#aghe              ,,fundam5tal         
,,pr9ciples ,,( ,,! ,,metaphysic ,,(    
,,morals                                
by ,immanuel ,kant                      
translat$ by ,?omas ,k+smill ,abbott    
,,preface        ,anci5t ,greek         
philosophy 0 divid$ into ?ree sci5ces3  
physics1  e?ics1 & logic4 ,?is division 
is p]fectly suitable to ! nature  ( !   
?+2 & ! only improvem5t t c be made 9 x 
is to  add ! pr9ciple on :i* x is bas$1 
s t we may bo? satisfy  ourselves ( its 
complet5ess1 & also be able to det]m9e  
correctly  ! necess>y subdivisions4     
,all rational k is ei!r mat]ial or =mal3
 ! =m]  consid]s "s object1 ! latt] is  
conc]n$ only ) ! =m (  ! und]/&+ & ( !  
reason itself1 & ) ! univ]sal  laws (   
?\ght 9 g5]al )\t di/9ction ( its       
objects4  ,=mal philosophy is call$     
logic4 ,mat]ial philosophy1 h[ev]1 :i*  
has  to d ) det]m9ate objects & ! laws  
to :i* !y are subject1  is aga9 tw(old2 
= ^! laws are ei!r laws ( nature or (   
fre$om4 ,! sci5ce ( ! =m] is physics1 t 

( ! latt]1  e?ics2 !y are also call$    
natural philosophy & moral philosophy   
respectively4    ,logic _c h any        
empirical "p2 t is1 a "p 9 :i* !        
univ]sal & necess>y laws ( ?\ght %\ld   
re/ on gr\nds tak5  f exp]i5ce2 o!rwise 
x w\ld n be logic1 i4e41 a canon =  !   
und]/&+ or ! reason1 valid = all ?\ght1 
& capable (  demon/ration4 ,natural &   
moral philosophy1 on ! contr>y1 c ea*  h
 _! empirical "p1 s9ce ! =m] has to     
det]m9e !  laws ( nature z an object (  
exp]i5ce2 ! latt] ! laws (  ! human w1 s
 f> z x is affect$ by nature3 ! =m]1    
h[ev]1 be+ laws accord+ to :i* ev]y?+   
does happ52 !  latt]1 laws accord+ to   
:i* ev]y?+ ought to happ54 ,e?ics1      
h[ev]1 mu/ also consid] ! conditions "u 
:i* :at ought to  happ5 frequ5tly does  
n4    ,we may call all philosophy       
empirical1 s f> z x is bas$ on  gr\nds (
 exp]i5ce3 on ! o!r h&1 t :i* deliv]s   
its  doctr9es f a priori pr9ciples alone
 we may call pure  philosophy4 ,:5 !    
latt] is m]ely =mal x is logic2 if x is 

re/rict$ to def9ite objects ( ! und]/&+ 
x is metaphysic4    ,9 ?is way !re      
arises ! idea ( a tw(old metaphysic- a  
metaphysic ( nature & a metaphysic (    
morals4 ,physics w ?us  h an empirical &
 also a rational "p4 ,x is ! same )     
,e?ics2 b "h ! empirical "p might h !   
special "n (  practical an?ropology1 !  
"n morality be+ appropriat$ to !        
rational "p4    ,all trades1 arts1 &    
h&iworks h ga9$ by division (  lab\r1   
namely1 :51 in/ead ( "o man do+ ev]y?+1 
ea*  conf9es himself to a c]ta9 k9d ( "w
 di/9ct f o!rs 9 !  treatm5t x requires1
 s z to be able to p]=m x ) great]      
facility & 9 ! greate/ p]fection4 ,:]e !
 diff]5t k9ds  ( "w are n di/+ui%$ &    
divid$1 :]e ev]yone is a                
jack-(-all-trades1 !re manufactures     
rema9 /ill 9 ! greate/  b>b>ism4 ,x     
might des]ve to be consid]$ :e!r pure   
philosophy  9 all its p>ts does n       
require a man specially devot$ to x1 &  
:e!r x w\ld n be bett] = ! :ole bus9ess 
( sci5ce if  ^? :o1 to please ! ta/es ( 

! public1 are wont to bl5d !  rational &
 empirical elem5ts toge!r1 mix$ 9 all   
sorts (  proportions unkn[n to !mselves1
 & :o call !mselves indep5d5t  ?9k]s1   
giv+ ! "n ( m9ute philosoph]s to ^? :o  
apply  !mselves to ! rational "p only-  
if ^!1 ,i say1 7 w>n$ n  to c>ry on two 
employm5ts toge!r :i* diff] widely 9 !  
treatm5t !y dem&1 = ea* ( :i* p]haps a  
special tal5t is  requir$1 & !          
comb9ation ( :i* 9 "o p]son only        
produces  bungl]s4 ,b ,i only ask "h    
:e!r ! nature ( sci5ce does n  require t
 we %\ld always c>efully sep>ate !      
empirical f  ! rational "p1 & prefix to 
,physics prop] 7or empirical physics7  a
 metaphysic ( nature1 & to practical    
an?ropology a metaphysic  ( morals1 :i* 
mu/ be c>efully cle>$ ( ev]y?+          
empirical1 s  t we may "k h[ mu* c be   
accompli%$ by pure reason 9 bo?  cases1 
& f :at s\rces x draws ?is its a priori 
tea*+1  & t :e!r ! latt] inquiry is     
conduct$ by all morali/s  7^: "n is     
legion71 or only by "s :o feel a call+  

!reto4    ,z my conc]n "h is ) moral    
philosophy1 ,i limit ! "q  sugge/$ to   
?is3 ,:e!r x is n ( ! utmo/ necessity to
  con/ruct a pure ?+ :i* is only        
empirical & :i* belongs to  an?ropology8
 = t su* a philosophy mu/ be possible is
 evid5t  f ! common idea ( duty & ( !   
moral laws4 ,ev]yone mu/  admit t if a  
law is to h moral =ce1 i4e41 to be !    
basis (  an obligation1 x mu/ c>ry ) x  
absolute necessity2 t1 =  example1 !    
precept1 ,?\ %alt n lie1 is n valid = m5
  alone1 z if o!r rational be+s _h no   
ne$ to obs]ve x2 & s  ) all ! o!r moral 
laws prop]ly s call$2 t1 !re=e1 !  basis
 ( obligation mu/ n be s\ght 9 ! nature 
( man1 or 9 !  circum/ances 9 ! _w 9 :i*
 he is plac$1 b a priori  simply 9 !    
conception ( pure reason2 & al?\gh any  
o!r  precept :i* is f\nd$ on pr9ciples (
 m]e exp]i5ce may be 9  c]ta9 respects  
univ]sal1 yet 9 z f> z x re/s ev5 9 !   
lea/ degree on an empirical basis1      
p]haps only z to a motive1  su* a       
precept1 :ile x may be a practical rule1

 c nev] be  call$ a moral law4    ,?us n
 only are moral laws ) _! pr9ciples     
ess5tially  di/+ui%$ f e o!r k9d (      
practical k 9 :i*  !re is any?+         
empirical1 b all moral philosophy re/s  
:olly  on its pure "p4 ,:5 appli$ to    
man1 x does n borr[ ! lea/  ?+ f ! k (  
man himself 7an?ropology71 b gives laws 
a priori to him z a rational be+4 ,no   
d\bt ^! laws require a  judgem5t %>p5$  
by exp]i5ce1 9 ord] on ! "o h& to       
di/+ui% 9 :at cases !y are applicable1 &
 on ! o!r to  procure = !m access to ! w
 ( ! man & effectual influ5ce  on       
conduct2 s9ce man is act$ on by s _m    
incl9ations t1 ?\gh  capable ( ! idea ( 
a practical pure reason1 he is n s      
easily  able to make x effective 9      
concreto 9 8 life4    ,a metaphysic (   
morals is !re=e indisp5sably necess>y1 n
  m]ely = speculative reasons1 9 ord] to
 inve/igate ! s\rces (  ! practical     
pr9ciples :i* are to be f\nd a priori 9 
our reason1  b also because morals      
!mselves are liable to all sorts (      

corruption1 z long z we are )\t t clue &
 supreme canon by  :i* to e/imate !m    
correctly4 ,= 9 ord] t an action %\ld   
be morally good1 x is n en\gh t x con=m 
to ! moral law1  b x mu/ also be done = 
! sake ( ! law1 o!rwise t  con=mity is  
only v cont+5t & unc]ta92 s9ce a        
pr9ciple  :i* is n moral1 al?\gh x may  
n[ & !n produce actions  con=mable to ! 
law1 w also (t5 produce actions :i*     
contradict x4 ,n[ x is only 9 a pure    
philosophy t we c look =  ! moral law 9 
its purity & g5u95ess 7&1 9 a practical 
matt]1 ?is is ( ! utmo/ consequ5ce73 we 
mu/1 !re=e1  beg9 ) pure philosophy     
7metaphysic71 & )\t x !re _c  be any    
moral philosophy at all4 ,t :i* m+les ^!
 pure  pr9ciples ) ! empirical does n   
des]ve ! "n (  philosophy 7= :at        
di/+ui%es philosophy f common rational  
k is t x treats 9 sep>ate sci5ces :at ! 
latt]  only compreh5ds confus$ly72 mu*  
less does x des]ve t (  moral           
philosophy1 s9ce by ?is confusion x ev5 
spoils ! purity (  morals !mselves1 &   

c\nt]acts its own end4    ,let x n be   
?\ght1 h[ev]1 t :at is "h dem&$ is      
already extant 9 ! propa$eutic prefix$  
by ! celebrat$ ,wolf  to 8 moral        
philosophy1 namely1 8 s-call$ g5]al     
practical  philosophy1 & t1 !re=e1 we h 
n to /rike into an  entirely new field4 
,j because x 0 to be a g5]al practical  
philosophy1 x has n tak5 into           
consid]ation a w ( any  p>ticul> k9d-   
say "o :i* %\ld be det]m9$ solely f a   
priori pr9ciples )\t any empirical      
motives1 & :i* we might  call a pure w1 
b volition 9 g5]al1 ) all ! actions &   
conditions :i* belong to x 9 ?is g5]al  
signification4 ,by ?is  x is di/+ui%$ f 
a metaphysic ( morals1 j z g5]al  logic1
 :i* treats ( ! acts & canons ( ?\ght 9 
g5]al1 is  di/+ui%$ f transc5d5tal      
philosophy1 :i* treats ( !  p>ticul>    
acts & canons ( pure ?\ght1 i4e41 t ^:  
cognitions are altoge!r a priori4 ,= !  
metaphysic ( morals has  to exam9e !    
idea & ! pr9ciples ( a possible pure w1 
&  n ! acts & conditions ( human        

volition g5]ally1 :i* = !  mo/ "p are   
drawn f psy*ology4 ,x is true t moral   
laws &  duty are spok5 ( 9 ! g5]al moral
 philosophy 7contr>y inde$ to  all      
fitness74 ,b ?is is no objection1 = 9   
?is respect also !  au?ors ( t sci5ce   
rema9 true to _! idea ( x2 !y d n       
di/+ui% ! motives :i* are prescrib$ z   
su* by reason alone  altoge!r a priori1 
& :i* are prop]ly moral1 f !  empirical 
motives :i* ! und]/&+ raises to g5]al   
conceptions m]ely by comp>ison (        
exp]i5ces2 b1 )\t notic+  ! diff]5ce (  
_! s\rces1 & look+ on !m all z          
homog5e\s1 !y consid] only _! great] or 
less am\nt4 ,x is 9  ?is way !y frame _!
 notion ( obligation1 :i*1 ?\gh any?+  b
 moral1 is all t c be atta9$ 9 a        
philosophy :i* passes no  judgem5t at   
all on ! orig9 ( all possible practical 
concepts1  :e!r !y are a priori1 or only
 a po/]iori4    ,int5d+ to publi%       
h]eaft] a metaphysic ( morals1 ,i issue 
9  ! fir/ in/ance ^! fundam5tal         
pr9ciples4 ,inde$ !re is  prop]ly no o!r

 f\ndation = x ?an ! critical exam9ation
 ( a  pure practical reason2 j z t (    
metaphysics is ! critical  exam9ation ( 
! pure speculative reason1 already      
publi%$4 ,b  9 ! fir/ place ! =m] is n s
 absolutely necess>y z !  latt]1 because
 9 moral conc]ns human reason c easily  
be br\ght  to a high degree (           
correctness & complet5ess1 ev5 9 !      
commone/ und]/&+1 :ile on ! contr>y 9   
its !oretic b  pure use x is :olly      
dialectical2 & 9 ! second place if !    
critique ( a pure practical ,reason is  
to be complete1 x mu/ be  possible at ! 
same "t to %[ its id5tity ) !           
speculative  reason 9 a common pr9ciple1
 = x c ultimately be only "o &  ! same  
reason :i* has to be di/+ui%$ m]ely 9   
its  application4 ,i c\ld n1 h[ev]1 br+ 
x to su* complet5ess "h1  )\t introduc+ 
consid]ations ( a :olly diff]5t k9d1 :i*
  w\ld be p]plex+ to ! read]4 ,on ?is   
acc\nt ,i h adopt$  ! title (           
,fundam5tal ,pr9ciples ( ! ,metaphysic (
 ,morals  in/ead ( t ( a ,critical      

,exam9ation ( ! pure practical  reason4 
,b 9 ! ?ird place1 s9ce a metaphysic (  
morals1 9 spite (  ! disc\rag+ title1 is
 yet capable ( be+ pres5t$ 9 popul>  =m1
 & "o adapt$ to ! common und]/&+1 ,i f9d
 x useful to  sep>ate f x ?is prelim9>y 
treatise on its fundam5tal  pr9ciples1 9
 ord] t ,i may n h]eaft] h ne$ to       
introduce  ^! necess>ily subtle         
discussions into a book ( a m simple    
"*4    ,! pres5t treatise is1 h[ev]1    
no?+ m ?an !  inve/igation & e/abli%m5t 
( ! supreme pr9ciple (  morality1 & ?is 
alone con/itutes a /udy complete 9      
itself &  "o :i* ought to be kept ap>t f
 e o!r moral inve/igation4  ,no d\bt my 
conclusions on ?is weighty "q1 :i* has  
hi!rto  be5 v unsatisfactorily exam9$1  
w\ld receive mu* light f !  application 
( ! same pr9ciple to ! :ole sy/em1 &    
w\ld be  greatly confirm$ by ! adequacy 
:i* x exhibits ?r\gh\t2 b  ,i mu/ =ego  
?is advantage1 :i* inde$ w\ld be aft]   
all m  gratify+ ?an useful1 s9ce ! easy 
applicability ( a pr9ciple  & its app>5t

 adequacy give no v c]ta9 pro( ( its    
s\ndness1  b r inspire a c]ta9          
p>tiality1 :i* prev5ts u f  exam9+ &    
e/imat+ x /rictly 9 itself & )\t reg>d  
to  consequ5ces4    ,i h adopt$ 9 ?is "w
 ! me?od :i* ,i ?9k mo/  suitable1      
proce$+ analytically f common k to !    
det]m9ation ( its ultimate pr9ciple1 &  
aga9 desc5d+  syn!tically f ! exam9ation
 ( ?is pr9ciple & its s\rces  to !      
common k 9 :i* we f9d x employ$4 ,!     
division  w1 !re=e1 be z foll[s3        
#a ,,fir/ ,,section4 ,transition f !    
common rational k (  morality to !      
philosophical4        #b ,,second       
,,section4 ,transition f popul> moral   
philosophy to !  metaphysic ( morals4   
#c ,,?ird ,,section4 ,f9al /ep f !      
metaphysic ( morals to !  critique ( !  
pure practical reason4    ,,sec#a       
,,fir/ ,,section                        
,,transition ,,f ,,! ,,common ,,rational
 ,,k                ,,( ,,morality ,,to 
,,! ,,philosophical        ,no?+ c      
possibly be conceiv$ 9 ! _w1 or ev5 out 

( x1  :i* c be call$ good1 )\t          
qualification1 except a good w4         
,intellig5ce1 wit1 judgem5t1 & ! o!r    
tal5ts ( ! m9d1  h[ev] !y may be nam$1  
or c\rage1 resolution1 p]sev]ance1 z    
qualities ( temp]am5t1 are und\bt$ly    
good & desirable 9 _m  respects2 b ^!   
gifts ( nature may also become extremely
 bad  & mis*iev\s if ! w :i* is to make 
use ( !m1 & :i*1  !re=e1 con/itutes :at 
is call$ "*1 is n good4 ,x is  ! same ) 
! gifts ( =tune4 ,p[]1 ri*es1 hon\r1 ev5
  heal?1 & ! g5]al well-be+ & cont5tm5t 
) "o's  condition :i* is call$ happ9ess1
 inspire pride1 & (t5  presumption1 if  
!re is n a good w to correct ! influ5ce 
(  ^! on ! m9d1 & ) ?is also to rectify 
! :ole pr9ciple  ( act+ & adapt x to its
 end4 ,! sight ( a be+ :o is n  adorn$ )
 a s+le feature ( a pure & good w1      
enjoy+  unbrok5 prosp]ity1 c nev] give  
pleasure to an imp>tial  rational       
spectator4 ,?us a good w appe>s to      
con/itute !  indisp5sable condition ev5 
( be+ wor?y ( happ9ess4    ,!re are ev5 

"s qualities :i* are ( s]vice to ?is    
good w  itself & may facilitate its     
action1 yet :i* h no intr9sic           
unconditional value1 b always presuppose
 a good w1 & ?is  qualifies ! e/eem t we
 ju/ly h = !m & does n  p]mit u to reg>d
 !m z absolutely good4 ,mod]ation 9 !   
affections & passions1 self-control1 &  
calm delib]ation are n  only good 9 _m  
respects1 b ev5 seem to con/itute "p ( !
  intr9sic wor? ( ! p]son2 b !y are f> f
 des]v+ to be  call$ good )\t           
qualification1 al?\gh !y h be5 s        
unconditionally prais$ by ! anci5ts4 ,= 
)\t ! pr9ciples (  a good w1 !y may     
become extremely bad1 & ! coolness ( a  
villa9 n only makes him f> m dang]\s1 b 
also directly makes  him m abom9able 9  
our eyes ?an he w\ld h be5 )\t x4    ,a 
good w is good n because ( :at x p]=ms  
or effects1  n by its aptness = !       
atta9m5t ( "s propos$ end1 b simply  by 
virtue ( ! volition2 t is1 x is good 9  
itself1 &  consid]$ by itself is to be  
e/eem$ mu* high] ?an all t c  be br\ght 

ab\t by x 9 fav\r ( any incl9ation1 nay 
ev5 ( !  sum total ( all incl9ations4   
,ev5 if x %\ld happ5 t1 ow+ to  special 
disfav\r ( =tune1 or ! nigg>dly         
provision ( a  /ep-mo!rly nature1 ?is w 
%\ld :olly lack p[] to accompli%  its   
purpose1 if ) its greate/ ef=ts x %\ld  
yet a*ieve  no?+1 & !re %\ld rema9 only 
! good w 7n1 to be  sure1 a m]e wi%1 b !
 summon+ ( all means 9 our p[]71 !n1  l 
a jewel1 x w\ld /ill %9e by its own     
light1 z a ?+  :i* has its :ole value 9 
itself4 ,its usefulness or fruitlessness
  c nei!r add nor take away any?+ f ?is 
value4 ,x w\ld be1  z x 71 only ! sett+ 
to enable u to h&le x ! m  conv5i5tly 9 
common comm]ce1 or to attract to x !    
att5tion  ( ^? :o are n yet             
connoisseurs1 b n to recomm5d x to true 
connoisseurs1 or to det]m9e its value4  
,!re is1 h[ev]1 some?+ s /range 9 ?is   
idea ( ! absolute  value ( ! m]e w1 9   
:i* no acc\nt is tak5 ( its utility1  t 
not)/&+ ! ?or\gh ass5t ( ev5 common     
reason to  ! idea1 yet a suspicion mu/  

arise t x may p]haps really be !        
product ( m]e high-fl[n fancy1 & t we   
may h misund]/ood  ! purpose ( nature 9 
assign+ reason z ! gov]nor ( our w4     
,!re=e we w exam9e ?is idea f ?is po9t (
 view4    ,9 ! physical con/itution ( an
 organiz$ be+1 t is1 a be+  adapt$      
suitably to ! purposes ( life1 we assume
 x z a  fundam5tal pr9ciple t no organ =
 any purpose w be f\nd  b :at is also ! 
fitte/ & be/ adapt$ = t purpose4 ,n[ 9  
a be+ :i* has reason & a w1 if ! prop]  
object ( nature  7 its cons]vation1 its 
welf>e1 9 a ^w1 its happ9ess1 !n  nature
 w\ld h hit ^u a v bad arrangem5t 9     
select+ !  reason ( ! creature to c>ry  
out ?is purpose4 ,= all !  actions :i* !
 creature has to p]=m ) a view to ?is   
purpose1  & ! :ole rule ( its conduct1  
w\ld be f> m surely prescrib$  to x by  
in/9ct1 & t end w\ld h be5 atta9$ !reby 
mu* m c]ta9ly ?an x ev] c be by reason4 
,%\ld reason  h be5 communicat$ to ?is  
fav\r$ creature ov] & above1 x  mu/ only
 h s]v$ x to contemplate ! happy        

con/itution (  its nature1 to admire x1 
to congratulate itself !reon1 & to  feel
 ?ankful = x to ! b5efic5t cause1 b n t 
x %\ld  subject its desires to t weak & 
delusive guidance & m$dle  bungl+ly ) ! 
purpose ( nature4 ,9 a ^w1 nature w\ld h
  tak5 c>e t reason %\ld n break =? into
 practical ex]cise1  nor h !            
presumption1 ) its weak insight1 to ?9k 
out =  itself ! plan ( happ9ess1 & ( !  
means ( atta9+ x4 ,nature  w\ld n only h
 tak5 on h]self ! *oice ( ! ends1 b     
also ( ! means1 & ) wise =esight w\ld h 
entru/$ bo?  to in/9ct4    ,&1 9 fact1  
we f9d t ! m a cultivat$ reason applies 
itself ) delib]ate purpose to ! enjoym5t
 ( life & happ9ess1  s mu* ! m does !   
man fail ( true satisfaction4 ,& f ?is  
circum/ance !re arises 9 _m1 if !y are  
c&id en\gh to  confess x1 a c]ta9 degree
 ( misology1 t is1 hatr$ ( reason1      
especially 9 ! case ( ^? :o are mo/     
exp]i5c$ 9 ! use (  x1 because aft]     
calculat+ all ! advantages !y d]ive1 ,i 
d n  say f ! inv5tion ( all ! arts (    

common luxury1 b ev5 f  ! sci5ces 7:i*  
seem to !m to be aft] all only a luxury 
(  ! und]/&+71 !y f9d t !y h1 9 fact1   
only br\ght  m tr\ble on _! %\ld]s1 r   
?an ga9$ 9 happ9ess2  & !y end by envy+1
 r ?an despis+1 ! m common  /amp ( m5 :o
 keep clos] to ! guidance ( m]e in/9ct &
 d  n all[ _! reason mu* influ5ce on _! 
conduct4 ,& ?is we  mu/ admit1 t !      
judgem5t ( ^? :o w\ld v mu* l[]  ! l(ty 
eulogies ( ! advantages :i* reason gives
 u 9 reg>d  to ! happ9ess & satisfaction
 ( life1 or :o w\ld ev5 r$uce  !m bel[  
z]o1 is by no means morose or ungrateful
 to ! goodness  ) :i* ! _w is gov]n$1 b 
t !re lies at ! root (  ^! judgem5ts !  
idea t our exi/5ce has a diff]5t & f>   
nobl] end1 = :i*1 & n = happ9ess1 reason
 is prop]ly  int5d$1 & :i* mu/1 !re=e1  
be reg>d$ z ! supreme  condition to :i* 
! private ends ( man mu/1 = ! mo/ "p1 be
  po/pon$4    ,= z reason is n compet5t 
to guide ! w ) c]ta9ty 9  reg>d to its  
objects & ! satisfaction ( all our wants
 7:i*  x to "s ext5t ev5 multiplies71   

