part1 to act as protectors to their human allies1 by whom they are viewed as guardian spirits4 ,catlin1 the ,american traveller1 gives a vivid description of the mode in which the ,indian acquires such a guardian4 ,he states#cbd that every ,indian must 8make mystery10 that is1 obtain the protection of some mysterious power which is supposed to be connected with what is known as the mystery bag4 ,when a boy has attained the age of #ad or #ae years1 he absents himself for several days from his father's lodge1 8lying on the ground in some remote or secluded spot1 crying to the ,great ,spirit1 and fasting the whole time4 ,during this period of peril and abstinence1 when he falls asleep1 the first animal1 bird1 or reptile of which he dreams 7or pretends to have dreamed1 perhaps71 he considers the ,great ,spirit has designated for his mysterious protector through life4 ,he then returns home to his father's lodge1 and relates his success1 and after allaying his thirst and satisfying his appetite1 he sallies forth with weapons or traps until he can procure the animal or bird1 the skin of which he preserves entire1 and ornaments it according to his own fancy1 and carries it with him through life1 for good luck 7as he calls it73 as his strength in battle1 and in death his guardian spirit1 that is buried with him1 and which is to conduct him safe to the beautiful hunting grounds1 which he contemplates in the world to come40 ,in ,california it was thought that the ,great ,spirit sent1 in a vision1 to every child of seven years of age1 the appearance of some animal to be its protector or guardian4 ,the ,african fetish superstition is of much the same character1 as the fetish object is worshipped solely that it may give the protecting aid which the ,indian expects from his animal guardian4 ,mr4 ,cruickshank says1#cbe in relation to the natives of the ,gold ,coast of ,western ,africa1 that they believe 8the ,supreme ,being has bestowed upon a variety of objects1 animate and inanimate1 the attributes of ,deity1 and that he directs every individual man in his choice of his object of worship4444 ,it may be a block1 a stone1 a tree1 a river1 a lake1 a mountain1 a snake1 an alligator1 a bundle of rags1 or whatever the extravagent imagination of the idolater may pitch upon40 ,here1 although the nature of the protecting influence is apparently different from that which the ,americans are supposed to obtain1 it is in reality the same4 ,in either case it is a guardian spirit1 whether it is called a 8mystery0 animal or an object having the attributes of ,deity4 ,dr4 ,m',lennan saw a necessary connection between totemism and animal-worship1 and he affirms#cbf that the ancient nations passed1 in pre-historic times1 8through the totem stage1 having animals and plants1 and the heavenly bodies conceived as animals1 for gods before the anthropomorphic gods appeared40 ,by totem1 ,dr4 ,m',lennan evidently understood merely the animal or plant friend or protector of the family or tribe1 and if it had any reference to soul or spirit1 it is the soul or spirit of the animal or plant4 ,he speaks#cbg of men 8believing themselves to be of the serpent-breed derived from serpent-ancestors10 and so of other animals4 ,he does not see in the totem any reference to the actual progenitor of the family1 and he could hardly do so in accordance with his view of the mental condition of men in the totem stage1 where 8natural phenomena are ascribable to the presence in animals1 plants1 and things1 and in the forces of nature1 of such spirits prompting to action as men are conscious they themselves possess40 ,professor ,robertson ,smith accepts1 in his work on the early ,arabs1#cbh ,dr4 ,m',lennan's views on the subject of totemism and animal-worship1 and gives as one of the three points which supply complete proof of early totemism in any race1 8the prevalence of the conception that the members of the stock are of the blood of the eponym animal1 or are sprung from a plant of the species chosen as totem40 ,when ,prof4 ,smith comes to consider this point1 however1 it appears that among the ,arabs certain animals were not eaten because 8they were thought to be men in another guise10 that is1 they were not merely animals but were men in disguise4#cbi ,this is very different from the animistic theory1 which makes men trace their descent from animals or plants1 although these may be supposed to have the same kind of spirits as their human descendants2 but it is consistent with the doctrine of transmigration to which we shall have soon to refer4 ,dr4 ,m',lennan's hypothesis may be tested by what we know of the animal-worship of ancient ,egypt1 where some animals were universally worshipped1 while others were regarded with veneration only in particular districts1 of which they were the guardians1 and by whose inhabitants they were carefully protected4 ,we have here the operation of the idea of a special relation subsisting between certain persons and particular animals1 such as we have seen to exist in connection with totemism2 and that relationship must1 according to ,dr4 ,m',lennan's hypothesis that animal and plant gods were the earliest to be worshipped1 have depended on the animal descent of those persons4 ,this explanation may appear to find some support in ,m4 ,maspero's statement1#ccj that all the sacred animals of ,egypt were at first adored in their animal character1 and that afterwards they were identified with the gods of whom ultimately they became the incarnation or living tabernacle4 ,it is very improbable1 however1 that the gods would be identified with animals1 unless such animals were already regarded as divine1 or as connected with the peoples of whom they were the guardians--by virtue of such a special relationship as is thought by the ,pacific ,islanders to subsist between certain persons and the sacred animals in which their ancestors are incarnated4 ,as a fact1 the worship of animals was established in ancient ,egypt by a king of the second dynasty4#cca ,moreover1 it has been shown by ,m4 ,pierret that the ,egyptian religion was essentially monotheistic1 the different gods represented on the monuments being merely symbols4 8,their very form10 says that writer1 8proves that we cannot see in them real beings4 ,a god represented with the head of a bird or of a quadruped can have only an allegorical character1 in like manner as the lion with a human head called a sphinx has never passed for a real animal4 ,it is only a question of hieroglyphics4 ,the various personages of the ,pantheon represent the functions of the ,supreme ,god1 of the only and hidden ,god1 who preserves ,his identity and the fulness of ,his attributes under each of ,his forms40 ,dupuis1 in his ,history of ,religions1#ccb refers to the ancient opinion that the division of ,egypt into thirty-six nomes or provinces was in imitation of the thirty-six decans into which the ,zodiac was divided1 each of which had its protector4 ,the heavenly guardians became the protecting deities of the ,egyptian nomes which took the names of the animals there revered as images of the patron gods4 ,that opinion is consistent with the view expressed by ,m4 ,pierret as to the character of the ,egyptian deities4 ,dr4 ,m',lennan supposes1#ccc however1 that the heavenly bodies were conceived as gods before the anthropomorphic gods appeared4 ,he argues that1 as there is nothing in the grouping of the stars to suggest animal forms1 and as stars1 when named1 were given names that commanded respect1 if not veneration1 8the animals whose names were transferred to the stars or ,stellar groups1 were on earth highly1 if not religiously1 regarded10 in support of which view he shows that nearly all the animals so honoured were anciently worshipped as gods4 ,it by no means follows1 however1 that these animals were so worshipped before being transferred to the heavens2 and possibly this had nothing to do with any special regard for such animals4 ,much depends on the origin and object of the constellations4 ,there is still great uncertainty on this point1 but it is probable that the signs of the ,zodiac1 at least1 were supposed to represent certain cosmical phenomena connected with the progress of the seasons1 or with day and night1 half of the signs being diurnal and masculine1 and the other half being nocturnal and feminine4#ccd ,in a very suggestive work by ,mr4 ,andrew ,lang1 it is said#cce that ,dr4 ,m',lennan gave up his hypothesis and ceased to have any view on the origin of totemism1 and that its origin and determining causes are still unknown4 ,mr4 ,lang himself suggests a probable origin when he says1 8people united by contiguity1 and by the blind sentiment of kinship not yet brought into explicit consciousness1 might mark themselves by a badge1 and might thence devise a name1 and later might invent a myth of their descent from