,transcriber's ,note3 ,the following conventions are used in this text4 italic text bold text superscript 99 99 99 99 99 ,,science ,,from ,,an ,,easy ,,chair ,,by ,,the ,,same ,,author ,,extinct ,,animals ,,the ,,kingdom ,,of ,,man ,,from ,,an ,,easy ,,chair ,illustration3 ,a4--8,,yellow0 ,,or ,,immature ,,eel3 ,,not ,,descending ,,to ,,the ,,sea 7,,female7 ,b4--8,,silver0 ,,or ,,mature ,,eel ,,in ,,bridal ,,dress ,,descending ,,to ,,the ,,sea 7,,female71 ,a ,,smaller ,,individual ,,than 8,a0 ,,head ,,of ,,immature ,,and ,,mature ,,specimens ,,of ,,the ,,common ,,eel ,,of ,,the ,,natural ,,size4 ,,original ,,water-,,colour ,,drawings ,,from ,,live ,,specimens ,,science ,,from ,,an ,,easy ,,chair ,,by ,,sir ,,ray ,,lankester ,k4,c4,b41 ,f4,r4,s4 ,,with ,,eighty-,,four ,,illustrations ,,second ,,edition ,,methuen ,,co4 ,,ltd4 #cf ,,essex ,,street ,w4,c4 ,,london ,first ,published ,april #adth #aiaj ,second ,edition ,may #aiaj ,,preface ,this volume is a collection of some of the papers which ,i have contributed to the ,daily ,telegraph during the years #aijh-aiji1 under the title 8,science from an ,easy ,chair40 ,i have revised and corrected the letterpress1 and have added some illustrations4 ,a smaller volume containing earlier papers was published by ,messrs4 ,constable in #aijh1 with the title ,from an ,easy ,chair4 ,it is my intention now to produce additional volumes 7under the title 8,easy ,chair ,series07 as their constituent articles accumulate1 and ,i hope to be able to publish a second and a third instalment at no distant date4 ,i should like to draw the special attention of the reader to the ,frontispiece 7,plate ,i471 which is very beautifully executed1 and is1 ,i believe1 the first coloured drawing yet published showing the difference between the adult 8silver0 eel and the more abundant immature 8yellow0 eel--sometimes called the 8frogmouthed eel40 ,the original drawings were prepared for me through the kindness of ,dr4 ,petersen1 of ,copenhagen1 who is the discoverer of many interesting facts about the common eel1 and is director of the ,danish ,biological ,laboratory4 ,i also wish to draw the attention of any one who is kind enough to look at this preface to one or two more of my illustrations1 because they are1 ,i think1 of exceptional interest1 and should be looked at1 at once1 before a decision not to read the book is made4 ,these are the prehistoric engraving of a horse's head1 with rope-bridle in place1 on page #ha2 the drawings of the leaves of the ,american ,poison-vine and of the ,virginian ,creeper on page #ie2 of the nettle-sting on page #aac2 of the ,dragon of the ,hesperides on page #abb2 of the big tadpoles on page #bag2 of the jumping bean on page #bih1 and its moth on page #cja2 of the ant milking a green-fly for its honey-dew on page #cbd2 and lastly1 the accurate drawing on page #cgj of the most ancient human skull yet discovered1 and the other drawings of skulls 7all to the scale of one-third the actual length71 and those of prehistoric weapons and carvings which follow it4 ,these drawings have been made from original scientific memoirs1 or in some cases from actual specimens1 for the present volume4 ,e4 ,,ray ,,lankester ,february #aiaj ,,contents ,,page ,i4 ,,science ,,and ,,practice #a ,,ii4 ,,university ,,training #f ,,iii4 ,,darwin',s ,,theory #ab ,,iv4 ,,darwin',s ,,discoveries #ah ,v4 ,,darwin',s ,,theory ,,unshaken #bg ,,vi4 ,,metchnikoff ,,and ,,tolstoi #ch ,,vii4 ,,the ,,land ,,of ,,azure ,,blue #df ,,viii4 ,,fresh-,,water ,,jelly-,,fishes #eh ,,ix4 ,,the ,,story ,,of ,,the ,,common ,,eel #fe ,x4 ,,modern ,,horses ,,and ,,their ,,ancestors #gg ,,xi4 ,a ,,rival ,,of ,,the ,,fabled ,,upas ,,tree #ia ,,xii4 ,,poisons ,,and ,,stings ,,of ,,plants ,,and ,,animals #ajj ,,xiii4 ,,the ,,dragon3 ,a ,,fancy ,,or ,a ,,fact #aad ,,xiv4 ,,oysters #abh ,,xv4 ,,maternal ,,care ,,and ,,molluscs #adc ,,xvi4 ,,the ,,heart',s ,,beat #adg ,,xvii4 ,,sleep #aee ,,xviii4 ,,the ,,universal ,,structure ,,of ,,living ,,things #agj ,,xix4 ,,protoplasm1 ,,life ,,and ,,death #ahj ,,xx4 ,,chemistry ,,and ,,protoplasm #ahg ,,xxi4 ,,the ,,simplest ,,living ,,things #aic ,,xxii4 ,,tadpoles ,,and ,,frogs #bji ,,xxiii4 ,,about ,,the ,,stars #bbj ,,xxiv4 ,,comets #bbg ,,xxv4 ,,about ,,cholera #bcg ,,xxvi4 ,,sea-,,breezes1 ,,mountain ,,air1 ,,and ,,ozone #bea ,,xxvii4 ,,oxygen ,,gas ,,for ,,athletes ,,and ,,others #beh ,,xxviii4 ,,sparrows1 ,,trout1 ,,and ,,selective ,,breeding #bff ,,xxix4 ,,the ,,feeble-,,minded #bga ,,xxx4 ,,death-,,rates #bhc ,,xxxi4 ,,gossamer #bhg ,,xxxii4 ,,the ,,jumping ,,bean #bif ,,xxxiii4 ,,protective ,,colouring ,,in ,,animals #cjd ,,xxxiv4 ,,hop-,,blight #cad ,,xxxv4 ,,green-,,flies1 ,,plant-,,lice1 ,,and ,,parthenogenesis #cbb ,,xxxvi4 ,,the ,,deadly ,,phylloxera #ccd ,,xxxvii4 ,,clothes ,,moths #cci ,,xxxviii4 ,,stone ,,and ,,wood ,,borers #cdf ,,xxxix4 ,,christmas ,,fare #cef ,,xl4 ,,the ,,origin ,,of ,,opium #cfc ,,xli4 ,,the ,,most ,,ancient ,,men #cga ,,xlii4 ,,the ,,cave-,,men',s ,,skulls #cia ,,xliii4 ,,more ,,about ,,the ,,neander ,,men #djb ,,index #dac ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations ,,diagrams ,,in ,,the ,,text ,,fig4 ,,page #a4 ,,the ,,little ,,green ,,tree-,,frog ,,or 8,,rainette0 ,,of ,,the ,,riviera 7,,hyla ,,arborea7 #ea #b4 ,,the ,,common ,,jelly-,,fish 7,,aurelia ,,aurita7 #ei #c4 ,,the ,,fresh-,,water ,,jelly-,,fish 7,,limnocodium7 #fj #d4 ,,four ,,jelly-,,fish-,,producing ,,polyps ,,adhering ,,to ,a ,,root-,,fibre ,,of ,a ,,water-,,plant #fa #e4 ,,the ,,african ,,fresh-,,water ,,jelly-,,fish 7,,limnocnida7 #fb #f4 ,,young ,,stages ,,of ,,the ,,common ,,eel #gb #g4 ,,drawing ,,of ,,an ,,ivory ,,carving ,,of ,a ,,female ,,head #hj #h4 ,,drawing ,,of ,a ,,fully ,,rounded ,,carving ,,in ,,reindeer',s ,,antler ,,of ,,the ,,head ,,of ,a ,,neighing ,,horse #hj #i4 ,,drawing ,,of ,a ,,flat ,,carving ,,in ,,shoulder-,,bone ,,of ,a ,,horse',s ,,head1 ,,showing ,,twisted ,,rope-,,bridle ,,and ,,trappings #ha #aj4 ,,fore-,,foot ,,of ,,the ,,horse-,,ancestor1 ,,hipparion #hd #aa4 ,,skulls ,,of ,,horses ,,and ,,of ,,deer #hf #ab4 ,,fore ,,and ,,hind ,,legs ,,of ,,horse ,,and ,,ass #hh #ac4 ,,diagram ,,of ,,the ,,under ,,surface ,,of ,,the ,,foot ,,in ,,the ,,dog1 ,,tapir1 ,,and ,,horse #hi #ad4 ,,drawings ,,of ,,the ,,leaves ,,of ,,the ,,common ,,quinquefoliate ,,virginian ,,creeper1 ,,of ,,the ,,adherent 8,,ampelopsis ,,veitchii10 ,,and ,,of ,,the ,,poison-,,vine 7,,rhus ,,toxicodendron7 #ie #ae4 ,,drawing ,,from ,,life ,,of ,,the ,,desert ,,scorpion 7,,buthus ,,australis1 ,,lin471 ,,from ,,biskra1 ,,north ,,africa #aji #ae ,,bis4 ,,highly ,,magnified ,,drawing ,,of ,a ,,stinging ,,hair ,,of ,,the ,,common ,,nettle #aac #af4 ,,the ,,heraldic ,,dragon #aae #ag4 ,,the ,,heraldic ,,griffin #aaf #ah4 ,,hercules ,,destroying ,,the ,,hydra #aaf #ai4 ,,the ,,heraldic ,,wyvern #aag #bj4 ,,the ,,heraldic ,,basilisk1 ,,also ,,called ,,the ,,amphysian ,,cockatrice #aag #ba4 ,,the ,,chinese ,,imperial ,,dragon #aba #bb4 ,a ,,flying ,,snake ,,with ,,two ,,pairs ,,of ,,wings #aba #bc4 ,,the 8,,dragon0 ,,guarding ,,the ,,tree ,,in ,,the ,,garden ,,of ,,the ,,hesperides #abb #bd4 ,a ,,votive ,,tablet #abd #be4 ,,ancient ,,roman ,,painting ,,of ,a ,,so-,,called ,,marine ,,serpent #abd #bf4 ,,egyptian ,,four-,,winged ,,serpent #abe #bg4 ,,two-,,winged ,,serpent #abe #bh4 ,,an ,,oyster ,,with ,,the ,,right-,,side ,,shell ,,removed #acj #bi4 ,,part ,,of ,a ,,row ,,of ,,the ,,lashing ,,hairs ,,or 8,,cilia0 ,,which ,,cover ,,the ,,gills ,,of ,,the ,,oyster #aca #cj4 ,,the ,,animal ,,of ,,an ,,oyster ,,removed ,,from ,,the ,,shell #acb #ca4 ,,the ,,eggs ,,of ,,the ,,oyster #acc #cb4 ,,the ,,sperms ,,or ,,spermatozoa ,,of ,a ,,ripe ,,oyster #acd #cc4 ,,development ,,of ,,the ,,egg ,,of ,,the ,,common ,,oyster #ace #cd4 ,,free-,,swimming ,,young ,,oyster ,,or ,,oyster ,,larva #acf #ce4 ,,young ,,of ,,the ,,pond-,,mussel ,,after ,,escaping ,,from ,,the ,,maternal ,,gill-,,pouch #ade #cf4 ,,simple 8,,cells10 ,,consisting ,,of ,,naked ,,protoplasm1 ,,changing ,,shape ,,and ,,taking ,,in ,,solid ,,food ,,particles #aga #cg4 ,,cells ,,forming ,,tissues #agb #ch4 ,,copy ,,of ,,part ,,of ,,robert ,,hook',s ,,drawing ,,of ,a ,,magnified ,,piece ,,of ,,cork #agc #ci4 ,a ,,piece ,,of ,,cartilage #agd #dj4 ,,three ,,kinds ,,of ,,cells #age #da4 ,,two ,,specimens ,,of ,a ,,bell-,,animalcule 7,,vorticella7 #aif #db4 ,,six ,,successive ,,stages ,,in ,,the ,,division ,,of ,a 8,,cell0 #bja #dc4 ,,stages ,,in ,,the ,,growth ,,from ,,the ,,egg ,,of ,,the ,,common ,,frog #baj #dd4 ,,outline ,,drawings ,,of ,,three ,,european ,,tadpoles #bag #de4 ,,the ,,comet ,,shown ,,in ,,the ,,bayeux ,,tapestry #bcb #df4 ,,the ,,cholera ,,spirillum1 ,,or ,,comma-,,bacillus ,,of ,,koch #bda #dg4 ,a ,,young ,,spider #bhh #dh4 ,,view ,,of ,,the ,,lower ,,surface ,,of ,,the ,,head ,,and ,,body ,,of ,a ,,large ,,burmese ,,spider #bij #di4 ,,section ,,through ,,the ,,body ,,of ,a ,,spider ,,to ,,show ,,the ,,spinning ,,organs #bia #ej4 ,,one ,,of ,,the ,,two ,,middle ,,spinnerets ,,of ,,the ,,common ,,garden ,,spider 7,,epeira ,,diadema7 #bib #ea4 ,,the ,,common ,,garden ,,spider1 ,,correctly ,,called ,,the ,,white-,,cross ,,spider 7,,epeira ,,diadema7 #bic #eb4 ,,on ,,the ,,right ,,two ,,jumping ,,beans3 ,,on ,,the ,,left ,,the ,,caterpillar ,,removed ,,from ,,the ,,jumping ,,bean #bii #ec4 ,,the ,,caterpillar ,,of ,,the ,,moth 7,,carpocapsa ,,saltitans7 ,,removed ,,from ,,the ,,jumping ,,bean #cjj #ed4 ,,the ,,moth 7,,carpocapsa ,,saltitans7 #cja #ee4 ,,early ,,winged ,,female ,,hop-,,louse #caf #ef4 ,,male ,,hop-,,louse #cag #eg4 ,,ordinary ,,wingless ,,female ,,hop-,,louse #cah #eh4 ,,foundress ,,or ,,stock-,,mother ,,of ,,the ,,hop-,,louse #cbc #ei4 ,,side ,,view ,,of ,,winged ,,viviparous ,,female ,,of ,,the ,,hop-,,louse #cbc #fj4 ,,an ,,ant 8,,milking0 ,a 8,,plant-,,louse0 ,,or 8,,green-,,fly0 ,,for ,,honey-,,dew #cbd #fa4 ,,single ,,egg-,,tube ,,or ,,ovarian ,,tube ,,of ,,an ,,insect #cbi #fb4 ,,the ,,death-,,watch ,,beetle 7,,xestobium ,,tessellatum7 #cej #fc4 ,,the ,,silver-,,fish ,,insect 7,,lepisma ,,saccharina7 #cec #fd4 ,,the ,,book-,,louse1 ,,or ,,atropos ,,divinatoria #ced #fe4 ,,the ,,human ,,skull ,,from ,,the ,,chapelle-,,aux-,,saints #cgj #ff4 ,,an ,,unpolished ,,but ,,beautifully ,,chipped ,,flint ,,knife ,,of ,,the ,,neolithic ,,age #cgd #fg4 ,a ,,polished ,,flint ,,axe-,,head ,,of ,,the ,,neolithic ,,age #cge #fh4 ,,harpoons ,,of ,,the ,,pal,,olithic ,,period #cgi #fi4 ,a ,,piece ,,of ,,mammoth ,,ivory ,,carved ,,with ,,spirals ,,and ,,scrolls #chj #gj4 ,,carving ,,on ,,an ,,antler ,,of ,a ,,group ,,of ,,three ,,red ,,deer ,,and ,,four ,,fishes #cha #ga4 ,,painting ,,of ,a ,,bison #chb #gb4 ,,back ,,and ,,front ,,view ,,of ,a ,,flint ,,implement ,,of ,,the ,,moustier ,,type #chd #gc4 ,,flint ,,pick ,,from ,,the ,,lower ,,pleistocene ,,of ,,the ,,thames ,,valley #chg #gd4 ,a ,,rough ,,type ,,of ,,flint ,,implement ,,from ,,the ,,lower ,,pleistocene ,,of ,,the ,,somme ,,valley #chh #ge4 ,a ,,profile ,,and ,a ,,front ,,view ,,of ,,the ,,skull ,,and ,,lower ,,jaw ,,of ,a ,,man ,,of ,,the ,,cromagnard ,,race ,,or ,,reindeer ,,men #chi #gf4 ,,three ,,views ,,of ,,the ,,skull-,,top ,,from ,,near ,,dusseldorf ,,on ,,the ,,rhine1 ,,known ,,as ,,the ,,neanderthal ,,skull #cib #gg4 ,,the ,,gibraltar ,,skull ,,from ,a ,,cave ,,in ,,gibraltar #cid #gh4 ,,the ,,skull-,,top ,,of ,,the ,,primitive ,,kind ,,of ,,man ,,from ,,pleistocene ,,sands ,,in ,,java1 ,,called ,,pithecanthropus #djj #gi4 ,,drawing ,,of ,,the ,,left ,,side ,,of ,,the ,,lower ,,jaw ,,of ,a ,,modern ,,european #djd #hj4 ,,outline ,,of ,,the ,,skull ,,of ,,the ,,neander ,,man ,,from ,,the ,,chapelle-,,aux-,,saints #djd #ha4 ,,the ,,skull ,,of ,a ,,male ,,chimpanzee #dje #hb4 ,,the ,,heidelberg ,,jaw #dje ,,plates ,i4 ,,immature ,,and ,,mature ,,specimens ,,of ,,the ,,common ,,eel ,,of ,,the ,,natural ,,size ,frontispiece ,,ii4 ,,real ,,dragons4 ,,the ,,extinct ,,flying ,,reptiles ,,known ,,as ,,pterodactyles ,facing p4 #aah ,,science ,,from ,,an ,,easy ,,chair ,i ,,science ,,and ,,practice ,the delight which is experienced by those who discover new things in the various branches of science is1 no doubt1 very great4 ,to reveal to other men processes1 properties1 existences in the natural world hitherto unsuspected1 or1 if suspected1 yet eluding the grasp of man1 is to do something which gives to him who does it a sense that he is of value in the world--a sense which will uphold him and enable him to endure adversity1 and even persecution1 with equanimity4 ,but there is1 perhaps1 a greater and more vivid satisfaction for those who do or make great and splendid things which all men can see1 and for which all men are grateful4 ,the great artist--poet1 painter1 builder1 or musician--has this satisfaction1 and so also has the man who1 by a combination of personal energy and clearness of intellectual vision1 applies scientific knowledge to the accomplishment of great public works1 and to the acquirement of that control by mankind of the natural conditions hostile to human progress which we may call1 as did ,lord ,bacon1 8the establishing of the kingdom of man40 ,the men who have expelled yellow fever from ,cuba and ,panama have not merely done a piece of sanitary cleaning up2 they have first imagined and then created1 by the force of human will1 directed and maintained by conviction of the reality of science1 a new thing--the tropics without deadly fever1 the tropics as a healthy and welcome home for the white man4 ,that is comparable to the work of a great artist in the directness of its appeal2 it is in its actual detail the result of the combination of the skill of the engineer with the foresight and absolute domination of his human agents of a military genius4 ,for this magnificent work the highest credit is due to the ,united ,states chief sanitary officer1 ,colonel ,gorgas4 ,it is well known how the ,american ,medical ,commission in ,cuba proved six years ago that yellow fever is conveyed from man to man solely and entirely by a gnat common in ,central ,america1 known as ,stegomyia1 and further1 how by carrying out measures for preventing the entrance of these gnats into dwelling-houses1 and especially by keeping them away from yellow fever patients so that they fail to obtain and carry the yellow fever germ1 even if they do bite healthy men1 ,colonel ,gorgas and his associates practically eradicated yellow fever in ,cuba4 ,the bite of the ,stegomyia gnat is the only way in which a man can acquire yellow fever1 and the gnat which bites him must have taken up the germs of yellow fever from another man--twelve days 7no less7 previously4 ,the application of this knowledge and the methods devised to give it effect is what has now rendered the construction of the ,panama ,canal by the ,united ,states ,government possible4 ,the ,french ,canal ,company employed an army of labourers1 numbering from #ae1jjj to #ah1jjj men4 ,they lost1 almost entirely by death from yellow fever and malaria1 so many of their workmen that others refused to undertake the deadly job1 and there was a general panic4 ,the death-rate was in #ahhd over #fj per #ajjj4 ,in #ahhe it was over #gj per #ajjj4 ,the work was abandoned4 ,in ,may #aijd ,colonel ,gorgas and his forces took possession of the canal zone4 ,this is a zone of territory running fifty miles north and south1 with a good-sized town--,colon--at one end of it and another--,panama--at the other end of it4 ,many hundreds of men were at once organised and set to work to destroy in both the towns the ,stegomyia gnat4 ,this was effected by doing away with all the breeding-places of the gnat1 that is1 screening and covering every water receptacle in the town1 so that the gnats or mosquitoes cannot breed4 ,then a fumigating process was carried out in all houses and buildings1 great and small1 to destroy such gnats as were still alive4 ,no less than #bjj1jjj lb4 of pyrethrum and #djj1jjj lb4 of sulphur were used in this fumigation4 ,in ,december #aije the last case of yellow fever occurred4 ,it took sixteen months of the work just described to effect this4 ,in a different way the ,anopheles gnat or mosquito1 which carries the germ of malaria from man to man1 was got rid of4 ,this gnat breeds in clean water1 where grass and weeds grow2 it belongs chiefly to country districts4 ,as it rarely flies more than #bjj yards it was sufficient to destroy the breeding pools within that distance of the workmen's houses1 camps1 and villages4 ,all the windows and doors of all houses were fitted with wire-gauze screens1 which prevent the entrance of the gnats1 and the population was furnished with quinin1 a dose of #c grs4 a day being ordered to bring the men into such condition that the malaria parasite would not thrive in the blood even if introduced4 ,the object with which ,colonel ,gorgas and his associates started was accomplished in less than two years4 ,the control of yellow fever and malaria has become even more complete in the two years which have followed4 ,it is two years since yellow fever disappeared from the entire zone1 including the two towns4 ,malaria has not been so completely destroyed4 ,the employs of the ,canal ,commission and ,panama ,railway now number #de1jjj4 ,the death-rate of this entire force1 including both black 7#cc1jjj7 and white 7#ab1jjj7 employs1 was1 in the month of ,december #aijg only #ah per #ajjj per annum--less than that of the city of ,liverpool1 which was #bj1 or that of ,salford1 which was over #ai4 ,of all the white employs the death-rate was only #ac per #ajjj per annum4 ,in the year #aijf 7whole year71 among the #fjjj white employs who had come from the ,united ,states1 including some #abjj women and children1 their families1 the death-rate from disease was only #d per #ajjj4 ,pneumonia has been a chief cause of death among the negro labourers1 but seldom affects the whites4 ,malaria caused1 in the whole army of labourers1 only six deaths in ,december #aijg1 as against thirteen in the smaller army at work in the same month in #aijf4 ,there were #hjj cases of malaria in the whole army of #de1jjj employs in ,december #aijg4 ,it is thus apparent that ,colonel ,gorgas has converted this deadly zone from which negroes and white men hurried in a panic of fear twenty years ago into a region as healthy--that is to say1 with as low a death-rate--as an ordinary ,north ,american or ,english city4 ,no doubt allowance must be made in the comparison for the special nature of the population brought together on the canal zone4 ,this is favourable to a low death-rate1 in so far as it consists of strong adults1 excluding old people and very young children1 but unfavourable in so far as it consists of negroes and mean whites1 who are even less amenable to sanitary regulations and precautions than the population of an ,english city4 ,colonel ,gorgas writes that now that it is shown that any population coming into the tropics can protect itself against yellow fever and malaria by measures which are both simple and inexpensive1 the ,anglo-,saxon will find life in the tropics more healthful than in the temperate zones1 and tropical countries which offer a much greater return for man's labour than do those of the chilly temperate zone1 will be in the course of the next two or three centuries occupied and populated by the white races4 ,such an unpleasantly cold spring as that which all ,europe endured last year makes one wish that the tropics generally were already arranged by ,colonel ,gorgas for our reception1 and provided with a sanitated white-faced population4 ,we could go and live there1 warm and comfortable1 all the year round1 enjoying the rich luxuriance of tropical nature without fear of either chill or fever4 ,,ii ,,university ,,training ,at ,manchester last year1 when they installed ,lord ,morley1 the ,secretary of ,state for ,india1 as ,chancellor of the ,university1 the ,right ,hon4 ,arthur ,balfour delivered a very interesting address1 in which he declared himself a believer in the gospel of 8,science the ,master40 ,mr4 ,balfour's speech did not imply any disregard for the pursuit of historical knowledge and a training in literature and the use of language1 but it was a clear recognition of the fact that when the great purpose for which universities exist is considered it must be asserted in no hesitating terms that the discovery of new knowledge is the most important activity which a university can foster4 ,to train men 7and women1 too7 to use their faculties not merely to acquire knowledge of what has been discovered by others in the past1 but to discover new things and to gain further control over the conditions in which we live1 and to secure further understanding not only of nature but of man--that is the great business of the university4 ,it was fortunate that ,mr4 ,balfour was present and able to strike this note1 for ,lord ,morley1 the new ,chancellor1 had not expressed any such conception of the aims of a university4 ,he declared that1 so long as the ,greeks have anything to teach us we should not cease to study the ,greeks4 ,but1 whilst we may agree to this1 it is well to remember that1 though pleasure can still be obtained from ,greek poetry and prose by those who have thoroughly mastered the ,greek language1 yet almost all1 if not quite all1 that the ,greeks have to teach us has been by this time translated and dealt with by our own writers4 ,consequently1 although we may cordially approve of the study of ancient civilisations and ancient literatures and languages1 both ,greek and barbarian1 as part of the enterprise of a university1 it is somewhat excessive1 not to say belated1 to set up the study of ,greek or of any other historic language and civilisation as the chief and distinctive boon which universities can offer to their scholars4 ,the matter has1 indeed1 been thrashed out1 and ,greek1 together with what is called the 8study of literature0 7but is usually an ineffective dabbling in it71 has been put into its proper subordinate place in all the universities of ,europe and in most of those of ,great ,britain4 ,the illusion that flowers of speech and mastery of phrase 7though all very well if honestly used7 are an indication of any knowledge or capacity which can be of service to the community1 has been1 in late years1 to a very large extent1 dispelled4 ,the concluding words of ,mr4 ,balfour's speech were3 8,the great advancement of mankind is to be looked for in our ever-increasing knowledge of the secrets of nature--secrets1 however1 which are not to be unlocked by the men who pursue them for purely material ends1 but secrets which are open in their fulness only to men who pursue them in a disinterested spirit4 ,the motive power which is really going to change the external surface of civilisation1 which is going to add to the well-being of mankind1 which is going to stimulate the imagination of all those who are interested in the universe in which our lot is cast--that lies after all with science4 ,i would rather be known as having added to the sum of our knowledge of the truth of nature than anything else ,i can imagine4 ,unfortunately for me1 my opportunities have lain in different directions40 ,that is a splendid confession of faith4 ,i do not remember that any ,german statesman of like authority and standing has ever given expression to so full and ample a belief in the value of science4 ,yet ,german statesmen have acted1 though they have not spoken4 ,they have arranged for1 and continually are arranging for1 a far larger expenditure of public money upon scientific training and investigation than is assigned to such purposes in this country4 ,every department of government in ,germany has its thoroughly trained1 well-taught1 well-paid body of scientific experts and investigators1 and1 moreover1 the whole official world1 from the ,emperor downwards1 has a real understanding of what science is1 of the folly of attempting to proceed without it1 or allowing persons who are ignorant of it to act as administrators4 ,the need for science is not merely recognised in words1 but steps are taken1 and have been taken now for many years1 actually to secure in ,german public offices and public administration the predominance of that scientific knowledge which the ,german statesmen1 as well as ,mr4 ,balfour1 consider so necessary4 ,is it too much to hope that in this country those who recognise the value and importance of scientific knowledge will also take steps to re-arrange our ,government departments so as to give them the advantage of guidance by men trained in the knowledge of nature1 rather than by men ignorant of the very existence of such knowledge8 ,the universities hold the central position in this matter1 and it is their influence and wealth which the ,state should insist on directing towards the extension and diffusion of science4 ,those who address the public on this subject not infrequently take what seems to me to be a disastrous line at the start4 ,they speak of the new universities as the universities of the people1 and hand over ,oxford and ,cambridge1 with their enormous endowments1 their history and tradition1 to the wealthy class4 ,such usurpation cannot be tolerated4 ,it is monstrous that the endowments of the colleges of ,oxford and ,cambridge1 which were thoroughly popular and democratic in their foundation1 should be1 even for a moment1 regarded as the peculiar property of the wealthy4 ,it is also monstrous to suppose that it is anything less than disastrous to consign the well-to-do classes in any community to an empty sham of ancient 8culture0 rather than to imbue them with the real and inspiring culture of the modern renaissance4 ,it is because this notion is allowed to gain ground that the enormous funds of the colleges and universities of ,oxford and ,cambridge1 amounting to more than three-quarters of a million pounds annually1 are to a large extent1 though not exclusively1 employed in keeping up a couple of huge boarding-schools1 which are shut for six months in the year4 ,it is owing to this that it is the rarest thing to find in ,oxford or in ,cambridge a great teacher who lectures or demonstrates to an eager following of disciples4 ,an overwhelming majority of the young men who go as students to these universities have no intention of studying anything4 ,they are sent there in order to be submitted to college discipline and to have1 subject to that safeguard1 a good time4 ,a large number are handsomely paid by scholarships in order to induce them to go there--and would not go there at all unless they were so paid4 ,they do not find such teachers there and such an effective occupation of their student years as would induce them1 if unpaid1 to seek the university1 or to pay fees out of their own pockets for the opportunities of seriously pursuing any branch of learning or science within its walls4 ,the inefficiency of the old universities is to a large extent the cause of the neglect and ignorance of science in the well-to-do class1 who furnish the men who become ,government officials of all kinds and members of professions which influence public opinion4 ,but this inefficiency of the old universities is not due to their devotion to literary studies and to abstract science1 nor to their objection to the pursuit of practical and commercial studies4 ,that excuse is sometimes put forward for them1 though at this moment they are1 in fact1 setting up laboratories and lecture-rooms for engineering1 agriculture1 forestry1 mining1 and such applications of science4 ,nor is it money which is really wanting at either ,oxford or ,cambridge1 although they are both begging for it from the public4 ,what ,oxford and ,cambridge want is not money but men2 men as teachers--8professors0 is the usual title given to them in a university--who must be the ablest1 each in his own line1 in the whole world4 ,if such professors existed in either ,oxford or ,cambridge1 and were allowed to teach1 the town 7if not the colleges67 would be full to overflowing of students--eager to pay their fees and to spend1 not three short terms of seven weeks in each year1 but the whole year1 and many years1 in the laboratories and lecture-rooms of those commanding men4 ,to obtain such men--to set the machinery at work--you must pay them handsomely1 and give them authority and the means of work4 ,once they were at work1 the mere fees of the students would furnish a splendid revenue4 ,there is plenty of money at ,oxford and at ,cambridge--a superabundance1 in fact--which could and should be applied to this purpose1 namely1 that of securing and establishing there the greatest teachers in the world4 ,the money is at present administered by the colleges according to the directions given in recent ,acts of ,parliament1 and by no means in any blind obedience to the original intentions of the founders of the colleges4 ,it is to a large extent wasted4 ,that portion of it paid out as 8scholarships0 is for the most part wasted in bringing students to a place where they cannot get the best opportunities of study1 and the rest is unwisely applied 7not so much by the tenants for life or administrators of college funds as by rigid ,act of ,parliament7 to providing an excessive number of totally inadequate salaries by which a corresponding number of young men are induced to enter upon the career of teachers as underpaid college ,fellows4 ,,iii ,,darwin',s ,,theory ,on ,wednesday1 the #ast of ,july #aijh1 half a century had passed since ,darwin's ,theory of the ,origin of ,species was made known to the world4 ,fifty years have now been completed since that immortal book1 ,the ,origin of ,species1 was published1 and a hundred years since ,charles ,darwin was born4 ,it is not every one who is in a position to understand how great and momentous was the occasion when ,sir ,charles ,lyell and ,dr4 ,joseph ,hooker communicated to the ,linnean ,society of ,london1 on the #ast of ,july #aheh1 two papers1 one by ,charles ,darwin1 the other by ,alfred ,russel ,wallace1 under the common title1 8,on the ,tendency of ,species to form ,varieties3 and on the ,perpetuation of ,varieties and ,species by ,natural means of ,selection40 ,the reason for this conjoint communication to the ,linnean ,society was that ,darwin1 who had been working for years at the subject1 and had already1 in #ahdb1 drawn up a statement of his theory1 not for publication1 but for the consideration and criticism of his friend ,hooker--unexpectedly received from ,alfred ,russel ,wallace1 who was1 and had been for some years1 away in the ,malay ,archipelago--a manuscript of an essay on the origin of species1 containing views identical with his own1 and even phrases similar to those he had himself found it necessary to invent4 ,thus ,wallace speaks of the 8struggle for existence10 whilst ,darwin had used the term 8struggle for life40 ,darwin had been urged by his friends before this to publish an abstract or statement of his conclusions1 but now that he had received ,wallace's manuscript1 he declared in a letter to ,hooker1 8,i would far rather burn my whole book than that he or any other man should think that ,i had behaved in a paltry spirit40 ,and so ,lyell and ,hooker took the matter in hand1 and communicated to the ,linnean ,society1 accompanied by an explanatory statement1 the two independent papers1 setting forth1 as they say1 8the results of the investigations of the indefatigable naturalists1 ,mr4 ,charles ,darwin and ,mr4 ,alfred ,wallace40 ,such loyalty and regard to each other as ,darwin and ,wallace showed then and ever after form a delightful feature in the history of this great discovery4 ,a wonderful thing is that ,hooker1 now ,sir ,joseph ,hooker1 the greatest botanist of the past century1 the constant friend and comrade of ,darwin1 is still alive1 and that ,alfred ,russel ,wallace1 too1 is still with us4 ,they both were present when the ,linnean ,society celebrated the meeting of fifty years ago4 ,the views of ,darwin and ,wallace have now become the established doctrine of science4 ,they have led to the universal recognition of 8the origin of species by descent with modification40 ,that is a statement1 in other words1 to the effect that all the various kinds of living things have been gradually produced by natural birth from predecessors which differ from them only slightly in the later stages of time1 but become simpler and less like their descendants as we go further back1 until we reach the simplest living things4 ,it has led to the conviction that there has been no exceptional or 8miraculous0 suspension of the order of ,nature in this process1 but that all has come about in due and regular course1 in virtue of the properties of natural things1 which we know as the laws of physics and chemistry4 ,most important and dominating of all these results is the inevitable one that man himself has come from animal ancestors1 in the same way1 and--7this is the greatest and most far-reaching conclusion of all7--that he is still subject to those natural processes of change and development by which he has reached his present phase2 that he must completely understand them and control them 7so far as such control is possible7 in order to maintain a healthy1 happy1 and improving race of men on the face of the globe4 ,this great possession--the earth and all that lives on it--is1 as ,lord ,bacon phrased it three hundred years ago--the ,kingdom of ,man4 ,man has but to use his intelligence in order to take control of it4 ,the knowledge of his own relation to it1 and of the ways in which the human race is affected for good and for ill1 through the operation of the self-same processes which affect the breeding1 the improvement1 the health1 the disease1 the destruction1 and the perfecting of other living things1 has once and for all been placed within man's reach by the discoveries of ,darwin and ,wallace4 ,before ,darwin--that is1 before #ast ,july #aheh--the origin of the different species of animals and plants was called by great thinkers like ,sir ,john ,herschel1 the astronomer1 8the mystery of mysteries40 ,the word 8species0 was defined as 8an animal or plant which in a state of nature is distinguished by certain peculiarities of form1 size1 colour1 or other circumstance from any other animal or plant1 and propagates after its kind individuals perfectly resembling the parent1 its peculiarities being therefore permanent40 ,so wrote a great naturalist in the days before ,darwin4 ,this definition may be illustrated by two common ,english birds--the rook and the crow4 ,they differ from each other in slight peculiarities of form1 structure1 and habits1 and1 moreover1 rooks always produce rooks1 and crows always produce crows1 and they do not interbreed4 ,therefore it was held that all the rooks in the world had descended from a single pair of rooks1 and all the crows in like manner from a single pair of crows1 while it was considered impossible that crows could have descended from rooks1 or rooks from crows4 ,the 8origin0 of the first pair of each kind was a mystery1 and by many persons was held to have been due to a miraculous and sudden act of 8creation40 ,but besides our crow and rook1 there are about thirty other birds in various parts of the world so much like our crow and rook that they are commonly called crows1 and are all regarded as 8species0 of the genus crow 7or ,corvus74 ,it was held before ,darwin that all the individuals of each of these 8species0 were descended from an ancestral pair of crows of that species4 ,there would have been thirty different original kinds1 the 8origin0 of which was unknown1 and by naturalists was regarded as a mystery4 ,now1 on the contrary1 it is held that all the thirty living species are descended from one1 not from thirty1 ancestral species1 and have been gradually modified to their present character in different parts of the world2 and1 further1 that this ancestral species was itself derived by slow process of change and natural birth from preceding crow-like birds no longer existing4 ,as ,mr4 ,alfred ,russel ,wallace has said in his most readable and delightful book1 ,darwinism--where he gives all the credit and glory to his great fellow-worker3 8,darwin wrote for a generation which had not accepted evolution--a generation which poured contempt on those who upheld the derivation of species from species by any natural law of descent4 ,he did his work so well that #8descent with modification' is now universally accepted as the order of nature in the organic world1 and the rising generation of naturalists can hardly realise the novelty of this idea1 or that their fathers considered it a scientific heresy to be condemned rather than seriously discussed40 ,for those who are not naturalists or men of science it is an object-lesson of the highest importance1 that the speculations and observations which have led to the general acceptance of a new view as to the origin of the species of birds1 butterflies1 and flowers--in itself apparently a matter of no consequence to human life and progress--should have necessarily led to a new epoch in philosophy1 and in the higher state-craft2 in fact1 to the establishment of the scientific knowledge of life as the one sure guide and determining factor of civilisation4 ,how to breed a healthy1 capable race of men1 how to preserve such a race1 how to educate and to train it1 so that its best qualities of mind and body may be brought to activity and perfection--this is what ,darwinism can teach us1 and will teach us when the great subjects of inheritance and of variation are more fully investigated by the aid of public funds1 and when the human mind has been as carefully examined and its laws as well ascertained1 as are those of the human body4 ,there is no reason for delay2 no excuse for it4 ,for two thousand years the learned men of ,europe debated as to whether this or that place was the site of ancient ,troy1 or whether there ever was such a place at all4 ,at last 7only twenty-five years ago7 a retired man of business1 named ,schliemann1 had a 8happy thought0--it was not the thought of a learned pedant1 but of a scientific investigator4 ,he said1 8,let us go and see40 ,and at the expense of a few thousand pounds he went and found ,troy and ,mycen1 and revealed--8dis-covered0--the whole matter4 ,that was the most tremendous and picturesque triumph of the scientific method over mere talk and pretended historical learning which has ever been seen since human record has existed4 ,it ought to be told to every boy and girl1 for it is the greatest and most obvious proof of the overwhelming power of the investigation of tangible things and the futility of chatter1 which has ever been seen4 ,it is enough to inspire hope and belief in experiment even in the breast of a ,member of ,parliament1 or of a ,minister of the ,crown4 ,,iv ,,darwin',s ,,discoveries ,a large proportion of the public are not aware of the amount of experiment and observation carried out by the great naturalist whose memory was honoured by a splendid ceremony at the ,university of ,cambridge in the summer of #aiji4 ,there are1 ,i am sure1 not a few who are under the impression that ,darwin1 sitting in his study or walking round his garden1 had 8a happy thought10 namely1 that man is only a modified and improved monkey1 and proceeded to write an argumentative essay1 setting forth the conclusion that mankind are the descendants of some remote ancestral apes4 ,of course there is an increasing number of more careful and inquiring men and women who take advantage of the small price at which ,mr4 ,darwin's wonderful book1 ,the ,origin of ,species1 is now to be bought1 and have read that and some of his other writings1 and accordingly know how far he was from being the hasty and fanciful theorist they previously imagined him to be4 ,it is the great distinction of ,darwin that he spent more than twenty years of his life in accumulating the records of an enormous series of facts and observations tending to show that the species or 8kinds0 of animals and plants in nature can and do change slowly1 and that there is1 owing to the fact that every pair produces a great number of offspring 7sometimes many thousand71 of which only a single pair1 on the average1 survive1 a necessary selection of those which are to survive and breed1 accompanied by a rejection and destruction of the rest4 ,this 8natural selection0 or survival of favoured varieties1 he was able to show1 must operate like the selection made by breeders1 fanciers1 and horticulturists1 and has in all probability 7for in a history extending over hundreds of thousands of years we must necessarily deal with 8probabilities10 and not with direct demonstration7 produced new forms1 new kinds1 better adapted to their surroundings than the parental forms from which they are derived4 ,it was necessary1 in order that ,darwin should persuade other naturalists that his views were correct1 that he should show by putting examples 8on the table0 that variations occur naturally and in great diversity2 further1 that there is great pressure in the conditions of life1 and a consequent survival of the best-suited varieties2 further1 that there is in reproduction a transmission of the peculiar favouring character or quality which enables a variety to survive1 and thus a tendency to perpetuate the new quality4 ,it was not enough for ,darwin to 8imagine0 that these things might be so1 or to make the notion that they are so plausible by arguments drawn from existing knowledge4 ,he had to do that3 but also he had to make new inquiries and discover new things about animals and plants which fitted in with his theory and would not fit in either with the notion that all plants and animals were created--as the poet ,milton supposed--out of lumps of earth and muddy water1 suddenly1 in the likeness of their present-day descendants1 nor with some other notions1 such as that of the able and gifted ,french naturalist ,lamarck4 ,and he spent the later twenty years of his life in doing so1 just as he had spent the previous twenty years in collecting a first series of facts and observations justifying his theory before he announced it to the world4 ,a great difference between ,lamarck and ,darwin exists1 not only in their two theories as to the mode of origin of the vast diversified series of kinds or species of plants and animals1 but in their way of stating and dealing with the theory which each thought out and gave to the world4 ,lamarck had a great knowledge of the species of plants and animals1 partly through having collected specimens himself when he was an officer in the ,french ,republican army which was employed on the ,mediterranean shores of ,france and ,italy more than a hundred years ago1 and partly through his later official position in the great natural history museum at ,paris1 where large collections passed through his hands4 ,he was a man of very keen insight and excellent method1 and did more to plan out a natural and satisfactory 8classification0 of animals than any one between his own day and that of ,linnus4 ,his theory of the origin of species was essentially an opposition to the then popular view that the species of living things have been made by the ,creator so as to fit the conditions in which they live4 ,lamarck contradicted this view1 and said in so many words that the real fact is that the peculiar specific characters of animals or of plants have not been created for their conditions1 but1 on the contrary1 that the conditions in which they live have created the peculiarities of living things4 ,in so far his conception was the same as ,darwin's4 ,but ,lamarck then said to himself3 ,how do the conditions create the peculiarities of different living things8 ,and he answered this question by an ingenious guess1 which he published to the world in a book called ,philosophical ,zoology1 without taking any steps to test the truth of his guess4 ,that is where ,lamarck's method and attitude as a scientific man is so greatly inferior to that of ,darwin4 ,lamarck1 sitting in his study1 said animals 7and plants too7 must be affected by the conditions around them1 so that an individual as it lives and grows becomes to a certain degree slightly changed by and adapted to those conditions4 ,this1 he said1 we all see in human beings and familiar animals and plants4 ,now1 he said1 we have only to admit that the changes so acquired are 7especially when both parents have been similarly changed7 transmitted to the young in the process of generation1 and to some degree 8intensified10 in order to recognise that of necessity there is in nature a constant change and progression of living forms1 consisting in a more and more elaborate 8adaptation0 to the conditions of life1 which will be varied and lead to new adaptations as the living things spread over the earth or as geological changes occur4 ,he cited the long neck of the giraffe as an example of what he meant4 ,in regions where there was frequent and extensive drought1 a deer-like creature would eat the lower leaves of trees when the grass was dried up and dead4 ,it would strain and stretch its neck in reaching after the higher leaves1 and the individuals thus straining and stretching would become an inch or two longer in the neck in consequence4 ,these individuals would1 said ,lamarck1 transmit their increased length of neck to their offspring1 who again would strain and stretch after higher leaves1 and get a further increase of neck-length1 and so it would go on1 little by little1 over many thousand generations1 until the neck-stretchers had become well marked and distinguished by their long necks from such of their ancestral stock as survived in other regions where1 the grass being good1 there was no inducement to straining and stretching the neck4 ,now the great difference between ,lamarck and ,darwin is that ,lamarck was quite content to state the ingenious supposition illustrated by the imaginary history of the giraffe1 and to declare that this was the law of ,nature and is actually going on every day1 without1 so to speak1 getting out of his chair4 ,he never attempted to show by observation or experiment that such a change of form as the stretching of the neck by straining after food could and did occur1 or that if it did that it could be transmitted by a parent or couple of parents to their offspring4 ,and consequently for many years no one attached much value to ,lamarck's notions on the subject4 ,when1 fifty years later1 ,darwin's very different theory became widely received1 based on the demonstrable fact that congenital variations 7not stretchings and warpings acquired in the lifetime of a parent1 but variations which are inborn1 and occur in some but not other individuals living under one and the same set of conditions7 are transmitted to offspring1 and that those among these variations which are favourable to success in life will enable their possessor to survive and to produce young inheriting those favourable variations--then it occurred to those naturalists who were inclined to believe in ,lamarck's suggestion to inquire into the solid facts in regard to that also1 and to see whether his bare statement was true4 ,from that day to this1 it has never been shown that it is true4 ,it is1 indeed1 to begin with1 a rare thing to find instances of either wild animals or wild plants which1 growing up in unusual conditions1 have their structure altered and 8adapted0 so as to be more serviceable in those unusual conditions than their usual structure would be2 and in those cases where such adaptive alterations have been produced1 every experimenter is agreed in stating that he has found that when 7even after several generations in the changed conditions7 the young are restored to their original conditions1 they simply grow up into the original forms3 no permanent change in the stock or race has been effected4 ,every attempt to show by experiment that a new character can be acquired by the stock in this way1 and show itself by heredity alone--when the modifying adapting conditions are removed--has completely failed4 ,on the other hand1 ,darwin himself and his followers have made almost endless experiments and observations on plants and animals1 establishing facts as to structure and the relation of special kinds of living things to their surroundings which can only be explained on the supposition that ,darwin's theory is true in detail2 that is to say1 not merely that the kinds of animals and plants have arisen from previous kinds by natural descent--that supposition is much older than either ,darwin or ,lamarck--but that the method by which the transformation has been brought about is 7a7 the occurrence in every generation of every animal and plant of minute variations in every1 or nearly every1 part1 and 7b7 the continual selection in the severe struggle for existence of those individuals to grow to maturity and reproduce1 which happen to present favourable variations1 which variations are accordingly transmitted to the next generation1 and may be intensified1 so far as intensification is of value1 in each succeeding generation4 ,a book full of observations and reflections about the structure1 habits1 and mode of occurrence and geography of a great number of plants and animals is ,darwin's ,journal of ,researches1 published in #ahde1 and now republished as ,a ,naturalist's ,voyage4 ,in order to know very minutely the differences and resemblances between all the kinds or species of one group of living things ,darwin studied for eight years the 8cirrhipedes10 the name given to the sea-acorns and ships' barnacles which occur in all parts of the world1 some living on rocks1 some on the backs of turtles1 others on whales1 on the feet of birds1 on bits of floating wood or of pumice-stone1 and some on one another6 ,they are all hermaphrodites1 but ,darwin found in several a most singular thing1 namely1 the existence of minute males1 complemental to and parasitic on the hermaphrodites4 ,his discovery was doubted and denied1 but he had the pleasure of seeing it at last fully confirmed thirty years after his book on cirrhipedes was published4 ,darwin discovered that the presence of the same species of plants and of some few animals on distant mountain summits and in the ,arctic region is due to the former extension of ice between these situations during the last glacial period4 ,he was1 before everything else and by necessity for the examination of his theory1 a geologist1 and wrote many valuable geological memoirs4 ,the history of the origin of the species of living things consists largely in tracing them to extinct creatures1 and in showing what were the possible migrations and what the conditions of land and water1 temperature and vegetation1 in past periods1 and in regard to given areas of the globe4 ,the book on the ,fertilisation of ,orchids was the first published by ,darwin after the ,origin of ,species4 ,in it he showed how the marvellous shapes and colours and mechanisms of the flowers of orchids are adapted to ensure cross-fertilisation by insects1 and how they can be explained as originating by the natural selection of variations--if the value of cross-fertilisation is once recognised4 ,the explanation of the reason for the existence of two kinds of primrose flowers--the short-styled and the long-styled--clearly arrived at by him as being a mechanism to secure cross-fertilisation1 delighted him in #ahfb1 and led him to discover the same sort of modification in other flowers4 ,then1 in #ahfd1 he published his researches on ,climbing ,plants1 and later a book on the ,movements of ,plants1 in which he discovered the mechanism and the wonderful variety of movements of plants1 and showed their value to the plant1 and consequent origin1 by natural selection4 ,he especially loved to discover evidence that plants can do many things which had been thought to be only within the powers of the other section of living things--the animals2 and finding during one summer holiday that the beautiful little sun-dew moves its red-knobbed tentacles so as to entrap minute insects1 he discovered the whole history of ,insectivorous ,plants1 and showed that there are many plants of various groups which catch insects and digest them in a sort of stomach1 as an animal might do4 ,thus the water-holding pitchers of the pitcher-plants of tropical forests were explained as being food-catchers and digesters of great value to the nutrition of the plant1 and their gradual formation by variation and natural selection rendered comprehensible4 ,his greatest book next to the ,origin--containing an immense quantity of original notes and observations and valuable information from all kinds of breeders and fanciers--is the ,variation of ,animals and ,plants under ,domestication 7#ahfh74 ,the facts recorded are discussed in the light of the great theory1 and honest1 fair-minded consideration is given to those which present difficulties as well as to those which clearly favour it4 ,in #ahga came the ,descent of ,man1 followed in #ahgb by the ,expression of the ,emotions in ,men and ,animals--in which1 again1 it was shown that the facts as to the likeness between man and apes can be explained on the theory that natural selection and survival of favourable variations have been at work1 and that the facts are hopelessly without meaning or explanation on any other hypothesis4 ,his last published book was on ,the ,formation of ,vegetable ,mould through the ,action of ,worms1 in which he not only showed what an important part earthworms play in burying stones and rocks1 and in fitting the ground for the growth of plants1 but recorded some discoveries as to the senses of worms and as to their treatment of leaves by a digestive fluid exuded from the mouth so as to soften a leaf before swallowing it4 ,every one of ,darwin's books abounds with new facts and new points of view disclosed by the application to first one thing and then another of his vivifying discovery-causing theory of natural selection4 ,the subsidiary theory of the selection of brilliantly coloured males by females in pairing1 as a cause of the brilliant colours and patterns of many birds and insects1 is developed in his ,descent of ,man4 ,it led him to many important discoveries and observations as to the colouring and ornamentation of animals1 and when considered1 together with ,wallace's and ,bates's theory of mimicry and of the warning and protective colourings of insects1 goes far to explain all the specific colouring of animals and plants as due to natural selection and survival4 ,a theory which has produced such prodigious results in the way of 8explaining0 all forms1 colours1 habits1 and occurrences of living things--as has that of ,charles ,darwin--simply holds the field against all comers4 ,when ,lamarck's theory has been shown to be consistent with the most elementary facts as to heredity1 and further to afford a rational explanation of any group of biological facts1 it will be time to consider how far it may be entertained in conjunction with ,darwin's theory--but not until then4 ,v ,,darwin',s ,,theory ,,unshaken ,it seems ill-mannered1 if not ill-natured1 that the year of the centenary of ,charles ,darwin's birth should have been chosen by owners of anonymous pens in order to alarm the public mind with the preposterous statement that his celebrated and universally accepted theory of the origin of the species or kinds of plants and animals by natural selection1 or 8the survival of favoured races in the struggle for life10 is undermined and discredited4 ,such a statement once coolly made in the public ,press is necessarily believed by a large number of uninformed readers1 and1 like all calumny1 is none the less relished by the foolish1 and1 for the moment1 none the less harmful1 because it is baseless4 ,those who seek to belittle ,darwin's theory show1 whenever they venture to enter into particulars1 that they do not know what ,darwin's theory is4 ,they confuse it with other theories1 and even imagine that some enthusiastic ,darwinians who have tried to add a chapter here or there to ,darwin's doctrine1 are opponents of the great theory4 ,let me briefly state what that theory is3 ,it rests on three groups of facts--matters of observation1 which are not theory or guess work at all--but admitted by every one and demonstrated every day4 ,these are--7#a7 ,living things1 each in its kind1 produce a far larger number of young than can possibly grow up to maturity1 since the kind of food and the situation necessary to each kind are limited and already occupied4 ,only one oyster embryo out of every five million produced 7the reader may refer to p4 #acg on this subject7 grows up through all the successive stages of youth to the adult state4 ,the total number of a species of animal or plant on the whole area where it is found does not increase4 ,even in those which produce a small number of young1 there is great destruction1 and taking all the individuals into consideration1 only a single pair of young arrive at maturity to replace their parents4 ,there is no exception to the rule that every organic being naturally multiplies at so high a rate that1 if not destroyed1 the progeny of a single pair would soon cover the earth4 ,the elephant is reckoned the slowest breeder of known animals2 it commences to breed at #cj years of age1 dies at #ajj1 and has six young in the interval4 ,after #gej years1 supposing all the offspring of a single pair fulfilled the rule and were not destroyed in an untimely way1 there would be nearly nineteen million elephants alive descended from the first pair4 ,there is then no doubt as to the enormous excess in the production of young living things1 nor as to their necessary competition with one another of the most severe and inexorable kind2 nor again as to the necessary death1 in many species1 of hundreds and thousands1 for every one which survives to maturity and in its turn breeds4 7#b7 ,the second great fact is that among all the young born to a pair of parents1 no two are exactly alike1 nor are any exactly like their parents2 nor are any two taken from all produced by all parents of that species exactly alike4 ,they all resemble their parents at the corresponding age1 in a general way and even very closely2 but the resemblance is far from amounting to identity4 ,this is called 8variation40 ,it is familiar to us all in the case of the organism which we know best1 and observe most closely1 namely1 man4 ,it is also a matter of common observation in the case of dogs1 cats1 horses1 and other domesticated animals4 ,many of these 8variations0 are exhibited in points of size1 proportion1 and colour1 which are easily noted at once by the eye4 ,but 8variation0 is really a deep-seated thing1 and depends on causes which lie below the surface4 ,we know that the offspring of men and of animals and of plants1 give evidence of variations in what we call constitution1 tendency1 temperament1 aptitude1 strength1 and that the colour1 and even size of this or that part1 are really only indications of a deep-seated difference in the living chemistry1 the forces of nutrition and growth which reside in the living substance4 ,the fact that many thousands of a species may be born and only a few survive1 means therefore that many thousand varieties1 often varieties not readily measured by the eye1 are produced in each generation1 from which a few individuals are in some way 8selected0 for survival4 7#c7 ,the third great fact is that though there is variation1 amongst all the offspring in each generation1 there is also a continual and definite inheritance by offspring of the qualities and structure of their parents to a degree which altogether preponderates over the variations4 ,to put it in another way1 we all know that every parental organism transmits to its young not only the qualities and structure of the species1 or of the race1 or of the family1 but also transmits its own peculiarities or variations in which it departed from its parents1 and from its brothers and sisters4 ,this is best illustrated by our daily experience of human families4 ,these facts being admitted1 and abundantly illustrated and traced in detail by years of observation and experimental breeding in all kinds of living things by hundreds of careful observers who have published the records of their studies1 we come to the step where ,darwin makes use of supposition or hypothesis4 ,the question is1 8,does the one which1 out of the thousands of slightly different varieties1 survives--do so by haphazard8 or is there a necessarily acting state of things which selects that one special variety for survival80 ,gardeners and breeders of pigeons1 dogs1 and cattle deliberately select the variations which they desire1 breed from them1 and so carry on by inheritance the special variation--whilst they ruthlessly destroy or restrain from breeding the numerous other variations in their 8stock0 which they do not desire4 8,if10 said ,darwin1 8there is any necessarily selective mechanism in ,nature which could act as the breeder does1 new varieties might be #8naturally' selected1 and changes of form and appearance naturally established1 which in the course of long ages would amount to such marked differences as separate what we call one species from another40 ,he showed that there is a natural mechanism of the required kind4 8,since10 he says1 8the competition among the members of any one kind or species for a place in life is so very severe1 and the hostile circumstances so varied1 and since all the competing offspring differ by #8variation' ever so little from one another1 those varieties which are better suited in even the smallest degree to hold their own not merely in fighting with the others1 but in withstanding injurious influences1 in escaping enemies1 and in procuring food1 will be the ones which will survive1 when a large number of cases1 many thousands1 extending over a large area and many years1 are considered4 ,those which are #8best fitted' to get through the exceedingly numerous dangers and difficulties of life will be the survivors40 ,hence we get the survival of the fit--the fit variations--by natural selection in the struggle for life4 ,this1 it will be observed1 is an inference1 and not a direct observation4 ,so long as the conditions remain practically or effectively unchanged1 the animal or plant already 8fitted0 to them will be succeeded by those of its offspring which most resemble it in the essential points of 8fitness40 ,but we know that in the course of ages1 more or less rapidly1 climates change1 land emerges from the sea1 islands join continents1 continents become scattered islands1 animals and plants migrate into regions previously uninhabited by them4 ,as such changes gradually come on1 the natural selection of favoured varieties will necessarily lead to the survival of others than those previously favoured1 other variations better suited to the new conditions will survive4 ,the natural selection of favoured variations would not amount to much1 were the variations not perpetuated by transmission to the young which they produce4 ,this1 it is common knowledge see 7#c71 does take place4 ,it is known also that a variation so established is as a result of the regular process of variation presented in larger volume or emphasised in character in some individuals of subsequent generations1 and by continued 8natural selection0 it may become more and more a prominent or dominant feature of the race4 ,so far1 the only assumption made by ,mr4 ,darwin is that any or some of the endless variations which occur in all the offspring of wild plants and animals1 in various combinations and degree in each individual1 can be sufficiently important to determine the survival or non-survival of the organisms possessing them4 ,that is a matter which has been largely studied and discussed4 ,the verdict of those who have studied on the spot 7as ,darwin himself did7 the teeming life of the tropics1 the insects1 birds1 and plants of those regions1 is that we are justified in considering that small variations are sufficiently important to turn the scale in favour of survival or non-survival4 ,it is not easy for a man who is not a determined naturalist1 constantly observing the ways of wild living things1 to appreciate the evidence as to the efficacy of small variations1 even were ,i able here to submit it to him4 ,it is to be found in the published works of an army of investigators4 ,in any case it is granted that effective variations--whether small or great--occur in nature1 and that natural selection favours and perpetuates the new and fitter variety to the exclusion of the less fit4 ,the real difficulty to most people comes in the supposition next made by ,mr4 ,darwin--namely1 that this slow process of change by natural selection of favoured variations and their transmission and perpetuation by inheritance is sufficient to effect by its continued operation through enormous ages of time the conversion of a race of ancestral three-toed zebras into the one-toed horse of to-day2 before that1 of five-toed beasts into three-toed2 at an earlier stage of fishlike creatures into four-footed land animals1 and so on4 ,you have to picture the whole series of animals and of plants which are now or ever have been1 as two gigantic family trees or pedigrees1 meeting in common ancestors of the simplest grade of microscopic life4 ,all the diverging branches and twigs of these great 8family trees0 have been determined by the adaptation of living form to the endlessly varied conditions of life on this planet1 by the natural selection or survival of variations and the transmission and accumulation of those variations from parent to offspring4 ,this is a tremendous demand on the imagination4 ,it is1 however1 not a difficult one to concede1 when one is acquainted with the facts and conclusions of geology4 ,the history of the crust of the earth was explained twenty years before the date of ,darwin's theory by ,charles ,lyell as due to the continued action through immense periods of time of the same natural forces which are now at work4 ,and1 moreover1 the examination of the successive stratified deposits of the earth's crust has yielded the remains of whole series of animals and of plants 7simpler in character the older and deeper the rock in which they occur71 which can be satisfactorily explained and interpreted as the ancestral forms from which present organisms have been developed4 ,the theory of the natural selection of variations as the moving spring in the gradual development of living forms from simplest living matter is ,darwin's theory4 ,it is not possible to find any naturalist of consideration who does not accept it4 ,there are various views held and discussed as to the cause of variation1 as to the importance of small and of big variations1 as to the non-transmissibility of some kinds of variation1 and as to various peculiarities in regard to inheritance4 ,they do not for the most part touch the main features of ,mr4 ,darwin's theory4 ,no doubt we are learning and shall learn more about the facts of variation and the details of the process of hereditary transmission1 but such increase of knowledge has not tended to undermine ,mr4 ,darwin's theory1 and does not seem at all likely to do so4 ,on the occasion of the celebration at ,cambridge in #aiji of the centenary of ,darwin's birth1 ,i was invited by the ,vice-,chancellor1 on behalf of the ,university1 to deliver in the ,senate-house an address1 others being given by representatives of the ,united ,states 7,prof4 ,osborne71 of ,germany 7,prof4 ,hertwig71 and of ,russia 7,prof4 ,metchnikoff74 ,the following is the text of that address3-- 8,i feel it a great honour to be called upon to speak here to-day1 and to stand1 on behalf of the naturalists of the ,british ,empire1 by the side of the distinguished men whose orations you have just heard4 8,i think that the one thing about ,charles ,darwin which the large majority of ,british naturalists would wish to be to-day proclaimed1 in the first place--with no doubtful or qualifying phrase--is that1 in their judgment1 after these fifty years of examination and testing1 his #8theory of the origin of species by means of natural selection or the preservation of favoured races in the struggle for life' remains whole and sound and convincing1 in spite of every attempt to upset it4 8,i am not stating more than the simple truth when ,i say that1 in the judgment of those who are best acquainted with living things in their actual living surroundings1 #8natural selection' retains the position which ,mr4 ,darwin claimed for it of being the main means of the modification of organic forms4 8,our admiration for the vast series of beautiful observations and interesting inquiries carried out by ,darwin during his long life must not lead us to forget that they were devised by him in order to test the truth of his theory and to meet objections to it1 and that they were triumphantly successful4 ,they1 together with the work of ,alfred ,russel ,wallace and many of their followers1 have more and more firmly established ,darwin's theory4 ,on the other hand1 no attempt to amend that theory in any essential particular has been successful4 8,the nature of organic variation and of the character of the variations upon which natural selection can and does act was not1 as we are sometimes asked to believe1 neglected or misapprehended by ,darwin4 ,the notion that these variations are large and sudden was considered by him1 and for reasons set forth by him at considerable length rejected4 ,that notion has in recent years been resuscitated1 but its truth has not been rendered probable by evidence either of such an accurate character or of such pertinence as would justify the rejection of ,darwin's fundamental conception of the importance of minute and ubiquitous variations4 8,further1 in regard to the important facts of heredity connected with the cross-breeding of cultivated varieties1 especially in regard to the blending or non-blending of their characters in their offspring and as to prepotency1 it seems to me important that we should now and here call to mind the full and careful consideration given to this subject by ,darwin4 ,we cannot doubt that he would have been deeply interested in the numerical and statistical results associated with the name of ,mendel4 ,those results tend to throw light on the mechanisms concerned in hereditary transmission1 but it cannot be shown that they are opposed in any way to the truth of ,darwin's great theoretical structure--his doctrine of the origin of species4 8,it has often been urged against ,darwin that he did not explain the origin of variation1 and especially that he has not shown how variations of sufficient moment to be selected for preservation in the struggle for existence have in the first place originated4 ,the brief reply to the first objection is that variation is a common attribute of many natural substances of which living matter is only one4 ,in regard to the second point1 ,i desire to remind this assembly that ,darwin described with special emphasis instances of what he calls #8correlated variability4' ,in my opinion he has thus furnished the key to the explanation of what are called useless specific characters and of incipient organs4 ,that key consists in the fact that a general physiological property or character of utility is often selected and perpetuated1 which carries with it distinct1 even remote1 correlated growths and peculiarities obvious to our eyes1 yet having no functional value4 ,at a later stage in the history of such a form these correlated growths may acquire value and become the subject of selection4 8,it is thus1 as it seems to me1 and as1 ,i believe1 to the great body of my brother naturalists1 that ,darwin's theory stands after fifty years of trial and application4 8,the greatness of ,charles ,darwin's work is1 and will be for ever1 one of the glories of the ,university of ,cambridge4 ,it is fitting on the present occasion that one who speaks on behalf of ,english men of science should call to mind the nature of his connection with this great ,university and the peculiarly ,english features of his life-story and of that fine character which endears his memory to all of us as much as his genius excites our admiration and reverence4 ,darwin was not1 like so many a distinguished son of ,cambridge1 a scholar or a fellow of his college1 nor a professor of the ,university4 ,his connection with the ,university and the influence which it had upon his life belong to a tradition and a system which have survived longer in our old ,english universities than in those of other lands4 ,darwin entered the ,university1 not seeking a special course of study with the view of professional training1 nor aiming at success in competitive examinations for honours and emolument4 ,he came to ,cambridge intending to become a clergyman1 but blessed with sufficient means and leisure to enable him to pursue his own devices1 to collect beetles1 to explore the fen country1 and to cultivate his love of nature4 ,it was thus that he became acquainted with that rare spirit ,henslow1 the ,cambridge professor of botany1 and it is through ,henslow and the influence of his splendid abilities and high personal character upon ,darwin that ,cambridge acquired the right to claim the author of the #8,origin of ,species' as a product of her beneficence and activity as a seat of learning4 8,as an ,oxford man and a member of ,exeter ,college1 ,i may remind this assembly that in precisely the same way ,darwin's dearest friend and elder brother in science1 ,charles ,lyell1 had a few years earlier entered at ,exeter ,college1 and by happy chance fallen under the influence of the enthusiastic ,buckland1 the ,university reader in geology and a ,canon of ,christ ,church4 ,the wise freedom of study permitted and provided for in those long-passed days by ,oxford and ,cambridge is what has given the right to claim the discovery1 if not the making1 of ,lyell to the one and of ,darwin to the other4 8,darwin's love of living nature and of the country life are especially ,english characteristics2 so1 too1 ,i venture to think1 are the unflinching determination and simple courage--,i may even say the audacity--with which he acquired1 after he had left the ,university1 the wide range of detailed knowledge in various branches of science which he found necessary in order to deal with the problem of the origin of the species of plants and animals1 the investigation of which became his passion4 8,the unselfish generosity and delicacy of feeling which marked ,darwin's relations with a younger naturalist1 ,alfred ,russel ,wallace1 are known to all4 ,i cannot let this occasion pass without citing those words of his which tell us most clearly what manner of man he was and add to his splendid achievements as an intellectual force--a light and a beauty of which every ,englishman must be proud4 ,when in old age he surveyed his life's work he wrote3--#8,i believe that ,i have acted rightly in steadily following and devoting my life to science4' 8,to have desired to act #8rightly1' and to be able to think of success in life as measured by the fulfilment of that desire1 is the indication and warrant of true greatness of character4 ,we ,englishmen have ever loved to recognise this noble kind of devotion in our national heroes40 ,,vi ,,metchnikoff ,,and ,,tolstoi ,the ,darwin celebration at ,cambridge1 in ,june #aiji1 brought a wonderful assemblage of celebrated biologists from all parts of the world to this country4 ,there never has been seen such a company of great discoverers of all nationalities in the field of natural history and the science of living things1 as were present in the ,university of ,cambridge during that week4 ,even philosophers1 moralists1 and jurists were present to join with the one great political leader of our own country who really knows and appreciates the importance of the scientific study of ,nature--the ,right ,hon4 ,arthur ,j4 ,balfour--in his fervent and heartfelt tribute to the influence of ,darwin's work and theory in all departments of human knowledge1 thought1 and activity4 ,one of the most remarkable men present was ,elie ,metchnikoff4 ,he represented both ,russia1 the country of his birth and earlier scientific work1 and his adopted country1 ,france1 where1 as sub-director of the ,institut ,pasteur1 his later and most important researches have been carried on4 ,russia was also represented by ,salensky1 late director of the ,museum of ,st4 ,petersburg1 well known to us all as a discoverer in the embryology 7growth from the egg7 of marine animals1 and by ,timiriazeff1 the botanist1 renowned for his work on the mode in which leaf-green or 8chlorophyll0 enables green plants to obtain their food from the gases of the atmosphere4 ,france had other representatives in ,edmond ,perrier1 director of the ,paris ,museum1 and ,prince ,roland ,bonaparte4 ,metchnikoff was one of the four representatives selected by the ,university to deliver orations in the ,senate ,house in honour of ,darwin4 ,he especially drew attention to the influence of ,darwin's theory on the study of disease4 ,the recognition of the derivation of man from animal ancestors1 and of the complete community of the structure and the chemical activity of the organs of man with those of the organs of animals1 had made 7he said7 the study of the diseases of animals a necessary feature in the understanding of the diseases of man4 ,the far-reaching principle of ,darwin that the mechanisms and processes observed in the bodies of plants and of animals 7including man7 must have been selected in the struggle for existence and perpetuated1 because of their utility1 led ,metchnikoff to inquire what is the value or use of the process called inflammation and of the 8eating corpuscles10 or 8phagocytes0 7so named by him71 which wander from the blood into inflamed tissues4 ,this question had led him to the discovery that the phagocytes engulf and destroy disease-germs1 and are the great protectors of the animal and human body against bacteria and other germs which enter cut and wounded surfaces1 and would start disease were there not 8inflammation10 which is nothing more nor less than a nerve-regulated stagnation of the circulation of the blood at the wounded spot1 and the consequent arrival at this spot of thousands of 8phagocytes10 which pass out of the stagnant blood through the walls of the fine blood-vessels4 ,these armies of phagocytes proceed to eat up and destroy all the germs which fall on to the wound--from the air1 from dirty surfaces1 and from the skin4 ,the utility of inflammation and its gradual development1 according to ,darwinian principles1 in the animal series1 was shown twenty years ago by ,metchnikoff4 ,his important work on 8immunity0 and on infection and on protection against germ-caused disease is thus seen to be one of the many flourishing and valuable branches of knowledge which have originated from ,darwin's great conception and his example in experiment and inquiry4 ,metchnikoff is now devoting all his attention to the possibility of prolonging human life4 ,the facts seem to show that if we ate and drank only what is best for us1 and led lives regulated by reason and knowledge1 we should1 nearly all1 attain to #hj or even #ajj years of age1 having healthy minds and healthy bodies4 ,we should die quietly and comfortably at the end1 with much the same feeling of contentment in well-earned final repose as that which we now experience in going to sleep at the end of a long and happy day of healthy exercise and activity4 ,metchnikoff thinks that the causes of too early death may be ascertained1 and when ascertained avoided or removed4 ,in #ahgj1 in a little book on ,comparative ,longevity1 ,i distinguished what we may call the 8possible life10 or 8potential longevity10 of any given human being from his or her 8expectation0 of life4 ,potential longevity has been well called our 8lease0 of life4 ,it is probably not very different in different races of men or individuals1 and is probably higher than ,king ,david thought1 being #ajj to #abj years1 and not merely #gj years4 ,we all1 or nearly all1 fail to last out our 8lease0 owing to accidents1 violence1 and avoidable1 as well as unavoidable1 disease2 so that #gj years is named as our tenure when the injury done to us by unhealthy modes of life and by actual disease are considered as inevitable4 ,metchnikoff proposes to discover and to avoid those conditions which 8wear down0 most of us and produce 8senility0 and 8death0 before we have really run out our lease of life4 ,human beings die most abundantly in the earliest years of life4 ,statistics show that at birth the chance or expectation of life is only #de years1 whilst at #aj years old you may expect to live to be #fa4 ,at #cj you have not a much better chance--you will probably1 if you are what is called a 8healthy0 life1 die when you are #fe4 ,but if you survive to be #ej you may expect1 if you have not any obvious disease or signs of 8break up10 another twenty years1 and will probably die at #gj2 surviving to #fj1 you may expect1 if you are what passes for 8healthy10 to live to #gc4 ,now1 it is especially with regard to life after #dj or #ej years of age that ,metchnikoff is interested4 ,those who have survived the special dangers and difficulties of youth1 and have arrived at this mature age1 ought to be able to realise much more frequently than they do something like the full 8lease of life40 ,there seems to be no reason why they should not avoid the usual rapid 8senile changes0 or weakness of old age1 and survive1 as a few actually do1 to something like #ajj4 ,the causes of 8senile change0 and the way to defeat their operation are what ,metchnikoff is studying4 ,hardening of the walls of the arteries set up by certain avoidable diseases contracted in earlier life1 and by the use of alcohol 7not only to the degree which we call 8drunkenness10 but to such a degree as to make one depend on it as a 8pick-me-up071 is an undoubted cause of that weakness and liability to succumb to other diseases which is so general after #ej years of age4 ,the causes which produce hardened arteries can be avoided4 ,another cause of senile changes is declared by ,metchnikoff1 to arise from the continual absorption of poisonous substances produced by the decomposition of partially digested food in the lower bowel or large intestine4 ,this is at present the chief subject of his study4 ,it is to prevent the formation of these poisons that he has introduced the use of sour milk1 prepared with the lactic ferment4 ,since the ,cambridge celebration he has been in ,london in order to examine the condition of certain patients from whom a distinguished ,english surgeon has found it necessary to remove the 8large intestine40 ,metchnikoff wishes to ascertain what bacteria1 poison-producing or other1 are present in these patients1 and what is their general chemical condition now that this poison-producing part of the digestive canal has been taken from them4 ,in ,paris1 ,metchnikoff has some very interesting experiments in progress with bats4 ,he uses the large tropical fruit-eating bats1 or 8flying foxes40 ,they have a very short intestine1 and very few bacteria and of very few kinds are to be found in its contents4 ,on the other hand1 there are as many as thirty distinct kinds of bacteria producing putrefaction or other chemical change in the digestive canal of man--and their quantity is gigantic4 ,they pervade the whole contents of the human digestive canal by millions4 ,by properly feeding the flying foxes in his laboratory in ,paris ,metchnikoff has actually succeeded in getting rid of all bacteria from their digestive canal1 so that he now has adult mammalian animals1 not very remote from man in their structure1 food1 and internal chemistry1 which are absolutely free from the intestinal parasitic bacteria which he supposes to cause poisoning and senile changes in man4 ,it is obvious1 without pursuing the matter into further detail here1 that ,metchnikoff is now in a position to test his views as to the action of particular kinds of bacteria--he has animals which are free from them4 ,he can make an experiment1 keeping some of his bats still free from bacteria and causing some to be largely infected by this or that kind1 and he can compare the result in regard to the health and chemical condition of the animals4 ,so1 too1 the patients from whom the lower intestine has been removed may very probably furnish him 7through his assistant who remains in ,london7 with important facts for comparison with the condition of persons who have not been deprived of this part of the digestive apparatus4 ,i have given this sketch of what my friend is doing in order to furnish some notion of the kind of investigation which he pursues4 ,he does not expect to extend the 8lease0 of human life1 but by ascertaining in a definite scientific way the true rules of internal and external 8hygiene0 he does hope to give mankind an increased 8expectation0 of life2 in fact1 to enable a vastly larger number of men and women to enjoy that lease to the full1 and to die without disappointment and regret1 even with contentment and pleasure1 at the end of it4 ,metchnikoff was in ,russia in the spring of #aiji1 and spent a day with ,tolstoi4 ,they were 8fted0 and photographed together1 the greatest artist and the greatest scientist of ,russia4 ,tolstoi is #ha years of age4 ,he took ,metchnikoff out alone for a drive in his pony-cart so as to talk with him without interruption4 8,what do you think of life80 was the first question he asked1 and one which it took my friend some time to answer4 ,in regard to vegetarianism the two great men did not agree4 ,when ,metchnikoff declared that there was less cruelty on man's part in killing wild animals to eat them than in leaving them to die by the tooth and claw of predaceous animals or from starvation1 ,tolstoi observed that that was argument and reason1 and that he paid no attention to them2 he only guided himself 7he said7 by sentiment1 which he felt sure told him what was good and right6 ,he was1 however1 deeply interested in an account of the cannibalism of savage races of men1 concerning which he seemed to be quite uninformed4 ,he also was profoundly interested in ,metchnikoff's view that ,goethe1 in the second part of ,faust1 is chiefly bent upon depicting the persistence of the amorous passion in old age--of which ,goethe himself was an example--and ,tolstoi declared that this gave a new meaning to the poem1 which he had always hitherto found dull and unintelligible4 ,but when ,metchnikoff described in glowing words the joy and even rapture with which man will hereafter welcome the repose and mystery of death1 having completed a long and healthy life of some hundred years1 ,tolstoi declared that this was indeed a fine conception1 although it was entirely subversive of his own notions as to the significance of life and death4 ,tolstoi also stated that he had written his stories rapidly and without effort1 but that his essays on morality and religion had cost him great labour2 and1 further1 that he could not now remember the former1 though the latter still were developing and incessantly occupied his thought4 ,it was admitted with regret by ,darwin that he ceased in middle age to care for poetry and art1 though there seems to be no doubt that he mistook fatigue and preoccupation of mind for a real change in taste and power of appreciation4 ,it is interesting to place beside this the case of the great literary artist1 ,tolstoi1 who not only frankly confesses that he refuses to be guided by reason and follows sentiment1 but is also profoundly ignorant upon all the most ordinary topics of human life outside his own village1 and of all ,nature and her workings4 ,would ,tolstoi have been a greater or a smaller artist if he had had a larger knowledge of the things that are8 ,was ,darwin's great scientific achievement really related to an innate indifference to what is called 8poetry08 ,i will not now discuss the matter1 but ,i am convinced that so far as natural gift is concerned1 the keenest scientific capacity is not only compatible with the fullest sensibility to art and with the power of poetical vision and expression1 but is often accompanied by them2 and1 further1 that the work of an artist1 if he is a great artist1 cannot be hampered by knowledge4 ,it is only the small talent or the feeble genius that can be paralysed rather than developed by the fullest experience and the widest knowledge4 ,necessary incompatibility of mental qualities has no place in this matter2 what has led to the erroneous assumption that it has1 is the excessive exercise by exceptional individuals of certain powers--a specialism necessary for effort and success1 but deliberately chosen1 and not due to an inborn one-sidedness4 ,,vii ,,the ,,land ,,of ,,azure ,,blue ,the ,cte d',azur whither many of my readers will be travelling--in thought1 if not in reality--about ,easter time1 is well named the ,land of ,azure ,blue1 for it is the blueness of the sea1 of the sky1 and of the distant rocks and mountains1 as well as much of the vegetation1 which is when the sun shines1 its special charm4 ,and although one has some wet and some cloudy days1 yet the sun does shine there with a strength and brilliancy not to be enjoyed in the early part of the year on the ,atlantic and ,north ,sea coast4 ,this tract of country1 more commonly known to ,english people as the ,riviera1 has very special meteorological conditions owing to its position as the narrow strip of shore-line existing between the vast mass of the ,western ,alps and the ,mediterranean ,sea4 ,it is warmed by the sea1 and lies too close under the mountains to be caught by any winds from the north1 and at many points is also effectively protected from both east and west winds by rocky spurs of the great mountain chain4 ,the ,riviera is a constant source of delight to those who love flowers and beautiful vegetation of all kinds4 ,but few of its visitors appreciate the fact that it is really from end to end one big garden1 cultivated for ages by its inhabitants1 and full of plants introduced by man which at present seem at first sight to be characteristic natives of it1 but are1 in reality1 quite distinct from its primitive vegetation4 ,this primitive vegetation is now represented only in what is locally called the 8maquis0--what we should1 perhaps1 term the 8scrub0 or 8bush0 in ,english4 ,it comprises some pines1 the juniper1 the lovely rock roses1 balsams1 rosemary1 the giant heath 7bruyre71 from which our briar-root pipes are made1 the larger thyme1 the myrtle1 the rose of ,provence1 two kinds of lavender1 and many aromatic plants with grey hairy leaves1 and often provided with sharp thorns as additional defences against browsing goats4 ,the delicious perfumes of these hardy inhabitants of the dry1 rocky grounds1 where little or no grass can flourish1 are developed by them as a protection against browsing animals1 who cannot tolerate much of these pungent volatile oils1 although mankind extracts them and uses them in the manufacture of such scents as eau-de-,cologne and also in cookery4 ,many a visitor to the ,riviera never strays from the cultivated fields and roadways into this scrub-land4 ,the olive tree1 which forms so prominent and beautiful a feature in the panorama of gardens which unrolls itself as we steam or drive along the coast from ,toulon to ,mentone and from ,mentone to ,genoa and ,spezzia1 is not a native plant2 it was introduced in prehistoric times1 and has been again and again re-established by emigrants from ,italy2 but it was brought to ,italy from the ,east4 ,it is astonishing how many of the cultivated trees of the ,riviera have the same kind of history--the vine came from ,india in prehistoric times1 the fig tree more recently from ,persia1 the lemon from ,india1 the orange and the peach tree from ,china4 ,all of them were introduced in very ancient times to the eastern parts of the ,mediterranean basin1 and so gradually were carried to the shores of the ,ligurian sea1 and would die out here were they not to a certain extent under the care of ownership4 ,the so-called 8mimosa10 so abundant here1 with its pretty1 sweet-scented1 yellow blossom1 is an ,australian acacia1 only introduced some sixty years ago2 whilst the eucalyptus--a most picturesque and effective addition to the landscape--is a still later introduction from ,australia4 ,the cypress1 that darkest and most shapely of conifers1 long lines of which proclaim to the traveller as he passes ,avignon his arrival in the true 8,south10 is not a native of these parts1 although it flourishes in suitable situations4 ,it was introduced in medival times from the ,east4 ,so1 too1 the palms1 though some have been cultivated for centuries1 have been largely imported from extra ,european localities in the last century4 ,there is a native ,european palm4 ,it is a kind of fan-palm1 and grows here4 ,i have gathered it in ,sicily4 ,it does not 8rear its stately head0 more than a foot from the ground1 and is known to botanists as ,chamrops humilis4 ,the gigantic ,mexican agave and the prickly-pear cactus were introduced in the seventeenth century from the ,new ,world1 though1 according to ,sir ,herbert ,tree's scenery1 they were growing at ,cape ,miseno in the time of ,antony and ,cleopatra6 ,bamboos of many kinds have been introduced here from the ,far ,east1 and flourish exceedingly4 ,the orange tree was brought from ,india 7whither it was carried from ,china7 and established in ,southern ,europe in medival times1 though known to the ancient ,greeks and ,romans4 ,there are as many as #abj different varieties of the orange tree now cultivated on the shores of the ,mediterranean1 including1 besides those which are valued for their sweet juicy pulp1 those which furnish bergamot oil and similar aromatic products4 ,the 8issue pea0 of old apothecaries1 which was bound into a cut made in a patient's flesh for the purpose of producing inflammation and suppuration1 with the notion that such treatment was beneficial1 was a minute unripe orange dried1 and1 no doubt1 to some extent1 antiseptic4 ,besides the introduced trees1 we find1 in ground which has been more or less under cultivation1 and not1 therefore1 of the nature of the 8maquis10 or scrub-land1 some beautiful plants1 such as the narcissus1 iris1 and various lilies4 ,one very small and graceful tulip is1 ,i believe1 regarded as native to the soil1 but a magnificent crimson tulip1 as large as the varieties cultivated in ,english gardens1 which ,i have found abundantly in open park-like land under olive trees at ,antibes1 is said to have been introduced from ,persia in the ,middle ,ages1 and to have taken kindly to the ,riviera4 ,it is the ,tulipa oculus solis4 ,in the same locality were growing many brilliantly coloured 8stellate0 anemones4 ,there is1 of course1 a third group or 8lot0 of plants on the ,riviera1 which consists of those brought from all parts of the world during the past century1 and regularly cultivated and cared for in gardens4 ,the climate of the ,riviera enables the gardener to grow all sorts of sub-tropical plants in the open air1 and a long list of them could be given4 ,the wonderfully brilliant crimson creeper1 ,bougainvillia1 covers walls by the roadways1 and even the railway stations1 with its rich colour at this season4 ,a delightful book by the distinguished botanist1 ,professor ,strasburger1 describing and picturing in colours many of the cultivated as well as the wild plants of the ,riviera1 has lately been published 7in ,english7 at a small price4 ,the animals which come under the notice of those who go in search of spring sunshine to the ,riviera are far less numerous than the plants4 ,but there is one which is dear to all1 although it makes such a noise for an hour or so about sunset that some people are irritated or even alarmed by it4 ,this is the little green tree-frog1 ,fig4 #a1 which now comes forth from its winter sleep1 and assembles in thousands--guided by the 8croak0 or 8call0 which is produced by the males4 ,the females have a very small voice comparatively4 ,i kept two--a male and female--through a winter in ,london1 and when the spring came the male terrified the household one night by unexpectedly uttering his cry--loud and sharp--to which the female replied4 8,wharr6 biz0 is the nearest expression ,i can give in letters to the two sounds4 ,after a great many evenings spent in these rhythmical declamations1 the little frogs collect round pools and tanks1 and at last drop from the trees into the water1 and there deposit their spawn4 ,when producing his cry the male distends the skin of his throat like a balloon4 ,the air is driven alternately from it into the lungs and back again over the vocal chords1 which vibrate with no uncertain sound4 ,these little frogs are easy to keep in an inverted bell-jar or in a fern-case1 but must be fed regularly with flies and spiders1 which they catch by a sudden dab of the tongue at the moment of alighting from a long leap on to the glass where the insect is crawling4 ,they can hold on to smooth glass or leaves by means of their sucker-like toes 7,fig4 #a74 ,the colour of the upper surface of the ,south ,european tree-frog is a most vivid and smoothly laid-on grass-green4 ,occasionally the colour becomes altered to a brownish purple1 but returns after a day or two to its usual bright green tint4 ,a great rarity is the blue variety of this frog--the enchanted ,prince of the ,cte d',azur--blue as the sky and the sea around him--the true genius loci4 ,i obtained one a few years ago at ,mentone1 and kept it alive for three years in ,london4 ,its blue was the blue of the forget-me-not or the finest turquoise4 ,when it died 7,i believe of old age1 and not from discomfort or disease7 ,i examined its skin very carefully with the microscope1 and compared it with that of the ordinary green tree-frog1 in order to make out the cause of their difference in colour4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4--,the little green tree-frog or 8rainette0 of the ,riviera 7,hyla arborea74 ,from ,professor ,gadow's volume on ,reptiles and ,amphibia--in the 8,cambridge ,natural ,history0--published by ,macmillan ,co41 by whose permission this figure is here produced4 ,at ,mentone there is a little shop where one may purchase green tree-frogs and ornamental cages in which to keep them4 ,every year the dealer has two or three specimens of the blue variety on sale--their backs and heads looking like bits of turquoise-blue kid4 ,visitors have sometimes wrongly supposed that the blue frogs had been artificially changed in colour1 but they are real1 natural varieties4 ,a similar substitution of blue for green has been noticed as a rare variation in other kinds of frogs and toads in other countries4 ,it really consists in a suppression of yellow pigment4 ,the interesting thing about the colour of the little tree-frogs is that we find1 on careful examination of the skin of a dead specimen with the microscope1 that there is no green nor yet any blue 8pigment0 present in it4 ,i found1 on examining the blue specimen which died after living three years with me1 that there is only black pigment overlaid by a colourless1 semi-transparent layer of skin4 ,in this outer skin in the ordinary green specimens there is scattered a quantity of excessively minute yellow particles1 which1 mixed with the blue1 produce the green appearance4 ,the fact is1 that the wonderful 8dead0 turquoise-blue of the blue frog is a colour-effect similar to that of the blue sky and the blue of the human eye4 ,it is produced by a peculiar reflection of the light from minute colourless particles1 without the assistance of any blue-coloured substance4 ,the distinction of these two modes of producing blue colour is important4 ,certain transparent bodies are so constituted that when a beam of light is directed so as to pass through them1 the red1 yellow1 green1 and purple rays which exist in colourless sunlight are stopped1 and only the blue rays come through4 ,such a body is blue copperas1 or sulphate of copper2 another is methyl blue1 one of the aniline dyes2 another is pure water1 which gives only a slight advantage to the blue rays1 so that the light must pass through a thickness of #cj feet or more before the blue tint is obvious4 ,thus1 part of the blueness of the ,cte d',azur is accounted for--namely1 the blueness of the sea when the sunlight is strong and is reflected from the white rocks and sand lying #cj feet to #ajj feet below the surface of the water4 ,there are1 of course1 other self-coloured transparent bodies which allow only rays of one colour to pass4 ,thus1 blood-red1 or hmoglobin1 the pigment of the blood1 allows chiefly red rays to pass through it4 ,yellow rays only pass through a solution of saffron or of chromic acid2 green only or chiefly through green copperas 7sulphate of iron7 or through leaf-green or chlorophyll4 ,colour is very generally due in natural objects to such transparent bodies which absorb or stop all the coloured rays of light as it passes through them1 excepting those of one tint--or1 to be more correct1 nearly all except those of one tint4 ,but the blue of the blue frog and a great deal of the blue in nature is due to another cause4 ,if you are a smoker1 or the friend of a smoker1 watch the fine curling lines of smoke ascending from a cigar when it is being consumed in bright sunshine4 ,you will see that it has a blue1 even an azure blue1 tint as the sunlight falls upon it4 ,but if you let the smoke get between the sun and your eyes you will notice that the little curling clouds are no longer blue1 but reddish-brown1 in appearance4 ,the smoke is not a transparent blue2 looked at as a transparent body1 it is brown6 ,further1 when the smoke has passed into the smoker's mouth and is ejected after remaining there for a few seconds1 the cloud no longer looks blue1 even when the sunlight falls on it and is reflected from it to your eye4 ,it is now opaque white or colourless1 with1 perhaps1 a faint tinge of blue4 ,this change is due--as was shown by the experiments of the late ,professor ,tyndall upon a variety of clouds and vapours--to the cooling of the smoke and the increased size of the floating particles which coalesce as the temperature falls4 ,the larger particles reflect white light1 and the cloud is no longer blue4 ,a cloud formed by the finest particles gives the strongest blue to the light reflected from it1 and it is to this property of the finest particles of water-cloud floating in our atmosphere that the blue colour of the sky is due4 ,no doubt the question arises1 8,why do clouds of the finest particles reflect a predominant amount of blue light rather than yellow or green or red80 ,that question is answered by mathematicians in accordance with what is ascertained as to the nature and properties of light1 but it would require a long treatise to put those matters even in outline before the reader4 ,we may in the meanwhile accept the conclusions of the physicists1 and interest ourselves in seeing how they apply to some of the concrete facts about colour in ,nature4 ,there are other instances of 8blueness0 due to the reflection of light from a cloud of excessively minute particles besides that of the azure sky and the blue1 curling smoke of a wood fire4 ,a familiar instance is the blueness of translucent bodies1 such as the 8white0 of a boiled plover's egg1 especially when a bit of it is placed on a dead-black ground4 ,the bluish appearance of watered ,london milk is another instance4 ,these bodies look blue owing to the fine1 colourless particles suspended in them1 which act on light in the same way as do the fine particles of newly-produced smoke4 ,another very interesting case is the blue colour of the iris of the eye of man and other animals4 ,it is not due to any blue pigment1 but to a reflection from fine particles in the translucent1 but turbid1 tissue of the iris overlying the dark1 black chamber of the eye4 ,white geese and white cats frequently have blue eyes1 the blue being thus produced4 ,the only pigment which occurs in the human eye is a brown one1 which gives a colour varying from amber yellow to very dark brown1 almost black1 according to the quantity present4 ,when a very little of it is present it gives1 in combination with the blue appearance of the unpigmented iris1 a green tint1 so that green eyes owe their colour to the same combination of causes as does the green skin of the little tree-frogs1 or 8rainettes40 ,no solvent will extract any pigment from the skin of the blue frog--nor by the finest trituration can one obtain any coloured particles from it2 only fine black granules can be separated4 ,alcohol removes the yellow pigment from the skin of a green tree-frog 7killed1 of course1 for the experiment71 and for a minute or two the skin becomes blue when its yellow pigment is thus removed by immersion in spirit2 but it rapidly becomes a dull greyish-brown in colour1 and so remains2 the green cannot be preserved in spirit-specimens4 ,it is not fully explained how such a uniform 8dead0 blue is produced by the reflection of light from fine particles1 as that observed in the blue frog's skin4 ,it appears that the blue and the green colour in the feathers of birds is in most1 if not all1 cases produced in the same way as the blue and green of the tree-frog's skin4 ,it would be interesting were it found possible to produce a full dead-blue colour by experimentally placing a coat of a translucent but turbid colourless medium on a dead-black plate4 ,this1 however1 has not been done as a deliberate experiment4 ,it is1 however1 recorded that ,goethe was delighted to find what he considered to be a confirmation of his theory of colour when a friend showed him an oil-painting of a gentleman in a black coat which when wetted with a sponge turned bright blue4 ,the picture had been recently 8restored10 and the varnish on the black coat was not 8dry40 ,it was precipitated by the water from the sponge1 mixing with the spirit which held it in solution4 ,a fine colourless cloud was thus produced overlying the black paint of the coat1 and1 as in the case of the cerulean frog1 a dead-blue colour1 due to reflection of the light by the fine particles1 was the result4 ,some friendly physicist might repeat this experiment and study the matter in detail4 ,the red1 orange1 and yellow colours of birds' feathers are produced by pigments which are either insoluble or only soluble with great difficulty in fluids of the nature of ether4 ,there is1 however1 an exception in the case of the ,african birds called ,turacous1 or ,plantain-eaters4 ,these birds have some large quill-feathers in the wing of a rich crimson colour4 ,this splendid red pigment can be washed out of the feathers by water which is slightly alkaline1 and a fine blood-red solution is obtained4 ,why this curious exception exists we do not know4 ,the extracted colour is found to contain the element copper as one of its chemical components4 ,plantain-eaters kept in cages have sometimes washed all the colour out of their feathers owing to the water supplied to them for bathing and drinking having become foul and ammoniacal1 and thus capable of dissolving the red pigment4 ,the cultivation on the ,riviera of flowers for sale as 8cut flowers0 in ,paris1 ,london1 and ,berlin1 in the colder months of the year1 is now an enormous business1 bringing many thousands of pounds yearly to the small gardeners around ,hyres1 ,st4 ,raphael1 ,nice1 and ,mentone4 ,roses1 violets1 carnations1 8mimosa0 of various kinds1 anemones1 lilies1 and narcissus are sent literally in tons by quick trains several times a week from these realms of sunshine to the dreary ,north4 ,the commencement of this trade was due to the suggestion made some fifty years ago by ,alphonse ,karr1 the ,french poet and journalist1 who had a beautiful garden of his own at ,st4 ,raphael1 and found that he could produce flowers