,transcriber's ,notes ,obvious typographical errors have been silently corrected4 ,variations in hyphenation have been standardised but all other spelling and punctuation remains unchanged4 ,footnotes are at the end of ,chapters4 ,italics are represented thus italic4 ,,introduction ,,to ,,the ,,scientific ,,study ,,of ,,education ,,by ,,charles ,,hubbard ,,judd ,,professor ,,of ,,education ,,and ,,director ,,of ,,the ,,school ,,of ,,education ,,of ,,the ,,university ,,of ,,chicago ,,ginn ,,and ,,company ,,boston ,,new ,,york ,,chicago ,,london ,,atlanta ,,dallas ,,columbus ,,san ,,francisco ,,copyright1 #aiah1 ,,by ,,charles ,,hubbard ,,judd ,,all ,,rights ,,reserved #bai4i ,the ,athenum ,press ,,ginn ,,and ,,company ,,proprietors ,,boston ,u4,s4,a4 ,,preface ,this book is the result of eight years of experimentation4 ,in #aiji the ,department of ,education of ,the ,university of ,chicago abandoned the practice of requiring courses in the ,history of ,education and ,psychology as introductory courses for students preparing to become teachers4 ,for these courses it substituted one in ,introduction to ,education and one in ,methods of ,teaching4 ,this move was due to the conviction that students need to be introduced to the problems of the school in a direct1 concrete way1 and that the first courses should constantly keep in mind the lack of perspective which characterizes the teacher-in-training4 ,in the years that have elapsed since #aiji the conviction has gained almost universal acceptance in normal schools and colleges of education that the ,history of ,education is not a suitable introductory course4 ,psychology has grown in the direction of a scientific discussion of methodology1 and the demand for a general introductory discussion of educational problems from a scientific point of view has often been expressed by teachers in normal schools and colleges4 ,in this period the writer has had frequent opportunity to try out various methods of presenting such an introductory course4 ,the results of this experience are presented in this volume1 which is designed as a textbook for students in normal schools and colleges in the first stages of their professional study4 ,the teacher who uses this book can expand the course to double the length here outlined by introducing schoolroom observation and supplementary reading4 ,the questions and references offered at the end of each chapter and the references in the footnotes are intended to facilitate such further work4 ,a set of questions is given in the ,appendix as a guide to classroom observation4 ,the obligations which the author has incurred in the preparation of the book are numerous4 ,almost every member of the ,department of ,education of ,the ,university of ,chicago has at some time or other given the course to a division of students1 and all have contributed suggestions and criticisms with regard to the organization of material4 ,special obligations should be noted in this connection to ,professors ,j4 ,f4 ,bobbitt1 ,s4 ,c4 ,parker1 ,f4 ,n4 ,freeman1 ,h4 ,o4 ,rugg1 and ,w4 ,s4 ,gray4 ,to ,professor ,e4 ,h4 ,cameron the author is under obligation for suggestions made after reading the manuscript4 ,to the authors and publishers whose works have been drawn upon for extensive and numerous quotations1 special thanks are due for courteous permission to use their material4 ,finally1 it is to the students who have from year to year passed through this course that the largest obligation should be acknowledged because of the suggestions which their reactions have given to the writer4 ,c4 ,h4 ,j4 ,,chicago1 ,,illinois ,,contents ,,page ,,chapter ,i4 ,,extending ,,the ,,pupil',s ,,view ,,of ,,the ,,school #a ,the pupil's view limited4 ,conservatism in the community as a natural consequence4 ,demand for a broad scientific study4 ,beginnings of the science of education4 ,effectiveness of studies of retardation4 ,a study of high-school courses4 ,an experimental analysis of a fundamental subject4 ,a study of the relation of education to general social life4 ,the scientific study of educational problems4 ,exercises and readings4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,schools ,,of ,,other ,,countries ,,and ,,of ,,other ,,times #ad ,the comparative and historical methods4 ,the ,american textbook method of teaching4 ,independence of thought based on reading4 ,european schools caste schools1 ,american schools truly public4 ,influence of ,european schools on the educational system of this country4 ,report of the visiting committee of ,taunton in #ahja4 ,adoption of the ,german model4 ,results of the adoption of the ,german example4 ,the reorganization of ,american schools4 ,origin of the high school4 ,education of girls4 ,higher education free4 ,american public schools secular4 ,the school system and its domination of the teacher4 ,exercises and readings4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,education ,,as ,a ,,public ,,necessity #cb ,the primitive attitude one of neglect4 ,compulsory education4 ,compulsion of communities4 ,later stages of compulsory legislation4 ,american education to #ahej4 ,compulsory attendance4 ,obstacles to enforcement of compulsory attendance4 ,newer legislation recognizing complexity of problems of attendance4 ,supervision a necessary corollary to compulsion4 ,higher education and public control4 ,public control adequate only when directed by science4 ,fiscal problem typical4 ,exercises and readings4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,investing ,,public ,,money ,,in ,a ,,new ,,generation #df ,the cost of educating an individual4 ,total school expenditures in the ,united ,states4 ,cost a determining consideration in school organization4 ,relation of school expenditures to other public expenses4 ,urgent demands for economy and efficiency4 ,expenditures in relation to wealth4 ,costs of different levels of education4 ,costs of different subjects of instruction4 ,costs of classes of different sizes4 ,salaries4 ,books and supplies4 ,the meaning of financial organization and educational accounting4 ,exercises and readings4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,delegating ,,responsibility ,,for ,,carrying ,,on ,,schools #fc ,class instruction given over to the teacher4 ,supervision4 ,sketch of development of a school system4 ,the community slow to delegate school control4 ,limits of authority and responsibility not clear4 ,statement by a public educating association4 ,what is a representative board of education8 ,the functions of a board of education4 ,how a good board gets the work done4 ,making the machine work smoothly4 ,report of committee of superintendents4 ,obsolete administration system4 ,status of superintendency varies4 ,district control discarded system of school administration4 ,an effective substitute to be discovered4 ,dangers of this period of adjustment4 ,organization under scientific principles4 ,control of school work through tests4 ,a study of the building needs of a city4 ,the errors of democracy4 ,exercises and readings4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,the ,,school ,,building #gh ,the building as an evidence of a community's educational views4 ,contrasts in plans of rural schools4 ,contrasts in urban elementary schools4 ,a high-school building of the early type4 ,the hygiene of lighting4 ,the hygiene of ventilation and heating4 ,hygienic equipment4 ,relation of equipment to the course of study4 ,modern school construction and costs4 ,the ,gary plan for distributing pupils and enlarging the scope of school work4 ,requirements to be met when the ,gary plan is adopted4 ,the construction of consolidated schools4 ,comparative statistics4 ,exercises and readings4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,grouping ,,pupils ,,in ,,classes #if ,transition to problems of internal organization4 ,economy a first motive for grouping4 ,social influence an important motive4 ,grouping in the one-room school4 ,courses of instruction in relation to the problem of grouping4 ,new problems of grouping in large schools4 ,fundamentally different views on the curriculum4 ,the ungraded class in graded schools4 ,cases where failures show the urgency of the grading problem4 ,efforts to adjust instruction to pupils4 ,readjustments of the curriculum4 ,problems of grouping in high school4 ,illegitimate reasons for promoting pupils4 ,experiments and studies which aim to supply both individual instruction and class instruction4 ,arrangement of the materials of instruction4 ,exercises and readings4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,the ,,traditional ,,curriculum ,,and ,,its ,,reorganization #aac ,importance of a study of the curriculum4 ,the specialized curriculum of higher schools4 ,problems of generalizing a specialized curriculum4 ,traditional character of mathematics courses in high schools4 ,suggestions of new subjects4 ,present-day social demands4 ,traditional neglect of industrial education on the part of the public4 ,the demand for revision of the curriculum4 ,summary4 ,exercises and readings4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,specialized ,,education ,,versus ,,general ,,education #abg ,present-day wavering between specialized and general training4 ,the theory of separate schools for different classes of people4 ,statement of principles4 ,public demand for a new curriculum4 ,commercial courses in high schools4 ,agricultural high schools4 ,part-time courses4 ,various types of trade schools4 ,the ,manhattan ,trade ,school1 ,new ,york ,city4 ,practical applications as parts of academic courses4 ,studies of social activities4 ,exercises and readings4 ,,chapter ,x4 ,,extension ,,of ,,school ,,activities #ada ,a general social movement4 ,credit for home activities4 ,bulletin for teachers3 home credits4 ,relation of home work to traditional school work4 ,after-school classes and vacation classes4 ,continuation classes for adults4 ,demonstrations as means of economic and social improvement4 ,entertainment as part of the educational program4 ,associations aimed directly at the improvement of schools4 ,correspondence schools4 ,principles required to systematize educational activities4 ,exercises and readings4 ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,principles ,,influencing ,,the ,,organization ,,of ,,the ,,curriculum #aef ,necessity of practical decisions in spite of confusion4 ,the doctrine of discipline4 ,the doctrine of natural education in the form of the doctrine of freedom4 ,concentration and interest4 ,popular attitude toward discipline4 ,examples of discipline and freedom4 ,natural education and recognition of individual differences4 ,natural education as training for life4 ,training in the methods of knowledge and general training4 ,examples of views on formal training4 ,prominence of curriculum in determining quality of instruction4 ,bases for judging curriculum and syllabi4 ,formal discipline and transfer of training4 ,relation of subjects to maturity of pupils4 ,summary4 ,exercises and readings4 ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,individual ,,differences #agj ,adaptation of curriculum to individual pupils4 ,low grades of intelligence4 ,differentiated courses4 ,tests of general intelligence4 ,exceptionally bright pupils4 ,sex differences4 ,differences in industrial opportunity for the sexes and corresponding demands for training4 ,household arts as extras4 ,demand for new courses for girls4 ,individual differences which appear during training4 ,democratic recognition of individual differences4 ,exercises and readings4 ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,periodicity ,,in ,,the ,,pupil',s ,,development #ahd ,recognition of periodicity in present organization4 ,the meaning of infancy4 ,the period before entering school4 ,the primary period one of social imitation4 ,the period of individualism4 ,early adolescence as a period of social consciousness4 ,the new school adapted to adolescence4 ,later adolescence a period of specialization4 ,the reorganized school system4 ,exercises and readings4 ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,,systematic ,,studies ,,of ,,the ,,curriculum #aig ,the curriculum based on authority versus the living curriculum4 ,older subjects products of long selection4 ,social needs and the curriculum4 ,systematic studies as devices for facilitating evolution of the curriculum4 ,a study of representative adults4 ,a study of current references4 ,a study of the mistakes of pupils4 ,prerequisites for higher courses4 ,administrative studies4 ,need of broad1 coperative studies4 ,exercises and readings4 ,,chapter ,,xv4 ,,standardization #bab ,tests and measurements of products4 ,earlier standards based on opinion4 ,objective and exact standards4 ,beginnings of the movement4 ,handwriting scales4 ,speed as a correlate of quality4 ,standards1 personal and impersonal4 ,social standards versus imposed standards4 ,comparison through exact measurement4 ,records as a basis of standardization4 ,studies of oral reading4 ,studies dealing with other subjects4 ,mechanical aspects the first to be standardized4 ,standardization and the science of education4 ,exercises and readings4 ,,chapter ,,xvi4 ,,methods #bbi ,meaning of the term 8method40 ,meaning of the term 8device40 ,personal methods and devices4 ,supposed conflict between methods and subject-matter4 ,two examples of modern methods4 ,object teaching4 ,laboratory method in physics4 ,spread of the laboratory idea4 ,reaction against the question and answer method4 ,inefficient methods of study4 ,organizing a school for supervised study4 ,organizing subject-matter for supervised study4 ,experiments in method4 ,method as a subject of scientific tests4 ,exercises and readings4 ,,chapter ,,xvii4 ,,classroom ,,management #bdb ,intellectual progress and social conditions4 ,social training general4 ,types of social organization4 ,social control through anticipation4 ,organization of routine4 ,punishments and rewards4 ,larger social organization4 ,attempts to classify unruly members of the social group4 ,impersonal discipline4 ,exercises and readings4 ,,chapter ,,xviii4 ,,selected ,,administrative ,,problems #bed ,programs and marks4 ,the total school day4 ,the class period4 ,physiological fatigue4 ,conditions like fatigue4 ,practical precepts based on study of fatigue4 ,administrative considerations controlling length of the class period4 ,adjustment of work within the period4 ,adjustment of credits4 ,the problem of grading4 ,experiments with grading systems4 ,the study of marks as an introduction to a study of the school system4 ,exercises and readings4 ,,chapter ,,xix4 ,,play #bff ,motives for cultivation of physical powers4 ,earlier attitude toward play4 ,play as natural behavior4 ,periods in the development of play4 ,play as natural education4 ,social necessity of recreation4 ,play as physical education4 ,the school and play4 ,surveys of children's play in cities4 ,systematizing instruction in play4 ,survey of recreational facilities4 ,play as part of the regular school program4 ,slow spread of modern attitude toward play4 ,exercises and readings4 ,,chapter ,,xx4 ,,health ,,supervision #bgi ,the relation of health to school work4 ,treatment of pathological cases4 ,school luncheons4 ,control of home feeding4 ,public attention to nutrition of children4 ,control of contagion4 ,the school health department4 ,difficulties of introducing health instruction4 ,health as a subject of instruction and as a mode of life4 ,exercises and readings4 ,,chapter ,,xxi4 ,,scientific ,,supervision #bhi ,evolution of the demand for supervision4 ,the principal4 ,other supervisory officers4 ,lack of public appreciation of central problems4 ,managerial training in relation to democracy4 ,the purpose of the present discussion4 ,studies of the community4 ,selection and management of teachers4 ,standardization by measurement of results4 ,an example of public recognition of the need of efficiency measurements4 ,scientific studies and central supervision4 ,scientific supervision4 ,exercises and readings4 ,,chapter ,,xxii4 ,,the ,,science ,,of ,,education #bii ,scientific methods of studying schools4 ,definition through enumeration of methods4 ,the history of educational theory and practice4 ,courses in psychology4 ,educational psychology4 ,statistical studies4 ,the experimental method4 ,extension of use of psychological methods4 ,studies of retardation4 ,school experiments and laboratory studies4 ,examples throughout earlier chapters4 ,studies of administrative problems4 ,method of comparison4 ,records necessary to scientific study4 ,subdivisions of the science of education4 ,rapid expansion of the science of education4 ,definition of the science of education4 ,exercises and readings4 ,,chapter ,,xxiii4 ,,professional ,,training ,,of ,,teachers #cjh ,increasing demand for professional training4 ,american normal schools4 ,american demands on secondary-school teachers4 ,german training of secondary-school teachers4 ,new courses in colleges and universities for secondary-school teachers4 ,the requirements of a standardizing association4 ,the ,california requirements the most advanced in the ,united ,states4 ,continuation training of school officers4 ,specialized training for administration4 ,contributions to the science of education4 ,exercises and readings4 ,,appendix #cba ,,index #cbg ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations ,,figure ,,page #a4 ,average number of high-school units in the approved schools of the various states of the ,north ,central ,association #f #b;,a4 ,pauses made in silent reading #h #b;,b4 ,pauses made in oral reading #i #c4 ,diagram showing the organization of ,german schools and ,american schools #ah #d4 ,proportion of public money spent for public schools and other items #ej #e4 ,distribution in the various grades of each thousand dollars expended for instruction #ei #f4 ,floor plan of a typical school building of the old style #gi #g4 ,floor plan of a well-arranged one-teacher rural school of minimum cost #hj #h4 ,an old and a new rural school #ha #i;,a4 ,ground plan of ,alabama ,school #hc #i;,b4 ,exterior of ,alabama ,school #hc #aj;,a4 ,ground plan of ,empire ,school #hd #aj;,b4 ,exterior of ,empire ,school #hd #aa4 ,record of nonpromotions and failures in ,cleveland1 #aiad #ajc #ab4 ,enrollment in private vocational schools and in public high schools of ,chicago #acc #ac4 ,individual differences in the number of lines read in a minute by pupils in the fifth grades of two schools #aha #ad4 ,average quality and average speed of handwriting of pupils of the four upper grades in ten schools #bah #ae4 ,speed and quality of handwriting #bbc #af4 ,distribution of grades in various ,harvard classes #bfc ,,list ,,of ,,tables ,,table ,,page ,i4 ,expenditures for public elementary and secondary schools compared for a period of years1 including also a comparison of population for the same periods #dh ,,ii4 ,per cent of total governmental cost payments devoted to various city departments #ea ,,iii4 ,cost per pupil in elementary schools and high schools in selected cities #ee ,,iv4 ,cost1 per thousand student hours1 of instruction in high schools in the various subjects of the curriculum #eg ,v4 ,the portion of each thousand dollars spent for instruction in each subject in each of the first six elementary grades #eh ,,vi4 ,percentages of failures in the chief subjects of instruction in the five high schools of ,denver in ,june1 #aiae #ajg ,,the ,,scientific ,,study ,,of ,,education ,,chapter ,i ,,extending ,,the ,,pupil',s ,,view ,,of ,,the ,,school ,,the ,,pupil',s ,,view ,,limited ,most people think of school matters from the pupil's point of view4 ,when they learned arithmetic and grammar1 or later when they studied algebra and ,latin1 each course was presented to them as though it were a perfect system4 ,the teacher did not confide in them that arithmetic probably ought to be revised by the omission of many of its topics1 that formal grammar is a very doubtful subject1 and that both algebra and ,latin are on the point of losing their places as required subjects4 ,the pupil sees the front of the school scenery2 the machinery behind is known only to those who conduct the performance4 ,it would be possible to multiply indefinitely examples which show that the pupil's view of the school is very limited4 ,what pupil understands the duties of the principal or the superintendent1 or of the still more remote and mysterious board of education8 ,where does the daily program come from8 ,who decides about textbooks8 ,why are school buildings commonly planned with large study-rooms8 ,most of these questions are never thought of by pupils4 ,everything in school life seems to have a kind of inevitableness which raises it above question or even consideration4 ,,conservatism ,,in ,,the ,,community ,,as ,a ,,natural ,,consequence ,the narrowness of the pupil's view would have less serious consequences if it were not for the fact that the pupil becomes in mature life a member of a board of education or adopts teaching as his profession4 ,then trouble results1 because there is machinery which must be kept running if schools are to be efficient1 and this machinery suffers if intrusted to the hands of those who do not understand its complexities4 ,one school superintendent1 who encountered vigorous opposition to the introduction of changes in the course of study1 wrote as follows3 ,the average ,american citizen whose schooling was limited to the primary and grammar grades looks with reverence upon the subjects there taught1 and refuses to concur in a change of the course of study for the elementary school4 ,associated with the average citizen is a heavy percentage of the teaching faculty of both elementary and high schools throughout the country4#a ,another superintendent1 who was more successful in bringing about reforms1 makes this statement3 ,people are more conservative in their attitude towards educational innovations than toward new adjustments to meet the demands of changing modern life in any other field of activity4 ,each adult is inclined to overvalue the particular type of training he received and to regard with suspicion any change which will tend to discredit this sort of training received at such an expenditure of time and money4 ,the schools are1 therefore1 the last institution to respond to the changing demands of modern life4#b ,,demand ,,for ,a ,,broad ,,scientific ,,study ,if schools are to be progressive and efficient1 they must be studied very much more broadly and comprehensively than they can be from the pupil's point of view4 ,the suggestion naturally arises that this broader study is a part of the professional duty of the teacher4 ,so it is2 but it will not be enough merely to exhibit the intricacies of education to teachers4 ,the whole community must be shown by scientific methods that the school is a complex social institution1 and that its conduct1 like the conduct of every other social institution1 requires constant study and expert supervision4 ,in this movement of opening the eyes of the community to the needs and nature of education1 the school officers must be leaders2 but their methods must be impersonal and exact4 ,,beginnings ,,of ,,the ,,science ,,of ,,education ,during recent years the demand for a thorough and comprehensive study of schools by scientific methods has led to a number of investigations which can be offered as an optimistic beginning of a science of education4 ,it would1 indeed1 be far beyond the truth to assert that science has settled all the problems of teaching and of school organization4 ,there is1 however1 a very respectable body of fact which has been clearly enough defined so that it can in no wise be set aside4 ,in certain details the requirements of a scientifically valid educational scheme are known and can be described4 ,the method of studying schools can safely be said to be established4 ,it is the work of the future to take up1 now this problem1 now that1 and by progressive stages to work out a complete science of school management and classroom organization4 ,it will be the purpose of subsequent chapters to define fully certain of the leading problems with which the science of education deals4 ,the remainder of this chapter will be devoted to a brief statement of certain typical studies1 which will make more concrete and definite the contention that the pupil's view of schools is narrow and that the teacher's view must be extended1 as must also that of the community at large1 if educational conditions are to be improved4 ,,effectiveness ,,of ,,studies ,,of ,,retardation ,first1 we may refer to investigations which have been made of the rate of promotion of pupils through the grades4 ,whenever a pupil fails to complete the work of a grade in the appointed time1 it is evident that there is some kind of maladjustment4 ,the pupil may be incompetent to do the work required of him because he is mentally deficient4 ,on the other hand1 it may be that the work is ill chosen and in need of revision4 ,the following statement from one of the leading students of education in the ,united ,states describes with clearness the problem and the progress made in meeting it4 ,just ten years ago the distinguished superintendent of schools of ,new ,york called attention to the fact that #ci per cent of the children in the schools of that city were above the normal ages for their grades4 ,this aroused widespread investigation1 which showed that similar conditions obtained in other cities throughout the country4 ,soon studies of this phase of educational efficiency showed that the same conditions which resulted in our schools being crowded with retarded children also prevented a large proportion of these children from ever completing the elementary grades4 ,about seven years ago this became one of the most widely studied problems of educational administration1 and in the past four it has been one of the prominent parts of the school surveys4 ,during the entire period hundreds of superintendents throughout the country have been readjusting their schools to better the conditions disclosed4 ,in these seven years the number of children graduating each year from the elementary schools of ,america has doubled4 ,the number now is three quarters of a million greater annually than it was then4 ,the only great organized industry in ,america that has increased the output of its finished product as rapidly as the public schools during the past seven years is the automobile industry4 ,it is probable that no other one thing so fundamentally important to the future of ,america as this accomplishment of our public schools has taken place in recent years4 ,there is every evidence that this is the direct result of applying measurements to education4 ,if the school survey movement now under way can produce other results at all comparable with this one1 we need have no fear for the outcome4#c ,the quotation does not tell us how the reform has been worked out4 ,that is a long story4 ,in some cities better teachers were needed and have been employed4 ,in a great number of cases the course of study has been revised4 ,sometimes smaller classes have been provided4 ,so on through a long list of details1 one might enumerate the reforms which have resulted from a careful study of the one fact that pupils in the schools were older than they normally should be4 ,a ,,study ,,of ,,high-,,school ,,courses ,a second type of study can be borrowed from the reports of the ,north ,central ,association of ,colleges and ,secondary ,schools4 ,this ,association has as its practical purpose the inspection of the secondary schools and colleges of the northern states from ,ohio to ,colorado4 ,the inspectors of high schools in seventeen states brought together in the report of #aiaf a number of exact statistics regarding #aabh approved schools4#d ,one set of these facts may be selected for special comment4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4 ,average number of high-school units in the approved schools of the various states of the ,north ,central ,association ,the full-drawn lines are proportional in length to the number of units offered in academic subjects2 the dotted lines1 to technical subjects ,the number of units1 or courses1 offered in high schools has increased rapidly in recent years4 ,especially marked is the addition to the school program of technical subjects1 such as home economics1 manual training1 and commercial courses4 ,the report here under discussion states that in all the approved schools of the association there is an average of #ba4ac academic units1 that is1 units in such subjects as languages1 history1 mathematics1 science1 and ,english2 and an average of #i4da units in technical or vocational subjects4 ,when we examine the individual states1 we find that ,minnesota1 which has a large state fund1 much progressive legislation on high schools1 and a vigorous state department of education1 shows averages of #bc4hg academic units and #ab4fe units of vocational subjects4 ,south ,dakota1 where the school system is new and economic conditions are much less favorable1 has averages of #ag4fb academic units and #f4df vocational units4 ,the more striking differences are those which arise not from economic conditions but from clearly indicated differences in educational policy4 ,ohio has an average of #bb4bd academic units1 which is high1 and an average of only #g4bf vocational units1 which is low4 ,on the other hand1 ,kansas has #bb4i academic units1 or just about the same as ,ohio1 and #aj4ac units in vocational subjects4 ,finally1 if we carry the comparison into still further detail by examining the schools in a single state1 we find in ,ohio one city with a high school of #hgj students offering #ah academic units and #e vocational units1 while in another city1 where the student body numbers #gaj students1 the school offers #bd academic units and #bb vocational units4 ,the comparisons are illuminating in several respects4 ,it is probable that most communities are ignorant of the fact that their own high schools differ from others4 ,the publication of definite facts with regard to the practices of schools would stimulate wholesome thinking on school problems4 ,the whole life of a school depends in very large measure on the course of study4 ,when there are such wide divergences as are here indicated1 there is clear evidence of differences in educational policies in different states and communities4 ,at the present time the accepted policies are often the products of tradition or accident4 ,they should be made subjects of careful study and either confirmed or revised4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b ,a4 ,pauses made in silent reading ,the vertical lines1 ,figs4 #b ,a1 #b ,b1 show where the eyes of an adult reader paused during the reading4 ,the numbers above the vertical lines in the two figures indicate the order of the fixations ,,an ,,experimental ,,analysis ,,of ,a ,,fundamental ,,subject ,as a third type of scientific study we may take certain recent laboratory investigations of reading4 ,reading is the most important subject taught in the schools2 yet there are the widest differences in the results secured with different pupils4 ,it is the duty of the schools to find out what constitutes the difference between good readers and bad readers1 in order that both classes may be improved4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b ,b4 ,pauses made in oral reading ,the numbers below the vertical lines1 ,figs4 #b ,a1 #b ,b1 indicate the duration of each pause in fiftieths of a second4 7,to reduce these figures to the unit adopted in the text multiply by twenty7 ,the method of these studies consists in photographing the reader's eyes as they travel along printed lines4 ,the number and length of the pauses are thus determined4 ,it is found in general that competent readers see more at a glance than do poor readers4 ,furthermore1 it is found that different types of reading are radically different2 thus there is a marked difference between oral and silent reading4 ,the importance of distinguishing these two types of reading lies in the fact that most of the teaching of reading in the elementary schools is by means of the oral method4 ,most of the demands of later life1 and all of the demands made upon pupils when they study textbooks in geography and history and the other subjects of the school course1 call for ability in silent reading4 ,the results of investigations can be briefly stated in the following averages3 the average numbers of pauses per line in oral reading for adults1 high-school pupils1 and elementary-school pupils1 reading passages of different grades of difficulty1 are #h4b1 #h4f1 and #h4a1 while the corresponding averages for silent reading are #f4e1 #g1 and #f4c4 ,these figures mean that the eye makes more pauses along a printed line when the reader is reading orally than when he is reading silently4 ,oral reading is therefore a more laborious1 difficult form of reading4 ,furthermore1 the time spent in each pause is greater in oral reading4 ,the averages in thousandths of a second for oral reading for the three classes of readers are #chj4h1 #cgb4i1 #cih1 while the corresponding figures for silent reading are #cjh4b1 #caa4a1 and #cad4e ,these figures show that oral reading is slow as well as laborious4 ,it would require more discussion than is appropriate at this point to bring out the full meaning of such facts as these4 ,enough appears on the surface of the results1 however1 to make it quite evident that the school ought not to emphasize oral reading in the upper grades as it does to-day4 ,the daily oral-reading drill in the seventh and eighth grades imposes on the pupils a slow1 clumsy form of reading at a time when they ought to be cultivating the power of rapid silent reading4 ,it is by means of investigations of this kind that each of the subjects of instruction is being examined1 and as a result schoolwork is increasingly developing effective methods of cultivating children's intellectual powers4 ,the work of analyzing each of the subjects will be slow and will require the coperation of many investigators1 but in several subjects1 especially in the elementary schools1 an encouraging beginning has been made4 ,a ,,study ,,of ,,the ,,relation ,,of ,,education ,,to ,,general ,,social ,,life ,a fourth and final example can be borrowed from studies made in the city of ,minneapolis of the opportunities for trade training in that city1 of the number of workmen needed in each of the trades1 and of the kind of preparation required for efficiency in each branch of labor4 ,an industrial and educational survey of the community was undertaken for the specific purpose of adapting educational organization to the practical needs of the community4#f ,such a study recognizes the fact that the school is but one among many social institutions and that the school must find its proper place in community life through a thorough scientific study of other more general social activities4 ,,the ,,scientific ,,study ,,of ,,educational ,,problems ,here1 again1 it is by no means asserted that the solution of the problem of training workers for the industries has been found4 ,it can1 however1 be stated with complete assurance that both the school and the community will proceed with greater intelligence if the facts are carefully canvassed in advance4 ,the spirit of patient1 detailed scientific study is more and more dominating the schools4 ,there are some who1 impatient at the labor involved in such studies1 would rush forward to radical experimentation4 ,fortunately1 even such rash reformers are becoming convinced that they need to keep records of their results in order to prove the success of the changes which they have made4 ,as a result1 they too are taking on some of the forms of science1 though they do not adopt the full program of patient study of conditions4 ,the result of a scientific movement such as is under way in education will be the cultivation of a broader conception than was ever possible from any individual point of view4 ,the pupil's view is narrow because he comes in contact with the school only at the point of application of educational methods to his own life4 ,the scientific view of education is broad because it places the school in its proper relations to other social activities1 because it defines the relation of the pupils and teachers to one another and to the material used for instruction1 and because it opens up all the results of school work to full inspection and evaluation4 ,this broad scientific view is the one which the teacher and the community at large should adopt4 ,,exercises ,,and ,,readings ,in every school certain changes are introduced from time to time in spite of the conservatism of the community4 ,let the student find examples of 7#a7 new courses of study1 7#b7 new methods of appointing or promoting teachers1 or 7#c7 new forms of organization1 such as the junior high school or departmental teaching4 ,after discovering innovations1 let him find how they were brought about4 ,what are the usual forms of school records and reports known to the student8 ,how could records be made of more value8 ,suggest methods of presenting the facts of daily attendance so that they can be readily interpreted by a community4 ,what are some of the interpretations that ought to be put on failures and nonpromotions in different kinds of cases8 ,is repetition of a course desirable for a pupil who has failed8 ,are failures more common in required courses than in elective courses8 ,when a required course is described as essential to the education of everyone1 what is meant8 ,let the student test his own rates of reading4 ,how should a college class differ from a high-school class in ability to read8 ,go to a library or study-room and watch the people read4 ,report the differences between individuals4 ,the readings which are most stimulating to students who have never faced the problems of school organization are those which call in question present school practices4 ,,dewey1 ,,john4 ,the ,school and ,society4 ,the ,university of ,chicago ,press4 ,this is one of the most stimulating demands for a reorganization of the school which has ever been written4 ,,rousseau1 ,,jean ,,jacques4 mile4 ,d4 ,appleton and ,company4 ,this is a book of great historical significance4 ,it is an indictment of formalism in education and a vigorous advocacy of naturalism4 ,,spencer1 ,,herbert4 ,essays on ,education4 ,d4 ,appleton and ,company4 ,this is a demand for a thorough reform of the school curriculum4 ,it is now nearly sixty years old1 but it is modern in its spirit4 ,,footnotes3 #a ,report of ,mrs4 ,ella ,flagg ,young1 ,superintendent of ,schools of the ,city of ,chicago1 for the ,year ,ending ,june #cj1 #aiae1 published as a part of the ,sixty-first ,annual ,report of the ,board of ,education1 p4 #be4 #b ,special ,report of the ,boise ,public ,schools1 by ,superintendent ,c4 ,s4 ,meek1 ,june1 #aiae1 p4 #eg4 #c ,leonard ,p4 ,ayres1 8,school ,surveys10 ,school and ,society1 ,vol4 ,i1 ,no4 #ag1 ,april #bd1 #aiae1 pp4 #ehj-eha4 #d ,proceedings of the ,twenty-first ,annual ,meeting of the ,north ,central ,association of ,colleges and ,secondary ,schools1 ,chicago1 #aiaf1 pp4 #ig-aba4 #e ,william ,a4 ,schmidt1 ,an ,experimental ,study in the ,psychology of ,reading 7,supplementary ,educational ,monograph of the ,school ,review and the ,elementary ,school ,journal1 ,vol4 ,i1 ,no4 #b71 p4 #dc4 #f ,report of the ,minneapolis ,survey for ,vocational ,education1 ,bulletin ,no4 #ba of the ,national ,society for the ,promotion of ,industrial ,education1 #aiaf4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,schools ,,of ,,other ,,countries ,,and ,,of ,,other ,,times ,,the ,,comparative ,,and ,,historical ,,methods ,the scientific methods of studying school problems1 which were illustrated in the last chapter1 can be supported and supplemented by a comparison of the schools of the present with the institutions of earlier times1 and by a comparison of the schools of different countries with one another4 ,such comparisons seldom serve as an adequate basis for the reorganization of school practices1 because the conditions in one generation and in one country are so unlike those of others that direct transfer of methods of procedure is dangerous4 ,comparison serves1 however1 to set in clear perspective the characteristics which distinguish each situation from every other4 ,if an ,american wishes to see the school system with which he is familiar from a new point of view1 the comparative method furnishes a kind of outside station from which he may look back and see facts which were by no means clear in their meaning when viewed from near at hand4 ,,the ,,american ,,textbook ,,method ,,of ,,teaching ,one very impressive difference between the schools of the ,united ,states and the schools of ,europe is to be found in the fact that class exercises in our schools are commonly based on assignments in textbooks1 while in ,europe the chief method of instruction is oral exposition by the teacher4 ,the word 8recitation10 which is often employed in describing a classroom exercise1 is an ,american term4 ,it originated at the period when devotion to the textbook was even greater than it is now1--when the pupil was expected to repeat verbatim the passage from the text4 ,in ,british books on education the word 8recitation0 appears only when referring to ,american practices1 and usually takes the form 8the ,american recitation40 ,in the ,german educational vocabulary the word has no equivalent4 ,the unique ,american method of reciting lessons learned out of a book can be contrasted with the ,european method by taking a concrete case4 ,if one goes into a geography class in a ,german school1 one finds in the hands of the pupils no book1 except that in the schools for the richer classes there may be an atlas2 commonly the wall map serves4 ,the teacher lectures on some section of the country1 and follows the lecture by questions which the pupils answer4 ,the advantages of the ,european method are that the pupils become trained1 attentive listeners1 and are able in answering questions to talk coherently for long periods1 imitating the continuous discourse of the teacher4 ,the disadvantages are that the information supplied is limited by the individual teacher's training1 and the pupils cultivate little or no independence in the collection and sifting of information4 ,the influence of the teacher is always dominant--often oppressively so4 ,,independence ,,of ,,thought ,,based ,,on ,,reading ,the contrast here pointed out is one of fundamental importance4 ,it can be adequately understood by a study of the history of ,american schools4 ,when the colonists came to ,new ,england they were bent on securing for every individual independent personal contact with the truth4 ,they had left their ,european homes because there dominating authority always stood between the individual and the sources of truth4 ,one of the first acts of the colonists1 therefore1 was to provide for the training of every boy and girl in that power which would make him or her independent1 especially in religion4 ,the early legislation shows unequivocally this motive4 ,thus in #afej ,connecticut passed a law which had a preamble very much like that of the ,massachusetts law of #afdg4 ,the preamble is as follows3 ,it being one chief project of that old deluder1 ,satan1 to keep men from a knowledge of the ,scriptures1 as in former times1 keeping them in an unknown tongue1 so in these latter times1 by persuading them from the use of tongues1 so that at least1 the true sense and meaning of the original might be clouded by false glosses of saint-seeming deceivers2 and that learning may not be buried in the grave of our forefathers the court decreed that whenever a township increased to fifty householders they should employ someone to teach all such children as shall resort to him1 to write and read4 ,so strictly did the early schools devote themselves to reading that arithmetic and1 in some cases1 even writing were neglected in the exclusive cultivation of the one art of reading4 ,later generations of ,american teachers and pupils have experienced a great expansion of the content of the course of study1 but the method of instruction has always been predominantly the reading method4 ,the large number of supplementary readers used in history1 in geography1 and in nature study keep up the traditions of a school which was from the first a reading school4 ,the social consequences of this emphasis on reading can be seen in the fact that public opinion in ,america is controlled largely by an appeal to the people through reading matter4 ,the importance of this kind of public opinion can hardly be overemphasized4 ,in a democracy there must be ability to form independent opinions1 and this is possible only where there is the widest training in reading4 ,,european ,,schools ,,caste ,,schools1 ,,american ,,schools ,,truly ,,public ,a second characteristic of the school system of the ,united ,states which distinguishes it from the systems of ,europe is described by the phrase1 coined in ,england1 8the educational ladder40 ,there is no limit in the ,american system to the possibility offered the individual pupil of going on to higher institutions4 ,the boy or girl who has completed the elementary course can go on to the high school and from the high school to the college and university4 ,this is not true anywhere in ,europe4 ,there the school systems are sharply divided into two wholly different and distinct lines of advancement4 ,the children of the common people go to one school2 the children of the aristocracy and richer classes go to a different school4 ,the school for the common people is limited in time and opportunity1 and does not lead into the universities4 ,thus the ,volksschule of ,germany1 which gave instruction before the war to #ib per cent of the total school population1 is an eight-year school1 teaching only the common branches4 ,the pupil who enters the ,volksschule cannot look forward to entering any one of the professions or any civil-service position4 ,he cannot be transferred from the upper grades of this common school into the secondary school4 ,the common school of ,germany is a social instrument for the perpetuation of a caste system4 ,the common people know their place because they learn it when they enter school4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4 ,diagram showing the organization of ,german schools and ,american schools ,the subdivisions of the lines indicate a year in each case4 ,certain of the important items of the curriculum are set down under the years in which they are first introduced ,the ,european school for the aristocracy1 on the other hand1 is organized from its earliest years with a view to preparing its pupils for the higher callings4 ,it is difficult for the ,american to understand how distinct this school is from the common school4 ,the term 8secondary school0 is sometimes applied in educational writings to both the high school of the ,united ,states and the aristocratic schools of ,europe4 ,but the secondary school of ,europe is entirely different from our high school4 ,it takes little children in the lower grades and carries them through4 ,thus the ,german ,gymnasium takes boys of the age of six4 ,these are received into what is called a ,vorschule1 or preliminary school4 ,after three years in the preliminary school the pupil begins his nine-year course in preparation for the university4 ,in some of the states of the ,german ,empire the pupil may be transferred into the ,gymnasium from the earliest grades of the common school1 but from this point on there is no commerce whatsoever1 in teaching staff1 in course of study1 or in pupil constituency1 between the common school and the school of the aristocracy4 ,the division in ,france is quite as strict4 ,in ,england transfer in the later years of the common-school course can be made1 but only on the basis of examinations4 ,the social consequences of such a division within the school system need no detailed exposition4 ,the hard-and-fast lines of caste are drawn very deep in any country where the boys and girls are marked from the beginning of their training by separation in opportunity4 ,,influence ,,of ,,european ,,schools ,,on ,,the ,,educational ,,system ,,of ,,this ,,country ,it is not enough that we should see this contrast1 however2 we must learn its fuller meaning by looking into the history of our own school system4 ,the fact is that we have not broken entirely away from the traditions of ,europe4 ,our elementary school was borrowed directly from the ,volksschule of ,germany1 and many of the readjustments which we are making to-day are nothing less than efforts to shake ourselves free from that disjointed scheme of education4 ,the time of this borrowing of the ,german ,volksschule is clearly marked in our history4 ,in the first three decades of the nineteenth century ,american schools were at a low level of development4 ,a vivid picture of conditions in #ahja can be given by quoting from one of the earliest school reports that we have4 ,the superintendent of the city of ,taunton1 ,massachusetts1 in a recent report reproduced this interesting historical document1 of which we may quote certain sections in order to show the kind of school organization which prevailed at that date4 ,,report ,,of ,,the ,,visiting ,,committee ,,of ,,taunton ,,in #ahja ,the committee chosen by the town to inspect the schools beg leave to report their situation and examination4444 ,january #fth1 #ahja4 ,your committee visited a school kept in ,rueben ,richmond's house instructed by ,mrs4 ,nabby ,williams of #cb scholars4 ,this school appeared in an uncultivated state the greater part of the scholars4 ,on the #bf of ,feb41 visited ,mrs4 ,nabby ,williams' school the second time and found that the scholars had made great proficiency in reading1 spelling1 writing and some in the grammar of the ,english language4 ,nov4 #ajth1 the committee visited and examined two ,schools just opened2 one kept in a school house1 near ,baylies works1 of the number of #dj scholars1 instructed by ,mr4 ,philip ,lee4 ,this ,school we found to have made but small proficiency in reading1 spelling and writing1 and to be kept only six or seven weeks2 upon inquiry why it should be taught no longer1 we were informed that the ratio of school money for this ,school was and had been usually expended in paying the ,master both for his service and board1 and in purchasing the fire wood which is contrary to the usual custom of the town4 ,the other ,school1 visited the same day1 was kept near ,john ,reed's consisting of the number of between #cj and #dj ,scholars instructed by ,mr4 ,william ,reed2 ,this ,school1 being formed into regular classes1 appeared to have made a good and pleasing proficiency in reading1 spelling1 writing1 some in arithmetic and others in the ,grammar of the ,english language4 ,this ,school's share of school money is expended to pay the ,master for his service only1 so that the ,school will be continued three months4 ,on the #hth day of ,december they visited a ,school kept in a ,school house near ,seth ,hodges1 in number #cj ,scholars instructed by ,mr4 ,john ,dunbar4 ,this ,school appeared in a good way of learning1 and to be kept four months4 99 99 99 99 99 ,on the #bbnd of ,december your ,committee visited two more ,schools just opened1 one in a ,school house near ,samuel ,pett's of the number of #dj scholars instructed by ,mr4 ,rufus ,dean1 and to be kept three months4 ,this ,school appeared to be in a promising way of learning in reading spelling and writing and to be regularly taught4 ,the other ,school is kept in the home of ,mr4 ,paul ,chase and taught by ,mr4 ,nicolas ,stephens1 consisting of #cj ,scholars1 and appears quite in a good way of learning especially in ,spelling for scarcely a word passed a scholar misspelled1 in writing some did very well and others in arithmetic appeared attentive4 ,january #hth1 #ahja visited two ,schools for the first time1 one in the home of ,mr4 ,william ,hodges of the number of #cg ,scholars1 instructed by ,mr4 ,lovet ,tisdale1 the other in the home of ,mr4 ,daniel ,burt1 of the number of #be ,scholars1 instructed by ,mr4 ,benjamin ,tubbs4 ,these ,schools appeared in good order and attentive to their learning4 99 99 99 99 99 ,feby4 #bfth1 visited ,mr4 ,dean's ,school #b times1 the ,scholars were crowded into a small room1 the air was exceedingly noxious4 ,many children were obliged to tarry at home for want of room and though the school was kept only a few weeks they were deprived of its advantages4 ,a want of books was the complaint4 ,the committee were anxiously desirous that this evil might have a remedy and were of opinion it may be easily done4 ,the ,scholars appeared to increase in knowledge claim our approbation4 ,march #eth1 visited two schools1 one kept at ,mr4 ,aaron ,pratt's of the number of #cj scholars instructed by ,mr4 ,philip ,drown4 ,this school appeared quite unimproved and uncultivated in reading and spelling1 some of them did better in writing4 ,this uncultivated state did not appear to be from a fault in the children but1 as your committee were informed1 from the disadvantage of having had masters illegally qualified for their instruction2 of which class is their present master unauthorized by law4#g ,the situation here described was typical of all the settled towns4 ,how much worse it was in sparsely settled districts one can easily imagine4 ,briefly put1 one can say that up to #ahcj schools throughout the country held short sessions in the middle of the winter when the pupils were otherwise unoccupied with home demands4 ,there was no supervision except by visiting committees1 no course of study1 little or no material equipment1 and small outlook for a higher education4 ,,adoption ,,of ,,the ,,german ,,model ,during the decade #ahcj-ahdj there was an effort1 especially in ,massachusetts under the leadership of ,horace ,mann and in ,michigan under ,john ,pierce1 to improve the common schools4 ,in an illuminating historical treatise on this subject ,mr4 ,f4 ,f4 ,bunker has reproduced some of the evidences that the changes made at that time in the schools of ,america were largely influenced by ,german models4 ,the following quotations indicate how the movement began3 ,charles ,brooks1 a man whose influence in ,massachusetts was great1 and who may be said to have prepared the way for the work of ,horace ,mann1 did very much to disseminate knowledge respecting the ,prussian system4 ,he was primarily interested in establishing a normal school after the ,prussian model1 yet1 during the campaign which he carried on for this purpose between the years #ahce and #ahch he did not limit himself to the consideration of the normal school alone1 but sought to acquaint the people with the details of the ,german system of elementary education as well4 ,his account of the return trip from ,england1 which he made in company with ,dr4 ,h4 ,julius1 of ,hamburg1 indicates the esteem in which he held the ,prussian system3 ,a passage of #da days from ,liverpool to ,new ,york 7with ,dr4 ,julius7 gave me time to ask all manner of questions concerning the noble1 philosophical1 and practical system of ,prussian elementary education4 ,he explained it like a sound scholar and a pious ,christian4 ,if you will allow the phrase1 ,i fell in love with the ,prussian system1 and it seemed to possess me like a missionary angel4 99 99 99 99 99 ,just at the time that ,charles ,brooks was laboring so diligently to incorporate in the ,massachusetts system the results of ,prussian experience1 another man1 ,john ,d4 ,pierce1 in ,michigan1 also an enthusiastic believer in the preminence of the ,prussian organization1 was laying the foundation for an educational system in his own ,state and building into it the best features of ,prussian practice4 ,it was mainly because of his suggestions to the chairman of the committee on education in the convention that framed the ,state government in #ahce that the article in the constitution respecting education was framed and provision made for the office of superintendent of public instruction4 ,mr4 ,pierce was appointed to the superintendency in #ahcf and at once began the work of preparing a plan for a complete school system4 ,before framing his recommendations1 which were submitted in #ahcg and which were approved for the most part1 he visited the schools of ,new ,england1 ,new ,york1 and ,new ,jersey4 ,prior to this1 however1 he had learned of the ,prussian system through an ,english translation of ,cousin's report4 ,this report of ,cousin's was first made known to the ,english-speaking people by ,sir ,william ,hamilton1 who1 in the ,edinburgh ,review1 ,july1 #ahcc1 commended the report highly and quoted at considerable length therefrom4 ,the next year 7#ahcd7 that part of the report which treated of ,prussian practice was translated into ,english by ,mrs4 ,sarah ,austin and appeared in ,london4 ,a ,new ,york edition of the same translation was issued in #ahce and widely distributed4 ,it was a copy of this edition which1 falling into ,mr4 ,pierce's hands1 profoundly influenced him in framing the system he later submitted to the ,michigan ,legislature4 ,in describing his entrance into public life ,mr4 ,pierce speaks of this circumstance3 ,about this time 7#ahce7 ,cousin's report of the ,prussian system1 made to the ,french minister of public instruction1 came into my hands and it was read with much interest4 ,sitting one pleasant afternoon upon a log on the hill north of where the courthouse at ,marshall now stands1 ,gen4 ,crary 7chairman of the convention committee on education7 and myself discussed for a long time the fundamental principles which were deemed important for the convention to adopt in laying the foundations of our ,state4 ,the subject of education was a theme of special interest4 ,it was agreed1 if possible1 that it should make a distinct branch of the government1 and that the constitution ought to provide for an officer who should have this whole matter in charge and thus keep its importance perpetually before the public mind4 ,mr4 ,pierce's indebtedness to ,prussia for many of the ideas which he worked out in the system which he organized is thus set forth by a later superintendent of the ,michigan system1 ,francis ,w4 ,shearman1 who1 writing in #aheb1 said3 ,the system of public instruction which was intended to be established by the framers of the constitution 7,michigan71 the conception of the office1 its province1 its powers1 and duties were derived from ,prussia4#h444 ,,results ,,of ,,the ,,adoption ,,of ,,the ,,german ,,example4 ,it is a striking fact that all this borrowing had to do with the common school4 ,nor was it inappropriate at that period that emphasis should be on the school for the common people4 ,in the young states there was relatively little higher education1 and the need was great for an improvement of the common schools4 ,the consequences of this borrowing were momentous for our history4 ,there are two characteristics which our ,american schools of elementary grade took on in imitation of the ,german model1 which characteristics have determined in large measure their subsequent development down to the present4 ,in the first place1 the ,german common school was strictly a vernacular school1 and1 in the second place1 it dealt only with rudimentary subjects4 ,the ,gymnasium1 or the school for the aristocracy1 was not a vernacular school4 ,latin and ,greek and modern foreign languages were taught in even the lower grades of the ,gymnasium4 ,furthermore1 the ,gymnasium alone taught such 8higher0 subjects as the higher mathematics1 while the common school confined itself exclusively to arithmetic as the rudimentary branch of mathematics4 ,in point of time the ,german ,volksschule1 as noted above1 conducted a course eight years in length4 ,the pupils completed this course at fourteen years of age1 when they were confirmed in the ,church4 ,the common school was the institution which ,america borrowed in #ahcj-ahdj4 ,the common school was set up in the ,united ,states as an eight-year school devoted exclusively to the vernacular and to rudimentary subjects4 ,but the ,american system developed4 ,the length of the school year increased1 and the number of pupils who are ambitious to go on into the higher schools has enormously increased4 ,in #aiag we were told by the ,commissioner of ,education of the ,united ,states that more than #a1cjj1jjj of the young people in this country were in the high schools4 ,even now1 however1 the eight-year vernacular rudimentary school of ,germany has its stamp on our ,american life4 ,as a rule our ,american schools do not permit a pupil to study foreign languages in the lower school1 even when we know that he is going on to high school4 ,the general exclusion of languages is due to the tradition that the elementary school is a vernacular school1 not to inability on the part of pupils to learn languages4 ,we will not permit algebra to be taught in the elementary school1 because algebra is not a rudimentary subject4 ,to be sure1 we have had a hard time trying to keep arithmetic in its position of exclusive domination of the elementary course4 ,we have grafted into the arithmetic all kinds of economic information about insurance and banks and foreign exchange4 ,we have exercised our ingenuity to the limit in inventing examples of a complicated sort in order to keep the pupils in the upper grades at work in arithmetic4 ,but through it all we have been kept from a rational development by adherence to the tradition of the ,german common school1--the tradition which treats higher subjects as the exclusive property of the aristocracy4 ,,the ,,reorganization ,,of ,,american ,,schools ,the day of reform is1 however1 at hand4 ,social pressure has gradually been making it evident to all that in ,america the elementary school cannot be a caste school4 ,the people are demanding that pupils who are to have only a limited schooling be admitted to some of the higher subjects4 ,furthermore1 there are enough pupils who go on into the high school to make it evident that the ,american scheme should be organized not with a view to distinguishing between the elementary school and the high school1 but with a view to combining the two into a continuous institution4 ,within the last five years there has spread rapidly a movement known as the junior-high-school movement1 or the intermediate-school movement4 ,this is essentially a reform of the seventh1 eighth1 and ninth grades1 and consists1 first of all1 in the introduction into the course of study of material which formerly belonged to the high school4 ,in the second place1 this movement recognizes the maturity of pupils in a variety of ways4 ,it adopts a form of discipline which throws responsibility on them4 ,it departmentalizes the teaching and offers electives1 thus securing the advantages of specialization4 ,the movement promises to reorganize our whole school system in such a way as to give us a new kind of national education4 ,america has at the present moment a closer approximation to a continuous educational ladder than any other country1 but the ladder needs a little splicing4 ,with the present enthusiasm for national development the splicing is likely to be facilitated4 ,,origin ,,of ,,the ,,high ,,school ,the foregoing statements extracted from the history of the elementary school may be supplemented by references to the history of the high school4 ,the first schools of secondary grade in this country were patterned after the classical secondary schools of ,england4 ,the ,boston ,latin ,school and the ,hopkins ,grammar ,school of ,new ,haven are examples of early foundations of the kind in question4 ,these schools were vestibules to the colleges1 and the boys who attended them--for they were schools for boys--were looking forward to one of the learned professions1 usually1 in the early days1 to the clergy4 ,the ,latin school charged tuition1 as do all the ,european secondary schools to-day4 ,it was an exclusive school4 ,it was not a part of the popular movement toward general education4 ,in an important sense it was a vocational school and illustrates the general fact of history that higher schools always had a vocational motive back of their organization1 whereas the people's schools of elementary grade were at first always missionary enterprises intended to spread religious training rather than vocational training4 ,parallel with the ,latin school and growing out of an entirely different motive was another institution which was very much more genuinely ,american in its character4 ,this was the academy4 ,the academy was often a boarding school to which boys and girls alike went for an extension of their education4 ,later the village in which the academy was situated took it over or made arrangements to pay for all the pupils1 and it became a free academy4 ,there were some other experiments in the extension of school opportunities4 ,in ,new ,england1 the oldest and economically most forward section of the country1 a ninth grade was added to the elementary school4 ,there are to-day in ,maine1 and to some extent in other ,new ,england states1 elementary schools with a nine-year course4 ,but the ninth grade never succeeded4 ,it was cramped by the ,german definition of the elementary school as a vernacular and rudimentary school4 ,to try to spend nine years rather than eight on the three ,r's was not productive4 ,the academy1 on the other hand1 knew no limits of this kind4 ,it reveled in such subjects as ,french and music and literature and history4 ,at last the ,latin school and the academy fused in the ,american high school1 and the high school took its place at the end of the elementary-school course4 ,the influence of the academy in determining this form of organization was very great1 for the academy was from the first connected with the elementary school1 while the ,latin school was in its early days an institution quite separate from the common school both in its organization and purpose4 ,,education ,,of ,,girls ,these sketches of school history could be supplemented by other discussions4 ,perhaps it will be well to comment briefly on the unique ,american attitude toward the education of girls4 ,in ,europe girls have only very recently been given opportunities of higher education1 and even now the opportunity is limited to the few4 ,we have undoubtedly made the mistake in this country1 in our enthusiasm for equality of opportunity1 of administering to girls a course of study originally designed for their brothers4 ,in due time we shall learn how to give to girls an education suited to their needs1 but there can never be any question among us about the wisdom of a higher education for women4 ,,higher ,,education ,,free ,it has also been noted incidentally that with us all education is free4 ,this has not been attained without much discussion and much legislation4 ,we shall later have an opportunity to treat more at length the fiscal policies of ,american schools4 ,at this point it is enough to note that ,american schools are what they are because they are free4 ,an interesting contrast can be drawn here between the practice in ,england and in the ,united ,states4 ,in ,england vast sums of money make a free education accessible to certain selected individuals4 ,the higher schools are not free to all comers1 as ours are1 but a bright boy--it is usually only the boy--who can pass a competitive examination is given a stipend1 which provides his tuition and often enough more to get books and1 if necessary1 pay for transportation4 ,the ,english theory is that it is the duty of the public to pay for selected boys1 but not for boys in general4 ,to the ,american it seems a little hazardous to select the leaders of the nation by competitive examinations given to eleven-year-old boys4 ,on the other hand1 the ,english think of our plan as wasteful because we postpone selection longer than they think we should4 ,the contrast here pointed out is enough to draw our attention to the unique attitude of ,american schools1 which are free to all and in this sense far more democratic than the higher schools of any ,european country4 ,,american ,,public ,,schools ,,secular ,finally1 we may point out that our schools are secular4 ,some of our own fellow countrymen do not believe in secular schools4 ,we are familiar with the practice of organizing parochial schools4 ,france and ,england have in recent years purchased secularization of their schools after long and bitter controversy4 ,germany gives instruction in religion as an important part of every course of study4 ,in some sections of ,germany the distinction between religious beliefs is carried into the school organization in such a way that one finds public schools set aside for the children of this and that sect4 ,in all schools the pupil has a right to instruction in his own particular type of religion4 ,in the ,united ,states the complete democratization of the schools has been possible because differences in religion have been rigidly excluded4 ,there is a common body of knowledge which can be administered in public schools without involving religion4 ,the decision for such a separation was made long ago in this country and is one of the characteristic facts in our school system as well as in our general civic life4 ,,the ,,school ,,system ,,and ,,its ,,domination ,,of ,,the ,,teacher ,the facts outlined in this chapter ought to create in the mind of the reader a vivid notion of what is meant by the words 8school system40 ,the schools of ,america or any other country have a kind of colossal personality4 ,the teacher who teaches a fifth grade or a sixth grade or a high-school class does not determine the character of the education given at these points in the system4 ,to be sure1 the teacher can do his or her work effectively or inefficiently4 ,the special methods employed may be well or ill adapted to their ends4 ,but above and beyond the individual teacher is the system which controls the pupil's progress in many subtle ways and determines all the main lines of his training4 ,the teacher who would succeed must understand this larger influence4 ,especially is it necessary that the teacher who aims to contribute to the rational development of the system through the scientific study of detailed problems become acquainted with the present characteristics of the system and comprehend something of the conditions which have produced these characteristics4 ,,exercises ,,and ,,readings ,among textbooks there are such striking differences that the student will be able after even a superficial analysis to see that their authors had very different ideas about the use of texts4 ,find a textbook which is intended to give the pupil a start in a study rather than a complete discussion of the subject4 ,find a text which is intended to be learned rather than merely read4 ,what parts of a textbook are addressed to the teacher and constitute teaching devices rather than material for students8 ,contrast the ways in which different teachers use textbooks4 ,are there teachers who neglect the book very largely8 ,when should a teacher lecture8 ,find specific examples of lessons which can best be taught 7#a7 by questions and answers1 7#b7 by written work1 and 7#c7 by lectures4 ,with regard to a given high school it is important to find out when it was established4 ,what was its first course of study8 ,with regard to courses for girls1 it is interesting to inquire how far classes in an elective system are chosen by boys and how far by girls4 ,why are conditions as they are8 ,the foregoing questions are asked on the assumption that the contrasts presented in the chapter are of value only when they make students keenly aware of the facts in their own environment4 ,the facts of history are valuable chiefly because of the light they throw on the present4 ,,brown1 ,e4 ,e4 ,making of our ,middle ,schools4 ,longmans1 ,green1 ,co4 ,this is the only history of ,american secondary schools4 ,,bunker1 ,f4 ,f4 8,reorganization of the ,public ,school ,system10 in ,bulletin ,no4 #h1 ,united ,states ,bureau of ,education1 #aiaf4 ,this shows how our present school system was organized4 ,,farrington1 ,f4 ,e4 ,french ,secondary ,schools4 ,longmans1 ,green1 ,co4 ,,farrington1 ,f4 ,e4 ,the ,public ,primary ,school ,system of ,france4 ,teachers ,college4 ,,judd1 ,c4 ,h4 8,the ,training of ,teachers in ,england1 ,scotland1 and ,germany10 in ,bulletin ,no4 #ce1 ,united ,states ,bureau of ,education1 #aiad4 ,,monroe1 ,w4 ,s4 8,development of ,arithmetic as a ,school ,subject10 in ,bulletin ,no4 #aj1 ,united ,states ,bureau of ,education1 #aiag4 ,this bulletin tells of the origin of the present methods of teaching arithmetic4 ,,parker1 ,s4 ,c4 ,the ,history of ,modern ,elementary ,education4 ,ginn and ,company4 ,this is a very good summary of the facts regarding the development of ,american schools4 ,,footnotes3 #g ,reprinted in the ,report of the ,school ,committee of the ,city of ,taunton1 ,massachusetts1 for the ,year ,ending ,december #ca1 #aiae1 pp4 #fh-gc4 #h ,frank ,forest ,bunker1 8,reorganization of the ,public ,school ,system10 in ,bulletin ,no4 #h1 ,united ,states ,bureau of ,education1 #aiaf1 pp4 #ba-bc4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,education ,,as ,a ,,public ,,necessity ,,the ,,primitive ,,attitude ,,one ,,of ,,neglect ,one does not have to go far from the door of any educational institution to find people who look on reading and writing--to say nothing of higher forms of education--as luxuries rather than necessities4 ,there is the parent who is willing to take his child out of school for the sake of the wage which the child can earn4 ,there is the negligent parent1 often himself illiterate1 who is utterly unconcerned about the education of his sons and daughters4 ,another kind of example appears in the boy or girl who goes out into the trades after a limited schooling and fails to keep up the type of intellectual activity which was cultivated in the school4 ,many a child who has been taught through years of instruction how to read makes very little use of his training in mature life4 ,an appeal to the history of civilization reveals the fact that there was a time when the opinion prevailed that education was unnecessary for the common man4 ,the earliest schools were for the aristocracy and for the professional classes4 ,schools for all the people are of comparatively recent date4 ,,compulsory ,,education ,in striking contrast with this attitude of neglect and indifference is the fact that to-day there are laws in all the civilized countries of the world compelling children of every social grade to attend school4 ,society as a whole does not share the slight esteem of reading exhibited by the man who takes his child out of school4 ,indeed1 society has gone so far as to set aside that man's judgment and to assume control of the child to the extent of insisting that the rudiments of an education shall be made universal4 ,society still leaves it to the individual to decide whether he is to study higher branches4 ,one may take algebra or not as one elects1 but not so with arithmetic4 ,the common interests of our common life dictate that everyone shall be able to count and to make accurate numerical statements4 ,people must know some arithmetic2 they must be able to read1 or they are a menace to public comfort and safety4 ,,compulsion ,,of ,,communities ,the full acknowledgment of the fact that education is a public necessity has developed gradually4 ,history shows us the steps by which this fact has been recognized in legislative action4 ,the first step was the adoption of laws requiring communities to provide schools4 ,we may put the matter in terms of contemporary conditions by referring to communities which would to-day be backward in this matter if it were not for state control4 ,thus there are sparsely settled districts or poor districts which cannot afford good schools1 or1 indeed1 any kind of a school4 ,the state is vitally interested in seeing to it that the untoward conditions in these regions do not deprive the children of an education4 ,in the later years of their lives the children from these districts will surely scatter to other parts of the state4 ,they will be less productive than they would have been if they had been educated4 ,it is much more economical for the state as a whole to take a hand in the training of the children than to have to support even a small number of dependent adults during the unproductive period of later life when the consequences of poor schooling appear4 ,in some cases the delinquency of a community is due not to economic stress but to shortsighted frugality4 ,here again the higher authority of the larger community must take control and force the backward group to give the children such training as will bring them to reasonable productivity4 ,the earliest legislation on this matter is of the type which was quoted in the last chapter1 where reference was made to the ,connecticut law of #afej4 ,such legislation was addressed to the community and enjoined on it the obligation to provide schools4 ,,later ,,stages ,,of ,,compulsory ,,legislation ,such compulsion of the community was followed1 but at a much later date1 by legislation compelling the child to attend school2 and finally the period was reached in the midst of which we live to-day1 when the state is taking a hand in the supervision of schools for the purpose of insuring as high and as uniform a grade of education as it can afford4 ,,american ,,education ,,to #ahej ,the first period of our national life1 during which we were very gradually evolving the conception of a need for public education and were setting up the requirement of schools in every community1 extended down to the decade before the ,civil ,war4 ,professor ,cubberley has given a very illuminating description of this period1 from which we may quote the following extracts3 ,during the early decades of the nineteenth century1 schools and the means of education made little progress4 ,there were among the founders of our states certain far-seeing men who wished for general public education1 but it was well along toward the middle of the century before these men represented more than a hopeful minority in most of our states1 and in the ,south little was done until after the ,civil ,war4444 ,to be illiterate was no reproach1 and it was possible to follow many pursuits successfully without having received any other education than the education of daily work and experience4 ,a large proportion of the people felt that those who desired an education should pay for it4 ,as the ,rhode ,island farmer expressed it to ,henry ,barnard in #ahdd1 it would be as sensible to propose to take his plough away from him to plough his neighbor's field as to take his money to educate his neighbor's child4 ,others felt that at most free education should be extended only to the children of the poor1 and for the rudiments of learning only4 ,still others felt that all forms of education would be conducted best if turned over to the various religious and educational societies of the time4 ,a system of public instruction maintained by general taxation1 such as we to-day enjoy1 would not only have been declared unnecessary1 but would have been stoutly