the object which the badge represented20 the meaning of which appears to be that1 before blood relationship was recognised1 persons living together marked#ccf themselves to enable their common origin to be remembered4 ,mr4 ,lang adds1 however1 that 8the very nature of totemism shows that it took its present shape at a time when men1 animals1 and plants were conceived of as physically akin2 when names were handed on through the female line2 when exogamy was the rule of marriage1 and when the family theoretically included all persons bearing the same family name1 that is1 all who claimed kindred with the same plant1 animal1 or object1 whether the persons are really akin or not40 ,according to this view1 kinship was fully recognised when totemism was established2 as descent in the female line is based on that recognition1 and exogamy was the result of the objection entertained by the lower races to the intermarriage of persons nearly related by blood or adoption4 ,this feeling could hardly be so strong when totemism took its present shape1 which is probably its original shape1 if1 when totems were invented1 kinship was not recognised4 ,the very nature of the totem is the conception of a special relation between men and certain animals and plants1 and it is this conception1 together with that of the totem as a protecting influence1 which have to be explained4 ,according to ,sir ,john ,lubbock1#ccg totemism is the stage of human progress in which natural objects1 trees1 lakes1 stones1 animals1 c41 are worshipped1 and it is regarded as equivalent to nature-worship4 ,totemism1 again1#cch is the deification of classes1 so that 8the ,redskin who regards the bear1 or the wolf1 as his totem1 feels that he is in intimate1 though mysterious1 association with the whole species40 ,the explanation given by ,sir ,john ,lubbock#cci of the phase of totemism which relates to the worship of animals is1 that it originated 8from the practice of naming1 first individuals1 and then their families1 after particular animals4 ,a family1 for instance1 which was called after the bear1 would come to look on that animal first with interest1 then with respect1 and at length with a sort of awe40 ,this does not go far enough1 however1 as it is not shown why certain animals and other objects are chosen as totems1 or why such totems are not only viewed with veneration but are regarded as friends and protectors4 ,dr4 ,e4 ,b4 ,tylor well objects1#cdj 8as to animal-worship1 when we find men paying distinct and direct reverence to the lion1 the bear1 or the crocodile1 as mighty superhuman beings1 or adoring other beasts1 birds1 or reptiles as incarnations of spiritual deities1 we can hardly supersede such well-defined developments of animistic religion1 by seeking their origin in personal names of deceased ancestors1 who chanced to be called ,lion1 ,bear1 or ,crocodile40 ,the fundamental basis of totemism is undoubtedly to be found in that phase of human thought in which spirits are supposed 8to inhabit trees and groves1 and to move in the winds and stars10 and in which almost every phase of nature is personified4 ,but whether1 as asserted by ,dr4 ,m',lennan1#cda 8the animition hypothesis1 held as a faith1 is at the root of all the mythologies10 or whether the ideas of animism1 as found expressed in totemism1 have been derived from the doctrines of the ancient religions1 is a question4 ,according to the religious philosophy of antiquity1 as expressed by ,pythagoras1 8the pure and simple essence of the ,deity1 was the common source of all the forms of nature1 which1 according to their various modifications1 possess different properties40 ,the ,universe or ,great ,cause1 animated and intelligent1 and subdivided into a multitude of partial causes likewise intelligent1 was divided also into two great parts1 the one active and the other passive4 ,of these parts1 the active comprises the ,heavens1 and the passive the ,earth and the elements4 ,in addition to this division was another1 that of principles1 of which one1 answering to the active cause1 was the principle of light or good1 and the other1 answering to the passive cause1 was the principle of darkness or evil4#cdb ,a very practical form of the ancient belief embodied in that philosophical system was entertained by the early ,scandinavians1 who1 says ,mallet1#cdc supposed that 8from the supreme divinity emanated an infinity of inferior deities and spirits1 of whom every visible part of the universe was the residence and the temple1 which intelligences not only dwell in them1 but also direct their operations4 ,each element had its intelligence or proper deity2 the ,earth1 the ,water1 the ,fire1 the ,air1 the ,sun1 the ,moon1 and the ,stars4 ,it was contained also in the trees1 the forests1 the rivers1 the mountains1 the rocks1 the winds1 the thunder1 the tempest1 which therefore deserved religious worship40 ,there is no reference here to the twofold division of nature1 but it is found in the analogous beliefs of early races4 ,thus1 ,lenormant1 in his work on 8,chaldean ,magic and ,sorcery10#cdd when comparing the ,finnish and ,accadian ,mythologies1 speaks of their having 8the same principle of the personification of natural phenomena1 objects1 and classes of beings belonging to the animated world40 ,an idea of dualism1 however1 pervaded this system1 which supposed that there was 8a bad as well as a good spirit attached to each celestial body1 each element1 each phenomenon1 each object1 and each being10 which were ever trying to supplant each other4#cde ,thus1 both ,accadians and ,finns 8recognised two worlds at enmity with each other2 that of the gods together with the propitious spirits1 and that of the demons1 respectively the kingdom of light and that of darkness1 the region of good and that of evil40#cdf ,at first sight these ideas have no special bearing on the subject of totemism1 but it is different when we consider certain notions entertained by the ,australian aborigines4 ,the ,rev4 ,lorimer ,fison remarks1#cdg 8the ,australian totems have a special value of their own4 ,some of them divide not mankind only1 but the whole universe1 into what may almost be called gentile divisions40 ,the natives of ,port ,mackay1 in ,queensland1 allot everything in nature into one or other of the two classes1 ,wateroo and ,yungaroo1 into which their tribe is divided4 ,the wind belongs to one and the rain to the other4 ,the ,sun is ,wateroo and the ,moon is ,yungaroo4 ,the stars are divided between them1 and the division to which any star belongs can be pointed out4 ,the ,mount ,gambier tribe of ,south ,australia has a similar arrangement1 but natural objects are allied with the totemic subdivisions4 ,mr4 ,fison gives examples of this as supplied to him by ,mr4 ,d4 ,s4 ,stewart1 from which it appears that rain1 thunder1 lightning1 winter1 hail1 clouds1 c41 are associated with the crow totem1 and the stars1 moon1 c41 belong to the same totemic class as the black cockatoo2 while the black1 crestless cockatoo subdivision includes the sun1 summer1 autumn1 wind1 c4 ,the native of ,south ,australia thus 8looks upon the ,universe as a ,great ,tribe1 to one of whose divisions he himself belongs2 and all things1 animate and inanimate1 which belong to his class1 are parts of the body corporate whereof he himself is part40 ,there is a curious parallelism between this system and the ancient doctrine of the separation of the intelligent ,universe into two great divisions1 the celestial and terrestrial1 or that of light and that of darkness4 ,in the totemic system one great division includes the sun and summer1 answering to the realm of light1 and the other division comprises moon1 stars1 winter1 thunder1 clouds1 rain1 hail1 answering to the realm of darkness4 ,the ,american aborigines also show traces of the notion of the dual division of nature in their hero-myths1 which1 according to ,dr4 ,brinton1#cdh are intended to express 8the daily struggle which is ever going on between ,day and ,night1 between ,light and ,darkness1 between ,storm and ,sunshine40 ,it is not improbable that the ,american totem system is based on the idea of duality4 ,although the totem divisions or gentes are now so numerous1 there is no reason to believe that1 as long since mentioned by ,lafitau#cdi in relation to the ,iroquois and ,hurons1 that they had at one time not more than three gentes4 ,mr4 ,morgan states1 indeed1 that the ,iroquois commenced with two gentes1 and it is possible that the original totems of all the ,north ,americans were only two in number4 ,the ,wolf and the ,bear1 which probably answer to ,light and ,darkness1#cej are the only totems common to all the great families of tribes of that area4 ,the dualism of the ,american mythology possesses the element of antagonism between the powers of light and those of darkness1 which was met with in the