#aghj     ,,! ,,metaphysical ,,elem5ts  
,,( ,,e?ics        by ,immanuel ,kant   
translat$ by ,?omas ,k+smill ,abbott    
,,preface  ,if !re exi/s on any subject 
a philosophy 7t is1 a sy/em ( rational k
 bas$ on concepts71 !n !re mu/ also be =
 ?is philosophy a sy/em ( pure rational 
concepts1 indep5d5t ( any condition (   
intuition1 9 o!r words1 a metaphysic4 ,x
 may be ask$ :e!r metaphysical elem5ts  
are requir$ also = e practical          
philosophy1 :i* is ! doctr9e ( duties1 &
 !re=e also = ,e?ics1 9 ord] to be able 
to pres5t x z a true sci5ce             
7sy/ematically71 n m]ely z an aggregate 
( sep>ate doctr9es 7fragm5t>ily74 ,z    
reg>ds pure jurisprud5ce1 no "o w "q ?is
 requirem5t2 = x conc]ns only :at is    
=mal 9 ! elective w1 :i* has to be      
limit$ 9 its ext]nal relations accord+  
to laws ( fre$om2 )\t reg>d+ any end :i*
 is ! matt] ( ?is w4 ,"h1 !re=e1        
deontology is a m]e sci5tific doctr9e   
7doctr9a sci5tiae74 99    99 ,"o :o is  
acqua9t$ ) practical philosophy is n1   

!re=e1 a practical philosoph]4 ,! latt] 
is he :o makes ! rational end ! pr9ciple
 ( 8 actions1 :ile at ! same "t he jo9s 
) ?is ! necess>y k :i*1 z x aims at     
action1 mu/ n be spun out into ! mo/    
subtile ?reads ( metaphysic1 unless a   
legal duty is 9 "q2 9 :i* case meum &   
tuum mu/ be accurately det]m9$ 9 !      
balance ( ju/ice1 on ! pr9ciple (       
equality ( action & action1 :i* requires
 some?+ l ma!matical proportion1 b n 9 !
 case ( a m]e e?ical duty4 ,= 9 ?is case
 ! "q is n only to "k :at x is a duty to
 d 7a ?+ :i* on acc\nt ( ! ends t all m5
 naturally h c be easily decid$71 b !   
*ief po9t is ! inn] pr9ciple ( ! w      
namely t ! consci\sness ( ?is duty be   
also ! spr+ ( action1 9 ord] t we may be
 able to say ( ! man :o jo9s to 8 k ?is 
pr9ciple ( wisdom t he is a practical   
philosoph]4    ,n[ 9 ?is philosophy 7(  
e?ics7 x seems contr>y to ! idea ( x t  
we %\ld g back to metaphysical elem5ts 9
 ord] to make ! notion ( duty purifi$ f 
ev]y?+ empirical 7f e feel+7 a motive ( 

action4 ,= :at sort ( notion c we =m ( !
 mighty p[] & h]culean /r5g? :i* w\ld be
 suffici5t to ov]come ! vice-bre$+      
incl9ations1 if ,virtue is to borr[ h]  
arms f ! arm\ry ( metaphysics1 :i* is a 
matt] ( speculation t only few m5 c     
h&le8 ,h5ce all e?ical tea*+ 9 lecture  
rooms1 pulpits1 & popul> books1 :5 x is 
deck$ out ) fragm5ts ( metaphysics1     
becomes ridicul\s4 ,b x is n1 !re=e1    
useless1 mu* less ridicul\s1 to trace 9 
metaphysics ! fir/ pr9ciples ( e?ics2 = 
x is only z a philosoph] t anyone c rea*
 ! fir/ pr9ciples ( ?is conception (    
duty1 o!rwise we c\ld n look = ei!r     
c]ta9ty or purity 9 ! e?ical tea*+4 ,to 
rely = ?is reason on a c]ta9 feel+ :i*1 
on acc\nt ( ! effect expect$ f x1 is    
call$ moral1 may1 p]haps1 ev5 satisfy ! 
popul> tea*]1 provid$ he desires z !    
crit]ion ( a moral duty to consid] !    
problem3 ,if ev]yone 9 e case made y\r  
maxim ! univ]sal law1 h[ c\ld ?is law be
 consi/5t ) itself8 ,b if x 7 m]ely     
feel+ t made x our duty to take ?is     

pr9ciple z a crit]ion1 !n ?is w\ld n be 
dictat$ by reason1 b only adopt$        
in/9ctively & !re=e bl9dly4             
,,preface p>agraph #e  ,b 9 fact1 :atev]
 m5 imag9e1 no moral pr9ciple is bas$ on
 any feel+1 b su* a pr9ciple is really  
no?+ else ?an an obscurely conceiv$     
metaphysic :i* inh]es 9 e man's reason+ 
faculty2 z ! tea*] w easily f9d :o tries
 to cate*ize 8 pupils 9 ! ,socratic     
me?od ab\t ! imp]ative ( duty & its     
application to ! moral judgem5t ( 8     
actions4 ,! mode ( /at+ x ne$ n be      
always metaphysical1 & ! language ne$ n 
necess>ily be s*ola/ic1 unless ! pupil  
is to be tra9$ to be a philosoph]4 ,b ! 
?\ght mu/ g back to ! elem5ts (         
metaphysics1 )\t :i* we _c expect any   
c]ta9ty or purity1 or ev5 motive p[] 9  
e?ics4  ,if we deviate f ?is pr9ciple & 
beg9 f pa?ological1 or purely s5sitive1 
or ev5 moral feel+ 7f :at is            
subjectively practical in/ead ( :at is  
objective71 t is1 f ! matt] ( ! w1 !    
end1 n f its =m t is ! law1 9 ord] f    

!nce to det]m9e duties2 !n1 c]ta9ly1 !re
 are no metaphysical elem5ts ( e?ics1 = 
feel+ by :atev] x may be excit$ is      
always physical4 ,b !n e?ical tea*+1    
:e!r 9 s*ools1 or lecture-rooms1 etc41  
is corrupt$ 9 its s\rce4 ,= x is n a    
matt] ( indiff]5ce by :at motives or    
means "o is l$ to a good purpose 7!     
ob$i5ce to duty74 ,h[ev] disgu/+1 !n1   
metaphysics may appe> to ^? pret5d$     
philosoph]s :o dogmatize oracul>ly1 or  
ev5 brilliantly1 ab\t ! doctr9e ( duty1 
x is1 nev]!less1 an indisp5sable duty = 
^? :o oppose x to g back to its         
pr9ciples ev5 9 e?ics1 & to beg9 by go+ 
to s*ool on its b5*es4    ,we may fairly
 wond] h[1 aft] all previ\s explanations
 ( ! pr9ciples ( duty1 s f> z x is d]iv$
 f pure reason1 x 0 /ill possible to    
r$uce x aga9 to a doctr9e ( happ9ess2 9 
su* a way1 h[ev]1 t a c]ta9 moral       
happ9ess n re/+ on empirical causes 0   
ultimately arriv$ at1 a                 
self-contradictory non5tity4 ,9 fact1 :5
 ! ?9k+ man has conqu]$ ! temptations to

 vice1 & is consci\s ( hav+ done 8 7(t5 
h>d7 duty1 he f9ds himself 9 a /ate (   
peace & satisfaction :i* may well be    
call$ happ9ess1 9 :i* virtue is h] own  
rew>d4 ,n[1 says ! eudaemoni/1 ?is      
delight1 ?is happ9ess1 is ! real motive 
( 8 act+ virtu\sly4 ,! notion ( duty1   
says be1 does n imm$iately det]m9e 8 w2 
x is only by means ( ! happ9ess 9       
prospect t he is mov$ to 8 duty4 ,n[1 on
 ! o!r h&1 s9ce he c promise himself ?is
 rew>d ( virtue only f ! consci\sness ( 
hav+ done 8 duty1 x is cle> t ! latt]   
mu/ h prec$$3 t is1 he mu/ feel himself 
b\nd to d 8 duty be=e he ?9ks1 & )\t    
?9k+1 t happ9ess w be ! consequ5ce (    
ob$i5ce to duty4 ,he is ?us involv$ 9 a 
circle 9 8 assignm5t ( cause & effect4  
,he c only hope to be happy if he is    
consci\s ( 8 ob$i5ce to duty3 & he c    
only be mov$ to ob$i5ce to duty if be   
=esees t he w !reby become happy4 ,b 9  
?is reason+ !re is also a contradiction4
 ,=1 on ! "o side1 he mu/ obey 8 duty1  
)\t ask+ :at effect ?is w h on 8        

happ9ess1 consequ5tly1 f a moral        
pr9ciple2 on ! o!r side1 he c only      
recognize some?+ z 8 duty :5 he c reckon
 on happ9ess :i* w accrue to him !reby1 
& consequ5tly on a pa?ological pr9ciple1
 :i* is ! direct opposite ( ! =m]4  ,i h
 9 ano!r place 7! ,b]l9 ,monatss*rift71 
r$uc$1 z ,i believe1 to ! simple/       
expressions ! di/9ction betwe5          
pa?ological & moral pleasure4 ,!        
pleasure1 namely1 :i* mu/ prec$e !      
ob$i5ce to ! law 9 ord] t "o may act    
accord+ to ! law is pa?ological1 & !    
process foll[s ! physical ord] ( nature2
 t :i* mu/ be prec$$ by ! law 9 ord] t x
 may be felt is 9 ! moral ord]4 ,if ?is 
di/9ction is n obs]v$2 if eudaemonism 7!
 pr9ciple ( happ9ess7 is adopt$ z !     
pr9ciple in/ead ( eleu!ronomy 7!        
pr9ciple ( fre$om ( ! inn] legislation71
 ! consequ5ce is ! eu?anasia 7quiet     
dea?7 ( all morality4                   
,,preface p>agraph #aj  ,! cause ( ^!   
mi/akes is no o!r ?an ! foll[+3 ,^? :o  
are accu/om$ only to physiological      

explanations w n admit into _! heads !  
categorical imp]ative f :i* ^! laws     
dictatorially proce$1 not)/&+ t !y feel 
!mselves irresi/ibly =c$ by x4          
,dissatisfi$ at n be+ able to expla9 :at
 lies :olly beyond t sph]e1 namely1     
fre$om ( ! elective w1 elevat+ z is ?is 
privilege1 t man has ( be+ capable ( su*
 an idea1 !y are /irr$ up by ! pr\d     
claims ( speculative reason1 :i* feels  
its p[] s /rongly 9 ! fields1 j z if !y 
7 allies leagu$ 9 def5ce ( ! omnipot5ce 
( !oretical reason & r\s$ by a g5]al    
call to arms to resi/ t idea2 & ?us !y  
are at pres5t1 & p]haps = a long "t to  
come1 ?\gh ultimately 9 va91 to attack !
 moral concept ( fre$om & if possible   
r5d] x d\btful4  ,,introduction         
,,introduction ,,to ,,! ,,metaphysical  
,,elem5ts ,,( ,,e?ics    ,e?ics 9 anci5t
 times signifi$ moral philosophy        
7philosophia moralis7 g5]ally1 :i* 0    
also call$ ! doctr9e ( duties4          
,subsequ5tly x 0 f\nd advisable to      
conf9e ?is "n to a "p ( moral           