in profusion through the winter4 ,two years ago ,i visited this garden 7which now belongs to a ,french painter7 at the beginning of ,april1 and found it full of interesting flowers and shrubs1 enormous bamboos1 palm trees1 some twenty different 8mimosas10 eucalyptus of several species1 camellia trees1 and rose-bushes in quantity4 ,the influence of man on the vegetation of a favoured locality like the ,riviera is more striking than in the ,north4 ,but it is worth remembering that the most familiar tree in ,england--the common elm--is not a native1 but introduced from ,south ,europe4 ,our native elm is the wych-elm1 or mountain elm--a much handsomer tree1 in the opinion of many1 than the so-called 8common elm40 ,there are doubts as to whether both the spruce and the larch were not introduced by man at a very remote time1 so that the ,scotch fir would be our only aboriginal pine4 ,the oak1 beech1 birch1 ash1 hawthorn1 poplar1 and alder are undoubted native ,english trees4 ,the holly-oak or evergreen oak1 the sycamore1 plane-tree1 sweet chestnut1 horse chestnut1 walnut1 and probably the lime or linden tree have been introduced by migrating men at various periods into our islands4 ,with the exception of rye and oats none of the plants which we cultivate for food are derived from our own wild plants1 and none of our domesticated animals have been produced from native wild kinds4 ,,viii ,,fresh-,,water ,,jelly-,,fishes ,most people nowadays know a jelly-fish when they see one--and recognise that it is eminently a product of the sea--one sees them washed up on the seashore1 soft discs of transparent jelly of the size of cheese-plates 7,fig4 #b74 ,they have a mouth in the centre of the disc1 often at the end of a depending trunk1 like the clapper of a bell4 ,some have tentacles1 sometimes yards long1 which sting like nettles4 ,they also have eye-spots1 an internal system of canals and muscles which enable them to swim by causing the edge of the disc or bell to contract and expand in alternate strokes4 ,there are hundreds of kinds of marine jelly-fish varying in size from a sixpence to that of a dinner table1 and until twenty-five years ago none were known to live in ponds1 lakes1 or rivers4 ,although they often are carried up estuaries1 and may stay for a time in brackish water1 or even in fresh water1 none were known which really lived and bred in fresh water4 ,they were regarded1 as are star-fishes and sea-urchins1 as distinctively marine1 and debarred by the delicacy of their watery jelly-like substance from tolerating the change from sea water to fresh water as a permanent thing4 ,all fresh-water animals--fishes1 shell-fish1 cray-fish1 worms1 and polyps--are derived from closely similar marine animals1 are in fact sea-things which have suffered a change1 and been able to stand it4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4--,the common jelly-fish 7,aurelia aurita7 one-third the natural size2 or1 one of the four arms or fleshy tentacles surrounding the diamond-shaped mouth2 ,tc1 one of the eight eye-bearing tentacles at the edge of the disc2 ,,gp1 opening of one of the four sub-genital pouches1 which bring sea-water close to the ovaries and spermaries1 which1 however1 do not open into these pouches2 x and y1 outline of the sub-genital pouches seen through the jelly4 ,these being our preconceptions about jelly-fish1 great was the excitement when1 in #ahhj1 hundreds of beautiful little jelly-fish were suddenly discovered briskly expanding and contracting1 rising and sinking in the water of a large fresh-water tank in the middle of ,london 7,fig4 #c74 ,you never know who or what may turn up in ,london4 ,a badger1 a green parakeet1 a whale1 an ,african pigmy1 an ,indian scorpion1 and a voice worth ten thousand a year1 have all1 to my knowledge1 been stumbled upon unexpectedly at different times in the highways of ,london4 ,a new jelly-fish was perhaps one of the least expected 8casual visitors40 ,it was found in the large tank four feet deep in which the great tropical water-lily--the ,victoria regia--and other tropical water plants are grown in the ,botanic ,gardens1 ,regent's ,park4 ,it came up by hundreds every year for some ten years after its first appearance1 dying down in six weeks or so each season4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4--,the fresh-water jelly-fish 7,limnocodium7 enlarged four times linear measurement1 as it is seen dropping through the water in a glass jar4 ,,pt1 one of the four principal tentacles4 ,,mr1 the margin of the disc4 ,ve1 the delicate muscular frill or velum4 ,all the specimens were males1 and the puzzle was to find out how it reproduced itself4 ,after a few seasons had passed ,i determined to solve this problem4 ,i made the guess that perhaps the jelly-fish were budded off from a fixed weed-like polyp growing in the depths of the tank--as is the case with many of the marine jelly-fishes4 ,i remember that one leading member of the council1 which still presides over the destinies of the ,botanic ,gardens1 confided to me in a hushed whisper his belief that ,providence created this new jelly-fish year by year in the tank in honour of the august patroness of the ,botanic ,society--,her ,royal ,highness the ,duchess of ,teck4 ,i was obliged to make an end of this flattering theory when ,i discovered1 after long searching with my assistant--attached to the rootlets of floating water weeds a minute three-branched polyp 7,fig4 #d71 from which1 as we subsequently were able to observe1 the jelly-fish were pinched off as tiny spheres about one-sixteenth of an inch in diameter4 ,no females of this jelly-fish were ever discovered4 ,the polyps lived on from year to year1 and budded off each season a swarm of pretty but futile male jelly-fish4 ,they ripened and died on attaining a diameter somewhat less than that of a shilling4 ,there were many most interesting points made out as to their structure1 mode of feeding1 and growth4 ,you could keep them in a tall glass jar supported over a small gas-jet 7they lived best at a temperature of #hj ,fahr471 and they would swim up by a series of strokes to the top of the water1 and then drop like little parachutes through the eighteen inches of depth to the bottom--taking in water-fleas and such food on the way--and immediately would start upwards again4 ,i used to take them alive in my pocket corked up in a test-tube to show to friends4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4--;,four of the minute club-shaped polyps adhering to a root-fibre of a water-plant4 ,the rounded end becomes nipped off and swims away1 free1 as a young jelly-fish4 ,after they had disappeared from the tank in ,regent's ,park 7owing to some unhappy cleaning of the tank7 they suddenly1 in #aijc1 appeared--it seems incredible--at ,sheffield6 ,then they briefly showed up in #aije at ,munich1 and at ,lyons had been captured in #aija--;always in a tepid water-lily tank6 ,we never could make out where they came from originally4 ,of course1 the polyp must have been brought into the tank with some bundle of water plants from a tropical lake or river1 but we never had any indication as to when or which4 ,since the days of the fresh-water jelly-fish of ,regent's ,park1 which was called 7a name1 but why should it not have a name87 ,limnocodium ,sowerbii--a jelly-fish of about the same size 7,fig4 #e7 but very different in shape and tentacles--was discovered in the great ,african fresh-water lake ,tanganyika--in enormous numbers1 and was named ,limnocnida ,tanganyik4 ,only five years ago the same jelly-fish was discovered in the ,victoria ,nyanza1 and a little earlier in backwaters of the ,niger4 ,it is a curious and significant fact bearing upon the history of these three areas of fresh water connected with the three greatest ,african rivers--the ,congo1 the ,nile1 and the ,niger--that the same little jelly-fish is found in all of them4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4--,the ,african fresh-water jelly-fish 7,limnocnida7 found in ,tanganyika1 ,victoria ,nyanza1 and the ,niger4 ,and now we have just been reminded of ,limnocodium1 the ,regents ,park jelly-fish1 from a remote and unexpected source4 ,a thousand miles up the ,yang-tse-,kiang ,river1 in ,china1 in the province of ,hupi1 the ,japanese captain of a river steamer1 plying there and belonging to a ,japanese company1 captured ten jelly-fish in the muddy waters of the river4 ,he brought them home1 preserved1 ,i suppose1 in alcohol or formalin1 and they have been described by ,dr4 ,oka1 a ,japanese zoologist of ,tokio1 in a publication bearing the ,latin title ,annotationes ,zoologic niponenses1 issued in ,december #aijg4 ,european sea captains have not rarely been ardent naturalists1 but ,i think the ,japanese is the first captain of a river steamboat who has discovered a new animal on his beat4 ,i have not heard of ,mississippi steamboat captains amusing themselves in this way--other rivers1 other tastes4 ,dr4 ,oka describes the jelly-fish thus brought to him as a ,limnocodium1 differing in a few details from that of ,regent's ,park1 so that he distinguishes this ,chinese species as ,limnocodium ,kawaii1 naming it after the naturalist captain1 who must have a rare taste for picking up strange and new things1 and a rare goodwill in bringing them home with him4 ,so here is another fresh-water jelly-fish1 for it is not the same as the ,regent's ,park one1 though closely like it4 ,possibly ,limnocodium is an ,asiatic genus1 and the original ,sowerby's ,limnocodium will be found in another ,chinese river4 ,but it may prove to be ,south ,american1 as is the water-lily ,victoria regia4 ,a very small fresh-water jelly-fish was found some twelve years ago--in #ahig--;in the ,delaware ,river at ,philadelphia1 ,united ,states1 and was lately described by the well-known naturalist1 ,mr4 ,potts4 ,it was budded off from a very minute polyp resembling that found in the ,regent's ,park1 but the jelly-fish was totally different from ,limnocodium4 ,only four or five specimens of this jelly-fish have ever been seen1 and the ,philadelphian naturalists ought certainly to look it up again4 ,an account of the ,philadelphian jelly-fish and of other fresh-water jelly-fishes1 with illustrative plates1 will be found in the ,quarterly ,journal of ,microscopical ,science1 #aijf4 ,mr4 ,charles ,boulenger has1 in the same ,journal1 #aijh1 described yet another fresh-water jelly-fish from the ,fayoum ,lake in ,egypt4 ,,ix ,,the ,,story ,,of ,,the ,,common ,,eel ,though the ,scotch ,highlanders are said to have a profound objection to eating eels on account of the resemblance of these fish to snakes 7not a very good reason1 since the quality and not the shape of what one eats is the important thing71 yet eels have been a very popular delicacy in ,england in past days4 ,eel-pie ,island1 at ,richmond1 is known to most ,londoners1 and eel-pie shops were familiar in ,london less than a century ago4 ,a good ,thames eel is still appreciated by the few people who nowadays take some small amount of intelligent interest in what they eat4 ,abroad1 eels are still popular4 ,eel-traps are still worked in the rivers4 ,in such districts as the flat country1 on the shores of the ,adriatic1 near ,venice1 millions of young eels are annually 8shepherded0 in lagoons and reservoirs1 and reared to marketable size4 ,the inland eel-fisheries of ,denmark and ,germany are carefully regulated and encouraged by the ,government in those ,states4 ,the fact is that railways1 ice-storage1 and steam-trawling have1 in conjunction1 revolutionised our habits in regard to the use of fish as a daily article of diet4 ,fresh-water fish are now almost unknown as a regular source of food in the ,british ,islands4 ,the splendid fish of the ,north ,sea1 the ,channel1 and the ,atlantic coast have pushed them out of the market4 ,thirty-eight years ago1 when ,i was a student in ,leipzig and ,vienna1 8baked carp0 was the only fish to be had in the dining-rooms we frequented4 ,once a week there were fresh haddock1 for those who fancied them1 in the celebrated ,auerbach's ,keller4 ,now the railway and packing in ice have brought ,north ,sea fish to the centre of ,europe1 and created a taste for that excellent food4 ,even on the ,mediterranean at ,nice1 ,i lately saw ,north ,sea turbot1 soles1 and haddock lying on the marble-slabs in the fish market side by side with the handsome but small bass1 mullet1 gurnards1 and sea-bream of the local fishery1 and the carp1 pike1 trout1 and eels of the fresh waters of the ,south of ,france4 ,nevertheless the eel--the common fresh-water eel--is still valued on the ,continent1 as is proved by the fact that the ,german ,imperial ,government has recently sent an important official of the ,fisheries ,department to ,gloucester in order to make extensive purchases of the 8elvers10 or young eels which come up the river ,severn in millions at this season4 ,the purpose of the ,german fisheries officials is to place many hundred thousands of these young eels in ,german rivers which are not so well supplied by natural immigration as is the ,severn1 and by so doing to increase the supply of well-grown eels hereafter in the river fisheries of ,north ,germany4 ,this interesting practical attempt to increase the supply of eels in ,germany will be further appreciated when ,i relate what has been discovered within the last twenty years as to the reproduction1 migrations1 and habits of the common fresh-water eel4 ,it has been known1 time out of mind1 that in the early months of every year millions of young eels a little over two inches in length1 called 8elvers0 in ,english and 8civelles0 in ,french1 come up the estuaries of the rivers of ,europe in a dense body4 ,they are so closely packed together as the narrower parts of the stream are reached1 that thousands may be taken out of the water by merely dipping a bucket into the ranks of the procession4 ,i obtained a few thousand of these 8elvers0 lately from the ,severn and placed them on exhibition in the central court of the ,natural ,history ,museum in ,london4 ,the ,anglo-,saxon name 8eel-fare0 is given to this annual march or 8swim0 of the young eels from the sea to the fresh waters4 ,though riverside folk have never doubted that the elvers are young eels which have been hatched from spawn deposited by parent eels in the sea1 and are 8running up0 to feed and grow to maturity in the rivers and streams inland1 yet country folk away from the big rivers have queer notions as to the origin and breeding of eels4 ,they catch large1 plump eels a couple of feet long in stagnant ponds hundreds of miles from the sea1 far from rivers1 and more than a thousand feet above the sea-level4 ,they have no notion that those eels originally 8ran up0 as little eels from the sea1 nor that many of them make their way across wet grass and by rain-filled ditches back to the rivers and to the sea when they are seven years old4 ,but that is now known to be the fact4 ,just as there are fish1 like the salmon1 which 8run down0 to the sea to feed and grow big and 8run up0 to breed in the small pools and rivulets far from the river's mouth1 so there are other fishes1 of which the eel is one1 which run up to feed and grow and run down to breed--that is to say1 to deposit and fertilise their eggs in the depths of the ocean4 ,fishermen who work river-fisheries for eels 7far more valued abroad than in ,england7 distinguish 8yellow eels0 and 8silver eels0 7see ,plate ,i4 opposite title page74 ,we used to distinguish also snigs and grigs1 or narrow-nosed and broad-nosed eels 7probably males and females74 ,the remarkable fact1 admitted by both fishermen and anatomists1 was that you could not really tell male from female1 nor1 indeed1 ever find an eel 7that is1 a common eel1 as distinguished from the much larger and well-known conger eel7 which was ripe1 or1 indeed1 showed any signs of having either roe or milt within it4 ,a popular legend exists that eels are produced by the 8vivification0 of horse-hair4 ,occasionally in summer a long1 black1 and very thin threadworm 7called ,gordius by naturalists7 suddenly appears in great numbers in rivers1 and these are declared by the country-folk to be horse-hairs on their way to become eels6 ,i remember a sudden swarm of them one summer in the upper river at ,oxford4 ,really1 they are parasitic worms which live inside insects for a part of their lives1 and leave them in summer1 passing into the water4 ,fanciful beliefs about aquatic creatures are common1 because it is not very easy to get at the truth when it is not merely at the bottom of a well but at the bottom of a river or of the deep sea6 ,the fishermen of the east coast of ,scotland1 who think very highly of their own knowledge and intelligence1 believe that the little white sea-acorns or rock-barnacles are the young of the limpets which live side by side with them1 and are scornful of those who deny the correctness of what they consider an obvious conclusion6 ,a few years ago the ,scandinavian naturalist1 ,petersen1 showed that the 8silver0 eels are a later stage of growth of the 8yellow0 eels2 that they acquire a silvery coat1 and that the eye increases in size--as a sort of 8wedding dress10 just before they go down to the sea to breed4 ,i owe to ,petersen's kindness the coloured drawings of the heads of the yellow and the silver eel reproduced in ,plate ,i4 ,these silver eels are caught in some numbers about the ,danish coast and river mouths1 moving downwards2 and ,petersen has been able to distinguish the males from the females by finding the still incompletely formed milt and roe within the silver eels4 ,not only that1 but one of ,petersen's assistants at the ,danish ,biological ,station has found that you can tell the age of an eel by the zones or rings shown by its scales1 when examined with a microscope1 just as the age of trees can be told by the annual rings of growth in the wood4 ,most people1 even if familiar with eels1 even cooks who have skinned an eel1 do not know that they have scales2 but they have1--very small ones4 ,the age of other fishes has been similarly ascertained by annual zones of growth marked on the scales2 and lately the age of plaice has been found to be conveniently given by zones of growth formed annually on the little ear-stones which we find in the liquid-holding sac of the internal ear4 ,i am afraid many of my readers will be surprised to learn that fishes have an internal hearing apparatus similar to our own1 also that they have olfactory organs1 and1 in some cases1 a well-grown tongue6 ,the power thus obtained of telling the age of an eel has led to the following knowledge about them1 namely1 that female eels do not become 8silver0 eels and 8run down0 before they are seven years old1 and often not till eight and a half years of age1 or even sometimes eleven or twelve years1 when they are nearly #c feet long4 ,the male eel becomes 8silver0 7instead of 8yellow07 at an earlier age--four and a half years1--and rarely defers his nuptial outburst until he is seven or eight years old4 ,the females of the same age are larger than the males2 a usual size for silver females of seven years old is a little over #b feet1 and of a silver male of the same age #bj inches4 ,the further facts which ,i am about to relate as to the migration and reproduction of the common eel are of great interest4 ,the common 8yellow0 eels of our ponds and rivers1 as we have seen1 when they are from five to seven years old and over1 put on1 as it were1 a wedding dress4 ,they become 8silver0 eels1 and descend the rivers to the sea4 ,there they produce their spawn4 ,the young eels thus produced1 when only #b inches long1 leave the sea4 ,every year they ascend the estuaries and rivers of ,europe as 8elvers0 in enormous numbers1 their procession up the rivers being known as 8the eel-fare40 ,some eels1 shut up in moats and ponds1 never escape--they become more or less 8silver0 and restless1 but fail to get away4 ,others crawl up the banks in wet1 warm weather1 when the ponds are full to the brim1 and over the meadows4 ,they are found sometimes on their journey when they 8444 have to pass ,through the dewy grass10 and so to the river1 and on to the marriage feast in the deep sea4 ,the fact is1 that usually eels inhabit in large numbers the rivers and streams1 and have no difficulty in getting down to the sea when they are adult4 ,those who1 as young elvers1 have wandered far off into sunken ponds and reservoirs1 are eccentric spirits who have lost the normal way of life2 like fellows of colleges in the old days1 they have cut themselves off from the matrimonial 8running down10 but they have compensations in quietude1 abundant food1 and a long life4 ,we now know where the silver eels go when they run down the rivers4 ,they go into the sea1 of course2 but we know more than that4 ,it has now been discovered that they make their way for many miles along the sea-bottom--in some cases hundreds of miles--to no less a depth than #ejj fathoms4 ,in the ,mediterranean they don't have very far to go1 for there is very deep water near the land1 and ,professor ,grassi found evidence of their presence in the depths of the ,straits of ,messina4 ,but the eels of the rivers which empty into the ,north ,sea and ,english ,channel have much farther to go2 they have to go right out to the deep water of the ,atlantic1 off the west coast of ,ireland4 ,that is the nearest point where #ejj fathoms can be touched2 there is no such depth in the ,north ,sea nor in the ,channel4 ,they never come back1 and no one has ever yet tracked them on their journey to the deep water4 ,yet we know that they go there1 and lay their eggs there1 and that from these remote fastnesses a new generation of eels1 born in 8the dark unfathomed depths of ocean10 return every year in their millions as little 8elvers0 to the rivers from which their parents swam forth in silver wedding dress4 ,soon1 we have reason to hope1 by the use of suitable deep-sinking nets1 we shall intercept1 in the ,english ,channel1 some of the silver eels on their way to the ,atlantic deeps4 ,they must go in vast numbers1 and yet no one has yet come across them4 ,how1 then1 do we know that the silver eels ever go to this #ejj-;fathom abysm8 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f4--,young stages of the common eel1 drawn of the natural size by ,professor ,grassi4 ,a1 ,the ,leptocephalus1 transparent stage4 ,d1 the elver1 or young eel1 which is coloured1 and of much smaller size than the transparent1 colourless creature by the change of which it is produced4 ,it is the elver which swims in millions up our rivers4 ,b and ,c are intermediate stages1 showing the gradual change of ,a into ,d4 ,the answer is as follows3 ,a very curious1 colourless1 transparent1 absolutely glass-like1 little fish1 #b inches long1 oblong and leaf-like in shape1 has been known for many years as a rarity1 to be caught now and then1 one at a time1 floating near the top in summer seas 7,fig4 #f74 ,i used to get it at ,naples occasionally many years ago1 and it has sometimes been taken in the ,english ,channel4 ,it is known by the name 8,leptocephalus40 ,placed in a glass jar full of sea-water it is nearly invisible on account of its transparency and freedom from colour4 ,even its blood is colourless4 ,the eyes alone are coloured1 and one sees these as two isolated black globes moving mysteriously to the right and the left as the invisible ghostly fish swims around4 ,twenty years ago one of these kept in an aquarium at ,roscoff1 in ,brittany1 gradually shrunk in breadth1 became cylindrical1 coloured and opaque1 and assumed the complete characters of a young eel6 ,to cut a long story short1 these ,leptocephali were found twelve years ago in large numbers in the deep water 7#djj fathoms7 of the ,straits of ,messina by the ,italian naturalists ,grassi and ,calandruccio1 and they conclusively showed that they were the young phase--the tadpole1 as it were--of eels4 ,they showed that different kinds of eels--conger eels1 the ,murna1 and the common eel--have each their own kind of transparent 8,leptocephalus-young-phase10 living in but also above the very deep water1 in which they are hatched from the eggs of the parent eels4 ,the ,leptocephalus-young when hatched1 grow rapidly1 and ascend to near the surface immediately above the deep water1 and are caught at depths of ten to a hundred fathoms4 ,to become 8elvers10 or young eels1 they have to undergo great change of shape and colour1 and actually shrink in bulk--a process which has now been completely observed and described4 ,it is not surprising that their true nature was not at first recognised4 ,the proof that the silver eels of ,north and ,west ,europe go down to the #ejj-;fathom line off the ,irish coast1 in order to lay their eggs1 is that the ,danish naturalist ,schmidt and his companions discovered there two years ago1 above these great depths 7and nowhere else71 by employing a special kind of fine-meshed trawling net1 many thousands of the flat1 glass-like 8,leptocephalus-young-stage10 or tadpole of the common eel1 and traced them from there to their entrance into the various rivers4 ,they showed that the ,leptocephali gradually change on the way landward into eel-like 8elvers40 ,the rivers nearest the deep water1 such as those opening on the west coast of ,ireland and on the ,spanish and ,french shores of the ,bay of ,biscay1 get their elvers 8running up0 as early as ,november1 ,december1 and ,january4 ,the farther off the river the farther the elvers have to travel from the deep-sea nursery1 so that in ,denmark they don't appear until ,may4 ,not the least curious part of the migration of the eel is the passage of the young elvers into the higher parts of rivers and remote streams4 ,they are sometimes seen a hundred miles from the sea1 actually wriggling in numbers up the face of a damp rock or wall ten or fifteen feet high1 pushing one another from below upwards1 so as to scale the obstacle and reach higher waters1 like ,japanese soldiers at a fort4 ,i found them 7so long ago that ,i hesitate to name the date--it was a year of cholera in ,london1 followed by a great war7 in a little rivulet which comes down the cliff at ,ecclesbourne1 near ,hastings1 close to a cottage frequented at that time by ,douglas ,jerrold4 ,they were wriggling up in the damp grass and overflow of the driblet #aej feet above the shore1 a stone's throw below4 ,they must have come out of the sea1 attracted by the tiny thread of fresh water entering it at this spot4 ,the ,danube and its tributary streams contain no eels1 although the rivers which open into the ,mediterranean are well stocked with them4 ,this is supposed to be due to the fact that the ,black ,sea does not afford a suitable breeding-ground1 and that the way through the ,dardanelles is closed to eels by some natural law1 as it has been to warships by treaty4 ,probably1 however1 it will be found that the geological changes in the area of sea and land are intimately connected with the migrations of the eel1 and that the eel is originally a marine fish which did not in remote ages travel far from the deep waters4 ,its gradually acquired habit of running up fresh waters to feed has led it step by step into a frequentation of certain rivers which have become 7by changes of land and sea7 inconveniently remote from its ancestral haunts4 ,an interesting question is whether at the not very distant period when there was continuous land joining ,england to ,france and the ,thames and the ,rhine had a common mouth opening into the ,north ,sea1 eels existed in the area drained by those two rivers2 and1 if so1 by what route did they pass as silver eels to the deep sea1 and by what route did the new generations of young eels hatched in the deep sea travel to the ,thames and ,rhine4 ,it seems most probable that in those days there were no eels in the ,thames and other ,north ,sea rivers4 ,our present knowledge of the romantic history of the common eel of our own rivers we owe in large part to the work done by the ,international ,committee for the ,investigation of the ,north ,sea4 ,who would ever have imagined when he caught a wriggling eel1 with a hook and worm thrown into a stagnant pool in the ,midlands1 that the muddy creature was some five or six years ago living as a glass-like leaf-shaped prodigy in the ,atlantic depths1 a hundred miles from ,ireland8 ,who would have dreamed that it had come all that long journey by its own efforts1 and would probably1 if it had not been hooked1 have wriggled one summer's night out of the pond1 across wet meadows1 into a ditch1 and so to the river1 and back to the sea1 and to the far-away orgy in the dark salt waters of the ocean-floor1 to the consummation of its life and its strange1 mysterious ending8 ,there are two points of interest to be mentioned in regard to the rivers ,danube and ,thames in connection with eels4 ,i have trustworthy reports of the very rare occurrence of eels in streams connected with the ,danube4 ,since the young elvers do not ascend the ,danube1 where do these rare specimens come from8 ,there can be no doubt that they have made their way individually into the ,danube 8system0 by migration through canals or ditches from tributaries of the ,rhine or the ,elbe4 ,a similar explanation has to be offered of the eels which at present inhabit the ,thames4 ,i cannot find any evidence of the existence to-day of an 8eel-fare0--that is1 8a running up of elvers0 in the river ,thames4 ,probably about the same time as the foul poisoning of the ,thames water by ,london sewage and chemical works put an end to the ascent of the salmon 7about the year #ahcj71 the entrance of the myriad swarm of young eels in their annual procession from the sea also ceased4 ,the elvers were caught and made into fish-cakes in ,london before the nineteenth century1 just as they are to-day at ,gloucester4 ,it would be interesting to know exactly when they ceased to appear in the ,thames4 ,a curious fact1 however1 is that young eels--not so small as 8elvers10 but from three inches in length upwards--are taken close above ,london even to-day4 ,four years ago ,i obtained a number of this small size from ,teddington4 ,the question arises as to whether these specimens represent just a small number of elvers which have managed to swim through the foul water of ,london and emerge into the cleaner part of the river above4 ,this is improbable4 ,it is more likely that they have come into the ,thames by travelling up other rivers such as the ,avon--which are connected by cuttings with the ,thames tributaries4 ,but it certainly is remarkable that eels of only three inches in length--and therefore very young--should have managed to get not merely 8into0 the ,thames 7to the upper parts of which no doubt many thus travel and remain during growth71 but actually 8down0 the ,thames so far in the direction of its tidal water as is ,teddington lock4 ,the specimens from ,teddington were placed by me in the ,natural ,history ,museum4 ,x ,,modern ,,horses ,,and ,,their ,,ancestors ,the ever-increasing development of motor traffic leads to speculation as to what is to be in the immediate future the fate of the horse4 ,what is its history in the past8 ,it is in nearly all cases a matter of great difficulty to trace the animals and plants which mankind has domesticated or cultivated to the original wild stock from which they have been derived4 ,lately we have gained new knowledge on the origin of the domesticated breeds of the horse4 ,it is generally agreed that the ,mongolian wild horse represents the chief stock from which the horses of ,europe and those conveyed by ,europeans to ,america were derived4 ,this wild horse was formerly known as inhabiting the ,kirghiz steppes1 and was called the ,tarpan4 ,it became extinct there some seventy years ago4 ,the natives of that district asserted that the pure breed was only to be met with farther ,east in the ,gobi ,desert of ,central ,asia4 ,the ,tarpan itself showed signs of mixed blood in having a mouse-coloured coat1 which is a sure indication amongst horses of cross-breeding4 ,prevalsky1 a ,russian traveller1 was the first to obtain specimens of the pure-bred wild horse of the ,gobi ,desert1 which still exists4 ,live specimens have been brought to ,europe1 and some are in the possession of the ,duke of ,bedford4 ,a female is mounted and exhibited in the ,natural ,history ,museum1 and also a skeleton and skulls4 ,prevalsky's horse1 or the ,mongolian wild horse1 is of small stature1 standing about twelve hands at the shoulder4 ,the root of the tail is short-haired1 the mane short and upright1 without forelock4 ,the body colour is yellow dun1 the mane and tail black1 as well as the lower part of the legs1 and there is a dark stripe down the back4 ,the muzzle in pure-bred specimens is white4 ,the head is relatively large and the muzzle thick and relatively short4 ,a very decided character is shown by the great size and relative length of the row of cheek-teeth1 it being one-third larger than the same row of teeth in a ,dartmoor pony of the same stature4 ,a very interesting fact1 which goes a long way to establish the view that the ,european domesticated horse is derived from the ,mongolian wild horse1 comes to us in a most striking way from some of the most ancient records of the human race4 ,in the ,south of ,france the contents of caves formerly inhabited by men have been dug out and examined with increasing care and accuracy of late years1 though first investigated fifty years ago4 ,similar caves1 though not so prolific of evidences of human occupation1 have been explored in ,england 7,kent's ,cavern at ,torquay1 and others74 ,the astounding fact has now become quite clear that these caves were inhabited by men of no mean capacity from #ej1jjj to #bej1jjj years ago1 when bone harpoons1 flint knives1 flint scrapers1 and bone javelin-throwers were the chief weapons in use1 when these islands were solidly joined to the ,european continent1 when a sheet of glacial ice1 alternately retreating and extending1 covered the whole of ,northern ,europe1 and when the mammoth1 rhinoceros1 hyena1 lion1 bear1 bison1 great ox1 horse1 and later the reindeer1 inhabited the land and were hunted1 eaten1 and utilised for their bone1 tusks1 and skin by these ancient men4 ,i revert to this subject in a later article 7page #cga71 but would merely say now that it is all as certain and well-established a chapter in man's history as that of the ancient ,egyptians1 who are really quite modern 7dating from #hjjj years at most7 as compared with these cave-men of #ej1jjj years ago1 and the even earlier races which preceded them in ,europe4 ,the bones of the animals killed and eaten by the cave-men are found in some cases in enormous quantities4 ,in one locality in ,france the bones of as many as #hj1jjj horses 7which had been cooked and eaten7 have been dug up and counted6 ,the most wonderful and extraordinary thing about these cave-men is that they carved complete rounded sculptures1 high reliefs1 low reliefs1 and line-engravings on mammoth's ivory1 on reindeer horn1 on bones1 and on stones--the line-engravings being the latest in date1 as shown by their position in the deposits on the floor of the caves1 which are often as much as twenty feet or thirty feet in thickness6 ,not only that1 but these carvings are often real works of art1 extremely well drawn1 and showing not mere childish effort but work which was done with the intention and control of an artist's mind4 ,an immense number of these carvings are now known4 ,i have before me one of the most recent publications on the subject--a series of plates showing the carvings collected from caves in the ,pyrenees1 the ,dordogne1 and the ,landes by ,m4 ,piette1 who recently died4 ,i have examined his collection and others of the same kind in the great ,museum of ,st4 ,germain1 near ,paris4 ,we have in ,london some of the earlier collections1 and especially that of the ,vicomte de ,lastic1 to purchase which my old friend ,sir ,richard ,owen journeyed to the ,dordogne in the winter of #ahfd4 ,many animals1 as well as some human beings 7,fig4 #g71 are represented in these carvings--the mammoth itself1 carved on a piece of its own ivory1 is among them1 and a good many represent the horse 7,fig4 #h74 ,now it is a fact that the carvings of the horses of that period undoubtedly represent a horse which is identical in proportions1 shape of head1 mane1 and tail1 with the wild ,mongolian horse1 and is unlike in those points to modern ,european horses1 or to the ,arabian horse4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g4--;,drawing 7of the actual size of the original7 of an ivory carving 7fully rounded7 of a female head4 ,the specimen was found in the cavern of ,brassempouy1 in the ,landes4 ,it is of the earliest reindeer period1 and the arrangement of the hair or cap is remarkable4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #h4--;,drawing 7of the actual size of the original7 of a fully rounded carving in reindeer's antler of the head of a neighing horse4 ,the head resembles that of the ,mongolian horse4 ,this is one of the most artistic of the cave-men's carvings yet discovered4 ,it is of the ,palolithic age 7early reindeer period71 probably not less than fifty thousand years old4 ,it was found in the cavern of ,mas d',azil1 ,arige1 ,france1 and is now in the museum of ,st4 ,germain4 ,it was1 until the discoveries of ,m4 ,piette1 held that though the cave-men killed1 ate1 and made pictures of the horse of those remote days1 yet that they did not tame it1 put a halter or a bridle on it1 and make use of it4 ,some of the carvings figured by ,m4 ,piette leave1 however1 no room for doubt that the cave-men fitted a bridle to the head and muzzle of the horse4 ,these carvings 7,fig4 #i7 show a twisted thong placed round the nose and passing near the angle of the mouth where it is possible1 though not certain1 that a 8bit0 was inserted4 ,connected to this main encircling thong are four twisted cords 7on each side of the head71 which run horizontally backwards1 and the two lower of these are joined by a flat1 plate-like piece1 which is ornamented4 ,the whole apparatus is further connected to a twisted cord on each side1 which runs towards the back of the head1 but it is not shown in the carving what becomes of it4 ,thus it seems clear not only that the cave-men of these remote ages were wonderful artists1 but that they mastered and muzzled the horse4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #i4--;,drawing 7of the actual size of the original7 of a flat carving in shoulder-bone1 of a horse's head1 showing twisted rope-bridle and trappings4 a appears to represent a flat ornamented band of wood or skin connecting the muzzling rope b with other pieces c and d4 ,this specimen is from the cave of ,st4 ,michel d',arudy1 and is of the reindeer period4 ,this1 and others like it1 are in the museum of ,st4 ,germain4 ,some of the engravings of horses' heads seem to indicate the existence of a horse alongside the commoner form with a narrower1 more tapering face1 and may possibly be due to the introduction1 even at that remote period1 of another race distinct from the ,northern or ,mongolian wild horse4 ,that this admixture of a distinct and more slender horse with the ,northern horse has taken place over and over again in historical times is a matter of knowledge4 ,the question is1 when did it first take place1 and where did the more slender horse come from8 ,in later days we know this more shapely breed as the ,arab and the ,barb1 and the introduction of its blood at various times into the more ,northern stock is well ascertained4 ,the latest great historical case of such admixture is the production of the ,english thoroughbred in the eighteenth century by such sires as the ,darley ,arabian1 the ,godolphin ,barb1 and the ,brierley ,turk1 whose blood is transmitted to modern racehorses through the great historic sires1 ,herod1 ,matchem1 and ,eclipse1 the ancestors of practically all modern racehorses4 ,the horse of more ,southern origin thus recognised as distinct from the prehistoric ,european horse1 it is now convenient to speak of as the ,southern or ,arabian horse4 ,there are certain curious structural features which seem to mark these horses and their offspring1 even when their strain is blended with that of the more ,northern horse4 ,probably from the time of the cave-men onward the selective breeding of horses has been carried on1 so that in many breeds size has been vastly increased4 ,it is an important fact that the ,english racehorse has never been selected and bred for 8points0 7as cattle and sheep are71 but always by performance on the racecourse4 ,thus it becomes an extremely interesting matter to see what are the changes which the breeder of thoroughbred stock has unconsciously produced--what are the differences between the racehorse of to-day and that of #ej1 #ajj1 and #aej years ago4 ,this was pointed out to me by the late ,duke of ,devonshire as a reason for supporting my proposal to secure and place in the ,natural ,history ,museum the skulls1 limb-bones1 hoofs1 and other indestructible parts of great racehorses 7and of other breeds71 and also for having very accurately measured reduced models made of such horses1 in order that we may after some years compare the proportions and structure at present arrived at with the later developments which the continual selection of winner's blood in breeding must unconsciously produce4 ,such a collection was started by me in the museum1 but it needs the assistance of owners of horses--both as to placing record specimens in the museum and in paying for the preparation of accurately reduced models by competent artists4 ,it already comprises the skulls of ,stockwell1 ,bend ,or1 and ,ormonde1 and several carefully made reduced models of celebrated horses4 ,there is no doubt that the ,english racehorse has increased in size4 ,he is a bigger animal to-day than he was #bjj years ago1 and the opinion of the best authorities is that he has increased on the average an inch in height at the withers in every twenty-five years4 ,the racehorse has a much longer thigh-bone and upper-arm bone 7in proportion to the rest of the leg7 than has the cart-horse1 and it is probable that this length has been continually increased by the selection of winners for breeding4 ,there are other points of scientific interest as to modern horses and their forefathers which are illustrated by valuable specimens and preparations placed by me in the ,natural ,history ,museum4 ,all those hairy warm-blooded quadrupeds which suckle their young1 and are hence called mammals1 are the descendants of small five-toed ancestors about the size of a spaniel4 ,this is equally true of the elephant1 the gorilla1 the horse1 and the ox4 ,in the sands and clays deposited since the time of the chalk-sea1 the remains 7bones and teeth7 of the ancestors of living mammals are found in great abundance4 ,these sands and clays are called 8the ,tertiaries10 and are divided into lower1 middle1 and upper--whilst we recognise as 8,post-,tertiaries0 7or ,quaternary7 the later formed gravel and cave deposits in which the remains and weapons of the cave-men have been found4 ,the ,tertiaries consist of a series of deposits amounting to about #cjjj feet in thickness1 and they have taken several million years in depositing--no one can say how many4 ,illustration3 ,,hipparion ,,horse ,,fig4 #aj4--,to the left1 the fore-foot of the horse-ancestor1 ,hipparion1 showing three toes3 to the right1 the back view of a long bone of a modern horse's foot1 with rudiments of outer toes1 called splint-bones4 ,in the upper ,tertiary we find the remains of a kind of horse 7the ,hipparion71 with well-developed 8petti-toes0 7like those of a pig7 on each side of the big central toe 7,fig4 #aj74 ,in the middle ,tertiary we find smaller ancestral horses1 with three toes of nearly equal size1 and in the lower ,tertiary a horse-ancestor as small as a fox-hound 7the ,hyracotherium71 with four toes on its front foot and three on its hind foot4 ,coming very close to this in general character is another small extinct animal of the same age1 with five toes on each foot4 ,as the toes have dwindled in number and size1 leaving at last only the big central toe 7as we pass upward from the small ancestors to the big modern horse71 so the cheek-teeth1 too1 have changed4 ,at first they had shallow crowns and divided fangs1 and showed four prominences on the crown which were little1 if at all1 worn down during life4 ,but as the horse became a bigger animal and took to eating coarse tooth-wearing grass1 his teeth became deeper1 and continued to grow for a long time1 whilst the crown was rubbed down by the hard food1 and a curiously complex pattern was brought into view by the exposure of the irregular bosses of the crown in cross section4 ,and1 meanwhile1 the size and proportions of the horse-ancestors changed until1 after being pig-like1 then tapir-like1 they acquired the perfect form and size for fleet and prolonged movement over firm1 grass-grown plains4 ,horses and other large animals have to run1 not only to escape pursuit by carnivorous enemies1 but in order to travel1 before they die from thirst1 from a region suddenly dried up by drought to a region where water can be had4 ,many thousands of wild animals perish every year from local droughts in ,africa4 ,no small animals can exist in regions liable to be affected by sudden drought4 ,three-toed horses1 like the upper ,tertiary ,hipparion1 are occasionally born as 8monstrosities0 from ordinary horses at the present day4 ,all horses have the remnant of a toe on each side of the big central toe--in the form of splint-bones--concealed beneath the skin4 ,in some breeds1 for instance1 in the 8,shire0 horses1 which have enormous hairy feet in proportion to their huge strength and weight1 these splint-bones tend to develop three little toe-joints1 which are immovable1 but obviously are 8petti-toes40 ,it is related by ,suetonius that ,julius ,csar used to ride a favourite horse which had several toes on each foot with claws like a lion4 ,this was one of the 8monstrosities0 alluded to above1 a throw-back to the ancestral many-toed condition4 ,specimens illustrating these1 and all else which ,i am here relating concerning horses1 and much more which ,i have not space to tell1 may be seen in the ,north ,hall of the ,natural ,history ,museum4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aa4--,skulls of horses and of deer to show the pre-orbital pit or cups pf1 and its absence in the ,mongolian 7,prevalsky's7 horse4 ,the three-toed ancestral horse1 ,hipparion1 attained a fair size 7that of a big donkey71 and was shaped like the recent fleet one-toed horses4 ,in the skull in front of the orbit1 the ,hipparion has a strongly marked depression in the bone1 as long and broad as a hen's egg1 and in shape like one-half of an egg cut through longwise 7see ,fig4 #aa pf74 ,these pre-orbital cavities are known in deer1 sheep1 and antelopes2 they lodge a gland resembling the tear-gland1 which has1 itself1 a separate existence4 ,similar 8glands0 are found in the feet and ankle-joints of sheep and deer4 ,the fluid which they secrete probably has an odour 7not readily noticed by man7 which helps to keep the herd together1 or1 on certain tracks when the fluid is smeared on to herbage4 ,it is a remarkable fact that the skulls of the wild ,mongolian horse and of the fossil horse of the cave-men1 as also those of the commoner ,european breeds1 have no trace of this pre-orbital cup or of the gland which ,hipparion1 their three-toed ancestor1 possessed4 ,nor1 indeed1 have the asses and zebras4 ,but the ,southern horse1 the ,arab1 and all the breeds into which his blood has prominently entered--as1 for instance1 the ,english racer 7so-called 8thoroughbred07 and the 8,shire0 horse 7which is derived from the old ,english war-horse1 in the making of which certainly four hundred years ago ,arab blood and heavy ,northern stock were mingled71 do show1 as a rule1 a well-marked if shallow1 cup-like depression in front of the orbit6 ,in fact1 as ,mr4 ,lydekker has pointed out1 the presence of this 8pre-orbital cup0 is evidence of the descent of its possessor from ,arab ancestry4 ,many specimens of horses' skulls showing this 8cup0 are exhibited in the ,natural ,history ,museum4 ,we have not been able to find any trace of a gland like the 8larmier0 of deer and the 8crumen0 of antelopes on examining the soft tissues which overlie this cavity in horses of ,arab descent1 but it is not improbable that occasional instances of such survival will some day come to light4 ,a very interesting fact in connection with this concavity and its indication of a distinction between the ,northern 7,mongolian7 and the ,southern 7,arabian7 horse is that in ,india a fossil horse of very late ,tertiary date has been found1 a true one-toed horse1 not a ,hipparion1 which has the pre-orbital cup well marked1 and is possibly the ancestor of the ,arab4 ,there is no very great difference between the wild horse and wild asses and zebras4 ,they are distinct 8species10 but will breed together and produce 8mules10 which in rare cases appear to be themselves fertile1 although this is doubtful4 ,the inner causes of the infertility of mules are not really known or understood4 ,nor1 in fact1 do we know really and experimentally what are the causes of fecundity and of infecundity in normally paired animals1 including mankind4 ,it is of the utmost importance to modern ,statecraft that this subject should be studied1 and there is a great field for experimental inquiry4 ,a clear mark of difference between the horse and the other species of the genus ,equus 7namely1 the ,asiatic and ,african asses and the zebras7 is found in the curious wart-like knobs#a on the legs1 which are called 8chestnuts40 ,these warty knobs appear to be the remains in a 8dried up0 condition of glands1 such as are found in the legs of deer in a similar position1 and secrete a glairy fluid4 ,in new-born colts they sometimes exude a fluid1 and also more rarely in adult horses4 ,the fluid attracts other horses 7probably by its smell71 and also causes dogs to keep quiet4 ,the horse has one of these wart-like 8chestnuts0 above the wrist joint 7so-called knee7 on the inner side of the fore-leg4 ,and so have all the asses and zebras4 ,but the horse 7,fig4 #ab7 has also a similar 8chestnut0 on the inner side of each of its hind-legs1 below the heel-bone1 or 8hock40 ,this hind-leg chestnut is absent in all asses and zebras4 ,this difference between the horse and ass can be tested by my readers on any roadside by their own observation4 ,the hind-leg chestnut is also absent in certain breeds of ponies from ,iceland and the ,hebrides4 ,its presence and absence are interesting in connection with the disappearance of the face-gland or pre-orbital gland in all recent horses1 asses1 and zebras4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ab4--;,fore and hind legs of horse and ass1 to show the 8chestnuts10 and the absence of that structure from the hind-leg of the ass4 ,the 8chestnuts0 of the horse have sometimes been compared erroneously to the 8pads0 on the feet of other animals1 and supposed to be survivals of a 8pad0 in each foot corresponding to the inner of the three toes of the ,hipparion4 ,the real representative1 in the horse1 of the chief pad of the foot of animals which do not 7as the horse does7 walk on the very tip of the toe1 is a little knob called the 8ergot40 ,the diagram1 ,fig4 #ac1 shows how this ergot corresponds to the chief pad of the three-toed tapir's foot1 and so to that of the dog also4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ac4--;,diagram of the under surface of the foot in the dog1 tapir1 and horse1 to show that the horny knob of the horse's foot1 called the 8ergot10 corresponds to the central 8pad0 of the other two4 ,the absence of living horses1 or of any kind of ass or zebra1 from the ,american ,continent1 when first colonised by ,europeans in the sixteenth century1 is a very singular fact4 ,for we find a great number and variety of fossil remains of extinct horses in both ,north and ,south ,america4 ,it seems possible that some epidemic disease swept them from the whole ,continent not very many centuries before ,europeans arrived--for there is evidence in ,south ,america of the co-existence there of peculiar kinds of horse with the 8,indian0 natives4 ,it is even alleged that ,cabot1 in #aecj1 saw horses in ,argentina1 which were the last survivors of the native ,south ,american species4 ,and it is also said that the ,araucanian ,indians of ,patagonia have a peculiar breed of ponies1 which may be derived in part from a native ,south ,american stock4 ,i have never been able to procure a skull of this breed1 or any detailed description of it4 ,what is quite certain is that in the great cave of ,ultima ,speranza1 in ,patagonia--from which the hairy skin1 dried flesh and blood1 and unaltered dung as well as the bones1 of the giant sloth ,mylodon were obtained--a great number of the horny hoofs1 and the teeth of a peculiar horse were also found some eight years ago1 and are preserved in the ,natural ,history ,museum1 together with the remains of the giant sloth4 ,the condition of these remains is such that they cannot be many centuries old4 ,the animals appear to have been contemporaneous with an early race of ,indians who made use of the cave before the arrival of ,europeans4 ,a skull of one and a skeleton of another of the peculiar extinct ,south ,american horses 7called ,onohippidium and ,hippidium71 which survived until a late period in ,patagonia and may possibly have been seen by ,cabot1 are shown in the ,natural ,history ,museum4 ,their bones are found in the superficial gravel and sand of the pampas4 ,to revert for a moment to the history of the ,english thoroughbred4 ,it appears that in ,england in the middle of the eighteenth century a happy new infusion of the ,arab race with that of existing stock 7which already contained some ,arab blood mixed with that of the ,northern race7 produced once and for all a very perfect and successful breed4 ,that breed did not derive speed from the ,arab1 but 8stamina10--probably a powerful heart4 ,it did not derive its size from the ,arab1 but the cross proved to be a large horse4 ,it has never been improved since by any further admixture of ,arab or ,southern blood4 ,hence the 7at first sight7 misleading name 8thoroughbred40 ,this name is not intended to imply that the breed is not originally a 8blend10 but that those horses so called are pure-bred from the happy and wonderful mixture which a hundred and fifty years ago was embodied in the great sires ,matchem1 ,herod1 and ,eclipse4 ,,footnotes #a ,the names 8malander0 and 8salander0 have been recently applied by zoological writers1 apparently by misconception1 to these 8callosities0 or 8chestnuts40 ,those names are used by veterinary surgeons to describe a diseased condition of this part of the horse's leg 7,italian 8mal andare071 and do not apply to the 8chestnut0 itself1 which is sometimes called 8castor40 ,,xi ,a ,,rival ,,of ,,the ,,fabled ,,upas ,,tree ,we are so accustomed nowadays to danger to life and health from minute1 invisible germs1 and to exerting all our skill in order to destroy them1 that the knowledge of the existence of large and beautiful trees in our midst which can1 and do1 cause terrible disease and suffering by their mere presence1 comes as a shock1 and produces a peculiar sense of insecurity greater even than that excited by unseen micro-organisms4 ,for the trees of which ,i am about to speak are cultivated in our gardens1 trained up against the walls of our houses with loving care1 and admired for the beautiful autumn tints of their leaves4 ,yet it is now certain that they are the cause in many persons of most terrible suffering and illness4 ,i am glad to be able to warn my readers in regard to these plants1 and ,i shall be very much interested to hear whether the information which ,i am about to give proves to be of value in any particular case4 ,a married couple1 friends of my own1 went to live1 about fourteen years ago1 in a newly built1 detached house1 standing in its own garden1 in the neighbourhood of an ,english city4 ,after they had been there two years the lady developed a very painful eruption or eczema on the face1 which1 in the course of a few weeks1 caused the eyes1 nose1 and lips to swell to an extraordinary degree1 accompanied by the formation of blisters and breaking of the skin4 ,the affection spread to the body1 and caused constant pain and corresponding prostration4 ,her medical attendants were unable either to cure or to account for her condition4 ,after some months she left home1 and entirely recovered4 ,but every year the same distressing and disfiguring illness attacked her 7commencing in the month of ,june71 and disappeared as soon as she left her house1 only to return when she came back to it4 ,the doctors spoke of her affliction as a mysterious form of erysipelas1 and even suggested blood-poisoning as the cause4 ,for long periods she was so ill and in so much pain that she was unable to see her friends1 and her life was at times in danger4 ,two years ago a weekly newspaper published an account1 written by a correspondent1 of an illness from which he had suffered--exactly agreeing with that which had for so many years tortured my friend's wife4 ,this writer stated that he had ascertained that the disease was due to the action of a poison given off by a creeper which grew on the walls of his house4 ,he had supposed this plant to be a ,virginian creeper2 but he had discovered that it was in reality the ,californian poison-vine called by botanists ,rhus toxicodendron4 ,the terribly poisonous nature of this plant is well-known to the people of the ,united ,states4 ,it is one of the sumach trees1 of which other poisonous kinds are known1 whilst more than one species is used 7especially in ,japan7 for preparing a resinous varnish which is used in the manufacture of 8lacquered0 articles4 ,the writer in the weekly paper stated that he had cut down and burnt the poison-vine which grew on the walls of his house1 and that his sufferings had ceased4 ,my friend happened to read this account1 and immediately examined his own house4 ,he found a creeper resembling a ,virginian creeper1 but having three leaflets or divisions of the leaf instead of five1 growing around his drawing-room window1 and actually spreading its branches and leaves over the window of his wife's bedroom4 ,he sent specimens of the creeper to ,kew1 where it was at once identified as the ,rhus toxicodendron or ,american poison-vine or poison-ivy4 ,he caused the plant to be removed and burnt1 and1 except for a slight attack in ,july1 due no doubt to fragments of the leaves still carried about in the form of dust1 his wife has recovered her health4 ,i have looked into this matter with care1 and ,i find that 7presumably in ignorance7 nurserymen in ,england have sold specimens of the poison-vine for planting as creepers1 under the name ,ampelopsis ,hoggii4 ,the smaller-leaved ,virginian creeper1 with self-attaching tendrils1 is known as ,ampelopsis ,veitchii1 and is1 like the larger ,virginian creeper 7,a4 quinquefoliata71 quite harmless4 ,the poison-vine is not an ,ampelopsis at all1 not even one of the ,vitace or vine family1 as that genus is4 ,it is a ,sumach or ,rhus1 and belongs to a distinct family1 the ,terebinthace4 ,it has a three-split leaf1 not five leaflets1 as has the large ,virginian creeper1 nor a small three-pointed leaf1 as has the ,ampelopsis ,veitchii4 ,the ,veitchii frequently has the leaf also split into three leaflets1 but the stalk of the middle leaflet is not relatively so long as it is in the poison-vine4 ,the differences and resemblances in the leaves of these plants are shown in the accompanying illustration 7,fig4 #ad71 which has been prepared from actual specimens for this book4 ,the people of the ,united ,states are on their guard against this plant1 knowing its terrible properties4 ,sir ,william ,thiselton ,dyer1 formerly director of ,kew ,gardens1 tells me that specimens of the 8,american poison-vine0 are grown in the garden at ,kew1 and that he has been present when ,american visitors 7ladies7 literally screamed with horror on seeing it1 and ran from it as from a mad dog4 ,several cases are on record of the mysterious poisoning produced by this plant in ,england2 but it is strangely unfamiliar to medical practitioners--indeed1 practically unknown to them1 although ,i have ascertained that many ,english people1 especially ladies1 have been victims for some years to its unsuspected influence4 ,at the ,university of ,harvard1 in ,cambridge1 ,massachusetts1 they have made quite recently a thorough examination of the poison-vine in the laboratory1 with the following results3 ,the poison is an oil--a fixed oil1 not a volatile one1 as we might have imagined from its mysterious action at a distance4 ,the oil exists in all parts of the plant1 even in the fine hairs and cuticle of the leaf4 ,it can be extracted by means of ether1 and is one of the most virulent irritants known1 having a very curious penetrating and persistent action1 and producing violent pain and destruction of tissue when placed on the skin in quantity so minute 7one-thousandth of a milligram in two drops of olive oil7 as to be beyond the terms of everyday language4 ,it seems to be usually brought to the eyes1 nose1 lips1 and skin of the face and body by the fingers which have touched a leaf or fragments of a leaf in powder4 ,the dead leaf in winter still retains the oil1 and minute dust-like particles can carry it4 ,the treatment for it is washing with soap1 oil1 and ether at an early stage of the attack--especial care being taken to free the fingers from any minute traces of the oil adhering to them4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ad4--;,drawings1 about half the natural size1 of the leaves of the common quinquefoliate ,virginian creeper 7#a and #b71 of the adherent 8,ampelopsis ,veitchii0 7#c and #d71 and of the poison-vine1 ,rhus toxicodendron 7#e and #f74 ,from specimens in the ,botanical ,department of the ,natural ,history ,museum4 ,note especially the greater length of the stalk of the central leaflet in the poison-vine4 ,note also that the common ,virginian creeper has sometimes only three leaflets 7#b7 instead of five1 and that 8,veitchii0 has either three leaflets1 as in #c1 or has the leaflets united into one three-pointed leaf1 as in #d4 ,the poison of the poison-vine only acts upon a limited number of individuals1 many people being perfectly immune4 ,at the same time1 the effect upon susceptible people appears to be enhanced with every fresh attack2 even after the total removal of the poison-vine and its dust from proximity to a susceptible person1 he or she is apt for some time--owing to the retention of some trace of the oil in the skin or clothes--to have slight attacks4 ,according to a writer who two years ago gave in the ,spectator an account of his own case1 the first symptom of an attack is almost invariably a redness and irritation of the eyelids1 accompanied by shivering4 ,in a few hours the eyelids are closed1 the features unrecognisable1 and the skin covered with little blisters4 ,then the lips swell enormously1 the glands of the neck also4 ,in four days the arms and hands are reached1 each finger appearing as if terribly scalded and requiring separate bandaging4 ,then sometimes the lower limbs are involved4 ,after ten days the attack passes off1 leaving the patient in a pitiable state of weakness to grow a new skin and recover from other painful results of the poisoning4 ,but no immunity is conferred by an attack2 the unhappy victim 7who is ignorant of the cause of his sufferings7 may1 and frequently does1 get a new dose of the poison as soon as he has recovered1 and the whole course of the illness has again to be passed through4 ,if this account should fall into the hands of any one who is being unwittingly poisoned by the ,american poison-vine1 and may therefore be saved by what ,i have written from further suffering1 ,i shall be greatly pleased4 ,there are very few plants which have a power of diffusing poison around them2 usually it is necessary to touch or to eat portions of a plant before it can exert any poisonous effect4 ,the eighteenth-century story of the upas-tree of ,java1 which was fabled to fill a whole valley with its poisonous emanation1 and to cause the death of animals and birds at a distance of fifteen miles1 is now known to be a romantic invention4 ,the tree in question is merely one having a poisonous juice which was extracted and used by the wilder races of ,java as an arrow poison4 ,it is stated that one of the stinging-nettles of tropical ,india has such virulent poison and such an abundance of it in the hairs on its surface1 that explorers have been injured by merely approaching it1 the detached hairs probably floating in the air and getting into the eyes1 nose1 and throat of any one coming near it4 ,the poison of the poisonous stings of both plants and of animals has been to some extent examined of late years4 ,it is a curious fact that there are proportionately few plants which sting as compared with the number and variety of animals which do so4 ,on the other hand1 there are an enormous number of plants which are poisonous to man when eaten by him1 but there are very few animals which are so4 ,it will be of interest to my readers to know that ,i received1 in consequence of the publication of the foregoing account of the 8,poison-vine0 or 8,poison-ivy10 more than fifty letters and boxes containing leaves4 ,at ,kew ,gardens nearly a hundred applications were made with a request for the identification of leaves4 ,the proportion of cases in which leaves of true poison-ivy 7,rhus toxicodendron7 were sent to me seems to be the same as that which they observed at ,kew--only two samples of the leaves sent to me were those of the true poison-ivy4 ,hence we may conclude that the plant has not been very largely introduced in this country1 and probably there are not many hundred cases existing in ,england of the painful malady which it can1 in certain people1 produce4 ,i have1 however1 received information of several instances of this poisoning from different parts of the country1 which are either now under treatment or have been cured1 and in some cases the poison-ivy has been discovered as the cause1 owing to the description which ,i published4 ,it is certainly true that the illness caused by this plant only attacks a small proportion of those who handle it1 and it is possible that the plant is more virulent at some seasons and in some soils than in others4 ,in the ,united ,states1 even in the neighbourhood of ,new ,york1 it is a real danger1 and is recognised as such1 but as appears from a letter which ,i quote below1 the reason of the dread which the 8poison-ivy0 excites in the ,states depends on the fact that it is not there a mere garden plant1 but grows wild in great abundance in the woodlands frequented by holiday-makers and lovers of natural forest and lakeside wilderness4 ,the poisonous nature of the allied species of ,rhus used for the manufacture of 8lacquer0 or varnish is recognised by the ,japanese and others who prepare this product and have to handle the plant--they wear gloves to protect the hands4 ,as showing what kind of trouble the 8poison-ivy0 and 8poison-oak0 7another kind of ,rhus or ,sumach7 give in the ,united ,states1 ,i will quote a letter ,i have received from an ,american lady well known in ,london society4 ,she says3 8,i have known1 suffered1 and struggled against the poison-ivy in ,america from my earliest years1 when my poor mother lay for days with blinded and swollen eyes1 having gathered it inadvertently4 ,the #8poison-ivy1' as we call it1 is a curse to country life1 outside the purely artificial and cultivated gardens1 and even there it creeps in insidiously40 ,she describes a beautiful farm property on ,lake ,champlain1 on the ,canadian border1 where she and her family would spend many weeks in summer in order to enjoy the delights of complete seclusion in wild1 unspoilt country3 8,the one and only drawback to the place was10 she writes1 8the inexhaustible quantity of poison-ivy4 ,our first duty had been to teach my two daughters and their governess how to distinguish and avoid contact with it4 ,the one and only rule was that the poison-ivy has the clusters of three leaflets 7the middle leaflet with a longer stalk1 ,e4,r4,l471 whereas the woodbine 7not the ,english woodbine1 which is a convolvulus1 ,e4,r4,l471 or1 as you call it1 #8,virginian creeper1' has five leaflets in a cluster4 ,every path which we used frequently and necessarily1 such as the path to the boat-house1 and to the cove where the bathing-house stood1 we kept cleared of the ,rhus for a sufficient width1 but in the woods eternal vigilance was the price of safety4 ,to uproot and burn is the only way to destroy it1 but1 of course1 that involves danger to the one who does the work1 because contact with the spade used1 and with the garments which touched the ivy1 might communicate the poison4 ,the farmer and the countryfolk about declared that the fumes from the burning plant could and did poison those who breathed them4 ,we used to turn a flock of sheep into the most used parts4 ,they prefer the poison-ivy to grass1 and greedily eat down every leaf within reach in hedge or path4 ,but that1 of course1 was a mere temporary safety1 as the plant is most tenacious of life4 ,i personally had a most grievous experience one summer4 ,i can only suppose that my dress1 though very short for wood and hill walking1 brushed over the poisonous plant1 and then1 when ,i undressed1 came into contact with my skin4 ,both legs became covered with the eruption1 eventually developing pustules1 and the agony of itching1 burning1 and smarting was indescribable4 ,the first remedy applied is usually a frequent use of baths of some alkali1 generally common soda4 ,with me it was altogether inadequate1 and the doctor carefully covered the affected parts with a thick layer of bismuth1 and bandaged them1 so as to exclude all air4 ,but it took weeks to cure me4 ,a very serious result in many cases is that there is a recurrence of the itching for several years40 ,,xii ,,poisons ,,and ,,stings ,,of ,,plants ,,and ,,animals ,to give an account of poisonous plants would require a whole volume4 ,among plants of every degree and kind are many which produce special chemical substances which are more or less poisonous1 and yet often of the greatest value to man when used in appropriate doses1 though injurious and even deadly if swallowed in large quantity4 ,plants are laboratories which build up in a thousand varieties wonderful chemical bodies1 some crystalline1 some oils1 some volatile 7as perfumes and aromatic substances71 some brilliantly coloured 7used as dyes71 some pungent1 some antiseptic1 some of the greatest value as food1 and some even digestive1 similar to or identical with those formed in the stomach of an animal4 ,man1 the chemist1 every year is learning how to produce in his own laboratories1 from coal and wood refuse1 many of these bodies1 so as to become to an ever-increasing extent independent of the somewhat capricious and costly services of the chemists supplied by nature--the plants4 ,in a recent exhibition there was a case showing on one side the various essential oils used to make up a flask of eau-de-,cologne1 and specimens of the plants1 flowers1 leaves1 and fruits from which they are distilled4 ,on the other side of the case was a series of bottles showing the steps in the process by which the modern chemist manufactures from coal-tar and coker-butter the same bodies which give value to the vegetable extracts1 and there was finally a bottle of what is called 8synthetic eau-de-,cologne0--that is1 eau-de-,cologne put together from the products manufactured by the human1 instead of the vegetable1 chemist4 ,whilst man has learnt to avoid swallowing poisonous plants1 although occasionally blundering over pretty-looking berries and deceptive mushrooms1 he has had little to fear in that way from animals4 ,to a small degree this is due to the fact that only parts of animals are eaten by man1 and those very generally are cooked before being eaten1 the heating often sufficing to destroy substances present in flesh1 fish1 and fowl which would be poisonous if taken raw4 ,but1 as a matter of fact1 animals do not generally protect themselves from being eaten1 as plants largely do1 by developing nasty or poisonous substances in their flesh1 though some do4 ,they fight rather by claws1 teeth1 and poison glands therewith connected1 or else escape by extra quick locomotion1 a method not possible to plants4 ,many insects 7butterflies1 beetles1 and bugs71 however1 produce nasty aromatic substances which cause animals like birds and lizards to reject them as food4 ,the toad and the salamander both produce a very deadly poison in their damp1 soft skins1 which causes any animal to drop them from its mouth1 and to regret 8bitterly0 the attempt to swallow them4 ,the frog has no such poison in its skin1 but can jump out of harm's way4 ,the strong yellow and black marking of the ,european salamander is what is called a 8warning0 coloration1 just as is the yellow and black outfit of the poisonous wasp4 ,animals learn to leave the yellow and black livery untouched1 and the creatures so marked escape the injury which would be caused them by tentative bites4 ,there is a curious variation as to susceptibility on the part of man to poison in the flesh of fishes and shell-fishes when taken by him as food4 ,the word 8idiosyncrasy0 is applied to such individual susceptibility1 and is1 of course1 applicable to the susceptibility shown by some persons to the poison of the ,american poison-vine1 described in the last article1 and of others to acute inflammation from the dust of hayfields4 ,some persons cannot eat lobster1 crab1 or oysters or mussels without being poisoned in a varying degree by certain substances present in those 8shell-fish0 even when cooked4 ,often a 8rash0 is caused on the skin1 and colic4 ,others1 again1 cannot eat any fish of any kind without being poisoned in a similar way1 or possibly are only liable to be poisoned by grey mullet or by mackerel4 ,the most curious cases of this individual variability are found in the rash and fever caused by the vegetable drug quinine in rare instances1 and the violent excitement produced in some persons by the usually soporific laudanum4 ,all such cases have very great interest as showing us what a small difference separates an agreeable flavour or a valuable medicine from a rank poison1 and how readily the chemical susceptibility of a complex organism like man may vary between toleration and deathly response1 without any concomitant indication of such difference being apparent 7in our present state of knowledge71 in two individuals1 to one of whom that is poison which to the other is meat4 ,they also furnish a parallel to that marvellous conversion of 8toxin0 into 8anti-toxin10 in consequence of which the blood of an animal injected with small1 increasing doses of deadly snake poison or diphtheria poison becomes an antidote to the same poison taken into the blood of an unprepared animal4 ,there is1 over and above these special cases of fish foods which are tolerated by some and are poison to others1 a whole series of fishes which cannot be eaten by any one without serious poisoning being the result1 even when the fish are carefully cooked4 ,happily1 these fishes are rarely1 if ever1 caught on our own coasts4 ,they produce1 when even small bits are eaten1 violent irritation of the intestine1 and death1 the symptoms resembling in many respects those of cholera4 ,the curious bright-coloured1 beaked fish of tropical seas and coral reefs1 with two or four large front teeth and spherical spine-covered bodies1 and the trigger fish of the same regions1 are the chief of these poisonous fish4 ,but there is a true anchovy on the coast of ,japan1 and a small herring in the ,west ,indies1 and a goby on the ,indian coast 7,pondicherry71 all of which are deadly poison even when cooked2 and there are many others4 ,so one has to be careful about fish-eating in the remoter parts of the world4 ,the poisons of these fish with poisonous flesh have not been carefully studied1 but they seem to resemble chemically the poisons produced by certain putrefactive microbes4 ,let us now revert to the more special subject of poisonous stings4 ,every one knows that although it is unpleasant to be pricked by the little spines on the leaf of a thistle1 it is not the same unpleasantness as being 8stung0 by a nettle4 ,there is no poison in the thistle4 ,the hairs which beset the leaves of the common nettle are firm1 but brittle and hollow2 they break off in the skin1 and a poison exudes from their interior4 ,under the microscope--and it is quite easy to examine it with a high power--the hollow nettle hair is seen to be partly occupied by living protoplasm--a transparent1 viscid substance which shows an active streaming movement1 and has embedded in it a dense kernel or nucleus 7see ,fig4 #ae bis74 ,it is1 in fact1 a living 8cell10 or life unit4 ,the space in the cell not occupied by protoplasm is filled with clear liquid1 which contains the poison4 ,this has been examined chemically by using a large quantity of nettle hairs1 and is found to contain formic acid--the same irritating acid which is secreted by ants when they sting1 whence its name4 ,but later observations show that the juice of the nettle hair contains also a special poison in minute quantities1 an albuminous substance1 which resembles that contained in the poison-sacs at the base of the teeth of snakes4 ,in tropical regions there are nettles far more powerful than that of our own country4 ,the one called ,urtica stimulans1 which is found in ,java1 and that called ,laportea crenulata1 found in ,hindostan1 when bruised emit an effluvium which poisonously affects the eyes and mouth1 and if handled produce convulsions and serious swelling and pain in the arms1 which may last for three or four weeks1 and in some cases cause death4 ,they are not unknown in the hothouses of our botanical gardens1 and young gardeners are sometimes badly stung by them4 ,there are other plants provided with poisonous stinging hairs besides the true nettles or ,urticace1 though they are not numerous4 ,the ,american plants called ,loasa sting badly1 so do some of the ,spurges 7,euphorbiace71 and some ,hydrophylle4 ,the ,chinese primrose 7,primula obconica71 lately introduced into greenhouses1 has been found to be almost as injurious as the poison-vine4 ,its effects1 of course1 are limited to a much smaller group of sufferers4 ,and it is worth while1 in connection with poisoning by primula and the poisoning by ,rhus toxicodendron of only certain individuals predisposed to its influence1 to point out that the malady known as hay fever seems to be similar in its character to these vegetable poisonings4 ,it is1 of course1 well known that only certain individuals are liable to the more violent and serious form of hay fever4 ,it is not at all improbable that this irritation of the air passages1 often attributed to the mechanical action of the pollen of grass and other plants--really is due to minute quantities of a poison like that of the poison-vine1 present in the pollen of some hay plant yet to be suspected1 tried1 and convicted4#b ,with regard to a poisonous action at a distance being possibly exerted by plants1 we must not overlook the effects of some perfumes discharged into the air by flowers4 ,primarily such perfumes appear to serve the flowers by attracting to them special insects1 by whose movements and search for honey in the flowers the pollen of one is conveyed to another and fertilisation effected4 ,human beings are sometimes injuriously affected by the heavy perfume given out by lilies and other flowers1 headache and even fainting being the result4 ,no instance is known of serious injury or death resulting in the regions where they grow from the overpowering perfume of such flowers4 ,but that admirable story-teller1 ,mr4 ,h4 ,g4 ,wells1 has made a legitimate use of scientific possibilities in imagining the existence of a rare tropical orchid which attracts large animals to it by its wonderful odour4 ,the effects of the perfume are narcotising2 the animal1 having sniffed at the orchid1 drops insensible at the foot of the tree trunk on which the orchid grows4 ,then the orchid rapidly1 with animal-like celerity1 sends forth those smooth green fingers or 8suckers10 which you may see clinging to the pots and shelves on which an orchid is growing4 ,as they slowly creep1 in their growth1 over the poisoned animal1 they absorb its life's blood painlessly and without disturbing the death-slumber of the victim4 ,mr4 ,wells supposes a retired civil-servant1 with feeble health and a passion for orchids1 to have purchased an unknown specimen1 which1 after some months of nursing1 is about to blossom in the little hothouse of his suburban home4 ,he goes quietly and alone one afternoon1 when his housekeeper is preparing his tea1 to enjoy the first sight and smell of the unknown flower1 and is found1 some three hours later1 lying insensible before the orchid1 which is giving out an intoxicating odour1 and is looking very vigorous and wicked4 ,a blood-red tint pervades its leaves and stalks1 and it has already pushed some of its finger-like shoots round the orchid-lover's neck and beneath his shirt front4 ,when they are pulled away a few drops of blood flow from the skin where the absorbent shoots had applied themselves4 ,the victim recovers4 ,when we take a survey of the 8stings0 and poison-fangs and spurs of animals1 we find a much greater abundance and variety of these weapons than in plants4 ,they serve animals not only as a means of defence1 but very often for the purpose of attacking and paralysing their prey4 ,we have to distinguish broadly between 7a7 gut-poisons and 7b7 wound-poisons4 ,the slimy surface of the skin and the juices of animals are often poisonous if introduced into wounds1 but harmless if swallowed1 though in the toad and salamander the skin contains a poison which acts on the mouth and stomach4 ,thus the blood of the eel is poisonous to higher animals if injected beneath the skin1 though not poisonous when swallowed4 ,pasteur found that the saliva of a healthy human baby a few weeks old produced convulsions when injected beneath the skin of a rabbit4 ,the fluid of the mouth in fishes 7,murna71 in some lizards 7,heloderma71 and some warm-blooded quadrupeds1 like the skunk1 is often poisonous1 and is introduced into the wound inflicted by a bite4 ,the elaboration of a sac of the mouth-surface secreting a special quantity of poison to be injected by aid of a grooved tooth1 such as we find in poisonous snakes1 is only a mechanical improvement of this more general condition4 ,the same general poisonous quality is found in the slime of the skins of fishes which have spines by means of which poisonous wounds are inflicted 7sting-rays74 ,and here1 too1 an elaboration is effected in some fishes in which a sac is provided for the accumulation of the poison1 and a specially grooved spine1 to convey the poison into the wound inflicted by it4 ,a common fish on our coasts1 the weever 7probably the same word as viper71 is provided with grooved1 stinging spines1 but no special poison-sac4 ,some of the poison-carrying spines support the front portion of the dorsal fin1 which is of a deep black colour1 a striking instance of the warning coloration which poisonous animals often possess4 ,the poison introduced into wounds by the spines or fangs of animals is essentially similar to that of nettle hairs2 it has the effect of paralysing and of producing convulsions4 ,it is a remarkable fact that formic acid often in insects accompanies the paralysing poison--as it does in the nettle--and produces intense pain and irritation1 which the more dangerous nerve-poison does not4 ,immunity to a given wound-poison may be produced by the injection of doses of it1 at first excessively minute1 but gradually increased in quantity4 ,a remedial 8anti-toxin0 is thus prepared from the blood of immunised animals1 which is used as a cure or as a protection by injecting it into other animals exposed to bites or wounds conveying the particular poison by the use of which the anti-toxin was produced4 ,bee-keepers who have often been stung become in many cases immune1 and do not suffer from bee-sting4 ,men who in ,france pursue a business as viper-catchers1 are said to become immune to viper's poison in the same way4 ,snakes and scorpions are but little1 if at all1 affected by their own poison when it is injected into them4 ,this appears to be due to the fact that the poison-producing animal is always absorbing into its blood very minute doses of the poison which it has elaborated and stored up in its poison-sac connected with the poison-gland4 ,this small quantity of poison continually absorbed is continually converted into an anti-toxin--just as happens when a horse is treated with doses of snake-poison to prepare the remedial anti-toxin for use in cases of snake-bite1 or with diphtheria-poison in order to prepare the diphtheria anti-toxin now so largely used4 ,the anti-toxin is a substance very closely similar in chemical constitution to the toxin by the conversion of which it is formed in the blood4 ,its action on the toxin 7or essential poisonous substance of the venom7 appears to be a very delicate and slight chemical disturbance of the constitution of that chemical body4 ,yet it is enough to cause the injurious quality of the toxin to be suddenly and completely abrogated1 although from the point of view of chemical composition it is only1 as it were1 shaken or given a twist6 ,such great practical differences in the action on living creatures of chemical bodies having themselves so subtle a difference of chemical structure as to almost defy our powers of detection1 are now well known4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ae4--;,drawing from life of the desert scorpion 7,buthus australis1 ,lin471 from ,biskra1 ,n4 ,africa1 of the natural size4 7,from ,lankester1 ,journ4 ,linn4 ,soc4 ,zool41 vol4 xvi4 #ahha47 ,i made some experiments a few years ago on the poison of scorpions1 which were published by the ,linnan ,society4 ,i obtained live scorpions--a beautiful citron-coloured kind1 of large size--from ,biskra1 in ,algeria 7,fig4 #ae74 ,the poison-gland and sac are double1 and contained in the last joint of the tail1 which is swollen1 and ends in a splendid curved spine or sting4 ,the scorpion carries its tail raised in a graceful curve over its back1 and strikes with the sting by a powerful forward stroke4 ,one can seize the tail by the last joint but one1 and thus safely hold the animal1 and see the poison exude in drops from the perforated sting4 ,i found that if ,i pressed the sting thus held into the scorpion's own body1 or into that of another scorpion1 no harm resulted to the wounded animal1 although plenty of the poison entered the little wound made by the sting4 ,a large cockroach or a mouse similarly wounded by the sting was paralysed1 and died in a few minutes4 ,it is a custom in countries where scorpions abound1 and are troublesome1 and even dangerous to human life1 for the natives to make a circle of red-hot charcoal1 and to place a large scorpion in the centre of the enclosed area4 ,the scorpion1 it is stated1 runs round inside the circle1 and1 finding that escape is impossible1 deliberately drives its sting into its back1 and so commits suicide4 ,my experiments showed that the scorpion could not kill itself in this way1 as its poison does not act on itself4 ,moreover1 it has been shown by ,professor ,bourne1 of ,madras1 that although scorpions constantly fight with one another1 they never attempt to use their stings in these battles1 but only their powerful1 lobster-like claws4 ,the stings would be useless1 and are reserved for their attacks on animals susceptible to the poison4 ,i also found the ground for the belief that the scorpion kills itself when enclosed in a fiery circle4 ,incredible as it may appear in regard to such denizens of the hot regions of the earth1 both the desert scorpion and the large dark-green ,indian scorpions actually faint and become motionless and insensible when exposed for a few minutes to a temperature a little above that of the human body4 ,this was carefully ascertained by using an incubator and a thermometer4 ,the scorpion in the fiery circle lashes about with its sting1 and then suddenly faints owing to the heat4 ,if removed from the heat it recovers completely2 but1 of course1 when it is supposed to have committed suicide1 no one takes the trouble to remove it4 ,i made1 several times1 the actual experiment of placing a large active scorpion within a ring-like wall1 a foot in diameter1 formed by live coals4 ,the scorpion never stung itself4 ,on one occasion it walked out over the coals1 and on other occasions1 after lashing its tail and running about1 fainted1 and became motionless4 ,jelly-fishes are often called 8sea-nettles10 because of the microscopic poison-bearing threads which they discharge from their skin4 ,these are used to paralyse their prey1 and1 in a few kinds only1 are sufficiently powerful to cause a 8stinging0 effect when they come into contact with a bather's skin4 ,sea-anemones are also armed with these minute threads1 and their poison has been extracted and studied4 ,the spines of star-fishes and sea-urchins have a very deadly poison associated with them1 which has recently been examined4 ,among insects we have the bees1 wasps1 and ants1 with their terminal stings2 caterpillars1 with poisonous hairs2 gnats1 with poisonous mouth glands4 ,residents in mosquito-infested countries become 8immune0 to the poison of gnat-bite1 but not to the deadly germs of malaria and yellow fever carried by the gnats4 ,the centipedes have powerful jaws1 provided with poison-sacs2 the spiders have stabbing claws1 fitted with poison-glands4 ,shell-fish1 such as crabs and lobsters1 do not possess stings or poison-sacs1 but some of the whelk-like sea-snails have poison-glands1 which secrete a fluid deadly to other shell-fish4 ,we have already spoken of the poison-spines of fishes2 among reptiles it is only some of the snakes which are poisonous1 and are known to have poison-glands connected with grooved fangs4 ,only one kind of lizard--the ,heloderm of ,north ,america1 already mentioned--has poison-glands in its mouth1 but it has no special poison-fangs1 only small teeth4 ,there is a most persistent and curious popular error to the effect that the rapidly moving bifid tongue of snakes and lizards is a 8sting40 ,it is really quite innocuous4 ,no sting is known among birds1 although some have fighting 8spurs0 on the leg1 and 8claws0 on the wing4 ,only the lowest of the mammals or warm-blooded hairy quadrupeds--namely1 the ,australian duck-mole 7,ornithorhynchus7 and the spiny ant-eater 7,echidna7--have poison-glands and related 8spurs10 or stings4 ,they have on the hind-leg a 8spur0 of great size and strength1 which is perforated and connected with a gland which produces a poisonous milky fluid4 ,recent observations1 however1 as to the poisonous character of this fluid are wanting4 ,many mammals have large sac-like glands1 which open by definite apertures1 in some cases between the toes1 in others upon the legs1 at the side or back of the head 7the elephant71 in the middle of the back or about the tail4 ,the fluid secreted by these glands is not poisonous nor acrid1 but odoriferous1 and seems to serve to attract the individuals of a species to one another4 ,they resemble in structure and often in position the poison-glands of the spurs of the duck-mole and spiny ant-eater4 ,many insects produce a good deal of irritation1 and even dangerous sores1 by biting and burrowing in the human skin1 without secreting any active poison4 ,often they introduce microscopic germs of disease in this way from one animal to another1 as1 for instance1 do gnats1 tsetze-flies1 and horse-flies1 and as do some small kinds of tics4 ,the bites of the flea1 of midges1 gnats1 and bugs are comparatively harmless unless germs of disease are introduced by them1 an occurrence which1 though exceptional1 is yet a great and terrible danger4 ,we now know that it is in this way1 and this way only1 that malaria or ague1 yellow fever1 plague1 sleeping-sickness1 and some other diseases are carried from infected to healthy men4 ,various diseases of horses and cattle are propagated in the same way4 ,the mere bites of insects may be treated with an application of carbolic acid dissolved in camphor4 ,the pain caused by the acid stings of bees1 wasps1 ants1 and nettles can be alleviated by dabbing the wound with weak ammonia 7hartshorn74 ,insects which bury themselves in the skin1 such as the jigger-flea of the ,west ,indies and tropical ,africa1 should be dug out with a needle or fine blade4 ,the minute creature1 like a cheese-mite1 which burrows and breeds in the skin of man and causes the affliction known as the itch must be poisoned by sulphurous acid--a result achieved by rubbing the skin freely with sulphur ointment on two or three successive days4 ,a serious pest in the summer in many parts of ,england is a little animal known as the harvest-man4 ,these are the young of a small red spider-like creature1 called ,trombidium4 ,they get on to the feet of persons walking in the grass1 and crawl up the legs and burrow into the tender skin4 ,benzine will keep them away if applied to the ankles or stockings when they are about1 and will also destroy them once they have effected a lodgment4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ae bis4--,a4 ,highly magnified drawing of a stinging hair of the common nettle4 ,the hair is seen to be a single cell or capsule of large size1 tapering to its extremity1 but ending in a little knob4 ,the hard case e is filled with liquid a1 and is lined with slimy granular 8protoplasm0 b1 which extends in threads across the cavity to the 8nucleus0 c4 ,the ordinary small cells of the nettle leaf are marked d4 ,b shows the knobbed end of the stinging hair1 and the way in which1 owing to the thinness of its walls1 it breaks off along the line xy when pressed1 leaving a sharp projecting edge1 which penetrates the skin of an animal1 whilst the protoplasm p1 distended with poisonous liquid1 is shown in ,c1 issuing from the broken end4 ,it would escape in this way when the sharp1 freshly broken end had penetrated some animal's skin4 ,,footnotes #b ,since the above was written1 ,i have seen the account by an ,american physician--in a recently issued volume of ,osler's ,treatise on ,medicine--of his recent discovery of the grass which produces in its pollen the poison of hay fever1 and of the preparation by him of an anti-toxin which appears to give relief to those who suffer from hay fever4 ,,xiii ,,the ,,dragon3 ,a ,,fancy ,,or ,a ,,fact ,i am about to write of loathly dragons1 8gorgons and hydras and chimras dire40 ,every one knows what a dragon looks like1 though probably most people could not give a minute description of the beast4 ,a number of quite distinct creatures1 some living on land1 some in sea1 are spoken of in the ,bible by a word which is translated as 8dragon40 ,the ancient ,welsh chieftains1 like many fighting princes of old days1 bore a 8dragon0 on their banners1 and were themselves called 8dragons0 7,pen-dragon71 and when a knight slew such a chieftain fabulous stories grew up as to his combat with and slaughter of a 8dragon40 ,the complete1 legitimate dragon of the present day is the dragon of heraldry1 which is maintained in proper form and with authorised attributes by the ,heralds' ,college4 ,i have a drawing of this 8official0 beast before me 7,fig4 #af74 ,he is represented as of large size1 but whether theoretically the heralds of to-day consider him to be as large as a lion or ten times as long and tall ,i do not know4 ,his body is lizard-like1 and covered with scales resembling those of some lizards 7unlike a crocodile in this respect74 ,his head is not unlike that of a crocodile1 excepting that he has a short1 sharp horn on his nose1 and a beard on his chin1 and also a pair of large pointed ears which no living reptile possesses4 ,his mouth is open1 showing teeth like those of a crocodile1 and from it issues a remarkable tongue1 terminating in an arrow-head-shaped weapon 7presumably a 8sting07 unlike anything known in any living animal4 ,his tail is very long and snake-like 7an important fact when we come to consider his ancestry71 and is thrown into coils4 ,it terminates in an arrow-head-shaped structure like that of the tongue1 quite unlike anything known in any real animal4 ,he has four powerful limbs1 which are not like those of a lizard or a crocodile4 ,they resemble those of an eagle1 and have grasping toes and claws1 three directed forward and one backward4 ,in addition1 he has a pair of wings1 which are leathery1 and supported by several parallel bars1 a structure which gives the wings a remote resemblance to those of a bat4 ,the wing is quite unlike that of a pterodactyle 7the great extinct flying lizard71 and has no resemblance whatever to that of a bird1 which is1 of course1 formed by separate quill feathers set in a row on the bones of the fore-arm and hand4 ,the wings are always represented 7even in illegitimate and ,oriental dragons7 as much too small to carry the dragon in flight4 ,the dragon has1 further1 a crest of separate triangular plates set in a row along the mid-line of his back1 extending from his head to the end of his tail4 ,some lizards 7but not crocodiles7 have such a crest4 ,the most like it is that of the ,new ,zealand lizard1 called the ,sphenodon4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #af4--,the heraldic dragon3 observe the bat-like wings1 the ears1 the horned nose1 the beard1 the arrow-like tongue and tail-piece1 the scaly body1 the dorsal crest1 the snake-like tail with its unnatural arrow-like termination4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ag4--,the heraldic griffin4 ,it alone of the dragon-like monsters has feathery wings4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ah4--;,hercules destroying the hydra 7copied from an ancient ,greek vase74 ,such is the creature called 8the0 dragon4 ,but heraldry recognises some other terrible beasts allied to the dragon2 in fact1 what zoologists would call 8allied species40 ,the griffin1 for instance 7,fig4 #ag71 is a four-legged beast like the dragon1 but has the beak and wings and forefeet of an eagle1 and the hind-legs and tail of a lion4 ,the heraldic hydra is a dragon1 such as ,i have above described1 but with seven heads and necks4 ,the ancient ,greek representation of the hydra destroyed by ,hercules 7as painted on vases7 was1 on the contrary1 based upon the octopus1 or eight-armed cuttle-fish1 each arm carrying a snake-like head 7,fig4 #ah74 ,the wyvern is an important variety of the dragon tribe1 well known to heralds1 but not to be seen every day4 ,it so far conforms to natural laws that it has only two legs1 the fore-limbs being the wings 7,fig4 #ai74 ,the true dragon and the griffin1 like the angel of ecclesiastical art1 have actually six limbs--namely1 a pair of fore-legs or arms1 a pair of hind-legs1 and1 in addition1 a pair of wings4 ,occasionally an artist 7even in ancient ,egyptian works of art7 has attempted to avoid this redundance of limbs by representing an angel as having the arms themselves provided with an expanse of quill feathers4 ,this is certainly a less extraordinary arrangement than the outgrowth of wings 7which in birds1 bats1 and pterodactyles actually are the modified arms or fore-limbs71 as an extra pair of limbs rooted in the back4 ,the wyvern and the cockatrice and the basilisk 7,fig4 #bj7 7which1 like the ,gorgon ,medusa1 can strike a man dead by the mere glance of the eye7 are remarkable for conforming to the invariable vertebrate standard of no more than two pairs of limbs1 whether legs1 wings1 or fins4 ,the name 8lind-worm0 is given to a wyvern without wings 7hence the ,linton ,worm and the ,laidley ,worm of ,lambton71 and appears in various heraldic devices and in legendary art2 whilst in the arms of the ,visconti of ,milan we climb down to a quite simple serpent-like creature without legs or wings1 known as the 8guivre40 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ai4--,the heraldic wyvern4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bj4--,the heraldic basilisk1 also called the ,amphysian ,cockatrice4 ,observe the second head at the end of its tail--a feature due to perversion of the observation that there are some snake-like creatures 7,amphisbena7 with so simple a head that it is at first sight difficult to say which end of the creature is the head and which is the tail4 ,without looking further into the strange and fantastic catalogue of imaginary monsters1 one must recognise that it is a matter of great interest to trace the origin of these marvellous creations of human fancy1 and the way in which they have first of all been brought into pictorial existence1 and then variously modified and finally stereotyped and maintained by tradition and art4 ,it has not infrequently been suggested1 since geologists made us acquainted with the bones of huge and strange-looking fossil reptiles dug from ancient rocks1 that the tradition of 8the dragon0 is really a survival of the actual knowledge and experience of these extinct monsters on the part of 8long-ago races of men40 ,it is a curious fact1 mentioned by a well-known writer1 ,mrs4 ,jameson1 that the bones of a great fossil reptile were preserved and exhibited at ,aix in ,france as the bones of the dragon slain by ,st4 ,michael1 just as the bones of a whale are shown as those of the mythical ,dun-cow of ,warwick in that city4 ,there are three very good reasons for not entertaining the suggestion that the tradition of the dragon and similar beasts is due to human co-existence with the great reptiles of the past4 ,the first is that the age of the rocks known as cretaceous and jurassic 7or olitic71 in which are found the more or less complete skeletons of the great saurians--many bigger in the body than elephants1 and with huge tails in addition1 iguanodon1 megalosaurus1 diplodocus1 as well as the winged pterodactyles 7see ,plate ,,ii41 where a representation is given of what we know as to the form and bearing of two species of pterodactyle7 and a vast series of such creatures--is so enormously remote that not only man but all the hairy warm-blooded animals like him1 did not come into existence until many millions of years after these rocks had been deposited by water and the great reptiles buried in them had become extinct4 ,the cave-men of the ,pleistocene period are modern1 even close to us1 as compared with the age when the great saurians flourished4 ,that was just before the time when our chalk-cliffs were being formed as a slowly growing sediment on the floor of a deep sea4 ,no accurate measure of the time which has elapsed since then is possible1 but we find that about #bjj ft4 thickness of deposit has been accumulated since the date of the earliest human remains known to us--whilst over #ejjj ft4 have accumulated since the chalk began to be deposited1 and the great saurians ceased to exist4 ,if we reckon1 in accordance with the most moderate estimate1 a quarter of a million years for the upper #bjj ft4 of deposit or human period 7,pleistocene71 we must suppose that twenty or thirty times as long a period has elapsed to allow time for the deposit of the #ejjj ft4 of sand and rock since the great saurians ceased to exist4 ,this would be some six or seven million years--a long while for tradition to run1 even supposing man existed all that time1 which he did not4 ,and the probability is that this estimate of the time is far too small3 a hundred million years is nearer the truth4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,ii ,,real ,,dragons ,,the ,,extinct ,,flying ,,reptiles ,,known ,,as ,,pterodactyles4 ,,their ,,bones ,,and ,,wing ,,membranes ,,are ,,preserved ,,in ,,the ,,oolitic ,,rocks4 ,,some ,,measured ,,eighteen ,,feet ,,across ,,the ,,expanded ,,wings4 ,from 8,extinct ,animals10 by ,sir ,ray ,lankester4 7,constable ,co47 ,suppose that man came into existence as an intelligent creature1 capable of handing on a tradition1 as much as half a million or even a million years before the date of the remains of the earliest cave-men discovered in ,europe1 we yet get no long way down the avenue of past time4 ,man would still be separated by millions of years and long ages of change and development of the forms of animal life on the earth's surface1 from the period of the great reptiles or saurians who flourished before the chalk was deposited4 ,and there is good evidence that none of those great saurians survived the date of the chalk4 ,they died out and their place was taken by the earliest ancestors of elephants1 rhinoceroses1 horses1 cattle1 lions1 and monkeys1 from which in the course of ages the animals we know by those names were developed1 whilst very late in the history man was produced4 ,the reptiles continued as small1 furtive creatures--the lizards and a few biggish snakes and crocodiles--but no descendants of 8the great ,dinosaurs0 survived4 ,another reason against the supposed survival of a real tradition of dragons is that1 even in regard to much later--immensely later--creatures1 such as the mammoth or hairy elephant1 which we know was contemporary with man1 there is no real tradition4 ,the natives of the sub-arctic regions in which the skeletons and whole carcases of the mammoth are found in a frozen state1 and from whence many hundreds of tusks of the mammoth have been since the earliest times yearly exported and used in ,europe as ivory1 have no 8tradition0 of these creatures4 ,they have fanciful stories about the ghosts of the mammoths1 but they call their tusks 8horns10 and have no legends of the monster as a living thing4 ,the use of mammoth's ivory in ,northern ,europe dates back for a thousand years historically1 and probably has never ceased since the days of the cave-men4 ,three years ago ,i examined the richly carved drinking horn of a ,scandinavian hero1 dating from the tenth century1 and preserved amongst the treasures of ,york ,minster1 and ,i have little doubt that it is fashioned from the tusk of a mammoth4 ,a third reason for rejecting any connection of the dragon with a real reminiscence of the great extinct saurians is that its origin and its gradual building up in human fancy can be traced in the same way as that of many other fanciful and legendary creatures by reference to the regular operation of the imagination in successive ages of mankind4 ,all races of men have imagined monsters by combining into one several parts of different animals4 ,the centaur of the ,greeks is a blend of man and horse1 the great 8divine0 chimera of the ,greeks was a two-headed blend of lion and goat1 and any such mixed creature is technically called nowadays 8a chimera04 ,the dragon is classed by heralds as a chimera4 ,sometimes one of these imaginary beasts has its origin in a terrible or weird animal1 which really exists in some distant land1 and is celebrated or even worshipped by the inhabitants of that distant land1 whose descriptions of it are carried in a distorted and exaggerated form to regions where it does not exist4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ba4--,the ,chinese ,imperial ,dragon1 from a drawing on a tile of the old ,imperial ,palace of ,nankin4 ,it has five claws4 ,no one outside the ,imperial service may use it1 under penalty of death4 ,ordinary people have to be content with a four-clawed dragon4 ,compare this with the ,european heraldic dragon1 ,fig4 #af4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bb4--;,a flying snake with two pairs of wings--a 8fabulous0 creature thus drawn in an ancient ,chinese work1 the 8,shan ,hai ,king40 ,this book dates from about #cej ,a4,d41 but probably is based on records of a thousand years' earlier date4 ,the dragon appears to be nothing more nor less in its origin than one of the great snakes 7pythons71 often #be ft4 in length1 which inhabit tropical ,india and ,africa4 ,its dangerous character and terrible appearance and movement impressed primitive mankind1 and traditions of it have passed with migrating races both to the ,east and to the ,west1 so that we find the mythical dragon in ancient ,china and in ,japan1 no less than in ,egypt and in ,greece4 ,it retains its snake-like body and tail1 especially in the ,chinese and ,japanese representations 7,figs4 #ba and #bb72 but in both ,east and ,west1 legs and wings have been gradually added to it for the purpose of making it more terrible and expressing some of its direful qualities4 ,chinese traditions indicate the mountains of ,central ,asia as the home of the dragon1 whilst the ancient ,greeks considered it to have come from the ,east4 ,as a matter of fact1 the ,greek word 8drakon0 actually meant plainly and simply a large snake1 and is so used by ,aristotle and other writers4 ,there is a beautiful ,greek vase-painting 7,fig4 #bc7 showing the dragon which guarded the golden apples of the ,hesperides as nothing more than a gigantic snake 7without legs or wings71 coiled round the trunk of the tree on which the apples are growing 7like the later pictures of the serpent on the apple tree in the ,garden of ,eden71 whilst the ladylike ,hesperides are politely welcoming the robust ,hercules to their garden4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bc4--,the dragon guarding the tree in the garden of the ,hesperides on which grew the golden apples1 in quest of which1 according to ,greek legend1 the hero ,hercules went4 ,the drawing is copied from an ancient ,greek vase1 and the original includes figures of the ,hesperides and of ,hercules1 not reproduced here4 ,the worship and propitiation of the serpent is an immensely old form of religion 7antecedent to ,judaism71 and exists1 or has existed1 in both the old world and the new4 ,the ,egyptians revered a great serpent-god called 8,ha-her10 or 8great ,lord of fear and terror02 to him the wicked were handed over after death to be bitten and tortured4 ,the evil spirit in the ,scandinavian mythology was a huge snake--and the connection1 not to say confusion1 of the terrible snake with the dragon on the part of the early ,christians is shown by the words in ,revelation xx4 #a1 #b1 8the dragon1 that old serpent1 which is the ,devil1 and ,satan40 ,the medival devil with goat's feet retained the dragon's tail with its curious triangular termination4 ,to the ,greeks and ,romans snakes were not such very terrible creatures1 since the kinds found in ,south ,europe are small and harmless--only the viper being poisonous--and they regarded the serpent as a beneficent creature1 the familiar of ,esculapius the god of medicine1 companion of the household gods 7the ,lares71 and guardian of sacred places1 tombs1 and concealed treasure 7,fig4 #bg74 ,the snake was the special earth-god1 subterranean in habit1 cunning1 subtle1 and gifted with powers of divination4 ,the conception of the serpent as an avenging monster kept continually thrusting itself from the ,east into the popular mythology of the ,greeks1 and finally led to the building up of the dragon as a winged and clawed creature distinct from the harmless but cunning snake familiar to them4 ,even in ,india there arose a sort of double attitude towards the snake 7as is not uncommon in regard to deities74 ,on the one hand he was regarded as all that was terrible1 destructive1 and evil1 and on the other as amiable1 kindly1 and wise4 ,the services of the beautiful rat-snake in destroying house rats rendered him and his kind welcome and valued guests4 ,in ,egypt we find representations of small winged snakes without legs1 and the ancient traveller1 ,herodotus1 believed that they represented real creatures1 as did the ,roman naturalist1 ,pliny4 ,very probably the belief in winged snakes is due to the similarity of the snake and the eel in general form1 since the paired fins of the eel close to the head 7see ,figs4 #bd and #be7 correspond in position with the wings shown in the ,egyptian drawings of winged serpents4 ,the particular form of winged snake pictured on ,egyptian monuments 7see ,figs4 #bf1 #bg7 appears to me to be a realisation of stories and fancies based on real experience of the locust4 ,it was the terrible and destructive locust of which ,herodotus tells--calling it 8a winged serpent40 ,the ,egyptian pictures of winged serpents have wings resembling those of an insect 7see ,figs4 #bf and #bg71 and sometimes they are represented with one and sometimes with two pairs4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bd4--;,a votive tablet 7ancient ,rome7 showing what is meant for a snake1 but has been 8improved0 by the addition of fins like those of the eel4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #be4--;,ancient ,roman painting of a so-called marine serpent--really an eel-like fish--inaccurately represented4 ,the fins show how1 from such pictures1 the belief in winged serpents might take its origin4 ,aristotle says that1 as a matter of common report in his time1 there were winged serpents in ,africa4 ,herodotus1 on the contrary1 says there were none except in ,arabia1 and he went across the ,red ,sea from the city of ,bats in order to see them4 ,he did not1 however1 succeed in doing so1 though he says he saw their dead bodies and bones4 ,he says that they hang about the trees in vast numbers1 are of small size and varied colour1 and that they are kept in check by the bird known as the ,ibis1 which on that account is held sacred1 since they increase so rapidly that unless devoured they would render it impossible for man to maintain himself on the earth4 ,they invade ,egypt in swarms1 flying across the ,red ,sea4 ,all this agrees with my suggestion that the winged 8serpents0 heard of by ,herodotus were really locusts2 and the creature drawn in ,fig4 #bg may well be a locust transformed by fancy into a winged snake4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bf4--;,egyptian four-winged serpent--as drawn on ancient ,egyptian temples4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bg4--,two-winged serpent1 symbolic of the goddess ,eileithya1 from a drawing on an ,egyptian temple4 ,it would be a very interesting but a lengthy task to trace out the origin and history of the various traditional monsters1 such as the basilisk1 the gorgon1 the cockatrice1 the salamander1 and the epimacus1 which have come into ,european legend and belief1 and to give some account of the special deadly qualities of each4 ,st4 ,michael and ,st4 ,george slaughtering each his dragon and rescuing a lovely maiden from its clutches are only appropriations by the new religion of the similar deeds ascribed to ,greek heroes1 such as ,hercules1 ,bellerophon1 and ,perseus4 ,often a belief in the existence of a monster has arisen by a misunderstanding1 on the part of a credulous people1 of a drawing or carving showing a strange mixture of the leading characteristics of different animals1 which was meant by the man who made it to be only symbolic of a combination of qualities4 ,just as the ,latins and medival people credulously accepted ,greek symbolic monsters as real1 and transmuted ,greek heroes into ,christian saints1 so were the ,greeks themselves deluded by strange carvings and blood-curdling legends which reached them at various dates from mysterious ,asia into a belief in the actual existence of a variety of fantastic monsters4 8,the ,greeks10 says ,m4 ,e4 ,pottier1 a distinguished ,french writer on ,greek mythology1 8often copied ,oriental representations without understanding them40 ,the conventional dragon probably came from ,indian sources through ,persia to ,china1 on the one hand1 spreading eastwards1 and to the ,latins of the early ,roman ,empire1 on the other hand1 spreading westwards2 but at what date exactly it is difficult to make out4 ,in medival1 as well as in earlier times1 marvellous beasts were brought into imaginary existence by the somewhat unscrupulous enterprise of an artist in giving pictorial expression to the actual words by which some traveller described a strange beast seen by him in a foreign land4 ,thus the 8unicorn10 which was really the rhinoceros1 was seen by travellers in the earliest times1 and was described as an animal like a horse1 but with a single horn growing from its forehead4 ,the heraldic draughtsman accordingly takes the spirally twisted narwhal's tusk1 brought from the northern seas by adventurous mariners 7the narwhal being called 8the unicorn fish07 as his unicorn's horn1 and plants it on the forehead of a horse1 and says1 8,behold6 the unicorn40 ,meanwhile the real 8unicorn10 the rhinoceros1 became properly known as navigation and ,eastern travel extended1 and true unicorns' horns1 the horns of the rhinoceros1 richly carved and made into drinking cups1 not at all like the narwhal's tusk1 were brought to ,europe from ,india4 ,one was sent to ,charles ,,ii4 by 8the ,great ,sophy10 and handed over to the ,royal ,society by the ,king for experiment4 ,these horns were asserted to be the most powerful antidote or destroyer of poison1 and a test for the presence of poison in drink4 ,there was no truth whatever in the assertion1 as the ,royal ,society at once showed4 ,yet they were valued at enormous prices1 and pieces were sold for their weight in gold4 ,a ,german traveller in the time of ,queen ,elizabeth saw one which was kept among the ,queen's jewels at ,windsor1 and was valued1 according to this writer1 at #aj1jjj4 ,credulity1 fancy1 and hasty judgment are accountable for the belief in mythical and legendary monsters4 ,yet they have great interest for the scientific study of the growth of human thought and of the relationships of the races of mankind4 ,they are often presented to us in beautiful stories1 carvings1 or pictures1 having a childlike sincerity and a concealed symbolism which give to the wondrous creatures charm and human value4 ,,xiv ,,oysters ,oysters are delicate morsels--still appreciated by that class of the population which nevertheless shudders at the thought of eating the high-flavoured 8whilk0 or the gristly 8periwinkle10 and neglects the admirable mussel1 so rightly valued by our ,french friends4 ,there are a number of interesting facts about the nature and life-history of oysters1 and the different kinds of them--a knowledge of which does not diminish1 but1 on the contrary1 rather adds to the pleasure with which one swallows the shell-fish4 ,i remember the time when 8natives0 were sold in ,london at sixpence the score4 ,when ,i was a schoolboy at ,st4 ,paul's they were no more than sixpence a dozen at the best shops in ,cheapside4 ,that inevitable form of ,british enterprise which is known as 8monopoly10 many years since laid hold of the oyster business1 and rapidly raised the price of the best natives to eight times what it had been1 while the typhoid 8scare0 came subsequently as a sort of poetical justice1 and threatened to ruin the oyster monopolists4 ,as a matter of fact1 there is no difficulty in freeing oysters from any possible contamination by the typhoid germ4 ,they have only to be kept for ten days or a fortnight in large tanks of sea-water of unquestionable purity--after removal from the fattening grounds 7tanks or waterways71 and they rid themselves of any possible infection4 ,it is the interest of the oyster merchant to make sure that this treatment is strictly enforced4 ,it is a noteworthy fact that the anciently established habit of drenching an oyster with vinegar before eating it is precisely the best treatment1 except cooking them1 which could have been adopted in order to destroy the vitality of typhoid germs--although the existence of such germs was unknown when the practice arose1 and vinegar or lemon-juice was taken with uncooked oysters as a matter of taste1 not as a safeguard4 ,the oyster is sometimes grandiloquently styled 8the succulent mollusc0--and it is classed together with other bivalve shells and true 8shell-bearing0 shell-fish1 such as whelks and snails 7not lobsters and crabs1 which are ,crustacea71 in a great division of animals known to naturalists as the ,mollusca4 ,this word is only a ,latin form of the name ,malakia1 which was given to the cuttle-fishes by that wonderful man ,aristotle1 the ,greek--and means 8soft creatures40 ,a bivalve1 or two-shelled mollusc1 like the oyster1 may be compared to an oblong notebook4 ,the hard covers correspond to the two shells and the back to a horny piece by which the two shells are united1 forming the hinge4 ,if you place a piece of indiarubber 7a thickish bit7 between the covers of the notebook so that it lies near the back1 and then try to shut the book1 you find that it requires some pressure to do so2 when you leave off pressing them the covers gape4 ,the horny hinge-piece or ligament of the shells of the oyster and other bivalves acts in this way4 ,the shells are only kept closed by a strong muscle1 which runs across from shell to shell 7,figs4 #bh and #cjm74 ,when the oyster is at rest or when it is dead the muscle does not act1 and the elastic hinge-piece or ligament causes the shells to gape4 ,the animal within the shells may be compared to the leaves of the notebook4 ,suppose there are twenty-six leaves1 then the outermost leaf on each side corresponds to the two soft living membraneous flaps which secrete the two shells or covers of the oyster and lie closely on them 7a1 b1 ,figs4 #bh and #cj72 the next two on each side 7rather shortened leaves1 folded in from below7 are the flat gills or 8gill-plates0 of the mollusc 7g#a to g#d in ,fig4 #bh72 whilst we must suppose the twenty middle leaves to be 8pulped0 and fused together to represent the body of the shell-fish4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bh4--;,an oyster with the right-side shell removed2 c1 the pearly inner surface of the left-side shell2 d1 the horny outer layer projecting beyond c2 a1 the thick edge of the 8mantle0-flap of the left side2 b1 the thick edge of the mantle-flap of the right side thrown back towards the centre1 so as to show what underlies it2 e1 notch in the surface 7pulled a little upwards and forwards7 where the ligament is formed2 h1 the hinge surface1 where the removed shell rested on the left-side shell2 g#a to g#d1 the four gill-plates or flaps1 two right1 two left--the so-called beard2 l1 the four corresponding lip lobes3 the mouth lies deeply between the second and third--that is between the right pair and the left pair2 m1 the central shell-muscle1 which runs from one shell to the other4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bi4--,part of a row of the lashing hairs or 8cilia0 which cover the gills of the oyster4 ,this represents part of a single row1 only the #a_/djjth of an inch long from one end to the other4 ,the whole surface of the gill and other parts is beset with these hairs1 not in single rows1 but closely1 as the hairs of fur are set4 ,the drawing is intended to show the way in which the hairs actively bend downwards 7or 8lash071 and then rise up again in regular waves1 the movement or wave passing along in the same way as a wave of bending and returning to the upright passes over a ripe cornfield when a light breeze blows across it 7see also ,fig4 #dj74 ,the oyster's gill-plates1 commonly called 8the beard10 are covered on the surface by microscopic hairs of a very remarkable kind 7,fig4 #bi74 ,they are soft1 living protoplasm1 and are continually 8lashing10 bending forwards and straightening again at the rate of some three or four hundred strokes to the minute4 ,they all work rhythmically together1 and produce a strong current in the water1 which bathes the surface of the oyster when the shells are open4 ,such microscopic vibrating hairs are very common in aquatic animals1 and are called 8cilia40 ,the current which they produce causes oxygen-holding water to flow from without over the gills1 and so aerate the blood of the oyster1 and also carries into the chamber protected by the shells excessively minute particles1 chiefly microscopic plants1 which are driven on to the small1 open mouth of the oyster1 placed far up on its body4 ,these microscopic food-particles are wafted down the oyster's throat by similar vibrating hairs into the stomach and intestine4 ,an oyster has no other means of taking food1 and almost without cessation1 as the oyster lies on the sea bottom with its muscle relaxed and its shell 8gaping10 the nourishing stream is kept going4 ,if poisonous matter1 bad water1 or some violent disturbance make themselves apparent1 the shell-muscle acts1 and the oyster tightly closes his shell4 ,such things make themselves 8apparent0 to the oyster1 for it has a nervous system1 and though it has no eyes 7the nearly allied 8scallop0 has a number of eyes7 it has a delicate sense of smell and touch1 and also what is usually considered to be an organ of hearing4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cj4--,the animal of an oyster removed from the shell3 a1 the thick edge of the left side mantle-flap or skirt2 b1 same of the right side2 l1 position of the mouth2 m1 shell-muscle or adductor-muscle1 bringing the two shells tightly together when it contracts4 ,the oyster has also a heart and blood-vessels 7,fig4 #cj7 and blood2 in some few bivalves and snails the blood is red like our own4 ,the beating of the heart may be seen by careful examination of a freshly opened specimen4 ,the oyster has also a 8liver10 or digestive gland1 and a kidney and a soft1 branched1 tubular structure embedded in the body1 within which the egg-cells and sperm-cells grow by means of which the oyster propagates itself in the summer4 ,our north ,european oyster produces in the same individual both egg-cells1 and the male fertilising sperm-cells or spermatozoa4 ,the eggs are just visible to the unaided eye 7,fig4 #ca71 and as many as a million are produced in the warm breeding season by a single ripe oyster4 ,about a fortnight after the eggs have been shed1 the same tubular chambers in the oyster's body which produced the eggs by growth from their inner walls1 produce the spermatozoa1 so that they are too late to fertilise the eggs of the same oyster4 ,they pass out of the oyster into the sea water1 and are carried within the shelter of the shells1 and so on to the surface of the protected bodies of other neighbouring oysters by the currents created by the 8ciliated0 gill-plates of these neighbours4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ca4--,the eggs of the oyster--taken from a ripe individual--magnified #ejj times linear4 ,the sperm particles or spermatozoa 7,fig4 #cb7 are produced by millions1 and form a cloud finer than dust in the sea water4 ,they are carried within the shells of both egg-producing and sperm-producing oysters1 and are driven along into the openings of the tubular reproductive sacs1 and into those sacs in the case of those oysters which are at the time producing eggs4 ,there they fertilise the eggs4 ,the minute eggs begin to develop whilst still within the parent's body1 and continue to do so whilst remaining within the shelter of the shell1 adhering to the gill-plates 7,fig4 #cc74 ,in a day or two each fertilised egg has developed into a very minute creature1 provided with a tiny circlet of cilia or vibratile hairs1 the movements of which cause it to swim 7,fig4 #cc;,f74 ,the parent oyster is now said to be 8white-sick40 ,in the course of a couple of days the young oyster still within its parent's shell becomes dark in colour1 and has formed on its surface a pair of symmetrical shells1 not like those of an adult oyster1 but convex 7,fig4 #cd7 like those of a clam or a cockle4 ,the head region1 with its circlet of vibrating cilia1 can be projected between the open shells or withdrawn between them when the shells are shut4 ,the mother oyster1 laden with these little dark specks1 is now said to be 8black-sick40 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cb4--,the sperms or spermatozoa of a ripe oyster1 as seen swimming in a drop of sea water3 magnified #bjjj times linear4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cc4--;,development of the egg of the common oyster1 after fertilisation within the tubular passage of the reproductive sacs4 ,a1 surface view4 ,b1 section through a very early stage--the separate cells or protoplasmic corpuscles which have resulted from the dividing up of the fertilised single egg-cell are seen2 bl1 in-pushing to form the gut2 sk1 in-pushing to form the rudiment of the double shell4 ,c and ,d1 the same a few hours later4 ,the mouth1 m1 is now seen4 ,e1 still later stage surface view3 a ring of cilia has appeared4 ,f1 the young free-swimming oyster nearly ready to leave its mother's protection1 who is now laden with such young1 and is said to be 8white-sick40 ,the top of the head1 tp1 is now well marked and surrounded by a ring of lashing cilia4 ,the outline of the right-side shell is seen1 and the foot1 ft1 between the mouth1 m1 and the anus1 a4 ,the stomach1 st1 and the intestine1 e1 show by transparency4 ,in the course of a week or so the brood of dark young oysters escapes by thousands from the parent's shell into the surrounding water4 ,they swim by their circlet of vibrating hairs1 or 8velum10 as it is called1 towards the surface1 and are carried far and wide by the tides4 ,they are active1 transparent little 8dots10 very unlike their parent 7,fig4 #cd74 ,the next thing that happens to them--after a few days1 perhaps weeks--is that owing to the increasing weight of their shells1 they sink to the bottom4 ,more than half perish by dropping thus on to bad ground2 a vast number have already been eaten by young fishes and shrimps4 ,those which are lucky enough to fall on to something hard--stones1 rocks1 old oyster-shells1 or the shells of living oysters--become cemented to those hard substances by the new shelly substance formed by the growing edge of the lowermost of their little shells1 which now spread out1 lose their cockle-like shape as they grow1 and become1 the one 7the left by which it is fixed7 large1 deep1 and bossed1 the other flat4 ,the little oysters are only one-fortieth of an inch in diameter when first they become fixed1 but they grow rapidly1 feeding in the same way as their parents4 ,vast numbers are eaten by other animals4 ,in some localities in two years1 in others in three years1 they have grown to a couple of inches in length1 and now produce in the summer breeding season a certain quantity of eggs and sperm to start new generations4 ,the oyster continues to grow1 and at five to seven years of age is in full vigour and maturity2 at ten years of age it produces few eggs1 or sperm-cells2 and in the course of another year or so1 under natural conditions1 dies4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cd4--;,free-swimming young oyster or oyster-larva1 showing the head1 with its tuft of cilia projecting from between the two shells1 l and r4 ,enormous as is the output of young by a single oyster--amounting to something like a million a year in probably four or five successive years--yet it must be remembered that on the whole1 taking all the various oyster-beds into account1 some of which increase whilst others dwindle or actually die out altogether1 there is no increase in the oyster population of the seas4 ,taking them all round1 five million young oysters start life in order that one may finally come to maturity1 so many and varied and incessant are the dangers1 the predatory enemies1 the destructive effects of cold currents1 bad ground1 and other chances of life and death on to which the swarming swimming young are launched4 ,the above brief history applies to the ,north ,sea or ,channel oyster1 which is also found 7with other species7 in the ,mediterranean4 ,the ,american and the ,portuguese oyster differ from it in being of distinct sexes1 and in the fact that the eggs are discharged into the sea by the females1 and are there fertilised by the sperm discharged by the male oysters1 instead of in the parent's body4 ,other 8molluscs10 such as snails and whelks1 enclose their fertilised eggs1 when they lay them1 in egg-shells4 ,some snails enclose a single egg in a shell which is filled up with clear liquid--corresponding to the 8white0 of a bird's egg--in which the egg floats and develops4 ,the eggs of the common snail are not bigger than a hemp-seed1 but some ,indian snails lay eggs as big as those of a robin1 with a hard1 calcareous shell1 and the young snail has quite a large coiled shell of its own before it escapes from the egg-shell4 ,so that it looks1 when one of the big snail's eggs is broken1 as though a snail had managed to get inside a bird's egg without making a hole in it6 ,the whelks and their kind lay many eggs in one shell or capsule1 and the sea-slugs produce a sort of firm jelly1 in cords like vermicelli1 the jelly enclosing hundreds of little sacs filled with liquid1 in which the true germs or fertilised egg-cells float4 ,these are all methods for protecting the young in their earliest condition4 ,one of our pond-snails--the ,paludina--keeps her eggs1 whilst they develop1 inside the dilated end of the tube which leads from the egg-producing organ or ovary to the exterior4 ,the young snails nearest the opening to the exterior are the furthest advanced in development1 and are as big as a dried pea4 ,all stages1 from the minute germ just fertilised to well-formed young1 may be found in these snails1 and the whole course of their development and gradual change and growth can be minutely studied with the microscope in one specimen4 ,similar devices for protecting the young in their earliest helpless stages of growth from the egg-shell are found in all classes of animals4 ,what is very curious is the fact that1 of two closely allied animals1 one species will recklessly lay its eggs and leave them1 whilst another has special arrangements for retaining in the parent's body the eggs as they develop1 and so preserving them from danger4 ,such parents are called 8viviparous40 ,of course1 in all viviparous animals1 as well as in those which lay their eggs in hard shells1 the fertilisation of the egg must be effected within the maternal body4 ,amongst our common fishes there is the viviparous blenny1 often found in pools at low tide on the seashore4 ,all the other ,british fresh-water and marine fishes lay their eggs and abandon them1 excepting some sharks1 dog-fish1 and skates1 which are viviparous2 others of the shark and skate tribe lay eggs of large size encased in hard1 horny shells4 ,every one knows that frogs and toads lay their eggs1 but there are some kinds in which the eggs remain inside the mother's body during the development of the young1 which only escape into the world as well-formed little frogs4 ,all the hairy1 warm-blooded quadrupeds known as 8the mammals0 are viviparous1 except the duck-mole and the spiny ant-eater of ,australia4 ,these extraordinary little 8beasts0 lay eggs like those of a bird4 ,the most ingenious devices for the protection of the young are 7as perhaps those who believe in the superior intelligence of the male would expect7 put into practice by the male parent4 ,thus1 there is a large fish in tropical rivers which takes the eggs laid by the female into his capacious mouth1 and swims about with them for three or four weeks1 giving them the advantage of a current of water which runs through his mouth to his gills4 ,when the young hatch they swim out of their fond father's mouth4 ,the male of pipe-fishes and of the little 8sea-horse0 receives the eggs laid by the female into a pouch excavated along his ventral surface4 ,there the young hatch1 and are guarded by the nursing father4 ,on the other hand1 some fathers impartially eat their own young1 as well as those of other parents1 and the mother has a hard job to protect her offspring4 ,a female octopus 7the poulp or eight-armed cuttle-fish7 sits over her eggs in a nest built of pebbles at the bottom of the sea 7or of an aquarium tank in the instance studied by me many years ago at ,naples71 and squirts a stream of pure sea-water over them4 ,she resents the approach of a fish or a crab or a landing-net with splendid fury and recklessness of attack4 ,often the males of fishes1 frogs1 and birds guard the eggs1 or guard the nest where the female is occupied in caring for the eggs or the young4 ,there are various species of oysters common in all parts of the world which are eaten as delicacies4 ,primeval 7,neolithic7 man ate oysters 7the common sort7 in ,denmark in enormous quantity--great heaps of the discarded oyster-shells are found1 buried among which are discovered stone axe-heads and bits of rude pottery4 ,in the ,west ,indies travellers relate that the oysters 8climb0 the trees which overhang the water of quiet creeks and inlets of the sea4 ,the fact is that the branches of the mangrove trees dip into the water1 and the young oyster 8spat0 attaches itself to the immersed twigs4 ,after a year or two1 the tree grows vigorously1 and raises its branches up in its growth1 so that the oysters are carried far up above the sea waves4 ,of course they die under these conditions1 but their position suggests the explanation that the oysters have climbed up the trees4 ,ship barnacles fix themselves1 similarly1 to the twigs of willow trees in the quiet sea lochs of the ,west of ,scotland1 and this led #ejj years ago to the belief that the catkins of the willow tree ripen into barnacles4 ,since it was also held that the little animal of the barnacle hatches out of its shell as a young goose--the so-called 8barnacle goose0--the marvellous story was believed that these geese are actually budded from willow trees4 ,i believe that the supposed relationship of the goose and the ship's barnacle arose solely from the accidental similarity of the names of the two animals--the 8bernack0 goose and the sea 8barnacle0 being names of independent origin4 ,the names were different originally in sound and signification1 but were corrupted by fisher-folk into one and the same word4 ,hence a fantastic fable took its growth4 ,in ,paris you may test and compare several local varieties of the common oyster in a celebrated oyster-shop4 ,there are ,courseilles1 ,cancales1 ,marennes1 ,ostend1 ,zeeland1 ,arcachon1 ,english natives1 ,ctes ,rouges 7red banks71 and ,black ,rocks4 ,and you can eat sea-urchins there1 too1 if you wish4 ,they have not1 however1 got the celebrated oysters from the ,lake ,fusaro1 near ,naples4 ,this was the ancient ,acherusia palus1 and in the neighbouring ,lake ,avernus and the ,lucrine lake oysters were cultivated by the ancient ,romans1 the young oysters being made to affix themselves at 8the fall of the spat0 to wooden 8stands0 or frames1 which were then placed in the lake 7a salt-water lake71 where they had abundant minute vegetable food and grew large and fat4 ,the same cultivation1 with the same shape of 8stands10 is carried on at the present day in the ,lake ,fusaro4 ,my friend1 ,mr4 ,gnther1 of ,magdalen ,college1 ,oxford1 has published pictures of ,roman tiles from this neighbourhood showing the oysters adhering in rows to the wooden frames4 ,these tiles were apparently sold to holiday visitors in the time of the ,roman emperors as a memento of a happy day spent at the ,lucrine lake1 just as a sugar basin or a mug is now sold at our seaside resorts with the inscription1 8,a present from ,margate10 or ,southport1 or ,blackpool1 and the picture of a shrimp above it4 ,the care of the breeding oyster and the plans adopted by the owners of oyster-beds for catching the 8spat10 or young oysters1 when they fall to the bottom1 by placing movable tiles or frames for them to fix themselves to1 form an important part of the craft of the oyster-man4 ,it is a difficult business1 and is variously carried out in ,england1 ,france1 ,holland1 and ,america4 ,the young oysters1 when they have fixed themselves1 are carried on the movable tiles or frames from one region to another for the purpose of encouraging their growth and avoiding a variety of dangers to their life and health 7sometimes from the ,bay of ,biscay to the mouth of the ,thames674 ,they are often--but not always--finally fed up in sea-ponds or inlets1 which are peculiar in containing an enormous number of those very minute microscopic plants1 with beautifully shaped siliceous shells1 which are known as diatoms4 ,these are so abundant in such ponds as to form a sort of powder or cloud near the bottom1 and the oysters draw them1 day and night1 by their gill-currents into their mouths1 digest them1 and grow fine and fat4 ,the district of ,marennes1 on the west coast of ,france1 is celebrated for having sea-ponds or tanks in which a wonderful diatom of a bright blue colour abounds2 so abundant are they that the cloud produced by them in the pools is of a deep cobalt-blue4 ,when oysters are placed in these tanks to fatten1 their gills or beards become rich blue-green in colour4 ,they lose the colour after ten days1 when removed to ordinary tanks4 ,these are the celebrated green oysters or 8,marennes vertes0 of ,french restaurants4 ,the colouring matter of the little diatoms--swallowed by the million and digested--is taken up by the blood of the oyster from its stomach1 and is excreted by certain corpuscles on the surface of the gills--as ,i showed some twenty-five years ago--just as red madder is deposited in the bones of a pig fed upon madder1 and as the feathers of the canary take up the colour of cayenne pepper when it is mixed with the canary's food4 ,it used to be thought that the green colour of the green oyster is due to copper--and that opinion was supported by the curious fact that the blood of all oysters and other molluscs1 and also of lobsters1 scorpions1 and king-crabs1 does really contain a minute quantity of copper1 just as our blood contains iron6 ,it was also supported by the fact that occasionally a fraudulent fishmonger1 when asked to supply green oysters1 has been convicted of colouring the beards of ordinary oysters with green copper salt1 so as to imitate the real article6 ,the real history of the green-bearded oysters is now quite certain1 and any one interested in the matter should look at the coloured pictures of the beautiful little blue-coloured ,navicula ostrearia--the diatom on which this oyster feeds1 published by me in the ,quarterly ,journal of ,microscopical ,science in #ahhe4 ,,xv ,,maternal ,,care ,,and ,,molluscs ,the ,american and ,portuguese species of oysters1 which are called respectively ,ostrea virginiana and ,ostrea angulata1 as opposed to the common oyster1 which is known as ,ostrea edulis1 are not hermaphrodite like the latter1 but have distinct males and females4 ,moreover1 the young are not fertilised within the parent's body1 nor do they pass their earliest stages of growth within the parent's shell adhering to the 8beard10 or gills1 as in the common oyster4 ,the eggs 7,fig4 #ca7 are1 on the contrary1 discharged by the females into the sea1 and at the same time the males discharge a cloud of microscopic sperm filaments1 or spermatozoa 7,fig4 #cb71 which dart about in the water and fertilise the eggs4 ,that is a more prodigal and less certain process than that pursued by the common oyster4 ,the ,american and ,portuguese oyster have to pay for it4 ,the female produces in one season not a million eggs1 as does the common oyster1 but nine millions4 ,and out of every fifty million so produced 7in some five or six years7 only a single male and a single female individual1 taking the whole oyster population of these species into consideration1 survive to maturity4 ,this enormous excess of egg-production in order to ensure the survival of a single pair to replace their parents is a very frequent thing in aquatic animals4 ,but there are many devices by which the necessity for such lavish scattering of a new brood is avoided4 ,the common oyster is already a step in advance of the ,american in this matter1 since it protects its young in the very earliest stages within the shelter of its shell4 ,a further advance in this direction is found in the fresh-water mussels 7not to be confused with the very different sea-mussels1 since they are bitter and tough1 and quite inedible1 though used as bait in sea-fishing74 ,the pond-mussel 7,anodon7 and the river-mussel 7,unio7 are of distinct sexes1 and the gills of the female become swollen up at the breeding season so as to form two large bags1 into which the eggs are laid by her1 as many as #ejj1jjj in number4 ,they are fertilised by the sperm filaments discharged by the males1 which are carried into the female's shell by currents produced by the vibrating hairs on the gills1 as in the common oyster4 ,but the young remain much longer in the mussel's gills than do the young oysters in those of their parent's4 ,late in the season you find the bag-like gills of the female pond- and river-mussels full of extraordinary little creatures one-thirtieth of an inch long1 each provided with a pair of triangular shells4 ,they are discharged into the water1 and swim very actively by rapidly opening and shutting the little shells 7,fig4 #ce74 ,the common scallop 7,pecten1 or ,pilgrim's shell7 swims every now and then in the same way as do these young mussels1 and so do some other bivalves4 ,the young fresh-water mussels produce a long1 sticky thread1 which trails from the shell 7,fig4 #ce by74 ,very few have the good chance to get further on in life than this stage1 for all depends on their stumbling across fish--a stickleback1 or a perch1 or a pike--as they blindly snap their shells and wobble through the water4 ,the lucky triangular mite whose sticky thread happens to touch a fish's body becomes immediately fastened by it to the fish and then grips the skin with its snapping shells1 the edges of which are provided with a few long1 sharp teeth4 ,the fish probably is quite unaware of the lodgment of the young mussel on its skin1 but there it remains1 and gets buried for a time in the soft tissues of the fish1 becoming thus actually a parasite for some two or three months during the winter season4 ,it nourishes itself on the juices of the fish1 and grows to the size of a pin's head1 whilst it is carried away from its birthplace by the peregrinations of its host1 the fish4 ,its shell now ceases to be triangular1 and becomes like that of its parents4 ,eventually the young mussel drops off the fish and rests on the muddy bottom of pond or river1 where it remains for many years1 growing vastly in size1 and barely moving during its long life from the spot where it fell4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ce4--,young of the pond-mussel after escaping from the maternal gill-pouch3 ,a1 as it escapes1 swimming by opening and shutting the shells2 sh1 shell of one side2 al1 shell-muscle2 t1 teeth of the shell's edge2 by1 adhesive filament4 ,b1 after it has fixed to a fish2 mt1 mantle2 f1 muscular foot2 br1 gill processes2 pad1 aad1 al1 muscles2 auv1 heart4 7,from drawings by the late ,frank ,balfour47 ,a beautiful little bivalve common in weedy streams in ,england is known as ,cyclas 7it has no ,english name72 it has a pair of shells shaped like those of a cockle1 but smooth1 and only half as big as one's little finger-nail4 ,the nursing of the young in the gill-sacs is carried to a much further point by ,cyclas than by the pond- or river-mussel4 ,before they are ejected by the parent they are quite large--like their parent in appearance1 and half as big as a hemp-seed4 ,necessarily there are not many produced in a season--there is not room for more than twenty or thirty young in the gill-sacs4 ,,xvi ,,the ,,heart',s ,,beat ,the beat of the heart is one of those great and elemental features of man's life which1 in spite of our familiarity with it and its momentary recurrence1 never loses its quality of mystery and isolation4 ,the ceaseless accompaniment to our lives which the heart is always beating1 like the inexorable stroke of an unseen pendulum1 fills even the stoutest and bravest at times with a sense of awe4 ,it seems now and then as though an independent living thing were in our breasts1 and when it quickens and struggles1 as it were1 with its work1 or languishes and hesitates in its efforts we have a sense of helpless domination by an existence--a living thing--over whose vagaries we have no control4 ,the heart of man is no special endowment of the human race1 nor even of the higher animals4 ,as ,i mentioned a few pages back1 the oyster and other shell-fish have a heart which keeps time and beats the seconds for their uneventful lives1 as does that of man for his more varied career4 ,not only the molluscs1 but the insects1 the spiders1 the crabs1 lobsters1 and shrimps1 and even the worms1 have each a rhythmically beating heart4 ,in all of them the significance of this heart and its beat are the same--it is driving the nourishing1 oxygen-carrying blood through the great vessels 7arteries71 which branch from it like a tree into the living tissues of the body1 whence it returns by other vessels 7the veins7 back to the heart4 ,in man and the warm-blooded quadrupeds1 in birds1 reptiles1 and fishes1 the blood is of a splendid red colour1 and the transparent vessels can be easily traced in their graceful ramifications and intricate networks1 in consequence of the red blood showing through their walls4 ,the red colour is due to a peculiar body1 which can be easily separated from the blood as crystals4 ,it has the special duty of carrying oxygen gas dissolved and attached to it2 and of giving up that essential element to cause slow burning or oxydation in all parts of the body whilst taking up fresh supplies of oxygen on its passage through the lungs or the gills4 ,in many of the lower animals 7for instance1 the oyster7 the blood is devoid of this red crystalline substance 7which1 by the bye1 is called hmoglobin71 and accordingly we cannot easily catch sight either of the heart or the blood-vessels 7see1 however1 ,fig4 #cj74 ,but in shell-fish the blood has a very pale blue tint1 and this colour is due to a substance like hmoglobin1 which also can be crystallised1 and is the oxygen-carrier4 ,some sea-worms have a green substance of a similar nature dissolved in their blood1 and one can trace their blood-vessels as a beautiful green network4 ,a good many worms1 for instance the common earth-worm and the leeches 7a discovery made by ,cuvier1 and referred to by him on his deathbed71 and many sea-worms have deep-red-coloured blood1 due to the presence of the same crystalline substance which we find in man's blood4 ,and even a snail1 common in the ponds at ,hampstead and such places--the flat coiled snail known as ,planorbis--has blood of a fine crimson colour1 due to the presence of the same red oxygen-carrier1 as an exception to the colourless or pale-blue blood found in most shell-fish4 ,perhaps if oysters1 too1 had red blood1 there would be a prejudice against eating them in the uncooked condition4 ,the heart is essentially an enlargement of the great stem or main blood-vessel which1 like the trunk of a tree1 has branching roots at one end of it and ordinary branches at the other4 ,the trunk branches1 and roots of the 8heart-tree0 are1 of course1 hollow blood-holding tubes1 not solid fibrous structures1 as are the woody branches and trunk of a vegetable tree4 ,further1 the finest rootlets and the finest terminal branches in the case of the heart-tree are connected to one another by the network of very fine branches or by great blood-holding cavities1 which occupy all parts of the body of an animal4 ,the enlarged part of the trunk of the tree-like system of blood-vessels--the heart--has powerful muscles forming its walls1 the fibres disposed so as to surround the contained chamber4 ,when these muscular fibres contract1 they squeeze the walls of the chamber together and drive the blood out of it into the forward branches1 called 8arteries40 ,it is prevented from going backwards into the hinder branches called 8veins0 7which we compare to the roots of a tree7 by flaps which are so set on the inside of the great vessel at the entrance to those branches that the flaps are made to move out across the space by the backward current1 and thus prevent any backward flow1 whilst a forward current merely presses them flat against the wall of the vessel1 and thus no obstruction to a forward flow is presented4 ,these flaps are called the valves of the heart4 ,the consequence of this arrangement is that whilst blood flows freely into the heart from the veins or hinder 7root-like7 set of vessels1 it is driven by the muscular contraction of the heart--only in one direction--namely1 forwards into the arteries4 ,this movement in one direction is helped in some elongated hearts by the contraction of the wall of the heart beginning behind and spreading quickly forward like a wave4 ,the heart of the common earth-worm and of small transparent worms with red blood like it1 which are common in the mud of ponds and rivers and can be easily watched with the microscope so that one can see through their glass-like skin what is going on inside them1 shows very beautifully this wave of contraction4 ,the heart in these worms is a long contractile vessel which runs the whole length of the body along the back4 ,you can watch the red blood flowing into it through the veins in each ring or segment of the worm's body--slowly swelling it out--so that it looks like a long red cord4 ,then1 suddenly1 there is a movement like a flash in its rapidity1 passing from behind forwards6 ,the walls of the red cord-like heart contract so as to drive the blood forward into the arteries1 which also are present in every ring of the worm's body4 ,at the same time you can see the valves1 which hang at the entrance of the veins to the heart1 swing with a sudden 8chuck0 and close those vessels against the driven blood4 ,the red cord becomes colourless progressively from behind forwards1 owing to the squeezing out of the blood1 and by the time the movement has reached the head of the worm1 the hinder part of the cord-like heart is beginning slowly to dilate again with the influx of red blood from the veins4 ,what causes the muscles of the heart to contract at regular intervals8 ,there is no doubt that the 8stimulus0 which excites the heart muscles to contraction is in these simpler animals merely the tension or strain produced by the presence of a sufficient quantity of blood which has flowed into the heart from the veins4 ,the heart muscle1 after its rapid contraction1 rests2 it has no other rest1 no sleep1 as have all the other parts of the body4 ,it must rest and take refreshment after each effort4 ,whilst it rests the blood quietly flows in and dilates the heart's cavity2 then the rested muscular wall of the heart1 gently stretched by the recovery after compression of its elastic components1 nourished and oxygenated by the blood1 is ready for another 8stroke10 and again it contracts tightly1 emptying its cavity of blood1 which is driven into the arteries4 ,so it goes on--effort and rest1 effort and rest alternating without cease4 ,whilst it is the stroke of the heart which causes the blood to flow through the arteries into the finest network of hair-like vessels1 what is it that causes the blood to flow on through the collecting veins1 to reach the heart1 and actually to distend that collapsed cavity after its stroke8 ,it must be remembered that a very low pressure is enough to effect this4 ,in the simplest arrangements of worms and such-like animals1 there is probably some pressure transmitted to the blood in the veins by the heart-stroke2 but the elasticity of the heart-wall and its necessary tendency to resume its dilated condition after its squeezing by its rings of muscle1 is what is chiefly effective in drawing on the blood in the veins into the heart4 ,in man and the higher animals the whole mechanism of the heart is greatly complicated by the action of the nervous system upon it and upon the contraction or expansion of the blood vessels4 ,in this way the rate of the beat of the heart is affected and brought into relation with the needs of the blood circulation in remote parts of the body4 ,the beat of the heart in the human species is more rapid in children than in adults1 and more rapid in women than in men1 and it differs in all individuals under differing conditions4 ,before birth it is #adj per minute1 in the first month after birth #acj1 and gradually diminishes to #ij at nine years of age1 and at twenty-one to #gj in man and to #hj in woman4 ,but these figures only represent a general average2 there are healthy men whose pulse usually is less than #de per minute1 and there are individuals who1 without being invalids1 yet have the movement of the heart so liable to increase in rapidity through mental or other excitement1 acting by nerves directly on the heart muscle1 that the pulse often goes up to #abj4 ,in the horse and the ox the pulse or heart beat is #cf to #dj a minute2 in the sheep #fj to #hj2 in the dog #ajj to #abj2 in the rabbit #aej2 and in small creatures1 like mice and moles1 #bjj1 and even more6 ,i do not know what is the record for the elephant1 but as it seems that the larger the mammal the slower the pulse1 one would not expect more than #bj to #be beats a minute in his case4 ,it is easy to watch the beating of the heart of a flea or other small insects--under the microscope--since the skin is sufficiently transparent4 ,it is not usually much more rapid than in man1 but in the very transparent little fresh-water shrimps which are called water-fleas 7,entomostraca7 ,i have seen the heart beating so rapidly that ,i could not count its rate4 ,the heart in insects and shrimps and their like is remarkable for the fact that whilst it pumps out blood through arteries both in front and behind1 it has no actual veins opening into it4 ,all the veins1 which in their ancestors entered the heart in a row on each side of it1 have united1 and their walls broken down1 so that the heart lies in a sac full of venous blood from which it draws its fill1 when it dilates1 through a series of valve-bearing openings on its surface1 openings which1 in an earlier stage of development1 were connected with individual veins4 ,the heart of the ,ascidians or sea-squirts1 common sac-like marine creatures of most varied form1 size1 and colour1 is perhaps the most extraordinary in the whole animal series4 ,i have often watched it in transparent individuals of this group4 ,it is an oblong sac with branching vessels at either end4 ,it beats for some thirty or forty strokes so as to drive the blood forwards2 it then pauses1 and the onlooker is astounded to see the wave of movement changed1 and the heart steadily beating the same number of strokes in the reversed direction4 ,what were arteries become veins1 and the veins become arteries4 ,then again there is a pause--which seems like a moment of hesitation and doubt--and the original direction of movement is resumed2 then again there is a pause and a reversal1 and so on1 with absolute regularity4 ,it is still a matter for investigation as to why and how this altogether exceptional alternating reversal of the heart's action is brought about4 ,it is a curious fact in illustration of the essential character of the heart and its beat that 8hearts0 are produced in some animals by dilatation of the lymph-vessels--a system of delicate vessels1 difficult to see1 which take up the colourless fluid which the blood-vessels exude into the tissues and return it to the heart4 ,the eel has a pair of these 8lymph-hearts0 in its tail1 and the common frog has a pair near the shoulder-blades and another pair at the hips4 ,these sacs have muscular walls1 and pulsate rhythmically like the blood-heart1 driving on the lymph fluid through the lymph vessels to join the blood-stream4 ,the simplest thing in the animal world which can claim the name of a heart--or1 at any rate1 be compared with that organ--is found in those microscopic animalcules which consist of only a single 8cell0 or corpuscle of living protoplasm4 ,these animalcules may be compared to a single brick or unit of structure1 whereas all other animals consist of thousands1 or even millions1 of such corpuscles or units aggregated and fitted together as are the bricks and planks of a house4 ,in most of these uni-cellular animalcules you may observe with a high-power microscope a little spherical liquid-holding cavity1 which slowly enlarges1 then bursts at the surface and collapses4 ,after a brief interval it forms again1 and again bursts to the exterior4 ,in the 8bell-animalcule0--a beautiful active little creature only one-thousandth of an inch in diameter--it may be seen to form1 swell1 collapse1 and re-form as often as twenty times in a minute 7see ,fig4 #da74 ,soluble colouring matter taken in by the animalcule with food is excreted by the liquid accumulated in and ejected to the exterior by this spherical chamber4 ,it is called the 8pulsating0 or 8contractile0 vacuole1 and by its rhythmical pulsating movement of dilatation and collapse presents definite points of similarity to the alternately dilating and contracting hearts of higher animals4 ,the entering flow of liquid here1 as in the veins and heart of higher animals1 is continuous4 ,the rhythm is due1 as is the rhythm of the heart1 to the alternation of a brief period of activity or contraction1 and a brief period of consequent exhaustion1 rest1 and repair on the part of living contractile substance4 ,,xvii ,,sleep ,an enterprising journalist has recently published the replies of a number of well-known men to an inquiry as to how many hours' sleep they are in the habit of taking1 and what they find to be the best remedy for sleeplessness4 ,such an inquiry naturally leads on to further thoughts about 8,sleep40 ,what a mysterious1 yet sweet and lovable thing it is6 ,how strange it is that we all regularly and gladly abandon ourselves to it6 ,how terrible is the state of those who cannot do so6 ,and then one is led to ask1 what is it8 and why is it8 ,do all living things sleep for some part of the twenty-four hours8 ,how does it differ from mere resting1 and in what does its virtue consist8 ,shakespeare has said the most beautiful words that have ever been uttered about sleep1 and that because he knew what it was to seek for it in vain-- 8,methought ,i heard a voice cry1 #8,sleep no more6 ,macbeth does murder sleep1' the innocent sleep2 ,sleep1 that knits up the ravell'd sleave of care1 ,the death of each day's life1 sore labour's bath1 ,balm of hurt minds1 great ,nature's second course1 ,chief nourisher in life's feast40 ,and again1 when the strenuous life of the great ,bolingbroke has at last overtaxed his brain1 and he can no more find rest and unconsciousness at night1 ,shakespeare makes him say-- 8,how many thousand of my poorest subjects ,are at this hour asleep6 ,o sleep1 ,o gentle sleep1 ,nature's soft nurse1 how have ,i frighted thee1 ,that thou no more wilt weigh my eyelids down1 ,and steep my senses in forgetfulness8 ,why rather1 sleep1 liest thou in smoky cribs1 ,upon uneasy pallets stretching thee1 ,and hush'd with buzzing night-flies to thy slumber1 ,than in the perfum'd chambers of the great1 ,under the canopies of costly state1 ,and lull'd with sound of sweetest melody80 ,poets have as a rule been too ready to make much of the likeness of sleep and death1 whereas there is an absolute difference in their mere appearance4 ,sleep makes even those who are ill-favoured and coarse look beautiful1 imparts to its subjects a graciousness of expression and of colour1 and a gentle rhythmic movement1 whilst suffusing them as it were with an 8aura0 of contented trustfulness4 ,these things are far from the cold stillness of pallid death4 ,and this depends upon the fact that in sleep1 though many of the activities of the body and mind are checked1 and even arrested1 there are yet still present the never-ceasing pulse of the heart1 the flow of the blood1 the intake and output of the breath1 and a certain subdued but still active tension of muscles1 so that though the body and limbs are relaxed they never assume the aspect of complete mechanical collapse which we see in death4 ,the pupils of the eyes are strongly contracted during sleep1 not relaxed and expanded as are those of wide-awake people in the dark4 ,there are some well-known works of art--both painting and sculpture--in which the dead are not truly represented1 but are made to retain the resistfulness and pose of living men and women2 others show true observation in presenting the startling and distinctive flaccidity of the newly dead1 which is followed after a few hours by the equally characteristic rigor mortis1 or stiffness of the dead4 ,there are many fine studies of sleep by sculptors1 but none which to my thinking so delicately and truthfully present its most beautiful and peculiar effects on the muscular 8tone0 as a work in the ,luxembourg ,gallery in ,paris1 called 8,le ,nid0--a baby of a year old and a little girl of three or four years1 asleep side by side on the cushion of a capacious arm-chair4 ,the pose and the details of muscular relaxation differ greatly and characteristically in the two children4 ,one would like to see sleep at different ages and under various conditions of fatigue similarly portrayed1 for there is a range and variety of expression in those who sleep1 not perhaps as extensive1 but as beautiful as that to be found in those who are awake4 ,all things on the earth may be said 7if we use the term in a wide sense7 to sleep1 for all are affected by the stimulation to activity caused by sunlight and by its cessation during night4 ,it is only of late years that we have come to know of fishes1 crabs1 worms1 and star-fishes 7many of them without eyes7 which live in the depths of the ocean1 where no light penetrates and it is always night4 ,the ultimate source of their food is in the upper sunlit layers of water1 to which they never penetrate1 and from which particles of dead but nutritious matter 7the bodies of those who have lived up there7 rain down upon them incessantly1 like manna on the ,israelites4 ,all things accessible to the sun's rays are not equally1 nor even similarly1 affected by the alternation of day and night1 and some not directly at all1 but only by the sleeping and waking of other things4 ,the food of all living things comes ultimately from plants which1 in the presence of sunlight1 and only in that presence1 and in virtue of its action upon their green leaves1 manufacture starch and sugar from the carbonic acid which exists in the air and water around them1 whilst they are also thus enabled to take up nitrogen1 and so to form their living substance or protoplasm4 ,at night those particles or cells of the living protoplasm of plants which are furnished with transparent green granules1 so as to entangle the sunlight1 and by its aid feed on carbonic acid1 cease this work4 ,they necessarily repose from their labour because the light has gone4 ,this is the simplest example of the sleep of living things4 ,and that here1 too1 as in higher creatures1 sleep is not a merely negative thing--a mere cessation--is shown by the fact that it is at night that other changes go on in the plant4 ,the manufactured food takes effect on the cells or particles nourished by it2 in the night the well-fed1 enlarged 8cells0 in the growing parts of many plants slowly divide each one into two1 and each of these again into two1 and so on1 so as to increase their total number and produce growth and development of the plant4 ,this alternation of activities in day and night occurs even in the invisible microscopic vegetation of pools and streams4 ,animals--even the most minute1 only visible with a strong microscope--move about in search of 8bits0 of food--in fact1 bits of other animals or of plants--and they1 too1 are1 with special exceptions1 checked in their search for food by the darkness1 for even extremely minute and simple animals are guided in their search by light--that is to say1 by a more or less efficient sense of sight4 ,thus we see that in a general way the sun is truly the ruler of life1 and that when he is hidden from us we all become quiescent1 a condition which may be rightly considered as the elementary form--the simplest equivalent of the sleep of man4 ,the quiescence which falls on the earth with the setting of the sun has1 however1 become the opportunity of two different classes of living things to seize an advantage4 ,beasts of prey1 many of them1 sleep during the day1 and steal forth at night on velvet foot to pounce on the slumbering animals which are their necessary food4 ,another group of timid animals1 moths and small beasts like mice1 hedgehogs1 and lemurs1 find their safety in the dark1 and only then venture forth4 ,even so1 the moths are met by special nocturnal enemies1 the bats4 ,so that the primitive arrangement is complicated by a wakefulness1 exchanging day for night4 ,it is natural to apply the word 8sleep0 to the state of profound repose which other living things appear to enter upon at night1 so far as we can judge by changes of activity and attitude--although it must be remembered that the sleep of man is what we really indicate by that word1 and that it is difficult to trace anything beyond a superficial similarity between man's sleep and the repose or quiescence following upon activity in other living things--excepting those which by their structure and the working of their mechanism are obviously comparable to man1 such as beasts1 birds1 reptiles1 and fishes4 ,the 8sleep of plants0 is the term applied to the closing of the flower1 the drooping of the flower-head and of the leaves of many of the common flowering plants1 which occurs at sunset or during the later hours of sunlight4 ,but it seems that this is not really comparable to man's sleep4 ,the closing of the flower appears to be a protection of its perfume from useless evaporation during the darkness1 and the drooping a device to avoid the settlement of dew and the injurious action of cold4 ,living things always furnish us with examples of adaptations resisting the general law--and as there are moths which fly by night1 so also there are flowers which remain closed by day and open at night to attract these moths1 by whom their pollen is carried and their fertilisation effected4 ,the tobacco-plants of our gardens are examples of these night-opening flowers1 which attract the nocturnal moths by their heavy perfume1 and there are many others4 ,the movements of plants are much more definite and varied than one is apt to suppose4 ,leaves and flowers turn to or away from the sun1 or to or from the position which will favour a deposit of moisture2 or1 again1 their tendrils will explore and seize upon supports1 enabling them to secure a hold1 and so to climb4 ,the sensitive plant exhibits rapid drooping movements of its leaflets and leaf-stalks when touched or subjected to vibration4 ,an allied plant which shows slower but definite movement of its leaflets has been supposed to furnish thereby prophetic indications of the weather1 and even to foretell earthquakes4 ,this plant is the ,abrus precatorius1 the seeds of which are called crab's-eyes1 and are used in ,india by jewellers and druggists as weights--averaging a little less than two grains4 ,they are harmless when eaten1 but contain a poison called abrine1 which causes them rapidly to produce fatal results when introduced beneath the skin4 ,under the name 8jequerity0 they were introduced into this country in #ahhb for the treatment of ophthalmia4 ,this is the plant which was celebrated1 about twenty years ago1 as the earthquake plant or weather plant1 owing to the statements of an ,austrian naturalist as to its marvellous powers of prophecy by the movement of its leaflets--statements which were carefully examined by botanists at ,kew ,gardens at the time and shown to be devoid of justification4 ,earth tremors1 like other vibrations1 cause the leaflets to move and change their pose as they may cause animals to utter cries of alarm1 but the movements of the leaflets have no more prophetic character than have those of the delicate pendulums1 called seismographs1 by which it is now usual to register the constantly occurring slight vibrations of the earth's crust4 ,that beasts and birds enjoy a nocturnal sleep similar to that of man1 which is occasionally--like his sleep--transferred from night to daytime1 is a matter of common knowledge4 ,these animals1 like man1 lower the eyelids and adopt a position of ease when sleeping1 even though they often remain poised on their legs4 ,the question has been raised as to whether fishes sleep1 since they have no eyelids and remain when at rest poised in the water4 ,we made some inquiries on this subject in the laboratory of the ,marine ,biological ,association at ,plymouth some years ago1 and came to the conclusion1 from the observation of various marine fishes in the aquarium there1 that fishes do sleep at night4 ,they come to rest on the bottom of the tanks1 and are not so quickly responsive to a touch or intrusion of any kind as they are in the daytime4 ,it is probable that this condition of repose is more definitely marked in some kinds of fishes than in others1 but in all shallow-water marine organisms the absence of light produces a corresponding period of quiescence4 ,that there is a good deal more than this involved in the sleep of the higher animals and of man will be apparent when we come to study it more closely4 ,the sleep of man1 and of animals which have1 like man1 a large and well-developed nervous system--has for its salient feature the cessation or extreme lowering of the 8psychical0 activity of the brain4 ,when sleep is at its height external agents 7such as a touch1 a sound1 a flash of light7 which in the waking state set up through the nerves of the organs of the senses complex changes in the brain1 no longer do so4 ,they not only fail to excite consciousness and to leave their mark on the memory1 but they do not produce even a simple unconscious response4 ,yet if they are of a sufficient degree of violence 7varying according to the depth of the sleep71 they do reach the brain1 and thus 8awake0 the sleeper4 ,corresponding to the absence of receptive activity of the brain in sleep is the absence of outgoing impulses from that organ2 there is no such control of the muscles as in the waking state1 the head nods1 the eyelids droop1 and the muscular action by which the erect posture is maintained is in abeyance1 although in a greatly lessened degree some amount of muscular tone is unconsciously retained4 ,the passage from the waking state to that of deep sleep is not sudden but graduated1 and so is the process of awakening4 ,in the intermediate condition1 either before or after deep sleep 7often only a minute or two in duration7 the brain can still receive1 more or less confusedly1 impressions from the exterior through the organs of sense1 and it is in this way that 8dreams0 are set going1 and may be afterwards either forgotten or remembered4 ,in full sleep the mind is a blank4 ,as a rule healthy sleep becomes gradually more complete in the first hour1 and then very slowly less profound4 ,but there are not any sufficient observations on the 8quality0 of sleep after short or long duration4 ,in sleep it is not only the brain which is at rest3 the whole body shares in the condition4 ,the pulse and breathing are slower1 the digestive organs and the bladder are more or less at rest4 ,both the intake of oxygen into the lungs and the expiration of carbonic acid are lessened4 ,the chemical changes within the body are lessened though still proceeding1 and as a consequence the temperature is lowered4 ,it is curious how incomplete at present is the physiologist's knowledge of both the actual condition of the brain in sleep and of the immediate causes which produce that condition4 ,it is probably true 7though it is disputed7 that the brain becomes pale during sleep1 owing to a contraction of the blood vessels1 and that the inactivity of the brain arises from this condition4 ,but it is not obvious what determines the contraction of these vessels at the definitely recurring period of sleep4 ,it is probable that the nervous tissue of the brain is1 as are the muscles of the body1 poisoned or choked 7as it were7 by the chemical products of the day's activity1 and so readily cease to be active until the injurious products have had time to be carried away by the blood stream4 ,muscular substance undoubtedly is affected in this way1 and that great muscle the heart1 though never resting for a lengthened period1 rests after each pulse or contraction1 and recovers itself in the brief interval4 ,it is also probable that the exhaustion by the day's activity of the oxygen stored up in the various tissues of the body produces a condition of quiescence whilst the store is replenished4 ,stimulation of the nerves through the sense-organs of sight1 hearing1 and touch will prevent or retard this natural quiescence1 and the cessation of that stimulation is favoured first of all by the darkness of night and by the closing of the eyelid1 as well as by the removal of clothes which more or less irritate the skin2 also by the would-be sleeper taking up a position of perfect rest1 and by the exercise of his will1 withdrawing his brain as much as possible from all external influences4 ,the would-be sleeper also controls1 when possible1 that internal stimulation of the brain which we call attention4 ,it is the failure 7owing to unhealthy conditions7 to control the latter which leads to the most serious kind of sleeplessness1 when the brain gets for hours out of restraint and works incessantly like an independent existence4 ,the disturbance of the nervous system set up by irritation of the digestive organs1 whether accompanied by pain or not1 is an independent cause of sleeplessness which often co-operates with the first1 and is 7through the mechanism of the nerves7 often set going 7though it may arise independently7 by an unhealthy excess in the excitement of the brain's activity4 ,there is no panacea for sleeplessness2 the only thing to do is to consult a first-rate physician1 and strictly follow his advice4 ,there are many irregularities and abnormal manifestations of sleep4 ,there is the sleep which is induced by drugs such as opium1 chloral1 and alcohol1 and that induced by chloroform1 ether1 and nitric gas4 ,there is the heavy sleep accompanied by stertorous breathing1 and there is the unconscious condition called 8coma40 ,then there is the prolonged sleeping called 8trance10 of which that of the ,sleeping ,beauty1 only to be broken by a kiss1 is an example4 ,it is not possible1 in the present state of knowledge1 to give an adequate account and explanation of the condition of the brain in these different forms of sleep1 nor of the causes which induce that condition4 ,one of the most interesting forms of sleep is the condition called 8somnambulism10 or sleep-walking1 in which part only of the brain is asleep1 and other parts connected with various degrees of mental activity are in waking order4 ,sleep-walking is a condition which occurs spontaneously4 ,on the other hand1 8hypnotism0 is the name for a peculiar kind of sleep produced intentionally by an operator on a patient by certain treatment and direction4 ,in one of the stages of artificially induced hypnotic or 8mesmeric0 sleep--called the somnambulic stage--only so much of the brain is asleep as is concerned with conscious memory4 ,the brain receives stimulation through the sense-organs1 and the patient has the eyes open and appears to be awake4 ,in this state he is peculiarly open to suggestion by words1 which can be made to set up the most extraordinary illusions and consequent behaviour4 ,on 8waking0 the patient has no memory of what has occurred1 though a suggestion received in the somnambulic stage may persist in the unconscious memory1 and cause conduct on the part of the patient 7many hours after the brief hypnotic sleep has passed7 which is entirely inexplicable by the patient himself or by those who are not aware of the fact that he had received a 8suggestion0 or 8direction0 when in the hypnotised state4 ,the senses of smell1 hearing1 and touch are often abnormally acute in a hypnotised patient1 but there is no evidence to show that the brain of such a person can be influenced or 8communicated with0 excepting through the ordinary channels of the sense-organs4 8,day-dreaming0 and 8reverie0 are conditions resembling the hypnotic sleep4 ,the brain of each of us is constantly doing much of its work in a state of partial hypnotism1 and the term 8unconscious cerebration0 has been used to describe it4 ,a most interesting and difficult chapter of the study of mental disease belongs here4 ,the prolonged sleep of some animals in the winter1 called 8hibernation10 seems to be closely similar to ordinary sleep1 but is set up by the depressing action of continuous cold instead of by the daily recurring quiescence of night and by the exhaustion due to the day's activity4 ,many animals--such as the marmot and dormouse1 the frog and the snail--exhibit this winter sleep4 ,it has been found by experiment that even in midsummer the dormouse can be made to 8hibernate10 by exposing it artificially to a low temperature1 and hibernating animals can be roused from their long sleep by bringing them into warmth4 ,during the winter sleep hibernating animals take no food1 the pulse is slowed down1 and the body temperature falls4 ,the scattered fat of the body1 and fatty matter and other material stored in special structures called 8hibernating glands10 are oxidised and slowly consumed during this period1 which may last for three or even four months4 ,the animal on waking is often in a very emaciated condition4 ,it is undoubtedly the case that the human natives of high latitudes 7such as the ,norwegians71 where there is no night in full summer1 and where there is prolonged darkness in winter1 have acquired the habit of keeping awake for many days in succession in summer1 whilst making up for the loss of sleep by excessive indulgence in it during the winter4 ,it is by no means clear how far man is capable of resisting the demand for recurrent daily sleep without injury to health4 ,undoubtedly many men are compelled by their avocations to sleep by day and wake by night4 ,the length and duration of 8spells of sleep0 and the power to sleep little or not at all at one season1 and almost uninterruptedly at another1 without injury to health1 are matters of habit1 occupation1 and circumstance4 ,we have no ground for saying that every man 8ought0 to sleep eight hours or more per diem1 or1 on the contrary1 for insisting that he should only sleep five or less4 ,all depends on what he is doing when he is awake1 and what other people are doing 7so as to disturb him7 when he is asleep2 and we do not even know whether ten or twelve hours' sleep would injure a man1 were he able to take it1 nor can we suggest how it would injure him supposing it did not interfere with his feeding and exercise4 ,as to quantities of sleep1 there is the curious fact that the amount habitually taken in the civilised communities of this part of the world differs at different ages4 ,babies sleep a good part of the twenty-four hours1 and probably schoolboys and schoolgirls 7under our present conditions of life and work7 ought to be given ten hours or more4 ,whilst adult men sleep from six to eight or nine hours1 it is a curious fact that old people--not very old people1 but those of sixty-five or thereabouts--often find themselves unable to sleep more than four hours at night1 and take an hour or two in the daytime to make up for the deficiency4 ,i remember hearing ,mr4 ,darwin state this as to himself to his physician1 ,sir ,andrew ,clarke1 who said it was very usual at his age1 and difficult to explain1 since at a greater age1 when a man is called 8very old10 a more or less continuous somnolent condition sets in4 ,the father of a great judicial dignitary of these days1 himself a barrister in large practice1 when he was sixty years old would snatch fifteen or twenty minutes' sleep at any and every opportunity throughout the day1 even at the midday meal sometimes1 so as altogether to disconcert those who were with him1 and he told me that he never slept more than four hours at night1 but got up and commenced work at four in the morning4 ,the cessation in early old age of the desire for more than half the amount of sleep taken by younger men suggests that the regulating cause of the number of hours which are needed for sleep may be simply and directly the actual amount of work done by body and mind4 ,this imperceptibly becomes less as men grow older1 and so less recuperative sleep is necessary1 though what work they do may be more effective and better adjusted to its purpose when they have arrived at the condition which is called 8old age40 ,we have seen that sleep in its widest sense comprises the simple condition of quiescence brought about in even the minutest living things by the recurring night1 as well as the strangely elaborated varieties of cessation of activity in the whole or parts of the brain of man and of his body4 ,some of these cessations of activity naturally and spontaneously occur in unsophisticated mankind1 when darkness falls on the earth at each succeeding evening4 ,and it is hardly possible to doubt that a tendency to periodic sleep has become fixed in the substance of living things by the alternation of night and day--as well as in some cases by the change of the seasons4 ,i must conclude these notes about sleep by relating a very curious case of sleep1 resembling the winter-sleep of higher animals1 on the part of a snail4 ,this was the case of a desert snail from ,egypt1 which was withdrawn into its shell1 the mouth of the shell being closed with a glistening film secreted by the snail1 as is usual with snails in this country in winter when they sleep4 ,the desert snail in question was affixed to a tablet of wood in a glass case in the natural history department of the ,british ,museum on ,march #be1 #ahdf4 ,on ,march #g1 #ahej1 that is four years afterwards1 it was noticed by a visitor looking at the case that the snail had emerged from his shell and discoloured the paper around1 but had again retired4 ,so the officials unlocked the case and removed the snail from the tablet and placed him in tepid water4 ,he rapidly and completely recovered1 crawled about as a wide-awake snail should1 and sat for his portrait4 ,this may be regarded as an instance of unusually long sleep1 natural to this species of snail1 and related probably to the frequently prolonged dryness of the snail's surroundings4 ,we are led by such a case as this on to what are called examples of 8suspended animation40 ,wheel-animalcules1 and some other minute creatures which are found living in tiny pools of water1 on the bark of trees1 and in the hollows of leaves1 naturally dry up when the water evaporates4 ,you may dry them yourself in a watchglass2 they appear as nothing more than shapeless dust particles mixed with the dried mud of a drop of dirty water4 ,they may be kept in this state for months--even years4 ,i do not know that any limit has been ascertained4 ,but when you add pure rain-water to the dust in the watchglass1 it softens1 and in less than an hour the little wheel-animalcules have softened too1 and expanded into life1 swimming about whilst the delicate spikes on their 8wheels0 vibrate regularly as though they had never ceased to do so1 and as though the animalcules had not for years been dried-up little mummies4 ,of course1 the term 8suspended animation0 has been applied in earlier times to the often exaggerated stories of 8trance0 and deathlike sleep in human beings4 ,but it is now with more justice applied to these instances of dried animalcules which return to life when wetted1 and to similar cases of prolonged retention of vitality by seeds1 since it would appear that in these dried animalcules life really is actually and totally suspended1 although the mechanism is there which resumes its life when the necessary moisture is supplied4 ,in cases of trance in man and hibernation in animals1 the heart is still very slowly and feebly beating1 and the breathing is still--almost imperceptibly--at work4 ,the chemical changes are still very slowly and gently proceeding4 ,the buried ,indian wizard1 and the snail1 and the ,sleeping ,beauty are moist1 and chemically active1 though feebly so2 life is not absolutely suspended4 ,but in the dried animalcule 7though complete chemical desiccation is not effected71 the removal of the water from the body actually arrests the changes which we call life1 just as a needle may arrest the balance-wheel of a watch4 ,supply the water1 or remove the needle1 and life ceases to be suspended2 it goes on once more 7as one of the rules of ,bridge ambiguously enacts7 8as though no mistake had been made40 ,,xviii ,,the ,,universal ,,structure ,,of ,,living ,,things ,without doubt1 the greatest and most important statement which can be made about living things is that they are either separate minute particles of living matter or 7more commonly7 are built up by thousands of such minute particles which have in each individual animal and plant originated from a single such particle 7the fertilised germ71 by its division into two1 and the subsequent division of these two each into two1 and of the four so produced each into two--and so on1 until by repeated division into two1 millions of corpuscles1 hanging together as one mass1 are the result4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cf4--,simple 8cells10 consisting of naked protoplasm1 changing shape and taking in solid food particles4 ,a1 is a series of four successive changes of shape of a fresh-water animalcule1 the proteus or amba2 ,b1 is a similar series of three views of a separate creeping kind of corpuscle found in the blood and lymph-spaces of animals1 and called a 8phagocyte40 ,it is also said to be 8amboid10 from its resemblance to the amba or proteus-animalcule4 ,b1 is from the blood of the guinea-pig4 ,it is not a parasite1 but one of the various kinds of cells which build up the animal body1 and are derived from the single original egg-cell 7see ,fig4 #ca7 by continued division4 ,the three drawings show three changes of shape occurring in the same 8phagocyte0 in a few minutes4 ,it is engulphing a fever-producing blood-parasite1 a spirillum1 marked a1 into its soft1 slimy protoplasm1 to be there digested and destroyed4 ,in the same way the amba1 ,a1 is seen in four stages of engulphing the vegetable particle1 a4 ,in the fourth figure the letter b points to water taken into the amba's protoplasm with the food-particle a4 ,in all the figures1 c points to the 8vacuole0 or liquid-holding cavity1 which bursts and re-forms in ,a2 the letter d points to the cell-nucleus4 ,the particles of living matter are spoken of as 8cells0 for a very curious reason1 to which ,i will revert4 ,the living matter is called 8protoplasm0 7primitive or fundamental slime74 ,a 8cell0 in the language of microscopists means a corpuscle or more or less rounded or irregularly shaped particle of protoplasm4 ,cells commonly vary in size from #a_/ejjjth to #a_/bjjth of an inch in breadth1 and may be much larger4 ,protoplasm--the living substance of 8cells0--is a slimy body1 almost liquid1 but yet tenacious4 ,it is transparent1 but clouded by fine granules1 and can often be seen with a very high power of the microscope to consist of more and of less liquid matter1 intermixed like an emulsion4 ,it often has within it large cavities filled with liquid1 and also often oil drops2 in other cases hard concretions or coarse granules4 ,but apart from other things1 the protoplasm of a 8cell0 always contains within it a special1 firmer1 and denser part1 enclosed in an enveloping coat or skin4 ,this dense body is the 8nucleus10 or kernel1 and is of the very greatest importance in the chemical changes and movements which constitute the life of the cell4 ,it is usually spherical1 and in the living state often looks clear and bright4 ,all cells1 whether they are found building up the bodies of plants and animals like so many living bricks1 or living freely and singly as animalcules1 have the essential structure just described--a semi-liquid yet tenacious material enclosing a globular firmer body1 the nucleus4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cg4--;,a1 cells forming soft vegetable tissue2 a1 cell-wall2 b1 protoplasm2 c1 liquid-holding cavity in the protoplasm2 d1 the nucleus4 ,b1 a pigment-cell from the frog's skin1 expanded4 ,c1 the same cell contracted4 ,d1 a nerve-cell3 observe the nucleus4 ,e1 a muscle-cell stretched4 ,f1 the same contracted3 observe the nucleus4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ch4--;,copy of part of ,robert ,hook's drawing of a magnified piece of cork1 showing the 8cells0 so named by him in #affe4 ,how did these viscous nucleated corpuscles come to be called 8cells08 ,it was in this wise4 ,at the end of the seventeenth century ,dr4 ,robert ,hook1 secretary of the ,royal ,society1 published a beautiful book of folio size1 entitled ,micrographia4 ,in this he pictured various minute insects and various natural products as seen under his microscope4 ,among the objects figured and described was a piece of cork 7,fig4 #ch74 ,hook showed that it was built up of a number of empty1 air-holding1 box-like chambers1 less than the hundredth of an inch in length1 and these he called 8cells10 comparing them to the 8cells0 of the bee's honeycomb4 ,later observers found that this 8cellular0 structure was very common in plants--but it was not until more than a hundred years later that it was observed that the 8cells0 which build up the soft stems and leaves of plants are not empty or merely air-holding1 but contain a liquid or viscid matter4 ,robert ,browne1 a great botanist1 who lived within the memory of some of our older naturalists1 first observed and described the 8nucleus10 or kernel1 within the cells of some lily-like plants1 and gave it that name 7,fig4 #cg ,a1 d74 ,about the thirties of last century1 by aid of improved microscopes1 a structure like that of the vegetable 8cell0 and its 8nucleus0 was discovered in some animal materials1 or 8tissues10 as they are termed--for instance1 in cartilage 7,fig4 #ci74 ,the word 8tissue0 is applied to each of the various layers and masses1 such as epiderm1 fibrous tissue1 muscle1 nerve1 cartilage1 bone1 which can be distinguished in an animal body and separated from one another1 just as we may separate the 8tissues0 of a man's clothes--the leathern1 woollen1 silken1 cotton1 linen3 the cords1 laces1 threads1 and pads or stuffing4 ,the full meaning of this existence of 8cells0 or 8cellular0 structure in the tissue of plants and animals only gradually became evident4 ,a very remarkable discoverer1 ,professor ,schwann1 of ,lige 7with whom when he was an old man ,i spent an afternoon a great many years ago71 was the first to grasp the great facts and to put forward what has been ever since called 8the cell theory0 of animal and vegetable structure and life4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ci4--;,a piece of cartilage1 showing the cells which have formed it embedded in the 7shaded7 firm substance1 and connected to one another by branching processes of protoplasm4 ,schwann1 in #ahcf1 showed that the important thing about a 8cell0 is not the box or cell-wall so much as the viscid contents and the nucleus4 ,but the name 8cell0 was 7strangely enough7 retained for the contents1 even when the box-like chamber was absent--much as we speak of 8a bottle of wine10 meaning the contents of the bottle1 and not the glass vessel holding it4 ,it was shown that the box-like case or cell-wall 7the original 8cell0 of ,hook7 is actually formed by the living nucleated plasm or viscid matter within it1 just as a snail forms its shell1 by the separation or 8secretion0 of a dead1 firm1 chemical deposit on its living surface4 ,schwann showed that all--not merely special exceptional instances1 but all--the tissues of plants and of animals are built up by nucleated cells1 the cell-wall being often not hard and box-like1 but soft1 gelatinous1 irregular in shape1 and sometimes very thin1 sometimes very thick4 ,every living cell is thus surrounded by the chemical products of its own activity1 or may deposit those products within itself as in the goblet-cell and the fat-cell seen in ,fig4 #dj1 ,c and ,d1 and these products differ in different tissues4 ,the cells of a tissue1 using the word to mean the soft nucleated particles or corpuscles of protoplasm or 8cell-substance10 must be regarded as the microscopic living 8weavers0 or makers of the tissue4 ,the cells in one tissue may form a honeycomb of boxes2 in another a jelly-like mass or a fibrous network1 with the cell-substance scattered as nucleated particles in it 7,fig4 #ci74 ,or the cells may be elongated and contractile 7,fig4 #cg1 ,e1 ,f74 ,they may be more or less fused with one another1 as in flesh or muscular fibre2 but we can always recognise the presence of the individual cells under the microscope by their distinct and separate 8nuclei40 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dj4--,three kinds of cells1 magnified a thousand times linear4 ,a1 a row of cilia-bearing cells4 ,b1 a single detached ciliated cell3 observe the nucleus in each cell4 ,c1 a goblet-cell1 from a mucous surface1 producing c1 a slimy secretion2 d1 the wall of the cell2 b1 the nucleus2 a1 the protoplasm in which the secretion c was accumulated until it burst out at the free end of the cell4 ,d1 a fat-cell2 a1 the nucleus surrounded by protoplasm2 e1 the thin layer of protoplasm enveloping the great oil drop f1 which has formed within it4 ,schwann's most important conclusion from this universal presence of soft corpuscles of cell-substance1 each with its globular nucleus1 in all the tissues and most varied parts of animals as well as plants1 was that the life of a living thing1 the chemical and physical changes which go on in it from birth to death1 consist in chemical and physical changes in each of these microscopic1 nucleated bodies1 and that the life of the whole animal or plant is the sum of the lives of these microscopic units4 ,if we wish to know more about the real nature of the growth and activities of living things1 said ,schwann1 we must thoroughly study and ascertain the chemical and physical changes1 and the properties of the cell-substance in all the different varieties of tissue4 ,that is the celebrated 8cell-theory0 of ,schwann4 ,and this examination of1 and experiment with1 the cells of all kinds of tissues of plants and animals has been going on ever since ,schwann made his historic statement more than seventy years ago4 ,the branch of science called 8histology0 is the outcome of that study4 ,microscopes have been immensely improved since ,schwann wrote1 first in ,england by the father of the present ,lord ,lister1 then later in ,germany by ,abb and ,zeiss1 of ,jena4 ,a variety of methods have been devised for making the 8cells0 in thick1 solid tissues visible4 ,very thin sections--thin enough to be transparent--were at first cut from the fresh tissues1 and examined by transmitted light4 ,this did very well in a rough way1 but better results were obtained by hardening the tissues in alcohol or chromic acid1 when wonderfully fine sections could be cut and rendered translucent by soaking in varnish1 in which they were preserved for study with the microscope1 between two plates of glass4 ,the sections were stained with various dyes1 such as carmine1 log-wood1 the aniline dyes1 etc41 and it was found that the nuclei of the cells and the granules and fibres both in the minute cells and in the surrounding substance manufactured by them1 could be distinguished more clearly by means of their differing affinity for the dyes4 ,and whilst endless section-cutting and staining and careful drawing and record of the structure discovered1 was proceeding in hundreds of laboratories--other observers especially devoted themselves to the difficult task of seeing the cell-substance or protoplasm and its nucleus under the highest power of the microscope1 whilst still alive6 ,it would seem a hopeless task to examine with a high-power microscope the cells 7less than a thousandth of an inch broad7 inside the solid stem or leaves of a plant or of an animal's body without killing the plant or animal and the cells of which they consist4 ,as most of my readers know1 the front lens 7or 8glass07 of a high-power microscope has to be brought very close indeed to any object in order to bring it into focus--as near as the one twenty-fifth of an inch4 ,then the object examined must be very small and transparent1 in order that the light may pass through it1 as through the slide-picture in a magic lantern1 and so form a clear1 well-defined picture in the focus of the microscope1 where the eye receives it4 ,fortunately1 there are some facts about living cells or corpuscles of protoplasm which enable us to examine living cells1 in spite of these difficulties4 ,in the first place1 there are a whole host of minute animals and plants--of many different kinds--which consist of only one cell or nucleated corpuscle of protoplasm 7,fig4 #cf ,a72 they are transparent1 abound in fresh water and sea water1 and can be searched for with the microscope in a drop of water placed on a flat glass plate and covered with a specially thin glass slip4 ,many of these have been studied for hours--and even days--continuously1 and the remarkable internal currents and movements of their viscid 8protoplasm10 its changes of shape1 its feeding and growth1 and the details of the process of division into two--by which it multiplies--have been ascertained1 as well as the action upon it of light1 heat1 electricity1 and mechanical shock1 and of all sorts of chemical substances1 carefully introduced beneath the cover-glass4 ,a second fact of great importance is that the 8cells0 or protoplasmic corpuscles1 which build up a complex plant or animal1 do not die at once when the plant or animal 8dies10 that is to say1 the animal or plant may be 8killed0 and fine bits of transparent tissue removed from it and placed beneath the microscope1 where1 with proper care1 the cells may be kept alive for some time4 ,the hairs of many plants are strings of transparent 8cells10 or boxes1 containing living1 streaming1 active protoplasm4 ,these hairs can be cut off1 and the cells will remain alive for a long time whilst they are under the microscope 7see ,fig4 #ae bis74 ,the transparent wall of the eye--called the cornea--can be removed from a frog after it has been killed1 and the still-living cells in the delicate glass-like tissue can be studied with the highest powers of the microscope1 and give evidence of their life by their movements and other changes4 ,most convenient and important for this study is the blood--for there the cells are loose1 floating in the liquid4 ,the cells in a minute drop of human blood can be kept alive for hours1 if the glass slide is kept warm1 as it easily can be1 and ,i have seen the cells in a drop of frog's blood 7skilfully treated7 still alive1 and exhibiting active movements1 a fortnight after the frog1 from which the drop of blood came1 was dead and buried4 ,these floating1 moving cells of the blood are the 8phagocytes10 which engulf and digest disease germs and other particles 7,fig4 #cf ,b74 ,other more numerous cells of the blood are the oxygen-carriers1 or red corpuscles1 which do not show any movements or changes of an active kind whilst alive4 ,,xix ,,protoplasm1 ,,life ,,and ,,death ,the result of the study of living cell-substance1 or protoplasm1 is to show that every cell has an individual life1 and often makes this manifest by its movement1 change of shape1 and internal currents of granules1 as well as by the special chemical substances it produces and consumes4 ,all depend for their activity upon the presence of free oxygen2 all are killed by heat far less than that of boiling water2 they continually imbibe water charged with the chemical substances which nourish them and cause them to grow in bulk and to divide into two2 and they manufacture various chemical bodies in the protoplasm and emit heat1 electrical discharges1 and sometimes light4 ,some or other of them1 in fact1 do in their small microscopic way all that the complex1 big animal or plant1 of which they are constituents1 is seen to do4 ,the cells of the liver manufacture the bile1 those of the salivary glands the saliva1 and those of the intestinal wall a mucous fluid1 and squeeze out or eject those products into the adjacent ducts 7see ,fig4 #dj ,c74 ,other cells lay down 7as cell-wall or coating7 fibrous and hard substances which form the skeleton2 others become converted into horn and are shed from the surface of the skin in man as 8scurf02 others form the great contractile masses called muscles4 ,one lot are told off to control the other cells by something resembling a system of electrical wires and batteries--these are the nerve-cells 7,fig4 #cg ,d71 with their fine1 thread-like branches1 the nerve-fibres1 which are long enough to permeate every part of the body and place it in connection with the nerve-cells in the great centres called brain1 spinal cord1 and ganglia4 ,at one time it was thought that the cells in the tissues of plants and animals could originate de novo by a sort of precipitation of liquid matter4 ,but it is now known that every cell has originated by the division of a pre-existing cell into two1 the nucleus of the mother cell first dividing and then the rest of the cell4 8,every cell originates by the fission of a preceding cell0 is the law1 and to that is added1 8,every individual organism1 plant or animal1 itself originates from a single cell1 the fertilised germ-cell40 ,these are two laws of fundamental importance in the study of living things4 ,they are true of man as well as of the smallest worm2 of the biggest tree as well as of the most insignificant moss or water-weed4 ,when the fertilised egg-cell divides1 and its progeny keep on dividing and growing in bulk by the conversion of nutriment into protoplasm1 the dividing cells do not necessarily become entirely nipped off from one another4 ,in large tracts of cells 7or tissues7 we often find that the neighbouring cells are connected to one another by excessively fine filaments of protoplasm4 ,only twenty years ago it was supposed1 whilst the neighbouring cells were thus connected as a rule in animals1 as well as being often connected to the finest nerve-filaments1 yet that in plants the firm1 box-like cases which surround the protoplasm--and when seen dried and empty by ,robert ,hook led him to introduce the word 8cell0 to describe them--form completely shut cases1 so that the living protoplasm of each plant-cell is entirely cut off from its neighbour4 ,this has now been found by improved methods of microscopic examination to be a mistake4 ,the cell-wall in a great many plants1 though so firm and cleanly cut in appearance1 is yet perforated by fine threads of the cell protoplasm1 so that each cell is in living communication with its neighbour4 ,thus1 in plants as well as in animals1 the individual cell-units form a more or less continuous whole of living matter1 separated by dead1 inert cell-walls and products of cell activity2 but1 nevertheless1 connected in definite tracts and regions to one another by continuity of the living matter in the form of excessively fine threads4 ,those animals and plants which are built up of many cells of many varieties--that is to say1 all but the microscopic unicellular kinds--may be considered as composite organisms--cell-states or communities in which the individual cells1 all derived from one original mother-cell1 are the citizens1 living in groups and habitations 7tissues71 having their different occupations and capacities1 carrying on distinct operations and working together for the common good1 the 8life10 as we call it1 of the individual plant or animal which they constitute4 ,this comparison should serve merely as an illustration of the individual character and co-ordinated activity of the cells of a many-celled plant or animal4 ,it must not be forgotten that the separate cells are all derived by binary division from the original germ-cell1 that they have not come into juxtaposition from distinct sources1 but often are held together by threads of their living material1 which remain after the process of division of one cell into two4 ,protoplasm has been called 8the physical basis of life40 ,since the activities to which we give the name 8life0 reside in protoplasm1 and are chemical and physical activities like those of other bodies1 even though more subtle and complicated--we are justified in regarding protoplasm as the substance in us and other organisms which 8lives40 ,death consists in the destruction--the chemical undoing or decomposition of protoplasm4#c ,in simple microscopic unicellular animals and plants1 this is obvious--so long as the protoplasm retains its chemical structure it is not 8dead40 ,thus1 it is possible with many small simple organisms--such as animalcules and the seeds of plants--to dry them1 and to expose them to extreme cold1 and to deprive them 7by aid of a vacuum pump7 of all access of free oxygen or other gases4 ,all chemical change is thus necessarily arrested4 ,but the atomic structure of the chemical molecules in the protoplasm is not destroyed4 ,sir ,james ,dewar1 ,m4 ,becquerel1 and others have shown this by most carefully conducted experiments4 ,seeds of clover1 mustard1 and wheat so treated do not 8die02 the mechanism remains intact1 and when1 after many weeks1 the seeds are moistened1 warmed1 and admitted to contact with the atmosphere1 the mechanism again begins to work1 the protoplasm resumes its activity1 the seed 8sprouts40 ,similarly ,dewar has shown that bacteria are not killed by extreme cold1 the temperature of liquid hydrogen4 ,when thus frozen they remain inert--but are even in this condition liable to be 8killed0 by exposure to the blue and ultra-blue rays of sunlight6 ,life was defined by ,herbert ,spencer as 8the #8continuous' adjustment of internal to external relations10 and this implied that what is called 8suspended animation0 was not really a possible thing1 but that there could only be an apparent or approximate suspension4 ,on the contrary1 it seems that just as we may stop a watch by holding back the balance-wheel with a needle1 and yet not 8kill0 the watch--for it will resume its movement as soon as the needle is removed--so the changes of the chemical molecules of protoplasm can be arrested1 but if the chemical 8structure0 is uninjured the mechanism of protoplasm can resume its activity when the arresting causes are removed4 ,the inactive1 unchanging protoplasm is not 8dead10 it has not been 8killed0 so long as its mechanism is intact4 ,on the other hand1 it is the fact that this mechanism--the chemical structure of protoplasm--is very easily destroyed4 ,a unicellular organism is chemically destroyed by crushing or disruption1 and the consequent admixture of an excess of water with its particles1 also by a temperature high enough to cause pain if applied to our skin1 but yet much below that of boiling water1 also by strong sun-light1 and by very many varieties of chemical substances1 especially acids1 even when very much diluted4 ,complex animals and plants are liable to have the protoplasm of essential and important cells of the body destroyed1 whereupon the destruction or death of the other cells1 not involved in the original trouble1 frequently and as a rule results4 ,the protoplasm of the cells of a complex animal is dependent on the proper activity of many other cells besides those of its own tissue or locality in the body4 ,if the protoplasm of certain nerve-cells or of blood-cells or of digestive-cells is poisoned or injured or chemically upset1 other cells lose as a consequence--not at once but after a short interval--their necessary chemical food1 their oxygen1 their accustomed temperature1 and so bit by bit the great 8body0--the complex organism--ceases to live1 that is to say1 its protoplasm undergoes step by step and bit by bit irrevocable chemical change or breaking down4 ,when a man enters upon that condition which we call 8death10 the general muscular movements first cease1 then the movements of respiration 7so that a mirror held to the mouth was used to test the coming and going of the breath1 and the absence of a film of moisture on the mirror's surface was held to be a proof of death71 then the movement of the heart1 which is followed by the awful pallor of the bloodless face and lips1 and the chilling of the whole body1 no longer warmed by the blood-stream4 ,but for long after these changes have occurred the protoplasm of the cells in many parts is not injured4 ,the beard of a corpse will grow after all the great arrests of movement above noted have been established for hours4 ,in cold-blooded animals1 such as the frog1 the protoplasm of the muscles is still uninjured many hours after decapitation1 and they can be stimulated and made to contract4 ,death1 in fact1 only occurs in the tissues of a multicellular animal1 as their protoplasm becomes chemically destroyed by injurious temperature1 poisonous accumulations1 or active bacterial germs1 which become predominant owing to the stoppage of the great mechanisms of breathing1 circulation1 and nerve control4 ,is it1 then1 necessary to suppose that a something1 an essence1 a spirit1 an intangible existence called 8life0 or 8vitality10 or the 8anima animans10 passes away1 or1 as it were1 evaporates from a thing which was living and is now dead8 ,assuredly no more than it is necessary to suppose that an essence or thing called 8death0 takes possession of it when it ceases to carry on the changes which we call 8living40 ,it must not be supposed that we regard the unique and truly awe-inspiring processes which go on in the protoplasm of living things as something simple1 easily understood and accounted for1 because we have given up the notion that life is an entity which enters into living things from without and escapes from them at death4 ,the real fact is1 that the notion of 8spirits10 whether of a lower or of a higher kind1 supposed to enter into and 8affect0 various natural objects1 including trees1 rivers1 and mountains1 as well as animals and man1 does not help us1 and only stands in the way of our gaining more complete knowledge of natural processes4 ,when we say that life and even its most tremendous outcome--the mind of man--are to be studied and their gradual development traced as part of the orderly unfolding of natural processes1 we are no whit less reverent1 in no degree less impressed by the wonder1 immensity1 and mystery of the universe1 than those who1 with happy and obstinate adherence to primitive conceptions1 think that they can explain things by calling up vital essences and wandering spirits4 ,,footnotes #c ,protoplasm is not a single chemical compound2 it is the name given to the soft1 slimy substance of cells1 and contains many chemical compounds--proteids1 fats1 and others2 some on the way to assume greater chemical complexity2 others in process of destruction4 ,the critical