resisted as well4 ,the best schools1 and often the only schools1 were private schools supported by the tuition fees of those who could afford to use them1 and most of these were more or less directly under church control4 ,not until after the beginning of the nineteenth century was education regarded at all as a legitimate public function4444 ,the different humanitarian movements which arose after #ahbj1 and which1 among other things1 demanded public tax-supported schools for all1 had not as yet made themselves felt4 ,the people were poor1 and indifferent as to education4 ,gradually1 and only after great effort1 this condition of apathy and indifference was changed to one of active interest1 though the change took place but slowly1 and differed in point of time in different parts of the country4 ,the ,lancastrian system of monitorial instruction 7by which a single teacher with the assistance of his best students1 called monitors1 taught hundreds of pupils71 introduced into this country from ,england about #ahjf1 for the first time made an elementary school training for all seem possible1 from a financial point of view4444 ,the idea that free education was a right1 and that universal education was a necessity1 began to be urged and to find acceptance4 ,the land grants of ,congress to the new states for the benefit of common schools greatly stimulated the movement4 ,the published reports of those who had visited ,pestalozzi's school in ,switzerland1 and had examined the new state school system in ,prussia1 were extensively read4 ,the moral and economic advantages of schools were set forth at length in resolutions1 speeches1 pamphlets1 magazines1 and books4 99 99 99 99 99 ,just when this change took place cannot be definitely stated4 ,roughly speaking1 it began about #ahbe and was accomplished by #ahej in the ,northern states4 ,it was a gradual change rather than a sudden one1 though rapid advances were at times made4 ,the movement everywhere was greatly stimulated by the educational revival inaugurated by ,horace ,mann in ,massachusetts in #ahcg4 ,in the ,southern states1 with one or two exceptions1 little was accomplished until after the ,civil ,war and the ,reconstruction ,period were over4 ,almost everywhere it took place only after prolonged agitation1 and ofttimes only after a bitter struggle4 ,the indifference of legislatures1 the unwillingness of taxpayers to assume the burdens of general taxation1 the small sense of local responsibility1 the satisfaction with existing conditions1 the old aristocratic conception of education1 the pauper and charity-school idea1 and frequently the opposition of denominational and private schools1--all of these had to be met and overcome4 ,the referendum was tried in a number of states1 and sometimes more than once2 in others1 the question of free schools became a vital political issue4444 ,by #ahej1 the principle of tax-supported schools had been generally accepted in all of the ,northern states1 and the beginnings of free schools made in some of the ,southern states4 ,six state normal schools had been established1 a number of states had provided for ,state ,superintendents of ,common ,schools and for ex-officio ,state ,boards of ,education1 and the movement for state control of education had begun4 ,it may be said that it had not become a settled conviction with a majority of the people that the provision of some form of free education was a duty of the state1 and that such education contributed in a general way1 though just how was not at that time clear1 to the moral uplift of the people1 to a higher civic virtue1 and to increased economic returns to the state4 ,a new conception of free public education as a birthright of the child on the one hand1 and as an exercise of the state's inherent right to self-preservation and improvement on the other1 had taken the place of the earlier conception of schools as merely a coperative effort1 based on economy1 and for the instruction of youth merely in the rudiments of learning4#i ,,compulsory ,,attendance ,the second stage in the development of a public educational system was reached when the states began to see that children must be compelled to go to school4 ,in #aheb ,massachusetts passed the first compulsory-education law4 ,in #ahfd the ,district of ,columbia followed4 ,in #ahfg came ,vermont2 in #ahga1 ,new ,hampshire1 ,michigan1 and ,washington4#aj ,from that time on the other states have been enacting such laws4 ,the ,southern states1 which before the ,civil ,war had practically no public-school system and after the war were economically depressed1 were the last to pass compulsory-attendance acts4 ,without attempting to deal with the remoter historical development of such legislation1 it is possible to show by reference to contemporary reports the difficulties in securing and enforcing such laws4 ,two quotations from the reports of the ,commissioner of ,education of the ,united ,states indicate the present conditions with regard to compulsory attendance4 ,the report of #aiae makes the following statement3 ,the year #aiae was a notable year for the cause of compulsory school attendance4 ,four ,states--,south ,carolina1 ,florida1 ,alabama1 and ,texas--which did not have laws on the subject1 enacted laws at the last sessions of their legislatures4 ,this new extension of the compulsory attendance area carries required attendance at school into the section where it has hitherto met the most stubborn resistance2 the area now practically includes the entire ,united ,states1 ,georgia and ,mississippi alone remaining without laws on the subject4#aa ,the report of #aiaf supplements this statement as follows3 ,efforts were made to secure the enactment of attendance laws in both of these ,states ,georgia and ,mississippi in #aiaf1 and in the former the effort was successful4 ,the new law of ,georgia1 in brief1 requires the attendance of every child between #h and #ad years of age for four months each year4 ,exemptions from this requirement apply to those who have completed the fourth grade of school work2 those upon whom needy members of the family are dependent for support2 those whose parents or guardians are unable to provide the necessary books and clothing1 unless the same are otherwise provided2 those whose services are needed for farm emergencies2 those who are mentally or physically incapable2 and those who reside more than #c miles from school4 ,boards of education of counties and of cities and towns are intrusted with the enforcement of the law in their respective jurisdictions4#ab ,,obstacles ,,to ,,enforcement ,,of ,,compulsory ,,attendance ,the enactment of laws is only one step in securing attendance4 ,especially is there difficulty where local authorities are intrusted with the enforcement of the laws4 ,the records of school operations in the ,northern states show that compulsory education was not really enforced until in the '#hj's and later4 ,the sort of difficulty encountered is clearly illustrated by a clipping from the ,statesman1 a daily paper of ,austin1 ,texas1 which sets forth the situation late in #aiaf under the ,texas law1 which was then just beginning to be effective4 ,the compulsory school attendance law will be effective during the coming year4 ,the compulsory term of the first year of the law's operation will be three months1 or #fj school days1 and the board of trustees of each school has the authority to specify the months during which attendance shall be compulsory4 ,the ,austin ,city ,school ,board has ruled that the compulsory term shall begin ,january #a4 ,the matter of providing truant officers has not yet been dealt with1 either by the ,city ,school ,board or by the ,county ,board of ,education4 ,the law provides #b a day as remuneration to the truant officer for the time actually served by him4 ,the ,city ,superintendent believes that the logical procedure for the city will be to secure the services of the county probation officer1 provided it is found practicable for him to take on the additional duties4 ,the ,county ,board of ,education meets next ,monday and will probably discuss this matter4 ,it cannot act1 however1 except on the petition of fifty citizens4 ,in case no such petition is presented1 the ,county ,superintendent says that it will devolve on each school principal to report to the ,county ,superintendent those children who are not in school1 and she can call on any peace officer to execute the law4 ,it is not thought likely that the probation officer will find it possible to act as truant officer for the county4 ,the reason why the beginning of the compulsory period was placed so late as ,january #a is that many of the children likely to be affected--largely ,mexicans and negroes--will be needed in the cotton patch during the fall4 ,also in the city1 many poor boys and girls will be able to earn something during the ,christmas holidays4 ,there are serious objections to the plan1 however1 since the child who enters school so late in the session will be at a serious disadvantage1 and the extra attention he will demand of the teacher will work a hardship on the other pupils4 ,moreover1 in the city the school session is divided into two equal periods1 the first of which ends only a month after the child is required to begin attendance4 ,this will involve serious difficulties4 ,the compulsory attendance law applies to children eight to fourteen years of age1 with certain exceptions4 ,the compulsory term the second year will be eighty days1 the third year #ajj days4 ,defective children are exempted2 also rural children more than #b miles from a school1 and on the written statement of a parent that the services of her child of twelve years or more who has reached the fourth grade are needed for the mother's support1 such a child may be exempted4 ,even a casual reading of this quotation calls attention to the fact that there is the keenest competition between employment and education4 ,the modern industrial system finds children profitable for certain purposes and uses them4 ,if society is to enforce its judgment that these children ought to be in school1 that judgment will have to express itself in mandatory terms4 ,the federal government has recently taken a hand in the matter4 ,it is difficult or impossible in some states to get suitable legislation against the exploitation of child labor by unprincipled employers4 ,state legislatures have too often shown themselves subservient to the dictates of such employers4 ,in #aiaf the ,congress of the ,united ,states passed a law restricting child labor in all trades which produce commodities intended for use in interstate commerce4 ,this federal law is another expression of the judgment of civilization that childhood is a period which should be devoted to education4 ,it is also shown in the ,texas quotation that the machinery for keeping account of children is complicated4 ,the ordinary school authorities cannot deal with the matter without adding attendance officers to their staff4 ,these officers must be supplied with adequate information4 ,this in turn calls for a special school census1 because the ordinary national enumeration and even the state and city enumerations are not frequent nor complete enough4 ,one of the most progressive of the ,new ,england states has recently adopted legislation looking to the creation of a more adequate system of records4 ,this new law is described in the ,commissioner's ,report of #aiaf as follows3 ,in order to facilitate the enforcement of its attendance law1 ,massachusetts provided in #aiaf for the registration of minors4 ,city and town school committees are required under the new law to ascertain the name1 age1 and other essential facts respecting every child between #e and #g1 between #g and #ad1 and between #ad and #af years of age1 and respecting minors over #af years of age who cannot read and write4 ,a card giving these data must be kept for every child or minor4 ,the attendance officer is required to examine these cards and see that children attend school as required by law4 ,supervisory officers of private schools must within #cj days report the enrollment of children of compulsory attendance age1 and when any child withdraws from school must report the same within #aj days4#ac ,,newer ,,legislation ,,recognizing ,,complexity ,,of ,,problems ,,of ,,attendance ,definitions of the period of compulsory attendance are usually based on the number of grades in the elementary school4 ,laws commonly specify the age of beginning as six and fix the age of fourteen as the upper limit4 ,sometimes the age of beginning is higher4 ,for example1 the #aiae law in ,south ,carolina is thus described by the ,commissioner of ,education3 ,the #aiae act of ,south ,carolina is a local option law4 ,upon petition of a majority of the qualified electors of a district or 8aggregation of districts10 the county board of education is required to declare the law in effect in such district or districts1 or1 on petition of one-fourth of the electors1 an election must be held to determine the matter4 ,all children between the ages of #h and #ad who are physically able and who reside within #b miles of school are required to attend for the full term1 or at least for four months4 ,children between the ages of #ad and #af are required to attend unless lawfully employed or if they can not read and write simple ,english sentences4#ad ,the provisions of this law show how complicated is the social situation with which the community deals in its compulsory laws4 ,the assumption that it is simple to define the necessary schooling for a future citizen is easily refuted by a little consideration4 ,in the first place1 pupils do not go through the elementary schools without interruption2 hence the mere specifying of a given age such as fourteen is not enough4 ,non-promotion1 or the removal of the family to another town1 or some misfortune such as sickness may delay the pupil so that he reaches the age of fourteen in one of the lower grades4 ,intelligent legislation is1 accordingly1 taking this into account4 ,in some states it is required that the child shall finish a certain grade1--usually the sixth1--otherwise he must go to school until he is sixteen4 ,or1 as in ,south ,carolina1 he must stay in school until he has acquired the ability to read and write4 ,in this connection a complication in legislation may be pointed out which is of profound social significance4 ,the definition of adulthood which is given in labor legislation has usually set the age at which a boy may be regularly employed1 at sixteen1 while the education law of the same state often requires school attendance only up to fourteen4 ,the result is that the youth between fourteen and sixteen has been sadly at sea4 ,he has not had the judgment to stay in school after he was freed by the compulsory-education law1 and he has not had the opportunity to enter on regular employment4 ,he has therefore drifted about1 working at odd jobs and learning the bad habits of the unproductively employed4 ,,supervision ,a ,,necessary ,,corollary ,,to ,,compulsion ,such considerations as these lead to a clear understanding of the reasons why the state is undertaking in increasing degree the supervision of the details of school work4 ,it is not enough that communities should open schools or that pupils should be compelled to attend2 the quality of education must be such as to justify the expenditure of public money and the investment of the pupils' time and energy in the business of schooling4 ,compulsory education implies obligations both on the side of the pupil and on the side of the community4 ,it would manifestly be inequitable to compel children to go to school if the community failed to provide suitable1 safe1 and sanitary buildings4 ,because local wisdom in such matters is often limited1 and local judgment biased by considerations of expense1 the state has dealt with the matter both through general legislation and through vigorous inspection4 ,in like fashion it would evidently be indefensible to require pupils to go to school and use inferior textbooks or be instructed by unqualified teachers4 ,here again the larger community has found it necessary to take a hand4 ,state adoption of textbooks is not uncommon1 and state certification of teachers is becoming universal4 ,more important1 perhaps1 than anything else is the choice of the subject-matter of instruction4 ,to the ordinary man1 as indicated in an earlier chapter1 subject-matter seems to choose itself2 but it does not4 ,nor can the local community be expected to know the larger needs of its children4 ,a very striking example of this is furnished by the fact that the federal government has recently set aside vast sums of money for the purpose of subsidizing and directing agricultural and industrial education4 ,the theory back of this action is that even the states1 and more certainly cities and towns1 are unable to deal with the problems of adequate training for practical life4 ,the largest unit1 namely1 the whole country1 is so much concerned with the efficiency of its citizens in industrial matters that it has undertaken to subsidize and supervise this phase of education4 ,such examples make clear the principle under which state laws define the minimum course of study and under which state departments of education are erected to supervise the administration of the course of study4 ,they make clear also the justification for the statement that the control of education ought to be increasingly centralized4 ,,higher ,,education ,,and ,,public ,,control ,there is one aspect of the educational demands of a community which is usually thought of as lying entirely outside the scope of the compulsory-education law4 ,it is ordinarily thought that higher education is a purely individual matter4 ,in the older parts of the country the state has been slow to provide higher schools4 ,colleges have often been provided for by denominational organizations or by purely private endowments4 ,even in the field of higher education1 however1 it is becoming evident that public interests are involved4 ,in medicine1 in law1 and in training of teachers1 the state has been obliged to assume increasingly supervisory powers1 and of late the financial provision for such education has been more and more accepted as a public obligation4 ,the result of this evolution is the broader provision out of the public purse for all kinds and all stages of education4 ,,public ,,control ,,adequate ,,only ,,when ,,directed ,,by ,,science ,enough has been said to show that much is involved in the establishment of a public-school system4 ,the problems which arise in the teaching of pupils are intricate2 but when one thinks of education as a public necessity1 to be purchased with public funds and to be administered in the interests of the broader community1 one sees new justification for the demand that all school problems be managed with wisdom4 ,this demand can be met only when school problems are made subjects of exhaustive scientific study4 ,,fiscal ,,problem ,,typical ,the subsequent chapters will take up briefly the problems involved in organizing a school system4 ,the first and most general problem is one of securing funds for the maintenance of the schools4 ,it will be well to reiterate the statement with which the first chapter began4 ,the pupil seldom thinks of costs4 ,the teacher usually overlooks the fact that the community is interested in what schools cost4 ,yet funds are a prime necessity in organizing a public-school system4 ,we turn1 accordingly1 to fiscal problems as among the first and most concrete examples of educational problems which must be studied by one who would be intelligent about the school system4 ,,exercises ,,and ,,readings ,whose duty is it to enforce school attendance in the community in which you live8 ,when was the last school census taken8 ,what is the ordinary ratio of school population to the total population8 ,what percentage of children of high-school age are in high school8 ,what percentage of eighth-grade pupils go on to high school8 ,what percentage of high-school graduates go to college8 ,the ordinary reader will perhaps find it difficult to get answers to these questions4 ,he should make himself a student of the reports of the ,commissioner of ,education of the ,united ,states and of the superintendent of schools in some city which publishes an annual report4 ,from some school record find out what percentage of enrolled pupils attend school regularly4 ,if there is a school nurse or a school physician1 find out what time in the year is most likely to exhibit small attendance4 ,verify the finding from the school record4 ,what substitutes for attendance on public schools are permitted8 ,how many children in the town attend schools other than public schools1 and why8 ,,ayres1 ,l4 ,p4 ,child ,accounting in the ,public ,schools4 ,survey ,committee of the ,cleveland ,foundation4 7,copies may be secured from the ,russell ,sage ,foundation47 ,this is one of the volumes of the ,cleveland survey and is the only brief statement of the whole matter that there is4 ,reports of the ,commissioner of ,education should be studied as suggested above4 ,,footnotes3 #i ,ellwood ,p4 ,cubberley1 8,changing ,conceptions of ,education10 ,riverside ,educational ,monograph1 pp4 #bg-ce4 ,houghton ,mifflin ,company1 #aiji4 #aj ,report of the ,commissioner of ,education for #ahhh-ahhi1 p4 #dga4 #aa ,report of the ,commissioner of ,education for #aiae1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #ab4 #ab ,report of the ,commissioner of ,education for #aiaf1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #bd4 #ac ,report of the ,commissioner of ,education for #aiaf1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #be4 #ad ,report of the ,commissioner of ,education for #aiae1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #ab-ac4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,investing ,,public ,,money ,,in ,a ,,new ,,generation ,,the ,,cost ,,of ,,educating ,,an ,,individual ,we all know something about how much the family invests in its sons and daughters4 ,the provision made by the father for his children is recognized as an expression of the parent's willingness to give to the second generation as good a start in life as the family can afford4 ,we are less likely to realize the extent to which the community is drawing on its material resources for a similar purpose4 ,the city of ,chicago--to choose a single example--gives to each boy or girl who goes through elementary school and high school an aggregate of six hundred and thirty dollars4 ,if a child were notified to go to the city hall when he is eighteen years of age and receive this sum of money1 we should recognize what it means for a community to pay for the education of its new generation4 ,we should understand that the children of a city are its wards4 ,when the matter is obscured by the complexities of the social machinery through which this bonus is distributed1 we lose sight of the magnitude and directness of public expenditures for education4 ,the example of ,chicago can be pursued even further4 ,the sum stated above is too small1 for it is based on the annual expenditures for conducting the schools2 it does not include the large outlay for school buildings and for real estate which the city is called upon to make in order to provide rooms in which the education may be given4 ,nor do the figures cover irregularities4 ,if the pupil does not get through each year's work in regular order1 the city is often called upon to provide more than the normal number of years of training4 ,one further item is to be added to the calculations above given1 in the case of those who go to the city normal college4 ,for these teachers-in-training the city pays an additional two hundred and twenty-eight dollars a year1 raising the aggregate expended on such a student to nearly eleven hundred dollars4#ae ,such students are typical of a vast number of young people who are attending at public expense state normal schools1 state universities1 and public technical schools4 ,indeed1 even where students attend endowed institutions and pay tuition1 the actual cost of their education is commonly borne in very large measure by the community1 which in the last analysis is the source of the endowment4 ,,total ,,school ,,expenditures ,,in ,,the ,,united ,,states ,another method of presenting the facts is to deal with totals4 ,the figures which represent the expenditure for public education in the ,united ,states are so large that the individual who reads them usually passes them over with little comprehension unless he is given some background for comparison4 ,perhaps this background can be furnished by recalling the statement quoted in the last chapter1 where it was pointed out that a century ago there was practically no conception of the principle of free public schools4 ,schools were supported in large measure by charity or by tuition4 ,most communities provided only a very short term and collected a rate bill1 or personal tuition1 from the pupils to supplement the small fund secured from taxation4 ,during the quarter of a century before #ahej there was a widespread movement in the ,northern states which gradually secured in the face of much opposition full public support for schools4 ,rate bills did not disappear entirely until #ahga1 the last state to abolish them being ,new ,jersey1 but at that date the principle of support through general taxation was completely established4 ,in #ahgj1 as we are told by the ,commissioner of ,education1 the total expenditures for public elementary and secondary schools had reached sixty-three million dollars4#af ,nineteen years later1 when the population had increased about #fj per cent1 expenditures had more than doubled1 reaching one hundred and forty millions4 ,since that time expenditures have increased by leaps and bounds1 far surpassing increases in population1 as indicated by the following table3 ,,table ,i4 ,,expenditures ,,for ,,public ,,elementary ,,and ,,secondary ,,schools ,,compared ,,for ,a ,,period ,,of ,,years1 ,,including ,,also ,a ,,comparison ,,of ,,population ,,for ,,the ,,same ,,periods #ahhi-ahij #ahii-aijj #aiji-aiaj #aiad ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------- ,population#af #fb1fbb1bej #ge1fjb1eae #ia1igb1bff #ih1gda1cbd ,expenditures#ag #adj1ejf1gaebad1ifd1fahdbf1bej1dcdeee1jg g1adf ,expenditure per capita of population #b4bd #b4hd #d4fd #e4fb ,expenditure per pupil in average attendance #ag4bc #bj4ba #cc4bc #ci4jd ,these gross figures indicate a growth in schools that has never been paralleled in the history of any country4 ,the doubling of expenditures between #aijj and #aiaj is due in part to the rapid evolution of high schools4 ,elementary schools1 however1 have shared in the development4 ,teachers are more highly trained than ever before1 new courses have been added to the curriculum1 and better hygienic conditions have been provided in school buildings4 ,there can be no mistaking the evidence that ,american communities are willing to support schools in a program of expansion and improvement4 ,,cost ,a ,,determining ,,consideration ,,in ,,school ,,organization ,an adequate comprehension of the meaning of the statistics of educational costs will make it impossible for the teacher of ,latin to sit apart and say that it is not his duty to think of the community4 ,the teacher of science cannot ask for unlimited equipment for laboratory exercises2 the teacher of music or arithmetic cannot say that he is interested merely in spiritual and intellectual affairs and that he has no reason to consider material matters4 ,the impressive fact is that a great public trust has been committed to the hands of teachers4 ,the community has erected schoolhouses and taxed itself to the point where school expenditures have come to be looked upon as a serious burden in many a section of the country4 ,it is a professional obligation resting on the teacher1 be he of high or low degree1 to think of his relation to this matter of public expenditures4 ,the public is likely to become more and more insistent in the demand that public expenditures be absolutely purged of waste of any kind1 either the waste that arises from extravagance or the waste that results from inefficiency4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4 ,proportion of public money spent for public schools and other items ,,relation ,,of ,,school ,,expenditures ,,to ,,other ,,public ,,expenses ,there is still another way in which the facts regarding the magnitude of the public investment in education can be formulated4 ,in #aiac the ,bureau of ,census secured figures to show what proportions of the total funds spent by cities are devoted to various departments1 such as general government1 police1 fire1 and so on4 ,for the larger cities it appears that about one quarter of the public revenues go to maintaining schools2 in cities of smaller size the fraction is larger1 reaching in some cases nearly one half4 ,for purposes of our present study a few examples will suffice4 ,these are given in ,table ,,ii4 ,two cases are exhibited in ,fig4 #d4 ,,table ,,ii4 ,,per ,,cent ,,of ,,total ,,governmental ,,cost ,,payments ,,devoted ,,to ,,various ,,city ,,departments#ah ,,general ,,other ,,govern-,,police ,,fire,,health,,sanita-,,high- ,,chari-,,schools,,small ,,ment ,,tion ,,ways ,,ties ,,items ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- -- ,new ,york #ac4f #ab4a #g4j #b4c #h4j #g4h #h4g #bg4i #ab4d ,chicago #ae4c #ae4h #g4i #a4c #h4h #f4f #f4d #bd4f #ac4d ,phila- delphia #ac4h #ae4j #e4a #a4h #g4a #ad4f #aj4d #ba4f #aj4d ,st4 ,louis #ab4d #ae4e #h4b #a4a #aj4b #ac4j #f4f #be4c #g4h ,boston #aj4h #aa4d #h4a #b4i #i4c #aj4e #h4c #bd4f #ad4c ,albany #ab4c #ac4c #ad4a #a4d #g4f #i4c #c4j #bg4i #aa4a ,dayton #g4f #aj4a #i4i #a4e #aj4e #ah4d #d4a #cc4d #d4f ,des ,moines #f4a #f4a #ae4j #j4h #d4f #i4g #j4c #df4e #aj4i ,grand ,rapids #i4d #i4d #ad4j #c4j #f4h #f4e #a4i #db4c #f4i ,richmond #i4g #aj4h #aj4f #b4i #ab4g #ba4f #d4g #ba4j #f4a ,these figures show why it is that the business man and the taxpayer are addicted to criticisms of school expenditures4 ,it is difficult for the ordinary citizen to get this great expenditure of public money out of the center of his vision4 ,he can1 perhaps1 be interested by some enthusiast in the introduction of domestic science or civics or some other new course of study2 he may even become convinced of the need of improvements in the equipment of school buildings2 but sooner or later1 when the enthusiast has ceased to speak1 the persistent fact that it costs a great share of the revenue of the city to conduct the schools will reassert itself as a dominant item in his thinking4 ,,urgent ,,demands ,,for ,,economy ,,and ,,efficiency ,in not a few cases the problem of financing schools has in recent years become especially acute4 ,communities are in many cases at the limit now permitted by state laws controlling the levying of taxes4 ,the maintenance of schools even at their present level is very difficult1 and all the time there is the urgent push within the system for enlargements and improvements4 ,other communities which see the rapid increase in school expenditures1 even while they are willing to tax themselves more for schools1 are asking for clear evidence that school work is being done efficiently4 ,such an attitude appears1 for example1 in a resolution passed by the citizens of ,portland1 ,oregon1 at a regular annual meeting of the voters held ,december #bg1 #aiab3 ,whereas1 the average daily attendance at the public schools of this district has increased from #aj1chg in #aijb to #bc1gab in #aiab1 and the annual disbursements have increased during the same period from #dbj1hgi4fa to #b1dij1dgg4bh2 and whereas1 it is of the utmost importance that the public schools should be kept at the highest point of efficiency4 ,it is hereby declared to be the sense of this meeting that a full and complete survey be made of the public school system of this district4#ai ,many other examples could be given of school inquiries which have grown out of the demand for either better administration of finances or more efficient training4 ,in #aiaj the ,board of ,estimate and ,apportionment of ,new ,york ordered a survey of the schools of that city because the ,board did not believe itself to be in possession of adequate information on which to base appropriations for education and because1 to use the words of the resolution1 ,it is the sense of this ,board that efficient and progressive administration of the schools 444 is indispensable to the welfare and progress of the city and that generous appropriations 444 are desirable in so far as assurance and evidence can be given that such appropriations will be expended for purposes and in a manner to promote the efficiency and welfare of the schools and to increase the value and effect of the instruction given therein4#bj ,such quotations show the intimate relation between finance and teaching1 between the attitude of the community toward expenditures and the modern demand for a scientifically conducted school system4 ,,expenditures ,,in ,,relation ,,to ,,wealth ,returning to the detailed study of school finance1 it may be laid down as a fundamental principle that in general school expenditures are related to the ability of a community to pay taxes4 ,taking for purposes of illustration the three largest cities1 we find that they have different degrees of wealth4 ,new ,york ,city has an average wealth of #agfe4bh per inhabitant2 ,chicago has only #afjd4bj2 ,philadelphia1 #iec4fe4 ,evidently the capacity of these cities for supporting schools is very different4 ,the differences in wealth correspond roughly to the varying scale of expenditures for elementary schools in these three cities4 ,new ,york expends #de4fg per pupil2 ,chicago1 #cg4eh2 and ,philadelphia1 #cb4bb4 ,the less wealthy cities commonly spend less on schools4 ,there is a certain equity in the variation in expenditures above noted4 ,but there are conditions under which the variations in wealth are so great that if expenditure depended on the ability of a community to pay for schools1 the children would suffer4 ,in such cases the state must take a share of the costs and must1 in the interests of the general community1 pay for better schools than the city or district can itself afford4 ,if one thinks of a mining town1 for example1 where the population is made up entirely of laborers with large families and where the homes are crowded together in a small area1 it will be recognized at once that the ability to support schools is very different from that of a well-to-do manufacturing city or of a sparsely settled1 fertile farming region where the children are few and the taxable wealth is comparatively great4 ,in the case of the mining town the state must step in to equalize in some degree the educational opportunities of the children4 ,it is not to the advantage of the state as a whole that the many children of that town should be seriously limited in their schooling1 because they will in due time scatter to other communities1 and the safety and progress of these other communities require that there shall be adequate educational opportunities in the mining town4 ,this one example is enough to suggest the problems which arise in the study of support for schools4 ,the sources of these funds and the equitable distribution of state school taxes constitute one of the large problems of public finance and call for careful scientific study4 ,such questions as the following arise and must be answered3 ,shall state grants be determined by the pupil enrollment1 by the average attendance1 by the aggregate attendance1 or by the number of teachers employed8 ,,costs ,,of ,,different ,,levels ,,of ,,education ,turning to details of expenditure1 we find a new set of problems4 ,perhaps the most impressive fact is that there is a wide discrepancy in every city between the average expenditures per pupil in elementary schools and high schools4 ,again1 we may select as typical the facts for the cities referred to in an earlier table4 ,these average figures are less striking than some which could be cited4 ,in ,los ,angeles1 ,california1 the cost per pupil in the high school1 at the same date as that for which the figures in ,table ,,iii were compiled1 was #bhe4fg as contrasted with the cost of #ei4da per elementary pupil4 ,,table ,,iii4 ,,cost ,,per ,,pupil ,,in ,,elementary ,,schools ,,and ,,high ,,schools ,,in ,,selected ,,cities#ba ,,elementary ,,school ,,high ,,school ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---- ,new ,york #de4fg #aje4hf ,chicago #cg4eh #he4ae ,philadelphia #cb4bb #hg4aj ,st4 ,louis #cg4ba #aac4gb ,boston #dd4ha #hb4gg ,albany #ce4fi #gj4ef ,dayton #bi4he #fc4gg ,des ,moines #cc4ff #ea4ag ,grand ,rapids #dj4de #hg4cf ,richmond #bb4bd #ef4gc ,it requires very little consideration to explain why there is a difference between these two types of expenditures4 ,high-school classes are often small1 teachers receive higher salaries1 and equipment is more expensive4 ,it requires much more consideration to justify the difference4 ,there are some who hold that the elementary school is being sacrificed to the high school4 ,indeed1 there are some people so extreme in their views that they would make all high schools tuition schools4 ,they hold that ,boston is in expenditures much less open to criticism than ,st4 ,louis4 ,in ,st4 ,louis1 on the other hand1 it is pointed out that a most elaborate scheme of high schools has been organized with a view to providing every high-school student in every section of the city with the broadest possible opportunities4 ,by way of further answer to the critics of the high school1 it is asserted that the community gets back in public service from the student who has taken higher courses more than such courses cost4 ,certain it is1 as the figures in ,table ,,iii show1 that cities are making expenditures on a most generous scale for the maintenance of high schools2 and the total amount of this expenditure is greater than the table indicates because there are large initial appropriations for school buildings which are not taken into account in these statements of current expenses4 ,,costs ,,of ,,different ,,subjects ,,of ,,instruction ,pursuing the matter further1 we find that there are the widest discrepancies in costs due to differences in the subjects taught1 to differences in the number of pupils assembled in class1 and to other less conspicuous differences4 ,in order to bring out the differences between subjects in the same school1 ,professor ,bobbitt has calculated the cost1 per thousand student hours1 of instruction in twenty-five medium-sized high schools1 and presents in ,table ,,iv the median#bb cost of each subject4 ,,table ,,iv4 ,,cost1 ,,per ,,thousand ,,student ,,hours1 ,,of ,,instruction ,,in ,,high ,,schools ,,in ,,the ,,various ,,subjects ,,of ,,the ,,curriculum#bc ,,subjects ,,median ,,cost ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,shopwork #ic ,normal training #ib ,latin #ga ,commercial #fi ,modern languages #fc ,history #fb ,household occupations #fa ,science #fj ,mathematics #ei ,english #ea ,agriculture #dh ,music #bc ,translating this table into the form of a series of questions which school authorities and communities must face1 we may ask3 ,is it desirable that shopwork be supplied in a school when it costs nearly twice as much as ,english8 ,is ,latin enough better than modern languages to justify its retention in the program of a school when it costs eight dollars more per unit of instruction8 ,like series of facts for the elementary schools can be borrowed from an unpublished study by ,mr4 ,g4 ,lee ,fleming of ,hibbing1 ,minnesota1 and are reproduced in ,table ,v4 ,certain selected facts are also exhibited in ,fig4 #e4 ,the table shows that reading absorbs nearly two thirds of the expenditures of the first grade1 while in the third grade the same subject gets a little less than one third of the expenditures1 and in the sixth grade about one sixth4 ,opening exercises require about the same expenditure in all grades4 ,geography comes into prominence first in the fourth grade4 ,a study of the table will show that financial statements of this type are indexes of academic organization4 ,,table ,v4 ,,the ,,portion ,,of ,,each ,,thousand ,,dollars ,,spent ,,for ,,instruction ,,in ,,each ,,subject ,,in ,,each ,,of ,,the ,,first ,,six ,,elementary ,,grades#bd ,,subjects ,first ,second ,third ,fourth ,fifth ,sixth ,,average ,grade ,grade ,grade ,grade ,grade ,grade ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------------- ,reading #faa #djg #cjg #bdj #aej #aef #cab ,arithmetic #e #aja #agf #ahg #aha #aij #adj ,language #ie #aaj #abf #acj #agh #aje #abd ,music #hf #ij #hd #fg #eh #fg #ge ,spelling #c #ib #ij #ic #hj #ga #ga ,geography -- -- #i #ajb #abd #aeb #fd ,writing #di #fh #fa #fa #eb #ei #eh ,drawing #fj #hj #ee #ff #cb #db #ef ,manual arts -- -- #bc #i #fj #gf #bh ,opening exercises #cd #ba #bc #ba #bd #be #be ,physical culture #aa -- #ae #ad #dj #ci #bj ,folk dancing #aa #bb #be -- -- -- #aj ,hygiene -- #c #f #aj #aa #ac #g ,construction work #bh -- -- -- -- -- #e ,history -- -- -- -- #aj #e #b ,handwork #d #f -- -- -- -- #b ,sense training #c -- -- -- -- -- #a ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------------- ,total #ajjj #ajjj #ajjj #ajjj #ajjj #ajjj #ajjj ,,costs ,,of ,,classes ,,of ,,different ,,sizes ,a second determinant of costs is the size of the class4 ,one of the simplest ways of reducing expenses is to give a single teacher a large number of pupils to care for4 ,in #aiaf the superintendent of schools in ,st4 ,louis calculated that the reduction of elementary classes in the schools of that city by an average of one pupil per class would cost the city #fe1jjj per year4 ,los ,angeles and ,indianapolis have small elementary classes1 the averages being #bc4g and #bd4g members per class respectively4 ,the cost of elementary instruction is very high1 being #ei4da and #ej4de respectively4 ,st4 ,louis and ,chicago have much lower costs1 namely1 #cg4ba and #cg4eh respectively4 ,these low costs are secured in a very large measure by grouping children in large classes of #cg4f and #dj4c average membership per class4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4 ,distribution in the various grades of each thousand dollars expended for instruction ,the relative expenditure in six grades of the schools of ,hibbing1 ,minnesota1 for four of the chief school subjects is shown by the height of the columns ,,salaries ,teachers' salaries differ in different cities and affect the problems of cost2 the number of hours that teachers teach is another cause of variation4 ,,books ,,and ,,supplies ,certain cities supply the pupils with books and materials1 while other cities require the children to bring their supplies from home4 ,in the long run1 the cost falls on the community in either case1 but it is differently distributed4 ,in the first case1 the taxpayers pay for the supplies as they do for school buildings1 each taxpayer contributing according to the assessed value of his property4 ,in the second case1 parents pay for supplies according to the number of their children and without regard to their property4 ,in regard to general supplies1 there are also differences in policy4 ,some cities are lavish in furnishing maps and reference books and specimens for nature study1 while others are very economical in these respects1 sometimes justifying their policy by saying that they put all they can afford to expend into teachers' salaries4 ,the question is thus raised3 ,how far is it legitimate to spend money in providing material equipment1 and how far should it be devoted to the payment of high-salaried teachers8 ,is it well1 for example1 to ask a teacher of good training in geography to instruct a class without any wall maps8 ,is it economical to ask a teacher of history to conduct his classes without books of reference8 ,or1 comparing various kinds of material equipment with each other1 one may ask whether it is more essential to spend money on well-lighted1 well-ventilated rooms that are barren of apparatus or to put up with old buildings and purchase laboratory equipment4 ,,the ,,meaning ,,of ,,financial ,,organization ,,and ,,educational ,,accounting ,one reason why it is important that questions like those in the foregoing paragraphs be explicitly formulated is that many citizens think of school finance as wholly distinct from school organization4 ,very often members of the board of education will disclaim any knowledge of the course of study or of the qualifications of teachers and say that it is their sole duty to supervise expenditures4 ,consideration of the real problems of school finance soon brings to the surface the fact that financial expenditures are merely means to the end of supplying adequate opportunity for all the children who are required by legislation to attend schools4 ,school finance is one aspect of school organization4 ,in recent years there has been a movement in the direction of better accounting systems which are designed to reveal the needs of the schools and the ways in which these needs are being met4 ,the financial records of progressive school systems1 instead of throwing together expenditures in general accounts1 are keeping items of supervision distinct from items of teaching4 ,costs of supplies of various kinds are kept apart4 ,thus1 janitors' supplies are kept separate from crayon and other educational supplies4 ,the cost of coal is used as a means of checking the efficiency of janitors4 ,the ,bureau of ,education of the ,united ,states has prepared bookkeeping forms1 and a number of school systems are keeping uniform records of expenditures4 ,this will greatly facilitate comparisons and scientific studies in the future and will help to make school finance more than a mere haphazard distribution of public money4 ,,exercises ,,and ,,readings ,what would it cost to supply all the members of a college class with free textbooks8 ,would it be equally just to supply a college class with notebooks8 with writing paper8 ,why is a laboratory fee charged in certain courses8 ,is a laboratory fee just in a class in physics8 in chemistry8 in drawing8 ,in case a boy is going to become a plumber1 is the public under any obligation to train him so that he will become an expert8 ,how about a doctor8 ,what steps does the public take to insure efficiency in teachers8 in railroad engineers8 in mail clerks8 ,what are the state laws with regard to the amount of tax that may be levied for schools8 ,are upper limits really necessary8 ,a certain town is about to build a new schoolhouse4 ,the building will cost in the aggregate about #cj1jjj4 ,if the building is provided with a sightly lawn in front and with an ornamental pattern in the brick1 it will cost #djj more than if it is perfectly plain and the yard is made of gravel4 ,if the corridor is made sixteen feet wide rather than twelve1 the cost will be #djj greater4 ,shall the two expenditures be made or not8 ,,clark1 ,e4 ,financing the ,public ,schools4 ,the ,survey ,committee of the ,cleveland ,foundation4 7,copies may be secured from the ,russell ,sage ,foundation47 ,this is a volume of the ,cleveland survey4 ,,cubberley1 ,e4 ,p4 ,public ,school ,administration4 ,houghton ,mifflin ,company4 ,this deals with the problems of public-school organization1 including the general principles of finance4 ,,rugg1 ,h4 ,o4 ,report on the finances of the school system of ,grand ,rapids in the 8,school ,survey1 ,grand ,rapids1 ,michigan40 ,board of ,education1 ,grand ,rapids4 ,,rugg1 ,h4 ,o4 ,report on the finances of the school system of ,st4 ,louis in the 8,school ,survey1 ,st4 ,louis1 ,missouri40 ,board of ,education1 ,st4 ,louis4 ,,footnotes3 #ae ,average cost per pupil of maintaining elementary schools for #aiad-aiae #cg4eh ,average cost per pupil of maintaining high schools for #aiad-aiae #hb4cf ,average cost per pupil of maintaining ,chicago ,normal ,college for #aiad-aiae #bbh4hd ,report of the ,superintendent of ,schools for the ,year ,ending ,june #cj1 #aiae1 in the ,sixty-first ,annual ,report of the ,board of ,education of the ,city of ,chicago1 p4 #aif4 #af ,report of the ,commissioner of ,education for #aiaf1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #bj4 #ag ,ibid4 p4 #ai4 #ah ,bulletin ,no4 #abf1 ,table ,,ii1 ,united ,states ,bureau of ,census1 #aiac4 #ai ,quoted in fuller detail on pages #dbf et seq4 of the 8,portland ,survey10 by ,ellwood ,p4 ,cubberley4 ,published by the ,world ,book ,company1 #aiae4 #bj ,report of ,committee on ,school ,inquiry1 p4 #fa4 ,published by the city of ,new ,york1 #aiaa-aiac4 #ba ,figures taken from the financial survey of ,grand ,rapids1 ,michigan1 prepared by ,dr4 ,h4 ,o4 ,rugg and published in the survey of that city published by the ,board of ,education1 #aiag1 and from the survey of ,st4 ,louis by the same investigator4 #bb ,the median is that figure above which and below which fall half the cases4 ,it is1 therefore1 a suitable sample of the whole group4 ,it is a better representative figure than the average4 #bc ,j4 ,f4 ,bobbitt1 8,high-,school ,costs10 in the ,school ,review1 ,vol4 ,,xxiii1 ,no4 #h 7#aiae71 p4 #ebf4 #bd ,g4 ,lee ,fleming1 ,instructional ,costs in the ,first ,six ,elementary ,grades4 ,master's ,thesis1 ,department of ,education1 ,the ,university of ,chicago1 #aiaf4 ,,chapter ,v ,,delegating ,,responsibility ,,for ,,carrying ,,on ,,schools ,,class ,,instruction ,,given ,,over ,,to ,,the ,,teacher ,although the community as a whole recognizes the need of education1 and is willing to supply the necessary financial support1 it cannot manage directly the details of school operation4 ,the community cannot decide what seven-year-old children shall study4 ,the community cannot decide what ought to be done with a disorderly pupil4 ,it becomes necessary1 therefore1 for the community to devise some method of picking out suitable representatives who can carry on the schools4 ,the first task to be thus delegated was that of classroom instruction4 ,one reads in the records of the early town meetings of ,new ,england how the whole community participated in the discussion of all financial matters and of many problems connected with the course of study4 ,for example1 the site of a schoolhouse1 its cost1 and its plan have always been subjects of community discussion4 ,again1 the community has often decided whether it wants geography taught or certain branches of mathematics4 ,but when it came to the daily routine of school work1 the community employed a teacher and turned the children over to him4 ,,supervision ,the next stage of representative control was reached when the community came to a recognition of the necessity of some kind of intelligent supervision of teachers4 ,visiting committees were appointed1 usually including the clergyman of the town1 to look into the work of the classes and report to the town meeting4 ,so long as communities were small and fairly homogeneous in their social and intellectual characteristics it remained possible to get on with direct town-meeting control of the schools in all except the details of teaching classes and the supervision of teachers4 ,one reads1 to be sure1 of disagreements at times between the town meeting and the teacher4 ,the visiting committee and the teacher sometimes had a clash1 and the supporters of each presented their views with vigor before the whole community4 ,problems of organization and administration were not lacking even in those simpler days1 but the machinery of school management was fairly direct and simple4 ,,sketch ,,of ,,development ,,of ,a ,,school ,,system ,how this direct control of schools became impossible with the growth of communities can be illustrated by a single example4 ,in the city of ,chicago in its early years the schools were independent of each other4 ,indeed1 in the first years immediately after the incorporation of the town1 the schools were private schools to which the taxpayers paid a stipulated sum out of the proceeds of the sale of school lands or out of district levies4 ,the variable character of the teaching which was secured under this plan led to the adoption in #ahce of a partially centralized system of inspection and management4 ,the districts were left independent in all financial matters1 but a central board of inspectors was provided which was to unify the schools of the town4 ,this central board was continued after the incorporation of the city1 in #ahcg1 but the districts were left independent in financial matters even after that date4 ,the districts voted on the amount to be paid to teachers1 on the housing of the schools1 and on other matters relating to taxes4 ,there were district committees to care for these local financial matters4 ,even though the city government was centralized by the incorporation of #ahcg1 the schools remained distinct4 ,the central board of inspectors adopted certain textbooks1 but it appears that the schools paid little attention to this action4 ,how meager was the district provision for schools appears in the fact that it was not until #ahde that the first public-school building was erected4 ,it is not difficult to imagine the chaos under which such a system suffered4 ,in #ahea the city council took away from the districts the power of hiring teachers and gave it to the central board of inspectors4 ,it also appointed a business manager4 ,the board of inspectors thus gained in power and influence1 but they found themselves confronted by educational problems which they could not solve4 ,in #ahec they adopted the plan which was relatively new in ,american cities1 but was coming into vogue1 of appointing a superintendent of schools4 ,this officer at once graded the children1 organized a uniform course of study1 and took steps to equalize instruction in the schools of the city4 ,,the ,,community ,,slow ,,to ,,delegate ,,school ,,control ,the historical sketch outlined above gives us a clear insight into the way in which problems of school organization arise4 ,the community must delegate the work of carrying on schools4 ,there is a natural hesitation in intrusting this important work to anyone4 ,as a result1 the community is constantly taking a hand1 even in these latter days1 in all kinds of school discussions4 ,sometimes the whole city is drawn into a discussion of school matters4 ,sometimes the individual parent1 in his capacity as a citizen1 attempts to take into his hands the authority of the community1 especially when the way in which the schools are being managed seems to him to be unfavorable to the interests of his children4 ,,limits ,,of ,,authority ,,and ,,responsibility ,,not ,,clear ,the various officials who are created in the process of developing a representative system of school control often find themselves unable to determine the limits of their authority or responsibility4 ,for example1 it is almost impossible to determine where the duties of a business manager end and the functions of the superintendent begin4 ,thus1 when it comes to the employment of teachers and the determination of salaries1 the question arises whether these matters should be settled on educational grounds or on financial grounds1 or on both4 ,especially acute is the problem of determining the proper relation of the board of inspectors to the teachers and superintendent4 ,the inspectors1 or the board of education as they have come to be called1 are chosen as the immediate representatives of the community4 ,they are citizens in whom the community has general confidence1 but they are not charged1 as was pointed out above1 with the daily tasks of teaching4 ,the board must accordingly appoint teachers and a superintendent4 ,these latter are selected because they have training and technical qualifications which the community needs in the schools4 ,the technical officers have in an important sense an independent place in the educational system4 ,it will be remembered that the teacher was the first one to whom the community delegated responsibility for the schools4 ,not infrequently the community finds its board of representative citizens on one side of a school issue and its technical officers on the other side4 ,take a commonplace example4 ,in the development of the course of study it has come to pass that many new subjects have been introduced which cost a great deal4 ,manual training and domestic science1 as was shown in the last chapter1 are expensive4 ,superintendents and teachers are enthusiastic about the educational value of these subjects4 ,sometimes the board of education has to curtail the expenditures involved because the community does not seem to be prepared to pay the price4 ,if the board is supreme and the superintendent is its servant1 how can a campaign of explanation be organized which will show the community what is needed8 ,on the other hand1 if the superintendent is at liberty to go directly to the community without the consent or sympathy of the board1 complications arise which are not difficult to imagine4 ,,statement ,,by ,a ,,public ,,education ,,association ,a series of difficulties in the administration of the schools of ,chicago brought out from the ,public ,education ,association of that city a statement of the relation between the board of education and the technical officers of the schools which illustrates so clearly the matters discussed in the foregoing paragraphs that it may properly be quoted at length4 ,,what ,,is ,a ,,representative ,,board ,,of ,,education8 ,some people want the school board to be large1 so that everyone may be represented4 ,they think that it is desirable that there should be members on the board from every district in the city1 every nationality1 the various trades1 and the various professions4 ,a board cannot be made into a representative body in this sense4 ,it would never be large enough to include everybody1 and it would be unwieldy in action4 ,what is needed is a small board that will be broad in its interests1 that will ask many questions covering all sections of the city1 and that can act promptly4 ,this board should have laid before it carefully drawn plans touching all the interests of the community4 ,this small board has to decide general policies and select the people to carry out these policies4 ,it should not operate the schools but should see that they are operated4 ,it should require evidence from the people who operate the schools showing that they are doing it successfully4 ,it should demand and issue reports that are clear and intelligible to the whole community4 ,,the ,,functions ,,of ,a ,,board ,,of ,,education ,the functions of the board of education have never been fully understood in ,american cities because it has been thought of as the means employed by the people to conduct the schools4 ,this is a wrong notion4 ,the people want trained teachers and trained officers to conduct the schools4 ,the people want the board of education to organize the schools so that they shall employ the most expert people who can be secured4 ,,how ,a ,,good ,,board ,,gets ,,the ,,work ,,done ,this statement leads to a consideration of the second group of people who have to do with the school organization4 ,the schools could not get on without trained teachers4 ,there was a time when each parent taught his own child4 ,that was in the days when there wasn't much to teach4 ,to-day the parent places his child in the care of a specialist4 ,the parent has come to the specialist because the parent has confidence that the specialist knows how to take care of the children4 ,teachers are not mere hirelings and nurses1 inferior to the children2 teachers are trained specialists4 ,as the system grows more complex there appear several classes of specialists--some who know how to deal with the pupils1 some who know how to provide the children with proper seats and proper ventilation1 some who know how to make courses of study1 and some who keep the records of the schools4 ,furthermore1 the school system grows complicated on the material side4 ,buildings have to be erected and cared for4 ,land has to be evaluated and cared for4 ,some people think that all this is an open book to everyone who is in business4 ,the fact is that knowledge of school equipment is just as highly specialized knowledge as knowledge of railroad equipment4 ,a wholesale grocer would not think of himself as competent to estimate the cost of ,pullman cars just because he knows about business4 ,the better school systems now have accounting methods in schools which bring out such matters as the cost per unit of teaching in high schools and elementary schools1 the standard cost of instruction in different subjects1 and the cost of school equipments as related to their sanitary and hygienic fitness4 ,every complete school system has its business interests in the hands of competent specialists who know about school costs in detail and in particular4 ,,making ,,the ,,machine ,,work ,,smoothly ,by the time a school system reaches the point where it has all these specialists1 it becomes necessary to give much attention to the central planning of a scheme of operation which shall make the whole machine work smoothly4 ,there must be a central office where management is provided4 ,in setting up this central office there has been a great deal of experimenting4 ,sometimes a teacher has been put in charge2 sometimes a board member1 in such case the president of the board has taken charge4 ,some years ago the city of ,cleveland tried the experiment of putting a business manager in charge4 ,this business manager appointed the superintendent of instruction4 ,if one goes back into the history of ,chicago1 he finds that a business manager to take charge of school lands was appointed two years before the superintendent of instruction was appointed4 ,gradually out of all the experimenting there has arisen a new type of school officer1 a superintendent of schools who is a trained school manager4 ,this manager does not teach2 he does not shovel coal into the furnaces in the schools2 he does exactly what the head of any great corporation does2 he organizes the undertaking4 ,he must know human nature2 he must know how to get reports2 he must know how to tell the people about the needs of their schools2 he must know how to straighten out tangles2 and he must know how to judge results4 ,this manager must give his whole time to getting the machinery to work and keeping it in order4 ,in a large school system the manager's office will be subdivided and there will need to be some further organization to keep it from falling apart4 ,there will be one person in such an office who will know more about heating school buildings and one who will know about the quality of teaching4 ,the more the subdivision the more precautions necessary to hold all parts of the system together4#be ,,report ,,of ,,committee ,,of ,,superintendents ,another recent document which throws much light on the problem of the relation between school officers is a report presented to the ,department of ,superintendence1 a division of the ,national ,education ,association4 ,this report opens with extracts from a number of letters from superintendents in all parts of the country4 ,the discussion then proceeds as follows3 ,,obsolete ,,administration ,,system ,the impression which a careful study of this material referring to the material upon which the report is based makes on one's mind is the painful one that most administrative situations are undefined and shifting4 ,schools are administered1 sometimes well1 sometimes badly1 but in most cases without clear definition of responsibility or authority4 ,public interests are fortunately protected in most instances1 but the machinery is the primitive machinery of the vigilance committee1 with now the superintendent1 now the board of education1 now the city council1 now a parents' association1 trying to determine what steps shall be taken to promote public welfare4 ,,status ,,of ,,superintendency ,,varies ,in such a situation the accidents of personal influence play an unjustifiable part4 ,several of the letters from successful superintendents state explicitly or show between the lines that they are entirely in control of the policies of the schools4 ,some go so far as to say that any effort to define the responsibilities and authority of the superintendent would curtail their influence and would therefore be undesirable4 ,at the other end of the scale are reports which show that the superintendent is shorn of all influence4 ,in many cases he is little more than a clerk1 dependent from day to day on the accidents of the board's attitude for the meager authority which he tries to exercise4 ,in some cases he goes to the board meeting only when especially invited4 ,he has teachers sent to him by the board1 and he knows nothing about the financial management of the system4 ,such a superintendent usually recommends the adoption of a state law endowing his office with rights4 ,the extreme situations referred to above may occur within a single state1 showing that there is no such thing as a typical and clearly defined ,american school administration4 ,,district ,,control ,,discarded ,,system ,,of ,,school ,,administration ,the origin of the present situation is not far to seek4 ,american schools were first controlled by the citizens of the district4 ,they met in intimate neighborhood groups and settled the problems relating to their children4 ,communities were fairly homogeneous1 the course of study was simple1 school buildings were all about equally unsanitary1 and teachers were equally untrained4 ,a majority vote was a democratic and accepted method of carrying the community through these undesirables4 ,,an ,,effective ,,substitute ,,to ,,be ,,discovered ,within a half century all this has changed4 ,we know to-day that every center in a state is involved in the behavior of each of its communities4 ,indeed1 our generation is witnessing the assumption by the federal government of an influence and authority in education which is without precedent in ,american history4 ,this is not the place to comment at length on these changes1 but one result is absolutely certain--the simple district control of schools is gone4 ,it remains for us to decide what we shall have in its place4 ,what we have to-day is a series of experiments of every variety that can be set up through the exercise of human imagination4 ,most of these experiments are going on behind closed doors4 ,most of them involve sooner or later a conflict of authority4 ,very few of them are understood by the people of the communities in which they exist4 ,,dangers ,,of ,,this ,,period ,,of ,,adjustment ,the result is1 first1 much clumsy administration1 even where everybody acts in the spirit of most cordial coperation4 ,matters of vital importance to the school are delayed4 ,secondly1 baneful agencies1 seeking to profit unjustly1 can set up in the school system influences which would have no weight if there were clear and definite responsibility and authority4 ,thirdly1 the people of the community1 being uncertain about what is going on1 often become restless and critical and unwilling to give adequate support to the schools4 ,fourthly1 the teaching staff sometimes becomes demoralized and relatively inefficient1 at times the disorganization goes so far that teachers are actually and openly antagonistic to the board or superintendent1 or both4#bf ,,organization ,,under ,,scientific ,,principles ,it is by no means simple to prescribe a remedy for the difficulties which these quotations have described4 ,when a democratic community delegates its unlimited powers to a number of different classes of people1 there is sure to be a succession of problems of adjustment4 ,ultimately all parties will come to recognize the fact that educational problems can be solved only when a full study of the situation is substituted for personal opinion4 ,every party will have to be ready to acknowledge the supremacy of a thorough scientific statement of the conditions and results of school work4 ,fortunately1 examples are not far to seek of school administration which is based on scientific study4 ,two conspicuous examples will serve the purposes of this exposition4 ,,control ,,of ,,school ,,work ,,through ,,tests ,in the city of ,detroit there has been carried on for the last three years a systematic series of tests in the fundamental school subjects4 ,the teachers-in-training in the city normal school are given courses in tests and in the interpretation of results so that they carry into the school from year to year the type of preparation which makes them intelligent and sympathetic from the first4 ,at first some unhappy results followed the wholesale measurement of results4 ,many of the teachers thought that the method was arbitrary and that their work would be misrepresented4 ,even the good teachers were afraid4 ,they had been accustomed to the purely personal type of supervision based on opinion and answerable1 when occasion demanded1 by opinion4 ,the teachers who were not sure of the success of their work were violent in their objections4 ,the ,board of ,education1 which at the beginning of the testing was composed of some of the cheapest politicians in the city1 led the attack on what they termed a fad and a theory4 ,experience has1 however1 justified in fullest measure supervision by a measurement of results4 ,it has become increasingly clear to all teachers that tests show clearly where the work is strong and where it is weak4 ,not only so1 but the tests help the teacher to determine with precision the exact points where the results need to be improved4 ,above and beyond this1 however1 is the advantage which has come to the schools in their relation to the community4 ,no longer is it necessary for teachers to speak in uncertain terms of their work4 ,if the community will listen1 it is possible for the ,detroit school officials to make clear by scientific reports based on tests exactly what is going on in every school and in every grade4 ,the community showed its appreciation of the type of school management which was intelligent enough to base itself on exact studies of results by doing away absolutely with the corrupt and inefficient board and electing in its place a group of thoroughly representative citizens who are supporting scientific management and developing the schools along lines dictated by such management4 ,the example of ,detroit is by no means the only one which could be cited4 ,an increasing number of cities are revising their courses1 training their teachers1 and educating the communities by similar methods4 ,a ,,study ,,of ,,the ,,building ,,needs ,,of ,a ,,city ,one other example must suffice for the present1 since the subsequent chapters of this book are devoted to the treatment in outline of the various types of scientific inquiry which ought to govern school organization4 ,this example is borrowed from a report prepared in #aiaf by the superintendent of schools of the city of ,minneapolis4 ,in a pamphlet entitled 8,a ,million a ,year0 there is laid before the citizens of ,minneapolis a clear statement1 first1 of what they had been doing in the way of erecting school buildings for the seven years preceding the report4 ,the report then shows in detail what buildings cost1 through a careful analysis of the records for earlier buildings4 ,then come statements of the uses of schools and the conditions which determine the kind of building which should be put up in each section of the city4 ,estimates are given in great detail of the needs for five years1 and the city is asked to act on the situation as thus described4 ,the spirit of the study can be clearly seen from the introduction1 which is worth repeating in full4 ,why a five-year school building program8 ,the reasons are3 that the ,board of ,education may be able to calculate for some time ahead the financial resources available to meet building needs as these develop2 that the numerous children of those sections of the city whose citizenry may not be over-insistent and persistent in their demands for improved and enlarged school accommodations may be as well provided as the children of other sections whose needs1 real or fancied1 are vigorously and incessantly pushed2 in short1 that there may be established and carried out a deliberately formulated1 comprehensive and consistent policy of providing adequate and equitable building accommodations for all children of the city4 ,the program1 as herein outlined1 is the result of nearly a year's study by the ,board of ,education1 by a special committee of the ,board1 and by the executive officers of the ,board4 ,in making this study and in formulating this program1 the ,board has invited and has received the suggestions and the coperation of ,parents and ,teachers' ,associations throughout the city4 ,two public hearings on the subject were given1 to which each of the sixty-two associations was invited to send representatives4 ,each association was also invited to submit in writing the needs of the district represented as it saw them4 ,a generous1 indeed an almost unanimous1 response was received to both these invitations4 ,the educational policies involved in the program have been discussed by the principals of the schools and by the ,educational ,council4 ,it has been the effort of the ,board throughout to enlist the thoughtful help of those chiefly and most immediately concerned4 ,the program is published now in order to give still wider publicity to the interests it represents4 ,it is still a tentative program1 subject to such modifications as may result from further study by the ,board and from suggestions and criticisms that may come from any one interested1 whether individual citizen or organization4 ,such suggestions and criticisms the ,board invites4 ,this program1 modified as it may be1 will be made the basis of necessary legislation1 which is to be the first step in carrying it out4 ,such legislation1 to provide the necessary funds1 whether by bond issue or special tax levy1 will be sought of the next ,legislature4 ,the people of ,minneapolis should understand clearly that the ,board of ,education has no means whatever of carrying into effect this1 or any other1 building program1 for the ,board has no power to raise one cent of money1 either by bond issue or through tax levy4 ,the ,state ,legislature only has power to authorize bond issues and tax levies2 on the authorization of the ,state ,legislature1 only the ,city ,council may sell bonds4 ,on recommendation of the ,board of ,tax ,levy1 the ,board of ,education may levy taxes within the maximum approved4 ,the ,board of ,education1 representing the people of the city in their educational interests1 is formulating this building program4 ,if this program meets the approval of the people1 the ,board of ,education will be pleased to carry it into effect4 ,before the ,board can do this1 however1 the people1 through their representatives in the ,legislature1 in the ,board of ,tax ,levy1 and in the ,city ,council1 must provide the necessary funds4#bg ,,the ,,errors ,,of ,,democracy ,the funds asked for were voted by the people4 ,it would not be a complete statement of the facts1 however1 to omit the statement that an unfavorable reaction came in the form of a new board of education which at once began to blockade the kind of policy represented by this study4 ,american cities proceed slowly to a full realization of the possibilities of a satisfactory school organization4 ,democracy always masters its problems slowly and after many slips4 ,the hopeful fact is that more communities are providing agencies for the scientific study of their school problems and are following in their organization the results of such study4 ,,exercises ,,and ,,readings ,in most communities there arise1 from time to time1 demands for new school legislation1 or there occur controversies within the board of education or with regard to the superintendent of schools and his authority4 ,as a practical lesson in democratic government the study of the changes that occur at such a time is very informing4 ,if there is no such exceptionally clear exhibition of the complexity of our public-school government1 let the student find out what are the personal and professional characteristics of some board of education4 ,would it be better1 in some city known to the student1 to elect a board or to have it appointed8 ,is a definition by law of the rights and duties of a superintendent advantageous1 or should the superintendent acquire all the power and influence he can get from the board8 ,should a board of education examine textbooks8 ,should it determine the scale of salaries to be paid to teachers8 ,if a class does very poorly in a test in arithmetic1 what are some of the different interpretations that can be put on this fact8 ,is the superintendent responsible1 or the teacher1 or the home8 ,our ,american cities change teachers and superintendents frequently4 ,what are the elements of cost which enter into such a change8 ,the best kind of material for reading under this chapter is a superintendent's school report or one of the reports of a survey of a city school system4 ,,cubberley1 ,e4 ,p41 and others4 ,portland ,survey4 ,school ,efficiency ,series4 ,world ,book ,company4 ,this is one of the first strong school surveys1 and takes up very fully the functions of the different officers of the school system4 ,the parts dealing with administration are largely the work of ,professor ,cubberley1 whose work on administration was referred to under the last chapter4 ,,macandrew1 ,w4 ,the ,public and its ,school4 ,world ,book ,company4 ,a humorous report dealing in an interesting and striking way with a number of administrative problems4 ,seventeenth ,yearbook of the ,national ,society for the ,study of ,education4 ,part ,,ii4 ,the ,measurement of ,educational ,products4 ,prepared by the ,national ,association of ,directors of ,educational ,research4 ,public ,school ,publishing ,co41 ,bloomington1 ,illinois4 ,this report gives a comprehensive survey of the work which is being done by efficiency experts in public-school systems4 ,,footnotes3 #be ,bulletin ,no4 #a of the ,public ,education ,association of ,chicago1 #aiag1 pp4 #c-e4 #bf ,report of the ,committee on ,relation between ,boards of ,education and ,superintendents1 in ,journal of the ,national ,education ,association1 ,vol4 ,i1 ,no4 #i 7,may1 #aiag71 pp4 #ifg-ifh4 #bg ,a ,million a ,year1 pp4 v-vi4 ,monograph ,no4 #a1 published by the ,board of ,education1 ,minneapolis1 ,minnesota1 #aiaf4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,the ,,school ,,building ,,the ,,building ,,as ,,an ,,evidence ,,of ,a ,,community',s ,,educational ,,views ,a study of school buildings furnishes in very concrete form evidence of the new spirit which has come into school organization4 ,the old-fashioned school building was copied from the church4 ,in its externals it often showed its antecedents by the tower and steeple1 which sometimes housed the bell and sometimes served merely as an ornament4 ,in its interior there was little or no evidence of careful adaptation of the space to its uses4 ,small windows1 high from the floor and narrow in the space admitting light1 were scattered along three sides of the room4 ,across the fourth side of the room was a raised platform for the teacher4 ,the roof was high and made the