philosophy1 namely1 to ! doctr9e (      
duties :i* are n subject to ext]nal laws
 7= :i* 9 ,g]man ! "n ,tug5dlehre 0 f\nd
 suitable74 ,?us ! sy/em ( g5]al        
deontology is divid$ into t (           
jurisprud5ce 7jurisprud5tia71 :i* is    
capable ( ext]nal laws1 & ( e?ics1 :i*  
is n ?us capable1 & we may let ?is      
division /&4      ,i4 ,exposition ( !   
,conception ( ,e?ics    ,! notion ( duty
 is 9 itself already ! notion ( a       
con/ra9t ( ! free elective w by ! law2  
:e!r ?is con/ra9t be an ext]nal "o or be
 self-con/ra9t4 ,! moral imp]ative1 by  
its categorical 7! unconditional ought7 
ann\nces ?is con/ra9t1 :i* !re=e does n 
apply to all rational be+s 7= !re may   
also be holy be+s71 b applies to m5 z   
rational physical be+s :o are unholy    
en\gh to be s$uc$ by pleasure to !      
transgression ( ! moral law1 al?\gh !y  
!mselves recognize its au?ority2 & :5 !y
 d obey x1 to obey x unwill+ly 7)       
resi/ance ( _! incl9ation72 & x is 9 ?is
 t ! con/ra9t prop]ly consi/s4 99 ,n[1 z

 man is a free 7moral7 be+1 ! notion (  
duty c conta9 only self-con/ra9t 7by !  
idea ( ! law itself71 :5 we look to !   
int]nal det]m9ation ( ! w 7! spr+71 =   
?us only is x possible to comb9e t      
con/ra9t 7ev5 if x 7 ext]nal7 ) ! fre$om
 ( ! elective w4 ,! notion ( duty !n mu/
 be an e?ical "o4                       
,,introduction p>agraph #e    99 ,man1  
h[ev]1 z at ! same "t a moral be+1 :5 he
 consid]s himself objectively1 :i* he is
 qualifi$ to d by 8 pure practical      
reason1 7i4e4 accord+ to humanity 9 8   
own p]son71 f9ds himself holy en\gh to  
transgress ! law only unwill+ly2 = !re  
is no man s deprav$ :o 9 ?is            
transgression w\ld n feel a resi/ance & 
an abhorr5ce ( himself1 s t he mu/ put a
 =ce on himself4 ,x is impossible to    
expla9 ! ph5om5on t at ?is p>t+ ( ! ways
 7:]e ! beautiful fable places ,h]cules 
betwe5 virtue & s5suality7 man %[s m    
prop5sity to obey incl9ation ?an ! law4 
,=1 we c only expla9 :at happ5s by trac+
 x to a cause accord+ to physical laws2 

b !n we %\ld n be able to conceive !    
elective w z free4 ,n[ ?is mutually     
oppos$ self-con/ra9t & ! inevitability (
 x makes u recognize ! incompreh5sible  
prop]ty ( fre$om4    ,! impulses (      
nature1 !n1 conta9 h9drances to !       
fulfilm5t ( duty 9 ! m9d ( man1 & resi/+
 =ces1 "s ( !m p[]ful2 & he mu/ judge   
himself able to combat ^! & to conqu] !m
 by means ( reason1 n 9 ! future1 b 9 ! 
pres5t1 simultane\sly ) ! ?\ght2 he mu/ 
judge t he c d :at ! law unconditionally
 comm&s t he ought4  ,n[ ! p[] & resolv$
 purpose to resi/ a /rong b unju/       
oppon5t is call$ =titude 7=titudo71 & :5
 conc]n$ ) ! oppon5t ( ! moral "* )9 u1 
x is virtue 7virtus1 =titudo moralis74  
,accord+ly1 g5]al deontology1 9 t "p :i*
 br+s n ext]nal1 b int]nal1 fre$om "u   
laws is ! doctr9e ( virtue4             
,,introduction p>agraph #aj             
,jurisprud5ce _h to d only ) ! =mal     
condition ( ext]nal fre$om 7! condition 
( consi/5cy ) itself1 if its maxim      
became a univ]sal law71 t is1 ) law4    

,e?ics1 on ! contr>y1 supplies u ) a    
matt] 7an object ( ! free elective w71  
an end ( pure reason :i* is at ! same "t
 conceiv$ z an objectively necess>y end1
 i4e41 z duty = all m54 ,=1 z ! s5sible 
incl9ations mislead u to ends 7:i* are !
 matt] ( ! elective w7 t may contradict 
duty1 ! legislat+ reason _c o!rwise gu>d
 aga9/ _! influ5ce ?an by an opposite   
moral end1 :i* !re=e mu/ be giv5 a      
priori indep5d5tly on incl9ation4  ,an  
end is an object ( ! elective w 7( a    
rational be+7 by ! idea ( :i* ?is w is  
det]m9$ to an action = ! production (   
?is object4 ,n[ ,i may be =c$ by o!rs to
 actions :i* are direct$ to an end z    
means1 b ,i _c be =c$ to h an end2 ,i c 
only make some?+ an end to myself4 ,if1 
h[ev]1 ,i am also b\nd to make some?+   
:i* lies 9 ! notions ( practical reason 
an end to myself1 & !re=e besides ! =mal
 det]m9+ pr9ciple ( ! elective w 7z     
conta9$ 9 law7 to h also a mat]ial      
pr9ciple1 an end :i* c be oppos$ to !   
end d]iv$ f s5sible impulses2 !n ?is    

gives ! notion ( an end :i* is 9 itself 
a duty4 ,! doctr9e ( ?is _c belong to   
jurisprud5ce1 b to e?ics1 s9ce ?is alone
 includes 9 its conception self-con/ra9t
 accord+ to moral laws4  ,= ?is reason1 
e?ics may also be def9$ z ! sy/em ( !   
ends ( ! pure practical reason4 ,! two  
p>ts ( moral philosophy are di/+ui%$ z  
treat+ respectively ( ends & ( duties ( 
con/ra9t4 ,t e?ics conta9s duties to !  
obs]vance ( :i* "o _c be 7physically7   
=c$ by o!rs1 is m]ely ! consequ5ce (    
?is1 t x is a doctr9e ( ends1 s9ce to be
 =c$ to h ends or to set !m be=e "o's   
self is a contradiction4  ,n[ t e?ics is
 a doctr9e ( virtue 7doctr9a (ficiorum  
virtutis7 foll[s f ! def9ition ( virtue 
giv5 above comp>$ ) ! obligation1 !     
peculi>ity ( :i* has j be5 %[n4 ,!re is 
9 fact no o!r det]m9ation ( ! elective  
w1 except t to an end1 :i* 9 ! v notion 
( x implies t ,i _c ev5 physically be   
=c$ to x by ! elective w ( o!rs4 ,ano!r 
may inde$ =ce me to d some?+ :i* is n my
 end 7b only means to ! end ( ano!r71 b 

he _c =ce me to make x my own end1 & yet
 ,i c h no end except ( my own mak+4 ,! 
latt] supposition w\ld be a             
contradiction- an act ( fre$om :i* yet  
at ! same "t w\ld n be free4 ,b !re is  
no contradiction 9 sett+ be=e "o's self 
an end :i* is also a duty3 = 9 ?is case 
,i con/ra9 myself1 & ?is is q consi/5t )
 fre$om4 99 ,b h[ is su* an end         
possible8 ,t is n[ ! "q4 ,= !           
possibility ( ! notion ( ! ?+ 7viz41 t x
 is n self-contradictory7 is n en\gh to 
prove ! possibility ( ! ?+ itself 7!    
objective reality ( ! notion74          
,,introduction p>agraph #ae  99 ,! less 
a man c be physically =c$1 & ! m he c be
 morally =c$ 7by ! m]e idea ( duty71 s  
mu* ! fre] he is4 ,! man1 = example1 :o 
is ( suffici5tly firm resolution & /rong
 m9d n to give up an enjoym5t :i* he has
 resolv$ on1 h[ev] mu* loss is %[n z    
result+ !refrom1 & :o yet desi/s f 8    
purpose unhesitat+ly1 ?\gh v            
reluctantly1 :5 he f9ds t x w\ld cause  
him to neglect an (ficial duty or a sick

 fa!r2 ?is man proves 8 fre$om 9 !      
highe/ degree by ?is v ?+1 t he _c resi/
 ! voice ( duty4      ,,ii4 ,exposition 
( ! ,notion ( an ,end :i* is also a     
,duty    ,we c conceive ! relation ( end
 to duty 9 two ways2 ei!r />t+ f ! end  
to f9d ! maxim ( ! dutiful actions2 or  
conv]sely1 sett+ out f ?is to f9d ! end 
:i* is also duty4 ,jurisprud5ce proce$s 
9 ! =m] way4 ,x is left to ev]yone's    
free elective w :at end he w *oose = 8  
action4 ,b its maxim is det]m9$ a       
priori2 namely1 t ! fre$om ( ! ag5t mu/ 
be consi/5t ) ! fre$om ( e o!r accord+  
to a univ]sal law4                      
,,introduction p>agraph #bj  ,e?ics1    
h[ev]1 proce$s 9 ! opposite way4 ,x _c  
/>t f ! ends :i* ! man may propose to   
himself1 & h5ce give directions z to !  
maxims he %\ld adopt1 t is1 z to 8 duty2
 = t w\ld be to take empirical pr9ciples
 ( maxims1 & ^! c\ld n give any notion (
 duty2 s9ce ?is1 ! categorical ought1   
has its root 9 pure reason alone4       
,inde$1 if ! maxims 7 to be adopt$ 9    

accordance ) ^? ends 7:i* are all       
selfi%71 we c\ld n prop]ly speak ( !    
notion ( duty at all4 ,h5ce 9 e?ics !   
notion ( duty mu/ lead to ends1 & mu/ on
 moral pr9ciples give ! f\ndation (     
maxims ) respect to ! ends :i* we ought 
to propose to ourselves4  ,sett+ aside !
 "q :at sort ( end t is :i* is 9 itself 
a duty1 & h[ su* an end is possible1 x  
is "h only necess>y to %[ t a duty ( ?is
 k9d is call$ a duty ( virtue1 & :y x is
 s call$4  ,to e duty corresponds a "r (
 action 7facultas moralis g5]atim71 b   
all duties d n imply a correspond+ "r   
7facultas juridica7 ( ano!r to compel   
anyone1 b only ! duties call$ legal     
duties4 ,simil>ly to all e?ical         
obligation corresponds ! notion (       
virtue1 b x does n foll[ t all e?ical   
duties are duties ( virtue4 ,^?1 9 fact1
 are n s :i* d n conc]n s mu* a c]ta9   
end 7matt]1 object ( ! elective w71 b   
m]ely t :i* is =mal 9 ! moral           
det]m9ation ( ! w 7e4g41 t ! dutiful    
action mu/ also be done f duty74 ,x is  

only an end :i* is also duty t c be     
call$ a duty ( virtue4 ,h5ce !re are    
sev]al ( ! latt] k9d 7& ?us !re are     
di/9ct virtues72 on ! contr>y1 !re is   
only "o duty ( ! =m] k9d1 b x is "o :i* 
is valid = all actions 7only "o virtu\s 
disposition74  ,! duty ( virtue is      
ess5tially di/+ui%$ f ! duty ( ju/ice 9 
?is respect2 t x is morally possible to 
be ext]nally compell$ to ! latt]1 :]eas 
! =m] re/s on free self-con/ra9t only4  
,= f9ite holy be+s 7:i* _c ev5 be tempt$
 to ! violation ( duty7 !re is no       
doctr9e ( virtue1 b only moral          
philosophy1 ! latt] be+ an autonomy (   
practical reason1 :]eas ! =m] is also an
 autocracy ( x4 ,t is1 x includes a     
consci\sness- n inde$ imm$iately        
p]ceiv$1 b rightly conclud$1 f ! moral  
categorical imp]ative- ( ! p[] to become
 ma/] ( "o's incl9ations :i* resi/ !    
law2 s t human morality 9 its highe/    
/age c yet be no?+ m ?an virtue2 ev5 if 
x 7 q pure 7p]fectly free f ! influ5ce (
 a spr+ =eign to duty71 a /ate :i* is   

