,transcriber's ,notes ,this e-text is based on #8,cotton ,weaving and ,designing1' from #aiji4 ,inconsistent spelling and hyphenation have been retained1 but punctuation and typographical errors have been corrected4 ,example calculations have been maintained2 some erroneous figures in the tables have been corrected4 ,the mid dot has been used as the decimal point 7as in #cjjjj74 ,the #8,mathematical ,operators' ,unicode ,block needs to be supported by the font installed in the reading device_/software2 special characters used in this book are #8therefore' 771 #8proportion' 771 #8square root' 771 and others4 ,special characters have been used to highlight the following font styles3 italic3 underscores bold3 equals signs sans-serif3 tildes ,small caps have been converted to ,,uppercase letters2 the caret character 77 indicates superscript characters4 ,,cotton ,,weaving ,,and ,,designing ,,the ,,elements ,,of ,,cotton ,,spinning4 ,by ,,john ,,morris and ,f4 ,,wilkinson4 ,with a ,preface by ,sir ,b4 ,a4 ,,dobson1 ,c4,e41 ,m4,i4,m4,e4 ,with #afi ,diagrams and ,illustrations4 ,crown #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 ,,cotton ,,spinning ,,calculations ,,and ,,yarn ,,costs3 ,a ,practical and ,comprehensive ,manual of ,calculations1 ,yarn ,costs and other ,data involved in adapting the ,machinery in all ,sections1 and for all ,grades of ,spinning and ,doubling4 ,by ,,james ,,winterbottom1 ,lecturer in ,cotton ,spinning1 ,municipal ,school of ,technology1 ,manchester4 ,with ,diagrams and other ,illustrations4 #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,jacquard ,,weaving ,,and ,,designing4 ,by ,f4 ,t4 ,,bell1 ,medallist in ,honours and ,certificated ,teacher in ,linen ,manufacturing and in ,weaving and ,pattern ,designing1 ,city and ,guilds of ,london ,institute4 ,with #aii ,diagrams4 #hvo4 #abs4 net4 ,,principles ,,of ,,worsted ,,spinning4 ,by ,,howard ,,priestman4 ,with #aah ,illustrations4 #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,principles ,,of ,,woollen ,,spinning4 ,by ,,howard ,,priestman4 ,with #aaa ,diagrams4 #hvo4 #is4 net4 ,,longmans1 ,,green1 ,,and ,,co4 ,,london1 ,,new ,,york1 ,,bombay1 ,,and ,,calcutta ,,cotton ,,weaving ,,and ,,designing ,,by ,,john ,t4 ,,taylor ,,late ,,lecturer ,,on ,,cotton ,,weaving ,,and ,,designing ,,in ,,the ,,preston1 ,,ashton-,,under-,,lyne1 ,,chorley1 ,,and ,,todmorden ,,technical ,,schools ,,and ,,on ,,silk ,,weaving ,,and ,,designing ,,in ,,the ,,macclesfield ,,technical ,,school ,,author ,,of ,,designs ,,for ,,cotton ,,fabrics1 ,,etc41 ,,in #8,,the ,,textile ,,manufacturer' ,,revised ,,under ,,the ,,direction ,,of ,f4 ,,wilkinson ,,director ,,of ,,the ,,textile ,,and ,,engineering ,,school1 ,,bolton ,,and ,h4 ,,nisbet ,,weaving ,,master ,,of ,,the ,,textile ,,school1 ,,bolton ,,sixth ,,edition ,,with ,,numerous ,,diagrams ,,longmans1 ,,green1 ,,and ,,co4 #ci ,,paternoster ,,row1 ,,london ,,new ,,york1 ,,bombay1 ,,and ,,calcutta #aiji ,all rights reserved ,,reviser',s ,,preface ,,to ,,fifth ,,edition ,taylor's 8,cotton ,weaving0 has for many years enjoyed a reputation among ,students who have attended ,day and ,evening ,classes in ,textile ,weaving and ,designing4 ,it has1 however1 been found wanting in some important features1 and others have needed expansion so as to bring the work up to modern requirements4 ,a further ,edition having been called for1 has afforded the opportunity of having these deficiencies remedied by the addition of matters which will put the book in line with the latest improvements in this section of the ,mechanical ,arts4 ,chapter ,i41 on preparatory processes1 has been entirely rewritten and enlarged4 ,my obligations are many to ,mr4 ,h4 ,nisbet1 ,weaving and ,designing ,master here1 who has kindly carried out this work4 ,some chapters have had new and important features added1 and many drawings are included for the first time1 either as new illustrations1 or in place of others which had become obsolete4 ,for these drawings ,i am indebted to the same gentleman1 who has made this class of work a speciality4 ,other chapters have been expanded1 and partly rewritten4 ,i should like to say1 in conclusion1 that while the book was passing through the press the assistance of ,mr4 ,nisbet has been most helpful4 ,,fred4 ,,wilkinson1 ,director4 ,,textile ,,and ,,engineering ,,school1 ,,bolton1 ,february1 #aije4 ,,preface ,,to ,,sixth ,,edition ,another ,edition having been called for has given opportunity for a revision of the work in several directions4 ,the most notable addition is that of ,chapter ,,ix41 which is quite new and deals with ,automatic ,weft-replenishing ,devices4 ,it is hoped this will be of considerable help in giving weaving students clear ideas on a phase of the subject which is growing rapidly1 and will tend to still greater importance as increased production becomes more necessary4 ,quite a number of new illustrations have been substituted for old ones4 ,,fred4 ,,wilkinson1 ,director4 ,,textile ,,and ,,engineering ,,school1 ,,bolton1 ,november1 #aiji4 ,,contents ,,chapter ,,page ,i4 ,,preparatory ,,processes #a ,,ii4 ,,hand ,,and ,,power ,,looms #dh ,,iii4 ,,drop ,,and ,,circular ,,box ,,looms #ajg ,,iv4 ,,dobbies #abc ,v4 ,,miscellaneous #acb ,,vi4 ,,jacquard ,,weaving #acg ,,vii4 ,,leno ,,weaving #agc ,,viii4 ,,terry ,,looms--,,card ,,cutting--,,lappets #ahg ,,ix4 ,,automatic ,,weft--,,replenishing ,,devices #aih ,x4 ,,the ,,principles ,,of ,,designing #bah ,,xi4 ,,figured ,,design #bgh ,,xii4 ,,textile ,,calculations #cjg ,,index #cdg ,,cotton ,,weaving ,,and ,,designing ,,chapter ,i ,,preparatory ,,processes ,yarn intended for manufacture into cloth requires to pass through various stages of preparation1 the character of which depends upon the class of fabrics to be produced4 ,thus1 some systems of treatment are better adapted for the preparation of yarn for grey cloths 7i4e4 of the native colour of cotton71 some for mono-coloured1 and others for multi-coloured1 fabrics4 ,the choice of a system is often arbitrary1 and can only be made from a knowledge of local or special requirements4 ,the operations involved in the preparation of warps for most fabrics are comprised under not less than five chief divisions1 namely-- #a4 ,winding yarn from any of its earlier stages on to warpers' bobbins4 #b4 ,warping4 #c4 ,sizing4 #d4 ,beaming1 or winding yarn on to a weaver's beam4 #e4 ,looming1 i4e4 either drawing-in or twisting-in4 ,each of these operations may be performed by a variety of machines of distinctly different types that have been specially devised to meet specific requirements1 and which are1 therefore1 better adapted than others for their special purpose4 ,before introducing the reader to the details of the various types of machines in each division1 it will be better to briefly enumerate the different systems of preparation usually adopted in the manufacture of the three classes of goods named above4 ,,preparation ,,of ,,grey ,,warps4 ,grey warps are prepared by one or other of two systems1 namely1 7#a7 ,beam warping1 for slasher or tape sizing2 and1 7#b7 ball or mill warping1 for ball or warp sizing2 but by far the greater number are prepared by the first-named system4 #a4 ,beam ,warping and ,slasher ,sizing4 ,this system comprises the following operations1 namely-- #a4 ,winding yarn from cops1 ring1 or throstle bobbins on to warpers' bobbins1 by means of a 8spindle0 or 8cop0 winding machine4 #b4 ,beam warping1 whereby yarn is transferred1 in the form of a wide sheet1 from warpers' bobbins on to a large flanged beam4 #c4 ,slasher or tape sizing1 whereby yarn is withdrawn from several beams1 termed 8back0 or 8slashers'0 beams1 to be sized1 and subsequently re-wound by the same machine on to a weaver's beam by simultaneous operations4 #d4 ,looming1 by which the threads of a new warp are placed in a loom ready for weaving4 #b4 ,ball ,warping and ,sizing4 ,this system comprises the following operations1 namely-- #a4 ,winding yarn from cops or ring bobbins on to warpers' bobbins4 #b4 ,ball warping1 in which a number of threads are withdrawn from warpers' bobbins and condensed into the form of a rope of untwisted strands4 ,this operation may be accomplished by several types of machines4 ,the one usually employed is the old-fashioned warping mill1 which coils warp-ends on to a large revolving reel or swift1 from which they are subsequently withdrawn and formed into a large ball4 ,ball warps are also sometimes formed direct from warpers' bobbins2 also sometimes from sections formed by a sectional warper2 and sometimes by means of a linking or chaining machine4 #c4 ,ball-warp sizing4 #d4 ,beaming1 or winding a warp in an even sheet of threads on to a weaver's beam for the loom4 #e4 ,twisting-in or else drawing-in warp-ends in the loom4 ,if the threads of a new warp are similar in number and counts to those of the finished warp1 and are to pass through the shedding harness and reed also in a similar manner1 it is more economical to twist the threads of a new warp separately to the corresponding threads of the old warp1 and then draw the twisted portion of the warp bodily forward through the healds and reed4 ,if1 however1 the number of threads and counts are greatly dissimilar1 or if a different drafting is required1 then recourse must be had to drawing new warp-ends through the harness and reed4 ,preparation of ,mono-coloured ,warps4 ,warps of one colour may be prepared from either 7#a7 warp-dyed and sized yarn1 or 7#b7 from hank-dyed and sized yarn4 #a4 7a7 ,warp-dyeing and ,sizing4 ,the series of operations in this system are identical with those involved in the preparation of grey warps by means of ball warping1 but with the additional process of dyeing immediately following the operation of warping1 and are as follows3-- #a4 ,winding yarn on to warpers' bobbins4 #b4 ,mill or other system of ball warping4 #c4 ,warp-dyeing and sizing4 #d4 ,winding yarn on to a weaver's beam4 #e4 ,twisting-in or drawing-in4 #a4 7b7 ,warp-dyeing and ,sizing4 ,a system by which warps of one colour may be prepared by means of sectional warping1 from ball-dyed and sized yarn1 has been recently introduced4 ,it comprises the following operations1 namely-- #a4 ,winding yarn from cops or ring bobbins on to warpers' bobbins4 #b4 ,mill or other system of ball warping4 #c4 ,warp-dyeing and sizing4 #d4 ,winding yarn from ball warps on to warpers' bobbins by means of a warp-winding machine4 #e4 ,sectional warping and beaming4 #f4 ,drawing-in or twisting-in4 #b4 ,hank-dyeing and ,sizing4 ,this system involves the following operations1 namely-- #a4 ,reeling yarn from cops or ring bobbins into single or multiple hanks4 7,a standard hank contains #hdj yards47 #b4 ,hank-dyeing and sizing4 #c4 ,winding yarn from hanks on to warpers' bobbins by means of a drum-winding machine4 #d4 ,beam warping4 #e4 ,beaming1 or winding yarn from back beams on to a weaver's beam4 #f4 ,drawing-in or twisting-in4 ,sectional warping may be substituted in lieu of beam warping4 ,preparation of ,multi-coloured ,warps4 ,striped warps are usually prepared by one or other of two systems1 namely1 7#a7 ,yorkshire dressing1 from warp-dyed and sized yarn2 and 7#b7 sectional warping1 from hank-dyed and sized yarn4 ,warp-dyeing yields a more uniform tone of colour than hank-dyeing1 for which reason some manufacturers prefer to adopt the former system1 although the latter system is less costly4 #a4 ,yorkshire ,dressing4 ,this system comprises the following operations1 namely-- #a4 ,winding yarn on to warpers' bobbins4 #b4 ,mill or other system of ball warping4 #c4 ,warp-dyeing and sizing4 #d4 ,yorkshire dressing1 by which the required number of threads of each colour are split off reserve ball warps4 ,the warp-ends thus split off are subsequently passed1 in groups of two to four1 through the dents of a reed in proper order1 according to the required warp pattern1 and wound on to a weaver's beam4 #e4 ,drawing-in or twisting-in4 #b4 ,sectional ,warping4 ,this system comprises the following operations1 namely-- #a4 ,reeling yarn into hanks4 #b4 ,hank-dyeing and sizing4 #c4 ,winding on to warpers' bobbins by a drum-winding machine4 #d4 ,sectional warping1 by which a warp is wound in sections upon wooden or compressed paper blocks1 with warp-ends in the same relative position that they are required to occupy in cloth4 ,each section forms a complete unit of the full warp1 and when the required number of units are prepared1 they are placed together side by side1 and compressed upon a mandril2 then the yarn is unwound from all sections simultaneously1 and wound on to a weaver's beam4 #e4 ,twisting-in or drawing-in4 ,preparation of ,weft ,yarn4 ,if weft yarn is to be woven in a grey state1 it is rarely that it requires to undergo any operation after it leaves the spinner4 ,grey cops and ring bobbins of weft are usually placed in a shuttle and woven direct2 but if they are too large for a shuttle1 their yarn is transferred on to wooden or paper bobbins by means of pirn winding4 ,cops intended for use as weft are frequently dyed and bleached in that form1 and woven without any operation of winding4 ,if1 however1 weft yarn is dyed or bleached in hanks1 it requires to be subsequently wound on to pirn bobbins or paper tubes to fit on a shuttle tongue4 ,weft is also sometimes woven in a damp condition1 with a view to inserting a greater number of picks per inch in cloth than is possible with dry weft4 ,winding ,machines for ,warp ,yarn4 ,fig4 #a is a diagram showing parts of a 8spindle0 or 8cop0 winding machine1 which is chiefly employed to wind grey yarn from cops1 ,g1 or ring bobbins on to warpers' bobbins1 ,e4 ,it is also sometimes incidentally employed to wind coloured yarn from hanks1 ,o 7as represented on the left-hand side of the diagram71 when the amount of work required of that kind would not justify the purchase of a 8drum0 winding machine1 which latter is better adapted for that purpose1 for reasons that will be explained later4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4 ,as usually made1 a 8cop0 winding machine contains a tin driving drum1 ,b1 passing centrally down the machine1 and carrying the driving pulleys at one end of the tin drum shaft ,a4 ,by means of cotton bands1 ,c1 the tin drum drives four rows of spindles1 ,d1 arranged in two zigzag rows1 one on each side of the machine1 as shown in part plan 7detached74 ,warpers' bobbins1 ,e1 fit loosely upon the spindles1 and rest upon metal discs1 ,f1 secured to the spindle-shanks1 by which bobbins are frictionally rotated4 ,during winding1 yarn passes from cops1 ,g1 or other source1 over a drag-board1 ,h1 through a brush1 ,i1 and clearer guide1 ,j1 thence over a glass rod1 ,k1 surmounted on guide-rails1 and on to warpers' bobbins1 ,e4 ,the drag-board ,h is covered with flannel to impart frictional resistance to yarn1 and thereby prevent its passing too freely and making soft bobbins4 ,the clearer guide 7of which a front view is shown1 detached7 is a thin metal plate containing a number of vertical slits1 ,l1 from near the top of which are two short slits1 ,m1 branching upwards at an angle of about #de4 ,the vertical slits serve to guide threads to their respective bobbins1 and also to remove any irregularities1 as 8slubbings0 7i4e4 thick1 soft places consisting of a mass of untwisted fibres74 ,the short slits are intended to prevent operatives from raising threads out of the guides1 and so save themselves the trouble and loss of time involved in piecing up broken threads4 ,spindle-shanks1 ,d1 are furnished with tightly-fitting grooved pulleys1 ,n1 termed 8wharves10 around which driving bands pass4 ,wharves on each back row of spindles are usually made one-quarter of an inch larger in diameter than those of front spindles1 to cause them to revolve at a slower velocity4 ,the object of this is to enable some compensation to be made for the constantly accelerating pace at which yarn is wound1 in consequence of the gradually increasing girth of bobbins by additional layers of yarn4 ,when bobbins become about half full on front spindles1 a winder removes them to back spindles to be filled4 ,if bobbins were allowed to fill on front spindles1 the velocity at which yarn would travel towards the completion of winding would impart an abnormal degree of tension to it1 and thereby make it more liable to break4 ,it is in consequence of the excessive degree of friction to which yarn is subjected in a cop-winding machine that renders it unsuitable for winding yarn that has been previously dyed and sized4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4 ,one of the most important parts of a cop-winding machine is the traverse motion to guide yarn between the flanges of a bobbin during winding4 ,these are constructed in great variety1 but all belong to one of two distinct types1 namely1 those governed by cams1 and those governed by what is termed a 8mangle-wheel40 ,they are also constructed to guide yarn at either a uniform or variable pace between the bobbin flanges4 ,if the traverse of yarn is uniform1 bobbins will be wound with a uniform diameter2 but if a barrel-shaped bobbin is required1 the movement of guide-rails must be differential--quicker towards the extremities1 and slower towards the centre of their traverse1 with the object of placing a greater quantity of yarn upon them4 ,traverse motions are usually designed on the compensating principle1 so that guide-rails on either side move in opposite directions at the same time1 and a falling rail helps a rising one to ascend1 thereby requiring less motive power to drive a machine4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4 ,one of several modifications of a heart-cam traverse motion is shown in ,fig4 #b4 ,in this motion two heart-cams1 ,q1 are set in opposite direction upon a shaft1 ,p1 which is driven by a pinion1 ,r1 on the tin drum shaft1 ,a1 and a train of wheels1 ,s1 ,t1 ,u1 ,v4 ,the cams operate treadles1 ,w1 whereby they fall and rise alternately4 ,the free end of each treadle farthest from its fulcrum is connected by means of straps or chains1 ,x1 to pulleys2 ,y1 secured to shafts2 ,z1 extending one on each side of the machine1 and carrying several pinion wheels1 #a1 at intervals4 ,the latter engage with teeth in vertical racks1 #b1 which serve as supports to guide-rails1 #c4 ,thus1 as treadles are depressed1 guide-rails are raised in a positive manner2 but their return is effected by gravitation4 ,the character of movement imparted to guide-rails depends upon the conformation of the cams1 which may be constructed to give either a uniform or differential traverse to guide-rails1 as desired4 ,another modification of a heart-cam motion is illustrated in ,fig4 #c4 ,in this motion a single cam1 ,h1 serves to operate both guide-rails1 ,b1 by acting upon two treadle bowls1 one of which1 ,k1 is placed above1 and the other1 ,l1 below the cam4 ,treadle bowl ,k is carried at one end of a lever fulcrumed at ,o1 whilst the other end1 ,m1 is connected to a lever1 ,q4 ,through the medium of chains and chain pulleys1 lever ,q operates the guide-rail on the left1 whilst the lower treadle1 ,t1 operates that on the right4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4 ,a traverse motion constructed on the mangle-wheel principle1 to wind barrel-shaped bobbins1 is represented in ,fig4 #d1 ,a pinion1 ,b1 on the tin drum shaft1 ,a1 drives wheel1 ,c1 which carries a small pinion1 ,d4 ,wheel ,c and pinion ,d are carried by a bracket that permits of a slight concentric movement of those wheels to enable the pinion to engage alternately on the outside and then on the inside of the mangle-wheel ,e1 with which it gears4 ,on the same stud as the mangle-wheel is a pinion1 ,f1 which engages with the teeth of a horizontal rack1 ,g1 which is formed with a curved rack at each end4 ,the curved racks gear with eccentric wheels1 ,h1 fastened to shafts1 ,i1 which carry chain pulleys1 ,j1 to wind up or let off the chains connected to the supports of guide-rails4 ,when pinion ,d revolves on the outside of the mangle-wheel1 the latter revolves until the gap ,k arrives at the pinion1 which immediately runs inside the mangle-wheel and reverses its direction1 until the gap ,l arrives at the pinion1 which then runs on the outside and again reverses the direction of the mangle-wheel4 ,thus1 rack ,g is slowly moved from one side to the other1 and by acting upon the eccentric wheels ,h at different distances from their axes1 their rotation is quicker or slower1 according as the racks are in gear with them at a point nearer to1 or farther from1 the centre of their shafts respectively4 ,on the same shafts as the eccentric wheels are a number of chain pulleys on which are fastened chains1 ,m1 connected to the supports1 #b1 of guide-rails1 whereby the latter are raised and lowered in a manner determined by the eccentric wheels4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4 ,another modification of a mangle-wheel motion is shown in ,fig4 #e4 ,in this motion a wheel1 ,e1 on the drum shaft1 drives the larger wheel ,f4 ,the small pinion ,c turns the mangle-wheel ,h4 ,in order to obtain the unequal motion of the rack ,r1 to give the barrel shape to the bobbin1 a wheel1 ,a1 is fixed on the mangle-wheel shaft a short distance from the centre of the wheel4 ,another wheel1 ,b1 is fixed in a similar manner on another shaft1 which also carries a wheel which gears into the under side of the rack4 ,the smaller side of the wheel ,a gears into the larger side of the wheel ,b1 as shown in the diagram1 and as the mangle-wheel shaft revolves1 the larger part of ,a will gradually come in contact with the smaller part of ,b1 and this1 of course1 will cause the rack to move quicker4 ,when the smaller side of ,a is in contact with the larger side of ,b1 the guide-plate will be guiding the yarn on to the middle of the bobbin2 and when the larger side of ,a is in contact with the smaller side of ,b1 the guide-plate will be putting the yarn on to either the top or bottom of the bobbin4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f4 ,the small side of the wheel ,a must be set in gear with the larger side of the wheel ,b1 and the traverse halfway of the bobbin4 ,the pinion ,c will at the same time be in contact with the middle pin in the mangle-wheel1 and the middle of the rack ,r driving the wheel ,m4 ,fig4 #f is a part elevation1 and ,fig4 #g a plan1 showing the essential parts of a drum-winding machine to wind yarn from hanks1 ,w1 that have been previously dyed and sized1 on to warpers' bobbins1 ,c4 ,in this type of machine1 warpers' bobbins are held horizontally against the peripheries of a series of revolving drums1 ,b1 fixed at regular intervals upon a shaft1 ,a1 running centrally from end to end of the machine4 ,bobbins are held in position by spindles1 ,d1 contained in frames1 ,e1 which are fulcrumed at ,f to brackets1 ,g1 to permit of bobbins rising as they increase in size4 ,since bobbins are driven by surface contact with drums1 the rate of winding is approximately uniform throughout4 ,projecting from each bobbin frame is a latch1 ,h1 to permit of a hook1 ,i1 holding a bobbin out of contact with its drum1 whilst an operative replaces a full bobbin with an empty one1 or pieces a broken thread4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #h4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #i4 ,yarn is guided between the flanges of bobbins at a uniform pace by means of guides1 ,j1 carried upon guide-rails1 ,k1 supported in brackets1 ,l1 and operated by a heart-cam1 ,m4 ,on the end of the driving shaft1 ,a1 is a worm1 ,n1 which gears with a worm wheel1 ,o1 with which is compounded a pinion1 ,p1 to drive wheel1 ,q1 to which the cam ,m is secured4 ,as the cam revolves1 it acts alternately upon two runners1 ,r and ,s1 carried upon studs secured to the sliding base1 ,t1 of brackets1 ,l1 whereby the latter receive a reciprocal motion1 as indicated by arrows1 ,u and ,v4 ,winding ,machines for ,weft4 ,when weft yarn is in an unsuitable form to be placed within a shuttle it is usually wound upon paper tubes1 or wooden bobbins1 by means of one of the many systems of 8pirn0 winding4 ,the chief parts of the prevailing type of machine used for that purpose are represented in ,figs4 #h1 #i1 and #aj1 which are end and front elevations and plan respectively4 ,passing centrally down the machine is a tin drum1 ,b1 on driving shaft1 ,a1 for the purpose of driving a number of wharves1 ,c1 arranged at regular intervals on each side of the machine4 ,fixed immediately above each wharve is a metal pirn cup1 ,d1 having a conical interior1 for the reception of a pirn bobbin1 ,e4 ,when in position1 a long spindle1 ,f1 having a heavy head-piece1 ,g1 passes through a bobbin tube and enters a rectangular hole in the wharve immediately below4 ,the lower portion of a spindle which enters the wharve is also rectangular in cross-section1 and therefore revolves with its wharve4 ,at the same time1 bobbins are driven by causing a projection1 ,h1 below spindle heads to enter a slot in each bobbin head4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aj4 ,each thread passes from its source1 over several stationary bars1 to impart the required degree of tension to it1 thence over guide-rail1 ,i1 by which it is guided up and down 7as indicated by arrows1 ,j7 between the extremities of a pirn cup1 as it passes through an opening1 ,k1 in the latter1 and on to its bobbin4 ,in consequence of yarn being built upon a bobbin within a conical chamber1 a bobbin1 with its spindle1 rises automatically as it fills with yarn1 and when filled it raises its spindle clear of its wharve1 and thus stops automatically4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aa4 ,guide-rails1 ,i1 are usually operated by means of a grooved cam1 ,l1 fixed on a side shaft1 ,m1 which carries a worm wheel1 ,n1 driven from a worm1 ,o1 on the end of a driving shaft1 ,a4 ,the cam acts upon a runner1 ,p1 fixed on a sliding rail1 ,q1 in which are formed vertical slots1 ,r1 one on each side of the machine4 ,each vertical slot acts upon a runner1 ,s1 secured to lever ,t1 having shaft ,u for a fulcrum4 ,at regular intervals on shaft ,u brackets are fixed to support guide-rail ,i1 which rises and falls at a uniform pace in both directions4 ,in consequence of yarn rubbing against the stationary surface of a pirn cup1 it is liable to become burnished1 and sometimes injured4 ,many attempts have been made to overcome that objection by driving bobbins by surface contact with revolving discs1 and also by supporting them against conical rollers4 ,fig4 #aa shows one of several methods of driving bobbins by means of bevelled discs1 ,b1 fixed at regular intervals upon driving shafts1 ,a1 placed one on each side of the machine4 ,in this machine1 as in an ordinary pirn cup machine1 a bobbin1 ,c1 rises automatically until filled1 when its spindle1 ,d1 withdraws from a hole in the bolster1 ,e1 and slides down a short incline1 thereby stopping a bobbin by carrying it from the disc4 ,,warping4 ,the three methods of warping in use are mill warping1 beam warping1 and sectional warping4 ,the oldest form is mill warping1 but this has been largely superseded in almost all cases1 except for coloured goods1 by the beam warping machine4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ab4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ac4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ad4 ,in beam warping bobbins are placed in a creel4 ,this is a frame constructed to hold from #djj to #ejj bobbins1 and is the shape of the letter ,v1 as this is the most convenient and easiest for unwinding4 ,the #djj to #ejj threads1 ,a1 are taken through an expanding reed1 ,b 7,figs4 #ab1 #ac1 and #ad74 ,the ends are then passed over a tin measuring roller1 ,d1 and under tension-rollers1 #ae and #ah1 which keep the yarn taut1 and also pull it back when it is required to turn backward to find a broken thread1 or otherwise4 ,each thread is then passed separately underneath a small bent wire drop-pin1 #bb4 ,each thread bears the weight of one of these wires1 and should the thread break when the machine is in motion1 the wire falls between two rollers1 #c and #d1 which latter is mounted so that a wire causes it to move forward and1 by releasing a 8trigger0 motion at ,q1 as it is called1 the machine is automatically stopped4 ,this is the principle of ,singleton's stop-motion1 which is the one most commonly used4 ,in front of the stop-motion wires the yarn is passed through an expanding comb1 #bc1 which regulates the width of the slashers' or 8back0 beam1 #bf4 ,this beam is driven by friction2 the beam rests on a drum1 ,v1 and as the drum revolves1 the beam is driven in such a manner that yarn is wound at a uniform pace throughout1 although the beam is gradually increasing in diameter4 ,one of these machines will supply about #hj to #ij looms weaving medium counts of yarn4 ,the creel is usually made to hold #ejd bobbins1 but any lesser number of ends may be put on a beam4 ,after leaving the warping machine the beams are taken to the slashing frame1 where a sufficient number of beams are put together to form the warp for the loom4 ,mill warping4--,this system of warping is still in use for warps used in the ,bradford mixed goods trade1 and for many classes of coloured cotton goods in ,lancashire1 although slashed warps are fast superseding the system for the former trade1 and sectional warping is replacing the system for the coloured trade4 ,mill warping is also in general use in silk manufacture4 ,those spinners who supply warps to ,yorkshire worsted manufacturers have usually supplied them in the ball1 unsized4 ,the warps are 8mill0 warped1 and the manufacturer has them sized to his own orders by cotton warp sizers1 who usually combine this business with dyeing and finishing in the ,bradford district4 ,slashed warps are now being used in the ,bradford trade to a considerable extent1 the warps being in most cases slashed in ,lancashire and sent on beams4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ae4 ,a warping mill consists of a large reel1 ,z 7,figs4 #ae and #af71 of from six to twenty yards circumference1 which is made to revolve4 ,this reel is fixed upright in suitable framework1 and the warper's bobbins1 ,w1 are placed in a creel1 ,v1 by the side of the reel4 ,the ends are taken from the bobbins1 and drawn separately through the eyes of a row of needles1 ,t1 which constitute what is termed a 8heck40 ,this heck is so constructed that one-half of the eyes can be raised above the other half1 to form a lease4 ,the heck slides up and down the framework ,y of the mill1 and thus forms a traverse and distributes the warp as the reel revolves4 ,at the commencement of a warp1 the bunch of ends is taken from the 8heck0 and fastened to a peg1 #f1 at the bottom of the reel4 ,as the reel revolves the heck slowly rises1 and so causes the warp to be wound on the reel spirally1 without overlapping4 ,the heck is moved up and down a sufficient number of times to give the required number of ends in the warp1 when the warp is cut off and unwound1 and made up either in the form of a ball or a chain4 ,the length of a warp is determined by the number of revolutions made by the mill from the commencement1 until it is reversed at the other extremity4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #af4 ,,sectional ,,warping4 ,sectional warping is a system chiefly employed in the production of coloured striped warps1 from yarn previously dyed and sized in the hank1 and subsequently wound upon warpers' bobbins by a drum-winding machine4 ,it is also sometimes employed in the production of grey warps for ball sizing4 ,as its name implies1 the operation consists of preparing a warp in sections1 termed 8cheeses10 each of which is a complete unit1 and virtually a transverse section1 of the full warp4 ,when the required number of sections for a warp have been made1 they are compressed between flanges side by side upon a mandril of a running-off machine1 and their yarn run from them simultaneously on to a weaver's beam4 ,sometimes a sectional warper works in conjunction with an automatic stop-motion similar to that of a beam warping machine1 in which case bobbins are contained in a ,v-shaped creel4 ,they also sometimes work without a stop-motion4 ,in that case bobbins are contained in a curved creel similar to that employed in conjunction with a warping mill1 whereby the threads are better under the observation of the operative warper1 and broken threads may be more readily detected4 ,one of the most important considerations in sectional warping is the production of sections of uniform diameter and length of yarn2 otherwise1 warp-ends would be of varying degrees of tension2 also1 waste of material would result from irregular lengths of yarn on the sections4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ag4 ,the principal parts of a well-known type of sectional warping machine are shown in ,figs4 #ag1 #ah1 and #ai4 ,warp-ends1 ,a1 are withdrawn from a curved creel1 and passed separately through needle eyes of a leasing heck1 ,b1 thence through a ,v-reed1 ,d1 over a tin measuring roller1 ,f1 and on to a section block1 ,o1 which is compressed between two flanges1 ,n1 ,o1 upon a shaft1 ,q1 by which it is turned4 ,flange ,n is removable to permit of a full section being replaced by an empty one4 ,another flange1 #bd1 is keyed upon the section shaft1 ,q1 and driven by means of friction bowls1 #bj1 #bj'1 placed one on each side1 and turned by driving shafts #af1 #af1 each of which contains a wide loose pulley1 #ag1 #ag1 a narrow fast pulley1 #ah1 #ah1 and a toothed wheel1 #ae1 #ae1 which are in gear4 ,thus1 if driving strap #ai is placed in a central position 7as indicated7 it runs on both loose pulleys1 without effect2 but if placed upon the fast pulley #ah1 it will turn the section forward1 and wind yarn on the front1 as shown1 and if placed on fast pulley #ah1 it will turn a section backward1 and wind yarn at the back4 ,this arrangement enables sections to be made with one-half of a full repeat of a warp pattern1 either alone or in addition to several repeats 7provided the pattern is a symmetrical one71 so that when all sections are placed in their proper position for running their yarn on to a weaver's beam1 two halves of a pattern will join together without a break4 ,a uniform rate of winding yarn is maintained by causing friction driving bowls1 #bj1 #bj1 to automatically recede from the section shaft at a pace exactly corresponding to that at which a section increases in diameter1 thereby gradually retarding the velocity of the section shaft4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ah4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ai4 ,a presser roller1 #ab1 carried at the end of a lever1 #i1 #aa1 fulcrumed on shaft #aj1 bears against yarn during winding1 to wind it more compactly1 and also to ensure uniformity of diameter of sections composing the same warp4 ,during the winding of the first or 8trial0 section1 the presser1 which is suitably weighted1 is free to recede at such pace as corresponds with the increasing diameter of that section2 but for subsequent sections1 the presser is under mechanical control1 and may only recede at a prescribed pace1 which should1 however1 exactly coincide with its recession during the formation of the first section4 ,the movement of the presser is governed by means of a toothed quadrant or sector1 #a1 communicating with presser lever1 #i1 by a connecting rod1 #f4 ,the position of rod #f1 in relation to the fulcrum #b of the sector and the fulcrum #aj of the presser lever1 determines the velocity at which the presser recedes4 ,a cam1 ,p1 on the end of section shaft ,q1 imparts an intermittent rotary motion to a short vertical shaft1 ,y1 by means of lever ,s1 ,u1 and pawl ,w4 ,surmounting shaft ,y is a worm1 ,z1 gearing with the teeth of sector #a which slowly rises as a section revolves1 thereby causing the presser to recede1 at a prescribed pace4 ,the number of revolutions of the section shaft is indicated upon a dial2 also1 the length of yarn wound is indicated upon a dial1 by fingers operated by a train of wheels driven from worm ,g1 on the end of tin measuring roller shaft ,f4 ,the two indicators1 therefore1 serve as a check upon each other4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bj4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ba4 ,section blocks are made in different widths from #c inches upwards4 ,some are constructed so as to permit of expansion and contraction1 as shown in ,fig4 #bj4 ,pressers are also constructed on a similar principle1 as shown in ,fig4 #ba4 ,,sizing4 ,the chief systems of sizing are slashing1 dressing1 ball-sizing1 and hank-sizing4 ,the object of sizing is to strengthen the yarn by saturating it with a starchy substance1 which lays the fibres1 thus making it weave with less breakages4 ,other objects are to impart 8feel0 to the cloth1 and to give it additional weight4 ,for light sizing1 in which the object is simply to strengthen the yarn1 and not to increase its weight1 only #aj to #ae per cent4 is added to the weight4 ,when #cj or #dj per cent4 is added it is termed medium sizing1 and for heavy sizing often #ajj per cent4 or more is added to the weight4 ,the materials used for light sizing are3 wheat flour1 sago1 farina or potato starch1 rice flour or starch1 maize4 ,potato starch1 or farina1 is obtained from the tubers by reducing them to a pulp and mixing well with water4 ,the water carries away the starch1 and when allowed to stand the starch falls to the bottom of the vessel and the water can be drawn away4 ,farina is much used in all kinds of sizing1 on account of its cheapness and the thickness of the paste it produces when boiled with water4 ,sago is much used in light sizing1 for which it is specially adapted4 ,it is obtained from the pith of the sago palm1 and made into flour by treating with water and drying on hot plates4 ,maize is a starch obtained from the ,indian corn1 and is sometimes used for lightly sizing the finer counts of cotton yarns4 ,for light sizing it is not necessary to use anything but wheat flour1 farina1 or sago1 and a small quantity of softening material1 usually tallow or wax4 ,wheat flour is fermented before using by mixing it well with water 7about equal weights of each7 and leaving it for several weeks1 occasionally stirring to keep the particles in suspension4 ,when flour is fermented new bodies are formed1 which have a powerful influence in preventing mildew4 ,the fermenting cistern1 #a 7,fig4 #bb71 is usually a large vessel #h feet by #d feet by #d feet1 in which are two revolving 8dashers10 ,c1 to stir the flour and water when fermenting4 ,another similar cistern1 #b1 is used for storing called a 8storage and diluting0 cistern1 into which the mixture is pumped after a few days1 and left to further ferment4 ,a force-pump1 ,n1 is used for pumping from this to the mixing cistern1 #c1 where the softening and weighting materials are added1 after being boiled together in pan #d4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bb4 ,softening materials are used to render the yarn more pliable4 ,the articles mostly used for this purpose are tallow1 wax1 and soap1 cocoanut and palm oil4 ,the following mixtures are suitable for light sizing4 ,they can be made to give a greater or less percentage1 according to the specific gravity of the mixture4 ,for testing the specific gravity or density of the liquid1 the ,twaddell's hydrometer is used4 ,this instrument registers in degrees the density of the mixture1 or the amount of matter in solution4 ,for light sizing-- ,wheat flour #bhj lbs4 ,tallow #af ,another mixture is-- ,sago #ajj lbs4 ,farina #ajj ,tallow #aj ,soap #d ,for sizing with sago1 cocoanut oil is often used as a softening material4 ,a mixture of these two gives as good a size as anything for pure sizing4 ,another mixture used for fine counts is-- ,farina #ajj lbs4 ,wax #e ,tallow #d #a gall4 water to #a lb4 farina4 ,almost every manufacturer uses different proportions of ingredients4 ,many use wheat flour1 farina1 and sago mixed in various proportions1 whilst a flour and farina mixture in the proportions of #b3 #a is considered by some to give the best results4 ,farina and sago are also often mixed for light sizing in the proportion of two parts farina to one part sago4 ,wheat flour carries through better than farina or sago1 and is therefore more generally used for the heavier kinds of sizing4 ,any of these mixtures may be altered as regards strength1 or otherwise1 by increasing or diminishing their density4 ,if a mixture twaddles #aj degrees at a given temperature1 it may be strengthened for heavier cloths or higher picks by increasing the proportion of solid matter in the mixture until it twaddles #ae degrees at the same temperature4 ,for adding weight to the cloth china clay is the chief ingredient used4 ,this material is found in deposits in ,devonshire and ,cornwall1 and is used in large quantities for the purpose of weighting and filling cloth1 more especially those manufactured for export to the ,eastern markets4 ,for what is termed 8medium0 sizing1 viz4 adding about #cj to #ej per cent4 to the weight of the cloth1 the following materials are used in various proportions1 the proportion given being an example-- ,flour #ajj lbs4 ,clay #cj to #dj lbs4 ,tallow #ae lbs4 ,chloride of magnesium #a gallon4 ,chloride of zinc ,it will be noticed here that chloride of magnesium and chloride of zinc are introduced along with the china clay4 ,chloride of magnesium is a very powerful softener as well as a weighting material1 and one of its uses is to prevent the gritty feel which the addition of clay alone would give to the cloth4 ,it has a great affinity for water1 and has thus the power of attracting moisture to the cloth in which it is used4 ,it is this which really constitutes its softening effect4 ,chloride of zinc is used to prevent mildew1 which is a species of vegetable growth which often occurs in sized cloth which has been left damp1 or which attracts moisture4 ,as chloride of magnesium attracts moisture1 it is necessary to use an antiseptic which will counteract the tendency of the cloth to mildew4 ,chloride of zinc possesses valuable properties as an antiseptic1 and therefore it is often used where chloride of magnesium is used in the size as a softening and weighting material4 ,if china clay is used for medium sizing without using chloride of magnesium1 it is necessary to greatly increase the proportion of tallow or other softeners in the mixture4 ,thus1 for every #ajj lbs4 of flour1 #dj lbs4 clay1 and perhaps #be lbs4 tallow would be used4 ,chloride of calcium has a similar effect to chloride of magnesium1 but is scarcely as powerful4 ,it is used by many in light-sizing mixtures to prevent the yarn becoming too brittle4 ,for heavy sizing the proportions of clay and mineral ingredients are increased4 ,in some classes of low shirtings1 over #ajj per cent4 is added to the weight of the yarn4 ,the adhesive material mostly used is wheat flour1 as it carries the added materials better than farina or sago2 but farina is sometimes used for sizing up to #ajj per cent4 ,sometimes two parts clay to one of flour is used for very heavy sizing4 ,for #ajj per cent4 sizing about the following proportions may be used3-- ,flour #ajj lbs4 ,clay #acj ,tallow #ad ,chloride of magnesium #e gallons ,chloride of zinc #b ,colouring matters are used in size to give the yarn any desired tinge4 ,blue is the most common1 as it neutralizes the yellowness of the cloth given in heavy sizing4 ,only a very small quantity is required4 ,sometimes yellow is used to give a brownish appearance to ,american yarn1 making it appear more like ,egyptian4 ,numerous other materials are used for various purposes in sizing4 8,gloy0 has been found useful for strengthening warps for very heavily picked cloths4 ,fig4 #bc will show the principle of the slashing machine in its most usual form4 ,the warpers' beams are placed in the creel #a1 at the back of the machine4 ,in the diagram there are six beams1 #a to #f1 so that if each one contains #ejj ends there would be #cjjj ends in the warp4 ,the warp passes over roller ,a1 and into the size-box4 ,the small roller ,b in the size-box is of copper1 and is called the immersion roller4 ,the warp is passed under this1 and its depth in the size mixture is regulated by it4 ,the warp then passes between two pairs of rollers1 ,c1 ,d1 and ,e1 ,f 7of which ,d and ,f are covered with flannel71 to squeeze the surplus size from the yarn4 ,the size is kept boiling in the size-box by the injection of steam4 ,when the warp comes from the rollers ,e1 ,f1 it passes over a large drying cylinder1 ,m1 and1 after passing almost completely round it1 over a smaller cylinder1 ,n1 and then round the fan ,p and over guide-roller ,q4 ,the warp then passes through the dividing rods ,r 7which divide the warp into the same portions that come from each warpers' beam71 thence over guide-roller ,s and tin measuring roller ,t1 between drawing rollers ,u1 ,v1 and finally on to a weaver's beam1 ,z4 ,this end of the machine is called the 8headstock10 and comprises the measuring mechanism1 dividing rods1 and winding-on arrangement4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bc4 ,the position of the immersion roller in the size has some effect upon the amount of size retained on the warp1 as by sinking the roller lower in the box the yarn will remain longer in the size1 and will therefore absorb more4 ,this roller is also mounted so that it can be lifted out of the size altogether when the machine is stopped4 ,the larger cylinder is usually #f feet to #g feet diameter1 and the smaller one about #d feet diameter1 and both are heated with steam4 ,some machines have a revolving brush between the size-box and the cylinder4 ,this brush is usually driven from the fan shaft1 and its object is to lay the projecting fibres1 and so strengthen the yarn4 ,brushes are only used in some fine-weaving districts1 and not always there4 ,the brush gives the threads a round1 smooth feel1 and prevents them sticking together4 ,under the brush which brushes the yarn a smaller brush is placed1 running at a slower speed than the one above it2 the lower brush is placed a short distance into the upper one1 and serves the purpose of cleaning it as it revolves4 ,the marking mechanism in the slashing frame usually consists of a tin roller wheel1 ,b 7,fig4 #bd71 driving the wheel ,d1 called the 8stud wheel02 a screw or worm1 ,e1 on this stud drives the bell wheel ,f4 ,the marking hammer ,l is situated immediately above a vessel containing colouring matter1 and is lifted by a cam1 ,p1 driven from the tin roller1 and dropped suddenly on the warp1 marking it to the required lengths4 ,the length between each mark is regulated by the wheels used4 ,the tin roller wheel being the driver1 if this is divided into the product of the stud wheel and bell wheel1 it will give the number of revolutions of the tin roller for each mark1 and this multiplied by the circumference of the roller will give the length of the mark4 ,the formula will stand thus-- stud wheel bell wheel circumference of roller ---------------------------------------- --------- length of mark4 tin roller wheel ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bd4 ,if the stud wheel contains #ij teeth1 the bell wheel #de teeth1 the tin roller wheel #fj1 and the roller is #add inches circumference1 the length of the mark will be #ij #de #add -------------- #igb inches #fj ,there are other marking motions in use for marking short lengths for dhooties and scarves of various kinds1 some being constructed so as to mark scarves of two different lengths in succession--say one scarf is marked #b yards long1 and the next one #d1 the two being repeated4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #be4 ,a 8slow motion0 arrangement is used for keeping the machine moving very slowly whilst the weaver's beam is changed4 ,if the machine is stopped completely1 the warp becomes marked where it rests on the drying cylinders4 ,fig4 #be shows the principle of this arrangement4 ,there are three pulleys1 ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 on the driving shaft ,d4 ,between the fast and loose pulleys ,a1 ,c1 the slow motion pulley ,b is placed4 ,when the belt is moved from the fast pulley to the slow motion1 the wheel ,f is set in motion and drives another wheel1 ,g1 and this1 through the bevel wheels ,h1 ,j1 ,k1 ,m1 causes the catch ,o to drive the ratchet wheel ,p on the driven cone shaft ,t4 ,as the motion of the driving catch ,o is slower than the cone ,t when driven by the fast pulley1 the catch ,o will begin to work when the strap is moved from the fast pulley to the slow motion pulley1 and the speed of the machine is reduced to the point where the catch ,o overtakes the driven cone ,t4 ,hot-air drying has been employed in place of cylinder drying1 but is not much used4 ,in this system of drying the warp passes from the size-box to hot-air chambers4 ,the air is heated with steam pipes and driven through the chambers by fans4 ,combinations of cylinder and hot-air drying have also been used1 but with little success4 ,in a slasher sizing machine1 yarn is withdrawn from back beams and finally wound upon a weaver's beam at a uniform pace1 notwithstanding the gradually increasing diameter of the latter as it fills with yarn4 ,it follows1 therefore1 that the velocity of a beam must gradually diminish from the commencement of winding4 ,in order to meet such requirement a beam is driven negatively by means of a frictional driving motion1 one of which is shown in sectional elevation in ,fig4 #bf4 ,this motion consists of a tooth wheel1 ,a1 whose sides are extended beyond its proper teeth to form inner flanges1 which latter are turned at right angles to form an outer rim4 ,two outer flanges1 ,b1 interlock with the rims of wheel ,a1 as shown at ,c1 so that wheel ,a and flanges ,b always revolve at the same velocity4 ,enclosed within each chamber between the inner flanges of ,a and outer flanges ,b is a sheet steel disc1 ,d1 encased within two flannel washers1 ,e1 and secured to a hub which rotates on a hollow beam shaft1 ,o1 in which is cut a channel or key-bed1 ,r4 ,the hubs of steel discs ,d being furnished with a key that enters the channel ,r1 are free to slide upon shaft ,o1 which they rotate at the same velocity4 ,the hub of wheel ,a revolves freely upon the hubs of discs ,d2 also1 the hubs of flanges ,b revolve freely upon shaft ,o2 therefore1 by compressing the flanges and discs together1 any degree of friction1 within certain limits1 may be induced4 ,pressure is applied to the flanges by means of a vertical lever1 ,f1 fulcrumed at ,g1 and elbow lever ,j fulcrumed at ,k4 ,a stud1 ,i1 in lever ,j bears against lever ,f with a force that may be regulated by means of an adjustable weight1 ,l1 ,n4 ,on the inner end of shaft ,o1 which receives one of the beam gudgeons1 is a disc1 ,p1 furnished with a stud or peg1 ,q1 to which is attached a rope or strap that encircles and grips one end of the weaver's beam1 which is thereby turned4 ,as a beam becomes filled and its velocity diminishes1 the slippage between discs ,d and the driving flanges increases1 because the velocity of the driving flanges remains undiminished4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bf4 ,automatic ,supply of ,size to a ,sizing ,machine4 ,there are numerous devices for the purpose of ensuring a continuous and automatic supply of size to the size-box of a slasher sizing machine4 ,one of these is represented in ,figs4 #bg and #bh4 ,from the last mixing beck #c 7,fig4 #bb7 size is pumped into a storage beck1 #e1 whence it is withdrawn and forced by a ram1 ,n1 along feed pipe ,q1 which is coiled within a steam-heated chamber1 ,u4 ,from the steam chamber it returns along pipe ,t1 through regulating valve ,z1 and into the size-box1 in a boiling state4 ,within a separate chamber of the size-box is a floating copper roller1 ,x1 connected at one end by means of rod ,y to a tap which regulates the flow of size through valve ,z1 on the principle of a ball tap4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bg4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bh4 ,scotch dressing is another system of applying size to the yarn4 ,this is a much slower method than slashing1 and is chiefly suitable for very fine yarns4 ,in this machine the weaver's beam is placed above an expanding reed1 ,r 7,fig4 #bi71 and to prevent the ends being crowded the warper's beams are divided1 one-half the ends being placed at each end of the machine4 ,the warp is passed through a pair of rollers1 ,a ,e1 the top one being very heavy4 ,the lower roller of the pair is immersed some distance in the size1 and takes the size up to the yarn4 ,after emerging from the rollers or 8squeezers10 the yarn passes through a revolving brush1 ,b1 and over a fan in a hot-air chamber1 ,f1 then through another brush1 ,c1 round a guide-roller through the expanding reed to the weaver's beam4 ,the opposite half of the machine is a duplicate of this4 ,by this process the yarn is greatly strengthened4 ,the brushing lays down all the projecting fibres1 and makes the thread round1 preventing any caking of the size on the threads4 ,the production1 of a machine of this kind1 is much less than that of a slashing frame1 as only about five beams a day can be dressed1 whilst about fifteen beams could be slashed in the same time4 ,instead of the circular brush ,b1 sometimes flat brushes are used4 ,these are made to work on both sides1 as shown at ,fig4 #cj4 ,the dotted lines show the movement of the brushes4 ,the warp is brushed in the opposite direction to that in which it is moving4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bi4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cj4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ca4 ,ball-warp ,sizing4 ,fig4 #ca is a sectional elevation of a sizing machine for ball-warps4 ,one or more warps1 ,a1 are placed upon cones1 and their yarn guided over rollers1 ,b1 ,c1 into a large size-box1 #d1 containing a series of rollers1 between which yarn passes until it emerges at guide-roller ,g1 when all excess of size is removed by rollers ,h1 ,i4 ,from the squeezing rollers1 yarn is conducted to a drying machine 7,fig4 #cb71 consisting of a series of steam-heated cylinders arranged in two vertical zigzag rows1 ,o1 ,n1 the outer rows of which are driven from vertical shafts containing a series of bevel wheels1 ,z1 gearing with bevel wheels ,y at one end of the cylinder shafts4 ,by this means yarn is subjected to little tension1 and its elasticity is better preserved4 ,after drying1 the warps are deposited in box crates1 ,r1 to be subsequently re-balled1 ready for beaming or winding on to a weaver's beam4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cb4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cc4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cd4 ,beaming4 ,beaming machines exist in great variety1 but they may be classed under the heads of 7#a7 press beaming1 and 7#b7 tension beaming machines4 ,an example of the first-named type1 as made by ,butterworth and ,dickinson1 ,ltd41 is illustrated in ,fig4 #cc4 ,if beaming is accomplished from back beams prepared by a beam warping machine1 a creel or stand capable of holding several beams is situated in the rear of the headstock of the beaming machine2 but if beaming is from ball-warps1 yarn from the latter is passed in a circuitous manner under and over tension and guide rollers ,a1 ,b1 for the purpose of tautening and separating warp-ends1 which are finally passed through the dents of an expending comb1 ,c1 and on to a weaver's beam4 ,by causing weighted levers1 ,d1 to bear upon the beam-ends during winding1 a hard and compact beam is made4 ,a tension beaming machine of the type known as a ,yorkshire dressing machine1 as made by ,hattersley ,sons1 is shown in ,fig4 #cd4 ,yarn from a warp1 ,a1 or from several sections of warps1 is conducted under and over the bars of a tension ladder1 ,b1 thence around dividing bars1 ,c1 between tension rollers1 ,d1 and finally through a wraith or coarse reed on to a weaver's beam1 ,e2 but if ,yorkshire dressing proper is adopted1 warp-ends are passed through the dents of a reed in groups of two to four1 and disposed according to pattern 7if any7 before passing on to a weaver's beam ready for weaving in the loom4 ,by means of stepped speed pulleys1 ,f1 ,g1 the velocity of a beam may be retarded at intervals1 to compensate for the gradually increasing diameter of a beam1 and thereby maintain a uniform rate of winding4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,hand ,,and ,,power ,,looms ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ce4 ,the three principal movements in weaving are shedding1 picking1 and beating up the weft4 ,by shedding is meant opening the warp threads to allow the shuttle containing the weft to pass over certain ends and under others4 ,in the common hand loom the shed is made by the weaver operating treadles with his feet4 ,fig4 #ce shows the method of connecting the shafts or staves with the treadles for weaving a plain cloth4 ,there are two treadles1 ,a and ,b1 placed underneath the loom1 and centred at ,c4 ,the stave ,e is connected to the treadle ,a through the lever ,g4 ,the stave ,f is connected to the same treadle through the 8tumbler0 ,t and the lever ,m4 ,when the treadle ,a is pressed down it will take the stave ,e down1 and the stave ,f up4 ,for the second pick1 the stave ,f is connected to the treadle ,b through the lever ,h1 and the stave ,e is connected to the same treadle through the 8tumbler0 ,r and the lever ,n4 ,therefore1 when the treadle ,b is pressed down1 it will take the stave ,f down and stave ,e up4 ,by alternately pressing first one treadle and then the other1 we get each stave up for one pick and down for the next1 alternately1 as required for weaving plain cloth4 ,the levers ,m and ,n are usually called 8long lams10 the levers ,g1 ,h 8short lams10 and the top levers ,r1 ,t 8tumblers40 ,the cords ,,pp connect the long lams and tumblers together at the side of the loom4 ,in mounting this loom for weaving a three-shaft twill1 three treadles are required1 one treadle for each pick in the pattern4 ,supposing one stave to be down and two up for each pick4 ,the stave required to be taken down for the first pick must be connected to the first treadle through a short lam1 and the two staves required to be taken up must be connected to the same treadle through their long lams and tumblers4 ,each pick in the pattern must be gone through in this manner4 ,a separate treadle is required for every pick in the pattern1 unless the same pick is repeated1 in which case one treadle will do for more than one pick4 ,it is not advisable to break the regularity in the order of treading in order to save a treadle2 but in diaper patterns and similar weaves the effect of a point draft is obtained by reversing the order of treading4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cf4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cg4 ,figs4 #cf and #cg show the design and cording plan respectively for a twill cloth requiring eight treadles4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ch4 ,the hand loom is practically obsolete in the cotton trade1 but it is still extensively used in silk manufacture1 where power looms1 as at present constructed1 are not found advantageous for weaving the finer classes of goods4 ,the chief shedding motions in power looms are tappets1 dobbies1 and jacquards4 ,there are various kinds of tappets1 the simplest and best for plain or twill weaving being those shown at ,figs4 #ch and #ci4 ,the former is the more general arrangement4 ,in this the tappets are placed under the loom1 inside the framework4 ,in the arrangement shown at ,fig4 #ci the tappets are placed outside the loom1 and thus a larger amount of floor space is taken up by the latter than the former4 ,outside