?is be+ an end to :i* an  implant$      
in/9ct w\ld h l$ ) mu* great] c]ta9ty2 &
  s9ce1 nev]!less1 reason is imp>t$ to u
 z a practical  faculty1 i4e41 z "o :i* 
is to h influ5ce on ! w1  !re=e1 admitt+
 t nature g5]ally 9 ! di/ribution (  h] 
capacities has adapt$ ! means to ! end1 
its true  de/9ation mu/ be to produce a 
w1 n m]ely good z a means to  some?+    
else1 b good 9 itself1 = :i* reason 0   
absolutely  necess>y4 ,?is w !n1 ?\gh n 
inde$ ! sole & complete  good1 mu/ be ! 
supreme good & ! condition ( e o!r1  ev5
 ( ! desire ( happ9ess4 ,"u ^!          
circum/ances1 !re is  no?+ inconsi/5t ) 
! wisdom ( nature 9 ! fact t !          
cultivation ( ! reason1 :i* is requisite
 = ! fir/ &  unconditional purpose1 does
 9 _m ways int]f]e1 at lea/ 9 ?is  life1
 ) ! atta9m5t ( ! second1 :i* is always 
conditional1 namely1 happ9ess4 ,nay1 x  
may ev5 r$uce x to no?+1  )\t nature    
!reby fail+ ( h] purpose4 ,= reason     
recognizes  ! e/abli%m5t ( a good w z   
its highe/ practical de/9ation1  & 9    

atta9+ ?is purpose is capable only ( a  
satisfaction ( its  own prop] k9d1      
namely t f ! atta9m5t ( an end1 :i*  end
 aga9 is det]m9$ by reason only1 not)/&+
 t ?is  may involve _m a disappo9tm5t to
 ! ends ( incl9ation4    ,we h !n to    
develop ! notion ( a w :i* des]ves to be
  highly e/eem$ = itself & is good )\t a
 view to any?+  fur!r1 a notion :i*     
exi/s already 9 ! s\nd natural  und]/&+1
 requir+ r to be cle>$ up ?an to be     
taught1  & :i* 9 e/imat+ ! value ( our  
actions always takes !  fir/ place &    
con/itutes ! condition ( all ! re/4 ,9  
ord] to  d ?is1 we w take ! notion (    
duty1 :i* includes t ( a  good w1 al?\gh
 imply+ c]ta9 subjective re/rictions &  
h9drances4 ,^!1 h[ev]1 f> f conceal+ x1 
or r5d]+ x  unrecognizable1 r br+ x out 
by contra/ & make x %9e  =? s mu* !     
bright]4    ,i omit "h all actions :i*  
are already recogniz$ z inconsi/5t  )   
duty1 al?\gh !y may be useful = ?is or t
 purpose1 =  ) ^! ! "q :e!r !y are done 
f duty _c arise  at all1 s9ce !y ev5    

conflict ) x4 ,i also set aside ^?      
actions :i* really con=m to duty1 b to  
:i* m5 h no  direct incl9ation1 p]=m+ !m
 because !y are impell$  !reto by "s o!r
 incl9ation4 ,= 9 ?is case we c readily 
di/+ui% :e!r ! action :i* agrees ) duty 
is done f  duty1 or f a selfi% view4 ,x 
is mu* h>d] to make ?is  di/9ction :5 ! 
action accords ) duty & ! subject has   
besides a direct incl9ation to x4 ,=    
example1 x is always a matt]  ( duty t a
 deal] %\ld n ov] *>ge an inexp]i5c$    
pur*as]2 & :]ev] !re is mu* comm]ce !   
prud5t tradesman  does n ov]*>ge1 b     
keeps a fix$ price = ev]yone1 s t a     
*ild buys ( him z well z any o!r4 ,m5   
are ?us hone/ly  s]v$2 b ?is is n en\gh 
to make u believe t ! tradesman  has s  
act$ f duty & f pr9ciples ( hone/y3 8   
own  advantage requir$ x2 x is out ( !  
"q 9 ?is case to  suppose t he might    
besides h a direct incl9ation 9 fav\r ( 
! buy]s1 s t1 z x 71 f love he %\ld give
 no advantage  to "o ov] ano!r4         
,accord+ly ! action 0 done nei!r f duty 

nor f direct incl9ation1 b m]ely ) a    
selfi% view4    ,on ! o!r h&1 x is a    
duty to ma9ta9 "o's life2 &1 9          
addition1 ev]yone has also a direct     
incl9ation to d s4 ,b on ?is  acc\nt !  
(t5 anxi\s c>e :i* mo/ m5 take = x has  
no  intr9sic wor?1 & _! maxim has no    
moral import4 ,!y pres]ve  _! life z    
duty requires1 no d\bt1 b n because duty
  requires4 ,on ! o!r h&1 if adv]sity & 
hopeless sorr[ h  completely tak5 away !
 reli% = life2 if ! un=tunate "o1  /rong
 9 m9d1 indignant at 8 fate r ?an       
despond+ or  deject$1 wi%es = dea?1 &   
yet pres]ves 8 life )\t  lov+ x- n f    
incl9ation or fe>1 b f duty- !n 8 maxim 
has a moral wor?4    ,to be b5efic5t :5 
we c is a duty2 & besides ?is1 !re  are 
_m m9ds s sympa!tically con/itut$ t1 )\t
 any  o!r motive ( vanity or            
self-int]e/1 !y f9d a pleasure 9        
spread+ joy ar\nd !m & c take delight 9 
! satisfaction  ( o!rs s f> z x is _!   
own "w4 ,b ,i ma9ta9 t 9  su* a case an 
action ( ?is k9d1 h[ev] prop]1 h[ev]    

amiable x  may be1 has nev]!less no true
 moral wor?1 b is on a level )  o!r     
incl9ations1 e4g41 ! incl9ation to      
hon\r1 :i*1 if x is  happily direct$ to 
t :i* is 9 fact ( public utility &      
accordant ) duty & consequ5tly          
hon\rable1 des]ves praise &             
enc\ragem5t1 b n e/eem4 ,= ! maxim lacks
 ! moral import1  namely1 t su* actions 
be done f duty1 n f incl9ation4 ,put  ! 
case t ! m9d ( t philan?ropi/ 7 cl\d$ by
 sorr[  ( 8 own1 ext+ui%+ all sympa?y ) 
! lot ( o!rs1 &  t1 :ile he /ill has !  
p[] to b5efit o!rs 9 di/ress1 he  is n  
t\*$ by _! tr\ble because he is absorb$ 
) 8 own2  & n[ suppose t he te>s himself
 out ( ?is dead  ins5sibility1 & p]=ms !
 action )\t any incl9ation to  x1 b     
simply f duty1 !n fir/ has 8 action its 
g5u9e  moral wor?4 ,fur!r /ill2 if      
nature has put little sympa?y 9 !  he>t 
( ?is or t man2 if he1 suppos$ to be an 
upright man1 is by  temp]am5t cold &    
indiff]5t to ! suff]+s ( o!rs1  p]haps  
because 9 respect ( 8 own he is provid$ 

) !  special gift ( pati5ce & =titude & 
supposes1 or ev5 requires1  t o!rs %\ld 
h ! same- & su* a man w\ld c]ta9ly n  be
 ! meane/ product ( nature- b if nature 
_h n specially  fram$ him = a           
philan?ropi/1 w\ld he n /ill f9d 9      
himself  a s\rce f :5ce to give himself 
a f> high] wor? ?an t ( a  good-natur$  
temp]am5t c\ld be8 ,unque/ionably4 ,x is
 j 9  ?is t ! moral wor? ( ! "* is      
br\ght out :i* is  incomp>ably ! highe/ 
( all1 namely1 t he is b5efic5t1 n  f   
incl9ation1 b f duty4    ,to secure "o's
 own happ9ess is a duty1 at lea/        
indirectly2 =  discont5t ) "o's         
condition1 "u a pressure ( _m anxieties 
& amid/ unsatisfi$ wants1 might easily  
become a great temptation  to           
transgression ( duty4 ,b "h aga91 )\t   
look+ to duty1 all  m5 h already !      
/ronge/ & mo/ intimate incl9ation to    
happ9ess1 because x is j 9 ?is idea t   
all incl9ations are  comb9$ 9 "o total4 
,b ! precept ( happ9ess is (t5 ( su* a  
sort t x greatly int]f]es ) "s          

incl9ations1 & yet a  man _c =m any     
def9ite & c]ta9 conception ( ! sum (    
satisfaction ( all ( !m :i* is call$    
happ9ess4 ,x is n  !n to be wond]$ at t 
a s+le incl9ation1 def9ite bo? z  to :at
 x promises & z to ! "t )9 :i* x c be   
gratifi$1 is (t5 able to ov]come su* a  
fluctuat+ idea1 & t  a g\ty pati5t1 =   
in/ance1 c *oose to enjoy :at he likes1 
& to suff] :at he may1 s9ce1 accord+ to 
8 calculation1 on  ?is occasion at lea/1
 he has n sacrific$ ! enjoym5t ( !      
pres5t mom5t to a possibly mi/ak5       
expectation ( a happ9ess :i*  is suppos$
 to be f\nd 9 heal?4 ,b ev5 9 ?is case1 
if !  g5]al desire = happ9ess did n     
influ5ce 8 w1 & suppos+  t 9 8 p>ticul> 
case heal? 0 n a necess>y elem5t 9 ?is  
calculation1 !re yet rema9s 9 ?is1 z 9  
all o!r cases1 ?is  law1 namely1 t he   
%\ld promote 8 happ9ess n f incl9ation  
b f duty1 & by ?is w\ld 8 conduct fir/  
acquire true  moral wor?4    ,x is 9 ?is
 mann]1 und\bt$ly1 t we are to und]/& ^?
  passages ( ,scripture also 9 :i* we   

are comm&$ to love our  neighb\r1 ev5   
our enemy4 ,= love1 z an affection1 _c  
be  comm&$1 b b5efic5ce = duty's sake   
may2 ev5 ?\gh we are n  impell$ to x by 
any incl9ation- nay1 are ev5 repell$ by 
a natural  & unconqu]able av]sion4 ,?is 
is practical love & n  pa?ological- a   
love :i* is seat$ 9 ! w1 & n 9 !        
prop5sions ( s5se- 9 pr9ciples ( action 
& n ( t5d]  sympa?y2 & x is ?is love    
alone :i* c be comm&$4    ,! second     
proposition is3 ,t an action done f duty
 d]ives its  moral wor?1 n f ! purpose  
:i* is to be atta9$ by x1 b  f ! maxim  
by :i* x is det]m9$1 & !re=e does n     
dep5d on ! realization ( ! object ( !   
action1 b m]ely on  ! pr9ciple (        
volition by :i* ! action has tak5 place1
 )\t  reg>d to any object ( desire4 ,x  
is cle> f :at prec$es t  ! purposes :i* 
we may h 9 view 9 our actions1 or _!    
effects reg>d$ z ends & spr+s ( ! w1 _c 
give to  actions any unconditional or   
moral wor?4 ,9 :at1 !n1 c _!  wor? lie1 
if x is n to consi/ 9 ! w & 9 ref]5ce to

 its  expect$ effect8 ,x _c lie any:]e b
 9 ! pr9ciple ( !  w )\t reg>d to ! ends
 :i* c be atta9$ by ! action4  ,= ! w   
/&s betwe5 its a priori pr9ciple1 :i* is
 =mal1  & its a po/]iori spr+1 :i* is   
mat]ial1 z betwe5 two roads1  & z x mu/ 
be det]m9$ by some?+1 x foll[s t x mu/  
be  det]m9$ by ! =mal pr9ciple (        
volition :5 an action is done  f duty1 9
 :i* case e mat]ial pr9ciple has be5    
)drawn  f x4    ,! ?ird proposition1 :i*
 is a consequ5ce ( ! two  prec$+1 ,i    
w\ld express ?us3 ,duty is ! necessity (
 act+ f  respect = ! law4 ,i may h      
incl9ation = an object z !  effect ( my 
propos$ action1 b ,i _c h respect = x1 j
  = ?is reason1 t x is an effect & n an 
en]gy ( w4  ,simil>ly ,i _c h respect = 
incl9ation1 :e!r my own or  ano!r's2 ,i 
c at mo/1 if my own1 approve x2 if      
ano!r's1  sometimes ev5 love x2 i4e41   
look on x z fav\rable to my own  int]e/4
 ,x is only :at is connect$ ) my w z a  
pr9ciple1 by  no means z an effect- :at 
does n subs]ve my incl9ation1 b  ov]p[]s

 x1 or at lea/ 9 case ( *oice excludes x
 f its  calculation- 9 o!r words1 simply
 ! law ( itself1 :i* c be an  object (  
respect1 & h5ce a comm&4 ,n[ an action  
done f duty  mu/ :olly exclude !        
influ5ce ( incl9ation & ) x e  object ( 
! w1 s t no?+ rema9s :i* c det]m9e !  w 
except objectively ! law1 & subjectively
 pure respect =  ?is practical law1 &   
consequ5tly ! maxim 99 t ,i %\ld foll[  
?is law ev5 to ! ?w>t+ ( all my         
incl9ations4        99 ,a maxim is !    
subjective pr9ciple ( volition4 ,!      
objective  pr9ciple 7i4e41 t :i* w\ld   
also s]ve subjectively z a  practical   
pr9ciple to all rational be+s if reason 
_h full p[]  ov] ! faculty ( desire7 is 
! practical law4        ,?us ! moral    
wor? ( an action does n lie 9 ! effect  
expect$ f x1 nor 9 any pr9ciple ( action
 :i* requires to  borr[ its motive f ?is
 expect$ effect4 ,= all ^! effects-     
agreeabl5ess ( "o's condition & ev5 !   
promotion ( !  happ9ess ( o!rs- c\ld h  
be5 also br\ght ab\t by o!r  causes1 s t

 = ?is !re w\ld h be5 no ne$ ( ! w  ( a 
rational be+2 :]eas x is 9 ?is alone t !
 supreme  & unconditional good c be     
f\nd4 ,! pre-em95t good :i* we  call    
moral c !re=e consi/ 9 no?+ else ?an !  
conception  ( law 9 itself1 :i* c]ta9ly 
is only possible 9 a rational  be+1 9 s 
f> z ?is conception1 & n ! expect$      
effect1  det]m9es ! w4 ,?is is a good   
:i* is already pres5t 9 !  p]son :o acts
 accord+ly1 & we h n to wait = x to     
appe> fir/ 9 ! result4 99        99 ,x  
might be "h object$ to me t ,i take     
refuge beh9d !  ^w respect 9 an obscure 
feel+1 in/ead ( giv+ a di/9ct  solution 
( ! "q by a concept ( ! reason4 ,b      
al?\gh  respect is a feel+1 x is n a    
feel+ receiv$ ?r\gh  influ5ce1 b is     
self-wr\ght by a rational concept1 &1   
!re=e1 is specifically di/9ct f all     
feel+s ( ! =m]  k9d1 :i* may be ref]r$  
ei!r to incl9ation or fe>1 ,:at ,i      
recognise imm$iately z a law = me1 ,i   
recognise ) respect4  ,?is m]ely        
signifies ! consci\sness t my w is      

subord9ate to  a law1 )\t ! int]v5tion (
 o!r influ5ces on my s5se4 ,!  imm$iate 
det]m9ation ( ! w by ! law1 & !         
consci\sness ( ?is1 is call$ respect1 s 
t ?is is reg>d$  z an effect ( ! law on 
! subject1 & n z ! cause ( x4  ,respect 
is prop]ly ! conception ( a wor? :i*    
?w>ts my  self-love4 ,accord+ly x is    
some?+ :i* is consid]$ nei!r  z an      
object ( incl9ation nor ( fe>1 al?\gh x 
has some?+  analog\s to bo?4 ,! object (
 respect is ! law only1 & t !  law :i*  
we impose on ourselves & yet recognise z
 necess>y 9  itself4 ,z a law1 we are   
subject$ too x )\t consult+  self-love2 
z impos$ by u on ourselves1 x is a      
result ( our  w4 ,9 ! =m] aspect x has  
an analogy to fe>1 9 ! latt] to         
incl9ation4 ,respect = a p]son is       
prop]ly only respect = ! law  7( hone/y1
 etc47 ( :i* he gives u an example4     
,s9ce we also look  on ! improvem5t (   
our tal5ts z a duty1 we consid] t we see
  9 a p]son ( tal5ts1 z x 71 ! example (
 a law 7viz41 to  become l him 9 ?is by 

ex]cise71 & ?is con/itutes our  respect4
 ,all s-call$ moral int]e/ consi/s      
simply 9 respect =  ! law4        ,b :at
 sort ( law c t be1 ! conception ( :i*  
mu/  det]m9e ! w1 ev5 )\t pay+ any reg>d
 to ! effect  expect$ f x1 9 ord] t ?is 
w may be call$ good  absolutely & )\t   
qualification8 ,z ,i h depriv$ ! w (  e 
impulse :i* c\ld arise to x f ob$i5ce to
 any law1 !re  rema9s no?+ b ! univ]sal 
con=mity ( its actions to law  9 g5]al1 
:i* alone is to s]ve ! w z a pr9ciple1  
i4e41 ,i  am nev] to act o!rwise ?an s t
 ,i c\ld also w t my maxim  %\ld become 
a univ]sal law4 ,"h1 n[1 x is ! simple  
con=mity to law 9 g5]al1 )\t assum+ any 
p>ticul> law  applicable to c]ta9       
actions1 t s]ves ! w z its pr9ciple  &  
mu/ s s]ve x1 if duty is n to be a va9  
delusion & a  *im]ical notion4 ,! common
 reason ( m5 9 its practical  judgem5ts 
p]fectly co9cides ) ?is & always has 9  
view !  pr9ciple "h sugge/$4 ,let ! "q  
be1 = example3 ,may ,i :5  9 di/ress    
make a promise ) ! int5tion n to keep x8

 ,i  readily di/+ui% "h betwe5 ! two    
significations :i* !  "q may h3 ,:e!r x 
is prud5t1 or :e!r x is "r1 to  make a  
false promise8 ,! =m] may und\bt$ly (t5 
be ! case4 ,i see  cle>ly inde$ t x is n
 en\gh to extricate myself f a  pres5t  
difficulty by means ( ?is subt]fuge1 b x
 mu/ be well  consid]$ :e!r !re may n   
h]eaft] spr+ f ?is lie mu*  great]      
inconv5i5ce ?an t f :i* ,i n[ free      
myself1 &  z1 ) all my suppos$ cunn+1 ! 
consequ5ces _c be s easily  =ese5 b t   
cr$it once lo/ may be mu* m injuri\s to 
me  ?an any mis*ief :i* ,i seek to avoid
 at pres5t1 x %\ld be  consid]$ :e!r x  
w\ld n be m prud5t to act h]e9  accord+ 
to a univ]sal maxim & to make x a habit 
to promise  no?+ except ) ! int5tion (  
keep+ x4 ,b x is soon  cle> to me t su* 
a maxim w /ill only be bas$ on ! fe>  ( 
consequ5ces4 ,n[ x is a :olly diff]5t ?+
 to be tru?ful  f duty & to be s f      
appreh5sion ( injuri\s consequ5ces4 ,9  
! fir/ case1 ! v notion ( ! action      
already implies a law  = me2 9 ! second 

case1 ,i mu/ fir/ look ab\t else:]e to  
see  :at results may be comb9$ ) x :i*  
w\ld affect myself4 ,= to  deviate f !  
pr9ciple ( duty is beyond all d\bt      
wick$2 b  to be unfai?ful to my maxim ( 
prud5ce may (t5 be v  advantage\s to me1
 al?\gh to abide by x is c]ta9ly saf]4  
,!  %orte/ way1 h[ev]1 & an un]r+ "o1 to
 discov] ! answ]  to ?is "q :e!r a ly+  
promise is consi/5t ) duty1 is  to ask  
myself1 ,%\ld ,i be cont5t t my maxim   
7to extricate myself  f difficulty by a 
false promise7 %\ld hold good z a       
univ]sal  law1 = myself z well z = o!rs8
 & %\ld ,i be able to say  to myself1 ,e
 "o may make a deceitful promise :5 he  
f9ds  himself 9 a difficulty f :i* he _c
 o!rwise extricate  himself8 ,!n ,i     
pres5tly become aw>e t :ile ,i c w !    
lie1  ,i c by no means w t ly+ %\ld be a
 univ]sal law4 ,=  ) su* a law !re w\ld 
be no promises at all1 s9ce x w\ld be  9
 va9 to allege my int5tion 9 reg>d to my
 future actions to ^?  :o w\ld n believe
 ?is allegation1 or if !y ov] ha/ily did

  s w\ld pay me back 9 my own co94 ,h5ce
 my maxim1 z soon z x  %\ld be made a   
univ]sal law1 w\ld necess>ily de/roy    
itself4    ,i d n1 !re=e1 ne$ any       
f>-rea*+ p5etration to disc]n  :at ,i h 
to d 9 ord] t my w may be morally good4 
,inexp]i5c$ 9 ! c\rse ( ! _w1 incapable 
( be+  prep>$ = all its cont+5cies1 ,i  
only ask myself3 ,can/ ?\ also  w t ?y  
maxim %\ld be a univ]sal law8 ,if n1 !n 
x mu/ be  reject$1 & t n because ( a    
disadvantage accru+ f x to  myself or   
ev5 to o!rs1 b because x _c ent] z a    
pr9ciple  into a possible univ]sal      
legislation1 & reason extorts f me      
imm$iate respect = su* legislation4 ,i d
 n inde$ z yet disc]n  on :at ?is       
respect is bas$ 7?is ! philosoph] may   
inquire71  b at lea/ ,i und]/& ?is1 t x 
is an e/imation ( !  wor? :i* f>        
outweighs all wor? ( :at is recomm5d$ by
  incl9ation1 & t ! necessity ( act+ f  
pure respect =  ! practical law is :at  
con/itutes duty1 to :i* e o!r  motive   
mu/ give place1 because x is ! condition

 ( a w be+  good 9 itself1 & ! wor? (   
su* a w is above ev]y?+4    ,?us1 !n1   
)\t quitt+ ! moral k ( common human     
reason1 we h arriv$ at its pr9ciple4 ,& 
al?\gh1 no d\bt1  common m5 d n conceive
 x 9 su* an ab/ract & univ]sal  =m1 yet 
!y always h x really be=e _! eyes & use 
x z  ! /&>d ( _! decision4 ,"h x w\ld be
 easy to %[ h[1  ) ?is compass 9 h&1 m5 
are well able to di/+ui%1 9  e case t   
occurs1 :at is good1 :at bad1 con=mably 
to duty or  inconsi/5t ) x1 if1 )\t 9 ! 
lea/ tea*+ !m  any?+ new1 we only1 l    
,socrates1 direct _! att5tion to !      
pr9ciple !y !mselves employ2 & t1 !re=e1
 we d n  ne$ sci5ce & philosophy to "k  
:at we %\ld d to be hone/ &  good1 yea1 
ev5 wise & virtu\s4 ,inde$ we might well
 h  conjectur$ be=eh& t ! k ( :at e man 
is b\nd  to d1 & !re=e also to "k1 w\ld 
be )9 ! rea* (  e man1 ev5 ! commone/4  
,"h we _c =be> admiration  :5 we see h[ 
great an advantage ! practical judgem5t 
has ov]  ! !oretical 9 ! common und]/&+ 
( m54 ,9 ! latt]1  if common reason     

v5tures to dep>t f ! laws ( exp]i5ce &  
f ! p]ceptions ( ! s5ses1 x falls into  
m]e  inconceivabilities &               
self-contradictions1 at lea/ into a *aos
 (  unc]ta9ty1 obscurity1 & in/ability4 
,b 9 ! practical sph]e  x is j :5 !     
common und]/&+ excludes all s5sible     
spr+s  f practical laws t its p[] (     
judgem5t beg9s to %[  itself to         
advantage4 ,x !n becomes ev5 subtle1    
:e!r x be t  x *icanes ) its own        
consci5ce or ) o!r claims respect+  :at 
is to be call$ "r1 or :e!r x desires =  
its own  in/ruction to det]m9e hone/ly !
 wor? ( actions2 &1 9 !  latt] case1 x  
may ev5 h z good a hope ( hitt+ ! m>k z 
any philosoph] :atev] c promise himself4
 ,nay1 x is almo/ m  sure ( do+ s1      
because ! philosoph] _c h any o!r       
pr9ciple1 :ile he may easily p]plex 8   
judgem5t by a multitude (  consid]ations
 =eign to ! matt]1 & s turn aside f ! "r
  way4 ,w\ld x n !re=e be wis] 9 moral  
conc]ns to acquiesce 9  ! judgem5t (    
common reason1 or at mo/ only to call 9 

philosophy = ! purpose ( r5d]+ ! sy/em (
 morals m  complete & intelligible1 &   
its rules m conv5i5t = use  7especially 
= disputation71 b n s z to draw (f !    
common  und]/&+ f its happy simplicity1 
or to br+ x by means (  philosophy into 
a new pa? ( inquiry & in/ruction8       
,innoc5ce is inde$ a glori\s ?+2 only1  
on ! o!r h&1 x is  v sad t x _c well    
ma9ta9 itself & is easily s$uc$4 ,on    
?is acc\nt ev5 wisdom- :i* o!rwise      
consi/s m 9 conduct  ?an 9 k- yet has   
ne$ ( sci5ce1 n 9 ord] to le>n f  x1 b  
to secure = its precepts admission &    
p]man5ce4 ,aga9/  all ! comm&s ( duty   
:i* reason repres5ts to man z s  des]v+ 
( respect1 he feels 9 himself a p[]ful  
c\nt]poise 9  8 wants & incl9ations1 !  
entire satisfaction ( :i* he sums  up "u
 ! "n ( happ9ess4 ,n[ reason issues its 
comm&s  unyield+ly1 )\t promis+ any?+ to
 ! incl9ations1 &1  z x 71 ) disreg>d & 
contempt = ^! claims1 :i* are s         
impetu\s1 & at ! same "t s plausible1 & 
:i* w n all[  !mselves to be suppress$  

by any comm&4 ,h5ce !re arises a        
natural dialectic1 i4e41 a disposition1 
to argue aga9/ ^!  /rict laws ( duty &  
to "q _! validity1 or at lea/  _! purity
 & /rictness2 &1 if possible1 to make !m
 m  accordant ) our wi%es & incl9ations1
 t is to say1 to corrupt  !m at _! v    
s\rce1 & entirely to de/roy _! wor?- a  
?+ :i* ev5 common practical reason _c   
ultimately call good4    ,?us is !      
common reason ( man compell$ to g out ( 
its  sph]e1 & to take a /ep into ! field
 ( a practical philosophy1  n to satisfy
 any speculative want 7:i* nev] occurs  
to x z  long z x is cont5t to be m]e    
s\nd reason71 b ev5 on  practical       
gr\nds1 9 ord] to atta9 9 x in=mation & 
cle>  in/ruction respect+ ! s\rce ( its 
pr9ciple1 & ! correct  det]m9ation ( x 9
 opposition to ! maxims :i* are bas$ on 
wants & incl9ations1 s t x may escape f 
! p]plexity (  opposite claims & n run !
 risk ( los+ all g5u9e moral  pr9ciples 
?r\gh ! equivocation into :i* x easily  
falls4  ,?us1 :5 practical reason       

cultivates itself1 !re ins5sibly arises 
9 x a dialectic :i* =ces x to seek aid 9
 philosophy1 j z  happ5s to x 9 its     
!oretic use2 & 9 ?is case1 !re=e1 z     
well z 9 ! o!r1 x w f9d re/ n[h]e b 9 a 
?or\gh  critical exam9ation ( our       
reason4    ,,sec#b                      
,,second ,,section                      
,,transition ,,f ,,popul> ,,moral       
,,philosophy                ,,to ,,!    
,,metaphysic ,,( ,,morals        ,if we 
h hi!rto drawn our notion ( duty f !    
common use  ( our practical reason1 x is
 by no means to be inf]r$ t we h  treat$
 x z an empirical notion4 ,on ! contr>y1
 if we att5d to  ! exp]i5ce ( m5's      
conduct1 we meet frequ5t &1 z we        
ourselves  all[1 j compla9ts t "o _c f9d
 a s+le c]ta9 example  ( ! disposition  
to act f pure duty4 ,al?\gh _m ?+s are  
done 9 con=mity ) :at duty prescribes1 x
 is nev]!less  always d\btful :e!r !y   
are done /rictly f duty1 s z to  h a    
moral wor?4 ,h5ce !re h at all times be5
 philosoph]s  :o h altoge!r d5i$ t ?is  

disposition actually exi/s at  all 9    
human actions1 & h ascrib$ ev]y?+ to a m
 or less  ref9$ self-love4 ,n t !y h on 
t acc\nt que/ion$ !  s\ndness ( !       
conception ( morality2 on ! contr>y1 !y 
spoke  ) s9c]e regret ( ! frailty &     
corruption ( human nature1  :i*1 ?\gh   
noble en\gh to take its rule an idea s  
wor?y (  respect1 is yet weak to foll[ x
 & employs reason :i* ought to  give x !
 law only = ! purpose ( provid+ = !     
int]e/  ( ! incl9ations1 :e!r s+ly or at
 ! be/ 9 ! greate/  possible h>mony ) "o
 ano!r4    ,9 fact1 x is absolutely     
impossible to make out by exp]i5ce  )   
complete c]ta9ty a s+le case 9 :i* !    
maxim ( an action1  h[ev] "r 9 itself1  
re/$ simply on moral gr\nds & on !      
conception ( duty4 ,sometimes x happ5s t
 ) ! %>pe/  self-exam9ation we c f9d    
no?+ beside ! moral pr9ciple (  duty :i*
 c\ld h be5 p[]ful en\gh to move u to   
?is or  t action & to s great a         
sacrifice2 yet we _c f ?is inf]  )      
c]ta9ty t x 0 n really "s secret impulse