highest chemical body concealed in protoplasm has no generally recognised name4 ,it is a proteid-like body1 consisting chiefly of carbon1 oxygen1 hydrogen1 and nitrogen1 with some saline constituents4 ,this is the real ultimate 8living matter10 and ,i suggested in the ,encyclopedia ,britannica 7article ,protozoa7 in #ahhf that it should be called 8plasmogen40 ,,xx ,,chemistry ,,and ,,protoplasm ,when the chemist examines living cell-substance or protoplasm--as free as possible from dead envelopes and products of its own activity--so as to make out1 if he can1 what it is chemically1 he finds that it consists of the elements carbon1 oxygen1 hydrogen1 and nitrogen1 with some sulphur4 ,phosphorus and some potash1 soda and lime in small quantity1 are also very usually associated with the elements named4 ,these are combined in the protoplasm so as to form chemical compounds resembling and including white of egg1 and are called 8proteids40 ,a chemical compound is a very definite and special thing1 and when one says so-and-so is a definite chemical compound1 one means that it is not a mere 8mixture10 but is composed of chemical elements 7some out of the long list of about eighty indestructible1 undecomposable1 8simple0 bodies--gases1 liquids1 metallic and non-metallic solids--recognised by chemists and known as such71 peculiarly united to1 or 8combined0 with1 one another in definite proportions by weight4 ,take1 as an example1 water4 ,water is a definite chemical compound1 formed by the chemical union of two pure elements1 the gases hydrogen and oxygen--eighteen ounces of water consist of two ounces of hydrogen and sixteen ounces of oxygen4 ,at a temperature above that of boiling water the gases1 when they unite1 contract to form water-vapour1 three pints of the uniting gases 7consisting of two pints of hydrogen and one of oxygen7 forming two pints only of water-vapour4 ,this1 when it is cooled to a temperature below #bab deg4 ,fahr41 suddenly contracts to a few thimblefuls of pure liquid water4 ,neither oxygen nor hydrogen 8uncombined0 liquefy till far below zero4 ,a proteid1 in the same way1 is a chemical combination of the elements already mentioned--carbon1 oxygen1 hydrogen1 nitrogen1 and sulphur--but the proportions by volume of these elements to each other are represented by very high figures1 not merely by two to one1 as in the case of water4 ,it is the carbon in them that makes 8proteids0 turn black when they are destroyed by burning1 and it is the sulphur which causes the smell of rotten eggs4 ,whilst an ultimate molecule or physical particle of water consists of two atoms of hydrogen and one of oxygen--the molecule of the proteid called 8albumen0 is built up by seventy-two atoms of carbon1 one hundred and twelve atoms of hydrogen1 eighteen atoms of nitrogen1 twelve atoms of oxygen1 all brought into relation with one atom of sulphur4 ,probably in some other proteids the number of these atoms must all be multiplied by three4 ,the elaborate 8atomic composition0 of a molecule of proteid renders it very unstable2 it easily falls to pieces1 the elements combining1 in other and simpler proportions1 to form less 8delicate0 bodies4 ,living protoplasm consists chiefly of proteids and of compounds which are on the way up1 forming step by step more elaborate combinations till they reach the proteid stage--and of many others which are degradation products1 coming down1 as it were1 from the giddy heights of the proteid combination4 ,the protoplasm of a cell contains finer and grosser granules1 which are these ascending and descending substances2 it also contains others in solution and invisible--for1 like a lump of jelly 7such as the cook serves up shaped by a mould and soaked with flavour and colour71 protoplasm can soak up either a large or a small quantity of water1 and with the water 7that is the important point7 all sorts of chemical bodies soluble in water4 ,just as a lump of quivering calves'-foot jelly 7which is a chemical compound of a lower grade than proteids1 but like them71 when placed in a shallow dish of water coloured red by carmine1 does not dissolve in the water1 but absorbs the water and the carmine1 allowing the coloured water and any chemical bodies in solution in it to diffuse into and become physically1 though not chemically1 a part of its substance1 so protoplasm takes up water and the compounds dissolved by it4 ,just as a 8jelly0 of water-holding gelatine can give up its water and become hard and horny1 so is protoplasm capable of gradually giving up much of its water1 and even in some cases of becoming hard and horny1 yet able to return1 when remoistened1 to its active state4 ,moreover1 a 8jelly0 can be made to 8soak up0 or take into itself water and let it pass through its substance1 so as to wash out from it all soluble matters4 ,in the same way the protoplasm of a living cell is supplied with nourishing and oxygenating fluids which diffuse into it1 and is 8washed out10 purified1 and cleansed of waste or effete chemical compounds by the water which first permeates it1 and then diffuses out of it into surrounding watery fluids carrying the excess of soluble chemical bodies with it4 ,whilst proteids are the compounds of the highest stage of chemical complexity recognised in protoplasm1 and appear to form the bulk of its substance1 we must carefully avoid the error 7which is not uncommon7 of supposing that protoplasm is itself a definite chemical compound4 ,it is not4 ,cell-protoplasm includes the nucleus1 that denser central body3 and is a structure consisting of 8proteids0 and of many granules and dust-like particles1 and of more and of less liquid or watery parts which are less complex in chemical nature than are proteids4 ,some of the visible granules and invisible liquids present in protoplasm are being built up to the proteid stage of elaboration1 whilst some are steps in degradation and decomposition4 ,we have no reason to suppose that the molecules of any proteid known at present to the chemist really are the highest degree of chemical complexity attained to in living protoplasm4 ,probably there is present a further stage of elaboration1 a chemical body even more complex than is 8proteid10 which is continually attracting the lower chemical compounds to itself and as continually breaking down4 ,this is the ultimate chemical substance of life4 ,it is hidden invisibly in the protoplasm1 yet all the chemical changes which go on in the protoplasm of a cell are either leading up to this supreme life-stuff or are leading downwards from it4 ,this ultimate compound1 which we suppose to exist but have not demonstrated1 has been called 8plasmogen40 ,it is this body in which resides the peculiar property of living matter1 namely1 that of attracting to itself substances containing the so-called 8organic0 elements--carbon1 oxygen1 hydrogen1 and nitrogen--and of acting on them in such a way that they 8nourish0 it--that is to say1 combine chemically with it to form more 8plasmogen40 ,the intermediate steps leading up to plasmogen and the products arising from its incessant breaking down are formed under the influence of this unique chemical body1 and by it alone4 ,chemists have not yet succeeded in making them2 only the less elaborate kinds have been 8artificially0 constructed without the aid of the living plasmogen4 ,to construct plasmogen itself is a task for the chemists of the distant future4 ,in early geological ages plasmogen came into being2 it has gone on ever since 8nourishing0 itself1 maintaining itself1 growing and spreading over the earth4 ,it is improbable that the conditions which led to its formation have ever recurred4 ,all subsequent plasmogen has been formed by the growth and increase of that first sample of it1 which once in a remote period of the earth's history was built up by chemical conditions1 which came to an end as soon as they had produced it4 ,the only process in nature of which we know1 which resembles the 8building0 action of plasmogen1 the ultimate molecule of life1 buried in the cell's protoplasm1 is the selective action of crystals1 which draw to themselves from a solution or magma of all sorts of chemical bodies those molecules of a chemical nature identical with their own1 and build them up into special and definite crystalline forms4 ,but there is a very wide gap between this process and even the mere assimilation by living matter of the organic elements1 so as to raise them from a lower to a higher grade of chemical complexity of combination4 ,and over and above this we have added1 in the case of living material1 to the mere power of assimilation and growth the almost unthinkable complications and variations of specific form and quality1 and yet further of individual form and quality1 which are determined by special complications and variations of the plasmogen1 that unique compound concealed in the cell-protoplasm4 ,we cannot at present1 if ever1 picture to ourselves adequately the mechanism of plasmogen1 though the attempt has been1 and must be1 made4 ,but we can watch its workings closely2 we can ascertain the conditions which promote1 check1 or modify its activity2 in fact1 we can observe its output and experiment on it in a thousand ways1 and so get more and more knowledge of it4 ,we are not led to suppose that it is possessed by a demon1 nor that in it resides an elsewhere unknown essence4 ,it is enough for us to satisfy ourselves that its qualities1 whilst they can be grouped with the chemical and physical qualities of other bodies1 so far transcend them in complexity and in immensity of result--the whole creation of plant and animal life--that their appearance constitutes in effect a new departure1 a sudden and1 to us1 unaccountable acquirement4 ,but then we must remember that it is also an unaccountable thing to us that water suddenly becomes ice at a low temperature1 and suddenly becomes vapour at a high temperature1 even if we are able to imagine the mechanism which necessitates those changes4 ,we cannot 8explain0 the nature of things4 ,even though we can classify them and arrange them in order1 and more or less satisfactorily guess what their inner mechanism is1 we cannot1 in our present state of knowledge1 trace them in detail to a first beginning4 ,even though we believe that such a history lies behind us1 we ourselves cannot as yet show how exactly every quality and property and form of matter has developed in due order as a matter of necessity during the cooling of the cosmic gas4 ,all we can do is to ascertain1 bit by bit1 some sequences1 some lines of orderly development and interaction1 adding thus step by step to our knowledge of what has taken place4 ,,xxi ,,the ,,simplest ,,living ,,things ,in old times1 if one wanted to compare a man to the humblest and simplest of animals1 one called him 8a worm40 ,but really a worm is a very elaborate creature1 with skin1 muscles1 blood-vessels1 kidneys1 nervous system1 pharynx1 stomach1 and an intestine1 and is built up by hundreds of thousands of protoplasmic cells4 ,shakespeare got nearer the mark when he made one of his uncompromising professional 8murderers0 exclaim1 as he stabbed the young ,macduff to the heart1 8,what1 you egg60 ,an egg is a single cell or corpuscle of protoplasm1 and the simplest living things are of the same structure--mere units1 single corpuscles of protoplasm1 often less than the one-thousandth of an inch in diameter1 and invisible except with the microscope1 though in some cases big enough to be seen by the naked eye as they swim or crawl in a glass of pond-water4 ,many thousands of kinds of these simplest animals and plants have been carefully recorded1 distinguished from one another1 and named by naturalists4 ,many of these unicellular animals 7or 8,protozoa07 crawl by a curious irregular flowing movement of the viscid tenacious protoplasm of which they consist4 ,there is no firm coat or cell-wall1 only the thinnest pellicle on the surface4 ,the ,proteus-animalcule 7,fig4 #cf;,a7 is so called because of its constant change of shape2 it is also called ,amba on this account4 ,it flows out into broad1 sometimes elongated1 finger-like processes1 of which one or several of different sizes may be formed at the same time1 and then quickly disappear as the whole creature moves4 ,solid particles of food--minute unicellular plants--are engulfed by the moving viscid protoplasm and digested within it--that is to say1 chemically dissolved1 just as food is digested in the stomach of a big animal4 ,the colourless cells of our blood and lymph 7,fig4 #cf;,b7 are called 8amboid10 because of their identity with an ,amba in shape and movement and digestive power4 ,in some of these animalcules 7sun-animalcules and others7 the processes of the protoplasm are in the form of very fine1 long spreading threads which entangle a food particle1 and then contract1 drawing it up into the disc-like central body4 ,a whole group or division of these simplest animals are provided with special moving or vibrating hair-like extensions of the protoplasm called 8cilia10 that being the ,latin name for 8eyelashes10 to which they are compared4 ,these cilia are arranged with great regularity in rows1 circlets1 or spirals1 on the surface of the 8cell40 ,they are found not only on cells which are independent unicellular animals and plants1 but also on cells which form the clothing or surface layer of many larger animals 7,fig4 #dj;,a and ,b74 ,thus1 in ourselves1 they are found lining the windpipe1 and they also line the internal cavity of the brain and spinal cord4 ,the gills of the oyster1 and such shell-fish1 and other parts of their skin1 are paved with ciliated or cilia-bearing cells1 set side by side in thousands4 ,a single 8cilium0 is like a little lash of a whip1 and is always making its lashing movement4 ,for a fraction of a second it is straight and upright1 then suddenly curves over and bends to one side with a 8flick10 and immediately recovers its upright position 7see ,fig4 #bi1 p4 #aca74 ,all the cilia on one cell or one surface 8beat0 in the same direction1 and with a common rhythm1 so that if the cell is a free1 independent animalcule it is driven along through the water by the rapid strokes of these numberless tiny 8oars10 or 8paddles40 ,if the cilia are on a surface--like the oyster's gill--they drive the water along and create a constant current4 ,each cilium consists of an elastic and a contractile fibre closely fused together3 the contraction of the one part causes a flick or bending of the hair-like cilium1 the elasticity of the other substance causes it at once to straighten out again4 ,the ciliated unicellular animalcules 7often called the infusoria1 because they flourish in decomposing 8infusions07 not only swim by means of their cilia1 but have a definite mouth or opening in the firm outer layer of the protoplasm of the cell1 into which solid particles of food are driven by whirlpool-like currents set up by special lines of cilia 7,fig4 #da;,aa74 ,the mouth leads through a definite 8gullet0 into the interior of the cell4 ,remember that the whole creature is but a single minute cell or corpuscle of protoplasm6 ,it is only from the hundredth to the thousandth of an inch long--with nucleus 7e in the figure7 of denser structure within--just like1 in essential structure and properties1 one single cell of the many thousands which build up the liver1 or are packed in layers to form our outer skin1 or are piled side by side 7by self-division7 to make the stems and leaves of plants4 ,yet here is such a cell--self-sufficing4 ,when it divides 7as it does7 the two resulting cells do not remain in contact as they do when a germ cell 7a fertilised egg-cell7 divides4 ,they simply separate1 and each swims away1 and carries on its own life4 ,many of them are fitted out with these cilia as a most serviceable locomotor apparatus1 and as producers of food currents driving the food right in to a permanent1 definitely-shaped mouth4 ,some have also a separate opening by which the undigested remains of the food are extruded4 ,they have also a liquid-holding cavity or series of cavities which1 when distended1 contract and discharge their contents to the exterior4 ,this is an apparatus for 8washing out0 the protoplasm of the unicellular animalcule and getting rid of excretory products2 it is definitely comparable in its use1 though so different in origin1 to the many-celled kidneys and bladder of higher animals4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #da4--,two specimens of a bell-animalcule 7,vorticella74 ,a1 extended4 ,b1 with retracted disc and coiled stalk4 a1 the ciliated disc2 b1 the firm ring behind the disc1 called 8peristome02 c1 the pulsating chamber1 called often the contractile vacuole2 d1 a completely digested particle of food on its way to be cast out through the gullet2 e1 the sausage-shaped nucleus2 f1 a particle of food which has just sunk into the protoplasm from the gullet1 and is surrounded by a little water2 g1 the gullet2 h1 the reservoir leading from the pulsating chamber to the gullet2 i1 the hollow stalk2 k1 the spirally attached muscle within the stalk2 l1 the attachment of the stalk to a weed m4 ,one of the numerous kinds of 8bell-animalcules0 affords an excellent example in which we can watch the structures and life-processes in a single cell 7,fig4 #da74 ,it is a pear or bell-shaped body1 little more than one-thousandth of an inch broad1 supported on a long1 hollow stalk 7though sometimes it breaks off from its stalk and swims freely72 inside the stalk is a muscle 7k71 so attached that when it contracts it shortens the stalk by throwing it into a close-set1 corkscrew spiral 7,fig4 #da;,b74 ,the bell-shaped body has a relatively firm surface1 beneath which is soft1 viscid protoplasm and a large sausage-like nucleus4 ,the body can expand itself so as to look like a solid bell or trumpet-shaped figure1 with a flat1 disc-like surface where the 8hollow0 of the bell should be1 or it can draw the edges of the disc together and assume the shape of a ball4 ,a line of 8cilia0 is set on the edge of the bell's disc 7a7 and takes a spiral course4 ,there is a deep pit on one side of the disc4 ,this is the mouth4 ,it is easy to feed this minute 8egg0 of a creature6 ,a powder of fine particles--boiled bacteria1 in fact1 are what ,i have used--is introduced into the water between two slips of glass in which the bell-animalcule is displaying itself under our microscope4 ,we see the particles whirling about in a vortex1 hitting the disc of the bell-animalcule and then driven into the pit or cavity of the open mouth1 whence they sink1 enclosed in a sphere or droplet of water 7f7 into the internal protoplasm6 ,if the 8boiled bacteria10 before they are introduced1 are stained with an alkaline blue1 such as blue litmus1 they are seen in the course of a few seconds to turn red--showing that an acid has been secreted by the protoplasm 7probably accompanied by a ferment7 into the little sphere of water1 in which the digestion of the boiled bacteria now goes on4 ,in the course of a few minutes you will see the little sphere of water dwindling in size--the nourishing liquid being absorbed by the protoplasm--and then you will see the undigested fragments passed on by a slow movement to the vestibule or 8pit0 of the mouth1 extruded through a temporary opening from the protoplasm1 and whirled away by the water currents6 ,if you colour the 8boiled bacteria0 with water-soluble anilin-blue--as ,i did many years ago--you will see that the colour vanishes from the particles taken into the bell-animalcule's protoplasm1 and presently an independent sphere of bright blue liquid begins to form in the protoplasm4 ,this sphere or globule is the renal organ mentioned above--here very simple and single 7,fig4 #dj;c74 ,it is called the pulsating chamber or 8contractile vacuole40 ,it enlarges rapidly1 filling with blue liquid 7when special coloured food has not been supplied the liquid is colourless71 then suddenly contracts1 squirting its blue contents out through a special reservoir 7h7 into the mouth-pit 7as shown by an arrow in the figure74 ,the nucleus of these unicellular animals is often elongated 7e71 and shaped according to the general shape of the animalcule2 but it is the same thing as the 8nucleus0 of all cells1 whether of plants or animals--a denser 8kernel0 of protoplasm1 limited by its own delicate sheath or membrane4 ,it shows1 like the cell-nucleus of ordinary cells1 a special affinity for certain dyes1 which do not stain the rest of the cell1 so that it can be made very obvious and clear when the animalcule is killed by alcohol1 picric acid1 or other preservative solutions1 and then stained2 and it shows a curious breaking-up of its substance into thread-like fibres when the animalcule is about to divide into two--as is seen also in all cells when the regular process of division of one cell into two commences4 ,the larger animalcules have enabled us to find out what are the special properties of the nucleus of cells1 as contrasted with those of the rest of the protoplasm4 ,the trumpet animalcule 7,stentor7 is a single cell1 and though only one-thirtieth of an inch long1 is large enough to be cut into pieces by very skilful use of a fine blade4 ,it is found that1 if we cut the ,stentor into four or five bits1 all continue to 8live02 that is to say1 to swim about by the vibration of the hair-like cilia on their surface4 ,but those bits which have no part of the nucleus in them die after a few hours4 ,they cannot take nourishment nor grow4 ,on the other hand1 all the bits which comprise a slice of nucleus commence to contract1 and shape themselves like the original ,stentor1 then form a mouth1 and take nourishment1 and grow up to be fully-sized1 complete ,stentors--animalcules like that by the cutting-up of which they were formed4 ,this and similar experiments are held to prove that the processes of nutrition1 growth1 and production of specific form are dependent on the nucleus4 ,in its absence1 you may have contractility and active movement for a time1 but no repair1 no building-up of new material1 no directed or seemingly 8purposive0 movement4 ,such movements1 viz41 advance in one direction1 arrest1 hesitating1 or exploring movement to the right and left1 followed by rapid retreat or advance in a straight line1 are often exhibited by these minute animalcules1 and cannot be distinguished in character from those1 say1 of a fly or even of a mouse4 ,these facts throw a great light on the significance of the structure of the protoplasmic corpuscle which we call a 8cell10 and show that the universal presence of the nucleus in every 8cell0 is due to the fact that it plays the most important part in the life of the cell4 ,it is the seat of control1 and contains substances in virtue of which the changes which constitute growth and form-production take place1 and in the absence of which the rest of the protoplasm cannot 8carry on10 although for a time it lives2 that is to say1 remains chemically undecomposed1 and shows active movement4 ,at the same time1 we must not underrate the importance of the general protoplasm1 without the presence of some of which the nucleus cannot do its work1 nor even exist4 ,it is no wonder1 then1 that when a cell divides1 there are curious and elaborate proceedings in the nucleus1 by which each daughter cell gets its due half of the all-important nuclear substance4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #db4--,six successive stages in the division of a 8cell10 to show the appearance of the ,v-shaped filaments of colourable matter or chromatin4 a1 resting-cell1 with chromatin dispersed as fine irregular filaments in the nucleus2 b1 the chromatin takes the form of a wreath with twelve loops--it lies horizontally across the cell2 c1 the loops break from one another1 and form twelve separate ,v-shaped pieces2 d1 each of the twelve pieces divides along its length into two parallel ,v-shaped pieces2 e1 the divided pieces now separate from one another1 so as to form two wreath-like groups of twelve ,v-shaped pieces at each end of the cell2 f1 the wall of the cell forms across between the separated groups of ,v-shaped pieces1 which lose their regular arrangement4 ,each group becomes enclosed in a capsule1 and is the nucleus of a new cell4 ,this is the regular process of cell-division1 and the mode in which the chromatin of the nucleus is broken up1 so as to be equally shared by the two daughter cells4 ,in some species of animals the cells have as many as thirty-six ,v-shaped chromatin bodies2 in others as few as two4 ,different plants also show a similar difference in the number of chromatin bodies characteristic of the species4 ,when a cell divides the fission or splitting of the cell is preceded by peculiar changes in the nucleus4 ,there is a material in the nucleus of every cell--of those which are simple animalcules1 as well as of those which are germ-cells and sperm-cells1 and of those which form1 heaped up in enormous numbers1 the living substance of larger animals and plants--a material which is an elaborated sort of proteid 7see p4 #ahe7 and stains strongly with carmine1 logwood1 and such dyes1 and is called 8chromatin40 ,it exists often in the shape of minute granules and filaments 7,fig4 #db;a71 but always takes on1 sooner or later1 the form of an irregularly undulated thread or threads4 ,when the cell is about to divide into two--as all growing and active cells do--the thread arranges itself like a zigzagging girdle around the equator of the globular nucleus 7,fig4 #db;b74 ,the margin of the nucleus then seems to melt away into the general protoplasm1 and the zigzag bits of the stainable thread break from each other1 forming a ring-like group of ,v-shaped pieces 7,fig4 #db;c74 ,there is a remarkable fact as to the number of these ,v-shaped pieces4 ,they are identical in number in all the cells of one species or kind of animal or plant1 but may be of a different number in allied species4 ,the salamander has twenty-four of them2 some worms have only two1 some insects thirty-six1 some plants eight1 others twelve1 and so on4 ,when the ,v-shaped pieces have thus taken up their position in the dividing cell1 each splits longitudinally1 so as to form two ,v-shaped pieces lying one over the other 7,fig4 #db;d74 ,then the halves separate and travel away from each other4 ,in this way two circlets1 each made up by the correct number of ,v-shaped pieces1 come into place at opposite sides of the cell 7,fig4 #db;e74 ,after this the protoplasm becomes nipped in between the two circlets so as to separate the cell into two halves1 each with its circlet of exactly the correct number of ,v-shaped pieces of 8chromatin0 formed by the splitting of those of the parent cell 7,fig4 #db;f74 ,it is in this way that the nuclei of the new cells are accurately provided with not merely half of the nuclear chromatin of the mother cell1 but with half taken from all parts of it1 owing to the thread-like form of the chromatin and the longitudinal splitting of the thread4 ,fertilisation of the egg-cell by the sperm-cell consists essentially in the junction or fusion of the nuclear chromatin threads of the egg-cell with the nuclear chromatin threads of a single sperm-cell or spermatozoon1 which sinks into the egg-cell and fuses with it4 ,this has been witnessed and studied with the greatest care4 ,the leading fact of interest is that the egg-cell and the sperm-cell have only half the number of ,v-shaped nuclear pieces which the ordinary cells of the same animal or plant possess4 ,thus a salamander's ripe egg and ripe spermatozoid have each only twelve ,v-shaped pieces--not twenty-four4 ,this is brought about by the parent cells1 which divide to form the egg-cell of the female and the spermatozoid of the male1 not splitting their ,v-shaped nuclear bits2 consequently1 the number is reduced to half 7that is1 twelve7 in the daughter cells resulting from the division4 ,accordingly1 when the fusion of egg-cell and sperm-cell occurs--each bringing twelve ,v-shaped pieces--the proper number is re-established1 namely1 twenty-four4 ,in the first division of this fertilised germ-cell--the cell resulting from the fusion of egg-cell and sperm-cell--the ,v-shaped nuclear pieces split in the regular way1 and the first two embryo-cells are formed1 each with its twenty-four pieces4 ,each of these cells undergoes the regular process1 and so by continued growth and division into two an immense series of cells are produced1 which may separate as they form1 or in the case of multi-cellular creatures1 remain in continuity with one another as a bulky plant or animal4 ,clearly the whole process arises from the value to the growing mass of protoplasm of having its substance closely sown or dotted with centres of nuclear matter--that specially active1 co-ordinating material--and of having those centres of equal volume and quality2 and1 lastly1 of having that nuclear matter equally1 or nearly equally1 derived from the male and female parent4 ,it is1 however1 not certain from observation of what occurs when the twelve male and twelve female ,v-shaped pieces 7or whatever the number may be in any given animal or plant which have become grouped together in the fertilised germ-cell7 split and separate to form the nucleus of two new cells--that exactly twelve male and twelve female pieces go into each of the new cells4 ,it is certain that twenty-four pieces go into each1 but although it is possible that exactly half of them are male and half female in origin1 it is not certain from observation that this is necessarily so4 ,supposing different proportions to obtain in each of the two first embryo-cells1 it would help to account for the facts that offspring are not an exact blend of their parents in all their qualities1 and that all the offspring of the same two parents are not exactly alike1 but often very different from one another4 ,some of the simplest living things1 consisting of but one microscopic cell1 are animals1 and some are plants4 ,the essential difference between an animal and a plant is shown very clearly by some of these microscopic creatures4 ,animals feed on the flesh or 8proteid0 substances manufactured by other animals or by plants2 they also feed on oils or fats1 and on the sugar and starch manufactured by other animals or by plants4 ,but they cannot construct these 8foods0 themselves from the simpler stable chemical compounds called 8mineral bodies10 which1 nevertheless1 contain the elements they require--carbon1 nitrogen1 hydrogen1 and oxygen4 ,such stable mineral bodies are carbonic acid1 ammonia1 and water4 ,in fact1 ordinary 8smelling salts0 7which is chemically carbonate of ammonia7 dissolved in water1 if we add to it a trace of phosphates1 sulphates1 and chlorides of potash1 soda and lime1 contain all the actual chemical elements that an animal needs4 ,yet no animal can be nourished by such a 8mineral0 soup4 ,on the other hand1 it is the special distinction of plants--of green plants1 be it noted--that they can feed on this simple diet1 and1 moreover1 cannot feed on anything else4 ,the green colouring matter which gives its beautiful tint to the grass and weeds and the leaves of the big trees which clothe the earth is absolutely essential in this process2 so also is sunlight4 ,the living protoplasm of the green-coloured parts of plants is crowded with microscopic discs or plates of a brilliant transparent green colour4 ,the peculiar substance causing the colour is called 8leaf-green10 or 8chlorophyll40 ,it can be dissolved out of a leaf1 not by water1 but by spirit or by ether1 and separately studied4 ,it may be seen in solution 7to cite a commercial instance7 in the liqueur known as 8crme de menthe10 being used to give its fine green colour to that preparation4 ,sunlight shining on to the green parts of plants is 8screened0 or 8strained0 by the leaf-green1 so that only some of the coloured rays pass through it1 and it is only by this peculiarly 8strained0 green sunlight that the protoplasm of the cells of the leaf is stimulated to its remarkable chemical activity4 ,the carbonic acid in the air or in the water in which the green plant is living is taken up by the protoplasm4 ,carbonic acid consists of oxygen and of carbon4 ,the protoplasm1 when the green sunlight acts on it1 actually takes out of carbonic acid and throws off as a gas 7seen as bubbles in the case of a water plant7 some of its constituent oxygen1 thus keeping up the supply of free oxygen in air and water4 ,then at the same time it combines the carbon and the rest of the oxygen with water 7hydrogen and oxygen7 inside itself1 forming solid starch1 which1 with the microscope1 we can see actually manufactured as little oblong grains in the green cells4 ,not only this1 but the element nitrogen is1 so to speak1 8forced0 in other cells of the plant to combine with the three elements of the newly-formed starch 7carbon1 hydrogen1 and oxygen71 and thus the first steps leading to the building up of those wonderful bodies1 the proteids1 are passed4 ,nothing of the sort can be done by the protoplasm of an animal cell4 ,consequently we distinguish among the simplest living things those which are provided with leaf-green1 and feed1 as do the larger green plants1 on dissolved 8mineral0 solids and gases4 ,there are many thousands of kinds of them--single simple cells4 ,some are known to microscopists as ,diatoms and ,desmids--often of curious spindle or crescent-shape1 others star-like4 ,the diatoms form on their surface a delicate1 wonderfully-sculptured coat of glass-like silica 7quartz71 which resists destruction and persists long after the protoplasm is dead and washed away4 ,they are favourite objects for examination with the microscope on account of their great beauty and variety4 ,those simplest living things which have not got leaf-green to enable them to feed on mineral food must--unless they are parasites 7as many important kinds are7--get their food1 as do bigger animals1 by feeding on the solid substance of other living things4 ,all living things are1 in fact1 ultimately dependent on the green plants--whether microscopic or of larger kinds--not only for food1 but for oxygen gas4 ,if you could take away green plants altogether from the world1 the animals would eat one another and use up the oxygen gas of the atmosphere1 and at the last there would be a few only of the strongest left1 like the last survivor of the shipwrecked crew of the ,nancy ,bell1 and even they would be suffocating for want of oxygen4 ,the single cells1 which are independent animalcules1 and feed like animals on whole creatures smaller than themselves1 or on bits of the fresh substance of other animals or of plants1 are of extraordinary diversity of form and activity4 ,unlike the unicellular plants1 whose food is dissolved in the water in which they live1 the single-cell animals of necessity take their food in 8lumps0 into their inside and digest it1 and so their cell-protoplasm has either a soft surface which can take up a food-morsel at any point or it has a firm surface with a definite mouth1 or aperture1 in it 7see ,fig4 #da7 where the mouth is marked by an arrow4 ,many of them1 especially those with soft glutinous protoplasm1 which extends from the main-mass in long threads or branching processes searching for food-morsels1 form marvellous1 perforated shells by chemical deposit1 either of silica or limestone 7,radiolaria and ,foraminifers74 ,the kinds with a firm or tough surface to the cell-protoplasm and a permanent mouth and gullet leading into the cell-substance have very usually a single large lashing-whip 7,flagellata71 which drives them through the water in search of prey1 or they are clothed with hundreds of such lashing threads of smaller size--the 8cilia0 described above 7p4 #aie7--;arranged in rows or circles1 whence these animalcules are called 8,ciliata40 ,the ciliates or one-celled animals are enabled by their cilia to move with all the grace1 variety1 facility1 and apparent intelligence of the highest animals1 and also to create powerful vortex-currents by which food particles are driven into the cell-mouth4 ,it is a most remarkable and thought-stirring fact that here we have 8animalcules0 which are no more than isolated units of the kind and structure which go by hundreds of thousands to build up a larger animal--just as bricks are units of the kind which to the number of many thousands build up a house4 ,and yet each of these free-living units has a complete organisation--mouth1 pharynx1 renal organ1 locomotive organs1 and so on--similar in activity and general shape to the system of large1 capacious organs built up by the agglomeration of millions of cell-units to form the body of a higher animal4 ,it is as though a single brick were provided with door1 windows1 staircase1 fireplace1 chimneys1 and wine-cellar6 ,it is clear that there is only a resemblance and not an identity of origin between the organs of the multicellular animal and those of the single-celled animalcule4 ,the history of the growth of an animal from the single egg-cell1 and also the series of existing many-celled animals1 leading from simple forms to the most complex1 proves this4 ,and in view of that fact the wonderful elaboration of these diminutive creatures--many of them so small as to be absolutely invisible to the naked eye--is all the more curious and impressive4 ,we have1 in fact1 parallel organisation and elaboration of structures with special uses1 in two absolutely separated grades or strata of living things--the one grade marked off by the limitation that only a single cell1 a single nucleated corpuscle of protoplasm1 is to be the basis and material of elaboration--the other and higher grade permitting the use of millions of single cells1 of endless variety and plasticity1 capable of hanging together and being grouped in layers and tissues1 in such enormous masses that an elephant or a whale is the result4 ,and we see that the same needs are met1 not actually in the same way1 but in the same kind of way1 in the two cases--the food-orifice1 the cilia1 and the 8pulsating vacuole0 of the unicellular animalcule do the same services as those done by the structurally different mouth1 legs1 and kidneys of the elephant4 ,,xxii ,,tadpoles ,,and ,,frogs ,the season of tadpoles is not a season recognised by housekeepers and gourmets 7except in ,france1 where frogs are eaten in ,april71 but one dear to schoolboys and all lovers of ,nature4 ,the ponds on heaths and in the corners of meadows now show great masses of soft jelly-like balls of the size of a marble1 huddled together and marked each by a little black spot at its centre1 as big as a rape-seed4 ,this is the 8spawn0 of our common frog4 ,the spawn of the common toad is very similar1 but the black spots are set in long strings of jelly1 not in separate balls4 ,the little black body is precisely the same thing as the yellow part of a hen's egg1 and the jelly around it corresponds to the 8white0 of the bird's egg2 but there is nothing to represent the shell4 ,the 8yelk0 of the bird's egg is1 it is true1 much larger1 but corresponds to the black sphere of the frog's egg--the actual germ--and is like the latter a single protoplasmic cell1 distended with nourishing granular matter4 ,it is the excess of this matter which makes the yellow ball of the bird's egg so much bigger than the black or rather deep-brown germ of the frog4 ,the little black spheres elongate from day to day in the warm spring weather1 and at last the minute tadpoles 7see ,fig4 #dc and its explanation7 break loose from the jelly1 hanging on to its surface by aid of a tiny sucker1 and feeding on the minute green vegetable growths which have appeared all over the jelly-like mass4 ,their rate of growth depends very much on the temperature1 and is much more rapid in ,italy and the ,south of ,france than in ,england4 ,at first they are so small that it is difficult to distinguish1 except with a pocket-lens1 the little black plume-like gills on each side of the head1 and it is only as they grow bigger and lose these little plumes that the young things assume the characteristic shape of a rounded head--really head and body--with a long flattened tail which strikes vigorously to the right and left1 and enables the tadpole to swim like a fish4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dc4--,stages in the growth from the egg of the common frog--drawn of the natural size4 #a4 ,egg in its jelly-like envelope4 #b4 ,very young tadpoles adhering to weed by their suckers 7placed just below the mouth74 #c4 ,very young tadpole1 showing two pair of external gills3 a third pair is present1 but so small as to be invisible without magnification4 #d1 #e1 #f4 ,stages in the later growth of the tadpole3 the external gills have disappeared1 but the legs have not yet made their appearance4 #g4 ,tadpole of full size1 with fore and hind legs4 #h4 ,the tadpole has now become a small frog1 and has left the water4 ,the tail has shrunk1 but has not entirely disappeared3 it remains throughout life hidden by the skin and the large thighs of the growing frog4 ,this figure has been kindly supplied by ,messrs4 ,macmillan ,co41 from ,dr4 ,gadow's volume on the 8,amphibia and ,reptiles10 in the ,cambridge ,natural ,history4 ,i suppose that every one1 or nearly every one1 knows that these swarming little black tadpoles are the young of frogs and toads4 ,as the season goes on they grow to as much as an inch and a quarter 7sometimes an inch and three-quarters7 in length1 and develop a number of golden metallic-looking spots in the skin1 which give them a brownish hue4 ,both the fore and the hind limbs have now developed1 but are hidden beneath the skin1 and all this time the tadpole is breathing1 like a fish1 by means of gills1 concealed from view by a fold of skin4 ,very early it acquires a pair of lungs1 and by the time the legs break through the skin 7the hind legs do so first7 the lungs are inflated1 and help in respiration4 ,now the head becomes modelled like that of a young frog1 the tail ceases to grow1 its flat transparent border is absorbed and eaten by 8phagocytes10 and the legs become strong and large4 ,soon the gills atrophy1 and the young creature crawls out of the water and spends much of its time in the damp grass and herbage near its native pond1 rapidly assuming the shape of a frog4 ,an interesting fact is that all the time that it is a tadpole the little animal eats vegetable food or soft animal food 7even other tadpoles71 has horny lips1 and a very long intestine1 coiled like a watch-spring4 ,but as soon as it leaves the water it becomes purely carnivorous1 feeding on small insects and worms1 and its intestine straightens out and becomes1 relatively to the increased size of the body1 quite short4 ,even those who know frog-spawn when they see it and something of the history of the growth of the tadpole and its change into the young frog or toad 7as the case may be7 do not1 as a rule1 know about the laying of the eggs4 ,in the early spring 7end of ,march7 the full-grown frogs and toads which have passed the winter buried in holes and cracks in the ground in a state of torpor wake up and make their way to neighbouring good-sized ponds4 ,in these the eggs are deposited4 ,the male frogs wait for the females whom they seize from behind1 placing their arms under hers and round the chest4 ,they hold so firmly that nothing will persuade them to let go4 ,they often retain their hold for days or even weeks4 ,sometimes by mistake they seize a fish and hold on securely to its head--a fact which has led to the belief among country-folk that the frog is an enemy of the carp1 and tries to blind him by forcing his hands into the carp's eyes4 ,at this season a frog will clasp your finger or the handle of a stick so persistently that you can lift him out of the water4 ,a large pad of a black colour grows in the breeding-season on the inside of the first finger of the frog's hand1 and is richly supplied with nerves4 ,it is this growth which is sensitive and when touched sets up the cramp-like clasping action of the muscles of the arms4 ,the eggs are eventually squeezed from the female's body1 and are fertilised by the spermatic fluid of the male as they pass into the water4 ,they are1 when 8laid10 covered with only a thin transparent layer of albumen 7or white of egg71 and it is only after a few hours that this imbibes water and swells up into a ball-like mass around each little black egg4 ,years ago ,i used to collect the spawning toads and frogs at ,baden1 near ,vienna1 in order to observe 7in the laboratory of the celebrated microscopist1 ,professor ,stricker1 the most gifted of his day7 the earliest changes in the little black egg1 the size of a rape-seed1 which follow upon fertilisation4 ,properly placed in a watch-glass full of water under a low power of the microscope one little egg could be watched for hours4 ,if it had not been fertilised1 nothing occurred4 ,but if it had been1 then there were strange movements of its surface and a puckering and sinking in along one definite line1 coming and going1 but at last becoming well marked like a deep furrow4 ,without actually splitting1 the little sphere was divided by the cleft into two halves4 ,then1 at right angles to the first cleft1 a second began to form1 and so on1 until in the course of hours the sphere became divided on its surface like a blackberry4 ,the separate pieces thus marked out are the first 8cells10 or units1 of living protoplasm of the young tadpole4 ,they continue to divide and to chemically convert the granular matter with which they are charged into living material whilst the mass slowly1 in the course of days 7taking up water for its increase in actual size71 becomes elongated1 and shows the rudiments of head1 eyes1 ears1 spinal cord1 and projecting tail4 ,it is a fascinating task to watch this gradual development--and a difficult1 but necessary1 one 7which has now been carried out in the minutest detail by patient students71 to harden with chemical solutions the growing embryos taken at successive stages1 to embed them in wax or paraffin 7as ,stricker was the first to do71 and to cut them into the finest slices1 then to clarify these slices in balsam-varnish1 examine them with the microscope1 and record and draw every 8cell10 every constituent unit1 as they increase in number and complication of arrangement4 ,that wonderfully difficult feat has now been carried out not only in the case of the frog and toad1 but in the case of hundreds of different kinds of animals of all sorts4 ,thus we know the history of the growth from the egg in its minutest details in every kind of animal--the 8cell-lineage0 of the tissues of the full-grown animal traced back to the single original egg-cell4 ,the egg of animals is always originally a single 8cell0--that is to say1 a minute corpuscle of slimy consistence1 with a dense capsulated kernel or 8nucleus0 within it4 ,the kernel or nucleus divides into two1 and the cell itself divides2 each of the daughter cells again divides1 and so the process continues1 until thousands1 and in larger animals millions1 of cells are the result1 as the mass of cells takes up nourishment and increases in volume4 ,when 7as is the case in many animals1 e4g4 starfishes1 worms1 and mammals7 there is only a little granular food-material mixed in with the protoplasm of the egg-cell1 that cell is of small size1 only the one two-hundredth of an inch in diameter 7see ,fig4 #ca74 ,but in the frog there is much granular food-material1 and the egg-cell is distended to the size of a rape-seed4 ,when there is still more1 as in the bird and many fishes1 the egg-cell does not entirely divide as it does in smaller eggs on commencing growth after fertilisation4 ,the protoplasm collects into a disc incompletely separated from the food-material1 and it is the disc only which divides into two1 four1 eight1 and ever so many more cells4 ,some of the cells resulting from the division of the disc form the embryo's body1 and others spread1 as they multiply1 all over the rest of the egg-ball from its edges so as to enclose the granular food-material in a sac1 called the yelk sac4 ,in the frog1 on the contrary1 the protoplasm does not separate as a disc3 the whole egg-cell or ball divides to form the embryo-cells1 and the food granules are included in the substance of the dividing cells4 8,growth from the egg0 is a long story2 we must revert now to the tadpoles and their parents4 ,there is a tradition that ,dr4 ,edwards1 the father of ,henri and grandfather of ,alphonse ,milne ,edwards1 directors of the ,natural ,history ,museum of ,paris1 kept some tadpoles in a sort of cage sunk in the ,seine1 so that they could not come to the surface to breathe air nor escape on to the land1 and that they grew to be very big tadpoles1 much larger than the size at which tadpoles usually change into frogs4 ,i tried to repeat this experiment when ,i was a boy--without success--and ,i have never heard of any one having succeeded with it4#d ,it is not cited or credited at the present day4 ,but some thirty years ago it was discovered that something of this kind happens in the case of the ,mexican salamander4 ,the ,english 8newts0 and the so-called salamanders are creatures of lizard-like shape1 which are closely related to frogs and toads4 ,they lay eggs in the water1 and the young are tadpoles1 with beautiful large plume-like gills on each side of the head4 ,the tadpole of the common ,english newt may either lose its gills and leave the water in the summer1 if it was hatched early in the season1 or may remain longer in the gilled condition1 and grow to more than two inches in length1 if it was hatched late4 ,in certain lakes in ,mexico there is a tadpole-like creature with gill-plumes1 which grows to eight inches or more in length1 and becomes adult and breeds when in that condition4 ,it is known as the 8axolotl10 and was considered to be a distinct kind of gill-bearing adult tadpole-like animal similar to some few others which are known 7,siren and ,necturus74 ,when1 however1 they were brought to ,europe and kept in a cage with only a small provision of water1 some of these axolotls were found to leave the water1 lose their gills1 change their colour and shape in several respects1 and become1 in fact1 transformed into a terrestrial salamander1 of a kind already known in ,north ,america4 ,it was thus established that the axolotl of the ,mexican lake is nothing more nor less than the tadpole of a species of salamander or newt1 which has 8given up0 the habit of leaving the water1 and actually grows to full size1 and lays its eggs without becoming converted into a gill-less land-dwelling creature6 ,the greatest interest was excited forty years ago1 when the discovery was made that1 by gradually drying up the water in which the axolotl is kept1 it can be induced to resume its transformation1 and become changed into a salamander4 ,thus1 the notion of converting the tadpoles of the common frog into very big tadpoles by preventing them from leaving the water1 seems not to have been an unreasonable one4 ,there are some very big kinds of tadpoles1 which are the young of toads of other kinds than our ,british species4 ,in ,england we have only two kinds of frogs--the common frog and the edible frog--and two kinds of toads1 the common toad and the natter-jack or crawling toad 7distinguished by the pale line along the middle of his back74 ,but on the ,continent of ,europe there are others besides those which we have4 ,there is the beautiful little green tree-frog1 and there are the fire-bellied toad1 and the obstetric toad 7the male of which carries the eggs after they are laid1 coiled in a string around his hind legs72 and then there is the little spur-heeled toad 7,pelobates fuscus71 which smells like garlic1 and is remarkable for having a broad1 horny claw on his heel4 ,this toad is only about two inches and a half long 7measured from snout to vent7 when full grown1 but its tadpole often exceeds four inches in length1 and in rare cases attains the gigantic size of seven inches1 so that it actually shrinks in size when it ceases to be a tadpole1 and takes on the adult form4 ,many years ago ,i found some of these huge tadpoles in a pond near ,antwerp1 and thought they must be a realisation of ,dr4 ,edwards' experiment4 ,they were enormous1 and it was only on bringing them home that ,i heard for the first time of the spur-heeled toad and its gigantic tadpoles 7,fig4 #dd ,c74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dd4--,outline drawings of three ,european tadpoles of the actual size of nature4 ,a1 a full-sized tadpole of the ,common ,frog1 ,rana temporaria1 one inch and three-tenths long4 ,b1 a fair-sized tadpole of the ,obstetric ,toad1 ,alytes obstetricans1 common near ,paris1 two inches and four-fifths long4 ,c1 a tadpole of the ,garlic ,toad1 ,pelobates fuscus1 common in ,france1 ,belgium1 and ,germany1 four inches and a half long4 ,specimens of as much as seven inches in length have been captured4 ,among frogs and toads from distant lands are some which bring forth their young alive1 the female retaining the eggs in her body instead of laying them in water4 ,the black-and-yellow salamander of ,europe 7which1 like the common toad1 has a highly poisonous secretion in the skin7 retains its eggs inside its body until the tadpoles are well advanced in development1 when they pass from her--about seventy in number--into the water4 ,in the closely allied black ,alpine salamander only two1 out of thirty or more eggs produced1 develop4 ,these two remain inside their mother until they have ceased to have gills and have become terrestrial air-breathing young salamanders like their mother4 ,the ,alpine salamander lives where there are no pools suitable for the tadpoles1 and so they never enter the water1 but remain inside the mother's body4 ,some experiments have recently been made with these two species of salamander by varying the conditions as to moisture in which the young grow to maturity1 and results of considerable interest have been obtained4 ,one of the most curious arrangements in regard to the young is seen in the ,surinam toad1 of which we had living specimens five or six years ago in the ,london ,zoological ,gardens4 ,in this toad the skin of the female's back becomes very soft and plastic at the breeding-season4 ,as she lays the eggs the male takes them one by one and presses them into the soft skin of her back1 into which they sink4 ,the eggs are thus embedded separately to the number of fifty or sixty1 each in a little pit in the mother's back4 ,they slowly develop1 each in its 8pit10 the orifice of which is closed by a sort of lid4 ,when the young have grown to the condition of little toads1 they push open the lids of the pits and swim out of their mother's back4 ,specimens of these toads1 with the eggs and young1 in various stages1 embedded in their mother's back1 are to be seen in most museums of natural history4 ,toads and frogs catch their prey by throwing forward the sticky tongue which is attached near the front of the lower jaw1 and so lick up their victim with startling abruptness4 ,the ,cape frog of ,south ,africa 7,xenopus71 like the ,surinam toad 7,pipa71 has no tongue1 and is also remarkable for possessing hard1 pointed ends to its toes4 ,it rarely1 if ever1 leaves the water4 ,,footnotes #d ,i am told by ,mr4 ,boulenger1 of the ,natural ,history ,museum1 who is the greatest authority on these animals1 that the explanation of this is that unawares ,dr4 ,edwards made use of the young tadpoles of the obstetric toad 7,alytes71 which is very common near ,paris1 though it does not occur in ,england4 ,these tadpoles regularly grow to be three inches and more in length 7see ,fig4 #dd ,b74 ,dr4 ,edwards thought he had used the tadpoles of the common frog1 but had1 by accident1 got hold of those of ,alytes4 ,,xxiii ,,about ,,the ,,stars ,the young astronomer in ,two on a ,tower--that bitter-sweet story in which our great novelist ,hardy tells of the weird fascination with which the study of the stars appeals to a sensitive nature1 exclaims3 8,the imaginary picture of the sky as the concavity of a dome whose base extends from horizon to horizon of our earth1 is grand1 simply grand1 and ,i wish ,i had never got beyond looking at it in that way4 ,but the actual sky is a horror40 8,there is10 he continues1 8a size at which dignity begins2 further on there is a size at which grandeur begins2 further on there is a size at which solemnity begins2 further on a size at which awfulness begins2 further on a size at which ghastliness begins4 ,that size faintly approaches the size of the stellar universe40 8,if you are cheerful and wish to remain so10 he concludes1 8leave the study of astronomy alone4 ,of all the sciences1 it alone deserves the character of the terrible4 ,if1 on the other hand1 you are restless and anxious about the future1 study astronomy at once--your troubles will be reduced amazingly4 ,but your study will reduce them in a singular way1 by reducing the importance of everything1 so that the science is still terrible1 even as a panacea40 ,the facts revealed by the study of astronomy which have this feature of ghastliness and terror relate to the enormous distances in space at which the stars are placed1 and to their enormous number4 ,one may sometimes see on the coast or in some marshland a 8pile-driver0 at work4 ,at a quarter of a mile distance you can see the great weight hoisted up by cranks and chains above the 8pile10 which stands upright but not yet driven very far into the ground4 ,you see the weight let go2 it drops vertically on to the pile1 and you watch it rising some two or three feet on its return journey upwards1 when suddenly you hear the sound of a sharp blow1 and only after an effort realise that the sound was made more than a second ago1 and that the workmen have had time to raise the weight #c ft4 before the sound travelled to you4 ,sound travels less than a quarter of a mile in a second4 ,light also takes time to travel1 but it advances ever so much more quickly than sound1 namely1 #ahf1jjj miles 7and a bit more7 in a second4 ,it is1 therefore1 easy to calculate the number of miles traversed by light in a minute or in a year4 ,there are thirty million seconds in a year4 ,the light of the sun takes eight minutes to reach the earth1 so1 instead of stating the number of miles of this distance1 we may say that the sun is eight 8light-minutes0 distant from the earth 7about #hi1jjj1jjj miles74 ,this is an enormous figure4 ,the sun and his planets may be represented proportionately by a golden ball a foot in diameter1 and a number of little spheres varying in size from that of a dried pea to a boy's marble1 placed at distances from the golden ball varying from #ej ft4 to #bjj ft4 ,such a model is shown in the ,museum of ,practical ,geology in ,jermyn ,street1 ,london4 ,minute and scattered far apart as the planets of the solar system appear when thus represented1 yet the solar system is a compact little group when we come to consider the distance from it of the other suns--the 8fixed stars10 which exist literally in millions beyond it4 ,the nearest of these stars 7its name is ,alpha ,centauri7 is no less than three light-years distant from us4 ,a light-year is five and a half billion 7that is1 five and a half million million7 miles4 ,the nearest sun to us after our own sun is1 therefore1 about sixteen billion miles away1 and if its light were suddenly extinguished1 we should not know of its extinction for three years4 ,how many--we may well ask--how many of these fixed stars--suns like our own--are there8 ,roughly speaking1 we can see with the naked eye1 reckoning both the northern hemisphere and the southern together 7for the stars seen from the former are other than those seen from the latter71 about #hjjj4 ,not many after all1 one is inclined to say4 ,but stop a minute and hear what the telescope reveals4 ,with the best telescope about one hundred million can be seen1 less and less brilliant and more difficult to see in proportion to their remoteness4 ,and now we go further even than that4 ,for within the last thirty years the great science of astronomy has been rejuvenated by the application of photography to its task4 ,the invention of the 8dry0 plate1 a sensitive photographic plate which does not spoil by prolonged exposure as the 8wet0 plate does1 enables the astronomer to keep his telescope fixed by slow-moving clockwork on to a given region of the sky for four or five hours or more1 and the very faint stars1 invisible by the aid of the most powerful telescope--stars the light from which is so feeble that it could not affect the plate in a few seconds or minutes1 have time by the continued action of their faint light to print themselves on the plate and sign1 as it were1 a definite record of their existence for man to see and measure1 though they are themselves for ever invisible to his eye4 ,it is not possible to say how many may be recorded in this way by photography2 it depends on length of exposure4 ,but some thousands of millions of stars can certainly be so recorded4 ,these 8unnumbered hosts0 are of various degrees of brightness1 and by methods which astronomers have invented1 but cannot be described here1 it is actually known how they differ in size from one another 7many are far bigger than our sun71 and with some approach to certainty1 how far off they are4 ,stars of four1 five1 ten1 and more 8light-years0 away from us are well known4 ,astronomers actually estimate the decreasing abundance in space of stars as one passes from a sphere or spatial envelope of fifty light-years' distance to one of #bej light-years4 ,finally1 reasons have been given of late for considering many of the 8photographic0 stars to be at a distance of #cb1jjj light-years4 ,i will not produce the awful figure in miles1 but the reader can refer back to the number of billion miles in a light-year6 ,and what is beyond that8 ,no one has seen1 nor can any one guess4 ,we cannot imagine a limit to space2 neither can we imagine unending space dotted with an infinity of suns6 ,it is a legitimate and1 indeed1 a necessary inference1 from what we know of these millions of suns--intensely hot1 light-giving spheres--that they1 too1 like our own sun1 are accompanied by much smaller bodies1 planets which circle round them1 as our sun's planets circle round him4 ,those planets have cooled down1 as have those of the solar system1 and so do not give out light4 ,in any case1 they are too small to be seen at so vast a distance4 ,it is1 on the whole1 probable that the changes on some--indeed1 many--of these planets have led to the production of living material similar to1 but not necessarily identical with1 that on this earth4 ,it is1 on the whole1 more likely than not that there are intelligent beings existing on the planets of thousands of suns invisible to our eyes3 suns revealed only by the print on a photographic plate of their light1 which has taken thousands of years to travel from the regions of unseen obscurity to us4 ,to have arrived by sober observation and reasoning at this conception is1 indeed1 a tremendous flight of human thought and ingenuity6 ,it is the courage1 the audacity--one may almost call it the superhuman calmness--of astronomers1 in the face of this truly overwhelming immensity--that not only redeems their study from the oppressive and terrifying character with which it at first assails the human spirit1 but gives to their proceedings and discoveries1 so far as the ordinary man can follow them1 an unequalled fascination4 ,the daring1 the patience1 the accuracy1 and the supreme intellectual gifts of the great astronomers rightly fill other men with pride in the fact that there are human minds capable of revealing things of such stupendous vastness and of indicating their order and relation to one another4 ,it is a splendid fact1 and one which must give hope and courage to all men1 that the astronomer's mind does not totter--it is equal to his task4 ,astronomers are1 in fact1 triumphant3 they are very far indeed from suffering from the depression which ,mr4 ,hardy's young star-gazer experienced4 ,among the many conclusions of astronomers as to the movements of the 8heavenly bodies0 none is more strange and mysterious in its suggestion than that recently arrived at to the effect that in all this vast array of millions of stars1 the limits of which we can neither discover nor imagine1 there are two huge streams moving in opposite directions1 and in one or other all the stars are involved4 ,whence do they start8 ,where are they going8 ,there is no answer4 ,another conclusion1 which is arrived at quite simply by the examination with the spectroscope of the light coming from the star named ,vega by astronomers1 is that our sun and its attendant planets are moving towards that star4 ,it is true that it is many billions of miles away from us1 but we are rushing towards it somewhat rapidly according to mundane notions--namely1 at the rate of nineteen miles a second6 ,that1 ,i think1 is a fact likely to make the sentimental young astronomer as miserable as any of the records of immensity4 ,in fact1 the only comfort to be got in view of this fact is in the enormous distances which separate us from other stars1 and the length of time which must elapse before any serious consequence can ensue from this alarming career4 ,and there is further the probability that the general result of attractions and repulsions in the vast roadway of space will1 when the time comes1 take us safely past ,vega1 just as a motor-car passes safely through the traffic and obstructing 8refuges0 and lamp-standards of the ,london streets as you recline in it1 abandoned to the natural forces described as 8chauffeurs40 ,the spectroscope has done no less than photography to reanimate the study of astronomy4 ,the fact is that1 with these two helping means of observation1 it has become possible for the ordinary man to witness and appreciate some of the discoveries of astronomers1 though the true and accurate handling of all that is revealed concerning the stars is essentially a matter of measurement1 and therefore only to be dealt with strictly by mathematicians4 ,the desire to obtain ever more and more accurate measurement of the movement and the size of the heavenly bodies is the mainspring of all astronomical discovery1 and1 indeed1 the attempt to gain more and more detailed measurement of the factors at work is the motive--more or less immediate--of all accurate investigation of nature4 ,recently the astronomers of the ,royal ,observatory at ,greenwich have photographed the new comet 7the third of #aijg7 in a way in which no comet has ever been photographed before4 ,on many consecutive nights for several weeks they were at work photographing it on the dry plate1 at intervals of two or three hours1 and the pictures obtained 7which ,i have seen at the rooms of the ,royal ,astronomical ,society7 show the most wonderful changes of form of its tail1 so that they look more like the record of the changes of some living creature than those of a heavenly body4 ,already1 in ,october #aiji1 ,halley's comet1 which has been anxiously awaited1 has been seen1 though it is not expected to be bright and visible to all until ,may #aiaj4 ,comets are among the exceptional delights of the astronomer--that is to say1 big comets1 for two or three small comets visible only by a telescope or by photography turn up every year4 ,some comets are expected visitors1 others make their appearance quite casually1 some because they apparently have no regular period1 some because that period is as yet undiscovered4 ,edmund ,halley was the first to discover the law of movement of a comet and to predict the return in #ageh of that seen in #afhb4 ,he did not live to witness the verification of his prediction4 ,this comet1 now called ,halley's comet1 was1 he conjectured1 the same which had appeared in #aeca and in #afjg4 ,his prediction of its return proved to be a year out 7owing to perturbations caused by ,neptune and ,uranus1 two planets undiscovered in his day71 but it appeared in #agei1 and went round once again and reappeared in #ahce1 and now is eagerly expected by astronomers to appear in full brilliancy in #aiaj4 ,its period is about seventy-five or seventy-six years4 ,,xxiv ,,comets ,a comet is so called from the hair-like stream of light or 8tail10 which stretches to a greater or less length from its bright head or 8nucleus40 ,a large comet1 when seen to greatest advantage1 may have a tail which stretches across one-third of the 8vault of heaven10 and may be reckoned by astronomers at as much as one hundred and twenty million miles long4 ,donati's comet--which some of my readers will remember1 as ,i do1 when it visited us in #aheh--was of this imposing size4 ,halley's comet1 on the other hand1 when it was last 8here10 namely1 in #ahce1 showed a tail estimated by astronomers to be fifty million miles long4 ,the tail was more than twice as long when ,halley's comet appeared in #adef4 ,there was a big comet 8on view0 in #ahaa--the year celebrated for its wine--and in recent times a fine comet appeared in #ahfa1 and another 7,coggia's comet7 in #ahgd4 ,the ancient records of comets are naturally full of exaggeration4 ,up to ,milton's time--two hundred and fifty years ago--they caused the greatest terror and excitement by their sudden appearance in the sky4 ,this is due to the fact that mankind from the very earliest periods of which we have record has not merely gazed at the 8starry host0 by night in solemn wonder1 but even in early prehistoric times studied and watched the stars so as to know much of their movements and regular comings and goings4 ,the earliest priests1 the earliest 8wise men10 were those who knew the stars and could fix the seasons by their place2 the earliest temples--,stonehenge1 and others older still--were star-temples or observatories1 and their priests were astronomers4 ,to such a pitch did reverence for star-knowledge attain that our ancestors confused the astral signs of changing season and cycle with the cause itself of change1 and attributed all kinds of mundane events and each man's fate to 8the influence of the stars40 ,hence the sudden appearance of a flaming comet was held to be a portent1 and was always supposed either to foretell or even to produce some very unpleasant event1 such as a big war or a pestilence1 or the death of some one supposed to be of consequence4 ,the earliest ,greek poetry enshrines the superstition1 which is handed on by ,virgil1 and finally by ,milton4 ,in ,pope's translation of the ,iliad we find the helmet of the terrible ,achilles described as shining 8,like the red star1 that from his flaming hair ,shakes down diseases1 pestilence1 and war40 ,and ,milton1 in #affe1 in his ,paradise ,lost1 wrote-- 8,on th'other side1 ,incenst with indignation1 ,satan stood ,unterrifi'd2 and like a comet burn'd1 ,that fires the length of ,ophiuchus huge ,in th' ,arctic sky1 and from his horrid hair ,shakes pestilence and war40 ,in this year of the celebration of the tercentenary of ,milton's birth1 it is not a little curious to find that ,john ,milton1 himself a scholar of ,st4 ,paul's ,school1 wrote those lines when ,edmund ,halley1 the future ,astronomer ,royal1 had just entered the same great school1 then standing in ,st4 ,paul's ,churchyard1 as it did when ,i was 8one of the fishes10 and used to see men hanging in the ,old ,bailey--,i once saw five#e--on ,monday mornings as ,i passed on my way to the school4 ,to a ,pauline it is not without significance that the return of ,halley's comet is awaited within a year of ,milton's tercentenary1 and that the greatest astronomer and the greatest poet of their age were ,london boys and ,paulines4 ,ancient records tell of comets of gigantic size1 of the shape of a sword1 the head as big as the moon1 and so on4 ,there is no reason to suppose that within historic times there have been any much bigger than that of #aheh4 ,milton1 in the lines above quoted1 was not referring to an imaginary comet1 but to one which actually did appear when he was a boy of ten 7#afah71 in the constellation called ,ophiuchus4 ,it was of enormous size1 the tail being recorded as longer even than that of #aheh4 ,it was held responsible by educated and learned men of the day for disasters4 ,evelyn says in his diary1 8,the effects of that comet1 #afah1 still working in the prodigious revolutions now beginning in ,europe1 especially in ,germany40 ,the comet of #affe was1 with equal assurance1 regarded as the cause of the ,great ,plague of ,london4 ,in that year was published the first number of the ,philosophical ,transactions of the ,royal ,society of ,london1 then recently founded 8for the promotion of natural knowledge40 ,it contains an account of a paper by a learned ,french gentleman1 ,m4 ,auzout1 in which an attempt is made to predict the movements among the stars of the comet of #affd4 ,astronomers had long known and been able to predict the movements of the planets and the swinging of the constellations1 but1 as the ,french author observes1 8all the world had been hitherto persuaded that the motions of comets were so irregular that they could not be reduced to any laws40 ,he also hoped1 by examining the movements of the comets of #affd and #affe1 to determine 8the great question whether the earth moves or not40 ,at that time the earth was 8suspected0 to move round the sun1 but no proof of that motion had been given4 ,m4 ,auzout did not succeed in his laudable attempt1 simply because ,newton's great discovery of the law of gravitation had not then been made4 ,edmund ,halley was the intimate friend and passionate admirer of ,newton4 ,he paid out of his own pocket for the publication of ,newton's ,principia by the ,royal ,society in #afhf1 the society having expended all its available funds in printing a great work on ,fishes 7which shows how at the first1 as now1 the society cared for the whole range of the study of ,nature74 ,halley was able to show that comets move regularly round the sun1 in obedience to the same law of gravitation which controls the movements of the planets and of our earth itself2 so that many of them are regular members of the solar system4 ,halley especially calculated out the form of the orbit of the comet of #afhb as an ellipse1 and the time of its journey and recurrence1 or 8period10 as it is called1 which he showed to be about seventy-five or seventy-six years4 ,he predicted its recurrence in #ageh4 ,halley died in #agdb1 at the ripe age of eighty-six1 having1 amongst other good deeds1 founded the ,royal ,society ,club1 which still dines every ,thursday in the session4 ,his comet reappeared in #agei1 a few months later than he had1 owing to incomplete details used in his calculation1 expected2 but the accuracy of his scheme of its movement was demonstrated4 ,it duly appeared again in #ahce1 and it is now awaited in the spring of #aiaj4 ,halley himself had identified his comet with that of #afjg and of #aeca1 and lately1 by the aid of records from an ancient seat of astronomical observation--actually from ,china--it has been traced back to the month of ,may in the year #bdj ,b4,c4 ,it has caused consternation and terror times enough since then1 of some of which we have record4 ,finally1 it has become the leading instance of the triumph of scientific knowledge and accuracy over ignorance and superstition4 ,halley's comet caused great alarm in ,rome in the year #ff ,a4,d4 ,a thousand years later 7#ajff7 it was seen when ,william the ,conqueror was preparing to descend on the coast of ,england1 and is actually represented in the ,bayeux tapestry4 ,a number of men are drawn 7or rather 8stitched071 with fingers pointed and eyes raised to a shape in the sky which resembles a star-fish with a large triangular-ribbed petticoat attached to it1 ending in eight flames or tongues 7,fig4 #de74 ,the picture is labelled 8,isti mirant stella40 ,there is now no doubt1 as accurate calculations have demonstrated1 that ,william the ,conqueror's 8star0 was ,halley's comet--a fact which must give its reappearance in #aiaj an additional interest in the eyes of ,englishmen4 ,the shape given to the representations of stars in old pictures and engravings is a puzzle4 ,why do they represent a star by the shape of a star-fish8 ,no star ever looks like that1 or produces a picture of that shape on the retina4 ,the thing is purely conventional4 ,the shape which we call 8star-shaped0--a term we apply to flowers and other things--is not in the least like a real star as seen by an unprejudiced person4 ,what one really sees is an ill-defined point of light4 ,the pretended conventional star of ancient drawings perhaps arose from the simple artifice of picturing tongue-like flames around or upon any representation of a fire or a source of light--8to show what it was meant to be40 ,then the notions of perfection and symmetry in regard to the celestial bodies led to the 8tongues0 being arranged for the purposes of draughtsmanship as perfectly symmetrical-pointed rays of a six- or eight-limbed geometrical design--and latterly it is possible that the mystical figure known as the 8pentacle0 was utilised by astrologers and others as the emblem of a star4 ,however they arose1 neither the weird and astonishing representations of medival times nor the geometrical decorative 8stars0 of later date seem to have any relation to an attempt to represent a star as it really appears to the human eye and the interpreting brain behind it4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #de4--;,copied from a portion of the ,bayeux ,tapestry1 showing ,harold's men looking with superstitious wonder at the comet which appeared in the heavens immediately before the departure of ,william the ,conqueror's expedition to ,england in ,a4,d4 #ajff4 ,that comet was none other than ,halley's comet1 and has now returned1 and is visible from the earth for the twelfth time since the ,conquest4 7,from a lecture on ,halley's comet1 delivered in #aijh1 by ,professor ,h4 ,h4 ,turner1 ,f4,r4,s41 ,halley's successor in ,oxford1 published by the ,clarendon ,press47 ,the orbits of comets1 says ,professor ,turner1 of ,oxford1 in a delightful lecture delivered in ,dublin in the summer of #aijh1 from which ,i have culled many interesting facts and presented them to my readers1 8differ from those of the planets in being far more highly elliptical4 ,our own path round the sun is nearly a circle1 so that our distance from him remains nearly the same all the year round2 but the distance of a comet from the sun varies greatly from #8perihelion1' when it is near1 and consequently bright1 to #8aphelion1' when he is so distant and faint that we lose sight of him40 ,the sun is not at the centre of the ellipse described by a comet's path1 but is quite near to one end of it1 so that comets approach the sun far more closely than do the planets1 some taking so close a turn round the sun that the heat from it to which they are exposed is #bjjj times as great as that which the earth receives4 ,if the orbit of a comet is really elliptic1 then there at last comes a time1 though it may be only after thousands of years1 when the comet1 having rounded the sun at close quarters1 and journeyed off into space1 has his journey brought to a turning-point at the other end of the ellipse1 and begins to draw near again1 advancing towards the sun4 ,the length of the orbit of ,halley's comet is about #cbee million miles1 and the breadth at its broadest is about #hjj million miles1 and he takes about thirty-eight years to travel the full length 7along the curve7 and thirty-eight years to come back again6 ,other comets have other lengths and breadths of orbit1 and take longer or shorter periods to go round4 ,but the conditions of attraction affecting a comet may be such that the return journey never occurs4 ,they may be such that the comet goes on indefinitely travelling away from our sun1 until he is caught by some other star1 and his orbit changes its shape1 with the new sun as attracting centre4 ,these are the 8wandering comets0 as distinct from the 8periodic comets10 which have been shown to conform to ,halley's scheme of their movement and recurrence4 ,and now some one will ask1 perhaps impatiently1 8,what1 after all1 is a comet80 ,we have seen that many are continuously1 and others casually1 members of the solar system4 ,what do they consist of8 ,spectrum-analysis shows that they consist chiefly of the chemical element carbon4#f ,though they have weight1 and are attracted by the sun1 yet they seem to be for all their size and terrifying shape and glare incredibly light and airy things4 ,herschel declared that the tail of a big comet probably consisted of but two or three pounds of solid matter--diffused1 rarefied1 and luminous4 ,and the head or nucleus certainly does not weigh many hundreds of tons4 ,in the eighteenth century astronomers observed a comet pass right in among the moons of the planet ,jupiter4 ,you might expect the moons to be terribly knocked about by such an impact4 ,they were not2 they were not deflected in the smallest appreciable degree from their position and regular movement6 ,one is naturally inclined to look upon the tail of a comet as something like the smoke of a railway engine trailing behind the advancing 8head40 ,as a matter of fact1 it does not always trail behind1 but is always turned away from the sun1 so that when the comet is travelling away from the sun the tail is in front6 ,it is now held that the tail is caused by the radiant energy 7light and heat7 of the sun1 blowing1 as it were1 the lighter particles from the incandescent head1 and causing them to spread out in a long track of variable shape4 ,the photographs of the third comet of the year #aijh show that the tail can vary to an astonishing extent and with great rapidity--that is to say1 in four or five hours4 ,it is seen in those photographs as a scimitar-like curved blade1 then with a second head or nucleus behind the leading one1 then actually bent like the letter ,z1 and then divided into seven distinct diverging 8plumes10 and then it returns to its former simple shape--all in the course of a few days4 ,astronomers have now shown that there is a close connection between comets and the showers of 8shooting stars0 or meteors which frequently strike the earth's atmosphere4 ,it is considered probable that comets eventually break down into streams of meteors1 and that their 8life0 7if one may use that term7 is1 relatively to that of other heavenly bodies 7which are all undergoing change and1 in many cases1 decay71 not a very long one4 ,but there are no facts at present known which enable us to tell whether a given comet is young or old1 and it would have been a decided shock had it been found that ,halley's comet1 which has so happily spent every seventy-sixth year with us for so many centuries1 had 8burst up10 or by 8indisposition0 had been unable to pay his usual visit as expected in #aiaj4 ,,footnotes #e ,the pirates of the ,flowery ,land4 #f ,i am indebted to ,mr4 ,rolston1 of the ,solar ,physics ,observatory1 ,south ,kensington1 for some information on this matter4 ,generally speaking1 it appears that the spectra of these bodies indicate carbon--in some form--as the principal constituent4 ,as to the particular form of carbon1 there is still a considerable doubt1 so much that1 in describing the spectrum of ,morehouse's comet1 ,professor ,frost says 7,astrophysical ,journal1 xxix41 p4 #ei1 #aiji73--8,we avoid the still unsettled question of the #8carbon' bands 7of the so-called #8,swan' spectrum7 which have been so often ascribed to a hydrocarbon1 specifically acetylene1 and we use for them the simple designation #8carbon4'0 ,in addition to this 8carbon0 there is the cyanogen spectrum present in most cases4 ,sodium and iron have been detected in the spectra of some few comets1 e4g4 ,wells 7#ahhb1 ii471 whilst ,holmes 7#ahib7 showed only continuous spectrum4 ,an interesting suggestion is made by ,newall1 namely1 that the spectrum is not indicative of the comet's composition1 but of that of the medium through which the body passes4 ,thus the persistent identification of the cyanogen bands in cometary spectra is attributed1 primarily1 to the 8heating up0 of cyanogen existing1 free1 in circum-solar space4 ,till #aijg most of the cometary spectrograms showed only the 8carbon0 and cyanogen radiations1 but in ,daniel's comet of that year1 and in ,morehouse's of #aiji1 other lines were detected for which origins have not1 as yet1 been found4 ,thus1 some form of carbon unknown 7occasionally7 sodium and iron seems to sum up our present knowledge of cometary composition4 ,,xxv ,,about ,,cholera ,what is this terrible disease which every few years travels from the banks of the ,indian ,ganges1 where it is always present1 and makes its way to one or more of the great cities of ,europe1 killing its thousands with horrifying rapidity8 ,the word 8cholera0 is used by the great ,greek physician of antiquity1 ,hippocrates1 and by his followers down to the days of our own ,sydenham1 to describe a malady which occurs commonly in summer1 is often of severe character1 but rarely fatal1 and is characterised by the exudation from the walls of the intestine of copious fluid1 usually accompanied by vomiting and sometimes by 8cramps40 ,this malady is now distinguished by physicians as 8simple cholera10 or ,european cholera1 the last name being misleading1 since the disease occurs all over the world4 ,it is caused by a special microbe1 which multiplies in the intestines and produces a poison4 ,other microbes produce similar results4 ,one which causes luminosity in foul salt water has been found to produce cholera-like results when cultivated in a state of purity and swallowed by man4 ,other poisons besides those produced by microbes set up a sort of 8cholera0 in animals and man4 ,drugs of both mineral and vegetable origin have this effect1 as every one knows1 and are used in small quantities to produce purging4 ,microbes which are noted for other obvious effects which they produce by the poisons they form in man's intestines--such as the microbe of typhoid fever--also produce cholera-like purging4 ,but the name 8cholera10 or 8the cholera10 is now applied without any further qualification to what would be more correctly described as 8,indian cholera10 or 8epidemic cholera40 ,it is a disease which first became known to ,europeans in ,india in #ahag1 less than a hundred years ago4 ,it resembles 8simple0 cholera in its general features1 but is usually much more violent in its attack1 and often causes complete collapse in two or three hours from its onset1 and death in as many more4 ,the main point about it is1 however1 that it is a quickly spreading 8epidemic0 disease2 it invades a whole population1 and travels from place to place along definite routes4 ,although the outbreak of cholera in ,india in #ahag was the first to attract the attention of ,europeans1 it was nothing new in ,india1 and was recognised in distant ages by ,hindu writers4 ,its usual name on the delta of the ,ganges is 8medno-neidan40 ,ninety per cent4 of the population perished of cholera in some districts of ,india in #ahag1 and ,english troops were attacked by it with terrible results4 ,cholera gradually made its way in subsequent years through ,persia to ,russia1 and at last to ,western ,europe2 but it was not until late in the year #ahca that ,indian cholera arrived for the first time in ,england1 and in the following year it caused something like a panic4 ,there have been at least three subsequent outbursts of ,indian cholera 7before that of the year #aijh7 which have reached ,europe1 and two of these have reached ,england and caused profound alarm and anxiety4 ,that in #ahed reached us just before the ,crimean ,war1 and caused such rapid and numerous deaths in ,london1 especially in the ,west ,end 7,st4 ,james's1 ,westminster71 that the corpses were removed in carts as in the days of the plague4 ,it was then that the ,broad ,street pump became famous1 and the carefully demonstrated history of a cesspool leaking into the well of the pump1 of the existence of a cholera patient in the house to which the cesspool was attached and of the infection with cholera of healthy people who sent all the way from ,hampstead to fetch what they thought was the beautifully pure1 cool1 and palatable water of ,broad ,street1 ,st4 ,james's1 caused a most vivid and salutary impression on the public mind4 ,the 8water-carriage0 of the cholera infection was established as a fact1 and the subsequent abolition of surface wells and pumps1 as well as of cesspools1 in ,london and other cities was the result4 ,indeed1 the active development of sanitation and sanitary measures of all kinds in ,great ,britain may be traced to the panic caused by the cholera in #ahed and to the well-founded conviction that it was in the power of the community1 by the construction of sewers and the provision of untainted water-supply1 to protect itself against such disaster in the future4 ,years passed by1 and still the actual germ of cholera was unknown4 ,in ,india it was not even admitted that its diffusion was especially connected with water-supply4 ,the methods of observing with the microscope those minute swarming organisms which are called 8bacteria0 became immensely improved4 ,they were isolated1 cultivated in purity1 and the activity of a vast number of different kinds of different shapes1 sizes1 and modes of growth was ascertained4 ,they were distinguished according to their shape as bacilli1 spirilla1 micrococci1 and so on1 and separate kinds were characterised--one producing ordinary putrefaction1 another the souring of milk1 another the 8cheesing0 of the same fluid1 another the destruction of teeth and of bone1 another the terrible anthrax of cattle or wool-sorters' disease1 another 7a spiral thread in the blood this67 the recurrent fever of ,east ,europe--each producing its own special poison or other chemical substance4 ,so it went on till ,koch1 of ,berlin1 discovered the bacillus of tubercle and ,hansen that of leprosy4 ,others had failed to find what ,koch now found as the result of a special mission on behalf of the ,german ,imperial ,government to ,india 7undertaken as nearly as ,i can recollect about the year #ahhd7--namely1 the living organism 7,fig4 #df7 which by its growth in man's intestine causes ,indian cholera4 ,koch found a spiral threadlike 8bacterium0 in cholera patients1 which readily breaks up into little curved segments like a comma 7each less than the one ten-thousandth of an inch in length71 and swarms by the million in the intestines of such patients4 ,he showed that it can be cultivated in dilute gelatinised broth1 and obtained in spoonfuls4 ,it was1 however1 only with great difficulty that he could produce cholera in animals by administering this pure concentrated growth of cholera germs to them4 ,then a most courageous thing was done4 ,a great and very acute investigator of cholera in ,munich1 ,pettenkofer by name--who did not believe that ,koch's comma-bacillus was really the effective germ of cholera--himself swallowed a whole spoonful--many millions--of the cultivated cholera germ4 ,his assistants did the same--and none of them suffered any ill effect6 ,few1 if any1 of the investigators of this question gave up1 as a consequence1 their conviction that ,koch's bacillus was the real and active cause of cholera4 ,they supposed that it must be necessary for the human intestine to be in a favourable condition--an unhealthy condition--for the ,koch's bacillus to multiply in it4 ,it was by this time known that bacteria of all kinds are exceedingly sensitive in regard to the acidity or alkalinity1 the oxygenation or de-oxygenation of the fluids and organic substances in which they can1 when exactly suited1 multiply with tremendous rapidity4 ,thus the tubercle bacillus cannot be cultivated on pure blood-serum1 but if a trace of glycerine be added to the serum the tubercle bacillus grows1 divides1 multiplies like yeast in a brewing-vat4 ,a little later ,pettenkofer's audacious experiment was repeated by ,dr4 ,metchnikoff in ,paris4 ,he swallowed a cultivated mass of the cholera germ on three successive days1 and had no injurious result4 ,others in his laboratory did the same1 with the result of only a slight intestinal disturbance4 ,but of a dozen who thus put the matter to the proof in the ,institut ,pasteur1 one individual acquired an attack of true ,indian cholera1 accompanied by all the most violent symptoms1 which very nearly caused his death4 ,this experiment put an end to all discussion1 and demonstrated1 once for all1 that the comma-bacillus 7or spirillum7 of ,koch is really capable of producing ,indian cholera1 and is the actual agent of this disease4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #df4--;a1 b1 c1 d4 ,the cholera spirillum1 or comma-bacillus of ,koch2 a1 spirillum stage of growth1 with vibrating flagellum1 by which it is driven along with screw-like movement2 b1 the spirillum has lost its flagellum1 and is motionless3 it is marked off into separate segments2 c1 the segments have separated from one another as comma-shaped pieces1 hence the name 8comma-bacillus0 given to it by ,koch2 d1 a number of comma-bacilli of cholera which have developed tails of vibratile protoplasm 7like a single cilium71 and are swimming about1 being driven by the lashing of these tails2 e1 a cubical packet of sarcina2 f1 a double row of the spherical units 7cocci or micrococci71 which form a sarcina-packet2 g1 similar cocci separated4 ,the circumstances which determine whether the cholera-bacillus1 when it gets into the human intestine1 will develop and cause an attack of cholera1 or will simply be digested or will remain alive1 but inactive1 for a time1 have yet to be exactly determined4 ,obviously a knowledge of them must be of immense importance4 ,certain experiments show that other minute parasitic organisms--especially those called ,sarcina 7,fig4 #df1 e71 which often1 but by no means always1 are abundant in the human intestine--favour the growth of the cholera-bacillus--in fact1 prepare the ground or soil1 as we may call it1 for that deadly organism4 ,this has been shown experimentally by sowing cholera-bacillus on plates of slightly acid gelatine1 or jelly4 ,it will not grow on this1 but if at certain points on the surface of the jelly the ,sarcina organism is planted1 then it is found that all around the points where the ,sarcina is growing the cholera-bacillus also flourishes and multiplies4 ,and it seems probable that1 just as there are microbes which are adjuvant or helpful to the cholera microbe1 so there are others which are repressive or destructive of it4 ,we know that this is the case with regard to some other microbes--namely1 that a microbe which will flourish abundantly on a prepared jelly if it is alone1 is entirely repressed and arrested in its growth by the presence of one other ascertained kind4 ,it is1 in fact1 thus that some of the commoner putrefactive kinds of microbes occurring in river water are repressive of the typhoid-bacillus1 which1 if it should get there1 flourishes best in the purest water or in water containing no other microbe4 ,there is some ground for thinking that in certain districts there may be microbes present which make their way into the human intestine1 and then actually repress the cholera-bacillus1 should it subsequently be taken in with food or water4 ,it would1 of course1 be of immense importance to discover such a microbe1 if it exist1 and the inquiry is at the present moment proceeding in ,paris4 ,a very striking and at first sight astonishing fact in regard to this subject is that there are a very large number and variety of microbes habitually present in the human digestive tract4 ,there are so many different kinds--differing altogether from one another in their chemical action--which are present in greater or less abundance in this tract from one end to the other1 that no one is at present able to say even approximately how many there are1 nor to give anything like a complete account of their properties4 ,the fact is that their isolation and study1 and the definite determination of their properties1 is not an easy job4 ,many workers are engaged on it1 and it will be years before the matter is threshed out4 ,one most curious result of these studies is that a person may have the cholera-bacillus in his intestine--not growing with any activity1 but still alive--and yet be perfectly well4 ,he can1 therefore1 carry the cholera-bacillus from one locality to another and spread the disease1 and yet be entirely devoid of suspicion1 free himself from disease1 and certified as healthy6 ,the same is true of the bacillus of typhoid fever4 ,persons who have had typhoid fever have been shown to retain the typhoid-bacillus flourishing for as long as fourteen years afterwards in their intestine1 without any ill effects to themselves1 and to have been the constant source of infection and disease to those living in the same house with them by spreading the bacillus4 ,the classical case of this is that of a woman who carried on a baker's business at ,strasburg4 ,infection by and protection from microbes is by no means so simple a thing as it is sometimes represented to be4 ,now that we are quite sure as to ,koch's comma-bacillus1 or spirillum1 being the definite poison-producing agent causing ,indian cholera1 it is comparatively easy to understand its mode of dispersal and infection1 and consequently how to avoid its attack4 ,it is cultivated in the laboratories devoted to the study of such matters--kept in confinement1 so to speak1 for ten years and more--and its properties and conditions of life are well known4 ,for instance1 it is destroyed by 8dryness10 hence it cannot be carried in a living infective state as 8dust0 in the air4 ,it is also destroyed by exposure to a heat a good deal below that of boiling water1 so that water itself can be freed from it by boiling1 and food dipped in boiling 7or nearly boiling7 water1 or heated on a metal tray beneath which a spirit or gas flame is burning1 can be rendered safe just before it is swallowed1 even when cholera is rife in the neighbourhood4 ,ordinary lime is a great destroyer of the bacillus1 and can be used on a large scale to abolish it in refuse4 ,when the cholera is near one cannot be too scrupulously clean4 ,the fingers must be carefully washed with antiseptic before a meal1 and everything purified by heat only a few moments before being put into the mouth1 since flies and careless handling may soil food or anything else exposed in a cool condition even for a few minutes4 ,it is best when cholera is actually present in the house or town in which you live to swallow nothing which has been allowed to get cool2 everything should be heated and eaten when hot4 ,mephistopheles1 in ,goethe's ,faust1 complains of the swarming1 pullulating life on the earth4 ,he--the great destroyer--says3 8,how many have ,i sent to grass6 ,yet young1 fresh blood1 do what ,i will ,keeps ever circulating still4 ,in water1 in the earth1 in air1 ,in wet1 dry1 cold--everywhere ,germs without number are unfurl'd1 ,and but for fire1 and fire alone1 ,there would be nothing in the world ,that ,i could truly call my own40 ,the version is ,sir ,theodore ,martin's4 ,mephistopheles might be a bacteriologist explaining the difficulty of dealing with disease germs4 ,in any case1 it is the ,mephistophelian spirit of annihilation1 and flame as its instrument1 which man brings to his service in the contest with cholera germs4 ,the great carriers of cholera are human beings themselves travelling in caravans1 pilgrimages1 shiploads4 ,for the fact has now been established that a man may harbour inside him the cholera-bacillus without its multiplying largely or rendering him seriously ill4 ,once it is brought by such an individual into a favourable locality1 it is spread by water contaminated by him1 and yet used for drink and domestic purposes2 and also it is spread by his touching things in which the bacillus can grow1 such as cooked food1 fruits1 etc41 swallowed subsequently by unsuspecting purchasers or employers4 ,you have1 in order to avoid cholera 7and similar infections71 not only to have very clean fingers yourself1 but to see to it that your servants' fingers are clean also1 or else that anything they touch is afterwards heated for a few minutes to near boiling-point before you let it enter your mouth4 ,a little history illustrative of the need of this precaution is on record4 ,in ,egypt during a recent outbreak of cholera there was a very wealthy lady who lived alone in an isolated palace under the charge of a physician4 ,she had a delicate appetite2 her food was most carefully prepared4 ,she drank and used only boiled sterilised water2 no one was allowed to approach her except her servants1 who never left the palace grounds1 and were in good health4 ,she sickened of cholera and died4 ,it was a puzzle as to how she had acquired the infection4 ,her physician at last discovered that she daily partook of cold chicken-broth1 prepared carefully by her cook4 ,the cook1 though practically well1 was found to be infected with the cholera-bacillus1 which had probably lodged in his intestine some weeks previously at the commencement of the outbreak of the disease in ,egypt4 ,though living in him the cholera-bacilli had not found a favourable field of growth4 ,this man in handling the cold broth1 the cloth used to rub the spoon with which it was stirred1 or the basin itself1 had1 it was found by making the actual experiment1 been able to transfer the minute bacillus to the cold broth1 a most favourable and nourishing medium for its growth1 and so his isolated carefully guarded employer received an abundant crop of the bacilli and developed a fatal attack of cholera4 ,had the lady taken the broth hot1 there would have been no living cholera-bacillus in it1 and if she had thus guarded herself in regard to all food1 by the use of heat and great cleanliness1 she would have escaped infection4 ,the most interesting development of knowledge and speculation with regard to the microbes which infest the human intestine and other regions of the human body is 7as ,i mentioned above7 connected with the fact that one kind or species of microbe has the power of favouring the growth of another1 if present alongside of it1 and that another kind has the power of checking or antagonising its growth4 ,thus common putrefactive microbes of river water are hostile to the cholera-bacillus and to the typhoid-bacillus4 ,those disease-producing bacilli live longest and best in very pure water6 ,thus1 too1 it is found that the microbe of sour milk--the lactic-bacillus--is antagonistic to the common putrefactive microbe of the intestinal contents--the well-known bacillus coli4 ,in virtue of the acid which it produces1 the microbe of sour milk arrests the excessive growth and activity of the putrefactive bacillus coli4 ,hence the utility of sour milk in many cases of intestinal trouble4 ,we contain within us a microbian flora of such variety and abundance of kinds and so nicely balanced in their antagonisms and co-operations in a healthy man1 that one cannot wonder at the timidity of the medical man who hesitates to interfere with their conflicts and established modus vivendi4 ,yet that seems to be the direction in which action will have to be taken4 ,it seems likely that in different localities--towns1 forests1 highlands1 lowlands1 seaboards--there are prevalent different microbes which enter the bodies of human visitors and act as disturbers of the native microbian flora previously established in the stranger4 ,that there are great differences in the microbian flora 7including herein minute moulds and fungi as well as bacteria7 of different localities1 is shown by the great experiment of cheese-making which mankind carries on4 ,each kind of cheese--,stilton1 ,cheshire1 ,dutch1 ,roquefort1 ,gruyre1 ,gorgonzola1 etc4--is the result of the combined and successive action on milk of a vast number of microbes2 and it is the fact that the combination which produces any given kind of cheese is only found and 7unconsciously of the exact nature of what he is doing7 brought into activity by man at certain places4 ,you cannot make ,cheshire cheese in ,france nor ,gruyre in ,cheshire1 and so on4 ,it is suggested--and the matter is being pursued by experiment and observation at the present time in ,france--that possibly amongst the other things which go to make up the qualities of the air which agrees or disagrees with one in any given locality--are the local microbes4 ,this must not be regarded as a conclusion which has been fully worked out--it is an ingenious and promising suggestion made by ,metchnikoff as the result of some observations1 and will be fully inquired into4 ,the fact which ,i have mentioned above 7p4 #bdb7--that the presence of the microbe ,sarcina favours the growth of the cholera-bacillus--indeed1 enabling it to grow and flourish in conditions in which it was inert until the ,sarcina was 8sown0 alongside of it--renders it worth investigating the question as to whether there are 8local0 germs or microbes which in this or that region are abundant and get into man's food and drink1 and so into his intestine1 and become established there1 helping or antagonising the growth of other microbes already there or subsequently introduced4 ,thus1 to the various considerations in regard to the 8air0 of a locality1 such as rarefaction1 moisture1 temperature1 movement1 ozone1 and the perfumes and exhalations of pine trees1 rosemary1 and sweet-smelling grasses1 which seem to be those which are the most likely to affect the health of inhabitants and visitors1 it is not improbable that we must add the influence of an invisible local flora of microbes4 ,the inquiry is a long and laborious one1 but it will be carried through4 ,the microbes1 whether in air or water1 or on the surfaces of things1 can be collected by washing them into warm liquid gelatine4 ,then the gelatine is poured out on a plate1 and hardens as a thin sheet of jelly4 ,this is protected from all further contamination1 and1 after a few hours1 each invisible microbe embedded immovably in the jelly makes itself apparent4 ,it multiplies enormously whilst remaining stuck to one spot1 and is no longer invisible1 but presents itself to the eye as a little sphere1 or disc1 of characteristic shape1 colour1 and quality1 consisting of many hundred thousands of crowded microbes produced by the growth and division of the original invisible one4 ,some dozens or some hundreds of little growing 8dots10 and of many various kinds1 will thus reveal themselves in the jelly according to the number and kinds of utterly invisible parent microbes introduced by your 8washings0 into the jelly4 ,and so the investigator has the means of getting at each kind of invisible microbe quite detached from the others1 and of separating it for further cultivation and experiment as to its chemical and disease-producing qualities4 ,these microbial gardens of jelly-plates are1 indeed1 a wonderful revelation and a fitting 8horticultural0 accompaniment to the dark and gloomy forests of rampant wild microbes in our insides1 where all are struggling for the soil1 one crushing out another by its sheer exuberance1 a third choked by the encircling luxuriance of a fourth1 just as the trees1 mosses1 and climbers of a tropical jungle are budding1 pushing1 grasping1 destroying one another in their irrepressible growth4 ,pettenkofer1 of ,munich1 when he found 7as ,metchnikoff did later7 that the cholera-bacillus could be swallowed in spoonfuls without producing any harm1 came to the conclusion that1 though it was a necessary agent of the disease 8cholera10 yet that there was still an unknown additional determining 8cause0 of a local character which must be present in order to render the 