tappets are mostly used in the ,yorkshire weaving districts1 and are commonly made for weaving with about eight shafts4 ,the top levers1 with 8half moons10 are centred at the cross rods ,,ee 7,fig4 #ci71 and the heald is lifted from both sides of the loom4 ,the top levers are very useful for equalizing the shed1 as the connection with the upright rod can be altered without difficulty4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ci4 ,in a power loom there are two horizontal shafts1 the top shaft ,a 7,fig4 #ch7 and the bottom shaft ,b4 ,the former is used for working the slay1 by means of the crank ,c1 and the connecting rod or 8crank arm0 ,d 7,fig4 #ch74 ,the bottom shaft is used for 8picking10 and for this purpose it is necessary that the shaft should revolve at one-half the speed of the top or crank shaft4 ,the toothed wheel on the bottom shaft must therefore contain twice the number of teeth in the wheel on the crank shaft which drives it4 ,as a plain cloth contains two picks to the round1 and the bottom shaft makes one revolution for two picks1 the tappets are fixed to the bottom shaft4 ,each tappet acts upon treadle bowl ,e1 and therefore the size of the bowl will require to be taken into consideration in shaping the tappets4 ,for weaving plain cloth four staves are usually taken1 in order to prevent overcrowding the healds on each stave1 the ends being drawn through the staves in the order #a1 #c1 #b1 #d4 ,as the staves are fastened together in pairs1 this is the same as two staves4 ,the kind of movement to be given to the staves is very important1 especially in quick-running looms4 ,the staves should be moving quickest when they are level1 and their speed should gradually decrease as the shed opens4 ,it is obvious that a movement of this kind will put as little strain as possible on the warp1 and therefore cause the fewest breakages4 ,the depth of the shed should only be sufficient to allow the shuttle to pass1 therefore the 8lift0 or stroke of the heald is dependent upon the depth of the shuttle used4 ,the shed when opened should remain open only long enough to allow the shuttle to pass through4 ,example4--,what lift should a tappet have to make a plain cloth1 the other arrangements in the loom being as follows3 ,sweep of slay #e inches1 distance of healds from cloth #h inches1 heald connected to treadle #bd inches from fulcrum1 distance from fulcrum to centre of treadle bowl #af inches1 size of shuttle #a inch broad1 #a inch deep8 ,assuming that the tappets are under the loom1 as in ,fig4 #ch1 the treadle bowl ,e is #af inches from ,m1 and the heald connected #bd inches from ,m4 ,if slay moves back from cloth #e1 and the shuttle is #a broad and #a deep1 it follows that the shed must be #a deep1 or a little over1 at a point #d from the cloth 7#e-a #d74 ,then if the heald is #h from cloth1 the stroke of heald may be obtained--#d3 #h #a3 #b stroke of heald1 and as #bd treadle3 #af #b3 #a lift of tappet required4 ,to obtain the proper shape of the tappets for a plain cloth1 the lift or stroke of the tappets to give the required lift to the healds must be obtained4 ,if the lift of the heald is required to be #d inches1 and the centre of the treadle bowl ,e 7,fig4 #ch7 is situated #ab inches from the fulcrum of the treadle ,m1 the heald being connected to the treadle at1 say1 #ah inches from the fulcrum1 the lift or stroke of the tappet will be obtained as follows3-- ,as #ah 3 #ab #d #d ---- #ah7 #dh 7 #b lift of tappet #cf -- #ab ,in some makes of looms the staves are connected to the treadles at a point between the fulcrum and the treadle bowl1 the fulcrum being at the front of the loom4 ,this necessitates a larger lift of tappet than lift of heald4 ,the tappets in this case are very large1 and are preferred by some manufacturers4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dj4 ,to construct a tappet for a plain cloth from the following dimensions4--,lift of tappet1 #d inches4 ,distance from centre of shaft to nearest point of contact with treadle bowl1 #b inches2 dwell one-third of a pick4 ,diameter of treadle bowl1 #b inches4 ,at a radius of #b inches describe the circle ,a 7,fig4 #dj74 ,this circle represents the distance from the centre of the shaft to the nearest point of contact with the treadle bowl4 ,at a radius of #c inches describe the circle ,b4 ,one inch added for radius of treadle bowl4 ,at a radius of #g inches describe the circle ,c4 ,four inches added for lift4 ,the circle ,b represents the centre of the treadle bowl when the inner circle of the tappet is acting upon the bowl4 ,the circle ,c represents the centre of the bowl when pressed down by the tappet4 ,the pattern being a plain one1 the circle must be divided into two equal parts1 and each half-circle will then represent one pick4 ,by the line ,,de divide the circle into two equal parts4 ,then1 as the healds must have a pause or dwell equal to one-third pick when at the top and bottom of their stroke1 divide each half-circle into three equal parts by the lines ,,fk1 ,,gh4 ,divide ,,fh and ,,gk each into six equal parts1 and divide the space between the circles ,b and ,c into the same number of unequal parts1 the largest being in the middle1 gradually decreasing towards the circles ,b and ,c4 ,from the corners of these unequal spaces1 and with the radius of the treadle bowl in the compasses1 describe circles representing the position of the treadle bowl at different parts of its movement4 ,draw the curved line touching the extremities of the treadle bowl4 ,this gives the outline of the tappet4 ,as previously stated1 the movement of the heald must be quickest when the shed is nearly closed1 and must gradually decrease in speed as the shed opens4 ,the unequal spaces into which the lift of the tappet was divided give this eccentric movement to the heald4 ,the curve of the tappet will approach nearer to a radial line as the shed closes1 and the heald approaches the centre of its stroke4 ,referring to ,fig4 #dj1 it will be seen that the treadle bowl is at rest from ,f to ,g and from ,h to ,k1 or one-third of a pick at both the top and bottom of the stroke4 ,therefore the time allowed for change1 or for moving the heald from top to bottom1 or vice vers1 is equal to two-thirds of a pick4 ,if a dwell equal to half a pick is required1 it can be obtained by dividing the pick into four equal parts and taking the middle two parts for dwell4 ,if two-thirds dwell is required1 divide the pick into six parts and take four parts for dwell4 ,it is usual to give the tappet which operates the back heald a slightly larger lift than the tappet which operates the front heald4 ,the difference required can be easily calculated4 ,in looms with the fulcrum of the treadles at the front1 and the healds connected to the treadles between the fulcrum and the treadle bowls1 some of the required extra lift is obtained by connecting the back heald to the treadle at a point further from the fulcrum than the front heald is connected4 ,in looms with the fulcrum of the treadles at the back of the loom1 and the tappets acting between the heald and the fulcrum1 there will be a greater difference between the size of tappets in proportion to the lift than in the former case4 ,tappets for twills1 and other simple weaves1 having more than two picks to the round1 are usually placed upon a counter-shaft1 but outside tappets are usually worked loose upon the bottom shaft4 ,the following example will illustrate the principle of constructing twill tappets3-- ,draw a tappet for a #c up and #a down twill4 ,distance from centre of shaft to nearest point of contact with treadle bowl #c inches1 lift #c inches1 bowl #b inches diameter1 dwell pick4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #da4 ,at a radius of #c inches describe the circle ,a 7,fig4 #da74 ,at a radius of #d inches describe the circle ,b 7one inch added for treadle bowl74 ,at a radius of #g inches describe the circle ,c 7#c inches added for lift74 ,there being four picks in the pattern1 divide the circles into four equal parts by the lines ,,de1 ,,fg4 ,then each quarter-circle represents one pick1 and the tappets must be made to make one revolution for four revolutions of the crank shaft4 ,as the dwell of the heald 7when the shed is open7 must be equal to half a pick1 or half a revolution of the crank shaft1 divide the first pick into four equal parts by the points ,o1 ,l1 ,m2 make ,,dp equal to ,,do1 and ,,fn equal to ,,fm1 and rule lines from ,p1 ,o1 ,m1 ,n to the centre4 ,the distance ,,om represents the half-pick dwell1 and the distances ,,op and ,,mn represent the half-pick which will be allowed for changing the heald from bottom to top of its stroke1 and vice vers4 ,divide ,,op and ,,mn into six equal parts1 and the lift of tappet1 or the distance between the circles ,b and ,c1 into six unequal parts1 the largest in the middle and gradually decreasing towards the two circles4 ,from the corners of the unequal spaces describe the small circles representing the treadle bowl at different parts of its stroke1 and draw the outline of the tappet touching the extremities of these circles4 ,a tappet of this shape acting upon a treadle bowl two inches in diameter will take the heald down for one pick and allow it to go up for three picks4 ,the heald will be held stationary for exactly half a pick when at the bottom of its stroke1 and will begin to rise slowly1 and gradually increase in speed as it approaches the centre of its stroke1 and will gradually decrease in speed as it approaches the top of its stroke4 ,the downward movement will be an exact counterpart of this4 ,in this kind of tappet it will be noticed that the heald1 when it gets to the top 7if it is required up for more than one pick71 remains stationary until it is required to come down4 ,thus the heald remains at the top while the circles revolve from ,n to ,p4 ,for this twill there will be four treadles1 each treadle being operated by a tappet of the same shape2 but the tappet operating each succeeding treadle will be placed one quarter of a revolution later than the previous one4 ,the size of the treadle bowl has a very appreciable effect upon the shape of the tappet1 more especially when there are several picks to the round4 ,the movement imparted to the centre of the treadle bowl will be the exact movement given to the heald as far as regards dwell and eccentricity1 and as the tappet acts on the treadle bowl at a distance of #a or #b inches from the centre1 the required amount of dwell and eccentricity must be given to the centre of the bowl1 and the shape of the tappet obtained accordingly4 ,it will be noticed at ,fig4 #da1 that to give a dwell of half a pick to the centre of the treadle bowl1 a slightly longer dwell is on the tappet at the inner circle2 and as the size of the treadle bowl increases1 this hollowing out of the tappet must be increased in order to keep the dwell of the heald the same4 ,fig4 #db is a drawing of a tappet for a #c down1 #a up1 #a down1 #a up 7six to the round7 twill4 ,centre of tappet shaft to nearest point of contact with bowl #d inches1 lift of tappet #b inches1 bowl #a inch diameter1 dwell one-third of a pick4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #db4 ,to construct this tappet3--,at a radius of #d inches describe the circle ,a4 ,at a radius of #d inches describe the circle ,b4 ,at a radius of #f inches describe the circle ,c4 ,as there are six picks to the round1 divide the circles into six equal parts by the lines ,d1 ,e1 ,f1 ,g1 ,h1 ,i4 ,as there is one-third pick dwell1 divide each pick into three equal parts1 and take the middle one for dwell4 ,rule the lines ,l1 ,m1 ,n1 ,o1 ,p1 ,q1 ,r1 ,s to the centre1 and divide the spaces allowed for change into six equal parts1 and the distance between the circles ,b and ,c into six unequal parts1 as in the previous examples4 ,from the corners of the unequal spaces describe the circles representing the movement of the treadle bowl1 and obtain the shape of the tappet accordingly4 ,it will be noticed that at point ,l the treadle bowl begins to dwell1 and remains stationary until it reaches the point ,s1 when it begins to go up4 ,the heald will thus be down for the first1 second1 and third picks1 up for the fourth1 down for the fifth1 and up for the sixth4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dc4--,woodcroft's ,tappet4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dd4 ,woodcroft ,section ,tappet4--,sect4 #a1 riser 7heald-up72 sect4 #b1 faller 7heald-down72 sect4 #c1 left-hand riser2 sect4 #d1 neutral riser2 sect4 #e1 right-hand riser2 sect4 #f1 left-hand faller2 sect4 #g1 neutral faller2 sect4 #h1 right-hand faller4 ,woodcroft's ,section ,tappets are much used in weaving heavy goods1 such as velveteens and corduroys4 ,they are made with various numbers of sections to the round4 ,a single tappet plate of one twelve picks to the round is given at ,fig4 #dc4 ,sections are sometimes made in two kinds only4 ,these are termed 8risers0 and 8fallers10 according as they raise or depress a heald respectively4 ,each heald requires one plate and lever ,l1 and as the tappets revolve1 the lever ,l is moved up and down4 ,when the lever ,l is lifted1 the heald is moved downwards4 ,a difference in the character of the shed produced by these tappets as compared with ordinary tappets will be noticed4 ,when the lever ,l is lifted for two or more picks in succession1 it comes down about half-way each pick4 ,this is unavoidable in section tappets consisting only of 8riser0 and 8faller0 sections1 which must join together exactly wherever inserted1 thereby causing all the healds to come towards the centre of the shed after every pick4 ,if there are twelve sections to the round1 any pattern repeating on three1 four1 six1 or twelve picks may be woven4 ,it is sometimes considered an objectionable feature of section tappets 7as represented in ,fig4 #dc7 that they cause all healds to be brought level after every pick1 thereby producing jerky shedding4 ,this objection1 however1 has been overcome by the construction of eight distinct varieties of sections1 as shown in ,fig4 #dd1 whereby healds may remain either up or down for several picks in succession on the 8open-shed0 principle1 as with ordinary box-plate tappets cast in one piece4 ,,oscillating ,,tappets4 ,another form of shedding device1 which embodies certain features of ordinary rotary tappets and dobbies1 is that known as the oscillating or rocking tappet1 an example of which is shown in ,fig4 #de4 ,this type of shedding motion consists of a series of plates1 ,b1 cast with upper and lower projecting ridges1 ,c1 ,d1 and fulcrumed on shaft ,a1 upon which they oscillate in a manner indicated by arrows1 ,e4 ,a movement in either direction represents one pick4 ,on each side of the rocking shaft ,a1 and oscillating with the tappets1 is a pattern chain1 ,f and ,f1 composed of bowls and bushes threaded upon spindles1 ,g4 ,pattern chains1 which represent odd and even picks respectively1 are rotated alternately and intermittently1 one spindle for each pick1 thereby causing elbow-levers ,h to be raised or depressed1 according to whether a bowl or a bush is presented underneath them respectively4 ,the vertical arms of ,h act upon loose plates1 ,i 7termed 8duck-bills071 which are fulcrumed upon short studs1 ,j4 ,grooves may thus be formed between either the upper or lower ridges of tappet plates1 and the upper or lower edges of 8duck-bills10 which grooves1 by acting upon treadles ,k1 governing healds1 will operate the latter in a manner determined by the pattern chains4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #de4 ,oscillating tappets are situated at one end of a loom1 above the crank shaft1 from which they are driven by wheel gearing and suitable connecting arms4 ,they are chiefly employed on looms weaving fustians and similar heavy and strong fabrics4 ,in plain looms with under tappets1 the healds are generally connected round a top roller or cone1 so that when the tappet is pressing one stave down1 it is also taking the other stave up4 ,the shedding is thus positive4 ,for weaving twills1 satins1 and such weaves1 either spring1 roller1 or pulley top motions are used4 ,where spring tops are used1 the tappet pulls the heald down1 and the spring pulls it up again4 ,of course1 the speed at which the heald moves upward will be controlled by the shape of the tappet exactly as it is in its downward stroke1 but in the up stroke of the heald1 the tappet is only acting negatively4 ,with roller tops the movement is positive1 as the rollers are so constructed that as one stave is taken down by the tappets another is taken up4 ,if two staves are taken down1 two will be taken up1 and the tappets must be constructed so as to allow this4 ,it is very important also that the tappets should be of the proper shape1 and the exact counterpart of each other1 so that any one stave is allowed to go up at exactly the same speed1 and with the same amount of eccentricity in its movement1 as any other stave which is being taken down by the tappets4 ,fig4 #df shows the top roller arrangement for plain cloth4 ,straps are connected to the staves over the rollers ,k1 ,k#a2 so that when one stave is taken down by the tappet1 the other is taken up4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #df4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dg4 ,for three staves the arrangement of rollers as shown at ,fig4 #dg is used4 ,the diameter of ,b must be twice that of ,a4 ,sometimes a pulley is used at ,c1 but when it is a roller1 it is fitted into slots at the ends so as to allow of its being lifted4 ,the diameter of ,c is immaterial1 but the reason for ,b and ,a being as #b3 #a is that when the first heald is taken down1 either the second or third must be taken up the same distance4 ,suppose the first stave is pulled down a distance of #d inches1 the strap ,e1 being fastened to the roller ,a1 which is half the size of ,b1 will be taken up only two inches2 and as the tappets are constructed so as to allow only one heald to go up each pick1 if this heald is the second one1 the third being immovable1 the second will be taken up #d inches1 or the same distance that the first was taken down4 ,if the strap ,e were fastened to ,b1 the stave would be taken up eight inches instead of four4 ,this arrangement of rollers is suitable for a #b and #a twill2 either #b down and #a up1 or #a down and #b up4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dh4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #di4 ,for four staves the arrangement shown at ,fig4 #dh is used4 ,the relative size of the rollers in this case is immaterial4 ,if the first stave is pulled down by the tappet #d inches1 and the second is the one allowed to go up1 it will be taken up the same distance4 ,if the first is being pulled down #d inches1 and the third is the one allowed to go up1 the fourth being immovable1 the strap ,a is pulled down #b inches1 and ,b lifted two inches1 and the third stave will be lifted #d inches4 ,if any one of the four healds is pulled down1 another will be lifted the same distance4 ,this motion can be used for either a #c and #a twill or a #b and #b twill1 or any four-stave pattern with the same number of staves going up as are going down each pick4 ,the arrangement shown at ,fig4 #di1 in which the top roller is dispensed with1 is sometimes used for a #b and #b twill4 ,it will not work a #c and #a pattern4 ,the principle of this will be understood by carefully following the movement of staves in weaving a #b and #b twill4 ,the draft used with ,fig4 #di must be #a1 #c1 #b1 #d1 or the first end must be drawn through the first stave1 the second end through the third stave1 the third end through the second stave1 and the fourth through the fourth stave4 ,if the pattern is the one shown at ,fig4 #ej1 in which the first and second ends are down for the first pick1 it is obvious that to effect this the first and third staves will be down for that pick1 and the second and fourth staves will be up4 ,for the second pick the second and third ends are down1 and as these are drawn through the third and second staves respectively1 these staves must be down for the second pick4 ,as the third is already down1 it is only necessary to take the second down1 which will pull the first up as required4 ,the changes in this pattern will be easily understood from the following3-- #ast pick3 #ast and #crd staves down1 #bnd and #dth staves up4 #bnd pick3 #crd and #bnd staves down1 #eth and #crd staves up4 #crd pick3 #bnd and #dth staves down1 #ast and #crd staves up4 #dth ,pick3 #dth and #ast staves down1 #crd and #bnd staves up4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ej4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ea4 ,fig4 #ea shows a top-roller device for five healds1 with bottom heald staves connected to treadles that are operated by tappets1 ,j1 fixed upon a shaft underneath1 but a little in front of the healds1 and driven by a train of wheels from a pinion1 ,b1 on the end of the crank shaft ,a4 ,this top-roller motion is designed for a five-end weave in which either one heald only or else four healds1 must be raised or depressed for every pick1 uniformly4 ,therefore1 four of the five healds must be suspended from one pair of rollers ,c1 and one heald from another pair of rollers ,d1 with both pairs of rollers firmly secured to the same shaft4 ,also1 in order to obtain the proper leverage that will ensure the four healds that are suspended from rollers ,c1 exactly counterbalancing the one heald suspended from rollers ,d1 the diameters of the pairs of rollers ,c and ,d must be in the ratio of one to four1 respectively4 ,all shedding motions of this type are based on the principle of equilibrium1 whether they are designed as top-roller motions1 to operate above the healds1 or as stocks and bowls to operate below the healds4 ,therefore1 in all top-roller motions1 the diameters of the rollers on the same shaft must always be in inverse ratio to the number of healds suspended from them4 ,likewise with stocks and bowls1 the leverage of the stocks must be in inverse ratio to the number of healds to which the respective ends of the stocks or levers are connected4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eb4 ,an arrangement for seven staves is given at ,fig4 #eb4 ,the two pulleys ,a and ,b1 on the same centre1 are in the ratio of #c3 #d1 and the pulley ,d must be twice the diameter of ,c1 the relative size of the remaining pulleys being immaterial4 ,if the first stave is pulled down1 say1 #f inches1 and the seventh stave is the one allowed to go up2 then the strap ,e will be pulled down #b inches1 and the strap ,f taken up #a inches1 the strap ,g #c inches1 and the stave #f inches1 which is the same distance that the other stave was pulled down4 ,it will be the same with any other healds in the set4 ,if one stave is taken down1 any other one left loose by the tappet will be taken up the same distance4 ,instead of the pulleys ,a and ,b1 a lever may be used with its two arms in the ratio of #c to #d1 the four staves being connected to the shorter arm1 and the three staves to the longer arm4 ,in some looms the positions of tappets and roller heald-motions are inverted3 tappets being fixed above1 and roller motions below1 healds4 ,in such cases the roller motions are known as 8stocks and bowls10 which terms1 however1 more correctly describe those devices consisting of a combination of levers and bowls1 or rollers1 and not those consisting of rollers upon shafts4 ,in either case1 they are based upon the same principle of leverage1 and act in an exactly similar manner to each other4 ,these devices are very limited in their scope1 as regards variety of weaves for which they are suitable1 and may only be employed for weaves of a regular character1 in which the number of healds up and down is the same for every pick4 ,of course1 any number of healds in a set may be up or down as required1 but when once that number is selected1 and healds are tied up accordingly1 it may not be changed without re-tieing up4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ec4 ,fig4 #ec shows a front and end elevation of what is known as the ,yorkshire shedding motion1 in which tappets are cast upon a sleeve slid upon one end of the second motion or picking shaft ,d1 to operate treadles1 ,m1 fulcrumed at ,n4 ,connecting rods1 ,j1 connect treadles1 ,m1 with quadrant jacks1 ,o1 secured to cross-bars1 ,k4 ,these serve as fulcra for the jacks1 which are connected to upper heald staves1 ,p1 by means of straps and cords1 ,r1 whilst bottom heald staves are attached by cords to springs1 ,s1 for the purpose of pulling healds down1 after being raised by the tappets4 ,,picking4 ,as soon as a warp-shed is sufficiently opened by the healds1 the shuttle1 containing weft1 is propelled through it4 ,that operation is termed 8picking10 and may be accomplished by either of two types of picking motions known as 8over0 and 8under0 picking motions4 ,the 8over-pick10 also known as the 8cone0 and ,blackburn pick 7,fig4 #ed71 is in most general use1 especially for narrow and quick-running looms weaving light and medium-weight fabrics2 whilst the 8under-pick0 7,figs4 #ef and #eg71 of which there are many modifications1 is chiefly confined to medium and broad looms1 which require a picking motion capable of developing greater force4 ,a shuttle is propelled by a picker made of hide1 which is connected by means of a leather strap to the picking stick ,a 7,fig4 #ed74 ,the upright shaft ,b is the fulcrum of the lever4 ,the cone ,c is the short arm of the lever which receives the force from the picking tappet ,d4 ,the tappet is so shaped that as it revolves it gives a sudden quick movement to the cone-shaped stud1 and therefore to the shuttle4 ,it is obvious that as the shuttle must move from one side of the loom to the other1 and back again1 for two revolutions of the crank shaft1 the picking tappets must be placed on a shaft whose speed is one-half that of the crank shaft2 therefore the bottom shaft in the loom on this account is made to move at the required speed1 and the picking tappets are placed on this shaft at opposite sides of the loom4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ed4 ,the chief requirement in a good pick is that as little force as possible shall be wasted in the loom4 ,the relative positions of the tappet shaft and cone should be such that the force is exerted as nearly as possible in the direction of the dotted line ,e at right angles with the upright shaft ,b4 ,it is impossible to effect this throughout the whole course of the stroke1 but it is obvious that if this is approached as nearly as possible1 the pick will be smooth1 and the wear and tear reduced to a minimum4 ,a very considerable amount of power is wasted if the direction of the force is too much downward4 ,the direction of the force is at right angles to a line drawn tangent from the cone at the point of connection with the picking tappet4 ,thus in ,fig4 #ed the direction of the force is indicated by the dotted line ,m1 which is at right angles to the dotted line ,n1 drawn tangent to the cone at the point of connection with the tappet4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ee4 ,the intensity of the force depends on the length of the stroke of the tappet and on the suddenness of the curve of the working face4 ,if in two looms the length of tappet is the same1 but in one the portion of a revolution occupied in making the stroke is less than in the other1 there will be a greater intensity of force in the loom with the quicker stroke4 ,in ,fig4 #ee the portion of a revolution occupied in making the stroke is indicated by the angle ,,ab4 ,if this angle is increased1 the force of the pick will be lessened1 and if the angle be decreased1 the force of the pick will be augmented4 ,it will be understood from this that if the picking tappets are short the pick is liable to be harsh4 ,if a fair length of tappet is given1 a smoother and better-timed pick can be made4 ,the curve on the picking tappet gradually approaches a radial line as it nears the end of the stroke1 but the combined influence of the change in the position of the cone and the backward movement of the slay causes the shuttle to move quickest in the early part of its movement in the box4 ,there is a relation between the length of the shuttle-box and the length of the picking tappet4 ,if the tappet is a short one1 the shuttle-box must be short2 and if a longer tappet is used--the leverage of the picking arm and other parts being the same--the shuttle-box will be longer4 ,it is obviously inadvisable to have too short a tappet1 as the movement of the shuttle in the box must in that case be extremely sudden1 in order to have the necessary force4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ef4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eg4 ,an underpick motion is given at ,fig4 #ef4 ,a picking treadle1 ,a1 centred at ,c1 is pressed suddenly down by the picking bowl ,b1 which is fastened on to the wheel on the bottom shaft in the loom4 ,a strap1 ,e1 connects the treadle and the picking lever4 ,in ,fig4 #eg this connection is shown4 ,the strap from the treadle is fastened to the quadrant1 and as the treadle is pressed suddenly down1 the picking lever ,h is moved forward4 ,the shape of the curve ,e1 which the picking bowl strikes1 regulates the character of the movement given to the lever ,h1 and it is well not to have the curve too small and sudden1 or the pick will not be satisfactory4 ,the curve on the treadle in ,fig4 #hh 7p4 #abj7 is perhaps better than the one in ,fig4 #ef1 as it is longer1 and is therefore not liable to be so jerky4 ,there are numerous other picking motions1 which chiefly differ in the mechanism for actuating the picking lever4 ,beating up the ,weft is the third primary movement in weaving4 ,this movement is performed by a crank on the top shaft in the loom and a connecting rod or crank-arm which connects the crank and the slay together4 ,this is shown at ,fig4 #ch1 where the crank ,c and crank-arm ,d give a reciprocating movement to the slay ,s4 ,the slay moves upon a rocking shaft1 ,e1 as a fulcrum1 and when the crank is at the front centre the slay-swords should be perpendicular1 or nearly so4 ,sometimes the fulcrum is taken a little forward1 but it is never advisable to have the slay over the perpendicular when in contact with the cloth4 ,the movement of the slay should be eccentric4 ,it is obvious that when the slay is at the back of its stroke its movement should be sufficiently slow to allow time for the shuttle to pass through the shed2 and that when beating up1 the speed of the slay should be sufficient to knock the weft firmly into the cloth4 ,a crank and crank-arm give the kind of movement required4 ,the eccentricity of the slay's movement depends upon the length of the crank and crank-arm1 and upon the position of the crank-shaft in relation to the point of connection of the crank-arm with the slay4 ,the position of the crank-shaft in relation to the connecting pin varies in different makes and widths of looms4 ,we shall see that the position of the shaft and the direction in which the loom runs have an important bearing on the force exerted by the slay in beating up the weft4 ,for ordinary looms the usual position of the shaft is a little below the level of the connecting pin when at the front centre1 and when the shaft is in this position the movement of the slay is the most even and least eccentric4 ,to obtain this position of the crank-shaft in a diagram1 first draw the line ,,sa 7,fig4 #eh7 to represent the slay-sword when the reed is in contact with the cloth2 this we will assume is perpendicular4 ,we will suppose ,,sa to be #bd inches1 ,s being the rocking shaft and ,a the connecting pin which connects the crank-arm with the slay4 ,suppose the loom we are dealing with to have a #c-;inch crank and a #ab-;inch crank-arm4 ,describe the arc ,,an from the centre ,s1 and mark off on the arc a distance from ,a equal to twice the length of the crank4 ,as the crank is #c inches long1 mark off the point ,b1 #f inches from ,a4 ,this point ,b represents the position of the connecting pin when the slay is at the back of its stroke4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eh4 ,from ,a1 rule the line ,,ax in such a position that the arc ,,ab makes the least possible departure from it4 ,it will be found that this necessitates ,,ax cutting the arc ,,ab at a point a little past the middle of the arc4 ,with the length of the crank and crank-arm1 viz4 #ae inches1 in the compasses1 from ,a as the centre cut the line ,,ax at ,e1 and this gives the position for the crank-shaft which will give the least possible eccentricity to the slay4 ,this will be obvious1 as the nearer the connecting pin moves on the straight line ,,ax1 the less will be the eccentricity of the slay4 ,that the movement of the slay in the back half of its stroke is slower than in the front half can easily be proved by taking the length of the crank-arm in the compasses1 and1 after bisecting the arc ,,ab at ,c1 from ,c marking off the points ,d and ,h on the crank circle4 ,it will be seen that both these points are somewhat inside the top and bottom centres of the crank indicated by the dotted line1 and therefore the slay moves from ,c to ,a and back1 the front half of its stroke1 in less time than it moves from ,c to ,b and back to ,c4 ,the reason for this eccentricity or unevenness in the movement of the slay is that when the crank is moving from the back centre to the top centre the crank-arm is oscillating and opening an angle with ,,ax while the slay is moving forward1 and therefore while the crank is making this quarter of a revolution1 the connecting pin of the slay will move something less than from ,b to ,c2 and while the crank is moving from the top centre to the front centre1 the crank-arm is straightening or closing the angle while the slay is moving forward1 and thus the connecting pin will move a greater distance than from ,c to ,a while the crank is making this quarter of a revolution4 ,when the crank moves from front to bottom centre the angle is opening while the slay is moving backwards1 and therefore the pin will move a little more than from ,a to ,c2 and when the crank moves from bottom to back centre the angle is closing while the slay moves backwards1 thus retarding the velocity of the slay4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ei4 ,this will be better understood from ,fig4 #ei1 where ,,cd is the crank-arm1 and ,,ed the crank at the top centre4 ,a is the position of the connecting pin when at the front of its stroke1 and ,b its position when at the back of its stroke4 ,the dimensions are as in ,fig4 #eh--viz4 #ab-;inch arm1 #c-;inch crank--and for simplicity we will assume the connecting pin moves on the straight line ,,ae4 ,from ,a to ,b is #f inches1 and therefore it is obvious that ,,ac is something over #c inches1 and that the connecting pin moves this distance whilst the crank is making the quarter of a revolution from top to front centre4 ,the distance ,,ac can be obtained as follows4 ,it is obvious that ,,cde is a right-handed triangle1 and therefore ,,cd#b is equal to ,,ce#b ,,ed#b4 ,therefore ,,cd#b-;,,ed#b ,,ce#b1 and having obtained the length of ,,ce1 we can subtract this from ,,ae1 which leaves the length of ,,ac4 ,the formula will stand thus-- ,,cd#b - ,,ed#b ,,ce#b #abb - #cb #add - #i #ace ,,ce#b and ,,ce 7#ace7 or #aafahi length of ,,ae #aejjjj inches #aafahi inches ------- ,,ac #cchaa inches ,the answer may be obtained in one calculation as follows3-- ,,ae - 7,,cd#b - ,,ed#b7 ,,ac or #ae - 7#abb - #cb7 #ae - 7#add - #i7 #ae - 7#ace7 #ae - #aafahi #cchaa ,we thus see that the connecting pin moves #c inches #jchaa inch while the crank is moving from the top to front centre4 ,it will also move the same distance while the crank moves from front to bottom centre4 ,when the crank is moving from the bottom to the back centre1 the connecting pin will move #c inches - #jchaa4 #cjjjj #jchaa ------ #bfahi inches1 and the same distance when the crank moves from back to top centre4 ,it is often necessary in comparing looms to obtain the distance travelled by the connecting pin for a smaller movement of the crank than a quarter of a revolution4 ,suppose it is desired to find the distance travelled by the connecting pin while the crank moves through #cj degrees to the front centre4 ,take a #d-;inch crank and #ab-;inch crank-arm4 ,in ,fig4 #fj1 ,,ed is the crank1 #d inches1 and ,,dc the crank-arm1 #ab inches1 the angle ,o #cj degrees4 ,p is the position of the connecting pin when at front of its stroke4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fj4 ,to find the distance ,,cp4 ,from a table of natural sines we can obtain the sine of an angle of #cj degrees1 viz1 sin #cj #je1 and therefore1 knowing the length of ,,ed1 viz4 #d inches1 we can obtain the length of ,,dn1 it being #je1 or half of ,,ed1 in an angle of #cj degrees4 ,having two sides of a triangle1 we can obtain the third side thus3 ,,ed#b - ,,dn#b ,,en#b and ,,cd#b - ,,dn#b ,,cn#b ,having obtained the length of ,,cn and ,,en1 we can easily obtain ,,cp by subtracting ,,cf from the length of crank and crank-arm together4 ,working out the problem in figures we get-- ,,ed#b - ,,dn#b ,,en#b #db - #bb ,,en#b #af - #d ,,en#b #ab ,,en#b ,,en 7#ab7 or #cdfda4 ,and ,,cd#b - ,,dn#b ,,cn#b #abb - #bb ,,cn#b #add - #d ,,cn#b #adj ,,cn#b ,,cn 7#adj7 or #aahcba and #aahcba #cdfda #aebifb ,therefore ,,ce #aebifb inches1 and subtracting this from ,,pe1 which is #af inches 7#ab #d #af71 we get #af-aebifb #jgjch as the distance ,,cp1 which is the distance moved by the connecting pin for the #cj degrees movement of the crank4 ,the complete formula is as follows3-- ,,pe-7,,ed#b-;,,dn#b7 7,,dc#b-;,,dn#b7 ,,cp1 or distance moved by the connecting pin for the given number of degrees through which the crank moves1 ,,nd being obtained from a table of sines4 ,to find the distance moved by the connecting pin while the crank moves through #e degrees--say1 from #cj degrees to #be degrees in beating up4 ,to solve this it will only be necessary to subtract the length of ,,ce when the crank is forming an angle of #cj degrees from the length of ,,ce when the crank forms an angle of #be degrees4 ,in the previous example we found that for #cj degrees1 ,,ce #aebifb inches1 and therefore proceeding in the same manner for #be degrees1 we get from table of sines1 sin #be #jdbbf1 and #jdbbf of #d inches #afi2 therefore ,,nd #afi inches1 and #db - #afib ,,en#b #af - #bhef ,,en#b #acadd ,,en#b ,,en 7#acadd7 or #cfbf and #abb - #afib ,,cn#b #add - #bhef ,,cn#b #adaadd ,,cn#b ,,cn 7#adaadd7 #aahh2 therefore ,,cn #aahh inches1 and ,,ce will equal #aahh #bfbf1 or #aeejf inches1 when the crank is forming an angle of #be degrees4 #aeejf length of ,,ce for #be degrees #aebif length of ,,ce for #cj degrees ------ inches #jbaj distance moved by pin whilst crank moves through #e degrees1 from #cj degrees to #be degrees1 in beating up4 ,in this manner it is easy to calculate the distance travelled by the pin for any number of degrees moved by the crank1 and by comparing the velocity of the slay in different looms1 the force of the beat up can be compared4 ,the force exerted by the slay varies as the square of its velocity4 ,thus1 if in two looms where the weight of the two slays and the tension on the two warps are the same1 the velocity of the slay in one loom is twice that of the other at a certain point in the beat up1 the force of the former slay at that particular point will be four times the force of the latter1 #ab3 #bb #a3 #d4 ,we can thus compare the force exerted by the slay in different looms at any point of the beat up4 ,the force of the beat up is chiefly exerted upon the pick when the crank is nearly at the front centre1 and the force exerted will also depend considerably upon the tension on the warp2 but the slay is doing some work in beating up from the moment the reed begins to move the pick forward4 ,possibly the most reliable method of comparing the force of the beat up in different looms is to calculate the time occupied by the slay in moving through a specified distance at the front of its stroke in beating up4 ,this necessitates a rather different calculation to the preceding examples1 but is equally as simple4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fa4 ,suppose it is required to compare the force exerted by the slay in beating up 7say the front #a inch of its stroke7 in two looms1 one with a #ab-;inch crank-arm and #c-;inch crank and the other with an #aa-;inch arm and #d-;inch crank4 ,the weight of the slays1 the speed of the looms1 the tension on the warps1 and the timing of the primary movements1 the same in each case4 ,in ,fig4 #fa the smaller circle represents the #c-;inch crank and the larger one the #d-;inch crank4 ,,cp #a-;inch1 ,,cb #aa-;inch arm1 and ,,cd the #ab-;inch arm4 ,it is obvious that if we can obtain the two angles made by the cranks1 viz4 ,,cab and ,,cad1 we shall be able to get the time1 or fraction of a revolution1 occupied in moving the slay from ,c to ,p4 ,as we know the three sides of the triangle we can obtain the angle enclosed by any two sides1 and what is required in this case is to obtain the angles ,,bac and ,,dac4 ,in triangles of this kind where there is no right angle1 we can obtain the cosine of the angle as follows3-- ,,ca#b ,,ad#b - ,,dc#b ------------------ ,,aq1 the cosine of angle ,,dac1 #b;,,ca4,,ad and ,,ca#b ,,ab#b - ,,bc#b ------------------ ,,an1 the cosine of angle ,,bac4 #b;,,ca4,,ab ,the proof of this formula is given in ,euclid1 ,book #b4 ,having obtained the cosines of the two angles1 we can find the angles themselves by referring to a table of sines and cosines4 ,then as ,,ap #ae inches1 ,,ca #ad1 ,,ad #c inches1 ,,dc #ab inches1 ,,ba #d inches1 ,,bc #aa inches2 and reducing the formul to figures1 we get3 #adb #cb - #abb #aif #af - #add ----------------- -------------- #jgbfb cosine1 #b 7#ad #c7 #hd and by referring to a table of sines1 we find that cosine #jgbfb angle #dc #bf1 therefore angle ,,dac #dc1 about4 ,also #adb #db - #aab #aif #af - #aba #ia ----------------- -------------- --- #jhabe1 #b 7#ad #c7 #aab #aab and by referring to a table of sines and cosines1 we find cosine #jhabe angle #ce4 ,we thus find that to move the connecting pin #a inch to the front of the stroke1 in the loom with #aa-;inch arm1 the #d-;inch crank will move through #ce1 and in the loom with the #ab-;inch arm the #c-;inch crank will move through #dc for the same movement of the slay4 ,assuming the force exerted by the latter to be #a1 the force of the former will be as #ce squared3 #dc squared #a3 ,ans4 ,it may be as well here to give a short explanation of the system of obtaining angles by sines and cosines4 ,as the crank moves forward it is obvious that the line ,,dq will become shorter1 and as the angle becomes larger the line ,,dq will increase in length4 ,in trigonometry1 the ratio between the length of the line ,,dq and the radius ,,ad is called the sine of the angle1 and if the radius is #a1 the length of ,,dq will be the value of the sine4 ,in an angle of #cj the sine is exactly the radius1 and the relation between the radius and the sine for every angle is known1 and arranged in 8tables of sines40 ,the length of ,,aq will also vary with the angle1 and the length of this line is called the 8cosine0 of the angle ,,qad4 ,the cosine of an angle of #cj is therefore the same as the sine of an angle of #fj4 ,when the sine is known it is easy to obtain the cosine as follows3-- ,cosine 7#a-sin#b74 ,thus for an angle of #cj1 cosine 7#a-jeb71 or cos#b #a-jeb1 therefore cos#b #a-jbe1 or cos#b #jge1 cos #jge #jhff4 ,by reversing1 the sine may be obtained from the cosine4 ,the value given to the sines and cosines must not be taken for the actual length of the lines2 they are simply the ratio to the radius4 ,thus in an angle of #cj1 if the radius is #a inch the length of the sine will be inch and the cosine #jhff inch4 ,if the radius is #b inches1 the actual length of the sine will be #a inch and of the cosine #agcb inches4 ,,table ,,of ,,sines ,,and ,,cosines4 ------------------------------ ,angle4 ,sine4 ,cosine4,angle4 ------------------------------ #j #jjj #ajj #ij #a #jage #iiih #hi #b #jcdi #iiid #hh #c #jebc #iihf #hg #d #jfih #iigf #hf #e #jhgb #iifb #he #f #ajde #iide #hd #g #abai #iibe #hc #h #acib #iijc #hb #i #aefd #ihgg #ha #aj #agcf #ihdh #hj #aa #aijh #ihaf #gi #ab #bjgi #igha #gh #ac #bbej #igdd #gg #ad #bdai #igjc #gf #ae #behh #ifei #ge #af #bgef #ifac #gd #ag #bibd #iefc #gc #ah #cjij #ieaa #gb #ai #cbef #idee #ga #bj #cdbj #icig #gj #ba #cehd #iccf #fi #bb #cgdf #ibgb #fh #bc #cijg #ibje #fg #bd #djfg #iace #ff #be #dbbf #ijfc #fe #bf #dchd #hihh #fd #bg #dedj #hiaj #fc #bh #dfie #hhbi #fb #bi #dhdh #hgdf #fa #cj #ejjj #hffj #fj #ca #eaej #hegb #ei #cb #ebii #hdhj #eh #cc #eddf #hchg #eg #cd #eeib #hbij #ef #ce #egcf #haib #ee #cf #ehgh #hjij #ed #cg #fjah #gihf #ec #ch #faeg #ghhj #eb #ci #fbic #ggga #ea #dj #fdbh #gffj #ej #da #fefa #gedg #di #db #ffia #gdca #dh #dc #fhbj #gcad #dg #dd #fidg #gaic #df #de #gjga #gjga #de ,angle ,cosine ,sine ,angle ------------------------------ ,we see from ,fig4 #fa that in a loom with a #d-;inch crank and #aa-;inch arm1 the velocity of the slay is much greater when beating up than with the #c-;inch crank and #ab-;inch arm4 ,the effect of the length of the crank-arm on the velocity of the slay can easily be shown by a diagram or by calculation4 ,if the length of the crank-arm be altered without altering the length of the crank1 there will be found a somewhat quicker movement of the slay at the beat up in the loom with the shorter arm4 ,the difference is not so great when the crank-arm is a long one in proportion to the crank4 ,the chief cause of the difference in the velocity of ,c in ,fig4 #fa is the difference in the length of the crank4 ,it is obvious that the longer the crank the greater the angle which it will cause the arm to make1 and therefore the greater will be the acceleration of the velocity of ,c when the angle is closing and the slay moving forward4 ,likewise1 it is obvious that the shorter the arm the larger will be the angle to close1 but the principal thing to notice is that an increase in the length of the crank causes an increase in the velocity of the slay owing to the extra distance which it has to travel in each revolution2 so that even if the crank-arm were lengthened in exact proportion to the increase in the length of the crank1 so as to keep the angle to be closed in beating up the same1 there would still be a considerable increase in the velocity of the slay1 caused by the extra distance it has to travel4 ,this lengthening of the crank has obviously much more to do with the increase in velocity of the slay than the shortening of the arm has4 ,the longer the crank the further back from the cloth will the slay be taken1 and assuming that the shed is open for the shuttle when the crank is at the bottom centre1 a long crank is obviously more suitable for a wide loom1 as1 having to move further back1 it will allow a longer time for the shuttle to pass through the shed than a short crank would2 therefore the wider the loom1 the longer the crank is required to be to allow time for the shuttle to pass4 ,the time allowed for the passage of the shuttle may also be increased by using a short arm so as to increase the eccentricity of the slay4 ,the longer the crank1 the greater the velocity of the slay1 therefore a long crank is suitable for heavy work1 as it stores up more force in the slay than a short one4 ,the force may also be increased by shortening the crank-arm1 thus increasing the eccentricity of the slay4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fb4 ,the position of the crank-shaft in relation to the connecting pin has some effect upon the eccentricity of the slay's movement4 ,fig4 #fb shows this1 but to see clearly the effect it would be advisable to make an accurate drawing to a large scale4 ,four positions of the crank-shaft are shown4 ,the one on the line ,a is just a little below the level of the connecting pin1 so that the pin moves as nearly as possible on the line ,a when making the front quarter of its stroke4 ,the circle on the line ,b is the position where the pin moves as nearly as possible on line ,b when at the back quarter of its stroke2 ,d is any higher plane1 and ,c any lower one4 ,divide the stroke of the connecting pin ,,lr into four equal parts1 and from ,s1 with the crank-arm in the compasses1 cut the circles with the arc ,e1 and from ,t cut the circles with the arc ,f4 ,it will be found that in the circle ,a1 ,,op is slightly longer than in any of the other circles2 therefore this is the position where the beat up is slowest4 ,it will also be found that in the circles ,b and ,c there is scarcely any difference in ,,op1 therefore sinking the crank-shaft from within reasonable limits makes very little difference2 if anything1 there is a slight decrease in the size of ,,op as the plane is lowered1 but it is very slight1 and the increase in the velocity of slay would also be very slight4 ,on the other hand1 by raising the crank-shaft to ,d a considerable increase in the velocity of the slay in beating up takes place1 as it will be found that in this circle ,,op is much less than in the others4 ,at the back of the stroke it will be found that in the plane ,b the distance ,,xy is least2 therefore there is here the least dwell of the slay at the back of its stroke with the shaft in this position4 ,this is because the pin moves as nearly as possible on the line ,b whilst the crank is at the back part of its stroke4 ,as the crank is raised or lowered the dwell at the back increases slightly4 ,reversing the direction of the loom makes a difference in the beat-up4 ,it will be found that in the circle ,a1 ,,op and ,,on are about equal1 therefore there will be scarcely any change in the velocity of beat-up by reversing the loom2 but as the shaft is lowered ,,on will be found to become less than ,,op1 and therefore a quicker blow is given by reversing the loom if the shaft is in this position4 ,if the shaft is raised1 as in the case of circle ,d1 it will be found that ,,on becomes greater than ,,op2 therefore with the crank above ,a1 reversing the direction of the loom will cause a slower and weaker beat-up4 ,in the diagram1 ,fig4 #fb1 the crank and crank-arm are the same length for each position1 the centre of the shaft being indicated by the dotted arc4 ,timing of the ,primary ,movements4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fc4 ,the primary movements1 shedding1 picking1 and beating up1 are timed differently in relation to each other in weaving different classes of fabrics4 ,for plain cloths1 or other cloths where a good cover is required--that is1 where the warp has to be spread--the crank should be set about the top centre when the healds are crossing each other4 ,at ,fig4 #ch the loom is timed in this manner4 ,when so timed it is obvious that the shed will be considerably or altogether open when the reed is in contact with the cloth4 ,by sinking the centres of the healds below a line drawn from the temple to the back rest1 the upper portion of the shed is always slack1 and if the pick is beaten up in a crossed shed1 the loose ends of the warp are spread between the taut ones4 ,in ,fig4 #fc the straight line ,,ab is drawn from the front carrier ,a to the back carrier ,b4 ,the centres of the healds when level are on the line ,,acb1 the point ,c being a little way below the line ,,ab4 ,when one stave is lifted a certain distance and the other goes down the same distance1 it is obvious that the upper portion of the warp will be slacker than the lower portion1 because the line ,,adefb is shorter than ,,adgfb1 and when the reed beats up with the warp in this position the slack ends are spread between the taut ones1 thus giving a good cover to the cloth and preventing the reed marks from showing4 ,each set of ends alternately becomes slack4 ,another advantage of beating up when the shed is crossed or partly open for the succeeding pick is that the pick is held more firmly in position than when the shed is not crossed1 and therefore the picks can be got in better4 ,in twilled cloths the boldness of the twill is somewhat affected by the warp being spread1 and these cloths are often preferred when made without the healds having been sunk4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fd4 ,if the dwell on the tappet is equal to one-third of a pick1 as in ,fig4 #fd1 the line ,d will mark the point of the tappet when the crank is at the top centre4 ,when the crank has made one quarter of a revolution and is at the front centre with the reed in contact with the cloth1 the point ,e will be acting on the treadle bowl4 ,it will be seen that here the shed is almost fully open4 ,when the crank is at the bottom centre the point ,g will be acting on the bowl1 and the shuttle should just be entering the shed4 ,when the point ,h of the tappet is acting on the bowl the shed will be commencing to close1 and the shuttle must be just leaving the shed4 ,when the point ,i is acting on the bowl the crank will be at the back centre1 and when the crank reaches the top centre the healds will be again level4 ,if the dwell on the tappet is more than one-third pick1 and at the commencement the crank is set on the top centre with the healds level1 the shed will keep open longer for the shuttle to pass through1 and would be more open when the crank reached the front centre4 ,it will be obvious that for a wide loom a longer dwell is required than for a narrow loom4 ,by having the shed fully open before the shuttle enters the shed1 the warp is spread and a good cover put on the cloth1 but all this dwell is taken off the time which would otherwise be allowed for opening and closing the shed1 and therefore means extra strain on the warp4 ,if it is not necessary to spread the warp1 the shed need not be fully open until the shuttle is entering the shed4 ,in this case the greatest possible amount of time is allowed for opening and closing the shed1 thus putting as little strain as possible on the warp4 ,speed of ,tappets4 ,as previously stated1 the bottom shaft in the loom1 being the one used for picking1 revolves at one-half the speed of the crank-shaft1 and therefore plain cloth tappets may be fastened on the bottom shaft4 ,tappets of more than two picks to the round are usually fixed on a counter-shaft1 ,s 7,fig4 #fe71 in looms with inside tappets4 ,sometimes the wheel ,e is geared directly into the wheel ,c on the bottom shaft1 but usually a carrier-wheel1 ,d1 is used to convey the motion from the bottom shaft4 ,the number of teeth in the carrier wheel has no effect on the speed of the tappets1 as it is used simply to fill up the space between the bottom and counter-shafts4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fe4 ,if the wheel on the crank-shaft ,a contains #de teeth1 and the wheel ,b #ij teeth1 ,c #dj teeth1 and ,e #fj teeth1 the tappet-shaft ,s will be making one revolution for three revolutions of the crank-shaft2 therefore these wheels will do for three-end twill tappets4 ,this may be proved by multiplying the drivers together and the drivens together1 and dividing one by the other1 thus-- 7#ij #fj7 --------- #c 7#de #dj7 ,it is usual to place two or three wheels on the bottom shaft of the loom1 so that any one of them may be geared into the carrier wheel ,d1 each giving the required speed for different tappets4 ,if a #dj wheel1 a #cj wheel1 and a #bd wheel are placed on the bottom shaft in such a manner that they can be moved along the shaft and any one of them be geared into the carrier wheel1 any #c1 #d1 or #e pick tappets can be driven with these wheels4 ,we have seen that a #dj wheel at ,c gives three picks to the round4 ,suppose the #cj wheel at ,c is geared into the carrier wheel1 we get-- 7drivens #ij #fj7 ----------------- #d1 7drivers #de #cj7 or the relative speed of the tappets and crank-shaft are as #a3d2 therefore these wheels may be used for any tappets with four picks to the round4 ,if the #bd wheel is at ,c1 we get3 drivens #ij #fj ------- #e1 drivers #de #bd and thus we get the proper rate of speed for tappets five pick to the round4 ,some loom makers use the wheel ,e as a change wheel4 ,with a #bd wheel ,c and a #cf wheel ,e we get three picks to the round1 thus-- drivens #ij #cf ------- #c drivers #de #bd ,with a #bd wheel ,c1 a #dh wheel ,e gives #d picks1 ,with a #bd wheel ,c1 a #fj wheel ,e gives #e picks1 ,with a #bd wheel ,c1 a #gb wheel ,e gives #f picks4 ,example4--,find the number of teeth for the wheel ,c on the bottom shaft to drive tappets seven picks to the round1 wheel on tappets #fc teeth4 #ij #fc ------- #ah wheel4 ,ans4 #de #g ,woodcroft's tappets1 as a rule1 are driven directly from the crank-shaft4 ,as these tappets are usually of a large circumference1 a large wheel on them is of no disadvantage1 although sometimes intermediate wheels are used4 ,if the tappets are twelve to the round1 and the wheel on the tappets contains #aib teeth1 a driving wheel of #af teeth will be required on the crank-shaft4 #aib --- #ab picks to the round #af ,for driving outside tappets1 as in ,fig4 #ci1 a driving wheel on the crank-shaft and two intermediate wheels are generally used4 ,the tappets are placed on the bottom shaft outside the loom1 but they are loose upon the shaft1 and can1 of course1 be made to revolve at a different speed to the shaft1 either in the same or in the opposite direction4 ,this system of driving the tappets is shown at ,fig4 #ff4 ,the wheel ,a1 on the crank-shaft1 drives the wheel ,b1 on an intermediate stud2 the wheel ,c1 on the same centre1 drives the tappet wheel ,d4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ff4 ,to find the wheel on the crank-shaft1 or the first driver1 the other wheels being as follows3 first driven wheel1 ,b1 #cf teeth2 second driver1 ,c1 #ab teeth2 tappet wheel1 ,d1 #abj teeth4 ,multiply the two driven wheels together1 and divide by the given driver multiplied by the picks to the round1 thus-- #cf #abj -------- #dj first driver1 ,a4 #ab #i ,to find the second driver for eight picks1 the other wheels being3 first driver1 ,a1 #bj2 first driven1 ,b1 #dj2 second driven1 ,d1 #fj4 ,the given driver multiplied by the picks to the round1 #bj #h #afj2 the drivens multiplied together1 #dj #fj #bdjj2 #bdjj #afj #ae wheel required4 ,to find either of the driven wheels1 multiply the two drivers and the picks together1 and divide by the driven given wheel1 thus-- ,example4--,find the wheel for the tappets1 ,d1 for #aj picks to the round1 the other wheels being3 first driver1 #af teeth2 first driven1 #cb teeth2 second driver1 #bj teeth4 #af #bj #aj ------------ #ajj wheel required #cb ,to find both intermediate wheels1 multiply the given driver by the picks to the round1 and as the product is to the teeth in the tappet wheel1 so is the required driven to the required driver4 ,example4--,find the two intermediates for #aj-pick tappets1 if the wheel on the crank-shaft has #ah teeth1 and the wheel on the tappets #abj teeth4 ,the #ah #aj #ahj1 and therefore the two required wheels must be in the proportion of #ahj to #abj1 the former being the driven wheel4 ,thus a #cf driven and a #bd driver will give the required speed to the tappets4 ,that this is correct may be seen from the following3-- #ah #bd -------- #aj picks #cf #abj ,that the required wheels must be in this proportion will be apparent from the fact that if the wheel ,b has ten times the number of teeth in ,a1 then ,b is revolving at the speed at which the tappets are to move2 therefore if the wheel ,c has the same number of teeth that ,d has1 the speed of the tappets will remain the same4 ,,fast-,,and ,,loose-,,reed ,,looms4 ,one of the most important motions in the power loom is that by which the loom is stopped automatically when the shuttle is