ancient mythologies4 ,the ,australian dualism appears to lose sight of that opposition1 and to look upon the two great divisions of nature represented by light and darkness as forming parts of a great whole4 ,this idea is not wanting1 however1 to one phase of what ,lenormant terms the 8naturalistic pantheism0 of ancient religions4 ,the ,french historian states#cea that1 although the ,magi 8preserved the dualistic form which the old ,proto-,medic religion must have admitted10 yet they considered the antagonism between the good and the bad spirits to be only superficial1 8for they regarded the representatives of the two opposing principles as consubstantial1 equal in power1 and emanating both from one and the same pre-existent principle40 ,lenormant finds traces of this notion in the old ,accadian system1 and he affirms#ceb that ,magism goes further than the perception of a common principle from which both the evil and the good principles emanated1 seeing that it did not bind itself to the worship of the latter1 but rendered equal homage to the two principles4 ,this fact has an important bearing on the worship of the ,evil ,being so prevalent among the lower races1 in combination with the simple recognition of the existence of a ,good ,being4 ,what has been said throws great light on the fundamental ideas of totemism1 but it does not account for the notion of protection1 which forms the real practical feature of that system4 ,this notion can1 however1 be found in certain doctrines of the ancient ,persian religion4 ,dr4 ,m',lennan refers1#cec in support of his hypothesis1 that animal gods were prolongations of the totems1 to the opinion said to have been entertained by the ,peruvians1 that 8there was not any beast or bird upon the earth whose shape or image did not shine in the heavens1 by whose influence its similitude was generated on the earth1 and its species increased40 ,from this he assumes 8that the celestial beings were conceived to be in the shape of the animals1 and to have special relations to their breed on the earth40 ,the ,peruvian notion is1 however1 rather a phase of the ancient belief1 expressed in the cosmogony of ,zoroaster1 that all things on earth had celestial prototypes which emanated from the ,deity4 ,as ,lenormant remarks1#ced 8stars1 animals1 men1 angels themselves--in one word1 every created being had his ,fravishi1 who was invoked in prayers and sacrifices1 and was the invisible protector who watched untiringly over the being to whom he was attached40 ,the ,mazdian fravishis answer to the personal spirits of nature-worship1 and1 according to the ,accadian ,magical ,table1 every man had 8from the hour of his birth a special god attached to him1 who lived as his protector and his spiritual type40#cee ,we have here the idea of guardianship by a mysterious being which is so important in connection with the totem1 but there is no suggestion that the fravishi itself ever became embodied in a terrestrial form1 although there does not appear to be any reason why it should not do so4 ,we have1 in the doctrine of transmigration of souls1 however1 a sufficient explanation of the special association between a particular totem and the members of the gens or family group to which it gives name4 ,according to that doctrine1#cef as stated in the ,hindoo code1 known as the ,laws of ,menu 7chap4 xii471 8with whatever disposition of mind a man shall perform in this life any act1 religious or moral1 in a future body endued with the same quality1 shall he receive his retribution40 ,numerous animals are named as proper for such re-incarnation1 and even vegetables and mineral substances appear among them4 ,transmigration seems to have been considered by ,oriental teaching essential to the attainment of perfection by the human soul1 and the forms through which it is supposed to pass1 include not only beasts1 birds1 and fishes1 but also trees1 stones1 and other inanimate objects4 ,the great ,gautama himself is said to have passed through all the existences of earth1 air1 and sea1 as well as through all the conditions of human life1 before he became the ,buddha4 ,dr4 ,m',lennan says#ceg it is of the essence of the doctrine of transmigration that 8everything has a soul or spirit1 and that the spirits are mostly human in the sense of having once been in human bodies40 ,we have here the key to the problem of totemism1 which receives its solution in the idea that the totem is the re-incarnated form of the legendary ancestor of the gens or family group allied to the totem4 ,the belief that the spirits of the dead do take on themselves animal forms is widely spread4#ceh ,the most remarkable example of this belief is that which views certain snakes1 not merely as re-incarnations of human souls1 but as re-embodiments of ancestors of the people by whom such snakes are venerated4 ,serpent-worship is1 indeed1 closely connected with the worship of ancestors4 ,the followers of the serpent believed themselves 8to be of the serpent-breed1 derived from a serpent ancestor10 and we know that peoples have claimed to belong to the serpent race4 ,such a claim1 or that to a monkey relationship made by some of the dark tribes of ,india1 would be readily admitted by the savage mind1 and it may be explained on the principle that the legendary ancestor of the race is supposed to have become re-incarnated in monkey or snake form1 and that monkeys or snakes as well as men are his descendants4 ,at the same time it is very probable that some savages do not distinguish between the man and the animal incarnation1 and that if they think at all of the ancestor of the race1 it is under the animal form4 ,it must be remembered1 however1 that what to us is a monkey or a bear is to the uncultured mind an incarnate spirit1 and it is this spirit-existence which is referred to when men speak of their ancestors as animals or plants4 ,this explanation is applicable also to the case where descent is claimed from one of the heavenly bodies4 ,particular stars are often identified with persons who1 distinguished while on earth1 are thought to be no less distinguished after death4 ,the spirit of the dead person thus becomes identified with the star4 ,when1 therefore1 a man or family claims the ,sun or the ,moon as an ancestor1 the spirit of the luminary is really referred to4 ,in fact1 to the lower races the ,sun and the ,moon are great beings1 and there is no apparent reason to them why a great man should not be descended from the spirit of the ,sun or ,moon1 or after death be identified as that spirit4 ,perhaps1 when the ,egyptian ,monarch was called ,pharaoh1 he was thought to be actually a descendant of ,phra1 the ,sun4#cei ,such may have been the case also with the ,incas and other royal families who have claimed to be of solar descent4 ,whether the ,sun was regarded as the great ancestor of the race1 or only as the re-embodiment of his spirit1 it would be an equally powerful totem1 a remark which applies as well to the ,moon or other heavenly bodies4 ,in ancient times the ,solar and ,lunar races were very powerful in the ,east1 and their representatives are still to be found in ,india among the ,rajpoots and ,jats4#cfj ,in ancient philosophy1 the ,sun and the ,moon would represent the two realms of ,light and ,darkness1 into which the visible ,universe was divided1 and as totems they probably stood at first in the same relation to other totems as those of the ,australian primary classes stand to the totems of the secondary groups or gentes4 ,it is known that various animals were anciently associated with the ,sun or the ,moon1 or were venerated as emblems of the ,solar or ,lunar ,deity4 ,thus1 the ,lion1 the ,bull1 the ,horse1 the ,elephant1 the ,monkey1 the ,ram1 and the ,eagle1 with others1 were solar animals2 while1 among other animals1 the ,cow1 the ,hare1 the ,dog1 the ,beaver1 the ,dove1 and the ,fish1 were lunar animals4#cfa ,an example of the process by which certain creatures became associated with those heavenly bodies is noted by ,macrobius1 who says of the ,lion1 8this beast seems to derive his own nature from the ,sun1 being1 in force and heat1 as superior to all other animals as the ,sun is to the ,stars40 ,another example1 but of a different character1 and taken from a very different quarter1 may be cited4 ,the ,mount ,gambier tribe of ,south ,australia1 as we have already seen1 divides everything in nature between two great classes1 and although ,mr4 ,stewart1 who is responsible for the information1 could not find any reason for the arrangement1 it appears from his remarks that the natives knew to which division any object belongs4 ,mr4 ,stewart asked what division a bullock belongs to4 ,the answer was1 8,it eats grass1 it is ,bourtwerio40 ,he then said1 8,a ,crayfish does not eat grass3 ,why is it ,bourtwerio80 but the only reply he could get was1 