space below difficult to heat4 ,a stove was the means of heating2 it gave out an excess of heat to the immediate neighborhood and proved inadequate for making the remote corners habitable4 ,the seats were narrow benches1 often without backs4 ,in the schools of earlier days these benches ran around the room1 the pupils facing the wall1 to which was fastened a board that served as a desk on which the pupil might write or lay his book4 ,in later schools the benches were arranged in rows1 the desk of one row economically furnishing a back for the bench in front4 ,add to all this a common drinking cup in a pail of water and sanitary arrangements of the most primitive type1 and we have a picture of almost complete disregard for human comfort and hygiene4 ,more than this1 we see in such a school building the clearest evidence of a conception of education which was limited to the barest rudiments4 ,there was no provision for varied activities in a school building of the older type4 ,kitchens in which the girls learn to cook1 shops for the boys1 laboratories for courses in science1 playrooms and libraries1 to say nothing of swimming pools and baths1 were never thought of1 because the course of study was limited strictly to the three ,r's4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f4 ,floor plan of a typical school building of the old style ,the modern school building is the embodiment of a wholly new conception of education4 ,the building is constructed with the utmost deference to the demands of hygiene4 ,the placing of windows1 the means of heating and ventilating1 the style and arrangement of seats1 have all been considered in every possible detail4 ,when the demands of hygiene have been met1 the various needs of the school are studied1 and the rooms and equipment are arranged with the fullest possible regard for an enriched course of study4 ,the exterior of the building reflects the interest of the community in sthetics4 ,it is commonly surrounded by an ample playground and often has a garden as well4 ,these changes from the barren buildings of earlier days show that education is thought of as related to the common life of children4 ,,contrasts ,,in ,,plans ,,of ,,rural ,,schools ,a number of concrete contrasts will perhaps serve to give the reader who is likely to be familiar only with modern school equipment some idea of the long road that has been traveled in the evolution of the ,american school system4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g4 ,floor plan of a well-arranged one-teacher rural school of minimum cost ,a ground plan furnished by a bulletin of the ,bureau of ,education#bh shows 7,fig4 #f7 the old-fashioned one-room school with its small windows and inadequate heating4 ,the light from these windows is badly distributed4 ,the wide wall spaces between windows leave long dark spaces across the room4 ,the fact that there are windows on many sides makes it necessary for someone to face glaring lights on bright days and results in all sorts of cross lights and shadows4 ,the other features of the plan1 including the stove1 were commented on in an earlier paragraph4 ,a second ground plan 7,fig4 #g7 shows a well-arranged1 simple rural school4 ,the light comes from one side of the room4 ,there is provision for many different activities1 and a system of ventilating and heating has been substituted for the stove of former days4 ,the stove is inclosed in a jacket4 ,into this jacket opens an intake which brings fresh air from outside4 ,a pipe carries the heated air to various parts of the room1 insuring its adequate distribution4 ,the externals of the situation are depicted in ,fig4 #h4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #h4 ,an old and a new rural school ,,contrasts ,,in ,,urban ,,elementary ,,schools ,the evolution is even more impressive when it appears in the many-roomed schoolhouses of a city system4 ,the following paragraphs and figures from the ,cleveland survey show how complete has been the transformation of a half century3 ,the type of building erected during the #ej's is well represented by the ,alabama ,school1 although this particular building was not completed until #ahfa4 ,several buildings of this general type are still in use in the city4444 ,in these early buildings the rooms were large and accommodated enormous numbers of children4 ,classes ranged from #ajj to #bjj in each room4 ,there was hardly a square foot of waste space in these buildings4 ,originally they contained no corridors1 no wardrobes1 no toilets1 no storerooms1 no running water1 and no heating plants except stoves4#bi ,figs4 #i ,a and #i ,b4 ,the ,empire ,school1 completed in the fall of #aiae1 represents the most modern type of school architecture4 ,it is entirely fireproof and so constructed that new wings may be added for future extensions without injuring either the utility or the symmetry of the building4 ,in appearance these newest buildings are great improvements over their immediate predecessors and educationally they are far superior4 ,the windows are banked in sets of five and the masonry is so shaped as to cut off a minimum of light4 ,auditoriums have slanted floors like theaters1 are unobstructed by pillars1 and have real stages instead of platforms4 ,gymnasiums for boys and for girls1 swimming pool1 playrooms1 toilets1 shower baths1 auditorium1 library1 shops1 and domestic science rooms can all be shut off from the rest of the building so that they can be conveniently used for social and community center purposes4 ,in these schools mouldings are done away with1 doors have no paneling1 corners of floors and ceilings are smooth and rounded1 stairways have solid balustrades1 and every endeavor is made to leave dust and dirt no lodging place4 ,piping for vacuum cleaning1 and the most modern heating1 ventilating1 and regulating apparatus are installed4#cj ,figs4 #aj ,a and #aj ,b4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #i ,a4 ,ground plan of ,alabama ,school ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #i ,b4 ,exterior of ,alabama ,school ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aj ,a4 ,ground plan of ,empire ,school ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aj ,b4 ,exterior of ,empire ,school ,a ,,high-,,school ,,building ,,of ,,the ,,early ,,type ,a similar lesson may be drawn from the study of high-school buildings of successive generations4 ,the following quotation from the ,denver survey shows how limited was the earlier conception of the school and its doings4 ,the course of study in this school the ,east ,side ,high ,school was from the first a rigorous1 disciplinary course1 dominated by literary and classical interests4 ,the issue between science and the classics was clearly drawn even in the early years of the ,east ,side ,high ,school's history1 but the victory has always been with the literary subjects4444 ,the kind of a course of study which was thought of as necessary in those early days reflected itself in the kind of a building which was erected4 ,the ,east ,side ,high ,school building was1 in its day1 a conspicuous model of high-school architecture4 ,the high ceilings and great corridors and large classrooms showed the generous intention of the citizens of ,denver4 ,there were1 however1 no gymnasium1 no lunch room1 no shop for manual training1 and no special equipments for science courses4 ,in short1 the ,east ,side ,high ,school stands as a conservative example of a school1 strong in its early days1 but unable in these days to take on the progressive features of a first-class high school because of physical limitations and because of the hampering traditions which come from a successful past4#ca ,,the ,,hygiene ,,of ,,lighting ,lest the individual teacher should regard these matters of architecture as very remote from his or her personal interests1 let us comment on the evil effects of neglect of some of the hygienic problems which the modern school is designed to solve4 ,when light is badly distributed1 there is a strain on the eyes which results in unfavorable physiological conditions4 ,these unfavorable conditions sometimes take the form of a congestion of the blood vessels in and around the eye1 with consequent feelings of discomfort and inability to work4 ,these unfavorable results may appear both in pupils and in the teacher4 ,the conditions are not clearly recognizable through any signs of fatigue which the person affected can readily localize1 for we have no sense organ giving direct sensations of fatigue4 ,the result is that the person is unable to do his work1 but does not know1 unless he has made a special study of the problem1 what the difficulty is or how to remedy it4 ,evidently the problem of lighting cannot be left to natural judgment1 and every physical appliance for proper control and distribution of illumination should be provided4 ,,the ,,hygiene ,,of ,,ventilation ,,and ,,heating ,in regard to ventilation and heating the situation is much the same as with lighting4 ,until recently all public buildings were without special provisions for ventilation1 it being assumed that enough air would come in through doors and windows4 ,the private dwelling was the model followed in this matter4 ,a dwelling occupied by a few people leaks enough fresh air so that even when all the windows are closed the air is tolerable4 ,when fifty or a hundred people in a public building are crowded into a space that is proportionately much smaller than the space in a dwelling and when1 furthermore1 through improvements in methods of construction the leakage of fresh air is almost entirely stopped1 the situation calls for artificial means of introducing air and distributing it4 ,the situation with regard to fresh air is complicated in all colder climates by the necessity of producing and conserving artificial heat4 ,modern heating arrangements are capable of maintaining large buildings at a summer temperature even in the coldest weather1 but in order to do this at reasonable cost the building must be made as nearly air-tight as possible4 ,the temperatures secured through artificial-heating plants have also brought another evil4 ,the air raised to a high temperature is abnormal in humidity because it is taken from outdoors1 where it is cold and the humidity is low1 and is raised by heating to a condition where it can absorb a great quantity of moisture4 ,such air is very dry and takes moisture in an excessive degree from the moist linings of the human respiratory tracts and thus irritates and fatigues the people exposed to the dry air1 becoming a serious menace to comfort and even to health4 ,to meet these difficulties it has been necessary to introduce into all public buildings artificial ventilating and humidifying systems4 ,even in one-room rural schools1 where the simpler types of architecture must still be adhered to1 it is common1 as pointed out above1 to jacket the stove1 thus making it possible to circulate fresh air and to introduce an evaporation reservoir which will render the humidity more nearly normal4 ,above all it is important that teachers understand that these matters cannot be left to mere chance4 ,life indoors is artificial at best1 and its conditions must be guarded as carefully as possible4 ,,hygienic ,,equipment ,not merely has the plan of the building been improved1 but the equipment has also been thoroughly worked over4 ,drinking fountains or individual drinking cups have taken the place of the pail and the common dipper4 ,toilets have been furnished in a way which makes it possible to keep them clean and wholesome4 ,the matter of seats may be discussed from both points of view suggested in earlier paragraphs1 that is1 from the point of view of attention to the health and comfort of pupils and from the point of view of the work which pupils have to do in school4 ,the old uncomfortable benches have given place to comfortable individual seats which1 in the best-equipped schools1 have been made adjustable so that they fit the individual pupil4 ,where this complete adjustment to individual size is not provided1 at least an approximation is secured by seats of two or three heights in each room4 ,desks with broad1 smooth1 sloping tops have been added to make writing and other kinds of school work easy4 ,the most recent improvements have to do with the storage of books and materials4 ,formerly the pupil's knees were wedged below the storage drawer1 or the working top of the desk was inconveniently or unhygienically high4 ,the storage drawer is now being relegated to a position under the chair or to a locker on the side of the room4 ,,relation ,,of ,,equipment ,,to ,,the ,,course ,,of ,,study ,the adaptation of the desk to the pupil's work has been carried to the full limit in the shops and drawing rooms and domestic-science laboratories where work benches and laboratory equipment have been substituted for the conventional seats4 ,that much remains to be accomplished is vividly set forth in the following extract from the writing of one of the most suggestive critics of the present-day school4 ,in the second chapter of 8,the ,school and ,society0 ,professor ,dewey writes3 ,some few years ago ,i was looking about the school supply stores in the city1 trying to find desks and chairs which seemed thoroughly suitable from all points of view--artistic1 hygienic1 and educational--to the needs of the children4 ,we had a good deal of difficulty in finding what we needed1 and finally one dealer1 more intelligent than the rest1 made this remark3 8,i am afraid we have not what you want4 ,you want something at which the children may work2 these are all for listening40 ,that tells the story of the traditional education4 ,just as the biologist can take a bone or two and reconstruct the whole animal1 so1 if we put before the mind's eye the ordinary schoolroom1 with its rows of ugly desks placed in geometrical order1 crowded together so that there shall be as little moving room as possible1 desks almost all of the same size1 with just space enough to hold books1 pencils and paper1 and add a table1 some chairs1 the bare walls1 and possibly a few pictures1 we can reconstruct the only educational activity that can possibly go on in such a place4 ,it is all made 8for listening0--for simply studying lessons out of a book is only another kind of listening2 it marks the dependency of one mind upon another4 ,the attitude of listening means1 comparatively speaking1 passivity1 absorption2 that there are certain ready-made materials which are there1 which have been prepared by the school superintendent1 the board1 the teacher1 and of which the child is to take in as much as possible in the least possible time4 ,there is very little place in the traditional schoolroom for the child to work4 ,the workshop1 the laboratory1 the materials1 the tools with which the child may construct1 create1 and actively inquire1 and even the requisite space1 have been for the most part lacking4 ,the things that have to do with these processes have not even a definitely recognized place in education4 ,they are what the educational authorities who write editorials in the daily papers generally term 8fads0 and 8frills40 ,a lady told me yesterday that she had been visiting different schools trying to find one where activity on the part of the children preceded the giving of information on the part of the teacher1 or where the children had some motive for demanding the information4 ,she visited1 she said1 twenty-four different schools before she found her first instance4#cb ,these paragraphs serve to indicate the close relation between school equipment and the course of study4 ,since the above criticism was written1 general conditions have undergone a radical change4 ,shops have become common1 and there is an increasing emphasis on activities4 ,correspondingly1 there is a change in the conception of the course of study1 as we shall see in later chapters4 ,,modern ,,school ,,construction ,,and ,,costs ,in the meantime the erection of buildings with shops1 auditoriums1 laboratories1 kitchens1 and gymnasiums has given rise to new and urgent problems4 ,first1 the cost of these new buildings is great1 and many school boards are driven to ask whether the community can afford to erect them4 ,the superintendent of schools of ,new ,york ,city recently reported to the ,board of ,education of that city that a building program would have to be adopted which would cost the city #dj1jjj1jjj in a period of five years4 ,in order to provide buildings many cities have been obliged to issue bonds which will fall1 in the years to come1 as a financial burden on the generation which is being educated in the buildings4 ,the urgency of these financial problems is aggravated by the fact that in many school systems the elaborate buildings are not used to the full extent of their capacity4 ,indeed1 it comes to be a most interesting economic and educational problem to inquire what is the capacity of one of these buildings4 ,for example1 what does an auditorium represent in the way of actual enlargement of the school plant8 ,is it merely a place in which the school may come together for a general exercise once a week1 or should it be used every day8 ,if it is used for twenty minutes or half an hour every morning1 should it be closed during the remainder of the day8 ,as a matter of public economy should it be made available to adults at hours when it is not needed for school purposes1 as1 for example1 in the evening or in the late afternoon8 ,such questions as the foregoing multiply with every new addition to the buildings4 ,the old buildings equipped only for study and recitations were economical in the extreme2 the new buildings are often lavish4 ,,the ,,gary ,,plan ,,for ,,distributing ,,pupils ,,and ,,enlarging ,,the ,,scope ,,of ,,school ,,work ,to meet the problems of economy and of adaptation of buildings to educational needs1 ingenious ways of rotating classes have been devised4 ,the most conspicuous experiment of this type is that worked out by ,superintendent ,wirt in ,gary1 ,indiana4 ,indeed1 ,superintendent ,wirt has advocated the most elaborate extension of the school building and its grounds and a corresponding expansion of the school program4 ,for him the school playground becomes an additional space of great importance in rotating the pupils4 ,shops and laboratories are to be kept full all day and even in the evening2 corridors are to be used as assembly rooms and recreational spaces4 ,he goes so far as to draw the churches and the public library into his plan4 ,with all these available places in which pupils may be instructed1 a program is adopted which provides that each room with its special teacher be continuously engaged in some kind of teaching4 ,pupils are sent from room to room1 the theory being that each room shall be kept full at all hours and that each pupil shall get all the different kinds of advantages which the elaborate course of study offers4 ,the reorganization of grade work which is necessary to carry out this program reaches deeper than the addition of new subjects4 ,to make rotation complete1 each teacher must be a special teacher and the pupils must move from room to room4 ,even the lowest grades must be organized under what is known as the departmental plan4 ,thus1 even a second-grade child gets his reading with one teacher and his arithmetic with another4 ,,requirements ,,to ,,be ,,met ,,when ,,the ,,gary ,,plan ,,is ,,adopted ,the ,gary plan is a very striking example of the relation between the school plant and the school program4 ,in many quarters this relation has not been clearly recognized4 ,for example1 some school boards1 hearing that twice as many pupils can be accommodated in a ,gary building as in an ordinary school building1 have instructed the superintendents in their own towns to adopt the ,gary plan4 ,the superintendent has to answer3 ,we have an old four-square building which is full in every available corner1 there are no shops1 and the play space is inadequate4 ,he often has to go further and question the advisability of departmentalizing the teaching in the lower grades4 ,he is sometimes convinced that a daily program which includes many kinds of activity is distracting and undesirable4 ,the adoption of a new building plan involves the course of study1 and the adoption of a new policy with reference to the course of study involves the use of the building4 ,the interesting fact for our immediate purposes is that educational questions that have to do with the content of the course of study and with the methods of teaching are always related to considerations regarding the building4 ,,the ,,construction ,,of ,,consolidated ,,schools ,not only does the school building reflect the internal needs of the school organization which it houses1 but there is also a close relation between the school and the distribution of the population in the community4 ,a sparsely settled community invariably used to have a one-room school1 because the distances which pupils must travel are such that it is difficult to bring together enough pupils to justify a larger building4 ,the one-room building is likely1 however1 to offer only the most meager educational opportunities4 ,there is only one teacher4 ,there are no adequate provisions for the pupils who are supposed to be studying1 because this one teacher in the one room must be hearing a class recite on some subject at practically every period in the day4 ,the one-room building does not satisfy the progressive community4 ,the device which has been adopted is that of consolidating a number of one-room schools and transporting the pupils through the necessary distances to make possible large schools with separate rooms for pupils of different ages4 ,a consolidated school has facilities which are impossible in a one-room school4 ,these facilities cannot be described without discussing the course of study and also the building and equipment4 ,the following quotation gives an example of such a discussion3 ,in ,harrison ,county1 ,miss41 about #h miles out from the ,gulf and in a typical south ,mississippi rural community1 may be found the ,wool ,market consolidated school1 the subject of this brief study4 ,three medium-sized one-teacher schools--,coalville1 ,king1 and ,oakhead--were brought together two years ago to form this school near the ,wool ,market post office1 on the ,biloxi ,river4 ,the new house1 built by private subscription at a cost of about #b1jjj1 was located within #b miles of all the children in two of the old districts1 while a transportation wagon was used to bring in from #be to #cj pupils from the ,oakhead district1 about #c miles from the new schoolhouse4 ,the territory of the new school covers #bg square miles and now has within its bounds #acd children of legal school age4 ,each of the teachers in the abandoned schools1 having from #cj to #dj recitations daily to cover the eight grades of the elementary and grammar grades1 had no time to do high-school work1 and on that account had no high-school pupils4 ,as a result of those conditions the patrons who were able financially to bear the expense sent their children out of the community to school as soon as they were ready for the high school1 at an annual cost of from #aej to #bjj1 while the larger number were forced to turn aside to take up life's duties and responsibilities with only the meager training obtained in these little schools4 ,such conditions obtain in three-fourths of the schools in the ,south4 ,the ,wool ,market consolidated school1 now serving the same territory1 has #bc high-school pupils--#af in the ninth grade1 #e in the tenth grade1 and #b in the eleventh grade--and #bj pupils in the music and expression classes under special teachers4 ,the aggregate average attendance for the original schools was #fj pupils1 according to the records1 while the average attendance now in the consolidated school is #aaj pupils1 with an enrollment of #abe4 ,there are only #i children of school age in the district not in school4 ,in the old schools the number was too small to form an attractive social center and to justify the employment of special teachers1 but the new school is fast becoming the center of all social activities of this larger community1 employs special teachers in music and expression1 and has in the faculty teachers qualified to give instruction in practical agriculture and domestic science4 ,in the interhigh-school contests last spring the ,wool ,market consolidated school1 though only two years old1 captured a fair share of the medals in declamation and recitation1 while the girls' basketball team claims the county championship4 ,the school is located on #e acres of land1 which are used for playgrounds1 school garden1 and practical agricultural demonstration work4 ,dr4 ,welch1 the community physician1 lectures to the school once a week on hygiene and school and home sanitation2 and ,mr4 ,w4 ,a4 ,cox1 a trustee of the school and a practical farmer and horticulturist1 gives the school weekly lectures on agricultural1 horticultural1 and allied subjects4 ,after trying the consolidated school two years the patrons and other citizens of the ,wool ,market community voluntarily levied a tax of #g per thousand on the property of the district to support the school for an eight or nine months' session4 ,,comparative ,,statistics ,cost of the three teachers in old school per month #abh ,aggregate attendance in the three schools #fj ,average cost per pupil per month #b4ac ,cost of the three teachers in the elementary and grammar-school grades of the consolidated school per month #aej ,entire cost of the one transportation wagon per month #ej ,average cost per pupil per month in same grades #b4bb ,cost of the four teachers in entire school and of the school wagon per month #bhj ,average cost per pupil for the elementary and high school #b4ed ,the ,wool ,market school1 with its four teachers and adequate high-school advantages1 costs the community only #da cents per pupil1 or a total of #de per month more than the three little one-teacher schools4 ,to send the #bc high-school pupils out of the community for their high-school education would cost the community at least #a1jjj more than this entire school cost the community and county for eight months4 ,mr4 ,w4 ,a4 ,cox1 referred to above1 is authority for the statement that the value of land in the community had increased during the two years as a result of the good school from #aj per acre to #be per acre4 ,what has been accomplished in the ,wool ,market school can be done in almost any community in the ,south4 ,this and similar instances that might be mentioned lend strength to the contention that adequate school advantages can be provided for the country children in the community near the farm home4#cc ,,exercises ,,and ,,readings ,a new school building with twelve recitation rooms is to be built4 ,shall the windows of the classrooms open to the north and south or to the east and west8 ,shall the lockers for coats and hats be in the general corridors or shall there be a cloakroom off each room8 ,how high shall the blackboards be from the floor8 ,how many sides of the room shall be supplied with blackboards8 ,how high shall each step be in the stairways8 ,if the building is designed to accommodate six hundred pupils1 what rooms besides the recitation rooms shall be provided8 ,how big should the auditorium be8 ,should it have a large stage8 ,shall the toilets be in the basement or on each floor8 ,is it legitimate to spend money on a teachers' rest room8 ,where should the principal's office be8 ,is there any difference between the kind of school building to be recommended in ,san ,antonio1 ,texas1 and ,minneapolis1 ,minnesota8 ,what color should the walls of a classroom be8 ,how much playground space should there be around a school building designed for six hundred pupils8 ,should school buildings be frame buildings8 ,should doors open into the building8 ,what is a fire drill1 and why is it required8 ,report of a ,study of ,certain ,phases of the ,public-,school ,system of ,boston1 ,massachusetts1 made under the auspices of the ,boston ,finance ,commission1 ,document #hg 7#aiaf71 pp4 #ahe-bac4 ,reprinted by ,teachers ,college4 ,,strayer1 ,g4 ,d4 ,score ,card for ,school ,buildings4 ,teachers ,college4 ,,terman1 ,l4 ,m4 ,the ,building ,situation and ,medical ,inspection4 ,denver ,school ,survey4 ,published by the ,denver ,school ,survey ,committee4 ,,footnotes3 #bh ,fletcher ,b4 ,dressler1 8,rural ,school ,houses and ,grounds40 ,bulletin ,no4 #ab1 ,united ,states ,bureau of ,education1 #aiad4 #bi ,leonard ,p4 ,ayres and ,may ,ayres1 ,school ,buildings and ,equipment1 p4 #bc4 ,cleveland ,education ,survey4 ,published by the ,survey ,committee of the ,cleveland ,foundation1 #aiaf4 #cj ,ibid4 p4 #ce4 #ca ,report of the ,school ,survey of ,school ,district ,number ,one in the ,city and ,county of ,denver1 pp4 #acd-ace4 ,published by the ,school ,survey ,committee1 ,denver1 ,colorado1 #aiaf4 #cb ,john ,dewey1 ,the ,school and ,society1 pp4 #dg-di4 ,the ,university of ,chicago ,press1 #aijg4 #cc ,communication by ,w4 ,h4 ,smith1 ,state ,superintendent of ,public ,instruction1 ,mississippi4 ,published as part of the monograph entitled 8,consolidation of ,rural ,schools and ,transportation of ,pupils at ,public ,expense10 in ,bulletin ,no4 #cj1 ,united ,states ,bureau of ,education1 #aiad 7edited by ,a4 ,c4 ,monahan71 pp4 #hb-hd4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,grouping ,,pupils ,,in ,,classes ,,transition ,,to ,,problems ,,of ,,internal ,,organization ,the preceding chapters have dealt1 for the most part1 with aspects of school organization which are external to the classroom and to the operations of instruction4 ,the external organization is set up1 however1 for the sole purpose of making class work possible4 ,we shall progress1 therefore1 in our statement of educational problems and principles by turning to the consideration in detail of the organization of the groups to which instruction is given4 ,the connection of this problem with the one discussed in the last chapter is not difficult to trace4 ,where a community is small and has few children1 a one-room building will serve to house the school4 ,economy dictates the employment of a single teacher4 ,this one teacher must divide his or her time as best possible in giving instruction to pupils some of whom are very young and others of whom are more mature4 ,on the other hand1 where the community is large or where the school is consolidated1 a many-room building is required1 and the lines of division between groups are drawn in a fashion quite impossible in the one-room school4 ,,economy ,a ,,first ,,motive ,,for ,,grouping ,some of the simplest motives back of the grouping of pupils into classes are financial4 ,instruction can be administered economically to a number of pupils when it would be prohibitively expensive to provide a teacher for each learner4 ,indeed1 the demand for large classes in city schools becomes so urgent that it is often necessary to point out the danger of carrying economy so far that it will defeat the purposes of instruction4 ,,social ,,influence ,,an ,,important ,,motive ,on the other hand1 it can be shown that even where the motive of economy is not pressing1 there are valid educational grounds for grouping pupils into classes4 ,pupils help each other through their natural social relations4 ,the wholesome rivalry and mutual suggestiveness provided by the class furnish a much better atmosphere for teaching than does the isolation of individual instruction4 ,somewhere between the huge class dictated by economy and the small class diminishing to a single individual is the ideal group in point of size for successful teaching4 ,,grouping ,,in ,,the ,,one-,,room ,,school ,there are other characteristics than size1 however1 to be considered in making up proper groups4 ,in order to discover some of these characteristics1 it will be well to consider certain concrete types of grouping exhibited in schools4 ,the type of grouping in the one-room1 one-teacher school is in many respects the freest which can be found4 ,the teacher can organize the school with no conflicts in program1 because the whole program consists in distributing his own time4 ,the classes can be of any size that the teacher's judgment determines4 ,the reasons for the grouping are purely and simply those which appeal to the teacher4 ,under such circumstances what happens8 ,the teacher naturally puts in one group the pupils who are for the first time taking up school work4 ,in other groups he puts those pupils who have approximately the same attainments in each subject4 ,in the classes beyond the first many complications arise4 ,there are some pupils who read well but seem to be deficient in knowledge of number4 ,other pupils with a taste for arithmetic are very forward in that branch and do only indifferently well in reading and spelling4 ,it is not uncommon in the one-room school for the teacher to regard these differences in ability in particular subjects as adequate reasons for distributing the pupils differently in different subjects4 ,it comes about in the course of time that one and the same pupil will be in the third reading class1 in the fourth geography class1 and in the fifth or sixth class in arithmetic1 while another pupil who has attained to the fifth reader will be lingering behind in the third class in arithmetic4 ,,courses ,,of ,,instruction ,,in ,,relation ,,to ,,the ,,problem ,,of ,,grouping ,we find ourselves led by the discussion of groupings to a consideration of different levels of difficulty in subjects of instruction and to the rate of progress of each individual in each subject4 ,the teacher in the one-room school has no difficulty in seeing the wisdom of holding together those pupils who have a common grade of knowledge in geography4 ,in like fashion the class in arithmetic must be as homogeneous as possible4 ,there is1 however1 no recognized demand that a certain section of geography be coupled in the education of any child with any particular section of arithmetic4 ,pupils are grouped in the one-room school with reference to each subject considered by itself4 ,,new ,,problems ,,of ,,grouping ,,in ,,large ,,schools ,when schools grow to the size where pupils are put into different rooms1 as in an eight-room building1 a problem arises which was never faced in the one-room school4 ,it is the problem of carrying a group of pupils through all the subjects at the same rate4 ,thus1 when the pupils in an ordinary city school have been grouped together in arithmetic1 there are obvious advantages from an administrative point of view in keeping them together in reading and in geography4 ,in ordinary practice the graded school assumes that it is possible to find means of keeping the group together for long periods in all subjects4 ,this assumption leads to the necessity of asking a kind of question which did not confront the teacher in the one-room school4 ,the kind of question which comes up in the graded school can be illustrated as follows3 ,when a pupil is old enough and intellectually mature enough to study the products and industries of ,north ,america in his geography1 what phase of arithmetic will be appropriate to hold his attention and stimulate his thinking8 ,when a pupil is old enough to read the history of his own city1 what other reading material will insure real effort on his part8 ,the one-room school escapes these questions for the most part because it is at liberty to allow the pupil to take a different pace in each subject4 ,the one-room school is a place where the subjects of instruction taken in their totality1 or the curriculum1 as the whole series of subjects may be called1 is usually not recognized as important4 ,each subject has a sequence of its own1 but the curriculum as a whole is not thought out4 ,in the graded school the curriculum is one of the matters of major importance4 ,the graded school not only grades pupils2 it grades subject-matter of instruction4 ,the importance of this contrast cannot be overemphasized4 ,many of the problems of the modern school arise at this point4 ,,fundamentally ,,different ,,views ,,on ,,the ,,curriculum ,let us consider certain cases which will make clear the importance of the contrast4 ,the following extract from the report of the state superintendent of schools in ,maine sets forth a definite view on the matters under discussion3 ,more ,careful ,system4 ,the number of pupils in ungraded schools is shown to be #bi1jhi1 a decrease of #aihf from the figures shown for the previous year4 ,it is clear that the work of the schools is becoming more carefully systematized4 ,this fact is further attested by the reduction in the number of schools not using a course of study4 ,in #aijd there were #bcbc schools that were reported as following no definite outline of studies4 ,in #aiac this number had dropped to #hbg and1 as indicated by this report1 has now been further reduced to #fgj4 ,this change1 already increasing to no small extent the efficiency of the schools1 suggests a promise of the greater advantages that would follow the adoption of a course that would in essentials be uniform for the state4 ,while an absolute uniformity that would prevent individual initiative and wise experimentation would retard progress and is not to be desired1 there is much to be said in favor of an agreement on established and essential points for all parts of the state school system4#cd ,on the other hand1 practical efforts are being made in many quarters to overcome the rigidity of the graded system by devising methods of taking the individual out of the group whenever the course of study proves to be inapplicable to his particular needs4 ,in ,fond du ,lac1 ,wisconsin1 the elementary schools have their programs for the various grades so arranged that language comes for every grade at exactly the same hour in the day2 in like fashion1 all arithmetic classes are held at the same time1 and so with geography and the other subjects4 ,through this arrangement it is possible for a child who is backward in a single subject to withdraw from the group with which he spends most of the day and to go for the period to another class where he receives a different type of instruction in the subject in which he is behind4 ,at ,gary the schools are so organized that certain teachers in certain rooms teach a particular subject2 the general freedom of organization secured in this way is utilized to shift pupils from room to room1 thus breaking up the grading system4 ,the possibilities of this arrangement are described in the following quotation3 ,if a boy is weak in some particular subject1 it is possible to give him double work in that subject4 ,let us say a #d;,a boy is weak in arithmetic4 ,it is possible for a time for him to omit some of his special activities and take arithmetic with the #d;,b class also1 thus permitting double time in arithmetic4 ,if he is weak in all of his regular studies it is easy to drop him out of his special activities for a time and permit him to do double work in the regular studies4 ,the special activities are of such a sort that he can return to his classes there without difficulty4#ce ,,the ,,ungraded ,,class ,,in ,,graded ,,schools ,another type of experiment is seen in the so-called ungraded class4 ,in many large schools a room is set apart under an especially skillful teacher where pupils who are for any reason out of joint with the curriculum may receive personal attention4 ,many of these ungraded rooms are so conducted that bright pupils1 through a little personal help1 are prepared to skip a grade and thus advance more rapidly than the ordinary pupil4 ,backward children1 especially those who are backward in only a single subject1 are helped enough to restore them to their classes4 ,where it is found that pupils are subnormal and permanently unable to keep in line with others of like age1 the ungraded class may become a special class4 ,the teacher is then given authority to take all liberty with the subject-matter of instruction and fit it to the needs of the pupils4 ,sometimes in such special classes reading is practically abandoned and time is devoted to various forms of handwork4 ,,cases ,,where ,,failures ,,show ,,the ,,urgency ,,of ,,the ,,grading ,,problem ,the foregoing paragraphs have1 it is to be hoped1 made clear the fact that the grouping of pupils and the organization of the curriculum are closely interrelated problems4 ,the same lesson can be taught by a study of the actual operations of certain school systems which are organized under the graded system4 ,fig4 #aa shows certain records of failures in the elementary schools of ,cleveland for one half of the year #aiad4 ,a failure on the part of a child in any school can have no other meaning than this3 the child was1 at the time of his failure1 in the wrong group for his intellectual advantage4 ,there is no effort in such a remark to place the blame for the child's failure4 ,perhaps the child who fails is indolent4 ,perhaps the work is too difficult for him4 ,whatever the reason1 failure means that the pupil and the system of grading are out of joint with each other4 ,hence1 when we find pupils failing1 we know that the grading system is not working perfectly4 ,in the figure the diagram at the left shows the percentage of nonpromotions in each grade4 ,about #ag per cent failed in the first grade1 about #ab per cent in the second1 and so on4 ,it may be well to comment briefly on the high percentage in the first grade4 ,this is due to the fact that some pupils enter school when they are immature4 ,many pupils lose a great many days of schooling in the first years through contagious diseases1 which1 as shown by school statistics1 are contracted more commonly during the first years than later4 ,the family does not take care of attendance as carefully in the first year as later4 ,the first year supplies the test which in many cases brings evidence of mental deficiency4 ,these and other reasons explain the high percentage of nonpromotions in the first year4 ,the reduced percentage in the second year is explained by the fact that a part of the task of adjusting pupils to the graded system and to the curriculum has been accomplished in the first grade4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aa4 ,record of nonpromotions and failures in ,cleveland1 #aiad ,the record given in the diagram for the third1 fourth1 and fifth grades is an impressive exhibition of increasing incordination between the pupils and the work of the school4 ,so striking is the difficulty in these later grades that we are led to ask for an explanation4 ,this is supplied in part by the diagram in the middle of the figure and by the one at the right4 ,these present the records of failures in two of the most important school subjects4 ,a record of constantly diminishing failures in reading is exhibited in the middle diagram4 ,this shows that the teachers judge that the pupils improve steadily in reading4 ,there is a satisfactory response to the methods of teaching reading and to the demands of the upper grades4 ,those pupils who have difficulty in reading in the lower grades are held back or are helped to master the art4 ,the evident fact is that improvement in reading is1 according to the record1 continuous and satisfactory4 ,the diagram at the right shows the record in arithmetic4 ,here is the cause of many of the nonpromotions shown in the diagram at the left4 ,failures mount up in the middle grades at a rate which shows with manifest clearness that something is radically wrong4 ,one may venture several remarks in the presence of such records4 ,it does not seem likely that the pupils are stupid1 since it is shown that they can read4 ,it is to be noted that they do not have any option about taking arithmetic1 nor do they determine what arithmetic they shall study4 ,they are evidently not getting a section of arithmetic in each of the grades which suitably parallels the reading which is administered to them4 ,,efforts ,,to ,,adjust ,,instruction ,,to ,,pupils ,the conditions shown in the figure are paralleled in many school systems4 ,the result is that school officers1 seeing the difficulty of doing justice to the pupils1 have made radical changes in the grading system in order to meet individual needs4 ,two extracts from reports by superintendents will show the extent to which school systems will go4 ,a study of the performances of the failures in ,boise has convinced the entire force that the repeater is generally a quitter1 and does about as poor work in his second attempt as in his first trial at the work of a given grade4 ,the stamp of disapproval has been placed upon him4 ,he starts on his second attempt with a grievance against the teacher and the entire institution4 ,the parents as well as the child feel injured1 so that the teacher must combat both the antagonism of the home and the hostility of the pupil1 who has been trained for failure and not for success1 and who becomes either morbidly sensitive or brazenly indifferent4 ,what the laggard would probably do as a repeater is therefore quite definitely known4 ,if he were permitted to advance1 he could hardly do worse and he might do better4 ,it is less expensive and more human to promote him than it is to degrade him4 ,this view of the situation is generally accepted in ,boise4 ,the standard for promoting the dull pupil is entirely individual4 ,he is not compelled to do all the work of his present grade before he is permitted to pass to the next4 ,he is even allowed to pass on without manifesting enough ability to justify the hope that he may be able to do the work of the advanced grade4 ,the question is reduced to the one consideration3 ,would he do better if advanced than he would as a repeater8#cf ,ten years ago no pupil could enter the ,newton ,high ,school1 no matter what his age or educational need1 who had not completed satisfactorily all the work of the grammar schools2 and a considerable portion--probably one-third to one-half--of all ,newton children were then leaving school at fourteen to sixteen years of age with only part of an elementary school education4 ,to-day any boy or girl who needs secondary school instruction--and most boys and girls of high school age1 fourteen or fifteen1 do need such instruction--may enter some department of the ,newton high schools1 whether grammar school work has been completed or not2 and nearly all--probably from eighty to ninety per cent--of our children are now getting secondary training before leaving school4#cg ,,readjustments ,,of ,,the ,,curriculum ,there are other and more fundamental remedies for some of the evils of the graded system4 ,the curriculum can be readjusted4 ,where any considerable number of pupils fail in a particular subject1 it is highly probable that the material of instruction or the method of presentation or both ought to be modified4 ,in some cases pupils ought to be taken out of the regular grades and treated as special cases4 ,the city of ,cincinnati was a pioneer in recognizing the need of special curricula for special types of pupils4 ,the whole country has in recent years come to recognize the importance of taking children who are mentally backward or slow out of the grades4 ,less commonly there is a recognition of the importance of specially arranged courses for the bright pupils4 ,in the city of ,st4 ,louis the curriculum of each grade is administered in units of ten weeks for each section4 ,at the end of each ten weeks a readjustment is possible so that the bright pupils may go forward and the slow pupils may proceed more deliberately4 ,there are at the end of each period of ten weeks a number of promotions which carry individual pupils forward two quarters4 ,the curriculum is so arranged that a rapidly promoted pupil does not omit any essential part of the subjects1 while the slow pupil has ample opportunity for drill and review4 ,the grading of the material used in instruction in particular subjects has also been recognized as a problem of the first importance4 ,one of the most thoroughly studied subjects is spelling4 ,ayres#ch took the thousand words which several investigations had shown to be the most commonly used in ordinary life and tried them out on the pupils of eighty-four cities4 ,as a result of those trials he is able to state that a certain list of words will be spelled with a given percentage of error by pupils of the third grade and with a less percentage of error by pupils of the fourth1 fifth1 and higher grades4 ,thus the material of instruction in spelling is graded1 not by arbitrarily selecting what the teacher thinks will be appropriate1 but by trying out the actual ability of pupils in eighty-four cities4 ,,problems ,,of ,,grouping ,,in ,,high ,,school ,thus far the problem of grouping has been discussed from the point of view of the elementary school4 ,the problems of the high school are different in detail1 but no less impressive4 ,in the first place1 the failures in high-school subjects show the same lack of systematic ordering of the curriculum that was observed in the elementary records cited above4 ,for example1 from the survey of the ,denver high schools we may borrow a series of percentages showing the failures in various subjects in the five high schools4 ,,table ,,vi4 ,,percentages ,,of ,,failures ,,in ,,the ,,chief ,,subjects ,,of ,,instruction ,,in ,,the ,,five ,,high ,,schools ,,of ,,denver ,,in ,,june1 #aiaeci ,east ,north ,south ,west ,manual ,high ,high ,high ,high ,high ,school ,school ,school ,school ,school ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,english ,i #bc #ae #aa #i #ca ,english ,,ii #ad #af #aj #aa #bc ,english ,,iii #af #c #b #ae #bj ,english ,,iv #c #a #b #h #ac ,mathematics ,i #bc #bd #bf #bh #ej ,mathematics ,,ii #ag #ba #bh #bj #ai ,commercial arithmetic #df #af #cc -- -- ,elementary science #ac #i #ad #ba #g ,botany #ba #ad #ad #ad #bd ,physics #aj #ae #ah #ag #cd ,chemistry #j #d #ad #f #bj ,physiography #aa #ae #ab -- -- ,history ,ancient #ab #ag #aa #aj #ae ,english #ab #ag #g #e -- ,medieval and modern #ab #i #h #h #ac ,american -- #g -- -- -- ,latin ,i #bb #af #aj #bi #dj ,latin ,,ii #ad #bj #ad #aa #ah ,german ,i #bj #ae #bd #e #ai ,german ,,ii #ai #b #c #j #j ,table ,,vi is worthy of careful study4 ,let us compare ,english ,i and ,,ii1 which are required of all students1 with ,mathematics ,i and ,,ii1 which are also required4 ,in almost every case the percentage of failures in mathematics is greater4 ,this goes to show either that the grading in mathematics is more exacting or that the students are less well qualified to carry the courses4 ,the exception to the rule that mathematics shows more failures than ,english1 which appears in the second year of the ,manual ,high ,school1 suggests that possibly the students in that school see the importance of mathematics as a professional course4 ,the difficulty with this explanation is the enormous mortality in that school in the first-year course in mathematics4 ,perhaps the pupils who are likely to fail are dropped during the first year4 ,while the failures in mathematics are uniformly higher than in ,english1 the policy of the different schools is strikingly different4 ,in the ,east ,high ,school the two subjects are about alike1 while in the ,west ,high ,school the failures in mathematics are relatively very high4 ,such contrasts become more impressive if we draw the records in ,latin into consideration4 ,in the ,west ,high ,school1 ,latin in the first year is like mathematics1 while in the ,south ,high ,school it is like ,english4 ,elementary science also shows wide divergences in practice4 ,a number of startling facts appear if the table is made a subject of careful study4 ,what these facts mean is not difficult to set forth4 ,the subjects now included in the curriculum of the high school are only imperfectly adjusted to the abilities of the students4 ,the community has a right to question instruction which results in failure on the part of one student out of four4 ,it certainly must be aroused at the lack of cordination between schools within a single system which show differences as marked as those exhibited in ,table ,,vi4 ,other problems in the grading of high-school students and the subject-matter in which they are given instruction grow out of the laxity which has crept into the administration of the elective system4 ,thus1 if we consider certain subjects which are open to students of different classes1 such as the first course in ,spanish or ,french or the course in ancient history1 we find that senior students are allowed to enter the same class as freshmen because the organization of separate divisions would be too expensive4 ,the result is either a reduction of the requirement in class work to the level of the more immature student or undue effort to bring the lower student to a reasonable understanding of the subject4 ,,illegitimate ,,reasons ,,for ,,promoting ,,pupils ,the problems which have been pointed out will perhaps be seen most vividly if some types of promotion are cited which are likely to interfere with instruction4 ,sometimes the school allows a pupil to move up a grade or class1 although it is known that he has not done the work below1 because the parents of the child have influence and it does not seem safe to antagonize them4 ,sometimes the pressure of numbers in the lower grades or classes is so great that the teacher sends a pupil on in order to make room for the younger pupils1 even when it is evident that the pupil will not be able to carry the higher work4 ,sometimes the teacher in a given grade is anxious to unload the backward or disorderly and therefore incompetent pupil on someone else1 and since the open road is into the next higher grade1 the child is sent on4 ,promotion is sometimes controlled by the calendar4 ,because the date for closing the schools has arrived1 and the long vacation is at hand1 pupils are declared to have completed the work whether they have or not4 ,sometimes it is more or less explicitly argued that the backward pupil is larger than the other children of like intellectual attainments and he should therefore be sent to the upper-grade room where the seats are larger4 ,when such reasons for promotion are deliberately set down in black and white1 they are evidently not legitimate reasons4 ,many a pupil has1 however1 been dealt with on exactly such grounds4 ,,experiments ,,and ,,studies ,,which ,,aim ,,to ,,supply ,,both ,,individual ,,instruction ,,and ,,class ,,instruction ,the indefensible reasons given above for advancing pupils ought to make anyone who expects to become a teacher the more ready to turn to the careful study of the problem4 ,it is undoubtedly a social and financial necessity that pupils be grouped in classes4 ,it is equally necessary for purposes of administration that the groups have some kind of permanency and some degree of internal uniformity4 ,it is certainly legitimate that the individual's needs be asserted to the extent of freeing him from absolute subordination to the interests of the group4 ,such a statement of the case would seem to dictate a double type of instruction which will recognize more than does the present rigid class system the need of individual freedom and the value of class solidarity4 ,many experiments have been tried in the effort to solve this problem4 ,the ,batavia system1 so called1 puts two teachers into a room1 one to supervise individual work and one to teach groups4 ,there are various systems of individual promotion which advance a pupil whenever he is ready4 ,recently ,principal ,allen#dj of the high school of ,springfield1 ,illinois1 has developed a system of supervised study in which the students put themselves through certain prepared exercises and in this part of their work receive individual help and are allowed to progress at their own individual rate4 ,later the class meets for recitation as a group4 ,the recitation group is made to depend for its composition on the rate at which students complete the individual exercises4 ,the class is accordingly readjusted frequently1 and in order to provide time for individual work the length of its meetings is somewhat less than the conventional high-school period4 ,the instructional plan thus arranged requires certain readjustments of the program and certain divisions of labor among the teachers which differ from the ordinary4 ,but1 above all1 it calls for the separation of those aspects of the subjects of instruction which are suitable for individual work from those aspects which are suited to class exercises4 ,,arrangement ,,of ,,the ,,materials ,,of ,,instruction ,we are constantly brought back by our discussions of the organization of classes to a consideration of the curriculum4 ,the materials of instruction are capable of advantageous and economical use only when they are adapted to pupils4 ,our next problem1 therefore1 is to consider some of the general principles which underlie the organization of the general curriculum and of particular subjects4 ,,exercises ,,and ,,readings ,what are some of the limitations in the training of a child who gets his education from a private tutor rather than as a member of a class8 ,show that the most satisfactory size for a class depends in large measure on the subject of instruction4 ,in certain subjects1 such as typewriting and bookkeeping1 instruction often becomes almost purely individual instruction4 ,observe such a class and describe the method of instruction4 ,if terminology is employed in a strict way1 a 8course0 refers to a series of lessons in a single subject1 a 8curriculum0 to a coherent group of courses4 ,what devices are adopted in high schools to compel students to think of curricula rather than courses8 ,what are the advantages and what are the evils of the elective system8 ,what is the highest percentage of failures which ought to be tolerated in a class8 ,what conditions affect your answer to the foregoing question8 ,is a 8stiff0 course the best course8 ,what class in high school has the 8stiffest0 requirements8 ,dealing with the illegitimate methods of promotion enumerated in the closing paragraphs of the chapter1 describe some thoroughly practical method of handling each situation without making the mistake indicated4 ,,holmes1 ,w4 ,h4 ,school ,organization and the ,individual ,child4 ,the ,davis ,press1 ,worcester1 ,massachusetts4 ,contains a list of references on the subject4 ,,footnotes3 #cd ,report of the ,state ,superintendent of ,public ,schools of the ,state of ,maine1 for the ,school ,year ,ending ,june #cj1 #aiad1 p4 #ba4 #ce ,john ,franklin ,bobbitt1 8,the ,elimination of ,waste in ,education10 in ,elementary ,school ,teacher1 ,vol4 ,,xii 7#aiab71 pp4 #bff-bfg4 #cf ,special report of the ,boise ,public ,schools 7,june1 #aiae71 pp4 #ag-ah4 #cg ,f4 ,e4 ,spaulding1 ,the ,newton ,public ,schools1 ,annual ,report of the ,school ,committee1 ,newton1 ,massachusetts1 ,vol4 ,,lxxiv 7#aiac71 pp4 #ah-ai4 #ch ,leonard ,p4 ,ayres1 ,a ,measuring ,scale for ,ability in ,spelling4 ,the ,russell ,sage ,foundation1 #aiae4 #ci ,the ,work of the ,schools4 ,part ,,ii of the ,report of the ,school ,survey of ,denver1 p4 #aeh4 ,published by the ,school ,survey ,committee1 ,denver1 ,colorado1 #aiaf4 #dj ,for a fuller discussion of this experiment1 see pp4 #bcg-bch4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,the ,,traditional ,,curriculum ,,and ,,its ,,reorganization ,,importance ,,of ,a ,,study ,,of ,,the ,,curriculum ,the last chapter failed of its purpose if it did not concentrate the attention of the reader on the school curriculum4 ,the organized body of materials of instruction constitutes one of the most important factors which enter into the life of the school system4 ,along with the board of education1 with the grading system1 and with the staff of teachers and supervisory officers stands the curriculum as a kind of dominating personality always exercising a leading influence in the determination of every educational policy4 ,it will be the business of this chapter to open the discussion of the curriculum by commenting on the history of courses of study and by pointing out some of the changes which recent years have wrought4 ,,the ,,specialized ,,curriculum ,,of ,,higher ,,schools ,if one goes back to the beginnings of any school system1 it will always be found that the original courses of study grow directly out of the intellectual ideals of the times4 ,for example1 if one goes back to the beginnings of medieval universities1 he finds that these institutions grew up because there was an interest in certain well-defined bodies of ideas4 ,at ,bologna one ,irnerius had made himself acquainted with the laws of the northern ,italian cities1 and students came from all ,europe to hear him expound these laws4 ,the course of study was directly related to a specific demand4 ,a professional theological curriculum was organized at the time of the founding of the early ,american universities4 ,harvard was at first a school for the training of clergymen4 ,at that time there was no demand for lawyers trained in the ,new ,world4 ,the law came from ,england1 and from the same source came the lawyers4 ,medicine had hardly developed into a profession4 ,preaching and listening to sermons were1 on the other hand1 among the most absorbing occupations of the colonists1 and ,harvard was established to provide those who could preach4 ,the courses of study were arranged according to the traditions of the single profession towards which the graduates were aiming4 ,,problems ,,of ,,generalizing ,a ,,specialized ,,curriculum ,we may pursue this example further as typical of the complications which ultimately grow up around any course of study4 ,the original purpose of ,harvard was expanded with the passing years4 ,a demand arose for lawyers and doctors2 in the effort to meet this demand the institution was divided into separate schools4 ,still later students came to college seeking a general training not leading to any profession4 ,through all these changes in the demands of the student body the original courses of study have persistently battled their way down to the present4 ,no clearer evidence can be found than this1 that courses of study once created become vital factors in all the later life of the school4 ,the college courses of study were in the first place the product of a particular professional demand4 ,while satisfying this particular demand they became strong enough so that at a later period they have often dominated educational policies4 ,it is too flippant a remark to say that the classical education of the clerical period became the fashion and that later generations were afraid to be out of fashion1 but something of this sort is what really happened4 ,the traditions of a generation are hard to break4 ,the father who took ,greek as a part of his education hesitates to see his son enter upon life without the same equipment4 ,courses of study thus come to have an intellectual sanction which it is extraordinarily difficult to break down4 ,,traditional ,,character ,,of ,,mathematics ,,courses ,,in ,,high ,,schools ,another example of no less impressive a type can be drawn from the high-school curriculum of the present time4 ,there is hardly a tradition of high schools which is more fixed than that of requiring algebra in the first year and geometry later4 ,this practice persists even though it is a well-known fact that in many schools failures in high-school algebra are more numerous than in any other high-school course4 ,also1 there is a clear recognition of the fact that by being required of all students in the first year algebra is in effect made the prerequisite of admission to the courses in science and literature which are open only to students who have reached the later years of the high school4 ,the question which the student of education must raise is this3 ,how did algebra secure this position of commanding importance1 and how does it hold this position when experience shows that so many students cannot take it with success8 ,the answer to these questions throws a strong light on the nature of the curriculum4 ,mathematics in general gained a preminent position in the educational scheme of the ,western ,world as far back as the fifth century before ,christ1 in the days of ,pythagoras4 ,the branches of mathematics which were chiefly cultivated in those days were geometry and arithmetic4 ,geometry flourished as an experimental science1 and arithmetic consisted in the most elaborate speculations about prime numbers and the properties of odd and even numbers4 ,after these sciences had reached a certain maturity they were transferred to the ,university of ,alexandria1 where1 in the third century before ,christ1 ,euclid formulated the principles of geometry into the logical form which has persisted to our own time4 ,if one asks why the same service was not rendered for arithmetic at the ,university of ,alexandria1 the answer is to be found in the fact that the ,greeks had no adequate method of expressing number4 ,they used a system of letters even more clumsy than the system employed by the ,romans after them4 ,if one needs further demonstration of the reason why arithmetic did not develop in the classical world1 let him try to multiply ,,dcclxxvii by ,,xcix4 ,arithmetic was very little cultivated1 therefore1 while geometry was put into perfect logical form4 ,since arithmetic was so little developed in the ancient world1 algebra never succeeded in getting a real start4 ,geometry1 thus launched as a systematized branch of learning superior to arithmetic1 has held its place through all generations4 ,in the medieval institutions the perfect logical form of geometry was fully recognized4 ,geometry was used to sharpen the logic of many a mind4 ,arithmetic developed only so far as it was needed for the practical purposes of daily life4 ,in due time there came into ,europe oriental scholars who brought with them that marvelous invention--the ,arabic numerals4 ,they brought also the science of algebra with its profound abstractions4 ,the ,arabic numerals soon superseded the clumsy ,roman numerals1 and the common man found that he could easily deal with the practical matters of life by means of this number system which rendered all calculations simple4 ,with arithmetic of the new type came algebra4 ,the scientists of ,europe found that the algebraic methods opened up possibilities of mathematical reasoning which were of the first importance to science4 ,algebra and arithmetic flourished4 ,but did these two newcomers in any degree disturb the position of geometry8 ,not at all4 ,algebra may be as abstract as any subject in the curriculum1 but its historical relations were from the first with arithmetic1 while geometry was related to logic and the higher subjects4 ,geometry has continued since #cjj ,b4,c4 to be a higher course4 ,the situation in the high schools of to-day is in no sense due to a careful study of the degree of abstraction involved in geometry and algebra4 ,it is in no sense a recognition of the fact that geometry was the first of the two subjects to develop4 ,the present situation can be understood only by recognizing the strength of tradition and the persistence of a practice when once it gets itself established4 ,the situation is the more impressive because even a superficial study of the intellectual needs of pupils shows that there ought to be instruction in the lower grades in the discrimination of forms and designs4 ,one does not master the forms even of common things until his attention has been turned to them again and again4 ,the consequences to the curriculum of the elevation of geometry to the upper school are far-reaching in a negative as well as in a positive way4 ,space study has been kept out of the lower schools because the only orthodox form of space study is the geometry of the higher schools4 ,space study ought to have a place in the curriculum of every grade4 ,in the case of algebra1 on the other hand1 tradition has operated to keep the subject in the lower classes of the high school4 ,that it would be better to change this situation appears in the fact that textbooks in algebra have in recent years been made much easier in the effort to fit the subject to pupils' needs1 in the fact that some high schools have made it elective1 and in the fact that some high schools have rearranged the whole subject-matter of mathematics1 breaking up the historical lines of division4 ,,suggestions ,,of ,,new ,,subjects ,other evidences that the curriculum is in need of radical reform appear when one notes that schools are curiously blind in the subjects which they omit4 ,a recent writer has pointed out in a very interesting way the weakness of the ordinary school in its failure to give children any training in the use of money4 ,a quotation from his introductory chapter will show the force of his criticism4 ,most people if suddenly asked1 8,what financial training did you have as a child80 would probably say1 8,none40 ,if asked1 8,what financial training are you giving your own children80 many parents would give the same answer4 ,all parents1 however1 do incidentally give lessons in finance and a few give definite instruction with regard to money4 ,the teacher1 if thus questioned1 would usually say something about arithmetic or perhaps refer to some system of money-saving that is being operated by the school4 ,much has really been done that educates children financially1 but probably not one person in ten has ever seriously studied the problem of the need of financial training of children and of how that need at each age may best be met4 ,a moment's reflection tells one that many adults do not know how to spend their money wisely and that still fewer know how to keep it safely or invest it successfully4 ,every day we see people spending money in ways that bring little satisfaction4 ,others are tortured by the fear of losing what they have1 while still others are investing in schemes that promise much and yield little or nothing4 ,charity workers are especially impressed with the inability of poor people to spend wisely the little money they get4 ,one woman whose family was in a starving condition spent all of the dollar that was given her for canned lobster1 and another in a similar situation had a picture taken4 ,rich sons and daughters often spend the money accumulated by their fathers in even more foolish ways4 ,in general it is only the common people who have had much experience in saving and spending money1 who spend it wisely and many of these have paid a high price for their knowledge4 ,if carefully planned financial training were given1 the number spending wisely would doubtless be greatly increased4#da ,,present-,,day ,,social ,,demands ,other suggestions are being made these days for a change in the course of study4 ,sometimes the suggestions take the form of social movements4 ,such social movements often come in the form of violent criticisms of existing practices4 ,these criticisms will be understood only when it is recognized that back of them there is often a social pressure which has not been understood and is now finding voice in a demand that requires immediate attention4 ,it will be well for us to seek some examples of this type in order that we may come to understand that the school system is answerable at all times not merely to earlier social ideals which were incorporated into courses of study but also to the new ideals which arise with the later developments of community life4 ,an example of the type we are seeking appears in a study which was made in #aiac in the city of ,minneapolis4 ,the following extracts from an article published on ,march #aj in the ,morning ,tribune of that city state the case fully3 ,a year ago a group of men and women interested in the welfare of boys and girls1 and somewhat acquainted with conditions that confront them upon their entrance into industrial life1 decided that it was time to make a survey of the city4 ,there had been much talk of training for the trades in the public schools1 and apparently there was reasonable ground for this advocacy4444 ,was there a real demand1 or was this a new educational fad sweeping across the country1 to be lost in the great abyss of educational nostrums1 along with vertical writing and basketry8 ,that was to be determined4 ,educators are usually learned men2 but this world generally does not ascribe to them an abundance of sound sense4 ,these learned men have charge of the greatest plant in the world--our schools4 ,a half million employees are at work at an annual expense to the nation of #dej1jjj1jjj4 ,the product of this institution should be manhood and womanhood1 efficient to take its place in the world of workers1 and firmly established in habits of right thinking and noble action4 ,yet who is accounted efficient for the work of to-day8 ,certainly not the armorer1 no matter how skilled--for what need have we of him8 ,possibly not the bootmaker2 for the best and latest in boots come from big factories4 ,and so rapidly do industries change that confusion awaits the man still using methods of ten years ago4 ,no system of education can be efficient until the conditions of life to which pupils go are thoroughly known4 ,no manufacturer would think of setting his machines to make 8what-nots0 or muzzle-loading guns2 they were all right in their day but that day is now yesterday4 ,the first thing for the man of business is to know what the market demands4 ,and the managers of the schools must explore their market to know what is demanded of the education factory4 ,that is the reason for this survey4 ,the commission was made up of persons well known in the city and representative of differing interests4444 ,ten months were spent in gathering the information1 and a month in studying it and getting it into shape for presentation4 ,the tables have been arranged in the following order3 ,first1 a set of three tables1 showing the sources of the material studied1 by school1 by age1 by grade1 and by nationality1 and the causes of retardation2 second1 a table showing upon whom the responsibility should be placed for the child's leaving school2 third1 four tables setting forth the reasons for leaving school1 and the economic status of the family2 fourth1 a table indicating the education of the children after leaving the public school2 and fifth1 five tables showing the industrial history of each child1 his wages1 the number of jobs1 the kind of work1 and his advancement4 ,in the discussion comparisons are frequently made with similar reports from other cities1 and following these are the conclusions reached by the committee and recommendations for further work4 ,it will not be possible to give in detail all the results thus obtained4 ,it must suffice to repeat here the figures which summarize the table of causes for leaving school4 ,the percentages of pupils leaving for each cause are given with the statement of the cause4 ,ill health #e4g per cent ,had to go to work #ce4e per cent ,child's desire to earn money #h4b per cent ,kept vacation work #b4f per cent ,disliked or not interested in school #bi4f per cent ,trouble with teacher #c4a per cent ,failure to pass #a4a per cent ,further public school not worth while #ad4b per cent ,the number of pupils who leave because they do not like school or do not believe it worth while is disturbingly large4 ,that there should be so pronounced an adverse judgment on the part of pupils is perhaps to be explained in a measure by their immaturity and restlessness2 but part of the school's problem is to meet this immaturity and restlessness and to train the pupils with full regard to all that goes to make up their individual tastes and abilities4 ,it is especially important that a careful study be made of all available recommendations for improving the situation4 ,we turn1 therefore1 to some of the leading recommendations of the ,minneapolis commission3 ,that as rapidly as would be economical1 the schools be organized on the 8six-three-and-three0 plan1 beginning differentiated courses in the ,b seventh grade4 ,these courses should follow three broad lines3 7#a7 ,leading toward the academic courses in high schools4 7#b7 ,toward the commercial courses1 or directly to business4 7#c7 ,toward manual training in high school1 or directly to manufacturing and mechanical pursuits4 ,that preparation for the trades can be best and most economically closely related to working conditions1 while the necessary skill shall be gained in actual work under the usual commercial conditions4 ,that the membership of the ,thomas ,arnold school be enlarged to include all boys who have reached the age of fifteen and have not yet reached the seventh grade4 ,and that a similar school be organized for girls4 ,that a department of vocational guidance be organized4 ,that1 as an adjunct to the board of education1 an advisory commission of #ae members1 composed of employees1 employers and educators1 be established1 whose duty it shall be to report changes in the demands of business and industry1 and to advise modifications of the course of study to meet these new demands4 ,that a law should be enacted1 making it mandatory that a boy shall be either in school or at work up to his eighteenth year1 and that the department of vocational guidance be charged with the duty of enforcing such a provision4 ,this report has been reproduced at length because it furnishes a concrete example of the kind of demand which is being made on many sides for a complete remaking of the curriculum4 ,the comments about school officers are also typical of much that is being laid at the door of the present-day pedagogue4 ,better than any theoretical answer to these critics is a careful study of the whole problem of reorganizing the curriculum4 ,,traditional ,,neglect ,,of ,,industrial ,,education ,,on ,,the ,,part ,,of ,,the ,,public ,the reasonableness of the demand that the schools prepare boys and girls for their work in the world raises at once the question3 ,why have the schools ever neglected this need8 ,the answer to this question is supplied in part by the remoter history of schools which was touched on in an earlier chapter and in the early paragraphs of this chapter4 ,european and ,american schools first dealt with professional and theological problems and have accordingly always had a strong leaning toward the literary subjects4 ,the early history of the ,american educational system throws light on this particular matter in a way which will help the reader to understand the present situation with regard to industrial education and traditional education4 ,at the same time that the ,new ,england colonies were passing laws establishing schools where children were to learn to read the ,bible1 they provided in such laws as the following for training in industrial lines4 ,the ,connecticut law of #afej provides that 8all parents and masters do breed and bring up their children and apprentices in some honest lawful labor1 or employment1 either in husbandry or some other trade profitable for themselves and the commonwealth1 if they will not nor cannot train them up in learning1 to fit them for higher employments1 and if any of the selectmen1 after admonition by them given to such masters of families1 shall find them still negligent of their duty1 444 the said selectmen1 with the help of two magistrates1 shall take such children or apprentices from them1 and place them with