caught in the shed or for some reason does not enter the shuttle-box4 ,a motion of this kind has always been considered necessary since the introduction of the power loom4 ,if the shuttle be caught in the shed as the reed is beating up1 it is obvious that great damage to the warp must result unless the loom is brought to a sudden stop or the reed thrown out4 ,the oldest form of protector is the 8stop rod40 ,in this the reed is fast1 and if the shuttle is caught in the shed or flies out1 the loom is brought to a sudden stop before beating up4 ,fig4 #fg will illustrate the principle of this motion4 ,if the shuttle enters the box safely it presses back the swell ,s1 which projects inside the box and is held there by a spring4 ,as the swell is pressed back it raises the lever ,b above the frog ,f as the slay beats up4 ,if the shuttle for any reason does not enter the box1 the swell is not pressed back1 and as the slay moves forward in beating up1 the lever ,b catches the frog ,f1 which is moved a little and applies the brake ,g1 and also knocks off the loom handle ,h1 which removes the belt on to the loose pulley4 ,before the application of the brake to this motion the frog was fixed to the framework of the loom1 and it will easily be understood that the concussion caused many breakages4 ,a stop rod protector was patented in #agia1 but the brake was not applied until #ahdj or thereabouts4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fg4 ,the loose reed is a better way of preventing damage to the warp by the shuttle being caught4 ,if the shuttle is caught in the shed it throws out the reed and stops the loom4 ,its action will be understood from ,fig4 #fh4 ,a rod1 ,c1 runs underneath the shuttle-race at the back of the slay1 and the finger ,b is fastened to it4 ,the reed is held in position by a board1 ,a1 which is also connected to the rod ,c1 as shown in the diagram4 ,if the shuttle is caught in the shed1 it presses back the reed and the board ,a1 and lifts the finger ,b to the upper side of the frog ,f1 and as the slay moves forward it throws the board ,a further back and the reed out at the bottom1 and the lever ,h is brought into contact with the loom handle1 and the loom is stopped4 ,if the shuttle passes safely through the shed1 the reed is not pressed back1 and the finger ,f comes under the frog as the slay gets to the front of its stroke1 and holds the reed comparatively fast4 ,the disadvantage of the loose reed is that the reed is not sufficiently firm to put a large amount of weft into the cloth1 but improvement is being made in this respect1 and loose-reed looms are to-day made for weaving fabrics for which it was formerly necessary to have fast reeds4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fh4 ,the invention of the loose reed is generally attributed to ,mr4 ,james ,bullough4 ,it was invented about #ahdb4 ,,the ,,weft ,,fork ,,stop ,,motion4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fi4 ,one of the most useful adjuncts to the power-loom is the motion for stopping the loom when the weft breaks or runs out4 ,fig4 #fi will explain the principle of this useful contrivance4 ,the grid ,a is placed at the side of the reed between the reed and the shuttle-box1 and the fork is so placed that as the grid moves forward the prongs of the fork pass through it4 ,when the weft comes between the fork and the grid it raises the end of the fork ,e1 out of the way of the hammer ,h1 which is moved forward every two picks by a cam or lifter1 ,d1 on the bottom shaft of the loom4 ,if the weft breaks or runs out the fork will of course pass through the grid1 and it is so balanced that the hook ,e will be caught by the hammer and the loom handle knocked off4 ,the invention of the ,weft ,fork ,stopping ,motion is claimed by several persons1 but it was perfected about the year #ahdb1 when the brake was applied to it4 ,the action of this brake is illustrated at ,fig4 #gj4 ,when the handle is pushed sideways in starting the loom it lifts the rod ,r and the lever ,l1 and thus takes the brake off4 ,when the handle is knocked off by the weft fork being caught1 the lever ,l drops and the brake is applied4 ,the brake power can be regulated by altering the position of the weight on the levers4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gj4 ,in looms with change boxes at both sides the weft fork is often placed in the middle of the loom4 ,it is obvious that when several shuttles are used there will always be some weft threads opposite the grid in the ordinary weft fork motion1 and this renders it inoperative in this class of looms4 ,it is therefore necessary to have a fork to feel for each pick separately4 ,,taking-,,up ,,or ,,coiling ,,motions4 ,there are two distinct classes of taking-up motions--the positive1 and the negative or drag motion4 ,in the former the cloth is taken up a small but regular distance each pick1 and the number of picks per inch can be regulated to a fraction4 ,fig4 #ga is the common form of positive take-up motion4 ,a ratchet wheel or 8rack wheel10 ,a1 is moved forward one tooth every pick by a click or catch1 ,m1 operated by a projection1 ,g1 on the slay sword4 ,as the slay moves forward the rack wheel is moved one tooth1 and the holding catch or detent ,n prevents it from going back4 ,there are five wheels in the train1 and the names usually given to them are as follows3 ,a1 rack wheel2 ,b1 change wheel2 ,c1 stud wheel2 ,d1 stud pinion2 ,e1 beam wheel4 ,the emery taking-up roller is marked ,f4 ,the cloth1 as it is woven1 is drawn forward by the emery roller and is wound upon the cloth roller1 which is pressed against the emery roller by weighted levers1 and is turned by friction4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ga4 ,the speed at which the emery beam roller is turned regulates the number of picks per inch1 and as changes are constantly required in most weaving mills1 the wheel ,b is usually taken as a change wheel4 ,as this wheel is a driver1 a smaller wheel will make the emery roller move slower1 and therefore more picks will be put in the cloth1 and a larger wheel will drive the emery roller quicker1 and as a consequence a smaller number of picks will be put in4 ,if the rack wheel has #ej teeth1 the stud wheel #abj teeth1 the stud pinion #ae teeth1 and the beam-roller wheel #ge teeth1 the beam roller being #ae inches in circumference1 and if the change wheel used has #be teeth1 the number of picks per quarter-inch will be #bj4 ,this may be proved by multiplying the drivers together and by the circumference of the emery beam roller in quarter-inches for a divisor1 and multiplying the drivens together for a dividend3 the quotient will be the number of picks per quarter-inch4 ,,drivers4 #be #ae --- #abe #be --- #cge #fj quarter-inches ----- in beam #bbejj ,,driven4 #ej #abj ---- #fjjj #ge ------ #bbejj7dejjjj7bj picks per #dejjj quarter-inch ------ #j ,when the cloth is taken out of the loom1 rather more than this number of picks will be counted1 as there is not the same tension as when the cloth is being woven4 ,it is usual to allow about #a per cent4 for this shrinkage4 ,for the purpose of easy calculation the dividend of the loom is obtained2 that is1 the change wheel required to give one pick per quarter-inch4 ,by using this as a dividend and dividing by the number of picks required in a quarter-inch1 the quotient will be the change wheel required2 and1 vice vers1 by dividing by the change wheel1 the number of picks given by that wheel can be obtained4 ,to find the dividend of a loom-- ,multiply the rack1 stud1 and beam wheel together for a dividend1 and the stud pinion and the number of quarter-inches in a circumference of the emery beam for a divisor1 and the quotient will be the mathematical dividend4 ,add #a per cent4 to this for the practical dividend4 ,with the wheels given in ,fig4 #ga the dividend will be as follows3-- #ae stud pinion #fj quarter-inches in circumference of beam --- #ijj #ej rack wheel #abj stud wheel ---- #fjjj #ge beam wheel ---- #ijj7dejjjj7ejj mathematical dividend #dejj ------ #jj #ejj #g #a per cent4 for shrinkage --- #ejg practical dividend4 ,having the dividend1 it is only necessary to divide by the picks to obtain the change wheel required1 or to divide by the teeth in the change wheel to obtain the picks which it will give1 thus-- #ejg #ejg picks --- #ci change wheel change wheel --- #be picks4 #ac #bj ,the following are the wheels used by various loom makers3 ---------------------------------------- ------- ,circumference ,rack ,stud ,stud ,beam of beam in ,dividend4 wheel4wheel4pinion4wheel4 inches4 ---------------------------------------- ------- #ej #abj #ae #ge #ae #ejg #fj #abj #ae #ge #ae #fji #ej #adf #ad #ij #ae #gid #ej #ajj #ab #ge #ae #ebh #fj #ajj #ab #ge #ae #fcd ---------------------------------------- ------- ,example4--,find the dividend of a loom with a rack wheel #fj teeth1 stud wheel #ajj teeth1 stud pinion #ab teeth1 beam wheel #ge teeth1 beam #ae inches circumference4 rack stud beam wheel #fj #ajj #ge ------------------ #fbe mathematical dividend #ab #fj #i #a per cent4 stud quarter-inches --- pinion in beam #fcd practical dividend4 ,it is not possible by changing one wheel only to obtain any number of picks or fraction of a pick1 as will be seen from the following examples3-- #ejg picks --- #abfg #dj #ejg picks --- #abab #da #ejg picks --- #abjg #db ,for the lower number of picks the motion does fairly well1 but for the higher numbers of picks the changes cannot be made with sufficient exactitude by changing a single wheel4 ,even in the lower picks it is now required to make the smallest fractional changes4 ,an improved arrangement of wheels is now largely adopted4 ,this is ,pickles' motion4 ,fig4 #gb shows the train of wheels4 ,the change wheel ,b is in this case a driven wheel1 and therefore if a larger wheel is used it will give a larger number of picks in the cloth1 and if a smaller wheel is used it will give a smaller number of picks2 so that if the wheels are so proportioned that the change wheel ,b has the same number of teeth that there are picks per quarter-inch1 it will always remain so1 whatever size the wheel is4 ,if a #bj driven wheel gives #bj picks1 a #cj will give #cj picks1 and so on4 ,the wheel ,a is also changed1 and this is usually called the 8standard0 wheel4 ,this is a driver wheel1 and therefore a smaller wheel gives more picks1 and vice vers4 ,the wheels are so proportioned that if ,a1 the standard wheel1 has nine teeth1 each tooth in ,b1 the change wheel1 represents one pick1 and therefore1 this wheel being a driven1 the number of teeth in it will also represent the number of picks per quarter-inch4 ,if an #ah standard wheel is used1 it is obvious that the emery beam will be driven twice as fast1 therefore each tooth in the change wheel ,b will then represent half a pick per quarter-inch4 ,with a #bg standard each tooth in the change wheel ,b will represent one-third of a pick4 ,with a #cf standard each tooth in ,b will represent a quarter of a pick per inch4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gb4 ,the wheels mostly used are those in the diagram1 and supposing we have a #cf standard and a #de change wheel1 and taking the emery beam as #aeje inches in circumference1 we get-- ,b #bd #de #hi #ij -------------------- #aajhh #cf #bd #ae #fjbj ,a #aff #a per cent4 for shrinkage ------ #aabed picks per quarter-inch4 ,thus with a #cf standard a #de change wheel1 ,b1 gives #aa picks per quarter-inch1 or each tooth in the change wheel gives a quarter of a pick per quarter-inch4 ,by changing these two wheels any fraction of a pick can be obtained4 ,thus if #ac picks per quarter-inch are required1 the wheels used would be an #ah standard and a #bg change wheel4 ,for #ac picks a #bg standard and a #da change wheel would be used1 and so on4 ,the following examples will fully illustrate the principle of this motion3-- --------------------------- ,picks per ,standard,change quarter-inch4 wheel4 wheel4 --------------------------- #bj #i #bj #ae #ah #ca #ad #bg #dc #ad #bg #dd #ac #cf #ec #ac #cf #ee #ab #de #fa --------------------------- ,it is not always customary to change the wheels in the above manner1 as a different value is often given to each tooth in the change wheel by altering the standard wheel1 otherwise than by multiples of nine4 ,any number may be made the basis of a train of wheels of this kind2 there is no reason why it should be nine more than any other number1 and in adapting looms from the ordinary five-wheel motion to this principle1 it is not necessary to get all new wheels1 as sow of the old ones may be made to form part of the train4 ,there are several kinds of negative or drag take-up motions4 ,one of the older forms is that given in ,fig4 #gc4 ,a lever1 ,,ab1 centred at ,c is weighted on the arm ,b4 ,a small cam1 ,d1 on the crank-shaft presses down ,a every pick and lifts the catch ,e1 which operates the ratchet wheel ,f4 ,as the weights drop they act as a drag upon the ratchet wheel4 ,a small pinion on the same centre as the ratchet wheel drives the wheel ,g on the cloth beam4 ,the cloth in a negative motion is wound directly on to the cloth beam1 and thus there is no risk of damaging the finer fabrics1 as is the case when an emery beam is used1 as in a positive motion4 ,the number of picks put in the cloth is regulated by the weights on the lever ,b2 the greater the weight the less the number of picks1 and vice vers4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gc4 ,the action of a negative motion is as follows3--,as the slay beats up1 the cloth between the cloth beam and the reed is slackened a little1 and the weights on the lever at that moment act as a drag upon the ratchet wheel ,f4 ,the holding catch is usually a double one1 and will hold the ratchet wheel when taken forward the space of half a tooth4 ,by increasing the drag upon the ratchet wheel1 a slighter blow from the slay will enable the weights to act1 and thus less weft is put into the cloth4 ,if a loom is regulated so as to put a certain number of picks per inch into the cloth of a given count of weft1 and weft of a finer count is then used1 it is obvious that the number of picks per inch would be increased4 ,if the weft varies in thickness the negative motion compensates for this somewhat1 by putting more picks in where it is thinner1 and thus a more even thickness of cloth is produced than where a positive motion is used4 ,as the cloth is wound on the beam the circumference of the latter gradually increases1 and consequently there would be a gradual alteration in the amount of weft put into the cloth1 owing to the difference in leverage4 ,it is necessary1 therefore1 to count the cloth and adjust the weights at intervals in order to keep the number of picks regular4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gd4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ge4 ,another kind of negative take-up motion is shown at ,figs4 #gd and #ge4 ,this is now more generally used than the other kind4 ,the cloth beam ,a is driven by a screw1 ,s4 ,the ratchet wheel ,b is fastened to the screw-shaft1 and the method of operating the ratchet wheel will be seen from ,fig4 #ge1 which is another view of the mechanism4 ,a short lever1 ,e1 is attached to the rocking shaft ,k1 and as the slay moves backwards from the cloth the weights ,w are lifted a little1 and when the slay moves forward1 the weights1 acting through the catch ,m1 will take the ratchet wheel forward a tooth1 or half a tooth1 as the case may be4 ,there is usually a double-holding catch ,n1 which will hold the wheel if taken forward half a tooth4 ,when the ratchet wheel has made one revolution1 the wheel on the cloth beam will only have been moved one tooth by the screw1 so that the required slow movement of the cloth beam is obtained by very simple means4 ,there is a hand wheel1 ,p1 for unwinding the cloth readily4 ,the negative motion is used principally in weaving the heavier classes of cotton fabrics and those in which there is a large number of picks per inch1 such as velvets1 and similar fabrics4 ,its advantages are that the cloth is wound directly on to the cloth beam1 and cannot therefore be injured by an emery beam1 and that it makes the cloth of a more even thickness1 as it compensates for any variation in the thickness of the weft2 and its disadvantages as compared with a positive motion are that it requires frequently adjusting 7less frequent1 of course1 when a very large number of picks are put in1 as in velvets71 and that it does not put a perfectly regular number of picks in the cloth1 as a positive motion does4 ,this latter is the chief objection to it1 as even in the lighter makes of common velvets a positive motion is preferred on account of its giving a more evenly picked cloth4 ,in silk looms1 where it is absolutely necessary to dispense with an emery beam1 a very large cloth beam is used1 and the cloth is wound directly on to the cloth beam although the take-up is positive4 ,the cloth beam is sometimes over a yard in circumference1 so that it will hold a fair length of cloth without making much difference in the number of picks4 ,the cloth is taken off the beam frequently1 or the gradual change in the thickness of the cloth beam would cause the piece to get too thin4 ,this would1 of course1 not do for cotton goods4 ,another ready method of obtaining any required pick in a positive motion is used in the ,east ,lancashire districts4 ,seven wheels are used1 as in ,pickles' arrangement1 but the ordinary wheels of a #ejg dividend 7or other dividend7 are used1 and in addition the two wheels ,b and ,c1 as in ,pickles' 7,fig4 #gb71 are introduced4 ,the wheel ,b1 the driven wheel1 is called the standard in this arrangement2 and suppose it is required to put #ae picks per quarter-inch in the cloth with the rack wheel #ej teeth1 stud wheel #abj1 stud pinion #ae1 beam wheel #ge1 beam #ae inches circumference4 ,the standard used is a #bd--this1 it must be borne in mind1 is in this case a driven wheel4 ,then by multiplying the dividend of the five-wheel motion1 viz4 #ejge1 by #bd1 the teeth in the standard1 and dividing by the picks per quarter-inch required1 we get the product of the two drivers1 ,a and ,c1 thus-- #ejge #bd standard ,b --------------------- #hab #ae picks ,this #hab1 then1 is the product of the two drivers1 and any two convenient wheels which1 multiplied together1 give this number can be used--thus #hab_/bh #bi4 ,therefore the two drivers may have #bh and #bi teeth respectively4 ,the two wheels are found by experiment4 ,if the dividend of the five wheels is #fji a #bj standard wheel is used1 and the same drivers as in the preceding case will do4 ,if it is required to change only one wheel1 and to have the arrangement such as to give an exact number of picks1 or half-picks1 or quarter-picks1 in the quarter-inch of cloth1 by taking the two drivers ,a and ,c of such numbers that their product amounts to #ejg1 the number of teeth in the driven wheel ,b will always equal the number of picks per quarter-inch exactly4 ,thus #ejg_/ac #ci4 ,therefore if the drivers ,a and ,c have respectively #ac and #ci teeth1 every tooth in the driven wheel ,b will represent one pick per quarter-inch4 ,suppose half-picks are required exactly1 the method of obtaining the wheels is as follows3--,multiply the #ejge by #b1 which equals #ajae1 then find two convenient wheels which1 multiplied together1 produce this number2 #ce #bi #ajae1 and the two drivers ,a and ,c may be #ce and #bi4 ,this will cause every tooth in the driven wheel ,b to represent half a pick exactly4 ,thus with a #ce wheel ,a1 and a #bi wheel ,c1 a #ca wheel ,b will give #ae picks per quarter-inch1 the other wheels being the same as in an ordinary #ejg dividend motion4 ,the following examples will prove this3-- #ej rack #ca ,b #abj stud #ge beam wheel ---------------------------------------- --- #aebg #ce ,a #bi ,c #ae pinion #fj quarter-inches and #aebg #jbc #a per cent4 shrinkage ----- #aeej picks4 ,when quarter-picks are required exactly1 by changing one wheel only--multiply #ejge by #d1 and the product of the two drivers ,a and ,c must equal this4 ,then every tooth in the driven wheel ,b will represent a quarter-pick per quarter-inch4 ,there are many methods of letting off the warp positively1 but none are likely to succeed in displacing the older and quite satisfactory method of levers1 ropes1 and weights4 ,the very fact of making the let-off positive1 causes too great a rigidity in the hold of the warp1 which is detrimental to the yarn4 ,the frictional let-off is not likely to be replaced in cotton goods weaving unless it be in some of the heavier kinds of fabrics4 ,where it is a question of putting in as much weft as possible1 the positive let-off has an advantage4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,drop-,,box ,,looms ,where more than one kind or colour of weft is used in a fabric1 it is1 of course1 necessary to change the shuttles automatically4 ,sometimes two or more different counts of weft of the same colour are used1 and sometimes different colours of weft4 ,checks of all kinds1 extra weft spots1 and others are the chief classes of fabrics which require change boxes4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gf4 ,the oldest and commonest form is the ,diggle's chain motion illustrated at ,fig4 #gf4 ,the number of boxes used in this motion is either #b1 #c1 or #d4 ,it would be possible to use more1 but it is not usually done with this arrangement for operating them4 ,a lever1 ,,ac1 is centred at ,c 7,fig4 #gf71 and the friction bowl ,b on this lever is moved upwards by a chain1 composed of links fastened together on pins1 which work round a barrel1 ,d4 ,these links are of different sizes1 according to the number of boxes used4 ,the smallest link leaves the top box in a line with the shuttle-race1 and the other links are of such a size as to raise either the second1 third1 or fourth boxes 7assuming that there are four7 into this position4 ,the general method is to raise the boxes one at a time1 and drop them all together1 but this is not compulsory4 ,it will be seen that the motion of the boxes is not positive downwards--that is1 the boxes drop by their own weight1 and are not mechanically forced down1 as in ,wright ,shaw's or ,whitesmith's motions--and it will be well understood that there will thus be a limit to the speed at which the loom can be run4 ,the method of turning the barrel ,d which carries the chain is as follows4 ,a wheel1 ,e1 on the crank-shaft drives a larger wheel1 ,f1 above it4 ,on the face of this wheel1 ,f1 is a rim and two projections1 ,,pp1 or1 it may be1 only one projection4 ,these projections or pins gear into the star wheel ,g1 which is fastened to the barrel carrying the chain1 and therefore when the star wheel is turned one tooth1 or one-eighth of a revolution1 it will move the chain a space of one link4 ,the wheel ,e on the crank-shaft often has one-fourth the number of teeth contained in the wheel ,f2 therefore1 if there are two pins or projections1 ,,pp1 in the circumference1 the star wheel will be moved one tooth every two picks1 and the boxes may be changed so often by making the chain accordingly4 ,the lever ,m1 which is centred at ,r1 has the boxes attached to one end1 and the other end may be pressed down by the foot when it is required to lift the boxes for any purpose when the loom is stopped4 ,supposing the wheel ,e to have #ae teeth and ,f #fj teeth1 if there are two projections1 ,,pp1 on the face of ,f1 the shuttle may be changed every two picks1 but if there is only one projection or pin1 there may be a change every four1 or a multiple of four picks4 ,the chief disadvantage of this motion in the form given at ,fig4 #gf is that the chain becomes very cumbersome if a long pattern is required4 ,to obviate this1 the projections ,,pp are1 in an improved motion1 made so that they can be withdrawn from gear with the star wheel4 ,this is effected by a clutch motion which is subsequently described in connection with the 8pick-and-pick loom40 ,with this improvement1 each link in the chain may be made to represent any number of picks1 the number being regulated by a small chain of metal cards1 and thus larger patterns may be made without the long heavy chains which are required in the ordinary 8,diggle40 ,the ,diggle's chain principle1 although suitable for some types of looms1 is not an ideal motion1 as the downward movement of the boxes is negative4 ,the boxes have nothing to force them down but their own weight and the weight of the levers connected with them1 and this necessitates the loom being run at a slower speed than is the case with some of the positive drop-box motions4 ,of this latter kind ,wright ,shaw's motion is one of a great variety of different types1 and has been in use for a long time4 ,,wright ,,shaw',s ,,drop-,,box4 ,the principle of this motion will be understood from the diagram1 ,fig4 #gg4 ,the essential feature of this invention is a forked rack1 ,g1 suspended from the free end of a treadle lever1 ,e1 fulcrumed at ,f1 and carrying a bowl or runner1 ,d1 near the centre4 ,at one end of the second motion or picking shaft1 ,a1 of the loom1 are two cams1 ,b and ,c1 either of which may be brought underneath the treadle bowl at will1 so as to raise the treadle and forked rack once during each revolution of the picking shaft1 corresponding to two picks4 ,passing midway between the two prongs1 ,h1 ,h1 of the fork is a short shaft1 upon which are secured two toothed wheels1 ,i and ,j4 ,wheel ,i is so placed that the teeth on either side of the rack may be put into engagement with its teeth just before the fork rises1 so as to turn the wheel in either direction2 or the rack may occupy a neutral position when rising1 in which event the wheel remains stationary4 ,in any case1 the racks are always clear of the wheel when descending4 ,immediately in front of wheel ,i is another similar wheel ,j1 whose teeth are in permanent engagement with those of a rack1 ,k 7an extension1 ,l1 of which supports the shuttle-boxes1 ,m74 ,thus1 if rack ,h is put into gear with wheel ,i1 boxes will be depressed as the rack rises2 but if rack ,h operates1 the boxes will be raised4 ,one box1 or two boxes1 only1 may be either raised or dropped at one change1 according to which rack and which cam is put into operation4 ,the smaller cam moves one box1 and the larger cam two boxes1 either up or down4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gg4 ,the selection of racks and cams is made by pattern cards 7detached7 which pass over an octagonal prism1 ,n4 ,the cards are presented separately1 once in two picks1 to three selecting needles1 #a1 #b1 #c4 ,the two outer needles1 #a1 #c1 are attached one at each end of a double arm secured at the top of a long vertical shaft1 ,o1 the bottom of which communicates with the forked rack ,g4 ,thus a depression of boxes is effected by a blank part of a card pressing against needle #a1 and an elevation of boxes by pressing back needle #c4 ,shaft ,o is loosely contained within a long tube or sleeve1 ,p1 which carries a short arm1 ,r1 at the top1 and a forked clutch1 ,q1 which acts upon the boss of cams1 ,b and ,c4 ,if it is desired to move two boxes1 needle #b is pressed back1 thereby causing an inclined piece1 ,s1 secured to it1 to act upon arm ,r so as to slightly turn the sleeve ,p1 and move the larger cam ,c under the treadle bowl at a time when the short side of the cam is uppermost1 as indicated in the diagram1 ,fig4 #gg4 ,at one point1 the larger and outer cam is slightly lower than the smaller one1 and can be readily moved under the bowl4 ,the various changes which can be made by this motion may be seen by referring to the cards at ,fig4 #gg4 ,when there is a blank opposite the first needle only1 the rack ,h is pushed to the left and the boxes are moved 8down one40 ,when there is a blank opposite the third needle only1 rack ,h is moved to the right and the boxes are forced 8up one40 ,when there are blanks opposite the first and second needles1 they are pushed backward1 thus moving rack ,h to the left1 and also forcing the larger cam under the treadle bowl1 in which case the boxes will be moved 8down two40 ,when there are blanks opposite the second and third needles1 they are pushed backward1 and the boxes are 8raised two40 ,when there are three holes in the card1 the racks1 when lifted1 miss the wheel1 and there is 8no change0 in the boxes4 ,it will be seen that the boxes may be moved either up or down1 a space of one or two boxes only at a time4 ,there may be more than three boxes1 as many as five being regularly used2 but if there were five1 it would not be possible to change from the first box to the fourth or fifth4 ,the greatest change which can be made is from the first to the third1 fourth to second1 and so on4 ,,whitesmith',s ,,drop-,,box4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gh4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gi4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hj4 ,the principle of ,whitesmith's motion is probably the best for any number of boxes4 ,it is usually made for four1 and the change may be made with certainty from one box to any other4 ,the arrangement for working four boxes in a loom is illustrated at ,figs4 #gh1 #gi1 #hj4 ,the principle will be best understood by referring first to ,fig4 #hj4 ,the four different positions of the boxes are here shown4 ,the boxes are connected to the ring or strap of an eccentric at the point ,e1 and at ,a the position of the parts is shown when the boxes are at their lowest point4 ,the eccentric1 ,f1 on the shaft has a lift of one box1 and therefore by causing it to make half a revolution intermittently every two picks1 the boxes would be alternately lifted and dropped a space of one box1 as will be seen by referring to ,c 7,fig4 #hj71 where it has made half a revolution from its position at ,a4 ,it will be seen that ,e is one box higher at ,c than at ,a4 ,starting again from the first position1 as at ,a1 by turning the outer ring halfway round and leaving the eccentric stationary1 there will be a lift of two boxes4 ,this is shown at ,b 7,fig4 #hj74 ,again starting with the first position1 as at ,a1 if we turn the outer ring halfway round1 and at the same time turn the eccentric ,f half-round1 we lift a space of three boxes--that is1 from the first to the fourth box4 ,the position of ,e in this case is shown at ,d 7,fig4 #hj74 ,we thus see how from the bottom box any other of the four can be reached4 ,by turning the eccentric halfway we lift one box1 by turning the ring halfway round we lift two boxes1 and by turning both ring and eccentric halfway round we lift three boxes4 ,if we are at the third box1 as at ,b 7,fig4 #hj71 and we wish to reach the second box or one lower1 by turning the eccentric half a revolution and the ring half a revolution we shall get the position required4 ,it will thus be seen that any one of the four boxes may be reached at will4 ,at ,fig4 #gi another view of the eccentrics and boxes is given4 ,the wheel ,h is keyed to the shaft on which the eccentric is fixed1 and riding loosely upon this shaft is another wheel1 ,i1 of the same size1 to which a fork1 ,k1 is attached4 ,this fork fits on to a pin at the back of the ring1 and thus by turning the wheel ,i the ring can be moved independently of the eccentric4 ,if the wheel ,h is moved it moves the cam1 and if the wheel ,i is moved it moves the ring4 ,referring now to ,fig4 #gh1 the wheel ,h is shown4 ,this wheel is driven by a wheel1 ,i 7,fig4 #gi71 twice its size4 ,on the face of the wheel ,l there are four pins1 and by lifting the lever ,,op at ,o1 the pulling hook ,m is dropped round one of the pins1 and the hook being moved forward by the crank ,q will cause the wheel ,l to make a quarter of a revolution and the wheel ,h to make half a revolution1 and therefore the eccentric is moved half a revolution4 ,on the same stud as the wheel ,l there is another wheel exactly the same size and with four pins2 this wheel 7which cannot well be shown in the diagram7 gears into the wheel ,i shown in ,fig4 #gi4 ,there is also another pulling hook which works along with ,m4 ,this second pulling hook is operated by another lever like ,,op4 ,there are two levers1 ,x1 which are lifted by the cards1 and by lifting ,x1 either1 or both1 of the pulling hooks may be dropped1 and either of the wheels ,i or ,h 7,fig4 #gi7 turned half a revolution1 but always in the same direction4 ,the wheel ,l and its companion are prevented from turning too far by a strong friction arrangement4 ,this motion may be adapted to work six boxes1 or even more4 ,for six boxes there is another eccentric inside the first eccentric1 which can be worked independently2 this will1 of course1 require a third pulling hook1 and so on4 ,many loom-makers have patented arrangements on the same principle1 which do away with the pulling hooks ,m1 and it is probably in this direction that the motion may be improved4 ,the ,whitesmith principle is simple1 and positive throughout1 and it is difficult to see why it is not in more general use4 ,it is generally admitted by those who have had practical experience of drop-box looms on this principle that it is the best4 ,there are other drop-box motions1 but the foregoing are the chief kinds4 ,,circular-,,box ,,looms4 ,these are not used in the cotton trade to anything like the extent they are in the woollen and worsted trades1 especially in ,yorkshire4 ,it is remarkable that this should be the case1 as it is claimed for circular boxes that they can be run at a higher speed than any other kind4 ,circular boxes are usually made for six shuttles1 generally to move only one box at a time1 but they are made to skip one box1 although the arrangement is by no means so simple or satisfactory as in a well-made loom on ,whitesmith's principle1 where the changes are made from one box to another almost noiselessly4 ,at ,fig4 #ha the mechanism of a circular-box motion is shown4 ,there are two hooks1 ,a and ,b1 which act upon pins outside the boxes4 ,when the hook ,a is pulled down the boxes will be turned one to the right1 and when ,b is pulled down they are turned one to the left4 ,a lever1 ,,ef1 is connected with the lower part of each hook1 and another lever1 ,m1 is lifted every two picks by means of a cam1 ,c4 ,the cards lift or drop the ,l lever ,,qs at ,s1 and so the hook ,h can either be lifted or left down by the lifter ,m1 and the boxes can be turned one in either direction4 ,a disadvantage of circular boxes is that they cannot be used in fast-reed looms on account of the difficulty of operating the stop rod from the back of the boxes4 ,they are therefore only used for weaving the lighter classes of fabrics4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ha4 ,,pick-,,and-,,pick ,,loom4 ,the majority of box looms are made with movable boxes at one side of the loom only1 so that single picks of any colour cannot be put in the cloth at will4 ,as it is very desirable in many fabrics to use single picks of a colour or count of weft1 it is necessary to have movable boxes at both sides of the loom1 and where this is the case it is usual to have picking mechanism which will allow of several picks being made in succession from either side of the loom4 ,if the matter be carefully thought over1 it will be easily apparent that even with drop boxes worked quite independently of each other at both sides of the loom1 if the picking mechanism is of the ordinary kind--viz4 to pick once from each side alternately--it would be impossible to obtain that variety of changes in the shuttles which is in many cases necessary4 ,in a loom with two boxes at each side worked independently1 it would be impossible to obtain single picks alternately of two colours or counts4 ,but by being able to pick twice in succession from each side this can be done4 ,by going through all the changes possible with a given number of boxes1 the advantage of this kind of picking arrangement will be very apparent1 in the command it gives over any shuttle in the series for any pick4 ,it is therefore necessary to have the picking mechanism aforementioned in order to allow of all the boxes being emptied at one side if required4 ,a loom of this character is called a 8pick-and-pick0 loom2 the picking motion is sometimes called a 8pick at will0 motion4 ,the loom which we take as an example is one on the ,diggle's chain principle4 ,there are two chains1 placed at one side of the loom for convenience4 ,both chains are on one barrel1 ,a 7,fig4 #hb74 ,the chain for working the boxes at the right-hand side of the loom operates the lever ,b1 and the left-hand chain operates the lever ,c1 the fulcrum of both levers being at ,d4 ,when these levers are lifted they lift the levers ,e and ,f1 and when ,e is lifted it lifts the boxes at the right-hand of the loom1 and when ,f is lifted it lifts the left-hand boxes4 ,the connection of the left-hand boxes with the lever ,f is shown at ,fig4 #hc4 ,the shaft ,g is placed under the loom1 and the left-hand boxes are connected to the lever ,h1 which is fast to the shaft ,g4 ,the lever ,f is also fast to the shaft ,g1 but the lever ,e rides loosely upon this shaft1 which merely serves as a fulcrum for ,e4 ,from these two figures it will be clearly understood how the boxes may be worked independently at both sides of the loom by two chains placed side by side upon the barrel ,a4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hb4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hc4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hd4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #he4 ,in order to make each link in these chains represent any number of picks1 and thus prevent long cumbersome chains1 the mechanism shown at ,figs4 #hd to #hg is employed4 ,the barrel ,a in ,fig4 #hd is the same as barrel ,a in ,fig4 #hb1 and carries the chains for lifting the levers ,b and ,c4 ,at the end of the barrel the star wheel ,i is fixed1 and this star wheel is turned by the pins ,j4 ,these pins are worked by a clutch motion shown at ,fig4 #hf1 by which they can be withdrawn from gear with the star wheel as desired4 ,the pins ,,kk are fixed1 and turn one tooth of the star wheel ,y every pick1 the wheel ,m having twice the number of teeth contained in ,l1 which is on the crank shaft of the loom4 ,the star wheel ,y is fast to the end of a small octagonal barrel1 which carries a pattern chain ,n composed of small metal cards1 and we have seen how this barrel is turned one division every pick4 ,above this pattern chain ,n a finger1 ,o 7,fig4 #hf71 is placed1 and is lifted up against a spring every pick by the cam ,p on the face of the wheel ,m4 ,when the finger is up1 the pins ,,jj are taken inside the wheel ,m1 as shown at ,fig4 #hf4 ,the cam ,p only raises the finger a sufficient length of time to allow the barrel ,y to be turned round1 and if there is a blank in the cards opposite the finger ,o when it is let down by the cam it will still keep the pins ,j inside the wheel1 and will thus prevent either of them from engaging with the star wheel ,i1 and will leave the boxes unchanged4 ,this can be repeated any number of picks4 ,if a change is required in the boxes1 a hole is placed opposite the finger ,o1 and when it is let down the pins ,j project through the wheel ,m 7as indicated by the dotted lines in ,fig4 #hf71 and the star wheel ,i will thus be turned one tooth1 and the chain can make the change required in the boxes4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hf4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hg4 ,fig4 #hg is another view of the cam-shaped projection ,p1 which raises the finger every pick1 and ,fig4 #he is another view of the chain barrel ,a4 ,the letters in the six ,figs4 #hb to #hg inclusive refer to the same parts in each case4 ,in this way the chains on ,a are rarely required to be very long1 as one link may be made to represent any number of picks from one upwards4 ,of course a separate card on ,y is required for each pick1 but these are very small1 only about #a inch in length1 and a large pattern can be made with very little trouble4 ,when a ,jacquard is used on one of these looms it is sometimes necessary to work the pattern from the ,jacquard cards4 ,this can be done in a very simple manner by covering the hole in the barrel carrying the cards ,n with a metal plate1 which is held over the hole by a spring4 ,when a change is required in the boxes1 a ,jacquard hook pulls the plate from over the hole1 and allows the finger ,o to drop1 and thus causes the star wheel ,i to be engaged by the pins ,j4 ,the picking mechanism in a pick-and-pick loom may be either over or under pick4 ,in the former the picking tappets are sometimes moved on the shaft by a clutch arrangement4 ,in the latter the top of the picking treadle is movable4 ,as the under pick is perhaps the best adapted for this loom1 we will describe it4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hh4 ,fig4 #hh is a side view of the loom1 and the top of the picking treadles consists of a metal plate with the 8shoe0 ,s of such a shape as to give the required force and character to the pick4 ,this metal plate works round a pivot1 ,p4 ,the treadles at both sides of the loom are the same in this respect4 ,at the back of the loom a rod1 ,r1 is connected to the extreme ends of the loose plates or the treadles1 and when one plate is on the treadle1 the other is fixed off its treadle1 as shown in ,fig4 #hi4 ,the consequence is that when the picking bowls come round 7there are two bowls on the bottom shaft at each side of the loom7 the loom will pick always from that side where the loose plate is on the treadle1 and at the other side1 where the plate is off1 the bowls will pass over the treadle without touching it4 ,by moving the rod ,r sideways1 the plates may be moved alternately off and on their treadles4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hi4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ij4 ,if the loom has four boxes at each side1 it may be necessary to pick four times in succession from one side of the loom1 and by a simple arrangement the picking can be regulated at will4 ,the mechanism for moving the rod ,r sideways is shown at ,fig4 #ij4 ,inside the loom framework a lever1 ,l1 is centred at ,c1 and by a combination of levers is connected to the rod ,r1 which is the rod referred to in the previous diagrams4 ,a strong spring keeps the plates right for picking from one side1 but when it is required to pick from the other the lever ,l is lifted1 which moves the rod ,r sideways and moves the plate off one treadle and on the other4 ,a chain is used for lifting the lever ,l1 and the star wheel ,a is turned by two pins on the wheel ,b on the bottom shaft of the loom1 or by one pin if on the crank shaft1 thus causing the star wheel to be turned one division every pick4 ,the loom may thus be made to pick four times from the right side1 three from the left1 twice from the right1 and so on1 of course always taking care that the shuttles are there to be picked4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,dobbies ,the tappet shedding motion is the simplest and most perfect for a small number of shafts4 ,they may be made to work an indefinite number of shafts1 but it is seldom that above eight or ten are worked with ordinary tappets1 and about sixteen with ,woodcroft's or other plate tappets4 ,with dobbies1 a higher number of shafts may conveniently be worked1 but it is not only for this reason that dobbies are so extensively used4 ,they are extensively used for weaving twills1 satins1 and other simple weaves1 on four or five shafts4 ,the chief advantage they possess is that any number of shafts within their capacity may be used without extra trouble or cost2 whereas ordinary tappets have to be made specially for each pattern2 whilst section tappets1 and oscillating tappets1 are inconvenient4 ,dobbies are made to weave up to #dj or more shafts1 but #af and #bj are the commonest numbers4 ,most dobbies now used are on the double-lift principle2 indeed1 the single-lift dobby or witch machine is almost obsolete in cotton weaving4 ,the chief kind of double-lift dobby is the 8,hattersley0 or 8,keighley0 dobby4 ,the principle of this machine was invented by ,messrs4 ,hattersley ,hill1 of ,keighley1 ,yorkshire2 hence its name4 ,since the original patent rights have expired1 almost all loom makers have their own particular form of this dobby1 embodying many more or less minor improvements on the original4 ,the principle of this dobby will be understood from the lecture diagram1 ,fig4 #ia4 ,the dobby is placed at one side of the loom1 and is therefore in a convenient position for being attended to4 ,the upright rod ,r is connected to a crank on the bottom shaft of the loom1 and therefore the rocking lever ,,ab1 centred at ,c1 will make one complete movement to and fro1 every two picks4 ,the knives ,d and ,e slide along1 always retaining a horizontal position1 one going inward as the other comes outward4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ia4 ,the shaft or stave is connected to the jack lever ,,fgh at ,f1 and the upright ,,mn is fastened to this lever at ,h1 the fulcrum being at ,g4 ,the upright ,,mn has two hooks1 ,p and ,q1 connected to it at opposite ends1 and suppose that when the knife ,d is in its innermost position1 as in the diagram1 the hook ,p is dropped on to the knife2 when the knife begins to move it will take the top of the upright ,,mn with it until ,,mn assumes the position indicated by the dotted line ,m,n1 and the stave is lifted4 ,if it is required to lift the same stave for the succeeding pick1 the bottom hook is then dropped on to the knife ,e1 which at that moment will be in its innermost position just commencing its outward movement1 and is taken forward by it until the upright ,,mn assumes the position indicated by the dotted line ,,mn2 and it will easily be seen that as the top of the upright is moving back from ,m to ,m whilst the bottom of the upright is moving forward from ,n to ,n1 the centre of the upright ,h remains stationary at ,h1 with the exception of a slight movement caused by the knife going further back than the hooks1 and thus the stave remains up all the time4 ,the character of the shed is1 therefore1 what is termed 8open shed0--that is1 if a stave is required up for several picks in succession1 when it is lifted it remains up until it is required to come down again4 ,this is what is meant by 8open shed0 as compared with 8centre shed10 the characteristic of which is that the lifted stave1 instead of remaining up1 is let down halfway every pick and taken up again if required4 ,the method of dropping the hooks is as follows3--,two levers1 ,s1 ,t1 of different shapes are employed for each pair of hooks2 these levers are centred on a rod1 ,x4 ,one of the levers1 viz4 ,t1 is bent from the fulcrum to touch the bottom hook1 and the lever ,s projects straight out from the fulcrum1 and an upright needle ,o rests upon it1 the top hook resting upon the upright needle4 ,when the lever ,,sy is lifted a little at ,y it will drop the top hook1 and when ,,ty is lifted at ,y it will drop the bottom hook4 ,in a #af shaft dobby the parts shown in the diagram are duplicated sixteen times--that is1 there are sixteen uprights ,,mn1 each with two hooks1 sixteen levers ,,sy1 sixteen like ,,ty1 and sixteen of other parts4 ,the levers ,,sy and ,,ty are operated by lags pegged so as to lift the staves to give the required pattern4 ,these lags work round a cylinder or barrel1 which is turned round the space of one lag every two picks intermittently4 ,each lag operates the hooks for two picks1 one row of pegs operates the top hooks ,p1 and the other row of pegs the bottom hooks ,q4 ,the method of pegging the lags will be understood from ,fig4 #ib1 where two lags are shown with the pegging for a two and two twill4 ,of course care must always be taken that the pegs are put opposite the proper levers1 as when only a portion of the jacks are used1 say eight1 it is often preferred that the staves be connected to eight jacks in the middle of the machine4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ib4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ic4 ,dobbies constructed with single jacks1 as indicated in ,fig4 #ia1 are only suitable for narrow looms4 ,those constructed with double jacks are preferable for wider looms1 as they not only keep the healds under better command1 but they also move them in a perfectly vertical plane without the tendency to a slight side movement such as occurs when the healds are controlled by single jacks1 in consequence of the ends of these describing an arc of a circle as they rise and fall4 ,one of the best adaptations of double jacks to the ,keighley type of dobby is that exemplified in the 8,climax0 dobby made by ,lupton and ,place1 ,burnley4 ,this is represented in ,fig4 #ic1 in which ,a and ,b are complementary jack-levers operated from the same baulk-lever1 ,j1 controlled by hooks ,p and ,q1 to govern the same heald4 ,the distinctive features of this dobby are the construction of the outer jack-lever ,a in one part1 instead of two parts1 and its attachment with the inner jack1 ,b1 by means of a link1 ,c4 ,this modification is a great improvement on double-jack dobbies in which the connections are made with streamer hooks or rods1 or those in which the jacks are geared by means of toothed segments1 as these increase the number of parts that are liable to wear and to get out of order4 ,the ,keighley dobby is decidedly the most popular one at the present time1 but what is known as the 8,blackburn0 dobby is preferred by some4 ,this is a double-lift dobby1 which gives a centre shed--that is1 the staves which are required up for a number of picks in succession are let down halfway every pick and taken up again4 ,the principle of this dobby is illustrated at ,fig4 #id4 ,the staves are lifted by the two jacks ,a and ,b2 when ,b is lifted it causes ,a to lift the same distance4 ,there are two hooks1 ,d and ,f1 for each double jack1 and the lags are divided into two parts1 all the odd numbered picks being fastened together1 and the even picks forming another chain4 ,the pegs in the lags press back the hooks1 the back part of each of which forms a spring1 so that when the hook is pressed back it leaves the stave down4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #id4 ,the knives lift alternately4 ,when one is going up the other is going down1 and when one hook of a pair is lifted1 as in the diagram1 a lag operates the other hook1 and if the same stave has to be lifted for the next pick1 the hook is left over the knife1 and the second hook will be taken up whilst the stave is being let down1 and will catch it halfway and take it up to the top again4 ,this is the advantage of all double-lift machines over single-lift4 ,the staves which are required up for a certain pick are being taken up whilst those which were up for the previous are coming down4 ,a saving of time is thus effected1 and the looms can be run quicker than with single-lift machines4 ,a crank ,l on the end of the bottom1 or picking1 shaft is connected by means of a lifting-rod ,e to the end of a horizontal arm ,m1 mounted on a shaft ,g1 which constitutes a fulcrum for the arm4 ,on one end of shaft ,g1 at the rear of the machine1 there is fixed a toothed quadrant ,h1 which1 through the medium of a small wheel1 transmits motion to a similar toothed quadrant ,h fixed on the end of a shaft ,g2 and each quadrant is connected1 by means of rods ,k and ,k to the rear ends of the respective griffe-bars ,d and ,f4 ,on the opposite ends of the shafts ,g and ,g1 there are fixed1 one on each shaft1 two short arms which are respectively connected to the fore ends of the griffe-bars4 ,therefore1 as the crank ,l revolves1 the griffes are raised and depressed alternately1 and in a contrary manner4 ,another thing to be borne in mind is that in a single-lift machine all the staves come to the bottom every pick1 and therefore the character of the shed is different from that of a double-lift4 ,in double-lift machines there are the 8open-shed0 like the ,keighley dobby1 and the 8centre shed0 like the ,blackburn dobby4 ,it is important to remember these points1 as the cover and appearance of the cloth is affected by the beating-up being done in different kinds of sheds4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ie4 ,the loom crank is usually set at the top centre1 or thereabouts1 when the rising and falling staves are level1 so that the shed will be partly open for the next pick by the time the loom crank gets to the front centre4 ,in single-lift dobbies the beat-up is made when the shed is closed1 and so the warp has not the same chance of being spread as with the timing of double-lift dobbies4 ,this difference in the character of the shed when the beat-up is made is caused by the fact that in a double-lift machine the knives1 being in the middle of their stroke1 are moving at their quickest speed when the shed is closed1 and in a single-lift the knife is almost stationary when the shed is closed4 ,the same thing occurs in ,jacquards1 and the matter may be better understood by a reference to the chapter on ,jacquards4 ,dobbies can be made 8positive0 in various ways4 ,keighley dobbies are made with a pin fixed on the upright ,,mn 7,fig4 #ia7 at the point ,h4 ,a wire is hooked on to this pin and connected to an ,l lever at the side of the loom opposite the dobby2 this is connected to a lever at the bottom of the loom4 ,by connecting the bottom of one stave to this lever the stave will be pulled down as the upright ,,mn is taken forward1 and so the knife whilst taken one stave up is pulling another down1 rendering the dobby positive4 ,this1 of course1 will only do for certain simple patterns1 such as twills1 satins1 and similar weaves1 and would not do for patterns where different numbers of staves are lifted every pick4 ,positive dobbies are not much used in the cotton trade4 ,the ordinary form of dobby is non-positive1 the stave being kept down by springs in some form or other4 ,one reason which may be urged against ordinary springs1 or 8jack boxes10 is that the pull on the heald increases as the stave is lifted and the spring opened4 ,it is obvious that this is just the reverse of what is required1 as the stave is lifted positively1 and the pull on it may therefore conveniently be decreased as it is lifted1 and the healds would last longer4 ,the use of the spring is to keep the stave down1 and therefore it should exert its greatest force when the stave is at the bottom4 ,a simple method of accomplishing this has long been in use4 ,something on the same principle has been used on hand looms for generations1 and very cheap and convenient undermotions of this kind have long been available for power looms2 but1 strange to say1 cotton manufacturers have been very slow at adopting them4 ,an undermotion of this kind is illustrated at ,fig4 #if4 ,the spring is fixed at ,a1 and a wire hook connects the spring with the quadrant at ,b4 ,it will easily be seen that as the stave lifts1 the direction of the pull of the spring is gradually moved over the centre of the quadrant at ,c4 ,if the stave were lifted until the spring was in a direct line from ,a to ,c1 the pull on the stave would be nil1 as all the force would be exerted on the fulcrum4 ,each stave is connected at both sides in the same manner1 the springs and other parts are all arranged in a very compact manner1 and the cost is very small4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #if4 ,another form of undermotion on the same principle is much used in ,yorkshire in the woollen and worsted trades4 ,this is illustrated at ,fig4 #ig1 and is known as ,kenyon's undermotion4 ,in this the springs are arranged horizontally1 and therefore longer springs can be used4 ,the quadrant is centred at ,c1 and a strap is fast to the quadrant at ,d4 ,the spring is connected with the quadrant at ,f4 ,the strap passes from the quadrant under the bowl ,b1 and then to the stave4 ,another quadrant serves in the same manner for the opposite side4 ,the spring is fastened to a bar at ,e1 and as the stave is lifted1 the pull of the spring is gradually moved over the centre ,c1 and therefore the pull on the heald gradually decreases as it is lifted4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ig4 ,,chapter ,v ,,miscellaneous ,when two or more pieces are woven in one width and afterwards cut or torn apart1 if there are not a few leno ends to divide each piece the warp threads have nothing to stop them from coming out at the cut sides4 ,in light fabrics this is a greater disadvantage than in heavy and finely picked ones1 such as velvets1 and therefore in the former it is usual to weave a few ends leno to keep the edge firm4 ,there are various kinds of motions for effecting this object1 one of the oldest being that illustrated at ,figs4 #ih and #ii4 ,this is for an ordinary plain loom1 and the crossing end is taken through the back stave and through a loop from the top of the front stave4 ,this loop is often formed of a small fine pliable chain1 as it wears longer than worsted4 ,fig4 #ih shows the back stave lifted1 and ,fig4 #ii1 the front stave up1 when it will be seen that the crossing end is brought up on the opposite side from the previous pick4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ih4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ii4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajj4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aja4 ,another1 and perhaps a better1 method1 is ,shorrock and ,taylor's patent1 shown at ,figs4 #ajj and #aja4 ,for a plain loom the two straps ,a and ,b are fastened to a drum on the top roller of the loom4 ,in these straps are the small eyes ,c and ,d1 and through these eyes the crossing ends are taken4 ,the 8standard0 ends1 round which ,c and ,d are crossed1 are drawn through the fixed eyes ,,ef1 immediately above the small bobbins ,,mn4 ,the straps pass round the bobbins and up to the elastics ,x1 which are fastened to a hook1 ,l1 at the top of the loom4 ,the top roller is rocked to and fro by the ordinary staves1 and when rocked in the direction against the elastics the crossing threads are brought up inside as shown at ,fig4 #ajj1 and as the roller rocks back the elastics pull the eyes ,c and ,d completely round the bobbins and take the crossing threads up the other side of the 8dummy0 or 8standard0 ends1 ,,ef4 ,the selvedge formed is thus like that shown at ,fig4 #ajb4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajb4 ,there are many patents taken out every year for split motions1 but the simple old forms still keep their place4 ,another invention of a totally different kind may be mentioned4 ,in this1 the weft is cut between the two cloths every pick as it is being woven1 and the loose end is then turned round and taken into the cloth at the next pick1 thus forming a practically perfect selvedge2 indeed1 it would be impossible for any one to find out the difference without being told or making a very close examination4 ,for about half an inch at the inner side of the cloth there are double picks1 but this is scarcely noticeable4 ,the practical utility of this invention is yet to be proved1 and one thing to militate against its general adoption is its cost1 which is several pounds per loom1 whereas some of the ordinary split motions cost only a few shillings per loom4 ,with ,jacquards or dobbies it is an easy matter to arrange an ordinary doup heald to form a split1 but the arrangements before mentioned are used for plain looms1 where it is not so easy to get the required lift4 ,the twist used must be very strong1 as no slackener is used4 ,usually it is a three-or four-or six-fold cotton thread4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajc4 ,another kind of selvedge motion is that used for producing a plain selvedge on a loom weaving