8,that is what our fathers said it was40#cfb ,we are now able to qualify the definition previously given of the totem as a 8badge of fraternity10 or the 8symbol of a gens40 ,we see that the totem is something more than a symbol or a badge4 ,this description might answer for the pictorial representation of the totem1 but not for the totem itself1 which is regarded as having actual vitality as the embodiment or re-incarnation of an ancestral spirit4 ,any object is fitted for this spirit embodiment1 and therefore totemism may be looked upon1 not as a phase of nature-worship1 but as a combination of this religion with ancestor-worship4 ,the ancestral character of the totem accounts for the association with it of the idea of protection1 which is based on the existence of a fraternal relationship between the totem and all the individuals belonging to a particular group of kin4 ,the totem1 as a badge or symbol1 therefore represents the group of individuals1 dead or alive1 towards whom a man stands in a fraternal relation1 and the protection of whom he is therefore entitled to1 so long as he performs all the obligations on his part which flow from the existence of that relationship4 ,the ideas embodied in the totem are no doubt more ancient than totemism as a developed social institution4 ,this fact will furnish an answer to the objection that totemism is known only to peoples of a low degree of culture1 who can hardly be supposed capable of rising to the conception of nature1 as a whole1 on which that system is founded1 or the idea of a relationship existing between all the objects in nature4 ,dr4 ,brinton#cfc answers those who object that the cosmogonical myth of the ,algonkins is 8too refined for those rude savages1 or that it smacks too much of reminiscences of old-world teachings10 that 8it is impossible to assign to it other than an indigenous and spontaneous origin in some remote period of ,algonkin tribal history40 ,the same reply may be given in relation to the universal totemism of the ,australians1 with the qualification that the tribal history of this race would have to be carried back to a period when it was in contact1 on the ,asiatic ,continent1 with peoples among whom originated or developed the ideas on which totemism is based1 if1 indeed1 they did not belong with them to a common stock4 ,the existence among the natives of ,australia and ,america of that system may have been due to the establishment of the gentile institution on the basis of female kinship1 and the intermingling of the gentes or family groups1 owing to wives leaving their own kin on marriage to live among their husband's kin1 as the result of the practice of exogamy4 ,some of the ,australian tribes have a legend according to which the use of totems was introduced1 by command of the ,supreme ,being1 to put a stop to consanguineous marriages4 ,this shows that the totem was connected with marriage and kinship1 but1 considering how universal is the objection among savages to marriage between near relations1 it is more than probable that the legend was formed to explain an already existing phenomenon1 that of totemism4 ,as the conditions of social life were changed1 totemism as a system would gradually become effete1 and totems would come to be regarded chiefly as curiosities of nomenclature4 ,the preference for kinship through males1 in connection with the tracing of descent1 over kinship through females1 combined with the practice of wives leaving their own family to live among their husband's kin1 would take from the totem one of its most important uses1 as all the members of a 8family0 would dwell together instead of being1 like the individuals belonging to the ,american or ,australian totems1 intermingled in one group4 ,totems would then be useful chiefly as ensigns1 or as surnames to establish community of descent1 and therefore the evidence of marriage disability2 as with the ,chinese1 among whom no persons of the same family name can intermarry1 however distant may be the actual relationship4 ,when the mere possession of a common surname was no longer an absolute bar to intermarriage1 and kinship came to be traced equally through both parents1 totemism ceased to have any value1 except so far as the study of its phenomena can throw light on the constitution and habits of ancient society4 ,,footnotes3 #cjc ,a more remarkable case even than this was the appearance to ,professor ,de ,wette of his own double4 #cjd ,this was first published in 8,anthropologia10 in #ahge4 #cje ,see 8,theosophy1 ,religion1 and ,occult ,science0 7#ahhe71 p4 #bcf1 et seq4 #cjf ,casalis' 8,les ,basoutos10 p4 #bba4 ,the ,hottentots are said to have given animal names1 such as ,horse1 ,lion1 ,sheep1 ,ass1 c41 to their children4 ,kolben's 8,cape of ,good ,hope10 p4 #adg4 #cjg 8,kinship and ,marriage in ,early ,arabia10 pp4 #ag1aib1 et seq4 #cjh ,quoted by ,dr4 ,j4 ,f4 ,m',lennan in the ,fortnightly ,review1 vol4 vi41 new series1 p4 #dah4 #cji ,the 8,genealogical ,tree of the ,turks0 ascribes a wolf paternity to the sons of the ,princess ,choyumna ,khan 7,miles' ,translation1 p4 #dg74 ,is there a totemic reference in the game of ,kkburi1 8green-wolf10 practised by the ,nomads of ,central ,asia in imitation of bride-racing8 ,vambery's 8,travels in ,central ,asia10 p4 #cbc4 #caj 8,systems of ,consanguinity and ,affinity10 by ,lewis ,h4 ,morgan1 p4 #dbd4 #caa ,these and nine other animals give names to the twelve years of the ,mogul calendar4 #cab ,mahabharata4--,talbot ,wheeler's 8,history of ,india10 vol i41 p4 #dab4 #cac ,fortnightly ,review1 vol4 vi41 n4 s41 p4 #efc1 et seq4 #cad 8,the ,native ,tribes of ,south ,australia10 p4 #bfj4 #cae 8,kamilaroi and ,kurnai10 p4 #aff4 #caf 8,ancient ,society10 p4 #fi4 #cag 8,travels in ,north-,western ,australia10 vol4 ii41 p4 #bbi4 #cah 8,description of the ,coast of ,guinea10 p4 #abi4 #cai 8,life in the ,southern ,isles10 p4 #be4 #cbj ,turner's 8,nineteen ,years in ,polynesia10 p4 #bch4 #cba ,see ,tylor's 8,primitive ,culture10 vol4 ii41 p4 #bac4 #cbb ,wood's 8,natural ,history of ,man10 vol4 ii41 pp4 #bga1 #bij4 #cbc ,seemann's 8,mission to ,viti10 p4 #cia4 ,on the temple at ,dorey in ,new ,guinea are sculptured the representations of the crocodile and serpent ancestors of some of the ,dorean families4 ,d',estrey's 8,papouasie10 p4 #acb4 #cbd 8,manners and ,customs of the ,indians10 vol4 i41 p4 #cf1 and vol4 ii41 #bdg4 #cbe 8,eighteen ,years on the ,gold ,coast10 vol4 ii41 p4 #abh4 #cbf ,fortnightly ,review1 vol4 vi41 n4 s41 p4 #djh4 #cbg ,ditto1 p4 #efi1 and vol4 vii41 n4 s41 p4 #bad4 #cbh 8,kinship and ,marriage10 p4 #ahf1 et seq4 #cbi 8,kinship and ,marriage10 p4 #bjd4 #ccj 8,histoire ,ancienne des ,peuples de l',orient10 #dth edition1 p4 #bh4 #cca ,lenormant1 8,histoire ,ancienne de l',orient10 #ith edition1 t4 ii41 p4 #bab1 et seq4 #ccb 8,origine de tous les ,cultes10 t4 i41 p4 #gg4 #ccc ,fortnightly ,review1 vol4 vi41 n4 s41 p4 #efc4 #ccd ,dupuis ,op4 cit41 t4 iii41 8,de la ,sphere10 p4 #ai4 #cce 8,custom and ,myth10 #bnd edition1 p4 #bfb4 #ccf ,as to supposed use of the totem as a tattoo mark1 see ,m',lennan1 loc4 cit41 p4 #dah1 and ,smith's 8,kinship and ,marriage in ,early ,arabia10 p4 #bac1 et seq4 #ccg 8,origin of ,civilisation10 #crd edition1 p4 #aii4 #cch ,ditto1 p4 #cbg4 #cci ,ditto1 p4 #bec4 #cdj 8,primitive ,culture10 vol4 ii41 p4 #bae4 #cda ,loc4 cit41 p4 #dbb4 #cdb ,dupuis 8,abrg de l',origine10 pp4 #ga1 #hc4 #cdc ,ditto1 p4 #ff4 #cdd ,english edition1 p4 #bej4 #cde ,ditto1 p4 #ade4 #cdf ,ditto1 p4 #bee4 #cdg ,op4 cit41 p4 #afg1 et seq4 #cdh 8,american ,hero-,myths10 p4 #fe4 #cdi 8,les ,murs des ,sauvages10 t4 i41 #dfe4 #cej ,see ,gubernatis' 8,zoological ,mythology10 passim4 ,dr4 ,brinton shows that the ,great ,rabbit of ,algonkin ,mythology is the ,light ,god4--,op4 cit41 p4 #dg4 #cea 8,chaldean ,magic10 p4 #bbh4 #ceb ,ditto1 p4 #bca4 #cec ,fortnightly ,review1 vol4 vii41 n4 s41 p4 #bab4 #ced ,op4 cit41 p4 #aii4 #cee ,this idea survives in the personal patron saints of the ,greek ,church4 ,the special god was of a peculiar character1 8partaking of the imperfections and foibles of human nature10 and1 like the ,mazdian fravishi1 it was part of the man's soul4 ,lenormant says1 however1 that in the ,mazdian books1 8the conception rose to a higher degree1 detaching itself from the materiality and imperfections of the terrestrial nature40 #cef ,see 8,evolution of ,morality10 vol4 ii41 p4 #aed1 et seq4 #ceg ,loc4 cit41 p4 #dbc4 #ceh ,see ,tylor1 op4 cit41 vol4 ii41 p4 #f4 #cei ,osburn's 8,egypt and ,her ,testimony to the ,truth10 p4 #b4 ,the ,god ,amoun is said to address ,sethos as 8my beloved son1 my lineal descendant40--,ditto1 p4 #di4 #cfj ,professor ,robert ,smith 7op4 cit41 p4 #ag7 refers to ,arab tribes1 called 8,children of the ,sun0 and 8,children of the ,moon40 #cfa ,see ,de ,gubernatis1 op4 cit41 passim4 ,he states