some masters for years1 boys until they come to be twenty-one1 and girls to eighteen years of age complete40 ,the conception of responsibility which lies back of this law is wholly different from that expressed in the legislation providing for reading-schools4 ,a public officer was put in charge of reading4 ,he was stimulated to carry on his work by the rewards which he received in the way of compensation for his services4 ,the control of industrial education by the public was very slight4 ,we can imagine some selectman whose attention was by chance drawn to a neglected child1 debating with himself the wisdom of setting in motion the magistrates and his fellow selectmen in enforcing this somewhat vague law4 ,the fact is that the law was not enforced4 ,it became a dead letter1 and public attention to vocational education has no history in this country until recent years1 when the pressure of industrial competition has forced its recognition4 ,in the early days of the nation's life the absence of any definite plan for public vocational education of young people was not a serious matter4 ,industrial life was relatively simple1 and the family lived close to its sources of supplies4 ,the family was able to take care of the children's preparation for industrial life without aid or interference from the state4 ,but social and industrial conditions have changed4 ,with the development of factories1 of elaborate systems of transportation1 and of urban life it is no longer possible for the family to train the children1 and the demand begins to be urgently felt that some agency give adequate preparation for the practical later life of the children1 and that more especially where families are not well-to-do4 ,for a long period after this demand was felt the school went on with its specialized task1 and the public was complacent to see the school neglect vocational training4 ,the specialized task of the school1 as thought of in those days1 was to teach reading and the other subjects which naturally attached themselves to the literary tendencies that grew up in a reading-school4 ,private institutions1 such as business colleges1 sprang up as agencies for satisfying the demand for special vocational training4 ,these were tuition schools and secured their students in many cases by criticizing the public school as incompetent and wasteful4 ,in some cases employers1 realizing the necessity of training their workers1 made it a part of their industrial organization to teach certain branches of the trades4 ,in other cases1 a boy going into an occupation which had no regular training-school1 either in a private institution or in the industrial plant1 got his training as best he could by accepting a low wage and blundering along until he learned his trade4 ,even to-day the private training of young people for industry is conducted on a scale that shows how new is the idea that the public school is responsible in any degree for such training4 ,,the ,,demand ,,for ,,revision ,,of ,,the ,,curriculum ,the historical sketch given above illustrates1 as do the earlier examples presented in this chapter1 the natural conservatism of the school curriculum on the one hand and the inevitableness of an expansion of the school on the other4 ,historically1 the common school had no duties in the direction of vocational training4 ,but we are beginning to realize that it is not profitable to try to throw off responsibility4 ,to-day the school must cope with an urgent social problem4 ,the curriculum was and is literary in its major content4 ,the problem of the future is to expand it so that it shall combine with its literary content a new and productive body of vocational training4 ,,summary ,our study of the curriculum has established1 first1 the important fact that courses of study are real factors to be dealt with in any school situation2 second1 the motives which give rise to particular forms of instruction are superseded in the course of school history by new social needs4 ,nevertheless1 the curriculum tends to persist1 and often because of its conservatism becomes a menace to progress4 ,suggestions for innovations come through the insights of individuals or through the formulation of social demands4 ,whatever the source of suggestions for change1 the student of education will find his problem in the fact that the curriculum is undergoing change as is every other phase of modern life4 ,how to understand the changes that are imminent and how to direct them into productive channels is a major problem of the science of education4 ,,exercises ,,and ,,readings ,find new subjects other than those mentioned in the text which have been introduced into either the high-school curriculum or into the curriculum of the grades4 ,within the older courses find some new topics which have been introduced4 ,new subjects in general are not looked on as entirely respectable4 ,why is this8 ,what should be done to make them respectable8 ,why does training for vocation seem less respectable than conventional school work8 ,what is to be done to meet this situation8 ,do people in general know what changes ought to be made in the curriculum8 ,note that the ,minneapolis study found difficulties4 ,for these it had clear scientific evidence4 ,did it have equally clear grounds for its recommendations8 ,should it have had8 ,how could it secure evidence of this latter type8 ,relating this discussion to the first paragraphs of ,chapter ,i1 let us inquire what steps with regard to informing the community are necessary to the success of a new program of studies4 ,whose duty is it to plan new courses--that of the board of education1 the superintendent1 or the teacher who is a specialist in some subject8 ,,bobbitt1 ,j4 ,f4 ,what the ,schools ,teach and ,might ,teach4 ,published by the ,survey ,committee of the ,cleveland ,foundation4 7,copies may be secured from the ,russell ,sage ,foundation47 ,,koos1 ,l4 ,v4 ,the ,administration of ,secondary-,school ,units4 ,supplementary ,educational ,monograph ,no4 #c1 ,vol4 ,i1 of the ,school ,review and the ,elementary ,school ,journal4 ,the ,university of ,chicago ,press4 ,contains a summary of the practices of the approved schools of the ,north ,central ,association4 ,minimum ,essentials in ,elementary-,school ,subjects4 ,fourteenth ,yearbook of the ,national ,society for the ,study of ,education1 ,part ,i1 #aiae4 ,public ,school ,publishing ,company1 ,bloomington1 ,illinois4 ,this is an effort to bring together a statement of the essential requirements for the elementary curriculum4 ,report of the ,committee of ,ten on ,secondary ,education4 ,national ,education ,association4 ,american ,book ,company4 ,the most important report ever prepared in relation to the organization and courses of study of the high school4 ,its appearance marked the beginnings of the present era of high-school expansion4 ,,footnotes3 #da ,edwin ,a4 ,kirkpatrick1 ,the ,use of ,money1 pp4 #a-b4 ,the ,bobbs-,merrill ,company1 #aiae4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,specialized ,,education ,,versus ,,general ,,education ,,present-,,day ,,wavering ,,between ,,specialized ,,and ,,general ,,training ,because there is an urgent social demand for the reorganization of the curriculum and because the principles which should underlie a sound curriculum are as yet not clear1 there is much running back and forth in the educational world and much controversy that at times grows very bitter and even personal4 ,experiments are set up and lauded or assailed4 ,optimists are hopeful that out of this experimentation will come much good4 ,pessimists see in it the failure of a democratic educational system4 ,the recent controversies have revived the ancient dispute between a general education which makes the 8all-round man0 and specialized education which serves some particular purpose4 ,this controversy can be illustrated by two kinds of examples4 ,first1 let us listen to those who are interested in higher education for the classes of students who are going to high school and college4 ,later we shall find that there is another level at which the same kind of controversy is going forward4 ,the following statements and counter-statements illustrate the extent to which the dispute is carried3 ,i suggest1 that1 in the first place1 a man educated in the modern sense1 has mastered the fundamental tools of knowledge3 he can read and write2 he can spell the words he is in the habit of using2 he can express himself clearly orally or in writing2 he can figure correctly and with moderate facility within the limits of practical need2 he knows something about the globe on which he lives4 ,so far there is no difference between a man educated in the modern sense and a man educated in any other sense4 ,there is1 however1 a marked divergence at the next step4 ,the education which we are criticizing is overwhelmingly formal and traditional4 ,if objection is made to this or that study on the ground that it is useless or unsuitable1 the answer comes that it 8trains the mind0 or has been valued for centuries4 8,training the mind0 in the sense in which the claim is thus made for algebra or ancient languages is an assumption none too well founded2 traditional esteem is an insufficient offset to present and future uselessness4 ,a man educated in the modern sense will forego the somewhat doubtful mental discipline received from formal studies2 he will be contentedly ignorant of things for learning which no better reason than tradition can be assigned4 ,instead1 his education will be obtained from studies that serve real purposes4 ,its content1 spirit and aim will be realistic and genuine1 not formal or traditional4 ,thus1 the man educated in the modern sense will be trained to know1 to care about and to understand the world he lives in1 both the physical world and the social world4 ,a firm grasp of the physical world means the capacity to note and to interpret phenomena2 a firm grasp of the social world means a comprehension of and sympathy with current industry1 current science and current politics4 ,the extent to which the history and literature of the past are utilized depends1 not on what we call the historic value of this or that performance or classic1 but on its actual pertinency to genuine need1 interest or capacity4 ,in any case1 the object in view would be to give children the knowledge they need1 and to develop in them the power to handle themselves in our own world4 ,neither historic nor what are called purely cultural claims would alone be regarded as compelling4 ,even the progressive curricula of the present time are far from accepting the principle above formulated4 ,for1 though they include things that serve purposes1 their eliminations are altogether too timid4 ,they have occasionally dropped1 occasionally curtailed1 what experience shows to be either unnecessary or hopelessly unsuitable4 ,but they retain the bulk of the traditional course of study1 and present it in traditional fashion1 because an overwhelming case has not--so it is judged--yet been made against it4 ,if1 however1 the standpoint which ,i have urged were adopted1 the curriculum would contain only what can be shown to serve a purpose4 ,the burden of proof would be on the subject1 not on those who stand ready to eliminate it4 ,if the subject serves a purpose1 it is eligible to the curriculum2 otherwise not4 ,i need not stop at this juncture to show that 8serving a purpose10 8useful10 8genuine10 8realistic10 and other descriptive terms are not synonymous with 8utilitarian10 8materialistic10 8commercial10 etc41 for intellectual and spiritual purposes are genuine and valid1 precisely as are physical1 physiological1 and industrial purposes4#db ,the answer in florid and perfervid terms offered by a champion of the classics is as follows3 ,i have left myself only a few words to sum up and define the main issue raised by the so-called modernist reform of education4 ,it is not the place of physical science in our civilization and in our universities3 that is secure4 ,it is not the opportunity of industrial or vocational training for the masses3 we all welcome that4 ,it is not the conversion of the ,american high school into the old ,latin-verse-writing ,english public school3 nobody ever proposed that4 ,it is not the prescription of a universal requirement of ,greek or the maintenance of a disproportionate predominance of ,latin in our high schools and colleges3 there is not the slightest danger of that4 ,it is the survival or the total suppression1 in the comparatively small class of educated leaders who graduate from high schools and colleges1 of the very conception of linguistic1 literary1 and critical discipline2 of culture1 taste1 and standards2 of the historic sense itself2 of some trained faculty of appreciation and enjoyment of our rich heritage from the civilized past2 of some counterbalancing familiarity with the actual evolution of the human man1 to soften the rigidities of physical science1 and to check and control by the touchstones of humor and common sense the a priori deductions of pseudo-science from conjectural reconstructions of the evolution of the physical and animal man4 ,it is in vain that they rejoin that they too care for these things1 and merely repudiate our exclusive definitions of them4 ,that is1 in the main1 only oratorical precaution and the tactics of debate1 as1 if space permitted1 ,i could show by hundreds of citations from their books4 ,the things which1 for lack of better names1 we try to suggest by culture1 discipline1 taste1 standards1 criticism1 and the historic sense1 they hate4 ,or1 if you prefer1 they are completely insensitive to them and wish to impose their own insensibility upon the coming generation4 ,they are genuinely skeptical of intellectual discriminations which they do not perceive1 and sthetic values which they do not feel4 ,they are fiercely resentful of what they deem the supercilious arrogance of those who possess or strive for some far-off touch or faint tincture of the culture and discipline which they denounce as shibboleths1 taboos1 and the arbitrary conventions of pedants4 ,from their own point of view it is natural that they should deprecate with sullen jealousy the inoculation of the adolescent mind with standards and tastes that would render it immune to what one of them has commended in print as the 8science0 of ,elsie ,clews ,parsons4 ,the purpose1 or1 at any rate1 the tendency of their policies is to stamp out and eradicate these things and inculcate exclusively their own tastes and ideals by controlling ,american education with the political efficiency of ,prussian autocracy and in the fanatical intolerance of the ,french anticlericalists4 ,greek and ,latin have become mere symbols and pretexts4 ,they are as contemptuous of ,dante1 ,shakespeare1 ,milton1 ,racine1 ,burke1 ,john ,stuart ,mill1 ,tennyson1 ,alexander ,hamilton1 or ,lowell1 as of ,homer1 ,sophocles1 ,virgil1 or ,horace4 ,they will wipe the slate clean of everything that antedates ,darwin's ,descent of ,man1 ,mr4 ,wells's ,research ,magnificent1 and the familiar pathos of ,james ,whitcomb ,riley's vernacular verse4 ,these are the policies that mask as compassion for the child bored by literature which1 they say1 it cannot be expected to appreciate and understand1 or behind the postulate that we should develop sthetic and literary sensibilities only by means of the literature that expresses the spirit of modern science1 not that which preserves in amber the husks of the dead past4#dc ,,the ,,theory ,,of ,,separate ,,schools ,,for ,,different ,,classes ,,of ,,people ,both writers above quoted are speaking of those learners who are to have large opportunities of higher education4 ,what is to happen to the common masses1 to whom the last writer grants the 8opportunity of industrial or vocational training10 is still in doubt4 ,there are1 however1 disputants who are trying to settle this question also4 ,to illustrate we may borrow from a pamphlet issued by a great commercial organization in its campaign for legislation which should transform the school system of the city of ,chicago and the state of ,illinois4 ,,statement ,,of ,,principles ,definition3 ,vocational education includes all forms of specialized education1 the controlling purposes of which are to fit for useful occupations1 whether in agriculture1 commerce1 industry or the household arts4 #a4 ,state aid is necessary to stimulate and encourage communities to carry on work in vocational education1 but local communities should be permitted to initiate and should partly maintain such courses or schools4 #b4 ,the vocational schools should not compete or interfere with the present public school system1 but should supplement it by providing practical instruction in vocational lines for youth between fourteen and eighteen who have left the present schools4 ,to guard against any competition with the public schools as now organized1 a special tax should be levied for the support of vocational schools1 which1 with the ,state grant for their support1 should not be taken from the funds now provided by law for the support of the public school system4 #c4 ,the proper expenditure of ,state moneys for vocational schools should be fully safeguarded1 while at the same time the initiative in adapting measures to local conditions should be left with the local authorities4 ,to secure these ends the general management and approval of these courses and schools should be left to a ,state commission1 while the local initiative and direct control should be exercised by a local board composed of employers1 skilled employees and local superintendents of schools4 #d4 ,an efficient system of vocational education requires different methods of administration1 different courses of study1 different qualifications of teachers1 different equipment1 different ways of meeting the needs of pupils and much greater flexibility in adapting means to ends than is possible under the ordinary system of public school administration4 ,for these reasons these schools should be under a separate board of control1 whether carried on in a separate building or under the same roof with a general school1 so that they may be free to realize their dominant purpose of fitting for useful employment4#dd ,if the last two quotations are stripped of their decorations1 they reveal a demand for a distinct class system of education4 ,broad education is for the few4 ,specialized education is another matter1--let it be developed for the masses4 ,,public ,,demand ,,for ,a ,,new ,,curriculum ,it is interesting to note that the masses1 so far as they can express themselves1 are asking for a change in the traditional curriculum and are likely to get it4 ,the masses are expressing their demands through the courses sought by their children4 ,our problem will perhaps be clearer if we turn from the writings of those who discuss these matters to the changes which are actually going on in the schools of the country4 ,,commercial ,,courses ,,in ,,high ,,schools ,high schools in all parts of the country are giving commercial courses in increasing degree4 ,the first type of industrial education to be extensively cultivated in the ,united ,states was commercial education4 ,this consisted in training for clerical positions and was carried on for the most part in private 8business colleges40 ,the reason for the early demand for this particular kind of training is to be sought in the fact that ,america has for years been a country devoted on a vast scale to exporting raw materials4 ,commercial training1 which has to do with the shipping of goods1 was accordingly the first to grow here4 ,the extent of the demand for commercial training is vividly set forth in a report of the ,city ,club of ,chicago published in #aiab1 which contains the following chart3 ,,enrollment ,,in ,,private ,,vocational ,,schools ,,and ,,in ,,public ,,high ,,schools ,,of ,,chicago#de ,there are at least ,there are only #ai1jjj ,,students #ag1gha ,,students in in all ,private ,commercial ,schools ,public ,high ,schools and #hjj in ,private ,industrial ,schools in ,chicago in ,chicago1 and at least and only #a1dhe1jjj #a1aad1ebf is paid for is expended for ,,tuition ,,maintenance ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ab ,the high schools of the country entered into competition with the private commercial schools1 and for some years the competition has been running high4 ,the private schools solicit and get a large patronage on the ground that they do not teach anything that is useless4 ,they give short1 compact courses fitted to pupils' needs4 ,the high schools point out that the short courses leave the stenographer with a meager vocabulary and the clerk with no outlook on life4 ,the public schools are gradually pulling ahead of their competitors because they are employing a higher grade of teachers than formerly and are doing the work in a fashion which is technically more complete4 ,in the meantime the commercial courses are becoming more 8respectable0 and are being taken by a better grade of students4 ,the effect of the election of commercial courses by a better grade of students is such as to modify the whole program of the school in the direction of more attention to the needs and practices of business life4 ,,agricultural ,,high ,,schools ,a second type of vocational course appears in the high schools of rural communities where much attention is being devoted to agriculture4 ,indeed1 the increase in the number of high schools in the country in recent years has been very largely due to the fact that rural communities have taken an interest in carrying the training of pupils beyond the rudimentary subjects of the elementary curriculum4 ,this movement relates itself to the development of a department of agriculture in the ,federal government and to the generous subsidy through that department for agricultural experiments in centers of education in all the states4 ,three years ago a large ,federal subsidy was set aside for the further promotion of agricultural demonstrations and schools1 and the recently enacted ,federal legislation for industrial education includes provision for more agriculture4 ,,part-,,time ,,courses ,a third movement which has recently attracted a great deal of attention and favorable comment was started in the engineering school of the ,university of ,cincinnati and is known as the part-time plan4 ,classes are organized in such a way that their members spend one week or one month in the shop of some manufacturing plant and the next period in school4 ,a second group alternates in the reverse order1 so that the shop and the school are at all times engaged in regular work4 ,where this plan is well organized1 there is a special school officer1 called a correlator1 who sees to it that there is some direct connection between the shop work and the courses taken up in the schools4 ,the part-time plan aims to supply that mixture of practical opportunity and training in science1 mathematics1 and the academic subjects which will lead to both vocational efficiency and a general education4 ,,various ,,types ,,of ,,trade ,,schools ,fourth1 there are all kinds of schools for young people in the trades4 ,some of these hold their sessions at night1 when the working day is over1 and others are organized to take the young worker out of the shop or store for a limited number of hours during the working day4 ,in the matter of instruction some give only special training intended to make the worker more skillful2 others give general courses in civics1 or history1 or even in literary subjects4 ,some of these schools for workers are organized by the corporations which employ the workers4 ,thus1 telephone companies and dry-goods stores find that it is economical to train their employees4 ,some of the schools are conducted by the school system and are provided with pupils either through the voluntary demand on the part of learners or through the operation of state laws or municipal ordinances compelling children to attend such schools until they are of a certain age4 ,fifth1 trade training is provided not merely for those in the trades but also for those who are preparing to enter them4 ,trade schools are sometimes supported out of the public purse1 sometimes by private endowments4 ,the method of instruction is that of requiring the learner to go through a definite series of exercises which will give him skill in the trade4 ,the strictly technical training is usually supplemented by some 8general0 training4 ,the following quotation gives a brief summary by one specialist in vocational education of the writings of another specialist in the same field3 ,,the ,,manhattan ,,trade ,,school1 ,,new ,,york ,,city ,this trade school for girls is now a part of the public-school system of ,new ,york ,city4 ,its early history as a privately supported institution is of absorbing interest1 and has been tersely written by ,mrs4 ,mary ,schenck ,woolman1 in her book entitled 8,the ,making of a ,trade ,school40 ,in this volume she gives an interesting account of the first experiment in the ,united ,states to deal in an adequate way with the problem of furnishing vocational training and guidance to children destined to enter industrial life1 otherwise wholly unprepared1 at the earliest possible age4 ,the aim of the school is frankly stated to be the giving of help to the youngest wage earners1 but its ideals are of considerable breadth4 ,they are to demonstrate to the community what education is needed for 8the lowest rank of women workers0 in order that a girl may become self-supporting and adaptable1 8understand her relation to her employer1 to her fellow workers1 and to her product10 and value health and moral and intellectual development4 ,the necessity for this effort was found in the unfortunate social and economic conditions1 and especially in the lack of opportunity for progressive work4 8,after several years spent in the market0 the girl was found to be little better off than on her entrance into industrial life4 ,after investigation1 trades were selected in which are used the sewing machine 7foot and electric power71 the paint brush1 paste brush1 and needle4 ,in organizing instruction all unnecessary waste was eliminated2 short1 intensive courses were planned to give knowledge and skill in the technical aspects of the selected trade1 and to develop mental alertness on the part of the worker4 ,it has been observed that 8the academic dullness which is shown at entrance comes frequently from lack of motive in former studies40 ,the fundamental importance of health and the value of trade art as a help to progress are given special emphasis4 ,the supreme value of the school's trade-order business1 as an educational asset1 is shown in the following quotation3 ,it provides the student with adequate experience on classes of material used in the best workrooms2 these girls could not purchase such materials and the school could not afford to buy them for practice4 ,the ordinary conditions in both the wholesale and the custom trade are thus made a fundamental part of instruction4 ,reality of this kind helps the supervisor to judge the product from its trade value1 and the teaching from the kind of workers turned out4 ,through the business relation the student quickly feels the necessity of good finish1 rapid work1 and responsibility to deliver on time4 ,the businesslike appearance of the shop at work on the orders1 and the experience trade has had with the product1 have increased the confidence of employers of labor in the ability of the school to train practical workers for the trades4444 ,the business organization and management required in the adequate conduct of a large order department can itself be utilized for educational purposes4 ,a chapter devoted to representative problems makes an illuminating analysis of the difficulties which must be met and solved by those organizing schools for workers in the lower grades of industry4 ,while the instruction must be direct and specific1 some preliminary general training is needed1 and work intended to awaken vocational interests should also be provided4 ,mrs4 ,woolman believes that all this might and should be given in the public elementary school4 ,other difficulties are the keeping of the school organization flexible and sensitive to ever-changing trade conditions1 and in 8close contact with industrial and social organizations of workers in settlements1 clubs1 societies1 and unions1 that all phases of the wage earner's life--pleasures1 aims1 and needs--may be appreciated40 ,there is the difficulty of securing suitable teachers1 and of working in harmony with the ideals of organized labor4#df ,,practical ,,applications ,,as ,,parts ,,of ,,academic ,,courses ,the effect of these experiments in vocational education is clearly discernible in the traditional courses4 ,reading books are beginning to include extracts which deal with practical matters4 ,mathematics textbooks are presenting more than ever before practical problems drawn from commercial1 trade1 and agricultural life4 ,science1 both in elementary and advanced forms1 is turning to practical applications4 ,in short1 there is going on a kind of intellectual compromise which will eventually make training in skill an accepted part of a general training4 ,general training has until recently been so proud of itself that it has not willingly accepted association with courses designed to cultivate skill4 ,the result is that the common man has gained the impression that there is a wide gulf fixed between general education and practical life4 ,one hopeful symptom of the present situation is that discussions of general education are becoming very much more democratic4 ,to be sure1 there are examples of the proud exclusiveness of former days still to be found in the writings of those who do not understand the reach of modern reforms in the curriculum1 but these cases are likely to become fewer as the years pass4 ,in the meantime the practical world is making long strides in the direction of an appreciation of the value of a general education4 ,the shop mechanic should read4 ,he should be independent in his cultivation of contact with the most recent movements in his trade4 ,the teacher who teaches reading is coming to recognize this as clearly as does the employer1 and very shortly the idea that reading is an artificial somewhat1 cultivated exclusively for purely intellectual reasons1 will give way to the broader view that even the artisan gains in efficiency by reading4 ,when that time comes there will be no room for the theory that there should be a different school for the tradesman and the professional class4 ,there will be differentiation within the courses4 ,there will be an elective opportunity for each pupil which will adapt the curriculum to his special needs1 but there will be no industrial school on the other side of the street1 with a separate course1 a different kind of teacher1 and a different governing board4 ,such a cleavage of social interests would be disastrous to the academic subjects quite as much as to the practical subjects4 ,academic life cannot bury itself in the past2 it must make its contribution to the activities of the present4 ,,studies ,,of ,,social ,,activities ,nowhere is the future more clearly forecast than in the new lessons which are being introduced into both the elementary schools and the high schools for the purpose of teaching social organization4 ,under the title 8community civics0 or 8lessons in community and national life0 the social sciences are beginning to offer to the lower schools an exposition of the life of the people who make up society4 ,these courses1 like all new applicants for admission to the crowded curriculum1 are finding some difficulty in making their way into the school4 ,in spite of these handicaps the movement toward the introduction of social studies into the general school is now sufficiently under way to be described as one of the most hopeful innovations in the curriculum4 ,,exercises ,,and ,,readings ,what would be the effect on a community of putting different social classes of children into different schools8 ,is this done in any degree8 ,is the principle involved in such a suggestion different in its essentials from the elective system8 ,what classes of students elect commercial courses8 ,if a school were set up which taught exclusively commercial courses1 would the attitude of teachers and students toward their work be better than in a school which gives general academic courses also8 ,should agriculture be taught in city high schools8 ,it is sometimes argued that the country school should have a course of study different from that given in the city school4 ,does the argument touch spelling8 arithmetic8 drawing8 ,the part-time experiment has failed in a number of cases where the correlator is not appointed4 ,can you see why8 ,at what age should trade training begin8 ,connect this discussion with the earlier discussions of 7a7 compulsory education and 7b7 costs4 ,is reading a practical subject8 ,is science a natural and desirable part of a trade course8 ,the ,federal government has appropriated money for trade training4 ,can any part of this money reasonably be spent in teaching arithmetic8 history8 literature8 ,,farrington1 ,f4 ,e4 ,commercial ,education in ,germany4 ,the ,macmillan ,company4 ,a book dealing with one phase of the matter4 ,,roman1 ,f4 ,w4 ,the ,industrial and ,commercial ,schools of the ,united ,states and ,germany4 ,g4 ,p4 ,putnam's ,sons4 ,an interesting comparison of the provisions made in ,germany for trade education with various ,american efforts in the same direction4 ,eleventh ,yearbook of the ,national ,society for the ,study of ,education4 ,part ,i1 #aiab1 ,industrial ,education4 ,public ,school ,publishing ,company1 ,bloomington1 ,illinois4 ,eleventh ,yearbook of the ,national ,society for the ,study of ,education4 ,part ,,ii1 #aiab1 ,agricultural ,education in ,secondary ,schools4 ,public ,school ,publishing ,company1 ,bloomington1 ,illinois4 ,lessons in ,community and ,national ,life4 ,published in #bd numbers 7,october1 #aiag1 to ,may1 #aiah7 by the ,united ,states ,bureau of ,education4 ,,footnotes3 #db ,abraham ,flexner1 ,a ,modern ,school1 pp4 #h-i4 ,published by the ,general ,education ,board1 ,new ,york ,city1 #aiaf4 #dc ,paul ,shorey1 8,the ,assault on ,humanism10 ,atlantic ,monthly1 ,july1 #aiag4 #dd ,vocational ,schools for ,illinois1 pp4 #a-b4 ,published by the ,commercial ,club of ,chicago4 #de ,a ,report on ,vocational ,training in ,chicago and in ,other ,cities1 p4 #ch4 ,published by the ,city ,club of ,chicago1 #aiab4 #df ,frank ,m4 ,leavitt1 ,examples of ,industrial ,education1 pp4 #adi-aea4 ,ginn and ,company1 #aiab4 ,,chapter ,x ,,extension ,,of ,,school ,,activities ,a ,,general ,,social ,,movement ,it would be a mistake to treat the innovations in the course of study which were discussed in the last chapter as concessions to a narrow demand for mere gain through the better training of workmen4 ,to be sure1 there are some who would be willing to curtail the educational opportunity of the common people in order to insure that type of contentment which is supposed to dwell in the mind untrained in higher ideas4 ,but these are fortunately not likely to succeed in their plans4 ,the movement for a better industrial training is part of a larger movement for a broader social and economic life for all4 ,the important fact about the whole movement is that changes within the school parallel a general effort to deal with all the problems of modern life as problems of popular education4 ,no exhaustive study of educational extension can be undertaken in the short compass of a single chapter4 ,indeed1 there is hardly more than space to enumerate the types of activity which enter into this movement4 ,confining ourselves1 then1 to this very modest effort1 the following outline will serve as a rough classification of the major phases of the school-extension movement4 ,first1 there are activities of pupils which lie outside the school but are systematized and promoted through the supervision of the school4 ,second1 there are organized efforts to supplement and enlarge school work by adding to the opportunities offered to pupils out of school hours or during vacations4 ,third1 there are continuation courses offered in the schools for adults who have been limited in their educational opportunities4 ,fourth1 there are various forms of educational propaganda through which communities are to be brought to a more satisfactory economic or social status4 ,fifth1 there are legitimate and refined forms of entertainment1 some intellectual and some purely social1 which are provided at public expense either in the school building or in other meeting places4 ,some of these social activities are directed toward the cultivation of a direct interest in the schools2 some have no special relation to schools4 ,sixth1 there is at present a great movement for the spread of education through correspondence schools4 ,following this outline1 concrete examples of each type of activity may be briefly described4 ,,credit ,,for ,,home ,,activities ,first1 the extension of school supervision is illustrated by the fact that in a township high school the girls who are taking cooking are required to do each day a certain amount of laboratory work in the kitchen at home4 ,this is reported by the parents1 and the cooking teacher visits the homes from time to time to inspect the work4 ,again1 in many agricultural schools home gardening is required as a part of the course4 ,sometimes a school officer is employed to keep up the supervision of this home work during the vacation period4 ,another series of examples under this heading is to be found in those systems where miscellaneous home activities are credited by the school on the report of parents4 ,the following quotation taken from ,superintendent ,alderman's book on home credits shows how far the matter has been carried in some quarters3 ,below is the ,spokane ,county plan4 ,,bulletin ,,for ,,teachers3 ,,home ,,credits ,the following are the rules and reward offered for home work4 ,this work is to be done during the school week4 ,no one is compelled to enter this contest1 and the pupil may drop out at any time4 ,all work must be voluntary on the part of the pupil4 ,parents are requested not to sign papers for pupils if the work is not voluntarily and cheerfully done4 ,the rewards for this work are3 ,one half-holiday each month to the child who has earned one hundred or more home credits1 and has not been absent or tardy for the month2 also #e per cent will be added to his final examination4 ,the pupil who earns one hundred or more credits each month but fails in perfect attendance will have the #e per cent added to his final examination4 ,in addition1 the board of directors may offer a prize to the pupil in each grade who shall have the greatest amount of home credits1 and shall be neither absent nor tardy during the term1 or from the adoption of these rules4 ,list of ,home ,credits ,personal cleanliness #b ,cleaning teeth #a ,cleaning finger nails #a ,practicing music lesson #b ,dressing baby #a ,washing dishes #a ,sweeping floor #a ,making bed #a ,preparing meal #b ,making a cake #a ,making biscuits #a ,churning #b ,scrubbing floor #b ,dusting #a ,blacking stove #a ,darning stockings #a ,delivering papers #b ,retiring before #i o'clock #a ,feeding and watering chickens #a ,feeding and watering horses #a ,feeding and watering cows #a ,feeding and watering hogs #a ,gathering eggs #a ,cleaning chicken house #a ,going for mail #a ,picking apples #b ,picking potatoes #b ,bringing in wood for to-day #a ,splitting wood for to-day #a ,bringing in water for to-day #a ,grooming horse #a ,milking cow #a ,working in field #b ,going for milk #a ,e4 ,g4 ,,mcfarland1 ,county ,superintendent of ,schools4 ,the following statement is made by ,superintendent ,mc,farland as to the effect home credits had on attendance in #aiac-aiad3 ,we attribute the increase in our attendance this year in the schools of ,spokane ,county1 outside the city of ,spokane1 largely to the ,home ,credit ,system and our certificates for perfect attendance4 ,while the enrollment was #ajh less than last year1 yet our attendance was #af1gab days more4 ,at the present rate of #af cents per day1 the pupils earned for the county1 from the ,state appropriation1 nearly #bgjj more than last year4 ,with the same enrollment as last year the increase of apportionment would have reached approximately #fjjj4 ,the credit slip for the school week provides for a daily record of 8chores or work done0 from ,monday to ,friday inclusive4 ,it does not contain a stated list of duties2 the blanks are to be filled in by the child4 ,the list of home credits is furnished each district1 but the teacher uses her judgment in allowing credit for any chore peculiar to her locality4#dg ,in ,greeley1 ,colorado1 the high school gives credits for courses taken in the ,sunday schools4 ,the teachers1 under this plan1 must be approved by the school authorities and the work must be graded4 ,in many schools credit is given for music taken at home4 ,sometimes the results of this instruction are examined1 sometimes not4 ,in the latter cases teachers are sometimes approved by the school and their work then accepted without further question4 ,,relation ,,of ,,home ,,work ,,to ,,traditional ,,school ,,work ,all these examples make it clear that the school organization is being used to systematize activities which without school credits are carried on very irregularly4 ,the supervision of the school is undoubtedly of advantage to the activities4 ,is the draft made on the supervisory energy of the school legitimate8 ,the answer to this question is1 in some cases1 undoubtedly no4 ,thus1 if the school is not supplied by the public with supervisory energy beyond that commonly devoted to the routine of ordinary school work1 it is difficult to manage without distraction some of these new kinds of credits4 ,again1 if outside activities are allowed to take the place of regular school courses1 the dangers become even more apparent4 ,the advocates of the home credit system assert that the drawbacks are slight and offer examples to show that there is no conflict1 but rather help for the school work4 ,a boy in one of the ,portland1 ,oregon1 schools had trouble with his spelling1 getting a mark of only #d on a scale of #aj4 ,soon after home credits were put into use by his teacher he came to her and anxiously inquired if he could help out his spelling grade with a good home record4 ,the teacher graciously assured him that he could4 ,the boy brought in each week one of the very best home record slips1 and in some mysterious manner his spelling improved as his hours of work increased4 ,he does not need his home record to help out his spelling grade now1 for last month he received more than a passing mark1 #g1 in his weak subject4 ,the knowledge that there was help at hand relieved his nervousness1 and gave him confidence4#dh ,,after-,,school ,,classes ,,and ,,vacation ,,classes ,the second type of extension to be noted is that which adds to the regular school work by giving supervised opportunity outside the ordinary curriculum4 ,one example is that of a high school which tried the experiment of requiring manual training4 ,the students grumbled a good deal about the course because it was so different from their other work4 ,the course was abandoned4 ,in its place was opened a voluntary class after school hours to which only students who secured a high grade in their regular work were admitted4 ,there was a larger demand for the course than the shop could satisfy4 ,vacation schools are often supported by groups of citizens interested in providing for pupils who have to remain in the city during vacation and have no suitable employment or recreation to keep them off the streets4 ,so valuable is this addition to school work that it is very often taken over by the school system4 ,a great deal of school gardening is being encouraged by finding vacant lots or providing land in unsettled districts4 ,school supervision sometimes cannot be extended to cover this work4 ,this movement has been evolved during the recent campaign for food cultivation and conservation into a general social movement4 ,athletics are sometimes organized under school supervision2 sometimes only advisory help is furnished by the schools4 ,the playground is opened to pupils after school hours or a special playground is provided4 ,the matter of supervised play is important enough to justify a full discussion in a later chapter4 ,some schools are providing moving-picture exhibitions out of hours for the pupils4 ,the experiment has been successfully carried out by charging enough for such entertainments to pay their cost1 the school thus furnishing only the place and the organization4 ,all these examples show that there is an unused margin of time and energy which pupils will use somewhere4 ,especially in cities it becomes a serious problem to insure wholesome conditions for the use of this surplus4 ,if the pupils need further opportunities and the schools can provide them1 it is certainly legitimate to carry out such plans4 ,to be really educational all these activities need supervision4 ,supervision1 of course1 means either more expenditure of money to secure additional supervisors or an increased demand on the energies of present school officers4 ,the present provision for instruction and supervision is seldom excessive4 ,expansion1 therefore1 ought to be faced as a new demand4 ,,continuation ,,classes ,,for ,,adults ,continuation courses for adults are intended to carry on the schooling of people who for some reason or other have found it necessary to stop ordinary school work4 ,in many cases continuation classes are conducted at night in what is commonly known as night school4 ,here there are two types of courses1 one designed to give training in the conventional academic subjects1 the other to give greater efficiency in the practical occupational life of the student4 ,as an example of general courses not connected with industries we may cite the special courses for immigrants which have of late been matters of an especially urgent campaign by the ,bureau of ,education1 as indicated in the following paragraphs from a paper by ,mr4 ,wheaton1 the specialist on immigration in the bureau3 ,education1 however1 is the most potent force toward inculcating ,american ideals and impulses4 ,the ,english language and a knowledge of the civic forces of the country are indispensable to the alien in adjusting himself to ,america4 ,through our common speech comes understanding4 ,without it the pages of our newspapers are meaningless and ordinary matters of business with ,americans must be transacted through the medium of an interpreter4 ,only by overcoming inability to speak ,english1 by eliminating illiteracy among aliens1 and by instilling the ideals1 attitudes1 and habits of thought of ,america1 can we hope to make real ,american citizens of the strangers within our gates4444 ,the education of children of immigrants in the day schools has always been considered a primary and essential function of the school system4 ,but the training of adults in ,english and civics has not been generally so considered4 ,evening schools1 through which only can adults be reached effectively1 have usually been regarded merely as adjuncts to the day-school system1 and hence are maintained when funds can be spared or eked out4 ,adequate facilities for the adult are rarely organized and maintained as an organic part of the educational system with a specific appropriation and unified supervision4 ,in fact1 education of immigrants has been left too largely to the well-intentioned but sporadic interest and effort of private organizations and individuals4 ,the provision of public facilities may1 therefore1 be treated at present and for some time to come as a legitimate extension activity for educational systems4 ,it is with this latter conception in mind that the ,united ,states ,bureau of ,education has for a considerable period been actively engaged in promoting the extension of facilities for the education of immigrants over the compulsory attendance age4 ,authority to undertake this extensive program is derived from the organic act creating the bureau in #ahfg and from various acts of ,congress making appropriations for the purpose of promoting industrial and vocational training1 the elimination of illiteracy1 and the cause of education generally4#di ,the industrial phase of continuation education was noted in the discussions of the last chapter4 ,it remains only to add that the industrial courses for adults have done much to make available for mature workers the kind of training which the school is now beginning to give to children4 ,continuation classes are often provided by organizations outside of the schools1 such as the ,christian associations for young men and women1 and labor unions1 and through private endowment4 ,,demonstrations ,,as ,,means ,,of ,,economic ,,and ,,social ,,improvement ,the fourth type of educational activity may be described as educational propaganda4 ,the ,federal government1 especially through its ,department of ,agriculture1 has promoted scientific farming where there was no initial impulse on the part of farmers to go to school4 ,this work was supported1 especially in the ,southern ,states1 by the ,general ,education ,board4 ,it sometimes took the form of an appeal to the boys and girls as well as to adults4 ,a typical case is set forth in the first report of the ,general ,education ,board4 ,a club consists essentially of a group of boys varying in number from twenty-five to one hundred1 and ranging in age from ten to eighteen4 ,corn and cotton are both cultivated1 but corn is preferred3 first1 because the ,south needs more corn2 secondly1 because corn lends itself better to study and selection4 ,as a rule1 each member works a plot of one acre4 ,the county superintendent of education is usually in charge4444 ,driving through ,macon ,county1 ,alabama1 not long ago1 two strangers observed1 in a large field of ordinary corn1 a patch standing out like a miniature skyscraper4 ,they dismounted to interview the owner4 ,a ,negro boy approached4 8,is this your corn80 8,yes1 sir40 8,how did you come to grow it80 8,one of ,dr4 ,knapp's men showed me1 sir40 8,why did you plant it so far apart in the rows80 8,because1 sir1 most all that grows comes from the sunshine and the air40 8,when did you plow80 8,last fall1 sir40 8,why80 8,to make plant food during the winter40 8,where did you get your fertilizer80 8,from the bottom1 sir40 8,how many times did you cultivate80 8,six times1 sir40 8,why80 8,because there's water down next to the clay1 and when ,i don't plow the sun draws it all away40 8,when did you put in the cowpeas80 8,after the last plowing1 sir40 8,what did you do that for80 8,because the cowpeas get out of the air nitrogen1 and put back in the ground about as much as the corn takes out40 ,how many valuable lessons had this remote ,negro lad learned from doing one job right6 ,but this is not the end of the story4 ,his double crop was worth #eb4 ,from his pocket he pulled a dirty little pass-book1 the entries in which showed what the crop had cost4 ,reckoning his own time at ten cents an hour and his father's mule at a dollar a day1 he netted a profit of #cj to the acre4 ,his younger sister1 it appeared1 had had an equally profitable quarter of an acre in cotton4 ,three years later both were students at ,tuskegee1 paying for their education with the money earned as club workers4#ej ,equally impressive examples could be supplied of transformations in homes brought about by demonstrations in cooking1 house decoration1 and costume design given by teachers of domestic science and household art4 ,,entertainment ,,as ,,part ,,of ,,the ,,educational ,,program ,the problem of providing proper entertainment for people in the city and proper places for the coming together of social groups in country and city communities is one of the serious problems of modern life4 ,the church serves less than it used to the purposes of a meeting place for the community4 ,the schools have been called on to help solve this problem4 ,the extent to which the demand exists is illustrated by the following quotation from the ,cleveland survey#ea3 ,according to the custodians' reports the total after-class lettings of school accommodations during #aiad-ae numbered #c1dfi4 ,of these1 #dfb were for mothers' club meetings1 class dances1 pupil society meetings1 pay entertainments1 bazaars1 or some other kind of purely school function and #c1jjg were lettings to outside organizations4 ,a large part of the latter consisted of clubs or ,sunday-school classes connected with some #bg different churches which1 along with two dozen or more specifically named athletic societies1 sought the use of school gymnasiums and showers for basketball and similar indoor games4 ,the varied character of the bodies which hired the auditoriums1 club and classrooms can best be discovered from a perusal of the following partial but representative list4 ,,groups ,,using ,,school ,,accommodations ,twentieth ,ward ,improvement ,association ,east ,end ,chamber of ,commerce ,east ,end ,neighborhood ,club ,women's ,suffrage ,political ,league ,municipal ,school ,league ,spanish ,war ,veterans ,ladies' ,relief ,corps ,knights of ,pythias ,lodge ,public ,school ,association ,garment ,workers' ,union ,warner ,civic ,association ,social ,center ,club ,teachers' and ,mothers' ,club ,western ,reserve ,dental ,club ,thespian ,dramatic ,club ,south ,end ,choral ,society ,mendelssohn ,choir ,boys' ,glee ,club ,d4 ,a4 ,r4 ,clubs ,g4 ,a4 ,r4 ,post ,normal ,alumni ,alumni ,club ,sanitation ,club ,civic ,league ,boy ,scouts ,boy ,cadets ,camp ,fire ,girls ,y4 ,w4 ,c4 ,a4 ,mothers' ,club ,anti-,fly ,campaign ,boys' ,chef ,club ,patrons' ,club ,social ,club ,german ,club ,latin ,club ,syrian ,club ,these names show concretely what a wide range of ,cleveland's social elements are nowadays seeking the kind of facilities which a modern school edifice possesses4 ,in the majority of cases these groups were obliged to pay custodians' fees ranging from #cj cents to #e4jj an evening depending on the size of the quarters used4 ,that fact attests the genuineness of this demand and its vigor is further evidenced by the rapid growth in volume which1 as shown in the following table1 has practically doubled during the past two years4 ,,growth ,,of ,,after-,,school ,,use ,,of ,,school ,,facilities ,,by ,,neighborhood ,,organizations ,,per ,,cent #aiac-aiad #aiad-aiae ,,increase ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ------------- ,organizations using buildings #bih #eif #ajj ,total lettings #a1icb #c1jjg #ef ,fees paid to custodians by organizations#a1gbi4ia #b1hac4ee #fb ,aggregate attendance #abj1eaa #bgf1bec #abi ,,associations ,,aimed ,,directly ,,at ,,the ,,improvement ,,of ,,schools ,a social organization which is of special importance to the schools is the parent-teachers' association1 which is coming to be a common adjunct of every school4 ,such an association often helps the school to secure equipment which it needs1 and furnishes a useful avenue for the dissemination of ideas with regard to school policies4 ,sometimes the school officer finds that the proper relation of the association to school administration needs definition4 ,he then falls back with satisfaction on the words of a recent writer in the ,atlantic3 ,running a school or a class is a technical or expert job4 ,it cannot as a rule be done by an untrained person2 and untrained people1 seeking to break in1 are likely to do more harm than good4 ,the school situation1 indeed1 resembles the situation in medicine fifty years ago4 ,the practice of medicine at that time was atrocious2 but it had to be improved1 and it was improved by doctors1 not by laymen4 ,i shall not spare the schools2 but schools must be improved by schoolmen--and they will be4 ,we have then reached this point4 ,intelligent parents wish to have a say in the education of their children4 ,but schools must be conducted by trained persons4 ,the training of these persons is1 however1 largely antiquated4 ,are we not deadlocked8 ,i think not4 ,parents cannot tell teachers what to do or how to do it4 ,but what they can do is to ask questions4 ,they can1 like the man from ,missouri1 require 8to be shown40 ,at first blush1 this may not look like very much4 ,but if my readers will bear with me for a moment1 perhaps they will see that the right and the duty of asking 8to be shown10 of asking persistently and continuously 8,why80 8,why80 gives parents all the leverage they need or can use in making over the education of their children4 ,our schools could not be perfect4 ,i won't even stop to argue that they can all at a bound make themselves much better than they are4 ,parents cannot possibly make many practicable suggestions by way of improving them4 ,but just because we all know so little1 just because schoolmasters are so hampered by tradition and organization1 just because parents are so helpless in making practicable suggestions1 for these very reasons the complacent following of traditions is the most inexcusable of attitudes4 ,the schools which are now too conventional1 too complacent1 too free from deep-seated and unhappy doubts1 should be tentative1 inquiring1 investigating1 skeptical in their point of view4 ,they will be assisted in becoming tentative1 inquiring1 skeptical1 and experimental if parents will1 year after year1 make them tell why1 make them show why4 ,for when people are called on to show why1 they begin to look into what they are doing1 and out of this critical scrutiny will come doubt1 invention1 and finally something living in place of something long since dead4#eb ,,correspondence ,,schools ,this discussion has not included1 as perhaps it should1 university extension1 libraries1 rural-community organization1 and other agencies4 ,it must1 however1 make reference to one popular movement which has grown in recent years to proportions that are literally vast4 ,the correspondence schools of this country do an enormous amount of more or less valuable teaching4 ,the qualifying phrase 8more or less valuable0 is justified by the fact that many of the correspondence schools are purely commercial enterprises and provide a very low grade of courses4 ,the number of such schools1 however1 shows the demand for education1 the evidence in this case being the stronger when we recognize that in many cases the quality of instruction is not such as to encourage the student4 ,,principles ,,required ,,to ,,systematize ,,educational ,,activities ,the list of activities which carry education far beyond the limits of the traditional curriculum could be extended4 ,a complete list would include newspapers and magazines with their lessons on health1 on food and economic problems4 ,it would include the churches and many social organizations4 ,the purposes of the present exposition have1 however1 been adequately served if the reader has been impressed by the popular demand for a broad educational program4 ,,exercises ,,and ,,readings ,complications sometimes arise in the matter of credits1 not from the fact that they are given within a certain institution but rather from the fact that a second institution to which students go cannot deal with the credits4 ,suppose that a certain high school gives credit for gardening4 ,should the college accept the credit toward admission8 ,is it legitimate to substitute ,sunday-school courses for senior ,english8 ,what would you want to know about a music teacher before crediting her pupils with a high-school credit in music8 ,how would you find out how much work the music pupil had done8 ,if you think an examination a good method1 would you give credit for typewriting to a boy who learned to write outside of school and could pass an examination8 ,the distinction between an education and school credits is sometimes painfully evident4 ,describe cases in which the effort to get credits interferes with school work4 ,when a community is very enthusiastic about social centers1 it often asks the board of education to open the schools at night4 ,should the board charge a fee or give the use of the building without charge8 ,in case the board does not have money enough to furnish the children with playground apparatus1 should it give the use of buildings free8 ,,perry1 ,c4 ,a4 ,wider ,use of the ,school ,plant4 ,russell ,sage ,foundation4 ,this book treats in a comprehensive way of all the different types of outside activity carried on in schools4 ,the ,annals of the ,american ,academy of ,political and ,social ,science1 ,september1 #aiaf1 ,vol4 #fg1 ,no4 #aef4 ,concord1 ,new ,hampshire4 ,the number is given over to a symposium in which a number of authors give an account of the outside activities which have in recent years been attached to the school4 ,,footnotes3 #dg ,l4 ,r4 ,alderman1 ,school ,credit for ,home ,work1 pp4 #hi-ia4 ,houghton ,mifflin ,company1 #aiae4 #dh ,l4 ,r4 ,alderman1 ,school ,credit for ,home ,work1 pp4 #cb-cc4 ,houghton ,mifflin ,company1 #aiae4 #di ,h4 ,h4 ,wheaton1 8,the ,united ,states ,bureau of ,education and the ,immigrant40 ,the ,annals of the ,american ,academy of ,political and ,social ,science1 ,vol4 ,,lxvii1 ,no4 #aef 7,september1 #aiaf71 pp4 #bgc-bgd4 #ej ,the ,general ,education ,board3 ,an ,account of its ,activities1 #aijb-aiad1 pp4 #eh1 #fa-fb4 ,new ,york ,city1 #aiae4 #ea ,clarence ,arthur ,perry1 ,educational ,extension1 pp4 #hb-he4 ,cleveland ,education ,survey4 ,published by the ,survey ,committee of the ,cleveland ,foundation1 #aiaf4 #eb ,abraham ,flexner1 8,parents and ,schools40 ,the ,atlantic ,monthly 7,july1 #aiaf71 pp4 #bf-bg4 ,,chapter ,,xi ,,principles ,,influencing ,,the ,,organization ,,of ,,the ,,curriculum ,,necessity ,,of ,,practical ,,decisions ,,in ,,spite ,,of ,,confusion ,with the expansions in education that have been reviewed in foregoing chapters1 there has come a certain confusion and uncertainty of practice which sometimes tends to lower the standards of work in the school4 ,consider a concrete case4 ,a small city can afford to offer only a limited number of courses in its high school4 ,shall the choice fall on ,latin or typewriting8 ,among the sciences shall botany or chemistry be provided8 ,botany would relate itself well to agriculture1 and chemistry would be a basis for domestic science4 ,sometimes in the effort to meet both demands1 weak courses are tolerated1 and teachers are either overloaded because they are called on to carry heavy programs or are inadequately compensated in the effort to provide a sufficient number to do all the work demanded4 ,nor is it the school alone which is confronted with the necessity of choosing2 the individual student must elect4 ,there is a high school in a small city in ,illinois1 as shown by the last report of the ,north ,central ,association of ,colleges and ,secondary ,schools1 which enrolled in #aiae four hundred and sixty-one students4 ,this school offered twenty-three units in academic subjects and twelve units in vocational subjects4 ,if each pupil took five units a year1 which would be a very heavy program1 he would be able to complete in four years only twenty units1 or fifteen less than the school offers4 ,another high school in the same state with an enrollment of five hundred and thirty-two students offers an aggregate of forty-four units4 ,finally1 there are choices to be made within these choices1 because after the decision has been reached that botany is to be taught1 the teacher must select from the abundant material within this science that which seems most productive4 ,the student1 also1 gives more attention to one subject than to the others which he is pursuing1 thus exhibiting another kind of selection4 ,choices have to be made1 and every choice has back of it some prejudice or some clearly thought-out principle or some experience collected by the teacher or pupil through contact with earlier educational problems4 ,our business in this course is1 first1 to become aware of the chief reasons for the choices actually made in schools1 and1 second1 to take up some of the evidences which justify one or the other of these reasons4 ,the present chapter will be devoted to a brief statement of the principles most commonly urged as the basis of choice4 ,,the ,,doctrine ,,of ,,discipline ,the historical reason for training children which has come down to us from the religious traditions of the ,middle ,ages1 and more directly from the austere beliefs and practices of the ,puritans1 is the supposed demand for a curbing of the naturally perverse tendencies of children1 for a disciplining of nature into a higher form of morality4 ,this reason has in more recent times been phrased in new terms4 ,the mind1 it is said1 must be made strong through struggle with difficulties as the athlete becomes skillful and muscular through training4 ,if the training seems for the time being monotonous and overvigorous1 well and good2 the end justifies the effort4 ,this is the doctrine of discipline4 ,,the ,,doctrine ,,of ,,natural ,,education ,,in ,,the ,,form ,,of ,,the ,,doctrine ,,of ,,freedom ,against the notion of discipline there has been matched1 especially in the last century1 the opposing notion that all good qualities are natural and will express themselves freely if the artificial restraints of life are removed4 ,rousseau1 in his famous attack on social conventions1 pointed out the truth that the child is naturally an eager learner4 ,biology reinforced ,rousseau's teachings with the doctrines of natural selection and the survival of the fittest1 meaning by the fittest those able to take on complete adaptation to the present environment4 ,the belief that nature is a safe guide has led to the doctrine of freedom for the child in all matters of intellectual development4 ,,concentration ,,and ,,interest ,the antithesis between discipline and freedom1 between training which aims to transform the child's nature and training which gives the child's nature opportunity to express itself without restraint1 can be illustrated as follows4 ,on the one side it is said that children have no power of concentration of attention4 ,they are flighty and erratic4 ,they must be made to think steadily in order to train their minds for hard mental work4 ,on the other side it is asserted that when a child's interest is aroused through an appeal to his natural tastes he will exert his mind to the limit of its powers1 and this is all that can advantageously be required4 ,,popular ,,attitude ,,toward ,,discipline ,when the antithesis between discipline and natural interests is presented to the present-day world1 it must be said that there is a widespread disposition to set aside discipline as arbitrary and puritanical4 ,our generation is in favor of natural development4 ,perhaps it would be truer to use the past tense in the last statement because the social attitude toward discipline has been profoundly affected by the war4 ,never in the history of this country has the lesson been clearer than it is at the present that social coperation means the training of the individual to make some sacrifices4 ,the ,american school has carried the elective system and its concessions to individuals to an extreme which is likely to be limited somewhat in the future by a recognition of social obligations4 ,,examples ,,of ,,discipline ,,and ,,freedom ,it may be well to illustrate this abstract discussion of discipline and freedom with concrete examples4 ,one of the most emphatic pronouncements in favor of the doctrine of freedom is that of ,madam ,montessori1 an ,italian physician whose system of education has been much heralded in this country as a substitute for the kindergarten4 ,according to this writer's views the pupil should have perfect freedom4 ,the contrast with the kindergarten is described as follows by one of the observers of the two institutions3 ,a contrast between the ,montessori school and the kindergarten of the more formal and traditional type may serve to give a clearer picture of the ,montessori procedure1 and consequently of the ,montessori conception of liberty as it appears in practice4 ,the most evident difference is seen in the function of the teacher4 ,the kindergartner is clearly the center and arbiter of the activity in the room4 ,the ,montessori directress seems1 on the contrary1 to be at one side4 ,the kindergartner contemplates at each moment the whole of her group2 the directress is talking usually to one alone--possibly to two or three4 ,the kindergarten children are engaged in some sort of directed group activity2 each ,montessori child is an isolated worker1 though one or more comrades may look on and suggest4 ,the arrangement of the room shows the same contrast4 ,the kindergarten has a circle about which all may gather1 and tables for group activity4 ,the ,montessori room is fitted1 preferably1 with individual tables1 arranged as the children will4 7,in the writer's observation1 there has been little deviation1 however1 from arrangement in formal rows47 ,montessori provides long periods1 say of two or more hours1 while the kindergarten period rarely goes beyond a half-hour4 ,during the period assigned for that purpose practically all of the ,montessori apparatus is available for any child 7except for the very youngest or the newest comers71 and the child makes his choice freely4 ,the kindergartner1 on the other hand1 decides very nicely what specific apparatus shall be used during any one period4 ,the ,montessori child abides by his choice as long as he wishes1 and changes as often as he likes2 he may even do nothing if he prefers4 ,the child in the traditional kindergarten uses the same apparatus throughout the period1 and is frequently led or directed by the teacher as to what he shall do4 ,at other times he may be at liberty to build or represent at will whatever may be suggested by the 8gift0 set for the period4 ,the ,montessori child1 each at his own chosen task1 works1 as stated1 in relative isolation1 his nearest neighbors possibly looking on4#ec ,at the other end of the educational system we find the example of 8stiff0 courses in college designed to 8weed out0 the slothful and incompetent4 ,the 8stiff0 course is required mathematics1 or a foreign language1 or a course in ,english composition4 ,opposition to stiff courses expresses itself in the demand for an undiluted elective system in which the student may take whatever serves his purposes4 ,,natural ,,education ,,and ,,recognition ,,of ,,individual ,,differences ,the advocacy of a natural education takes a different turn when it drops the word 8freedom0 and emphasizes the fact that individuals differ radically in their native capacities4 ,some pupils have an aptitude for one kind of work1 others for other types4 ,the school is to-day committed to a recognition of these differences and to a study of their meaning4 ,there is a movement known as the vocational-guidance movement which is making progress in the direction of the discovery of methods for finding out what studies can properly be undertaken by students in view of their varying natural endowments4 ,the individual's natural bent being discovered1 his educational training can be directed to the highest possible cultivation of his powers4 ,nature is thus recognized but is not made the dominant fact4 ,the vocational end is the controlling factor in the situation4 ,the attainment of this end may require the most rigid disciplining of one's powers4 ,the direction of this disciplining is dictated by nature1 but not the particular steps of education4 ,as a result of such a discussion it begins to appear that there is no fundamental reason for the abandonment of the idea of discipline even if there is a complete recognition of natural individual differences4 ,in concrete cases the opposition to the doctrine of discipline may1 however1 be acute4 ,the pupil may say that he has absolutely no natural capacity for algebra or spelling4 ,the teacher may answer that these are universal requirements and that there is no escape from these necessary studies because of individual differences4 ,in such a dispute1 tradition1 on the one hand1 and the wider opportunities of the modern curriculum1 on the other hand1 are likely to be arrayed against each other4 ,algebra as the conservative subject is likely to defend the view that discipline is necessary1 whereas manual training and domestic science are likely to emphasize the natural attractiveness of the practical training which they offer4 ,thus it has come to pass that certain subjects1 especially the older subjects in the curriculum1 have come to be regarded as the defenders of the doctrine of discipline1 while the newer subjects have often been regarded as opposed by their very character to the doctrine4 ,,natural ,,education ,,as ,,training ,,for ,,life ,still another turn is given to the discussion by an emphasis on the social demands of later life4 ,as society is constituted1 individual differences are sure to play a large part in determining success or failure4 ,furthermore1 society as constituted in its commercial organizations accepts without hesitation the principle of division of labor4 ,why should not the school be like society8 ,why should not the school be a miniature world with all the different types of life that will later become real to the pupils8 ,practical needs thus come into the foreground4 ,,training ,,in ,,the ,,methods ,,of ,,knowledge ,,and ,,general ,,training ,two views are sometimes offered in opposition to the doctrine of a strictly practical training4 ,first1 it is said that the pupil in order to prepare for later life must pass through certain forms of training which are preliminary1 intended to set up his mental machinery before it begins to produce anything4 ,otherwise expressed1 it is said that the pupil must get the tools of knowledge before he tries to take part in real life4 ,second1 it is said that there is no possibility in the complex society of the modern world of foreseeing just what will be the practical needs of pupils when they grow to adult life4 ,it will therefore be better1 it is argued1 to aim at a broad flexible training which can in due time be turned into any channel that circumstances may dictate4 ,,examples ,,of ,,views ,,on ,,formal ,,training ,the dispute which is introduced by these opposing statements is one of the bitterest in modern educational writings4 ,let us borrow two quotations which will present the case in detail4 ,frank ,m4 ,mc,murry has given in his report on the schools of ,new ,york ,city a striking example of the advocacy of direct and constant attention to social needs4 ,in giving the quotation from this author it is possible to include incidentally his description of an earlier view of the curriculum which emphasizes general training or methods of thought rather than special content4 ,,prominence ,,of ,,curriculum ,,in ,,determining ,,quality ,,of ,,instruction ,thirty years ago the belief was often expressed that it made little difference what one studied1 but all the difference in the world with whom one studied4 ,that belief made almost any curriculum acceptable1 and directed attention to the personality of the teacher and to method as the principal factors determining the effectiveness of instruction4 ,that belief1 however1 has been greatly modified4 ,while no one will deny the importance of the teacher's personality1 most persons will admit that the proper expression of personality and skill in method are both greatly dependent upon the subject matter of the curriculum4 ,carefully selected subject matter is prerequisite to skill in method of presentation4 ,without a good curriculum there is bound to be great waste4 ,,bases ,,for ,,judging ,,curriculum ,,and ,,syllabi #a4 ,,by ,,relation ,,of ,,subject ,,matter ,,to ,,children',s ,,purposes ,in harmony with the previous discussion of standards for judging the quality of instruction1 as a whole1 the quality of the curriculum in particular is to be determined partly by its tendency to influence the tastes1 purposes1 and hopes of children4 ,any curriculum for the elementary school should have its content selected from among those experiences of mankind that have seemed most valuable4 ,that is to be presupposed4 ,but this selection can be indifferent to the tendencies1 interests1 and capacities of children in general1 and of certain ages in particular1 and aim only at present storage of facts and ideas that may count in a dim future1 i4e41 in adult life4 ,or it may be made with constant reference to the abilities1 tastes1 and needs of children at the present time4 ,in the former case1 motive on the part of children is overlooked2 in the latter case1 the extent of provision for it is accepted as one of the standards by which the curriculum is to be judged4 ,we represent the latter point of view4#ed ,the group of thinkers to whom ,mc,murry refers with disfavor as absorbed in methods rather than content has never been more ably represented than by ,president ,hadley1 extracts from whose statement are as follows3 ,greek is an intellectual game where the umpires know the rules better than they know the rules in the game of ,french1 for instance1 or history1 or botany4 ,a man's rating in an examination on any one of these last three subjects is largely the result of accident unless the examiner is quite unusually skillful4 ,a man's rating in ,greek1 on the other hand1 means something4 ,there never were intellectual competitions keener than the classical competitions at ,oxford in the days when the best men in ,england wanted their sons to learn that particular game4 ,unfortunately1 a large number of the strongest men1 both in ,england and in the ,united ,states1 have decided that this game takes more time than it is worth4 ,personally1 ,i believe that this change of mind is in many respects a misfortune2 that in trying to get more practical results in the way of knowledge or culture a great many ,american college boys have lost the training which the ,greek would have given them and gained nothing of equal value in its place4444 ,it was a mistake for the advocates of the old curriculum to think that all the students required the same treatment4 ,it is1 ,i believe1 an equal mistake for the advocates of the elective system to think that each student requires a different treatment4 ,for while there is a very large number of subjects of interest to study1 and an almost infinite variety of occupations which the students are going to follow afterwards1 there is a comparatively small number of types of mind with which we have to deal4 ,if we can have four or five honor courses1 something like those of the ,english universities1 where the studies are grouped and the examinations arranged to meet the needs of these different types1 we can1 ,i think1 realize the chief advantages of the elective system or the group system without subjecting ourselves to their evils4 ,i am confident that we can secure a degree of collective intellectual interest which is now absent from most of our colleges1 and can establish competitions which will be recognized not only in college but in the world as places where the best men can show what is in them4 ,it may be objected that any such arrangement would render it difficult for a boy to study the particular things that