 (  self-love1 "u ! false appe>ance (   
duty1 t 0 ! actual  det]m9+ cause ( ! w4
 ,we l !m to flatt] ourselves by        
falsely tak+ cr$it = a m noble motive2  
:]eas 9 fact we  c nev]1 ev5 by !       
/ricte/ exam9ation1 get completely beh9d
  ! secret spr+s ( action2 s9ce1 :5 ! "q
 is ( moral  wor?1 x is n ) ! actions   
:i* we see t we are  conc]n$1 b ) ^?    
inw>d pr9ciples ( !m :i* we d n  see4   
,moreov]1 we _c bett] s]ve ! wi%es ( ^? 
:o ridicule  all morality z a m]e *im]a 
( human imag9ation ov] /epp+  itself f  
vanity1 ?an by conc$+ to !m t notions ( 
duty  mu/ be drawn only f exp]i5ce 7z f 
indol5ce1 p are  ready to ?9k is also ! 
case ) all o!r notions72 = or is  to    
prep>e = !m a c]ta9 triumph4 ,i am will+
 to admit out (  love ( humanity t ev5  
mo/ ( our actions are correct1 b if  we 
look clos] at !m we ev]y:]e come ^u !   
de> self :i*  is always prom95t1 & x is 
?is !y h 9 view & n !  /rict comm& (    
duty :i* w\ld (t5 require self-d5ial4   
,)\t be+ an enemy ( virtue1 a cool      

obs]v]1 "o t does n  mi/ake ! wi% =     
good1 h[ev] lively1 = its reality1 may  
sometimes d\bt :e!r true virtue is      
actually f\nd any:]e 9  ! _w1 & ?is     
especially z ye>s increase & ! judgem5t 
is p>tly made wis] by exp]i5ce & p>tly1 
also1 m acute 9  obs]vation4 ,?is be+ s1
 no?+ c secure u f fall+ away  altoge!r 
f our ideas ( duty1 or ma9ta9 9 ! s\l a 
well-gr\nd$ respect = its law1 b ! cle> 
conviction t  al?\gh !re %\ld nev] h be5
 actions :i* really sprang f  su* pure  
s\rces1 yet :e!r ?is or t takes place is
 n at  all ! "q2 b t reason ( itself1   
indep5d5t on all  exp]i5ce1 orda9s :at  
ought to take place1 t accord+ly actions
  ( :i* p]haps ! _w has hi!rto nev] giv5
 an example1 !  feasibility ev5 ( :i*   
might be v mu* d\bt$ by "o :o f\nds     
ev]y?+ on exp]i5ce1 are nev]!less       
inflexibly comm&$ by  reason2 t1 e4g41  
ev5 ?\gh !re might nev] yet h be5 a     
s9c]e fri5d1 yet n a :it ! less is pure 
s9c]ity 9  fri5d%ip requir$ ( e man1    
because1 prior to all exp]i5ce1  ?is    

duty is involv$ z duty 9 ! idea ( a     
reason det]m9+  ! w by a priori         
pr9ciples4    ,:5 we add fur!r t1 unless
 we d5y t ! notion ( morality  has any  
tru? or ref]5ce to any possible object1 
we mu/ admit  t its law mu/ be valid1 n 
m]ely = m5 b = all rational  creatures  
g5]ally1 n m]ely "u c]ta9 cont+5t       
conditions or  ) exceptions b ) absolute
 necessity1 !n x is cle> t  no exp]i5ce 
c\ld enable u to inf] ev5 ! possibility 
( su*  apodeictic laws4 ,= ) :at "r c\ld
 we br+ into unb\nd$  respect z a       
univ]sal precept = e rational nature t  
:i*  p]haps holds only "u ! cont+5t     
conditions ( humanity8 ,or h[  c\ld laws
 ( ! det]m9ation ( our w be reg>d$ z    
laws ( !  det]m9ation ( ! w ( rational  
be+s g5]ally1 & = u  only z su*1 if !y 7
 m]ely empirical & did n take _!  orig9 
:olly a priori f pure b practical       
reason8    ,nor c\ld any?+ be m fatal to
 morality ?an t we %\ld  wi% to d]ive x 
f examples4 ,= e example ( x t is set   
be=e me mu/ be fir/ itself te/$ by      

pr9ciples ( morality1  :e!r x is wor?y  
to s]ve z an orig9al example1 i4e41 z a 
patt]n2 b by no means c x au?oritatively
 furni% ! conception  ( morality4 ,ev5 !
 ,holy ,"o ( ! ,gospels mu/ fir/ be     
comp>$  ) our ideal ( moral p]fection   
be=e we c recognise ,him z  su*2 & s ,he
 says ( ,himself1 ,:y call ye ,me 7:om y
 see7  good2 none is good 7! model (    
good7 b ,god only 7:om ye d n  see78 ,b 
:5ce h we ! conception ( ,god z !       
supreme good8  ,simply f ! idea ( moral 
p]fection1 :i* reason frames a priori  &
 connects insep>ably ) ! notion ( a free
 w4 ,imitation  f9ds no place at all 9  
morality1 & examples s]ve only =        
enc\ragem5t1 i4e41 !y put beyond d\bt ! 
feasibility ( :at !  law comm&s1 !y make
 visible t :i* ! practical rule         
expresses m g5]ally1 b !y c nev]        
au?orize u to set aside  ! true orig9al 
:i* lies 9 reason & to guide ourselves  
by  examples4    ,if !n !re is no g5u9e 
supreme pr9ciple ( morality b :at  mu/  
re/ simply on pure reason1 indep5d5t (  

all exp]i5ce1 ,i  ?9k x is n necess>y   
ev5 to put ! "q :e!r x is  good to      
exhibit ^! concepts 9 _! g5]ality 79    
ab/racto7 z  !y are e/abli%$ a priori   
along ) ! pr9ciples belong+ to  !m1 if  
our k is to be di/+ui%$ f ! vulg> & to  
be call$ philosophical4    ,9 our times 
inde$ ?is might p]haps be necess>y2 = if
 we  collect$ votes :e!r pure rational k
 sep>at$ f  ev]y?+ empirical1 t is to   
say1 metaphysic ( morals1 or :e!r       
popul> practical philosophy is to be    
pref]r$1 x is easy to guess  :i* side   
w\ld prepond]ate4    ,?is desc5d+ to    
popul> notions is c]ta9ly v comm5dable1 
if  ! asc5t to ! pr9ciples ( pure reason
 has fir/ tak5 place  & be5             
satisfactorily accompli%$4 ,?is implies 
t we fir/ f\nd  e?ics on metaphysics1 & 
!n1 :5 x is firmly e/abli%$1  procure a 
he>+ = x by giv+ x a popul> "*4 ,b x is 
q absurd to try to be popul> 9 ! fir/   
inquiry1 on :i* !  s\ndness ( !         
pr9ciples dep5ds4 ,x is n only t ?is    
proce$+ c nev] lay claim to ! v r>e m]it

 ( a true  philosophical popul>ity1 s9ce
 !re is no art 9 be+  intelligible if "o
 r5\nces all ?or\ghness ( insight2 b    
also x  produces a disgu/+ m$ley (      
compil$ obs]vations &  half-reason$     
pr9ciples4 ,%all[ pates enjoy ?is       
because x c be  us$ = e-day *at1 b !    
sagaci\s f9d 9 x only  confusion1 & be+ 
unsatisfi$ & unable to help !mselves1 !y
  turn away _! eyes1 :ile philosoph]s1  
:o see q well ?r\gh  ?is delusion1 are  
little li/5$ to :5 !y call m5 (f = a  "t
 f ?is pret5d$ popul>ity1 9 ord] t !y   
might be  rightfully popul> aft] !y h   
atta9$ a def9ite insight4    ,we ne$    
only look at ! attempts ( morali/s 9 t  
fav\rite  fa%ion1 & we %all f9d at "o "t
 ! special con/itution (  human nature  
7includ+1 h[ev]1 ! idea ( a rational    
nature  g5]ally71 at "o "t p]fection1 at
 ano!r happ9ess1 "h moral  s5se1 !re fe>
 ( ,god4 a little ( ?is1 & a little ( t1
 9  m>vell\s mixture1 )\t its occurr+ to
 !m to ask :e!r !  pr9ciples ( morality 
are to be s\ght 9 ! k ( human  nature at

 all 7:i* we c h only f exp]i5ce72 or1  
if ?is is  n s1 if ^! pr9ciples are to  
be f\nd altoge!r a priori1  free f      
ev]y?+ empirical1 9 pure rational       
concepts only &  n[h]e else1 n ev5 9 !  
smalle/ degree2 !n r to adopt  ! me?od (
 mak+ ?is a sep>ate inquiry1 z pure     
practical  philosophy1 or 7if "o may use
 a "n s decri$7 z metaphysic (  morals1 
99 to br+ x by itself to complet5ess1 & 
to require !  public1 :i* wi%es = popul>
 treatm5t1 to await ! issue ( ?is       
und]tak+4        99 ,j z pure ma!matics 
are di/+ui%$ f appli$1 pure  logic f    
appli$1 s if we *oose we may also       
di/+ui% pure  philosophy ( morals       
7metaphysic7 f appli$ 7viz41 appli$ to  
human  nature74 ,by ?is designation we  
are also at once rem9d$ t moral         
pr9ciples are n bas$ on prop]ties (     
human nature1 b mu/  subsi/ a priori (  
!mselves1 :ile f su* pr9ciples practical
  rules mu/ be capable ( be+ d$uc$ = e  
rational nature1  & accord+ly = t ( man4
        ,su* a metaphysic ( morals1     

completely isolat$1 n mix$ ) any        
an?ropology1 !ology1 physics1 or        
hyp]physics1 & /ill less  ) occult      
qualities 7:i* we might call            
hypophysical71 is n  only an            
indisp5sable sub/ratum ( all s\nd       
!oretical k (  duties1 b is at ! same "t
 a desid]atum ( ! highe/  importance to 
! actual fulfilm5t ( _! precepts4 ,= !  
pure  conception ( duty1 unmix$ ) any   
=eign addition ( empirical  attractions1
 &1 9 a ^w1 ! conception ( ! moral law1 
ex]cises on ! human he>t1 by way (      
reason alone 7:i* fir/  becomes aw>e )  
?is t x c ( itself be practical71 an    
influ5ce s mu* m p[]ful ?an all o!r     
spr+s 99 :i* may be  d]iv$ f ! field (  
exp]i5ce1 t1 9 ! consci\sness (  its    
wor?1 x despises ! latt]1 & c by degrees
 become _!  ma/]2 :]eas a mix$ e?ics1   
comp\nd$ p>tly ( motives drawn  f feel+s
 & incl9ations1 & p>tly also (          
conceptions (  reason1 mu/ make ! m9d   
wav] betwe5 motives :i* _c be  br\ght "u
 any pr9ciple1 :i* lead to good only by 

m]e  accid5t & v (t5 also to evil4      
99 ,i h a lett] f ! late excell5t       
,sulz]1 9 :i* he asks  me :at c be !    
reason t moral in/ruction1 al?\gh       
conta9+  mu* t is conv9c+ = ! reason1   
yet accompli%es s little8 ,my  answ] 0  
po/pon$ 9 ord] t ,i might make x        
complete4 ,b x is  simply ?is3 t !      
tea*]s !mselves h n got _! own  notions 
cle>1 & :5 !y endeav\r to make up = ?is 
by rak+  up motives ( moral goodness f e
 qu>t]1 try+ to make  _! physic "r      
/rong1 !y spoil x4 ,= ! commone/        
und]/&+ %[s t if we imag9e1 on ! "o h&1 
an act (  hone/y done ) /eadfa/ m9d1    
ap>t f e view to advantage  ( any k9d 9 
?is _w or ano!r1 & ev5 "u ! greate/     
temptations ( necessity or allurem5t1 &1
 on ! o!r h&1 a  simil> act :i* 0       
affect$1 9 h[ev] l[ a degree1 by a      
=eign motive1 ! =m] leaves f> beh9d &   
eclipses !  second2 x elevates ! s\l &  
inspires ! wi% to be able to act  9 l   
mann] oneself4 ,ev5 mod]ately "y *ildr5 
feel ?is  impression1 ana "o %\ld nev]  

repres5t duties to !m 9 any o!r  light4 
,f :at has be5 said1 x is cle> t all    
moral conceptions h  _! seat & orig9    
completely a priori 9 ! reason1 & t1    
moreov]1 9 ! commone/ reason j z truly z
 9 t :i* is 9  ! highe/ degree          
speculative2 t !y _c be obta9$ by       
ab/raction f any empirical1 & !re=e     
m]ely cont+5t1  k2 t x is j ?is purity (
 _! orig9 t makes !m  wor?y to s]ve z   
our supreme practical pr9ciple1 & t j 9 
proportion z we add any?+ empirical1 we 
detract f _! g5u9e  influ5ce & f !      
absolute value ( actions2 t x is n  only
 ( ! greate/ necessity1 9 a purely      
speculative po9t ( view1  b is also ( ! 
greate/ practical importance1 to d]ive  
^!  notions & laws f pure reason1 to    
pres5t !m pure & unmix$1  & ev5 to      
det]m9e ! compass ( ?is practical or    
pure rational  k1 i4e41 to det]m9e !    
:ole faculty ( pure practical  reason2  
&1 9 do+ s1 we mu/ n make its pr9ciples 
dep5d5t on  ! p>ticul> nature ( human   
reason1 ?\gh 9 speculative  philosophy  

?is may be p]mitt$1 or may ev5 at times 
be necess>y2  b s9ce moral laws ought to
 hold good = e rational creature1  we   
mu/ d]ive !m f ! g5]al concept ( a      
rational be+4 ,9  ?is way1 al?\gh = its 
application to man morality has ne$ (   
an?ropology1 yet1 9 ! fir/ in/ance1 we  
mu/ treat x  indep5d5tly z pure         
philosophy1 i4e41 z metaphysic1 complete
 9  itself 7a ?+ :i* 9 su* di/9ct       
bran*es ( sci5ce is easily  done72 kn[+ 
well t unless we are 9 possession ( ?is1
 x w\ld  n only be va9 to det]m9e !     
moral elem5t ( duty 9 "r  actions =     
purposes ( speculative criticism1 b x   
w\ld be  impossible to base morals on _!
 g5u9e pr9ciples1 ev5 = common          
practical purposes1 especially ( moral  
in/ruction1 s z to  produce pure moral  
dispositions1 & to engraft !m on m5's   
m9ds to  ! promotion ( ! greate/        
possible good 9 ! _w4    ,b 9 ord] t 9  
?is /udy we may n m]ely advance by !    
natural /eps f ! common moral judgem5t  
79 ?is case v  wor?y ( respect7 to !    

philosophical1 z has be5 already done1 b
  also f a popul> philosophy1 :i* goes  
no fur!r ?an x c  rea* by grop+ ) ! help
 ( examples1 to metaphysic 7:i*  does   
all[ itself to be *eck$ by any?+        
empirical &1 z x  mu/ measure ! :ole    
ext5t ( ?is k9d ( rational k1 goes  z f>
 z ideal conceptions1 :]e ev5 examples  
fail u71 we mu/  foll[ & cle>ly describe
 ! practical faculty ( reason1 f  !     
g5]al rules ( its det]m9ation to ! po9t 
:]e ! notion  ( duty spr+s f x4         
,ev]y?+ 9 nature works accord+ to laws4 
,rational be+s  alone h ! faculty ( act+
 accord+ to ! conception (  laws1 t is  
accord+ to pr9ciples1 i4e41 h a w4 ,s9ce
 !  d$uction ( actions f pr9ciples      
requires reason1 ! w is  no?+ b         
practical reason4 ,if reason infallibly 
det]m9es !  w1 !n ! actions ( su* a be+ 
:i* are recognis$ z  objectively        
necess>y are subjectively necess>y also1
 i4e41 !  w is a faculty to *oose t only
 :i* reason indep5d5t (  incl9ation     
recognises z practically necess>y1 i4e41

 z good4 ,b if  reason ( itself does n  
suffici5tly det]m9e ! w1 if !  latt] is 
subject also to subjective conditions   
7p>ticul>  impulses7 :i* d n always     
co9cide ) ! objective  conditions2 9 a  
^w1 if ! w does n 9 itself completely   
accord ) reason 7:i* is actually ! case 
) m571 !n !  actions :i* objectively are
 recognis$ z necess>y are subjectively  
cont+5t1 & ! det]m9ation ( su* a w      
accord+ to  objective laws is           
obligation1 t is to say1 ! relation ( ! 
objective laws to a w t is n ?or\ghly   
good is conceiv$ z  ! det]m9ation ( ! w 
( a rational be+ by pr9ciples (  reason1
 b :i* ! w f its nature does n (        
necessity  foll[4    ,! conception ( an 
objective pr9ciple1 9 s f> z x is       
obligatory = a w1 is call$ a comm& 7(   
reason71 & !  =mula ( ! comm& is call$  
an imp]ative4    ,all imp]atives are    
express$ by ! ^w ought or %all1 &  !reby
 indicate ! relation ( an objective law 
( reason to a w1  :i* f its subjective  
con/itution is n necess>ily det]m9$  by 

x 7an obligation74 ,!y say t some?+ w\ld
 be good to d  or to =be>1 b !y say x to
 a w :i* does n always d a  ?+ because x
 is conceiv$ to be good to d x4 ,t is   
practically  good1 h[ev]1 :i* det]m9es !
 w by means ( ! conceptions  ( reason1 &
 consequ5tly n f subjective causes1 b   
objectively1 t is on pr9ciples :i* are  
valid = e  rational be+ z su*4 ,x is    
di/+ui%$ f ! pleasant1 z t  :i*         
influ5ces ! w only by means ( s5sation f
 m]ely  subjective causes1 valid only = 
! s5se ( ?is or t "o1 &  n z a pr9ciple 
( reason1 :i* holds = e "o4 99        99
 ,! dep5d5ce ( ! desires on s5sations is
 call$  incl9ation1 & ?is accord+ly     
always indicates a want4 ,!  dep5d5ce ( 
a cont+5tly det]m9able w on pr9ciples ( 
reason  is call$ an int]e/4 ,?is !re=e1 
is f\nd only 9 ! case (  a dep5d5t w :i*
 does n always ( itself con=m to reason2
 9  ! ,div9e w we _c conceive any       
int]e/4 ,b ! human w  c also take an    
int]e/ 9 a ?+ )\t !re=e act+ f  int]e/4 
,! =m] signifies ! practical int]e/ 9 ! 

action1  ! latt] ! pa?ological 9 !      
object ( ! action4 ,! =m]  indicates    
only dep5d5ce ( ! w on pr9ciples (      
reason 9  !mselves2 ! second1 dep5d5ce  
on pr9ciples ( reason = !  sake (       
incl9ation1 reason supply+ only !       
practical rules h[ !  requirem5t ( !    
incl9ation may be satisfi$4 ,9 ! fir/   
case !  action int]e/s me2 9 ! second ! 
object ( ! action 7because  x is        
pleasant to me74 ,we h se5 9 ! fir/     
section t 9 an  action done f duty we   
mu/ look n to ! int]e/ 9 !  object1 b   
only to t 9 ! action itself1 & 9 its    
rational  pr9ciple 7viz41 ! law74       
,a p]fectly good w w\ld !re=e be equally
 subject to  objective laws 7viz41 laws 
( good71 b c\ld n be conceiv$ z  oblig$ 
!reby to act lawfully1 because ( itself 
f its subjective  con/itution x c only  
be det]m9$ by ! conception ( good4      
,!re=e no imp]atives hold = ! ,div9e w1 
or 9 g5]al = a  holy w2 ought is "h out 
( place1 because ! volition is already  
( itself necess>ily 9 unison ) ! law4   

,!re=e imp]atives  are only =mulae to   
express ! relation ( objective laws (   
all  volition to ! subjective           
imp]fection ( ! w ( ?is or t  rational  
be+1 e4g41 ! human w4    ,n[ all        
imp]atives comm& ei!r hypo!tically or   
categorically4 ,! =m] repres5t !        
practical necessity ( a  possible action
 z means to some?+ else t is will$ 7or  
at lea/  :i* "o might possibly w74 ,!   
categorical imp]ative w\ld be  t :i*    
repres5t$ an action z necess>y ( itself 
)\t  ref]5ce to ano!r end1 i4e41 z      
objectively necess>y4    ,s9ce e        
practical law repres5ts a possible      
action z good  &1 on ?is acc\nt1 = a    
subject :o is practically det]m9able by 
reason1 necess>y1 all imp]atives are    
=mulae det]m9+ an  action :i* is        
necess>y accord+ to ! pr9ciple ( a w    
good 9  "s respects4 ,if n[ ! action is 
good only z a means to  some?+ else1 !n 
! imp]ative is hypo!tical2 if x is      
conceiv$ z good 9 itself & consequ5tly z
 be+ necess>ily  ! pr9ciple ( a w :i* ( 

itself con=ms to reason1 !n x is        
categorical4    ,?us ! imp]ative decl>es
 :at action possible by me w\ld be  good
 & pres5ts ! practical rule 9 relation  
to a w :i*  does n =?) p]=m an action   
simply because x is good1  :e!r because 
! subject does n always "k t x is good1 
or  because1 ev5 if x "k ?is1 yet its   
maxims might be oppos$ to  ! objective  
pr9ciples ( practical reason4           
,accord+ly ! hypo!tical imp]ative only  
says t ! action is  good = "s purpose1  
possible or actual4 ,9 ! fir/ case x is 
a  problematical1 9 ! second an         
ass]torial practical pr9ciple4 ,!       
categorical imp]ative :i* decl>es an    
action to be objectively  necess>y 9    
itself )\t ref]5ce to any purpose1 i4e41
 )\t  any o!r end1 is valid z an        
apodeictic 7practical7 pr9ciple4        
,:atev] is possible only by ! p[] ( "s  
rational be+ may  also be conceiv$ z a  
possible purpose ( "s w2 & !re=e  !     
pr9ciples ( action z reg>ds ! means     
necess>y to atta9 "s  possible purpose  

are 9 fact inf9itely num]\s4 ,all       
sci5ces h  a practical "p1 consi/+ (    
problems express+ t "s end is  possible 
= u & ( imp]atives direct+ h[ x may be  
atta9$4  ,^! may1 !re=e1 be call$ 9     
g5]al imp]atives ( skill4  ,"h !re is no
 "q :e!r ! end is rational & good1 b    
only :at "o mu/ d 9 ord] to atta9 x4 ,! 
precepts = !  physician to make 8 pati5t
 ?or\ghly heal?y1 & = a poison]  to     
ensure c]ta9 dea?1 are ( equal value 9  
?is respect1 t ea*  s]ves to effect its 
purpose p]fectly4 ,s9ce 9 e>ly y\? x _c 
be kn[n :at ends are likely to occur to 
u 9 ! c\rse ( life1  p>5ts seek to h _! 
*ildr5 taught a great _m ?+s1 &  provide
 = _! skill 9 ! use ( means = all sorts 
( arbitr>y  ends1 ( none ( :i* c !y     
det]m9e :e!r x may n p]haps  h]eaft] be 
an object to _! pupil1 b :i* x is at all
 ev5ts  possible t he might aim at2 &   
?is anxiety is s great t  !y commonly   
neglect to =m & correct _! judgem5t on !
 value  ( ! ?+s :i* may be *os5 z ends4 
,!re is "o end1 h[ev]1 :i* may be assum$