that the stag1 the bear1 and some other animals represent the luminous appearances in the darkness1 rather than the moon itself4 #cfb 8,kamilaroi and ,kurnai10 p4 #afi4 #cfc ,op4 cit41 p4 #dc4 ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,man ,,and ,,the ,,ape4 ,the primary object of the present essay is to ascertain whether the conclusion arrived at by ,mr4 ,darwin and other writers as to the origin of man--that he has sprung from the ape by simple descent--can be depended on1 and if not1 what is the nature of man's relationship to the animal kingdom4 ,without further preface1 ,i shall proceed to consider as briefly as possible the main arguments adduced by ,mr4 ,darwin in support of this conclusion4#cfd ,those which are derived from the consideration of physical data appear to me to be of comparatively small importance1 since they may be admitted without seriously affecting the question at issue4 ,they are almost all connected with the fact that man is 8constructed on the same general type or model with other mammals40 ,thus it is with the brain1 every chief fissure and fold of which is declared to be developed in the brain of the orang equally with that of man4 ,their constitutional habit1 however1 appears also to be the same4 ,thus man and monkeys are liable to many of the same non-contagious diseases2 medicines produce the same effect on both1 and most mammals exhibit the mysterious law of periodicity in various diseases4 ,these are interesting facts1 but the most important for the argument of the ape-descent of man are those which show the existence in the human body of certain rudimentary organs and structures which are fully developed with some of the lower animals4 ,it is possible1 however1 to explain this phenomenon without having recourse to the hypothesis of a simple ape-descent2 even if it be admitted with ,m4 ,broca1 that in the parallel between man and the anthropoids1 the comparison of organs shows only some slight differences4#cfe ,this may be granted even as to the brain1 and that 8the immense superiority of man's intelligence depends1 not on the anatomical structure of his brain1 but on its volume and power40#cff ,but then1 if such is the case1 it is all the more difficult to account for the vast difference which1 says ,broca1 a comparison of function reveals1 and which led ,m4 ,gratiolet to exclaim that1 although man is indeed by his structure a monkey1 yet by his intelligence he is a ,god4#cfg ,while admitting that physiological considerations reveal a much wider interval between man and the anthropoid apes than anatomical data require1 ,m4 ,broca would hardly allow that the former exhibits anything peculiar in his mental action4 ,so1 also1 ,mr4 ,darwin says that man and the higher mammals 8have some few instincts in common4 ,all have the same senses1 intuitions1 and sensations--similar passions1 affections1 and emotions1 even the more complex ones2 they feel wonder and curiosity2 they possess the same faculties of imitation1 attention1 memory1 imagination1 and reason1 though in very different degrees40#cfh ,the faculty of articulate speech1 moreover1 is said not in itself to offer 8any insuperable objection to the belief that man has been developed from some lower form20 while the taste for the 8beautiful0 is shown not to be peculiar to the human mind4#cfi ,the moral sense is supposed by ,mr4 ,darwin to be the most distinctive characteristic of man2 but even this is asserted to have been developed out of the social instincts which man and many of the lower animals have in common4#cgj ,finally1 self-consciousness1 abstraction1 c41 even if peculiar to man1 are declared to be 8the incidental results of other highly-advanced intellectual faculties20#cga and these again are mainly due to the continued use of a highly-developed language1 which originated in 8the imitation and modification1 aided by signs and gestures1 of various natural sounds1 the voices of other animals and man's own instinctive cries40#cgb ,if1 however1 all this be true1 how are we to account for the wonderful intellectual superiority of man8 ,haeckel gives an explanation which1 although ingenious1 is far from satisfactory4 ,he says that it is owing to the fact that 8man combines in himself several prominent peculiarities1 which only occur separately among other animals40 ,the most important of these are the superior structure of the larynx1 the degree of brain or soul development1 and that of the extremities1 the upright walk1 and1 lastly1 speech4 ,but1 says ,haeckel1 8all these prerogatives belong singly to other animals--birds with highly-organised larynx and tongue1 such as the parrot1 c41 can learn to utter articulate sounds as perfectly as man himself4 ,the soul's activity exists among many of the higher animals1 particularly with the dog1 the elephant1 and the horse1 in a higher degree of cultivation than with man when most degraded4 ,the hand1 as a mechanical instrument1 is as highly developed among the anthropoid apes as with the lowest men4 ,finally1 man shares his upright walk with the penguin and other animals1 while capacity for locomotion is more fully and more perfectly developed among many animals than with man40 ,haeckel concludes1 therefore1 that it is 8solely the fortunate combination of a higher organisation of several very important organs and functions which raises most men1 but not all1 above the animals40#cgc ,this explanation1 however1 appears rather to increase the difficulty than to remove it4 ,some of ,haeckel's statements might probably be challenged with success2 but even admitting their truth1 what cause can be given of the marvellous combination in man1 of qualities possessed separately by animals1 the highest in the class to which they belong8 ,mr4 ,darwin justly remarks1 that 8the belief that there exists in man some close relation between the size of the brain and the development of the intellectual faculties1 is supported by the comparison of the skulls of savage and civilised races of ancient and modern peoples1 and by the analogy of the whole vertebrate series40#cgd ,there must1 indeed1 be a certain agreement between the brain and its intellectual products1 and hence the large size of the human brain requires that the mental phenomena of man should be of a vastly superior nature to those presented by the lower animals4 ,whether1 according to the developmental view of the correspondence between human and brute mental faculties1 the lower races of man1 as compared with animals1 really exhibit an intellectual superiority commensurate with the largeness of their brains1 may be questioned4 ,mr4 ,wallace1 indeed1 declares that they do not1 and he goes so far as to say that 8a brain slightly larger than that of the gorilla would1 according to the evidence before us1 fully have sufficed for the limited mental development of the savage40#cge ,this opinion is correct1 on the assumption that animal and human mental action is perfectly analogous1 and ,mr4 ,wallace would undoubtedly be right in asserting that the savage possesses a brain 8quite disproportionate to his actual requirements10 if by this phrase is meant his mere animal wants4 ,but the savage is a man1 and the size of brain required by him must be judged of1 not by the degree of intellectual action he exhibits1 but by its accompaniments--not by quantity1 but by quality4 ,the source of man's superiority must be sought in an examination of his mental faculties1 and yet the inquiry is vitiated at the very commencement1 by the assumption that the mind of man differs from that of the animal only in the degree of its activity4 ,i am prepared to admit that the higher mammalia1 at least1 have the power of reasoning1 with all the faculties which are essential to its exercise4 ,but this very fact makes it utterly incomprehensible how the result of human mental activity can be so superior1 unless some further principle or faculty than those which the animal mind possesses operates in that of man4 ,what this principle or faculty is1 may be shown by reference to certain facts connected with language4 ,mr4 ,darwin ascribes the origin of human speech to imitation and modification of natural sounds and man's own instinctive utterances4#cgf ,that the primitive elements of man's language were thus obtained is doubtless true4 ,something else1 however1 is required to explain the phenomena presented by the languages of uncultured peoples4 ,such1 for instance1 cannot have been the origin of certain ideas which are apparently common to the minds of all peoples however savage4 ,it has been said that these peoples1 although having names for every particular object1 have no words to express a class of objects4 ,this statement must be received with caution4 ,but if absolutely true in the sense intended1 it cannot be denied that nearly all primitive languages have words