8cholera-bacillus0 effective4 ,metchnikoff is now seeking this 8local0 cause and parallel antagonistic causes1 in the microbian flora of localities which locally effect an entry into the human body1 and are1 on the one hand1 8favourable10 or on the other hand 8antagonistic40 ,take as a concrete example ,versailles4 ,when cholera has been rife in ,paris1 there has been no cholera at ,versailles4 ,there is something at or about ,versailles which does not permit cholera to flourish in men who live there4 ,the guess--the hypothesis--which is being investigated at this moment1 is that there is possibly a microbe present at ,versailles which enters into the microbial jungle of the intestine of mankind there1 and is inimical to1 repressive of1 the cholera-bacillus when it also arrives there4 ,similarly1 the suggestion is entertained1 and is being experimentally tested1 that there is in ,paris a microbial inhabitant of the intestine which is favourable to the energetic growth of the cholera-bacillus when it puts in an appearance1 but that this favouring 7as yet undetermined7 microbe does not exist at ,versailles4 ,these imaginings and guesses as to favouring and antagonising microbes must not be confused with the definitely ascertained facts as to the cholera-bacillus4 ,but they are quite sufficiently important and probable to justify their narration to a discreet and sympathetic public4 ,,xxvi ,,sea-,,breezes1 ,,mountain ,,air1 ,,and ,,ozone ,fifty years ago people were very fond of talking about 8ozone10 and the word is popularly used nowadays to signify a mysterious attribute of the air of the sea-coast or moorland without its real significance being generally understood4 ,when ,sir ,oliver ,lodge the other day warned people against hurting their nasal passages by sniffing up an unduly strong dose of ozone produced by a special ozone-making apparatus1 ,i am inclined to think that most people who read what he said wondered what 8ozone0 might be4 ,in the eighteenth century it was noticed that the sparks from a frictional electrical machine are accompanied by a peculiar pungent smell in the air4 ,many years after that1 namely in #ahdj1 the great chemical experimenter1 ,schnbein1 the friend and correspondent of ,faraday and discoverer of gun-cotton1 found that the smell in question is produced by a special gas1 which is formed in the air when electric discharges take place4 ,he found that this gas was a powerful oxydiser--would1 in fact1 oxydise iodide of potassium so as to set free iodine--and thus its presence could be detected by means of paper slips coated with a mixture of starch and iodide of potassium4 ,when they were exposed in air which contained even minute traces of this strange gas they became purple-blue1 owing to the liberation of iodine and the formation of its well-known blue combination with the starch4 ,schnbein found that in breezy1 fresh places his test-papers turned blue1 and concluded from that 7confirmed by other evidence7 that this smelling gas1 to which he gave the name ozone--which simply means 8the smelling stuff0--is present in good1 ordinary atmospheric air1 as well as in artificially 8electrified0 air4 ,it is destroyed when such air is heated above the boiling-point of water1 and seems to be1 as it were1 8taken out0 of the air by all sorts of dead organic matter1 so that it is not present in the air of large cities4 ,i remember that when ,i was a boy we used to test the air for ozone with ,schnbein's papers 7,i am aware that their colour change is not absolute proof of the presence of ozone1 as other oxydising gases might1 if present1 act in the same way71 and we used to find more ozone when a south-west wind was blowing than in a north-easter6 ,schnbein wrote sixty papers on ozone--but its real nature was made out by others who succeeded him1 chiefly by ,andrews1 of ,belfast1 and ,tait1 of ,edinburgh4 ,it turns out that ozone is a condensed form of the elemental gas oxygen--squeezed1 as it were1 and literally 8intensified10 so that three measures of oxygen gas become only two of ozone4 ,it very readily changes back again--two measures of ozone expanding to form three of oxygen4 ,it is produced by the action of an electric discharge upon oxygen gas driven over the discharge and in greatest quantity when that kind of gently-buzzing electric spark which is called 8the silent discharge0 is used4 ,it can be produced in quantity by passing atmospheric air1 or better1 pure dry oxygen gas through a glass tube in which such a silent discharge is made to take place4 ,as much as seventeen parts in a hundred of the gas can be thus converted into 8ozone10 and some twenty years ago two ,french chemists succeeded in getting even a larger proportion1 and by submitting it to a tremendous pressure at a temperature of #ajj degrees below the freezing-point of water1 they obtained pure ozone as a transparent liquid4 ,it was of a dark indigo-blue colour1 and somewhat dangerous and explosive when the pressure under which it had formed was removed4 ,ordinary oxygen gas has since then been also liquefied in the laboratory3 it is of a paler blue colour4 ,the 8smell0 which old writers had noticed and ,schnbein had named was thus actually obtained as a distinct blue liquid4 ,it is this which1 though present only in minute quantities1 gives special oxydising activity to fresh air4 ,when pure1 or present even to the small extent of #d per cent4 in air1 ozone is a destructive agent1 a sort of extra-quality oxygen of triple instead of double power4 ,indiarubber is rotted and destroyed by it in a few minutes--a sort of combustion or quick oxydation taking place--and it is1 of course1 dangerous to the softer parts of the human body1 such as the air passages and lungs and the eyes--when present in more than a minimal proportion4 ,i believe that no one has yet determined exactly how great a percentage of ozone can be tolerated by a human being in the air taken into the lungs4 ,in ordinary fresh country or sea-coast air only one part by measure in #gjj1jjj has been found to be ozone1 that is1 #a_/gjjj per cent4 ,but it is quite likely that much more is occasionally present1 since it is very difficult to arrange a satisfactory examination of the air of any locality so as to determine how much ozone it contains4 ,it is said that at higher levels the atmosphere contains more ozone than it does at lower levels4 ,it is not to be wondered at that ozone should thus have attracted general attention and interest as the distinctive and specially active agent present in the pure air of the sea-coast and the mountain-top4 ,people not infrequently1 on arriving at the seaside1 sniff up the odours of decomposing seaweed 7containing a little iodine71 and think they are smelling the 8ozone40 ,it is doubtful whether enough ozone is ever present in the atmosphere under simple natural conditions to affect even a highly-sensitive nose4 ,but it is easy to produce enough by passing air over a silent electrical discharge to fill a large room with its peculiar smell4 ,whether it really is of benefit to the human being who inhales a properly limited percentage of it seems not to have been clearly decided by experiment1 although both in ,london and the ,united ,states of ,america there are enterprising medical men who are convinced of its value and are using it4 ,it would certainly seem that if the peculiar benefit which is often derived from sea air or from mountain air is due to the presence of this extra oxygen in such air1 then nothing can be simpler or more rational than to introduce the proper and useful percentage of ozone into the air of specially-arranged chambers in ,london and other large towns1 so that we can visit or even inhabit them and breathe ozonised air at will without going on a journey for it4 ,but it is a remarkable fact that1 as with various natural so-called 8mineral waters10 so with various 8airs0 which people find beneficial--no one has yet clearly and decisively shown1 in the first place1 whether they exert any chemical effect of a special kind on the people who seem to benefit by drinking the one or breathing the other2 still less has any one shown what is the particular chemical ingredient of the air or of the water of any given resort which exerts the beneficial effect attributed to that air or that water4 ,the air in different localities differs most obviously and importantly in four particulars1 namely1 as to whether it is still or windy1 whether it is cool or hot relatively to the local surface1 whether it is heavy or rarefied1 whether it is dry or saturated with moisture4 ,it is also an important fact that the atmosphere consists of layers and currents differing in these qualities1 and that the higher layers can be reached by ascending to high-lying lands4 ,at the same time it seems that in a flat country the ascent of a comparatively low hill brings you into a layer or 8stratum0 of air differing more from that of the plain or valley than would be the case were you to ascend to the same height in a mountainous region4 ,the seaside and the mountain may owe the beneficial character of their air to some of the varying qualities noted above4 ,chemical differences may or may not be important1 and seem hardly to have been as yet brought within the range of accurate knowledge4 ,ozone may be more or less present1 so may perfumes and volatile oils1 such as are given off by pine trees1 and there may be more or less minute quantities of carbonic acid and of sulphurous acid1 and still minuter quantities of the newly-discovered gases--argon and helium--which1 for all we know1 may have some effect on the human body4 ,there seems to be a great field open for accurate investigations in regard to the action upon human health of all these varying conditions of the air4 ,in the meantime1 we proceed by guesswork1 and are influenced by tradition and beliefs which are based on a sort of experience1 but are of a very vague and unsatisfactory description4 ,the case is much the same with regard to the natural waters of celebrated resorts4 ,so far as their chemical composition is known1 they can be manufactured and applied for drinking or bathing anywhere4 ,but minute quantities of certain gases and other elements may be present in these natural waters and have escaped until now the observation of the chemist1 and it is possible1 though not demonstrated1 that these rare chemical constituents may have some action on those who drink or bathe in the water4 ,ever since the time of the ,romans natural mineral waters have been sought1 and the springs which discharge them have been frequented1 not because their chemical composition was known1 but because experience seemed to show that they produced a beneficial result4 ,it can hardly be doubted that the baths and springs frequented at the present day are not so much themselves the cause of the benefit to the cure-seekers as are the change of scene and diet1 and the repose and regular life willingly accepted by those who travel so far to reach these springs4 ,with regard to ozone1 there remains something more to be said1 namely1 in regard to its application1 in a far less diluted form than is possible when it is taken into the lungs1 to the destruction of putrefying organic matter and putrefactive and disease-producing bacteria4 ,it is now some five or six years since air containing a high percentage of ozone--produced by the action of the electric discharge--was used for the purification of the water-supply of large towns4 ,it is a fact that river water into which such ozone containing air is pumped becomes pure in the highest degree1 in consequence of the destruction by the ozone's oxydising action1 both of the bacterial germs always present in vast numbers in river water and of the organic matter on which the bacteria depend4 ,this application of ozone is in use in several large towns for the purification of drinking-water1 for which purpose it has very great advantages4 ,it has also been successfully used by ,dr4 ,allen1 the director of the ,plymouth ,marine ,laboratory1 for keeping the water of the marine aquarium there in a state of purity and well charged with oxygen gas4 ,a similar use has been made of oxygen containing a considerable percentage of ozone by enterprising surgeons for the cleansing of ulcer and abscess4 ,it is clear that such a gas may present mechanical advantages over any liquid application4 ,ozone is not1 apparently1 in favour or fashion with the general body of medical practitioners at the present day1 but possibly further examination and determination of its physiological properties may lead to its receiving more attention in medicine4 ,already the peroxide of hydrogen--which is more or less correctly described as 8ozonised water10 and is used 7under the name 8,auricomous hair-wash07 to change dark hair by its oxydising action to a golden tint--is used by surgeons for washing out purulent wounds and abscess4 ,those who use the gas itself only go a step further4 ,some day we may see a more general use of ozone2 on the other hand1 it remains to be seen by direct and accurate experiment whether its properties are as valuable to man as we may hope they will prove to be4 ,,xxvii ,,oxygen ,,gas ,,for ,,athletes ,,and ,,others ,since the preceding chapter on ozone was written ,i have learned that this peculiar triple-condensed variety of oxygen 7it is called by chemists 8,o#c0 whereas ordinary oxygen is 8,o#b07 is now being most successfully applied to the purification of the water-supply of several large cities4 ,a notable case is that of the great winter resort1 ,nice4 ,ozone gas is one of the most effective destroyers of organic impurity known2 it destroys both bacterial germs and the putrescible impurities of water completely1 and is itself converted in the process into harmless health-giving oxygen1 whilst the water is rendered absolutely free of all germs4 ,it is readily manufactured by treating oxygen with the electric discharge1 and is produced at a cost which renders its use in water-purification an economical and financially satisfactory method4 ,the use of ozone gas as a medicinal application to cavities in the living body in which disease-producing bacteria are lodged is making progress4 ,it has to be administered with great care by a medical expert1 and though there has been delay and opposition on account of the novelty of the treatment1 there are signs that ozone will become established as a valuable therapeutic agent4 ,it is a singular fact that so little has been done of late by scientific observers either as to the presence of ozone in the atmosphere or as to the action of ozone on the healthy animal body when present in minute quantity in the air taken into the lungs4 ,the general opinion appears to be that it is either altogether absent from the atmosphere or present only in quantity so minute as to be negligible from the point of view of the physiologist except in very high mountain regions1 and there the exact quantity remains undetermined4 ,the only experiments in the last ten years on the subject of its action on animals are some which led the inquirers to the conclusion that constant exposure 7in a closed chamber7 to an atmosphere containing #d per cent4 of ozone caused death after five or six days by an inflammation of the lungs4 ,clearly it is desirable that further investigation on this subject by competent authorities should be made1 and the effect of smaller quantities of ozone in the air respired1 whether continuously or at intervals1 should be ascertained4 ,the action of ordinary oxygen gas is a separate matter4 ,the atmosphere which we breathe consists of one part by volume of this gas and of four parts of nitrogen gas4 ,it is the oxygen which is necessary to us and to all animals1 and the nitrogen is merely an inert diluting accompaniment of the essential oxygen gas4 ,it is1 of course1 easy to increase or to diminish the proportion of oxygen in the air breathed accordingly as one introduces additional pure oxygen or1 on the other hand1 diluting nitrogen into a collapsible bag or sac from which one continuously draws breath4 ,such a bag can be connected by a tube to a helmet or mask enveloping the head4 ,the expired air is discharged by a specially provided passage4 ,it used to be thought that it was dangerous to breathe pure undiluted oxygen1 although the proportion of oxygen to nitrogen in the air taken into the lungs might be increased to as much as a half without injury1 and1 indeed1 with great benefit in some serious conditions of collapse4 ,dr4 ,leonard ,hill1 ,f4,r4,s41 of the ,london ,hospital ,medical ,college1 has1 however1 recently shown that oxygen gas1 of #ig per cent4 purity1 may be breathed continuously for as much as two hours without any ill-effects or sense of inconvenience4 ,contrary to what has been stated1 it is neither exciting nor unpleasant4 ,he has made the experiment on himself and on some of his assistants1 and in doing so has made use of such an apparatus as that above-mentioned--so as to ensure the in-take of undiluted oxygen4 ,dr4 ,hill and ,mr4 ,martin ,flack have further found that the exhaustion and labouring of the heart which is brought on by such special exertion as that involved in running a hundred yards race or a quarter-mile race1 is almost completely avoided if the runner 8fills his lungs0 with oxygen gas before starting4 ,the runner takes the oxygen gas into the lungs for some two or three minutes before starting to race2 of course1 the lungs are not thus actually 8filled0 with oxygen1 but a much larger proportion of that gas is lodged in them than when ordinary air is breathed1 and a full supply is thus afforded to the blood4 ,the 8distress0 caused by violent athletic efforts appears to be entirely due to the using up of the available oxygen by the unusual activity of the muscles4 ,the heart itself suffers most1 the breathing becomes laboured1 and there is a sense of suffocation1 due simply to the urgent demand by the blood1 heart and muscles for more oxygen4 ,if1 therefore1 we ensure that there is an extra supply of pure oxygen in the lungs before the unusual effort is made1 we avert these distressing symptoms3 the unusual quantity of oxygen needed is ready for use4 ,dr4 ,hill himself and young men who have tried the plan of inspiration of oxygen before a foot-race1 declare that they cannot believe that they are really running hard1 even when surpassing their usual performance4 ,they come in at the end of the quarter-mile1 having beaten their record2 and with no sense of having made a special effort2 they feel fresh and ready to start again after more oxygen and a short rest4 ,moreover1 the after-effect on the muscles is stated to be such that 8stiffness0 and what is called 8grogginess0 7due in ordinary circumstances to the retention of lactic acid in the muscle7 do not supervene4 ,swimming and diving1 as one would expect1 are greatly affected by the preliminary oxygen inhalation2 the length of time during which submersion can be endured without discomfort is doubled1 and the great effort of fast swimming rendered less rapidly exhausting4 ,cycling uphill at a rapid pace becomes1 according to ,dr4 ,hill's own frequent experience1 possible after oxygen inhalation when in ordinary conditions it was impossible4 ,hockey players and boxers he has found notably benefited by oxygen given both in the intervals of and after the exercise4 ,it is1 of course1 to be expected that a wider practical application should be made of this simple method of increasing our power of sustaining muscular effort1 and of enduring submersion4 ,dr4 ,hill suggests that the divers of the ,mediterranean1 who1 without any apparatus1 plunge into the shallow sea and remain below long enough to find1 cut1 and bring to the surface the valuable sponges of commerce1 might use the method of preliminary inhalation of pure oxygen gas4 ,he has also tried the method with a young racehorse1 but owing to the fact that the course run was only a mile1 and the animal perfectly fit and strong1 he tells me that no advantage was found to result from the inhalation4 ,with an older cart-horse somewhat tired by a day's work--he obtained the most satisfactory results1 the animal becoming obviously recuperated and working without distress4 ,the question has been raised as to whether the administration of oxygen gas to a man or to a horse when about to run a race should be considered as 8doping40 ,it may perhaps be objected to by sportsmen1 as involving the provision of special apparatus which all competitors would not be equally able to secure4 ,but it is not 8doping10 since that applies to the use of a drug1 which1 whilst exciting to violent effort1 produces an injurious after-effect4 ,oxygen is not in this category2 to take an extra quantity of oxygen into the lungs before starting on a race is no more unnatural or risky than to take an extra drink of water into the stomach or to swallow meat extract and such special preparations before or during a race4 ,it would be interesting to see whether a runner in the ,marathon race would 7as ,dr4 ,hill would expect7 be greatly assisted if his trainer carried with him a supply of pure oxygen1 and from time to time refreshed him with it4 ,football players might also be given oxygen at half-time2 an oxygenated team would1 one surmises1 beat its uninspired competitors4 ,a ,fife team is reported to have done so4 ,on the roads favoured by cyclists one may expect hereafter to find at the bottom of a long ascent hawkers of 8breaths of oxygen0 provided with gas-bags and calling out 8,buy the lady a breff1 sir60 ,it is1 perhaps1 worth noting that the relief afforded by oxygen-breathing is no less definite when the gas is taken immediately after a race or sustained effort than when used as a preliminary4 ,the excess of choke-gas or carbonic acid formed during great muscular effort is not the principal cause of the distress experienced4 ,that gas is thrown off by increased expiration4 ,it is the using up of the oxygen and the insufficiency of the supply in the atmospheric air inspired that causes1 under these circumstances1 giddiness1 exhaustion1 and often collapse4 ,the difficulty in breathing and the prostration experienced by many people in mountain-climbing is largely due1 not merely to the muscular effort of climbing1 but to the fact that the rarefied atmosphere at heights of #hjjj ft4 to #ae1jjj ft4 and more gives into the lungs in every inspiration but a fraction of the oxygen which is inspired at low levels1 and moreover1 owing to the low pressure1 much less is held in the blood4 ,even when conveyed by mule1 cog-rail1 or balloon to these heights--and1 therefore1 without muscular exertion1 sensitive people suffer severely from temporary 8oxygen-starvation40 ,they as well as the laborious mountaineer could be saved from all such inconvenience by the use of a skilfully-constructed 8traveller's flask0 of oxygen gas4 ,the observations and experiments as to the possible use of pure oxygen by athletes suggest that we might all benefit by occasional if not frequent use of such an atmosphere4 ,indeed1 there are some individuals--amongst others a well-known and distinguished actor--who before making some special effort1 or even when feeling tired and unequal to their daily work1 inhale under medical supervision a certain quantity of oxygen gas4 ,it would certainly seem that since country air1 sea air1 and mountain air are useful and refreshing1 an artificial supply of extra oxygen might be inhaled in ,london1 either in one's own house or in establishments provided for the purpose1 with definite benefit to health1 especially if the inhalation were combined with exercise4 ,the experiments made by ,dr4 ,hill have come about in connection with work undertaken for the purpose of improving the diving and life-saving apparatus named after its inventor1 ,fleuss4 ,this invention consists essentially in a water-tight helmet and jacket connected with a cylinder of compressed oxygen gas which is carried by the diver4 ,the advantage of such an arrangement is that the diver is free from pumping apparatus and can go where an ordinary diver could not4 ,mr4 ,fleuss was able1 by diving with this apparatus1 to prevent an immense loss of property by arresting the flooding of the ,severn tunnel which was imminent during its construction4 ,a difficulty in regard to the ,fleuss apparatus has been that oxygen gas is a poison1 causing inflammation of the lungs and convulsions when under a pressure of from two to three atmospheres--that is to say1 at from #cj ft4 to #fj ft4 depth in water4 ,the pressure exercised by the air of the atmosphere at sea-level is equal to that exercised by a column of water #cj ft4 high1 and hence at #cj ft4 depth in the sea the oxygen gas would be under the pressure both of the atmosphere itself and of water to the same amount--which is expressed by saying that it is under two atmospheres' pressure1 or twice the atmosphere's pressure4 ,the pressure of the atmosphere is1 in plain figures1 #ae lb4 on every square inch of surface4 ,of course1 the oxygen is compressed far beyond this point in the cylinders in which it is carried4 ,in using it1 it is allowed to escape by opening a valve leading into an elastic sac1 and is then and there subject to the pressure depending on the depth of water to which the diver has descended4 ,it is found to be dangerous for a diver with this apparatus to descend to a depth of more than #cj ft4 having pure oxygen in his apparatus1 because the oxygen is then compressed under a pressure of two atmospheres4 ,accordingly1 ,dr4 ,haldane1 of ,oxford1 has proposed that the oxygen should be diluted with atmospheric air1 so as to give a mixture of equal volumes of oxygen and nitrogen4 ,with this mixture the diver can safely descend to a depth of #fj ft4 ,the apparatus is provided with a partition containing caustic soda1 which absorbs the carbonic gas thrown out of the lungs in expiration4 ,with such an apparatus a diver can safely remain under water at a depth of #fj ft41 and walk about and explore for as long as two hours4 ,a most important application of this self-contained diving apparatus is found in its use in the exploration of mines1 where smoke or gaseous products resulting from an explosion render it impossible for rescue parties to penetrate without its use4 ,it has been the means of saving many lives in such circumstances4 ,a form of this apparatus is made in which the oxygen is supplied1 not by a cylinder of compressed gas1 but by granules of a chemical compound called pneumatogen1 a peroxide of sodium and potassium1 which when breathed into absorbs carbonic acid from the air expired by the lungs1 and gives off pure oxygen4 ,submarine ships are now being provided with a dress or outfit of this description for each member of the crew1 so that in the case of the entrance of water into the submarine1 every man can put on his 8oxygen helmet10 and one by one1 when the ship is full of water1 they can pass out by the conning tower and float to the surface4 ,the perfected diving dress1 with self-contained diluted oxygen supply and other improvements1 has been constructed by ,siebe1 ,gorman1 and ,co41 and was exhibited by ,dr4 ,leonard ,hill at a soiree of the ,royal ,society4 ,,xxviii ,,sparrows1 ,,trout1 ,,and ,,selective ,,breeding ,the talk about the urgent need for the destruction of sparrows reminds me that the word 8sparrow0 is applied commonly in this country to at least two very different but common birds4 ,no doubt farmers and gardeners know well enough the house-sparrow 7,passer domesticus or ,fringilla domestica of ,linnus71 which is the one they consider injurious4 ,but some boys and some newly-fledged proprietors of country places may inadvertently confuse the house-sparrow with a very different bird1 though only a little smaller and of a general brown colouring1 also called 8sparrow10 namely1 the hedge-sparrow 7,accentor modularis74 ,the hedge-sparrow is a true denizen of the country4 ,it does not live on grain1 but on insects and grubs1 and is useful on that account to agriculturists4 ,its eggs are pure blue4 ,a spotted egg of a cuckoo laid amongst them readily catches the eye1 so that cuckoos' eggs are often found in hedge-sparrows' nests4 ,it seems that it is all a mistake on the part of the cuckoo hen when this occurs4 ,the strain of cuckoos properly attached to hedge-sparrows lay a beautiful blue egg differing only in its somewhat larger size from those of the hedge-sparrow itself1 and hence difficult to detect4 ,these blue cuckoo-eggs--proper to cuckoos which make use of the hedge-sparrow as foster-mother--escape detection both by boys and the foster-parents1 and successfully hatch out and propagate the race of blue-egged cuckoos with a memory and a sense of smell which bring them back if they are hen-birds to the little hedge-sparrow's nest when they are grown up and have an egg to dispose of4 ,the spotted grey or brownish eggs are1 if not discovered by boys1 ejected 7there is reason to believe7 by the hedge-sparrows themselves4 ,they were deposited by mistake by some pippet-loving or warbler-seeking strain of cuckoo in a hurry1 or are throw-backs to a common ancestral colouring of the egg due1 perhaps1 to the male parent not being of the true blue strain4 ,a very fine series of 8clutches0 and nests of hedge-sparrow1 robin1 shrike1 reed-warbler1 pippet1 yellow-hammer1 and other birds with the accompanying cuckoo's egg may be seen in the ,natural ,history ,museum1 and they show how closely the parasitic egg often resembles that of the foster-parent1 though striking failures also occur4 ,the hedge-sparrow is placed in that group of small birds which includes the robin1 the thrushes1 and the warblers2 it is not a finch4 ,on the other hand1 the house-sparrow is a finch1 allied to the chaffinch1 the goldfinch1 and the brambling4 ,it has1 like all the finches1 a very powerful broad-based beak1 and is more than a match for bigger birds than itself4 ,it is really a parasite or 8commensal0 7messmate7 of man1 living and flourishing entirely by helping itself to the grain and the young buds of shrubs grown by man1 and in towns to the waste fragments of his food and the grain left in horse-dung4 ,whether it does any good in the early part of the year by eating grubs seems to be doubtful1 but the conclusion is justified that it does more harm than good1 especially as it drives away other small birds which are exclusively insectivorous4 ,it has gone with ,european man to all temperate climates4 ,there are ,spanish1 ,african1 ,italian and ,indian species1 closely related to the common house-sparrow1 which ,i should like to see put out side by side with it and some of its varieties for the public edification in the ,natural ,history ,museum4 ,these are the true 8sparrows10 and should be compared side by side with the hedge-sparrow1 and the differences pointed out4 ,there is another true sparrow in ,england1 called the 8tree-sparrow10 which is not nearly so common as the house-sparrow4 ,they are1 however1 so closely allied to one another that hybrids have been produced between the two4 ,on the other hand1 the hedge-sparrow is a great deal too remote from the finches to interbreed with the house-sparrow or any other of the finch group4 ,there ought to be a careful report on the probable effects1 in every direction1 of a great destruction of house-sparrows before any very drastic measures are taken in that direction4 ,the employers of gamekeepers should remember that by destroying owls1 hawks1 and weasels they may not only enable small injurious birds to flourish in excess1 but that they may encourage disease and weakness in the game-birds which they so eagerly desire to multiply1 since the natural extermination of weakly birds by birds and animals of prey is put an end to when the latter are abolished4 ,in all such matters more knowledge is needed1 and reasonable people will not take irretrievable action until they have taken the trouble to obtain thorough knowledge4 ,it is a curious fact that though the house-sparrow does not naturally sing1 yet hand-reared house-sparrows have been made1 by association with bull-finches1 to acquire the song of that bird--a truly astonishing instance of hidden or latent capacity4 ,a lover of trout-fishing has been writing lately upon the question as to whether the trout in much-fished rivers and lakes do or do not exhibit increased 8wariness10 or even 8intelligent caution0 in avoiding the flies so cunningly thrown before or above them by the skilful angler4 ,it is argued that there cannot really be any increased indisposition of trout to take the fly based on experience1 because on an estimate of the number of trout in a river like the ,test1 and of the limited number of anglers1 every fisherman would have to hook and lose some thousands of fish every year for the experience to be general among trout that the horrid artificial flies 8hide a still more horrid hook40 ,it is1 of course1 held that the trout cannot communicate their experiences to one another by any form of conversation 7though leadership and imitative habit might have some effect71 and it is also not suggested that a trout which had acquired an overpowering aversion to the angler's fly as a result of being hooked and breaking free1 could transmit that aversion to its offspring by the mere fact of reproduction4 ,hence it is maintained that there is no such increasing 8wariness0 in ,english and ,scotch trout4 ,it is a curious thing that in discussing this matter the fundamental principle should have been overlooked by which ,darwin and ,wallace have long ago explained to the satisfaction of naturalists1 the aversions and cautious proceedings of all kinds of animals1 from the smallest insects up to birds1 beasts1 and fishes4 ,the principle of natural selection and survival of the fittest accounts for the increased caution of trout in well-fished rivers in the simplest way4 ,assume 7as is perfectly reasonable7 that some trout are more shy than others 8by nature10 that is to say1 are born so1 that some are born with a slightly more rapid response to the sight of food than others--as one sees often enough with a lot of the young of any animal--then the increased shyness or pretended 8intelligence0 of the trout after many years' fishing follows as a necessity4 ,the rash fish are caught and destroyed1 the shy fish remain in the river1 and--here is the important point1 a well-ascertained fundamental law of heredity--propagate their like4 ,they produce shy fish4 ,every year this selection goes on till you get a race of fish in the well-fished river which are so shy that they cease to rise at all6 ,this unpleasant result is avoided by the proprietors of trout streams to a certain extent by introducing a race of trout which has not in consequence of over-fishing developed an innate shyness of character 7such as the ,loch ,leven and some others7 to mix and breed with the timid over-fished race4 ,it is in the same way that the human population of country villages1 most sad to see1 is every year rendered less intelligent than it was a hundred years ago4 ,all the enterprising1 intelligent young men and maidens are 8fished0 away1 drawn by baits and hooks to the great towns2 only the dull and relatively incapable are left in the village to marry and produce a new generation4 ,the village population necessarily becomes made up of a dull stock--incapable1 as appears from official reports1 of being educated beyond a very low stage4 ,in some districts #gj per cent4 of the children are thus unintelligent1 though not unhealthy or imbecile4 ,it is possible that the want of home-training and example in very early childhood is to some extent a cause of the dullness of village children4 ,and so it goes on1 generation after generation1 as facilities for leaving the village increase and inducements to stay or return decrease4 ,the #cj per cent4 of the new generation who have any 8wits0 leave the village1 never to return4 ,and no one re-stocks the village4 ,that must be taken in hand soon4 ,,xxix ,,the ,,feeble-,,minded ,a considerable proportion of the young which are produced as a new generation of either plants or animals are not merely unlike their parents in some small particulars of colour1 proportion1 activity1 and so on1 but are1 as compared with the normal or usual standard of the species1 8defective02 that is to say1 they are wanting in some organ or part1 as though maimed1 or by some cause restricted or reduced in regard to that part4 ,this occurs in human beings1 and in domesticated animals more obviously than in wild animals and plants1 for two reasons3 firstly1 because in wild conditions the defective young die off very early in the struggle for existence and so escape human observation2 whereas man protects his own 8defective0 young1 and often1 also1 those of domesticated animals1 so that they are allowed to 8grow up0 more or less2 secondly1 such defective structure appearing at birth1 and therefore called 8congenital10 is carried on by heredity1 more or less completely1 should the defective animal or plant be allowed to breed4 ,such breeding of defective individuals is prevented in wild nature by their early destruction2 their defects cause their early death by unfitting them for the competition and struggle which are in natural conditions rigidly severe4 ,only a few survive among the many thousands of each species born into conditions of limited food and space--conditions which are not sufficient to support more than a very small number so as to enable them to reach the adult or breeding stage of life4 ,but man1 on the contrary1 protects his own young1 and often those of his domesticated animals and plants1 from this destructive competition1 and thus allows those which are to a certain extent defective to breed4 ,the official returns of the ,registrar-,general record every year a proportion of deaths of infants which are entered as due to 8congenital defects40 ,these defects are of many and various kinds4 ,a frequent 8congenital defect0 is one which does not necessarily cause death1 namely1 the imperfection of the wonderfully elaborate organ of sight1 rendering it useless4 ,children often are born blind1 and so are a certain proportion of each species of animal normally provided with eyes--dogs1 horses1 cattle1 birds1 fish4 ,even insects1 lobsters1 and crabs are in quite considerable and definite number born blind4 ,the inborn or congenital defects of the eyes which result in blindness are of several kinds4 ,the whole of the eyeball or eye-structure may be atrophied1 that is to say1 dwindled and incomplete1 or one essential part only may be defective1 and the rest quite well-formed2 or1 again1 the nerves connecting the eye with the brain or the several parts of the brain concerned in the function of sight may1 one or more of them1 be defective4 ,wild animals born in this condition must perish1 except when they happen to be born in caverns or in the deep sea4 ,then they are no worse off than animals with 8good0 eyes4 ,but the animals with good eyes1 or even with only somewhat defective eyes1 will follow up the gleams of light which in moving about they have the fortune to encounter1 and so will escape from the cavern or dark depths of the sea1 leaving behind in the dark only those with defective eyes4 ,these will breed together1 and perpetuate their defective eyes in a more and more marked degree in successive generations4 ,always those which can see1 or see only a little1 will leave the dark place1 and so at last there will be a race of animals established in such places with defective eyes 7as in the ocean1 at a depth of two thousand fathoms1 and in the great caves of ,europe1 and notably in the ,mammoth ,cave of ,kentucky1 ,u4,s4,a471 and often the eyes will altogether disappear4 ,this1 however1 is a digression4 ,the cause of congenital defect in eyes is not obvious4 ,the failure of the germinal substance of the reproductive egg or particle detached from parents with sound eyes1 to unfold itself--to develop--into a creature with sound eyes like those of its parents1 is apparently due1 in some instances1 to one cause1 and in other instances to other causes1 of none of which can it be said that we have a satisfactory and comprehensive knowledge4 ,the same want of full knowledge exists in regard to the causation of other congenital defects4 ,these are as numerous and varied as the parts of the body which may be from birth onwards1 in one instance or another1 distorted1 devoid of some essential inner structure1 swollen to great size1 or shrunken1 or even absent altogether4 ,such defects are sometimes caused by mechanical pressure or nipping in early stages of growth before birth1 but there are many which cannot be accounted for in that way4 ,the wonder really is not that the inconceivably complex structure of higher animals should sometimes fail1 in this or that part1 to develop in due course from the simple-looking germ1 destitute of visible structure1 but that it should1 on the contrary1 so regularly and completely come off successfully in millions of instances every day4 ,we can imagine or suggest disturbing agencies which may be the causes of failure1 but it is very difficult to demonstrate with certainty the causes which have been at work in each and every case4 ,one result of failure of the germ to 8grow up0 into the perfect likeness of its parents is that it may 8throw back10 as the breeders say1 and resemble in this or that quality a remote1 even an extremely remote1 ancestor4 ,it is suggested by some inquirers that the congenital or inborn defect1 frequent in human beings1 which is called 8feeble-mindedness0 is a reversion or throw-back to the condition of the brain in the animal ancestors of man4 ,that is possible1 and1 in view of some cases1 seems probable4 ,but it must be noted that we do not know what are the causes which favour throwing-back1 or 8atavism10 as it is called1 in regard to all sorts of structures1 and that the mechanical conditions connected with the growth of the cavity of the skull in which the brain itself grows are so very elaborate that it is obvious that a very slight disturbance of one element or another might arrest or turn aside the growth of that vastly complex organ1 which has become so much larger and more delicate in man than in the animals from which he has1 at no remote period in the history of life on the earth1 taken his origin4 ,mankind have always within the period of written records 7a mere trifle in the lapse of time since man became man7 regarded mental defect and aberration as due to fantastic causes4 ,to this day we use the word 8lunatic0 for one of the two typical forms of mental aberration3 we imply that the moon is concerned in its production4 ,the other form of brain-failure has appropriated the term 8idiot10 which1 it is surprising to find1 was less than two centuries ago applied in common speech to any person who was characterised by independence of judgment4 ,the term 8softy0 is a common and really more suitable term for this class1 whilst 8cracked0 is the word applied to a lunatic4 ,the notion that mental aberration is due to 8possession0 by evil spirits1 which can be expelled and the patient accordingly cured1 was prevalent a century ago1 and the belief is common at the present day 7though quite erroneous7 that people 8go mad0 in virtue of some immaterial and unaccountable influence1 and may therefore 8go sane0 again4 ,the lunacy laws and the laws relating to the care of the feeble-minded in this country are admitted to be tainted with ignorance and misconception1 and both are in process of correction by the ,government of the day4 ,the approved professional terms used in distinguishing the varieties of 8the mind diseased0 are not accepted with much favour by the public1 and it is unnecessary to introduce them here4 ,the important fact is that persons of diseased mind may be separated into two groups--7a7 the idiots or softies1 and 7b7 the lunatics or cracked people4 ,the idiotic group are those with a defective amount or quality of brain substance 7whether the skull itself is small or abnormally distended by 8water on the brain071 and are more or less incapable of being educated4 ,they are often subject to epileptic fits1 and are usually weakly in build1 though they sometimes have great muscular strength4 ,the 8feeble-minded10 of whom so much has lately been written1 owing to the recent report of a ,government ,commission1 belong to this group4 ,they are distinguished from the more marked section of idiots in that they are not absolutely devoid of some intelligence1 and are capable1 under proper supervision1 of some degree of self-control4 ,some of them even can take part in industrial operations1 though they require constant direction when so employed1 and are never1 even in the least serious cases1 susceptible of mental development beyond a strangely and abruptly limited degree4 ,contrasted with the idiots are the lunatics2 they often are gifted with the highest receptivity1 and frequently are men or women of the highest education and intellect1 normal in every feature of body and mind except that their mental machinery works in a defective1 8mad0 way as to one or more subjects--often only as to one subject or class of subjects4 ,they exhibit in different individuals a vast variety of illusions and propensities which may be merely unreasonable or may be dangerous to themselves and to others4 ,it seems that the idiotic and feeble-minded are devoid of1 or defective in1 general mental receptivity1 although in regard to a few things they may have retentive but unintelligent memory4 ,even the less afflicted among them are incapable of 8thinking0 at all1 because their defective memory or receptivity gives them nothing to think about4 ,on the other hand1 the lunatic exhibits the ordinary receptivity of a healthy human being1 but thinks wrongly or absurdly upon one or a few lines1 though normally and soundly upon every other4 ,the ,state in civilised countries has long since made provision for the proper medical care and restraint of lunatics and of the extreme cases of the other class1 the idiots4 ,but by an oversight in this country1 which the gravedigger in ,hamlet would consider very natural1 the less extreme cases of idiocy--the so-called feeble-minded--have been left without ,state guardianship4 ,it is a fact that these cases occur both in the wealthiest and the poorest class of the community1 though they are put away under medical care by well-to-do families1 and are left by the very poor to wander about and get into terrible mischief4 ,hence there has grown up a belief that feeble-minded offspring are more frequently produced by mentally sound parents who are very poor than by those who are rich or well-to-do1 though there are not facts or figures which establish that conclusion4 ,it has further been maintained that this supposed large proportional rate of production of feeble-minded among the poorest1 ill-fed1 ill-housed1 and vicious dregs of the community is due to the action of defective nutrition1 alcoholism1 and lack of fresh air and healthy occupation upon the parents1 and that a deterioration of the reproductive material1 a twist1 as it were1 of the inner substance of the stock or breed in the direction of feeble-mindedness1 has been thus established4 ,in reply to this somewhat hasty but at first sight plausible conclusion1 we maintain 7#a7 that the definite defect called feeble-mindedness is as common in well-nourished1 well-to-do families as in the poorest2 7#b7 that it is not proved that lack of food and good air can act upon the germs contained in a parental animal1 so as to alter it in such a way that the brain of offspring begotten by that parent will not develop in normal structure and proportion2 and1 moreover1 that 8it has not been shown0 7that is the important clause of the statement7 that defective food and air can so alter the germs in a parent as to cause other deformation or structural defect in the young which grow from those germs4 ,it is1 on the other hand1 true that such defect of food and air may cause the death of the parent1 or may directly cause the death of the young1 if the young are subjected to such defective conditions of life4 ,it is necessary to point out1 in reply to those who hold the starvation theory1 of feeble-mindedness that it is capable of being handed on by hereditary transmission once it has appeared1 and that in the most wretched groups of the population1 both in cities and in country villages1 the feeble-minded are not taken in charge by any authority1 but leave their parents and shift for themselves1 and1 owing to their weakness1 accompanied by unrestrained animal desires1 they become1 in an irregular way and at a very early age1 themselves the parents of feeble-minded children4 ,thus feeble-mindedness is increased in the poorest class1 but not in that of the rich4 ,the facts ascertained are too horrible and painful for citation here4 ,the recent ,commission has made it clear that it is absolutely necessary for the ,state to interfere and prevent this terrible increase of helpless imbeciles4 ,there are eighty-four schools in ,london for the education of children who are not included under the extreme terms idiots or imbeciles1 but are 8feeble-minded and defective40 ,they are attended by #fjjj children1 of whom about two-thirds learn some useful manual work1 whilst the rest are hopeless1 and require permanent custodial care--which at present is not to be had by those whose parents cannot pay for it--but will1 there is every reason to hope1 soon be provided for them by the ,state4 ,in its absence they constitute a real and ghastly danger to the community1 since some of them are certain to propagate their kind1 and not only will thus add to the existing large body of imbeciles1 but perpetuate the taint of feeble-mindedness in the race4 ,it is an interesting question as to whether there is a definite gap--a difference of kind between these poor1 defective children and the markedly stupid boys and girls of some village schools4 ,i am inclined to believe that there is4 ,the one group does not pass by a gradual series into the other4 ,it has been stated that in some remote country districts of ,england only one-third of the school children can be taught more than the merest elements of writing1 reading1 and arithmetic2 the majority are immovably dull1 only the minority are as bright as ordinary ,london children4 ,but even the dull village children get so far as to master the elements of learning1 and probably their brains are not structurally defective1 but only inactive for the time being4 ,they may hereafter become village ,hampdens4 ,it certainly does seem to be the fact that the villages are continually deprived of the more intelligent members of their population by the attractions of the big towns1 and that only the duller portion stay to breed in the village like the blind animals in a cave4 ,but dullness is not identical with feeble-mindedness4 ,it is maintained that even in towns the multiplication of the hard-working1 cautious1 and capable section of the community is at a standstill4 ,its members seek comfort1 intellectual exercise1 and self-culture2 they refuse to deprive themselves of these things1 which cost money1 and to spend that money on bringing up large families4 ,on the other hand1 the far more numerous 8working-class0 has no such ambition as a rule1 and no anxiety as to what is to become of its offspring1 however numerous4 ,the more children the larger are the earnings of the family1 and all in turn shift for themselves at an early age4 ,the rates pay for such education as they require1 and their parents have no desire to push them up the social ladder2 but food1 lodging1 and clothes cost money4 ,the working-man who desires to read1 see things for himself1 and be more than an animated cog on a wheel1 cannot afford to have children and transmit to them that modicum of intelligence above the average which distinguishes him from his fellows1 and demands for its cultivation the money with which he might keep a large family4 ,consequently the population is more and more largely replenished by the unenterprising poor and the unenterprising rich2 the group which is enterprising and capable1 and directs the work and thought of the civilised world1 is1 by the very qualities which make the increase of its strain desirable1 debarred from contributing its fair proportion to the increase of the population4 ,is it possible for the community1 by any system or by legislation1 to overcome or evade this unfortunate tendency8 ,the neglect by both the local and central government to provide any supervision of feeble-minded children has had a special result of a strange and unhappy description4 ,let me hasten to say that now that we have secured by recent legislation the vitally important medical inspection of children in connection with ,board schools1 and the registration and official inspection of feeble-minded children which will surely be made compulsory before another year has passed1 the danger of which ,i am about to speak will very shortly no longer exist4 ,it is this4 ,feeble-minded children 7whose condition falls short of that of actual idiocy7 are almost impossible to manage as members of an ordinary family or household4 ,their condition is often not properly recognised2 their parents or guardians find them to be obstinate1 unteachable1 and dirty4 ,often1 when the family is poor1 they are1 under these circumstances1 8boarded out0 for a very small payment1 or even taken charge of1 out of charity4 ,none of the persons concerned in these transactions know that they are dealing with a hopelessly unteachable child1 born with this defective brain4 ,they find scolding has no effect in guiding the child1 mild chastisement fails1 and the poor ignorant foster-parent 7sometimes even the child's own mother7 becomes exasperated and determined to subdue what seems to be mere obstinacy and indifference4 ,the awful demon of cruelty is let loose4 ,what seems at first a virtuous determination to control and regulate the child's behaviour for its own good leads to the infliction upon it of blows of savage violence1 then to the less dangerous but revolting attempt to enforce obedience by the pain caused by a burn1 and to starvation as a final instrument of discipline4 ,a very large number of the cases of cruelty to children and adolescents which from time to time are brought into the law courts have their origin in the fact that the victim was 8feeble-minded10 and that the guardian found guilty of cruelty did not 7any more than do the judge and jury7 understand or1 indeed1 know anything at all about such a condition4 ,often the feeble-mindedness itself has been attributed to the cruel treatment of the child1 whereas the latter really was set going by the former4 ,to a large extent the community is to blame for allowing 8feeble-minded0 children to be boarded out except in proper medical institutions1 guaranteed and inspected by ,state authority4 ,it is the same story as that which was once common enough in regard to 8lunatics10 but has now been put an end to by the law4 ,the boarding-out of children1 whether healthy or weak-minded1 should in all cases be illegal1 except under proper official sanction and guarantee4 ,it is not only for the sake of the children that this provision is necessary4 ,it is certain that foolish people have been led1 in the absence of all restraint and interference by public authority1 to undertake without evil intention the care of discarded children1 and have been led on by the hopeless dullness and obstinacy of a child with defective brain into cruel treatment of it2 and when in some cases the child has died as the natural consequence of its congenital feebleness1 the miserable guardians have been found guilty of causing its death4 ,though little excuse can be made for such miscreants1 it is greatly to be desired that the law should step in at an earlier period1 and both ensure proper care for the feeble-minded child and remove from unqualified guardians the chance of developing from a state of mere ignorance into one of criminal responsibility4 ,the ,government ,commission on the ,treatment of the ,feeble-,minded1 which has recently reported1 has adopted the view which ,i have explained in this article as to the origin of feeble-mindedness4 ,a large amount of evidence was taken by the ,commission from medical experts and others4 ,a certain number of the witnesses maintained the opinion that feeble-mindedness arises from the action of deficiency of food1 of overcrowding1 and possibly of drunkenness upon individuals of healthy strain1 whose offspring1 as a consequence1 exhibit feeble-mindedness4 ,some naturalists1 who have committed themselves to a pious belief in what is vaguely called 8the transmission of acquired characters10 think themselves called upon to support this opinion1 in consequence of a notion that their belief would be rendered more reasonable than it is at present were such an origin of feeble-mindedness demonstrated4 ,apart from the fact that it is not demonstrated1 it is difficult to see how1 supposing it were1 such a causation could be considered as a transmission of an acquired character4 ,the ill-fed1 drunken parent of a feeble-minded child 7when discovered and examined7 is not found to have 8acquired0 a condition of the brain agreeing with that of his or her feeble-minded offspring1 though sometimes such parent is found to have been himself or herself born with a defective brain4 ,no theory of organic memory1 of engrams1 inscripts1 or transfer of molecular vibrations can enable us to present a plausible mechanical scheme of the way in which the acquired general condition 7restricting ourselves to what is new and acquired7 of an ill-fed parent can be definitely and specifically re-embodied in his or her offspring1 as the peculiar structural condition of brain which is called 8feeble-mindedness40 ,it has not been shown1 so far as ,i am aware1 that privation in regard to the food of a parental organism gives rise to new congenital qualities in the reproductive germs which that organism throws off4 ,,xxx ,,death-,,rates ,the chief index or measure of the health of any locality is what is called 8the death-rate0 of that locality4 ,although there are several other important evidences as to the healthiness or unhealthiness of any given area1 the 8death-rate0 is the chief and most obvious indication of the advantageous or disadvantageous action of the conditions of any given city or other chosen area upon human life4 ,its records are more easily kept with an approach to accuracy than are records of cases of sickness not terminating in death4 ,the cause of death has to be certified in civilised communities by a medical man2 the total number of deaths in a year is given by the number of burial certificates4 ,the death-rate is stated at so many per thousand of the population per annum4 ,thus1 in a city of #e million inhabitants1--that is to say1 #e thousand thousands--a record of eighty thousand deaths in the year gives #af deaths for every thousand persons living4 ,that is called 8an annual death-rate of #af40 ,the record for any single month may be stated 7as it is stated at intervals in the newspapers7 8as at the rate of so many in the thousand per annum10 by multiplying the actual monthly number per thousand by #ab4 ,thus1 in the case of the city just cited1 if the death-rate were the same in every month of the year--namely1 #af--;it would mean that #fejj persons died regularly every month4 ,but we should probably find that in some month or other as few as #edag persons died4 ,that would be reported 8as at the rate of0 #ac per thousand per annum2 since1 if every month gave only #edag deaths1 we should get #fe1jjj deaths a year1 which works out at #ac in the thousand in a population of #e millions4 ,in other months it might run as high as #ai or #bj 7representing over #hjjj deaths a month71 although1 taking all the months together1 the deaths are at the rate of #af in the thousand for the year4 ,the bald statement of the death-rate1 of course1 admits of much analysis where proper records are kept4 ,thus the death-rate from different diseases and groups of diseases can be stated1 and the death-rate in each group at different ages and for the two sexes can be given where proper records are kept4 ,in this country the records of population in various areas and for the whole country1 and of the deaths from various causes1 and at different ages1 are collected and tabulated by the ,registrar-,general and his officials4 ,the annual reports issued by him show what an amazing progress has been made in increasing the security of life in our great cities within the last fifty years4 ,thus1 in ,london1 the death-rate was1 fifty years ago1 #bd in the thousand4 ,in #aijf it was only #ae4a in the thousand--it has gradually fallen1 year by year1 so that now it is less than two-thirds of what it was half a century ago4 ,in ,manchester and ,liverpool it was about #bf twenty years ago1 and has fallen to #ai in ,manchester and to a little over #bj in ,liverpool4 ,in the same period the improvement has been 7omitting fractions7 from #ai to #ad in ,bristol2 from #bj to #af in ,birmingham2 from #bj to #ad in ,leicester4 ,this great diminution in the death-rate has been coincident with the expenditure of public funds on the improvement of the water supply and the sewage arrangements of those cities1 as well as with the enforcement of regulations to prevent overcrowding1 and with the demolition of the most insanitary houses4 ,rules as to the removal of filth from the neighbourhood of dwelling-houses have been obeyed1 and sick persons suffering from infectious diseases have been removed from dwelling-houses and conveyed to special hospitals4 ,there is no doubt that the diminished death-rate is due to the action thus taken1 and more will be done in the future to the same end4 ,the proper provision of pure milk 7at a reasonable price7 for the food of the youngest children1 of regular meals for older children1 and the protection of adults from the too frequent inducement to indulge in the use of distilled spirits1 will be taken in hand by the municipalities1 and lead to a further diminution in the death-rate4 ,we may1 indeed1 soon have to ask whether1 in a population which has become so much less subject to diminution by death than was formerly the case1 there is not too great an increase by birth--too great1 that is to say1 for the existing means of employment and food-production4 ,a most serious1 indeed1 an alarming fact1 has recently come to light in the study of this question1 namely1 that the increase of the population is due 7as pointed out on p4 #bgi7 to the proportionately larger number of births amongst the poorer1 and even destitute1 sections of the community who have not the means of training and rearing their children satisfactorily1 and are themselves likely to transmit incapacity of one kind and another to their offspring2 whilst those who have valuable hereditary qualities and are prosperous have--it is clearly established--relatively few children--and1 in fact1 do not increase the population4 ,whether this condition of things constitutes a real danger1 how it will ultimately work out if left alone1 and how the difficulty is to be met1 are problems for statesmen which cannot be solved off-hand1 but require knowledge not only of the crude facts of statistics1 but also of the causes at work4 ,scientific knowledge--that is to say1 thorough and unassailable knowledge--of the laws of heredity1 of psychology1 and of the natural history of human populations1 are among the essential qualifications for those who have to face and deal with this difficult matter4 ,and who is there who has this knowledge or is even trying to obtain it8 ,not the ,state in this country or its officials3 for in every department of government 7however capable some of the subordinates may be7 there is a determined opposition to and fear of ,science on the part of the political and highly paid chiefs--the jealous fear due to complete and deadly ignorance4 ,,xxxi ,,gossamer ,fine as gossamer6 ,town-bred folks never see it1 and do not believe in its existence2 they think it is a poetical figment1 like 8honey-dew40 ,that1 too1 is nevertheless a real thing--a honey-like juice poured out by the little plant-lice or aphides4 ,gossamer is a very real and a most beautiful thing4 ,you may see it on the hill-sides in fine ,october weather1 when the sun is bright but low enough to illuminate the delicate threads and reveal the 8veil of silk and silver thin0 spread over ,nature's loveliness4 ,the innumerable threads glisten1 and are so fine that they shine with iridescent colours1 as do the equally delicate soap-bubbles fabricated by men and boys1 and from the same cause4 ,when the eye gets accustomed to them and traces them--rippling and glimmering over acres and acres of grass-land--one feels disconcerted1 almost awestruck1 by the revelation of this vast network of threads4 ,sometimes the gentle currents of air break them loose from the herbage1 and they float at a higher level and envelop the puzzled intruder in an almost invisible entanglement of fairy lines4 ,sometimes they become felted together in flakes and float or rest as incredibly delicate tissue1 woven by unseen mysterious agency4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dg4--;,a young spider 7four times the natural length7 raising its body upwards1 whilst the four silk threads 7gossamer7 spun by it float in the air1 and so draw out further liquid silk from the spider4 ,they increase in length to three or four yards1 when they float upwards1 carrying the spider with them4 7,after ,mc,cook47 ,when the slopes of the new golf course at ,wimbledon were covered last autumn with gossamer1 my friends were asking what was its origin1 some boldly asserting that it was impossible that such a vast acreage of threads could be produced1 as others maintained1 by tiny unseen spiders6 ,yet that is the true history of gossamer4 ,hundreds of thousands of minute spiders1 young1 and of a small kind1 are present in grass fields in autumn1 and throw out these marvellously fine threads from their little bodies 7,fig4 #dg74 ,those who at first sight doubt this origin of gossamer are only in accordance with their forefathers4 ,the ,french peasants call it fil de la ,vierge2 old ,english writers held it to be 8dew evaporated40 ,a great discoverer and leader of science in his time1 ,robert ,hook1 who was elected with ,nehemiah ,grew as secretary of the ,royal ,society in #afgg1 and published a wonderful illustrated book called ,micrographia 7see p4 #agc71 wrote of gossamer4 ,he was so far from recognising its true nature that he says3 8,it is not unlikely that those great white clouds which appear all the summer time may be of the same substance40 ,yet it is now a simple and certain fact of observation that the countless threads in question are the work of minute spiders6 ,the pretty name 8gossamer0 has puzzled the etymologists and led to some far-fetched suggestions4 ,that favoured by the authority of the great ,oxford dictionary of the ,english language is that it is a corruption of 8,go-summer10 because gossamer appears in autumn and is associated with ,st4 ,martin's summer4 ,this is like saying that the word 8cray-fish0 refers to fish that live in a 8cray0 or brook1 instead of deriving it from the ,french word crevisse4 ,the ,germans call gossamer ,sommerweben4 ,but the ,latin word for cotton is gossypium2 and there is an ,italian word1 gossampino1 which occurs in an ,english form1 gossampine1 in the sixteenth century1 and means a kind of silk or cotton obtained from the fluffy hairs of a plant called bombax4 ,we also find 8gossamer0 spelt 8gossamire0 in ,english of that date2 and it seems to me most likely that an ,italian word gossamira1 signifying 8fairy-cotton0 or 8magic goose-down10 is the origin of our word4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dh4--,view of the lower surface of the head and body of a large ,burmese spider1 known as ,liphistius1 to show the spinnerets 7#c and #d71 which are really reduced or rudimentary legs1 and are in this spider retained in their original position1 instead of being pushed down to the end of the body1 as they are in all other spiders 7see ,fig4 #di1 spn71 ,i4 to ,,vi41 the basal joints of the legs and palps of the head-region2 #a1 the first abdominal segment2 #b1 the second2 #c and #d1 the legs of the third and fourth abdominal segments1 which are the spinnerets2 #aa1 the eleventh abdominal segment--in front of it rudiments of the segments #e to #aj are seen2 an1 anus2 a1 b1 inner and outer lobes of the first pair of spinnerets4 ,there are #ejj different kinds of spider carefully described as occurring in the ,british ,islands1 and about #bjjj others from remoter regions4 ,precisely which of them forms the 8gossamer0 of our meadows it is difficult to say1 as all have the habit of secreting a viscid fluid from one or two pairs of projecting spinning knobs or stalks1 which are seen at the hinder end of the body 7,figs4 #dh1 #di1 and #ej74 ,the viscid fluid is poured out by a great number of minute tubes1 and hardens at once into a thread1 which is wonderfully fine1 yet strong4 ,different kinds of spiders make use of these threads for different purposes1 hence their name 8spinners40 ,some make burrows in the ground and line them with a felt of these threads1 others enclose their eggs in a case formed by winding them round the eggs1 others form 8snares0 of the most marvellous mechanical ingenuity with them1 by which insects are entangled and are then paralysed by the poisonous stab of the spider's claws1 and have their juices sucked out of them at the spider's leisure4 ,the snares of spiders are in some species merely irregular webs fastened and suspended by threads1 in other cases they are gracefully-modelled funnels or cups1 whilst a third kind1 the disc-like webs made up of radiating and circularly-disposed threads fixed in a geometrical pattern1 excel--in the mechanical precision of their workmanship and the masterly treatment of engineering difficulties--the constructions of any other kind of animal4 ,it is amongst this kind of spiders that the formation by the spinning knobs of threads or lines and their use in various ways is most general and frequent4 ,the smaller spiders expel the viscid thread1 drawing it out from their bodies by their own movement away from the object to which it at first adhered4 ,when it breaks loose from that support it is carried upwards by air-currents and drawn out from the spinners body to many yards' length 7,fig4 #dg74 ,it then becomes a 8flying-line10 and the spider may sail away on it or run up it and disappear4 ,the celebrated story of the ,indian juggler's performance--traditional and even solemnly attested by witnesses1 but failing to pass the test of photography--must have been suggested by this common1 yet wonderful1 proceeding of small spiders4 ,the juggler1 standing in an open place1 surrounded by a ring of spectators1 uncoils a rope1 #ej feet long1 from his waist1 and holding one end1 throws the other up into the air4 ,the rope1 without any support1 remains stretched and upright4 ,a small boy now enters the ring and climbs up the rope1 draws it up after him1 and disappears with it in the upper air6 ,that is an illusion1 but it is precisely what thousands of small spiders are continually doing4 ,a big spider--the well-grown female of the common garden spider1 for instance1 cannot do this--her thread is not strong enough1 and her weight is too great4 ,but the male of the same species1 who is much smaller1 fortunately for him1 can safely run on a hanging line--and thus can rapidly escape from the side of his mistress1 who1 after receiving his caresses1 has an unpleasant habit of seizing1 killing1 and sucking the blood of the adventurous male1 should he linger longer in her company1 and fail in the agility and rapidity of his exit4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #di4--,section through the body of a spider to show the spinning organs4 h1 heart connected by four big veins with b1 the lung-bosks or air-gills2 f1 genital lid2 ov1 ovary2 a1 the anus2 spn1 the three pairs of spinnerets or spinning warts2 c1 e1 and d1 the three kinds of glands producing liquid silk1 viz41 cylindrical1 tree-form1 and pyriform4 ,these are one thousand in number in the common garden spider1 and each has its separate spout or spigot standing up on one of the spinnerets 7see next figure74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ej4--,one of the two middle spinnerets of the common garden spider 7,epeira diadema71 to show the three kinds of spouts or spigots 7one thousand in all7 corresponding to the three kinds of silk-glands4 ,each kind of 8spigot0 pours out a different kind and size of thread4 sp4c1 one of the big spigots of the cylindrical glands2 sp4t1 middle-sized spigots belonging to the tree-form glands2 ss and s4ss1 the small-sized spigots of the very numerous pyriform glands4 ,the threads of the garden spider 7the ,porte-croix of the ,french1 white-cross spider1 ,epeira diadema1 ,fig4 #ea7 are fixed by astronomers in their telescopes for the purpose of giving fine lines in the field of view1 by which the relative positions of stars may be accurately measured4 ,for a century astronomers desired to make use of such lines of the greatest possible fineness1 and procured at first silver wire drawn out to the extreme limit of tenuity attainable with that metal4 ,they also tried hairs 7#a_/ejjth of an inch thick7 and threads of a silk-worm's cocoon1 which are split into two component threads each only #a_/bjjjth of an inch thick4 ,but in #ahbj an ,english instrument maker named ,troughton introduced the spider's line4 ,this can be readily obtained three or four times smaller in breadth than the silk-worm's thread1 and has also advantages in its strength and freedom from twist4 ,in order to obtain the thread1 the spider is carefully fixed on a miniature 8rack10 and the thread1 which at the moment of issue from the body is a viscid liquid1 is made to adhere to a winder1 by turning which the desired length of firm but elastic thread can be procured4 ,it has been proposed to use spiders' silk in manufactures as a substitute for silk-worms' silk1 and pioneers have woven gloves1 stockings1 and other articles from it4 ,it appears that there are species of spider in other parts of the world whose thread is coarser and more suitable for this purpose than that of any of our ,british spiders4 ,but it is estimated that the expense in feeding the spiders--which require insect food--would make the thread obtained from them far too costly to compete with silk-worm silk4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ea4--,the common garden spider1 more correctly called the white cross spider 7,epeira diadema73 a female drawn a little 7one-fifth7 larger than life4 ,a number of different kinds of the lower animals besides spiders have the power of producing threads4 ,the caterpillars of some moths are especially noted for this1 since their thread is familiar to us all as 8silk40 ,it is secreted as a viscid fluid by a pair of tubes opening at the mouth1 and hardens on escape4 ,even some marine creatures--the mussels--produce threads1 in this case from a gland or sac in the muscular foot1 by means of which they fix themselves to rocks4 ,a very big mussel--the ,pinna--called ,capo lungo by the ,mediterranean fishermen and ,capy longy at ,plymouth1 where they are also found1 produces a sufficient quantity of fine horny threads to be used in weaving1 and gloves have been made at ,genoa from the shell-fish silk4 ,the threads produced by the hardening of the tenacious fluid exuded by these various animals were probably simply protective in origin4 ,the curious caterpillar-like creature ,peripatus spits out a viscid fluid when it is disturbed1 which hardens into threads1 and hopelessly entangles any small enemy which may venture to attack it4 ,threads of a poisonous nature are thrown out by jelly-fishes1 polyps1 and sea anemones1 and serve them both as defence and as means of paralysing and capturing prey4 ,a later stage in the use of such threads is their 8felting0 to form a case or tube 7as in the sea anemone called ,cerianthus71 and so their application has gradually developed to the formation of egg-cases1 snares1 and the wonderful web of the geometric spider1 and the countless 8flying-lines0 of smaller spiders1 which make up the mysterious thing we call 8gossamer40 ,as to the limits of the tenuity of the threads of gossamer there are no direct observations4 ,probably they are often as fine as the #a_/af1jjjth or #a_/bj1jjjth of an inch in diameter4 ,the condensation of a very minute quantity of moisture on gossamer threads and spiders' webs no doubt helps to make them more readily visible to us in ,october weather than they are in full summer1 when such moisture would not condense except in early morning or at sunset4 ,it seems strange that man should have been unable to produce a thread so fine as that of the spider1 but this reproach has now been removed4 ,spun glass is easily obtained #a_/ajjjth of a inch in diameter2 but ,mr4 ,c4 ,v4 ,boys1 ,f4,r4,s41 has1 by fusing quartz 7rock-crystal7 by the oxy-hydrogen flame1 and drawing it out by means of a small arrow 7a straw71 discharged from a bow--the near end of the arrow being adherent to a fused droplet of quartz which is held fast--produced threads of great strength and of extraordinary tenuity4 ,the fineness can be regulated by the rapidity with which the drawing is effected4 ,the threads are prepared 7for use in suspending swinging bars in delicate measurements of force7 of a thickness of #a_/aj1jjjth of an inch4 ,some have been made so fine as to be not only invisible to the naked eye1 but to be only vaguely indicated by the highest powers of the microscope4 ,they are estimated to be only one-millionth of an inch in diameter4 ,it is difficult to form any mental picture or conception of these finest quartz threads spun by ,mr4 ,boys4 ,but the following fact helps us to realise how delicate they are4 ,a grain of sand just visible to the eye--that is to say1 #a_/ajjth an inch long1 the same in breadth1 and the same in height--would make twenty miles of such thread4 ,,xxxii ,,the ,,jumping ,,bean ,one way of thinking of the six hundred thousand kinds or species of insects--those tiny1 ubiquitous fellow-creatures of ours which inhabit nearly every corner and cranny of the earth's surface--is to associate them with the plants upon which1 either for food or protection1 the greater number of them are dependent4 ,this makes them appear less overwhelming in their astonishing and1 at first sight1 meaningless variety1 than when one calls them to mind pinned out in long lines in innumerable drawers and cases1 or assorted1 like with like1 in the wonderfully accurate and interminable pictures of them produced by those patient benefactors of mankind the systematic entomologists4 ,every plant of any size has a number of insects associated with it1 living more or less completely on its substance1 or making its home in some part of the plant4 ,some trees are known to have more than a hundred and fifty kinds or species of insects thus dependent on them1 those which are vegetarian serving in their turn as food to a variety of carnivorous insects4 ,the ways in which insects are associated with plants may be briefly stated4 ,it must be remembered that often1 though not always1 one particular species of plant1 and that only1 is capable of serving the needs of a given species of insect4 ,thus1 the leaves of a given plant are the necessary food of the grubs of one or more insects which bite their food2 its internal juices serve others which suck2 its roots others2 its nectar in the flower others1 which in return serve the plant by carrying away its pollen and fertilising the other plants of the same species which they visit4 ,protection is sought and obtained from the same plant by insects which burrow in its leaves1 or roll them up1 or cut them into slices and carry them away1 or hide in its bark1 or in the flowers1 or in other parts--or burrow for food and shelter into its wood4 ,others lay their eggs in the soft buds1 producing or not producing according to their kind distorted growths1 known as 8galls0 7one plant is known to have as many as thirty species of gall-flies which make use of it74 ,other insects lay their eggs in the flower-buds and immature fruits1 or place them on the plant so that the young grubs1 when hatched1 can at once eat into those soft parts4 ,others bore into the wood or into hard or fleshy fruits expressly to lay their eggs1 or into the ripe seeds4 ,certain ants live in chambers specially provided by the woody parts of the plant for them1 and benefit both themselves and the plant by devouring other insects which seek the plant in order to devour it4 ,in a museum of natural history there should be exhibited at least one plant with specimens and enlarged models of all the insects which depend upon it for food1 protection1 or nursery1 and with accompanying illustrations of the way in which those purposes are served4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eb4--,on the right two jumping beans2 on the left the caterpillar removed from a jumping bean4 ,the figures are a little larger than life-size1 as is shown by the line drawn near the caterpillar giving its actual length4 ,the shape of the 8beans10 as segments of a tripartite sphere1 is seen4 ,one shows a round hole1 with a lid-like piece marked a1 removed from the hole4 ,this hole did not exist when the bean first came into my possession in ,november #aijh4 ,at that time the caterpillar within was active1 and the bean or fruit-segment often jumped4 ,in ,april the caterpillar cut this round hole from within1 leaving the circular lid in place1 and became a chrysalis4 ,the lid was pushed out1 as shown in the drawing1 by the moth when it escaped from the chrysalis in ,july4 7,drawn from nature for this work47 ,a curious product of the relationship of an insect and a plant is the so-called 8jumping bean10 which is brought to this country from ,mexico1 and may be purchased in some of the ,london shops which deal in 8miscellaneous0 articles4 ,they have been known for some years1 but are becoming now a regular article of commerce4 ,as one buys them 7,fig4 #eb7 they are segments of a globular fruit which has divided into three1 comparable to the familiar segments of an orange1 but less numerous4 ,they are about one-third of an inch long1 light1 quite dry1 and apparently hollow1 without any visible opening4 ,two sides of the little capsule are flat1 and the third side is bulged and rounded1 so that the capsule easily rocks when resting on that side4 ,when these dry fruits or segments of a fruit are brought into a warm room or placed near a fire so as to make them as warm as the hand1 they commence to rock and move with curious little jerks4 ,they jump as much as one-eighth of an inch from the ground1 and advance as much as a quarter of an inch at a time1 though by rolling they may progress a good deal more4 ,they will often move seven or eight times in the same direction so as to make a progress of a couple of inches on a flat surface1 and ,i have found that if a cool surface or protection from warmth is within reach they will in the course of time arrive at that cool area and come to rest4 ,when the plate on which they are placed becomes cool or the temperature of the room falls to what we should call 8chilly10 they cease to move1 but can be roused again by renewed warmth4 ,how and why do these 8beans10 or1 rather1 fruit-segments 7for they are not beans71 move in this determined purposeful manner8 ,the whole proceeding has a mysterious and uncanny aspect4 ,they have no legs1 no spring2 they are simple little smooth capsules1 and yet they jump and seemingly 8walk0 about4 ,the explanation is that there is a grub inside each so-called 8bean40 ,cut one of the beans or capsules open1 and you find that it is a very thin-walled and hollow case1 but coiled on itself in the cavity you open1 and about half filling it1 is a yellowish white grub 7,figs4 #eb and #ec74 ,it is not a 8maggot10 but a 8caterpillar10 that is to say1 it is not legless1 but has eight pairs of legs--namely1 three pairs of short walking legs in front1 four pairs of sucker-like legs1 and a hinder pair of larger size called 8claspers40 ,it has a hard brown plate on its head1 and possesses hard jaws4 ,it refuses to leave the opened capsule1 and crawls back again if forcibly removed1 and in the course of a few hours spins a silken cover to replace the piece of 8shell0 you have cut away4 ,mr4 ,rollo has lately succeeded in getting the caterpillar to patch up its injured residence with a thin piece of glass1 such as is used by microscopists1 which he put in place of a side of the capsule removed by a knife4 ,he was thus able subsequently to watch through the glass the movements of the little creature when it causes the mended capsule or 8bean0 to jump4 ,it rears itself from the lower surface of the capsule1 and gives a series of sharp blows to the roof1 projecting its body with each blow1 and thus overbalances the capsule1 or1 if the flat side is lying downwards1 jerks it along much as one may sit with one's feet on the rail of a chair and cause it to jerk along the floor by the swinging movements of the body4 ,the caterpillar does not die at once when removed from the capsule2 it has been kept alive in a glass tube for a month4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ec4--,the caterpillar of the moth1 ,carpocapsa saltitans1 removed from the jumping bean3 magnified three diameters4 ,observe the jaws 7with which the circular plate is cut in the bean before the grub becomes a chrysalis71 eyes1 three pairs of pointed legs1 four sucker legs placed in the middle region1 and followed by three segments without legs1 and a terminal segment with a pair of suckers4 7,drawn from nature for this work47 ,so far so good4 ,the next questions are3 ,what ,mexican plant is it that forms the capsule or tripartite fruit in which the caterpillar is found8 ,how did the caterpillar get there8 ,what kind of an insect does it turn into1 and when8 ,i will answer the last question first4 ,the caterpillar turns into a chrysalis in the early part of the year1 having first cut a perfectly circular ring in the shell of the capsule4 ,the circular plate thus within the ring is not disturbed1 and cannot be observed without very close inspection4 ,the making of this perfectly circular cut without removing the piece marked out must be effected by a rotation of the caterpillar's head and jaws as a centre-bit--an astonishing performance4 ,but when the moth emerges from the chrysalis1 a gentle push is enough to cause the little circular plate to fall out1 and the moth creeps through the hole to the outer world4 ,the moth1 which comes out of the chrysalis-coat1 is a very pretty little creature 7see ,fig4 #ed71 measuring two-thirds of an inch across the opened wings1 which are marked with dark and reddish-brown-coloured bands4 ,it is a close ally of the ,british codling moth1 the caterpillar of which eats its way into the core of apples1 and is familiar to all growers and eaters of that fruit4 ,the codling moth and the ,mexican 8jumper0 belong to a group of small moths called ,tortricin1 and they are named respectively ,carpocapsa saltitans 7the one whose grub or caterpillar inhabits the 8jumping bean07 and ,carpocapsa pomonana1 the codling moth4 ,there are other ,british species of ,carpocapsa1 the grubs of which eat into the acorn1 the walnut1 the chestnut1 and the beechnut--a distinct kind or species for each4 ,none of these grubs cause the nuts they attack to 8jump40 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ed4--,the moth1 ,carpocapsa saltitans1 which escapes from the jumping bean or segment of the fruit of the ,mexican spurge1 ,sebastiana palmeri1 in which its caterpillar and chrysalis have passed their lives4 ,the crossed lines indicate the natural size of the moth4 7,drawn from nature for this work47 ,the 8jumping bean0 of ,mexico is a segment of the triply divided fruit of a large spurge1 which is called ,sebastiana palmeri4 ,the spurges are known in ,england as little green-leaved annuals1 with yellow-green flowers and a milky juice4 ,botanists call them the ,euphorbiace1 and in that 8natural order0 are included the boxwood tree and some tropical trees of great value and importance4 ,none other than the ,brazilian indiarubber tree1 ,hevea1 of which we hear so much nowadays1 its rubber to the value of #ad1jjj1jjj being exported every year from ,brazil1 is one of them4 ,so also is the ,chinese candle-tree1 which furnishes a tallow-like fat1 made into candles in ,china4 ,others are the croton oil and the castor oil shrubs1 natives of ,india1 and the manihot or tapioca plant4 ,the fruits of ,sebastiana 7the jumping bean7 are very much like those of the croton2 and as there are crotons 7though not the one of the purgative oil7 in abundance in ,mexico1 it has taken some time to make sure that the 8jumping bean0 is not the fruit of a croton1 but that of the allied plant ,sebastiana4 ,it appears that there is no commercial value for this plant1 and that those capsules which happen to contain a grub and move are collected from the ground by the native ,mexican boys and sold as curiosities4 ,the moth 7,carpocapsa saltitans7 lays its eggs on the ,sebastian shrub1 and the young grub1 on hatching1 eats its way into the young fruit when the latter is still quite soft and the seed unformed1 and so leaves no hole to mark its entrance4 ,as the fruit swells the grub eats out the seed and surrounding pulp of the segment of the fruit into which it entered early in life4 ,by the time the fruits are dry and fall to the ground the caterpillar is fully grown4 ,of course1 it is only a very few of the capsules which are thus invaded by a grub4 ,the question very naturally arises1 8,why should the caterpillar put itself to the great muscular effort of making the little capsule in which it is contained jump and move over the ground80 ,it seems probable that these movements are made in order to bring the capsule from an exposed position when it falls on to the ground--where it might be crushed or eaten by some animal--into a position of shelter1 either into a hole1 or under some stone or fallen wood4 ,the warmth of the sun in an exposed position excites the caterpillar to activity1 which ceases when it has reached the shade offered by some protecting cranny4 ,in the same way ,i have applied artificial heat and1 alternatively1 shelter from heat1 so as to cause the movements or the resting of the jumping bean in a ,london sitting-room4 ,these things and others of absorbing interest may be seen in the truly wonderful museum of ,kew ,gardens1 where perhaps the visitor will be disposed to spend more time in cold weather than in the summer4 ,the park at ,kew ,gardens1 with its splendid forest and lakes1 and its ,italian tower1 is one of the beautiful things of ,england1 and it has a special quality even in this season of mist and veiled sunshine4 ,i found there recently1 under the trees1 as ,i did fifty years ago1 a rare and strange-looking fungus1 the ,phallus impudicus of botanists1--a furtive denizen of the glades which in late spring are purple with wild hyacinths4 ,the same spot in ,june presents within a few minutes' journey from the smoke and smell and noise of ,piccadilly a perfect sample of what is1 perhaps1 the most beautiful sight in ,nature--bright sunlight breaking through the young green leaves of a forest on to green herbage4 ,and close by are the azaleas6 ,,xxxiii ,,protective ,,colouring ,,in ,,animals ,every one is familiar with some of the instances in which the natural colour of an animal helps to hide it from view4 ,green caterpillars1 for instance1 are less visible when among the green leaves which they eat than they would be were they brown1 blue1 red1 yellow1 or black4 ,the little green tree-frog is difficult to see when he is clinging to a leaf1 because his colour is the same as that of the leaf4 ,sandy-brown-coloured animals1 birds1 reptiles1 and beasts of prey1 are found on the sands of the desert2 white birds1 foxes1 hares1 and bears on the ,arctic snow4 ,the similarity of the colouring of these animals to that of the ground on which they live results in their escaping the observation of man's eye1 and we are entitled to believe that they escape for the same reason the observation of other animals4 ,they are thus in many cases protected from the attacks of enemies searching for them as prey1 or in other cases they may themselves be enabled the more easily in consequence of their concealing colour to creep upon other animals and seize them as food4 ,some of the simpler cases of this resemblance between an animal and its surroundings are easy to observe1 and the value of the resemblance as protection1 or as a means of secret attack1 is plain enough4 ,but there are far more numerous cases in which the significance of colour as concealment1 is not so immediately obvious4 ,there are the curious stick insects1 with long bodies and delicate long legs1 sometimes with bud-like knobs on the body which look like bits of the branches of trees1 not merely on account of their colour1 but on account of their shape4 ,shape or modelling has a great deal to do with the effective concealment of an animal4 ,then1 too1 there is the curious fact that some insects 7and also some birds7 when at rest on the stems of trees1 are practically invisible1 but if they spread their wings are conspicuous4 ,the beech-leaf butterfly of ,assam and ,africa is of a purple colour1 marked with a great orange-coloured bar on each fore-wing when the wings are open1 and it is obvious enough4 ,but when the wings are closed and the insect is at rest1 the undersides only are seen1 and are coloured so as to represent the veining and fungus marks of a dry brown leaf1 so that not even a human observer1 let alone a bird or a lizard1 can distinguish at two-feet distance the butterfly from dried leaves placed near it4 ,a well-known little moth1 with pale green mottled wings1 is the only case in which ,i have myself watched the protection afforded by colour at work4 ,it was on a summer's evening1 when ,i saw this little moth zigzagging up and down with the most extraordinarily irregular flight1 and a bird pursuing it4 ,twice the bird swooped and just missed his prey owing to a sudden turn and drop on the part of the moth4 ,and then to my great delight the moth flopped against the stem of a tree on which was growing a greenish-grey lichen4 ,the bird swooped again close to the tree1 but failed to see the insect1 and quitted the chase4 ,it took me an appreciable time to detect the little moth resting against the lichen1 and closely matching it in colour4 ,there are endless examples known of such 8protective resemblances10 some of them 7such as that of the buff-tip moth1 which1 with its wings closed1 looks like a broken birch twig7 being most unexpected and fascinating4 ,in the forests of ,madagascar1 the whitish-grey tree lichens are imitated by thread-like growths on beetles1 tree-bugs1 locusts1 and even lizards1 with a wonderful concealing effect1 and some other flat membrane-like insects are so much like the greenish and yellowish bark of trees1 that we actually lost a specimen for some time in the case labelled 8,mimicry10 in which a series of these things was arranged by me for the edification of visitors to the ,natural ,history ,museum4 ,it was found1 after a day or two1 to have been present all the time with other specimens on a piece of bark1 from which it was indistinguishable4 ,some eight years ago a distinguished ,american painter1 ,mr4 ,abbott ,thayer1 was able to add very importantly to our knowledge of the ways in which colour serves to conceal animals when in their natural surroundings4 ,mr4 ,thayer was able to do this owing to the fact that he was a devoted student of woodland life4 ,this1 however1 alone was not enough4 ,mr4 ,thayer had the special ability to deal with this subject which comes from the trained eye of an artist4 ,he had1 above all1 the knowledge of 8tone values0 and of the illusive and delusive effects of false shading and of colour-spots and bars1 and of complementary colours and 8irradiation0--which only a painter who deals every day in the most practical way with these matters can attain to4 ,mr4 ,thayer showed eight years ago--and demonstrated conclusively by means of models1 one of which he presented to the ,natural ,history ,museum at my request--that in very many cases it is of no use for an animal to be of the same colour as its surroundings1 since if the animal 7a bird1 or a quadruped1 or a fish7 is of plump and rounded shape and is observed under the open canopy of heaven1 a deep shadow will exist on its lower surface and make it as obvious as a shaded charcoal drawing on a piece of light-brown paper4 ,but if the back of the animal is of a dark tint and its belly white or whitish1 then the effect of light and shade is 7,mr4 ,thayer showed7 completely counteracted and the animal becomes totally invisible in its natural surroundings4 ,mr4 ,thayer's model demonstrating this consists of two life-size wooden models of ducks seated on a stick--one to the left1 the other to the right4 ,the stick1 with the two models on it1 is fixed horizontally in a box1 which is open above 7that is1 has no lid7 and is also open in front4 ,the box is1 in fact1 a little stage1 lit from above by the light of the sky1 and its three remaining sides are sufficiently high to form a complete background to the model ducks1 whose perch runs across the 8scene0 at some #g in4 or #h in4 from the floor of the box4 ,the box itself is lined with a pale purplish-brown flannel1 and each bird is tightly covered with the same material4 ,when so prepared the box is placed on a table under a skylight 7where it is to stay71 the table being high enough to bring the ducks just below the line of sight4 ,of course1 deep shadows are formed by the top-light on the under side of the beak1 head1 and body of the models1 and in spite of their colour being itself identical with that of the walls of the box1 they are as obvious as it is possible for anything to be4 ,now ,mr4 ,thayer takes his paints and very carefully darkens the back of one of the ducks and whitens its belly and the under side of its head and beak4 ,the light and dark regions merge into one another along the side of the bird by skilful gradation4 ,when this shading and whitening is finished 7and1 of course1 the perfection of the result depends on the continuance of the right amount of sunlight1 which is not a thing one can always ensure in a ,london museum7 the duck-model so treated is absolutely invisible at a distance of #aj ft4 or #ae ft4--and even when one is nearer escapes notice--looking like a haze or vague shadow of a bird even to an observer who knows nevertheless that it is there and is really as solid and large as the untreated model by its side4 ,if now some one stretches out his hand so as to cut off the top-light falling on the painted model1 it immediately becomes as solid to the eye as the untreated one1 and when the hand is withdrawn it melts away again like ,banquo's ghost4 ,the models made by ,mr4 ,thayer were1 so long as ,i was director1 exhibited in the small room between the fish gallery and the central hall of the ,natural ,history ,museum1 and1 if they have not yet been removed1 are well worth a visit4 ,mr4 ,thayer's models work perfectly1 and astonish every one who sees them4 ,the great point of interest about them1 however1 is1 that the bird with dark back and light belly is really in the condition which is quite common in a number of birds1 especially ducks and wading birds1 where it must act as a means of concealing the bird--just as it does in the painted model4 ,of course1 there are vast numbers of birds not so shaded1 but it is possible to explain the darker and lighter colouring1 in various arrangements seen in birds1 as helping to produce concealment or disappearance from view1 when the habits and natural surroundings of the bird are known4 ,so1 too1 with many hairy quadrupeds 7mammals1 or 8animals10 or 8beasts10 as they are often called74 ,the white hair under the tail and about the rump1 helps a running animal to escape the vision of its pursuer--blending1 as ,mr4 ,thayer shows that it does--with the white colour of the sky-line4 ,in the case of fish--especially fresh-water fish--the dark back and light belly are very common1 and although they do not help to conceal the fish when seen from above1 swimming over a light-coloured river-bed1 yet when looked at by other fishes or by otters in the water1 the effect of the light from above on this disposition of dark and light tints on the fish's body must be the same as that demonstrated by ,mr4 ,thayer's 8disappearing duck10 and must often render the fish absolutely invisible1 even at close quarters4 ,mr4 ,thayer has pursued this subject during the past seven years1 and last autumn he gave some interesting demonstrations in the ,zoological ,gardens in ,london4 ,he showed a model of a white egret1 which was but little noticeable when standing up clear against a bright1 white-clouded sky4 ,the long plumes on the wings1 developed in the breeding season1 were shown 7by putting them on and taking them off7 to assist in causing invisibility1 since they made the side of the body flat and concealed the shadow on its rounded underside4 ,a similar bird-model marked with strong black on the neck and legs--the rest being white--refused 7so to speak7 to shape itself as a bird at all1 and looked at a distance of twenty yards like a bit of rock or stump of wood with a twig and dead leaf attached4 ,the effect of different tones of brown cardboard cut into the form of a butterfly1 when seen on different backgrounds1 was shown2 but the most interesting experiment was made with a black-green piece of cloth cut to the shape of a butterfly and fastened on to a sheet of dead-black cloth in the open air1 in the presence of white cloud light of moderate brilliancy4 ,at five yards one could see the outline of the dark-green butterfly-shaped piece2 at fifteen yards one could just distinguish the edge separating the dark-green piece from the black cloth4 ,now ,mr4 ,thayer stuck in the middle of the dark-green butterfly-wing a small circle of pure white 7about one-third of an inch across74 ,the effect was entirely to obliterate the previously visible edge2 one could no longer see the dark-green area at all--one only saw a white spot on a continuous dark ground1 the dark-green and the black were merged into one4 ,that is no doubt due to the powerful stimulation of the sensitive 8retina0 of the eye by the white light of the spot2 the feeble stimulation by the dark-green and black1 though these remain physically as distinct from one another as before1 ceases to affect the brain1 which is1 as it were1 entirely occupied with the strong white spot4 ,this1 according to ,mr4 ,thayer1 is the value to butterflies and other animals of a violently contrasted white spot or band on a dark general colouring4 ,the fringe of white dots and connected white flakes nearer the centre of the wing--common on the wings of butterflies--has1 similarly1 the result of rendering the wing-outline imperceptible and the butterfly invisible4 ,many such relations of colour spots and bands1 as well as of dark and light markings1 have been elucidated by ,mr4 ,thayer1 and will be illustrated by coloured drawings in the book which he is preparing on the subject4 ,while it is the fact that ,mr4 ,thayer has thrown new light on the colour-protection and invisibility of animals1 it must be remembered that there are other explanations of certain cases of brilliant colouring in animals besides that which he has so well illustrated4 8,warning0 colours1 recognition marks1 and sexually attractive colouring all certainly and demonstrably exist in well-known and well-studied kinds of animals4 ,it is very possible that some of these colour-markings have been produced by a slight change in what were previously 8concealing0 patterns or colour-markings4 ,the tendency of the human observer is to regard any colour1 spot1 or pattern on a bird1 fish1 beast1 or insect as a 8mark0 or distinguishing 8sign40 ,we examine these things at close quarters1 and do not1 unless we reflect a good deal on the matter and experiment with the object1 realise that what is a mark of distinction or recognition when seen at a few inches' distance may be an illusive and obscuring colour-scheme when seen at a distance of some feet1 and in natural and habitual surroundings4 ,it is not unlikely that we shall arrive at definite knowledge of the psychological 8sight interpretations0 of animals by a further study of this subject4 ,it is in the highest degree probable that the retinal picture produced in an animal's eye by certain spots of colour1 shade1 and light exhibited by another animal1 are not interpreted by the receptive animal in the same way as they would be by a scrutinising1 inquiring1 reasoning man1 even one who is what we call a 8savage40 ,moreover1 though many ,english naturalists have travelled and seen 8life and light0 in the sunny regions of the earth1 there are few students of the colour-markings of animals in our museums1 especially in great cities1 who have adequate experience of what colour-markings really can effect in the way of concealment and illusion when light and surrounding objects are as they are1 in the tropics or sub-tropical regions4 ,it is a fashion nowadays in the best-provided museums of natural history to exhibit stuffed beasts1 birds1 and insects in what are called 8their natural surroundings40 ,the fatal objection to such exhibitions is that were the beasts1 birds1 and insects placed in their most usual 8natural surroundings10 they would be invisible6 ,it is the merit of ,mr4 ,thayer to have drawn attention to these considerations1 and to have carried out some interesting demonstrations of the more frequent significance of colour-markings as means of concealment and illusion than had been recognised before his work4 ,at the same time1 it is not possible to consider the yellow and black livery of wasps1 of certain evil-tasting grubs1 and of poisonous salamanders as anything but a 8danger-flag10 a warning to other animals that the yellow and black animal had better not be bitten and tasted4 ,so the previous experience of animals who have bitten yellow and black creatures is appealed to1 and ensures the safety of the yellow and black gentry from tentative bites which would kill them4 ,other recognition marks by which ill-tasting1 nauseous butterflies are distinguished1 and in consequence of which they escape attack1 and1 not only that1 but are 8mimicked0 7as the yellow and black poisonous wasp is mimicked by some innocuous flies which thus escape attack7 by other pleasant-tasting butterflies which fly with them1 are considered by ,mr4 ,thayer to be wrongly interpreted as recognition or 8warning0 marks4 ,he shows1 with more or less success1 that the markings of the butterflies known as ,heliconi are effective as concealment1 and is therefore inclined to deny their value as 8warning0 marks1 serving to indicate a noxious quarry best left untasted4 ,it is1 of course1 quite possible that what are 8concealment markings0 when viewed by an aggressive bird or lizard at a distance1 may be recognised as 8warning marks0 when seen by the same observers at close quarters1 and it is also possible that the latter may have become the more important or only important result of the colour marks of a given butterfly which were once useful as 8concealment40 ,the possible