 to be actually  su* to all rational    
be+s 7s f> z imp]atives apply to !m1    
viz41 z dep5d5t be+s71 &1 !re=e1 "o     
purpose :i* !y n  m]ely may h1 b :i* we 
may ) c]ta9ty assume t !y  all actually 
h by a natural necessity1 & ?is is      
happ9ess4 ,!  hypo!tical imp]ative :i*  
expresses ! practical necessity (  an   
action z means to ! advancem5t (        
happ9ess is ass]torial4  ,we are n to   
pres5t x z necess>y = an unc]ta9 & m]ely
  possible purpose1 b = a purpose :i* we
 may presuppose )  c]ta9ty & a priori 9 
e man1 because x belongs to 8  be+4 ,n[ 
skill 9 ! *oice ( means to 8 own greate/
 well-be+  may be call$ prud5ce1 99 9 ! 
n>r[e/ s5se4 ,& ?us !  imp]ative :i*    
ref]s to ! *oice ( means to "o's own    
happ9ess1  i4e41 ! precept ( prud5ce1 is
 /ill always hypo!tical2 !  action is n 
comm&$ absolutely1 b only z means to    
ano!r  purpose4        99 ,! ^w prud5ce 
is tak5 9 two s5ses3 9 ! "o x may be>  !
 "n ( k ( ! _w1 9 ! o!r t ( private     
prud5ce4 ,! =m] is a man's ability to   

influ5ce o!rs s z to  use !m = 8 own    
purposes4 ,! latt] is ! sagacity to     
comb9e  all ^! purposes = 8 own la/+    
b5efit4 ,?is latt] is  prop]ly t to :i* 
! value ev5 ( ! =m] is r$uc$1 &  :5 a   
man is prud5t 9 ! =m] s5se1 b n 9 !     
latt]1 we  might bett] say ( him t he is
 clev] & cunn+1 b1 on !  :ole1 imprud5t4
        ,f9ally1 !re is an imp]ative :i*
 comm&s a c]ta9 conduct  imm$iately1 )\t
 hav+ z its condition any o!r purpose to
 be  atta9$ by x4 ,?is imp]ative is     
categorical4 ,x conc]ns n !  matt] ( !  
action1 or its int5d$ result1 b its =m &
 !  pr9ciple ( :i* x is itself a result2
 & :at is ess5tially good  9 x consi/s 9
 ! m5tal disposition1 let ! consequ5ce  
be  :at x may4 ,?is imp]ative may be    
call$ t ( morality4    ,!re is a m>k$   
di/9ction also betwe5 ! volitions on ^! 
?ree sorts ( pr9ciples 9 ! dissimil>ity 
( ! obligation (  ! w4 ,9 ord] to m>k   
?is diff]5ce m cle>ly1 ,i ?9k  !y w\ld  
be mo/ suitably nam$ 9 _! ord] if we    
said !y are  ei!r rules ( skill1 or     

c\nsels ( prud5ce1 or comm&s 7laws7  (  
morality4 ,= x is law only t involves ! 
conception ( an  unconditional &        
objective necessity1 :i* is consequ5tly 
univ]sally valid2 & comm&s are laws :i* 
mu/ be obey$1 t  is1 mu/ be foll[$1 ev5 
9 opposition to incl9ation4 ,c\nsels1   
inde$1 involve necessity1 b "o :i* c    
only hold "u a  cont+5t subjective      
condition1 viz41 !y dep5d on :e!r ?is   
or t man reckons ?is or t z "p ( 8      
happ9ess2 !  categorical imp]ative1 on !
 contr>y1 is n limit$ by any  condition1
 & z be+ absolutely1 al?\gh practically1
 necess>y1  may be q prop]ly call$ a    
comm&4 ,we might also call ! fir/  k9d (
 imp]atives te*nical 7belong+ to art71 !
 second  pragmatic 99 7to welf>e71 !    
?ird moral 7belong+ to free conduct     
g5]ally1 t is1 to morals74        99 ,x 
seems to me t ! prop] signification ( ! 
^w  pragmatic may be mo/ accurately     
def9$ 9 ?is way4 ,= sanctions  are call$
 pragmatic :i* fl[ prop]ly n f ! law ( !
  /ates z necess>y enactm5ts1 b f       

precaution = ! g5]al  welf>e4 ,a hi/ory 
is compos$ pragmatically :5 x tea*es    
prud5ce1  i4e41 in/ructs ! _w h[ x c    
provide = its int]e/s bett]1  or at lea/
 z well z1 ! m5 ( =m] "t4        ,n[    
arises ! "q1 h[ are all ^! imp]atives   
possible8  ,?is "q does n seek to "k h[ 
we c conceive !  accompli%m5t ( ! action
 :i* ! imp]ative orda9s1 b  m]ely h[ we 
c conceive ! obligation ( ! w :i* !     
imp]ative expresses4 ,no special        
explanation is ne$$ to %[ h[  an        
imp]ative ( skill is possible4 ,:oev]   
wills ! end1 wills  also 7s f> z reason 
decides 8 conduct7 ! means 9 8 p[]  :i* 
are indisp5sably necess>y !reto4 ,?is   
proposition is1 z  reg>ds ! volition1   
analytical2 =1 9 will+ an object z my   
effect1 !re is already ?\ght ! causality
 ( myself z an  act+ cause1 t is to say1
 ! use ( ! means2 & ! imp]ative  educes 
f ! conception ( volition ( an end !    
conception (  actions necess>y to ?is   
end4 ,syn!tical propositions mu/ no     
d\bt be employ$ 9 def9+ ! means to a    

propos$ end2 b !y d  n conc]n !         
pr9ciple1 ! act ( ! w1 b ! object & its 
realization4 ,e4g41 t 9 ord] to bisect a
 l9e on an un]r+  pr9ciple ,i mu/ draw f
 its extremities two int]sect+ arcs2 ?is
  no d\bt is taught by ma!matics only 9 
syn!tical propositions2  b if ,i "k t x 
is only by ?is process t ! int5d$       
op]ation c be p]=m$1 !n to say t1 if ,i 
fully w !  op]ation1 ,i also w ! action 
requir$ = x1 is an analytical           
proposition2 = x is "o & ! same ?+ to   
conceive some?+ z  an effect :i* ,i c   
produce 9 a c]ta9 way1 & to conceive    
myself  z act+ 9 ?is way4    ,if x 7    
only equally easy to give a def9ite     
conception (  happ9ess1 ! imp]atives (  
prud5ce w\ld correspond exactly )  ^? ( 
skill1 & w\ld likewise be analytical4 ,=
 9 ?is case  z 9 t1 x c\ld be said3     
,:oev] wills ! end1 wills also  7accord+
 to ! dictate ( reason necess>ily7 !    
indisp5sable  means !reto :i* are 9 8   
p[]4 ,b1 un=tunately1 !  notion (       
happ9ess is s indef9ite t al?\gh e man  

wi%es to  atta9 x1 yet he nev] c say    
def9itely & consi/5tly :at x is  t he   
really wi%es & wills4 ,! reason ( ?is is
 t all !  elem5ts :i* belong to ! notion
 ( happ9ess are altoge!r  empirical1    
i4e41 !y mu/ be borr[$ f exp]i5ce1 &    
nev]!less ! idea ( happ9ess requires an 
absolute :ole1 a  maximum ( welf>e 9 my 
pres5t & all future circum/ances4 ,n[  x
 is impossible t ! mo/ cle>-sight$ & at 
! same "t mo/  p[]ful be+ 7suppos$      
f9ite7 %\ld frame to himself a def9ite  
conception ( :at he really wills 9 ?is4 
,does he w ri*es1 h[  mu* anxiety1 envy1
 & sn>es might he n !reby draw ^u 8     
%\ld]s8 ,does he w k & disc]nm5t1 p]haps
 x might  prove to be only an eye s mu* 
! %>p] to %[ him s mu* !  m fe>fully !  
evils t are n[ conceal$ f him1 & t  _c  
be avoid$1 or to impose m wants on 8    
desires1 :i*  already give him conc]n   
en\gh4 ,w\ld he h long life8 :o         
gu>antees to him t x w\ld n be a long   
mis]y8 w\ld he at  lea/ h heal?8 h[ (t5 
has uneas9ess ( ! body re/ra9$  f       

excesses into :i* p]fect heal? w\ld h   
all[$ "o to  fall8 & s on4 ,9 %ort1 he  
is unable1 on any pr9ciple1 to  det]m9e 
) c]ta9ty :at w\ld make him truly happy2
 because to  d s he w\ld ne$ to be      
omnisci5t4 ,we _c !re=e act on any      
def9ite pr9ciples to secure happ9ess1 b 
only on empirical  c\nsels1 e4g4 (      
regim51 frugality1 c\rtesy1 res]ve1     
etc41 :i*  exp]i5ce tea*es d1 on !      
av]age1 mo/ promote well-be+4  ,h5ce x  
foll[s t ! imp]atives ( prud5ce d n1    
/rictly  speak+1 comm& at all1 t is1 !y 
_c pres5t actions  objectively z        
practically necess>y2 t !y are r to be  
reg>d$ z c\nsels 7consilia7 ?an precepts
 precepts ( reason1 t  ! problem to     
det]m9e c]ta9ly & univ]sally :at action 
w\ld  promote ! happ9ess ( a rational   
be+ is completely insoluble1 &          
consequ5tly no imp]ative respect+ x is  
possible :i* %\ld1  9 ! /rict s5se1     
comm& to d :at makes happy2 because     
happ9ess  is n an ideal ( reason b (    
imag9ation1 re/+ solely on  empirical   

gr\nds1 & x is va9 to expect t ^! %\ld  
def9e  an action by :i* "o c\ld atta9 ! 
totality ( a s]ies (  consequ5ces :i* is
 really endless4 ,?is imp]ative (       
prud5ce  w\ld h[ev] be an analytical    
proposition if we assume t ! means  to  
happ9ess c\ld be c]ta9ly assign$2 = x is
 di/+ui%$ f  ! imp]ative ( skill only by
 ?is1 t 9 ! latt] ! end is  m]ely       
possible1 9 ! =m] x is giv52 z h[ev] bo?
 only  orda9 ! means to t :i* we suppose
 to be will$ z an end1 x  foll[s t !    
imp]ative :i* orda9s ! will+ ( ! means  
to him :o wills ! end is 9 bo? cases    
analytical4 ,?us !re is no  difficulty 9
 reg>d to ! possibility ( an imp]ative (
 ?is  k9d ei!r4    ,on ! o!r h&1 ! "q h[
 ! imp]ative ( morality is  possible1 is
 und\bt$ly "o1 ! only "o1 dem&+ a       
solution1 z  ?is is n at all hypo!tical1
 & ! objective necessity :i*  x pres5ts 
_c re/ on any hypo!sis1 z is ! case ) ! 
hypo!tical imp]atives4 ,only "h we mu/  
nev] leave out (  consid]ation t we _c  
make out by any example1 9 o!r words    

empirically1 :e!r !re is su* an         
imp]ative at all1 b x is  r to be fe>$ t
 all ^? :i* seem to be categorical may  
yet be at bottom hypo!tical4 ,= in/ance1
 :5 ! precept is3  ,?\ %alt n promise   
deceitfully2 & x is assum$ t !          
necessity ( ?is is n a m]e c\nsel to    
avoid "s o!r evil1 s  t x %\ld mean3 ,?\
 %alt n make a ly+ promise1 le/ if  x   
become kn[n ?\ %\ld/ de/roy ?y cr$it1 b 
t an  action ( ?is k9d mu/ be reg>d$ z  
evil 9 itself1 s t !  imp]ative ( !     
prohibition is categorical2 !n we _c %[ 
)  c]ta9ty 9 any example t ! w 0 det]m9$
 m]ely by !  law1 )\t any o!r spr+ (    
action1 al?\gh x may appe> to  be s4 ,= 
x is always possible t fe> ( disgrace1  
p]haps also  obscure dread ( o!r dang]s1
 may h a secret influ5ce on !  w4 ,:o c 
prove by exp]i5ce ! non-exi/5ce ( a     
cause :5  all t exp]i5ce tells u is t we
 d n p]ceive x8 ,b 9  su* a case !      
s-call$ moral imp]ative1 :i* z su*      
appe>s to  be categorical &             
unconditional1 w\ld 9 reality be only a 

pragmatic  precept1 draw+ our att5tion  
to our own int]e/s & m]ely  tea*+ u to  
take ^! into consid]ation4    ,we %all  
!re=e h to inve/igate a priori !        
possibility ( a  categorical imp]ative1 
z we h n 9 ?is case ! advantage (  its  
reality be+ giv5 9 exp]i5ce1 s t !      
elucidation (  its possibility %\ld be  
requisite only = its explanation1 n  =  
its e/abli%m5t4 ,9 ! meantime x may be  
disc]n$  be=eh& t ! categorical         
imp]ative alone has ! purport (  a      
practical law2 all ! re/ may inde$ be   
call$ pr9ciples ( !  w b n laws1 s9ce   
:atev] is only necess>y = ! atta9m5t  ( 
"s arbitr>y purpose may be consid]$ z 9 
itself cont+5t1  & we c at any "t be    
free f ! precept if we give up !        
purpose2 on ! contr>y1 ! unconditional  
comm& leaves ! w no  lib]ty to *oose !  
opposite2 consequ5tly x alone c>ries )  
x t necessity :i* we require 9 a law4   
,secondly1 9 ! case ( ?is categorical   
imp]ative or law (  morality1 !         
difficulty 7( disc]n+ its possibility7  

is a v  pr(\nd "o4 ,x is an a priori    
syn!tical practical proposition2 99  & z
 !re is s mu* difficulty 9 disc]n+ !    
possibility (  speculative propositions 
( ?is k9d1 x may readily be suppos$ t  !
 difficulty w be no less ) ! practical4 
99 ,i connect ! act ) ! w )\t presuppos+
 any  condition result+ f any           
incl9ation1 b a priori1 &  !re=e        
necess>ily 7?\gh only objectively1 i4e41
 assum+ !  idea ( a reason possess+ full
 p[] ov] all subjective motives74  ,?is 
is accord+ly a practical proposition :i*
 does n d$uce  ! will+ ( an action by   
m]e analysis f ano!r already  presuppos$
 7= we h n su* a p]fect w71 b connects x
  imm$iately ) ! conception ( ! w ( a   
rational be+1 z  some?+ n conta9$ 9 x4  
,9 ?is problem we w fir/ inquire :e!r ! 
m]e conception (  a categorical         
imp]ative may n p]haps supply u also ) !
  =mula ( x1 conta9+ ! proposition :i*  
alone c be a  categorical imp]ative2 =  
ev5 if we "k ! t5or ( su* an  absolute  
comm&1 yet h[ x is possible w require   

fur!r  special & labori\s /udy1 :i* we  
po/pone to ! la/ section4    ,:5 ,i     
conceive a hypo!tical imp]ative1 9 g5]al
 ,i d n  "k be=eh& :at x w conta9 until 
,i am giv5 ! condition4  ,b :5 ,i       
conceive a categorical imp]ative1 ,i "k 
at once :at x  conta9s4 ,= z ! imp]ative
 conta9s besides ! law only !  necessity
 t ! maxims 99 %all con=m to ?is law1   
:ile ! law  conta9s no conditions       
re/rict+ x1 !re rema9s no?+ b !  g5]al  
/atem5t t ! maxim ( ! action %\ld con=m 
to a  univ]sal law1 & x is ?is con=mity 
alone t ! imp]ative  prop]ly repres5ts z
 necess>y4        99 ,a maxim is a      
subjective pr9ciple ( action1 & mu/ be  
di/+ui%$ f ! objective pr9ciple1 namely1
 practical law4 ,!  =m] conta9s !       
practical rule set by reason accord+ to 
!  conditions ( ! subject 7(t5 its      
ignorance or its incl9ations71  s t x is
 ! pr9ciple on :i* ! subject acts2 b !  
law  is ! objective pr9ciple valid = e  
rational be+1 & is  ! pr9ciple on :i* x 
ought to act t is an imp]ative4         

,!re is !re=e b "o categorical          
imp]ative1 namely1 ?is3 ,act  only on t 
maxim :]eby ?\ can/ at ! same "t w t x  
%\ld become a univ]sal law4    ,n[ if   
all imp]atives ( duty c be d$uc$ f ?is  
"o  imp]ative z f _! pr9ciple1 !n1      
al?\gh x %\ld rema9  undecid$ :at is    
call$ duty is n m]ely a va9 notion1 yet 
at  lea/ we %all be able to %[ :at we   
und]/& by x & :at  ?is notion means4    
,s9ce ! univ]sality ( ! law accord+ to  
:i* effects are  produc$ con/itutes :at 
is prop]ly call$ nature 9 ! mo/  g5]al  
s5se 7z to =m71 t is ! exi/5ce ( ?+s s  
f>  z x is det]m9$ by g5]al laws1 !     
imp]ative ( duty may be  express$ ?us3  
,act z if ! maxim ( ?y action 7 to      
become by  ?y w a univ]sal law ( nature4
    ,we w n[ enum]ate a few duties1     
adopt+ ! usual division (  !m into      
duties to ourselves & ourselves & to    
o!rs1 & into  p]fect & imp]fect duties4 
99        99 ,x mu/ be not$ "h t ,i     
res]ve ! division ( duties = a  future  
metaphysic ( morals2 s t ,i give x "h   

only z an  arbitr>y "o 79 ord] to       
arrange my examples74 ,= ! re/1 ,i      
und]/& by a p]fect duty "o t admits no  
exception 9 fav\r (  incl9ation & !n ,i 
h n m]ely ext]nal b also int]nal  p]fect
 duties4 ,?is is contr>y to ! use ( ! ^w
 adopt$ 9 !  s*ools2 b ,i d n int5d to  
ju/ify !re1 z x is all "o = my  purpose 
:e!r x is admitt$ or n4        #a4 ,a   
man r$uc$ to despair by a s]ies (       
mis=tunes feels we>i$  ( life1 b is /ill
 s f> 9 possession ( 8 reason t he c    
ask himself :e!r x w\ld n be contr>y to 
8 duty to himself to  take 8 own life4  
,n[ he inquires :e!r ! maxim ( 8 action 
c\ld become a univ]sal law ( nature4 ,8 
maxim is3 ,f  self-love ,i adopt x z a  
pr9ciple to %ort5 my life :5 its long]  
duration is likely to br+ m evil ?an    
satisfaction4 ,x is  ask$ !n simply :e!r
 ?is pr9ciple f\nd$ on self-love c      
become a univ]sal law ( nature4 ,n[ we  
see at once t a sy/em  ( nature ( :i* x 
%\ld be a law to de/roy life by means ( 
! v feel+ ^: special nature x is to     

impel to !  improvem5t ( life w\ld      
contradict itself &1 !re=e1 c\ld  n exi/
 z a sy/em ( nature2 h5ce t maxim _c    
possibly  exi/ z a univ]sal law ( nature
 &1 consequ5tly1 w\ld be  :olly         
inconsi/5t ) ! supreme pr9ciple ( all   
duty4    #b4 ,ano!r f9ds himself =c$ by 
necessity to borr[ money4 ,he  kn[s t he
 w n be able to repay x1 b sees also t  
no?+  w be l5t to him unless he promises
 /\tly to repay x 9 a  def9ite "t4 ,he  
desires to make ?is promise1 b he has   
/ill s  mu* consci5ce z to ask himself3 
,is x n unlawful &  inconsi/5t ) duty to
 get out ( a difficulty 9 ?is way8      
,suppose h[ev] t he resolves to d s3 !n 
! maxim ( 8  action w\ld be express$    
?us3 ,:5 ,i ?9k myself 9 want ( money1  
,i w borr[ money & promise to repay x1  
al?\gh ,i "k t ,i  nev] c d s4 ,n[ ?is  
pr9ciple ( self-love or ( "o's own      
advantage may p]haps be consi/5t ) my   
:ole future welf>e2  b ! "q n[ is1 ,is x
 "r8 ,i *ange !n ! sugge/ion  (         
self-love into a univ]sal law1 & /ate ! 

"q ?us3 ,h[  w\ld x be if my maxim 7 a  
univ]sal law8 ,!n ,i see at once t  x   
c\ld nev] hold z a univ]sal law (       
nature1 b w\ld  necess>ily contradict   
itself4 ,= suppos+ x to be a univ]sal   
law t ev]yone :5 he ?9ks himself 9 a    
difficulty %\ld be  able to promise     
:atev] he pleases1 ) ! purpose ( n keep+
  8 promise1 ! promise itself w\ld      
become impossible1 z well z  ! end t "o 
might h 9 view 9 x1 s9ce no "o w\ld     
consid]  t any?+ 0 promis$ to him1 b    
w\ld ridicule all su*  /atem5ts z va9   
pret5ces4    #c4 ,a ?ird f9ds 9 himself 
a tal5t :i* ) ! help ( "s  culture might
 make him a useful man 9 _m respects4 ,b
 he f9ds  himself 9 com=table           
circum/ances & pref]s to indulge 9      
pleasure r ?an to take pa9s 9 enl>g+ &  
improv+ 8  happy natural capacities4 ,he
 asks1 h[ev]1 :e!r 8 maxim (  neglect ( 
8 natural gifts1 besides agree+ ) 8     
incl9ation to  indulg5ce1 agrees also ) 
:at is call$ duty4 ,he sees !n t  a     
sy/em ( nature c\ld inde$ subsi/ ) su* a

 univ]sal law  al?\gh m5 7l ! ,s\? ,sea 
isl&]s7 %\ld let _! tal5ts  re/ &       
resolve to devote _! lives m]ely to     
idl5ess1  amusem5t1 & propagation ( _!  
species- 9 a ^w1 to  enjoym5t2 b he _c  
possibly w t ?is %\ld be a univ]sal  law
 ( nature1 or be implant$ 9 u z su* by a
 natural in/9ct4  ,=1 z a rational be+1 
he necess>ily wills t 8 faculties be    
develop$1 s9ce !y s]ve him & h be5 giv5 
him1 = all sorts  ( possible purposes4  
#d4 ,a f\r?1 :o is 9 prosp]ity1 :ile he 
sees t o!rs h to  cont5d ) great        
wret*$ness & t he c\ld help !m1 ?9ks3   
,:at conc]n is x ( m9e8 ,let ev]yone be 
z happy z ,heav5  pleases1 or z he c    
make himself2 ,i w take no?+ f him nor  
ev5 envy him1 only ,i d n wi% to        
contribute any?+ to 8  welf>e or to 8   
assi/ance 9 di/ress6 ,n[ no d\bt if su* 
a mode  ( ?9k+ 7 a univ]sal law1 ! human
 race might v well  subsi/ & d\btless   
ev5 bett] ?an 9 a /ate 9 :i* ev]yone    
talks ( sympa?y & good-w1 or ev5 takes  
c>e occasionally to  put x into         

practice1 b1 on ! o!r side1 also *eats  
:5 he c1  betrays ! rights ( m51 or     
o!rwise violates !m4 ,b al?\gh x  is    
possible t a univ]sal law ( nature might
 exi/ 9 accordance  ) t maxim1 x is     
impossible to w t su* a pr9ciple %\ld  h
 ! univ]sal validity ( a law ( nature4  
,= a w :i*  resolv$ ?is w\ld contradict 
itself1 inasmu* z _m cases might  occur 
9 :i* "o w\ld h ne$ ( ! love & sympa?y (
 o!rs1  & 9 :i*1 by su* a law ( nature1 
sprung f 8 own w1 he  w\ld deprive      
himself ( all hope ( ! aid he desires4  
,^! are a few ( ! _m actual duties1 or  
at lea/ :at we  reg>d z su*1 :i*        
obvi\sly fall into two classes on ! "o  
pr9ciple t we h laid d[n4 ,we mu/ be    
able to w t a maxim  ( our action %\ld  
be a univ]sal law4 ,?is is ! canon ( !  
moral appreciation ( ! action g5]ally4  
,"s actions are ( su* a  "* t _! maxim  
_c )\t contradiction be ev5  conceiv$ z 
a univ]sal law ( nature1 f> f x be+     
possible  t we %\ld w t x %\ld be s4 ,9 
o!rs ?is intr9sic  impossibility is n   

f\nd1 b /ill x is impossible to w t  _! 
maxim %\ld be rais$ to ! univ]sality ( a
 law ( nature1  s9ce su* a w w\ld       
contradict itself ,x is easily se5 t !  
=m] violate /rict or rigor\s            
7inflexible7 duty2 ! latt] only  lax]   
7m]itori\s7 duty4 ,?us x has be5        
completely %[n h[ all  duties dep5d z   
reg>ds ! nature ( ! obligation 7n !     
object ( ! action7 on ! same pr9ciple4  
,if n[ we att5d to ourselves on occasion
 ( any transgression (  duty1 we %all   
f9d t we 9 fact d n w t our maxim  %\ld 
be a univ]sal law1 = t is impossible =  
u2 on !  contr>y1 we w t ! opposite %\ld
 rema9 a univ]sal law1  only we assume !
 lib]ty ( mak+ an exception 9 our own   
fav\r or  7j = ?is "t only7 9 fav\r (   
our incl9ation4 ,consequ5tly  if we     
consid]$ all cases f "o & ! same po9t ( 
view1  namely1 t ( reason1 we %\ld f9d a
 contradiction 9 our own  w1 namely1 t a
 c]ta9 pr9ciple %\ld be objectively     
necess>y  z a univ]sal law1 & yet       
subjectively %\ld n be univ]sal1  b     

admit ( exceptions4 ,z h[ev] we at "o   
mom5t reg>d our action  f ! po9t ( view 
( a w :olly con=m$ to reason1 &  !n aga9
 look at ! same action f ! po9t ( view (
 a w  affect$ by incl9ation1 !re is n   
really any contradiction1 b an          
antagonism ( incl9ation to ! precept (  
reason1 :]eby !  univ]sality ( !        
pr9ciple is *ang$ into a m]e g5]ality1 s
  t ! practical pr9ciple ( reason %all  
meet ! maxim half  way4 ,n[1 al?\gh ?is 
_c be ju/ifi$ 9 our own imp>tial        
judgem5t1 yet x proves t we d really    
recognise ! validity (  ! categorical   
imp]ative & 7) all respect = x7 only    
all[  ourselves a few exceptions1 :i* we
 ?9k unimportant & =c$ f  u4    ,we h   
?us e/abli%$ at lea/ ?is mu*1 t if duty 
is a  conception :i* is to h any import 
& real legislative  au?ority = our      
actions1 x c only be express$ 9         
categorical &  n at all 9 hypo!tical    
imp]atives4 ,we h also1 :i* is (  great 
importance1 exhibit$ cle>ly & def9itely 
= e practical  application ! cont5t ( ! 