he was going to use in after life4 ,i regard this as its cardinal advantage4 ,the ideal college education seems to me to be one where a student learns things that he is not going to use in after life1 by methods that he is going to use4 ,the former element gives the breadth1 the latter element gives the training4#ee ,,formal ,,discipline ,,and ,,transfer ,,of ,,training ,the controversy here illustrated has led to the development of a number of technical phrases4 ,the doctrine that emphasizes form or method as opposed to content is known as the doctrine of formal discipline4 ,the advocates of this doctrine defend the view that training gained in one field will transfer to other fields of activity4 ,stated in these terms the doctrine is referred to as that of the transfer of training4 ,the doctrine of transfer of training is capable of experimental and statistical verification or refutation4 ,a vast body of evidence has been collected in recent years4 ,the conclusions to be drawn from this evidence are clear4 ,there are certain general habits1 such as concentration of attention and power of arranging and expressing ideas1 which carry over from one field of experience to another4 ,the transfer of training is facilitated if the original training is given in such a form that it lends itself readily to application in new spheres of thought4 ,so important is the development of general habits that it is entirely legitimate to proceed at every stage of education slowly enough to give to each subject its relations through a variety of possible applications4 ,it is recognized as impossible to give in the schools direct special training for all possible lines of activity upon which the pupil is to enter4 ,some effort must be expended in cultivating what may properly be called the applying attitude of mind4 ,once the applying attitude is aroused in any individual1 the transfer of training will be likely to go on through individual recognition of the advantages of application4 ,,relation ,,of ,,subjects ,,to ,,maturity ,,of ,,pupils ,the quotation from ,mc,murry given some pages back suggests another aspect of this whole matter which has been a subject of much dispute4 ,when should certain kinds of training be introduced into the curriculum8 ,a quotation will help to make the problem clear4 ,so far as high-school instruction is concerned1 the most important practical question raised in the present discussion is whether the ability to learn a foreign vocabulary varies with age4 ,it is almost universally claimed that a student must begin a language when young in order to learn it effectively and economically4 ,in opposition to this theory1 we shall maintain1 as in the case of motor skill1 that a foreign vocabulary can be learned just as economically at the later end of the period from six to eighteen years of age as at any other part of it4 ,as the basis for this contention we have some very closely related evidence from experimental psychology1 in the work done upon facility in memorizing at different ages4#ef ,if the statement here quoted is accepted1 it still remains an open question whether the pronunciation of a foreign language is worth acquiring and whether pronunciation is to be sought as an important element of the study1 for if it is1 there is little doubt that young children acquire it more easily and more accurately than do older persons4 ,the example is introduced not for the purpose of attempting a settlement of the question but for the purpose of showing that the organization of the curriculum raises questions which are now answered for the most part on the basis of mere prejudice1 but should be answered in the light of a body of broad1 scientific evidence4 ,certainly the problem of the distribution of a pupil's studies through the various periods of his mental development is one of the most important of these problems4 ,,summary ,the doctrine of discipline holds that it is desirable by training to transform in some measure the natural tendencies of the child's mind4 ,the general doctrine of natural education emphasizes the importance of following the lines of natural development in education4 ,often this doctrine is so formulated as to be opposed to the doctrine of discipline4 ,when dealing with the intellectual side of the pupil's nature the doctrine of discipline takes the form of a demand for cultivation of concentration4 ,natural education asserts the right of the child to his personal interests and is liberal in making concessions to these interests4 ,the form of the doctrine of natural education most directly opposed to the doctrine of discipline is the doctrine of freedom4 ,according to this view the pupil should be left to follow his natural impulses4 ,another form of the doctrine of natural education recognizes the differences between individuals as important considerations in governing their training4 ,training for practical life is a very common basis for the organization of the curriculum and has been amply illustrated in earlier chapters4 ,training in the methods or tools of knowledge is in some measure opposed to the demand for practical training4 ,training of general intelligence is advocated because it gives the student greater freedom in adjusting his career to the circumstances of later life4 ,training in the forms of knowledge1 or formal training1 sometimes called formal discipline1 is practically synonymous with training of general intelligence4 ,the doctrine of transfer of training is one formulation of the doctrine of formal discipline4 ,evidence is abundant that transfer takes place4 ,its degree and the methods of securing it are subjects of vigorous investigation4 ,the adaptation of training to the maturity of pupils is one of the most important requirements in arranging a curriculum4 ,in a later chapter this will be discussed under the title 8,periodicity in the ,pupil's ,development40 ,,exercises ,,and ,,readings ,the arguments for and against disciplinary subjects should be followed in detail4 ,thus1 why so much arithmetic in the lower school8 ,is it necessary to have as much as we do in the upper grades1 even admitting its value in the lower grades8 ,are students of higher mathematics practical men8 ,a child brought up in an indulgent home is sometimes pointed out as a horrible example of a child brought up with unlimited freedom4 ,is the example just8 ,what are the different meanings which may attach to the term 8freedom08 ,what does maturity on the part of a pupil mean8 ,what are the marks of increasing maturity8 ,can maturity be produced by deliberately adopted school methods8 ,what elements of one's own education can be traced to the demand on the part of some teacher or parent for discipline8 ,was the demand when put into actual operation in the school successful in producing general improvement in one's ability8 ,classify subjects in the curriculum as designed to satisfy different aims4 ,how many different aims can be distinguished as appealing to men of ordinary experience in their efforts to secure an education8 ,booker ,washington used to say that he found many people desiring an education in order that they might escape from hard work4 ,is this a common desire8 ,is it legitimate8 ,is it harder to earn one's living by composing music or by keeping books8 ,why do men want an education8 ,,heck1 ,w4 ,h4 ,mental ,discipline and ,educational ,values4 ,john ,lane ,company4 ,a summary of the arguments for and against formal discipline with a very strong bias against4 ,,judd1 ,c4 ,h4 ,psychology of ,high-,school ,subjects4 ,ginn and ,company4 ,especially the chapter which deals with formal discipline1 with an affirmative statement of what such discipline means4 ,,mcmurry1 ,c4 ,a4 ,conflicting ,principles in ,teaching4 ,houghton ,mifflin ,company4 ,an interesting and balanced summary of the general principles discussed in this chapter and other principles of like type4 ,,footnotes3 #ec ,william ,heard ,kilpatrick1 ,the ,montessori ,system ,examined1 pp4 #ad-ae4 ,riverside ,educational ,monograph4 ,houghton ,mifflin ,company1 #aiad4 #ed ,frank ,m4 ,mc,murry1 ,report on ,educational ,aspects of the ,public ,school ,system of the ,city of ,new ,york1 #aiaa-aiab1 ,part ,,ii1 p4 #bfe4 #ee ,report of the ,president of ,yale ,university1 #aijh-aiji4 ,published by the ,university1 ,new ,haven1 #aiji4 #ef ,samuel ,chester ,parker1 ,methods of ,teaching in ,high ,schools1 pp4 #cah-cai4 ,ginn and ,company1 #aiae4 ,,chapter ,,xii ,,individual ,,differences ,,adaptation ,,of ,,curriculum ,,to ,,individual ,,pupils ,a number of times in the last few chapters the discussion has been brought to the point of recognizing the importance of individual differences4 ,the teacher cannot determine merely from a knowledge of history what history is suitable for a given type of pupils4 ,in the elective system of the high school and of the college there is a liberal recognition of the principle that instruction must be adapted to individuals1 both in content and method4 ,the present chapter will be given over to a treatment of some of the individual differences among pupils which are of dominant significance in formulating the curriculum4 ,,low ,,grades ,,of ,,intelligence ,the most striking example of individual deviation from the average grade of intelligence is to be found in the cases of those unfortunates who continue throughout life to be deficient because they have underdeveloped nervous systems4 ,as a result of heredity or pathological conditions in early childhood a certain number of persons1 conservatively estimated as two in every thousand1 are permanently subnormal4 ,these cases vary in degree4 ,the lowest grade defectives1 known as idiots1 are defined in the ,report of the ,british ,royal ,commission on the ,feeble-minded as persons 8so deeply defective in mind from birth or from early age that they are unable to guard themselves against common physical dangers40 ,the less defective are classed as imbeciles1 feeble-minded1 and morons1 each class representing a further approach toward normality4 ,the lower grades of defectives are so dependent on the care of others that they do not reach the school at all1 but the higher grades either escape detection until they try to learn reading and arithmetic or through the persistence of parents are brought to school in the hope that their defectiveness may be temporary4 ,some of the highest grades succeed in learning enough so that they pass out of the first grade4 ,they do not master reading1 but they learn to repeat the words sufficiently to deceive the teacher with the appearance of having recognized the printed symbols4 ,,differentiated ,,courses ,as soon as a defective child is discovered1 it is advantageous for him and for the other pupils in the school that he be given some form of special training4 ,in most cases it is more than useless to try to give him the ordinary school courses4 ,he cannot learn to read well enough to enable him to get information from books4 ,he can1 on the other hand1 acquire some of the simple arts of self-support4 ,it would be better for all concerned to give up the effort to teach such a child reading4 ,the major objection to a program of this type is that it is sometimes extremely difficult and1 in the early years1 often quite impossible to decide whether the child is really defective or is merely slow in development4 ,some children come to their normal powers slowly1 but ultimately reach a level of intellectual and physical efficiency so high that they are not to be classed with the defectives4 ,one hesitates1 therefore1 to give up the teaching of reading in the case of a particular child until all possibility of his development is past4 ,it is better to err on the side of too great training than to despair at too early a date4 ,,tests ,,of ,,general ,,intelligence ,in the effort to discover defectives various systems of tests have been devised4 ,the general assumption back of all these systems is that a defective child is one whose mental development has prematurely ceased4 ,for example1 a twelve-year-old child may be behind in his development to such an extent that he has a mind like a four-year-old4 ,if1 now1 it can be determined what mental powers are possessed by an ordinary four-year-old and if the defective can be shown to possess the same powers1 and no more1 it is possible to adapt instruction to his real intellectual needs4 ,technical students of the problem have accordingly drawn the distinction between physiological age and mental age4 ,in the example cited above the physiological age is twelve2 the mental age1 four4 ,a system of tests of this kind has another use4 ,if a child is put through the tests at intervals of a year1 it can be ascertained whether he is improving or standing still4 ,in this way some of the uncertainties as to the permanence or temporary character of his deficiencies can be removed4 ,tests of the type under discussion are called tests of general intelligence4 ,an example taken from one of the most widely used systems1 namely1 the ,binet-,simon series1 will serve to show what the tests are and how they are used4 ,the special form of the test here quoted is that worked out by ,professor ,terman4 ,his exposition of one of the fifth-year tests is as follows3 ,materials4 ,it is necessary to have two weights1 identical in shape1 size1 and appearance1 weighing respectively #c and #ae grams4 ,if manufactured weights are not at hand1 it is easy to make satisfactory substitutes by taking stiff cardboard pill-boxes1 about #a inches in diameter1 and filling them with cotton and shot to the desired weight4 ,the shot must be embedded in the center of the cotton so as to prevent rattling4 ,after the box has been loaded to the exact weight1 the lid should be glued on firmly4 ,if one does not have access to laboratory scales1 it is always possible to secure the help of a druggist in the rather delicate task of weighing the boxes accurately4 ,a set of pill-box weights will last through hundreds of tests1 if handled carefully1 but they will not stand rough usage4 ,the manufactured blocks are more durable1 and so more satisfactory in the long run4 ,if the weights are not at hand1 the alternative test may be substituted4 ,procedure4 ,place the #c-;and #ae-;gram weights on the table before the child some two or three inches apart4 ,say3 8,you see these blocks4 ,they look just alike1 but one of them is heavy and one is light4 ,try them and tell me which one is heavier40 ,if the child does not respond1 repeat the instructions1 saying this time1 8,tell me which one is the heaviest40 7,many ,american children have heard only the superlative form of the adjective used in the comparison of two objects47 ,sometimes the child merely points to one of the boxes or picks up one at random and hands it to the examiner1 thinking he is asked to guess which is heaviest4 ,we then say3 8,no1 that is not the way4 ,you must take the boxes in your hands and try them1 like this0 7illustrating by lifting with one hand1 first one box and then the other1 a few inches from the table74 ,most children of #e years are then able to make the comparison correctly4 ,very young subjects1 however1 or older ones who are retarded1 sometimes adopt the rather questionable method of lifting both weights in the same hand at once4 ,this is always an unfavorable sign1 especially if one of the blocks is placed in the hand on top of the other block4 ,after the first trial the weights are shuffled and again presented for comparison as before1 this time with the positions reversed4 ,the third trial follows with the blocks in the same position as in the first trial4 ,some children have a tendency to stereotyped behavior1 which in this test shows itself by choosing always the block on a certain side4 ,hence the necessity of alternating the positions4 ,reserve commendation until all three trials have been given4 ,scoring4 ,the test is passed if two of the three comparisons are correct4 ,if there is reason to suspect that the successful responses were due to lucky guesses1 the test should be entirely repeated4 ,remarks4 ,this test is decidedly more difficult than that of comparing lines4 ,it is doubtful1 however1 if we can regard the difference as one due primarily to the relative difficulty of visual discrimination and muscular discrimination4 ,in fact1 the test with weights hardly taxes sensory discrimination at all when used with children of #e-year intelligence4 ,success depends1 in the first place1 on the ability to understand the instructions2 and in the second place1 on the power to hold the instructions in mind long enough to guide the process of making the comparison4 ,the test presupposes1 in elementary form1 a power which is operative in all the higher independent processes of thought1 the power to neglect the manifold distractions of irrelevant sensations and ideas and to drive direct toward a goal4 ,here the goal is furnished by the instruction1 8,try them and see which is heavier40 ,this must be held firmly enough in mind to control the steps necessary for making the comparison4 ,ideas of piling the blocks on top of one another1 throwing them1 etc41 must be inhibited4 ,sometimes the low-grade imbecile starts off in a very promising way1 then apparently forgets the instructions 7loses sight of the goal71 and begins to play with the boxes in a random way4 ,his mental processes are not consecutive1 stable1 or controlled4 ,he is blown about at the mercy of every gust of momentary interest4 ,there is very general agreement in the assignment of this test to year ,v4#eg ,,exceptionally ,,bright ,,pupils ,thus far the discussion has been of inferior individuals4 ,there are likewise individuals who are superior to the average4 ,schools have ordinarily taken little account of these4 ,they do not constitute urgent problems in the same sense as defectives4 ,the supernormal child can get his lessons1 if he will1 so that the teacher will never have to bother with him4 ,a moment's thought on the matter1 however1 will convince anyone that society has more to gain from a proper system of training supernormal children than from special provisions for the subnormal4 ,since defense is of the most vital importance1 we may say that society had at the outset to defend itself against the harm that might be done by subnormals4 ,but defense having been provided in adequate degree1 attention should turn to the possibilities of great benefit which may be expected from special training of the unusually bright4 ,various devices have been suggested for the treatment of the supernormal4 ,in general1 the principles underlying these suggestions are the same as the principles for the treatment of subnormals4 ,separate the unusually bright and give them a type of training which will best develop their personal powers4 ,in a school system which has only a few special cases of the one type or the other it is extremely difficult to follow the suggestion of special training for special levels of ability4 ,the matter must be left in such cases to the ingenuity of the teacher4 ,the bright pupil should be given extra work and1 so far as possible1 special attention4 ,the dull child should be allowed to do some useful handwork4 ,where the system is larger1 special rapid classes--express classes1 as they have sometimes been called--should be organized for the bright pupils1 while slowly moving classes are provided for the backward pupils4 ,,sex ,,differences ,leaving the degrees of intelligence1 we turn to a distinction which is of an entirely different type--the difference between boys and girls4 ,it is difficult to disentangle this problem from a mass of social considerations which attach to it4 ,women and girls have grown up under a social system that has assumed on their part fundamentally different tastes and interests from those of men and boys4 ,the social system has sometimes expressed itself in terms which imply inferiority of women as compared with men4 ,it is natural1 therefore1 that at a period when women and girls are taking a new place in the social scheme1 there should be at first a good deal of attention given to the demonstration that women are not inferior to men4 ,the simplest demonstration can1 of course1 be given by putting girls into the same classes with boys and requiring of them the same intellectual tasks4 ,for some years past the experiment has been under way4 ,girls have shown themselves not only quite as competent intellectually as boys but in some respects superior4 ,during the period of experimentation1 however1 there has persisted a difference in tastes and interests2 and the demand for a special training for girls was never louder than to-day when the proof that girls are quite as competent as boys seems to be incontrovertible4 ,the reasons for this demand are connected in part with the later practical uses to which girls expect to put their training and in part with the fact that girls give attention to certain groups of facts which boys neglect1 while boys1 on the other hand1 have their special spheres of interest4 ,for example1 boys are always brought up to interest themselves in mechanical appliances4 ,when a boy comes to study natural science1 therefore1 it is easily possible to introduce the subject by examples of a mechanical type4 ,parents do not give girls mechanical toys1 society assumes that girls will not engage in occupations which call for a knowledge of machinery1 consequently they do not readily take up courses in physics which begin with mechanics4 ,the present situation1 then1 is something like this3 girls are proved to be equal to boys in school ability1 but continue with the full sanction of society to have tastes and interests different from those of boys4 ,,differences ,,in ,,industrial ,,opportunity ,,for ,,the ,,sexes ,,and ,,corresponding ,,demands ,,for ,,training ,the contrast in industrial demands which the school must meet in dealing with boys and girls who are preparing for clerical positions is shown in the following summary of conclusions reached by the ,cleveland survey3 ,training for boys and girls should be different in content and in emphasis4 ,the usual course of study in commercial schools is suitable for girls and unsuitable for boys4 ,a girl needs1 chiefly1 specific training in some one line of work4 ,she has a choice among stenography1 bookkeeping and machine operating4 ,a boy needs1 chiefly1 general education1 putting emphasis on writing1 figuring1 and spelling2 general information2 and the development of certain qualities and standards4 99 99 99 99 99 ,boys' training looks forward to both clerical work and business administration2 but as clerical work is a preparation for business and is likely to occupy the first few years of wage-earning1 training should aim especially to meet the needs of clerical positions4 ,clerical positions for boys cover a variety of work which cannot be definitely anticipated and cannot therefore be specifically trained for4 ,but certain fundamental needs are common to all4 ,most of the specialized training for boys should be given in night continuation classes4 ,girl stenographers need a full high school course for its educational value and for maturity4 ,girls going into other clerical positions can qualify with a year or two less of education2 but immaturity in any case puts them at a disadvantage4 ,boys' training1 for those who cannot remain in school1 should be compressed into fewer than four years4 ,immaturity in the case of boys is not a great disadvantage4#eh ,to many readers not prepared by a full consideration of the facts the above conclusions may seem untenable4 ,a brief section of the argument will therefore be important in carrying conviction4 ,this argument is presented in the following quotation3 ,if we wish to generalize broadly about the work of boys and girls we can say with truth that the majority of boys begin as messengers or office boys and subsequently become clerks or do bookkeeping work4 ,as men they remain in these latter positions or1 in at least an equal number of cases1 pass on into the productive or administrative end of business4 ,the majority of girls1 first and last1 are stenographers or to a less extent1 assistants in bookkeeping or clerical work4 ,there are of course boy stenographers and girl clerks1 and there are women in general administrative work2 but that these are a minority this report has several ways of showing4 ,boys' work may be expected to take on the characteristics of the business that employs them2 girls' work remains in essentials unchanged even in totally changed surroundings4 ,for example1 a boy who is clerk in a wholesale house will have work very unlike that of the boy who is clerk in a bank2 but girl stenographers in both businesses will have an experience that is practically the same4 ,boys' work1 within limits1 is progressive2 girls' work in its general type--with individual exceptions--is static4 ,boys as a rule cannot stay at the same kind of work and advance2 girls as a rule stay at the same kind of work whether or not they advance4 ,boys in any position are expected to be qualifying themselves for the 8job ahead10 but for girls that is not the case4 ,boys may expect to make a readjustment with every step in advancement4 ,each new position brings them to a new situation and into a new relation to the business4 ,girls receive salary advancement for increasingly responsible work1 but any change in work is likely to be so gradual as to be almost imperceptible if they remain in the same place of employment4 ,if they change to another place those who are stenographers have a slight readjustment to make in getting accustomed to new terms and to the peculiarities of the new persons who dictate to them4 ,bookkeeping assistants may encounter different systems1 but their part of the work will be so directed and planned that it cannot be said to necessitate difficult adaptation on their part4 ,the work of clerical assistants is so simple and so nearly mechanical that the question of adjustment does not enter4 ,these girl workers do not find that change of position or firm brings them necessarily into a new relation to the business4 ,even moderate success is denied to a boy if he has not adaptability and the capacity to grasp business ideas and methods2 but a comparatively high degree of success could be attained by a girl who possessed neither of these qualifications4 ,a boy1 however1 who has no specific training which he can apply directly and definitely in work would be far more likely to obtain a good opening and promotion than a girl without it would be4 ,the range of a boy's possible future in commercial occupations is as wide as the field of business4 ,he cannot at first be trained specifically as a girl can be because he does not know what business will do with him or what he wants to do with business4 ,the girl's choice is limited by custom4 ,she can prepare herself definitely for stenography1 bookkeeping1 or machine operating and be sure that she is preparing for just the opportunity--and the whole opportunity--that business offers to her4 ,her very limitation of opportunity makes preliminary choice and training definitely possible things4#ei ,,household ,,arts ,,as ,,extras ,there is another respect in which the present-day training of girls differs from that of boys4 ,girls are being trained in the science of home-making4 ,where a girl intends to take up some vocation in the business world1 her desire for courses in the household arts complicates the situation very seriously4 ,the boy who is going into business wants a general education plus some business training4 ,the girl wants all that the boy has plus household arts4 ,,demand ,,for ,,new ,,courses ,,for ,,girls ,the demand for the complete education of girls gives rise to many unsolved problems4 ,for example1 shall physics as at present taught be required as an introduction to cooking1 or shall the cooking course be made to carry all the physics that the girl needs8 ,the course in physics1 be it remembered1 contains many an example that is drawn from the boy's sphere of interests in mechanics and does not appeal at all to the girl's interests4 ,or one may ask a similar question about economics4 ,shall the girl be given a special course in marketing in which examples are drawn from the daily activities of home life1 or shall she wait until she can take the conventional course in political economy where the problems are often those of international trade and banking8 ,it would be impossible to secure anything like unanimity for any answer to these questions4 ,the uncertainty in regard to the correct answer calls attention to the opportunity which is offered to the intelligent women of the teaching profession to solve a problem which is new and complicated1 but all the more important because there are no guideposts to mark the way4 ,,individual ,,differences ,,which ,,appear ,,during ,,training ,the individual differences discussed up to this point may be described as native differences4 ,in addition1 there are differences which appear in the course of training4 ,these1 in turn1 divide into two classes4 ,there are differences which seem to result from varying degrees of mastery of the subjects taken in school1 and there are differences in taste and outlook which arise as the pupils mature to the point where they begin to exhibit personal ambitions4 ,recent studies of attainments of pupils in school subjects show how striking are the differences among individuals4 ,for example1 it is shown in the ,cleveland survey that in the fifth grade of one and the same school there are pupils who read orally only #g1 #h1 or #i lines in a minute1 while others read orally #ai or #bj lines4 ,in silent reading the variations are even greater1 covering rates from as low as #d lines a minute to as high as #dj lines4#fj ,what is true of reading is true in equal degree of all the other subjects4 ,the facts are graphically shown in ,fig4 #ac4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ac4 ,individual differences in the number of lines read in a minute by pupils in the fifth grades of two schools ,each small square with a number represents an individual2 the number indicates the lines which he was able to read in a selected passage in one minute #ad #af #aa #ad #af ,school ,a4 ,oral #aa #ab #ac #ad #af #aa #ab #ac #ad #af #aa #ab #ac #ad #ae #af #ag #bj #e #f #h #aa #ab #ac #ad #ae #af #ag #ah #ai #bj #ba #bd #bd #bd ,school ,a4 ,silent #ag #bd #be #ag #bj #bd #be #ac #af #ag #bj #ba #bd #be #cj #h #i #aa #ab #ac #ae #af #ag #ah #bj #ba #bd #be #bf #bg #bh #cj #cc #dj #ae #ag #ae #ag #ae #ag #ah #ad #ae #af #ag #ah #ai ,school ,b4 ,oral #ab #ad #ae #af #ag #ah #ai #bj #g #h #i #ab #ac #ad #ae #af #ag #ah #ai #bj #bd ,school ,b4 ,silent #bd #ab #ag #ba #bc #bd #i #ab #af #ag #ba #bc #bd #bh #ca #cd #d #i #aa #ab #af #ag #bj #ba #bb #bc #bd #bg #bh #bi #ca #cd #dj ,the type of individual difference which develops when pupils begin to look forward to their places in the practical world is of great significance in organizing school work4 ,school experience in this matter is clearly reflected in the following resolution adopted in #aiae by the ,department of ,superintendence of the ,national ,education ,association3 ,resolved1 ,that we note with approval the increasing tendency to establish1 beginning with the seventh grade1 differentiated courses of study aimed more effectively to prepare the child for his probable future activities4 ,we believe that as a result of these modifications a more satisfactory type of instruction will be developed and that a genuine economy of time will result4#fa ,the differentiation of the curriculum here demanded is required in order to keep in school those pupils who have reached the point where any simple uniform curriculum would fail to furnish the variety which they require to meet their developing tastes and their demands for special training4 ,,democratic ,,recognition ,,of ,,individual ,,differences ,the differentiation of the courses for individual pupils was at one time thought to be contrary to the democratic principle that all pupils must be treated alike4 ,we are coming to see that a democracy has need of many kinds of people and that the truest expression of the principle of equal treatment is through liberal provision for individual differences4 ,,exercises ,,and ,,readings ,evidently low grades of intelligence are most likely to be found in the lower grades4 ,is the elimination of low-grade children from the regular classes advantageous to them8 ,it is sometimes argued that they gain from association with the bright children4 ,with regard to the bright children1 it is pointed out that they may be pushed along too rapidly4 ,how can this danger be avoided8 ,are the elections of courses made by students in high school indicative of sex differences8 ,what tendencies in economic life can be noted as bringing men and women to the same levels of occupation8 ,are these tendencies likely to change the conclusions reached in this chapter8 ,what types of school work are adjusted1 even in the present school program1 to the individual characteristics of pupils8 ,how is the discussion to be related to the chapter dealing with the grouping of pupils8 ,is the argument of this chapter in favor of individual tutoring8 ,how far should it be insisted that all the members of a class be kept together for a year in their attainments in arithmetic8 in ,latin8 in ,english literature8 in typewriting8 in laboratory physics8 ,how far down in the elementary school can individual election of courses be organized with profit to the pupils8 ,could a medical school or an engineering course be organized on the elective plan8 ,,galton1 ,,francis4 ,inquiries into ,human ,faculty and its ,development4 ,e4 ,p4 ,dutton and ,company4 ,one of the earliest studies of individual differences in mental characteristics1 with special emphasis on differences in mental imagery4 ,,thorndike1 ,e4 ,l4 ,educational ,psychology 7especially ,vol4 ,,iii74 ,teachers ,college4 ,,thorndike1 ,e4 ,l4 ,measurements of ,twins4 ,science ,press4 ,a study of the degree to which individuals are alike4 ,,footnotes3 #eg ,lewis ,m4 ,terman1 ,the ,measurement of ,intelligence1 pp4 #afa-afc4 ,houghton ,mifflin ,company1 #aiaf4 #eh ,bertha ,m4 ,stevens1 ,boys and ,girls in ,commercial ,work1 pp4 #agi-ahj4 ,cleveland ,education ,survey4 ,published by the ,survey ,committee of the ,cleveland ,foundation1 ,cleveland1 ,ohio1 #aiaf4 #ei ,bertha ,m4 ,stevens1 ,boys and ,girls in ,commercial ,work1 pp4 #ad-af4 ,cleveland ,education ,survey4 ,published by the ,survey ,committee of the ,cleveland ,foundation1 ,cleveland1 ,ohio1 #aiaf4 #fj ,measuring the ,work of the ,public ,schools1 pp4 #aca-acc4 ,cleveland ,education ,survey4 ,published by the ,survey ,committee of the ,cleveland ,foundation1 ,cleveland1 ,ohio1 #aiaf4 #fa ,proceedings of the ,national ,education ,association for #aiae1 p4 #bef4 ,published by the ,secretary of the ,association1 ,ann ,arbor1 ,michigan1 #aiae4 ,,chapter ,,xiii ,,periodicity ,,in ,,the ,,pupil',s ,,development ,,recognition ,,of ,,periodicity ,,in ,,present ,,organization ,both the school curriculum and the general organization of the school program in such matters as the length of class periods and the forms of order required1 reflect the fact that the pupil passes through distinct periods or epochs in his physical and intellectual development4 ,each of these epochs requires that a certain type of subject-matter be used for instruction and that a certain type of school discipline be administered4 ,there is a progressive maturing of the pupil and a corresponding broadening and deepening of the education which can be given him4 ,the general outline of this maturing process will be reviewed in this chapter4 ,,the ,,meaning ,,of ,,infancy ,before examining the changes which take place during school life1 it will be instructive to review the general matter which has been discussed by ,john ,fiske under the title 8,the ,meaning of ,infancy40#fb ,writing from the point of view of the student of evolution1 ,fiske calls attention to the fact that the period of infancy has gradually lengthened with the increase in complexity of animal forms4 ,the lowest animals have practically no period of infancy4 ,they begin their independent lives with all of the capacities of the adult4 ,for example1 when a unicellular animal is produced1 it results from a division of the parent cell into two equal parts4 ,each part immediately takes up an independent life1 and it may be said that adulthood begins at birth4 ,further up the scale the parent organism provides protection and food1 and the infant requires a longer period of time to arrive at adulthood4 ,this lengthening of infancy is paralleled by an increase in complexity of the animal form itself4 ,the highest stages of complexity are reached in man1 and here we find also the longest period of infancy4 ,the human infant is helpless for years1 and the care which parents must give to it includes not only the provision of food and protection but also the gradual training of the child to assume the responsibilities of an independent life4 ,when viewed by the evolutionist1 infancy and even childhood thus appear to be the clearest evidences of the need of educational care4 ,indeed1 childhood may be described as a period of preparation or of gradual maturing of the powers until the individual can carry on his independent personal activities4 ,,the ,,period ,,before ,,entering ,,school ,just as the period of childhood taken as a whole has a clearly definable character and purpose in the economy of life1 so each epoch within this period can be set off from the others as serving a distinct purpose in the child's development4 ,this is especially clear with regard to the years that precede school4 ,in all civilized countries there is practical agreement that regular schooling shall begin with the normal child in the sixth year4 ,to be sure1 there are special institutions like the kindergarten1 which receive children at an earlier age1 but these institutions aim to serve in a somewhat more systematic way the same purposes that under other circumstances are served by home training4 ,what is the character of the education given in the home or the kindergarten preliminary to the work of the primary school8 ,the answer to this question can be given negatively by saying it is not of a type which belongs to a public institution4 ,when the pupil comes to primary school he must be reasonably prepared to live with people who are comparative strangers4 ,this implies that he must have a sufficient command of language to make his wants known and to understand what others want him to do4 ,he must be somewhat independent of maternal care1 and must be ready to be initiated into a social world where his individuality will be recognized as somewhat detached from that of everyone else4 ,put in positive terms1 the pre-school training may be described as training in language and in personal independence of a very elementary type4 ,this statement can be applied to the kindergarten1 where the purposes of the pre-school training have been brought to fairly clear consciousness4 ,the kindergarten gives the child much opportunity to play with things that are given to him4 ,he must learn to distinguish objects for himself2 he must learn to handle them with enough skill so that he becomes an independent individual4 ,second1 he must play with other children1 learning through games that social life consists of a give and take which marks him off from others and yet makes him responsible to the group4 ,the social training of the kindergarten is a preparation for life in an institution where the pupil will have to recognize the reciprocal duties of life in a large group4 ,third1 the chief instrument of social life1 and the most important means of effective contact with the group1 is speech4 ,the kindergarten child1 through songs and stories1 learns words and sentences and cultivates the power to which home-training also contributes--the power of independent oral communication4 ,the kindergarten does in an energetic and systematic way what the home does incidentally1 for in any home1 however meager its resources1 the child learns in five years something of his mother tongue and something of the demands of group living4 ,the pre-school period is an important epoch in education as well as in physical growth4 ,we recognize the physical fact that the child must cultivate strength enough to run around independently and to use his hands in holding what he needs4 ,so it is also in the sphere of his mental life2 he must be able to take care of himself4 ,,the ,,primary ,,period ,,one ,,of ,,social ,,imitation ,at five or six years of age the pupil comes to the primary school4 ,his experience is very limited2 his senses are open to the impressions of color and sound and touch1 and he eagerly or timidly mixes in the social group which is often to him bewilderingly large and strange4 ,the key to the understanding of this period is to be found in the simple psychological principle that out of all the bewildering mass of childish experience it is persons who attract the child's most vivid attention4 ,the experiences of childhood are to be thought of not as meager but as confusing in their abundance4 ,the world is so full of a number of things that one hardly knows where to turn4 ,in the mass of this experience one turns to some person and follows in a docile way the lead of that person4 ,the first grade is a place where children do what others do4 ,first-graders are a flock of sheep4 ,the teacher can lead them into almost anything because they are eager to do whatever they see others do4 ,sometimes this period is described as a period when children are absorbed in sense impressions4 ,this statement is true if it means that colors and sounds constitute the content of experience4 ,it is false if it is meant to teach that little children are absorbed in the study of objects4 ,the sounds and colors which hold the attention of primary children are those which attach to people4 ,a little child will give up a plaything which he has in hand for a less attractive plaything in the hands of someone else4 ,primary children are social creatures first1 last1 and all the time4 ,this description of the primary child's mental attitudes gives us the formula for the organization of the primary course of study4 ,there is an eager desire on the part of the first-grader to write his name4 ,he does not need any artificial stimulation to undertake writing4 ,other people write2 that is enough for him4 ,he is eager to be initiated4 ,other people look into books2 he must do the same4 ,the period is not a period for nature study in any analytical scientific sense4 ,it is a period for social companionships4 ,the primary child likes animals as playthings2 he is not interested in studying their structure4 ,show an animal to a little child and let him ask the questions that are in his mind1 and social questions are the only ones which will come4 8,where can ,i get one80 8,will it bite me80 ,the judgment of the race has been right2 this is the period for the teaching of reading and writing4 ,the oral language which the pupil acquires in the pre-school period is the basis on which the primary work must be erected4 ,the first reading lessons are lessons in the association of known oral symbols with those complicated social devices1 the printed symbols4 ,the ability to live in society which the pupil brings to the first grade must be extended through the mastery of language in its written and printed forms4 ,the utter absorption of the child of this age in society rather than in material things is attested by his credulity for fairy tales which are full of people but are grotesquely impossible in their description of material facts4 ,in his eager desire to illustrate every story he hears1 the child produces drawings which have very little merit as representations of things but are often expressive of action in the highest degree4 ,a child of this age is keen in his observation of people but neglectful of things4 ,,the ,,period ,,of ,,individualism ,the primary attitude of mind lasts about three years4 ,in the normal child nine years of age is a turning point4 ,by this time he has learned to read fairly independently4 ,he can write and can solve simple problems in arithmetic4 ,he has control of some of the simpler objects about him4 ,he has imitated his elders until he has habits of his own4 ,now comes a change4 ,sometimes the change is sudden and violent4 ,the pupil who has been laboriously writing from copy throws the example of his copy book to the winds and composes a note to one of his friends in a rapid1 scrawling hand4 ,the child has become an independent master of writing for his own private purposes4 ,so it is with his other activities4 ,even in social matters he asserts his independence by refusing to follow the dictates of the teacher4 ,school discipline suddenly comes to be a serious problem4 ,the change here described reflects itself in a fact of administration which is of frequent recurrence4 ,pupils fail of promotion in the fourth or fifth grade much more commonly than in the second1 third1 or sixth4 ,in other words1 there is here1 just after the primary grades1 a period of violent readjustment4 ,the readjustment which comes at this point can be described by saying that the pupil is entering on a period of self-recognition4 ,the primary child is an imitator absorbed in social examples4 ,the intermediate child is an individualist4 ,he is aware of his own powers and ambitions4 ,the boys of this period have been described as young barbarians4 ,they are disregardful of the rights of others4 ,they step on the little children2 they refuse to be friends with the girls4 ,they are ambitious to leave school and do something to assert their independence4 ,the school has dealt with this period with much less intelligence than it has exhibited in the primary years4 ,in general1 the intermediate grades have followed in subject-matter and in methods too closely the example of the successful primary grades4 ,the result appears in the fact that the migration out of elementary schools is very common in the fifth and sixth grades4 ,the intermediate grades have been described as periods of drill4 ,if there is one kind of work that is not appropriate here1 it is routine drill4 ,there ought to be a new and thoroughgoing study of the needs of this period and the introduction of a type of instruction which will meet the needs of children who are vividly aware of themselves and of their personal relations to the world4 ,that a change is coming about in the methods of dealing with pupils in these years is shown by the fact that the elementary school is setting apart the fourth1 fifth1 and sixth grades as the years in which the strictly elementary work is to be completed4 ,much that was postponed to the seventh and eighth grades under the older form of organization will doubtless be brought down into the intermediate grades4 ,the children will no longer be drilled in the forms of the social arts while waiting for the enlarged opportunities of the upper grades1 but will be introduced at once to experiences with the objects of the physical world4 ,they will be encouraged to see things and handle them for themselves4 ,,early ,,adolescence ,,as ,a ,,period ,,of ,,social ,,consciousness ,the close of this period of individualism is marked by physical and mental changes of a very definite and significant type4 ,from twelve years on the child begins to realize anew the social world about him4 ,physical changes are going on within him that stimulate this type of thought4 ,the literature of education has emphasized the fact that at this period there is a maturing of the sex organs and an accompanying development of feelings and interests in the opposite sex4 ,there has been doubtless an overemphasis on the sexual characteristics of this period4 ,the fact is that a profound general physical and mental change is going forward4 ,on the physical side the organism which has been accumulating powers through its mastery of the fundamental processes of life is now ready for its last large development4 ,we shall understand the meaning of this statement only when we realize that the organism has to cultivate a whole series of internal habits in order that it may be internally harmonious4 ,the little child is easily disturbed1 for example1 in his digestion4 ,this means that the habits of digestion are not established4 ,the immature nervous organism of the pupil needs training to bring it to the point where digestion will go forward without interruption or distraction4 ,the same is true of circulation and respiration4 ,the organism has to learn to live4 ,the school period is a period of mastery of these internal processes quite as much as a period of intellectual training4 ,at about twelve years of age the inner cordination is reaching its consummation4 ,if one were to select for discussion the most significant physical fact that marks this period1 one would lay stress on the development of the heart4 ,this organ grows rapidly in size and strength4 ,its more vigorous action raises the blood pressure throughout the body4 ,organs which have been slow in their development now grow rapidly4 ,the whole life of the individual is intensified4 ,it is not alone the sex organs which mature2 the nervous system acts with greater energy1 and the muscular system develops4 ,in short1 a period of the most active life sets in4 ,the physical vigor of the twelve-year-old and the thirteen-year-old child is only part of the explanation of the characteristic intellectual temper of this period4 ,just prior to this period the child1 as we have seen1 passes through an era of marked individualism4 ,the unsocial tendencies of that period bring disappointments and new lessons1 and finally the child is ready for a renewal of his contacts with the social group4 ,he cannot now be purely imitative as was the primary child1 for he has gained self-consciousness4 ,he cannot be content with pure individualism1 because his experience has broadened so that he sees his dependence on others4 ,a new social era opens4 ,with self-consciousness and with a desire to get back into society by accepting its ways and complying with its demands1 the adolescent seeks1 albeit somewhat clumsily1 a new contact with his fellows4 ,the awkwardness of this period1 its lack of self-assurance1 its eagerness for social recognition1 are all perfectly clear to the student of human nature who has analyzed the case of a twelve-year-old pupil4 ,,the ,,new ,,school ,,adapted ,,to ,,adolescence ,has the school met the legitimate demand for a suitable education of the adolescent8 ,the answer is that the school has been slow in meeting this situation4 ,the archaic form of school organization which attached the seventh and eighth grades to the elementary school has hindered greatly a proper recognition of the special needs of adolescence4 ,the child of twelve or thirteen does not need a review of the elementary work so much as a preparation for the active life of adulthood4 ,the adolescent needs to be given an insight into the organization of society4 ,he needs to be brought into contact with the ways and languages of other peoples4 ,fortunately1 the keener educational insights of the present day are bringing us to a recognition of these needs4 ,the school for the adolescent is beginning to emerge out of the current reorganizations of the seventh and eighth grades4 ,in many schools these two grades have been gradually separating from the rest of the elementary grades4 ,the teaching has been organized on the departmental plan2 that is1 a number of special teachers1 each dealing with a single subject1 replace the single teacher who has charge of the whole curriculum in the lower grades4 ,furthermore1 the curriculum has been enlarged4 ,manual arts and household science have been introduced and1 in some cases1 other subjects which were formerly offered only in the high school4 ,a new type of school1 including the seventh1 eighth1 and ninth grades and known as the junior high school or the intermediate school1 is appearing4 ,where these and like changes have not been made in the seventh and eighth grades1 criticism has made itself increasingly heard because the pupils do not get ahead in these grades4 ,the reviews which are sometimes carried on at great length in preparation for promotion into the high school are a waste of time and energy and leave the pupils without enthusiasm for school work and without habits of concentration4 ,in an earlier chapter it was shown that the seventh and eighth grades came from ,europe during the decade #ahdj-ahej4 ,every line of evidence which is taken up points to the desirability of a complete reorganization of the work of these grades4 ,the spread of the junior-high-school idea has been remarkably rapid4 ,this is due to the growing conviction that pupils in the seventh and eighth grades require a higher type of instruction and discipline than that which is supplied in the lower grades4 ,the curriculum is being enriched by the addition of science1 foreign language1 mathematics other than arithmetic1 and several of the practical arts4 ,instruction is being intrusted to teachers of broader training1 and the individual needs of pupils are being more adequately met by the introduction of some elective courses4 ,,later ,,adolescence ,a ,,period ,,of ,,specialization ,the early part of the adolescent period which has been under consideration in the foregoing paragraphs is followed by a period which can be described as the beginning of specialization4 ,the fact that individual differences here assert themselves and that individual outlooks determine the training demanded is clearly recognized in the adoption of the elective system by the high school4 ,special education has an adequate foundation in the work of the earlier years1 and now the student must build his individual career on this foundation4 ,he comes to a new period of individualism4 ,he is not individualistic in the sense in which the fourth-grade boy is when he breaks away from imitating social examples4 ,the boy of fifteen to eighteen has passed through the first period of individualism and through the socializing training of early adolescence2 he now comes to a new type of individualistic effort which will fit him for his place in the social system4 ,the upper limit of this period1 as set down in the foregoing discussions1 coincides with the age at which a normal student is now supposed to finish high school4 ,there can be very little doubt that with the readjustments going on in the seventh and eighth grades there will be far-reaching changes in the upper high school also4 ,it is not too much to expect that with improved methods of teaching and with a better curriculum it will be possible for the normal student to complete at eighteen years of age the first two years of the college curriculum4 ,the complete reorganization of the higher institutions is thus likely to follow the changes which are now under way in the high school4 ,the freshman and sophomore years of ,american colleges are at present filled with subjects which are essentially secondary in character4 ,the reorganization suggested is therefore altogether legitimate4 ,,the ,,reorganized ,,school ,,system ,the scheme of school organization which is in keeping with the foregoing study of mental development is as follows3 ,three primary years are to be devoted to the rudiments of the social arts4 ,three intermediate years following the primary are to be devoted to gaining an outlook on the world4 ,three years covering the period now covered by grades seven1 eight1 and nine are to be devoted to social studies and a systematization of knowledge of the world4 ,the three years from fifteen to eighteen are to be devoted to a completion of general training and to the beginning of specialization4 ,after this will come complete specialization4 ,not all students can go through the full training thus outlined4 ,more and more1 however1 communities will provide for1 and require the completion of1 the whole cycle4 ,if a student's training must be curtailed1 there will doubtless be an increasing tendency to bring the higher stages down rather than to terminate education before preparation for life has been carried far enough to give specialized individual training4 ,,exercises ,,and ,,readings ,considering the kindergarten and the first grade in the light of the discussions of this chapter1 what are the characteristics of pupils which justify placing them in the one or the other8 ,what is the present rule with regard to this placing8 ,should there be any systematic education of children in the home8 ,if so1 along what lines8 ,make a detailed catalogue of the kinds of ability1 both physical and mental1 exhibited by a group of pupils in the first grade1 and then attempt1 by contrasting a third-grade group1 to determine what pupils acquire in the primary years4 ,which of the new characteristics noted are consciously sought by the school8 ,what kind of reading matter should be offered to pupils in the fourth1 fifth1 and sixth grades8 ,what grade of experience is required of teachers in the middle grades8 ,what readjustments is the student called on to make as he passes from elementary school to high school8 ,from high school to college8 ,do the institutions concerned put forth any effort to help the student in making these transitions8 ,when should formal education stop8 ,should pupils be given a course in the methods of educating themselves8 ,if so1 at what school period8 ,show in terms of earlier chapters what are the forces making for reorganization of the school system and the forces opposing this reorganization4 ,,ames1 ,e4 ,s4 ,psychology of ,religious ,experience4 ,houghton ,mifflin ,company4 ,like other books on the psychology of religion1 this calls attention to the great importance of the changes that come with adolescence4 ,,hall1 ,g4 ,s4 ,adolescence4 ,d4 ,appleton and ,company4 ,this is a somewhat erratic and often purely hypothetical description of the development of pupils at the beginning of the high-school age4 ,it called attention1 however1 to the importance of the period and marked an epoch in the development of educational theory4 ,,hall1 ,g4 ,s4 ,youth4 ,d4 ,appleton and ,company4 ,a brief summary based on the foregoing4 ,,kirkpatrick1 ,e4 ,a4 ,fundamentals of ,child ,study4 ,the ,macmillan ,company4 ,this is the best summary of the child-study movement4 ,it offers a treatment of the different periods of a child's life somewhat different from that in the text4 ,,footnotes3 #fb ,john ,fiske1 ,the ,meaning of ,infancy4 ,houghton ,mifflin ,company1 #aiji4 ,,chapter ,,xiv ,,systematic ,,studies ,,of ,,the ,,curriculum ,,the ,,curriculum ,,based ,,on ,,authority ,,versus ,,the ,,living ,,curriculum ,the six preceding chapters1 which have dealt with the curriculum1 make no pretense of presenting formulated courses which can be given to classes4 ,some reader may have been impatient because he did not find there an outline of arithmetic or geography or ,latin or ,english4 ,it has been the purpose of these chapters to deal only with general principles and general problems4 ,the fact is that it would be absolutely futile to lay down a curriculum and say of it that it is the true curriculum4 ,the curriculum of a school is a living thing4 ,it is constantly undergoing readjustments4 ,its content is drawn from the social life to which it introduces pupils1 and its arrangement depends on the ability of pupils of different ages and different capacities to grasp this constantly readjusted content4 ,there are some teachers who prefer to have the course of study handed down to them by some superior authority4 ,there are many fifth-grade teachers1 for example1 who prefer to have the superintendent tell them just how many pages of geography to cover each week and how many minutes to devote to this subject4 ,there are many ,latin teachers who are satisfied to take from some college catalogue a statement of the number of pages to be read in ,csar1 to divide this number by the number of days during which the class meets1 and then to plod through the assignments4 ,the day of such teachers1 unfortunately1 is not yet past1 but it is passing4 ,the course in geography or ,latin is not a quantitative matter2 it is not a static affair2 it is an organized body of material which grows and changes with the development of society4 ,to the intelligent teacher a course of study is a subject of constant scrutiny and revision4 ,every detail must be weighed as to its importance and as to its relations to the whole series of topics and to the needs of pupils4 ,,older ,,subjects ,,products ,,of ,,long ,,selection ,efficient teachers have always assumed toward the subject-matter of their courses an attitude of the type described4 ,as a result there has been in every generation of schools some progress in organizing courses4 ,little by little experience has refined the practices of schools4 ,take1 for example1 ,latin or any of the older subjects4 ,countless teachers have contributed to the organization of this subject4 ,there is very little probability that pupils will encounter in first-year ,latin anything that they ought not to be asked to learn1 because the details have been tried out on successive generations of learners1 and only that has been retained in first-year ,latin which can be taught in that year4 ,in the newer subjects1 on the contrary1 there is the greatest uncertainty4 ,in his enthusiasm for the new ideas which come to his own mind1 the teacher of biology rushes forward to generalizations which are too mature for his first-year classes4 ,the subject-matter will have to be tried out and sifted before it is as well selected as is the course in ,latin4 ,the teachers of the new subjects will inevitably pass through a series of the same kind of sifting processes through which the teachers of ,latin have passed4 ,even when some of the problems thus arising are settled1 the new subjects will still be difficult of organization4 ,thus biology is changing by virtue of the evolution of the science at a rate which complicates the case very much more than it can ever be complicated in ,latin4 ,,social ,,needs ,,and ,,the ,,curriculum ,further evidence that the curriculum is a living1 changing institution is seen in the way in which courses are related to social demands4 ,there was a time in the history of the secondary school and college when the course in ,hebrew was regarded as universally desirable for every student of the social group which attended these institutions4 ,that was in the period when the group was of a definitely vocational composition4 ,for example1 in the early days of ,harvard ,college #gj per cent of its graduates entered the ministry1 and ,hebrew was a requirement4 ,the later history of the student body explains why the requirement of ,hebrew became obsolete4 ,two paragraphs from a recent bulletin of the ,bureau of ,education give some of the facts as follows3 ,from this it is apparent that those who founded the institution primarily had in mind a theological seminary4 ,the professions of the graduates for the early period bear witness to the fact that this was practically what the institution was4 ,the ministry was the one profession most necessary1 most demanded by the society of that time1 and this profession more than any other required an advanced education4 ,it is not surprising1 therefore1 to find this profession dominant during the early years of ,harvard's history4 ,this dominance continues for over a century1 and not until the period immediately following the ,revolutionary ,war does any other profession claim so many of the graduates as the ministry4 ,the curve representing this profession has three distinct tendencies4 ,the first part1 extending from #afdb1 the date of the first graduating class1 to #agbj1 is slightly downward1 with rather wide variation4 ,this stretch of #hj years shows a decline from #gj per cent for the first three years1 a percentage never again reached1 to #fj per cent for the last five-year period4 ,the second tendency is seen in the period of theological unrest1 marked off roughly by the years #agbj-agge4 ,here the downward tendency is clearly defined4 ,it shows a decline from #fj per cent to less than #bj per cent4 ,the variations during this period are not so marked4 ,the third tendency extends from the ,revolutionary ,war to the present4 ,this shows a slow1 persistent relative decline reaching well below #e per cent by the end of the nineteenth century4 ,the variations during this period1 particularly during the last half1 are inconspicuous4#fc ,,systematic ,,studies ,,as ,,devices ,,for ,,facilitating ,,evolution ,,of ,,the ,,curriculum ,the effect of this and like radical social changes is sometimes slow in actually modifying the curriculum because of the conservative tendencies discussed in earlier chapters4 ,but the final effect is inevitable4 ,the changing social order carries with it the school and its subjects of instruction4 ,the characteristic fact about the present generation of progressive educators is that they are undertaking certain studies which are designed to hasten the processes of selection4 ,the curriculum is to be modified and improved1 with every new accession of knowledge and with every new evolution in social life4 ,how the improvement can be brought about most expeditiously and most productively is a problem which is engaging much of the attention and energy of school officers4 ,it will be noted that there is no opposition between the natural tendencies of growth and revision and the special investigations which are intended to hasten the process of adjustment4 ,the purpose of scientific studies here1 as in every other sphere1 is to facilitate natural evolution and to give it rational guidance4 ,a ,,study ,,of ,,representative ,,adults ,one of the first methods of studying the curriculum is that of investigating the relation between school work and the demands of later life4 ,the following description of a study made as part of a school survey teaches some very impressive lessons on the need of revision in the elementary curriculum3 ,the most serious defect of the present course of study1 including some of the suggested revisions now under consideration1 is that it makes thousands of children waste tens of thousands of precious hours in the laborious acquisition of facts for which they will never have any practical use4 ,while the survey was under way the staff attempted to test the practical value of some of the subject matter taught to children in the elementary grades4 ,for this purpose short examinations were prepared from the material prescribed by the course of study and actually being taught in the upper grades in spelling1 arithmetic1 history1 and geography4 ,through the coperation of a woman prominent in social and intellectual circles of the city1 #aa of the leading successful citizens were brought together one evening and asked to take these examinations4 ,the object was to find out whether or not the material that the children of the upper grades were being taught was of the sort actually used by able men of affairs in the conduct of their daily business4 ,for carrying out the test the most prominent and successful citizens were purposely chosen and in making up the examinations the most difficult material was purposely selected4 ,the result of these examinations in spelling1 geography1 arithmetic1 and history of the fifth1 sixth1 and seventh grades was that no one of the men examined made a passing mark in any subject4 ,the reason is that the material on which they were examined1 and which the children in the schools are daily learning1 is of a sort that is seldom or never met with in the business of even the most successful men engaged in commercial and professional pursuits4 ,the gentlemen who submitted to the examination were the following3 ,a state senator ,a former lieutenant governor ,the president of a manufacturing concern ,the former superintendent of parks ,a banker ,a physician ,a merchant ,a lawyer ,a newspaper editor ,an efficiency engineer and a clergyman ,the test in spelling consisted of ten words taken from the spelling lists of the seventh grade4 ,these words were as follows3 #a4 abutilon #b4 bergamot #c4 deutzia #d4 daguerreotype #e4 paradigm #f4 reconnaissance #g4 erysipelas #h4 mnemonics #i4 trichin #aj4 weigelia ,among the #aa men taking the examination1 one spelled six of these words correctly4 ,three succeeded in spelling four words1 two got three words right1 one got two1 three spelled one word correctly1 and one failed on every word4 ,it is not surprising that they failed so completely for no citizen in any ordinary walk of life needs to know how to spell these words4 ,when the rare occasion arises that he needs to write one of them1 he looks it up in the dictionary4 ,these words and scores of words like them are studied in the classrooms as well as found in the spelling book4 ,the test described above was suggested by the experience of the director of the survey who went into a sixth grade room where an examination in spelling was being given4 ,he took the test with the children4 ,it consisted of #bj words1 and he failed on six of them4 ,these six words are included in the ten-word list used in the examination of the business and professional men4 ,some of the children in the schools can spell these words correctly but while they are laboriously learning to do it1 many of them are still unable to spell short and common words as 8which10 8separate10 and 8receive40#fd ,a ,,study ,,of ,,current ,,references ,another method of comparing school courses with common social needs is set forth in the following quotation3 ,at a meeting of the ,committee on ,economy of ,time held in the fall of #aiab it was suggested that current literature could be profitably employed as a standard for determining the kind of geographical information that the school should provide4 ,the proposal was to read current newspapers and magazines1 record the geographical references1 and determine from the frequency of these references the relative value of the various types of geographical information4 ,results of the application of the method presented at the meeting seemed to indicate that the content of geography as now taught in the elementary school would be greatly modified if materials were chosen upon this basis4444 ,miss ,biester collected and classified the geographical and historical references and allusions in eighteen issues of the ,outlook and the ,literary ,digest1 representing a period of seven years ending with #aiac4 ,she found in these eighteen journals a total of #b1bcg geographical references4 ,the distribution was as follows3 ,,per ,,cent ,references to facts of location1 size1 direction1 etc41 which may be assumed to require for their understanding a knowledge of 8place and location0 geography #ec4e ,references to political divisions and facts of government which may be assumed to require a knowledge of 8political0 geography #be4a ,references to industries1 commerce1 products1 etc41 which may be assumed to require a knowledge of 8commercial0 geography #e4h ,references to people1 customs1 religion1 education1 etc41 which may be assumed to require a knowledge of 8social0 geography #d4h ,references to places as scenes of historical events1 which may be assumed to require a knowledge of 8historical0 geography #a4g ,other references primarily of local or transitory interest #h4i ,a grouping of this sort is obviously subject to the errors or peculiarities of individual judgment1 but it may be said that the classification just presented is quite consistent with those furnished by other readers4 ,except for the absence of explicit reference to physiographical principles1 this grouping represents fairly accurately the distribution of emphasis in the textbooks ordinarily used in the seventh and eighth grades4 ,the physiographical principles1 however1 are precisely the 8general0 principles to which we referred above2 that is1 their function is broadly interpretive and adaptive2 they 8cover0 a host of particulars too numerous in the aggregate1 and too insignificant separately1 to warrant specific attention4 ,another suggestive grouping is based upon the frequency of references to the various continents4 ,if one is to read intelligently the journals which formed the basis of this test1 one will find occasion to apply one's knowledge of the continents in approximately the following proportions 7the maximum frequency of reference being represented arbitrarily by #ajj73 ,north ,america #ajj ,europe #gc ,asia #ac ,africa #d ,south ,america #c ,australia #a ,the principal ,european countries had an importance for the readers of the journals in question in the following proportions 7giving ,england1 as the country most frequently referred to1 the arbitrary value of #ajj73fe ,england #ajj ,france #hj ,germany #gj ,russia #ce ,italy #cb ,turkey #cj ,austria-,hungary #bd ,spain #bb ,a ,,study ,,of ,,the ,,mistakes ,,of ,,pupils ,it is not merely the remoter needs of adult life which should be taken into account in determining the content of courses of study4 ,pupils in schools have certain urgent needs which should be met4 ,a study was carried on in the schools of ,kansas ,city1 ,missouri1 which dealt with the needs of pupils in grammar4 ,teachers observed and noted the mistakes of pupils1 and collected a body of written material which was carefully analyzed4 ,the urgent needs of pupils were readily discovered and were found to be comparatively few4 ,the following quotations give the gist of the matter3 ,table ,m1 which is based upon the oral and written errors of the children of the community1 displays the items to be included in a course of study for the elementary grades4 ,it assumes that all types of error were found and reported4 ,that this assumption is absolutely correct is not probable4 ,that it is approximately correct seems reasonably certain4 ,to verify its accuracy further other studies would need to be made in ,kansas ,city4 ,as the present course of study in grammar in the sixth and in the seventh grades of the ,kansas ,city schools was materially simplified in the #aiac-aiad session1 it is now one of the simplest in the ,united ,states4 ,notwithstanding this fact1 many items would be omitted from it upon the basis of ,table ,k4 ,these are included in ,table ,l4 ,the pages refer to 8,grammar and ,composition with ,practical ,english10 by ,robins1 ,row1 and ,scott 7,row1 ,peterson ,company1 ,chicago71 the text now in use in the sixth and seventh grades4 ,,table ,m ,,omissions ,,from ,,and ,,additions ,,to ,,the ,,present ,,elementary ,,course ,,of ,,study ,,in ,,grammar ,,in ,,kansas ,,city ,omissions3 #a4 ,exclamatory sentence1 p4 #b4 #b4 ,the interjection1 pp4 #af f4 #c4 ,the appositive1 pp4 #cg ff4 #d4 ,the nominative of address1 pp4 #ci f4 #e4 ,the nominative by exclamation1 pp4 #dj f4 #f4 ,the objective complement1 pp4 #ec f4 #g4 ,the adverbial objective1 pp4 #ef f4 #h4 ,the indefinite pronouns1 pp4 #fi f4 #i4 ,the objective complement1 p4 #ia4 #aj4 ,the objective used as a substantive1 p4 #ia4 #aa4 ,the classification of adverbs1 pp4 #id ff4 #ab4 ,the noun clause1 pp4 #ajg ff4 #ac4 ,conjunctive adverbs1 p4 #aaf4 #ad4 ,the retained objective1 pp4 #abh f4 #ae4 ,the moods 7except possibly the subjunctive of to be71 pp4 #ace ff4 and #aeb ff4 #af4 ,the infinitive except the split infinitive1 pp4 #ade ff4 #ag4 ,the objective subject1 pp4 #adi f4 #ah4 ,the participle except the definition and the present and the past forms1 pp4 #afb ff4 #ai4 ,the nominative absolute1 pp4 #afe ff4 #bj4 ,the gerund1 pp4 #afh f4 ,additions3 #a4 ,the pronoun what4 #b4 ,proper and numeral adjectives4 ,the first1 second1 and third of the omissions affect punctuation2 the first and second1 the exclamation point2 and the third1 the comma4 ,the exclamation point is used at the end of the exclamatory sentence and after interjections to express an intensity of feeling greater than that expressed by the period1 and it is doubtful if children have the nicety of experience to understand the difference4 ,if the point is absent1 its omission cannot be counted as an error because the reader has no way of knowing how intense is the feeling that accompanied the sentence4 ,strangely enough1 the children used the appositive hardly at all4 ,instead of saying1 8,bill1 the bandit1 killed a deer10 they seem to prefer to say1 8,bill was a bandit1 and he killed a deer40 ,to the omissions1 tabulated in ,table ,m1 should be added such sentences for analysis and parsing as are given to children solely because they involve subtle points in grammar4 ,this is true because the errors made by children seem to occur in the commoner and more easily classified constructions1 as may be seen by an examination of ,table ,i4 ,,postscript ,the content of the course of study in elementary grammar in the ,kansas ,city schools is not dealt with here4 ,the problem is simply and solely to find out what the course of study would be if it were based upon the errors of the children4 ,the problem of the content of the course of study requires such serious consideration that it can be determined only by practical experience and opinion aided by other scientifically conditioned studies4#ff ,,prerequisites ,,for ,,higher ,,courses ,the problem of finding what is the best progression of studies within the curriculum is an important problem on which we have at the present time relatively little information4 ,president ,lowell of ,harvard ,university collected some statistics on this matter which can be briefly summarized in three quotations from his article3 ,harvard ,university is singularly rich in material for determining the relation of college studies to the work of the professional schools1 because nowhere in the world have so large a body of undergraduates been so free1 for so long a period1 as in ,harvard ,college to study whatever they chose1 and to make any combination of courses they pleased4 ,with the exception of one required course in ,english1 and sometimes one in another modern language1 the election of courses has been almost wholly free for a quarter of a century1 and in fact the variety of combinations made has been almost limitless4 ,moreover1 the ,law and ,medical ,schools have contained a large number of graduates of ,harvard ,college1 and this is essential for a fair comparison of the results4444 ,the statistics here presented cover1 therefore1 only bachelors of arts of ,harvard ,college who graduated afterwards from the ,harvard ,law and ,medical ,schools1 and they comprise only men who took twelve courses1 or nearly three years' work1 in the college4444 ,if1 therefore1 one can draw any inference from figures so small1 the case of mathematics is singular4 ,unless some other element enters into the problem1 such as an unusually high standard in the department1 or an unusually vigorous intellectual appetite on the part of students who elect the subject1 the result may be supposed to indicate1 so far as it goes1 that mathematics1 altho rarely selected for the purpose1 is a particularly good preparation for the study of law2 perhaps because the methods of thought in the two subjects are more nearly akin than is commonly supposed4 ,leaving aside this possibly