change of significance of colour spots and markings in wild animals may be illustrated by the effect on human beings of the burglar's crpe mask4 ,at the present moment probably the most prominent result of the appearance in a house full of people in the dead of night of a man with a crpe mask over his face would be terror to those who saw him4 ,the mask would be interpreted as a 8mark0 or 8sign0 of evil1 not to say violent intentions on the part of the masked man4 ,it would be a 8warning colour10 and most unathletic individuals would severely avoid it2 in fact1 retire from it in alarm4 ,but actually1 the burglar's mask--as possibly some noxious insects' distinctive markings--was not invented for the purpose of causing alarm4 ,far from it6 ,the burglar1 or nocturnal malefactor1 dons his crpe mask in order to cover the white glitter of his face1 and so to escape observation4 ,in origin it is a protective coloration leading to invisibility1 and only secondarily has it become a 8warning colour0 or 8mark0 at close quarters4 ,there will be much more ascertained1 and much instructive discussion as to the colours and markings of not only animals1 but also of flowers and foliage1 before this wonderful subject is thrashed out4 ,i have only been able here to indicate its outlines4 ,,xxxiv ,,hop-,,blight ,hops have for many years now been a very uncertain investment for those who1 in ,england1 devote capital to the growing1 drying1 and marketing of this crop4 ,in some years a fortune may be made1 in some years a dead loss1 in many a bare return of expenditure4 ,hence1 it is not surprising that ,english hop-growers should wish for legislation which shall make their business more secure by taxing the hops produced in other countries1 and imported by our brewers4 ,the whole subject of 8hops0 is a very complicated one4 ,it is the fact that every plant and animal cultivated by civilised man has led to the accumulation of an astonishing amount of detailed knowledge and experience in each case1 and that there are increasing difficulties and surprises in regard to varieties1 and the competition of new supplies brought from all quarters of the globe4 ,new areas of cultivation1 new methods of transport1 new fashion and taste continually disturb1 and even destroy1 old-established industries4 ,it is for statesmen to consider how far the remorseless current of unforeseen changes should be checked and manipulated1 so as to prevent disaster in the old-established and flourishing industries of the countryside4 ,the hop 7called ,humulus lupulus by botanists7 is a native of this country1 and of the more temperate parts of ,europe4 ,the ,greeks and ,romans never made 8beer10 and were unacquainted with the use of the hop4 ,more than a thousand years ago the ,german and ,scandinavian peoples made use of various fragrant herbs 7sweet gale1 bark of tamarisk and oak7 to flavour the sweet beer which they brewed from malted grain1 just as borage1 cucumber1 and other plants are still used to flavour 8cups40 ,wild hops were used1 amongst other herbs1 for this purpose1 and gradually--but only gradually--became the favourite source of flavour4 ,the hop owes its selection not merely to its bitter tonic quality1 but also to its wonderful and most delicate perfume4 ,not only that1 but the hop is found to be effective in checking continued fermentation and souring--and also to have a narcotic sleep-producing quality1 for which it is still used medicinally4 ,distinct chemical compounds are found in hops to which these several properties are due4 ,a warm 8hop-pillow0--a pillow stuffed with dried hop-flowers--has given1 and still gives1 sleep to many a wakeful countryman4 ,the older use of other fragrant plants in the making of beer survives in some foreign beers1 such as the ,norwegian ale1 the beer of ,louvain1 and the 8green0 spruce-beer of ,jena4 ,hops were first cultivated with a view to obtaining varieties which would furnish abundant and large1 well-flavoured flower-heads4 ,the flower-heads are 8cones10 consisting of numerous minute flowers1 protected by overlapping green-coloured scales or bracts4 ,the cultivated hop was brought to this country in the time of ,henry ,,viii1 and the cultivation of hops in hop-gardens and the skilful drying of the flower-heads in large bulk was commenced1 and regulated by law4 ,the male or pollen-producing hop-vine is distinct from the female seed-bearing hop-vine2 it is the female flower-cone which carries the valuable fragrant and resinous products which the brewer desires4 ,hops are artificially propagated by root-cuttings1 and it is interesting to note that the hop-grower finds that it is not desirable to allow the female flowers to be fertilised1 since1 although the hops weigh more after the setting of the seed1 the valuable extractive substances contained in the flower are diminished1 used up in the growth of the seed4 ,hence1 often only one male hop-vine to every #bjj female hop-vines is allowed in a hop-garden4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ee4--;,early winged female hop-louse1 produced viviparously by the first generation of daughters of the 8,foundress10 ,fig4 #eh4 ,these winged females migrate from the plum tree1 where they were born1 to the hop-vines by aid of their wings1 and produce viviparously the form drawn in ,fig4 #eg4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ef4--,male hop-louse1 not appearing until late autumn4 ,it does not follow because a plant is a native of a given country that it can be easily cultivated anywhere in that country1 or that its finest cultivated varieties will be hardy4 ,only a few limited territories 7owing to the nature of the soil1 climate1 and exposure7 in ,germany 7chiefly in ,bavaria71 and in ,kent1 ,sussex1 ,worcestershire1 and ,herefordshire1 seem to be really favourable to hop-growing in ,europe4 ,certain parts of the ,pacific coast of the ,united ,states have of late years proved a very successful ground1 although hops were introduced from ,europe and first cultivated with considerable success in the ,state of ,new ,york4 ,the same dangers and troubles attend the hop-crop in all these regions4 ,these are blight1 red-spider1 mildew and mould1 besides several less important insect pests4 ,the hop-blight1 or 8black-blight10 is a plant-louse or aphis 7,fig4 #ee7 like the rose-aphis1 and does great and increasing damage to the hop-crop in ,england1 destroying the young and tender shoots in the months of ,june and ,july4 ,in #ahhb the hop-crop was reduced from #dei1jjj cwt4 7of the preceding year7 to #aae1jjj cwt4 by this insect1 and the wages paid for hop-picking from #cej1jjj to #aej1jjj4 ,these figures give an idea both of the damage done by blight and of the amount and value of the annual crop1 for the mere picking of which so large a payment is made4 ,red-spider is a small mite or acarid which has done a good deal of damage in ,kent4 ,but mildew and mould are more serious4 ,these are due to a delicate1 thread-like kind of fungus1 which spreads on the leaf4 ,many kinds are known in various parts of the world and on various plants4 ,they may grow on one kind of plant without doing injury to it1 but if they get on to another1 cause deadly destruction of the foliage4 ,it was an otherwise harmless mould1 or leaf-fungus1 which destroyed the coffee plantations of ,ceylon4 ,it had lived in the ,ceylon forests on other plants without attracting notice2 but when the coffee tree was introduced and cultivated in large areas1 this little fungus seized on it1 grew with terrible activity1 and received the name 8vastatrix0 from the botanists who traced its history1 and showed that it was the destroyer of the coffee plantations4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eg4--,ordinary wingless female hop-louse1 multiplying parthenogenetically throughout the summer4 ,hop-growers are constantly contending with these pests in the same way as other growers of crops have to contend with similar pests1 but the hop-growers have the more difficult and delicate 8patient0 to steer through its diseases4 ,the finest kinds of hops are not robust2 it is a chance whether or no they will suffer from a wet and cold season1 or other irregularity of climate1 to such a degree as to fall ready victims to blight and mildew4 ,yet they pay better1 provided the season is favourable1 and so the grower risks planting the fine1 delicate variety instead of being content with the more certain but smaller profits yielded by a more robust variety of hop4 ,the hop-lice1 or blight insects1 are destroyed by washing with soft soap and quassia--a process requiring1 even when a machine is used1 a good deal of care and labour4 ,mildew and mould are destroyed and also prevented by dusting the hop-vines in hot summer weather with finely powdered sulphur4 ,but both diseases can be combated by keeping the source of infection away from the hop-garden4 ,the mould-fungus can be checked by burning all leaves and plants attacked by it within the hop-garden4 ,if the infected leaves are left to rot they carry on the parasitic fungus to a new season4 ,an interesting fact has been discovered about the hop-blight aphis 7called by zoologists ,phorodon humuli74 ,it appears that the winter brood of this little insect 7when the hop-vine has died down7 deposit their eggs on the bark of the sloe 7the wild plum71 and also that any cultivated plum trees serve them for the same purpose4 ,when the hop is dead they must of necessity get nourishment and shelter from the plum tree4 ,clearly1 then1 if you can keep all plum trees at a distance of half a mile from your hop-garden you will render it very difficult1 if not impossible1 for the blight aphis to carry on from season to season4 ,it will rarely1 if ever1 travel half a mile1 and not in any number4 ,but hop-growers have not always the control of the cultivation for half a mile around their hop-fields1 though large growers should be able to acquire it4 ,the skilful grower even finds it useful to leave one or two plum trees in the hop-field1 so as to attract the winter brood of the blight aphis to them1 and then he falls upon the devastating but minute rascals with quassia and other poisons1 and ensures their destruction4 ,the increase of plum orchards in the neighbourhood of hop-gardens is probably a chief cause of the increased loss by hop-blight of late years in ,kent4 ,the hop-louse has other enemies besides the grower4 ,these are the lady-birds 7less prettily called 8lady-bugs071 which feed greedily on the parasites1 so that when the hop-grower sees plenty of them on a hop-vine he does not trouble to wash it4 ,and there are other predaceous insects which tend to keep the hop-lice down4 ,cultivation and excessive production have resulted in putting1 as it were1 too heavy a task upon the natural enemies of the pest1 whilst the more delicate but valuable varieties of hop cannot withstand the attacks of blight1 which less valuable varieties would tolerate without fatal injury4 ,another complicated and difficult problem for the hop-grower is the 8curing0 of the hops when gathered4 ,he has to arrange to grow a number of varieties which will not be all ready for picking at the same moment1 so that the hop-pickers may be employed for some six weeks1 and gather each kind at the exact time of ripeness4 ,then the gathered hops have to be 8dried0 and 8cured40 ,in ,germany 7where the highest-priced hops are produced7 small cultivators dry them in the sun1 and they are 8cured0 by the purchaser1 but in ,england they are dried in kilns 7called 8oasts0 in ,kent7 near the hop-grounds4 ,they are cured with sulphur fumes on the spot as soon as dried4 ,the object of the drying and curing is quickly to get rid of the water1 which forms #ge per cent4 of the weight of the green flower-heads1 but is reduced by drying to #aj per cent41 and to destroy the 8mould0 7fungus7 which may be present1 and to keep the hops free from new access of mould by the slight deposit of sulphur fumes on their surface4 ,the drying and fumigating require a great deal of skill1 and a fine crop may be injured or even rendered worthless by want of care1 rapidity1 and judgment in treating the freshly gathered flower-cones4 ,it is said that it takes years to acquire the art1 and that skilled hop-curers are more difficult to obtain than formerly4 ,the natural difficulties and fluctuations with which the ,english hop-grower has to contend are made far more serious by the fact that he does not know what will be the yield of the ,american and ,german hop-plantations1 and so cannot prepare beforehand for the demands of the market4 ,it appears that ice-storage is now being made use of in some districts to hold over any excess of produce of particular kinds of hop beyond the special demand for those kinds4 ,but a formidable source of trouble exists 7and1 it appears1 must always exist7 in the enormous changes and expansion of the brewing industry in all parts of the globe4 ,it is actually the case that there has been a greatly increased and unforeseen demand for hops of less highly developed aroma1 for the purpose of brewing light ales with little of the perfume given by the finest and hitherto most highly priced hops4 ,so that1 having expended skill and money to produce the finest hops1 and having been favoured by the weather1 a grower may find that his pains have been thrown away1 and that there is a sudden falling-off in the demand for the beautiful high-priced crop which he has gathered in4 ,there is no remedy for these world-wide fluctuations in the market1 and the only way in which the grower can protect himself is by combining with others to procure information from every part of the world as to the probable production and the probable demand of the various qualities of hops a year or more in advance of his planting4 ,more has been done in ,america and in ,germany in this way than in ,england1 and it is probable that the future success or failure of hop-growing in this country depends more on the possibility of obtaining correct information in regard to the tendencies of production in all hop-growing countries1 and in regard to the demand in all the brewing industries of the world1 than on anything else4 ,this brief sketch of the hop-growing industry is sufficient to show what a very difficult problem is before those who desire to take legislative measures for the preservation of the old industry of the hop-garden in this country4 ,but it must not be at once assumed1 because the case is a difficult and complicated one1 that nothing can be done1 and that the beautiful hop-vines and the finest hops are necessarily to be banished from the ,english soil4 ,,xxxv ,,green-,,flies1 ,,plant-,,lice1 ,,and ,,parthenogenesis ,the minute 8green-flies0 which attack all kinds of plants1 and among which are ranked the hop-louse or hop-blight1 the rose aphis or green-fly of rose trees1 the woolly blight or aphis of apple trees and pear trees1 and the terrible vine-killer--the ,phylloxera vastatrix--form a special group of bug-like insects known as the ,aphides4 ,they have soft cylindrical bodies1 six legs1 sometimes two pairs of transparent wings1 sometimes none1 and a sharp beak 7in some kinds this is one and a half times as long as the body71 with which they prick the soft parts of plants1 when they suck up the juices which issue from the wound 7,fig4 #ei74 ,there is in the temperate regions of the world a special kind of aphis or plant-louse peculiar to each of many kinds of flowering plants1 including most trees4 ,a very complete1 illustrated account of the kinds or species of ,british aphides1 amounting to some two hundred1 was produced by the late ,mr4 ,buckton1 ,f4,r4,s41 and published by the ,ray ,society4 ,there are many facts of extraordinary interest about these tiny swarming insects4 ,in the first place1 they are closely related to the minute scale-insects or ,coccid1 several species of which produce the celebrated lac of lacquer-work and the dyes known as lake1 cochineal1 and kermes1 the latter a dye manufactured in ,south ,europe and used to colour wool and cloth crimson before cochineal reached us from ,mexico4 ,the ,coccid include also the 8mussel-scale0 and other destructive diseases of fruit trees4 ,a beautiful purple colour can be extracted from crushed masses of some kinds of aphides 7as well as from ,coccid71 and has been used as a dye4 ,the aphides have very generally a green colour1 like many insects 7caterpillars and leaf insects7 which pass their lives upon green leaves and feed on them4 ,it is often supposed that this green colour is merely the green colouring matter 7so-called chlorophyll7 of the leaf1 taken up by the insects in feeding on the leaf4 ,but this is not so2 it is a peculiar substance derived in a crude state from the plant-juice1 but digested in the stomach and completed in the insects' blood and tissues4 ,then1 again1 the aphides produce curious secretions1 often in great abundance1 which surround them as the lac surrounds the lac-insect4 ,the threads which are produced in such abundance1 by the woolly aphis of apple trees1 as to look like masses of cotton wool adhering to the twigs of the tree1 are of this nature4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eh4--;,foundress or stock-mother of the hop-louse3 the individual hatched from a winter egg1 laid on the bark of a plum tree1 who produces viviparously a wingless virgin brood4 ,that brood produces wing-bearing young1 which fly off to the hop-plants4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ei4--,side view of winged viviparous female of the hop-louse1 b1 the stabbing beak4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fj4--;,an ant 8milking0 a 8plant-louse0 or 8green-fly0 for honey-dew4 ,the drop of honey-dew is seen exuding from one of the two long tubes or spouts 7called 8cornicles07 on the back of the plant-louse at a4 ,these spouts are seen at the hinder part of the body in the drawings of the hop-louse 7,figs4 #ee to #ei74 ,the ant is causing the aphis to pour out its honey-dew 7in fact 8milking0 it7 by 8drumming0 on the body of the plant-louse with its clubbed antenn1 and has taken the drop of honey-dew between its jaws4 ,this drawing was made from life by the late ,mr4 ,buckton1 ,f4,r4,s41 a great student of these creatures4 ,the ant is that kind known as ,myrinica rubra4 ,the plant-louse is the ,aphis sambuci or blight of the elder-tree4 ,another curious production of the aphides--common on the leaves of elms and other trees infested by them--is known as 8honey-dew40 ,it is sticky and sweet1 and was supposed by old writers to have distilled from the stars1 or otherwise to have dropped from heaven4 ,it is this sweet secretion which has led to the establishment of a most curious friendship between ants and aphides1 or plant-lice4 ,it has long been known that an ant will approach an aphis1 and tickle it1 when at once the aphis exudes from its cornicles 7see ,fig4 #fj7 a drop of sweet honey-dew1 which the ant swallows--just as a man may milk a cow and drink the milk4 ,and the resemblance goes further1 for the ants take possession of certain aphides1 and keep them either underground or in specially constructed chambers1 where they can gain ready access to them and 8milk0 them for honey-dew4 ,there has been a certain amount of exaggeration in the description of these facts by some of the older writers2 but it is undoubtedly true that some species of ants keep special flocks or herds of aphides1 and feed on their sweet secretion4 ,other small insects nourish themselves on the enormous swarms of plant-lice in a less gentle way1 but a way which man is very glad to see in active operation1 namely1 by biting them and sucking out their soft entrails--thus destroying them in great numbers4 ,the lady-bird beetle is especially active in this matter1 both when it is a grub and on attaining its adult form4 ,a trustworthy observer saw as many as forty aphides consumed by a lady-bird in an hour4 ,where the plant-lice or aphides abound1 there come also in countless swarms the beetles known as lady-birds4 ,in the year #ahfi1 such a cloud of these beetles passed over and settled on the fields and gardens of ,kent1 ,sussex1 and ,surrey1 as to cause something like terror2 it was impossible to walk in the lanes without crushing hundreds under foot4 ,but the little lady-birds are not like the terrible locust1 which appears in millions and devours all vegetation before it2 on the contrary1 they are what are called 8beneficials10 and come solely to feed on and destroy the plant-lice of the hops1 plum trees1 and apple trees4 ,a first-rate hop crop in the year #ahgj was the consequence of the abundance of lady-birds in #ahfi4 ,it is this beneficent activity of the lady-birds which has given them their name4 ,in ,italy they are called ,bestioline del ,signore1 also ,madonnine1 and ,marioline1 and in ,france ,bte ,dieu4 ,in ,english they are 8our lady's blessed bugs10 which save the crops from destruction4 ,the exertions of the aphides in pricking the plants they infest so as to get at their juices lead to the growth of galls on the leaves1 and also on the rootlets of many plants1 and often the leaves become rolled up into bag-like bodies filled with aphides4 ,many trees and smaller plants are killed by these attacks1 but it is probable that where the plants have not been rendered delicate by nursing and cultivation1 and where the aphides are not a strange foreign kind1 introduced by man's carelessness or by some rarely 7if ever7 occurring wind or flood1 the aphides do not actually destroy any plants by their visitation1 excepting the weaklings1 and that their numbers are kept within bounds by their natural enemies the lady-birds and other such carnivorous insects4 ,we must now notice the most interesting of all the wonderful things which have been discovered about these tiny insects1 which are even smaller than fleas4 ,any one who has a rose-garden and chooses to spend some hours a day in studying the 8green-fly0 can follow out the facts4 ,they reproduce themselves--that is to say1 propagate--with astounding rapidity4 ,the great ,linnus1 a hundred and fifty years ago1 came to the conclusion1 from his observation of one kind or species1 that in one year a single aphis would produce a quintillion of descendants6 ,without insisting upon the exact numbers in different kinds of aphides1 we may say that that is a fair indication of the rate at which they produce young4 ,no sooner does a mother aphis produce some thirty or forty young1 than in a few hours or days1 according to the warmth of the season and the abundance of food1 these young have grown to full size and themselves each produce the same number of young1 and so on through the summer1 and even into the autumn4 ,nineteen generations in sixteen weeks have been counted in some kinds of the plant-lice4 ,hence it is no wonder that these little creatures increase exceedingly and cover the leaves and shoots on which they feed2 no wonder that they furnish a plentiful nourishment for the lady-birds which prey on them4 ,but the most curious thing is this1 that these abundant and rapidly reproducing broods of aphis are all females1 and that they do not lay eggs1 but extrude their young in a more or less complete state of development1 that is to say1 they are viviparous4 ,they are all females6 ,it is only late in the season that males are produced6 ,in fact1 the summer broods of the 8green-fly0 and other aphides which do so much damage to rose bushes1 hops1 and other cultivated plants1 are produced by females alone1 without the intervention of a male4 ,these minute insects present true instances of that very remarkable and interesting occurrence which is called 8parthenogenesis10 or virginal propagation4 ,it is further a noteworthy thing that the virginal aphis mothers do not lay or deposit eggs1 but that the young grow from the eggs inside their mothers 7,fig4 #fa71 and are only extruded when they are complete little six-legged insects1 capable of walking1 and ready to feed themselves by stabbing the soft leaves of the plant on which they find themselves1 and sucking up its juices4 ,the summer aphides are spoken of as being both 8viviparous0 and 8parthenogenetic40 ,the words are really useful1 and we cannot get on without them4 ,no case is known to medical men or to naturalists of the birth of young from an unimpregnated or virgin mother among what are called the higher animals--those which are classed as vertebrates1 and include mankind1 mammals1 birds1 reptiles1 batrachians1 and fishes4 ,but though uncommon1 this virginal reproduction 7or 8parthenogenesis07 does occur constantly in a very few kinds of small insects and in some small shrimp-like creatures4 ,it has excited the greatest interest amongst naturalists from the early days when it was first observed until the present1 and it has been very carefully studied in the past thirty years4 ,in order to appreciate this matter it is necessary to know the chief facts about the ordinary process of reproduction in animals and plants4 ,all animals and plants are built up of minute particles of living matter called 8cells0 7see p4 #agj74 ,really1 these are not cells1 or hollow boxes1 or cases4 ,we use the word 8cell0 for the contents of a cell4 ,each is a droplet of protoplasm or living matter lying in a small or large envelope or case of dead matter which it has produced around itself 7,fig4 #fa74 ,observers using their microscopes saw at first only the case1 and called it a 8cell10 and the word 8cell0 is now used almost universally for the soft stuff within the cell 7see p4 #agc74 ,each soft cell of 8plasm0 or 8protoplasm0 has a very special structure4 ,the existence in it of a central kernel1 or 8nucleus0 of peculiarly active substance1 is the most obvious feature4 ,these 8cells0 are so small 7for instance1 those which build up the human body7 that from one to two thousand could be placed side by side on a line an inch long4 ,they are the 8units0 which make up the body of an animal or plant1 just as bricks and planks and rods make up a building constructed by human contrivance4 ,two most important things about them are--first1 that each is always the seat of chemical activity1 absorbing liquid material1 changing it and either fixing it or throwing it out in a new chemical condition2 and1 second1 that as a result each cell grows1 and after a very little growth divides into two4 ,this 8dividing into two0 is immensely important1 for in this way the number of cells forming a very young or small animal or plant is increased from a few thousands to many millions whilst the organism grows4 ,and not only that1 but we find on tracing the young animal or plant back to its beginning as an individual that it actually started as a single cell4 ,the germ of every living thing1 then1 is a single nucleated particle of protoplasm--a cell which we call the 8egg-cell10 because 8eggs0 are merely shells and packing to hold and protect this all-important egg-cell4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fa4--;,a single egg-tube or ovarian tube 7usually there are many7 of an insect4 ,the youngest and smallest eggs are at the narrow end4 o o are larger egg-cells with a striated shell or envelope2 g1 nucleus of the egg-cell4 ,the unshaded egg is one grown to full size1 and in the parthenogenetic aphis would develop where it is without fertilisation into a young aphis4 ,every individual flower1 tree1 insect1 snail1 fish1 and man started as a single egg-cell1 which became detached from the mother's body4 ,take the case of a common marine animal1 the star-fish4 ,at the breeding season1 early in the year1 the female star-fish discharges thousands of these egg-cells into the sea-water4 ,each floats separately in a delicate case of its own4 ,before any one of those floating egg-cells can commence to divide so as to build up a new mass of cells--a new young star-fish--it must undergo the process of 8fertilisation40 ,that is to say1 its substance must fuse with that of a 8sperm-cell40 ,these 8sperm-cells0 are discharged into the sea-water in countless thousands by the male star-fishes4 ,they are excessively minute1 actively wriggling threads1 swollen out at one end to form a little knob1 the 8nucleus0 of the sperm-cell 7see p4 #acd for figures of the spermatozoa1 and eggs of the oyster74 ,the water is rendered cloudy by the abundance of these microscopic filaments1 which are called 8spermatozoa40 ,one sperm-cell1 or spermatozoon comes into contact1 in the sea-water1 with each of the discharged floating egg-cells4 ,it burrows into it and fuses or melts and mixes with the substance of the egg-cell4 ,the whole process is easy to watch with a microscope1 and ,i am writing of what ,i1 in common with many others1 have actually seen4 ,the egg-cell after this process consists really of the substance of two equal cells--the egg-cell and the sperm-cell--completely fused so as to form a single cell1 having a single 8nucleus10 which has resulted from the fusion of the nucleus of the egg-cell with that of the sperm-cell4 ,now1 and not before1 the egg-cell can divide1 take up nourishment1 and continue to divide and grow1 so as to form a constantly increasing mass of young cells1 a young animal which gradually assumes the form of a star-fish4 ,all animals1 and plants1 too1 reproduce themselves in this way4 ,when the animal or plant is not aquatic in its habits the sperm-cell and the egg-cell cannot be discharged and take their chance of coming into contact with one another outside the parent's body2 the sperm-cells are1 in such cases1 received into a chamber of the egg-producing parent's body1 and there the fusion of the egg-cells with them1 one sperm-cell to one egg-cell1 takes place4 ,parthenogenesis then consists in the omission of the fusion of a sperm-cell with the egg-cell4 ,the egg-cell develops1 divides again and again1 and produces the young animal without the addition to it of a sperm-cell--without1 in fact1 being 8fertilised10 as it is called4 ,that is what happens in the summer broods of the little plant-lice or aphides 7,fig4 #eg74 ,when1 however1 the cold weather comes the virgin mothers suddenly produce two kinds of young--males as well as females--and then the solitary winter egg1 which the late autumn females lay to last through winter until spring1 is fertilised by a sperm-cell derived from the late produced autumn male 7,fig4 #ef7 in the ordinary way4 ,another parthenogenetic animal is the rare little fresh-water shrimp called ,apus1 which goes on multiplying in this manner in wayside ponds for years1 thousands of female individuals being produced in successive seasons1 laying their eggs and carrying on the race for an indefinite time until at last--one fine day--we do not know why then and not before1 that rare creature a male ,apus is hatched4 ,why these and one or two other such small shrimps and insects are able to set aside the almost universal law as to the necessity for fertilisation of the egg-cell by a sperm-cell1 naturalists have not yet found out4 ,it is quite certain that these exceptional creatures have been derived from ancestors which had their eggs fertilised in the regular way1 and that this elimination of the male is a special device1 an innovation4 ,there are incomplete attempts at it in other insects4 ,thus it has been discovered that the queen bee produces only females from the eggs which are fertilised before she lays them4 ,when the stock of sperm-cells which she received from a drone in her nuptial flight is exhausted1 or if we carefully remove by a painless operation the internal sac in which they are stored1 the eggs are no longer fertilised1 but they are not rendered sterile or abortive4 ,they develop into drones6 ,and drones or male bees are produced in no other way1 and only drones are so produced1 never worker-females 7so-called neuters7 nor queens4 ,another curious fact is that in rearing moths in captivity some naturalists have quite unexpectedly found that when they have hatched out female moths from the chrysalids and kept them from the moment of hatching quite apart from the male moths 7which are of another size and colour1 and easily distinguished71 these females will sometimes lay eggs--unfertilised eggs--which give birth to caterpillars1 which feed and complete all their changes4 ,the second generation of moths so produced are male and female1 but the females1 being kept apart again1 produce a parthenogenetic brood1 and the process has been repeated to a third generation4 ,these instances are very rare4 ,the remarkable thing about them is that1 apparently1 the parthenogenesis is only due to the experimental interference of an entomologist1 and that unless some such accident had befallen the moths1 the eggs would have been fertilised in the usual way1 since there was no deficiency of male moths4 ,these facts have led to many interesting speculations1 and are particularly curious in regard to the inquiry as to what determines the sex of offspring1 about which sensational announcements are sometimes made in the foreign correspondence columns of our newspapers4 ,here we find the parthenogenetic eggs of the moths producing both males and females1 those of the aphides and the pond-shrimp producing predominantly females1 and those of the queen bee producing exclusively males 7drones74 ,biologists have not yet arrived at a solution of the problem raised by these divergent results4 ,it is necessary1 in regard to this subject1 to remember that many lower animals and plants can reproduce or propagate by separating 8buds10 or large bits of their bodies1 built up of thousands of cells1 and1 therefore1 not to be confused with the single egg-cell4 ,the egg-cell is a cell specially prepared for fusion with a sperm-cell1 necessitating--except in very rare instances--the union in the new individual or young of living material from two separate parental organisms1 and1 therefore1 in many cases1 from two widely separate lines of ancestry4 ,a snippet1 or bit cut from a begonia leaf1 will produce a new individual plant2 a bit cut or torn from a polyp will similarly give rise to a new individual3 but the parthenogenetic egg is not to be confused with these masses of cells4 ,it is a true egg-cell which might have been fertilised1 and it is found in animals such as insects and crustaceans1 which are more highly elaborated in structure than any which1 like the polyps and zoophytes1 multiply by buds and cuttings4 ,,xxxvi ,,the ,,deadly ,,phylloxera ,it was only after long and patient investigation that the various broods of the terrible ,phylloxera which1 between #ahfh and #ahhh1 destroyed half the vineyards of ,france1 became known1 their relations to one another determined1 and the final cure for the devastation caused by them decided upon and put into practice4 ,in all ordinary plant-lice or green-fly 7aphides7 at the end of the summer1 the last parthenogenetic brood produces a generation of distinct males and females1 which differ a good deal in appearance from the virginal broods of the spring and summer4 ,each female1 after receiving sperm-cells from a male1 lays a single egg1 which consists of a fertilised egg-cell enclosed in an egg-shell4 ,it is deposited in a safe place in a crack of the bark of a tree1 or on the rootlets of some plant1 and remains unchanged through the winter4 ,in the spring from every such egg hatches a single female aphis1 which feeds and increases in size4 ,in a very short time 7a week or so7 this solitary female 7,fig4 #eh7 proceeds to produce1 without male intervention1 young which grow from true egg-cells which are not laid but remain inside her4 ,the young are born or pass out of her as small six-legged insects4 ,they feed and grow up1 and in turn produce 8parthenogenetically0 and viviparously broods of young like themselves4 ,the first female thus hatched from the winter egg is called a 8foundress10 or 8stock-mother10 because she starts a whole colony of young which1 by virginal propagation of successive broods1 may number many millions in a season4 ,these are known as 8virgin-mothers0 7,fig4 #eg71 and eventually their later generations always produce males and females1 so that we distinguish1 in the course of a year1 four sets of aphides1 starting from the egg1 namely 7#a7 the foundresses1 7#b7 the numerous generations of virgin-mothers1 7#c7 the males1 and 7#d7 the egg-laying females4 ,in different kinds of plant-lice any of these 8sets0 may be either winged or wingless 7,figs4 #ee1 #ef1 #ei72 many generations of the virgin-mothers are wingless1 but not all1 in all species4 ,according to the species or kind of aphis and its requirements in regard to the plants on which it feeds1 wings are developed so as to enable the aphis to fly from one tree or locality to another1 or are not developed if the aphis has to remain where it was born4 ,the whole series of successive broods of some kinds of aphis remain on one plant and about the same part of it1 and then there is little need for wings4 ,others have their summer broods on the twigs or leaves1 but the later broods descend in winter to the roots of the same plant4 ,the woolly aphis of the apple trees and pear trees behaves in this way2 other species again produce a late-winged brood1 which leaves the plant on which its parents were feeding1 and travels some distance to the twigs or to the roots of a quite distinct kind of plant to produce an autumn brood1 and from these the final males and females are born1 and the winter eggs are then deposited4 ,the hop-louse leaves the hop when the hop-vine dies down in autumn4 ,the abundant wingless form 7,fig4 #eh7 of which there have usually been ten generations1 produces at last a winged 8migrant0 brood 7,fig4 #ei7 which flies away to plum trees and sloe bushes1 perhaps a quarter of a mile distant4 ,there the migrants produce wingless females on the plum tree4 ,they are followed to the plum trees by a final migrant brood from the dying hops which are males--the first yet seen 7,fig4 #ef74 ,the males fertilise the wingless females born on the plum tree--and the latter lay each one fertilised egg in the crevices of the bark of the plum tree near the young buds4 ,winter now sets in3 all are dead except the eggs4 ,in the following late spring a foundress hatches out from each egg so deposited4 ,the 8foundress0 7,fig4 #eh7 in this species1 the hop aphis1 is wingless4 ,she produces parthenogenetically and viviparously a brood of wingless females4 ,they similarly produce on the plum tree a third generation of virgin females1 but these have wings6 7,fig4 #ee74 ,they fly back to the hop-vines1 which are now well risen from the ground and offer abundant juice to the wingless virgin brood which escapes from the winged migrants as soon as they have settled on the hop1 and feed and grow and produce new wingless broods 7,fig4 #eg7 in rapid succession4 ,the phylloxera of the vine is a plant-louse or aphis1 which exhibits an interesting adaptation of winged and wingless broods to the requirements of the insect's nutrition and multiplication4 ,a 8foundress0 hatches from an egg on the bark of the vine where it has passed the winter4 ,it proceeds to attack the young leaves and to produce a brood of young4 ,the leaves of the vine when thus attacked swell up and produce galls1 in which the young phylloxera are enclosed1 and there the phylloxeras continue to multiply1 producing more galls and thus destroying the leaves4 ,some of the young broods now crawl down the vine to its roots2 others stay on the leaves and continue their destructive work there4 ,there are several varieties of form and size amongst these broods4 ,those which go to the roots attack the rootlets and produce knobs and swellings on them1 leading to their destruction as feeding organs4 ,meanwhile the root-phylloxeras multiply exceedingly1 and those on the leaves are still feeding and multiplying4 ,from one foundress mother as many as twenty-five millions are produced in six months4 ,at last in the autumn the root-parasites produce a winged generation of virgin-mothers1 which come up from the ground and fly away to other vines1 upon which they produce males and females4 ,these females each lay a fertilised egg on the bark of the previously healthy vine1 and so the infection is spread4 ,the root-infesting forms continue to multiply1 and in warm climates there is no cessation of this process even in winter4 ,this parasite--the ,phylloxera vastatrix--was introduced with some ,american species of grape-vine--brought over as experimental samples from ,colorado--about #ahfd4 ,in its native country it does comparatively little harm1 for the roots of the ,american species of vine are1 though attacked by it1 not seriously injured4 ,they have the property of throwing out new rootlets when those already existing are punctured and injured by the phylloxera1 and so are not killed by the attack1 as is the ,european grape-vine4 ,the introduction of this deadly parasite to ,europe was a mere chance1 due to ignorance and stupid want of supervision of importations on the part of the ,government1 such as is common in this country1 though less so in ,france and ,germany--part of the blind mixing-up of the nicely adjusted products of all parts of the earth which civilised man is always bringing about with disastrous and terrifying results4 ,in twenty years ,france lost #djj million pounds in consequence2 three million acres of vineyards were destroyed4 ,other countries--,germany1 ,italy1 and the ,cape--also suffered4 ,all sorts of remedies were suggested and tried1 such as the application of poisons to the roots and the sinking of the vineyards under water4 ,gradually the only effective method of dealing with the case has been established4 ,the old ,european vine-stocks or standards have been grubbed up in all but the very choicest vineyards1 and ,american vines have been planted in their place4 ,on to these have been grafted cuttings of the local ,french vines1 and they have taken kindly to their new conditions4 ,the produce of the ,french vineyards is now greater than it has ever been4 ,it had fallen from an annual yield of #a1cjj1jjj1jjj gallons to #fej1jjj1jjj--;but in #aijj it had risen again to a yield of more than #a1djj1jjj1jjj gallons4 ,this history is a striking instance of the vast importance to civilised communities of a knowledge and control of even such minute living things as the plant-lice1 and of the extraordinarily large results which obscure living things may produce4 ,it must tend to convince reasonable men of the importance of accurate knowledge as to living things and of the necessity of expending public money in constantly improving and extending that knowledge4 ,an ingenious illustration of the enormous fecundity of the plant-lice occurs to me as worth giving in conclusion4 ,the late ,professor ,huxley--a careful and trustworthy authority--calculated that the produce of a single aphis would1 in the course of ten generations1 supposing all the individuals to survive1 8contain more ponderable substance than five hundred millions of stout men2 that is1 more than the whole population of ,china40 ,and this calculation is held by some authorities to be below rather than above the mark6 ,,xxxvii ,,clothes ,,moths ,the way in which the lives of all animals and plants are interwoven with that of other animals and plants1 often in obscure and unsuspected ways1 comes home to man when he contemplates the numbers and variety of living things which exist with him and upon him--that is to say1 at his expense and to the detriment of the stores which he accumulates1 the clothing with which he covers himself1 and the buildings which he constructs4 ,man not only has carefully taken a number of animals and plants in hand and cultivated them as food-givers1 as sources of clothing1 and other useful material1 but1 much to his annoyance1 he finds1 per contra1 that other animals 7and plants1 too71 with similar self-seeking habit1 make use of him in his turn1 and of his belongings1 with a complete disregard of his convenience1 treating him and his arrangements as so much available 8food-stuff10 and showing no atom of respect to him as the lord of creation4 ,just as in dealing with the more deadly attacks of disease-producing parasites1 so in meeting the destructive invasions made by his fellow-creatures of all sizes and kinds in search of food and shelter--man has to be continually on the alert1 and to wage a constant warfare1 unless he will consent to see himself and his possessions moth-eaten1 fly-blown1 worm-burrowed1 reduced to fragments and powder4 ,and this warfare he has incessantly carried on with increasing skill and knowledge from the earliest times of which we have any record4 ,the sparrow and the rat1 of which there has lately been much talk1 are examples of fairly large1 easily detected enemies of this kind4 ,the almost ultra-microscopic bacteria--similar to those which produce disease by multiplying in the living body--are examples of the most minute living pests which injure man by causing sourness1 putrefaction1 and destructive rot in his food and stores4 ,every year civilised man is gaining greater knowledge of these 8ferment organisms10 and vastly increased skill in preserving his possessions1 such as food and drink1 from the attacks of their ubiquitous swarms4 ,between the larger depredators1 such as birds and rats1 and the smallest1 such as the microscopic bacteria and moulds 7to whom alone putrefaction is due1 and without whom it would never occur71 there are a host of small troublesome creatures1 which belong chiefly to the group of animals called 8insects0--beetles1 moths1 flies1 and bugs--which give man incessant occupation in warding off their attacks upon his food1 his clothes1 his furniture1 his buildings1 his crops and fruit trees1 and his domesticated animals4 ,the study of these things and of the means of grappling with them is the fascinating occupation of those who are called 8economic0 zoologists and botanists4 ,of course1 in order to carry on their inquiries successfully they have to bring to bear on the questions they investigate as complete and thorough a knowledge as possible of all the kinds of animals and plants1 and of their ways of feeding1 reproducing1 and protecting themselves in natural conditions4 ,one of the most widely celebrated and anciently detested of insect pests is the clothes moth4 ,it is the caterpillar of this moth which is objectionable--biting off1 eating1 and using to weave a case the hair of furs and the fine filaments of woollen fabrics4 ,not every one is able to recognise the clothes moth1 which is a very small creature of a greyish-yellow colour4 ,the wings when set for flying measure only half an inch in expanse1 and when the moth is walking or at rest1 shut closely to the body so as to give it an almost cylindrical shape1 with an attenuated snout4 ,much bigger moths occasionally get into our rooms1 but do no harm4 ,these little clothes moths lay their eggs on fur or wool1 and the caterpillars which hatch from them do the damage4 ,the moths themselves have no jaws and take no food4 ,but the caterpillar or grub1 though soft and readily crushed1 has a pair of very hard1 minute1 dark-coloured jaws1 with which it works away1 cropping the fur and wool on which it lives4 ,the moths are seen in houses commonly between ,january and ,october1 and it is1 of course1 the object of the victimised householder to destroy them before they can lay eggs1 or1 what is more practical1 to keep woollen and fur clothes away from their reach4 ,things which are in daily use are not very liable to receive a deposit of eggs from the clothes moth1 and as a rule the enemy may be kept at bay by daily shaking and beating the things in question1 and hanging them up in the air4 ,but coats1 flannels1 etc41 which are hidden away1 left quietly in drawers or cupboards1 offer the undisturbed conditions which the clothes moth seeks4 ,there is no safety for them unless they are wrapped up or shut in with a quantity of naphtol or of camphor1 or1 as is nowadays more usual1 placed in a refrigerating chamber4 ,the little caterpillar which does all the damage is of a dull white colour1 with a reddish head4 ,it is remarkable for the fact that it makes a sort of movable tunic or case for itself out of the hair or wool which it crops1 and it crawls about protected by this case4 ,there are not many insects which thus construct portable cases for themselves when in the grub or caterpillar state of life4 ,such 8cases0 must not be confused with the very similar 8cocoons0 by which some moth-grubs surround themselves 7as1 for instance1 the silkworm moth7 when their growth is completed1 and they become quiescent and hard1 and are known as chrysalids4 ,such 8cocoons0 are constructed in the same way as the lining of the clothes moth's case1 by threads of silk secreted by the caterpillar1 but they are made once for all when the grub has ceased activity4 ,the little clothes moth caterpillar1 on the other hand1 has continually to enlarge its tunic or case as it itself increases in size4 ,there is a hole at the end1 from which the head and three legs of the caterpillar emerge1 so that it can crawl and feed freely4 ,the outer surface of the case consists of cut lengths of the fibre on which the grub is living1 and so is protective in resembling the surrounding material and hiding the minute ravager4 ,it is easy enough for the little grub to add a bit to the case at the end from which its head protrudes1 and1 being very flexible1 it can turn right round in the tube and put its head out at the other end and secrete a bit more there1 cementing cut hairs to the outer surface4 ,but in order to increase the breadth of the tube or case1 the caterpillar has1 from time to time1 to undertake a formidable operation4 ,it actually slits up the case lengthwise for about half its extent1 and fills in the gaping space with new material2 then it cuts up the opposite face of the same half of the tube1 and puts in a new patch there4 ,and after that1 it has to treat the remaining half of the tube in the same way1 making two more cuts1 one opposite the other1 and filling in the gap in each case as before4 ,students of these little creatures have amused themselves by changing the position of the caterpillar and its case1 from fur or wool of one colour to fur or wool of another colour1 and in this way the industrious caterpillar is made to work in different coloured fibre in successive enlargements of his case1 so that it becomes a ,joseph's coat of many colours4 ,an interesting fact about the movable case made by the clothes moth caterpillar is that the nearest thing in nature to it is the case made by the aquatic grubs or caterpillars of another kind of insects--the caddis-worms 78case-worms07 which are common in ponds and streams4 ,they show extraordinary powers in making their cases so that they balance nicely in the water1 as the animal crawls along on the bottom of a pool1 with his head and six legs emerging from one end of the case4 ,caddis-worms are of various kinds or species1 and some attach to their cases little broken sticks1 others minute empty snail-shells1 others the fine green threads of water-plants4 ,the caddis-worm becomes changed into a delicate fly1 with transparent wings1 just as the clothes-grub becomes changed into a moth--and it is an interesting fact that the caddis-flies1 though they are classed with the ,may-flies and such net-winged insects1 and not with the moths and butterflies 7the ,lepidoptera1 or insects with wings covered with dust-like scales1 which give the colour and patterns to the wings71 yet agree with moths in having some scales on the wings and with one kind of minute moth1 namely1 the clothes moth1 in having grubs which make movable cases4 ,the clothes moth caterpillar was known to the ,romans by the name ,tinea1 and is described with correct detail by the ,roman naturalist ,pliny4 ,modern naturalists have accepted this name ,tinea as that of the genus to which the clothes moth belongs4 ,there are thirty different ,british species of ,tinea1 of which four are guilty of attacking animal fabric1 and so causing trouble to man4 ,the one which builds a case and is the titular chief of the clan of clothes moths--8the0 clothes moth1 just as one may say 8the0 ,macintosh--is scientifically indicated by the name ,tinea pellionella4 ,the other three do not form movable cases when in the caterpillar stage1 and attack coarser stuff than fur and fine wool4 ,one of them is known as the 8tapestry moth10 because its caterpillar establishes itself in old tapestry and carpets1 and burrowing into these thickish materials is concealed without the aid of any self-provided tunic or case4 ,the name ,tinea is often used by entomologists in an expanded form as ,tineina1 to indicate the whole series of minute moths of which the genus ,tinea is only one little group4 ,many of these moths are much smaller even than the clothes moth1 and they are found in all parts of the world and in all sorts and conditions of life--in relation to trees1 shrubs1 and plants of all kinds4 ,it has been estimated that there are as many as #bjj1jjj distinctly marked different kinds of these minute creatures4 ,the insect collectors and students who occupy themselves with the magnificent butterflies and larger moths 7of which there are an enormous variety of kinds7 refuse to deal with the somewhat dull-looking and almost innumerable minute moths which are classed as ,micro-lepidoptera1 in contrast to the ,macro-lepidoptera 7or big moths and butterflies74 ,consequently they have become the favourite study of a few enthusiasts1 who are known as ,micro-lepidopterists1 and have a wide but not uninteresting field of exploration all to themselves4 ,the ,micro-lepidoptera include1 besides the ,tineina1 a group of less minute though small moths1 with narrow1 fringed wings1 amongst which are the window moth1 the milk moth1 the tabby moth1 the meal moth1 and the grease moth4 ,though the clothes moths may well be described as 8tiny0 moths1 yet the word ,tinea1 as applied to them1 has no such origin1 but is the name given to the destructive grub by the ,romans4 ,the same word has unfortunately been applied by medical men and botanists to a vegetable parasite which causes a skin disease 7ringworm7 resulting in baldness4 ,the ,tinea calvans of the doctors has only this in common with the moth ,tinea pellionella--that it causes hair to disappear and baldness to ensue2 but the vegetable parasite attacks the hair on a living man's head1 the caterpillar that on his fur coat4 ,,xxxviii ,,stone ,,and ,,wood ,,borers ,boring into wood is a favourite proceeding on the part of many small creatures1 insects1 shrimps1 and ship-worms1 by which they not only acquire nourishment1 but at the same time penetrate more and more deeply into safe quarters and concealment4 ,it is not surprising that it has become the necessary and regular mode of life of a host of small animals1 and consequently that man who wants wood in good sound blocks and planks for his various constructions is a good deal put out by the voracity of the wood-boring community4 ,to some extent he has given up the task of checking their proceedings1 and now uses metal where he formerly used wood1 but that only applies to a limited field4 ,wood is still the great material of rough construction1 and the main substance used in fittings and furniture4 ,in our own country and in most parts of the world there are large grubs or caterpillars1 such as those of the goat moth1 three inches long and as thick as one's finger1 which eat into the stems of trees and spoil the timber4 ,the grub of the handsome moth known as the wood leopard is another of these4 ,it attacks poplar trees1 and we used to take it in numbers in the ,london parks and squares when ,i was a collector4 ,the goat moth is specially destructive to willow trees4 ,but there are a very large series of smaller grubs and adult insects which injure trees or bore or devour wood already cut and dried4 ,among these are the saw-flies and a number of beetles1 and in ,sicily and the tropics there are the wonderful white ants which are not ants at all1 but more like ,may-flies4 ,the destruction caused by these borers and eaters of wood is increased by the fact that when they have riddled a piece of wood1 moisture penetrates it1 and vegetable 8moulds0 flourish within it and complete the break-up4 ,among the most destructive borers of wood are those which attack the ships and piers of wood placed by man in the sea4 ,these are certain shell-fish1 called ship-worms 7,teredo71 which are really peculiarly modified mussels4 ,there is also a tiny shrimp-like creature1 the ,limnoria terebrans1 which does enormous damage by its borings to piers of wood erected in the sea4 ,true insects do not flourish in the sea4 ,there are marine bivalve shell-fish which bore into clay1 sandstone1 chalk1 and even into hard granite-like rock4 ,they do not use jaws or teeth for this purpose1 but the surface of their shells1 which are sharp and spiny1 and also the sand which adheres to their soft muscular bodies like emery powder to the pewter-plate of a lapidary's wheel4 ,you may see the large and small holes made by ,pholas 7called also 8the piddock07 and other bivalve shell-fish in the clay and chalk rocks of the seashore on most parts of the ,english coast4 ,most boring animals swallow the material which they excavate in the act of boring1 just as the earth-worm swallows the soil into which it bores1 and as many sand-worms do1 throwing out from the hind end of the body1 in the form of a little coiled-up heap1 a vast quantity of undigested matter which has passed through them4 ,but many insects which swallow some of the material disengaged by their jaws remove1 in addition1 a large quantity which is ejected from the boring as powder1 like sawdust1 and others do not swallow any of the material into which they bore4 ,so1 too1 the ,pholas and marine-boring mussels do not swallow the material which they loosen4 ,it is a very slow process1 the boring in rock1 and the fine particles rubbed away by incessant movement are carried off in the sea-water4 ,to some extent the marine creatures which bore in rocks seem to be helped by chemical action1 since they show a preference for chalk and limestone1 easily dissolved by weak acid secreted by the borer1 though1 clearly enough1 they are not dependent on such chemical aid since we find them also boring in insoluble granite rock and shale and clay4 ,there is one true worm-borer which perforates hard limestone pebbles and chalk rocks1 so as to give them the appearance which we call 8worm-eaten0 when caused by another sort of worm and observed in a very different material1 namely1 old furniture and woodwork4 ,at ,tenby1 in ,south ,wales1 the limestone pebbles on the beach are quite commonly riddled with these worm-holes1 truly 8worm-eaten40 ,when they are not too abundant one can see that the holes are arranged in pairs like a figure #h1 about half the size here printed4 ,on splitting the rock or stone one finds a deeply-running ,u-shaped double tube excavated in the stone4 ,in this the little worm lived4 ,it is easiest to get at the worms in a fresh and living state on a coast where there are chalk-rocks and sea-washed lumps of chalk4 ,the chalk is easy to split and cut at low tide1 and then the little key-hole apertures can be broken across and the soft red worm extracted4 ,it is a beautiful red-blooded little worm--little more than half an inch long--with two tactile horns on its head and little bristles and gills on the rings of its annulated body4 ,it is a true 8worm10 like the earth-worm1 what naturalists call by the not displeasing name an 8annelid40 ,it seems at first sight impossible that this delicate little thing should 8worm-eat0 the hardest limestone4 ,it has no jaws1 but one of the rings or segments of the front part of the body has two of its bristles swollen to relatively gigantic size1 hard and black4 ,these are its boring organs1 but ,i have no doubt that it is helped1 especially in its young state when commencing to bore1 by an acid secretion from the surface of the body4 ,curiously enough1 in the strict sense of the word 8worm10 the boring of chalk and stones by the little marine creature just mentioned 7whose name is ,polydora7 is the only instance of a 8worm-eaten0 condition being produced by a real worm4 ,the worm-eaten condition of wood is produced either by the grub of a minute beetle 7which is not in the strict sense a 8worm07 or by an ingenious human maker of 8antiques0 who imitates the little holes on the surface of the woodwork of old furniture1 so as to pass off clever reproductions for really ancient cabinet work4 ,the little holes to imitate those of the true insect furniture-borer are sometimes produced by discharging a gun loaded with fine shot at the piece of furniture which is to be passed off as ancient4 ,but knowing purchasers probe the holes so made with a carpet needle1 and discover the lead-shot sunk in the wood4 ,hence there has arisen a profession of specially-skilled 8worm-eaters10 who1 by careful boring1 imitate the holes made by insect grubs4 ,and now we come at last to the actual1 real furniture worm or grub4 ,it is the grub of a small beetle--the ,anobium domesticum1 scarcely one-fifth of an inch long 7,fig4 #fb;c71 greyish-brown in colour1 of a cylindrical shape1 with the head completely concealed or overhung by the next division of the body1 the thorax4 ,the grubs are longer1 soft1 pale1 and fleshy4 ,the sign of the presence of the ,anobium in your furniture is the existence of small circular holes here and there on the surface of the wood1 with occasionally a little heap of yellow dust on the ground beneath them4 ,this last sign is in fact the only proof you can have that the holes are not ancient and the burrows deserted1 and that the enemy is still alive and at work4 ,rarely1 if ever1 can you see either the grub or the completed beetle into which it changes after forming a cocoon within the burrows1 for they very seldom leave their excavations4 ,but if you break up the wood you will find a surprising number of long1 cylindrical passages1 running side by side1 and for many inches1 through the deeper part of the wood1 so that it may be quite rotten and ready to crumble1 although presenting an uninjured surface save for the little round holes here and there4 ,in these passages you will find both the grubs and the adult beetles4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fb4--;a1 the death-watch beetle 7,xestobium tessellatum7 of the natural size 7one-third of an inch long72 b1 the same beetle enlarged2 c1 the beetle 7,anobium domesticum7 whose grub is the furniture-worm1 of the natural size1 a side view4 ,a closely-allied and somewhat smaller species of ,anobium common in houses is of a more voracious character1 not confining itself to dry wood1 but eating bread1 biscuits1 rhubarb1 ginger1 and even cayenne pepper4 ,this second kind1 called ,anobium paniceum1 is the real 8book-worm02 it gets into old libraries1 and the grubs bore their cylindrical tunnels from cover to cover of the undisturbed volumes4 ,in a public library twenty-seven folio volumes standing side by side were perforated in a straight line by one individual ,anobium grub or book-worm1 and so regular was the tunnel thus eaten out that a string could be passed through the whole length of it1 and the entire set of twenty-seven volumes lifted up at once by it4 ,there are one or two other grubs which less commonly injure books1 and pass as 8book-worms40 ,but the most notable of the insect enemies of books and papers is a curious little wingless insect which never passes through a grub stage of existence1 but hatches out in the complete form of his parents4 ,he is about a third of an inch long1 has the shape of an elongated kite1 with a long tail and six legs1 and is called by old writers 8the silver-fish10 and by entomologists ,lepisma 7,fig4 #fc74 ,this little pest does not burrow1 but nibbles1 and has destroyed many a valuable old document and ancient book4 ,paste and sugar are a great attraction to him1 and he will destroy a boxful of printed labels or a valuable manuscript1 leaving only the ink-marked parts untouched1 but ready to crumble4 ,closely allied to the book-worm beetle1 ,anobium1 is a larger beetle1 called ,xestobium tessellatum 7,fig4 #fb a7 which infests old woodwork1 its grubs making correspondingly larger tunnels4 ,the entire woodwork of a house has had to be removed and replaced in consequence of this creature's depredation1 and such pieces of furniture as a four-post bedstead have been riddled and made rotten in two or three years by its burrowing4 ,it is still common in ,england in old wood-panelled rooms and in wooden mantelpieces4 ,the most interesting fact about it is that it is the maker of those nocturnal tappings which are known as the 8death-watch40 ,it is the beetle itself 7,fig4 #fb a71 not the grub1 which makes these sounds4 ,it makes them by deliberately striking the wood on which it stands1 with its head4 ,the taps are usually from five to seven in quick succession1 the sound dying away in intensity in the later strokes4 ,a second1 and even a third1 beetle will then reply with similar taps from the woodwork of some other part of the room4 ,years ago ,i used to be gently lulled to sleep by these 8raps0 in my rooms at ,oxford1 accompanied by the sound of spasmodic rushes of mice behind the woodwork4 ,at first ,i thought the tapping was caused by the falling of drops of water through a leaky roof1 but soon ascertained the actual cause4 ,one does not notice these tappings until the dead of night when all else is still1 and they are so mysterious and persistent that one can understand superstition arising in connection with them1 and that the nerves of any one already overwrought1 might be so affected by them as to lead to the belief that evil spirits are 8rapping10 or that a ghostly coffin is being nailed together for a dying man4 ,the little beetle has often been tracked by a naturalist1 and discovered in some concealed position nodding its diminutive but hard head with sharp jerks1 and producing an almost incredible volume of sound in proportion to its size4 ,if the beetle1 when discovered1 is kept in captivity in a wooden box1 it is easy to set it 8tapping0 or 8rapping0 by tapping oneself with a pencil on the table on which the box is placed1 when the faithful little death-watch will unfailingly reply4 ,possibly some of the 8raps0 recorded by the pioneers of spirit-rapping1 when not produced by the toes of designing mediums like the young ladies of ,rochester1 ,n4,y41 were actually made by death-watch beetles4 ,it is certain that the somewhat eccentric supposition that disembodied spirits endeavour to make signals to living humanity by 8rapping0 owes its origin 7long before the nineteenth-century craze for 8spirit-rapping07 to the measured tap-tap-tapping of the death-watch beetle1 and the consequent superstition at a time when the beetle was not known to be the 8tapper40 ,whilst the bigger beetle1 ,xestobium1 is the common death-watch1 it has been proved that the little furniture beetle1 ,anobium1 is also a tapper1 making regular and persistent strokes like the ticking of a watch4 ,another insect1 called the book-louse 7,atropos divinatoria71 very minute1 only one-twentieth of an inch1 soft1 white1 and wingless1 not a beetle at all1 but also a devourer of literature 7,fig4 #fd71 is declared by some good observers to be a 8ticker0 or 8tapper10 but other naturalists deny that it can make such sounds4 ,it seems unlikely on account of the extremely small size and softness of the book-louse1 but the matter needs further investigation4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fc4--,the silver-fish insect 7,lepisma saccharina74 ,the line to the right shows its natural size4 ,a curious fact is that the grubs of beetles such as ,anobium and ,xestobium 7or other closely allied kinds7 are not arrested in their tunnelling by soft metal4 ,they cannot tackle iron plate or brass sheeting1 but they will penetrate tinfoil and1 what is more astonishing1 lead plate and leaden waterpipes4 ,specimens showing such perforations are in the museums of ,oxford and ,london1 and ,i have received an account of a lead pipe packed in wood in the wall of a house being perforated by these beetle-grubs4 ,once at work on the wood1 8the straightforward intentions0 of the grub are not to be diverted by such an obstacle as lead3 it goes straight on through the lead as it would through the cover of a book or a knot in the wood4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fd4--,the book-louse1 or ,atropos divinatoria1 a soft1 cream-coloured1 wingless insect smaller than a flea4 ,it is believed by some observers to be capable of making sounds like the ticking of a watch4 ,i have sometimes been asked to give advice as to the best method of destroying the furniture worm or grub4 ,if the piece of furniture 7or its pieces7 can without injury be 8baked0 in a hot chamber for twenty-four hours1 at a temperature a little above that of boiling water1 that is the easiest method of destroying the pest4 ,or1 again1 ,i should suggest placing the piece of furniture in a refrigerating chamber for a week or two4 ,if neither of these methods can be used1 the piece of furniture should be placed in a very hot room1 and creosote or bisulphide of carbon or solution of cyanide of potassium should be injected with a very fine-nosed syringe into the little circular holes of the burrows on the surface of the wood2 then the piece of furniture must be at once exposed to the cold1 which will cause the air to be drawn into the burrows and diffuse the volatile poison within4 ,the 8worm holes0 on the surface should1 as soon as the piece of furniture is quite cold1 be closed by melted paraffin4 ,if the piece of wood which it is desired to 8cure0 will stand submersion in water for a few minutes1 and is not larger than a cricket bat1 it is1 of course1 easy1 by first warming it through and then plunging it into water containing corrosive sublimate or other poison1 fairly to impregnate the burrows1 and make an end of the beetles and their grubs4 ,painting is the common and approved means of protecting wood against these attacks1 and in some positions metal sheathing is used4 ,the method most largely used for protecting wood in the open air against 8worm0 and 8mould0 is that of forcing creosote into its pores--an improvement on the old system of painting with coal tar4 ,a more expensive but beautiful method of protecting wood is to force hard paraffin in a melted condition by pressure into the pores4 ,the wood becomes wonderfully firm and waterproof4 ,neither damp and mould1 nor boring insect1 nor shrimp can then penetrate it4 ,this method was introduced some years ago1 but ,i do not know whether it has been largely used4 ,,xxxix ,,christmas ,,fare ,most ,english people who can afford it eat more than is good for them on ,christmas ,day1 and consider it more or less of a religious duty to do so1 even though they shrink from the ordeal4 ,it is an interesting tendency1 and at the same time one readily explained4 ,primitive men1 and our own remote ancestors1 had few1 if any1 joys greater than those afforded by an abundant meal of roasted meat4 ,when a great beast such as a mammoth was taken in a skilfully-prepared pitfall1 and slaughtered1 the whole tribe of palaeolithic huntsmen assembled and gorged themselves with its flesh1 which1 it seems fairly certain1 they cooked on open fires4 ,the strongest seized the most and ate the most1 and were able to bear up the longest in something like full vigour until such time as another big beast should be killed1 and another opportunity for 8gorging0 should arise1 when they would naturally again get the largest share1 having eaten most on the previous occasion1 and so being least famished4 ,hence the belief that a great appetite is a fine thing1 and that the more you can eat1 the stronger and better you are1 is one of the deeply-laid traditions of humanity which civilised men have inherited from barbarians1 and are only slowly commencing to criticise and to put aside4 ,the negroes who accompany ,european sportsmen in ,central ,africa gorge themselves when elephants are killed1 and a recent account tells of the serious illness and danger to an expedition caused by the whole countryside flocking to the carcasses of twenty-three elephants killed by an ivory-hunter4 ,the blacks continued to eat the flesh of the elephants for three weeks1 when it had become decidedly 8high10 and many died1 whilst others took weeks to recover1 in consequence4 ,the notion of 8festivity10 which1 especially in ,england1 has been1 even in recent times1 that of eating and drinking to excess1 is prehistoric and barbaric4 ,serious physiologists and medical men have expressed the opinion that we shall never arrive at a satisfactory mode of nourishing ourselves so as to take neither too much nor what is in itself injurious to health1 until the practice of seeking gaiety and celebrating a memory or honouring a friend or friends by means of profuse eating 7often followed by wearisome speeches7 has given place to a mode of rejoicing which is more likely to produce hilarity and lightness of heart1 and less certain to be followed by painful and injurious results4 ,we certainly eat less and drink less of intoxicating liquors than we did1 but there is1 it seems1 still room for improvement4 ,to connect heavy feeding with ,christmas1 the third in rank of the great festivals of the ,church1 is not a universal custom1 and is1 in fact1 a peculiarity of our own country1 arising from the rearing and management of cattle in early times1 when ,english pasture land furnished a splendid means of enriching its owners by the production of 8hides0 and leather4 ,large numbers of cattle had to be stalled during winter and fed on stored herbage1 and a great many were at this season killed and the meat 8salted down10 since it would not pay to keep them on stored food4 ,it was not until the introduction of 8root-crops0 that oxen could be kept in any number through the winter months4 ,hence there was an excess of fresh meat and fat about ,christmas time1 and the 8roast beef10 plum puddings1 and mincemeat of ,christmas fare were abundant4 ,the true ,christmas pudding and mince-pie had meat as part of their components1 and1 of course1 beef-suet enters largely into their composition at the present day4 ,the practice of eating sweet fruits and preserves with meat 7as in the true mince-pie7 still lingers in this country1 but has become less general than it is in ,germany4 ,we still eat red-currant jelly with roast mutton1 and also with hare1 and apple sauce is considered appropriate to roast pork and to goose2 but pickled plums and cherries and sugared crab-apples1 which are usually taken with meat in ,germany1 are not known to us4 ,i have heard a schoolboy express indignation at being given plums with roast meat4 ,mincemeat1 for mince-pies1 was originally 7like a 8,cornish pasty10 in which raisins are mixed with meat7 one of these combinations of sweetness and strength--of sugar and meat--the taste for which has unaccountably disappeared in these days of mechanical uniformity and lack of 8homely cheer40 ,the introduction of the turkey as a ,christmas dish dates from the early time of the importation of that bird into ,europe1 namely1 about #aeej4 ,it is already spoken of in connection with ,christmas fare in #aegj4 ,the 8turkey-cock10 as its full name was1 is an ,american bird1 and was brought originally from ,mexico to ,europe1 though it is possible that the more northern ,american species may have been also introduced by the navigator1 ,jean ,cabot4 ,there is a very gorgeous turkey-cock of iridescent bright blue and green1 with orange-red warts on his head and neck1 found in ,honduras4 ,but he has never been acclimatised4 ,he is on view in the ,natural ,history ,museum4 ,the turkey belongs to the pheasant family1 and is compared by old writers to the peacock1 and also to the guinea-fowl 7,numida meleagris of ornithologists74 ,indeed1 there was great confusion when the turkey first arrived between it and the guinea-fowl1 and it appears to be owing to this mixing up of the two birds that the ,american bird was called a turkey-cock1 since the guinea-fowl is an ,african bird1 and came into the hands of ,europeans through ,mussulman traders or 8,turks40 ,so far did the confusion go that the great ,linnus applied the ,latin name ,meleagris1 which was that of the guinea-fowl1 to the 8turkey0 of ,america6 ,some people think that the turkey-cock established his misleading name by his cry1 which they say is represented by the words 8,turk-turk-turk40 ,probably the turkey-cock1 though an ,american bird1 was imported by traders who were called 8,turkey merchants0 because their chief business was with the ,levantine and ,morocco ports4 ,another mistake or vagueness as to the native home of the turkey was hit upon by the ,french1 who called it the ,poule d',inde1 whence their modern name for it1 ,dindon2 and the same error is found in an old ,german name for it1 ,kalkuttisch ,hn 7from ,calicut1 on the ,malabar coast of ,india1 where the turkey was introduced from ,america in the seventeenth century1 and has flourished ever since74 ,the ,swedish name for the turkey is ,kalcon1 and is only a modification of this old ,german name4 ,probably few animals or birds have been so persistently misrepresented by the names given to them as the ,american bird which we call the turkey4 ,our farmyard names for him are far better4 ,in ,scotland they call him the 8,bubbly-jock10 which vividly suggests his airs and graces1 whilst in ,suffolk we call him a 8,gobble-cock40 ,i know an old farmhouse near ,woodbridge1 in ,suffolk1 which bears the delightful name of 8,gobblecock ,hall40 8,the squire of ,gobblecock ,hall0 would have furnished ,randolph ,caldecott with inspiration for a ,christmas picture story2 and so1 indeed1 would the country round the 8,hall10 with its vast sandy tract1 ten miles long1 known as ,hollesley ,heath1 ending on the seashore near ,orford ,castle4 ,the misleading indication as to the native land of an animal--due to the name commonly applied to it--is remarkable in the case of the guinea-pig4 ,though the guinea-fowl is correctly so called1 since it comes from the ,guinea ,coast of ,africa1 the guinea-pig has nothing to do with that coast1 but comes from ,south ,america6 ,it is not a pig1 but a rodent1 and it does not come from ,guinea4 ,it appears that the ships of the 8,guinea merchants0 of this country established trading relations with ,south ,american ports1 and hence the little 8pig0 7,shakespeare calls the hedgehog 8hedge-pig07 which they brought home was called a 8guinea-pig10 just as the big 8cock0 imported by ,turkey merchants was called a 8,turkey-cock40 ,the guinea-pig suffers other 8indignities of appellation40 ,the ,germans call him ,meerschweinchen1 that is1 8little sea-pig40 ,apparently 8sea0 pig1 because he was brought over the sea4 ,but this leads to unjustifiable suggestions as to the guinea-pig's character4 ,for the ,germans call the porpoise ,meerschwein1 which would seem to mean 8pig of the sea02 and those imperfectly acquainted with the ,german language have been known to take allusions made by ,german writers to the former animal as intended to apply to the young of the latter4 ,thus one reads in an ,english medical book of a number of 8young porpoises0 being fed upon carrots when it was really 8guinea-pigs0 which consumed this nutriment4 ,the ,german physiologists1 who often make use of guinea-pigs in their investigations1 now call them ,cobayas1 so as to avoid any further misunderstanding4 ,the ,french word for a porpoise1 marsouin1 is a corruption of the ,german name ,meerschwein4 ,i have pointed out above the origin of heavy feeding at ,christmas4 ,whether it is necessary or not to continue that precise mode of celebration1 the sentiments of peace and goodwill which belong to ,christmas1 the meeting of kinsmen1--and1 above all1 the dedication of many of its customs to children1--are things to be cherished and treated tenderly4 ,the #beth day of ,december was fixed by the ,church for the celebration of the birth of ,christ1 but it is fairly certain that the period of the year indicated in the ,gospel as that when the shepherds were watching their flocks and saw the star of ,bethlehem1 was not ,december1 but ,october4 ,it is also certain that the children owe their share in ,christmas to the combination with it of customs proper to the ,epiphany1 which celebrates the bringing of gifts to the child ,christ by the wise men of the ,east4 ,it appears that the greatest and gayest of the feasts of pagan ,rome--the 8,saturnalia0--was held at the end of ,december1 and that the early ,church in this1 as in many other cases1 adapted a pagan custom to its own uses1 and fixed the feast of the ,nativity at this date expressly in order to take over1 as it were1 the gaiety of the ,saturnalia4 ,the brilliant foliage and berries of the holly-tree were used for decorations at the ,saturnalia1 and thus became a ,christmas emblem4 ,the fun and frolic of the ,saturnalia were transferred to the name of ,christmas1 and thus it comes about that the ,yule ,log and the ,lord of ,misrule and the ,abbot of ,unreason1 and also snapdragon and clown1 harlequin and columbine1 are found in full swing at ,christmas-tide4 ,later ,st4 ,nicholas1 who took the place of ,neptune1 and was the patron saint of sailors1 became associated with ,christmas celebrations as ,santa ,claus or ,father ,christmas4 ,his regular day was at the beginning of ,december1 and so it was easy to postpone his festivities to three weeks later4 ,mistletoe is not a ,christmas decoration4 ,it comes to us from the ,druids1 and belongs to the ,new ,year4 ,it is not allowed to appear in church1 and should not be hung up in private houses till ,christmas is over and the ,new ,year has come4 ,the hanging up of the mistletoe is in itself a beautiful survival of an ancient worship1 and should be associated in our minds with ,stonehenge and the prehistoric star temples1 whose priests were astronomers4 ,on ,new ,year's ,day they solemnly distributed branches of the mistletoe to the people as a charm ensuring fertility4 ,in ,december there are many hundredweight of mistletoe cut down and despatched from the ancient ,druidical haunts of the ,welsh border1 and from over-sea ,brittany1 to all-devouring ,london1 where it is heedlessly nailed up in doorways1 and made the excuse for much giggling and embracing4 ,may those who read these lines treat it with due reverence1 and when they kiss beneath the beautiful strange branch with its white berries1 think of our ancestors--the noble youths and lovely maidens of prehistoric days1 who kissed three thousand years ago1 and sent this living token of their happy lives down the long ages--to us1 distracted hustlers of the motor-car4 ,prehistoric feeding may not be good for us1 but the prehistoric rite of the mistletoe must not be neglected in these days of strange political aspirations on the part of those who have not discovered its sedative virtue4 ,,xl ,,the ,,origin ,,of ,,opium ,that ,europe is the original home of the opium-poppy1 and not ,asia1 is even more contradictory of our settled traditions and belief than the fact that ,europeans gave tobacco to the ,east4 ,yet it is the fact that opium1 like tobacco1 came to the ,far ,east from ,europe4 ,the opium-poppy does not grow wild in ,asia2 it is a cultivated variety of a ,mediterranean poppy1 the ,papaver setigerum1 which has a pale purple flower1 and was conveyed1 long ago1 by man from the ,levant to ,asia4 ,we have true poppies of four species which grow wild in ,england1 all with splendid scarlet or crimson petals1 easily distinguished from one another by the shape of the seedboxes1 or capsules1 which they form4 ,if you scratch the surface of the seed capsule of one of these poppies a milky juice appears4 ,it is this which is collected from the capsules of the much larger opium-poppy in ,india and ,china1 and when dried forms a hard brown cake1 which is called 8opium40 ,it consists of resinous matter1 in which is contained a small quantity of the invaluable narcotic called 8morphia10 and also small quantities of other powerful poisons4 ,the pale-purple poppy of the ,mediterranean 7,papaver setigerum7 was cultivated hundreds--even thousands--of years ago in the ,south of ,europe and on the ,mediterranean shores of ,africa--not for opium1 but for the oil which can be expressed from the seed1 8poppy-seed oil40 ,the oil is free from narcotic properties4 ,the purple poppy is still cultivated for that oil in ,france1 and poppy-seed oil is an article of commerce used as food1 both in the pure state and for adulterating other oils4 ,the earliest cultivation of this poppy is even as remote in ,europe as #gjjj years1 for we find that the ,swiss lake-dwellers of the ,stone ,age cultivated it1 and that the variety they obtained was nearer to the wild ,papaver setigerum than to its cultivated derivative1 the modern opium-poppy1 ,papaver somniferum4 ,how and when it first was recognised that the narcotic substance 8opium0 could be prepared from the juice exuding from the cut capsule is not exactly known1 but it is probable that it was not until the early ,middle ,ages that the poppy was cultivated for the habitual use of opium as a narcotic indulgence1 and that its earlier cultivation was1 as to some extent at the present day1 for the sake of the oil contained in the seed1 its use in medicine requiring but a very small supply4 ,the ancient ,greeks were well acquainted with the cultivated poppy4 ,homer mentions it1 and at a much later period ,theophrastus and ,dioscorides do so4 ,they call it 8mekon10 and were aware of the somniferous properties of the sap4 ,dioscorides1 whose wonderful book on plants dates from the first century of our era1 speaks of the drug derived from the sap by the name 8opos10 and it is from that word that the name 8opium0 has come4 ,the ,romans cultivated the poppy before the republic1 and mixed its seeds with their flour in making bread4 ,the story of ,king ,tarquin taking the governor of a rebellious province into a poppy-field1 lopping off the heads of the taller poppies with his stick1 and then turning to his visitor1 without a word1 but with a look which said1 8,that is the way to govern0--is evidence of the very early cultivation of the poppy by the ,romans4 ,hebrew writings do not mention the opium poppy1 though it seems to be certain that it has been cultivated in ,asia ,minor for at least #cjjj years4 ,there is no evidence that the plant was cultivated in more ancient times in ,egypt1 although in ,pliny's time the ,egyptians used the juice of the poppy medicinally4 ,in the ,middle ,ages it was1 and in our own day it is1 one of the chief objects of cultivation in that country1 especially for the manufacture of opium4 ,the cultivated variety ,p4 somniferum of the present day differs from the wild ,p4 setigerum1 in having the seed-capsule surmounted by ten or twelve stigmas 7the free ends of the leaves which are united to form the capsule71 instead of by eight as in the wild form4 ,it seems that the introduction of the poppy from the shores of the ,mediterranean into ,persia1 ,india1 and ,china is due to ,arab traders1 and is coincident with the rise of ,mohammedanism2 and it is probable that it was valued and cultivated from that time onwards1 not so much for the sake of its seed and oil1 as for the narcotic juice1 which was made up by ,arabian 8confectioners0 into a kind of paste1 and eaten1 as were other vegetable extracts--such as 8bang10 from hemp--for the sake of the pleasurable effects produced by its poisonous action on the nervous system4 ,it is certain that the opium poppy does not occur at all in the wild state in the ,middle and ,far ,east4 ,in #aeaf opium was already an article of trade from ,india to ,china4 ,the poppy was cultivated1 and the use of opium known and frequent in ,india for some five centuries before that date4 ,probably the cultivation of the plant in ,china was not started until the eighteenth century4 ,it was the ,chinese who hit upon the mode of indulging in opium by smoking it in a pipe4 ,there is no record1 written or pictorial1 of this practice earlier than #agcj1 about fifty years before which date 7#afhj7 we find the smoking of tobacco represented on ,chinese pottery4 ,very soon the ,chinese were not content to import their opium from ,india1 but large areas were put under cultivation with the ,indian poppy in ,china and ,manchuria4 ,for a century or more the export of opium from ,india to ,china continued and increased as the consumption of the drug increased1 the native ,chinese production not being sufficient to meet the demand4 ,in #agcj and #agif the ,chinese ,government issued edicts forbidding the smoking of opium1 and in the last century the efforts of the ,chinese authorities to prevent the importation of ,indian opium1 whether with a view to suppress a dangerous vice or to favour the home-grown article1 led to war with ,england4 ,in some parts of ,china--for instance1 ,amoy--three-fourths of the population are1 or were until lately1 opium-smokers4 ,now it is believed that the ,chinese ,government is genuinely determined to put a stop to the dangerous and enervating indulgence in this narcotic1 and the opium-growers of ,india will have to limit their output1 and employ their land and labour for other crops4 ,it is the fact that the eating of opium 7for it is not 8smoked0 there7 does very little harm in ,india1 since it is not used by a large proportion of the people nor in excess4 ,many persons who have studied the subject maintain that the widely-spread injury caused by opium in ,china is due to the short time during which it has been in use there as compared with ,india4 ,it is held that a population after a few centuries becomes immune to such poisonous but attractive indulgences by the killing out of those who cannot resist excess--and the suggestion is that the simplest way of dealing with such cravings for poison is to let those who have them and cannot resist their demand1 freely indulge and die1 and their stock with them4 ,this is1 however1 a slow and tedious way of eradicating an evil tendency4 ,it may1 perhaps1 be the only way1 and hereafter1 when the production by careful and restricted breeding of a sound and healthy population becomes recognised as being part of the duty of the makers and administrators of the law in civilised states1 it is not improbable that we shall see something of the kind deliberately put into practice4 ,the opium-pipe and the mode of smoking at present in use in ,china are very different from the pipe and smoking of tobacco used there or elsewhere4 ,i investigated the matter myself twenty years ago in an opium-den near the ,london ,docks1 under the instruction of a polite ,chinaman4 ,the opium-pipe has a very narrow cavity1 about one-sixth of an inch wide4 ,the prepared opium1 in a condition resembling treacle1 is smeared on the walls of the cavity with a pin1 and the pipe is held to a lighted lamp4 ,the flame drawn into the pipe causes the opium to frizzle and give off smoke1 but it does not 8light0 and continue to burn4 ,each whiff which the smoker inhales has to be procured by applying the pipe to the lamp4 ,the smoke is tasteless1 and it requires a good deal of patience and several re-smearings of the inside of the pipe before the smoker begins to experience the pleasant effects of the drug4 ,these consist in the production of a sense of perfect contentment and indifference to all trouble and care1 whilst the imagination gives a rose-colour1 or an even more alluring aspect1 to all that one sees or thinks of--until a gentle sleep closes the scene4 ,the ,chinese1 having obtained the seeds1 cultivated the opium-poppy1 and made opium before the prepared article was imported in any great quantity from ,india4 ,there is1 of course1 no doubt as to the injury which is done to a population by the habitual use of opium4 ,at the same time1 there is no one who knows anything about medicine and the use of drugs who does not speak of opium with reverence and even affection4 ,forty years ago1 at a dinner-party where the leading physicians of ,london were present1 it was suggested that they should each write down in order of merit the ten drugs to which they attached the greatest value4 ,i heard from one who was present that they all put opium in the first place1 and that mercury1 iodide of potassium1 and ipecacuanha followed in that order in the majority of the lists4 ,the value of opium as a medicinal agent is one thing2 its deadly effect on those who have become victims to its daily use is another4 ,the origin of the medicinal use of opium can be traced to ,egypt in ,pliny's time1 but beyond that nothing is known4 ,as ,i am writing of botanical matters1 ,i may briefly refer to an ambiguity about the names 8banana0 and 8plantain40 ,there is no difference 7as is sometimes suggested7 between the fruits indicated by these two words4 ,our word 8plantain0 is merely a corruption of the ,spanish word platano1 which is the name of the plane-tree4 ,it was loosely applied in ,south ,america by the ,spanish colonists to the banana palm 7,musa sapientum71 just as they called the ,north ,american bison a buffalo1 and as the ,anglo-,americans call a stag an elk1 and a red thrush a robin4 ,the banana palm is not an ,american tree1 but was introduced there from the ,east ,indies by the early navigators1 and was very soon cultivated by the ,south ,american ,indians as well as by the colonists4 ,there have been great authorities--for instance1 ,humboldt--who have believed that there is a native ,south ,american banana palm as well as an ,east ,indian one2 but the definite conclusion of botanists1 after careful inquiry1 is that there is only one species1 and that it is of ,south ,asian origin4 ,there are an enormous number of cultivated varieties--forty-four are described2 they can all be arranged in two groups1 the large-fruited bananas 7fruit #g inches to #ae inches long71 and the small-fruited bananas1 commonly called fig-bananas 7fruits #a inch to #f inches long74 ,all are equally entitled to the name 8plantain0 as well as 8banana40 ,the finest flavoured varieties are cultivated in ,hindustan1 and there only1 being often of very great value and rarity4 ,those which come into the ,english market are chiefly1 if not entirely1 of ,west ,indian production4 ,the foliage of the banana palm consists of oblong leaves of magnificent size and unbroken surface2 small trees are to be seen in hothouses 7they bear fruit at ,kew71 and are frequently used for decorative purposes4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fe4--,the human skull from the ,chapelle-aux-,saints1 now in the ,museum of ,natural ,history1 ,paris4 ,one-third the size 7linear7 of nature4 a-b is a line drawn from a point above the brow ridges 7a7 to a point on the exterior of the skull corresponding to the inner attachment of the membrane called the 8tentorium0 which separates the cerebrum above from the cerebellum beneath it4 ,the part of the skull above this line 7or rather the horizontal plane1 the edge of which it represents7 is the cranial dome1 and is in this skull comparatively shallow4 ,compare it with the same line and the cranial dome in ,fig4 #ge of a ,reindeer ,man1 which agrees with a modern ,european skull in the greater height of the dome above the line a-b4 ,the line drawn from the line a-b to the point e is the vertical line erected at the middle point of the line a-b4 ,it gives the measure of the greatest height of the cranial dome4 ,the line from f similarly falls on to the point half-way between the line e and the point b4 ,it measures the height of the back part of the cranial dome4 ,compare these and the other lines in the other figures of human skulls and that of the chimpanzee 7,fig4 #ha71 which are all drawn to the same scale as this figure1 namely1 one-third the linear measurement4 c is the point on the top of the skull known as the 8bregma02 it is the point where the frontal bone meets the two parietal bones4 ,the line c-a cuts off a curved area lying in front of it4 ,this is 8the frontal boss10 and the vertical line to d1 drawn from its most prominent point to the line a-c1 gives a very good measure of the amount of prominence and volume of the forehead4 ,compare this area and the line d in the other skulls figured1 especially in the well-developed skull of the ,reindeer ,man 7,fig4 #ge7 and in the chimpanzee's skull4 ,the reader is referred also in regard to these measurements to my ,kingdom of ,man 7,constable ,co474 ,besides these lines of measurement1 the reader should note the great brow ridges1 the prominence of the whole face below the orbits 7not merely of the teeth-sockets74 ,fig4 #fe gives the actual state of the skull4 ,in ,fig4 #hj the same skull is drawn as restored by ,prof4 ,marcelin ,boule4 ,,xli ,,the ,,most ,,ancient ,,men ,in the winter of #aijh-ji a very interesting discovery was announced in the daily newspapers--the discovery of a human skull and some bones buried in a cave called the ,grotto of the ,chapelle-aux-,saints1 in the central department of ,france1 known as the ,corrze1 not very far from ,perigueux1 in the ,dordogne4 ,an account was given of this discovery by ,professor ,marcelin ,boule1 of the ,paris ,museum1 to the ,acadmie des ,sciences1 and the description of the bones1 which had been carefully pieced together1 and were exhibited to the meeting of the ,academy1 was sent by him to me 7see ,fig4 #fe74 ,some exaggerated statements as to the monkey-like character of the race to which these bones belonged 7exaggerated1 but not altogether devoid of truth7 were circulated by imaginative correspondents in the newspapers4 ,it is the fact that these human remains are of enormous antiquity1 and belong to a very peculiar and primitive race known as the ,neander ,men1 so called because a skull and some bones of this same race were found fifty years ago in a cave in the ,neander valley1#g near ,elberfeld1 on the ,rhine4 ,the ,french archologists1 or 8prehistorians10 as we now call them--are the leading discoverers in all that relates to very early man4 ,the caves in ,central and ,southern ,france 7,dordogne1 ,pyrenees1 and ,riviera7 and the gravels in the north have furnished the most wonderful and interesting evidences of the existence of human beings at an immensely remote period in this part of ,europe4 ,enthusiastic excavators and collectors of ,french nationality have discovered1 preserved1 and described the weapons1 carvings1 and drawings made by the old cave-dwellers of ,southern ,france1 buried by the accumulated deposits of ages deep in the caverns where the human artists who made these things used to live4 ,in ,england only two such caves containing the implements of prehistoric men have been found--whilst a few are known in ,belgium1 ,moravia1 and ,switzerland4 ,although we know an immense number of the flint instruments1 bone harpoons1 and carvings and drawings of the ancient cave-dwellers1 yet skulls and bones of the men themselves are extremely rare4 ,bones1 skulls1 and teeth of the animals they killed and ate are abundant in the caves--such as those of great bulls1 deer1 and horses4 ,the bones also of animals which lived in these caves and contended with the ancient men for the possession of the shelter afforded by them1 are abundant3 bones of hyna1 of bear1 of lion1 and wolf4 ,but human bones are exceedingly rare4 ,this arises partly from the fact that human bones are not so thick and strong as those of large animals1 and more easily soften1 break up1 and are lost4 ,it is also due partly to the fact that the men were not nearly so numerous as the wild animals2 but it is chiefly due to the fact that these people usually1 but not always1 buried their dead in the open2 and whilst the bones of animals which had been eaten were left about in heaps on the floor of the caves1 and became cemented together by the petrifying deposit caused by water dripping from the walls of these limestone caverns or by streams actually flooding the caverns1 the bodies of the men themselves were removed when they died by their friends and families1 and buried in the open ground1 where they have gradually dissolved and broken up4 ,only a few here and there of the more ancient races were buried in a cave1 and are in consequence preserved until the present day4 ,obviously1 it would only be an exceptional honour or superstition which would cause the giving up of a cave to the interment of a dead body1 or only rarely that a corpse could be tolerated in the floor of the cave still inhabited by living men4 ,it is a mistake to suppose that all the bones of all the men and animals which have lived on the earth's surface are naturally and as a matter of course permanent enduring things4 ,on the contrary1 when they are buried in soil or sand permeated by water1 they slowly soften and decay1 dissolve and disappear4 ,when washed into streams and rivers or into the sea1 they break up and dissolve4 ,no bones were dredged up from the floor of the ocean by the explorers of the ,challenger expedition4 ,a bone sunk in the sea gradually dissolves4 ,only those bones 7and the same is true of shells7 are permanently preserved which happen to get into certain favourable positions1 embedded in clay or hard deposit1 which is not disturbed1 and becomes slowly raised up and free from soaking water before the bone is dissolved2 or1 again1 those which have been protected in the accumulated deposits of the floor of a cavern covered in by layers of hard calcareous slab or stalagmite1 which usually is formed by the water dripping from the limestone roof and walls4 ,the limestone is dissolved like sugar1 and is deposited when the water evaporates--8petrifying0 the floor of the cave4 ,it is owing to this rarity of the natural preservation of bones that we never find more than a few of those of extinct animals of various degrees of antiquity1 and never more than a very few of those of the ancient men who lived in caverns and made 8flint implements40 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ff4--;,an unpolished but beautifully chipped flint knife1 of the ,neolithic ,age1 from ,denmark4 7,this figure and ,fig4 #fg are from the guide to the antiquities of the ,stone ,age in the ,british ,museum74 ,as a preliminary to dealing below with the story of 8the ,neander ,men0--to which race the newly-found skull and bones from the ,corrze belong--it will help to make the importance of that skeleton obvious if ,i very briefly and dogmatically state what are the great periods in the prehistoric record of man1 and the probable distance in time from us of those periods4 ,it must be remembered that what ,i have to say applies only to the 8prehistoric history0 of man in ,western ,europe and the ,mediterranean region1 for it is only this part of the world which has been sufficiently carefully examined to yield any definite conclusions4 ,let us suppose that we can travel back through the ages1 and proceed to do so4 ,we find that there are three well-marked successive periods in ,europe--which are called the ,iron ,age1 the ,bronze ,age1 and the ,stone ,age4 ,when we go back to ,julius ,csar conquering ,gaul and parts of ,germany and ,britain1 we find that the ,romans had steel swords1 and freely made use of that metal for a variety of tools and constructive purposes4 ,the ,gauls and ,belgi and ,allemanni and ,britons were still in the ,bronze ,age2 they had beautifully made bronze swords and daggers and helmets and shields1 which were weaker and softer than those of iron used by the ,romans4 ,the use of iron was soon spread by the conquerors1 and the rest of ,europe entered on the ,iron ,age4 ,when the ,anglo-,saxons arrived in ,england they had iron weapons4 ,at what date precisely the ,romans themselves took to the use of iron is not known1 probably they learnt its use from the peoples of ,africa2 but at no distant date1 a few hundred years before ,christ1 they1 too1 and the ,greeks were in the ,bronze ,age4 ,in ,western ,europe we see the ,bronze ,age1 as we travel back in time1 disappearing1 and we come to the ,stone ,age1 about #bjjj ,b4,c4 ,copper was used at the later stage of the ,stone ,age1 and then the alloy with tin1 which is called 8bronze40 ,at the time that the big stones of ,stonehenge were set up 7the smaller stones of the outer circle are more ancient7 the ,stone ,age was coming to its end1 and the ,bronze ,age coming in4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fg4--;,a polished flint axe-head1 of ,neolithic ,age1 from ,denmark4 ,everywhere1 but not always within the same thousand years or so1 we see as we go still farther back1 the use of metal giving place to the use of stone4 ,in ,europe we see a highly-developed material civilisation from three to seven thousand years ago4 ,the people till the land1 sow crops1 keep herds1 build houses 7of wood71 make pottery1 combs for the hair1 necklaces of amber and of shells1 and other ornaments1 but they have no metal weapons or implements4 ,they sometimes use native gold to make decorative ornaments2 but their knives1 daggers1 swords1 saws1 and hammers are all of stone1 either flint or dense greenstone4 ,we reach this purely ,stone ,age in ,europe at #bjjj ,b4,c42 in ,egypt we do not get back to it so soon1 but1 about #ejjj ,b4,c41 we there come upon a pre-,pharaonic population which made use of beautifully-finished stone knives in place of metal4 ,the first people we come upon in ,europe as we pass from the ,bronze to the ,stone ,age had a great deal of skill and an elaborate social organisation4 ,their stone weapons were beautifully chipped and often highly polished 7,figs4 #ff and #fg74 ,we find the slabs of grit upon which they rubbed the chipped flint adzes in order to make them smooth4 ,but soon we find1 as we go back1 that polishing is unknown1 and that the chipped flint adzes are used in a rough state4 ,on entering the ,stone ,age we find that we are only on the fringe of an immense period of 8stone-weaponed humanity10 extending back for tens of thousands of generations of men1 when stone 7and in ,europe especially1 that stone which we call 8flint07 was the one great stand-by of the human race--the one hard cutting material which man learnt to shape and apply to his own purposes--so as to make holes with it1 saw with it1 scrape with it1 cut with it1 kill with it4 ,on account of its prodigious range in time it is found necessary to divide the ,stone ,age into two periods--a later1 called the 8,neolithic0 7the new stone period71 and an older1 stretching back until the traces of it are lost in geologic changes of the earth1 which is called the 8,palolithic0 7the old stone period74 ,thus if we start on a time-journey to explore the earliest traces of man in ,europe1 we pass along the centuries back1 through the ,iron and the ,bronze ,ages of humanity1 and arrive at the vast ,stone ,age1 which stretches away into the obscurity of more than a hundred thousand1 probably of many hundred thousand1 years4 ,the later or newer fringe of the ,stone ,age is called the 8,neolithic10 or newer ,stone ,age1 or ,age of ,polished ,stone1 because the men of that period polished their stone implements after chipping them into shape4 ,that which we dimly see beyond is the 8,palolithic10 or older period of 8stone-weaponed0 humanity1 when polishing was unknown4 ,the ,neolithic civilisation comprised the ,swiss and ,glastonbury lake-dwellers1 who built houses on piles in the water3 also the makers of the kitchen-middens of ,denmark1 and the builders of the great stone avenues1 circles1 and cromlechs1 and the elevators of the solitary big stones called 8menhirs0--most of them rougher and probably two thousand or three thousand