categorical imp]ative1 :i* mu/  conta9 !
 pr9ciple ( all duty if !re is su* a ?+ 
at all4  ,we h n yet1 h[ev]1 advanc$ s  
f> z to prove a priori t  !re actually  
is su* an imp]ative1 t !re is a         
practical law  :i* comm&s absolutely (  
itself & )\t any o!r impulse1 &  t !    
foll[+ ( ?is law is duty4    ,) ! view (
 atta9+ to ?is1 x is ( extreme          
importance to  rememb] t we mu/ n all[  
ourselves to ?9k ( d$uc+ !  reality (   
?is pr9ciple f ! p>ticul> attributes (  
human  nature4 ,= duty is to be a       
practical1 unconditional necessity (    
action2 x mu/ !re=e hold = all rational 
be+s 7to :om an  imp]ative c apply at   
all71 & = ?is reason only be also a law 
= all human wills4 ,on ! contr>y1 :atev]
 is d$uc$ f !  p>ticul> natural         
*>act]i/ics ( humanity1 f c]ta9  feel+s 
& prop5sions1 nay1 ev51 if possible1 f  
any  p>ticul> t5d5cy prop] to human     
reason1 & :i* ne$ n  necess>ily hold = !
 w ( e rational be+2 ?is may inde$      
supply u ) a maxim1 b n ) a law2 ) a    

subjective  pr9ciple on :i* we may h a  
prop5sion & incl9ation to act1  b n ) an
 objective pr9ciple on :i* we %\ld be   
enjo9$  to act1 ev5 ?\gh all our        
prop5sions1 incl9ations1 & natural      
dispositions 7 oppos$ to x4 ,9 fact1 !  
sublimity &  intr9sic dignity ( ! comm& 
9 duty are s mu* ! m evid5t1  ! less !  
subjective impulses fav\r x & ! m !y    
oppose  x1 )\t be+ able 9 ! slighte/    
degree to weak5 !  obligation ( ! law or
 to dim9i% its validity4    ,"h !n we   
see philosophy br\ght to a critical     
position1 s9ce x  has to be firmly fix$1
 not)/&+ t x has no?+ to support  x 9   
heav5 or e>?4 ,"h x mu/ %[ its purity z 
absolute  director ( its own laws1 n !  
h]ald ( ^? :i* are  :isp]$ to x by an   
implant$ s5se or :o kn[s :at tutel>y    
nature4 ,al?\gh ^! may be bett] ?an     
no?+1 yet !y c  nev] af=d pr9ciples     
dictat$ by reason1 :i* mu/ h _!  s\rce  
:olly a priori & !nce _! comm&+         
au?ority1  expect+ ev]y?+ f ! supremacy 
( ! law & ! due respect  = x1 no?+ f    

incl9ation1 or else condemn+ ! man to   
self-contempt & inw>d abhorr5ce4    ,?us
 e empirical elem5t is n only q         
incapable ( be+ an  aid to ! pr9ciple ( 
morality1 b is ev5 highly prejudicial to
  ! purity ( morals1 = ! prop] &        
ine/imable wor? ( an  absolutely good w 
consi/s j 9 ?is1 t ! pr9ciple (  action 
is free f all influ5ce ( cont+5t gr\nds1
 :i* alone  exp]i5ce c furni%4 ,we _c   
too mu* or too (t5 repeat our  w>n+     
aga9/ ?is lax & ev5 mean habit ( ?\ght  
:i* seeks  = its pr9ciple among/        
empirical motives & laws2 = human reason
  9 its we>9ess is glad to re/ on ?is   
pill[1 & 9 a dream (  sweet illusions 79
 :i*1 in/ead ( ,juno1 x embraces a cl\d7
 x  sub/itutes = morality a ba/>d pat*$ 
up f limbs ( v>i\s  d]ivation1 :i* looks
 l any?+ "o *ooses to see 9 x1 only  n l
 virtue to "o :o has once beheld h] 9 h]
 true =m4 99        99 ,to behold virtue
 9 h] prop] =m is no?+ else b to        
contemplate morality /ripp$ ( all       
admixture ( s5sible ?+s  & ( e spuri\s  

ornam5t ( rew>d or self-love4 ,h[ mu* %e
  !n eclipses ev]y?+ else t appe>s *>m+ 
to ! affections1  e "o may readily      
p]ceive ) ! lea/ ex]tion ( 8  reason1 if
 x be n :olly spoil$ = ab/raction4      
,! "q !n is ?is3 ,is x a necess>y law = 
all rational  be+s t !y %\ld always     
judge ( _! actions by maxims (  :i* !y c
 !mselves w t !y %\ld s]ve z univ]sal   
laws8 ,if x is s1 !n x mu/ be connect$  
7altoge!r a priori7  ) ! v conception ( 
! w ( a rational be+ g5]ally4  ,b 9 ord]
 to discov] ?is connexion we mu/1 h[ev] 
reluctantly1 take a /ep into metaphysic1
 al?\gh into a doma9 ( x  :i* is di/9ct 
f speculative philosophy1 namely1 !     
metaphysic ( morals4 ,9 a practical     
philosophy1 :]e x is n !  reasons ( :at 
happ5s t we h to asc]ta91 b ! laws (    
:at ought to happ51 ev5 al?\gh x nev]   
does1 i4e41 objective  practical laws1  
!re x is n necess>y to inquire into !   
reasons :y any?+ pleases or displeases1 
h[ ! pleasure ( m]e  s5sation diff]s f  
ta/e1 & :e!r ! latt] is di/9ct  f a     

g5]al satisfaction ( reason2 on :at !   
feel+ ( pleasure  or pa9 re/s1 & h[ f x 
desires & incl9ations arise1 &  f ^!    
aga9 maxims by ! co-op]ation ( reason3 =
 all ?is  belongs to an empirical       
psy*ology1 :i* w\ld con/itute !  second 
"p ( physics1 if we reg>d physics z !   
philosophy (  nature1 s f> z x is bas$  
on empirical laws4 ,b "h we are  conc]n$
 ) objective practical laws &1          
consequ5tly1 ) !  relation ( ! w to     
itself s f> z x is det]m9$ by reason    
alone1 9 :i* case :atev] has ref]5ce to 
any?+ empirical is  necess>ily exclud$2 
s9ce if reason ( itself alone det]m9es !
  conduct 7& x is ! possibility ( ?is t 
we are n[  inve/igat+71 x mu/ necess>ily
 d s a priori4    ,! w is conceiv$ z a  
faculty ( det]m9+ oneself to  action 9  
accordance ) ! conception ( c]ta9 laws4 
,& su* a  faculty c be f\nd only 9      
rational be+s4 ,n[ t :i* s]ves  ! w z ! 
objective gr\nd ( its self-det]m9ation  
is ! end1  &1 if ?is is assign$ by      
reason alone1 x mu/ hold = all  rational

 be+s4 ,on ! o!r h&1 t :i* m]ely conta9s
 !  gr\nd ( possibility ( ! action ( :i*
 ! effect is ! end1  ?is is call$ !     
means4 ,! subjective gr\nd ( ! desire is
 !  spr+1 ! objective gr\nd ( ! volition
 is ! motive2 h5ce  ! di/9ction betwe5  
subjective ends :i* re/ on spr+s1 &     
objective ends :i* dep5d on motives     
valid = e rational be+4  ,practical     
pr9ciples are =mal :5 !y ab/ract f all  
subjective  ends2 !y are mat]ial :5 !y  
assume ^!1 & !re=e  p>ticul> spr+s (    
action4 ,! ends :i* a rational be+      
proposes  to himself at pleasure z      
effects ( 8 actions 7mat]ial ends7 are  
all only relative1 = x is only _!       
relation to ! p>ticul>  desires ( !     
subject t gives !m _! wor?1 :i* !re=e   
_c furni% pr9ciples univ]sal & necess>y 
= all rational  be+s & = e volition1 t  
is to say practical laws4 ,h5ce  all ^! 
relative ends c give rise only to       
hypo!tical  imp]atives4    ,suppos+1    
h[ev]1 t !re 7 some?+ ^: exi/5ce has 9  
itself an absolute wor?1 some?+ :i*1 be+

 an end 9 itself1  c\ld be a s\rce (    
def9ite laws2 !n 9 ?is & ?is alone  w\ld
 lie ! s\rce ( a possible categorical   
imp]ative1 i4e41 a  practical law4      
,n[ ,i say3 man & g5]ally any rational  
be+ exi/s z an end  9 himself1 n m]ely z
 a means to be arbitr>ily us$ by ?is or 
t w1 b 9 all 8 actions1 :e!r !y conc]n  
himself or  o!r rational be+s1 mu/ be   
always reg>d$ at ! same "t z  an end4   
,all objects ( ! incl9ations h only a   
conditional wor?1  = if ! incl9ations & 
! wants f\nd$ on !m did n exi/1  !n _!  
object w\ld be )\t value4 ,b !          
incl9ations1  !mselves be+ s\rces (     
want1 are s f> f hav+ an absolute  wor? 
= :i* !y %\ld be desir$ t on ! contr>y x
 mu/ be  ! univ]sal wi% ( e rational be+
 to be :olly free f  !m4 ,?us ! wor? (  
any object :i* is to be acquir$ by our  
action is always conditional4 ,be+s ^:  
exi/5ce dep5ds n on  our w b on         
nature's1 h nev]!less1 if !y are        
irrational  be+s1 only a relative value 
z means1 & are !re=e call$  ?+s2        

rational be+s1 on ! contr>y1 are call$  
p]sons1  because _! v nature po9ts !m   
out z ends 9 !mselves1  t is z some?+   
:i* mu/ n be us$ m]ely z means1 & s  f> 
!re=e re/ricts fre$om ( action 7& is an 
object (  respect74 ,^!1 !re=e1 are n   
m]ely subjective ends ^:  exi/5ce has a 
wor? = u z an effect ( our action1 b    
objective  ends1 t is1 ?+s ^: exi/5ce is
 an end 9 itself2 an end  moreov] = :i* 
no o!r c be sub/itut$1 :i* !y %\ld      
subs]ve m]ely z means1 = o!rwise no?+   
:atev] w\ld possess  absolute wor?2 b if
 all wor? 7 condition$ & !re=e  cont+5t1
 !n !re w\ld be no supreme practical    
pr9ciple (  reason :atev]4    ,if !n !re
 is a supreme practical pr9ciple or1 9  
respect ( !  human w1 a categorical     
imp]ative1 x mu/ be "o :i*1 be+  drawn f
 ! conception ( t :i* is necess>ily an  
end =  ev]yone because x is an end 9    
itself1 con/itutes an objective         
pr9ciple ( w1 & c !re=e s]ve z a        
univ]sal practical  law4 ,! f\ndation ( 
?is pr9ciple is3 rational nature exi/s z

 an  end 9 itself4 ,man necess>ily      
conceives 8 own exi/5ce z be+  s2 s f>  
!n ?is is a subjective pr9ciple ( human 
actions4 ,b  e o!r rational be+ reg>ds  
its exi/5ce simil>ly1 j on  ! same      
rational pr9ciple t holds = me3 99 s t x
 is at !  same "t an objective pr9ciple1
 f :i* z a supreme practical  law all   
laws ( ! w mu/ be capable ( be+ d$uc$4  
,accord+ly  ! practical imp]ative w be z
 foll[s3 ,s act z to treat  humanity1   
:e!r 9 ?9e own p]son or 9 t ( any o!r1 9
  e case z an end )al1 nev] z means     
only4 ,we w n[  inquire :e!r ?is c be   
practically c>ri$ out4        99 ,?is   
proposition is "h /at$ z a po/ulate4 ,! 
gr\nd ( x  w be f\nd 9 ! conclud+       
section4        ,to abide by ! previ\s  
examples3    ,fir/ly1 "u ! head (       
necess>y duty to oneself3 ,he :o        
contemplates suicide %\ld ask himself   
:e!r 8 action c be  consi/5t ) ! idea ( 
humanity z an end 9 itself4 ,if he      
de/roys himself 9 ord] to escape f      
pa9ful circum/ances1 he  uses a p]son   

m]ely z a mean to ma9ta9 a tol]able     
condition up to  ! end ( life4 ,b a man 
is n a ?+1 t is to say1 some?+  :i* c be
 us$ m]ely z means1 b mu/ 9 all 8       
actions be  always consid]$ z an end 9  
himself4 ,i _c1 !re=e1 dispose  9 any   
way ( a man 9 my own p]son s z to       
mutilate him1 to  damage or kill him4   
7,x belongs to e?ics prop] to def9e ?is 
pr9ciple m precisely1 s z to avoid all  
misund]/&+1 e4  g41 z to ! amputation ( 
! limbs 9 ord] to pres]ve myself1  z to 
expos+ my life to dang] ) a view to     
pres]ve x1 etc4 ,?is  "q is !re=e omitt$
 "h47    ,secondly1 z reg>ds necess>y   
duties1 or ^? ( /rict  obligation1 t[>ds
 o!rs3 ,he :o is ?9k+ ( mak+ a ly+      
promise to o!rs w see at once t he w\ld 
be us+ ano!r  man m]ely z a mean1 )\t ! 
latt] conta9+ at ! same "t  ! end 9     
himself4 ,= he :om ,i propose by su* a  
promise to use =  my own purposes _c    
possibly ass5t to my mode ( act+ t[>ds  
him &1 !re=e1 _c himself conta9 ! end ( 
?is action4  ,?is violation ( ! pr9ciple

 ( humanity 9 o!r m5 is m  obvi\s if we 
take 9 examples ( attacks on ! fre$om & 
prop]ty ( o!rs4 ,= !n x is cle> t he :o 
transgresses  ! rights ( m5 int5ds to   
use ! p]son ( o!rs m]ely z a  means1 )\t
 consid]+ t z rational be+s !y ought    
always  to be e/eem$ also z ends1 t is1 
z be+s :o mu/ be capable (  conta9+ 9   
!mselves ! end ( ! v same action4 99    
99 ,let x n be ?\ght t ! common quod    
tibi non vis fi]i1  etc4 c\ld s]ve "h z 
! rule or pr9ciple4 ,= x is only a      
d$uction f ! =m]1 ?\gh ) sev]al         
limitations2 x  _c be a univ]sal law1 = 
x does n conta9 ! pr9ciple (  duties to 
oneself1 nor ( ! duties ( b5evol5ce to  
o!rs 7=  _m a "o w\ld gladly cons5t t   
o!rs %\ld n b5efit him1  provid$ only t 
he might be excus$ f %[+ b5evol5ce to   
!m71 nor f9ally t ( duties ( /rict      
obligation to "o ano!r1  = on ?is       
pr9ciple ! crim9al might argue aga9/ !  
judge :o  puni%es him1 & s on4          
,?irdly1 z reg>ds cont+5t 7m]itori\s7   
duties to oneself3 ,x  is n en\gh t !   

action does n violate humanity 9 our own
  p]son z an end 9 itself1 x mu/ also   
h>monize ) x4 ,n[  !re are 9 humanity   
capacities ( great] p]fection1 :i*      
belong  to ! end t nature has 9 view 9  
reg>d to humanity 9  ourselves z !      
subject3 to neglect ^! might p]haps be  
consi/5t  ) ! ma9t5ance ( humanity z an 
end 9 itself1 b n ) !  advancem5t ( ?is 
end4    ,f\r?ly1 z reg>ds m]itori\s     
duties t[>ds o!rs3 ,!  natural end :i*  
all m5 h is _! own happ9ess4 ,n[        
humanity  might inde$ subsi/1 al?\gh no 
"o %\ld contribute any?+ to  ! happ9ess 
( o!rs1 provid$ he did n int5tionally   
)draw  any?+ f x2 b aft] all ?is w\ld   
only h>monize negatively  n positively )
 humanity z an end 9 itself1 if e "o    
does  n also endeav\r1 z f> z 9 him     
lies1 to =w>d ! ends (  o!rs4 ,= ! ends 
( any subject :i* is an end 9 himself   
ought  z f> z possible to be my ends    
also1 if t conception is to h  its full 
effect ) me4    ,?is pr9ciple1 t        
humanity & g5]ally e rational nature is 

an end 9 itself 7:i* is ! supreme limit+
 condition ( e  man's fre$om ( action71 
is n borr[$ f exp]i5ce1 fir/ly1  because
 x is univ]sal1 apply+ z x does to all  
rational be+s  :atev]1 & exp]i5ce is n  
capable ( det]m9+ any?+  ab\t !m2       
secondly1 because x does n pres5t       
humanity z an end  to m5 7subjectively71
 t is z an object :i* m5 d ( !mselves   
actually adopt z an end2 b z an         
objective end1 :i* mu/ z a law          
con/itute ! supreme limit+ condition (  
all our subjective  ends1 let !m be :at 
we w2 x mu/ !re=e spr+ f pure  reason4  
,9 fact ! objective pr9ciple ( all      
practical legislation  lies 7accord+ to 
! fir/ pr9ciple7 9 ! rule & its =m (    
univ]sality :i* makes x capable ( be+ a 
law 7say1 e4 g41 a  law ( nature72 b !  
subjective pr9ciple is 9 ! end2 n[ by ! 
second pr9ciple ! subject ( all ends is 
ea* rational be+1  inasmu* z x is an end
 9 itself4 ,h5ce foll[s ! ?ird          
practical pr9ciple ( ! w1 :i* is !      
ultimate condition (  its h>mony )      

univ]sal practical reason1 viz43 ! idea 
( !  w ( e rational be+ z a univ]sally  
legislative w4    ,on ?is pr9ciple all  
maxims are reject$ :i* are inconsi/5t  )
 ! w be+ itself univ]sal legislator4    
,?us ! w is  n subject simply to ! law1 
b s subject t x mu/ be reg>d$  z itself 
giv+ ! law &1 on ?is gr\nd only1 subject
 to !  law 7( :i* x c reg>d itself z !  
au?or74    ,9 ! previ\s imp]atives1     
namely1 t bas$ on ! conception (  !     
con=mity ( actions to g5]al laws1 z 9 a 
physical sy/em  ( nature1 & t bas$ on ! 
univ]sal pr]ogative ( rational  be+s z  
ends 9 !mselves- ^! imp]atives1 j       
because !y  7 conceiv$ z categorical1   
exclud$ f any %>e 9 _!  au?ority all    
admixture ( any int]e/ z a spr+ (       
action2 !y  71 h[ev]1 only assum$ to be 
categorical1 because su* an  assumption 
0 necess>y to expla9 ! conception (     
duty4 ,b we  c\ld n prove indep5d5tly t 
!re are practical propositions  :i*     
comm& categorically1 nor c x be prov$ 9 
?is section2 "o  ?+1 h[ev]1 c\ld be     

done1 namely1 to indicate 9 ! imp]ative 
itself1 by "s det]m9ate expression1 t 9 
! case ( volition  f duty all int]e/ is 
r5\nc$1 :i* is ! specific crit]ion  (   
categorical z di/+ui%$ f hypo!tical     
imp]atives4 ,?is is  done 9 ! pres5t    
7?ird7 =mula ( ! pr9ciple1 namely1 9 !  
idea ( ! w ( e rational be+ z a         
univ]sally  legislat+ w4    ,= al?\gh a 
w :i* is subject to laws may be atta*$  
to ?is  law by means ( an int]e/1 yet a 
w :i* is itself a supreme  lawgiv] s f> 
z x is su* _c possibly dep5d on any     
int]e/1 s9ce a w s dep5d5t w\ld itself  
/ill ne$ ano!r  law re/rict+ ! int]e/ ( 
its self-love by ! condition t x  %\ld  
be valid z univ]sal law4    ,?us !      
pr9ciple t e human w is a w :i* 9 all   
its maxims gives univ]sal laws1 99      
provid$ x be o!rwise  ju/ifi$1 w\ld be v
 well adapt$ to be ! categorical        
imp]ative1 9 ?is respect1 namely1 t j   
because ( ! idea  ( univ]sal legislation
 x is n bas$ on int]e/1 & !re=e x  alone
 among all possible imp]atives c be     

unconditional4 ,or /ill  bett]1 conv]t+ 
! proposition1 if !re is a categorical  
imp]ative 7i4e41 a law = ! w ( e        
rational be+71 x  c only comm& t ev]y?+ 
be done f maxims ( "o's w  reg>d$ z a w 
:i* c\ld at ! same "t w t x %\ld  itself
 give univ]sal laws1 = 9 t case only !  
practical  pr9ciple & ! imp]ative :i* x 
obeys are unconditional1 s9ce  !y _c be 
bas$ on any int]e/4        99 ,i may be 
excus$ f adduc+ examples to elucidate   
?is  pr9ciple1 z ^? :i* h already be5   
us$ to elucidate !  categorical         
imp]ative & its =mula w\ld all s]ve = ! 
l  purpose "h4        ,look+ back n[ on 
all previ\s attempts to discov] !       
pr9ciple ( morality1 we ne$ n wond] :y  
!y all fail$4 ,x  0 se5 t man 0 b\nd to 
laws by duty1 b x 0 n obs]v$  t ! laws  
to :i* he is subject are only ^? ( 8 own
 giv+1  ?\gh at ! same "t !y are        
univ]sal1 & t he is only  b\nd to act 9 
con=mity ) 8 own w2 a w1 h[ev]1 :i*  is 
design$ by nature to give univ]sal laws4
 ,= :5 "o has  conceiv$ man only z      

subject to a law 7no matt] :at71 !n ?is 
law  requir$ "s int]e/1 ei!r by way (   
attraction or con/ra9t1  s9ce x did n   
orig9ate z a law f 8 own w1 b ?is w  0  
accord+ to a law oblig$ by some?+ else  
to act 9 a c]ta9  mann]4 ,n[ by ?is     
necess>y consequ5ce all ! lab\r sp5t 9  
f9d+ a supreme pr9ciple ( duty 0        
irrevocably lo/4 ,= m5  nev] elicit$    
duty1 b only a necessity ( act+ f a     
c]ta9  int]e/4 ,:e!r ?is int]e/ 0       
private or o!rwise1 9 any  case !       
imp]ative mu/ be conditional & c\ld n by
 any means  be capable ( be+ a moral    
comm&4 ,i w !re=e call ?is !  pr9ciple (
 autonomy ( ! w1 9 contra/ ) e o!r  :i* 
,i accord+ly reckon z het]onomy4    ,!  
conception ( ! w ( e rational be+ z "o  
:i* mu/  consid] itself z giv+ 9 all !  
maxims ( its w univ]sal  laws1 s z to   
judge itself & its actions f ?is po9t ( 
view-  ?is conception leads to ano!r :i*
 dep5ds on x & is v  fruitful1 namely t 
( a k+dom ( ends4    ,by a k+dom ,i     
und]/& ! union ( diff]5t rational be+s  

9 a sy/em by common laws4 ,n[ s9ce x is 
by laws t ends are  det]m9$ z reg>ds _! 
univ]sal validity1 h5ce1 if we  ab/ract 
f ! p]sonal diff]5ces ( rational be+s & 
likewise  f all ! cont5t ( _! private   
ends1 we %all be able to  conceive all  
ends comb9$ 9 a sy/ematic :ole 7includ+ 
bo?  rational be+s z ends 9 !mselves1 & 
also ! special ends :i*  ea* may propose
 to himself71 t is to say1 we c conceive
 a  k+dom ( ends1 :i* on ! prec$+       
pr9ciples is possible4    ,= all        
rational be+s come "u ! law t ea* ( !m  
mu/  treat itself & all o!rs nev] m]ely 
z means1 b 9 e case  at ! same "t z ends
 9 !mselves4 ,h5ce results a sy/ematic  
union ( rational be+ by common objective
 laws1 i4e41 a k+dom  :i* may be call$ a
 k+dom ( ends1 s9ce :at ^! laws h 9     
view is j ! relation ( ^! be+s to "o    
ano!r z ends &  means4 ,x is c]ta9ly    
only an ideal4    ,a rational be+       
belongs z a memb] to ! k+dom ( ends :51 
al?\gh giv+ univ]sal laws 9 x1 he is    
also himself subject to  ^! laws4 ,he   

belongs to x z sov]eign :51 :ile giv+   
laws1  he is n subject to ! w ( any o!r4
    ,a rational be+ mu/ always reg>d    
himself z giv+ laws ei!r z  memb] or z  
sov]eign 9 a k+dom ( ends :i* is r5d]$  
possible  by ! fre$om ( w4 ,he _c1      
h[ev]1 ma9ta9 ! latt]  position m]ely by
 ! maxims ( 8 w1 b only 9 case he is a  
completely indep5d5t be+ )\t wants & )  
unre/rict$ p[]  adequate to 8 w4        
,morality consi/s !n 9 ! ref]5ce ( all  
action to !  legislation :i* alone c    
r5d] a k+dom ( ends possible4 ,?is      
legislation mu/ be capable ( exi/+ 9 e  
rational be+ & (  emanat+ f 8 w1 s t !  
pr9ciple ( ?is w is nev]  to act on any 
maxim :i* c\ld n )\t contradiction be   
also a  univ]sal law &1 accord+ly1      
always s to act t ! w c\ld  at ! same "t
 reg>d itself z giv+ 9 its maxims       
univ]sal laws4  ,if n[ ! maxims (       
rational be+s are n by _! own nature    
co9cid5t ) ?is objective pr9ciple1 !n ! 
necessity ( act+  on x is call$         
practical necessitation1 i4e41 duty4    