satteens with tappets4 ,the fact of the ordinary satteen being five picks to the round1 and a plain selvedge being a necessity1 causes either the tappets to be made ten to the round1 working the plain selvedges by tappets on the same shaft1 or the selvedge ends must be worked from another shaft4 ,in what is known as ,smalley's satteen motion the former principle is acted upon3 the tappets are ten to the round1 and the plain is worked from the same shaft4 ,a more ordinary form is that shown at ,fig4 #ajc4 ,a small tappet1 ,a1 is fitted on the bottom shaft 7or picking shaft71 and this acts upon a lever1 ,b1 to which the bottom of one set of harness threads containing1 say1 the odd-numbered ends of the plain is connected1 the other1 or even-numbered1 ends of the plain being connected to the elastic ,e1 the bowl ,f at the top being used for working round4 ,when the tappet presses down the lever ,b1 it will take half the plain ends down and the other half up1 and the elastic will pull back again as the tappet allows it4 ,in this way a plain selvedge is obtained in a five-shaft satteen4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajd4 ,another method of effecting the same purpose is shown at ,fig4 #ajd4 ,a shaft ,a is placed under the loom1 and this shaft is made to rock to and fro to work the mails ,b and ,c alternately up and down4 ,the picking shaft of the loom has a crank ,m fastened to it1 and a strap ,s is taken from this crank to the small drum ,h on the shaft ,a1 and is wrapped round it4 ,as the crank ,m revolves it will pull the shaft ,a in one direction until the crank gets to the top1 and when the crank has passed the top of its stroke the spring ,x will pull the shaft back to its original position1 and thus the required reciprocating motion is given to the shaft ,a and to the mails ,b and ,c4 ,double-beat ,slay4 ,a double beat is sometimes required to be given to each pick of weft4 ,this is done in weaving some of the heaviest kinds of sackings1 carpets1 and similar fabrics4 ,fig4 #aje shows how this is effected4 ,,ab is the slay1 and is movable about ,b as a centre2 ,,ec is in two pieces1 viz4 ,,ed and ,,dc1 and these are fitted loosely on a pin at ,d4 ,it will be obvious that when the crank occupies either position ,,qp or ,,qp1 the slay will be at the front of its stroke1 and as the crank is moving from ,p to ,m it will pull the slay back a little1 and in moving from ,m to ,p a second beat-up will be made4 ,whilst the crank is moving from ,p to ,p the shuttle is passed through the shed4 ,it is obvious that a beat-up of this kind will enable the weft to be beaten well up into the cloth1 and more to be put in than with a single beat4 ,the force exerted is often so great that the looms have to be very firmly fastened into the floor on which they stand1 or they would move4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aje4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,jacquard ,,weaving ,the ,jacquard machine was the invention of a ,frenchman of that name1 who exhibited the machine about the year #ahjj4 ,it was introduced into this country about twenty years later4 ,the chief advantage of the machine is that a large number of warp threads can be operated separately1 and a larger figure be produced than with a shaft harness4 ,the chief ideas in the machine are that each mail is connected separately to its hook1 and the use of perforated cards to leave any hook over the griffe if it is required to be lifted1 or to push it away from it if the hook is required to be left down in the shed4 ,the original ,jacquard machine was a single-lift1 and although many minor improvements have been made in it1 the main features are practically the same to-day as in the earliest machines introduced into this country4 ,at the present day the single-lift is comparatively little used in cotton manufacture owing to the increased speed at which double-lifts can be worked1 but it is still preferred in silk manufacture for several reasons4 ,one reason is that the character of the shed when beating up in a double-lift machine is essentially different to that produced by a hand-loom1 where of course a single-lift is always used1 and as hand-loom fabrics have a finer touch and appearance than power-loom fabrics1 the object is to imitate the hand-loom production as nearly as possible4 ,the cause of this difference in the character of the shed when beating up will be explained later in this chapter4 ,another reason is that silk-looms could never be run at any speed higher than that of which a single-lift machine is capable1 and therefore the advantage of increased speed of the double-lift is of no use4 ,double-lifts1 owing to the counterpoise and the division of the work on to two knives1 are undoubtedly steadier in working1 and this is an argument decidedly in their favour4 ,single-lifts are still used in the manufacture of figured lenos1 as no shaking motion has yet been successfully adapted to enable the crossing ends to cross with a double-lift machine4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajf4 ,a single-lift ,jacquard for weaving a pattern which occupies #djj ends in a repeat consists of #djj hooks and #djj needles1 with an extra row of eight hooks for selvedges1 or other auxiliary use4 ,the hooks are arranged in eight rows with #ea hooks in a row4 ,a cross section of this ,jacquard is shown at ,fig4 #ajf1 where the uprights are the hooks and the horizontal wires the 8needles40 ,a is the 8needle board10 and this is a perforated board through which the needles pass4 ,the bottom needle ,b is twisted or looped round the back hook ,d1 and the connection of the other needles and hooks is shown4 ,at the back of each needle a small spring made of fine brass or steel wire is placed4 ,these springs are held in position in the 8spring-box0 ,s4 ,there are1 therefore1 #djh springs required for the #djh needles4 ,the hooks rest on the grate ,g1 but in some makes of machine the grate is not used and the hooks rest upon a 8bottom board40 ,in this case the hooks are very liable to turn round1 and thus cause annoyance4 ,to prevent this1 flat hooks have been used1 and the needle loop was shaped so as not to permit the hook to turn within it4 ,the eight knives form the griffe4 ,these knives are all fastened together1 and are moved up and down from the crank-shaft of the loom4 ,the illustration shows the knives at the bottom of their stroke1 and at this point1 or immediately after the griffe begins to move upwards1 the card on the perforated cylinder ,e is pressed against the needles1 and if there is a hole in the card1 the needle directly opposite the hole will pass through it and into the perforation in the cylinder1 and the knife will take up the hook to which this needle is connected4 ,if the card is blank opposite any needle it will press back the hook1 and as the knife lifts1 the hook is left down4 ,thus it is possible to lift any of the #djh hooks in the machine for any pick4 ,when the cylinder is taken away from the needles the hooks are forced back into their original position by the small springs in the spring-box ,s4 ,it will be noticed that the knives are leaning a little1 and the reason for this will be apparent1 as if they were not leaning they would catch the tops of the hooks in coming down1 and would break or bend them4 ,the sloping position enables the knives in coming down to press back the tops of the hooks and so get under them1 ready for the next card to be pressed against the needles4 ,the knives should come down low enough to be quite clear of the hooks1 and therefore in this machine there is a considerable dwell when the shed is closed4 ,the harness for a straight-over pattern is mounted as shown at ,fig4 #ajg4 ,in order to prevent confusion the connection of the cords to the machine is not shown1 but the numbers on the line ,a represent the hooks in the machine to which the cords are to be attached4 ,the 8comber-board0 or 8cumber-board0 ,b is a frame into which perforated slips are fitted4 ,these slips are perforated to different degrees of fineness1 the fineness being regulated by the number of ends per inch required in the cloth to be woven4 ,the lingoes1 ,l1 are metal weights1 and serve the purpose of keeping the mails down4 ,,mm are the mails1 through which the warp threads are drawn in the order shown by the numbers1 beginning at the back left-hand corner4 ,the draft in straight-over patterns is always taken in this way in ,jacquard weaving1 although it is not compulsory4 ,the harness is built with linen thread1 and the method of tieing the lingoes to the hooks will be understood from the diagram4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajg4 ,when one lingoe has been connected to each of 7say7 #djj hooks1 the first pattern is complete4 ,supposing there are #ajj ends per inch1 the pattern will occupy #d inches1 and therefore if cloth is required #bh inches wide in the harness1 there must be seven lingoes attached to each hook1 making seven patterns1 or seven repeats of the pattern1 in the width of cloth4 ,thus when one lingoe has been tied to each hook1 beginning with the first and ending with the #djjth1 another is connected to each hook1 beginning again with the first2 and when this is done other patterns are formed in the same manner until the required number is complete4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajh4 ,it is important to have a clear understanding as to which is the hook which lifts the first end in the draft4 ,this hook is the one connected with the bottom needle in the last row on the #be-side of the machine4 ,as we stated previously1 a #djjs machine has #djj hooks arranged in #ej rows of #h1 or #h rows of #ej hooks1 and in addition there is always a spare row of hooks1 making #ea rows in all4 ,as it is necessary to lace the cards in the middle as well as at the sides1 a space has to be allowed for the lace holes1 and therefore the machine is divided into two parts by a space between the #bfth and #bgth rows4 ,a plan of a card is given at ,fig4 #ajh4 ,the length of the card between the two peg holes ,a and ,b is nearly #ad inches1 and the distance between the centre of the top needles and the bottom needles is #a inch exactly4 ,this holds good for all ,english-made machines1 but the ,american index is different4 ,it will be seen that there are #bf rows on the right of the machine and #be rows on the left1 and one is called the 8#bf-side0 and the other the 8#be-side40 ,the cards are always numbered at the 8#bf-side10 and the cutting is commenced at this end4 ,it may be as well to explain here the order in which the holes are cut from the design1 as it will assist in following the point paper design to the loom4 ,the cutting is usually done in a 8piano0 cutting machine1 which will be explained more fully later on4 ,by this machine one row of eight holes can be cut by operating eight punches and pressing down the right-foot treadle of the machine4 ,the number end of the card is gripped by the machine1 and at the first stroke of the right foot1 the lace holes ,,ef and the peg hole ,a are cut1 then one stroke of the treadle is made without cutting1 and the pointer of the machine arrives at the #ast or spare row4 ,if the selvedges are worked from this row1 holes are cut accordingly4 ,then the pointer comes to the #bnd row1 and in this row the cutting from the design is commenced4 ,at ,fig4 #aji the design is made on point paper1 as it is required to appear in the cloth right side up1 with the twill in the ground running in the same direction as shown on the design4 ,when cutting1 the design is usually turned round1 as shown at ,fig4 #aaj1 and the cutting commences from the top right-hand corner ,a4 ,to show the matter clearly1 the first row of holes cut are numbered1 both in the design and the card1 in consecutive order4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aji4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aaj4 ,the first hole cut in the card is operated with the little finger of the right hand4 ,following this hole to the loom1 we find it operates the last or #djjth end in the draft1 and that the hole cut last on the card 7numbered #djj7 operates the first end in the draft4 ,this is the hole which operates the bottom needle in the last row on the 8#be-side0 of the ,jacquard machine1 which1 as was previously stated1 is the hook from which the draft begins4 ,following out the operation of cutting the card4 ,when the #bfth row has been cut1 the lace holes ,,mn 7,fig4 #ajh7 are cut1 and then the cutting is again straight-forward to the #ejth row4 ,the piano machine is so constructed that with the same stroke of the treadle which cuts the #east row the peg hole ,d is also cut1 and then follows a stroke without cutting1 after which the two lace holes ,t and ,y are cut4 ,this makes #ef strokes of the foot for each card4 ,it is usual1 in order to economise space1 for the ,jacquards with straight1 or 8,norwich10 harnesses to be placed on the loom1 so that on one loom the cards hang over the weaver's head1 and on the next the cards are at the back of the loom4 ,in both cases the harnesses are built the same way1 but in one case 7cards over weaver's head7 the thread operated by the bottom needle on the 8#be-side0 will be at the back of the comber-board1 at the left hand2 and in the other case 7cards behind loom7 the same thread will be at the front of the comber-board at the right-hand side4 ,as previously stated1 the single-lift ,jacquard for cotton weaving is not often employed except for special purposes1 such as figured leno weaving4 ,the advantage possessed by the double-lift ,jacquard as regards speed is so very considerable that its adoption for ordinary forms of cotton weaving has become universal2 and the advantage of speed is not the only advantage it possesses1 as will be pointed out shortly4 ,a double-lift machine with one cylinder for a #djj end pattern consists of #hjj hooks and #djj needles4 ,each needle is twisted or bent round two hooks1 as shown at ,fig4 #aaa4 ,the hooks are connected together in twos by neck cords1 which are usually strong whipcord1 as will be seen from the illustration4 ,it will be seen that the bottom needle is bent round the back pair of hooks1 the next needle round another pair1 and so on4 ,each needle has a spring behind it1 as in a single-lift machine4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aaa4 ,there are two griffes1 which work oppositely--that is1 as one goes up the other comes down4 ,the griffes 7or knives7 are worked by a double crank on the bottom shaft of the loom1 so that each griffe moves from the bottom to top of its stroke in one pick1 and from top to bottom in another pick4 ,the principle of the double-lift will be understood from ,fig4 #aab4 ,one knife1 ,a1 is at the top1 and the other knife1 ,b1 is down4 ,one hook of the pair is lifted1 and therefore the ends in the mails connected to the neck cord at ,c will be lifted4 ,suppose now it is required to lift the same ends of warp for the next pick3 a card is pressed against the needles1 and if there is a hole in the card opposite the needle ,e1 it will leave the needle and the hook ,n where they are1 and as the knife ,b is lifted1 the hook ,n will be taken up as the hook ,m is coming down4 ,the hooks will cross at about the middle of their stroke1 and the weight of the ends and lingoes on the cord ,c will at that moment pass from the hook ,m to the hook ,n4 ,in the diagram the cord attached to the hook ,n is slack1 but when this hook is lifted the cord will gradually tauten until it bears all the weight1 when the cord from the hook ,m becomes slack4 ,we thus have the ends for the second pick lifted whilst the ends which were up for the previous pick are coming down4 ,this is where the advantage of the double lift lies4 ,in a single lift the knife must lift the hooks up and then come down to the bottom before another card can operate the needles1 whereas in a double lift the card for a second pick can be brought against the needles as soon as the ends which were up for the previous pick are ready to come down4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aab4 ,it is obvious that in the position shown in ,fig4 #aab1 when one knife is up and the other down and the needle pressed back by the card1 that the hook ,m will also be pressed back1 as shown by the dotted line4 ,the bend of the hook over the knife1 therefore1 must be sufficient to prevent the hook being pushed off the knife1 and it will be noticed that the hooks in this class of machine are bent more than the hooks in a single-lift machine4 ,the hooks rest on the grate ,g1 ,fig4 #aaa1 and the shape of the hook at this point acts as a spring to straighten the lifted hooks after the pressure of the card has been taken off the needles4 ,a machine of this kind can be run at a speed of about #afj or #agj picks a minute1 as compared with the #acj or #adj picks of a single-lift4 ,a double-lift machine on another principle is illustrated at ,fig4 #aac4 ,this is a two-cylinder machine1 and to weave a pattern repeating on #djj ends this machine requires #hjj hooks and #hjj needles4 ,the cylinders work at opposite sides4 ,the hooks are placed as shown in the diagram1 the hooked parts facing each other in pairs1 and by following carefully the manner in which the needles are twisted round the hooks it will be seen that there are really two single-lift machines placed together1 alternate rows of hooks representing each machine4 ,there are two griffes1 as in the double-lift single-cylinder machine1 and the griffes are worked in the same manner4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aac4 ,the cylinders work alternately1 the cards being laced in two sets1 all the odd numbers being together in one set and the even numbers forming another set4 ,immediately one knife is at the top and the other at the bottom1 one cylinder is pressed against the needles1 and it will be noticed that the hooks which each cylinder operates have the hooked parts in the direction of the cylinder4 ,when the hooks operated by one cylinder are at the top the other cylinder is pressed against the needles1 and thus the work done by one cylinder in ,fig4 #aaa is divided between two in this machine4 ,the advantage of this machine is in the lessened speed of the cylinders4 ,the vibration caused by the cylinder working at a high speed in a single-cylinder machine is so great that the limit is reached at about #agj picks per minute1 whereas a double-cylinder machine can be run up to #bjj or sometimes even more picks per minute1 though perhaps #ahj is a more advantageous speed4 ,the top set of needles project a little further through the needle board to compensate for the difference in leverage on the hooks4 ,besides the advantage of speed1 double-lifts have an advantage in the counterpoise obtained by one set of hooks going up as the other comes down4 ,this causes a more even motion and steadier working4 ,another advantage possessed by double-lifts is that the beating up of the weft is effected in a crossed shed1 thus enabling more weft to be put in than in a single-lift1 where the beat-up is done with a closed shed4 ,this beating up in a crossed shed also spreads the warp better1 and prevents the reed marks from showing1 for the same reason as was given when referring to the spreading of the warp in the tappet loom4 ,in silk weaving a single-lift machine has an advantage in imitating more closely hand-woven goods1 as hand-loom weavers usually beat up in a closed shed4 ,this causes the weft to be put in straighter--that is1 less wavy1 which is very desirable in silk fabrics4 ,the cause of this difference in the shed when beating up in the two kinds of looms will be understood by following the relative positions of the griffes and the loom crank throughout its revolution4 ,in a single lift the time allowed for opening and closing the shed must be used to the best advantage2 that is1 as much time as possible must be given for this purpose4 ,on this account it is necessary to pick the moment the slay is sufficiently far back to allow the shuttle to enter the shed--that is1 when the slay is half-way back1 or the crank at the bottom centre4 ,the griffe is worked by a crank on the top shaft of the loom1 and there is no actual dwell of the griffe or of the ends when the shed is open2 therefore the shed must be opened a little wider than would otherwise be necessary for allowing the shuttle to pass through4 ,the shed must be sufficiently open to allow the shuttle to enter when the loom crank is at the bottom centre4 ,this regulates the timing of the other parts4 ,fig4 #aad will make this quite plain4 ,the shed must be nearly fully open when the crank is at the bottom centre to allow the shuttle to enter2 and when the loom crank is at ,a the griffe must be nearly at the top4 ,when the crank is at ,b the griffe will be at the extreme top1 and when the crank is at the top centre1 or ,c1 the griffe will be as near the bottom as it was to the top when the loom crank was at ,a4 ,as was previously pointed out1 the griffe must go further down than the hooks to allow another card to operate the needles1 and therefore it is when the loom crank has arrived at ,c that the knife is leaving the hooks resting on the grate1 or bottom board4 ,the griffe will be at the extreme bottom when the loom crank is at ,d1 and when the griffe is up at the hooks again the crank is at the front centre1 or ,e4 ,thus the shed has the fraction of a revolution between ,b and ,c to close in1 and between ,e and ,b for opening4 ,the shed remains closed for the quarter of a revolution1 ,c to ,e4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aad4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aae4 ,in a double-lift the warp is much more leniently dealt with4 ,as we have said1 the shed must be open for the shuttle to enter when the loom crank is at the bottom centre4 ,therefore the griffes should be in their extreme position--one up and one down--when the crank is at the bottom centre4 ,the timing of the parts in a double-lift will be seen at ,fig4 #aae4 ,the cranks that work the griffes are on the bottom shaft1 which of course makes a revolution every two picks4 ,these cranks will be perpendicular when the shed is fully open2 therefore when the loom cranks are at the bottom centre the cranks which drive the griffes must be in the position ,,ab4 ,if they are so set they will be in the position ,,cd when the loom crank reaches the back centre1 and in the position ,,ef1 or horizontal1 when the loom crank arrives at the top centre1 when the shed will be closed4 ,we have thus a closed shed when the crank is at the top centre1 as in a single-lift2 but in this case when the shed is closed the griffes are moving quickly1 whereas we have a quarter of a revolution dwell after the loom crank reaches the top centre in a single-lift4 ,this causes1 as we shall see1 a difference in the shed when the slay beats-up1 or is at the front centre4 ,when the griffe cranks are in the position ,,gh1 the loom crank will be at the front centre1 and thus the shed will be partly opened for the next pick when the reed comes in contact with the cloth4 ,jacquards are made in various sizes4 #ajjs1 #bjjs1 #cjjs1 #djjs1 and #fjjs1 are the most common4 #ajjs are arranged in rows of four2 #bjjs and #djjs are in rows of eight2 #cjjs and #fjjs in rows of twelve4 ,there are two distinct kind of harness mounting1 the ,london and ,norwich systems4 ,in the former the ,jacquard is placed with the narrow end towards the front of the loom1 thus causing the cards to fall at the side4 ,in the ,norwich system1 or 8tie10 the machine is placed with the broad side facing the front of the loom1 thus causing the cards to hang either over the weaver's head or at the back of the loom4 ,on this system1 as there are eight rows in a machine1 by taking the comber board eight rows deep the harness becomes what is called a straight neck4 ,with the ,london system1 the end of the machine facing the weaver1 there must be a twist in each pattern in the harness4 ,there is not much to choose between the two systems4 ,some prefer the ,london tie1 as they say the twist in the harness causes the harness threads to support each other1 and so last longer4 ,the ,norwich system is the more common1 especially in the cotton trade4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aaf4 ,fig4 #aaf shows the method of tying up the harness on the ,norwich system for a bordered fabric1 such as handkerchiefs4 ,in these goods it is usually preferred that both borders should point inwards1 as in the sketches ,figs4 #aaf and #aag4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aag4 ,the hooks to which the harness threads are attached are numbered on the line ,a1 and it will be seen that the draft begins in the left-hand corner at the back of the comber-board1 the lingoes being numbered in the order of the draft4 ,the cords are tied up just as for an ordinary straight-over harness for the first #djj1 or one full pattern of the machine1 but then1 instead of commencing with the first hook again1 the #bjast lingoe is tied to the #bjast hook1 and the second half of the pattern is repeated4 ,this forms the middle of the handkerchief1 and it must be repeated over a sufficient number of times to give the required width of cloth after allowing for the trimming and border4 ,in ,figs4 #aaf and #aag nothing but a border and middle are shown1 but sometimes a trimming of another small weave is required outside the border1 and this1 which is usually on a small number of hooks1 is repeated over in the same way as the middle4 ,in ,fig4 #aah only two repeats of the middle are shown2 but supposing that the harness had #ajj ends per inch1 and that the handkerchief was required to be twenty-four inches wide excluding the border1 there would be twelve repeats of the middle required4 ,when the middle has been repeated over a sufficient number of times1 the other border must be tied up1 and to obtain the reverse position of the figure the draft must be reversed4 ,by tying the next lingoe to the #bjjth hook1 and going backwards with the draft1 it can easily be seen that the same figure will be woven at this side of the harness as at the opposite side2 the only difference will be that the figure will point to the left1 as will also the twill in the ground1 if it is a twill4 ,this system of tying up is compulsory in the ,norwich system1 as it is usual to keep the harness straight--that is1 the harness threads from each of the eight rows in the ,jacquard each form a separate row in the comber-board4 ,we have thus eight rows in the machine and eight rows deep in the comber-board1 and it would not do to have a thread taken from the front of the comber-board at one border and from the back of the comber-board at the other border to the same hook4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aah4 ,if the harness is a 8,london tie0 it necessitates a half-turn in each pattern1 as the machine is at right angles to the comber-board4 ,therefore the draft may be continuous1 as shown at ,fig4 #aag1 where1 after the middle has been repeated a sufficient number of times1 finishing with a thread from the #djjth hook at the front of the comber-board1 the next one is taken from the #bjjth hook through the back of the comber-board1 and the border will finish with a thread from the first hook going through a hole at the front of the board--just the reverse to the other side4 ,bordered goods are often made with two borders at each side1 and sometimes the borders are repeated a few times4 ,the number of hooks taken for the border and middle respectively vary according to requirements4 ,sometimes1 in a #djj machine1 #cjj will be taken for the border and #ajj for the middle1 and so on4 ,the cross-border must of course be designed1 and the cards cut4 ,the number of cards in a set in these goods is often very large1 as the middle must be repeated over the required number of times1 and there will be as many cards used in the set as there are picks in the handkerchief4 ,in designing for the mounting given at ,fig4 #aag1 the design would be made on #djj ends3 #bjj for the border and #bjj for the middle1 and the cards would be cut just in the ordinary manner4 ,the cross-border would also be designed in such a manner as to harmonize with the side borders4 ,the portion to be designed is enclosed by the dotted lines4 ,centre ties or point ties are another class of harness in regular use4 ,this is really the two borders of a bordered harness joined together4 ,fig4 #aah shows how the tying up is done for a pattern of this kind4 ,the first #djj threads are connected as usual1 the draft being from back to front4 ,when the #djjth has been reached1 the draft is reversed until ,no4 #a is arrived at again4 ,the same effect is obtained as in a point of ,v draft in a shaft harness4 ,the pattern must be of such a character that one half is the exact reverse of the other4 ,this kind of harness is used for weaving large damask figures1 and it is obvious that the effect produced is really that of a figure on #hjj ends1 or twice the size of the machine4 ,designs of this character are of course rather stiff1 but are suitable for damasks1 and similar fabrics4 ,,cross-,,border ,,jacquards4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aai4 ,the object of a cross-border ,jacquard is to save the expense of cards in handkerchiefs and other bordered goods4 ,as pointed out previously1 the portion of the handkerchief between the two cross-borders is usually repeated over for a considerable number of times1 often from twelve to twenty times4 ,this often means using a few thousand cards1 which might be saved if the border and middle cards could be laced separately and changed automatically4 ,on the hand-loom it is usual for the weaver to change the cards by hand when required1 substituting the border for the middle cards and vice vers1 but in the power-loom this is of course out of the question1 and usually the total number of picks in the handkerchief have each a separate card4 ,the cross-border machine illustrated at ,figs4 #aai and #abj is the invention of ,messrs4 ,crossley and ,davenport4 ,the machine is double-lift1 as will be seen from the connection of the neck-cords4 ,the border cards are put on one cylinder1 ,b1 and the middle cards on another1 ,a4 ,when the cylinder ,a presses back a needle1 say the top needle ,c1 it will press back the pair of hooks ,,ef1 as in an ordinary double-lift single-cylinder machine1 and as long as this cylinder is worked every pick the machine is to all intents and purposes a double-lift single-cylinder machine4 ,when this cylinder is stopped and the cylinder ,b is worked every pick1 the cards on the cylinder ,b have exactly the same effect on the ends as those on cylinder ,a2 for when the top needle in this set of needles is pressed back1 it will force backward the pair of hooks ,,ef1 exactly as operating needle ,c by the other cylinder did4 ,only one spring-box is used1 as the upright wires ,,mm pass through loops1 ,p1 in the long needles1 and small iron bars1 ,,hh1 act as fulcra for the wires ,,mm4 ,the tops of these wires are fastened to the short needles ,n1 as indicated in the diagram1 and thus when the needle ,n is pressed back it moves the needle ,c in the opposite direction and operates the hooks ,,ef4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abj4 ,the cylinders can be changed by pulling the cord ,l in ,fig4 #abj4 ,when the parts are in the position shown in this illustration1 the cylinder ,a will be pressed against the needles every pick4 ,the cylinders are driven from the crank shaft1 the rod ,x goes to the crank shaft1 and a reciprocating motion is given to the ,l lever ,,cd centred at ,e4 ,the rocking lever ,,fg is centred at ,k1 and the reciprocating motion is transferred from ,,cd to ,,fg4 ,it will be seen that one end of the lever ,,fg is in the diagram inside the bend in the slot on ,m1 and the other end of the lever ,,fg is in a position to move about its centre1 ,k1 without moving the cylinder ,b4 ,thus as the crank shaft of the loom revolves it will give motion to the cylinder ,a1 but not to ,b4 ,by pulling the cord ,l1 however1 the bend on the slot on ,n takes hold of the top of the rocking lever ,g1 and at the same time1 through the lever ,,sr1 ,m is lifted1 and the end ,f of the rocking lever moves freely in the slot without moving the cylinder ,a4 ,the disadvantage of this motion is that the change is not made from the cards automatically1 certainly not an impossible piece of mechanism to contrive4 ,there are other cross-border motions1 but this is only given as an example4 ,,double-,,shed ,,jacquard4 ,double-shed ,jacquards are used chiefly in weaving heavy goods where a very large and deep shuttle is required to hold a reasonable quantity of weft4 ,the principle of this machine will be easily understood from ,fig4 #aba4 ,a is connected to the crank shaft of the loom and moves the end of the lever ,,bc up and down1 the fulcrum of the lever being at ,e4 ,the bottom board or plate ,f is therefore moved up and down1 and in doing so the griffe ,g is made to move oppositely1 the bottom plate coming down as the griffe goes up1 and vice vers4 ,this is effected by the top levers ,,pr and ,,qs1 which are centred at ,o4 ,one end of the griffe is connected to ,q1 the other end of the griffe is connected to ,p4 ,this gives firmness and strength to the machine4 ,these ,jacquards are usually made very heavy1 as they are chiefly for heavy work4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aba4 ,only a few hooks are shown as an example1 but the machines can be made any size4 ,when all the hooks are resting on the bottom board1 which will be when the bottom plate is at the top of its stroke1 the card is pressed against the needles and selects the hooks to be lifted in the usual manner1 after which the griffe rises as the bottom board sinks4 ,thus an extra deep shed is produced without the griffe having so far to lift as would otherwise be the case4 ,the shed produced is a centre shed1 all the ends coming to the centre every pick4 8,,open-,,shed0 ,,jacquard4 ,several open-shed ,jacquards have been patented4 ,that of ,wilkinson's is illustrated at ,figs4 #abb and #abc4 ,a and ,b are a pair of hooks1 which are connected by a cord passing round a pulley1 ,w4 ,this pulley works on a pin at one end of the thin plate ,c1 and at the other end of the plate is another pulley1 ,x4 ,the neck cord ,e passes round this pulley to the bar ,d1 to which it is fastened4 ,it is obvious that when one hook of the pair is lifted1 say1 #d inches1 and the other is at the bottom1 the pulley ,w will be lifted #b inches2 and as the cord ,e is fast to ,d1 the harness threads will be lifted #d inches1 the same as the hook4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abb4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abc4 ,if one hook of the pair is lifted and it is required to keep the same ends of warp up for the next picks1 the hooks being connected round the pulley ,w1 one hook going up as the other comes down will keep the harness cords stationary1 and the hooks ,a and ,b can be lifted alternately one up1 one down1 without moving the cord ,e1 which will all the time be keeping the warp ends up4 ,the shed thus obtained is similar to that in a ,keighley dobby2 the ends1 when once they are lifted1 stay in that position until they are required to come down4 ,the principle can be applied to either double-lift single-cylinder or double-lift double-cylinder machines4 ,another view of the pulleys is shown at ,fig4 #abc1 where the pulleys and other parts are lettered as in the previous figure4 ,each pair of hooks in the machine has these pulleys attached1 and therefore it will be understood that the pulleys must be rather thin in order to enable them to be placed in a space equal to the size of the ,jacquard machine4 ,the advantage which a satisfactory machine on this principle would possess lies in the fact that the jerk which occurs in ordinary double-lifts when the weight is passing from one hook to another in each pair is done away with4 ,this jerk causes breakage of the neck cords1 and many efforts to overcome the annoyance have been made4 ,this principle of open shed may be applied to dobbies such as the ,blackburn dobby4 ,,the ,,split ,,harness4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abd4 ,the split harness is an ingenious method of increasing the size of pattern which can be woven on a given ,jacquard4 ,what is termed a 8double-scale0 split harness consists of two adjacent lingoes being connected to each hook in the machine4 ,thus with a #djjs machine there are #hjj mails in a pattern4 ,a few lingoes are shown at ,fig4 #abd tied up in the manner of a double-scale harness4 ,the connections to four hooks are shown4 ,underneath the comber-board a loop is made in the harness thread1 and shafts ,,ss1 either wood or metal1 are inserted through the loops in each row in the harness4 ,these shafts are worked by the spare hooks in the machine1 and in the places where the ends are left down by the ,jacquard1 the shafts1 being lifted to a given ground pattern1 will weave the ends singly4 ,in ,fig4 #abd the shafts are shown lifted to weave a plain or tabby ground1 every alternate one being lifted4 ,hooks ,no4 #a and ,no4 #b are lifted by the ,jacquard1 and hooks #c and #d are left down1 and it will be seen that where the hooks are down1 half the ends will be lifted by the shafts4 ,the ends1 when lifted by the ,jacquard1 cannot be woven separately with this harness1 and therefore the bindings in the figure will show in twos1 which1 unless the harness is a fine one1 has a tendency to make the cloth appear coarse4 ,satin or twill grounds may be woven4 ,in fact1 the ends left down by the ,jacquard may be woven singly to any pattern which repeats on the number of shafts used1 or into the number of rows which the harness is deep in the comber-board4 ,of course either the figure or the ground may be woven singly1 according to the way the pattern is designed1 but not both4 ,in silk weaving1 harnesses are built on this principle to a threefold scale--that is1 with three mails attached to each hook--and as in the double-scale a figure repeating on #hjj ends can be woven on a #djjs machine1 so with a threefold scale a #abjj figure can be woven on a #djjs machine4 ,in this case the bindings in the figure will be in threes1 but the ground ends may be woven quite singly by the shafts4 ,this principle is only adapted for very fine reeds in cotton goods1 but is often used in silk manufacture1 where #cjj or #djj threads per inch are not uncommon4 ,,the ,,pressure ,,harness4 ,the pressure harness was invented with the object of enabling very large figures to be woven on ordinary sized ,jacquard machines4 ,in very fine silk damasks--say1 with about #djj threads per inch--a very large machine 7or machines7 is necessary to obtain a figure suitable for damask on the ordinary principle4 ,the pressure harness overcomes this difficulty in a most ingenious manner4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abe4 ,the method originally used consisted in drawing a number of ends in each mail1 and then drawing each end separately through a shaft in front of the harness4 ,these shafts had long eyes1 as shown in ,fig4 #abe2 in fact1 the eyes are large enough to permit of the shed being opened without their interfering with it4 ,in ,fig4 #abe two of the ,jacquard lingoes are shown1 ,a1 representing those lifted by the ,jacquard1 and ,b1 those left down4 ,there may be any number of ends in each mail1 say five4 ,after being drawn through the ,jacquard harness in fives1 the ends are drawn singly through the shaft harness in front4 ,these shafts are either worked by treadles or by a ,jacquard4 ,in the diagram they are shown worked in the latter manner4 ,a small pulley is placed between the hooks and the shafts1 and each shaft is connected to two hooks1 a cord from one hook passing round the pulley to the other hook4 ,when both hooks are lifted1 the shaft will be lifted to the top1 like the shaft #a2 when only one hook of the pair is lifted1 the shaft will be taken up half way1 like the shafts ,nos4 #b1 #d1 and #e2 and when both hooks are left down1 the shaft is left at the bottom1 like the shaft ,no4 #c in the diagram4 ,these shafts require to be worked by a machine with double the lift of the ,jacquard machine behind them1 as from bottom to top the lift is twice the size of the shed4 ,they may also be worked on the centre shed principle1 one shaft going up and another one going down from the centre each pick4 ,if one of these shafts is lifted to the top1 like shaft ,no4 #a1 it is obvious that it will take up one end out of every mail left down1 and by lifting the shafts in satin order the ends left down by the ,jacquard in fives would be woven singly five shaft satin4 ,by leaving one shaft down every pick1 the ends lifted by the ,jacquard will be split up in the same manner4 ,so that with one shaft at the top1 one at the bottom1 and the other three lifted half way1 a figure repeating on #bjjj ends can be woven on a #djjs ,jacquard1 every end being woven singly in both the ground and the figure4 ,of course only simple weaves can be used1 and the figure will move in steps round the edges4 ,if it is required to weave an eight shaft weft satin figure on an eight shaft warp satin ground1 eight shafts must be used instead of five4 ,the ends may still remain five in a mail1 as it is not necessary that the number of ends in each mail should be the same as the number of shafts used4 ,these shafts are called pressure healds2 hence the name given to the harness4 ,in designing for this class of harness the figure is put on point paper in simple colour1 no binding dots being used1 as the binding is all done by the pressure healds4 ,the method of putting down the plan for lifting the healds1 and of devising a variety of weaves for pressure harness weaving1 will be found fully explained in ,chapter ,x4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abf4 ,another and better kind of pressure harness is illustrated at ,fig4 #abf4 ,instead of healds with long eyes1 two sets without eyes are used1 but with a simple clasp in the middle4 ,fig4 #abf shows the mounting for a five end satin figure on a five end satin ground1 and two lingoes only of the ,jacquard are shown1 ,o representing the lifted hooks1 and ,p the hooks left down4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abg4 ,there may be five1 six1 eight1 or more ends in each mail1 and they are drawn singly into the pressure healds in front in the following manner3--,there are two sets of healds with clasps1 as shown at ,fig4 #abg4 ,each end is drawn singly over a clasp in the set ,a1 and under a clasp in the set ,b4 ,the clasps in the set ,a are fixed at the bottom of the shed1 and the clasps in ,b are fixed at the top of the shed4 ,by pulling one of the set ,b down and lifting one of the set ,a every pick in satin order1 the ends lifted in fives or sixes are woven singly in warp satin1 and the ends left down in fives or sixes are woven singly in weft satin4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abh4 ,the method of operating the pressure healds in a hand loom is shown at ,fig4 #abh4 ,the shafts in set ,b are pulled down by lifting the end ,e of the levers ,,ef1 and the same on the other side4 ,the shafts in the set ,a are lifted directly by the hooks4 ,the shafts are lifted by a few spare hooks in the ,jacquard4 ,sometimes the ,jacquards have three or four rows of extra hooks for this purpose1 and these hooks are placed a little to one end of the machine1 and a small separate cylinder is used4 ,the cards for lifting or pulling the pressure healds are put on this cylinder1 and the large cylinder carrying the figure cards is only turned round once every few picks by arranging the catches to do this4 ,the same card is thus brought against the needles several times in succession1 and the smaller cylinder being turned every pick1 interweaves the threads in satin or the required order4 ,this will form steps at the edges of the figure in the weft way as well as warp way1 and is a considerable saving of cards4 ,the weights ,m are to pull the healds ,b up1 and the weights ,n to keep the healds ,a down4 ,springs may be used in their place1 but weights are preferred in the hand loom4 ,the mails used in the ,jacquard harness are made with a separate hole for each end4 ,sometimes as many as twelve or sixteen ends are drawn in each mail1 thus giving in the latter case a #fdjj end figure from a #djjs machine1 so that with #cjj ends per inch the figure would measure over #bj inches wide4 ,,edleston ,,harness4 ,a method of weaving an #hjj figure on a #djj double-lift machine has been patented by ,james ,edleston1 of ,preston4 ,this is a very useful and ingenious idea1 as a floated figure can be formed1 and the machine remains a double-lift1 with all its advantages as regards speed4 ,certain limits are placed upon the weaves1 which can be employed for the ground or for developing the figure1 but sufficient scope is afforded for all practical purposes to make the invention a success4 ,an illustration is given of this harness at ,fig4 #abi4 ,the inventor gives no drawing in his specification1 but presumably the illustration 7,fig4 #abi7 will represent his method2 at least1 it will effect the same object4 ,one row of hooks of a #djjs double-lift single-cylinder machine are shown1 and it will be noticed that the hooks are not joined together by a neck cord as in the ordinary machine1 but the harness threads are taken singly from each hook as in a single-lift machine4 ,the knives work as in a double-lift1 one up1 one down4 ,by cutting the cards in a certain manner the whole of the #hjj hooks may be operated by the #djj needles so as to produce ordinary brocade or damask figures with a repeat of #hjj ends4 ,the same end cannot be lifted for two picks in succession1 as the knives have to move up and down and work oppositely2 but an end can be left down any odd number of picks1 and a figure can thus be formed4 ,at ,fig4 #acj the design for eight-end satin ground is given4 ,it must be remembered that for eight ends there are only four needles1 and therefore the lifting dots must be put on four ends on the point paper4 ,by carefully comparing this design with the mounting of the harness1 the principle will be quite clear4 ,the design shows a dot on the first and fifth ends on the first pick1 and therefore a hole will be cut in the card opposite the first and fifth needles4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abi4 ,suppose the griffe ,a to be lifted for the first pick1 it will lift the first and ninth ends4 ,the second card has holes opposite the second and sixth needles1 and when the griffe ,b is lifted for the second pick1 it will lift the fourth and twelfth ends in the warp or lingoes in the comber-board4 ,the third card has holes opposite the fourth and eighth needles1 and as on the odd picks the griffe ,a lifts1 it will lift the seventh and fifteenth ends in the warp4 ,if this is followed out it will be found that the ends are lifted in the order #a #d1 #g #b1 #e #h1 #c #f1 or eight end satin is woven4 ,fig4 #aca shows the method of putting the dots on point paper for four end twill 7one and three74 ,the principle is the same as in the preceding case1 and is very simple when understood4 ,a hole opposite the first needle on the first pick causes the first end to be lifted1 and a hole opposite the same needle for the second pick causes the second end to be lifted4 ,any figure can be put upon the cloth1 with the following limits as regards the bindings3 firstly1 an end cannot be lifted for two successive picks2 secondly1 every end must be left down an odd number of picks4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #acj4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aca4 ,from this it will be seen that a five end satin cannot be woven1 nor can a weft figure be put on a warp ground4 ,plain grounds can be woven1 and cord grounds of various kinds are also suitable for the harness4 ,,damask ,,or ,,twilling ,,jacquards4 ,these ,jacquards are now extensively used for weaving linen1 damasks1 and similar fabrics1 and are used where pressure harnesses were formerly used4 ,the pressure harness puts a great strain on the warp1 and requires a longer distance between the cloth and the warp beam than is usually allowed for in power looms2 therefore much ingenuity has been expended on these ,jacquards with the view of obtaining a large design without using several ordinary ,jacquards above each loom1 with the accompanying great expense in cards and other attachments4 ,the principle of damask attachments and twilling ,jacquards is entirely different to the principle of the pressure harness1 and for fine silk fabrics which require a very large extent of pattern and woven on the hand loom1 the pressure harness on the principle shown at ,fig4 #abf is not likely to be replaced4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #acb4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #acc4 ,in the pressure harness a number of warp threads are placed in each mail1 the number of threads varying from five to sixteen2 but in the twilling ,jacquard only one end is drawn in each mail1 and a separate hook is required for every end4 ,the advantage comes in making each needle serve for several hooks and in making one card serve for several picks4 ,one of the first inventors of this kind of ,jacquard was ,mr4 ,barcroft1 of ,newry1 ,ireland1 and it has been improved since by him and others4 ,the principle is illustrated at ,figs4 #acb and #acc4 ,there may be any number of hooks to each needle4 ,in the illustration there are three4 ,the machine is necessarily a single-lift1 the griffe goes up and down every pick4 ,only two needles are shown1 operating six hooks4 ,when the top needle is pressed back it will press back the hooks #a1 #b1 and #c1 and when the bottom needle is pressed back it will press back the hooks #d1 #e1 and #f4 ,these hooks are bent at the bottom as in the diagram1 and a bar or rod ,a is passed through each row of hooks the full length of the machine4 ,these bars ,a are lifted by the twilling hooks1 shown in the diagram in dotted line4 ,these hooks are placed at the sides of the machine3 two hooks for each long row of the ordinary hooks1 or one for each end of every bar1 ,a4 ,the blades of the griffe are movable about the centres ,,ee1 and at each end of the blades and immediately behind each twilling hook 7dotted7 there is a projecting piece1 ,p1 also shown in a dotted line in the diagram4 ,now1 when the griffe is at the bottom1 the blades are operated by a pegged barrel1 and by turning the blades one at a time out of the way of the hooks as the blade ,m is turned1 it is obvious that a whole row of hooks can be left down which would otherwise be lifted4 ,turning the blade has also another effect4 ,on the front of the blade at each end1 as previously pointed out1 is a projecting piece1 ,p1 and when the blade is turned1 this projection pushes the twilling hook in front of it 7dotted7 on to the next blade of the griffe1 and the twilling hook is lifted4 ,the bottom of the twilling hook is fastened to the end of a bar1 ,a1 and the bar is lifted1 thus lifting a whole row of hooks which would otherwise be left down4 ,in this manner it is obvious that by operating the blades of the griffe in regular order1 the figure can be woven warp twill and the ground weft twill1 or vice vers4 ,at ,fig4 #acc the position of the six hooks is shown after the griffe is lifted4 ,it will be seen that the blank opposite the top needle pressed the first1 second1 and third hooks back1 and they would all three have been left down but for the bar ,a being lifted4 ,the hole opposite the bottom needle leaves the fourth1 fifth1 and sixth hooks over the griffe1 and they would all have been lifted but for the blade ,m being turned1 which also caused the bar ,a to be lifted4 ,it will be obvious that the twill must repeat on the number of bars ,a1 or on the number of rows of hooks1 in the machine1 exactly as in a split harness the ground weave must repeat on the number of shafts or rods used under the comber board4 ,in these machines1 as in the pressure harness1 the same card is pressed against the needles two1 three1 or more times in succession1 so as to give a great extent of pattern with a small number of cards4 ,the number of times a card is pressed against the needles depends on the number of hooks there are to each needle1 and on the relative amount of warp and weft in the fabric4 ,if there are three hooks to a needle and the same number of picks as ends per inch1 the card should be used three times in succession1 but sometimes there are more picks per inch than ends1 in which case each card should be used oftener2 and sometimes1 as in silk damasks1 there are #djj or more warp threads per inch and #ajj picks1 and supposing there were eight threads in a mail1 it would make a step of eight ends in the warp2 therefore1 to make the steps in the weft balance it would be necessary to bring the same card against the needles only twice in succession4 ,fig4 #acd is another arrangement for weaving damask4 ,it is called a damask attachment1 and was patented by ,tschorner and ,wein4 ,its construction differs from ordinary twilling ,jacquards1 but the principle is much the same4 ,each needle is twisted round several hooks1 and the knives are operated separately by cams at the side of the machine4 ,the illustration shows one of the knives left down1 leaving down a row of hooks which would in the ordinary course have been lifted1 and one of the bottom lifters is taking up a row of hooks which would in the ordinary course have been left down4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #acd4 ,the foregoing are the chief kinds of ,jacquards and harnesses 7except lenos7 attached thereto1 but there are many combinations of shaft and ,jacquard or mail harness which need not be mentioned in a book of this size4 ,we may mention a system1 sometimes called half harness1 in which only half the ends are drawn through the ,jacquard harness1 and the other half through shafts in front or behind4 ,a double-sized figure may thus be formed4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,leno ,,weaving ,the word 8leno0 has latterly become a general term given to all classes of cross weaving4 ,originally it had a different meaning to gauze1 but the word is now often applied to gauze as well as other fabrics woven with doups4 ,a pure gauze fabric is one in which the crossing thread is brought up on one side of a standard end1 and up the other side of the standard end on the next pick4 ,fig4 #ace shows how the threads are interlaced in gauze weaving4 ,it will be seen that the weave repeats every two picks4 ,the crossing end1 and the end round which it crosses1 must be placed in one dent1 and if an end is made to cross round a number of ends they must all be in the same dent or split in the reed1 as it is very obvious that an end cannot be made to cross into another dent with the ordinary doup heald4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ace4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #acf4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #acg4 ,the end is made to cross from one side to the other by means of a doup heald4 ,these healds consist of an ordinary heald with an extra half1 generally called a 8loose half0 or slip4 ,the method of knitting the doup heald will be understood from ,fig4 #acf4 ,it is obvious that when the doup is lifted at ,a1 the end contained in the doup will be lifted up on the right-hand side of the end ,e4 ,in order to bring the same end up on the left-hand side of ,e1 the ends are drawn through the healds1 as shown at ,fig4 #acg4 ,there are two ordinary staves1 and the ends are drawn through them as for plain cloth with two staves4 ,then the end which is drawn through the first stave is crossed under the end which is drawn through the second stave1 and is then drawn through the doup in the manner shown at ,fig4 #acf4 ,when the doup is lifted it will lift the crossing end ,a up on the right-hand side of the standard end ,b2 but in order to do this easily the end must be slackened4 ,this is done by taking all the crossing ends ,a from the warp beam over a slackening rod or vibrator1 ,r2 the other ends of the warp ,b are taken over the back rest in the ordinary manner4 ,the slackener is usually in the form of a lever1 one end of which can be lifted by the dobby or whatever shedding motion is used1 and when the dobby lifts one end of the lever the rod is moved downward1 thus slackening the warp which is drawn over the rod4 ,whenever the doup is lifted the crossing warp must be slackened1 or it would cause the standard end ,b to be lifted1 as it is crossed under it4 ,in this manner when the doup is lifted the doup end is brought up on the right of the end ,b4 ,in order to bring the same end up on the left of ,b1 it is necessary to lift the first stave and the loose half of the doup4 ,the first stave naturally takes the end up on the left-hand side of ,b1 but it is necessary to lift the loose half in order to let the end go up on that side4 ,it is usual to show the doup by a double line in the draft1 the front line always representing the loose half4 ,the pegging plan or lifting plan for the healds is for leno fabrics not usually shown on point paper1 although it may be1 just as easily as any other way4 ,the usual way is to rule horizontal lines representing the staves and perpendicular lines representing the picks1 and to put a _/ on the shafts to be lifted for each pick4 ,it is easy to do this by continuing the lines which represent the shaft in the draft1 and to make the pegging plan on the same lines by the side of the draft1 as in ,fig4 #acg4 ,the two perpendicular lines one and two represent the picks1 and the marks on the first pick are on the loose half1 the doup1 and the slackener2 therefore all these will have to be lifted4 7,it is usual to peg the dobby to lift the loose half along with the doup to take the strain off the healds47 ,on the second pick the marks are on the loose half and the first stave1 therefore these must be lifted for the second pick4 ,with the same draft as in ,fig4 #acg1 a considerable variety of patterns can be made of a style known as crossover lenos4 ,this style consists in weaving a number of picks plain1 and then making a cross with the end4 ,at ,fig4 #ach the design draft and pegging plan are given for a 8five and one0 crossover leno4 ,from the design it will be seen that the doup is required to be lifted for the first pick1 and the first stave and loose half for the second pick1 the second stave for the third pick1 and so on4 ,this lifting is shown in the pegging plan at the right of the draft1 where on the first pick marks are put on the doup and loose half the slackener1 and on the second pick on the loose half and first stave1 and so on4 ,there are in this pattern six picks to the round4 ,the appearance of the cloth will be a bar of five picks plain1 and then a crank or open space1 in the middle of which is a single pick2 the crack is caused by the crossing of the ends4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ach4 ,in gauzes and fabrics of this description1 a thin open fabric in which the ends will not fray or slide is the object4 ,the nature of the weave enables a firmer fabric to be obtained with a smaller number of ends and picks per inch than in ordinary weaving where the threads are not crossed4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aci4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #adj4 ,another and quite distinct effect is produced with doups4 ,this is commonly called 8lace0 or net1 and is often combined with gauze or other 8open0 leno effect in stripes known as 8lace and leno stripes40 ,this lace