poetically p]sonifi$ "u ! "n ( ! wise   
man 7z an ideal to :i* "o %\ld          
cont9ually approximate74  ,virtue1      
h[ev]1 is n to be def9$ & e/eem$ m]ely z
 habit1 & 7z x is express$ 9 ! prize    
essay ( ,co*ius7 z a long cu/om acquir$ 
by practice ( morally good actions4 ,=1 
if ?is is n an effect ( well-resolv$ &  
firm pr9ciples ev] m & m purifi$1 !n1 l 
any o!r me*anical arrangem5t br\ght ab\t
 by te*nical practical reason1 x is     
nei!r arm$ = all circum/ances nor       
adequately secur$ aga9/ ! *ange t may be
 wr\ght by new allurem5ts4              
,,introduction p>agraph #be             
,,rem>k    ,to virtue   a is oppos$ z   
its logical contradictory               
7contradictorie oppositum7 ! negative   
lack ( virtue 7moral weakness7  #j2 b   
vice   - a is its contr>y 7contr>ie s4  
realit] oppositum72 & x is n m]ely a    
ne$less "q b an (f5sive "o to ask :e!r  
great crimes d n p]haps dem& m /r5g? (  
m9d ?an great virtues4 ,= by /r5g? ( m9d
 we und]/& ! /r5g? ( purpose ( a man1 z 

a be+ end[$ ) fre$om1 & consequ5tly s f>
 z he is ma/] ( himself 79 8 s5ses7 &   
!re=e 9 a heal?y condition ( m9d4 ,b    
great crimes are p>oxysms1 ! v sight (  
:i* makes ! man ( heal?y m9d %udd]4 ,!  
"q w\ld !re=e be some?+ l ?is3 :e!r a   
man 9 a fit ( madness c h m physical    
/r5g? ?an if he is 9 8 s5ses2 & we may  
admit ?is )\t on t acc\nt ascrib+ to him
 m /r5g? ( m9d1 if by m9d we und]/& !   
vital pr9ciple ( man 9 ! free use ( 8   
p[]s4 ,= s9ce ^? crimes h _! gr\nd m]ely
 9 ! p[] ( ! incl9ations t weak5 reason1
 :i* does n prove /r5g? ( m9d1 ?is "q   
w\ld be ne>ly ! same z ! "q :e!r a man 9
 a fit ( illness c %[ m /r5g? ?an 9 a   
heal?y condition2 & ?is may be directly 
d5i$1 s9ce ! want ( heal?1 :i* consi/s 9
 ! prop] balance ( all ! bodily =ces ( !
 man1 is a weakness 9 ! sy/em ( ^! =ces1
 by :i* sy/em alone we c e/imate        
absolute heal?4                         
,,introduction p>agraph #cj  ,,iii4 ,( !
 ,reason = conceiv+ an ,end :i* is also 
a ,duty    ,an end is an object ( ! free

 elective w1 ! idea ( :i* det]m9es ?is w
 to an action by :i* ! object is        
produc$4 ,accord+ly e action has its    
end1 & z no "o c h an end )\t himself   
mak+ ! object ( 8 elective w 8 end1 h5ce
 to h "s end ( actions is an act ( !    
fre$om ( ! ag5t1 n an affect ( physical 
nature4 ,n[1 s9ce ?is act :i* det]m9es  
an end is a practical pr9ciple :i*      
comm&s n ! means 7!re=e n conditionally7
 b ! end itself 7!re=e unconditionally71
 h5ce x is a categorical imp]ative (    
pure practical reason & "o1 !re=e1 :i*  
comb9es a concept ( duty ) t ( an end 9 
g5]al4  ,n[ !re mu/ be su* an end & a   
categorical imp]ative correspond+ to x4 
,= s9ce !re are free actions1 !re mu/   
also be ends to :i* z an object ^?      
actions are direct$4 ,among/ ^! ends !re
 mu/ also be "s :i* are at ! same "t 7t 
is1 by _! v notion7 duties4 ,= if !re 7 
none su*1 !n s9ce no actions c be )\t an
 end1 all ends :i* practical reason     
might h w\ld be valid only z means to   
o!r ends1 & a categorical imp]ative w\ld

 be impossible2 a supposition :i*       
de/roys all moral philosophy4  ,"h1     
!re=e1 we treat n ( ends :i* man        
actually makes to himself 9 accordance )
 ! s5sible impulses ( 8 nature1 b (     
objects ( ! free elective w "u its own  
laws- objects :i* he ought to make 8    
end4 ,we may call ! =m] te*nical        
7subjective71 prop]ly pragmatical1      
includ+ ! rules ( prud5ce 9 ! *oice (   
its ends2 b ! latt] we mu/ call ! moral 
7objective7 doctr9e ( ends4 ,?is        
di/9ction is1 h[ev]1 sup]flu\s "h1 s9ce 
moral philosophy already by its v notion
 is cle>ly sep>at$ f ! doctr9e (        
physical nature 79 ! pres5t in/ance1    
an?ropology74 ,! latt] re/+ on empirical
 pr9ciples1 :]eas ! moral doctr9e ( ends
 :i* treats ( duties re/s on pr9ciples  
giv5 a priori 9 pure practical reason4  
,,introduction p>agraph #ce      ,,iv4  
,:at are ! ,ends :i* are also ,duties8  
,!y are3 ,a4 ,,our ,,own ,,p]fection1   
,b4 ,,happ9ess ,,( ,,o!rs4  ,we _c inv]t
 ^! & make on "o side our own happ9ess1 

& on ! o!r ! p]fection ( o!rs1 ends :i* 
%\ld be 9 !mselves duties = ! same      
p]son4                                  
,,introduction p>agraph #dj  ,= "o's own
 happ9ess is1 no d\bt1 an end t all m5 h
 7by virtue ( ! impulse ( _! nature71 b 
?is end _c )\t contradiction be reg>d$ z
 a duty4 ,:at a man ( himself inevitably
 wills does n come "u ! notion ( duty1 =
 ?is is a con/ra9t to an end reluctantly
 adopt$4 ,x is1 !re=e1 a contradiction  
to say t a man is 9 duty b\nd to advance
 8 own happ9ess ) all 8 p[]4  ,x is     
likewise a contradiction to make !      
p]fection ( ano!r my end1 & to reg>d    
myself z 9 duty b\nd to promote x4 ,= x 
is j 9 ?is t ! p]fection ( ano!r man z a
 p]son consi/s1 namely1 t he is able (  
himself to set be=e him 8 own end       
accord+ to 8 own notions ( duty2 & x is 
a contradiction to require 7to make x a 
duty = me7 t ,i %\ld d some?+ :i* no o!r
 b himself c d4      ,v4 ,explanation ( 
^! two ,notions                         
,,introduction p>agraph #de             

,a4 ,,our ,,own ,,p]fection    ,! ^w    
p]fection is liable to _m               
misconceptions4 ,x is sometimes und]/ood
 z a notion belong+ to transc5d5tal     
philosophy2 viz41 ! notion ( ! totality 
( ! manifold :i* tak5 toge!r con/itutes 
a ?+2 sometimes1 aga91 x is und]/ood z  
belong+ to teleology1 s t x signifies ! 
correspond5ce ( ! prop]ties ( a ?+ to an
 end4 ,p]fection 9 ! =m] s5se might be  
call$ quantitative 7mat]ial71 9 ! latt] 
qualitative 7=mal7 p]fection4 ,! =m] c  
be "o only1 = ! :ole ( :at belongs to ! 
"o ?+ is "o4 ,b ( ! latt] !re may be    
sev]al 9 "o ?+2 & x is ( ! latt] prop]ty
 t we "h treat4  ,:5 x is said ( !      
p]fection t belongs to man g5]ally      
7prop]ly speak+1 to humanity71 t x is 9 
itself a duty to make ?is our end1 x mu/
 be plac$ 9 t :i* may be ! effect ( "o's
 de$1 n 9 t :i* is m]ely an end[m5t =   
:i* we h to ?ank nature2 = o!rwise x    
w\ld n be duty4 ,consequ5tly1 x c be    
no?+ else ?an ! cultivation ( "o's p[]  
7or natural capacity7 & also ( "o's w   

7moral disposition7 to satisfy !        
requirem5t ( duty 9 g5]al4 ,! supreme   
elem5t 9 ! =m] 7! p[]7 is ! und]/&+1 x  
be+ ! faculty ( concepts1 &1 !re=e1 also
 ( ^? concepts :i* ref] to duty4 ,fir/ x
 is 8 duty to lab\r to raise himself out
 ( ! rud5ess ( 8 nature1 out ( 8 animal 
nature m & m to humanity1 by :i* alone  
he is capable ( sett+ be=e him ends to  
supply ! defects ( 8 ignorance by       
in/ruction1 & to correct 8 errors2 he is
 n m]ely c\nsell$ to d ?is by reason z  
te*nically practical1 ) a view to 8     
purposes ( o!r k9ds 7z art71 b reason1 z
 morally practical1 absolutely comm&s   
him to d x1 & makes ?is end 8 duty1 9   
ord] t he may be wor?y ( ! humanity t   
dwells 9 him4 ,secondly1 to c>ry !      
cultivation ( 8 w up to ! pure/ virtu\s 
disposition1 t1 namely1 9 :i* ! law is  
also ! spr+ ( 8 dutiful actions1 & to   
obey x f duty1 = ?is is int]nal morally 
practical p]fection4 ,?is is call$ !    
moral s5se 7z x 7 a special s5se1 s5sus 
moralis71 because x is a feel+ ( !      