,duty does n  apply to ! sov]eign 9 !   
k+dom ( ends1 b x does to e  memb] ( x &
 to all 9 ! same degree4    ,! practical
 necessity ( act+ on ?is pr9ciple1 i4e41
 duty1  does n re/ at all on feel+s1    
impulses1 or incl9ations1 b  solely on !
 relation ( rational be+s to "o ano!r1 a
 relation  9 :i* ! w ( a rational be+   
mu/ always be reg>d$ z  legislative1    
s9ce o!rwise x c\ld n be conceiv$ z an  
end 9  itself4 ,reason !n ref]s e maxim 
( ! w1 reg>d+ x z  legislat+ univ]sally1
 to e o!r w & also to e  action t[>ds   
oneself2 & ?is n on acc\nt ( any o!r    
practical  motive or any future         
advantage1 b f ! idea ( ! dignity (  a  
rational be+1 obey+ no law b t :i* he   
himself also gives4    ,9 ! k+dom ( ends
 ev]y?+ has ei!r value or dignity4      
,:atev] has a value c be replac$ by     
some?+ else :i* is  equival5t2 :atev]1  
on ! o!r h&1 is above all value1 &      
!re=e admits ( no equival5t1 has a      
dignity4    ,:atev] has ref]5ce to !    
g5]al incl9ations & wants (  mank9d has 

a m>ket value2 :atev]1 )\t presuppos+ a 
want1  corresponds to a c]ta9 ta/e1 t is
 to a satisfaction 9 !  m]e purposeless 
play ( our faculties1 has a fancy value2
 b t  :i* con/itutes ! condition "u :i* 
alone any?+ c be an  end 9 itself1 ?is  
has n m]ely a relative wor?1 i4e41      
value1  b an intr9sic wor?1 t is1       
dignity4    ,n[ morality is ! condition 
"u :i* alone a rational be+ c  be an end
 9 himself1 s9ce by ?is alone is x      
possible t he  %\ld be a legislat+ memb]
 9 ! k+dom ( ends4 ,?us  morality1 &    
humanity z capable ( x1 is t :i* alone  
has  dignity4 ,skill & dilig5ce 9 lab\r 
h a m>ket value2 wit1  lively           
imag9ation1 & hum\r1 h fancy value2 on !
 o!r h&1  fidelity to promises1         
b5evol5ce f pr9ciple 7n f  in/9ct71 h an
 intr9sic wor?4 ,nei!r nature nor art   
conta9s  any?+ :i* 9 default ( ^! x c\ld
 put 9 _! place1 =  _! wor? consi/s n 9 
! effects :i* spr+ f !m1 n 9  ! use &   
advantage :i* !y secure1 b 9 !          
disposition (  m9d1 t is1 ! maxims ( ! w

 :i* are ready to manife/  !mselves 9   
su* actions1 ev5 ?\gh !y %\ld n h !     
desir$ effect4 ,^! actions also ne$ no  
recomm5dation f any  subjective ta/e or 
s5tim5t1 t !y may be look$ on )         
imm$iate fav\r & satisfaction3 !y ne$ no
 imm$iate prop5sion  or feel+ = !m2 !y  
exhibit ! w t p]=ms !m z an  object ( an
 imm$iate respect1 & no?+ b reason is   
requir$  to impose !m on ! w2 n to      
flatt] x into !m1 :i*1 9 !  case (      
duties1 w\ld be a contradiction4 ,?is   
e/imation !re=e  %[s t ! wor? ( su* a   
disposition is dignity1 & places x      
inf9itely above all value1 ) :i* x _c = 
a mom5t be  br\ght into comp>ison or    
competition )\t z x 7 violat+  its      
sanctity4    ,:at !n is x :i* ju/ifies  
virtue or ! morally good  disposition1 9
 mak+ su* l(ty claims8 ,x is no?+ less  
?an  ! privilege x secures to ! rational
 be+ ( p>ticipat+ 9 !  giv+ ( univ]sal  
laws1 by :i* x qualifies him to be a    
memb]  ( a possible k+dom ( ends1 a     
privilege to :i* he 0 already  de/9$ by 

8 own nature z be+ an end 9 himself &1  
on t  acc\nt1 legislat+ 9 ! k+dom (     
ends2 free z reg>ds all  laws ( physical
 nature1 & obey+ ^? only :i* he himself 
gives1 & by :i* 8 maxims c belong to a  
sy/em ( univ]sal  law1 to :i* at ! same 
"t he submits himself4 ,= no?+ has any  
wor? except :at ! law assigns x4 ,n[ !  
legislation itself :i*  assigns ! wor? (
 ev]y?+ mu/ = t v reason possess        
dignity1 t is an unconditional          
incomp>able wor?2 & ! ^w  respect alone 
supplies a becom+ expression = ! e/eem  
:i* a  rational be+ mu/ h = x4 ,autonomy
 !n is ! basis ( !  dignity ( human & ( 
e rational nature4    ,! ?ree modes (   
pres5t+ ! pr9ciple ( morality t h  be5  
adduc$ are at bottom only s _m =mulae ( 
! v same law1  & ea* ( itself involves !
 o!r two4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 a  diff]5ce 9 
!m1 b x is r subjectively ?an           
objectively  practical1 int5d$ namely to
 br+ an idea ( ! reason ne>] to         
intuition 7by means ( a c]ta9 analogy7 &
 !reby ne>] to  feel+4 ,all maxims1 9   

fact1 h3    #a4 ,a =m1 consi/+ 9        
univ]sality2 & 9 ?is view !  =mula ( !  
moral imp]ative is express$ ?us1 t !    
maxims  mu/ be s *os5 z if !y 7 to s]ve 
z univ]sal laws (  nature4    #b4 ,a    
matt]1 namely1 an end1 & "h ! =mula says
 t !  rational be+1 z x is an end by its
 own nature & !re=e an end  9 itself1   
mu/ 9 e maxim s]ve z ! condition limit+ 
all  m]ely relative & arbitr>y ends4    
#c4 ,a complete *>act]ization ( all     
maxims by means ( t  =mula1 namely1 t   
all maxims ought by _! own legislation  
to  h>monize ) a possible k+dom ( ends z
 ) a k+dom (  nature4 99 ,!re is a      
progress "h 9 ! ord] ( ! categories (   
unity ( ! =m ( ! w 7its univ]sality71   
plurality ( !  matt] 7! objects1 i4e41 !
 ends71 & totality ( ! sy/em (  ^!4 ,9  
=m+ our moral judgem5t ( actions1 x is  
bett] to  proce$ always on ! /rict me?od
 & />t f ! g5]al =mula  ( ! categorical 
imp]ative3 ,act accord+ to a maxim :i* c
 at  ! same "t make itself a univ]sal   
law4 ,if1 h[ev]1 we wi% to  ga9 an      

entrance = ! moral law1 x is v useful to
 br+ "o &  ! same action "u ! ?ree      
specifi$ conceptions1 & !reby  z f> z   
possible to br+ x ne>] to intuition4    
99 ,teleology consid]s nature z a k+dom 
( ends2 e?ics reg>ds a  possible k+dom (
 ends z a k+dom nature4 ,9 ! fir/ case1 
!  k+dom ( ends is a !oretical idea1    
adopt$ to expla9 :at  actually is4 ,9 ! 
latt] x is a practical idea1 adopt$ to  
br+  ab\t t :i* is n yet1 b :i* c be    
realiz$ by our conduct1  namely1 if x   
con=ms to ?is idea4        ,we c n[ end 
:]e we />t$ at ! beg9n+1 namely1 ) !    
conception ( a w unconditionally good4  
,t w is absolutely  good :i* _c be evil-
 9 o!r words1 ^: maxim1 if made a       
univ]sal law1 c\ld nev] contradict      
itself4 ,?is pr9ciple1 !n1 is  its      
supreme law3 ,act always on su* a maxim 
z ?\ can/ at ! same  "t w to be a       
univ]sal law2 ?is is ! sole condition "u
  :i* a w c nev] contradict itself2 &   
su* an imp]ative is  categorical4 ,s9ce 
! validity ( ! w z a univ]sal law =     

possible actions is analog\s to !       
univ]sal connexion ( !  exi/5ce ( ?+s by
 g5]al laws1 :i* is ! =mal notion (     
nature 9 g5]al1 ! categorical imp]ative 
c also be express$  ?us3 ,act on maxims 
:i* c at ! same "t h = _! object        
!mselves z univ]sal laws ( nature4 ,su* 
!n is ! =mula ( an  absolutely good w4  
,rational nature is di/+ui%$ f ! re/ (  
nature by ?is1  t x sets be=e itself an 
end4 ,?is end w\ld be ! matt] (  e good 
w4 ,b s9ce 9 ! idea ( a w t is          
absolutely  good )\t be+ limit$ by any  
condition 7( atta9+ ?is or t  end7 we   
mu/ ab/ract :olly f e end to be effect$ 
7s9ce ?is  w\ld make e w only relatively
 good71 x foll[s t 9 ?is  case ! end mu/
 be conceiv$1 n z an end to be effect$1 
b z  an indep5d5tly exi/+ end4          
,consequ5tly x is conceiv$ only         
negatively1 i4e41 z t :i* we mu/ nev]   
act aga9/ & :i*1  !re=e1 mu/ nev] be    
reg>d$ m]ely z means1 b mu/ 9 e         
volition be e/eem$ z an end likewise4   
,n[ ?is end c be no?+  b ! subject ( all

 possible ends1 s9ce ?is is also !      
subject  ( a possible absolutely good w2
 = su* a w _c )\t  contradiction be     
po/pon$ to any o!r object4 ,! pr9ciple3 
,s act  9 reg>d to e rational be+       
7?yself & o!rs71 t he may  always h     
place 9 ?y maxim z an end 9 himself1 is 
accord+ly  ess5tially id5tical ) ?is    
o!r3 ,act ^u a maxim :i*1 at !  same "t1
 involves its own univ]sal validity = e 
rational  be+4 ,= t 9 us+ means = e end 
,i %\ld limit my  maxim by ! condition (
 its hold+ good z a law = e subject1    
?is comes to ! same ?+ z t ! fundam5tal 
pr9ciple (  all maxims ( action mu/ be t
 ! subject ( all ends1 i4e41 !  rational
 be+ himself1 be nev] employ$ m]ely z   
means1 b z  ! supreme condition re/rict+
 ! use ( all means1 t is 9  e case z an 
end likewise4    ,x foll[s inconte/ably 
t1 to :atev] laws any rational be+  may 
be subject1 he be+ an end 9 himself mu/ 
be able to reg>d  himself z also        
legislat+ univ]sally 9 respect ( ^! same
 laws1  s9ce x is j ?is fitness ( 8     

maxims = univ]sal  legislation t        
di/+ui%es him z an end 9 himself2 also x
  foll[s t ?is implies 8 dignity        
7pr]ogative7 above all m]e  physical    
be+s1 t he mu/ always take 8 maxims f ! 
po9t (  view :i* reg>ds himself &1      
likewise1 e o!r rational be+  z law-giv+
 be+s 7on :i* acc\nt !y are call$       
p]sons74 ,9  ?is way a _w ( rational    
be+s 7mundus intelligibilis7 is         
possible z a k+dom ( ends1 & ?is by     
virtue ( ! legislation  prop] to all    
p]sons z memb]s4 ,!re=e e rational be+  
mu/ s act z if he 7 by 8 maxims 9 e case
 a legislat+  memb] 9 ! univ]sal k+dom (
 ends4 ,! =mal pr9ciple ( ^!  maxims is3
 ,s act z if ?y maxim 7 to s]ve likewise
 z !  univ]sal law 7( all rational      
be+s74 ,a k+dom ( ends is ?us  only     
possible on ! analogy ( a k+dom (       
nature1 ! =m]  h[ev] only by maxims1 t  
is self-impos$ rules1 ! latt] only by  !
 laws ( effici5t causes act+ "u         
necessitation f  )\t4 ,nev]!less1 al?\gh
 ! sy/em ( nature is look$ ^u z  a      

ma*9e1 yet s f> z x has ref]5ce to      
rational be+s z its  ends1 x is giv5 on 
?is acc\nt ! "n ( a k+dom ( nature4 ,n[ 
su* a k+dom ( ends w\ld be actually     
realiz$ by means ( maxims  con=m+ to !  
canon :i* ! categorical imp]ative       
prescribes to  all rational be+s1 if !y 
7 univ]sally foll[$4 ,b al?\gh a        
rational be+1 ev5 if he punctually      
foll[s ?is maxim himself1  _c reckon ^u 
all o!rs be+ !re=e true to ! same1 nor  
expect t ! k+dom ( nature & its ord]ly  
arrangem5ts %all  be 9 h>mony ) him z a 
fitt+ memb]1 s z to =m a k+dom (  ends  
to :i* he himself contributes1 t is to  
say1 t x %all  fav\r 8 expectation (    
happ9ess1 /ill t law3 ,act accord+ to  !
 maxims ( a memb] ( a m]ely possible    
k+dom ( ends  legislat+ 9 x univ]sally1 
rema9s 9 its full =ce1 inasmu* z  x     
comm&s categorically4 ,& x is j 9 ?is t 
! p>adox  lies2 t ! m]e dignity ( man z 
a rational creature1 )\t any  o!r end or
 advantage to be atta9$ !reby1 9 o!r    
words1 respect  = a m]e idea1 %\ld yet  

s]ve z an inflexible precept ( !  w1 & t
 x is precisely 9 ?is indep5d5ce ( !    
maxim on  all su* spr+s ( action t its  
sublimity consi/s2 & x is ?is  t makes e
 rational subject wor?y to be a         
legislative memb] 9  ! k+dom ( ends3 =  
o!rwise he w\ld h to be conceiv$  only z
 subject to ! physical law ( 8 wants4 ,&
 al?\gh we  %\ld suppose ! k+dom (      
nature & ! k+dom ( ends to be  unit$ "u 
"o sov]eign1 s t ! latt] k+dom !reby    
ceas$ to be a m]e idea & acquir$ true   
reality1 !n x w\ld no  d\bt ga9 !       
accession ( a /rong spr+1 b by no means 
any  increase ( its intr9sic wor?4 ,=   
?is sole absolute lawgiv] mu/1  not)/&+ 
?is1 be always conceiv$ z e/imat+ ! wor?
 (  rational be+s only by _! dis9t]e/$  
behavi\r1 z prescrib$  to !mselves f t  
idea ! dignity ( man alone4 ,! ess5ce  (
 ?+s is n alt]$ by _! ext]nal relations1
 & t  :i*1 ab/ract+ f ^!1 alone         
con/itutes ! absolute wor? (  man1 is   
also t by :i* he mu/ be judg$1 :oev] !  
judge may  be1 & ev5 by ! ,supreme ,be+4

 ,morality1 !n1 is ! relation  ( actions
 to ! relation ( actions w1 t is1 to !  
autonomy  ( pot5tial univ]sal           
legislation by its maxims4 ,an action t 
is  consi/5t ) ! autonomy ( ! w is      
p]mitt$2 "o t does  n agree !re) is     
=bidd54 ,a w ^: maxims necess>ily       
co9cide ) ! laws ( autonomy is a holy w1
 good absolutely4  ,! dep5d5ce ( a w n  
absolutely good on ! pr9ciple (         
autonomy 7moral necessitation7 is       
obligation4 ,?is1 !n1 _c be  appli$ to a
 holy be+4 ,! objective necessity (     
actions f  obligation is call$ duty4    
,f :at has j be5 said1 x is easy to see 
h[ x happ5s t1  al?\gh ! conception (   
duty implies subjection to ! law1 we    
yet ascribe a c]ta9 dignity & sublimity 
to ! p]son :o  fulfils all 8 duties4    
,!re is n1 inde$1 any sublimity 9 him1 s
  f> z he is subject to ! moral law2 b  
inasmu* z 9 reg>d to  t v law he is     
likewise a legislator1 & on t acc\nt    
alone  subject to x1 he has sublimity4  
,we h also %[n above t nei!r  fe> nor   

incl9ation1 b simply respect = ! law1 is
 ! spr+  :i* c give actions a moral     
wor?4 ,our own w1 s f> z we  suppose x  
to act only "u ! condition t its maxims 
are  pot5tially univ]sal laws1 ?is ideal
 w :i* is possible to u is  ! prop]     
object ( respect2 & ! dignity ( humanity
 consi/s  j 9 ?is capacity ( be+        
univ]sally legislative1 ?\gh )  !       
condition t x is itself subject to ?is  
same legislation4        ,! ,autonomy ( 
! ,w z ! ,supreme ,pr9ciple ( ,morality 
,autonomy ( ! w is t prop]ty ( x by :i* 
x is a law  to itself 7indep5d5tly ( any
 prop]ty ( ! objects (  volition74 ,!   
pr9ciple ( autonomy !n is3 ,always s to 
*oose  t ! same volition %all compreh5d 
! maxims ( our *oice z  a univ]sal law4 
,we _c prove t ?is practical rule is an 
imp]ative1 i4e41 t ! w ( e rational be+ 
is necess>ily  b\nd to x z a condition1 
by a m]e analysis ( ! conceptions  :i*  
occur 9 x1 s9ce x is a syn!tical        
proposition2 we mu/  advance beyond !   
cognition ( ! objects to a critical     

exam9ation ( ! subject1 t is1 ( ! pure  
practical reason1 =  ?is syn!tic        
proposition :i* comm&s apodeictically   
mu/ be  capable ( be+ cogniz$ :olly a   
priori4 ,?is matt]1 h[ev]1  does n      
belong to ! pres5t section4 ,b t !      
pr9ciple (  autonomy 9 "q is ! sole     
pr9ciple ( morals c be readily  %[n by  
m]e analysis ( ! conceptions ( morality4
 ,= by ?is  analysis we f9d t its       
pr9ciple mu/ be a categorical imp]ative 
& t :at ?is comm&s is nei!r m nor less  
?an ?is v  autonomy4        ,het]onomy (
 ! ,w z ! ,s\rce ( all spuri\s          
,pr9ciples                            ( 
,morality        ,if ! w seeks ! law :i*
 is to det]m9e x any:]e else  ?an 9 !   
fitness ( its maxims to be univ]sal laws
 ( its own  dictation1 consequ5tly if x 
goes out ( itself & seeks ?is law 9  !  
"* ( any ( its objects1 !re always      
results  het]onomy4 ,! w 9 t case does n
 give itself ! law1 b x  is giv5 by !   
object ?r\gh its relation to ! w4 ,?is  
relation1 :e!r x re/s on incl9ation or  

on conceptions ( reason1  only admits ( 
hypo!tical imp]atives3 ,i ought to d    
some?+  because ,i wi% = some?+ else4   
,on ! contr>y1 ! moral1 &  !re=e        
categorical1 imp]ative says3 ,i ought to
 d s & s1 ev5  ?\gh ,i %\ld n wi% =     
any?+ else4 ,e4g41 ! =m] says3 ,i  ought
 n to lie1 if ,i w\ld reta9 my          
reputation2 ! latt] says3  ,i ought n to
 lie1 al?\gh x %\ld n br+ me ! lea/     
discr$it4 ,! latt] !re=e mu/ s f>       
ab/ract f all objects  t !y %all h no   
influ5ce on ! w1 9 ord] t practical     
reason 7w7 may n be re/rict$ to adm9i/]+
 an int]e/ n  belong+ to x1 b may simply
 %[ its own comm&+ au?ority z  ! supreme
 legislation4 ,?us1 e4g41 ,i ought to   
endeav\r to promote  ! happ9ess ( o!rs1 
n z if its realization involv$ any      
conc]n ( m9e 7:e!r by imm$iate          
incl9ation or by any  satisfaction      
indirectly ga9$ ?r\gh reason71 b simply 
because a  maxim :i* excludes x _c be   
compreh5d$ z a univ]sal law 9  "o & !   
same volition4          ,classification 

( all ,pr9ciples ( ,morality :i* c be   
f\nd$ on ! ,conception ( ,het]onomy     
,"h z else:]e human reason 9 its pure   
use1 s long z x 0  n critically exam9$1 
has fir/ tri$ all possible wrong ways   
be=e x succe$$ 9 f9d+ ! "o true way4    
,all pr9ciples :i* c be tak5 f ?is po9t 
( view are ei!r  empirical or rational4 
,! =m]1 drawn f ! pr9ciple (  happ9ess1 
are built on physical or moral feel+s2 !
 latt]1  drawn f ! pr9ciple ( p]fection1
 are built ei!r on !  rational          
conception ( p]fection z a possible     
effect1 or on t  ( an indep5d5t         
p]fection 7! w ( ,god7 z ! det]m9+      
cause ( our w4    ,empirical pr9ciples  
are :olly incapable ( s]v+ z a f\ndation
  = moral laws4 ,= ! univ]sality ) :i*  
^! %\ld hold  = all rational be+s )\t   
di/9ction1 ! unconditional  practical   
necessity :i* is !reby impos$ on !m1 is 
lo/ :5  _! f\ndation is tak5 f !        
p>ticul> con/itution ( human  nature1 or
 ! accid5tal circum/ances 9 :i* x is    
plac$4 ,!  pr9ciple ( private happ9ess1 

h[ev]1 is ! mo/ objectionable1  n m]ely 
because x is false1 & exp]i5ce          
contradicts !  supposition t prosp]ity  
is always proportion$ to good conduct1  
nor yet m]ely because x contributes no?+
 to ! e/abli%m5t  ( morality- s9ce x is 
q a diff]5t ?+ to make a  prosp]\s man &
 a good man1 or to make "o prud5t &     
%>p-sight$ = 8 own int]e/s & to make him
 virtu\s- b  because ! spr+s x provides 
= morality are su* z r  und]m9e x &     
de/roy its sublimity1 s9ce !y put !     
motives  to virtue & to vice 9 ! same   
class & only tea* u to make a  bett]    
calculation1 ! specific diff]5ce betwe5 
virtue & vice  be+ entirely ext+ui%$4   
,on ! o!r h&1 z to moral feel+1  ?is    
suppos$ special s5se1 99 ! appeal to x  
is inde$ sup]ficial  :5 ^? :o _c ?9k    
believe t feel+ w help !m out1  ev5 9   
:at conc]ns g5]al laws3 & besides1      
feel+s1 :i*  naturally diff] inf9itely 9
 degree1 _c furni% a uni=m  /&>d ( good 
& evil1 nor has anyone a "r to =m       
judgem5ts  = o!rs by 8 own feel+s3      

nev]!less ?is moral feel+ is  ne>] to   
morality & its dignity 9 ?is respect1 t 
x pays  virtue ! hon\r ( ascrib+ to h]  
imm$iately ! satisfaction &  e/eem we h 
= h] & does n1 z x 71 tell h] to h]     
face t we are n atta*$ to h] by h]      
beauty b by pr(it4        99 ,i class ! 
pr9ciple ( moral feel+ "u t ( happ9ess1 
because e empirical int]e/ promises to  
contribute to our  well-be+ by !        
agreeabl5ess t a ?+ af=ds1 :e!r x be    
imm$iately & )\t a view to pr(it1 or    
:e!r pr(it be  reg>d$4 ,we mu/ likewise1
 ) ,hut*eson1 class ! pr9ciple (        
sympa?y ) ! happ9ess ( o!rs "u 8 assum$ 
moral s5se4        ,among/ ! rational   
pr9ciples ( morality1 ! ontological     
conception ( p]fection1 not)/&+ its     
defects1 is bett]  ?an ! !ological      
conception :i* d]ives morality f a      
,div9e  absolutely p]fect w4 ,! =m] is1 
no d\bt1 empty & indef9ite  &           
consequ5tly useless = f9d+ 9 ! b\ndless 
field (  possible reality ! greate/     
am\nt suitable = u2 moreov]1 9  attempt+

 to di/+ui% specifically ! reality ( :i*
 we are n[  speak+ f e o!r1 x inevitably
 t5ds to turn 9 a circle &  _c avoid    
tacitly presuppos+ ! morality :i* x is  
to expla92  x is nev]!less pref]able to 
! !ological view1 fir/1  because we h no
 intuition ( ! div9e p]fection & c only 
d$uce x f our own conceptions1 ! mo/    
important ( :i* is  t ( morality1 & our 
explanation w\ld ?us be involv$ 9 a     
gross circle2 &1 9 ! next place1 if we  
avoid ?is1 ! only  notion ( ! ,div9e w  
rema9+ to u is a conception made up (  !
 attributes ( desire ( glory & dom9ion1 
comb9$ ) !  awful conceptions ( might & 
v5geance1 & any sy/em ( morals  erect$  
on ?is f\ndation w\ld be directly oppos$
 to morality4    ,h[ev]1 if ,i _h to    
*oose betwe5 ! notion ( ! moral s5se  & 
t ( p]fection 9 g5]al 7two sy/ems :i* at
 lea/ d n  weak5 morality1 al?\gh !y are
 totally incapable ( s]v+ z its         
f\ndation71 !n ,i %\ld decide = ! latt]1
 because x at  lea/ )draws ! decision ( 
! "q f ! s5sibility  & br+s x to ! c\rt 

( pure reason2 & al?\gh ev5 "h x        
decides no?+1 x at all ev5ts pres]ves ! 
indef9ite idea 7(  a w good 9 itself    
free f corruption1 until x %all be m    
precisely def9$4    ,= ! re/ ,i ?9k ,i  
may be excus$ "h f a detail$  refutation
 ( all ^! doctr9es2 t w\ld only be      
sup]flu\s  lab\r1 s9ce x is s easy1 & is
 probably s well se5 ev5 by  ^? ^: (fice
 requires !m to decide = "o ( ^! !ories 
7because _! he>]s w\ld n tol]ate        
susp5sion ( judgem5t74  ,b :at int]e/s u
 m "h is to "k t ! prime f\ndation  (   
morality laid d[n by all ^! pr9ciples is
 no?+ b  het]onomy ( ! w1 & = ?is reason
 !y mu/ necess>ily miss  _! aim4    ,9 e
 case :]e an object ( ! w has to be     
suppos$1 9  ord] t ! rule may be        
prescrib$ :i* is to det]m9e !  w1 !re ! 
rule is simply het]onomy2 ! imp]ative is
  conditional1 namely1 if or because "o 
wi%es = ?is object1 "o  %\ld act s & s3 
h5ce x c nev] comm& morally1 t is1      
categorically4 ,:e!r ! object det]m9es !
 w by means (  incl9ation1 z 9 !        