exceptional case1 the conclusions to be derived from the facts presented in this paper would seem to be that1 as a preparation for the study of law or medicine1 it makes comparatively little difference what subject is mainly pursued in college1 but that it makes a great difference with what intensity the subject is pursued--or1 to put the same proposition in a more technical form1 familiarity with the subject-matter1 which can be transferred little1 if at all1 is of small importance in a college education1 as compared with mental processes that are capable of being transferred widely1 or with the moral qualities of diligence1 perseverance1 and intensity of application which can be transferred indefinitely4 ,the practical deduction is that in the administration of our colleges1 and1 indeed1 in all our general education1 as distinguished from direct vocational or professional training1 we have laid too much stress on the subject1 too little on the excellence of the work and on the rank attained4#fg ,,administrative ,,studies ,other studies of the curriculum have been made which may be called administrative studies4 ,the most elaborate investigation of this type which has been carried out is reported in a volume entitled 8,the ,supervision of ,arithmetic40#fh ,two of the leading students of the science of education have here reported an exhaustive study of the practices of various school systems in administering the arithmetic course4 ,at the same time they have made an analysis of the textbooks which are commonly used in administering this course4 ,finally1 they have supplemented this body of fact with numerous opinions from competent school people regarding changes which ought to be made4 ,it is not possible to take up in detail the various findings reported in this volume4 ,one especially interesting set of facts1 however1 may be referred to as furnishing convincing evidence that the school curriculum is constantly in process of revision4 ,the particular part of the book which shows this deals with the number of hours a week devoted to arithmetic in the course of study of various cities4 ,if we compare the relative amount of time given to arithmetic in earlier years and at present1 we shall have some indication of the movement which has been going on within the school curriculum4 ,in #ahhh ,new ,york ,city devoted #bf per cent of the total school time in the grades to arithmetic4 ,in #aijd this had been reduced to #ab per cent1 showing that the attention to arithmetic is in point of time less than half what it was at an earlier period4 ,boston1 on the other hand1 devoted to arithmetic almost exactly the same relative amount of time in #aijd that it did in #ahhh4 ,in both cases about #af per cent of the time of the course of study was given to this subject4 ,chicago shows a distinct increase in the amount of time given to arithmetic4 ,in #ahhh it was giving #i per cent of its time to that subject4 ,the time devoted to arithmetic in #aijd was #ah per cent1 or just twice as much4 ,these statements confirm the remark repeatedly made in this volume that the course of study is constantly undergoing revision4 ,the only intelligent way for the school system to deal with the problems of the course of study which are sure to come up is to make a careful examination of the movement which is under way1 for this movement is usually guided by the personal judgment of some enthusiastic school officer or by the chance readjustments which arise out of the effort to bring new subjects into the curriculum4 ,the result is a blind fluctuation1 the magnitude and importance of which are wholly unrecognized until exact comparisons are set up4 ,such general discussions as that summarized in the foregoing paragraphs are supplemented in the volume referred to1 by detailed studies of such questions as the following3 ,when should the teaching of fractions begin8 ,how far should the elementary course deal with square root and cube root8 ,what are the characteristics of a given textbook which make it available for a particular school system8 ,the kind of study which is here reported for arithmetic should1 of course1 be made for other subjects as well4 ,the time allotment for the course in geography and the distribution of topics within that course are quite as important as the time allotment in arithmetic4 ,,need ,,of ,,broad1 ,,co,,perative ,,studies ,it would be a serious mistake to advocate any one of the investigations referred to in this chapter as the sole basis for reform in the curriculum4 ,there must be a broad consideration of social and educational conditions if the school is to arrange its materials of instruction in the most advantageous form4 ,furthermore1 the individual teacher cannot make all the studies involved4 ,the problem is one which involves coperation and the organization of scientific methods which will give to each school officer the benefit of the experience of many schools4 ,,exercises ,,and ,,readings ,the best type of exercise which can be suggested in connection with this chapter is the analysis of a series of textbooks by members of the class4 ,the following suggestions will aid in the attack on three classes of texts3 ,first1 let the student get several sets of readers1 beginning with primers and running up to the books designed for the upper grades4 ,note among other characteristics such matters as the following3 ,are the selections in the primers equally interesting8 ,are the vocabularies the same8 ,what devices in the primer are adopted as aids in explaining the words8 ,are the sentences of equal length8 ,in the readers for the upper grades is the emphasis on poetry the same8 ,is the reading matter equally appropriate for boys and girls8 ,does it fit all localities equally well8 ,is there any suggestion that would carry the pupil out of the book itself to other books8 ,second1 let the student take several geographies4 ,are the maps equally good8 ,are the pictures equally helpful8 ,what is the order of topics8 ,is the treatment equally detailed in the various books8 ,is the attention given to the ,united ,states satisfactory both in point of gross volume and in point of details taken up8 ,what is the degree of emphasis on physical geography and on man's place in the world1 that is1 on commerce and civilization8 ,third1 take books in first-year ,latin4 ,what emphasis is given to vocabulary1 to reading1 and to grammar8 ,how do books of this type differ from books on ,french and ,german8 ,is the choice of reading matter in the various books based on the same principle of selection8 ,how far could the books be used by a pupil without a teacher8 ,what is the contribution expected of the teacher2 that is1 what must the teacher know about ,latin more than is given in the book8 ,how are the pages of material related to assignments2 that is1 are assignments suggested by the text itself8 ,,bagley1 ,w4 ,c41 and ,,rugg1 ,h4 ,o4 8,content of ,american ,history as taught in the ,seventh and ,eighth ,grades40 ,bulletin ,no4 #af1 ,school of ,education1 ,university of ,illinois1 #aiaf4 ,minimum ,essentials in ,elementary-,school ,subjects4 ,fourteenth ,yearbook of the ,national ,society for the ,study of ,education1 ,part ,i1 #aiae4 ,the ,university of ,chicago ,press4 ,other types of study than those suggested in the above questions are outlined in this yearbook4 ,,footnotes3 #fc ,bailey ,b4 ,burritt1 8,professional ,distribution of ,college and ,university ,graduates10 p4 #ae4 ,bulletin ,no4 #ai1 ,united ,states ,bureau of ,education1 #aiab4 #fd ,survey conducted by ,l4 ,p4 ,ayres of the ,russell ,sage ,foundation4 8,the ,public ,schools of ,springfield1 ,illinois10 pp4 #hf-hh4 ,published by the ,springfield ,survey ,committee1 ,springfield1 ,illinois1 #aiad4 #fe ,w4 ,c4 ,bagley1 8,the ,determination of ,minimum ,essentials in ,elementary ,geography and ,history40 ,fourteenth ,yearbook of the ,national ,society for the ,study of ,education1 ,part ,i1 pp4 #aca1 #acd-ace4 ,the ,university of ,chicago ,press1 #aiae4 #ff ,w4 ,w4 ,charters and ,edith ,miller1 8,a ,course of ,study in ,grammar10 pp4 #dc-de4 ,bulletin ,no4 #b1 ,university of ,missouri1 ,vol4 ,,xvi 7#aiae74 #fg ,a4 ,lawrence ,lowell1 8,college ,studies and ,professional ,training40 ,educational ,review1 ,vol4 ,,xlii 7,october1 #aiaa71 pp4 #bbj1 #bba1 #bcc4 #fh ,w4 ,a4 ,jessup and ,l4 ,d4 ,coffman4 ,the ,macmillan ,company1 #aiaf4 ,,chapter ,,xv ,,standardization ,,tests ,,and ,,measurements ,,of ,,products ,there is a group of recent studies which affect the curriculum and all other phases of school organization so profoundly that a separate chapter must be devoted to an exposition of their character and aims4 ,these are studies which aim to standardize school work through tests1 measurements1 and exact quantitative descriptions of the products of teaching4 ,for example1 one of the efforts of the elementary school is to teach pupils to write4 ,it is entirely possible after the school has done its work to find out by an examination of the results how well pupils can write4 ,it is never expected that pupils in the second grade will write as well as pupils in the upper grades4 ,in this sense1 then1 it may be said that the results expected in the second grade are of a lower standard than those expected higher in the school4 ,furthermore1 there is a sharp contrast between rapid writing and slow writing4 ,the pupil who writes one hundred and fifty letters in a minute with a quality or form of letters which is fair exhibits one kind of result1 while the pupil who writes only seventy-five letters a minute but shows great regularity in his letters exhibits another kind of result4 ,it is not easy in two cases such as have just been described to determine at once which result is better4 ,it may be that speed should be encouraged in order to secure free1 fluent movements even if quality has to be sacrificed for the time being4 ,,earlier ,,standards ,,based ,,on ,,opinion ,one difficulty in dealing with the results of school work has been that schools have had no clear definition of what ought to be demanded4 ,opinion has been matched against opinion4 ,thus the parent often feels that he has a right to pass unqualified judgment on the progress of his child and on the teacher's methods of dealing with him4 ,the employer demands of the boy whom he employs a certain proficiency in spelling and adding4 ,the superintendent1 in pursuance of his duties1 tells the teachers that their work is satisfactory or otherwise and that the children do or do not read as well as they should4 ,the teacher has a certain expectation1 and the pupil feels sure that he is doing his work well4 ,each1 according to his personal standard1 is estimating the work done in the school4 ,very often these standards differ when applied to one and the same performance2 sometimes they differ so radically that social troubles follow4 ,the parent says that his child is doing satisfactory work1 while the teacher estimates the work as inferior4 ,in such a case it happens1 often after a controversy1 that one standard ultimately prevails4 ,it is a matter of record in some communities that the parent's standard has at times been asserted with enough energy to result in the removal of the dissenting teacher from office4 ,on the other hand1 it is more commonly true that the teacher's standard dominates1 and the pupil either changes his ways or fails of promotion4 ,in either case1 it would have been better for all concerned if some exact standard could have been set up which would have been recognized as superior in its sanction to individual opinion4 ,even teachers of experience disagree in grading the same examination paper4 ,one demands correctness in every detail1 while the other concentrates attention on originality and force of expression4 ,,objective ,,and ,,exact ,,standards ,the effort to lay down by investigation satisfactory standards of school work is one of the most productive lines of educational inquiry which has ever been instituted4 ,like all great movements1 this movement of standardization has been misunderstood and opposed1 but it is steadily gaining ground and promises to be the largest contribution of this generation to education4 ,in essence it consists of a careful1 systematic measurement of what pupils accomplish4 ,if there are at hand measurements of the actual achievements of pupils in various subjects in all the grades1 it is safe to compare any single performance with the general average4 ,it should be noted that this does not imply a demand that every pupil's work be like the average4 ,there are pupils who do their work under unfavorable conditions1 as1 for example1 pupils who have difficulty in reading because they hear no ,english at home4 ,their results should not be expected to reach the average1 at least in the early grades4 ,how far the results are from the average should1 however1 be definitely known4 ,explanation can then be given4 ,where conditions are not unfavorable the demand can be the more vigorously made that the average expectation be reached4 ,,beginnings ,,of ,,the ,,movement ,the way in which this movement began and the rapidity with which it has progressed are vividly described by one of its chief exponents as follows3 ,eighteen years ago the school superintendents of ,america1 assembled in convention in ,indianapolis1 discussed the problems then foremost in educational thought and action4 ,at that meeting a distinguished educator#fi--the pioneer and pathfinder among the scientific students of education in ,america--brought up for discussion the results of his investigations of spelling among the children in the school systems of nineteen cities4 ,these results showed that1 taken all in all1 the children who spent forty minutes a day for eight years in studying spelling did not spell any better than the children in the schools of other cities where they devoted only ten minutes per day to the study4 ,the presentation of these data threw that assemblage into consternation1 dismay1 and indignant protest4 ,but the resulting storm of vigorously voiced opposition was directed not against the methods and results of the investigation1 but against the investigator who had pretended to measure the results of teaching spelling by testing the ability of children to spell4 ,in terms of scathing denunciation the educators there present and the pedagogical experts1 who reported the deliberations of the meeting in the educational press1 characterized as silly1 dangerous1 and from every viewpoint reprehensible1 the attempt to test the efficiency of the teacher by finding out what the pupils could do4 ,with striking unanimity they voiced the conviction that any attempt to evaluate the teaching of spelling in terms of the ability of the pupils to spell was essentially impossible and based on a profound misconception of the function of education4 ,last month in the city of ,cincinnati that same association of school superintendents1 again assembled in convention1 devoted fifty-seven addresses and discussions to tests and measurements of educational efficiency4 ,the basal proposition underlying this entire mass of discussion was that the effectiveness of the school1 the methods1 and the teachers must be measured in terms of the results secured4#gj ,,handwriting ,,scales ,one of the earliest types of school work to be standardized was handwriting4 ,standard 8scales10 as they are called1 have been prepared by several investigators1 and their use has become very common4 ,the first scale was prepared by ,professor ,thorndike4#ga ,he secured a number of specimens of children's writing1 and asked experienced judges to arrange these specimens in a series of descending degrees of excellence4 ,by combining the judgments returned by the experts it was possible to secure an average judgment4 ,certain typical specimens were then set aside1 representing equal steps in the descending scale4 ,in practical use1 a given sample of handwriting which is to be judged is compared with the successive steps in the scale until an approximate equality in degree of excellence is found4 ,the sample to be judged is then marked with the grade agreed on for the standard specimen4 ,a second scale was prepared by ,ayres#gb on a more objective basis4 ,the specimens were arranged in a series1 not in accordance with the judgment of experts1 but according to the time which was required to read them4 ,a third scale1 more elaborate than either of the others1 was prepared by ,freeman4#gc ,he first made an analysis of the different characteristics which enter into excellent writing1 such as uniformity of slant1 uniformity in the height and spacing of letters1 and other like essential characteristics1 and then selected specimens exhibiting decreasing grades of excellence in each of these characteristics4 ,since each characteristic of writing is capable of definite measurement1 the specimens could be graded on the basis of direct measurements4 ,thus the slant of a number of specimens was measured letter by letter1 and objective grades were established4 ,finally1 the preparation of scales of handwriting has gone so far that special scales or series of graded specimens for particular school systems have been prepared4 ,,speed ,,as ,a ,,correlate ,,of ,,quality ,in the meantime the matter of speed in handwriting has also been a subject of careful measurement1 and tables of average speeds for different grades have been prepared in a number of school systems4 ,a device for presenting in a single diagram both speed and quality and at the same time comparing several grades in the same school with each other was worked out in the ,cleveland survey4 ,the figure and a description of its meaning are given on pages #bah1 #bai4 ,the relative emphasis on speed and quality actually found in a number of different schools is set forth in the following diagram4 ,the separate parts of this diagram are made up as follows3 ,the average speed of a grade is represented by distances in the horizontal1 and average quality by distances in the vertical1 scale4 ,thus1 taking the first section of the diagram1 that of the ,north ,doan ,school1 the fifth grade has an average speed of #ga letters per minute1 and an average quality of #da4 ,the sixth grade shows progress in both speed and quality1 though speed increases more than quality4 ,the seventh and eighth grades show further progress in both speed and quality1 the two changing at about the same rate4 ,the diagram for the ,kentucky ,school shows progress of a slightly different type4 ,in this school the sixth grade1 as compared with the fifth1 shows progress in quality1 but very little in speed4 ,progress from the sixth grade on is about equal in quality and speed4 ,memorial ,school emphasizes speed almost exclusively up to the eighth grade1 while ,mt4 ,pleasant emphasizes quality4 ,the various schools which have been reported in the four upper sections of the diagram are all regular in the sense that each school shows steady progress from grade to grade in both speed and quality4 ,without attempting to comment in detail on the special cases1 attention is called to the series of results presented in the lower part of the diagram4#gd ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ad4 ,average quality and average speed of handwriting of pupils of the four upper grades in ten schools#ge ,before giving examples of standardization in fields other than penmanship1 it will be well to indicate the full meaning of the foregoing paragraphs4 ,,standards1 ,,personal ,,and ,,impersonal ,first1 it will be seen that measurements are here substituted for purely personal judgments4 ,it was the universal practice before this movement began1 and it is the common practice to-day1 for a supervisor to go from school to school1 passing on the excellence and speed of handwriting4 ,the supervisor has arrived at a personal standard through his experience4 ,he expects a certain result in the fifth grade4 ,he has in his mind a more or less clearly defined requirement and regards it as his duty to impose this on pupils and teachers4 ,in the same way the teacher has a personal standard which is imposed on the pupils4 ,it would be a mistake to describe these personal standards as arbitrary or unintelligent4 ,the experienced teacher is usually approximately right in his expectations1 and the supervisor usually does a great deal to raise and unify the level of work with which he comes in contact4 ,but it is not possible in a complex social situation to rely on personal standards4 ,personal life and professional activity are too transient4 ,how many schools have changed standards1 to the great disadvantage of the penmanship1 with each change of supervisors8 ,furthermore1 personal standards are vague when one tries to transmit them to others4 ,this is a serious matter when it is remembered that a very large proportion of teachers in each school are changing each year4 ,if a supervisor is to systematize the work of his schools1 he must constantly be bringing into agreement with his standards the standards of a large number of new teachers4 ,for the sake of coperation it is advantageous to turn a personal standard into one which can be described and defined4 ,finally1 a personal standard grows up out of all the accidents of a personal career4 ,the person of narrow experience may not have incorporated into his standards valuable elements which he would have accepted had he come in contact with them4 ,the person of strong personal likes and dislikes may often be prejudiced4 ,the person of broad experience may be inexact when it comes to details4 ,to demand of all who teach handwriting that they rise above purely personal standards is not unlike the demand that the central government rather than the states mint our coins4 ,,social ,,standards ,,versus ,,imposed ,,standards ,second1 the standards set up are derived from the work actually going on in schools4 ,there is no dictation from purely theoretical and arbitrary sources4 ,it is quite impossible to close one's eyes to the fact that in the past there has been a tendency to assume that the only standard of action is the perfect standard4 ,many a child has been taught penmanship from perfect copy and has been urged to imitate this copy at whatever cost of time and pains4 ,the slow1 painful effort to draw letters like those in the copy book is not an unfamiliar exhibition in the penmanship class4 ,a standard derived from the school work itself is a social standard2 it is based on what pupils really do4 ,one need not be satisfied with present performances1 but one starts from solid ground4 ,furthermore1 out of actual measurements will come a clear idea of the range of variation4 ,one of the most astonishing facts which have come out in the course of the study of standards is the fact that there are very wide variations in the same grade4 ,there is1 therefore1 an easy possibility of finding for each grade high standards4 ,these high standards have the further advantage of being standards actually realized by pupils4 ,we are justified in describing the standards thus set up as natural standards4 ,they do not limit the progress of any grade or aim at mechanical uniformity as do the arbitrary standards based on personal judgments4 ,,comparison ,,through ,,exact ,,measurement ,third1 standards measured and expressed in definite terms can be compared and can be made the basis of studies which are quite impossible so long as standards are not expressed in common terms4 ,for example1 when the speed of handwriting in a certain school is deliberately changed1 what is the effect produced on quality8 ,heretofore it has been almost impossible to answer such a question4 ,every school reform has been enthusiastically hailed by its friends as accomplishing much4 ,in the second generation most of these reforms are checked1 if not actually dropped1 because it is found that the good accomplished in one line is entirely lost in some other4 ,to-day reforms are in a position to measure their effects in all directions4 ,a change in the speed of handwriting may or may not be advantageous2 it is the duty of measurement to so state results that some light will be thrown on this matter4 ,a concrete example will serve to show how studies of this kind may be carried out4 ,fig4 #ae shows the relative speeds and qualities of handwriting found in various grades in a miscellaneous group of cities and the corresponding facts for ,st4 ,louis and ,grand ,rapids4 ,it is seen that both of these school systems are ahead at all points in speed and behind at first in quality4 ,both cities have made a conscious effort to get away from the slow drawing of letters in the lower grades4 ,in doing this quality has been sacrificed4 ,it is not the purpose of this discussion to decide what methods of teaching handwriting are best2 the value of this example is that it shows quality and speed reduced to terms where the two can be studied together and with a high degree of exactness4 ,,records ,,as ,a ,,basis ,,of ,,standardization ,fourth and finally1 measured standards show the direction in which pupils are moving1 because they permit a permanent record of each step of the child's development4 ,schools have been slow to learn the value of records4 ,on the one hand1 school records have been piled up by the tome and no use has been made of them2 on the other hand1 they are usually so loosely thrown together that they are of very little value in guiding educational policy4 ,here is a form of record which can be duplicated and compared from year to year4 ,medicine has long since learned that exact records are the only safe means of guiding treatment4 ,modern agriculture has become scientific through the use of records and through decisions regarding experiments which these records make possible4 ,modern business has learned to make its accounting intelligent enough to guide policies4 ,finally1 schools are beginning to see that records of a type permitting continuous comparisons are invaluable in determining at what point school work shall take this or that form4 ,,studies ,,of ,,oral ,,reading ,what has been done with penmanship has been paralleled in some other subjects of elementary instruction4 ,the following quotations have to do with oral reading3 ,a coperative study of reading was organized during the month of ,september by the committee in charge of the grade-teachers' section of the ,illinois ,state ,teachers ,association 7,northeastern ,section71 which met at ,elgin1 ,illinois1 ,november #c and #d4 ,the purpose of this study was to secure a body of facts in regard to the achievement of boys and girls in reading in a number of schools represented in the ,association4444 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ae4 ,speed and quality of handwriting ,dotted lines indicate the level of achievement in various grades in fifty-six cities1 the results from which were averaged2 the full-drawn lines show the achievements in the two cities discussed ,the materials used in this study of reading were the standardized oral-reading paragraphs and the silent-reading tests which have been used in connection with the surveys in ,cleveland1 ,grand ,rapids1 and ,st4 ,louis1 as well as in a large number of investigations carried on in other cities4444 ,the standardized oral-reading paragraphs consist of a series of twelve paragraphs arranged in the order of increasing difficulty4 ,the tests were given to the pupils individually by a principal or by a teacher who had been previously trained for the work4 ,as the pupil read the teacher recorded the time required to read each paragraph together with the number of errors which were made of the following types3 7a7 ,gross mispronunciations1 which include such errors in pronunciation as indicate clearly that the word is too difficult for the pupil to pronounce4 7b7 ,minor mispronunciations1 which include the pronunciation of a portion of a word1 wrong accent1 wrong syllabification1 omission of syllables1 etc4 7c7 ,omission of words4 7d7 ,insertion of words4 7e7 ,repetition of words or groups of words4 7f7 ,substitution of one word or group of words for another4 ,a pupil continued to read until he had made seven or more errors in each of two paragraphs4 ,by means of a system of scoring based on the time required to read and on the number of errors which were made it was possible to represent the achievement of a pupil or a class in numerical terms4444 ,the upper section of the table given below gives the average number of seconds required to read paragraph #a and the average number of errors made by three poor second-grade classes and by three good second-grade classes4 ,of the poor schools1 ,school ,m made more errors and read more slowly than the average4 ,school ,n read with fewer errors than the average1 but read so slowly that the oral-reading score for the class was below the average4 ,school ,o1 on the other hand1 gave sufficient emphasis to rate1 but neglected accuracy to such an extent that the oral-reading score was low4 ,an examination of the records made by the good schools shows clearly that consistent progress in both rate and accuracy is a prerequisite to a high level of achievement4 ,the schools of northern ,illinois vary widely in the amount of emphasis given to these phases of reading achievement4 ,there is need1 on the part of many teachers1 for a continuous critical study of the specific character of the results which they are securing4 ,,rate ,,and ,,errors ,,in ,,oral ,,reading ,,paragraph #a--;,,grade ,,ii ,,poor ,,schools ,,good ,,schools ,,aver---------------------------------- ------------------------------------ ,,age ,m ,n ,o ,x ,y ,z ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- --- ,rate seconds per passage #db4b #fe4j #fd4a #ci4a #bg4b #cb4h #cg4i ,errors #a4d #b4j #j4e #b4d #a4a #j4i #a4c ,,paragraph #a--;,,grades ,,ii1 ,,iii1 ,,and ,,iv ,,average ,,school ,a ,,school ,b ,,school ,c ,,school ,d ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------------ ,grade ,,ii ,rate #db4b #cg4i #fe4j #ci4a #dc4d ,errors #a4d #a4c #b4j #b4d #a4g ,grade ,,iii ,rate #ba4i #ai4h #bc4f #bc4i #bh4j ,errors #j4i #j4g #a4g #a4h #j4h ,grade ,,iv ,rate #ah4f #ah4j #ba4i #af4j #bg4j ,errors #j4h #j4f #a4c #j4e #a4e ,additional light is thrown on this problem when we follow certain schools through the second1 third1 and fourth grades4 ,the average rate and number of errors for ,grades ,,ii1 ,,iii1 and ,,iv are given in the left-hand column of the lower section of the table4 ,the records for ,school ,a show that second-grade pupils do better both in rate and in accuracy than the average4 ,the same thing may be said of the third and fourth grades4 ,continuous1 consistent progress of this type is very commendable4 ,in ,school ,b1 on the other hand1 the pupils do less well in each grade in both speed and accuracy than the average4 ,a question arises here concerning the general effectiveness of the classroom instruction4 ,school ,c ranks low in accuracy in the second grade4 ,apparently this difficulty was realized in the third grade1 and considerable progress both in speed and in accuracy resulted4 ,in the fourth grade average results are attained which are above the average4 ,this school represents consistent1 continuous growth from grade to grade of a highly desirable type4 ,school ,d1 on the other hand1 makes improvement in speed and accuracy in the third grade1 but fails to increase its rate in the fourth grade1 and makes a record in accuracy which is distinctly below the record made by the third grade4 ,it is evident1 if the records for the present second1 third1 and fourth grades are typical of the results secured from year to year1 that there is need for more intelligent instruction and supervision in ,school ,d4 ,in this connection it should be said that objective standards of attainment for each grade should be defined4 ,by means of tests given throughout a school or a city the present level of achievement can be determined4 ,by means of comparisons with results secured elsewhere new goals of attainment can be defined4 ,each teacher should become familiar with the methods of giving tests4 ,she should utilize them frequently in examining her work to find sources of strength and weakness4 ,through the co-operation of teachers and supervisors progressive revisions in standards of attainment and methods of procedure should be made4 ,this type of co-operation is necessary because it is only when all the units of a school system work consistently together toward clearly defined ends that the most effective results can be secured4#gf ,,studies ,,dealing ,,with ,,other ,,subjects ,a great number of similar studies are being reported each year on arithmetic1 spelling1 and other aspects of the elementary curriculum4 ,the high-school subjects are more complicated than those in the elementary school1 but even these are beginning to be tested4 ,there are satisfactory tests in algebra and the beginnings of measurements in ,latin and ,english4 ,,mechanical ,,aspects ,,the ,,first ,,to ,,be ,,standardized ,in all cases standardization begins with the mechanical aspects of school work4 ,these are more susceptible to exact quantitative description and are the first to be taken up4 ,some writers have professed to find in this a reason for rejecting the whole movement toward standardization4 ,there are1 they assert1 products of teaching which are subtle and intangible4 ,these are the products which are most highly to be prized4 ,thoroughly to standardize penmanship and oral reading and algebra is to set aside these more important matters4 ,two answers are to be made to this objection to the movement toward standardization4 ,in the first place1 the higher values of education are not secured by teachers who are negligent of the fundamental mechanical requirements4 ,the teacher who successfully trains his pupil to study history will make of him a good reader also4 ,in the second place1 if it should prove to be desirable to give less time than is given at present to training in the mechanical aspects of school subjects1 it will certainly be absolutely essential that the limits and restrictions be set up with discrimination4 ,we shall never be able to deal intelligently with the mechanical aspects of education until we have studied them4 ,a third statement which can be ventured with assurance in the light of the recent history of this movement is that its limits cannot be set4 ,each year new aspects of school work are measured with exactness4 ,it is certain that the ultimate conquests of measurement will push the opponents back into their own territory4 ,,standardization ,,and ,,the ,,science ,,of ,,education ,in short1 standardization is nothing but a systematic effort to deal with educational problems explicitly and in the light of exact information4 ,whatever may be the limits of exact knowledge in educational matters1 it is certain that we ought to secure as much knowledge of this type as possible4 ,,exercises ,,and ,,readings ,the exercise which will best serve to supplement this chapter is a series of tests performed on members of the class and worked out by them for purposes of comparison with other standard results4 ,in the appendix of the volume of the ,cleveland survey entitled 8,measuring the ,work of the ,public ,schools0 a full set of standard tests will be found4 ,s4 ,a4 ,courtis1 #hb ,eliot ,street1 ,detroit1 ,michigan1 furnishes tests in various subjects1 especially arithmetic4 ,the following institutions furnish various tests3 ,college of ,education1 ,the ,university of ,chicago1 ,chicago1 ,illinois4 ,teachers ,college1 ,columbia ,university1 ,new ,york ,city4 ,bureau of ,measurements and ,tests1 ,state ,normal ,school1 ,emporia1 ,kansas4 ,the readings which are most useful in this connection are to be found in current educational periodicals4 ,the student will find the latest scientific studies in such journals as the following3 ,school ,review4 ,published by ,the ,university of ,chicago ,press4 ,this is a journal dealing chiefly with high schools4 ,elementary ,school ,journal4 ,published by ,the ,university of ,chicago ,press4 ,this contains very full reviews of elementary tests4 ,journal of ,educational ,psychology4 ,published by ,warwick and ,york1 ,baltimore1 ,maryland4 ,educational ,administration and ,supervision4 ,published by ,warwick and ,york1 ,baltimore1 ,maryland4 ,educational ,review4 ,published by the ,educational ,review ,publishing ,company1 ,easton1 ,pennsylvania4 ,school and ,society4 ,published by ,the ,science ,press1 ,new ,york ,city4 ,,footnotes3 #fi ,j4 ,m4 ,rice1 editor of the ,forum4 #gj ,leonard ,p4 ,ayres1 8,making ,education ,definite40 ,bulletin ,no4 #aa1 ,indiana ,university1 ,vol4 ,,xiii 7,october1 #aiae71 pp4 #he-hf4 ,published by the ,extension ,division of ,indiana ,university4 #ga ,e4 ,l4 ,thorndike1 8,handwriting40 ,teachers ,college ,record1 ,march1 #aiaj4 #gb ,l4 ,p4 ,ayres1 ,a ,scale for ,measuring the ,quality of ,handwriting of ,school ,children4 ,russell ,sage ,foundation1 ,new ,york4 #gc ,f4 ,n4 ,freeman1 ,the ,teaching of ,handwriting4 ,houghton ,mifflin ,company1 #aiad4 #gd ,measuring the ,work of the ,public ,schools1 pp4 #ge-gg4 ,cleveland ,education ,survey4 ,published by the ,survey ,committee of the ,cleveland ,foundation1 ,cleveland1 ,ohio1 #aiaf4 #ge ,quality on vertical scale1 speed on horizontal scale4 ,the four schools referred to in the text are represented in the four diagrams in the upper part of the figure4 ,north ,doan is reported in the diagram in the upper left-hand corner4 ,kentucky is shown in the upper right-hand corner4 ,memorial is under ,north ,doan4 ,mt4 ,pleasant is under ,kentucky4 #gf ,william ,s4 ,gray1 8,a ,co-operative ,study of ,reading in ,eleven ,cities of ,northern ,illinois40 ,elementary ,school ,journal1 ,vol4 ,,xvii1 ,no4 #d 7,december1 #aiaf71 pp4 #bej-beg4 ,,chapter ,,xvi ,,methods ,,meaning ,,of ,,the ,,term 8,,method0 ,the problems of instruction are by no means solved when a subject has been selected and placed in its proper relation to the other subjects in the curriculum4 ,there is still the problem of presenting the subject to the class in such a way as to appeal to the attention and interest of its members4 ,the special term which is applied in educational writings to the organization of material for class instruction is the term 8method0 or 8method of teaching40 ,in contrasting ,american schools with ,european schools it was pointed out in an earlier chapter that the ,american method is the textbook and recitation method1 while the method of the ,european schools is predominantly the oral or lecture method4 ,the subject-matter of instruction can be treated by either of these methods4 ,,meaning ,,of ,,the ,,term 8,,device0 ,another term which has been used in educational discussions to distinguish between the more general modes of procedure and certain details of classroom work is the term 8device40 ,a classroom device is some special piece of equipment or some particular way of dealing with a class that can be described as appropriate to a single classroom situation or to some topic of a given subject4 ,for example1 if a teacher of ,latin has verb forms printed on cards for the purpose of drilling his classes in the recognition of such forms1 his cards are spoken of as devices4 ,again1 if one calls the roll by assigning a number to each member of the class and then requiring each number to be given in its order1 it is said that one has a time-saving device4 ,,personal ,,methods ,,and ,,devices ,every teacher has methods and devices of presenting material to his or her classes4 ,the experienced teacher behaves skillfully in the presence of a class because all the details of procedure have been tried1 and those which proved successful have been retained4 ,the inexperienced teacher is clumsy in his methods1 just as is any novice in dealing with an unmastered social situation4 ,,supposed ,,conflict ,,between ,,methods ,,and ,,subject-,,matter ,it is sometimes pointed out that in the training of teachers there is danger that competition will arise between the demand for skill in methods and the demand for knowledge of subject-matter4 ,the specialist in science scoffs at a course in methods of teaching1 saying that all the prospective teacher needs is to know the subject thoroughly1 and method will take care of itself4 ,furthermore1 such a critic of methods often points out that the time required for a course in methods must be taken from time which the student ought to devote to subject-matter4 ,the school principal who is looking for a science teacher is likely to reply that he has had teachers thoroughly acquainted with the science but utterly unsympathetic with pupils4 ,such teachers do not know how to get the facts to the students4 ,they are abstract1 or speak too fast1 or do not assign the lessons in such a way as to help the students see the important points4 ,there is no necessity of being one-sided in this matter4 ,the successful teacher will ultimately have both knowledge of the subject-matter and methods and devices of presenting the subject-matter4 ,if he is lacking in either1 he will be in just that degree inefficient4 ,there can be no doubt that a properly balanced appreciation of both is the sane and wise attitude to assume4 ,,two ,,examples ,,of ,,modern ,,methods ,it will1 of course1 be quite impossible to do more than illustrate the problems of method in this general introduction4 ,the remainder of this chapter will be devoted to comments on two significant innovations in method which are characteristic of present-day teaching as contrasted with the teaching of two generations ago4 ,the older of these innovations was the adoption of the laboratory method2 the later general innovation is the movement in the direction of supervised study in all subjects4 ,,object ,,teaching ,an appreciation of the laboratory method can be gained by reviewing briefly the history of this method in ,american schools4 ,as far back as #ahji a follower of ,pestalozzi1 one ,joseph ,neef1 conducted a school in ,philadelphia1 where he exhibited ,pestalozzi's object method4 ,pupils learned by direct contact with things4 ,such teaching was in sharp contrast with the ordinary methods then in vogue1 for at that time instruction consisted exclusively of statements1 either oral or written1 which the pupils were supposed to learn by heart4 ,the object-teaching movement made little progress until it was taken up in #ahfj by ,dr4 ,sheldon1 the head of the normal school at ,oswego1 ,new ,york4 ,from ,oswego the movement spread1 especially to the new ,western schools1 and had so wide an influence that the study of nature in the lower schools was vigorously advocated and extensively undertaken4 ,the inductive method of direct contact with the facts was advocated in fields other than nature study4 ,dr4 ,sheldon's daughter took a vigorous part in the development of instruction in history based on direct contact with source material4 ,the laboratory method in history1 as it was sometimes called1 spread and inspired enthusiasm for methods in all the literary subjects analogous to the laboratory work of the sciences4 ,,laboratory ,,method ,,in ,,physics ,in the high schools a parallel movement took place in the last third of the nineteenth century1 leading to the adoption of laboratory work as a definite mode of instruction4 ,on this subject one writer on the history of physics has given the following statements3 ,experimental work had not been entirely unknown in secondary schools even in the early part of the century1 but no attempt had been made to bring the pupil into personal contact with its results4 ,the ,boston ,grammar ,schools were all furnished with a #bge set of physical apparatus as early as #ahcg1 and most of the academies installed sets about that time1 but the apparatus was for the use of the instructor only1 the pupils not being allowed to handle it4 ,and this condition existed to within about thirty years of the end of the century1 when the agitation for individual laboratory work began4 ,this period of agitation was marked by the beginning of some laboratory work and the discussion of the value of individual work and the inductive method by educators4 ,but there was no general adoption of the plan till a later period4 ,it was about this time that ,david ,starr ,jordan accepted the chair of ,natural ,history in an ,illinois college and attempted to establish a chemical laboratory4 ,his attempt was promptly vetoed by the board of trustees4444 ,in the report from the ,albany1 ,n4,y41 ,city ,school1 for #ahhb1 the ,superintendent recommended that a whole year be given to the study of physics with opportunity for daily experiments1 the class participating in the experiments as far as practicable4 ,the report of #ahhb-ahhc from the ,washington1 ,d4,c41 ,high ,school1 states that laboratories have been fitted up4 ,indianapolis reported in #ahhc that the experimental method had been introduced and was meeting with approval from both teacher and pupil4 ,cincinnati reported in #ahhb that physics was taught from a syllabus four hours a week during the third year4 ,st4 ,louis reported physics taught through the second year of the high school4 ,the reports show only qualitative experiments4444 ,the general trend of accumulated opinion in #ahhd shows increased favor of the idea that mental discipline is the chief aim in physics teaching4 ,there was a general notion that the study of physics ought to train the pupil to think1 but as to what method should be used to bring about this result there was no settled opinion4 ,laboratory work meant anything from a few simple demonstrations by the teacher to a complete individual laboratory course1 such as is given at the present day4 ,for the next fifteen years1 physics teaching1 in fact1 science teaching in general1 was in an experimental stage4 ,in the effort to make science a disciplinary study1 the laboratory method was coming into general use rapidly1 but the old idea of making science include everything in reach--a remnant of the ,natural ,philosophy stage--had prevented its becoming a really disciplinary study4 ,we find ,david ,starr ,jordan in #ahhi lamenting the superficial way in which science was taught4#gg ,,spread ,,of ,,the ,,laboratory ,,idea ,the historical statements given above show how recent is the acceptance of the laboratory method even in science teaching4 ,the enthusiasm for the method is as impressive as its youth4 ,it would be impossible to turn the present generation of science teachers away from the laboratory method of teaching4 ,in spite of its cumbersomeness of administration1 its demand for expensive equipment1 and the deliberation which it compels in teaching the results of science1 the laboratory method is everywhere accepted as the true method4 ,indeed1 as stated above1 the literary subjects such as history and ,english1 the latter especially in the teaching of composition1 not infrequently adopt the term 8laboratory method0 in order to show their recognition of the effectiveness of the method worked out by the sciences4 ,,reaction ,,against ,,the ,,question ,,and ,,answer ,,method ,the second innovation in method of teaching1 namely1 supervised study1 came as a reaction against the purely examination method of conducting class exercises which was formerly almost universal except in laboratory classes4 ,the examination method is the familiar one of calling a pupil to his feet and then asking him one question after another to find out whether he has learned his lesson4 ,if he answers well1 he is marked with a high grade4 ,if he answers badly1 he is marked with a low grade1 reprimanded1 and told to do his work over4 ,the futility of some of this procedure is at once evident if one thinks of the student who has made an honest effort to learn his lesson1 but has failed because he adopted an inefficient and often a wrong method of getting the lesson4 ,in such a case the pupil fails because he does not know how to get his lesson4 ,it therefore occurred to some progressive teachers that it was their duty to inquire not merely into the results of the student's study but also into his methods of study4 ,the moment this new idea is grasped1 the function of a recitation will be seen to be something more than the examination of pupils4 ,the recitation is now coming to be the place where pupils learn how to do intellectual work1 how to attack intellectual problems1 and how to guide their efforts into more economical and effective channels4 ,,inefficient ,,methods ,,of ,,study ,observation of high-school pupils who are asked to study will always show the need of attention to methods of study4 ,the following description of such observation is illuminating3 ,to ascertain to what extent the other members of the class might have this difficulty1 the following experiment was tried4 ,in assigning the next lesson1 suggestions were given with unusual care4 ,the pupils were then told that the next fifteen minutes would be given to studying the lesson1 and that they should begin the assigned home work immediately4 ,the experiment showed at once that the pupils did not appreciate the value of limited time1 for all were slow in beginning work4 ,it took some of them the whole fifteen minutes to go through the technique of getting started4 ,several evidently were not in the habit of working alone1 for they looked about helplessly and simply imitated the others4 ,however1 these same pupils had come to the classroom daily with the lessons well prepared4 ,very little was accomplished in the fifteen minutes indicating that the pupils very probably wasted much time in studying their assignments of home work4 ,although the class had been in the high school only a short time1 the teacher had been presupposing a habit of study which did not exist4 ,much of the difficulty is due to lack of knowledge as to how to study and how to use time to advantage4 ,the remedy in this case is1 of course1 definite instruction as to methods of study4#gh ,,organizing ,a ,,school ,,for ,,supervised ,,study ,the organization of a school to provide opportunity for supervised study is thus described by the principal of one of the first schools to undertake this type of work on a large scale3 ,we took five minutes from each of the six recitation periods1 which we have in our school day1 and put these together to make a thirty-minute study period coming once a day4 ,in order that each class might receive the benefit of this period1 we arranged that the first period class use the time on ,tuesday2 the second period class on ,wednesday2 and the third period class on ,friday2 the following week that the fourth1 fifth1 and sixth period classes use the period for supervised study4 ,on ,monday and ,thursday the teacher uses this study period by having come to her room for individual attention1 such students as she thinks may need individual help4 ,so much for the plan4 ,in regard to the results1 we have found that the plan is of greatest advantage with the younger students1 and in the first part of a subject4 ,that is1 the younger students need direction in method of study1 and all the students find it helpful when learning the method of attack upon a new subject4 ,we find it necessary1 of course1 to keep some definite check upon the work of the students4 ,this is done by setting for them certain concrete problems in their study4 ,for instance1 to work out a certain number of examples2 to be ready to prove a given theorem2 to pick out the topic sentences in a given paragraph2 to determine the most important points of a certain topic in physics2 to pick out the leading events in a given historical topic1 etc4 ,we find the method works very well in mathematics1 science1 and history4 ,some difficulty has been experienced in the study of an ,english classic1 such as ,macbeth1 in making the work of the study period definite4 ,we are working at this problem4 ,besides teaching methods of study1 we have found one decided advantage of this study period is that by reason of it1 the teacher gets a considerable insight into the methods of study of the various students and can discover those who waste time1 who have faulty methods of attack1 etc4 ,another point which we have found as a result of this work is that the teachers themselves are not at all clear as to definite methods of study4#gi ,,organizing ,,subject-,,matter ,,for ,,supervised ,,study ,one of the recent elaborate plans for supervised study is thus described by its author3 ,it has been erroneously assumed by many writers that supervised study was synonymous with effective study4 ,it has been taken for granted that schools administering supervised-study schedules taught pupils how to study4 ,there is a wide difference between more study and effective study4 ,supervised-study schedules may secure the former and miss the latter4 ,effective study depends upon many elements1 among them proper time and place1 concentration1 reading ability1 organization habits1 questioning habits1 and memory4 ,supervised-study schedules mechanically provide for the first two and more nearly secure the third than do other devices4 ,the remaining elements involved in the technique of study are not necessarily concomitants of so-called supervised study4444 ,the origin of the plan ,i am about to describe grew out of study of the classroom exercise in typewriting4 ,in the typewriting class pupils remain in the same group1 but are individually apart4 ,a pupil taking typewriting may stay out of school for two weeks and return to the same group in his mathematics1 ,latin1 and typewriting4 ,in the last subject he starts in exactly where he left off with a distinct realization that his muscular-mental co-ordination has been impaired1 while too often in the first two subjects he takes up the advanced work with his classmates apparently without any particular sense of loss4 ,why should he1 if he makes his grade8 ,does he not figure out a distinct gain8 ,two things differentiate the mechanics of the typewriting exercise from the mathematics and ,latin recitations3 7a7 consecutive1 daily assignments which the pupil may follow without the guidance of a teacher2 7b7 individual responsibility and progress or an accounting for individual differences4 ,apply these same principles to academic subjects and it becomes necessary to provide printed daily lesson assignments and to check upon individual preparation of these daily assignments4 ,one added factor1 however1 appears with the academic subject which uniquely distinguishes it from the manual1 namely1 the expression of the lesson ideas4 ,in typewriting the pupil during the exercise concretely and muscularly shows the teacher how well he understands the lesson4 ,in academic subjects the understanding must first be tested by language expression4 ,there is no machine yet invented for eliminating this language-expression exercise4 ,consequently for all academics there must always remain the recitation period4 ,throwing one's ideas into a language mold is not the same as expressing one's ideas by mechanical means4 ,for this reason the recitation period must always be stressed4444 ,the laboratory-recitation plan is based on the fundamental idea that recitation groups should be organized on the basis of preparation4 ,pupils need not recite on the day's preparation1 but the recitation for the day is upon work previously prepared and tested4 ,the recitation teacher knows that when his group assembles each and every pupil has previously prepared and has been checked in the work to be recited upon1 otherwise the pupil would not be in the group4 ,this is accomplished by the following modus operandi3 ,co-operating laboratory-recitation teachers4 ,forty or fifty pupils are assigned to a certain laboratory-recitation period operated by two teachers--one the laboratory1 the other the recitation1 teacher--in adjoining rooms4 ,while the laboratory teacher is supervising the preparation of lessons during the ninety-minute period1 the co-operating recitation teacher is conducting recitations with groups of pupils taken from the laboratory on the basis of their preparation4 ,for illustration1 each ,friday the laboratory algebra teacher in the second period will give the co-operating recitation teacher of that class and period the advancement of the slowest pupil in each of two or three recitation groups previously determined on the basis of laboratory preparation4 ,the recitation teacher prepares his work for the following week on the basis of this information4 ,if there are three groups1 the recitation teacher devotes thirty minutes to each group2 if two groups1 forty-five minutes4 ,the pupil spends either one-half or two-thirds of each period in the laboratory1 the time depending upon the number of groups into which the recitation has been divided1 and the remaining time in recitation4#hj ,,experiments ,,in ,,method ,the meaning of experiments such as have been described is not far to seek4 ,the ingenious supervisor or teacher who has watched the ordinary recitation made up of a series of questions and answers recognizes the fact that such a recitation is very formal4 ,his efforts to improve teaching will carry him into new types of class exercises4 ,the laboratory type of exercise will serve better in certain cases2 in others1 the supervised-study type4 ,sometimes it is desirable to try other experiments4 ,without attempting to deal with these other experiments in detail1 it may be well to enumerate some of the types of class exercise which have not been discussed in full4 ,the lecture method is common in higher institutions4 ,in the primary grades this method has taken the form of story-telling and has been developed of late with elaborate technique4 ,the study lesson is a name which has been used to describe an exercise in which the pupils study new material on which they have not prepared in advance4 ,the special forms of this kind of exercise may vary from a critical reading together of an advanced section of the textbook to a series of readings by members of the class of various scattered sources in collateral books4 ,a report lesson is a modification of the lecture method4 ,the members of the class1 rather than the teacher1 furnish the lecture material2 each student having prepared a part of the whole in advance has an opportunity to present his findings to the class1 with the result that the subject is studied in full through the coperative efforts of all4 ,the laboratory method may take on the form of field excursions in the geographical sciences and the form of gardening in agriculture4 ,whatever its form it is one of the most radical departures from the traditional class exercise4 ,shopwork has become common in many lines4 ,with the girls the class exercises in domestic science and domestic art are crosses between construction exercises and investigation exercises4 ,drill exercises in mathematics and language consist in the performance under the teacher's supervision of a series of tasks which are designed to cultivate fixed habits in the fields to which they belong4 ,very often such exercises are conducted in such a way that each pupil works individually4 ,written examinations ought to be included here4 ,whenever a class is given a series of review questions for the purpose of requiring a general review of a whole subject1 the result of the exercise is to fix in the student's mind certain larger elements of the study and to establish certain broad habits of selection4 ,written examinations may be1 from this point of view1 devices of training1 not merely tests of results4 ,the examination method as a training method has1 accordingly1 an important place4 ,the coperative recitation is one in which the pupils ask the questions4 ,the teacher withdraws as far as possible1 and allows the members of the class to initiate the discussions4 ,when this kind of exercise is first introduced1 the pupils are likely to follow as closely as they can the manner of questioning which they have seen exhibited by their teachers4 ,if the experiment is carried out persistently1 the pupils will ultimately become quite independent and spontaneous in their questioning4 ,,method ,,as ,a ,,subject ,,of ,,scientific ,,tests ,class exercises are thus seen to differ in form and in results4 ,when the student of standards begins to make his tests and measurements1 he finds an inviting field for study in the different effects which follow the various types of exercises enumerated above4 ,,exercises ,,and ,,readings ,methods can be discussed from various points of view4 ,let the student consider methods in relation to the different subjects of instruction4 ,how will the method of teaching manual training compare with the method of teaching ,latin or arithmetic or music8 ,again1 let the relation of method to the maturity of pupils be discussed4 ,what can be done in a high-school class in ,english that is not possible with an elementary class8 ,in this connection what are the methods of teaching adults8 ,does a preacher exhibit method in his preaching8 ,what is the method of a writer in a newspaper as distinguished from the method of a writer of novels8 ,methods can be considered from the point of view of the teacher's personality and equipment4 ,are there any natural differences between the methods of men and women in teaching8 ,classify teachers with respect to the aggressiveness of their methods of attack4 ,some are very quiet and require the pupils to do most of the talking2 others are not4 ,in the ,appendix will be found a list of questions designed to aid in the observation of classroom methods4 ,,charters1 ,w4 ,w4 ,methods of ,teaching4 ,row1 ,peterson ,company1 ,chicago4 ,,earhart1 ,l4 ,b4 ,types of ,teaching4 ,houghton ,mifflin ,company4 ,,mcmurry1 ,c4 ,a4 ,the ,elements of ,general ,method4 ,public ,school ,publishing ,company1 ,bloomington1 ,illinois4 ,,parker1 ,s4 ,c4 ,methods of ,teaching in ,high ,schools4 ,ginn and ,company4 ,,strayer1 ,g4 ,d4 ,a ,brief ,course in the ,teaching ,process4 ,the ,macmillan ,company4 ,,strayer1 ,g4 ,d41 and ,,norsworthy1 ,n4 ,how to ,teach4 ,the ,macmillan ,company4 ,,footnotes3 #gg ,david ,a4 ,ward1 ,the ,history of ,physics ,instruction in the ,secondary ,schools of the ,united ,states4 ,unpublished thesis for the ,master's degree in the ,department of ,education of ,the ,university of ,chicago4 #gh ,e4 ,r4 ,breslich1 8,supervised ,study as a ,means of providing ,supplementary ,individual ,instruction40 ,thirteenth ,yearbook of the ,national ,society for the ,study of ,education1 ,part ,i1 p4 #de4 ,the ,university of ,chicago ,press1 #aiad4 #gi ,f4 ,m4 ,giles1 late principal of the ,township ,high ,school of ,de ,kalb1 ,illinois4 ,thirteenth ,yearbook of the ,national ,society for the ,study of ,education1 ,part ,i1 pp4 #eg-eh4 #hj ,i4 ,m4 ,allen1 8,experiments in ,supervised ,study40 ,school ,review1 ,vol4 ,,xxv1 ,no4 #f 7,june1 #aiag71 pp4 #dja-djd4 ,,chapter ,,xvii ,,classroom ,,management ,,intellectual ,,progress ,,and ,,social ,,conditions ,the last chapter dealt with the intellectual side of class exercises4 ,the recitation has for its final purpose the conveying and fixing of certain ideas and methods of thinking4 ,but this end can be reached only when the social conditions within the class are properly under control4 ,the teacher is concerned1 therefore1 not alone with intellectual instruction2 he is concerned also with what is sometimes called school government or school discipline4 ,if the class is in a riot1 it is impossible to make any headway with history or arithmetic4 ,young and inexperienced teachers are often ineffective because they do not know the art of social management4 ,they know the subject-matter which is to be impressed on the minds of the pupils1 but they do not understand the serious social distractions which are sure to arise at times in a group of immature human beings4 ,,social ,,training ,,general ,the social conditions necessary for successful classroom work are often dependent on the general discipline of the whole school rather than on the momentary situation4 ,if the general social tone of a school building is low1 the best teacher is likely to find himself handicapped4 ,if1 on the other hand1 the social management outside the classroom is efficient1 a given teacher who is not skillful in organizing his class may get on without serious disturbance4 ,there is another sense1 also1 in which the problem of management is a general one4 ,the effect of class management on the pupil's life is profound4 ,the school coperates with the home and often outweighs the home in determining the pupil's ideals of social life4 ,these ideals are not so much matters of intellectual training as of social habit4 ,the influence of a teacher over his pupils is often due quite as much to the way in which he manages the class as to the subject-matter which he teaches4 ,,types ,,of ,,social ,,organization ,a social situation can often be anticipated and conditions can be prearranged so as to direct all the participants into lines of activity which are desirable4 ,in considering classroom organization it is important that we recognize1 first1 the possibilities of prearrangement4 ,the more experienced a teacher becomes1 the more he can anticipate situations4 ,second1 there are forms of class organization which facilitate social coperation1 such as arranging pupils in line4 ,this is recognized outside the school1 and it is a common practice to arrange people in line1 when1 for example1 they are securing tickets4 ,the management of groups of people can best be carried on by the adoption of such forms4 ,there need be nothing artificial about the forms if they are not overdone4 ,the skillful teacher often uses formal routine to keep the class moving as a unit4 ,third1 there is no social group which does not at times profit by a critical review of situations after they are over4 ,punishment is meted out by society to those who have failed to conform to social demands4 ,on the other hand1 rewards are given to those who have promoted in conspicuous ways the interests of the group4 ,both punishments and rewards are to be recognized as educative devices1 and should be used in the school only when they are such4 ,the future welfare of society is what should be in mind in every expression of judgment on past performances4 ,briefly put1 social management deals first with conditions before the group comes together2 second1 with the forms necessary while the group is together2 and third1 with the rewards or punishments which should follow an act in the interests of future behavior4 ,,social ,,control ,,through ,,anticipation ,examples of anticipatory arrangements are not difficult to find4 ,all the material equipments of the school contribute to class management4 ,the division of the building into small classrooms provides for the division of the school into manageable groups4 ,the arrangement of seats and the precautions against the noise and distraction which result from the shuffling about of furniture are further examples of preparation in advance for the management of classes4 ,in like fashion1 the program for the day is worked out in advance by the wise administrator4 ,this program provides for a distribution of work and recreation such that there will be no undue tax on the child4 ,the third-grade pupil1 for example1 cannot sit still for thirty-five minutes at a time1 so the teacher changes the character of the exercise at the end of every twenty or thirty minutes4 ,anticipatory measures of the type here pointed out are usually not thought of by the inexperienced teacher as devices of class management4 ,class discipline is usually assumed to be a matter of the moment4 ,if one will learn to look ahead1 it is surprising how far most situations can be anticipated4 ,the first day a teacher meets a class it is possible to foresee that it will be safer to require certain members of the group to sit apart4 ,it is better to arrange their seats at once rather than to wait until an overt act precipitates a separation as a punishment4 ,the fact is that unfavorable social situations usually grow out of conditions that are remote and cannot be dealt with adequately at the moment4 ,the disorderly boy is often one whose physical condition is unfit4 ,the school is beginning to recognize the importance of proper feeding and proper hours of sleep1 and is taking steps to see that pupils receive at home and at the luncheon hour the kind of hygienic attention which will prepare them for the work of the class4 ,the social situation in the classroom is thus anticipated by a whole series of preparatory moves which at first sight seem remote from the teacher's direct task of meeting a class4 ,the attitude which is encouraged by a study of anticipatory measures is the same as that which is coming into the practice of medicine4 ,there was a time when the physician regarded it as his chief duty to deal with disease after it had actually appeared4 ,to-day the far-sighted practitioner is an advocate of what he calls preventive medicine4 ,he aims to get the community interested in preparing in advance wholesome conditions which will conduce to health4 ,the teacher's task ought not to be that of constantly penalizing pupils who have done wrong2 it should be rather that of preparing conditions which will reduce disorder to a minimum and promote to its highest degree orderly procedure in the class4 ,,organization ,,of ,,routine ,the anticipation of social needs passes insensibly into the organization of regular forms of routine to be followed in the class exercise itself4 ,the class exercise is not different in its essentials from any social gathering4 ,it has been found necessary in meetings of any type to require one who would speak to secure the floor4 ,it would lead to social chaos if everyone in an assembly spoke his mind according to his own personal impulse4 ,the difficulty in applying this analogy to the classroom and the difficulty in general about all fixed routine is that free discussion is often defeated by formality4 ,the teacher is anxious1 if he understands his task1 to draw out the enthusiastic response of every member of his class4 ,how to do this and at the same time avoid confusion which will disturb the whole group is a nice problem of adjustment4 ,formal methods should be required and adhered to far enough to insure the smooth operation of the social life of the class1 but spontaneity should be prized and conserved4 ,another and perhaps more fortunate example of routine to avoid confusion is to be found in an effective beginning of a class exercise4 ,when a recitation is about to begin1 it is a matter of major importance that the teacher be ready with something which will attract the attention of the whole class4 ,some instructors accomplish this with the first question2 some resort to such a device as the announcement of the next assignment2 some begin with a summary of the last lesson2 some have the members of the class write for a few minutes4 ,in sharp contrast with these methods which indicate that the instructor is ready and knows what he wants done are the aimless wanderings of some instructors who look over their desks for a book which seems to be lost in the dbris1 or the time-consuming roll call indulged in by others4 ,a third type of illustration of orderly procedure is the systematization of methods of passing in material4 ,if pupils arrange their written work or their books or other material in a regular fashion1 there will be no disorder in handling them4 ,the social group will move as a unit1 and this common movement will itself make for social solidarity4 ,there is much sanction in social psychology for this emphasis on routine4 ,the customs of primitive peoples take on the character of sacred rites1 so essential are they to the common life of the social group4 ,even in civilized society the demands of the group are paramount4 ,there is in the family a fixed time for eating meals1 not because hunger coincides in its reappearances with the movements of the clock but because the joint activities of a social group proceed better when they are systematized4 ,the routinizing of school work can go too far4 ,the requirement has been imposed within the memory of this adult generation that pupils sit in their seats through long recitation periods with their hands behind their backs4 ,marching in lockstep from class to class has sometimes been required4 ,the list could be lengthened indefinitely4 ,the trouble in most of these cases is that the teacher loses sight of the educational motive of all discipline and begins to think of so-called order as an end in itself4 ,,punishments ,,and ,,rewards ,even after a situation has been as carefully organized as is humanly possible1 there are sure to come social emergencies4 ,these furnish occasions for a type of discipline which is valuable not so much for the effect which it produces on the present situation as for its effect on the future4 ,furthermore1 there is often very little expectation that the future will bring an exact repetition of the particular situation which has just passed4 ,the discipline is therefore general in its type rather than specifically applicable to the present4 ,viewed as a general preparation for the future1 the social condemnation or approval of an act is often very important4 ,for example1 a boy breaks something through sheer carelessness4 ,shall the teacher pass the act without comment1 or shall the act be made an occasion for punishment8 ,some people are disposed to determine what kind of treatment shall be given in terms of the value of the object broken4 ,this is evidently to make of the specific act a specific issue4 ,it is better1 if it can be done1 to detach attention from the specific act and note the general consequences of carelessness4 ,educationally1 the accident furnishes an opportunity to warn1 not against breaking that particular object again1 but against being careless4 ,if the lesson is well taught1 it will tend to keep the boy from rushing about in the future without regard for his surroundings1 whatever those surroundings may be4 ,commendation1 like blame1 is useless except as it sets up in the pupil's mind true canons of judgment4 ,to praise a child for a particular act1 merely concentrating attention on that act1 is to neglect the opportunity of cultivating a general virtue4 ,so complicated are the issues touched on in the last few paragraphs that many teachers feel that the safest course is to avoid praise and blame as far as possible and allow natural consequences to open the eyes of children to the virtue or error of their ways4 ,social approbation and social condemnation are thought of as something highly artificial and to be avoided4 ,experience does not justify this view4 ,social life has its rewards and its punishments1 and the child will miss a large part of his education if he does not come to understand the importance to him of social values4 ,let us consider a concrete case4 ,a group of small boys in the fourth grade hid the rubbers and umbrella of a little girl in their grade one rainy noon1 so that the girl was much delayed in starting home for luncheon and was much distressed4 ,what could be done8 ,the range of ordinary school punishments seems very limited4 ,in earlier days there was a form of punishment capable of the nicest gradations and of universal application for every offense4 ,but corporal punishment has gone1 and if1 from among the remaining possibilities1 properly adjusted punishment is to be administered1 it must be devised with ingenuity and regulated in quantity4 ,the teacher in the case referred to hit on the plan of making the three little boys serve the girl for a week4 ,they brought her coat and hat to her after school4 ,she sent them on errands to the library4 ,they learned more under the careful observation of the class about how boys should treat others1 especially girls1 than they could possibly have thought out in long months of freedom from the bonds of service4 ,legitimate praise is perhaps harder to administer with equity than punishment4 ,the teacher holds up a child's drawing and calls attention to its excellences4 ,the danger is that the child will become self-conscious and conceited4 ,a boy is polite and the teacher remarks on the fact4 ,the other boys in the class who have not of late merited such praise make a virtue of their freedom from the taint of the teacher's praise4 ,the difficulty of laying down any principles regulating punishment and praise is that cases cannot be discussed intelligently without reference to the general social situations in which they find their setting4 ,it may be said1 indeed1 that when an act is performed1 it is too late to deal with it adequately in any case4 ,the only effective form of classroom management is that which anticipates the act and develops a social atmosphere in which condemnation or approbation is naturally and spontaneously contributed by the whole group4 ,it is sometimes said that good school discipline is to be found only where there is no discipline4 ,this remark is true only when discipline is thought of as synonymous with punishment administered2 it assumes that the administration of such punishment is the chief or only form of discipline4 ,in a larger view of the situation one should recognize that the best school discipline is that which guides the social group at all times and controls its attitudes toward all acts4 ,the spirit of a class is no accident of the moment4 ,that teacher has the best discipline who has planned and prepared the social situation so carefully that a departure from the established order brings an instant and wholesome response from the whole group4 ,,larger ,,social ,,organization ,with this larger view of discipline in mind1 one may legitimately introduce into this discussion a reference to those forms of elaborate organization of the school group which are sometimes attempted in the school-city or the school-state4 ,under these plans the pupils of a school are organized into an imitation city or state patterned after the adult corporation4 ,the purpose of such an experiment is twofold4 ,first1 the conduct of a miniature organization prepares the pupils for participation in later life in the duties of citizenship1 and second1 there grows up a feeling of responsibility for the conditions in the immediate social group4 ,the officers of the school-city are more active than they would otherwise be in restraining their fellows from possible disorder and in promoting acts which redound to the advantage of all4 ,these elaborate organizations are educational devices which often stimulate great interest and serve their twofold purpose admirably4 ,in general1 it must be remembered that a sense of responsibility cannot be cultivated in a day and is not the natural possession of an immature mind4 ,unless there is constant supervision the school-city is likely to go on the rocks even as a real municipality suffers from the tendency of human nature to backslide4 ,the teacher must bring to the school-city those experiences and those social stimulations which will train and keep alive the community spirit4 ,it is a mistake to assume that social organization exists only where it finds expression in some such elaborate form as is discussed in the foregoing paragraphs4 ,social attitudes of some kind are always present4 ,the teacher who leaves the matter to mere chance runs risks4 ,the teacher who overdoes organization