effect :i* ! legislative w )9 himself   
ex]cises on ! faculty ( act+ accord+ly4 
,?is is1 inde$1 (t5 misus$ fanatically1 
z ?\gh 7l ! g5ius ( ,socrates7 x prec$$ 
reason1 or ev5 c\ld disp5se ) judgem5t (
 reason2 b /ill x is a moral p]fection1 
mak+ e special end1 :i* is also a duty1 
"o's own end4                           
,,introduction p>agraph #ej             
,b4 ,,happ9ess ,,( ,,o!rs    ,x is      
inevitable = human nature t man a %\ld  
wi% & seek = happ9ess1 t is1            
satisfaction ) 8 condition1 ) c]ta9ty ( 
! cont9uance ( ?is satisfaction4 ,b =   
?is v reason x is n an end t is also a  
duty4 ,"s writ]s /ill make a di/9ction  
betwe5 moral & physical happ9ess 7! =m] 
consi/+ 9 satisfaction ) "o's p]son &   
moral behavi\r1 t is1 ) :at "o does2 !  
o!r 9 satisfaction ) t :i* nature       
conf]s1 consequ5tly ) :at "o enjoys z a 
=eign gift74 ,)\t at pres5t c5sur+ !    
misuse ( ! ^w 7:i* ev5 involves a       
contradiction71 x mu/ be obs]v$ t !     
feel+ ( ! =m] belongs solely to ! prec$+

 head1 namely1 p]fection4 ,= he :o is to
 feel himself happy 9 ! m]e consci\sness
 ( 8 uprightness already possesses t    
p]fection :i* 9 ! previ\s section 0     
def9$ z t end :i* is also duty4  ,if    
happ9ess1 !n1 is 9 "q1 :i* x is to be my
 duty to promote z my end1 x mu/ be !   
happ9ess ( o!r m5 ^: 7p]mitt$7 end ,i   
h]eby make also m9e4 ,x /ill rema9s left
 to !mselves to decide :at !y %all      
reckon z belong+ to _! happ9ess2 only t 
x is 9 my p[] to decl9e _m ?+s :i* !y s 
reckon1 b :i* ,i d n s reg>d1 suppos+ t 
!y h no "r to dem& x f me z _! own4 ,a  
plausible objection (t5 advanc$ aga9/ ! 
division ( duties above adopt$ consi/s 9
 sett+ ov] aga9/ t end a suppos$        
obligation to /udy my own 7physical7    
happ9ess1 & ?us mak+ ?is1 :i* is my     
natural & m]ely subjective end1 my duty 
7& objective end74 ,?is requires to be  
cle>$ up4  ,adv]sity1 pa91 & want are   
great temptations to transgression (    
"o's duty2 accord+ly x w\ld seem t      
/r5g?1 heal?1 a compet5ce1 & welf>e     

g5]ally1 :i* are oppos$ to t influ5ce1  
may also be reg>d$ z ends t are also    
duties2 t is1 t x is a duty to promote  
our own happ9ess n m]ely to make t (    
o!rs our end4 ,b 9 t case ! end is n    
happ9ess b ! morality ( ! ag5t2 &       
happ9ess is only ! means ( remov+ !     
h9drances to morality2 p]mitt$ means1   
s9ce no "o has a "r to dem& f me !      
sacrifice ( my n immoral ends4 ,x is n  
directly a duty to seek a compet5ce =   
"o's self2 b indirectly x may be s2     
namely1 9 ord] to gu>d aga9/ pov]ty :i* 
is a great temptation to vice4 ,b !n x  
is n my happ9ess b my morality1 to      
ma9ta9 :i* 9 its integrity is at once my
 end & my duty4                         
,,introduction p>agraph #ee      ,,vi4  
,e?ics does n supply ,laws = ,actions   
7:i* is done by      ,jurisprud5ce71 b  
only = ! ,maxims ( ,action    ,! notion 
( duty /&s 9 imm$iate relation to a law 
7ev5 ?\gh ,i ab/ract f e end :i* is !   
matt] ( ! law72 z is %[n by ! =mal      
pr9ciple ( duty 9 ! categorical         

imp]ative3 ,act s t ! maxims ( ?y action
 might become a univ]sal law4 ,b 9 e?ics
 ?is is conceiv$ z ! law ( ?y own w1 n (
 w 9 g5]al1 :i* might be t ( o!rs2 = 9 !
 latt] case x w\ld give rise to a       
judicial duty :i* does n belong to !    
doma9 ( e?ics4 ,9 e?ics1 maxims are     
reg>d$ z ^? subjective laws :i* m]ely h 
! specific "* ( univ]sal legislation1   
:i* is only a negative pr9ciple 7n to   
contradict a law 9 g5]al74 ,h[1 !n1 c   
!re be fur!r a law = ! maxims ( actions8
                                        
,,introduction p>agraph #fj  ,x is !    
notion ( an end :i* is also a duty1 a   
notion peculi> to e?ics1 t alone is !   
f\ndation ( a law = ! maxims ( actions2 
by mak+ ! subjective end 7t :i* e "o    
has7 subord9ate to ! objective end 7t   
:i* e "o ought to make 8 own74 ,!       
imp]ative3 ,?\ %alt make ?is or t ?y end
 7e4 g41 ! happ9ess ( o!rs7 applies to !
 matt] ( ! elective w 7an object74 ,n[  
s9ce no free action is possible1 )\t !  
ag5t hav+ 9 view 9 x "s end 7z matt] ( 8

 elective w71 x foll[s t1 if !re is an  
end :i* is also a duty1 ! maxims (      
actions :i* are means to ends mu/ conta9
 only ! condition ( fitness = a possible
 univ]sal legislation3 on ! o!r h&1 !   
end :i* is also a duty c make x a law t 
we %\ld h su* a maxim1 :il/ = ! maxim   
itself ! possibility ( agree+ ) a       
univ]sal legislation is suffici5t4  ,=  
maxims ( actions may be arbitr>y1 & are 
only limit$ by ! condition ( fitness = a
 univ]sal legislation1 :i* is ! =mal    
pr9ciple ( actions4 ,b a law aboli%es ! 
arbitr>y "* ( actions1 & is by ?is      
di/+ui%$ f recomm5dation 79 :i* "o only 
desires to "k ! be/ means to an end74   
,,vii4 ,e?ical ,duties are (            
indet]m9ate1 ,juridical ,duties (       
/rict1 ,obligation                      
,,introduction p>agraph #fe    ,?is     
proposition is a consequ5ce ( ! =ego+2 =
 if ! law c only comm& ! maxim ( !      
actions1 n ! actions !mselves1 ?is is a 
sign t x leaves 9 ! obs]vance ( x a     
latitude 7latitudo7 = ! elective w2 t   

is1 x _c def9itely assign h[ & h[ mu* we
 %\ld d by ! action t[>ds ! end :i* is  
also duty4 ,b by an indet]m9ate duty is 
n meant a p]mission to make exceptions f
 ! maxim ( ! actions1 b only ! p]mission
 to limit "o maxim ( duty by ano!r 7e4  
g41 ! g5]al love ( our neighb\r by !    
love ( p>5ts72 & ?is 9 fact enl>ges !   
field = ! practice ( virtue4 ,! m       
indet]m9ate ! duty1 & ! m imp]fect      
accord+ly ! obligation ( ! man to !     
action1 & ! clos] he nev]!less br+s ?is 
maxim ( ob$i5ce !reto 79 8 own m9d7 to !
 /rict duty 7( ju/ice71 s mu* ! m p]fect
 is 8 virtu\s action4  ,h5ce x is only  
imp]fect duties t are duties ( virtue4  
,! fulfilm5t ( !m is m]it 7m]itum7   a2 
b _! transgression is n necess>ily      
dem]it 7dem]itum7  - a1 b only moral    
unwor?  o1 unless ! ag5t made x a       
pr9ciple n to con=m to ^? duties4 ,!    
/r5g? ( purpose 9 ! =m] case is alone   
prop]ly call$ virtue ,tug5d 7virtus72 ! 
weakness 9 ! latt] case is n vice       
7vitium71 b r only lack ( virtue        

,untug5d1 a want ( moral /r5g? 7defectus
 moralis74 7,z ! ^w ,tug5d is d]iv$ f   
taug5 to be good = some?+1 ,untug5d by  
its etymology signifies good = no?+47 ,e
 action contr>y to duty is call$        
transgression 7peccatum74 ,delib]ate    
transgression :i* has become a pr9ciple 
is :at prop]ly con/itutes :at is call$  
vice 7vitium74  ,al?\gh ! con=mity (    
actions to ju/ice 7i4e41 to be an       
upright man7 is no?+ m]itori\s1 yet !   
con=mity ( ! maxim ( su* actions reg>d$ 
z duties1 t is1 rev]5ce = ju/ice is     
m]itori\s4 ,= by ?is ! man makes ! "r ( 
humanity or ( m5 8 own end1 & !reby     
enl>ges 8 notion ( duty beyond t (      
indebt$ness 7(ficium debiti71 s9ce      
al?\gh ano!r man by virtue ( 8 rights c 
dem& t my actions %all con=m to ! law1  
he _c dem& t ! law %all also conta9 !   
spr+ ( ^! actions4 ,! same ?+ is true ( 
! g5]al e?ical comm&1 ,act dutifully f a
 s5se ( duty4 ,to fix ?is disposition   
firmly 9 "o's m9d & to quick5 x is1 z 9 
! =m] case1 m]itori\s1 because x goes   

beyond ! law ( duty 9 actions & makes ! 
law 9 itself ! spr+4  ,b j = or reason1 
^? duties also mu/ be reckon$ z (       
indet]m9ate obligation1 9 respect ( :i* 
!re exi/s a subjective pr9ciple :i*     
e?ically rew>ds !m2 or to br+ !m z ne> z
 possible to ! notion ( a /rict         
obligation1 a pr9ciple ( susceptibility 
( ?is rew>d accord+ to ! law ( virtue2  
namely1 a moral pleasure :i* goes beyond
 m]e satisfaction ) oneself 7:i* may be 
m]ely negative71 & ( :i* x is pr\dly    
said t 9 ?is consci\sness virtue is its 
own rew>d4                              
,,introduction p>agraph #gj  ,:5 ?is    
m]it is a m]it ( ! man 9 respect ( o!r  
m5 ( promot+ _! natural ends1 :i* are   
recogniz$ z su* by all m5 7mak+ _!      
happ9ess 8 own71 we might call x ! sweet
 m]it1 ! consci\sness ( :i* creates a   
moral enjoym5t 9 :i* m5 are by sympa?y  
incl9$ to revel2 :]eas ! bitt] m]it (   
promot+ ! true welf>e ( o!r m51 ev5 ?\gh
 !y %\ld n recognize x z su* 79 ! case (
 ! un?ankful & ungrateful71 has commonly

 no su* reaction1 b only produces a     
satisfaction ) "o's self1 al?\gh 9 !    
latt] case ?is w\ld be ev5 great]4      
,,viii4 ,exposition ( ! ,duties (       
,virtue z ,int]m$iate ,duties    7#a7   
,,our ,,own ,,p]fection z an end :i* is 
also a duty                             
,,introduction p>agraph #ge  7a7        
,physical p]fection2 t is1 cultivation (
 all our faculties g5]ally = ! promotion
 ( ! ends set be=e u by reason4 ,t ?is  
is a duty1 & !re=e an end 9 itself1 & t 
! ef=t to effect ?is ev5 )\t reg>d to ! 
advantage t x secures u1 is bas$1 n on a
 conditional 7pragmatic71 b an          
unconditional 7moral7 imp]ative1 may be 
se5 f ! foll[+ consid]ation4 ,! p[] (   
propos+ to ourselves an end is !        
*>act]i/ic ( humanity 7z di/+ui%$ f !   
brutes74 ,) ! end ( humanity 9 our own  
p]son is !re=e comb9$ ! rational w1 &   
consequ5tly ! duty ( des]v+ well (      
humanity by culture g5]ally1 by acquir+ 
or advanc+ ! p[] to c>ry out all sorts (
 possible ends1 s f> z ?is p[] is to be 

f\nd 9 man2 t is1 x is a duty to        
cultivate ! crude capacities ( our      
nature1 s9ce x is by t cultivation t !  
animal is rais$ to man1 !re=e x is a    
duty 9 itself4  ,?is duty1 h[ev]1 is    
m]ely e?ical1 t is1 ( indet]m9ate       
obligation4 ,no pr9ciple ( reason       
prescribes h[ f> "o mu/ g 9 ?is ef=t 79 
enl>g+ or correct+ 8 faculty ( und]/&+1 
t is1 9 acquisition ( k or te*nical     
capacity72 & besides ! diff]5ce 9 !     
circum/ances into :i* m5 may come makes 
! *oice ( ! k9d ( employm5t = :i* he    
%\ld cultivate 8 tal5t v arbitr>y4 ,"h1 
!re=e1 !re is no law ( reason = actions1
 b only = ! maxim ( actions1 viz43      
,cultivate ?y faculties ( m9d & body s z
 to be effective = all ends t may come 9
 ?y way1 unc]ta9 :i* ( !m may become ?y 
own4  7b7 ,cultivation ( ,morality 9    
ourselves4 ,! greate/ moral p]fection ( 
man is to d 8 duty1 & t f duty 7t ! law 
be n only ! rule b also ! spr+ ( 8      
actions74 ,n[ at fir/ sight ?is seems to
 be a /rict obligation1 & z if !        