effect is produced by making a thick end form a zigzag on the plain ground4 ,the interlacing of the threads in a simple lace or net stripe is shown at ,fig4 #aci4 ,a thick end1 ,a1 is brought up first on one side and then on the other side of two plain or nearly plain ends1 ,b and ,c4 ,there are ten picks to the round1 and by the side of this dent there is another thick end twisting in the opposite direction1 first up one side1 and then up the other of two more plain or nearly plain ends4 ,each thick end comes up for two picks at one side and then crosses under and comes up on the other side after an interval of three picks1 and vice vers4 ,the marks represent the ends lifted4 ,by the side of the lace there are two plain ends shown1 which represent the unlimited number of ends used for the ground of the fabric4 ,in weaving this pattern the draft and pegging given at ,fig4 #adj would be used4 ,by carefully following the design with the draft and pegging plan the principle will be easily mastered4 ,the arrangement of the shafts is rather important4 ,the doup is placed in front1 the ground staves next1 and the leno or net staves next4 ,it is immaterial whether the crossing ends be taken through the first stave of the three used for the leno1 or the back one--some prefer one way1 some another--but it is necessary to get the leno staves as far back as possible to give the thread a better chance of crossing4 ,four staves are taken for the plain1 as in ordinary weaving1 to prevent overcrowding4 ,the lifting marks on the pegging plan will be easily followed if the one in ,fig4 #ach was understood4 ,where the fifth stave is lifted the loose half is lifted also1 and both thick threads come up on the inside4 ,where the doup is lifted the slackener is lifted also1 and the ends are brought up on the outside as on the sixth and seventh picks4 ,more will be said on the arrangement of shafts in the chapter dealing with designs for leno4 ,the explanations on the structure of the fabrics at this point are only for the purpose of enabling the requirements of the looms for weaving them to be understood4 ,some manufacturers prefer to work with the doups at the top of the loom1 especially in weaving net lenos4 ,in this case the crossing end is crossed over the others and slipped downwards4 ,it used to be considered that gauze and lenos could not be woven on double-lift machines4 ,in other places than ,lancashire this idea prevails to-day to a great extent1 but of course this is a great mistake4 ,the simpler kinds of lenos1 such as pure gauze and crossovers1 are sometimes woven on tappets1 which are1 of course1 double-lift4 ,the tappets are of the ordinary kind1 drawn on the same principle as described earlier in this book2 but the tappet which operates the standard ends is made to lift the staves halfway when the doup end is crossing4 ,tappets of this kind have been used for some time past1 and it is not surprising that the same principle should be applied to double-lift dobbies4 ,instead of drawing the tappets to lift the standard ends half way or a little way to enable the ends to cross easier1 the easing motion usually employed for dobbies is often used1 and the tappets are of the ordinary kind4 ,in a double-lift dobby the healds begin to lift for one pick when the healds which are up for the previous pick begin to come down4 ,in the case of ,fig4 #acg1 when the doup is lifted for the first pick and begins to come down1 the same end is being taken up the other side of ,b by the stave ,no4 #a being lifted4 ,if the end ,b were not moved it would very soon be broken by the crossing end being made to act in this saw-like manner upon it4 ,it is necessary1 therefore1 to lift the end ,b about halfway up at the moment the crossing end begins to come down and to pass to the other side of ,b4 ,if the end ,a has not to cross for the next pick1 it would not be necessary to lift the end ,b at all4 ,in a single-lift machine the doup will get to the bottom before the first stave begins to rise1 and therefore there would be no difficulty in the end crossing4 ,in a double-lift dobby the staves containing the ends round which the doup thread crosses are lifted partly up every pick by a lever worked from the crank arm of the loom4 ,this easing motion or 8shaker0 is shown at ,fig4 #ada4 ,,ab is the crank-arm1 and the upright ,,cd is connected to the crank-arm at ,c1 and to a lever ,,ed at ,d4 ,,eg is another lever on the rod ,e1 and the healds which are to be lifted half way are connected to this lever at ,g1 as well as to the jacks in the dobby4 ,as the crank revolves the oscillation of the crank arm imparts a similar movement to the lever ,,ed1 and to the staves which are connected to ,,eg4 ,this motion commences just at the proper time4 ,of course1 when the crank-arm is lifting the healds1 the cords connecting these healds to the dobby will be slack1 as indicated at ,fig4 #ada4 ,by thus lifting the standard healds1 the crossing is greatly facilitated4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ada4 ,this easing motion is not required where there is no crossing of the end immediately1 as1 for instance1 in ,fig4 #aci1 the doup end after being brought up on one side is never required up on the other side on the pick immediately succeeding1 therefore the end has time to get down before being lifted on the other side and an easing motion is not required4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #adb4 ,the method of slackening the warp when the doup lifts is shown at ,fig4 #adb4 ,this diagram shows a two-doup arrangement4 ,for gauze and similar weaves it is not necessary to have a separate beam for the crossing warp1 as one end pulls the other and the take-up is about the same2 but for net lenos or laces after the manner of the fabric in ,fig4 #aci it is necessary to have the crossing ends on a separate beam1 as a great deal more in length of this warp is required than for the plain4 ,sometimes several beams are used1 the only limit being the number which can be placed in a given space4 ,at ,fig4 #adb the crossing warp from the bottom beam is taken over the slackening rod ,a1 and over the carrier ,e4 ,the crossing warp from the top beam is taken under the slackening rod ,b4 ,a moves about a centre ,d1 and ,b moves about a centre ,c4 ,the slackener ,b is connected to a jack in the dobby by the cord ,l1 and the slackener ,a is connected to another jack by the cord ,m4 ,when either ,l or ,m is lifted1 the warp over its rod will be slackened4 ,,full ,,cross ,,leno4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #adc4 ,a full cross may be made by taking the doup completely round the standard end1 as in ,fig4 #adc1 and alternately lifting the doup and the other end4 ,this is a much more difficult weave than ordinary leno1 and is not much used1 although it gives a very pleasing effect when woven with thick yarns4 ,the weave repeats on two picks as in gauze1 but it is necessary to use very strong twist in order to bear the strain and friction unavoidable in this crossing4 ,,the ,,leno ,,jacquard4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #add4 ,where figures are required to be thrown up on a leno ground a ,jacquard mounting is required4 ,it is possible to weave a plain figure on a gauze ground with an ordinary ,jacquard harness and an ordinary doup stave in front1 but this can only be done on a pure gauze ground--that is1 one end crossing one4 ,a plain figure on a ground of this kind does not afford a sufficiently powerful contrast to the ground4 ,it is necessary in order to produce a really efficient contrast to have two ends crossing two and weaving separately in the plain4 ,a fabric of this kind is one of the most beautiful of all fabrics1 and is remarkably cheap and serviceable in wear4 ,the method of producing a plain figure on a gauze ground with one doup in front of any ordinary ,jacquard harness is illustrated at ,fig4 #add4 ,the ends are drawn through the ,jacquard as usual1 and are then taken in pairs and one crossed under the other1 the crossing end being taken through the doup1 as shown in the diagram4 ,the crossing end in each pair is marked ,a4 ,we can now see how either plain or gauze can be woven at will4 ,the doup is lifted for the first pick1 and this brings all the ends ,a up at the right hand side of ends ,b 7see first pick74 ,in the first two dents the ends ,a are lifted again by the harness1 and the loose half of the doup being lifted will enable the ends ,a to cross to the left side of the ends ,b4 ,the doup is lifted for the third pick1 and it is obvious that this will weave gauze with the first two dents4 ,after the doup is lifted1 if the end ,b is lifted on the next pick1 it will cause plain to be woven1 as will be seen from the diagram1 where the third and fourth dents are weaving plain when the first and second dents are weaving gauze1 and vice vers4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ade4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #adf4 ,a proper leno harness is illustrated at ,fig4 #ade4 ,it is obviously impossible with the arrangement given at ,fig4 #add to weave a leno with two ends crossing two in conjunction with plain1 as there would require to be two ends in each eye in the doup1 and as the doup is lifted every other pick1 it is impossible to change to plain from the leno4 ,to obtain a figured leno of this description1 each dent must have a doup to itself1 and the doups must be lifted by the hooks4 ,at ,fig4 #ade the arrangement of the harness is shown4 ,the machine is a single lift1 and in order to obtain a #djj end figure #fjj hooks are required4 ,these are arranged in twelve rows1 the two front rows being used for the doup harness1 the two back rows for the slackening harness1 and the eight middle rows for the ground or figure harness4 ,for the #fjj hooks only #ejj needles are used1 the doup hook and its slackening hook being connected with the same needle4 ,the top and bottom needles are used for the doups and slackeners1 as shown in the diagram1 and the eight middle rows of needles for the ground or figure harness4 ,the method of drawing the warp through the harness is shown at ,fig4 #adf4 ,the two crossing ends are drawn through the slackening harness1 and all the ends are drawn through the ground harness4 ,it is immaterial whether the draft is from back to front or front to back2 some manufacturers of these goods draw the ends from front to back4 ,of course1 this must be borne in mind in designing and cutting the cards4 ,after being drawn through the ground harness the two crossing ends are crossed under the other two and drawn through a doup4 ,the mails in the doup lingoes are specially made to allow the thread from the slip to pass through and back again4 ,the shaft ,a 7,fig4 #ade7 is the slip or loose half1 and serves for all the doups4 ,the mails in the slackening harness are placed1 lower down than the other warp1 and these mails hang between two rods1 ,b and ,c1 which are called the 8bridge40 ,sometimes only one rod is used1 and this serves equally well4 ,a better shed is formed by only lifting the slackening hooks half as much as the other hooks1 and therefore a special device is required for giving only half the lift to these hooks4 ,in the illustration1 ,fig4 #ade1 there are two griffes1 ,e and ,h1 and the griffe ,e is connected to the lever ,,gk at a point1 ,o1 about midway between the fulcrum ,g and the point where the griffe ,h is connected to the lever4 ,the fulcrum ,g is movable in a slot made for that purpose1 so that the lift of ,e can be altered a little if desired4 ,when the griffe ,h is lifted in the ordinary manner1 it is obvious that the griffe ,e will only be lifted about half way4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #adg4 ,the usual method of obtaining the half-lift1 which this invention is intended to supplant1 is illustrated at ,fig4 #adg4 ,this method was invented by the late ,mr4 ,tootal ,broadhurst1 and has been in regular use a long time4 ,each of the slackening hooks lifts a lever ,,cp1 centred at ,c1 the slackening harness is tied to these levers about midway between ,c and ,p1 and thus the mails are lifted only about half as much as the hooks4 ,of course1 in this case all the hooks in the machine are lifted by one griffe1 and therefore the slackening hooks are lifted as far as the others4 ,this method serves its purpose very well1 but if any alteration is required in the lift of the slackening harness all the levers have to be gone through and altered separately1 whereas in the ,devoge machine the lift can be regulated to a nicety by moving the fulcrum ,g and the point ,o4 ,the slackening harness should be placed from nine inches to a foot behind the ground harness4 ,the wire ,m1 in ,fig4 #ade1 is for lifting the shaft ,a1 which is required to be lifted every pick4 ,the advantage of using only one needle for the doup and slackening hooks is that it prevents the possibility of the slackener being missed when the doup lifts1 as well as being a saving in cards4 ,by lifting the crossing ends with the ground harness for two or more picks1 followed by lifting the same ends in the doup harness for a similar number of picks1 an open leno fabric is produced1 and a plain figure can be woven by lifting the ground harness plain1 or a floated figure can be formed exactly as with an ordinary ,jacquard4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #adh4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #adi4 ,the usual method of putting the design on point paper for these ,jacquards is illustrated at ,fig4 #adh4 ,in the plan eight ends of leno are shown with four picks in a shed2 and eight ends of plain1 of which the figure is usually formed1 are shown4 ,the design on point paper for this would be as given in ,fig4 #adi4 ,ordinary #h #h paper is used1 although there are ten rows of needles4 ,the card-cutter cuts the black squares opposite the ground harness needle1 and where the circles come1 he cuts so as to lift the doup in the next dent4 ,thus in the first four cards for ,fig4 #adi1 the card-cutter would cut opposite the third and fourth needles in the ground harness1 and opposite the doup needle for the next four ends4 ,the plain would be cut in the ordinary manner opposite the ground harness needles4 ,a larger design for this harness will be found in ,chapter ,x4 ,double-lift ,jacquards are not yet used beyond the experimental form1 as the shaking cannot be done as easily as in a dobby with shafts1 but we have heard of the thing being done by knotting the harness above the comber board and lifting the board a little when the cross is being made4 ,messrs4 ,eccles1 of ,preston1 some years ago obtained a patent for lifting the standard ends by means of a third knife or griffe4 ,the additional knife was given half the lift of the other two1 and its function was to lift the standard ends half way when the doup ends were crossing to the other side4 ,this would1 no doubt1 enable the cross to be made with ease in a double-lift ,jacquard1 but the principle is not likely to be a great success4 ,the doups in leno ,jacquards are very liable to wear out unless made of very good material1 and some experience is necessary before the harnesses are worked satisfactorily4 ,an imitation of the fabric usually woven on this harness is sometimes made by making one end cross three ends in the leno1 and weave plain in the figure4 ,this can be done with an ordinary harness with a doup heald in front lifted every other pick1 on the same principle as in ,fig4 #add4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,terry ,,looms--,,card ,,cutting--,,lappets ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aej4 ,terry looms are extensively used in the cotton trade1 chiefly for weaving towels1 but often for striped dress and similar fabrics where terry or loop pile is combined with other weaves4 ,the loops can be formed either on one side or both sides of the fabric1 but the loop formed in these looms is not to be compared with real loop pile woven over wires1 as the loops cannot be formed with the same regularity4 ,there are numerous terry motions1 as they are called1 most loom makers having their own speciality4 ,fig4 #aej is the design for a good terry cloth4 ,it will be noticed that the second and fourth ends are the reverse of each other3 one is up for four picks and down for one1 and the other is down for four picks and up for one1 whilst the other two ends are nearly plain4 ,the first and third ends form the ground1 and the second and fourth ends the pile or loops4 ,there are five picks to the round4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aea4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aeb4 ,the ground warp is on a separate beam to the pile warp1 the latter having a special tension to let off the required quantity to form the pile4 ,at the second pick in the pattern1 just where the pile warp is bound1 the reed is made to beat further up than on the two preceding picks1 thus forming a pile by sending one half the pile ends to the face and the other half to the back4 ,the reed beats up to the front for the second1 third1 and fourth picks in the pattern1 as given at ,fig4 #aej1 following which the reed is held back for two picks4 ,fig4 #aea is a good motion for making the reed occupy the two positions when beating up4 ,p represents the slay1 and a lever1 ,a1 centred at ,d1 is so constructed that when ,a is pulled down the reed is pushed forward4 ,the rod ,r is connected to a lever1 ,m1 on a shaft1 ,n1 placed under the loom4 ,a rocking motion is given to this shaft by a box cam1 ,p1 five to the round 7,fig4 #aeb71 so shaped as to lift and depress the lever ,,qs for the required number of picks4 ,this cam is driven from the picking shaft4 ,by pulling the rod ,r downwards the reed is moved forwards1 and the rod will have to be kept down for three picks and moved up for two picks1 so as to keep the reed in its front position for three picks and a little way back for two4 ,the effect required is really to lengthen the crank-arm at will1 and the principle of the knuckle joint may be used in its simplest form--that is1 by having the crank-arm jointed in the middle and fixed a little out of a straight line1 and by straightening the arm when the front position of the slay is required4 ,the real loop pile is woven over wires4 ,the wires can be inserted and pulled out automatically by a power-loom1 but the richest kind of pile is woven on the hand-loom4 ,the structure of the fabric is shown at ,fig4 #aec4 ,the pile end is brought up over a wire every two picks1 and when the wire is pulled out the loops form a springy pile1 which can be made to give beautiful effects in dress goods4 ,the principle is also used in ,brussels carpets1 and similar goods4 ,where figured fabrics are required on this principle1 it is necessary to have each pile end on a separate bobbin and weighted separately at the back of the loom1 as the take-up of each end would vary so much in the figure4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aec4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aed4 ,with cut pile the wires are either grooved1 as at ,fig4 #aed1 or each wire has a knife at the end1 as at ,fig4 #aee1 and when the wire is pulled out it cuts the pile4 ,the best pile is formed by the grooved wires1 as the cutting wires are apt to drag the pile4 ,when cut pile is being made1 about four or five wires are constantly in the cloth1 for1 if the wire were pulled out immediately1 the pile ends would fall away from the cloth4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aee4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aef4 ,looms are made to weave two pieces of plush 7which is a long cut pile1 rather longer than velvet pile7 in one loom simultaneously1 one piece above the other1 after the manner shown at ,fig4 #aef4 ,the principle is not used in cotton manufactures1 although it has been tried4 ,it is chiefly used for silk plush4 ,,card ,,cutting4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aeg4 ,the cards are usually cut from the design on a machine called a 8piano0 card-cutter4 ,this machine consists of a punch-box 7,fig4 #aeg71 containing thirteen punches1 twelve for cutting the smaller holes and one for cutting the peg holes in the cards4 ,there are eight 8keys0 behind the punch-box1 each of which has a small spring round it to spring it back to its original position when the finger is taken off it4 ,these eight keys are used for cutting the eight rows of holes in a #djj's card1 and for #fjj's cards1 with twelve rows of holes1 the four punches in front are used4 ,the two punches in front at the right hand are operated by the thumb on that hand1 and the eleventh and twelfth are operated by the thumb on the left hand4 ,the eight keys behind are governed by the four fingers on each hand4 ,fig4 #aeh shows the effect of pushing in one of the keys4 ,the key is pushed over the punch ,k1 and as an up-and-down motion is given to the whole punch-box by means of two treadles operated by the card-cutter's feet1 the punches that are locked will cut holes in the card4 ,where the keys are not pressed 7see ,fig4 #aei7 they do not act upon the punches1 and the card is left blank accordingly4 ,the card is clipped at the numbered end by a clip on the 8carriage40 ,this carriage recedes with the card for a space of one row of holes every time the left treadle is pressed down4 ,the method of cutting the cards has already been explained with ,figs4 #ajh-aaj4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aeh4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aei4 ,if several sets of cards of the same pattern are required1 a repeating machine is used4 ,in the hand repeater the cards are made to leave punches in a plate where there are holes in the card1 and the plate is then taken to a repeating press1 where any number of cards can be cut like the first by applying pressure to the plate1 which is done by passing it under a roller or wheel4 ,some repeating machines are capable of repeating direct from one set of cards to the other1 at the rate of thirty or forty cards per minute4 ,the cards may be laced blank1 and kept in stock ready for use when required1 which is a great advantage4 ,the machine is built on the ,jacquard principle1 and the punches required to cut are fastened1 whilst those which are not required to cut are taken out of the way of the card4 ,these machines are rather costly1 but in large fancy weaving establishments they soon repay their cost4 ,,lappets4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afj4 ,lappet figures are formed by giving a horizontal motion to a thick end1 and making it interweave in the manner shown at ,fig4 #afj4 ,the system has long been used in hand-looms1 and it is now extensively used in power-looms1 especially in ,scotland4 ,the figures are usually produced with a very thick end upon a fine muslin ground1 and the advantage it possesses over figuring with extra weft is that the figuring material does not require cutting off every pick1 and therefore there is not the same amount of waste1 and in addition the figures are more firmly bound into the cloth4 ,only small solid spot figures can be woven1 as the figuring thread cannot be bound between the extreme edges of the figure4 ,this is the chief disadvantage of the principle1 and it is not to be compared with swivels for the purpose of producing intricate designs4 ,in swivel weaving each figuring thread is placed in a small shuttle1 which receives a horizontal motion by means of a rack4 ,the small shuttles can be lifted out of1 and dropped into1 the warp1 so as to allow the figuring thread to be passed through the shed where the spot is formed1 and therefore twill or satin1 and shaded effects1 can be formed in the spot4 ,in lappet weaving the floats cannot be bound in the middle4 ,the chief advantage of lappet weaving is that it can easily and satisfactorily be applied to a power-loom4 ,swivels have been applied to power-looms1 but not yet with entirely satisfactory results1 taking into consideration the question of cost4 ,the principle of the lappet power-loom will be understood from ,fig4 #afa4 ,in front of the slay cap the needle rack ,a is placed1 the ends resting in the slots ,,bb1 and this is moved downwards by the hook ,c being lifted by the treadle ,f at the side of the loom4 ,the figuring threads are taken from a separate beam through the needles in the rack1 and it will thus be seen that when the rack is pulled down the figuring threads will be at the bottom of the shed4 ,when the treadle ,f is forced down1 the springs ,,pp pull the rack back to its topmost position1 and when in this position the rack is pulled to the left by pressing down the treadle ,d1 the distance which the rack can be moved being regulated by the size of the groove in the lappet wheel at that point4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afa4 ,the lappet wheel ,g is a wheel with ratchet teeth1 and is turned one tooth at a time4 ,the groove in the wheel is so shaped that the rack can be pulled sideways a greater or a less distance as desired1 to form a spot or figure4 ,the pin ,n fits in the groove1 and when the treadle ,d is pressed down the rack is pulled to the left as far as the groove will allow1 when the spring ,s gives way until the treadle reaches the bottom of its stroke4 ,when the treadle is released the spring ,k pulls back the rack and treadle as far as the groove in the wheel will allow it4 ,the spring ,k is much weaker than ,s1 so that when the treadle ,d is pressed down the spring ,k gives way the first4 ,the needle rack being in front of the ordinary reed1 a 8false0 reed is required to guide the shuttle across the shed4 ,this false reed ,m is placed immediately behind the shuttle race1 and it is lifted every pick when the shuttle is going across1 and dropped to make room for the proper reed to beat up4 ,the treadle ,e is used for operating the false reed2 the connection is shown in the diagram1 and when the treadle is pressed down the reed is lifted4 ,at ,fig4 #afb a section is given showing how the needle rack receives a lateral as well as a perpendicular motion4 ,the slay-cap is cut square1 and the cover ,c works loosely upon it4 ,the needle rack ,a is pulled down against the spring ,s1 and the cover is pulled sideways by the bar attached to the cover at ,o1 carrying the needle rack along with it4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afb4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afc4 ,the treadles are operated by tappets1 and those operating treadles ,e and ,f must do so every pick1 whilst the treadle ,d only requires to be pressed down once every two picks1 because the spring ,k pulls the needle rack to the right4 ,the tappets are shown at ,fig4 #afc1 where it will be seen that when the treadle ,e is down1 ,f is up1 and the rack will be dropped and the false reed lifted2 and when the treadle ,f is pressed down--letting the rack be pulled up by the springs1 the treadle ,d is pressed down1 which pulls the rack to the left as far as the groove in the wheel will allow it to move4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afd4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afe4 ,at the back of the lappet wheel a face cam ,l 7,fig4 #afd7 acts upon a lever1 ,,mn1 centred at ,p1 and the bent arm of the lever ,n pushes the hook ,c on to the treadle ,f when the spot figure is being formed1 and when there is no figuring going on the hook is pulled out of the way of the treadle1 and so the motion of the rack is stopped4 ,the pattern is formed by the groove in the lappet wheel 7,fig4 #afe71 and in drawing this the wheel is divided into as many teeth as there are picks in the pattern4 ,the wheel is usually made of hard wood1 and after being smoothed off a number of circles are described1 the distance between each being equal to one dent in the reed4 ,suppose the pattern is a continuous one1 as at ,fig4 #aff1 the picks shown on paper being in addition to the ground picks4 ,in drawing a wheel for this pattern the number of teeth required will be twenty-four1 as there are this number of picks in the pattern4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aff4 ,the pattern extends to seven dents1 and as the pin ,n 7,fig4 #afe7 occupies four dents1 it will be necessary to have eleven spaces1 each equal to a dent1 in the groove4 ,the first pick in the pattern floats over two dents or four ends1 and therefore the groove at this point must be six spaces wide--four for the pin1 and two for the space it has to move through4 ,before the next movement of the rack1 the wheel will have been turned one tooth1 and at this point the groove moves one space further to the left4 ,for the third pick both sides of the groove are moved one space to the left1 and the size of the float will remain the same as in the second pick1 but it will float over different ends4 ,the groove gradually gets wider until the tenth pick is reached1 when it narrows down again until it repeats on the twenty-fourth pick4 ,if there are two spots set 8one and one0 in the pattern1 the wheel requires one tooth more than the picks in a repeat1 in consequence of changing from one spot to the other4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,automatic ,,weft-,,replenishing ,,devices ,the history of the development of the power-loom1 from its inception by ,dr4 ,cartwright1 has been written on many occasions4 ,that story relates how old methods have been improved or else displaced by new ones of greater efficiency1 and how the modern power-loom has1 by the effort and skill of the pioneers of industry1 been brought gradually to its present state of mechanical perfection4 ,this march of progress goes on steadily1 continuously1 and almost imperceptibly to those who are not immediately interested in or affected by the changes that are thus wrought2 until by some special circumstance they suddenly and unexpectedly arrest attention1 and it is realized for the first time that a new era has dawned and promises changes of great magnitude4 ,the advent1 now fifteen years ago1 of what are popularly described as 8automatic looms0 marked the beginning of events of considerable importance to the weaving industry in particular1 and to the textile industry in general4 ,the essential element which distinguishes these looms from those of ordinary construction consists of special apparatus attached to1 and forming an integral part of1 the looms1 which are thereby enabled to replenish weft automatically from a reserved supply conveniently held in readiness4 ,this briefly constitutes the automatic element of the looms4 ,there are1 of course1 many auxiliary attachments that are incidental to the weft-replenishing devices1 and which increase their efficiency and productiveness4 ,notwithstanding the comparatively short period that has elapsed since the adoption1 on a commercial scale1 of these looms1 such has been the activity of inventors and loom-makers both at home and abroad1 that looms of this class have already been designed in an almost endless variety of forms1 some of which differ essentially in construction and operation1 whilst many others differ only in minor details of construction4 ,most of these1 however1 have never matured to practical forms4 ,many have never escaped the secret confines of the experimenting room4 ,others have been doomed to premature failure1 whilst some three or four types of real merit are struggling hard for supremacy4 ,which of the competing types will win1 ultimately1 is at the present time matter for conjecture4 ,this will depend entirely on the type that will best meet the requirements of manufacturers1 and the one that will endure the test of experience and time1 which alone can be the deciding factors4 ,but1 for certain classes of fabrics for which they are suitable1 it is safe to predict that automatic looms of some approved type are permanently established in the trade4 ,whatever particular character these weft-replenishing devices assume1 they may be broadly classified under one or other of two distinct types1 namely1 7#a7 that in which the same common shuttle is replenished with cops or bobbins of weft2 and 7#b7 that in which a fresh shuttle replaces the previous one4 ,each of these two broad divisions comprises numerous modifications in both their construction and also in the manner in which they operate4 ,of the cop-or bobbin-changing type of loom1 the 8,northrop0 loom1 invented in ,hopedale1 ,mass41 ,u4,s4,a41 by ,james ,h4 ,northrop 7a native of ,keighley1 ,yorks471 has gained a greater measure of success than that of any other automatic loom2 and of the shuttle-changing type1 the 8,hattersley0 loom1 invented by ,simeon ,jackson1 of ,geo4 ,hattersley and ,sons1 ,limited1 ,keighley1 ,yorks41 has probably found greater favour than others of that type4 ,looms of the ,northrop type require essentially the use of shuttles of special construction that are capable of self-threading the weft2 whereas looms of the ,hattersley type may weave with the same kind of shuttles as those employed in ordinary power-looms4 ,looms of both types are constructed so that the change of weft is effected instantaneously whilst they are running at full speed1 without any loss of time2 but when a change of weft takes place in the ,hattersley modification of the shuttle-changing type1 the looms stop running automatically for a few picks to allow more time for the changing of shuttles1 after which the looms re-start automatically and continue running at full speed4 ,in addition to the essential elements constituting a successful weft-replenishing device1 this requires to be supplemented by numerous appliances of a special character to ensure the general efficiency of the loom4 ,for example1 at that side of the loom on which the replenishment of weft is made1 there is fixed a weft-cutting device to sever the superfluous trail of weft close to the selvedge of cloth after the insertion of each fresh supply of weft4 ,in some looms the weft is replenished only when the previous supply fails either by breaking or becoming exhausted2 and some are furnished with 8weft-feeler0 motions to put the weft-changing mechanism into operation and thus replenish the weft just before the previous supply is entirely depleted1 thereby preventing broken or missing picks of weft which would produce faulty cloth4 ,a warp-stop motion1 which is sometimes applied to ordinary looms1 is an almost indispensable accessory to an automatic loom4 ,its function is to detect the breakage of warp-ends1 and to stop the loom automatically whenever that occurs4 ,these remarks apply also to the controlling of the tension and delivery of the warp1 which are sometimes effected automatically in looms of any description4 ,up to the present time weft-replenishing devices are almost exclusively restricted to single-box looms employed in the production of standard varieties of fabrics of comparatively simple construction1 and containing but one kind of weft requiring the use of only one shuttle4 ,these devices have1 however1 been employed on check-looms weaving with more than one kind of weft1 and therefore requiring the use of a corresponding number of shuttles at the same time2 but automatic check-looms have not yet passed the experimental stage and become established on a commercial basis1 although there are prospects of this taking effect in the near future4 ,having thus far introduced the reader to what constitutes the chief elements of an automatic or self-acting loom1 it will1 at this stage1 and before examining the details of their special mechanism1 be both instructive and profitable to briefly survey the work of pioneers in this sphere of invention1 as revealed in the records of the numerous ,letters ,patent that have from time to time been granted for inventions of devices for the automatic replenishing of weft in looms1 and to trace the origin and development of such devices from the earliest authentically recorded date of their inception down to the present time4 ,from a research of the earliest published records of patents relating to weaving1 which records date from #aeth ,july1 #afbj1 it would appear that the credit for the first patent for an automatic weft-replenishing device for looms is due to ,messrs4 ,john ,paterson ,reid and ,thomas ,johnson1 both of ,glasgow1 who are the joint patentees of an invention of such a device described in the ,patent ,specification1 dated #bjth ,march1 #ahcd1 ,no4 #fegi4 ,this is a large document of #fi pages of text comprising over #ce1jjj words and #ab sheets of diagrams4 ,it describes in a very lucid manner several improvements in power-looms1 of which that relating to the automatic replenishing of weft is treated almost as if it were regarded1 by the inventors1 as of only secondary importance to the other improvements which they describe4 ,in view of the great progress which has been made within recent years in the development of these looms1 and also in consideration of the fact that a patent1 which was granted to ,charles ,parker nearly seven years subsequently1 and is described in the ,specification dated #bbnd ,october1 #ahdj1 ,no4 #hffd1 has been frequently cited as the first patent relating to the automatic supply of weft in looms1 the first-named document acquires a special interest1 not only as a record of what is probably the first attempt in that direction1 but also because it establishes1 beyond refutation1 the date and rightful title to the first patent granted for such an invention4 ,in the former specification1 the patentees state that their improvements are applicable to what were then known as ,johnson's vertical power-looms1 in which the warps were extended vertically from the warp-beam at the bottom to the cloth-roller at the top of the loom2 and the reed1 which served as the shuttle-race during the flight of the shuttle through the warp-shed1 moved in a vertical plane when beating up the weft4 ,these vertical looms were made double1 to permit of two pieces of cloth being woven in them at the same time2 but they had evidently been discarded1 and were not then in use amongst manufacturers4 ,the looms made according to ,reid and ,johnson's specification were so very different from ,johnson's looms as to have very little in common with them excepting that they also were vertical power-looms in which the warps extended vertically4 ,the specification states that the 8great object0 of their improvements is to enable four webs or pieces of cloth to be woven simultaneously and at one operation in the same loom1 with only one slay which has a vertical motion1 and also that the warps for the four webs are to be wound on two separate warp-beams4 ,after describing in minute detail the construction of the improved loom1 the patentees proceed to describe their invention of a device for the automatic supply of weft to their looms whilst these continue running4 ,this part of their invention is introduced as if it were quite incidental and of little consequence1 and is described as the 8accessories and new improvements0 which they apply to their vertical power-looms1 as follows3-- 8,in order to avoid stopping the motion of the loom when any one of the four weft threads break1 twice or three times as many shuttles as are required for constant use are to be lodged in suitable receptacles or shuttle boxes1 which are so arranged that the breaking of a weft thread will cause a change of shuttles1 and a substitution of spare shuttles1 which have been provided and placed in the said receptacles ready for such changing2 for instance1 the breaking or failure of a weft thread from either of the two shuttles1 which work on the same reed as one pair1 will cause the pair to be removed1 and a pair of spare shuttles to be brought into their place instantaneously1 without any act of the person who attends the loom1 and who will therefore have no occasion to stop the motion thereof when a weft thread breaks or runs off1 but will only have to take care to keep the loom at all times provided with a sufficient number of spare shuttles ready filled and inserted into their proper places in the receptacles1 leaving it to the machinery of the loom to remove those shuttles which have been working1 and to substitute others the instant that a change becomes necessary in consequence of the breakage or failure of weft thread4 ,but if1 by neglect of the attendant1 the loom is not so provided with a pair of spare shuttles ready filled and placed in preparation for changing as aforesaid by the machinery on the breakage or failure of any weft thread1 then the loom will stop its own motion1 wherefore the weaving cannot be continued unless all the four webs have their several wefts duly inserted in a proper manner for working cloth40 ,from this description it is of interest to note that what probably constituted the first automatic loom was of the shuttle-changing type1 to which nearly all subsequent inventors in this particular field have chiefly devoted their attention4 ,it was not until an interval of nearly seven years had elapsed after ,reid and ,johnson's patent that a patent was granted to ,charles ,parker1 of ,darlington1 for the second invention of an automatic weft-replenishing device1 which1 like its predecessor1 was also one of the shuttle-changing type4 ,this device1 along with other improvements in power-looms1 is described and illustrated in the specification dated #bbnd ,october1 #ahdj1 ,no4 #hffd1 in which the fourth claim made by the patentee is in respect of 8means of changing the shuttle when the weft is broken or the shuttle is empty of weft0 without the necessity of stopping the loom for that purpose4 ,the next and third patent for an automatic weft-replenishing device1 which1 like the two previous devices1 was a shuttle-changer1 was that granted to an agent1 ,william ,newton1 to whom the invention was communicated from a foreign country not named in the specification which is dated #bhth ,april1 #aheb1 ,no4 #ad1jib4 ,this document states that the invention relates to improvements in looms for weaving plain1 figured1 or fancy fabrics1 and that it consists in the employment of several shuttles arranged in the loom in such a manner that if the weft failed1 or the shuttle missed or flew out of the shuttle-box1 a second shuttle would always be in readiness to take its place1 without it being necessary to stop the loom in order to replace it with a fresh shuttle4 ,in carrying out the improvement1 several shuttles where placed one above the other in a box1 or in guides fixed immediately above the shuttle-race or box1 and held in their place by means of a stud1 plate1 or catch1 which1 when required1 was removed so as to allow a second shuttle to enter the shuttle-box in place of the spent shuttle1 which1 by the same motion1 was pushed out4 ,in the event of a shuttle flying out or missing the shuttle-box1 the same mechanism caused a fresh shuttle to supply its place4 ,the special mechanism which affected the changing of shuttles was put into operation by means of a weft-stopping device which detected the absence of weft whenever this failed to pass along the shuttle-race in front of the reed4 ,after an interval of five years from the granting of the previous patent1 ,patrick ,mc,farlane1 of ,perth1 patented an automatic weft-replenishing device which marks a distinctly new departure from the previous inventions for the same object1 and one1 moreover1 which has the distinction of constituting the prototype of cop-or bobbin-changing devices1 of which type a modification has been so successfully adopted in the construction of ,northrop automatic looms4 ,mc,farlane's invention is described in the ,patent ,specification dated #acth ,april1 #aheg1 ,no4 #ajdf1 which states that 8the first part of the invention consists in means or arrangements by which a loom is made to supply its shuttle or shuttles with fresh weft when the weft last placed in the shuttle or shuttles has become broken or exhausted40 ,the cop or bobbin of weft was placed in a case which fitted inside the shuttle in which it was held securely during weaving1 but from which it could be easily ejected and replaced by another weft-case containing a fresh supply of weft whilst the loom continued weaving4 ,any practicable number of these weft-cases were conveniently stored and retained in a suitable receptacle or hopper1 so that the successive weft-cases could take the place of those removed1 as they were each in turn inserted in the shuttle4 ,the chamber containing the reserve supply of weft-cases was attached to the framing of the loom opposite the shuttle-box or boxes1 so that when the absence of weft was detected by the weft-fork1 this put into operation the weft-changing mechanism which forced a weft-case from the hopper into the shuttle1 and thereby displaced the previous weft-case which fell into a box or basket4 ,an interval of only three years elapsed before the next patent was granted for a weft-replenishing device patented by ,thomas ,ingram1 of ,bradford1 for which the specification is dated #dth ,april1 #ahfj1 ,no4 #hfa4 ,in this specification1 the patentee describes a device which combines the elements of both a shuttle-changing and also a cop-or bobbin-changing loom4 ,the invention relates to mechanism for effecting a continuous action in looms without stopping them to change the bobbins or cops1 or for an additional supply of weft1 whether that is all used up or only broken4 ,this was effected by forming an opening or aperture in the front1 back1 top or bottom of the shuttle-box 8large enough to admit a shuttle1 or a case containing a spool or spools of weft1 to pass through to be inserted within the box40 ,also1 8when the weft is broken or used up1 or a change of weft is required1 the shuttle1 or the case within the shuttle containing the weft1 is immediately expelled through one of the openings in the shuttle-box1 and supplied through another of the openings with another shuttle or a case containing a further supply of weft40 ,the patentee states later that he is aware of a patent for a previous device 8to exchange the cop of weft by means of a portable case1 whilst the loom was in action10 and does not claim that device as a part of his own invention2 but what he claims 8is the combination and the general arrangement of apparatus or mechanism for producing or effecting continuous action in looms for weaving40 ,a device of a different character from any of those previously described was one that formed the subject of a communication from ,julius ,boeddinghaus1 of ,elberfeld1 ,prussia1 to an agent1 ,william ,brookes1 and is described in the specification dated #adth ,november1 #ahfj1 ,no4 #bghg4 ,the function of this device was merely that of ejecting the shuttle automatically when the weft failed2 but the replenishing of weft required to be performed by hand in the usual manner4 ,the ejecting of the shuttle was effected by causing it to shoot downward through an opening in the base of the shuttle-box at one end of the slay1 and on the occurrence of which the loom would stop4 ,a patent for the next device which1 although not strictly belonging to the present category of inventions1 is1 nevertheless1 closely allied to them1 was that granted to ,john ,leeming1 ,bradford1 and described in the specification dated #eth ,february1 #ahfa1 ,no4 #cja4 ,the specific object of this device was to effect changes of weft of different kinds or colours for the production of check fabrics4 ,weft-cases1 as introduced by ,patrick ,mc,farlane in #aheg1 were employed to contain the weft1 and the weft-cases were exchanged automatically in the same shuttle according to a prearranged scheme of decoration1 but not on the failure of weft1 in which event the loom would stop as usual4 ,the device was1 therefore1 a checking motion to effect changes of different kinds of weft by changing cops or bobbins1 instead of employing a number of separate chambers1 each containing a shuttle with a different kind of weft1 and bringing these in line with the race-board1 as required4 ,in this respect1 therefore1 the present device may be regarded as the first recorded attempt to adapt the automatic weft-replenishing element to perform the function of a checking motion4 ,the next following patent for a weft-replenishing device was that granted to three ,crawfords and ,robert ,templeton1 of ,beith1 ,ayr1 and described in the specification dated #agth ,february1 #ahfb1 ,no4 #dai4 ,this invention1 which is of the shuttle-changing type1 introduces two distinctly novel departures from any previous invention of the same class1 namely1 the employment of a six-chambered revolving shuttle-box to bring fresh shuttles into working position1 and also what corresponds to a weft-feeling motion to effect the replenishing of weft before the supply in use is quite depleted4 ,the chambers of the multiple shuttle-box are charged with reserve shuttles contained in a hopper4 ,at each change of shuttles the boxes revolved on their common axis for one-sixth of a revolution to receive a fresh shuttle in readiness for the next change4 ,on arriving at the bottom of its circuit1 the discarded shuttle fell out of its chamber into a receptacle4 ,the weft-feeling motion operated the weft-changing mechanism when the weft was nearly depleted4 ,this was effected by constructing the weft pirns or bobbins with a longitudinal slot to receive a curved blade-spring fitting inside the shuttle so that it entered the slot in the bobbin and passed underneath the weft4 ,on the weft becoming exhausted to a certain fixed point on the bobbin1 the blade-spring was automatically released1 on which it projected through a slot formed in the shuttle side4 ,thus1 on the shuttle arriving in its chamber of the rotary boxes1 the blade-spring came into contact with a part of the weft-changing mechanism which was thereby put into operation to change the shuttles4 ,the foregoing brief descriptions of the first eight patented devices for the automatic replenishing of weft in looms will serve to indicate the general character which those devices assumed down to ,february1 #ahfb4 ,although since that date to the present time the number of patents for devices of that class of inventions number many hundreds1 yet it is significant that none of these later devices differ in any essential element from those of earlier inventions4 ,the table on page #bji gives a list of weft-replenishing devices for which ,letters ,patent have been granted1 down to #ahid1 with the date and number of specification1 the names of patentees1 and type of device4 ,,list ,,of ,,patents ,,for ,,automatic ,,weft-,,replenishing ,,devices4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- -------- ,no of ,date of ,patent4 ,specification4 ,name of ,patentee4 ,type of ,device4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- -------- 7#a7 #ahcd1 ,mar4 #bj #f1egi ,j4 ,p4 ,reid and ,t4 ,johnson ,shuttle-changing 7#b7 #ahdj1 ,oct4 #bb #h1ffd ,charles ,parker ,shuttle-changing 7#c7 #aheb1 ,apr4 #bh #ad1jib ,william ,newton ,shuttle-changing 7#d7 #aheg1 ,apr4 #ac #a1jdf ,patrick ,mc,farlane ,cop- or ,bobbin-changing 7#e7 #ahfj1 ,apr4 #d #hfa ,thomas ,ingram ,shuttle-changing or ,cop- or ,optional4 ,bobbin-changing 7#f7 #ahfj1 ,nov4 #ad #b1ghg ,julius ,boeddinghaus ,shuttle-ejecting 7#g7 #ahfa1 ,feb4 #e #cja ,john ,leeming ,bobbin-changing for ,check ,fabrics 7#h7 #ahfb1 ,feb4 #ag #dai ,h41 ,j41 and ,r4 ,crawford ,shuttle-changing and ,r4 ,templeton 7#i7 #ahfc1 ,jan4 #bg #bci ,j4 ,edmondson and ,t4 ,cop- or ,bobbin-changing ,ingram 7#aj7 #ahfd1 ,mar4 #ag #fhh ,j4 ,edmondson and ,t4 ,cop- or ,bobbin-changing ,ingram 7#aa7 #ahfd1 ,july #ai #a1hjc ,john ,maynes ,cop- or ,bobbin-changing 7#ab7 #ahfe1 ,feb4 #b #bic ,john ,maynes ,cop- or ,bobbin-changing 7#ac7 #ahfe1 ,sept4 #bj #b1cie ,joseph ,edmondson ,shuttle-changing 7#ad7 #ahff1 ,jan4 #a #a ,j4 ,bullough and ,w4 ,shuttle-changing ,rossetter 7#ae7 #ahff1 ,apr4 #af #a1jfi ,alf4 ,vincent ,newton ,shuttle-changing 7#af7 #ahff1 ,sept4 #f #b1bib ,john ,bullough ,shuttle-changing 7#ag7 #ahff1 ,oct4 #ac #b1fed ,wm4 ,rossetter ,shuttle-changing 7#ah7 #ahfh1 ,july #bh #b1cff ,john ,bullough ,shuttle-changing 7#ai7 #ahfh1 ,sept4 #aj #b1ghh ,john ,maynes ,shuttle-changing 7#bj7 #ahfi1 ,sept4 #bh #b1hbj ,john ,bullough ,shuttle-changing 7#ba7 #ahgj1 ,may #bf #a1ecj ,benjamin ,cooper ,shuttle-changing 7#bb7 #ahgb1 ,mar4 #ab #geg ,a4 ,m4 ,clark1 from ,paul ,shuttle-changing ,heilmann 7#bc7 #ahgd1 ,may #a #a1edb ,j4 ,h4 ,johnson1 from ,shuttle-changing ,arthur ,villeminot 7#bd7 #ahgg1 ,jan4 #bg #cef ,j4 ,s4 and ,b4 ,a4 ,raworth ,semi-automatic ,shuttle-changing 7#be7 #ahhh1 ,mar4 #ca #d1hej ,jacob ,jucker ,shuttle-changing 7#bf7 #aj1fcc ,a4 ,g4 ,brookes1 from ,cop- or ,bobbin-changing 7#bg7ahia1 ,june #bc #aj1fcd ,w4 ,f4 ,draper ,shuttle-changing 7#bh7 #aj1fce ,cop- or ,bobbin-changing 7#bi7 #ahid1 ,apr4 #bf #h1bea ,h4 ,bourgeois ,shuttle-changing 7#cj7 #ahid1 ,oct4 #b #ah1faa ,g4 ,o4 ,draper ,cop- or ,bobbin-changing 7#ca7 #ahid1 ,nov4 #bg #bb1ici ,a4 ,g4 ,brookes1 from ,northrop device for ,w4 ,f4 ,draper ,cop- or ,bobbin-changing ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- -------- ,during the periods of four years ending ,december1 #aijj and #aijd1 there were #cd and #afc ,british patents respectively granted for inventions relating to devices for the replenishing of weft automatically in looms1 which figures bear striking evidence of the amount of energy and inventive talent which have been expended in this direction during the past few years4 ,and how forceful are these figures when contrasted with the number of patents 7#ca7 extending over the first period of #fa years4 ,it was1 however1 not until after the advent1 in #ahid1 of the ,northrop automatic loom1 which received such favourable reception by ,american manufacturers1 that the adoption of automatic looms was taken into earnest consideration by ,british manufacturers1 many of whom now recognize that in one form or another such looms have a definite sphere of usefulness in the manufacture of a great variety of different classes of fabrics of simple construction and embodying one series each of warp and weft threads4 ,the ,northrop ,weft-replenishing ,device4 ,the most characteristic features and essential elements of this device1 and also those which distinguish it from all previous inventions of this class1 consist of the removal of cops or bobbins of weft that are conveniently retained in a circular rotary hopper or magazine1 and of their insertion into a self-threading shuttle1 by mechanical means operated automatically either on the breakage or depletion of weft1 or else when the weft is depleted to a predetermined amount1 as may be elected4 ,the magazine containing the reserve supply of weft is always mounted above the shuttle-box situated on the right-hand side of the loom1 as represented perspectively in ,fig4 #afg1 which shows a bobbin-hopper ,a from which a pusher ,b is in the act of removing a full bobbin of weft and inserting it into the shuttle1 thereby ejecting the previous bobbin ,c which falls down a chute into a box ,d4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afg4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afh4 ,the parts of this device are better represented by the sectional view shown in ,fig4 #afh1 which illustrates a cop-hopper ,a freely mounted on a stud ,e to permit of its partial rotation1 intermittently1 immediately after each successive change of weft1 so as to bring into position another cop to be in readiness for the next change of weft4 ,the hopper here shown is one constructed with sockets for #bh cops1 ,f2 but the space occupied by the pusher reduces its actual capacity to #be cops4 ,these are previously placed upon skewers1 ,g1 of special construction1 after which they are disposed in a horizontal position around and between the rims of two discs or plates that are formed with notches for the reception of the skewers1 as represented in the diagram4 ,the conditions under which a change of weft is effected depends entirely on the equipment of the loom1 which may be adapted so that a change will take place only when the weft either breaks or otherwise fails in its supply2 or else the loom may be furnished with an attachment known as a 8weft-feeling0 device which effects a change of weft immediately before the previous supply is completely consumed1 albeit1 in this case1 if the weft should break1 the loom will stop automatically1 as under ordinary conditions4 ,the object of this device is to avoid such defects as are liable to be caused in cloth in consequence of broken and missing picks of weft1 and so produce cloth of superior merit4 ,if1 however1 such a device is not employed1 the weft-changing mechanism is put into action1 on the failure of weft1 by the weft-fork hammer pulling backward the weft-fork1 as usual4 ,but whether the operation of the weft-changing device is controlled by the weft-fork or by the weft-feeler1 the object in either case is to cause the notched and free end of a trip-finger ,h to tilt upward from its normal position1 as shown in the diagram1 so that on the forward stroke of the slay ,k the finger will be struck by a bunter ,j fixed on the front of the slay-baulk4 ,the trip-finger is loosely mounted on a stud fixed at the bottom of a short arm of an ,l-lever which constitutes the pusher ,b1 fulcrumed freely on a stud ,l4 ,thus1 in the event of the trip-finger being tilted on the forward stroke of the slay1 the free end of the pusher1 which reaches over the ready-positioned cop in the hopper1 is suddenly depressed when the slay is at its extreme forward position1 thereby removing that cop from the hopper1 and forcing it into the shuttle ,m1 through the bottom of which the previous cop-skewer is expelled and passed down a chute ,n4 ,the next flight of the shuttle causes the weft thread to pass through a slit formed in a brass casting fixed in the upper side of the shuttle1 and then to enter the shuttle eye automatically4 ,at the same time1 the remnants of both weft threads are severed near to the selvedge of cloth and also at a point near to the hopper1 so that they shall not become obstructive or involve the risk of being carried along accidentally into the warp-shed4 ,all these operations occur in proper rhythmical sequence whilst the loom continues to run at full speed1 which1 for a loom of #cf inches reed-space1 may be up to #aej picks per minute4 ,the ,hattersley ,weft-replenishing ,device4 7,patent ,no4 #bb1ebc1 #aath ,december1 #aijj47 ,the chief characteristic element which distinguishes this device--which is one of the most successful modifications of the shuttle-changing type--from other weft-changing devices1 is the stopping of the loom to effect the change of shuttles1 and then the restarting of it1 automatically4 ,the object of that course is to allow more time to accomplish the change1 and so avert the straining and breaking of the mechanical parts1 which are more liable to occur when the changing of weft is effected whilst the loom continues to run at full speed1 as in all other automatic looms4 ,it is also claimed that this arrangement enables a loom to be run at the same speed as an ordinary loom of the same width and construction1 whereas continuous-acting looms require to be worked at a slower velocity4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afi4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #agj4 ,in the ,hattersley loom1 the reserve supply of shuttles that have been previously furnished with weft are retained in a hopper or magazine which is mounted on the breast-beam and facing the shuttle-box on either the right-or left-hand side of the loom4 ,the changing of shuttles may be effected either by the action of the weft-fork only when the weft actually fails from any cause1 or else by the operation of a weft-feeler1 before the weft completely fails1 as desired4 ,in either case a change of shuttles involves a series of six distinct operations which occur in