suffers from the reaction which commonly follows restraint4 ,the teacher who deals with the situation with plan and foresight may mold the social group into a helpful agency contributing greatly to the work of the school4 ,,attempts ,,to ,,classify ,,unruly ,,members ,,of ,,the ,,social ,,group ,however carefully the social whole has been organized1 there comes a time when an unruly member appears4 ,the teacher's task is then to defend the group and bring the eccentric member if possible under the influence of the social order4 ,in a very interesting chapter in his volume on 8,school ,discipline0 ,professor ,bagley has supplied the evidence that no classroom can be regarded as free from the appearance of unruly types of students4 ,even good teachers of long experience who in general are free from difficulties with the discipline of their classes find it necessary to give special attention to the troublesome types4 ,these types are described by ,professor ,bagley as including the following3 the stubborn pupil who makes difficulty because he is constantly refusing to fit into the social order2 the haughty pupil who is not merely conceited but in his ordinary performances disturbs the regular social routine by his overbearing attitude both toward his fellows and his teacher2 the self-complacent pupil who cannot be aroused to activity by any of the ordinary inducements that are presented by the school4 ,other types include the irresponsible pupil1 the morose pupil1 the hypersensitive pupil1 the deceitful pupil1 and the vicious pupil4 ,this collection of unmanageables fortunately does not turn up in any single class at one time1 but1 as ,professor ,bagley remarks1 it would be unwise for us to leave young teachers with the idea that the appearance of any one of these types is due to the teacher's inefficiency4 ,many an efficient young teacher is baffled at the outset by the difficulties of dealing with one or another of these types of students4 ,professor ,bagley made inquiry of some of the best teachers whom he could locate1 and found that it is inevitable that pupils of these types are to be found sooner or later in every school4 ,the wise teacher does well to plan in advance for the reception of the particular specimen that is sure to fall to his lot with every ten or twelve pupils4 ,,impersonal ,,discipline ,the final comment which may be made in this connection is that the teacher must recognize that school discipline is a professional and educational problem1 not a matter of purely personal relations between pupil and teacher4 ,the teacher is dealing with a problem of group organization2 he cannot allow the fractious pupil to pull him down to the level of a personal controversy4 ,it is difficult at times to keep from the strong emotional reactions which blind the teacher to this objective view of school order1 but the efficient teacher will see to it that the group idea and the needs of the social whole guide every act of discipline and reward4 ,,exercises ,,and ,,readings ,distinguish between pupils of different ages with reference to the form of discipline appropriate4 ,does the first-grade child have any sense of responsibility8 ,how far can a class in a high school be trusted to take care of its own order8 ,a commission in ,new ,york ,city1 after studying the cases of disobedient pupils1 recommended a return to corporal punishment4 ,what can be said in favor of such a move8 ,what are the evils of corporal punishment8 ,society as a whole has taken an entirely new attitude in modern times toward the matter of punishment4 ,the prison policy of modern nations is different from the older policy4 ,what can be said with regard to prison education8 ,what is the relation of crime to physical conditions8 ,with regard to the matter of rewards and prizes1 what can be said for and against exemption from examinations as a reward for good work8 ,should medals be given for high scholarship8 ,what is the attitude of society at large outside of the school in regard to rewards8 ,for example1 what does society do for the painter1 the author1 the successful plumber and carpenter8 ,is the example of society at large capable of direct translation into school practice8 ,,bagley1 ,w4 ,c4 ,school ,discipline4 ,the ,macmillan ,company4 ,,morehouse1 ,f4 ,m4 ,the ,discipline of the ,school4 ,d4 ,c4 ,heath and ,company4 ,,perry1 ,a4 ,c4 ,discipline as a ,school ,problem4 ,houghton ,mifflin ,company4 ,,spencer1 ,,herbert4 ,education4 ,chapter ,,iii on ,moral ,education4 ,d4 ,appleton and ,company4 ,,chapter ,,xviii ,,selected ,,administrative ,,problems ,,programs ,,and ,,marks ,the regular and orderly movement of a social group depends on the adoption of a program4 ,the daily program of a school is an indispensable formal device for maintaining that type of solidarity which was discussed in the last chapter4 ,a second formal device of school control is the marking system1 under which the pupil's status is determined and in accordance with which all his relations of an official type are regulated4 ,the marking system may be treated as a conventional plan for distributing social rewards and punishments4 ,together1 the daily program and the marking system are so much more significant than any other devices of social organization that they may properly be selected for special treatment4 ,,the ,,total ,,school ,,day ,the arrangement of the daily program involves1 first of all1 the determination of the total amount of time available in the school day4 ,reliable information on this matter is at hand for a large number of the smaller cities of the ,united ,states1 as indicated in the following quotation3 ,the following statistics show present conditions regarding the length of the school day4 ,of #a1bgj cities reporting1 #cch have a school day of from four and a half to five hours2 #eba1 from five to five and a half hours2 #daa1 from five and a half to six hours4 ,of #a1caj cities reporting1 #a1bdb have two daily sessions1 and #fh but one daily session4 ,the tendency is toward a longer school day1 especially in the grammar grades and in the high school4 ,the opinion of most school men is that a high school of two sessions is superior to a high school of one session4 ,with the one-session plan1 but little time is available for study periods4 ,it is evident that four recitations1 the number generally required1 demand more than one or two #de or #ej minute periods for study4 ,the theory is that with the one-session plan pupils will prepare their lessons at home in the afternoon4 ,the experience of the superintendents who have tried the one-session plan has generally been similar to that of the superintendent of schools at ,detroit1 ,minn41 who says3 ,the one-session plan which ,i found in vogue in this high school was retained for the present year so that its workings might be studied4 ,it is fine in theory1 but a failure in practice4 ,asking the pupils to be ready for work at #h3cj caused much tardiness4 ,it was impossible for those who came by the bus or train to be on time4 ,then the fact that the high school had one time schedule and the grades another1 while occupying the same building1 caused endless confusion4 ,during the afternoon1 when students came back only for shop and laboratory work or to consult teachers1 there was further annoyance from students passing to and fro through the halls4 ,there was too much idling about the buildings for the good of the grades in session or of the high-school students themselves4 ,of course1 the fine theory was that students would spend the afternoon studying in the quiet and freedom of their homes1 but they didn't4 ,too many of them roamed the streets and came to class unprepared the next day4 ,the plan also kept the industrial teachers waiting until afternoon before they could begin their work4 ,they were compelled to do it when pupils were tired and nervous4 ,this work ought to be interspersed through the day to relieve the tension of the other work4 ,one argument advanced in favor of the one-session plan is that many students work their way through school by using the afternoon4 ,the facts are otherwise4 ,this year only three boys have worked afternoons1 and possibly the same number of girls4 ,next year we shall return to the 8long day0 and lengthen the time devoted to each subject1 so as to give teachers a better chance to teach it thoroughly4 ,each student will also have a longer time at school to study under the supervision of the principal4#ha ,at ,gary the eight-hour school day with variations in the program to secure play1 shopwork1 class work1 and entertainment is the ideal toward which the system is working4 ,in some other quarters the reduction of formal school work has been advocated on the assumption that outdoor work and play can be supplied by the home or some other agency enough to fill up the pupil's waking hours4 ,whatever the form taken by the discussion1 one leading tendency appears everywhere3 the child's work should be organized throughout the day4 ,in most communities this means that the school will be called on to extend its control to most of the hours4 ,,the ,,class ,,period ,when the length of the school day has been determined1 the problem of subdividing the day presents itself4 ,the subdivision must first of all recognize the claims of various subjects4 ,the type of problem which arises at this point was discussed at length in the chapters on the curriculum1 and we need not here discuss further the claims of subjects4 ,we turn now to the general problem of class organization which can be formulated in the question1 ,how long can a student profitably try to concentrate his attention on a single form of activity8 ,,physiological ,,fatigue ,the pupil's ability to work is determined by certain physiological conditions which should be understood by every teacher4 ,these conditions can be described in a brief study of the physiology of fatigue4 ,any animal tissue1 as1 for example1 a muscle1 is a storehouse of energy4 ,through nutrition the muscle tissue is kept in condition to contract4 ,whenever the muscle contracts1 it uses up its own substance2 it burns up its tissues to a limited degree4 ,in the process of thus consuming its material the muscle gradually becomes clogged with waste products4 ,it is the business of the circulatory system in a living organism to carry away this waste material and thus free the muscle from the effects of its contraction4 ,the circulatory system also brings new materials in the form of nutrition to restore the depleted tissues4 ,the restoration of the tissue through nutrition is not the demand which is most urgent in the case of a muscle which is called on to contract for a long period of time4 ,sooner or later the muscle must1 indeed1 be brought back to its normal state of nutrition1 but during actual contraction the most immediate physiological problem is to keep it clear of its own waste products4 ,if these waste products are not removed1 they tend to interrupt further contraction by preventing the nerve fiber which enters the muscle from discharging motor impulses into the muscle4 ,if stronger nervous impulses are sent through the nerve fiber1 the muscle1 even though it is somewhat clogged1 will be found in a condition to contract with its original vigor2 but if the nervous impulses are not increased1 the contractions gradually diminish in intensity4 ,this is a condition of muscular fatigue1 and is to be distinguished from exhaustion1 which does not set in until the substance of the muscle has been used up to a point which endangers the tissue4 ,fatigue is nature's effort to protect tissues against any possibility of excessive use4 ,fatigue sets in at a period long before danger to the tissue is at hand4 ,the overcoming of fatigue is dependent in all cases on the power to dispose of waste products4 ,the athlete1 for example1 becomes a better runner chiefly through a training of his organism to carry away waste products4 ,the untrained individual grows stiff and sore from exercise1 not because his muscles are used up1 but because his muscles are clogged with waste substances4 ,this description of muscular fatigue lays the foundation for an understanding of the problem of nervous fatigue4 ,the nerve cells1 like the muscles1 get clogged by the products of their own action4 ,they then fail to carry nervous impulses freely1 and the individual can do his mental or physical work only with excessive effort4 ,fatigue of nerve cells means that nature has limits of work in these cells4 ,fortunately1 the limit is reached long before exhaustion or other real dangers set in4 ,,conditions ,,like ,,fatigue ,matters are complicated by the fact that physical conditions other than ordinary use produce fatigue-like effects in nerve cells4 ,excitement of any kind rapidly changes the condition of nerve cells1 and sometimes foreign chemical substances get into the blood1 as in fever or infection1 and produce a condition that is in effect the same as fatigue4 ,still further1 as a fact of large importance in determining capacity for work1 the nerve cells pass each day through a kind of internal cycle of conditions4 ,at certain hours their condition is such that they transmit nervous impulses freely1 and work is easy2 at other hours work drags because the nerve cells are not prepared to be active2 their internal chemical condition is such as to obstruct transmission of impulses4 ,thus1 one is usually very energetic in the middle of the forenoon1 but is logy at noon and sleepy at a late hour in the afternoon4 ,marked individual differences appear1 making this statement merely a general statement4 ,furthermore1 personal habits can be changed to some extent through the adoption of new habits of life4 ,finally1 there are all sorts of pathological conditions which profoundly affect the life and action of nerve cells4 ,anmia and malnutrition may render nerve cells utterly incapable of continued action4 ,,practical ,,precepts ,,based ,,on ,,study ,,of ,,fatigue ,enough has been said to make it clear that no simple formula can be applied to a group of pupils when one tries to determine for purposes of the daily program how long their nerve cells can be kept at work on a single task4 ,the wisest course for the teacher to follow is to be alert1 and when a class reaches its limit of profitable work to introduce a change4 ,on the other hand1 the teacher should be very discriminating and should understand that fatigue is not a dangerous symptom4 ,for example1 suppose that the athlete always stopped his exercise just as soon as he began to feel the necessity of sending stronger nervous impulses down to his muscles4 ,he would lose the best results of training1 for these results consist in the acquisition of the power to overcome fatigue4 ,so also with the pupil4 ,the acquisition of the power to overcome fatigue is a most important part of the pupil's training4 ,keeping the principles suggested in the foregoing discussion in mind1 it is relatively easy to arrive at certain practical rules of program administration4 ,first1 maturity ought to mean greater power of endurance4 ,the older classes should--and usually do--have longer periods of work4 ,second1 the period should be long enough to stretch the pupil's powers4 ,regulation of work within this period should be left to the teacher1 and teachers should train themselves to recognize the symptoms of fatigue and to judge when training has gone as far as it can in overcoming fatigue4 ,third1 there should be variety in the program4 ,the nervous system is made up of many different centers4 ,the variation of occupations brings different centers successively into play and gives to each the opportunity of relaxation which is most wholesome4 ,a long school day with much variety is eminently more rational than a short session of work of a single type concentrated into a few hours4 ,,administrative ,,considerations ,,controlling ,,length ,,of ,,the ,,class ,,period ,when recommending variations in the program we collide with what may seem at first to be an insuperable difficulty4 ,it is impossible from an administrative point of view to have class exercises of irregular lengths4 ,imagine what would happen if the mathematics teacher should dismiss his class after a recitation of twenty-seven minutes1 and the ,latin teacher should hold his for fifty-three minutes4 ,for administrative reasons class periods must be measured by the clock4 ,this leads to certain absurdities in school organization4 ,for example1 in order to regularize credits in high schools a unit of credit has been defined as a certain number of hours of class work4 ,a moment's consideration makes it perfectly clear that an ,english class consisting of thirty freshmen will do less intensive work in a forty-minute period than will an advanced senior class of four students in trigonometry4 ,the administrative fiction of uniformity when like credit is given for these two classes is grotesque4 ,the assignment of a double period to laboratory classes is likewise a concession to administrative convenience rather than a carefully weighed arrangement4 ,it is easier to make up periods in multiples of the standard recitation time4 ,but it is by no means clear that the sciences can profitably use double periods4 ,the internal adjustment of laboratory work needs more careful study than it has received in the past4 ,the laboratory method1 as shown in an earlier chapter1 is one which has excited great enthusiasm4 ,many a laboratory assignment which does not fill the time allotted to it is tolerated because of the vague general enthusiasm for the method and the formal arrangement of double periods4 ,,adjustment ,,of ,,work ,,within ,,the ,,period ,such examples as these show from a new angle the importance of the movement for supervised study which was described in an earlier chapter4 ,the teacher in charge of the class must ultimately have at hand various devices1 some intended to give play to individual differences1 some intended to promote social coperation4 ,then1 while administrative necessity dictates a uniform period for the class exercise1 the educational needs of the students can be met by variations in the content and method of instruction4 ,,adjustment ,,of ,,credits ,such a formula as this dictates also the recognition in an administrative way of the differences between the work performed by different students4 ,there has been of late an increasing recognition of the justice of giving pupils different degrees of credit for work which they do in one and the same course4 ,the student who carries a course in algebra with a high grade undoubtedly learns more than the student who does low-grade work in the same class4 ,,the ,,problem ,,of ,,grading ,the proper distribution of credits opens up the complex problem of grading systems4 ,the grading system is the basis of academic rewards and penalties4 ,yet it is recognized by pupils and teachers alike to be full of pitfalls4 ,the ordinary system uses letters such as ,e for excellent1 ,p for poor2 or percentage designations such as #ajj for perfect1 #fj or #ge for just passing2 or some other similar symbolism4 ,the ambiguities in the system arise in part out of the fact that individual teachers have the most divergent notions as to the meaning of each of the symbols4 ,let us assume the case of a new teacher who has just come to a given school trying to find out what the other teachers mean by their marks4 ,this teacher will be told that #ajj per cent means perfection4 ,but what is perfection in a subject8 ,is the student perfect when he tells what is in the textbook1 or is there a demand for original thinking8 ,still more doubtful is the meaning of #ij per cent4 ,does this signify nine tenths of what a student might know1 or is it a kind of vague statement meaning that the student is in the upper part of the class8 ,the new teacher will be very likely at this point1 if he is intelligent about marking systems1 to ask how many students in a class usually get #ajj or #ij4 ,this question is based on a conception of the meaning of marks entirely different from that which was referred to in the last paragraph4 ,marks may refer1 and often do refer1 not to the degree of perfection in knowledge but to the relative position of the student in his class4 ,some teachers mark the best pupil #ajj and then try to grade the rest from this standard4 ,,experiments ,,with ,,grading ,,systems ,examples could be multiplied indefinitely1 showing that there is great vagueness in regard to the meaning of marks4 ,we are1 however1 more interested in the efforts which are being made to overcome these unsatisfactory conditions4 ,first1 teachers are being informed by comparative diagrams what the relation of their own marking system is to the general average of their colleagues4 ,a few years ago the president of ,harvard sent to each member of the faculty a chart showing the curve of distribution1 reproduced in ,fig4 #af1 and1 superimposed on this1 the curve of the individual instructor's marks4 ,the standard curve was derived by averaging the marks from eight large courses4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #af4 ,distribution of grades in various ,harvard classes ,the full-drawn line shows the average percentage of grades in eight large elementary courses4 ,the dotted line and the broken line represent two departures from the average practice by instructors in two different departments ,second1 the ,university of ,missouri#hb has frankly given up trying to determine whether students are #ajj per cent perfect in a subject or only #hj per cent4 ,all students in all classes are arranged in the order of their excellence in their classes4 ,the marks1 in other words1 are relative4 ,when all the marks of the institution are compiled1 there are a few students who are relatively very high1 many who are mediocre1 and a few who are low4 ,the low ones are dropped1 the high ones get honors1 and the mediocres get the reward due the average student4 ,on the basis of this kind of a classification the ,university gives to a student who stands in the uppermost #e per cent of his class #a4b credits toward graduation4 ,the student in the next lower #bj per cent gets #a4a credits4 ,the #ej per cent who are mediocre get the normal credit of #a4j1 while the lower ranks are penalized from #j4a to all credit4 ,a third effort to improve the situation is being tried in the high school of ,kansas ,city1 ,kansas4#hc ,in each classroom is posted a conspicuous chart telling students what they must do to get high grades4 ,one may pass with a ,c if one does the required work taken up in a sixty-minute combination recitation and study period4 ,if one is to receive ,b1 it is required among other virtues that one be sufficiently well prepared to recite without prompting from the teacher4 ,furthermore1 one must do outside work and report on it4 ,the ,c pupil does his work in the class1 but that is not enough for a ,b4 ,the ,a pupil must fulfill even higher requirements4 ,each department is allowed to post1 in addition to the general statements made for the whole school1 special regulations which obtain for the work of that particular department4 ,this system is a kind of public definition of the marks1 and has the great advantage of clearing up in the minds of the students what often seems to them to be an unjust and mysterious scheme4 ,,the ,,study ,,of ,,marks ,,as ,,an ,,introduction ,,to ,a ,,study ,,of ,,the ,,school ,,system ,the study of grading systems has attracted much attention of late among the students of the science of education4 ,it is an excellent subject with which to illustrate scientific methods1 because the records being in quantitative form lend themselves to easy and exact statistical comparison4 ,there is no better body of material for a principal to employ in arousing his teachers to a recognition of the fact that they are factors in a system4 ,marks are a kind of technical language used in the school system4 ,their successful use calls for some comprehension of the meaning and problems of the system as a whole4 ,,exercises ,,and ,,readings ,let members of the class make up a school program4 ,let there be in a certain high school eight teachers1 one well qualified in each of the following subjects3 ,english1 mathematics1 ,latin1 physics1 biology1 modern languages1 domestic science1 and manual arts4 ,there are seven classrooms and a study room4 ,there are #djj students1 distributed as follows3 #adj freshmen1 #aaj sophomores1 #ij juniors1 and #fj seniors4 ,the school is in session from #h4de ,a4,m4 to #ab noon and from #a4cj to #c4cj ,p4,m4 ,make up a program of classes4 ,record all the questions that are not answered in the above statement of conditions4 ,supply answers yourself1 recording explicitly the answer which you give in each case4 ,let the members of the class then compare programs4 ,what is the difference between such a problem as above defined and the problem of making out a program for an elementary school8 ,a very good exercise under this chapter is to give a written exercise to the class and then ask the writers to mark each his own paper after the question and its possible answers have been discussed by the class4 ,in like manner let each member of the class mark a certain ,english composition or a recitation made by some member of the class4 ,let the members of the class rate the various members of the class in regard to their work4 ,after each of these markings make a general table showing the distribution of grades and note the differences between the different markers4 ,there is very little written on detailed administrative problems4 ,a very good reading exercise at this point can be made up by referring to ,monroe's 8,a ,cyclopedia of ,education0 7,macmillan7 and requiring the student to find ten strictly administrative topics and ten which have to do with methods4 ,for most of the articles in the 8,cyclopedia0 reading references are given4 ,,footnotes3 #ha ,w4 ,s4 ,deffenbaugh1 8,school ,administration in the ,smaller ,cities40 ,bulletin ,no4 #dd1 ,united ,states ,bureau of ,education1 #aiae1 pp4 #dj-da4 #hb ,max ,f4 ,meyer1 8,the ,administration of ,college ,grades40 ,school and ,society1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 ,no4 #dc 7,october1 #aiae71 pp4 #egg-ehi4 #hc ,see article by ,w4 ,a4 ,bailey1 ,school ,review1 ,vol4 ,,xxv 7,may1 #aiag71 pp4 #cje-cba4 ,,chapter ,,xix ,,play ,,motives ,,for ,,cultivation ,,of ,,physical ,,powers ,recent educational practice has laid great emphasis on the cultivation of children's physical natures as well as their mental powers4 ,this new emphasis on physical training is due in part to a recognition of the wisdom of extending education so as to include all sides of the individual4 ,it is due in part also to the conviction that the only way to deal successfully with the ordinary work of the classroom is to provide the kind of change and relief which comes from physical exercise4 ,regular opportunities for play are accordingly provided in the schools of to-day1 and an elaborate system of physical supervision is being developed in all the leading school systems4 ,some review of these movements will be appropriate by way of supplement to the general survey in earlier chapters of the activities of the school system4 ,,earlier ,,attitude ,,toward ,,play ,the school of a generation ago retained a good deal of the ,puritan attitude toward play4 ,one has only to recall the pandemonium which used to break loose at recess and at the time of dismissal to realize that there was a sharp distinction between school and play4 ,in school one sat up straight and still2 when one was free from school one let out all the pent-up inner impulses4 ,the kind of play that was exhibited under these conditions was riotous1 irregular1 and aimless4 ,furthermore1 the kind of play which was cultivated under these conditions did not carry over into later life4 ,there was no system1 no progression1 in that play1 and no cultivation of the inventiveness so necessary if the recreations of later life are to be intelligent4 ,,play ,,as ,,natural ,,behavior ,the change in attitude from that of the old-fashioned school to that of the modern school is traceable in part to practical experience and in part to a general and fundamental change in the philosophy of life4 ,to-day there is the profoundest respect for all that is natural4 ,the theological attitude of medievalism and of the ,puritans that the body is the baser part of self has disappeared with the development of the biological sciences4 ,the social sciences1 too1 have contributed the lesson that all human behavior is in accordance with certain natural laws4 ,the philosophy of naturalism thus accepted has profoundly modified the views of parents and teachers with regard to the play impulse in children4 ,,periods ,,in ,,the ,,development ,,of ,,play ,not only is play natural1 but numerous scientific studies reveal the fact that in the animal world and in man's life play contributes in no unimportant degree to the individual's development4 ,these scientific studies have shown that play follows definite lines of development4 ,there is first the play of early infancy1 which consists in the rhythmical movement of the limbs and in the grasping after objects which satisfy the senses4 ,this is the period of the rattle4 ,there is at this stage no regard for others1 no social interest4 ,then comes a second stage1 where play is made up of imitative acts4 ,this is the period of the girl's doll and of the boy's kit of tools4 ,the child's attention is now centered on others and their doings1 and this outward attention furnishes the individual with his models of action4 ,then come the plays of contest and competition1 when the child1 now of school age1 matches himself against his companions in speed or strength4 ,this is the period of running games4 ,imitation has ripened into the kind of rivalry which helps the individual to realize his personal powers4 ,following competition comes the period of team play1 in which social union with some of one's companions is combined with contest against others4 ,the adolescent child is now becoming aware of the uses of social sympathy and co-operation4 ,at each of these stages some of the earlier forms of play survive1 and all ripen into the form of play characteristic of adult life1 where the competitions are against intellectual obstacles more than against physical4 ,adult play demands skill and intellectual mastery of complex problems4 ,when one has learned that there is a natural and orderly evolution of the play impulse1 one realizes that it is rational to follow this natural order in promoting individual development4 ,play takes on a dignity that it never had in the days when it was looked on as an uncurbed attribute of infancy to be tolerated only because there seemed no possible way of eradicating it4 ,,play ,,as ,,natural ,,education ,indeed1 the scientific discussions have gone much further than merely to trace the course of the development of play4 ,they show why play is to be recognized as a necessary phase of life4 ,at first the immature instincts of the child tend to express themselves in activities that are irregular and ill-coordinated1 but aimed unmistakably in the direction of the later serious activities of adult life4 ,the kitten chases the ball in preparation for the later activities of the hunt4 ,the explanation of this form of early play is that in the young animal's nervous system there are inherited paths which are ripening into action4 ,the impulses of life tend to flow down these inherited paths2 it is nature's method of helping the nervous system to mature to the point of full action4 ,when nature's processes have matured the nervous system1 the lines of behavior of which the individual is capable are diverse4 ,each serious activity of life engages some of the individual's energy and brings to the point of fatigue a certain group of his possible activities4 ,when one part of the nervous system has been fatigued1 there will always be other parts which have not been used4 ,for example1 a man who reads for four hours does not use his arms and legs4 ,at the end of the four hours his reading powers will be fatigued1 but his arms and legs will be overready for action4 ,there must be some change in activity and some relaxation from serious work4 ,play is nature's answer to this demand4 ,,social ,,necessity ,,of ,,recreation ,in addition to the scientific studies of the nature and function of play appears the sociological fact that the growth of leisure has created a new demand for well-regulated play4 ,furthermore1 the conditions of urban life are unfavorable for some of the simple plays which in an earlier stage of civilization furnished an outlet for the natural impulses4 ,if the environment is artificial1 there must be a deliberate and intelligent effort to supply what nature demands but civilization has made inaccessible4 ,the danger in a congested city where natural play is not possible is a moral danger4 ,there are vicious agencies which are not slow to take advantage of the strong natural demand for recreation4 ,the result is that for the sake of gain appeals are made to the baser impulses of human nature4 ,the success of these unsavory forms of amusement attests the presence of a strong natural demand4 ,the way to meet the danger is to provide forms of recreation which are wholesome and elevating4 ,,play ,,as ,,physical ,,education ,finally1 all the arguments in favor of play are renforced by the general demand that the physical condition of children in school be made a matter of especial concern4 ,play is the form of exercise which serves better than any other to keep the physical system in good tone4 ,hence the conclusion that play is as indispensable as it is natural4 ,,the ,,school ,,and ,,play ,in the light of these scientific and sociological studies it is evident that the school has a task before it4 ,briefly stated1 this task is as follows3 ,nature intended that the child should play2 play is a phase of the child's natural education4 ,the conditions of life in cities have deprived children of the opportunity for the free development of play4 ,the educational system must take the children in hand and train them back into nature's ways4 ,,surveys ,,of ,,children',s ,,play ,,in ,,cities ,evidence that the situation needs attention is furnished by studies which have recently been made4 ,the following quotation supplies one such body of evidence3 ,in the hour and a half following the close of school ,november #aj and #ah careful observations were made in all parts of the town at the same time1 by four adults selected for the purpose4 ,they were instructed to look carefully through the streets1 vacant lots1 yards1 parks1 and playgrounds and make a notation of every child or young person up to the age of #ba1 observed4 ,the information sought was what each one was actually doing1 at play or otherwise1 and where he was doing it4 ,they were also asked to estimate the ages of the children observed4 ,on ,november #f a preliminary sounding was made by the investigator4 ,each observer was assigned definite territory so as to avoid duplication and all worked at exactly the same time4 ,the results of these 8soundings0 have been carefully tabulated and summarized4 ,altogether #fif children1 #ddg boys and #bdi girls1 were observed4 ,of the total number1 #bfb or almost #dj per cent of the children and young people were doing nothing4 ,especially significant is the fact that #afh of the #bfb idling boys and girls were idling in groups4 ,here is where mischief usually starts4 ,a majority of those walking 7#bjc7 were in reality idling4 ,fifty-six or eight per cent of the children were playing football and baseball and #bb or a fraction over three per cent were occupied with other games4 ,a play life the two chief features of which are idling and walking indicates that the community is not discharging its plain duty with respect to the boys and girls4#hd ,a like result is reported in the ,cleveland survey4 ,a play census1 taken ,june #bc1 #aiac1 under the direction of the ,chief ,medical ,inspector and ,assistant ,superintendent in charge of ,physical ,education in ,cleveland1 seemed to show this same lack of relationship between the school and the out-of-school activities of children4 ,the results of this study are shown in the following table4 ,page #bgb ,,conclusions ,,drawn ,,from ,,this ,,census #a4 ,that just at the age 7under #ae7 when play and activity are the fundamental requirements for proper growth and development #da per cent of the children seen were doing nothing4 ,the boy without play is father to the man without a job4 #b4 ,fifty-one per cent of all the children seen were in the streets1 in the midst of all the traffic1 dirt1 and heat1 and in an environment conducive to just the wrong kind of play4 ,,record ,,of #ad1fhc ,,cleveland ,,children ,,boys ,,girls ,,total ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ,where they were ,on streets #e1bda #b1eeh #g1gii seen ,in yards #a1ehc #a1iih #c1eha ,in vacant lots #fhf #aig #hhc ,in playgrounds #iig #hgb #a1hfi ,in alleys #dac #ach #eea ,what they were ,doing nothing #c1gcg #b1bcd #e1iga doing ,playing #d1fja #b1geg #g1ceh ,working #gai #fce #a1ced ,what games they ,baseball #a1ddh #aij #a1fch were playing ,kites #dhb #di #eca ,sand piles #bda #bcj #dga ,tag #ajj #ec #aec ,jackstones #fh #beg #cbe ,dolls #hi #aic #bhb ,sewing #ad #acj #add ,housekeeping #ec #aia #bdd ,horse and wagon #hi #bd #aac ,bicycle riding #gi #ac #ib ,minding baby #ai #da #fj ,reading #ag #ce #eb ,roller-skating #ah #bi #dg ,gardening #ac #ad #bg ,caddy #f #j #f ,marbles #b #j #b ,playing in other ways1 #a1hfc #a1cjh #c1aga mostly just fooling #c4 ,that only six per cent of the children seen were on vacant lots despite the fact that in most of the districts vacant lots were available as play spaces4 ,a place to play does not solve the problem3 there must be a play leader4 #d4 ,that even though #cf playgrounds were open and #af of them with apparatus up1 only #ahfi1 or #aa percent1 of the children seen within four blocks of a playground were playing on playgrounds4 ,last ,friday #fdhh children played on playgrounds4 #e4 ,that of the #gceh children reported to have been playing1 #caga were reported to have been playing by doing some of the following things3 fighting1 teasing1 pitching pennies1 shooting craps1 stealing apples1 8roughing a peddler10 chasing chickens1 tying can to dog1 etc41 but most of them were reported to have been 8just fooling0--not playing anything in particular4 #f4 ,we need more and better playgrounds and a better trained leadership4#he ,,systematizing ,,instruction ,,in ,,play ,what is to be done in dealing with this situation8 ,three answers have been given4 ,first1 plays must be arranged in a sequence which will follow the natural order of children's development1 and when this play course is properly organized1 children must be given training in play4 ,the training should be of the same kind as that given in any line1 namely1 such as to stimulate self-activity and full utilization of the teacher's suggestions4 ,specialists in the field have found it advantageous to revive folk games and to call attention to the interest which children exhibit in festivals and dramatic representations4 ,in other words1 the discovery of plays suitable for children is nothing but the extension into the field of recreation of the type of educational resourcefulness which has enlarged the curriculum in every division of the school4 ,the enriched course of training in play should be used for the improvement of adults as well as children1 thus making education for play a part of the movement of educational extension4 ,,survey ,,of ,,recreational ,,facilities ,second1 the available resources of the community for play must be canvassed and must be intelligently utilized4 ,in the quotation from the ,cleveland survey given above it was pointed out that there are vacant lots which are not used4 ,a study of the play facilities of the community will also show the necessity of curbing those forms of recreation which are undesirable4 ,a survey of this kind should deal not only with the community's equipment for play among children but also with the play of adults4 ,such a survey has been made for the city of ,madison1 ,wisconsin1 and there is now going on in the city of ,cleveland an extensive examination of all forms of recreation and amusement together with an investigation of their effects on the people4 ,a few extracts from the ,madison survey will show the kind of findings which are turned up by such an inquiry3 ,a study of the various sections of this survey shows that play or recreation occupies a great place in the life of the city4 ,the time1 effort and money put into it is enormous4 ,practically every social organization1 as well as the individual and home1 is involved in it4 ,a very large percentage of the business section of the city and many outlying business places are directly or indirectly1 wholly or partially1 devoted to it1 as is a large area of the whole city territory4 ,its influence is far reaching4444 ,the study of children's activities in connection with the map survey shows that there is an enormous amount of play forced into the streets1 even in well-to-do sections of the city1 and in other cases into the worst of environmental conditions4 ,there is no leadership or supervision of this play and there are no public playgrounds except ,burr ,jones ,field and two park playgrounds and inadequate1 unsupervised school playgrounds1 where there is no attractive organization or play to draw the children from the streets to more wholesome activities and influences on the playgrounds4 ,this is physically dangerous and a menace to morals4 ,the study of commercial recreation shows that the large number of children are involved in passive amusements indoors during the few hours free for outdoor1 health-giving activities or when they should be in bed4 ,this is bad from the standpoint of health1 the educational efforts of the school1 and general social habits or ideals4 ,the study of environmental influences and a neglect of play show that some of this street and unsupervised play results disastrously1 even in delinquency1 and supports the claim of many observers that most of the bad habits of children develop in play under bad influences4 ,if the play of children is to be wholesome and generally developmental rather than inactive or detrimental1 they must have wholesome places to play in1 equipment1 companionship1 and at least a part of the time organized play and leadership4 ,in so far as the home cannot supply these demands most of the time--and the larger number of homes cannot--public interest in the welfare of the rising generation demands that the play be centered in a community playground under proper supervision4 ,the supreme need of children of ,madison is playgrounds under trained directors4 ,the recreational needs of the young men and women of the city requiring public attention are of three classes1 all of which require places1 organization and leadership4 7#a7 ,they need athletic and aquatic activities1 athletic organization and leadership4 ,these activities are wholesome and increase efficiency rather than decrease it4 7#b7 ,the young men and women need facilities and organization for more wholesome social activities1 such as dances4 ,they need to be under the auspices of the best influences rather than the questionable1 and it is just as easy to have the best as the questionable4 7#c7 ,young men and women need opportunities for1 and direction in1 the more constructive use of their leisure time4 ,they need places for their club meetings that have a distinct educational value as well as organization and general leadership4 ,individual use of museums and libraries also needs organization4 ,the facilities for these activities are meager and an effective organization and leadership are totally lacking4 ,the needs of adults in the way of activities and facilities are so complicated that it is almost impossible to summarize them4 ,from the standpoint of public effort1 the main points are provisions for the essentials in the way of facilities1 organization1 promotion and direction that cannot be supplied by individuals or small-group initiative or enterprise4 ,this requires a public body that can study and deal with these needs4 ,there is still a great body of adult individuals1 largely of the untrained1 laboring classes1 without recreational resources and unprovided for by any recreational agency except1 perhaps1 the saloon4 ,these men are recreational outcasts2 they seriously need a place where they can find clean opportunities for their toilet and bath and wisely organized recreation4 ,the provision of organization is the way to a simple1 constructive use of leisure time by at least some of the younger of these men2 here is a demand for a new type of men's club1 or a new type of organization of men who have no recreational resources4 ,it is a need practically untouched by social agencies1 yet one that must be faced frankly if these men are to gain or maintain any semblance of self-respect and not be a menace to democratic institutions4#hf ,,play ,,as ,,part ,,of ,,the ,,regular ,,school ,,program ,third1 the work of the schools should be so adjusted that play will take its place with other subjects as a regular and essential part of the curriculum4 ,this implies not only that play will be given time in the program but also that the same kind of expert guidance will be provided for play as is provided for the other activities of the day4 ,the great value of a varied program is evident to all who have watched the process which has been going on very rapidly in recent years of opening up the school hours so as to include many different types of activity4 ,play needs not only to be organized as play and to be equipped with proper facilities1 but it needs also to be incorporated into the regular systematic program of the school4 ,this statement may be renforced by extracts from the conclusions reached by the ,cleveland survey4 ,some reorganization of the educational corps should take place with a view to efficient administration of play and recreation from a broad educational and social standpoint4 ,this would lead to a far greater influence of the school upon the out-of-school life of the community4 ,through lack of greater influence of the school during out-of-school hours1 there is a great social leakage for which the city must pay4 ,the school is the natural and logical agency for the safeguarding of the great fundamental interests of children and youth4 ,each year discloses more and more clearly that the school is the one institution we have yet conceived that is best fitted adequately to conserve these interests and utilize them for educational and social progress4 ,opportunities that came as a matter of course to children a generation ago do not come to many children now unless they are specifically planned for by some agency other than the home4 ,met wisely by the community1 this seeming handicap may1 in the end1 result in a great and new-found social strength4 ,play is more than recreation4 ,if its educational significance is real in the kindergarten period1 it is real in every subsequent stage of growth and development4 ,rightly conceived1 play is a most efficient method of education for life1 for work1 for social service4 ,the fact that we do not yet know how to make full use of play in education need not and should not prevent the utilization of play1 to the full extent to which we are prepared1 for the tremendous social service it can render4#hg ,,slow ,,spread ,,of ,,modern ,,attitude ,,toward ,,play ,the suggestions just given1 if acted on1 would completely reverse the attitude of the ,puritans1 with whom our school program originated4 ,to them play was a distraction1 an evil to be avoided during the few serious hours which are to be devoted to self-improvement4 ,this ,puritan attitude is contrary to experience1 unsupported by science1 and disadvantageous for the school and society4 ,to reverse it has required long centuries and will require a more general recognition than now exists in the minds of most people of the possibility and importance of incorporating play as an integral and systematic part of the educational scheme4 ,,footnotes3 #hd ,howard ,r4 ,knight1 ,play and ,recreation in a ,town of #fjjj 7,a ,recreation ,survey of ,ipswich1 ,massachusetts71 pp4 #g-h4 ,russell ,sage ,foundation1 ,new ,york ,city4 #he ,george ,e4 ,johnson1 ,education through ,recreation1 pp4 #dh-ej4 ,cleveland ,education ,survey4 ,published by the ,survey ,committee of the ,cleveland ,foundation1 ,cleveland1 ,ohio1 #aiaf4 #hf ,madison ,recreational ,survey1 pp4 #ig-ii4 ,prepared by a ,special ,committee of the ,madison ,board of ,commerce1 #aiae4 #hg ,george ,e4 ,johnson1 ,education through ,recreation1 pp4 #ia-ib4 ,cleveland ,education ,survey4 ,published by the ,survey ,committee of the ,cleveland ,foundation1 ,cleveland1 ,ohio1 #aiaf4 ,,exercises ,,and ,,readings ,let the class undertake a survey of the recreation facilities of the town or a survey of the play activities in which its members actually engage in the course of twenty-four hours4 ,a whole series of questions arise with regard to athletics4 ,is professional baseball a form of recreation1 or is it work8 ,is attendance on the theater a form of play8 ,the early students of the theory of play spoke of literature as play4 ,what can be said in support of this view8 ,how late in life do animals play8 ,how does play relate itself to business8 ,play when considered in connection with school work is undoubtedly in some cases a distraction4 ,is it for this reason to be criticized8 ,under what conditions are play and study at odds with each other8 ,are there methods of adjusting the relation without giving up play8 ,on the administrative side such questions as these arise3 ,should all the teachers take part in the teaching and supervision of games1 or should a special teacher be employed to have full charge of this part of the school program8 ,should there be any effort on the part of the school to supervise play after school hours8 ,,groos1 ,k4 ,play of ,man4 ,d4 ,appleton and ,company4 ,,groos1 ,k4 ,play of ,animals4 ,d4 ,appleton and ,company4 ,third ,yearbook of the ,national ,playground ,association4 ,playground ,association of ,america1 ,new ,york ,city4 ,this contains an elaborate syllabus on play and also a full bibliography4 ,,chapter ,,xx ,,health ,,supervision ,,the ,,relation ,,of ,,health ,,to ,,school ,,work ,ordinary school work is so dependent on health that one wonders how teachers of an earlier generation could have failed to see the absolute necessity of systematic supervision of health4 ,when we think1 for example1 of the consequences of absence from class exercises because of illness2 when we think of a child's sense organs unable to carry to his mind the full message brought by the sounds and sights of the schoolroom2 when we think of the nervous system dull and unresponsive because of malnutrition or hunger1--we begin to realize that the school is concerned in a very vital way with the problem of supervising health4 ,,treatment ,,of ,,pathological ,,cases ,in order to exhibit something of the scope of the present movement toward complete supervision of health1 we may begin with the extreme cases4 ,in progressive school systems the children who are tubercular or anmic or otherwise seriously affected are taken out of the regular classes and put where the whole educational program can be subordinated to the one consideration of bringing them back to physical vigor4 ,often these classes are conducted in open-air rooms1 and often the equipment of the rooms includes cots on which the pupils may rest as a part of the regular school exercise4 ,,school ,,luncheons ,a second line of treatment deals with nutrition4 ,the importance of one aspect of this matter is brought out in the following paragraphs3 ,long ago ,horace ,greeley1 in an address before a convention of teachers1 called attention to one of the most perplexing social and economic problems of the age--a problem which still confronts school authorities of to-day4 8,in vain10 he said1 8shall we provide capable teachers1 and comfortable school rooms1 apparatus1 libraries1 etc41 for those children who sit distorted by the gnawings of hunger1 444 or suffering from the effects of innutritious or unwholesome food40 ,medical inspection is forcing upon public attention this appalling fact--that a large percentage of children in school are in no physical condition1 because of malnutrition1 to profit by the present generous outlay of public money for school purposes4 ,practical educators1 everywhere1 are agreed that even the most patient1 thoughtful effort to train under-nourished children is attended with but partial success4 ,out of their experience comes this plea--give the under-nourished child body food first1 before offering him the wisdom of ages4#hh ,in view of the condition in which many pupils come to school1 it has been found important for school authorities or philanthropic organizations to provide luncheons4 ,these have been most successful where a small price is charged for the food4 ,,control ,,of ,,home ,,feeding ,the influence of this experiment in feeding is important not merely because of the positive nourishment given to the pupils but also because of the example which it sets in proper standards of eating at home4 ,many families do not know how to feed children4 ,the son of a truck driver who breakfasts with his father on coffee1 sausage1 and griddle-cakes will spend the morning trying to digest the food which is appropriate to his father's occupation but not to the sedentary life of the scholar4 ,,public ,,attention ,,to ,,nutrition ,,of ,,children ,the importance of the whole problem of nutrition can be made clear by quoting from the work of a specialist4 ,the paragraphs selected are the more impressive because they show that other nations as well as ourselves are confronted by these problems4 ,recently there has been an increasing tendency to make the report on nutrition of different children the basis of the entire medical-inspection report4 ,this is because it has been demonstrated again and again that the occurrence of disease and physical defects is largely conditioned by nutritional disturbances4 ,in ,paris medical inspectors have charge of the school canteens and are required to report on the nutrition of each child4 ,they are further expected to follow up any child with impaired nutrition and to administer tonics and special care4 ,in ,england1 since #aijg1 compulsory medical inspection has included inspection of nutrition4 ,beginning with #aiji1 the chief medical officer of the ,national ,board of ,education has reported yearly on the nutrition of the children throughout the country and on the work of the school feeding centers4 ,in ,scotland the medical inspectors are required to see that children suffering from malnutrition are fed properly either by the school or by the parents4 ,as a result of this systematic work ,british school doctors are developing methods of technique and standards for judging malnutrition1 which1 on account of its complex and interwoven causes1 is very difficult to estimate accurately4444 ,in ,american cities no record of the nutrition of the entire school population has been made4 ,in #aijg in ,new ,york the ,committee on ,physical ,welfare of ,school-,children reported #ac per cent of #iij children1 selected as typical of the whole city1 to be suffering from malnutrition4 ,a similar investigation of #aj1jij children in ,chicago in #aijh revealed #ab per cent badly nourished in all grades1 the proportion decreasing from #ae per cent in the kindergarten to #f per cent in the fifth grade and above4 ,wherever an attempt has been made to include all classes of children in the examinations1 the percentages found suffering from acute malnutrition run from #aj to #ae4 ,where only schools in the poorer districts are included1 the percentages are far higher1 and vary between #bj and #dj4 ,however1 it must be remembered that children from the poorer districts far outnumber those in other schools1 so that in point of figures the actual proportion of children suffering from malnutrition is probably nearer the second estimate4 ,doctor ,thomas ,f4 ,wood1 of ,columbia1 gives #be per cent as the estimate for the school population of the whole country4 8,the longer a medical officer remains at school inspection10 remarks ,doctor ,hope1 of ,liverpool1 in a report for #aiab1 8the more severe becomes his standard of nutrition1 and the less readily does he pass a child as being well nourished40#hi ,one reason that health conditions in rural schools have been so long neglected is because of the common idea that country children are naturally vigorous and healthy4 8,this ought to be so but unfortunately is not10 says ,doctor ,ernest ,hoag1 in a recent government report4 ,he finds that1 8in general1 food is not as well prepared in the country as it is in the city2 the available variety is smaller40 ,bad methods of ventilation and heating at home and at school1 exposure to wet in the long walks to school1 and overdressing in the house--all are inroads on the already badly nourished bodies4 ,investigations show that malnutrition and its accompanying diseases are quite as frequent among country as among city children4#ij ,,control ,,of ,,contagion ,turning from nutrition to another aspect of the physical condition in schools1 it is easy to show that the school must control contagion4 ,the bringing together of hundreds of children increases so greatly the probability of spread of disease that the health authorities always welcome the arrival of the summer vacation as a relief from the most strenuous of their duties4 ,,the ,,school ,,health ,,department ,the kinds of demands described have led to the development of health departments in many school systems4 ,the various functions served by a school health department have been described by ,dr4 ,e4 ,a4 ,peterson1 a health officer in one of the largest cities of the country1 in a report from which the following paragraphs are extracted3 ,the problem of checking contagion is an acute problem in the schools4 ,the facts show that in the early years of a child's school life he has more of the diseases of childhood than at any other period1 especially more than he had when he was at home during the period immediately preceding school4 ,furthermore1 as soon as school breaks up for the long vacation1 contagion subsides4 ,the bringing together of large groups of children in schools is one of the most prolific methods of spreading contagion4444 ,but the school health service soon developed far beyond this first stage of merely policing the schools4 ,indeed1 one sees the real justification of a separate school health department if he follows this health department into what may be called its second1 third1 and final stage of evolution4444 ,examinations by physicians within the last decade indicate that as many as five per cent of school children suffer from defective vision to such an extent that they cannot see lessons on the board unless they have the services of expert oculists1 that one in every hundred cannot hear what the teacher is saying1 that ten in every hundred are so 8stopped up0 by adenoids that attention to school work is nearly impossible until the science of medicine gives them relief4 ,this drew the attention of the educational world to the necessity of ridding children of these defects in order that they may take advantage of the educational opportunity offered in the schools4444 ,one characteristic development shown at this second stage of school health organization is the employment of the school nurse4 ,the school nurse marks the growth of the health era away from its first or merely policing stage4 ,the school nurse is at once a medical officer and a teacher4 ,she teaches the parents in the home and she teaches the children4 ,she becomes a most important link between the home and the school4 ,her methods are those of persuasion1 not those of the emergency police officer4444 ,once the idea of making health a matter of intelligent interest took root1 it was sure to grow4 ,correction of physical defects is itself a tardy method of dealing with the situation4 ,why not prevent the defects8 ,this kind of thinking turned attention to the environment of the child and the necessity of making it as conducive to health as possible4444 ,finally1 it is by no means satisfactory that we should stop with the negative work of preventing disease and unfavorable conditions4 ,we must be positive in our treatment of health4 ,we want more health1 more vigor1 more efficiency4 ,the fourth stage of medical inspection may properly be called the health development stage and has to do not only with the teaching of hygiene but with the development of higher ideals of wellness1 with the raising of the standard of normality1 with taking a person who is well and making him 8wellest40444 ,the department must constantly assume new functions without dropping any of the old4 ,if it is to be an efficient department1 it must carry on all of the activities suggested in the summary which can be made up from the foregoing study4 ,first stage--,inspection #a4 ,inspection of children for contagious diseases ,second stage--,discovering and correcting defects #b4 ,physical examination of all children #c4 ,follow-up work in the home to get corrections #d4 ,maintenance of school clinics ,third stage--,prevention ,hygiene of building #e4 ,sanitary inspection ,hygiene of curriculum ,hygiene of instruction ,special schools for special cases #f4 ,examination and inspection of principals1 teachers1 janitors and other employees ,fourth stage--,health development #g4 ,health teaching at school and at home #h4 ,establishing health habits by means of a4 ,toothbrush drills b4 ,handkerchief drills c4 ,bathing1 etc4 d4 ,health clubs#ia ,,difficulties ,,of ,,introducing ,,health ,,instruction ,health work in the schools1 as it has risen to the level of a subject of instruction1 has encountered the kind of obstacles met by every new school subject4 ,teachers are ignorant on medical matters1 and the doctors who come into the schools are ignorant of methods of teaching4 ,the result is that the instruction given by teachers is sometimes formal and unscientific1 while the work of the doctors does not prove as effective as it might because it does not reach the pupils4 ,a partial corrective for this difficulty can be supplied through a better system of training teachers4 ,the following extracts from a paper by ,dr4 ,allison show how one state is attempting to cope with this problem3 ,in this tremendous but not superhuman task of teaching health1 there seems to me no more effective method than to commit it to those who are and are to be the teachers4 ,progress in these matters cannot be made without an intelligent understanding on the part of the teacher4 ,it is therefore important to teach the teacher4 ,it is said that the normal school is historically the only institution in the country which has aimed to deal with the teaching problem4 ,the ,board of ,regents of the normal schools of ,wisconsin felt the need of making the normal schools of the state instruments of public health and in #aiab appointed a physician for this work4 ,the work as organized consists of3 7#a7 exclusion of the physically unfit among the normal-school students2 7#b7 detection of remedial physical defects with suggestions in regard to same2 7#c7 instruction in preventive medicine4 #a4 ,the term 8physically unfit0 is very elastic1 but we should have some physical standard4 ,the public has not been in a position to protect itself against those physically unfit in the profession1 but it is beginning to make certain demands4 ,for example1 what community will now tolerate a teacher who is known to be tuberculous8 ,it is well to enlighten these physically unfit1 and stop the source of the physically undesirable1 as we would the intellectually undesirable4 ,my experience with several thousand young men and women during the last three years has shown me that the health habits of teachers need improving4444 #b4 ,in the normal schools of ,wisconsin a health-record card for each student is on file in the department of physical training4 ,the side filled out by the physical-training teacher consists of a record of height1 weight1 and lung capacity1 the neck1 chest1 and hip measurements1 and a detailed record of posture4 ,the physician's report includes a record of the past medical history1 personal history1 sex history1 family history1 and the present condition of nutrition1 skin1 eyes1 ears1 nose1 throat1 teeth1 glands1 lungs1 heart1 and elimination4 ,each student is advised in accordance with the conditions which are found4444 #c4 ,instruction in preventive medicine consists of individual advice and classroom instruction as follows3 7a7 ,personal hygiene4 ,this supplements what they have studied from the text and what they have received from the instructors of hygiene and physical training4 7b7 ,a couple of lectures are given on the physical examination of school children4 ,teachers should be taught the essential facts about defective vision1 defective hearing1 adenoids1 catarrh1 diseased tonsils1 nervousness1 and mental defects4444 7c7 ,lectures are given on the cause1 avenue of infection1 mode of transmission1 period of incubation1 symptoms1 complications1 results1 and prevention of the following communicable and preventable diseases3 measles1 scarlet fever1 chicken-pox1 smallpox1 mumps1 whooping cough1 grippe1 pneumonia1 tuberculosis1 diphtheria1 meningitis1 and infantile paralysis4#ib ,,health ,,as ,a ,,subject ,,of ,,instruction ,,and ,,as ,a ,,mode ,,of ,,life ,a movement such as that described in the paragraphs just quoted shows perhaps better than any general description the strength of the demand that the schools teach and train for health4 ,health must be acquired as well as thought of in abstract terms4 ,the school methods of dealing with it require a rational combination of the work of the physical-training department with that of the school physician and the teacher4 ,the movement is therefore one of those broad movements in education which require the introduction of new materials of instruction but also call for a general and constructive administrative policy which shall support instruction by opening the way for an enlargement of school work of a practical type4 ,,exercises ,,and ,,readings ,what devices other than school luncheons can the school adopt in the effort to make people intelligent about the feeding of school children8 ,what are the symptoms exhibited by children who are badly fed at home8 ,what are the different types of difficulty which arise in the matter of nutrition8 ,are the public-health controls in the city adequate to take care of contagion in the school8 ,should the school be dismissed in time of contagion8 ,it is noted that pupils have a great many contagious diseases when they first come to school4 ,this is sometimes explained by saying that the age from #f to #h years is more susceptible to disease4 ,is any other explanation to be offered8 ,at what time in the year is contagion most common8 ,would children's health be endangered by continuing school during the summer8 ,are physical examinations of pupils justified in public schools8 ,what objections are raised to such examinations8 ,who should make them8 ,it is sometimes argued that the expense of medical inspection and physical examinations is too great4 ,is there any answer8 ,here1 as in the case of play1 the administrative question arises1 should all teachers have a part in the health supervision1 or should the task be assigned to specialists8 ,argue the case4 ,,gulick1 ,l4 ,h41 and ,,ayres1 ,l4 ,p4 ,medical ,inspection of ,schools4 ,charities ,publication ,committee1 ,new ,york ,city4 ,this is the book which contributed very powerfully to the beginnings of the movement for school departments of health4 ,,wood1 ,t4 ,d4 ,national ,welfare and ,rural ,schools4 ,proceedings of the ,national ,education ,association1 ,vol4 ,i-,,iv1 #aiaf4 ,report of investigations of country and city children4 ,,footnotes3 #hh ,sarah ,webb ,maury and ,lena ,l4 ,tachau1 ,a ,penny ,lunch1 p4 #h4 #aiae4 #hi ,louise ,stevens ,bryant1 8,school ,feeding40 ,educational ,hygiene 7edited by ,louis ,w4 ,rapeer71 chap4 xvi1 pp4 #bhf-bhg1 #bhi4 ,charles ,scribner's ,sons1 #aiae4 #ij ,ibid4 p4 #bhe4 #ia ,dr4 ,e4 ,a4 ,peterson1 8,medical ,inspection40 ,survey of the ,st4 ,louis ,public ,schools1 ,vol4 ,,vii1 ,part ,,ii1 pp4 #da-de4 ,published by the ,board of ,education1 ,st4 ,louis1 ,missouri4 #ib ,elizabeth ,wilson ,allison1 8,the ,teacher's ,field in ,public ,health ,work40 ,proceedings of the ,national ,education ,association1 pp4 #fgf-fgh4 ,published by the ,secretary of the ,association1 ,ann ,arbor1 ,michigan1 #aiae4 ,,chapter ,,xxi ,,scientific ,,supervision ,,evolution ,,of ,,the ,,demand ,,for ,,supervision ,in the days when the school system was simple in its equipment and in its course of study no distinction was drawn between the problems of teaching and the problems of organizing the school4 ,the teacher did everything that was done in the school4 ,the teacher made the program1 promoted the pupils1 consulted with the town officials and parents1 conducted the classes1 and in not a few cases swept the floor and built the fire4 ,there was1 to use a phrase of the business world1 no overhead management4 ,the course of study has grown complex4 ,the work of the classroom is absorbing1 and yet its success depends on equipment and organization that need to be studied and intelligently arranged4 ,the work of one school must be correlated with the work of the schools in neighboring communities4 ,the public must have authoritative information about the fiscal needs of the school and about the outcome of the public investments in education4 ,the demand has arisen for a new type of school officer--the supervisor4 ,this officer is not a teacher but a manager4 ,his duty is one of organization and central adjustment4 ,,the ,,principal ,the new demand here referred to can be described by means of an example which exhibits one of the greatest weaknesses of our present school system4 ,schools of all grades which have grown large enough to employ three or more teachers commonly have an officer who is known as the principal4 ,in the small school the principal spends most of his or her time in teaching4 ,in larger schools the principal does no classroom work4 ,in both cases the principal is universally selected for a special position in the school because of his or her success in teaching4 ,the work of the principal is thought of as that of a head teacher4 ,the fact is1 however1 entirely at variance with this idea2 the work of the principal is not that of teaching4 ,principals ought to be managers and central organizers4 ,they ought to know the system as a whole and ought to devote time and thought to problems of a managerial type4 ,the weakness of our present school system is that most principals are in no sense equipped for this central managing task4 ,they do not know how to use profitably the release from classroom work which attaches to their office and title4 ,the result is that they drift1 often with the full cognizance of the board of education1 into the habit of spending time on trifling clerical tasks which are wholly unworthy of the special position which they are supposed to occupy in the system4 ,it is a deficiency of our educational system that while there are institutions for the training of teachers there are only a few general courses for administrative officers4 ,there certainly can be no objection to experience as a teacher in the classroom as preliminary training for the person who is to occupy a school principalship4 ,but the moment the experienced teacher leaves the ranks and takes up the office of principal1 a wholly new set of central problems should come within his view4 ,he should recognize the fact that from this time on his task is one of a broader type1 and the successful execution of that task will require a kind of study which is demanded at most in very minor degree of the teacher4 ,,other ,,supervisory ,,officers ,what has been said of the principal is true also of assistant superintendents and of the superintendent of the school system4 ,it is true also of departmental supervisors who have general oversight of certain subdivisions of the work4 ,all these officers ought to become expert in a type of study and a type of management which are not expected of the individual teacher4 ,,lack ,,of ,,public ,,appreciation ,,of ,,central ,,problems ,in general1 it is evident from a study of ,american school systems that emphasis has not been laid on central organization4 ,cities have employed a superintendent when they had a population of five thousand inhabitants and have expected a single officer to continue to perform all the duties of that office when the population has increased to one hundred thousand4 ,a principal is put in charge of a high school of two hundred students and continues to have full responsibility for the school when it increases to eight hundred students4 ,boards of education have refused to give supervisory officers clerical assistance1 and have thus required a principal or superintendent receiving the highest salary of any person in the system to do work which a clerk could do more economically and quite as efficiently1 thus interfering with the performance of important central duties for which no time is left4 ,,managerial ,,training ,,in ,,relation ,,to ,,democracy ,the training of a large number of persons who will be competent to take up managerial functions is especially important in the school system of a democracy because the problems of each community are in some measure local problems to be solved at the point where they arise4 ,in a school system which treats every child and every community exactly alike administration is simplified through uniformity4 ,in a school system which is as complex as ours there must be an intelligent adaptation of organization to particular ends1 and every device which will promote such adaptation is economical4 ,,the ,,purpose ,,of ,,the ,,present ,,discussion ,the general discussion of supervision will be clearer if we take up for brief description some of the problems which should be dealt with by central officers and some of the methods of solving these problems4 ,it will not be the purpose of this discussion to attempt anything like a complete enumeration of such problems or methods1 but merely to suggest their type4 ,,studies ,,of ,,the ,,community ,first1 there must be a study of the community4 ,to some extent the individual teacher must take a share in this study4 ,the character of each pupil and the facts about his home surroundings are important to the teacher in carrying on class work4 ,but there must be some agency which can devote time and attention to a systematic collection of facts4 ,the teacher has a right to expect that the school system as a system will make information readily available which it would be difficult for an individual to collect4 ,the central officers should make such a study4 ,the making of a school census is a duty of the central officers who have in hand the enforcement of the compulsory-attendance laws4 ,when these officers recognize their task as a large educational task1 they will make the census not merely a formal basis for compelling attendance but a means of collecting a body of facts on which educational adaptations can be based4 ,it has been pointed out in earlier chapters that the community should be studied with a view to discovering the needs of pupils4 ,up to this time such studies have been made as special undertakings in a few isolated communities4 ,for example1 the industries of ,richmond1 ,virginia1 of ,minneapolis1 ,minnesota1 and of the state of ,indiana have been studied by special commissions and reported at three annual meetings of the ,national ,society for the ,promotion of ,industrial ,education4 ,what is needed is a constant study of these problems in every community4 ,again1 teachers cannot meet the demand4 ,this problem is a central problem1 and the central management must be equipped to get information which the teachers need but cannot collect4 ,,selection ,,and ,,management ,,of ,,teachers ,a second group of central problems have to do with the selection of teachers and their continued training while in service4 ,it used to be very generally assumed1 and in some quarters it seems to be assumed to-day1 that in the teaching profession there is no need of training beyond the initial normal course or the initial college course that brought the candidate through the first requirements4 ,a kind of persistence in professional efficiency on the part of teachers is assumed4 ,the day of such easy-going neglect of professional requirements is over4 ,score cards of teachers' qualifications are being worked out4 ,the relative importance of such personal qualifications as a pleasant voice and manner as compared with such products of training as knowledge of the correct forms of ,english expression and knowledge of geography or ,latin must be determined with direct reference to the particular duties which are required of the teacher4 ,the development of methods of correcting deficiencies in the equipment of a teaching corps1 the proper distribution of the time and energy of a group of teachers1 and the proper method of keeping the records of the work of teachers are all central problems4 ,as the teacher stands in a central relation to his or her class1 so the supervisor stands in a central relation to a corps of teachers4 ,of all the problems touching teachers1 that of their training in service is perhaps the most important4 ,there is a great deal of very blind and ineffective effort expended each year in futile attempts to meet this problem4 ,a great deal of required reading is done by teachers1 and a great many meetings are attended which could be turned to better account if there were well-organized systems of training in service and of parallel promotional requirements4 ,,standardization ,,by ,,measurement ,,of ,,results ,a third group of problems are those which have been referred to in the chapter on standardization4 ,the results of classroom work must be evaluated and comparisons must be made on a large scale to guide the future work of the pupils4 ,in some measure this is a problem for teachers4 ,but so far as the individual class teacher is concerned1 there will have to be dependence on central agencies for the collection of material which can be used in comparisons4 ,at the present time a large share of the standardizing material is being collected by private agencies4 ,men and women who are interested in the promotion of educational science are making individual studies and are bringing together bodies of comparative material4 ,this is entirely legitimate so long as the movement of standardization and quantitative treatment of results is in what may be described as an experimental stage4 ,as soon as the utility of measurements has been proved1 it becomes a public obligation to provide agencies for this work4 ,the growth of the movement toward the addition