pr9ciple ( private happ9ess1 or by means
  ( reason direct$ to objects ( our     
possible volition g5]ally1 z  9 !       
pr9ciple ( p]fection1 9 ei!r case ! w   
nev]  det]m9es itself imm$iately by !   
conception ( ! action1 b  only by !     
influ5ce :i* ! =ese5 effect ( ! action  
has on  ! w2 ,i ought to d some?+1 on   
?is acc\nt1 because ,i wi% =  some?+    
else2 & "h !re mu/ be yet ano!r law     
assum$ 9 me  z its subject1 by :i* ,i   
necess>ily w ?is o!r ?+1 & ?is  law aga9
 requires an imp]ative to re/rict ?is   
maxim4 ,= !  influ5ce :i* ! conception (
 an object )9 ! rea* ( our  faculties c 
ex]cise on ! w ( ! subject1 9 consequ5ce
 (  its natural prop]ties1 dep5ds on !  
nature ( ! subject1 ei!r  ! s5sibility  
7incl9ation & ta/e71 or ! und]/&+ &     
reason1 ! employm5t ( :i* is by !       
peculi> con/itution (  _! nature att5d$ 
) satisfaction4 ,x foll[s t ! law w\ld  
be1 prop]ly speak+1 giv5 by nature1 &1 z
 su*1 x mu/ be kn[n  & prov$ by exp]i5ce
 & w\ld consequ5tly be cont+5t &  !re=e 

incapable ( be+ an apodeictic practical 
rule1 su* z !  moral rule mu/ be4 ,n    
only s1 b x is inevitably only          
het]onomy2  ! w does n give itself !    
law1 b is giv5 by a =eign  impulse by   
means ( a p>ticul> natural con/itution (
 ! subject  adapt$ to receive x4 ,an    
absolutely good w1 !n1 ! pr9ciple (  :i*
 mu/ be a categorical imp]ative1 w be   
indet]m9ate z  reg>ds all objects & w   
conta9 m]ely ! =m ( volition  g5]ally1 &
 t z autonomy1 t is to say1 ! capability
 ( !  maxims ( e good w to make !mselves
 a univ]sal law1 is  itself ! only law  
:i* ! w ( e rational be+ imposes  on    
itself1 )\t ne$+ to assume any spr+ or  
int]e/ z a  f\ndation4    ,h[ su* a     
syn!tical practical a priori proposition
 is possible1  & :y x is necess>y1 is a 
problem ^: solution does n lie  )9 !    
b\nds ( ! metaphysic ( morals2 & we h n 
"h  affirm$ its tru?1 mu* less pr(ess$  
to h a pro( ( x 9 our  p[]4 ,we simply  
%[$ by ! developm5t ( ! univ]sally      
receiv$  notion ( morality t an autonomy

 ( ! w is inevitably  connect$ ) x1 or r
 is its f\ndation4 ,:oev] !n holds      
morality to be any?+ real1 & n a        
*im]ical idea )\t any  tru?1 mu/        
likewise admit ! pr9ciple ( x t is "h   
assign$4 ,?is section !n1 l ! fir/1 0   
m]ely analytical4  ,n[ to prove t       
morality is no creation ( ! bra91 :i* x 
_c be if ! categorical imp]ative & ) x !
 autonomy (  ! w is true1 & z an a      
priori pr9ciple absolutely necess>y1    
?is supposes ! possibility ( a syn!tic  
use ( pure practical  reason1 :i* h[ev] 
we _c v5ture on )\t fir/ giv+ a         
critical exam9ation ( ?is faculty (     
reason4 ,9 ! conclud+  section we %all  
give ! pr9cipal outl9es ( ?is critical  
exam9ation z f> z is suffici5t = our    
purpose4    ,,sec#c                     
,,?ird ,,section                        
,,transition ,,f ,,! ,,metaphysic ,,(   
,,morals ,,to ,,!                       
,,critique ,,( ,,pure ,,practical       
,,reason        ,! ,concept ( ,fre$om is
 ! ,key t expla9s ! ,autonomy (  ! ,w   

,! w is a k9d ( causality belong+ to    
liv+ be+s 9 s f>  z !y are rational1 &  
fre$om w\ld be ?is prop]ty ( su*        
causality t x c be effici5t1 indep5d5tly
 ( =eign causes  det]m9+ x2 j z physical
 necessity is ! prop]ty t !  causality (
 all irrational be+s has ( be+ det]m9$  
to activity  by ! influ5ce ( =eign      
causes4    ,! prec$+ def9ition ( fre$om 
is negative & !re=e  unfruitful = !     
discov]y ( its ess5ce1 b x leads to a   
positive conception :i* is s mu* ! m    
full & fruitful4    ,s9ce ! conception (
 causality involves t ( laws1 accord+   
to :i*1 by some?+ t we call cause1      
some?+ else1 namely  ! effect1 mu/ be   
produc$2 h5ce1 al?\gh fre$om is n a     
prop]ty ( ! w dep5d+ on physical laws1  
yet x is n =  t reason lawless2 on !    
contr>y x mu/ be a causality act+       
accord+ to immutable laws1 b ( a peculi>
 k9d2 o!rwise a  free w w\ld be an      
absurdity4 ,physical necessity is a     
het]onomy (  ! effici5t causes1 = e     
effect is possible only accord+ to  ?is 

law1 t some?+ else det]m9es ! effici5t  
cause to  ex]t its causality4 ,:at else 
!n c fre$om ( ! w be b  autonomy1 t is1 
! prop]ty ( ! w to be a law to itself8  
,b  ! proposition3 ,! w is 9 e action a 
law to itself1 only  expresses !        
pr9ciple3 ,to act on no o!r maxim ?an t 
:i* c  also h z an object itself z a    
univ]sal law4 ,n[ ?is is  precisely !   
=mula ( ! categorical imp]ative & is !  
pr9ciple ( morality1 s t a free w & a w 
subject to moral  laws are "o & ! same4 
,on ! hypo!sis1 !n1 ( fre$om ( ! w1     
morality toge!r  ) its pr9ciple foll[s f
 x by m]e analysis ( ! conception4      
,h[ev]1 ! latt] is a syn!tic            
proposition2 viz41 an absolutely  good w
 is t ^: maxim c always include itself  
reg>d$ z  a univ]sal law2 = ?is prop]ty 
( its maxim c nev] be  discov]$ by      
analys+ ! conception ( an absolutely    
good w4 ,n[  su* syn!tic propositions   
are only possible 9 ?is way3 t !  two   
cognitions are connect$ toge!r by _!    
union ) a ?ird 9  :i* !y are bo? to be  

f\nd4 ,! positive concept ( fre$om      
furni%es ?is ?ird cognition1 :i* _c1 z )
 physical causes1  be ! nature ( !      
s5sible _w 79 ! concept ( :i* we f9d    
conjo9$ ! concept ( some?+ 9 relation z 
cause to some?+  else z effect74 ,we _c 
n[ at once %[ :at ?is ?ird is to  :i*   
fre$om po9ts u & ( :i* we h an idea a   
priori1 nor c  we make intelligible h[ !
 concept ( fre$om is %[n to be          
legitimate f pr9ciples ( pure practical 
reason & ) x !  possibility ( a         
categorical imp]ative2 b "s fur!r       
prep>ation is requir$4           ,fre$om
 mu/ be presuppos$ z a ,prop]ty ( ! ,w  
( all ,rational ,be+s        ,x is n    
en\gh to pr$icate fre$om ( our own w1 f 
,:atev]  reason1 if we h n suffici5t    
gr\nds = pr$icat+ ! same  ( all rational
 be+s4 ,= z morality s]ves z a law = u  
only  because we are rational be+s1 x   
mu/ also hold = all rational  be+s2 & z 
x mu/ be d$uc$ simply f ! prop]ty (     
fre$om1  x mu/ be %[n t fre$om also is a
 prop]ty ( all rational  be+s4 ,x is n  

en\gh1 !n1 to prove x f c]ta9 suppos$   
exp]i5ces ( human nature 7:i* inde$ is q
 impossible1 &  x c only be %[n a       
priori71 b we mu/ %[ t x belongs to  !  
activity ( all rational be+s end[$ ) a  
w4 ,n[ ,i say  e be+ t _c act except "u 
! idea ( fre$om is j  = t reason 9 a    
practical po9t ( view really free1 t is 
to  say1 all laws :i* are insep>ably    
connect$ ) fre$om h !  same =ce = him z 
if 8 w _h be5 %[n to be free 9  itself  
by a pro( !oretically conclusive4 99 ,n[
 ,i affirm t we  mu/ attribute to e     
rational be+ :i* has a w t x has  also !
 idea ( fre$om & acts entirely "u ?is   
idea4 ,= 9  su* a be+ we conceive a     
reason t is practical1 t is1 has        
causality 9 ref]5ce to its objects4 ,n[ 
we _c possibly conceive  a reason       
consci\sly receiv+ a bias f any o!r     
qu>t] )  respect to its judgem5ts1 = !n 
! subject w\ld ascribe !  det]m9ation ( 
its judgem5t n to its own reason1 b to  
an  impulse4 ,x mu/ reg>d itself z !    
au?or ( its pr9ciples  indep5d5t ( =eign

 influ5ces4 ,consequ5tly z practical    
reason or  z ! w ( a rational be+ x mu/ 
reg>d itself z free1 t is  to say1 ! w (
 su* a be+ _c be a w ( its own except   
"u ! idea ( fre$om4 ,?is idea mu/ !re=e 
9 a practical  po9t ( view be ascrib$ to
 e rational be+4        99 ,i adopt ?is 
me?od ( assum+ fre$om m]ely z an idea   
:i*  rational be+s suppose 9 _! actions1
 9 ord] to avoid !  necessity ( prov+ x 
9 its !oretical aspect also4 ,! =m]  is 
suffici5t = my purpose2 = ev5 ?\gh !    
speculative pro(  %\ld n be made out1   
yet a be+ t _c act except ) !  idea (   
fre$om is b\nd by ! same laws t w\ld    
oblige a be+  :o 0 actually free4 ,?us  
we c escape "h f ! onus :i*  presses on 
! !ory4            ,( ! ,int]e/ atta*+  
to ! ,ideas ( ,morality        ,we h    
f9ally r$uc$ ! def9ite conception (     
morality to !  idea ( fre$om4 ,?is      
latt]1 h[ev]1 we c\ld n prove to be     
actually a prop]ty ( ourselves or (     
human nature2 only we saw  t x mu/ be   
presuppos$ if we w\ld conceive a be+ z  

rational  & consci\s ( its causality 9  
respect ( its actions1 i4e41 z  end[$ ) 
a w2 & s we f9d t on j ! same gr\nds we 
mu/ ascribe to e be+ end[$ ) reason & w 
?is  attribute ( det]m9+ itself to      
action "u ! idea ( its  fre$om4    ,n[ x
 result$ also f ! presupposition ( ^!   
ideas t  we became aw>e ( a law t !     
subjective pr9ciples ( action1  i4e41   
maxims1 mu/ always be s assum$ t !y c   
also hold z  objective1 t is1 univ]sal  
pr9ciples1 & s s]ve z univ]sal  laws (  
our own dictation4 ,b :y !n %\ld ,i     
subject myself to  ?is pr9ciple & t     
simply z a rational be+1 ?us also       
subject+ to x all o!r be+ end[$ )       
reason8 ,i w all[  t no int]e/ urges me 
to ?is1 = t w\ld n give a  categorical  
imp]ative1 b ,i mu/ take an int]e/ 9 x &
  disc]n h[ ?is comes to pass2 = ?is    
prop]ly an ,i ought is  prop]ly an ,i   
w\ld1 valid = e rational be+1 provid$   
only  t reason det]m9$ 8 actions )\t any
 h9drance4 ,b =  be+s t are 9 addition  
affect$ z we are by spr+s ( a  diff]5t  

k9d1 namely1 s5sibility1 & 9 ^: case t  
is n  always done :i* reason alone w\ld 
d1 = ^! t necessity is  express$ only z 
an ought1 & ! subjective necessity is   
diff]5t f ! objective4    ,x seems !n z 
if ! moral law1 t is1 ! pr9ciple (      
autonomy ( ! w1 7 prop]ly speak+ only   
presuppos$ 9 !  idea ( fre$om1 & z if we
 c\ld n prove its reality &  objective  
necessity indep5d5tly4 ,9 t case we %\ld
 /ill h  ga9$ some?+ consid]able by at  
lea/ det]m9+ ! true  pr9ciple m exactly 
?an _h previ\sly be5 done2 b z reg>ds   
its validity & ! practical necessity (  
subject+ oneself to  x1 we %\ld n h     
advanc$ a /ep4 ,= if we 7 ask$ :y !     
univ]sal validity ( our maxim z a law   
mu/ be ! condition  re/rict+ our        
actions1 & on :at we gr\nd ! wor? :i* we
  assign to ?is mann] ( act+- a wor? s  
great t !re _c be  any high] int]e/2 &  
if we 7 ask$ fur!r h[ x happ5s  t x is  
by ?is alone a man believes he feels 8  
own p]sonal  wor?1 9 comp>ison ) :i* t (
 an agreeable or disagreeable  condition

 is to be reg>d$ z no?+1 to ^! que/ions 
we c\ld  give no satisfactory answ]4    
,we f9d inde$ sometimes t we c take an  
int]e/ 9 a  p]sonal quality :i* does n  
involve any int]e/ ( ext]nal  condition1
 provid$ ?is quality makes u capable (  
p>ticipat+  9 ! condition 9 case reason 
7 to effect ! allotm5t2 t  is to say1 ! 
m]e be+ wor?y ( happ9ess c int]e/ (     
itself  ev5 )\t ! motive ( p>ticipat+ 9 
?is happ9ess4 ,?is  judgem5t1 h[ev]1 is 
9 fact only ! effect ( ! importance (  !
 moral law :i* we be=e presuppos$ 7:5 by
 ! idea ( fre$om  we deta* ourselves f e
 empirical int]e/72 b t we  ought to    
deta* ourselves f ^! int]e/s1 i4e41 to  
consid]  ourselves z free 9 action & yet
 z subject to c]ta9 laws1 s  z to f9d a 
wor? simply 9 our own p]son :i* c       
comp5sate u  = ! loss ( ev]y?+ t gives  
wor? to our condition2 ?is  we are n yet
 able to disc]n 9 ?is way1 nor d we see 
h[ x is  possible s to act- 9 o!r words1
 :5ce ! moral law d]ives its            
obligation4    ,x mu/ be freely admitt$ 

t !re is a sort ( circle "h  f :i* x    
seems impossible to escape4 ,9 ! ord] ( 
effici5t  causes we assume ourselves    
free1 9 ord] t 9 ! ord] ( ends we  may  
conceive ourselves z subject to moral   
laws3 & we aft]w>ds  conceive ourselves 
z subject to ^! laws1 because we h      
attribut$ to ourselves fre$om ( w3 =    
fre$om &  self-legislation ( w are bo?  
autonomy &1 !re=e1 are  reciprocal      
conceptions1 & = ?is v reason "o mu/ n  
be  us$ to expla9 ! o!r or give ! reason
 ( x1 b at mo/ only  logical purposes to
 r$uce app>5tly diff]5t notions ( ! same
  object to "o s+le concept 7z we r$uce 
diff]5t fractions (  ! same value to !  
l[e/ t]ms74    ,"o res\rce rema9s to u1 
namely1 to inquire :e!r we d n  occupy  
diff]5t po9ts ( view :5 by means (      
fre$om we ?9k  ourselves z causes       
effici5t a priori1 & :5 we =m our       
conception ( ourselves f our actions z  
effects :i* we see  be=e our eyes4    ,x
 is a rem>k :i* ne$s no subtle          
reflection to make1 b :i*  we may assume

 t ev5 ! commone/ und]/&+ c make1 al?\gh
  x be aft] its fa%ion by an obscure    
disc]nm5t ( judgem5t :i*  x calls feel+1
 t all ! ideas t come to u involunt>ily 
7z ^? ( ! s5ses7 d n enable u to "k     
objects o!rwise  ?an z !y affect u2 s t 
:at !y may be 9 !mselves rema9s  unkn[n 
to u1 & consequ5tly t z reg>ds ideas (  
?is k9d  ev5 ) ! close/ att5tion &      
cle>ness t ! und]/&+  c apply to !m1 we 
c by !m only atta9 to ! k (  appe>ances1
 nev] to t ( ?+s 9 !mselves4 ,z soon z  
?is  di/9ction has once be5 made 7p]haps
 m]ely 9 consequ5ce ( !  diff]5ce obs]v$
 betwe5 ! ideas giv5 u f )\t1 & 9  :i*  
we are passive1 & ^? t we produce simply
 f ourselves1  & 9 :i* we %[ our own    
activity71 !n x foll[s ( itself t  we   
mu/ admit & assume beh9d ! appe>ance    
some?+ else t  is n an appe>ance1       
namely1 ! ?+s 9 !mselves2 al?\gh we  mu/
 admit t z !y c nev] be kn[n to u except
 z !y affect  u1 we c come no ne>] to   
!m1 nor c we ev] "k :at !y  are 9       
!mselves4 ,?is mu/ furni% a di/9ction1  

h[ev] crude1  betwe5 a _w ( s5se & ! _w 
( und]/&+1 ( :i*  ! =m] may be diff]5t  
accord+ to ! diff]5ce ( !  s5su\s       
impressions 9 v>i\s obs]v]s1 :ile !     
second :i* is  its basis always rema9s !
 same1 ,ev5 z to himself1 a man _c      
pret5d to "k :at he is 9 himself f ! k  
he has by  int]nal s5sation4 ,= z he    
does n z x 7 create himself1  & does n  
come by ! conception ( himself a priori 
b  empirically1 x naturally foll[s t he 
c obta9 8 k  ev5 ( himself only by !    
inn] s5se &1 consequ5tly1 only  ?r\gh ! 
appe>ances ( 8 nature & ! way 9 :i* 8   
consci\sness is affect$4 ,at ! same "t  
beyond ^!  *>act]i/ics ( 8 own subject1 
made up ( m]e appe>ances1 he  mu/       
necess>ily suppose some?+ else z _!     
basis1 namely1 8  ego1 :atev] its       
*>act]i/ics 9 itself may be4 ,?us 9     
respect to  m]e p]ception & receptivity 
( s5sations he mu/ reckon himself  z    
belong+ to ! _w ( s5se2 b 9 respect (   
:atev] !re  may be ( pure activity 9 him
 7t :i* rea*es consci\sness  imm$iately 

& n ?r\gh affect+ ! s5ses71 he mu/      
reckon  himself z belong+ to !          
intellectual _w1 ( :i*1 h[ev]1  he has  
no fur!r k4 ,to su* a conclusion !      
reflect+ man  mu/ come ) respect to all 
! ?+s :i* c be pres5t$ to  him3 x is    
probably to be met ) ev5 9 p]sons ( !   
commone/  und]/&+1 :o1 z is well kn[n1  
are v mu* incl9$ to  suppose beh9d !    
objects ( ! s5ses some?+ else invisible 
& act+ ( itself4 ,!y spoil x1 h[ev]1 by 
pres5tly  s5sualiz+ ?is invisible aga92 
t is to say1 want+ to make  x an object 
( intuition1 s t !y d n become a :it !  
wis]4    ,n[ man really f9ds 9 himself a
 faculty by :i* he  di/+ui%es himself f 
ev]y?+ else1 ev5 f himself z  affect$ by
 objects1 & t is reason4 ,?is be+ pure  
spontaneity  is ev5 elevat$ above !     
und]/&+4 ,= al?\gh ! latt] is a         
spontaneity & does n1 l s5se1 m]ely     
conta9 intuitions t  arise :5 we are    
affect$ by ?+s 7& are !re=e passive71   
yet x _c produce f its activity any o!r 
conceptions ?an  ^? :i* m]ely s]ve to   

br+ ! intuitions ( s5se "u  rules &1    
!reby1 to unite !m 9 "o consci\sness1 & 
)\t  ?is use ( ! s5sibility x c\ld n ?9k
 at all2 :]eas1 on !  contr>y1 reason   
%[s s pure a spontaneity 9 ! case ( :at 
,i  call ideas ideal conceptions t x    
!reby f> transc5ds  ev]y?+ t !          
s5sibility c give x1 & exhibits its mo/ 
important function 9 di/+ui%+ ! _w (    
s5se f t (  und]/&+1 & !reby prescrib+ !
 limits ( ! und]/&+  itself4    ,= ?is  
reason a rational be+ mu/ reg>d himself 
qua  intellig5ce 7n f ! side ( 8 l[]    
faculties7 z belong+  n to ! _w ( s5se1 
b to t ( und]/&+2 h5ce he  has two po9ts
 ( view f :i* he c reg>d himself1 &     
recognise  laws ( ! ex]cise ( 8         
faculties1 & consequ5tly ( all 8        
actions3 fir/1 s f> z he belongs to ! _w
 ( s5se1 he f9ds  himself subject to    
laws ( nature 7het]onomy72 secondly1 z  
belong+  to ! intelligible _w1 "u laws  
:i* be+ indep5d5t (  nature h _!        
f\ndation n 9 exp]i5ce b 9 reason alone4
    ,z a rational be+1 & consequ5tly    

belong+ to !  intelligible _w1 man c    
nev] conceive ! causality ( 8 own  w    
o!rwise ?an on condition ( ! idea (     
fre$om1 =  indep5d5ce ( ! det]m9ate     
causes ( ! s5sible _w 7an  indep5d5ce   
:i* reason mu/ always ascribe to itself7
 is fre$om4  ,n[ ! idea ( fre$om is     
insep>ably connect$ ) ! conception  (   
autonomy1 & ?is aga9 ) ! univ]sal       
pr9ciple ( morality  :i* is ideally !   
f\ndation ( all actions ( rational be+s1
  j z ! law ( nature is ( all ph5om5a4  
,n[ ! suspicion is remov$ :i* we rais$  
above1 t !re 0 a  lat5t circle involv$ 9
 our reason+ f fre$om to autonomy1  & f 
?is to ! moral law1 viz43 t we laid d[n 
! idea (  fre$om because ( ! moral law  
only t we might aft]w>ds 9 turn  inf] ! 
latt] f fre$om1 & t consequ5tly we c\ld 
assign  no reason at all = ?is law1 b   
c\ld only pres5t x z a  petitio pr9cipii
 :i* well dispos$ m9ds w\ld gladly      
conc$e to  u1 b :i* we c\ld nev] put    
=w>d z a provable proposition4  ,= n[ we
 see t1 :5 we conceive ourselves z free1

 we transf]  ourselves into ! _w (      
und]/&+ z memb]s ( x &  recognise !     
autonomy ( ! w ) its consequ5ce1        
morality2  :]eas1 if we conceive        
ourselves z "u obligation1 we consid]   
ourselves z belong+ to ! _w ( s5se & at 
! same "t to  ! _w ( und]/&+4           
,h[ is a ,categorical ,imp]ative        
,possible8        ,e rational be+       
reckons himself qua intellig5ce z       
belong+  to ! _w ( und]/&+1 & x is      
simply z an effici5t  cause belong+ to t
 _w t he calls 8 causality a w4 ,on  !  
o!r side he is also consci\s ( himself z
 a "p ( !  _w ( s5se 9 :i* 8 actions1   
:i* are m]e appe>ances  ph5om5a ( t     
causality1 are display$2 we _c1 h[ev]1  
disc]n h[ !y are possible f ?is         
causality :i* we d n  "k2 b in/ead ( t1 
^! actions z belong+ to !  s5sible _w   
mu/ be view$ z det]m9$ by o!r ph5om5a1  
namely1 desires & incl9ations4 ,if !re=e
 ,i 7 only a memb] (  ! _w ( und]/&+1 !n
 all my actions w\ld p]fectly  con=m to 
! pr9ciple ( autonomy ( ! pure w2 if ,i 