years older than the big stones of ,stonehenge4 ,our journey has now brought us into the full darkness of prehistoric times4 ,we cannot tell how far back this 8,neolithic0 period reaches1 but there are things found which make it certain that it reaches to #gjjj ,b4,c41 and probably a good deal farther4 ,we are now far in time behind the most ancient ,greeks and the more ancient ,egyptians4 ,europe is a rich1 moist pasture-land1 peat bogs are abundant and luxuriant woodlands2 the climate is mild2 the wild animals are those which to-day inhabit ,central ,europe1 but more abundant4 ,the domesticated animals kept by the men are those which we have to-day1 and many of the crops and cultivated plants are those of our own time1 such as wheat1 barley1 oats1 and rye4 ,we know also by their remains that the ,neolithic men fed on chestnuts1 hazel nuts1 walnuts1 plums1 apples1 pears1 and strawberries1 and cultivated the vine1 the pale opium-poppy1 and the narrow-leaved flax4 ,hemp was not known to them4 ,as we push back still farther into the night of antiquity--we cannot say at how many thousand years from to-day1 whether ten1 twenty1 or fifty thousand--the climate becomes very cold1 the glaciers extend far down the valleys1 and we note that the level of sea and land has changed4 ,great ,britain and ,ireland are part of the ,continent of ,europe4 ,there are strange animals in the south of what was ,england1 and there1 as well as in ,france1 reindeer abound1 wild horses1 the bison1 the ,siberian saiga antelope1 the great ox1 bears1 gluttons1 and wolves2 and there are men living in caves--the natural caverns which form in limestone rock4 ,these men are chipping flints 7but do not polish them7 and carving bones1 but now have no herds1 nor cultivated fields1 nor pottery 7some very rough fragments have been found71 nor buildings1 nor earthworks4 ,they are like some modern savages1 ,nature's gentlemen1 8who toil not1 neither do they spin10 but they hunt and fish4 ,they live entirely on the produce of the chase and on fish1 wild fruits1 and roots4 ,they wear undressed skins and furs1 and paint or tattoo their faces4 ,they make twisted ropes 7probably of skin7 which they fix as a halter round the head and jaw of the wild horse1 as shown by their own carvings 7,figs4 #h and #i74 ,probably they ride him4 ,they certainly eat him4 ,at ,solutr1 near ,mcon1 the bones of no less than a hundred thousand horses were found piled up as a sort of kitchen-midden round a camp of ,palolithic men6 ,they have the art of making fire1 and have a wonderful artistic skill in carving and drawing on bone and ivory and on stones1 and in painting on the walls of their caves1 the animals which surround them and are hunted by them 7,fig4 #ga74 ,they make great numbers of carved harpoons or toothed spear-heads 7,fig4 #fh7 from bone1 and also needles for sewing skins2 whilst from flint they chip spear-heads1 knives1 hand-hatchets1 and saws4 ,they decorate their carvings with spirals1 lozenges1 and circles cut in low relief 7,fig4 #fi74 ,but their truly astonishing skill and mental development is shown in their carvings and engravings of animals and fish 7,fig4 #gj71 which are executed either on bones or stones1 or on pieces of the ivory of the mammoth4 ,besides the reindeer1 horses1 goats1 saiga antelope1 rhinoceros1 mammoth1 and seal1 their carvings include statuettes and drawings of men and women 7,fig4 #g74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fh4--;,a4 ,perforated harpoon of the transition period 7,azilian or ,red ,deer period71 between ,palolithic and ,neolithic1 made from antler of red deer1 found in quantity in the upper layers of deposit in the cavern of the ,mas d',azil 7,arige74 ,b and ,c4 ,imperforate harpoons or lance heads made from reindeer antler of the ,magdalenian period 7,reindeer epoch74 ,b from ,bruniquel ,cave 7,tarn-et-,garonne74 ,c from a cavern in the ,hautes ,pyrenes4 ,same size as the objects4 ,at the best period some of these carvings show a mastery of the material1 a directness and a simplicity and beauty of essential line1 together with true observation of characteristic form1 which separate these works from those of the ordinary savage of modern times1 and have caused living artists of authority to declare that these craftsmen had those definite gifts which entitle them to be recognised as brother artists--an assurance which confirms my own impression based on a long study of large series of the actual specimens4 ,the best works of their later period 7for their skill took time to develop1 and follows the laws of growth of all art7 represent animals1 such as deer1 in movement and often turning round or foreshortened 7,fig4 #gj72 some of their carvings of horses' heads are worthy of the ,parthenon 7,fig4 #i74 ,on the other hand1 as is often observed in primitive art1 their representations of the human face and figure are very inferior1 and tend to caricature4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fi4--;,a piece of mammoth ivory carved with spirals and scrolls from the cave of ,arudy 7,hautes ,pyrenes74 ,same size as the object4 ,we are now in the ,palolithic period1 and1 what is more1 we have quitted what geologists call the recent or modern epoch1 and have entered on 8geologic0 times2 this is the ,pleistocene or ,quaternary epoch4 ,it is a legitimate and useful thing thus to draw a strong line between the ,neolithic and the ,palolithic portions of the ,stone ,age4 ,the ,neolithic men belong1 so to speak1 to our own days4 ,they were1 even seven thousand years ago1 only a little rougher in their tools than were the peasants of the remoter parts of ,central ,europe a few hundred years ago4 ,they had not even as much tendency to or gift for artistic work as the ploughmen of our own days1 and have left none behind them4 ,excepting that they used stone axes and knives instead of steel ones1 they really led the life of medival country-folk4 ,but once you pass them in your journey backwards--once you enter the ,pleistocene circle--you find that climate1 land surface1 animals1 plants1 mode of life are as utterly changed as were you suddenly transferred from the ,english countryside to ,terra del ,fuego or to an ,eskimo village4 ,the ,palolithic men and their whole surroundings and arts of life have no touch of familiarity for the modern inhabitants of ,europe4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gj4--;,carving on an antler of a group of three red deer and four fishes1 remarkable for the attitude and movement of the deer3 a1 hind legs of front deer1 the rest broken away3 bf1 second deer3 c1 third deer looking back3 d1 lozenge marks1 supposed to be the artist's signature3 bh1 the hind legs of the second deer1 wonderfully true to nature in their 8hanging0 pose4 ,from the cavern of ,lorthet1 near ,lourdes 7,hautes ,pyrenes71 deposit of the ,reindeer epoch4 ,the carving runs all round a cylindrical rod of bone 7as very many of these carvings do71 and is here represented as 8un-rolled0 or 8developed10 that is to say1 laid out flat4 ,the drawing is a little reduced as compared with the actual carving4 ,when we explore this ,palolithic1 ,pleistocene1 or ,quaternary epoch--the last of the geologists' long series of epochs and deposits--we find that it represents by no means a trivial episode in the world's long change4 ,it is true that compared to geologic periods which follow on below it--namely1 the ,pliocene1 ,miocene1 and ,eocene of the ,tertiary1 the ,chalk and the vast ages below that white sea-sediment1 indicated by the sixty thousand feet of stratified rock 7,jurassic1 ,triassic1 ,carboniferous1 ,devonian1 ,silurian1 ,cambrian671 the ,pleistocene exhibits but a small thickness of deposit 7amounting to but two or three hundred feet of sand and gravel7 as its contribution to the earth's crust4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ga4--,painting of a bison in orange-brown1 grey1 black1 and white1 the outline partly engraved1 from the roof of the cave of ,altamira1 near ,santander1 in the north of ,spain1 upon which many others as well as wild-boar1 horses1 and deer are depicted4 ,the original is about two and a half feet long4 ,these drawings were executed by the ,reindeer ,men in the period of the ,upper or ,post-,glacial ,pleistocene4 ,yet1 on account of the nearness to our own times of the events which took place in the ,pleistocene period1 geologists and prehistorians have studied its details with minute care1 and have accumulated an immense array of facts and specimens by digging and carefully collecting in ,western and ,central ,europe4 ,they have divided up this ,pleistocene period and the deposits in river-valley and cave which have occurred within its limits into three great consecutive ages4 ,these are distinguished from one another by the distinctive wild animals which flourished in each1 by the climate which is indicated1 and by the progressive development of the art and workmanship of the ,palolithic men discovered in successive layers of deposit4 ,let me here refer the reader to the tabular statement on page #chd bis4 ,these ages of the ,pleistocene are3--,no4 #a4 ,the ,upper or ,post-,glacial ,pleistocene1 or ,epoch of the ,reindeer4 ,the climate was cold and dry1 like that of the ,russian steppes4 ,the contents of the celebrated cave of ,la ,madeleine1 in the ,dordogne1 and the upper layers of deposit in a whole series of caves 7including ,kent's ,cavern and the ,creswell ,cave in ,england7 belong to this age4 ,this was the period in which the caves were inhabited by the artistic race 8who came no one knows whence1 and went no one knows whither10 accompanied by the reindeer4 ,before them there was no carving in the caves1 or only very rough work1 and we are justified in concluding that the men who inhabited the caves before this period belonged to a totally distinct and inferior race4 ,the 8,reindeer ,men0 must have developed their art by gradual steps before they arrived in the caves of ,western ,europe--where we do not know4 ,at the end of this period the climate became much milder1 and the red deer of our own day took the place of the reindeer1 during a long transition in which the 8,reindeer ,men0 and their art disappeared1 and the pastoral1 land-tilling1 stone-building1 pottery-making communities of the ,neolithic ,age came into existence1 showing no trace of the art of their predecessors4 ,the mammoth and rhinoceros1 bison1 and aurochs1 and1 in fact1 all the commoner animals of an earlier period were present nearly all through the ,reindeer period 7they disappear in the late 8transition period0 of the red deer1 called 8,azilian071 and were known to the 8,reindeer ,men10 but great herds of reindeer and of horses occupied the grassy lands in this age1 which were not abundant previously4 ,these herds probably were to some extent protected by the men1 whilst the lion1 bear1 hyna1 mammoths1 and rhinoceroses were diminishing in number1 and were kept at a distance4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gb4--;,back and front view of a flint implement of the ,moustier type 7period of the ,neander ,men or ,middle ,pliocene71 half the size 7linear7 of the object4 ,observe the bulb of percussion at b1 and the completion of one face by a single blow4 ,note also the fine edge and point of the weapon4 ,the next lower division of the ,pleistocene is ,no4 #b1 the ,middle ,pleistocene or ,last ,glacial ,age1 or better1 the ,epoch of the ,mammoth4 ,the climate was cold and humid4 ,for the third and last time great glaciers existed over the whole of ,northern ,europe1 and only bits of the south of ,england and the central and southern parts of ,france were free from the ice-covering1 and carried a rich vegetation4 ,deeper deposits in caves are of this age1 and also much of the river gravels of the lower terraces of ,english and ,french rivers4 ,by the ,french it is often called the ,moustierian period1 because it is well seen in the rich deposits of the caves and plateau of ,le ,moustier1 on the river ,vezre 7an affluent of the ,dordogne71 which contain bones of mammoth and rhinoceros1 and flint implements of a special form 7,fig4 #gb71 but no carvings or artistic work4 ,hynas made some of the caverns into their dens1 and the cave-lion and the cave-bear were there too4 ,the men of this period actually contested with these carnivors for the possession of the caves1 and made great fires to keep out wild beasts1 as well as to grill the meat on which they fed4 ,they were of an inferior race to the ,reindeer ,men1 and had not such command of the situation as their successors4 ,we find their remains1 their flint weapons1 and in rare cases their own bones as well as the bones of the mammoth and hairy rhinoceros 7on which they fed71 and the bones of their competitors1 the hynas1 bears1 and lions1 in the deeper deposits of some caves1 underlying1 and separated often by calcareous deposit from1 the layers which belong to the subsequent and prosperous days of the ,reindeer ,men4 ,most striking is the fact that in the layers of deposit of this older age1 there are no works of art nor any implements carved from bone or ivory4 ,these earlier men1 devoid of art and living at a low level of savagery1 were the ,neander ,men4 ,it is in this layer and under these conditions that the few broken skulls1 agreeing in shape and character with that of the ,neander ,valley1 have been found4 ,lastly we come to division ,no4 #c1 the ,lower ,pleistocene1 or ,epoch of the ,hippopotamus4 ,the later climate of this age was mild4 ,it came between two glacial periods1 owing to the retreat of the glaciers1 which had earlier increased in extent so as to produce the second ,great ,glacial period4 ,the hippopotamus swam in the ,thames and ,severn in those days1 and left its bones and teeth in the older gravels of those and other ,european rivers1 where we now find them4 ,the big almond-shaped and leaf-shaped flint implements of the ,english 7,fig4 #gc7 and ,french gravels 7,fig4 #gd7 belong to this period4 ,we have no knowledge whatever of the men who made them4#h ,the mammoth was not there1 but another species of elephant 7,e4 antiquus7 and a peculiar rhinoceros 7,r4 merckii74 ,the deepest and oldest deposits in some caves belong to this age1 as well as the high-lying gravels of ,st4 ,acheuil1 of many ,english river-valleys1 and of ,chelles on the ,seine4 ,this period is not represented by much deposit in caves1 though some caves contain very deep-lying layers enclosing bones or teeth of the animals characterising this period4 ,older than the ,age of the ,hippopotamus are deposits which are reckoned by geologists as 8,pliocene0--no longer ,pleistocene--and are called 8,tertiary10 not 8,quaternary40 ,the forest bed of ,norfolk 7regarded by ,professor ,marcelin ,boule as of transitional character1 as shown in the tabular view on p4 #chd bis71 the ,norwich crag1 the ,suffolk red and coralline crag1 and very extensive sandy deposits all over ,europe belong to the ,pliocene4 ,the earliest or first great extension of glaciers occurred late in this period4 ,the animals are very different from those of the ,pleistocene2 the great mastodon and the tapir are there1 and the sabre-toothed tiger4 ,implements manufactured by man are found in the oldest ,pleistocene1 and there is no reason to doubt that we shall find his workmanship in the ,pliocene1 too1 though it is not admitted that this has yet been done4 ,it is a question still eagerly studied and debated as to whether the roughly chipped flints found in gravels on high downs in the south of ,england1 and called 8eoliths10 are 7as ,i think many of them are7 the work of man1 and whether the high-lying gravels in which they are found are to be regarded as of the oldest ,pleistocene ,age or as late ,pliocene4 ,it is an exciting and deeply interesting field of practical exploration and reasoned inference4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gc4--;,flint pick from the ,lower ,pleistocene of the ,thames ,valley4 ,two-thirds the size of the object4 ,it will have been gathered from what ,i have said that1 in seeking for knowledge of the sequence of events in the period of ,palolithic ,man1 everything depends upon extreme care in removing the deposits from a cave inch by inch1 and keeping all objects found distinct from one another and assigned to their proper layer4 ,the same system is now applied with great success to the exploration of ancient cities in ,egypt and ,central ,asia4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gd4--;,a rough type of flint implement from the ,lower ,pleistocene of the ,somme ,valley 7,st4 ,acheuil74 ,one-half the size of the object4 ,as to the actual bones and skulls of men discovered in these ,pleistocene deposits1 they show us that the ,reindeer ,men were a fine1 full-brained people1 as we should expect1 with as large a brain cavity on the average as that of modern ,europeans4 ,the skulls of this race1 which do not differ in character from those of highly developed modern races1 were first found at ,cromagnon1 and hence we may call them 8the ,cromagnards0 7,fig4 #ge74 ,the ,neander ,men are the men of the middle period--the last glacial period--who were displaced by the splendid and accomplished ,cromagnards4 ,the ,neander ,men1 of which the new ,french specimen 7,fig4 #fe7 from the cave of the ,chapelle-aux-,saints is one1 were a very inferior race1 and so different from any living race of men as to justify the recognition of them as a distinct species of man1 the ,homo ,neanderthalensis4 ,only a few other imperfect skulls and skeletons of them are known 7,figs4 #gf and #gg71 and show them to have been short people1 with very low1 flat heads and retreating foreheads4 ,it is in accordance with what one would expect1 that they should make no works of art1 and should be displaced1 as climatic conditions changed for the better1 by the arrival of the fine1 full-brained ,cromagnards or ,reindeer ,men4 ,but where did they1 these delightful artists and happy hunters of the ,reindeer ,epoch1 come from8 ,we cannot say4 ,and what became of them8 ,we do not know4 ,they did not give rise to the ,neolithic race1 but were replaced1 turned out by that race4 ,to them1 indeed1 are appropriate the words of the ,roman poet--,prolem sine matre creatam1 mater sine prole defuncta4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ge4--;,a profile and a front view of the skull and lower jaw of a man of the ,cromagnard race or ,reindeer ,men4 ,this is the type-skull from ,cromagnon4 ,the teeth have fallen out of their sockets1 and the articular condyle of the up-turned part of the lower jaw is broken away4 ,the cranial dome and the forehead are as large as in good modern ,european skulls4 ,compare with ,fig4 #fe1 and refer to the explanation of that figure for the meaning of the letters and dotted lines4 ,n4,b4--,this drawing1 and one or two of the other figures of skulls1 are reversed1 giving right side for left1 to facilitate the comparison of one with the other4 ,all are one-third 7linear7 of the natural size4 ,table showing the ,geologic ,history of ,man in ,western ,europe 7,,after ,,marcelin ,,boule1 ,,with ,,some ,,additions7 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------------ ,geological ,geological ,characteristic ,human ,industry4 ,divisions4 ,conditions ,animals4 and ,formations4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------------ ,,quaternary4 ,,period ,,of ,,metals4 ,recent alluvium1 ,the present species4 ,,present4 peat-bogs4 ,domesticated animals4 ,age of iron4 ,climate closely ,age of bronze4 similar to ,age of copper4 the present4 ,,neolithic ,,period1 or period of polished stone4 ,transitional ,deposits--,red ,deer1 ,beaver4 ,transitional ,industry 7,,azilian74 ,,pleistocene ,upper layers of ,,epoch ,,of ,,the ,,reindeer4 ,,pal,,olithic ,,period1 cavern deposits4 ,,or1 ,,period ,,of ,upper part of ,,chipped ,,flints4 the loess of the ,rhine4 ,climate ,reindeer1 ,bison1 cold and dry2 ,horse1 ,saiga ,,magdalenian4 conditions like antelope1 wolf1 ,,upper4 those of the fauna of the ,sculptures1 8steppes0 of steppes4 engravings1 and ,tartary and paintings3 small ,russia4 and very varied chipped flints4 ,,cromagnard ,,race4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,deposits formed ,,epoch ,,of ,,the ,,mammoth4 ,,moustierian4 by the filling of caverns4 ,mammoth1 ,rhinoceros ,commencement of ,loess of the with partitioned work in bone3 ,rhine4 ,gravels nostrils 7,r4 flints usually of low-levels tichorhinus71 bear1 worked only on ,,middle4 and of the hyena1 and lion of one face4 inferior terraces4 the caverns1 wolf1 ,,neander ,,race etc4 ,musk ox4 ,homo ,moraines of the ,neanderthalensis4 third great glacial period4 ,climate cold and humid4 ---------------------------------------- ---------- ------------------- ,gravels of the ,,epoch ,,of ,,the ,,chellean4 middle terraces4 ,,hippopotamus4 ,calcareous tufa4 ,first indisputable ,climate warm4 ,elephas antiquus1 traces of man in ,,lower4 ,rhinoceros merckii1 ,europe3 the large ,moraines of the ,hippopotamus major1 flint weapons are second great ,sabre-toothed ,tiger1 chipped on both glacial period4 monkeys1 etc4 faces4 ,climate cold and 7,heidelberg human humid4 jaw probably of ,neander race47 ,transitional ,deposits of the ,norfolk ,,forest ,,beds1 - of ,st4 ,prest and of ,solilhac4 ,climate temperate4 --------------------- ,,tertiary4 ,plateau 7high ,,epoch ,,of ,,the ,,elephas ,,upper level7 gravels4 ,,meridionalis4 ,eoliths of ,,pliocene4 ,prestwich4 ,moraines of the ,rhinoceros etruscus1 first great ,equus ,stenonis1 extension of ,sabre-toothed ,tiger1 glaciers4 etc4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------------ ,n4,b4--,the horse1 the bison 7,bison ,europus71 the great ox or aurochs 7,bos primigenius71 the ibex1 the chamois1 the great ,irish deer 7,megaceros71 the large carnivors and others1 appear throughout the middle and upper ,pleistocene1 but are more abundant at one period than at another1 and in one locality than another4 ,thus the bison abounded in the north of ,spain in late ,magdalenian times1 whilst the reindeer was rare or absent1 and its place taken by the red deer1 which later replaced the reindeer in ,france4 ,the horse has been found in tens of thousands at ,solutr1 near ,mcon 7,middle ,pliocene71 whilst the great ,irish deer abounded at a very late period in ,ireland 7,azilian871 and is rare at any time elsewhere4 ,i must clearly state that1 whilst this table is practically that published by my friend ,professor ,marcelin ,boule1 he is not responsible for the recognition of the ,eoliths of ,prestwich1 nor for the terms 8,cromagnard0 and 8,neander40 ,,footnotes #g ,so named after one ,neumann1 a religious enthusiast1 who inhabited the cave4 #h ,see1 however1 farther on as to the lower jaw found at ,heidelberg4 ,,xlii ,,the ,,cave-,,men',s ,,skulls ,a certain number of human skulls and a few complete skeletons have been found in the cave-deposits1 and even in open ground 7as at ,predmost1 in ,moravia7 associated with the bones of extinct animals1 or with carvings and ornaments like those which occur abundantly in the caverns4 ,the ancient cave-men of the ,cromagnard type--often called 8the ,reindeer ,men0--buried their dead sometimes in the caves1 but more usually in the open4 ,sometimes the skeletons are found in a crouching position1 as though tied up when buried2 more rarely 7as in some examples found in the caves at ,mentone7 they are stretched out and decorated with a necklace or wreath made of shells1 or of the teeth or small bones of animals4 ,in many cases the flesh was removed from the corpse1 and red ochre was smeared on the bones 7as by some recent savages74 ,the 8,reindeer0 people used red ochre and charcoal to colour the engravings of animals 7,fig4 #ga7 which they made on the walls of their caves1 and probably for painting or tattooing their own faces4 ,the existence of these wall paintings1 wonderful representations of bison1 great ox1 deer1 and other animals1 proves that these men had artificial light 7lamps or torches7 to send fitful gleams on to the paintings1 and it is probable that the 8wall pictures0 had to do with some kind of witchcraft4 ,stone lamps have actually been discovered in the caves4 ,their ceremonial treatment of the dead shows that already the lines were laid for that worship of the 8spirits of the departed10 which became general1 and is especially familiar to us in the comparatively modern civilisation of ,rome and the ,etruscans4 ,there is also evidence that they made simple musical instruments4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gf4--,three views of the skull-top from near ,elberfeld on the ,rhine1 known as the ,neanderthal skull--7,middle ,pleistocene1 ,moustierian1 or last ,glacial ,period3 epoch of the ,mammoth74 ,these figures are partly copied by kind permission of ,mr4 ,worthington ,g4 ,smith1 ,f4,l4,s41 from excellent figures published by him in his interesting book1 ,man1 the ,primitive ,savage 7,stanford1 #ahii74 ,in all respects the measurements of this skull-top agree very closely with those of the skull from the ,chapelle-aux-,saints4 ,a4 ,a view from in front4 ,b4 ,side view showing the line a-b1 and the other lines1 a-c1 d1 e1 and f1 exactly as in ,fig4 #fe4 ,the shallowness of the cranial dome and the small projection of the frontal boss d1 agree exactly with the measurements of the ,chapelle skull shown in ,fig4 #fe4 ,c4 ,view of the skull-top from below4 ,this gives the outline of the ,neander-man's skull as seen from above1 and shows the curious vizor-like expansion of the ridges over the orbits1 the pinching in just behind them1 and the elongate shape of the skull1 with its great breadth in the hinder region4 ,the ,french skull from the ,chapelle agrees exactly in outline with this1 and in both the volume of the cranial cavity given by this large expanse amounts to #afjj cubic centimetres1 in spite of the flatness of the cranial dome--a greater volume than that of the ,cromagnon skull drawn in ,fig4 #ge1 or of the average modern ,european4 ,in the cave-deposits of the ,post-,glacial or ,reindeer ,age1 the human skulls and skeletons which have been found 7not indicating more than thirty or forty individuals altogether from widely separate localities7 show a very well-developed race1 with large brain-case 7,fig4 #ge71 quite equal to that of modern ,europeans4 ,some of these men were very tall1 one of the skeletons from the ,mentone caves being that of a man #f ft4 #c in4 in height4 ,the cavity of the skull 7which corresponds very closely in size with that of the brain which it contained7 would hold about #aeej units of water 7the unit referred to is a cubic centimetre1 #aeej of which are equal to a little less than two and a half ,english pints74 ,it is not surprising that these ,reindeer ,men had fine brains1 for their carvings and pictures show them to have been real artists1 not mere savage scrawlers4 ,this race is called the 8,cromagnards10 after the first skulls discovered at ,cromagnon1 in ,central ,france4 ,they had big1 strong lower jaws1 with prominent chins1 like many fine modern races 7e4g4 the ,new ,zealanders71 and fine1 narrow noses4 ,the face and upper jaws were somewhat prominent1 though not nearly so much so as in modern negroes4 ,the skull-bones were thick and strong4 ,the brain-case or cranial part of the skull was oblong rather than round4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gg4--,the ,gibraltar skull from a cave in ,gibraltar1 now preserved in the ,museum of the ,royal ,college of ,surgeons1 ,london4 ,it is of the ,neander race4 ,compare the dotted lines and lettering with those of ,fig4 #fe1 and the explanation there given4 ,the drawing is one-third 7linear7 of the natural size4 ,the skulls of the older race--that of the ,last ,glacial or ,moustierian ,age--the ,neander ,men1 were long skulls1 too1 but had a peculiarly flattened shape and a retreating forehead4 ,the bony ridges over the eyes1 corresponding to the eyebrows1 were enormous1 and projected forwards like the vizor of a cap 7,figs4 #fe1 #gf1 and #gg74 ,there are but few specimens to guide our conclusions1 but they show that though of short stature 7some not more than #e ft4 #d in471 these people were very muscular4 ,the top of a skull from the cave in the ,neander ,valley1 known as the ,neanderthal skull1 two imperfect skulls from the cave of ,spy1 in ,belgium1 an imperfect skull from ,brunn1 in ,moravia1 and other fragments from ,krapina1 in ,croatia1 and1 lastly1 one from a cave in ,gibraltar1 are the best known4 ,others1 including fragments of several skeletons less fully described1 which have been found at ,predmost1 in ,moravia1 probably belong to this race4 ,but the newly obtained skull and bones from the centre of ,france 7,chapelle-aux-,saints7 are the most important of all yet discovered4 ,they all date from the middle ,pleistocene period1 the age of the last great glaciers1 earlier than the age of the ,reindeer4 ,the ,gibraltar skull 7,fig4 #gg7 we have all known for a long time2 it has been in the museum of the ,royal ,college of ,surgeons for forty years1 and two years ago was very carefully examined and figured by ,professor ,sollas1 of ,oxford4 ,it is a specially valuable specimen1 because it shows the bones of the face as well as the brain-case4 ,from other specimens we know the lower jaw4 ,the lower jaw was deep and powerful1 but1 like that of an ape1 had a receding chin1 or rather1 we should say1 had no 8chin-prominence0 at all 7compare ,figs4 #gi1 #hj1 #ha1 and #hb74 ,the new ,french specimen 7,fig4 #fe7 is strongly prognathous4 ,the orbits are enormous1 and the nose very flat and quite unique in its great breadth4 ,one of the two ,neander-man skulls from the ,belgian cave of ,spy shows the face bones1 and these agree with what has just been stated as to the ,french skull4 ,hence it appears that a short race with a very strange and low-browed type of skull preceded the men of the ,reindeer ,age4 ,when1 thirty years ago1 only the original skull-top from the ,neander cave 7,fig4 #gf7 was known1 ,virchow1 of ,berlin1 considered it to be probably that of an idiot1 whilst ,huxley expressed the opinion that it indicates a race of men with decidedly low development1 and in some respects more ape-like characters than modern ,europeans2 but he held that it is not to be considered as 8a missing link10 nor as taking us appreciably nearer from modern man to the apes1 since it is most closely approached by the flat skulls1 already well known1 of some of the ,south ,australian natives1 both in shape and in the cubical capacity of the brain-cavity4 ,what ,i mean by the flatness of the skull may be understood by looking at a side view of a monkey's skull 7,fig4 #ha7 and of an ordinary ,european human skull 7take the ,cromagnon skull as equivalent1 ,fig4 #ge7 placed upright1 so that the eyes are looking forward4 ,if in an outline or photograph of each of these skulls you draw a straight line from a point between the eyebrows back to a point just below the most projecting ridge of the hindermost region of the skull1 you will find that above that line in the monkey's skull is a slightly curved surface--the roof of the brain-case4 ,but in the human skull above the similarly drawn line the roof bulges so as to form an almost hemispherical dome1 rising sometimes vertically in the front region to form 8the straight1 high forehead0 7which ,shakespeare commended1 even in woman74 ,it swells out in the hinder region also4 ,now the ,neander skulls1 and to a less extent the skulls of many of the ,australian aborigines1 are more like the monkey's in this matter2 the dome of the roof is shallow and flat1 and the forehead does not rise up1 but slopes backwards1 so that the whole contents of the brain-case are lessened by the reduction of the frontal and upper region4 ,and there is reason to consider this frontal region of the brain as specially connected with some of the higher intellectual qualities of the mind4 ,we know a little more about the skull of the ,neander race since ,huxley wrote1 owing to the further discovery of specimens4 ,the ,australian's skull has usually a more projecting upper jaw and upper front teeth than has the ,neander ,man's4 ,the ,neander skulls stand alone in the great breadth of the orbits and of the nasal region as compared with all known skulls4 ,they are also alone 7the ,gibraltar skull and the new ,french specimen are the only ones which show it7 in the contour of the upper jaw4 ,in other human skulls there is a broad depression of the surface--a nipping-in1 as it were--behind the root of the canine tooth on each side4 ,this is absent in the ,neander race2 the bone here is flat1 and not in-pushed4 ,this absence of 8modelling10 absence of the canine 8fossa0 or valley 7as it is called71 is seen in the larger apes as well as in the ,neander ,men4 ,this point does not show in our figures4 ,some writers think it probable that the ,neander ,men of the late ,glacial ,age were the ancestors of the ,cromagnards of the ,reindeer ,age1 and also that the artistic ,cromagnards were transformed1 after many thousand years1 into the comparatively dull and inartistic people of the ,neolithic period4 ,it seems to me1 on the contrary1 more probable 7as is held by some of the ,french prehistorians7 that the ,reindeer ,men died out1 and were replaced by the ,neolithic herdsmen who migrated into ,western ,europe as the climate became milder4 ,the notion that the ,esquimaux of to-day are the ,reindeer ,men of ,france who have migrated northwards with their reindeer1 following the receding ice1 has been entertained1 but is regarded by the most careful inquirers as untenable4 ,as to the earlier change of race1 ,i hold that it is not possible to contend that the ,neander ,men developed into the ,cromagnards of the ,reindeer ,age actually in the south of ,france4 ,if the lower race or species gave rise to the higher1 the enormous transformation did not occur here nor in ,europe at all1 nor during the later ,pleistocene period4 ,human skulls of the ,reindeer ,age are known which present an approach to the characters of the ,neander race1 such as the heavy bony eyebrows4 ,but it seems that this is accounted for by the survival of some ,neander families alongside of the powerful ,cromagnard men and the interbreeding of the two4 ,the ,cromagnards had probably lived with their reindeer in some more southern area during the late ,glacial ,age1 and arrived in southern ,france as the climate improved and became suitable to their accustomed quarry4 ,how and where they developed from a lower type of men we have at present no indication4 ,a very remarkable discovery of the last five years made in the course of the careful excavation of the four caverns of ,mentone by the ,prince of ,monaco1 where as many as sixteen human skeletons of the ,pleistocene ,age have been brought to light1 gives us a new point of view as to the presence of more than one race in ,europe in these immensely remote times1 as in later periods4 ,in one of the caves1 and in a position showing them to date from the deepest layer of the middle ,pleistocene1 or late ,glacial ,age1 two complete skeletons have been found 7and may be seen alongside those of the ,cromagnon race in the museum at ,monaco71 which are obviously different from those of both the ,neander and the ,cromagnon people4 ,they have skulls which decidedly resemble that of the modern negro race1 so that they have been definitely assigned to a new race hitherto unknown in ,european caves1 and are spoken of as 8the negroid skeletons0 and 8the ,grimaldi race40 ,this is indeed a startling fact4 ,there was land stretching across the ,mediterranean in those days1 and these skeletons suggest that already there was a negroid race in ,africa1 individuals of which had wandered north as far as the maritime ,alps4#i ,two or three negroid skulls of ,neolithic 7therefore very much later7 ,age have been found in ,brittany and in ,switzerland4 ,when we reflect that the negroid skeletons of ,mentone and those of the contemporary ,neander ,men are probably more than #ajj1jjj years old1 we are at once impressed with the important conclusion that already in that remote period three great branches of the human race had come into existence--the negroid1 the ,neander1 and probably1 at a more distant spot1 also the highly developed ,cromagnards4 ,the origin of the really primitive race of man is thrown back in time by these facts to a still more remote period1 in fact1 to an earlier geologic epoch4 ,and it is to be noted over and above these facts that we have no indication as to where the much later race1 the ,neolithic ,men1 came from1 nor who were their contemporaries outside the ,european area2 nor again do we know where the historic races who succeeded the ,neolithic ,men took their origin4 ,when other regions of the earth have been examined as carefully as ,western ,europe has been1 we shall no longer be in such complete darkness4 ,when one ventures to speculate as to the story of the earliest men in ,europe1 one can but feel1 even after handling the specimens and carefully following the excavations1 how small and fragmentary and difficult to interpret is the evidence at present brought to light4 ,and yet there the evidence is1 gathered with the utmost care and intelligent method1 discussed and interpreted by men of rare knowledge and experience1 who1 after long comparison of contending opinions and the discovery of an ever-increasing body of fact1 have arrived at a definite certainty as to the sequence of arts1 races1 animals1 and climates which ,i have given above1 and is again summarised in the tabular statement on page #chd bis4 ,hereafter these conclusions will be modified and extended by excavations in other parts of the world1 at present untouched4 ,the one point upon which the best authorities will not commit themselves is the exact1 or even approximately exact1 number of thousands of years which these events have occupied4 ,the whole story1 so far as it is at present worked out1 is a marvellous result of patient research and scientific reasoning4 ,some of the cave collections upon which it is based are to be seen in ,london1 in the ,british ,museum4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gh4--,the skull-top of the primitive kind of man from ,pleistocene sands in ,java1 called ,pithecanthropus4 ,one-third 7linear7 of the natural size4 ,compare with ,fig4 #fe1 and refer to that figure for the explanation of the letters and dotted lines4 ,there is one other discovery of a fossil man which comes properly at this point1 to cap and confirm what has already been said4 ,fifteen years ago a skull-top and a thigh-bone were found by ,dr4 ,dubois at ,trinil1 in the island of ,java1 at a depth of thirty feet in a sandy deposit1 considered by good authority 7but not certainly7 to be of ,pliocene age4 ,from recent reports on the deposit it seems that it may very well be of ,pleistocene age4 ,these remains have become celebrated as those of a monkey-like man1 and the name ,pithecanthropus has been given to the creature to which they belonged4 ,this skull-top 7or cranial roof7 is now in ,utrecht1 and is well known 7,fig4 #gh74 ,it indicates a race of men or men-like creatures1 with the flatness of skull1 receding forehead1 and large bony eye-ridges1 such as we see in the ,neander ,men and in some ,south ,australians1 but greatly exaggerated4 ,the skull was so low and flat as greatly to resemble that of the ,gibbon1 though much larger4 ,the volume of the cranial cavity 7showing the size of the brain7 was about #ijj units--far smaller than that of the average ,australian--the skull of smallest cavity among living races of men4 ,the volume of the brain-cavity of the largest ape 7gorilla7 amounts to about #ejj units 7cubic centimetres72 so that1 allowing for rare individual fluctuations of as much as one-fourth more or one-fourth less 7an amount of variation which1 great as it is1 is definitely known and recorded in specimens of the skulls of human races71 we get the following list of 8cranial capacities0 or brain-sizes1 forming a nearly unbroken series between the highest ,european and the ape4 ,the middle figure represents the normal or average1 and the first and last figure in each group the constant1 though rare1 minimum and maximum4 ,gorilla1 #cej1 #ejj1 #fej2 ,java race1 #fge1 #ijj1 #aabe2 ,australians1 #ijj1 #abjj1 #aejj2 ,cromagnard and ,european1 #aafe1 #aeej1 #aidj 7,european skulls of this great capacity are known74 ,the ,neander-man skulls are left out of the above list--although the ,corrze specimen allows of a satisfactory measurement of its capacity--for a very curious reason1 which is explained in the next chapter4 ,,footnotes #i ,in this connection it seems to be important to note the 8,ethiopic0 character of the arrangement of the hair in the little carving of a woman's head from the ,brassempouy ,cave 7dep4 ,landes71 shown in ,fig4 #g4 ,,xliii ,,more ,,about ,,the ,,neander ,,men ,since writing what precedes ,i have been able more than once to gratify my keen desire to examine the wonderful human skull from the ,chapelle-aux-,saints in the ,corrze 7,central ,france74 ,the skull has been photographed1 and an excellent figure of it is reproduced in our ,fig4 #fe4 ,but it is one thing to look at a picture of such a specimen1 and another to take it into one's hands and closely examine it4 ,the skull is in the care of my friend1 ,professor ,marcelin ,boule1 who is at the head of the great collection of remains of extinct animals in the ,jardin des ,plantes4 ,it has been treated by him with great skill so as to render the bone firm and hard1 whilst detached portions have been fitted into place1 so that it is fairly complete 7,fig4 #fe74 ,the skull was found 7together with many bones of the skeleton of the same individual7 by two enthusiastic local archologists buried at such depth and in such position in the cave known as the ,chapelle-aux-,saints as to leave no doubt as to its belonging to one of a race of men contemporary with the mammoth and hairy rhinoceros--a race which inhabited ,europe in the great glacial period--called by prehistorians 8the ,moustierian period10 which cannot be less than a hundred thousand years behind us1 and probably is more4 ,the chief importance of this skull lies in the fact not only that its position in the cave-deposits1 and therefore its relative age1 was carefully ascertained1 but that it agrees in its very peculiar form with the ,neanderthal skull 7from the ,rhineland71 the ,spy skulls 7,belgium71 and the ,gibraltar skull4 ,it1 in fact1 confirms the conclusion that at this period the caves of ,western ,europe were inhabited by a race of men with peculiar skulls1 which may be called the ,neander race in reference to the first-discovered skull of the kind4 ,they were altogether different from the ,reindeer ,men1 or ,cromagnards1 who came later upon the scene4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gi4--;,drawing one-third the size of nature1 of the left side of the lower jaw of a modern ,european4 ,observe the small size as compared with the jaw in ,figs4 #hj1 #ha1 and #hb1 also the prominent chin3 the small breadth of the up-turned ramus1 and the deep bay or notch 7not seen in the other lower jaws7 separating the coronoid process from the condyle4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hj4--,outline 7one-third the size of nature7 of the skull of the ,neander ,man from the ,chapelle-aux-,saints1 with all fractures and defects made good4 ,the bony sockets of the teeth and the teeth themselves 7lost and atrophied by inflammatory disease in the actual skull7 are here given their full size and healthy condition4 ,the lower jaw is seen to be very similar to that from ,heidelberg 7,fig4 #hb74 ,from a photograph taken by ,professor ,marcelin ,boule from a cast of the actual skull4 ,the cast was 8made good0 by modelling upon it the deficient parts4 ,the fact was published some four months ago that the new ,corrze skull agrees with the celebrated skull-top 7called a 8calvaria0 by anatomists7 of the ,neanderthal 7,fig4 #gf7 in the extraordinary shallowness or absence of 8dome10 in the retreating forehead1 the thick prominent eyebrow ridges1 and in the excessive 8lowness10 or want of elevation of the back region4 ,but further study of the new skull has enabled ,professor ,boule to show1 as he demonstrated to me1 that the outline of the new skull looked at from above coincides not merely approximately1 but exactly with that of the ,neanderthal skull4 ,there is the same great length from eyebrows to occiput1 and the same great breadth at a series of corresponding regions4 ,the curious thing is that both these skulls are of enormous size--a good deal bigger in length and breadth than modern ,european skulls1 and not small and ape-like1 though they are far shallower 7that is1 less high in the dome7 than any skulls of living men4 ,i had1 myself1 always been astonished by the great breadth and length of the casts of the ,neanderthal skull which we possess in ,england1 and supposed that possibly the casts were carelessly made4 ,now ,professor ,boule shows that both the ,neanderthal and the ,corrze skull are so much larger in breadth and length than average ,european skulls1 that in spite of its flat1 depressed shape1 the ,corrze skull 7and consequently the ,neanderthal skull1 too7 has a brain-cavity holding #afjj cubic centimetres1 whilst the average modern ,european skull only holds #aejj to #aeej4 ,the estimate given by former observers for the ,neanderthal skull was as low as #abjj4 ,this calculation was based on the diminution of volume caused by the flatness of the skull1 and would be correct were the skull of the ,neander race no longer or broader than an ordinary ,european skull4 ,if we imagine a skull of the ordinary ,european proportionate height1 but as long and as broad as the ,neander skulls1 then its volume would be something like #bjjj cubic centimetres4 ,this is a very remarkable result4 ,the ancient ,neander ,men's brain was not smaller1 but actually a little bigger than that of modern ,europeans2 it was bigger in regions where the modern ,european is small1 and smaller where that is large6 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ha4--,the skull of a male chimpanzee4 ,drawn one-third the natural size 7linear7 to compare with the human skulls and jaws here figured4 ,the dotted lines and the letters a1 b1 c1 d1 e1 and f have the same signification as in ,fig4 #fe1 to which reference should be made4 ,the flatness of the cranial dome and the reduction of the frontal boss 7d7 are very marked4 ,so are the relatively large size of the jaws and teeth4 ,compare the shape of the lower jaw with that from ,heidelberg 7,fig4 #hb71 and with that of a modern ,european 7,fig4 #gi74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hb4--,the ,heidelberg jaw1 from a lower ,pleistocene deposit1 near ,heidelberg4 ,observe the absence of chin and the great breadth of the up-turned part of the jaw4 ,compare with the lower jaws drawn to the same scale in ,figs4 #gi1 #hj1 and #ha4 ,one-third the size of nature4 ,if we had any sufficient knowledge of the mental qualities which belong to different regions of the brain 7if1 indeed1 such localisation of qualities is possible71 we might draw some interesting conclusions from this difference between the two races4 ,but unfortunately our knowledge on that matter is very defective4 ,we are not in a position to say that length and breadth of the brain either can or cannot compensate 7so to speak7 for shallowness4 ,it is probable that the mental qualities of the two forms of brain were in important respects different1 but that is all that can at present be said4 ,no accredited brain student would1 until more is known1 venture to draw conclusions as to mental quality from such facts as mere breadth1 length1 and depth of the cranial cavity4 ,the ,corrze skull has a strongly-projecting face1 depending not merely on a protrusion of the dentary border of the upper jaw1 but on a forward thrust of the entire face4 ,this is not shown by the ,gibraltar skull 7,fig4 #gg74 ,it is not improbable that this region has been flattened in the ,gibraltar skull whilst it was buried in the cave deposit and softened by water4 ,the lower jaw is preserved in the new ,french specimen1 and is very remarkable on account of the retreating chin and the lowness and backward flexion of the articular process1 as well as for the large size of the surface by which it articulates with the skull4 ,all the cheek-teeth have been shed 7see ,fig4 #fe71 and the sockets closed owing to inflammation1 showing that primitive ,european man was subject to the same trouble with his teeth from which civilised men of to-day suffer4 ,in comparing the skull with the skulls of modern races1 ,professor ,boule is not inclined to insist much on the resemblance to ,australian and ,tasmanian skulls presented by the thick and large brow-ridges4 ,a careful study of the skull is giving to ,professor ,boule many facts of importance which will be published ere long4 ,the articular surfaces or 8condyles0 of the skull 7for instance7 by which it was set on the neck vertebr are so set that the head must have been habitually carried with a droop like that of an animal1 and not poised upright on the neck as in modern races of man4 ,not less important than the skull are some of the bones of the arm and leg4 ,indeed1 they show more novel characters than the skull1 and definitely distinguish the ,neander ,men so as to justify us in regarding them as a distinct species1 ,homo ,neanderthalensis4 ,the thigh-bone is very short3 as compared with that of a modern ,european1 it is as #ad to #ah4 ,also it is thick and curved4 ,this was already known in the ,neander ,man of the ,spy cave1 and its confirmation by the specimen from the ,corrze establishes this shortness of the thigh as a specific character4 ,there are also strange features in the articulation of the bones of the thumb and of the heel which ,professor ,boule will make known when he publishes his full account of this most astonishing skeleton4 ,it is worth noting here that another skull of the same race--that of a young individual--was dug out in #aijh at ,moustier by ,mr4 ,hauser1 a ,swiss explorer4 ,the specimen was broken into many fragments and has not been satisfactorily put together1 so that at present it is not possible to say whether it gives any further information as to the ,neander ,man4 ,also in #aiji the ,french explorers have found another skull and skeleton of the same age and race at ,ferassi1 near ,moustier1 on the ,veyzere4 ,it has been carefully removed1 but not yet studied4 ,the bones of the hand and of the foot are complete1 and will be available for confirming the observations made on the skeleton of the ,chapelle-aux-,saints4 ,we have1 a few pages back1 noted that behind the ,glacial or ,moustierian period of the ,pleistocene 7the second of our list1 the ,reindeer period being the latest71 geologists recognise a third or warm period which is represented by deeper cave-deposits and by some of the older sands1 clays1 and gravels of our river valleys4 ,as in the ,moustierian deposits1 so in these older deposits 7called 8,chellean0 after a ,french township7 we find abundant large flint implements 7,figs4 #gc1 #gd7 indicating the presence of man4 ,but the animals associated with him were not the mammoth and the hairy rhinoceros2 they were the ,elephas antiquus and a distinct kind of rhinoceros1 and most distinctively the hippopotamus4 ,these beds and their animal remains and worked flints occur abundantly in the ,south of ,england1 and have been more or less mistaken for and confused with the glacial ,moustierian deposits which also are common in ,england4 ,no bones or skulls of the men of this ,chellean period have been found1 excepting a lower jaw1 which was not long ago discovered in a deposit of this warmer and earlier age1 near ,heidelberg 7,fig4 #hb74 ,this jaw-bone is remarkably well preserved1 and the great difference between it and that of a modern ,european may be seen by comparing our ,figures #gi and #hb4 ,in the absence of chin1 the great breadth of the up-turned part of the jaw and the shallowness of the notch separating the condyle or articulating knob from the more forwardly placed 8coronoid0 process 7a well-marked triangular process in the modern ,european jaw71 the ,heidelberg jaw differs from the modern ,european1 and resembles that of the chimpanzee 7,fig4 #ha74 ,dr4 ,schoettensack of ,heidelberg1 who has described this remarkable jaw-bone and has very kindly presented casts of it to the ,natural ,history ,museum1 to ,oxford1 to ,cambridge1 and to myself1 was of the opinion that it indicated a distinct race or even a distinct species of man4 ,but ,professor ,marcelin ,boule has found that when the lower jaw of the skull from the ,chapelle-aux-,saints is 8reconstructed10 not only by replacing the parts broken away1 but by restoring the teeth and the absorbed sockets of the teeth1 it comes out very closely identical with the ,heidelberg jaw4 ,in ,fig4 #hj ,i have reproduced the profile of ,professor ,boule's complete restoration of the 8,chapelle0 skull1 and it will be seen that the lower jaw differs very little from that of the ,heidelberg specimen4 ,indeed1 ,professor ,boule has published a photograph in which he attaches the ,heidelberg lower jaw to the restored ,chapelle skull in place of its own1 and the similarity of the two becomes very obvious4 ,as will be seen by the drawings which ,i give here1 the ,heidelberg jaw is even more powerful than that of the ,chapelle skull4 ,the lower jaw of a modern ,european 7,fig4 #gi71 drawn to the same scale as the other two1 and as that of the chimpanzee 7,fig4 #ha71 is an elegant little thing with its forwardly-projecting chin1 its short measurement from front to back1 and the narrowness and delicacy of its up-turned part or ramus1 with its well-marked angle at the lower corner and deeply cut upper border between the condyle 7hindermost projection with knob7 and the coronoid4 ,the imperfect lower jaw 7without teeth and with the articular condyle broken away7 of the ,cromagnon skull1 drawn in ,fig4 #ge1 should also be compared3 it is1 though broken1 similar to that of the modern ,european4 ,lower jaws differ in some of the points which we have been looking at1 from one another1 but there is no known living race of men the lower jaw of which is not far nearer to that of the modern ,european 7,fig4 #gi71 than to that from the ,chapelle-aux-,saints or from ,heidelberg 7,fig4 #hb72 and ,i may add that the imperfect lower jaw of the ,neander-man skull1 from the ,spy ,cave in ,belgium1 agrees in the absence of chin and in other points with that of ,heidelberg and of the ,chapelle skull4 ,there is not sufficient ground afforded by the characters of the lower jaw for considering that the race indicated by the ,heidelberg specimen was distinct from the ,neander race1 as may be seen by comparing ,fig4 #hj with ,fig4 #hb4 ,as these pages are going to press1 ,i am able to add that ,i have seen in ,paris a very interesting and striking restoration of the appearance in the flesh or during life of the head of the man of the ,chapelle-aux-,saints1 carefully modelled in ,professor ,boule's laboratory by a young sculptor1 by applying his clay to a cast of the completed restoration of the skull4 ,it is1 ,i understand1 proposed to publish this restoration firstly as strictly determined by anatomical fact and devoid of hair1 and then to add the hair of the scalp1 the eyebrows1 eyelashes1 and beard1 and to place artificial eyes in position4 ,we shall thus get a representation of this ancient race or species of man1 based on the sure foundation of the actual bones4 ,fanciful portraits of 8primitive man0 have before to-day been produced by some imaginative artists1 but this will be the first portrait of him with an inner framework of truth4 ,,index ,amba1 term applied to proteus animalcule1 #aid ,andrews1 discoveries of1 with regard to ozone1 #beb ,animalcules1 bell1 unicellular structure exemplified in1 #aig-aii ciliated unicellular1 graceful movements of1 #bjg dried1 examples of 8suspended animation0 in1 #afh1 #afi proteus1 processes of protoplasm in1 #aie sun1 processes of protoplasm in1 #aie unicellular plants and1 essential differences between1 #bjd-bjg ,animals1 aquatic1 excess of egg production to ensure survival to maturity1 #adc1 #add aversions and cautious proceedings of1 #bfi blindness of1 congenital1 #bgb1 #bgc colour-protection and invisibility of1 #cjd1 #cab 8concealment0 and 8warning0 marks1 distinction between1 #caj-cac destructive invasions made by various1 #cci1 #cdj devices adopted for protection of young by1 #ach1 #aci1 #add domesticated1 reasons for continued congenital defects in1 #bga1 #bgb hibernation of1 #afe1 #aff lower1 various thread-producing1 #bic1 #bid mankind and1 causes of congenital defects in1 #bgc parthenogenetic powers possessed by certain1 #ccj1 #cca poisonous1 methods of self-protection used by1 #aja 8warning0 coloration possessed by1 #ajg propagation of1 #acb-acg1 #add-ade1 #cbi-ccj sleep of1 salient features connected with1 #afa-afd structure of multicellular and unicellular1 comparisons between1 #bjg-bjh unicellular1 uses made of cilia by1 #aid-aig1 #bjg wild1 congenital defects less obvious in1 #bga1 #bgb wood-boring1 #cdf1 #cdg ,anopheles ,gnat1 #c ,ants1 aphides and1 friendship between1 #cbd1 #cbe ,aphides-- enemies of1 #cai1 #cbe hop-blight caused by species of1 #cag1 #cai parthenogenetic propagation of1 #cbf-cbg1 #ccj1 #ccd1 #ccf rapid propagation of1 #cbf1 #cch relationship of ,coccid to1 #cbb1 #cbc secretive productions of1 #cbc-cbe various species of1 #cbb ,archology1 discoveries in connection with pre-historic man1 #cga-cgb1 #cia1 #cid-cie1 #cih1 #djj1 #djb ,art1 knowledge compatible with1 #de ,astronomers1 stupendous nature of work1 #bbd ,astronomy1 ,halley's discoveries in connection with1 #bbf ,newton's discovery of law of gravitation as affecting1 #bcj photography as affecting study of1 #bbb spectroscope as affecting study of1 #bbd1 #bbe ,atavism1 feeble-mindedness resulting from1 suggestion as to1 #bgd ,athletes1 experiments as to possible use of pure oxygen by1 #bfj-bfc ,auzout1 ,m41 astronomical predictions attempted by1 #bbi1 #bcj ,bacon1 ,lord1 quotation from1 #a1 #ad ,bacteria1 destructive invasion made by1 #cdj microscopic observation of1 improvement in1 #bci ,balfour1 ,rt4 ,hon4 ,arthur1 speech at ,manchester by1 #f1 #g 7quotation7 ,bananas1 cultivated varieties of1 #cfi plantains and1 identity of1 #cfh ,bayeux tapestry1 #bca ,becquerel1 ,m41 experiments of1 #ahc ,beetles1 book-worm1 depredations of1 #cej-cea death-watch1 tapping made by1 #cea1 #ceb wood-boring1 #cea1 #ceb wood-boring1 #cdi-cej lady-bird1 beneficial activity of1 #cai1 #cbe1 #cbf origin of name1 #cbe perforation of soft metal by grubs of1 #cec ,bell-animalcules1 #aig ,birth-rate1 increased1 amongst poorer classes1 #bhe1 #bhf ,blood1 lack of red colour in1 cause of1 #adh1 #adi red-coloured1 cause and special duty of1 #adh ,bonaparte1 ,prince ,roland1 ,french representative at ,darwin ,centenary ,celebration1 #ci ,book-worm beetle1 #cej ,boulenger1 ,charles1 ,egyptian fresh-water jelly-fish described by1 #fd ,boys1 ,c4 ,v41 fine quartz threads spun by1 #bid1 #bie ,caddis-worms1 movable cases made by grubs of1 #cdc ,calandruccio1 discovery of young of the eel by1 #ga-gb ,cambridge--,darwin ,centenary ,celebration1 ,address by ,sir ,ray ,lankester at1 #cc-cg held at1 #ah1 #cc1 #ch notable representatives at1 #cc1 #ch1 #ci ,cave-men1 ancient1 artistic skill of1 #hj1 #ha horse mastered and muzzled by1 #hj1 #ha ,caves1 care taken in excavation of1 #chh discoveries of human remains in deposits of1 #cga1 #cgd1 #chc1 #cic1 #cie1 #djb1 #djg-dji discovery of bones of ancient men in1 rarity of1 #cgb-cgd ,french and ,english1 evidences of human occupation found in1 #gh-gi ,cells1 definition and origin of term1 #agj-agc1 #cbh egg-cell1 process of fertilisation1 #bjb-bjd1 #ccj1 #ccb important part played by nucleus in life of1 #aih-bjj1 #cbh1 #cbi individual character and co-ordinated activity of1 #agj1 #ahj-ahb1 #ahd1 #cbh process of division1 #bjj-bjb1 #cbh 8,cell-theory10 explanation of ,professor ,schwann's1 #agd-agf ,chapelle-aux-,saints1 discovery at1 important1 #cga1 #cgd1 #cij1 #djb ,children1 feeble-minded1 number attending schools provided for1 #bgh result of neglect to provide supervision for1 #bgi-bha ,china1 introduction of opium smoking into1 #cff1 #cfg ,chinese primrose1 similarity between poisonous properties of ,rhus toxicodendron and1 #ajd ,cholera1 bacillus of1 organisms favouring or checking growth1 #bdb1 #bdc1 #bdf-bdi carriers of1 #bde causes of1 #bcg ,metchnikoff's and ,pettenkofer's experiments in connection with1 #bdj-bda definition of word1 #bcg1 #bch germs1 destruction of1 #bdd1 #bde ,indian1 active development of sanitation in ,great ,britain1 due to panic caused by1 #bci date of first appearance in ,england1 #bch diffusion through water-supply1 #bci discovery by ,koch of bacillus producing1 #bdj epidemic nature of1 #bch ,europeans first attacked by1 #bch recognition of1 by ,hindu writers1 #bch precautions to be observed for prevention of1 #bdd1 #bde1 #bdf ,cholera-bacillus4 ,see ,cholera ,christmas fare1 origin of1 #cef-ceh ,cilia1 animals provided with1 and action of1 #aid1 #aie1 #bjg definition of term1 #aid uses made of1 by unicellular animals1 #aie-aig1 #bjg 8,cirrhipedes10 ,darwin's discovery with regard to1 #bc1 #bd ,civilisation1 scientific knowledge as affecting1 #af ,clothes moths1 #cda ,coccid1 relationship of aphides to1 #cbc ,colour1 in bird's feathers1 #ee1 #ef nature and properties of light as affecting1 #eb-ee ,comets1 ancient records of1 exaggeration in1 #bbg1 #bbi composition of1 #bcd1 #bce ,donati's1 imposing size of1 #bbg early superstitions with regard to1 #bbg1 #bbh elliptical orbits of1 #bcc ,halley's--,chinese astronomical observations relating to antiquity of1 #bcj length and breadth of orbit1 #bcc length of tail1 #bbg predicted recurrences by discoverer of1 #bbf1 #bcj recent appearance of1 #bbf1 #bcj1 #bcf significance of date of return1 #bbh1 #bbi superstition and consternation caused by1 #bcj1 #bca ,william the ,conqueror's 8star10 identical with1 #bca important1 various1 #bbg ,milton's reference in ,paradise ,lost to1 #bbh1 #bbi periodic and wandering1 distinction between1 #bcc1 #bcd photographs obtained at ,royal ,observatory1 ,greenwich1 of new1 #bbe1 #bbf shooting stars and1 connection between1 #bce1 #bcf signification of name1 #bbg superstitions with regard to1 #bbi ,corrze skull1 #cga ,cromagnards1 designation of ,reindeer men as1 reason for1 #cij ,cuba1 measures adopted for prevention of yellow fever and malaria in1 #b1 #c ,darwin ,centenary ,celebration at ,cambridge1 #ah1 #cc1 #ch ,darwin1 ,charles-- comparison between theories of ,lamarck and1 #ai1 #bj connection with ,university of ,cambridge1 #cf establishment of 8natural selection0 theory1 #cd extent of time spent in experiments and observations1 #ah-ai1 #bb-bc friendly relations between ,wallace and1 #ac1 #cg geological discoveries of1 #bd ,henslow's influence upon1 #cf 8,natural selection0 theory explained1 #bg-bi study of disease influenced by discoveries and research of1 #ci1 #dj ,darwinism 7,wallace71 #ae1 #af 7quotation7 ,death-rate1 diminished1 reasons accountable for1 #bhd1 #bhe health of locality determined by1 #bhc records of1 methods of keeping1 #bhc1 #bhd ,death-watch beetle1 #cea1 #ceb ,de ,lastic1 ,vicomte1 carvings from caves in collection of1 #gi ,dewar1 ,sir ,james1 experiments of1 #ahc ,divers1 ,mediterranean1 suggested inhalation of pure oxygen gas by1 #bfa ,diving1 ,fleuss apparatus1 diluted oxygen supply to1 #bfc-bfe ,donati's comet1 #bbg ,dragon1 heraldic1 description of1 #aad1 #aae ,dragons1 classification of1 by heralds1 #abj conventional1 probable sources of1 #abf probable origin1 #aba-abc snakes and1 connection between1 #abj-abc tradition of1 reasons for discrediting suggested1 #aah-abj ,drugs1 individual variability 7idiosyncrasy7 with regard to1 #ajb ,eau-de-,cologne1 volatile oils from aromatic plants of ,riviera used in manufacturing1 #dg 8,eel-fare10 term for annual 8running up0 of young eels1 #fg1 #gj1 #gc1 #ge ,eel-fisheries1 regulation and encouragement by ,danish ,government of inland1 #fe ,german ,government of inland1 #fe1 #ff ,eels1 age of1 knowledge resulting from power of telling1 #fi shown by scales1 #fi common1 period when change from 8yellow0 to 8silver0 takes place in1 #fg1 #fi1 #gj reproduction1 migrations and habits of1 #ff-fg1 #fi-gf 8leptocephalus-young-phase0 or tadpole of1 #ga-gc1 #ge migrations of1 geological changes as affecting1 #gd ,petersen's researches with regard to 8silver10 #fh1 #fi popularity of1 abroad1 #fe1 #ff rare occurrence of1 in river ,danube1 #gd1 #ge 8,elvers10 term for young eels1 #ff1 #fg1 #gj1 #ga1 #gc1 #ge1 #gf ,europe1 iron1 stone1 and bronze ages of1 #cge-cgg ,evelyn1 diary of1 #bbi 7quotations7 ,feeble-minded1 distinctions between lunatics and1 #bgd-bgf laws relating to lunatics and1 need for improvement in1 #bge necessity for state guardianship of1 #bgf-bgh ,feeble-minded children1 #bgh ,feeble-mindedness1 atavism suggested cause of1 #bgd hereditary transmission of1 #bgg occurrence of cases in all classes of community1 #bgf views of ,government ,commission on origin of1 #bha ,festivals1 ,christmas1 origin of children's customs associated with1 #cfa-cfb ,english ,christmas1 introduction of turkey in connection with1 #ceh origin of heavy feeding at1 #ceg prehistoric and barbaric customs in connection with1 #cef-ceg ,fever1 yellow1 comparative death-rate from1 in ,panama ,canal zone1 #b-d measures adopted in ,cuba and ,panama for prevention of1 #b1 #c ,fish1 shell-fish and1 individual susceptibility to poison from1 #ajb1 #ajc ,fishes1 age of1 method of telling1 #fi poisonous1 #ajc poison-spines of1 #ajg1 #aaa ,fixed stars1 #bba ,flack1 ,mr4 ,martin1 experiments of1 with regard to oxygen gas1 #bfj ,fleuss apparatus1 #bfc-bfe ,flowers1 perfumes discharged into the air by1 various effects of1 #aje1 #ajf ,france1 cultivation of purple variety of poppy in1 #cfd ,french archologists1 leading discoveries with regard to prehistoric man made by1 #cga1 #cgb ,frogs1 common1 eggs of1 #bji1 #bab growth from the egg1 #bac-bae ,english species1 #baf ,european species1 #baf1 #bai green tree-frog of ,riviera1 #di1 #ej1 #eb1 #ee method of catching prey1 #bai ,furniture worm1 #cea1 #ceb ,gases-- oxygen1 action of ordinary1 #bei experiments as to possible use by athletes1 #bfj-bfc ,fleuss diving apparatus and diluted supply of1 #bfc-bfe ozone1 destructive powers of1 #bec discoveries of ,andrews and ,tait with regard to1 #beb experiments of ,schnbein with regard to1 #bea1 #beb methods of producing1 #beb1 #bec1 #beh nature of1 #beb proportion of1 to fresh country or sea-coast air1 #bec result of experiments with regard to1 #bei signification of name1 #beb therapeutic value and uses of1 #beh1 #bei use in water-purification1 #bef1 #beh ,geology1 ,darwin's discoveries in1 #bd table showing history of man in ,western ,europe1 #chd bis ,germany1 custom of eating preserves with meat in1 prevalent1 #ceh predominance of scientific knowledge in1 #h ,gnats1 ,anopheles1 malaria germ carried by1 #c ,stegomyia1 yellow fever germs carried by1 #b1 #c ,gorgas1 ,colonel1 work of1 in connection with yellow fever and malaria1 #b-e 8,gossamer10 origin of term1 #bhi ,grassi1 discovery of the history of the eel by1 #gj-gb ,green-flies1 #cbb ,green tree-frog1 #di1 #ej ,griffin1 heraldic1 #aaf ,guinea-pig1 native home and original introduction of1 #cfj1 #cfa various names given to1 #cfj1 #cfa ,halley1 ,edmund1 astronomical discoveries of1 #bbf date of death1 #bcj foundation of ,royal ,society ,club by1 #bcj law of movement of comets discovered by1 #bbf1 #bcj ,milton and1 scholars of ,st4 ,paul's ,school1 #bbh1 #bbi ,newton and1 friendship of1 #bcj ,halley's comet1 #bbf1 #bcj ,hansen1 leprosy-bacillus discovered by1 #bdj ,hay fever1 individual susceptibility to1 #ajb1 #ajd1 #aje probable cause1 #aje similarity between vegetable poisonings and1 #aje ,heart1 action of nervous system upon1 in man and higher animals1 #aea muscular contraction1 cause of1 #aej1 #aea rate of beat in higher and lower animals1 #aeb-aed in human species1 #aea1 #aeb significance of its beat1 #adg1 #adh valves1 action of1 #adi ,hedge-sparrow1 #bfg ,henslow1 ,professor1 ,darwin as influenced by1 #cf ,herschel1 ,sir ,john1 definition of word 8species0 by1 #ad1 #ae ,hertwig1 ,professor1 ,german representative at ,darwin ,centenary ,celebration1 #cc ,hill1 ,dr4 ,leonard1 experiments of1 with regard to use of oxygen gas1 #bfj-bfe ,hipparion horse1 #hd1 #he1 #hf ,hippopotamus age1 #chj1 #chf ,histology1 origin of1 #agf ,hook1 ,robert1 ,micrographia by1 #agc1 #bhh1 #bhi ,hooker1 ,sir ,joseph1 ,darwin and ,wallace papers communicated to ,linnean ,society by1 #ab1 #ac ,hop-blight1 causes of1 #cag-cai prevention of1 #cah1 #cai ,hop-louse1 #cag ,hops1 brewing industry as affecting growers of1 #cba cultivation of1 #cae-caf curing of1 #cbj ,english growers as affected by ,american and ,german hop-plantations1 #cbj1 #cba uses made of1 #cae ,horses1 absence from ,american continent in fifteenth century of living asses1 zebras1 and1 #hi ancestral1 change in size and proportions of1 #hd1 #he lower ,tertiary ,hyracotherium1 #hd middle ,tertiary1 #hd 8pre-orbital cup0 in ,hipparion1 #he1 #hf upper ,tertiary ,hipparion1 #hd-hf ancestry of1 scientific points of interest with regard to1 #hc-ij descent from ,arab ancestry evidenced by presence of 8pre-orbital cup0 in1 #hf ,english thoroughbred1 history and ancestors of1 #hb1 #ij 8,ergot0 of1 #hi ,european1 stock from which derived1 #gg-gh fossil remains of extinct1 in ,north and ,south ,america1 #hi1 #ij mark of difference between asses1 zebras1 and1 #hg1 #hh mastery and muzzling of1 by ancient cave-dwellers1 #hj1 #ha ,mongolian wild1 absence of 8pre-orbital cup0 in1 #hf derivation of ,european horses from1 #gg-gh description of1 #gh prehistoric ,european1 verified by ancient carvings found in caves1 #gi-ha selective breeding of1 from time of cave-men onward1 #hb1 #hc ,southern or ,arabian breeds of1 presence of 8pre-orbital cup0 in1 #hf1 #hg ,house-sparrows1 #bff ,huxley1 ,professor1 calculation of1 with regard to fecundity of plant-lice1 #cch ,hydra1 heraldic1 derivation of1 #aaf ,hyracotherium horse1 #hd ,india1 practice of opium eating in1 #cff ,infants1 blindness of1 congenital1 #bgb mortality of1 varied congenital defects causing1 #bgb ,insects1 association of1 with plants1 #bif colour-protection and invisibility of1 #cjd-cab destructive invasions made by various1 #cci-cde jumping bean as exemplifying association of plants and1 #big1 #bih-cjj1 #cjb parthenogenetic powers possessed by certain1 #cca1 #ccb poisonous1 methods of self-protection used by1 #aja1 #ajb various weapons of1 #aaa 8silver-fish10 depredations of1 #cea skin burrowing1 #aab1 #aac wood-boring1 #cdf-ced ,jelly-fishes1 common1 description of1 #eh fresh-water1 discovery of ,african1 #fa1 #fb ,chinese1 #fc ,philadelphian1 #fc1 #fd ,regent's ,park1 #ei1 #fj reproduction of1 #fj1 #fa poison-bearing threads of sea-anemones and1 #aaj ,jumping bean1 ,mexican1 caterpillar contained in1 #bbi1 #cjj1 #cjb movements of1 #bih1 #bii1 #cjb plant from which derived1 #cja1 #cjb relationship of insect and plant exemplified in1 #big1 #bih-cjj1 #cjb ,kew ,gardens1 beauty and interest of1 #cjb1 #cjc specimens of ,rhus toxicodendron at1 #ic1 #id ,koch 7,berlin71 cholera-bacillus discovered by1 #bdj tubercle-bacillus discovered by1 #bdj ,ladybird1 #cbe ,lamarck1 inferiority of scientific methods1 as compared with ,darwin1 #ai-bb1 #bf ,philosophical ,zoology by1 #bj ,lankester1 ,sir ,ray1 address by1 ,darwin ,centenary ,celebration at ,cambridge1 #cc-cg ,leprosy1 bacillus of1 discovery by ,hansen1 #bdj 8,leptocephali10 discovery of1 #gj-gb ,life1 protoplasm the seat of1 #ahb-ahd1 #cbh ,herbert ,spencer's definition of1 #ahc1 #ahd ,light1 rate at which it travels1 #bba ,locusts1 winged serpents and1 probable connection between1 #abd-abe ,lunatics1 distinctions between feeble-minded and1 #bgd-bgf laws relating to feeble-minded and1 need for improvement in1 #bge ,lyell1 ,sir ,charles1 ,darwin and ,wallace papers communicated to ,linnean ,society by1 #ab1 #ac ,malaria1 comparative death-rate from1 in ,panama ,canal zone1 #b-d measures adopted in ,cuba and ,panama for prevention of1 #b1 #c ,mammoth age1 #chj1 #chf ,man1 sleep of1 compared with repose or quiescence of other living things1 #aei-afa ,mankind1 congenital defects in1 causes of1 #bgc ,mental defect1 #bgd ,metchnikoff1 ,professor1 discoveries with regard to use and value of 8phagocytes10 #ci experiment by1 in connection with cholera-bacillus1 #bda experiments and investigations of1 for prevention of 8senile change10 #dj-dc influence of ,darwin's discoveries upon study of disease by1 #ci1 #dj researches of1 with regard to microbian flora of localities1 #bdi ,russian and ,french representative at ,darwin ,centenary ,celebration1 #cc1 #ch ,tolstoi's meeting with1 #dc1 #dd use of sour milk prepared with lactic ferment introduced by1 #da1 #db ,micrographia 7,hook71 #agc1 #bhi ,microscopes1 improvements in1 #agc1 #agf-agh ,milton1 celebration of tercentenary of birth1 ,halley's comet in relation to1 #bbh ,halley and1 scholars of ,st4 ,paul's ,school1 #bbh1 #bbi ,mistletoe1 pre-historic rites associated with1 #cfb ,mollusca1 animals classed as1 and definition of word1 #abi ,molluscs1 protection of young1 #acg-aci1 #add1 #adf ,mongolian wild horses1 #hf ,morley1 ,lord1 installation of1 as ,chancellor of ,manchester ,university1 #f ,morphia1 product of opium poppy1 #cfc ,moths1 ,british species allied to ,mexican 8jumper10 #cjj1 #cja clothes1 mischief effected by caterpillar of1 #cda-cdc movable case made by caterpillar of1 #cda-cdc propagation of1 #cda various species of1 #cdc-cde ,mexican 8jumper10 #cjj1 #cja silk threads produced by caterpillars of certain1 #bic ,mountain-climbing1 use of oxygen gas in1 suggested1 #bfc ,moustierian period1 definition of1 #chd1 #che1 #djh skulls and skeletons found in cave-deposits allotted to1 #cga1 #che1 #cic-cie1 #djf1 #djh ,mussels1 pond and river1 propagation of1 #add1 #ade protection of young1 #add ,mycen1 discovery of1 by ,schliemann1 #af ,neander men1 comparison between skulls of ,australian aborigines and1 #cif1 #cig inferiority of1 as compared with ,cromagnards1 #cij reasons for recognition of1 as distinct and primitive species1 #cga1 #che1 #cij1 #djb-djc1 #djg ,neolithic ,period1 civilisation comprised in1 #cgg-cgh1 #chj definition of1 #cgg ,nettles1 poisonous stinging hairs of1 #ajc1 #ajd ,newton1 ,sir ,isaac1 discovery of law of gravitation1 #bcj ,halley and1 friendship of1 #bcj ,opium1 derivation of word1 #cfd eating1 practice in ,india of1 #cff medicinal value of1 #cfh poppy used for manufacture of1 #cfc1 #cfd smoking1 introduction by ,chinese of1 #cff-cfg ,osborne1 ,professor1 ,united ,states representative at ,darwin ,centenary ,celebration1 #cc ,oxygen gas1 #bei ,oysters1 care of breeding1 methods adopted for1 #ada classification of1 #abi common1 protection of young1 #acd1 #add destruction of typhoid germs in1 #abh1 #abi ,french 8green10 #ada1 #adb gill-plates or 8beard10 #aca growth and maturity of1 #acd1 #acf heart and blood-vessels1 #acb lake1 cultivation by ancient ,romans1 #adj1 #ada nervous system1 #acb primeval man and1 #aci propagation of ,american and ,portuguese species1 #acg1 #adc1 #add common or ,north ,sea and ,channel species1 #acb-acg1 #adc structure and nature of1 #abi-acg ,ozone gas1 #bea ,palolithic period1 definition of1 #cgg period of chipped flints1 primitive arts and surroundings of1 #cgh-cha ,panama1 measures adopted for prevention of yellow fever and malaria in1 #b1 #c ,perrier1 ,edmond1 ,french representative at ,darwin ,centenary ,celebration1 #ci ,petersen1 researches of1 with regard to 8silver0 eels1 #fh1 #fi ,pettenkofer 7,munich71 experiment by1 in connection with cholera-bacillus1 #bdj 8,phagocytes10 use and importance of1 #ci1 #agi ,philosophical ,transactions1 date of first published number1 #bbi ,philosophical ,zoology 7,lamarck71 #bj ,phylloxera1 #ccf injury and loss caused by1 #ccd1 #ccg introduction into ,europe1 #ccg parasitic nature of1 #ccg propagation of1 #ccf1 #ccg ,piette1 ,m41 carvings from caves in collection of the late1 #gi1 #hj ,planets1 changes on1 probable result of1 #bbc1 #bbd ,plant-lice1 #cbb ,plants1 ,american1 poisonous stinging hairs possessed by certain1 #ajd association of1 with insects1 #bif jumping bean as exemplifying association of insects and1 #big1 #bih-cjj1 #cjb movements of1 definite and varied1 #afj1 #afa poisonous1 special chemical substances produced from1 #ajj use of1 in manufacture of ,eau-de-,cologne1 #ajj1 #aja ,plasmogen1 formation of1 #aij-aib ,pleistocene period1 discovery of remains belonging to1 #chc1 #che1 #chf skeletons1 found in caverns of ,mentone1 #cih-cii epochs1 table of1 #chd bis ,pliocene period1 discovery of remains belonging to1 #chf1 #chh distinctions between ,pleistocene and1 #chf-chg ,poisonous animals1 #aja fish1 #ajc insects1 #ajb plants1 #ib1 #ajj1 #ajd ,poisons1 distinctions between gut-poisons and wound-poisons1 #ajf-ajg immunity from wound-poisons1 method of producing1 #ajg1 #ajh ,poppies1 cultivated variety from which opium manufactured1 #cfc cultivation of1 in remote ages1 #cfd1 #cfe earliest cultivation of1 for oil1 #cfc1 #cfd ,english varieties of1 #cfc opium1 introduction from ,europe into ,far ,east of1 #cfc-cfe origin of medicinal uses of1 #cfd1 #cfe ,population1 increased1 due to higher birth-rate amongst poorer classes1 #bgi1 #bhe1 #bhf ,post-,tertiaries 7or ,quaternary71 gravel and cave-deposits termed1 #hc ,proteids1 building up of1 in plants1 #bjd1 #bje cell-protoplasm consisting of1 #ahi1 #aij chemical composition of1 #ahh1 #ahi 8,proteus10 definition of term as applied to unicellular animals1 #aic1 #aid ,protoplasm1 chemical elements contained in1 #ahg death caused by destruction of1 #ahc-ahe active life of1 #ahb-ahd1 #cbh explanation of term1 #agj-agb1 #cbh ,quaternary 7,post-,tertiaries71 #chd bis ,reindeer age1 #chd bis ,reindeer men 7or ,cromagnards71 artistic work of1 #chc1 #cij1 #cia1 #cic brain cavity of1 comparable with modern ,european1 #chh1 #cij customs of1 #cia1 #cic skulls and skeletons of1 found in cave-deposits1 #cia1 #cic ,rhus toxicodendron1 ,american poison-vine or1 poisonous nature of1 #ib case of poisoning by1 recorded in ,the ,spectator1 #if differences and resemblances between ,virginian creeper1 ,veitchii1 and1 #ic individual susceptibility to poison of1 #id1 #if1 #ajb painful malady produced in certain persons by poison of1 #ia1 #ib recognition in ,united ,states and ,japan of danger of1 #ib1 #ih results of examination in laboratory at ,university of ,harvard 7,mass471 with regard to1 #id similarity between poisonous properties of ,chinese primrose and1 #ajd specimens at ,kew ,gardens1 #ic1 #id use in ,japan1 #ib ,riviera1 cultivated trees and plants of1 #dg-di flowers for sale1 cultivated in1 #ef1 #eg green tree-frog of1 #di1 #ej1 #eb1 #ee meteorological conditions of1 #df primitive vegetation of1 #df1 #dg tree-frog1 blue variety of1 #ej1 #eb1 #ec1 #ee1 #ef vegetation of1 influence of man upon1 #eg ,salamanders1 ,european species1 various1 #bah ,mexican1 various species of1 #bae1 #baf ,sanitation1 active development in ,great ,britain1 cholera panic as affecting1 #bci ,schliemann1 discovery of ,troy and ,mycen by1 #af ,schnbein1 experiments of1 with regard to ozone1 #bea1 #beb ,schwann1 ,professor1 8cell theory0 of1 explained1 #agd-agf ,science1 discoveries in1 satisfaction experienced by those making1 #a sensibility to art compatible with capacity for1 #dd state officials' opposition to1 #bhf value and importance of1 #g1 #h ,scorpions1 poison of1 experiments with regard to1 #ajh-aaj ,sea-anemones1 poison-bearing threads of jelly-fishes and1 #aaj ,serpents1 winged1 probable connection between locusts and1 #abd-abe worship and propitiation of1 #abb-abc ,shell-fish1 poison-glands of1 #aaa boring in stone1 #cdg1 #cdh ,siebe1 ,gorman and ,co41 perfected diving dress constructed by1 #bfe 8,silver-fish0 book-worm4 ,see ,insects ,skulls1 ancient and modern1 comparison between1 #daj comparison between1 of various periods1 #cic-dja ,corrze1 comparison between ,neanderthal and1 #djc-djf discovery of1 #cga1 #cgd1 #cij1 #djb restoration of1 #daj-daa ,european1 compared with ,neanderthal and ,corrze1 #djf ,sleep1 alternation of night and day in its bearing upon periodic1 #aeg-aeh1 #aei1 #afg1 #afh animals' winter1 #afe1 #aff artists' varied portrayal of1 #aef1 #aeg definition of term1 varied1 #aeg-afa irregularities and abnormal manifestations of1 #afd-aff length and duration of1 conditions affecting1 #aff-afg man's1 compared with repose or quiescence of other living things1 #aei-afa salient feature connected with1 #afa-afd ,shakespeare on1 #aee1 #aef 7quotations7 ,snails1 whelks and propagation of1 #acg1 #ach protection of young1 #acg1 #ach ,snakes1 dragons and1 connection between1 #abj-abc winged serpents1 and probable origin of1 #aba-abe ,solar system1 comparative distance from 8fixed stars10 #bba-bbb ,sound1 rate at which it travels1 #bba ,sparrows-- hedge and house1 distinction between1 #bfg differences between1 #bff-bfh cuckoo eggs laid in nests of1 #bff1 #bfg use to agriculturists1 #bfg house and tree1 close connection between1 #bfh harm done by1 #bfg1 #bfh hidden or latent capacity in1 #bfh probable effects of destroying1 #bfh various species related to1 #bfh ,spectator1 ,the1 case of poisoning by ,rhus toxicodendron recorded in1 #if ,spiders1 garden1 use made by astronomers of thread of1 #bfb1 #bfc gossamer threads of minute autumn1 #bhg-bhi spinnerets of1 #bhi-bia threads produced by1 various uses made of1 #bhi-bib various species of1 #bhi ,spurges 7,euphorbiace71 various species of1 #cja ,star-fishes1 propagation of1 #cbi-ccj ,stars1 early superstitions with regard to1 #bbg1 #bbh fixed1 comparative distance of solar system from1 #bba estimated number of1 #bbb measurement of1 #bbe 8photographic10 estimated distance of1 #bbc shape of1 #bca1 #bcc 8,vega10 position of1 #bbd1 #bbe ,stegomyia ,gnat1 #b1 #c ,stings1 poisonous1 ,american plants possessing1 #ajd comparison between plants and animals possessing1 #ig1 #ajf nettles and other plants provided with1 #ajc1 #ajd ,stone-borers1 shell-fish and worm1 #cdg-cdi 8,suspended animation10 examples of1 #afh1 #afi ,symbolism1 legendary monsters in relation to1 #abe1 #abg ,tadpoles1 food of1 #baa1 #bab growth and development of1 #baj1baa gigantic1 #bah ,tait1 discoveries of1 with regard to ozone1 #beb ,tapestry1 ,bayeux1 representation of ,halley's comet in1 #bca ,tertiaries1 the1 sand and clay deposits termed1 #hc ,thayer1 ,abbott1 colour-protection and invisibility of animals as demonstrated by1 #cjf-cab ,troughton1 use of spider's lines in telescopes introduced by1 #bib ,tissue1 explanation of term1 #agd ,toads1 ,english species1 #baf ,european species1 various1 #baf-bai gigantic tadpoles of spur-heeled1 #baf-bah method of catching prey1 #bai ,tolstoi1 ,metchnikoff's meeting with1 #dc1 #dd 8,toxin10 conversion into 8anti-toxin10 #ajb ,trees1 ,english1 derivation of various1 #eg ,tree-sparrows1 #bfh ,trout1 8natural selection0 theory in relation to increased caution of1 #bfi1 #bgj ,troy1 discovery of1 by ,schliemann1 #af ,tubercle-bacillus1 discovery by ,koch1 #bdj ,turkey-cock1 native home and original introduction of1 #ceh-cei various names given to1 #cei ,two on a ,tower 7,hardy71 quotation from1 #bbj ,unicorn1 heraldic1 origin of1 #abg ,universities1 extension and diffusion of science by1 need for1 #f1 #h1 #i ,oxford and ,cambridge1 reasons for inefficiency of1 #aj ,oxford and ,cambridge1 result of usurpation by wealthy classes1 #i1 #aj ,upas-tree1 ,java1 fabled effect of1 #if 8,vega10 position of our sun and planets with regard to star1 #bbd1 #bbe ,village population1 increasing degeneracy of1 #bgj1 #bgh1 #bgi ,wallace1 ,alfred ,russel1 ,darwinism by1 #ae1 #af 7quotation7 friendly relations between ,darwin and1 #ac1 #cg theories of1 #ab-ad1 #bf ,wood1 protection against 8worm0 and 8mould10 methods advocated for1 #ced1 #cee 8worm-eaten10 production of1 #cdi ,wood-borers1 animal1 #cdf-cdg death-watch beetle1 #cea-ceb furniture beetle1 #cdh-cej ,worms1 stone-boring1 #cdg-cdi ,wyvern1 heraldic1 #aaf ,yellow fever1 #b-d ,printed by ,,morrison ,,gibb ,,limited ,edinburgh 99 99 99 99 99 ,a ,,selection ,,of ,,books ,,published ,,by ,,methuen ,,and ,,company3 ,,london #cf ,,essex ,,street ,w4,c4 ,,contents ,,page ,general ,literature #b ,ancient ,cities #ae ,antiquary's ,books #ae ,arden ,shakespeare #ae ,classics of ,art #af 8,complete0 ,series #af ,connoisseur's ,library #af ,handbooks of ,english ,church ,history #ag ,illustrated ,pocket ,library of ,plain and ,coloured ,books #ag ,leaders of ,religion #ah ,library of ,devotion #ah ,little ,books on ,art #ai ,little ,galleries #ai ,little ,guides #ai ,little ,library #bj ,little ,quarto ,shakespeare #ba ,miniature ,library #ba ,new ,library of ,medicine #ba ,new ,library of ,music #bb ,oxford ,biographies #bb ,romantic ,history #bb ,handbooks of ,theology #bb ,westminster ,commentaries #bc ,fiction #bc ,books for ,boys and ,girls #bh ,novels of ,alexandre ,dumas #bi ,methuen's ,sixpenny ,books #bi ,,february #aiaj ,a ,,selection ,,of ,,messrs4 ,,methuen',s ,,publications ,in this ,catalogue the order is according to authors4 ,an asterisk denotes that the book is in the press4 ,colonial ,editions are published of all ,messrs4 ,,methuen',s ,novels issued at a price above #bs4 #f;d41 and similar editions are published of some works of ,general ,literature4 ,colonial editions are only for circulation in the ,british ,colonies and ,india4 ,all books marked net are not subject to discount1 and cannot be bought at less than the published price4 ,books not marked net are subject to the discount which the bookseller allows4 ,messrs4 ,,methuen',s books are kept in stock by all good booksellers4 ,if there is any difficulty in seeing copies1 ,messrs4 ,methuen will be very glad to have early information1 and specimen copies of any books will be sent on receipt of the published price plus postage for net books1 and of the published price for ordinary books4 ,this ,catalogue contains only a selection of the more important books published by ,messrs4 ,methuen4 ,a complete and illustrated catalogue of their publications may be obtained on application4 ,addleshaw 7,percy74 ,,sir ,,philip ,,sidney4 ,illustrated4 ,second ,edition4 ,demy #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 net4 ,adeney 7,w4 ,f471 ,m4,a4 ,see ,bennett 7,w4 ,h474 ,ady 7,cecilia ,m474 ,a ,,history ,,of ,,milan ,,under ,,the ,,sforza4 ,illustrated4 ,demy #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 net4 ,aldis 7,janet74 ,,the ,,queen ,,of ,,letter ,,writers1 ,,marquise ,,de ,s,,vign1 ,,dame ,,de ,,bourbilly1 #afbf-if4 ,illustrated4 ,second ,edition4 ,demy #hvo4 #abs4 #f;d4 net4 ,alexander 7,william71 ,d4,d41 ,archbishop of ,armagh4 ,,thoughts ,,and ,,counsels ,,of ,,many ,,years4 ,demy #afmo4 #bs4 #f;d4 99,allen 7,m474 ,a ,,history ,,of ,,verona4 ,illustrated4 ,demy #hvo4 #abs4 #f;d4 net4 ,amherst 7,lady74 ,a ,,sketch ,,of ,,egyptian ,,history ,,from ,,the ,,earliest ,,times ,,to ,,the ,,present ,,day4 ,illustrated4 ,a ,new and ,cheaper ,issue4 ,demy #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 net4 ,andrewes 7,bishop74 ,,preces ,,privatae4 ,translated and edited1 with ,notes1 by ,f4 ,e4 ,,brightman1 ,m4,a41 of ,pusey ,house1 ,oxford4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,anon4 ,,the ,,westminster ,,problems ,,book4 ,prose and ,verse4 ,compiled from ,the ,saturday ,westminster ,gazette ,competitions1 #aijd-aijg4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,venice ,,and ,,her ,,treasures4 ,illustrated4 ,round corners4 ,fcap4 #hvo4 #es4 net4 ,aristotle4 ,,the ,,ethics ,,of4 ,edited1 with an ,introduction and ,notes1 by ,,john ,,burnet1 ,m4,a4 ,cheaper issue4 ,demy #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 net4 ,atkinson 7,c4 ,t471 ,m4,a41 ,fellow of ,exeter ,college1 ,oxford1 sometime ,demy of ,magdalen ,college4 ,a ,,history ,,of ,,germany1 from #agae-ahae4 ,illustrated4 ,demy #hvo4 #abs4 #f;d4 net4 ,atkinson 7,t4 ,d474 ,,english ,,architecture4 ,illustrated4 ,fcap4 #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4 net4 ,a ,,glossary ,,of ,,terms ,,used ,,in ,,english ,,architecture4 ,illustrated4 ,second ,edition4 ,fcap4 #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4 net4 ,atteridge 7,a4 ,h474 ,,napoleon',s ,,brothers4 ,illustrated4 ,demy #hvo4 #ahs4 net4 ,aves 7,ernest74 ,,co-,,operative ,,industry4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #es4 net4 ,bagot 7,richard74 ,,the ,,lakes ,,of ,,northern ,,italy4 ,illustrated4 ,fcap4 #hvo4 #es4 net4 ,bain 7,r4 ,nisbet71 ,,the ,,last ,,king ,,of ,,poland ,,and ,,his ,,contemporaries4 ,illustrated4 ,demy #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 net4 ,balfour 7,graham74 ,,the ,,life ,,of ,,robert ,,louis ,,stevenson4 ,illustrated4 ,fourth ,edition in one ,volume4 ,cr4 #hvo4 ,buckram1 #fs4 ,baring 7,the ,hon4 ,maurice74 ,,with ,,the ,,russians ,,in ,,manchuria4 ,third ,edition4 ,demy #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 net4 ,a ,,year ,,in ,,russia4 ,second ,edition4 ,demy #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,russian ,,essays ,,and ,,stories4 ,second ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #es4 net4 ,,landmarks ,,in ,,russian ,,literature4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 net4 ,baring-,gould 7,s474 ,,the ,,life ,,of ,,napoleon ,,bonaparte4 ,illustrated4 ,second ,edition4 ,wide ,royal #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,the ,,tragedy ,,of ,,the ,c,,sars3 ,a ,,study ,,of ,,the ,,characters ,,of ,,the ,c,,sars ,,of ,,the ,,julian ,,and ,,claudian ,,houses4 ,illustrated4 ,seventh ,edition4 ,royal #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 net4 ,a ,,book ,,of ,,fairy ,,tales4 ,illustrated4 ,second ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 ,buckram4 #fs4 ,also ,medium #hvo4 #f;d4 ,,old ,,english ,,fairy ,,tales4 ,illustrated4 ,third ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 ,buckram4 #fs4 ,,the ,,vicar ,,of ,,morwenstow4 ,revised ,edition4 ,with a ,portrait4 ,third ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,old ,,country ,,life4 ,illustrated4 ,fifth ,edition4 ,large ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,a ,,garland ,,of ,,country ,,song3 ,english ,folk ,songs with their ,traditional ,melodies4 ,collected and arranged by ,s4 ,,baring-,,gould and ,h4 ,f4 ,,sheppard4 ,demy #dto4 #fs4 ,,songs ,,of ,,the ,,west3 ,folk ,songs of ,devon and ,cornwall4 ,collected from the ,mouths of the ,people4 ,by ,s4 ,,baring-,,gould1 ,m4,a41 and ,h4 ,,fleetwood ,,sheppard1 ,m4,a4 ,new and ,revised ,edition1 under the musical editorship of ,,cecil ,j4 ,,sharp4 ,large ,imperial #hvo4 #es4 net4 ,,strange ,,survivals3 ,,some ,,chapters ,,in ,,the ,,history ,,of ,,man4 ,illustrated4 ,third ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,yorkshire ,,oddities3 ,incidents and ,strange ,events4 ,fifth ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,a ,,book ,,of ,,cornwall4 ,illustrated4 ,second ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,a ,,book ,,of ,,dartmoor4 ,illustrated4 ,second ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,a ,,book ,,of ,,devon4 ,illustrated4 ,third ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,a ,,book ,,of ,,north ,,wales4 ,illustrated4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,a ,,book ,,of ,,south ,,wales4 ,illustrated4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,a ,,book ,,of ,,brittany4 ,illustrated4 ,second ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,a ,,book ,,of ,,the ,,rhine3 ,from ,cleve to ,mainz4 ,illustrated4 ,second ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,a ,,book ,,of ,,the ,,riviera4 ,illustrated4 ,second ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,a ,,book ,,of ,,the ,,pyrenees4 ,illustrated4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,barker 7,e471 ,m4,a41 7,late7 ,fellow of ,merton ,college1 ,oxford4 ,,the ,,political ,,thought ,,of ,,plato ,,and ,,aristotle4 ,demy #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 net4 ,baron 7,r4 ,r4 ,n471 ,m4,a4 ,,french ,,prose ,,composition4 ,fourth ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #bs4 #f;d4 ,key1 #cs4 net4 ,bartholomew 7,j4 ,g471 ,f4,r4,s4,e4 ,see ,robertson 7,c4 ,g474 ,bastable 7,c4 ,f471 ,,ll4,d4 ,,the ,,commerce ,,of ,,nations4 ,fourth ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #bs4 #f;d4 ,bastian 7,h4 ,charlton71 ,m4,a41 ,m4,d41 ,f4,r4,s4 ,,the ,,evolution ,,of ,,life4 ,illustrated4 ,demy #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 net4 ,batson 7,mrs4 ,stephen74 ,a ,,concise ,,handbook ,,of ,,garden ,,flowers4 ,fcap4 #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,the ,,summer ,,garden ,,of ,,pleasure4 ,illustrated4 ,wide ,demy #hvo4 #aes4 net4 ,beckett 7,arthur74 ,,the ,,spirit ,,of ,,the ,,downs3 ,impressions and ,reminiscences of the ,sussex ,downs4 ,illustrated4 ,second ,edition4 ,demy #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 net4 ,beckford 7,peter74 ,,thoughts ,,on ,,hunting4 ,edited by ,j4 ,,otho ,,paget4 ,illustrated4 ,second ,edition4 ,demy #hvo4 #fs4 ,begbie 7,harold74 ,,master ,,workers4 ,illustrated4 ,demy #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 net4 ,behmen 7,jacob74 ,,dialogues ,,on ,,the ,,supersensual ,,life4 ,edited by ,,bernard ,,holland4 ,fcap4 #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,bell 7,mrs4 ,arthur ,g474 ,,the ,,skirts ,,of ,,the ,,great ,,city4 ,illustrated4 ,second ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,belloc 7,h471 ,m4,p4 ,,paris4 ,illustrated4 ,second ,edition1 ,revised4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,hills ,,and ,,the ,,sea4 ,second ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,on ,,nothing ,,and ,,kindred ,,subjects4 ,third ,edition4 ,fcap4 #hvo4 #es4 ,,on ,,everything4 ,second ,edition4 ,fcap4 #hvo4 #es4 ,,marie ,,antoinette4 ,illustrated4 ,second ,edition4 ,demy #hvo4 #aes4 net4 ,,the ,,pyrenees4 ,illustrated4 ,second ,edition4 ,demy #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 net4 ,bellot 7,h4 ,h4 ,l471 ,m4,a4 ,see ,jones 7,l4 ,a4 ,a74 ,bennett 7,joseph74 ,,forty ,,years ,,of ,,music1 #ahfe-aije4 ,illustrated4 ,demy #hvo4 #afs4 net4 ,bennett 7,w4 ,h471 ,m4,a4 ,a ,,primer ,,of ,,the ,,bible4 ,fifth ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #bs4 #f;d4 ,bennett 7,w4 ,h47 and ,adeney1 7,w4 ,f474 ,a ,,biblical ,,introduction4 ,with a concise ,bibliography4 ,fifth ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 ,benson 7,archbishop74 ,,god',s ,,board4 ,communion ,addresses4 ,second ,edition4 ,fcap4 #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4 net4 ,benson 7,r4 ,m474 ,,the ,,way ,,of ,,holiness4 ,an ,exposition of ,psalm cxix4 ,analytical and ,devotional4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #es4 99,bensusan 7,samuel ,l474 ,,home ,,life ,,in ,,spain4 ,illustrated4 ,demy #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 net4 ,berry 7,w4 ,grinton71 ,m4,a4 ,,france ,,since ,,waterloo4 ,illustrated4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,betham-,edwards 7,miss74 ,,home ,,life ,,in ,,france4 ,illustrated4 ,fifth ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,bindley 7,t4 ,herbert71 ,b4,d4 ,,the ,,oecumenical ,,documents ,,of ,,the ,,faith4 ,with ,introductions and ,notes4 ,second ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 net4 ,binyon 7,laurence74 ,see ,blake 7,william74 ,blake 7,william74 ,,illustrations ,,of ,,the ,,book ,,of ,,job4 ,with ,general ,introduction by ,,laurence ,,binyon4 ,illustrated4 ,quarto4 #bas4 net4 ,body 7,george71 ,d4,d4 ,,the ,,soul',s ,,pilgrimage3 ,devotional ,readings from the ,published and ,unpublished writings of ,george ,body1 ,d4,d4 ,selected and arranged by ,j4 ,h4 ,,burn1 ,d4,d41 ,f4,r4,s4,e4 ,demy #afmo4 #bs4 #f;d4 ,boulting 7,w474 ,,tasso ,,and ,,his ,,times4 ,illustrated4 ,demy #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 net4 ,bovill 7,w4 ,b4 ,forster74 ,,hungary ,,and ,,the ,,hungarians4 ,illustrated4 ,demy #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 net4 ,bowden 7,e4 ,m474 ,,the ,,imitation ,,of ,,buddha3 ,being ,quotations from ,buddhist ,literature for each ,day in the ,year4 ,fifth ,edition4 ,cr4 #afmo4 #bs4 #f;d4 ,brabant 7,f4 ,g471 ,m4,a4 ,,rambles ,,in ,,sussex4 ,illustrated4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,bradley 7,a4 ,g474 ,,round ,,about ,,wiltshire4 ,illustrated4 ,second ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,the ,,romance ,,of ,,northumberland4 ,illustrated4 ,second ,edition4 ,demy #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 net4 ,braid 7,james74 ,open ,champion1 #aija1 #aije and #aijf4 ,,advanced ,,golf4 ,illustrated4 ,fifth ,edition4 ,demy #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 net4 ,braid 7,james7 and ,others4 ,,great ,,golfers ,,in ,,the ,,making4 ,edited by ,,henry ,,leach4 ,illustrated4 ,second ,edition4 ,demy #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 net4 ,brailsford 7,h4 ,n474 ,,macedonia3 ,,its ,,races ,,and ,,their ,,future4 ,illustrated4 ,demy #hvo4 #abs4 #f;d4 net4 ,brodrick 7,mary7 and ,morton 7,a4 ,anderson74 ,a ,,concise ,,dictionary ,,of ,,egyptian ,,arch,,ology4 ,a ,handbook for ,students and ,travellers4 ,illustrated4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,brown 7,j4 ,wood71 ,m4,a4 ,,the ,,builders ,,of ,,florence4 ,illustrated4 ,demy #dto4 #ahs4 net4 ,browning 7,robert74 ,,paracelsus4 ,edited with ,introduction1 ,notes1 and ,bibliography by ,,margaret ,l4 ,,lee and ,,katharine ,b4 ,,locock4 ,fcap4 #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4 net4 ,buckton 7,a4 ,m474 ,,eager ,,heart3 ,a ,mystery ,play4 ,eighth ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #as4 net4 ,budge 7,e4 ,a4 ,wallis74 ,,the ,,gods ,,of ,,the ,,egyptians4 ,illustrated4 ,two ,volumes4 ,royal #hvo4 #c #cs4 net4 ,bull 7,paul71 ,army ,chaplain4 ,,god ,,and ,,our ,,soldiers4 ,second ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,bulley 7,miss74 ,see ,dilke 7,lady74 ,burns 7,robert71 ,,the ,,poems4 ,edited by ,,andrew ,,lang and ,w4 ,a4 ,,craigie4 ,with ,portrait4 ,third ,edition4 ,wide ,demy #hvo4 gilt top4 #fs4 ,bussell 7,f4 ,w471 ,d4,d4 ,,christian ,,theology ,,and ,,social ,,progress 7,the ,bampton ,lectures of #aije74 ,demy #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 net4 ,butler 7,sir ,william71 ,lieut4-,general1 ,g4,c4,b4 ,,the ,,light ,,of ,,the ,,west4 ,with some other ,wayside ,thoughts1 #ahfe-aijh4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #es4 net4 ,butlin 7,f4 ,m474 ,,among ,,the ,,danes4 ,illustrated4 ,demy #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 net4 ,cain 7,georges71 ,curator of the ,carnavalet ,museum1 ,paris4 ,,walks ,,in ,,paris4 ,translated by ,a4 ,r4 ,,allison1 ,m4,a4 ,illustrated4 ,demy #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 net4 ,cameron 7,mary ,lovett74 ,,old ,,etruria ,,and ,,modern ,,tuscany4 ,illustrated4 ,second ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 net4 ,carden 7,robert ,w474 ,,the ,,city ,,of ,,genoa4 ,illustrated ,demy #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 net4 ,carlyle 7,thomas74 ,,the ,,french ,,revolution4 ,edited by ,c4 ,r4 ,l4 ,,fletcher1 ,fellow of ,magdalen ,college1 ,oxford4 ,three ,volumes4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #ahs4 ,,the ,,letters ,,and ,,speeches ,,of ,,oliver ,,cromwell4 ,with an ,introduction by ,c4 ,h4 ,,firth1 ,m4,a41 and ,notes and ,appendices by ,mrs4 ,s4 ,c4 ,,lomas4 ,three ,volumes4 ,demy #hvo4 #ahs4 net4 ,celano 7,brother ,thomas of74 ,,the ,,lives ,,of ,,francis ,,of ,,assisi4 ,translated by ,a4 ,g4 ,,ferrers ,,howell4 ,illustrated4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #es4 net4 ,chambers 7,mrs4 ,lambert74 ,lawn ,tennis for ,ladies4 ,illustrated4 ,crown #hvo4 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,chandler 7,arthur71 ,bishop of ,bloemfontein4 ,,ara ,c,,li3 ,,an ,,essay ,,in ,,mystical ,,theology4 ,third ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4 net4 ,chesterfield 7,lord74 ,,the ,,letters ,,of ,,the ,,earl ,,of ,,chesterfield ,,to ,,his ,,son4 ,edited1 with an ,introduction by ,c4 ,,strachey1 with ,notes by ,a4 ,,calthrop4 ,two ,volumes4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #abs4 ,chesterton 7,g4 ,k474 ,,charles ,,dickens4 ,with two ,portraits in ,photogravure4 ,sixth ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,all ,,things ,,considered4 ,fifth ,edition4 ,fcap4 #hvo4 #es4 ,,tremendous ,,trifles4 ,fourth ,edition4 ,fcap4 #hvo4 #es4 ,clausen 7,george71 ,a4,r4,a41 ,r4,w4,s4 ,,six ,,lectures ,,on ,,painting4 ,illustrated4 ,third ,edition4 ,large ,post4 #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,aims ,,and ,,ideals ,,in ,,art4 ,eight ,lectures delivered to the ,students of the ,royal ,academy of ,arts4 ,illustrated4 ,second ,edition4 ,large ,post #hvo4 #es4 net4 ,clutton-,brock 7,a47 ,,shelley3 ,,the ,,man ,,and ,,the ,,poet4 ,illustrated4 ,demy #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 net4 ,cobb 7,w4 ,f471 ,m4,a4 ,,the ,,book ,,of ,,psalms3 with an ,introduction and ,notes4 ,demy #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 net4 ,cockshott 7,winifred71 ,st4 ,hilda's ,hall1 ,oxford4 ,,the ,,pilgrim ,,fathers1 ,,their ,,church ,,and ,,colony4 ,illustrated4 ,demy #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 net4 ,collingwood 7,w4 ,g471 ,m4,a4 ,,the ,,life ,,of ,,john ,,ruskin4 ,with ,portrait4 ,sixth ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,colvill 7,helen ,h474 ,,st4 ,,teresa ,,of ,,spain4 ,illustrated4 ,second ,edition4 ,demy #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 net4 99,condamine 7,robert de la74 ,,the ,,upper ,,garden4 ,fcap4 #hvo4 #es4 net4 ,conrad 7,joseph74 ,,the ,,mirror ,,of ,,the ,,sea3 ,memories and ,impressions4 ,third ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,coolidge 7,w4 ,a4 ,b471 ,m4,a4 ,,the ,,alps4 ,illustrated4 ,demy #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 net4 ,cooper 7,c4 ,s471 ,f4,r4,h4,s4 ,see ,westell 7,w4 ,p47 ,coulton 7,g4 ,g474 ,,chaucer ,,and ,,his ,,england4 ,illustrated4 ,second ,edition4 ,demy #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 net4 ,cowper 7,william74 ,,the ,,poems4 ,edited with an introduction and ,notes by ,j4 ,c4 ,,bailey1 ,m4,a4 ,illustrated4 ,demy #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 net4 ,crane 7,walter71 ,r4,w4,s4 ,,an ,,artist',s ,,reminiscences4 ,illustrated4 ,second ,edition4 ,demy #hvo4 #ahs4 net4 ,,india ,,impressions4 ,illustrated4 ,second ,edition4 ,demy #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 net4 ,crispe 7,t4 ,e474 ,,reminiscences ,,of ,a ,k4,c4 ,with #b ,portraits4 ,second ,edition4 ,demy #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 net4 ,crowley 7,ralph ,h474 ,,the ,,hygiene ,,of ,,school ,,life4 ,illustrated4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4 net4 ,dante 7,alighieri74 ,,la ,,commedia ,,di ,,dante4 ,the ,italian ,text edited by ,,paget ,,toynbee1 ,m4,a41 ,d4,litt4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,davey 7,richard74 ,,the ,,pageant ,,of ,,london4 ,illustrated4 ,in ,two ,volumes4 ,demy #hvo4 #aes4 net4 ,davis 7,h4 ,w4 ,c471 ,m4,a41 ,fellow and ,tutor of ,balliol ,college4 ,,england ,,under ,,the ,,normans ,,and ,,angevins3 #ajff-abgb4 ,illustrated4 ,demy #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 net4 ,deans 7,r4 ,storry74 ,,the ,,trials ,,of ,,five ,,queens3 ,,katharine ,,of ,,aragon1 ,,anne ,,boleyn1 ,,mary ,,queen ,,of ,,scots1 ,,marie ,,antoinette and ,,caroline ,,of ,,brunswick4 ,illustrated4 ,second ,edition4 ,demy #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 net4 ,dearmer 7,mabel74 ,a ,,child',s ,,life ,,of ,,christ4 ,illustrated4 ,large ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,d',este 7,margaret74 ,,in ,,the ,,canaries ,,with ,a ,,camera4 ,illustrated4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 net4 ,dickinson 7,g4 ,l471 ,m4,a41 ,fellow of ,king's ,college1 ,cambridge4 ,,the ,,greek ,,view ,,of ,,life4 ,seventh and ,revised ,edition4 ,crown #hvo4 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,ditchfield 7,p4 ,h471 ,m4,a41 ,f4,s4,a4 ,,the ,,parish ,,clerk4 ,illustrated4 ,third ,edition4 ,demy #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,the ,,old-,,time ,,parson4 ,illustrated4 ,second ,edition4 ,demy #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 net4 ,douglas 7,hugh ,a474 ,,venice ,,on ,,foot4 ,with the ,itinerary of the ,grand ,canal4 ,illustrated4 ,fcap4 #hvo4 #es4 net4 ,douglas 7,james74 ,,the ,,man ,,in ,,the ,,pulpit4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,dowden 7,j471 ,d4,d41 ,late ,lord ,bishop of ,edinburgh4 ,,further ,,studies ,,in ,,the ,,prayer ,,book4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,driver 7,s4 ,r471 ,d4,d41 ,d4,c4,l41 ,regius ,professor of ,hebrew in the ,university of ,oxford4 ,,sermons ,,on ,,subjects ,,connected ,,with ,,the ,,old ,,testament4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,duff 7,nora74 ,,matilda ,,of ,,tuscany4 ,illustrated4 ,demy #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 net4 ,dumas 7,alexandre74 ,,the ,,crimes ,,of ,,the ,,borgias ,,and ,,others4 ,with an ,introduction by ,r4 ,s4 ,,garnett4 ,illustrated4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,the ,,crimes ,,of ,,urbain ,,grandier ,,and ,,others4 ,illustrated4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,the ,,crimes ,,of ,,the ,,marquise ,,de ,,brinvilliers ,,and ,,others4 ,illustrated4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,the ,,crimes ,,of ,,ali ,,pacha ,,and ,,others4 ,illustrated4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,my ,,memoirs4 ,translated by ,e4 ,m4 ,,waller4 ,with an ,introduction by ,,andrew ,,lang4 ,with ,frontispieces in ,photogravure4 ,in six ,volumes4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 each volume4 ,,vol4 ,i4 #ahjb-ahba4 ,,vol4 ,,iv4 #ahcj-ahca4 ,,vol4 ,,ii4 #ahbb-ahbe4 ,,vol4 ,v4 #ahca-ahcb4 ,,vol4 ,,iii4 #ahbf-ahcj4 ,,vol4 ,,vi4 #ahcb-ahcc4 ,,my ,,pets4 ,newly translated by ,a4 ,r4 ,,allinson1 ,m4,a4 ,illustrated4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,duncan 7,david71 ,d4,sc41 ,,ll4,d4 ,,the ,,life ,,and ,,letters ,,of ,,herbert ,,spencer4 ,illustrated4 ,demy #hvo4 #aes4 ,dunn-,pattison 7,r4 ,p47 ,,napoleon',s ,,marshals4 ,illustrated4 ,demy #hvo4 ,second ,edition4 #abs4 #f;d4 net4 99,,edward ,,the ,,black ,,prince4 ,illustrated4 ,demy #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 net4 ,durham 7,the ,earl of7 ,a ,,report ,,on ,,canada4 ,with an ,introductory ,note4 ,demy #hvo4 #ds4 #f;d4 net4 ,dutt 7,w4 ,a474 ,,the ,,norfolk ,,broads4 ,illustrated4 ,second ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,wild ,,life ,,in ,,east ,,anglia4 ,illustrated4 ,second ,edition4 ,demy #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,some ,,literary ,,associations ,,of ,,east ,,anglia4 ,illustrated4 ,demy #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 net4 ,edmonds 7,major ,j4 ,e471 ,r4,e42 ,d4,a4,q4-,m4,g4 ,see ,wood 7,w4 ,birkbeck74 ,edwardes 7,tickner74 ,,the ,,lore ,,of ,,the ,,honey ,,bee4 ,illustrated4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 99,,lift-,,luck ,,on ,,southern ,,roads4 ,illustrated4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,egerton 7,h4 ,e471 ,m4,a4 ,a ,,history ,,of ,,british ,,colonial ,,policy4 ,second ,edition1 ,revised4 ,demy #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 net4 ,everett-,green 