denoting colours1 and these by their very nature1 as expressive of attributes1 are applicable to a series of objects4 ,now there is not the slightest reason to believe that animals have any idea of qualities1 as such4 ,even the taste for the beautiful1 which ,mr4 ,darwin tells us is not unknown to various animals--especially birds1 has relation to the object which attracts by its colour1 c41 and not to the colour itself4 ,but it is just this perception of the qualities of objects which is at the foundation1 and forms the starting point1 of all human progress4 ,the essential instrument of intellectual development1 articulate language1 was first prompted by such a perception1 and it was in the recognition of the qualities of actions1 by reflection on their consequences1 that the moral sense was gradually evolved4 ,it can hardly be that a power which has had so wonderful an effect1 and one which is so different from anything met with among the lower animals1 can be referred to any of the ordinary faculties which these possess4 ,if not1 we must ascribe it to a new faculty altogether1 a kind of spiritual insight1 which can be explained only as resulting from the addition of a principle of activity superior to that which is the seat of the animal life4 ,if we were to trace the beginning of every single branch of human culture1 it would be found to have originated in the exercise of such a faculty of reflection as that here described4 ,the elements of knowledge man possesses in common with the animals around him2 but these have not built up any superstructure1 because they have no spiritual insight such as will enable them to analyse those elements1 and thus to fit them for re-combination into that wonderful series of forms which they have taken in the human mind4 ,it is hardly necessary to discuss here the nature of the principle which thus shows its energy in the mind of man4 ,whether it is the cause or the effect of the refined organisation exhibited by the human body need not now be considered4 ,if the latter1 however1 it may be objected that--assuming the human bodily organism to have been derived by descent from a lower animal form1 according to the principles of natural selection--the intellectual faculty peculiar to man must have had analogous origin4 ,to this it might be answered that man's special faculty could not have been derived from an animal organism which does not itself possess it2 but it is advisable rather to test that conclusion by a consideration of the physical data1 and to see how far the argument for natural descent can be supported4 ,according to this view1 the tendency to the bipedal character was the first to become operative in the gradual development of man out of the ape4 ,the erect form is supposed1 however1 to have been assumed that the arms and hands might have full play1#cgg and it is evident that the free use of these would not have been of any special advantage without an increased brain-activity to guide them4 ,probably the changes required in the physical structure would be concomitant1 but if they had a starting point it would surely be in the brain rather than in the extremities4 ,the great development of the encephalon in man as compared with the monkey tribe would1 in fact1 require all the other supposed changes4 ,thus the greatly increased size and weight of the brain and its bony case1 combined with the position of the foramen magnum at the base of the skull1 would necessitate the erect position of the body1 and this would supply the arms and upper part of the trunk with the required freedom of movement4 ,these changes would be accompanied by the modification of the pelvis and lower limbs1 while the increased sensitiveness of the skin1 resulting from man's more refined nervous structure1 will sufficiently account for its general nakedness1#cgh without supposing1 with ,mr4 ,darwin1 the influence of sexual selection4#cgi ,it is therefore in reality only the large size of the human brain that has to be accounted for1 and this is by no means easy on the principle of natural selection4 ,no doubt1 with the increased activity of the mental powers1 the brain would become more voluminous4 ,but what was to determine that increased activity8 ,it can only have been an improvement in the conditions of existence1 to which man's supposed ape progenitors were subjected1 for which no sufficient reason can be given4 ,moreover1 those progenitors would be subjected to the inevitable struggle for existence--a struggle which1 even with man1 in an uncivilised state1 has a tendency to brutalise rather than to humanise4 ,under these conditions it would seem to be impossible for man to have raised himself to so great a superiority over his nearest allies as even the lowest savage exhibits4 8,his absolute erectness of posture1 the completeness of his nudity1 the harmonious perfection of his hands1 the almost infinite capacities of his brain1 constitute10 says ,mr4 ,wallace1 8a series of correlated advances too great to be accounted for by the struggle for existence of an isolated group of apes in a limited area10#chj as ,mr4 ,darwin's hypothesis supposes4 ,while firmly convinced1 on the grounds already stated1 that man cannot have been derived from the ape by descent with natural selection1 ,i am by no means prepared to admit that he may not have been so derived under other conditions4 ,although man undoubtedly has a mental faculty of the utmost importance which the animals do not possess1 agreeing with his superiority of physical structure1 there can be no question that1 both physically and mentally1 he is most intimately allied to the members of the animal kingdom4 ,before endeavouring to furnish a solution of the difficult question of the origin of man under these conditions1 ,i would point out1 what is so ably insisted on by ,m4 ,broca1#cha that transformism1 to use the continental term1 is wholly distinct from 8natural selection10 or any other mode by which the transformation may be originated or effected4 ,this is a most important consideration1 and one which ,mr4 ,darwin has incidentally referred to4#chb ,that man is the final term in a process of evolution1 the beginning of which we cannot yet trace1 appears to me to be a firmly established truth4 ,the descent of man from the ape under the influence of external conditions is1 however1 a totally different proposition1 and one of which no actual proof has yet been furnished1 the argument really amounting to this1 that the correspondences between man and the higher mammals render it more likely that he has descended from the ape than that he has been specially created4 ,this may be true1 and yet those correspondences be owing to a very different cause from the one thus supposed for them4 ,mr4 ,herbert ,spencer affirms that 8successive changes of conditions would produce divergent varieties or species0 of the organisms subject to them1 apart from the influence of 8natural selection10 which1 in the absence of such successive changes of conditions1 would effect 8comparatively little40#chc ,it is to the latter especially ,mr4 ,spencer traces the gradual evolution of nature1 on the process of which he has thrown so much light4 ,thus1 when treating elsewhere of that evolution1 he says1 8,while we are not called on to suppose that there exists in organisms any primordial impulse which makes them continually unfold into more heterogeneous forms2 we see that a liability to be unfolded arises from the actions and reactions between organisms and their fluctuating environments4 ,and we see that the existence of such a cause of development pre-supposes the non-occurrence of development where this fluctuation of actions and reactions does not come into play40#chd ,it is evident that this theory1 like that of ,mr4 ,darwin1 supposes the occurrence of slight structural changes which1 in the absence of knowledge as to their exciting causes1 may be described as 8spontaneous10 and the perpetuation of which is the establishment of new forms or species4 ,but among domestic animals1 and by analogy we may assume1 therefore1 among wild animals1 variation in the way supposed is not the only mode by which the physical structure may be modified4 ,various instances of sudden change have been collected which are very difficult to deal with1 and they have led ,mr4 ,huxley to remark that ,mr4 ,darwin's position 8might have been even stronger than it is if he had not embarrassed himself with the aphorism #8natura non facit saltum1' which turns up so often in his pages40 ,mr4 ,huxley adds 8that nature does make jumps now and then1 and a recognition of the fact is of no small importance in disposing of many minor objections to the doctrine of transmutation40#che ,minor objections may certainly be thus removed1 but only by introducing one of much greater moment4 ,if1 as ,mr4 ,spencer says1 8natural