pr9ciple ( duty comm&$ n m]ely !        
legality ( e action1 b also ! morality1 
i4e41 ! m5tal disposition1 ) ! exactness
 & /rictness ( a law2 b 9 fact ! law    
comm&s ev5 "h only ! maxim ( ! action1  
namely1 t we %\ld seek ! gr\nd (        
obligation1 n 9 ! s5sible impulses      
7advantage or disadvantage71 b :olly 9 !
 law2 s t ! action itself is n comm&$4  
,= x is n possible to man to see s f>   
into ! dep? ( 8 own he>t t he c\ld ev]  
be ?or\ghly c]ta9 ( ! purity ( 8 moral  
purpose & ! s9c]ity ( 8 m9d ev5 9 "o    
s+le action1 al?\gh he has no d\bt ab\t 
! legality ( x4 ,nay1 (t5 ! weakness :i*
 det]s a man f ! risk ( a crime is      
reg>d$ by him z virtue 7:i* gives !     
notion ( /r5g?74 ,& h[ _m !re are :o may
 h l$ a long blameless life1 :o are only
 =tunate 9 hav+ escap$ s _m temptations4
 ,h[ mu* ( ! elem5t ( pure morality 9 _!
 m5tal disposition may h belong$ to ea* 
de$ rema9s hidd5 ev5 f !mselves4        
,accord+ly1 ?is duty to e/imate ! wor? (
 "o's actions n m]ely by _! legality1 b 

also by _! morality 7m5tal disposition71
 is only ( indet]m9ate obligation2 ! law
 does n comm& ?is int]nal action 9 !    
human m9d itself1 b only ! maxim ( !    
action1 namely1 t we %\ld /rive ) all   
our p[] t = all dutiful actions ! ?\ght 
( duty %\ld be ( itself an adequate     
spr+4  7#b7 ,,happ9ess ,,( ,,o!rs z an  
end :i* is also a duty                  
,,introduction p>agraph #hj  7a7        
,physical ,welf>e4 ,b5evol5t wi%es may  
be unlimit$1 = !y d n imply do+ any?+4  
,b ! case is m difficult ) b5evol5t     
action1 especially :5 ?is is to be done1
 n f fri5dly incl9ation 7love7 to o!rs1 
b f duty1 at ! exp5se ( ! sacrifice &   
mortification ( _m ( our appetites4 ,t  
?is b5efic5ce is a duty results f ?is3 t
 s9ce our self-love _c be sep>at$ f !   
ne$ to be lov$ by o!rs 7to obta9 help f 
!m 9 case ( necessity71 we !re=e make   
ourselves an end = o!rs2 & ?is maxim c  
nev] be obligatory except by hav+ !     
specific "* ( a univ]sal law1 &         
consequ5tly by means ( a w t we %\ld    

also make o!rs our ends4 ,h5ce !        
happ9ess ( o!rs is an end t is also a   
duty4  ,i am only b\nd !n to sacrifice  
to o!rs a "p ( my welf>e )\t hope (     
recomp5se3 because x is my duty1 & x is 
impossible to assign def9ite limits h[  
f> t may g4 ,mu* dep5ds on :at w\ld be !
 true want ( ea* accord+ to 8 own       
feel+s1 & x mu/ be left to ea* to       
det]m9e ?is = himself4 ,= t "o %\ld     
sacrifice 8 own happ9ess1 8 true wants1 
9 ord] to promote t ( o!rs1 w\ld be a   
self-contradictory maxim if made a      
univ]sal law4 ,?is duty1 !re=e1 is only 
indet]m9ate2 x has a c]ta9 latitude )9  
:i* "o may d m or less )\t our be+ able 
to assign its limits def9itely4 ,! law  
holds only = ! maxims1 n = def9ite      
actions4  7b7 ,moral well-be+ ( o!rs    
7salus moralis7 also belongs to !       
happ9ess ( o!rs1 :i* x is our duty to   
promote1 b only a negative duty4 ,! pa9 
t a man feels f remorse ( consci5ce1    
al?\gh its orig9 is moral1 is yet 9 its 
op]ation physical1 l grief1 fe>1 & e o!r

 diseas$ condition4 ,to take c>e t he   
%\ld n be des]v$ly smitt5 by ?is inw>d  
reproa* is n inde$ my duty b 8 bus9ess2 
nev]!less1 x is my duty to d no?+ :i* by
 ! nature ( man might s$uce him to t =  
:i* 8 consci5ce may h]eaft] torm5t him1 
t is1 x is my duty n to give him        
occasion ( /umbl+4 ,b !re are no def9ite
 limits )9 :i* ?is c>e = ! moral        
satisfaction ( o!rs mu/ be kept2 !re=e x
 involves only an indet]m9ate           
obligation4      ,,ix4 ,:at is a ,duty (
 ,virtue8                               
,,introduction p>agraph #he    ,virtue  
is ! /r5g? ( ! man's maxim 9 8 ob$i5ce  
to duty4 ,all /r5g? is kn[n only by !   
ob/acles t x c ov]come2 & 9 ! case (    
virtue ! ob/acles are ! natural         
incl9ations :i* may come into conflict )
 ! moral purpose2 & z x is ! man :o     
himself puts ^! ob/acles 9 ! way ( 8    
maxims1 h5ce virtue is n m]ely a        
self-con/ra9t 7= t might be an ef=t ( "o
 incl9ation to con/ra9 ano!r71 b is also
 a con/ra9t accord+ to a pr9ciple (     

inw>d fre$om1 & !re=e by ! m]e idea (   
duty1 accord+ to its =mal law4  ,all    
duties involve a notion ( necessitation 
by ! law1 & e?ical duties involve a     
necessitation = :i* only an int]nal     
legislation is possible2 juridical      
duties1 on ! o!r h&1 "o = :i* ext]nal   
legislation also is possible4 ,bo?1     
!re=e1 include ! notion ( con/ra9t1 ei!r
 self-con/ra9t or con/ra9t by o!rs4 ,!  
moral p[] ( ! =m] is virtue1 & ! action 
spr++ f su* a disposition 7f rev]5ce = !
 law7 may be call$ a virtu\s action     
7e?ical71 al?\gh ! law expresses a      
juridical duty4 ,= x is ! doctr9e (     
virtue t comm&s u to reg>d ! rights ( m5
 z holy4  ,b x does n foll[ t ev]y?+ !  
do+ ( :i* is virtue1 is1 prop]ly speak+1
 a duty ( virtue4 ,! =m] may conc]n     
m]ely ! =m ( ! maxims2 ! latt] applies  
to ! matt] ( !m1 namely1 to an end :i*  
is also conceiv$ z duty4 ,n[1 z ! e?ical
 obligation to ends1 ( :i* !re may be   
_m1 is only indet]m9ate1 because x      
conta9s only a law = ! maxim ( actions1 

& ! end is ! matt] 7object7 ( elective  
w2 h5ce !re are _m duties1 diff]+       
accord+ to ! diff]5ce ( lawful ends1 :i*
 may be call$ duties ( virtue 7(ficia   
hone/atis71 j because !y are subject    
only to free self-con/ra9t1 n to !      
con/ra9t ( o!r m51 & det]m9e ! end :i*  
is also a duty4  ,virtue1 be+ a         
co9cid5ce ( ! rational w1 ) e duty      
firmly settl$ 9 ! "*1 is1 l ev]y?+ =mal1
 only "o & ! same4 ,b1 z reg>ds ! end ( 
actions1 :i* is also duty1 t is1 z      
reg>ds ! matt] :i* "o ought to make an  
end1 !re may be sev]al virtues2 & z !   
obligation to its maxim is call$ a duty 
( virtue1 x foll[s t !re are also sev]al
 duties ( virtue4                       
,,introduction p>agraph #ij  ,! supreme 
pr9ciple ( e?ics 7! doctr9e ( virtue7   
is3 ,act on a maxim1 ! ends ( :i* are   
su* z x might be a univ]sal law =       
ev]yone to h4 ,on ?is pr9ciple a man is 
an end to himself z well z o!rs1 & x is 
n en\gh t he is n p]mitt$ to use ei!r   
himself or o!rs m]ely z means 7:i* w\ld 

imply t be might be indiff]5t to !m71 b 
x is 9 itself a duty ( e man to make    
mank9d 9 g5]al 8 end4  ,! pr9ciple (    
e?ics be+ a categorical imp]ative does n
 admit ( pro(1 b x admits ( a           
ju/ification f pr9ciples ( pure         
practical reason4 ,:atev] 9 relation to 
mank9d1 to oneself1 & o!rs1 c be an end1
 t is an end = pure practical reason3 = 
?is is a faculty ( assign+ ends 9 g5]al2
 & to be indiff]5t to !m1 t is1 to take 
no int]e/ 9 !m1 is a contradiction2 s9ce
 9 t case x w\ld n det]m9e ! maxims (   
actions 7:i* always involve an end71 &  
consequ5tly w\ld cease to be practical  
reasons4 ,pure reason1 h[ev]1 _c comm&  
any ends a priori1 except s f> z x      
decl>es ! same to be also a duty1 :i*   
duty is !n call$ a duty ( virtue4       
,x4 ,! ,supreme ,pr9ciple (             
,jurisprud5ce 0 ,analytical2 t (        
,e?ics is ,syn!tical                    
,,introduction p>agraph #ie    ,t       
ext]nal con/ra9t1 s f> z x )/&s t :i*   
h9d]s ! ext]nal fre$om t agrees ) g5]al 

laws 7z an ob/acle ( ! ob/acle !reto71 c
 be consi/5t ) ends g5]ally1 is cle> on 
! pr9ciple ( contradiction1 & ,i ne$ n g
 beyond ! notion ( fre$om 9 ord] to see 
x1 let ! end :i* ea* may be :at he w4   
,accord+ly1 ! supreme pr9ciple (        
jurisprud5ce is an analytical pr9ciple4 
,on ! contr>y ! pr9ciple ( e?ics goes   
beyond ! notion ( ext]nal fre$om &1 by  
g5]al laws1 connects fur!r ) x an end   
:i* x makes a duty4 ,?is pr9ciple1      
!re=e1 is syn!tic4 ,! possibility ( x is
 conta9$ 9 ! ,d$uction 7,sec4 ix474     
,?is enl>gem5t ( ! notion ( duty beyond 
t ( ext]nal fre$om & ( its limitation by
 ! m]ely =mal condition ( its con/ant   
h>mony2 ?is1 ,i say1 9 :i*1 in/ead (    
con/ra9t f )\t1 !re is set up fre$om )91
 ! p[] ( self-con/ra9t1 & t n by ! help 
( o!r incl9ations1 b by pure practical  
reason 7:i* scorns all su* help71       
consi/s 9 ?is fact1 :i* raises x above  
juridical duty2 t by x ends are propos$ 
f :i* jurisprud5ce altoge!r ab/racts4 ,9
 ! case ( ! moral imp]ative1 & !        