7,mary ,anne74 ,,elizabeth2 ,,electress ,,palatine ,,and ,,queen ,,of ,,bohemia4 ,revised by her ,niece ,s4 ,c4 ,,lomas4 ,with a ,prefatory ,note by ,a4 ,w4 ,,ward1 ,litt4,d4 ,demy #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 net4 ,fairbrother 7,w4 ,h471 ,m4,a4 ,,the ,,philosophy ,,of ,t4 ,h4 ,,green4 ,second ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,fea 7,allan74 ,,the ,,flight ,,of ,,the ,,king4 ,illustrated4 ,new and ,revised ,edition4 ,demy #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,secret ,,chambers ,,and ,,hiding-,,places4 ,illustrated4 ,new and ,revised ,edition4 ,demy #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,james ,,ii4 ,,and ,,his ,,wives4 ,illustrated4 ,demy #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 net4 ,fell 7,e4 ,f4 ,b474 ,,the ,,foundations ,,of ,,liberty4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #es4 net4 ,firth 7,c4 ,h471 ,m4,a41 ,regius ,professor of ,modern ,history at ,oxford4 ,,cromwell',s ,,army3 ,a ,history of the ,english ,soldier during the ,civil ,wars1 the ,commonwealth1 and the ,protectorate4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,fitz,gerald 7,edward74 ,,the ,,rub,,iy,t ,,of ,,omar ,,khayy,m4 ,printed from the ,fifth and last ,edition4 ,with a ,commentary by ,mrs4 ,,stephen ,,batson1 and a ,biography of ,omar by ,e4 ,d4 ,,ross4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 99,fletcher 7,b4 ,f4 and ,h4 ,p474 ,,the ,,english ,,home4 ,illustrated4 ,demy #hvo4 #abs4 #f;d4 net4 ,fletcher 7,j4 ,s474 ,a ,,book ,,of ,,yorkshire4 ,illustrated4 ,demy #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 net4 ,flux 7,a4 ,w471 ,m4,a41 ,william ,dow ,professor of ,political ,economy in ,m',gill ,university ,montreal4 ,,economic ,,principles4 ,demy #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 net4 ,foot 7,constance ,m474 ,,insect ,,wonderland4 ,illustrated4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4 net4 ,forel 7,a474 ,,the ,,senses ,,of ,,insects4 ,translated by ,,macleod ,,yearsley4 ,illustrated4 ,demy #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 net4 ,fouqu 7,la ,motte74 ,,sintram ,,and ,,his ,,companions4 ,translated by ,a4 ,c4 ,,farquharson4 ,illustrated4 ,demy #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 net4 ,half ,white ,vellum1 #ajs4 #f;d4 net4 ,fraser 7,j4 ,f474 ,,round ,,the ,,world ,,on ,a ,,wheel4 ,illustrated4 ,fifth ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,galton 7,sir ,francis71 ,f4,r4,s42 ,d4,c4,l41 ,oxf42 ,hon4 ,sc4,d41 ,camb42 ,hon4 ,fellow ,trinity ,college1 ,cambridge4 ,,memories ,,of ,,my ,,life4 ,illustrated4 ,third ,edition4 ,demy #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 net4 ,garnett 7,lucy ,m4 ,j474 ,,the ,,turkish ,,people3 ,,their ,,social ,,life1 ,,religious ,,beliefs ,,and ,,institutions1 ,,and ,,domestic ,,life4 ,illustrated4 ,demy #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 net4 ,gibbins 7,h4 de ,b471 ,litt4,d41 ,m4,a4 ,,industry ,,in ,,england3 ,,historical ,,outlines4 ,with #e ,maps4 ,fifth ,edition4 ,demy #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,,the ,,industrial ,,history ,,of ,,england4 ,illustrated4 ,fifteenth ,edition ,revised4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #cs4 ,,english ,,social ,,reformers4 ,second ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #bs4 #f;d4 ,see also ,hadfield1 ,r4,a4 ,gibbon 7,edward74 ,,memoirs ,,of ,,the ,,life ,,of ,,edward ,,gibbon4 ,edited by ,g4 ,,birkbeck ,,hill1 ,,ll4,d4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 99,,the ,,decline ,,and ,,fall ,,of ,,the ,,roman ,,empire4 ,edited1 with ,notes1 ,appendices1 and ,maps1 by ,j4 ,b4 ,,bury1 ,m4,a41 ,litt4,d41 ,regius ,professor of ,modern ,history at ,cambridge4 ,illustrated4 ,in ,seven ,volumes4 ,demy #hvo4 ,gilt ,top4 ,each #ajs4 #f;d4 net4 ,gibbs 7,philip474 ,,the ,,romance ,,of ,,george ,,villiers3 ,,first ,,duke ,,of ,,buckingham1 ,,and ,,some ,,men ,,and ,,women ,,of ,,the ,,stuart ,,court4 ,illustrated4 ,second ,edition4 ,demy #hvo4 #aes4 net4 ,gloag 7,m4 ,r47 and ,wyatt 7,kate ,m474 ,a ,,book ,,of ,,english ,,gardens4 ,illustrated4 ,demy #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 net4 ,glover 7,t4 ,r471 ,m4,a41 ,fellow and ,classical ,lecturer of ,st4 ,john's ,college1 ,cambridge4 ,,the ,,conflict ,,of ,,religions ,,in ,,the ,,early ,,roman ,,empire4 ,third ,edition4 ,demy #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 net4 ,godfrey 7,elizabeth74 ,a ,,book ,,of ,,remembrance4 ,being ,lyrical ,selections for every day in the ,year4 ,arranged by ,e4 ,godfrey4 ,second ,edition4 ,fcap4 #hvo4 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,english ,,children ,,in ,,the ,,olden ,,time4 ,illustrated4 ,second ,edition4 ,demy #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 net4 ,godley 7,a4 ,d471 ,m4,a41 ,fellow of ,magdalen ,college1 ,oxford4 ,,oxford ,,in ,,the ,,eighteenth ,,century4 ,illustrated4 ,second ,edition4 ,demy #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,lyra ,,frivola4 ,fourth ,edition4 ,fcap4 #hvo4 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,verses ,,to ,,order4 ,second ,edition4 ,fcap4 #hvo4 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,second ,,strings4 ,fcap4 #hvo4 #bs4 #f;d4 ,goll 7,august74 ,,criminal ,,types ,,in ,,shakespeare4 ,authorised ,translation from the ,danish by ,mrs4 ,,charles ,,weekes4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #es4 net4 ,gordon 7,lina ,duff7 7,mrs4 ,aubrey ,waterfield74 ,,home ,,life ,,in ,,italy3 ,,letters ,,from ,,the ,,apennines4 ,illustrated4 ,second ,edition4 ,demy #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 net4 ,gostling 7,frances ,m474 ,,the ,,bretons ,,at ,,home4 ,illustrated4 ,second ,edition4 ,demy #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 net4 ,graham 7,harry74 ,a ,,group ,,of ,,scottish ,,women4 ,illustrated4 ,second ,edition4 ,demy #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 net4 ,grahame 7,kenneth74 ,,the ,,wind ,,in ,,the ,,willows4 ,illustrated4 ,fourth ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,gwynn 7,stephen71 ,m4,p4 ,a ,,holiday ,,in ,,connemara4 ,illustrated4 ,demy #hvo4 #ajs #f;d4 net4 ,hall 7,cyril74 ,,the ,,young ,,carpenter4 ,illustrated4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #es4 ,hall 7,hammond74 ,,the ,,young ,,engineer3 or ,,modern ,,engines ,,and ,,their ,,models4 ,illustrated4 ,second ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #es4 ,hall 7,mary74 ,a ,,woman',s ,,trek ,,from ,,the ,,cape ,,to ,,cairo4 ,illustrated4 ,second ,edition4 ,demy #hvo4 #afs4 net4 ,hamel 7,frank74 ,,famous ,,french ,,salons4 ,illustrated4 ,third ,edition4 ,demy #hvo4 #abs4 #f;d4 net4 ,hannay 7,d474 ,a ,,short ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,royal ,,navy4 ,vol4 ,i41 #abag-afhh4 ,vol4 ,,ii41 #afhi-ahae4 ,demy #hvo4 ,each #gs4 #f;d4 net4 ,hannay 7,james ,o471 ,m4,a4 ,,the ,,spirit ,,and ,,origin ,,of ,,christian ,,monasticism4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,the ,,wisdom ,,of ,,the ,,desert4 ,fcap4 #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4 net4 ,harper 7,charles ,g474 ,,the ,,autocar ,,road-,,book4 ,four ,volumes with ,maps4 ,cr4 #hvo4 ,each #gs4 #f;d4 net4 ,vol4 ,i4--,,south ,,of ,,the ,,thames4 ,vol4 ,,ii4--,,north ,,and ,,south ,,wales ,,and ,,west ,,midlands4 ,headley 7,f4 ,w474 ,,darwinism ,,and ,,modern ,,socialism4 ,second ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #es4 net4 ,henderson 7,b4 ,w471 ,fellow of ,exeter ,college1 ,oxford4 ,,the ,,life ,,and ,,principate ,,of ,,the ,,emperor ,,nero4 ,illustrated4 ,new and cheaper issue4 ,demy #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 net4 ,henderson 7,m4 ,sturge74 ,,george ,,meredith3 ,,novelist1 ,,poet1 ,,reformer4 ,illustrated4 ,second ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,henderson 7,t4 ,f47 and ,watt 7,francis74 ,,scotland ,,of ,,to-,,day4 ,illustrated4 ,second ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,henley 7,w4 ,e474 ,,english ,,lyrics4 ,,chaucer ,,to ,,poe1 #acdj-ahdi4 ,second ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 99,heywood 7,w474 ,a ,,history ,,of ,,perugia4 ,illustrated4 ,demy #hvo4 #abs4 #f;d4 net4 99,hill 7,george ,francis74 ,,one ,,hundred ,,masterpieces ,,of ,,sculpture4 ,illustrated4 ,demy #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 net4 ,hind 7,c4 ,lewis71 ,,days ,,in ,,cornwall4 ,illustrated4 ,second ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,hobhouse 7,l4 ,t471 late ,fellow of ,c4,c4,c41 ,oxford4 ,,the ,,theory ,,of ,,knowledge4 ,demy #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 net4 ,hodgetts 7,e4 ,a4 ,brayley71 ,,the ,,court ,,of ,,russia ,,in ,,the ,,nineteenth ,,century4 ,illustrated4 ,two volumes4 ,demy #hvo4 #bds4 net4 ,hodgson 7,mrs4 ,w471 ,,how ,,to ,,identify ,,old ,,chinese ,,porcelain4 ,illustrated4 ,second ,edition4 ,post #hvo4 #fs4 ,holdich 7,sir ,t4 ,h471 ,k4,c4,i4,e41 ,c4,b41 ,f4,s4,a4 ,,the ,,indian ,,borderland1 #ahhj-aijj4 ,illustrated4 ,second ,edition4 ,demy #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 net4 ,holdsworth 7,w4 ,s471 ,d4,c4,l4 ,a ,,history ,,of ,,english ,,law4 ,in ,four ,volumes4 ,vols4 ,i41 ,,ii41 ,,iii4 ,demy #hvo4 ,each #ajs4 #f;d4 net4 ,holland 7,clive74 ,,tyrol ,,and ,,its ,,people4 ,illustrated4 ,demy #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 net4 ,hollway-,calthrop 7,h4 ,c471 late of ,balliol ,college1 ,oxford2 ,bursar of ,eton ,college4 ,,petrarch3 ,,his ,,life1 ,,work1 ,,and ,,times4 ,illustrated4 ,demy #hvo4 #abs4 #f;d4 net4 ,horsburgh 7,e4 ,l4 ,s471 ,m4,a4 ,,lorenzo ,,the ,,magnificent3 and ,,florence ,,in ,,her ,,golden ,,age4 ,illustrated4 ,second ,edition4 ,demy #hvo4 #aes4 net4 ,,waterloo3 with ,plans4 ,second ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #es4 ,hosie 7,alexander74 ,,manchuria4 ,illustrated4 ,second ,edition4 ,demy #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 net4 ,hulton 7,samuel ,f474 ,,the ,,clerk ,,of ,,oxford ,,in ,,fiction4 ,illustrated4 ,demy #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 net4 99,humphreys 7,john ,h471 ,,proportional ,,representation4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4 net4 ,hutchinson 7,horace ,g474 ,,the ,,new ,,forest4 ,illustrated4 ,fourth ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,hutton 7,edward74 ,,the ,,cities ,,of ,,umbria4 ,illustrated4 ,third ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,the ,,cities ,,of ,,spain4 ,illustrated4 ,third ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,florence ,,and ,,the ,,cities ,,of ,,northern ,,tuscany1 ,,with ,,genoa4 ,illustrated4 ,second ,edition4 ,crown #hvo4 #fs4 ,,english ,,love ,,poems4 ,edited with an ,introduction4 ,fcap4 #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,country ,,walks ,,about ,,florence4 ,illustrated4 ,fcap4 #hvo4 #es4 net4 ,,in ,,unknown ,,tuscany4 ,with an ,appendix by ,,william ,,heywood4 ,illustrated4 ,second ,edition4 ,demy #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,rome4 ,illustrated4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,hyett 7,f4 ,a474 ,,florence3 ,,her ,,history ,,and ,,art ,,to ,,the ,,fall ,,of ,,the ,,republic4 ,demy #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 net4 ,ibsen 7,henrik74 ,,brand4 ,a ,drama4 ,translated by ,,william ,,wilson4 ,third ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,inge 7,w4 ,r71 ,m4,a41 ,fellow and ,tutor of ,hertford ,college1 ,oxford4 ,,christian ,,mysticism4 7,the ,bampton ,lectures of #ahii47 ,demy #hvo4 #abs4 #f;d4 net4 ,innes 7,a4 ,d471 ,m4,a4 ,a ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,british ,,in ,,india4 ,with ,maps and ,plans4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,england ,,under ,,the ,,tudors4 ,with ,maps4 ,second ,edition4 ,demy #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 net4 99,innes 7,mary74 ,,schools ,,of ,,painting4 ,illustrated4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #es4 net4 ,james 7,norman ,g4 ,b474 ,,the ,,charm ,,of ,,switzerland4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #es4 net4 ,jebb 7,camilla74 ,a ,,star ,,of ,,the ,,salons3 ,,julie ,,de ,,lespinasse4 ,illustrated4 ,demy #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 net4 ,jeffery 7,reginald ,w471 ,m4,a4 ,,the ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,thirteen ,,colonies ,,of ,,north ,,america1 #adig-agfc4 ,illustrated4 ,demy #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 net4 ,jenks 7,e471 ,m4,a41 ,b4,c4,l4 ,,an ,,outline ,,of ,,english ,,local ,,government4 ,second ,edition4 ,revised by ,r4 ,c4 ,k4 ,,ensor1 ,m4,a4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #bs4 #f;d4 ,jennings 7,oscar71 ,m4,d4 ,,early ,,woodcut ,,initials4 ,illustrated4 ,demy #dto4 #bas4 net4 ,jerningham 7,charles ,edward74 ,,the ,,maxims ,,of ,,marmaduke4 ,second ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #es4 ,johnston 7,sir ,h4 ,h471 ,k4,c4,b4 ,,british ,,central ,,africa4 ,illustrated4 ,third ,edition4 ,cr4 #dto4 #ahs4 net4 99,,the ,,negro ,,in ,,the ,,new ,,world4 ,illustrated4 ,demy #hvo4 #afs4 net4 ,jones 7,r4 ,crompton71 ,m4,a4 ,,poems ,,of ,,the ,,inner ,,life4 ,selected by ,r4 ,c4 ,,jones4 ,thirteenth ,edition4 ,fcap #hvo4 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,julian 7,lady7 of ,norwich4 ,,revelations ,,of ,,divine ,,love4 ,edited by ,,grace ,,warrack4 ,third ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4 #8,kappa4' ,,let ,,youth ,,but ,,know3 ,a ,plea for ,reason in ,education4 ,second ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4 net4 ,keats 7,john74 ,,the ,,poems4 ,edited with ,introduction and ,notes by ,e4 de ,s,,lincourt1 ,m4,a4 ,with a ,frontispiece in ,photogravure4 ,second ,edition ,revised4 ,demy #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 net4 ,keble 7,john74 ,,the ,,christian ,,year4 ,with an ,introduction and ,notes by ,w4 ,,lock1 ,d4,d41 ,warden of ,keble ,college4 ,illustrated4 ,third ,edition4 ,fcap4 #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d42 padded morocco4 #es4 ,kempis 7,thomas 74 ,,the ,,imitation ,,of ,,christ4 ,with an ,introduction by ,,dean ,,farrar4 ,illustrated4 ,third ,edition4 ,fcap #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d42 padded morocco1 #es4 ,also translated by ,c4 ,,bigg1 ,d4,d4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,kerr 7,s4 ,parnell74 ,,george ,,selwyn ,,and ,,the ,,wits4 ,illustrated4 ,demy #hvo4 #abs4 #f;d4 net4 ,kipling 7,rudyard74 ,,barrack-,,room ,,ballads4 #idth ,thousand4 ,twenty-seventh ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,also ,fcap4 #hvo1 ,leather4 #es4 net4 ,,the ,,seven ,,seas4 #gith ,thousand4 ,fifteenth ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,also ,fcap4 #hvo1 ,leather4 #es4 net4 ,,the ,,five ,,nations4 #ffth ,thousand4 ,sixth ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,also ,fcap4 #hvo1 ,leather4 #es4 net4 ,,departmental ,,ditties4 ,eighteenth ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,also ,fcap4 #hvo4 ,leather4 #es4 net4 ,knox 7,winifred ,f474 ,,the ,,court ,,of ,a ,,saint4 ,illustrated4 ,demy #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 net4 ,lamb 7,charles and ,mary71 ,,the ,,works4 ,edited by ,e4 ,v4 ,,lucas4 ,illustrated4 ,in ,seven ,volumes4 ,demy #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 each4 ,lane-,poole 7,stanley74 ,a ,,history ,,of ,,egypt ,,in ,,the ,,middle ,,ages4 ,illustrated4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 99,lankester 7,sir ,ray71 ,k4,c4,b41 ,f4,r4,s4 ,,science ,,from ,,an ,,easy ,,chair4 ,illustrated4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,leach 7,henry74 ,,the ,,spirit ,,of ,,the ,,links4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,le ,braz 7,anatole74 ,,the ,,land ,,of ,,pardons4 ,translated by ,,frances ,m4 ,,gostling4 ,illustrated4 ,third ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,lees 7,frederick74 ,a ,,summer ,,in ,,touraine4 ,illustrated4 ,second ,edition4 ,demy #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 net4 ,lindsay 7,lady ,mabel74 ,,anni ,,domini3 ,a ,,gospel ,,study4 ,with ,maps4 ,two ,volumes4 ,super ,royal #hvo4 #ajs4 net4 ,llewellyn 7,owen7 and ,raven-,hill 7,l474 ,,the ,,south-,,bound ,,car4 ,illustrated4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,lock 7,walter71 ,d4,d41 ,warden of ,keble ,college4 ,,st4 ,,paul1 ,,the ,,master-,,builder4 ,second ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,the ,,bible ,,and ,,christian ,,life4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,lodge 7,sir ,oliver71 ,f4,r4,s4 ,,the ,,substance ,,of ,,faith1 ,,allied ,,with ,,science3 ,a ,catechism for ,parents and ,teachers4 ,tenth ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #bs4 net4 ,,man ,,and ,,the ,,universe3 ,a ,,study ,,of ,,the ,,influence ,,of ,,the ,,advance ,,in ,,scientific ,,knowledge ,,upon ,,our ,,understanding ,,of ,,christianity4 ,seventh ,edition4 ,demy #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,the ,,survival ,,of ,,man4 ,a ,,study ,,in ,,unrecognised ,,human ,,faculty4 ,third ,edition4 ,demy #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 net4 ,lofthouse 7,w4 ,f471 ,m4,a4 ,,ethics ,,and ,,atonement4 ,with a ,frontispiece4 ,demy #hvo4 #es4 net4 ,lorimer 7,george ,horace74 ,,letters ,,from ,a ,,self-,,made ,,merchant ,,to ,,his ,,son4 ,illustrated4 ,seventeenth ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,old ,,gorgon ,,graham4 ,illustrated4 ,second ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,lorimer 7,norma74 ,,by ,,the ,,waters ,,of ,,egypt4 ,illustrated4 ,demy #hvo4 #afs4 net4 8,loyal ,serviteur40 ,,the ,,story ,,of ,,bayard4 ,adapted by ,,amy ,g4 ,,andrewes4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #bs4 #f;d4 ,lucas 7,e4 ,v474 ,,the ,,life ,,of ,,charles ,,lamb4 ,illustrated4 ,fifth and ,revised ,edition in ,one ,volume4 ,demy #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 net4 ,a ,,wanderer ,,in ,,holland4 ,illustrated4 ,tenth ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,a ,,wanderer ,,in ,,london4 ,illustrated4 ,eighth ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,a ,,wanderer ,,in ,,paris4 ,illustrated4 ,fourth ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,the ,,open ,,road3 ,a ,little ,book for ,wayfarers4 ,fifteenth ,edition4 ,fcap4 #hvo4 #es42 ,india ,paper1 #gs4 #f;d4 ,,the ,,friendly ,,town3 a ,little ,book for the ,urbane4 ,fifth ,edition4 ,fcap4 #hvo4 #es42 ,india ,paper1 #gs4 #f;d4 ,,fireside ,,and ,,sunshine4 ,fifth ,edition4 ,fcap4 #hvo4 #es4 ,,character ,,and ,,comedy4 ,fifth ,edition4 ,fcap4 #hvo4 #es4 ,,the ,,gentlest ,,art4 ,a ,choice of ,letters by ,entertaining ,hands4 ,fifth ,edition4 ,fcap4 #hvo4 #es4 ,a ,,swan ,,and ,,her ,,friends4 ,illustrated4 ,demy #hvo4 #abs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,her ,,infinite ,,variety3 ,a ,,feminine ,,portrait ,,gallery4 ,fourth ,edition4 ,fcap4 #hvo4 #es4 ,,listener',s ,,lure3 ,,an ,,oblique ,,narration4 ,sixth ,edition4 ,fcap4 #hvo4 #es4 ,,good ,,company3 ,a ,,rally ,,of ,,men4 ,second ,edition4 ,fcap4 #hvo4 #es4 ,,one ,,day ,,and ,,another4 ,third ,edition4 ,fcap4 #hvo4 #es4 ,,over ,,bemerton',s3 ,,an ,,easy-,,going ,,chronicle4 ,seventh ,edition4 ,fcap4 #hvo4 #es4 net4 ,m4 7,r474 ,,the ,,thoughts ,,of ,,lucia ,,halliday4 ,with some of her ,letters4 ,edited by ,r4 ,m4 ,fcap4 #hvo4 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,macaulay 7,lord74 ,,critical ,,and ,,historical ,,essays4 ,edited by ,f4 ,c4 ,,montague4 ,m4,a4 ,three ,volumes4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #ahs4 ,mc,cabe 7,joseph7 7formerly ,very ,rev4 ,f4 ,,antony1 ,o4,s4,f474 ,,the ,,decay ,,of ,,the ,,church ,,of ,,rome4 ,second ,edition4 ,demy #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 net4 ,mc,cullagh 7,francis74 ,the ,fall of ,abd-ul-,hamid4 ,illustrated4 ,demy #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 net4 ,mac,cunn 7,florence ,a474 ,,mary ,,stuart4 ,illustrated4 ,new and ,cheaper ,edition4 ,large ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,mc,dougall 7,william71 ,m4,a4 7,oxon41 ,m4,b4 7,cantab474 ,,an ,,introduction ,,to ,,social ,,psychology4 ,second ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #es4 net4 #8,mdlle4 ,mori' 7,author of74 ,,st4 ,,catherine ,,of ,,siena ,,and ,,her ,,times4 ,illustrated4 ,second ,edition4 ,demy #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 net4 ,maeterlinck 7,maurice74 ,,the ,,blue ,,bird3 ,a ,,fairy ,,play ,,in ,,five ,,acts4 ,translated by ,,alexander ,,teixeira ,,de ,,mattos4 ,eighth ,edition4 ,fcap4 #hvo4 ,deckle ,edges4 #cs4 #f;d4 net4 ,also ,fcap4 #hvo4 ,paper covers1 #as4 net4 ,mahaffy 7,j4 ,p471 ,litt4,d4 ,a ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,egypt ,,of ,,the ,,ptolemies4 ,illustrated4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,maitland 7,f4 ,w471 ,m4,a41 ,,ll4,d4 ,,roman ,,canon ,,law ,,in ,,the ,,church ,,of ,,england4 ,royal #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 ,marett 7,r4 ,r471 ,m4,a41 ,fellow and ,tutor of ,exeter ,college1 ,oxford4 ,,the ,,threshold ,,of ,,religion4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4 net4 ,marriott 7,charles74 ,a ,,spanish ,,holiday4 ,illustrated4 ,demy #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 net4 ,marriott 7,j4 ,a4 ,r471 ,m4,a4 ,,the ,,life ,,and ,,times ,,of ,,lord ,,falkland4 ,illustrated4 ,second ,edition4 ,demy #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 net4 ,masefield 7,john74 ,,sea ,,life ,,in ,,nelson',s ,,time4 ,illustrated4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4 net4 ,a ,,sailor',s ,,garland4 ,selected and ,edited4 ,second ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,an ,,english ,,prose ,,miscellany4 ,selected and ,edited4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,masterman 7,c4 ,f4 ,g471 ,m4,a41 ,m4,p4 ,,tennyson ,,as ,a ,,religious ,,teacher4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,the ,,condition ,,of ,,england4 ,third ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,mayne 7,ethel ,colburn74 ,,enchanters ,,of ,,men4 ,illustrated4 ,demy #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 net4 ,meakin 7,annette ,m4 ,b471 ,fellow of the ,anthropological ,institute4 ,,woman ,,in ,,transition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,galicia3 ,,the ,,switzerland ,,of ,,spain4 ,illustrated4 ,demy #hvo4 #abs4 #f;d4 net4 ,medley 7,d4 ,j471 ,m4,a41 ,professor of ,history in the ,university of ,glasgow4 ,,original ,,illustrations ,,of ,,english ,,constitutional ,,history1 ,,comprising ,a ,,selected ,,number ,,of ,,the ,,chief ,,charters ,,and ,,statutes4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 net4 ,methuen 7,a4 ,m4 ,s471 ,m4,a4 ,,the ,,tragedy ,,of ,,south ,,africa4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #bs4 net4 ,,england',s ,,ruin3 ,,discussed ,,in ,,fourteen ,,letters ,,to ,a ,,protectionist4 ,ninth ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #c;d4 net4 ,meynell 7,everard74 ,,corot ,,and ,,his ,,friends4 ,illustrated4 ,demy #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 net4 ,miles 7,eustace71 ,m4,a4 ,,life ,,after ,,life3 ,,or1 ,,the ,,theory ,,of ,,reincarnation4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,the ,,power ,,of ,,concentration3 ,,how ,,to ,,acquire ,,it4 ,third ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4 net4 ,millais 7,j4 ,g474 ,,the ,,life ,,and ,,letters ,,of ,,sir ,,john ,,everett ,,millais1 ,president of the ,royal ,academy4 ,illustrated4 ,new ,edition4 ,demy #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 net4 ,milne 7,j4 ,g471 ,m4,a4 ,a ,,history ,,of ,,egypt ,,under ,,roman ,,rule4 ,illustrated4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,mitton 7,g4 ,e471 ,,jane ,,austen ,,and ,,her ,,times4 ,illustrated4 ,second and ,cheaper ,edition4 ,large ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,moffat 7,mary ,m474 ,,queen ,,louisa ,,of ,,prussia4 ,illustrated4 ,fourth ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,money 7,l4 ,g4 ,chiozza74 ,,riches ,,and ,,poverty4 ,ninth ,edition4 ,demy #hvo4 #es4 net4 ,also ,cr4 #hvo4 #as4 net4 ,,money',s ,,fiscal ,,dictionary1 #aiaj4 ,demy #hvo4 #es4 net4 ,moore 7,t4 ,sturge74 ,,art ,,and ,,life4 ,illustrated4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #es4 net4 ,moorhouse 7,e4 ,hallam74 ,,nelson',s ,,lady ,,hamilton4 ,illustrated4 ,second ,edition4 ,demy #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 net4 ,morgan 7,j4 ,h471 ,m4,a4 ,,the ,,house ,,of ,,lords ,,and ,,the ,,constitution4 ,with an ,introduction by the ,,lord ,,chancellor4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #as4 net4 ,morton 7,a4 ,anderson74 ,see ,brodrick 7,m474 ,norway 7,a4 ,h47 ,,naples4 ,,past ,,and ,,present4 ,illustrated4 ,third ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,oman 7,c4 ,w4 ,c471 ,m4,a41 ,fellow of ,all ,souls'1 ,oxford4 ,a ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,art ,,of ,,war ,,in ,,the ,,middle ,,ages4 ,illustrated4 ,demy #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 net4 99,,england ,,before ,,the ,,conquest4 ,with ,maps4 ,demy #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 net4 ,oxford 7,m4 ,n471 of ,guy's ,hospital4 ,a ,,handbook ,,of ,,nursing4 ,fifth ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,pakes 7,w4 ,c4 ,c474 ,,the ,,science ,,of ,,hygiene4 ,illustrated4 ,demy #hvo4 #aes4 ,parker 7,eric74 ,,the ,,book ,,of ,,the ,,zoo2 ,,by ,,day ,,and ,,night4 ,illustrated4 ,second ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,parsons 7,mrs4 ,c474 ,,the ,,incomparable ,,siddons4 ,illustrated4 ,demy #hvo4 #abs4 #f;d4 net4 ,patmore 7,k4 ,a474 ,,the ,,court ,,of ,,louis ,,xiii4 ,illustrated4 ,third ,edition4 ,demy #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 net4 ,patterson 7,a4 ,h474 ,,man ,,and ,,nature ,,on ,,tidal ,,waters4 ,illustrated4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,peel 7,robert71 and ,minchin 7,h4 ,c471 ,m4,a4 ,,oxford4 ,illustrated4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,petrie 7,w4 ,m4 ,flinders71 ,d4,c4,l41 ,,ll4,d41 ,professor of ,egyptology at ,university ,college4 ,a ,,history ,,of ,,egypt4 ,illustrated4 ,in ,six ,volumes4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 each4 ,,vol4 ,i4 ,,from ,,the ,,earliest ,,kings ,,to ,,xvith ,,dynasty4 ,sixth ,edition4 ,,vol4 ,,ii4 ,,the ,,xviith ,,and ,,xviiith ,,dynasties4 ,fourth ,edition4 ,,vol4 ,,iii4 ,,xixth ,,to ,,xxxth ,,dynasties4 ,,vol4 ,,iv4 ,,egypt ,,under ,,the ,,ptolemaic ,,dynasty4 ,j4 ,p4 ,,mahaffy1 ,litt4,d4 ,,vol4 ,v4 ,,egypt ,,under ,,roman ,,rule4 ,j4 ,g4 ,,milne1 ,m4,a4 ,,vol4 ,,vi4 ,,egypt ,,in ,,the ,,middle ,,ages4 ,,stanley ,,lane-,,poole1 ,m4,a4 ,,religion ,,and ,,conscience ,,in ,,ancient ,,egypt4 ,lectures delivered at ,university ,college1 ,london4 ,illustrated4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,syria ,,and ,,egypt1 ,,from ,,the ,,tell ,,el ,,amarna ,,letters4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,egyptian ,,tales4 ,translated from the ,papyri4 ,first ,series1 ,i,vth to ,x,i,ith ,dynasty4 ,edited by ,w4 ,m4 ,,flinders ,,petrie4 ,illustrated4 ,second ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,egyptian ,,tales4 ,translated from the ,papyri4 ,second ,series1 ,x,v,i,i,ith to ,x,i,xth ,dynasty4 ,illustrated4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,egyptian ,,decorative ,,art4 ,a ,course of ,lectures delivered at the ,royal ,institution4 ,illustrated4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4 99,phelps 7,ruth ,s474 ,,skies ,,italian3 ,a ,,little ,,breviary ,,for ,,travellers ,,in ,,italy4 ,fcap4 #hvo4 #es4 net4 ,phythian 7,j4 ,ernest74 ,,trees ,,in ,,nature1 ,,myth1 ,,and ,,art4 ,illustrated4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,podmore 7,frank74 ,,modern ,,spiritualism4 ,two ,volumes4 ,demy #hvo4 #bas4 net4 ,,mesmerism ,,and ,,christian ,,science3 ,a ,short ,history of ,mental ,healing4 ,second ,edition4 ,demy #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 net4 ,pollard 7,alfred ,w474 ,,shakespeare ,,folios ,,and ,,quartos4 ,a ,study in the ,bibliography of ,shakespeare's ,plays1 #aeid-afhe4 ,illustrated4 ,folio4 #bas4 net4 ,powell 7,arthur ,e474 ,,food ,,and ,,health4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4 net4 ,power 7,j4 ,o',connor74 ,,the ,,making ,,of ,,an ,,orator4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,price 7,l4 ,l471 ,m4,a41 ,fellow of ,oriel ,college1 ,oxon4 ,a ,,history ,,of ,,english ,,political ,,economy ,,from ,,adam ,,smith ,,to ,,arnold ,,toynbee4 ,sixth ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #bs4 #f;d4 ,pullen-,burry 7,b474 ,,in ,a ,,german ,,colony2 or1 ,,four ,,weeks ,,in ,,new ,,britain4 ,illustrated4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #es4 net4 ,pycraft 7,w4 ,p474 ,,bird ,,life4 ,illustrated4 ,demy #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 net4 ,ragg 7,lonsdale71 ,b4,d4 ,oxon4 ,,dante ,,and ,,his ,,italy4 ,illustrated4 ,demy #hvo4 #abs4 #f;d4 net4 99,rappoport 7,angelo ,s474 ,,home ,,life ,,in ,,russia4 ,illustrated4 ,demy #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 net4 ,raven-,hill 7,l474 ,see ,llewellyn 7,owen74 ,rawlings 7,gertrude74 ,,coins ,,and ,,how ,,to ,,know ,,them4 ,illustrated4 ,second ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #es4 net4 ,rea 7,lilian74 ,,the ,,life ,,and ,,times ,,of ,,marie ,,madeleine ,,countess ,,of ,,la ,,fayette4 ,illustrated4 ,demy #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 net4 ,read 7,c4 ,stanford71 ,m4,b4 7,lond471 ,m4,r4,c4,s41 ,l4,r4,c4,p4 ,,fads ,,and ,,feeding4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,rees 7,j4 ,d471 ,c4,i4,e41 ,m4,p4 ,,the ,,real ,,india4 ,second ,edition4 ,demy #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 net4 ,reich 7,emil71 ,doctor ,juris4 ,,woman ,,through ,,the ,,ages4 ,illustrated4 ,two ,volumes4 ,demy #hvo4 #bas4 net4 ,reid 7,archdall71 ,m4,b4 ,the ,laws of ,heredity4 ,demy #hvo4 #bas4 net4 ,richmond 7,wilfrid71 ,chaplain of ,lincoln's ,inn4 ,,the ,,creed ,,in ,,the ,,epistles4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,roberts 7,m4 ,e474 ,see ,channer 7,c4 ,c474 ,robertson 7,a471 ,d4,d41 ,lord ,bishop of ,exeter4 ,,regnum ,,dei4 7,the ,bampton ,lectures of #aija47 ,a ,new and ,cheaper ,edition4 ,demy #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 net4 ,robertson 7,c4 ,grant71 ,m4,a41 ,fellow of ,all ,souls' ,college1 ,oxford4 ,,select ,,statutes1 ,,cases1 ,,and ,,constitutional ,,documents1 #affj-ahcb4 ,demy #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 net4 ,robertson 7,sir ,g4 ,s471 ,k4,c4,s4,i4 ,,chitral3 ,,the ,,story ,,of ,a ,,minor ,,siege4 ,illustrated4 ,third ,edition4 ,demy #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 net4 ,roe 7,fred74 ,,old ,,oak ,,furniture4 ,illustrated4 ,second ,edition4 ,demy #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 net4 ,royde-,smith 7,n4 ,g474 ,,the ,,pillow ,,book3 ,a ,,garner ,,of ,,many ,,moods4 ,collected4 ,second ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #ds4 #f;d4 net4 ,,poets ,,of ,,our ,,day4 ,selected1 with an ,introduction4 ,fcap4 #hvo4 #es4 ,rumbold 7,the ,right ,hon4 ,sir ,horace71 ,bart41 ,g4,c4,b41 ,g4,c4,m4,g4 ,,the ,,austrian ,,court ,,in ,,the ,,nineteenth ,,century4 ,illustrated4 ,second ,edition4 ,demy #hvo4 #ahs4 net4 ,russell 7,w4 ,clark74 ,,the ,,life ,,of ,,admiral ,,lord ,,collingwood4 ,illustrated4 ,fourth ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,ryley 7,m4 ,beresford74 ,,queens ,,of ,,the ,,renaissance4 ,illustrated4 ,demy #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 net4 ,st4 ,francis of ,assisi4 ,,the ,,little ,,flowers ,,of ,,the ,,glorious ,,messer1 ,,and ,,of ,,his ,,friars4 ,done into ,english1 with ,notes by ,,william ,,heywood4 ,illustrated4 ,demy #hvo4 #es4 net4 #8,saki' 7,h4 ,munro74 ,,reginald4 ,second ,edition4 ,fcap4 #hvo4 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,reginald ,,in ,,russia4 ,fcap4 #hvo4 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,sanders 7,lloyd74 ,,the ,,holland ,,house ,,circle4 ,illustrated4 ,second ,edition4 ,demy #hvo4 #abs4 #f;d4 net4 99,scott 7,ernest74 ,,terre ,,napol,,on1 ,,and ,,the ,,expedition ,,of ,,discovery ,,despatched ,,to ,,australia ,,by ,,order ,,of ,,bonaparte1 #ahjj-ahjd4 ,illustrated4 ,demy #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 net4 ,slincourt 7,hugh de74 ,,great ,,ralegh4 ,illustrated4 ,demy #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 net4 ,selous 7,edmund74 ,,tommy ,,smith',s ,,animals4 ,illustrated4 ,eleventh ,edition4 ,fcap4 #hvo4 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,tommy ,,smith',s ,,other ,,animals4 ,illustrated4 ,fifth ,edition4 ,fcap4 #hvo4 #bs4 #f;d4 99,shafer 7,sara ,a474 ,a ,,white ,,paper ,,garden4 ,illustrated4 ,demy #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 net4 ,shakespeare 7,william74 ,,the ,,four ,,folios1 #afbc2 #afcb2 #affd2 #afhe4 ,each #d #ds4 net1 or a complete set1 #ab #abs4 net4 ,folios #b1 #c and #d are ready4 ,,the ,,poems ,,of ,,william ,,shakespeare4 ,with an ,introduction and ,notes by ,,george ,,wyndham4 ,demy #hvo4 ,buckram1 gilt top4 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,sharp 7,a474 ,,victorian ,,poets4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #bs4 #f;d4 ,sidgwick 7,mrs4 ,alfred74 ,,home ,,life ,,in ,,germany4 ,illustrated4 ,second ,edition4 ,demy #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 net4 ,sime 7,john74 ,see ,little ,books on ,art4 ,sladen 7,douglas74 ,,sicily3 ,the ,new ,winter ,resort4 ,illustrated4 ,second ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #es4 net4 ,smith 7,adam74 ,,the ,,wealth ,,of ,,nations4 ,edited with an ,introduction and numerous ,notes by ,,edwin ,,cannan1 ,m4,a4 ,two ,volumes4 ,demy #hvo4 #bas4 net4 ,smith 7,sophia ,s474 ,,dean ,,swift4 ,illustrated4 ,demy #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 net4 ,snell 7,f4 ,j474 ,a ,,book ,,of ,,exmoor4 ,illustrated4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 #8,stancliffe4' ,,golf ,,do',s ,,and ,,dont',s4 ,second ,edition4 ,fcap4 #hvo4 #as4 ,stead 7,francis ,h471 ,m4,a4 ,,how ,,old ,,age ,,pensions ,,began ,,to ,,be4 ,illustrated4 ,demy #hvo4 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,stevenson 7,r4 ,l474 ,,the ,,letters ,,of ,,robert ,,louis ,,stevenson ,,to ,,his ,,family ,,and ,,friends4 ,selected and ,edited by ,,sidney ,,colvin4 ,eighth ,edition4 ,two ,volumes4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #abs4 ,,vailima ,,letters4 ,with an ,etched ,portrait by ,,william ,,strang4 ,seventh ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 ,buckram4 #fs4 ,,the ,,life ,,of ,r4 ,l4 ,,stevenson4 ,see ,balfour 7,g474 ,stevenson 7,m4 ,i74 ,,from ,,saranac ,,to ,,the ,,marquesas4 ,being ,letters written by ,mrs4 ,m4 ,i4 ,,stevenson during #ahhg-hh4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 net4 ,,letters ,,from ,,samoa1 #ahia-ie4 ,edited and arranged by ,m4 ,c4 ,,balfour4 ,illustrated4 ,second ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 net4 ,storr 7,vernon ,f471 ,m4,a41 ,canon of ,winchester4 ,,development ,,and ,,divine ,,purpose4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #es4 net4 ,streatfeild 7,r4 ,a474 ,,modern ,,music ,,and ,,musicians4 ,illustrated4 ,second ,edition4 ,demy #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 net4 ,swanton 7,e4 ,w474 ,,fungi ,,and ,,how ,,to ,,know ,,them4 ,illustrated4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 net4 99,sykes 7,ella ,c474 ,,persia ,,and ,,its ,,people4 ,illustrated4 ,demy #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 net4 ,symes 7,j4 ,e471 ,m4,a4 ,,the ,,french ,,revolution4 ,second ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #bs4 #f;d4 ,tabor 7,margaret ,e474 ,,the ,,saints ,,in ,,art4 ,illustrated4 ,fcap4 #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4 net4 ,taylor 7,a4 ,e474 ,,the ,,elements ,,of ,,metaphysics4 ,second ,edition4 ,demy #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 net4 ,taylor 7,john ,w474 ,,the ,,coming ,,of ,,the ,,saints4 ,illustrated4 ,demy #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 net4 ,thibaudeau 7,a4 ,c474 ,,bonaparte ,,and ,,the ,,consulate4 ,translated and ,edited by ,g4 ,k4 ,,fortescue1 ,,ll4,d4 ,illustrated4 ,demy #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 net4 ,thompson 7,francis74 ,,selected ,,poems ,,of ,,francis ,,thompson4 ,with a ,biographical ,note by ,,wilfrid ,,meynell4 ,with a ,portrait in ,photogravure4 ,second ,edition4 ,fcap4 #hvo4 #es4 net4 ,tileston 7,mary ,w474 ,,daily ,,strength ,,for ,,daily ,,needs4 ,sixteenth ,edition4 ,medium #afmo4 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,also an edition in superior binding1 #fs4 ,toynbee 7,paget71 ,m4,a41 ,d4 ,litt4 ,,dante ,,in ,,english ,,literature3 ,,from ,,chaucer ,,to ,,cary4 ,two ,volumes4 ,demy #hvo4 #bas4 net4 ,see also ,oxford ,biographies4 ,tozer 7,basil74 ,,the ,,horse ,,in ,,history4 ,illustrated4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,trench 7,herbert74 ,,deirdre ,,wedded1 ,,and ,,other ,,poems4 ,second and ,revised ,edition4 ,large ,post #hvo4 #fs4 ,,new ,,poems4 ,second ,edition4 ,large ,post #hvo4 #fs4 ,,apollo ,,and ,,the ,,seaman4 ,large ,post #hvo4 ,paper1 #as4 #f;d4 net2 cloth1 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,trevelyan 7,g4 ,m471 ,fellow of ,trinity ,college1 ,cambridge4 ,,england ,,under ,,the ,,stuarts4 ,with ,maps and ,plans4 ,third ,edition4 ,demy #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 net4 ,triggs 7,inigo ,h471 ,a4,r4,i4,b4,a4 ,,town ,,planning3 ,,past1 ,,present1 ,,and ,,possible4 ,illustrated4 ,wide ,royal #hvo4 #aes4 net4 ,vaughan 7,herbert ,m471 ,b4,a4 7,oxon74 ,,the ,,last ,,of ,,the ,,royal ,,stuarts1 ,,henry ,,stuart1 ,,cardinal1 ,,duke ,,of ,,york4 ,illustrated4 ,second ,edition4 ,demy #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,the ,,medici ,,popes 7,,leo ,x4 ,,and ,,clement ,,vii474 ,illustrated4 ,demy #hvo4 #aes4 net4 ,,the ,,naples ,,riviera4 ,illustrated4 ,second ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 99,,florence ,,and ,,her ,,treasures4 ,illustrated4 ,fcap4 #hvo4 #es4 net4 ,vernon 7,hon4 ,w4 ,warren71 ,m4,a4 ,,readings ,,on ,,the ,,inferno ,,of ,,dante4 ,with an ,introduction by the ,,rev4 ,,dr4 ,,moore4 ,two ,volumes4 ,second ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #aes4 net4 ,,readings ,,on ,,the ,,purgatorio ,,of ,,dante4 ,with an ,introduction by the late ,,dean ,,church4 ,two ,volumes4 ,third ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #aes4 net4 ,,readings ,,on ,,the ,,paradiso ,,of ,,dante4 ,with an ,introduction by the ,,bishop ,,of ,,ripon4 ,two ,volumes4 ,second ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #aes4 net4 ,vincent 7,j4 ,e474 ,,through ,,east ,,anglia ,,in ,a ,,motor ,,car4 ,illustrated4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,waddell 7,col4 ,l4 ,a471 ,,ll4,d41 ,c4,b4 ,,lhasa ,,and ,,its ,,mysteries4 ,with a ,record of the ,expedition of #aijc-aijd4 ,illustrated4 ,third and ,cheaper ,edition4 ,medium #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 net4 ,wagner 7,richard74 ,,richard ,,wagner',s ,,music ,,dramas3 ,interpretations1 embodying ,wagner's own explanations4 ,by ,,alice ,,leighton ,,cleather and ,,basil ,,crump4 ,in ,three ,volumes4 ,fcap4 #hvo4 #bs4 #f;d4 each4 ,,vol4 ,i4--,,the ,,ring ,,of ,,the ,,nibelung4 ,third ,edition4 ,,vol4 ,,ii4--,,parsifal1 ,,lohengrin1 and ,,the ,,holy ,,grail4 ,,vol4 ,,iii4--,,tristan ,,and ,,isolde4 ,waineman 7,paul74 ,a ,,summer ,,tour ,,in ,,finland4 ,illustrated4 ,demy #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 net4 ,walkley 7,a4 ,b474 ,,drama ,,and ,,life4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,waterhouse 7,elizabeth74 ,,with ,,the ,,simple-,,hearted3 ,little ,homilies to ,women in ,country ,places4 ,second ,edition4 ,small ,pott #hvo4 #bs4 net4 ,,companions ,,of ,,the ,,way4 ,being ,selections for ,morning and ,evening ,reading4 ,chosen and arranged by ,,elizabeth ,,waterhouse4 ,large ,cr4 #hvo4 #es4 net4 ,,thoughts ,,of ,a ,,tertiary4 ,second ,edition4 ,small ,pott #hvo4 #as4 net4 ,watt 7,francis74 ,see ,henderson 7,t4 ,f474 ,weigall 7,arthur ,e4 ,p474 ,a ,,guide ,,to ,,the ,,antiquities ,,of ,,upper ,,egypt3 ,from ,abydos to the ,sudan ,frontier4 ,illustrated4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 net4 ,welch 7,catharine74 ,,the ,,little ,,dauphin4 ,illustrated4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,wells 7,j471 ,m4,a41 ,fellow and ,tutor of ,wadham ,college4 ,,oxford ,,and ,,oxford ,,life4 ,third ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,a ,,short ,,history ,,of ,,rome4 ,ninth ,edition4 ,with #c ,maps4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,westell 7,w4 ,percival74 ,,the ,,young ,,naturalist4 ,illustrated4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,westell 7,w4 ,percival71 ,f4,l4,s41 ,m4,b4,o4,u41 and ,cooper 7,c4 ,s71 ,f4,r4,h4,s4 ,,the ,,young ,,botanist4 ,illustrated4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4 net4 99,wheeler 7,ethel ,r74 ,,famous ,,blue ,,stockings4 ,illustrated4 ,demy #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 net4 ,whibley 7,c474 ,see ,henley 7,w4 ,e474 ,white 7,george ,f471 ,lieut4-,col4 ,a ,,century ,,of ,,spain ,,and ,,portugal1 #aghh-ahih4 ,demy #hvo4 #abs4 #f;d4 net4 ,whitley 7,miss74 ,see ,dilke 7,lady74 ,wilde 7,oscar74 ,,de ,,profundis4 ,twelfth ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #es4 net4 ,,the ,,works ,,of ,,oscar ,,wilde4 ,in ,twelve ,volumes4 ,fcap4 #hvo4 #es4 net each volume4 ,i4 ,,lord ,,arthur ,,savile',s ,,crime ,,and ,,the ,,portrait ,,of ,,mr4 ,w4 ,h4 ,,ii4 ,,the ,,duchess ,,of ,,padua4 ,,iii4 ,,poems4 ,,iv4 ,,lady ,,windermere',s ,,fan4 ,v4 ,a ,,woman ,,of ,,no ,,importance4 ,,vi4 ,,an ,,ideal ,,husband4 ,,vii4 ,,the ,,importance ,,of ,,being ,,earnest4 ,,viii4 ,a ,,house ,,of ,,pomegranates4 ,,ix4 ,,intentions4 ,x4 ,,de ,,profundis ,,and ,,prison ,,letters4 ,,xi4 ,,essays4 ,,xii4 ,,salom1 ,a ,,florentine ,,tragedy1 and ,,la ,,sainte ,,courtisane4 ,williams 7,h4 ,noel74 ,,the ,,women ,,bonapartes4 ,the ,mother and three ,sisters of ,napoleon4 ,illustrated4 ,in ,two ,volumes4 ,demy #hvo4 #bds4 net4 ,a ,,rose ,,of ,,savoy3 ,,marie ,,adel,,ide ,,of ,,savoy1 ,,duchesse ,,de ,,bourgogne1 ,,mother ,,of ,,louis ,,xv4 ,illustrated4 ,second ,edition4 ,demy #hvo4 #aes4 net4 99,,the ,,fascinating ,,duc ,,de ,,richelieu3 ,,louis ,,fran,,ois ,,armand ,,du ,,plessis1 ,,mar,,chal ,,duc ,,de ,,richelieu4 ,illustrated4 ,demy #hvo4 #aes4 net4 ,wood 7,sir ,evelyn71 ,f4,m41 ,v4,c41 ,g4,c4,b41 ,g4,c4,m4,g4 ,,from ,,midshipman ,,to ,,field-,,marshal4 ,illustrated4 ,fifth and ,cheaper ,edition4 ,demy #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,the ,,revolt ,,in ,,hindustan4 #aheg-ei4 ,illustrated4 ,second ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,wood 7,w4 ,birkbeck71 ,m4,a41 late ,scholar of ,worcester ,college1 ,oxford1 and ,edmonds 7,major ,j4 ,e471 ,r4,e41 ,d4,a4,q4-,m4,g4 ,a ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,civil ,,war ,,in ,,the ,,united ,,states4 ,with an ,introduction by ,h4 ,,spenser ,,wilkinson4 ,with #bd ,maps and ,plans4 ,second ,edition4 ,demy #hvo4 #abs4 #f;d4 net4 ,wordsworth 7,w474 ,,the ,,poems4 ,with an ,introduction and ,notes by ,,nowell ,c4 ,,smith1 late ,fellow of ,new ,college1 ,oxford4 ,in ,three ,volumes4 ,demy #hvo4 #aes4 net4 ,,poems ,,by ,,william ,,wordsworth4 ,selected with an ,introduction by ,,stopford ,a4 ,,brooke4 ,illustrated4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 net4 ,wyatt 7,kate ,m474 ,see ,gloag 7,m4 ,r474 ,wyllie 7,m4 ,a474 ,,norway ,,and ,,its ,,fjords4 ,illustrated4 ,second ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,yeats 7,w4 ,b474 ,a ,,book ,,of ,,irish ,,verse4 ,revised and ,enlarged ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,young 7,filson74 ,see ,the ,complete ,series4 ,,part ,,ii4--,a ,,selection ,,of ,,series4 ,ancient ,cities4 ,general ,editor1 ,b4 ,c4 ,a4 ,,windle1 ,d4,sc41 ,f4,r4,s4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #ds4 #f;d4 net4 ,with ,illustrations by ,e4 ,h4 ,,new1 and other ,artists4 ,,bristol4 ,by ,alfred ,harvey1 ,m4,b4 ,,canterbury4 ,by ,j4 ,c4 ,cox1 ,,ll4,d41 ,f4,s4,a4 ,,chester4 ,by ,b4 ,c4 ,a4 ,windle1 ,d4,sc41 ,f4,r4,s4 ,,dublin4 ,by ,s4 ,a4 ,o4 ,fitzpatrick4 ,,edinburgh4 ,by ,m4 ,g4 ,williamson1 ,m4,a4 ,,lincoln4 ,by ,e4 ,mansel ,sympson1 ,m4,a4 ,,shrewsbury4 ,by ,t4 ,auden1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,s4,a4 ,,wells and ,,glastonbury4 ,by ,t4 ,s4 ,holmes4 ,the ,antiquary's ,books4 ,general ,editor1 ,j4 ,,charles ,,cox1 ,,ll4,d41 ,f4,s4,a4 ,demy #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 net4 ,with ,numerous ,illustrations4 ,,arch,,ology ,,and ,,false ,,antiquities4 ,by ,r4 ,munro4 ,,bells ,,of ,,england1 ,,the4 ,by ,canon ,j4 ,j4 ,raven4 ,second ,edition4 ,,brasses ,,of ,,england1 ,,the4 ,by ,herbert ,w4 ,macklin4 ,second ,edition4 ,,celtic ,,art ,,in ,,pagan ,,and ,,christian ,,times4 ,by ,j4 ,romilly ,allen4 ,,domesday ,,inquest1 ,,the4 ,by ,adolphus ,ballard4 ,,english ,,church ,,furniture4 ,by ,j4 ,c4 ,cox and ,a4 ,harvey4 ,second ,edition4 ,,english ,,costume4 ,from ,prehistoric ,times to the ,end of the ,eighteenth ,century4 ,by ,george ,clinch4 ,,english ,,monastic ,,life4 ,by the ,right ,rev4 ,abbot ,gasquet4 ,fourth ,edition4 ,,english ,,seals4 ,by ,j4 ,harvey ,bloom4 ,,folk-,,lore ,,as ,,an ,,historical ,,science4 ,by ,g4 ,l4 ,gomme4 ,,gilds ,,and ,,companies ,,of ,,london1 ,,the4 ,by ,george ,unwin4 ,,manor ,,and ,,manorial ,,records1 ,,the4 ,by ,nathaniel ,j4 ,hone4 ,,medi,,val ,,hospitals ,,of ,,england1 ,,the4 ,by ,rotha ,mary ,clay4 ,,old ,,service ,,books ,,of ,,the ,,english ,,church4 ,by ,christopher ,wordsworth1 ,m4,a41 and ,henry ,littlehales4 ,,parish ,,life ,,in ,,medi,,val ,,england4 ,by the ,right ,rev4 ,abbott ,gasquet4 ,second ,edition4 99,,parish ,,registers ,,of ,,england1 ,,the4 ,by ,j4 ,c4 ,cox4 ,,remains ,,of ,,the ,,prehistoric ,,age ,,in ,,england4 ,by ,b4 ,c4 ,a4 ,windle4 ,second ,edition4 ,,royal ,,forests ,,of ,,england1 ,,the4 ,by ,j4 ,c4 ,cox1 ,,ll4,d4 ,,shrines ,,of ,,british ,,saints4 ,by ,j4 ,c4 ,wall4 ,the ,arden ,shakespeare4 ,demy #hvo4 #bs4 #f;d4 net each volume4 ,an edition of ,shakespeare in single ,plays4 ,edited with a full ,introduction1 ,textual ,notes1 and a ,commentary at the foot of the page4 ,,all',s ,,well ,,that ,,ends ,,well4 ,,antony ,,and ,,cleopatra4 ,,cymbeline4 ,,comedy ,,of ,,errors1 ,,the4 ,,hamlet4 ,second ,edition4 ,,julius ,,caesar4 ,,king ,,henry ,v4 ,,king ,,henry ,,vi4 ,,pt4 ,i4 ,,king ,,henry ,,vi4 ,,pt4 ,,ii4 ,,king ,,henry ,,vi4 ,,pt4 ,,iii4 ,,king ,,lear4 ,,king ,,richard ,,iii4 ,,life ,,and ,,death ,,of ,,king ,,john1 ,,the4 ,,love',s ,,labour',s ,,lost4 ,,macbeth4 ,,measure ,,for ,,measure4 ,,merchant ,,of ,,venice1 ,,the4 ,,merry ,,wives ,,of ,,windsor1 ,,the4 ,,midsummer ,,night',s ,,dream1 ,a4 ,,othello4 ,,pericles4 ,,romeo ,,and ,,juliet4 ,,taming ,,of ,,the ,,shrew1 ,,the4 ,,tempest1 ,,the4 ,,timon ,,of ,,athens4 ,,titus ,,andronicus4 ,,troilus ,,and ,,cressida4 ,,two ,,gentlemen ,,of ,,verona1 ,,the4 ,,twelfth ,,night4 ,classics of ,art4 ,edited by ,dr4 ,j4 ,h4 ,w4 ,,laing4 ,with numerous ,illustrations4 ,wide ,royal #hvo4 ,gilt top4 ,,the ,,art ,,of ,,the ,,greeks4 ,by ,h4 ,b4 ,walters4 #abs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,florentine ,,sculptors ,,of ,,the ,,renaissance4 ,wilhelm ,bode1 ,ph4,d4 ,translated by ,jessie ,haynes4 #abs4 #f;d4 net4 99,,george ,,romney4 by ,arthur ,b4 ,chamberlain4 #abs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,ghirlandaio4 ,gerald ,s4 ,davies4 ,second ,edition4 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,,michelangelo4 ,by ,gerald ,s4 ,davies4 #abs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,rubens4 ,by ,edward ,dillon1 ,m4,a4 #bes4 net4 ,,raphael4 ,by ,a4 ,p4 ,opp4 #abs4 #f;d4 net4 99,,titian4 ,by ,charles ,ricketts4 #abs4 #f;d4 net4 99,,turner',s ,,sketches ,,and ,,drawings4 ,by ,a4 ,j4 ,finberg4 #abs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,velazquez4 ,by ,a4 de ,beruete4 #ajs4 #f;d4 net4 ,the 8,complete0 ,series4 ,fully ,illustrated4 ,demy #hvo4 ,,the ,,complete ,,cook4 ,by ,lilian ,whitling4 #gs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,the ,,complete ,,cricketer4 ,by ,albert ,e4 ,knight4 #gs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,the ,,complete ,,foxhunter4 ,by ,charles ,richardson4 #abs4 #f;d4 net4 ,second ,edition4 ,,the ,,complete ,,golfer4 ,by ,harry ,vardon4 #ajs4 #f;d4 net4 ,tenth ,edition4 ,,the ,,complete ,,hockey-,,player4 ,by ,eustace ,e4 ,white4 #es4 net4 ,second ,edition4 ,,the ,,complete ,,lawn ,,tennis ,,player4 ,by ,a4 ,wallace ,myers1 #ajs4 #f;d4 net4 ,second ,edition4 ,,the ,,complete ,,motorist4 ,by ,filson ,young4 #abs4 #f;d4 net4 ,new ,edition 7,seventh74 ,,the ,,complete ,,mountaineer4 ,by ,g4 ,d4 ,abraham4 #aes4 net4 ,second ,edition4 ,,the ,,complete ,,oarsman4 ,by ,r4 ,c4 ,lehmann1 ,m4,p4 #ajs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,the ,,complete ,,photographer4 ,by ,r4 ,child ,bayley4 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,net4 ,fourth ,edition4 ,,the ,,complete ,,rugby ,,footballer1 ,,on ,,the ,,new ,,zealand ,,system4 ,by ,d4 ,gallaher and ,w4 ,j4 ,stead4 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,net4 ,second ,edition4 ,,the ,,complete ,,shot4 by ,g4 ,t4 ,teasdale ,buckell4 #abs4 #f;d4 ,net4 ,third ,edition4 ,the ,connoisseur's ,library4 ,with numerous ,illustrations4 ,wide ,royal #hvo4 #bes4 net4 ,,english ,,furniture4 ,by ,f4 ,s4 ,robinson4 ,second ,edition4 ,,english ,,coloured ,,books4 ,by ,martin ,hardie4 ,,european ,,enamels4 ,by ,henry ,h4 ,cunynghame1 ,c4,b4 ,,glass4 ,by ,edward ,dillon4 ,,goldsmiths' ,,and ,,silversmiths' ,,work4 ,by ,nelson ,dawson4 ,second ,edition4 99,,illuminated ,,manuscripts4 ,by ,j4 ,a4 ,herbert4 ,,ivories4 ,by ,a4 ,maskell4 ,,jewellery4 ,by ,h4 ,clifford ,smith4 ,second ,edition4 ,,mezzotints4 ,by ,cyril ,davenport4 ,,miniatures4 ,by ,dudley ,heath4 ,,porcelain4 ,by ,edward ,dillon4 ,,seals4 ,by ,walter de ,gray ,birch4 ,handbooks of ,english ,church ,history4 ,edited by ,j4 ,h4 ,,burn1 ,b4,d4 ,crown #hvo4 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,the ,,foundations ,,of ,,the ,,english ,,church4 ,by ,j4 ,h4 ,maude4 ,,the ,,saxon ,,church ,,and ,,the ,,norman ,,conquest4 ,by ,c4 ,t4 ,cruttwell4 ,,the ,,medi,,val ,,church ,,and ,,the ,,papacy4 ,by ,a4 ,c4 ,jennings4 ,,the ,,reformation ,,period4 ,by ,henry ,gee4 ,,the ,,struggle ,,with ,,puritanism4 ,by ,bruce ,blaxland4 ,,the ,,church ,,of ,,england ,,in ,,the ,,eighteenth ,,century4 ,by ,alfred ,plummer4 ,the ,illustrated ,pocket ,library of ,plain and ,coloured ,books4 ,fcap4 #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4 net each volume4 ,,with ,,coloured ,,illustrations4 ,,old ,,coloured ,,books4 ,by ,george ,paston4 #bs4 net4 ,,the ,,life ,,and ,,death ,,of ,,john ,,mytton1 ,,esq4 ,by ,nimrod4 ,fifth ,edition4 ,,the ,,life ,,of ,a ,,sportsman4 ,by ,nimrod4 ,,handley ,,cross4 ,by ,r4 ,s4 ,surtees4 ,third ,edition4 ,,mr4 ,,sponge',s ,,sporting ,,tour4 ,by ,r4 ,s4 ,surtees4 ,,jorrocks' ,,jaunts ,,and ,,jollities4 ,by ,r4 ,s4 ,surtees4 ,second ,edition4 ,,ask ,,mamma4 ,by ,r4 ,s4 ,surtees4 ,,the ,,analysis ,,of ,,the ,,hunting ,,field4 ,by ,r4 ,s4 ,surtees4 ,,the ,,tour ,,of ,,dr4 ,,syntax ,,in ,,search ,,of ,,the ,,picturesque4 ,by ,william ,combe4 ,,the ,,tour ,,of ,,dr4 ,,syntax ,,in ,,search ,,of ,,consolation4 ,by ,william ,combe4 ,,the ,,third ,,tour ,,of ,,dr4 ,,syntax ,,in ,,search ,,of ,a ,,wife4 ,by ,william ,combe4 ,,the ,,history ,,of ,,johnny ,,quae ,,genus4 ,by the ,author of #8,the ,three ,tours4' ,,the ,,english ,,dance ,,of ,,death1 from the ,designs of ,t4 ,rowlandson1 with ,metrical ,illustrations by the ,author of #8,doctor ,syntax4' ,two ,volumes4 ,,the ,,dance ,,of ,,life3 ,a ,poem4 ,by the ,author of #8,dr4 ,syntax4' ,,life ,,in ,,london4 ,by ,pierce ,egan4 ,,real ,,life ,,in ,,london4 ,by an ,amateur 7,pierce ,egan74 ,two ,volumes4 ,,the ,,life ,,of ,,an ,,actor4 ,by ,pierce ,egan4 ,,the ,,vicar ,,of ,,wakefield4 ,by ,oliver ,goldsmith4 ,,the ,,military ,,adventures ,,of ,,johnny ,,newcombe4 ,by an ,officer4 ,,the ,,national ,,sports ,,of ,,great ,,britain4 ,with ,descriptions and #ej ,coloured ,plates by ,henry ,alken4 ,,the ,,adventures ,,of ,a ,,post ,,captain4 ,by a ,naval ,officer4 ,,gamonia4 ,by ,lawrence ,rawstone1 ,esq4 ,,an ,,academy ,,for ,,grown ,,horsemen4 ,by ,geoffrey ,gambado1 ,esq4 ,,real ,,life ,,in ,,ireland4 ,by a ,real ,paddy4 ,,the ,,adventures ,,of ,,johnny ,,newcombe ,,in ,,the ,,navy4 ,by ,alfred ,burton4 ,,the ,,old ,,english ,,squire4 ,by ,john ,careless1 ,esq4 ,,the ,,english ,,spy4 ,by ,bernard ,blackmantle4 ,two ,volumes4 #gs4 net4 ,,with ,,plain ,,illustrations4 ,,the ,,grave3 ,a ,poem4 ,by ,robert ,blair4 ,,illustrations ,,of ,,the ,,book ,,of ,,job4 ,invented and engraved by ,william ,blake4 ,,windsor ,,castle4 ,by ,w4 ,harrison ,ainsworth4 ,,the ,,tower ,,of ,,london4 ,by ,w4 ,harrison ,ainsworth4 ,,frank ,,fairlegh4 ,by ,f4 ,e4 ,smedley4 ,,handy ,,andy4 ,by ,samuel ,lover4 ,,the ,,compleat ,,angler4 ,by ,izaak ,walton and ,charles ,cotton4 ,,the ,,pickwick ,,papers4 ,by ,charles ,dickens4 ,leaders of ,religion4 ,edited by ,h4 ,c4 ,,beeching1 ,m4,a41 ,canon of ,westminster4 ,with ,portraits4 ,crown #hvo4 #bs4 net4 ,,cardinal ,,newman4 ,by ,r4 ,h4 ,hutton4 ,,john ,,wesley4 ,by ,j4 ,h4 ,overton1 ,m4,a4 ,,bishop ,,wilberforce4 ,by ,g4 ,w4 ,daniell1 ,m4,a4 ,,cardinal ,,manning4 ,by ,a4 ,w4 ,hutton1 ,m4,a4 ,,charles ,,simeon4 ,by ,h4 ,c4 ,g4 ,moule1 ,d4,d4 ,,john ,,knox4 ,by ,f4 ,mac,cunn4 ,second ,edition4 ,,john ,,howe4 ,by ,r4 ,f4 ,horton1 ,d4,d4 ,,thomas ,,ken4 ,by ,f4 ,a4 ,clarke1 ,m4,a4 ,,george ,,fox1 ,,the ,,quaker4 ,by ,t4 ,hodgkin1 ,d4,c4,l4 ,third ,edition4 ,,john ,,keble4 ,by ,walter ,lock1 ,d4,d4 ,,thomas ,,chalmers4 ,by ,mrs4 ,oliphant4 ,,lancelot ,,andrewes4 ,by ,r4 ,l4 ,ottley1 ,d4,d4 ,second ,edition4 ,,augustine ,,of ,,canterbury4 ,by ,e4 ,l4 ,cutts1 ,d4,d4 ,,william ,,laud4 ,by ,w4 ,h4 ,hutton4 ,m4,a4 ,third ,edition4 ,,john ,,donne4 ,by ,augustus ,jessop1 ,d4,d4 ,,thomas ,,cranmer4 ,by ,a4 ,j4 ,mason1 ,d4,d4 ,,bishop ,,latimer4 ,by ,r4 ,m4 ,carlyle and ,a4 ,j4 ,carlyle1 ,m4,a4 ,,bishop ,,butler4 ,by ,w4 ,a4 ,spooner1 ,m4,a4 ,the ,library of ,devotion4 ,with ,introductions and 7where necessary7 ,notes4 ,small ,pott #hvo1 cloth1 #bs42 leather1 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,the ,,confessions ,,of ,,st4 ,,augustine4 ,seventh ,edition4 ,,the ,,imitation ,,of ,,christ4 ,fifth ,edition4 ,,the ,,christian ,,year4 ,fourth ,edition4 ,,lyra ,,innocentium4 ,second ,edition4 ,,the ,,temple4 ,second ,edition4 ,a ,,book ,,of ,,devotions4 ,second ,edition4 ,a ,,serious ,,call ,,to ,a ,,devout ,,and ,,holy ,,life4 ,fourth ,edition4 ,a ,,guide ,,to ,,eternity4 ,,the ,,inner ,,way4 ,second ,edition4 ,,on ,,the ,,love ,,of ,,god4 ,,the ,,psalms ,,of ,,david4 ,,lyra ,,apostolica4 ,,the ,,song ,,of ,,songs4 ,,the ,,thoughts ,,of ,,pascal4 ,second ,edition4 ,a ,,manual ,,of ,,consolation ,,from ,,the ,,saints ,,and ,,fathers4 ,,devotions ,,from ,,the ,,apocrypha4 ,,the ,,spiritual ,,combat4 ,,the ,,devotions ,,of ,,st4 ,,anselm4 ,,bishop ,,wilson',s ,,sacra ,,privata4 ,,grace ,,abounding ,,to ,,the ,,chief ,,of ,,sinners4 ,,lyra ,,sacra3 ,a ,book of ,sacred ,verse4 ,second ,edition4 ,a ,,day ,,book ,,from ,,the ,,saints ,,and ,,fathers4 ,a ,,little ,,book ,,of ,,heavenly ,,wisdom4 ,a ,selection from the ,english ,mystics4 ,,light1 ,,life1 ,,and ,,love4 ,a ,selection from the ,german ,mystics4 ,,an ,,introduction ,,to ,,the ,,devout ,,life4 ,,the ,,little ,,flowers ,,of ,,the ,,glorious ,,messer ,,st4 ,,francis ,,and ,,of ,,his ,,friars4 ,,death ,,and ,,immortality4 ,,the ,,spiritual ,,guide4 ,,devotions ,,for ,,every ,,day ,,in ,,the ,,week ,,and ,,the ,,great ,,festivals4 ,,preces ,,privat4 ,,hor ,,mystic3 ,a ,day ,book from the ,writings of ,mystics of ,many ,nations4 ,little ,books on ,art4 ,with many ,illustrations4 ,demy #afmo4 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,each volume consists of about #bjj pages1 and contains from #cj to #dj ,illustrations1 including a ,frontispiece in ,photogravure4 ,,albrecht ,,durer4 ,j4 ,allen4 ,,arts ,,of ,,japan1 ,,the4 ,e4 ,dillon4 ,,bookplates4 ,e4 ,almack4 ,,botticelli4 ,mary ,l4 ,bloomer4 ,,burne-,,jones4 ,f4 de ,lisle4 99,,christian ,,symbolism4 ,mrs4 ,h4 ,jenner4 ,,christ ,,in ,,art4 ,mrs4 ,h4 ,jenner4 ,,claude4 ,e4 ,dillon4 ,,constable4 ,h4 ,w4 ,tompkins4 ,,corot4 ,a4 ,pollard and ,e4 ,birnstingl4 ,,enamels4 ,mrs4 ,n4 ,dawson4 ,,frederic ,,leighton4 ,a4 ,corkran4 ,,george ,,romney4 ,g4 ,paston4 ,,greek ,,art4 ,h4 ,b4 ,walters4 ,,greuze ,,and ,,boucher4 ,e4 ,f4 ,pollard4 ,,holbein4 ,mrs4 ,g4 ,fortescue4 ,,illuminated ,,manuscripts4 ,j4 ,w4 ,bradley4 ,,jewellery4 ,c4 ,davenport4 ,,john ,,hoppner4 ,h4 ,p4 ,k4 ,skipton4 ,,sir ,,joshua ,,reynolds4 ,j4 ,sime4 ,,millet4 ,n4 ,peacock4 ,,miniatures4 ,c4 ,davenport4 ,,our ,,lady ,,in ,,art4 ,mrs4 ,h4 ,jenner4 ,,raphael4 ,a4 ,r4 ,dryhurst4 ,second ,edition4 ,,rembrandt4 ,mrs4 ,e4 ,a4 ,sharp4 ,,turner4 ,f4 ,tyrrell-,gill4 ,,vandyck4 ,m4 ,g4 ,smallwood4 ,,velasquez4 ,w4 ,wilberforce and ,a4 ,r4 ,gilbert4 ,,watts4 ,r4 ,e4 ,d4 ,sketchley4 ,the ,little ,galleries4 ,demy #afmo4 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,each volume contains #bj plates in ,photogravure1 together with a short outline of the life and work of the master to whom the book is devoted4 ,a ,,little ,,gallery ,,of ,,reynolds4 ,a ,,little ,,gallery ,,of ,,romney4 ,a ,,little ,,gallery ,,of ,,hoppner4 ,a ,,little ,,gallery ,,of ,,millais4 ,a ,,little ,,gallery ,,of ,,english ,,poets4 ,the ,little ,guides4 ,with many ,illustrations by ,e4 ,h4 ,,new and other artists1 and from photographs4 ,small ,pott #hvo1 cloth1 #bs4 #f;d4 net2 leather1 #cs4 #f;d4 net4 ,the main features of these ,guides are 7#a7 a handy and charming form2 7#b7 illustrations from photographs and by well-known artists2 7#c7 good plans and maps2 7#d7 an adequate but compact presentation of everything that is interesting in the natural features1 history1 archology1 and architecture of the town or district treated4 ,,cambridge ,,and ,,its ,,colleges4 ,a4 ,h4 ,thompson4 ,second ,edition4 ,,english ,,lakes1 ,,the4 ,f4 ,g4 ,brabant4 ,,isle ,,of ,,wight1 ,,the4 ,g4 ,clinch4 ,,malvern ,,country1 ,,the4 ,b4 ,c4 ,a4 ,windle4 ,,north ,,wales4 ,a4 ,t4 ,story4 ,,oxford ,,and ,,its ,,colleges4 ,j4 ,wells4 ,eighth ,edition4 ,,shakespeare',s ,,country4 ,b4 ,c4 ,a4 ,windle4 ,third ,edition4 ,,st4 ,,paul',s ,,cathedral4 ,g4 ,clinch4 ,,westminster ,,abbey4 ,g4 ,e4 ,troutbeck4 ,second ,edition4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,buckinghamshire4 ,e4 ,s4 ,roscoe4 ,,cheshire4 ,w4 ,m4 ,gallichan4 ,,cornwall4 ,a4 ,l4 ,salmon4 ,,derbyshire4 ,j4 ,c4 ,cox4 ,,devon4 ,s4 ,baring-,gould4 ,,dorset4 ,f4 ,r4 ,heath4 ,second ,edition4 ,,essex4 ,j4 ,c4 ,cox4 ,,hampshire4 ,j4 ,c4 ,cox4 ,,hertfordshire4 ,h4 ,w4 ,tompkins4 ,,kent4 ,g4 ,clinch4 ,,kerry4 ,c4 ,p4 ,crane4 ,,middlesex4 ,j4 ,b4 ,firth4 ,,monmouthshire4 ,g4 ,w4 ,wade and ,j4 ,h4 ,wade4 ,,norfolk4 ,w4 ,a4 ,dutt4 ,,northamptonshire4 ,w4 ,dry4 99,,northumberland4 ,j4 ,e4 ,morris4 ,,nottinghamshire4 ,l4 ,guilford4 ,,oxfordshire4 ,f4 ,g4 ,brabant4 ,,somerset4 ,g4 ,w4 and ,j4 ,h4 ,wade4 99,,staffordshire4 ,c4 ,e4 ,masefield4 ,,suffolk4 ,w4 ,a4 ,dutt4 ,,surrey4 ,f4 ,a4 ,h4 ,lambert4 ,,sussex4 ,f4 ,g4 ,brabant4 ,second ,edition4 99,,wiltshire4 ,f4 ,r4 ,heath4 ,,yorkshire1 ,,the ,,east ,,riding4 ,j4 ,e4 ,morris4 ,,yorkshire1 ,,the ,,north ,,riding4 ,j4 ,e4 ,morris4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,brittany4 ,s4 ,baring-,gould4 ,,normandy4 ,c4 ,scudamore4 ,,rome4 ,c4 ,g4 ,ellaby4 ,,sicily4 ,f4 ,h4 ,jackson4 ,the ,little ,library4 ,with ,introductions1 ,notes1 and ,photogravure ,frontispieces4 ,small ,pott #hvo4 ,each ,volume1 cloth1 #as4 #f;d4 net2 leather1 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,anon4 ,a ,,little ,,book ,,of ,,english ,,lyrics4 ,second ,edition4 ,austen 7,jane74 ,,pride ,,and ,,prejudice4 ,two ,volumes4 ,,northanger ,,abbey4 ,bacon 7,francis74 ,,the ,,essays ,,of ,,lord ,,bacon4 ,barham 7,r4 ,h474 ,,the ,,ingoldsby ,,legends4 ,two ,volumes4 ,barnet 7,mrs4 ,p4 ,a474 ,a ,,little ,,book ,,of ,,english ,,prose4 ,beckford 7,william74 ,,the ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,caliph ,,vathek4 ,blake 7,william74 ,,selections ,,from ,,william ,,blake4 ,borrow 7,george74 ,,lavengro4 ,two ,volumes4 ,,the ,,romany ,,rye4 ,browning 7,robert74 ,,selections ,,from ,,the ,,early ,,poems ,,of ,,robert ,,browning4 ,canning 7,george74 ,,selections ,,from ,,the ,,anti-,,jacobin3 with ,,george ,,canning's additional ,poems4 ,cowley 7,abraham74 ,,the ,,essays ,,of ,,abraham ,,cowley4 ,crabbe 7,george74 ,,selections ,,from ,,george ,,crabbe4 ,craik 7,mrs474 ,,john ,,halifax1 ,,gentleman4 ,two ,volumes4 ,crashaw 7,richard74 ,,the ,,english ,,poems ,,of ,,richard ,,crashaw4 ,dante 7,alighieri74 ,,the ,,inferno ,,of ,,dante4 ,translated by ,h4 ,f4 ,,cary4 ,,the ,,purgatorio ,,of ,,dante4 ,translated by ,h4 ,f4 ,,cary4 ,,the ,,paradiso ,,of ,,dante4 ,translated by ,h4 ,f4 ,,cary4 ,darley 7,george74 ,,selections ,,from ,,the ,,poems ,,of ,,george ,,darley4 ,deane 7,a4 ,c474 ,a ,,little ,,book ,,of ,,light ,,verse4 ,dickens 7,charles74 ,,christmas ,,books4 ,two ,volumes4 ,ferrier 7,susan74 ,,marriage4 ,two ,volumes4 ,,the ,,inheritance4 ,two ,volumes4 ,gaskell 7,mrs474 ,,cranford4 ,hawthorne 7,nathaniel74 ,,the ,,scarlet ,,letter4 ,henderson 7,t4 ,f474 ,a ,,little ,,book ,,of ,,scottish ,,verse4 ,keats 7,john74 ,,poems4 ,kinglake 7,a4 ,w474 ,,eothen4 ,second ,edition4 ,lamb 7,charles74 ,,elia1 ,,and ,,the ,,last ,,essays ,,of ,,elia4 ,locker 7,f474 ,,london ,,lyrics4 ,longfellow 7,h4 ,w474 ,,selections ,,from ,,longfellow4 ,marvell 7,andrew74 ,,the ,,poems ,,of ,,andrew ,,marvell4 ,milton 7,john74 ,,the ,,minor ,,poems ,,of ,,john ,,milton4 ,moir 7,d4 ,m474 ,,mansie ,,wauch4 ,nichols 7,j4 ,b4 ,b474 ,a ,,little ,,book ,,of ,,english ,,sonnets4 ,rochefoucauld 7,la74 ,,the ,,maxims ,,of ,,la ,,rochefoucauld4 ,smith 7,horace and ,james74 ,,rejected ,,addresses4 ,sterne 7,laurence74 ,a ,,sentimental ,,journey4 ,tennyson 7,alfred1 ,lord74 ,,the ,,early ,,poems ,,of ,,alfred1 ,,lord ,,tennyson4 ,,in ,,memoriam4 ,,the ,,princess4 ,,maud4 ,thackeray 7,w4 ,m474 ,,vanity ,,fair4 ,three ,volumes4 ,,pendennis4 ,three ,volumes4 ,,esmond4 ,,christmas ,,books4 ,vaughan 7,henry74 ,,the ,,poems ,,of ,,henry ,,vaughan4 ,walton 7,izaak74 ,,the ,,compleat ,,angler4 ,waterhouse 7,elizabeth74 ,a ,,little ,,book ,,of ,,life ,,and ,,death4 ,twelfth ,edition4 ,wordsworth 7,w474 ,,selections ,,from ,,wordsworth4 ,wordsworth 7,w47 and ,coleridge 7,s4 ,t47 ,,lyrical ,,ballads4 ,the ,little ,quarto ,shakespeare4 ,edited by ,w4 ,j4 ,,craig4 ,with ,introductions and ,notes4 ,pott #afmo4 ,in #dj ,volumes4 ,leather1 price #as4 net each volume4 ,mahogany ,revolving ,book ,case4 #ajs4 net4 ,miniature ,library4 ,,euphranor3 ,a ,dialogue on ,youth4 ,by ,edward ,fitz,gerald4 ,demy #cbmo4 ,leather1 #bs4 net4 ,,the ,,life ,,of ,,edward1 ,,lord ,,herbert ,,of ,,cherbury4 ,written by himself4 ,demy #cbmo4 ,leather1 #bs4 net4 ,,polonius3 or ,wise ,saws and ,modern ,instances4 ,by ,edward ,fitz,gerald4 ,demy #cbmo4 ,leather1 #bs4 net4 ,,the ,,rub,,iy,t ,,of ,,omar ,,khayy,m4 ,by ,edward ,fitz,gerald4 ,fourth ,edition4 ,leather1 #as4 net4 ,the ,new ,library of ,medicine4 ,edited by ,c4 ,w4 ,,saleeby1 ,m4,d41 ,f4,r4,s4 ,edin4 ,demy #hvo4 ,,care ,,of ,,the ,,body1 ,,the4 ,by ,f4 ,cavanagh4 ,second ,edition4 #gs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,children ,,of ,,the ,,nation1 ,,the4 ,by the ,right ,hon4 ,sir ,john ,gorst4 ,second ,edition4 #gs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,control ,,of ,a ,,scourge1 ,,the3 or1 ,how ,cancer is ,curable4 ,by ,chas4 ,p4 ,childe4 #gs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,diseases ,,of ,,occupation4 ,by ,sir ,thomas ,oliver4 #ajs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,drink ,,problem1 ,,the1 in its ,medico-,sociological ,aspects4 ,edited by ,t4 ,n4 ,kelynack4 #gs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,drugs ,,and ,,the ,,drug ,,habit4 ,by ,h4 ,sainsbury4 ,,functional ,,nerve ,,diseases4 ,by ,a4 ,t4 ,schofield4 #gs4 #f;d4 net4 99,,heredity1 ,,the ,,laws ,,of4 ,by ,archdall ,reid4 #bas4 net4 ,,hygiene ,,of ,,mind1 ,,the4 ,by ,t4 ,s4 ,clouston4 ,fifth ,edition4 #gs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,infant ,,mortality4 ,by ,george ,newman4 #gs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,prevention ,,of ,,tuberculosis 7,,consumption71 ,,the4 ,by ,arthur ,newsholme4 #ajs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,air ,,and ,,health4 ,by ,ronald ,c4 ,macfie4 #gs4 #f;d4 net4 ,second ,edition4 ,the ,new ,library of ,music4 ,edited by ,,ernest ,,newman4 ,illustrated4 ,demy #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,hugo ,,wolf4 ,by ,ernest ,newman4 ,illustrated4 ,,handel4 ,by ,r4 ,a4 ,streatfeild4 ,illustrated4 ,second ,edition4 ,oxford ,biographies4 ,illustrated4 ,fcap4 #hvo4 ,each volume1 cloth1 #bs4 #f;d4 net2 leather1 #cs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,dante ,,alighieri4 ,by ,paget ,tonybee1 ,m4,a41 ,d4 ,litt4 ,third ,edition4 ,,girolamo ,,savonarola4 ,by ,e4 ,l4 ,s4 ,horsburgh1 ,m4,a4 ,second ,edition4 ,,john ,,howard4 ,by ,e4 ,c4 ,s4 ,gibson1 ,d4,d41 ,bishop of ,gloucester4 ,,alfred ,,tennyson4 ,by ,a4 ,c4 ,benson1 ,m4,a4 ,second ,edition4 ,,sir ,,walter ,,raleigh4 ,by ,i4 ,a4 ,taylor4 ,,erasmus4 ,by ,e4 ,f4 ,h4 ,capey4 ,,the ,,young ,,pretender4 ,by ,c4 ,s4 ,terry4 ,,robert ,,burns4 ,by ,t4 ,f4 ,henderson4 ,,chatham4 ,by ,a4 ,s4 ,m',dowall4 ,,francis ,,of ,,assisi4 ,by ,anna ,m4 ,stoddart4 ,,canning4 ,by ,w4 ,alison ,phillips4 ,,beaconsfield4 ,by ,walter ,sichel4 ,,johann ,,wolfgang ,,goethe4 ,by ,h4 ,g4 ,atkins4 ,,fran,,ois ,,fenelon4 ,by ,viscount ,st4 ,cyres4 ,romantic ,history ,edited by ,,martin ,,hume1 ,m4,a4 ,illustrated4 ,demy #hvo4 ,a series of attractive volumes in which the periods and personalities selected are such as afford romantic human interest1 in addition to their historical importance4 ,,the ,,first ,,governess ,,of ,,the ,,netherlands1 ,,margaret ,,of ,,austria4 ,eleanor ,e4 ,tremayne4 #ajs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,two ,,english ,,queens ,,and ,,philip4 ,martin ,hume1 ,m4,a4 #aes4 net4 ,,the ,,nine ,,days' ,,queen4 ,richard ,davey4 ,with a ,preface by ,martin ,hume1 ,m4,a4 #ajs4 #f;d4 net4 ,handbooks of ,theology4 ,,the ,,doctrine ,,of ,,the ,,incarnation4 ,by ,r4 ,l4 ,ottley1 ,d4,d4 ,fourth ,edition revised4 ,demy #hvo4 #abs4 #f;d4 ,a ,,history ,,of ,,early ,,christian ,,doctrine4 ,by ,j4 ,f4 ,bethune-,baker1 ,m4,a4 ,demy #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,,an ,,introduction ,,to ,,the ,,history ,,of ,,religion4 ,by ,f4 ,b4 ,jevons4 ,m4,a4 ,litt4 ,d4 ,fourth ,edition4 ,demy #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,,an ,,introduction ,,to ,,the ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,creeds4 ,by ,a4 ,e4 ,burn1 ,d4,d4 ,demy #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,,the ,,philosophy ,,of ,,religion ,,in ,,england ,,and ,,america4 ,by ,alfred ,caldecott1 ,d4,d4 ,demy #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,,the ,,xxxix4 ,,articles ,,of ,,the ,,church ,,of ,,england4 ,edited by ,e4 ,c4 ,s4 ,gibson1 ,d4,d4 ,sixth ,edition4 ,demy #hvo4 #abs4 #f;d4 ,the ,westminster ,commentaries4 ,general ,editor1 ,,walter ,,lock1 ,d4,d41 ,warden of ,keble ,college4 ,dean ,ireland's ,professor of ,exegesis in the ,university of ,oxford4 ,,the ,,acts ,,of ,,the ,,apostles4 ,edited by ,r4 ,b4 ,rackham1 ,m4,a4 ,demy #hvo4 ,fourth ,edition4 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,,the ,,first ,,epistle ,,of ,,paul ,,the ,,apostle ,,to ,,the ,,corinthians4 ,edited by ,h4 ,l4 ,goudge1 ,m4,a4 ,second ,ed4 ,demy #hvo4 #fs4 ,,the ,,book ,,of ,,exodus4 ,edited by ,a4 ,h4 ,m',neile1 ,b4,d4 ,with a ,map and #c ,plans4 ,demy #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,,the ,,book ,,of ,,ezekiel4 ,edited by ,h4 ,a4 ,redpath1 ,m4,a41 ,d4 ,litt4 ,demy #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,,the ,,book ,,of ,,genesis4 ,edited with ,introduction and ,notes by ,s4 ,r4 ,driver1 ,d4,d4 ,seventh ,edition4 ,demy #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,,additions ,,and ,,corrections ,,in ,,the ,,seventh ,,edition ,,of ,,the ,,book ,,of ,,genesis4 ,by ,s4 ,r4 ,driver1 ,d4,d4 ,demy #hvo4 #as4 ,,the ,,book ,,of ,,job4 ,edited by ,e4 ,c4 ,s4 ,gibson1 ,d4,d4 ,second ,edition4 ,demy #hvo4 #fs4 ,,the ,,epistle ,,of ,,st4 ,,james4 ,edited with ,introduction and ,notes by ,r4 ,j4 ,knowling1 ,d4,d4 ,demy #hvo4 #fs4 ,,part ,,iii4--,a ,,selection ,,of ,,works ,,of ,,fiction ,albanesi 7,e4 ,maria74 ,,susannah ,,and ,,one ,,other4 ,fourth ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,love ,,and ,,louisa4 ,second ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,the ,,brown ,,eyes ,,of ,,mary4 ,third ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,i ,,know ,a ,,maiden4 ,third ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,the ,,invincible ,,amelia3 ,,or1 ,,the ,,polite ,,adventuress4 ,third ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4 99,,the ,,glad ,,heart4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,allerton 7,mark74 ,,such ,,and ,,such ,,things4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,annesley 7,maude74 ,,this ,,day',s ,,madness4 ,second ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,bagot 7,richard74 ,a ,,roman ,,mystery4 ,third ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,the ,,passport4 ,fourth ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,temptation4 ,fifth ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,anthony ,,cuthbert4 ,fourth ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,love',s ,,proxy4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,donna ,,diana4 ,second ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,casting ,,of ,,nets4 ,twelfth ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,bailey 7,h4 ,c474 ,,storm ,,and ,,treasure4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,ball 7,oona ,h47 7,barbara ,burke74 ,,their ,,oxford ,,year4 ,illustrated4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,barbara ,,goes ,,to ,,oxford4 ,illustrated4 ,third ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,baring-,gould 7,s474 ,,arminell4 ,fifth ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,urith4 ,fifth ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,in ,,the ,,roar ,,of ,,the ,,sea4 ,seventh ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,margery ,,of ,,quether4 ,third ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,the ,,queen ,,of ,,love4 ,fifth ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,jacquetta4 ,third ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,kitty ,,alone4 ,fifth ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,no,,mi4 ,illustrated4 ,fourth ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,the ,,broom-,,squire4 ,illustrated4 ,fifth ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,dartmoor ,,idylls4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,guavas ,,the ,,tinner4 ,illustrated4 ,second ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,bladys ,,of ,,the ,,stewponey4 ,illustrated4 ,second ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,pabo ,,the ,,priest4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,winefred4 ,illustrated4 ,second ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,royal ,,georgie4 ,illustrated4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,chris ,,of ,,all ,,sorts4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,in ,,dewisland4 ,second ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,the ,,frobishers4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,domitia4 ,illustrated4 ,second ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,mrs4 ,,curgenven ,,of ,,curgenven4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,barr 7,robert74 ,,in ,,the ,,midst ,,of ,,alarms4 ,third ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,the ,,countess ,,tekla4 ,fifth ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,the ,,mutable ,,many4 ,third ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,begbie 7,harold74 ,,the ,,curious ,,and ,,diverting ,,adventures ,,of ,,sir ,,john ,,sparrow2 ,,or1 ,,the ,,progress ,,of ,,an ,,open ,,mind4 ,second ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,belloc 7,h474 ,,emmanuel ,,burden1 ,,merchant4 ,illustrated4 ,second ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,a ,,change ,,in ,,the ,,cabinet4 ,third ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,benson 7,e4 ,f474 ,,dodo3 ,a ,,detail ,,of ,,the ,,day4 ,fifteenth ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,birmingham 7,george ,a474 ,,the ,,bad ,,times4 ,second ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,spanish ,,gold4 ,fourth ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,the ,,search ,,party4 ,fourth ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,bowen 7,marjorie74 ,i ,,will ,,maintain4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,bretherton 7,ralph ,harold74 ,,an ,,honest ,,man4 ,second ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,capes 7,bernard74 ,,why ,,did ,,he ,,do ,,it8 ,second ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,castle 7,agnes and ,egerton74 ,,flower ,o' ,,the ,,orange1 and ,other ,tales4 ,third ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,clifford 7,mrs4 ,w4 ,k474 ,,the ,,getting ,,well ,,of ,,dorothy4 ,illustrated4 ,second ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,conrad 7,joseph74 ,,the ,,secret ,,agent3 ,a ,simple ,tale4 ,fourth ,ed4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,a ,,set ,,of ,,six4 ,fourth ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,corelli 7,marie74 ,a ,,romance ,,of ,,two ,,worlds4 ,twenty-,ninth ,ed4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,vendetta4 ,twenty-,seventh ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,thelma4 ,fortieth ,ed4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,ardath3 ,,the ,,story ,,of ,a ,,dead ,,self4 ,nineteenth ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,the ,,soul ,,of ,,lilith4 ,sixteenth ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,wormwood4 ,seventeenth ,ed4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,barabbas3 ,a ,,dream ,,of ,,the ,,world',s ,,tragedy4 ,forty-,fourth ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,the ,,sorrows ,,of ,,satan4 ,fifty-,fifth ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,the ,,master ,,christian4 ,twelfth ,edition4 #aggth ,thousand4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,temporal ,,power3 ,a ,,study ,,in ,,supremacy4 ,second ,edition4 #aejth ,thousand4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,god',s ,,good ,,man3 ,a ,,simple ,,love ,,story4 ,thirteenth ,edition4 #aejth ,thousand4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,holy ,,orders3 ,,the ,,tragedy ,,of ,a ,,quiet ,,life4 ,second ,edition4 #abjth ,thousand4 ,crown #hvo4 #fs4 ,,the ,,mighty ,,atom4 ,twenty-eighth ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,boy3 a ,sketch4 ,eleventh ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,cameos4 ,thirteenth ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,cotes 7,mrs4 ,everard74 ,see ,duncan 7,sara ,jeannette74 ,crockett 7,s4 ,r474 ,,lochinvar4 ,illustrated4 ,third ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,the ,,standard ,,bearer4 ,second ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,croker 7,mrs4 ,b4 ,m474 ,,the ,,old ,,cantonment4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,johanna4 ,second ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,the ,,happy ,,valley4 ,fourth ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,a ,,nine ,,days' ,,wonder4 ,third ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,peggy ,,of ,,the ,,bartons4 ,seventh ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,angel4 ,fifth ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,a ,,state ,,secret4 ,third ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,katherine ,,the ,,arrogant4 ,sixth ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,cuthell 7,edith ,e474 ,,only ,a ,,guardroom ,,dog4 ,illustrated4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,dawson 7,warrington74 ,,the ,,scar4 ,second ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,the ,,scourge4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,douglas 7,theo474 ,,cousin ,,hugh4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,doyle 7,a4 ,conan74 ,,round ,,the ,,red ,,lamp4 ,eleventh ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,duncan 7,sara ,jeannette7 7,mrs4 ,everard ,cotes74 ,a ,,voyage ,,of ,,consolation4 ,illustrated4 ,third ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,cousin ,,cinderella4 ,second ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,the ,,burnt ,,offering4 ,second ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 99,elliott 7,robert74 ,,the ,,immortal ,,charlatan4 ,crown #hvo4 #fs4 ,fenn 7,g4 ,manville74 ,,syd ,,belton2 or1 ,the ,boy who would not go to ,sea4 ,illustrated4 ,second ,ed4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,findlater 7,j4 ,h474 ,,the ,,green ,,graves ,,of ,,balgowrie4 ,fifth ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,the ,,ladder ,,to ,,the ,,stars4 ,second ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,findlater 7,mary74 ,a ,,narrow ,,way4 ,third ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,over ,,the ,,hills4 ,second ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,the ,,rose ,,of ,,joy4 ,third ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,a ,,blind ,,bird',s ,,nest4 ,illustrated4 ,second ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,francis 7,m4 ,e474 7,mrs4 ,francis ,blundell74 ,,stepping ,,westward4 ,second ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,margery ,o' ,,the ,,mill4 ,third ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,hardy-,,on-,,the-,,hill4 ,third ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,galatea ,,of ,,the ,,wheatfield4 ,second ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,fraser 7,mrs4 ,hugh74 ,,the ,,slaking ,,of ,,the ,,sword4 ,second ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,giannella4 ,second ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,in ,,the ,,shadow ,,of ,,the ,,lord4 ,third ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,fry 7,b4 and ,c4 ,b474 ,a ,,mother',s ,,son4 ,fifth ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,gerard 7,louise74 ,,the ,,golden ,,centipede4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,gibbs 7,philip74 ,,the ,,spirit ,,of ,,revolt4 ,second ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,gissing 7,george74 ,,the ,,crown ,,of ,,life4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 99,glendon 7,george74 ,,the ,,emperor ,,of ,,the ,,air4 ,illustrated4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,hamilton 7,cosmo74 ,,mrs4 ,,skeffington4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,harraden 7,beatrice74 ,,in ,,varying ,,moods4 ,fourteenth ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,the ,,scholar',s ,,daughter4 ,fourth ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,hilda ,,strafford and ,,the ,,remittance ,,man4 ,twelfth ,ed4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,interplay4 ,fifth ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,hichens 7,robert74 ,,the ,,prophet ,,of ,,berkeley ,,square4 ,second ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,tongues ,,of ,,conscience4 ,third ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,felix4 ,sixth ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,the ,,woman ,,with ,,the ,,fan4 ,seventh ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,byeways4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,the ,,garden ,,of ,,allah4 ,eighteenth ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,the ,,black ,,spaniel4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,the ,,call ,,of ,,the ,,blood4 ,seventh ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,barbary ,,sheep4 ,second ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 99,hilliers 7,ashton74 ,,the ,,master-,,girl4 ,illustrated4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,hope 7,anthony74 ,,the ,,god ,,in ,,the ,,car4 ,eleventh ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,a ,,change ,,of ,,air4 ,sixth ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,a ,,man ,,of ,,mark4 ,sixth ,ed4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,the ,,chronicles ,,of ,,count ,,antonio4 ,sixth ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,phroso4 ,illustrated4 ,eighth ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,simon ,,dale4 ,illustrated4 ,eighth ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,the ,,king',s ,,mirror4 ,fourth ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,quisante4 ,fourth ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,the ,,dolly ,,dialogues4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,a ,,servant ,,of ,,the ,,public4 ,illustrated4 ,fourth ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,tales ,,of ,,two ,,people4 ,third ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,the ,,great ,,miss ,,driver4 ,fourth ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,hueffer 7,ford ,maddox74 ,,an ,,english ,,girl3 ,a ,,romance4 ,second ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,mr4 ,,apollo3 ,a ,,just ,,possible ,,story4 ,second ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,hutten 7,baroness von74 ,,the ,,halo4 ,fifth ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,hyne 7,c4 ,j4 ,cutcliffe74 ,,mr4 ,,horrocks1 ,,purser4 ,fifth ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,prince ,,rupert1 ,,the ,,buccaneer4 ,illustrated4 ,third ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,jacobs 7,w4 ,w474 ,,many ,,cargoes4 ,thirty-first ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,sea ,,urchins4 ,fifteenth ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,a ,,master ,,of ,,craft4 ,illustrated4 ,ninth ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,light ,,freights4 ,illustrated4 ,eighth ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,the ,,skipper',s ,,wooing4 ,ninth ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,at ,,sunwich ,,port4 ,illustrated4 ,tenth ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,dialstone ,,lane4 ,illustrated4 ,seventh ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,odd ,,craft4 ,illustrated4 ,third ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,the ,,lady ,,of ,,the ,,barge4 ,illustrated4 ,eighth ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,salthaven4 ,illustrated4 ,second ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,sailors' ,,knots4 ,illustrated4 ,fourth ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,james 7,henry74 ,,the ,,soft ,,side4 ,second ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,the ,,better ,,sort4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,the ,,golden ,,bowl4 ,third ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,le ,queux 7,william74 ,,the ,,hunchback ,,of ,,westminster4 ,third ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,the ,,closed ,,book4 ,third ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,the ,,valley ,,of ,,the ,,shadow4 ,illustrated4 ,third ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,behind ,,the ,,throne4 ,third ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,the ,,crooked ,,way4 ,second ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 99,lindsey 7,william74 ,,the ,,severed ,,mantle4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,london 7,jack74 ,,white ,,fang4 ,seventh ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,lubbock 7,basil74 ,,deep ,,sea ,,warriors4 ,illustrated4 ,third ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,lucas 7,st ,john74 ,,the ,,first ,,round4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,lyall 7,edna74 ,,derrick ,,vaughan1 ,,novelist4 #ddth ,thousand4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,maartens 7,maarten74 ,,the ,,new ,,religion3 ,a ,,modern ,,novel4 ,third ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,brothers ,,all2 ,,more ,,stories ,,of ,,dutch ,,peasant ,,life4 ,third ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,the ,,price ,,of ,,lis ,,doris4 ,second ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,m',carthy 7,justin ,h474 ,,the ,,duke',s ,,motto4 ,fourth ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,macnaughtan 7,s474 ,,the ,,fortune ,,of ,,christina ,m',,nab4 ,fifth ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,malet 7,lucas74 ,,colonel ,,enderby',s ,,wife4 ,fourth ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,a ,,counsel ,,of ,,perfection4 ,second ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,the ,,wages ,,of ,,sin4 ,sixteenth ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,the ,,carissima4 ,fifth ,ed4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,the ,,gateless ,,barrier4 ,fifth ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,the ,,history ,,of ,,sir ,,richard ,,calmady4 ,seventh ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,mann 7,mrs4 ,m4 ,e474 ,,the ,,parish ,,nurse4 ,fourth ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,a ,,sheaf ,,of ,,corn4 ,second ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,the ,,heart-,,smiter4 ,second ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,avenging ,,children4 ,second ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,marsh 7,richard74 ,,the ,,coward ,,behind ,,the ,,curtain4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,the ,,surprising ,,husband4 ,second ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,a ,,royal ,,indiscretion4 ,second ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,live ,,men',s ,,shoes4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,marshall 7,archibald74 ,,many ,,junes4 ,second ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,the ,,squire',s ,,daughter4 ,third ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,mason 7,a4 ,e4 ,w474 ,,clementina4 ,illustrated4 ,third ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,maud 7,constance74 ,a ,,daughter ,,of ,,france4 ,second ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,maxwell 7,w4 ,b474 ,,vivien4 ,ninth ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,the ,,ragged ,,messenger4 ,third ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,fabulous ,,fancies4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,the ,,guarded ,,flame4 ,seventh ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,odd ,,lengths4 ,second ,ed4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,hill ,,rise4 ,fourth ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,the ,,countess ,,of ,,maybury3 ,,between ,,you ,,and ,i4 ,fourth ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,meade 7,l4 ,t474 ,,drift4 ,second ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,resurgam4 ,second ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,victory4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,a ,,girl ,,of ,,the ,,people4 ,illustrated4 ,fourth ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,hepsy ,,gipsy4 ,illustrated4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,the ,,honourable ,,miss3 ,a ,,story ,,of ,,an ,,old-,,fashioned ,,town4 ,illustrated4 ,second ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,mitford 7,bertram74 ,,the ,,sign ,,of ,,the ,,spider4 ,illustrated4 ,seventh ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,molesworth 7,mrs474 ,,the ,,red ,,grange4 ,illustrated4 ,second ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,montague 7,c4 ,e474 ,a ,,hind ,,let ,,loose4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,montgomery 7,k4 ,l474 ,,colonel ,,kate4 ,second ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,morrison 7,arthur74 ,,tales ,,of ,,mean ,,streets4 ,seventh ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,a ,,child ,,of ,,the ,,jago4 ,fifth ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,the ,,hole ,,in ,,the ,,wall4 ,fourth ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,divers ,,vanities4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,nesbit 7,e471 7,mrs4 ,h4 ,bland74 ,,the ,,red ,,house4 ,illustrated4 ,fourth ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,noble 7,edward74 ,,lords ,,of ,,the ,,sea4 ,third ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,ollivant 7,alfred74 ,,owd ,,bob1 ,,the ,,grey ,,dog ,,of ,,kenmuir4 ,with a ,frontispiece4 ,eleventh ,ed4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,oppenheim 7,e4 ,phillips74 ,,master ,,of ,,men4 ,fourth ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,oxenham 7,john74 ,a ,,weaver ,,of ,,webs4 ,illustrated4 ,fourth ,ed4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,the ,,gate ,,of ,,the ,,desert4 ,fourth ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,profit ,,and ,,loss4 ,fourth ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,the ,,long ,,road4 ,fourth ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,the ,,song ,,of ,,hyacinth1 ,,and ,,other ,,stories4 ,second ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,my ,,lady ,,of ,,shadows4 ,fourth ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 99,pain 7,barry74 ,,the ,,exiles ,,of ,,faloo4 ,crown #hvo4 #fs4 ,parker 7,gilbert74 ,,pierre ,,and ,,his ,,people4 ,sixth ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,mrs4 ,,falchion4 ,fifth ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,the ,,translation ,,of ,a ,,savage4 ,third ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,the ,,trail ,,of ,,the ,,sword4 ,illustrated4 ,tenth ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,when ,,valmond ,,came ,,to ,,pontiac3 ,the ,story of a ,lost ,napoleon4 ,sixth ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,an ,,adventurer ,,of ,,the ,,north4 ,the ,last ,adventures of #8,pretty ,pierre4' ,fourth ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,the ,,seats ,,of ,,the ,,mighty4 ,illustrated4 ,sixteenth ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,the ,,battle ,,of ,,the ,,strong3 a ,romance of ,two ,kingdoms4 ,illustrated4 ,sixth ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,the ,,pomp ,,of ,,the ,,lavilettes4 ,third ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,northern ,,lights4 ,fourth ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,pasture 7,mrs4 ,henry de la74 ,,the ,,tyrant4 ,fourth ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,patterson 7,j4 ,e474 ,,watchers ,,by ,,the ,,shore4 ,third ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,pemberton 7,max74 ,,the ,,footsteps ,,of ,a ,,throne4 ,illustrated4 ,third ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,i ,,crown ,,thee ,,king4 ,illustrated4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,love ,,the ,,harvester3 ,a ,,story ,,of ,,the ,,shires4 ,illustrated4 ,third ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,the ,,mystery ,,of ,,the ,,green ,,heart4 ,second ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,phillpotts 7,eden74 ,,lying ,,prophets4 ,third ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,children ,,of ,,the ,,mist4 ,fifth ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,the ,,human ,,boy4 ,with a ,frontispiece4 ,seventh ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,sons ,,of ,,the ,,morning4 ,second ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,the ,,river4 ,third ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,the ,,american ,,prisoner4 ,fourth ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,the ,,secret ,,woman4 ,fourth ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,knock ,,at ,a ,,venture4 ,third ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,the ,,portreeve4 ,fourth ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,the ,,poacher',s ,,wife4 ,second ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,the ,,striking ,,hours4 ,second ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,the ,,folk ,,afield4 ,crown #hvo4 #fs4 ,pickthall 7,marmaduke74 ,,sa,d ,,the ,,fisherman4 ,seventh ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 #8,q' 7,a4 ,t4 ,quiller ,couch74 ,,the ,,white ,,wolf4 ,second ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,the ,,mayor ,,of ,,troy4 ,fourth ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,merry-,,garden ,,and ,,other ,,stories4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,major ,,vigoureux4 ,third ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,querido 7,israel74 ,,toil ,,of ,,men4 ,translated by ,f4 ,s4 ,,arnold4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,rawson 7,maud ,stepney74 ,,the ,,enchanted ,,garden4 ,fourth ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,the ,,easy ,,go ,,luckies3 ,,or1 ,,one ,,way ,,of ,,living4 ,second ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,happiness4 ,second ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,rhys 7,grace74 ,,the ,,bride4 ,second ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,ridge 7,w4 ,pett74 ,,erb4 ,second ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,a ,,son ,,of ,,the ,,state4 ,second ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,a ,,breaker ,,of ,,laws4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,mrs4 ,,galer',s ,,business4 ,illustrated4 ,second ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,the ,,wickhamses4 ,fourth ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,name ,,of ,,garland4 ,third ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,splendid ,,brother4 ,fourth ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,ritchie 7,mrs4 ,david ,g474 ,,man ,,and ,,the ,,cassock4 ,second ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,roberts 7,c4 ,g4 ,d474 ,,the ,,heart ,,of ,,the ,,ancient ,,wood4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,robins 7,elizabeth74 ,,the ,,convert4 ,third ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,rosenkrantz 7,baron ,palle74 ,,the ,,magistrate',s ,,own ,,case4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,russell 7,w4 ,clark74 ,,my ,,danish ,,sweetheart4 ,illustrated4 ,fifth ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,his ,,island ,,princess4 ,illustrated4 ,second ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,abandoned4 ,second ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,master ,,rockafellar',s ,,voyage4 ,illustrated4 ,fourth ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,sandys 7,sydney74 ,,jack ,,carstairs ,,of ,,the ,,power ,,house4 ,illustrated4 ,second ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,sergeant 7,adeline74 ,,the ,,passion ,,of ,,paul ,,marillier4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 99,shakespear 7,olivia74 ,,uncle ,,hilary4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,sidgwick 7,mrs4 ,alfred74 ,,the ,,kinsman4 ,illustrated4 ,third ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,the ,,severins4 ,fourth ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,stewart 7,newton ,v474 ,a ,,son ,,of ,,the ,,emperor43 ,,being ,,passages ,,from ,,the ,,life ,,of ,,enzio1 ,,king ,,of ,,sardinia ,,and ,,corsica4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,swayne 7,martin ,lutrell74 ,,the ,,bishop ,,and ,,the ,,lady4 ,second ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,thurston 7,e4 ,temple74 ,,mirage4 ,fourth ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,underhill 7,evelyn74 ,,the ,,column ,,of ,,dust4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,vorst 7,marie ,van74 ,,the ,,sentimental ,,adventures ,,of ,,jimmy ,,bulstrode4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,in ,,ambush4 ,second ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,waineman 7,paul74 ,,the ,,wife ,,of ,,nicholas ,,fleming4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,watson 7,h4 ,b4 ,marriott74 ,,twisted ,,eglantine4 ,illustrated4 ,third ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,the ,,high ,,toby4 ,third ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,a ,,midsummer ,,day',s ,,dream4 ,third ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,the ,,castle ,,by ,,the ,,sea4 ,third ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,the ,,privateers4 ,illustrated4 ,second ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,a ,,poppy ,,show3 ,,being ,,divers ,,and ,,diverse ,,tales4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,the ,,flower ,,of ,,the ,,heart4 ,third ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,webling 7,peggy74 ,,the ,,story ,,of ,,virginia ,,perfect4 ,third ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 99,,the ,,spirit ,,of ,,mirth4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,wells 7,h4 ,g474 ,,the ,,sea ,,lady4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,also ,medium #hvo4 #f;d4 ,weyman 7,stanley74 ,,under ,,the ,,red ,,robe4 ,illustrated4 ,twenty-,second ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,whitby 7,beatrice74 ,,the ,,result ,,of ,,an ,,accident4 ,second ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,white 7,edmund74 ,,the ,,heart ,,of ,,hindustan4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,white 7,percy74 ,,love ,,and ,,the ,,wise ,,men4 ,third ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,williamson 7,mrs4 ,c4 ,n474 ,,the ,,adventure ,,of ,,princess ,,sylvia4 ,second ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,the ,,woman ,,who ,,dared4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,the ,,sea ,,could ,,tell4 ,second ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,the ,,castle ,,of ,,the ,,shadows4 ,third ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,papa4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,williamson 7,c4 ,n4 and ,a4 ,m474 ,,the ,,lightning ,,conductor3 ,the ,strange ,adventures of a ,motor ,car4 ,illustrated4 ,seventeenth ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,also ,cr4 #hvo4 #as4 net4 ,,the ,,princess ,,passes3 ,a ,romance of a ,motor4 ,illustrated4 ,ninth ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,my ,,friend ,,the ,,chauffeur4 ,illustrated4 ,tenth ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,lady ,,betty ,,across ,,the ,,water4 ,tenth ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,the ,,car ,,of ,,destiny ,,and ,,its ,,errand ,,in ,,spain4 ,illustrated4 ,fourth ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,the ,,botor ,,chaperon4 ,illustrated4 ,fifth ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,scarlet ,,runner4 ,illustrated4 ,third ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,set ,,in ,,silver4 ,illustrated4 ,second ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,,lord ,,loveland ,,discovers ,,america4 ,second ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,wyllarde 7,dolf74 ,,the ,,pathway ,,of ,,the ,,pioneer 7,nous ,autres74 ,fourth ,edition4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,books for ,boys and ,girls4 ,illustrated4 ,crown #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,the ,,getting ,,well ,,of ,,dorothy4 ,by ,mrs4 ,w4 ,k4 ,clifford4 ,second ,edition4 ,,only ,a ,,guard-,,room ,,dog4 ,by ,edith ,e4 ,cuthell4 ,,master ,,rockafellar',s ,,voyage4 ,by ,w4 ,clark ,russell4 ,fourth ,edition4 ,,syd ,,belton3 ,or1 the ,boy who would not go to ,sea4 ,by ,g4 ,manville ,fenn4 ,second ,edition4 ,,the ,,red ,,grange4 ,by ,mrs4 ,molesworth4 ,second ,edition4 ,a ,,girl ,,of ,,the ,,people4 ,by ,l4 ,t4 ,meade4 ,fourth ,edition4 ,,hepsy ,,gipsy4 ,by ,l4 ,t4 ,meade4 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,the ,,honourable ,,miss4 ,by ,l4 ,t4 ,meade4 ,second ,edition4 ,,there ,,was ,,once ,a ,,prince4 ,by ,mrs4 ,m4 ,e4 ,mann4 ,,when ,,arnold ,,comes ,,home4 ,by ,mrs4 ,m4 ,e4 ,mann4 ,the ,novels of ,alexandre ,dumas4 ,medium #hvo4 ,price #f;d4 ,double ,volumes1 #as4 ,,act4 ,,the ,,adventures ,,of ,,captain ,,pamphile4 ,,amaury4 ,,the ,,bird ,,of ,,fate4 ,,the ,,black ,,tulip4 ,,the ,,castle ,,of ,,eppstein4 ,,catherine ,,blum4 ,c,,cile4 ,,the ,,chatelet4 ,,the ,,chevalier ,d',,harmental4 7,double volume47 ,,chicot ,,the ,,jester4 ,,the ,,comte ,,de ,,montgomery4 ,,conscience4 ,,the ,,convict',s ,,son4 ,,the ,,corsican ,,brothers2 and ,,otho ,,the ,,archer4 ,,crop-,,eared ,,jacquot4 ,,dom ,,gorenflot4 ,,the ,,fatal ,,combat4 ,,the ,,fencing ,,master4 ,,fernande4 ,,gabriel ,,lambert4 ,,georges4 ,,the ,,great ,,massacre4 ,,henri ,,de ,,navarre4 ,h,l,,ne ,,de ,,chaverny4 ,,the ,,horoscope4 ,,louise ,,de ,,la ,,valli,,re4 7,double volume47 ,,the ,,man ,,in ,,the ,,iron ,,mask4 7,double volume47 ,,ma,,tre ,,adam4 ,,the ,,mouth ,,of ,,hell4 ,,nanon4 7,double volume47 ,,olympia4 ,,pauline2 ,,pascal ,,bruno2 and ,,bontekoe4 ,p,,re ,,la ,,ruine4 ,,the ,,prince ,,of ,,thieves4 ,,the ,,reminiscences ,,of ,,antony4 ,,robin ,,hood4 ,,samuel ,,gelb4 ,,the ,,snowball ,,and ,,the ,,sultanetta4 ,,sylvandire4 ,,the ,,taking ,,of ,,calais4 ,,tales ,,of ,,the ,,supernatural4 ,,tales ,,of ,,strange ,,adventure4 ,,tales ,,of ,,terror4 ,,the ,,three ,,musketeers4 7,double volume47 ,,the ,,tragedy ,,of ,,nantes4 ,,twenty ,,years ,,after4 7,double volume47 ,,the ,,wild-,,duck ,,shooter4 ,,the ,,wolf-,,leader4 ,methuen's ,sixpenny ,books4 ,medium #hvo4 ,albanesi 7,e4 ,maria74 ,,love ,,and ,,louisa4 ,i ,,know ,a ,,maiden4 ,anstey 7,f474 ,a ,,bayard ,,of ,,bengal4 ,austen 7,j474 ,,pride ,,and ,,prejudice4 ,bagot 7,richard74 ,a ,,roman ,,mystery4 ,,casting ,,of ,,nets4 ,,donna ,,diana4 ,balfour 7,andrew74 ,,by ,,stroke ,,of ,,sword4 ,baring-,gould 7,s74 ,,furze ,,bloom4 ,,cheap ,,jack ,,zita4 ,,kitty ,,alone4 ,,urith4 ,,the ,,broom ,,squire4 ,,in ,,the ,,roar ,,of ,,the ,,sea4 ,,no,,mi4 ,a ,,book ,,of ,,fairy ,,tales4 ,illustrated4 ,,little ,,tu',,penny4 ,,winefred4 ,,the ,,frobishers4 ,,the ,,queen ,,of ,,love4 ,,arminell4 ,,bladys ,,of ,,the ,,stewponey4 ,barr 7,robert74 ,,jennie ,,baxter4 ,,in ,,the ,,midst ,,of ,,alarms4 ,,the ,,countess ,,tekla4 ,,the ,,mutable ,,many4 ,benson 7,e4 ,f474 ,,dodo4 ,,the ,,vintage4 ,bront 7,charlotte74 ,,shirley4 ,brownell 7,c4 ,l474 ,,the ,,heart ,,of ,,japan4 ,burton 7,j4 ,bloundelle74 ,,across ,,the ,,salt ,,seas4 ,caffyn 7,mrs474 ,,anne ,,mauleverer4 ,capes 7,bernard74 ,,the ,,lake ,,of ,,wine4 ,clifford 7,mrs4 ,w4 ,k474 ,a ,,flash ,,of ,,summer4 ,,mrs4 ,,keith',s ,,crime4 ,corbett 7,julian74 ,a ,,business ,,in ,,great ,,waters4 ,croker 7,mrs4 ,b4 ,m474 ,,angel4 ,a ,,state ,,secret4 ,,peggy ,,of ,,the ,,bartons4 ,,johanna4 ,dante 7,alighieri74 ,,the ,,divine ,,comedy 7,cary74 ,doyle 7,a4 ,conan74 ,,round ,,the ,,red ,,lamp4 ,duncan 7,sara ,jeannette74 ,a ,,voyage ,,of ,,consolation4 ,,those ,,delightful ,,americans4 ,eliot 7,george74 ,,the ,,mill ,,on ,,the ,,floss4 ,findlater 7,jane ,h474 ,,the ,,green ,,graves ,,of ,,balgowrie4 ,gallon 7,tom74 ,,rickerby',s ,,folly4 ,gaskell 7,mrs474 ,,cranford4 ,,mary ,,barton4 ,,north ,,and ,,south4 ,gerard 7,dorothea74 ,,holy ,,matrimony4 ,,the ,,conquest ,,of ,,london4 ,,made ,,of ,,money4 ,gissing 7,g474 ,,the ,,town ,,traveller4 ,,the ,,crown ,,of ,,life4 ,glanville 7,ernest74 ,,the ,,inca',s ,,treasure4 ,,the ,,kloof ,,bride4 ,gleig 7,charles74 ,,bunter',s ,,cruise4 ,grimm 7,the ,brothers74 ,,grimm',s ,,fairy ,,tales4 ,hope 7,anthony74 ,a ,,man ,,of ,,mark4 ,a ,,change ,,of ,,air4 ,,the ,,chronicles ,,of ,,count ,,antonio4 ,,phroso4 ,,the ,,dolly ,,dialogues4 ,hornung 7,e4 ,w474 ,,dead ,,men ,,tell ,,no ,,tales4 ,ingraham 7,j4 ,h474 ,,the ,,throne ,,of ,,david4 ,le ,queux 7,w474 ,,the ,,hunchback ,,of ,,westminster4 ,levett-,yeats 7,s4 ,k474 ,,the ,,traitor',s ,,way4 ,,orrain4 ,linton 7,e4 ,lynn74 ,,the ,,true ,,history ,,of ,,joshua ,,davidson4 ,lyall 7,edna74 ,,derrick ,,vaughan4 ,malet 7,lucas74 ,,the ,,carissima4 ,a ,,counsel ,,of ,,perfection4 ,mann 7,mrs4 ,m4 ,e474 ,,mrs4 ,,peter ,,howard4 ,a ,,lost ,,estate4 ,,the ,,cedar ,,star4 ,,one ,,another',s ,,burdens4 ,,the ,,patten ,,experiment4 ,a ,,winter',s ,,tale4 ,marchmont 7,a4 ,w474 ,,miser ,,hoadley',s ,,secret4 ,a ,,moment',s ,,error4 ,marryat 7,captain74 ,,peter ,,simple4 ,,jacob ,,faithful4 ,march 7,richard74 ,a ,,metamorphosis4 ,,the ,,twickenham ,,peerage4 ,,the ,,goddess4 ,,the ,,joss4 ,mason 7,a4 ,e4 ,w474 ,,clementina4 ,mathers 7,helen74 ,,honey4 ,,griff ,,of ,,griffithscourt4 ,,sam',s ,,sweetheart4 ,,the ,,ferryman4 ,meade 7,mrs4 ,l4 ,t474 ,,drift4 ,miller 7,esther74 ,,living ,,lies4 ,mitford 7,bertram74 ,,the ,,sign ,,of ,,the ,,spider4 ,montresor 7,f4 ,f474 ,,the ,,alien4 ,morrison 7,arthur74 ,,the ,,hole ,,in ,,the ,,wall4 ,nesbit 7,e474 ,,the ,,red ,,house4 ,norris 7,w4 ,e474 ,,his ,,grace4 ,,giles ,,ingilby4 ,,the ,,credit ,,of ,,the ,,county4 ,,lord ,,leonard ,,the ,,luckless4 ,,matthew ,,austen4 ,,clarissa ,,furiosa4 ,oliphant 7,mrs474 ,,the ,,lady',s ,,walk4 ,,sir ,,robert',s ,,fortune4 ,,the ,,prodigals4 ,,the ,,two ,,marys4 ,oppenheim 7,e4 ,p474 ,,master ,,of ,,men4 ,parker 7,gilbert74 ,,the ,,pomp ,,of ,,the ,,lavilettes4 ,,when ,,valmond ,,came ,,to ,,pontiac4 ,,the ,,trail ,,of ,,the ,,sword4 ,pemberton 7,max74 ,,the ,,footsteps ,,of ,a ,,throne4 ,i ,,crown ,,thee ,,king4 ,phillpotts 7,eden74 ,,the ,,human ,,boy4 ,,children ,,of ,,the ,,mist4 ,,the ,,poacher',s ,,wife4 ,,the ,,river4 #8,q' 7,a4 ,t4 ,quiller ,couch74 ,,the ,,white ,,wolf4 ,ridge 7,w4 ,pett74 ,a ,,son ,,of ,,the ,,state4 ,,lost ,,property4 ,,george and ,,the ,,general4 ,,erb4 ,russell 7,w4 ,clark74 ,,abandoned4 ,a ,,marriage ,,at ,,sea4 ,,my ,,danish ,,sweetheart4 ,,his ,,island ,,princess4 ,sergeant 7,adeline74 ,,the ,,master ,,of ,,beechwood4 ,,balbara',s ,,money4 ,,the ,,yellow ,,diamond4 ,,the ,,love ,,that ,,overcame4 ,sidgwick 7,mrs4 ,alfred74 ,,the ,,kinsman4 ,surtees 7,r4 ,s474 ,,handley ,,cross4 ,,mr4 ,,sponge',s ,,sporting ,,tour4 ,,ask ,,mamma4 ,walford 7,mrs4 ,l4 ,b474 ,,mr4 ,,smith4 ,,cousins4 ,,the ,,baby',s ,,grandmother4 ,,troublesome ,,daughters4 ,wallace 7,general ,lew74 ,,ben-,,hur4 ,,the ,,fair ,,god4 ,watson 7,h4 ,b4 ,marriott74 ,,the ,,adventurers4 99,,captain ,,fortune4 ,weekes 7,a4 ,b474 ,,prisoners ,,of ,,war4 ,wells 7,h4 ,g474 ,,the ,,sea ,,lady4 ,white 7,percy74 ,a ,,passionate ,,pilgrim4 ,,printed ,,by ,,william ,,clowes ,,and ,,sons1 ,,limited1 ,,london ,,and ,,beccles4 99 99 99 99 99 ,transcriber's ,note3 the following changes have been made to this text4 ,page #fi--;added missing word 8to03 8from five to seven0 ,page #aja--8;form0 changed to 8from03 8drop them from its0 ,fig4 #cc caption--8arius0 changed to 8anus03 8and the anus10 ,page #aff--8;disburb0 changed to 8disturb03 8to disturb him0 ,page #ahh--8;hyrodgen0 changed to 8hydrogen03 8twelve atoms of hydrogen0 ,page #aig--8microsope0 changed to 8microscope03 8under our microscope0 ,page #bcd--8;,herschell0 changed to 8,herschel03 8,herschel declared that0 ,fig4 #fe caption--8,fig4 #fd0 changed to 8,fig4 #fe03 8,fig4 #fe gives the actual0 ,page #cgi--8;,arrige0 changed to 8,arige03 8,mas d',azil 7,arige70 ,page #cia--8,predmont0 changed to 8,predmost03 8as at ,predmost0 ,page #cid--8,predmort0 changed to 8,predmost03 8found at ,predmost0 ,page #dbc--8,throughton0 changed to 8,troughton03 8,troughton1 use of spider's lines0