7  only a "p ( ! _w ( s5se1 !y w\ld     
necess>ily be assum$  to con=m :olly to 
! natural law ( desires & incl9ations1 9
  o!r words1 to ! het]onomy ( nature4   
7,! =m] w\ld re/ on  morality z !       
supreme pr9ciple1 ! latt] on happ9ess47 
,s9ce1  h[ev]1 ! _w ( und]/&+ conta9s ! 
f\ndation ( !  _w ( s5se1 & consequ5tly 
( its laws also1 & accord+ly  gives !   
law to my w 7:i* belongs :olly to ! _w (
  und]/&+7 directly1 & mu/ be conceiv$ z
 do+ s1 x foll[s  t1 al?\gh on ! "o side
 ,i mu/ reg>d myself z a be+  belong+ to
 ! _w ( s5se1 yet on ! o!r side ,i mu/  
recognize myself z subject z an         
intellig5ce to ! law ( ! _w  ( und]/&+1 
i4e41 to reason1 :i* conta9s ?is law 9 !
 idea  ( fre$om1 & !re=e z subject to ! 
autonomy ( ! w3  consequ5tly ,i mu/     
reg>d ! laws ( ! _w ( und]/&+ z         
imp]atives = me & ! actions :i* con=m to
 !m z duties4    ,& ?us :at makes       
categorical imp]atives possible is ?is1 
t  ! idea ( fre$om makes me a memb] ( an
 intelligible _w1 9  consequ5ce ( :i*1  

if ,i 7 no?+ else1 all my actions w\ld  
always con=m to ! autonomy ( ! w2 b z ,i
 at ! same  "t intuite myself z a memb] 
( ! _w ( s5se1 !y ought s  to con=m1 &  
?is categorical ought implies a syn!tic 
a  priori proposition1 inasmu* z besides
 my w z affect$ by  s5sible desires !re 
is add$ fur!r ! idea ( ! same w  b z    
belong+ to ! _w ( ! und]/&+1 pure &     
practical  ( itself1 :i* conta9s !      
supreme condition accord+ to reason (  !
 =m] w2 precisely z to ! intuitions (   
s5se !re are  add$ concepts ( ! und]/&+ 
:i* ( !mselves signify  no?+ b regul> =m
 9 g5]al & 9 ?is way syn!tic a priori   
propositions become possible1 on :i* all
 k ( physical  nature re/s4    ,!       
practical use ( common human reason     
confirms ?is reason+4  ,!re is no "o1 n 
ev5 ! mo/ consummate villa91 provid$    
only  t he is o!rwise accu/om$ to ! use 
( reason1 :o1 :5 we set  be=e him       
examples ( hone/y ( purpose1 (          
/eadfa/ness 9  foll[+ good maxims1 (    
sympa?y & g5]al b5evol5ce 7ev5  comb9$ )

 great sacrifices ( advantages & com=t71
 does n  wi% t he might also possess ^! 
qualities4 ,only on acc\nt (  8         
incl9ations & impulses he _c atta9 ?is 9
 himself1 b at  ! same "t he wi%es to be
 free f su* incl9ations :i* are         
burd5some to himself4 ,he proves by ?is 
t he transf]s himself  9 ?\ght ) a w    
free f ! impulses ( ! s5sibility  into  
an ord] ( ?+s :olly diff]5t f t ( 8     
desires 9  ! field ( ! s5sibility2 s9ce 
he _c expect to obta9 by t  wi% any     
gratification ( 8 desires1 nor any      
position :i* w\ld  satisfy any ( 8      
actual or supposable incl9ations 7= ?is 
w\ld  de/roy ! pre-em95ce ( ! v idea :i*
 wre/s t wi%  f him73 he c only expect a
 great] intr9sic wor? ( 8 own  p]son4   
,?is bett] p]son1 h[ev]1 he imag9es     
himself to be :5 be  transf]s himself to
 ! po9t ( view ( a memb] ( ! _w ( !     
und]/&+1 to :i* he is involunt>ily =c$  
by ! idea (  fre$om1 i4e41 ( indep5d5ce 
on det]m9+ causes ( ! _w (  s5se2 & f   
?is po9t ( view he is consci\s ( a good 

w1  :i* by 8 own confession con/itutes !
 law = ! bad w  t he possesses z a memb]
 ( ! _w ( s5se- a law ^:  au?ority he   
recognizes :ile transgress+ x4 ,:at he  
morally  ought is !n :at he necess>ily  
w\ld1 z a memb] ( !  _w ( ! und]/&+1 &  
is conceiv$ by him z an ought only      
inasmu* z he likewise consid]s himself z
 a memb] ( ! _w  ( s5se4             ,( 
! ,extreme ,limits ( all ,practical     
,philosophy4        ,all m5 attribute to
 !mselves fre$om ( w4 ,h5ce come all    
judgem5ts ^u actions z be+ su* z ought  
to h be5 done1  al?\gh !y h n be5 done4 
,h[ev]1 ?is fre$om is n a  conception ( 
exp]i5ce1 nor c x be s1 s9ce x /ill     
rema9s1  ev5 ?\gh exp]i5ce %[s ! contr>y
 ( :at on supposition (  fre$om are     
conceiv$ z its necess>y consequ5ces4 ,on
 ! o!r side  x is equally necess>y t    
ev]y?+ t takes place %\ld be  fix$ly    
det]m9$ accord+ to laws ( nature4 ,?is  
necessity (  nature is likewise n an    
empirical conception1 j = ?is  reason1 t
 x involves ! motion ( necessity &      

consequ5tly ( a  priori cognition4 ,b   
?is conception ( a sy/em ( nature is    
confirm$ by exp]i5ce2 & x mu/ ev5 be    
inevitably presuppos$ if  exp]i5ce      
itself is to be possible1 t is1 a       
connect$ k (  ! objects ( s5se re/+ on  
g5]al laws4 ,!re=e fre$om is  only an   
idea ( reason1 & its objective reality 9
 itself is  d\btful2 :ile nature is a   
concept ( ! und]/&+ :i* proves1  & mu/  
necess>ily prove1 its reality 9 examples
 ( exp]i5ce4    ,!re arises f ?is a     
dialectic ( reason1 s9ce ! fre$om       
attribut$ to ! w appe>s to contradict ! 
necessity (  nature1 & plac$ betwe5 ^!  
two ways reason = speculative  purposes 
f9ds ! road ( physical necessity mu* m  
beat5 &  m appropriate ?an t ( fre$om2  
yet = practical purposes  ! n>r[ footpa?
 ( fre$om is ! only "o on :i* x is      
possible  to make use ( reason 9 our    
conduct2 h5ce x is j z impossible  = !  
subtle/ philosophy z = ! commone/ reason
 ( m5 to  argue away fre$om4 ,philosophy
 mu/ !n assume t no real  contradiction 

w be f\nd betwe5 fre$om & physical      
necessity  ( ! same human actions1 = x  
_c give up ! conception (  nature any m 
?an t ( fre$om4    ,nev]!less1 ev5 ?\gh 
we %\ld nev] be able to compreh5d  h[   
fre$om is possible1 we mu/ at lea/      
remove ?is app>5t  contradiction 9 a    
conv9c+ mann]4 ,= if ! ?\ght ( fre$om   
contradicts ei!r itself or nature1 :i*  
is equally necess>y1 x  mu/ 9           
competition ) physical necessity be     
entirely giv5 up4    ,x w\ld1 h[ev]1 be 
impossible to escape ?is contradiction  
if !  ?9k+ subject1 :i* seems to itself 
free1 conceiv$ itself 9  ! same s5se or 
9 ! v same relation :5 x calls itself   
free z :5 9 respect ( ! same action x   
assumes itself to be  subject to ! law (
 nature4 ,h5ce x is an indisp5sable     
problem  ( speculative philosophy to %[ 
t its illusion respect+ !  contradiction
 re/s on ?is1 t we ?9k ( man 9 a diff]5t
 s5se  & relation :5 we call him free & 
:5 we reg>d him z subject  to ! laws (  
nature z be+ "p & p>cel ( nature4 ,x mu/

  !re=e %[ t n only c bo? ^! v well     
co-exi/1 b  t bo? mu/ be ?\ght z        
necess>ily unit$ 9 ! same subject1  s9ce
 o!rwise no reason c\ld be giv5 :y we   
%\ld burd5 reason  ) an idea :i*1 ?\gh x
 may possibly )\t contradiction be      
reconcil$ ) ano!r t is suffici5tly      
e/abli%$1 yet  entangles u 9 a p]plexity
 :i* sorely emb>rasses reason 9 its     
!oretic employm5t4 ,?is duty1 h[ev]1    
belongs only to  speculative philosophy4
 ,! philosoph] !n has no option :e!r  he
 w remove ! app>5t contradiction or     
leave x unt\*$2 =  9 ! latt] case ! !ory
 respect+ ?is w\ld be bonum vacans1     
into ! possession ( :i* ! fatali/ w\ld h
 a "r to  ent] & *ase all morality out (
 its suppos$ doma9 z occupy+  x )\t     
title4    ,we _c h[ev] z yet say t we   
are t\*+ ! b\nds (  practical           
philosophy4 ,= ! settlem5t ( t          
controv]sy does  n belong to x2 x only  
dem&s f speculative reason t x  %\ld put
 an end to ! discord 9 :i* x entangles  
itself 9  !oretical que/ions1 s t       

practical reason may h re/ &  security f
 ext]nal attacks :i* might make ! gr\nd 
debatable  on :i* x desires to build4   
,! claims to fre$om ( w made ev5 by     
common reason are f\nd$  on !           
consci\sness & ! admitt$ supposition t  
reason is  indep5d5t ( m]ely            
subjectively det]m9$ causes :i* toge!r  
con/itute :at belongs to s5sation only &
 :i* consequ5tly  come "u ! g5]al       
designation ( s5sibility4 ,man consid]+ 
himself 9 ?is way z an intellig5ce      
places himself !reby 9 a  diff]5t ord] (
 ?+s & 9 a relation to det]m9+ gr\nds  (
 a :olly diff]5t k9d :5 on ! "o h& he   
?9ks ( himself  z an intellig5ce end[$ )
 a w1 & consequ5tly )  causality1 & :5  
on ! o!r he p]ceives himself z a        
ph5om5on 9 ! _w ( s5se 7z he really is  
also71 & affirms  t 8 causality is      
subject to ext]nal det]m9ation accord+  
to  laws ( nature4 ,n[ he soon becomes  
aw>e t bo? c hold good1  nay1 mu/ hold  
good at ! same "t4 ,= !re is n ! smalle/
  contradiction 9 say+ t a ?+ 9         

appe>ance 7belong+ to !  _w ( s5se7 is  
subject to c]ta9 laws1 ( :i* ! v same  z
 a ?+ or be+ 9 itself is indep5d5t1 & t 
he mu/  conceive & ?9k ( himself 9 ?is  
tw(old way1 re/s z to !  fir/ on !      
consci\sness ( himself z an object      
affect$ ?r\gh  ! s5ses1 & z to ! second 
on ! consci\sness ( himself z an        
intellig5ce1 i4e41 z indep5d5t on       
s5sible impressions 9 !  employm5t ( 8  
reason 79 o!r words z belong+ to ! _w  (
 und]/&+74    ,h5ce x comes to pass t   
man claims ! possession ( a w  :i* takes
 no acc\nt ( any?+ t comes "u ! head (  
desires & incl9ations &1 on ! contr>y1  
conceives actions z  possible to him1   
nay1 ev5 z necess>y :i* c only be done  
by  disreg>d+ all desires & s5sible     
incl9ations4 ,! causality (  su* actions
 lies 9 him z an intellig5ce & 9 ! laws 
( effects  & actions :i* dep5d on !     
pr9ciples ( an intelligible _w1  ( :i*  
inde$ he kn[s no?+ m ?an t 9 x pure     
reason  alone indep5d5t ( s5sibility    
gives ! law2 moreov] s9ce x is  only 9 t

 _w1 z an intellig5ce1 t he is 8 prop]  
self  7be+ z man only ! appe>ance (     
himself71 ^? laws apply to him  directly
 & categorically1 s t ! incitem5ts (    
incl9ations  & appetites 79 o!r words ! 
:ole nature ( ! _w (  s5se7 _c impair ! 
laws ( 8 volition z an intellig5ce4     
,nay1  he does n ev5 hold himself       
responsible = ! =m] or ascribe  !m to 8 
prop] self1 i4e41 8 w3 he only ascribes 
to 8  w any indulg5ce :i* he might yield
 !m if he all[$ !m to  influ5ce 8 maxims
 to ! prejudice ( ! rational laws ( !   
w4    ,:5 practical reason ?9ks itself  
into a _w ( und]/&+1  x does n !reby    
transc5d its own limits1 z x w\ld if x  
tri$ to ent] x by intuition or s5sation4
 ,! =m] is only a  negative ?\ght 9     
respect ( ! _w ( s5se1 :i* does n give  
any laws to reason 9 det]m9+ ! w & is   
positive only 9  ?is s+le po9t t ?is    
fre$om z a negative *>act]i/ic is at  ! 
same "t conjo9$ ) a 7positive7 faculty &
 ev5 ) a  causality ( reason1 :i* we    
designate a w1 namely a faculty ( s     

act+ t ! pr9ciple ( ! actions %all con=m
 to !  ess5tial "* ( a rational motive1 
i4e41 ! condition t !  maxim h univ]sal 
validity z a law4 ,b 7 x to borr[ an    
object ( w1 t is1 a motive1 f ! _w (    
und]/&+1  !n x w\ld ov]/ep its b\nds &  
pret5d to be acqua9t$ )  some?+ ( :i* x 
kn[s no?+4 ,! conception ( a _w (  !    
und]/&+ is !n only a po9t ( view :i*    
reason f9ds  itself compell$ to take    
outside ! appe>ances 9 ord] to  conceive
 itself z practical1 :i* w\ld n be      
possible if !  influ5ces ( ! s5sibility 
_h a det]m9+ p[] on man1 b  :i* is      
necess>y unless he is to be d5i$ !      
consci\sness (  himself z an intellig5ce
 &1 consequ5tly1 z a rational cause1    
en]giz+ by reason1 t is1 op]at+ freely4 
,?is ?\ght  c]ta9ly involves ! idea ( an
 ord] & a sy/em ( laws diff]5t  f t ( ! 
me*anism ( nature :i* belongs to !      
s5sible  _w2 & x makes ! conception ( an
 intelligible _w  necess>y 7t is to say1
 ! :ole sy/em ( rational be+s z  ?+s 9  
!mselves74 ,b x does n 9 ! lea/ au?orize

 u to  ?9k ( x fur!r ?an z to its =mal  
condition only1 t is1 !  univ]sality ( !
 maxims ( ! w z laws1 & consequ5tly !   
autonomy ( ! latt]1 :i* alone is        
consi/5t ) its fre$om2  :]eas1 on !     
contr>y1 all laws t ref] to a def9ite   
object  give het]onomy1 :i* only belongs
 to laws ( nature & c only  apply to !  
s5sible _w4    ,b reason w\ld ov]/ep all
 its b\nds if x und]took to  expla9 h[  
pure reason c be practical1 :i* w\ld be 
exactly !  same problem z to expla9 h[  
fre$om is possible4    ,= we c expla9   
no?+ b t :i* we c r$uce to laws1 !      
object ( :i* c be giv5 9 "s possible    
exp]i5ce4 ,b  fre$om is a m]e idea1 !   
objective reality ( :i* c 9 no  wise be 
%[n accord+ to laws ( nature1 &         
consequ5tly n 9 any  possible exp]i5ce2 
& = ?is reason x c nev] be  compreh5d$  
or und]/ood1 because we _c support x by 
any sort  ( example or analogy4 ,x holds
 good only z a necess>y hypo!sis (      
reason 9 a be+ t believes itself        
consci\s ( a w1 t is1  ( a faculty      

di/9ct f m]e desire 7namely1 a faculty (
  det]m9+ itself to action z an         
intellig5ce1 9 o!r words1 by  laws (    
reason indep5d5tly on natural in/9cts74 
,n[ :]e  det]m9ation accord+ to laws (  
nature ceases1 !re all  explanation     
ceases also1 & no?+ rema9s b def5ce1    
i4e41 !  removal ( ! objections ( ^? :o 
pret5d to h se5 deep]  into ! nature (  
?+s1 & !reupon boldly decl>e fre$om     
impossible4 ,we c only po9t out to !m t 
! suppos$  contradiction t !y h discov]$
 9 x arises only f ?is1  t 9 ord] to be 
able to apply ! law ( nature to human   
actions1 !y mu/ necess>ily consid] man z
 an appe>ance3 !n  :5 we dem& ( !m t !y 
%\ld also ?9k ( him qua  intellig5ce z a
 ?+ 9 itself1 !y /ill p]si/ 9 consid]+  
him 9 ?is respect also z an appe>ance4  
,9 ?is view x w\ld no  d\bt be a        
contradiction to suppose ! causality ( !
 same  subject 7t is1 8 w7 to be )drawn 
f all ! natural  laws ( ! s5sible _w4 ,b
 ?is contradiction disappe>s1 if !y     
w\ld only be?9k !mselves & admit1 z is  

reasonable1 t beh9d  ! appe>ances !re   
mu/ also lie at _! root 7al?\gh hidd57  
! ?+s 9 !mselves1 & t we _c expect !    
laws (  ^! to be ! same z ^? t gov]n _! 
appe>ances4    ,! subjective            
impossibility ( expla9+ ! fre$om ( ! w  
is id5tical ) ! impossibility ( discov]+
 & expla9+ an  int]e/ 99 :i* man c take 
9 ! moral law4 ,nev]!less he does       
actually take an int]e/ 9 x1 ! basis (  
:i* 9 u we call  ! moral feel+1 :i* "s h
 falsely assign$ z ! /&>d (  our moral  
judgem5t1 :]eas x mu/ r be view$ z !    
subjective effect t ! law ex]cises on ! 
w1 ! objective  pr9ciple ( :i* is       
furni%$ by reason alone4        99      
,int]e/ is t by :i* reason becomes      
practical1 i4e41 a cause  det]m9+ ! w4  
,h5ce we say ( rational be+s only t !y  
take an int]e/ 9 a ?+2 irrational be+s  
only feel s5sual  appetites4 ,reason    
takes a direct int]e/ 9 action !n only  
:5 !  univ]sal validity ( its maxims is 
alone suffici5t to det]m9e  ! w4 ,su* an
 int]e/ alone is pure4 ,b if x c det]m9e

  ! w only by means ( ano!r object (    
desire or on !  sugge/ion ( a p>ticul>  
feel+ ( ! subject1 !n reason takes  only
 an indirect int]e/ 9 ! action1 &1 z    
reason by itself  )\t exp]i5ce _c       
discov] ei!r objects ( ! w or a  special
 feel+ actuat+ x1 ?is latt] int]e/ w\ld 
only be  empirical & n a pure rational  
int]e/4 ,! logical int]e/ (  reason     
7namely1 to ext5d its insight7 is nev]  
direct1 b  presupposes purposes = :i*   
reason is employ$4        ,9 ord] inde$ 
t a rational be+ :o is also affect$     
?r\gh  ! s5ses %\ld w :at reason alone  
directs su* be+s t !y  ought to w1 x is 
no d\bt requisite t reason %\ld h a  p[]
 to infuse a feel+ ( pleasure or        
satisfaction 9 !  fulfilm5t ( duty1 t is
 to say1 t x %\ld h a causality by  :i* 
x det]m9es ! s5sibility accord+ to its  
own pr9ciples4  ,b x is q impossible to 
disc]n1 i4e41 to make x intelligible a  
priori1 h[ a m]e ?\ght1 :i* itself      
conta9s no?+ s5sible1  c itself produce 
a s5sation ( pleasure or pa92 = ?is is a

  p>ticul> k9d ( causality ( :i* z ( e  
o!r causality we  c det]m9e no?+ :atev] 
a priori2 we mu/ only consult  exp]i5ce 
ab\t x4 ,b z ?is _c supply u ) any      
relation (  cause & effect except betwe5
 two objects ( exp]i5ce1 :]eas  9 ?is   
case1 al?\gh inde$ ! effect produc$ lies
 )9  exp]i5ce1 yet ! cause is suppos$ to
 be pure reason act+ ?r\gh  m]e ideas   
:i* (f] no object to exp]i5ce1 x foll[s 
t = u  m5 x is q impossible to expla9 h[
 & :y ! univ]sality  ( ! maxim z a law1 
t is1 morality1 int]e/s4 ,?is only is   
c]ta91 t x is n because x int]e/s u t x 
has validity  = u 7= t w\ld be het]onomy
 & dep5d5ce ( practical  reason on      
s5sibility1 namely1 on a feel+ z its    
pr9ciple1 9 :i*  case x c\ld nev] give  
moral laws71 b t x int]e/s u because  x 
is valid = u z m51 inasmu* z x _h its   
s\rce 9 our w  z intellig5ces1 9 o!r    
words1 9 our prop] self1 & :at belongs  
to m]e appe>ance is necess>ily          
subord9at$ by reason to ! nature  ( ! ?+
 9 itself4    ,! "q !n1 ,h[ a           

categorical imp]ative is possible1 c  be
 answ]$ to ?is ext5t1 t we c assign !   
only hypo!sis  on :i* x is possible1    
namely1 ! idea ( fre$om2 & we c  also   
disc]n ! necessity ( ?is hypo!sis1 & ?is
 is  suffici5t = ! practical ex]cise (  
reason1 t is1 = !  conviction ( !       
validity ( ?is imp]ative1 & h5ce ( !    
moral law2 b h[ ?is hypo!sis itself is  
possible c nev] be  disc]n$ by any human
 reason4 ,on ! hypo!sis1 h[ev]1 t !  w (
 an intellig5ce is free1 its autonomy1 z
 ! ess5tial =mal  condition ( its       
det]m9ation1 is a necess>y consequ5ce4  
,moreov]1 ?is fre$om ( w is n m]ely q   
possible z a  hypo!sis 7n involv+ any   
contradiction to ! pr9ciple (  physical 
necessity 9 ! connexion ( ! ph5om5a ( ! 
s5sible  _w7 z speculative philosophy c 
%[3 b fur!r1 a rational  be+ :o is      
consci\s ( causality ?r\gh reason1 t is 
to say1 (  a w 7di/9ct f desires71 mu/ (
 necessity make x practically1  t is1 9 
idea1 ! condition ( all 8 volunt>y      
actions4 ,b to  expla9 h[ pure reason c 

be ( itself practical )\t ! aid  ( any  
spr+ ( action t c\ld be d]iv$ f any o!r 
s\rce1  i4e41 h[ ! m]e pr9ciple ( !     
univ]sal validity ( all its  maxims z   
laws 7:i* w\ld c]ta9ly be ! =m ( a pure 
practical reason7 c ( itself supply a   
spr+1 )\t any matt]  7object7 ( ! w 9   
:i* "o c\ld antec$5tly take any  int]e/2
 & h[ x c produce an int]e/ :i* w\ld be 
call$  purely moral2 or 9 o!r words1 h[ 
pure reason c be practical-  to expla9  
?is is beyond ! p[] ( human reason1 &   
all !  lab\r & pa9s ( seek+ an          
explanation ( x are lo/4    ,x is j !   
same z if ,i s\ght to f9d out h[ fre$om 
itself is  possible z ! causality ( a w4
 ,= !n ,i quit ! gr\nd (  philosophical 
explanation1 & ,i h no o!r to g ^u4 ,i  
might  inde$ revel 9 ! _w ( intellig5ces
 :i* /ill rema9s to  me1 b al?\gh ,i h  
an idea ( x :i* is well f\nd$1 yet ,i  h
 n ! lea/ k ( x1 nor an ,i ev] atta9 to 
su*  k ) all ! ef=ts ( my natural       
faculty ( reason4 ,x  signifies only a  
some?+ t rema9s ov] :5 ,i h elim9at$    

ev]y?+ belong+ to ! _w ( s5se f !       
actuat+  pr9ciples ( my w1 s]v+ m]ely to
 keep 9 b\nds !  pr9ciple ( motives tak5
 f ! field ( s5sibility2 fix+ its       
limits & %[+ t x does n conta9 all 9 all
 )9  itself1 b t !re is m beyond x2 b   
?is some?+ m ,i  "k no fur!r4 ,( pure   
reason :i* frames ?is ideal1 !re rema9s 
aft] ! ab/raction ( all matt]1 i4e41 k (
 objects1  no?+ b ! =m1 namely1 !       
practical law ( ! univ]sality (  !      
maxims1 & 9 con=mity ) ?is conception ( 
reason 9  ref]5ce to a pure _w ( und]/&+
 z a possible effici5t  cause1 t is a   
cause det]m9+ ! w4 ,!re mu/ "h be a     
total abs5ce ( spr+s2 unless ?is idea ( 
an intelligible _w is  itself ! spr+1 or
 t 9 :i* reason prim>ily takes an       
int]e/2 b to make ?is intelligible is   
precisely ! problem  t we _c solve4     
,"h n[ is ! extreme limit ( all moral   
inquiry1 & x is (  great importance to  
det]m9e x ev5 on ?is acc\nt1 9 ord] t   
reason may n on ! "o h&1 to ! prejudice 
( morals1 seek ab\t  9 ! _w ( s5se = !  

supreme motive & an int]e/              
compreh5sible b empirical2 & on ! o!r   
h&1 t x may n  impot5tly flap its w+s   
)\t be+ able to move 9 ! 7= x7  empty   
space ( transc5d5t concepts :i* we call 
! intelligible  _w1 & s lose itself     
amid/ *im]as4 ,= ! re/1 ! idea ( a  pure
 _w ( und]/&+ z a sy/em ( all           
intellig5ces1 & to  :i* we ourselves z  
rational be+s belong 7al?\gh we are     
likewise  on ! o!r side memb]s ( !      
s5sible _w71 ?is rema9s  always a useful
 & legitimate idea = ! purposes (       
rational  belief1 al?\gh all k /ops at  
its ?re%old1 useful1 namely1  to produce
 9 u a lively int]e/ 9 ! moral law by   
means ( !  noble ideal ( a univ]sal     
k+dom ( ends 9 !mselves 7rational       
be+s71 to :i* we c belong z memb]s !n   
only :5 we c>efully  conduct ourselves  
accord+ to ! maxims ( fre$om z if !y 7  
laws ( nature4                          
,conclud+ ,rem>k        ,! speculative  
employm5t ( reason ) respect to nature  
leads to  ! absolute necessity ( "s     

supreme cause ( ! _w3 !  practical      
employm5t ( reason ) a view to fre$om   
leads also to  absolute necessity1 b    
only ( ! laws ( ! actions ( a  rational 
be+ z su*4 ,n[ x is an ess5tial pr9ciple
 ( reason1  h[ev] employ$1 to pu% its k 
to a consci\sness ( its  necessity 7)\t 
:i* x w\ld n be rational k74 ,x is1     
h[ev]1 an equally ess5tial re/riction ( 
! same reason t x  c nei!r disc]n !     
necessity ( :at is or :at happ5s1 nor ( 
:at ought to happ51 unless a condition  
is suppos$ on :i* x is or  happ5s or    
ought to happ54 ,9 ?is way1 h[ev]1 by ! 
con/ant  inquiry = ! condition1 !       
satisfaction ( reason is only  fur!r &  
fur!r po/pon$4 ,h5ce x unceas+ly seeks !
  unconditionally necess>y & f9ds itself
 =c$ to assume x1  al?\gh )\t any means 
( mak+ x compreh5sible to itself1  happy
 en\gh if only x c discov] a conception 
:i* agrees )  ?is assumption4 ,x is     
!re=e no fault 9 our d$uction ( !       
supreme pr9ciple ( morality1 b an       
objection t %\ld be made to  human      

reason 9 g5]al1 t x _c enable u to      
conceive !  absolute necessity ( an     
unconditional practical law 7su* z !    
categorical imp]ative mu/ be74 ,x _c be 
blam$ = refus+ to  expla9 ?is necessity 
by a condition1 t is to say1 by means ( 
"s int]e/ assum$ z a basis1 s9ce ! law  
w\ld !n cease to be  a supreme law (    
reason4 ,& ?us :ile we d n compreh5d !  
practical unconditional necessity ( !   
moral imp]ative1 we yet  compreh5d its  
incompreh5sibility1 & ?is is all t c be 
fairly  dem&$ ( a philosophy :i* /rives 
to c>ry its pr9ciples up to  ! v limit (
 human reason4                          
,,! ,,end