supposition ( fre$om :i* x necess>ily   
involves1 ! law1 ! p[] 7to fulfil x7 & !
 rational w t det]m9es ! maxim1         
con/itute all ! elem5ts t =m ! notion ( 
juridical duty4 ,b 9 ! imp]ative1 :i*   
comm&s ! duty ( virtue1 !re is add$1    
besides ! notion ( self-con/ra9t1 t ( an
 end2 n "o t we h1 b t we ought to h1   
:i*1 !re=e1 pure practical reason has 9 
itself1 ^: highe/1 unconditional end    
7:i*1 h[ev]1 cont9ues to be duty7       
consi/s 9 ?is3 t virtue is its own end  
&1 by des]v+ well ( m51 is also its own 
rew>d4 ,h]e9 x %9es s brightly z an     
ideal to human p]ceptions1 x seems to   
ca/ 9 ! %ade ev5 hol9ess itself1 :i* is 
nev] tempt$ to transgression4 99 ,?is1  
h[ev]1 is an illusion aris+ f ! fact t z
 we h no measure = ! degree ( /r5g?1    
except ! greatness ( ! ob/acles :i*     
might h be5 ov]come 7:i* 9 our case are 
! incl9ations71 we are l$ to mi/ake !   
subjective conditions ( e/imation ( a   
magnitude = ! objective conditions ( !  
magnitude itself4 ,b :5 comp>$ ) human  

ends1 all ( :i* h _! ob/acles to be     
ov]come1 x is true t ! wor? ( virtue    
itself1 :i* is its own end1 f> outweighs
 ! wor? ( all ! utility & all !         
empirical ends & advantages :i* x may h 
z consequ5ces4    99 ,s t "o might v>y  
two well-kn[n l9es ( ,hall] ?us3        
,,introduction p>agraph #ajj    ,) all 8
 fail+s1 man is /ill    ,bett] ?an      
angels void ( w4    ,we may1 inde$1 say 
t man is oblig$ to virtue 7z a moral    
/r5g?74 ,= al?\gh ! p[] 7facultas7 to   
ov]come all impos+ s5sible impulses by  
virtue ( 8 fre$om c & mu/ be presuppos$1
 yet ?is p[] reg>d$ z /r5g? 7robur7 is  
some?+ t mu/ be acquir$ by ! moral spr+ 
7! idea ( ! law7 be+ elevat$ by         
contemplation ( ! dignity ( ! pure law (
 reason 9 u1 & at ! same "t also by     
ex]cise4                                
,,introduction p>agraph #aje  ,,xi4     
,accord+ to ! prec$+ ,pr9ciples1 !      
,s*eme ( ,duties (                      
,virtue may be ?us exhibit$         ,!  
,mat]ial ,elem5t ( ! ,duty ( ,virtue    

,,introduction p>agraph #aaj            
#a                              #b      
,int]nal ,duty ( ,virtue       ,ext]nal 
,virtue ( ,duty          ,my ,own ,end1 
,! ,end ( ,o!rs1        :i* is also my  
! promotion (                           
,,introduction p>agraph #aae            
,duty                         :i* is    
also my                                 
,duty          7,my own                 
7,! ,happ9ess        ,p]fection7        
( ,o!rs7                                
,,introduction p>agraph #abj            
#c                              #d      
,! ,law :i* is             ,! ,end :i*  
is        also ,spr+                    
also ,spr+                              
,,introduction p>agraph #abe        ,on 
:i* !                 ,on :i* !         
,morality                     ,legality 
( e free det]m9ation ( w re/s           
,,introduction p>agraph #acj    ,! ,=mal
 ,elem5t ( ! ,duty ( ,virtue4           
,,xii4 ,prelim9>y ,notions ( !          
,susceptibility ( ! ,m9d =              

,notions ( ,duty g5]ally                
,,introduction p>agraph #ace  ,^! are   
su* moral qualities z1 :5 a man does n  
possess !m1 he is n b\nd to acquire !m4 
,!y are3 ! moral feel+1 consci5ce1 love 
( "o's neighb\r1 & respect = ourselves  
7self-e/eem74 ,!re is no obligation to h
 ^!1 s9ce !y are subjective conditions (
 susceptibility = ! notion ( duty1 n    
objective conditions ( morality4 ,!y are
 all s5sitive & antec$5t1 b natural     
capacities ( m9d 7pra$ispositio7 to be  
affect$ by notions ( duty2 capacities   
:i* x _c be reg>d$ z a duty to h1 b :i* 
e man has1 & by virtue ( :i* he c be    
br\ght "u obligation4 ,! consci\sness ( 
!m is n ( empirical orig91 b c only     
foll[ on t ( a moral law1 z an effect ( 
! same on ! m9d4                        
,a4 ,,! ,,moral ,,feel+    ,?is is !    
susceptibility = pleasure or            
displeasure1 m]ely f ! consci\sness ( ! 
agreem5t or disagreem5t ( our action ) !
 law ( duty4 ,n[1 e det]m9ation ( !     
elective w proce$s f ! idea ( ! possible

 action ?r\gh ! feel+ ( pleasure or     
displeasure 9 tak+ an int]e/ 9 x or its 
effect to ! de$2 & "h ! s5sitive /ate 7!
 affection ( ! int]nal s5se7 is ei!r a  
pa?ological or a moral feel+4 ,! =m] is 
! feel+ t prec$es ! idea ( ! law1 !     
latt] t :i* may foll[ x4                
,,introduction p>agraph #adj  ,n[ x _c  
be a duty to h a moral feel+1 or to     
acquire x2 = all consci\sness (         
obligation supposes ?is feel+ 9 ord] t  
"o may become consci\s ( ! necessitation
 t lies 9 ! notion ( duty2 b e man 7z a 
moral be+7 has x orig9ally 9 himself2 ! 
obligation1 !n1 c only ext5d to !       
cultivation ( x & ! /r5g!n+ ( x ev5 by  
admiration ( its inscrutable orig92 &   
?is is effect$ by %[+ h[ x is j1 by !   
m]e conception ( reason1 t x is excit$  
mo/ /rongly1 9 its own purity & ap>t f e
 pa?ological /imulus2 & x is improp] to 
call ?is feel+ a moral s5se2 = ! ^w s5se
 g5]ally means a !oretical p[] (        
p]ception direct$ to an object2 :]eas ! 
moral feel+ 7l pleasure & displeasure 9 

g5]al7 is some?+ m]ely subjective1 :i*  
supplies no k4 ,no man is :olly de/itute
 ( moral feel+1 = if he 7 totally       
unsusceptible ( ?is s5sation he w\ld be 
morally dead2 &1 to speak 9 ! language (
 physicians1 if ! moral vital =ce c\ld  
no long] produce any effect on ?is      
feel+1 !n 8 humanity w\ld be dissolv$ 7z
 x 7 by *emical laws7 into m]e animality
 & be irrevocably conf\nd$ ) ! mass (   
o!r physical be+s4 ,b we h no special   
s5se = 7moral7 good & evil any m ?an =  
tru?1 al?\gh su* expressions are (t5    
us$2 b we h a susceptibility ( ! free   
elective w = be+ mov$ by pure practical 
reason & its law2 & x is ?is t we call !
 moral feel+4                      ,b4  
,,( ,,consci5ce    ,simil>ly1 consci5ce 
is n a ?+ to be acquir$1 & x is n a duty
 to acquire x2 b e man1 z a moral be+1  
has x orig9ally )9 him4 ,to be b\nd to h
 a consci5ce w\ld be z mu* z to say to  
be "u a duty to recognize duties4 ,=    
consci5ce is practical reason :i*1 9 e  
case ( law1 holds be=e a man 8 duty =   

acquittal or condemnation2 consequ5tly x
 does n ref] to an object1 b only to !  
subject 7affect+ ! moral feel+ by its   
own act72 s t x is an inevitable fact1 n
 an obligation & duty4 ,:51 !re=e1 x is 
said1 ,?is man has no consci5ce1 :at is 
meant is t he pays no he$ to its        
dictates4 ,= if he really _h none1 he   
w\ld n take cr$it to himself = any?+    
done accord+ to duty1 nor reproa*       
himself ) violation ( duty1 & !re=e he  
w\ld be unable ev5 to conceive ! duty ( 
hav+ a consci5ce4                       
,,introduction p>agraph #ade  ,i pass by
 ! manifold subdivisions ( consci5ce1 & 
only obs]ve :at foll[s f :at has j be5  
said1 namely1 t !re is no su* ?+ z an   
err+ consci5ce4 ,no d\bt x is possible  
sometimes to err 9 ! objective judgem5t 
:e!r some?+ is a duty or n2 b ,i _c err 
9 ! subjective :e!r ,i h comp>$ x ) my  
practical 7"h judicially act+7 reason = 
! purpose ( t judgem5t3 = if ,i err$ ,i 
w\ld n h ex]cis$ practical judgem5t at  
all1 & 9 t case !re is nei!r tru? nor   

error4 ,unconsci5ti\sness is n want (   
consci5ce1 b ! prop5sity n to he$ its   
judgem5t4 ,b :5 a man is consci\s ( hav+
 act$ accord+ to 8 consci5ce1 !n1 z f> z
 reg>ds guilt or innoc5ce1 no?+ m c be  
requir$ ( him1 only he is b\nd to       
enlight5 8 und]/&+ z to :at is duty or  
n2 b :5 x comes or has come to action1  
!n consci5ce speaks involunt>ily &      
inevitably4 ,to act consci5ti\sly c1    
!re=e1 n be a duty1 s9ce o!rwise x w\ld 
be necess>y to h a second consci5ce1 9  
ord] to be consci\s ( ! act ( ! fir/4   
,! duty "h is only to cultivate our     
consci5ce1 to quick5 our att5tion to !  
voice ( ! int]nal judge1 & to use all   
means to secure ob$i5ce to x1 & is ?us  
our indirect duty4                      
,c4 ,,( ,,love ,,to ,,m5                
,,introduction p>agraph #aej  ,love is a
 matt] ( feel+1 n ( w or volition1 & ,i 
_c love because ,i w to d s1 /ill less  
because ,i ought 7,i _c be necessitat$  
to love72 h5ce !re is no su* ?+ z a duty
 to love4 ,b5evol5ce1 h[ev] 7amor       

b5evol5tiae71 z a mode ( action1 may be 
subject to a law ( duty4 ,dis9t]e/$     
b5evol5ce is (t5 call$ 7?\gh v          
improp]ly7 love2 ev5 :]e ! happ9ess ( ! 
o!r is n conc]n$1 b ! complete & free   
surr5d] ( all "o's own ends to ! ends ( 
ano!r 7ev5 a sup]human7 be+1 love is    
spok5 ( z be+ also our duty4 ,b all duty
 is necessitation or con/ra9t1 al?\gh x 
may be self-con/ra9t accord+ to a law4  
,b :at is done f con/ra9t is n done f   
love4  ,x is a duty to d good to o!r m5 
accord+ to our p[]1 :e!r we love !m or  
n1 & ?is duty loses no?+ ( its weight1  
al?\gh we mu/ make ! sad rem>k t our    
species1 alas6 is n su* z to be f\nd    
p>ticul>ly wor?y ( love :5 we "k x m    
closely4 ,hatr$ ( m51 h[ev]1 is always  
hateful3 ev5 ?\gh )\t any active        
ho/ility x consi/s only 9 complete      
av]sion f mank9d 7! solit>y misan?ropy74
 ,= b5evol5ce /ill rema9s a duty ev5    
t[>ds ! manhat]1 :om "o _c love1 b to   
:om we c %[ k9dness4  ,to hate vice 9 m5
 is nei!r duty nor aga9/ duty1 b a m]e  