in all large school systems of one or more officers whose duty it shall be to measure results has been commented on in earlier connections4 ,there is a national organization of school-efficiency officers with a membership including representatives of some twenty of the leading systems of the country4 ,this shows in a concrete way that the demand for central officers of standardization is beginning to be met4 ,,an ,,example ,,of ,,public ,,recognition ,,of ,,the ,,need ,,of ,,efficiency ,,measurements ,a single example of a personal type may serve further to impress on the reader the character of this movement4 ,mr4 ,s4 ,a4 ,courtis1 who is widely known as the author of a system of arithmetic tests1 began his work in testing as a teacher in a private school for girls1 the ,liggett ,school of ,detroit4 ,he devised tests to find out how well his pupils were doing their work4 ,he found at once that he needed comparative material because he saw that the success of his classes was in a measure a comparative matter4 ,he published his first findings1 and secured the coperation of other interested teachers and school officers4 ,soon he became a center for arithmetic tests4 ,he was compelled to give up more and more of his time and energy to a task which was broader in its scope than the task of teaching his classes4 ,the school was intelligent enough to recognize this general service to all schools and gave him time and assistance in organizing his tests4 ,the individual work of a scientific student thus began to develop4 ,he was called to all parts of the country to discuss his methods and results1 and centers of interest were established where his tests were used4 ,ultimately ,mr4 ,courtis was called to assist in the survey of ,new ,york ,city and in the surveys of other systems1 notably ,gary1 ,indiana4 ,he was also asked to organize for the city of ,detroit a department of investigation as a permanent division of the administration of the city schools4 ,,scientific ,,studies ,,and ,,central ,,supervision ,example after example could be given of the organization of public supervision on the basis of private scientific investigation4 ,these examples are important not only as exhibitions of the demand for more central supervision but also as demonstrations of the demand that all the larger problems of the school system be approached in the scientific spirit4 ,the school system of this country1 like all public institutions1 has passed through the period of first organization4 ,this was a period of urgent practical demands4 ,work had to be done by any means that came to hand4 ,the situation was like all pioneer situations4 ,in many cases teachers who were meagerly trained had to administer unorganized courses of study1 and the public had to be satisfied with results which were1 to say the least1 uncertain4 ,the pioneering period is not altogether passed yet1 but there is wealth enough in most communities to support a more deliberate type of organization4 ,there is a perfection of the instruments of education1 an organization of the agencies of education1 and a standardization of results which were impossible in earlier days4 ,the business of the central officers in a school system can be defined in terms of this discussion as the collection and distribution of scientific information and the administration of the system in keeping with the scientific information thus collected4 ,such a formula can be carried over to problems other than those enumerated thus far in this chapter4 ,the problems of promotion and of the course of study1 even the problems of class management and instruction1 have large supervisory aspects with which the central school officers must deal4 ,,scientific ,,supervision ,such a statement gives a view of the principalship or superintendency of schools which is wholly different from that which is expressed by applying to these offices the title 8head teacher40 ,in ,england the chief officer in a school building is the head teacher or the head master4 ,these names imply merely an extension of the teaching function and fail to recognize the necessity of a scientific study and administration of the schools4 ,the view advocated in this chapter is also at variance with the conception expressed in the titles of the chief school officers of ,german schools4 ,there the head of a school is a rector or director4 ,his personal authority is large4 ,he continues in many cases to teach2 his administrative influence as implied in his title arises from the fact that he represents the state4 ,his task is that of dictating school policies1 not that of organizing the school on the basis of a complete scientific study of the educational situation in the community in which he works4 ,it cannot be asserted that the ,american principals of schools are everywhere devoted and competent students of the science of education4 ,there is1 however1 a freer opportunity in our schools than in those of any other nation for a complete realization of the scientific ideal4 ,there is comparative freedom of organization1 and there is comparative adequacy of equipment4 ,there is at hand a body of broadly collected information4 ,with this background there is every prospect of a more intelligent use of all the opportunities which are gradually being evolved for intelligent scientific supervision4 ,,exercises ,,and ,,readings ,the study of community needs has been carried on most vigorously in trying to answer the question1 ,what industrial training do pupils in cities need8 ,the ,national ,society for the ,promotion of ,industrial ,education has organized three extensive surveys1 one in ,richmond1 ,virginia1 one in ,minneapolis1 ,minnesota1 and one in the state of ,indiana4 ,one of the best exercises which can be suggested is for the class to study the needs of a community after the model of one of these surveys4 ,a second exercise that may be suggested is that of examining the operations of a school building in detail4 ,how does a building get its supplies8 ,how many janitors are there8 ,who supervises the janitors8 ,how much time does a principal spend in visiting rooms8 ,what reports does a principal have to render8 ,what reports do the teachers render to the principal8 ,the volumes of the ,cleveland survey1 including those which deal with industrial education1 are models of exposition of community needs4 7,copies may be secured from the ,russell ,sage ,foundation1 ,new ,york ,city47 ,there is a body of sociological material with which students of this chapter ought to become acquainted4 ,see the ,survey 7,new ,york ,city71 a journal devoted to the discussion of sociological problems4 ,,chapter ,,xxii ,,the ,,science ,,of ,,education ,,scientific ,,methods ,,of ,,studying ,,schools ,each of the preceding chapters has aimed to set forth certain practical school problems and to suggest the sources of information on the basis of which these problems are to be solved4 ,some of the information to which reference has been made is confessedly incomplete2 some of it is in a form which renders very difficult exact and final inferences as to its meaning4 ,taken in the aggregate1 however1 the body of information at hand regarding schools is so great that we are justified in speaking of a science of education4 ,furthermore1 the use of the term 8science0 would be justified even if we were in possession of fewer solutions of school problems than we now have1 for the essence of science is its method of investigation1 not its ability to lay down a body of final rules of action4 ,a complete transformation of the method of approaching school problems has come about in recent years4 ,the time was when opinion1 especially if it was backed by even a little practical experience1 was urged as sufficient reason for all kinds of school practices4 ,to-day it is only the rashly ignorant who talk about education or aim to influence actual school operations without informing themselves through a study of known and recorded facts4 ,a host of practical school officers and special students of school problems have carried out laborious investigations and have created a technical literature which promises to reach every phase of school work4 ,,definition ,,through ,,enumeration ,,of ,,methods ,it is not too early1 therefore1 to define the scope and methods of the science of education4 ,such a definition need in no wise limit the further development of the science1 while it may serve to stimulate more exact formulation of its problems and methods4 ,our effort to frame such a definition naturally leads us to review the courses which have commonly been given to teachers-in-training4 ,,the ,,history ,,of ,,educational ,,theory ,,and ,,practice ,the historical method of studying education was the first which was cultivated in institutions which undertook the training of teachers4 ,the history of education divides readily into two branches3 one deals with the history of educational theories1 the other with the history of actual school practices4 ,the history of theories is the easier of the two branches to cultivate because it consists chiefly in a review of the writings left behind by writers who discuss educational problems4 ,thus the earlier histories of education laid great emphasis on the writings of ,plato and ,quintilian1 of ,comenius and ,locke1 of ,rousseau and ,pestalozzi4 ,reviews of earlier writers were1 however1 of little real influence in molding modern practice1 and the history of theories had only a very indirect influence on teachers4 ,more significant by far is the recent movement which studies practices in schools1 especially the schools of one's own country4 ,the development of arithmetic or grammar in ,american schools is illuminating as showing both the direction in which we are moving and the kinds of forces which operate in reformulating the course of study4 ,earlier chapters have aimed to suggest the value of such studies1 especially ,chapters ,,ii and ,,iii4 ,,courses ,,in ,,psychology ,along with the study of the history of education there has commonly been prescribed in training schools for teachers a course in psychology4 ,herbart pointed out more than a hundred years ago the importance of the study of mental processes as a basis for the proper direction of educational practices4 ,the science of psychology has also by its own developments encouraged the practical educator to expect help in the solution of school problems4 ,there was a period when so-called child psychology flourished in this country and aimed to contribute to the development of school methods as well as to the solution of problems of the curriculum and school management4 ,,educational ,,psychology ,a friendly alliance will always exist between the science of psychology and the science of education4 ,psychology has given to education certain methods and such special results as it has worked out with regard to memory and learning and the nature of behavior2 education has taken the psychological material and developed a special branch of science under the name 8educational psychology40 ,there are two fruitful psychological methods which have been borrowed in this way and put to work for education4 ,these are the statistical method and the experimental method4 ,,statistical ,,studies ,an impressive example of the statistical method is given in the studies of individual differences4 ,for example1 ,thorndike has made a careful study of the degrees of likeness between twins1 and between brothers and sisters who are not twins1 for the purpose of defining more fully the meaning of the term 8individual differences40 ,,the ,,experimental ,,method ,the experimental method has been employed in many ways4 ,thus1 ,freeman has recorded with the aid of suitable apparatus the rate at which one writes long and short letters4 ,this study he has made with individuals of various ages and degrees of training and under different conditions4 ,one result which he derived from these records is the fact that a given writer's rhythm of movement is the same in letters of different sizes and becomes more regular and more fixed with increase in skill4 ,,extension ,,of ,,use ,,of ,,psychological ,,methods ,in taking over the methods of psychology and applying them to the solution of educational problems1 a secondary advantage of the greatest importance has come to the science of education4 ,these methods are capable of adaptation to a much broader range of problems than psychology would have attempted to solve4 ,both the statistical method and the experimental method have accordingly been carried over in the science of education to the widest possible range of applications4 ,,studies ,,of ,,retardation ,one of the first and most fruitful statistical studies made in education dealt with the retardation of pupils4 ,those who fell behind their grade were counted1 and the problem which they presented was stated emphatically enough to bring about the organization of all kinds of special devices for the training of retarded individuals and groups4 ,,school ,,experiments ,,and ,,laboratory ,,studies ,the experimental method was carried over and applied to whole classes4 ,for example1 two parallel classes were measured with reference to the effects of supervised study4 ,the experimental method has also been productively applied in detailed1 analytical studies of particular subjects4 ,thus1 to recall an example presented in an earlier chapter1 reading has been investigated in the cases of slow and fast readers when they were reading orally and silently1 when they were trained by the ordinary methods of the school1 and when they were trained by special methods adapted to their individual cases4 ,like studies have been made of the movements performed in writing and of the stages passed through in various learning processes4 ,,examples ,,throughout ,,earlier ,,chapters ,further examples will1 however1 be unnecessary for the reader who has had the patience to go through the earlier chapters of this volume4 ,there are numerous illustrations in those chapters of statistical and experimental investigations of educational problems4 ,these investigations show the extent to which the new science has borrowed from the old and the extent to which a new structure has been erected which has a right to claim an independent name and rank among the social sciences4 ,,studies ,,of ,,administrative ,,problems ,the recognition of the science of education as a separate discipline can be urged on the ground that the scientific methods which were first applied to the problems of mental development have opened up every aspect of school organization to scientific study4 ,thus1 in the field of administration more than in any other field the value of scientific studies has been recognized4 ,the promotion of pupils1 the grading system1 the construction of buildings1 and the organization of financial systems are all spheres in which exact scientific methods have in recent years worked most important transformations in practice4 ,,method ,,of ,,comparison ,in many investigations the method of comparison has been brought to a degree of perfection which justifies reference to it as a special method of scientific research4 ,all the previous discussions of standardization show how a single school system profits by the effort to evaluate its own practices in the light of the experiences and results of other school systems4 ,,records ,,necessary ,,to ,,scientific ,,study ,the scientific methods which have been referred to imply as their necessary basis a series of detailed and accurate records4 ,some of these records1 as1 for example1 those which show school attendance and those which deal with expenditures1 are kept in ordinary routine4 ,some have to be made especially for the purposes of scientific studies4 ,here belong all those records which are made through tests4 ,tests are merely devices for showing clearly and explicitly how far educational practices have succeeded in special cases4 ,,subdivisions ,,of ,,the ,,science ,,of ,,education ,the subdivisions into which the science of education naturally breaks up are dictated in part by the needs of different individuals within the school system and in part by the methods which are employed4 ,thus the supervisor needs a different type of training from that which is required by the classroom teacher4 ,again1 the functions of the different supervisors are so different that some require full information on problems of school finance1 while others are in more direct contact with the problems of promotion and of the curriculum4 ,a second line of cleavage is that which is described most fully in this chapter and results from the use of different methods of investigation4 ,thus1 laboratory studies of reading and writing naturally separate themselves from statistical studies of administrative problems4 ,another line of division is that dictated by school organization4 ,high-school problems are likely to be considered in special courses1 elementary-school problems in others4 ,there is no need in a general introduction of the type here offered of attempting to consider these subdivisions4 ,our purposes are adequately served if we can show what the science as a whole is by referring to typical examples of scientific work undertaken in several of the subdivisions4 ,,rapid ,,expansion ,,of ,,the ,,science ,,of ,,education ,furthermore1 it is to be understood explicitly that the science of education is in process of rapid expansion4 ,any effort to describe its methods and content in full would of necessity fail4 ,the rapid enlargement of the science and its methods in recent years is the most impressive fact which can be recorded in a chapter describing the scope and purpose of such a study4 ,a simple definition within which there is wide room for expansion is therefore the only definition which is appropriate at the end of this introduction4 ,,definition ,,of ,,the ,,science ,,of ,,education ,the science of education aims to collect by all available methods full information with regard to the origin1 development1 and present form of school practices and also full information with regard to social needs4 ,it aims to subject present practices to rigid tests and comparisons and to analyze all procedure in the schools by experimental methods and by observation4 ,it aims to secure complete and definite records of all that the school attempts and accomplishes4 ,the results of school work are to be evaluated by rigid methods of comparison and analysis4 ,to direct studies of the school the science of education must add full studies of the social life of which the school is a part and of the individual nature which is to be trained and molded through the educational processes4 ,in the light of such studies the science of education is to suggest such enlargements and modifications of school practices as seem likely to promote the evolution of the educational system4 ,this program is so comprehensive in its scope that it becomes evident at once that the science of education is a composite science requiring the coperation of many investigators4 ,in its formulations it may deal in a broad way with general problems1 or it may break up into numerous subdivisions appealing to the specialist4 ,it would therefore be more accurate to describe it as a group of specialized studies rather than as a single discipline4 ,,exercises ,,and ,,readings ,this chapter furnishes an opportunity to study the contributions of other sciences to the study of educational problems4 ,what does biology contribute8 ,in this connection ,spencer's first essay is perhaps one of the clearest examples of application of biology to education4 ,stanley ,hall has carried to an extreme the use of biological hypotheses 78,adolescence10 ,d4 ,appleton and ,company74 ,fiske in his essay on the 8,meaning of ,infancy0 7,houghton ,mifflin ,company7 furnishes another example4 ,the student should raise pointedly the question whether biological principles apply without modification to human education4 ,the discussions of biology pass directly into the consideration of psychology4 ,james's 8,talks to ,teachers on ,psychology0 7,henry ,holt and ,company7 is a very good beginning of readings in this line4 ,one of the most recent and productive books is ,freeman's 8,the ,psychology of the ,common ,branches0 7,houghton ,mifflin ,company74 ,there are many general psychologies4 ,the student will be led by a study of some of these books to the problem of distinguishing between general psychology and educational psychology4 ,another type of related science is to be found in the mathematical sciences which contribute to educational studies4 ,thorndike's 8,an ,introduction to the ,theory of ,mental and ,social ,measurements0 7,science ,press7 was the first systematic effort to put statistical methods into form for educators4 ,a much more satisfactory treatment of statistical methods is to be found in ,h4 ,o4 ,rugg's 8,statistical ,methods applied to ,education0 7,houghton ,mifflin ,company74 ,numerous examples have been cited in earlier chapters of applications of statistics to education4 ,to that list might be added ,ayres's 8,laggards in our ,schools0 7,russell ,sage ,foundation1 ,new ,york ,city7 and the statistical volumes of the reports of the ,commissioner of ,education1 which both in the facts presented and in the summaries represent the most elaborate collection of educational statistics in any report on schools anywhere in the world4 ,by way of an independent exercise under this chapter let the student describe a particular scientific study which it would be appropriate to require each of the following school officers to carry out3 a superintendent1 a supervisor of drawing1 a principal of a high school1 a principal of an elementary school1 a high-school teacher of ,latin1 a teacher in charge of a third grade4 ,,chapter ,,xxiii ,,professional ,,training ,,of ,,teachers ,,increasing ,,demand ,,for ,,professional ,,training ,it has been the aim of the preceding chapters of this volume to make it clear that the teacher of the future must be able to cope in a large and intelligent way with problems which are not discussed in courses dealing with the subject-matter ordinarily taught in schools4 ,the compensations offered to the trained teacher are fortunately more adequate than formerly1 and increasingly justify the demand that the teacher bring to his or her task a more complete professional training4 ,,american ,,normal ,,schools ,the proper content of a professional training is a matter on which there is no general agreement in the ,united ,states4 ,for a little more than seventy-five years there have existed in this country normal schools for the training of elementary-school teachers4 ,these institutions have in some cases required graduation from high school as a prerequisite for admission1 but more commonly not4 ,their courses of study have in some schools consisted chiefly of reviews of elementary-school subjects supplemented by a modicum of methodology or discussion of how to teach the subjects4 ,in other cases the courses of the normal school have been general1 of the type commonly offered in colleges or high schools4 ,sometimes the normal school has given its students large opportunity to teach children in so-called practice schools or model schools4 ,sometimes1 on the other hand1 the students in normal schools have had no direct contact with classroom management1 but have gone out into the schools equipped only with the theory of teaching4 ,the situation with regard to these institutions is set forth in the following paragraphs from a bulletin of the ,united ,states ,bureau of ,education3 ,normal schools differ from each other very widely in organization1 in admission requirements1 in courses of study1 and in modes of instruction4 ,the explanation of this lack of uniformity is to be found in the fact that normal schools have never been a part of the system of higher education evolved in this country4 ,normal schools have grown up in isolation4 ,while the colleges have been in the closest touch with each other through the organization of entrance examination boards and accrediting institutions1 while high schools have been brought together by standard definitions of units1 normal schools have stood apart4 ,the typical normal school derives its financial support from legislative appropriations1 receives its students without competition from a territory over which it exercises exclusive control1 and has no difficulty in placing its graduates in positions which they regard as satisfactory4 ,furthermore1 so urgent has been the demand in the country for teachers that school boards and superintendents have not been able to make rigid selections1 with the result that standards of training have not been forced upon the normal schools from without4 ,in a situation where relative isolation has not compelled normal schools to define themselves to others there has been the largest opportunity for the play of personal influences4 ,a strong president has often dominated the policies of a normal school to a degree that is almost unbelievable4 ,the faculty sometimes has little or no voice in determining the courses or the modes of admission4 ,there is no ,state authority in most of the ,states which is strong enough to determine what shall be done in normal schools4 ,the result is that within a single ,state there are the widest variations4 ,one president with the ambition to develop his institution into a degree-granting university goes on his way1 while his neighbor uses the funds granted by the same legislature to develop a normal school which loudly announces its objection to granting degrees and limits its activities rigidly to the training of elementary teachers4 ,in recent years a number of causes have begun to break down the isolation of the normal school4 ,first and foremost is the desire of normal graduates to enjoy the advantages of higher education in universities and colleges4 ,the growth of summer schools at universities and the frequent transfer of normal-school graduates to college and graduate courses show with clearness the desire of teachers to enjoy the advantages of all kinds of higher education4 ,normal schools1 drawn into the current of higher education1 have been called upon to announce more definitely their requirements for admission and to describe the content of their courses4 ,what is a course in methods of teaching arithmetic8 ,is it a review of the course given in an elementary school or is it a discussion of the pedagogical principles on which such courses are arranged8 ,what is a course in practice teaching8 ,does such a course require of the student any study of material1 and does it afford him any adequate critical discussion of his work8 ,there has been a sharp and at times unfriendly clash between normal schools and colleges in the effort to secure answers to such questions4 ,the normal school often takes the position that it administers only high-grade courses1 while the colleges express a frank doubt as to the value of these courses for mature students4 ,perhaps the disagreement between normal schools and colleges can best be illustrated by the widespread dispute regarding foreign languages4 ,the normal school has been historically related to the vernacular school1 and its officers have had little patience with classical or even literary courses4 ,the traditions of the college are of a totally different type4 ,so long as no students passed from normal schools to colleges the normal schools were at liberty to hold to the vernacular1 but as soon as normal-school graduates sought admission to higher institutions the controversy was on4 ,a second reason why normal schools have been called upon to define themselves arises because colleges and universities have in recent years entered the field of teacher training through the organization of departments of education and colleges of education4 ,in the ,state universities the demand for preparation of high-school teachers has been heard1 and generous provisions have in many cases been made for the work of preparing such teachers4 ,the normal schools have looked upon this organization of teacher-training courses as undesired competition4 ,conversely1 the university authorities have been critical of the courses in the normal schools1 and the issue has been sharply drawn4 ,incidentally it may be remarked that college departments of education have usually been subjected to the closest scrutiny and sometimes to violent criticism by other college departments because of their supposed inferiority4 ,it may even be admitted that entrance requirements in the departments of education have sometimes been lower than those for other college departments in the hope of meeting the competition of normal schools1 and courses of inferior standard in the college have been tolerated for like reason4 ,all of these disputes and efforts at adjustment have aroused a general inquiry about teacher-training courses which a generation ago would have been without interest except to a small group of specialists4 ,now the problem is known to all who are interested in education1 and the discussion must go on until some satisfactory conclusion is reached4#ic ,,american ,,demands ,,on ,,secondary-,,school ,,teachers ,if the situation with regard to the training of elementary-school teachers is chaotic1 the situation with regard to secondary-school teachers is more so4 ,until very recently there was little or no effort in the state laws defining requirements for teachers' certificates to distinguish between elementary teachers and teachers in high schools4 ,the candidate for a position in ,latin found himself taking the same examination that would have been required if he had been about to teach a third grade4 ,of course in practice the school officers who employed the ,latin teacher took steps to assure themselves that he had studied that subject1 but practice in this respect has never been standardized4 ,,german ,,training ,,of ,,secondary-,,school ,,teachers ,by way of setting up a contrast we may review the system which prevailed in ,germany before #aiad4 ,the ,german system was the most highly developed system of training secondary-school teachers in the world4 ,candidates for positions in the secondary schools must first of all have completed the course of one of the secondary schools4 ,in the second place1 the candidate must have attended a ,german university for at least six semesters4 ,here an exception is made in the case of those candidates who expect to teach in the sciences4 ,they may take half of the university courses in one of the technical institutions rather than in university lectures4 ,after this preliminary training is completed1 the candidate presents himself for an examination4 ,usually the period of training is much longer than the minimum above described4 ,indeed1 in most cases candidates take the university doctor's degree before they come up for the examination4 ,the examination consists of two parts4 ,first1 there is a general examination covering those subjects which are supposed to be essential as training for all departments2 and1 second1 there is a special examination given in the particular subject in which the candidate is preparing to teach4 ,both examinations include written and oral divisions4444 ,the examinations are formidable ordeals4 ,they are conducted by special commissioners4 ,on these commissions are university professors1 officers of the education department1 and representatives of the secondary schools4 ,the candidate is first required to present two elaborate theses1 one on some phase of the general subjects and one in the subject in which he has elected to take a complete examination4 ,at the discretion of the commission the candidate's doctor's dissertation may be substituted for one of these theses4 ,a period of #af weeks is allowed for their preparation1 and they are intended to show the ability of the candidate to carry on independent research in his selected field1 and his ability to formulate material in a clear and systematic fashion4 ,after the presentation of these theses there follows a written examination1 followed in turn by an oral examination4 ,after the examination the successful candidate now has before him two years of contact with the schoolroom before he can become a teacher with a regular position4 ,the first of these trial years is known as the ,seminar year and the second as the ,trial year4 ,during both of these periods the candidate is connected with one of the secondary schools and is under the general direction of the principal or director of this school4444 ,after a candidate has been assigned to a particular school1 it becomes his duty1 first of all1 to participate in the activities of that school in any way that he can4 ,he is usually assigned to some teacher1 whose reports he helps to prepare and whose classes he has to visit with regularity4 ,in addition1 he is expected to visit all of the classes in the institution1 so as to observe different methods of instruction and class management4 ,it is required that the candidate meet with the director two hours a week for special training4 ,at this point in particular the greatest diversity of practice appears4444 ,sometimes the meeting is conducted as a demonstration lesson2 sometimes it is a discussion2 sometimes it is a series of reports by candidates2 sometimes a lecture by the director or one of the teachers of the school4444 ,after the candidates have gone through a part of the first year's training and have become somewhat familiar with the methods of instruction in the classes which they visit and through the advice which they receive in the weekly meetings1 they are allowed to give instruction4 ,at first this instruction is limited to single class exercises under the immediate supervision of the regular teacher4 ,the candidate is expected to prepare fully for such an exercise1 so that he may carry on the work of the students in accordance with the general plan adopted by the regular teacher4 ,the regular teacher remains in the class during the instruction given by the candidate1 and after the class has been dismissed the teacher gives the candidate the benefit of such criticism as he has to make4 ,opportunity for these criticisms is presented by the school program1 which is uniformly so arranged that #de minutes of class work are followed by #ae minutes of recess4 ,the criticisms are in some cases very helpful1 especially where the teacher is interested in developing better methods of instruction upon the part of the candidate4 ,on the other hand1 the criticisms are often very severe and sometimes even caustic4 ,in any case1 the candidate learns through the comments given him by the teacher how far he has failed to conform to the expectation of the school4444 ,several weeks before the close of the seminar year each candidate is called upon to prepare a thesis on some concrete pedagogical or didactic problem set for him by the director4 ,this thesis constitutes part of his preparation for the teaching profession and may be the outcome of his readings or the outcome of his observation4 ,not uncommonly the candidate makes an elaborate study of some of the pedagogical literature related to his subject4 ,it is to be remembered that many of these candidates have already completed the work for the degree of doctor of philosophy in the university and are for that reason trained in the methods of research and in the preparation of theses1 while all have prepared elaborate theses in connection with the examinations which admitted them to the seminar year4 ,at the end of the seminar year the director1 with the coperation of the other teachers who have observed the work of the candidate1 makes a report to the school authorities1 and if the work of the candidate has been satisfactory he is now advanced to a higher grade and enters upon the trial year4 ,during the trial year he is required to teach six to eight hours a week without compensation4 ,if he is especially fortunate1 he may receive some compensation for substitute teaching which is needed by the school4 ,in the main1 however1 he is called upon to carry a heavy burden of work without any compensation from the school4 ,the director may also use his services for other purposes1 such as the preparation of reports1 the checking of lists1 and other duties which need to be attended to for the purpose of administering the school4 ,during this trial year the regular teacher is not required to attend the classes conducted by candidates4 ,the candidate1 therefore1 gradually acquires independence in his conduct of the classes4 ,at the end of this trial year another report is made of the activities of the candidate and the judgment of the teachers in the school with respect to his success4 ,if this report is favorable the candidate is now put on the eligible list and may be appointed to a permanent position4 ,the length of time which it is necessary for him to wait for this permanent appointment is determined wholly by the needs of the schools4 ,if there are no vacancies1 the candidate may wait a relatively long period of time1 in some cases as long as four or five years4 ,on the other hand1 for some years past it has been possible in most cities for candidates to receive appointment almost immediately on completion of the trial year4#id ,,new ,,courses ,,in ,,colleges ,,and ,,universities ,,for ,,secondary-,,school ,,teachers ,the example of ,germany is instructive as showing something of the amount of professional training which may be deemed necessary properly to qualify a teacher of secondary schools4 ,it is not at all likely that the particular method adopted will be followed in the ,united ,states4 ,indeed1 there is a rapidly developing movement in ,american colleges and universities to provide training for such teachers4 ,the state universities especially have developed in recent years series of courses1 both in subject-matter and in professional lines1 designed to train secondary-school teachers4 ,these1 like the normal-school courses described above1 are very little standardized1 but are promising as a nucleus for the final organizations which will solve the problem4 ,the following paragraph indicates the existing conditions3 ,the significant fact is that #ba of #bd universities report teachers' courses4 ,this means that in some way the academic departments are professionally coperating with schools or departments of education in furnishing to intending teachers the special methods and peculiar technique1 as well as more fundamental educational principles and distinctive values of the actual subjects the students will teach when they take positions in the schools4 ,the proper cordination of the university forces contributing to teaching efficiency is the curriculum problem for the immediate future in university administration4 ,at present the solutions are about as numerous as the institutions concerned4#ie ,,the ,,requirements ,,of ,a ,,standardizing ,,association ,the standardization of the requirements will require legislation or the action of central standardizing associations4 ,this movement is now under way4 ,the ,north ,central ,association of ,colleges and ,secondary ,schools sets as its standards for approval of high schools the following3 ,all teachers teaching one or more academic subjects must satisfy the following standards3 ,a4 ,the minimum attainment of teachers of academic subjects shall be equivalent to graduation from a college belonging to the ,north ,central ,association of ,colleges and ,secondary ,schools requiring the completion of a four-year course of study or #abj semester hours in advance of a standard four-year high school course4 ,such requirement shall not be construed as retroactive4 ,b4 ,the minimum professional training of teachers of academic subjects shall be at least eleven semester hours in education4 ,this should include special study of the subject matter and pedagogy of the subject to be taught4 ,such requirements shall not be construed as retroactive4 7,for the succeeding year the ,board will interpret courses in education as the same courses are interpreted by the colleges or universities offering them47 ,c4 ,if a teacher1 new to a given high school1 does not fully meet the requirement of the above standards but1 in the opinion of the inspector1 possesses the equivalent of the training prescribed1 the inspector shall submit1 to the ,board of ,inspectors1 a statement concerning the training1 experience1 and teaching efficiency of the said teacher1 together with his recommendation4 ,the ,board shall1 on each case presented1 make a decision4#if ,,the ,,california ,,requirements ,,the ,,most ,,advanced ,,in ,,the ,,united ,,states ,the qualifications required by the ,state ,board of ,education in ,california are the highest required in any state4 ,they are as follows3 ,,requirements ,high school certificates may be issued by county and city and county boards of education under the provisions of section #aeai1 subdivision #e 7a72 section #agge1 subdivision #a 7a71 and section #agib of the ,political ,code of ,california1 to candidates who meet all of the following requirements1 to wit3 7#a7 ,requirement of ,bachelor's degree4 ,each candidate shall have received a ,bachelor's degree from a standard college requiring not less than eight years of high school and college training4 7#b7 ,requirement of one year of graduate study4 ,each candidate shall submit evidence that in addition to the academic and professional courses required for the ,bachelor's degree1 he has completed at least one year of graduate study1 doing full regular work1 though not necessarily a candidate for a degree1 in an approved graduate school as hereinafter defined4 ,such graduate study shall include at least one full year course of advanced or graduate work in at least one of the subjects in which candidate expects to be recommended for certification4 7#c7 ,requirement of fifteen units of work in education4 ,each candidate shall also submit evidence that he has completed in undergraduate or graduate standing1 or the two combined1 not less than fifteen units 7semester hours7 of work1 in courses listed in the department of education in the institution in which the graduate work is completed1 or courses in other departments of that or other institutions accepted as preparation for teaching by the department of education4 ,these fifteen units of work shall include the several courses in education hereinafter prescribed4 99 99 99 99 99 ,required work in education4 ,the required fifteen units of work in the department of education shall include the following courses3 7a7 ,a course in school and classroom management1 or equivalent work--a minimum of one unit4 7b7 ,work in actual practice of teaching1 with conferences--a minimum of four units4 7c7 ,a teacher's course in at least one subject in which the candidate expects to be recommended for certification1 if such course be given in the institution and be accepted by or listed under the work in education--a maximum of three units for all such courses4 7d7 ,a course in secondary education1 presenting particularly the purpose and attainable goals of high school work--a minimum of two units4 7e7 ,such other courses relating to the theory1 function and administration of public education1 as are needed to complete the required fifteen units4 ,practice teaching4 ,the work in practice teaching shall be done under the general supervision of the department of education of the institution in which the year of graduate work is taken1 and may be done in schools of elementary1 intermediate or secondary grade1 though preferably in secondary school work of the kind the candidate is preparing to teach1 and under the direction of competent instructors in such work4 ,the work in practice teaching may also be done in connection with the training school of any ,california state normal school4 ,teachers' courses4 ,each teacher's course shall be a bona fide teacher's course and shall be made as concrete and practicable as possible1 and shall have for its purpose the preparation of teachers to give intelligent instruction in the subject in the high schools of this ,state4#ig ,,continuation ,,training ,,of ,,school ,,officers ,the requirements which have been discussed up to this point have to do with admission to the teaching profession4 ,beyond that point there is nothing that can be described as sufficiently common to be regarded as typical4 ,there are voluntary and compulsory gatherings of every kind and variety intended to keep teachers intellectually alert and to inform them of progress in educational matters4 ,there are institutes1 so called1 where teachers hear lectures4 ,there are extension lectures1 provided sometimes by boards of education1 sometimes by teachers' associations4 ,there are meetings of teachers called by the superintendent or by the supervisor of a special subject or of a special grade4 ,the miscellaneous activities which are indicated by such a list as the above all recognize the necessity of continued study on the part of teachers in service1 and many boards of education are requiring study in addition to success in teaching as an essential prerequisite to promotion or to increases in salary4 ,the most significant movement which has ever been witnessed in the training of teachers in service is the summer-school movement4 ,all the leading institutions of learning in the country are filled during the long summer vacation with teachers who are pursuing courses in education or in the various subjects which they teach4 ,,specialized ,,training ,,for ,,administration ,two phases of continuation study on the part of teachers deserve special discussion4 ,first1 the form of promotion which carries a teacher into school administration1 that is1 into a principalship or superintendency1 is being hedged about with very definite demands for advanced study on the part of candidates4 ,this advanced study must take the form of readings or courses on administrative problems4 ,such problems have been exemplified in earlier chapters which have dealt with costs1 promotions1 and the like4 ,it can be safely asserted that the time is not far distant when a special preparation will be required for entrance on administrative positions4 ,,contributions ,,to ,,the ,,science ,,of ,,education ,second1 the study of school problems by teachers in service has contributed powerfully to the creation of bodies of organized knowledge bearing directly on school matters4 ,when education courses were designed chiefly for candidates for teaching positions1 these courses survived even if they had no close relation to school work4 ,to-day the situation is entirely different in character4 ,teachers in service come to the study of education with urgent problems to be solved4 ,the abstract statements of the older courses will not satisfy such students4 ,the impulses toward the development of scientific information about schools which arise out of a demand for efficiency and economy are powerfully renforced by the demand within the teaching profession itself for definite and constructive studies of school problems4 ,,exercises ,,and ,,readings ,the training of teachers is so closely related to state legislation that this chapter suggests the possibility of introducing the student to the methods of looking up state laws4 ,how does one go about finding school laws8 ,why is education a matter of state legislation rather than a matter of national legislation8 ,what are some of the striking differences between the educational laws of different states8 ,second1 since the economic conditions which control teachers' salaries are of importance in determining how much training teachers shall be required to secure1 the question of salaries is an important one4 ,this matter may be looked up in the two bulletins referred to below4 ,,coffman1 ,l4 ,d4 ,social ,composition of the ,teaching ,population4 ,teachers ,college ,publications1 #aiaa4 ,the ,tangible ,rewards of ,teaching4 ,bulletin ,no4 #af1 ,united ,states ,bureau of ,education1 #aiad4 ,a ,comparative ,study of the ,salaries of ,teachers and ,school ,officers4 ,bulletin ,no4 #ca1 ,united ,states ,bureau of ,education1 #aiae4 ,,footnotes3 #ic ,charles ,hubbard ,judd and ,samuel ,chester ,parker1 ,problems involved in ,standardizing ,state ,normal ,schools1 pp4 #g-i4 ,bulletin ,no4 #ab1 ,united ,states ,bureau of ,education1 #aiaf4 #id ,charles ,h4 ,judd1 ,the ,training of ,teachers in ,england1 ,scotland1 and ,germany1 pp4 #gd-hb4 ,bulletin ,no4 #ce1 ,united ,states ,bureau of ,education1 #aiad4 #ie ,charles ,hughes ,johnston1 8,progress of ,teacher ,training40 ,report of the ,commissioner of ,education1 #aiac1 ,vol4 ,i1 chap4 xxiv1 p4 #ebj4 #if ,proceedings of the ,twenty-first ,annual ,meeting of the ,north ,central ,association of ,colleges and ,secondary ,schools1 #aiaf1 p4 #id4 #ig 8,revised ,rules governing ,high-,school ,certification10 pp4 #c-e4 ,bulletin ,no4 #e1 ,california ,state ,board of ,education1 #aiae4 ,,appendix ,,classroom ,,observation ,in connection with the study of the foregoing chapters and collateral readings it is desirable that students visit classrooms and make systematic observations of the work there under way4 ,in order that such observations may be productive it is necessary that the student have definite ends in view1 otherwise observation will be scattered over many phases of that which is seen4 ,the questions below are intended to furnish guidance4 ,it is recommended that each student in the course be required to spend at least three hundred minutes in observation and that he or she prepare a written report4 ,,general ,,directions ,before going to the classes for observation determine which of the topics outlined below you are going to make the subject of special study4 ,it will be advantageous for you to learn the questions4 ,go prepared to take notes4 ,confine your attention after the first general observations outlined below to the particular topic on which you are to report4 ,take down facts and definite individual observations4 ,you are at liberty to talk with teachers if you can do so without imposing on them1 but your report is not to be based on what they say but on what you see4 ,do not quote from books on the subject of your study4 ,prepare a report of not less than two thousand words4 ,,general ,,questions ,,to ,,be ,,answered ,,in ,,each ,,report #a4 ,in what school or schools did you make your observations8 #b4 ,how many visits did you make1 and how long was each8 7,give dates and minutes47 #c4 ,what was the grade of the class1 and what was the subject of instruction8 #d4 ,report on the physical conditions of each room4 ,what was the condition of the temperature1 of the lighting1 of the ventilation8 ,what kind of furniture was used8 ,did you see signs of fatigue on the part of teacher or pupils8 ,after noting these general external conditions1 turn your attention to one of the problems outlined below and prepare your report with reference to that single topic4 ,i4 ,,grading ,attend a class several times until you come to know something of each individual member2 then form a judgment as to the desirability of holding the group together4 ,suggest changes such as the putting forward or putting back of certain individuals4 #a4 ,are the students alike in their physical development1 or are some oversized8 #b4 ,are the mental differences parallel with the physical8 #c4 ,do you observe symptoms showing that some children frequently do not understand the class work and therefore are to be regarded as below the grade8 #d4 ,do you see evidences that children are not fully occupied because the work is too easy for them8 #e4 ,children differ in their willingness and ability to take part in class work4 ,how far should this be considered in grouping children8 #f4 ,how far does the grouping of students in a class help or hinder the development of an individual8 ,give definite cases4 #g4 ,should the class be changed in size to provide for the best teaching8 #h4 ,in certain schools the effort is now being made to organize more individual instruction4 ,what do your observations lead you to conclude about the desirability of such a plan8 ,,ii4 ,,methods ,,of ,,discipline ,for observations under this section visit a number of different classes and note the general restlessness or quiet of the groups4 ,note in detail how the 8order0 is maintained1 and try to determine 7#a7 what is the teacher's notion of order in each case1 and 7#b7 what devices he employs in securing what he wants4 #a4 ,are there formal rules8 ,for example1 must the pupils sit in a certain way8 ,must they ask questions in a certain way8 #b4 ,does the teacher talk about order8 #c4 ,does he have other devices that are evident1 such as pausing and looking at some member of the class8 #d4 ,does he inflict penalties8 #e4 ,does he have devices that are less obvious1 such as varying the character of the work or calling on a member of the class who is disorderly8 #f4 ,what is the relation of order to the subject of instruction8 #g4 ,does the teacher neglect disorder which you would correct8 #h4 ,of all the cases which you observed1 which do you regard as the best kind of order8 ,,iii4 ,,preparation ,,on ,,the ,,part ,,of ,,the ,,teacher ,visit several different teachers and contrast their methods4 ,it may be advantageous after a first visit to go back to observe again teachers who are radically different4 #a4 ,distinguish between a teacher's general preparation or broad knowledge of a subject and his special preparation for a particular class exercise4 ,what evidence is there that the teacher prepared for this particular exercise8 #b4 ,does the teacher seem to have in mind a fixed order in which the lesson is to proceed8 #c4 ,what is the relation of economy of the time and energy of the class to the teacher's preparation8 #d4 ,has the teacher anything to contribute outside of the textbook material8 #e4 ,does the teacher know how to fit the work to the class period so as to make a complete exercise8 #f4 ,is there evidence that the teacher has made specific preparation for the next exercise8 ,,iv4 ,,preparation ,,on ,,the ,,part ,,of ,,pupils ,one of the best ways to get material for this section is to go first to the high-school study room or to the general library and take note of the way in which people study4 ,the kind of question which should be raised in these observations of study periods is illustrated in ,v 7,b7 below4 ,after making these preliminary observations go to some recitations and see if there are evidences in the individual recitations of the way in which the work of preparing the lesson has been done4 ,the purpose of this particular section is to discuss the methods of judging preparation from the recitation4 #a4 ,what proportion of the class has thought about the lesson as well as learned what is in the book8 #b4 ,when a student fails try to determine whether his failure is due to lack of study or to bad methods of study4 ,for example1 if a student has learned his lesson by heart1 and forgets1 he is very different from the student who has not tried either to understand or to learn by heart4 #c4 ,how far is the recitation an examination1 and how far does it teach students to think8 ,what is the effect of the teacher's method on the future study of the pupil8 #d4 ,how far do students show initiative in carrying forward the work8 #e4 ,how many questions do they ask8 #f4 ,girls generally get better marks than boys for their class work4 ,why is this8 ,do boys contribute anything that girls do not8 #g4 ,is there any difference in intellectual maturity exhibited by different members of the class8 ,v 7,a74 ,,attention ,,during ,,recitation ,this section will be of special interest to those who wish to observe in the lower grades4 ,productive observations can be made1 however1 in every grade4 ,the chief business of the school is to train in concentration4 ,observe individual pupils closely4 #a4 ,how long does a child keep his attention fixed on one thing8 #b4 ,what distractions does a schoolroom present8 #c4 ,what concession does the teacher make when pupils do not keep up concentration8 ,for example1 does he repeat questions8 #d4 ,what positive devices are adopted to keep up attention8 #e4 ,what are the physical symptoms of attention and its absence8 #f4 ,what individual differences are to be noted8 #g4 ,do you note differences in attention at different times in the day or at different periods of the recitation8 ,v 7,b74 ,,attention ,,during ,,periods ,,of ,,study ,for this section go to the study room or to some class that is engaged in individual work1 as1 for example1 the laboratory4 #a4 ,note the way in which a student goes about his work4 ,is he ready to begin at once1 or does he have to get matters together deliberately after he sits down8 #b4 ,note whether he reads continuously from the book which he is studying4 #c4 ,pay attention to the sort of thing that the student does when he looks away from the book4 ,does he turn his attention to other objects1 or is he trying to think about the book itself8 ,in general1 what are the distractions that seem to take his attention from the work8 ,when he comes back to his book1 where does he take up the work8 #d4 ,is his rate of work evidently slow or rapid8 ,this can be judged by watching him long enough to see how much time he spends in reading a given page4 #e4 ,note1 if you can1 the different ways in which students study different subjects4 ,for example1 is their work in history different from their work in mathematics8 ,if so1 which one seems to you to secure the highest degree of attention8 ,is the writing of notes apparently of value in keeping them at work8 ,,vi4 ,,questions ,,and ,,answers ,a comparison of different teachers and of different subjects of instruction will bring out most clearly the distinctions here aimed at4 #a4 ,what part of the recitation is consumed in asking questions8 #b4 ,are the questions such as to require answers of more than a single sentence8 #c4 ,are the questions based directly on the text8 #d4 ,what is the mode of assigning the question to members of the class for answer8 #e4 ,give examples of good questions with reasons for your selection4 #f4 ,contrast different subjects of instruction with reference to the questions which they permit4 #g4 ,give examples of questions which seem to you too general or otherwise vague4 ,,vii4 ,,motor ,,processes ,the gymnasium1 the sewing class1 the cooking class1 and the manual-training shop furnish the best opportunities for observations on this topic4 ,penmanship classes and almost any lower-grade exercise will1 however1 serve4 #a4 ,what are the characteristics of a clumsy movement8 #b4 ,point out certain instinctive elements of behavior2 that is1 forms of movement which do not have to be learned1 but are natural4 ,are these always helpful in the learning process8 #c4 ,note the prevalence of rhythm in many forms of behavior4 ,is the rhythm more striking where the behavior is natural and instinctive or where it is being acquired as a special habit of skill8 #d4 ,comment on the educational value of repeating acts which seem to have reached a high degree of perfection1 such as taking stitches or swinging ,indian clubs4 #e4 ,are individual differences in rate and grace of movement capable of elimination through class training8 #f4 ,how far is skill dependent on knowledge8 ,,viii4 ,,relation ,,between ,,subjects ,,taught ,for purposes of this section follow a class for a whole forenoon4 ,if the class observed is one of the lower grades1 the organization which places this class largely in the hands of one teacher favors a close interrelation of subjects4 ,in the upper grades and high school1 on the other hand1 organization makes interrelating difficult4 #a4 ,what cases did you observe in which the teacher consciously tried to illuminate one subject by reference to another8 #b4 ,did the pupils ask any questions or make remarks which showed that they were thinking about other school topics8 #c4 ,within a given subject there is sometimes opportunity to relate topics which are remote from each other in the textbook4 ,did the classes visited show any examples of such relating of topics8 #d4 ,what opportunities for interrelating subjects did you observe in addition to those taken advantage of by the class8 #e4 ,sometimes the contrast produced by change from one topic to another or from one classroom to another is important in arousing or depressing a class4 ,what contrasts did you observe8 ,,index ,academic courses in high schools1 #g ,academy1 ,american1 #bg ,accounting1 school1 #fa ,administration1 studies of1 #bjh training for1 #cai ,administrative problems1 study of1 #cjc ,adolescence1 #bfh early1 #aij later1 #aid ,adults1 continuation classes for1 #adg and the curriculum1 #bjj ,after-school classes1 #ade ,age limits of compulsory education1 #db ,agricultural high schools1 #acd ,alderman1 ,l4 ,r41 #add ,algebra1 history of1 #aae ,allen1 ,i4 ,m41 #aaj1 #bch ,allison1 ,elizabeth ,w41 #bhe ,american ,academy of ,political and ,social ,science1 #aee ,american schools1 #ad1 #bf of #ahej1 #cc ,ames1 ,e4 ,s41 #aif ,appendix1 #cba ,arabic numerals1 #aaf ,arithmetic1 #aag nonpromotions in1 #ajc studies of1 #baj ,associations of parents and teachers1 #aeb ,athletics1 #adf ,attendance1 #ce1 #da ,attention1 observation of1 #cbd ,auditoriums1 school1 #ij ,austin1 ,texas1 #ch ,authority in school system1 #ff ,ayres1 ,l4 ,p41 #e1 #de1 #hb1 #ajf1 #bjb1 #bae1 #baf1 #bhh1 #cjg ,ayres1 ,may1 #hb ,bagley1 ,w4 ,c41 #bjd1 #baa1 #bea1 #bec ,bailey1 ,w4 ,a41 #bfd ,batavia system1 #aaj ,binet-,simon tests1 #agb ,board of education1 #ff1 #fg ,bobbitt1 ,j4 ,f41 iv1 #ef1 #aja1 #abf ,boise1 ,idaho1 #ajd ,books1 free1 #fj ,boston1 ,massachusetts1 #ie ,boston ,latin ,school1 #bg ,boys1 special commercial training for1 #agg ,breslich1 ,e4 ,r41 #bce ,bright pupils1 #agd ,british ,royal ,commission on the ,feeble-minded1 ,report of1 #agj ,brooks1 ,charles1 #bb ,brown1 ,e4 ,e41 #ca ,bryant1 ,louise ,s41 #bhb ,buildings1 school1 #gd1 #gh ,bunker1 ,f4 ,f41 #bb1 #bd1 #ca ,bureau of ,census1 #ea ,bureau of ,education1 #fb ,burritt1 ,b4 ,b41 #bjj ,business administration of schools1 #fh ,california ,state ,board of ,education1 #cag ,cameron1 ,e4 ,h41 iv ,caste and schools1 #ag ,centralization1 of school control1 #fd of school organization1 #bia ,charters1 ,w4 ,w41 #bjf1 #bda ,chicago1 ,illinois1 #df1 #ej1 #fd ,child labor1 #dj ,childhood1 #ahe ,city ,club of ,chicago1 #acc ,civics1 #aci ,clark1 ,e41 #fb ,class1 organization of1 #if ,class instruction1 #aaj ,class period1 #bef ,classes1 sizes of and costs1 #eh ,classical curriculum1 #aad ,classical program1 #abi ,classroom management1 #bdb ,classroom observation1 #cba ,clerks1 training of1 #agg ,cleveland1 #ajb1 #aha1 #bag ,clubs1 corn1 #adi ,coffman1 ,l4 ,d41 #bjh1 #cbj ,college courses1 as preparatory1 #bjg once professional1 #aad for teachers1 #cae ,colonial education1 #abb ,colorado1 #f ,comenius1 #cjj ,commercial ,club of ,chicago1 #acb ,commercial courses1 #agg in high schools1 #acb1 #acc in private schools1 #acb1 #acc ,commissioner of ,education1 #be reports of1 #cg1 #ch1 #da1 #dh1 #cjg ,committee of ,ten1 #abf ,community1 conservatism of1 #b and control of schools1 #fc lessons in1 #aci studies of1 #bib ,community centers1 #aej ,comparative method1 #ad ,comparison1 method of1 #bba1 #cjd ,compulsory education1 #cj ,compulsory legislation1 #cg ,concentration1 #aeh ,connecticut school law1 #af ,conservatism in community1 #b ,consolidation of schools1 #ib ,contagion in schools1 #bhc ,continuation classes1 #adg ,continuation training of teachers1 #cah ,coperative recitation1 #bdj ,corporation schools1 #ace ,correlation1 observation of1 #cbf ,correspondence schools1 #aec ,costs1 and class instruction1 #ig and efficiency1 #eb school1 #df of school construction1 #hi ,course of study1 changes in1 #b ,courses of study1 and costs1 #ef for girls1 #ahj ,courtis1 ,s4 ,a41 #bbh1 #bie ,cousin1 #bc ,credits1 for courses1 #bfa for home activities1 #adb ,cubberley1 ,e4 ,p41 #cd1 #cg1 #eb1 #fb1 #gg ,current references and the curriculum1 #bjc ,curricula of schools1 #ah ,curriculum 7see also ,course of study71 #aac1 #aig conservatism regarding1 #b and costs1 #di1 #ef for girls1 #ahj grading of subjects in1 #ii and individual differences1 #ag and industry1 #abe principles of1 #aef readjustments in1 #aje revision of1 #acb and school buildings1 #ij and school equipment1 #hh ,deffenbaugh1 ,w4 ,s41 #bee ,democracy1 and individual differences1 #ahb and school management1 #bia ,demonstrations as means of education1 #aej ,denver survey1 #he1 #ajg ,department of ,superintendence1 #gj1 #ahb ,departmentalization of grades1 #ia ,desks1 #hg1 #hh ,detroit1 ,michigan1 #gb ,device1 #bbi ,dewey1 ,john1 #ac1 #hh ,differentiated curricula1 #ahb ,discipline1 #aeg classroom1 #bdb1 #bdi impersonal1 #beb observation of1 #cbb ,district control of schools1 #fd1 #ga ,dressler1 ,f4 ,b41 #hj ,drill1 #bdj ,dual school system1 #aca ,earhart1 ,l4 ,b41 #bda ,economy1 demand for1 #eb ,education1 of common people1 #cb according to nature1 #aeh and industry1 #dj ,educational psychology1 #cja ,efficiency and costs1 #eb ,efficiency experts1 #bie ,elementary-education expenditures1 #dg1 #dh1 #ee1 #eh ,elimination from school1 #aba ,english secondary schools1 #bi ,entertainment1 #aej ,errors in oral reading1 #bbe ,euclid1 #aaf ,european schools1 #ad1 #ag ,examinations1 #bdj ,english1 #bi ,exceptional pupils1 #agd ,excursions1 field1 #bci ,exercises and readings1 #ab1 #cj1 #de1 #fb1 #gf1 #ie1 #aaa1 #abe1 #aci1 #aed1 #afh1 #ahb1 #aie1 #baj1 #bbh1 #bda1 #beb1 #bfe1 #bgh1 #bhg1 #big1 #cjf1 #cbj ,experimental method1 #h1 #cjb ,experiments in education1 #cjb ,extension of education1 #ada ,eye movements in reading1 #i ,failures1 and classification of pupils1 #ajb in high school1 #ajg ,fairy tales1 #ahh ,farrington1 ,f4 ,e41 #ca1 #adj ,fatigue1 #bef and lighting1 #he and play1 #bfi ,feeble-mindedness1 #agj ,figures1 #f1 #h1 #i1 #ah1 #ej1 #ei1 #gi1 #hj1 #ha1 #hc1 #hd1 #ajc1 #acc1 #aha1 #bah1 #bbc1 #bfc ,financial support of schools1 #cf ,fiscal problem1 #dd ,fiske1 ,john1 #ahd1 #cjf ,fleming1 ,g4 ,l41 #eg ,flexner1 ,abraham1 #abi1 #aec ,fond du ,lac1 ,wisconsin1 #ajj ,food and education1 #bha ,foreign languages1 teaching of1 #aff ,formal training1 #afb ,free education1 #bh ,freedom1 doctrine of1 #aeh ,freeman1 ,f4 ,n41 iv1 #baf1 #cjb1 #cjf ,galton1 ,francis1 #ahc ,gardening1 school1 #adf1 #bci ,gary plan1 #ij1 #ajj ,general courses1 #ach ,general education1 #aad1 #abg ,general ,education ,board1 #adi ,general training1 #afb ,geometry1 history of1 #aae ,german schools1 #bb1 #bi ,german system of training teachers1 #cab ,giles1 ,f4 ,m41 #bcf ,girls1 education of1 #bh1 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,m41 #afc ,madison1 ,wisconsin1 #bgd ,maine1 #ii ,malnutrition1 #bha ,management of school system1 #fg ,manhattan ,trade ,school1 #acf ,mann1 ,horace1 #bb1 #cf ,marks1 #bde systems of1 #bfa ,massachusetts1 #bb1 #cg ,mathematics in high school1 #aae ,maturity of pupils1 #aff ,maury1 ,sarah ,w41 #bhj ,measurement of school results1 #gc1 #bab1 #bid ,mechanical aspects of school work1 #bbg ,meek1 ,c4 ,s41 #b ,method1 #bbi experiments in1 #bci ,methods1 courses in1 iii1 #cjj of study1 #bce ,meyer1 ,m4 ,f41 #bfc ,michigan1 #f1 #bb ,miller1 ,edith1 #bjf ,minneapolis1 #gd1 #aai ,minneapolis survey1 #aa ,minnesota1 #f1 #g ,missouri1 #f ,mistakes of pupils1 study of1 #bjd ,monahan1 ,a4 ,c41 #ie ,money1 training in use of1 #aah ,monroe1 ,paul1 #bfe ,monroe1 ,w4 ,s41 #ca ,montana1 #f ,montessori1 #aei ,morehouse1 ,f4 ,m41 #bec ,morons1 #aga ,motor processes1 observation of1 #cbe ,national ,association of ,directors of ,educational ,research1 #gg ,national life1 lessons in1 #aci ,national 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,questions1 observation of1 #cbe ,quintilian1 #cjj ,rapeer1 ,l4 ,w41 #bhb ,rate1 of handwriting1 #bag of oral reading1 #bbe ,reading1 #h1 #ahh in ,american schools1 #ae individual differences in1 #ahj nonpromotions and1 #ajc oral1 #bbb rate of1 #ahj ,reading school1 colonial1 #af1 #abc ,readings1 exercises and1 #ab1 #cj1 #de1 #fb1 #gf1 #ie1 #aaa1 #abe1 #aci1 #aed1 #afh1 #ahb1 #aie1 #baj1 #bbh1 #bda1 #beb1 #bfe1 #bgh1 #bhg1 #big1 #cjf1 #cbj ,recitation1 #ad attention during1 #cbd coperative1 #bdj ,records1 and scientific studies1 #cjd and standardization1 #bbb ,recreation1 #bfi ,religious teaching1 #bi ,report on classroom observations1 #cba ,report lesson1 #bci ,retardation1 #d1 #cjb ,reviews in seventh and eighth grades1 #aic ,rewards1 #bdg ,rice1 ,j4 ,m41 #bae ,roman1 ,f4 ,w41 #adj ,roman numerals and multiplication1 #aaf ,rousseau1 ,jean ,jacques1 #ac1 #aeh1 #cjj ,routine1 organization of1 #bde ,rudimentary curriculum1 #be ,rugg1 ,h4 ,o41 iv1 #ee1 #fb1 #baa1 #cjg ,rural school buildings1 #hj ,salaries1 teachers'1 #fj ,sanitation and school buildings1 #gh ,scales1 #bae1 #bid ,schmidt1 ,w4 ,a41 #aj ,school credits for home activities1 #adb ,school day1 length of1 #bed ,school discipline1 #bdi ,school finance1 #hi ,school program and play1 #bgf ,school ,report of #ahja1 #bj ,school-city1 #bej ,science of education1 #bii definition of1 #cje subdivisions of1 #cjd and teachers1 #cbj ,scientific methods1 #ad applied to marks1 #bfb demand for1 #c for revising the curriculum1 #bjj and standardization1 #bbh of studying the curriculum1 #aig and supervision1 #dd1 #gb1 #bif ,scientific supervision1 #bhi ,secondary schools 7see also ,high schools71 #ag1 #aib teachers in1 #caa ,secular schools1 #bi ,sense experiences and primary education1 #ahg ,seventh grade1 reorganization of1 #ahb ,shearman1 ,f4 ,w41 #bd ,sheldon1 #bca ,shopwork1 #bdj ,shorey1 ,paul1 #acj ,silent reading1 #h 8,six-three-and-three0 plan1 #aba ,smith1 ,w4 ,h41 #ie ,social arts1 period of learning1 #ahh ,social consciousness1 #aij ,social control1 types of1 #bdd ,social standards1 #bbj ,south ,carolina1 #da ,south ,dakota1 #f1 #g ,space study1 #aag ,spaulding1 ,f4 ,e41 #aje ,special classes1 #aje1 #age ,special courses for defectives1 #agb ,specialization1 #aid ,specialized education1 #aac1 #abg ,speed of handwriting1 #bag ,spelling tests1 #bja ,spencer1 ,herbert1 #ac1 #bec1 #cjf ,springfield1 ,illinois1 survey1 #bjb ,standardization of results1 #bid ,standardizing associations1 #caf ,standards1 based on opinion1 #bac objective1 #bad ,state control1 #cc ,state and school finance1 #ed ,state supervision of education1 #db ,statistical studies1 #cja ,stevens1 ,bertha ,m41 #agg ,st4 ,louis1 #ajf1 #bbc ,st4 ,louis survey1 #ee ,strayer1 ,g4 ,d41 #ie1 #bda ,study1 attention during1 #cbe ,study lesson1 #bci ,subject-matter versus method1 #bcj ,summaries1 #abe1 #afg ,superintendent of schools1 #ff1 #fi ,supernormal child1 #agd ,supervised study1 #aaa1 #bce1 #bcg ,supervision1 #db1 #fc of courses1 #baj of health1 #bgh scientific1 #bhi ,supplies1 costs of1 #fj ,survey1 industrial1 #aa of recreations1 #bgj ,system1 the school1 #cj ,tables1 #dh1 #ea1 #ee1 #eg1 #eh1 #ajg ,tachau1 ,lena ,l41 #bhj ,taunton1 ,massachusetts1 school report1 #bj ,taxation1 general1 for schools1 #cf ,teachers1 continuation courses for1 #cah preparation of1 #cbc relation of1 to community1 #fc and the science of education1 #cbj secondary-school1 #caa selection and management of1 #bic training of1 #cjh ,technical courses in high schools1 #g ,terman1 ,l4 ,m41 #ie1 #agb ,tests1 #bid of adults1 #bja of general intelligence1 #agb of methods1 #bdj of school products1 #gb1 #bab ,texas1 compulsory education in1 #cg1 #ch ,textbooks in ,american schools1 #ad ,thorndike1 ,e4 ,l41 #ahc1 #baf1 #cja1 #cjg ,trade education1 #aa ,trade schools1 #ace ,trade training for girls1 #acf ,training of teachers1 #cjh ,transfer of training1 #afe ,ungraded class1 #aja ,units1 high-school1 #g ,university of ,alexandria1 #aaf ,university of ,cincinnati1 #acd ,university of ,missouri1 #bfc ,unruly pupils1 #bea ,vacation classes1 #ade ,ventilation1 #hf ,vernacular1 #ah1 #be ,vocational education1 #abb1 #aca ,volksschule1 #ag1 #ah1 #ai1 #be ,vorschule1 #ai ,ward1 ,d4 ,a41 #bcc ,washington1 ,booker1 #afi ,wealth and educational expenditures1 #ec ,wheaton1 ,h4 ,h41 #adg ,wider use of school plant1 #ada ,wirt1 ,w4 ,a41 #ij ,wisconsin1 #f ,wood1 ,t4 ,d41 #bhh ,woolman1 ,mary ,s41 #acf ,wyoming1 #f ,young1 ,ella ,flagg1 #b ,,announcements ,,for ,,the ,,teacher',s ,,library ,,introduction ,,to ,,the ,,scientific ,,study ,,of ,,education ,by ,,charles ,,hubbard ,,judd1 ,professor of ,education and ,director of the ,school of ,education1 ,the ,university of ,chicago xii #ccc ,pages ,this book summarizes the scientific methods employed in solving problems of school organization and administration which in recent years have resulted in much economy of time and effort and the elimination of nonessentials4 ,it is the first comprehensive introduction to the scientific study of education4 ,the wealth of concrete1 informing material makes it particularly valuable in introductory courses in normal schools and training classes as well as in colleges4 ,,the ,,psychology ,,of ,,high-,,school ,,subjects ,by ,,charles ,,hubbard ,,judd #eae pages ,a psychological analysis of the mental processes developed in the student by each subject in the high-school curriculum4 ,on these analyses many problems of value and method depend for their solution4 ,each discussion is introduced by a summary of the psychological facts relating to it4 ,this book should not be overlooked by anyone interested in educational problems4 ,,methods ,,of ,,teaching ,,in ,,high ,,schools ,by ,,samuel ,,chester ,,parker1 ,the ,university of ,chicago xxv #ebi pages1 illustrated ,a careful study of the principles underlying the actual class work of high-school teachers4 ,the scope and method are indicated by some of the chapter titles3 ,economy in ,classroom ,management2 ,reflective ,thinking2 ,conversational ,methods2 ,laboratory ,methods2 ,the ,art of ,questioning2 ,measuring the ,results of ,teaching4 ,for reading and general reference the book will be most helpful to high-school teachers4 ,,two ,,books ,,on ,,elementary ,,education ,,school ,,efficiency ,by ,,henry ,,eastman ,,bennett1 ,professor of ,education1 ,college of ,william and ,mary4 ,the first aim of 8,school ,efficiency0 is to be practical and genuinely helpful to teachers4 ,it aims also to set higher ideals in this field than are usually associated with the practical attitude4 ,the author has discussed topics which claim the attention of the teacher on every day of the school year1--school grounds1 buildings1 lighting1 heat and ventilation1 health inspection1 marking systems and reports1 discipline1 and many others1--and in discussing them has kept ever uppermost in his mind the average school of average opportunities and the teacher of average ability1 which is one of the important reasons why this volume is a real contribution to the teacher's library4 #cgd pages1 illustrated ,,history ,,of ,,modern ,,elementary ,,education ,by ,,samuel ,,chester ,,parker1 ,professor of ,education1 ,the ,university of ,chicago4 ,this book provides a continuous1 connected history of elementary education from the earliest vernacular schools of medieval cities to the schools of the present4 ,the subject is considered under three main heads3 social conditions1 educational theory1 and school practice4 ,the relation of each to historical development is clearly traced4 ,the author shows in a concrete way how elementary schools keep abreast of changing social conditions such as the growth of vernacular literatures1 of cities1 of modern science1 and of national governments and democracy1 tracing the resulting changes in the elementary curriculum4 ,he gives especially full treatment to ,rousseau1 ,pestalozzi1 ,herbart1 ,froebel1 ,parker1 and ,dewey4 #eje pages1 illustrated ,,good ,,books ,,for ,,teachers ,,everyday ,,pedagogy ,by ,,lillian ,i4 ,,lincoln1 ,state ,normal ,school1 ,farmington1 ,maine4 #caj pages ,definite and practical suggestions from a teacher of wide experience4 ,the book treats each of the regular common-school subjects in a separate chapter4 ,it includes chapters on discipline1 conducting the recitation1 and similar general topics4 ,,what ,,is ,,education8 ,by ,,ernest ,,carroll ,,moore1 ,harvard ,university4 #ceg pages ,what is ,knowledge8 ,the ,doctrine of ,general ,discipline1 ,education as ,world ,building1 ,the ,kinds of ,education1 ,the ,place of ,method in ,education1 and other essays on the underlying philosophy of teaching by an experienced educator4 ,,the ,,dramatic ,,method ,,of ,,teaching ,by ,,harriet ,,finlay-,,johnson4 #aii pages1 illustrated ,the fascinating story of what the author accomplished as head mistress of a unique school on the ,sussex ,downs of ,england4 ,she applied dramatic methods of teaching to every subject in the school curriculum1 with surprising results4 ,,the ,,normal ,,child ,,and ,,primary ,,education ,by ,,arnold ,l4 ,,gesell1 ,yale ,university1 and ,,beatrice ,,chandler ,,gesell4 #cdb pages1 illustrated ,a fresh1 comprehensive1 nontechnical study of the child4 ,introductory chapters present in a readable way the biological and genetic background1 and later chapters make concrete1 practical applications of the principles developed4 ,,social ,,education ,by ,,colin ,,alexander ,,scott1 ,mt4 ,holyoke ,college4 #cjj pages ,the social forces at work among pupils and the ways in which these can be utilized for education4 ,schools like the ,george ,junior ,republic and the ,dewey ,school are studied for their suggestive value1 but the book covers a much broader field4 ,,education ,,as ,,growth3 ,,or ,,the ,,culture ,,of ,,character ,by ,l4 ,h4 ,,jones1 formerly ,president of ,michigan ,state ,normal ,college4 #bge pages ,a detailed discussion of the best ways of developing sound character through education4 ,the method of the book is that of evolution1 each chapter treating the spiritual life of the developing child on a higher level4 ,,books ,,for ,,teachers ,allen3 ,civics and ,health ,bloomfield3 ,readings in ,vocational ,guidance ,brigham3 ,geographic ,influences in ,american ,history ,curtis3 ,play and ,recreation for the ,open ,country ,davis3 ,vocational and ,moral ,guidance ,finlay-,johnson3 ,the ,dramatic ,method of ,teaching ,gesell3 ,the ,normal ,child and ,primary ,education ,hall3 ,aspects of ,child ,life and ,education ,hodge3 ,nature ,study and ,life ,johnson3 ,education by ,plays and ,games ,johnson3 ,what to do at ,recess ,jones3 ,education as ,growth ,judd3 ,psychology of ,high-,school ,subjects ,judd3 ,scientific ,study of ,education ,kastman and ,khler3 ,swedish ,song ,games ,kern3 ,among ,country ,schools ,leavitt3 ,examples of ,industrial ,education ,leiper3 ,language ,work in ,elementary ,schools ,lincoln3 ,everyday ,pedagogy ,moore3 ,fifty ,years of ,american ,education ,moore3 ,what is ,education8 ,moral ,training in the ,public ,schools ,palmer3 ,play ,life in the ,first ,eight ,years ,parker3 ,history of ,modern ,elementary ,education ,parker3 ,methods of ,teaching in ,high ,schools ,phillips3 ,an ,elementary ,psychology ,prince3 ,courses of ,studies and ,methods of ,teaching ,read3 ,an ,introductory ,psychology ,sargent3 ,fine and ,industrial ,arts in ,elementary ,schools ,sargent and ,miller3 ,how ,children ,learn to ,draw ,scott3 ,social ,education ,smith3 ,the ,teaching of ,arithmetic ,tompkins3 ,philosophy of ,school ,management ,tompkins3 ,philosophy of ,teaching ,williams3 ,gardens and their ,meaning ,,ginn ,,and ,,company ,,publishers