the following sequence1 namely3 7#a7 stopping the loom1 7#b7 raising the shuttle-box fender1 7#c7 ejecting the failing shuttle from its box1 7#d7 removing from the magazine another shuttle and placing it in the emptied shuttle-box1 7#e7 lowering the shuttle-box fender back into its normal position1 and 7#f7 restarting the loom4 ,these operations1 of which the second1 third1 and fourth are represented by diagrams in ,figs4 #afi1 #agj1 and #aga1 are accomplished by means of a series of four tappets governed by an indented clutch-wheel1 all of which are loosely mounted together on the second-motion or picking-shaft1 at the same side of the loom as that on which the driving-pulleys are situated4 ,the clutch-wheel is driven by means of a pinion carried by the loose driving-pulley1 and revolves continuously1 so that when a change of shuttles is called for1 an indent or notch in the clutch-wheel becomes engaged by a lug which1 being secured to the tappets1 turns these for one revolution1 and thereby performs the series of operations just enumerated4 ,thus1 in the event of weft either failing or becoming nearly depleted1 either the weft-fork hammer or else the weft-feeler motion1 according to the equipment of the loom1 first disengages the starting-handle to pass the driving-belt from the fast or driving-pulley to the loose pulley1 thereby stopping all the primary movements of the loom1 and at the same time putting into operation the series of four tappets which effect the changing of shuttles4 ,then one of the four tappets raises the shuttle-box front1 ,c1 above the shuttle ,b1 as shown in ,fig4 #afi1 to permit of the removal of the shuttle4 ,a second tappet then operates the pusher ,d1 which advances to eject the discarded shuttle from its box1 whence it falls into a receptacle1 as shown in ,fig4 #agj4 ,a third tappet next operates the feeder ,e1 which removes the bottom shuttle from the hopper ,a and places it in the same shuttle-box as that previously occupied by the ejected shuttle1 as represented in ,fig4 #aga4 ,the shuttle-box fender now falls sufficiently to prevent the withdrawal of the newly inserted shuttle from the box as the feeder withdraws and returns to the magazine to receive another shuttle in readiness for the next change1 after which the shuttle-box front falls to its normal position1 and finally the fourth tappet replaces the starting-handle into its operative position to transfer the driving-belt back again from the loose to the fast driving-pulley and thereby re-start the loom4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aga4 ,all the movements just described are performed during one complete revolution of the tappets1 and involve a stoppage for six picks1 corresponding to six revolutions of the crank-shaft4 ,therefore1 in a loom running at a speed of #ahj picks per minute1 the changing of shuttles would involve a stoppage of the loom for only two seconds4 ,,chapter ,x ,,the ,,principles ,,of ,,designing ,the simplest form of interlacing the threads is the plain or tabby weave4 ,in this weave the threads intersect as often as possible1 and thus the greatest possible amount of firmness and strength is obtained from a given quantity of material by this weave1 with the exception of leno or cross weaving1 where additional firmness and strength is obtained by the warp threads being partly twisted round each other in weaving4 ,plain cloths may be ornamented by using threads of different colours and of different thicknesses1 as1 for instance1 if four picks of blue and four picks of white are alternately put into a cloth1 the warp of which is composed of four ends blue and four ends white alternately1 a check is formed although the weave is quite plain4 ,a check may also be formed on a plain cloth by using one or more thick threads at intervals in both warp and weft4 ,there is1 of course1 a limit to the number of threads of a certain count which can be put into a plain cloth4 ,assuming that the counts of warp and weft are equal1 and that the number of picks per inch required is the same as the ends1 the number of threads per inch which can be satisfactorily put into the cloth would not much exceed half the number which could be placed side by side in one inch4 ,some allowance must be made for the threads being bent out of a straight line and for compression4 ,this branch of design will be treated of more fully in a subsequent chapter1 but it will be obvious that this limit to the number of threads of a given count which can be used in a plain cloth renders the weave unsuitable for heavy fabrics4 ,if a plain cloth is very heavy and thick1 it must of necessity be coarse4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #agb4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #agc4 ,plain cloth can be made by using two shafts1 but four are usually taken with the draft1 as shown at ,fig4 #agb4 ,this prevents overcrowding the healds4 ,by tying the first and second together and the third and fourth together1 the effect is the same as by using only two staves1 only two lifts being required4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #agd4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #age4 ,twills4--,the simplest twill is the 8#b and #a0 twill1 which is woven with three shafts4 ,a section through this twill is given at ,fig4 #agc1 where it will be seen the weft passes under one end and over two4 ,the structure of the fabric is better shown on 8point paper10 as at ,fig4 #agd4 ,the spaces between the perpendicular lines represent the warp threads or 8ends10 and the spaces between the horizontal lines represent the weft threads or 8picks40 ,by filling in the first square on the first pick1 it is shown that the first end is lifted for that pick2 and by filling in the second end on the second pick1 it is shown that the second end is lifted on the second pick1 and so on4 ,it is not always advisable to take a filled-in square as representing a lifted end1 as it is often more convenient to fill in the weft squares or those which are left down in weaving4 ,if necessary1 it can be stated along with the design whether the marks represent warp or weft up4 ,twilled weaves enable a larger number of threads of a given count to be put into a fabric than in a plain cloth1 and therefore these weaves are employed in the production of the heavier kinds of cloths where closeness of the threads is also desired4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #agf4 ,with three staves the twill given at ,fig4 #agd is the only one which can be woven4 ,the same twill may be woven with the warp predominating on the face1 and this would be represented on paper as at ,fig4 #agf1 where two ends are shown to be lifted on each of the three picks4 ,in weaving this pattern three staves would be taken with the draft1 as given for ,fig4 #agd 7see ,fig4 #age74 ,the first stave will be lifted for the first pick1 the second stave for the second pick1 and the third stave for the third pick4 ,these three lifts being repeated over an indefinite number of times will produce small diagonal lines running at an angle of #de degrees across the piece1 if the number of warp and weft threads in a given space are equal4 ,this twill is sometimes called a 8,jean10 and is used in the production of a fabric of that name1 as well as in 8,jeannettes10 the latter with warp predominating on the face of the cloth4 ,in all these fabrics a large range of qualities is made4 ,with four staves the following twills can be made3-- #a4 ,one up1 three down2 #b4 ,two up1 two down2 #c4 ,three up1 one down4 ,these are shown on point paper at ,figs4 #agg1 #agh1 and #agi respectively4 ,the third pattern is really the same as the first1 being the reverse of that pattern4 ,it is advisable1 however1 to consider them as two distinct patterns1 since they give different effects when used for purposes of combination1 as will be seen later4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #agg4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #agh4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #agi4 ,five-shaft ,twills4--,with five shafts of staves the possible twills are-- #a4 ,one up1 four down2 #b4 ,two up1 three down2 #c4 ,three up1 two down2 #d4 ,four up1 one down2 #e4 ,two up1 one down1 one up1 one down2 #f4 ,two down1 one up1 one down1 one up4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ahj4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aha4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ahb4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ahc4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ahd4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ahe4 ,these are shown on point paper at ,figs4 #ahj to #ahe inclusive4 ,there are really only three different methods of interlacing the threads in these six patterns2 but1 as stated previously1 different effects are produced in combination twills by all of them4 ,six-shaft ,twills4--,with the increase in the number of shafts the number of twills increases very quickly1 as with a 8repeat0 of six ends the following simple twill can be woven3-- #a4 ,one up1 five down2 #b4 ,two up1 four down2 #c4 ,three up1 three down2 #d4 ,four up1 two down2 #e4 ,five up1 one down2 #f4 ,three up1 one down1 one up1 one down2 #g4 ,three down1 one up1 one down1 one up2 #h4 ,two up1 two down1 one up1 one down2 #i4 ,two down1 two up1 one down1 one up4 ,there are here five distinct methods of intersection1 the remaining four patterns being reverses4 ,the patterns are shown on point paper at ,figs4 #ahf to #aid4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ahf4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ahg4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ahh4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ahi4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aij4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aia4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aib4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aic4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aid4 ,eight-shaft ,twills4--,with a 8repeat0 of eight ends and picks the number of changes which can be made in the basis of the twill is much larger1 and as the size of the repeat increases the possible twills increase enormously4 ,a selection of eight-end twills is given at ,figs4 #aie to #bjd inclusive4 ,satin ,weaves4--,in simple twills every pick is interlaced with the warp in the same manner1 but each successive pick commences1 as it were1 one end further to the right or to the left1 thus enabling every end to be bound into the cloth in regular order4 ,in satins the picks are arranged differently4 ,the object in a satin cloth is to obtain an even surface1 free from the bold lines of a twill2 and thus it is necessary to distribute the points of intersection of the warp and weft as evenly over the surface of the fabric as possible4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aie4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aif4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aig4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aih4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aii4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bjj4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bja4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bjb4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bjc4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bjd4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bje4 ,the commonest form of satin is the five shaft1 and this can be woven with five shafts with a straight draft lifted in the order #a1 #c1 #e1 #b1 #d4 ,the relation between this satin and a five-end twill is shown at ,fig4 #ahj1 where it will be seen that on the second pick of the satin the third end is lifted1 on the third pick the fifth end is lifted1 then the second is lifted1 and lastly the fourth4 ,this distribution of the points of intersection produces a satin4 ,a slight twill effect is given by most of these weaves1 but it is nothing like so decided as where the adjacent ends are lifted on successive picks1 as in twilled cloths4 ,the direction of the twill in the satin at ,fig4 #bje is from right to left4 ,this five-shaft satin weave is used with weft preponderating over warp1 and also the reverse4 ,immense quantities of cloth are made on both principles1 and in all qualities4 ,a regular make with weft predominating is made with about #gb ends per inch of #cb's twist1 and picks ranging from #ajj to #bjj per inch of #dj's weft4 ,a finer make is used in large quantities for printing upon4 ,this cloth counts about #bf ends #de picks per quarter-inch1 and the yarns used are #fj's twist1 #gj's weft4 ,these are two of the standard makes of satins1 but for special purposes all qualities are made in cotton4 ,with the warp predominating a cheaper fabric is produced1 as less time is required to weave a given length4 8,drills0 are woven on this principle1 the proportion of warp to weft being about two to one4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bjf4 ,satins may be produced on any number of shafts from five upwards4 ,fig4 #bjf is commonly called a four-shaft satin1 but this is better classed as a broken twill4 ,the principle of its structure is essentially different to that of a true satin4 ,a simple method of making a satin weave on any number of ends is to find the first number which is not a measure of the number of staves used1 and take this as the basis of constructing the satin1 as follows3 ,the first number which is not a measure of five is #b4 ,then1 taking this as the basis of the satin1 assuming that the first stave is lifted for the first pick1 the third stave must be lifted for the second pick4 ,this gives the number of ends to be 8skipped0 over1 and thus we can obtain the satin by skipping over one each time1 viz4 #a1 #c1 #e1 #b1 #d4 ,it is advisable to put the numbers in a line or in a circle1 and re-arrange them underneath4 ,the order of lifting the staves for an eight-end satin can be obtained as follows3--,the first number which is not a measure of eight is #c4 ,then1 taking this as the basis1 we lift the first stave for the first pick and the fourth stave for the second pick1 and 8skipping0 over two each time we get the order1 #a1 #d1 #g1 #b1 #e1 #h1 #c1 #f4 ,this is shown on point paper at ,fig4 #bjg4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bjg4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bjh4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bji4 ,a six-stave satin is irregular4 ,it is impossible to form a satin with six staves by 8skipping0 over a regular number of staves each pick1 but the points of intersection can be separated and a satisfactory satin formed by lifting the staves in the order1 #a1 #c1 #e1 #b1 #f1 #d1 or #a1 #d1 #b1 #f1 #c1 #e4 ,these are shown on point paper at ,figs4 #bjh and #bji4 ,a six-end satin weave is extremely useful1 as it takes rather more material than a five1 and its irregular appearance is an advantage for some purposes4 ,fig4 #baj is a seven-end satin4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #baj4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #baa4 ,fig4 #baa is a ten-end satin4 ,three is the first number which is not a measure of ten1 therefore three is taken as a basis in constructing the satin1 and the fourth stave is lifted for the second pick1 and the others in regular order4 ,fig4 #bab is a twelve-end satin4 ,the basis in this case is five1 as five is the first number which is not a measure of twelve4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bab4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bac4 ,combined ,twills4--,a useful class of pattern is obtained by combining pick and pick two simple twills4 ,if two eight-end twills are combined in this manner1 a pattern repeating on eight ends and sixteen picks is produced4 ,at ,fig4 #bac a 8three and five plain0 twill is combined with a 8three1 two1 one1 two10 twill1 and different effects may be obtained by combining the same twills in all the possible positions4 ,figs4 #bad to #bbj show the effect produced by all the changes in the relative position of the two twills4 ,an immense number of patterns can be made on this principle1 as all the simple twills may be combined in every position1 and in each case a different pattern results4 ,on six ends we have seen that nine simple twills can be made1 and as each may be combined with the others in six different positions1 the number of patterns which can be obtained from this system of combination is as follows3--,fig4 #ahf combined with each of the others in one position each gives eight patterns1 and as there are six positions in which they can be combined1 this gives forty-eight patterns4 ,fig4 #ahg combined with ,figs4 #ahh to #aid gives seven patterns1 and these in six positions give forty-two patterns4 ,fig4 #ahh combined with ,figs4 #ahi to #aid gives six patterns1 and in the six positions give thirty-six patterns4 ,by going through all the changes in this manner we get successively #dh1 #db1 #cf1 #cj1 #bd1 #ah1 #ab1 and #f1 or a total of #baf patterns4 ,in addition to these1 each twill may be combined pick and pick with itself in four different positions without giving double picks4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bad4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bae4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #baf4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bag4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bah4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bai4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bbj4 ,drafting4--,the arrangement of the draft is a very important matter in connection with dobby or tappet weaving4 ,in the case of simple twills1 satins1 and other regular weaves1 as each end1 or warp thread1 in the design is required to be lifted differently1 a separate stave is required for each end in the design1 but in some patterns this is not the case4 ,fig4 #bba is a stripe design composed of twenty ends of five-shaft satin and sixteen ends plain4 ,the least number of shafts on which this could be woven is seven1 five for the satin and two for the plain4 ,the number of picks to the round1 or the number of picks on which the pattern repeats is ten1 ten being the least common multiple of two and five4 ,the draft may be shown either by ruling lines to represent the staves as at ,fig4 #bbb1 or on point paper as at ,fig4 #bbc4 ,the latter is the readier way1 and is the way usually practised4 ,the order of lifting the staves is shown in the 8pegging plan0 7,fig4 #bbd74 ,the term 8pegging0 refers1 of course1 to the dobby loom2 if the design is woven on a tappet loom1 8tappet plan0 would be a more correct term to use4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bba4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bbb4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bbc4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bbd4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bbe4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bbf4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bbg4 ,when two weaves which consist of different arrangements of the same ends are combined in stripe form1 the same shafts will do for both weaves4 ,fig4 #bbe illustrates this principle4 ,in the design there are sixteen ends of an eight-end twill1 8#b up #b down1 #a up #a down1 #a up #a down10 and sixteen ends of a mixed effect1 which is simply a re-arrangement of the ends of the twill4 ,each of the ends in the crape or mixed weave can be drawn through the same stave as one of the ends in the twill1 as will be seen from the draft 7,fig4 #bbf7 given with this design1 and thus the whole design can be woven with eight staves4 ,if the staves are lifted to form the twill with the first sixteen ends1 the different order of drawing the ends in the second part of the draft causes the desired change in the pattern4 ,the pegging or lifting plan 7,fig4 #bbg7 will therefore be the first eight ends of the twill4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bbh4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bbi4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bcj4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bca4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bcb4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bcc4 ,one of the most useful principles of drafting is the ,v draft1 or point draft4 ,fig4 #bbh is a design based upon this principle2 the design is repeated twice over in order to show the effect better1 and it will be seen that the basis of the pattern is a 8four and four0 twill4 ,the first eight ends are drawn from right to left1 and by reversing the draft1 as in ,fig4 #bbi1 the pattern is made to repeat on fourteen ends4 ,the pegging plan 7,fig4 #bcj7 will be the first eight ends and picks of the design4 ,the first and eighth staves have each only one end out of the fourteen drawn through them1 whilst all the other staves have two ends in each pattern4 ,the number on each stave could be made equal by making the pattern repeat on sixteen ends and reversing the draft from the ninth stave1 with an eight-end twill basis4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bcd4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bce4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bcf4 ,the ,v draft is used in a great variety of forms4 ,it is not only in stripes that it is used4 ,it is very often employed in weaving all-over spot effects and diamond patterns4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bcg4 ,fig4 #bca shows the principle applied to an all-over design4 ,the draft 7,fig4 #bcb7 is given1 showing how the ends are drawn through the thirteen staves required to weave the pattern1 and the 8pegging plan0 7,fig4 #bcc7 shows the order of lifting the staves4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bch4 ,a very effective method of employing this draft is illustrated at ,fig4 #bcd4 ,this is a stripe design1 and the general appearance would lead one to suppose that a larger number of staves are required to weave it than the eighteen actually required4 ,fig4 #bce is the draft and ,fig4 #bcf the pegging plan for this design4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bci4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bdj4 ,another class of pattern produced by the ,v draft is the 8diaper0 style4 ,fig4 #bcg is a small design of this kind1 and it will be noticed that the draft 7,fig4 #bch7 plays a very important part in increasing the size of the pattern4 ,the draft given shows how the pattern would be made on nineteen staves4 ,it is not always advisable to draft a pattern to its lowest number of staves1 as it is not worth while saving one or two staves at the expense of an irregular draft4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bda4 ,dice ,checks4--,fig4 #bci is a simple dice check pattern4 ,alternate squares of warp and weft twill form the check effect1 and it is necessary to arrange the bindings so as to cross each other at the edges of the squares1 as otherwise the ends would 8slip40 ,fancy dice patterns are produced by employing squares of different dimensions4 ,fig4 #bdj is a pattern of this description4 ,the bindings are here those of an eight-end satin4 ,to obtain the crossing of the binding dots at the edges of the squares it is necessary to run the satin in opposite directions in the warp and weft squares4 ,a still more fancy dice effect is given at ,fig4 #bda4 ,the bindings are on the five-end satin basis1 and the blocks of warp and weft satin are arranged so that the design repeats on fifty ends and picks4 ,it is necessary in this class of binding to commence the satin in the position indicated in the design4 ,by a judicious arrangement of the warp and weft blocks a large variety of patterns can be produced4 ,the principle is extensively employed in the production of fabrics for both the home and shipping trades4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bdb4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bdc4 8,barley corn0 patterns are a related style4 ,the structure of these cloths is shown at ,figs4 #bdb and #bdc4 ,the former pattern is manufactured on an extensive scale1 as it is a fabric in regular use for making-up purposes4 ,fig4 #bdc has the weft square rather larger than the warp1 and is usually made in rather a better quality than ,fig4 #bdb4 ,in fine makes the size of the squares is often increased4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bdd4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bde4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bdf4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bdg4 ,illustration3 ,twill4 ,,fig4 #bdh4 ,illustration3 ,re-arrangement4 ,,fig4 #bdi4 ,illustration3 ,twill4 ,,fig4 #bej4 ,illustration3 ,re-arrangement4 ,,fig4 #bea4 ,illustration3 ,twill4 ,,fig4 #beb4 ,illustration3 ,re-arrangement4 ,,fig4 #bec4 ,illustration3 ,twill4 ,,fig4 #bed4 ,illustration3 ,re-arrangement4 ,,fig4 #bee4 ,patterns produced by ,re-arrangements of ,twills4--,if the ends of any twill be re-arranged in some regular order1 another pattern of a different character is produced4 ,for example1 by re-arranging the eight-end twill given at ,fig4 #bdd in 8satin order0 the effect at ,fig4 #bde is produced4 ,the method of re-arrangement is to take the first end of the twill design and place it in the first place in the re-arrangement4 ,the fourth end of the twill is then placed in the second end of the re-arrangement1 the seventh end of the twill in the third place1 and so on1 the satin order used being #a #d1 #g #b1 #e #h1 #c #f4 ,fig4 #bdf re-arranged in this manner gives the effect at ,fig4 #bdg1 and1 as will be seen from the remaining figures 7,figs4 #bdh-bee71 the effects produced by the re-arrangement are all good serviceable effects which are useful for a great many purposes4 ,with larger twills the effects produced are more elaborate and varied1 and the principle is distinctly useful for the production of new woven effects4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bef4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #beg4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #beh4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bei4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bfj4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bfa4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bfb4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bfc4 ,combined twills may also be re-arranged in this manner for the production of new effects4 ,figs4 #bef and #beh are two five-end combined twills1 and the effect produced by re-arranging the ends in five-end satin order is shown at ,figs4 #beg and #bei1 respectively4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bfd4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bfe4 ,fig4 #bfj is an eight-end combined twill1 and ,fig4 #bfa shows the effect produced by its re-arrangement in eight-end satin order4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bff4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bfg4 ,fig4 #bfb is a twelve-end combined twill1 and when re-arranged in twelve-end satin order ,fig4 #bfc is produced4 ,the effects produced by re-arrangement in satin order are1 as a rule1 mixed effects of a less decided character than the original twill4 ,there are many other useful systems of drafting or re-arranging patterns4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bfh4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bfi4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bgj4 ,fig4 #bfe is the re-arrangement of ,fig4 #bfd in the order #a #b1 #f #g1 #c #d1 #h #a1 #e #f1 #b #c1 #g #h1 #d #e4 ,this is a regular draft obtained by skipping three shafts between each two ends4 ,another draft is obtained by skipping one end between each two ends drawn through the healds4 ,fig4 #bfg is obtained by re-arranging ,fig4 #bff in the order of the draft #a #b1 #d #e1 #g #h1 #b #c1 and so on1 the draft repeating on sixteen ends4 ,another useful draft 7,fig4 #bgj7 as a basis for re-arrangement is the one employed in producing ,fig4 #bfi from ,fig4 #bfh4 ,the order of the draft is shown along with the design2 the order runs1 #b #a1 #c #b1 #d #c1 and so on1 repeating on sixteen ends4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bga4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bgb4 ,some novel effects are obtained by re-arranging the ends of a sixteen-end twill in the order #a #d1 #g #b1 #e #h1 #c #f1 #i #ab1 #ae #aj1 #ac #af1 #aa #ad4 ,the effect of this system is shown at ,fig4 #bgb1 which is the result of re-arranging ,fig4 #bga in the above order4 ,the system is of course applicable to other twills than those on sixteen ends4 ,twills combined to form ,square ,patterns4--,simple twills may be combined to form 8square0 patterns by taking alternate picks of each4 ,if two eight-end twills are combined in this manner only four picks of each twill will be used in the combination4 ,the principle will be understood from ,fig4 #bgc4 ,this is a pattern composed of alternate picks of two ten-end twills making an effect repeating on ten ends and ten picks4 ,the effect given by re-arranging this in satin order is shown at ,fig4 #bgd4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bgc4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bgd4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bge4 ,fig4 #bge is a twelve-end pattern made on the same principle1 and if this is re-arranged in satin order1 another effect is obtained4 ,fig4 #bgf is a sixteen-thread pattern1 and when re-arranged this produces the rather peculiar pattern ,fig4 #bgg4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bgf4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bgg4 ,an immense variety of useful weaves may be obtained on this system of combination1 the effects being perhaps more useful than when the patterns occupy twice as many picks as ends4 ,unequal ,twills combined4--,some useful fancy effects are obtained by combining two unequal twills 8end and end10 or 8pick and pick40 ,fig4 #bgh shows the effect produced by combining 8end and end10 a 8three and two0 twill1 and 8two and two0 twill4 ,as one twill repeats on five picks and the other on four1 the combined pattern will occupy twenty picks--twenty being the ,l4,c4,m4 of five and four4 ,there will require to be twenty ends of each twill used to make up a complete pattern1 therefore the combined design will repeat on forty ends and twenty picks4 ,if a four-end twill is combined with a three-end twill in this manner1 the complete pattern would occupy twenty-four ends and twelve picks1 as twelve is the least number of picks on which both the four-end and three-end twills repeat4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bgh4 ,check ,patterns produced by ,re-arrangement of ,twills4--,if an eight-end twill 8three and five plain0 is re-arranged in the order #a #d1 #g #b1 #e #h1 #c #f1 the effect shown in the square ,a 7,fig4 #bgi71 and if this be again re-arranged in the same order1 the original twill results4 ,it follows1 therefore1 that by placing the pattern ,a above the twill and drawing the ends through eight staves as indicated in the draft 7,fig4 #bhj71 a check pattern will be formed4 ,the draft which produces the crape from the twill also produces the twill from the crape4 ,the first eight ends and sixteen picks of the design is the pegging plan4 ,by the addition of two extra staves the floats may be prevented from passing from one square to another4 ,to produce the check effect properly1 the satin draft must be such a one that if the fourth end is drawn on the second stave1 the second end must be drawn on the fourth stave4 ,if a sixteen-end satin draft is used for making a check pattern on this principle from a sixteen-end twill1 the satin draft must be selected from those which can be made on sixteen shafts1 and must be such a one that exactly the same pattern will be produced in the opposite squares of the check4 ,the sixteen-end satin which gives this effect is the one made by skipping eight ends between each lift4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bgi4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bhj4 ,honeycomb ,cloth4--,in this style of cloth the threads are interlaced so as to form squares1 the centres of which are lower than the ridges which form the sides4 ,fig4 #bha is a honeycomb pattern on ten ends and ten picks4 ,it will be noticed that the ridges or raised portions of the honeycomb are formed by the gradually increasing floats of the weft and warp threads4 ,the hollows are formed by the threads weaving plain for a few ends and picks4 ,any size of pattern1 within reasonable limits1 may be formed on this principle4 ,fig4 #bhb is a #af #af honeycomb on the same principle4 ,for smaller sizes the principle requires a little alteration4 ,fig4 #bhc is a good #h #h honeycomb1 and gives a fairly good effect even in low makes of cloth4 ,these honeycomb weaves are used for quiltings1 towellings1 and for fancy goods of all kinds4 ,some excellent effects can be produced by combining honeycomb with satin or other weaves for striped dress goods1 and similar fabrics4 ,a good effect is given by the pattern1 ,fig4 #bhd4 ,the weave requires very thick yarns for giving the best effect4 ,the pattern is reversible1 both sides of the cloth being exactly alike4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bha4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bhb4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bhc4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bhd4 ,mock ,lenos1 or ,lace ,weaves4--,these weaves are very extensively used in cotton manufacture4 ,the imitation of leno fabrics can be made extremely close1 often so close as to deceive even experienced buyers4 ,the simplest kind is the pattern at ,fig4 #bhe1 a 8three and three0 pattern4 ,the threads are interlaced in such a manner that the first ends are pulled together by the second and fifth picks1 and the picks are pulled together in threes by the second and fifth ends1 and as the shed is crossed between the third and fourth picks1 the crack in the cloth appears there4 ,the open effect is greatly increased if the ends are reeded 8three in a dent10 the first three ends in the pattern being together in one dent1 so that the reed assists in forming the open effect4 ,sometimes the ends are reeded in threes with a dent 8skipped0 between each full one1 and this greatly augments the open effect4 ,a 8four and four0 mock leno is the weave shown at ,fig4 #bhf4 ,to produce the best effect this requires to be reeded four ends in a dent1 commencing with the first four ends in the pattern4 ,in this weave the crack is made between the fourth and fifth ends and fourth and fifth picks4 ,the principle of the weave is exactly the same as in the 8three and three0 pattern1 but a slightly more open effect can be obtained with the 8four and four0 pattern4 ,it is also suitable for a finer make of cloth1 as the open effect can be made with a larger number of threads per inch4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bhe4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bhf4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bhg4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bhh4 ,a 8five and five0 pattern is given at ,fig4 #bhg4 ,the second1 fourth1 seventh1 and ninth ends serve to pull the picks together in fives1 and to make a decided crack in the cloth between the fifth and sixth picks in the pattern4 ,the same thing takes place with the ends1 they are pulled together in fives1 by the second1 fourth1 seventh1 and ninth picks4 ,probably the best open effect is produced by ,fig4 #bhh4 ,this is called a 8five and one0 mock leno or lace4 ,to produce the best effect1 the pattern should be reeded as follows3-- ,five ends one dent1 ,skip a dent1 ,one end one dent1 ,skip a dent4 ,two repeats of the pattern are shown at ,fig4 #bhh1 only six ends and six picks being required to weave it4 ,the first five picks are pulled together by the second and fourth ends1 and as the shed is crossed between the fifth and sixth picks and between the sixth and the succeeding pick1 the single pick ,no4 #f is shown in the middle of the crack between the bars of five picks4 ,the same thing takes place with the ends4 ,it is not absolutely necessary to reed the pattern other than two in a dent2 an open effect is produced with the ordinary reeding1 but the special reeding greatly increases it4 ,cords4--,cords can be formed in cloth by simply making a number of threads lift together1 as in ,fig4 #bhi4 ,the cord may be made across the piece by putting a number of picks in a shed1 as shown at ,fig4 #bij4 ,this principle of forming cords has its disadvantages4 ,if the cord is going lengthwise of the piece a large number of picks per inch is required to give a good and fine effect1 and there is always a tendency to show a perforated appearance in cords made on this principle1 owing to the threads being pulled together in threes or fours1 or whatever number of threads go to form a cord4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bhi4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bij4 ,a good cord up the piece may be made by taking six or eight ends of six-end satin and two plain ends4 ,fig4 #bia is a pattern of this kind4 ,the six-end satin is used because the plain ends would make wrong bindings with a five-end satin and the ends would slip4 ,this principle of making cords is very useful1 as the effect being produced from the warp1 the cost is less than if produced from the weft4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bia4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bib4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bic4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bid4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bie4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bif4 ,for dobby patterns it is necessary to keep the number of shafts as low as possible1 and cords requiring only two shafts above the plain are made as in ,figs4 #bib and #bic4 ,fig4 #bid gives a cord across the piece1 and is of rather a firmer character than an ordinary four and four cord4 ,fig4 #bie shows a useful principle of making cords across the piece4 ,two picks are taken together1 and three double picks from a cord4 ,the three plain picks serve to define the cord4 ,a better effect is obtained from ,fig4 #bif1 in which the double picks have a float of five ends4 ,this cord is very suitable for stripes1 as it combines extremely well with warp satin4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #big4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bih4 ,fig4 #big gives a cord up the piece4 ,the back of the cloth is plain1 each pick taking an equal part in forming the back4 ,the plain also serves to spread the ends1 and so produces a firmer cloth than would be obtained if the cord were formed on the principle of ,fig4 #bii4 ,sometimes the back of the cord is required to be rather looser1 and is woven to a small twill4 ,at ,fig4 #bih a twelve-end cord is shown on this principle1 with a #b and #a twill pattern at the back4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bii4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cjj4 ,another form of cord is illustrated at ,fig4 #bii4 ,this shows a cord up the piece caused by every pick interweaving with the first and second ends1 and only half the picks interweaving with the remaining six ends4 ,the ends interweaving with half the picks are looser than the other two ends1 and therefore have a raised appearance4 ,the face of the cloth is plain1 with the lines formed by the two ends running up the piece4 ,a smaller cord is shown at ,fig4 #cjj1 which repeats on six ends and four picks4 ,fig4 #cja is a pattern composed of crossed cords4 ,excellent effects are obtained by combining larger cords in the same manner4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cja4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cjb4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cjc4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cjd4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cje4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cjf4 ,crapes4--,this is a name given to weaves of a small 8seedy0 effect4 ,good effects of this kind are produced by ,figs4 #cjb and #cjc1 which repeat on ten ends and six picks1 and six ends and six picks1 respectively4 ,another very largely used pattern is that at ,fig4 #cjd4 ,this is a pattern of rather peculiar construction1 as both sides of the cloth are alike1 and the small floats of three are bent somewhat out of a straight line4 ,the reason for this can be seen by a careful examination of the pattern4 ,patterns of the same character1 but with very large repeats1 are often used4 ,in many of these there is no regularity in the construction of the pattern4 ,the chief object is to get a perfect all-over effect free from lines or rows4 ,this can be accomplished by keeping about the same amount of float on every pick and distributing the floats as evenly as possible4 ,a pattern of this kind1 on forty picks and sixteen ends1 is given at ,fig4 #cje4 ,it will be seen that each pick has two floats on it4 ,fancy ,effects4--,some novel effects can be produced on the principle of ,fig4 #cjf4 ,two picks are floated on the top of a plain cloth every ten picks1 and these loose picks are bound only by two ends out of every twelve4 ,the loose picks are pulled in opposite directions by the loose ends1 and the result is that small hexagonal figures are formed after the manner shown at ,fig4 #cjg4 ,by using coloured ends and picks for the loose ones a still better effect is obtained4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cjg4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cjh4 ,crimp ,stripes4--,these are usually produced by having two warps at different tensions4 ,the warp to weave the crimp is lightly weighted as compared with the warp of the other stripe1 which may be plain or satin as desired1 and is let off intermittently4 ,if the crimp warp is very hard twisted the effect is increased4 ,fig4 #cjh is the design of a crimp stripe of rather a novel character4 ,the ends woven entirely plain are on a beam lightly weighted1 whilst the other ends are heavily weighted4 ,the first two picks are of ordinarily twisted weft1 and the third and fourth picks are very hard twisted4 ,these picks are thrown to the back1 and take no part in forming the cloth in one portion of it4 ,the consequence is that these picks1 loose at the back of the cloth1 and being very hard twisted1 pull the two edges of the stripe closer together1 and thus form a crimp or 8tuck0 the length of the piece4 ,the plain ends form a crimp in the ordinary manner1 owing to being lightly weighted4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cji4 ,huck ,patterns4--,this is the name given to a class of patterns used for towellings4 ,the object is to get a firm cloth with a rough surface4 ,fig4 #cji is a weave of this description1 but there are many others in use4 ,the pattern repeats on ten ends and eight picks1 and can be drafted down to be woven on five shafts4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #caj4 ,extra ,warp4--,when some warp ends are used for figuring without taking any part in forming the ground or body of the fabric1 they are termed 8extra warp0 threads4 ,the principle is much used for putting coloured spots or figures on grounds of a different colour or material4 ,in ,fig4 #caj the ends on which the black squares occur are 8extra ends10 as they take no part in forming the ground of the fabric4 ,in this figure the black squares represent the warp lifted4 ,where the extra warp is not forming the figure it is thrown to the back of the cloth1 where it hangs loosely unless it can be bound into the ground cloth or cut off4 ,two or three differently coloured spots may be formed one above the other4 ,fig4 #caa will show the principle of this4 ,the ground of the cloth is plain1 and these ends are distinguished by the small dots in the design4 ,the first and second ends in the design are supposed to be of different colours4 ,this design will repeat on forty picks1 and any desired number of ends may be used between each stripe for the ground4 ,the extra warp must be put 8extra0 in the reed1 so that1 supposing there are two ends in a dent in the ground1 there would be six in a dent where the two extra warps occur4 ,the principle is useful for obtaining a large width of pattern4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #caa4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cab4 ,the extra ends may be of the same colour as the ground1 but of thicker material1 and may be used with the object of increasing the width of the pattern4 ,fig4 #cab is a small striped design illustrating this principle4 ,the ground is plain1 and the extra warp threads1 if of sufficient thickness1 give a bold well-covered figure1 which enables the design to be woven on nine shafts4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cac4 ,extra ,weft4--,extra weft spots may be woven on exactly the same principle by taking the weft 8extra0 instead of the warp4 ,fig4 #cac is a small spot design on the 8extra weft0 principle4 ,the cloth would require to have twice as many picks per inch as there are ends per inch4 ,the ground may be either plain1 twill1 or satin1 but if it is required to bind the extra material a twill is preferable4 ,fig4 #cad is the commencement of a small design for an extra weft figure on a 8two and two0 twill ground1 showing how the extra weft may be bound to the ground of the fabric without showing through to the face4 ,the extra weft may be brought up under the weft floats of the twill1 and if a fair quantity of material is used the binding will not be visible on the face of the cloth4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cad4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cae4 ,it is impossible to bind extra weft to a plain ground or to a warp satin ground in the ordinary manner1 as there is no float to hide the binding under4 ,it may1 however1 be bound to a warp satin ground by means of stitching threads1 after the manner shown in ,fig4 #cae4 ,this is an extra weft spot on a warp twill ground1 and the loose picks at the back of the cloth are bound by the stitching thread ,a4 ,this thread is really an extra warp thread1 and it is lifted in such a position that the binding is hidden under the warp floats of the twill ground4 ,one of these threads may be used at intervals of an eighth to a quarter of an inch4 ,in binding extra warp the same principle applies4 ,extra warp may be bound to a warp ground by lifting it between two warp floats1 or it may be bound to a weft ground by using an extra stitching pick on the principle illustrated in ,fig4 #cae4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #caf4 ,extra warp or weft is often used to produce a solid figure on a light or open ground4 ,fig4 #caf is a small design of this kind1 in which one half the picks are thrown out of the cloth in the ground of the pattern4 ,the design gives a very close imitation of a figured leno cloth1 if woven with suitable yarns4 ,to obtain a good effect there should be at least twice the number of picks per inch that there are ends or warp threads4 ,when the cloth is taken out of the loom the loose threads are clipped and passed through a shearing machine1 where the loose threads are cut off close to the figure4 ,the extra picks should be bound round the figure by weaving plain for a few ends1 to prevent the extra material being pulled out of the figure in clipping or shearing4 ,extra ,warp and ,extra ,weft combined4--,where extra warp and extra weft are used together in the same part of the design1 the structure is a little more complicated4 ,a small check pattern of this description is given at ,fig4 #cag4 ,every alternate end and every alternate pick are extra1 and all the even numbered ends and picks belong to the ground cloth1 which in this case is woven plain4 ,in making designs employing both extra warp and weft1 it is advisable to put the dots of the ground weave on the point paper first4 ,then dots may be put on to lift the extra warp where it is required to form the figure1 and if it is required to throw the extra weft to the back of the ground cloth when the extra warp is on the face1 the ground ends must be lifted on the extra weft picks where required4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cag4 ,in ,fig4 #cag the ground weave is shown in solid squares2 the extra warp is lifted by the small circles1 and the extra weft is thrown to the back of the plain cloth by the small dots1 which lift all the ground ends on the extra picks where the extra warp is lifted4 ,this design is made for single picks1 but in the majority of looms there are only change boxes at one side1 and so the design must be arranged for two picks alternately of ground and extra weft4 ,double ,weft ,face4--,double weft-faced cloths are made on the principle shown at ,fig4 #cah4 ,there is a face weft and a backing weft1 and both sides of the cloth may be made alike by using only one count of weft4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cah4 ,the pattern is a four and one twill for both face and back1 and it is important that the binding should take place under the floats of the twill1 after the manner described in binding extra weft4 ,the face pattern may be different from the back1 but it is not possible to back a cloth with every pattern on this principle1 as the binding must not show through to the face1 and therefore the back pattern must be selected so as to give this result4 ,fig4 #cai is an eight-end twill backed with weft1 the back pattern in this case being a 8seven and one0 twill4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cai4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cbj4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cba4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cbb4 ,suppose it is desired to put a weft back to the pattern1 ,fig4 #cbj1 and to have two face picks to one back pick4 ,the face pattern must be put on the face picks as in ,fig4 #cba1 and the back pattern must then be put on in such a manner that where the backing weft is passing over one of the warp threads there must be at least one weft dot above and below it1 as in ,fig4 #cba4 ,two wefts of different colours may be made to form reversible figures by making them change places1 first one being on the face1 and then the other4 ,the principle is shown at ,fig4 #cbb1 where the alternate picks are of different colours4 ,the two wefts should be thick enough to cover well1 and a fine warp should be used4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cbc4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cbd4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cbe4 ,double ,warp ,face4--,this is the same as 8double weft face0 weaving1 with the exception that two warps are used instead of two wefts4 ,a four and one twill backed with warp is shown at ,fig4 #cbc4 ,it is necessary to have the warp threads close enough together to hide the bindings4 ,fancy patterns may be backed with warp by binding the backing warp under warp floats in the face cloth4 ,corkscrew twills are those which have a warp face on both sides of the cloth4 ,the weave is chiefly used in the manufacture of worsted coatings1 and similar goods1 but is often employed in cotton designs4 ,an eleven-thread corkscrew is given at ,fig4 #cbd1 and a fifteen-thread pattern is given at ,fig4 #cbe4 ,the weave requires a large number of warp threads per inch to give a good effect4 ,padded ,cloths4--,to obtain a raised effect on cords or figures1 thick weft may be inserted between the face and back cloth1 or between the face cloth and backing ends when there is no backing weft used4 ,this thick weft takes no part in forming either the face or back cloth1 and is simply held in position by the binding of the backing material to the face cloth4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cbf4 ,a simple example of this principle of weaving is given at ,fig4 #cbf4 ,this pattern may be woven with one shuttle1 and a fine raised cord across the piece is formed4 ,the backing warp threads1 on which the solid squares are placed1 should be on a separate beam1 and should be heavily weighted as compared with the other ends4 ,all the marks in the design represent the warp lifted1 so that the empty squares represent warp left down4 ,it will be noticed that the heavily-weighted ends are only lifted for two picks in every ten1 and this forms a cord effect4 ,there are three picks in each cord which do not interweave with either the face or backing ends1 but they serve to increase the boldness of the cord by giving it a raised appearance4 ,the three picks which form the padding are the second1 fourth1 and sixth in the design4 ,the section at ,fig4 #cbg will better explain the principle of the pattern4 ,there are five plain picks in the cord1 two plain picks between the cords1 and three padding picks1 making altogether ten to the round4 ,these cloths are known as ,piqus4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cbg4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cbh4 ,another padded effect is given at ,fig4 #cbh4 ,the double pick is the padding weft1 and should be of thick material4 ,the plain face cloth is developed in small dots1 and the backing ends in solid squares4 ,the padding picks in this pattern are pulled out of a straight line1 and a diamond effect is produced on the cloth4 ,double ,cloths4--,double-warp-face and double-weft-face cloths are usually classed as double cloths1 but they are essentially different from double cloths made from two warps and two wefts4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cbi4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ccj4 ,figs4 #cbi and #ccj will show how two separate cloths1 one above the other1 can be woven in one loom4 ,the first figure shows one of the face ends only lifted1 and a pick being put in the face or top cloth4 ,it will be noticed that both back ends are in this case down along with one of the face ends4 ,the second figure shows both face ends lifted and one of the back ends1 whilst a pick is being put in the back cloth4 ,two separate cloths of any pattern may be woven by simply lifting the face ends out of the way when a pick is being put in the back cloth4 ,if a pick is put in the face and back cloth alternately1 the cloths will be bound together at both selvedges2 but if two picks are put in each cloth alternately1 they are only bound at one side4 ,this will be seen from ,figs4 #cca and #ccb4 ,in the former the pick passes from the face cloth to the back cloth at one side1 and from the back cloth to the face cloth at the other side of the loom4 ,in ,fig4 #ccb two picks are put in each cloth in succession1 and the cloth will open out to double the width of the loom4 ,the former principle is used for weaving sacks1 meat-bags1 and seamless pillow-cases4 ,in putting double cloths on point paper it is usual to use different colours or marks for the face and back cloths respectively1 and also for lifting the face cloth when weaving in the back one4 ,it is also advisable to always take the dotted squares as warp lifted4 ,illustration3 ,,figs4 #cca1 #ccb4 ,the following directions for double cloth designing will be found useful4 ,first mark off the face and back ends and picks respectively4 ,then on the face ends and face picks put the face pattern1 and on the back ends and back picks put the back pattern4 ,on every back pick lift every face end4 ,this will make the two cloths separate4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ccc4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ccd4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cce4 ,fig4 #ccc is the design for two separate plain cloths bound at both sides of the loom1 and ,fig4 #ccd is the pattern for the cloths bound only at one side4 ,the face and back cloths may be of different patterns1 and bound together to form one thick fabric4 ,fig4 #cce is a design for a double cloth with a two and two twill face and a plain back4 ,the design is end and end1 and pick and pick4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ccf4 ,the binding of the two cloths together is a very important matter4 ,it must be done in such a manner that the bindings are not visible on the face of the fabric4 ,to find the best position for binding the two cloths together it is generally advisable to make a section showing the first two picks in the pattern1 as at ,fig4 #ccf4 ,a position can then be found for passing a back pick over a face end where the floats of weft in the face pattern will hide the binding4 ,it will be seen that this can be done effectually by passing the back pick over the fourth face end1 and so in the design the fourth face end is not lifted when the first back pick is being put in4 ,sometimes the face cloth is required to be much finer than the back1 and so there may be two face ends and two face picks to one back end and one back pick4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ccg4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cch4 ,figs4 #ccg and #cch show a design for a fabric of this description1 the face pattern being a two and two twill1 and the back plain4 ,before commencing to put the design on paper1 it is best to make a section showing in what relative positions it is proposed to start the two patterns1 and so enable the weaves to be placed in such positions that a satisfactory binding is possible4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cci4 ,fig4 #cci shows how the binding may be effected by placing the two patterns in a certain position in relation to each other4 ,the binding in this1 as in the previous case1 is made by passing a back pick over a face end4 ,the binding may also be made by lifting a back end over a face pick where the warp floats in the face cloth would cover it4 ,a design illustrating this kind of binding is given at ,fig4 #cdj4 ,the face pattern is a 8four and four0 twill and the back a two and two twill1 and there are two threads of face to one of back4 ,the two cloths are bound together by lifting the first back end on the first face pick where the binding dot comes between two warp floats4 ,the full squares in the figure represent the face ends lifted2 the small dots represent the back ends lifted2 and the circles show all the face ends lifted on the back picks1 which keep the two cloths quite separate4 ,the cross on the first pick effects the binding4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cdj4 ,the question as to which is the better system of binding depends upon the character of the two cloths4 ,if the face weft covers better than the warp1 it is the better way to bind by passing the back pick over a face end1 whereas if the face warp covers better than the weft1 a back end lifted over a face pick is preferable4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cda4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cdb4 ,three-1 and more ply ,cloths4--,any number of cloths may be woven separately1 one above the other1 or several may be bound together to form a very thick fabric4 ,fig4 #cda is a design for weaving four plain cloths1 one above the other1 and if the picks are woven in the order given in the design it will weave a cloth four times the width of the loom when opened out4 ,the passage of the weft from one cloth to the other is shown at ,fig4 #cdb4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cdc4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cdd4 ,figured ,double ,plain ,cloths4--,if the warp be taken with alternate ends of two colours and picked