feel+ ( horror ( vice1 ! w hav+ no      
influ5ce on ! feel+ nor ! feel+ on ! w4 
,b5efic5ce is a duty4 ,he :o (t5        
practises ?is1 & sees 8 b5efic5t purpose
 succe$1 comes at la/ really to love him
 :om he has b5efit$4 ,:51 !re=e1 x is   
said3 ,?\ %alt love ?y neighb\r z       
?yself1 ?is does n mean1 ,?\ %alt fir/ (
 all love1 & by means ( ?is love 79 !   
next place7 d him good2 b3 ,d good to ?y
 neighb\r1 & ?is b5efic5ce w produce 9  
!e ! love ( m5 7z a settl$ habit (      
incl9ation to b5efic5ce74  ,! love (    
complac5cy 7amor complac5tiae17 w\ld    
!re=e alone be direct4 ,?is is a        
pleasure imm$iately connect$ ) ! idea ( 
! exi/5ce ( an object1 & to h a duty to 
?is1 t is1 to be necessitat$ to f9d     
pleasure 9 a ?+1 is a contradiction4    
,,introduction p>agraph #aee            
,d4 ,,( ,,respect    ,respect 7rev]5tia7
 is likewise some?+ m]ely subjective2 a 
feel+ ( a peculi> k9d n a judgem5t ab\t 
an object :i* x w\ld be a duty to effect
 or to advance4 ,= if consid]$ z duty x 

c\ld only be conceiv$ z su* by means ( !
 respect :i* we h = x4 ,to h a duty to  
?is1 !re=e1 w\ld be z mu* z to say to be
 b\nd 9 duty to h a duty4 ,:51 !re=e1 x 
is said3 ,man has a duty ( self-e/eem1  
?is is improp]ly /at$1 & we ought r to  
say3 ,! law )9 him inevitably =ces f him
 respect = 8 own be+1 & ?is feel+ 7:i*  
is ( a peculi> k9d7 is a basis ( c]ta9  
duties1 t is1 ( c]ta9 actions :i* may be
 consi/5t ) 8 duty to himself4 ,b we _c 
say t he has a duty ( respect = himself2
 = he mu/ h respect = ! law )9 himself1 
9 ord] to be able to conceive duty at   
all4      ,,xiii4 ,g5]al ,pr9ciples ( ! 
,metaphysics ( ,morals 9 !              
,,introduction p>agraph #afj            
treatm5t ( ,pure ,e?ics    ,fir/4 ,a    
duty c h only a s+le gr\nd ( obligation2
 & if two or m pro( ( x are adduc$1 ?is 
is a c]ta9 m>k t ei!r no valid pro( has 
yet be5 giv51 or t !re are sev]al di/9ct
 duties :i* h be5 reg>d$ z "o4  ,= all  
moral pro(s1 be+ philosophical1 c only  
be drawn by means ( rational k f        

concepts1 n l ma!matics1 ?r\gh !        
con/ruction ( concepts4 ,! latt] sci5ce 
admits a v>iety ( pro(s ( "o & ! same   
!orem2 because 9 intuition a priori !re 
may be sev]al prop]ties ( an object1 all
 ( :i* lead back to ! v same pr9ciple4  
,if1 = in/ance1 to prove ! duty (       
v]acity1 an argum5t is drawn fir/ f !   
h>m t a lie causes to o!r m52 ano!r f ! 
wor?lessness ( a li> & ! violation ( 8  
own self-respect1 :at is prov$ 9 ! =m]  
argum5t is a duty ( b5evol5ce1 n (      
v]acity1 t is to say1 n ! duty :i*      
requir$ to be prov$1 b a diff]5t "o4    
,n[1 if1 9 giv+ a v>iety ( pro( = "o & !
 same !orem1 we flatt] ourselves t !    
multitude ( reasons w comp5sate ! lack (
 weight 9 ea* tak5 sep>ately1 ?is is a v
 unphilosophical res\rce1 s9ce x betrays
 trick]y & di%one/y2 = sev]al           
insuffici5t pro(s plac$ beside "o ano!r 
d n produce c]ta9ty1 nor ev5            
probability4 ,!y %\ld advance z reason &
 consequ5ce 9 a s]ies1 up to ! suffici5t
 reason1 & x is only 9 ?is way t !y c h 

! =ce ( pro(4 ,yet ! =m] is ! usual     
device ( ! rhetorician4  ,secondly4 ,!  
diff]5ce betwe5 virtue & vice _c be     
s\ght 9 ! degree 9 :i* c]ta9 maxims are 
foll[$1 b only 9 ! specific quality ( ! 
maxims 7_! relation to ! law74 ,9 o!r   
words1 ! vaunt$ pr9ciple ( ,ari/otle1 t 
virtue is ! mean betwe5 two vices1 is   
false4 99 ,= in/ance1 suppose t good    
managem5t is giv5 z ! mean betwe5 two   
vices1 prodigality & av>ice2 !n its     
orig9 z a virtue c nei!r be def9$ z !   
gradual dim9ution ( ! =m] vice 7by      
sav+71 nor z ! increase ( ! exp5ses ( ! 
mis]ly4 ,^! vices1 9 fact1 _c be view$ z
 if !y1 proce$+ z x 7 9 opposite        
directions1 met toge!r 9 good managem5t2
 b ea* ( !m has its own maxim1 :i*      
necess>ily contradicts t ( ! o!r4       
,,introduction p>agraph #afe    99 ,!   
common classical =mulae ( e?ics- m$io   
tutissimus ibis2 omne mimium v]titur 9  
vitium2 e/ modus 9 rebus1 etc41 m$ium   
t5u]e beati2 virtus e/ m$ium vitiorum et
 utr9que r$uctum- ,y w g mo/ safely 9 ! 

middle 7,virgil72 ,e excess develops    
into a vice2 ,!re is a mean 9 all ?+s1  
etc4 7,horace72 ,happy !y :o /eadily    
pursue a middle c\rse2 ,virtue is ! mean
 betwe5 two vices & equally remov$ f    
ei!r 7,horace74- conta9 a poor sort (   
wisdom1 :i* has no def9ite pr9ciples2 = 
?is mean betwe5 two extremes1 :o w      
assign x = me8 ,av>ice 7z a vice7 is n  
di/+ui%$ f frugality 7z a virtue7 by    
m]ely be+ ! latt] pu%$ too f>2 b has a q
 diff]5t pr9ciple 7maxim71 namely plac+ 
! end ( economy n 9 ! enjoym5t ( "o's   
means1 b 9 ! m]e possession ( !m1 r5\nc+
 enjoym5t2 j z ! vice ( prodigality is n
 to be s\ght 9 ! excessive enjoym5t (   
"o's means1 b 9 ! bad maxim :i* makes ! 
use ( !m1 )\t reg>d to _! ma9t5ance1 !  
sole end4    ,= ! same reason1 no vice c
 be def9$ z an excess 9 ! practice (    
c]ta9 actions beyond :at is prop] 7e4g41
 ,prodigalitas e/ excessus 9 consum5dis 
opibus72 or1 z a less ex]cise ( !m ?an  
is fitt+ 7,av>itia e/ defectus1 etc474  
,= s9ce 9 ?is way ! degree is left q    

undef9$1 & ! "q :e!r conduct accords )  
duty or n1 turns :olly on ?is1 su* an   
acc\nt is ( no use z a def9ition4       
,?irdly4 ,e?ical virtue mu/ n be e/imat$
 by ! p[] we attribute to man ( fulfill+
 ! law2 b1 conv]sely1 ! moral p[] mu/ be
 e/imat$ by ! law1 :i* comm&s           
categorically2 n1 !re=e1 by ! empirical 
k t we h ( m5 z !y are1 b by ! rational 
k h[1 accord+ to ! ideas ( humanity1 !y 
ought to be4 ,^! ?ree maxims ( !        
sci5tific treatm5t ( e?ics are oppos$ to
 ! old] apoph!gms3                      
,,introduction p>agraph #agj  #a4 ,!re  
is only "o virtue & only "o vice4  #b4  
,virtue is ! obs]vance ( ! mean pa?     
betwe5 two opposite vices4  #c4 ,virtue 
7l prud5ce7 mu/ be le>n$ f exp]i5ce4    
,,xiv4 ,( ,virtue 9 ,g5]al              
,,introduction p>agraph #age    ,virtue 
signifies a moral /r5g? ( w4 ,b ?is does
 n exhau/ ! notion2 = su* /r5g? might   
also belong to a holy 7sup]human7 be+1 9
 :om no oppos+ impulse c\nt]acts ! law (
 8 rational w2 :o !re=e will+ly does    

ev]y?+ 9 accordance ) ! law4 ,virtue !n 
is ! moral /r5g? ( a man's w 9 8 ob$i5ce
 to duty2 & ?is is a moral necessitation
 by 8 own law giv+ reason1 inasmu* z ?is
 con/itutes itself a p[] execut+ ! law4 
,x is n itself a duty1 nor is x a duty  
to possess x 7o!rwise we %\ld be 9 duty 
b\nd to h a duty71 b x comm&s1 &        
accompanies its comm& ) a moral con/ra9t
 7"o possible by laws ( int]nal fre$om74
 ,b s9ce ?is %\ld be irresi/ible1 /r5g? 
is requisite1 & ! degree ( ?is /r5g? c  
be e/imat$ only by ! magnitude ( !      
h9drances :i* man creates = himself1 by 
8 incl9ations4 ,vices1 ! brood (        
unlawful dispositions1 are ! mon/]s t he
 has to combat2 :]e=e ?is moral /r5g? z 
=titude 7=titudo moralis7 con/itutes !  
greate/ & only true m>tial glory ( man2 
x is also call$ ! true wisdom1 namely1 !
 practical1 because x makes ! ultimate  
end ( ! exi/5ce ( man on e>? its own    
end4 ,its possession alone makes man    
free1 heal?y1 ri*1 a k+1 etc41 nor ei!r 
*ance or fate deprive him ( ?is1 s9ce he

 possesses himself1 & ! virtu\s _c lose 
8 virtue4  ,all ! encomiums be/[$ on !  
ideal ( humanity 9 its moral p]fection c
 lose no?+ ( _! practical reality by !  
examples ( :at m5 n[ are1 h be51 or w   
probably be h]eaft]2 an?ropology :i*    
proce$s f m]e empirical k _c impair     
an?roponomy :i* is erect$ by !          
unconditionally legislat+ reason2 &     
al?\gh virtue may n[ & !n be call$      
m]itori\s 79 relation to m51 n to !     
law71 & be wor?y ( rew>d1 yet 9 itself1 
z x is its own end1 s also x mu/ be     
reg>d$ z its own rew>d4  ,virtue        
consid]$ 9 its complete p]fection is1   
!re=e1 reg>d$ n z if man possess$       
virtue1 b z if virtue possess$ ! man1   
s9ce 9 ! =m] case x w\ld appe> z ?\gh he
 _h /ill _h ! *oice 7= :i* he w\ld !n   
require ano!r virtue1 9 ord] to select  
virtue f all o!r w>es (f]$ to him74 ,to 
conceive a plurality ( virtues 7z we    
unavoidably mu/7 is no?+ else b to      
conceive v>i\s moral objects to :i* !   
7rational7 w is l$ by ! s+le pr9ciple ( 

virtue2 & x is ! same ) ! opposite      
vices4 ,! expression :i* p]sonifies bo? 
is a contrivance = affect+ ! s5sibility1
 po9t+1 h[ev]1 to a moral s5se4 ,h5ce x 
foll[s t an ae/hetic ( morals is n a "p1
 b a subjective exposition ( !          
,metaphysic ( ,morals2 9 :i* ! emotions 
t accompany ! =ce ( ! moral law make ! t
 =ce to be felt2 = example3 disgu/1     
horror1 etc41 :i* gives a s5sible moral 
av]sion 9 ord] to ga9 ! prec$5ce f !    
m]ely s5sible incitem5t4                
,,introduction p>agraph #ahj  ,,xv4 ,( !
 ,pr9ciple on :i* ,e?ics is sep>at$ f   
,jurisprud5ce    ,?is sep>ation on :i* !
 subdivision ( moral philosophy 9 g5]al 
re/s1 is f\nd$ on ?is3 t ! notion (     
fre$om1 :i* is common to bo?1 makes x   
necess>y to divide duties into ^? (     
ext]nal & ^? ( int]nal fre$om2 ! latt] (
 :i* alone are e?ical4 ,h5ce ?is int]nal
 fre$om :i* is ! condition ( all e?ical 
duty mu/ be discuss$ z a prelim9>y      
7discursus praelim9>is71 j z above !    
doctr9e ( consci5ce 0 discuss$ z !      