selection is capable of producing fitness between organisms and their circumstances10#chf it must be by the perpetuation of slight changes1 and there does not1 indeed1 appear to be any room in the hypothesis of natural selection for the saltatory movements which it is so necessary to explain4 ,the changes which organisms undergo1 whether sudden or gradual1 and whatever their approximate exciting cause1 take place in pursuance of the evolution of organic nature1 and there can be no doubt that this proceeds under the guidance of law4 ,professor ,owen expresses this fact in saying that 8generations do not vary accidentally in any and every direction1 but in preordained1 definite1 and correlated courses40#chg ,this may be accepted as expressing a general truth1 subject to some qualification of the word 8preordained40 ,it is not exactly true1 however1 for variations are not always regular and orderly4 ,within certain limits1 indeed1 they would seem to take place in any direction1 but there is always a tendency for them to accumulate in that course along which they meet with the least resistance4 ,this is in accordance with the principle laid down by ,mr4 ,herbert ,spencer1 that everything tends towards equilibration1 the state being one not of absolute but of moving equilibrium1 while 8throughout evolution of all kinds there is a continual approximation1 and more or less complete maintenance of this moving equilibrium40#chh ,the ultimate result is that1 8when through a change of habit or circumstance an organism is permanently subject to some new influence1 or different amount of an old influence1 there arises1 after more or less disturbance of the old rhythms1 a balancing of them around the new average conditions produced by this additional influence40#chi ,it is evident that the variations which have been originated before the attainment of the state of temporary stability thus established would have little chance of being perpetuated2 and we have probably here the explanation of the fact that the progress of evolution reveals itself so often by sudden movements4 ,in these cases1 where the disturbing influence has rendered the equilibrium of the organism affected more or less unstable1 a new centre of equilibrium will be formed1 and the appearance of a fresh specific form be the result4 ,however fitted this explanation may be to account for the gaps which so often present themselves in developmental series of animal structures1 it is far from sufficient to account for the origin of man1 at least on the assumption of evolution governed merely by mechanical principles4 ,neither man nor animals1 in fact1 could have come into being at all unless there had been an organic necessity1 quite independent even of the general average effects of the relations of living bodies to their environments1 insisted on by ,mr4 ,spencer4 ,that these agencies have been very influential in the evolution of organic nature is undoubtedly true4 ,but their influence in this respect depends altogether on the organism on which they act being in a condition of unstable equilibrium4 ,mr4 ,spencer declares1 when speaking of the condition of homogeneity being a condition of unstable equilibrium1 that this instability is 8consequent on the fact that the several parts of any homogeneous aggregation are necessarily exposed to different forces--forces that differ either in kind or amount40#cij ,this may be true in relation to animal and vegetable forms1 whose germs are supposed not to show the slightest trace of the future organism1 although even as to these ,mr4 ,spencer can say that 8doubtless we are still in the dark respecting those mysterious properties which make the germ1 when subject to fit influences1 undergo the special changes beginning this series of transformations40#cia ,but the unstable condition of the primeval homogeneous substance of nature could not be due to the cause assigned4 ,for it requires the impossible case of certain forces1 the action of which is supposed to result in the condition of instability1 existing outside of that substance which1 as being identified with the ,absolute1 we must assume to be present throughout all space4 ,the notion of an universally diffused homogeneous substance1 acted on by external forces1 appears to be contrary to reason2 and the proper explanation of the original condition of instability would seem to be that it is natural to the primeval substance as the result of an innate energy1 the internal force which constitutes its vitality4 ,but this substance cannot have been merely 8material40 ,there is just as little room for transition from the inorganic to the organic as from the animal to man2 there is but one satisfactory starting-point--nature itself viewed as organic4 ,if such is the case when the changes observable in nature are viewed as strictly evolutional1 much more so is it when they are traced to the lower activity of natural selection4 ,mr4 ,j4 ,j4 ,murphy well remarks that 8the facts of variability being the greatest in the lowest organisms1 while progress has been most rapid among the higher ones1 shows that there is something in organic progress which mere natural selection among spontaneous variations will not account for40#cib ,elsewhere the same writer declares that 8no solution of the questions of the origin of organisation and the origin of organic species can be adequate which does not recognise an organising intelligence over and above the common laws of matter0--i4e41 the laws of self-adaptation to circumstances and natural selection4#cic ,this organising intelligence is supposed to have been bestowed once for all on vitalised matter by the ,creator1 so as to prevent the necessity of separately organising each particular structure1#cid although it is suggested that man's spiritual nature may be a direct result of creative power4#cie ,mr4 ,wallace objects to the law of 8unconscious intelligence10 that 8it has the double disadvantage of being both unintelligible and incapable of any kind of proof40#cif ,this is true enough1 but it has the equally serious defect of reintroducing the notion of special 8creation10 with all the difficulties attendant on the origin of matter1 and the separate existence of independent spiritual and material substances4 ,mr4 ,wallace himself is so much struck with the imposing position occupied by man that he thinks that 8a superior intelligence has guided the development of man in a definite direction and for a special purpose1 just as man guides the development of many animal and vegetable forms40#cig ,he supposes1 moreover1 that 8the whole universe is not merely dependent on1 but actually is1 the ,,will of higher intelligences1 or of one supreme intelligence40#cih ,it seems to me1 although ,mr4 ,wallace thinks otherwise1 that this notion completely undermines the hypothesis of natural selection4 ,if not only the whole universe1 but also a particular portion of it--man--has been divinely 8willed10 analogy will lead us to believe that every other portion of the whole has thus originated4 ,the difficulties attendant on theories such as those of ,mr4 ,murphy and ,mr4 ,wallace1 and the unsatisfactory explanation afforded by the theory of evolution1 as usually understood1 of the origin of man1 have led me to the opinion that nature as a whole is organic1 and that man is the necessary result of its evolution4 ,not only so1 however2 man must be viewed as the real object of the evolution of nature viewed as a living organism4 ,without him nature itself would be imperfect1 and all lower animal forms must1 therefore1 be considered as subsidiary to the human organism1 and as so many stages only towards its attainment4 ,but if living nature is an organic whole1 its several parts must be intimately connected4 ,hence the numerous correspondences between man and the higher mammals cannot be accidental or even merely designed similarities4 ,they betoken an actual and intimate connection between the organisms presenting them1 and such an one as is consistent only with a derivation of one from the other4 ,this view differs from that of ,mr4 ,darwin1 not in the fact of man's derivation from the ape1 but in the mode and conditions under which it has taken place4 ,derivation1 by virtue of an inherent evolutional impulse1 is totally different from simple descent1 aided by natural selection4 ,in the latter case the appearance of man may be described as in some sense accidental2 in the former1 not only is it necessary1 but it is that for which all evolution has taken place1 the only condition1 in fact1 under which evolution was possible4 ,how far such a development of organic forms as ,i have supposed is consistent with design is a difficult question4 ,it is apparent that when nature is conceived of as forming an organic whole1 the universe becomes identified with the ,absolute1 of