in the same manner1 figures1 checks1 or stripes can be formed by weaving two separate cloths of the different coloured yarns1 making both cloths solid colour1 and making them change places so as to form the desired figure4 ,fig4 #cdc is a design for a small check pattern on this principle4 ,the odd ends and picks are1 we will suppose1 black2 and the even numbered ends and picks white4 ,it will be seen that in the bottom left-hand square of eight ends and picks1 the lifting marks for lifting the face cloth out of the way when weaving in the back cloth are put on the black ends and white picks1 and therefore the black cloth is lifted to the face in this square4 ,on the opposite square of eight ends and picks1 the lifting marks for separating the two cloths are put upon the white ends and black picks1 and therefore the white cloth is here made the face cloth4 ,by bringing either the black or white cloth to the face1 any figure may be formed1 and the surface of the fabric is quite plain1 which for some purposes is much preferable to floated figures4 ,the weave used may be a twill or satin instead of plain1 if desired1 or the two cloths may be of different weaves1 and one brought through the other to form a figure4 ,fig4 #cdd is a design for a small spot pattern on the double plain principle4 ,the threads should be 8end and end0 and 8pick and pick0 of different colours1 the first end and first pick being1 we will suppose1 black1 and the threads for the second cloth being white4 ,the lifting marks for bringing the back cloth to the face are the solid squares1 whilst the white cloth is brought to the top by the circles4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cde4 ,if all the black ends and picks are brought together and all the white ends and picks brought together1 the pattern of both sides of the cloth can plainly be seen as well as the ground weave4 ,fig4 #cde will show this4 ,the face pattern is shown on the first sixteen ends and picks1 and the back pattern on the second sixteen ends and picks1 whilst the ground weave is shown for both cloths in the opposite corner squares4 ,the patterns may be designed in this manner1 and the full effect produced by arranging the draft so as to give the required effect in the cloth4 ,some fine effects may be obtained by inserting a thick end in the form of padding between two plain cloths1 and binding the cloths together so as to make the thick end form a cord4 ,the cords may run either lengthwise or across the piece4 ,fig4 #cdf is a section showing how the cord is formed by the thick end coming between the two cloths without interweaving with either of them1 and ,fig4 #cdg shows how the point paper design is made4 ,the end on which the crosses are placed is the thick thread which is used for padding1 and the four ends at each side of this are the two separate plain cloths4 ,at each side of this there are two ends showing where the two cloths change places1 and so bind the thick end between the cloths and form the cord4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cdf4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cdg4 ,double plain cloths may be bound together by using sufficient material to cover well1 but the binding is difficult to make without being visible4 ,this principle of binding is shown at ,figs4 #cih and #cii4 ,leno ,fabrics4--,in a previous chapter the method of interlacing the threads in simple gauze has been shown4 ,with the two staves and one doup required to weave gauze a considerable variety of patterns can be woven4 ,a 8five and one cross-over0 has already been given1 but it will be obvious that the number of plain picks in each bar of the cross-over may be any odd number4 ,a 8seven and one10 8eleven and one10 and so on1 are regular weaves4 ,where the crossing thread weaves plain first at one side and then the other of the standard end1 a simple crack is made in the cloth between the bars of plain1 and there is no single pick in the middle of the crack4 ,the most common pattern of this description is a 8five and five cross-over20 a plan1 draft1 and pegging-plan of this pattern is shown at ,fig4 #cdh4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cdh4 ,in all these fabrics the effect is decidedly of an open or transparent nature4 ,in some leno fabrics the object is not to get an open effect but to get zigzag effects by crossing a thick end over a few plain ends4 ,a simple pattern of this kind was given at ,fig4 #aci in dealing with leno weaving1 but the effect may be varied by making the crossings at irregular intervals4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cdi4 ,fig4 #cdi is a fancy crossing in which the thick doup end is crossing over three double plain ends4 ,fig4 #cej is another fancy effect on the same principle4 ,the marks on the plain ends show when these ends are lifted4 ,when the thick crossing ends all work in the same direction a 8wave0 effect is produced1 which is often employed in conjunction with the 8diamond0 or 8eye0 effect1 obtained from the opposite working of the two thick ends4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cej4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cea4 ,by using two doups a great variety of effect can be obtained4 ,fig4 #cea shows a method much practised of making the picks bend out of a straight line4 ,it is obvious that this will require two doups1 because one doup thread has to be lifted for the first six picks1 and the other doup thread does not lift until the fourth pick in the pattern4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ceb4 ,check ,lenos4--,where alternate squares of leno and plain are required to be woven1 it is necessary to have two doups if the leno is required to be woven four ends in a dent1 with two ends crossing two1 as in ,fig4 #ceb4 ,it has been shown how a check leno or gauze can be woven with only one doup at ,fig4 #add1 but the principle only applies to pure gauze1 or one end crossing one4 ,the draft and pegging plan for weaving a small check on the principle of ,fig4 #ceb is given at ,fig4 #cec1 where it will be seen that eight shafts or staves are required with two doups and two slackeners4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cec4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ced4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cee4 ,for dobby weaving1 the leno principle is chiefly used in the production of striped fabrics4 ,one of the most popular classes of fabrics is a combination of the thick zigzag effect with an open leno effect of any kind4 ,fig4 #ced is an example of this combined style1 the stripe can either be woven with a satin or plain ground fabric4 ,with three doups some very elaborate effects can be obtained1 but the increased cost is rather prohibitive4 ,a thick end can be crossed round a pair of ends weaving leno1 as in ,fig4 #cee4 ,it is necessary to bring the end from the back stave round the doup ,b before crossing under the pair of leno ends1 as this would make the crossing easier4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cef4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ceg4 ,weft ,pile ,fabrics1 ,velvets1 and ,corduroys4--,practically all cotton velvets are woven on the weft pile principle4 ,the intricate nature of the loom required for weaving warp cut-pile prevents its adoption for cotton pile fabrics4 ,there is no doubt that a warp pile woven over wires is superior to any weft pile fabric1 all the pile being perfectly even4 ,the principle upon which weft pile is formed is illustrated at ,figs4 #cef and #ceg1 the former showing the pile uncut1 and the latter cut4 ,in weft pile fabrics the pile weft is usually 8extra weft0 issuing out of the ground fabric only between every pair of ends4 ,this forms grooves or 8races0 in the fabric1 which allow of the insertion of a 8knife and guide0 which cuts the pile about the middle of the float4 ,at ,fig4 #cef the ground fabric is plain1 and between each ground pick there are three pile picks4 ,the first pile pick passes under the first end1 the second pick under the third end1 and the third pick under the fifth end1 and if these are repeated there are formed small grooves for the cutter's knife every two ends4 ,the pattern is given on point paper at ,fig4 #ceh1 extended a little in each direction as the pattern repeats on only six ends and eight picks4 ,the ground picks 7plain7 are put on in circles4 ,a large number of picks per inch are required2 in a common make about #bfj picks per inch of #fj's weft are used1 and about #gd warp threads per inch1 the counts of warp being usually #b-gj's4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ceh4 ,if there are #bfj picks per inch1 and one pick out of every four belongs to the plain ground fabric or 8back10 as it is sometimes called1 there will be sixty-five picks per inch in the plain1 and the pile weft is 8extra0 material forming grooves for the cutter's knife on the face of the cloth4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cei4 ,after the cloth is woven it is stiffened1 and stretched in a frame for cutting4 ,fig4 #cei shows the kind of knife used for this purpose4 ,the guide ,a is selected so as to fit under the float easily and lift the centre of the float to the cutting edge ,b4 ,the cutter inserts the knife and guide every two ends or 8race10 and thus in a common velvet1 as at ,fig4 #ceh1 one-third of the pile picks are cut each time the knife is run up the piece4 ,the arrows show the ends where the knife is inserted4 ,machine cutting is now adopted to some extent for velvets4 ,the piece is moved backwards and forwards automatically1 and so the cutter does not require to walk the length of the frame every time the knife is run up the piece4 ,the term velvet is used by retailers and the general public as referring to silk velvet1 and by them all cotton pile fabrics are termed velveteens2 but in the trade the lighter and finer classes of cotton weft pile fabrics are velvets1 and the heavier kinds1 such as those used for clothing purposes1 are called 8velveteens40 ,there is no very definite line drawn between the two classes4 ,velvets are usually sold by weight when in the grey state4 ,the pattern given at ,fig4 #cbi is made to weigh from #ah lbs4 to #cj lbs4 for #ajj or #aaj yards1 #bd inches wide1 the yarns being as previously stated1 and the various weights obtained by altering the number of picks per inch4 ,about #be lbs4 per #aaj yards is a medium weight4 ,the usual width for home trade velvets is #bd inches 7grey71 but for shipping #bb inches is a very common width4 ,the pieces are usually woven two or three in a width of the loom1 and afterwards torn asunder4 ,the length of the pile may be increased by increasing the length of the float4 ,fig4 #cfj is a pattern with a seven float1 and four pile picks to each backing1 or ground pick4 ,this is usually called an ,e#a velvet1 a term probably handed down from the origination of the pattern4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cfj4 ,until well into the last century the pattern ,fig4 #ceh was the only weave used in the production of cotton velvets1 and a patent was obtained for this ,e#a velvet1 and the term 8,patent0 is still regularly used when referring to velvets with a longer pile than a five float4 ,an ,e#a velvet requires considerably more picks per inch than a 8common velvet40 ,a good make will contain #djj or more picks per inch of #fj's or #gj's weft1 woven in a #gd ,stockport reed with #b-gj's twist4 ,sometimes the points where the pile weft intersects are distributed in satin order as in ,fig4 #cfa1 but this makes no appreciable difference1 as the picks are so piled up on the top of each other that the bindings of the four pile picks are practically in a horizontal line in either of the methods given4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cfa4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cfb4 ,fig4 #cfb is a design for a velvet with a nine float1 and five pile picks to one back pick or 8binder10 as they are sometimes termed4 ,this would require a still larger number of picks1 and would easily take #ejj picks per inch of #gj's weft4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cfc4 ,a cloth is made with the same length of pile as the above1 but with only four picks of pile to each back pick4 ,this pattern requires fifty picks to complete it1 as will be seen from ,fig4 #cfc4 ,the pile in this case will be much more firmly bound into the ground cloth than is the case in ,fig4 #cfb4 ,fast ,pile ,velvets4--,when the pile weft is only bound under one end it is rather liable to wear out1 especially by rubbing at the back4 ,to obviate this1 the pile weft is bound in the manner shown at ,fig4 #cfd1 by which it is rendered much faster4 ,when bound to the ground fabric in this manner it is known as 8fast pile40 ,the method of binding detracts from the richness of the pile obtained from a given quantity of material1 but the fabric possesses much better wearing qualities4 ,fig4 #cfe shows the structure of an ordinary fast pile velvet with a plain ground1 and four pile picks to each back pick4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cfd4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cfe4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cff4 ,a regular make of this fabric is as follows3 ,width #bf inches1 length #ajd yards1 weight #cj to #cd lbs4 #gf reed1 #dbj picks per inch1 #b-gj's twist1 #ej's weft4 ,twill ,backed ,velvets4--,some of the finest kinds of velvet are made with a twill back4 ,the chief advantage of a twill back over a plain is that the bindings of the pile weft into the ground are hidden by the twill floats at the back4 ,this renders the pile much faster than a common velvet2 in fact1 twill backs are usually sold as fast pile velvets4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cfg4 ,fig4 #cff is a section showing the structure of the fabric1 and it will be easily understood that the pile cannot be so easily pulled out at the back1 owing to the weft covering the bindings4 ,fig4 #cfg is the design for a good make of this kind of velvet1 the back is a two and one twill1 and the pile weft floats over eleven ends4 ,an important thing to remember about twill backs is1 that the pile pick following a back pick must have the dot opposite a blank square in the back pick4 ,if this were not so1 the picks would slip about and form an irregular surface4 ,in the weave under notice1 five pile picks are taken between the first two back picks1 two between the second and third1 and five between the third and first4 ,this enables the proper bindings to be made4 ,this weave gives one of the best cloths that are made4 ,it is usually woven with about #fjj picks per inch of #fj's weft1 in a #gf reed with a #b-gj's twist4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cfh4 ,another pattern of the same kind which will take still more weft is given at ,fig4 #cfh4 ,in this there are five pile picks to each backing pick1 and the pattern repeats on thirty-six picks4 ,plushes4--,when much longer piles are required the fabric is called 8plush40 ,these can be made on exactly the same principles as the foregoing1 or the principle embodied in ,fig4 #cfi may be used4 ,in this weave the pile is bound in much oftener than in the shorter piled cloths1 as a long pile is much easier to pull out than a short one1 and therefore requires more firmly binding4 ,the ground picks also in this weave are all alike1 i4e4 they all pass under the same ends1 and this does not hold the pile weft as firmly as a proper plain back1 although it utilizes the binding of the pile weft as forming part of the back pattern4 ,the bindings of the four pile picks together form a plain pick1 and the back of the cloth thus appears perfectly plain4 ,to preserve an even surface of pile it is necessary to distribute the points1 where the first pick in each four commences1 in satin order4 ,as there are in ,fig4 #cfi twelve ends on which the pile picks are bound1 the basis upon which the bindings must be distributed is a twelve-end satin1 which runs #a1 #f1 #aa1 #d1 #i1 #b1 #g1 #ab1 #e1 #aj1 #c1 #h4 ,the first pile pick commences to bind on the second warp thread1 and therefore the first pile pick in the second set of four 7the seventh pick7 must commence to bind on the sixth of the ends available for the purpose 7the twelfth end74 ,the whole design will be complete on sixty picks4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cfi4 ,for a longer pile the weft would require to be bound under more ends1 especially if the backing picks are not crossed4 ,cord ,velvets4--,a simple cord velvet can be made on the principle of ,fig4 #cgj4 ,the two plain ends on every six bind all the pile picks in the form of a cord up the piece1 and there is one ground pick to four pile picks4 ,the cutter's knife is only run up every cord1 and so the cutting operation is much cheaper and more easily done than in the case of velvets4 ,after cutting1 the pile is brushed1 and the fibres spread out so as to cover the space between the two binding ends as much as possible4 ,an eight-end cord on the same principle is given at ,fig4 #cga4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cgj4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cga4 ,round cords are made by employing floats of two lengths4 ,in the previous cords all the floats are equal1 but in ,fig4 #cgb one float is a 8thirteen0 and the other a 8fifteen40 ,when these are cut in the middle1 the short float forms the outside of a cord1 and the long float the inside1 which gives the cord a round appearance4 ,fig4 #cgc shows the appearance of the two pile picks when cut4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cgb4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cgc4 ,as a rule1 these cords are used for very heavy fabrics1 and twill and satin backs are chiefly used1 and as the pile weft is usually much thicker than velvet weft1 there are not so many pile picks between the ground picks4 ,a smaller cord on the same principle is given at ,fig4 #cgd4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cgd4 ,,chapter ,,xi ,,figured ,,design ,in figured fabrics it is most important that the distribution of the parts of the figure should be such that the eye is not attracted by lines formed by the unequal distribution of the figure4 ,the objectionable feature is most likely to occur in designs of an all-over character1 as it is almost impossible to tell if the distribution is perfect without extending the design to cover a considerable space4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cge4 ,in designs which consist of set or detached figures1 it is a comparatively easy matter to cover the surface of the fabric equally by distributing the figures in some pre-arranged order4 ,the simplest method of arranging detached figures is to arrange them 8one and one10 as in ,fig4 #cge4 ,this is a small spot arranged from two points on twelve ends and twelve picks1 and the same principle will apply whatever the size of the figure4 ,the space to be covered1 twelve ends and twelve picks1 is divided into two1 both in warp and weft1 and it will be noticed that the central dot in each spot is in the same position in each square of #f #f4 ,in designs of a floral character the two figures are generally turned in different directions1 and if the centres of the figures be properly placed they may be turned in any direction1 and still preserve the equal distribution4 ,detached figures may be arranged in the order of any satin1 but the regular satins show the figures too much in lines1 and the system is not much practised on that account4 ,irregular satins give much better effects4 ,fig4 #cgf is a design consisting of six spots arranged in six-end satin order1 on thirty ends and thirty picks2 the ground being five-end satin4 ,in making the design the space to be covered is divided into six parts1 both in warp and weft1 by the crosses at the corners of the squares4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cgf4 ,the squares are numbered at the side in the order of the satin1 viz4 #a1 #c1 #e1 #b1 #f1 #d1 and the first spot is placed in the left-hand bottom corner1 the central dot of the spot being placed in the centre of its square4 ,the next figure is placed in the third square1 on the second five picks1 the central dot again being placed in the middle of the square4 ,the third spot is placed in the fifth square1 on the third division of the picks2 and so on1 until the six figures have been placed on the thirty ends and picks4 ,if the central dot is always placed in the correct position in each division1 the figures may be turned round or placed in any direction4 ,the ground weave is a five-end satin1 and care must always be taken1 in designing1 that the ends and picks in the pattern are a multiple of the ends and picks in the ground weave1 or there will occur a broken pattern at the joining of each 8repeat40 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cgg4 ,fig4 #cgg is a small spot arranged in the order of a regular eight-end satin on sixteen ends and sixteen picks4 ,in making this design the sixteen ends and picks divided into eight will give only two ends and picks for each division1 so that if the central dot of the first spot is placed on the third pick1 the centre of the next spot will come on the fifth pick1 and so on4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cgh4 ,as previously stated1 when set figures are distributed in regular satin order a stiff appearance is given to the design by the figures showing in lines4 ,it is therefore necessary to get some irregular order as a basis to work upon1 which will distribute the parts of the figure equally1 and give a mixed up appearance4 ,a design based upon an irregular eight-end plan is given at ,fig4 #cgh4 ,the irregular satin upon which it is based is given at ,fig4 #cgi4 ,the method of constructing the design is precisely the same as in the previous examples2 the space to be covered is divided into eight parts in each direction1 and the figures are arranged in the same order as the dots in ,fig4 #cgi4 ,if ten spots or figures are to be arranged in a design1 an irregular ten-end satin may be used4 ,in arranging the order care must be taken to have the dots evenly distributed4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cgi4 ,transferring from ,sketch to ,point ,paper4--,in transferring a design from the sketch to point paper1 it is usual to rule the sketch into small squares1 each square to represent sixteen or twenty-four ends and picks1 and to mark the point paper into squares of this number of ends and picks4 ,the outline of the sketch is then drawn on the point paper2 the squares into which the sketch and point paper have been divided render it a simple matter to enlarge the sketch and preserve the proportions of the various parts of the design4 ,if the sketch measures four inches for one repeat of the pattern1 and the design is to be made on #djj ends1 and say #ejj picks1 on #h #h point paper1 the sketch may be ruled with lead pencil into twenty-five parts in the warp1 and the same number of parts in the direction of the weft4 ,the point paper would then require to be divided into spaces of sixteen ends and twenty picks4 #djj #ejj --- #af ends --- #bj picks #be #be ,development of the ,pattern4--,when the outline of the figure has been drawn on the point paper1 it may be coloured in4 ,this is done by going over the line carefully and filling in all the squares that the outline passes through4 ,if the ground of the fabric is to be plain1 the outline of the figure must be kept plain--that is1 it must move an odd number of threads each time1 so that the plain ground may be carried up to the figure without spoiling it4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #chj4 ,if a solid weft figure is required on a warp satin ground the figure may be coloured all over with1 say1 red paint1 and the developing dots be put on in blue or other colour2 but if much shading or fancy treatment is required1 it is more convenient to develop the figure in one colour1 as in ,fig4 #chj4 ,some designers colour the ground with red1 and put the satin or other dots over this in another colour1 leaving the figure white1 and then develop the figure by putting on the required red dots to lift the warp for shading or binding4 ,this method is advantageous where there is more figure than ground1 which is often the case2 but1 as a general rule1 the figure is coloured with red1 and the binding dots of the ground in the same colour1 another colour being used for the binding of the figure when required4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cha4 ,fig4 #chj illustrates the principle of developing a weft figure on a warp satin ground by shading from warp to weft4 ,the outline of the figure is first sketched on the point paper1 and then the whole is covered with the satin dots4 ,by adding single dots where required any degree of light and shade can be obtained4 ,it is best to add the dots all to the same side of the float1 and1 as a rule1 it is most convenient to add them singly4 ,the effect is obtained by gradually increasing the float from one to seven1 and thus there are seven degrees of light and shade between the two opposite eight-thread satins4 ,fig4 #cha will illustrate the principle of shading more perfectly4 ,this is a small stripe of shaded eight-end satin4 ,the space to be shaded is divided into seven equal parts of five threads each1 as there are seven changes to be made4 ,the first five ends are left as they are1 and a dot is added to each one in the second division1 two dots are added to each in the third division1 and so on1 until the float of seven is reached at the right-hand side of the stripe4 ,in a five-shaft satin there are only four possible changes1 and therefore this is not of much use for figured design in cotton goods4 ,the larger satins1 such as eight1 ten1 and twelve-shaft satins1 are most useful for this purpose4 ,twills may be shaded in the same manner as satins by gradually adding to the float of a warp twill until a weft twill is reached4 ,satin figures are somewhat flat and indistinct when woven with grey warp and weft1 and therefore in cotton fabrics the figures are more often developed in twill or fancy weaves of a bold character1 unless coloured yarns are used4 ,the best effect is obtained when a number of different weaves are employed in developing a design2 the variety in itself prevents any appearance of flatness1 which a design developed entirely in satin or twill possesses1 and the weaves may be selected so as to suggest the beauties of the flower1 leaf1 or other object which forms the basis of the design4 ,the object of the designer need not be to render a direct imitation of nature2 but there is no reason why a textile designer should not use the power at his disposal of suggesting the surface appearance1 or the beauties1 or characteristics of the object which forms the subject of the design4 ,a portion of a design developed in a variety of weaves is given at ,fig4 #chb4 ,the combination of the solid weft mixed fancy weaves gives a good effect4 ,in designs of the more conventional kind the outline of the figure may be solid weft float1 and the inside any other weave that fancy may suggest4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #chb4 ,if the figures are formed from extra warp or weft1 the same principles of development will apply4 ,any variety of light and shade can be obtained1 and bold effects may be produced by twilling1 or subdued effects by interweaving the threads more closely and in satin order4 ,sizes of ,patterns1 and ,casting ,out4--,the ,jacquard machine most generally used in the cotton trade is a #djj's1 which weaves a design made on #djj ends or warp threads in a 8repeat40 ,if the harness is tied up to the #djj neck cords1 and the warp drawn through every mail in the harness1 the designs made for this loom must either be on #djj ends or on a number of ends which is a measure of #djj4 ,thus a #djj's harness will weave the following sizes of patterns3-- ,one pattern to #djj1 or #djj end pattern ,two patterns to #djj1 #bjj ,four #djj1 #ajj ,five #djj1 #hj ,eight #djj1 #ej ,ten #djj1 #dj and so on4 ,if it is required to make a design with three patterns to the four hundred ends1 the design must be made three times over1 two patterns occupying #acc ends each1 and the other pattern occupying #acd ends to make up the #djj ends4 ,a design six patterns to the four hundred may be made by designing four patterns on sixty-seven ends each and two patterns on sixty-six ends each1 and other sizes not exactly divisible into the four hundred may be made to come in on the same principle4 ,in designing for ,jacquard weaving care must be taken that the ground weave will divide exactly into the number of ends in the harness1 otherwise the pattern will be broken4 ,sometimes the figure will allow of the ground being broken at some point or other without the break being visible4 ,such opportunity occurs where the ground narrows down to a fine point2 but in ordinary cases1 where it is necessary to make a design with a ground weave repeating on a number not a measure of #djj1 some of the mails must be 8cast-out40 ,for example1 if the ground weave is required to be a #ab #ab honeycomb1 as it will not divide equally into #djj1 but will divide into #cif1 the design may be made on this number1 and four mails in the harness left empty4 ,casting out is also resorted to when it is required to reduce the fineness of the reed4 ,for instance1 if one-eighth of a #djj's harness be cast out1 there will be #ej ends less per pattern1 and if the pattern measures four inches1 the reed would be reduced from a #ajj's to an #hg's4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #chc4 ,if several rows are cast out1 it is best to leave them out in two places2 usually one-half is left out in the first half of the machine1 and the remainder in the second half4 ,in designing for a machine which is 8cast out10 it is necessary to know in which part of the machine the ends are cast out1 so that the design may be made to tie up properly1 and that proper instructions may be given to the card-cutter4 ,striped ,designs4--,striped fabrics are always largely made for dress goods and other purposes4 ,an endless variety of styles may be made by combining stripes of any two contrasting weaves4 ,if the weaves are combined for dobby weaving1 care must be taken that too many shafts are not required for the value of the effect obtained1 but if intended for ,jacquard weaving1 the stripes may be figured as desired4 ,some of the most effective combined styles are made of satin and leno in various forms and proportions4 ,if for dobby weaving1 the designs may be spotted to come in on a reasonable number of shafts1 but if for the ,jacquard1 the satin is figured4 ,the satin stripes are usually crammed--that is1 there are more ends in each dent of the reed in the satin than in the other part of the fabric4 ,fig4 #chc is a stripe design1 composed of alternate stripes of figured satin and 8#e and #a0 lace or mock leno4 ,the reeding plan for this fabric will be as follows3-- ,reeding ,plan for ,fig4 #chc4 #dh ends satin1 #d in a dent #ab dents #e ends #a dent ,skip #a dent three times #ab dents #a end #a dent ,skip #a dent #e ends #a dent #a dent --- #be dents in pattern4 ,this system of reeding the open work is the best for obtaining an open effect1 as pointed out in a previous chapter4 ,twenty-five dents are occupied in reeding each pattern of seventy-one ends1 and assuming the harness to have one hundred threads per inch1 the reed required to keep the cloth the same width in the reed as in the harness will be-- #ga 3 #ajj #be 3 #ceb dents per inch4 ,the reed required is one with #ceb dents per inch1 or a #gj's 8,stockport0 reed would be used4 ,this calculation is for a complete number of patterns1 and does not allow anything for balancing the piece by having a satin stripe at both sides1 as is often the case4 ,in figured stripe designs the general effect is much improved by placing the figure in different positions on each stripe in the #djj ends4 ,if there are four figured stripes in the #djj ends1 and the figure repeats on #ajj picks1 the figure may be placed in four different positions1 moving twenty-five picks each time1 in which case it would have to be designed on #djj ends2 or in two different positions1 in which case it would be designed on #bjj ends4 ,the object of this distribution is to prevent the figure appearing in rows across the piece4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #chd4 ,figured ,diagonals4--,as previously explained1 striped designs are complete on the lowest number of picks into which all different weaves in the design will divide without remainder4 ,in figured diagonals the design is complete on the first number that the diagonal and figure or figures counted diagonally will divide into without remainder4 ,thus1 in ,fig4 #chd the design is complete on #dh picks1 because the diagonal repeats on #bd picks and the figure repeats on #af picks1 and the ,l4,c4,m4 of #bd and #af is #dh2 therefore this is the number of picks to which the design must be carried before it is complete4 ,selection of ,point ,paper4--,point paper is divided into small squares to represent the ends and picks1 and if the designs are for a #cjj's or #djj's ,jacquard a thick line is required every eight in the warp direction to mark off the number of rows of eight needles in the machine4 ,in #ajj's ,jacquards the needles are placed in #be rows of four needles in a row2 in #bjj's the needles are in #be rows of eight needles1 in #djj's there are #ej rows of eight needles1 and in #fjj's there are twelve needles in a row4 ,the design on point paper must be divided by a thick line to mark off the number of needles in a row2 in a #djj's machine this is always eight1 in #fjj's machines it is always twelve4 ,if the paper has a thick line every eight in the picks as well as in the warp it is called 8#h #h10 and a design made on this paper will be proportionately the same if woven into cloth with the same number of ends as picks per inch4 ,if it is desired to make a design for a fabric with #if ends per inch and #fj picks per inch for a machine with eight needles in a row1 the paper required to keep the figure of the same proportions as it will appear in the cloth will be #h #e4 #if 3 #fj #h 3 #e ,if the design is intended for a #fjj's machine1 the paper must be #ab 7x74 ,if the cloth is to have #if ends per inch and #abj picks per inch in a #fjj's machine1 the paper required would be #ab #ae4 #if 3 #abj #ab 3 #ae ,in selecting paper for a figured crammed stripe design1 a rather more complicated calculation is necessary4 ,it is necessary to obtain the number of ends per inch in the figured stripe1 thus3--,if the satin is figured in a stripe #if ends1 #d in a dent1 satin #ej ends1 #b in a dent1 plain woven in a harness #ajj ends per inch1 and the same width in the reed as in the harness1 the ends per inch can be obtained as follows3-- #if ends1 #d in a dent #bd dents #ej ends1 #b in a dent #be dents --- --- #adf ends4 #di dents4 ,if #di dents are required for #adf ends1 the number of dents per inch in the reed will be-- #adf 3 #ajj #di 3 #cc-hb_/adf dents per inch1 or a #fg reed4 ,if the reed used is one with #cc dents per inch and the satin is four ends in a dent1 there will be #cc #d #acd ends per inch in the satin2 and if there are to be #ajj picks per inch in the cloth1 the paper required to keep the figure proportionate would be for a #djj's machine1 #acd3 #ajj #h3 #f 7nearly74 ,therefore the paper required is #h #f4 ,it is not at all necessary to use point paper ruled exactly in proportion to the warp and weft1 as the design can easily be elongated or otherwise4 ,it is only necessary to rule the sketch into squares1 representing a certain number of ends and picks1 and to mark off the point paper accordingly4 ,designs for ,split ,harness4--,in designing for the split harness1 ,fig4 #abd1 no ground dots are required on the design1 as the shafts under the comber-board which are lifted by the spare hooks weave the ground pattern4 ,the design is simply coloured in1 and the binding dots put on the figure only4 ,in a double-scale split harness every hook lifted takes up two ends1 and thus the bindings in the figure will appear in twos1 and will therefore appear rather coarse4 ,in the ground every end is woven separately by the shafts1 and these will require to be lifted to give the required ground weave4 ,all that is required1 therefore1 is to put the lifting dots on the point paper in the position required to operate the hooks which lift the shafts4 ,except for the limit with regard to the ground weave1 designs for the split harness are prepared in the same manner as for an ordinary harness4 ,pressure ,harness ,designs4--,in designs for the pressure harness no binding dots are required on the point paper in either the figure or ground1 as the shafts or 8pressure healds0 in front of the harness do all the binding4 ,this harness is chiefly used in fine goods4 ,several warp threads are drawn through each mail in the harness1 and afterwards woven singly by the pressure healds in front4 ,the edges of the figure are stepped according to the number of ends in each mail4 ,the structure of a pressure harness damask fabric1 woven six ends in a mail with eight shaft satin bindings1 is shown at ,fig4 #che4 ,of course it is not necessary to make the design on point paper in this manner2 all that is necessary is to sketch the figure and colour it in where the warp satin is required4 ,all the binding is done by the pressure healds1 as explained with ,fig4 #abe4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #che4 ,designs woven with this harness have always a flat appearance1 but this is suitable for hangings1 for which the harness is chiefly used4 ,a considerable number of weaves may be employed in binding the ground or figure4 ,any two weaves can be used in conjunction for the ground and figure which do not interfere with each other in the working4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #chf4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #chg4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #chh4 ,in addition to simple satin and twill weaves1 ,figs4 #chf and #chg can be used in conjunction1 the figure being woven to either pattern4 ,fig4 #chh will show that the two weaves do not interfere with each other--that is1 an end is never required to be lifted and left down at the same time4 ,figs4 #chi and #cij can be used together1 one forming the figure and the other the ground4 ,the best way of compiling weaves to give variety to pressure harness fabrics is to put the satin clots on paper first1 and then to arrange a pattern to fit in the empty squares4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #chi4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cij4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cia4 ,designing for ,edleston's ,harness4--,when designing for the patent harness1 illustrated at ,fig4 #abi1 the sketch is put on point paper in the ordinary manner1 but it must be remembered in doing so that the figure when woven will be on double the number of ends which it apparently occupies on point paper4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cib4 ,if the spot shown at ,fig4 #cia is put on point paper and woven in this harness the effect shown at ,fig4 #cib will be obtained in the cloth4 ,the number of ends between the spots would only be nine on paper to give the eighteen in the cloth4 ,it was pointed out in explaining the structure of this harness that a weft figure could not be put upon a warp ground1 as it is obvious that not more than half the warp can be lifted at once1 and the figure must therefore be obtained by leaving the warp down4 ,the designs are confined to plain grounds1 or weft figures may be thrown on weft satin grounds1 and twill or cord grounds may with advantage be used4 ,the method of putting eight-end satin on point paper is given at ,fig4 #acj4 ,the principle of putting on paper any weave possible on this harness will be understood by referring to the explanation given with the illustration of the harness4 ,figured ,lenos4--,some of the most beautiful of all fabrics are made with the leno harness1 the combination of plain or floated figures with the open and firm leno ground giving a fabric which is both serviceable and effective4 ,the structure of the harness has already been explained with ,fig4 #ade1 and it has been shown how 8four and four0 leno and a plain or floated weave can be combined4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cic4 ,the method of putting the design on point paper for a figured leno harness with #ejj needles and #fjj hooks 7see ,fig4 #ade7 will be understood from ,fig4 #cic4 ,this is a small portion of a design which includes 8four and four0 leno1 plain1 and floated weft or warp4 ,the solid squares show the crossing threads lifted by the ground harness1 and the circles show the same ends lifted by the doup4 ,there will thus be four ends in a dent and four picks in a shed in the leno1 and when these are woven plain the contrast is very effective4 ,two colours are necessary for putting the design on paper1 and in cutting the cards from the design the solid squares in the leno portion will be cut opposite the third and fourth or seventh and eighth needles in the ground set1 whilst the circles in the design which show where the doups are to be lifted will be cut opposite either the first or tenth row of needles4 ,in a ground weave of this kind both doups are never lifted together1 as the weave is easier when they are lifted separately4 ,some beautiful striped designs are made by using thick whip threads to give a lace effect1 and various fancy leno weaves can be made and employed for giving variety to the effect4 ,if there are more than four picks in a shed on the leno it is often necessary to lift one of the crossing ends when the standard ends are lifting in order to prevent the threads from 8slipping0 or 8fraying40 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cid4 ,fig4 #cid will give a well-known two-doup effect1 and other patterns may be devised quite easily1 the power of the harness being practically unlimited4 ,sometimes leno figures are woven on plain grounds1 but the opposite is the general rule4 ,floated figures are not much used1 as the contrast of the plain and leno is very effective1 and is more serviceable than a loose figure4 ,a very fair imitation of a four in a dent figured leno can be made by using one doup stave in front of an ordinary ,jacquard harness1 and crossing one end under three4 ,by lifting the doup every other pick a plain figure can be woven on the leno ground1 one crossing three1 on the principle explained with ,fig4 #add4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cie4 ,toiletings4--,in toilet quilts a raised plain figure is formed by an extra warp from a separate beam interweaving with the plain cloth where the ground of the design is required4 ,fig4 #cie is a portion of a design for a cloth of this kind4 ,every third end is an 8extra0 end1 and where the raised figure is required these ends are left down1 but where the ground of the design is required the extra ends interweave with the plain cloth and bind it down4 ,the tension of the extra warp causes the figure to stick up more than would otherwise be the case4 ,the principle can be made to give innumerable effects by different methods of introducing the extra warp1 but the ends must not be left out of the cloth for too long together1 or they would be too loose at the back and would be likely to catch4 ,fig4 #cif is a section showing the binding of the extra warp into the plain figuring cloth4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cif4 ,the principle is well adapted for the production of large figures such as are required on quilts and similar fabrics1 owing to the fact that only one-third of the warp threads are required to pass through the ,jacquard harness2 the plain ends can be lifted by shafts4 ,in the better classes of toiletings two shuttles are used1 and the extra ends are woven plain at the back instead of hanging loose4 ,the principle is otherwise the same as in a one-shuttle toileting4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cig4 ,in some quilts a padding weft is inserted between the face and back cloth on the principle explained in ,figs4 #cbf-cbh4 8,marseilles0 quilts are made in this manner4 ,fig4 #cig will show how a padded figure is formed1 the dots represent the weft1 and the principle of forming the figure is the same as in ,figs4 #cbf and #cbh4 ,when the padding picks are being put in1 the face cloth is all lifted1 and the back cloth left down4 ,there are various other makes of quilts1 of which the 8,mitcheline0 type is extensively manufactured4 ,these fabrics are characterized by a raised figure of coarse texture upon a ground of comparatively fine texture4 ,fig4 #cih shows how this is effected4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cih4 ,two systems each of warp and weft are used1 the warp being drawn in the harness and reed as follows3-- one face end fine counts3 7say white7 two figuring ends medium counts3 7say brown74 ,the order of picking is-- two coarse figuring picks 7white7 two fine ground picks 7brown74 ,two plain cloths are woven1 one being white and the other brown1 and these are made to change places so as to form the desired figure in the manner shown in ,fig4 #cih4 ,the two cloths are bound together in both the figure and the ground4 ,when the white cloth is at the top1 as in the first part of ,fig4 #cih1 a ground pick is passed over a white face end under the float which follows1 and the binding is perfectly hidden4 ,when the brown cloth is at the top a white end is lifted1 and as this is of a fine count and the brown warp threads are rather closely set to the reed1 the binding is obscured4 ,a portion of a design of this weave is given at ,fig4 #cii1 the structure of which will repay careful study along with the section at ,fig4 #cih4 ,twilled cloths are sometimes used for figuring on this double cloth principle1 and the binding can be much more easily effected1 although the weave is more expensive than double plain1 if the same firmness is desired4 ,fig4 #djj is a section showing how the figure can be formed from two twill cloths1 and how the binding can be best effected4 ,the cloths in this example are of equal fineness4 ,illustration3 ,,reference4 symbol ,white face warp-ends raised above coarse white figuring picks4 symbol ,brown figuring warp-ends raised above fine brown ground picks4 symbol ,white face warp-ends raised above fine brown ground picks1 in the figure4 symbol ,brown figuring warp-ends raised above coarse white figuring picks4 symbol ,white face warp-ends raised above fine brown ground picks1 in the ground4 ,,fig4 #cii4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #djj4 ,fig4 #dja is a design for this fabric1 showing a small portion of both ground and figure4 ,the cloths are bound together once in every eight threads4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dja4 ,figured ,weft ,pile ,velvets4--,when figuring with weft and pile1 the chief difficulty is the cutting of the fabric after weaving1 owing to the difficulty of keeping the knife-guide in the race when passing from one portion of the figure to another across the ground4 ,a considerable quantity of fabrics had been made with velvet cord figures--which are easy enough to cut--before it was found possible to cut the real velvet figure4 ,this was rendered possible by throwing the short floats of pile weft to the back of the cloth at the edges of the figure1 and always moving in steps or races at the edges of the figure1 and in addition to this always keeping the end upon which the knife runs1 to the inside of each step4 ,by throwing out the short floats the chief difficulty was overcome1 as the obstruction caused by these was the chief cause of the knife and guide being thrown out when cutting4 ,these improvements were simultaneously devised by the writer and ,mr4 ,t4 ,anderson1 of ,wyke1 and a large quantity of cloth was turned out a few years ago1 but owing to the cottony appearance of the ground the demand quickly fell away4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #djb4 ,two large manufacturers took out a patent to include all figured weft pile fabrics1 but a thorough search could not have been made1 as the writer recently came across a heap of patterns woven on the same principle1 including the stepping in races1 and also with a coloured extra warp ground1 which had been made at least before the year #ahgj4 ,the method of putting the designs on point paper is shown at ,fig4 #djb4 ,the weave generally used is an ordinary ,e#a velvet with about #djj picks per inch1 woven in an #hj reed #b-fj's twist1 #gj's weft4 ,it will be seen that the figure steps in twos at the edges1 and that all floats less than five are thrown to the back of the cloth by the small dots in the design4 ,the blanks represent the weft on the face1 and the inside of the step or race is arranged to come on the third1 fifth1 seventh ends1 and so on1 these being the ends along which the knife runs4 ,where a turn is made in the figure it must be on an odd number of ends in order to keep the race in this position4 ,other systems of making figured weft pile fabrics have been tried4 ,one of these was to use an extra warp at the back for binding the pile picks where the ground is required1 and binding the picks where the figure is required1 to the ordinary warp4 ,when the pile is cut the extra warp is torn away1 pulling the pile with it where the ground of the pattern occurs4 ,another method is to weave the figure fast pile1 and the ground loose pile1 and to brush the loose pile away at the back4 ,velvet and leno stripes have been woven4 ,as velvet requires a large number of picks and leno a small number1 there is a difficulty in cutting the picks at the back of the leno stripe away4 ,this can be overcome by interweaving the picks to be taken away at the back of the leno with some extra ends1 and when the velvet stripe is cut1 the back cloth can be torn away quite easily4 ,solid ,coloured ,borders4--,in some fabrics1 such as dhooties1 the borders are sometimes made with coloured warp and weft1 and the middle of the piece with white or grey yarns4 ,the method of obtaining the solid border is rather ingenious1 and is as follows4 ,a coloured end is placed at each side of the warp1 and this thread hangs loose from the bobbin1 so that not much force is required to pull the thread into the border4 ,the warp ends forming the border are on separate staves from the ground ends1 and lift so as to allow two picks to go through each shed while the middle weaves ordinary plain cloth4 ,the coloured end ,a 7,fig4 #djc7 is lifted every other pick1 and the shuttle containing the white weft will pass round it1 and as the shed is not changed in the border ends1 the coloured thread is taken into the border1 thus forming a solid coloured border on an ordinary grey or white cloth4 ,in the border1 there will be two picks in a shed4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #djc4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #djd4 ,the point paper plan showing the difference in the shedding between the border and the middle is given at ,fig4 #djd4 ,the coloured thread from the bottom may be lifted by the plain staves4 ,direction of the ,twist in ,yarns4--,warp yarns are usually twisted so as to show the lines of the twist from right to left1 and weft yarns are twisted in the opposite direction4 ,the reason for this is that when the yarns are woven into cloth the lines of both warp and weft run in the same direction1 and the threads become embedded together as closely as possible through the strands falling into each other4 ,this is shown at ,fig4 #dje1 where at ,a and ,b the warp and weft yarns are shown laid side by side4 ,at ,c the same yarns are shown as laid in the cloth1 when it will be seen that the lines of twist appear in the same direction1 and the threads have thus a chance of getting together as closely as possible4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dje4 ,if the weft is spun in the same direction as the warp1 or 8twist way10 as it is termed1 when woven the lines or strands appear in opposite directions1 and each thread has a tendency to be kept apart from the others1 and appears separately4 ,this1 if anything1 makes the cloth feel slightly thicker1 and is preferred by many for certain purposes1 including some classes of printing cloths4 ,the finer appearance is obtained by the yarns spun in opposite directions4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #djf4 ,in twill and satin cloths1 and similar fabrics1 the direction of the twist has a very important bearing upon the appearance of the fabric4 ,the finest and closest effect is obtained by using warp and weft yarns spun in opposite directions1 so that when woven the lines appear in the same direction1 and the direction of the twill should be opposite to both4 ,this is why one side of a twill cloth has a finer appearance than the other1 as the twill runs against the lines on one side1 and with the lines on the other side of the cloth1 the former having the finer appearance4 ,fig4 #djf shows the yarns spun oppositely1 and the twill running in a direction opposite to the lines4 ,in sateen cloths there is a kind of twill in one direction1 as shown in ,fig4 #djg1 and the above principle applies to this as well as regular twills4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #djg4 ,it often occurs that for printing and dyeing purposes the weft is preferred spun 8twist way10 and as the weft greatly predominates over the warp1 the direction of the twill should be contrary to the lines of the weft4 ,not much difference is noticeable in the better makes of cloth1 but when there are few picks1 a frayed appearance is often produced if the direction of the twill is not reversed4 ,to keep the twill in a given direction1 the twist may be spun 8weft way0 to give the desired effect4 ,in very small twills1 such as ,jeannettes1 a more decided twill is obtained by using weft spun in the same way as the twist or warp yarns1 but in larger twills the best effect is obtained in the opposite manner4 ,,chapter ,,xii ,,textile ,,calculations ,the numbers of cotton yarns are based upon the hank of #hdj yards1 the number of hanks in #a lb4 being the 8counts40 ,it follows that if #hdj--the yards in one hank--be multiplied by the counts1 the result will be the yards in #a lb4 of that count4 ,thus in #a lb4 of #cj's yarn there will be #hdj #cj #be1bjj yards1 and the yards in a pound of any count may be found in the same manner4 ,the counts of worsted yarns are based upon a hank of #efj yards1 and the number of hanks in #a lb4 ,avoirdupois is the count of the yarn4 ,linen yarns are based on a hank or lea of #cjj yards1 and the number of these in #a lb4 is the count of the yarn4 ,spun silk1 which is the silk chiefly used in cotton fabrics for stripes and headings1 is numbered on the same system as cotton yarns4 ,the number of hanks of #hdj yards in #a lb4 is the count of the yarn4 ,net silks or thrown silks are numbered on an altogether different system4 ,the 8skein0 or hank is #ebj yards1 and the number of deniers--#ecc deniers #a oz4--which a skein weighs indicates the number of the yarn4 ,in silk manufacture the number of the yarn is called the 8size10 the word 8count0 being used to denote the closeness of the reed4 ,another system is used for silk yarns called the ,manchester scale4 ,this is based upon the hank of #a1jjj yards4 ,the number of drams which one such hank weighs is the 8size0 or number of the yarn or thread4 ,in the former scale the yards per ounce may be found by multiplying the yards in a hank by the deniers in one ounce1 and dividing by the number of deniers which a hank weighs4 ,the yards in an ounce of #dj denier silk will be-- deniers per oz4 yards in skein 7#ecc #ebj7 --------------------- #ficc yards per oz4 #dj deniers ,in the ,manchester silk scale the yards per ounce of a #d dram silk may be found by multiplying #a1jjj1 the yards in a hank1 by #af1 the drams in an ounce1 and dividing by the number of drams which the hank weighs1 viz4 #d2 thus-- 7#ajjj #af7 ----------- #djjj yards per oz4 #d ,twofold ,yarns in cotton1 worsted1 and linen are numbered according to the count of the single yarn1 with the number of folds put before it4 ,thus a #b-dj's yarn means that the yarn is composed of two threads of #dj's single1 making a twofold yarn of #bj hanks to the pound4 ,in spun silk the yarns are nearly always two or more fold1 and the number of the yarn always indicates the number of hanks in #a lb4 ,the number of folds is usually written after the hanks per pound4 ,thus1 #dj's-#b spun silk indicates that the yarn is #dj hanks to the pound1 made up of two threads of #hj's single4 ,it sometimes occurs in fancy yarns that threads of unequal thickness are twisted together4 ,if a #fj's thread and a #dj's thread are twisted together1 the count of the doubled thread will not be the same as if two threads of #ej hanks to the pound1 but will be something less than this4 ,it is obvious that when the two threads are twisted together the weight of a hank of the doubled thread will be #a_/fj #a_/dj of a pound1 and by adding these fractions together the counts of the twofold yarn may be obtained4 ,thus-- #a #a 7#c #b7 #e -- -- ------- --- #bd's counts4 #dj #fj #abj #abj ,another method of obtaining the same result is to multiply the two numbers together1 and add them together1 and divide one result by the other4 ,thus-- #fj #fj #dj #dj --- ---- #ajj7 #bdjj 7#bd's counts4 #bdjj ---- ,if three or more unequal threads are twisted together the counts of the resulting thread may be found by adding the fractions of a pound which a hank of each count represents4 ,example4--,find the counts of a threefold thread composed of one thread each of #aj's1 #bj's and #fj's cotton4 #a #a #a 7#f #c #a7 #aj #a -- -- -- ---------- -- -- or #f's counts4 #aj #bj #fj #fj #fj #f ,some allowance must be made for the twisting of the threads1 but this will vary with the number of turns per inch in the yarn1 and so is not taken into account in the example4 ,if it is required to obtain the weight of each count in #ajj lbs4 of the threefold yarn1 the following is the method4 ,as one count is to the resulting count1 so is the total weight to the weight required of that yarn-- #aj 3 #f #ajj 3 #fj lbs4 of #aj's #bj 3 #f #ajj 3 #cj lbs4 of #bj's #fj 3 #f #ajj 3 #aj lbs4 of #fj's ---- #ajj lbs4 ,total4 ,reeds and ,setts4--,the system of numbering reeds1 now almost universal in the cotton trade1 is known as the ,stockport or ,manchester count4 ,the number of dents or splits per inch in the reed with two ends in each dent is the basis of the system4 ,if the reed has #cj dents per inch1 it is called a #fj reed1 because if there are two ends in a dent in the #cj dents there will be #fj ends per inch4 ,the number of the reed is always the same as the ends per inch in the reed1 if the ends are all two in a dent4 ,a #fj reed ,stockport counts1 if reeded three ends in a dent1 will have #ij ends per inch1 because a #fj reed has #cj dents per inch1 and if there are three in a dent1 there will be #cj #c #ij ends per inch4 ,various other systems have been used1 but are gradually giving way to the simpler ,stockport or ,manchester system4 ,some of these are-- ,the ,bolton count1 in which the number of 8beers0 of #dj ends1 or #bj dents1 in #bd inches is the basis of the system4 ,the ,blackburn count1 in which the number of beers in #de inches was the basis4 ,the beer1 as above1 being #bj dents1 representing #dj ends in a beer4 ,the ,preston count was based on the number of beers in