condition ( all duty4                   
,,introduction p>agraph #ahe            
,,rem>ks    ,( ! ,doctr9e ( ,virtue on !
 ,pr9ciple ,( ,int]nal ,fre$om4         
,habit 7habitus7 is a facility ( action 
& a subjective p]fection ( ! elective w4
 ,b n e su* facility is a free habit    
7habitus lib]tatis72 = if x is cu/om    
7assuetudo71 t is1 a uni=mity ( action  
:i*1 by frequ5t repetition1 has become a
 necessity1 !n x is n a habit proce$+ f 
fre$om1 & !re=e n a moral habit4 ,virtue
 !re=e _c be def9$ z a habit ( free     
law-abid+ actions1 unless inde$ we add  
det]m9+ itself 9 its action by ! idea ( 
! law2 & !n ?is habit is n a prop]ty ( !
 elective w1 b ( ! rational w1 :i* is a 
faculty t 9 adopt+ a rule also decl>es x
 to be a univ]sal law1 & x is only su* a
 habit t c be reckon$ z virtue4 ,two ?+s
 are requir$ = int]nal fre$om3 to be    
ma/] ( oneself 9 a giv5 case 7animus sui
 compos7 & to h comm& ov] oneself       
7imp]ium 9 semetipsum71 t is to subdue 8
 emotions & to gov]n 8 passions4 ,) ^!  

conditions1 ! "* 7indoles7 is noble     
7erecta72 9 ! opposite case1 x is       
ignoble 7indoles abjecta s]va74         
,,introduction p>agraph #aij      ,,xvi4
 ,virtue requires1 fir/ ( all1 ,comm&   
ov] ,oneself    ,emotions & passions are
 ess5tially di/9ct2 ! =m] belong to     
feel+ 9 s f> z ?is com+ be=e reflection 
makes x m difficult or ev5 impossible4  
,h5ce emotion is call$ ha/y 7animus     
praeceps74 ,& reason decl>es ?r\gh !    
notion ( virtue t a man %\ld collect    
himself2 b ?is weakness 9 ! life ( "o's 
und]/&+1 jo9$ ) ! /r5g? ( a m5tal       
excitem5t1 is only a lack ( virtue      
7,untug5d71 & z x 7 a weak & *ildi% ?+1 
:i* may v well consi/ ) ! be/ w1 & has  
fur!r ?is "o good ?+ 9 x1 t ?is /orm    
soon subsides4 ,a prop5sity to emotion  
7e4g41 res5tm5t7 is !re=e n s closely   
relat$ to vice z passion is4 ,passion1  
on ! o!r h&1 is ! s5sible appetite gr[n 
into a p]man5t incl9ation 7e4 g41 hatr$ 
9 contra/ to res5tm5t74 ,! calmness )   
:i* "o indulges x leaves room =         

reflection & all[s ! m9d to frame       
pr9ciples !reon = itself2 & ?us :5 !    
incl9ation falls ^u :at contradicts !   
law1 to brood on x1 to all[ x to root   
itself deeply1 & !reby to take up evil  
7z ( set purpose7 into "o's maxim2 & ?is
 is !n specifically evil1 t is1 x is a  
true vice4  ,virtue1 !re=e1 9 s f> z x  
is bas$ on int]nal fre$om1 conta9s a    
positive comm& = man1 namely1 t he %\ld 
br+ all 8 p[]s & incl9ations "u 8 rule  
7t ( reason72 & ?is is a positive       
precept ( comm& ov] himself :i* is      
additional to ! prohibition1 namely1 t  
he %\ld n all[ himself to be gov]n$ by 8
 feel+s & incl9ations 7! duty ( apa?y72 
s9ce1 unless reason takes ! re9s (      
gov]nm5t into its own h&s1 ! feel+s &   
incl9ations play ! ma/] ov] ! man4      
,,introduction p>agraph #aie            
,,xvii4 ,virtue necess>ily presupposes  
,apa?y 7consid]$ z                      
,/r5g?7    ,?is ^w 7apa?y7 has come into
 bad repute1 j z if x meant want (      
feel+1 & !re=e subjective indiff]5ce )  

respect to ! objects ( ! elective w2 x  
is suppos$ to be a weakness4 ,?is       
misconception may be avoid$ by giv+ ! "n
 moral apa?y to t want ( emotion :i* is 
to be di/+ui%$ f indiff]5ce4 ,9 ! =m]1 !
 feel+s aris+ f s5sible impressions lose
 _! influ5ce on ! moral feel+ only      
because ! respect = ! law is m p[]ful   
?an all ( !m toge!r4 ,x is only ! app>5t
 /r5g? ( a fev] pati5t t makes ev5 !    
lively sympa?y ) good rise to an        
emotion1 or r deg5]ate into x4 ,su* an  
emotion is call$ en?usiasm1 & x is )    
ref]5ce to ?is t we are to expla9 !     
mod]ation :i* is usually recomm5d$ 9    
virtu\s practices3                      
,,introduction p>agraph #bjj            
,insani sapi5s nom5 f]at1 aequus uniqui 
,ultra quam satis e/ virtutem si petat  
ipsam4 99    99 ,horace4 ,let ! wise man
 be> ! "n ( fool1 & ! j ( unju/1 if he  
pursue virtue h]self beyond ! prop]     
b\nds4                                  
,,introduction p>agraph #bje    ,=      
o!rwise x is absurd to imag9e t "o c\ld 

be too wise or too virtu\s4 ,! emotion  
always belongs to ! s5sibility1 no matt]
 by :at sort ( object x may be excit$4  
,! true /r5g? ( virtue is ! m9d at re/1 
) a firm1 delib]ate resolution to br+   
its law into practice4 ,t is ! /ate (   
heal? 9 ! moral life2 on ! contr>y1 !   
emotion1 ev5 :5 x is excit$ by ! idea ( 
! good1 is a mom5t>y glitt] :i* leaves  
exhau/ion aft] x4 ,we may apply ! t]m   
fanta/ically virtu\s to ! man :o w admit
 no?+ to be indiff]5t 9 respect (       
morality 7adiaphora71 & :o /rews all 8  
/eps ) duties1 z ) traps1 & w n all[ x  
to be indiff]5t :e!r a man eats fi% or  
fle%1 dr9k be] or w9e1 :5 bo? agree )   
him2 a micrology :i*1 if adopt$ into !  
doctr9e ( virtue1 w\ld make its rule a  
tyranny4                                
,,rem>k                                 
,,introduction p>agraph #baj  ,virtue is
 always 9 progress1 & yet always beg9s f
 ! beg9n+4 ,! =m] foll[s f ! fact t1    
objectively consid]$1 x is an ideal &   
unatta9able1 & yet x is a duty con/antly

 to approximate to x4 ,! second is f\nd$
 subjectively on ! nature ( man :i* is  
affect$ by incl9ations1 "u ! influ5ce ( 
:i* virtue1 ) its maxims adopt$ once =  
all1 c nev] settle 9 a position ( re/2  
b1 if x is n ris+1 inevitably falls2    
because moral maxims _c1 l te*nical1 be 
bas$ on cu/om 7= ?is belongs to !       
physical "* ( ! det]m9ation ( w72 b ev5 
if ! practice ( !m become a cu/om1 !    
ag5t w\ld !reby lose ! fre$om 9 ! *oice 
( 8 maxims1 :i* fre$om is ! "* ( an     
action done f duty4  ,,on,,consci5ce    
,,on ,,consci5ce    ,! consci\sness ( an
 int]nal tribunal 9 man 7be=e :i* 8     
?\ghts accuse or excuse "o ano!r7 is    
,,consci5ce4  ,e man has a consci5ce1 & 
f9ds himself obs]v$ by an inw>d judge   
:i* ?reat5s & keeps him 9 awe 7rev]5ce  
comb9$ ) fe>72 & ?is p[] :i* wat*es ov] 
! laws )9 him is n some?+ :i* he himself
 7arbitr>ily7 makes1 b x is incorporat$ 
9 8 be+4 ,x foll[s him l 8 %ad[1 :5 he  
?9ks to escape4 ,he may inde$ /upefy    
himself ) pleasures & di/ractions1 b _c 

avoid n[ & !n com+ to himself or awak+1 
& !n he at once p]ceives its awful      
voice4 ,9 8 utmo/ depravity1 he may1    
inde$1 pay no att5tion to x1 b he _c    
avoid he>+ x4  ,n[ ?is orig9al          
intellectual & 7z a conception ( duty7  
moral capacity1 call$ consci5ce1 has ?is
 peculi>ity 9 x1 t al?\gh its bus9ess is
 a bus9ess ( man ) himself1 yet he f9ds 
himself compell$ by 8 reason to transact
 x z if at ! comm& ( ano!r p]son4 ,= !  
transaction "h is ! conduct ( a trial   
7causa7 be=e a tribunal4 ,b t he :o is  
accus$ by 8 consci5ce %\ld be conceiv$ z
 "o & ! same p]son ) ! judge is an      
absurd conception ( a judicial c\rt2 =  
!n ! compla9ant w\ld always lose 8 case4
 ,!re=e1 9 all duties ! consci5ce ( !   
man mu/ reg>d ano!r ?an himself z !     
judge ( 8 actions1 if x is to avoid     
self-contradiction4 ,n[ ?is o!r may be  
an actual or a m]ely ideal p]son :i*    
reason frames to itself4 ,su* an        
idealiz$ p]son 7! au?oriz$ judge (      
consci5ce7 mu/ be "o :o kn[s ! he>t2 = !

 tribunal is set up 9 ! inw>d "p ( man2 
at ! same "t he mu/ also be all-oblig+1 
t is1 mu/ be or be conceiv$ z a p]son 9 
respect ( :om all duties are to be      
reg>d$ z 8 comm&s2 s9ce consci5ce is !  
inw>d judge ( all free actions4 ,n[1    
s9ce su* a moral be+ mu/ at ! same "t   
possess all p[] 79 heav5 & e>?71 s9ce   
o!rwise he c\ld n give 8 comm&s _! prop]
 effect 7:i* ! (fice ( judge necess>ily 
requires71 & s9ce su* a moral be+       
possess+ p[] ov] all is call$ ,,god1    
h5ce consci5ce mu/ be conceiv$ z !      
subjective pr9ciple ( a responsibility =
 "o's de$s be=e ,god2 nay1 ?is latt]    
concept is conta9$ 7?\gh x be only      
obscurely7 9 e moral self-consci\sness4 
,,! ,,end