whose being relative nature is merely an expression4 ,but is not the possession by relative existences of intellectual faculties1 and of the marvellous power of insight or reflection1 evidence that the same powers belong also to the absolute ,being8 ,the possession by man of intelligence is1 in fact1 proof that organic nature is intelligent4 ,still1 however1 the need of design is not apparent4 ,granting that relative nature has been evolved out of the absolute existence1 such evolution can have taken only one course--that which led to man1 who could appear only when the conditions of nature were fitted for him1 and who must appear when those conditions were so fitted4 ,moreover1 as man was from the beginning the object of organic evolution1 this must have taken place along the line which led to him1 without any actually preconceived design or intention other than that which is implied in the preknowledge of man's appearance4 ,it does not follow1 however1 that other branches of organic nature besides that which ended in man may not have reached a stage of structural perfection4 ,no doubt they have so done1 and thus we can understand how it is that certain animals seem to have been1 as ,professor ,owen asserts1 8predestined and prepared for man40 ,the fitness pointed out by our great anatomist 8of the organisation of the horse and ass for the needs of mankind1 and the coincidence of the origin of the ,ungulates having equine modifications of the perissodactyle structure with the period immediately preceding1 or coincident with1 the earliest evidence of the human race10 is certainly remarkable4#cii ,i cannot see in these facts1 however1 anything more than a necessary coincidence arising from the progress of evolution along different planes4 ,it is possible1 however1 that ,professor ,owen may mean little more than this1 and that he would be satisfied to admit the identity between the 8predetermining0 agent and organic nature1 acting by virtue of the laws of its own evolutional impulse4 ,so at least may be supposed from the fact that he rejects 8the principle of direct or miraculous creation10 and recognises 8a #8natural law or secondary cause' as operative in the production of species in orderly succession and progression40#djj ,it is difficult to understand how otherwise there could be an 8innate tendency to deviate from the parental type40 ,before concluding1 reference should be made to certain facts connected with the development of the brain and the human organism generally1 which at first sight seem to be quite irreconcilable with the notion of man's derivation from the ape1 even under the conditions ,i have proposed4 ,thus1 ,m4 ,pruner ,bey has shown that in man and the anthropomorphous apes there exists 8an inverse order of the final term of development in the sensitive and vegetative apparatus1 and in the systems of locomotion and reproduction40 ,the same inverse order is exhibited in the development of individual organs4 ,thus it is1 says ,pruner ,bey1 with a portion of the permanent teeth2 ,welcher makes a similar remark as to the modifications of the base of the skull in relation to the sphenoidal angle of ,virchow2 and ,gratiolet points out an analogous fact in the development of the brain4 ,the language of the great ,french anatomist is very precise4 ,he says3 8,with man and the adult anthropormorphous apes there exists a certain resemblance in the mode of arrangement in the cerebral folds which has imposed on some persons and on which they have strongly insisted4 ,but this result is attained by an inverse process 7marche inverse74 ,in the monkey the temporosphenoidal convolutions which form the middle lobe appear and perfect themselves before the anterior convolutions which form the frontal lobe4 ,with man1 on the contrary1 the frontal convolutions appear the first1 and those of the middle lobe show themselves the last40 ,in referring to these facts1 ,m4 de ,quatrefages declares that 8when two organised beings follow an inverse course in their development1 the more highly developed of the two cannot have descended from the other by means of evolution40#dja ,if by evolution is meant simple descent under the influence of natural selection and modification of external conditions1 this conclusion is certainly correct4 ,it is true that1 contrary to the opinion expressed by ,gratiolet1 that 8the human brain differs the more from that of the monkey the less it is developed1 and an arrest of development can only exaggerate this natural difference40#djb ,m4 ,carl ,vogt declares that the human brain may1 under certain conditions1 not only externally resemble that of the higher apes1 but also that the superior portion of it 7parties votes7 in microcephalic idiots is really developed after the simian type1#djc the skull itself having both simian and human elements4#djd ,but does not the fact that the lower part of the microcephalic skull1 and the portion of the brain which is the earliest developed1 are formed on the human type1 amply justify the assertion of ,gratiolet that 8the microcephale1 however degraded1 is not a brute1 but only a modified man80 ,is it not evident1 moreover1 that however highly an ape brain may be developed1 it could not become like that of a man1 at least by descent with natural selection8 ,it is different1 however1 if we view man as the necessary product of the evolution of organic nature4 ,we may well believe that when the sudden advance from the ape structure to that of man was made1 under the conditions above proposed1 the great increase in the size of the brain and the change in the position of the foramen magnum were accompanied by an alteration in the order of development1 not only of the different parts of the brain1 but also of the internal apparatus as pointed out by ,m4 ,pruner ,bey4 ,but the advance having once taken place1 the human type can no more be lost2 and although the approach to the simian type which appears in the abnormal microcephalic brain evidences the intimate connection between man and the ape1 yet it furnishes no disproof of derivation1 one from the other1 by the agency of internal evolutional impulse4 ,in conclusion1 ,i would again refer to the fact1 so strongly insisted on by ,m4 ,broca1 that the truth of the theory of evolution is not dependent on that of the hypothesis of natural selection4 ,the great defect of 8natural selection0 as an agent in organic evolution1 is that it cannot do more than perpetuate certain structural peculiarities1 the appearance of which it is powerless to explain4 ,the hypothesis is properly defined as 8natural selection among spontaneous variations20 and it is the appearance of these variations which constitutes the most important part of the problem4 ,they can be explained only on the assumption of 8an internal tendency to deviate from the parental type20 and granting that this tendency results from a necessary evolution of nature viewed as an organic whole1 there is no difficulty in accounting for all the facts dwelt on by ,mr4 ,darwin without supposing the derivation of man from the ape by simple descent1 although not without identifying the universe with ,deity1 and viewing its various manifestations as ,his organs4 ,,footnotes3 #cfd 8,the ,descent of ,man10 vol4 i41 p4 #aj1 et seq4 #cfe 8,l',ordre des ,primates10 p4 #agc 7#ahgj74 #cff ,ibid41 p4 #afh4 #cfg ,ibid41 p4 #agc4 #cfh ,op4 cit41 vol4 i41 p4 #dh4 #cfi ,ibid41 p4 #fc4 #cgj ,ibid41 p4 #gj1 et seq4 #cga ,ibid41 p4 #aje4 #cgb ,ibid41 p4 #ef4 #cgc 8,generelle ,morphologie der ,organismen10 vol4 ii41 p4 #dcj 7#ahff74 #cgd ,op4 cit41 vol4 i41 p4 #ade4 #cge 8,natural ,selection10 p4 #cdc 7#ahgj74 #cgf ,op4 cit41 vol4 i41 p4 #ef4 #cgg ,darwin1 op4 cit41 vol4 i41 p4 #ada4 #cgh ,see ,owen's 8,anatomy of the ,vertebrates10 vol4 iii41 p4 #ahf4 #cgi ,op4 cit41 vol4 ii41 p4 #cgf4 #chj ,the 8,academy10 ,no4 #bj1 p4 #ahc 7#ahga74 #cha 8,revue des ,cours ,scientifiques10 #cjth ,july1 #ahgj1 p4 #eeh4 #chb 8,descent of ,man10 vol4 i41 p4 #aeb4 #chc 8,first ,principles10 #bnd edition1 p4 #ddg1 n4 #chd 8,principles of ,biology10 vol4 i41 p4 #dcj4 #che 8,lay ,sermons10 p4 #cbf4 #chf 8,principles of ,biology10 vol4 i41 p4 #ddf4 #chg ,op4 cit41 vol4 iii41 p4 #hjh4 #chh 8,first ,principles10 #bnd edition1 p4 #dhi4 #chi ,ibid41 p4 #ejj4 #cij 8,first ,principles10 #bnd edition1 p4 #djd4 #cia ,ibid41 p4 #ddd4 #cib 8,habit and ,intelligence10 vol4 i41 p4 #cdh 7#ahfi74 #cic ,ibid41 vol4 i41 p4 #bie4 #cid ,ibid41 vol4 ii41 p4 #h4 #cie ,ibid41 vol4 i41 p4 #cca4 #cif ,op4 cit41 p4 #cfj4 #cig ,op4 cit41 p4 #cei4 #cih ,ibid41 p4 #cfh4 #cii ,op4 cit41 vol4 iii41 p4 #gie4 #djj ,ibid41 p4 #ghi4 #dja 8,rapport sur les ,progrs de l',anthropologie10 p4 #bdg 7#ahfg74 #djb ,ibid4 #djc 8,mmoire sur les ,microcphales10 p4 #aig4 #djd ,ibid41 p4 #ha4 ,,london3 ,,printed ,,by ,,jas4 ,,wade1 ,,tavistock ,,street1 ,,covent ,,garden4