different widths4 ,the #f-d count was based on the number of beers of #bj dents--representing #dj ends--in #eh inches4 ,the #i-h's count was based on the number of beers in #dd inches4 ,the #d-d's count was based on the beers in #ci inches4 ,the #g-h's count was based on the beers in #cd inches4 ,the ,scotch system is based on the number of dents in #cg inches4 ,thus in a #bjjj reed there will be #bjjj dents in #cg inches1 representing #djjj ends in that space4 ,the ,bradford system is based on the number of beers of #dj ends in #cf inches4 ,if there are #ej times #dj ends in #cf inches1 it is a 8#ej sett40 ,to find the number of ends per inch in a given sett1 it is necessary to multiply the sett by #dj and divide by #cf1 thus-- 7#ej sett #dj7 -------------- #ee-bj_/cf ends per inch4 #cf ,quantity of ,material in a ,piece4--,to find the weight of warp and weft of given counts in a piece1 the total length of yarn in the piece may be found1 and divided by the yards in #a lb4 of the counts of yarn used4 ,this will give the weight in pounds4 ,the following example will make the principle quite clear3-- ,example4--,find the weight of warp and weft in a piece woven #cj inches wide in a #gj reed 7,stockport7 cloth #ij yards long1 from #ie yards of warp1 #hj picks per inch1 the counts of twist or warp being #cj's1 and counts of weft #dj's4 ,if the piece is #ij yards long1 the length of warp used will be somewhat in excess of this1 as the warp in interlacing with the weft is bent out of a straight line4 ,the amount of 8milling up10 as it is called1 varies according to the number of intersections in the pattern or weave of the cloth1 and with the counts of yarn used4 ,it will also vary considerably according to the elasticity of the yarn4 ,twofold yarns are more elastic than single1 and therefore will require a shorter length of yarn for a given length of cloth4 ,in this example #ie yards of warp are used to weave a #ij-yards piece1 an allowance of a little over #e per cent4 ,in making the calculation for the weft it is necessary to take the width in the reed1 as this length of weft is used every pick4 ,the cloth will contract a little owing to the pull of the threads when woven1 and when calculating for a given width of cloth care must be taken to calculate for the reed width and not the cloth width only4 ,in the present example the width in the reed is given1 and so the cloth will be somewhat narrower than this when woven4 ,,to ,,find ,,weight ,,of ,,warp4 #hdj yards in #a hank #gj ends per inch #cj counts #cj inches in reed ----- ---- #bebjj yards in #a lb4 #bajj ends in warp #ie yards long ----- #ajejj #ahijj ------ #aiiejj yards of twist in piece4 yards #aiiejj ,therefore1 weight of warp ----- #g lbs4 #ad oz4 #bebjj yds4 in #a lb4 ,,to ,,find ,,weight ,,of ,,weft4 #hdj yards in #a hank #hj picks per inch #dj #cj inches in reed ----- ---- #ccfjj yards in #a lb4 #bdjj inches of weft in #a inch of cloth #cf inches in #a yard ----- #addjj #gbjj ----- #cf7hfdjj inches of weft in #a yard of cloth ----- #bdjj yards of weft in #a yard of cloth #ij yards length of piece ---- #bafjjj yards of weft in piece4 #bafjjj ,therefore1 weight of weft ------ #f lbs4 #f-f_/g oz4 #ccfjj ,weight of weft #f lbs4 #f-f_/g oz4 ,weight of warp #g lbs4 #ad oz4 ,in the weft calculation1 the picks per inch multiplied by the width in the reed in inches gives the inches of weft in one inch of cloth4 ,this multiplied by #cf will give the inches of weft in one yard of cloth1 and divided by #cf1 this gives the yards of weft in one yard of cloth4 ,the two #cf's may be left out1 as it is obvious that the yards of weft in a yard of cloth are the same as the inches of weft in an inch of cloth4 ,the formula to calculate the weight of warp in a piece is as follows3-- ,inches in reed length of warp in yards ends per inch in reed ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ #hdj counts weight of warp4 ,the formula for the weft is-- ,inches in reed length of piece in yards picks per inch ---------------------------------------- ------------------ #hdj counts weight of weft4 ,working out the previous calculation in this manner1 we get-- #cj #ie #gj ------------ #g lbs4 #ad oz4 of warp4 #hdj #cj #cj #ij #hj ------------ #f lbs4 #f-f_/g oz4 of weft4 #hdj #dj ,if it is required to find the number of hanks1 it is only necessary to leave out the counts in the above formul4 ,thus we get-- ,inches wide length ends per inch ------------------------------------ hanks1 #hdj and using the figures in the previous example-- #cj #ie #gj ------------ #bcg hanks of warp4 #hdj ,before the actual cost of a piece of cloth can be calculated1 it is necessary to know the price to be paid the weaver4 ,in ,lancashire the payment is made according to the list agreed upon by both employers and employed4 ,for plain cloths and twills a new uniform list has been agreed upon1 and this is now generally accepted4 ,the following is the new list3-- ,,uniform ,,list ,,of ,,prices ,,for ,,weaving4 #a4 ,the ,standard4--,the standard upon which this list is based is an ordinary loom1 #de inches reed space1 measured from the fork grate on one side to the back board on the other1 weaving cloth as follows3-- ,width3 #ci1 #dj1 #da inches4 ,reed3 #fj reed1 #b ends in a dent1 or #fj ends per inch4 ,picks3 #ae picks per quarter-inch1 ascertained by arithmetical calculation1 with #a per cent4 added for contraction4 ,length3 #ajj yards1 #cf inches to the yard1 measured on the counter4 ,any length of lap other than #cf inches to be paid in proportion4 ,twist3 #bh's1 or any finer numbers4 ,weft3 #ca's to #ajj's inclusive4 ,price #bs4 #f;d41 or #b;d4 per pick1 per quarter-inch4 #b4 ,width of ,looms4--,a #de-;inch reed space loom being taken as the standard1 #a per cent4 shall be added for each inch up to and including #ea inches2 #b per cent4 from #ea to #ef inches2 #b per cent4 from #ef to #fd inches2 and #c per cent4 from #fd to #gb inches4 #a per cent4 shall be deducted for each inch from #de to #cg inches inclusive1 and #a per cent4 from #cg to #bd inches1 below which no further deduction shall be made4 ,for any fraction of an inch up to the half no addition or deduction shall be made2 but if over the half1 the same shall be paid as if it were a full inch4 ,all additions or deductions under this clause to be added to1 or taken from1 the price of the standard loom #de inches4 ,,deducted ,,from ,,standard4 -------------------- ,loom4 ,percentage4 -------------------- ,inches4 #bd #bc #be #bb #bf #ba #bg #bj #bh #ai #bi #ah #cj #ag #ca #af #cb #ae #cc #ad #cd #ac #ce #ab #cf #aa #cg #aj #ch #h #ci #g #dj #f #da #e #db #c #dc #b #dd #a #de standard -------------------- ,,added ,,to ,,standard4 -------------------- ,loom4 ,percentage4 -------------------- ,inches4 #df #a #dg #c #dh #d #di #f #ej #g #ea #i #eb #aa #ec #ac #ed #ae #ee #ag #ef #ai #eg #ba #eh #bd #ei #bf #fj #bi #fa #ca #fb #cd #fc #cf #fd #ci #fe #db #ff #de #fg #dh #fh #ea #fi #ed #gj #eg #ga #fj #gb #fc -------------------- #c4 ,broader ,cloth than admitted by ,rule4--,all looms shall be allowed to weave to within #d inches of the reed space2 but whenever the difference between the width of cloth and the reed space is less than #d inches1 it shall be paid as if the loom were #a inch broader3 and if less than #c inches1 as if it were #b inches broader4 #d4 ,allowance for ,cloth #g to #ae inches narrower than the ,reed ,space4--,when the cloth is from #g to #ae inches narrower than the reed space of the loom in which it is woven1 a deduction in accordance with the following table shall be made3-- ,,deductions ,,for ,,narrow ,,cloth4 ------------------- ,reed ,cloth4 ,per space4 cent4 ------------------- #gb #fe #ach #gb #fd #bgf #gb #fc #dad #gb #fb #eeb #gb #fa #fi #gb #fj #hbh #gb #ei #iff #gb #eh #aajd #gb #eg #abai #ga #fd #ada #ga #fc #bha #ga #fb #dbb #ga #fa #efb #ga #fj #gjc #ga #ei #hdd #ga #eh #ihd #ga #eg #aajb #ga #ef #abai #gj #fc #adc #gj #fb #bhg #gj #fa #dc #gj #fj #egc #gj #ei #gag #gj #eh #hf #gj #eg #igi #gj #ef #ajii #gj #ee #abah #fi #fb #adf #fi #fa #bib #fi #fj #dch #fi #ei #ehd #fi #eh #gca #fi #eg #heb #fi #ef #igd #fi #ee #ajif #fi #ed #abah #fh #fa #adi #fh #fj #bih #fh #ei #ddg #fh #eh #eif #fh #eg #gb #fh #ef #hdd #fh #ee #ifi #fh #ed #ajic #fh #ec #abag #fg #fj #aeb #fg #ei #cjd #fg #eh #def #fg #eg #ehc #fg #ef #gji #fg #ee #hcf #fg #ed #ifc #fg #ec #aji #fg #eb #abaf #ff #ei #aee #ff #eh #ca #ff #ef #efi #ff #ee #fih #ff #ed #hbh #ff #ec #ieg #ff #eb #ajhf #ff #ea #abaf #fe #eh #aeh #fe #eg #bia #fe #ef #dbc #fe #ee #eee #fe #ed #fhg #fe #ec #hai #fe #eb #iea #fe #ea #ajhc #fe #ej #abae #fd #eg #ace #fd #ef #bg #fd #ee #dje #fd #ed #ed #fd #ec #fgd #fd #eb #hji #fd #ea #idd #fd #ej #ajgi #fd #di #aahg #fc #ef #acg #fc #ee #bge #fc #ed #dab #fc #ec #edi #fc #eb #fhg #fc #ea #hbd #fc #ej #ifb #fc #di #ajga #fc #dh #aaha #fb #ee #ad #fb #ed #bh #fb #ec #db #fb #eb #ef #fb #ea #gj #fb #ej #hd #fb #di #iea #fb #dg #aage #fa #ed #adc #fa #ec #bhe #fa #eb #dbh #fa #ea #eg #fa #ej #gac #fa #di #hbg #fa #dh #ida #fa #dg #ajee #fa #df #aafi #fj #ec #ade #fj #eb #bia #fj #ea #dcf #fj #ej #eha #fj #di #fih #fj #dh #had #fj #dg #ic #fj #df #ajdg #fj #de #aafc #ei #eb #adh #ei #ea #bif #ei #ej #dde #ei #di #efc #ei #dh #fhb #ei #dg #hj #ei #df #iai #ei #de #ajch #ei #dd #aabf #eh #ea #aea #eh #ej #cjb #eh #di #dbc #eh #dh #edd #eh #dg #ffe #eh #df #ghf #eh #de #ijg #eh #dd #iih #eh #dc #ajhi #eg #ej #aed #eg #di #bgh #eg #dh #dja #eg #dg #ebe #eg #df #fdh #eg #de #ggb #eg #dd #hfd #eg #dc #ieg #eg #db #ajdi #ef #di #abf #ef #dh #beb #ef #dg #cgh #ef #df #ejd #ef #de #fc #ef #dd #gbe #ef #dc #hai #ef #db #iad #ef #da #ajjh #ee #dh #abh #ee #dg #bef #ee #df #che #ee #de #eac #ee #dd #fji #ee #dc #gje #ee #db #hja #ee #da #hig #ee #dj #iid #ed #dg #ac #ed #df #bfa #ed #de #cia #ed #dd #dhi #ed #dc #ehg #ed #db #fhe #ed #da #ghc #ed #dj #hh #ed #ci #igh #ec #df #acc #ec #de #bfe #ec #dd #cfe #ec #dc #dfe #ec #db #efd #ec #da #ffd #ec #dj #gfc #ec #ci #hfc #ec #ch #idb #eb #de #ace #eb #dd #bcf #eb #dc #cch #eb #db #dci #eb #da #eda #eb #dj #fdb #eb #ci #gdc #eb #ch #hbh #eb #cg #iab #ea #dd #ajc #ea #dc #bjf #ea #db #ca #ea #da #dac #ea #dj #eaf #ea #ci #fai #ea #ch #gje #ea #cg #gia #ea #cf #hgg #ej #dc #aje #ej #db #bji #ej #da #cad #ej #dj #dai #ej #ci #ebc #ej #ch #fa #ej #cg #fih #ej #cf #ghe #ej #ce #hgb #di #db #ajf #di #da #bab #di #dj #cah #di #ci #dbe #di #ch #eac #di #cg #fja #di #cf #fi #di #ce #ggh #di #cd #hfg #dh #da #ajh #dh #dj #bae #dh #ci #cbc #dh #ch #dac #dh #cg #ejb #dh #cf #eib #dh #ce #fhb #dh #cd #ggb #dh #cc #hfa #dg #dj #aji #dg #ci #bah #dg #ch #cji #dg #cg #dj #dg #cf #dia #dg #ce #ehc #dg #cd #fgd #dg #cc #gfe #dg #cb #hef #df #ci #aaa #df #ch #bjc #df #cg #bif #df #cf #chh #df #ce #dh #df #cd #egc #df #cc #ffe #df #cb #geg #df #ca #he #de #ch #jid #de #cg #ahg #de #cf #bha #de #ce #cge #de #cd #dfi #de #cc #efb #de #cb #fef #de #ca #ge #de #cj #hbe #dd #cg #jie #dd #cf #ai #dd #ce #bhe #dd #cd #chj #dd #cc #dge #dd #cb #egj #dd #ca #ffe #dd #cj #gda #dd #bi #haf #dc #cf #jif #dc #ce #aib #dc #cd #bhh #dc #cc #cgg #dc #cb #dha #dc #ca #egg #dc #cj #fed #dc #bi #gca #dc #bh #hjh #db #ce #jig #db #cd #aie #db #cc #bib #db #cb #ci #db #ca #dhg #db #cj #efe #db #bi #fdc #db #bh #gba #db #bg #gii #da #cd #jii #da #cc #aig #da #cb #bif #da #ca #cie #da #cj #dgd #da #bi #eeb #da #bh #fcb #da #bg #gaa #da #bf #ghi #dj #cc #aj #dj #cb #bj #dj #ca #cj #dj #cj #ch #dj #bi #df #dj #bh #ed #dj #bg #fb #dj #bf #gj #dj #be #gh #ci #cb #aja #ci #ca #bjc #ci #cj #bhd #ci #bi #cfe #ci #bh #ddf #ci #bg #ebg #ci #bf #fjh #ci #be #fhi #ci #bd #gg #ch #ca #ajc #ch #cj #ahe #ch #bi #bfg #ch #bh #cdi #ch #bg #dcb #ch #bf #ead #ch #be #eif #ch #bd #fgh #ch #bc #gfj #cg #cj #jhc #cg #bi #afg #cg #bh #be #cg #bg #ccc #cg #bf #dag #cg #be #ej #cg #bd #ehc #cg #bc #ffg #cg #bb #ge #cf #bi #jhd #cf #bh #afi #cf #bg #bec #cf #bf #ccg #cf #be #dba #cf #bd #ejf #cf #bc #ei #cf #bb #fgd #cf #ba #geh #ce #bh #jhe #ce #bg #ag #ce #bf #bef #ce #be #cda #ce #bd #dbf #ce #bc #eaa #ce #bb #eig #ce #ba #fhb #ce #bj #gfg #cd #bg #jhf #cd #bf #agb #cd #be #bei #cd #bd #cde #cd #bc #dca #cd #bb #eag #cd #ba #fjc #cd #bj #fi #cd #ai #ggf #cc #bf #jhg #cc #be #agd #cc #bd #bfb #cc #bc #cdi #cc #bb #dcf #cc #ba #ebc #cc #bj #fa #cc #ai #fih #cc #ah #ghe #cb #be #jhh #cb #bd #agf #cb #bc #bfe #cb #bb #cec #cb #ba #dda #cb #bj #ebi #cb #ai #fah #cb #ah #gjf #ca #bd #jhi #ca #bc #agi #ca #bb #bfh #ca #ba #ceg #ca #bj #ddf #ca #ai #ecf #ca #ah #fbe #cj #bc #ji #cj #bb #aha #cj #ba #bga #cj #bj #cfa #cj #ai #deb #cj #ah #edb #bi #bb #jia #bi #ba #ahc #bi #bj #bgd #bi #ai #cff #bi #ah #deg #bh #ba #jic #bh #bj #ahe #bh #ai #bgh #bh #ah #cg #bg #bj #jid #bg #ai #ahg #bg #ah #bha #bf #ai #jie #bf #ah #ai #be #ah #jif ------------------- ,no further deduction shall be made when cloth is more than #ae inches narrower than the reed space1 or when cloth is narrower than #ah inches4 ,fractions of an inch not to be recognized under this clause4 #e4 ,reeds4--,a #fj reed being taken as the standard1 per cent4 shall be deducted for every two ends or counts of reed from #fj to #ej1 but no deduction shall be made below #ej4 per cent4 shall be added for every two ends or counts of reed from #fj to #fh1 #a per cent4 from #fh to #ajj2 #a per cent4 from #ajj to #aaj2 and #b per cent4 from #aaj to #acb4 ,all additions or deductions under this clause to be added to or deducted from the price of the standard #fj reed4 -------------------- ,deductions from standard4 ------------------- ,count of,percentage4 reed4 ------------------- #ej #c #eb #c #ed #b #ef #a #eh #fj standard ------------------- ---------------------------------------- -- ,additions to standard4 ------------------- ,count of,percentage4 reed4 ------------------- #fb #fd #a #ff #b #fh #c #gj #d #gb #e #gd #f #gf #g #gh #h #hj #i #hb #aj #hd #aa #hf #ab #hh #ac #ij #ad #ib #ae #id #af #if #ag #ih #ah #ajj #ai #ajb #bj #ajd #bb #ajf #bc #ajh #be #aaj #bf #aab #bh #aad #cj #aaf #cb #aah #cd #abj #cf #abb #ch #abd #dj #abf #db #abh #dd #acj #df #acb #dh ------------------- #f4 ,picks4--,low ,picks4--,an addition of #a per cent4 shall be made for each pick or fraction of a pick below #aa1 thus3-- ,below #aa to and including #aj1 #a per cent4 #aj #i1 #b #i #h1 #c #h #g1 #d and so on1 adding #a per cent4 for each pick or fraction of a pick4 ,high ,picks4--,an addition of #a per cent4 shall be made for each pick whenever they exceed the following3-- ,weft below #bf's4 when picks exceed #af #bf's to #ci's inclusive #ah #dj's and above #bj ,in making additions for high picks1 any fraction of a pick less than the half shall not have any allowance2 exactly the half-pick shall have per cent4 added2 and any fraction over the half-pick shall have #a per cent4 added4 #g4 ,twist4--,the standard being #bh's or finer1 the following additions shall be made when coarser twist is woven in the following reeds3-- ,below #bh's to #bj's in #fd to #fg reed inclusive1 #a per cent4 #fh #ga #b #gb #ge #c ,below #bj's to #ad's in #ef #ei #a #fj #fc #b #fd #fg #c and so on at the same rate4 ,when twist is woven in coarser reeds no addition shall be made4 #h4 ,weft4--,ordinary ,pin ,cops4--,the standard being #ca's to #ajj's1 both inclusive1 shall be reckoned equal4 ,above #ajj's #a per cent4 shall be added for every #aj hanks or fraction thereof4 ,in lower numbers than #ca's the following additions shall be made3-- ,for #cj's add #a per cent4 #bi's1 #bh's1 add #b per cent4 #bg's1 #bf's1 #c #be's1 #bd's1 #d #bc's1 #bb's1 #f #ba's1 #bj's1 #h #ai's1 #ah's1 #aj #ag's1 #af's1 #ac #ae's1 #ad's1 #af ,large ,cops4--,when weft of the following counts is spun into large cops1 so that there are not more than nineteen cops to the lb41 the following additions shall be made in place of the allowance provided for pin cops in the preceding table3-- ,for #bi's1 #bh's1 add #a per cent4 #bg's1 #bf's1 #b #be's1 #bd's1 #bc's1 #c #bb's1 #ba's1 #bj's1 #d #ai's1 #ah's1 #f #ag's1 #af's1 #h #ae's1 #ad's1 #aj #i4 ,four-stave ,twills4--,low ,picks4--,in four-stave twills an addition of #a per cent4 for each pick or fraction thereof below the picks mentioned in the following table shall be made when using weft as follows3-- ,below #bf's1 the addition shall begin at #ac #bf's to #ci's1 inclusive1 #ad #dj's and above1 #ae ,high ,picks4--,when using weft-- ,below #bf's1 the addition for high picks shall begin at #ba #bf's to #ci's1 inclusive1 #bb #dj's and above1 #bc ,in making additions for high picks any fraction of a pick less than the half shall not have any allowance2 exactly the half-pick shall have per cent4 added1 and any fraction over the half shall have the full #a per cent4 added4 #aj4 ,splits4--,the following additions shall be made for splits3-- ,one split uncut1 add #e per cent4 ,two splits #g ,empty dents shall not be considered splits4 #aa4 ,all the foregoing additions and deductions shall be made separately4 ,this list is subject to a deduction of #aj per cent4 99 99 99 99 99 ,for fancy cloths the ,,chorley ,,list1 #ahhf1 is the one most commonly used4 ,this is as follows3-- ,double-,lift ,jacquards4--,to be paid the following over plain cloth prices3-- ,for cloths with plain grounds1 #cj per cent4 ,for cloths with satin grounds1 #be ,brocades1 damasks1 and crammed stripes with three or more ends in a dent1 to be paid for by the number of ends per inch4 ,picks #ah to #cj per quarter inch1 #a per cent4 per pick2 from #cj to #dj picks1 per cent42 all above #dj picks1 per cent4 instead of #a per cent4 ,lace brocades1 #e per cent4 extra4 ,single-lift jacquards to be paid #aj per cent4 about double-lift machines4 ,the above applies to ,jacquards only4 ,dobby and ,tappet ,looms 7except ,satins74--,to be paid the following above plain cloth prices-- ,up to and including-- #d staves #ab per cent4 #e #ac #f #ad #g #ae #h #af #i #ag #aj #ah #aa #ai #ab #bj #ac #ba #ad #bb #ae #bc #af #bd #ag #be #ah #bf #ai #bg #bj #bh ,stripes and other cloths with three or more ends in a dent to be paid for by the number of ends per inch4 ,in single-shuttle checks1 handkerchiefs1 and all special classes of goods in which more than one pick is put in one shed1 all lost picks shall be counted4 ,plain handkerchiefs1 #gb reeds and below1 to be paid #e per cent4 extra4 ,single-shuttle cord checks with more than two picks in one shed to be paid #b per cent4 less4 ,lace stripes and other special classes of goods shall be paid extra as per special arrangement to be agreed upon by ,employers' and ,operatives' ,associations4 ,the following example will show the method of calculating the price to be paid for weaving under the ,uniform ,list3-- ,example4--,find the weaving of a #dd-;inch cloth1 #dj yards long1 woven in a loom #dh-;inch reed space1 #ib reed1 #cj picks per quarter-inch1 #dj's twist1 #fj's weft4 #b;d4 per pick standard #ji #d per cent4 added for reed space ----- #bji #cace #ae per cent4 added for reed ------ #bdjce price per pick1 #ajj yards1 with standard picks #cj picks ------- #gbajej price for #cj picks #ajj yards #dj yards ---------- #ajj7bhhdbjjj ---------- #bhhdbjj price for #dj yards #bhhdbjj #aj per cent4 added for high picks --------- #cagbfbjj ,total4 ,from this must be deducted #aj per cent41 as per agreement1 which will give #bheece pence as the actual price to be paid for weaving this piece of cloth4 ,the following example includes the allowance for narrow cloth woven in broad looms3-- ,example4--,find the weaving price for #ch-;inch cloth woven in a #dh-;inch reed space loom1 #ej reed1 #ejg dividend1 #ej change wheel1 #ge yards long1 #cb's twist1 #cf's weft4 #b;d4 per pick standard #ji #d per cent4 added for reed space --- #bji #jghcge #cge per cent4 deducted for reed -------- #bjaafbe price per pick1 #ajj yards1 #ej reed1 #dh-;inch loom4 #ejg --- #ajad picks per quarter inch4 #ej #bjaaf #ajad picks #ge yards ------------------------------- #ajj yards #aebhcbah price for #ge yards #aebhcb #a per cent4 added for pick --------- #aedcfjej #fcgejh #dac per cent4 deducted for narrow cloth --------- #adgihedb price per list #adgihedb #aj per cent4 deduction ---------- #accahfhgh net price4 ,in making the additions and deductions it is important that they should be made in the above order4 ,the ,cost of a ,piece of ,cloth4--,besides the cost of material and the weaving wage1 the expenses of the manufacturer must be taken into account4 ,when a manufacturer makes only one kind of cloth1 his expenses will obviously not be so proportionately great as another manufacturer's who only takes a single order of a particular make4 ,the expenses also vary with the district and distance from the market1 and with other circumstances4 ,a manufacturer knows from experience exactly what amount of expenses to allow in different classes of fabrics in his own case1 and in quoting prices for plain or fancy cloths he usually includes under the term 8expenses0 all the items of cost from the carriage of the yarn to the delivery of the cloth1 including winding1 warping1 sizing1 waste1 and other fixed expenses in the mill4 ,the expenses are usually calculated in proportion to the weaving wage1 and a manufacturer quotes 8double weaving0 or 8three times weaving10 according to the class of fabric in question4 ,the following example will illustrate the principle of estimating the cost of a piece4 ,find the cost of a piece1 #cd inches full1 #ge yards s4s4 7short stick71 #ai #ah1 #cb's_/#dj's4 ,twist at #g;d4 per lb41 weft at #g;d4 per lb4 ,weaving #bs4 ,expenses equal to weaving4 ,the #cd-;inch cloth would stand1 say1 #cf inches in the reed4 ,the #ge-yards cloth1 8short stick10 or #cf inches to the yard1 will require1 say1 #gh yards of warp4 ,a cloth counting #ai #ah1 nominal1 is usually woven in a #fh or #gj reed1 and the picks per inch will be about #ff or #fg actually4 ,assuming that the cloth stands #cf inches in a #gj reed1 and the picks per inch are #fg1 we get-- #cf inches #gh yards #gj reed #g;d4 ------------------------------------- #ea4ahh;d41 cost of twist1 #hdj #cb's and #cf inches #ge yards #fg picks #g;d4 ---------------------------------------- - #dj4ch;d41 cost of weft4 #hdj #dj's d4 #ea4ahh cost of twist #dj4ch cost of weft #bd4jj weaving wage #bd4jj expenses ------- #aci4efh cost of piece #aas4 #g;d4 ,the amount allowed for expenses in the preceding example is perhaps sufficient for most cloths woven on dobbies1 but more is required for jacquard-woven fabrics4 ,if #aas4 #g;d4 is quoted for the above cloth1 the price is said to be based on 8double weaving40 ,for jacquard fabrics the price is usually based on #b to #c times weaving1 and in special cases1 such as new styles1 an extra profit is put upon the #c-times weaving4 ,sometimes the expenses are said to be #e or #aj per cent4 more than weaving4 ,if the weaving wage were #bs4 #f;d41 and the expenses #aj per cent4 more than weaving1 the expenses would be #bs4 #i;d4 ,contraction4--,the length of warp required to weave a piece of a given length will vary with the pattern or weave of the cloth1 and depends also on the elasticity of the yarn and the counts of both warp and weft4 ,owing to this difference in the elasticity of various classes of yarns1 and the variation in the elasticity of the same yarn at different degrees of tension1 it is impossible to lay down rules for the calculation of the exact warp length for a given length of piece1 or for the exact width in the reed for a required width of piece4 ,the length of warp required can only be obtained with exactness from experience1 especially in fancy cloths4 ,as previously stated1 twofold yarns are more elastic than single2 indeed1 with some kinds of twofold ,american yarns1 such as are used in velvets1 the percentage of contraction becomes less with an increase in the number of picks1 owing to the increase of tension upon the yarn1 which causes it to stretch more4 ,roughly1 the amount of contraction to allow in the warp can be obtained by taking into account the counts of weft and the number of intersections which the warp makes with the weft4 ,the thicker the counts of weft the more the warp will be bent out of a straight line1 also with an increase in the number of picks the amount of take-up or contraction will increase4 ,this does not vary in a regular manner1 as the angle which the warp makes in bending over the weft changes with any variation in the picks4 ,furthermore1 the greater the tension on the warp yarn the more it will stretch1 and also the more it will compress the weft at the point of intersection4 ,a rough estimate only can therefore be made if there is no previous experience in the same class of goods to guide the manufacturer4 ,a method of roughly estimating the percentage of milling-up of the warp is to multiply the intersections of the warp per inch by a number found by experience to give the right result1 and to divide this product by the counts of weft used4 ,for rather heavily picked cloths the multiplier #d gives a fairly accurate result1 and in cloths with a medium number of picks and medium counts the multiplier #c will be used4 ,in some classes of goods the multiplier requires to be #e2 but when a correct multiplier is found for a certain class of goods1 it will serve for changes in that class4 ,the system is certainly not accurate in all cases1 but it embraces roughly the different causes which alter the percentage of contraction or milling-up in the warp1 and is therefore of some use in practice4 ,example4--,find the length of warp required to weave a piece of #e-stave satin #id yards long 7#cf inches to the yard71 #id reed1 #ahj picks per inch1 #fj's twist1 #gj's weft4 ,the number of intersections per inch will be two-fifths of the number of picks1 as the warp intersects twice every five picks or pattern4 #ahj #gb intersections per inch2 and #gb #d ----------- #d per cent4 contraction4 #gj's counts ,the length of warp required to weave the #id yards piece would therefore1 roughly1 be #ih yards4 ,in a plain cloth the contraction is much more than in a satin1 and the percentage is greater in heavily picked cloths than light ones4 ,in a plain cloth of1 say1 #abj picks per inch1 #fj's twist1 #gj's weft1 the percentage of take-up will roughly be as follows3-- ,intersections per inch #abj #d --- #gj7dhj7f-f_/g per cent4 contraction4 #dbj --- #fj ,in a plain cloth the warp intersects every pick1 and so the intersections per inch are the same as the ends per inch4 ,in a 8two and two0 twill the warp intersects twice in four picks1 and the intersections per inch will be one-half the picks4 ,in more medium cloths the multiplier #c is used2 as1 for example3-- ,find percentage of contraction in a piece of plain cloth woven with #fj picks per inch1 #cb's twist1 #dj's weft4 #fj #c ----------- #d per cent4 #dj's counts ,in fancy cloths experience is the only guide as to the warp length required1 but in striped cloths and similar fabrics woven from one beam the contraction of the whole will be that of the tightest weave in the pattern4 ,in a fabric in which there are only a few plain ends in the pattern1 the other ends being loosely interwoven1 it does not follow that the take-up will be as much as in a plain cloth1 as the plain ends will compress the weft more at the point of intersection than could occur if all the ends were weaving plain4 ,testing ,yarn4--,it often occurs that only a short length of yarn is available for being weighted when it is required to test it for the counts4 ,if it is required to test the weft in a piece of grey cloth it is usual to take out of the cloth #abj yards1 or one 8lea40 ,this is one-seventh of a hank1 and therefore if the weight of #abj yards is divided into #a1jjj grains--the one-seventh part of a pound--the quotient will be the counts of the yarn4 ,the reason of this will be obvious when it is remembered that if the weight of one hank is divided into #gjjj grains1 or #a lb41 the result is the number of hanks in #a lb41 or the counts4 ,the counts are based upon the number of hanks in #a lb4 avoirdupois1 and as this weight is not suitable for weighing small quantities1 it is necessary to weigh them in ,troy weight4 ,as nearly as possible #gjjj grains ,troy #a lb4 avoirdupois4 ,example4--,if #abj yards of cotton weft weighs #bj grains1 what counts is it8 #ajjj --------- #ej's counts4 #bj grains ,if it is required to know the number of grains which #abj yards of any count should weigh1 the method of procedure is the reverse of the foregoing4 ,example4--,how many grains should #abj yards of #dj's yarn weigh8 #ajjj grains ----------- #be grains4 #dj's counts ,when testing the counts of cops1 it is usual to wrap two1 three1 or four cops1 in order to arrive at a more satisfactory test4 ,if two leas1 or two-sevenths of a hank1 are weighed1 the counts can be obtained by dividing the weight into #bjjj grains1 or two-sevenths of #a lb4 ,if three leas1 or #cfj yards1 are weighed1 divide the weight into #cjjj grains1 and the result is the counts4 ,if #dhj yards are weighed1 the dividend is #djjj2 if #fjj yards1 or five leas1 are weighed1 the dividend will be #ejjj2 if six leas1 or #gbj yards1 are weighed1 the dividend is #fjjj2 and when seven leas1 or one hank1 is weighed1 the dividend will be #gjjj grains1 or #a lb4 ,as it takes a considerable time to take #abj yards of weft out of a piece1 a shorter length is often weighed and the counts found therefrom4 ,a balance is extensively used which registers the counts when twenty yards of yarn are put upon the pointer4 ,this is a very useful1 though not always accurate1 method4 ,when any odd length of yarn is weighed1 the counts may be obtained by proportion1 thus-- ,if #cd yards of yarn have been found to weigh #h grains1 what count is it8 ,the yards in #a lb4 can first be found as follows3-- grains grains yards #h 3 #gjjj #cd #cd ------- #h7bchjjj ------- #bigej yards in #a lb42 and this divided by #hdj will give the counts1 thus3-- #bigej ----- #ceda counts4 #hdj ,from this we get the formula3-- #gjjj yards weighed -------------------- counts4 #hdj counts ,this is a very useful formula1 as when only a small piece of cloth is available to be tested it is necessary to get as near as possible to the counts from weighing sometimes only #aj or #ae yards1 or any odd length4 ,a calculation may occur in the following form3-- ,how many grains should #af yards of #bj's cotton weigh8 ,there are #hdj #bj #af1hjj yards of #bj's in #a lb41 or #gjjj grains4 ,then if #af1hjj yards weigh #gjjj grains1 how many grains will #af yards weigh8 yards yards grains #afhjj 3 #af #gjjj 3 #ff grains4 ,this may be stated in a formula as follows3-- #gjjj yards weighed -------------------- weight in grains4 #hdj counts ,staub's ,yarn ,balance is a small balance which is made to test the counts of very small quantities of yarn4 ,a template is given with the balance1 and the yarn is cut into lengths the size of the template1 about two inches4 ,one end of the balance is slightly heavier than the other1 and the number of threads the size of the template which are required to draw the balance indicate the counts of the yarn4 ,if twenty threads or about #dj inches balance the small weight1 the count of the yarn is #bj's1 and so on4 ,the principle is the same as if a #a lb4 weight were put on one end of a balance1 in which case the number of hanks required to draw the weight would indicate the counts1 because if #bj hanks #a lb4 the counts are #bj's1 and if #ba hanks #a lb4 the counts are #ba's4 ,the balance may be made to weigh any length1 according to the weight on one end of the balance4 ,the form in which it is usually made makes it specially suitable for testing the counts in small patterns of a few inches4 ,the test is1 of course1 only approximate1 as could only be expected from weighing so short a length4 ,if the foregoing examples are thoroughly understood1 the following will not be found difficult4 ,if a warp has #bjjj ends1 and is #ejj yards long1 and weighs #fj lbs41 what counts is it8 ,the ends multiplied by the length will give the total length of yarn in the warp1 and this divided by #hdj will give the hanks4 ,if the hanks are divided by the weight1 the result will be the counts4 ,the result may be obtained at once as follows3-- #bjjj #ejj ---------- #aihd counts4 #hdj #fj ,if a beam has #bbjj ends1 the counts being #dj's1 and the weight #ej lbs41 find the length4 ,by multiplying #dj by #hdj the yards in #a lb4 are obtained1 and multiplying this by #ej1 the yards of yarn on the beam are arrived at4 ,if this is divided by the ends in the warp1 the result will be the length of warp thus3-- #dj #hdj #ej ------------- #gfcf yards4 #bbjj ,a simple method of mentally calculating the number of hanks in a piece is as follows3-- ,a warp #hd yards long will contain just one-tenth as many hanks as ends4 ,thus a warp of #bjjj ends1 #hd yards long1 contains #bjj hanks4 ,this can be proved as follows3-- #bjjj #hd --------- #bjj hanks4 #hdj ,the number of hanks in a warp #hd yards long can thus be seen at once1 and it is a very simple matter to mentally calculate the difference for any other length4 ,the hanks of weft can also be calculated mentally in a similar manner4 ,if the piece is #hd yards1 the counts multiplied by the width and divided by #aj will give the number of hanks required for #hd yards4 ,thus1 find the hanks of weft in a piece #cd inches wide1 #hd yards long1 #fj picks per inch4 #fj #cd ------- #bjd hanks4 #aj ,the calculation is really simpler than it looks in the above form1 as the dividing by #aj can be done by simply pointing off the last figure in the product of the picks and width4 ,the formula may be proved correct by working out fully as follows3-- #cd #hd #fj ------------ #bjd hanks4 #hdj ,this system of mentally calculating the hanks is very useful1 as it serves as a check upon a full calculation4 ,the ,firmness of ,cloth4--,the number of ends and picks per inch which can advantageously be put into a fabric depends upon the number of intersections per inch in the pattern or weave1 and on the counts or diameters of the yarns used4 ,in a plain cloth woven with #cb's twist and #cb's weft1 the number of threads per inch which could be put into the cloth without undue compression would be a little more than one-half the number which could be laid side by side touching each other4 ,the reason for this is that the warp and weft threads interlace with each other every pick1 and therefore1 supposing that #aef threads of #cb's occupy one inch when laid side by side1 one-half of these threads would have to be left out to allow of the intersection of the weft between every end4 ,in a 8two and two0 twill the weft intersects once for every two ends1 or twice in the pattern2 therefore there are four threads and two intersections in the pattern4 ,it is obvious1 therefore1 that to keep the same firmness in the twill as in the plain cloth with the same yarns1 a larger number of threads per inch both in warp and weft will be required4 ,to keep the same 8firmness0 the threads must be kept as close together in one cloth as in the other1 and as in a plain cloth one-half the threads which occupy one inch are dropped out1 so in a twill with two intersections for four ends there must be one-third of the ends occupying one inch left out4 ,thus with #cb's yarn1 of which the diameter is #a_/aef of an inch1 there will require to be about #ajb threads per inch in a 8two and two0 twill4 ,a perfectly balanced plain cloth may be defined as a cloth in which the warp and weft yarns are equal in diameter1 and the spaces between the threads are equal to the diameter of the yarn4 ,if the diameters of yarns of various counts are known1 it is an easy matter to find the number of threads per inch which will produce the desired firmness in any simple weave4 ,the diameters of yarns of cotton1 woollen1 worsted1 and other threads are given by the late ,mr4 ,t4 ,r4 ,ashenhurst in an excellent little work on 8,textile ,calculations and the ,structure of ,fabrics10 which has done much to promote this branch of the art of weaving4 ,mr4 ,ashenhurst estimates the diameter of a #cb's cotton yarn at the #a_/adhth part of an inch2 but this is probably somewhat under the mark1 and in the following table ,i have taken #a_/aefth inch as the diameter of #cb's4 ,the variation in the thickness of any yarn1 and the fact that they are not strictly cylindrical1 renders measurements of little avail1 but taken in conjunction with an examination of a range of woven cloths1 the approximate or practical diameter can be estimated4 ,,table ,,of ,,diameters ,,of ,,cotton ,,yarns4 ------------------ ,counts4 ,diameter4 ------------------ #a #bg #b #ci #c #dg #d #ee #e #fb #f #fg #g #gc #h #gh #i #hc #aj #hg #aa #ia #ab #ie #ac #ii #ad #ajc #ae #ajf #af #aaj #ag #aac #ah #aag #ai #abj #bj #abc #ba #abf #bb #abi #bc #acb #bd #ace #be #ach #bf #adj #bh #ade #cj #aea #cb #aef #cd #afj #cf #afe #ch #afi #dj #agd #db #agh #dd #ahc #df #ahg #dh #aia #ej #aie #eb #aih #ed #bjb #ef #bjf #eh #baj #fj #bac #fb #baf #fd #bbj #ff #bbd #fh #bbg #gj #bcj #gb #bcc #gd #bcg #gf #bdj #gh #bdc #hj #bdf #hb #bdi #hd #beb #hf #bef #hh #beh #ij #bfa #ib #bfd #id #bfg #if #bgj #ih #bgb #ajj #bge #aje #bhb #aaj #bhi #aae #bie #abj #cjb #abe #cjh #acj #cad #ace #cbj #adj #cbf #ade #cca #aej #ccg #afj #cdi #agj #cei #ahj #cfi #aij #chj #bjj #cij ------------------ ,the preceding is a table of the diameters of cotton yarns from #a's counts to #bjj's4 ,the number given as the diameter is the number of threads which occupy the space of one inch when laid as close together as possible without compression4 ,a perfectly balanced plain cloth will require one-half this number of threads per inch1 plus1 perhaps1 #e per cent4 for the threads being forced somewhat out of the same plane in weaving4 ,relative ,diameters of ,yarns4--,the 8counts0 of yarns indicate the number of hanks in #a lb41 and therefore a given length of #cj's is twice as heavy as the same length of #fj's2 but the diameter of the #cj's will not be twice that of the #fj's1 as the yarns are cylindrical1 and the diameters will vary as the square roots of the areas1 which in this case are as #a3 #b4 ,if one thread is four times as heavy as another1 and if it is of the same density--which in these calculations is assumed1 although it is not strictly correct--the diameters of the two threads will be as #b3 #a4 ,for example1 looking at the tables1 the diameter of a #fj's is seen to be the #a_/bac of an inch1 whilst the diameter of a thread four times the weight1 viz4 #ae's1 is seen to be #a_/ajf of an inch1 or exactly twice the diameter of the #fj's thread4 ,the diameter of one yarn being known1 the diameter of any other may be obtained by the following rule3-- ,,rule4--,as the square root of one count is to the square root of another count1 so is the diameter of one to the diameter of the other4 ,example4--,if the diameter of a #af's yarn is the #a_/aajth part of an inch1 find the diameter of a #cf's4 7#af7 3 7#cf7 #aaj #d 3 #f #aaj 3 #afe ,ans4 ,in this form the calculation necessitates the extraction of two square roots1 and with most numbers would require the use of two fractions in the calculation4 ,by squaring all the three terms the calculation is much simpler1 as in the following example3-- ,example4--,if the diameter of a #cb's is the #a_/aef of an inch1 what is the diameter of a #ej's8 #cb's 3 #ej's #aefb 3 x#b or #cb 3 #ej #bdccf 3 x#b #ej ------- #cb7abafhjj7chjbe #if --- #bef #bef ------ #hj #fd ---- #afj #afj and #chjbe #aie ,ans4 ,as the diameters of yarns vary as the square root of their counts1 it follows that the diameters will always bear a certain relation to the yards in #a lb4 ,if this relation is once obtained1 it becomes easy to calculate the diameter of any yarn on this principle4 ,taking the diameter of a #cb's yarn from the table1 viz4 #aef1 it will be found that this is equal to the square root of the yards in #a lb41 less #e per cent4 ,example4 #hdj #cb ---- #afhj #bebj ----- #bfhhj yds4 in #a lb4 of #cb's4 #bfhhj #afd #h #e per cent4 --- #aef diameter of #cb's4 ,the number of ends and picks per inch required to make plain cloths of equal firmness from different counts may be at once seen from the table of diameters1 as one-half the number given as the diameter is required4 ,thus if a plain cloth with #gh threads per inch of #cb's is taken as the standard1 and it is required to make a cloth of equal firmness1 with #fj's yarns1 the number of threads per inch required would be #ajf4 ,in #bj's yarns about #fb threads would be required4 ,in #af's yarns #ee threads per inch1 and so on4 ,in twills1 or other regular weaves1 the following rule will give the number of threads per inch required of any count3-- ,,rule4--,as the sum of the ends and intersections in the pattern is to the ends1 so is the diameter to the number of threads required4 ,example #a4--;,how many threads per inch are required to make a perfectly balanced 8#b and #a0 twill cloth1 with #bd yarns1 warp and weft8 ,there are #c ends and #b intersections in the pattern2 therefore #c ends #b intersections #e2 and as #e 3 #c ends #ace diameter 3 x #c --- #e7dje ---- #ha threads per inch required4 ,example #b4--;,how many threads per inch are required to make a perfectly balanced 8#c up1 #b down1 #b up1 #b down twill0 with #dd's yarns8 ,in this pattern there are #i ends and #d intersections2 therefore as #i #d 3 #i #ahc diameter of #dd's 3 x or1 as #ac 3 #i #ahc #i ---- #ac7afdg7abf threads per inch required #ac --- #cd #bf --- #hg #gh -- #i ,one of the most useful purposes to which a knowledge of this principle can be put is in changing the weave of a fabric1 to find the threads per inch of a given count of yarn required to keep the same firmness as in a sample cloth4 ,it must be remembered that the word 8firmness0 is here used as implying that the space between the threads bears the same relation to the diameters of the threads in both cases1 or1 if the given cloth is perfect1 the proposed one will also be perfect4 ,suppose it is desired to make a 8two and two0 twill of the same 8firmness0 as a plain cloth made with #ajc threads per inch4 ,the yarns being the same1 the number of threads per inch required will be as the ends plus intersections in a given number of ends in both patterns4 ,in the above question the given cloth is plain1 with #ajc threads per inch1 and the proposed cloth is a 8two and two0 twill4 ,taking the same number of threads in each case1 we get-- ,ends ,intersections in ,ends ,intersections proposed twill cloth4 in given plain cloth4 #d #b 3 #d #d #ajc 3 x or #f 3 #h #ajc #h ---- #f7hbd ---- ,ends required in twill cloth #acg ,it must not be forgotten that it is necessary to take an equal number of ends of each pattern in this class of calculation4 ,in more complex patterns it is often advisable to take the number of ends which is the ,l4,c4,m4 of the ends in the two patterns in order to get a complete number of intersections in each case4 ,another ,example4--,if a 8two and two0 twill cloth is made with #acg threads per inch1 and it is proposed to make a cloth with the same counts of yarns in a 8#e up1 #b down1 #a up1 #b down0 twill1 how many threads per inch are required to keep the same firmness8 ,in #dj ends of the proposed cloth there are #af intersections1 and in #dj ends of the sample cloth there are #bj intersections4 ,then as #dj #af 3 #dj #bj #acg or #ef 3 #fj #acg #fj ---- #ef7hbbj7adf4h threads4 ,ans4 #ef #bfb #bbd ---- #chj #ccf ---- #ddj ,if it is required to make a cloth with the same number of threads as a sample cloth1 and to change the pattern and keep the same firmness1 it is necessary to change the counts on the following principle3-- ,,rule4--,as the sum of the ends and intersections in the sample cloth is to the sum of the ends and intersections in the proposed cloth1 so is the square root of the counts in the sample to the square root of the counts in the proposed cloth4 ,example4--,if a plain cloth has been made with #cf's yarns1 and it is proposed to make a 8two and two0 twill with the same number of threads per inch1 find the counts required to keep the same 8firmness40 ,ends ,inters4 ,ends ,inters4 in sample cloth4 in proposed cloth4 or #d #d 3 #d #b #cf 3 x #h 3 #f #f 3 #f -- #h7cf #d ,and #db #bjbe counts required4 ,this may be proved correct by referring to the table of diameters on page #cce1 where it will be seen that a plain cloth with #hb threads per inch of #cf's is 8perfect10 and a 8two and two0 twill with #hb threads of #bj's counts is equally perfect4 ,to change the ,counts1 the pattern and threads per inch remaining the same4 ,if a sample cloth has #gh threads per inch of #cb's yarn1 and it is proposed to make a cloth of the same weave with #ee threads per inch1 what counts of yarn are required to keep the same 8firmness08 ,this is simple enough4 ,the diameters of yarns vary as the square root of their counts1 and therefore as the threads in one cloth are to the threads in another1 so will the square root of the counts in one be to the square root of the counts in the other4 ,threads in ,threads in proposed ,counts in sample4 cloth4 sample4 #gh 3 #ee #cb 3 x or as #ghb 3 #eeb #cb #fjhd 3 #cjbe #cb #cb ---- #fjej #ijge ----- #fjhd 7#ifhjj7aeia1 or #af's nearly counts #fjhd required ----- #ceifj ,on referring to the table of diameters 7p4 #cce71 it will be found that a plain cloth with #gh threads of #cb's is 8perfect10 and that a plain cloth with #ee threads of #af's is also perfect4 ,therefore the above calculation is correct4 ,to change the ,threads per ,inch1 the counts and pattern remaining the same4 ,if a sample has #gh threads per inch of #cb's1 and it is proposed to weave a cloth of the same pattern1 but with #fj's yarns1 find the number of threads per inch required to keep the same firmness4 ,this is simply a continuation of the previous statement4 ,if the two counts are known1 the number of threads will vary as the square roots of the counts2 thus-- ,counts in ,counts in ,threads in sample4 proposed cloth4 sample4 #cb 3 #fj #gh 3 x or as #cb 3 #fj #ghb 3 x#b #fjhd #fj ------- #cb7cfejdj #aadjg #aadjg #ajf4h threads required4 ,the above may be proved correct by referring to the table of diameters4 ,a plain cloth with #gh threads per inch of #cb's is 8perfect10 and so is a plain cloth with #ajf threads per inch of #fj's4 ,the same principle must be employed if the warp and weft are of different counts1 or if the threads per inch are not equal in warp and weft4 ,example4--,a sample cloth is made with #gh ends per inch of #cb's and #ia picks per inch of #dd's4 ,how many picks will be required to keep the same firmness1 if the weft only is changed to #fj's8 ,counts in ,counts in sample4 proposed cloth4 #dd 3 #fj #ia 3 x or as #dd 3 #fj #iab 3 x#b #hbha #fj ------ #dd7difhfj ------ #aabib x#b ------ and #aabib #ajf picks per inch required #ajf ,one advantage gained by a knowledge of the principle of cloth 8balance0 is that the number of picks per inch which a given pattern or weave will take can easily be obtained by calculation4 ,this is of great advantage to designers for ,jacquard weaving1 as it often occurs that a design is made and the cards cut for a pattern which will not admit of the required number of picks of the given counts being put in the cloth1 which a slight alteration in the ground weave would have rendered possible4 ,to alter the ,weight4--,if the weight of a cloth is required to be altered1 and the same firmness kept1 the threads per inch and counts can be found on the same principle4 ,if a cloth is made heavier it must be done by using coarser yarns and fewer threads2 it cannot be done by using more threads1 and preserve the same 8firmness0 or 8perfection40 ,suppose a sample piece of cloth weighing #aj lbs4 is made with #ic threads of #de's1 and it is proposed to make a piece of the same length and width1 but weighing #ae lbs4 ,to find the threads per inch and counts of yarn to keep the same firmness4 ,the weights of two cloths will vary as the square roots of the counts if they are of the same perfection4 ,therefore-- ,weight of ,weight proposed cloth4 of sample4 ,as #ae lbs4 3 #aj lbs4 #de 3 7x7 counts or #aeb 3 #ajb #de to x #bbe 3 #ajj #de #ajj ---- #bbe7dejj7bj's counts required #dej ---- #j ,to find the threads per inch required of the above counts-- ,weight of ,weight of proposed cloth4 sample4 #ae 3 #aj #ic #aj ---- #ae7icj7fb threads required4 #ij ---- #cj #cj ---- ,then to make a piece of the same perfection or firmness as the sample piece1 and to alter the weight from #aj lbs4 to #ae lbs41 the counts must be changed from #de's to #bj's1 and the threads per inch from #ic to #fb4 ,to prove this is correct take a piece #bj inches wide1 #ajb yards long1 #ic threads per inch both in warp and weft of #de's yarns4 ,the weight of this sample piece will be-- #bj #ajb #ic ------------- #e lbs4 of twist2 #hdj #de and as there is the same weight of weft1 the total weight of the piece will be #aj lbs4 ,now calculate the weight of a piece of the same length and width with #fb threads per inch of #bj's yarns3-- #bj #ajb #fb ------------- #g lbs4 of twist2 #hdj #bj and with the same quantity of weft1 the total weight of the piece will be #ae lbs4 ,this proves the calculation to be correct so far as altering the weight goes4 ,to see if both cloths are of the same firmness1 the table of diameters may be referred to4 ,it will there be seen that a plain cloth with #ic threads per inch of #de's yarn is 8perfect10 and also that the altered cloth with #fb threads of #bj's is equally perfect4 ,it thus proves the principle of the calculation to be correct4 ,a lighter cloth may be made1 and the same firmness kept4 ,the formula is the same in both cases4 ,if a cloth is made lighter it must be done by using finer counts and more threads4 ,it cannot be done by using fewer threads1 as the firmness could not be kept and the required weight obtained4 ,in altering the weights of cloths some allowance would have to be made for the difference in milling-up with different counts of yarns and numbers of threads4 ,if a cloth is made heavier1 thicker yarns would be used1 and the warp length to give a certain length of piece would be different in the sample to the altered cloth4 ,but this is a comparatively small matter1 which can be adjusted with a slight alteration in the basis of the structure4 ,,index ,antiseptics1 #cb ,automatic looms1 #aih ,backed cloths1 with weft1 #bee2 with warp1 #beg ,barley-corn patterns1 #bce ,beaming1 press1 #dg ---- tension1 #dg ,beating up the weft1 #gb1 #he ----1 character of motion in1 #gb1 #gc ----1 distance moved by slay whilst the crank moves through given angle in1 #gd ----1 eccentricity of slay's movement in1 #gb2 cause of1 #gd ----1 effect of altering position of crank-shaft in1 #hc2 of reversing direction of crank in1 #hd ----1 force of slay in1 #gh1 #hb ----1 position of crank in1 #gb ,becks1 size mixing1 #cj ,brake1 #ie ,calculation for two or more fold yarns1 #cjh ---- of contraction for different weaves and counts1 #cbf ---- of cost of a piece1 #cbe ---- of counts of yarn from weighing given length1 #cbi ,calculation of diameter of yarn1 #ccf ,calculation of number of threads of given counts required to make a firm cloth in any weave1 #cda ---- of quantity of warp and weft in a piece1 #caa-cac ---- of reeds and setts1 #caj ---- of weaving wage1 #cbd ---- of weight of a given length of any counts1 #ccj ---- to make a cloth of equal firmness to given cloth when changing weave1 #cch ---- to preserve firmness and alter weight1 #cdc ---- to preserve firmness when changing threads per inch1 #cda ---- to preserve same firmness when changing counts1 #cda ,card-cutting machine1 #aij ---- repeater1 #aia ,casting out1 #bhe ,checks produced by re-arranging twills1 #bda ,circular-box motion1 #aae ,clearer guide1 #h ,clipped or sheared cloths1 #bed ,coiling motions4 ,see ,taking-up ,combined twills1 #bbf ,cop winding machine1 #f ,cording plan for hand loom1 #ej ,cords1 #bde ,corkscrew twills1 #beg ,counts of cotton yarns1 #cjg ,counts of two or more unequal threads twisted together1 #cjh2 and weight of each required in given weight of resulting thread1 #cji ,cover on cloth1 #hf1 #hg ,crapes1 #bdh ,crimp cloth1 #bdi ,damask or twilling ,jacquards1 #afh-agb ,design1 transferring from sketch to point paper1 #bha ,detached figures1 spots1 arrangement of1 #bgh-bha ,development of pattern1 #bhb-bhe ,diagonals1 fancy1 produced by combining unequal twills1 #bdj ---- figured1 #bhi ,diameters of cotton yarns1 #cce ,diapers1 #bcc ,dice checks1 #bcd ,direction of twist in yarns1 effect of1 #cjd ,dobbies1 timing of movements in1 #abi ---- undermotions for1 #acj1 #aca ,dobby1 the ,blackburn1 #abg2 knife motion for1 #abg2 character of shed in1 #abi ----1 the ,keighley double-lift1 #abc2 method of pegging for1 #abf2 double jacks in1 #abf2 character of shed in1 #abe2 made positive1 #abi ,double cloths1 #bei ---- bound by passing back pick over face end1 #bfa ---- bound by passing back end over face pick1 #bfb ---- plain clothes1 figuring1 #bfc2 bound together1 #bff ---- shed ,jacquard1 #aeg ---- twill cloth figuring1 #cjj ---- warp face1 #beg ,double weft face1 #bee ,double-beat slay1 #ace ,doup heald1 #agc ,draft1 arranging on point paper1 #bbg ---- the ,v1 #bcj2 patterns produced by1 #bcj-bcc ,drawing-in1 #c ,drills1 #bbd ,drop-box motion1 ,diggle's1 #ajg ---- in pick-and-pick loom1 #aaf2 connected to ,jacquard1 #abj ---- ,whitesmith's1 #aab ---- ,wright ,shaw's1 #aji ,drum winding machine1 #ac1 #ad ,edleston harness1 #aff ---- ---- designing for1 #bid ,extra warp1 figuring with1 #bej2 reeding of1 #beb ---- ---- and extra weft combined1 #bee ---- weft1 figuring with1 #beb ---- figure on mock leno ground1 #bed ,fancy effects produced by warp and weft pulling each other out of straight line1 #bdi ,fast reeds1 #ia ,figured design1 #bgh ---- leno designing1 #bie ,firmness of cloth1 #ccc ,gauze1 plan of1 #agc 8,gloy10 #cc ,grey warps1 preparation of1 #b ,hand-loom1 #dh ,hattersley weft-replenishing device1 #bad ,heck of warping mill1 #bb ,honeycomb designs1 #bdb ,huck patterns1 #bej ,jacquard card cutting1 #adb1 #aij ---- damask or twilling1 #afh-agb ---- damask1 ,tschorner and ,wein1 #agb ---- double-shed1 #aeg ---- for cross-border1 #aee ---- for leno weaving1 #aha ---- harness1 bordered pattern1 ,norwich tie1 #aea2 ,london tie1 #aec ---- centre pattern or point tie1 #aed ---- ,edleston's1 #aff2 designing for1#afg1 #bid ---- for all-over pattern1 #aci ---- ,london tie1 #aej ---- ,norwich tie1 #add1 #aej ---- machine1 origin of1 #acg ---- sizes of1 #aej ---- difference in character of shed between single and double-lift1 #acg1 #add-adh ---- double-lift1 single-cylinder1 #add2 principle of1 #ade ---- double-lift1 double-cylinder1 #adf2 advantages of1 #add ---- single-lift1 #ach ---- open-shed1 #aeh ---- pressure harness1 #afa-aff ---- split harness1 #afj ,jeans1 jeanettes1 #bbj ,keighley dobby1 #abc ,kenyon's undermotion for dobbies1 #aca ,lace and leno stripes1 #bfi ,lags1 pegging of1 #abf ,lappet loom1 #aic ---- wheel1 construction of1 #aie ,lappets1 #aib ,leno checks1 #bfh ---- crossovers1 #age ,leno effects1 #bff ---- full cross1 #aha ---- ,jacquards1 designing for1 #ahe ---- double-lift1 #ahf ----1 imitation of1 #ahf ---- net or lace1 #agf ---- selvedge1 #acb ---- weaving in dobbies1 #agd-ahj2 use of slackener in1 #agd2 arrangement of staves and pegging plan1 #age-agh2 shaking motion for double-lift dobbies1 #agh2 arrangement of slackeners for two doups1 #ahj ,letting-off1 #ajf ,linen yarns1 counts of1 #cjg ,list of prices for weaving1 ,new ,uniform1 #cad-cbb2 ,chorley1 #cbb ,loose reeds1 #ib ,marking mechanism in slashing frame1 #ce ,marseilles quilts1 #bih ,mildew1 #cb ,mitcheline1 #bii ,mock lenos1 #bdc ,mono-coloured warps1 preparation of1 #c ,multi-coloured warps1 preparation of1 #e ,net lenos1 #bfg ,northrop weft-replenishing device1 #baj ,oscillating tappets1 #fa ,padded cloths1 #beh ,patterns produced by combining alternate picks of twills1 #bdj ---- by combining equal twills1 #bbf2 unequal twills1 #bdj ---- by drafting1 #bbg ,patterns by fancy drafts1 #bch ---- by re-arrangement of simple twills1 #bcf2 and of combined twills1 #bcg ,pegging plan making1 #bbh ,pick-and-pick loom1 #aaf ,pick1 force of1 #fi ,picking1 over pick1 #fh1 #fi ---- under pick1 #ga ,pile fabrics1 warp1 #ahi ---- weft1 #bgj-bgg ,piqus1 #beh ,pirn winding machine1 #ae ---- ---- ---- disc1 #ag ,plain cloth1 #bah ---- draft for weaving1 #bai ---- number of threads possible in1 #bah ---- ornamentation of1 #bah ,plushes1 #ahi1 #bge ,point draft1 #bcj ,point paper1 selection of1 for different proportions of warp and weft1 #bij ---- use of1 #bai ,power-loom1 tappet shedding motions in1 #ea-fh ,preparatory processes1 #a ,presser roller1 expanding1 #bg ,pressure harness1 designing for1 #bib ---- harnesses1 #afa-aff ,primary movements in weaving1 #dh ---- timing of1 #he-hg ,protector1 loose reed1 #ia ---- stop rod1 #ib ,reeds and setts1 #caj ,ribs and cords1 #bde ,roller top motion for plain cloth1 #fb2 #c staves1 #fd2 #d staves1 #fd2 #e staves1 #fe2 #g staves1 #ff ,sack weaving1 #bei ,satin draft1 #bbi ---- weaves1 #bbb ,satin1 principle of construction of1 #bbd ,scotch dressing1 #db ,section blocks1 expanding1 #bg ---- tappets1 ,woodcroft's1 #ei1 #fj ,sectional warping1 #bc ,selvedge motion in sateen loom1 #acd1 #ace ,set figures1 arrangement of1 #bgh-bha ,shading1 #bhc ,shedding motions1 power-loom1 #ea-fh ,silk yarns1 thrown or net1 numbering of1 #cjg ,sines and cosines1 table of1 #ha ,singleton's stop-motion1 #ai ,size mixing1 #bh ---- ---- for light sizing1 #cj ---- ---- for fine counts1 #ca ---- ---- for medium sizing1 #ca ---- ---- for heavy sizing1 #cb ,sizes of patterns woven in ,jacquards1 #bhe ,sizing1 #bh ---- ball1 #dc ---- materials1 #bh ----1 slashing frame1 #cc2 slow motion in1 #cg ---- frame1 slasher1 marking motion in1 #ce1 #cf ---- ---- frictional winding motion in1 #ci ---- machines1 hot air drying in1 #ch ---- ----1 automatic supply of size to1 #dj ,slubbings1 #h ,solid coloured borders in dhooties1 #cjc ,split harness1 designing for1 #bib ,splits1 motion for1 #acb ---- ,shorrock and ,taylor's motion for1 #acc ,spreading the warp1 #he ,spun silk yarns1 counts of1 #cjg ,stitching-thread used to bind extra warp and extra weft1 #beb1 #bec ,stocks and bowls1 #fg ,stop motion1 weft fork1 #ic ---- ----1 in beam-warper1 #ai ---- rod1 #ib ,striped designs1 #bhh2 calculation of reed for1 #bhh ,tabby weave1 #bah ,taking-up motion1 negative1 #aja2 screw and worm wheel1 #ajc ---- positive1 #ie2 ,pickles'1 #ii2 new system1 #ajd ,tappets1 calculation for lift of1 #eb ----1 construction of1 #ec ----1 effect of treadle-bowl on1 #eg ---- for plain cloth1 #ej1 #ea1 #ec ---- for twills1 #ef1 #eh ---- oscillating1 #fa ---- positive1 #ei ----1 speed of1 #hg-ia ---- ,woodcroft's1 #ei ,terry cloth1 #ahg ---- loom1 #ahg ,testing yarns1 #cbi ,three-ply1 four-ply cloths1 #bfc ,toiletings1 #big ,traverse motions1 heart cam1 #i1 #aj2 mangle wheel1 #aa cloths1 #beh ,trial section1 #be ,twaddell's hydrometer1 #cj ,twills1 #bai ---- combined1 #bbf ,twisting-in1 #c ,twofold yarns1 cotton1 worsted1 silk1 #cjh ,undermotions1 #acj1 #aca ,undermotion1 ,kenyon's1 #aca ,v-creel1 #ah1 #bc ,v-reed1 #bd ,velvet1 common1 #bgj ---- cords1 #bgf ---- ,e#a1 #bgc ---- fast pile1 #bgc ----1 figured1 #cja ---- twill back1 #bgd ,velvets1 velveteens1 #bgj1 #bgg2 definition of1 #bgb ,warp line1 #he ,warping1 beam1 #ah ,warping mill1 #ba ----1 sectional1 #bc ,weaving wage calculations1 #cbd ,weft1 preparation of1 #f ----1 wet1 #f ---- fork1 #ic ---- pile fabrics1 #bgj ,weft-replenishing devices1 automatic1 #aih-bag ---- ----1 patents for1 #bji ---- ----1 ,northrop1 #baj ---- ----1 ,hattersley1 #bad ,winding coloured yarn1 #ad ---- drum1 #ad ---- from cops to warpers' bobbins1 #f ---- from ring spools to warpers' bobbins1 #f ---- from throstle to warpers' bobbins1 #f ,woodcroft's section tappets1 #ei1 #fj ,worsted yarns1 #cjg ,wrapping yarn1 #ccj ,yarn balance1 ,staub's1 #cca ---- twist of1 #cje ,yorkshire dressing1 #e1 #dg ,,the ,,end ,,printed ,,by ,,william ,,clowes ,,and ,,sons1 ,,limited ,,london ,,and ,,beccles